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< PIFTY-FIRST’ ANNUAL MEETING

oe ALLENTOWN, PENNSYLVANIA.
4 SEPTEMBER 5, 6, 7, 192).

TRANSACTIONS
of the

American Fisheries Society

“To promote the cause of fish culture; to gather
and diffuse information bearing upon its practical
success and upon all matters relating to the fisheries;
to unite and encourage all interests of fish culture and
the fisheries; and to treat all questions of a scientific
and economic character regarding fish.”

FIFTY-FIRST ANNUAL MEETING

Allentown, Pennsylvania
SEPTEMBER 5, 6, 7, 1921
Volume LI
1924-1922

Edited by Ward T. Bower

Published Annually by the Society
WASHINGTON, D. C.

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Peace
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Che American Hisheries Society

Organized 1870 Incorporated 1910

@fficers for 1921-1922

resiaots, sos Se we WI Li1AM E. BarBer, LaCrosse, Wis.
Vice-President........... GLEN C. Leacu, Washington, D. C.
Executive Secretary...... Warp T. Bower, Washington, D. C.
Recording Secretary........... S. B. Hawks, Bennington, Vt.
WIP EONFET 6 oo enc 5s ot ese whe ARTHUR L. MILLETT, Boston, Mass.

Hice-Piresidents of Bibisions

OO a7 | ee a i a Espen W. Coss, St. Paul, Minn.
Aquatic Biology and Physics....HENRyY B. Warp, Urbana, II.
Commercial Fishing.......... GARDNER POOLE, Boston, Mass.
ES OR SEER Eta EN S. THruston BALLARD, Louisville, Ky.

Protection and Legislation. .Wi1LL1AM C. ADAMS, Boston, Mass.

Executive Committee

ea. 6. EMnOpY, Chairman... cities elke Ithaca, N. Y.
MRE MMU UNE, ERO REB 5 2h a.a 4's witnllaliae es pie! tiene a gaainl Albany, N. Y.
Peery Fo VINO) iy 5 58 ope Cle ee Sa Ottawa, Canada
wo Las CEST aR TES eae ae pe ane Sea Des Moines, Iowa
“EASTER ORS 12 7c 0 SS 1 AR ee Washington, D. C.
ree PANT Ete TOW TIE s) S bici<shccasabuseilels eejark eas West Buxton, Me.
Rea, SP UNOREN NS o tons cba a pie ee ot aca eile ea Seattle, Wash.
Committee on Foreign Relations
HucH M. Situ, Chairman.............. Washington, D. C.
mARiie Hi DOWNSEND: © .)0.)i-/iids oe be eka dle New York, N. Y.
ee Aer iam APRs 2 Ne oO ae sat ae Columbus, Ohio
TEMES EVAR COG i aon so cia yin vm oars’ ss «ei eee era Victoria, B. C.
Ree SONI Se 2 ny echictallbaia, Wei cyee lye go BRE Wellington, N. Z.
Committee on Relations ith National and State Gobernments
CHARLES O. HayrorpD, Chairman......... Hackettstown, N. J.
tee SE RR he ka wishin ashe » wiielelnW ollnes New Orleans, La.
EGA Cee RE ia). e nS Biogas hel Ps weed Harrisburg, Pa.
Rees) RVR Met srs kta ga had St. Paul, Minn.
OOD SA10 PRM ONS 25. CSA gn Quebec, Canada

Presidents, Terms of Service and Places of Meeting.

The first meeting of the Society occurred December 20, 1870. The
organization then effected continued until February, 1872, when the
second meeting was held. Since that time there has been a meeting each
year, aS shown below. The respective presidents were elected at the
meeting, at the place, and for the period shown opposite their names,
but they presided at the subsequent meeting.

TU A926 5 OF NG.) OY 91 0 oe YATES 1870-1872....New York, N. Y.
WORE EAE VCOETRD. 0 ic alcietou hl pistes 1872-1873....Albany, N. Y.

SecA EEDA IMT (OTEIUD)S 6). ej0.0 20 le) elgtete 1873-1874....New York, N. Y.
4, Ropert B. ROOSEVELT........ 1874-1875....New York, N. Y.
5. Ropert B. RoosEvELT........ 1875-1876....New York, N. Y.
6, Rosert B. ROOSEVELT........ 1876-1877*...New York, N. Y.
7. Ropert B. ROOSEVELT........ 1877-1878....New York, N. Y.
8. Ropert B. ROOSEVELT........ 1878-1879....New York, N. Y¥.
9. Ropert B. ROOSEVELT........ 1879-1880....New York, N. Y.
10. Ropert B. ROOSEVELT........ 1880-1881....New York, N. Y.
11. Rosert B. ROOSEVELT........ 1881-1882....New York, N. Y.
12. GEORGE SHEPARD PAGE....... 1882-1883....New York, N. Y.
Toi) (AMES) BENKARD)..ccheieteloeieiete 1883-1884....New York, N. Y.
14. THroporE LYMAN........... 1884-1885....Washington, D. C.
15. MarsHatt McDONALD........ 1885-1886....Washington, D. C.
AGH OWiotWl.> ELUDBON 2. ied stele ste cnetets 1886-1887....Chicago, Ill.

Aiae WIRE TAM Ah Maye SSB neem 1887-1888.... Washington, D. C.
1 Se ORIN WEL BISSEE Dc ciavsters, onses chee 1888-1889....Detroit, Mich.

19. HucENE G. BLACKFORD....... 1889-1890....Philadelphia, Pa.
20. EUGENE G. BLACKFORD....... 1890-1891....Put-in Bay, Ohio
OT AMS) AS UEDEINIS HUAI, .jarerecieve 1891-1892....Washington, D. C.
22. HERSCHEL WHITAKER........ 1892-1893....New York, N. Y.
24s HEN C2) NORD siecle cleetieie aot 1893-1894....Chicago, Ill.

Ake WERETICA DA STs We MCATY 2 (is, we cvs lala 1894-1895....Philadelphia, Pa.
Zoe Lis LO MEIN GION. cerca 1895-1896....New York, N. Y.
26. HERSCHEL WHITAKER........ 1896-1897....New York, N. Y.
UC Set WV EGTA RE IMA Wie iarete ote ee als 1897-1898....Detroit, Mich.

28. GEORGE EF. (PEABODY.......... 1898-1899....Omaha, Neb.

29. JOHN W. TITCOMB. «0.000000 1899-1900....Niagara Falls, N. Y.
30) ROBY DICKERSON E s/o hyetuenarels 1900-1901....Woods Hole, Mass.
Bile es ES VBRYANT torcte crete clavate Glee 1901-1902.... Milwaukee, Wis.
32. GEORGE M. BoweERrs.......... 1902-19038....Put-in Bay, Ohio
oo. DRANK UN... (CLARK. ooctee onic 1903-1904....Woods Hole, Mass.
34. Henry T) Room cco) eee 1904-1905....Atlantie City, N. J.
35: On D. JOSEY. ue Ree ee 1905-1906....White Sulphur Spgs,W.Va.
BU. AL) GS MRGH sot ok ie tess ea eae 1906-1907....Grand Rapids, Mich.
37. Hues M: SmMira........3.5% 1907-1908....Erie, Pa.

38.0 (LARLETON #4 UBRAN ss cclele el aaie 1908-1909.... Washington, D. C.
SOs EY MOUR |) BOWE c/o oiainerciehe 1909-1910....Toledo, Ohio

40. Wit11aAM BE. MEEHAN........ 1910-1911....New York, N. Y.
ASE Ney Ee NE OALER TON ssa baa Rede 1911-1912....St. Louis, Mo.

42. CHARLES H. TowNSEND...... 1912-1913....Denver, Colo.

ieee OM ELEGY NESE NVA DOV) sient cn eee 1913-1914....Boston, Mass.

44) (DANIED (B. HEARING? ose 1914-1915.... Washington, D. C.
45: PACOB! REIGHARD eo ule aae 1915-1916....San Francisco, Calif.
BO GO! Wis, GE METIDD) Uc seve! at SU aL 1916-1917....New Orleans, La.
Ai oi euney JO Marry. hose ek 1917-1918....St. Paul, Minn.
43>) M. ‘Th: ALEXANDER. ....'05 50% 62 1918-1919....New York, N. Y.
AP SV AC AMES SA VIET ose 6. bk dein uate 1919-1920.... Louisville, Ky.

50. NaTHaNn R. BuLume......... 1920-1921....Ottawa, Canada
SLC WOGrrAM, VE): BARBER? 1.)). cc: 1921-1922....Allentown, Pa.

*A special meeting was held at the Centennial Grounds, Philadelphia, Pa., October
6 and 7, 1876.
4

American Hisheries Society

ORGANIZED 1870

CERTIFICATE OF INCORPORATION.

We, the undersigned, persons of full age and citizenship of the United
States, and a majority being citizens of the District of Columbia, pursuant
to and in conformity with sections 599 to 603, inclusive, of the Code of
Law for the District of Columbia, enacted March 3, 1901, as amended by
the Acts approved January 31 and June 30, 1902, hereby associate our-
selves together as a society or body corporate and certify in writing:

1. That the name of the Society is the AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY.

2. That the term for which it is organized is nine hundred and ninety-
nine years.

3. That its particular business and objects are to promote the cause
of fish culture; to gather and diffuse information bearing upon its prac-
tical success, and upon all matters relating to the fisheries; to unite
and encourage all interests of fish culture and the fisheries; and to treat
all questions of a scientific and economic character regarding fish; with
power :

(a) To acquire, hold and convey real estate and other property, and
to establish general and special funds.

(6b) To hold meetings.

(d) To conduct lectures.

(e) To conduct, endow, or assist investigation in any department of
fishery and fish-culture science.

(f) To acquire and maintain a library.

(g) And, in general, to transact any business pertinent to a learned
society.

4, That the affairs, funds and property of the corporation shall be in
general charge of a council, consisting of the officers and the executive
committee, the number of whose members for the first year shall be
seventeen, all of whom shall be chosen from among the members of the
Society.

Witness our hands and seals this 16th day of December, 1910.
SEymMouRk BOWER (Seal)
THEODORE GILL (Seal)
Wirr11amM FE. MrEesan (Seal)
THEODORE S. PALMER (Seal)
BERTRAND H. RoBerts (Seal)
HueuH M. SmitH (Seal)
RIcHARD SYLVESTER (Seal)

Recorded April 16, 1911.

CONTENTS

PAGE
CTR CO TS ie iaare eras ole severe etee a Riees D ate aE Tete Aah oder eae eka Gis IS oleae ake acs epetiererere 3
List of past presidents and places of meeting................0eeeeee0e 4
Certificate (of incorporation: © Po.\. Scie sae seca ae date ae ee sae eee 5
Part I—BusINEss SESSIONS
RePISLETEU ALLECNGANGCE 15 )<)teye ss lelstele Selec ata her aievere lac oie ea roteeens Ae a, 9
ING WINE MDErA ii sic A teictar celta ones e's alates herd @ Sivishole clei cies ae eee es aoe eee 10
List’ of contributors to meet deficiency... ..........-s6%.0seecccse eee 13
EPOLE TOL WXECULLVE® SCCLELAPY sx oii vie sss c.0/ ee e/ere ie ralers-ove,e 6 (ernlel seo sien aetna 13
PLEROLE FOL MU PCH SULEL, vas slea o,.c.0: se econ) ai8ie (aay cyels a ciatore jens telah isan eoaye opie aaa 15
ADpoIMnimMents Of“ COMMITEE: )s.celdis chaired vise aus Sldveto Is) Sie) putin woes nl aie 18
Report of Committee on Relations with National and State Govern-
IYOTHES CPEOs abs Siig! wialioychigy arse siete tei con eheoe eal eiaba te hatotto elh hie keel oueas fateh beste et hue tenet 19
Report of Committee on Financial Condition of Society................ 21
Report of Committee on Time and Place of Meeting................. 24
RepoLc OL ATIGITINe }COMMILTCE 15) o)5,.0 cisco. c'e sveie sie leicteicie'e «is els es etna 25
Reportsof Committee-ion Awards died icias odio vrais siete wiaveileyoial’e-vys love @ es eee ee 26
Report of Committee on Resolutions............. cece eee cee ee eee eeee 26
Report of Committee on Affiliation with National Commissioners...... 29
Report of ‘Committee on Nominations. «< ./:.. <5 c00n-% ccs ol cle bie mieies 29
MN IMEC OIA crevei/scteretene aidhevatele ae eretele se Sieveuat=|s, ayollciloyeousite cevere Seonoveyens ele hele namananm 33
Part IJ—Papers AND DIscuUSssIONS
A New Method of Shipping Live Fish. Hdgar C. Fearnow........... at
The Domestication of Landlocked Salmon Breeders. W. M. Keil...... 48
Concerning High Water Temperatures and Trout. G. C. Embody...... 58
Growth of Fish and Location of Hatcheries. John W. Titcomb........ 65
Fresh Water Crustacea as Food for Young Fishes. William Converse
CTU. faye si svacoke, she a: apaliels te see's lehedsustel ons oie, Siehe elah the els Peace wwe) epsievel ster 70
The Use of Certain Milk Wastes in the Propagation of Natural Fish
Food. G. C. Embody..... renee bile tevey orevovonattiate ior aliss sul iebede-ta iaile ck the (ee 76
Salmon Eggs as Food for Salmon Fry. Martin Norgore............. 82

Further Proof of the Parent Stream Theory. Alexander Robertson.... 87
Some Observations on the Growth of Young Sockeyes. Alexander

EDU CTESOMN acctire ele, ctose eho ere ice bilotel deletatalste sio\aseleteteleiceao'ticisy = tetel se eo onEne 91
Some Fish-Cultural Notes, with Special Reference to Pathological

Problems; (Charles. Of FLGUPOT . ajs.c.5 waren tw'sro\eintale pw 6 0)ls\ e's, 2810/5 EE 97
Ma Sh) Pa th OLOS Ve Wal Die OSELCT Ss si cclerers wie: steieic lave seis si wie bie o elblcl aloha lebeietenenene 107
Bacteriological Analysis of an Experimental Pack of Canned Salmon.

EE TU OLA EIR EL CALLCT LY hay occas ess prev eiais sie ein lets talley's iets, sue oe isiteta la Skene pe
Public Aquariums: (Ward Lf. Bower <0 vc.c vie. eic ala ialels vein cle s/o cle deen 117
Pollution of Streams: A General Discussion. «)... © 5. ./:</s1:): +2. sm slsenes 126
Effect of Drought and Extreme Heat of Summer on Fish Life. Open

TD ISCUBSIOMI es ells ocs oford wiaeoreie od verate tee olonehs (otis ic ioawilvile, oi stale acto lc elie helena 133
isti Ok HMEMBDEES He ie sik eile Sle ls oheuate te date toheliete teneiels ean reuetelel val eueheres te tia aaa 136

CONSELEMEIONN ee ee tied oie & ob cletaie bie tolel clea ole satelel afl ciel ats ci avelatas hea 150

PART I
BUSINESS SESSIONS

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PROCEEDINGS
of the

AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY
FIFTY-FIRST ANNUAL MEETING AT ALLENTOWN,
PENNSYLVANIA

SEPTEMBER 5, 6, 7, 1921

The Fifty-first Annual Meeting of the American Fisheries
Society was held at the Hotel Traylor, Allentown, Pennsylvania, on
September 5, 6, 7, 1921.

Opening Session, Monday Morning, September 5, 1921.
The meeting was called to order by President Nathan R. Buller
of Harrisburg, Pa., at 10:30 o’clock a. m.
The Hon. Malcolm W. Gross, Mayor of the City of Allentown,
delivered a cordial address of welcome.
The President called upon Mr. Carlos Avery of St. Paul, Minn.,
former president of the Society, who made an appropriate response.

REGISTERED ATTENDANCE.

The registered attendance was 45, as follows:

W. E. Apert, Des Moines, Iowa.

M. L. ALEXANDER, New Orleans, La.
CarLos Avery, St. Paul, Minn.

W. E. Barper, LaCrosse, Wis.

W. G. Bett, Baltimore, Md.

Dr. Davm L. BEtpIne, Hingham, Mass.
J. R. Berkuous, Torresdale, Pa.

Berks County Rop & GuN ASSOCIATION, Reading, Pa.
Warp T. Bower, Washington, D. C.
ERNEST CLIVE Brown, New York, N. Y.
HK. T. D. CHAMBERS, Quebec, Canada.
OSWILL CHAPMAN, De Bruce, N. Y.
ALvA CuaApp, Pratt, Kan.

HE. W. Coss, St. Paul, Minn.

JOHN M. Crampton, New Haven, Conn.
L. H. Darwin, Seattle, Wash.

Dr. GEORGE C. Empopy, Ithaca, N. Y.
WALTER G. EMERICH, Watervliet, N. Y.
Harry A. GRAMMES, Allentown, Pa.
JOHN HAMBERGER, Erie, Pa.

Joe H. Hart, Allentown, Pa.

S. B. Hawks, Bennington, Vt.

CuHas. O. Hayrorp, Hackettstown, N. J.
Mrs. CHas. O. Hayrorp, Hackettstown, N. J.
CarL Krarker, Philadelphia, Pa.

GLEN C. LeEAcH, Washington, D. C.

E. Lee LeComprer, Baltimore, Md.

Wma. S. Lesser, Reading, Pa.

Honore Mercier, Quebec, Canada.
ARTHUR MerrRiLL, Sutton, Mass.

ELMER MERRILL, Sutton, Mass.

ArgtHouR L. Mrert, Boston, Mass.
PARADISE Brook Trout Co., Henryville, Pa. e
Epwarp E. Prince, Ottawa, Canada.

Wm. H. Rowe, West Buxton, Me.

H. R. StackHovuss, Harrisburg, Pa.

M. G. Setters, Philadelphia, Pa.

L. S. Spracrie, Henryville, Pa.

JOHN W. Titcoms, Albany, N. Y.
FREDERICK TRESSELT, Hackettstown, N. J.
Gren. Harry C. TREXLER, Allentown, Pa.
JOHN H. WALLACE, JR., Montgomery, Ala.
RoBERTSON S. Warp, East Orange, N. J.
B. O. WerssTER, Madison, Wis.

JOHN P. Woops, St. Louis, Mo.

New MEMBERS.

In the year ensuing since the last annual meeting the following
132 new members have been elected:

ABRAMS, Mixton, 560 Brook Ave., New York, N. Y.
Apcock, A. Y., 5929 Wayne Ave., Chicago, IIl.
ALBERT, W. E., State Fish and Game Warden, Des Moines, Iowa.
ARMSTRONG, RONALD KENNEDY, Dalton House, Dalton, Northumberland,
England.
ATLANTIC BrotogicaL Station, St. Andrews, New Brunswick, Canada.
BazgELey, Hon. Wm. A. L., Commissioner of Conservation, Room 519, State
House, Boston, Mass.
BELL, Wm. G., 512 Munsey Bldg., Baltimore, Md.
BENNETT, L. H., Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.
Bernier, Dr. J. E., No. 5 D’Auteuil St., Quebec, Canada.
BonneER, ALBERT H., Coopersville, Mich.
BoTHWELL, Davip, Anderson Lake Hatchery, Kildonan, British Columbia.
Breper, C. M., Jr., 23 Humboldt St., Newark, N. J.
Butter, C. R., Pleasant Mount, Wayne Co., Pa.
BuscHMann, L. C., Franklin Packing Co., L. C. Smith Bldg., Seattle, Wash.
CASSELL, JOHN §8., 4100 Springdale Ave., Baltimore, Md.
Criapp, Atva, State Game and Fish Warden, Pratt, Kans.
CLEMENS, WILBERT A., Dept. of Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto,
Canada.
CLUBS:
AKRON GAME AND FisH AssocraTion, Akron, Pa.
ASHLAND FISH AND GAME ProTsEcTIVE Ass’N, Ashland, Pa.
Barr Camp, Charles H. Foster, Sec., 221 Linden St., Scranton, Pa.
BemMipsr Trout Crus, R. H. Schumaker, Sec.-Treas., Bemidji, Minn.
Berks County Rop & Gun Ass’n, W. E. Wounderly, Sec., 615 Hisen-
brown St., Reading, Pa.
BETHLEHEM GAME, FISH AND Forestry Ass’N, 423 Brodhead Ave.,
Bethlehem, Pa.
Birpssoro FISH AND GAME Ass’N, Elmer E. Squibb, Sec., Birdsboro, Pa.
BLANDBURG CAMP No. 115, UNITED SPORTSMEN OF PENNSYLVANIA,
Blandburg, Pa.
BOWMANSTOWN Rop AND GuN CLUB, Wm. A. Yale, Sec., Bowmans-
town, Pa.
Cuicora OvTiIne CLus, R. J. Gainford, Pres., Chicora, Pa.
CiuB Denartius, 8 Susquehanna St., Barnesboro, Pa.

CUMBERLAND Co. FISH AND GAME Ass’N, Geo. E. Orr, Sec., Portland,
Me.
FarRBrooK CountTRY CiLuB, C. O. Miller, Sec., Tyrone, Pa.
Frercus FIsHING AND GAME C.LuB, J. C. Henkes, Sec., Fergus Falls,
Minn.
JEFFERSON Co. GAME AND FisH Ass’n, Brookville, Pa.
LOWELL FISH AND GAME Ass’N, Willis S. Holt, Sec., Box 948, Lowell,
Mass.
Montcomery Co. FisH, GAME & Forestry Ass’n, H. G. Unger, Sec.,
820 West Marshall St., Norristown, Pa.
Mount PLEASANT Huntine & FisHine Ass’N, Mount Pleasant, Pa.
NAZARETH Rop AND GUN CLUB, INc., Nazareth, Pa.
New JerRseEY Fish & GAME CONSERVATION LEAGUE, Arthur J. Neu,
Treas., 31 Clinton St., Newark, N. J.
NortTH CHAUTAUQUA FISH AND GAME CLUB, Dunkirk, N. Y.
Park Rapips CoMMUNITY CLuB, G. H. Friend, Treas., Park Rapids,
Minn.
PENNSYLVANIA STATE FISH AND GAME PROTECTIVE Ass’N, City Club,
313 South Broad St., Philadelphia, Pa.
PLYMOUTH CAMP No. 136, UNITED SPORTSMEN OF PENNSYLVANIA, H. A.
Ledden, Sec., 58 Oxford St., Lee Park, Wilkes Barre, Pa.
PorTER’s LAKE HUNTING AND FisHine Cxius, Otto C. Feil, Sec., 2207
North Sixth St., Philadelphia, Pa.
RAMSEY Co. UNITED SPORTSMEN’S Ass’N, J. McCarthy, Sec., 636 Grand
Ave., St. Paul, Minn.
Rmeway BrRANcH, WiLp LIFE LEAGUE, Harl EH. Gardner, Sec., Ridg-
way, Pa.
Rinccotp Rop AnD GuN C.LuB, Pen Argyl, Pa.
Rop anp Gun ProtecrivE Ass’N, East Greenville, Montgomery Co., Pa.
SANCON VALLEY CAMP No. 168, UNITED SPORTSMEN OF PENNSYLVANIA,
Hellertown, Pa.
Saw CREEK HUNTING AND FIsHING Ass’n, M. S. Kister, Treas., East
Stroudsburg, Pa.
SPORTSMEN’S CLUB OF DULUTH, 403 Wolvin Bldg., Duluth, Minn.
STAPLES Rop AND GUN CLUB, C. HE. Miller, See., Staples, Minn.
UNAMI FISH AND GAME PROTECTIVE ASS’N, Emaus, Pa.
VERMONT STATE FISH AND GAME CLUB, S. B. Hawks, Vice-Pres., Ben-
nington, Vt.
WAYNE HUNTING AND FISHING CLUB, G. M. Patteson, Sec., Carbon-
dale, Pa.
WEST PHILADELPHIA Rop AND GUN CLUB, Wm. L. Bryan, Sec., 55th
and Springfield Ave., Philadelphia, Pa.
WiLp Lire Leacus, Sheffield Branch, G. McKillip, Treas., Sheffield, Pa.
WILKES-BARRE CAMP No. 103, UNITED SPORTSMEN OF PENNSYLVANIA,
M. B. Welsh. Sec., 96 McLean St., Wilkes-Barre, Pa.
WINpsor Co. FIsH AND GAME CLuB, C. W. Grinnel, See., Norwich, Vt.
Coors, Epwarp, 4706 4th Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.
Corson, ALAN, City Hall, Philadelphia, Pa.
Crate, SAMUEL, 898 Van Norman St., Port Arthur, Ontario.
CRAWFORD, D. R., Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.
EAMES, FRANK, Northeast corner 12th and Arch Sts., Philadelphia, Pa.
EMMERICH, WALTER G., Watervliet, N. Y.
Evans, H. R., Cultus Lake Hatchery, Vedder Crossing P. O., British
Columbia.
FIEDLER, ReGInALD H., 310 E. 51st St., Seattle, Wash.
FLEMING, JOHN H., Columbia City, Ind.
Foster, Wm. T., 707 Coleman St., Easton, Pa.
GANTENBEIN, D., Diamond Bluff, Wis.
GErDUN, C., 505 Commercial Bank Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio.
GoopHUE, E. C., Sherbrooke, Quebec.
GREEN, JOHN W., Carlton, Minn.

HAMBERGER, Hon. JOHN, 16 Hast 8th St., Erie, Pa.
Harrison, C. W., 801 Rogers Bldg., Dominion Government Fisheries Office,
Vancouver, British Columbia.
HEATHLEY, GEORGE, Middleton, Annapolis Co., Nova Scotia.
HEUCHELE, G. L., Bureau of Fisheries, Put-in Bay, Ohio.
HoornacLe, G. W., Bureau of Fisheries, Orangeburg, S. C.
Hougss, Cart L., Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Mich.
Innis, WmM., Northeast cornor 12th and Cherry Sts., Philadelphia, Pa.
JONES, CHAPIN, State Forester, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.
Lesour, Dr. Marie V., Marine Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth, England.
LEESER, WM. S., 919 Walnut St., Reading, Pa.
LIBRARIES:
Harvarp COLLEGE, Cambridge, Mass.
JOHN CRERAR LispRARY, Chicago, Il.
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, Cambridge, Mass.
Scripps INSTITUTION FOR BroLoGicAL RESEARCH, La Jolla, Calif.
UNIVERSITY OF INDIANA, Bloomington, Ind.
UNIVERSITY OF Micuican, Ann Arbor, Mich.
UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA, Lincoln, Neb.
UNIVERSITY OF Toronto, Toronto, Canada.
YALE UNIVERSITY, New Haven, Conn.
Linpsay, R. C., Gaspe, Canada.
LOWELL, RALPH P., Sanford, Me.
MANSFIELD, Harry C., Russells Point, Ohio.
Mapes, Wm. C., Fort On Appelle, Saskatchewan.
MatTrHews, J. H., Research and Information Dept., No. 1 Fulton Fish
Market, New York, N. Y.
McLEAN, MarsHALL, 27 Cedar St., New York, N. Y.
MiTrcHELL, Epw. W., Livingston Manor, Sullivan Co., New York.
Money, GEN. NoEeL, Qualicum Beach, British Columbia.
MorHERWELL, Magor J. A., Chief Inspector of Fisheries, Rogers Bldg.,
Vancouver, British Columbia.
Norcore, Martin, 1908 N. 36th St., Seattle, Wash.
OAKES, JOSEPH, Box 5, Belleville, Ontario.
ODELL, CLInTON M., 1815 Fremont Ave., South, Minneapolis, Minn.
PARADISE Brook Trout Co., Henryville, Pa.
PuHitiies, JoHN M., Vice-Pres., Board of Game Commissioners, 2227 Jane
St., South Side, Pittsburgh, Pa.
REA, KENNETH G., 285 Beaver Hall Hill, Montreal, Canada.
ReEForD, ROBERT Wixson, 300 Drummond St., Montreal, Canada.
Rew, Hueu J., Winnipegoses, Manitoba, Canada.
Ritey, Hon. Matrruew, 304 Jefferson Ave., Ellwood City, Pa.
Ropp, R. T., Banff, Alberta.
Ruuwe, E. LEHMAN, 24 S. 13th St., Allentown, Pa.
Scorr, Tuomas E., Fisheries Overseer, Hope, British Columbia.
ScovitLe, R. L., 50 Church St., New York, N. Y.
SHELDON, H. P., Fish and Game Commissioner, Montpelier, Vt.
Smiru, Water S., Game Warden, 114 North Jefferson St., Staunton, Va.
SNOWDEN, ALEX’R O., JR., 1058 Main St., Peekskill, N. Y.
Spencer, H. B., Room 1223 Munsey Bldg., Washington, D. C.
SrackHousE, H. R., Department of Fisheries, Harrisburg, Pa.
STATE FISHERY ORGANIZATIONS:
Indiana, Department of Conservation, Division of Fisheries and Game,
Indianapolis, Ind.
Iowa, Fish and Game Department, Des Moines, Iowa.
Louisiana, Department of Conservation, New Orleans, La.
Massachusetts, Department of Conservation, Boston, Mass.
Minnesota, Fish and Game Commission, St. Paul, Minn.
Ohio, Bureau of Fish and Game, Columbus, Ohio.
Oregon, Fish Commission of Oregon, 1105 Gasco Bldg., Portland, Oreg.

Stokke, G. B., 16 Exchange Place, New York, N. Y.

Tart, THORFIN, 64 Hillside Ave., Metuchen, N. J.

TRESSELT, FREDERICK, State Fish Hatchery, Hackettstown, N. J.
TRESSLER, Dr. DonaLtp K., Mellon Institute, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Truitt, R. V., University of Maryland, College Park, Md.
Wesster, B. O., Commissioner of Fisheries, Madison, Wis.
Waite, Dr. E. Hamitton, 298 Stanley St., Montreal, Canada.

Wor, CHARLES F., Birchwood, Wis.

List oF CONTRIBUTORS TO MEET DEFICIENCY

George Shiras,38d...... $100.00
Geo. D. Pratt . 50.00
PP ESOT 52) a 'ety's Cal bul tte 25.00
Raymond ©. Osburn .. ... 25.00

Robertson S. Ward*..... 25.00
Ernest Clive Brown..... 10.00
Ernest Clive Brown* .... 7.00
as WWHITESIO@ 4).< aie sel 15.00
WarlosS -AVErY .. 6.6.6 e505 ess 10.00
Thomas Barbour* . Ut OOO
OnErE SEA GeLLy. os". 3s ks 10.00
Charles O. Hayford* ... . 10.00
He Wend all es s.8 65 ees 10.00
hHanlegeh) ay... ., 6 6 se 10.00
Pence IMOCTTILL® . 6.5 6 56) 6 10.00
Arinuriss Millett 2... 33 10.00
Sabneb ow. Mixter sf 20). 4 10.00
Pohoqualine Fish Association 10.00
Hdward HH). Prinee*® ...... . 10.00
Fame SCAMAN: Cs. is) ot ena le 10.00
Frederick G. Shaw* . 10.00
L. H. Spragle . s 10.00
S. H. Vandergrift . 10.00
John Wagner . $ fhnae 10:00
Andrew Gray Weeks... . 10.00
Jonnie. Bapcock .. . » .« 5.00
W. H. Babcock . BORE este 5.00
Howarowks.)balehe oie) 6 5.00
A. Bauer . ead ee Rents 5.00
PARR IE OO SU aah cic ahaa cs 5.00
Chester N. Blystad* ..... 5 00
Ward: OWer® . ... « «: 5.00
Ee VWalrom Clark so0ens aes 5.00
MME VE OODD Mis le le Ue s 5.00
Walter G. Emerich* ..... 5.00
L. F. Grammes & Sons... 5.00

SES CAO 5.00

Samuel B. Hawks*

En Earlbuts

H. Hinrichs, Jr. . St
Elaroldtsensene see) oe kre
Dees (Re ceCeyd Ra Nes i etgs aero ke
Joseph Kemmerich.....
Hadwin Ch Wente aes ote et.
Josiah Kisterbock .

Glen C. Leach* . aI ai hsb
Geo. Ne Manntfeld! 3) 3 se. au.
W. P. Manton .
Jefferson F. Moser
M. G. Sellers*

G. F. Steele .

J. W. Titcomb* .
Frederick Tresselt*
Chas. W. Triggs . .

Bryant Walker .

Henry B. Ward . EOS Se
Chas:’ Hy Wheeler (a). 00) 2)
S. W. Downing .

G. C. L. Howell . :
BAR ane yen oe

C: W. Harrison: . ara a
Waldos HS Hubbards <2 .084 sax.
Alexander Robertson...
G. W. N. Brown
C. R. Buller .
G. W. Buller .
G. C. Embody* . §
Robert Fridenberg .

TSS. Palmers,

A. §. Pearse . Pee items 4
PGowatsman Gee Late Cag 4s

Number of contributors...
Amount contributed’ .

5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.50
2.41
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
1.50
1.00

. -$616.41

1Includes contributions of $139 received after the Treasurer’s books were closed, as

_ stated in his report, page 17.

These are indicated above by an asterisk.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE SECRETARY.

Washington, D. C., September 3, 1921.

TO THE OFFICERS AND
ERIES SOCIETY:

MEMBERS OF THE AMERICAN

FISH-

In addition to conducting the increasingly heavy correspondence and
attending to general administrative matters of the Society, the editing

and preparation of the Fifieth Anniversary volume of the Transactions has
constituted a very important feature of the work of the Executive
Secretary. Preliminary to this undertaking much careful consideration
was given to the desirability of resuming the practice in effect prior to 1914
of publishing the Transactions in one volume instead of quarterly issues.
One volume seemed desirable both upon the grounds of economy and con-
venience. Investigation showed that it could be issued cheaper than the
quarterlies, notwithstanding its inadmissibility at the low second class
mail rate. Also it appeared that there was dissatisfaction with the
quarterlies because of the greater chance of their becoming misplaced and
causing incomplete sets. So with the approval of officers of the Society one
volume was decided upon. This course has met with hearty endorsement.

Bids were solicited for printing, and the offer of the W. F. Roberts
Company, Washington, D. C., was accepted, this firm’s quotation of $3.45
per page plus certain extras being lowest. The volume aggregates 446
pages and contains the business proceedings and 34 papers. With the
exception of the slightly larger 1910 issue, this volume is much larger than
any other. The total cost of printing the edition of 750 copies was $1,991.15,
or about $2.65 per copy. It was decided to sell copies for $3.00 each,
postage included.

All of the back numbers of the Transactions are now in the custody of
the Executive Secretary. Since the last meeting those in the possession of
Dr. C. H. Townsend, former corresponding secretary, and Dr. Raymond C.
Osburn, former executive secretary, have been received. There are
approximately 3,300 copies on hand, including the quarterlies for the six
years of their publication. Back numbers for 25 years are available for
sale. This is not for the last 25 years, as there are no copies for 1899,
1903, and 1905. Since the last meeting, Transactions to the value of about
$200 have been sold.

At the last annual meeting the Treasurer pointed out the urgent need
of increased revenue, and showed that the Society could not, as things
were going, continue to meet its obligations without increasing the dues
or taking other appropriate action. While his report indicated an apparent
balance of about $260 on the right side of the ledger, as a matter of fact
the Society was then in a_ state of deficiency as bills for printing the
previous year’s Transactions had not been paid. All of this was known
when the Fiftieth Anniversary volume was issued, but as was pointed out
by certain members of the Society, the printed Transactions constitute
the permanent record of real work and reflect the Society’s standing and
importance, therefore they did not deem it expedient to curtail or delay
the issuance of a volume in keeping with the objects and purposes of the
organization. Publication of the Anniversary number of the Transactions
was accordingly undertaken in the knowledge that a deficit would be
created. Inasmuch as practically the entire current fund was absorbed in
the payment of back bills and running expenses other than printing the
Fiftieth Anniversary volume, it was decided, with the approval of officers
of the Society, to borrow about $2,000 from the Permanent Fund to pay
for this volume, with the distinct understanding that the Fund would be
reimbursed, with interest at 4 per cent per annum. The Permanent Fund
has been drawing interest at 4 per cent, and as reimbursement is to be

made as rapidly as possible at the same rate of interest, this fund
ultimately will be in no wise impaired.

Earnest effort has been constantly made to raise funds during the year.
Numerous letters have been written to effect sales of Transactions and to
secure new members, and some success has resulted. Also a circular was
addressed to the members on June 20, 1921, soliciting contributions.
Another circular was mailed directing attention to the prize contest. .

It is suggested that for at least a year or two the annual dues for
regular members be increased from $2.00 to $3.00; of state commissions
from $10.00 to $25.00; and life members from $25.00 to $50.00. Also dues
of fish and game clubs and of dealers might be increased from $5.00 to
$10.00. One of our enthusiastic members, Dr. W. P. Manton, of Detroit,
suggests an increase in dues to $5.00 or even $10.00, and that there be a
difference in the membership created, those who prefer to pay $5.00 to be
designated as Members, and those paying $10.00 designated Fellows,
privileges being the same in either class. This is a valuable and timely
suggestion.

The present membership of the Society is as follows: Honorary, 66;
corresponding, 11; patrons, 53; active, 502; total, 6382.

Warp T. Bower,
Executive Secretary.

The report of the Executive Secretary was adopted.

REPORT OF THE TREASURER.
Boston, Mass., September 3, 1921.
TO THE AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY:

Herewith is my annual report as Treasurer from the meeting in
September, 1920, to August 10, 1921.

This report presents the anomaly of an organization which, if it is
to be square with the outside world, must go in debt to itself. The imme-
diate cause is that this year bills have come in for printing the Transac-
tions for two years; that for the 1920 meeting at Ottawa was presented
promptly on publication of the volume, while the bill for the 1919 meeting
at Louisville did not come in until June of this year. A further cause is
that the 1920 volume was much larger than any report in recent years and
costs of printing were unusually high.

If these two bills, as well as bills for running expenses, were to be paid,
as they naturally should be, it would leave the treasury more than bank-
rupt. In order to pay the bill the Treasurer, with the advice and con-
sent of the President and Executive Secretary and other officials, decided
that the only avenue open was to draw temporarily upon the Permanent
Fund. This was done. Such action was not supported by the Constitution,
but it was felt that good judgment was used and that the action would
have your hearty endorsement. It is proposed to reimburse the Permanent
Fund with interest, so that eventually the fund will once more be intact.

Some comment may be made upon the apparently large bill for print-
ing the Transactions of the Fiftieth Anniversary Meeting at Ottawa,
Canada, but I am confident that consideration of the articles therein con-

tained, their great number, and their unusual scientific and practical value,
will convince any member that the money was well spent, however embar-
rassing it may have been to meet the bill. Personally, I believe that the
Society can take great credit for such a volume, also that the Executive
Secretary has cause to be congratulated upon its production.

When it was first proposed to pay these bills in the manner above
stated, action was at once taken to replenish the treasury. Letters were
written to delinquents and appeals made to all members to pay their dues
promptly, and as a result the condition of the Society as far as the collec-
tion of dues is concerned is perhaps better than for many years. In
addition, your President issued an appeal on June 20th, for contributions
to put our finances on a sound basis. The amount received to August 10,
1921, from 53 contributors totals $487.41, with more to be heard from.

Despite the increased cost of all necessary materials and printing, the
dues of the Society have remained at the almost negligible amount of
$2.00 a year. It cost $1,991.15 to publish the Transactions for the Ottawa
meeting, or considerably more per volume than the $2.00 paid by each
member. On August 10th we had only 491 active members which, if
everyone paid, would provide but $982.00.

This meeting should take some steps to provide increased revenue; this
is necessary if the Society is to pay its bills. A vigorous campaign for new
members, especially state and club memberships, if intensively conducted,
would add considerably to the yearly revenue. If something is not done,
it seems necessary to increase the dues or discontinue the Transactions.
The latter is unthinkable, for it would practically mean the living death
of the Society. My personal view is that whatever the success or failure
of a membership campaign, under no circumstances should the cost of
printing the Transactions be in excess of a sufficient balance for ordinary
running expenses. In other words, I do not believe that we should allow
ourselves again to run heavily into debt.

The raising of the dues in an appreciable amount would, in my opinion,
reduce the membership to such an extent that there would be little, if any,
financial gain over the present two-dollar-a-year policy. But I feel that
the matter of increasing dues is one that should come before this meeting
in the form of a resolution or order, and have definite action.

Following is a tabulation of receipts and disbursements:

Receipts
Balance in Treasury after the meeting of 1920............ $264.51
Annual dues:
Hon tHhervedT MOUs ose see be relearn elaie le terenerete $ 2.00
Src PPRM NC Th NA SRL: Gial's (yw ee Neve spate tats aieate le ate ene ate retente 6.00
NPY GRD IRA aa NG Behl aa) chat te abs Uae Ran ha eat (oie Ren atu 36.00
BS AAD erat 0 IY ERA Ut Ue eg CR ak | 54.00
Sah SSE et HY OIDs 5 tea: elec sree ae nat ta aM meee ed ES 780.00
STIR Sanh PR eNO VESC icy rel Ai scot tcl RS aed gel Ga 50.00
aaa’ ed yd Ko yy aE PRL eo Ma cares Sh 4,00
932.00
Clabimemberships ie icc ea oe ome an eee ick eee ee 10.00
State MEMPELSHIDSE Miya cels eck ic ete eA eto etoile a ae ee 20.00

CREE OLSEN) Fasleccvets’ o's aloe cis! Sravaie wicid v eIa ee ee ete einige sisie'e 25.00

PO CEEWRONT (Sj 0 a ie = a es ee ie oo Soe Mey oT ae 1487.41
Pest RCE ALE PATINA CLUOTIS S| 5 fave) od oretekn otal Caleleveiare eyatlsretatstetelsleies ere'siee 226.37
EST OLSTCDIITICS Cis = eb ciaje chsya,ctaalet are esate e\oressvela eyalete) = Sissel Lela 18.00
BMS Utara rat eas! at crc fact s Yorn velo. araieveres 6 aloteresslemvenehene ofa aide eel stele seks 3.41
See ION, ANG OXCHANLE. vei sic sie o's e cae etiaylewias dile.s,e 0/686 65 70
ROSMAN AG AC USCIMENIES ) 7/4 c/o Ciele's s cluialalnetetelele cle sisis ele ewe 4,00
Refund, from the Permanent Fund, Of life memberships
Hengsited: therein y by | GELOR en. sede tdaieteielaels ole wie the 75.00
$2,066.40
Disbursements.
EMAL INE) LOL: NCCE c/s) aseleveois devs. s0,0)>, ene Side taiela aerate yaus « $207.40
Literature for meetings, stationery, etc................... 138.21
Eerie | DeATINACLLOHS.. LOL) 2 J ereieis's\s:s)0 6 sisys a's sie eesieele sucha oe 714.31
aaa Teed ES Pretec fel ores aN, we ok shets, Cie) ararale lace ov siieleusine ol ecie wncieneicete mere rats 133.36
JESRCCLIG ITC ei eee ee Oa 3.22
ESTIROSN Meebt Natal’ tatatatslers ciebevese 7s ole ». dalidis Wialalovels Wilaratele cle at ene 41.70
DERVICESALO MEDEA SUITED \3)a:cye a!o miata, cyasa's. 4,014 shotets arava leiase heal dhe sisi ale 100.00
Entries to adjust bank account (protested checks)........ 2.00
1,340.20
RAEDNCO WE DET CASH MIOOK Sy Acre tee ce eicie gic gas crate alalevets orots Oi eiatete $ 726.20
Permanent Fund.
Swlancesas Teported at: 1920 MeCN. 00,0100 sels aiasidie ws lee dels Selene $3,111.99
MEST crac) pay cick ava she va tastes |<) a: ake /ePaudh ate ovenencvetahe are Be akaneb arouse clon poiare 183.00
$3,294.99
Disbursement for prize paper, Dr. Wm. C. Kendall........ $100.00
Withdrawal of funds deposited in the permanent fund
PHTOUZ A MISUNGEHSEANGING® v.:6.0.0.s,0.0.0:0(e10.0 cle olalelale eclghable tte 75.00
Temporary loan for payment of bill for printing Transac-
tions of 1920, Vol. 50 (withdrawn, but not yet handed
to the W. F.. Roberts Co., Inc., for whom it is intended) 1,991.15
2,166.15
ES IAMS serch a tyohd ee a aoe weave wee Ge SR ene eee oy $1,128.84

Respectfully submitted,
ARTHUR L. MILLETT,
Treasurer.

The report of the Treasurer was referred to the Auditing Com-
mittee.

Mr. Tircoms: Now that we are back on the right basis in issu-
ing one volume and in more fully publishing the discussion, which
oftentimes brings out more information than the original paper, a
member who does not attend the meetings will be able to glean from

1 Included $10 which was later withdrawn to apply on a life membership.

the reports the information which he needs. He can well afford to
be a member of the Society, whether or not he can attend the meet-
ings. Many have not joined because they could not be in attend-
ance. I move that the dues be increased to $3.00 a year, and that
every one make an effort to get a new member. I also suggest the
preparation of a circular to be used in a campaign to secure new
members, particularly states and clubs.

Mr. Avery: At the Louisville meeting I moved to increase the
dues and was voted down on the ground that many of the members
have small incomes, and that we would lose if we raised the dues.
The same condition prevails now. I am not opposed to raising the
dues, because I feel that the Transactions are well worth the added
fee, but what we want is as large a membership as may be possible
in order to expand the Society’s usefulness. If we increase the
dues, we may reduce the membership unless there is a very aggres-
sive membership campaign. This matter ought to be referred to a
special committee, which would make a definite report without delay.

Mr. Miitett: I believe in Mr. Avery’s idea of a special com-
mittee to report not later than tomorrow. I move that such a com-
mittee of five be appointed.

Mr. Titcomb withdrew his motion, and Mr. Millett’s motion was
duly carried.

Mr. Butter: The suggestion of Mr. Titcomb to secure new
members to put the Society on a sound financial basis interests
me greatly. I will mail at my own expense a circular of that kind
to at least 300 anglers’ clubs in Pennsylvania. I feel sure that many
will be glad to join.

Mr. ALEXANDER: The American Fisheries Society occupies a
most important position in the United States; it must continue its
meetings and have its scientific papers to show what is necessary in
sustaining the great fishing industry of this country. What is a
paltry $2,000 to an organization that has a membership of five hun-
dred? I will guarantee to take into membership all clubs in Louisi-
ana. I do not know how many there are, but if 10, I will guarantee
to get the 10; if 50 I will guarantee the 50. And if it needs an in-
dividual subscription, I will be glad to make it. I think that we
should contribute towards the liquidation of this obligation, either
in actual money subscribed personally, or in efforts to get additional
supporters and membership.

APPOINTMENT OF COMMITTEES

During the several sessions, the President appointed the follow-
ing regular committees :

Resolutions: J. P. Woods, E. T. D. Chambers, W. E. Albert,
G. C. Leach, M. G. Sellers.

Time and place of meeting: Carlos Avery, E. E. Prince, Chas.
O. Hayford.

Nomsnations: E. W. Cobb, W. H. Rowe, A. L. Millett, R. S.
Ward, B. O. Webster.

Auditing: G. C. Leach, J. W. Titcomb, W. E. Barber.

The following special committees were also appointed :

Committee on Financial Condition of the Society: Carlos Avery,
J. W. Titcomb, G. C. Leach, A. L. Millett, Ward T. Bower.

Committee to Secure New Members during the Ensuing Year:
J. W. Titcomb, Carlos Avery, M. L. Alexander, A. L. Millett, Ward
T. Bower.

Committee to Consider the matter of Affiliation of the Nationa}
Association of Fisheries Commissioners with the American Fisheries
Society: G. C. Leach, Harry A. Grammes, Carlos Avery, J. W.
Titcomb.

Owing to the absence of certain members of the Committee on
Awards, President Buller named E. W. Cobb, Chas. O. Hayford,
and G. C. Embody to serve with the Chairman, Mr. Titcomb.

REPORT OF COMMITTEES ON RELATIONS WITH NATIONAL AND STATE
GOVERN MENTS

Mr. E. W. Cobb, Chairman of the Committee on Relations with
National and State Governments, presented a report from which
the following is quoted:

The scope of the committee’s work was made to include the relations of
the National and State Governments with the Committee, with each other,
and with individuals and groups actively engaged in fishery matters.

An offer was made to bring before the Society any matter of interest for
any one not able to be present at the meeting. The replies were not numer-
ous, and definite recommendations were few and far between. Among
the answers was one from Dr. C. W. Greene, University of Missouri,
Columbia, Mo., who suggested the need of fishery schools where not only
biological but also practical commercial fishery problems would receive
consideration.

The following communication from the Fishing Gazette suggesting the
need of uniform fishery statistics merits consideration:

“A comprehensive survey of the fishing industry of the United States
would be greatly simplified and results obtained through planting fish
fry in streams and enforcing certain closed seasons would be ascertained
with ease if each State used the same form in keeping fishery statistics
and collected them every year. To secure totals or comparative figures
on fisheries in interstate waters under present conditions by reference
to state reports, is seldom possible because no two secure the same
figures in the same way. Federal statistics for given areas are

collected every five years, while some states make surveys in four, three,
two or one year periods, some of these being for the fiscal year and others
for the calendar year. General statistics of any value cannot be compiled
from such sources, as there is no indication whether the particular year in
which they are taken is an off year, year of large production, or of average
yield. Universal forms for compiling statistics should be drafted with
great care, and a conference on the subject should be called in each
geographical district; plans should be made and an effort put forth to have
the program adopted by the legislature of each state. By taking the lead in
such a movement the American Fisheries Society could wield valuable in-
fluence and perform a valuable service to those engaged in the fishery.”

Letters were forwarded to various clubs throughout Minnesota, asking
for opinions on federal control of the fisheries, as this seemed to be a
matter of cooperation. The replies showed that the subject had not been
considered to any extent and that ideas in regard to it were very indefinite.
It would seem, however, that many persons saw the need of uniform control
of interstate waters, with a strong feeling that the regulations should cor-
respond very closely to those existing in Minnesota. Nowhere in the
replies was there any sentiment in favor of this control extending to
waters other than those of the boundary.

The report was duly adopted.
The session adjourned.

Afternoon Session, September 5, 1920

The meeting was called to order by President Buller.

The Secretary read the following telegram of September 3, 1921,
from Mr. Gardner Poole, President of the United States Fisheries
Association, Boston, Mass. :

The U. S. Fisheries Association extends to you its hearty congratula-
tions on this occasion of your fifty-first annual meeting and extends to the
members of your Society a cordial invitation to attend and participate in
the annual meeting and convention to be held at the Breakers Hotel,
Atlantie City, New Jersey, September sixteenth and seventeenth. We are
keenly desirous of having all those not commercially engaged in the in-
dustry but interested in it, become better acquainted with the commercial
matters. It is felt that time and effort devoted to bringing about a better
understanding between these two classes will be time well spent and will
result in bringing about complete harmony of all interests. Believe that
an open statement of views and a discussion between all interests will
result in a common viewpoint. Our program has been arranged accord-
ingly. The U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries and other members of the
Department have been invited and many fish commissioners and other
interested men not commercially engaged in the industry will be present,
and I respectfully request that your Society arrange to have one or more
delegates present. It is our feeling that cooperation of all those interested
in the fisheries is necessary in order that the fisheries may be properly
utilized to the advantage of the country.

Mr. Mrtrett: This is the first time we have ever received an
invitation to participate in the deliberations of a practical fisheries

body. These people whom I know, as I am a member of that or-
ganization of 800 men, represent many of the fisheries concerns of
this country. It seems to me that such an invitation should not be
left unanswered. From an intimate knowledge of the aims and
objects of the United States Fisheries Association, I want to say that
there is nothing to indicate in any way that it is trying to controvert
or upset any of the ideas of the American Fisheries Society. On the
other hand its members are only too willing to cooperate with us.
It would be a fine thing if somebody represented us in the meeting
of that organization. The closer relations we establish the stronger
we are making our own organization.

Dr. Prince and Mr. Leach expressed approval of the suggestions
made by Mr. Millett. The President designated Messrs. Titcomb
and Adams to formally represent the Society, and sent a telegram
to Mr. Poole as follows:

The American Fisheries Society appreciates the cordial spirit of your
telegram of September third inviting its formal representation at the
meeting of the United States Fisheries Association at Atlantic City, Septem-
ber sixteenth and seventeenth. I am pleased to advise you that the Ameri-
ean Fisheries Society today assembled in its fifty-first annual meeting
unanimously accepts your kind invitation and has designated Mr. J. W.
Titcomb, of Albany, N. Y., and Mr. W. C. Adams, of Boston, Mass., as its
formal representatives. Other members including Messrs. A. L. Millett,
M. G. Sellers and Ernest Clive Brown have signified their purpose of being
in attendance. The American Fisheries Society extends its felicitations
and best wishes and expresses the hope that the convention this month
and all other activities of the United States Fisheries Association will be
highly successful in every way.

Mr. L. F. Grammes announced that through the kind efforts
of Mr. R. S. Ward, Fish Commissioner of New Jersey, there was
present Mr. Fred G. Shaw, champion fly caster of England. He
stated that Mr. Shaw had volunteered to give practical demonstra-
tions of fly casting at one of the hatcheries near Allentown. On
motion of Mr. Grammes, seconded by Mr. Titcomb, Mr. Shaw was
unanimously invited to give such an exhibition. He graciously ac-
cepted.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON FINANCIAL CONDITION OF THE SOCIETY
The report of the special Committee on Financial condition of
the Society as presented by Mr. Avery was as follows:

Your committee has met and canvassed the financial condition of the
Society and begs leave to make the following recommendations:

1. That the recommendation of the Treasurer and Executive Secretary
to borrow $2,000 from the Permanent Fund of the Society to pay current

indebtedness be approved, on condition that said sum be restored to the
Permanent Fund as rapidly as possible together with interest at the rate
of 4 per cent, and that the Treasurer be authorized to pay indebtedness of
$1,991.15, on account of the printing of the 1920 Transactions, from this
sum.

2. That all members be appealed to for contributions at this meeting
to augment the voluntary contributions so far received which now amount
to about $567.00.

3. That an appropriate circular or letter be prepared and printed calling
attention to the advantage of sportmen’s and anglers’ clubs identifying
themselves as club members with the Society, which circulars shall be
furnished to the state commissioners and others with the urgent recom-
mendation that all such clubs in the United States and Canada be in-
formed as to the work of the Society in promoting fish propagation, pre-
vention and control of pollution of waters, and restraint of illadvised and
unnecessary drainage of lakes valuable for angling, and be invited to join
this Society.

4. That the annual fee for dues of individuals and libraries be raised
from $2.00 to $3.00.

5. That a special membership campaign committee be formed charged
with the duty of inaugurating and conducting continuously throughout
the year a vigorous and persistent campaign for new members in all
classes.

Mr. Avery: With reference to that part of the committee’s re-
port urging club memberships, it was the idea that each commissioner
especially should interest himself in getting the clubs of his state to
join. The annual fee is only $5.00 for such memberships, and con-
sidering what the Society is doing for the benefit of sportsmen and
anglers, all such clubs in the United States and Canada should be
ready and willing to join, if it is properly brought to their at-
tention.

The report of the committee was adopted.

In accordance with the action recommended in the report of the
committee, Mr. Avery moved the necessary changes in Article II
of the Constitution, fixing the annual dues of active members and
libraries at $3.00 instead of $2.00. The amendment was adopted.

A paper entitled ‘Bacteriological Analysis of an Experimental
Pack of Canned Salmon,” by Reginald H. Fiedler, was read by Dr.
Embody. Jiscussion followed.

A paper entitled “A New Method of Shipping Live Fish,” by
Edgar C. Fearnow, was read by Dr. Embody. Discussion ensued.

Dr. G. C. Embody presented a paper entitled “The Use of Cer-
tain Milk Wastes in the Propagation of Natural Fish Food.” Dis-
cussion followed.

A paper entitled “Fresh Water Crustacea as Food for Young

Fishes,” by Dr. William Converse Kendall, was read by Mr. Bower.
Discussion followed.

Evening Session, September 5, 1921

President Buller called the meeting to order.

A paper entitled “The Domestication of Landlocked Salmon
Breeders,” by W. M. Keil, was read by Mr. Titcomb. Discussion
followed.

Dr. G. C. Embody presented a paper entitled “Concerning High
Water Temperatures and Trout.” Discussion followed.

The session adjourned at 11 p. m.

Morning Session, September 6, 1921

President Buller called the meeting to order.

A telegram from Dr. H. M. Smith, United States Commissioner
of Fisheries, Washington, D. C., to President Buller conveyed to
the Society his best wishes for a successful meeting and extended an
invitation to hold the next meeting in Washington.

President Buller announced that during the year communications
had been received from the Secretary of the National Association
of Fisheries Commissioners regarding possible affiliation of that or-
ganization with the American Fisheries Society, this being a subject
that had been before the Society for several years but without defi-
nite action. Mr. Alexander expressed the opinion that the proposed
merger would be to the advantage of the Society. Mr. Leach con-
curred. The President appointed Messrs. Leach, Grammes, Avery,
and Titcomb a special committee to consider the matter.

Mr. Avery: When I was President of the Society I corre-
sponded with the National Association of Fisheries Commissioners
with a view to getting the organization represented at the Ottawa
meeting. They promised to send a delegation there, and to un-
dertake arrangements for affiliation at that time. They took it up
at their annual meeting, but did not agree to affiliate at that time
on the ground that their interests were special and they would be at
a disadvantage in merging with this Society. It was explained to
them, however, that our Constitution provides for sections and sec-
tional meetings, if desired, and that their special interests could be
well taken care of in such sectional organizations and meetings as well
as at our annual conventions.

It seems to me that if the matter is submitted to them in that
way, so that they can hold their conventions when we hold ours
and carry on their sectional meeting at the same time, and therefore
get what is of special interest to them, it would be beneficial to

both. They would get a larger representation at their meeting,
and so would we.

Mr. Bower: Would you still have a separate organization as
it exists at the present time?

Mr. Avery: It would be similar, although not identical, because
our constitution recognizes this form of organization through sec-
tional meetings. It would be practically the same, but the Associa-
tion would have to relinquish its present name and the members
would have to pay dues to this Society, of which it would be a sec-
tion. If the Association would consent to such an organization,
I think it would be highly advantageous to the American Fisheries
Society.

Dr. Embody read two papers by Alexander Robertson, entitled
“Further Proof of the Parent Stream Theory,’ and “Some Ob-
servations on the Growth of Young Sockeye Salmon.” Discussion
followed each paper.

A paper by Martin Norgore on “Salmon Eggs as Food for
Salmon Fry,” was read by Dr. Embody. Discussion followed.

Mr. J. W. Titcomb addressed the Society on “Growth of Fish
and Location of Hatcheries.” Discussion followed.

The session adjourned.

Afternoon Session, September 6, 1921

The meeting was called to order by President Buller.

Mr. Charles O. Hayford read a paper entitled “Some Fish-Cul-
tural Notes, With Special Reference to Pathological Problems.”
Extended discussion followed.

A telegram of greeting was read from Mr. J. A. Rodd, Depart-
ment of Naval Service, Ottawa, Canada.

The session adjourned.

Evening Session, September 6, 1921

The meeting was called to order by President Buller.
REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON TIME AND PLACE OF MEETING

Mr. Avery, Chairman of the Committee on Time and Place of
Meeting, reported that invitations had been received for the next
annual meeting from Washington, D. C., New York City, and Madi-
son, Wis., but as most of the recent meetings had been in the east,
the committee recommended that the next be at Madison. It was fur-
ther recommended that the date be left to the Executive Committee.

The report was unanimously adopted.

REPORT OF AUDITING COMMITTEE

Mr. Leach reported that the Auditing Committee had examined
the books of the Treasurer and found them correct.

The report was adopted, and upon motion of Mr. Alexander a
vote of thanks was unanimously extended to Treasurer Millett for
his efficient and faithful service.

A paper entitled “Public Aquariums,” was read by Ward T.
Bower. Discussion followed.

President Buller announced an open discussion on the subject
“Pollution of Streams.”

The session adjourned at 11 o'clock p. m.

Morning Session, September 7, 1921

President Buller called the meeting to order.

A general discussion took place on ‘The Effect on Fish Life of
the Extended Drought and Extreme Hot Weather During the Sum-
mer of 1921.”

Major C. K. Weston, of New York City, addressed the Society
regarding Near East Relief. As a result, the sum of $20 was con-
tributed and forwarded by the Executive Secretary to the Treasurer
of that organization.

The following resolution was offered by Mr. Crampton:

Resolved, That the American Fisheries Society in meeting assembled,
accepts the offer of Hon. M. G. Sellers to bring the matter of stream
pollution before the American Bar Association, and expresses the hope that
he will report results at the next annual meeting of the Society.

The resolution was adopted.

Mr. Severs: I shall endeavor to report to you. I wish to
explain that the American Bar Association has as its program the
construction of modern laws to cover complex situations. I think
we shall give them a severe task if we can get them started on the
subject of stream pollution.

President Buller introduced Mr. Joe H. Hart, of Allentown,
Pa., who asked that the Society adopt the following resolution :

Resolved, That the American Fisheries Society, assembled at the Hotel
Traylor, Allentown, Pa., on the occasion of its Fifty-First Annual Meeting
on this the 7th day of September in the year of our Lord nineteen hundred
and twenty-one, favor the adoption of the poem “The Star Spangled Banner”
by Francis Scott Key, music by Samuel Arnold, to be our national anthem,
and we further recommend and favor the petitioning of the Congress of
the United States of America to enact a law declaring the Star Spangled
Banner to be our National Anthem, and we further recommend that Con-

gress make such rules and regulations as will insure the observance of the
same.

The resolution was adopted.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS

Mr. Titcomb, Chairman of the Committee on Awards, sub-
mitted the following report:

The Committee has passed upon five papers under the three heads for
which prizes were offered.

Under the first the prize is for the best contribution on fish culture,
either new or practical fish-cultural plans or description of the methods
employed in the advancement of fish-cultural work. In this class a paper
was submitted by Martin Norgore, entitled “Salmon Eggs as Food for
Salmon Fry,” reporting on the results of experiments carried on at the
University of Washington. The committee feels that this paper is to be
highly commended for the grade of work being performed upon a very
important problem of fish nutrition, but that it has not been pursued far
enough to warrant a prize.

In the same class of fish-cultural work is the paper by E. C. Fearnow,
entitled “A new Method of Shipping Live Fish,” which is a discussion of
experiments upon an important economic phase of fish transportation. The
committee does not feel that these experiments have been carried far
enough to warrant a prize.

Under the second head a prize is offered for the best contribution on
biological investigations applied to fish-cultural problems. In this class
are two papers by Alexander Robertson, one entitled “Further Proof of the
Parent Stream Theory,” and the other, “Some Observations on the Growth
of Young Sockeye Salmon.” Mr. Robertson has made important additions
to our knowledge of the life history of the sockeye salmon. The work is of
a high grade, but the investigations have not been extended over a sufii-
ciently long period to warrant a prize for either paper.

Under the third head a prize is offered for the best contribution dealing
with problems of the commercial fisheries. Your committee regrets to
observe that there is only one paper on this important phase. It is
entitled “Bacteriological Analysis of an Experimental Pack of Canned
Salmon,” by Reginald H. Fiedler. This paper deals with a very important
problem of the salmon canner, and the work is highly commendable, but
definite conclusions have not been proved. No prize is recommended,
much as we are obliged to regret such action.

The Committee, in connection with its report, offers the recommenda-
tion that when, in its judgment, a non-competitive paper has been submitted
which appears to be of unusual merit, the conditions prescribing the time
limit within which such paper should have been submitted in competition
may be removed and the paper may be acted upon by the Committee on
Awards, the same as all competitive papers regularly submitted. This
recommendation is made because the committee feels that both this year
and last, at least one paper was submitted which was fully as valuable as
the competitive papers, but was not submitted in competition.

The report was unanimously adopted. Also a vote of thanks
was extended to the committee for its very efficient efforts.
REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS

Mr. John P. Woods submitted the report of the Committee on

Resolutions as follows:
26

WuHereEas, The problem of the abatement of the nuisance of pollution
of fresh and salt waters is demanding nation-wide attention, and

Wuereas, The Secretary of Commerce, the Honorable Herbert Hoover,
has recently called into conference representatives of Atlantic and Gulf
Coast States to consider this important question, resulting in the offer of
Federal aid in the problem,

Therefore be it resolved, That the American Fisheries Society in con-
vention assembled at Allentown, Pa., hereby endorses the action of the
Secretary of Commerce in his efforts to aid the States to combat all forms
of water pollution and to overcome its disastrous effects on fish life, and
be it further

Resolved, That the American Fisheries Society does hereby pledge
its cooperation and support to the Secretary of Commerce, and that a
copy of this resolution be transmitted to Secretary Hoover.

Wuereas, One of the main objects of this Society is to encourage and
promote commercial fisheries, and

Wuereas, There has possibly been some unintentional neglect in this
respect by the Society,

Therefore be it resolved, That the valued treatise presented by Arthur
L. Millett, of Massachusetts, at the Fiftieth Annual Meeting, entitled “Ade-
quate Fish Inspection: A means to better fish for the consumer and to
increased fish food consumption,” be commended to the fish departments
of other States for earnest emulation, the matter being very important
and highly constructive in character.

WuHeEpreas, The establishment of a school of fishes and fish fundamentals
is now an accomplished fact through the forethought of the University
of Washington as instituted under the guidance of Dean John N. Cobb, and

Wuereas, This Society now begins to feel the good effect of such an
institution, be it

Resolved, That the American Fisheries Society in convention assembled,
extends its renewed compliments to Dean Cobb and faculty with congratu-
lations to two recent graduates of the school, namely, Messrs. Martin
Norgore and Reginald H. Fiedler.

Wuereas, The Society endeavors to consecrate itself earnestly to fish
fundamentals in upholding every phase of the work, and

WHEREAS, There is justified alarm over the imminence of serious harm
to natural lakes of the Great Lakes region, caused by selfish interests in
attempting drainage and in lowering the level of such lakes in such man-
ner as to injure or destroy existing breeding places, nurseries and natural
habitats for the various valuable food and game fishes, be it

Resolved, That this Society enter vehement protest against this in-
jurious action and further that it pledge itself to resist all encroachments
upon the priceless heritage of the people.

WHEREAS, It is well recognized by fish culturists that the artificial
propagation of both large-mouth and small-mouth bass is impractical upon
the large scale practiced in the propagation of other food and game fishes,
that increase of these species by reproduction under natural conditions is
ordinarily more than sufficient to maintain nature’s balance in waters in-

habited by these species, and that the removal of parent fish from their
nests results in the loss of from 500 to 2,500 helpless fry,

Resolved, That under the intensive angling of the present day, supple-
mented by the many new and alluring devices cast at the quarry, the con-
servation of these two important game fishes is necessarily dependent
upon the proper protection of the parent fish during the entire period
that they are spawning and caring for their young, supplemented by due
precaution to maintain in all bass waters an abundance of bass food;
and it is also further recommended that, for the purpose of encouraging
the propagation of the bass, as an aid to other means, the establishment
of refuges or nurseries in places suitable therefor be encouraged.

Wuereas, There exists an urgent, nation-wide demand for closer con-
tact and communion with fresh and salt water fishes and with aquatic
inhabitants generally, and

WuereEas, There is a deplorable deficiency in public facilities which
afford such valuable educational advantages through the institution of
publicly-owned aquariums, be it therefore

Resolved, That the entire membership be charged with the urgency in
public need of such establishments.

Wuereas, It has been heretofore difficult to enlist extended publica-
tion by local newspapers of the daily proceedings of the Society’s con-
vention work, and

WHeEnrEAS, This difficulty has been happily overcome in this, the Allen-
town, Pa., meeting by a most generous allotment of newspaper space
through general realization of the great public concern in the involved
questions, be it

Resolved, That more than the commonplace expression of thanks in
consequence is due and hereby extended to the Morning Call, Evening
Item, Chronicle and News, Daily Leader, and Allentown Record.

Wuereas, The Entertainment Committee of Allentown has been especi-
ally zealous in its efforts to afford entertainment to members of this
Society, be it

Resolved, That a vote of thanks be given to this committee for its
courteous consideration.

WHEREAS, Diversity in general entertainment is productive of better
human contentment, and

Wuereas, That fact is fully realized by a representative citizen of
Allentown, namely, Mr. Harry A. Grammes,

Therefore be it resolved, That a vote of thanks be extended to Mr.
Grammes for his hospitable endeavors so delightfully consummated.

WuHereas, The courtesies extended to the assembled members by General
Harry C. Trexler touches a further chord of appreciation,

Resolved, That an acclamation of thanks be accordingly given as in-
dicative of the gratefulness of the assembly.

WuHereas, The high executive ability so very modestly displayed by the
retiring President, Mr. Nathan R. Buller, of Pennsylvania, during the
past year touches a responsive and overflowing chord of appreciation, be it

Resolved, Therefore, That a rising vote of thanks be extended to Mr.
Buller for his very graceful and effective efforts.

WHEREAS, The efficiency of Mr. Ward T. Bower, Executive Secretary,
Mr. Arthur L. Millett, Treasurer, and Mr. S. B. Hawks, Recording Secre-
tary, is duly recognized by the members, be it

Resolved, That a vote of thanks is hereby extended to them for the
incalculable value of their services throughout the past year.

The report of the committee was unanimously adopted.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AFFILIATION WITH NATIONAL
COM MISSIONERS

Mr. Leach, Chairman of the committee appointed to consider
terms of affiliation of the National Association of Fisheries Com-
missioners with the American Fisheries Society, submitted the fol-
lowing report:

It is recommended that the Executive Secretary take up with the
National Association of Fisheries Commissioners the terms upon which
affiliation may be consummated with the American Fisheries Society.
The following is suggested: (a) That the National Association of Fish-
eries Commissioners renounce their title and become members of the
American Fisheries Society by payment of the annual dues of $3.00 each;
(b) that the American Fisheries Society create a vice-president of Na-
tional Fisheries Commissioners; and (c) that the affiliation be effective
in accordance with our Constitution.

The report was unanimously adopted.

Mr. Tircoms: In this connection let me say that I was one of
the vice-presidents of the North American Fish and Game Protec-
tive Association. The president died and I am now the chief offi-
cer. We have funds in a bank in Canada which so far we have
been unable to secure. The members and officers of that Association
have gone through the formality of a meeting and we are trying to
get the money and present it to the American Fisheries Society. It
amounts to $100.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS

Mr. E. W. Cobb submitted the report of the Committee on Nomi-
nations, as follows:

President—WiLLIAM HE. BaArBer, LaCrosse, Wisconsin.
Vice-President—GLrEn C. LEAcH, Washington, D. C.
Haecutive Secretary—Warp T. Bower, Washington, D. C.
Recording Secretary—S. B. Hawxs, Bennington, Vermont.
Treasurer—ARTHUR L. MiiteTtT, Boston, Massachusetts.
Vice-Presidents of Divisions:

Fish Culture—Esen W. Coss, St. Paul, Minnesota.

Aquatic Biology and Physics—Hrnry B. Warp, Urbana, Illinois.

Commercial Fishing—GARDNER Poon, Boston, Massachusetts.
Angling—S. 'TuHruston Batuarp, Louisville, Kentucky.
Protection and Legislation—WiLu1aM C. ApAms, Boston, Massachusetts.

Executive Committee:
Gro. C. Empopy, Chairman, Ithaca, New York.
JoHn W. Tircoms, Albany, New York.
Epwarp E. Prince, Ottawa, Canada.
W. E. ALBERT, Des Moines, Iowa.
GrorGE Suiras, 3d, Washington, D. C.
WILLIAM H. Rowe, West Buxton, Maine.
JoHN N. Coss, Seattle, Washington.

Committee on Foreign Relations:
HueH M. SmiruH, Chairman, Washington, D. C.
Cuar_Les H. TowNsenbD, New York, New York.
A. C. Baxter, Columbus, Ohio.
Joun P. Bascock, Victoria, British Columbia.
L. F. Ayson, Wellington, New Zealand.

Committee on Relations with National and State Governments:
CHARLES O. Hayrorp, Chairman, Hackettstown, New Jersey.
M. L. ALEXANDER, New Orleans, Louisiana.
NaTtHAN R. BuLuer, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.
Cartos Avery, St. Paul, Minnesota.
BE. T. D. CHAMBERS, Quebec, Canada.

The Secretary was directed to cast one ballot for the Society,
and the respective officers were declared elected for the year 1921-22.

Mr. Butter: Before turning the Society over to my successor,
I desire to thank every member who has assisted me during the
past year. I now have the pleasure of inviting my successor, Mr.
Barber, to the chair.

Mr. Barber here assumed the chair amid applause.

Mr. BARBER: This is indeed a surprise to me, and I should be
an ingrate did I not express my appreciation of the honor. The
word “honor” as used in this connection by me carries with it its
strongest meaning because it is a distinct honor to be President
of an organization whose activities are devoted to the causes for
which you are all laboring.

The word “conservation” is a comparatively new word in America.
It has only been within the last fifteen years that the word has come
into frequent use. But it is not a new word across the seas. In
those old countries long years of inhabitancy have made it necessary
for them to practice conservation of their natural resources. Had
they not practiced conservation in those old countries it is doubtful
that the great war would have ended yet. Mr. Harrington, the for-
estry member of our commission, who served two years in the For-
estry Division of France, stated that during that entire period they

cut nothing but planted pine, and every time a tree was cut down
another was planted in its place, and every twig was gathered up
and the ground left clean to prevent any hazard of fire.

We are engaged in a mighty cause, a cause which carries to our
posterity the natural resources which God has so generously given
to this country. We have waited too long. We have waited until
here in Pennsylvania, in Wisconsin, in Minnesota and elsewhere
the timber has been destroyed. Had we known forty or fifty years
ago what we know today, we would have fine forests now in all of
these states.

Fish conservation can be brought about by earnest and coopera-
tive work. The fish will never be destroyed; they hide away out
of sight; we cannot find them; consequently they will always be with
us. It is different with the game. We have to be exceedingly cautious,
with our increased population and our implements for killing game,
together with the new facilities for reaching the game grounds, or
our game will surely be destroyed. We have to use exceeding care
if we are to hand these blessings down to the generations that follow.

I want to thank you sincerely for this honor, and I want to thank
you for bringing the meeting to our capital city next year. I assure
you that w2 shall use every effort to make your stay agreeable and
beneficial. Madison is a beautiful city, with four fine lakes, a state
university, a college of agriculture, and the State Capitol. I am
sure that all of you who come will be glad and will enjoy your stay
with us. I thank you.

Adjourned sine die.

Immediately after luncheon the members of the Society were
taken in automobiles furnished through courtesy of the Allentown
Chamber of Commerce, to the private trout hatchery of Gen. Harry
C. Trexler, about four miles from Allentown, where an interesting
hour was spent in viewing that establishment. The party then
drove to Weissport, about 30 miles distant, where the private trout
hatchery operated by L. F. Grammes & Sons was visited. An en-
joyable buffet luncheon was served by the Messrs. Grammes. Mr.
F. G. Shaw, champion fly caster of England, gave a splendid ex-
hibition of fly casting which proved most fascinating to the mem-
bers of the Society. The party returned to Allentown in the evening.

CHARLES G. ATKINS, 1841-1921

It is with regret that announcement is made of the death of
Charles G. Atkins on September 3, 1921, at the age of 80 years, at

Bucksport, Maine. He was born January 19, 1841, near Sharon,
Maine, and spent practically his whole life in the State. Mr. Atkins
was one of the pioneer fish culturists of.the country and although not
a member of the Society recently he was long identified with the
organization, having become a member in 1884. He was Corre-
sponding Secretary from 1905 to 1910, and was much interested in
and did valuable work in connection with the Committee on Foreign
Relations. Mr. Atkins was Commissioner of Fisheries of Maine
from 1867 to 1871 and was continuously in the service of the United
States Fish Commission, and its successor, the Bureau of Fisheries,
from July 1, 1872, until his retirement August 21, 1920.

Mr. Atkins did particularly noteworthy work in connection with
the Atlantic and landlocked salmons. That part of the Manual of
Fish Culture issued by the United States Fish Commission in 1897,
having to do with these species, was prepared by him. All told, 35
articles by Mr. Atkins appeared in the publications of the Bureau
of Fisheries. The Transactions of the Society contain 12 papers
by him on very interesting and important subjects, the first appear-
ing in 1874 and the last in 1913.

As a result of his article entitled “Food for Young Salmonoid
Fishes,” published in the Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries for
1908, he was awarded a prize of $150 in gold offered by the Fourth
International Fishery Congress for the best demonstration of the
comparative values of different kinds of foods for rearing young
salmonoids.

Warp T. Bower.

Inu Memoriam

CHARLES G. ATKINS
WASHINGTON I. DE NYSE
FRANK EAMES
IRVING A. FIELD
CHARLES FLEGEL
C. F. FOWLER

W. A. GAVITT
H. A. GIBB
O. C. GOODWIN
H. A. GRAMMES
J. R. HICKMAN
LARRY ST. JOHN

W. J. STARR

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PART I
PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS

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A NEW METHOD OF SHIPPING LIVE FISH’
By Enear C. FEARNOW
Superintendent of Fish Distribution, Bureau of Fisheries
Washington, D. C.

Some years ago the writer was detailed to accompany a shipment
of live fish from New York to the Canal Zone. These were pond
fish and included bass, sunfish, and catfish, destined to form a brood
stock in Gatun Lake and other waters of the Zone. A short time
after the ship left New York it became apparent that the supply of
ice would be exhausted long before the end of the voyage, unless
means could be found for conserving the limited amount remaining.
The successful outcome of the trip was dependent to a large degree
on maintaining an equable temperature of the water in which the
fish were carried. The 50 cans in the shipment were arranged to
occupy as little space as possible and an old sail thoroughly saturated
with water was drawn closely around them. The results were sur-
prisingly satisfactory. Instead of having to ice the cans every few
hours, one icing in 24 hours was found sufficient to maintain the
temperature at the desired point, and the fish were delivered at Gatun
and Gamboa, Canal Zone, without undue loss.

The success of this simple expedient impressed the writer with
the possibilities of applying the well-known principle of heat absorp-
tion by evaporation to a container that would be of practical value
in the shipping of live fish under conditions where a rise in tempera-
ture must be avoided. Also it seemed to have direct bearing upon
the problem which the Bureau of Fisheries has recently been called
upon to solve, namely, how to distribute fish in ever larger num-
bers without additional funds to meet the greatly increased transpor-
tation charges. In view of the fact that passenger, freight, and ex-
press rates are now higher than at any period in our history, and
as there is an insistent demand for economy in both government
and private business, it has seemed most opportune to undertake a
new method of shipping live fish without ice and, in many, perhaps
most, instances, without the usual attendant. The possibilities of
great saving over the present method of shipping by messenger are
readily apparent.

Temperature is one of the principal factors in the transporta-
tion of live fishes. It has been noticeable for a number of years

1In order to add to the value of this paper, the author has incorporated certain data
as to results secured after the paper was submitted at the meeting of the Society early
in September, 1921.

that messengers who watch the water temperature closely are usually
successful in carrying fish, while those who are constantly working
with their fish, changing and aerating the water, seem to be least
successful. Having this in mind, and in view of the experience on
the trip to the Canal Zone, experiments were undertaken to devise
a container which would meet the ends sought.

3, COTTON ROPE

“GQ = 5 = ==
SO St ee A A Hy ach

“WOOD BLOCKS

ELEVATION

ELEVATION BOTTOM

JACKETED CAN FOR TRANSPORTING LIVE FISH.

DESCRIPTION OF CONTAINER

In due time there was developed a device consisting of an ordi-
nary lard can of standard size placed in a loosely fitting bag of 10-
ounce canvas. The can is supported by four triangular pieces of
wood attached to the bottom of the bag to permit free air circulation.
The can has a ring of fine perforations four inches from the top,
about which ring on the outside of the can is fastened a band of

cheese cloth or other absorbent material. When in use the bag is
saturated with water before the shipment is delivered to the car-
rier; the small amount of water that escapes through the ring of
perforations is taken up by the encircling absorbent material and con-
ducted to the outer covering of canvas. The evaporation from the
constantly moistened canvas is the prime factor in maintaining a
lower temperature of the water. The cover provided for this con-
tainer is open in the center and perforated near its outer margin.
Water splashing out of the can falls back again either through the
perforations or through the central opening, thus aiding, though but
slightly perhaps, in aerating the water.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS WITH PROTECTED AND UNPROTECTED
CONTAINERS

The table on the following page shows results of some experi-
ments in regard to water temperatures with this and similar devices,
as compared with unprotected cans.

It may be seen from the table that an even temperature can be
maintained and that, when the margin between the air and water
temperature is not too great, the temperature of the water may be
considerably reduced through evaporation.

EXPERIMENTAL SHIPMENTS

The first shipments of live fish were the top minnow (Gambusia
affinis). The results in each case were highly satisfactory, as indi-
cated by the following:

1. Edenton, N. C., to Washington, D.C. One 7-gallon can con-
taining 250 top minnows was delivered to the express agent at
Edenton at noon August 12 and was not received in Washington
until noon of August 14, having been much delayed en route. Although
this lot of fish was about 50 hours without attention, it arrived in
good condition with a loss in transit of only about 25. It is very
doubtful whether an attendant could have prevented this small loss
under the same conditions. The temperature of the water in the
can on leaving Edenton was 75° F. Unfortunately the watchman
on duty at Washington failed to note the temperature on arrival.

2. Washington, D. C., to New York City. One 7-gallon can
containing 210 Gambusia was shipped by express from Washing-
ton August 18 at 4:30 p. m., water temperature 79° F. Mr. F. W.
Collins, 17 East 42nd St., New York City, to whom the fish were
consigned, reported as follows: “I went to Jersey City this morn-
ing (August 19) and found the fish to be in good condition on
their arrival there. The temperature was 68° F.”

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3. Washington, D. C., to Manchester, lowa. One can contain-
ing 200 Gambusia left the Central Station of the Bureau at 4:30
p. m. August 18 and was shipped by express on a train at 7:30.
It was delayed in Chicago 25 hours, and arrived at Manchester at
10:00 a. m. August 21, being 66 hours without attention. The
superintendent reported that 100 Gambusia were alive and in good
condition and that the temperature of the water was 60° F.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF NEW METHOD

A specific instance of the gratifying results achieved by the
plan described in this paper is a shipment recently made from the
Orangeburg, S. C., station. On this trip the messenger had 20
cans containing black bass and bluegill sunfish, and supplied 17 ap-
plicants at nine different points in North Carolina. He left Orange-
burg at 5:30 a. m. and returned at 11:00 p. m. the same day, the
cost of the entire trip being only $21.47. Had the messenger gone
to every point where he had fish to deliver, the trip would have
required 651% hours, instead of 1714 hours, and the expense would
have been practically double. The messenger simply went straight
to Fayetteville, N. C., where a number of deliveries were made,
and from that point forwarded fish to 11 different applicants. The
cost of the distribution from the Orangeburg station during the
fall of 1920, under the old method, was $1.57 per can of fish dis-
tributed. The records show that from July, 1921, to the close of
the distribution the cost under the new method was only 90 cents
per can.

From the Bullochville, Ga., station 28 shipments were made on
four messenger trips. On one trip to Atlanta, Ga., 10 shipments of
fish were made to points in Tennessee, Alabama, North Carolina and
Georgia. No complaints were received.

In the fall of 1920 a special shipment of Gambusia was sent by
messenger from Edenton, N. C., to Washington, D. C., the cost of
the trip being approximately $25. Practically the same number of
Gambusia were shipped to Washington, D. C., this fall in two jack-
eted cans, the express charges being only $1.57.

The saving of approximately 50 per cent in the distribution cost
from Edenton was brought about by sending a messenger to three
railroad centers, Greensboro, Raleigh, and New Berne, N. C., and
forwarding the fish by baggage masters or by express from those
points. Twenty-four shipments were made in this manner and no
complaints were received from the applicants supplied.

The following statement shows the actual cost of making the
distribution of sunfish from the Edenton, N. C., station for the sea-
sons of 1920 and 1921:

COMPARATIVE COSTS OF DISTRIBUTION OF SUNFISH FROM
EDENTON, N. C., STATION

Number of | Number| Number
Destination. Applicants of of Cost.
supplied. cans. fish.
Old Method: (1920) |
RaleIeh ONG Case ates es televe 6 12 1.800 $32.94
Catawba pine Oued cele eiern 6 sereuete 5 13 1,910 32.00
Chapel Hilly Ne iO. saeco tere 8 16 2.519 20.14
alee FPN Ae aveteceoielereta: suece 8 17 2,350 30.84
Mie Gilead aN. Cyscns 2h sisson e 4 8 | 1,200 36.40
Mota: POLO es sc ocr heisiors oe he 31 66 9,779 $152.32
Average cost per thousand =: |i0 a2 oe orale tee els ee poe $15.57
New Method: (1921) a | oh
Greensboro, INIoC.. ses. «sie s 7A 21 2,650 $24.19
RaletaheON OMe ak. ese 22 22 2,125 17.49
ING yiGENe IN Cx a oe es enectuarae 19 20 | 3,400 21.15
May eee ie Kh I eS at ae ane 62 63 8,175 $62.53
AVErS le COSE DED CNOUSADO cl) vc anise ieors Slorsieeis er ie [os ie ate $7.64

In addition to the specific results secured at certain southern
stations, it is expected that the method will be of special value in
supplying applicants in the western and southwestern states with
the different species of pond fish, most of which bear transportation
very satisfactorily. The demand for catfish and other coarse species
in such states as New Mexico, Arizona, and Wyoming is large, and
reports received from applicants who have been supplied indicate
that the results following the plantings of such fish have been par-
ticularly satisfactory. Because of the expense involved in such ship-~
ments, it has been necessary to refuse many applicants, and only
those most advantageously located with reference to railroad facili-
ties have been supplied. By means of the new device it appears
entirely practicable to transport fish to applicants in those sections,
carrying them in the distribution cars from the point of production
to central railroad points such as Denver, Colo., and Albuquerque,
N. Mex., and then forwarding the consignments by express or bag:
gage to the applicants.

In view of the results obtained, it seems quite fair to assume that
in higher altitudes, where evaporation is more rapid, the temperature
can be maintained at a point sufficiently low to permit the safe trans-
portation of the various species of trout without the use of ice or
the services of an attendant.

It not infrequently happens that fish delivered in good condition
to an applicant are lost in transit from the railroad station to the
point where they are to be planted. The loss may be occasioned by
the failure of the ‘recipient to understand the requirements. In
other instances, where fish are transported for long distances by
pack animal, a method frequently resorted to by officers of the
Forest Service, it is of course impossible to carry a supply of ice.
In such cases it is necessary to change the water in the cans as op-
portunity may permit. Where fish are shipped in the new type of
container a constant water temperature is assured, and as the move-
ment of horse or vehicle insures sufficient aeration, the fish will
arrive at destination in good condition.

In the case of shipments in the new container the motion of the
train or other conveyance will cause the water to splash sufficiently
to provide the necessary aeration, but in shipments involving long
periods of quiet at transfer points aeration of the water by some
means is desirable, even essential. It may be that a plan of insuring
the automatic introduction of the necessary oxygen will some day
be devised.” Cool water, however, absorbs oxygen more rapidly
than water at a higher temperature, and low water temperatures
make fishes less active, hence the lower temperature of the jacketed
can minimizes the danger of loss during delays.

Every year a small percentage of the millions of fish rescued by
the government from the Mississippi River overflow are diverted
for general distribution. The principle involved in the new con-
tainer is especially adapted to the transfer of fish from the collecting
fields to the points where they are to be “hardened”’ prior to their
shipment to applicants.

In order to insure proper delivery of shipments of fish, the
Bureau has been sending to the applicant a telegram substantially
as follows:

Answer government rate collect whether you will meet 3.25 P.M. Nor-
folk & Western train, Roanoke, November 2d, for fish.

Unless a favorable reply is received to such a telegram, the fish
are not shipped. And to obviate any possible loss of fish through
accidental failure of applicant to meet a shipment, each can is tagged
as follows:

This can contains (number and species of fish) for stocking (name
of water). If delivery cannot be made to consignee within one hour, the
fish should be planted in the above mentioned or other suitable waters.
Keep can in a current of air and in shade. Do not try to hold.

1 Recent improvements to the shipping container herein described make it self-aerat-
ing even when not in motion.

CONCLUSIONS

Briefly, the device promises to make it possible for the Bureau
of Fisheries to materially broaden the scope of its fish distribu-
tion, and at the same time reduce the expense connected therewith.
It is not intended to convey the idea that special attendants will not
be necessary in handling large shipments of fish or under particu-
larly difficult conditions; but, by taking a large number of cans to
some central point and sending the various allotments of fish to the
_ applicants in the same manner as the car now dispatches its mes-
sengers, one man should be able to cover the territory more ex-
peditiously and economically than is possible under the present
system.

There has been heavy expense heretofore in shipments off the
main railroad lines, since the attendant, because of irregular train
service, frequently has been obliged to remain over night at the point
where the last delivery of fish was made. By means of the simple
device herein described, such shipments often can be forwarded by
express, or in care of the train baggage master, at merely nominal
cost.

In connection with the use of this improved container for the
shipment of live fish, attention may be invited to the following ad-
vantages resulting from its use:

1. It is inexpensive; the can and jacket or bag complete costs
less than $1.50. The bag represents about 65 per cent of the total
cost. In short distance shipments, where express charges are not
high, the cans may be returned for reuse. In cases where there
would be heavy express charges, the recipient of the fish may be re-
quested to return the bags only, by parcel post.

2. It eliminates the necessity for ice in transporting live fish. Ice
is expensive, and there are many recorded instances of experienced
men losing fish because ice was not available and there was no other
known means of preventing the water temperature from rising beyond
the point of safety.

3. Since water temperature is the important consideration in the
transportation of fish, it follows that the principal duty of the person
in charge of live fish shipments is to maintain a suitable water tem-
perature as far as is possible. As a suitable temperature is auto-
matically maintained in the jacketed can, the necessity for an atten-
dant is eliminated, thereby effecting a saving of railroad fare and sub-
sistence of messenger, and other incidental items. The cost of the
shipment will be represented by the express charges only, or a nomi-
nal fee to baggage masters. As mentioned previously, the need of an

attendant with large shipments of fish, particularly over routes in-
volving a number of transfers, is recognized, but in any event, the
jacketed can will still have a distinct advantage over the cans in com-
mon use.

4. The underlying principle involved in the plan is the cooling
effect of evaporation, and since heat greatly stimulates evaporation,
it would seem that the principle might be successfully taken advantage
of, within certain reasonable limits, in almost direct ratio to the need.
It is not claimed that the device is perfect, nor have its full possibili-
ties been exhaustively demonstrated, but the results obtained so far
in maintaining a lower temperature of water in shipments of live fish
without an attendant, warrant its general adoption.

Discussion.

Mr. G. C. Leacu, Washington, D. C.: On September 2d a shipment of
50 bass was sent from Logansport, Ind., to Washington. They were in
what is termed a 50-pound lard can, jacketed according to the description
given in the paper. They arrived in Washington, after having been on the
road 24 hours, with a loss of but 10 fish. The temperature on arrival
at Washington was approximately 62° F., about the same as when the ship-
ment started. The loss of the 10 fish was probably due to the fact that
the can remained in the station about an hour and 15 minutes, the water
being in an inactive state.

Mr. Fearnow does not claim that his device is going to solve all the
problems in regard to the transportation of fish, but he believes that a
messenger so equipped may go to some central point and distribute fish
east, west, north and south by express, saving possibly several trips. He
does not claim that the jacket on the can is going to be effective when the
outside temperature is below 50° or 60° F. It will be more valuable during
the very warm weather in the summer, and it is going to be very successful
in making shipments of trout or bass for a period of four or five hours,
but it is not expected to cover a period of 24 hours, though under certain
conditions we can ship warm water species that long with considerable
success. The can offers possibilities for shipment of goldfish and top
minnows.

Mr. J. W. Trrcoms, Albany, N. Y.: With one exception, the experiments
were with warm water, above 60° F. Would it help to keep the tempera-
ture down in the case of trout, starting with 45°?

Mr. LeacH: The canvas jacket around the container absorbs the water
that slops out, thus keeping it saturated. The evaporation will cause the
temperature to rise slowly, and if the start is with water at 48° F., four or
five hours at least will elapse before it gets up to 53°, or before it would be
injurious to the trout. It is not claimed that it will carry trout as far
as it will bass. We realize that the express companies are slow in handling
the fish, therefore, to expedite the matter we expect the messenger, when
he arrives at the central shipping point, to put the cans in the express car
himself. I do not believe more than 5 per cent of the applicants fail to

meet the fish. In making express shipments it would be necessary to get
in touch with the applicant and be assured that he would meet them.

Mr. Titcoms: I think this is a mighty good paper. As bearing upon
possible loss of fish, in the case of express shipments would you call upon
the express company to deliver the fish if the applicant was not at the
depot?

Mr. LeacH: In that event a tag will give full instructions for placing
the fish in some suitable water. In making the distribution in certain
sections of the country, care will be exercised not to put bass in trout
waters or mix the species. But we expect to have every assurance from
the applicant that he will meet the fish.

Mr. J. P. Woops, St. Louis, Mo.: Have any experiments been made to
show the exact life of a can of fish, how long they would live under present
practice?

Mr. LEAcH: We have made some experiments. We feel that fish
placed in a can in which the water is not active will soon suffocate. The
water has to be agitated by rocking back and forth, and also in motion to
moisten the outside jacket. If 100 bass two inches long were placed in such
a container holding about six gallons of water at a temperature of 55°, not
more than 50 fish would survive when the temperature increased to 80° F.
If the water were not active I believe the temperature would reach that
point in a few hours, when the fish would die. All of the trout would
die in two hours and the bass in three or four hours. I do not believe
you would lose them in one hour, as the temperature would not rise that
fast. Trout would die at 65° F.

Mr. Cart Krarker, Philadelphia, Pa.: Farmers have used a canvas
sack three-quarters of an inch thick in shipping milk all through the upper
part of New Jersey, and in Pennsylvania and New York. The milk in
its raw condition, after being cooled in a stream or spring house, registers
about 88° F. It is shipped with a wet jacket, closely packed together in
unrefrigerated cars, and by the time it reaches Philadelphia for use the
temperature has risen only three to five degrees, although in transit four or
five hours.

Mr. LeacH: The jacket on the milk cans is more expensive than that
on the 50-pound lard cans. Ours is very simple, a mere sack over the can
tied with a puckering string. It helps to hold the lid down, is very
easily made, and is inexpensive. The cans are small, about 12 inches in
diameter and 15 inches high, with handles on each side, and with six
gallons of water weigh about 50 pounds.

Some years ago, we experimented with a thermos can. We put a lining
in a 10-gallon can, allowing three-quarters of an inch of dead air space
all around. It was made perfectly air tight. We found that the tempera-
ture would gradually rise. It would go up as the exposed surface absorbed
air. I do not think you could make a vacuum can that would be successful,
because the water would gradually absorb a little of the heat from the
air at the neck of the can. We also tried to insulate a can, with a jacket
outside, but it increased the diameter and added weight. Our latest ears
now carry 140 cans, and we cannot afford to increase the outside diameter
nor decrease the inside diameter of the can by adding a dead air space.
We have found recently that we could cut four inches off the 10-gallon

cans, making them 8-gallon cans, and get just as good results. The weight
also is reduced. It will both decrease the cost and greatly improve the
cans. We are also going to eliminate the narrow neck around the top
of the can, which will save two inches of height on our 10-gallon can and
will facilitate aeration. It has been proved that just as many fish may be
carried in the 8-gallon can as in the 10-gallon can of the same diameter.
Diameter counts more than height.

Mr. Titcomp: The American Balsa Company constructs a box of
balsa wood from Central America. It is as light as bark, but comes from
the tree itself rather than the bark. It is very good for insulation pur-
poses. They propose to use these boxes for transporting perishable
merchandise, such as chickens which have been chilled. If you have a
box two feet long and 15 inches wide, it will take only a few cents postage,
it is so light. A company was formed in New York recently, headed by
Kenneth Fowler, which has a concession from the American Balsa Com-
pany for the use of these boxes in the transportation of fish. They propose
to have sanitary plants for dressing the fish, and for chilling the meat
after the skin and bone are removed. Then, wrapped in paper packages
it is put into these balsa boxes and sent by parcel post, special delivery.
The boxes will hold the temperature, so that fish can be shipped from New
York to Chicago and be delivered in good condition. The temperature
changes very slightly, if at all, during a journey of 48 hours. It presents
great commercial possibilities in the handling of dressed fish. Possibly
a jacket of balsa wood around a fish can would not increase the weight
perceptibly, and would prove more desirable than canvas, especially where
messengers accompany shipments.

I am pleased at the innovation introduced by Mr. Leach in reducing
the height of the can. If we could have the cans twice the diameter and
cut the height down, we would get much better results from the same
amount of water.

Mr. Krarker: In transporting fish to Philadelphia we used 50-gallon
cans and boxes generally about 26 or 28 inches deep by four feet wide and
six or seven feet long. We had paraffin canvas cut to fit the boxes and
always used an air pump. After loading the salt-water fishes on numerous
occasions we left Atlantic City at 3 o’clock for a journey of 68 miles, and
being able to make 10 miles an hour with the truck, arrived at the Fair-
mount Park Aquarium with but a small loss. The highest percentage
of dead was in the cans, while in the canvas-covered box the loss was
very small. In the transportation of any fishes in warm weather the
temperature of the water is driven higher by the warm air forced through
by the pump; this does the greatest damage, according to my experience
in transporting fish for the last 10 years.

THE DOMESTICATION OF LANDLOCKED SALMON
BREEDERS
By W. M. Kern
Consulting Fishculturist
Tuxedo Park, N. Y.

When the writer first began the propagation of landlocked salmon
at Tuxedo in 1899, he often wondered why there were no hatcheries
anywhere in the United States that had domesticated this fish. It
was a splendid sporting variety, and there was a steadily-growing
demand for the young fish for stocking purposes; yet all hatcheries
that handled the eggs and reared the fish depended entirely upon the
collection of wild eggs for their supply. At that time there was no
literature available on the subject, nor is there today; and what in-
formation the writer has been able to procure regarding the attempts
of others to domesticate this fish was received through correspon-
dence. After twenty-two years of continuously handling this salmon
under domestication, the writer is no longer in doubt as to the reasons
for all other hatcheries giving it up in disgust after a short trial.
The Tuxedo Club Fishery is, as far as can be ascertained, the only
one in the country at which successful domestication has been carried
out. This has been accomplished not because the conditions at this
hatchery have been more favorable, nor by reason of any special
ability of the fish culturists, but simply through a dogged determina-
tion that it could be done, and a belief that through domestication
would come an improvement in the species.

The fingerlings at the Tuxedo hatchery today are the fifth genera-
tion of domesticated fish that have never left the hatchery pools. They
are infinitely superior in every way to the progeny of wild fish for
handling under artificial conditions, and instead of deteriorating from
inbreeding, are improving with each generation in color, growth, and
resistance to disease. Our experiences in the long up-hill fight to
secure these results should prove interesting to many persons.

When the writer took charge of the Tuxedo Fisheries in 1899
there were in the hatchery pools a few hundred undersized year-
ling salmon,—left-overs from the lot that had been put out the fall
before. The eggs from which they were hatched had been obtained
from the Bureau of Fisheries station at Green Lake, Maine. They
were a miscrable looking lot of fish to hold for breeders, but they
were put into a small pool by themselves and special care was taken
of them in regard to feeding, cleaning, and frequent salt baths. They

kept dying off, going blind, and developing thyroid tumor until we
had but eight fish left. The first to become sexually mature was
a male in the fall of 1902 at the age of four years and eight months.
The following fall we had three ripe males and two females with
developed eggs. Of the three remaining breeders two had turned
black from blindness and the other degenerated into a “‘racer.”’ The
ripe males and females were placed in separate raceways for daily
observation, and on November 2nd one of the females had every
appearance of being ready for stripping. The eggs had loosened
and the fish had that soft, flabby feeling that denotes ripeness to
the experienced spawntaker. None of the males seemed very ripe,
but after extracting a few drops from each into the pan, a female
was picked up in the expectation that the eggs would flow freely.
Efforts were unavailing for even considerable pressure would not
start them and rather than take chances of injury, the fish was put
back for the next day, although it was known that the eggs should
come out. The following day the abdomen of this fish had dis-
tended and had the hard, firm feeling of over-retention, while the
other female’s eggs had loosened and dropped down. Again no eggs
could be obtained from either fish, although they were unquestionably
ripe.

It was then decided that the difficulty was in the ovipore, and
that this opening was not of sufficient size to permit the free pas-
sage of the eggs. Casting around for some means of getting out
these eggs without injury to the fish, there was finally conceived a
method of enlarging the genital pore without rupturing the delicate
membranous wall surrounding it. A common medicine dropper—
one drawn out to a very small and smooth point—was filled with
warm water and carefully introduced into the ovipore, working it
in slowly to its largest diameter. After remaining a few seconds,
it was removed, and to our great satisfaction the eggs flowed as
freely as from a ripe brook trout. Whether the warm water in the
dropper had a relaxing effect on the muscles, or whether the action
was purely mechanical in its stretching of the tissue, was not then
and has not since been determined; but many hundreds of later ex-
periments in the use of this improvised speculum has shown that
better and less injurious results are secured, if the dropper is first
filled with fairly warm water.

The majority of the eggs from both females were taken at this
first stripping, and the remainder in a few days following, without
again having to resort to the use of the dropper. From these two fish
2,106 very inferior looking eggs were taken. A great many of

them had white spots on the shells, and there were a dozen or so of
glassy, opaque ones. From these eggs 1,450 spotted-sac fry were
hatched, and of these about 600 were reared to the yearling stage.
The two female breeders did not develop eggs again until two years
jater, but we had no difficulty in getting out these eggs, although
they were not much better in quality than at first. We had about
200 of these second generation fish left when the first female developed
eggs in the fall of 1908. This illustrates the small percentage of
females that reach sexual maturity in their fifth year, for the other
females of this lot of 200 fish did not spawn until the following fall
—5'Y% years after hatching. This one, poor, lonely female was
given a good deal of attention, for much of the success or failure
of the entire undertaking would be indicated by her deliverance and
the condition of the eggs. When the time arrived for the eggs to
come out, the writer was very much discouraged to find that they
could not be taken with any more freedom than had been experi-
enced with her progenitor almost five years before. The eggs
though, were much better in quality, color, and percentage of fer-
tilization; and the reSulting fry showed greater vitality and more
rapid growth. When the remaining females of this lot of fish ripened
the following fall, results were more satisfactory, for from among
the 36 females that had eggs in them, we were able to strip four
without the use of the dropper, although more force than is usually
applied was necessary.

This is perhaps a good place to mention the interesting fact that
with none of the hundreds of females that we had operated upon,
was it ever found necessary to dilate the ovipore a second time.
With the stripping of the third generation of fish in the fall of
1913 and of 1914 this difficulty of a constricted ovipore seemed
overcome at last, and with the fourth generation of breeding fish
in 1918 and 1919 it had entirely disappeared. Why such a physical
abnormalty should exist even with salmon reared under artificial
conditions, the writer has never been able to understand, for it is
not found among the domesticated breeders of other Salmonide.
We all have had experience with examples of plugged fish, but
this condition. was entirely different. Many fish with well-developed
eggs were sacrificed in an effort to discover by careful dissection
the existence of a false membrane stretched across the internal duct;
but nothing of a hymenal character could be discovered. It may
be that the development of the eggs under artificial feeding in the
fish of the earlier generations, was proportionately more rapid than
the general development of the rest of the body, for while the sal-

mon averaged only about 2% pounds, the eggs were 26/100 of an
inch in diameter.

Our experiences of over twenty years with these fish has brought
to light many interesting facts about their growth, feeding habits,
reproduction, and migatory movements. The Tuxedo hatchery is
supplied with water from Tuxedo Lake; therefore the growth of
our fish during the early spring, fall and winter is necessarily much
less rapid than at hatcheries using spring water. The development
of the eggs is also very much retarded, those taken about the first
of November not hatching until the latter part of February. The
food sac of the fry is usually absorbed in about eight weeks; the
salmon average only about three inches at one year old, and from
six to nine inches at two years. Under these conditions, the records
show that only 10 per cent reach the reproductive age in their fifth
year, or at the actual age of four years and eight months from
hatching. Under natural conditions, it is believed that this is the
average age at which landlocked salmon reach sexual maturity.
Approximately 95 per cent of these fish spawn only once in two
years. Occasionally a fish will spawn two years in succession and
then skip a year; but with the domesticated fish at least, this salmon
must be regarded as a biennial spawner.

One of the greatest difficulties we have experienced in the culti-
vation of landlocked salmon breeders, has been the heavy loss of
ripe males from fungus. We have tried every conceivable method
of both prevention and cure without any great degree of success.
Several weeks prior to the spawning season, the pool containing the
breeders is drawn down and those fish showing signs of ripening
are taken out and the sexes separated. The fish are handled with
extreme care, being dipped out with and held in soft, rubber-lined
tubs while they are looked over. It does not seem to make any
difference whether they are handled or not, a large percentage of
them develop fungus so badly that we can seldom save more than
50 per cent of the males that ripen. We have tried leaving all the
males that we think we shall not need, in the large breeding pool
where they are held throughout the year; but even there where they
have plenty of room and no reason for injuring themselves, many of
them become covered with fungus and have to be thrown away. We
have tried dipping them in salt and other fungicide solutions every
day, varying the strength of the solutions with different individuals;
in fact we have tried every method of prevention and cure known
to fish culturists to combat this trouble, without any appreciable
results.

With the females, we have little or no trouble from this source,
although they are handled and rehandled a great deal more than even
the males used for stripping. Once in a while one of the females
will get patches of fungus on her head or tail, but as soon as she
is relieved of her eggs, the fungus disappears, and the abraded skin
rapidly heals over. We always have a surplus of male fish
coming on each year, for when the two-year-olds are sorted out
to be saved for breeders (as is done each year), the sexes cannot
be distinguished and lately the writer has taken to putting out into
the lakes all ripe males which it is thought will not be required.
This is not good fish culture, for more fish are being carried as
breeders than would otherwise be needed; but until some better
method of overcoming this trouble is worked out, it is the best that
can be done. Our domesticated steelhead breeders are carried year
after year without loss from this cause.

The landlocked salmon is without doubt the most susceptible of
any of the Salmonide to external parasitic disease. This extreme
susceptibility is occasioned by the almost entire absence of the usual
protective mucous covering, or so-called body slime, which in con-
nection with their characteristic habit of resting on the bottom with
fins motionless, makes them an easy prey for the millions of patho-
genic bacteria and protozoa that lurk in this decaying matter. Their
comparatively enormous fins become easily abraded when crowded
together in narrow quarters, and present a favorable seat for the
origin of parasitic troubles. Most of these external diseases re-
spond readily to treatment with gasoline or potassium, and if taken
in time seldom reach a serious stage.

With the first, second, and third generations of our domesti-
cated salmon, we experienced a great deal of trouble from thyroid
tumor. In the second generation especially, as high as 15 per cent
developed this growth in the years they were retained. These fish
were all destroyed as soon as the trouble was discovered, and no
eggs or milt was ever taken from a fish so affected. For the past
six years there has not been found a single fish, either among the
breeders or the thousands of two-year-olds planted, that had the
least indication of this disease.

Space will not be taken in this paper for an explanation of the
rearing methods, water temperatures, foods, tank sizes, and depths
found best suited to the propagation of this fish. It is hoped to give
details regarding these matters at some later time.

All our salmon and steelhead trout are reared to the beginning
of the smolt period before they are turned out into the lakes. If

really good results are to be expected from the planting of these
varieties in deep lakes containing no permanent tributary streams,
the fish must be held, regardless of size, until they have passed the
parr stage and begun to take on the silvery coloration of the smolt.
That this is so, the writer has proved to his own satisfaction; but
his research work along these lines has not been carried far enough,
so that a reasonable explanation may be offered to substantiate the
truth of this statement. Experiments are being carried out this
summer at both Tuxedo and Sterling Lakes in an endeavor to clear
up some of the complex biological and physiological factors involved
in this problem, and it is hoped that by another summer many of
these little-understood morphological changes in the life of these
fishes will have been solved.

Discussion.

Mr. J. W. Tircoms, Albany, N. Y.: Mr. Keil is probably the only
man in this country who has successfully bred landlocked salmon under
domestication. For a number of generations, he has done it very success-
fully. I have a letter here from him in which he speaks of the results
with salmon and steelhead trout in lakes:

Since we have put smelt and shiners into our lakes, the trout and
salmon are running as high as 5 pounds. Sterling Lake, which I men-
tioned, belongs to the Midvale Steel Co., and lies west of here about four
miles. It is about the same size as our large lake (2 miles long by %
wide) but the shores are entirely wild and covered with heavy timber.
It is clear as crystal and about 150 feet deep. It has no inlets, but a
large stream runs out at all times. In the spring of 1919 I planted
3,000,000 smelt fry in this lake and in the fall of that year took over
4,000 salmon and steelhead averaging about 6 inches. This spring these
fish were being taken as heavy as 4% pounds, and one day when I was
fishing alone I caught four running from 2% to 4 pounds. These salmon
in Sterling Lake are the finest proportioned fish I have ever seen, plump
as butter, and as bright as a bar of silver. I thought that salmon could
not possibly be finer than those I caught at the Averill Lakes in Vermont,
but these are far better. The chemical analysis of the water at Sterling
is entirely different from that of Tuxedo.

Some of you know the difficulties of getting landlocked salmon intro-
duced into your waters. The State of New York has been planting salmon
in its lakes for the past 25 or 30 years, and today there is not a public
lake in the State where we have any salmon fishing. Every year from
20,000 to 30,000 are hatched, and during the last four years we have put
out as high as 100,000 landlocked salmon, chiefly in Lake George, with
an annual yield of perhaps 10 adult salmon a year to the anglers. The
fish were formerly planted in the lake, and later in the tributary streams,
where I believe they should be planted. A good many were caught from
the tributary streams when they still had the red spots which they carry
until eight or nine inches long. After the investigation we decided it
was useless to attempt to stock a lake like that, unless we could carry
the fish through the smolt stage. The State today has one lake entirely
under its control, posted and screened, where they have been planted for

three years to determine the possibility of developing a source of supply
for eggs.

The salmon have been introduced into many other waters. Vermont
has done extensive work in the propagation of salmon, but has succeeded
in really getting them established in only two lakes, which are connected.
New Hampshire had varying success with the salmon at different times
and then they disappeared. Maine seems to have kept up the fishing in
the original basins where these fish were found, and has discovered the
danger of trying to have salmon and brook trout in the same lakes. At-
tempts to extend the range of salmon to meet the demand of anglers, by
planting in lakes of other watersheds than those where they are indig-
enous, resulted in salmon fishing but at the sacrifice of the trout; so they
discontinued planting in trout waters.

Mr. C. O. Hayrorp, Hackettstown, N. J.: Landlocked salmon were in-
troduced in the Rangeley Lakes in 1880, to the detriment of the brook
trout. In that section the salmon now predominate in what were once
the best brook trout waters and it is very easy to see the reason. Brook
trout in the Rangeley section spawn about September 28th, and the land-
locked salmon from about October 15th to November Ist, both using the
same spawning grounds. Thus when the salmon arrive on the spawning
beds and sweep the gravel before spawning, they destroy many brook
trout eggs. In four years I probably handled 2,000 salmon, ranging from
2 to 18 pounds, and seldom found any difference in the free flow of the
eggs from large fish. Once in a while we would get a salmon that would
strip very hard.

Dr. D. L. Betpinc, Hingham, Mass.: Several important points have
been brought out by Mr. Keil in this interesting paper. One of our
fellow members, Dr. David Marine, conclusively demonstrated that thyroid
tumor may be eliminated or controlled by the use of small quantities
of iodine in the water. This work was carried on as part of an experi-
mental investigation of the cause of goitre. As far as I know, it was
permanently cured. Even if the disease were only arrested, the effect
could be maintained by the occasional addition of iodine to the water.
At the present time, experimental administration of minute doses of
iodine two or three times a year to school children in goitre districts is
proving successful.

Mr. Keil suggested that the reason landlocked salmon were especially
susceptible to disease might be due to the lack of a slimy mucous covering.
In this connection, the following observation on the effect of copper
sulphate on adult brook trout, rainbow trout, and landlocked salmon may
prove of interest. All three species were confined in a single pool, which
accidentally received the copper sulphate. All the landlocked salmon and
over 50 per cent of the brook trout died, while the rainbow trout survived,
demonstrating that landlocked salmon were more susceptible to chemical
pollution than either of the other species. Possibly Mr. Keil’s theory of
the lack of mucous covering in landlocked salmon would also explain its
susceptibility to pollution.

At the East Sandwich state hatchery in Massachusetts, chinook salmon
matured at the age of four years. Some were allowed to spawn in the
pools, and others were stripped. All immediately became covered with

fungus, wasted away, and died. Probably this is characteristic of the
species and not due to the long, arduous migration from the Pacific Ocean
to the spawning grounds.

In connection with the susceptibility to fungus, of both the eggs and
the adult landlocked salmon, I would like to ask various fish cultur-
ists present whether they consider fungus a primary or a secondary in-
yader; that is, whether they consider it a primary cause, or secondary
to other diseased conditions.

Mr. Hayrorp: At Hackettstown if the brook trout after being stripped
are placed in spring water which is 52° F., they soon become badly fun-
gused, but when placed in brook water at about 42° to 44° we have no
trouble. I think it is a case of temperature rather than handling.

Mr. Tircoms: Young landlocked salmon seem to be more susceptible
to fungus than any of the other Salmonide I ever handled. At hatcheries
holding fish to yearling size, more Saprolegnia is experienced with the
salmon than any other species. It comes on very suddenly. Young salmon
seem to thrive better in warm water than trout.

Mr. G. C. Leacu, Washington, D. C.: Very little difficulty is experi-
enced in handling salmon at our Green Lake station in Maine, as the
eggs are taken in the fall when the water is cold and there is little
fungus. We have little trouble with young fish there because they are
hatched and reared in the natural water temperatures. At the station at
Manchester, Iowa, rainbow trout very much fungused after the spawning
season were placed in the creek in water considerably cooler and of
greater volume than in the ponds and where conditions were natural, and
they soon developed into healthy specimens. This indicates that natural
conditions have a tendency to discourage fungus. If landlocked salmon
are held and reared in artificial ponds, a great deal of trouble may be
expected. One reason why the introduction of this species into other
waters has failed is because of the lack of natural food, especially smelts.

Mr. Trrcomsp: We never attempted to introduce salmon into any water
where we did not first introduce the smelt. The Adirondack frost fish,
which averages from six to nine inches in length, is less destructive to
other fish, and it is quite similar in appearance to the smelt, except that
it does not have the sharp teeth of the latter.

Mr. E. W. Coss, St. Paul, Minn.: Referring to the Green Lake hatch-
ery, old settlers used to tell me about catching cart loads of landlocked
salmon in the rapids below Rocky Pond and using them for fertilizer.
During the three years I worked there those rapids were the source of the
water supply for the Green Lake hatchery, and were originally one of
the spawning grounds of the salmon. We reared seven-inch landlocked
salmon in the hatchery ponds the first summer, in some cases. Those
reared in the troughs averaged about half the size of the salmon in the
ponds, but the loss in the troughs was probably not over 25 per cent of
that in the ponds. The water would run up to 86° F., and there was some
fungus. Unless the salmon were fed for about 24 hours a day, they
would begin biting each other, thus starting the fungus growth, which
was inclined to spread.

Mr. N. R. Burwer, Harrisburg, Pa.: Years ago the State of Pennsyl-

vania hatched and distributed a great many landlocked salmon fry without
any apparent results. A few years ago several ardent fishermen from
the Johnstown region came back from a fishing trip to Maine imbued
with the idea that landlocked salmon were the particular fish for Penn-
sylvania waters. The Department discouraged them and cited the experi-
ments years before. But they were persistent and the Department hatched
some eggs which they purchased. The fry were planted in ponds in
Cambria County after being held about two months in the hatching
troughs. About two years later I received from one of these gentlemen
two salmon 14 inches long taken out of the pond. We have been putting
in about 40,000 for three years now. Under the circumstances it does
not appear to be money well expended to endeavor to stock the ponds
of Pennsylvania with landlocked salmon; the stocking which these parties
have had us do for them merely results in the catching of 18 to 20 fish a year
from an artificial pond built upon a stream, with a maximum depth of
about 30 feet, and it seems to me that the annual catch does not warrant
much expenditure along that line.

Mr. Leacu: It is a question whether the salmon run down stream;
they may do so in search of food or to spawn. They go down in the fall
of the year but I do not know whether it is a well-defined movement.
They get into the current and may drift over the falls of Grand Lake
Stream in search of spawning grounds; however not all fish passing over
the falls are lost, but it is so serious that the State of Maine is consider-
ing the screening of the outlet of Grand Lake Stream.

Dr. Epwarp E. Prince, Ottawa, Canada: The Department of Fisheries
in Ottawa tried year after year to secure adequate supplies of landlocked
salmon from the Chamecook Lakes in New Brunswick. I, myself, took
charge of operations there in 1904, and I found that the salmon were
migrating from the lower to the upper lakes. We secured our best catch
of parent fish and take of eggs in the narrow connecting stream. There
were migratory movements, at times up, and I suppose at some other time
in the year they must descend as the salmon can go down to the sea
if they wish. There is no absolute barrier. There is a very swift, short
stream down to Passamaquoddy Bay, but I have not heard of any fish
descending to salt water. Mr. E. T. D. Chambers, who devoted a great
deal of attention to the landlocked salmon of Quebec, is here and I think
perhaps he may know whether the salmon descend to Lake St. John.
Are they ever known to go from the Grande Decharge?

Mr. BE. T. D. CHAamBeERS, Quebec, Canada: It is reported that they go
almost as far as the heaviest of the rapids. There is no reason why they
should not, if they desire to do so.

Dr. Prince: That is a most remarkable case. Lake St. John is up the
great Saguenay River, one of the most remarkable rivers in Canada. The
discharge from Lake St. John into the Saguenay is a cascade of the most
gigantic and terrific character. Mr. Chambers thinks that these Ouananiche,
as we call them, can reascend. They are a very strong swimming fish, of
course, but the Grande Decharge is a terrific cascade.

We have had our difficulties in Canada in trying to obtain adequate
supplies of eggs. There is a lake near Ottawa, in what is called the
Gatineau region, 800 miles from the regions where landlocked salmon

occur, which was planted a few years ago with this species. I have
reports that the planting has been a success, and quite a number of land-
locked salmon are being taken. It is a mountain lake, very cold, and
abounding with landlocked smelt, a very important point. These smelt
occur all of this great distance from the sea.

I cannot understand why the landlocked salmon males should be dif-
ficult to distinguish from the females. The ripe males that I have seen in
Canada are different from the females and rather like the humpback salmon
of the Pacific Coast. The species is very susceptible to disease, and I
imagine, from the experience we have had in Canada, that it is a secondary
disease, because we have observed very closely our fish in the Chamecook
Lakes, and the fungus does not seem to affect them at all. Any fungus
that I observed in the ordinary sea salmon has been due to wounds,
either to the scraping of the skin by nets or by the males fighting and
injuring each other.

Mr. CHAMBERS: I made the statement in answer to Professor Prince
that the fish could ascend the Grande Decharge. I must explain that there
is a small body of water, called the Petite Decharge, which is less violent
and affords different passages for the fish, especially in many places where
it is impossible to take the steep falls immediately below the Grande
Decharge. It is the Petite Decharge which the fish probably take.

In regard to landlocked salmon, quite a serious thing is occurring now
in our lakes through action of the Dominion authorities, in giving us a
few hundred thousand sea salmon eggs each year. The Province of
Quebec is hatching the eggs and planting them in inland waters, whence
they do not descend into the sea at all, and so I do not believe there is
any chance that these fish breed. They have been taken up to five to seven
pounds, and in some cases even more. In Lake Memphremagog, where they
are planted, a few from five to seven pounds are taken almost every
summer.

CONCERNING HIGH WATER TEMPERATURES AND TROUT
By G. C. EmMBopy

Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.

We often use the terms “warm” and “cold” water as an indica-
tion of the suitability of streams and lakes for various kinds of fish.
These of course are only relative in meaning, and the question nat-
urally arises as to what temperature we should take as the dividing
line between warm and cold waters. We speak of such forms as
the various trout, salmon, and whitefish as cold-water forms be-
cause they live and grow at a normal rate, and reproduce in waters
of comparatively low temperature. On the other hand, we con-
sider yellow perch, bass, sunfish, and bullheads warm-water forms
because their life activities take place best in warmer waters. The
latter forms will live and often reproduce in a temperature suitable
for trout, but it has been generally believed that they will not grow
at a normal rate in so-called cold waters.

From a perusal of the literature on the subject of fish culture,
the impression came upon me that temperatures of 68° and 70° F.,
were generally regarded as near the dividing line between cold and
warm water, these temperatures having been used possibly more
often than others, as the maxima for brook trout water.

The following notes are offered, merely upon the supposition that
the above impression is correct. They are based upon many tem-
perature readings taken in streams of Tompkins County, New York,
and in the experimental fish hatchery of Cornell University. The
records include readings taken on the hottest summer days of the
last three or four years. In saying, hottest summer days, reference
is had to those days during which the air temperatures ranged from
O07 sto LOI EF,

Let us refer at first to an experiment carried on in one of the
ponds on the fish hatchery grounds. This pond was 50 by 150 feet
and had a maximum depth of 4 feet. It received water from a
creek in which temperatures as high as 83° F., had been taken in
previous years and was thus considered a warm water pond. In
June, 1920, 225 small fingerlings equally divided between brook,
brown, and steelhead trout were planted. There were also added
eight 3-year-old goldfish which spawned several times, and about
200 young bullheads at the swarming age. The water temperatures
ranged between 69° and 81.5° F., during July and August. There

were ten days in July and seven in August when it exceeded 77°
and on three days it was above 80° F.

In April, 1921, the pond was drained and the fish counted. The
results of the experiment appear in the following table:

EXPERIMENT WITH VARIOUS SPECIES OF FISH IN WARM-WATER POND

Put in, June, 1920 Taken out, April, 1921.
200 bullheads 1 inch long. 150 bullheads 3 inches long.
8 goldfish breeders. 78 goldfish over 3 inches long.
75 brook trout 1% inches long. 47 brook trout 3 to 6 inches long.
75 brown trout 1% inches long. 87 brown trout 2 to 6 inches long.
75 steelhead trout 1% inches long. 52 steelhead 2 to 7 inches long.

It will be noted that the bullheads grew at a normal rate and the
mortality of 25 per cent was not unusually high. The great loss in
goldfish was no doubt due to the appetites of the trout. Although
there was great individual variation in the size of the trout, it was
no greater than has been observed in the hatchery where grading is
not resorted to. This variation is a perfectly natural and common
phenomenon among trout. Many of the trout were fully as large
as those of the same age occurring in our best streams.

The point which it is desired to bring out, is that here was a pond
with mud bottom in which both warm and cold-water fish lived and
grew normally. The temperatures up to 81.5° F., were not too
high nor of long enough duration to kill the brook trout. The lower
temperatures down to 69° were not so prolonged as to materially
retard the growth of the bullheads. The conditions were thus suit-
able for the trout as well as the bullheads and it would seem to in-
dicate that so far as the temperature factor is concerned, trout may
be produced in ponds in which the water is much warmer than has
heretofore been thought possible.

In the streams in the vicinity of Ithaca, New York, the highest
temperature in which brook trout were actually found in numbers
was 81° F. (Van Pelt Brook, August 6 and 7, 1918.) In other
parts of this stream 83° was frequently noted but not in any case
where brook trout were actually present. This brook, however, is
considered an excellent though small brook trout stream and the
catches from year to year fully bear out this belief. In other brooks
equally good for brook trout fishing, temperatures of 77° to 79° F.,
were frequently recorded in places where brook trout were observed
in abundance. There are more than twenty-five streams in Tompkins
County, New York, now containing brook trout, and it is an ex-
ception indeed to find one whose highest summer temperature does

not exceed 75° F. in sections where brook trout commonly occur
and apparently thrive.

The limiting temperatures are higher in the case of brown and
steelhead trout. Temperatures as high as 83° F., for the former,
and 85° F., for the latter were recorded.

The spring and summer of 1921 has been a particularly good
one in which to test out various temperatures on trout, because of
the unusually prolonged warm weather in May, June and early July.
The water temperatures ranged from four to six degrees higher than
normal during this period.

Early in May, some brook, brown, and steelhead trout were
placed in wood races 4 feet wide by 20 feet long, supplied with
creek water whose temperature was known to be high in summer.
Everything progressed smoothly until June 27 when at a tempera-
ture of 83.3° F., the brook trout became greatly distressed and re-
fused to eat. The table which follows records the daily water tem-
peratures and the progress of events from this date until the end
of the test.

EFFECT OF VARIATION IN TEMPERATURE ON Brook, BROWN, AND STEELHEAD

TROUT
Minimum | Maximum
Date. temperature temperature Effects
|
1921 ot MW | See
June 27 69.8 | 83.3 Brook trout distressed.
28, 71.6 | 79.7 Brook trout recovered and feeding.
29 68.9 | 80.6 Apparently normal.
30 71.6 | 78.8 Apparently normal.
July 1 70.7 | 79.7 Apparently normal.
2 69.8 80.7 Apparently normal.
3 71.6 84.2 Brook trout 20 per cent dead. Steel-
heads and Browns distressed.
4+ 70.7 82.4 Brook trout 50 per cent dead.
5 71.6 83.2 Brook trout all dead.
6 71.6 85.5 Brown trout 50 per cent dead. Steel-

head trout 20 per cent deal. All
| others distressed.
7} (Ir 87. All trout dead.

The brook trout passed through a temperature of 83.3° F. with-
out loss, but with evident distress and failure of appetite. They ap-
parently recovered on a drop of nine degrees over night and a maxti-
mum of 79.7° the following day. They lived through five suc-
ceeding days with the maximal temperatures ranging from 78.8°
to 80.7° F., but began to die at 84.2° (mortality 20 per cent). None
died the following day, July 4, at 82.4°; but on July 5 at a tem-
perature of 83.2° F., the mortality was 100 per cent.

The brown trout acted in a normal manner until July 3, when
distress and loss of appetite occurred at a temperature of 84.2°.
They seemed to recover during the next two days with maximal
temperatures of 82.4° and 83.2°, respectively; but on July 6, 50
per cent of them died at 85.5°, and on the following day at 87° the
mortality was 100 per cent.

The steelhead trout followed very closely the browns, with dis-
tress at 84.2°, 20 per cent mortality at 85.5°, and total mortality
at 87° F.

The previous year, 1920, a similar experiment was tried, but
the highest water temperature recorded was 81.5° F. A few of
the brook trout were distressed and refused food, but recovered
completely during the next few days at maximal temperatures from
78° to 80°. The browns and steelheads were not disturbed by a tem-
perature of 81.5° and continued to eat normally throughout the
summer.

It must be understood that the foregoing notes do not prove
that all strains of brook trout will stand temperatures of 80° F., and
above. Undoubtedly there is much variation in this respect just as
we find great variation in the rate of growth, in the behavior of trout
to current and light, and variation in power of resistance to disease
germs.

Nor may we assume that brook trout will thrive in any pond
or stream whose temperatures do not exceed these uppermost limits.
Waters vary greatly in oxygen and carbon dioxide content, and these
gases may be present in insufficient amounts in one case or too great
amounts in the other to permit trout to live even in the low tem-
peratures of the average trout hatchery.

So far as temperature alone is concerned, however, it is writer’s
opinion that we have been a little too conservative and that we shall
have to revise to some extent our notions as to the meaning of
the terms, warm water and cold water.

Discussion.

Mr. J. W. Titcoms, Albany, N. Y.: Dr. Embody expressed the idea
very well when he said that the rainbow trout he got might have come up
from under the banks. But that was in trout streams, where the maximum
temperature existed a very short time in the middle of the afternoon, for
a day or a series of days. The trout can be seen in the shady pools when
the water is low and there is a high temperature. I think they instinc-
tively seek the shade and shelter of the banks where it is cooler than the
water of the stream, and they take care of themselves by leading a very
inactive life during these high temperatures. We cannot look upon such
temperatures as standards for the angler in applying for fish, because if

he is led to think that they can live in the higher temperatures he will
want to stock with trout all of the streams where the water has become
much warmer as the result of deforestation and the natural progress of
civilization. Dr. Embody’s experiments are very interesting, but I ques-
tion whether they are practicable in hatchery work where a man is rais-
ing trout for a living or to produce large results. If the troughs in which
he conducted experiments with a limited number of fish had been as
crowded as the troughs at our hatcheries, the mortality would have
appeared at a lower temperature.

Dr. G. C. Empopy, Ithaca, N. Y.: The fact seems to be that we mis-
judge our streams. If only those streams in Tompkins County, New York,
that did not exceed 70° F., were stocked with brook trout, there would not
be more than two in the whole county. But on three consecutive days I
found several brook trout there in perfect contentment with a temperature
of 81° lasting for about five hours. Judging from experIments in the
trough, 83° would be the maximum temperature at which trout could live
perhaps for a few hours. Brook trout will live all summer in a water
temperature of 70°. I would not have a bit of hesitation about going into
trout culture where the water is not warmer than 74° on the hottest days.
I would not expect to raise the average number of trout the first five or
six years, but I would expect eventually to have a strain which would come
through in a perfectly normal manner. But in a wild stream it is altogether
different, because there you have not introduced conditions of domestica-
tion. Rainbow trout seem to resist the high temperature better than brown
and brook trout. The last named would succumb first. I found the rain-
bows in higher temperatures than the browns.

Mr. Tircoms: As to propagating trout in a hatchery with a tempera-
ture of 74° or 70° for a month at a stretch, it is a proposition that I do not
want to invest any money in, and I would not want the tax payers to invest
any money in it.

Mr. G. GC. Leacu, Washington, D. C.: At Manchester, Iowa, a spring
stream meanders through the meadows for quite a distance where it warms
up in summer from 48° to 65° F. before reaching the hatchery grounds.
We take brook trout out of the ponds and put them in the stream where
they live under more or less natural conditions. During the heat of the day
they congregate in pools probably five or six feet in depth, and where there
is a strong current. The volume of water is probably 800 to 1,000 gallons
a minute. I seriously doubt if we would be able to hold these trout in
the stream successfully with a volume as small as 150 or 200 gallons per
minute. We got from 85 to 90 per cent fertilization from the trout eggs
obtained from the creek as against 50 per cent from trour held in the
ponds at 50°. I think our success was due to the fact that the stream has
a rocky bottom, deep pools, and a very large volume of water. To a certain
extent we were raising wild trout. We shipped rainbow trout to Louisiana
to ascertain if they would live in certain streams. The water temperature
there was about 65°, and some of the fish were reported eight or ten inches
in length the first year, but they never reproduced.

Mr. Titcoms: The higher the temperature in which you can success-
fully rear trout the more rapidly they will grow. In some hatcheries you
can carry trout intensively in troughs with a temperature of 50° to 55°.
At other hatcheries the water is such that you can carry them intensively at

10 degrees higher temperature. The nature of the food used in certain
waters varies from that which can be successfully used in other waters.
These factors are so numerous that we should try to determine what makes
water suitable for carrying fish under intensive conditions. We find
- healthy trout in streams under natural conditions, but when we take that
water to a hatchery or into pools, and try to raise fish intensively, it is
with fatal results.

Mr. N. R. Butter, Harrisburg, Pa.: I would feel uneasy if I had
money invested in a commercial trout hatchery where the temperature
exceeded 60° for any length of time. Our greatest success in holding trout
in large numbers has been in ponds where at no time has the temperature
exceeded 52°. Our Corry hatchery is entirely devoted to the propagation
of trout and now has at least 1,000,000 three to six inches in length
awaiting distribution. I have never known the temperature there to
exceed 54°. As the water comes from the earth the temperature is 46° to
47°. At the Bellefonte hatchery, where trout only are propagated, the
water is from limestone springs; one of the streams flows 20,000 gallons a
minute. The temperature in the ponds does not exceed 58° at any time.
We have another hatchery where trout are of minor consideration as we
attempt only to carry enough to supply several northeastern counties. A
chance is always taken in holding them throughout the season. This year
in most of the ponds the loss was due to high temperatures, which ran to
about 73° as compared with a former maximum of 68°.

Mr. B. O. WessterR, Madison, Wis.: There is no question but that
many mistakes have been made in the location of stations merely by
observation, because almost any cold stream will support a few trout.
Conditions, however, are entirely changed when 3,000 or 4,000 fish are
confined in a small space for breeding purposes. I was at the Bellefonte
hatchery three years and know water conditions there. I also know the
water conditions at Corry, Pennsylvania, Northville and Paris, Michigan,
and at other long established hatcheries, and to my mind soft spring water
is the most successful in the propagation of trout. I do not believe it is
possible to propagate trout, at least to any great extent, in real hard
water. A place has been finally located in western Wisconsin where I
believe it will be possible to raise enough brook trout to supply the State.
There we built 10 small troughs, about 18 inches wide and 10 feet long,
and hatched out a lot of fish. In October after all the hot weather, 66,000
fish 4 or 5 inches long were counted from these 10 troughs. This indicates
what can be done with the quality of water there. Under ordinary circum-
stances it would not have been possible to handle more than 4,000 or
5,000 in the space. At present we have about 200,000 to 300,000 fish there
4 to 5 inches long and the loss has been practically nothing during the
whole season. The water is as soft as rain water and as clear and cool
as any spring water you could expect to find. So I have come to believe
that the softer the water the greater the success in raising brook trout.

Mr. Butter: At Bellefonte we propagate brook and brown trout but
the brown trout did better in the limestone hard water there. We have
hatcheries where the water is very soft as at Corry. We are not able to
propagate brown trout there, but are very successful with brook trout.
In the propagation of brook trout, if temperatures are right, the softness

of the water is of very great benefit; I also believe that brook trout are
today being propagated and reared in hard water.

Mr. WessTER: At our St. Croix hatchery we have about 50,000 finger-
ling brown trout growing as fast as the brook trout without the slightest
trouble. The water there is as soft as rain water. Our success with
brook trout at St. Croix is right along the line of the success at Corry,
where the work has been carried on for 35 years. So far as I know the
only hatcheries in the United States where brook trout operations have
been conducted for 30 or 35 years without an epidemic at some time dur-
ing the period, are those supplied with soft water. Mr. G. Hansen, a
member of this Society, has a trout hatchery at Osceola, Wisconsin, and
during the 30 years of its operation there never has been an epidemic nor
have the fish ever died to any great extent. It is only seven miles from
St. Croix Falls, and conditions are practically the same as at the St.
Croix hatchery.

Mr. E. W. Coss, St. Paul, Minn.: Some time ago I observed the trout
at St. Croix hatchery and all that is said about those fish is true. The
hatchery building is peculiar in that it has four stories. The water is
very soft, while at St. Paul, 50 miles away, the water is very hard. The
temperature is the same and I think our methods are the same, Our
hatchery has been operated for a good many years, and, as far as I
know, has never had an epidemic.

Mr. Tircoms: Our hatcheries are producing trout in both hard and
soft water. We have one hatchery, established about 40 or 50 years ago, in
which they raised brook trout for 80 or 35 years before they had any
serious trouble with them. That is a hard water proposition now used to
propagate brown and rainbow trout. I would not locate a trout hatchery
under any temperature conditions without testing with an inexpensive
plant for at least one year before advising the spending of any consider-
able sum of money, and the commissioner who recommends locating a
hatchery and spending $40,000 or more before it has been tested is taking
an unwarranted chance with the money of the tax payers.

Dr. Empopy: My paper referred alone to the temperature of the water.
Other factors such as oxygen and carbon dioxide were not considered.
We know little about the effects of those other factors upon trout. We
do not know how much oxygen they must have; we do not know how
much carbon dioxide they can stand. Until we know the individual
effects and the combined effects of these various factors, we will not be
able to go to a spring and say, “This is fit or it is unfit for trout.” In the
present state of our knowledge, the surest way to determine whether water
is suitable is to try it.

GROWTH OF FISH AND LOCATION OF HATCHERIES *

By JoHN W. TiTcCOMB
Consulting Fish Culturist
Albany, New York

In the past year some interesting information has developed in
regard to the varying sizes of brook trout and brown trout raised
at a number of different hatcheries. Briefly, the point to which
attention is directed is the wide variation in size between fish of
the same age reared under different conditions. The data assembled
show that brook trout selected on March 1 from ten hatcheries graded
all the way from the sac stage up to fish nearly 2% inches long. Simi-
lar observations at five hatcheries in respect to brown trout, which in
the earlier stages do not grow quite as rapidly as brook trout, gave a
range at the same time from sac fry to good sized fingerlings. On
June 1 these fish varied from about 1% to 214 inches at four hatch-
eries, one of the plants having been closed in the spring on account
of the water becoming too warm. Comparative sizes of both brook
and brown trout on August 1 were also observed.

It is interesting to note the fact that on the first day of May the
largest fingerlings at one hatchery cost no more than the eggs at
another except the actual outlay for the food given to the former.
If three-inch fingerlings can be produced by the first of May at
some hatcheries, why spend money operating other hatcheries until
the first of August to produce the same sized fish?

The answer seems to be largely a question of the proper location
of hatcheries. Before any extensive fish-cultural work is under-
taken, test stations should first be operated to see what can be done
in regard to the economical development of the fish to the stage con-
sidered most desirable for planting. In connection with such tests,
an important feature is to see that the fish reach the planting stage
as early in the season as possible after the water has become normal,
as there is then probably more natural food for their proper de-
velopment and growth than two or three months later.

This matter of testing the water should not be limited to trout
hatcheries. Mention may be made of a hatchery built on Lake Erie
within the last four years, representing an investment of $50,000,
for which establishment the water comes from a depth of about 40
feet in the lake, then passes into a deep well from the city supply

1 This address was accompanied by a series of interesting photographs showing widely
varying sizes of brook trout and brown trout at different hatcheries on the same dates.

before it is treated, and is subsequently pumped up 50 feet in the
air to reach the hatchery. This water is suitable for hatching white-
fish and herring, but the hatching of yellow perch and pike perch
in it is practically impossible because at the time these eggs are taken
in the spring the water is so cold that they will not hatch. So the
investment has to lie idle at the time of year when these two im-
portant species of fish ought to be handled and could be handled in
perhaps larger numbers than the herring and whitefish. The de-
cision as to whether this hatchery should be put on a promontory
adjacent to a lighthouse, or located down on the shore of the lake,
was not left to the recommendation of a practical man, hence the
tax payers will bear the burden for all future operation of a $50,000
plant which under the circumstances must lie idle for half of its
proper life.

Mention might be made of another fish-cultural station repre-

enting an investment of about $50,000, for the propagation of
bass, with an expensive pumping plant and a lot of holes in the
ground on the bank of a big river where there is an entirely unsuit-
able water supply. Similar examples may be observed in practically
every state where there are hatcheries, and include federal as well
as state institutions.

This is not said to discredit any hatchery or person, but is merely
brought to attention in the hope that the situation and its needs will
be realized by those who may be in authority. It is hoped that when
it comes to a question of locating hatcheries, advice may be sought
and taken from those who have had most experience, also that
proper tests of the water will be made, no matter what kind of a
hatchery is proposed, before expending the people’s money. Much
more might be said on this subject, but it seems impressive enough
when one stops to think that the public funds are being spent more
or less in this unintelligent way all over the country.

Discussion.

Me. G. C. LEAcH, Washington, D. C.: Mr. Titecomb spoke about feeding
the fish and bringing them to No. 3 fingerlings in May, rather than later
in the season. This presumably means that we first should select water
in which the fish will thrive, and then feed them very heavily in order that
they may grow as much as possible.

Mr. J. W. Tircoms, Albany, N. Y.: I would feed them normally, but as
in suitable water they hatch so much earlier, they are fed the same length
of time. The other fish are in the sac stage at a time when they are feed-
ing, in June and July, rather than in March, April, or May.

Mr. Leacu: If brook trout eggs are collected in October or November
and held in suitable water, about 50° F., they will hatch probably sometime

in January or February. The yolk sac would be absorbed in possibly 30
days. I do not understand how you could force the feeding unless you gave
them an extra amount of food to bring them to a large size in May. If it
were possible to mingle the warmer stream water with the cold spring water,
so that the temperature would be increased to 55° or 60°, possibly the
rate of growth could be controlled. These things should be given con-
sideration when selecting a site for a hatchery. If you can combine the
two waters, it is possible to produce larger and better fish.

Mr. Titcomb also spoke about the necessity of testing a hatchery loca-
tion. It is very easy to criticise what has been done in the past, but
when a man goes out and takes the initiative in establishing a station it
is a different thing. We might refer to the Holden station in Vermont
which was established with a view to making it a good trout station. At
that time the indications were that it would be a success, but expectations
have not been realized. Another case is Northville, Michigan, which in
early days was one of the leading trout stations in the United States. It
produced large numbers of brook trout, and was generally conceded to be
very successful but now it is given over entirely to other lines. At the
Wild Rose station in Wisconsin, the water seemed to be very good for
the production of brook trout eggs, but after a number of years it proved
entirely unsuccessful. The Bureau of Fisheries has located a number
of stations that seemed very good at the start, but later on had to be
abandoned. Possibly after a station has been operated for a while im-
proved methods in handling the fish demonstrate that at other plants
better results can be secured and the station originally established has
to take second rank. r

Mr. Trrcoms: I do not want you to get the impression that I am
knocking the hatcheries generally, but our ideas in regard to them are
different from 30 years ago. Many advances have been made and we
have to produce more fish now than then. I located the Holden hatchery.
It was tested three years by running a small plant there, keeping the
eggs through the winter, and the fish in the spring; the hatchery is on one
of the most famous trout streams in southern Vermont and derives its
water supply from that stream and from springs. I hope that talks of
this kind will be read by other than the practical men who are here, and
that they will take warning. The men who have made these mistakes
and are trying to profit by them are telling their experiences so that
others may avoid similar difficulties. Some of the hatcheries which do
not meet the present day standards might just as well be abandoned and
the money put to more practical use.

Me. Leacu: I did not intend any criticism in regard to Mr. Titcomb’s
talk, nor wish to make any suggestion that even appears that way. He is
one of the most eminent and practical fish culturists that we have today,
and I believe his judgment was good in locating Holden. I meant to say
that more modern methods have developed other means of making a
station efficient. One may be very careful in locating a station, but later
developments may show it not as suitable as was expected. The Holden
station is not worthless, but natural causes have reduced its efficiency,
though when established it might have been 100 per cent efficient.

Mr. CarLtos Avery, St. Paul, Minn.: One thing we all agree upon is

that the men experienced in fish-cuitural work in the different States and
in the Federal Government should be accorded the right and privilege
of making the selection of sites. State Legislatures and Congress have
located fish hatcheries without consultation to learn what conditions are
necessary, and the results in some cases have naturally been failures. These
matters should be referred to some one in authority who has the necessary
technical knowledge.

Mr. N. R. Buiter, Harrisburg, Pa.: It is very important that the
men in authority and the men who have technical knowledge of what is
necessary for a successful hatchery should be the men to locate the
hateheries. What is the reason for the condition at Northville? My
recollection is that when Frank N. Clark was superintendent it was
known as a heavy producer of brook trout. What has occurred that has
now made it unsuitable for brook trout?

Mr. LeacH: Even though a hatchery is established where conditions
appear 100 per cent perfect, later years may indicate the unwisdom of
continuing operations along past lines. Northville was very important
at one time. Possibly unfavorable chemical qualities of the water have
developed somewhat or possibly the long years of producing brook trout
have contaminated the surroundings in some way and rendered it impos-
sible to continue with past success. Possibly newer methods in other
fields will produce the eggs at much less cost for help and for food used
to maintain the brood stock. All of these are contributing factors in
reducing the efficiency of any station.

Dr. D. L. BELDING, Hingham, Mass.: I am very glad that Mr. Titcomb
has sounded a note of warning, because I do not believe that one, two, or
even several years with a small experimental station will absolutely
determine whether a hatchery will prove an ultimate success, although
I realize that it is the best and in fact the only evidence we can get. Mr.
Titecomb’s paper might warrant the conclusion that we should select the
hatchery that turned out the larger fish. At the present time our poorest
Massachusetts hatchery is turning out the largest fish. I feel sure that
Mr. Titcomb will agree that there are other more important factors in
the selection of a hatchery than the rapid production of large fish.

Mr. Tircoms: One phase of the Northville situation is the expectation
of doing things on a bigger scale today than when the station was
established. There are a number of old hatcheries that cannot be
criticised along the lines that I have been criticising.

One of the hatcheries in New York is supplied with water from the
bottom of the lake, 40 feet deep. That hatchery is all right. It has
both surface water from the lake and deep water. All we need there is
a little money to put in new pipe lines and get more water than we have.
The fish will then develop more rapidly than they do today. At another
hatehery, which is on Long Island, the artesian wells and springs have a
temperature of 52° the year round. If you can get your fish to come on so
as to feed them in April, or even have them feeding well in May, you are
going to bring them out in good season; but if there is six months of
winter, twice as much labor in picking over the eggs will be necessary and
there will be an abnormal loss.

Dr. Betpine: Were these trout hatched from eggs from the same source

and time of taking, and were they fed at different states of development
in the same manner or with the same food at the different hatcheries, so
that there would be no variation in the method of handling other than
difference in the water supply at the various hatcheries?

Mr. Titcoms: The fish were fed on pork or beef liver, or both, and at
one hatchery after feeding liver for a time they were largely fed on eggs
from suckers. I like to make a practice of buying eggs from as many
commercial hatcheries as possible, and if I secure 1,000,000 eggs of one
hatchery I put them at five or six different hatcheries, and when I
secure enough from one hatchery I divide them .up among all the hatcheries.
The result is that each foreman has eggs from three to six hatcheries.
Sometimes the eggs of one hatchery go bad. If each foreman loses heavily
of eggs coming from any one commercial hatchery, I assume that the
trouble is at the source of supply, and the next season no purchase is made
from the hatchery where I got the poor eggs. I rate all of the eggs from
the commercial hatcheries as shown by results at each station. This is
well worth while; also the commercial men like to have the data.

Mr. Leacu: Mr. Titcomb, I understand you attribute the growth of
the trout to both the water supply and the food? Is it your opinion that
hog liver is a very suitable food for young trout?

Mr. Tircomp: Yes, but I want to give them something else once in a
while to get the best results.

Mr. LEAcH: Recent experience at our hatcheries has not indicated
that hog liver is as suitable as sheep liver or beef liver. At most of our
stations the opinion is that beef heart is far superior to either. Its cost
varies at some places more and other places less, but it probably produces
larger fish with less loss.

Mr. TitcomBp: We have been rather limited in the expenditure for
food. Our appropriation for food when the war started was the same as
before the war, and there were times during the war when we carried our
stock and increased them to fingerlings on less money than was spent for
food before the war, and at the increased prices, because we then resorted
to melts and natural food like suckers, carp, and sucker eggs. I want to
correct one statement here about the food. At the hatchery on Chautauqua
Lake which was located for the propagation of muskellunge, there are
some artesian wells, with which we raised fingerling trout very similar to
these nice large fingerlings. After the fish reach a length of 1% to 2 inches
they are fed almost entirely on the flesh of carp caught in the lake. The
trout have been fed for three months at a stretch on carp, ground up the
same as liver. The fish are skinned and boned; only about one-third is
really good flesh but it is excellent fish food. The time is coming when the
largest hatcheries are going to have their own cold storage plants and buy
some sort of fish as food for raising fish. On Lake Erie thousands of
small herring killed in the nets are thrown away and often the ling. They
would make a mighty good change in diet from liver and that sort of
thing. Occasionally opportunity occurs to buy a ton or so of butterfish in
New York for one or two cents a pound, the use of which would be made
possible by cold storage. Of course, there is quite a little waste, but for
the larger fish you can grind up the whole thing and do not have to dress
them at all.

FRESH WATER CRUSTACEA AS FOOD FOR YOUNG FISHES *

By WILLIAM CONVERSE KENDALL
Scientific Assistant, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries
Washington, D. C.

Some years ago a number of species of small crustaceans were
recommended as natural food for artificially-raised young fishes,
particularly salmon and trout. The claim was made that the ease
with which certain species of these little animals could be kept and
bred made them particularly valuable for fish-cultural purposes;
and it was also suggested that natural streams and ponds deficient
in food could be stocked with this kind of food, since some species
were so common and of such wide distribution that a supply was,
as a rule, conveniently available. The principal advocates of the
growing of crustaceans were European fish-culturists. In this coun-
try the idea had its supporters, although there were others who had
no faith in it. The latter took the ground that while the culture of
crustaceans as food for young fishes was practicable in European
establishments, where small numbers of fish are raised, it would
be impossible to maintain a sufficient supply for such food require-
ments in this country, where the business is conducted on a much
larger scale.

In general the method of procedure was to stock adjacent ponds
with crustaceans and the necessary water plants. In some instances
young fish were admitted to one inclosure while another was de-
veloping. When the first pond was depleted the fish were admitted
to the second, and the first allowed to be repopulated. In other cases
the procedure was simply rationing out the crustaceans to the fish in
their own ponds, either by dipping or admitting through troughs
or pipes. The crustaceans to which particular attention was given
were Daphnia and shrimp (Amphipoda). It should be noted, how-
ever, that the method of raising them did not usually admit of pure
cultures of any one form, so that the stated results are affected by
a certain element of error.

It is not the purpose of the present paper to discuss the relative

1 The subject matter of this paper is more fully covered by the author’s contribution
under the same title and issued as Bureau of Fisheries Document No. 914, or appendix 1
of the report of U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries for 1922. It discusses the distribution,
habits, and life histories of the most common forms of fresh water crustaceans, such as
the fairy shrimps, water fleas, copepods, ostracods, isopods, amphipods, Mysis, prawns,
and crayfishes. The document also treats of the possibilities of successful crustacean
culture.

value of different forms of crustaceans as food for young fishes,
but, assuming that those available are desirable, to indicate whether
or not, other things being equal, it would be practicable to raise
them in sufficient quantities to feed large numbers of young fish.

Inasmuch as crustaceans vary greatly in size, as do the fish which
subsist upon them, it would first be necessary to supply to fry such
sizes as they can swallow, and larger sizes to the fish as they in-
crease in growth. While there are many kinds and sizes of crus-
taceans, most of which are natural fish foods, only certain very com-
mon forms have been utilized, although several have been recom-
mended. The kinds that have been indicated in any experiment
have usually been stated to be Daphnia and Cyclops for very young
fish and shrimp for older fish. Daphnia and Cyclops are, as most
fish-culturists know, minute crustaceans called Entomostraca. The
shrimp, of which the once famous “Caledonia shrimp” was one, are
amphipods or scuds. They are more suitable for fish which have
passed the Entomostraca-eating stage.

The purpose of this paper is to make an analytical comparison
of the stated results of experiments in crustacean culture and feed-
ing of fish, based upon requirements according to present feeding
practices at some of the stations of the Bureau of Fisheries. The
particular purpose of the comparison is to prove or disprove the
contention that crustaceans cannot be raised economically on a suff-
ciently large scale to meet the requirements in this country, granting
that other conditions are equal. As concerns Entomostraca, while
there are positive claims that it would be entirely feasible, there are no
very definite data for comparison. The only evidence in favor in-
dicates that after the fish attained a certain size they were fed on
finely-minced horse meat instead of Daphnia.

In other connections it has been mentioned that after feeding on
Daphnia six or seven weeks the fish were provided with coarser
food. In this country it is customary to distribute fry at that age,
so the entomostracan production would need in no instance to con-
tinue for more than that length of time. This period in the life of the
fish is the most critical, and the one in which its food should be
most carefully considered. It is known that young trout naturally
feed upon Entomostraca when available and that the latter multiply
rapidly under favorable conditions; thus it would seem that some
method of raising them might easily be devised. Unfortunately in
this country there have been no definitely-described experiments. It
is hoped that experimental work along this line will receive early
attention. ,

eal

There are more definite data concerning crustacean food for
young fish beyond the entomostracan-feeding stage. Some 20 or
30 years ago, fish-cultural establishments in Europe utilized the
larger crustaceans, particularly the amphipods, commonly called
shrimp, to a considerable extent. Over 30 years ago Consul Frank
H. Mason’ described in some detail the manner of raising shrimp
for trout food at Lugrin’s establishment at Gremaz, France, a famous
fish farm of those days. He stated that the ponds were about 120 feet
long by 12 feet wide, with a depth of 5 feet. Each pond would pro-
duce 650 to 900 pounds of shrimp in a month. These supplied
20,000 yearlings and 3,000 two-year-old fish with 20 to 25 pounds of
shrimp a day, or about 600 to 800 pounds a month. It was necessary
to have two ponds for each kind of fish, owing to the fact that
instead of transferring the shrimp to the fish ponds it was the custom
to drive the fish from one pond to another each month, so that while
they were eating the stock of shrimp in one pond the other was being
replenished. Two shrimp ponds would probably. have been necessary
for each, even if the feeding had been by transfer of the crustacaeans
instead of the fish.

If the number of fish is increased, the capacity of the shrimp
ponds would need to be correspondingly increased. Four ponds of
the above dimensions would aggregate about one-tenth of an acre.
Ponds of the necessary capacity for raising amphipods or shrimp for -
a given number of fish would not appear prohibitive at most large
hatcheries.

It is stated that the fish fed upon nothing but the products of the
shrimp ponds, upon which they thrived. To be sure the ponds con-
tained some other organisms, but the shrimp were in greatest abun-
dance. The fish referred to were the European trout, in this country
commonly called brown trout. The question arises as to how the
quantity of crustacean food in this European operation compares
with that supplied to the common brook trout and the rainbow trout
at our hatcheries.

At the Spearfish (S. D.) station, in the month of July, 1,000
brook trout brood fish averaging one pound in weight were fed on
a mixture consisting of 93 pounds of mush and 186 pounds of liver,
a total of 279 pounds. At Gremaz it required 600 to 800 pounds of
shrimp to feed about 1,500 pounds of fish comprising 3,000 indi-
viduals averaging one-half pound each. At Spearfish it would have
required 418.5 pounds of the combination food mentioned to feed

1 Bull. U. S. Fish Commission, Vol. VII, 1887 (1889), pp. 203-206; and Trans. Amer.
Fisheries Soc., 1802, pp. 58-77, including discussion.

1,500 pounds of fish. The mush contains little or no nutriment, but
the same may be said of the shells of the shrimp. So far as the
figures are concerned, however, the comparison is somewhat in favor
of the mush-liver combination. On the other hand, 4,000 yearling
brook trout at Spearfish were fed 372 pounds of mush and 217
pounds of liver, a total of 589 pounds. At Gremaz 20,000 trout 8 to
12 months old required 600 to 800 pounds of shrimp, which repre-
sents 30 to 40 pounds for every 1,000 fish, or 120 to 160 pounds for
4,000 fish. This throws the advantage to the crustaceans. There
was probably much waste in the Spearfish feeding.

At the Springville (Utah) station 8,000 brood-stock rainbow
trout averaging one pound in weight, were fed in one month 744
pounds of mush and 496 pounds of liver, or 1,240 pounds of the
combination. At Gremaz it would have required 400 to 4262/3
pounds to feed that many pounds of fish averaging one-half pound
each, which suggests an advantage for Crustacea.

At the Wytheville (Va.) station 1,000 yearlings 8 to 12 inches
long were fed 12 pounds a day. At Gremaz, 1,000 fish of approxi-
mately the same age were fed about 7 or 8 pounds a day, which is
favorable to crustaceans. At Wytheville again, 1,000 fish 3 to 5
inches long were fed three-fourths of a pound a day. At Gremaz
the daily ration per 1,000 fish of about the same age was one to 214
pounds, which favors Wytheville feeding.

There are elements of error in these computations, but they indi-
cate on the whole a not very great difference in the amounts fed to
fish of the various sizes at Gremaz and in this country. Doubtless
it would be practically impossible, if at all desirable, to provide an
exclusively crustacean diet for trout of all ages. It has been demon-
strated, however, that crustaceans can be cultivated in quantities;
local conditions and the available crustaceans would largely deter-
mine the extent of operations. It would seem then, that a consider-
able collateral supply of crustacean food would be economically pos-
sible and provide a much desired variation in the kinds of food. The
largest trout would require more food and perhaps greater variety.
Possibly this variety could be provided by utilizing the prawn, as
advocated by Worth." It is probable that the prawn can be raised
quite as easily as the shrimp or scuds (Amphipoda), if the condi-
tions under which they live naturally are followed in the artificial
ponds. It should always be borne in mind that all of these organisms,
from the most minute to the largest, require food and that no experi-
ment can be successful unless it is supplied.

* Bull. U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Vol. XXVIII, 1908, Pt. II, pp. 853-858.

Discussion.

Mr. J. W. Trtcoms, Albany, N. Y.: Mr. Leach, are you getting from
the mush feed more than you formerly got?

Mr. G. C. LeacH, Washington, D. C.: Probably less, as we are using
cheaper material, shorts in place of low grade flour.

Mr. Titcomsp: Do you use twice as much mush as liver, as indicated
by Dr. Kendall?

Mr. LeacH: For adult trout two-thirds mush and one-third liver or
meat has been used at many stations where the meat cost was an item to
consider. I believe one-third mush and two-thirds meat a better diet
and one that will produce stronger fish. The mush, as a rule, should
supply the bulk or filler. It is desirable to have some carbohydrates in
the diet of the fish.

Mr. Titcoms: This is a very valuable paper, but there is one feature
which Dr. Kendall does not appear to have covered. The shrimp reproduce
naturally in great abundance in lime water, but there are a great many
places where the trout are raised in which it is practically impossible to
raise shrimp. He referred to the Caledonia shrimp, which breeds naturally
in tremendous quantities in the State hatchery at Caledonia, New York,
and I have found it in several other places in great numbers. It is much
more abundant at certain seasons of the year. My experience is that
when trout feed exclusively or very largely upon shrimp, the result is a
very highly colored fish; better outside color and pinker flesh. Mr. Rowe
has a natural pond at his hatchery in Maine which has produced these
pink-fleshed trout and highly colored eggs. At the Caledonia hatchery some
of the largest ponds have a gravel bottom and rather swift water in some
portions, with quite a little vegetation in spots, and there the shrimp:
breed. The trout keep in splendid condition and have a very good color,
not the very pink, but a much better color than the average trout fed on
artificial food. I am referring to fish that weigh up to three or four
pounds. We attribute the fine condition and color entirely to the amount of
shrimp which they have obtained, in addition to the liver fed about once a
day.

Mr. LeacH: Mr. Titcomb raises the question as to the amount of flour
and carbohydrates that we are putting in our fish food. We find the mush
cheaper than meat and believe it essential in that it supplies carbohydrates
found under natural conditions in streams. We have fed more in bulk of
the cheaper grades of shorts than of low grade flour. We require many
of our stations to make monthly reports of food used. One of our southern
bass stations was feeding 750 adult bass $30 worth of food a year; another
station was feeding about 850 fish $225 worth of food in the same period.
Naturally there was a big difference in the output in favor of the station
that fed the greater amount of food. .

What Dr. Kendall says in regard to the feeding of shrimp would not
apply to some of our southern trout stations, such as at Wytheville, Va.,
and White Sulphur Springs, W. Va. We cannot produce shrimp in paying
quantities in the limestone water there; I refer to the Caledonia shrimp,
G. limneus. I believe shrimp are only produced in limestone water in the
region of the glacial drifts, which seem to extend through our northern tier
of States and as far west as Wyoming and Utah. At Saratoga, Wyo.,

shrimp are found naturally in very large numbers and make excellent
trout food.

Mr. Titcoms: What is the prawn to which reference is made?

Dr. G. C. Empopy, Ithaca, N. Y.: It is also called the river shrimp
and grows to various sizes. Those found in the Mississippi Valley are from
one to one and a half inches long: they belong to two genera, Palaemon
and Palaemonetes, and are warm water forms. There are many different
species of Gammarid shrimps. Some of them may live in lime water, or
require lime water; others do not require it. I doubt very much if you can
find a clean permanent pool anywhere in the Uuited States that does not
contain some kind of shrimp.. They are that generally distributed. The one
at Caledonia, Gammarus limneus, is probably the largest, and the next in
size is the G. fasciatus. It is very closely related to the Caledonia shrimp,
but seems to prefer warmer water. It occurs along the marshes of Cayuga
Lake, not only in the vegetation, but among the rocks. The Hyalella
shrimps are probably not more than one-fifth as long as the Caledonia
shrimp, but they occur all over.

Mr. Titcomsp: Dr. Embody, have you found this common form of
shrimp in sufficient abundance anywhere to think of them as possible for
trout food, as we do the Caledonia shrimp?

Dr. Empopy: In suitable environment the Hyalellas are fully as abun-
dant as are the large shrimp at Caledonia. They are much smaller, how-
ever, and easily escape notice. While they occur in both cold and warm
water, they seem to multiply much more rapidly in warm water containing
dense vegetation. The Hyalellas escape foraging fishes much more success-
fully than the larger shrimps and thus would probably hold their own
much better in large natural rearing ponds such as are used for bass,
The larger shrimps would probably be exterminated before they could
become established. In protected inclosures not stocked with fish, how-
ever, I believe that a greater amount of fish food could be produced by
using the larger forms. These might be collected and fed to the fish or
the fish might be turned into forage.

Mr. Trtcoms: This talk about the shrimp as a food has been up for
a great many years, and the anglers’ clubs have been encouraged to stock
streams with shrimp to increase the food for fish. It has been a very
general recommendation in the past. It is my opinion that in possibly
nine cases out of ten the introduction of shrimp does not amount to any-
thing. A great many of our streams; after being stocked, show no evidence
of shrimp,—that is the large Caledonia shrimp. As Dr. Embody says,
you will always find the small shrimp in limited numbers under the rocks
or in the vegetation. I do not think that the introduction of the smaller
shrimp in trout streams amounts to much, but there are spring-fed streams,
especially in limestone formations, where the shrimp can be introduced to
good advantage. i

Dr. Empopy: I think that is true. The great difficulty of introducing
those shrimp in many places, we found, was that the fish would extermi-
nate in a short time the small numbers which could be introduced. It is
a different matter to propagate them for fish food in protected places.

THE USE OF CERTAIN MILK WASTES IN THE PROPAGA-
TION OF NATURAL FISH FOOD
By G. C. EmMBopy

Cornell University, Ithaca, New York

Within the last few years there has been a notable increase in the
number of commercial plants concerned in the manufacture of
various milk products. These plants include mere skimming stations,
cheese, butter and casein factories, and condenseries. In a great
many cases they are located near important fish producing streams
which constitute convenient places for the disposal of wastes.
Whether the procedure in thus disposing of wastes is detrimental or
otherwise to the life in the stream, depends upon a number of dif-
ferent factors which cannot be discussed here. It is known, how-
ever, that in many cases streams have been polluted to a degree that
is very disastrous to aquatic life.

During the progress of some experiments undertaken by my
colleague, Dr. P. W. Claassen, to show the effects cf such wastes
upon stream life, some phenomena were observed that seemed to bear
directly upon the problem of growing natural food for fish. The
writer was thus prompted to carry on some special work with this
end in view and the following notes constitute a brief statement of
certain results thus far obtained.

The experimental procedure consisted in pouring into basins of
stagnant water known amounts of several different wastes. Sour
skim milk and whey were the two which gave the most significant
results and at the same time could be easily obtained in sufficient
quantities to render their use practicable. Other wastes were tried,
such as floor washings and the effluents from Imhoff tanks, septic
tanks, lath filters, etc., but these were either too highly diluted or so
changed as to render their use at this time impracticable.

The basins in which the experiments were run consisted of wood
hatching troughs of regulation size, wood wash tubs, larger concrete
rearing ponds and small ponds with earth sides and bottom. None of
these basins was planted with mother organisms, either plants or
animals, except for those which came in with the water at the time
of filling the basins, and care was taken to eliminate all of the higher
aquatic plants and predacious animals such as certain aquatic beetles,
bugs, dragonfly and damselfly nymphs. Thus the only organisms
started with were a few micro-organisms found in the plankton. It

may be said, however, that these materially influenced the results
obtained.

The kinds and quantities of the various fish food organisms
appearing in the basins varied to some extent with the type of basin
and the quality of the polluting substance, and to a larger extent with
the temperature of the water and the quantity of polluting substance
used per unit area. These variations cannot be discussed in detail
until the experiments have been concluded.

The principal food animals appearing in the basins were the fol-
lowing: Micro-crustacea, especially the little cladoceran, Scapho-
leberis, and the copepods, Cyclops and Canthocamptus ; mosquitoes of
two species; “blood worms” of the genus Chironomus; rat-tail mag-
gots, larve of the family Syrphide; the common pollution worm,
Tubifex, and mayflies of the genus Callibaetss.

Of these the mosquitoes, syrphid flies and mayflies were attracted
to the basins for egg-laying by the odors of pollution. The micro-
crustacea and pollution worms were probably introduced with the
water and finding conditions suitable, multiplied to an enormous de-
gree.

MOSQUITO LARVAE

Considering the total amount of fish food produced, the mosquito
larvee were by far the most important. The adults began laying eggs
the first week in July (1920 and 1921) and continued to do so
throughout the summer. In 1920 the larve were abundant late in
September.

Of the two wastes, sour skim milk and whey, the former induced
egg-laying in the shortest time and with the smallest dosage. Up to
the present time the dosage giving the most promising results at
Ithaca, N. Y., is as follows:

One pint of skim milk for every 10 cubic feet of water content
in pond, poured in every other day for 5 days, this followed by a
resting period of 4 to 6 days. In order to have a continuous supply
of larve, the procedure is repeated after each resting period. The
mean daily water temperature for this dosage should be approxi-
mately 80° F. If the temperature averages lower the period of de-
velopment will be longer ; if higher, it will be somewhat shorter.

In a wooden hatching trough treated in this manner there were
produced 2 egg masses the second day, 6 masses on the third day, 111
on the fourth day, and an incalculable number on the fifth day, each
mass consisting of a great many eggs. From the eighth to the
eleventh day the basin was a wriggling mass of larve, many of them
ready to pupate, and thus sufficiently large to be fed to trout or bass.

In this case the total period was about eleven days. On the twelfth
day the basin was ready for another dose of skim milk.

In all cases where the dosage was increased beyond 1 pint per
10 cubic feet of water every other day for 5 days, there was a per-
ceptible odor not at all agreeable. The resting period tended to pre-
vent bad odors. If the production were undertaken on a larger scale
one would presume that bad odors would be more in evidence even
with the dosage mentioned above.

It was stated that two species of ‘mosquitoes appeared abundantly
in the ponds. These were Culex sexatilis and C. territans. The
former is reported as not biting man but the latter is considered a
pest in many places. However this may be, it can be stated posi-
tively that during the two summers that this work has been going on
and many thousands of mosquitoes have been allowed to reach the
adult stage, no one living or working on the hatchery grounds has
been pestered by them day or night.

There is no need of allowing the mosquitoes to reach the biting
stage, if they are collected and fed to fish at the proper time. It is
very easy to observe the first mosquitoes reaching the pupal stage
and if the pond is drawn off or if it is swept carefully with a net of
fine-meshed bobbinet, the mosquitoes can be disposed of to the fish
before they are ready to transform.

There are two possible advantages in using the net. One may
have a fairly continuous supply of larve by allowing the small ones
just hatched to pass through the meshes of the net. These will grow
and can be captured the next few days. The other advantage is that
no pollution is allowed to enter the fish pond.

Bass and trout will eat large quantities of mosquitoes with appar-
ent relish. The rate of growth in the case of the trout seems to be as
rapid as with any other food tried by us. The mosquitoes are
especially useful as a supplement to those food mixtures consisting
of dried meat, fish, and clam and shrimp meal. Certain health and
growth-promoting substances called vitamines are absent or else
occur in insufficient amounts in these meals, and consequently by
their continuous and sole use food-deficiency diseases appear in trout.
It has been found that when live mosquito larve are fed with the
dry meals not only is the mortality lowered but the rate of growth is
increased.

OTHER FOOD ANIMALS PRODUCED

The rat-tail maggots and tubifex worms occurred in the earth and
cement ponds and in the wood troughs. They were abundant when
a high dosage was used. Neither form, however, appeared in such

great numbers as was the case of the mosquitoes. The maggots
seem to be preferred over the worms by trout and bass but bullheads
are active eaters of pollution worms.

The larve of certain midges (Chironomus), commonly known as
blood worms, also appeared in some numbers in the polluted earth
ponds. They are to be reported upon at a future time by another
person.

The three forms of micro-crustacea, namely, Scapholeberis,
Cyclops and Canthocamptus, appeared abundantly in earth ponds
when the dosage was very light and also in heavily dosed earth ponds
after the polluting materials had been largely decomposed. They per-
sisted in rather dense cultures during the greater part of May and
June and again in late July and early August. The dosage best
suited for the development of these forms has not yet been deter-
mined.

Before concluding these notes it is well to state that success was
attained in those ponds only which were practically water tight. Even
a slight change of water, as occurred in newly built earth ponds
through seepage, was enough to leach out the elements concerned in
fertilizing the pond and attracting mosquitoes for the purpose of
egg laying. The conditions must thus be as stagnant as it is possible
to make them.

Discussion.

Mr. G. C. LEAcH, Washington, D. C.: Dr. Embody, have you ever ex-
perimented by placing the milk around the edges of ponds containing the
fish and noting the development of the mosquitoes?

Dr. Empopy: No, we have never tried that. I do not know whether
the development of the mosquitoes would be harmful at all, but if you
use too much milk you may pollute the water beyond the degree of safety
to the fish.

Mr. LeacH: Possibly that could be determined and the proper amount
put in so the development of the larve would not be too great and they
would not get beyond control.

Dr. Empopy: Of course, you cannot control the mosquitoes in a large
pond as you can in a small pond. I do not think this would work suc-
eessfully in a series of very large ponds, but one could control them very
. nicely in a series of small ponds. By having several ponds, with the
culture started at various times, you could simply have a rotation of
ponds, feeding the larve from one while they were developing in the
others.

Mr. J. W. Trtcoms, Albany, N. Y.: Dr. Embody, have you considered
the cost of producing this kind of food as compared with other kinds?

Dr. Empopy: No, we have not reckoned the cost of producing the food
on milk waste.

Mr. LeacH: If applied to the raising of young bass, a series of small

ponds could be arranged, with an opening into the main pond, and we
could then raise our bass to the fingerling stage without cannibalism.

Mr. C. O. Hayrorp, Hackettstown, N. J.: Dr. Embody deserves great
credit in this matter. Under his direction we polluted with milk some
trout ponds, measuring 5 ft. by 30 ft., and secured mosquito larvze in such
abundance that they could be dipped out by the solid quart. Our method
of collection is to use a net with a large bag, the bottom of which is
closed by a draw string. This is swept through the ponds, then lowered
into a pail half full of water, the draw string unfastened, and the con-
tents washed into the pail. A two-inch tea strainer is used in taking
them from the pail and throwing them to the bass. Both trout and bass
take them very readily. One hundred and eighteen were taken from the
stomach of a bass measuring 1%4 inches. The young fish follow the larve
through the pond, and unless they can get to such shallow water that the
young bass cannot enter, every one will be taken.

Another plan would be to construct your food-producing ponds so they
can be drained into the pond containing the young fish as soon as larve
are developed. This does away with hand feeding. By covering a pond
with cheesecloth to prevent the adult mosquitoes from laying more eggs,
we can control the size of the larve. If for any reason the lary become
so numerous that they pupate before they can be removed, a little oil
poured on the water will kill them all, thus preventing an excess of adult
mosquitoes.

I think the problem of raising mosquito larve can be worked out for
each locality, and I believe that Dr. Embody has cpened up a wonderful
field for us all to tackle.

Mr. TitcomMsB: What was the size of the little bass when they took the
mosquito larvze?

Mr. Hayrorp: They were about an inch to an inch and a half long,
and three weeks to a month old. We have plenty of microorganisms in
our waters and the bass feed upon them for about three weeks. By that
time the supply is running low, and mosquito larve are fed. In one pond
where we fed the larvie we have about 12,000 young bass. Along one side
of the pond runs a concrete wall from which we feed. After feeding for
about two weeks, the young bass flock to the wall when the feeder appears
and follow him the length of the entire pond, feeding on the larve with
the same eagerness that trout display in feeding.

Mr. Leacu: Do you think you can feed the mosquito larve and
eliminate the daphnia, that is, let them take the place of the daphnia in
feeding the young bass?

Mr. Hayrorp: I think after the bass are two weeks old they will
take the mosquito larve. During the first three weeks we have plenty
of microcrustaceans for them to feed upon, and it is only when _ supply
becomes exhausted that the larvee are necessary.

Mr. LeacH: A large number of our stations do not produce daphnia
and we have to depend on something else up to the feeding of artificial
food stage. If the mosquito larve can be produced in large numbers, and
the rate of growth will not be too great they can be fed to the bass up
to the time they take the larger insect life.

Dr. Emsopy: It is not the size of the mosquito larve so much as it is
the time of the year in which they are produced. We are not able to pro-
duce mosquito larvze before the first of July, and probably by that time
your bass would have reached a size large enough to take even the largest
mosquito. We could not produce them as early as May or June, although
it may be done in some other parts of the country. The first day or
two after the mosquito is hatched it is small enough for the smallest bass
to eat.

Mr. LeacH: We may try the experiment at some of our stations on
a large scale and demonstrate its practical possibilities in regard to feed-
ing the young bass.

Mr. Hayrorp: At the New Jersey station we can secure the larve
around the latter part of May. Under our conditions the bass do not need
the food much before the 15th of June, or the 1st of July.

Mr. TitcomsB: Do you know yet, Mr. Hayford, whether you will reduce
eannibalism, and, if so, to what extent, by the introduction of laryx?

Mr. Hayrorp: I cannot say to what extent cannibalism will be re-
duced, although I am positive, from my comparison of the fish in the
ponds fed with the larvee and those not so fed, that it is reduced con-
siderably. I also observed that in the ponds where the larve are fed,
the young fish grow much more uniformly.

Dr. Empopy: I think that the micro-crustacea would be more impor-
tant in the spring of the year than the mosquito larve. In all of the
ponds where we used a small dosage of milk, among the first forms to
appear were the little crustaceans of the genus Scapholeberis. They are
very closely related to the daphnia, of which Mr. Leach spoke, and so
small in size that the smallest fish can eat them.

SALMON EGGS AS FOOD FOR SALMON FRY*

By Martin NORGORE
Seattle, Washington

It is exceedingly important to the fish culturist to obtain efficient
and cheap food. In fact, to one who operates a hatchery on a com-
mercial basis, success or failure depends largely on the cost of food.
For a long time it has been known that fresh food is necessary at
certain intervals to prevent undue, if not complete, mortality. But as
long as food was valued on a calorie basis only, the reason for this
requirement in hatcheries was not known. In the light of what is
now known concerning the role of vitamines in the diet, however,
many curious phenomena occurring in hatcheries may be explained.
It is now well established that protein, carbohydrates, fats, and min-
eral salts are not sufficient to keep an animal in healthy condition and
make it grow. There are certain properties called accessory food sub-
stances, or vitamines, which the food must possess. At least three
of these have been recognized on the basis of their solubilities, namely,
(a) fat soluble, or growth promoting; (b) water soluble, or anti-
neurotic, and (c) water soluble, or antiscorbutic.

It need hardly be mentioned that as yet little is known concerning
vitamines. But it seems that certain of them are destroyed by heat-
ing, salting, or drying at high temperatures. The fat soluble is the
most stable, while the water solubles are more easily destroyed. Little
is known about the effect of low temperature on the accessory food
substances, but it seems that cold storage foods retain the vitamines
if kept properly and not too long.

Since the early days of fish culture, liver, melts, and kidneys have
been used to supply the fresh food requirements of the fish. But it
happens that at present these meats are expensive and often difficult
to obtain. Consequently, if a substitute could be found which is
cheaper and contains all the necessary vitamines, fish could be pro-
duced at a lower cost. Successful efforts have been made to sub-
stitute, in part, other products for liver or melts. Dr. G. C. Embody
has found that trout will keep well and grow on a diet of meat, fish,
or shrimp meals for six days, and liver on the seventh. In some
hatcheries canned salmon and liver have been used with good results.
But no successful attempt has been made, so far as the author is
aware, to dispense with meats altogether.

1 Results of some experiments carried on in the experimental hatchery at the College

of Fisheries, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash., and published with the permission
of Mr. John N. Cobb, Director of the College.

The experiments herein recorded were initiated to determine if
cold storage salmon eggs contain the accessory food substances for
salmon fry. Salmon roe was chosen because it is cheap and easily
available at the canneries and cold storages on the Pacific Coast,
where it constitutes part of the refuse. The eggs used were taken
from chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) in November, 1920, and
kept in cold storage during the winter. The lowest temperature to
which they were subjected was —4° F. at the time of freezing and
10° F. during storage. In addition to these, fresh roe of chinook
salmon (O. tschawytscha) was used in four quantitative experiments.
To be sure, the use of salmon eggs as food for fry is not new, but
heretofore the eggs have been cooked, thus necessitating the use of
fresh meat, such as liver or melts, to supply the necessary vitamines.

The eggs were obtained from the cold storage, allowed to thaw
out, ground in a meat grinder, and strained through a coarse cloth
to remove the shells. The last operation was found necessary in the
quantitative work to insure complete consumption. The substance
was then absorbed with wheat middlings, making a mixture of
80 per cent salmon eggs and 20 per cent middlings. In this way, the
ground salmon eggs were made available to the fry.

The water used during the first part of the experiments was
pumped from Lake Washington, at Seattle, into a large settling tank
from which it was drawn for the hatchery. But occasionally the
water in the tank became low and some sediment passed through.
Fearing that this would affect the results of the experiments, city
water was turned on in the hatchery on May 14, 1921. No appreci-
able change in the quantitative work was observed. Seattle city
water is no doubt purer than the water used in many hatcheries.

On March 24, 1921, two lots of 125 each of chinook salmon fry
(O. tschawytscha), four months old, were placed in two troughs of
equal size. The fry had been starved for four days, previous to
which they were fed on the fry of small redfish (O. nerka). All were
in the same condition. The rate of water flow in both troughs was
the same, about 166 gallons per minute. The inside measurements of
the trough were 82 x 14x 6 inches. The space to which the fry were
confined is 261% x 14 x 4 inches, or a capacity of 1,484 cubic inches
of water. The light was regulated by means of shades to approxi-
mately the same intensity throughout the trough.

One of these lots was fed exclusively on canned salmon. This
was considered the control, for it is known that the antiscorbutic and
antineurotic vitamines are easily destroyed by heat. It was there-
fore expected that this lot would die in time, due to the lack of these

most important food substances. The other lot was fed on canned
salmon for four days and on the mixture of ground salmon eggs and
middlings for three days alternately. This was deemed sufficient to
determine whether cold storage salmon eggs would prevent the
“deficiency diseases.”

Both lots grew at about equal rates and nothing out of the ordi-
nary was observed until June 11, when some of the fry which had
received canned salmon only assumed a vertical or semi-vertical
position, elevating the heads out of water. On June 14 one of this
lot died. No further deaths occurred until June 21, when the
experiment had to be terminated. But fungus developed on more
than half of them, while those that were still apparently healthy had
frayed pectoral fins. The abnormal behavior persisted throughout.
The other lot which had received as part of its rations the salmon
eggs and wheat middlings mixture were all in perfect condition when
the experiment was terminated.

Quantitative experiments were undertaken to determine the
efficiency of salmon eggs as a flesh producer or growth-promoting
food. Troughs of the same size as in the experiment already de-
scribed were used with the same flow of water. And the space to
which each lot was confined was of the same dimensions. At the
beginning and end of each experiment, the fry were weighed in
water on regular laboratory balances, according to the method
employed by Embody. In all cases about 20 hours elapsed between
the time of the last feeding and weighing. Each lot was fed twice
daily. To eliminate waste, the fry were taught to take the food as
soon as it reached the water. By means of a pin, pieces sufficiently
small for one “bite” were carved out and dropped into the trough.
Fifty chinook salmon fry and 100 chum salmon fry were used in
each experiment, lasting seven days. In all 24 experiments were
completed over a period of 49 days, the most important results of
which will be found in the following table:

RESULTS OF QUANTITATIVE EXPERIMENTS WITH SALMON Eccs as Foop
FoR YOUNG FISH

[The percentages of daily consumption and of daily growth are computed on the basis
of initial weights. ‘There was no mortality.]

Average

Percentage |Percentage

: Age in tem per- 5 Efficiency
Species. daily con- daily Food.
months. ature: sumption. | growth. factor.

O. tschawytscha 5% 50.7 2.6 2.1 80.61 Cold storage eggs.
ID jeemat anteceaar 6 54.3 3.42 2.39 70.5 Do.
DOorenicbi ese’ 6% 57-5 4.71 3-44 72.9 Do.
Worewerwcroc 7 59-5 4.52 2.56 57.7 Fresh eggs.

Og ketaeeyontes 3 59.4 5-34 3.81 71.71 Cold storage eggs.

From the above data it appears that the food value of salmon
eggs is extremely high. And the rate of growth is, in the opinion of
the author, above normal. Special attention is called to the results
obtained when fresh eggs were used. These were taken from chinook
salmon during the first week of June, 1921, and were not by far as
well developed as those used in the other experiments. On the basis
of our knowledge of vitamines, the explanation seems to be that
the riper the egg the more growth-promoting substance it contains.
But as only four series of experiments were completed with these
eggs, too narrow conclusions must not be drawn. Nevertheless it is
interesting: to find that the percentage of daily growth of the same
lots of fry dropped from an average of 3.44 to 2.56 and the efficiency
factor from 72.9 to 57.7, with practically the same percentage of
food.

It is not yet demonstrated that cold-storage salmon eggs contain
all the food requirements of salmon fry. The experiment inaugu-
rated to determine this had to be terminated prematurely. But the
results indicate that salmon eggs are a cheap and efficient substitute
for fresh meats in the hatcheries, especially on the Pacific Coast. For
promoting growth they appear to be the best food ever tried. The
author suggests that fish culturists who are within reach of a supply
of salmon eggs try them out as a substitute for liver or melts on a
limited number of fry, using liver as a control. In this manner no
undue risk is assumed.

Discussion.

Dr. G. C. Emepopy, Ithaca, N. Y.: The food situation on the Pacific
coast differs from that here. It is very difficult for those rather isolated
western hatcheries to get the more expensive liver, yet it has been found
that some such fresh food must be used. Canned salmon has been fed
largely but it happens that this food can be fed continuously for a few
days only, depending on local conditions, without producing certain dis-
eases. In order to prevent those diseases, the fish must be fed upon
fresh liver or some substitute.

Mr. G. C. Leacu, Washington, D. C.: This paper shows some very
painstaking investigations, and brings out most interesting information,
especially as to the necessity of feeding a well balanced diet. I was
wondering as to the advisability, however, of feeding fresh salmon eggs,
except in case of emergency. I believe no mention was made of feeding
unfertile eggs.

Dr. Empopy: These are all unfertile eggs. They are waste from the
canneries and are ordinarily thrown away.

Mr. LeacH: The protein content of fish eggs is very low, about 15
per cent in the herring. At some of our Pacific stations we once fed
canned herring roe without success, and as this paper goes on to show,

after it is fed a while there are certain indications that the fish will
not thrive on it. Im fact, the young sockeye salmon will not take the
canned herring roe, unless they are absolutely forced to do so; but if
the roe is cooked and mixed with other food they take more kindly to it.
As to the vitamines, I understand cooking the food would destroy them
and, for that reason, I do not think that cooked salmon eggs would be of
much advantage. The paper is very interesting and brings out some
things that will be of much value to fish culturists, especially on the
Pacific coast.

Dr. Empopy: Here is a waste product that is being dumped into
Puget Sound by the ton; a little is sold to fishermen, but the greater part
is wasted. Liver is expensive and hard to get out there; it costs more
than in the East, but here is a fresh product, presumably an ideal food,
with absolutely all of the elements for the young fish, because it contains
the yolk upon which the young fish grow in the early part of their exist-
ence. Working upon this as the first thought, the author was inspired to
run these experiments on a fresh material. Now as you cook the eggs
you destroy those growth-promoting substances called vitamines. Prob-
ably the chief reason why this food has not been used fresh before is
because the eggs are too large for the young fish to eat, and when run
through a grinder, the material inside is in such a fluid condition that
the fish cannot consume it, as it dissolves in the water. So it was mixed
with wheat middlings, thus being put in solid form, and by feeding it
to the fish excellent growth resulted. A very high percentage of the
material is actually consumed and made over into fish flesh.

FURTHER PROOF OF THE PARENT STREAM THEORY
By ALEXANDER ROBERTSON

Harrison Hot Springs, British Columbia

Considerable attention has been paid by fish culturists to the
so-called parent stream theory, that is, the assumption that anadro-
mous fish return to the stream in which they were bred, to reproduce
their species. In the course of time the consensus of opinion was
that the salmon of the larger rivers, such as the Columbia and Fraser,
certainly returned to these rivers, and the controversy narrowed down
to whether the fish returned to the individual tributary in which they
were hatched. By scale readings of the Pacific Coast salmon Dr.
Charles H. Gilbert came to the conclusion that they returned to the
actual creek in which they were bred. Further light on the subject,
by one who has made a study of it on the spawning grounds for
nearly twenty years, may be of interest to those engaged in fish
culture.

Ever since the first hatchery was built on the Fraser River it has
been common knowledge among hatcherymen that the runs of sock-
eye salmon to its various tributaries differed in many ways, chief
among which was the time of arrival at the spawning grounds. The
latter could be depended upon to such an extent that one crew of
spawntakers could operate several stations, one after another, from
September to January, with no variation in the sequence from year
to year.

Another characteristic, and one which as far as the writer is aware
has never been given much prominence, is that the difference in the
size of the sockeye eggs at the different creeks has been so apparent
and constant in the course of time as to pass without comment.

In 1914 the writer began a series of measurements of sockeye
eggs taken at Morris Creek, Harrison Rapids, and Cultus Lake,
which has been continued each year since. Morris Creek enters Har-
rison River two miles above the rapids and Cultus Lake lies twelve
miles southwest. The three stations are thus comparatively close
together, which fact adds interest to the subject.

To obviate the inaccuracies of imperfect chambering such as occurs
when a graduated glass or similar measure is used, a new method of
measurement was devised. A light V-trough one meter in length
was set up at an inclination of twenty-five degrees and the eggs
allowed to roll down until the trough was filled from end to end with

one row of eggs, the figures appearing in the tables herewith being
the number of eggs required to fill the trough. As far as the exigen-
cies of the regular hatchery work permitted, the eggs were measured
twenty-four hours after spawning and from three to five counts were
made during the season.

SERIES OF YEARLY MEASUREMENTS OF SOCKEYE SALMON WGGs

Year. Morris Creek. Harrison Rapids. Cultus Lake.
1914 166.0 152.0 182.0
1915 162.8 150.0 183.0
1916 164.0 153.2 181.3
1917 166.7 149.8 185.2
1918 163.0 153.5 185.5
1919 162.6 150.0 184.0
1920 165.4 151.6 182.6
Average 164.3 | 151.4 | 183.3

The uniformity from year to year is very evident and the fact
that the figures for one locality never overlap or even approach those
of another shows that there is a distinctive species of sockeye at
each of these places.

Another interesting phase is that the size of the egg does not cor-
respond with the size of the fish or the time of spawning, for the
smallest fish of the three, that from Harrison Rapids, has much the
larger egg, as will be seen from the following table which shows the
length in inches, dates of spawning, and average measurement of
eggs:

VARIATION IN SPAWNING SEASON AND SIZE OF SOCKEYE SALMON Hees

| Number of eggs to

Locality. Males. | Seales Sees season. meter.
perm varia c ate eC se) eo LTS aI ee i ae, a es ees
Morris Creek . .| 26.3 23.9 |Sept. 25—Nov. 15 164.3
Harrison Rapids} 23.6 23.1 |Oct. 25—Dec. 10 151.4
Cultus Lake . . 25.3 23.2 ‘Nov. 15—Jan. 1 183.3

That the size of the egg is not due to fuller development in the
later spawning fish is shown by the fact that the Cultus Lake sockeye,
the last to spawn, has, as far as the writer is aware, the smallest egg
of all the Pacific Coast sockeyes.

A summary of the whole subject shows that at Morris Creek
there is a run of large, early-spawning sockeyes with medium sized
eggs; at Harrison Rapids very small, late-spawning sockeyes with
very large eggs, while at Cultus Lake there are also small, late-
spawning fish with exceptionally small eggs.

Discussion.

Mr. Warp T. Bower, Washington, D. C.: The method of measuring
eggs referred to is not unlike that devised by Mr. Hector von Bayer,
formerly architect and engineer of the Bureau of Fisheries, which was
reported fully in a publication of the Bureau. It would seem that the
same principle is involved. Years ago in my experience at the station at
Battle Creek, California, where we handied in one season more than
57,000,000 chinook salmon eggs, it was well known that their average size
varied considerably through the season. Several times during the con-
tinuance of operations very careful counts of the eggs were made a few
hours after they were taken, and a variation of 200 to 300 eggs per quart
would be found, the eggs increasing slowly in size as the period of incuba-
tion advanced.

Dr. G. C. Empopy, Ithaca, N. Y.: The claim made in this paper is
that because the eggs do not vary in size in one particular stream, those
eggs came from parents that were hatched there and have returned to that
same stream, and that since there is a variation in the three different
streams, each having a different size of egg, each must have been pro-
duced by parents that were hatched there. Mr. Robertson does not indi-
eate here which of the three streams was entered first by the fish, but he
says that the larger size of the egg is not due to fuller development in the
later spawning fish, for apparently the sockeye which spawns latest in the
season has the smallest egg of all of the Pacific coast sockeyes.

Mr. G. C. LracH, Washington, D. C.: I do not believe that sockeye
eggs vary in size as do brook trout eggs, where we find a variation of
possibly 300 per ounce. Yes Bay, Alaska, has a run of sockeye salmon
that enters the lake along in July, begins to spawn about the first of
September, and continues until along in January. There is a consider-
able variation in the size of the eggs between the first spawners and those
later in the season. The cannerymen in Alaska know the number of
salmon from a particular stream required to fill a case, and that this
average per case varies little from year to year. I believe it is gener-
ally conceded that there is some slight variation in the size of the eggs.

Dr. D. L. Betpine, Hingham, Mass.: This paper is especially valuable
in adding one more bit of presumptive evidence in favor of the parent
stream theory. I do not believe that we can say absolutely that the
measurement of eggs alone proves the parent stream theory, but it cer-
tainly offers strong circumstantial evidence. There is little doubt that
the alewife or branch herring returns to a particular river to spawn.
When there are several branches with separate spawning ponds, there is
some question whether fish return to the identical pond where they were
hatched. That this specializing tendency exists has been shown by creat-
ing fisheries through planting adult alewives in unfrequented waters to
which they return for spawning in three or four years. However, there
is also evidence that they do not always return to these particular ponds.

In 1920 a fishway was installed at the Lawrence dam on the Merrimac
River, which for years had formed an impassable barrier to fish. Ale-
wives had spawned in certain tributaries and even in the river below the
dam, when they could not get to the spawning ponds, and they now ran

up this new fishway into regions where they had never been before.
Thus there is evidence that though the alewife comes back to a definite
spawning ground, it will also seek new territory.

Mr. W. E. Barser, Madison, Wis.: The parent fish stream theory is
not nearly as hard to understand and believe as that the migratory birds
after traveling thousands of miles come back to their home nests. It
is true that demonstrations as to the migratory birds are easily made.
Strict account has been kept of their flights, and it has been found that
they cover the same territory and come back to the same nest each year.

Mr. Titcoms: Dr. Belding’s remarks on the alewife remind me of the
introduction of shad on the Pacific coast in California. Most of them
probably return to the stream where first planted, but they have spread
gradually until they are up in the Columbia River. I am not combatting
this parent stream theory, but the shad spreading on the Pacific coast
seem to furnish an example to the contrary.

Mr. Bower: Perhaps it should be made clear that Mr. Titecomb does
not challenge the parent stream theory with respect to the Pacific salmon.
He has gone beyond that and has spoken of fishes to which the parent
stream theory has never been applied so far as I am aware. Shad were
introduced on the Pacific coast in the seventies and have spread widely.
I personally have seen shad in Alaska of the same species that I have
noted in the Potomac River in the Hast. The parent stream theory has
never been entertained, so far as I am aware, in regard to shad; but I
believe that it is the consensus of opinion that the Pacific salmon return
to the parent stream. Dr. Charles H. Gilbert, of Stanford University,
California, the greatest authority on the Pacific salmon today, has demon-
strated clearly that they undoubtedly return to the parent stream, and
moreover, that they seek the particular side tributary where they were
originally hatched or planted. Dr. Gilbert bases his conclusions chiefly
upon a study of the scales of the salmon, thus securing a most accurate
life history of the fish.

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE GROWTH OF YOUNG
SOCKEYES*

By ALEXANDER ROBERTSON

Harrison Hot Springs, British Columbia

The depletion of the sockeye salmon is the most serious problem
confronting the fishing industry of the Pacific Coast of America, and
fish-cultural methods in connection therewith are very much in the
limelight at the present time. Provided that a sufficient number of
adult sockeyes are allowed to pass to the spawning grounds, which
may probably mean a complete cessation of sockeye fishing for a num-
ber of years, authorities all agree that increased protection during the
early life of the species is the remedy for the situation, but consid-
erable diversity of opinion exists as to how this is to be accomplished.

Under ordinary circumstances, sockeyes remain in fresh water
for at least one year, but whether it is a rigid law of nature or merely
an expedient to attain a certain size before meeting the destructive
competition of the sea, it is hard to say. Anyway, it is conceded that
in certain cases, notably that of the Harrison Rapids sockeye of the
Fraser River, certain of them do proceed to sea as fry and that par-
ticular race of sockeyes does not appear to have suffered depletion
any more than others with a stream-type of fish.

That the stay of sockeyes in fresh water appears to be a matter of
choice, received some confirmation last year through an experiment
at Grace Lake, a small barren body of water at the headwaters of
Morris Creek, near here. About one hundred thousand fry were
planted in that lake in April, 1920, and during July and August of
the same year, the majority of the fingerlings left voluntarily for the
sea when they had attained a length of three inches. These fish were
not over six months old and the result of an abundance of natural
food, coupled with freedom from molestation, is plainly evident in the
fine appearance of the fish. Though conditions were seemingly ideal
for a lengthier stay in the lake the fish left of their own accord, thus
strengthening the presumption that size is probably a determining
factor in the migration of the sockeye. At that time it was sup-
posed that all the fingerlings had left, but this year several thousand
fingerlings came down, our attention being first attracted by their
appearance in the settling tank of a small hatchery installed below
the lake. Fry planted at the same time in Otter Lake in an adjoining
barren body of water all left the first summer, slightly smaller than
those from Grace Lake, probably owing to the water being colder.

1This paper was accompanied by a number of interesting specimens of young salmon.

One and a half million fry have been planted in these lakes this
year (1921) and the outlets have been screened to control their de-
parture. |

In June, 1920, sockeyes were planted in Hicks Lake, an originally
barren lake lying at an altitude of 500 feet, three miles east of Harri-
son Lake Hatchery. No migration occurred the first summer. The
outlet at the lake is shallow and weedy and doubt was expressed as
to whether the fish would find it. A close watch was kept and on
May 5 we were agreeably surprised to find the creek swarming with
yearling sockeyes, and the run continued to the 19th when it ceased
as decisively as it had commenced. As there are two falls with a
combined height of 100 feet in Hicks Creek, which drains the lake,
a flume 500 feet long, three to five feet wide, and two feet deep,
was constructed of split cedar to provide a safe descent for the
migrating fish. The first fish to come down were eight inches long
and the length gradually decreased to five inches as the migration
progressed. This again demonstrates that the size of the fish is a
factor in the seaward migration, as the largest fish were the most
anxious to leave this lake, which has an area of about 400 acres and
a depth of 200 feet.

A heavy run of these seaward migrating natural yearling sockeyes
occurred from Cultus Lake in April of this year then, the average
length being only three inches. The diminutive size of these year-
lings indicates a shortage of food, and shows that the feeding capacity
of the lake was severely taxed to feed them in addition to the per-
manent fish life of the lake.

The time-worn assertion of Fraser River fishermen that small fish
at the beginning of a fishing season is an indication of a big run of
fish thus receives corroboration, for it is quite reasonable to presume
that in nature the more numerous the fish the less food each individual
will receive. Incidentally, 30,000 of these fish were marked by re-
moving the adipose and right ventral fins, to try to settle the much-
debated question as to whether the Cultus Lake sockeyes enter the
Fraser River during or after the regular fishing season.

Natural sockeye yearlings were also collected from Cultus Lake
in 1919, when there was a very small migration due to a poor run in
1918. The average size of these fish, however, is fully an inch
larger than those taken in 1920, corroborating the foregoing state-
ment in regard to food supply.

The sockeyes reared in the ponds at Harrison Lake Hatchery at
six months old were four inches in length and were fed four months,
first on the bodies of the parent fish and later on chum salmon, liver,

and maggots. Most of the credit for this rapid growth is due to the
good start the fry got on this food, some of them attaining a length
of over two inches on it alone; the fry showing the most partiality
for it were the healthiest and most contented in the ponds. It
appeared, however, that this food is suitable only for the earlier stage
of fry life, as milk is to the young of animals, for later on they
ignored it entirely.

In a paper’ read at the Annual Meeting of the American Fisheries
Society two years ago, the writer described how sockeye fry ate the
bodies of their parents when preserved in cold water through the
winter.

Spring or king salmon fingerlings five to six inches in length when
six months old, were fed four months on chum salmon, liver and
maggots. The remarkable growth of these fish and the sockeyes just
referred to inclines one to question the necessity for holding the fish
over to the second summer, especially when comparing them with the
natural yearlings from Cultus Lake.

The question is, does the sockeye remain in fresh water merely
to attain a certain size, and, provided that size has been attained in
six months instead of a year, are its chances of survival any less?
If they attain a year’s growth in six months, will they return a year
sooner? An attempt to throw some light on these questions was
made here this year by marking 4,000 six-months-old and 8,000 year-
ling sockeyes with distinctive marks to see when they will return.

The food on which the fish were fed was placed on submerged trays
a foot under water and suspended from floats. A lump of ground
salmon and liver, mixed with a little gravel if it showed a tendency
to float, was placed on each tray several times a day and the fish soon
learned to nibble it off. Fed this way the fish got more substance
from the food, and there was less waste, than if it had been cast on
the surface in a liquid state.

With large, deep ponds, water between fifty and sixty degrees in
temperature, and plenty of raw fish and liver, it is a comparatively
easy matter to rear sockeyes to a length of three or four inches in six
months. The feeding of millions of fry and fingerlings is an expen-
sive undertaking, and the mortality is bound to be high where fish
are crowded and unnatural food is fed; thus a number of years will
elapse before facilities can be provided to rear all the fry under these
conditions.

By utilizing the barren lakes, meaning natural ponds and lakes

1 Robertson, Alexander: The parent fish as a food supply. Transactions of
American Fisheries Society, Vol. XLVIII, June, 1919, pp. 1589.

utterly devoid of fish life because of falls in their outlets, accommo-
dation is immediately available for large numbers of fry, feeding is
not necessary, and there appears to be no mortality worth mention.
The strongest argument against the use of these lakes is that some of
the fish may refuse to leave and consequently prey on the fry sub-
sequently planted. This is assuming that the same lakes are used
year after year, which, of course, is optional, but even if some do re-
main and subsequent plantings are made, one has the callous satis-
faction of knowing that sockeyes are being fed to sockeyes and not
to trout, chubs, squawfish, and sculpins, as has been done heretofore.

The stocking of these lakes, which are more or less remote and
difficult to get at, was done in the following manner: A trail was
made and the eggs, on the point of hatching, were carried to the lake
in a specially made back-pack holding 50,000. The eggs were then
placed in hatching trays, one layer deep, and two trays thus loaded,
with an empty one on top for a cover, were securely fastened to-
gether. This stack was then placed in a small spring tributary with
rocks underneath the corners to keep it off the bottom and more on
top to keep it down, and left there until the fry were free-swimming.
Every week or two these were inspected, and at the proper time the
fry were released.

Discussion.

Dr. HE. EH. Prince, Ottawa, Canada: It may be interesting to those of
you who do not know the Pacific rivers very well to learn that 20 to 30
years ago the Fraser produced the sockeye or red salmon in probably
greater abundance than any other known river. These salmon proceeded
to the upper waters of the Fraser, 500 miles upstream. Other schools
proceeded to nearer spawning grounds, within 50 or 60 or 100 miles; thus
there was a succession of schools of sockeyes from June until October,
even sometimes into November. As the result of a very serious condition,
the upper spawning grounds of the Fraser were cut off for some years, and
the earlier runs were practically destroyed. This was the primary cause
of the decline of the stream. It is generally recognized that the sockeye
salmon spawn in streams tributary to a lake which itself empties into the
main river. The Fraser River illustrates the life history of the sockeye
to a remarkable degree. It really is not a very large river; but it has
immense spawning areas. Now, the question arises as to whether the size
to which the sockeye attains before it begins to descend is due to this
distance from the sea and to the fact that the food is inadequate for such
immense numbers of fish in the upper waters.

Mr. G. C. LEAcH, Washington, D. C.: One of the important sockeye
salmon stations of the Bureau of Fisheries is at Yes Bay, Alaska, produc-
ing in a good season from 60,000,000 to 70,000,000 eggs. It is located at
the head of Lake McDonald which is about five miles in length and con-
nected with the ocean by a small stream about 3 miles long. The young

salmon placed in Lake McDonald, after the yolk sac is absorbed or after
a short feeding period, leave the lake in large numbers when about three
inches in length the following May or June, approximately a year later.
The young fish have been fed some with salted salmon, also with fresh
Dolly Varden trout. They are usually fed from one to three months, after
which they seek their own food. In the spring of the year the young
salmon are found around the edges of the lake devouring the remains of
the parent fish. For this reason it is believed that when the food becomes
scarce in the lake they usually run out into the sea.

Mr. Robertson refers to planting sockeye eggs in more or less barren
lakes and inaccessible waters. About two years ago this was tried at
Yes Bay. The eyed eggs were planted in the gravel of the lakes or
streams and hatched under natural conditions. If we stock the barren
lakes, and the fish can reach the sea, it will mean the protection of the
young fish from Dolly Varden trout and other enemies which do not reach
such waters. Such plants must be given careful study and the number to
be planted must be based upon stream conditions, food and the chances
of survival. I believe eyed eggs should be planted within ten days or a
week of the hatching period and no attempt made to cover them up if in a
flowing stream. If in a lake, 1,000 eggs or so placed on a hatching tray
set on coarse gravel and covered would be preferable.

Dr. G. C. Empopy, Ithaca, N. Y.: It is generally believed on the Pacific
coast, and supported by very good evidence, that the sockeye, together with
its near relative the little landlocked red salmon, does not compete with
other salmons and trouts for food, their principal food being microscopic
erustaceans. I saw a number of stomachs which were in the possession of
Dr. Victor Smith at the University of Washington, and in all of these there
was a mass of entomostraca. I noticed no other forms whatever. All
were microscopic organisms. These fish were adults, while the little red
salmon were from 10 to 16 inches long. I also saw some stomachs taken
from larger sockeyes which contained entomostraca. As I remember, they
were two or three years old. I do not know whether it was due to a
preference for that food or scarcity of other natural foods. I think Dr. C.
H. Gilbert makes the statement that the gill rakers are a little longer and
more closely set than in other salmon. That would indicate they were
eapable of straining out finer food. Seeing those salmon full of these
small crustaceans indicates to me their preference for such food.

Mr. ARTHUR MERRILL, Sutton, Mass.: I would like to inquire as to the
survival of the young sockeye salmon sent by the Government to Pennsyl-
vania and Maryland this spring. They were about four inches long. Last
week I learned that some had been caught there with hook and line 10%
-Iinches in length. I should like to know whether in the opinion of Mr.
Leach they will survive?

Mr. LeacH: The Bureau of Fisheries does not make any attempt to
stock eastern waters with sockeye salmon. The fish mentioned by Mr.
Merrill were from eggs sent to Central Station, Washington, D. C., for
exhibition. It is my opinion that a few may survive and reach maturity,
but I doubt if they will reproduce and maintain themselves on the eastern
seaboard. It is a different story with the humpback salmon. In the fall
of 1916, 4,000,000 eyed eggs were shipped from the Pacific Coast to the

hatchery at Craig Brook, Me., and in the following spring 3,900,000 finger-
lings were planted in Dennys River. In the fall of 1919 the Craig Brook
station collected approximately 500,000 eggs from these salmon which had
returned to spawn. They ranged from five to six pounds in weight.

Mr. Merrit: In Massachusetts waters only the chinook is handled.
So far as concerns the work on the Merrimac River, there have been no
results at all. We have had varying results in the ponds. Some ponds,
for a brief period, gave very good results, but we had the same experience
as in other places. After a brief period of very interesting fishing, it
fell off to practically nothing. The work has been discontinued. The
fish were planted as fingerlings, varying in age from three to six months.

Mr. Leacu: I understand the Massachusetts Commission endeavored
to establish Pacific salmon in their streams and landlocked lakes, and that
those in the lakes reached very good size, but never reproduced. It is
important to know if the species will maintain itself in such an environ-
ment. Is there on record any instance of the chinook salmon reproducing
in those lakes?

Mr. Merritt: There is no instance of reproduction in the lakes of the
State, but at the Sandwich station the fish matured and spawned and the
resulting fry grew to fingerlings. This was accomplished last year under
artificial conditions.

SOME FISH-CULTURAL NOTES, WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO PATHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

By CHARLES O. HAYFORD

Superintendent, State Fish Hatchery, Hackettstown, N. J.

A fish culturist, operating on a large scale, is confronted with
many problems, but he also has many remedies in his own back yard
with which to combat these difficulties. In the summer of 1919 the
Fish and Game Commission of New Jersey set aside a small sum of
money to be used for experimental purposes, as directed by the writer,
for overcoming certain difficulties which it was believed could be cor-
rected. Investigations have been conducted by Dr. George C. Em-
body, assisted by Frederick Tresselt, and Professor W. T. Foster,
assisted by Robert W. Hodgson. A brief resumé of some of these
investigations follows.

FEEDING AND DISEASES OF TROUT

Experiments were carried on during the summer of 1920 to de-
termine the value of the various artificial and natural foods used for
trout at the Hackettstown Hatchery. These experiments clearly
demonstrate the value of natural food in the diet of hatchery trout
together with the relative importance of the artificial food combina-
tions.”

The production of the greatest possible number of fish through
the elimination of all factors detrimental to the increase of the same,
is the object of every fish culturist. To accomplish this, a careful in-
vestigation of each of these factors is necessary. The greatest re-
duction in the number of fish, under hatchery conditions, is brought
about by disease. Each individual hatchery has its own problems,
although more or less general conditions prevail throughout. In this
hatchery we have been confronted with two important diseases, one
protozoan and the other bacterial. The protozoan disease, namely,
Ichthyophthirius multifilis, was present during the seasons previous to
1920. It affected the rainbow trout. This is not recognized as a
serious trouble, in view of the fact that a very specific cure is known,
and once the diagnosis is made, the disease can be eliminated.

The case is somewhat different with the other disease, which is
more or less common throughout the country. It is of bacterial
origin and is characterized by the development of gray spots on the
head in the region of the cerebral hemispheres, followed by an appar-

1 Transactions, American Fisheries Society, Vol. L, pp. 251-256, 1920.

ent loss of balance, causing a spiral whirling. Death generally occurs
shortly after this stage is reached. The fish affected are those in their
first year, from May to September, which for the Hatckettstown
hatchery would mean fish from 1% to 4 inches in length. Both
brook and brown trout were affected, but the brook trout to a greater
extent.

The two possible sources of this organism are the water and the
food. In view of the fact that this disease, as far as known, is
not present among fish in the native streams, the possibility of the
transmission of the organism by water may be eliminated. The
examinations of the various foods such as beef liver and sheep plucks
show the presence of organisms not unlike those isolated from the
diseased fish. The study of these organisms has not been carried
on to a sufficient extent to show that they are identical, but it sug-
gests a possible relationship. It was thought that the presence of dis-
solved gases such as CO* and O might be looked upon as a very
important contributing factor in the loss of fish in the hatchery, but
a series of experiments carried on in the laboratory has shown this
factor is negligible. No noticeable difference appeared between equal
numbers of fish held in two ponds, one showing a maximum of CO’
and the other its absence.

The substitution of natural food such as Asellus and maggots
for artificial food, as beef liver, was the next logical step. Since,
under natural conditions, the fish subsist entirely on insect food, it
appears that there must be a certain something, such as a vitamine,
which is present in the natural food and lacking in the artificial. This
vital substance apparently has an inhibitory effect upon the offending
organism within the body of the fish. Experiments have shown that
when the disease appears in the hatchery a change of diet to natural
food has checked its further progress. On the return to the previous
food, immunity continues for from four to five weeks or more. This
has been worked out with both brown and brook trout but more
especially with the brook trout. Some aquatic insects seem to possess
greater germicidal properties, while another type of insect food pos-
sesses greater nutritive value. A combination of two, when more
scientifically worked out, may solve the problem of loss of fish by
this disease, as was indicated by feeding experiments carried on
during the summer of 1920. The whole problem narrows down to
one of diet, but without doubt the diet would have to be modified as
required by the conditions at the different hatcheries. Each fish cul-
turist would therefore have to work out his specific salvation based
on his own conditions, but according to general facts.

FEEDING YOUNG BASS

Stomach examinations of young bass carried on at the Hacketts-
town station show that during the first few weeks of their existence
their food consists almost entirely of microcrustacea, the predomi-
nating organisms in their order of importance being Cyclops, Simo-
cephalus, Chydorus and Scapholeberis. These forms can all be pro-
duced in the rearing ponds, and by the time the quantity of smaller
organisms has been reduced the fish will have attained a sufficient size
to take large organisms and will prefer them as food. It is at this
time that the supply should be supplemented by the daily introduction
of some form of natural food which is abundant and easy to secure.

At this station we have fed the following organisms with good
results, all of which we can produce in quantities large enough to be
of importance:

Abbott’s minnow (Notropss chalybaeus abbotti)
Larva of the Mayfly (Callibaetis culex)

Larva of the Culex mosquito

Maggot of the flesh-fly

Water boatman, or Corixa

Fresh-water sow-bug, or Asellus.

All of these organisms are most abundant during the months of
June, July, and August, during which period they are also in greatest
demand by the bass culturist. While they are all utilized to some
extent, certain of the organisms are more acceptable to the fish and
are taken more readily than others. The mosquito and Mayfly larve
and the small minnows are the forms most eagerly taken, while the
maggots and young sow-bugs are rejected at first but taken readily
enough when the young bass become accustomed to them. The Corixa
is taken readily by the larger fingerling bass. By the use of these
natural foods we find the bass can be trained to feed at a certain spot
with the same avidity as do trout. Experiments are now being con-
ducted to ascertain the possibility of rearing the fresh-water shrimp
(Gammarus fasciatus) in large enough quantities to be of importance

as a food for the young bass.

Discussion.

Mr. C. O. Hayrorp, Hackettstown, N. J.: At the Hackettstown hatch-
ery we have 164 trout ponds arranged in 17 separate parallel lines and
all are fed by spring water. They contain brook, brown and rainbow trout,
existing under identical conditions, and yet the mortality will vary widely.
The mortality record for the day may show one pond to be normal, a loss
of 40 in a second, 25 in a third, and 50 in a fourth. The reason for this
wide variation when the ponds and the fish are identical in all respects

and are handled the same, is one of the problems we are attempting to
solve.

Generally speaking, we can correct excess mortality by substituting
for meat such natural insect foods as fly maggots, the larva of the Culex
mosquito, and the fresh-water sow bug. I would like to emphasize the fact
that when the meat diet is stopped and natural food is substituted the
affected fish live a great deal longer and a large proportion of them re-
eover. Three or four other hatcheries have obtained practically the same
results. It is noticeable that when we place affected fish in natural
streams where they secure insect food a large proportion immediately
recover.

We have found that fish flesh and intestines are more attractive to
flies than other flesh, such as sheep liver and lungs, and that, if the
weather conditions are the same, a given amount of flesh distributed in
numerous small quantities over a large area will produce more maggots
than the same amount placed in one spot. The mosquito larve are secured
by pond fertilization with skimmed milk, according to the method which
Dr. Embody has explained in a paper at this meeting. The sow bug or
Asellus is developed in a stream which is choked with water cress and
Elodea canadensis, and which receives the washings and waste water
from the trout ponds. It is estimated that 100 bushels of these bugs
were secured from this stream during the summer of 1921. About 150
tons of fish food of all kinds is used at the hatchery each year. A daily
record of the mortality of each individual pond is charted and a glance
shows when the mortality of any particular pond is rising. One instance
of the value of our chart method was a spring fed pond which supplied
some trout ponds, but the water did not produce the same results as were
secured by using water from other spring fed ponds. This year the spring
was enlarged and deepened, and aquatic plants and insects were placed
in the ponds, which now are among our most successful for raising trout.

Mer. G. C. LeacH, Washington, D. C.: Do I understand that the para-
site Ichthyopthirius has given you considerable trouble at Hackettstown?

Mr. Hayrorp: No, it has not. Most of our water has a temperature
of about 50°, at which the parasite causes no trouble. Rainbow trout,
however, need a temperature of from 60° to 65° and at this temperature
the disease becomes serious. We have found a method of eradication
which consists simply of placing the affected fish in a pond with a strong
flow of water. Since the parasite must leave the body of the fish to
propagate, it is at once swept away by the water. The ponds from which
the fish have been taken are treated with a one per cent solution of
milk lime. We have always been able to confine this trouble to one pond,
and since the foregoing method was tried have had no further outbreaks.

Mr. LEacH: In our aquarium at Washington we have trouble with
the parasite Ichthyopthirius every spring, when the temperature of the
river water gets above 50° F. At that temperature or below the growth of
the parasite is arrested. The trouble continues until the temperature rises
to about 65°, and then it disappears. We have never treated fish with
a lime solution, though we have tried common baking soda. We put the
fish in a trough containing about as strong a solution of the soda as

100

they will stand. A saturated solution of soda is then applied with a
paint brush to both sides of the fish, which is immediately thereafter
put in the weaker solution of soda. This is very effective in killing the
parasites, although difficult to do because they will bury themselves in the
mucous membrane.

Dr. D. L. Betpinc, Hingham, Mass.: The subject of fish disease is
important to the fish culturist because the ultimate and continued success
of a hatchery depends in a large measure upon freedom from disease.
Fish are subject to diseases of various kinds: nutritional, developmental,
parasitic, and bacterial, not to mention mechanical injury, e.g., water
pollution. With the exception of a few protozoans, crustaceans, and
worms, the parasitic diseases are of minor importance. The fish culturist
is chiefly concerned with the bacterial diseases, especially the epidemics
which at times threaten to ruin completely his hatchery. I believe that
the work of Mr. Hayford, Dr. Foster and Dr. Embody, looking toward
the prevention of disease by building up the resistance of the fish by
means of proper environment, natural food, and selective breeding, is
a most important step towards the prevention of disease in our hatch-
eries. However, steps must also be taken to combat disease directly,
since the virulence of the invading organism, as well as the resistance of
the fish, must be considered. If you can eliminate the organism or reduce
its virulence, you will solve the problem.

In the summer of 1920, at one of the Massachusetts state hatcheries,
we lost our entire stock of fingerling and adult brook trout, owing to
an epidemic of the disease commonly known as “Furunculosis,” which is
eaused by a pleomorphic bacillus. Possibly six writers in Hurope and the
United States have described organisms so similar that I believe we have
to deal with a general group, the individual members of which differ in
virulence, in type of lesions, and in certain other characteristics. The
disease which became epidemic during the summer months first broke
out in the previous December, but caused slight mortality during the
cold weather. As the temperature of the water taken from a 10-acre
pond rose above 55° F., the number of deaths began to increase, and by
the time it had reached 60° F. the disease had become epidemic, spreading
from pool to pool, until all the fish were infected. At the height of the
epidemic, a death rate of 500 adults per day was attained. If we had
been able to keep the temperature of the water below 55° F., this par-
ticular disease could never have assumed epidemic proportions. The
chances of having epidemics are considerably lessened when the tempera-
ture of the water at a hatchery is less than 55° F., even though cold
water itself will not entirely eliminate disease. As a rule, the warmer
‘the water, the more difficult is the control of an epidemic, owing to the
lowered resistance of the fish and the maximum growing temperature for
the bacteria. To illustrate, in Furunculosis, at 57° F., it takes five days
to kill inoculated fish, while at 65° F., similarly treated fish die in two
days.

While I shall confine my remarks to only one bacterial disease,
Furunculosis, the same general principles hold true for all bacterial dis-
eases. Furunculosis is spread chiefly from fish to fish by direct contact,

101

but it may be transmitted through the water. Subcutaneous injections
of bacteria are almost invariably fatal, but feeding either material from
the lesion or cultures of the bacteria causes few deaths. Evidently the
fish do not invariably acquire the disease when exposed to bacterial infec-
tion unless there is a local lesion or a point of lowered resistance. 'There-
fore, continued contact with diseased fish is an important means of spread-
ing the disease. The artificial condition of hatchery rearing favors the
tendency to keep the maximum number of fish per pool. The fish receive
unnatural food and do not get exercise as in nature. Thus, the chances
for catching the disease and the spreading of an epidemic are very much
greater among hatchery fish. The only practical treatment is - radical
elimination by killing the infected and exposed fish and thoroughly steril-
izing the pools. Early diagnosis and prompt action are necessary to check
bacterial diseases. Radical methods offer the only efficient method of
handling such epidemic diseases.

In hatchery work the prevention of disease, not the treatment of in-
dividual fish, is the prime essential, except in the case of valuable aqua-
rium fish. Mechanical or chemical methods of treatment are of little or
no value for the septiczemic diseases. With the exception of the beneficial
effect upon fungus of the salt, and possibly the mud, bath all the empiri-
eal methods handed down from the dark ages of fish culture are value-
less in combatting bacterial epidemics, and frequently do more harm than
good. In treating fish infected with Furunculosis, I have tried every
method I had ever heard of, and the untreated fish lived longer than the
treated, probably due to the additional handling. In my opinion, we havs
all been laboring under a delusion, as regards the efficiency of the bath
and the chemical treatment of bacterial diseases of fish.

Mr. J. W. Titcoms, Albany, N. Y.: Were the fish in water above the
pools?

Dr. BeLpING: They were in separate pools fed chiefly by springs,
but were unfortunately contaminated by implements used in the diseased
pools, a condition which could have been avoided if rigid isolation had
been enforced. To illustrate the practicability of absolute isolation in this
connection, it may be stated that this particular hatchery had two divi-
sions—one at Sandwich, and the other at East Sandwich—three miles
apart, and that, by instituting a rigid quarantine, the Sandwich division
was kept entirely free from disease. I believe we could have quarantined
those fingerlings, although it would be more difficult because of proximity,
seepage from contaminated ground, and fish-eating birds. This spring the
disease was checked by promptly destroying 600 fish in one pool where
infection was discovered. That is a debatable question. At the time, I
decided that it was better to kill the fish in order to keep Massachusetts
waters absolutely free from this disease. Since then, I have found dis-
eased wild fish, indicating that Massachusetts is not free from this par-
ticular disease, although possibly it is less prevalent than in New York,
New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Now, I would be inclined to recommend
that these fish be put into some coastal streams of limited range and the
results watched. Of the 600 fish referred to probably less than 10 per
cent would be infected, and they would spread over a comparatively
wide territory. It is probable that the 10 per cent would die without

102

infecting the others, and even possible that the diseased fish might recover,
though in the hatchery I have never seen any fish recover from the dis-
ease, nor have I noted any immunity among the survivors of an epidemic.

Mr. Titcoms: Is it not true in most instances where there are diseased
fish that if you liberate them when not too far gone so they have natural
conditions and a free run, a large proportion of them will recover?

Dr. BELDING: If we are not contaminating new waters the thing to do
is to put out the fish and let nature take its course. I do not know the
origin of that disease but it has been found in 25 rivers in Bavaria, and
in this country is prevalent in New Jersey and New York. It is not limited
to the trout or salmon family, since many salt and fresh water species
are susceptible to artificial inoculation. I have not found this disease in
salt water fish, under natural conditions, but believe it may exist. Cir-
cumstantial evidence indicates that this epidemic was started by feeding
whiting. Low vitality would render the fish more susceptible to the dis-
ease, but I believe that the strongest hatchery trout would in time suc-
cumb to this virulent disease. For instance, the landlocked salmon are
more, and rainbow trout less, susceptible than the brook trout. Both the
rainbow trout and the brown trout are more resistant to disease generally.

Mr. Tircomsp: We might say that all our trout, under these intensive
conditions which are not quite norma], would naturally be more susceptible
than they would be in wild waters.

Dr. BELDING: Naturally, the disease would spread by contact infection
more easily at the hatcheries. About 40 per cent of the diseased fish show
local lesions in the form of external abscesses and ulcers. The peritoneum
is also affected in certain cases and a thin bloody fluid exudes from the
vent. In crowded pools other fish are constantly in contact with this in-
fectious material. So far as I know no animals except fish are susceptible
to this particular disease which evidently spreads through the water from
fish to fish and occurs in the wild state. It is possible that at some time
this was a harmless bacterium which later acquired pathogenic properties
for fish. The bacterium which we isolated at the Sandwich hatchery was
first called Bacterium salmonicida in 1894 by Emmerich and Weibel in
Bavaria, and Bacterium trutte in 1904 by Marsh in the United States.

Mr. TircomB: Do you think this disease can be connected with
pollution?

Dr. BEtpInc: Ido not. The earlier investigators believed it was due
to water polluted with organic materials from barnyards, not the chemical
trade waste pollution of today, but later observations have completely dis-
proved this idea.

Mr. J. M. Crampton, New Haven, Conn.: At our hatchery last spring
- we had 100,000 two-inch trout which died at the rate of about 10,000 a day
until all were gone. Their eyes were protruding and they were transparent.
The water temperature was 56° F. and Professor Rutger of Yale University
said it was as fine as any spring water he had examined. Those who
furnished the liver and melts fed to the fish declared them fit for table
use. The minute we put the fish into another spring, or tank from another
spring, they died more quickly than those held in the original trough. We
salted the springs and did everything we could think of to save them, but
they all died in about 10 days. I have since heard that there is not a State

103

in the Union but has had these same epidemics. There is an excavation
which runs directly down to the head of the spring, and we had imagined
that oiling the road had polluted the water; but Professor Rutger says
there was absolutely nothing of the kind there.

Dr. W. T. Foster, Easton, Pa.: The only water ever found without
organisms was from an artesian well. Water may be pure for drinking
purposes and yet have organisms in it, and it still may affect fish, though
not human beings.

Dr. G. C. Emsopy, Ithaca, N. Y.: Can any of these scientists tell
us what the chances are of carrying this disease from one hatchery to
another in eggs or in the package used in shipping eggs?

Dr. Betpine: I do not know. Diseases undoubtedly vary as regards
transmission through eggs. In this particular disease you might be able to
get uncontaminated eggs, since the majority of fish stripped would not be in-
fected even if the disease were present among the brood stock. If fish with
infected body cavities were stripped, the eggs would be directly contami-
nated. Whether such eggs kept in running water would be thoroughly
cleansed of bacteria before the fry were hatched is at present unknown.
In this connection I seriously question the advisability of using raw fish
as food in hatcheries, owing to the danger of transmitting bacterial and
parasitic diseases. Pasteurizing or even bringing the food to a boil would
completely elimate this danger, but feeding raw fish will always be a
potential source of danger.

Mr. Trtcoms: Is there more danger of transmitting the disease from
fish than there is from liver?

Dr. Betpinc: Fish infections are probably different from mam-
malian diseases, and by using diseased fish for food you would expose your
fish to diseases to which they were susceptible, whereas they probably would
not be infected by diseased mammalian food. Cold storage liver in the
course of handling might pick up a disease bacterium that would affect
your fish, but the chances of producing any fish disease except nutritional
or toxic disturbances are very slight.

Mr. LeEacH: Do you believe that these bacterial diseases would be
injurious to human beings?

Dr. Betpinc: The causative organism of Furunculosis is not injuri-
ous because it will not grow at human body temperature.

Mr. LeacH: Most of the fish fed to fish in the Mississippi Valley
are of the coarse species found there and are not considered of best quality
for human consumption. I think they would be very free from any such
disease. I think the same condition applies on the Atlantic Coast, except
that the herring and other fish which would be fed might be too stale for
the market. I do not see how they would contain such germs, especially
since they are from salt water.

Dr. BeLpInc: I am convinced that this disease is prevalent among
salt water fish and that it can be transmitted by feeding diseased fish to
trout. Definite proof upon this point is lacking, but Mr. Keil in his paper
of yesterday mentioned cases where, in his experience, this particular dis-
ease followed feeding fish food, and in the records of the United States
Bureau of Fisheries there is also a description of a similar case. Thus

104

presumptive evidence, at least, suggests that there is a possible association
between feeding fish as food and this disease.

Mr. N. R. Butter, Harrisburg, Pa.: The bacterial disease referred
to by Dr. Belding and Mr. Hayford is not new. Going back 30 years I
know of a hatchery in Pennsylvania where an epidemic of this kind
occurred. It is not always in high temperatures that the disease prevails,
for here the maximum in the ponds was only 50° F. Drastic action was
taken, every fish being killed and the ponds emptied and thoroughly steril-
ized. The hatchery is in operation today and since that time there has been
no trouble from the disease. I would hesitate to believe that this particular
disease can be transferred in the eggs, for the reason that we have hatched
many that came from stations where it was present, without any apparent
development of the disease.

Mr. Leacn: I never heard of the disease at our western stations
where we take eggs from wild fish. It has only occurred at such
stations as are supplied with eggs from commercial hatcheries, and I
thought possibly it was due to the lowering of the vitality of those fish.

Mr. Cartos Avery, St. Paul, Minn.: I would like to know the opin-
ion of these scientific men as to whether fish from wild streams would not
be more liable to such diseases than healthy domesticated fishes, and
whether immunity might be built up in these domesticated fishes, the same
as in other animals?

Dr. G. C. Empopy, Ithaca, N. Y.: At times during the last three
years I have been working with Mr. Hayford in an effort to develop in
trout a resistance to certain bacterial diseases. The results thus far are
very promising, but we believe it will take six years, at least, to bring them
to a point where we will be able to deduce any permanent conclusions. So
far our experiments indicate a practical explanation of what happened in
the case of the breeders at a certain hatchery. I am not sure that it was a
bacterial disease there, but it was some kind of disease, and the presumption
is that it was bacterial. At any rate the trout that were right below the
basin which was so badly infected, did not take the disease. I understand,
from what Dr. Belding said, that this disease rarely occurs in wild trout,
that he found very few cases among the wild trout. Is that true?

Dr. Betpine: I have never found it in wild trout, but have cited it
in two pickerel from different ponds in Massachusetts. It has been reported
in wild salmon and trout in Ireland and in a number of rivers in Bavaria.
I also understand that it is present in wild fish in New York, New Jersey
and Pennsylvania and is especially prevalent in certain private preserves.

Dr. Emsopy: At any rate it is not so prevalent among wild fish as
among hatchery fish, and in my opinion it is distinctly a disease of domes- °
tication. We have diseases of domestication in the history of our poultry
breeding. If you take wild jungle fowl, from which all of our poultry are
supposed to have come, and put them in a chicken coop and try to raise
them like ordinary chickens, I am sure you would not raise very many.
They are susceptible to the diseases of domestication. Our domestic poultry
are resistant to those diseases. It has taken hundreds of years to bring
that about through unconscious selection at a time when nothing was
known about selective breeding. Something is known about that now and
I believe we are justified in attempting to produce disease-resistant trout.

105

There are two ways in which the disease may probably be prevented ;
one is by feeding a little natural food, as Mr. Hayford has done with some
satisfactory results, and the other is by developing a disease-resistant
strain. Undoubtedly the quickest way to get rid of the disease is to de-
stroy all the infected fish, but that is not a permanent way. As was men-
tioned in one case, the disease came back again in two years. I do not
care how many ponds of fish you destroy, the disease is bound to return
again, unless you develop a resistance in your fishes. I do not know how
far this may be carried out, but if the results continue to pile up, I am
sure that you will be greatly surprised when the experiments are finally
concluded.

106

FISH PATHOLOGY
By W. T. Foster
Easton, Pennsylvania

Early in the summer of 1920 the writer was called to the State
fish hatchery at Hackettstown, N. J., for the purpose of carrying on
some experiments in fish pathology, with special reference to the
bacterial diseases of fish. But a comparatively small amount of work
has been done along these lines, especially in the United States. The
only investigator who has done much work along the line of fish dis-
eases in general is Hofer of Germany, whose book, “Das Handbuch
der Fisch Krankheiten,’:has not yet been translated into English.

Most diseases among fish are caused by plant and animal micro
and macro organisms. Comparatively little is known concerning the
diseases caused by the microscopic vegetable organisms or bacteria.
Bacteria are microscopic plants comprising a subdivision of the fungi.
The two more important diseases with which we have come in con-
tact at the hatchery, and which are more or less universal, are those
caused on the one hand by a microscopic animal and on the other by
a microscopic plant. The first mentioned disease is caused by an
infusorian of the protozoan group known as the Ichthyophthirius mul-
tifilis. It is comparatively easy to detect this organism by the pres-
ence of small, grayish, pimple-like protuberances on the bodies of the
fish. By scraping off one of these and placing it under the micro-
scope the actively moving organism can be seen, thus substantiating
the naked eye diagnosis.

A specific cure for this disease is known, and, therefore, should
not receive our serious attention. It is a matter of keeping our eyes
open, and once the disease is detected in its incipiency, the thera-
peutic measure is simple. This disease is fully discussed elsewhere.
With the bacterial diseases the case is quite different. A number of
diseases of this type have been fully described ; the organisms causing
them have been isolated and classified, but the eradication of these
diseases when once they appear creates a difficult problem which is
not easy to solve.

The one bacterial organism with which we come in contact per-
haps more than any other and which creates more varied morbid
conditions in fish, is that described by Marsh, formerly of the U. S.
Bureau of Fisheries, and known as the “Bacterium trutte.” At the
hatchery we have isolated what we believe to be the same organism,
from the heart’s blood and from local lesions. The disease as we

107

have found it exhibits itself in a very peculiar but very definite way.
It occurs mainly among two to three inch brook trout fingerlings.
The first manifestation is the development of gray spots in the region
or directly over the cerebral hemispheres, the spots increasing in size
and finally running together. About this time the fish begins to
gyrate in a more or less spiral fashion, which movements always, as
far as observed, end in death. At the hatchery we have termed this
disease the “whirling sickness” or the “cerebral spot disease.” In
every instance the organism in great numbers has been isolated from
the local lesions and the heart’s blood. This organism has been shown
by Marsh to be of a pleomorphic type, that is, it exhibits different
forms under different conditions. The writer believes that a number
of diseases may be caused by different strains of this organism in
somewhat the same sense that we have different strains of the Pneu-
mococci and typhoid bacilli. Dr. David L. Belding, of Massachu-
setts, has been confronted with what appears to be the same organism,
producing in the adult brook trout ulcers which usually prove fatal.
We have begun a comparison of these organisms with the belief that
there is close relationship between the two.

In making attempts to combat this disease, after learning the
morphological and cultural characteristics of the organism, the plan
was to ascertain the source and mode of infection. Attention was
then directed to the water supply and the food. The food used at
the Hackettstown hatchery consists of butterfish, beef liver, pork
melts, and sheep plucks. Samples from different lots of this food
taken from cold storage were examined, and organisms not unlike
those above described were isolated from the sheep hearts and the
beef livers. It was not possible to carry out the work sufficiently to
prove that the organisms were normal to the beef and sheep, as these
animals are warm blooded, while fish are cold blooded. It is quite
possible for an organism of this type to gain access to the food men-
tioned on being handled.

The lactic acid bacillus is not present in milk while in the udder
nor is it introduced into the milk intentionally, but always gains
access on subsequent handling. If the food is proved to be a carrier
of the organism, sterilization would eliminate it. If the water is the
agent of transmission, the destruction of the bacteria would be a dif-
ficult problem in view of the fact that any germicide now recognized
for the treatment of water would have a very harmful effect on the
fish. On the other hand, the organisms isolated from the heart’s
blood and from the local lesions in the fish have proved to be very
resistant to germicidal agents. In laboratory experiments these bac-

108

teria have been placed in an iodine solution directly on a microscopic
slide and the organisms continued their activities, apparently
unaffected in the slightest degree.

The same was true in the case where local lesions were treated
with this solution, the organisms showing no effect of the germicide.
The preparation of a vaccine or an antitoxin, although proved to be
effective, would be out of the question because of the impossibility
of application due to the size and number of the fish that would
require the treatment.

In the above investigations the work has not been carried far
enough to prove anything definitely, and the results of our observa-
tions are given simply as food for thought, with the feeling that
others may be sufficiently interested to carry on further experiments,
eventually of great value to fish culture.

But in view of all these facts, the writer is of the firm opinion
that the diseases that prove to be the most disastrous are those of
bacterial origin, and, owing to their nature, mode of transmission, and
apparent resistance to recognized germicidal agents, can only be con-
trolled by the creation or rather development of an immune strain of
fish. Fish in the native streams as far as we know are immune to
these diseases. This immunity has been developed naturally and there
is no reason why this condition among fish in our hatcheries cannot be
developed artificially by subjecting them to the disease in question
and breeding from the survivors of each succeeding generation. In
view of the present facts this seems to be the only solution of the
problem.

109

BACTERIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AN EXPERIMENTAL
PACK OF CANNED SALMON*

By Recinatp H. FIEDLER

Seattle, Washington

It is well known that bacteria cause spoilage of canned salmon.
At the present time there is much agitation on the part of salmon can-
ners to determine just how long to process salmon in order to kill
any bacteria present. When it is remembered that the annual pro-
duction of canned salmon on the Pacific Coast exceeds 7,000,000
cases, we find the question of grave importance. It requires a longer
time to kill certain bacteria than others, as for instance spore-bearing
bacteria will withstand a longer process than non-spore-bearing bac-
teria. The purpose of this investigation will be to determine the
length of time and the temperature of the process necessary to kill
certain spore-forming bacteria inoculated in the cans before proces-
sing.

HISTORY

Much literature has accumulated in the past quarter of a century
in regard to the bacteriology of canned foods. However, very little
of this scientific investigation touched upon the bacteriology of canned
salmon. To throw some light on the present experiment it may be
of value to give a short résumé of previous efforts along this line.

The first scientific work in the bacteriology of fisheries products
in this country was conducted in 1897 by Prescott and Underwood,
who studied the spoilage of canned salmon and lobsters. They sepa-
rated several species of bacteria from the samples studied. Inocula-
tion with these brought results. They tested retort and water-bath
sterilization and found the former to be the better method.

In 1908 Cathcart, of the Lister Institute, made examination of
“blown” sardines. A health officer had rejected these cans as unfit
for food. Upon opening, the cans gave off a very violent smelling
gas. Organisms of the B. coli type were isolated. Feeding these
cultures to guinea pigs proved negative.

Teyxeria, 1910, in Italy, investigated the cause of poisoning
thought to be due to spoiled canned fish. He found several kinds of

1 This experiment was unde:taken as a problem in the College of Fisheries, Univer-
sity of Washington. The bacteriological work was carried on in the bacteriological
laboratory of the University, under the personal supervision of Dr. John Weinzirl, head
of the Department, to whom the author is indebted for advice.

Printed by permission of the College of Fisheries, University of Washington, Seattle.

110

bacteria present, including L. prodigiosus, B. botulinus, B. enteritidis,
and two molds of minor importance, indicating serious underproces-
sing, leaky cans, or contamination of cultures.

In 1911 Sammet studied different kinds of fish put up in cans in
various ways. He found some of those preserved in vinegar spoiled
and had acetic bacteria present, also spore formers of the mesen-
tericus group were present. In salted fish, such as anchovies, he

While working for the Bureau of Chemistry, Mrs. Obst exam-
found micrococci and, rarely, bacteria of the mesentericus group.
ined sardines and isolated a spore former resembling, if not identical
with, B. walfischrauschbrand (Nielson). Sadler of Canada isolated
bacteria from canned sardines. In examination of the cottonseed oil
used, no bacteria were isolated.

Dr. Weinzirl, in 1918, studied canned salmon and found two out
of 17 cans contained living bacteria, or other organisms. He also
found the colon group prevailing in canned sardines. Since the in-
testines are not removed from the fish it may be that the bacteria
there present survive the processing. This group causes the can to
swell and spoils the fish as well.

In 1919, Hunter and Thom examined 537 cans of salmon and
found 237, or 44.7 per cent, contained living organisms in one form
or another. The high prevalence of non-sterile cans might in part be
due to the class of canned goods inspected. They confined their in-
vestigations largely to canned salmon rejected by the Quartermaster
Corps. They isolated a peculiar spore former that has a tendency to
redden the meat of salmon and whose spores resisted a considerable
degree of heat.

In the National Canners’ Association laboratory, Bagley Hall,
University of Washington, Seattle, 1920, Dr. C. R. Fellers, Mr.
R. W. Clough, and Mr. O. E. Shostrom found in over 200 normal
commercial packs of salmon an average of 7.2 per cent of non-sterile
cans. In suspected packs this percentage was much higher. In an
experimental pack of canned salmon prepared in the same laboratory,
only 4 per cent were found non-sterile. The fish were canned in
one-half pound flat cans and were processed 80 minutes at 240° F.

DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENT

Cultures used. Cultures were obtained from the bacteriology
department, University of Washington, and subcultures were streaked
on agar petri plates, these plates being used because they have a large
surface upon which to get an abundant growth. In all cases the
subcultures were allowed to incubate not less than three days. This
gave ample time for the formation of spores. Spore-forming bac-

ia Gl

teria were used. This type of organism is more resistant to heat and
thus would be of more practical value in the experiment. It is also
found the greatest number of times in canned salmon. The follow-
ing bacteria were used: B. albolactus, B. vulgatus, B. mycoides, B.
sporogenes, B. botulinus, B. cereus, B. pseudotetanicus, Hunter and
Thom’s bacillus (B. mesentericus, Flugge), a thermophile, and soil
from the street.

Canning. White king salmon were obtained from local whole-
sale fish dealers, which had been caught in the waters of Alaska
by trollers, iced, and then shipped to Seattle. At the time of canning,
the fish were at least a week old, and perhaps older, but as they had
been kept at a comparatively low temperature they were in very good
condition. All the canning was done in the canning laboratory of the
College of Fisheries, University of Washington, Seattle. After being
thoroughly cleaned, heads removed as well as fins and viscera, the fish
were hand packed in one-half pound flat sanitary salmon cans.

Inoculation of cans. In inoculating the cans a short wire was
smeared over the cuture prepared and thrust into the meat as near
the center of the can as possible. Reasonable care was taken to ward
off any contamination. Eighty-eight cans were filled and inoculated,
40 cans on April 8 and 48 cans May 13, 1921. As a control, 8 of
the latter, two for each temperature, were not inoculated. Each kind
of bacteria was inoculated in eight different cans. All the cans were
then exhausted for 15 minutes at 212° F. with the top on loosely
(clinched). After exhausting they were double-seamed and proc-
essed, two of each inoculation for 45 minutes, two for 60 minutes,
two for 75 minutes, and two for 90 minutes, all at 240° F.

By varying the time factor and keeping the process temperature
the same, but one variable element entered into the experiment. In
selecting the time factors, 45 minutes was taken because it was
thought with good reason that this length of time was entirely too
short and would give a basis for comparison. Sixty minutes was
thought to be just a little under normal; 75 minutes was thought suf-
ficient, and 90 minutes too long. In short, there were selected two
lengths of time thought to be too short, one too long, and one about
normal. After processing, the cans were allowed to cool naturally.

Method of examination. In examining the cans of salmon, an
attempt was made to isolate all the types and species of organisms
found to be present, and learn their relation to the bacteria originally
inoculated in the cans. It should be kept in mind that some bacteria
were in the salmon from the start. The scheme adopted is the one
worked out by Dr. Weinzirl, of the University of Washington, and

112

;
j

was used in every case. Organisms looked for included anaerobes,
aerobes, and thermophiles. The anaerobes and thermophiles were
not fully identified, there being no positive way of determining their
identity. Aerobes were fully identified.

The standard method followed consisted of obtaining these cul-
tures from the fish in each can, i. e., two petri plates were cultured
from the meat, one petri plate from the juice, a mass culture from the
meat, and an anaerobic glucose agar culture from the meat. The
petri plates were incubated at 37°C. The mass culture was incu-
bated at 37° C. and 55° C. This method would favor the growth of
bacteria whose optimum temperature is 37° and of thermophiles
whose optimum temperature is 55°C. The anaerobic culture (glu-
cose agar) would favor the growth of anaerobic bacteria whose opti-
mum temperatures are 37° and 55° C. The glucose agar was boiled
previously to expel any air which might be in the tube.

All mass culture bottles, petri dishes, test tubes, spoons, and can
openers were thoroughly washed with soap and water, dried, and
sterilized. The can was thoroughly washed and dried, and the top
held over a gas flame to kill any bacteria remaining. The can was
then opened with the sterile can opener, using due care not to con-
taminate the contents. After the can was opened the top layers of
meat were removed with the sterile spoon; this portion of the meat
having been heated, the bacteria would likely be killed. A mass cul-
ture was taken from the center meat, consisting of about four grams
of meat, which was placed in a small, wide-mouthed bottle containing
beef broth. The juice culture was taken with a spoon, which meas-
ured about four cubic centimeters, placed in a petri dish and later
covered with melted agar. The two meat cultures were placed in a
tube, thoroughly ground up with a small sterile pestle, and placed in
petri dishes. These cultures were also covered with melted agar.
The anaerobic culture was placed in a test tube and mixed with
glucose agar. All these cultures were then incubated at 37° C. for
from three to five days. The mass and anaerobic cultures were later
removed and incubated at 55° to detect thermophiles.

The media for identification were potato, lactose fermentation
tube, glucose fermentation tube, plain milk, litmus milk, and gelatine.

Incubation. The cans examined were all incubated at room tem-
perature from 5 to 26 days. In no case was any swell or leaky can
noticed. With the first lots of cans the shortest process was exam-
ined first, while with the second lot the longest process was examined
first. The cans, as stated above, were heated or exhausted at 212° F.

113

for 15 minutes to secure the expulsion of air, thus forming a sterile
vacuum. This is the general rule followed in most canneries.

Organisms recovered. Bacteria isolated from the cans were of
three types, aerobes, anaerobes, and thermophiles, their frequency
being in the order named. The thermophiles found seemed to be all
of the same type and no further identification was made of them.
Anaerobes were detected but not identified. Having such a large
group of aerobes, it was necessary to separate them into types before
they could be finally identified, and this was done by subculturing
upon potato. By this method many like, or apparently like, organisms
separated. Those encountered the greatest number of times were
distinguished by the following characteristics: B. subtilis (Ehren-
berg), an abundant, beady growth upon potato, turning pink after
about the first 24 hours, when incubated at 37° C.; B. vulgatus
(Flugge), large, hanging folds, grayish white in color when incu-
bated at 37° for 24 hours; and B. mesentericus (Flugge), a light
buff, finely wrinkled growth when incubated at 37° from 24 hours to
three days. Many organisms found had not been inoculated in the
cans, and therefore must have been in the raw fish or cans used in
the experiment. The following foreign organisms were recovered
from the cans after processing, some of which were isolated from a
single colony found on a petri plate:

FOREIGN ORGANISMS RECOVERED

No. of cans in

Name which found.
PNET MIOMOILES seh PIN eke sretafentvens ole Pere eter Bic teeta hereeemer cnametaret een 12
PRT ROTOWES tatous ue heehee w Aue te ORC OR TN et REr ister bie sae a Referee Pave eke one 5
Pe VIS QEAING 2)5.5 sis.ons cto watunsevene Sl apebeeerc eleven ate vele is ieicteneieyekehene Oneonta 49
aI CSCHCETICUS! signed tierce vateieteleue sonia ete See arcane en eee tT
SSUES ETD ENG ce Messe co 5yus bs ace toetie saa petaN oh ates hehe Reset ne Paar ORE Te Ve Vea eC 14
Wet UO OL UC EUS S ailasidr'a ce aiicra eed si oe a etio oe ee detache eles ona AG aNcIAC eee 12
dC PHSI EI] 0) Fs Lt Ins Se ted PME eri ee BS Sa A Bice Sete al lcd aie sis bi 8
B. cereus ...... We oid oer ds ds sehene ak) 6 leva eatiaweteh atin’ SuSHiek yelwte sets hater aie eee 15
MET CEOCOCE eS eis sibs: co bara ee tone mie raha ra baiavey scatters ee ene 9
SSENOP Ge SM io ssc 6S SIS e ere, Cera eule eee oats GAs IAS aT eee eto a |
ACAI SUNOS. 5) 5'5.'s5. 9) e tatolatens lateiicte tolk oie lebane abana eT REI Oe eck 1
ES PETUNIA EUS «52535 oud 0: dete os eect eolancie Rake SII CTO te eT Ere aie ee 1

Of the ten organisms inoculated into the salmon four were recov-
ered from eight different cans after processing. These bacteria are
given in the following table, with the length of time the can was
processed :

114

INTRODUCED ORGANISMS RECOVERED

No. of cans in Minutes
which found. Name processed.

1 B. albolactus 45

a B. vulgatus 45

1 B. megatherium (soil) 45

ib B. subtilis (soil) 60

2 B. albolactus (soil) 75

1 B. vulgatus 90

1 B. albolactis (soil) 80

Sterility. A can of salmon examined in this experiment was de-
termined to be sterile when the meat and juice cultures incubated in
the petri dish produced less than three colonies of any one bacterium,
when a spreader was present which was the result of less than three
colonies, when the mass culture showed sterility, and when no gas was
produced in the anaerobic culture tube. In the case of the meat and
juice petri plate cultures, the one or two colonies found at times
may have been caused by an error in the technique, unsterile media,
or an organism may have fallen into the plate. Thus judgment was
somewhat reserved. The following table gives the results of the
experimental pack:

NON-STERILE CANS IN EXPERIMENTAL PACK

“——e April 8 May 13 Total

number Per-
ee Number prea Number roa ae non- centage.

=) Of cans. | sterite, | Of CABS: | sterile, sterile.
45 min.. 10 10 1b. tf 17 UT 6
60 min.. 10 = 12 1 5 22
75 min..| 10 al ibe 2 3 14
90 min.. 10 0 12 7 = 9

From the above it appears that about 77 per cent of the 45-minute
process were non-sterile, 22 per cent of the 60-minute process, 14
per cent of the 75-minute process, and 9 per cent of the 90-minute
process. These results compare favorably with the results obtained
in the National Canners’ laboratory at Seattle. It should be remem-
bered that this experimental pack was put up under the same condi-
tions that prevail in the average salmon cannery. The fish used
were somewhat older than those usually canned in a commercial
plant, giving more chance for bacterial infection.

115

CONCLUSIONS

1. But four of the original bacteria inoculated into the cans were
recovered.

2. The process time, according to this experiment, for one-half
pound flat cans of salmon should be between 75 and 90 minutes at
240° F.

Discussion.

Dr. E. E. Prince, Ottawa, Canada: This paper interests practical
men because, when it is printed they will get the facts as to the time and
temperature at which to process fish products for the market. In Canada
we have done a good deal of work on the canned lobster, especially on what
is called the blackening of lobsters. You open a can of lobsters and observe
a very bad color, a black appearance with sometimes a bluish cast which
is not very presentable at the table. But the lobster itself may not be
really harmful as a food. It is merely a case of a bacterium which spoils
the appearance and, of course, from a market point of view that is ex-
tremely important. From the food point of view it is less important. All
bacteria are not the same. It is a very important matter for the bacteri-
ologist to study minutely the various kinds of bacteria. From this paper we
learn that thirteen different kinds of bacteria were found in canned salmon,
yet I think we can lay it down as a general proposition that very rarely is
canned salmon dangerous as food. All fish, of course, contain bacteria,
and when the cans are filled and processed, these may or may not be killed.
As a rule they are killed. This paper shows that only four survived even
the comparatively low temperatures to which the author submitted them.

In Canada Professor F. C. Harrison investigated blackened lobsters.
last summer, and he found not thirteen, but I think about twenty-three,
different bacteria in them. A person studying bacteria wants to know
what the bacteria really do from a food point of view.

Many present here will have been asked—I am sure the question has
been asked hundreds of times by various people—what effect parasites have
up(n the fish. In other words, when you find parasites in the flesh, skin,
stomach, or intestines of a fish, is that fish fit for food? On the whole,
I would say that no fish parasites are injurious to human beings. Every
parasite as a rule, has two hosts. The first host may be a bird, but the
second host is not a human being. If you find a parasite in fish its second
host is in some of the lower animals, frequently invertebrates, but not a
human being. In Italy some fish parasites are cooked by the Italians for
food.

116

PUBLIC AQUARIUMS
By Warp T. BoweEr

Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

For purposes of education and recreation too much cannot be
said in behalf of public aquariums. As proof of this, one has but to
observe the eager and interested faces of the multitudes of visitors
at our all-too-few institutions of this character. Irrespective of age
or station in life, whether savant on the one extreme or school
child on the other, there exists a common and spell-binding interest
in marine creatures properly displayed. Here lie unbounded educa-
tional opportunities for the student of biology as well as for the most
casual pleasure-seeker. Unfortunately but few municipalities have
thus far recognized the great possibilities in this field. The public
aquariums at New York, Philadelphia, Detroit, Miami, Boston, and
Washington should point the way to many other cities. The next
large city to be favored in this regard is San Francisco, where
through private benefaction funds have already been provided and
plans about completed for the erection of a splendid public aquarium
to be located’ in Golden Gate Park and operated at municipal expense
under the immediate supervision of the California Academy of
Sciences.

Public aquariums are of comparatively modern origin. It was in
the late sixties that an Englishman aroused an interest which soon
caused various European cities, including London, Berlin, Paris,
Hamburg, Hanover, Amsterdam, Brighton, and a little later Naples,
to vie one with another in an effort to establish public aquariums.
There were others, too, supported both by public and private enter-
prise. Today probably the most famous and finest of all aquariums
is that at Naples.

In the earlier days of public aquariums it was deemed most appro-
priate to construct them so as to produce marine-like impressions
upon the visitor. Thus, cavernous and subterranean entrances and
grotto-like galleries and passageways were much in vogue. In some
instances this semblance was worked out very well, but ordinarily it
was at the sacrifice of features which we recognize as of far greater
importance, including lighting, ventilation, temperature regulation,
the comfort of the public, and other considerations affecting both
the economical and advantageous display of fishes and other marine
forms. These modern features are of special importance and can be

overlooked in no instance in the construction or operation of an
aquarium.

The ideal public aquarium should be equipped for the display of
both salt and fresh water specimens. There should also be operated
as an adjunct a model fish hatchery where the public may see the
hatching and rearing of several species of fish such as shad, white-
fish, pike perch, yellow perch, and other semi-buoyant eggs incubated
in jars, and the non-buoyant eggs of salmon and trout hatched on
trays in troughs. A valuable feature also in connection with a modern
aquarium is a public lecture hall, where popular talks may be given
by the director or members of the staff. A museum with certain pre-
served aquatic specimens is also advisable. And still again, the main-
tenance of balanced or self-sustaining aquariums adds another excel-
lent feature for nature study in connection with school work.

In maintaining displays of salt water fishes it is essential to have
sea water. The experience of the Government with the aquarium at
Washington and at several expositions clearly demonstrates this.
Theoretically, sea water can be made of 81 parts of common salt, 7
parts of magnesium sulphate, 2 parts of chloride of potassium, and 10
parts of magnesium chloride, one pound making about three gallons.
But fish do not thrive in it. Sea water, however, may be brought to
the aquarium in tank cars and stored in reservoirs. It should be
carefully filtered and may be used over and over again in a closed
circulation. There should be one reservoir in reserve so that the water
may “rest,” or recuperate, as it were. It should be filtered each time
before use. All water whether fresh or salt should be regularly fil-
tered in public aquariums. Impurities which may be deleterious to
fish life are thus removed and turbidity affecting clear display is
avoided.

Since cleanliness is of prime importance, each aquarium should be
cleaned on alternate days. On the days when not cleaned, feeding
should occur. This plan has been adopted after many years of exper-
imentation at Washington. One exception is the case of aquariums
containing sea horses. These interesting fishes feed chiefly on Gam-
marus, which small form of life does not reproduce rapidly if the
aquarium is disturbed frequently.

The food of fishes, reptiles, and aquatic mammals in captivity
usually consists of chopped meat, clams, mussels, shrimps and small
fish. It is essential in feeding not to be too generous; overfeeding
is far worse than underfeeding. Surplus food should not be allowed
to foul the bottom.

Temperature rules must be carefully observed. Tropical salt

118

water fishes, which make such a splendid showing, should be kept at
about 70° to 75° F., while trout and kindred varieties do best at
45° to 55° F. This requires warming the water in the winter and re-
frigerating it in the summer.

Aquatic plants are not only essential in aquariums but they im-
prove the scenic effect. Fish throw off carbonic gas and plants
absorb it. Among the aquatic plants best suited to fresh water
aquariums are Cabomba, Potamogeton, dwarf Sagittaria, Anacharis,
and Myrtophyllum. Some species of the last named probably are
preferable. For salt water aquariums Irish moss, red and green
alge and sea lettuce are excellent aquatic plants; some aquariists
consider the latter the best.

Fishes suffer from maladies, both parasitic and non-parasitic.
If they become infected with parasites, either internal or external,
it is advisable to do away with them or at least segregate the infected
ones for observation and treatment, though there is really not much
that can be done for them. In the case of non-parasitic troubles, salt
water baths have been found very beneficial, the solution in which the
fish are temporarily immersed being quite strong. This treatment is
considered a specific for vegetable growth or fungus caused by fre-
quent or careless handling.

In displaying fishes care must be taken to see that only com-
patible species and sizes are kept in one container. For example, in
a salt water aquarium it is not safe to put certain other species with
angel fish, for the latter are likely to destroy them. Likewise it is
folly to put bass and trout together, even though temperatures per-
mitted. Most of the fishes ordinarily displayed are cannibalistic.
Thus, trout in an aquarium must be of about equal size to avoid loss
from this cause.

Among the salt water fishes which are most interesting to the
public may be mentioned the parrot fish, angel fish, squirrel fish,
grouper, hind, sea horse, and yellowtail. Pleasing displays of fresh
water fishes may be made of such species as salmon, trout, catfish,
pike perch, bass, sunfish, muskellunge, goldfish, tench, dace, albino
trout, bream, crappie, strawberry bass, whitefish—though hard to
.keep—ling cod, and eels. Turtles make a most interesting display ;
frogs also may be shown. Among the salamanders, newts, mud
puppies, and hellbenders are of interest and are hardy. Clams and
other mollusks are valuable in aquatic displays, but hard to keep.

A pool or grotto containing seals or large fish is also most inter-
esting and instructive in a public aquarium. Fur seals would be of
greatest interest, but they are more difficult to secure and to keep

119

than ordinary harbor or hair seals. There are now no fur seals alive
in captivity. The last pair died in September, 1918, at the aquarium
of the Bureau of Fisheries in Washington. They had survived
about nine years.

Collections of specimens must be made from time to time to keep
public aquariums properly stocked. Some are made locally and
others at distant points. Exchanges may be made occasionally with
other aquariums with mutual advantage, though to date this plan has
not been adopted to any extent. The personal equation enters into
this practice more or less, depending mainly on the acquaintance of
the director of an aquarium with officials of similar institutions and
Government or State officials. Arrangements may usually be made
with the Bureau of Fisheries for shipments of specimens, also for
supplies of eggs for incubation in the small hatchery which should be
a part of every public aquarium. State fish commissions may also
cooperate.

Specimens secured at a distance require great care in transporta-
tion, as fish are especially tender soon after capture. Specimens from
4 to 12 inches in length can be successfully transported in ordinary
10-gallon cans and larger fishes in larger receptacles. They must be
kept at the proper temperature, and the water treated frequently
either by lifting in a dipper and allowing to fall back slowly, or by
forcing in compressed air through porous wood plugs in hard-rubber
or metal liberators, as is done on the fish cars of the Federal and
State fishery organizations. A special car is advisable for transport-
ing specimens, though a small number of cans may be taken, by per-
mission, in a regular baggage car. An attendant should accompany
such shipments. Best of all, secure the use temporarily of a State
or Government fish car for the transportation of valuable specimens
any distance, such as, for example, from the Hudson River to Detroit.
Tropical or semi-tropical salt-water specimens are secured chiefly at
Key West, Fla., or the Bermudas. They are shipped in tanks on
the inclosed decks of vessels, where proper temperature can be
secured, the port of entry usually being New York.

Specimens for display purposes may be purchased from fisher- »

men, also from a few private breeders of trout, bass, goldfish, bream,
sunfish, crappie, etc., in this country. Under ordinary circumstances
good supplies of fish for exhibition, and the smaller common species
to be fed to the others, may be secured locally by a collector regularly
attached to the aquarium staff.

Ordinarily, deep aquariums are better than shallow ones, as depth
adds to the scenic effect, particularly if the lights and shadows are

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i
iy

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made to appear in proper relationship. This tends to remove the
effect of artificiality, especially if rocks, shells, and similar objects
are judiciously placed. It makes the display more closely resemble
natural surroundings and undoubtedly results in healthier fish.

In displaying fishes it has been found that there is less refraction
of light to annoy the visitor if the back wall, with its covering of
rocks, is set at an angle of about 45 degrees. The bottom should con-
tain small gravel, or coarse white or gray sand. The introduction of
compressed air in each aquarium is of great value in keeping the
water fresh, especially if stored water is used.

The surface of the water should be at least one-half inch above
the upper edge of the frame in front of the aquarium so there will be
no refraction of light. A very important feature is the proper light-
ing of an aquarium. In most places it is necessary to provide arti-
ficial illumination; a shaded electric light suspended a short distance
above the center of each tank usually suffices. Care should be exer-
cised to deflect the light rays from the line of vision.

Different sizes of aquariums may be used for various species of
fish, but ordinarily those about 5 feet in length, 4 feet in depth, and 3
feet wide at the bottom increasing to 5 feet at the top are most satis-
factory. Aquariums with sloping rear walls are generally most de-
sirable, thus affording a close view of the fish as they approach the
bottom. Smaller aquariums, however, are generally made with per-
pendicular sides all around.

Transparent labels giving the name, both common and scientific,
of specimens in each aquarium should be posted conveniently for the
visitor. The labels should also briefly describe their habits, range,
and any particularly interesting features.

CONCLUSION

A public aquarium in a city may speedily become one of its most
popular and useful institutions. As compared with other public
enterprises, it can be constructed at moderate cost, while the upkeep is
not particularly great, especially if it is operated in conjunction with
parks or other municipal institutions.

Of course these notes and suggestions do not pretend to include
a complete description of methods and appliances, but are offered
rather as a basis for discussion and to emphasize the importance of
public aquariums as an educational influence leading ultimately to far
greater appreciation and utilization of the enormous resources of the
sea. It is hoped that there may be deeply impressed upon all the
thought that a public aquarium is or should be a vivid presentation

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of many forms and phases of water life, attractively staged and prop-
erly equipped for practical and scientific demonstration, thus trans-
forming as by magic an irksome schoolroom study into a subject of
absorbing interest, fascinating alike to teacher and pupil; and that an
aquarium therefore does not or should not function solely as a
pleasing and popular exhibit, but rather as an educational institution,
a school of fishery economics affording exceptional facilities and
advantages for the study of water life and the solution of water
problems along the lines of sane and practical conservation.

Discussion.

Mr. Bower: It occurs to me that the Society may very properly
endorse and advocate the more general maintenance of aquariums, public
and private, than is now the case. For example, we may consider the City
of Allentown, where we are now assembled. Here is a splendid civic com-
munity but with nothing in the way of a public aquarium. I am sure
that such an institution would attract hundreds of thousands of visitors
every year. In this connection I wish to mention the new public aquarium
to be built in beautiful Golden Gate Park in San Francisco. About three
or four years ago the late Mr. Ignatz Steinhart made a bequest of $250,000
for a public aquarium as a memorial to be known as the Steinhart
Aquarium, provided the city would furnish funds for its operation. As a
result San Francisco is going to have an aquarium that will probably
surpass any other in the world. Dr. Barton W. Evermann, Director of
the California Academy of Sciences, and a noted ichthyologist, is now
completing plans for this splendid new institution. He has visited various
aquariums in this country and has endeavored to take advantage of the
best ideas in each. Let us hope that other cities may be similarly favored
in the near future.

Mr. Jonun P. Woops, St. Louis, Mo.: Very modestly Mr. Bower has
referred to the importance of the subject. I do not know of any city
attraction that affords more interest than does an aquarium. I remember
that at the opening of the Boston Aquarium in 1913 it was almost impos-
sible to get in on account of the crowd. Almost every human being is
interested in fish in some way. People like to catch, eat and look at them,
and I do not know of any form of wild animal life that affords more real
entertainment to the public than fish as they appear in an aquarium. I
have a very strong admiration for fish, and my contact with people shows
that they are practically all of the same mind. I support heartily the
recommendation as to the desirability and value of public aquariums, and
I hope that good Samaritans of wealth may, as in San Francisco, favor
other cities which will realize the full value of the aquariums when they
are acquired.

Mr. ArtHUR L. Mittert, Boston, Mass.: At the State Fair in the City
of Springfield, near the center of Massachusetts, one section of a building
is devoted to fisheries and game, and there we have an annual exhibition.
The interest shown is remarkable, as people crowd into the building
to see the fish displayed. It truly has been of great benefit not only to the
people but to the Division of Fisheries and Game of our State. It helps

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the whole cause all the way through. We also furnish similar exhibits for
many of the fairs throughout the State in the fall of the year. We also
are very proud of having the Boston Fish Pier, which is probably the biggest
fresh fish wharf in this country. About 123,000,000 pounds are landed
there annually. The Boston fish merchants are alive to the value of an
aquarium and this year have prepared plans to have an aquarium and
allied fisheries exhibit in one of the buildings. The room will be about
150 feet long and there will be an exhibition of various fishes in their
native element and a display of fishing apparatus, marine curios, photo-
graphs, and other interesting objects. Also motion picture films will be
shown to give the people an idea of actual methods of fishing. This is to
be put in operation next year.

Mr. G. C. LeacH, Washington, D. C.: The subject of aquariums has
never been brought up before at meetings of the Society, and I believe the
fish commissioners and fish culturists present must recognize the importance
of public aquariums. It is incumbent upon us to educate the people of
the country in regard to fish culture, and one of the best means of doing
this is to bring before them proper displays of aquatic life. If you have
public aquariums located in your city you will find school teachers very
glad to cooperate by bringing in school children to study the fish life. If
you interest the school children and educate them along the right lines
you are doing much to develop and produce citizens of the best type and
who will have a keen interest in and a better understanding of all forms
of wild life.

Public aquariums hold great interest for visitors to cities and are always
thronged. Dr. C. H. Townsend, Director of the Battery Park Aquarium,
has stated that the institution attracts more people than any other public
enterprise in the city of New York. Ever since the time of Jonah people
have been interested in big fish; they like to hear big fish stories; they like
to see big fish; they like to get acquainted with them. I think if the fish
commissioners of this country want to do something of a really construc-
tive nature for the good of the entire people they will get behind a move-
ment to establish public aquariums in the various cities.

Mr. Carros Avery, St. Paul, Minn.: As an illustration of the interest
taken in an aquarium by the public, I want to call attention to the small
exhibit we have at the State Fair in Minnesota, which is the largest fair
of its kind in the world. Over 400,000 people visit it in one week, and the
attendance at the aquarium is far greater than at any other place there
except the immense grand stand which is especially for entertainment. We
do not know how many people pass through the aquarium, but there is a
continuous moving mass; they simply fight to get in to see the fish.

Mr. M. G. Seriers, Philadelphia, Pa.: In Philadelphia we tried to
have a public aquarium, but could not get the municipal government inter-
ested. The Pennsylvania State Fish and Game Protective Association
finally discovered that there was an opportunity to procure the old Fair-
mount pumping station for that purpose, and be it said to the credit of the
anglers that they arranged the original subscriptions which started the
institution.

Mr. B. O. WessterR, Madison, Wis.: What we consider as a very fine
aquarium is operated at the State fair at Milwaukee. The Conservation

1238

Commission stocks it with fish and it is undoubtedly one of the strongest
attractions at the fair. Contrary to the usual construction of an aquarium,
it is built so that the fish may be seen from the outside. By merely pass-
ing around the outside of the building it is possible for the people to see
all of the fish that are on exhibition. This idea applied to a State fair, or
other similar place, where it could be used, is decidedly novel. Any work
to be done on the aquarium can be accomplished from the inside without
interference with or by the people who are looking at the exhibit from the
outside.

Mr. Cart Krartker, Philadelphia, Pa.: The Fairmount Park Commis-
sion expects to have its aquarial display completed by Thanksgiving Day.
We have one room now that has been open to the public for four years; the
second room, which is 200 feet long and 60 feet wide, has not been completed.
We have a fair exhibit of both fresh and salt-water fishes. When completed
we shall have about 90 tanks, the smallest of 60 gallons capacity, and the
largest, 20,000 gallons. All of the tanks are of solid concrete with plate
glass windows in front. The salt water is used over and over again, and
care is taken that its saline quality is not lowered.

The aquarium in Fairmount Park is very well attended by the public
in general, also by students from the university, colleges, high schools, and
the lower grades down to the kindergarten classes. From time to time
they hear talks and lectures in regard to fishes. The teachers say that
it is very impressive to the children. On Thanksgiving Day, 1915, over
12,000 people were in attendance.

Mr. N. R. Butter, Harrisburg, Pa.: The question of public aquar-
iums is one that should receive the hearty endorsement of this Society.
We have always believed that there is nothing more educational than an
exhibit of live fishes, and the Department of Fisheries of Pennsylvania has
endeavored to devote certain portions of its hatchery buildings to the
exhibition of fishes for educational purposes. Thousands of school children
in the northwestern part of the State visit the aquarium at the Hrie
hatchery during the school term for the purpose of studying fish life. Even
at the hatcheries isolated from centers of population, it is interesting to
note how far people from the country will drive to see such an exhibit. At
the Pleasant Mount hatchery, there is an entire room devoted to an
aquarial display. I recently saw around the hatchery grounds a hundred
automobiles belonging to people that had come in from the country dis-
tricts to see the display of live fish. I think it is of great importance that
the Society endorse the project of public aquariums.

Mr. L. H. Darwin, Seattle, Wash.: The exhibit that we have at
Seattle has been of great value to thousands of people who throng it
almost every day during the summer season. The attendance is not as
large during the winter, but probably at least 1,000 people are there every
day in the summer. We maintain chiefly fresh-water fish of mature age,
so-called game fishes. The value of live fish as a drawing card was demon-
strated to such an extent that we had to install a permanent aquarium at
the State fair at North Yakima. A peculiarity there was that other ex-
hibitors complained because the aquarium attracted more attention than
any other exhibit, and they insisted that it be put in an out-of-the-way
place. After eight. years’ experience I am able to testify that a public

124

aquarium is a splendid educational feature. Among other things I have
observed doctors who paid daily visits to the aquarium for a long period
of time trying to observe the diseases, if any, which manifest themselves
in fishes.

Mr. E. LEE Le Compre, Baltimore, Md.: In Maryland there are no
large public aquariums, but we have small aquariums in the parks, and
along some of our driveways, also at the Washington Monument and in
Druid Hill Park in the city of Baltimore. The fish are placed in these
aquariums as early in the spring as possible and removed late in the fall.
Arrangements have been made with the Park Board to establish a large
aquarium in Broening Park, which we are to keep stocked with fish. It is
near salt water so that we shall have little trouble in displaying both fresh
and salt water game and commercial fishes.

Mr. W. G. BELL, Baltimore, Md.: In connection with the Poultry Show,
held at the Fifth Regiment Armory in Baltimore, the Conservation Com-
mission was requested to make a fish exhibit. This was done, and was the
first of its kind ever held in the State of Maryland. Numerous local and
foreign species were shown in the aquarium as well as methods of hatching
eggs in troughs and jars. The deep interest displayed by many thousands
who visited this exhibit was most gratifying and numerous requests have
reached the Commission to establish a permanent exhibit in Druid Hill,
our largest and most attractive park, so as to give the public practical
knowledge of fish-cultural work conducted in the State of Maryland.

POLLUTION OF STREAMS
A General Discussion

Mr. N. R. Buiter, Harrisburg, Pa.: Stream pollution is a matter of
great importance to every person interested in the conservation of fish.
On account of great industrial activities and mining operations the streams
of Pennsylvania are, perhaps, in worse condition than those of any other
State. This is one of the greatest questions confronting the State today,
both in regard to the welfare of the fish and the health of the people. The
manufacturing interests and the railroads admit that it is a question
involving a great deal and one that is extremely difficult of solution. The
State Department of Health has jurisdiction over pollution, in so far as the
sewage of cities is concerned; but the laws exempt the drainage from
mines, tanneries, and other industrial establishments. The Department of
Fisheries has under its authority the mining and industrial waste, but the
laws are inadequate. Our law as it stands today prohibits anyone from
emptying into the streams any deleterious substance. Unfortunately the
fine for violation is only $100, which does not meet the situation. The
eourts have never sustained the Commonwealth in any prosecutions of
mine operators. They always refer to a famous decision given in the
early days of mining, known as the case of Sanderson vs. the Common-
wealth of Pennsylvania. That decision held that the owners had the right
to flow mine waste into a stream, as there was no other place for it to
flow. Mine waste is probably more poisonous to the streams than any other
waste we have. Without better laws it will be a long time before much
can be accomplished regarding purification of streams. As long as sewage
from cities is allowed to flow into the streams, the flowage into the same
waters of acids which neutralize or kill the germs is the only thing that
prevents serious epidemics. A suit is pending between the Pennsylvania
Railroad Company and the Mellon interests, the result of which is awaited
with much interest. The railroad has a $25,000,000 water project in
jeopardy in case the Mellons open up the mines at its head. While the
legislature has authorized the Department of Fisheries to employ 65 men
in this branch of the service, it has never yet appropriated more than
sufficient money for nine men, who naturally cannot accomplish a great
deal. This entire question can never be settled unless there is better
legislation and concerted action by the people interested. It must be
threshed out through cooperation and education.

Mr. M. L. ALEXANDER, New Orleans, La.: This is one of the most im-
portant questions pertaining to our fisheries. In the summer of 1921 Mr.
Hoover called a conference at Washington to consider two questions, stream
pollution and control of migratory fish. He invited the commissioners and
representatives of the Atlantic Coast and Gulf States, possibly 100 of
whom were in attendance, and the matter was gone into very exhaustively.
Resolutions were adopted and the final conclusion of the conference was
that the question of stream pollution should be properly controlled by the
Federal Government, largely for the reason that such pollution is not
only brought about by the industries located along the inland streams but,

126

in large measure, by the oil burning and oil carrying vessels plying along
the coast or going to foreign ports. As a large percentage of these vessels
are carrying foreign flags, it was a question not only of national but of
international importance. It might be appropriate for this Society to
endorse the action of the Hoover conference, and for the commissioners to
urge their Senators and Representatives to push through Congress some
law sufficiently drastic to meet this particular condition. I believe that is
the only way to get the desired results.

Mr. W. EH. Barser, Madison, Wis.: Wisconsin is a manufacturing
State. Along the Fox and Wisconsin River valleys there are about 60
paper mills, together with other industrial plants in the different cities
located on those streams. I do not know how the Federal Government is
going to step into Wisconsin and tell the people there how to control the
industrial waste from the plants along those streams, as they are inland
waters. I am opposed to a centralized government at Washington coming
into our State and telling us what we are to do with our local institutions.
The question of the pollution of streams has been discussed for years at
meetings of this Society and perhaps some progress has been made. We
have accomplished something in Wisconsin, but it is a discouraging job.
The cities located along the streams welcomed every manufacturing plant
they could get; they offered every inducement to locate in their communities
and employ their labor, and the plants were built without any attention
whatever to disposition of the waste. The paper mill waste is enormous,
but it can be controlled. The question is how to do it. We have visited
every paper mill in our State; we have been to the pea-canning plants and
have laid plans before many of them. Some have cooperated and gone
ahead with certain improvements, but the great bulk of the waste matter
is still flowing into the streams, destroying fish life and polluting the
waters, making them unfit for domestic use.

The only way to settle this is for the States to enact stringent legisla-
tion providing a heavy penalty for violation of that law, giving these in-
stitutions sufficient time to regulate their plants to take care of the waste,
and then enforce the law. Do you suppose that if it were known to the
paper mills of this country that they could make $50,000 by putting in a
machine costing $25,000 they would not do it? We all know that as a
business proposition they would accept and go ahead with any improve-
ment necessary to make their institution a better one; but when it comes
to a matter of this sort, where the interests of the great mass of the people
are concerned, the institutions pay no attention until confronted with a real
law and prosecution thereunder. The Wisconsin Traction, Heat, Light and
Power Company, of Milwaukee, has a gas plant located at Appleton. They
were going to take out one of their old tanks which had been in use 40
years and never emptied. It held thousands of gallons and was practically
full of sediment and tar accumulations from the manufacture of gas. They
pumped one-half the contents into Fox River and it was not long until the
odor spread all over Appleton and people began to wonder what was the
matter. I went there immediately and looked over the situation. It was
stopped, of course, and the company hauled away the balance of the con-
tents of the tank as they should have done with all of it. We prosecuted
these people, but our maximum fine for such offenses is $100 and the

127

company simply went into court, paid the fine, and there the matter ended.
We want to be fair and square with all the manufacturing interests. We
should not say that within 60 or 90 days, or anything less than a year cer-
tain improvements must be made. We should give them sufficient time.
Then there should be a law with a penalty of from $2,000 to $5,000 for the
second offense, and there is no doubt that improvements would be made and
our streams cleaned up.

Mr. Hoover’s meeting was a fine thing. International waters, of course,

and outlying waters along the coast are for the Government to take care’

of; but I object to the United States Government coming into our State
and telling us what we must do with our streams and other waters. Our
legislature convenes once in two years, and our commission will recom-
mend a law along the line I have outlined, giving manufacturing plants
sufficient time to take care of their industrial waste. Then we should fix
a penalty that will make them sit up and take notice. I would deal fairly
with them, but in that way we would clean up the streams. I believe our
legislature is in the right temper to pass such a law. The protests we get
on account of this sort of thing are mighty annoying, when we are tied
hand and foot with a maximum fine of $100!

Mr. ALEXANDER: I do not think Mr. Hoover contemplated taking con-
trol within the States, particularly as to inland conditions. I am possibly
as strong a believer in State rights as anyone here. That is the principle
upon which our Government has largely been founded, as we see it down in
my section of the country ; but we have had some demonstrations of federal
control. Take the yellow fever situation in the South, and particularly in
my State; also the matter of levee protection along the Mississippi River,
and the boll weevil in the cotton districts. Ali of these were taken care
of by the Federal Government. Many of the rivers in Wisconsin which are
affected by stream pollution probably enter into other States. These rivers
go from State to State, and when that condition prevails it seems to me
that the Federal Government could well come in and advise with you, and,
if necessary, take control and remedy the condition, recognized by all as
one of the most serious with which we have to contend.

Mr. E. Lee LeCompte, Baltimore, Md.: I beg to state that I cannot
agree with Mr. Barber. Wisconsin cities may, though I doubt it, be located
on streams different from other States of the union. As the Game Warden
of Maryland, I have more trouble with pollution than with the enforcement
of the game and fish laws—ten times as much. In many instances the
pollution is not caused by the manufacturing industries located in our
State. For instance there is one pulp mill in West Virginia just across
the border, which pollutes the waters of the Potomac River. The mill had
been putting all of its waste into the Potomac, and finally the people below
at Cumberland complained that the fish life was absolutely destroyed. I
am just as strong an advocate of State rights as any one here, but when
the States do not take care of a situation of that kind, give me federal legis-
lation that will. A justice of the peace thinks that a $25 fine for a viola-
tion of the game and fish laws is awful and that a man ought not to pay
more than a dollar and a half at the outside. So how can you ever get
a conviction with a fine of $2,000? I have had a number of pollution cases,
but have never had one brought to trial, because I had no faith in the

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|

justice of the peace fining a man even $100. I worked to get the manu-
facturing industries to cooperate. I do not want to put any manufacturing
industry to extra expense or trouble, nor do I want them to close their
plants, because our cities have invited the industries into their communities,
offering free sites in many instances.

One of the pulp mills got an engineer and spent about $47,000 and the
manager told me it was the best work they ever did. They put in a plant
whereby waste was used for some by-product which they are selling. We
received complaints from Thomas Creek on the Monocacy River, one of
our great bass streams. A very fine dust from a stone quarry in Pennsyl-
vania was allowed to go into the stream on which this manufacturing
plant was located. That grit would stick to the gills or throat of the fish
and cause death. Of course, the fish could not go through the water with-
out getting the grit. I could not do anything as that manufacturing in-
dustry was in another State. Federal legislation could do something, but
not State laws. We can pass all the laws we please in the State of
Maryland, but some of these streams come from Pennsylvania and
some from West Virginia, and under our State laws it is impossible to
prosecute violators not located in our State. We would prefer to have
Federal Legislation alone take care of the question of pollution.

Mr. Butter: At the last session of the legislature of Pennsylvania
the Department of Fisheries carefully drafted a bill carrying a fine of
$2,000 to enable it to better cope with this situation. This bill was widely
advertised and public hearings were held, and I regret to say that at those
hearings we received no cooperation from the public at large, the people
who complained of the conditions. Every manufacturing interest of any
importance and the mining interests were heard. In spite of their protests,
the Department of Fisheries was able to get the bill out of the Committee
on Fisheries to which it had been referred, and it passed the first reading
in the House of Representatives. On the second reading it was referred to
the Committee on Municipal Corporations and nothing further has been
heard from it. I have failed to learn what interest that committee has in
the pollution of streams. I hope Wisconsin will be more successful in
getting this legislation than we were in Pennslyvania.

Mr. A. L. Mittett, Boston, Mass.: Massachusetts has laws enough in
regard to pollution but enforcement is well nigh impossible. The conference
in Washington called by Secretary Hoover was intended to be a step for-
ward, to improve if possible upon local handling of the matter. It was
not the idea to take away State rights. I presented the case for Massachu-
setts at that hearing, and my stand was backed by the gentleman from
Louisiana, which shows that we were pretty much in accord. Virginia,
Maryland, South Carolina, and Georgia all did likewise. We discussed the
subject in a great broad way. We on the coast are up against oil pollution
by steamers. The waste dumped by those steamers comes into every port,
so that today in the New York fish trade the designation “Standard Oil” is
applied to certain kinds of lobsters and fish because they simply reek of
petroleum. The meeting was an honest effort to do something with the
pollution question. Whether Wisconsin or Massachusetts, there is no State
in this country that can handle the pollution problem by itself. The question
of State rights was very nicely gotten over by Mr. Hoover’s splendid way

129

of handling the matter. He termed it federal aid to the States, help to the
States in handling this great problem. He did it very nicely. He clearly
showed a strong disposition to help. He said that it was very evident to
him that the States could not handle this problem individually and he was
willing to come in and assist.

Take the case of the Merrimac River. Probably quite a number of you
are aware of what the Merrimac means to the cotton industry. For three
miles there is nothing but factories along that river. We cannot put them
out of business for the sake of the few fish that may come up some year,
or five or ten years from now. The matter must be looked at in a broad
light. Some rivers, where there are but few factories or other small inter-
ests, can be reclaimed, but on other rivers we have not much of a chance.
We are all interested in fish, but we must look on both sides of the problem.

Mr. Cartos Avery, St. Paul, Minn.: The fact that Secretary Hoover,
with his great influence and prestige, has taken an interest in this subject
offers the first ray of hope in all the years I have heard this question dis-
cussed by this Society. The Secretary has recognized what we know to be
the fact, that the pollution problem is far greater in the Atlantic Coast
States than in our inland States. We do not know anything about pollution
in the sense that the streams are poisoned in the east. Pennsylvania cer-
tainly has knowledge of it, and I think the situation exists practically
throughout the country. States may pass laws, but, however stringent
they may be, it is practically impossible to enforce them. Therefore, I
hope that this Society will go on record as endorsing the movement of
Secretary Hoover in the strongest possible way.

Mr. M. G. Setters, Philadelphia, Pa.: The Federal Government exer-
cises jurisdiction over streams with respect to navigation and I think it
would be one great step in advance if we could induce Congress to exercise
some power over streams on the question of pollution. I think we ought to
admit, without further argument, that this job is too big for any State; it
must be an interstate job, a federal job. I want to suggest that the Ameri-
ean Bar Association undertake the preparation of a model statute on
stream pollution which the individual States may adopt.

Mr. J. M. CRAMPTON, New Haven, Conn.: No subject interests Con-
necticut more than pollution. This important question is being handled by
a lot of lawyers in the legislative halls of our States. We see the results at
home and we should clean house first. Norwich, Conn., is as well located
for taking care of waste products as any city in the United States and if
it would do so the Thames could be filled with fish. Where have our shad
and black bass gone? We are not producing today 10 per cent of the fish
we did. Take our oyster and shad industries and the fishing industries
throughout the State, even the lobsters, and you will find they are all
contaminated where they border the cities. This should not be. Com-
missioner Block of Connecticut says that at comparatively small expense
each industry could do away with all of the pollution in our Naugatuck
River where today it would take the hair off a mule’s leg to wade across it.
Unless this subject is taken hold of by the Federal Government you will
never see any radical change.

Mr. Barser: I admire Mr. Hoover as much as does any man here.
But the Federal Government cannot come in and tell us that we must clean

130

up the Wisconsin River and Fox River, because they are Wisconsin streams
from source to mouth. Along the water sheds of those rivers there are at
least 150 plants throwing their waste matter into them. If we go to those
companies and say that they must stop polluting the streams, that the fine
is from $2,500 to $5,000 they are going to clean house. There is no question
about it. There are canneries in our State which are pouring the most
putrid, putrescent nastiness that you can imagine into a stream with
residences across the street. Can we expect Congress to go in there and
do a job that is purely a State job? I am morally certain that our legisla-
ture will pass a law at the next session that will force those men to stop
polluting the streams.

We want to cooperate with Mr. Hoover as to the Mississippi River,
which is an interstate water. It is perfectly proper that the Federal Goy-
ernment should take hold of that stream, but these other streams are ours,
and we are abundantly able to take care of them. We know of a lot of
rivers that are boundary rivers, and I am sure that the States bordering
on those rivers will help Mr. Hoover to clean them up. The people of our
State and the States all over the Union are sick and tired of the con-
ditions that have been imposed through pollution of streams of their re-
spective States. Ifa resolution is offered here endorsing Mr. Hoover’s plan,
I shall vote for it, but I want also to vote for a resolution urging every
State to clean up its own streams. I think it is up to us to clean up our
respective States, and the way to do it is through stringent laws passed
by our legislatures.

Mr. J. W. Titcoms, Albany, N. Y.: I want to refer to a phase of the
question which has not been brought out in discussion, namely, the study
of a basis or standard of pollution. In many places there is no question
as to what pollution is. In New York there is a law against emptying into
streams anything that kills fish but you have to prove it will kill fish, that
they cannot live in the water. The minnow test heretofore employed con-
sists of putting a catch of minnows into the alleged polluted water, and
another catch into what is called pure water. Today the Empire State has
an annual appropriation of $10,000 for the study of pollution problems. A
chemist is making a gas analysis and a biologist a study of the forage of
the streams and the foods of the fish. A new line of evidence in pollution
has been established in the State through this study of what produces the
food which feeds the fishes. Without the oxygen and the vegetation the
fish cannot live, and the vegetation in the waters is the best food for the
small fishes. The same kind of a study has to be made, to a certain extent,
along our coasts, where the salt waters become polluted. We have found
out the conditions under which the forage can be retained, this being the
basis for all fish life.

I think the side of this question I am presenting is entirely new in this
country ; I do not know that it has been taken up before, but it appears to
me that the information thus obtained is for the benefit of every citizen
of the United States. The investigations in New York are being made in a
small way and it will take years to work them out properly; they should be
made under the direction of the United States Government, so as to have a
basis or standard of pollution, in order to enforce the law. There is no
question of the fact of pollution, but when the manufacturer is required to

131

take care of his by-products and his factory waste, he must be given some
standard in the matter, and know what is permissible and what is not per-
missible. It seems to me that here again we have the argument that this
work should be done by the Federal Government, assisted by the States.

Mr. LeacH: I think that Mr. Barber has been misunderstood here,
also that he has not fully understood what was said or what action was
taken at the conference called by the Secretary of Commerce in Washington
last June. The Secretary said that, as a servant of the people, he was there
to aid the States in solving the problem in regard to trade waste, and that
he was ready to receive any advice from the delegates as to how he could
aid them. I think the Secretary will give the States the same square deal
that Mr. Barber expects to give his manufacturers, and, in the end, every-
thing will work out satisfactorily and Mr. Barber and the rest of the State
Commissioners will be in favor of any sound and sensible trade waste law
that may be enacted. ;

Mr. Barser: Has there been any effort to find out what industrial
wastes are worth? The paper mills of our State were ordered to put in a
screening process to take out the solid waste matter that they were deposit-
ing in the rivers. We recommended a machine known as the “Save-All,” or
some other process that would take out the pulp used in the manufacture
of paper. Practically all the mills did something. The next year the super-
intendent of the largest plant in Wisconsin said he wished we had made
him put in those machines ten years before, as he had made enough that
year in the saving of the waste products to pay for all of the machines.
A paper mill at Kaukauna has put in a machine for reclaiming the acids
used in the manufacture of the paper, and they are using those acids over
and over again. The rest of the mills do not put them in because they are
not forced to do so.

Mr. BuLLER: The same condition exists in most of the paper mills
in Pennsylvania. They are reclaiming valuable by-products since the agita-
tion for cleaning up the streams has developed. There was a plant on
Tulpehocken Creek, manufacturing manganese iron from Cuba. The wash
from these ores was very poisonous, destroying all fish in the streams. The
matter was taken up with them by the Department of Fisheries and they
installed an electric precipitator eliminating the water entirely. It cost
the company $30,000, but they are reclaiming a valuable by-product in the
form of potash which is more than paying the expense of installation.

EFFECT OF DROUGHT AND EXTREME HEAT OF SUMMER
ON FISH LIFE

Open Discussion

Mr. N. R. Butter, Harrisburg, Pa.: This is an open discussion as to
the effect of the extended drought and extremely hot weather during this
summer on fish life. This subject was brought to the attention of
the Society on account of the extremely hot weather experienced this
summer and the great and extended drought that has occurred in Penn-
sylvania. Never before to my recollection has the drought been so severe
and the heat so intense. The effect has been very serious on various species
of fish in our streams and even in our lakes. I personally observed a great
many of our lakes during the month of August, particularly, when the vege-
tation of the bottoms should be green, and most of it was as brown as the
brown moss on the hillsides, apparently dead. In numerous instances
where the drought had seriously affected streams, the department received
requests to remove the fish, but we were not able to do so because of no
place to put them, that is, in close proximity to the original location, and
it would not have been possible to carry them any great distance in hot
weather.

The only remedy I can see is that all interested in this matter lend
every possible effort to support forestry programs to the limit, because
. denuding the hills and reckless destroying of forests have brought about
this condition. I believe we should do all we can to urge that the program
' for reforestation be carried out more rapidly than it is at present. Penn-
sylvania has many millions of acres of mountainous land not valuable for
other than forestry purposes. As I understand it, the Forestry Commission
is attempting the reforestation of these mountains on a very large scale,
and we believe that if we again restore these forests our trout streams and
other waters will not be so affected in times like the present.

Mr. Cartos Avery, St. Paul, Minn.: There is a condition prevailing
in the Northwestern States, in the lake region, which is somewhat different
from that experienced in Pennsylvania. The mortality of fishes in that
region has been phenomenal this year. It is recurrent, however, in some
lakes, and investigations made indicate that the causes which may and
usually do produce the conditions, come every year. Some investigations
made in a lake in Wisconsin by the United States Bureau of Fisheries and
the University of Wisconsin, revealed that the mortality recurring annually
in that lake is due to stagnation in the lower strata of the water.

We have lakes in Minnesota, about 300 square miles in area where there
is great mortality of fish every year, windrows of them being piled up
along the shores for several miles. This year it was worse than usual,
no doubt on account of the great heat and protracted drought. The Bureau
of Fisheries detailed a man from the Fairport Biological Station to assist
our biologist in making an investigation, and after a cursory examination
they came to the conclusion that the cause was probably the stagnation of
the lower strata of water in the lake. They could find no other cause, and
naturally assumed that was the reason, though the lake is not deep.

133

This year great quantities of valuable fish were lost in deep lakes where
they had never died in that way before. The varieties affected chiefly were
the whitefishes, the loss being extremely heavy on tullibee or mongrel
whitefish, and there was some loss of pike perch; also in the Mille Laces
some of the pickerels and other varieties were lost, but chiefly the deep
water fishes were affected. The men who made the investigation in Mille
Lacs this year estimated that towards the close of the period of mortality
there were at least 650,000 pounds of dead fish around the shores of the
lake, which means that several million pounds of fish have died in that one
lake this summer. Professor Riley, of our State University, formerly of
Cornell, is studying the question to find out, if possible, whether any of
this mortality is due to parasitical infection.

Mr. W. E. Barser, Madison, Wis.: Conditions in Wisconsin have not
been as bad as in Minnesota, but we found that in our deep water lakes
there was less mortality among the fishes than in the shallow lakes. In
various sections of the State the fish were dying, and we did not know
what was the cause. Professor Wagner, biologist at the University, made
some very extensive investigations and stated that the excessive heat and
lack of wind to aerate the water caused the death of the fishes.

The lake in Wisconsin referred to by Mr. Avery is Lake Monona, and
pollution is the chief cause of its fish mortality. Sewage from Madison
drains into it, and causes a tremendous growth of vegetation, also a heavy
scum and green slime on the top of the water during the summer months;
the stench is so bad as to cause complaint in almost every section when
the wind comes from the direction of the lake. The city had to make better
arrangements for the disposal of its sewage.

But I think there is no remedy for the loss of fish in the ordinary lake
when we have extraordinary seasons of excessive heat, such as this
summer. It always has occurred and always will occur, and the wonder
of it is, when we realize the tremendous loss of fish through such conditions
as we have had this summer and the heavy coating of ice and snow in the
winter, that there are any fish left. Of course, these fish multiply rapidly
and we have fish in most of our lakes notwithstanding these conditions.

Dr. E. E. Prince, Ottawa, Canada: Mr. Barber’s statements are con-
firmed by what we have found in some lakes in Canada, very far from any
settlements under perfectly virgin conditions. That is to say, the depth
of the lake does not seem to have any relation to the serious loss of fish. I
happened to be on a remote lake in Canada a year or two ago, a lake
practically only visited by Indians and fur trappers, although there are
some small settlements at the west end. It is a very shallow lake and
covers 480 square miles. At times there is a tremendous destruction of fish.
You find whitefish and yellow perch and various other fishes lying dead
in windrows. It seems to be due to the unicellular alga (Tetragonium)
which grows luxuriously in certain seasons and then decays, poisoning the
water and creating an offensive odor. I mention this because Mr. Avery
referred to the depth and stagnation as having had something to do wit
the death of the fish; but when you find lakes which are very shallow, like
the Lesser Slave Lake, and distant from any population, it is perfectly
clear that it is due to some cause such as I have mentioned. ;

Mr. E. Lee LeCompte, Baltimore, Md.: The conditions in Maryland

134

are very much like those in Pennsylvania. The pollution of streams by
cities has been remedied by requiring all places with a population of 3,000
or over to put in disposal plants. This has been accomplished through the
people interested in the oyster industry. The waste from the cities going
into the streams was destroying the cysters, and as there are many people
interested in the oyster industry, there was not much trouble in getting
the disposal plants. I have seen water coming from the disposal plant at
Back River in Baltimore, also in Cambridge and Easton, which the scientists
claim is as pure as before it was so used. I have not tasted it, so cannot
vouch for its sweetness.

The matter goes back to the question of deforestation. The country
is denuded of the good timber, especially in the mountain sections, and
there is no shade left for the small streams. Therefore with trout all
over our State, there is no question that in a summer such as this past one
there will be destruction of trout in the fresh water streams. The planting
of willows along the streams for shade has been advised, and I think it a
very good idea. They would grow there and be beneficial. I do not think
we can do anything in our State unless it is through the Forestry Board.

Mr. Butter: I am very much interested in the matter of planting
trees, and I urge upon all to render every possible assistance to the forestry
departments, because without trees there cannot be fish. This past winter
delegations from different sections of our State called at the department
with reference to taking care of streams in which they were interested. A
delegation of ladies from the neighboring county of Berks came and asked
whether the Department of Fisheries would assist in reforestation along
Maiden Creek. They got in touch with the Forestry Commissioner, and I
was much pleased to learn later that they set out 50,000 trees on the banks
of Maiden Creek this past summer and have made application for 30,000
for next season. I believe that every fishery association should endeavor to
get the people to plant trees and shrubbery for a certain distance on each
side of the streams on which they live. If that is done, in the course of a
few years we shall have shaded streams, thus saving the fish in times of
drought. No one who has not made a study of it can conceive the enormous
evaporation from streams exposed to the sun.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1921-1922

(Showing year of election to membership)

Honorary Members

The President of the United States................ WARREN G. HARDING
The Governors of the several States:
Taam asc Ace ed Pocets aisecies: ott = ayant ataaeieepelantonehetial byais a= toeitapa Tuomas EH. KiILBy
NPV TOT 1G RoR PRs PRE tier OG ERP Dicey CHLOE ER CREE ic Tuomas BH. CAMPBELL
FNC d to bho sf ROO VOSS OSORIO OES BOND DIG Cad OF US LUCIO OO ICROIOT THomas C. McRAE
CHITPOUMIR To selec wn cla alee vac trete sists elelietoneiwiate rexel stenel’sice WILLIAM D. STEPHENS
COlGTAG Or ae eter Ee et ree eaheoner ee totoielela nels (utah bietele'Tetets OLIveER H. SHOUP
BONNE CEH Cab ee eaters Shack cloieeane cate bute ede tate ctake eo taieyelebate ereteleletn lone: sheds Everett J. LAKE
IB ee et SEER a ey See Cine clot AIG Os SG Cue OOS C WILLIAM D. DENNEY
TOT ea yas ke ea ee RR Ri PS he ee Ga ec COO UO oS OSC Cary A. HARDEE
ROOT RIA . clecie ccs aeiee cic elte sini els patevelelelsjasteielsielstsialelate Tuomas W. HARDWICK
Oe ae a ete tier ante ah sahil oe Riaiararetal aie, old Plc stata oho 'slcrar ets he eeleians D. W. Davis
DIRT N LSA are eae’ aie ates Src lcis Go hanele a le alaone Rie er ehole Iellotwiel ale ohettehe ein ets tater Len SMALL
IB aViUC 11s Pa ateiey GA Oe, RIAA I in Stl BS. CME CINE! tet oto Gis Warren T. McCray
DIO 2 ee RE ee ee ee SO Mee Sno. o de pao OOO UT tod o¢ N. E. KENDALL
ERA TIS rs eiece Co crentictac a acca ctate) © oherescicia) efolciel chetocsashearchelsNeicentctete Henry J. ALLEN
TRONCUCIEVS care Sie cc a icleucters ein ets eilalerels clstelelslsiensoltin (lets slevelnieis Epwin P. Morrow
ROTUESTAI AI Shake eR Siac ons ete tale chonemonercliorega ey tieravetatetsteltays rete JOHN M. PARKER
IY eH CPOE AIA ect SETS Cf at CAG MO AIS On ie BETO L.ctans Hho id PrercivaL D. BAXTER
IW ih al bith origh MeO DOE OO co AOC AtL CRT dO IU CIO chad cha ALBERT C. RITCHIE
Massachusetts......-sss.0-- PI EL RE AEs A rao oiene CHANNING H. Cox
MIKO THEI aaa Ocoee Cone Octo oO oeo ane boost ALEXANDER J. GROESBECK
IMmN ESO GASB cicietntreeicue > alee rolereiel eo etale als levels © aievoneta lays clelenetsieiste ats J. A. O. PREvS
IMGISISTSS TPONDT eto fo forel ay ene ete lete ai oi ateveve e shoteiicl ete te ol slellel afelstalove)/ellepetsletatet« LEE M. RUSSELL
EESTI tse hee aie are elke Le gaat dele ve lotareialieya ichwlle Prranehetsiaveastetapevaie ArtHuR M. HybDE
DVLOVTEA INAS ei. caic oun stay coarse ataneds (ace) Sis le reballs eysuels, shtheleeisialeatogstalniote’e JosEPH M. Drxon
INS ces rereahe is seat a toes ae chelale lekan ale sitevevavclevaberevebetaieinte SAMUEL R. McKELvVIE
ING VLC castor ote teteleiata oretol eh cisiaia in ais chehebersleeretauetersteleitiatarecotars ters EMMET D. BOYLE
ING Wit ETA MPSHATe Ss cacis cry vole sis) scrote. creletelans esteratalelc, fetes befoheisters ALBERT O. BROWN
INO Wir OLSOVicricle arsidsiniaistent ofall atelejsre efefeis eels statarsrckstave arenes Epwarp I. Hpwarps
IN Wits UVICERTCOR ie Recekece wroln aie cate aie irons felete thane etovene epee Merritt C. MECHEM
INC Tg eh sec ala ter oeleera sre pencil ans deel etaneleneneuetterclinenes cnatie veitesetevseeta NATHAN L. MILLER
NODE OC ATOLIM Biiie cccucfoctncs ows toisielotareinte olelateteiatelelaleretetens reget ste CAMERON MoRRISON
INOPER WD DICOta iis cate ters eres cre ces oie, ooo) evel elevere aheisiatatareteraietveuetee tens R. A. NEstTos
CIT eee a fee caries Sra Ble a ralena a etolaiwire: wiiaiteliava etetwvelacvenelels feuetnuiere Harry L. Davis
CaO mae ae lo ore cronc wai, sw iolatotetetete avasene wie ouacatarremieterereiete J. B. A. ROBERTSON
OTOLON A, Sievers sole el eiepey civteteicvees- i cians sre teholserats isis in oilemere lel eteteus tad settee B. W. OLcoTr
PORTIS VIVANT Siecareicyere is, sue ein letersi ro uerelekeycle rae el voteleleietexeieceetciene Wn. C. Sprout
RNOde! TSA e so Ove cos oie role a eos ware a eae Peete ereeiere Emery J. SAN Sovuctr
SOUtH Carolinas Le aes eo eal ctars a ehets wm ctavens ae eee teiateraustey arte Rosert A. CooPER
South DaKOeas % ce siieeliretsye ths oterctava toy aca o lalemapedo ettovereretetere te tele ore W. H. McMAstTErR
PP GUTNOSSOG ive iovsisrelele olessvete (0 Sees ee OR OP's ER VGROL STRESS Oe etcherakePe ions Atr. A. TAYLOR
DOSS 5. abii5 id iaedsiasere co cils aig a a apa wre natel anata A eh eses we pallsyrevevenskenetoretelataerene Pat M. NEFF
| Dit lc Wea ye Oe ape aU 18 Si A EE ote oyna fi nie BORO OAE CuarLes R. Masey
WWEEIMNONES ciitercie ois. sretel sheterecetece torele oe wheter tere each elanevona cloneuetevehavensts JAMES HARTNESS
VAL SALT TAS, eh RIS Cotlar'e os Srltwte olin Gin aahaters lovorebacceae epateie (er ace eis enels WESTMORELAND Davis
WASHING TOM: 5 deine Siokdie ee tibia ctetert otolee vete senate sravale orece ia hevetaterer Lovis F. Hart
WIEST BVATOINIA «|... cisss-cic/eratel ave yareie ove alepores vie terelekareloe ele’ o) atshelete EpuriaAmM F. Morgan
WISCONSIN ss: o5s o's se: 5) oun a raln se oh olenes ious aca etateteielava tele) Wiebe an ereraterai arene JOHN J. BLAINE
WAV i alere i stale olacctarecane| ashe: cic vetniereeie meters oletcntaterets ateleteaeret= Rosert D. CAREY

708
06

09
93
712

04
89

06
04
08
88
71%

09
95

708
06
92

710

14
15

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ANTIPA, Pror. GREGOIRE, Inspector-General of Fisheries, Bucharest,
Roumania.

BEsANA, GIUSEPPE, Lombardy Fisheries Society, Via Rugabello 19,
Milan, Italy.

BLUE Rivce Rop AND GuN Crus, Harper’s Ferry, W. Va.

Boropin, Nicoutas, Petrograd, Russia.

CALDERWOOD, W. L., Inspector of Salmon Fisheries for Scotland,
Edinburgh, Scotland.

DENBIGH, Lorp, London, England.

FisH PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATION OF EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA, 1020 Arch
St., Philadelphia, Pa.

GRIMM, Dr. Oscar, Petrograd, Russia.

KISHINOUYE, Dr. K., Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan.

KITAHARA, Dr. Tasaku, Imperial Fisheries Bureau, Tokyo, Japan.

LAKE St. CiarR SHOOTING AND FisHING CLuB, Detroit, Mich.

Mercier, Honore, Minister of Colonization, Mines and Fisheries,
Quebec, Canada.

NAGEL, Hon. CuHas., St. Louis, Mo.

New York ASSOCIATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF FISH AND GAME, New

York City.

Norpevist, Dr. Oscar Fritsor, Superintendent of Fisheries, Lund,
Sweden.

PERRIER, Pror. EpMonpD, Director Museum of Natural History, Paris,
France.

VINCIGUERRA, Pror. Dr. Decro, Director Royal Fish Cultural Station,
Rome, Italy.

Corresponding Members

APOSTOLIDES, Pror. Nicoty Cur., Athens, Greece.

ARMISTEAD, J. J., Dumfries, Scotland.

Ayson, L. F., Commissioner of Fisheries, Wellington, New Zealand.

HicGInson, Epuarpo, Consul for Peru, New York City.

LANDMARK, A., Inspector of Norwegian Fresh Water Fisheries, Chris-
tiania, Norway.

Marston, R. B., Editor of the Fishing Gazette, London, England.

PoTTEAU, CHARNLEY, Lommel, Belgium.

Sars, Pror. G. O., Christiania, Norway.

SotsKy, Baron N. pg, Director of the Imperial Agricultural Museum,
Petrograd, Russia.

Stead, Davin G., Fisheries Department, Sydney, New South Wales,
Australia.

Patrons

ALASKA PACKERS ASSOCIATION, San Francisco, Calif.

ALLEN, Henry F.. (Agent, Crown Mills), 210 California St., San
Francisco, Calif.

AMERICAN Biscuit Co., 815 Battery St., San Francisco, Calif.

AMERICAN CAN Co., Mills Building, San Francisco, Calif.

ARMouR & Co., Battery and Union Sts., San Francisco, Calif.

Armspsy, J. K., Company, San Francisco, Calif.

ATLAS GAS ENGINE Co., INc., Foot of 22d Avenue, Oakland, Calif.

BaLrour, GUTHRIE & Co., 350 California St., San Francisco, Calif.

BANK oF CaLirorniA, N. A., California and Sansome Sts., San Fran-
cisco, Calif.

BLoEDEL-DoNOvAN LumsBer Mitts, Bellingham, Wash.

Bonp AND Goopwin, 485 California St., San Francisco, Calif.

BURPEE AND LETSON, Lrtp., South Bellingham, Wash.

CALIFORNIA BARREL Co., 22d and Illinois Sts., San Francisco, Calif.

CALIFORNIA Door Co., 43 Main St., San Francisco, Calif.

CALIFORNIA STEVEDORE AND BaLuast Co., Inc., 210 California St., San
Francisco, Calif.

137

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16

949
vo

°20
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98
14

CALIFORNIA WIRE CLOTH COMPANY, San Francisco, Calif.

CASWELL, GEO. W., Co., INc., 503-4 Folsom St., San Francisco, Calif.

CrincH, C. G., & Co., Inc., 144 Davis St., San Francisco, Calif.

CoFFIN-REDINGTON Co., 35-45 Second St., San Francisco, Calif.

CoLUMBIA RiIvER PAcKERS AssocraTION, Astoria, Ore.

CRANE Co. (C. W. Weld, Mgr.), 301 Brannan St., San Francisco, Calif.

Dopcr, SwEENEY & Co., 36-48 Spear St., San Francisco, Calif.

First NATIONAL BANK OF BELLINGHAM, Bellingham, Wash.

Futter, W. P., & Co., 301 Mission St., San Francisco, Calif.

Grays Harspor CoMMERCIAL Co., Foot of 3d St., San Francisco, Calif.

Henpry, C. J., Co., 46 Clay St., San Francisco, Calif.

JONES-THIERBACH Co., THE, Battery and Merchant Sts., San Francisco,
Calif.

Knapp, THE Frep H., Co., Arcade-Maryland Casualty Building, Bal-
timore, Md.

LINEN THREAD Co., THE, (W. A. Barbour, Mer.), 443 Mission St., San
Francisco, Calif.

MatTTLaGE, CHAS. F., Company, 335 Greenwich St., New York City.

Nauman, C., & Co., 501-3 Sansome St., San Francisco, Calif.

OLIVER SALT Co., Mt. Eden, Calif.

Morrison Miri Co., Inc., Bellingham, Wash.

Morse Harpware Co., Inc., 1025 Elk St., Bellingham, Wash.

Paciric HARDWARE AND STEEL Co., 7th and Townsend Sts., San Fran-
cisco, Calif.

Paciric States Erectric Co., 575 Mission St., San Francisco, Calif.

PHILLIPS SHEET AND TIN PLATE ©o., Weirton, W. Va.

Pore AND Tasot, Foot of 3d St., San Francisco, Calif.

Pucet Sounp NAVIGATION Co., Seattle, Wash.

Ray, W. S., Mre. Co., Inc., 216 Market St., San Francisco, Calif.

Scumint LitHocraPH Co., 2d and Bryants Sts., San Francisco, Calif.

SCHWABACHER-F'REY STATIONERY Co., 609-11 Market St., San Fran-
cisco, Calif.

Sure Owners’ AND MercHants’ Tuc Boat Co., Foot of Green St., San
Francisco, Calif.

SHERWIN-WILLIAMS Co., THE, 454 Second St., San Francisco, Calif.

SmirH CANNERY Macutine Co., 2423 South First Avenue, Seattle,
Wash.

STANDARD Gas ENGINE Co., Dennison and King St., Oakland, Calif.

Stanparp Orr Co. or Catirornis, Standard Oil Building, San Fran-
cisco, Calif.

U.S. Rupser Co. or CALirornra (W. D. Rigdon, Mgr.), 50-60 Fremont
St., San Francisco, Calif.

U. 8. Steet Propucts Co., Rialto Building, San Francisco, Calif.

WELLS Farco NATIONAL BANK oF SAN FRrRANcIScO, Montgomery and
Market Sts., San Francisco, Calif.

WESTERN FuEt Co., 430 California St., San Francisco, Calif.

WESTERN Meat Co., 6th and Townsend Sts., San Francisco, Calif.

WHite Bros., 5th and Brannan Sts., San Francisco, Calif.

Active Members
Life Members Indicated by Asterisk (*)

ABRAMS, MiILTon, 560 Brook Ave., New York City.

ADAMS, Pror. CuHas. ©., State College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y.

ADAMS, WM. C., Director, Division of Fisheries and Game, 506 State
House, Boston, Mass.

Apcock, A. Y., 5929 Wayne Ave., Chicago, Tl.

ALBERT, W. E., State Fish and Game Warden, Des Moines, Iowa.

ALEXANDER, GEORGE L., Grayling, Mich.

ALEXANDER, M. L., President, Louisiana Conservation Commission, New
Orleans, La.

138

08
“ule
92
714
14
78
721

19
*20
15
10
06
01

712
18
15
01
98
10
16
’20
05
712

10
719

712
’20
721

'04
00
13

13
721.
18

*80
720
13
13
06
19
2
18

97
“ya
‘16

14
’20
02
14

AnpERSoN, AucusT J., Box 704, Marquette, Mich.

ANDERSON, Dr. F. E., Red Wing, Minn.

ANDERSON, J. F., 3136 Front St., San Diego, Calif.

Anperson, T. T., Liggett and Myers Tobacco Co., St. Louis, Mo.

ANNIN, Howarp, Caledonia, N. Y.

ANNIN, JAMES, Caledonia, N. Y.

ARMSTRONG, RoNALD KENNEDY, Dalton House, Daiton, Northumber-
land, England.

AsHToN, GrEo., 1217 Pierce Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.

ATLANTIC BroLtogicaL STATION, St. Andrews, New Brunswick, Canada.

Arwoop, Irvine M., 31 Boston Fish Pier, Boston, Mass.

Aucur, W. A., 33 Fulton St., New York City.

Avery, Cartos, State Game and Fish Commissioner, St. Paul, Minn.

Bascock, JoHNn P., Provincial Fisheries Department, Victoria, British
Columbia.

Bascock, WILLIAM H., 520 The Rookery, Chicago, Ill.

Baitey, ARTHUR T., Nashua, N. H.

Batcu, Howarp K., 158 W. Austin Ave., Chicago, Ill.

Batpwin, O. N., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Saratoga, Wyo.

Baty, E. M., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

BaLuarD, S. THRustToN, Louisville, Ky.

BARBER, WM. E., LaCrosse, Wis.

Barbour, F. K., 96 Franklin St., New York, N. Y.

BargBour, THOMAS, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.

*BARNES, EARNEST W., Supt., R. I. Fisheries Experiment Station,
Wickford, R. I.

Barron, JAMES T., 1210 Yeon Bldg., Portland, Ore.

BarTLetT, Morr L., Commissioner of Fisheries and Game, Concord,
ING. Ee

Bauer, A., 25th and Dearborn Sts., Chicago, IIl.

Baxter, A. C., Chief, Ohio Fish and Game Division, Columbus, Ohio.

BazELEy, Hon. Wm. A. L., Commissioner of Conservation, Room 519,
State House, Boston, Mass.

BEAN, Barton A., U. 8. National Museum, Washington, D. C.

BEEMAN, Henry W., New Preston, Conn.

*BELDING, Dr. Davin L., Biologist, Division of Fisheries and Game,
Boston, Mass.

BEt1, J. C., Alaska Packers Association, San Francisco, Calif.

BELL, Wo. G., 512 Munsey Bldg., Baltimore, Md.

BELLISLE, J. A., Inspector General of Fisheries and Game, Quebec,
Canada.

BELMONT, PERRY, 1618 New Hampshire Ave., Washington, D. C.

BENNETT, L. H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

*BENSON, JOHN T., Director Zoological Garden, Boston, Mass.

Bere, GEorGE, Indiana Fish Commission, Indianapolis, Ind.

BERKHOUvS, JERRY R., Pennsylvania Fish Commission, Torresdale, Pa.

BERNARD, Gus., Atchafalaya, La.

BERNIER, Dr. J. E., No. 5 D’Auteuil St., Quebec, Canada.

Biuisoty, E. Nasu, Commissioner of Game and Inland Fisheries,
Richmond, Va.

*Brrck, Dr. E. A., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

BLACKFORD, CHAS. Minor, M. D., Staunton, Va.

Biystap, CHESTER N., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries Laboratory, Fair-
port, Iowa.

Borton, C. C., 404 Hickox Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio.

Bonner, ALBERT E., Coopersville, Mich.

Bootu, Dewitt C., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Spearfish, S. D.

BoRDENKECHER, WILLIAM, R. R. 19, Haughville Station, Indianapolis,
Ind.

BOTHWELL, Davin, Anderson Lake Hatchery, Kildonan P. O., V. L.,
BEC.

139

Bower, SEYMour, Drayton Plains, Mich.

Bower, Warp T., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Bowers, GEORGE M., Martinsburg, W. Va.

BRADFORD, RALPH P., Dept. of Agriculture, Springfield, I.

Breper, C. M., Jz., 23 Humboldt St., Newark, N. J.

Brown, Det, U. 8S. Bureau of Fisheries, Edenton, N. C.

Brown, Ernest C., 52 Vanderbilt Ave., New York City.

Brown, Ernest Ciive, Box 107, Station G, New York, N. Y.

Brown, G. W. N., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Orangeburg, S. C.

Bryan, Pror. WM. ALANSON, Director, Los Angeles Museum, Exposi-
tion Park, Los Angeles, Calif.

BuckstTaFF, GEO. A., 1101-1501 S. Main St., Oshkosh, Wis.

*BuLLER, A. G., Pennsylvania Fish Commission, Corry, Pa.

BuLier, C. R., Pleasant Mount, Wayne Co., Pa.

BuLier, G. W., Pleasant Mount, Pa.

*BULLER, NATHAN R., Pennsylvania Fish Commission, Harrisburg, Pa.

BuLtocH, Cuas. A., U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries, Bullochville, Ga.

BuRKHART, JOE, Star Prairie, Wis.

BurRNHAM, CHAS. W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Louisville, Ky.

BuRNHAM, JOHN B., Pres. Am. Game Protective Assn., 233 Broadway,
New York, N. Y.

BuscHMANN, L. C., care of Franklin Packing Co., Smith Bldg., Seattle,
Wash.

Carter, HE. N., Vinta County Farm Bureau, Fort Bridger, Wyo.

Caster, WM. A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Hartsville, Mass.

CASSELL, JoHN S., 4100 Springdale Ave., Baltimore, Md.

*CASSELMAN, HE. S., Dorset, Vt.

CHAMBERLAIN, THOMAS KNIGHT, East Corinth, Vt.

CHAMBERS, HE. T. D., Department of Colonization, Mines and Fish-
eries, Quebec, Canada.

CHAPMAN, OSWILL, De Bruce, Sullivan Co., N. Y.

CHIDISTER, Pror. F. E., West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. Va.

CHRISTOFFERS, H. J., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, 1217 L. C. Smith
Bldg., Seattle, Wash.

Crapp, AtvA, State Game and Fish Warden, Pratt, Kansas.

CLaRK, H. Watton, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Fairport, Iowa.

CLEMENS, WiLBert A., Dept. of Biology, University of Toronto, Tor-
onto, Ontario.

*CLEVELAND, W. B., Burton, Ohio.

Clubs

AKRON GAME AND FisH AssocraTion, Akron, Pa.

ASBURY PARK FISHING CLUB (John F. Seger), 703 Cookman Ave., As-
bury Park, N. J.

ASHLAND FISH AND GAME ProTECTIVE Ass’N, Ashland, Pa.

Barr Camp (Charles H. Foster, Sec.), 221 Linden St., Scranton, Pa.

Bemipgri Trout Crus (R. H. Schumaker, Sec.-Treas.), Bemidji, Minn.

BERKS County Rop & Gun Ass’n (W. E. Wounderly, Sec.), 615 Hisen-
brown St., Reading, Pa. h

BETHLEHEM GAME, FISH AND Forestry Ass’n, 423 Brodhead Ave.,
Bethlehem, Pa.

Brirpsporo FisH AND GAME Ass’N (Hlmer E. Squibb, Sec.), Birds-
boro, Pa.

BLAanpBurG Camp No. 115, UNITED SPORTSMEN OF PENNSYLVANIA,
Blandburg, Pa.

BowMANSTOWN Rop ann Gun Crus (Wm. A. Yale, Sec.), Bowmans-
town, Pa.

Cayuca County SporTSMEN’s ASssocIATION (John L. Alnutt, Pres.),
Auburn, N. Y.

Cutcora OuTine CiuB (R. J. Gainford, Pres.), Chicora, Pa.

CLtus Denartius, 8 Susquehanna St., Barnesboro, Pa.

140

CUMBERLAND CouNTY FISH AND GAME Ass’nN (Geo. E. Orr, Sec.),
Portland, Me.

FArRBRooK CountTRY CLuB (C. O. Miller, Sec.), Tyrone, Pa.

Frrcus FISHING AND GAME CLUB (J. C. Henkes, Sec.), Fergus Falls,
Minn.

FLYFISHERS’ CLuB, 36 Piccadilly, W. 1, London, England.

JEFFERSON Co. GAME AND FisH Ass’n, Brookville, Pa.

LOWELL FISH AND GAME ASS’N (Willis S. Holt, Sec.), Box 948, Lowell,
Mass.

MonTGcoOMERY Co. FISH, GAME AND Forestry Ass’n (H. G. Unger,
Sec.), 820 West Marshall St., Norristown, Pa.

Mount PLEASANT HUNTING AND FisHine Ass’N, Mount Pleasant, Pa.

NAZARETH RoD AND GUN CLUB, INc., Nazareth, Pa.

NEWARK BaiT AND Fty Castine CLus, Split Rock Lake, Boonton, N. J.

NEw JERSEY FisH AND GAME CONSERVATION LEAGUE (Arthur J. Neu,
Treas.), 31 Clinton St., Newark, N. J.

NortH CHAUTAUQUA FISH AND GAME CLUB, Dunkirk, N. Y.

Park Rapins CoMMUNITY CiLuB (G. H. Friend, Treas.), Park Rapids,
Minn.

PENNSYLVANIA STATE FISH AND GAME PROTECTIVE Ass’N, City Club,
313 South Broad St., Philadelphia, Pa. (Address: Dr. T. Chal-
mers Fulton, Corres. Sec., Schuyler Bldg., 6th and Diamond Sts.,
Philadelphia, Pa.)

PLYMOUTH CAMP No. 1386, UNITED SPORTSMEN OF PENNSYLVANIA (H. A.
Ledden, Sec.), 53 Oxford St., Lee Park, Wilkes-Barre, Pa.

POHOQUALINE FisH ASssocrATION (J. D. Winter, Jr., care of Thos. A.
Biddle Co.), Philadelphia, Pa.

PorTER’s LAKE HUNTING AND FISHING CLUB (Otto C. Feil, Sec.), 2207
North Sixth St., Philadelphia, Pa.

RamMsEy Co. UNITED SPorRTSMEN’s Ass’N (J. McCarthy, Sec.), 636
Grand Ave., St..Paul. Minn.

Riweway BrancH, WILp Lire LEAGUE (Earl EB. Gardner, Sec.), Ridg-
way, Pa.

RinecoLtp Rop anp GuN Cus, Pen Argyl, Pa.

Rop anp GUN PROTECTIVE Ass’N, East Greenville, Montgomery Co., Pa.

SANCON VALLEY CAMP No. 168, UNITED SPORTSMEN OF PENNSYLVANIA,
Hellertown, Pa.

Saw CREEK HUNTING AND FisuHine Ass’n (M.S. Kistler, Treas.), East
Stroudsburg, Pa.

SporTsMEN’s CLUB oF DututTH, 402 Wolvin Bldg., Duluth, Minn.

STAPLES Rop anp Gun Cuus (C. E. Miller, See.), Staples, Minn.

UNAMI FISH AND GAME PROTECTIVE ASs’N, Emaus, Pa.

VERMONT STATE FisH AND GAME CLUB (S. B. Hawks, Vice-President),
Bennington, Vt.

Wayne Hunting AND FisHine Crus (G. M. Patteson, Sec.), Carbon-
dale, Pa.

West PHILADELPHIA Rop anp Gun Crus (Wm. L. Bryan, Sec.), 55th
and Springfield Ave., Philadelphia, Pa.

Wi Lire Leacvue, Sheffield Branch (G. McKillip, Treas.), Shef-
field, Pa.

WILKES-BARRE Camp No. 103, UNiTED SPORTSMEN OF PENNSYLVANIA

(M. B. Welsh, Sec.), 96 Mclean St., Wilkes-Barre, Pa.
Winpsor Co. Fis anp GAME CLuB (C. W. Grinnel, Sec.), Norwich, Vt.

Cogs, Esen W., Superintendent of Fisheries, State Game and Fish
Department, St. Paul, Minn.

Cops, Joun N., Director, College of Fisheries, Univ. of Washington,
Seattle, Wash.

CoKER; Dr. Rozert E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Cotes, RUSSELL J., Danville, Va.

141

719 CoMMERFORD, WM., Booneville, N. Y.

717 Cook, Warp A., U. 8S. Bureau of Fisheries, Duluth, Minn.

°20 Coors, Hpwarp, 4706 4th Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.

7°00 *CorLiss, C. G., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Gloucester, Mass.

°21 Corson, ALAN, City Hall, Philadelphia, Pa.

719 Corwin, Roy S., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Fairport, Iowa.

717 CowneEn, S. M., Conservation Commission, Albany, N. Y.

718 COoOYKENDALL, Hpwarp, 22 Ferry St., Kingston, N. Y.

°21 Craic, SAMUEL, 398 Van Norman St., Port Arthur, Ontario.

14. Crampton, JoHN M., State Superintendent, Board of Fisheries and
Game, New Haven, Conn.

7138 CRANDALL, A. J., AShaway, R. I.

711 Crasser, Hueco, U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries, LaCrosse, Wis.

°20 CRAWFORD, D. R., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

720 Criz, H. D., Director, Sea and Shore Fisheries Commission, Rock-
land, Me.

719 Crosstry, H. C., Put-in Bay, Ohio.

708 Cuter, C. F., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Homer, Minn.

712 DANGLADE, ERNEST, Vevay, Ind.

719 Daspit, A. P., New Court Bldg., New Orleans, La.

"17 Davinson, Henry, Fish Hatchery, Bath, N. Y.

06 Davies, Davi, U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries, Tupelo, Miss.

791 and ’10 DEAN, Pror. BASHFOoRD, Columbia University, New York City.

701 DrAN, HerRBert D., U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries, Bozeman, Mont.

719 DeENMEAD, TArBot, 508 Munsey Bldg., Baltimore, Md.

705 DePuy, Henry F., 32 W. 40th St., New York City.

713 DerRocuer, Jas. D., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, East Orland, Me.

°08 DeETWILeR, JoHN Y., Honorary President, Florida Fish Commission,
New Smyrna, Fla.

14 Drmick, F. F., Boston Fish Bureau, Fish Pier, Boston, Mass.

‘99 Dinsmore, A. H., U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries, St. Johnsbury, Vt.

720 Donan, GrorGE A., Fish Commissioner, Westerly, R. I.

07 *Domrny, JEREMIAE M., South Haven, N. Y.

799 Downine, 8. W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Put-in’ Bay, Ohio.

709. Doyir, Henry, Winch Bldg., Vancouver, B. C.

720 Dryroos, LEon, 508 State St., Erie, Pa.

719 DucKREE, BENJ., Wild Rose, Wis.

700 ~=Duwntap, I. H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

18 DuRant, Dr. G. W., Board of Fisheries of S. C., Georgetown, S. C.

710 Eaton, Howarp, Sheridan Library Association, Sheridan, Wyo.

713. Emsopy, Dr. Gro. C., 141 Ithaca Road, Ithaca, N. Y.

721 EMERICH, WALTER G., Watervliet, N. Y.

17 EricKkson, C. J., 328 Washington St., Boston, Mass.

°20 Evans, H. R., Cultus Lake Hatchery, Vedder Crossing Post Office,
British Columbia.

706 ~Evans, Lieut.-Cot. Kertty, Metropolitan Club, New York City.

02 ~EvERMANN, Dr. Barton W., Director of the Museum, California Acad-
emy of Sciences, San Francisco, Calif.

704 EvEeRMANN, J. W., First Vice-Pres., St. Louis Southwestern Railway
of Texas, Dallas, Texas.

"12 *Frarinc, Mrs. D. B., Newport, R. I.

718 Ferarnow, E. C., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

709 ~Ferrck, JoHn A., Sandusky, Ohio.

715 Ferripine, J. B., 82 Wellington St., Halifax, Nova Scotia.

20 Firpier, REGINALD H., 310 B. 51st St., Seattle, Wash.

07 ~=FiELD, Dr. GrorcEe W., 2807 18th St. N.W., Washington, D. C.

799 FWirxins, B. G., Northville, Mich.

20 Frniayson, ALEx. C., Dominion Inspector of Hatcheries, Ottawa,
Canada.

12 Finury, W. L., Jennings Lodge, Clackamas Co., Ore.

704 FisHer, JoHN F., Chapinville, Conn.

"17 «=FirzcerRAp, E. J., Minneiska, Minn.

142

‘15
04

19
‘14
712
10
21
712
10
718

718
721
10
18
20
713
"17
05
19
721
i
°20

713
10
10
03
19
127
21
10

20
13

15
05
00
78
721
07
716
06

"95
9
alr
20

03
06
718
04
04

FLEMING, JOHN H., Columbia City, Ind.

*HOLGER, J. A., Pres., J. A. Folger Co., Howard and Spencer Sts., San
Francisco, Calif.

FoLiett, RicHarD E., Detroit Zoological Society, 1224 Dime Bank
bBidg., Detroit, Mich.

Forses, R. D., New Orleans, La.

ForsytH, RoBerT, 1157 The Rookery, Chicago, Ill.

*FORTMANN, Henry F., 1007 Gough St., San Francisco, Calif.

Foster, FREDERICK J., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Neosho, Mo.

Foster, Wm. T., 707 Coleman St., Easton, Pa.

Founp, Wm. A., Asst. Deputy Minister of Fisheries, Ottawa, Canada.

Fow Ler, KENNETH, Woolworth Bldg., New York City.

FRENcH, ALBERT, International Agric. Corporation, 61 Broadway, New
York, Ni ¥.

FRIDENBERG, ROBERT, 22 W. 56th St., New York, N. Y.

GANTENBEIN, D., Diamond Bluff, Wis.

*GARDNER, Mrs. CHARLES C., The Cliffs, Newport, R. I.

GARNSEY, LEIGH, 451 Summit Ave., Redlands, Calif.

GERDUN, C., 505 Commercial Bank Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio.

Gerry, Ropert L., 258 Broadway, New York City.

Giss, C. D., Game Warden, Wilder, Minn.

Gipps, CHARLES E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Hast Orland, Me.

Giover, Wm. L., Edison National Bank, Orangeburg, S. C.

GoopHUE, EH. C., Sherbrooke, Quebec.

GorHAM, W. B., Fisheries Station, Anaconda, Mont.

GouLp, Dr. Epwin W., Sea and Shore Fisheries Commission, 24 School
St., Rockland, Me.

GRAHAM, H. A., Berkeley, Taunton, R. F. D., Mass.

GRAHAM, GEORGE H., 423 Main St., Springfield, Mass.

GRATER, CHARLES B., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Leadville, Colo.

Gray, GrorceE M., Woods Hole, Mass.

Gray, STEDMAN H., 2511 W. Second Ave., Seattle, Wash.

GREEN, J. C., 4730 London Road, Duluth, Minn.

GREEN, JOHN E., Carlton, Minn.

GREENE, Dr. CHaAs. W., University of Missouri, 814 Virginia Ave.,
Columbia, Mo.

GREENE, JOHN V., U. 8S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

GUERIN, THEOPHILE, Treasurer, Rhode Island Commission of Fisher-
ies, Woonsocket, R. I.

GUNCKEL, WILL H., M. and C. Savings Bank, Toledo, Ohio.

*HAAS, WILLIAM, Pennsylvania Fish Commission, Spruce Creek, Pa.

Hann, EH. E., U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries, Boothbay Harbor, Me.

HAaLey, Cares, 14 Fulton Market, New York City.

HaAmBERGER, Hon. JoHN, 16 Hast 8th St., Erie, Pa.

Hancock, W. K., U. 8S. Bureau of Fisheries, Baird, Calif.

Hanp, HE. R., Fairmont, Minn.

HANKINSON, Pror. T. L., National Science Hall, State Normal College,
Ypsilanti, Mich.

HANSEN, FERDINAND, Russian Caviar Co., 170 Chambers St., New
York City.

HANSEN, G., Osceola, Wis.

Hare, Frank E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Manchester, Iowa.

HARRIMAN, AVERILL, Arden, N. Y.

Harrison, C. W., 801 Rogers Bldg., Dom. Gov. Fisheries Office, Van-
couver, B. C.

Harron, L. G., U. 8S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

HARTMANN, Putt, Erie, Pa.

HawkEs, S. B., Supt., State Fish Hatchery, Bennington, Vt.

Hay, Pror. W. P., Kensington, Md.

Hayrorp, CHARLES O., Supt., State Fish Hatchery, Hackettstown,
Ned.

143

20
719

08
15
20
719
13
08

HEATHLEY, GeEo., Middleton, Annapolis Co., Nova Scotia.

Heprick, H. S., Pierre, 8. D.

Herman, A. J., Barberton, Ohio.

HeMiInGway, E. D., 123 Rochelle Ave., Wissahickon, Philadelphia, Pa.

HENSHALL, DR. JAMES A., 811 Dayton St., Cincinnati, Ohio.

Herobp, R., 7 Mills Bldg., San Francisco, Calif.

HERRICK, PROF. Francis Hosart, Western Reserve University, Cleve-
land, Ohio.

Hevucuetez, G. L., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Put-in Bay, Ohio.

HeEweETT, FRED, Route 6, Madison, Wis.

Hiecins, ALF. S., 142 Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass.

HILDEBRAND, SAMUEL F., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D.C.

Hinricus, Henry, Jr., Booth Fisheries Co., 205 No. Michigan Ave.,.
Chicago, IIl.

Hopart, T. D., Pampa, Texas.

Horrses, G. Raymonp, U. 8S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Hoiianp, R. P., Am. Game Protective Association, 233 Broadway,.
New York City.

Hoopen, K., Monterey, Calif.

HooFnacLe, G. W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Orangeburg, S. C.

*Hoprrer, GrorGE L., Havre de Grace, Md.

Howe tt, G. C. L., care of H. S. King & Co., 9 Pall Mall, London,
S. W., England.

Howser, W. D., Nashville, Tenn.

HUBBARD, WaxLpo F., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Nashua, N. H.

Hupss, Cart L., Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, Mich.

HuNTSMAN, Dr. A. G., University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.

*HurbLBuTt, H. F., 18 Iveson Ave., East Lynn, Mass.

Hussakor, Dr. Louis, American Museum of Natural History, New
York City.

HustTep, JAMES D., Denver, Colo.

INNIS, Wo., N. HE. Cor. 12th and Cherry Sts., Philadelphia, Pa.

JACKSON, RALPH ©., Seven Pines Brook Trout Preserve, Lewis, Wis.

JENNINGS, G. E., Fishing Gazette, 465 Central Park West, New York
City.

JENSEN, Haroxp, Spooner, Wis.

Jounson, A. S., 300 Exchange Bldg., Duluth, Minn.

JOHNSON, JAMES G., R. I. Commission of Inland Fisheries, Riverside,
Ree

JONES, CHAPIN, State Forester, University of Virginia, Charlottes-
ville, Va.

Jones, Cov. E. Lester, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington,.
DAC:

Jones, J. H., Fergus Falls, Minn.

Jones, TuHos. S., Louisville, Ky.

JorDAN, R. D., 12 Stebbins St., Springfield, Mass.

Jostyn, C. D., 67 Boulevard, Pelham, N. Y.

KAUFMANN, R. M., The Star, Washington, D. C.

KAVANAUGH, W. P., Bay City, Mich.

KEESECKER, A. G., U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries, Erwin, Tenn.

Kert, W. M., Tuxedo Park, N. Y.

KEMMERICH, JOSEPH, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Concrete, Wash.

KeEnpat., F. P., Farling Bldg., Portland, Ore.

KENDALL, NEAL, Farling Bldg., Portland, Ore.

KENDALL, Dr. WiLttaM C., College of Forestry, Syracuse University,.
Syracuse, N. Y.

Kent, Epwin C., Tuxedo Club, Tuxedo Park, N. Y.

Keyes, H. W., Ranier, Minn.

Kinney, M. J., 1005 Yeon Bldg., Portland, Ore.

KISTERBOCK, JOSIAH, JR., 3824 Spruce St., Philadelphia, Pa.

144

04
13

719

14
18
03
"16
ue
08
98
4 ir
’20

19
10
20
‘02

19
’20
"21
’20
718
718
"21
20
’20
"21
"21
20

15
20
10
16
19
20
16
16
719
98
10
18

reek §
03
"20
20
tay.
03
if Is)
10
20
97
20
16
pul:
99

KITTREDGE, BENJAMIN R., Carmel, N. Y.

Knieut, H. J., Alaska Packers Association, San Francisco, Calif.

Kortz, Dr. Water, Dept. Zoology, University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, Mich.

KRAIKER, Cart, 1745 No. 7th St., Philadelphia, Pa.

KRriprpenporr, Cart H., Sagamore and New Sts., Cincinnati, Ohio.

LAMBSON, G. H., Calif. Fish and Game Commission, Sisson, Calif.

Lanpry, D. J., Lake Charles, La.

LAwyYER, GEO. A., U. S. Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.

Lay, CHARLES, Sandusky, Ohio.

LeacyH, G. C., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

LEAVINS, Linus, Fish and Game Commission, Cambridge, Vt.

Lepour, Dr. Mariz V., Marine Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth,
England.

LE Compete, FE. Lee, 512 Munsey Bldg., Baltimore, Md.

LEE, W. McDonatp, Irvington, Va.

LEESER, WM. S., 919 Walnut St., Reading, Pa.

LEWIS, CHARLES E., Lewis Bldg., 2d Ave., So., & 6th St., Minneapolis,
Minn.

Libraries

COLLEGE OF FISHERIES, Univ. of Washington, Seattle, Wash.
HarvarD COLLEGE, Cambridge, Mass.

JOHN CRERAR Liprary, Chicago, Il.

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, Cambridge, Mass.
New York Pustic Lisrary, 476 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y.
New York State Lisrary, Albany, N. Y.

Scripps INSTITUTION FOR BioLocicaL RESEARCH, La Jolla, Calif.
UNIVERSITY OF INDIANA, Bloomington, Ind.

UNIvErRSITY oF MicuiaAn, Ann Arbor, Mich.

UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA, Lincoln, Nebr.

UNIVERSITY OF Toronto, Toronto, Canada.

YALE UNIVERSITY, New Haven, Conn.

LinpAuL, SetH H., 7732 Chauncey Ave., Chicago, Il.

Linpsay, R. C., Gaspe, Canada.

Linton, Dr. Epwin, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.

Lipinsky, M. N., Winona, Minn.

Lioyp, JoHN THomaAs, Court and Plum Sts., Cincinnati, Ohio.

LOWELL, RatpH P., Sanford, Me.

Lowrance, W. J., Berwick, La.

Lupwie, JoHN, Grand Isle, La.

LyYDELL, CLaup, State Fish Hatchery, Hastings, Mich.

LYDELL, Dwient, State Fish Hatchery, Comstock Park, Mich.

Mastin, CHartes H., Maywood, N. J.

MACKENZIE, Wm. H., The Linen Thread Co., 96 Franklin St., New
WOLK, IN; ¥.

McDonabLp, E. B., Liggett and Myers Tobacco Co., St. Louis, Mo.

McDoveat, J. M., Gunnison, Colo.

McKinney, Ropert E., 505 Huntington Ave., Boston, Mass.

McLean, MarsHatt, 27 Cedar St., New York City.

McReynotps, B. B., Water Superintendent, Colorado Springs, Colo.

Manone, A. H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Edenton, N. C.

*MAILLIARD, JOSEPH, 1815 Vallejo St., San Francisco, Calif.

MANNFELD, Geo. N., 223 N. Penn. St., Indianapolis, Ind.

MANSFIELD, Harry C., Russell’s Point, Ohio.

Manton, Dr. W. P., 32 Adams Ave., West, Detroit, Mich.

Marrs, Wm. C., Fort On Appelle, Saskatchewan.

Marpen, Cuas. S., Moorehead, Minn.

MariIneg, Dr. Davip, Montifiore Home and Hospital, New York City.

MarsH, M. C., Springville, N. Y.

145

"16
"21

"94
"13

13
18
720
13
13
18
04
18
04
99
10
720

10
14
718
16
86
OT

’20
720
13
16
"OT

720
00

715
19

18
10
Aly
12
Ale
04

21
04
07
18
11
09

MARSCHALK, Paut, Warroad, Minn.

MatrHews, J. H., Research and Information Dept., No. 1 Fulton Fish
Market, New York, N. Y.

*MEEHAN, W. E., 422 Dorset St., Mt. Airy, Philadelphia, Pa.

MERRILL, ARTHUR, Wilkinsonville, Mass.

Merritt, M. E., Pittsford, Vt.

MeErRSHON, W. B., Saginaw, Mich.

MEYER, Gustav J. T., 829-831 South Delaware St., Indianapolis, Ind.

Mires, Ler, Probate Judge, Little Rock, Ark.

MiLiER, ALBERT P., Constantia, N. Y.

Mittert, ArtHur L., Division of Fisheries and Game, State House,
Boston, Mass.

Miscuter, C. F., Sandusky, Ohio.

MITCHELL, Epw. W., Livingston Manor, Sullivan County, N. Y.

*MIxTER, SAMUEL J., M. D., 180 Marlboro St., Boston, Mass.

Morian, Wo. K., Board of Fisheries and Game, Bridgeport, Conn.

Money, GEN. Nort, Qualicum Beach, British Columbia.

Mownrok, Ot1s D., Supt., State Fish Hatchery, Palmer, Mass.

Moore, ALFRED, 618 American Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa.

Moorst, Dr. EMMELINE, Conservation Commission, Albany, N. Y.

Moore, Dr. H. F., U. 8S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Mortey, E. C., Sodus Point, N. Y.

Morris, Dr. Rosert T., 616 Madison Ave., New York City.

Morton, W. P., 105 Sterling Ave., Providence, R. I.

Moser, CAPTAIN JEFFERSON F., 2040 Santa Clara Ave., Alameda, Calif.

MoTHERWELL, Masor J. A., Chief Inspector of Fisheries, Rogers Bldg.,
Vancouver, B. C.

Munty, M. G., 1012 Yeon Bldg., Portland, Ore.

Myers, I. S., 604 Norwood St., Akron, Ohio.

NEEDHAM, Pror. JAS. G., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

*NELSON, CHas. A. A., Lutsen, Minn.

NEVIN, JAMES, Conservation Commission, Madison, Wis.

*NEWMAN, Epwin A., President, Aquarium Fisheries Co., 4805 8th St.,
N.W., Washington, D. C.

NICHOLS, JOHN TREADWELL, American Museum of Natural History,
New York City.

Norcore, Martin, 1908 N. 36th St., Seattle, Wash.

OAKES, JOSEPH, Box 5, Belleville, Ontario.

OAKES, WM. H., 24 Union Park St., Boston, Mass.

O’Brien, Martin. Crookston, Minn.

O’Brien, W. J., Supt. of Hatcheries, Nebraska Game and Fish Com-
mission, Gretna, Neb.

OpELL, CLINTON M., 1815 Fremont Ave., South, Minneapolis, Minn.

O’Matiry, Henry, U. 8S. Bureau of Fisheries, 1217 L. C. Smith Bldg.,
Seattle, Wash.

OPDENWEYER, JOHN W., Sorrento, La.

Orr, ArtTHUR, House Appropriations Committee, Capitol, Washing-
ton, D. C.

ORSINGER, FRED G., 123 8. Oakley Boulevard, Chicago, Tl.

*OsBURN, Pror. RAymMonp C., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.

Otis, Miro F., State Fish Hatchery, Upper Saranac, N. Y.

Ot1s, SPENCER, Railway Exchange, Chicago, Ill.

PAcKER, ARTHUR, 423 Plymouth Bldg., Minneapolis, Minn.

PALMER, Dr. THEODORE S., United States Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.

PARADISE Brook Trout Co., Henryville, Pa.

PARKHURST, Hon. C. FRANK, 54 Barnes St., Providence, R. I.

PATCHING, Frep, Loring, Alaska.

PEARSE, Pror. A. S., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

PELL, GEO. W., 520 Sixteenth St., Denver, Colo.

PFLEuGER, J. E., Akron, Ohio.

146

"21

17
13
09
‘04

06
19
af
19
08

03
10
93
719
"21
721
718
’20
713
93
19
20

98
18
15
16
"21
19
or
18

’20

19
20
10
16
21
14
13
05
18
719
15
20
721
00
13
18
00
121
13
19
Wa
08
18
03
"91

PuHILuies, JoHN M., Vice-Pres., Board of Game Commissioners, 2227
Jane St., South Side, Pittsburgh, Pa.

PINKERTON, J. A., Glenwood, Minn.

PooLE, GARDNER, Fish Pier, Boston, Mass.

Pomeroy, Gro. H., Toledo, Ohio.

Port, T. E. B., Curator, Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee,
Milwaukee, Wis.

Porter, RicHArD, Board of State Fish Commissioners, Paris, Mo.

Post Fisu Co., Sandusky, Ohio.

Pratt, GrorGE D., Telephone Bldg., Albany, N. Y.

PRENSKER, Dr. G. A., 1348 Wellington Ave., Chicago, III.

*Prince, Dr. E. E., Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries, Ottawa,

Canada.
Race, E. E., Boothbay Harbor, Me.

*RADCLIFFE, LEwis, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

RAVENEL, W. DE C., U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.

Reep, H. D., Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

Rea, KENNETH G., 285 Beaver Hall Hill, Montreal, Canada.

ReEForRD, Rost. Wiison, 300 Drummond St., Montreal, Canada.

Rew, Gro. C., 1007 N. George St., Rome, N. Y.

Rew, Huenw J., Winnipegoses, Manitoba, Canada.

REIDEL, F. K., State Hatchery, Union City, Pa.

REIGHARD, Pror. JAcoB E., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.

RENAND, J. K., 207 New Court Bldg., New Orleans, La.

RicH, Water H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, 11 Exchange St., Port-
land, Me.

Ricuarps, G. H., Sears Building, Boston, Mass.

RicHarpson, A. P., Supt. Hatchery, Canaan, Vt.

RICHARDSON, RoBert E., Box 155, University Station, Urbana, Il.

Ritry, Marx, U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries, San Marcos, Texas.

Ritey, Hon. Matruew, 304 Jefferson Ave., Ellwood City, Pa.

Ritey, Pror. WM. A., University Farm, St. Paul, Minn.

Ristry, A. F., Old Forge, Herkimer Co., N. Y.

ROBERTSON, ALEXANDER, Dominion Hatchery, Harrison Hot Springs,
British Columbia.

*RoBERTSON, Hon. Jas. A., Skerryvore, Holmefield Ave., Clevely’s,

Blackpool, England.
Ropp, J. A., Dept. Naval Service, Ottawa, Canada.
Ropp, R. T., Banff, Alberta.
Rowe, Henry C., Daytona Beach, Fla.
Rowe, Wm. H., West Buxton, Me.
RuwHE, HE. LEHMAN, 24 S. 13th St., Allentown, Pa.
RvussELL, Gro. 8., Bank of Commerce of N. A., Cleveland, Ohio.
Ryan, Carvin D., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Ketchikan, Alaska.

*Sarrorp, W. H., U. 8S. Bureau of Fisheries, Gloucester, Mass.

Scurapieck, H. E., 211 South Highth St., Olean, N. Y.

ScHRANK, J. J., Booth Fisheries Co., Sandusky, Ohio.

Scorretp, N. B., 430 Kingsley Ave., Palo Alto, Calif.

Scott, THoMAS H., Fisheries Overseer, Hope, B. C.

Scovitie, R. L., 50 Church St., New York City.

SeacieE, Gro. A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Wytheville, Va.
SEAGRAVE, ARNOLD, Woonsocket, R. I.

SEAMAN, FRANK, Napanoch, N. Y.

Setiers, M. G., 1518 Sansom St., Philadelphia, Pa.

SHELDON, H. P., Fish and Game Commissioner, Montpelier, Vt.
SHELLFORD, Victor H., Dept. Zool., University of Illinois, Urbana, II].
SHERWOOD, EH. H., State Game and Fish Commission, Seattle, Wash.
Surra, Austin F., Fairport, Iowa.

Surras, Geo., 3p, Stoneleigh Court, Washington, D. C.

SHOLL, C. E., Box 62, Burlington, N. J.

*SLADE, GreorGE P., 309 Broadway, P. O. Box 283, New York City.
SmitH, Dr. HucH M., 1209 M St. N.W., Washington, D. C.

147

99 SmitH, Lewis H., Algona, Iowa.

720 SmitH, Water S., Game Warden, 114 North Jefferson St., Staun-
ton, Va.

720 SNOWDEN, ALEX’R O., JR., 1058 Main St., Peekskill, N. Y.

705 Snyper, J. P., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Cape Vincent, N. Y.

721 Spencer, H. B., Room 1223 Munsey Bldg., Washington, D. C.

*87 SPENSLEY, CALVERT, Mineral Point, Wis.

17 SporTSMEN’s REVIEW PUBLISHING Co., 15 W. Sixth St., Cincinnati, Ohio.

16 Spracie, L. H., Henryville, Pa.

"10 Strack, F. Grorcre, North Creek, Warren Co., N. Y.

°21 SvrackHoussE, H. R., Department of Fisheries, Harrisburg, Pa.

States

721 Inprana, Dept. of Conservation, Div. of Fisheries and Game, Indian-
apolis, Ind.

721 Towa, Fish and Game Dept., Des Moines, Iowa.

721 Louisiana, Dept. of Conservation, New Orleans, La.

*21 MAassacHusetts, Dept. of Conservation, State House, Boston, Mass.

‘21 Minnesota, Department of Game and Fish, State Capitol, St. Paul,
Minn.

’21 Onto, Bureau of Fish and Game, Columbus, Ohio.

°21 OreEcoN, Fish Commission of Oregon, 1105 Gasco Bldg., Portland, Ore.

703. «Stevens, ARTHUR F., Ladentown, R. F. D. 44-A, Suffern, N. Y.

712 ~Srivers, D. Gay, Butte Anglers’ Association, Butte, Mont.

°20 StToKKeE, G. B., 16 Exchange Place, New York City. -

704 Story, Joun A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Green Lake, Me.

14 Struven, CuHas. M., 114 8S. Frederick St., Baltimore, Md.

720 Struser, JAMES W., Bureau of Fish and Game, Columbus, Ohio.

718 Sun, Dr. F. T., President, School of Fisheries, Tientsin, China.

710 Sworp, C. B., New Westminster, British Columbia, Canada.

721 Tart, THoRFIN, 64 Hillside Ave., Metuchen, N. J.

719 Taytor, H. F., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

719 TERRELL, CiypE B., Oshkosh, Wis.

99 THayer, W. W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Northville, Mich.

713. THomas, ApriAn, 190 EH. Grand Boulevard, Detroit, Mich.

19 THompson, CHaAs. H., Colonial Trust Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa.

18 THompson, W. F., State Fisheries Laboratory, Terminal, Calif.

700 Tuompson, W. P., 123 N. Fifth St., Philadelphia, Pa.

700 Tuompson, W. T., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Bozeman, Mont.

08 THomson, G. H., Estes Park, Colo.

713. TicHreNnor, A. K., Secretary, Alaska Packers Assn., San Francisco,
Calif.

14 Trr~MAN, RosBert L., Beacon Paper Co., St. Louis, Mo.

13 *Timson, WoM., President, Alaska Packers Assn., San Francisco, Calif.

92 «TiTcomsB, JOHN W., 17 Lenox Ave., Albany, N. Y.

701 and ’12 *TowNsENp, Dr. CHARLES H., Director New York Aquarium,
New York, N. Y.

20 TrAveERS, JoHN T., Bureau of Fish and Game, Columbus, Ohio.

°21 + TRESSELT, FREDERICK, State Fish Hatchery, Hackettstown, N. J.

‘21 TressteR, Dr. Donatp K., Mellon Institute, Pittsburgh, Pa.

13 « TrREexLerR, Cot. Harry C., Allentown, Pa.

7138. Trices, CHas. W., Booth Fisheries Co., 22 W. Monroe St., Chicago, Il.

715 Troyer, M., Astoria Iron Works, Seattle, Wash.

°20 Truitt, R. V., University of Maryland, College Park, Md.

16 Truitt, Harry §S., American Museum of Natural History, New York
City.

99 Tusgs, Franx A., State Fish Hatchery, Harrisville, Mich.

98 TuLIaAN, Hueene A., Box 1304, New Orleans, La.

718 Turner, Pror. C. L., Wooster, Ohio.

‘11 *VALLETTE, Luciano H., Chief of Section of Fish Culture, 827 Riva-
davia, Buenos Aires, Argentina.

148

709 Van Arta, Clyne H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Yes Bay Hatchery,
Ketchikan, Alaska.

719 Van CLEAVE, Pror. H. J., University of Illinois, Urbana, III.

14 *VaNnpDERGRIFT, S. H., 1728 New Hampshire Ave., Washington, D. C.

720 VICKERS, Harrison W., Chairman, Conservation Commission, 512
Munsey Building, Baltimore, Md.

19 VincENT, W. S., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Mammoth Springs, Ark.

19 Viosca, Percy, Jr., Natural History Bldg., New Orleans, La.

12 Voct, JAMES H., Nevada Fish Commission, Verdi, Nevada.

709 Von LENGERKE, J., 200 Fifth Ave., New York City.

706 WADDELL, JOHN, Grand Rapids, Mich.

719 Waaner, JOHN, School House Lane, Germantown, Philadelphia, Pa.

715 WAKEFIELD, L. H., 1810 Smith Bldg., Seattle, Wash.

796 WALKER, BRYANT, Detroit, Mich.

"11 Watker, Dr. H. T., 210 Main St., Denison, Texas.

‘20 WALKER, S. J., District Inspector of Hatcheries, Ottawa, Canada.

716 WALLACE, FREDERICK WILLIAM, 282 W. 25th St., New York, N. Y.

96 WatrTers, C. H., Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.

98 Warp, Dr. H. B., University of Illinois, Urbana, III.

712 Warp, J. Quincy, Executive Agent, Kentucky Game and Fish Com-
mission, Frankfort, Ky.

17 Warp, Ropertson S., 172 Harrison St., East Orange, N. J.

713. Wess, W. Srewarp, 44th St. and Vanderbilt Ave., New York City.

721 WeEsstTER, B. O., Commissioner of Fisheries, Madison, Wis.

"16 WEEKS, ANDREW Gray, 8 Congress St., Boston, Mass.

20 WELLS, Wm. F., Conservation Commission, Albany, N. Y.

19 WerRICK, FRANK J., Bigrock Creek Trout Club, St. Croix Falls, Wis.

13. WESTERFELD, Cart, 702 Postal Bldg., San Francisco, Calif.

13 WESTERMAN, J. H., Harrietta, Mich.

19 WHEELER, CHAS. E., Stratford, Conn.

15 WHEELER, FRED M., 546 Fulton St., Chicago, Il.

21 Wuite, Dr. BH. Hamitton, 298 Stanley St., Montreal, Canada.

10 WuHitTMAN, Epwarp C., Canso, Nova Scotia, Canada.

"15 WHITESIDE, R. B., 204 Sellwood Bldg., Duluth, Minn.

’20 WuitTEway, Sotomon P., St. Johns, Newfoundland.

19 Wickiirr, Enpwarp L., 1309 Atchinson St., Columbus, Ohio.

20 Witsur, Harry C., Commissioner, Sea and Shore Fisheries, Portland,
Me.

701 Wuson, C. H., Glen Falls, N. Y.

10 WINCHESTER, GRANT E., Forest, Fish and Game Commission, Bemus
Point, N. Y.

700 Winn, Dennis, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, 1217 L. C. Smith Bldz.,
Seattle, Wash.

299 Wires, S. P., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Duluth, Minn.

13 *Wisner, J. Netson, Director, Institute de Pesca del Uruguay, Punta
del Hsto, Uruguay.

21 Wotr, CHar_es F., Birchwood, Wis.

05 *Worters, Cuas. A., Oxford and Marvine Sts., Philadelphia, Pa.

"97 Woop, C. C., Plymouth, Mass.

18 Woops, Joun P., President, Missouri State Fish Commission, First

2 and Wright Sts., St. Louis, Mo.

14 Work, GeraLp, Perkins Hill, Akron, Ohio.

19 Wricut, Pror. ALBERT Hazen, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

16 Youncer, R. J., Houma, La.

99 ZatsMAN, P. G., Supt., State Fish Hatchery, Grayling, Mich.

Recapitulation
te niet oh da slate ced is ed doe in sok cou@be die eww kee he ha sla 66
NS Pte retire ksh id hcl Sn vee boy hac SOTA Eades Unaatite Ale base ctoer dle 10
STE ie a) Sac. o:01e o - ratelatp lelabotel orevecsnsrs euvtetrs ote) alleigial seeders on Uisecre eae 53
Active (including 45 clubs, 12 libraries and 7 State organizations).. 556
AMGTISIH Sogo ALSO ky ORR EEOC ROUGE CRETE OI ne A ee 685

CONSTITUTION
(As amended to date)

ARTICLE I
NAME AND OBJECT

The name of this Society shall be American Fisheries Society.
Its object shall be to promote the cause of fish culture; to gather and
diffuse information bearing upon its practical success, and upon all
matters relating to the fisheries; the uniting and encouraging of all
interests of fish culture and the fisheries, and the treatment of all
questions regarding fish, of a scientific and economic character.

ARTICLE IT
MEMBERSHIP

Active Members.—Any person may, upon a two-thirds vote and
the payment of three dollars, become a member of this Society. In
case members do not pay their fees, which shall be three dollars per
year after first year, and are delinquent for two years, they shall be
notified by the treasurer, and if the amount due is not paid within
a month thereafter, they shall be, without further notice, dropped
from the roll of membership.

Any sporting or fishing club, society, firm, or corporation, upon
two-thirds vote and the payment of an annual fee of five dollars, may
become a member of this Society and be entitled to all its publica-
tions. Libraries shall be admitted to membership at three dollars
a year.

Any state board or commission may, upon the payment of an
annual fee of ten dollars, become a member of this Society and be
entitled to all of its publications.

Life Members—Any person shall, upon a two-thirds vote and the
payment of twenty-five dollars, become a life member of this Society,
and shall thereafter be exempt from all annual dues.

Patrons—Any person, society, club, firm, or corporation, on
approval by the Executive Committee and on payment of $50.00,
may become a Patron of this Society with all the privileges of a life
member, and then shall be listed as such in all published lists of the
Society. The money thus received shall become part of the perma-
nent funds of the Society and the interest alone be used as the
Society shall designate.

150

Honorary and Corresponding Members——Any person can be
made an honorary or a corresponding member upon a two-thirds
vote of the members present at any regular meeting.

The President (by name) of the United States and the Governors
(by name) of the several States shall be honorary members of the
Society.

Election of Members Between Annual Meetings——The President,
Recording Secretary, and Treasurer of the Society are hereby author-
ized, during the time intervening between annual meetings, to act on
all individual applications for membership in the Society, a majority
vote of the Committee to elect or reject such applications as may be
duly made.

ARTICLE Il
SECTIONS

On presentation of a formal written petition signed by one hun-
dred or more members, the Executive Committee of the American
Fisheries Society may approve the formation in any region of a
Section of the American Fisheries Society to be known as the
Section.

Such a Section may organize by electing its own officers, and by
adopting such rules as are not in conflict with the Constitution and
By-Laws of the American Fisheries Society.

It may hold meetings and otherwise advance the general interests
of the Society, except that the time and place of its annual meeting
must receive the approval of the Executive Committee of the Ameri-
can Fisheries Society, and that without specific vote of the American
Fisheries Society, the Section shall not commit itself to any expres-
sion of public policy on fishing matters.

It may further incur indebtedness to an amount necessary for the
conduct of its work not to exceed one-half of the sum received in
annual dues from members of said Section.

Such bills duly approved by the Chairman and Recorder of the
Section shall be paid on presentation to the Treasurer of the Ameri-
can Fisheries Society.

ARTICLE IV
OFFICERS

The officers of this Society shall be a president and a vice-presi-
dent, who shall be ineligible for election to the same office until a year
after the expiration of their term; an executive secretary, a record-
ing secretary, a treasurer, and an executive committee of seven,

151

which, with the officers before named, shall form a council and
transact such business as may be necessary when the Society is not
in session—four to constitute a quorum.

In addition to the officers above named there shall be elected
annually five vice-presidents who shall be in charge of the following
five divisions or sections:

Fish culture.

Commercial fishing.

Aquatic biology and physics.
Angling.

Protection and legislation.

a SS ee

Vice-presidents of sections may be called upon by the President
to present reports of the work of their sections, or they may volun-
tarily present such reports when material of particular value can be
offered by a given division.

ARTICLE V
MEETINGS

The regular meeting of the Society shall be held once a year, the
time and place being decided upon at the previous meeting, or, in
default of such action, by the executive committee.

ARTICLE V1
ORDER OF BUSINESS

1. Call to order by president.
2. Roll call of members.
3. Applications for membership.
4. Reports of officers.
a. President.
b. Secretary.
¢., Preasurer.
d. Vice-presidents of Divisions.
e. Standing Committees.
5. Committees appointed by the president.
a. Committee of five on nomination of officers for ensuing
year.
b. Committee of three on time and place of next meeting.
c. Auditing committee of three.
d. Committee of three on program.
e. Committee of three on publication.
f. Committee of three on publicity.

152

6. Reading of papers and discussion of same.

(Note—In the reading of papers preference shall be given’ to
the members present.)

Miscellaneous business.

Adjournment.

eos

ARTICLE Vil
CHANGING THE CONSTITUTION
The Constitution of the Society may be amended, altered or
repealed by a two-thirds vote of the members present at any regular
meeting, provided at least fifteen members are present at said regular
meeting.

153

Ort ests 1G ; oF :
eae ~ National Muse

_ TRANSACTIONS

AMERICAN

_ FISHERIES
SOCIETY

WAZ

___ MADISON, WISCONSIN
___ SEPTEMBER 6, 7, 8, 19

> ad

TRANSACTIONS
of the

American Fisheries Society

“To promote the cause of fish culture; to gather
and diffuse information bearing upon its practical
success, and upon all matters relating to the fisher-
ies; to unite and encourage all interests of fish cul-
ture and the fisheries; and to treat all questions of
a scientific and economic character regarding fish.”

FIFTY-SECOND ANNUAL MEETING
MADISON, WISCONSIN
September 6, 7, 8, 1922
Volume LII
1922-1923

Edited by Ward T. Bower

Published Annually by the Society
WASHINGTON, D. C.

Che American fisheries Society

ORGANIZED 1870 INCORPORATED 1910

Officers for 1922-1923

TOME he Os nied Zhe a oats Gien C. Leacu, Washington, D. C.
MP FESOCHE... v6 veces avewnes GrorcE C. Empsopy, Ithaca, N. Y.
eaecutive Secretary........- Warp T. Bower, Washington, D. C.
Recording Secretary....... Tuomas E. B. Port, Milwaukee, Wis.
MOMESUTON.. co ole lu siadee aves ArtHuR L, MiILLeTt, Boston, Mass.

Vire-Presidents of Divisions

Pash Culture.......... CHARLES O. HayForp, Hackettstown, N. J.
Aquatic Biology and Physics......... E,. A. Bircr, Madison, Wis.
Commercial Fishing...........-+- GARDNER Pook, Boston, Mass.
NG es foe see ASG enki p oes Joun P. Woops, St. Louis, Mo.

Protection and Legislation. .HARRISON W. VICKERS, Baltimore, Md.

Executive Committee

meen W. COBB, Chairman. . cc cc cee cee eee enss St. Paul, Minn.
MN EL TTCOM Eo. cis ara cor eye ao owen se pawns Hartford, Conn.
SIT BE DINCE AG... cic a Wow teh vik e'o oseawe he Ottawa, Canada
ME AT BRRT 0 sv adic a sachs Gao be ck ew Des Moines, Iowa
UNREST REELING. GIDL 62 505, 2 aie) o'sitlle. dierent ny meine Washington, D. C.
I MOC OBE 6 oor aw siaicin nie sere 6 3 'e cinciein's otha cine's Seattle, Wash.

Committee on Foreign Belations

PReDERIc C. WoLcort, Chairman.........cceeees Norfolk, Conn.
BMIP OLE RANDER. % occccx csc eiec nes sos beeen se New Orleans, La.
TRE RS PVSA INS 1).2 axa'icic. ol o:8-v tian. 00rieencaawralnseiele aes Boston, Mass.
EEE Tvs, Sos coelc dae ea oboe he bese eb hed Detroit, Mich.

Committee on Relations with National and State Governments

meraanw R. BuLLER, Chairman... 20.06 ccs eee Harrisburg, Pa.
MPENIEMNGNG oi rs So 50.00 bers pedis eo vee diets Jennings Lodge, Ore.
MP) CHAMBERS. oo us'c bbe cs vce ceecvcceemecs Quebec, Canada
NE re PATOL TT 2 oxic s aieiacs Vee ens b's wisn ay 18» Boston, Mass.
PUREE T hI he oh enc ea pd alee dealin pee ea kee Richmond, Va.

Presidents, Terms of Service and Places of Meeting.

The first meeting of the Society occurred December 20, 1870. The
organization then effected continued until February, 1872, when the second
meeting was held. Since that time there has been a meeting each year, as
shown below. The respective presidents were elected at the meeting, at
the place, and for a period shown opposite their names, but they presided

at the subsequent meeting.

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Ade eeROBERT 32 OOSEVEL Tee eae
12. Grorce SHEPARD PAGE__~---~-
3, ) JAMES. BENIKARDE 22. -= 5-35
14). HEODORE (UYMAN= 222-2 eee
15. MarsHat, McDoNaLD_-------
Gs MN ERUIDSON==a se ee
TZ ONVIELTANE DS VCAY <= 22 ees
18). Jone: BiSSRLR S27 o- Ae
19. EuGENE G. BLACKFORD_---~---
20. Eucengé G. BLACKFORD_-------
21. james A, HENSHALL—----_—-
22, HERSCHEL WHITAKER_-------.-
Ost SEEN RYe«O. ORDso eee ee
OAT TANT TAA Maes Dee WAY
Roan) ae EG NDEN GLO Nese ee ee
26. HERSCHEL WHITAKER___-~-----
Or eA VLEE PAINE WEA IVA = ee eee
995) GEORGE i.e PEABODY o—— ooo e=
Bor MOMNU We) DERDCOMB =o Sas:
SON pew DICKER SONG. 2 sees
See Ce eS RWAUN TT cerns me et
50) (Grorce M. BOWERS _--.---=--—
Pie ARRAN Keun) OT AIR Kees ee

30) SEY MOURNBDOWER. = ooo eee—.
40. WiuLLtiAM E. MEEHAN_--------
Aer Sees E UTTER NO Nee ee ee
42. CHARLES H. TowNsEND_-----.
438) SELBNR Ye ONWARD pea ee
4420 DANIED Bo UIbARING2=2—2=—=——=
45. Jacop ReIGHARD____---------.
AGue GEORGE Ve nL Da es
AD SO HENRY OVMALERY 22s 25 eee 2S
48.) Me ADEA NDER 2-2
AQeee CART OS JAVERVe 1: ery eer
BO INATEAN Ree DULLER. @2so= ==
Bi WGA: .BARBER= 222
Bo GEENA G tL BACH 2 26 eta kans Se

1870-1872__._.New York, N. Y.
1872-1873____Albany, N. Y.
1873-1874____New York, N.
1874-1875_._._.New York, N.
1875-1876__.._New York, N.
1876-1877*-_.New York, N.
1877-1878___.New York,
1878-1879__.__New York,
1879-1880____New York,
1880-1881__.__New York,
1881-1882__.._New York,
1882-1883____New York,
1883-1884__._.New York, N.
1884-1885____Washington, D. C.
1885-1886____Washington, D. C.
1886-1887__--Chicago, Ill.
1887-1888___._Washington, D. C.
1888-1889____Detroit, Mich.
1889-1890____ Philadelphia, Pa.
1890-1891____Put-in Bay, Ohio.
1891-1892___._Washington, D. C.
=: 1892- 1893____New York, (N.Y.

2222222
TMi iain iad

1894- -1895___- Philadelphia, eae
1895-1896__--New York, N. Y.
1896-1897____New York, N. Y.
1897-1898____Detroit, Mich.
1898-1899____Omaha, Neb.
1899-1900____Niagara Falls, N. Y.
1900-1901___._Woods Hole, Mass.
1901-1902__--_Milwaukee, Wis.
1902-1903____Put-in Bay, Ohio.
1903-1904___._Woods Hole, Mass.
1904-1905__-_Atlantic City, N. J.

1905-1906____ White Sulphur Spgs, W.Va.

1906-1907____Grand Rapids, Mich.
1907-1908____Erie, Pa.
1908-1909____ Washington, D. C.
1909-1910____Toledo, Ohio.
1910-1911____New York, N. Y.
1911-1912____St. Louis, Mo.
1912-1913____Denver, Colo.
1913-1914____Boston, Mass.
1914-1915____Washington, D. C.
1915-1916____San Francisco, Calif.
1916-1917____New Orleans, La.
1917-1918____St. Paul, Minn.
1918-1919____New York, N. Y.
1919-1920____Louisville, Ky.
1920-1921____Ottawa, Canada.
1921-1922____Allentown, Pa.
1922-1923___._Madison, Wis.

* A special meeting was held at the Centennial Grounds, Philadelphia, Pa.,

October 6 and 7, 1876.

American fisheries Society

ORGANIZED 1870

CERTIFICATE OF INCORPORATION.

1, That the name of the Society is the AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY.

2. That the term for which it is organized is nine hundred and ninety-
nine years,

3. That its particular business and objects are to promote the cause
of fish culture; to gather and diffuse information bearing upon its prac-
tical success, and upon all matters relating to the fisheries; to unite and
encourage all interests of fish culture and the fisheries; and to treat all
questions of a scientific and economic character regarding fish; with power:

(a) To acquire, hold and convey real estate and other property, and
to establish general and special funds.

(b) To hold meetings.

(d) To conduct lectures.

(e) To conduct, endow, or assist investigation in any department of
fishery and fish-culture science.

(f) To acquire and maintain a library.

(g) And, in general, to transact any business pertinent to a learned
society.

4. That the affairs, funds and property of the corporation shall be in
general charge of a council, consisting of the officers and the executive
committee, the number of whose members for the first year shall be
seventeen, all of whom shall be chosen from among the members of the

Society.
Witness our hands and seals this 16th day of December, 1910.
SEYMoUR BOWER (Seal)
THEODORE GILL (Seal)
WILLIAM E. MEEHAN (Seal)
THEODORE S. PALMER (Seal)
BERTRAND H. Roperts (Seal)
Hucu M. Sirs (Seal)
RICHARD SYLVESTER (Seal)

Recorded April 16, 1911.

6 CONTENTS

Pacs
CiBreersey 22 et Be oe oe oe oh ee 3
List of past presidents and places of meeting_-..---~--------_-.-= = 4
Gertiicate -of incorporation -£.c..cs2225 20 s0oeS ese oe 5

Part I—BUuSINEss SESSIONS

Registered’ attendance. =o.) 2. ae es ee eee 9
Mew: members jbo Be es Oe ee ee 10
Appointment of scommittees 222-2 a ee a eee ee eee 12
Report Gf “Lreastirer 2-2 62 Ue a ee ee eee 12
Report of Executive ‘Secretaryie 2S 22s. eh eee 14
Reports of Vice-Presidents. of. divisions.2-.-...=.-+.==--=-.2 2s 15
Report of “Auditing ‘Committees... es == eee 17
Report of Committee on Time and Place of Meeting------------------ Li
Report.of ‘Committee on) Awards. =---. 2425-4-5.4-4. 60222 eee 19
Report of (Committee ‘on -Resolutions-.._.-3._—--2 2. ==--==-— eee 21
Reportsot Committee on: Nominations: -—=-+---_=-5—2--- 3. Se eee 25
im yMemiriaon 2.22 t. 3 2 ne okey 31

Part JI—PApERS AND DISCUSSIONS

Investigations in the Preservation of Fish Nets and Lines. Harden F.

Taylor -and Arthur W.° Wreliso. 2. =) 35
Octomitus Salmonis, a New Species of Intestinal Parasite in Trout.

Pmmeline (M0 ore cele oo hee ee oo Sa ee 74
A New and Practical Device for Transporting Live Fish. Edgar C.

BCU NOW: soo wees et ee ee ee Le 98
The Plankton of the Lakes: &. A. Birges22s2--2-=- 5222 eee 118
Adjustment of Environment vs. Stocking—To Increase the Productivity

of Fish Life. Ernest Clive Brown 222-2. 2is-2 2. eee 131
Protecting Migrating Pacific Salmon. John N. Cobb------------------ 146
Irrigation Canals as an Aid to Fisheries Development in the West.

oh. Prince “s)he ee ee ee ee er 157
Pollation of Inland-Streams...17. D.Horto22<-.2- 2222-55-22 see eee 166
The Maskinongé: A Question of Priority in Nomenclature. E. T. D.

Ghambers: 22D RAee oe) bo le ee eee 171
The Biological Significance of the Smolt Period in Certain Salmonoids.

Vala Rede 2 shia a ae ee Se eee 178
Brief Notes on Fish Culture in Michigan. Dwight Lydell_------------- 184
Fish-Cultural Work of the Bureau of Fisheries in the Mississippi Val-

Bey. pp (C8 eG WHO ee ee eee 186
Problems of the Commercial Fisheries from Producer to Consumer.

Jo Hi eM atihews = 22 = 22 es eee eee 193
Oysters: The World’s Most Valuable Seafood. H. W. Vickers_------- 201
Commercial Fisheries.- Charles E. Wheeler_...-.~.. 3. -24--L eee 206
The Problem of Marine Fish Culture. C. M. Breder, Jr.-------------- 210
Preliminary Report on the Toxicity of Colloidal Sulphur to Fish. Chuki-

chy. Harukatwd «22-2222 esa sees ee ee ae 219

Biological Surveys and Investigations in Minnesota. .Thaddeus Surber.. 225

List (of. Members’ 2/2.22-2- 522-2222 oe ae ee ee 239

Constitution 220220205. 2 ea ee eee 254 ©

PART |
BUSINESS SESSIONS

PROCEEDINGS
of the

American fisheries Society

FIFTY-SECOND ANNUAL MEETING AT MADISON,
WISCONSIN

September 6, 7, 8, 1922

The Fifty-second Annual Meeting of the American Fisheries
Society convened in the State Capitol Building, Madison, Wiscon-
sin, on Wednesday, September 6, 1922, at 10 o’clock a. m., President
William E. Barber, of Madison, in the Chair,

First Session, Wednesday Morning, September 6, 1922

President Barber introduced Mr. Frank W. Kuehl, Executive
Assistant to Governor Blaine of Wisconsin, who delivered an ad-
dress of welcome.

The President called upon Mr. M. L. Alexander, of: New
Orleans, who made an eloquent respone.

REGISTERED ATTENDANCE

The registered attendance was 49, as follows:

Apams, Wi1.1AM C., Boston Mass.
Apert, W. E., Des Moines, Iowa.
ALEXANDER, M. J,, New Orleans, La.
Avery, Caros, St. Paul, Minn.

Batcu, Howaron K., Chicago, II.

Barser, W. E., Madison, Wis.

Birce, Dr. FE. A., Madison, Wis.

Brown, Ernest Cuiive, New York, N. Y.
Burkuakrt, J., Star Prairie, Wis.
CANFIELD, H. L., Homer, Minn.

Coss, Epen W., St. Paul, Minn.

Coss, Joun N., Seattle, Wash.

Crary, F. O., Hudson, Wis.

Cuter, C. F., Homer, Minn.

Downine, S. W., Put-in Bay, Ohio.
Foster, Frep J., Neosho, Mo.
GANTENBEIN, D., Diamond Bluff, Wis.
GANTENBEIN, U. Carver, New Albin, Iowa.
Hansen, G., Osceola, Wis.

Hares, F. E., Manchester, Iowa.

Hart, M. D., Richmond, Va.

Hayrorp, Cuarzes O., Hackettstown, N. J.
Hayrorp, Mrs. Cuartes O., Hackettstown, N. J.
HeEvucuHete, G. L., Put-in Bay, Ohio.

10 American Fishertes Society.

HoimMes, WILLIAM W., New Orleans, La.
JENSEN, HaroD, Spooner, Wis.

Jupp, E. T., Cando, N. D.

KuLe, Kart C., Suffield, Conn.

Leacu, G. C., Washington, D. C.
Lipinsky, M. N., Winona, Minn.
LypDELL, Dwicut, Comstock Park, Mich.
O’Mattey, Henry, Washington, D. C.
Mercier, Honore, Quebec, Canada.
Mites, LEE, Little Rock, Ark.

Miuetr, A. L., Boston, Mass.

MoLLaNn, W. K., Bridgeport, Conn.
Moore, Dr. EMMELINE, Albany, N. Y.
Pearse, A. §., Madison, Wis.

Porr, T. E. B., Milwaukee, Wis.

Prince, Dr. E. E., Ottawa, Ont., Canada.
Taytor, H. F., Washington, D. C.
TERRELL, CLype B., Oshkosh, Wis.
Titcoms, J. W., Hartford, Conn.
TuHayer, W. W., Northville, Mich.
Vickers, Harrison W., Baltimore, Md.
Watcott, Freperic C., Norfolk, Conn.
Wesster, B. O., Madison, Wis.

Wires, S. P., Duluth, Minn.

Woops, Joun. P., St. Louis, Mo.

NEw MEMBERS

Since the last annual meeting the following 37 new active members have
been elected:
ARNOLD, M. Dewey, Bemus Point, N. Y.
Bayne, Buiss, Chief Assistant Game and Fish Commissioner, Room 312,
Capitol Bldg., Cheyenne, Wyo.
CaNnFIELD, H. L., Homer, Minn.

CLUBS:

CueErry Ripce FisHinc Cyrus, Honesdale, Pa.
FERNDALE Rop AND GuN CiuB, New Auburn, Wis.
GALESVILLE CONSERVATION CrLuB, Galesville, Wis.
MASSACHUSETTS FisH AND GAmgE Protective Association, Tremont
Bldg., Boston, Mass.
McKeesport BRANCH oF WILD Lire LEAGUE oF PENNSYLVANIA, Theodore
J. Herrmann, Sec., 218 Commercial Ave., McKeesport, Pa.
SWIFTWATER PRESERVE, Dr. Samuel S. Kneass, Treas., 1510 Walnut St.,
Philadelphia, Pa.
Comeau, Nap. A., Godbout, Province of Quebec, Canada.
Cook, FrRanxK, Supt., Albany County Hatchery, Laramie, Wyo.
Fraser, Dr. C. McLean, Biological Station, Nanaimo, British Columbia.
GANTENBEIN, U. Carver, New Albin, Iowa.
Hart, M. D., Dept. of Game and Inland Fisheries, Library Bldg., Rich-
mond, Va.
HoimeEs, WILLIAM W., Dept. of Conservation, New Orleans, La.
Jupp, E. T., Game and Fish Commissioner, Cando, North Dakota.
Ku.ie, Kary, C., Fish and Game Board, Suffield, Conn.
mae demas A., South Side Sportsmen’s Club of Long Island, Oakdale,

LAUERMAN, FRANK J., Marinette, Wis.

Se ee eee eer eer ee

ee Ps

— se

Fifty-Second Annual Meeting. a

LIBRARIES:

Bureau oF ScIENCE Liprary, Manila, P. I.
CALIFORNIA STATE FISHERIES LABorRATORY Liprary, Terminal, Calif.
LiprARy ASSOCIATION OF PorTLAND, 10th and Yamhill Sts., Portland,
Oreg.
New York State CoLLece oF AGRICULTURE LipraRY, Ithaca, N. Y.
Outo State University Lisrary, Columbus, Ohio.
University oF IxL~inois Liprary, Urbana, III.
Pusiic MusEuM oF MILWAUKEE, Milwaukee, Wis.
Locxr, SAMUEL B., U. S. Forest Service, Ogden, Utah.
ManrtINn, J. E., Kennedy Lake Hatchery, Tofino, British Columbia.
Marvin, J. B., Jr., P. O. Box 544, Saranac Lake, N. Y.
Nason, R. B., 1410 South Grant Ave., Tacoma, Wash.
PutMAN, Bert J., 462 Washington St. Buffalo, N. Y.
Stems, ALLEN G., Big Rock Trout Club Hatchery, St. Croix Falls, Wis.
STATES:
Boarp oF FISHERIES AND GAME, State Capitol, Hartford, Conn.
MARYLAND STATE CONSERVATION CoMMISSION, Baltimore, Md.
Trout Broox Co., F. O. Crary, Pres., Hudson, Wis.
Watcorr, Freperic C., Pres., Fish and Game Board, Norfolk, Conn.
WELLs, ArTHUR W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

In addition the following have been added to the list of Cor-
responding Members :

Director, ALL-RussIAN AGRICULTURAL MusEuM, Fontanka 10, Petrograd,
Russia.

Director of FISHERIES (British MALAYA), Singapore, Straits Settlements.

Liprary, NATIONAL MuseuM or Natural History, Paris, France.

A paper entitled “Oysters: The World’s Most Valuable Sea-
food,” was presented by Harrison W. Vickers. Discussion
followed.

Mr. Vickers submitted the following telegram from Mr.
W. McDonald Lee, dated Norfolk, Va., September 3, 1922:

Doctor Mott of New Jersey, Marshall of Connecticut and others urge
me to go Madison advocate amalgamation Shell Fish Commissioners with
American Fisheries Society or some form of affiliation. Wish you see any
Shell Fish Commissioner and have proposition considered before conven-
tion. Think shell fish people ought to be taken in and given day or cer-
tain part on program every meeting American Fisheries Society.

Mr. Vickers said that at least he would like to see the or-
ganization invited to attend meetings of the American Fisheries
Society. Mr. Woods expressed similar views. After considera-
ble discussion, Mr. Titcomb’s suggestion, as supported by Mr.
Millett, of a special committee to consider the matter was unan-
imously adopted.

Mr. John P. Woods, of St. Louis, Missouri, was appointed
Secretary pro tem.

EZ American Fisheries Society.

APPOINTMENT OF COMMITTEES.

The following committees were named by the President:

Resolutions: John N. Cobb, Lee Miles, W. E. Albert, and Chas.
O. Hayford.

Nominations: Wm. C. Adams, E. W. Cobb, M. L. Alexander,
Dwight Lydell, and C. F. Culler,

Time and Place of Meeting: M. L. Alexander, E. W. Cobb,
B. O. Webster, E. T. D. Chambers, and J. P. Woods.

Auditing: W. E. Albert, S. W. Downing, and S. P. Wires.

Program: Glen C. Leach, J. N. Cobb, B. O. Webster, and W.
E. Barber.

Awards: J. W. Titcomb, W. E. Albert, Dr. E. A, Birge, J. G.
Needham, J. N. Cobb, and Carlos Avery.

The session adjourned at 11 a. m.

Following the morning session at Madison the Wisconsin
Conservation Commission entertained the members of the So-
ciety by a trip to the Dells. The journey was made by automo-
bile to Kilbourn, there being a stop en route at Devil’s Lake
for luncheon, and by boat from Kilbourn to the Dells. On the
return a visit was made to a famous Indian camping ground.
A banquet was served at Kilbourn and the party returned to
Madison later in the evening.

Morning Session, September %, 1922.

The President called the meeting to order at 9:30 a. m.

REPORT OF THE TREASURER.
Boston, Mass., September 7, 1922.

To THE AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY:

Herewith is submitted the annual report of the Treasurer from the
Meeting in Allentown, Pa., in September, 1921, to August 2, 1922.

I know it will be very gratifying to you all to learn that the report
this year is of a very encouraging nature. All bills against this Society
as far forth as have been presented to the Treasurer have been paid,
$666.41 in donations have been transferred to the Permanent Fund in
partial repayment of the loan of last year, and the cash book at the present
time shows a fair balance. Certainly it seems that the Society has some
cause for congratulation here.

Present time dues have been paid quite promptly and those out-
standing are less than for several years. Very old accounts have been
practically cleaned up. It seems to me that these two points indicate

Fifty-Second Annual Meeting. 13

a real awakened interest in the continued existence of the organization.
The raising of the annual dues, contrary to general expectation, does not
seem to have affected the membership adversely. Indeed I believe to the
raising of the dues and the payment of back dues can be attributed the
fact that we have paid our bills and have a slight balance.

Just a word here in regard to paying back into the Permanent Fund
the loan of last year of $2,000. It seems to me that we are progressing
finely in this object. There has been a total of $666.41 paid back for this
purpose, leaving an actual balance of $1,324.74 still to be replaced. At the
present rate of repayment the Permanent Fund should again be intact
within three or four years. It seems to me that this object can be easily
attained by an annual appeal for donations following the plan instituted
by former President Buller. I believe that none of us expected that the
fund would be replaced entirely in one year. Indeed this would be too
much to expect, but I do believe if the succeeding Presidents follow the
original plan of appeal, that by 1925 or 1926 we shall have the satisfaction
of seeing the Permanent Fund entirely repaid for the amount we were
obliged to borrow from it in 1920. Certainly by seeking small contribu-
tions from many each year the amount can be paid up without any serious
strain on anybody’s pocketbook.

I feel that with the natural increase to be expected in our personal
membership, expected increases in the memberships of States and Clubs
and with expenses kept down within the limit to those of this year, we
have every reason to expect that our financial problem will cause us less
worry in the future than it has in the immediate past.

I invite your attention to the following financial statement:

Receipts
Balance. in Treasury after the meeting of 1921..............---~.- $726.20
Annual dues:
Individuals:
BEUmECUVeAT soll. ms ee ee ee eS ea $2.00
ienrthiemyecare) O20 bess: ole ie AW es ee 62.00
ommene year lon) 228i oe ee So 1,025.99
RoratheryveaT. 1922222 ss 2 Posi o eh ee ee eee 18.00
Clubs:
Pmetiic *yeur Geto. LA vias fe eee ee 7.00
POSER A CES IBB Sts oi 025 (Rng SR Se aR el ee 225.00
feretneyedr L92ess2ss2ee oe eee ee 5.00
Pere aegis Sooo ee a ek eS 50.00
Perec @ompanics a2. 822i aloes ee cee oes 10.00
1,404.99
BeMPtnCInnerships “foo as 8 se Sl ee ese 15.00
BLS tee Ra SANA AA i ete LE CN oA Sa eg e (Eavta ae Vee 189.00
SMES nS eres Re ee eee eee 222.50
TENE cay SM aad Sk te DS SERIA RR A Le 5h Ribs CD ek 5.97
DIR ren Sn eae ee LOT SOW ot ee eee 60

——— $2,564.26

14 American Fisheries Society.

Disbursements

Repocting £921) meeting . 2k ee ee ee $375.10
Literature for meetings, stationery, etc.-.._--.-._-.-_--__ 135.17
Printing Transactions, meeting of 1920, Vol. L: No dis-
bursement from general treasury. The amount of
$1,991.15 was borrowed from the Permanent Fund to
defray this expense.
Printing Transactions, meeting of 1921, Vol. LI__---_- 620.83
Donations temporarily deposited in the general fund, -
transferred to Permanent Fund in partial repayment of

loan to pay for printing of Transactions, Vol L------ 666.41
Postage Boe e2e 5 ete t es Ae ees Se ae a ee 112.70
xchange i222 ee Se ee ee ee 63
Services (Secretary, his assistant, and assistant to
pireasuren) Ut so ste 2 Re 8 Oe tenant See 450.00
——— $2,360.84
Balance per ‘cash ‘book. 22.0212 s.2u 5-26 eee $ 203.42

Permanent Fund

Balance as reported at 1921 mecting_....2.-.--2 3.22 see $1,128.84
CERO St yes see see ee Oi ee eee ee 49.72
Deposits (donations by members to reimburse the Permanent

Fund for loan to defray printing bill for Transactions, Vol. L,

1920. Loan, $1,991.15; payments to date, $666.41; amount

Still..duc,. $1,324.74) 222-22 st eS 666.41
Balance = 222-0 ee a oe ee eee $1,844.97
Respectfully submitted,
A. L. MInLert,
Treasurer.

The report was referred to the Auditing Committee.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE SECRETARY.

Mr, JoHN P. Woops presented the report of the Executive Sec-
retary as follows:

To THE OFFICERS AND MEMBERS OF THE AMERICAN FISHERIES

SOCIETY :

As in previous years the chief feature of the work was the prepara-
tion of the volume of Transactions published annually. On account of
the very heavy expense incurred in the publication of the Fiftieth An-
niversary volume, and the depleted state of the Society’s finances at the
time of the 1921 meeting it was felt to be necessary to reduce this expense
to the lowest possible figure and yet get out a volume in keeping with
the aims and ideals of the Society. A great deal of time and attention

Se ee =e eee

Fifty-Second Annual Meeting 15

was therefore given to editing and condensing the proceedings of the
Allentown meeting and the voluminous discussions of papers presented.
Most careful thought was given to this matter in order always to preserve
the meat of discussions while eliminating the unessential. A number of
congratulatory comments have been received in respect to the volume which
was published.

As soon as all copy was ready bids were solicited from a number of
reliable printers. The lowest bidder was the W. F. Roberts Company,
which made a rate of $3.11 per page of 10pt. matter, with certain charges
for extras. The volume comprised 153 pages and contained the business
proceedings, 13 special papers and discussions, and two general discussions
on assigned subjects. The total cost of printing the edition of 750 copies
was $620.83, or slightly less than $1.00 each. This low cost was a matter
of great satisfaction in view of the need to repay at as early a date as
possible the amount borrowed frorn the Permanent Fund of the Society
to meet the indebtedness carried over from the previous year.

Efforts have been continued to secure new members for the Society,
and also to sell sets of Transactions to libraries and others interested.
Very satisfactory results have followed, particularly in the efforts of a
number of members to secure memberships from fish and game clubs.
Especially to be congratulated in this connection are former President
Buller and his aids, 32 organizations within the State of Pennsylvania now
being members of the Society. The Society also lists seven State com-
missions and 15 libraries among its members. Other libraries which are
unable to become members of the Society regularly purchase the Trans-
actions. About $250 worth of back issues of the Transactions have been
sold since the last report.

Since the publication of the list of contributors in the 1921 volume the
Secretary has been notified of the receipt of $50 more from Mr. M. L.
Alexander.

Early in the year a special circular letter, including a blank applica-
tion, was prepared for use in an extensive membership campaign, and
under date of May 20, 1922, announcement of the prize competition
was sent out.

‘The present membership of the Society is as follows: Honorary, 65;
Corresponding, 9; patrons, 53; active, 565; total, 692.

Warp T. Bower,
Executive Secretary.

The report of the Executive Secretary was adopted.

REPORTS OF VICE-PRESIDENTS OF DIVISIONS.

Mr. BARBER: We will now have the reports of the Vice-Presi-
dents of divisions.

Mr. FE. W. Coss, Division of Fish Culture: Mr. President,
I did not prepare any written report. I kept in touch with the
matter as closely as I could during the last year with the idea

16 American Fisheries Society.

of reporting progress. Strictly speaking, however, I could see
very little progress in the actual work of fish culture. We have
made great progress in the indirect work of fish culture; in that
we seem to have a very general understanding as to many of our
failings and many of our needs, a consideration which bids fair
to make the work much more effective. The fish culturist has
been wasting a great proportion of his work by placing the fish
under conditions in which they could not live after being liber-
ated, and in that respect we have been making an advance
during the last year in many of the states and in the Federal
work. We have been getting more effective equipment and a
better understanding of the needs of the fish in transportation
and in planting. We have been getting more help from the
scientific men; there is more cooperation, I believe, among the
states and between the states and the Federal Government. In
other ways also the advance has been great in the past year and
promises to be greater in the year to come, because we under-
stands our needs and our limitations better than we ever did
before.

Mr. ApAms, Division of Protection and Legislation: The year
has been given over largely to the consideration of the further
protection of migratory fish. This action has taken no definite
form. The more we get into the subject the more we find that
it is a big one; and there is not necessarily a conflict of interests,
but there is a need for further investigation, for further study,
before an adequate report can be made.

Mr. Woops: I move that these reports be accepted, and con-
gratulate the Vice-Presidents upon making them. It is seldom
that reports from these Divisions are filed, and as the practice
has been initiated, I think it should be followed.

The Vice-Presidents of the Divisions of Aquatic Biology
and Physics, Commercial Fishing, and Angling were not present,
and no reports were received.

No reports were made by the Committees on Foreign Rela-
tions and on Relations with National and State Governments.

A paper entitled, “Protecting Migrating Pacific Salmon,”
was read by John N. Cobb. Discussion followed.

A paper was presented by Dwight Lydell entitled “Brief
Notes on Fish Culture in Michigan.” Discussion followed.

Dr. E. A. Birge presented a paper under the subject, “The

Fifty-Second Annual Meeting. ie

Plankton of the Lakes,” following which there was extended
discussion.
At 12:30 p. m. recess was taken until 2:00 p. m.

Afternoon Session, September 7, 1922.
President Barber called the meeting to order.

REPORT OF AUDITING COMMITTEE.

Your committee to which was referred the Treasurer’s report begs to
state that it has made a thorough examination of the books and finds them
correct in every respect.

The report was duly adopted.

A letter from Mr. M. G. Sellers, Philadelphia, Pa., was read,
as follows:

I regret being unable to attend the 52nd Annual meeting of the
Society or present a more satisfactory report in the matter of enlisting
the good offices of the American Bar Association in preparing a model
statute on the subject of stream pollution, which might serve as a uniform
basis of action by the various states pending Federal supervision or regu-
lation to further strengthen same in so far as they relate to boundary
waterways, etc.

I transmitted this request to the Association through a prominent
Philadelphia member who has been ill for some time, and his office was
unable to give me any definite information at this time as to its progress
or whether it was a part of any report presented at the annual meeting
of the American Bar Association held in San Francisco, Cal., August 9-12,
1922. I can, therefore, at this writing only report progress with assur-
ance of following up, of which the Society will be duly advised.

Crystallizing public sentiment in support of corrective legislation upon
this general subject has received wonderful impetus in the Atlantic Sea-
board States in the formation at Atlantic City, August 9, 1922, of the Na-
tional Coast Anti-Pollution League with Mr. Gifford Pinchot, the Re-
publican nominee for Governor of Pennsylvania, as President, and while
this primary effort is aimed at Congressional action in abolishing the oil
nuisance, it will have a salutary effect upon the inland water problem.

A paper entitled, “Octomitus Salmonis, a New Species of
Intestinal Parasite in Trout,” was presented by Dr. Emmeline
Moore. Discussion followed.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON TIME AND PLACE OF MEETING.

Mr, ALEXANDER: Your President thought it necessary to ap-
point this Committee so that it could confer with the Committee
of the International Association of Game, Fish and Conserva-

18 American Fisheries Society.

tion Commissioners. As you know, the two societies find it
profitable to meet at the same time and in the same place. The
places under consideration were New York, Quebec, Detroit,
Nashville, St. Louis, and San Francisco. The Committee went
exhaustively into the question and the final decision was that it
would be advisable for the societies to meet next year in St.
Louis. The time is left to the respective Executive Committees
of the two societies. But we respectfully suggest to the Execu-
tive Commitees that in selecting the time they fix upon a little
later period in the year, the latter part of September or the early
days of October.

The report was unanimously adopted.

Mr. BARBER: Here is an offer from the National Museum of
Natural History, Paris, France, to exchange their bulletins for
ours. The question is whether or not you desire to do so.

The exchange was unanimously agreed upon.

A paper entitled “Pollution of Inland Streams” was pre-
sented by M. D. Hart. Discussion followed.

Mr. E. T. D. Chambers presented a paper entitled “The
Maskinongé: A Question of Priority in Nomenclature.” Dis-
cussion followed.

A paper entitled “Fish Cultural Work of the Bureau of
Fisheries in the Mississippi Valley” was presented by C. F. Cul-
ler. Discussion followed.

At 5:00 p. m. a recess was taken until 7:30 p. m.

Evening Session, September 7%, 1922.

The meeting was called to order by President Barber.

A paper entitled “Investivations in the Preservation of Fish
‘Nets and Lines,” by Harden F. Taylor and Arthur W. Wells,
‘was read by Mr. Taylor. Discussion followed.

Mr. E. C. Fearnow presented a paper entitled “A New and
Practical Device for Transporting Live Fish.” This paper was
discussed at the session on the following morning.

At 10 p. m. the meeting adjourned.

Morning Session, September 8, 1922.

The meeting was called to order at 9 o’clock a. m. by Presi-

dent Barber.
Mr. Miuvetr: You will recall that in my annual report I

Fifty-Second Annual Meeting. 19

cited to you the condition with respect to payments back to the
Permanent Fund. I pointed out that we were indebted to the
Permanent Fund to the extent of something like $1,300, and I
made the suggestion that we could easily pay that off in small in-
stallments by 1926. I still am of that opinion. I know you
concur in the view that that money must be returned; and I
simply wanted to suggest that before this meeting finally ad-
journs some committee should be appointed or some action taken
looking to the gradual or annual decreasing of that debt we
owe to ourselves.

Mr. John P. Woods, who had been acting as Secretary, was
obliged to leave and President Barber appointed Mr. John N.
Cobb as Secretary pro tem.

Mr. Fearnow’s paper, read at the previous session, was
discussed.

A paper entitled “Adjustment of Environment vs. Stocking
—To Increase the Productivity of Fish Life,’ was presented
by Ernest Clive Brown. Discussion followed.

Dr. Edward E. Prince presented a paper entitlded “Irriga-
tion Canals as an Aid to Fisheries Development in the West.”

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS.

Mr. Titcoms: Mr. President, the committee as named in
your letter of August 21st did me the honor of making me chair-
man, to act with Mr. J. N. Cobb, Director of the College of
Fisheries, University of Washington; Dr. E. A. Birge, Univer-
sity of Wisconsin; and Hon. Carlos Avery, State Fish and Game
Commissioner of Minnesota.

Three classifications for prizes are set forth in the Society’s
circular of May 20, 1922, which will be taken up in order as
follows:

No. 1. “For the best contribution on fish culture, either new or im-
proved, practical fish cultural appliances, or description of methods em-
ployed in the advancement of fish-cultural work.” One paper was pre-
sented in this class, by E. C. Fearnow. Your Committee feels that this
paper calls for special or honorable mention. Submitted by the author of
a similar paper presented last year, it is of great importance and has re-
ceived very careful consideration. The Committee feels that the apparatus
should be tested in a practical way by disinterested fish culturists before
awarding a prize. It is therefore recommended that a committee of three,
consisting of Messrs. Hayford, E. W. Cobb and Lydell, who happen to
‘be now distributing fish, and possibly some volunteers who are present,

20 American Fisheries Society.

be furnished with some of these cans and given an opportunity to try them
and report the results of that test to this Committee within three months,

the Committee on Awards to have authority then to determine whether.

the paper is entitled to a prize, based upon the reports of the tests.

No. 2. “For the best contribution on biological investigations ap-
plied to fish-cultural problems,” your Committee has decided that Dr,
Emmeline Moore, the author of the paper on “Octomitus Salmonis, a New
Species of Intestinal Parasite in Trout,” is entitled to a prize. This paper
has the special merit not only of adding new and important data to our
meagre knowledge of fish pathology, but also of suggesting in a constructive
way lines of further advance in the study of hatchery diseases.

Another paper presented is by W. M. Keil, entitled, “Biological
Significance of the Smolt Period in Certain Salmonoids.” It is a very
interesting paper and the Committee feels that it should have honorable
mention. Mr. Keil has reached the conclusion, through actual tests of
planting landlocked salmon which he has been raising through successive
generations in the hatchery, that they should not be planted for stocking
our lakes and ponds until they have been carried a year. This same
conclusion has been reached by the Commissioner of Maine, who has so
much to do with salmon; and it was also the conclusion in the Lake
George report, to which Dr. Birge referred. But Mr. Keil has shown
the results from planting in a series of years the smaller sizes of salmon,
with the returns in the catch on a certain lake; then he brings out the
fact that after planting these larger fish they got a fifty per cent return
in the catch of fish by anglers on that lake.

No. 3. “For the best contribution dealing with problems of the com-
mercial fisheries.’ The paper on “Investigations in the Preservation of
Fish Nets and Lines,’ by Harden F. Taylor and Arthur W Wells, excites
the especial interest of the Committee. The tests of netting twine under
various conditions have been thorough and exhaustive and show the per-
severance and ingenuity of the authors; and we feel that they are entitled
to an award.

Another paper, presented by Mr. J. H. Matthews, entitled, “Problems
of the Commercial Fisheries from Producer to Consumer,” is a general
article on the subject, contains nothing particularly original, but is the
type of paper that would make a suitable editorial in the commercial
fishing papers, like the Fishing Gazette or the Atlantic Fisherman.

Your Committee respectfully recommends that this practice of award-
ing prizes, under the same conditions as of this year, be continued; and
if the Society decides to carry out that policy it is further recommended
that the circulars be issued to all members as quickly as possible. Some
of these studies and investigations require a year’s work, and we cannot
too soon have the knowledge that the policy is to be continued sent out
to all the members.

Mr. Mityert: I make the suggestion that future papers of-
fered for award to this Society be entirely original in the sense
that they have not been previously printed or compensated for

ee es.

Fifty-Second Annual Meeting. zi

either by the Government or others; and that they remain the
property of this Society to print for a period of at least six
months after the award is made. I make this as a suggestion,
not, of course, as a part of the report.

The report of the Committee was unanimously adopted.

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS.

Mr. John N. Cobb presented the report of the Committee
on Resolutions as follows:

Dams IN STREAMS.

WuHereas, The building of dams in streams in connection with irriga-
tion and power projects is proving a serious menace to our runs of ana-
dromous fishes, especially when there have been installed unsuitable fish-
ways or none at all, and

Wuereas, We understand that there are at present pending a number
of such projects, with others being mooted;

Therefore, Be It Resolved, That the American Fisheries Society in
convention assembled at Madison, Wisconsin, September 6-8, 1922, re-
quests the U. S. Reclamation Commission, and such other public of-
ficials as may have jurisdiction in such matters, to require that the problem
of assisting anadromous and other fishes in getting over such obstructions,
and the young in working their way back to their natural habitat in the
sea, be taken up and considered along with the engineering and other
problems relating to each project; and this Society promises every aid
possible in solving the biological phases of the problems.

ALASKA SALMON FISHERIES.

Wuereas, It is a known fact that the salmon fisheries of Alaska are
not producing as formerly, the decline being due partly to lack of ade-
quate regulation and partly to other causes; and

Wuereas, The Department of Commerce has been attempting to meet
existing conditions by the establishment of reserves in those districts
most vitally affected and has already established several such, said re-
serves being necessary on account of the inability to secure a compre-
hensive fisheries code which could be readily administered and which
would adequately protect these districts; and

Wuereas, We understand the Secretary of Commerce has now before
him a proposal for the extension of the boundaries of the Alaska Peninsula
Fishery Reservation, said boundaries to be extended so as to iaclude all
the waters of Bristol Bay north to Cape Newenham in Bering Sea and in
the North Pacific Ocean, those waters including Cook Inlet, Shelikof
Strait and about Kodiak Island, within the areas of which at present
nearly three-fourths of the red salmon of Alaska are produced;

Now, Therefore, Be It Resolved, That it is the sense of the American
Fisheries Society in convention at Madison, Wisconsin, September 6-8,
1922, that we heartily endorse the creation of the reserve referred to, and

an American Fisheries Society.

our Secretary is hereby instructed to send a copy of this resolution to the
President of the United States, to the Secretary of Commerce, and to the
United States Commissioner of Fisheries.

PoLLuTION oF WATERS.

Wuereas, The pollution of the sea, both within and without the three
mile limit, by oil and petroleum products from boats and refineries has
become a serious menace to fish life as well as to property on the beaches;
and

Waereas, It is our understanding that an International Conference
has been called for the purpose of considering means to prevent this
pollution of the sea by oil products and the consequent harm to the
-fisheries and property;

Be tt therefore resolucd by the American Fisheries Society at its annual
meeting held in Madison, Wisconsin, September 6-8, 1922, That this Society
heartily approves of this International Conference on the oil pollution
problem and sincerely hopes that some practicable plan may be worked
out in the early future to remove this menace to fish life; and

Be it resolved further, That the Secretary be instructed to send a copy
of this resolution to the President of the United States, the Secretary of
State, the Secretary of Commerce, and the United States Commissioner
of Fisheries.

PowER DEVELOPMENT IN ALASKA.

Wuereas, There are several proposed water power developments in
Alaska involving either the erection of dams for power or for pulp mills
on salmon canning streams; and :

Wuereas, It is known that the Federal Power Commission is from
time to time granting preliminary permits for the erection of such dams;
and

Wuereas, The development of power sites and paper mill sites is
likely to result, first, in the removal of the forests on the watersheds of
salmon spawning streams; secondly, in obstructing the streams by dams
so as to more or less effectively prevent the ascent of salmon to the spawn-
ing beds; and, thirdly, the consequent serious pollution of such streams
by the poisonous chemicals discharged by pulp mills; and

WuHereas, It is well understood by all those who are familiar with
the development of dams and pollution of streams on the Atlantic coast
that they result in the rapid destruction of fish life in the streams;

Be it therefore resolved by the American Fisheries Society at its annual
meeting in Madison, Wisconsin, September 6-8, 1922, That the Federal
Power Commission and all other Government authorities concerned in the
development of power and pulp mill sites in Alaska be advised that it is
the opinion of this Society that great harm and detriment to the salmon
industry in Alaska will result unless the greatest care is exercised in per-~-
mitting, for any reason, the obstruction and pollution of salmon spawning
streams in Alaska; and

Be it resolved further, That the Secretary be instructed to forward a
copy of this resolution to the President of the United States, to the Secre-

Fifty-Second Annual Meeting. 23

tary of Commerce, to the United States Commissioner of Fisheries, to
the Secretary of the Alaska Inter-Departmental Board, and to the Secre-
tary of the Federal Power Commission.

Pusiic SHooTING GrouNp Gamer Reruce BI.

Resolved, That the American Fisheries Society, whose membership is
composed of scientists, sportsmen and conservative officials of North
America, in annual convention assembled at Madison, Wisconsin, Septem-
ber 6-8, 1922, declares unanimously that the so-called Public Shooting
Ground Game Refuge Bill (S. 1452-H. R. 5823) now pending in Congress.
is a measure in the interest of wild life conservation, and we recommend
the early passage of this bill.

Mapison MEETING.

Wuereas, The Society has had a most enjoyable meeting in the city
of Madison, Wisconsin, and this has been due largely to the efforts of the
following organizations and individuals: The Wisconsin Department of
Conservation (and especially to Messrs. W. E. Barber, B. O. Webster and
C. L. Harrington) which had general charge of arrangements for the com-
fort and entertainment of the delegates; Hon. John J. Blaine, of Wisconsin,
for welcoming the Society through his representative; the Madison ladies,
and especially Mrs. W. E. Barber and Mrs. B. O. Webster, who did so
much to make the visit of the ladies accompanying the members an occa-
sion long to be remembered; the State Highway Commission; Dr. Sam
Chase, President of the Four Lakes Rod and Gun Club; the individuals
who furnished automobiles and chauffeurs for delightful trips in and around
Madison;

Resolved, That the most sincere thanks of this Society be extended
to all the above.

OFFICERS.

Wuereas, The high executive ability of the retiring President Mr.
W. E. Barber; the secretarial ability of our temporary secretary, Mr.
John P. Woods; and the efficiency of Mr. Arthur L. Millett, treasurer,
have contributed much to the smoothness of operations during the ses-
sions and to the comfort of the members;

Be it ihercfore resolved, That a vote of thanks be hereby extended to
the officials named above.

TRIBUTES To DECEASED MEMBERS.

Greorcrk H. GraAnAm: During the past year the Society has suffered
' the loss of two of its most distinguished and useful members.
Indefatigable worker and born optimist, George H. Graham, of Spring-
field, Massachusetts, was endowed by nature with the spirit of a true
sportsman and conservationist. To him the skies were always blue and
clear; the wind always fair; to him all men were friends. Large of heart
and noble of character, he attracted to his coterie of intimates, kindred
spirits. He was a true type of those men who visualize ideals and strive
to press forward to their attainment, yet always with kindly and con-

24 American Fisheries Society.

siderate regard for the rights and feelings of others. Gone from us—
“passed on to silence and pathetic dust’”—the spirit of George H. Graham,
returning to God who gave it, remains an inspiring lesson to those of
us who knew him personally and so well, who are striving to continue the
work he loved; who feel indeed that he is not gone, but “just around the
corner.” The American Fisheries Society has suffered a great loss, but
the inspiration of his optimism will remain for a long time to come. Let
this brief and imperfect tribute be spread upon the records of the Society
as a memorial to our departed associate, and a copy thereof sent to the
members of his immediate family as an expression of our sincere
sympathy.

JAMEs NEVIN: James Nevin of Wisconsin was one of the pioneers in
fish culture in the United States. He devoted his entire life to his chosen
profession and achieved distinction and renown. For forty years he
served his state and developed its fish cultural work from the most primi-
tive beginnings to one of the most successful and extensive systems in
the entire country. The records of this Society abound in his contribu-
tions to the practical knowledge of fish culture. Mr. Nevin was not only
a faithful and efficient public servant; he was a loyal friend, a genial and
considerate associate, an upright citizen. His character was of that staunch
and sturdy nature which is all too rare. “Jim” Nevin’s word was as good
as his bond; he was generous, unselfish, helpful and considerate to those
in his employ and with whom he was associated. He was honored by the
Governor of his State and respected by his fellow-citizens to the last days
of his useful life. This Society keenly feels his loss and misses him
from its councils. We of this Convention extend to his former associates
on the Wisconsin Conservation Commission, to the citizens of his State,
and to bereaved relatives, this expression of condolence.

Mr. HENRy O’MALLEY, Commissioner of Fisheries, Washing-
ton, D. C.: I should like to say a word, Mr. President, with
regard to the second resolution presented by the Chairman ot
the Committee, dealing with the salmon fisheries of Alaska. Last
winter the Department of Commerce established a reservation tak-
ing in a portion of the Alaska Peninssla. By the introduction
of the purse seine into the waters which the proposed reservation
covers, there is a possibility of the red salmon fisheries of the
Bering Sea being destroyed. At present the Department of Com-
merce has jurisdiction only five hundred yards outside the mouths
of the streams. By the method of fishing that was adopted this yea:,
the purse seiners go out beyond the limits of the gill nets and with
one haul of their purse seines, catch two or three scow-loads of
salmon. Such methods as this are what we are desirous of control-
ling; and by the Presidential Proclamation, as contemplated, we
shall have the necessary authority to regulate the entire fishery.

Fifty-Second Annual Meeting. 25

I think it is very important that this resolution receive the support
of this Society.

Mr. Titcoms: Mr. President, bearing upon the resolutions
respecting the death of members of the Society, I would simply
like to mention here one who has passed away since our last con-
vention, and who took a very active part in welcoming and enter-
taining those in attendance at the meeting in Allentown. I refer
to Mr. H. A. Grammes, of whose death I learned only a short time
after the conclusion of our last year’s meeting.

On motion of Mr. J. N. Cobb the report of the Resolutions
Committee was unimously adopted.

Mr J. N. Coss: One of the members has submitted the fol-
lowing proposal:

It is moved that the American Fisheries Society invite the National
Association of Fisheries Commissioners to send to the St. Louis, Mo.,
meeting of the American Fisheries Society delegates for the purpose of
arranging terms upon which affiliation may be consummated; and that

the President of the Society instruct the Secretary to communicate this
invitation.

The motion was carried unanimously.
REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NOMINATIONS.

Mr. J. N. Cobb presented the report of the Committee on
Nominations, as follows:

President—Gurn C. Leacu, Washington, D. C.
Vice-President—Grorcr C. Empopy, Ithaca, New York.
Executive Secretary—Warp T. Bower, Washington, D. C.
Recording Secretary—Tuomas E. B. Porr, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
Lreasurer—A. 1. Mutrett, Boston, Massachusetts.
Vice-Presidenis of Divisions:
Fish Culture—Cuarits O. Hayrorp, Hackettstown, New Jersey.
Aquatic Biology and Physics—Dr. E. A. Bircr, Madison, Wisconsin.
Commercial Fishing—GarDNER Pooik, Boston, Massachusetts.
Angling—Joun P. Woops, St. Louis, Missouri.
Protection and Legislation—H. W. Vickers, Baltimore, Maryland.
Executive Committee:
Exsen W. Coss, Chairman, St. Paul, Minnesota.
Joun W. Tircoms, Hartford, Connecticut.
Epwarp E. Princr, Ottawa, Canada.
W. E. Asert, Des Moines, Iowa.
Gerorce SuHiRAS, 3D, Washington, D. C.
Joun N. Cops, Seattle, Washington.
Committee on Foreign Relations:
Freperic C. Watcort, Chairman, Norfolk, Connecticut.

26 American Fisheries Society.

M. L. ALEXANDER, New Orleans, Louisiana.
W. C. ApvAmMs, Boston, Massachusetts.

R. E. Fouterr, Detroit, Michigan.

Committee on Relations with National and State Governments:

NaTHAN R. Buwer, Chairman, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.

W. L. FINniey, Jennings Lodge, Oregon.

E. T. D. CHAMBERS, Quebec, Canada.

A. L. Mitiert, Boston, Masschusetts.

Max D. Hart, Richmond, Virginia.

The Secretary was directed to cast one ballot for the Society,
and the respective officers were declared elected for the year 1922-
23.

Mr. Titcoms: I hope that a campaign can be waged between
now and the next meeting to get the various fisheries commis-
sioners to attend the meetings of the American Fisheries Society
which, I assume, will in 1923 precede the meeting of the Inter-
national Association of Game, Fish and Conservation Commis-
sioners. Also I should like to see some action taken—whether it
needs official action or not I do not know—to attempt to wipe
out our debt. I am ready to subscribe this year the same amount
I subscribed last year to help relieve that burdensome condition.

Mr. Miuszerr: I had it in mind to suggest that the incoming
President be chairman of a committee to work with the Executive
Secretary and the Treasurer to formulate plans covering the matter
during the year. I have in mind an idea whereby we will be able
to make a fairly satisfactory report next year.

President-Elect Leach assumed the chair amid applause,

Mr. LeEacH: Fellow members, I wish to thank you for the
honor you have conferred upon me by selecting me as President of
the American Fisheries Society. I feel it is a privilege to represent
such a distinguished body, especially when I look back over the
history of the Society and realize that this position has been filled
by many eminent members.

I hope that at our next meeting in St. Louis, which I con-
sider my native town, you will present some of your problems,.
or give us a paper on some important phase of your work. I also
hope that each one of you will endeavor to bring another member
or present the names of persons as new members of the Society..
Extend to the various commercial fishermen, fisheries associations,
clubs and others, an invitation to attend the meeting, and work with
your own state fish commissioners and endeavor to get them to
come to the meeting and take an active part in it.

ee eS See

Fifty-Second Annual Meeting. 27

Mr. Barser: I want to say to the members of the American
Fisheries Society that it was indeed a pleasure to your president of
the past year and to his associates of the Conservation Commission
of Wisconsin to have had the privilege of entertaining this Society,
and we sincerely hope you will go back to your homes with pleasant
recollections of your visit here.

Mr. LeacH: I think the members of the Society have enjoyed
Madison very much, and on behalf of the Society I wish to thank
the Wisconsin Fish and Game Commission for their very elaborate
and generous entertainment of the members during our stay in this
city.

Mr. J. N. Coss: I should have made this announcement on the
first day of our meeting, but I overlooked it and Mr. Barber failed
to remind me of it. Most of you will remember that in 1914 we
organized the Pacific Fisheries Society, modeled after the American
Fisheries Society, and established because we are so far away from
the scene of operations that we are but rarely able to attend its
meetings, only one of which has ever been held on the Pacific
Coast. Our local society covers the States of California, Oregon,
Washington, Montana, Idaho and Utah, and the Province of British
Columbia. At the meeting held on August 24, they elected me for
the second time President of the Society, and I was instructed to
extend the heartiest greetings of our Society to the American Fish-
eries Society. We feel sure that the especially cordial relations
that have existed between us in the past will continue in the future.

Mr, Barser: Mr. Henry O’Malley, who has recently been
appointed United States Commissioner of Fisheries is here, and I
am sure we would all like to hear from him.

Mr. O’MAtteEy: Mr. President and members of the American
Fisheries Society: I am very glad indeed to have the opportunity
of being present at this meeting, even if it is only during the closing
hours. I am very sorry I could not be here throughout the entire
session. I have been making a trip through the south and to the
‘west coast, taking up matters in which the Bureau is interested, and
I am now on my way back to Washington.

I feel that these meetings bring closer cooperation between the
State fisheries and the Bureau; it is very important that there be
the closest harmony. In other words, I feel like the Irishman when
he was commenting upon the aeroplane. Pat and Mike were walk-
ing along together and there was an aeroplane overhead. Pat said

28 American Fisheries Society.

to Mike, “Mike, I wouldn’t like to be up there in that aeroplane.”
“Sure,” said Mike, “an’ I wouldn’t like to be up there without it!”
It is true that the Federa! Government and the State authorities
must work together in order to secure the best results. Particularly
is that the case when it comes to the distribution of fishes through-
out the country. The Bureau has only a limited knowledge of the
various waters of the States, and there is a chance of some applicant
requesting fish, the introduction of which might be destructive to
the fish indigenous to the streams. Therefore I wish to ask the
State Fish Commissions not to hesitate at any time to write the
Bureau on this subject. In many cases the Bureau is referring ap-
plicants to the State Fish Commissions in order that requests may
be passed upon by the local officials; thus the burden of responsi-
bility will rest upon the State if we make a mistake.

I do not believe this is an appropriate time to take up the two
subjects that are really burninig issues today, because I presume
they have been discussed earlier in your meeting. I refer to the
questions of pollution, and to the establishment of fishways in the
various streams where dams are built or proposed. In the east
the dams have already been constructed, and in some instances
fishways have been provided. On the Pacific Coast big power pro-
jects are coming to the front; this year alone in southeastern Alaska
there have been sixteen applications for the damming of streams
known to be among the very best salmon streams in that country.
If all these permits are granted it means the annihilation of the sal-
mon industry of Alaska. A hydro-electric power enterprise wishes
to dam the Klamath River for the development of power. They
guarantee the expenditure of thirteen millions and the creation of a
permanent industry in northern California. This river stpports a
fishery worth annually about $120,000; so you can see the condition
that exists with respect to that one case alone. As I view the matter»
itis good policy for the people who are interested in the fisheries side
of the work to get in with these people and try to arrive at a solution
of the problem if possible; otherwise—at any rate this is the case
with us on the coast—our salmon stands a chance of being exter-
minated. In Alaska, where some of these projects are under con-
sideration, the salmon fishery is of first importance, because Alaska
without its salmon would be a very poor country. Perhaps many of
you do not know that at the present time about 78 per cent of the
running expenses of the territory of Alaska are paid by the taxes

Fifty-Second Annual Meeting. 29

imposed upon che salmon canning industry, but not one cent of the
tax goes to the rehabilitation of the fisheries.

I am very glad to have had this opportunity of speaking to
you for a few moments. I ask you all for your heartiest coopera-
tion with the Bureau.

Mr. LEAcH: This Society can be a very important medium
for the elimination of differences between State Commissions and
the Bureau of Fisheries. For that reason I am very anxious to
have the State Commissioners meet with us next year in St. Louis
so that we can discuss these various problems. If we who are
interested in these matters meet personally and discuss these vari-
ous points of interest, little difficulties can be smoothed out and
relations established that will be useful not only to the persons
concerned but will add to the efficiency of both the State and Fed-
eral organizations,

Mr. AvERY: Would it not be desirable, in view of what Mr.
Leach has just said, and of what others have said in the last few
minutes, that the program of the next meeting of the Society be
made up with reference to that very thing? In preparing the pro-
gram for next year, could there not be incorporated some subjects
that would be of special interest to the State Commissioners and
that would result in getting and keeping more of them at the ses-
sions of the Society’s meetings?

Mr. LeacH: I consider the sessions of the American Fisheries
Society a meeting point where the layman and the scientist can get
together and discuss their problems in a broad way. Many of the
fish commissioners are appointed for a limited period of time and
it is necessary for them to be educated as expeditiously as possi-
ble in the best methods of handling their organizations. Anyone
can attend our meetings and come in contact with men who have
worked up from the ranks; he can meet scientists and practical men
interested in the everyday problems of fish culture.

Pror. EK. E. Prince, Commissioner of Fisheries, Canada: Mr.
President, I feel that I have already trespassed a great deal on
the time of this convention. I am sorry that we do not have a
larger representation from Canada at these meetings, but through
the published transactions we get a great deal of benefit—though
the personal contact to which Mr. Leach has alluded is undoubtedly
most beneficial and stimulating.

Instead of referring particularly to our work in Canada I

30 American Fisheries Society.

would like to bring out another point which I will place briefly be-
fore the convention. Fish Commissioners from various states and
from the provinces of Canada should make it a point to be present
and come in contact with other officials and scientists who gather
at these annual conventions for discussion and mutual benefit. But
I have often felt that the communities in which the Society meets
have not realized always that an important convention was pro-
ceeding in their midst; and they have not realized until the meeting
was over that the consideration of matters of vital interest to then.
has been going on. I do not say that is the case in Madison, but
it has occurred in some of our conventions, I think that the con-
tact of the Society with the public should be emphasized; that
there should be evening meetings with possibly one or two popular
addresses, perhaps illustrated by slides or pictures, to which the
public should be invited. I think that would do good. I venture,
therefore, to throw it out as a suggestion worth considering whether
one or two evenings during our convention should not be devoted
to something like a public gathering. There might also be an ex-
hibition of apparatus or of specimens which would be of interest.

Mr. LeacuH: I think that is an excellent suggestion. We could
have lantern slides or motion pictures showing the fish-cultural
work and the problems with which we have to contend, and display
them at a meeting to which the public should be invited.

Mr. J. N. Coss: I think the suggestion is good that during
the course of the convention a popular lecture be arranged, illus-
_ trated by lantern slides or motion pictures. That ought to be one
of the first features of the program to be arranged; then there
weurd ve amnple time to advertise it. 1 am sure there are members
here who would be willing to assist. I would be only too glad to
contribute from our stock of lantern slides, and we have a vast
number, many of which would probably be interesting.

Mr, LeAcH: I am very much pleased to hear you say that
Mr. Cobb, I will make note of it. Perhaps Dr. Prince will also
bring something from his country which will be of interest to us.
I understand also that Mr. Titcomb has something he could give us.

Adjourned sine die.

In Memoriam

M. L. ALEXANDER

i Cc BELL

HOWARD EATON
GEORGE H. GRAHAM
OSCAR GRIMM
JAMES NEVIN
G. H. RICHARDS
BARON N. DE SOLSKY
CALVERT SPENSLEY
GRANT E. WINCHESTER

J. H. WESTERMAN

PART II

PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS

INVESTIGATIONS IN THE PRESERVATION OF FISH
NETS AND LINES.‘
By Harpven F. Taytor
Chief Technologist
and
ArtHur W. WELLS
Assistant Technologist, Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

INTRODUCTION,

In a paper by one? of us, the literature dealing with the pres-
ervation of fish nets was reviewed and summarized. The method
which appeared best where tar could not be used was that of Bull,
which consisted of a bark extract applied hot, and mordanted with
potassium bichromate and a small amount of copper sulphate. Ref-
erence may here be made to a series of papers which escaped notice
in compiling that review, namely the Dutch investigations carried
out in the years from 1915 to 1920 by Van Dorp, Tombrock and
Olie.

The Dutch papers deal principally with tanning materials for
use in net preserving, and also with the use of aniline dyes for giv-
ing a desirable color to fishing nets and lines. They contain data
on a great variety of tanning materials obtained from many lo-
calities in various parts of the world. Perhaps the most importan’
result of these investigations is the demonstration that if an am-
moniacal solution of copper sulphate is used instead of potassium
bichromate to mordant or fix the tanning material in the line, much:
better results are to be had. The chemical reason assigned for
this superiority is that the presence of ammonia prevents any in-
jury from acid that would otherwise be set free, and also that
copper has a preservative effect on the line. This method of treat-
ing lines, recommended by the Dutch Fishery Experiment Station,
is hereinafter referred to as the Dutch method.

. The significant fact is that while some investigations have
been made, and valuable results obtained, the preservation of nets
is still crude; extensive and thorough study is much needed, espe-

1This paper was awarded a prize of $100 for the best contribution dealing
with problems of the commercial fisheries.
2Taylor, Harden F. Preservation of Fish Nets. Report of the U. S. Com-

missioner of Fisheries for 1920, Appendix IV, 35 p. Separately printed as Doc.
898, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C., 1921.

36 American Fisheries Society.

cially studies directed toward the development of new preserva-
tives, and toward the definite elimination of those which can be
shown to have little or no value.

Accordingly, after the review of literature above referred to
was completed, an investigation of net preservatives was under-
taken in the summer of 1920; this investigation has been pursued
and is still being pursued on an increasingly extensive scale, so that
thousands of tests have been made of many preservatives on both
cotton and linen thread, in salt water in various latitudes, at dif-
ferent temperatures, and in fresh water of the Great Lakes. This
paper will report, in somewhat abridged form, the more important
resuits of the work, but for lack of space will be limited to the
work of cotton lines. What was perhaps the greatest obstacle to
r7pid progress was the lack of reliable technique of testing the
ramples before and after exposure, a lack which is not only evident
on examination of the literature, but also borne out in private cor-
respondence with the Director of the Dutch Laboratory at Utrecht,
Dr. J. Olie, who states that technique of testing is the greatest need.
Accordingly, much attention has been given to this important as-
pect of the subject, and instruments for and methods of testing
have been devised, tried, improved and adopted.

PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS.

By way of a beginning, a small series of lines was tested in
1920. The thread used was No. 24 white cotton cord. The treat-
ments were (1) Bull’s method, quercitron, mordanted with potas-
sium bichromate and copper sulphate; (2) impregnation of lines
with copper ferrocyanide by tréatment with approximately N/10
copper sulphate, followed by potassium ferrocyanide; (3) same as
(2) but potassium ferrocyanide was applied first; (4) same as (2)
but N/2 solutions were used instead of N/10; (5) solution of
Ivary soap followed by solution of copper sulphate, both solutions
at 75° C., when applied; and (6) white lines, no treatment. No.
5 is a method used by French sardine fishermen, and since it de-
posits an insoluble copper soap on the lines, appeared to deserve
more study than it had hitherto received. Two examples were
prepared by each method, and were placed in sea water at Beau-
fort, N. C. One sample of each was removed at the end of four
weeks, the other ten weeks. The breaking strength was ascertained
with the following results:

OLS a Ie

Taylor and Wells.—Preservation of Nets and Lines. 37

TABLE I.—BREAKING STRENGTH OF LINES.

|
Strength | Strength

Number Method of treatment after 4 after 10
weeks weeks
} Keg. ee ieee
£ Bull’s method (quercitron, etc.).............. WO4O ee Et8
2 N/10 Copper sulphate and N/10 potassium
RELLOCY ANIAE! Pees set aca ats nC eee ae ee 10.86 3.66
3 N/10 Potassium ferrocyanide and N/10 cop-
WEI SUP AS 5 Sere wis, oes eco earn teorinaaotal ore ete 10.62 3.22
4 N/2 Copper sulphate and potassium ferro- |
OV ATU OLOE worn tons erature iste le sos ate En eae om sia ene 13.06 4.98
5 Ivory soap and copper sulphate.............. | 11.96 | 7.32
6 WITtreacecey COMUPOl secre ciacrcmicreom micieleiere eietcueete are 10.48 1.18

Bull’s method here proved to be best, as a preservative of
breaking strength under the conditions described. Next in order
is the soap-copper-combination. The failure of the copper fer-
rocyanide lines was obviously due to faulty impregnation, since
the inner strands of the cord were not reached by the preserva-
tives.

Copper soap appeared to deserve further study. Microscopic
examination of the fibers showed that the copper soap was not
uniformly deposited, but was in the form of an amorphous pre-
cipitate. Experiments were next undertaken to effect a better
penetration of the fibres and a more uniform distribution of the
copper soap’ by means of a suitable solvent. Ivory soap, and the
copper soap made from it, is a mixture of various fatty acid salts;
copper stearate was found to be insoluble in any ordinary sol-
vent, but the oleate is soluble in benzol, gasoline, carbon tetra-
chloride, turpentine, and various oils. The solution of copper
oleate in benzol or gasoline penetrates cotton lines readily, and
on evaporating, leaves a uniform deposit of copper oleate on, and
possibly in, the fibres.

One of the difficulties at first encountered with copper soap
was its tendency to creep to the surface of the line on drying.
It was found, however, that the presence of a small amount of
non-volatile mineral oil in the benzol solution serves largely to
prevent this creeping. When gasoline is used as a solvent, the
small quantity of a fraction of high boiling point present helps to
prevent this creeping.

METHODS USED AND PRESERVATIVES STUDIED IN PRESENT
EXPERIMENTS.

The work so far described was of a preliminary nature; it

38 American Fisheries Society.

served to point the way to further work, and to indicate the na-
ture of the difficulties to be encountered. Accordingly, plans
were made to carry out several large series of experiments, in-
volving the preparation, exposure in the water and testing of
several hundred individual samples treated by all the ordinary
proprietary and non-proprietary preservatives available. Since
the tests were repeated in many cases fifty or one hundred times
in order to get a fair average of results, many thousands of tests
were made. The samples were made in sets of seven by each
method, one to be held as a check, and the six to be taken up
from the water at intervals of three weeks to two months, the
test usually running six months. Most of the exposures hitherto
made in the European experiments have lasted less than two
months. By way of describing these experiments, the results
will be presented in connection with the different factors con-
cerned and the methods of measuring them. .

The work was limited to (1) those non-proprietary preserva-
tives that are in widespread use or have been known by in-
vestigation to be superior as net preservatives; (2) copper oleate
as a promising prospect for a new preservative; and (3) all pro-
prietary net preservatives on the market or in preparation for
exploitation. These latter were obtained by means of circular
letters sent through the various fishery trade journals.

1. ContTROL.

A. White line, no treatment.

2. NON-PROPRIETARY PRESERVATIVES.
Tar.

F. Coal tar, distilled. Black, thick, syrupy tar. Applied cold, diluted with
an equal volume of benzol. The benzol evaporates from the lines.

G. Pine tar. The commercial article, consistency of thick syrup. Brownish
black. Applied cold, diluted with an equal volume of benzol. The ben-
zol evaporates from the lines.

H. Coal tar 1 volume, pine 1 volume, benzol 2 volumes. Applied to the
lines cold. When the benzol has evaporated, equal parts of the two tars
remain on the lines.

Tanning Methods:

I. Bull’s method. A 20 per cent solution of solid extract of quercitron
in water is prepared, and heated nearly to boiling. The line is steeped
in the hot decoction until the latter is cold, then taken out and dried,
The line is given the same steeping a second time, dried, and finally
mordanted with a 3 per cent solution of potassium bichromate. (For

2 5 © 8

Ss.

Taylor and Wells.—Preservation of Nets and Lines. 39

details, see Taylor, 1921). The copper was omitted from the formula
so as to get a check on the value of copper in connection with tanning
extract.

Dutch method. The lines were steeped twice with hot extract of quer-
citron, drying each time as in the foregoing, and mordanted with an
ammoniacal solution of copper sulphate, containing 1 per cent
copper sulphate and 3 per cent of a 28 per cent solution of ammonia.
(See Olie, J., Jaarverslag van het Visscherij-Proefstation over 1917,
subtitle, Voorschriften voor de behandeling van netten met kopersulfaat
en ammonia, p. 40-42, 1917.)

Copper Oleate:

Copper oleate approximately 7 per cent solution in gasoline. The lines
so treated contained about 8 mg. copper per yard.
Copper oleate. About 7 per cent copper oleate solution in gasoline, 5
per cent mineral oil, to prevent the copper oleate from “creeping” to
the surface, and cresol, 1 to 1,000. The line so treated contained about
8 mg. copper per yard.
Copper oleate, approximately 11 per cent solution in gasoline. The line
so treated contained about 11 mg. copper per yard.
Copper oleate, approximately 11 per cent solution and 2 per cent
mineral oil, in gasoline.
Copper oleate, a solution of about 7.5 per cent copper oleate in gasoline.
Line contained 8 mg. copper per yard.
Copper oleate, approximately 12.5 per cent solution in gasoline, with 5
per cent mineral oil and 1-1,000 cresol. The line contained 12 mg. copper
per yard.
Copper oleate, approximately 12.5 per cent in gasoline. The line con-
tained 18 mg. copper per yard.
Copper oleate, approximately 12.5 per cent in gasoline, and 2 per cent
mineral oil. The line contained 18 mg. copper per yard.

3. PROPRIETARY PRESERVATIVES.
Petroleum Product No. 1, a preparation made by a petroleum product
company. Original formula. Dark, brownish black liquid, thinner than
the coal tar. Lines dipped and dried.
Petroleum Product No. 2, similar to J, but a later formula supplanting

- Petroleum Product No. 1. In appearance similar to J. Line dipped

and dried.

Waterproofing material, a preparation made by a manufacturer of water-
proofing materials.

Copper paint No. 1, a coppery colored paint, similar to that used to
protect the bottoms of ships. It was diluted with an equal volume of
creosote oil (according to directions), and the lines were dipped in it
and dried. ‘The treated lines contained 60 mg. copper per yard.

Copper paint No. 2, similar in appearance to the foregoing. The treated
lines contained 270 per cent mg. copper per yard.

Gilsonite or Uintaite, a mineral asphaltic or bituminous substance put
up by a varnish company. A thick, black, tarry substance.

40 American Fisheries Society.

FACTORS WHICH MADE UP THE QUALITY OF LINES, AND METHODS OF
MEASURING THEM.

Merely to subject lines to the action of water with no more
definite means of testing them than a visual examination after-
ward, with perhaps a measurement of breaking strength, would
be quite insufficient for the purpose of judging the several ef-
fects of preservatives. A cotton or linen line has numerous prop-
erties or qualities which make it suitable for fish nets. These
properties or qualities must be separately measured as accurately
as possible, and any changes in them during exposure to work-
ing conditions quantitatively determined. It is therefore neces-
sary to resolve the quality of a line into its several factors, and
to consider how these may be measured. It was in this field
where the greatest difficulty was encountered, as methods of
measuring these factors had to be devised, machines invented,
made, and tested.

The factors of importance in the present connection are
(1) breaking strength; (2) resistance to mechanical wear or
abrasion ; (3) stiffness of the line as affected by the preservative;
(4) shrinkage caused by the application of the preservative; (5)
increase in weight caused by the application of a preservative;
and (6) color imparted by the preservative. These factors will
be discussed separately. Such matters as cost, and labor in ap-
plication of the several preservatives, will be considered else-
where.

BREAKING STRENGTH.

This factor is, of course, the force or pull required to break
the sample of line. It is measured on a tensile strength testing
machine; the one used for the present work was a “Scott” ma-
chine at the U. S. Bureau of Standards, which Bureau cooperated
with the Bureau of Fisheries in doing this part of the work. The
machine is little more than a pair of fasteners which are at-
tached to each end of the sample which is 8 or 10 inches long,
and a mechanism for producing a pull which is exerted slowly
on the sample by means of an electric motor. As the pull in-
creases, a weight is lifted on a pendulous lever until the sample
breaks. When the line breaks, the lever with weight is stopped
in its position, whereupon a reading is taken which shows the
force in pounds required to break the sample. As the jaws pull

Taylor and Welis.—Preservation of Nets and Lines. 41

on the sample, if the sample does not stretch, the distance be-
tween the jaws remains constant; if any stretch occurs, the jaws
move away from each other, and this motion is transmitted to
-a sheet of cross section paper by which means is recorded the
up-and-down movement or ordinates, representing stretch. At
the same time the motion of the weight lever is transmitted to
move the pen, causing to be recorded the horizontal component
.of the line, which is the abscissa. Thus the machine not only

TENSILE STRENGTH IN POUNDS

MONTHS £APOSED

Fig. 1.—Tensile strength of cotton lines exposed to weather conditions
at Washington, D. C.

measures the tensile strength of the sample, but the stretch, and

records both, automatically. The measurements of tensile

strength were made in a room of constant temperature and con-

stant humidity.
The tables and graphs reproduced herewith give the results

of the tensile strength tests so far obtained in the various series.
EXPERIMENTS ON EFFECT OF WEATHER (AIR CONDITION).

Fig. 1 represents the results (given in Table II) of the series
which were placed on the roof of the Fishery Products Labora-
tory in Washington. As regards what happened to the tensile
strength of the lines in the long run, the results fall easily into
two groups, those preserved with tar, (F, G, H) and Petroleum
Product No. 1 (a proprietary preparation) on the one hand; and
white lines, those preserved with copper oleate, Bull’s method
-and the Dutch method on the other (B, C, D, E, I, L). Water-

42 American Fisheries Society.

proofing material (K), another proprietary preparation, does not
seem to fall into either group. These groups are averaged in
Fig. 2 for ease in interpretation. A simple and striking conclu-
sion stands out, namely, that those preservatives which have a
“body,” or a non-volatile component which covers the fibres and
protects them mechanically, afford good preservation against
weather, while those which do not have a body, but depend on
toxic effects are not so good. Preservatives under air conditions,.
or weather, therefore appear to do their work mechanically or
chemically rather than biologically (by destroying living organ-
isms). Simple covering protects the lines against the weather—
any preservative that covers, answers the purpose as far as
tensile strength is concerned.

TABLE IJ.—TENSILE STRENGTH IN POUNDS. OF No. 24 COTTON LINES EXPOSED

ON THE ROOF OF THE FISHERY PRODUCTS LABORATORY, WASHINGTON, D. C.,
NOVEMBER 25, 1921, To May 25, 1922.

One sample of each taken up each month. Each figure represents the result of 15 breaks, except
that of the control (A), unexposed, which is the average of 60 tests.

Tensile strength
Sym- Treatment Before After exposure, months
bol expo-
sure
1 | 2 3 | 4 | 5 6

Pe White Times c. bie os, ec 39.3 | 37.3 | 36.3 | 33.8 | 31.4 |) 2705
F | Coal tar. woscee. of S04 | 43.5 136.9 | 44:07 46.17 | Sop
Geils Pine tareicy dist ea ea 35.2 | 39.6 | 39.8 | 44.7 | 47.0 | 44.1 | 44.0
H | Coal and pine tar,

equal parts 2.) 04. 2. 37.4 | 38.2 | 37.0 | 41.6 | 43.3 | 43.0 | 46.0
IT | Bull's method........| 39.3 | 40.0 | 36.6 | 35.7 | 36.2 |) S@gqeneeuen
B | Copper oleate 7% so-

PUEIOM, Seid d 5622 Se 36.1 | 35.3:} 35.0 | 34.0 | 31.9 | SiO aoe
C | Copper oleate 7% so-

lution; 5% oil; 1-

1,000 cresol........ 35.5 | 34.0 | 33.4 | 33:.2.|° 3456 | Soi
D | Copper oleate 11%

solution? pis < 4 36.1 | 36:5 | 36.1 | 35.3 |-35.8 | soo
E lee oleate Loi rel

Bes ee Ge CR tieN ne 4 | 33.8 | 33.8 | 33.2 | 33.3 (Si2 eee

J Peteoledia Product

IN Mies ares gp ree 39.0 | 41.4 | 44.0 | 45.7 | 46.4 | 47.0 | 46.0
K | Waterproofing

material . 43.7. | 43.5°| 41.8 |) 42.8.) 44.0) Soe
L | Dutch Method 22 mg.

copper per yard.. 38.6.| 37:6 | 39.0 | 37:6 | 36.2) 36:05) faces

Experiments at Key West, Florida. ‘The lines exposed in

a i
2 ARM SP hehe

Taylor and Wells.—Preservation of Nets and Lines. 43

ocean water at Kéy West, Florida, from November to May,
showed characteristics quite different from the foregoing. The
tensile strength of these 11 samples prepared with different
preservatives are shown in Table III and graphically in Fig. 3.
Here, the preservatives, except the Dutch method, fall into three

TENSILE STRENGTH IN POUNDS

VM TEILINE OT EXPO

MONTHS EXPOSES.

Fig. 2.—Tensile strength of cotton lines exposed to weather conditions
at Washington, D. C. Grouped.

distinct classes (see Fig. 4) as follows: (1) Coal tar, pine tar, and
those two tars mixed (F, G, H) show a preliminary drop in ten-
sile strength, followed by a marked increase, which is held almost
constant to the end of the period of exposure (18 weeks). (2)
All those preserved with copper oleate, with or without oil and
cresol, wherein an initial sharp increase in strength is followed
by a constant tensile strength through the period of exposure.
Both the tars and copper oleates show excellent preservation.
(3) Bull’s method, Petroleum Product No. 1, and waterproofing
material show no particular preserving action at all, as they run

essentially the same as the untreated lines. he Dutch method

(L) shows characteristics which resemble, in some respects all
the other three, and is therefore plotted separately.

In sharp contrast to the effect of weather conditions in the
air at Washington, the lines exposed in sea water at Key West
show clearly that toxic preservatives are important and conse-
quently we must conclude that the impairment of the lines in
sea water is traceable largely to biological causes. The tars

44 American Fisheries Society.

EAR
Bar
reel
MES

BERS SESS ier b i,

SSeS RRee AG)

PRC

la
V1 Ay]
NZ

va N

ee eee

|
“|

=
2
Ni

= a

(=)

—

6
WEEKS EXPOSED:

Fig. 3.—Tensile strength of cotton lines exposed to sea water at
Key West, Florida.

which contain a protecting body and toxic creosote are effective;
the toxic copper oleate is effective; the Dutch method, containing
as it does, copper, is effective; the others, Bull’s method, water-
proofing material and Petroleum Product No. 1 (the two latter
are bituminous or tarry, but appear to contain no toxic proper-

ties), have no preserving properties, as far as tensile strength
is concerned.

Taylor and Wells.—Preservation of Nets and Lines. 45

TABLE IIJ].—TENSILE STRENGTH IN POUNDS OF No. 24 COTTON LINES PUT DOWN
IN THE SEA AT KEY WEsT, FLoripA, NOVEMBER 7, 1921.

[One of each was taken up each 3 weeks over a period of 18 weeks. Each figu are is hetverage of
15 tests, except A, the unexposed and untreated ocntrol , which is the average of 60 breaks.]

Tensile strength, in pounds

Sym- Treatment Exposed, weeks
bol Unex-
posed
6 9 12 15 18
A | White line........... SOS. 5t Oe) 84.91), 35.0! 200 | 20.2 | ase0
Se 0a! tar... 65 ...25.-.| 35.4 | 43.2 | 51.0 | 50,2 | 47.8 | 49.6] 44.4
Be INe taP eis. a. cies. 35.2 | 43.9 | 38.9 | 44.8 | 44.2 | 47.0 | 41.0
H | Pine and coal tar,
equal parts........ 31.4.) 52.2 | 53.0.) 44.0'1 50.2 146.0 | S10
I |} Bull's method........ 39.3) S081 3 4026.1 31.7 |. 25.8 | 27.6) 1454
B | Copper oleate 7% so-
fbi he. oS Se $6.1 |"34.7 | 35.2 1.36.6) 35.0") 33-4): 29:6
C | Copper oleate 7% so-
lution; 5% oil; 1-
1,000 cresol........ 39.9))) 52.4) 4151345) 34.1) 3528 |-34.5
D | Copper oleate 11%so-|
"5C19.0 0 se ne ee ee a S6:40) 37.6). 37-4.\-36.6) |90..9") 37295309
E | Copper oleate 11%
solution; 2% oil....| 31.4 | 35.0 | 33.9 | 33.5 | 34.4 | 34.3 | 35.4
J | Petroleum Product
|. 0 Pt eA a aa 39:0°|, 40,6 |-34-0.| 31.0: (527297) 19575) 17.0
K | Waterproofing
“citsl te. 9 fl 43.7 | 48.9 | 42.0 | 36.6 | 27.1 | 20.5 | 16.2
L | Dutch method....... 38.6 | 41.4 | 41.1 | 40.7 | 39.0 | 36.3 | 24.4

By way of demonstrating the effectiveness of copper in the
lines, the reader is asked to compare Bull’s method with the
Dutch method. Bull’s method is bark extract, quercitron, applied
to the line, and mordanted by oxidation with potassium bichro-
mate. The original formula calls for a small amount of copper
sulphate, but this was omitted so as to have a control on the
effect of copper. The Dutch method is the same bark extract
(quercitron), mordanted with ammoniacal copper sulphate in-
stead of potassium bichromate. The line treated by the Dutch
method contains copper tannate, those treated by Bull’s method
contain no copper. In Fig. 3 compare lines I and L.

Experiment at Beaufort, N. C. Fig. 5 shows the results
(given in Table IV) of experiments at Beaufort, N. C., February
15 to August 15, 1922. In this series, fourteen preservatives and
a control were exposed as follows: (A) White line, control, (F,

46 American Fisheries Society.

TENSILE STRENGTH IN POUNDS

oan EXPOSED

Fig. 4.—Tensile sete of cotton lines exposed to sea water at
Key West, Florida. Grouped.

G, H) the three tars; (I) Bull’s method; (J) Petroleum Product
No. 1; (L) Dutch method; (M, N, O, P) copper oleate in four
variations; (Q, R) two commercial copper paints recommended
as net preservatives; (S) Gilsonite; and (X) Petroleum Product
No. 2, a new formula under the same name as (J). Of these A,
F, G, H, Iand J are the same as were used at Key West and in
Washington. M, N, O and P, while still copper oleate, were
not of exactly the same concentrations as those formerly used;
Q and R, the copper paints, are here studied for the first time.
S, Gilsonite, a proprietary preservative and X, the Petroleum
Product of new formula, are here first studied. Here again the
preserved lines fall into five groups, which are shown graphically
for the average of each group in Fig. 6. The strongest group is
Q and R, the commercial copper paints, where a tarry binder is

Taylor and Wells—Preservation of Nets and Lines. AY

Nae
Be
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INS
al
Nel

ic lee

|
| Slee cee

VA IL
ava paca elt

LZ
eres

Ghz ae

E NS

ea a

PETAL

Sania

Bacal.

Be Ea eee

ecbe aed aria Ala

Bae

i
A
sabe
ae
a
ra
Le
ae
es

Za
aa
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aa
i
a

N
a

Nn
a

ue
Z
Bo
a
is
ie

San

ah NARS
MECN
ae “ANE

* MONTHS EXPOSED

Fig. 5.—Tensile strength of cotton lines exposed to sea water at
Beaufort, N. C.

combined with a toxic copper ingredient. The tars (F, G, H)
show a rise and then a steady diminution in strength. The cop-
‘per oleates, though showing the usual initial diminution of
strength nevertheless hold up well during the period of expo-
sure. The Dutch method (L) here again shows characteristics
that make it difficult to combine with any of the groups. Bull’s
method, Petroleum Product Nos. 1 and 2, and Gilsonite, show no
preservative action worth considering, as far as tensile strength
is concerned.

American Fisheries Society.

ACE
RE ee
ieee

TENSILE STRENGTH IN POUKDS

s 4
MiONTHS EXPOSED

Fig. 6.—Tensile strength of cotton lines exposed to sea water at
Beaufort, N. C. Grouped.

Taylor and Wells.—Preservation of Nets and Lines. 49

TABLE 1V.—TENSILE STRENGTH IN POUNDS OF No. 24 COTTON LINES PUT DOWN
IN THE SEA AT BEAUFORT, N. C., FEBRUARY 15, 1922.

[One of each taken up each 80 days over a period of 6 months. Each figure
is an average of 15 breaks except the untreated and unexposed control,
which is an average of 60 breaks.]

Tensile strength, in pounds

Sym- Treatment Not Exposed, months
1 a Ar SEES a RDS

i | | |
— _—_—$—$—_$$———— |_|

meeowWhite litie.......... 39.3.-1733.0.) 5°31 2.9 x x
GUS. rer 35.4 | 46.0 | 44.9 | 36.2 | 23.2 |18.0
Menmene tars. ....2.. 2...) 35.2 | 45.0 | 46.9 | 33.8' | 11.9 | 3.4--]......
H | Coal and pine tar, = Se

euar parts: so... 2'>- $7245.01) 46:8) 33.9) 27.9 116.271... 2.
I | Bull’s method........ 39.3 | 42.4] 19.6} 3.2 x x x
J | Petroleum Product,

LN nt OA Aa ee 39.0 | 40.0 | 23.4] 8.7 x x Fs
M | Copper oleate 7.5%;

Ww
rss
i)
Ww
an
tp
Ww
n
an
i)
oe)
loa)
| el
an
an
a
—
So

12 mg. copper per

yard; 5% oil; 1-

£000 cresol..2...1::| 33.2) }.35,2 | 33.8 | 33:9 |.25.4 } 20.8
O | Copper oleate 12.5%

solution; 18 mg.

copper per yard....| 33.6 | 36.6 | 40.3 | 30.0 | 21.3 | 25.1
P | Copper oleate 18 mg.

copper per yard; 2%
il 36

eae tace’

Sho) 89 .0:)- 370 92927) 29.5
42.0 | 42.4 | 40.8 | 41.0 | 33.0

als
Copper paint II...... 41.7 | 48.0 | 50.0 | 49.5 | 47.0 | 40.0 ]|.....
AeAISONIte no 8 sets nee 35, Sie2or2) | L455 8.5 3.9 x x
9
6

ia RTS er earls (6 2 Bye eTeis ei WM RP AE Se ea PR eR A aR Pi ero bl ee ee? TS le ue

oo eas ©

Petroleum Product,
BARON Sed x x x x

w taifeglotes el arite: is) =) Sus 403° 370 |" 35.3 120°3 8.3

re KOW 0

x Indicates that the line is disintegrated.

DISCUSSION OF TENSILE STRENGTH IN THE LIGHT OF THE FOREGOING
EXPERIMENTS.

Tensile strength is one of the most important properties of
the lines used for fishing gear, and has been the only factor
measured by other investigators. In considering the changes in
tensile strength as influenced by preservation, it is necessary to
consider (1) immediate increase or decrease of strength of line,
caused by the physical properties of the preservative; (2) a
later change in the tensile strength, caused by drying or other

50 American Fisheries Society.

change in the preservative; and (3) changes as influenced by
the toxic or biological preserving properties of the preservative
used. These will be considered separately.

1. Immediate changes in tensile strength. The fibers in a
cotton line are short, but are made into a long line by being
twisted together so that the friction of the fibers against one
another causes the line to hold together as a continuous whole.
When a line breaks, a force must be applied to the line which is
sufficient to overcome the friction of the fibers against one
another, or to break them; if the friction is greater than the
tensile strength of the fibers, they will break; if the tensile
strength is greater than the friction they will pull out. No
doubt both things happen—some of the fibers are actually
broken, while others are merely disengaged from the twisted
strands. Now the introduction of a foreign material between
these fibers and among the strands may greatly alter the prop-
erties and behavior of the line. If the foreign substance lubri-
cates the fibers or otherwise diminishes friction, the line as a
whole is weakened proportionately, so that when a pull is ex-
erted on the line the fibers are drawn out or disengaged rather
than broken. This weakening, we see, occurs in the case of
many of the preservatives. In fact, the only preservative which
did not cause an immediate weakening was copper paint. The
waterproofing sample, being treated at the factory, was not
measured immediately after treatment.

2. A later change in tensile strength, caused by drying of
the preservative. In the case of those preservatives having a
volatile and a non-volatile portion, the volatile, or soluble, por-
tion evaporates or dissolves in time. The body, or non-volatile
portion, then remains, and may markedly alter the strength of
the line. Thus, the tars, while at first diminishing tensile
strength by their lubricating effect, on drying out cause a marked
increase of strength which may persist until the lines begin to
deteriorate through decomposition. This is also true of the cop-
per paints, waterproofing material, petroleum products, and
slightly in some others, and is particularly noticeable in the
case of those lines exposed to weather conditions in Washington.

It is necessary to take these facts into consideration in
reading the graphs. The sudden initial drop in tensile strength
may convey the idea that a preservative is poor, or a sudden ini-

Taylor and Wells——Preservation of Nets and Lines. 51

tial rise that it is excellent. The differences are not, however,
of great value in themselves. The important thing is to observe
how much deterioration takes place on long exposure.

3. The toxic or biological action of the preservative used.
If a line on treatment, drops in tensile strength from 40 to 35
pounds, and holds the 35 pounds six months, it is still in good
condition; but if it increases at once in strength to 45 pounds
and begins to lose its great strength in 60 days through the
detrimental action of microorganisms, it may be totally worthless
in 6 months. Furthermore, the increase in strength caused by
heavy-body preservatives is always associated with a corres-
pondingly great increase in stiffness and wiriness, as will be seen
later. This marked loss does, in fact, occur in the tars, for after
the volatile or soluble creosote is gone, the lines rapidly deterior-
ate. It is thus plainly to be seen that the principal detrimental
agency is decomposition, and therefore the most important func-
tion of the preservative is to prevent this by means of a toxic
ingredient that is insoluble in water and non-volatile in air.

It is at this point that criticism can be made of the English,
Norwegian, and Dutch experiments, in which the experiments
extended over only a short time, usually two months. Some of
Bull’s experiments covered eleven weeks. It will be seen from
the graphs and figures presented herewith that the real differ-
ences do not come out very strikingly until three or four months
of exposure, and six months are necessary to get a good test.

RESISTANCE TO MECHANICAL WEAR OR ABRASION.

It is impossible to say definitely what are the greatest
enemies of lines. Breakage by pull against snags, and by the
struggles of large fish, are important, of course; bacterial decom-
position appears to be very important. Mechanical wear or
abrasion caused by dragging the seines or lines over the gun-
wales of boats, or by the rubbing of the lines against each other
in handling them, is no doubt also very important. Diminish-
ing ability to withstand mechanical wear is, like tensile strength,
an indicator of the general quality of the line, and if it can be
rated quantitatively will give not only some measure of the
general condition of any particular sample, but by imitating the
wear that it is subjected to in actual use, will give a measure
of this particular factor—ability to withstand abrasion.

52 American Fisheries Society.

It was therefore necessary to devise some means of measur-
ing the amount of abrasion or rubbing a line can stand. A motor
was arranged to draw samples back and forth over an edge, and
to count the number of strokes required to wear the line in two.
The great difficulty was in the nature of the edge. Woods of
various kinds were tried, but the results obtained thereby were
inconsistent because of lack of uniformity in the hardness of the
edge. Steel, hard rubber, glass, etc., were tried, but none of
these edges answered all the requirements of a satisfactory
standard. Finally, the threads were drawn across one another,
and the number of strokes necessary to wear out the sample was
taken as a measure of this factor.

The construction and operation of the machine for making
this test is shown diagramatically in Fig. 7. A is an eccentric,
to which are fastened the lines to be tested, b and b*, which are
passed over the rollers, h and h’, fastened at c and c*. Other
pieces of the same line, d and d’, are made fast at e and e’, and
run through the slack part of b and b’, at f and ft. Weights of 1
kg. (g and g*) are attached to the free ends of the lower piece
of line. The eccentric A is revolved by a motor, imparting a
reciprocating motion to the samples b and b’, and causing them
to saw across similar sample, d and d*. The samples thus wear
out and the weights drop to the floor; the number of strokes

necessary to wear each sample down to a breaking strength of
a

Fig. 7—Apparatus used for testing the wearing quality of lines.

1 kg. is taken as a measure of the wearing quality. The machine
was made so as to run 10 samples at a time, and a mechanical
revolution counter was used to assist in keeping count.

Table V herewith gives the results of the mechanical wear-
ing tests on the various samples exposed and tested.

Taylor and Wells——Preservation of Nets and Lines. 53

TABLE V.—WEARING TESTS ON No. 24 COTTON LINES EXPOSED AT
BEAvFoRT, N. C.

Number of strokes against itself necessary
to wear out samples

Sym- Treatment
bol Not Exposed, months
ex-
posed
2 5 4 5

A | White line, untreated...| 264.7 56.8 x x x x
Me eG Gal CAL 5 2 oc orarloye aces 189.4 | 172.4 | 95.4] 103.9 | 34.4 | 14.9
emoe ine tats ci. s cece os 159.7 | 141.4] 97.8 (Se Sica ex
H | Pine tar and coal tar

equal parts. 6.0... 168.5 | 171.6 | 107.2 | 92.6 | 43.6] 9.8
I Bull's method |.;.....-..- - 50.9 45.1 x % x x
J Petroleum Product,

IN( cis 11 Coley eee eens Oa 281.3 | 124.2 x x x x
Pei Dutch method. .....2. 46.6 | 84.6] 79.4] 91.0] 88.4 1.3
M | Copper oleate, 8 mg.

copper per yd. of line.} 118.4 | 167.4 | 141.2 | 129.2 | 12.8] 8.1
N | Copper oleate, 12 mg.

copper per yd. of line;
oil 5%; cresol 1-1,000.| 127.5 | 157.3 | 117.0 | 150.9 | 79.4 | 42.8

O | Copper oleate, 18 mg.
per yd. of line....... 191.1 | 191.9 | 143.6 | 123.3 | 40.4 | 48.1
P | Copper oleate, 18 mg.

per yd. of line; 2%
he ee ee 141.7 | 228.8 | 157.4 | 182.4 | 122.0 | 13.0
Q | Copper paint I plus
50% creosote oil; 60

mg. copper per yd.
eas) Sis eee ones 23.074 0-57-4.| $4326.41 S875). °S6. 7 34-2

R | Copper paint II, 270
mg. copper per yd.

Henebhi ss weer 89.0 | 30.8 17.0 17.9 12.5 | 14.0
EM Gllsonite. 2 a.n es) 260.0) 207.4) 24.4 x x x
X | Petroleum Product,

INGA by ana Nees oe Ov Oka 1.8 x x x

x Indicates that samples were disintegrated and gone.
DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENTS ON WEARING QUALITY.

There is seen to be a wide variation in wearing quality. This
quality of lines is influenced by the hardness or stiffness of the
preservative. When it is dried out and wiry, the line wears out
more rapidly than when it is soft and pliable. In the case of
lines that have been exposed in the sea, there is an unavoidable
deposit of sediment, sand, etc., among the fibers that probably
increases abrasion in the test. Although the samples were
washed before being tested, probably some of this sediment still
remained. A sticky or adhesive preservative pulls out the fibers

54 American Fisheries Society.

rapidly and destroys the line quickly during the test. An oily
or soapy preservative has the opposite effect of diminishing
abrasion.

During the test, considerable heat is developed at the point
of abrasion, which for one cause or another may vary and bring
about disagreement in the results.

Overlooking the fluctuations caused by these things, we see
that, in general, the results confirm and amplify conclusions
already reached. Lines preserved with the following preserva-
tives reach, before the conclusion of the period of exposure, such
a state of disintegration that they will not stand any wear on

NUMBER OF STROKES

MONTHS EXPOSED

Fig. 8— Wearing quality of lines exposed in sea water at Beaufort, N. C.

the machine: untreated lines, pine tar, Bull’s method, Petroleum
Products Nos. 1 and 2, and Gilsonite. Those which come out
best in the end are the copper oleates, which take first and sec-
ond places, followed by a copper paint. We may account for
the superiority of copper oleate by (1) the fact that the fibers
are effectively preserved against decay, and (2) the preservative
itself is of a soapy consistency, which lubricates the fibers.

‘7

Taylor and Wells——Preservation of Nets and Lines. 55

In Fig. 8 the results are grouped for similar preservatives
where the wearing results are similar. It is there seen that
ability to withstand wear of the kind effected by the wearing
machine, is greatest at first in the white lines, (A) and all the
preservatives reduce this ability. On exposure the white lines
{and also Bull’s method, the Petroleum Products and Gilsonite
(A, I, J, S, X) which have an initial high wearing quality]
rapidly lose the property by disintegration, so that in two or
three months they are so far disintegrated as to fail to endure
any test at all. The tars (F, G, H) and copper oleates (M, N,
O, P) stand about the same at first in wearing quality, but on
exposure the tars suffer a steady loss, while copper oleate pre-
serves the wearing quality at a high figure longer than any other
preservative studied. Its superiority in this respect is beyond
question. The copper paints (Q, R) which show up so well in
other respects are here at a decided disadvantage, as are also the
tanning extracts, Bull’s method, which is a failure, and the Dutch
method, which shows fair, though by no means excellent, results.

It may further be remarked that this test is very severe, as
will be noticed by the low figures for all preservatives for the
fifth month. The poorer preservatives all fail very early. Any
preservative which carries its line through six months exposure
with a measurable wearing quality has some merit.

STIFFNESS.

Most preservatives alter the softness and pliability of lines,
nets, seines, etc. If stiffness were not objectionable, much of
our fishing gear might be made of wire. In many cases, stiffness
is objectionable, and in some cases, such as that of gill nets, it
is absolutely necessary that the lines be soft, pliable and small.
Tar and other heavy body preservatives are useful for traps and
the like, but because they bring about great stiffness, they are
of limited usefulness. It is decidedly against a preservative to

‘stiffen the lines to which it is applied.

To get a quantitative expression of stiffness, advantage
was taken of the well known laws of the pendulum. The ma-
chine devised, constructed, tested, and used by the writers is
shown diagrammatically in Fig. 9. The sample of line (a) is
gripped between the wooden jaws (b). On the other end of
the sample is attached a brass plummet (c) weighing exactly 50

56 American Fisheries Society.

grams. A scale is laid off on an arc below the pendulum thus |
formed, so that the circular distance from d to the point of rest
of the pendulum is one-half a radian, (i.e., one-half the length of

Fig. 9.—Apparatus used for testing stiffness of lines.

the pendulum). If the pendulum is displaced to d, and re-
leased, it swings through one radian, dg, and will continue to
swing, but each oscillation is of lesser amplitude than the pre-
ceding, because of the friction in bending the line and, to a
negligible extent, because of the friction of the air. When the
amplitude has been reduced from one radian to one-half radian,

x
°
>

ei
SE

Fig. 10.—Stiffness of cotton lines exposed in sea water at Beaufort, N. C.

Taylor and Wells.—Preservation of Nets and Lines. 5Y

note is taken of the number of oscillations the pendulum has per-
formed and this number is recorded as a measure of the stiffness.

The following table (VI) gives the number of oscillations
required with the different samples (Beaufort series), which
measures the stiffness of the lines. The more pliable the line,
the higher the figure.

‘TABLE VI.—STIFFNESS OF LINES TREATED WITH THE SEVERAL PRESERVATIVES.
LINES EXPOSED TO OCEAN WATER AT BEaAurort, N. C.

Number of oscillations

copper per ae

length. . | 60.5 |52.3'45.5'44.1)74.3)71.8 56.646.4/46.7
N | Copper oleate, 12 ‘mg. | |

copper per yard |

length, 5% oil 1-

1,000 cresol. . | 59.1 |51.3/41.0!36.9/61.4/63.9'68.4/70. 1162.8
O Copper oleate, 18 mg. | |

copper per yard |

MAA ay Sous ay ore ce be 50.2 |43.4/37.9138.5:60.9'56.8:53.0/45.9/58.4

P | Copper oleate, 18 mg.

copper pe yard | | |

length, 2%, oil: . 20-5. 49.6 |43.3/38.4135.8 64.3'57.5'55.5 64.7/35.3
© | Copper paint, No.1...) 31.1 |32.7|30.4/29. 1:39. 3/29. 3'31.0139.6|28.2
R | Copper paint, No. 2...| 29.4 |31.3/28.7/26.1 14.6126.4:33.9123 623.3
memtotisonite 2.225... a 36.5 |25.5)22.017.3.21.1)17.218.0,21.3) x
X | Petroleum Product | | | |

1 Se RSA hare 34.3 |29.2|27.0/22.3.18.7123.5) x | x] x

x Indicates that line was disintegrated.

Figure 10 shows the result graphically for the individual
lines. It will be noticed that, although each line shows fluctua-
tions from month to month that may not have significance for
our purpose, the lines naturally divide themselves into groups of

58 American Fisheries Society.

more and less flexibility. These groups, the copper lines (M,.
N, O, P), the tanning methods (I, L), the copper paints (Q, R),
and those preservatives containing a heavy body, coal tar, pine
tar, mixed tars, Petroleum Product Nos. 1 and 2, and Gilsonite
(F, G, H, J, S, X), are grouped in Fig. 11. Here the Imes pres
served with copper oleate are far in the lead, showing upwards.
of 60 oscillations. Next comes those lines preserved by querci-
tron, Bull’s method and the Dutch method (I, L), with around
40 swings; then the copper paints (O, R), with around 30 swings.
Finally, the tars, Petroleum Products, and Gilsonite, with around
20 swings. If we express the flexibility of tarred lines as 1, then
lines treated with copper paints have a flexibility of about 1%,
tanned lines about 2, and those treated with copper oleate about 3.

DISCUSSION OF THE FLEXIBILITY TESTS.

It has been seen in the results of breaking and wearing tests
that we have a choice of a number of excellent preserva-
tives, while others are definitely eliminated from consideration
by their failure to endure the tests. Those which fail to endure
the breaking and wearing tests are waterproofing materials, Pe-
troleum Products, Gilsonite, and Bull’s method. Still in the run-
ning are the tars, copper paints, copper oleate, and the Dutch
method. Where flexibility is an important consideration, there
are now thrown out all the tars, the copper paints, leaving only
the Dutch method and the copper oleate as answering the re-
quirements of a first class preservative, which leaves the lines
soft, with the copper oleate far ahead of the Dutch method. For
gill nets, light seines and the like, copper oleate stands first in
the tests so far considered.

Where stiffness is not objectionable, as in pound nets, traps,
etc., the copper paints are indicated. No doubt copper oleate
will answer splendidly also for this purpose, though the heavy
concentrations of copper desirable for this purpose have not
been tried. The copper paints have very much heavier concen-
trations of copper. Other considerations yet to be discussed
bring out further differences.

SHRINKAGE OF COTTON LINES CAUSED BY THE APPLICATION OF
PRESERVATIVES.

Some preservatives cause alteration of the length of lines;
all that have been so far studied either do not affect the length

Taylor and Wells—Preservation of Nets and Lines. 59

or else cause shrinkage ; none have been encountered which cause
increase of length. The changes in length have been ascertained
for all preservatives studied by measuring the line before treat-
ment under a constant pull of 2 kilograms, and after treatment,
under the same conditions. Duplicate measurements are re-
peated to an accuracy of about 4 inches in 100 feet, that is, within
.33 per cent. It was impracticable to make these measurements
under constant temperature and humidity conditions, because of
the large space required to stretch and measure the samples,
and no room equipped for constant atmospheric conditions and
of sufficient size was available. The following table VII, and
Fig. 12, show, however, that the change is small, at greatest, so
that errors caused by changing temperature and humidity would
be negligible.

TABLE VII.—SHRINKAGE OF No. 24 COTTON LINES CAUSED BY THE APPLICATION
OF VARIOUS PRESERVATIVES.

Symbol Method of treatment Per cent shrinkage
B Copper oleate, 7%.. Sane 91
Cc Copper oleate, 7%; 5% oil: =i 000 cresol....... .98
D Copper oleate, 11%.. Saehiree 1.67
E Copper oleate, 11%; 2% oil.. aE ec aN mT 1.14
F (COPIES Ciales & Btu ie eke ane acerca ero nai aE a ge 2.48
G LEICTE, CSRS SS SRO Ooo AO a ea ae OR Re A rE 2 oil
H Roavand pine tar, 50% each wis. iia. essed ose 2.00
I BS llessmethodine 9. eee uk ieee nein oe, aeca ete 3.48
J Petroleumperoduct: No: Is 2s ait. ene ee 2.60
K Weaterprooine materialn. 0 ss .26. be ace ee eds ses 2.00
L Pig eMsHeGHOGL selon pi eos one clke Woe ete ae 3.60
M Mapper OlEALE hog kee aie ahe kar erin. aieiea ot Be a
N Copper oleate 714%; 5% oil; 1-1,000 cresol...... 41
O Copper oleate, 12144% strength................. 1.07
12 Copper oleate, 12469; 2% Ob... es oe vies .99
Q CGs Say On ah ERGs eo) Aer tea Mer eed nner 85
R Pe eioee Pann GEE arate 5 fon, Wea) cts as false aha soph cce- Me ld wis 65
S BRC Ce ite he ely ENA Seat Ne ret yet cat 2ST
x Petroleuny Product, No: 2.05.05) 052 fe es Lea

Noticeable shrinkage occurs only in the case of lines treated
by hot aqueous bark extracts, Bull’s method, and the Dutch
method. But none of the methods causes enough shrinkage to
make this an item of any practical importance. This factor
should be considered, however, in connection with aqueous
preservatives, especially those applied hot or repeatedly.

CHANGES IN WEIGHT CAUSED BY THE APPLICATION OF PRESERVATIVES.
All the preservatives studied increased the weight of the

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Grouped.

2
*SER SF MONTHS

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various preservatives.

American Fisheries Society.
The weighings were all done on the analytical —

i)
+ lay vrai AVHSIMd

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WAINdNId 40 NOILY111IDSO0

This change is in some cases of serious importance, as

Fig. 11.—Stiffness of lines expcsed in sea water at Beaufort, N. C.
LENGTH OF LINE BEFOR'
TREATMENT 100
Fig. 12.—Shrinkage of cotton lines caused by one application of the
in those heavy body preservatives that cover the lines with

the deposit of a preservative material on the line, or among the ©

lines, and obviously so because the preserving action depends on
fibers.

thick coatings.

Taylor and Wells.—Preservation of Nets and Lines. 61

balance, and are accurate to the order of a milligram or two. By
experimentation, it was found advisable to weigh in the air-dried
or ordinary condition, which was the condition of lines in the
ordinary air conditions of the laboratory. If the samples were
dried to constant weight in an oven, they took up moisture so
rapidly during the weighing that it proved impossible to weigh
them without elaborate precautions. Where hundreds of samples
were prepared, these precautions were out of the question. Table
VIII gives the results of the determinations of weight, and Fig.
13 exhibits the results graphically.

TABLE VIII.—PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE IN WEIGHT OF LINES TREATED WITH
VARIOUS PRESERVATIVES.

Symbol Method of treatment {Percentage of increase
in weight
B SOpmerOlen ted 1 Oped. cM vakck soteaet 6 ao eS es 11.9
C Copper oleate, 7%; 5% oil; 1-1,000 parts cresol. 18.0
D Ub eyerty a Stale: 7 age Hl I/O Set a a a 20.6
E Copper oleate, 11%); 29p0il. oes cee ce cde: 22.9
F WMA teh ere eatin pea ts aster eee acy Pane ois ase 68.5
G | EEEE ECT gh pa eh Ee a ge ne 53.9
H Coaland pine tar, 50% each: cc i ketene 48.0
I Reet TOTS aa co ia ek os y sivvavaiane Glereit a eke © 9.8
J Petroleum Product Nos 1s 5.0 oa esisieers ses 48.6
K MaternrGouns material, .).\-34 22.0 bacie a eels 17.8
Pemerewaateh METHO -\ vo wn ce wb dures oleviowe views: 20:2
M Erm EC OlEALEY 5 Yow oes ae bE tae eee a ae 10.2
N Copper oleate, 744%; 5% oil; 1-1,000 cresol. . 15d
O Bopper olesten P2660) on. i. aks a aes 15.4
P Copper oleate, Dat AG BBs ose cela h so: 18.6
Q Copper Panipat + oo onal SS cad oan pee ees 65.5
R Pecaia Sota ARE is ana a aires iicla tine cine & he 127.0
S RRESNIGO TS etal ety StL eu aye ickinieioe sete 46.0
x Puirgienin Prodwets WO. <2 2.503 «sien a dada, s 5 5 35.3

It will be seen that the preservatives which add least to the
weight are copper oleate and tanning methods, Bull’s and the
Dutch methods. Tars add about 57 per cent to the weight of the
_ line and copper paint doubles it.

The weight of the preservative is important in two ways:
(1) added weight increases the labor of handling and the strains
imposed on the line, and (2) added weight is an important con-
sideration where lines, nets, etc., are bought by weight, already
treated or preserved.

(1) In such gear as large menhaden purse seines, where
the seine must be handled by hand by crews in the “purse boats,”

62 American Fisheries Society.

the added weight of the large seines must be moved by a larger
force than would otherwise be required. It is also important to
work as rapidly as possible when a school of fish is at hand, and
the added weight of a heavily-tarred seine can not fail to reduce
the speed of operations, and increase the danger of losing the
school.

200 a
ie ae
Bie, TTT
Sal ee eh
ges mar
CCE
| | INE
cr CCC
esl A LN

ne) U VN Jat VR \

owen | LAV AVAVIAVNVVE tt

"TE Enea ie

| tebe ET

ETE

? Heeee tl rH

f EY

i IMM tH UE

Ce eT TE

ae 4 ik

a A
BlC DRE we 1 fi ic N20 UP ORS ok

uw
ae
Za

BOLS OF PRESERVATIVES

INCREASE IN WEIGHT

Fig. 13.—Increase in weight of cotton lines caused by one application of
e various preservatives.

°o

(2) When cotton line is selling at 25 cents per pound, it is
obviously profitable for the producer of, or dealer in, lines to tar
the line; by so doing he sells tar at 25 cents per pound. It is
correspondingly unprofitable for the fisherman to buy line with-
out a consideration of the added weight of the tar. This is an
important item of cost where netting is used in large quantities.

te,
4@

Taylor and Wells.—Preservation of Nets and Lines. 63

Copper oleate being by far the lighter of the more effective
preservatives, has a great advantage over tar, and deserves
further study and consideration as a preservative for large heavy
‘seines where tar is now used.

RESISTANCE AGAINST FOULING BY BARNACLES, HYDROIDS, ETC.

It has already been shown that in those circumstances where
stiffness and weight of lines was not a very important factor,
numerous preservatives were available to prolong their strength
and wearing qualities. It is only in the case of traps, pound nets,
and stationary gear of various kinds that stiffness and weight
are of minor consideration. But since the nets remain in the
water for long periods, another important factor arises, namely,
fouling by barnacles, hydroids, and other attached organisms.
‘The disadvantages brought about by the growths are numerous.
(1) They greatly increase the weight of the nets, thus increasing
the labor and time required to fish them; (2) the extra weight
(which may greatly exceed the original weight of the net) puts
an added strain on the net; (3) the accumulation of growths on
the net increase the collection of floating debris from the water,
thus further straining the nets; (4) the net offers greater re-
sistance to stream and tide flow when fouled, and is consequently
put under greater strain; (5) these growths, especially barnacles,
injure the fishermen’s hands.

Tarred lines, though fairly well preserved in strength, yield
readily to fouling with barnacles and hydroids; so do lines treated
by Petroleum Products Nos. 1 and 2, Bull’s method, and Gilso-
nite. Those lines treated with preservatives which contain copper,
even in small amounts, resist fouling. Lines treated by the
Dutch method fouled somewhat in four months at Beaufort.
Those tested with copper paint, and all those treated with either
of the copper oleates, were, after the fourth month in the sea
water at Beaufort, entirely free from all attached growths visible

-to the eye. The tiny amount of copper which remained in the
lines (2 to 4 mg. per yard, as shown by a determination of the
copper present) shows the effectiveness of copper in preventing
fouling. Of course, copper oleate can and should be applied in
much heavier concentration on lines to be exposed continuously
in the water. The advantages brought about by this single point
of superiority would, even if there were no others, alone justify
the use of copper in lines for continued submersion.

64 American Fisheries Society.

The following tabular record gives a statement of the ex-
ternal condition of the lines after the fourth month at Beaufort:

TABLE IX.—CONDITION OF LINES AFTER FOURTH MONTH TESTED FOR FOULING.

Symbol Treatment Condition
A White line; no treatment.| Disintegrated and gone.
F Coalitanen cat aac eee Fouled with hydroids and barnacles.
G Pinestarss ite cian cen iene Do.
H Pinevand coaltar. 7... 22 0.
I Bullisanethodsne +) 4t.cne Covered with dense matting of hyd-
roids.
J Petroleum product, No.1.| Do.
L Dutch method..........| Few hydroids; nearly clean.
M,N, O, P| All copper oleate........ Substantially clean; very few barnacles;
no hydroids.
Q,R Capper paints. a i sot or Perfectly clean; no growths.
S Gilsonite ss. e acne Gah ae Fouled with hydroids and barnacles.
xX Petroleum Product, No.2} Fouled, less than Petroleum Product,

No. 1. (This sample had been in
water only 1 month.)

The conclusion to be reached in this section is that copper
oleate and copper paint are the only preservatives among those
tried that prevent growth of attaching organisms on the line.
The Dutch method reduces, but does not prevent such growths.

LABOR AND TIME REQUIRED FOR APPLYING PRESERVATIVES.

Some preservatives that might answer well some of the re-
quirements of a good material, are out of the question because
of the labor and time required to apply them. The laboriousness
of the application of tar, the time it takes to dry, and the fact
that it is a black, sticky nuisance, have caused many a net to go
unpreserved. When labor and time are expressed in terms of
expense, it will be found expensive, also. In this way cheap
preservatives may in the end turn out to be the most expensive.

Taylor and Wells.—Preservation of Nets and Lines. 65

TABLE X.—TIME REQUIRED FOR APPLICATION AND DRYING OF PRESERVATIVES.

Number of applications : .
Preservative and time required for a ore required
each to dry dat dma
Mpcr oleate... 2... ee ee es One application. 30 to 45 minutes.
Pine tar 50% in benzol. One application. 10 to 12 hours.
Coal tar and pine tar, 50% benzol.| One application. 20 to 24 hours.
Coal tar 50% Hensal © Aor One application. 24 hours.
Quercitron:
Bull’s method \ { Three applications. 12 to 18 hours.
ered methods ***"*:°°**°>* 4 to 6 hours each.
| TLIO TOUS 4 ten Oa ere a es ee eee One application. 24 hours.
Petroleum products, Nos. 1 and 2.| One application. 36 to 48 hours.
Mammer paint Fo... ee One application. 36 hours.
Senper paint (1................ One application. 48 hours.

This record of the time required to apply the various preser-
vatives studied in this investigation shows copper oleate to be
far in the lead. By any other method the lines or nets would
require to be taken out of service at least a day for treatment,
not including the time necessary for drying the net before the
treatment is applied.

In the case of copper oleate, lines or gear could be taken up,
dried and returned to use the same day, except in case of such
gear as pound nets, where the labor of taking up and setting
is excessive. In the case of gill nets, a very light application
can be applied frequently; by so doing, little time is required,
and stiffness and weight are kept at a minimum, but sufficient
copper can be kept in the line to effect excellent preservation.

Copper paints, excellent preservatives though they are in
many other respects, are again at a disadvantage.

The quercitron preservatives (and tanning methods in gen-
eral) are for practical purposes eliminated by the excessive time
and trouble required for their application.

COLOR IMPARTED TO LINES BY THE PRESERVATIVES.

All the preservatives studied change the color of the lines.
Just what the value of color in a line is, and what color and
shade would be preferable, we do not know. There is a large
literature on the subject of color vision in fishes, but results by
different observers are quite inconsistent. Still less do we know
of the reactions of fish to colors which they may distinguish.
However, since many people who are interested in net preserva-

66 American Fisheries Society.

tives have their own, and very often decided, opinions on the
subject, the colors produced are given here:

TABLE XI.—COLOR IMPARTED TO LINES BY PRESERVATIVES.

Preservative Color of treated line
Copper oleate..................| Apple green, sky blue, or strong brilliant
green, depending on concentration of
preservative.
SATS aon pois s Beet tage Pee Cen ae eee Dark brown or black.
COpper wait. atk. vom teed ae Dark coppery red.
Petroleum Products, Nos. 1 and 2.| Black.
GulSonite were. preclee jee neta detache
Tanning extracts:
Diurtch methode ash cae wee eee Brown.
Bullisimethode re. eects Dark brown.

GENERAL DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY.

There have been presented the results of investigations
which establish certain facts regarding the characteristics of sev-
eral important or well known net preservatives. These results
show that some materials that are used have little or no value
as preservatives, others are good in some respects, while still
others excel in most or all respects.

The following materials for, or methods of, preserving may
be eliminated, on the basis of these results: quercitron mordanted
with potassium bichromate (Bull’s method), waterproofing ma-
terial, Gilsonite, and the Petroleum Products Nos. 1 and 2.

We may classify the points of usefulness of the remaining
preservatives on the basis of the service the treated gear must
perform:

(1) Where the gear is to remain immersed for a long time,
and where added weight and greatly increased stiffness are per-
missible, the copper paints excel. They protect tensile strength,
and prevent fouling, but they resist mechanical abrasion rather
poorly. The tars are good preservatives, but foul heavily with
hydroids and barnacles. Both are slow in drying.

(2) Where softness, flexibility.and lightness are necessary,
as in gill nets, light seines, etc., the choice is between copper
oleate and the Dutch method with copper oleate leading in every
particular—preserving quality, wearing quality, flexibility, light
weight, insignificant shrinkage, and particularly ease and rapidity
of application.

Taylor and Wells.—Preservation of Nets and Lines. 67

Copper Oleate. There are many reasons for believing that
copper oleate will answer as well for the heavy duty set nets,
traps, etc., as for the lighter gear, the difference being in the
concentrations of copper oleate to be used. In the case of gill
nets, a 10 to 12 per cent solution in gasoline, benzol, or carbon
tetrachloride with the addition of a little ordinary lubricating
automobile oil may be applied frequently ; the heavy gear may be
treated with much more concentrated solutions, and not so often.

So far as the writers are aware, copper oleate has never been
used before as a net preservative unless we may regard as the
same the soap-and-bluestone-treatment said to have been used
by the French sardine fishermen. At least it has never been
used in the way here recommended. Cunningham * mentioned
the process as used by the French, and in his trials included lines
treated with soap and bluestone, but his results were not at all
encouraging. On the basis of our work, a solution of copper
oleate, taking all factors into consideration seems best and most
promising of all and capable of being used to a great annual
saving by the fishing industry, and the writers submit this as the
principal constructive part of their work.

Copper oleate can be had in the market as a commercial
article at about 22 cents per pound in barrel lots, containing up
to about 15 per cent copper. The two commercial samples ob-
tained and examined in this work did not appear entirely satis-
factory. They contain a high percentage of substances insoluble
in gasoline, benzol, etc., which appear to be by-product salts
that have not been removed.

Accordingly, some work has been undertaken looking to-
ward the best methods of commercial manufacture of copper
oleate. Four principal methods are being studied, namely, (1)
precipitation of sodium oleate with copper sulphate, washing
and drying; (2) direct action of oleic acid on cupric oxide—the
ordinary black copper oxide; (3) the direct action of oleic acid
on copper acetate, wherein at 120° to 140°C. the acetic acid is
driven off; and (4) direct solution at about 120° C. of copper
carbonate in oleic acid, or commercial red oil, whereby carbon
dioxide and water are driven off. At the present writing the
last named method seems most practicable and economical, and

* Cunningham, J. T., The Chemistry of net-curing, Fish Trades Gazette
and Poultry, Game, and Rabbit Trades Chronicle. Vol. XX, Nos. 993 to 1009,
inclusive, June-September, 1902. London.

68 American Fisheries Society.

produces an excellent product. This part of the work is being
continued and is subject to a later report.

Oleic acid, and also copper oleate, are readily oxidizable.
Heating of nets piled up closely is well known to be caused by
oxidation of reducing substances in or on the nets. If oleic acid
or unoxidized copper oleate is present in large quantities, it is
possible that the nets might heat. For this reason, the process of
manufacture should include “blowing” the melted copper oleate /
with air until it becomes saturated with oxygen before packing.

The general summary of the work is presented herewith
in tabular form:

Taylor and Wells.—Preservatson of Nets and Lines.

TABLE XII. SUMMARY OF PROPERTIES OF NET PRESERVATIVES

Preservative

Copper oleate with-
out binder

Tar (pine, coal and
mixed).

Copper paint
Nos. 1 and 2.

Petroleum Product

Nos. 1 and 2.

Gilsonite.

Tanning extract
(quercitron with
potassium bichro-
mate as a mor-
dant.)

(Copper omitted)

Tanning extract
(quercitron
with potassium

bichromate as a |

mordant.)
(Copper omitted).

Tensile strength

Causes immediate di-
minution by lubri-
cation of fibers.
Thereafter tensile
strength remains
constant over long
period. Excellent
preservative.

Immediate diminu-

tion of tensile
strength followed by
marked increase,
which drops off
after two months in
salt water.

Slight immediate in-

crease followed by
marked increase,
which remains quite
constant even after
long exposure.
Good preservative.

Very little immediate

cbange. Product
No. 1 shows marked
increase after a short
time. Product No.
2 shows little
change. Both de-
crease very rapidly
on being exposed.
Poor preservative.

Slight immediate de-

crease followed by
rapid decrease dur-
ing time of expo-
sure. Poor preser-
vative.

No immediate change

in tensile strength.
Little change noticed
on Key West and air
conditions lines but
strength decreased
rapidly on Beaufort
lines. Poor preser-
vative, as used.

Practically no im-
mediate chanze.
Experimental lines
at all places en-
dured six months
with some tensile
strength remaining.
Good preservative,
especially for cot-
ton lines.

Wearing quality

Preserves wearing
qualities over long
periods in salt water,
but not in fresh
water.

Very good on freshly

treated lines but
diminishes rapidly
on being exposed.
Exposed lines not
so good as copper
oleate.

Poor resistance to
mechanical wear.

Product No. 1 when

freshly applied re-
sists mechanical
wear better than
any other preserva-
tive. Product No.
2 resists wear only
moderately well.
About 1% as well as
No. 1. On exposure
both rapidly lose re-
sistance to wear.

Resistance to me-

chanical wear
very good when
freshly treated but
this quality soon
disappears when
the line is exposed.

Very poor.

Poor.

Flexibility

Flexibility consider-
ably increased im-
mediately after
treating. This flexi-
bility decreases after
two or three weeks
to an equality with
untreated line.
Twine remains soft
and pliable. Suit-
able for gill nets.

Very stiff. Fewer os-

cillations of pen-
dulum than any
other preservative.

Causes immediate
stiffening but not
toas great a degree
as tar, Copper
paint No. 1 remains

fairly constant while

copper paint No.2
continues to grow
stiffer.

Causes considerable
stiffening which in-

creases for three or
four weeks and then
remains constant.

Causes a little im-

mediate stiffening
and grows gradually
stiffer for about 4
weeks. About like
tar.

Vlexibility of line
little affected.

Flexibility of line

very little affected.

Shrinkage

Shrinkage very small
Causes about .5 to
1.5% decrease in
length after one ap-
plication.

Shrinkage not great,
but a little more
than copper oleate.
Averaged 2.22% on
one application.

Very little shrinkage.

About .5% on one
application.

Shrinkage about 2%
on one application.

Shrinkage about
2% on one appli-
cation.

Considerable shrink-

age as compared to
most other treat-
ments this line show-
ing 3.48% decrease
in length on one ap-
plication.

Shrinkage compara-

tively large, as with
most preservatives
applied hot. De-
crease in length 3.6%
on one application.

RR RRR SSRN SOE SY A RES AR Ae EE SE A

American Fisheries Society.

TABLE XII. SUMMARY OF PROPERTIES OF NET PRESERVATIVES.—Cont.

Preservative

Copper oleate
without binder.

Tar (pine, coal
and mixed).

Copper paint
Nos. 1 and 2.

Petroleum Product
Nos. 1 and 2.

Gilsonite.

Tanning extract

(quercitron with
potassium

mate as a mor-
dant.) (Cop-
per omitted.)

Tanning extract
(quercitron
with potassiem
bichromate as a
mordant.) (Cop-
per omitted.)

Increase in weight

Increase in weight
not great. Average
of all lines treated
shows about 16.5%
gain in weight, as
applied.

Increase in weight
very high especially
in case of coal tar.
Average increase
56.8% when ap-
plied from 50%
benzol solution.

Greatest increase in

weight of all pres-
ervatives studied.
Copper paint No. 1
—65%. Copper

paint No. 2—127%.

Increase in weight
averages about
41.9%.

Increase in weight

46.0%.

Very little increase
in Weight. About
10%.

Increase in weight
O-

Fouling

Very little fouling.
A few barnacles
were in evidence
but no hydroids or
other growth ap-
peared on four
months’ exposure.

Lines contained
heavy growth of
hydroids and bar-
nacles.

No fouling of any
sort after six
months exposure.

Lines contained
heavy growth of
hydroids and bar-
nacles. Preserva-
tive seems to have
no anti-fouling
quality.

Lines exposed for
short time are laden
with heavy growth
of hydroids and bar-
nacles.

Lines carried heavy
growth of hydroids
and barnacles.

Not much fouling
after five months’
exposure in sea
water at Beaufort,
N.C.

Time required for
application

Lines or nets can be
treated in short
time. Should be
immersed for 5 or
10 minutes and will
dry in about 4%

our.

required to treat
line. From 24 to
36 hours required
for drying.

Not much labor or
time required.
Drying before use
unnecessary.

quired for drying.

time to apply but is
rather slow drying.
About 24 hours
required.

the extract and one
treatment with the
mordant. About
24 hours required
for entire process,
including time of
drying.

Time required same
as that of tanning
extract listed above.

Much labor and time

24 to 36 hours re-

Requires but little

Two treatments with

Color

Color varies from a
light green to a
darker bluish
green depending
upon concentration
of the preservative.

Dark brown or black.

Dark red.

Black.

Brown.

Dark brown.

Mr. Taytor:

Discussion.

I think it is safe to say that all the fish taken com-

mercially in the United States—for that matter, in the world—are taken
by means of nets or lines made of some kind of textile thread; usually
cotton, sometimes linen, hemp, or even silk. But these are all perishable,

and naturally some means of preservation is most important.

The statistics

we have indicate that the value of the gear in the United States made of

cotton, linen, hemp, and so forth, is about $15,000,000.

How long it takes

to turn this over we do not know definitely; presumably somewhere be-
tween one year and two years is sufficient to demand an entirely new outfit.
The cost, then, will range somewhere less than $15,000,000 a year for nets,

ivan ineeeniaes

.
4
7

“7
=

Taylor and Wells.—Preservation of Nets and Lines. ie:

lines, traps, etc., made of twine. If we could double the life of that ma-
terial we would save something like ten or fifteen million dollars a year.
The work we have done indicates that we can go a long way toward at
least increasing the life of these lines, if not actually doubling it. In some
cases we have very much more than doubled the life of the lines as com-
pared with untreated white lines remaining permanently in ocean waters
until they were completely rotten.

Mr. J. N. Coss, Seatle, Wash.: Have the preparations you tested been
used before?

Mr. Taytor: All but copper oleate, which we made.

Mr, J. N. Coss: Is it the one that proved best?

Mr. Taytor: Yes. ‘The idea occurred from the use of bluestone and
soap dissolved in water. Of course, copper oleate is one of the things sup-
plied by that reaction. We found that copper oleate was the only one soluble,
so we ignored everything else and took the copper oleate dissolved in gasoline.

Mr. J. N. Coss: You stated that a gill net could be used practically
one year in the salmon industry. My experience in Alaska gill netting for
salmon is that we would start with an old net and use it about two weeks;
then we would bring it in and dry it, putting out a new one. That new
net finished the season, then we would use it again for the first few weeks
of the next season. That would mean that we used a gill net three months
or less, and that was the life of it.

Mr. Taytor: I will have to add here, Professor Cobb—for the sake
of brevity I had to leave out a good many things—that we have been carry-
ing on two more series of experiments in addition to the ones mentioned
in the paper: one at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, and the other at Put-in
Bay, on Lake Erie. We found that fresh water is very much harder on the
lines than salt water. Our copper oleates are not showing up nearly as
well in Lake Erie as they have been at Beaufort and Key West. Copper
oleate appears to be more soluble in fresh water than in salt water.

Mr. J. W. Trrcoms, Hartford, Conn.: Can a commercial fisherman who
wants to buy a net or treat a net tell from your paper what these different
preparations are which you compare?

Mr. Taytor: In most of them there would not be any difficulty. One
or two have been withdrawn from the market; in the other cases the adver-
tising matter makes known what is in it. If a fisherman reads between
the lines and reads the circulars, he can very easily tell.

Mr. TitcomsB: This copper oleate is a preparation which you have

_yourself devised?

Mr. Taytor: Yes. We are now making it up and beginning to treat
lines for people experimentally. We are sending to the laboratory at Beau-
fort a case of this stuff put up in tin cans, with instructions to give it free
of charge to any of the fishermen who want to try it. We furnish it for
a limited time.

Mr. Titcoms: After you have furnished it free for a time, what do
you propose to do? Are you going to commercialize it, or is it going to be
given out so that anybody can make it?

W2 . American Fisheries Society.

Mr. Taytor: Anybody can use it who wants it; it is perfectly free.

Mr. TitcomsB: It is merely a matter of giving the formula?

Mr. Taytor: Yes. We are making it now ourselves in order to
encourage the trial of it. Of course, we do not expect to continue that; it
is merely for experimental purposes. We give it to people who show a
willingness to try it out and to keep us informed of the results.

Mr. J. N. Copp: Have you worked out any estimate of the cost of this
material as compared with the others?

Mr. TAyLor: The cost depends to a considerable extent on the solvent.
There are several substitutes for gasoline at our disposal; kerosene can
be used, but it takes longer to dry and leaves the line more oily. Carbon
tetrachloride would be ideal, because it is non-inflammable, but it costs four
times as much as gasoline. Anybody can use carbon tetrachloride who wants
to, but I do not think many people will want to pay $1.30 a gallon for it.

Mr. J. N. Copp: You say copper oleate is not inflammable?

Mr. Tayior: No; but when you dissolve it in gasoline of course it is
highly inflammable until the nets dry out.

Mer. J. N. Coss: That, of course, is the principal trouble with the tar
preparations; there is apt to be spontaneous combustion at any time if you
get the sun shining on it in a room. We have had that several times.

Mr. A. L. Miuuetr, Boston, Mass.: What is the ratio or proportion of in-
creased life by this method as against increased cost?

Mr. Taytor: So much depends on the nature of the service the line is
expected to perform. All our experiments have been in connection with
continuous exposure under the water, allowing the lines to rot. That does
not happen in actual service; it goes in and out.

Mr. Miutetr: You claim that lines treated by this method last twice
as long, do you not? Naturally the life would be twice as long in any event.

Mr. TayLor: I think that is about the right estimate. It is a question
of labor more than anything else.

Mr. Miwwetr: Would the longer life actually mean a lower cost?

Mr. Taytor: I have not exact figures on that, but I can give you a
guess unhesitatingly that it would.

Mr. MILLETT: You said that in your test it took those that were painted
with the ordinary copper paint, such as is used on a ship’s bottom, forty-
eight hours to dry. Why did it take so long, when it will dry on a brush?

Mr. Taytor: The copper paint used in net preserving is not the same.
It has the same active ingredients, but the binder is different. We know
it takes forty-eight hours to dry; it is recommended, however, that the
painted line be put immediately in water without drying.

Mr. C. F. Curizer, Homer, Minn.: What is the temperature of the
water in which you make these experiments?

Mr, Tiayior: The water at Key West is about 80. At Beaufort, about
the middle of February, as I recall, the water was about 45 or 50; in August,
about 80.

Mr. CuLLER: We use a number of seines, and the temperature of the
water in summer time ranges as high as 96 to 100. Do you know whether

Taylor and Wells.—Preservation of Nets and Lines. 13

-or not the copper oleate would act as a preservative in that case?

Mr. Taytor: My advice would be not to try copper oleate in fresh
water until we have made more experiments. We feel quite positive about
the results in salt water, but our experiments in fresh water are not turning
-out so well.

Mr. Minett: Have you made any experiments in waters at Cape Cod
or along the Nova Scotia or Labrador coasts?

Mr. Taytor: We have a series now going on at Woods Hole.

Mr. Mittett: Would it make any difference, do you think, as to the
-temperature of the water up there?

Mr. Taytor: So far the Woods Hole series have been running like the
Key West series—not much difference.

OCTOMITUS SALMONIS, A NEW SPECIES OF INTES-
TINAL PARASITE IN TROUT.

By EMMELINE Mooré
New York State Conscrvation Commission, Albany, N. Y.

Author’s Note: The preliminary paper under the caption, “Giardiasis
of Trout,*” was read at the meeting of the American Fisheries Society,
Madison, Wis., September 7, 1922. Since that date further study of the
organism in question requires a correction in nomenclature, necessitating
a shift in generic position from the genus, Giardia, to the genus, Octomitus.
The specific name, s@/monis, is retained under the new designation. Revision
of the text has been made in accordance with the later findings.

INTRODUCTION.

Octomitus salmonis Moore is a flagellate parasite occurring
in the intestine of trout. It is widely prevalent in trout-rearing
hatcheries, affecting various species in the fingerling stages. The
presence of the organism in large numbers produces serious dis-
turbances of the intestinal tract attended by evident symptoms
of dysentery. The disease may cause serious epidemics accom-
panied by high mortality.

Without doubt the disease octomitiasis caused by Octomitus
salmonis is a very common cause of hatchery troubles. The
papers and discussions on fish pathology appearing in recent
numbers of the Transactions of the American Fisheries Society
have indicated the widespread nature of certain hatchery
diseases, variously designated as “gill trouble” by local hatchery
men, or as “whirling sickness” by Hayford (1921) and Foster
(1921). There is evidence, also, of a close similarity between
the symptoms produced by Bacterium truttae, as described by
March (1901, 1902) and those of fish afflicted with Octomitus.
It seems quite probable that we are dealing with the same
disease, whose various manifestations have been studied from
different points of view, and that the inciting cause is not a
bacterium, but the protozoan parasite, Octomitus salmonts.

The recurrence this year of an epidemic of “gill trouble” or
“whirling sickness” among brook trout fingerlings at the State

* Awarded the prize for the best contribution on biological investigations
applied to fish-cultural problems.

Moore—New Species of Parasite in Trout. 75

hatchery at Bath, N. Y., led the Conservation Commission to
inquire into its cause. It had been assumed, because of the ap-
parent symptoms of “gill trouble,” that the water was low in
oxygen. Accordingly, about five years ago, a fountain and flume
were introduced into the system of water supply to improve the
aeration. There appeared to be temporary relief, yet the losses
continued annually to be heavy. The mortality was especially
high last season and on the reappearance of the epidemic in
April of this year the whole problem at the hatchery was given
intensive study.

Preliminary to the study of the disease a sanitary inspection
of the plant and a chemical analysis of the water, including
oxygen determinations, were made by experts in these fields in
the Commission. Their results, which are appended to this paper,
show that the sanitary conditions of the plant are excellent, but
a low oxygen content prevails in the water supply, the gaseous
oxygen present in water delivered to the hatchery troughs being
only 2.10 parts per million, or 18.5 per cent saturation at 9 de-
grees Centigrade.

While it is reasonable to suppose that the annual heavy
mortality of fingerlings at the Bath hatchery may be corrrelated
with a possible low resistance of the fish due to a deficiency in
the oxygen-supply, it must be noted that, after the epidemic
ceases, the fingerlings, which either escape the infection or ac-
quire immunity, thrive remarkably well. Moreover, at other
hatcheries, where the oxygen relations are notably good, the
disease has been observed to approach the nature of an epidemic.
That the fatalities were not more serious at the various hatcheries
may be attributed to delayed infection or to the presence of other
factors and varying practices at the different hatcheries.

That the disease should be locally diagnosed as “gill trouble”
was not unnatural under the circumstances. The swollen ex-
posed gills of the sick fish and the apparent effort in breathing
seemed to indicate this as a primary cause of death, particularly
since it was known that the oxygen supply approached the criti-
cal point for fishes. Persistent and careful study revealed no
definite lesions of the gills, excepting that they were somewhat
swollen and usually clogged with debris. It was observed, how-
ever, that troughs and races carrying approximately the same
numbers of fingerlings showed vast differences in mortality

76 American Fisheries Society.

and, where the numbers of sick fish were large, the appearance
of the excrement suggested that the seat of the trouble was in
the intestines rather than in the gills. This proved to be the
correct clue. On further search it was found that the fish in
the entire hatchery were quite generally infected with the in-
testinal protozoan, Octomitus. The sick and dying fish were so
heavily parasitized as to leave no room for doubt that Octomitus
was the chief cause of the trouble. Further observations, there-
fore, were directed toward the study of this organism and its
effect upon the fish in producing the disease.

SYMPTOMS OF THE DISEASE AND DIAGNOSIS.

So far as observed there are no definite external lesions,
though badly infected fingerlings show somewhat abnormal
coloring and a characteristic behavior. The dwarfed emaciated
specimens often appear blackish, while those of an older growth
present a pale or faded appearance. Balance seems easily lost
and the fish turn over repeatedly with a “whirling” or “cork-
screw” motion. Weakened by the disease they are unable to
stem the current of the water which wafts them toward the foot
of the troughs where they congregate in the corners, nose along
the sides and near the surface and eventually die on the screens.
As the sick fish turn over on their backs the gills are in feverish
action and appear distended, a symptom which has doubtless
given rise falsely to the diagnosis “gill trouble.”

The examination of the intestine gives the more dependable
diagnosis, the walls of which in bad cases of infection appear
translucent, yellowish or whitish and somewhat inflated. The
contents are watery and easily run away from the vent. In
the earlier stages of infection the motile organisms are most
abundant in the fore-intestine, but later they are more generally
distributed in the lower intestine and the rectal region. In
severe cases of infection among the young fingerlings the entire
lumen of the fore-intestine, then devoid of food contents, may be
filled with a mucous fluid in which the motile parasites are ex-
ceedingly numerous. By transferring a drop of this fluid to a
microscope slide for examination they may be observed, even
with medium powers, as minute, watery, pear-shaped objects, ex-
tremely active, moving forward through the fluid with a revolv-
ing or cyclic motion.

Moore——New Species of Parasite in Trout. 717

Lesions are produced in the walls of the intestine and in
the glandular tissue of the caeca, * which provide sufficient ex-
planation for the cause of death. These lesions are occasioned
by the activities of the parasite in passing through the various
stages of its life history. They will be considered in detail later
in the paper.

SUSCEPTIBILITY AND MORTALITY.

All species of trout fingerlings thus far examined are sus-
ceptible to the disease—brook, brown, rainbow, steelhead and
lake trout—approximately in the order named. The suscep-
tibility of brook trout over other species is pronounced and may
help to explain the decline in brook trout production at certain
well known and long established hatcheries.

Mortality is highest among the smaller fingerlings. During
the single epidemic which has been observed, the larger number
of deaths occurred among fingerlings of 1% inches to 134 inches
in length. Infection begins soon after artificial feeding com-
mences and progresses rapidly for about 6 to 8 weeks, when a
decline sets in. These periods would probably vary with local
conditions. There may be recurring waves of the disease during
the season with relatively less mortality among the larger finger-
lings. It may be that in cases of epidemics all contract the
disease and that those affected lightly develop immunity. It is
certain, from the large numbers examined throughout the season,
that most of the fingerlings which survive are to a large extent
carriers. Even adult trout about the hatcheries have been found
to be carriers, though apparently unaffected by the presence of
the organism.

The gradient of mortality, showing the approximate number
a trough can carry without loss from the disease, could not be
completely established this season, but it was found that in
troughs under special observation carrying 500, 300 and 100

' fingerlings, 244 to 3 inches in length, there were no losses after

the second day following removal from troughs in which the
disease was rampant.

*Dr. H. S. Davis, Pathologist of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, investi-
gating simultaneously the cause of an epidemic among fingerling rainbow trout
at White Sulphur Springs, W. Va., ascribes, in his unpublished researches, the
cause of the disease to the organism in question and finds evidence of an in-
vasion of the glandular tissue of the intestinal and caecal epithelium.

718 American Fisheries Society.

High mortality is a relative term. To many a practical fish
culturist the loss of 25 per cent of the fingerlings has come to
be regarded as the normal loss to be expected. On the face of
it that loss seems abnormally high. Fingerlings have been
dropping away season after season without apparent external
signs of disease or without knowledge of the reason why. It
seems more than likely that the annual loss in the hatcheries,
that is, “the normal loss to be expected,” disregarding the loss
from epidemics, is referable in a high degree to individual cases
of octomitiasis.

DISTRIBUTION.

Octomitiasis appears to be a disease of domestication. Al-
though the organism which produces it has only recently become
known it is not necessarily a new disease. Infection by Octomitus
has been found in all of our trout-rearing hatcheries in the State
and in three private hatcheries which have come under inspection.
It is probably endemic in most of them in this country. Under
conditions of artificial feeding and crowding in the hatchery the
disease appears to be aggravated, although there is wide varia-
tion in the different hatcheries as to the extent of the trouble.
The survey of the field for the presence of Octomitus in wild
trout has been begun, but with insufficient observation thus far
to warrant a generalization regarding its distribution in the
wild state.

TRANSMISSION.

The transmission of the organism to fish in the hatchery
may be considered from several standpoints. In its adult, active,
motile form Octomitus does not persist long outside the in-
testinal tract, but forms cysts by rounding up and developing
about it a resistant wall which survives desiccation for con-
siderable periods. The ordinary motile form, if taken into the
intestine of the fish, would hardly survive the digestive juices of
the stomach, while the cyst with its resistant wall could reach
the seat of infection in the fore-intestine. If such is the case,
bits of excrement from infected fish easily explain its transfer
from fish to fish.

If it is found that wild fish are carriers of the organism, the
original “seeding down” of a hatchery can be explained from
this source. Persistence of the disease in the hatcheries is

g
:
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3

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a
'

Moore—New Species of Parasite in Trout. 79

readily explained by the neighborly way we have of exchanging
eges and fish, by keeping adult brood fish which are carriers,
and by permitting infected fish in the source of the hatchery
water supply.

It has been thought that a probable source of the organism,
Octomitus, in the hatchery might be derived from the frog which
harbors a somewhat similar intestinal parasite. Hexamitus tm-
testinalis Dujardin (13) and comparative studies on local ma-
terial were made to elucidate this point. Two species of frogs,
the pickerel-frog (Rana palustric Le Conte) and the green-frog
(Rana clamitans Latreille) common in the locality of Bath, N. Y.,
where the epidemic of octomitiasis occurred, were found to be
heavily parasitized with Hexamitus. The frogs had access to the
water supply of the hatchery and must have naturally spread
infection in it. However, a careful search through many pre-
pared slides of material from parasitized frogs and fish has given
what seems to be convincing proof that the parasite, Hexamitus
entestinalis Dujardin, of the frog and Octomitus salmonis of the
trout are specific for their hosts.

OCTOMITUS SALMONIS MOORE.

Octomitus salmonis Moore is a binucleate, bilateral, parasitic,
octo-flagellate belonging to the family Hexamitidae of the order
Polymastigina. It is an intestinal parasite causing the disease
Octomitiasis in various species of trout. The actively swim-
ming adult form, or trophozoite (1) is pear-shaped in outline,
broad at the anterior end and bluntly pointed at the tail. The
body in action is exceedingly mobile, but the pyriform outline
is generally characteristic. In size the flagellate is minute, vary-
ing in length from 6 to 12 micra and in width from 3.5 to 5 micra.

The two nuclei (nuc.) are conspicuous at the anterior end.
From their changing position, when the organism is moving, the

nuclei appear to be connected with the blepharoplast complex,
the mass of deeply staining granules in front of the nuclei, from
which arise the three pairs of anterior flagella (fl. 1, 2 and 3).
This complex consists of two sets of granules bilaterally ar-
ranged. In each set there is a forward granule, which lies at the
base of a single flagellum (fl. 1) and two immediately behind, ap-
parently fused, giving rise to the next two pairs of flagella (fl.
2and 3). The pair of axostyles (ax.) extends backward from

80 American Fisheries Society.

this complex through the cytoplasm of the body and, because of
their great flexibility, appear generally twisted or crossed during”
the movements of the organism. The axostyles extend to the tail
and pass out of the body as the two posterior flagella (fl. 4)
through two elongated grooves (gr.). Two darkly staining
masses sometimes occur posterior to the nuclei on each side of the
axostyles and may be interpreted as the parabasals of various
allied forms of the Hexamitidae (14, 15, pb.). Their function is.
not clear.

Mode of Increase. Binary fission with a longitudinal split--
ting occurs abundantly and normally in both adult and juvenile
stages (2,9). The extremely mobile body becomes more nearly
oval in outline and considerably enlarged. On the completion
of mitosis—in which the nuclei are doubled—and the duplication
of the blepharoplast complex, the two bodies pull away from one
another from the anterior end posteriorly, each apparently be--
coming full fledged within the space of an hour.

Multiple fission is a common mode of increase in the encysted
organism and the changes thus far observed in this process are
suggestive of both a sexual and an asexual cycle in the life his-
tory. Encystment is frequent. The adult rounds up, decreases
slightly in size, becomes quiet and secretes a cyst wall, which is
thin and hyaline. During this process the nuclei increase im
number and the flagella are lost (3 and 4). Further multiplica-
tion of nuclei follows rapidly (5), the cyst becomes considerably
enlarged and finally breaks up into definite nucleated structures,
resembling eggs or macrogametes. Structures resembling
sperms or microgametes—minute, actively swimming bodies—
have also been observed within cyst walls.

It is certain that the life history is extremely complex as
regards the developmental phases of the cysts. From our present
knowledge of the organisms in this group of protozoa, it is im-
possible to distinguish definitely between cysts producing
gametes; i. e., copulation cysts, and those which may be desig-
nated as ordinary multiplication cysts which function in the
asexual cycle or schizogamy. With the progress that has been
made this season, however, the further interpretation of the life
cycle does not present insurmountable obstacles.

Artificial Culture. Young stages have been secured under
conditions of artificial culture and they indicate a free swimming,.

Moore—New Species of Parasite in Trout. 81

motile, juvenile phase, in which growth and rapid multiplication
by binary fission take place. By inoculating a highly alkaline
and dilute fish broth with the adult organism, the growth stages
shown in (8-12) were obtained. It is assumed that the adult
passed quickly into a cyst, possibly a multiplication cyst, and
this gave rise to numerous minute structures, resembling masses
of deeply staining, coccus-like bodies that soon developed into
the recognizable form of (8). The presence of a cytostome or
“mouth” is apparent in the young (10), but it is a feature which
is unrecognizable, if not lost altogether, in the adult stage. The
last step which appears to be possible under conditions of arti-
ficial culture is shown by (12). Without doubt further trans-
formation necessitates encystment within the intestinal and
caecal wall, as suggested by the recent unpublished researches
of Dr. H. S. Davis, * who simultaneously studied Octomitus dur-
ing the past summer. His observations indicate that develop-
mental stages also occur within the epithelial cells of the in-
testinal caeca and of the intestine. Such development apparently
carries the organism through to the adult stage (7). It is possi-
ble that the young flagellates, motile and very mobile, slip into
the soft epithelial tissue and there undergo final transformation.

Octomitus Salmonis a New Species. The organism in ques
tion is characterized by a binucleate, single celled structure with
eight flagella. On the basis of these characters it obviously be-
longs to the family Hexamitidae, which includes such related
genera as Hexamitus (13), Octomitus (14) and Giardia (15).

In determining the generic position of the new organism the
criteria of classification are on the whole less easily applicable.
The presence of a disk or cytostome is a structural feature to be
reckoned with. It is conspicuous in Giardia and sharply sets it
off from the other genera pictured. Schmidt (1920) argues that
a cytostome is suggested for Octomitus by the behavior of the
organism he described. His figures indicate a somewhat con-
tracted structure of this kind. In the culture forms of the new
organism (8-12) a cytostome is present, in the juveniles, but it
is not apparent in the adults, although their behavior in this
Stage agrees with Schmidt’s description of Octomitus, In Hex-
amitus no evidence of a cytostome has been adduced. By com-

"Loc. cit.

82 American Fisheries Society.

paring the new organism with the three representative genera
in their various aspects of shape, type of nuclei, relation of
axostyles and arrangement of flagella it seems clear that its
generic position is in Schmidt’s Octomitus.

The assignment of the organism to the genus Octomitus can
hardly be made, however, without noting the confusion that
exists in the use of the word. There has been a disposition to
replace the genus name Hexamitus, established by Dujardin
(1841) by the name Octomitus, on the ground that it expresses
more accurately the number of flagellar appendages and to set
off the free-living Hexamita from the parasitic forms (Prowazek,
1904, Dobell, 1909, Schmidt, 1920). An objection to this pro-
cedure has been raised with good reason by Swezy (1915).
Clarity in nomenclature is given, however, in another direction.
Moroff (1903) described an intestinal parasite of the rainbow
trout and gave it the name Urophagus intestinalis. From the
figures and descriptive matter the organism was doubtless
identical with Octomitus and clearly not Urophagus, a name
given to forms which ingested food particles through the hind
end of the body, an activity which Moroff admitted he never ob-
served. Alexeieff (1910) described similar parasites of marine
fishes and, accepting Moroff’s name, placed them in the genus

Urophagus. ‘They, aiso, judged by the figures and descriptions,

belong to the genus Octomitus. By reducing Urophagus in-
testimalis Moroft to a synonym of Octomitus intestinalis truttae
(Schmidt 1920) the intestinal parasites of the fish in so far as
they have been described for the Hexamitidae now find a place
in the genus Octomitus.

In assigning the name Octomstus intestinalis truttae to the
intestinal parasite in the rainbow and brown trout, Schmidt
(1920) has chosen to make it a subspecies of Octomitus intesti-
nalis found in the rat (Prowazek, 1904) and a synonym of Hex-
amitus imtestinalis Dujardin found in the frog. Certain differ-
ences between Schmidt’s species (14) and the one found in our
hatcheries (1) warrant classifying the American type as a dis-
tinct species. The European species shows relatively small
nuclei, a difference in the relation of the axostyles in both adult
and early cyst stages, and in the absence of grooves at the caudal
end where the axostyles proceed outward, as the posterior flagella.

Moore—New Species of Parasite in Trout. 83

Because of these differences the species name of salmonis is
proposed and our American form designated as Octomitus
salmonis.

Schmidt states that he found the organism (14) widespread
among the rainbow and brown trout fingerlings, in the lumen of
the intestine and in the gall bladder, yet he failed to observe a
pathological condition arising from their presence and concluded
that the organism was a harmless commensal. The nature of
the disease produced by the American species is different. Our
species causes serious lesions in the intestinal epithelium, terminat-
ing fatally in many cases.

The parasites considered above are widely distributed in
nature. Giardia is found in man, dogs, cats, rabbits, rats, mice
and frogs. No authentic record is as yet at hand of its occur-
rence in fish. Hexamitus is common in frogs, toads and other
batrachians and has been recorded for turtles and rats. Octomitus
is distinctively a parasite of fish, occurring in both marine and
fresh water forms.

REMEDIAL MEASURES.

With the isolation of the disease organism accomplished and
the facts in the life cycle fairly well known, it is possible to
consider preventive measures. Complete eradication of the
disease can hardly be expected since resistant cysts are certain
to be widely disseminated through one agency or another—by
flies or other insects and by floating bits of excrement carried
off in the current of the water. Nor is it to be expected that a
disease of this nature, in which the organism passes a part of its
life history within the walis of the intestirtal tract of the
fish, can be cured by administering drugs. Similar parasites
(Giardia, Plate II, 15) in man and in cats have not responded
successfully to treatment with carbon tetrachloride, * a chemi-
cal used with great success in the eradication of hookworm, nor
with other drugs, emetine, B-napthol, etc. (Wenyon, 1915) used
also experimentally in infections of Giardiasis. It would seem
that hope lies in the adoption of preventive measures which will
better control the disease and prevent epidemics.

Besides the adoption of better and more thorough sanitary

*From the unpublished researches of M. J. Hogue on the effects of
carbon tetrachloride in infections of Giardia in man and in cats,

84 American Fisheries Society.

measures, it seems highly probable that a greater variety in
kind of food will assist in combatting the disease. Such pro-
cedure is indicated by the examination of several 2-year and 3-
year-old brook trout which had been removed as fingerlings
from infected troughs at the Bath hatchery and placed in the
spring pond, where they secured only natural food. It was
found that the trout were still “carriers” of the organism, though
not in numbers evidently to interfere with the normal function-
ing of the intestinal tract. These examinations were made in the
summer and again at the time of the spawning function in the
fall and their appearance at both times was that of normal and
healthy fish.

Sanitary Measures to be Tried Out.* In order to check the
ravages of this and other diseases, it has been directed that all
the State hatcheries be given a thorough course of disinfection
this fall. The directions for this, which have been sent out,
are as follows:

Every trough, race or other receptacle in which fish have
been must be thoroughly sterilized. The ordinary tarring process
used in all our hatcheries should be sufficient for this if particu-
lar care is taken to cover every surface which has been touched
or will be touched by water with a complete layer of tar. There
must be no holes in this coating and all corners and inaccessible
spots must be thoroughly and carefully treated. This applies
to plugs, screens and trays as well as to troughs. All brooms,
brushes, feathers, cloths and similar implements used about the
hatchery should be collected and destroyed, preferably by burn-
ing. All pans, spoons and other metallic implements or utensils
must be thoroughly sterilized by washing with soap and hot
water, prolonged boiling and the use of such disinfectants as
chloride of lime. To be effective this sterilization must be
thorough and universal and the progress of the work must be so
conducted that at some moment of time after the shipping of the
last fish and before the arrival of the first eggs there will be in the
hatchery absolutely nothing which can carry the infection which
has not been thoroughly sterilized. This is of prime importance,
as one infected brush kept over through this period may reinfect

* Excerpt from: Diseases of fish in State Hatcheries, State of New York
Conservation Commission, Twelfth Annual Report for 1922, Legislative Doc.
No. 29, 1923, p. 66-79, 2pl. fig. 10-14.

Moore—New Species of Parasite in Trout. 85

the entire hatchery. In hatcheries where fish are kept through
the winter, it would be highly desirable, if possible, to make a
rigid separation between the younger and older fish, and, under
no circumstances, to permit any implement or utensil used in
connection with the older fish to be used or brought into the
building where the younger fish are to be raised or are kept.
For instance, at Cold Spring hatchery, nothing used in connec-
tion with the outside races should be permitted to be brought
into the hatchery building and the hatchery building should be
put through the course of sterilization above mentioned. There
is no doubt but that the adult fish at these hatcheries harbor the
disease, so that danger of reinfection of the rearing troughs must
always be present.

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY.

Because of its prevalence octomitiasis is unquestionably a
disease of considerable economic importance. The vested in-
terests in state, federal, private and commercial hatcheries de-
voted to trout rearing are extensive and their combined losses
enormous. The greater susceptibility of brook trout over other
species limits the output and jeopardizes the future culture of
this favorite game fish.

The study of this disease is still in its initial stages, the
work of a single season, and much remains to be done before a
definite mode of treatment can be prescribed. Further study is
essential on the morphology of the organism, on its mode of in-
crease, its transmission and the general or special conditions af-
fecting its pathogenicity.

Aside from the benefits to be derived from this study in the
field of fish culture, there are those which are directly applicable
to human problems in the field of comparative medicine. For
example, Octomitus in the fish and Giardia in man are closely
related protozoa. Both are octo-flagellates that parasitize their
hosts in the intestine with attendant symptoms of dysentery. It
has been noted that in case of infected fish Octomitus penetrates
the wall tissue of the intestine where it passes certain of its de-
velopmental stages, and that in cases of heavy infection such
parasitism is accompanied by a general disintegration or break-
down of tissue resulting in the fatal sickness. Observations of
this kind, as shown by Octomitus, should throw light on the

86 American Fisheries Society.

behavior of the similar organism, Giardia, but which from the
nature of the problem in the human host cannot be so readily
investigated.

' Other aspects of the study of parasitism in the fish of im-
portance in comparative medicine have to do with double or even
multiple infections. These, also, have been observed in the fish.
Octomitus is clearly associated with a species of Entamoeba,
similar to that occurring in man. Yeasts with branching habit
occur frequently and suggest, from their abundance, a possible
role in the progress or decline of octomitiasis.

A hatchery in which infection is severe affords unlimited
opportunity for research in this field of parasitology and, because
of its bearing on the human problem, offers a fertile field both
for study and experimentation.

SUMMARY.

Trout hatcheries suffer annual losses of fish from octom-
itiasis, a disease caused by a minute protozoan flagellate (Octo-
mitus salmonis Moore) parasitic in the intestine of the fish.

Lesions occurring internally in the intestinal wall and in
the caeca are occasioned by the penetration of the organism
into the wall tissue, where certain developmental stages take
place.

All species of trout are susceptible to the disease, though
the susceptibility of brook trout over other species is pronounced
and doubtless explains the inability to rear this species at some
of the older hatcheries.

Mortality decreases with increase in size, so that an epidemic
among the smaller fingerlings may result in heavy loss. The
survivors of the disease may become “carriers.”

Transmission of the disease probably occurs by cysts, highly
resistant structures, which pass to the exterior in the excrement
and become widely disseminated through various agencies, or
through lack of proper sanitary precautions. Although some-
what similar parasites occur in the frog, the observations incline
to the belief that each type is specific for its host.

Octomitus salmonis Moore is a binucleate, bilateral, parasitic
octo-flagellate, belonging in the order Polymastigina and in the
family Hexamitidae. The genus has been previously described for

ye
Oh.

Moore—New Species of Parasite in Trout. 87

the single European species,Octomitus intestinalis truttae, common
in the rainbow and brown trout.

The ordinary adult form or motile trophozoite is pyriform in
outline, broad at the anterior end and bluntly pointed at the tail.
Its length varies from 6 to 12 micra and its width from 3% to 5
micra. Its neuro-motor system resembles that of its close allies,
Hexamitus and Giardia; the two nuclei are anteriorly placed and
presumably connected with the six anterior flagella and with the
two axostyles, which sweep outward at the caudal end as the two
posterior flagella. Parabasals are not a constant feature. A cyto-
stome is not clearly marked in the adult form, though it is a distinct
feature of the juveniles.

By artificial culture methods motile juvenile forms have been
obtained, but development by artificial means has failed to show the
adult form. It is assumed that further development requires en-
cystment conditions presented by the wall layer of the intestine.

The mode of increase is by binary fission with a longitudinal
splitting and by multiple fission. In the latter case the multiplica-
tion of nuclei follows rapidly on encystment of the adult and struc-
tures are produced which strongly resemble micro and macroga-
metes.

Preventive measures should follow the lines of thorough sani-
tation. Internal medication is impracticable and hope lies in the
adoption of thorough sterilization methods, which should keep
the disease in check.

Octomitiasis is a disease of considerable economic importance
because of the limitations and restrictions it places on the output
of the trout hatcheries, representing large investment of capital in
state, federal, private and commercial hatcheries.

The study of the disease from the standpoint of comparative
medicine is suggestive of beneficial results in terms of human
economy.

REFERENCES.

ALEXEIEFF, A.
1910. Sur les flagelles intestinaux des poissons marins. Arch. Zool.
Exp. et Gen., 46, i-xx, 12 figs. in text.
Benson, W.
1908. Bau und Arten der Gattung Lamblia. Zeitschr. f. Hyg. u Infekt.,
61, 109-114, 6 figs. in text.

88 American Fisheries Society.

Desent, -C, °C.

1909. The intestinal Protozoa of frogs and toads. Quart. Jour. Micr.

Sci. 53, 201-266, pls. 2-5, 1 fig. in text.
DorLeIN, F., ;
1916, Lehrbuch der Protozoenkunde (ed. 4) (Jena. Fischer). xv +
1190 pp., 1198 figs. in text.
DuJAardiNn, F.
1841. Histoire Naturelle des Zoophytes; Infusoires. Paris.
Foster, W. T.

1921. Fish Pathology. In: Transactions of the American Fisheries

Society. Vol. 51, p. 107-9. 1921.
Hayrorp, C. O.

1921. Some Fish-cultural Notes, with Special Reference to Pathological
Problems. In: Transactions of the American Fisheries So-
ciety. Vol., 51, p. 97-99.

Kuss, G.
1892. Flagellatenstudien, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. Ly. pp. 265-353.
Kororp, C. A. and Swezy, O.

1922. Mitosis and Fission in the active and encysted phases of Giardia
enterica (Grassi) of man, with a discussion of the method of
origin of bilateral symmetry in the polymastigote flagellates.
Univ. of Calif. Publications in Zool., Vol. 20, No. 8, pp. 199—
234, plates 23-26, 11 figs. in text.

MarsH, M. C.

1901. The Brook Trout Disease. In: Transactions American Fisheries
Society, Vol., 30-32. 1901-03.

1902. A more complete description of Bacterium truttae. Bull U. S.
Bur. Fisheries, Vol., 22, p. 411-415, II pl. (1903).

Mororr, T.

1903. Beitrag zur Kenntniss einiger Flagellaten, Arch. Pirotistenk,

iii, p. 69.
ProwAzZEk, S. V.

1904. Untersuchungen uber einige parasitiche Flagellaten, Arb. kaiserl.

Gesundheitsamte, xxi, 1904.
ScHMIpDT, W.

1920. Untersuchungen uber Octomitus intestinalis truttae. Arch. f.

Protistenk, Bd. 40, S. 253-289, 2 Taf.
Swezy, O.

1915. Binary and Multiple Fission in Hexramitus. Univ. of Calif. Pub-

lications in Zool., Vol. 16, No. 6, pp. 71-88, plates 9-11.
Wenyon, C. M.

1915. The Common Intestinal Protozoa of Man (Their diagnosis and

pathogenicity). Lancet, Nov. 27, 1915, pp. 1173-1181, pl. 1.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

All figures, excepting Plates II-14-15, were outlined with a camera

:
|

Moore—-New Species of Parasite in Trout. 89

‘lucida from permanent preparations, under oil immersion 1.5, ocular 10-X.
‘Smears were made of the intestinal contents and treated by the wet Schau-
-dinn method or in Zenker’s fluid. Stain: iron-haematoxylin, or Delafield
-and eosin following Zenker’s fixative.

Abbreviations: nwc., nucleus; ff. 1, first flagellum; ff. 2, second flagellun.,
fi. 3, third flagellum; ff. 4, posterior flagellum; ax., axo-
styles; gr., groove; cyt., disk or cytostome; pb., parabasal
bodies.

PLate I.—Octomitus salmonis.

1. Typical adult, motile, individual showing six anterior and two posterior
flagella, nuclei, and axostyles. Found chiefly in the fore-intestine
when infection is most severe.

2. A stage in the longitudinal division of the adult form. This stage
and the preliminary ones leading to it were frequently observed
on smears of fresh material, and represent a common mode of mul-
tiplication.

3. A newly encysted adult Octomitus.

. A stage in encystment later than in 3,

5. A cyst at stage later than that in 4, showing multiplication of nuclei—

perhaps a phase in the sexual cycle.

‘6. Advanced stage of that shown in 5, showing formation of what are
perhaps the eggs.

7. An encysted form which has developed within the epithelical cells of

the intestine—perhaps a “Hexamitus stage.”

8. Young Octomitus. Early stage showing single flagellum and attach-
ment disk at bottom.

9. Longitudinal division of young form, a method of rapid increase of
individuals, Attachment disk shown at right of upper individual.

10. Side view of young form, a slightly older than that in 8, showing strong

resemblance to young Giardia. Attachment disk at bottom.

11. Further advancement of young form, showing two flagella.

12. Advanced young form with three flagella. The attachment disk has

disappeared and the prolongation at the bottom suggests the future
trailing flagella.

lad

PLaTe lI1—Heramitidae.
13. Hexamitus intestinalis Duj. Specimen from intestine of a frog.
14. Octomitus intestinalis truttae Schmidt. After Schmidt, W., 1920.

15. Giardia enterica Grassi. Human parasite. After Kofoid, C. A. and

Swezy, O., 1922.

16. Octomitus salmonis. Forms encysted in tips of epithelial cells sloughed
off intestinal tract. a, single individual; b, division of individual in
the encysted stage.

APPENDIX.

The data in the tables of Dissolved Oxygen Determinations
and Chemical Analysis are appended by courtesy of the Commis-

American Fisheries Society.

PLATE I. ~

OCTOMITUS SALMONIS.

MILLIMETERS.

Moore—New Spectes of Parasite in Trout. 91

PLATE II.

HEXAMITIDA5.

92 American Fisheries Society.

sion’s staff; Mr. Herbert Ant, chemist; Mr. Summer Cowden, field ©
superintendent; Mr, Henry Davidson, hatchery superintendent, and —
Mr. Russell Suter, senior assistant engineer.

Attention is called to the very low oxygen content at the Bath
Hatchery; to sample 18 indicating that the critical point was ap-
proached when the oxygen supply was about one part per million
(10 per cent saturation) at 9° C.; and to sample 19 showing the cor-
relation between low oxygen and high CO? when death occurs.
These samples were taken primarily to determine the minimum
oxygen requirements of fish.

‘pasn 4OU ¢ ‘ON 90INOS ‘[][aM JaYyJOUR ‘fH ‘ON PUL ¢ ‘ON S9OINOS ‘s[[aM BUIMOY OM} PUL ‘7 ‘ON BOINOS WIOIJ Ajddns jeuorzippe ‘aung
Wapoos ul Asay} LY OF PatssvO JO AJOYO}eY 0} BoUdY} pue 107298 03 podid st Jozem ‘ssutids ossv] wos pay st [ood Ajddns jedrourid ayy,

700 %Z1 ‘Usy peep jo soquinu y | ¢ AeW 6 8b 9 Bra gt PTW So 2E Poe SopNUTU BZ J997e LT “ON SB UTES 61
Aseoun Yshy ¢ Ae 6 101 Giitiiese (ety ren beer e rae Ser 1 hs ya
FI HO ynyYs usoq sey YsnoJ} Jo pray 4e
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2 Z Key C*eT Z°0Z CEC specu re teem a10ys vou Z ‘ON 90inog 9
a Zz Ae S'6 FOr 07 'I ope) Bh eis! ob) clraity) dtdhel erate dents ie 6. .6'ce, (el Nereis ¢ ‘ON TM S
=, ie Ae a i | 8°61 OLZ aye) wea) ee a ear Whale Wiis) Musina Ue 8. a. seis. pm On wunems Ioyeloy 57
| Z Ae 6 pce CY rereeee sss NOAIOSAI UTeUL UT BuTIds osIe] ¢
a Zz APW OT 9°9 ee ties OES fans ate MO[JIOAO 4V ITOAIOSOI ULE T/T ra
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S
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-sodway | yweoleg Poaossiq, Jaquin N

| ne oe ere ee ee
SNOILVNIAADLAG NADAXO AAATOSSIC,

"i:

94 American Fisheries Society.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.
Parts per million.

2 1 tae er a Rees eases on 4 Seria TEL A 1 vegetable
Sepa ee ee ee trace
op TQS: 5 ee la ei es am ee man See 8 eB es clear
Witrogen as free aumonias 222-25 .028
Nitrogen as albuminoid ammonia--------------------- .016
Witrogen: as nitrate... = 4 trace
MUitbO ped 25 *fTabese So 1.40
Ossyiren cconsutien =e. 2 0.10
Roiloririet See 2 ee ee 7.00
Pork tardness- soap ametmod st 190.00
PU eT ss RS EE Se er eee eee Dee eC 160.00
Total solids in-solution= =.=. —-=— +22 Sc ee 224.00
Discussion.

Mr. C. O. Hayrorp, Hackettstown, N. J.: This paper of Dr. Moore’s
is exceedingly interesting to me. I have often encountered the same trouble,
as the fish from every appearance had the same symptoms as described by
Dr. Moore. I lost this year, in a single night, from one pond, 1,700 brook
trout fingerlings. My scientific assistant, Mr. Foster, has made some progress
in investigations, but we have not the means and experience of getting at
this subject that Dr. Moore has. It may be interesting to know that when
we take the artificial food entirely away from affected fish and give them
their natural food, the mortality greatly diminishes. Our trouble generally
comes when the black birds make their first appearance. At first we were
inclined to believe they might be carriers of the trouble. Examinations of
cultures from the excrement, blood, etc., have been of no value thus far
We also found, as Dr. Moore stated, that the greatest mortality is among
the brook trout. We have very little trouble with the rainbows, and this
is the first year the brown trout contracted it to any extent. One interest-
ing point about the brown trout is that a little brown spot appears on top of
the head just back of the eyes. Soon after this spot becomes visible the
fish generally starts a spiral whirl along the sides of the ponds and is finally
carried against the overflow screen. We have a great many springs boiling
out of the ground that supply our hatchery. These springs vary in oxygen
from two and one-half to eleven parts per million. Carbon dioxide zero
to fourteen parts per million. Three years ago ponds carrying the highest
percentage of carbon dioxide gave us the most trouble. This year they gave
us the least. Therefore we can not at present attribute it to the carbon
dioxide.

Mr. W. T. Foster, Easton, Pa.: I should like to ask Dr. Moore if
she occasionally found some of the infected trout turning a darker color,
with the gills light instead of reddish?

Dr. Moore: Yes, I believe I can say that. I thought that might be
attributable, however, to variation in the natural coloration; but I have

Moore—New Species of Parasite in Trout. 95

noticed that some of the badly afflicted fish are quite black—notably the
smaller ones.

Mr. Foster: It is suggested to me that possibly the liver may be re-
sponsible. I have been told by authorities on the feed of animals in zoological
gardens that the feeding of liver to those animals produced conditions quite
similar to those that Dr. Moore has described.

Dr. Moore: The fact that this disease becomes pronounced when they
are about six weeks old, shortly after artificial feeding commences, leads
me to suspect that the trouble may be aggravated by the kind of food given,
but this is the first season I have had them under observation. We have
secured many leads on which to work in following years, and that phase
of the problem should certainly be studied.

Mr. J. W. Tircoms, Hartford, Conn.: We apparently had a disease of
that description at a rearing plant where we were taking fish from two
different hatcheries; and we attributed it to one of those hatcheries. First
we thought it might be blamed on the brushes, so we had them sterilized.
Whenever we found a fish boring we let it go into the stream below, and
although the water was largely from this same rearing plant, the fish
seemed to recover. In fact, we had quite a large school both above and
below the rearing plant that thrived splendidly in the natural stream.

Dr, Moore: In a similar situation I found a trout about 7%4 inches
long carrying the organism. The chances are that it had eaten an infected
fish that had been discarded.

Mr. Titcoms: Do you think there would be danger of spreading the
disease by planting trout from a trough in which the disease you have de-
scribed had been discovered?

Dr. Moore: From the standpoint of our knowledge of hygiene and
Sanitation, the best plan to follow, it would seem, would be quarantine;
that is quite contrary to our practice.

Mr. G. C, Leacu, Washington, D. C.: Do you think the disease may be
attributable to unsanitary conditions in feeding?

Dr. Moore: Not to unsanitary conditions, because at this hatchery where
the epidemic has occurred annually the sanitary conditions are excellent.

Mr. LeacH: You spoke of the appearance of the disease about six
weeks after the fish had hatched. I would think it possible that the fish
were fed a little too soon, causing a form of indigestion.

Dr. Moore: That is possible. They were hatched in February and the
disease became apparent the first of April.

Mr. Leach: That would be about right, then; feeding would be started
at about four weeks of age, or possibly a little earlier. At the Manchester,
Iowa, station they apparently had that disease three years ago; and they
have been starting their fish on beef heart and later on feeding them sheep
liver. I am told that last year they had absolutely no trouble.

Dr. Moore: That is quite remarkable; because at one of our hatcheries
where they feed along similar lines the disease is present, though not in
epidemic form.

Mr. Leacu: I was wondering if the melting snow would have anything

96 American Fisheries Society.

to do with the water becoming infected. At Manchester we get very little:
surface water, if any, in the spring; but it might be surface water that.

seeps down through the soil and eventually enters the spring and flows out.

Dr. Moore: There is some seepage or ground water entering the spring.

at this hatchery.
Mr. LeacH: That condition may have been different at Manchestes

this last year, and it might explain why they did not have any loss when.

in the previous two years there was a loss.

Mr. Titcoms: I had something to do with this hatchery for a number

of years. Undoubtedly they have had this same trouble for a great many
years, varying of course in severity; some years the loss would be very
much larger than others. This flume that Dr. Moore refers to was put in
because I had a great prejudice against carrying water underground to
hatcheries; I will never put a pipe underground when I can conduct the
water on the surface. The idea of the flume is to get the water into the
air and thus secure more oxygen. In the two seasons after that flume was
introduced we had very remarkable results in the production of fingerling
trout at this hatchery.

Mr. HayForp: I might add one thing more in regard to the question

Mr. Leach has asked. With us, it varies from the time the fish have been.

feeding from two to eight weeks. We have very little trouble after the
middie of June. Generally we have been able to control the epidemic by
changing the water and food supply. Our experience at Hackettstown has
taught us that the fresher our food supply the better success we have.
In the past we have fed a great deal of frozen butterfish. This year we
have fed very little of it, depending largely on sheep plucks and beef livers
with a liberal amount of natural insect food given at least once a week to
the brown and brook trout; the result has been beyond expectations.

Mr. LeacH: I think Mr. Hayford’s point is a good one—that the food

of the fish probably has much to do with it. I think that overcrowding

also has its effect. What size hatching trough do you use, Mr. Hayford?
Mr. Hayrorp: We have all sizes, but prefer those 12 feet long, 15
inches wide and 9 inches deep, in buildings, and as many larger ones as we
have room to raise fish up to 8 to 10 inches long. The New Jersey Com-
mission does not believe in planting fish under two inches. We could hatch
20,000,000, but as we do not plant fry we only hatch four to six million.
We put the fish into ponds at all sizes, from fry to two and one-half inches.
In one pond there will be 10,000 fish without any trouble; in another, with

the same water and the same conditions generally,. we will have all kinds of

trouble. We are much interested in this food question. Where we get
perfectly fresh sheep plucks, of light color, which every practical fish
culturist recognizes as an indication of their fitness, we have no trouble.

Mr. LeacH: You think the trouble is brought about more by the food’

than by overcrowding?

Mr. Hayrorp: After running them in different numbers from 1,006
up to 10,000, and often having more trouble with the 1,000 than with the
10,000, I am satisfied that overcrowding has very little to do with it. I made

Moore—New Species of Parasite in Trout. 97

a great many tests with different members. We have kept pretty close watch
on them as far as the food is concerned. Our main idea is that we can
have a certain number of fish up to a certain size as long as they all get
sufficient quantities of food. If a practical feeder will take plenty of time
in feeding there should be a minimum of trouble.

Mr. TitcomsB: I just want to give one theory on this whole subject of
fish diseases where we raise fish intensively. We know that if we do not
take care of ourselves and we happen to be carrying some bacteria in our
bodies, we may yield in our weakened condition and become ill. Extend
this condition and you have an epidemic like the influenza. With the trout
there may be a number of factors contributing to the presence of disease.
It may be a lack of oxygen, or something in the food. Anyway, the fish
become weakened and they yield to the bacteria or rather protozoa in their
bodies.

A NEW AND PRACTICAL DEVICE FOR TRANSPORT-
ING LIVE FISH.

By Epcar C. FEARNoW
Superintendent of Fish Distribution, Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

The process of evolution in fish distribution has, in the past,
been very siow indeed. In the earlier days the Bureau’s distribu-
tion cars carried hatching equipment, and everything was designed
on a large scale—large boilers, air pumps large enough for several
thousand cans, large tanks for carrying an extra supply of water,
and other equipment in proportion, and few changes have been
made. The 10-gallon milk can selected for use, and still em-
ployed to a great extent, weighs 2214 pounds without the lid,
the weight being sufficient to crush the rim and neck if an empty
can be dropped in an inverted position from a baggage car to
the platform.

Prior to the late war the Bureau’s distribution cars were moved
at an average cost of about 14 cents per mile, as in many instances
free transportation was secured. During the war the rate was in-
creased on Federal-controlled roads to ten full fares and the cost
mounted to 36 cents per mile on interstate shipments. This in-
crease of approximately 150 per cent, still operative, has been most
serious, since the allotment of funds for distribution purposes has
remained practically the same for a number of years notwithstand-
ing an enormous increase in the number of applications received
annually. The necessity of economical and practical means for
transporting live fish, although recognized some time ago by the
Bureau, was most strongly emphasized by these circumstances.
Moreover, it was realized that if the transportation problem could
be solved there would be corresponding benefits in other phases
of fish-cultural work. In order to meet the difficulties presented
the writer caused to be conducted a number of experiments in
carrying fish with a view to finding a practical method of filling
the applications filed with the Bureau with the limited funds
available for that purpose.

The shipment of live fish is attended by many difficulties and
great expense. The water in which the fish are carried must be
maintained within a few degrees of a certain temperature and must
be aerated to replace the oxygen which is rapidly lost and which

Fearnow.—Transporting Live Fish. 99

is necessary to the life of the fish. Experiments in connection with the
use of the evaporation jacket described in an article entitled “A New
Method of Carrying Live Fish,” and published in the Transactions
of the American Fisheries Society in 1921, convinced the writer
that the large amount of water used in transporting fish could be
materially reduced.

After numerous experiments it was found that with means
for controlling the temperature, fish could be carried as satisfac-
torily in eight or ten inches of water, the ordinary milk can being
used, as in sixteen inches of water. These experiments were con-
ducted on two of the cars and extended over a period of several
months. One of the car captains used an ordinary garbage can
13 inches high and 12%4 inches in diameter, carrying as many fish
therein as were handled in the regulation can. Another captain
carried fish from Marquette, Iowa, to New Mexico, in 8 and 10
inches of water.

INCEPTION OF IDEA.

Practically every individual who has been connected with the
distribution of live fish has observed one or two trout or bass in-
advertently left in the bottom of a fish can in a very small amount
of water. Fish in such condition have been known to survive for
a number of days without attention provided no sudden change of
temperature occurred. It has also been noted that fish in land-
locked ponds and pools along streams survive months in a very
crowded condition when a large surface of the water is exposed
to the air. The 10-gallon can now in use carries a depth of sixteen
inches of water, and when the fish are poured from one of these
cans into a tub or lard can where the water is shallow they seem
to do much better. In fact, it not infrequently occurs that a 10-
gallon can of fish is poured into a shallow fifty-pound lard can and
shipment made a considerable distance with good results.

Certain species most difficult to transport successfully, such as
trout, habitually seek the bottom of the container where the water
is less affected by the absorption of the oxygen of the air. Since
a considerable body of water is less affected by change of the atmos-
pheric temperature and does not become polluted as quickly as a
smaller volume, it has been customary to fill the containers com-
paratively full, notwithstanding the desirability of carrying fish
near the surface of the water.

100 American Fisheries Society.

With the idea of devising a practical means for carrying fish
in a small volume of water the writer conducted the following
experiments :

(a) During the month of November, 1921, 300 3!4-inch black bass were
delivered to the Bureau in four 10-gallon cans by one of its distribution
cars. These fish were held in an aquarium several days, and on November
21, 1921, 75 of them were placed in a lard can containing 8 inches of water
and held from 10:30 a. m. until 3:00 p. m., without aeration. The air and
water temperatures at the beginning of the experiment were 56° and 50°,
respectively; at the end of the experiment 58° and 50°, respectively. At the
same time 75 fish were placed in a standard 10-gallon can in 14 inches of
water and held for the same length of time. At the end of the experiment.
fish in both cans showed signs of needing aeration. No loss whatever
Occurred in connection with the experiment.

(b) At 1:15 p. m., the same day, 25 3%-inch bass werg placed in a
standard 10-gallon can containing 1% pints of water, air temperature 58°
and water 50°. These fish were held until 4:15 p. m., when the experiment
was discontinued with no loss of fish.

(c) On November 22, 1921, at 9 a. m., 50 fingerling 3%4-inch black
bass were placed in a lard can in 1 quart of water; water temperature
50° and air 54°, and held until 1:00 p. m. The temperature of the air at
the end of the experiment was 63° and water 58°. These fish by being held
in shallow water provided their own aeration. Their dorsal fins were
slightly out of the water and when they became restless their motion fur-
nished the required aeration. Twenty-five fish of the same size were placed
in a 10-gallon can in the same amount of water with similar results. At
1:00 p. m., the fish in the two cans, 75 in number, were placed in one can
in 1 quart of water. In order to maintain an even temperature a moistened
jacket was placed over the can and the 75 fish held therein until 2:00 p. m.,
when the experiment was discontinued and the fish delivered to an applicant.
The air and water temperatures in the beginning were 63° and 50° re-
spectively, and remained practically the same during the hour the 75 fish
were in the can.

It became apparent that fish could be held in a very small
volume of water, provided means could be found for controlling
the water temperature and removing the pollution. While the
swimming efforts of fish can be utilized to provide aeration, it
would not be possible to handle them in shipments over rough roads
in so small a volume of water. To permit this to be done, an
aerating pan was designed which would hold the fish near the sur-
face of the water with the object of overcoming difficulties here-
tofore experienced and making it possible to ship live fish for quite
a distance, with substantially no attention, suitable water tempera-

iure and aeration being automatically provided.

Fearnow.—Transporting Live Fish. 101

A rough model of this device was constructed on December
19, 1921. On that date 20 6-inch albino brook trout were placed
in the aerating pan which was submerged one inch in seven inches
of water, the outside container being provided with an absorbent
jacket. The experiment was begun at 9:00 a. m., with water tem-
perature 40° and air 50° F. The can was held indoors without

aeration until 4:30 p. m., when the temperature of the water had

gone up to 43° with the air 50°. As the fish were in excellent con-
dition at that time they were placed in an automobile and taken to
the writer’s home, 7% miles in the country, and held over night
without attention. The consignment was returned to the Bureau
and placed in the aquarium at 9:30 a. m., on December 20.

The appliance was delivered to one of the distribution em-
ployes and taken to White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia, for the
purpose of shipping adult trout to the Washington aquarium. On
January 5, 1922, the can containing five adult brook trout in ex-
cellent condition arrived at Washington at 5:00 p. m., the ship-
ment having left White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia, at 8:30
a. m., the same day.

DESCRIPTION OF DEVICE.

Broadly stated the device is a container having a supplementai
compartment, the container to hold a body of water in which the
supplemental compartment is partly immersed. This compartment
is provided with means through which water from the main body
may circulate and be aerated. The purpose of the device is to
carry adults and fingerling fish in the shallow inner compartment
where the water is purest and to utilize their activity for the
aeration of the water. Means are also provided for controlling
the temperature of the water. The receptacle may be used without
the compartment for carrying fry, as in this case the problem
of aeration is insignificant. :

The container consists of an outside receptacle with a series
of perforations or vents somewhat below the upper edge for the
purpose of admitting air into the interior in case something is
placed on top of it. The compartment fits into the outer receptacle
and is held in place by flanged edges which rest upon the shoulder
of the outer receptacle. The bottom of the lower tray has a number
of small apertures, and its sides taper from top to bottom more
rapidly than the sides of the outside receptacle, thus providing an

102 American Fisheries Society.

air space or splash chamber between the sides of the bottom tray
and the outside receptacle. The bottom of the upper tray is also
perforated with a series of small apertures, and has a large central
opening to permit inspection of the interior.

“if “YAror ABSORBENT MATERIAL \
STITCHED ONINSIDE OF JACKET

—_<--

PLAY YOR OVER SAIC

“spur orsiT orem Bat

PLAN OF BOTTOM TRAY.

i=]

TA RNa TOFLOAT TRAY
a

TRAY USED AS LIVE CAR
Fig. 1—Jacketed can for transporting live fish.

In use the receptacle is partially filled with water of a pre-
determined temperature until the depth in the bottom tray is suffi-
cient to submerge the fish. An absorbent jacket is then drawn over

ed |

Fearnow.—Transporting Live Fish. 103

the container and its inside flap folded in and down over the edge
of the outside receptacle. The upper tray is placed within the re-
ceptacle and the inner flap of the absorbent jacket is thus held
in position between the outer receptacle and the upper tray, the
width of the flap being sufficient to permit it to extend below the
bottom of the upper tray. The jacket is then moistened and is
maintained in that state by the wick-like action of the flap. The
evaporation of moisture in the jacket absorbs the atmospheric heat,
thus keeping the water sufficiently cool for warm water fishes.

AERATION.—HOW ACCOMPLISHED.

The automatic aeration is accomplished in the following man-
ner: The fish in the bottom tray are compelled to remain near the
surface of the water, where the greatest amount of oxygen is
present When the container is in motion its swaying and jolting
will cause the water in the outer receptacle to move from side to
side. Since water presses equally in all directions, and the body
of water in the lower part of the outer receptacle entirely fills the
space between its bottom and sides and the bottom of the lower
tray, this body of water can move only by virtue of the air space
of the splash chamber between the sides of the outer receptacle and
lower tray. The result is that a portion of the water will be forced
up into the air space with considerable violence by
the mass movement of water in the lower part of the outer recep-
tacle, and will pass in small jets from the space into the lower tray,
not only through the perforations in its sides, which are below the
normal surface of the water, but also through the perforations
which are above the surface of the water, falling therefrom through
the air into the lower tray and becoming aerated by its passage
through the air.

The amount of water thus forced into the lower tray will,
because of the pressure to which it is subjected, be somewhat
greater than the quantity that will flow out by its own weight
through the limited number of perforations below the surface,
with the result that the water level in the lower tray will be raised
until a point is reached where the perforations submerged by the
water within the lower tray are sufficient to compensate for this
forced injection. In this way a higher level of water is maintained
and it affords the fish greater freedom of action while the vessel is
in motion.

104 American Fisheries Society.

This method of aeration permits the carrying of fish in very
shallow water in a comparatively quiet state, since the water in the
fish compartment is not disturbed by violent waves having behind
them the inertia of the entire volume of water in the vessel. The
artificial water level produced by agitation, either manually or by
the motion of the vehicle, creates a gentle current through the
bottom apertures of the tray which carries all excrement to the
bottom of the outside receptacle, where it remains on account of
the comparative stillness of the water at that point.

When the container is stationary the water within the lower
tray returns to its normal level, to be determined by the character
of the fish to be shipped. When shipping large fish as distinguished
from fry the water should be of sufficient depth to permit the fish
to swim about with their dorsal fins slightly exposed.

When the supply of oxygen in the water becomes depleted the
fish begin to feel discomfort, which manifests itself in increased
activity and results in the splashing of the water because of its
extreme shallowness.

The functions of the upper tray are as follows:

1. To act as a cover and baffle plate whenever the motion is sufficient
to cause the water to splash against it. The perforations are of such dimen-
sions that the water cannot pass through in sufficient volume to slop over
but will percolate back into the tray, becoming aerated by the process.

2. The upper tray also serves as a receptacle for carrying ice when cold
water fishes are handled during the warm summer months. The perforations
permit the ice water to drip into the bottom tray, carrying with it a large
supply of oxygen. Under such conditions the outer flap of the absorbent
jacket is drawn over the ice and retained in position by a drawstring.

SIPHON.

The object of the siphon is primarily to remove sediment and
pollution from the pail and secondarily to provide means for main-
taining the water level at a substantially fixed point, and inci-
dentally to moisten the canvas jacket. These results are accom-
plished by combining with the pail a siphon so arranged that
by tilting the pail, or by addition of water to the container,
by the melting of ice or otherwise, the siphon may be submerged ©
and caused to operate to remove sediment and polluting matter and
to reduce the water level to a predetermined quantity.

The siphon may be caused to function regardless of the water
level, whenever it is desired to remove polluting matter, by simply

Fearnow.—Transporting Live Fish. 105

tilting the container until the siphon is completely submerged and
tilting it back again when the desired result has been accomplished.
This arrangement also makes it impossible for the container to be
filled too full.

124"
Fig. 2. Cross section showing Fig. 3. Cross section showing
automatic siphon. water circulating through tray.

It should be obvious to anyone that it is desirable to carry fish
under the most sanitary conditions possible. While messengers
have instructions to carry siphons and remove pollution from cans
when necessary, such instructions cannot always be carried out.
The cans are often so arranged that it is difficult to use the siphon,
as for example, on the fish cars where the compartments are lower
than the aisle of the car and the cans are close together. The rub-
ber tube siphon sometimes employed is obsolete in that its use is
impracticable in most instances, and besides it is insanitary since
it is usually started by suction applied by the mouth.

The automatic siphon permits the removing of sediment and
a complete change of water in the minimum amount of time, which
is quite important when close train connections are to be made.

- With this device in use on the distribution cars it will be possible
for one man to change water on a full carload of fish while at
a junction point.

PRACTICAL RESULTS ACCOMPLISHED.

The jacketed lard can, the forerunner of the self-aerating pail,
was used by practically all the southern stations and on the dis-
tribution cars in shipping warm-water fishes last year. The ship-

ars

106 American Fisheries Society.

ment of trout from White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia, to
Washington, D. C., previously referred to, was in an improvised
pail of the new type. It was during the spring of 1922 that the
Bureau arranged with the Naval Gun Factory for the manufacture
of 65 pails embodying the ideas set forth in this paper. These
pails were made by hand and delivered to the Bureau in small
lots from time to time. Several of the Bureau’s cars have used
them, carrying five in the space occupied by three of the regulation.
cans, with very satisfactory results.

The following are typical examples of shipments of fish made
with this device:

1. To meet an urgent call for adult rainbow trout two of the pails.
were sent to White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia, with instructions that
12 adult fish be forwarded to Washington, D. C., without an attendant.
The consignment reached Washington on the morning of March 20th, having
becn shipped the previous evening. The fish were brought to Central station
about 8:00 a. m., where they remained without attention until 11:00 a. m.
when they were conveyed to the Zoological Park and held until 3:00 p. m.
Each can contained 6 rainbow trout, the fish being 11 inches in length,

An item in the Fisheries Service Bulletin of May, 1922, con-
tained the folloing report of a shipment made by the Bureau:

2. “On April 8th a shipment of adult black bass for breeding purposes:
was forwarded from Washington, D. C., to Edenton, North Carolina. The
fish, 60 in number, averaging about 2 pounds each, were carried in 8 of
the regulation 10-gallon cans, each containing about 8 gallons of water,
5 fish per can; one 20-gallon can with 10 fish; and two of the new type
of vessel with 4 gallons of water and 5 fish per can. A dipper was used
at intervals to aerate the water in the old type vessels. No special at-
tention was given the fish in the new type except to lift the tray during a
delay at the transfer point. A satisfactorily uniform temperature was main-
tained in these pails throughout the 13-hour trip and the fish were delivered
m good condition. Three fish were lost in the regulation cans.”

3. To fill an application for fish of the Potomac Anglers Club, 1,400
*4-inch rainbow trout were shipped by express from White Sulphur Springs
West Virginia, to Washington, D. C., the consignment being contained iF
‘wo pails. The shipment left White Sulphur Springs on the evening of
April 14th and reached Washington at 8:30 a. m. the next day. The fol-
‘owing letter dated April 18, 1922, on the subject was received from Mr.
P, E. McKinney, chairman of the organization’s committee on fish stocking:

“With reference to the test conducted by the writer on the handling of
brook trout in the new type of Fearnow self-aerating fish pails, a shipment
of brook trout, consisting of two pails containing approximately 700 fish
each was received by the writer at Union Station on April 15th, about 8:30

Fearnow.—Transporting Live Fish. 107

a.m. One of these pails contained fish which had been fed within 48 hours
of shipment, whereas the other contained fish which had been fed within 24
hours of shipment in order to determine the comparative efficiency of fish
shipment under the two conditions.

“Some delay was experienced in getting the fish to the stream, on account
of tire trouble with the automobile used to transport them, and second, on
account of extremely bad road conditions in Virginia, the fish having bee»
en route for over two hours. About 11 o’clock the fish were distributed in
several localities, being placed in meadow stream feeders to the main creek.

“Both lots of fish were in fine shape when placed in the stream, the
total of dead or injured fish in the shipment being less than 3 per cemt,
which would compare very favorably with any shipment of fish which the
writer has previously handled in the old type of containers. The condition
of the fish which had been fed 48 hours previous to shipment was decidedly
better than those which had been fed 24 hours previous to shipment, the
percentage of dead and injured fish in this lot having been practically nothing.

“The new type of fish pail is considerably easier to transport and is
not subject to splashing and slopping water when transported over rough
roads and requires no attention by aerating, as is necessary with the old
type of containers.”

4. Fifty 4-inch rainbow trout produced at Manchester, Iowa, were placed
on Fisheries Car No. 8 at 3:00 p. m., on April 17, 1922, temperature 45°,
and were poured into one of the special fish pails, the depth of the water
in the tray being 114 inches. At Drummond, Wisconsin, at 3:05 p. m., on
April 18, the fish were delivered to an applicant in good condition. These
fish had been held in the compartment for quite awhile without specia?
aeration.

5. Five hundred 1%-inch brook trout produced at Manchester, Iowa,
and delivered to Fisheries Car No. 8 at 4:00 p. m., on April 17, 1922, tem-
perature 45°, were placed in a pail. These fish being small enough to pass
through the perforations of the tray, it was decided to carry them in the
outer receptacle. The car arrived at Ashland, Wisconsin, at 4:25 p. m., on
April 18, where the fish were delivered to an applicant in good condition.

6. Thirty thousand whitefish fry were delivered to Fisheries Car No. 8
at Duluth, Minnesota, at 4:00 p. m. May 9, and poured into a pail not
equipped with the fish tray, the tray not being intended for use with small
fish. No ice was used during the trip. The temperature of the fish com-
partment of the car dropped from 42° to 38°. These fish were planted
off Portage Entry near Chassell, Michigan, in good condition, having been
in the pail 16 hours without special aeration.

7. Five thousand lake trout fry produced at Duluth, Minnesota, were
placed in one of the fish pails on Fisheries Car No. 8, at 3:00 p. m., on May
16. The temperature in the fish compartment was gradually reduced from
45° to 40° during the trip. These 5,000 lake trout fry were in the pail 21
hours and were planted in Lake Superior at Munising, Michigan, at noon
May 17, in good condition. The captain of the car makes the following
statement with reference to this shipment:

108 American Fisheries Society.

“These fish had never been fed and because of its flat bottom the special
pail carries such fish better than the regulation can. Vessels having flat
bottoms are better for holding the fry of salmon, Loch Leven trout and
other very small fish that are inclined to huddle on the bottoms of hatchery
troughs and transportation equipment.”

8. One thousand 1-inch brook trout produced at the Duluth hatchery
were placed in a pail at 7:00 a. m., June 6. The train left Duluth at 8:00
a. m. With the exception of pouring the fish into the pail there was no
aeration other than that furnished by the motion of the train until the fish
were delivered to an applicant at 1:30 a. m., in good condition. The follow-
ing is an exact from a letter received from one of the captains who tested
these pails on his car:

“The ice tray of the pail is very desirable as it allows the aerating hose
to go through the central opening, enables observation of the fish and has
a tendency to keep the fish from jumping when the compartment cover is
lifted, admitting bright light unexpectedly to the upper tier.

“The upper and lower tier means that one can is placed upon another
thus carrying 6 lots of fish in the same space where 3 lots are now carried
on the car in the fish compartment. This will double the capacity of the
present cars.”

9. The following has reference to a shipment of 4,000 brook trout No. 2
fingerlings produced at the Manchester, Iowa, station and shipped from
Rhinelander, Wisconsin, to Pembine, Wisconsin, on May 26th. The fish were
placed in 5 pails of the new type. The consignment left Rhinelander without
an attendant at 5:00 a. m., due to arrive at Pembine at 11:45 a. m. The
following is a communication received from Mr. E. G. Sauld, Secretary of
the Pembine Gun Club, in regard to this shipment:

“The fish arrived on schedule time and were in good condition. We
spent the balance of the afternoon in putting them in the small stream.”

10. The following extract from the Fisheries Service Bulletin of July,
1922, reflects the attitude of the Bureau with reference to the pail as a
means for carrying fish on cars:

“A further experiment in the use of the new type of fish transportation
can, mentioned in previous issues of the Bulletin, tends to further demon-
strate its value in effecting greater economy in the. Bureau’s distribution
work, It has been demonstrated that by substituting the new type of can the
carrying capacity of the distribution cars may be increased approximately
66 2-3 per cent with the present arrangement of space. Since this can suc
cessfully carries the same number of fish with practically one-half the amount
of water, the weight of the load of the car is not increased and no extra
work to the attendant is entailed. A sufficient number of cans to equip
one of the Bureau’s cars are now being made for the Bureau at the Naval
Gun Factory, Washington, D. C., Navy Yard. Should the further use of the
cans continue to produce as satisfactory results as have thus far been ex
perienced, it will be possible with slight alterations to the interior arrange-
ment of the fish compartments to double the carrying capacity of the
transportation cars.”

Fearnow.—Transporting Live Fish. 109

COMMERCIAL VALUE.

From the experiments conducted it is believed that the device
can be used for shipping fish to market alive. Automatic aeration
seems to work admirably in connection with large fish, especially
trout and bass. As the experiments have been conducted along
conservative lines, the maximum capacity of the pail for adult
fishes has not been demonstrated. On the Edenton, North Caro-
lina, shipment previously mentioned, ten pounds of bass were car-
ried in 4 gallons of water. The writer does not question the possi-
bility of shipping live trout from western Pennsylvania to Phila-
delphia, Washington and New York in pails of this type. The
devicé is not limited as to size or shape and the underlying prin-
ciples may be applied to large tanks or cars as readily as to smaller
vessels, /

The goldfish shipper will find the pail of especial value in
marketing his product. The American Railway Express Company
is interested in a suitable container for shipping goldfish, as the
company is held responsible for the numerous losses of fish for-
warded by express in the various types of cans. Since the express
company is willing to ice fish and add water from time to time,
there seems to be no reason why goldfish could not be shipped
safely great distances with the minnow-bucket type of pail contain-
ing the evaporation jacket and automatic siphon.

That fish can be shipped considerable distances without an
attendant has been fully demonstrated. Of the hundreds of ship-
ments forwarded by express and baggage last year no instance is
recorded where delivery was not as satisfactorily made as if the
fish had been accompanied by an attendant.

MINNOW BUCKET TYPE.

This type of bucket is made with an air space at the top of
the tray so shaped that it will facilitate pouring the fish from
the tray, the cover being provided with a hinged lid. This device
"may be secured to a boat or other convenient object by means of
a cord attached to a ring. Furthermore, it may be placed within
the outer receptacle and will then perform the functions of the
bottom tray heretofore described in addition to its function as a
floating pail.

There is a demand on the part of anglers for a minnow or bait
bucket that will hold an ample supply of bait for a week-end’s

110 American Fisheries Society.

fishing and one that will carry fish without bruising them. For
this purpose the pail will be a valuable adjunct to the fisherman’s
equipment whether the transportation to the fishing grounds be by
rail or automobile. If by rail the pail will be placed in the baggage
car while the angler enjoys the comforts of a Pullman.

CONCLUSION.

The outlook for the successful application of the underlying
principles of the device to the distribution work of the U. S. Gov-
ernment, the States, goldfish shippers, and private fish culturists
is very promising indeed. By placing 5 pails in the space occupied
by three milk cans the carrying capacity of the Bureau’s cars has
been increased 66 2/3 per cent. By installing light, movable trays
it will, it is believed, be possible to increase the load 100 per cent,
and in specially built cars as many as three tiers of pails could
be carried. This radical change in the methods of handling live
fish will permit the concentration of the fish propagation work at
points where conditions are ideal for fish culture, as the problem
of distributing the product will not be as serious as it is with
present equipment. It is also fair to assume that in the course of
years the automobile truck will be used more extensively for mak-
ing deliveries of fish. The pail is light, it rides smoothly, and a
three-ton truck could easily be equipped with racks that would per-
mit it to carry as many fish as have been carried by one of the
specially-equipped distribution cars.

The use of a bail on a fish container facilitates handling and
enables expeditious deliveries of fish while the train makes its usual
stop. The pails may be double-decked on the car platform in an-
ticipation of the delivery, and the transfer of fish made in the
minimum amount of time. This saving of time is of great im-
portance at railroad stations, where 30 or 40 cans of fish are to be
delivered to applicants.

In handling fish in milk cans it has been noticeable that bag-
gagemen frequently permit the can practically to fall from the
door of the car to the pavement, the men handling the can merely
serving to guide it in its downward course. This condition pre-
vails to some extent at stations and on cars, and it is reasonable
to assume that the shock which the fish receive produces in many
instances unfavorable results. It is believed that the primary
reason for rough handling, excessive weight, will have been elimi-

Fearnow.—Transporting Live Fish. yt

mated when the pail comes into general use.

In shipping fish it is not enough merely to make delivery of
the consignment in what is usually termed “good condition.” A
satisfied applicant does not always indicate that the fish were in
first-class condition at the time of their receipt. Improper hand-
ling at the station or in transit may result in fatalities days, and
even weeks, after the fish have been planted. The success of fish
culture will be measured in the final analysis by the number of
fish that survive and reproduce after being planted. With this
in view it is of the utmost importance that the matter of fish trans-
portation and fish planting be given due consideration.

The writer does not contend that the pail is mechanically per-
fect, or that its full possibilities have been thoroughly demonstrated,
The experiments have, it is believed, been carried far enough to
satisfy most fish-culturists that an important step has been taken
in the art of transporting live fish.

Briefly, the advantages of this container over the old type
may be summarized as follows:

1. It permits the carrying of fish in one-half the amount of
water commonly used.

2. It aerates all water in the can when the receptacle is in
motion, the slightest agitation producing aeration.

3. It aerates without splashing and rides smoothly over the
roughest roads.

4. The fish are held in the purest water of the can, near the
surface where the oxygen is readily absorbed.

5. The fish being carried in a supplemental compartment are
not disturbed by the wave motion as is the case in ordinary
receptacles. The aerated water is jetted into this compartment,
creating an artificial water level therein, which causes a current
through the bottom apertures, removing all pollution from the
tray to the bottom of the outside container.

6. When the vessel is not agitated, the fish are left in shallow
water and their swimming efforts utilized to produce aeration.

Y. It permits the shipment of fish for considerable distances
without the usual attendant.

8. It maintains an equable temperature. Means are provided
for automatically moistening the absorbent covering of the outer
receptacle. ‘The evaporation of moisture on this cover absorbs

112 American Fisheries Society.

the atmospheric heat and reduces the water temperature sufficiently
to permit the carrying of warm-water fishes, even in low altitudes,
during the warmest weather.

9. The pail is provided with a compartment for carrying ice
in the event that trout are handled during the warm summe1
months.

10. The lid of the minnow bucket is so shaped that it does
not permit the dripping of ice water on the fish, but feeds the water
from the melting ice into the fish compartment indirectly, making
the change of temperature very gradual,

11. It automatically siphons pollution from the bottom of the
container when new water is added, maintaining a fixed water level.

12. The tray of the minnow bucket type is made with a float
and may be used as a live car.

13. The parts are made so that they will nest, requiring a
minimum amount of space in shipment from the hatchery or on
return trips.

14. Air vents are provided in the sides of the outside container
and packages placed on the top of the pail do not exclude the air
from the fish.

15. It is easier to handle, as one man can carry two pails
whereas two men are required to handle one 10-gallon can.

16. It is useful in the transportation of fish eggs.

1%. The tray fits the standard hatchery trough and fish may
be counted at an opportune time well in advance of shipment and
held until required.

18. It affords a safe and practical means of transporting fish
to the headwaters of streams which have heretofore been neglected
on account of their inaccessibility,

There are many factors that must be taken into consideration
in carrying live fish. It-is not the intention that the device be used
with tray when carrying fry. Neither should it be understood
that the utilization of the swimming efforts of fishes can be advan-
tageously applied to all sizes of fish. The method provides for
holding fish in sanitary condition near the surface of the water,
jetting the water into the compartment when the receptacle is in
motion and utilizing the swimming efforts in emergencies only.

It may be stated that a large saving in last year’s distribution
allotment was effected by the use of the device described in this

Fearnow.—Transporting Live Fish. 113

paper, notwithstanding that distribution work was exceedingly
heavy.

Discussion.

Mr. J. N. Coss, Seattle, Wash.: Have there been any cans of that
type developed by other people? If so, just what are the original features
of your can as compared with theirs?

Mr. FEARNOW: The 18 points summarized in my article show the ad-
vantages of this device over other types of fish containers. The combina
tion of a canvas jacket and receptacle, with a means having ventilating
and water aerating apertures for retaining a cooling medium, is new. The
canvas jacket alone is not new. Of course, the idea of absorbing atmos-
pheric heat through evaporation has been known virtually for ages, par
ticularly in the Far East. I do not believe that the canvas jacket has ever
been used before to lower the water temperature in the transportation of
live fish.

Another feature is the automatic syphon, in combination, of course,
with a fish container. A feature I consider entirely new is the aerating
pan, designed to hold the fish near the surface of the water. I do not mean
to say there have not been compartments for minnow buckets, but there has
been no compartment that embraces the fundamental idea of this container.
The substantiaily imperforate bottom of this compartment restricts the move-
ment of the water and directs its force to the upper apertures. The idea
is to hold the fish in comparative stillness in this compartment and to jet
the water into it.

Mr, J. W. Tircoms, Hartford, Conn.: Well, Mr. Fearnow, as a mem-
ber of this committee I want you to feel that we realize the importance
of this device, and if it receives a prize it means that perhaps thousands
of dollars will be invested in it by commissions who want to try it. How
far is the device submitted this year different from the presentation of last
year?

Mr. FearNow: This device includes last year’s device, with added
features. If you remove the automatic siphon, place handles on this con
tainer, leave the tray out of consideration, and place a different type of
lid on it, you have last year’s device, which was a shallow water container
with a canvas jacket.

Mr. TitcomsB: It is well recognized that the shallow water method of
transporting fish has been used by the Japanese for ages. You consider, of
.course, that yours is an improvement over that. If the container is standing
still for two or three hours with fingerling trout in it, you think they are
going to move around sufficiently to aerate themselves.

Mr. FEARNoW: The Japanese method is based almost entirely on spon-
taneous aeration. The fish are carried in shallow water in tubs. No pro-
vision is made for lowering the temperature, removing sediment, aerating
the water without disturbing the fish, or utilizing the swimming efforts ot
he fish to assist in aeration. The practical value of my device, as far as
automatic aerating is concerned, is in connection with the larger sized fishes,

114 American Fisheries Society.

especialiy trout and bass.

Mr. Titcoms: Where the can sets out on a warm day for several hours,
Say at a junction point, how do you depend on keeping it iced?

Mr. Frarnow: We depend on keeping warm-water fish cool by the
absorption of atmospheric heat through evaporation. The jacket has a flap
that draws the moisture from the can. Besides, if the jacket were thor-
oughly saturated and the can taken off the train at a junction point, it would
retain that moisture for a reasonable length of time. A shipment of trout
could be made for a reasonable distance, for 8 or possibly 10 hours, in hot
weather, by moistening the jacket and drawing the flap over as a protection
to the ice. The melting ice also assists in keeping the jacket moist. A ship-
ment of trout arrived at Central Station from White Sulphur Springs, West
Virginia, a few days before I left Washington. There were about 25 3%-
inch fish in the can and they arrived in excellent condition. So far we have
not had what could be considered a failure, a real loss of fish, in using
this device.

Mr. F. E. Hare, Manchester, lowa: How about the young fry?

Mr. FEARNOW: ‘The idea is to carry the fry and up to fingerlings No. 2
size in the can without the compartment. In that case the problem of
aeration is insignificant. The upper tray serves as an ice container. It also
provides aeration because any water that happens to slop up through these
perforations will trickle back. In carrying fry the water should be up to
the siphon port; that is the normal water level. As to 4-inch fingerling
brook trout, in hot weather I would not attempt to carry over 75,
as in a 10-gallon can. Two of the Bureau’s car captains who have tried the
pails have asked for full equipment of their cars.

Mr. TircomB: You quoted the Bureau of Fisheries Service Bulletin as
commending this method of transportation. In the closing part, it states
that if the test of the 65 cans you made continues to prove satisfactory,
all of the cars will be equipped. Have you reached the point where you
-would say that the test was so satisfactory that the cars were to be equipped?
‘ Mr. FearNow: We could have probably a thousand of these cans in
service now had I not wanted it subjected to every possible test.

Mr. TrrcomsB: This other pail is really a minnow pail, is it not?

Mr. Fearnow: It is valuable for carrying fingerling fish and adults,
but it does not seem to meet our special requirements quite so well as this
one. I make every claim for the minnow bucket feature that was made for
the other, with the exception that it cannot be used without the intermediate
compartment. It is not used on the cars. It would be valuable for collect-
ing fish at stations, or for use on messenger shipments.

Mr. Tircoms: What entirely novel feature is there in the combination
tray or lid?

Mr. Fearnow: It is the process of aeration—jetting the water into
the compartment. It is really a combination of two trays provided with a
float.

Mr. Cuartes O. Hayrorp, Hackettstown, N. J.: This device is very
interesting to me, for in our State we handle practically all our distribution

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Fearnow.—Transporting Live Fish. 115

by truck. We do not make more than half a dozen train shipments in a
year, and it looks to me as if we might almost double the amount of fish
we are putting out if this system can be successfully employed. I say that
for this reason; a man with a Ford car could take a number of these
pails and distribute the fish thinly along the streams. The average man
who takes out the fish wants to get rid of them as soon as possible once he
gets to his destination. I would rather have one can of fish planted prop-
erly—thinly scattered along the stream, among the stumps and at other
desirable points—than ten cans dumped indiscriminately.

Mr, TitcomB: I tried the canvas jacket a good many years ago, and
it was only the expense that kept us from adopting it. In some states a
5-gallon can is being used in place of a 10-gallon can, for the reason that a
man can so easily take two 5-gallon cans in his hands. They are popular
in the hatchery on that account; and of course they have the same feature
that Mr. Hayford speaks about—the advantage in planting. But if we can
get a combination—Mr. Fearnow’s idea—which has all these advantages
and others as well, we have made a distinct step in advance.

Mr. FearNow: Probably Mr. Titcomb has reference to the padded
covers used on fish cans at some of the New England hatcheries years ago,
which was simply a method of insulation. I believe I am safe in saying
that a receptacle with an absorbent jacket provided with a flap for retain-
ing a cooling medium and means for moistening the jacket is something
new.

Mr. G. C. Leacu, Washington, D. C.: Do you believe that both diam-
eter and depth in a container count?

Mr. Titcoms: I certainly do. I would be inclined to make these pails
two inches greater in diameter. I am a great believer in shallow water,
not over 8 or 10 inches in depth.

Mr. C. F. Cuter, Homer, Minn.: How does the old Atkins can
differ from this one? Would you say the Atkins can would not carry
fish as well as this?

Mr. Fearnow: The Atkins can is simply a shallow water container
17% inches in diameter with a narrow neck. It is not provided with means
for controlling the temperature, removing sediment, or facilitating aeration.
The can is awkward to handle and as a practical and economical method
of distributing fish it is considered a failure.

Mr. H. L. CANFIELD, Homer, Minn.: In transporting fish in eight or ten
inches of water does not Mr. Titcomb think some difficulty would be ex-
perienced in going over rough roads or pavements; would not the splashing
of the water injure the fish. On a trip from Jersey City to the Battery,
New York, 30 or 40 adult landlocked salmon were transported by truck
in a square tank holding about fifty gallons. When the messenger left the
car they were in pretty good condition, but the bumping splashed the wate:
about and threw the fish against the sides of the can. The water was
gradually reduced, and upon arrival only one-third or one-quarter of it
remained, and all but a very few of the fish were dead. You could not
«arry as many fish in 8 or 10 inches of water, using the plain bucket, as

116 American Fisheries Society.

you could if you had more water; that is, if the pail was filled to within
a couple of inches of the top.

Mr. TitcomB: I suppose the object of this pail is to overcome the
very difficulties you mention—of the water slopping and leaving the fish
high and dry.

Mr. CANFIELD: I was speaking of the matter in a general way. The
point I wished to bring out was whether or not it is the generally accepted
idea that it is a good plan in all cases to use very shallow water in trans-
porting fish. I think there would be a great many instances where it would
be detrimental to do so.

Mr. TitcomB: There might be cases where it would be detrimental.
The Japanese bring their goldfish to this country, all the way from Japan,
in trays that have about 2 inches of water. The idea of shallow water is
to give the fish more air; so that if you can get a container that will carry
them in shallow water and not have it all slopped out when going over
rough roads, you have something well worth while. Of course you realize
that the landlocked salmon is one of the most difficult fish to carry.

Mr. Hare: In carrying fry I find that you get an ideal can by using
that large tray inverted. It is a wonderful improvement over the ordinary
method.

Mr. FEARNoW: I see something new in this can every day. One of our
men was speaking of a method of combining the trays in such a way
that you could place them in a stream at night; when making shipment
you could pour fish into the container and place the large tray on top,
inverted.

Mr. Titcoms: I consider our 10-gallon round-shouldered can the worst
device ever invented. It is too heavy to carry and almost impossible for
getting fish into spring rivulets and the headwaters of a stream. I urge
my applicants to use lighter receptacles in the final transfer of the fish. I
am almost inclined to order light tin cans, even if we smash them up in
one season; I think we would in the end get more fish planted and get
better results generally than by using the heavy cans.

I like the straight pail. I like the idea here; if we can prove that
Mr. Fearnow’s device has all the advantages claimed for it, I am ready to
order all we need for our work. I know from tests I have already made
that we could carry twice as many fish as we carry now with the round-
shouldered cans. We ship entirely by truck in Connecticut.

Mr. Leach: The Bureau of Fisheries has made a number of experi-
ments with these pails and is planning to purchase a larger number with
the view of determining their value in comparison with present equipment.
From experience gained by tests made at the Bureau it has been found that
the larger fish, from 4 inches and upward, assist in aerating the water by
their movements in this upper tray. I have found that the pail will do
everything that the 10-gallon can will do, and a little bit more. I figure
that a 10-gallon can will carry 100 3-inch fish; this can will do the same
thing. One man can handle two of these cans; two men are required to
handle one of the 10-gallon cans. These are much easier to load. In the

Fearnow.—Transporting Live Fish. 117

handling of whitefish fry at Duluth and other stations it takes ten men
to load nine cans of the round-shouldered type on the boat; ten men will
load twenty of these pails.

I believe this bucket will revolutionize and cheapen the distribution of
fish, It is a very easy matter to stack them in the car one on top of the
other. In carrying them on an auto truck it is an easy matter to put one
row of cans on the bottom of the truck, and with a little platform in be-
tween you can stack the other row on top. You will not then have a total
height of much more than 20 or 30 inches, and the truck will not be top-
heavy. In that way I believe a two or three-ton truck can carry 75 or 85
of these cans. Those of you who are interested in distributing fish by truck
will find, I believe, that you can more than double your capacity.

Mr. E. W. Cops, St. Paul, Minn.: In Minnesota we have along the
north shore of Lake Superior a stretch of considerably over one hundred
miles of good road running parallel with the shore, but there is no railroad.
We have purchased a truck and plan to plant the fry ourselves. The road is
well surfaced but not well graded; it is up and down hill all the way. I
think that this will be an ideal place to try out some of these cans during
the coming year. If they will stand that trip, they will stand any you may
give them.

Mr. FEARNOW: This can seems to carry fish remarkably well in auto-
mobiles. The Potomac Anglers’ Club took a shipment of trout from Wash-
ington forty miles into Virginia over the worst roads possible. The presi-
dent of the club later remarked particularly that it did not seem to splash
as the ordinary ten-gallon can would. He told me that the bottom of his
automobile was not wet when he reached his destination—the little slop
had been taken up by the absorbent jacket. I have also carried fish a con-
siderable distance over rough roads in Maryland.

Mr. Dwicut LypetL, Comstock Park, Mich.: I want to get hold of halt
a dozen of these cans to enable a thorough trial, and if they do the work I
think that a considerable number will be ordered by the Conservation De-
partment of Michigan.

THE PLANKTON OF THE LAKES.
By E. A. Birce
President, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

I shall speak this morning about the plankton of inland
lakes—that assemblage of minute plants and animals which float
in the open waters of the lake and which constitute a great part
of the fundamental food for all higher aquatic organisms. The
Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey has for years
devoted much attention to the investigation of this complex sub-
ject, and I have here an early copy of a report which covers a
part of that work. It deals with the quantity and the chemical
composition of the plankton of Lake Mendota and adjacent lakes.

As the older members of this Society know, I have been
much interested in the study of limnology and for a good many
years I took an active part in it. In recent years I have had
other duties and most of the work for our reports has been done
by Mr. C. Juday, who has given all of his time to it since 1905.
I had expected him to do much of the talking today, but he is
necessarily absent from the city. 1am very sorry that you should
lose the advantage of his great knowledge of the subject.

The field work for this report was carried on from 1911 to
1917, and was executed upon a large scale. We secured the plank-
ton from large quantities of water in such amounts that chemical
analyses could be made. Food analyses were also made so that
some notion could be reached not only of the quantity of the
plankton but also of its value as food. All of these results are
summarized in this report, which is very definitely scientific in
character, and is for reference rather than for general reading. *

<a SERS SA PETE

i is

2 ee

A very good and more popular account may be found in the
report of the New York Conservation Commission on Lake
George. This gives an excellent general account of the plankton
and its relation to the fish besides much other information on
the lake. ?

1 The Inland Lakes of Wisconsin. The Plankton: Its Quantity and Chemical
Composition. E. A. Birge and C. Juday. 1922.

2A Biological Survey of Lake George. J. G. Needham, C. Juday, E. Morse,
C. K. Sibley and J. W. Titcomb. 1922.

118

Birge—Plankton of the Lakes. 119

For practical purposes the plankton may be divided into
two groups, separated chiefly by the size of the organisms: (1)
that which can be strained from the water by a net of fine silk
bolting cloth, and (2) that whose individuals are so small that
they must be extracted from the water by a centrifuge or simi-
lar divice.

To the first group belong all of the larger animals of the
plankton, such as the water-fleas (Cladocera and Copepoda)
which are of special interést to us here, because they constitute
an important item in the food of the fish. It also includes the
larger algze—those, for instance, which give rise to the “green
scum” in lakes—and the larger diatoms. The second group in-
cludes the very minute animals (protozoa) and alge, together
with the bacteria of the water.

In the investigation that I am reporting the Survey both
Strained and centrifuged large quantities of water, doing this
work in a special laboratory on the shore of Lake Mendota.
Altogether, in 481 catches made from 1911 to 1917, we strained
out the plankton from about 4,750,000 pounds of water (2,157,000
liters), securing some 45 ounces (1,292 grams) of dry material
for chemical and food analysis. The water centrifuged to secure
the minuter organisms during the years 1915-1917 was neces-
sarily much less in quantity; but it aggregated in 184 catches
about 482,000 pounds, from which we obtained somewhat less
than 24 ounces (752 grams) of dry material, nearly half of which
was fine silt derived from the water and less than half was
organic material. These facts look as though the food material
of the open water of the lakes is very small in amount, but it is
really quite considerable. If the ash is taken out the average
amount of dry organic material yielded by the plankton of Lake
Mendota is about two pounds in a million pounds of water. In
the living condition about nine-tenths of the weight of these
“plants and animals consist of water, so that in the lake there
are by weight about 20 parts of live plankton to a million of water.

This quantity in the area occupied by the deeper water of
Lake Mendota (depth 20 m. or more) would give a standing
crop of more than 3,800 pounds per acre, or nearly two tons of
fresh material. February yielded the smallest amount—about
2,300 pounds per acre—and December the largest—about 4,500

120 American Fisheries Society.

pounds per acre. The larger planktonts, those caught by the
net, consitute only a small part of this total in most lakes and
at most seasons. In Lake Mendota the net plankton never quite
equalled that extracted by the centrifuge, and at the maximum
the centrifuge yielded nearly 25 times as much as the net. On
the average there was about five times as much plankton from
centrifuge as from net. Thus the more minute organisms, those
which have the shortest life and the most rapid reproduction,
constitute by far the larger part of the standing crop; and this
is of great significance in estimating the annual turnover. In
other lakes the net has yielded an even smaller proportion of the
total plankton. In Lake George (164 feet deep) and in Green
Lake (237 feet deep) it has been found in mid-summer so low as
one-fortieth of the total.

These studies on large quantities of water have been made
on Lake Mendota and the two neighboring lakes which can be
reached by a launch. These lakes range in maximum depth from
11 meters to 24 meters. During last year and the present season
we have been carrying on our studies with smaller and portable
apparatus in Green Lake which reaches a depth of 65 meters.
We find that in all of these lakes the quantity of plankton per
unit of area of the deeper water of the lake is not widely dif-
ferent, no matter what the depth of the water may be. Of course,
it varies a good deal with years and with season, but, after all,
in any of these lakes it is of the same order of magnitude, say
about two tons of live plankton per acre of deep water. It is
yet doubtful whether this will be found true of the far deeper
lakes like the Finger Lakes of New York, and I do not see but
that the very deep lakes ought to give a larger amount. But
still it seems a fair provisional conclusion from our studies, that
the fundamental capacity for production in a lake depends on
area and not on depth. While there are plants which might
and probably do multiply as saprophytes in the deeper water,
they do not seem to add appreciably to the crop of plankton and
the bacteria are a very insignificant part of the standing crop.
Other things being equal, the production of food in the open
water is a function of surface, not one of depth.

This statement might seem to be a necessary result of the
fact that plants depend on sunlight for the manufacture of or-
ganic matter. But it is really unexpected and the reasons for

Birge—Plankton of the Lakes. 121

‘it are still to seek. For there is a far greater amount of organic
substance dissolved in the water of a lake than is contained in
the living organisms. There may be four or five times as much,
-and the sum may rise as high as ten times. We do not know
why plants that are not green and can not manufacture organic
-substances with the aid of the sun, do not utilize this material
and develop in large numbers. This indeed they sometimes do
and growths of plants like Oscillatoria may occasionally be found
in the deeper water of lakes, evidently supported by these dis-
solved substances. But such growths are rare and so far as our
experience goes they contribute little to the general food supply.

The same may be said of bacteria. These are always
present in the water and often in large numbers. Our studies
show that there was an average of about 30,000 bacteria per cubic
centimeter of water during the summer of 1920, while the aver-
age for 1919 was only about 3,000. But the quantity of organic
matter yielded by these numbers is small. Even 30,000 bacteria
per cubic centimeter at the average size of those in Lake Mendota
‘would weigh less than one-six hundredth part of the weight of
the other plankton organisms, and the weight of bacteria in
1919 averaged only one-tenth as much as in 1920. We are still
quite ignorant of the agencies that limit the number of bacteria.

Thus the fundamental food supply of the open water comes
back to the alge and to the creatures that feed upon them. And
we must conclude that the total amount of this supply of food
is mainly a function of the surface of the lake and not of its
depth. Depth dilutes the food supply but does not add to it,
and if this is true, then the total amount of living material in
the form of fish that can be supported by an acre of open water
is rather decreased than increased by addition to the depth of
water.

In this assemblage of plankton plants and animals one group
is of especial interest to us—that of the entomostraca, or water-
- fleas—which convert the alge into a form available as food for
fish. These little crustacea—Cyclops, Diaptomus, Daphnia, and
their relatives—constitute one of the most important sources

of fish food.

There is a second similar group in the plankton, that of the
rotifers. But these “wheel animalcules” are small individually
and they are rarely present in numbers sufficient to make a sub-

122 American Fisheries Society.

stantial addition to the menu. The entomostraca which eat the

alge directly in the open water and the insect larve which

feed on them as they die and sink to the bottom, constitute the

main direct contribution of the open lake to the food of the fish.

There are fish, like the gizzard shad, which feed directly on

alge, but such fish are few and most fish get their food in form
of animals. We are therefore much concerned with those
creatures which serve as intermediaries between alge and fish.

We have been able to make rough determinations of the
quantity of entomostraca in the plankton. In Lake Mendota the
eaters in the plankton—crustacea and rotifers—make on an aver-
age about one-eighteenth of the total plankton. Such an aver-
age is, of course, subject to wide variation, as both animals and
plants come on in waves; but it is rarely the case that the eaters
find in the water less than a dozen times their weight of food.
This seems a liberal provision. If a “beef critter,” for instance,
weighing 1,000 pounds had a constantly renewed stock of green
food amounting to 10,000 pounds or 20,000 pounds, he would
seem to be amply supplied. But the alge are not concentrated
into a sort of sheet or carpet like the grass; the animal must

strain them or pick them out of the water. No fresh water

animal has a better straining apparatus than has Daphnia, but
when I tell you that in Lake Mendota a Daphnia must extract the
algze from 60,000 times her own weight of water in order to ob-
tain her own weight of food you will see that life for her in-
volves no small amount of work.

The same statement may be made of other plankton animals.
In lakes like Green Lake, the quantity of plankton is smaller
and the crustacea are in general smaller and fewer per unit of
volume of water. The animals of the plankton seem everywhere
to be as great in quantity as the plants will support.

In general the same statement may be made of the weight
of crustacea per unit of area of a lake, that was made of the total
plankton. In lakes of very various depths the number of pounds
per acre is not widely different, and the deep lake has no ob-
servable advantage over the shallower one. In the deeper water
(20-24 m.) of Lake Mendota the plankton crustacea and rotifers
may yield a standing crop of something over 20 pounds of dry
organic material per acre, or over 200 pounds of fresh meat,
“on the hoof,” as it were. This average is subject to much varia-

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Birge—Plankton of the Lakes. 123

tion, as yet not exactly determined. The crop doubtless falls as
low as 10 pounds per acre at some seasons and rises in spring as
high as 50 pounds or even higher.

In other lakes we have found the crop as small as 7 pounds
of dry matter per acre in Canandaigua Lake (150 ft. deep) ;
about 10 pounds in Cayuga Lake (450 ft.) ; 24 pounds in Seneca
Lake (600 ft.) ; and nearly 30 pounds in Green Lake (237 ft.)
These were single observations and I have no doubt that. the
amount found in any one of these lakes could have been found
in any other of them on a different occasion.

Such a crop of, say, 200 pounds of live crustacea per acre,
seems small, but even so the annual production is great. In Lake
Mendota Daphnia produces some three broods per month during
the spring. If we estimated the turnover at only twice a month
(and such an estimate is doubtless too low) during the period
from May 15 to September 15, there would be eight crops during
the period and a production of 1,600 pounds of animal food per
acre. This is, of course, far in excess of the production of animal
food from an acre of land, and the period of production includes
spring and fall also, and even winter for some forms.

Thus if we look at the lake as an enterprise for converting
algz into potential food for fish we must agree that it is by no
means inefficient. Little as we know of the details of the pro-
cesses, the gross results as we see them today are very creditable.
How far the fish are able to utilize this potential food is quite
another question, and one of whose answer we are quite ignorant.
So far as I am aware, no one has made a study of the subject.

Here, then, are a few words on one great branch of the story
of the plankton of lakes so far as it directly interests us of the
American Fisheries Society. We must think of a plant popu-
lation numbering millions and often billions of individuals in a
cubic meter of water—most of them so small that they add no
observable turbidity to the water as seen in a glass vessel, yet
present in such numbers as to yield a standing crop of nearly
two tons per acre in a moderately deep lake. This standing crop
is constantly renewed as its shortlived members reproduce and
die. It supplies food which maintains a standing crop of animal
life in its higher forms, though still minute, which amounts to
200 pounds per acre, more or less; or, say, perhaps one-twentieth
of the weight of the plants on which it feeds. And out of this

124 American Fisheries Society.

animal life there may come an annual supply of potential food
for fish which we can not estimate at less than 1,500 pounds per
acre and which is probably much larger. How far the fish use
this supply is a question to be determined by you who raise them.

I mentioned the insect larvee, and while these do not belong
to the plankton I must say something about them, or at least
about those insect larve which live on the bottom of the open
lake in the deeper water. You are all familiar with these larve,
may-flies, bloodworms (Chironomus), phantom larvze (Corethra)
and many others. These constitute a second and smaller stream
of animal life that issues from the vegetable plankton, aided by
that part of the shore plants which sinks to the bottom of the
deep water. For as the planktonts die they gradually sink in a
sort of gentle rain to the bottom and there they accumulate in
an ooze which supplies nutrition to these larve.and as well to
worms, to clams, and to crustacea. All of these animals furnish
food to bottom feeding fishes and the quantity of animal matter
thus maintained is often very considerable. In the depths of
Green Lake there lives a crustacean—Pontoporeia—a relative of
the scud or “shrimp” familiar in every fish hatchery pond. We
have found this animal in quantities as large as 74 pounds dry
weight per acre, over large areas of the bottom. This is much
larger than the standing crop of the plankton crustacea, but re-
production is much slower and the annual crop is therefore
smaller. Lake Mendota has no Pontoporeia but has almost in-
-numerable insect larve, chiefly midge larve—Chironomus—and
especially Corethra. There are also many worms and small
clams (Pisidium). The total annual crop from all of these may
aggregate some 112 pounds of dry organic matter per acre in
the deep water, an amount which is much less than the annual
crop from the open water itself.

In order to give you some visible idea of the amount and dis-
tribution of the plankton I have made a diagram showing a
set of observations made this summer on Green Lake, Wisconsin.
On the right side you will see the temperature indicated. There
are some ten meters of warm water on top; then comes the ther-
mocline, five meters thick, in which the temperature falls from
21° C. to 9° C. (70° to 48° F.). Then follows a very slow fall of
temperature through the cold water to the bottom, reaching
4.7° C. (about 40° F.) at a depth of 65 m. (about 215 ft.). The

Birge-—Flankton of the Lakes. 125

numbers on the left side of the diagram indicate the depth in
meters. The figures at the top indicate the dry weight of the
organic matter of the plankton in milligrams per cubic meter of
water. The live weight is about ten times as great. The total
quantity of fresh plankton in a column of water one meter square
and 65 m. high is about 455 grams, a little over 16 ounces.

e 200 400 600 800 /00 1200

Diagram showing temperature of Green Lake, Wis., and quantity of
organic matter in its plankton on Aug. 17, 1922. Temperature in centi-
grade degrees; depth in meters; weight of plankton in milligrams of
dry organic matter per cubic meter of water.

A—A, total plankton; B—B, net plankton. For explanation see text.

The two lines, A-A and B-B, indicate the dry organic matter
of the plankton at the various depths; B-B shows the larger
planktonts collected by the net to which A-A adds the material
extracted by the centrifuge and therefore shows the total plank-
tons. You will see that the smaller creatures constitute by far
the greater part of the total. It is also noteworthy that the
quantity of plankton is greatest in the warm surface stratum,
that it diminishes rapidly in the thermocline stratum of tem-
perature and then decreases slowly, reaching a minimum at about
40 m. and increasing again toward the bottom.

This is a typical picture of the summer plankton of Green
Lake. It represents a total of nearly 4,000 pounds of fresh ma-
terial per acre of water at the depth indicated, of which the net

126 American Fisheries Society.

plankton constitutes about one-tenth. Probably more than half
of the net plankton consists of animals, chiefly crustacea.

(Dr. Birge had brought with him the portable centrifuge mentioned in
his address and at the close he extracted the plankton from a pint or more
of water from Lake Mendota. This water was perfectly clear to the eye, but
there collected in the bowl of the centrifuge a considerable quantity of minute
organisms which adhered to the wall of the bowl. These were chiefly alge.
belonging to the genus Aphanocapsa, the dominant form in the centrifuge
plankton of most lakes).

Discussion.

Mr. J. W. Titcoms, Hartford, Conn.: May I ask Dr. Birge whether
he gets the same results in his winter observations?

Dr. BircE: In general, yes, but you cannot make plankton observa-
tions in the winter with the same regularity as in the summer. During the
Open season we expect to make two observations a week on Lake Mendota,
but during the winter may go out only four or five times altogether. In
one year the maximum amount of plankton was in December; it ran down
during the winter, and then in March it began rising again slowly. It went
up very rapidly in April, then fell off in the summer and rose again in the
fall. The number of crustacea in Lake Mendota, the lake which we know
most about, is greatest in April, May and early June. I have always had
the notion—I give it for what it is worth—that in the lakes these water
fleas “get the jump” on the fishes in the spring; they start out earlier than
the fish, and then the little fishes come on and run them down. That is my
thought so far as Lake Mendota is concerned, but the question would have
to be worked out on a good many lakes before we could speak very definitely.
I do not know that this sequence of forms has been worked out quan-
titatively in streams.

Mr. TitcomB: You have in a scientific way explained why the shallow
lake is more productive than the very deep lake. But the point not quite
clear to me is about the relations of the higher forms of plants. The plank-
ton and the alge are intermixed, are they not?

Dr, BrrcE: The alge are part of the plankton.

Mr. Titcoms: What is the relation of the higher forms of plants to all
these valuable plants that we think so much of here? Do they properly
enter into the discussion?

Dr. Birce: A few years ago we published a very elaborate paper on
the shore plants, the insects, etc., that live in Lake Mendota. So we have
a report on that subject, but we are still very far from knowing much
about it. We have just completed also reports on water weeds—showing
the amount of these plants per acre in Lake Mendota; we also worked them
up in Green Lake, but the report is not yet published. It can be said that
in the most productive parts of the edge of the lake about as much green
stuff will grow per acre as will grow upon a meadow.

The only connection I brought in between these plants and the animals
of the open water is the fact that as these plants die parts of them break

Birge.—Plankion of the Lakes. 127

up in the water and contribute to the organic material at the botom of

the lake, on which the insect larve like the Mayfly larve and the blood-
worms, may feed.
Mr. TitcomB: Do you not think that most fishes like to live on the

bottom? In a deep water lake it is not customary to find any of the various

species feeding on the surface over the deep areas; they are in comparatively

‘shallow water. This means that all this food, this great abundance of

food in the plankton, is wasted.

Dr. BircE: A great amount of it must go to waste. Yet Green Lake has
many small fish that go out in the deepest water. On a calm day your boat
may be surrounded by hundreds of them. I refer particularly to one of
the shiners, Notropis atherinoidzs. The young of this species is very abun-
dant in the open water.

Mr. Tircoms: In connection with the Lake George survey, one of the
interesting things we found there was that the small form of whitefish
which inhabits that lake, and which is the main food of the lake trout
when they are young, apparently comes to the surface at night to feed.
They come to the surface just at dusk, when it is cool; you can see large
schools of them on or near the surface. I suppose they come up for this
food you speak of?

Dr. Birce: Probably. A great many of the deep water fish come to
the surface at night. But the habits of both the fish and the water fleas
vary greatly. You must bear in mind that there are scores of species of
water fleas. For instance there is Daphnia pulex—a big, heavy-bodied
water flea. That is the type you find in ponds; it is not found as abundantly
in the open water of the lakes, and if present there it is found ordinarily
in the deeper and colder water. In Lake Mendota it lives in the surface
water during the winter and early spring, and as the temperature warms up
it moves down from the surface; as the summer goes on the water at the bot-
tom loses its oxygen and there are only a few feet of water that have a
sufficient supply of oxygen to meet its needs. There are other delicate-bodied
forms which are characteristic open water forms—they live in the open water
of the lakes.

You will see that the study that I have reported relates chiefly to the
food derived from the open waters of lakes and from the deep water as
well. Its direct bearing on fish, therefore, is primarily with the fish of the
open water, like whitefish, with the young of shore-living species, which
may come out into the open water, and with the fish, which, like perch
or white bass, are regularly shallow water forms, but which also come
out into deep water for food. We have not studied these relations between
fish and food; we have been determining the quantity of the food from the
plankton and its general food value. Some of the commercially valuable
fish of the Great Lakes, notably herring and whitefish, go back more directly
to the plankton for food, than do the fish which most of you are raising.

If the Bureau of Fisheries could carry on such studies as ours in the
Great Lakes the results might be more directly useful to the commercial
fisheries than our studies on smaller lakes are to you. But we have been

128 American Fisheries Society.

studying one great source of food for fish in small lakes and therefore-

under conditions that are so limited in space as to permit such a study, we
have done this in the hope of establishing principles and securing knowledge
which will help all fisheries in the end.

Mr. Titcoms: Conceding that most of the little fishes keep away from.

the deeper water, it would appear that the main usefulness of these plankton
organisms is at the bottom?

Dr. Birce: If there is no appreciable number of small fish that are
utilizing this material, then its main usefulness must be at the bottom. But

I am not prepared to say that this is the case until the subject has been
studied much more accurately than has hitherto been done. Our studies.

have been chiefly on the deeper water, but most of the fishes that this
Society is directly concerned with are shore fishes, or shallow water species.
Other forms of food may be more important to some of them than this
plankton. Of course, the whitefish and lake trout, all the whitefish group,
are open water fish. Has anyone ever tried to breed the young of the
gizzard shad, Dorosoma cepedianum, as a food minnow? This fish, as you
know, feeds on plankton alge, and if it will multiply- freely in lakes it

might become a valuable foodfish, especially as it lives on material which:

very few fish can utilize. It seems to be more abundant in streams but is
not absent from lakes.

Dr. EMMELINE Moore, Albany, N. Y.: In the early part of his re-
marks Dr. Birge referred to the source of the fishy odor as being mainly
due to the crustaceans—Daphnias, Cyclops, and so on. Do you find that
such flagellates as Synura and the Peridinee, when they develop in very
great numbers, are quite as much a source of that trouble?

Dr. Birck: We have never found Synura in large numbers. It has.

been the same with Peridinee—we find a few, but not enough to make
any considerable part of the weight of the food. I should not doubt that
these crustacea may get this fishy material out of oils in the vegetable food.
I think that it is certain that they concentrate it; I will not say they
manufacture it, though they may do this also. I was talking about the
way the fish flavor got into the fish, and I think it does get in very largely
through these crustacea, at least for fish that eat crustacea freely. I think
they are feeding on these very fishy oils, and that that has something to
do with their flavor.

Mr. W. E. Barser, LaCrosse, Wis.: In your research, Dr. Birge, have
you determined why the perch in Lake Mendota run so small—why there
are no large perch?

Dr. BircE: No, I have not determined that, but if you want a guess I
will give you one. In 1883 or 1884 there was an enormous mortality of the
perch in Lake Mendota. They died by the million and their bodies were
washed up along the shores; for years there was a windrow of bones all
around the lake. Now, I can give you no statistics, but those perch that
died were decidedly bigger than the perch that are now there. My theory
has been this: the epidemic did not hit the little perch, and the death of

the larger fish, which prey on the little ones gave these little fellows a fine

Birge—Plankton of the Lakes. 129

start. So instead of getting picked off they grew up in great numbers and
became as big as they could. But they did not get food enough, and the
result is that they are decidedly smaller than the perch which are found
in lakes where there has been a natural depletion of the smaller fish from
year to year. I was told by the former Commissioner of Fisheries of
Pennsylvania that some of the men down there got hold of a small lake
back in the mountains, stocked it with bass, and did nothing with it for
some years. They thought they would go up there and see how the fish
had been getting along. There were large numbers of bass in the lake, but
while these had grown and were sexually mature, they were all small—I
think not over four inches long. I imagine that if a dozen big bass were
put in they would eat up many of these Mttle fellows with the result that
the fish would then be fewer, but larger.

Mr. Titcoms: The suggestion about these larger fish reducing the
number of the smaller ones and perhaps changing the balance, is pertinent
to another point. It is generally thought that the introduction of new blood
in a lake does not improve the fish, that is, in a large, natural lake. I am
wondering whether your theories there account for a change in the growth
of fish in the waters I am going to mention, rather than the introduction
of new blood. In this instance it was pickerel, Esox reticulatus. One
pond stocked with fish never yielded anything over about twelve inches in
length. The sportsmen went to a lake a few miles distant where the
fish would rtin up to five pounds in weight, and imported some of these
larger fish. Two years in succession they introduced the larger fish into
this lake where the pickerel were of small growth and since then they
have been catching large fish in those waters. Is that probably due to the
fact that the large pickerel proceeded to restore the balance there and not
to the introduction of new blood?

Dr. BircE: Yes, I think it is. You must bear this in mind: the supply
of food in any lake from all sources is strictly limited, and you are getting
at any given time, barring accidents, as much fish as the lake will raise—
unless you increase the amount of food. The food all comes back to
plankton material on the one hand and the shore material on the other.
Now, you have no means of increasing the supply of food, so far as I
know; and the question you have to solve is, can you get a better utiliza-
tion? The question you raise would be a very interesting one to work out.
Can you find a minnow, for example, which will swim out into the open
Water and eat this plankton more largely than it is now being eaten, and
also allow itself to be eaten by other fish? If you can do that, there is
“no reason why you should not short-circuit some of these losses and turn
them into useful flesh. I do not see that new blood of itself is going to
make any appreciable difference in the matter; the fish in any lake are
going to grow as big as they can on the food that is available to them.

Mr. M. D. Hart, Richmond, Va.: Would the selection of the best
species as practised by agriculturists not have a tendency, in your opinion,
to result in improvement so far as these various fishes are concerned?

Dr. Birce: There is no question that work of that kind could be done,

130 American Fisheries Society.

and that it would be very valuable indeed; but at the present there is no
way of studying the problem since neither funds nor men are available.
And the same is true of many other matters. Take this problem I have
laid before you; none of you can say that it is a problem of major prac-
tical importance for today or tomorrow; but when you look upon fish
culture as going on for a generation, then this sort of knowledge is abso-
lutely essential. But here is a problem that only one man in the United
States is working at; compare that with the manner in which the work at
the agricultural experiment stations is carried on. Wisconsin is putting
$5,000 a year into lake work, and that is more than all the other states
are putting into this particular job. Money is going into agricultural ex-
perimentation and research by millions, whereas in the case of aquiculture
it is coming in tens—and that is one reason why nobody can answer these
questions that you raise.

You are bringing up here the question of fry vs. fingerlings. ‘Thirty
years ago, when I began coming to this Society, that question was up and
it is just as fresh today. Why doesn’t somebody get to work on it? Why
doesn’t somebody stock a stream for a number of years with fry; observe
the results carefully; stock another stream with fingerlings; then change
them about; find out whether fry or fingerlings are the best to plant and
under what conditions? Well, it is because the money is not available to
do it. There is not a State Fish Commission or a National Fish Commis-
sion anywhere that I know of that would take up a practical problem like
that and work at it for years. Take what was said today of this Lake
George report; why do we not know something about the young whitefish—
about what it does from the time the egg is laid until the fish is mature;
what it feeds on, where it lives, and so on? We are putting millions of
dollars into such problems of the land; and we are right in doing so.
But we do not study the problems of the water in the same way. When, a
few years ago, they wanted a fish pathologist in Washington, Commissioner
Smith wrote to me and asked that we help him to get $2,500 or $3,000 from
‘Congress for that purpose. That is the way the fisheries business is being
xyun—from hand to mouth. You have to beg for little driblets of money.

- You are doing the best you can with the means you have; but through
the nation and through the states there ought to be money for all sorts of
investigations. There should be investigations going on that would con-
tinue for ten or fifteen years before final results were reached. Much of
the work going on now at our agricultural experiment stations will pro-
ceed for years without direct results being noticeable; yet ultimately the
results will revolutionize, perhaps, some important branch of agriculture.
Certainly aquiculture should be handled in the same way.

‘a
4
|
es
"
7

ADJUSTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT vs. STOCKING—TO
INCREASE THE PRODUCTIVITY OF FISH LIFE.

By Ernest CLIivE Brown
Consulting Fishculturist, New York, N. Y.

The title for this article has been selected with a view to set-
ting forth what I believe will be the underlying principles of the
fish culture of the future, and though the topic as stated would
seem to present an antithesis, it does not do so in fact, since each
line of action supplements the other in endeavoring to attain max-
imum productivity of fish life.

While fish culture in artificial punds was known to ancient
China and to Egypt in the time of the Pharaohs, and in later
times stood in high favor among the great landowners of the
Roman Empire, relatively very little study has been made of the
conditions of environment regulating the production of fishes in
natural bodies of water. The oldest reliable records in aquatic
biology date back only a little over half a century. Study and ad-
justment of aquatic environments to bring about conditions increas-
ing the size and number of desirable fishes is therefore a relatively
unexplored field.

Modern hatchery and rearing practices, achieved by the life-
long devotion of many earnest workers in and connected with
federal, state, and private hatcheries, have greatly extended the
quantity of young fishes returned to the waters over the number
which could have been produced to the same stages by the
parents under natural conditions. Still, I feel that fish culture
as practiced today does not go far enough to meet the terrific
attack which civilization is in part unwittingly making against
the perpetuation of our native fishes and particularly our game
fish. Let there be no doubt on this vital point. The weight of
civilization is at present against the survival of our fishes.

Consider for a moment the opposing forces in the situation.
They are too unequal for it to be called a struggle. On one side
we find pollution killing our fishes; deforestation warming our
trout brooks, if it does not alternately convert them to dry
Tavines and raging torrents; power storage project dams which
prevent the ascent of anadromous fishes to their spawning grounds;
irrigation projects which shunt the fishes from their native element

131

132 American Fisheries Society.

out upon the desert sands; and drainage of wet lands for agricul-
ture which lowers the underlying water table of the surrounding
country and exerts a harmful effect upon lakes perhaps miles dis-
tant in addition to absorbing a large part of the normal precipita-
tion. The number of anglers is increasing with the population. As
trout and other streams become uninhabitable to fishes the stream
fishermen, urged on by the enormous amount of bass advertising run
by the manufacturers of tackle, turn to join the multitude already
on the lakes. As lakes and ponds become “fished out,” polluted
or are taken over by private individuals or protective associations,
and the number available becomes less, concentration even upon
the more distant waters is eected through the agency of the trolley,
the automobile or the railroad. Once there, the outboard motor and
the latest developments of tackle, which give surprising accuracy
and speed in combing the waters, are brought into play, and baits
which seldom miss a strike drag out the fish. In addition to all
this—day and night, month after month, year after year—the great
nets of the commercial fishermen reap their harvest. That is one
side of the story,

On the other hand we find a native fish fauna whose repro-
ductive capacities, even at their best during periods of favorable
readjustment, are less than two per cent efficient under
natural (undeveloped) conditions and have not increased one iota
to withstand the tremendous devastation inflicted by the opposing
forces. ‘The fishes know no cooperation. Their entire lives are
practically devoted to securing food without becoming it, and at
the end nearly every one comes to a violent death in good health.
Behind them, it is true, is solidly lined up every hatchery in the
country turning out fry and fingerlings which have been carried
through the period when they are subject to greatest mortality;
hence so far as the body of water into which they are placed is con-
cerned, this terrible loss is escaped. The hatcheries do not entirely

overcome loss of young fish, but they do provide a concentrate

of fry and a still greater concentrate of fingerlings for stocking
which have survived owing to the care bestowed upon them. Hence,
if one is to stock waters, the fingerlings used represent more effi-
ciency at the time of planting than a like number produced natur-
ally in the waters, the degree of efficiency achieved being the differ-
ence between the number of eggs required under natural conditions
in the waters and the number required in the hatchery to produce

: > senegal

Brown.—Adjustment of Environment vs. Stocking. 183

the same number of fingerlings. So far, good! But what becomes
of these little fish when they are set free to sink or swim in our
open waters? Does the average individual or fish and game asso-
ciation, to whom they must be entrusted, give them a good or even
a fair chance for survival? It is regrettable, but I fear the answer
must be negative.

Costly and disastrous mistakes on the part of individuals to
whom fish are turned over for planting, or who secure them them-
selves from private hatcheries, are the rule rather than the ex-
ception. The usual haste which attends the actual introductions
causes the fish to be literally dumped into waters at one or two
convenient points without regard to equalizing the temperature
in the cans or thought of possible shelter for the young fish while
getting their bearings. Bass and pickerel are placed in waters
ideal for trout. Trout are placed in natural bass waters. Trout
and bass are placed in the same waters. Waters absolutely lacking
in forage fish are heavily stocked with large, voracious, predatory
species. Species which require running water on shallows for
spawning are placed in deep lakes having no current, and vice versa.
Large-mouth bass are placed in clear rock-bound lakes, while the
small-mouth is introduced where mud and turbidity prevail. Fishes
already nearly eliminated, either by other fishes of the natural suc-
cession or an environment to which they are unsuited, are given
support by heavy stocking and the wasteful struggle is kept up
for a few years longer. As if all the violent reactions which the
foregoing lines of action create were not sufficient, much harm has
been done by introduction of species for the sole reason that they
were known favorably from other regions or even other countries.
The carp and brown trout are notorious examples from abroad.
Both are, indirectly and directly, respectively, highly destructive
of our native fishes; neither furnish sport equal to that given by
the indigenous species which they displace, and both, depending
upon the individual case, are difficult if not impossible to eliminate.
Thus it is seen that the almost incredible lack of knowledge which
everywhere prevails among the average owners of waters, and to
which may be added a deplorable lack of realization of the serious-
ness of the situation which our native fishes are facing, is probably
the greatest single drawback to extension of our fish culture.

Intelligent stocking of waters requires more time and study
than the average busy man can afford to give. The mere fact

134 American Fisheries Society.

that specimens of a non-indigenous species are seen a year or even
two years after introduction does not prove that the species is es-
tablished; for, while the individuals may exist for the periods of
their life-times, the life cycle must be complete before the species
can be considered established. That is, if the original introduction
was made with yearlings, yearling fishes must be produced in the
waters from their offspring before it is definitely shown that the
species can exist therein. Misinterpretation of conditions such as
this, based upon inadequate observation and experience—plus the
difficulty of obtaining fish, particularly the warm water varieties
for lakes and ponds, tends to concentrate the owner’s attention to
securing of fish alone. Haphazard plantings then prevail, and
though natural results nearly always come about slowly, no defi-
nitely progressive policy is adhered to; and even though a wise
plan may have been originally chosen, relapses occur which are
fatal to success. Much money, effort and time are lost by mis-
guided attempts to improve the situation, and after a number of
years the fish life is probably less plentiful and the entire aquatic
environment more unbalanced than before anything was at-
tempted.

It has long been-an axiom of mine that whatever condition
exists tends to become intensified, and that in time cause becomes
effect and effect cause. In other words, cause and effect become
more and more inseparable; and the condition continues to develop
at constantly accelerating speed unless it is met by other forces.
Fortunately it would appear that the very nature of things has de-
creed that most situations have their compensation and a balance
is established before serious collapse occurs due to overweight in
any particular direction. ‘The question now is—with a thorough
understanding of the effect civilization is working upon our native
fishes—can we apply the conpensating force?

It is my firm belief that the solution must be sought by study
tending to extend our fish culture to include adjustment of aquatic
environments. The advance which modern hatchery practices gain
for the young fish must not end when they are planted. The years
of experience behind the months of effort with the particular fish
used in any given problem must not be vitiated by lack of under-
standing of the basic laws which control those fish after their liberae
tion in open waters. Mere stocking is too frequently dealing with
effects. Adjustment deals with causes. From now on we must

Brown.—Adjustment of Environment vs. Stocking. 1835

endeavor to master the riddles the solution of which will enable
more fish to exist in a given area of a given type of water. As
this is a very large subject, I merely wish to touch briefly upon
certain salient points, which, if fixed in mind, will perhaps be of
aid in future investigations.

In the accompanying Lake Table of Progressive Factors con-
trolling the production of small-mouth bass under natural (unde-
veloped) conditions (Table I) I have endeavored to itemize the
principal factors making up the environment in a lake where the
fish cultural object is the maximum production of small-mouth
black bass. The two groups are identical, but those at the top
represent the dependent factors or those which are benefitted or
otherwise influenced by the controlling or possibly limiting factors
in the left hand column. All of the controlling factors directly
influence various items in the other group as indicated by an X
in the column beneath the item affected. The direct influence, as
easily seen by consulting the table, is, however, little, if any, greater
in importance than the indirect results which come about by multi-
plied action through the enormous number of reactions which make
up an ecological environment. An attempt to diagram the influence
of a single factor, such as turbidity, through the factors which it
affects, then through those which they affect and so on and on, if
only to the end of each cycle, will easily convince anyone as to
the complexity of aquatic environments, and how impossible it is
to disturb one element therein without bringing on readjustment
almost throughout.

There can be no doubt that the rate of production of any
species in lake, pond or stream is determined and regulated by the
balance existing in the environment betwen those forces which are
favorable to and those which are against increase. Therefore,
if we can study and adjust the situation to extend and intensify
the favorable factors and at the same time eliminate or minimize
_ those which are untoward, the fishes must increase because that is
all they can possibly do. We should not doubt, at least for the
present, that the laws governing aquatic life are absolute. There-
fore, the more of these laws we learn the more complete will be
our control over the destiny of our fishes.

In a preceding paragraph I refer to controlling or limiting
factors. The reason for this dual nomenclature is that of the factors
which control production in any given body of water, only a few

136 American Fisheries Society.
Ti
LAKE TABLE OF ProGRESSIVE Factors CoNTROLLING Propuction oF SMALL-
Mouth Brack Bass.
[Symbols: E. A.—Effect absolute. V. D.—Varies disproportionately. E. V. D.—
Effect _varies disproportionately. E. V. P.—Effect varies proportionately]

Dependent Factors.

| l
: ‘i
| | 5 ig Bs)
4 | mh) hey o 5
Controlling $1 38|s = 3 i] 13
g| S| El 13 "a
Factors. 1S) Sl sl. eee | |S
Ola; a) Ol wa | S| a = Te)
. H/2Q;Q)"s| a “ule ° 5 is}
| sigisfsrs/8/e) jee] [elel jal ts
| -|3 ail Hl el ala a ast slg ig ~ 3
mB] Ping] do] 9 ZO! 0/9). =
3) 9} 20 a} ais} aq\a refer
Yom eH) Si Oi w\ w Ss aja|a i;a/0/4
~W\d| © c 21 al | §/.8 pe ee, | Oo)
Bia] a ro) O}.4/ 0|'O -| O nS A o ta | ols
P/Q iSlal#) 8/2] O}] QiS!U] oO Bw )O)S Io a
2 /'3| 8| 81.8) 8) 2/3] 8) SiS 3/2) a) la| Bs)
bil ies il i ee aK is Oj ave na
|
A panih Vbpo [aia aph ad ma yc] > ae ect ne
Be Avaltitide os ae ele x |
nae (ee SE) ONE QD em (SON pean WA ee Pm ee NT
SAD ObaEbIGby ak oo oa 21k a x} X| | x
eS Ln VR (OI SR (SmI GREE [ae EE | OC) pea EE Pe
vay temperatures. i. ose. | | x|x[x}x|x|x|x|x|x|x
| | a Se ee eS ae SS eee
nr depth areas... 2 41h) Want | x|x|x|x]x]x|x]x|x|x
eee | ee ee Sees eS eS aa ee eS ee
* Je dissolved! eases iui02.s'.cal | 3 x|x}x|x|x|x|x|x|x
oe ee | ee eee aa ae Ee ee ee eee
“current orabsence.;......|x! | x|x/x|x/x x|x|x|x x
ee pt es ee See eee
< el |
“barriers or absence........ hea palpi fie. <alfio-<115.61| ><], 51) 5° |
“bottom chemical areas...... | |x |x| | x
“c . Citi lo.
brecdingiarcase. jal a | % | ae
Wim aleeoe. i ei Sh ki | x |x > Alhp.elp.< || 5.5 | |
| | ee
io iigher plantsac cr ie | |x [se ok ee
eee fe fe hs eee ed (a | —| — —_ — | —
“ scuds and waterfleas......! | |x X | ‘eel x x|x|x x
ee ee ee
. z | i | {
BV Winsectithes eels 1s 402 Han | | x x XIX x
| i |
aes a FC | ee ve
4 Le ai eet
% snails and molluscs... .. a ea | | | | X|X/X|X|x
a ee ee ee eee eee
: i_ |
ye forage fish (golden shiners)... .. | | | x |X| x | x
—_T > | I
2 : |
i swiftwater minnows (fallfish)...... ae | | | z| oe x| x
LL. rasa Veapeanl (ering eae oo [eT | SSS = 4 7 ot 1 ee
a3 table fish (perch and sunfish)...... | | K/K|/X | x
Soe
2B other predatory fish (pickerel)..... | | x|x|x|x
WAP De Wn a
E. V. P. small-mouth black bass........... | | | | | xxix
| | |

This table is not presented as accurate, but is intended to approximate
the main factors and stimulate thought along similar lines.

Brown.—Adjustment of Environment vs. Stocking. 1387

will actually limit it at any one time. Moreover, the degree to
which limitation to the bass occurs is variable with the different
factors. Some, as indicated by the letters EK. A. on the Lake Table,
have effect which is absolute; others lettered V, D.—vary dispro-
portionately with the production of bass, but as they are con-
sidered present far in excess of the immediate requirements of the
bass in the present illustration they vary only in disproportion,
and not in effect until a shortage begins to occur. Others in
the table are lettered E. V. D., meaning effect varies dispropor-
tionately within a short time. Only one factor affects the bass
in possibly direct proportion to their increase, and that is the bass
themselves.

Thus, to illustrate each case in different words: suppose we
consider the Lake Table applicable to a lake where adjustments
are being made to increase small-mouth bass. The effect of
factors like (E. A.) altitude, turbidity, and temperature remain
the same regardless of bass production unless we are able to
change them. Factors like (V. D.) vegetation, free alge and
other early turnovers in the bass food supply vary dispropor-
tionately to the increase of the bass; but since the bass can not
or do not quickly exhaust their beneficent influences, there is
no untoward effect. Factors such as (E. V. D.) table fish and
swifi-waier minnows which destroy young bass and compete
with them for food will no doubt destroy or impair the maximum
development of a greater number numerically as the bass in-
crease; therefore their effect, since they were already a limiting
factor before the increase of bass began, will be quite appreciable.
The proportion destroyed, however, wiil probably be less as
efforts are made to increase the forage fish and insect life (E. V.
D.) on which both bass and hostile fishes feed. Therefore, the
effects vary disproportionately with the bass increase. The
last classification (E. V. P.), meaning effect varies proportion-
ately, applies only to the bass in certain of their relations to one
another; as to all other factors which the bass are capable of
affecting, the increase continues disproportionate.

In analyzing these conditions as variously shown in the
Lake Adjustment Reaction Chart (Table II), under the five
divisions indicated as States A to E, inclusive, it would appear
that during the summer of the initial investigation of the waters
in question, the production of bass fingerlings was a hypo-

138 American Fisheries Society.

thetical 10,000 out of a hypothetical potential of 30,000 made pos-
sible by the number of eggs hatched on the available breeding
grounds and remaining after other factors not shown in the chart
had exerted their effects. Only 10,000 survive the summer; for,
although there are sufficient snails, molluscs, and insect life to
support 20,000 fingerlings to the summer’s end, the supply of
forage fish is so scarce that the hostile fishes, inclusive of the
older bass, prey upon the fingerlings to this extent.

Assuming that in this particular case it is possible to double
the available breeding areas by spreading gravel of the right sort
at proper depths, or by raising or lowering the water level, this
will give a potential (State B) of 60,000 fingerling bass within a
year or two as excess breeders take up space and more fish arrive
at maturity. However, as new species of vegetation, molluscs,
and forage fish superior to those native to the locality have just
been introduced, the change is not appreciable the first year fol-
lowing; and while an increase in the number of potential finger-
lings is available from the increased number of eggs hatched, the
hostile fishes consume the surplus nearly down to the old num-
ber of 10,000.

State C, however, shows decided improvement. The number
of fingerlings made possible by the increased breeding areas is
now at its maximum of 60,000. The superior species of vegeta-
tion which have been introduced are taking hold well and show
improvement which is further evidenced by the great increase
among the newly introduced forage fish. The latter, however,
have kept the snails, molluscs and insect life retarded, though
on the other hand they have forced the hostile fishes to slacken
in their persecution of the bass fingerlings, over 20,000 of which
survive the summer.

139

Brown—Adjustment of Environment vs. Stocking.

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140 American Fisheries Society.

This table shows production in thousands of fingerling small-mouth
bass by length of arrows. Those to right indicate maximum possible pro-
duction aided by the factors named. Arrows to left indicate direct limita-
tion by factor named. Hence longest arrow from the right ard shortest
from the left are limiting factors.

Only five factors are dealt with in order to simplify the chart. The
arrow from breeding areas represents eggs hatched converted to potential
fingerlings after factors not shown in this chart have exerted their effect.
Specific accuracy is not attempted, but the general reactions shown are
believed by the author to be substantially correct.

In State D still further improvement is noted. The vegeta-
tion is now capable of sheltering and supporting more fingerlings
than the potential provided by the full use of the increased avail-
able breeding grounds. The same is true of the snails, molluscs
and insect life and the forage fish. As, however, increase in con-
ditions favoring the bass have reacted favorably on the hostile
fishes also, we find them increasing and holding bass production
down to 45,000—15,000 below possible maximum under the
present adjustment.

State E, the most interesting of all, is intended to show the
gradual readjustment of the various factors to the new balance
of higher production. Owing to the constant increase in vegeta-
tion, the forage fish, through the shelter afforded and food fur-
nished, are at their maximum. The snails, molluscs and insect
life, however, are decreasing on that account and the available
breeding areas are becoming less, due to plant invasion. The
increase in forage fish and efforts to eliminate fishes antagonistic
to the bass has resulted in a decrease in enemy activity more
than compensating the loss of breeding area and leaving the
total number of fingerlings surviving the summer at 50,000.

These charts indicate that, unless the only limiting factor in
a lake, pond, or stream is insufficient breeding areas, or other factor
wholly effective before.the stage at which plantings are made, tt ts
a total loss to introduce young fish of species already established
without making suitable adustments providing for them, since they
wil be consumed together with the percentage already being
eliminated by other factors. ‘Thus if there is a shortage of spawn-
ing beds and it remains unremedied, any possible gain to the angler
even through lavish stocking is purely transitory, since the availa-
ble breeding ground is the neck of the bottle through which any
increase in maiure fish must pass to become permanent.

Brown.—Adjustment of Environment vs. Stocking. 141

As a matter of fact, shortage of breeding areas is seldom,
though far from never, the difficulty, as the potential reproduc-
tive capacity of the bass (and most other fish) is so great that
it never becomes an absolute limiting factor. More bass are, and
probably always will be, produced than survive environmental
elimination. However, an extension of breeding areas tends to
be beneficial unless it cuts down on other necessary factors such
as depth areas providing winter shelter, or chemical areas sup-
porting submerged vegetation beyond the minimum of each es-
sential to maximum bass support. In a natural, undeveloped lake,
which will average 500 bass nests year in and year out, fished or
unfished, providing the same is done at a constant rate, the
Saturation point of bass breeders may be said to approximate
1,000. That is, in spite of everything, 1,000 mature bass spawn
in those waters every year.

Now on these 500 nests there will be 1,500,000 eggs if we
take 3,000 as an approximate number per nest. Though the sur-
vival of bass from hatching to reproduction is sometimes referred
to as less than 2 per cent, in reality the percentage reaching
maturity and reproduction is in the neighborhood of .000269 or
somewhat less than .0003 per cent. In other words, if 1,000 ma-
ture fish spawn every year they are made up of some which are
spawning for the first time, some for the second, and some for
the third and fourth times. I have no data on spawning ages
so am leaving any earlier or later spawners out of the reckon-
ing; but, as any fish spawning for the fourth time would be six
years old, and in well-fished waters would probably not exceed
that age, I think the figures are close enough. One thousand
breeders would therefore (see Table III) probably consist of 50
six-year-old fish, 200 five-year-olds, 350 four-year-olds, and 400
new spawners. Thus out of the 1,500,000 eggs produced an-
nually only 400 annually survive to reproduction, which gives
the above percentage, and at the same time clearly shows, whether
the figures are absolutely accurate or not, than the reproductive
capacity of the bass is a tremendous potential and gives a glimpse
of the wonderful advantages which are not only possible, but
positively await study and adjustment of environments.

There is no reason why ecological adjustment of aquatic
environments, including the fish life, cannot be made an exact
science, but it will only become so by close and patient study

142 American Fisheries Society.

leading to complete knowledge of the relations which the
species bear to each other and to the environment and ap-
plication through the knowledge thus gained of the principles
which mankind has applied through the ages in securing and
maintaining his own supremacy.

III.
PoTENTIAL AND MorTALity TABLE FOR SMALL-MoutH Bass.
a8 we

Hatched; - 1916 ISL7 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922

Premise; Mortality before spawning
down to .000269 {per cent.
1,000 spawners on ;
500 nests each year, : 3
3,000 eggs per nest.
1,500,000 eggs yearly.
First spawning 400 400 400 Qo 4Q0 400

Second spawning 350 350 350 0
Third spawning 200 200 200 200 NG
Fourth spawning 50 50 50 50

me a a a a a a a a a a nn a a a ee fee eee
a a a a a a we ee a we fa a ee

Total spawners yearly. | 1,000 | 1,000 | 1,000 | 1,000 | 1,000 | 1,000

wee wn aw a + a eo he a hl ee he ee he ow oe eo do ee ows

Assume a lake where scarcity of food, low temperature, or other en-
vironmental reasons defer spawning until the fish are three years old. If
spawning starts sooner the proportion reaching maturity and reproduction is
less than .000269 since the total number per year is one thousand, unless
all die under six years of age, which is unlikely.

Mortality before spawning probably substantially correct. Mortality
after first spawning purely hypothetical.

For many years it has been increasingly evident to those who
have consulted old records, or otherwise kept in touch, that the
supply of our native game fishes, particularly in the more de-
veloped parts of the country, has been steadily decreasing. The
fact that this diminution has not attracted the full and respon-
sive attention which it merits is probably due to a number of

Brown.—Adjustment of Environment vs. Stocking. 148

reasons. For one, improved facilities of transportation bring
formerly inaccessible places within easy reach, thereby prevent-
ing realization of the increased energy expended to obtain fish.
For another, the changes coming with the slow passage of the
years are usually so gradual as to deceive; but, should someone
remember and speak of former abundance, what happens? The
new generations of anglers growing up are inclined to regard
statements of their immediate predecessors which concern larger
catches, both in size and number of individuals, as intended more
to impress than edify, or, if they do consider the statements as
seriously intended, attribute them rather to that state of mind,
sometimes found in those of advancing years, which rather fails
to find anything quite so good or as plentiful as in years gone by.

Whatever the reasons may be, it is time that vigorous and
cooperative action extending our fish culture to include progres-
sive adjustment of waters should be taken by everyone who is
in the slightest degree interested in the preservation of our
fishes, especially the game species, from gradual but certain
elimination. Inasmuch as streams are less subject to control
than lakes, it is upon the latter that the first pitched battles in
the coming struggle of defense must be fought. Our ultimate
object should be to learn how to develop, from any starting
point, the ideal body of water whereon the angler shall be the
only limiting factor. The day may come when a war of con-
quest will carry our victorious arms, or fins if you prefer, into
the great river systems, but for the present our backs are to the
wall to win out on our ponds and lakes. It is here we must stand,
and fall if necessary, to preserve one of the most remarkable
heritages of fish life that evolution has yet produced.

Discussion.

Mr. C. F. Cuner, Homer, Minn.: Mr. Brown spoke of the poor old
carp. Did he mean to suggest that the carp was a bad citizen all over

the country, or was he referring to some particular place?

Mr. Brown: I think in general that the presence of the carp has a
bad effect upon our native fishes. In localities where other fishes would not
naturally be able to maintain themselves, of course there would be no
objection to the carp.

Mr, CULLER: The poor old fellow has been condemned from all quarters,
but have you ever stopped to realize that the carp and the buffalo in the
Mississippi Valley are of the greatest economic value to that section of
the country; that there are more pounds of these species of fish caught

144 American Fisheries Society.

and marketed in that section than any other kind; and that they reach a class-
of the people who could not afford a higher grade of fish? Also the carp
furnishes food for the game fish. There is nothing more destructive to-
game fish than their own kind. For example, the pike will eat more fish
in a day than you will eat in a month.

Mr. Brown: In regard to the use of the carp as a forage fish, I have:
run across that a number of times in the past year. Some people have ad-
vocated that the carp should be introduced into natural bass waters with
a view to their young serving as food for the bass. I went extensively into
the matter; and it would appear that as the carp increase, though they do-
not feed directly on the bass, they are nearer to the source of the food
supply than the bass. The bass have to take their food after a number
of turn-overs, whereas the carp can feed on the vegetation direct; the re-
sult is that as the carp increases in size and numbers—and there is a great.
increase when they first come in—they begin to compete with the bass.
They tend to eliminate the vegetation by grubbing and rooting in the water,
and they consume the roots. Dr. Osborn found, a couple of years ago, over
five thousand seeds of plants in the stomach of a single carp. In this way
the vegetation is gradually eliminated; and the turbidity of the water, created
through the operations of the carp, has a very deleterious effect on bass
eggs, also on the young bass—particularly the small-mouth. In addition to
this, the turbidity of the water enables swift water-minnows, such as
chubs, redfins, fallfish, and so on, to operate as if under a smoke screen
and to take the young bass. The consequence is that the partial protection
ordinarily afforded by the mature bass to their young is done away with.

Mr. CuLLeER: Why not hatch them out under proper restrictions? When
it comes to sport it is hard to beat a 10-pound carp. I have got them on
live minnows, and I have had some sport with a 10-pound carp; you cannot
land him unless you have a net. In fact, I have had more sport with a 10--
pound carp than I could have with a 5-pound bass. You cannot land a
carp as you land a salmon.

Mr. BrowN: What kind of minnow did you use for bait?

Mr. CULLER: Chub.

Mr. Brown: How big a fish was it?

Mr. CULLER: The chub—about 3 or 4 inches.

Mr. Brown: ‘Then it would appear that the carp do eat live fish.

Mr. CuLLER: ‘They will eat live bait in certain places—in the rivers;
that was in the Mississippi River. But do not crush the old fellow out;
give him a show.

Dr. EMMELINE Moore, Albany, N. Y.: I have been very much inter-
ested in the hypothetical problem that Mr. Brown has projected and the
very interesting and intelligent way in which he has analyzed the steps in
the solution of that hypothetical problem. But I feel that his conclusion
is weak in one respect. He states that this hypothetical pond or lake will’
have, when it is properly adjusted, only one limiting factor, and that is the
angler. I cannot quite see how, in a pond so intensively cultivated, the-
only limiting factor would be the angler.

Mr. Brown: I expressed the idea that such a thing would be possible:

Brown—Adjustment of Environment vs. Stocking. 145

and that we should work toward that end; but the probability would be that
we might never reach our objective. As said in my paper just read, our
vitimate object should be to learn how to develop, from any starting point,
the ideal body of water whereon the angler shall be the only limiting factor.

Mr. C. O. HayrorpD, Hackettstown, N. J.: I think we are very fortu:
nate in having Mr. Brown give us this paper. I have known him for a num
ber of years. Up where he comes from they have a very large lake and
from the time he was a boy he has had a wonderful chance to observe
the fish life in that body of water. He became interested in this subject, as
few boys do; it has been a hobby with him from the start. He informed me
the other night that he was going much further with his studies. It is
remarkable the extent to which he has taken the time to count and study
the fish nests, and do many of the things which he has discussed with
me. I hope Mr. Brown will continue along this line and later give us a
further account of any developments in the valuable work that he is carrying
on.

Dr, E. E. Prince, Ottawa, Canada: I would like to say one word in
commendation of this paper. It seems to me to be an admirable supplement
to Dr. Birge’s paper of yesterday, because after all, when we come down
to these questions of adjustment, we must know the chemical and biological
factors that lie at the bottom of it all. As Mr. Brown has said, there are
many factors to be considered, none of which you can ignore. There is
especially the question of new diseases, new troubles that arise from our
artificial adjustments; because after all we are aiming at keeping up the
proper natural balance of factors—a very ideal condition of things. While
Mr. Brown’s paper is highly theoretical in its character, it is not entirely
so; there is a basis of fact there. I have often thought that in surmounting
the difficulties which arise from over-fishing and from changed ecological
conditions, the ideal to aim at is not always that of simply making a certain
body of water self-producing or self-reproducing. I call to mind certain
bass lakes in Canada and one or two very important brook trout waters
which are well stocked with fish, but the young fish are reared in other waters
and brought there to grow to maturity. Let me illustrate: We had a bass
pond in Ontario in which we placed a great number of parent fish just
before the spawning time. They nested there, and the young hatched out.
We immediately removed all the parent bass and left the young in this
admirable pond, which was well supplied with the natural food. On some
of my visits to that nursery I found the pond actually black with young
bass. Now, the parents were put into the main lake, where they were
accessible to the angler. When the young bass were two or three inches
in length, then we transferred them to the open waters. It was a solution
of the problem of keeping up the supply of fish where it is a very difficult
thing to balance all the ecological conditions for parents as well as fry
in a large open lake. Similarly brook trout were reared in a stream and
subsequently planted in another region, but it was found especially suc-
cessful with black bass. The angler got a much better supply of fish through
the use of this method of providing a nursery separate from the fishing
waters. I wish personally to thank Mr. Brown for his admirable paper.

PROTECTING MIGRATING PACIFIC SALMON.
By Joun N. Coss
Director, College of Fisheries, University of Washington, Seattle

The remarkable development of irrigation and power
projects, especially in the country west of the Mississippi River,
has brought to the fore a number of perplexing problems in con-
nection with our fish life, and unless these can be satisfactorily
solved our economic and game fisheries are threatened with ex-
tinction or heavy loss. This is especially true of the Pacific Coast,
as in nearly all of the rivers debouching into the Pacific Ocean
occur annual runs of anadromous fish, comprising the five species
of salmon, also steelhead trout, smelts, sturgeon, lampreys, and
others. In this connection the writer has thought that the mem-
bers of the American Fisheries Society might be interested in
what we have done in the State of Washington to safeguard the
runs in the Yakima River, one of our typical streams.

DESCRIPTION OF THE YAKIMA RIVER.

This river rises in the Cascade Range, near the Snoqualmie
Pass, flows in a southeasterly direction in Kittitas, Yakima, and
Benton counties and empties into the Columbia River about 10
miles above the mouth of the Snake River. The approximate
length of the river is 180 miles, and it has a drainage area of
5,970 square miles. It has a number of important tributaries, in-
cluding Naches, Cle Elum, Kachess, and Teanaway rivers and
many large creeks. The river water is remarkably clear and
cold. The river is subject to frequent freshets during the rainy
season, and as a result of the melting snow in the mountains
there is a good flow of water even during the dry season in the
lower reaches.

HABITS OF THE MIGRATING FISH.

In order to understand the magnitude of the task it is neces-
sary to describe briefly the migrations of the salmon, which com-
prise the vastly greater part of the migrants.

It is the custom of the salmon, when it reaches the adult
stage, which period varies with the species, and also within a
limited range in the case of certain species, to leave the salt

water and head for the certain stream in which it was born, or
146

Cobb.—Protecting Migrating Pacific Salmon. 147

in which it was planted. How it finds this particular stream
out of the many, is still one of the unsolved salmon problems,
but find it we well know it does. As soon as the salmon reach
the brackish waters they cease to feed, and from this until the
end no food enters the stomach. After a period varying with
the species and the length of the stream, those that escape their
many enemies reach the spawning grounds. Here they remain
until the eggs and milt are ripe, when the reproductive act takes
place. From the moment the fish enters the fresh water a sort
_of decay of its body sets in. Gradually the body loses the bright,
silvery appearance it had when first coming in, and replaces it
with a reddish, sometimes a deep red, color; the scales gradually
fuse into the skin, the upper jaw becomes elongated and hooked,
in some dead white blotches appear on the body and these spread
so that finally the whole body appears one dead white blotch.
As the fish has ceased to eat, the stomach and intestines, through
disuse, shrivel up until it would be difficult to insert a pencil
point into them. Still other changes are noticed in some species.
But the above is ample to prepare the reader to learn that all of
these fish die after spawning.

As a result of this it is not necessary for us to assure a
return passage to their ocean home for these hordes, but it is
necessary to do so for their progeny. The eggs deposited by
the female find shelter in the pebbles at the bottom and those

“that have been fertilized and escaped their enemies hatch out in
approximately three months time. They are born with a yolk
sack and during the first 30 days they live by absorbing this,
after which they must shift for themselves. The humpbacks and
dogs go to sea as soon as possible after the sack is absorbed,
while the others remain in the fresh waters varying periods,
ranging from three months to sixteen months after birth.

SAFEGUARDING THE MIGRATING ADULT FISH.

From the above it can easily be perceived that our first task
is to assure a safe passage to the spawning grounds of those fish
which escaped their many enemies in the main Columbia River.
No commercial fishing is permitted in the Yakima River, al-
though Indians catch them for home use, and occasionally to

148 American Fisheries Society.

sell, with spears in those stretches of the river abutting on Indian
reservations.

The first obstruction to the ascent of the fish is at Kenne-
wick, close by the mouth. Here a dam 42 inches in height has
been constructed to obtain water for irrigation purposes. The —
next obstruction is at Prosser, where a dam was constructed —
some years ago in order to supply power to operate a mill. This
dam has a fishway of the pool and fall system.

At Wapato, on the Yakima River a few miles below the city
of Yakima, the United States Indian Service some years ago
installed a dam in order to supply water to irrigate land on the
Yakima Indian Reservation. A couple of miles farther down,
at Sunnyside, the United States Reclamation Service about the
same time built another dam to irrigate land outside the reser-
vation. In the upper dam was constructed one of the finest pool
and fall fishways the writer has ever seen, being made of cement,
of ample dimensions, and having an excellent system of control
gates at the head. In the other was installed a narrow, shallow
pool system, with openings at the bottom of the pools, and with
no control gates at the head. As a result there was a steady,
regular, and ample flow of water through the Wapato fishway,
while in the Sunnyside there was a seething and wild flow, espe-
cially when the water was high, which any fish accustomed to
jumping would have had much trouble in combatting.

For a considerable time fish culturists paid but little at
tention to the river, in fact they hardly thought of it, as but
little attention or consideration had been paid to them when
the dams were constructed, and it is still a puzzle in one or two
instances where the builders got their plans for the fishways
that were installed. If biologists thought of them at all, it was
doubtless to feel that expert advice had been asked and acted
upon and that all was well. A few doubting Thomases, how-
ever, insisted upon being heard and claimed that the fishways
were not doing the work they were installed for. About a year
ago Mr. J. W. Kinney, who had assumed office a few months
before as State Supervisor of Game and Game Fishes, put the
matter of ascertaining the facts in the case up to the writer, who
was also authorized to apply such corrective measures as might
be needed.

The first task taken up was the determination of the effec-

Cobb.—Protecting Migrating Pacific Salmon. 149

tiveness of the established fishways. Observation at the Wapato
and Sunnyside dams developed that many fish were to be seen
jumping at both dams when the annual runs were on, and it was
noticed that quite a few managed to get over the dams in this
way, and the bigger the flood in the river the easier it appeared
to be for the fish. In order to determine whether fish were
passing through the fishway of the Sunnyside dam, last spring,
during the steelhead run, a trap was placed at the upper exit of
the fishway. This trap was left in for several weeks, and during
that period not a steelhead was captured, the catch consisting
of squawfish and suckers, none of which are inclined to jump out
of the water. During this period plenty of steelheads were,
however, observed jumping along the face of the dam.

Previous investigation elsewhere had developed that the
fatal weakness of the standard type of pool and fall fishway is
that the entrance to the fishway is so far downstream that salmon
and trout almost invariably miss it, and the writer is impelled
here to express the fear that but few species of fish other than
suckers and squawfish would be apt to find it.

During the preceding winter a plan radically modifying the
pool and fall system had been prepared and the modified fish-
ways are now under construction in both dams. In this the
device is carried a certain distance down stream, then turned at
right angles, thence turned again to face toward the dam, and
carried back to the foot of the apron of the dam. This makes a
structure resembling a staircase with one acute turn and landing
and in this way reduces at least one-half the extreme distance
of the fishway below the dam. By making the entrance to the
fishway parallel to the face of the dam and just at the foot of it a
convenient and easily found gateway is provided for the salmon
to enter. A somewhat similar plan has been found to work suc-
cessfully in the Ament dam on the Rogue River in Oregon, near
Grants Pass, where it superseded one of the old type which had
proved worthless.

As the Sunnyside dam is quite wide, while the river just
below it is broken up into pools and shallows, it has been de-
cided to also construct another fishway of the modified type on
the western side of the dam. In the new pool and fall system
being installed in the Wapato dam, the pools are 7 feet long by
8 feet wide by 4 feet deep while the openings for the water to

150 American Fisheries Society.

pass from one pool to another are 2 feet wide and one foot deep.
In the Sunnyside fishways the pools will be somewhat smaller in
the old one, due to the fact that it was thought best not to alter
the upper half too much as it is in this case, as well as in that
of the Wapato, to be incorporated into the new system.

Another arrangement of the pool and fall system which has
been found to work well in certain places is that which has its
entrance in the face of the dam at one side. This type is in use
in the dam and locks of the canal connecting Lake Union with
Puget Sound. Here the high bank on one side and the wall of
the lock on the other side confine the fish in a channel about
150 feet in width, and as the water is deep along the bank the
salmon are easily led to the mouth and thence induced by the
flow of water from the fishway to jump into the first box, and
thence up until they swim away into Lake Union, some distance
beyond the top of the dam. In many instances this will be found
a more feasible and practicable system than one located wholly
below the dam, and it is our intention to use it whenever possible.

At this point it might be well to emphasize a fact soon dis-
covered that only up to a certain point can the fishway be stand-
ardized. There are no two dams constructed exactly alike, and
it is but rarely, if ever, that the effects produced by adam
upon the river itself are uniform. Asa result each project must
be considered as an entirely separate and distinct problem, which
must be attacked all over again, and such modifications in the
regular type of fishway made as investigation develops are
needed, and the solving of this problem is preeminently the work
of the biologist.

The fishway in the Prosser dam was about as worthless for
migration purposes as the one in the Sunnyside dam, and last
year a considerable section was torn out and the fish now have
no trouble in passing through the sluiceway so made. In the
Kennewick dam a sluiceway about 50 feet in width in the center
of the dam has been provided. In order to prevent too rapid
flow of water through this for the fish to breast, three baffle
boards, two on one side and one about midway of the others
and on the opposite side have been provided.

In the endeavor to evolve the best type of fishways for the
dams on the Yakima a number of plans were prepared, and the
best of these, in the writer’s opinion, had to be abandoned be-

Cobb.—Protecting Migrating Pacific Salmon. 151

cause the owners of the dams were unwilling to allow the in-
stallation of anything that required any considerable cutting
into the dam. One of these provided for a tunnel under the
apron and the dam itself, and the installation of an enclosed pool
and fall fishway along the upper side of the dam, with an open-
ing upstream at the crest of the dam. This opening was to be
safeguarded from debris and was to be provided with gates for
controlling the supply of water entering therein. The entrance
to the fishway was to be at the head of one of the deeper pools
in which the fish generally congregated.

SAFEGUARDING THE YOUNG ON THEIR SEAWARD WAY.

After provision had been made as noted above for the ascent
of the adult fish, it was necessary to safeguard the young fish
on their way to the sea, their natural habitat.

When the course of the river was unobstructed the little
fish usually came down stream in schools in the late spring and
early summer. When small tributaries were encountered many
of the fish would ascend these for some distance, or play around
inside their mouths, to later resume their interrupted journey.
For irrigation purposes large ditches, some of them carrying an
immense volume of water, are constructed and the entrance to
these is at one or the other side of the dams. They are pro-
tected by large gates, which are raised to a height sufficient to
permit the volume of water needed to enter under them. From
these main ditches innumerable distributing ditches radiate and
thus carry the life-giving water to the thirsty fields in the area
covered by the project. Water is usually turned into the ditches
early in April and shut off about October.

If these main ditches are left unguarded, the young fish
appearing a month or more later are almost irresistibly drawn
into them by the strong current and in a very short period of
time the younger ones have been carried through the various
feeders to ultimately find an untimely fate on the fields. Should
the larger and stronger ones be enabled to keep out of the
smaller ditches which lead directly onto the cultivated fields,
their fate is merely postponed until the water is drawn off in the
fall, and they are left to die in the rapidly-drying ditches. We
have ocular evidence that many millions of young salmon and
trout have met such a fate. This has been a terrible drain on
the Pacific salmon runs, and while numerous attempts have been

152 American Fisheries Society.

made to find a way to stop this sapping of our fishery resources,
it must be reluctantly confessed that the burden has fallen upon
our fish culturists, who have had almost no aid from the agri-
culturists ; in fact, the latter have frequently fought the remedial
measures applied, and it has been necessary to require by law
that some preventive measures be adopted in such ditches.
One of the earliest safeguards employed was the placing
across the mouth of these ditches of a heavy wire screen of small
enough mesh to prevent the fish from getting through. The
principal disadvantage of this device was that floating leaves
and other debris gathered along its face and sometimes almost
formed a dam of it, and it proved a difficult matter to keep it
clean. A big wheel, the full width of the ditch, and with a fine
mesh covering, was then devised and this was found to work
better than the screen, as the revolving of the wheel due to the
force of the current prevented part of the debris from accumulat-
ing on and against it. While a number of these are in use they
have been successful only in a measure, and the same objections
have been made against them that are made against the screen.

Several years ago W. J. Burkey, of Berkeley, Calif., con-
ceived the idea of an electric fish stop, and shortly afterwards
got in touch with the Yakima County Fish and Game Com-
mission. In 1920 he came to Yakima and installed one or two
of his devices in irrigation ditches nearby. At this time the
device was an exceedingly crude one, and a little experimental
work soon developed that while it had some merit it would have
to be greatly improved to do the work desired. Shortly after
this the Yakima County authorities purchased the county rights
for the use of the device. The State Department of Fisheries
assigned an electrical expert to the work of perfecting it and
he and E. C. Greenman, County Game Warden, worked with the
device for several months and finally produced the one now
in use.

The present electrical fish stop consists of from two to four
rows of iron or steel spirals, placed in a vertical position, and
from two to five feet apart both up stream and across and ex-
tending from about six feet above high water mark to the bottom
of the ditch. These spirals are held in position by means of a
wooden frame which stands entirely out of the water and is
placed across the canal above the headgates. An ordinary light

Cobb.—Protecting Migrating Pacific Salmon. 153

drop of low amperage, and a voltage of 110 to 120, connected to
the spirals or electrodes will furnish ample electricity. If a
power line is not available, electricity may be supplied by a small
generator driven by a water wheel or gas motor. Copper wiring
is connected to the tops of the electrodes, and electrical current
is shot in all directions through the canal in a zone of about
twelve feet up and down the ditch, and the County game au-
thorities claim this is sufficient to turn back all fish entering.
The writer has visited these devices a number of times, but
has not yet been fortunate enough to witness the actions of fish
when coming into the charged zone. Those, however, who have
witnessed them claim that as the young fish drift tail first down
the stream they are seen to be affected when some feet away
from the device and immediately swim away from the affected
zone. It is said that when the device was first put in and charged

young fish were at times seen around the electrodes and the

force of the current was sufficient to knock them senseless, but
they soon recovered after drifting out of the charged area.

In 1921 the devices were put in the ditches several weeks
after the water had been turned in and thus it was impossible
to tell whether the very few fish found in the ditches when the
water was turned off in the fall had got in before or after the
devices were installed. This year, however, the devices were
in place when the water was turned in and conclusive evidence
of their efficiency will be afforded during the summer and after
the water is turned off in the fall.

Discussion.

Mr. J. N. Coss: I am preparing now a comprehensive report on fish-
ways of the Pacific Coast. The engineer who has been working with me for
some time on this problem under my direction has prepared a number
of plans. I am holding the report up until we test out one or two of these
devices, but I can assure you that I shall be only too glad to place at the
disposal of those who are interested any of the plans prepared. I have

. gathered, as far as I could, plans and specifications of other fishways, and

would like to enlarge this collection. If, therefore, any of the members
here know of fishways that I can get plans and specifications of—whether
they work or not—I should be glad to hear of them; because I would like
to know what is good as well as what it is wise to avoid. I never knew
of a fishway that was thoroughly satisfactory, while many of them have
been absolutely worthless.

Mr. Cartos Avery, St. Paul, Minn.: Perhaps we are inclined to give
up the struggle with reference to fishways in this section of the country

154 American Fisheries Society.

too soon. We have been inclined to the conclusion that it might be use-

less to attempt further work with fishways in the streams in our section-

of the country where we have the more sluggish fishes—the pike perch
and other fishes which do not leap and perhaps would not adapt themselves
to the style of fishways that Mr. Cobb may have found successful in his

streams. But his work indicates that perhaps we ought to make a more

thorough and scientific study of the question here. I have in mind one

fishway on the Mississippi River through which the pike perch pass in

large numbers; we have found that by observation—but it is one of the

very few I have heard of that pike perch would use. If we can, as he

suggests, by studying each individual case more thoroughly, devise a fish-
way through which the fish will pass, we shall have done something to
meet a very large demand. We have been importuned to require the in-
stallation of fishways in dams, but on account of the failure of most fish-
ways we have been inclined to discourage any further efforts along that
line.

Mr. N. A. Comeau, Godbout, Quebec: It has been possible for me to
build two fishways on Canadian rivers, one on the Sheldrake River, about

15 miles from my place, and another on the Matamak or Trout River’

for Mr. Copley Amory, of New York. Both of these fishways have been a
success. Three hours after I put the fishway on the Sheldrake River the
fish were ascending. I would be very glad to give you a plan of these
fishways. The fall on the Sheldrake River was 24 feet, over a great granite
cliff; on the Matamak it was 28 feet. I built the fishway in the solid rock.
Mr. CHartes O. Hayrorp, Hackettstown, N. J.: Maine has a number
of successful fishways of various heights, for landlocked salmon and trout.
I had charge of one located at the outlet of Rangeley, where many trout and
salmon ascended annually. The dam was 12 feet high. My experience

with fishways has taught me that currents have a great deal to do with

their success,

Mr. G. C, Le&acu, Washington, D. C.: It is my opinion that a fishway
is of little value except for anadromous fish; and even then I believe that,
having regard to the cost of maintenance of the fishway and interest on
the investment. that in a great many cases a man employed to seine the

fish from below the dam will put more fish above than any fishway. So:

far as the more sluggish species are concerned, I think the dam is a pretty
good thing in the streams; it forms them into pools and places which you
can stock with fish. In this case I believe you get better results than may
be obtained, as a rule, in the ordinary open stream.

Mr. Dwicut LypELL, Comstock Park, Mich.: We have a dam in Mich-
igan on the Pine River, known as the Welston dam, that is about 40 feet
high; and at this place there is located one of the collecting stations for
rainbow trout eggs. On one occasion when I visited the place we opened
the upper trap of the dam, where the fish make the final leap into the
water above, and we took out of it 50 rainbow trout; so I have always
considered that our fishway there was working to perfection. The only
thing was that we had to close it in order to get any fish below the dam.
This fishway is composed of a lot of large boxes and the fish jump from

Cobb.—Protecting Migrating Pacific Salmon. 155

one to the other; they also have a place to rest. Particulars as to the con-
struction of this fishway can be obtained from our department.

Mr. J. N. Cosz: Our irrigation projects do not bother us so much,
because the dams are all low. But I have now at my office an application
for a fishway or some way of getting the fish over a dam 110 feet high.
The projectors expect to take every drop of water out of the river on
which the dam will be located, and run it through a sluiceway to the power
plant, which will be located on salt water. We have at present in use a
power project with a dam 200 feet high; they put a fishway in the dam,
the entrance to which is nearly 600 feet below the apron of the dam.
The State Fish Commission uses it mainly for the catching of squawfish
and suckers. About half way up the fishway a gate cuts off the ascent
of the fish, and when the suckers and squawfish get up there they are re-
moved. Nobody has ever seen a salmon or trout go up this last fishway.
We don’t find as great a difficulty in getting the adult fish up and over
the dam as we do in getting the young fish safely over it on their downward
migration. There is a sluiceway in the Sunnyside dam, but it is too swift
for fish; there is always a heavy flow of water through it—the less water
they have in the river the more there is in the sluiceway. The} want to
use as much as possible of the run of water through the ditches and as
little as possible over the dams. But we have had the assurance from
the United States Reclamation Service that no more irrigation projects
will be considered unless the problem of how to get fish over these dams
is considered at the same time.

Dr. E. E. Prince, Ottawa, Canada: The points raised in Mr. Cobb’s
communication we in Canada have faced for a good many years. We have
approached this fishway question, it seems to me, from an entirely wrong
standpoint. Every species of fish has its own peculiar susceptibilities and
methods, and the same mode of ascent apparently does not suit all.

Mr. Cobb has told us that every dam is different; there are no two
alike. There is also the engineering difficulty; I do not see how you can
erect a fishway in a strong dam without weakening it from an engineering
standpoint. Many members of this Society will remember that four years
ago I made a proposal to lift the fish up mechanically*, but I confess that
I have been disappointed in receiving little encouragement from anybody in
regard to this device of mine. If you can lift fish a height of 10 feet you
can lift them with the same device a distance of 100 feet. Apparently most
fish culturists think it is the wrong way of solving the difficulty; they want
to make the fish go up themselves, whereas I want to elevate them mechan-
ically. Mr. Cobb has mentioned the building of dams over 100 feet high.
Well, if you let the fish climb up that height by a ladder or pass you
provide a trap from which any poacher can take the fish. The longer the
fishway the more opportunity there will be for them to take the fish out.
Fishways are often in out of the way places and very hard to protect.
Again, in Canada—and I suppose you have the same in many states—we

*See Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., Vol. XLVIII, No. 3.

156 American Fisheries Society.

have the difficulty in winter of ice forming at these obstructions, with the
result that many of the fishways are broken up or carried away.

As to the electrical screens, an electric shock seems to me to be a
rather harsh method of driving fish away. It may work all right, but 1
think the simpler method of a revolving wheel or screen would be satis-
factory; it has worked quite well in some of our western waters. I should
like to ask Mr. Cobb what kinds of fish he was particularly referring to as
making the ascent.

Mr. J. N. Cops: I was referring to the chinook salmon, the silver
or coho, and the steelhead trout. The red salmon does not run up that
stream, nor does the dog salmon or the humpback. I assure Dr. Prince
that I do not think the fish suffer from electric shock; it simply causes them
to feel a tickling sensation and induces them to move on. We have never
seen one killed, because the shock is very slight. Some which were playing
around the electrodes were merely knocked senseless. They drifted away,
but as soon as they got beyond the influence of the current they revived.

IRRIGATION CANALS AS AN AID TO FISHERIES
DEVELOPMENT IN THE WEST.

By Pron, E, F. Princes, M.A. LL. D:, D.Sc, F. R.-S.-C.
Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries, Ottawa, Canada

It has frequently been said that irrigation schemes on a
large scale in western sections of the United States and Canada,
while they may be the hope of Agriculture, are the grim despair
of the Fisheries. “You cannot hope to have an abundant supply
of fish in the same areas as you have irrigation reservoirs and
canals,” is the assertion of many well-informed people. That
it is a grave question for our population in the Western States
and Canadian Provinces cannot be disputed. A well-known
Canadian railroad official, frankly declared ten or twelve years
ago before a Fishery Commission, of which the Canadian Gov-
ernment had appointed me Chairman: “You cannot have irriga-
tion and fish.” It is because I hold the opposite opinion that I
have brought the subject to attention at this time.

After viewing the matter from a variety of standpoints, I
can see no insurmountable difficulty in providing a supply of
fish for the people’s food, and even a supply of certain game fish,
if the conditions are observed, which are set forth in this paper.
During my visit to Australia in 1914, when I paid special atten-
tion to the fisheries there, I found vast irrigation schemes on foot
which involved the erection of huge dams, and extensive retain-
ing reservoirs, but the conserving of the fish had never been
ignored, and I may point out that the famous “Murray Cod,”

-one of the most delicate and delicious of food-fishes, was the

principal species in the South Australian waters where irriga-
tion plans on an immense scale were in progress. Of course,
like most great rivers in Australia, the Murray River, though
it is 1,200 miles long, dries up to a large extent, forming a chain
of lakes 40 to 50 feet deep; yet the Murray Cod, really a Serra-
noid, has continued to abound, the periodical droughts not hav-
ing killed off the supply. There are always ample areas of water
sufficiently deep remaining to furnish favorable conditions for
the fish until normal conditions return with the wet season.

IRRIGATION SECURES PERMANENT RESERVOIRS.

The object of irrigation schemes is to prevent total drought
157

158 American Fisheries Society.

conditions, and to hold back ample supplies for distribution over
arid regions. Just as great cities, in most countries, have created
water-storage reservoirs, often very extensive ones, to guard
against failure of drinking-water supplies for the citizens, so
irrigation secures water for the farmer’s crops.

My first point is that, apart from the ultimate object of this
storage of water, these schemes create new possibilities for fish-
eries, fish-culture, and fish-conservation. In some countries these
city reservoirs have been stocked with fish, and the issue of
fishing permits has not only provided a coveted form of recrea-
tion, but has yielded a substantial annual revenue to many cities.
It has not been found that such fishing has affected the quality
or purity of the water for drinking purposes; indeed by per-
mitting angling, and thus keeping the abundance of fish in check,
numerous noxious animals and plants have been destroyed by
the fish, and all ground of fear on the part of supersensitive citi-
zens has been removed. Some large cities in England have en-
couraged anglers to resort to these storage reservoirs. Such a
populous city as Leeds in Yorkshire has done so, and few large
communities have better drinking water than the town referred
to. In certain cases I know objections have been raised, as in
the State of Connecticut, where systematic netting is carried
out officially, and the catches are transported alive to various
lakes and rivers in the State, and a system of extensive stocking
is made possible. Angling was forbidden in the reservoirs, but
they were utilized as supply-ponds for planting sporting waters,
and the overcrowding of the reservoirs with fish was prevented.

INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF IRRIGATION.

I am well aware that irrigation of “dry belts” has caused
great damage to fish. Twenty years ago the venerable Dr.
James A. Henshall wrote, in reference to fish in Montana waters
especially,

It is disheartening and discouraging to the Western fish-culturist to know
that millions of fish, both large and small, annually perish through being
stranded on meadows and grain fields, as a result of unscreened ditches.

A Canadian Fisheries officer in the Province of Alberta, Mr.
M. T. Miller, stated at the Fishery Commission’s sittings in 1910:

The irrigation ditches have been a great cause of destruction, especially
in earlier days, owing to fish passing out of the laterals. I had instruc-

Prince.—Irrigation Canals and Fisheries. 159

tions, as a Fishery Officer, to secure the screening of ditches, and some
men did it, but others refused.

One complaint has been that dams erected for irrigation have
prevented fish from getting up important creeks, which they had
been accustomed to ascend. At Maple Creek, in Southern Saskat-
chewan, about 200 miles east of the Rocky Mountains, the state-
ment, which I have before me, is that fish are held back below
the dam, and die in such numbers as to be a nuisance, and that
the Commissioner of Irrigation being asked to report, obtained
evidence from local parties asserting that before dams were
placed in the creek, fish ascended each season as far as they
could; but now, since the cattle company had constructed irri-
gation dams, the fish were stopped, and died below. Thus fish
are either obstructed and held back when migrating and die, or
they are carried down the ditches, and along the laterals to be
scattered over the land where they perish.

SCREENS ARE NECESSARY.

Both the evil results mentioned can be avoided by providing
suitable screens. In general such screening is not difficult,
though trouble and expense cannot be entirely avoided. There
are cases, it must be admitted, where the difficulties cannot be
ignored, particularly in very large reservoirs and canals. As an
example I may mention the Bow River scheme in the Province
of Alberta. The maintenance of screens in canals of large capa-
city presents difficulty, but not insuperable difficulty. The gates
are four feet wide, with a ten-foot head of water, and no less
than 1,500 miles of ditches can be supplied, under this plan
operated by the Canadian Pacific Railway Company. It should
be possible for a company of such importance, immense capital,
and enlightened enterprise, to devise and install screens, not at
the actual intake, but below the first water-gate. The placing
of the screens should be decided in all cases by competent engi-
neers furnished with discretionary power. The public and the
sporting section of the community have undeniable rights, and
estimates of the cost of effective screening, even on the largest
irrigation systems, can be shown to be a very insignificant item
annually, compared with the beneficial results to the general
public.

160 American Fisheries Society.

IRRIGATION IN FOOTHILLS AND PLAINS.

In the hilly regions, among the western foot-hills, the ques--
tion is not identical with that on the level prairie. Where the
water-supply comes from swift mountain streams, the character
of the water, and the kinds of fish, are in contrast with those
of more sluggish and warmer water courses, meandering over
the plains. Superior species inhabit the foot-hill streams, which
are more esteemed by anglers and more valued on the table.
The game cut-throat trout or red throat, the fastidious and famous
grayling, that is to say the true northern grayling, not the Rocky
Mountain whitefish, also known as Williamson’s whitefish, which
is popularly called grayling in the West—these are among the
fishes which make their home in the rapid streams of the hilly
territory. The slower sluggish water courses over the prairie
are characterised by pike-perch or dore (the wall-eye), jackfish
or long-nosed pike, yellow perch, the silvery herring-like gold-
eye, various catfishes, mullets, and many species of suckers, and,.
in some localities, the fresh-water ling or cusk, all of which
fish, at some season of the year, especially in the colder months,
are very fair table fish, and even the least esteemed can be so
prepared by salting and kippering as to be very palatable.

IRRIGATION RESERVOIR DAMS MAY BENEFIT FISH.

The erection of dams and the blocking of even important
streams is not always a detriment, for the retention of a large
body of water may provide more food, cooler conditions, and
more ample environment for fish, and result in the production of ;
larger fish and a more abundant supply of them. Local condi-
tions vary, and a condition that may be injurious in one locality
may be actually beneficial in another. I can recall two cases of
substantial benefit to the fisheries due directly to the erection of
dams which had caused great complaint on the part of mistaken
enthusiasts. Thus in a stream in Guysborough County, Nova .—
Scotia, small trout abounded, though at certain seasons some
large sea trout ascended and later descended and returned to the
sea; but after the erection of a dam for logging purposes, the
body of water above was increased, and the trout retained in this
deeper water increased in quantity and became of much larger
average size, so that the anglers who complained of the dam at
first, readily admitted the substantial benefit to fishing which.

:
P|
:
.

Cee RA a Be PO ete

Prince.—Irrigation Canals and Fisheries. 161

had resulted. In the Grand River in Ontario a dam was erected
near Dunnville. Owing to complaints that fish could not migrate
up the river, and that the dam obstructed ascending schoois, a
fishway was erected; but proved wholly useless. Fish, however,
above the dam began to increase, and angling greatly improved,
for such species as black bass and pike perch spawned, and
the schools of young were retained and could not leave the river ;
hence the fishing was in every way benefited. The local anglers
appreciated the situation, and adopted a system of netting bass
and other fish below the dam and transferring them to the
deeper waters above, where they permanently remained. Now,
the canal and reservoirs which form so important a part of all
schemes of irrigation provide the very conditions for similar fish
culture work. Asa rule the lakes and streams in northern areas,
where irrigation systems are being carried out, are shallow, often
not very pure, frequently affected by saline and alkaline ele-
ments, reduced or dried up in summer, and frozen to the bottom
in winter, and thus afford every condition unfavorable for fish.
A wholly new condition is created by the construction of canals
and reservoirs under irrigation schemes. Large bodies of water,
deep, cool, and free from excesssive impurities are created, and a
great opportunity arises, therefore, for turning them to account
as fish-producing constructions. Irrigation canals might become
angling reserves, or, if of larger dimensions, sources of fish food
for the communities in which they are located.

What then are the possibilities of securing fish production
in such larger reservoirs or canals? Insect food usually estab-
lishes itself in a very short time, often in a few months after
water is admitted; various fresh-water mollusks, water snails,
etc., are carried by birds, and rapidly become numerous. But the
food conditions necessary for fish could be hastened by the trans-
ference of such aquatic life from other waters. Species of small
minnows (always excluding the destructive and harmful stickle-

backs, small fish with three or more sharp spines on their back)

will require to be introduced in most cases, as there are few
large kinds of fish which do not prey upon these small species
or feed upon their spawn and diminutive fry. But the question
of food for fishes need cause no concern as both minnows and
insect food and water snails will rapidly increase soon after
they are introduced. It must, I fear, be taken for granted that

162 American Fisheries Society.

the finest game fish, such as the various western trouts and
graylings, are not suitable. They must have rippling, rapid
water, gravelly shallows, and the conditions generally which are
characteristic of mountain streams. The eggs of such fishes
also are deposited, and the young fish hatch out on sandy or
gravel areas where the water is swift and aeration is assured,
and subdued sunlight has access to hasten incubation.

YELLOW PERCH PRESENT ADVANTAGES.

There are many species of fish which deposit their eggs in
glutinous masses, and which do not usually occur in rapid water.
The yellow perch (Perca flavescens) has desirable qualities ren-
dering it suitable for comparatively still waters. It is a hand-
some active fish, a good “pan fish,” and affords considerable sport
especially when it takes the fly—the black bass flies being the
best. The eggs occur in tenacious ribbon-like masses, which
cling to water plants, submerged posts, etc., or may even lie
folded in a circular form on a soft muddy bottom, where I have
often procured them in an advanced hatching condition. They
take five to ten days only to incubate, and the young fry are
unusually transparent and minute, and well fitted to escape the
notice of many enemies. They are so prolific and hardy that the
species is entitled to favor in spite of its low esteem on the part
of many anglers, and also on the part of epicures because of its
numerous small bones which are a trouble when it appears upon
the table.

Its fighting qualities are undoubted. I have hooked a yellow
perch of one and one-half or two pounds in weight, when fly-
fishing for black bass in the swift clear waters of the Upper
Ottawa River, Ontario, and I imagined, at first, that a good bass
was at the end of my line. But after much powerful tugging,
and many vigorous “rushes,” he failed to “break water,” and I
soon realized that my victim was not a bass. When taking the
fly it proves a really good game fish, and is, as I have said, so
hardy and so prolific that it may be regarded as an ideal species
for many irrigation reservoirs and canals. The only danger may
be its tendency to spread, and it hatches out so rapidly that it
soon over-runs adjacent waters, and finding its way into trout
or bass waters has proved undesirable on that account. Of pike
or jackfish, suckers, and other kinds of what are called “coarse

Prince —I rrigation Canals and Fisheries. 163

fish,” all producing tenacious eggs, usually in gummy masses, I
need say little. Their sporting qualities are inferior, and in
southerly areas they are soft and poor flavored. “Poisson mou”
they are called by French Canadians, and, as the term implies,
they are flabby and tasteless; but in northern lakes and streams
they are firmer and sweeter than in eastern and southern regions.
In waters connected with the Hudson Bay basin I have found them
firm, white, and so well flavored as to compare favorably with any
other table fish. One species, the large Channel Cat (Jctalurus punc-
tatus), is worthy of special mention both for its fine edible qualities,
and for the sport it furnishes. It is a strong, powerful fish when
hooked ; but it is voracious, and like the whole Catfish family, some-
thing of a scavenger.

BLACK BASS IN IRRIGATION RESERVOIRS.

The black bass, when planted, may cause disappointment,
because of its inordinate voracity. It will devour its own young
if other small fish are not plentiful for food. Where few bass
could find sustenance a far greater number of yellow perch would
flourish. Black bass, of both species, nest in shallow water—
three to six feet deep—and shelves of concrete, or of sunken wood
covered with gravel would be necessary as nesting platforms.
Even yellow perch increase more favorably when such plat-
forms are provided, but they must slope from two to four feet,
and freezing in early spring, when the water may be low, is thus
guarded against. Pike perch or wall-eye pike are fine fish, but
must have shallow gravel areas, over which running water passes
to produce the best results.

VARIOUS FORMS OF SCREENS FOR IRRIGATION DITCHES.

Screens at the intake or inlet of all ditches and canals are
really essential, especially if there is any communication with
streams frequented by trout, as in the eastern foothills of the
Rockies. The complaint of a Canadian Fishery officer that “irri-
. gation ditches are great cause of destruction. ... but screening
is possible if properly done,” (Canadian Alberta Commission
report 1910-11 p. 960) is a common one, though the red-throat
or cut-throat trout, if of any size, rarely perish; but pike and
bull trout (Salvelinus malma) commonly do so, as well as many
small species of fish of little value.

“I never saw trout in irrigation ditches, or trapped in pools

164 American Fisheries Society.

overflowed,” is the statement of an experienced western man
.... “I have seen suckers and grayling (Williamson’s whitefish) ;
but trout are too smart, and are never taken in irrigation ditches”
(Ibid p. 101). A well-known ranchman in Western Alberta de-
clared: “There should be screens at the headgates. They would
not clog as there is not enough rubbish to cause much bother.”
(ibid; p.-99).

Twenty-five years ago the State of Maine tried to enforce
a law requiring screens to be installed at the outlets of all lakes
and ponds (See N. Y. Fishing Gazette, June 25, 1897). The
amount of leaves and rootlets floating in the water varies in
different localities; but the device invented by State Warden
W. F. Scott (Montana), and described in Forest and Stream,
February 14, 1903, meets the most serious objections. It is
simply an eight-bladed paddle-wheel, placed in a short flume at
the head of the ditch, the projecting end of the center octagon
shaft working in a slot-bearing at each side. If very wide, two
flumes are advisable, and they so work that any large materials
or hard substances pass under the paddles because the whole
wheel rises, the axle being lifted up in the vertical slot at each
side. Frightened away, it is claimed, by the splashing of the
paddle blades, fish remain at the upper side of the device at the
head of the ditch. A modification of this paddle device has been
suggested, viz., a barrel-shaped frame covered with small-meshed
wire netting, and fitting the flume closely. I think it was Dr.
Henshall who proposed the barrel screen, and the use of the
paddle for motor-power. If the pulley be placed on the projecting
shafts outside the flume, and the belts crossed, then the paddles
work in a direction opposite to that of the barrel screen at the
entrance to the ditch. By this arrangement the device is self-
cleaning, all leaves and rubbish being carried over, and the fish
prevented from finding a passage down. In very wide ditches
two flumes and a double apparatus are advisable.

A patent screen, invented by Mr. W. Parsons (U. S. Patent
1166628) resembles the Scott device; but the patent of Mr.
Dreher, Detroit, Mich., (U. S. Patent 1150348) is provided with
a paddle bearing long prongs to deter the approach of the fish.
A more elaborate device is that of Mr. H. Broberg (U. S. Patent
1147301) which rotates on a vertical not a horizontal shaft, and

Prince.—Irrigation Canals and Fisheries. 165

its inventor has claimed that fish are deterred from passing down
and it cannot be clogged by floating rubbish.

CONCLUSION.

It appears far from chimerical to assert that large canals and
reservoirs, constructed for supplying water for irrigation, offer
great possibilities for fish culture, if suitable species of fish be
used for stocking, and if spawning shallows be provided, and
the fry after hatching be prevented from escaping into the
ditches and laterals.

Great facilities are being provided in dry belts of the country,
where native fish are usually scarce, for creating fish reserves
and establishing a fish-supply for sport, or even for commercial
purposes, and of guarding against the destruction of the fish
already occurring in the local lakes and streams.

POLLUTION OF INLAND STREAMS.
By M. D. Harr

Richmond, Virginia

History teaches us that the march of civilization has found and
always will find man encroaching upon the habitats of our wild
life, and in using the land and water for human necessities, wild
life must gradually yield its domain. The task ahead of the wild
life conservationists is not to undertake to arrest the laws govern-
ing human progress, but rather to direct man’s course so as to con-
serve as much as possible for his use natural resources of im-
mense importance to him economically and recreationally.

There is not a wild life conservationist who does not sub-
scribe to these fundamentals. The game departments of every
state in the Union trace their creation back to the efforts of the
men who hunted and fished, and any state game and fish depart-
ment which fails to realize its source of power and which does
not lend a sympathetic ear to the hunters and anglers within its
confines is doomed sooner or later to perish. So the leaders in
this great cause should take these men absolutely into their con-
fidence, and though we may now and then be forced to take certain
positions seemingly antagonistic to the interests of hunters and
anglers on account of the far-reaching future consequences we
can foresee, minute and thorough explanations should be made
publicly.

The subject of stream pollution is a burning issue in every
eastern state. The habitats of the fish, like those of the big game
of America, are being taken up for man’s use. The fish will have
to give way like the bison, the elk, the moose and the antelope.
At the sessions of the general assembly of every state in the east
it is the rule rather than the exception to find proposed drastic
pollution laws submitted for enactment. Heading and pushing
these measures are’to be found enthusiastic anglers; opposed to
them, the various enterprises polluting the streams and destroy-
ing the fish life—recreational interests versus money interests. We
state game department officials naturally are aligned solidly behind
the interests given to our keeping. We appear before legislative
committees and lay down the great, fundamental principles that

166

Hart—Pollution of Inland Streams. 167

no man or set of men have any moral right to contaminate a na-
tural resource such as water belonging to all of the people any
more than they have a right to contaminate the air; that no man
or set of men, by the same token, have the right to use the water
unless they return it to its natural beds or channels in the same
purity as when taken by them. But we get nowhere, because we
assume to lead in these fights when the primary interests, such as
the state departments of health and the state departments of agri-
culture, should be in the vanguard and we poor little Isaak Waltons
in the rear guard and commissary department. You might just
as well put a six-year old boy in the ring with Dempsey and expect
him to win as to pit all the anglers in any state against all the
millions commandeered by these polluting industries.

I am fundamentally against unnecessary pollution. I am fun-
damentally in favor of manufacturing industries and the use of
certain water courses by them, the damaging refuse to be cared
for where possible. Otherwise, to my mind, the feasible solution
is to have surveys made of the streams in each state, setting aside
certain of them for industrial enterprises and certain of them
for recreational purposes. Thus the angler will not be denied his
health-giving outings, and on the other hand your industrial enter-
prises will be relieved of that constant fear that they will be put
out of business by some legislative act.

I do not know that anybody ever suggested this plan before.
I am satisfied that in some of our eastern states it would not work;
for in some of them nearly every stream is polluted. But there
are states—Virginia, for instance—which have some open streams,
and it is just a question of time when something will be done
which will result in their being polluted. The scheme, therefore,
should receive consideration where pollution has not found its way
into every stream of a state.

I feel, too, that the matter of publicity regarding pollution has
not been handled as it might have been. If you ask the average
man you meet in the country—or in the city, for that matter—
what his opinion is as to how long it will take water to clear itself,
he is apt to say it will do so within a distance of twenty miles
everytime. We know that that depends on the kind of pollution,
the amount of pollution, the rapidity with which the water is run-
ning, and so on. In fact, in the case of some kinds of pollution the
water never gets clear. Now, I have been in several aquaria. I

168 American Fisheries Society.

have been in the aquarium at Washington, which is a splendid one.
This thought suggests itself to me: that you put a sign up in the
aquarium stating that this kind of game fish can be reared in
certain waters provided that the water is not polluted. Before the
Virginia Game Department was established the United States Bu-
reau of Fisheries did not send us many fish because they thought
that we in Virginia did not protect the fish. We are getting our
share now. I feel satisfied that sometimes they have not sent fish
to Virginia because those fish were requested for certain rivers that
the Bureau was satisfied were polluted.

You gentlemen who are doing so much for the anglers and to
whom the anglers are so much indebted for the scientific work that
you are accomplishing, ought to pay some attention to the pollution
end of it. The anglers do not seem to organize as the hunters do; the
hunters are the men who get legislation, and anglers for the most
part come to us when they want anything of that kind. If we will
interest the state health departments and the departments of agri-
culture in this pollution business, I believe we can secure legisla-
tion; but until we do we are not going to get anywhere.

As to the nature of the pollution, or trade waste in our inland
streams of which I am speaking, it is at one place, for instance,
a sulphite that is doing most of the damage. Our state has taken
action to prohibit these mills from emptying their trade waste into
our streams, but we have never got anywhere. We have a law
prohibiting any man from putting any noxious or deleterious sub-
stances into a watercourse whereby the fish therein may be de-
stroyed. But when you take a case into court you have got to have
the fish there and you have got to prove that that fish was destroyed
by the pollution of which you are complaining. We may have
three or four saw-mills on a river where the sawdust is killing the
fish. We may produce evidence to show that the fish are being
affected by sawdust in the gills, but then we have to prove that the
particular saw-mill we are after put that sawdust in the river; and
when it comes to a criminal action of that kind—well, you simply
cannot do it.

Discussion,

Mr. A. L. Miniertr, Boston, Mass.: I find myself in accord with Mr.
Hart’s ideas as to publicity being one of the best weapons to combat this
menace of pollution. I also feel that if you are going to discuss pollution
you should not confine it to the streams. The states have control also
of the coastal waters, and there you find the greatest of all pollution, that of

Hart.—Pollution of Inland Streams. 169

-oil, Furthermore, it is useless for us to discuss this pollution matter unless
we take into our confidence or into our conferences the business men and
‘those whose interests would be affected by any legislation that might have
the effect of hampering or wiping out certain industries. We know that
you cannot combat big business when it is established three or four miles on
each side of a river. It is of no use for us to think that we can put that
business out of the way for the sake of a few fish; it simply cannot be done,
and it would not be good judgment to try it. But as Mr. Hart says, there
are many streams that have not been encroached upon and which we
could control or hold forever for the use of the angler.

Mr. Hart: When we were presenting that pollution bill, fashioned
closely after the New York and New Jersey laws, at the last session of the
state legislature, we sent for Mr. J. W. Titcomb; we anglers and sports-
men thought that his testimony before the committee would be such that we
would not have much trouble getting the bill through. Mr. Titcomb is a fair
and square man; he told the legislative committee considering the bill that
neither the State of New York, the State of New Jersey nor any of the
other states, were enforcing their pollution laws strictly, for the simple
reason that they had too much business sense to put industrial enterprises
out of business. I would like Mr. Titcomb to tell us what he said down
there.

Mr. J. W. Trtcoms, Hartford, Conn.: I explained the general effects
of pollution—its destructiveness to oxygen and its effect on the’ growth
of vegetation, and all that sort of thing that everybody is familiar with. I am
not a pollution expert, but I made some general remarks along that line
‘to help Mr. Hart with his bill. I told Mr. Hart beforehand I was sorry
that they had introduced a bill which it would be impossible to enforce
without killing industry. When I finished, members of the committee
questioned me, asking if there was any solution for the problems presented
by certain pollutions such as the discharge from dye factories, from sulphide
pulp plants, and so on; and I had to confess that we had no solution. It
seems to me that all our work in connection with the purification of our
waters must be devoted to a study of the problems involved and of methods
of taking care of the wastes which cause pollution.

Mr. Hart: I do not want you gentlemen to think that I oppose in any
way the development of processes to take care of pollutions. I understand
that Germany has made more progress in this line than most other coun-
_ tries; and I hope our scientists and experimenters will continue that work.
I do not doubt that from the economic standpoint you have streams that
it would be better to turn over to your industrial enterprises; on the other
hand, I do believe that the anglers of the state have some rights. We have
started out on a proposition now looking to the establishment of public shoot-
ing grounds. Why are we doing that? Because practically all the land has
been taken up and the hunter who does not belong to a club has been shut
off. Well, if you do not take steps to protect your watercourses, or some
of them, for the anglers, you will find yourselves in a situation similar to

170 _ American Fisheries Society.

that which now prevails in respect to hunting. It may be many years; it
may be twenty-five, fifty, or one hundred years from now, but if something
is not done you will eventually be faced with the same conditions that we
are facing down there in the east.

THE MASKINONGE: A QUESTION OF PRIORITY IN
NOMENCLATURE.

By E. T. D. CHAMBERS
Quebec, Canada

One of the most prominent members of the American Fisheries
Society, the learned Doctor Prince, of Ottawa, in a paper pub-
lished by the Dominion Government, some years ago, on “The Ver-
nacular Names of Fishes,” furnished some interesting illustrations
of the diversity of names applied by different people to the same
fish. In the course of his article, he said:

As a rule these early names—Indian or Indio-French names, which thé
early settlers continued to apply to animals, because they were already in
use—always more or less accurately describe features in the forms on which
they were bestowed. Thus the name maskinongé, commonly, but very
erroneously, spelt muskellunge or mascalonge in the United States, is really
an Indian name, the Chippewa name for pike being kenosha and the prefix
mis or mas means large or great, so that maskenosha or maskinoge (cor-
rupted into maskinongé) is really a large, deformed pike.

In the case of Esox nobilior, or Lucius masquinongy, whose
popular title in its original form, like that of the ouananiche, comes
down to us, as correctly claimed by the late Fred Mather, from its
Indian nomenclature, an apparent desire to get away from French
orthography has produced a somewhat similar confusion of lan-
guage to that which so long existed in the case of the ouananiche.
The original spelling of the Indian name was undoubtedly “maski-
nongé,” and such it is officially called in the statutes of Canada,
in which country the fish was first known and the name originated.
According to Bishop Lafleche, who was a recognized authority upon
Indian customs and dialects, and in his early life a devoted mis-
sionary to the Northwest, ‘“maskinongé” is derived from mashk
(deformed) and kinonjé (a pike), and was applied to the Esor
nobilior by the Indians, because it appeared to them a deformed
or different kind of pike from that to which they had been accus-
tomed. The river of the same name that flows into Lake St. Peter,
which name has been extended to the town built at its mouth, and
to the county of which it is the chief place, was so called from
the number of these fish taken in or near its estuary, and after
their Indian name. And it is a singular corroboration of the abso-

171

172 American Fisheries Society.

lute correctness of the French orthography “maskinongé,” that
no less an authority than Dr. James A. Henshall, the author of
the paper on this fish in “American Game Fishes,” following the
nomenclature of Dr. Mitchell, as quoted by De Kay in his “Fishes
of New York,” substitutes for nobilior, as the scientific name of
this particular species, masquinongy, which is about as near as it
is possible for English orthography to go in representing the correct
pronunciation of “maskinongé.” Yet Dr. Henshall claims that by
common consent and custom the name is “mascalonge”’ among the
majority of anglers and that “mascalonge” it will be for genera-
tions to come. Nor does this mongrel name represent the full
extent of the departure from the original name. Dr. Henshall
mentions, among other forms, “muscalonge,” ‘‘muskellunge,” “‘mus-
kallonge,” etc., and a variety of other spellings has been adopted
by other writers. ‘“Muskellunge’—one of the forms already quoted
is the name employed to designate the species by Dr. G. Brown
Goode, in his “American Fishes,” and is as far removed from the
original name as “winninish” is from “ouananiche.” It may take
some time to arrive at uniformity in the spelling of Esox nobilior’s
familiar name, but it is encouraging to note the general conformity,
in recent years, to the name “ouananiche,”’ which is the statutory
designation in the country in which that fish is found, and it may
be useful to point out that “maskinongé” is also the statutory
form of the name of another Canadian fish, and, like ‘‘ouananiche,”
has in its favor the undoubted claim of priority of nomenclature.

Dr. Tarleton H. Bean has declared in a contribution to “The
Encyclopedia of Sport” that the priority of the Indian word “maski-
nongé” is well supported. Dr. Gunther, a fellow of the Royal
Society, and for many years keeper of the Zoological Department
of the British Museum, avoids altogether the word “mascalonge”
in his voluminous “Introduction to the Study of Fishes,” and de-
scribes the fish as “muskellunge” of “maskitongé.”

That splendid American sportsman and angling author, Mr.
Genio C. Scott, admirably summed up many years ago some of the
reasons which compelled his use and advocacy of the orthography
maskinongé. In his “Fishing in American Waters,” he says:

The Ojibwa name of this fish is “maskanonja,’ meaning long snout.
When Canada was a French colony the habitants named it masque-longue,
signifying long visage I submit that the Ojibwa was entitled by priority
to the right of naming the fish; but, as the Dominion of Canada has named

‘ve Tier 2

Chambers—The Maskinongé. 173

it again, and in all legal enactments where there is reference to it the name of
the fish is writtn maskinongé, I willingly accpt the modification instead of
either the Indian or the French name. Thus much in explanation of naming
a fish which has puzzled most ichthyologists and anglers, so that they have
been uncertain and dubious on the point. The name is maskinongé.

And to emphasize his concluding statement, Mr. Scott printed
the name in small capitals.

I might continue to quote from other distinguished writers
of fish and fishing, notably from Mr. Whitcher, from Mr. Wilmot,
from L. Z. Joncas, from Professor Ramsay Wright, of the Univer-
sity of Toronto; from A. N. Montpetit, author of the exhaustive
book entitled “Les Poissons d’eau douce du Canada’; from Cas-
tell Hopkins, in his “Cyclopedia of Canada”; from Sir James M.
LeMoine, D. C. L., in “Les Pecheries du Canada,” and from many
more, did time and space permit; though I am satisfied that enough
has been said to show that the employment of the form “masca-
longe” is far from being as general as some suppose and that if
uniformity of nomenclature is to be looked for in the case of the
fish in question, with any prospect of success, it must be upon the
basis of the name by which it has been officially known for con-
siderably over half a century in the country in which it was first
found and described by white men—which has received the general
indorsement of writers upon fish and fishing—and which by Mr.
Genio C. Scott, in 1849, and by the North American Fish and
Game Protective Association in 1904, has been alike declared to be
“maskinongé.”

However, the Bard of Avon, whose frequent references to
hook and line shows that he was quite as well up in angling as in
botany, is authority for the statement that “a rose by any other
name smells quite as sweet,” and no matter how we spell the name
of the great game fish of the St. Lawrence, the angler who takes it
with becoming tackle, will find that he has a foeman worthy of
his steel.

This is not going to be a monograph on the maskinongé for
there are already excellent ones in print, but you may be interested
in a few captures of the fish that have occurred in recent years in
some Canadian waters. There the favorite fishing grounds are in
the St. Lawrence, a little below where the boundary line between
Ontario and Quebec crosses the river. Other popular resorts of
the fish are in the neighborhood of Vaudreuil and Isle Perrot,

174 American Fisheries Society.

which are only one hour’s run by railway from Montreal on the
roads leading to Ottawa.

Some time ago, a fourteen-year-old boy named Wanklyn was
trolling near Isle Perrot from a boat in which were his father and
sister. His bait was a perch nearly a pound in weight, the dorsal
fin of which, with its sharp rays or spikes, had no terrors for the
huge-throated fish which gorged himself with it and became im-
paled upon the hook. It may well be imagined that the boy had
a swift time for half an hour or so with his new connection. When
it was first found possible to bring the fish close up to the boat,
Mr. Wanklyn struck at it with the gaff and impaled it at the first
attempt. Its weight was such, however, that the effort to lift the
fish into the boat tore the gaff out of its body, and a stream of
blood marked its course as it writhed in the water, lashing it into
foam and then placing a considerable distance between itself and
the boat. It was not very long before it was again brought to the
side of the boat, and the gaff having a better hold in the body of
the fish this time, it was safely, though not without considerable
difficulty, lifted over the stern of the boat. Even then it was not
killed without considerable difficulty and some danger of upsetting
the boat. The head of a maskinongé, when well mounted, as this
one certainly is, makes a very handsome trophy.

A few years ago, the Ontario Department of Fisheries at
Toronto received a magnificent specimen of maskinongé, over five
feet long and weighing fifty-two pounds. It was caught in the
branch of the Rideau River, which passes through Kemptville, by
Sam J. Martin, of Kemptville. Big as this specimen was, it has
been cast altogether in the shade by a capture by a French-Cana-
dian, Mr. Alphonse Allard, at Chateauguay, on the border of the
St. Lawrence, a little west of Montreal. This monster, which
was sixty pounds in weight, had a girth of twenty-seven inches.
The length of the head from the tip of the snout to the back of the
gill was exactly a foot.

Most maskinongé are taken with hand line and trolling spoon,
and hauled in hand over hand, so that the fish have no opportunity
of displaying their game qualities. When, however, one fishes with
an eight-ounce black bass rod and brings a St. Lawrence maski-
nongé of thirty-two pounds fairly to gaff on it in twenty minutes,
as Dr. Henshall once did, he has certainly enjoyed twenty minutes
of exciting sport, and has reason to be proud of his achievement.

§
¢
‘
x

Chambers ——The Maskinongé. 175

On a taut line, the maskinongé often leaps clear of the water, and

being a powerful fish, requires at this time very careful handling.
The great difficulty, with light tackle, is to keep the maskinongé
from running into and entangling himself in the weeds, rushes,
or sunken tree tops in which he probably lay concealed when he
rushed for the angler’s bait. This cannot always be done, but there
is sport in trying it and good assistance can be rendered the fisher-
man by his guide, who should know enough to pull for deep water
immediately a fish is hooked. The rod should not be more than
nine feet in length, and eleven or twelve ounces in weight, but the
hook should be fastened to the line on a gimp snell, for the teeth
of the fish render gut impossible of success.

Discussion.

Mr. G. C. Leacu, Washington, D. C.: This matter of nomenclature
in fish culture as applied to fish is a very important one. Some of our
fishes in the United States that are known by certain names in the north-
ern sections are entirely unknown, so far as those names are concerned, in
southern sections. For instance, our trout in the northern sections are not
so designated in the southern portions of the United States, but the bass
down there are called trout. It would be a very good thing, both in the
United States and in Canada, if we could have some uniformity of nomen-
clature. But I suppose, as Mr. Chambers explains, these names are handed
down through different races—the Indians, the French Canadians and Eng-
lish—with the result that some differences creep in, and after a few genera-
tions the name becomes changed. I think Mr. Chambers’ paper in a very
interesting one and bears on a subject to which more attention ought to
be paid.

Dr. E. E. Prince, Ottawa, Canada: The fact that we have had a
paper like this, upon a literary phase of the fisheries, is an illustration of
the variety of topics covered in the discussions and proceedings of the
Society. I have great sympathy with Mr. Chambers’ contention. He re-
ferred to an old official report of mine on “The Vernacular Names of
Fishes,” in which I showed how utterly hopeless it was to understand what
we were talking about when we used popular names.

As Commissioner of Fisheries for Canada, almost every year I have
this question put to me: What is a pike, and what is a pickerel? It is on
of those qtestions almost impossible to answer, because you must first of
all ask the questioner: What do you mean by a pike, and what do you mean
by a pickerel? We in Canada use certain names in one sense, while in
the United States they are used in another. I may say that eleven or twelve
years ago Dr. David Starr Jordan and myself had the task assigned to us
by our respective governments of drawing up international regulations for
the contiguous waters of Canada and the United States. We decided upon a
list of the names which we would use in our regulations, and when Dr.
Jordan heard my arguments—which were very much the same as Mr.

176 American Fisheries Society.

Chambers has given us, though not quite, because Mr. Chambers has gone
into the matter very much more thoroughly—he agreed that maskinongé
was the correct mame; and on behalf of the United States Dr. David Starr ~
Jordan adopted that name in the international regulations.

The term “muskellunge,” so far as I can see, originated through a mis-
take. Anglers who came into Canada from the United States found a fish
called the “longe” or “lunge”—that is the big lake trout; and when the Ind-
ians and French-Canadians spoke of “maskinongé,” by some means the visit-
ing anglers confused “lunge” with “maskinongé’; and so we got this word
“lunge” imported into the name of a fish that never in all its history
was called “lunge.” ‘“Maskinongé” has a meaning; it describes the fish
accurately; ‘“‘muskellunge” means nothing and describes nothing. As Mr.
Chambers has pointed out, it is a comparatively new name; it does not date
back very far. The name “masquinongy” occurred in the Canadian Fisheries
Act and has been there for at least fifty years. I would strongly urge the
adoption of names which have an historical as well as a descriptive basis.

Mr. C. F. Cutter, Winona, Minn.: I would like to know the difference
between the northern pike and the maskinongé.

Dr. PrincE: There are several differences. The northern pike has little
spots of white spread out on a darker ground, whereas with the maskinongé
there are darker marks on a pale greenish or brownish ground.

Mr. CHAmBers: As a rule the markings on the great northern pike,
Esox lucius, are oblong in shape, a pale oblong spot; whereas the darker
spots on the lighter ground in the maskinongé are very much smaller,
rounder and darker. These, of course, are the body markings.

Mr. Leach: The markings are very apt to change according to the
water in which they are found. In the St. Lawrence, where water is per-
haps swifter and somewhat different in color from the water in some of the
inland lakes of Wisconsin and Minnesota, the markings are apt to be differ-
ent. That is true of almost any fish; the character of its food and en-
vironment also has an effect upon the markings. The State of New York
a few years ago issued a little placard illustrating the different species of
pike and gave a brief description of each, so that there would be no con-
fusion between pike, pickerel, and pike perch.

Dr. Prince: Of course the scales on the cheek and operculum are
quite different. On the cheek in the northern pike they pass all the way
down; but half-way down on the gill cover; whereas in the great maskinonge
they are cut off hali-way down on both cheek and gill cover. The small
chain or grass pike has scales all the way down on cheek and gill cover.

Mr. E. W. Coss, St. Paul, Minn.: Do I understand, Dr. Prince, that
you consider the great northern pike to be the same fish that we call the
pickerel—Esox lucius?

Dr. Prince: Yes; that is what is called pickerel in most of the states.

Mr. E. W. Cops: And that the “muskellunge” is distinguished by the
scales being on the upper part of the cheek and’ gill covers only; that is.
correct, is it?

')? - =— =

Chambers —The Maskinongé. 177

Dr. Prince: Yes. At the same time, there are several species of the
jackfish or northern pike. There is the big northern fish, Esox lucius, and
there are a number of other varieties. You would never confuse these with
the maskinongé, which is really a very large fish; it runs to a considerable
size. :

Mr. E. W. Coss: In Becker County, Minnesota, we have a fish that
some call pickerel and others that are called northern pike. They are dis-
tinguished by the difference in size; there is also an oblong, light-colored
spot which indicates the pickerel. You will find them with that identical
cheek and gill-cover marking, following back from the eye. But the whole
thing is very confusing to us.

Dr. Prince: The publication referred to by Mr. Leach makes that
plain; every species is described so that confusion can be avoided.

Mr. E. W. Coss: I have that; but on this fish I found the identical
scale marking that he finds on the “muskellunge.” I could not convince
anybody up there that these fish were “muskellunge,” because they have
identically the same markings as the pickerel, and are the same shape.

Dr. PrINcE: Maskinongé is not a fish that is thought to extend to
the far west, though a letter has recently reached me from a correspondent
who claims that it occurs in South Saskatchewan.

Mr. E. W. Coss: We have what we call the “muskellunge” in the
upper Mississippi—a somewhat darker fish with dark bands. It is a very
beautiful fish. Its coloration is hard to describe, but when it comes out of
the water it shows a brilliant golden color as though it were draped over
with something like glistening sheen, showing underneath a sort of change-
able glistening hue. Some of them weigh 30 to 35 pounds.

Mr. CHAMBERS: I have some sympathy with the use of the name
“pickerel” for “pike,” because I remember that in England the small pike
are called pickerel. But unfortunately, in Canada, and I suppose also in
some parts of the northern states, the name “pickerel’ has been applied
erroneously to the pike perch, or the doré, as it is known to French-
Canadians.

THE BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SMOLT
PERIOD IN CERTAIN SALMONOIDS

By Wiiu1AM M. KEIL
Tuxedo Park, N. Y.

In a paper read before this Society at the last meeting, the
writer made the following statement: “If good results are to be
expected from the planting of landlocked salmon and _ steelhead
trout in lakes containing no permanent tributary streams, the fish
must not be turned out into such waters until they have passed the
parr stage and begun to take on the silvery coloration of the smolt.”
Such a statement needs substantiation, and the purpose of this
paper is to present to the Society the results of over twelve years
of experimental investigation of this subject. Preliminary to this
it will be necessary to give a brief outline of the stocking oper-
ations that were instrumental in bringing about this study.

There is probably no other angling water in the world where
the results from planting salmon and steelhead have been so care-
fully recorded as at Tuxedo Lake. For over twenty-five years an
accurate record has been kept of not only the number and size of
the fish planted, but the number, size and condition of those taken
by anglers as well. During the years from 1900 to 1906, both of
the above varities were planted either as nineteen-months-old fish
in the fall or two-year-olds in the spring, and the fishing registers
at the boat houses show that approximately 50 per cent of the
numbers turned out were retaken by anglers. This lake also con-
tains great quantities of bass, perch and pickerel, and the good
results secured by this method of stocking was at that time at-
tributed entirely to the size of the fish planted. While thousands
of good-sized fish of the two kinds were taken by anglers each
season, the salmon especially, were not in the best of condition,
and the club fish committee was informed that in all probability
these fish were being stunted by being retained too long in the
hatchery pools. Several well known authorities advised the plant-
ing of fingerlings, and as an experiment, the committee decided to
turn out great quantities of these, rather than a smaller number
of the older fish. The hatchery was given instructions to put out

178

Keil—Smolt Period in Salmonoids. 179

everything as fingerlings in the fall, and for three years following,
an average of 200,000 were planted each October.

This change of method in stocking had a very noticeable effect
on the fishing within a year’s time. The catch of salmon and steel-
heads dropped from 3,100 the preceding year, to 1,644 the following
season. No small fish were taken by the anglers; but for the first
season at least, it was thought that the fingerlings had not grown to
a size where they would take the lure. The records for the next
two years tell the whole story; 786 fish were taken in 1908, and
but 30 in 1909, with no immature specimens taken by angling or
observed around the mouths of the brooks or elsewhere in the
lake. Previously, many small male steelheads would be taken in
the collection of breeding fish in the small tributary streams during
the spring freshets. It must be kept in mind that this lake, like
hundreds of others in which salmon and trout are planted, is fed
principally by springs; and that the few small brooks that empty
into it are dry by the middle of summer and usually remain so
until the late fall or winter. Had there been permanent tributary
streams in which to plant these fingerlings, the results no doubt
would have been entirely different.

Of the lot of fingerlings reared during the summer of 1909,
15,000 of the largest were sorted out, pushed ahead as rapidly as
possible, and 5,000 planted as 6 and 7?-inch yearlings in May, 1910.
The remainder of the lot were carried through, for it had been
decided to resume the planting of older fish. Careful observation
of the movements of these yearlings after they were turned out,
disclosed the fact that instead of separating and going out into deep
water as was the habit of the two-year-olds, they remained together
in schools, swimming around near the shore and congregating at
the mouths of the brooks at such times as these streams were in-
fluenced by heavy rainfall. As the surface water grew warmer
toward the middle of summer, they gradually disappeared, and it
_ was thought they had gone down into the deep, cold water of the

bottom. None of them were taken by angling that summer or fall,
nor was there any evidence the following season to show that any
had survived. The yearlings that had been carried through (4,900
steelheads and 3,114 salmon) were planted in November, 1910,
averaging about 9 inches in length. The summer of 1911, several
hundred of these were taken running from a pound to a pound
and a half in weight. By the fall of 1911, the hatchery was so

180 American Fisheries Society.

regulated that approximately 6,000 of 8 to 10-inch fish could be
planted each season, and the records of 1912 show the catch coming
back to normal with 2,200 taken, averaging 2 pounds.

It is not the intention in this paper to enter the controversy
that has arisen between fish-cultural workers over the relative
value for stocking purposes of fry, fingerlings, or yearlings; but
rather to point out that with fishes of these varieties, nature has
shown us in an unmistakable manner the time at which they should
be turned out into the open waters of lakes. It was while the
fingerlings were being planted and producing no results, that the
writer first began to doubt the prevailing belief that their disap-
pearance was due to predatory fish. It did not seem credible that
all of them should be eaten up however numerous the bass and
pickerel. This opinion was further strengthened by the peculiar
actions of the year-old fish that were planted, and by their disap-
pearance also. Why should 19-months-old fish of 8 and 9 inches
produce good results, and 12-months-old ones of 6 and 7%, none
at all?

During the summers of 1910 and 1911, the writer visited a
number of waters in New England where landlocked salmon were
being planted as advanced fry and fingerlings. In every instance
where good fishing had followed the planting of salmon in these
stages, it was found that the lakes either had good sized streams
emptying in them, or a considerable permanent overflow at the
outlet. At most of these places, while it was reported that the fish
had been planted directly into the lake, hundreds of small salmon
in both the fingerling and yearling ages were observed in the
streams tributary to or flowing from such lakes. One of the finest
locations for a study of these conditions was found at the Averill
Lakes in northern Vermont. These two lakes, which furnish
angling not to be excelled elsewhere in New England, are con-
nected by a stream of about a mile in length. Little Averill—the
upper lake, is fed by springs and by a small tributary inlet at the
northern end. In both this inlet and the connecting stream be-
tween the upper and lower lakes, many hundreds of salmon parrs
could be seen and readily taken by means of net or minnow trap.
They were of both the first and second summer’s growth, with the
bars and red-spot markings very conspicuous. The length was
from 1% to 5 inches, and during three weeks of observation in
July, no examples were taken showing the least signs of assuming

~<a

pio }

Keil—Smolt Period in Salmonoids. 181

the smolt coloration. One of the local guides who had promised
to send certain information, reported that fall that the larger
of these fish had turned silvery and was beginning to move out of
the streams.

In order to determine the average age or size at which this
color transition takes place, in both salmon and trout of a migra-
tory type, five seasons were spent in gathering data for compari-
son. This was necessary on account of the great variation in fn-
cubation and growth during different seasons and at various locali-
ties. From observations upon thousands of specimens of known
age, it was definitely established that with fish of normal growth,
this change from parr to smolt begins during the latter part of the
second year.

All writers handling the subject of the life history of the
Atlantic salmon, while briefly mentioning the remarkable color-
change of the young fish previous to migration, studiously avoid
commenting on the probable significance of this change. No doubt
it would be regarded as an adopted protective coloration, were it
not for the fact that it takes place before rather than after migra-
tion. This change of the trout-like parr to the silvery smolt, is
not one of color alone, for there are several anatomical changes
as well. During this stage, the form, fins, and especially the tail,
take on certain characteristics of the adult fish; while the sexual
organs, as if in preparation for functioning, undergo their first
real period of development. The silvery, metallic-like appearance
at this time is not caused by the formation of new scales, but by
the depositing of a pearly pigment over the sides and gill-covers
of the fish. This, in the opinion of the writer, is nature’s method
of armor plating that portion of the body containing the thousands
of tiny ducts, whose functions would be impaired or destroyed
by the tremendous water-pressure of lake or ocean. It was with
this idea in mind that the following experiments were carried out,
which resulted in evidence so definite in character that they may be
regarded as having solved the entire problem.

These experimental tests were carried out to determine what
effect or influence the water-pressure had on landlocked salmon
and steelheads in the various stages from advanced fry to 2-year-
olds. In order that the results might not be influenced by factors
other than water-pressure, the experiments were conducted at such
times as the water temperature and dissolved gases were uniform

182 American Fisheries Society.

from surface to bottom. Those members of the American Fisheries
Society who are familiar with limnological work, and with the ex-
tremely short periods during the spring and fall, when such con-
ditions are found, can understand the length of time required to
carry out these tests. In each experiment the apparatus and
methods of procedure were the same. A wire cage containing the
fish was attached to a measuring line and lowered 6 inches at in-
tervals of one minute each. At every 5-foot mark the cage was
raised, at the same degree of speed, to the surface for observation.

No. 1. April 12, 1914—Six landlocked salmon, advanced-fry (feeding
two weeks) returned from 5-foot depth in uneasy condition; from 10 feet,
all dead.

No. 2. April 12, 1914—Six 10-months-old steelhead; 5 feet, no change;
10 feet, ail distressed, three had changed to pale color; 15 feet, five dead
with one in very feeble condition, which upon being returned to hatchery
died later.

No. 3. April 13, 1914—Four yearling salmon and four 22-months-old
steelhead; 5 feet, no change; 10 feet, all salmon changed color; 15 feet,
one salmon dead, others distressed; 20 feet, all salmon and one steelhead
dead; remaining steelheads lowered to 55 feet with no bad effects except
slight change in color. None of these steelheads died later in the hatchery.

No. 6. November 10, 1015.—Four 19-months-old salmon and four finger-
ling steelheads; 5 feet, no change; 10 feet, two steelheads dead, all uneasy;
15 feet, other steelheads dead; 20 feet, two salmon distressed, others normal;
25 feet, one salmon dead; from 30-foot depth to 55 feet, no change, and
two saimon in normal condition and one distressed were returned to hatch-
ery. None died later.

No. 12. November 14, 1915.—Six fingerling salmon, all died between
the 10 and 15-foot depths.

No. 21. March 27, 1916—One 2-year-old salmon with smolt coloration
and one 20-months-old steelhead with partial smolt development were lowered
to 60 feet without visible ill effects.

No. 24. April 3, 1917—Two precociously-developed yearling salmon of
6 and 6% inches, with indications of abnormally early smolt development,
were killed between the 20 and 25-foot depths.

No. 25. April 4, 1917—Two 2-year-old salmon, which still retained the
parr markings, although the spots had faded to a faint orange. One died
at 40 fect, the other remained normal.

No. 29. April 11, 1921—At Sterling Lake, N. Y., two 2-year-old salmon
and two steelheads 22-months-old, as fully developed smolts, were lowered
to a depth of 110 feet without ill effect or noticeable change in color.

The above tests were taken from a list of fifty-four, which
were brought to a conclusion in November, 1921. Many of them
were in duplicate and were made in order to confirm former re-

sults and for the purpose of post-mortuary examination with micro-

j
.
‘

Tr er iS

Keil—Smolt Period in Salmonoids. 183

scope. Such examinations disclosed many unusual organic dis-
turbances and lesions. The most important one in respect to the
subject under investigation was the peculiar distorted condition
of the lateral-line canals; and it is believed that the inability of
the parrs to withstand a high pressure was due to the unprotected
nature of these ducts at this stage of their development.

These experiments, observations, and stocking experiences,
have given us a number of clearly established facts upon which to
exercise Our common sense; and it should not be at all difficult
to understand what has happened to millions of our landlocked
salmon, steelhead and rainbow trout. Such fish planted while in
the parr stages in spring-fed lakes without tributary streams, are
unquestionably thrown away. Unable to find streams where nature
intended them to be at this age, or to descend to depths in the
lake where suitable food and temperature are to be found, these
fish swim aimlessly around in the surface water and eventually
disappear from one cause to another.

BRIEF NOTES ON FISH CULTURE IN MICHIGAN.
By Dwicat LyYDELL
State Fish Culturist, Comstock Park, Mich.

This is to be but a very brief outline of two or three points
in extension of the paper which I presented at the meeting of the
Society at Ottawa, in 1920, under the title, “Progress in Practical
Fish Culture.” It has occurred to me as of possible interest to
direct attention to the marked expansion of fish-cultural work now
going on in the State of Michigan. As a result of these efforts the
state will, it is believed, equal the efforts in any other state in the
production and distribution of food and game fishes. We are build-
ing a number of new fish hatcheries and these, together with the
ones already in use, will give a total of 16 plants. Their locations
and the species propagated are as follows: Detroit, perch and wall-
eyed pike; Drayton Plains, perch, bluegills, and large-mouth bass;
Hastings, bass, perch and bluegills; Mill Creek Station, perch, blue-
gills, bass, wall-eyed pike and trout; Paris, trout; Harriette, trout;
Grayling, trout; Sidnaw, trout; Sault Ste. Marie, trout; Harris-
ville, trout and bass; Wolverine, trout; Oden, trout; Thompson,
trout, bass, perch and bluegills; Marquette, trout; Watersmeet,
trout; and Benton Harbor, perch, bass, bluegills and trout.

We are making preparations to handle at least 25,000,000 brook
trout each year, and at least 8,000,000 of these will be raised to
fingerlings or past the fry stage. One of the important reasons
why this is being done is because of the fact that in the spring
the condition of the roads and of weather makes it almost impos-
sible to plant fry in some of our northern waters, especially in
those of the upper Peninsula.

Further attention is called to propagating bluegills, which mat-
ter was also referred to in the article presented in 1920. There
have been some developments since which may be of interest. In
preparing the rearing ponds they are drawn dry in the fall and
left dry until well frozen out. In some cases they are left dry all
winter. In the spring they are generally fertilized, if necessary,
and then a small flow of water is turned on to let the temperature
increase gradually. Water fleas soon become very numerous and
that is about the time we introduce our bluegills.

184

Lydell_—Fish Culture in Michigan. 185

Since our experience of two years ago, instead of using cheese
cloth frames around the margin of the pond we now use any pan

or box partially filled with sand. This is placed in the pond and

the bluegills are deposited therein. They will rise three or four
times and settle back; when they rise finally they swim away. Food
is so plentiful in the pond that they get all they want until they
are about three-fourths of an inch in length, when they will begin
to come ashore; then we start feeding them. They will come from
all sections of the pond; you can see thousands of them coming
to get the food.

Anyone having in mind to take up this work will find it very
interesting indeed. There is a great demand for bluegills in Mich-
igan, especially in the southern part of the state.

Discussion.

Mr. G. C. Leacu, Washington, D. C.: I would like to ask Mr. Lydell
if he ever tried to take bass eggs off the nest with a glass tube and hafch
them ?

Mr. Lypetu: Yes, we took some small-mouth bass eggs in that way and
had a 75 per cent hatch. But it is not practicable. You can go on our
rivers and lakes where they are spawning, and at the right stage, when the
little fish are turning from the transparent stage to the black stage you

an get them with a tube and put them in your ponds and raise them. But

we have not had a chance to do that where we are; there are no nearby
streams to make it possible. Moreover, it is not as sure as the bluegill work,
because most of our small-mouth bass are in the rivers and if the least bit
of a freshet occurs you cannot see the nest. In the lakes, however, where
the bluegils are, you can keep them under observation from time to time
until they had reached the stage that you are waiting for. One season’s
experiment will determine where they are. The tubes used were one-half

- inch in diameter and 30 inches long. We feed clam meal and also use it as

fertilizer. Before the water is put in we sow about 100 pounds to a pond
300 feet long and 100 feet wide.

Mr. C. O. Hayrorp, Hackettstown, N. J.: Do I understand Mr. Leach
to ask if we take bass eggs off the nest and hatch them? We had three
or four pairs of bass spawn before we moved them from the wintering
ponds to the spawning ponds. When we drew these ponds to take the adult
bass out there were three or four nests of small-mouth eggs. We rinsed the
eggs off the stones into ordinary dish pans, then placed them in a Chase
hatching jar. We followed the same process as in the case of hatching
pike perch eggs, and a large percentage of them hatched. It has occurred
to me that we might do some work of that kind in removing eggs from the
reservoirs or streams. To what extent it could be carried on I do not know.
When the eggs were removed from the nest the embryo was just beginning
to show a little under the microscope. They developed more slowly in the
jars.

FISH-CULTURAL WORK OF THE BUREAU OF FISHER-
IES IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. —

By C. F. CuLner

U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Homer, Minn.

The work of the United States Bureau of Fisheries in the
Mississippi River Valley consists of the reclamation from over-
flowed lands of stranded food and game fishes, or “rescue work”
as it is more commonly known, mussel infection operations, and the
propagation of cold and warm water fishes. Also scientific work
is conducted at the Biological Station at Fairport, Iowa. All of
these operations are carried on in the immediate vicinity of the
Mississippi River. Fish cultural activities are also conducted at
the Bureau’s stations at Manchester, Iowa, where rainbow and
brook trout, black bass and rock bass are handled; at Neosho, Mo.,
where the same species are handled; at Mammoth Springs, Ark.,
where small-mouth bass and crappie are handled; and at Tupelo,
Miss., where black bass, crappie, and sunfish are propagated. But
it is felt that no branch of the Bureau’s fish-cultural work has at-
tained more rapid development during the past few years than
the Mississippi River rescue operations, the development and
growth of which is manifested not only by the ever-increasing
numbers of food and game fishes saved each season, but is also
marked by decreasing cost of production.

Normally, the Mississippi River is a wide shallow stream flow-
ing peacefully within its banks; but in the spring its waters are
much swollen, due to melting snow and spring rains, and many
thousands of acres of bottom lands and islands along its course
are inundated. All through these lowlands are numerous lakes,
sloughs, and small ponds, which during the low water are entirely
cut off from the main channel and which are ideal spawning and
feeding grounds for various species of fish. This is the greatest
natural spawning ground of warm water fishes in the United
States. The eggs are laid under conditions favorable to their de-
velopment and the young fish attain a rapid growth before the
freshets begin to subside. At this time a majority of the adult
fish find their way to safety in the main channel, but the young

186

_———

Culler—Fish Cultural Work in Mississippi Valley. 187

do not react promptly to the falling waters and enormous num-
bers are cut off and become permanently landlocked.

The lakes and sloughs left by the falling waters are of various
sizes and depths; some of them dry up in a few days or weeks,
while others become so shallow that the fish will freeze during
the winter months. The shallower pools freeze solidly, while in
the deeper ones the fish are so highly concentrated that death by
smothering is inevitable, even though the pool does not freeze
solid to the bottom. From these lakes and sloughs millions of
fishes of all warm water species found in the Mississippi River
are taken by the rescue crews and transferred to the main channel
of the river or to a running slough, a small percentage being held
for distribution to other waters.

The need of some sort of salvage work has long been recog-
nized and the first attempts to save a few of the stranded fishes
occurred in the late nineties. It is only in recent years, however,
that the work may be considered as approaching a point commen-
surate with the need. In the past the lack of funds and trained
personnel has worked a great disadvantage; however, Congress
at the last session recognized the needs of the situation by provid-
ing a suitable personnel so that this important work can be further
extended in the future.

The territory now covered extends from Prescott, Wis., on the
north to Savanna, Ill., on the south; and the experimental work is
being carried on in the vicinity of Rock Island to determine whether
sufficient numbers of fish can be rescued at reasonable cost. Head-
quarters for the work are at Homer, Minn., with sub-stations at
La Crosse, Wis., and Marquette and Bellevue, lowa. These points
represent the centers of the most prolific fields.

Some lakes and sloughs are not as productive as others, some
having but a few thousand fish while others have large numbers.
As an example of large numbers that are sometimes caught in
one lake, the crew at Lynxville, Wis., seined a large shallow lake,
the maximum depth of which was 28 inches, and carried 182 tubs
of miscellaneous fish to the main channel. This represented a
saving of 1,250,000 fish, or an average of approximately 7,000 per
tub. These numbers seem large, but when it is taken into con-
sideration that small carp an inch long will run approximately
1,200 per quart and small bullheads from 1,800 to 2,000 per quart,

188 American Fisheries Society.

it can readily be seen that the figures are not excessive. It will
also give an idea as to the immensity of the work.

During the season of 1921, there were 178,100,161 miscel-
laneous fishes rescued and returned to the main river. Of these
506,394, or 29-100 of 1 per cent were shipped elsewhere to stock
lakes and streams. The average cost in all fields in 1921 was 17.3
cents per thousand. When the work was first undertaken a num-
ber of years ago the cost was $3.18 per thousand.

Comparison of the cost of the rescue work with that at a
station is clearly in favor of the former. The average cost of pro-
duction of warm water fishes at a pond station is approximately
$5.50 per thousand, while rescue operations have handled the same
species at a cost of 13.5 cents per thousand, the cost varying with
the price of supplies and labor conditions. If the fish rescued
during the season of 1921 had been purchased from commercial
dealers or reared at pond stations, the cost to the Bureau would
have been approximately $979,550, while the actual cost, exclusive
of the salaries of the regular employees, was $30,811. The com-
parison is obvious.

In connection with the rescue of stranded fishes, such species
as are suitable hosts for larval mussels are infected with the glo-
chidia and released; thus a double service is accomplished with only
a slight increase in cost of the work as the same men perform
both services.

The pearl button industry of this country is dependent on thé
mussels of the Mississippi River and its tributaries for raw mate-
rial, hence keeping up the supply is of more than local importance.
There is probably not a man, woman or child in the United States
today on whose clothes there are not pearl buttons manufactured
from Mississippi River mussels. ‘There is no other known mate-
rial as suitable for buttons of this type as the fresh water mussel.

In nature the mother mussel liberates the baby mussel when
the gill pouches become filled with ripe mussels, and the little mus-
sels pass out into the water with no known destination. If the
proper fish, or host as it is known, happens to be swimming by,
all well and good; the little fellow is carried on the gills as the
fish breathes, and fastens there and stays until it has reached the
stage when it can begin life on its own initiative. The length of
time the larval mussel is carried on the gills of the fish is depend-
ent on the temperature of the water. If no fish happens by when

ee oe ee

Culler—Fish Cultural Work in Mississippi Valley. 189

the larval mussel is ejected from the gill pouch, it drops to the
bottom and dies. It can be seen that nature is quite uncertain and
haphazard in her method of reproduction of commercial mussels.
By artificial propagation this can be remedied to a very great ex-
tent; nearly all species of game fish are suitable hosts for mussels
in greatest demand by the pearl button manufacturers, and these
fishes are infected with glochidia before they are liberated in the
river. As showing the success of this work, the muckets in Lake
Pepin have increased in the past six years from 28 per cent to 62
per cent. Also the yellow sand shell shows an appreciable in-
crease on the lower Mississippi River and the White and Black
Rivers in Arkansas.

Inasmuch as the fish taken from warm water during the rescue
operations cannot safely stand a long railway journey, those in-
tended for distribution are taken to the nearest holding station,
where they are hardened for several days in cold running water.
After this they are shipped by messenger or in the Bureau’s dis-
tributing cars to all parts of the country. Fish have been sent to
stock depleted waters in states as far east as Massachusetts, as far
south as Alabama, to Arizona in the southwest, and to Montana in
the northwest. In addition to its own distribution, the Bureau fur-
nishes fish to the states bordering on the Mississippi River, where
rescue operations are conducted. It is probable that many of these
fish are planted in waters connected with the Mississippi River
drainage system. Rainbow and brook trout are hatched and reared
at La Crosse, Wisconsin, for distribution in the states in this sec-
tion, with the idea of assisting the several states in keeping up the
supply of these species.

At different points along the Upper Mississippi River eggs are
taken, fertilized, and planted on the natural spawning grounds to
aid in keeping up the supply of these valuable species of commercial
fishes. The eggs taken in this manner would otherwise be an
_ absolute loss, as they are from fish caught for the market. It is
the intention of the Bureau to extend this work as far as available
funds will allow.

In Louisiana the Bureau has been operating the only buffalo-
fish hatchery in the country for the past four years. The hatchery
is situated in the middle of the Atchafalaya Swamp, one of the
greatest spawning grounds of buffalofish in the country. Appre-
ciable results are shown in reports received from the Conservation

190 American Fisheries Society.

Commission of Louisiana telling of large quantities of undersized
fish being caught in the sections where the greater portion of the
buffalofish fry have been planted in the past. In the season
of 1923 it is expected that a new buffalofish hatchery will be built
on Bayou Plaquemine by the State of Louisiana in cooperation
with the Bureau. These two hatcheries should do much to insure
the future supply of buffalofish in Louisiana. The field employes
working from the Atchafalaya Station have made minor investiga-
tions in regard to the spawning habits of the spoonbill catfish or
paddlefish as it is known in some places. Very little is known of
the life history of this species, and it is hoped to get some definite
data another season.

The Bureau has also endeavored to cooperate with the several
states in their propagation of all species of fishes and has at differ-
ent times detailed experienced employes from the Fish Rescue
Station to take charge of work in certain sections. As all are
working to a common end, the spirit of cooperation that now exists
between the several states on the Upper Mississippi River and the
Bureau of Fisheries will mean increased activities and results that
will be immeasurable.

The rescuing annually of millions of landlocked fishes, plant-
ing of hundreds of millions of commercial larval mussels on proper
host fishes, the rearing of millions of commercial and game food
fishes is surely indicative of the Bureau’s usefulness in the Missis-
sippi River Valley.

The Bureau’s work in this field, especially the rescue work,
is receiving each year more and more recognition from those in-
terested in fisheries and conservation of the country’s natural re-
sources. Numerous letters are received urging the extension of
this valuable work to new fields, but until Congress recognizes its
importance by providing additional funds, new fields cannot be
opened. The possibilities for the further extension of the Bureau’s
activities in rescue operations, mussel infection work, and propa-
gation of commercial and game fishes are very great. The field is
only partially covered, as there are many unbroken miles of river
bottoms where no rescue work or mussel propagation has been done
and many sections where the propagation of commercial fishes has
not been conducted, that surely would produce good results if only
funds were available. It is hoped that Congress will give special
recognition to these needs.

Culler—Fish Cultural Work in Mississippi Valley. 191

The above-outlined fish-cultural operations, including rescue
and mussel infection work, are of more than local interest. The
food fishes of the Mississippi River Valley receive a wide distribu-
tion in the trade, while the number diverted for stocking other
waters is of national importance. In fact, the importance of this
fish-cultural and reclamation work as a means of increasing the
food supply, furnishing sport for the angler, and maintaining the
pearl button industry, can hardly be equalled in any other field,
when cost, results, and quick returns are considered.

Discussion.

Mr. E. W. Coss, St. Paul, Minn.: We have received each year con-
signments which we have taken out and distributed to applicants. Formerly
we carried on rescue work down nearly to the Iowa line. To work over
the same ground with the Bureau of Fisheries, of course, was useless dupli-
cation; so we took the territory north of Prescott, the Bureau working
our side of the river south of Prescott; and they send us numbers of fish
for distribution.

Mr. G. C. Leacn, Washington, D. C.: In the past few years the
various states along the upper Mississippi River have conceded to the
Bureau the right to rescue fishes along the border waters of that river.
Very amiabie arrangements have been made, and I believe that they have
been the means of increasing the efficiency of the work. In the early days
the state legislatures did not seem to recognize the importance of the salvage
of large numbers of food fishes. They would make a small appropriation
and expect it to run over a period of two years. If it happened to be a
very good year for the salvage of food fishes, the state would probably ex-
pend the fund in the first year; the next year they would have no funds
and would appeal to the Bureau to take up the work. In view of these
sporadic arrangements with regard to funds, it was found necessary for
the Bureau to take over the major part of the work on a cooperative basis,
and the states very generously assisted. We have, therefore, been working
in close cooperation, and I think that is one reason why we have been able
with our personnel to obtain greatly increased numbers of fish. ‘The states
are assisting to a considerable extent in the distribution of fish, receiving
them at the Bureau’s holding stations located at certain points along the
river, and distributing them in their own waters. That is one thing that
.the Bureau has considerable difficulty in doing; the railroads in the states
seem to recognize that the state should have certain concessions in regard
to rates that they would not grant to the Federal Bureau.

Mr. W. E. Barber, Madison, Wis.: What proportion of the fish rescued
are of the bass family?

Mr, Cutler: Last year we rescued about 700,000 bass. The greatest
number rescued were catfish, crappie, sunfish, carp, and buffalo. It might
be interesting to refer to the sunfish. Four years ago, out of 34,000,000
fish rescued we handled only 600,000 sunfish; last year, out of 178,000,000

192 American Fisheries Society.

we handled 51,000,000 sunfish, There are points along the river whéte
fishermen had not been catching sunfish and crappie for twenty years, but
where this summer they were able to get the limit each day. Wabasha is
one place; Fountain City, Lynxville and Marquette are others. Up to
the first of September this year (1922) we had rescued and planted back
in the river over 70,000,000 fish and about 145,000,000 larval mussels.

Mr. J. W. Titcoms, Hartford, Conn.: This is not exactly rescue work
I am going to speak about, but it may be of interest to some of the com-
missions. In the State of Connecticut we have many lakes and ponds that
are accessible to 20,000,000 people by driving 100 miles; in other words, a
circle drawn around the center of the state takes in 20,000,000 people. Now,
to keep these ponds and lakes supplied with the warm water fishes is quite
a problem. The numerous cities in the state have water supplies which are
mostly natural ponds and lakes; and as a sanitary precaution, it is unlawful
to fish in them. This season we are getting concessions from the officials
of these municipal reservoirs under which the Board of Fisheries is allowed
to trap the fish in them and transfer the fish to the lakes and ponds
which are open to public fishing. We argued that if we were allowed to
net these reservoirs periodically for the purpose of stocking the public
waters, anglers would not be tempted to fish them surreptitiously. The people
who allowed us the privilege were authorized to post the lakes over the
name of the State Board of Fisheries and Game; and we patrol the reservoirs.
so far as it appears to be necessary in order to safeguard them against pol-
lution by poachers. The first reservoir yielded about 8,000 pounds of pickerel,
bullheads and perch, consisting of fish ranging from one-half pound to five
pounds in weight—a large proportion of them before they had spawned.
Another lake yielded principally small-mouth bass. We got started only
this spring, rather late in the season; but we now have concessions from the
officials of five other cities, and some of these officials have charge of five
or six reservoirs. It is a very interesting proposition, and I do not see why
it should not work out in some other states. We have, in other words,
a pond cultural proposition worth many millions, under which we can go
and get our bass and other warm water fishes for the restocking of these
much-fished ponds and lakes.

PROBLEMS OF THE COMMERCIAL FISHERIES FROM
PRODUCER TO CONSUMER.

By J. H. Martruews
New York, N. Y.

It would be manifestly impossible to detail all the problems
confronting the commercial salt water fisheries. Each branch of
the industry has its own problems, which are seriously reflected
in all other branches.

The problems of the producer begin to develop before he lands
his first fish. A fisherman must first obtain his boats and equip
them with the necessary nets, gear, bait, ice, etc. He must secure a
license to operate his boats. He must have packages in which to
ship his fish to market. Often he must employ extra labor in the
handling of his production. It is often necessary for him to seek
financial assistance to outfit his operations. Many times, his equip-
ment and season’s work are mortgaged far beyond their intrinsic
worth. He sometimes spends days, even weeks, without taking
enough fish to supply even his own family. When production be-
comes great and when he should receive the greatest returns for
his labor and investments, he usually finds the market glutted and
his returns probably no greater than a small percentage of his
catch would bring if production was equal to demand.

There are times when he is made to suffer financial loss by
unnecessary restrictive legislation. Many bills are presented in our
legislatures, imposing prohibitory license fees and taxes on pro-
duction, regulating the size mesh of nets and the length of seines,
prohibiting fishing in certain areas, regulating the seasons when
certain varieties may be taken, and various items in opposition to
the needs and interests of the fisherman, and absolutely unessential
to conservation. The fisherman’s calling, though of equal import-
ance, is more precarious than many other branches of industry.
’ He should receive the same measure of support and encourage-
ment as that now extended by the Government to other industries.

Many of the problems of production could be solved by the
Federal Government with the cooperation of the various states and
through appropriations for the Bureau of Fisheries large enough
to broaden and expand the work to include exhaustive research

193

194 American Fisheries Society.

and investigations as to the resources of the seas, to increase the
number of marine biological laboratories with competent scientific
staffs, and fish-cultural stations for the propagation and distribution
of commercial food fish. The development of practical ideas and
methods in the economic exploitation of the fisheries; the demar-
cation of fishing grounds, employment of scout vessels, hydroplanes
and wireless communication in locating and following up seasonal
migratory fish; practical instruction in the handling and packing
of fish for shipment to distributing centres; the dissemination of
information as to costs together with sources of supply of gear and
equipment, particularly nets, twine, bait, ice, packages and all com-
modities essential to production; and recommendation for the re-
peal of all unnecessary legislation and the substitution of genuine
conservation measures are all helpful suggestions.

POLLUTION.

Pollution is exercising a great influence over our supplies of
fish, particularly the anadromous salt water fishes which spawn
in our rivers and brackish coastal waters, and, what is more im-
portant, the destruction by pollution of their food supply in inshore
waters, such as the minute pelagic forms of plant life and crusta-
ceans.

The waters of our rivers and harbors, along the banks of which
great manufactories are located, are favorite dumping-grounds for
waste materials of all kinds, the most injurious to the fisheries being
oil-waste and tar. Drainage of waste oils and tar from gas-houses
and oil refineries, the accidental leakage and wanton discharge of
fuel oil by oil-burning vessels, are responsible, to a great extent,
for the depletion of our inshore fisheries. Waters such as the
Kennebec River in Maine, the Connecticut and the Hudson Rivers,
New York Bay, Chesapeake Bay and many others, for years famous
for their production of salmon, shad or striped bass, have in the
past few years become nearly barren of these valuable fish on
account of this most destructive agency—pollution. That the greed
of the commercial fisherman is not wholly to blame for the depletion
of these waters is borne out by the fact that, from time immemorial,
fishermen have been taking the fish, and the runs have been as great
one year as another, until the waters became contaminated with the
pollutions of civilization.

In framing measures of conservation, the subject of pollution

a ee ee oS

Matthews.—Problems of Commercial Fisheries. (195

should be given very serious consideration. Legislation with very
heavy penalties, prohibiting the discharge of polluting materials in
any fish-producing waters or in any stream emptying into such
waters, would undoubtedly be one of the means of reestablishing
in a very few years these former valuable fisheries.

TRANSPORTATION AND DISTRIBUTION.

Much has been written concerning transportation of fish and
products of the sea. Market conditions are of such a nature that
the wholesale selling price is not based on the cost of production,
but upon the law of supply and demand.

The fisherman cannot store up his catch in anticipation of
favorable market conditions. He must ship his fish to the dis-
tributors at the earliest possible moment. Many times during
periods of glut his fish do not bring transportation charges, not
considering remuneration for his labor and cost of packages and
ice, nor the expense of the distributor in handing the fish. The
transportation company is practically secured against loss, as its
charges must be paid at time of delivery.

It is of national importance to place on our markets, without
loss, but at reasonable prices, wholesome and nutritious foodfish
in good condition. Fish is the most perishable of all foods and
should receive the closest attention and preferential treatment.
Rapid and thorough distribution is a vital factor in the develop-
ment of the industry. To attain this end, better transportation
facilities are essential. Tariffs reduced to a reasonable rate, in-
sulated and refrigerated cars, with more efficient train service will
make it possible for fish to be carried to the most distant points
in perfect condition.

The following extract from the address of former Senator
Beveridge in Indianapolis on June 7, 1922, applies very forcibly
to the fishing industry:

The product of all labor must pay railway charges, and the price of
every article is affected by railway rates. Cost of living, scales of wages,
profit or loss of farmer, manufacturer and merchant, all depend on this
vital economic element, and whatever prevents reasonable railway tariffs
and sufficient railway facilities must be removed.

Retail Distribution—tThe retail distribution of fish is of vital
importance to the industry inasmuch as the average consumer
comes in contact with the industry, solely through the retail dealer.
Careless and unscrupulous dealers have created much prejudice

196 American Fisheries Society.

among consumers by selling fish of poor or inferior quality and also
by representing some of the cheaper and inferior grades to be
more popular and expensive varieties. The unsanitary conditions
of many fish markets is another factor in discouraging a more ex-
tensive use of sea-foods. The average housewife makes her pur-
chases of fish only one day in each week, many believing fresh fish
can be obtained only on Thursday or Friday. Due to this fact,
the dealer’s expenses and overhead for the entire week must come
out of one or two days’ business.

The housewife in making her purchases of meat does not
consider quality, knowing it is up to the standard set by the Gov-
ernment or it would not be offered for sale; but, in purchasing sea-
food, usually the first question she asks is in regard to its quality.
She is invariably assured that the fish is absolutely fresh.

Practically all of the abuses retarding the wholesome increase
in consumption could be eliminated by the cooperation of every
branch of the industry, together with the Fisheries Bureau, in
educating the public by various methods of advertising, distribution
of literature describing and picturing seasonable varieties of fish
and sea-food, methods of ascertaining quality and recipes for pre
paring the fish for table.

PRESERVING.

Freezing and Cold Storage.—The subject of preserving fish is
of immense importance to the industry and is one that should be
given extensive consideration. Very nearly all salt-water fish are
of the migratory type and must be taken while on their migrations
to shoal water. During seasons when the fish are most abundant
the selling price is such that in many instances the producer does
not receive enough for his fish to pay the cost of production. At
these seasons dealers usually purchase for storage and preserving
purposes the quantities they deem adequate to supply their trade
during seasons when the varieties are not produced.

Much of the fish frozen in the past has been of indifferent
quality. Frozen after having covered long distances from the point
of production, exposed for sale for indefinite periods in markets,
it is finally placed in cold storage for future use. Fish will not
be improved by freezing and will not be in better condition when
defrosted than before going through the process.

Little consideration has been given to the varieties of fish

te Poy

Matthews—Problems of Commercial Fisheries. 197

to be frozen. Many varieties are not adapted to the process.
A consumer purchasing one of these varieties, or fish of inferior
quality, naturally condemns all frozen fish. Fish for cold storage
purposes should be given the same care and attention as that to
be used in its fresh state and frozen at the earliest possible moment
after removal from the water.

At one of the large fish-freezing plants in New York City,
several million pounds of fish are frozen annually. These fish are
graded as to size and quality and the boxes in which they are
packed are marked accordingly. Fish that are of the best quality
are designated as grade “A,” those graded as “B” are not of as
high quality as grade “A.” Each fish is inspected by an expert
and nothing is permitted to be frozen unless it measures up to the
standard of grade “B.” Many other concerns are now practicing
these same careful methods in the freezing of fish and are finding
the results more satisfactory to the purchaser as well as to them-
selves.

Brine-Freezing—There are several methods of brine-freezing
which are claimed by their inventors to be superior to the air-
freezing process. It is also claimed that the original appearance
and flavor of the fish are retained, the time required for treatment
being from two to four hours, according to the method used and
the fish dealt with. The fish retains its quality for from one to
two weeks without ice or other preservatives, and can be kept in
cold-storage at a temperature of about 21 degrees F. for many
months.

In view of the necessity for preserving freshly caught fish
on board the fishing vessels and the desirability of placing in our
inland markets high quality stock, it is desirable from the com-
mercial viewpoint, that one or several of these methods be officially
tested by the Bureau of Fisheries or the Department of Health,
and if found practicable and not detrimental to the public health,

advocated for general use in the fisheries.

Curing, Smoking and Canning—While, on the whole, fresh
fish will always be preferred and with improved preservation and
distribution, should be obtainable everywhere throughout the entire
year, there is scope for the development of curing and smoking
processes, as cured, smoked and canned fish furnish a needed
variety and are in much demand.

One criticism that may be made in regard to our processes

198 ‘American Fisheries Society.

of curing and preserving is that they show very little variety, and
are conducted by the same methods as were practiced many years
ago. A majority of the varieties cured in large quantities consists
of the so-called ground fish, herring and mackerel, while practically
all varieties lend themselves admirably to various methods of
curing. Curers and smokers cater principally to the popular taste,
to the practical exclusion of creating demands for some of the
other, and in many instances, cheaper varieties. The varieties
smoked consist chiefly, in our eastern markets, of haddock and
herring. There is no doubt that if many of the other varieties
were smoked they would soon become as popular as the finnan
haddie and the bloater or kippered herring.

it is rare for a new variety of canned fish to appear on our
markets. Considering the vast quantities of numerous varieties
produced during the seasons of abundance, when the value of these
fish is at its lowest and the supply is far greater than the current
demand, canning of every variety suitable for this purpose should
be one of the means of relieving the condition of over-supply. The
farmer when he reaps his harvest has an outlet for his produce in
the canning factory as well as in the markets. There are very few
varieties of fruit or vegetables, grown in the entire country that are
not preserved in cans to become the staple supply until the next
harvest.

Canning is the most economical means of preserving fish for
future consumption. After the fish is canned it does not demand
the same care as that required by frozen or cured fish, the ordinary
storage warehouse affording ample protection for the pack.

UTILIZATION OF BY-PRODUCTS.

The waste in connection with the fisheries industry is almost
beyond comprehension. The actual average of fish-flesh consumed
as food is about 33 per cent of the fish as it comes from the water,
the head, tail, scales, skin, bones and viscera, comprising the other
6% per cent, being waste material. The value of fish waste and
of varieties unfit for food, as a by-product of a great fishing in-
dustry, is hardly realized and the nitrogenous fertilizer, oil, glue,
fish-meal, etc., derivable from these are mostly lost.

To encourage the destruction of the dog-fish that roam the sea
like packs of wolves and do untold harm to fish and gear, and also
to utilize their carcasses and other fish waste, the Canadian Govern-

Matthews—Problems of Commercial Fisheries. 199

ment at one time established reduction plants in Nova Scotia. At
Liverpool, England, a plant has been earning $400 a ton for the fats
and $100 a ton for the poultry meal made from fish residues. To
us the value of dessicated fish powder as a food for pigs and
cattle, if not for men, as in Japan, is hardly known. Fish scrap
contains practically all the elements of an ideal fertilizer for nearly
every agricultural purpose; fish meal furnishes an excellent food
for cattle and poultry. A very fine grade of leather is made from
the skins of some of the larger species, principally the shark and
porpoise. The scales of certain varieties, notably the shad, are
valuable in the manufacture of artificial pearls. The best kind of
glue is a product of fish skins.

With the increased demand for dressed and fillet fish, mnich
residue accumulates in plants where these operations are conducted,
but very little of this residue is utilized and is only a source of
expense to the operators for its removal. In the meat industry the
by-products are far more valuable than the dressed meat that is
sold to the consumer. Every particle of the animal is utilized for
some commercial purpose. The great volume of waste material
and non-food fish that are now destroyed could be collected and
utilized in the manufacture of various articles of commerce which
would greatly enhance the value of the fisheries.

EDUCATION.

Technical knowledge is a very important asset in the fishing
industry. Some of our institutions of higher learning, notably the
University of Washington and the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, have included fisheries and fish-cultural courses in their
curriculums. Fishery engineering will do much to place the in-
dustry on a higher plane than is possible by any other means.
Every commercial fish producing state should have at least one tech-
nical institution where persons engaged in or intending to enter
into some phase of the industry, can take courses pertaining to
the fisheries; and for those who, for various reasons, cannot take
the time to attend resident colleges and who wish to increase their
knowledge, there should be extension courses provided.

Nearly every one from the producer to the consumer is in
need of education to a greater or less extent. The producers could
be benefitted by instruction in various economical methods of taking
fish, packing and shipping other than now in common use. Many

200 American Fisheries Society.

of the methods employed by large numbers of producers are anti-
quated, inefficient and expensive. More efficient methods of dis-
tribution, sanitation, proper display of goods and installation of
economic accounting systems by the wholesalers and retailers can
only be accomplished by education.

Education of the consumer is by far more important than
educating the producer or the distributor. The housewife knows
the various cuts of meat and practically all varieties of vegetables,
and can usually tell their quality at a glance. With fish, she is
absolutely at sea. With very few exceptions she does not know one
variety from another or what varieties are best suited for par-
ticular purposes. Methods to distinguish the quality of the fish
are foreign to her. She may know one or two ways of preparing
the fish for the table. When she purchases fish other than of the
limited varieties with which she is familiar, she is experimenting
with a deep mystery. Education of the public will of necessity
educate the producer and the distributor. The public press, mag-
azines, moving pictures, public school lectures and the radio are
some of the means by which the public could be educated to eat
more and better fish.

nt eee

OYSTERS—THE WORLD’S MOST VALUABLE
SEAFOOD.

By H. W. VICKERS
Chairman, Conservation Commission, Baltimore, Md.

Oysters are the most popular and the most extensively eaten
of all shellfish; economically, they are the most important of all
cultivated water products and, with the single exception of the
sea herring, the most valuable of all aquatic animals. The oyster
crop of the world in the year 1913, according to Government sta-
tistics, amounted to over 42,000,000 bushels and was valued at
nearly $25,000,000. Of this output, the share of the United States
was 88 per cent of the quantity and 69 per cent of the value. Of
the remaining portion, fully 50 per cent belong to France.

It is my intention, in this paper, to deal with the oyster prob-
lems of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, and especially of the Ches-
apeake Bay, the world’s greatest oyster ground. Any food prod-
uct of so great commercial value as the oyster and one which has
given a livelihood to thousands of citizens for generations, war-
rants the most serious consideration of those entrusted with the
care and preservation of the nation’s fisheries.

The natural oyster bars and rocks of the North Atlantic States
became practically exhausted many years ago. The oyster cultur-
ists of those states had no opposition when they determined to
raise oysters by scientific methods. The main thing they lacked
was the oysters to furnish the spawn and the seed oysters for the
start in the industry. Naturally their attention was focussed on the
section of the greatest natural production—Chesapeake Bay. Then
followed the greatest transplanting of oysters ever known in the
history of this country. From 1875 to 1900 it was a common sight
to see a dozen two or three-masted schooners from New England
anchored in the waters of Tangier Sound, loading seed oysters,
marketable oysters, and shells which had been scraped from the
rocks of the Sound, to be freighted to the northern planting
grounds. The Maryland oystermen were pleased with the idea of
a market, especially in the early spring, and no thought was given
to the fact that they were selling their future livelihood. Tangier
Sound alone was at that time producing about 4,000,000 bushels

201

202 American Fisheries Society.

of oysters a year and it required many years for the fishermen
to awaken to the fact that the oyster rocks were exhaustible. It
was but a few years after the migration of the Chesapeake oyster,
however, before the New England oyster culturists started on their
successful career as oyster growers. The cultivated oysters com-
manded a higher price and the product was marketed in a manner
which greatly increased its value. The little State of Rhode Island
developed bottoms which brought in considerable revenue, the
oyster planter paying a rental of $10 an acre a year. The State
of Connecticut sold its bottoms in fee, a great mistake from the
state’s standpoint as it was later realized, since it materially re-
duced the annual revenue from oyster bottoms.

It is said that until 1910 Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Con-
necticut, and New York were most successful with the cultivation
of the oyster. The culturist had met and overcome all difficulties.
The most dangerous and serious enemy to the northern bivalve,
the starfish, had been successfully controlled by means of “tangles,”
and even the drill, with its rasping tongue, did not affect successful
oyster propagation in New England waters.

For practically the past ten years, however, the necessary set
of spat has failed in northern waters and thousands of acres of
the best planting bottorns are now considered of little value. The
cause of this serious setback has been investigated by the Bureau
of Fisheries for several years, and while their report on this sub-
ject has never come to my attention, I understand that pollution
of the waters is largely responsible for the lack of young oyster
larve, and the most serious pollution has been found to be caused
by oil sludge from oil-burning ships.

The South Atlantic States and especially Louisiana, which
borders on the Gulf, have made much progress in oyster propaga-
tion and have experienced a noteworthy augmentation of yield dur-
ing recent years. A government report in 1913 gave the seven
leading oyster states at that time as Rhode Island, Connecticut,
New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia and Louisiana; in
each of these states over 1,000,000 bushels of oysters were marketed
annually. Virginia was the ranking state as regards production,
with over 6,000,000 bushels, followed by Maryland, with over
5,500,000 bushels, and Connecticut with 4,000,000 bushels. - As re-
gards value of oysters taken, Connecticut and New York led, with

Vickers.—Oysters. 203

over $2,500,000 each, followed by Virginia and Maryland with
about $2,250,000 each.

One of the highest authorities in this country once said that
nowhere in this country is there any excuse for continuing to rely
on public oyster grounds as sources of supply, and the proposition
to discourage or prohibit individual control of land for agricultural
purposes would not be less absurd than to prevent or retard the
acquisition of submerged lands for aquicultural purposes. It would
seem that this is a most reasonable and progressive statement, yet
representing a part of the Chesapeake Bay region where we have
always had to depend on our large natural oyster rock areas for
production, I feel that we must still rely on our public grounds
and adopt strong conservation methods to prevent their depletion.
The 1918 statistics of the oyster industry show the preponderant
importance of Chesapeake Bay; an output of over 11,000,000
bushels, valued at more than $4,250,000, and the production of the
Bay since has not varied more than 2,000,000 bushels from these
figures.

In reviewing the statistics of the production of the oyster-
producing bottoms of Maryland between the years 1865 and 1920, it
may be of interest to know that these bottoms produced 453,000,000
bushels of oysters which had a money value of over $200,000,000,
or an average of $3,571,428 a year. The greatest production in
Maryland was between 1873 and 1893. The survey of the oyster
bars of Maryland, 1906-1912, showed that the natural oyster rocks
beneath the waters of the State covered over 200,000 acres at that
time, although many thousands of acres had become depleted since
1885 and this depletion was on the increase.

MAINTENANCE OF NATURAL OYSTER AREAS.

Believing that it is essential to maintain the natural oyster
bars and rocks in the waters of the State of Maryland, we are
returning cultch, in the shape of oyster shells, to the partly depleted
bottoms, and are leasing barren areas with suitable current and den-
sity conditions for oyster culture. During the long period from
1865 to 1920, aside from the cull law on the natural oyster rocks,
nothing whatsoever was done to maintain the oyster bars. The
fishermen of Maryland continued to resort year after year to the
bars for a livelihood, and this overfishing naturally caused de-
pletion. During the past two seasons, over 250,000 bushels of

204 American Fisheries Soct ty.

shells have been carefully scattered on selected depleted bottoms
with excellent results. The writer is informed that the State of
North Carolina has also adopted this method. It is not believed,
however, that this method will restore the natural bars to their
original condition, but it is believed that shell planting will stem
depletion and conserve this great natural wealth lying beneath the
waters of the Chesapeake.

OYSTER ENEMIES.

While the oyster has many enemies in almost every stage
in its career, these vary in size and kind in certain regions of the
Atlantic and Gulf coasts. The oyster growers of Long Island
Sound and adjacent water suffer large losses from the inroads of
starfishes, which come in from deep water and move in waves over
the bottom, devouring every oyster in their path and sometimes de-
stroying several hundred thousand bushels of marketable oysters in
one state in a single season. It is remarkable that a weak creature
like the common starfish should be able to prey on an animal so
strongly fortified as an oyster. In the Chesapeake region the power-
ful jaws of the black drumfish may literally clean out an oyster-
bed in one night, while the Gulf States have to deal with the drill
and the Pacific Coast States with a species of stingray. The most
serious recent enemy of the upper Chesapeake Bay oysters is the
mussel, which practically covered the oysters on the Bay and river
bars during the past season and materially affected marketing the
bivalves. The Bureau of Fisheries attributed this unusual growth
to the high density caused by iight precipitation in the winter and
spring of 1920 and 1921. The heavy rainfall during the spring and
past summer has caused the mussels to fall from the oyster shells
and the condition is much improved.

OIL POLLUTION.

Our fin and shellfisheries as well as our wild fowl are now
subject to one common enemy—oil pollution—and unless concerted
action is taken in the near future by the several interests concerned,
this great natural wealth seems doomed to destruction. The solu-
tion of this problem has been before the Congressional Committee
on Rivers and Harbors for many months, and it is hoped that the
American Fisheries Society will see fit to ask Congress to expedite
action to relieve the situation.

4
;

Vickers.—Oysters. 205

Discussion.

Mr. WintiaAm C. ‘ApAmMs, Boston, Mass.: I should like to ask Mr.
Vickers a question, with respect to this oil pollution. Oil coming in on
the surface of the water and precipitated on the clam flats and adjoining
areas by reason of the rise and fall of the tide can very easily pollute
those areas; if it remains on the surface of the water it is, of course, very
deadly in its effect upon wild fowl. But the point I would like to be in.
formed upon is the extent to which this oil or waste will precipitate and
lodge on oyster beds, perhaps a number of feet below the surface of the
water. To what extent has your investigation shown that that is the
fact?

Mr. Vickers: This oil pollution destroys the oyster spat, which starts
on the surface of the water and goes down gradually. It has the same
opportunity to destroy any other animal life in the water. It has been
noticed down on the beds, on the oyster ground.

Mr. JoHN N. Coss, College of Fisheries, Seattle: The oysters were
practically all destroyed in San Francisco Bay as a result of the dumping
of sludge from the oil tankers. The vessels bring the oil in and take
it up to the head of the bay, where they discharge it at the great refineries,
and then come down the bay—or used to, at least—and dump the sludge.
The sludge works around the beds at low tide, killing the spats that are
floating, and affecting the oysters on the bottom. We have had the same
trouble in Puget Sound. There we have a tide varying from fifteen feet
up to twenty feet, which quite freely exposes many of the beds. Some of
them are protected by the artificial dykes, but any oil deposited in the
neighborhood of those that are not so protected usually spreads around,
gathers on the shells and kills the oysters.

COMMERCIAL FISHERIES.

By CHarLes E, WHEELER
Stratford, Conn.

The question has been raised as to what is wrong with our
commercial fisheries. In this connection it can be said that in
some localities the trouble is that fish are getting fewer and
prices consequently higher, while in other localities the fisher-
men have been forced to liberate tons of fish because they could
not get enough for them to pay for barrels and ice. So the
answer to the question in some sections is small production, and
in others small returns.

In the course of over thirty years of experience in the fishing
and shellfishing industries of New England, the writer has noted
many changes that have affected these industries commercially.
Many varieties of both fish and shellfish that were once abundant
are now on the verge of extermination in some localities, and
sadly depleted in others. Many streams that were once pure
and productive are now grossly polluted and barren.

Many little fishing settlements along the shore, once bright,
thrifty spots, now show signs of deterioration. The net-reels
are tumbling down, the fishing boats are laid np to die, the nets
are being utilized as poultry fencing and the fisherfolk are busy
in other walks of life simply because “Fishin’ aint what it used
to be.” And in answer to the question: “Why isn’t it?” one
hears either, ‘““Not fish enough to pay,” or “Not enough for our
fish to pay.’”’ Commercial fisheries, like other industries, are de-
pendent upon production first and upon distribution and re-
turns next.

Inasmuch as many fishermen in New England have quit
fishing because there are not enough fish locally to make fishing
profitable, it is obvious that the trouble here is on the produc-
tion end. It is equally obvious that in the south where trap
fishermen have been forced to liberate thousands of barrels of fish
because they could not get enough for them to pay for handling
and shipping, the trouble is on the sales and distribution end.

In considering fish production from the viewpoint of Na-
ture’s supply, one finds that fish do certain things, under certain

206

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Wheeler.—Commercial Fisheries. 207

conditions, at certain times of the year and that their actions are
governed wholly by a natural instinct. In the beginning, God
created fish and a habitat and food supply for them. Since that
time Nature has been taking care of this work very efficiently
until foreign influences introduced by man have handicapped
the work. Some of the provisions of nature were that matured
fish should deliver their spawn under favorable conditions and
in suitable areas; that the spawn should hatch, that food proper-
ties should be present in the water to take care of the little fry
during its babyhood, that enough of these fry should escape their
natural enemies and mature so as to return and deliver their
spawn.

This process went on for ages successfully and would be
going on more effectively today were it not for the unnatural
conditions imposed by man. With the introduction by man of
ingenious types of gear and nets for catching fish, and the de-
struction of spawning beds and food properties in the streams
by pollution, the candle has been burning at both ends for the
past fifty years without much thought being given to replacing
the candle. Weare now at the point where we realize that unless
something real is done in the way of rebuilding our fisheries, this
extremely valuable natural resource, over which we are but
. custodians, will be depleted beyond restoration and the coming
generations will have been legally, morally and economically
wronged by our wilful wastefulness.

The common-sense version of the situation is that first we
need to conserve a plentiful suppiy of matured stock for healthy
spawners; next we must provide suitable places, as nature did,
for these specimens to spawn in; we must make it possible for
them to reach these areas and protect them while they are there;
we must protect the quality and quantity of our stream flow so
as to provide sufficient food for the young fry; we must protect
these fry from UNNATURAL enemies so that a sufficient num-
ber will mature and restock these same areas another year.
This applies to the natural propagation of shellfish equally as
well as to the production of the finny fish species.

“Getting down to brass tacks,” this means that the life of
our commercial fisheries depends on the elimination of such
pollution as is deleterious to fish or fish-food life. It means that
our stream flow must be augmented by reforestation of drainage -

208 American Fisheries Society.

areas. It means that restrictive catching laws must be enacted
so as to make certain that enough spawners reach the spawning
beds. It means that spawning areas should be designated in
the rivers, and in as near the same localities as is practicable, that
nature originally provided for spawning purposes.

The question has been asked: “How long would it take to
restore our fisheries if stream pollution was eliminated?’ The
answer to this is that the work of restoration would commence
immediately as is evidenced by better conditions in Connecticut
since the quality of the water here has been greatly improved by
reason of the industrial depression. Since the war our factories
have operated but feebly, with the result that little or no manu-
facturing wastes found their way into many of our streams. The
fish sensed the better quality of water and immediately ascended
the sreams to points many miles above where they had been for
ten years. ‘This is positive proof that just as soon as man im-
proves the conditions in the streams, just so soon will nature
take advantage and commence to do her part in the restocking
of barren areas.

The volume of possible returns may be estimated by the
results obtained in California waters where shad and striped bass
were introduced many years ago. Neither of these fish were na-
tives of the west coast, but were shipped there from eastern
points, with the result that in a few years California was able
to ship shad and shad roe to eastern points in carload lots, and
striped bass are now very plentiful in California waters. Surely
if these results are possible in waters foreign to these species,
then success must follow sensible efforts to reestablish them in
the rivers that nature chose for them originally.

Much has been said about the advisability of a Federal
migratory fish law. It would seem that inasmuch as a similar
law had worked wonders in rebuilding our depleted flocks of wild
fowl, it might be well worth trying in the interest of our fisheries.
It would at least bring the Government face to face with a rotten
condition of stream pollution which together with severe over-
fishing is fast exterminating several species and sorely depleting
a very valuable natural food resource.

It would not be fair to the commercial fishermen, the fellows
who actually catch the fish, to pass on without saying a word or
two about the modern method of marketing. When there is a

;
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Wheeler—Commercial Fisheries. 209

run of fish the fishermen are busy catching fish and tending gear;
they have no time for marketing advantageously; they ship
everything to commission houses -and take chances as to
whether they get something or nothing for their product. The
result of this method is that invariably the fisherman gets little
or nothing for his large consignments and but a fair price for
his small catches. In actual figures it can be shown that on May
16, 1921, the return for 45 barrels of weakfish was $69.27, or a
little less than four-fifths of a cent a pound; that on the same
day weakfish were wholesaling in New York at 18 cents a pound
and retailing in Connecticut towns for 25 cents and 28 cents;
that on July 29, 16 barrels of weakfish brought a net return of
“sold for expenses,” and that on that same day weakfish were
bringing 18 cents and 20 cents wholesale in New York; that on
August 1, 30 barrels of butterfish and weakfish brought $97.26
in New York, and that on the same day in New York 30 barrels
of these fish brought over $1,000 and were retailing in Connecti-
cut for 25 cents and 28 cents per pound.

Many similar instances might be cited, but what’s the use?
If the commercial fishermen will continue to ship their fish to
the commercial fish monger and gamble on the returns they are
to get, they cannot blame anybody but themselves if they get
“stung.”

It might be well for them to study the advisability of form-
ing an exchange big enough to operate their own cold storage
plants, and market their product through the exchange. It is a
good gamble that they would get more for their fish and that the
consumer would get better prices which would tend to create a
better demand.

Summing up it can be said that the real panacea needed to
resuscitate our commercial fisheries is the elimination of pollu-
tion from our streams, the designation and protection of spawn-
_ ing areas, and conservative fishing laws. The matter of better
marketing methods will be solved by the fishermen eventually,
as it was by the fruit growers and others.

THE PROBLEM OF MARINE FISH CULTURE.

By C. M. Breper, Jr.
New York Aquarium, New York, N. Y.

Constructive efforts put forth in any direction by an in-
dividual or a group are almost certain to be attacked in a more
or less violent manner by others, apparently as a matter of an-
cient custom or because of some dislocated sense as to the ap-
propriateness of criticism on the part of the self-appointed critics.
This promiscuous picking to pieces of our contemporaries’ labor,
while sometimes simply obstructive to the work it is intended to
aid, nevertheless, has its place either when it is backed by the
knowledge of a student of the particular field concerned, or when
brought up by one sufficiently removed from the scene of activity
to gain a fair perspective of the whole. The most pleasing re-
sults possible from such criticism are usually discussions and
controversies arising therefrom. ‘These, if carried on in the
proper spirit, become the stimulus necessary to arouse an in-
terest sufficient to goad active minds to the point of developing
improvements great enough to raise the results of the work from
mediocrity or failure to a measurable degree of success.

The actual value of the cultivation of marine food fishes has
long been open to question, and in consequence has become the
target for both just and unjust criticism. That this condition
has existed for such a long period of time is largely due to the
great difficulty to be encountered in any attempt to measure the
effectiveness of fish cultural work on marine fishes. Among the
prime reasons for this difficulty is the fact that many of the little
understood factors contributing to the production of oceanic con-
ditions, cause annual fluctuations of considerable size in the
abundance of fish life which tend to invalidate any deductions
based on the statistics of catches made by commercial fisher-
men, not to mention such other factors as have been introduced
by man himself. Partly, at least, for these reasons marine fish
culture has found it necessary to use as a basic assumption the
general proposition that the figures in reports showing that im-
mense numbers of fry have been planted, actually represent some
tangible result, which of necessity must follow the liberation of

210

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Breder—Marine Fish Culture. 211

great quantities of fish larve. However the truth of this proposi-
tion is by no means a proven fact. With these considerations in
mind the present paper has been penned and its single reason for
existence is the hope that a perusal of it will aid in the stimula-
tion of constructive thought in the minds of fish culturists in-
terested in the development of the marine hatchery.

It is well to note here that the case of the older art of cul-
tivating lacustrine and fluvatile ’spawners is another matter, and
any criticism of its practice must, in almost all cases, be directed
against the efficiency or practicability of the technical methods
involved. If for example we select a given pond, known to con-
tain not a single individual specimen of certain desirable species,
and cause it to be stocked with the desired fish in such a manner
that the species is able to establish itself without injurious dis-
turbance to the previous balance of life in the pond and in suff-
cient numbers to be worth the cost and trouble involved, the
effort may be counted a success. Simple observation is sufficient
to prove such a case, as all that can be criticised is, for example,
that a particular method of handling or incubating is open to im-
provement in one way or another. In the case of marine fish
culture, on the other hand, the underlying proposition may be
attacked; for in the study of oceanic conditions such direct ob-
servation as is applicable to small bodies of fresh water is im-
possible, owing chiefly to the vastness of the scale of the open
sea. Therefore, to say after a few years spent in cultivating a
particular marine species, that a slight increase in the amounts
brought to a particular fish wharf furnishes evidence of the ef-
fort’s success, is simply to ignore the vast and uncontrollable
forces that operate to make abundant or scanty the fishing of the
year. Each such factor is in itself of a magnitude sufficient to
dwarf by comparison the best known efforts of man in the culti-
vation of these fishes. Until nearly all of these factors are much
more thoroughly understood, the comparison of the fisher folks’
fluctuating fortunes from year to year must continue to mean
but comparatively little. Therefore, as previously explained, the
question here to be considered is not one of technical methods,
even as obviously bungling and crude as are some of the current
practices, but rather refers to the possibility of handling intelli-
gently and efficiently a problem of such dimensions with our
present knowledge of oceanic conditions, or rather, lack of it.

212 American Fisheries Society.

For this reason it would seem that the money spent in main-
taining such supposedly useful stations might better be expended
on thoroughgoing investigations with the view to determining
as accurately as possible just what value such fish cultural opera-
tions may have. Ultimately the question to be considered enters
the field of political economy. Can the taxpayers’ money now
being directed to the support of marine hatcheries be shown to
be doing what is expected of it?

Europeans have paid more attention to this study of the
rationale of the problem than have our own students and a num-
ber of the former have already committed themselves to the
belief that the entire efforts of cultivating marine fishes should
be thrown into the discard, because, according to their views, the
only real factors controlling the fluctuations of oceanic fishes
are to be found among various climatic functions far beyond the
present control of man, and it was not without much study and
careful reasoning that they have arrived at their conclusions.
These naturalists have taken into consideration such factors as
the melting of polar ice and the seasonal variations in the
amounts of sunshine and shade. For the present, however, we
may leave this phase of the problem without discussing the
probability of truth to be found in their beliefs and content our-
selves with the platitude that the ocean or even an arm of it
cannot be treated simply as an overgrown millpond but must be
considered in proportion to its increased complexity as well as
its greater size, for it must be borne in mind that any important
bay or sound always has a considerable contact with the open
water.

A consideration of the reports of the United States Bureau
of Fisheries will in itself demonstrate the truth of some of these
considerations. For example, a study of the-statements of the
amounts of cod, Gadus callarias Linn., landed at Boston, Gloucester
and Portland, together with the number of cod fry recorded as ©
having been liberated from the Woods Hole hatchery will reveal
a rather interesting condition. If there are equal numbers of
both sexes of this fish in the sea, the following corollary must be
true. Out of the million odd eggs laid by each female and fecun-
dated by the milt available from one male, but two would have
to hatch and reach the age and spawning condition of the parents
which may here be called “maturity,” to maintain a status quo.

eo a een Ss ee) oe ee

Breder—Marine Fish Culture. 213

If three survived the new generation would be 50 per cent greater
in number than that of the parents, and so on. Codfish are no
doubt perfectly promiscuous in habit, and as the sexes seem to
vary greatly in relative frequency from time to time we will as-
sume there are two males to every female. While this is giving
an overabundance of males this liberal allowance may be used
here as a basis without doing great violence to the point to be
made. Accordingly, then, in a spawning school each female
would have available the milt of two males to fertilize her ova,
and therefore an average of three eggs from every female
would have to be successful to maintain the said status quo. In
order to draw a sharp mental picture of what this means re-
course may be made to one of the much overworked methods
used by statisticians to bring home the point. As cod eggs aver-
age one-eighteenth of an inch in diameter a medium sized
“market cod” could lay a string of eggs which if placed in a
single straight line would be over one and one-quarter miles in
length.* Of this mileage only one-sixth of an inch would have
to reach “maturity” to keep the number of cod in the sea at a
constant figure. An inspection of a certain report* shows that
77,659,000 fry were liberated from the Woods Hole hatchery dur-
ing the winter of 1917-18. Assuming for the sake of the discus-
sion that the naturally spawned eggs lost twice as many of their
numbers between the time of ovaposition and the day their ar-
tificially incubated relatives were liberated, than did the latter,
due to non-fertilization and the vicissitudes of early life in open
water, and also that after this time the cultured fry now being
subjected to like conditions, equalled the naturally spawned fish
in losses, then a net initial advantage of 100 per cent would be
possessed by the fry hatched in cod boxes. As cod are certainly
not increasing perceptibly in numbers, according to simple pro-
portion it may be said that the total effective output of the station
for the year would, by these figures, be about 311 fish, available
of course to the fishermen some years later. This figure is far

-1Cod 6% pounds in weight deposit on an average 1,500,000 eggs which
number if arrayed as described would reach for that distance. By ‘‘market
cod” fishermen mean all under 10 and over 2% pounds in weight, which excludes
the very small or scrods and the very large, the latter of which form the bulk
of their catches.

2Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries for the fiscal year 1918
with appendices—Hugh M. Smith, Commissioner. Appendix I—The distribu-
tion of fish and fish ges during the fiscal year 1918, Document 863, p. 75.

214 American Fisheries Society.

too liberal as it was arrived at on the assumption that 1,500,000
eggs is the average number per female, whereas this figure is
much too low. Furthermore, it is hardly probable that stripped
spawn has a 100 per cent advantage over the natural product,
since it is known that fish culturists expect to obtain only from
25 to 50 per cent good eggs, due to the fact that the eggs do not
all ripen at one time. .

No consideration has been given above to losses incident to
handling and planting, which while highly variable are no doubt
considerable for any one entire season. All the eggs hatched at
Woods Hole moreover are not taken in the above manner, the
Norwegian method also being used in which live cod are allowed
to spawn more or less naturally in large tanks. The only ad-
vantage that can be claimed for this method is that the eggs are
afforded protection during incubation, for it is the practice to
release them immediately on hatching. Records show that 90
to 95 per cent of the eggs are fertilized by this method and there-
fore it can hardly be assumed that much better results are to be
obtained from a few fish in confinement than from a hoard in the
ocean. It is further hard to believe that the planted fry are as
well able to withstand the vicissitudes due to oceanic environ-
ment as are those which have been in open water from the start.
The simple shock of change must work some havoc among them.
The previously given figures are ridiculously liberal to the
hatcheries and besides none of these draw-backs have been reck-
oned with. What would be the actual number of mature hatchery
fish at the end of four years if these could be figured in, to say
nothing of numerous others which have not even been men-
tioned? Certainly it could be at best only a small fraction of 311.

For the year of 1921, four years later, the Bureau of Fisheries’
statement of the quantities of cod landed at Boston, Gloucester
and Portland? is as follows: Large (10 lbs. or over) 33,238,407
pounds; market (over 2% and under 10 Ibs.) 19,126,030; and
scrod (1 to 2% Ibs.) 1,150,577 pounds. Exact figures are not
available but it is believed that the average weight of the large
cod is about 20 to 35 pounds, depending on the grounds from
which taken and the time of year. The large and market cod
taken together probably average about 15 pounds, while that of

1 Statistical Bulletin No. 517—U. S. Bureau of Fisheries.

Breder—Marine Fish Culture. 215

the scrods is probably near 134 pounds. From this we may
broadly say that about 3,490,962 adult cod and 657,472 scrod were
landed in 1921. By simple calculations according to this reason-
ing one large cod in every lot of 13,375 would be a hatchery fish
as would one scrod in every lot of 13,148. These smaller fish
would naturally be expected to be of a later year’s work, but as
approximately a like number would be taken from the group
which form this year the large and market fish a season before,
the figures may stand as being reasonably correct. This would
give a grand total of 4,003 pounds of cod, or less than .008 of
one per cent of the total catch for the year as hatchery fish. On
the face of it, it is obvious that these calculations are absurdly
liberal to the hatchery fish, for it is assumed that the fishermen
hailing from these three major ports would be the only ones to
catch these fish and that they would catch all of them, that is
take 16 per cent as scrod one year and the remainder the follow-
ing. A long list of further reasons why this is a high figure
might be given but it would be superfluous for our purpose here.

Any one, with the figures available, might calculate the cost
per pound of a year’s output of hatchery cod which is certainly
composed of considerably less than 311 individuals made availa-
ble to the fishermen by this method, and compare it with the
actual value of this amount of fish. Neglecting the Norwegian
method which takes fish which would not have necessarily been
caught otherwise, and granting that all of the fish stripped would
have died anyway, can it be said that this amount of codfish is
worth the money, time, and energy expended? It is pointed out
finally that this number, 311, is perfectly absurd because at every
step the calculations have purposely been placed way out of the
reach of even extraordinary success just to show that even then
no important effect could be expected. A very minute fraction
of this .008 of one per cent is all that could actually be obtained in
practice. ?

1Data and assumptions on which calculations were based: Cod reach
maturity usually in about the fourth year. They are then generally about two
feet long and weigh over six pounds. A 25-pound fish may lay 2,700,000 eggs
and a 75-pound one 9,100,000. A 614-pound fish lays on the average of about
1,500,000 eggs. It was assumed that this is the average of all spawners. The
number of fry 77,659,000 liberated at Woods Hole in 1917 was doubled (155,-
318,000) because of the assumption that they had twice the advantage of the

wild fry.
Three fish per female are supposed to attain ‘‘maturity’’: Then 3: 1,500,-

216 American Fisheries Society.

The cultivation of flatfish, Pseudopleuronectes americanus
(Walb.) could be questioned in a similar manner with the ad-
ditional criticism that all the fish are taken from the spawning
grounds and would not have necessarily been captured otherwise.
At present the practice is simply to let these fish which are cap-
tured expressly for the purpose, spawn in large wooden tanks
and to liberate the fry at hatching, the only advantage possible
being that of protection of the incubating eggs. From whatever
value this may have must be deducted the losses incident to handling
both the ripe fish and the fry, as well as the fact that the fry are
generally deposited in a small area where they are more liable
to attack from their natural enemies, until they can scatter, than
would be the naturally spawned ones which at no time would
be expected to be so congregated in a small area. Further ex-
planation would be too nearly a repetition of the cod story so
it may be omitted in its entirety. In fact, similar views might
be expressed concerning nearly if not all marine species at pres-
ent cultivated.

The quantities of practically all marine food fishes fluctuate
annually in most surprising numbers, as before noted, from
causes obviously not due to the activity of man, so that it be-
comes next to impossible to arrive at any definite conception
as to the value of such fish culture from a study of fishery statis-
tics even over long periods of time. Besides, other factors, in-
troduced by man himself further complicate and lower the value
of any conclusions so arrived at, such as the continual improve-
ments both in gear and methods, to say nothing of the difficulty
or impossibility of comparing statistics compiled in various ways.

Nevertheless is there not some angle from which the ag-
gravating problem of marine fish culture may be more success-
fully attacked? The comparatively recent theories of certain

000::x:155,318,000. x=811 fish.
Cod landed in 1921:

Rangze and market Code: c.cecce ccleis care 52,364,437 pounds.
SCLOGN oe bra ieveiaialn suas Sloe ie erate tact hom actos av 1,150,577 pounds.
OGD ss sic iaielaveiece widnaloie cles alelesayererorslayorcho ete 53,515,014 pounds.

Large and market cod together average 15 pounds apiece. Scrod average 1%
pounds apiece.

Then there were landed 3,490,962 cod and 657,472 scrod. By proportion of
the 311 hatchery fish, 84 per cent were adults and 16 per cent (from the next
year) were scrod, or 261 and 50 fish respectively, that is: 261x15+50x1%=
approximately 4,003 pounds of cod as hatchery fish or under .008 of one per cent.

Breder.—Marine Fish Culture. aN

Europeans concerning the causes of fluctuations of fishes from

season to season give promise of developing into an interesting
and valuable viewpoint bearing on the future of the husbandry
of such fishes. It has been known for some time that practically

all marine fry of commercial interest reach a very precarious

stage of existence in from a few days to two weeks or more

after hatching, its time of appearance varying, of course, with

each species. In captivity even under the particular conditions

possible in an experimental laboratory it has been found next

to impossible to carry salt water fish successfully beyond this

point; nearly all species dying at the expiration of this definite
length of time which is about coincident with absorption of the

yolk sac. Apparently at, or some time before, this stage minute
forms of plankton as food are necessary in order to wean the

fry gently from its earliest mode of obtaining nourishment. At
least one reason for such small fry to fail of survival in captivity
is found in the difficulty of procuring this microplankton in the

proper quantity and quality. As in the final analysis plankton
is dependent chiefly on sunlight and temperature, the European

oceanographers deduce that both these factors are largely in-

volved in the fate of the fry for any one year. It is in this con-

nection that polar ice and the conditions of the sky are brought

in by them. As what are considered favorable seasons to this
microplankton occur but periodically, it follows that larval fishes

dependent on such would likewise flourish only periodically.

Scale examination substantiates this largely. That is, practically

-any school of adults shows a great preponderance of some par-
ticular year class. Figuring back this has been found to coincide

well with some year especially favorable to these food organisms.

These successful years seem to be able to carry over the more
numerous poor ones when nearly all of the fry are annihilated. *

When this matter is better understood it may be turned to good

advantage in the matter of the management of marine hatcheries,
as it at least partially accounts for the high mortality of marine

fry at a set time after hatching. If the proper kind of plankton

could be cultivated and fed to the fry in such a manner as

1These views have been summarized and are set forth lucidly and without

the use of technical terms in the recent publication, ‘‘Ocean Research and the

Great Fisheries,’’ by G. C. L. Howell, M. A. 1921. The Clarendon Press, Oxford,
England.

218 American Fisheries Society.

to carry them past this period, especially in the more frequent
unsuccessful years, probably marine fish culture could be placed
on a more sound footing, if indeed it is possible to influence the
number of fishes in the ocean by work on such a comparatively
small number of individuals.

The writer, as a former employe and as an ardent admirer
of the purposes and traditions of the United States Bureau of
Fisheries, wishes to emphasize that the foregoing remarks are
not intended to be mere destructive criticism of marine fish cul-
ture in America and wishes to reiterate the hope that they may
stimulate constructive thought in the minds of fish culturists in
such a direction that marine fish culture may some day, if pos-
sible, be raised from its position of questionable value to that
of its companion operating in the fresh waters which has its
worth absolutely established. Before salt water fish culture can
compare with it much research will be necessary, and it is to be
hoped that the Bureau of Fisheries will see fit to carry on such
research intensively or at least initiate and supervise efforts in
that direction.

[Practically all of the facts and figures used as a basis of reasoning
here have either been taken from the publications of the United States
Bureau of Fisheries direct or from various members of its personnel.
The writer is indebted to Mr. J. T. Nichols, of the American Museum of
Natural History, for a number of criticisms and suggestions, and to Mr.
R. H. Corson, a private individual and angler of unusual breadth of vision,
who is at present collaborating with the Bureau of Fisheries, as he must
bear the responsibility of sowing the seeds which have led to the publication
of these thoughts.]

PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE TOXICITY OF COL-
LOIDAL SULPHUR TO FISH.’

By CHuxkicur1 HaruKawa, Dr. Acr. (Tokyo Imperial University)

Entomologist for the Ohara Institute
Karaschiki (Okayama), Japan

INTRODUCTION.

The present paper contains a part of the results of investiga-
tions which were primarily undertaken in connection with the
study of the toxicity of lime-sulphur mixtures. It has long been
known that sulphur powder is effective in controlling the mite and
certain fungi. Sabbatani (1) has shown that the action of colloidal
sulphur is more powerful than that of the other forms of sulphur.
These facts induced the writer to conduct some experiments to
learn the toxicity of colloidal sulphur to goldfish.

Hydrogen sulphide dissolved in water has been known to
change to colloidal sulphur on slow oxidation. (Taylor 2.) It has
been reported that hydrogen sulphide develops in considerable
quantities in the Black Sea, in the Norwegian threshold fiords, and
in oyster pools of the Norwegian Coast, as well as various other
small sea basins. The statement is made that these oysters are
frequently killed by sulphur poisoning or lack of oxygen (Murray
and Hjort, 3). Hydrogen sulphide is also introduced into waters
by illuminating gas works and various industrial processes, such as
paper manufacture (Shelford, 4.) In all these cases there would
be a zone of water in which hydrogen sulphide occurs in the pres-
ence of oxygen, so that there would probably occur a zone of water
containing colloidal sulphur. As will be seen later, the writer’s ex-
periments have shown that colloidal sulphur is quite strikingly toxic
to goldfish. Hydrogen sulphide is also known to be toxic, but no
comparisons have been made. Such comparisons would be made
with difficulty but it should be possible to determine the relative
toxicity of mixtures of the two and colloidal sulphur alone.

Attention must, therefore, be called to the fact that pedro
sulphide is dangerous in the presence of oxygen, both on its own

1 Contribution from the Zoological Laboratory of the University of Illinois,
No. 221.
219

220 American Fisheries Society.

account and on account of the production of colloidal sulphur. In
view of these facts the results obtained in the toxicity study of
colloidal sulphur are of some interest to those who are concerned
with culture of fish, oysters, etc. The results are, therefore, pre-
sented as a preliminary paper.

METHODS AND MATERIALS.

The experiments were conducted in a constant temperature
tank. The water contained in the tank was kept at a temperature
of about 20° C., which did not vary more than 0.5° C.

The goldfish used for experiments was Carassius carassius L,.
The criterion by which the writer determined the time of death
was cessation of all the movements. A dying fish was carefully
watched, and when all the movements (of the eyes, fins, mouth,
etc.), ceased, it was touched rather vigorously with a glass rod
and watched for two or three minutes more. When this was done,
the fish responded with the movements of the mouth, fins, etc., if
it was still alive. When there was no response the fish was con-
sidered dead.

Samples of Colloidal Sulphur—A few methods were tried
and discarded. The method of Raffo (5) was adopted with slight
modifications. The procedure was essentially the same as described
by Raffo, so that it is considered unnecessary to describe it fully
in this paper. A few statements, however, are necessary. When
the amorphous soluble sulphur was obtained by precipitating with
sodium carbonate, the clear supernatant water was decanted, and
an amount of distilled water sufficient to dissolve all the precipitated
sulphur was added. The solution was then poured into collodion
dialysers and dialysed for at least three days. In most cases the
solution was dialysed first with ordinary distilled water for three
to five days, and then, with conductivity water for one to five days.
During the course of dialysis much of the sulphur dissolved in the
solution was precipitated and the concentration was gradually de-
creased. It was, therefore, necessary to dialyse for shorter periods
to get stronger solutions.

For this reason the duration of dialysis was not always the
same. Because of the instability of the colloidal sulphur solution
the writer could not prepare samples of colloidal solution very
uniformly. Some of the samples were milky, some were slightly
opalescent, while others were perfectly clear and yellowish, show-
ing that they were very good colloidal solutions. A good colloidal

se ee

——_

Harukawa.—To.xicity of Colloidal Sulphur. 221

solution of sulphur did not show any sign of change during the
experiment.
Results of experiments are shown in the following table:

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN STUDY OF TOXICITY OF COLLOIDAL
SULPHUR.

Concen- : :
: Weight Survival Date of
tration of ahihch:

Sample. sulphur. time. Experiment.
Per cent. Grams Minutes. 1922
\VAL20d ie rg nee Sata amy ger ceil Pie Lan? (C0) 2d, 58 March 30
.210 Ried) 55 Do.
.210 Poet | 71 Do.
7H) PA 48 Do.
Vic .201 4.0 99 March 20
.201 3.0 74 Do.
VALS | Oe ere er n200 3.0 50 March 28
2207 320 45 Do.
10 Gili fe eS rte Rae ao ae 220 4.0 72 Feb. 22
.20 2:3 78 Do
e133 Sh 68 Feb. 22
S116) 2.0 77 Do.
WAL a tee ee a ee ts a .101 3.6 78 March 27
.101 Pek) 83 Do.
.101 4.2 70 Do.
.101 Dan 65 Do.
‘41 CES eae Sa Enna oo gen .084 4.0 71 March 31
.084 1.6 110 Do
1 RS Ae Si ater ed .080 4.0 97 Feb. 22
. 080 2.3 82 Do.
II .073 os 120 Feb. 16
.073 3.0 90 Do.
fo a By Gg .074 ey 108 March 28
.074 Syl 103 Do.
.074 2.6 di Do.
.074 Sot] 87 Do.
DVis as. .061 4.0 80 Feb. 27
LOY Lg ei aA .050 2.6 133 March 1
.050 DS 100
GSR eNOS AC CS .057 355 130 March 7
.057 IAG 110 Do.
WTS Capuneyf-3 rth ab oat .042 27. 126 March 31
.042 PETS 126 Do
Vi aire .040 3.6 150 Feb. 27
IVs C.-. 041 SEO 87 Feb. 28
041 Dre 175 Do.
Via .030 4.0 100 Feb. 27
.030 tS 139 Do.
ee as tes ae rake ses .034 5.0 165 March 2
.034 Dai) 155 Do.
TY, Fe. .027 4.0 117 Feb. 28
.027 Diao 140 Do.
Ween sa ete c Gtekhclt®. .023 3.6 215 March 18
.023 4.0 172 Do.
.023 2.8 124 Do.
\Ys 0d SPO ELON Bact a .020 3.0 230 March 20
.020 Sel 210 Do.
LNA GG: Aol 7S a Pi a eas wert 016 2.8 315 Feb. 28

222 American Fisheries Society.

An experiment was carried out with Wackenroder’s solution,
concentration being about 0.01 per cent. Fishes kept in this solu-
tion for 24 hours did not die.

Control Experiments—According to Raffo and Mancini, (2),
(5), an impurity which is present in an appreciable amount in
the colloidal solution of sulphur prepared by Raffo’s method is
sodium sulphate. This substance could not be completely dialysed
away. A solution of colloidal sulphur prepared by Raffo contained
about 4.5 per cent of sulphur and 1.5 per cent of sodium sulphate;
i. e., of about 6 grams of solids contained in the solution about one-
fourth was sodium sulphate. Now, the strongest cencentration that
the writer used was about 0.2 per cent.

The writer considered that the amount of sodium sulphate
which might be contained in the writer’s solution would not affect
the results of experiments. The writer, however, conducted a few
experiments with sodium sulphate as control for the experiments
with colloidal sulphur solution.

Experiment 1. 0.05 Per Cent Solution of Sodsum Sulphate.
March 24-25, 1922—Two fishes (one 3.25 grams and the other
4.15 grams) were kept in the solution for 24 hours, yet they did not
seem to have been affected at all.

DISCUSSION OF EXPERIMENTS.

From the rather meager data shown above, the survival time
curve and the velocity of fatality curve were drawn. (See the
graph.) It is considered that these curves show the relation be-
tween concentration and toxicity approximately. From the results
of experiments and the curve, the theoretical threshold concen-
tration was estimated to be somewhere about 0.008 per cent.

The straight line part of the velocity of fatality curve is very
steep, showing that the toxicity is increased suddenly with a slight
rise in concentration. Above about 0.03. per cent the rate of the
increase of toxicity becomes smaller. ;

The theoretical threshold concentration of sulphur contained in
lime-sulphur mixture is 0.009 per cent for lime-sulphur I and
0.005 per cent for lime-sulphur II, respectively.

The velocity of fatality curves of the two kinds (6) of lime-
sulphur mixtures are shown partly in the accompanying graph. It
will be seen that the straight line part of the velocity curve of col-
lodial sulphur is much steeper than those of lime-sulphur mixtures.

Harukawa.—T oxicity of Colloidal Sulphur. 223

The writer calculated the relative toxic effect from the graph
according to the formula of Powers (7), and obtained the foilow-
ing values:

er etl SEt I UNO E Perteiane eae ooo ae ecm amie seu 6 0.559
PETC S UU E Soa or erasirans, are pie igre mie ora eraye ial wore oe 0.293
Brmessutpiat Us. is wes acta Site aceate wee 0.103

hee REC es

aL | ees i me A RL oe
c
2 | |
£40)

480

Fa) <k pe) co £6 10 2 4 io 18 20 cf 24 is 20 23 32 a ae 5 Ye

EXPLANATION OF THE GRAPH.

The graph shows the time-concentration curves for the death of gold-
fish in colloidal sulphur (C. S. T.). The reciprocal of this curve repre-
sents the velocity of fatality (C. S. V.: See Powers, 7); the time to death
is arbitrarily divided into 100 in the same sense that that time to go a mile
is divided into 60 to give velocity in miles per hour. The velocity of
fatality curves of two kinds of colloidal sulphur are also shown for com-
macicon, (L. S.1.) Gi. 8.1L).

From the general character of the curves shown by Powers, the least
fatal amount of colloidal sulphur probably lies between 0.001 and 0.008
per cent. Velocity of fatality curves always turn toward lower concen-
trations in the region of least fatal amounts as indicated by the round
dots. The steep slope of the curve indicates greater toxicity than the
lime sulphur compounds; the least fatal dose is also greater in the case of
the lime sulphur compounds. The lime sulphur compounds were used in
the hope that fish might be employed to standarize these insect sprays.

224 American Fisheries Society.

Even at concentrations where the velocity curve of colloidal
sulphur is no more a straight line, the toxicity of colloidal sulphur
solution seems to be greater than lime-sulphur mixture, which is.
a compound of sulphur and lime. It will be seen from the table
that the survival time varied within a rather wide range. As has
already been stated, the samples were not very uniform in nature.
The variation in toxicity is considered to be due chiefly to this fact
and to the variation in the size of the fish.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The present study was suggested by Dr. V. E. Shelford and the
experiments were conducted under his direction. The writer wishes
to thank him heartily for his kindness in allowing the use of his
laboratory equipment and for extending many courtesies, includ-
ing the furnishing of references regarding the occurrence of hydro-
gen sulphide in water. The writer is also much indebted to Dr.
Carver for his kind suggestion and for supply of conductivity
water.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

(1) Sabbatani, L. Pharmacological Action of Colloidal Sulphur.
Arch. inter. Pharmacodyn., 18:373-391. Abstract: Chem. Abstract, 3:1413,
1909.

(2) Taylor, W. W. The Chemistry of Colloids, 2nd Ed., 1921; com-
pare also Raffo, M. Ueber Kolloiden Schwefel. Zeitschr. f. Chem. wu.
Indus. d. Kolloid., 2:358-360.

(3) Murray, J., and Hjort, J. The Depths of the Ocean. London,
1912.

(4) Shelford, V. E. An Experimental Study of the Effects of Gas-
waste Upon Fishes. Bull. Ill. St. Lab. of N. H. 11:380-412, 1917.

(5) Raffo, M. and Mancini, J. Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Kolloiden
Schwefels. Zeitschr. f. Chem. u. Indust. d. Kolloid., 9:58-61, 1911.

(6) Harukawa, C. Studies on Lime-Sulphur Mixtures. Berichte d.
Ohara Institute f. Landw. Forsch., Japan, 2:1-20, 1921.

(7) Powers, E. B. The Goldfish (Carassius carassius) as a test animal
in the study of toxicity. Illinois Biolog. Monogr. IV, 2, 1917.

——— a

BIOLOGICAL SURVEYS AND INVESTIGATIONS IN
MINNESOTA,

By THADDEUS SURBER
Biologist, Minnesota Game and Fish Department, St. Paul, Minn.

The fact has been long established that certain plants of fish
fry and fingerlings, made by both Federal and State departments,
end in failure; but the causes underlying the failure are but little
understood because of a lack of knowledge of the exact conditions
of the waters so planted. The mere fact that a body of water, be it
lake or some favorite trout stream, is thought to be all right simply
because it was formerly good, but had only become fished out, is the
argument most frequently used, and the applicant, be it club or
individual, proceeds with this idea and procures fish fry and dumps
them in, often at considerable expense to himself, and most cer-
tainly to the Government. Then, when no results are forthcoming,
blame is attached to the Government (State or Federal) that the
fry were either too small, or delivered at the wrong season of the
year, and were subsequently washed out by floods, etc., when the
real fact of the matter is that the fry would not have been planted
if some attention had been given to an investigation of the waters,
the nature and amount of its food resources, and extent of the
pollution.

The writer, during his boyhood and early manhood, lived near
a famous spring, now the site of a Federal hatchery, where brook
trout had spawned for untold centuries in great numbers, and
probably continue to do so to the present day. Now, this spring
and the brook below it for a considerable distance maintained a
temperature of 50° to54°F., winter and summer, which is about the
average temperature of all Minnesota springs, and the temperature
of the water supplied to most trout hatcheries. As we know
the temperature of the water controls the development and
‘subsequent hatching, we infer that the period at which
the fry emerge from the shell and their subsequent development
near the heads of these spring-fed streams coincides very closely
with conditions existing at the hatcheries of the present day. At
the big spring under consideration and in the brook below it, my
observations showed fry in the creek gravel in the early part of

225

226 American Fisheries Society.

January, and these must have been swimming up early in February,
or about the time of the annual spring freshets of that region, where
many of the mountain streams rise to a height of 50 feet above
low water, producing torrents, and doing damage the like of which
would be impossible anywhere in Minnesota, with the possible ex-
ception of some of the North Shore streams. Yet these little fishes
withstood the tremendous forces of nature here exerted, and little,
if any, diminution of their numbers could be detected until the
waters became polluted by the advance of civilization, followed by
the devastation of large areas by forest fires, leaving the spring
sources deep in the earth to dry up and the waters gradually to sub-
side, often resulting in the complete obliteration of running streams.
The causes leading up to this change are an inevitable result of our
advance in agriculture and other pursuits connected with our ad-
vance in civilization, so that our responsibility to future genera-
tions leads us to look more deeply into the causes underlying our
failure to do so and so and to search for a remedy. We can assist
nature, but we cannot improve upon her methods.

It was with a realization of the failures attending certain plants
of fish fry in apparently suitable waters that the desire to acquire
more or less accurate knowledge of our streams and lakes led to an
investigation of certain areas in the state. This was made possible
by acts of the legislatures of 1917 and 1919, tn appropriating
nominal sums for that purpose. The summers of 1918 and 1919
were spent in an investigation along the eastern border of the State
in Pine County; the area covered approximately 650 square miles
.of almost virgin forest country, where all the conditions of pris-
tine wilderness still prevail over large areas. The experience gained
in Pine County, and the pressing demand for information from
the older-settled regions of the State determined a more fixed
policy of procedure, and it was decided each drainage system should
be investigated in turn as completely as the circumstances per-
mitted. Therefore, the summer of 1920 was spent in a survey
of the Root River basin, a section of the State in which changes
first began with its settlement over 80 years ago. This basin covers
an area of 1,638 square miles in the southeastern corner of the
State, the main stream having a length approximating 151 miles,
with many tributaries, one at least being 65 miles long.

We find the development of the agricultural possibilities of this
particular region necessitated the removal of a very heavy hard-

PG SI A boa es. hae & 4' le

Surber.—Biological Surveys in Minnesota. 227

wood forest around the headwaters of all the tributaries and the
drainage of considerable marsh areas, so that the changes here
brought about are particularly noticeable, and will be spoken of
more fully in another paragraph. Investigations in the southern
quarter of the State show a reduction of the water table of approxi-
mately 4 feet during the past 60 to 70 years. While the time de-
voted to any particular system has been, necessarily, limited, it is
believed the results accomplished are worthy of record as adding
very materially to a correct understanding of present-day conditions
and the problem of meeting these conditions in the future.

As a result of careful study of the conditions affecting the
aquatic life of state waters, the following cardinal principles in-
volved in their examination naturally present themselves :

1. Obtain an accurate description of the body of water and
locate it definitely on a map drawn to scale.

2. Determine the approximate flow of springs and all sources
of supply.

3. Determine the amount and nature of the animal and plant
life of the waters and their suitability for maintenance of fish life
under existing conditions.

4, Determine the pollution of the waters—its extent, and the
probable effect on aquatic life.

5. Study the geographical features of the region, their rela-
tion to the permanence of the water supply, any immediate changes
now taking place and the probable effect of such changes on a
continuance of the existing conditions.

6. Study the effect of flood waters on the plant and animal life;
active erosion and its effect.

Y. Ascertain, if possible, past conditions of the waters.

8. Report on contemplated drainage of marshes, wet prairie
uplands, lakes, etc., in their relation to permanence of the present
water supply.

9. Definitely locate the best roads by which the waters are
accessible. .

The value to the department of working under these principles
grows more and more apparent as the work progresses.

The change in conditions affecting our water supply in the
southeastern counties has been brought about not so much by
actual drainage, as we usually accept it, but more indirectly by
deforestation and destruction of the surface-absorbing strata of

228 American Fisheries Society.

soil. Originally this area of the state was clothed with a magnifi-
cent hardwood forest, known as the “Big Timber,” covering nearly
all the plateau-like uplands as well as the valleys, and the rich
soil and comparatively level uplands were first cleared and put
under cultivation beginning with the early forties, or over 80
years ago.

The actual systematic drainage of marshes and lakes covers
an immense territory in the southwestern, western, and north-
western counties, areas, into which we have so far carried on but
little investigation. What little we have done proves the conclu-
siveness of the disastrous results so far as they affect our future
water supply and the permanence of our streams.

To what extent drainage, naturally resulting in a greatly re-
duced evaporation of moisture into the atmosphere during long
sustained hot weather, is going to affect the rainfall in years to come
is problematical, authorities differing greatly on this point; but it
seems to be utter folly to disregard its very probable effect on the
precipitation of the future. According to official sources (Water
Resources Investigation of Minnesota, St. Paul, 1912) we find the
mean annual rainfall of the Mississippi basin in Minnesota to be
27 inches, of which the run-off has varied from 5.1 to 23.9 per
cent of the total mean. At St. Paul, where records are continuous
since 1837, we find the wettest year (1849) gave 49.7 inches and
the driest (1910) but 10.2 inches of precipitation. However, the
precipitation appears to be heaviest in the southeastern part of the
State, where it is 33. inches, as compared with 24 inches in the
western part. The mean precipitation for the Root River basin, the
wettest in the State, is 82 inches, where the run-off reaches as high
as 27.% per cent. We find the mean annual for the Red River
basin varying from 15 inches on its west border to 26 inches on the
east in the lake region; about 75 per cent of this total falls in the
six months from April 1 to September 30. The run-off here varies
from 5.9 to 23.1 per cent in the timbered region above Fergus Falls,
while from the prairie and timbered area below this it varies from
1.8 to 11.3 per cent. From this same report we find the rainfall
of the Des Moines basin in southwestern part of the State to be
25 inches.

Even though we admit a normal annual rainfall still persists
over much of our territory, in the cultivated regions it now rushes
off immediately after every downpour, carrying soil and debris

Cy A et

Surber.—Biological Surveys in Minnesota. 229

from the uplands, and gathering momentum as it passes through
the deep ravines and gullies, greatly accelerating the action of
erosion; and while much of the silt, or soil, of the uplands is
carried onwards to the main valley of the Mississippi, vast quanti-
ties are deposited on the beds of the smaller streams, so that we
find once clean rocky beds are well covered by this sediment.

The removal of the heavy sod formerly covering our prairie
lands, the deforestation of the hardwood forest belt, with the
attending removal of the centuries-old accumulation of humus and
the destruction by fire and pasturage of low-lying shrubbery among
the groves of forest left standing creates conditions having tre-
mendous influence on the water supply, in that such lands no
longer absorb and hold for gradual release the rainfall on which
our springs depend; but, being underlaid with a subsoil or stratum
of earth impervious to water, the rainfall rushes off in torrents as
soon as it falls. This condition particularly applies to the south-
eastern counties where, as a result of the deforestation and suc-
ceeding intensive cultivation of the uplands, we find many springs
so reduced in flow as to have become entirely inadequate to sustain
even small running brooks during long continued hot weather,
when, of course, evaporation reaches its maximum. This is but
one step removed from actual stoppage of flow, and where such
conditions exist over an extensive territory, as it does in this in-
stance, it has so reduced the flow in the main streams for miles
below, that we can readily become reconciled to the fact that at
no long deferred future date such streams will have become inter-
mitient in character, and eventually run only immediately follow-
ing heavy precipitation. Much of this has been brought about by
the necessities of civilization.

The lesson this teaches us is that the permanence of any stream
depends primarily on its fountain heads and these in turn are de-
pendent on the adaptability of the soil and its covering of humus
to absorb and hold moisture. There can be no sadder experience
for the practical conservationist than to wander along a stream
bed holding here and there a pool of stagnant water where once a
rushing flood full of life meandered its way, and to observe along
its course the conditions of wooded banks and slopes conducive to
far different results had its headwaters been protected by standing
forest or undrained marshes.

230 American Fisheries Society.

STREAMS IN DRAINED AREAS,

; As an example of the effect of drainage on lands lying
around the headwaters of streams mostly in cultivated areas,
usually in the prairie region, we may take the headwaters of
Root River in Mower County. Here much of the land is nearly
level and the stream itself was originally a succession of prairie
sloughs of considerable size connected by running streams over
gravel, all being fed by seepage from marshy springs. Con-
siderable areas of these sour, marshy lands have been drained,
resulting in such a reduced regular flow into the sloughs as to
admit of a highly increased water temperature, and such a re-
duction in flow that the former running sloughs are mere stag-
nant pools in midsummer and early fall. The incomplete drain-
age of these lands has produced results sufficient to clearly indi-
cate that with complete drainage of the area, now under
progress, the sloughs will be so reduced very shortly as to func-
tion merely as catch-basins during a considerable portion of the
year, destroying most of the aquatic life now present, and, as pre-
viously pointed out, reducing the flow of the entire stream for
miles below. This seems to be the case with hundreds of spring
or marsh-fed streams in the prairie region of the southern half
of the State, and it is only a question of time till drainage will
have absolutely annihilated the aquatic life over a vast area.

However, about 50 per cent of the streams tributary to the
eastern half of the Root River are still maintaining themselves
by copious springs situated deep in forest-clad, abundantly
shaded ravines, and while the food supply usual to such streams
is becoming limited, still produce sufficient food to maintain ex-
cellent trout fishing throughout their upper waters, but usually
warming up to such an extent in the lower hali, where they ap-
proach the main valley, as to exclude trout from the waters there.

The abandonment of many water power projects, mostly mills, in
the Root River and Whitewater basins, is directly traceable to
the great reduction in the permanent water supply of those
regions.

STREAMS IN FORESTED AREAS SURROUNDED BY INTENSIVELY CULTI-
VATED LANDS.

The Whitewater valley in Olmsted and Winona counties, to

Surber.—Biological Surveys in Minnesota. 231

the traveler following certain sections of its course through the
deep wooded canyons, is perhaps one of the most picturesque
regions of the State, recalling to mind certain mountain streams
of the Pennsylvania Alleghanies, or of New England. The stream
bed is rough and rocky with many waterfalls and deep pools,
having every appearance of being ideal trout waters. However,
as we ascend certain tributaries we find that it is wholly de-
pendent on springs for its supply, and where certain springs have
become dry, as we frequently observe, long stretches of the
stream cease flowing and exist only as scattered pools of luke-
warm water during the late summer months. Here we find no
evidence of fish or other aquatic life except in the vicinity of
bank springs. The forest growth along the river bottoms and
clothing the steep side hills to their summits is very heavy, trees
of large size predominating, with abundant undergrowth in many
places, indicating but little disturbance of the original forest. On
ascending to the crest of the steep slopes and getting clear of
the canyon-like valley we find an almost level plateau extending
back and away from the course of the stream for miles, all drain-
ing, however, at more or less regular intervals through deeply
eroded gullies and ravines to the main valley. This plateau,
formerly the “Big Timber,” is divested of all original forest and
almost every square foot of it has been under intensive cultiva-
tion for years. Rains often fall on these uplands in perfect de-
luges and rushing down through the gullies without any re-
straining influences, carry vast quantities of the soil to the river
below where it is responsible for the strangulation of aquatic
life referred to under another heading. The results are inevitable,
and in spite of all we can do to restock this stream it is gradually,
but surely, approaching the day, not far distant, when its only
function will be that of an open sewer. The conditions in many
parts of the Root River basin are almost identical, and in all
probability exist in other basins of that section.

STREAMS IN WILDERNESS COUNTRY AND IN CUT-OVER AREAS.

Much of the North Shore Country remains pretty much as
the white man found it 300 years ago, so far as it has affected the
water flow of many of the small rivers flowing into Lake Su-
perior and the boundary waters between this and Rainy Lake,
though man has taken enormous toll of the heavy forests. This

232 American Fisheries Society.

is due in great measure to the large areas of spruce and tamarack
Swamps yet undrained, as we note wherever these streams have
their sources in dried-up swamps, or when swamps were of but
very limited area, as in the country just north of Duluth, there
deforestation has very materially reduced the water flow, and the
streams, formerly very cold, become very much heated during
midsummer.

The removal of the pine forests by the lumbermen has almost
invariably been followed by forest fires of great destructiveness,
these fires not only sweeping all low-lying shrubs, moss and
small trees, but often entering the swamps and either partially
or completely killing the timber therein. As an example we can
take the great Hinckly fire of 1894. The removal of the white-
pine forest had been going on in the Hinckly region for 30 years
previously, but serious fires had never gained a footing previous
to 1894, when it spread over Pine County clear across to the
Wisconsin line. This fire made such a clean sweep that even
today, nearly 28 years later, much of the country bears a prairie-
like appearance. This fire, however, spared most of the swamps
in the eastern part of the county, and the reforestation of the up-
lands there has been extremely rapid, so that today we find an
extremely heavy growth of poplar and other hardwoods wher-
ever the soil will admit of its growth. This country is watered
by many small streams fed by numerous small springs, and the
borders of all are heavily clothed with brush, or flow through
heavy natural meadows, and occasionally through swamps. The
swamps lie in such proximity to the spring feeders that at the
present time at least conditions have become again much as they
are presumed to have been at a time many years preceding the
fire, and will probably remain so as long as the swamps which
feed the springs are left untouched.

In this region we see an example of what is to eventually
transpire unless our whole system of handling such matters is
changed. Big Sand Creek, which has its source in a large swamp
northeast of Bruno, flows through a country now rapidly being
settled up along about one-half of its upper courses. About four
years ago it was decided to drain this swamp, and in due course of
time this has resulted in the rapid drying-up of the entire head-
waters of the creek. Now no fish occur there except an occasional
minnow in some of the pools, though at one time it was a most

Surber.—Biological Surveys in Minnesota. 233

excellent trout stream. On the other hand the streams of the
reforested country south and east of this, previously mentioned
as having recuperated since 1894, are now among the best trout
streams in the State, for the dense cover along their courses tends
to preserve natural conditions of environment, and not only af-
fords shade and food in abundance, but also tends to preserve a
low temperature during the heat of summer.

Similar conditions obtain in other parts of the State where
cut-over lands have reforested themselves; and in northern Hub-
bard and southern Beltrami counties the streams have so recuper-
ated that it has been possible to introduce trout with marked
success in waters which had previously been uninhabited by any
species but pike, pickerel and suckers, the trout being unknown
in that region as a natural inhabitant.

In abundance and variety of food supply for fishes many of
the streams in cut-over country, where not heavily fired, closely
approximate that of wild country, but as soon as the country is
divested of this second-growth and put under the plow its change
is remarkably rapid, and in an incredibly short time floods and
sun do their work and all small animal life disppears. In some
of the streams of the southern part of the State it has required
but 50 to 75 years to accomplish their ruin, even when the spring-
water supply was twice that of other sections, so that it can be
realized how rapidly it will be accomplished in a region where the
spring-water is limited, and that supply dependent on swamp-
seepage for its maintenance.

THE INFLUENCE OF A REDUCED WATER SUPPLY ON AQUATIC ANIMAL
LIFE AND ITS BEARING ON POLLUTION.

We can readily understand that with a reduced flow all
streams necessarily become more susceptible to pollution. This
pollution should be divided into actual sewage waste on the one
hand, and long-continued agitation by domestic animals during
periods of hot weather, of the accumulated silt bearing minor
sewage, on the other, the results, so far as affecting fish-life,
being similar.

While sewage pollution is regarded as most highly injurious
to fish life, there is considerable question if the silt carried down
from the uplands is not even more injurious in the more settled
districts, where intensive cultivation of former forested areas

234 American Fisheries Society.

facilitates tremendous erosion at every flood. In most of the
streams of southeastern Minnesota the lighter surface soil is
carried down and deposited as a thick mass of silt over the bot-
tom, often entirely obliterating all traces of the rocky bed, and
covering it like a blanket. This has had the effect of smothering
out the clear water Entomostracans, Gammarus, and such aquatic
insect larve as the caddis-fly during the period of hot weather
extending from the last June floods through to October, as dur-
ing this period cattle, hogs and sheep, great herds of which are
pastured along the banks with free access to the stream, keep the
water in constant agitation by standing most of the day in it; and
during a season of the year when such streams were naturally
most clear, they produce a condition of intense roiliness, in which
some small aquatic life can not exist, and in which fishes will
not remain, if we except undesirable species as the carp for
instance.

If a stream is thus divested of the natural food supply for the
smaller fishes, it seems hardly advisable to attempt to reintroduce
even adult fishes in its waters, as it is only a question of time
until they will either be caught or desert the stream in search of
food and clear water; and since no food exists for their progeny,
even though they spawn in great numbers, it would be the height
of folly to attempt to introduce fry into such streams. Many
streams in southern Minnesota are found to have reached this
condition, and while from casual observation, they have the ap-
pearance of being suitable for trout, on more careful examination
they are found to be absolutely devoid of small animal life.

BARNYARD POLLUTION.

Ordinarily it has been found that barnyard pollution has but
little effect on most streams, the most pronounced effect being
noted in the case of springs with a comparatively weak flow (50
gallons or less) situated in a barnyard which drains directly
into it. In the case of large springs this pollution seems to have
little bearing on the aquatic life, an example of this kind being
the large spring about a mile east of Spring Valley, coming out
from underneath a barn and continuously frequented by ducks,
geese, hogs and cattle; a few trout exist here apparently in the
best of condition, but in this case the heavy growth of water
cress apparently purifies and balances the water. On the other

Surber.—Biological Surveys in Minnesota. 235

hand, when the water supply becomes reduced to a weak slug-
gish flow like the upper waters of Mill Creek at Chatfield, the
many barnyards situated along its course have a telling effect
and create conditions which aquatic life can not withstand.

Other matters besides pollution have a tremendous influence
on the conservation of our fish life. One of them is the care-
lessness or indifference of owners of power projects along some
of our important streams. In one instance complaint had been
made of certain devastation of spawning beds in one of our rivers
which demanded investigation. Quite by accident it was found
that a far more serious offense was being committed weekly by
the owner of a large mill who every Saturday evening at 6 o’clock
shut down his turbines and conserved every ounce of water
until Monday at 7 a. m., in order to raise a head. In doing this
he exposed the active river bed for several miles below, and bass
and crappie nests were found high and dry, resulting in the
utter destruction of thousands of fish; yet no one complained of
this, though they were up in arms over a matter doing less than
a hundredth part of the destruction caused by this mill owner
in cutting off the overflow at his dam.

RESULTS AS APPLIED TO STOCKING OF STREAMS.

As previously stated it appears that many waters have be-
come unfitted for certain fishes, but admit of the substitution of
an almost equally desirable species. For instance, certain brook
trout waters have become much warmer than formerly without
an appreciable diminution of the food supply; in such waters
the introduction of the brown trout has met with signal success.
Another means of great saving in these changed waters has been
the determination of the available food supply for young fishes,
whereby a far more conservative estimate of the number such
a stream would actually support has been made and fry planted
in accordance therewith. Previous to a critical examina-
tion thousands of fry had been dumped into certain streams
where but little food existed, resulting in overstocking, and na-
turally ending in almost complete failure. We, therefore, see the
application of the results of these surveys has been the elimina-
tion of waste in the distribution of fry and the substitution of
suitable for unsuitable species. These two remedies, elimina-

236 American Fisheries Society.

tion and substitution, have, therefore, been a means of more sav-
ing to the department than the entire cost of the surveys.

LAKE SURVEYS.

Investigations for the improvement of lakes have not merely
required biological investigations, but have presented civil en-
gineering problems as well, and have required a more extensive
survey than observations for streams. The most extensive work
of this character has been done in the southern part of the State,
where the results show most clearly the subsidence of the water-
table. Lake Shetek in Murray County is one of the largest lakes
so surveyed, having a shore-line of over 1514 miles. For many
years the level of this lake was controlled by a dam across the
stream below its outlet, the dam having been rebuilt several
times, each time a little higher, so that when it was finally
abandoned for water power with the disappearance of the dam
a few years ago, the abnormal water level so long sustained had
entirely destroyed the original contour of the lake and made
its restoration to its original meander level a problem of no mean
importance. Flood waters at its maximum artificial level had
inundated the high banks and washed them into the lake back a
distance of a hundred feet in some instances, the dirt so washed
in aiding enormously in filling up the natural shallow bed of the
lake until it is now found not to exceed 8 feet in depth anywhere
at extreme low water such as prevailed during the past summer
(1921). The destruction of so great an area of original shore-
line, and all landmarks along with it, rendered a determination
of its original level, fixed in 1861 by Government survey, difficult
in the extreme, and the position of original meander corners
could only be definitely determined by a resurvey of lines from
section corners beginning at considerable distances from the
lake shore.

The accurate determination of the original meander is vital,
as we can not exceed its level without considerable damage to
surrounding lands, thereby laying the foundation for numerous
suits for damages from the owners. The actual filling up of this
lake bed, however, has not so seriously affected it as the de-
struction of its aquatic plant life which has been almost absolute;
it has been claimed that the disappearance of this plant life is
due to the carp, and probably some of it has been destroyed by

Surber.—Biological Surveys in Minnesota. 237

that fish, but by far the greater bulk of it has been smothered by
sand and clay. The lake at its normal level is connected with
large slough-like ponds at this time filled with aquatic plants,
and as these ponds have always been connected with it, it would
seem very improbable that the carp would discriminate in their
favor if it alone were responsible for the destruction of the vege-
tation. As these ponds, with their heavy growth of vegetation,
are literally alive with the best natural food for young fishes, and
the lake itself almost barren of like food, the most important

problem connected with its restoration is the construction of a

dam at its natural outlet sufficiently high to give the fish access

to the ponds.

A problem of an entirely different character is presented in
the case of Cannon Lake, in Rice County, through which Cannon
River passes. Here we find if we construct a dam to raise the
lake to a level for proper winter storage, we cut off all access to
the natural spawning grounds of the fish in a small lake below.
Both this small lake and the main lake are level-controlled by a
power dam in operation for many years at a short distance below
the smaller lake. Under normal weather conditions this power
dam maintains a fair level in the two lakes, but under the sub-
normal weather of the past summer the dam was inadequate to
control the levels, even though water was consumed for a very
short period weekly, and in spite of the efforts of the owners of
the power dam to conserve water, it subsided far below normal.
This seems to be the inevitable result of too much drainage on
the headwaters of the river itself, but fortunately occurs only
during seasons of long-sustained drought.

SUM MARY.

The lessons derived from these investigations show us:

1. That certain streams, happily in the minority, are unsuitable
for restocking, and have been dropped from the list.

2. The substitution of brown trout in stocking certain waters
produces excellent results where repeated failures have been
made with brook trout.

3. An absence of proper food for young fish, mostly semi-micro-
scopic food, accounts for repeated failures in restocking de-
pleted streams and lakes.

4. That much of the so-called destruction of aquatic plants by
the carp is not borne out by the facts.

238 American Fisheries Society.

5. Spring-fed streams in burnt-over, reforested areas are among
the best trout streams in the State.

6. Deforestation, with accompanying cultivation around the
headwaters of spring-fed streams, is very rapidly diminish-
ing the water supply.

7. ‘The water-table in the southern part of the State has been low-
ered 3 to 4 feet.

8. Barnyard pollution has little effect on fish life unless the
water flow is so reduced as to make the waters of very ques-
tionable value even if not polluted.

9. Sewage waste and muddy water during long-sustained hot
weather haye very decided injurious effects, the former by
direct action, the latter through the destruction of the smal-
ler aquatic life, both animal and plant.

art toe i ee ee

. Mr ees

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1922-1923

(Showing year of election to membership.)

Honorary Members

wbue President of the United States_.:.-..--.2-=--== Warren G. Harpine

The Governors of the several States: ;
RemM CHITRA) oe oa oe klk te a A OL a W. W. Branpon
os, ESE FSA PSR a a RPI a SI he th ph Pe aig Grorcs W. P. Hunt
0 6 ESS BER ase ies Se cae eo, an Pei Ae Tomas C. McRar
OSTEO BIT Ss a a IY BEER NE er epnae ee Frienp W. RICHARDSON
MTORR tg Snes nam ye tie eee Ee Wir1iam E. Sweet
_ avn iaGileh ne 2 ae a ee CHarites A. TEMPLETON
Ms RWC mee oe ee ae Le eee eee WituiAm D. DENNEY
arcsec pee ee nk ge ek SUF ee Ak et eee eg Cary A. HarbEE
RMR eo on A a ee es Tuomas W. Harpwick
UDI 2) SEE et el lene eee gas Bes Peers ee ee a CHarites C. Moore
HUN rennet ar A Sees en et te cha eee Beh eg lee ite lie ot Len SMALL
irl navies ene ees Se ena ee es Se Warren T. McCray
LB a ae ee Pn 9 OP wey my rey a nee aN Cay el Ser ean N. E. KENDALL
1S IL a ge Sa aed a Le a JonatHAN M. Davis
RRR ci es es SS Ns art eo Epwin P. Morrow
EES ip SRI a elt en RE ae Re er PRES rs Joun M. PARKER
PCDI Gy Ses SS a aS a ag Ee lean Sipe AES pe eee. Perciva, D. BAXTER
RO ne ne cet a oe Set a Apert C. RITCHIE
DME E ETL SL ES me ae es cw es a CHANNING H. Cox
nee ate ie he oS by gee ALEXANDER J. GROESBECK
BIMIES Ot oo es eM eee ean eee ie ee J. A. O. Preus
"5S SSC VS il ca eee Sy veer a at NS Lee M. Russel
SA TLLLESISYO (U1 (ea an Rompe esr rr AE ee Artuur M. Hyper
a Ri Nch Me oP a ke rien JosepH M. Drxon
GRAS ica eee aoe es en ea See ee a eh ee CHarLtES W. Bryan
| 507/07 De pel plat a Strack ale Seibert Neorg James J. ScrucHAM
BermmTatepShibe! 0 es oe ee eee Frep H. Brown
nee eeu Se a a pe ae ae GrorcE SILZER
Beer neste Oe Ae oa eo aes oe Seale JamMEs HINKLE
oles ZG fe dasa a Nc les OL aR ge Dee ee ae ee ee Ss AFreD E.. SMITH
Pract ee Elina ee ee ote ee en aap Se Se Se CAMERON Morrison
ARs ame Y ck Oy tease ats a cs eet ae ee Rn a ee ras R. A. Ne&stos
as ici a ee ee ee Se A. V. DoNAHEY
Rene Leth (iil eee ee ee teres oa ee Bn Joun O. WaLton
RETR en ao amen ao ee ao eee eee Water M. PIERCE
Beare rN ee oS ee ee eee ee Girrorp PINCcHOT
AIC aes TAT Ga een = oo ee ee eh ree at ee Witiam S. FLYNN
Gite ARG Lita et eee ee ee a te Tsuomas G. McLeop
eTSTT AHIMA) ACO GA ne ae ee nee ee ee en W. H. McMaAstTER
BRE TATIES SCE me ent ee ee ee ae a en AUSTIN PEAY
ies es en ee ote ee Gk oe eae Pat M. NeErrF
Re Se ee Pe Sn ee Se eee eae Cuaryes R. Masry
Be eION tes. a ne ee we ea oes Cee naan REDFIELD Proctor
IDC So ee ee ch ee ees E. Leet TRrINKLE
RRL RRE GIS oe ooo cnet ar ae inl eS en een ape ee Louis F. Harr
FUSS SRS re Ree See ie Ea ee ee Se Sa EpHraim F. Morcan
BEES 22 2h ana ones ateen ts oneaaeebe Joun J. BLaIne
BRAINS ae ce rere tl Wiuu1aM B. Ross

American Fisheries Society.

ANTIPA, Pror. GREGOIRE, Inspector-General of Fisheries, Bucharest,
Roumania.

BESANA, GIUSEPPE, Lombardy Fisheries Society, Via Rugabello 19,
Milan, Italy.

Biuse Rince Rop anp Gun Ctus, Harper’s Ferry, W. Va.

Boropin, Nico.as, Petrograd, Russia.

CaALDERWooD, W. L., Inspector of Salmon Fisheries for Scotland, Edin-
burgh, Scotland.

DensicH, Lorp, London, England.

KisHINOUYE, Dr. K., Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan.

LAKE St. Clair SHOOTING AND FisHiNnG Cus, Detroit, Mich.

MERcIER, Honore, Minister of Colonization, Mines and Fisheries,
Quebec, Canada.

NacEL, Hon. Cuas., St. Louis, Mo.

New York ASSOCIATION FOR THE PROTECTION OF FisH AND GAME, New
York City.

Norpgvist, Dr. Oscar FRrityor, Superintendent of Fisheries, Lund,.

Sweden.

Perrier, Pror. EpMonpD, Direetor Museum of Natural History, Paris,
France.

VINCIGUERRA, Pror. Dr. Decio, Director Royal Fish Cultural Station,
Rome, Italy.

Corresponding Members

APoSsTOLIDES, Pror. Nicony Cur. Athens, Greece.

ARMISTEAD, J. J.. Dumfries, Scotland.

Ayson, L. F., Commissioner of Fisheries, Wellington, New Zealand.

Director, ALL-RUSSIAN AGRICULTURAL MusruM, Fontanka 10, Petro-
grad, Russia.

Director oF FISHERIES (British Malay), Singapore, Straits Settlements.

Hiccinson, Epuarpo, Consul for Peru, New York City.

LANDMARK, A., Inspector of Norwegian Fresh Water Fisheries, Chris-
tiania, Norway.

Liprary, NATIONAL Musrum or Naturat History, Paris, France.

Marston, R. B., Editor of the Fishing Gazette, London, England.

PortEau, CHARNLEY, Lommel, Belgium.

Sars, Pror. G. O. Christiania, Norway.

SreaD, Davin G., Fisheries Department, Sydney, New South Wales,
Australia.

Patrons

ALASKA Packers Association, San Francisco, Calif.

ALLEN, Henry F., (Agent, Crown Mills), 210 California St. San
Francisco, Calif.

AMERICAN Biscurr Co., 815 Battery St., San Francisco, Calif.

AMERICAN CAN Co., Mills Building, San Francisco, Calif.

Armour & Co., Battery and Union Sts., San Francisco, Calif.

Armssy, J. K., Company, San Francisco, Calif.

Attias Gas Encine Co., Inc., Foot of 22d Avenue, Oakland, Calif.

Batrour, GutTurig & Co., 350 California St., San Francisco, Calif.

BANK oF Ca.iForNiA, N. A., California and Sansome Sts., San Fran-
cisco, Calif.

BLoEDEL-DoNovan LumsBer Mitts, Bellingham, Wash.

Bonp anp GoopwWIN, 485 California St., San Francisco, Calif.

BurrEg AND LeEtson, Lrv., South Bellingham, Wash.

CALIFORNIA Barret Co., 22d and Illinois Sts., San Francisco, Calif.

CALIFORNIA Door Co., 43 Main St., San Francisco, Calif.

Bd > ae
os >

List of Members. 241

CALIFORNIA STEVEDORE AND BaLast Co., Inc., 210 California St., San
Francisco, Calif.

CaLirornia Wire CLrota Company, San Francisco, Calif.

CASWELL, GEo. W., Co., INC., 503-4 Folsom t., San Francisco, Calif.

Cuincy, C. G., & Co., INc., 144 Davis Sty San Francisco, Calif.

Corrin-REDINGTON Co., 35-45 Second St. San Francisco, Calif.

Couumpra River PAcKERs Association, Astoria, Ore.

Crang Co. (C. W. Weld, Mer.), 301 Brannan St., San Francisco, Calif.

Doncr, SWEENEY & Co., 36-48 Spear St., San Francisco, Calif.

First Nationa, BANK OF BELLINGHAM, Bellingham, Wash.

FuLLeR, W. P., & Co., 301 Mission St., San Francisco, Calif.

Grays Harsor CoMMERCIAL Coy Foot of 3d St., San Francisco, Calif.

Henpry, C. J., Co., 46 Clay St., ‘San Francisco, Calif.

oe TarexBAcH ( Co., THE, Battery and Merchant Sts., San Francisco,

ali

Knapp, THe Frep H., Co., Arcade-Maryland Casualty Building, Bal-
timore, Md.

Linen THREAD Co., Tur, (W. A. Barbour, Mgr.), 443 Mission St., San
Francisco, Calif.

MATILAGCE, Cnas. F., Company, 335 Greenwich St., New York City.

Naumay, C., & Co., 501-3 Sansome SE, oan Francisco, Calif.

Ouiver SALT. Co., Mt. Eden, Calif.

Morrison Mit Co., INc., Bellingham, Wash.

Morsg HARDWARE Co., INc., 1025 Elk St., Bellingham Wash.

Pactric HARDWARE AND STEEL Co., 7th and Townsend Sts., San Fran-
cisco, Calif.

Paciric States Execrric Co., 575 Mission St., San Francisco, Calif.

PuiILLirs SHEET AND TIN Piate Co., Weirton, W. Va

Porg anp Tatsot, Foot of 3d St., San Francisco, Calif.

Pucrer Sounp Navication Co., Seattle, Wash.

Ray, W. S., Merc. Co., Inc, 216 Market St., San Francisco, Calif.

ScuMIDT LITHOGRAPH Co., 2d and Bryant Sts., San Francisco, Calif.

SCHWABACHER-FREY STATIONERY Co., 609-11 Market St., San Fran-
cisco, Calif.

Snip OWNERS’ AND MercHANTS’ Tuc Boat Co., Foot of Green St. San
Francisco, Calif.

SHERWIN-WILLIAMS Co., THe, 454 Second St., San Francisco, Calif.

Smit CANNERY MACHINE Co., 2423 South First Avenue, Seattle,
Wash.

Sranparp Gas ENcinge Co., Dennison and King Sts., Oakland, Calif.

STANDARD Ot Co. oF CALIFORNIA, Standard Oil Building, San Fran-
cisco, Calif.

U. S. Rupper Co. or CALIFORNIA (W. D. Rigdon, Mgr.), 50-60 Fremont
St., San Francisco, Calif.

U. S. Strer Propucts Co., Rialto Building, San Francisco, Calif.

Wetits Farco Nationa, BANK oF San Francisco, Montgomery and
Market Sts., San Francisco, Calif.

WESTERN FUEL Co., 430 California St., San Francisco, Calif.

WESTERN “MEAT Co., 6th and Townsend Sts., San Francisco, Calif.

Wuirs Bros., 5th and Brannan Sts., San Francisco, Calif.

Active Members

Life Members Indicated by Asterisk (*)
AsBrAMs, Minton, 560 Brook Ave., New York City.
ADAMS, PRoF. Cas. C., State College of Forestry, Syracuse, N. Y.
ADAMS, Wo. C.,, Director, Division of Fisheries and Game, 506 State
House, Boston, Mass.
ADCOCK, A. Ve Harris Trust Building, 111-117 West Monroe St., Chi-
cago, Ill.

242... American Fisheries Society.

}

Apert, W. E., State Fish and Game Warden, Des Moines, Iowa. |

ALEXANDER, GEorce L, Grayling, Mich.

ANbeRsoNn, AuGust J., Box 704, Marquette, Mich.

ANDERSON, Dr. F. E., Red Wing, Minn.

ANDERSON, J. F., 3136 Front St., San Diego, Calif.

Anpverson, T. T., Liggett and Myers Tobacco Co., St. Louis, Mo.

ANNIN, Howarp, Caledonia, N. Y.

ANNIN, JAMEs, Caledonia, N. Y.

ARMSTRONG, RoNatp KENNeEpy, Bellister Castle, Haltwhistle, Northum-
berland, England.

ArRNoLD, M. DEweEy, Bemus Point, N. Y.

ASHTON, GEo., 1217 Pierce Bldg., St. Louis, Mo.

ATLANTIC BioLocica, Station, St. Andrews, New Brunswick, Canada.

Atwoop, Irvinc M., 31 Boston Fish Pier, Boston, Mass.

Aucour, W. A,, 33 Fulton St., New York City.

Avery, Carios, State Game and Fish Commissioner, St. Paul, Minn.

Bascock, JoHN P., Provincial Fisheries Department, Victoria, British
Columbia.

Bascock, WILLIAM H., 520 The Rookery, Chicago, III.

BaiLey, ArTHUR T., Nashua, N. H.

BatcH, Howarp K., 158 W. Austin Ave., Chicago, III.

BaLpwin, O. N., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Saratoga, Wyo.

Bau, E. M., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

BALLARD, S. THRusTON, Louisville, Ky.

BarBER, Wm. E., Conservation Commission, Madison, Wis.

Barzour, F. K., 96 Franklin St., New York, N. Y.

BarzBour, THoMAS, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.

harrier a arcie W., Supt., R. I. Fisheries Experiment Station, Wick-
Ova yak, ps

Barron, JAMES T., 1210 Yeon Bldg., Portland, Ore.

mouruen Morr L., Commissioner of Fisheries and Game, Concord,

SEA:

Bauer, A., 25th and Dearborn Sts., Chicago, Ill.

BAYNE, Buiss, Chief Assistant Game and Fish Commissioner, Room 312,
Capitol Building, Cheyenne, Wyo.

Baxter, A. C., Chief, Ohio Fish and Game Division, Columbus, Ohio.

BazeELey, Hon. Wm. A. L., Commissioner of Conservation, Room 519,
State House, Boston, Mass.

BEAN, Barton A., U. S. National’) Museum, Washington, D. C.

BEEMAN, HeNry W., New Preston, Conn.

*BELDING, Dr. Davin L., 80 Concord St., Boston, Mass.

Bett, WM. G., 512 Munsey Bldg., Baltimore, Md.

BELLISLE, J. A., Inspector General of Fisheries and Game, Quebec,
Canada.

BELMonytT, PERRY, 1618 New Hampshire Ave., Washington, D. C.

Bennett, L. H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

*BeNnson, JoHn T., Mgr. Hagenbeck Bros. Co., 307 Newark St., Hoboken,
N

Berc, Georce, Indiana Fish Commission, Indianapolis, Ind.

BerKHous, JERRY R., Pennsylvania Fish Commission, Torresdale, Pa.
Bernarp, Gus., Atchafalaya, La.

BERNIER, Dr. J. E., No. 5 D’Auteuil St. Quebec, Canada,

BILIsoLy, E. Nasu, Portsmouth, Va.
*BrrcE, Dr, E. A., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

BLACKForD, CuHas, Minor, M. D., Staunton, Va.

Biystap, Cuester N., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries Laboratory, Fair-

port, lowa.
Botton, C. C., 1550 Hanna Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio.
Boner, ALBERT E., Coopersville, Mich.

List of Members. 243

Boorn, Dewirr C., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Spearfish, S. D.

BorDENKECHER, WittiaM, R. R. 19, Haughville Station, Indianapolis,
Ind.

er Davm, Anderson Lake Hatchery, Kildonan P. O., V. L,
B

Bower, SEYMour, Drayton Plains, Mich.

Bower, Warp T., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Bowers, Grorcrk M., Martinsburg, W. Va.

BrADForD, Raupu P., Dept. of Agriculture, Springfield, Ill.

BREDER, C. M., J New York Aquarium, New York City, N. Y.

Brown, DELL, S. Bureau of Fisheries, Mammoth Springs, Ark.

Brown, Eee CLivE, Box 107, Station fe New York, N. Y.

Brown, G. W._N., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Orangeburg, S.C.

BRYAN, PRor. Wo. Axanson, Director, Los Angeles Museum, Exposi-
tion Park, Los Angeles, Calif.

BUCKSTAFF, Gro. A., 1101-1501 S. Main St., Oshkosh, Wis.

* BULLER, a G., Pennsylvania Fish Commission, Corry, Pa

Butter, C. R., Pleasant Mount, Wayne Co., Pa.

Butter, G. W., Pleasant Mount, Pa.

*BuLLER, NATHAN Ro », Pennsylvania Fish Commission, Harrisburg, Pa.

BULLOCK, Cuas. A,, S. Bureau of Fisheries, Bullochville, Ga.

BURKHART, Jor, ae Prairie, Wis.

Burnuam, Cuas. W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Louisville, Ky.

BURNHAM, Joun B., Pres. Am. Game Protective Assn., 233 Broadway,
New York, N. Y.

BuscHMANN, L. C., care of Franklin Packing Co., Smith Bldg., Seattle,
Wash.

Canrieyp, H. L,, oe Minn,

CARTER, E. N., Vinta County Farm Bureau, Fort Bridger, Wyo.

CASLER, Wo. A.,, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Hartsville, Mass.

CASSELL, JOHN S., 4100 Springdale Ave., Baltimore, Md.

*CASSELMAN, E. §., Dorset, Vt.

CHAMBERLAIN, THOMAS KNIcHr, East Corinth, Vt.

Cuampers, E. T. D., Department of Colonization, Mines and Fisheries,
Quebec, Canada.

CuHapmMan, Oswitt, De Bruce, Sullivan Co., N. Y.

CHIDISTER, PRoF, F. E., West Virginia University, Morgantown, W. Va.

Curistorrers, H. J., 'U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, 1217 L. C. Smith
Bldg., Seattle, Wash.

CLapp, ALVA, State Game and Fish Warden, Pratt, Kansas.

CLARK, H. WALTON, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Fairport, Iowa.

CLEMENS, WILBERT he Dept. of Biology, University of Toronto, Tor-
onto, “Ontario.

* CLEVELAND, W. B., Burton, Ohio.

Clubs

Axron GAME AND Fisu Association, Akron, Pa.

Assury Park FisHinc Cius (John F. Seger), 703 Cookman Ave., As-
bury Park, N. J.

Barr CAMP (Charles H. Foster, Sec.), 221 Egos St., Scranton, Pa.

Berks County Rop & Gun Ass’N (W. E. Wounderly, Sec.), 615
Eisenbrown St., Reading, Pa.

BETHLEHEM Gamer, Fish AND Forestry Ass’N, 423 Brodhead Ave.,
Bethlehem, Pa.

Birpsporo Fish aNnp Game Ass’N (Harry E. Deam, Sec.), Birds-
boro, Pa.

Buanppurc Camp No. 115, Unitep SporTSMEN OF PENNSYLVANIA,
Blandburg, Pa.

American Fisheries Society.

ide ee a Rop anp Gun Ciusp (Wm. A. Yale, Sec.), Bowmans-

own, Pa

Cayuca County SporTsMEN’s AssociaATION (John L. Alnutt, Pres.),
Auburn, N. Y.

CHERRY RIDGE FisHING Cus, Honesdale, Pa.

Cuicora Outine Cius (R. J. Gainford, Pres.), Chicora, Pa.

sane DENARIUS, care of C. A, Colbert, 310 Begler Ave., Barnesboro,

CUMBERLAND County FisH anp Game Ass’n (Geo. E. Orr, Sec.),
Portland, Me.

Farrprook Country CLus (C. O. Miller, Sec.), Tyrone, Pa.

Bar os FisHING AND GAME CLuB (J. Cc Henkes, Sec.), Fergus Falls,

inn,

FERNDALE Rop anp Gun Crus, New Auburn, Wis.

FLYFISHERS’ CLuB, 36 Piccadilly, W. 1, London, England.

GALESVILLE CONSERVATION Crus, Galesville, Wis.

JEFFERSON Co, GAME AND FisH Ass’Nn, Brookville, Pa.

aici es FisH AND GAME Ass’N (Willis S. Holt, Sec.), Box 948, Lowell,

ass.

MaAssacHusETts Fish and GAME Protective Ass’N, Tremont Bldg.,
Boston, Mass.

MontcomMEery Co. Fish, GAME AND Forestry Ass’n (H. G. Unger,
Sec.), 820 West Marshall St., Norristown, Pa.

Mount PLEASANT HUNTING AND FISHING Ass’n, Mount Pleasant, Pa.

NAZARETH Rop aNnp GuN Ctyus, INc., Nazareth, Pa.

aes Barr anp Fry CASTING Crus, Split Rock Lake, Boonton,

New JERSEY FisH AND GAME CONSERVATION LEaGuE (Arthur J. Neu,
Treas.), 31 Clinton St., Newark, N. J.

NortH CHAUTAUQUA FisH AND GAME CyuB, Dunkirk, N. Y.

Park Rapips ComMMuNItTy Crus (G. H. Friend, Treas.), Park Rapids,
Minn.

PENNSYLVANIA STATE Fish AND Game Protective Ass’Nn, City Club,
313 South Broad St. Philadelphia, Pa. (Address: Dr. T. Chal-
mers Fulton, Corres. Sec., Schuyler Bldg., 6th and Diamond Sts.,
Philadelphia, Pa.)

PiymMoutTH Camp No, 136, UNITED SPORTSMEN OF PENNSYLVANIA (H. A.
Ledden, Sec.), 53 Oxford St., Lee Park, Wilkes-Barre, Pa.

POHOQUALINE FisH AssocIaATION (J. D. Winter, Jr., care of Thos. A.
Biddle Co.), Philadelphia, Pa.

Porter's LAKE HuNTING AND FisHinGc CLus (Otto C. Feil, Sec.), 2207
North Sixth St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Ramsey Co. UNitTep SportTsMEN’s Ass’N (J. McCarthy, Sec.), 636
Grand Ave., St. Paul, Minn.

Rinccotp Rop anp Gun Cxus, Pen Argyl, Pa.

Bonen Gun Protective Ass’N, East Greenville, Montgomery Co.,

SANcon VALLEY Camp No. 168, Unritep SporTSsMEN oF PENNSYLVANIA,
Hellertown, Pa.

Saw CREEK HuNTING AND FisHinc Ass’N (M. S. Kistler, Treas.),
East Stroudsburg, Pa.

SPORTSMEN’s CLus or DuLutH, 403 Wolvin Bldg., Duluth, Minn.

Staples Rop anp Gun Crus (C. E. Miller, Sec.), Staples, Minn.

SWIFTWATER PrEsERVE (Dr. Samuel S. Kneass, Treas.), 1510 Walnut
St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Unami Fish anp GAME Protective Ass’n, Emaus, Pa.

VERMont Stats Fish anp Gun Cxus (S. B. Hawks, Vice-President),
Bennington, Vt.

2a eee

List of Members. 245

WAYNE AEN AND Fisuinc Cius (G. M. Patteson, Sec.), Carbon-
dale, Pa.

WEst PHILADELPHIA Rop anpD Gun Crus (Wm. A Dell, Sec.), 902 So.
48th St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Witp Lire Leacurt, McKeesport Branch (Theodore J. Herrmann, Sec.),
218 Commercial Ave., McKeesport, Pa

WILD ae LeacuE, Ridgway Branch (Earl E. Gardner, Sec.), Ridg-
way, Pa.

Witp Lir— Leacur, Sheffield Branch (G. McKillip, Treas.), Shef-
field, Pa.

Wiixes-Barre Camp No. 103, UnireD SPoRTSMEN OF PENNSYLVANIA
(M. B. Welsh, Sec.), 96 McLean St., Wilkes-Barre, Pa.

Winvsor Co. Fish anp GAME CLUB cc: W. Grinnel, Sec.), Nor-
wich, Vt.

Corns, Essen W., Superintendent of Fisheries, State Game and Fish
Department, St. Paul, Minn.

Cops, Joun N., Director, College of Fisheries, Univ. of Washington,
Seattle, Wash.

COKER, Dr. Ropert E., Univ. of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C.

Cotes, Russet J., Danville, Vai

CoMEAU, Nap. AS Godbout, Province of Quebec, Canada.

ComMMeErrForD, WM., Boonville, N. Y.

Coox, FRANK, Supt. Albany County Hatchery, Box 605, Laramie, Wyo.

Coox, Warp A., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Duluth, Minn.

Coors, Epwarp, 4706 4th Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.

*Cortiss, C. G., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Gloucester, Mass.

Corson, ALAN, City Hall, Philadelphia, Pa.

Corwin, Roy S., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Fairport, Iowa.

Cownen, S. M., Conservation Commission, Albany, N. Y

CoYKENDALL, Epwarp, 22 Ferry St., Kingston, N. Y.

Craic, SAMUEL, 398 Van Norman St. Port Arthur, Ontario.

CRAMPTON, JoHNn M., 317 Willow St., New Haven, Conn.

CRANDALL, A. J., Ashaway, R. I.

Crasser, Huco, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, LaCrosse, Wis.

CrawrorD, D. R., College of Fisheries, Seattle, Wash.

Crit, H. D., Director, Sea and Shore Fisheries Commission, Rock-
land, Me.

CrosstEy, H. C., Put-in Bay, Ohio.

Cuter C. F., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Homer, Minn.

DANGLADE, ERNEST, Vevay, Ind.

Daspit, A. P., New Court Bldg., New Orleans, La.

Davinson, Henry, Fish Hatchery, Bath, N. Y.

Davies, Davin, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Tupelo, Miss.

and ’710 Dgran, Pror, Basurorp, Columbia University, New York City.

Dean, Hersert D., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Bozeman, Mont.

DENMEAD, TALBOT, 508 Munsey Bldg., Baltimore, Md.

DePuy, Henry F., 32 W. 40th St., New York City.

DeRocuer, Jas. D., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, East Orland, Me.

DETWEILER, JOHN ve Honorary President, Florida Fish Commission,
New Smyrna, Fla.

Dimick, F. F., Boston Fish Bureau, Fish Pier, Boston, Mass.

Dinsmore, A. H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, St. Johnsbury, Vt.

Dotan, Grorce A., Fish Commissioner, Westerly, R. I.

*DoMINY, JEREMIAH M., South Haven, N. Y.

Downline, S. W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Put-in Bay, Ohio.

Doyie, Henry, Winch Bldg., Vancouver, B. C.

Dryroos, LEON, 508 State St., Erie, Pa.

Ducxrer, BENJ., Wild Rose, Wis.

246 American Fisheries Society.

Dun ap, I. H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

DuRant, Dr. G. W., Board of Fisheries of S. C., Georgetown, Fe

Empopy, Dr. Gro. C., 141 Ithaca Road, Ithaca, N. Y.

EMERICH, WALTER G., Watervliet, N. Y.

Erickson, C. J., 328 Washington St., Boston, Mass.

Evans, H. R., Cultus Lake Hatchery, Vedder Crossing Post Office,
British Columbia.

Evans, Lizut.-Cort. Ketty, Metropolitan Club, New York City.

EVERMANN, Dr. Barton W., Director of the Museum, California Acad-
emy of Sciences, San Francisco, Calif.

EvERMANN, J. W., First Vice-Pres., St. Louis Southwestern Railway
of Texas, Dallas, Texas.

*FEARING, Mrs. D. B., Newport, R. I.

Frearnow, E. C., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Frick, Joun A., Sandusky, Ohio.

FEILpINc, J. B., 82 Wellington, St., Halifax, Nova Scotia.

FriepLerR, Recinarp H., 310 E. 51st St., Seattle, Wash.

FIELD, Dr. Grorck W., Sharon, Mass.

Firxins, B. G., Northville, Mich.

Fintayson, Arex. C., Dominion Inspector of Hatcheries, Ottawa,
Canada.

Fintey, W. L., Jennings Lodge, Clackamas Co., Ore.

FisHer, JoHn F., Chapinville, Conn.

FITZGERALD, E. J., Minneiska, Minn,

FLEMING, JoHN H., Columbia City, Ind.

*Foucer, J. A., Pres., J. A. Folger Co., Howard and Spencer Sts., San
Francisco, Calif.

Fotietr, RicHarp E., Detroit Zoological Society, 1224 Dime Bank Bldg.,
Detroit, Mich.

Forses, R. D., New Orleans, La.

ForsytTH, Ropert, 1157 The Rookery, Chicago, III.

*ForTMANN, Henry F., 1007 Gough St., San Francisco, Calif.

Foster, FREDERICK J., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Neosho, Mo.

Foster, WM. T., 707 Coleman St., Easton, Pa.

Founp, Wo. A., Asst. Deputy Minister of Fisheries, Ottawa, Canada.

Fow.er, KENNETH, Woolworth Bldg., New York City.

Fraser, Dr. C. McLean, Biological Station, Nanaimo, British Columbia.

FreNcH, ALBERT, International Agric. Corporation, 61 Broadway, New
Work JN. ¥%

FRIDENBERG, RoBERT, 22 W. 56th St., New York, N. Y.

GANTENBEIN, D., Diamond Bluff, Wis.

GANTENBEIN, U. Carver, New Albin, Iowa.

*GARDNER, Mrs. Cuaries C., The Cliffs, Newport, R. I.

Garnsey, LEIGH, 451 Summit Ave., Redlands, Calif.

GerpuN, C., 505 Commercial Bank Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio.

Gerry, Rosert L., 258 Broadway, New York City.

Giss, C. D., Game Warden, Wilder, Minn.

Gipss, CHarLEs E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, East Orland, Me.

Grover, Wm. L., Edison National Bank, Orangeburg, S. C.

GorHam, W. B., Fisheries Station, Anaconda, Mont.

Goutp, Dr. Epwin W., Sea and Shore Fisheries Commission, 24 School
St., Rockland, Me.

GraHamM, E. A., Berkeley, Taunton, R. F. D., Mass.

Grater, CuHartes B., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Wytheville, Va.

Gray, Grorce M., Woods Hole, Mass.

Gray, StepMAn H., 2511 W. Second Ave., Seattle, Wash.

GREEN, J. C., 4730 London Road, Duluth, Minn.

GREEN, JoHN E., Carlton, Minn.

GREENE, JoHN V., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

| i ae ae a ee ila,

List of Members. 247

Guerin, THEopHite, Treasurer, Rhode Island Commission of Fisher-
ies, “Woonsocket, Rel:

GUNCKEL, Wit H., M. and C. Savings Bank, Toledo, Ohio.

*HAAsS, WILLIAM, Pennsylvania Fish Commission, Spruce Creek, Pa.

Hann, EE, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Boothbay Harbor, Me.

HALEY, CaLen, 14 Fulton Market, New York City.

Hamorrcer, Hon, Joun, 16 East 8th St., Erie, Pa.

Hanp, E. R,, Fairmont, Minn.

HANKINSON, Pro. T. .s. National Science Hall, State Normal College,
Ypsilanti, Mich.

HANSEN, FERDINAND, 65 Beach St., New York City.

HANSEN, Ge Osceola, Wis. .

Hare, Frank E., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Manchester, Iowa.

HARRIMAN, AVERILL, Arden, N. Y.

Harrison, C. W., 801 Rogers Bldg., Dom. Gov. Fisheries Office, Van-
couver, B.

Harron, i. G&:, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Hart, Max D.. Dept. of Game and Inland Fisheries, Library Bldg.,
Richmond, Va.

HARTMANN, Putt., Erie, Pa.

Hawks, S. B., Supt., State Fish Hatchery, Bennington, Vt.

Hay, Pror. W. P., Kensington, Md.

Hayrorp, CHARLES OF Sunt; State Fish Hatchery, Hackettstown,
Ne.

Heatuiry, Gro., Middleton, Annapolis Co., Nova Scotia.

HEDRICK, H. S& Pierre, oe:

Herman, A. J., Barberton, Ohio.

HEMINGWAY, E. Ds, 123 Rochelle Ave., Wissahickon, Philadelphia, Pa.

HENSHALL, Dr. JAMES A., 811 Dayton St., Cincinnati, Ohio.

HEROLD, R, % Mills Bldg., San Francisco, Calif.

HERRICK, PRror, FRANCIS "Hopart, Western Reserve University, Cleve-
land, Ohio.

HEuCHELE, G. L., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Put-in Bay, Ohio.

HEwET?, FRep, Route 6, Madison, Wis.

Hiccrns, Aur. S., 142 Atlantic ‘Ave., Boston, Mass.

HILDEBRAND, SAMUEL F., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

HINRICHS, HENRY, eR. "Booth Fisheries Co., 205 No. Michigan Ave.,
Chicago, Ill.

Hozart, T. D., Pampa, Texas.

Horrsks, G. Raymonp, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

HOLLAND, Rites Am. Game Protective Association, 233 Broadway,
New York City.

Houmes, Wittiam W., Dept. of Conservation, New Orleans, La.

HoorF NAGLE, GW, UW: 'S. Bureau of Fisheries, Cape Vincent, N. Y,

*Hoprer, GEORCE ae Havre de Grace, Md.

Hovpen, es Monterey, Calif.

Howe Lt, CoC L., care of H. S. King & Co., .9 Pall Mall, London,
S. W., England.

Howser, W. D., Nashville, Tenn.

HUBBARD, WALDo 2 We S. Bureau of Fisheries, Nashua, N. H.

Hupss, Carr I, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, Mich.

Huntsman, Dr. A. G., University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.

*Hurisut, H. F., 13 Iveson Ave., East Lynn, Mass. e

Hussaxor, Dr, ’ Louis, American Museum of Natural History, New
York City.

Hustep, James D., Denver, Colo.

JACKSON, RALPH ‘es Seven Pines Brook Trout Preserve, Lewis, Wis.

American Fisheries Society.

sae G. E., Fishing Gazette, 465 Central Park West, New York
ity.

JENSEN, HarRoLD, Spooner, Wis.

Jounson, A. S., 300 Exchange Bldg., Duluth, Minn.

ee James G., R. I. Commission of Inland Fisheries, Riverside,

Jones, CuHapin, State Forester, University of Virginia, Charlottes-
ville, Va.

sae oe E. Lester, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington,

Jones, J. H., Fergus Falls, Minn.

Jones, Tos. S., Louisville, Ky.

JorDAN, R. D., 12 Stebbins St., Springfield, Mass.

Jostyn, C. D., 67 Boulevard, Pelham, N. Y.

Jupp, E. T., Game and Fish Commissioner, Cando, N. D.

KAUFFMANN, R. M., The Star, Washington, D. C.

KavanaucuH, W. P., Bay City, Mich.

Keesecker, A. G., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Erwin, Tenn.

Keii, W. M., Tuxedo, Park, N. Y.

KEMMERICH, JosEPH, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Birdview, Wash.

KENDALL, F. P., Farling Bldg., Portland, Ore.

KENDALL, NEAL, Farling Bldg., Portland, Ore.

KENDALL, Dr. WILLIAM C., Freeport, Me.

Kent, Epwin C., Tuxedo Club, Tuxedo Park, N. Y.

Keyes, H. W., Ranier, Minn.

Kinney, M. J., 1005 Yeon Bldg., Portland Ore.

KISTERBOCK, JOSIAH, JR., 3824 Spruce St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Kittrrepcr, BENJAMIN R., Carmel, N. Y.

Knicut, H. J., Alaska Packers Association, San Francisco, Calif.

Koeuz, Dr. WALTER, Dept. of Zoology, University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, Mich.

KrIpPENDORF, CAr, H., Sagamore and New Sts., Cincinnati, Ohio.

Kuiir, Karri C., Fish and Game Board, Suffield, Conn.

LAIRD, ae South Side Sportsman’s Club of Long Island, Oak-
dale. Ne Ye

Lamsson, G. H., Calif. Fish and Game Commission, Sisson, Calif.

LaNnpry, D. J., Lake Charles, La.

LAUERMAN, FRANK J., Marinette, Wis.

Lawyer, Gro. A., U. S. Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.

Lay, CHARLES, Sandusky, Ohio.

Leacu, G. C., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

Leavins, Linus, Fish and Game Commission, Cambridge, Vt.

Lesour, Dr. Marie V., Marine Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth,
England.

Le Comptes, E. Ler, 512 Munsey Bldg., Baltimore, Md.

Lee, W. McDonatp, Irvington, Va.

LEESER, Wo. S., 919 Walnut St., Reading, Pa.

Lewis, Cuaries E., Lewis Bldg., 2d Ave., So. and 6th St., Minneapolis,
Minn.

Libraries

BuREAU OF SCIENCE LisrAry, Manila, Philippine Islands.

CALIFORNIA STATE FISHERIES LABORATORY LipraRy, Terminal, Calif.
CoLLEGE oF FisHeErtEs, Univ. of Washington, Seattle, Wash.

Harvarp CoLiece Liprary, Cambridge, Mass.

JoHN Crerar Liprary, Chicago, Ill.

Liprary Ass’N or PortLAND, 10th and Yamhill Sts., Portland, Ore.
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, Cambridge, Mass.

New York Pusric Liprary, 476 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y.

List of Members. 249

New Yorx Stare Couiece or AGRICULTURE LipraryY, Ithaca, N. Y.
New York State Lisrary, Albany, N. Y.

OuIo STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY, Columbus, Ohio.

Pusiic MusEuM oF MILWAUKEE, Milwaukee, Wis.

Scripps INSTITUTION FoR BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH, La Jolla, Calif.
UNIveERsITY oF In,inois Lisrary, Urbana, III.

UNIVERSITY oF INDIANA, Bloomington, Ind.

University oF Micuican, Ann Arbor, Mich.

UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA, Lincoln, Nebr.

University oF Toronto Lisrary, Toronto, Canada.

Yas UNIversity Lisrary, New Haven, Conn.

LINDAHL, SETH H., 7732 Chauncey Ave., Chicago, IIl.

Linpsay, R. C., Gaspe, Canada.

Linton, Dr. Epwin, Medical Department, University of Georgia,
Augusta, Ga.

Lirinsxy, M. N., Winona, Minn.

LLoyp, Joun Tuomas, Court and Plum Sts., Cincinnati, Ohio.

Locke, SAMUEL B., U. S. Forest Service, ea Utah.

LoweLL, RALPH P. Sanford, Me.

Lowrance, W. J., Berwick, La.

LupwIc, Joun, Grand Isle, La.

LYDELL, Craup, State Fish Hatchery, Hastings, Mich.

LYDELL, Dwicnr, State Fish Hatchery, Comstock Park, Mich.

Masir, CHARLES H., Maywood, N. J.

MACKENZIE, WM. Hi. The Linen Thread Co., 96 Franklin St., New
York, N. Y.

McDona tp, E. B., Liggett and Myers Tobacco Co., St. Louis, Mo.

McDoueat, J. M., Gunnison, Colo.

McKinney, Rosert E., 505 Huntington Ave., Boston, Mass.

McLean, MARSHALL, 27 Cedar St., New York City.

McREYNOLDs, B. B., Water Superintendent, Colorado Springs, Colo.

MaAunong, A. H,, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Edenton, N. C.

*MAILLIARD, JosEPH, 1815 Vallejo St., San Francisco, Calif.

MANNFELD, Gro. N., 223 N. Penn. St., Indianapolis, Ind.

MANSFIELD, Harry C., Russell’s Point, Ohio.

Manvon, Dr. W. P., 312 So. Holliston Ave., Pasadena, Calif.

Marrs, Wm. C., Fort On Aypelle, Saskatchewan.

Marven, Cuas. S., Moorehead, Minn.

MarineE, Dr. Davin, Montifiore Home and Hospital, New York City.

Marsh, M. C., Springville, N. Y.

MarSCHALK, Paut, Warroad, Minn.

Martin, J. E., Kennedy Lake Hatchery, Tofino, British Columbia.

*Marvin, J. B., Jr., P. O. Box 544, Saranac Lake, N. Y.

Matruews, J. H., Research and Information Dept., No. 1 Fulton Fish
Market, New York, N. Y.

*MEEHAN, W. E., 422 Dorset St., Mt. Airy, Philadelphia, Pa.

MERRILL, ARTHUR, Wilkinsonville, Mass.

MERSHON, W. B., Saginaw, Mich.

MEYER, GusTAv J. T., 829-831 South Delaware St., Indianapolis, Ind.

Mites, LEE, Probate Judge, Little Rock, Ark.

MILLER, ALBERT P., Bemus Point, N. Y.

Miutett, ArtHur L., Division of Fisheries and Game, State House,
Boston, Mass.

MitcHet,, Epw. W., Livingston Manor, Sullivan County, N. Y.

*MixtTeR, SAMUEL J., M. D., 180 Marlboro St., Boston, Mass.

MOLLAN, Wo. K,, Board of Fisheries and Game, Bridgeport, Conn.

MONEY, "GEN. Norn, Qualicum Beach, British Columbia.

Monnoz, Otis D., Supt. State Fish Hatchery, Palmer, Mass.

250 American Fisheries Society.

"13 Moorr, ALFRED, 618 American Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa.

"18 Moore, Dr. EMMELINE, Conservation Commission, Albany, N. Y.

04 Moore, Dr. H. F., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, 1D: a:

18 Morey, BiG, Sodus Point; Ni Y.

704 Morris, Dr, ROBERT eieR ris b.' "E. 54th St., New York City.

’99 Morton, WP, 1105 Sterling Ave., Providence, R. I.

"10 Moser, CAPTAIN JEFFERSON F., 2040 Santa Clara Ave., Alameda, Calif.

20 MoTrHERWELL, Major J. A., Chief Inspector of Fisheries, Rogers Bldg.,.
Vancouver, Bac:

"10 Munty, M. G., 1012 Yeon Bldg., Portland, Ore.

14. Myers, I. S., 604 Norwood St., Akron, Ohio.

"21. Nason, R, B., 1410 So. Grant Ave., Tacoma, Wash.

18 NEEDHAM, Pror. Jas. G., Cornell University, Ithaca, Nt:

716 *NELSON, Cuas. A! os, Lutsen, Minn.

07 *NEWMAN, EDWIN A, President, Aquarium Fisheries Co., 4305 8th St.,
N.W., Washington, DIG

"10 NicHoLis, JoHN TREADWELL, American Museum of Natural History,.
New York City.

’20 Norcore, Martin, 1908 N. 36th St., Seattle, Wash.

’20 Oakes, JosEPH, Box 5, Belleville, Ontario.

13. Oaxes, WM. H., 24 Union Park St., Boston, Mass.

16 O’Brien, Martin, Crookston, Minn.

"97 O'BRIEN, MTS ‘Supt. of Hatcheries, Nebraska Game and Fish Com-
mission, Gretna, Neb.

20 ODELL, CLINTON M., 1815 Fremont Ave., South, Minneapolis, Minn.

00 O'MALLEY, HENRY, 'U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C

715 OPDENWEYER, JOHN W., 2328 Dublin St.. New Orleans, La. ;

19 rata ee ae House Appropriations Committee, Capitol, Washington,

"10 *OsBuRN, Pror. RayMonp C., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.

17 Otis, Mito F., State Fish Hatchery, Upper Saranac, N. Y.

12 Oris, SpeNcER, Railway Exchange, Chicago, Ill.

"17 PAcKER, ARTHUR, 423 Plymouth Bldg., Minneapolis, Minn.

04 Patmer, Dr. Turopore S., United States Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.

21 Paravisk Brook Trout Co., Henryville, Pa.

704 Parkuurst, Hon. C. FRANK, 54 Barnes St., Providence, R. I.

707. ~Patcuinc, Frep, Loring, Alaska.

18 Pearse, Pror. A. S., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

11 Pett, Gro. W., 520 Sixteenth St. Denver, Colo.

09 «=~ PrieuceEr, J. E., Akron, Ohio.

’21 Puitiirs, JoHN M., Vice-Pres., Board of Game Commissioners, 2227
Jane St., South Side, Pittsburgh, Pa.

17 Pinkerton, J. A., Glenwood, Minn.

713. Pootr, GARDNER, Fish Pier, Boston, Mass.

709 Pomeroy, Geo. E., Toledo, Ohio.

704. Porr, T. E. B., Curator, Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee,
Milwaukee, Wis.

706 ~Porter, RicHarpD, Board of State Fish Commissioners, Paris, Mo.

19 Post Fisw Co., Sandusky, Ohio.

17 ~Prartr, Georcg D., Telephone Bldg., Albany, N. Y.

"19 PreNnsker, Dr. G. A., 1348 Wellington Ave., Chicago, III.

08 *Prince, Dr. E. E., Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries, Ottawa,
Canada.

22 PuTNAM, Bert J., 462 Washington St., Buffalo, N. Y.

03. «RACE, EB. Boothbay Harbor, Me.

"10 *RADCLIFFE, LewIs, Tariff Commission, Washington, D. C.

793. «~RAVENEL, W. DE Ci U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.

21 Rea, KENNETH G., 985 Beaver Hall Hill, Montreal, Canada.

List of Members. 251

Rerorp, Rost. Witson, 300 Drummond St., Montreal, Canada.

REID, Gro. C., 1007 N. George St., Rome, N. Y.

RED, Hucu 3 Winnipegoses, Manitoba, "Canada.

REEL, F. K., State Hatchery, Union City, Ea

REIGHARD, Pror. Jacos E., University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.

Renavp, J. K., 207 New Court Bidg., New Orleans, La.

a eas H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, 11 Exchange St., Port-
an e

RICHARDSON, A. P., Supt. Hatchery, Canaan, Vt.

RicHARpDSON, Rosert E., Box 155, University Station, Urbana, Ill.

Ritey, Marx, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, San Marcos, Texas.

RILEY, Hon. ‘Marruew, 304 Jefferson Ave., Ellwood City, Pa.

RILEY, Pror. Wm. A., University Farm, St. Paul, Minn.

RISLEY, A. F., Old Forge, Herkimer Co., N. Y.

ROBERTSON, ALEXANDER, Dominion Hatchery, Harrison Hot Springs,
British Columbia.
*RopeRtTson, Hon. Jas. A.
Blackpool, England.

Ropp, J. A., Dept. Naval Service, Ottawa, Canada.

Ropp, R. Tk. Banff, Alberta.

Rows, HENRY c» Daytona Beach, Fla.

Rowe, Wm. H., West Buxton, Me.

RUHE, E, Lenman, 24 S. 13th St., Allentown, Pa.

RUSSELL, GEO. a Bank of Commerce of N. A., Cleveland, Ohio.

Ryan, Carvin D ier S. Bureau of Fisheries, Ketchikan, Alaska.

*S AFFORD, W. H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Gloucester, Mass.

SCHRADIECK, it oe "211 South Eighth St., Olean, N. Y.

ScHRANK, i qs Booth Fisheries Co., Sandusky, Ohio.

ScorieLp, 'N. B., 430 Kingsley Ave., Palo Alto, Calif.

Scott, THOMAS E., Fisheries Overseer, Hope, B. C.

Scovitte, 1S ae 50 Church St., New York City.

SEAGLE, Gro. ia 135 College Ave., Bluefield, W. Va.

SEAGRAVE, ARNOLD, Woonsocket, R. I.

SEAMAN, “FRANK, Napanoch, INGRYe

Setters, M. G., 1518 Sansom St., Philadelphia, Pa.

SHELDON, Et. P., Fish and Game Commissioner, Montpelier, Vt.

SHELFORD, Vicon E., Vivarium Bldg., Wright and Healey Sts., Cham-
paign, Il

SHERWOOD, E. E., State Game and Fish Commission, Seattle, Wash.

SHIRA, AUSTIN F., Fairport, Iowa.

SHIRAS, Gro. 3D, Stoneleigh Court, Washington, D. C.

Sno, C. E,, Box 62, Burlington, N. J.

SIEMS, ALLEN G., Big Rock Trout Club Hatchery, St. Croix Falls,
Wis.

Skerryvore, Holmefield Ave., Clevely’s,

3 *SziapEe, Grorcs P., 309 Broadway, P. O. Box 283, New York City.

SMIrH, Dr. Hucr M., 1209 M St. N. W., Washington, LD Ea Oy

SmitH, Lewis H., Algona, Towa.

SmirH, WALTER ic Game Warden, 114 North Jefferson St., Staun-
ton, Va.

SNOWDEN, ALEX’R O., JR., 1058 Main St., Peekskill, N. Y.

Snyvpes, J.P U.S: Bureau of Fisheries, Cape Vincent, N. Y.

SPENCER, H. B., Room 1223 Munsey Bldg., Washington, D.C.

SPORTSMEN’S Review Pusiisninc Co., 15 W. Sixth St., Cincinnati
Ohio.

Spracie, L. H., Henryville, Pa.

STACK, F, GEORGE, North Creek, Warren Co., N. Y.

STACK HOUSE, Ee Department of Fisheries, Harrisburg, Pa.

252 American Fisheries Society.

States
See Board of Fisheries and Game, State Capitol, Hartford,
onn
InpIaANa, Dept. of Conservation, Div. of Fisheries and Game, Indian-
apolis, Ind.

Iowa, Fish and Game Dept., Des Moines, Iowa.

LOUISIANA, Dept. of Conservation, New Orleans, La.

MARYLAND, State Conservation Commission, Baltimore, Md.

MASSACHUSETTS, Dept. of Conservation, State House, Boston, Mass.

panne an Department of Game and Fish, State Capitol, St. Paul
inn

Ouro, Bureau of Fish and Game, Columbus, Ohio.

ORECON, Fish Commission of Oregon, 1105 Gasco Bldg, Portland, Ore.

STEVENS, ARTHUR F., Ladentown, R. F. D. 44-A, Suffern, N. Y.

Stivers, D. Gay, Butte Anglers’ Association, Butte, Mont.

STOKKE, G. B., 16 Exchange Place, New York City.

Story, Joun A. U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Green Lake, Me.

STRUVEN, CuHas. M., 114 S. Frederick St., Baltimore, Md.

STuBER, JAMES W., Bureau of Fish and Game, Columbus, Ohio.

Sun, Dr. F. T., President, School of Fisheries, Tientsin, China.

Sworn, C. B., New Westminster, British Columbia, Canada.

Tart, THorrin, 64 Hillside Ave., Metuchen, N. J.

Taytor, H. F., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

TERRELL, CLypE B., Oshkosh, Wis.

TuHayer, W. W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Northville, Mich.

THOMAS, ADRIAN, 3211 Helen Ave., Detroit, Mich.

Tuompson, CHAS. H. Colonial Trust Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa.

THompson, W. F., State Fisheries Laboratory, Terminal, Calif.

Tuompson, W. P., 123 N. Fifth St., Philadelphia, Pa.

Tuompson, W. T., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Bozeman, Mont.

Tuomson, G. H., Estes Park, Colo.

TicHENoR, A. K., Vice President, Alaska Packers Assn., San Francisco,
Calif.

TILLMAN, Rosert L., Beacon Paper Co., St. Louis, Mo.

*Timson, Wo., President, Alaska Packers Assn., San Francisco, Calif.

Titcoms, Joun W., Supt., Board of Fisheries and Game, Hartford,
Conn.

and 712 *Townsenp, Dr CuHaries H., Director, New York Aquarium,
New York, N. Y.

TRAVERS, JouN T., Bureau of Fish and Game, Columbus, Ohio.

TRESSELT, FREDERICK, Lantz, Md.

TrESSLER, Dr. Donanp K., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington,
1D al G:

TREXLER, Cor. Harry C., Allentown, Pa.

Triccs, CHAs. W., Booth Fisheries Co., 22 W. Monroe St., Chicago, III.

Trout Broox Co., F. O. Crary, Pres., Hudson, Wis.

Troyer, M., Astoria Iron Works, Seattle, Wash.

TRUITT, R. V., University of Maryland, College Park, Md.

TRULL, HARRY S., American Museum of Natural History, New York
City.

TUBBs, fe A., Supt., State Fish Hatchery, Harrisville, Mich.

TULIAN, EUGENE Ay Box 1304, New Orleans, La.

TURNER, Pror. C. ioe Beloit College, Beloit, Wis.

Van Arta, Crype H., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Leadville, Colo.

Van CLEAVE, Pror. H. J., University of Illinois, Urbana, III.

*VanveERGRIFT, S. H., 1728 New Hampshire Ave., Washington, D. C.

List of Members. 258

*g9 «VicKers, Harrison W., Chairman, Conservation Commission, 512 Mun-
sey Building, Baltimore, Md.

49 Vincent, W. S., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Mammoth Springs, Ark.

19 Viosca, Percy, Jr., Natural History Bldg., New Orleans, La.

12 Vocr, JAMEs H., Nevada Fish Commission, Verdi, Nevada.

09. Von LENGCERKE, J., 200 Fifth Ave., New York City.

706 WADDELL, JOHN, Grand Rapids, Mich.

49 WaGNER, JoHN, School House Lane, Germantown, Philadelphia, Pa.

15 WakeEririp, L. H., 1310 Smith Bldg., Seattle, Wash.

22 “asa Freperic C., Pres. Board of Fisheries and Game, Norfolk,

onn,

796 «WALKER, BRYANT, Detroit, Mich.

41. Watxer, Dr. H. T., 210 Main St., Denison, Texas.

99 WALKER, S. J., District Inspector of Hatcheries, Ottawa, Canada.

16 WALLACE, FreDERICK WILLIAM, 282 W. 25th St, New York, N. Y.

96 «Watters, C. H., Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.

’98 Warp, Dr. H. B., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.

49 Warp, J. Quincy, Executive Agent, Kentucky Game and Fish Com-
mission, Frankfort, Ky.

47 Warp, Rozertson S., 172 Harrison St., East Orange, N. J.

13 Wess, W. SEwarp, 44th St. and Vanderbilt Ave., New York City.

91 WessTer, B. O., Commissioner of Fisheries, Madison, Wis.

46 Weeks, ANDREW Gray, 8 Congress St., Boston, Mass.

99 «WELLS, ArtHur W., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, D. C.

99 WELLS, Wo. F., Conservation Commission, Albany, N. Y.

19 Wueeter, Cuas. E., Stratford, Conn.

145 Wueeter, Frep M., 546 Fulton St., Chicago, Ill.

91 Wuite, Dr. E. HAMILTON, 298 Stanley St., Montreal, Canada.

40 Wuitman, Epwarp C., Canso, Nova Scotia, Canada.

145 Wuitesipe, R. B., 204 Sellwood Bldg., Duluth, Minn.

99 Wuuiteway, SOLOMAN, P., St. Johns, Newfoundland.

19 «Wicxtirr, Epwarp L., 1309 Atchison St., Columbus, Ohio.

99 Wipur, Harry C., Commissioner, Sea and Shore Fisheries, Portland,

Me.

01 Witson, C. H., Glen Falls, N. Y.

00 Winn, Dennis, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, 1217 L. C. Smith Bldg.,
Seattle, Wash.

99 “Wires, S. P., U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Duluth, Minn.

43 *WisneR, J. Netson, Director, Institute de Pesca del Uruguay, Punta
del Esto, Uruguay.

94 Wo.r, CHartes F., Birchwood, Wis.

95 *Worters, Cas. A., Oxford and Marvine Sts., Philadelphia, Pa.

’97 Woop, C. C., Plymouth, Mass.

13 Woops, Joun P., President, Missouri State Fish Commission, First
and Wright Sts., St. Louis, Mo.

14 Work, GERALD, Perkins Hill, Akron, Ohio.

49° Wricut, Pror, ALBERT Hazen, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

46 Youncer, R. J., Houma, La.

99 ZALSMAN, P. G., Supt., State Fish Hatchery, Grayling, Mich.

Recapitulation
Honorary __..-.--------------------------------------------------- 63
Corresponding ----------------------------------------------------7 12
Patrons ~-..------- = == == <= ~ = 5 nnn 53
Active (including 49 clubs, 19 libraries and 9 State organizations) ------ 569

CONSTITUTION
(As amended to date)

ARTICLE I
NAME AND OBJECT

The name of this Soviety shall be American Fisheries So-
ciety. Its object shall be to promote the cause of fish culture; to
gather and diffuse information bearing upon its practical success,
and upon all matters relating to the fisheries; the uniting and en-
couraging of all interests of fish culture and the fisheries, and the
treatment of all questions regarding fish, of a scientific and econo-
mic character.

AB ICL Et
MEMBERSHIP

Active Members.—Any person may upon a two-thirds vote and
the payment of three dollars, become a member of this Society. In
case members do not pay their fees, which shall be three dollars per
year after first year, and are delinquent for two years, they shall
be notified by the treasurer, and if the amount due is not paid
within a month thereafter, they shall be, without further notice,
dropped from the roll of membership.

Any sporting or fishing club, society, firm, or corporation, upon
two-thirds vote and the payment of an annual fee of five dollars,
may become a member of this Society and be entitled to all its
publications. Libraries shall be admitted to membership at three
dollars a year.

Any. state board or commission may, upon the payment of an
annual fee of ten dollars, become a member of this Society and be
entitled to all of its publications. .

Life Members.—Any person shall, upon a two-thirds vote and
the payment of twenty-five dollars, become a life member of this
Society, and shall thereafter be exempt from all annual dues.

Patrons.—Any person, society, club, firm, or corporation, on
approval by the Executive Committee and on payment of $50.00,

254

Constitution. 255

may become a Patron of this Society with all the privileges of a life
member, and then shall be listed as such in all published lists of the
Society. The money thus received shall become part of the perma-
nent funds of the Society and the interest alone be used as the
Society shall designate.

Honorary and Corresponding Members.——Any person can be
made an honorary or a corresponding member upon a two-thirds
vote of the members present at any regular meeting.

The President (by name) of the United States and the Gov-
ernors (by name) of the several States shall be honorary mem-
bers of the Society.

Election of Members Between Annual Meetings—The Presi-
dent, Recording Secretary, and Treasurer of the Society are hereby
authorized, during the time intervening between annual meetings,
to act on all individual applications for membership in the Society,

a majority vote of the Committee to elect or reject such applica-

tions as may be duly made.

ARTICLE III
SECTIONS

On presentation of a formal written petition signed by one
hundred or more members, the Executive Committee of the Ameri-

_can Fisheries Society may approve the formation in any region of

a Section of the American Fisheries Society to be known as the
Section.

Such a Section may organize by electing its own officers, and
by adopting such rules as are not in conflict with the Constitution
and By-Laws of the American Fisheries Society.

It may hold meetings and otherwise advance the general in-
terests of the Society, except that the time and place of its annual
meeting must receive the approval of the Executive Committee of the
American Fisheries Society, and that without specific vote of the
American Fisheries Society, the Section shall not commit itself to
any expression of public policy on fishing matters.

It may further incur indebtedness to an amount necessary for
the conduct of its work not to exceed one-half of the sum received
in annual dues from members of said Section.

Such bills duly approved by the Chairman and Recorder of the
Section shall be paid on presentation to the Treasurer of the Amer-
ican Fisheries Society.

256 American Fisheries Society.

ARTICLE 1V:
OFFICERS

The officers of this Society shall be a president and a vice--

president, who shall be ineligible for election to the same office until
a year after the expiration of their term; an executive secretary, a
recording secretary, a treasurer, and an executive committee of
seven, which, with the officers before named, shall form a council
and transact such business as may be necessary when the Society is
not in session—four to constitute a quorum.

In addition to the officers above named there shall be elected

annually five vice-presidents who shall be in charge of the follow-.

ing five divisions or sections:

1. Fish culture.

2. Commercial fishing.

Aquatic biology and physics.
Angling.
Protection and legislation.

Veco: presidents of sections may be called upon by the President
to present reports of the work of their sections, or they may volun-
tarily present such reports when material of particular value can
be offered by a given division.

tpt Laos

ARTICUE V
MEETINGS

The regular meeting of the Society shall be held once a year,
the time and place being decided upon at the previous meeting, or,
in default of such action, by the executive committe.

ARTICLE VI
ORDER OF BUSINESS

Call to order by president.

Roll call of members.
Applications for membership.
Reports of officers.

President.

Secretary.

Treasurer.

Vice-presidents of Divisions.
Standing Committees.

pane oD

Constitution. 257

5. Committees appointed by the president.
a. Committee of five on nomination of officers for ensuing
year.
Committee of three on time and place of next meeting.
Auditing committee of three.
Committee of three on program.
Committee of three on publication.
Committee of three on publicity.
6. Beodiae of papers and discussion of same.
(Note—in the reading of papers preference shall be given
to the members present.)
?. Miscellaneous business.
8. Adjournment.

mo aos

ARTICLE VII
CHANGING THE CONSTITUTION

The Constitution of the Society may be amended, altered or
repealed by a two-thirds vote of the members present at any regu-
lar meeting, provided at least fifteen members are present at said
regular meeting.

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Pm FISHERIES 4.
PeeOCIETY |

_ FIFTY-THIRD ANNUAL MEETING — me :

ae ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI eae
SEPTEMBER 17, 18, 19, 1923

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Amenican Fisheries Society

FIFTY-THIRD ANNUAL MEETING
ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI
SEPTEMBER 17, 18, 19, 1923

Published Annually by the Society
HARTFORD, CONNECTICUT
1923

American #isheries Suciety

ORGANIZED 1870 INCORPORATED 1910

Officers for 1925-1924 .

Bey Ye GEO. C. EMBopyY, Ithaca, N. Y.
Vice-President ............................. HBEN W. COBB, Hartford, Conn.
Executive Secretary ............ JOHN W. TITCOMB, Hartford, Conn.

RCCOTOING SCCTOCULY oe coon cscsecnenn FLOYD S. YOUNG, Chicago, III.
CAT SR ed a ee ede T. E. B. Pope, Milwaukee, Wis.

Hice-Presideuts of Divisions
MITTS a ee C. F. CULLER, Homer, Minn.
Aquatic Biology and Physics,
DR. EMMELINE MoorgE, Albany, N. Y.

Commercial Fishing . JOHN N. Cops, Seattle, Wash.
Angling .. _ DUDLEY BERWICK, Ne ew Orleans, La.
Protection and Legislation hoa W. E. ALBERT, Des Moines, Iowa.
Executine Committee
CHARLES O. HAYFORD, Chairman. .................. Hackettstown, N. J.
mere CET ART 2 We el ea Pe eS ae Richmond, Via.
mae 68). PRINCI! jieluiler Sle ho ie IS Ottawa, Canada
NRIs oh noodle Ne, ee tea es pene es Little Rock, Ark.
Beene TIIRAS, Go .8 2 ee mabe ris DD;
E. T. JUDD .. SU dea thes, NONE oy . Cando, N.. D.
a tenis an Peon Relations
MAW ALCOTT: CROUMON: sifnch te wecutes Norfolk, Conn.
CUE TCR hte eR Boston, Mass.
EnV AS Di. tee te tL a che ee Detroit, Mich.
MARD T. BOWER —...02:. yh er in Pa he. Washington, D. C.
Gommitice on Relatiuns with National and State Gouerwments
DNATHAN R. BULLER, Chairman —....0. nec Harrisburg, Pa.
See OO HAMBEERS oy Quebec, Canada.
BrCseAVERY. age dhe een St. Paul, Minn.
HENRY O’MALLEY ............. Pee Nl eee Washington, D. C.
Ere Dap a A ga a Madison, Wis.

Sperial Pollution Committee
NATHAN R. BULLER, Chairman, to select other members.

ditarial Buard

mee mon C. OSBURN 4.4 Va a BOS Columbus, Ohio.
rE VARESCIEVY, seer Ak) ns AAV eal gost Tes Ithaca, N. Y.
Set, OME MELINE MOORE 22.000 Albany, N. Y.
SMP ED CON ce es ee Hartford, Conn

4 CONTENTS

Page

ONT Ce Re eee ah eh ies ORO See ee ee 3
PART I—BUSINESS SESSIONS

Registered attendance’ ):.s.0000 0) ca a ee T

Report of Executive Secretary .......................... USA g

Report of Treasurer . 10
Reports of Vice- Preadents oF Te chi Net Aa 13
Appointment of Committees! 02555 ficcsigcisendntdecr sme 13
Reports from Corresponding: Member -.......-..cccccecccccecseessccsesssssesnefsccnesssssnsmennestenes 14
Report of Special Committee on Executive Secretary 16
Report of Committee on Nominations) ...2....026...0..-..0.2005oeee iky(
Report ‘of (Comimitice on Resolutions, a.e:.ccccc.ccp ccc. cnseentcmoedociacinass oes 18
VECHROLIE ST: 90) Cie He Mae ON ROK SST Re RAR leg OCS PRR eA Bel fo wise totbtectndeciopae 23°

PART II—PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS

The Sportsmen’s League. Fred J. Foster 50
Museum Methods in Relation to the Fisheries Society. JT. EH. B.
OPEL | IB Fok ENS bis 2 Ne ee We es 8 55
Are We pagan the Supply of Whitefish in Lake Erie? S. W.
Downing ........... sae Oe
The Future of the honesty of. he Pace Uns i ep. 2.0 65
A Report of Progress on the Study of Trout Diseases. Dr.
mmeline Moore. .8 ke ed We ne ok 74
Pike-Perch Propagation in Northern Minnesota. Eben W. Cobb ...... 95
Headwaters. F. EH. Hare ................ 2 LLOG
Present Status of the Louisana Shri! capa e ie Putian eae 110
Some Considerations Concerning the Canning of Sardines. Harry
OMB Grp dens tae SN To 8 Beet 2 ed a A 122
Problems in Bass Culture at the Cold Spring Georgia Station.
CST TY: Wat ELT LTT) ee oe ee ERE ORO mares 3% |
Foods and Feeding of Fishes, a Symposium ....0........c-cc-scscsssssssesssceeeseunsneeeeesemun 137
Fish Distribution of the Federal Government. LE. C. Fearnow ............ 160
Production of the Fresh Water Mussel. H. L. Canfield .....000000..... LT

Angling, Past, Present and Future. Dr. James Alexander Henshall 176

Notes on the Propagation and Distribution of Pond Fishes. G. W.
IN BT OUI: |i a ter ce

Planting Eyed Salmon and Trout Eggs. C. W. Harrison. ............
Black Bass vs. Netting Coarse Fish. J.P. Smyer occ..sececccsesesssssemeseesseneee
Fisheries in Virginia. McDonald Deee cca. -ccnpeciccpsecemena er
Conservation of the Fishery Resources of the Pacific. Dr. Barton

Wh TEU OP II occa scteccicgioasvrcoigansectls Miacdenbda tence anche oda Sine ee ee ee 210

a ee eee

ae ——

PART |

BUSINESS SESSIONS

PROCEEDINGS
of the

American Hisheries Society
FIFTY-THIRD ANNUAL MEETING
at
ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI

September 17, 18, 19, 1923.

The Fifty-third Annual Meeting of the American Fish-
eries Society convened at the Hotel Statler, St. Louis, Missouri,
on Monday, September 17th, at 10 o’clock a.m., President Glen
C. Leach, of the Bureau of Fisheries, Washington, in the Chair.

First Session, Monday Morning, September 17, 1923.

President Leach introduced Mr. Findly, Secretary to the
Mayor of St. Louis, who delivered the address of welcome.

Mr. Carlos Avery, of St. Paul, Minnesota, made the re-
sponse.

REGISTERED ATTENDANCE

The registered attendance, 58, was as follows:
ACKLEN, CoL. Jos. H., Nashville, Tenn.
ADAMS, WILLIAM C., Boston, Mass.
ALBERT, W. E., Des Moines, Ia.
AMSLER, Guy, Little Rock, Ark.
AVERY, CARLOS, Minneapolis, Minn.
BarBer, W. E., Milwaukee, Wis.
-BASKETT, CECIL M., St. Louis, Mo.
BEARD, Harry R., San Pedro, Calif.
BerG, Gro., Indianapolis, Ind.
BERWICK, DUDLEY, Baton Rouge, La.
Bower, WarpD T., Washington, D. C.
Brown, DELL, Mammoth Springs, Ark.
BrRuNsSON, J. H., Helena, Mont.
Butter, C. R., Pleasant Mount, Pa.
Buuier, N. R., Harrisburg, Pa.
BuULLocK, CHAS. A., Bullockville, Ga.
BurnuAM, C. W., Louisville, Ky.
CANFIELD, H. L., Homer, Minn.
CATTE, EUGENE, Langdon, Kansas
Cops, EBEN W., Hartford, Conn.
CuLLER, C. F., Homer, Minn.

Davies, David, Tupelo, Miss.

DENNIG, L. E., St. Louis, Mo.
Downline, S. W., Put-In-Bay, Ohio.
Doze, J. B., Pratt, Kansas. 7

8 American Fisheries Society.

EHRHART, W. C., St. Louis Mo.
EmBopy, G. C., Ithaca, N. Y.
FEARNOW, E. C., Washington, D. C.
FLEMING, JOHN H., Syracuse, Ind.
FOLLETT, R. E., Detroit, Mich.
Foster, FRED J., Neosho, Mo.

Hare, F. E., Manchester, Iowa.
Hart, M. D., Richmond, Va.
HAYFORD, CHAS. O., Hackettstown, N. J
JuDp, E. T., Cando, N. Dak.
KOPPLIN, PHIL., St. Louis, Mo.
KULLE, KARL C., Suffield, Conn.
LAVERY, PETER J., Bass Lake, Ind.
LEACH, GLEN C., Washington, D. C.
MANNFELD Geo. N., Indianapolis, Ind.
MILES, LEE, Little Rock, Ark.
MOLLAN, W. K., Bridgeport, Conn.
Moore, Dr. EMMELINE, Albany, N. Y.
NOBLE, P. S., St. Louis, Mo.
O’BRIEN, W. J., Gretna, Neb.
OSBURN, R. C., Columbus, Ohio.
Pore, T. E. B., Milwaukee, Wis.
PORTER, RICHARD, Paris, Mo.

RILEY, Mark, San Morcos, Texas.
SEABURG, ERNEST, Seattle, Wash.
TAYLOR, HERBERT, St. Louis, Mo.
TITCOMB, JOHN W., Hartford, Conn.
TULIAN, E. A., New Orleans, La.
WEBSTER, B. O., Madison, Wis.
WIEMEYER, Wm. J., St. Louis, Mo.
Woops, JOHN P., St. Louis, Mo.
YOuNG, E. C., Ottawa, Canada.
YOouNG, FLoyp S., Chicago, III.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE SECRETARY

Washington, D. C.
September 12, 1923.

To THE OFFICERS AND MEMBERS OF THE AMERICAN FISHERIES

SOCIETY :

On account of my absence from the United States on an extensive
official trip during the past year, the work of completing copy for the
1922 volume of Transactions of the Society was somewhat delayed.
The lowest bidder for printing the volume was Griffith Bros. & Company,
a smaller concern, and as it was later found, not so well equipped as the
larger plants, which considerably delayed publication. The volume
comprised 257 pages, containing 18 special papers and discussions in
addition to the business proceedings of the Madison meeting. The total
cost of printing the edition of 750 copies, with envelopes for mailing,
was $1,078.84.

Upon submission of the bill to the Treasurer it was found that there
were not sufficient funds to pay it and a partial payment of $600.00 was
made, with the arrangement that additional payments would occur as
rapidly as possible. This situation was due to the fact that a large

Fifty-Third Annual Meeting. 9

number of members (144) were in arrears for dues. The Treasurer
furnished a list of these members and letters were at once sent out
over the signature of the President stating the situation and asking for
prompt settlement. As a result about 25 members have paid, leaving
more than 100 yet to be heard from. Delivery of Transactions was
withheld from 17 members who were in arrears for three years or more
and their attention called to it in special letters. The names of such
members are dropped if payment is not made promptly.

The Treasurer’s report will comment more in detail in regard to
the financial situation of the Society. I wish to go on record, however,
as of the opinion that while at present we are about $2,000 behind,
considering about $1,400 which remains to be replaced in the Permanent
Fund, the Society is solvent. But the situation is serious if members
do not pay their dues. This is our only source of revenue other than
the comparatively small sum derived each year from the sale of Trans-
actions. I strongly urge that every member pay his dues promptly.
This will enable the Society to get on its feet financially and meet all
future obligations.

Dr. H. M. Smith was appointed by President Leach to represent the
American Fisheries Society at the exercises commemorating the 100th
anniversary of the birth of Spencer Fullerton Baird, celebrated on Febru-
ary 3, 1923. Professor Baird, who was a noted man of the highest
scientific attainments, was the creator and first head of the United
States Fish Commission, and a prime mover in the establishment of the
systematic study and development of the fishery resources of this
country.

After careful consideration by the President and other members, it
was decided that the financial status of the Society would not permit
the offering of any prizes for papers contributed this year. In fact it
seemed to be the opinion that prizes should not be again offered until
all debts of the Society were paid off and the Permanent Fund fully
restored, all income from that fund in the meantime to be applied to the
reduction of the debt. Thereafter the Society should adopt the policy
of not offering annual prizes which amount to more than the total in-
come from the Permanent Fund in any one year.

Under date of July 30, the President issued a circular letter of
information in regard to plans for the St. Louis meeting and urging
attendance of all members possible.

Since the last meeting 11 members have died and there have been a
few resignations. A number have also been dropped for non-payment
of dues and other reasons. The present membership of the Society is
as follows: Honorary, 63; corresponding, 12; patrons, 53; active, 576;
total 704.

Respectfully submitted,

Warp T. BOWER,
Executive Secretary.

10 American Fisheries Society.

REPORT OF THE TREASURER

In the absence of Mr. Millett, the Treasurer, his report
was read by Mr. Bower.

Boston, Mass., September 12th, 19238.
To THE AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY:

Herewith is submitted the annual report of the Treasurer from
the meeting in Madison, Wisconsin, in September, 1922, to August 14,
1923. The financial showing of the Society for the past year cannot
be called satisfactory. Despite frequent appeals of the Treasurer for
the payment of dues and a personal appeal of the President to delin-
quents, there still remain unpaid dues. On the other hand, those in
arrears for two years and over, number but 138. To these, special
notices have been sent and the last number of the Transactions has
been withheld from them. The Treasurer plans that if these dues are
not paid by the time of this annual session the usual form of one
month’s notice will be sent to them, and then those who fail to respond
will be dropped unless this meeting shall decide otherwise.

As for those in arrears for one year, it is but fair to presume that
the large majority of them will pay within a reasonable time.

If the Society is to continue existence as an active force in its
chosen field, it must immediately inaugurate some plan whereby the
present indebtedness may be cleared up and also make provision that
the annual expenditures shall not exceed the annual receipts.

For that reason, I would suggest the following:

First: A campaign to at least double the present active dues-pay-
ing membership of the Society.

Second: Active steps to secure, by pledges or otherwise, sufficient
money to insure the annual payment of a stipulated sum annually into
the Permanent Fund of the Society, this payment to continue until
the indebtedness to the Permanent Fund is fully paid up with interest.

Third: A closer understanding and more effective cooperation
between the officers of the Society.

Taking this opportunity to recall to the members that the authority
of the Treasurer is limited to only the solicitation and collection of
dues and the disbursing of monies for the payment of such properly
approved bills as may be presented to him, I invite your attention to
the following financial statements:

Balance on hand at the meeting of 1922

Fifty-Third Annual Meeting.

Permanent Fund

Balance on hand at meeting of 1922.................0...0006
Disbursements

TERT ESES ENE vos cs onthe ass odd 13 8s carob ba cop. snc ok mecensnialusb tess pantie dnp

LEEW CY =) ORO ree mina Re ee CheCe Reea eee eerert oer ir cer cen

eee eee eee eee eee ee

eee eeeneee

Receipts
For annual dues:
PRrOvauaAls, > LOAZO! ...b.ccccsecsccvsavevcea $6.00
+ DW, Oe so scaccmsatar eden 62.00
a 2 ie ier 2 = Oe, 1,000.00
sf TOE Sm tee teee teen eee 17.00
MME ISSSO TONE he shock coe coca vetbeeaee Macodoneses 130.00
MmPANTES TODD fos: ees 5.00
PSBULE SY GOD Cn ceracooncus moceeceutccreetes 100.00 $1,320.00
PEMVECTIIOGESNIDS) ccccsret trees cecs saeerect occa ctue ecb eetoubsee 25.00
eer M LMU Fret VISE CLIGINS Pac cio testcase nc cemierakeekeaectaee ada 104.00
pull STSCI | ARREARS at ae et Soe od SS 3.20
Disbursements
Menonnine Meeting OF DOQD i cccccccsseccotescesosnsoace $250.00
Merserneads.. StAGIONGrY,, -CtC.— <.2..cczcsonesaocccodeessceves 118.08
Printing Transactions of 1922 (on account) (To-
PMMAT DINO LOL ie neste ces ceoee oi esetee Se atest noose datescs 600.00
MSO DOOKS. AO DD ccectietaccseces $854.11
Changes and corrections ........ 142.90
CORES. cpp Be aaa Aa Re ae is ale te ea ete 61.58
750 envelopes printed .............. 20.25
1,078.84
Meleeramsrand: POSTAGE! i..i.sceadovsnaseaceseseawesscowdesecee WAALS
SPERM ESE mie ei oN Te cd clis co e eees ch ae seta haceetv ae 62.19
ee ie feels Cts: Sen aeee ones oes aie oaee ones s 16.82
ANIMA TERT: eae ce poeceee Aes baec ks Seas noe tec ornans 42.64
12165
RINGO OS) Us Ou eRe Sere Ap ere ers Ras) Ree eet eae An 459.71
URMIL ES es ek ect cetoecteseaecededs Fevdsccecess 50.00
BUINILOICH Wieceen cose sac edt tas deueucee ween cote 100.00
TROIS, Ssan bebe ade nent ontobce aol arcectateasaeer 300.00
VEIN TEPER AN We co8e stat ecb toca gsue eines <asnn SETA
459.71
SEHR TAT CR Seuee tee wel ee, Leta cece a cea twacectwbsnumtes cesaavevevcde te50
ea eutaGOy Oey HleA Tenet ec coset uirde akc hecadccancoG eacGeneues ost cs ccabesetns (ai ceae

Pewee eee eeee

$203.42

$1,556.94
$98.68

$1,844.97

200.00

$1,644.97

12 American Fisheries Society.

Memoranda
Outstanding bills:
Balance on bill Griffith Bros. & Co. 13819 F St. North-
west, Washington, D. C. Bill of July 26, 1923, for

Transactions Of NODA ie teens tcce she eee cece thee ee eee eee $478.84
oOtalwoL Mo Reece Sere oae le cena rete cee $1,078.84.
Paidtonsaccoumiinaceccstecss caer eee eee 600.00
OH aaa hyphae kaos et ncrnas toca tno reer eee Perea $478.84

Due permanent fund, balance of amount borrowed Aug.
4, 1922 to pay for printing the Transactions of 1920 1,369.74

IB OLR OWE Gusts escent nace caso ee ER $1,991.15

Pardponnaccopmbaceess tener cesteer eter tereee 621.41

UU Owaneany costes enten een tee cnaane tee ree $1,369.74

Ward T. Bower for years from meeting of 1922 to meet-
AN ONO NM Qi Oren dasss aetossswoe es aaseesoataunegae oes atest hese hee eee eee 300.00
Potalyindebtedness of then society <:s:ccssecess--cceveecesen etree $2,148.58

Interest on money borrowed from Permanent Fund ..........

Respectfully submitted,

(Signed) A. L. MILLETT,
Treasurer

NOTE:

Since the books of the Society were closed on August 14th there
has been received by the Treasurer $164. A portion of this was for
the sale of Transactions, but the larger part is due to the personal ap-
peal of the President to delinquent members to pay their dues. This
effort of the President and Secretary also brought in several new mem-
bers and increased the bank balance of the Society of $98.68 on August
14th to $262.68 on this date, Sept. 12th. For this reason there will be
sent to Griffith & Co., printers of the Transactions, to whom a balance
of $478.84 is owed, a check for $150, bringing the balance owed this
concern to $328.84. This leaves the Society a present bank balance of
$112.68, which I consider none too large to reserve for emergencies.

(Signed) A. L. MILLETT,
Treasurer

Mr. TiIrcoMB: Certainly we should meet the cost of any
assistance the Secretary has to have, but it seems to me that
in view of our present financial position we ought to find some-
body in this Society who is so situated that he will look upon
the office of Secretary as an honor. That item of Secretary’s
salary, then, could be discontinued until a proper financial con-
dition warrants an honorarium each year.

———

Fifty-Third Annual Meeting. 13

Mr. Woops: My suggestion would be the appointment
of a special committee to deal with the whole question of the
secretarial position, salary, and so on. This suggestion was
made a motion, seconded and carried.

PRESIDENT LEACH: The next business will be the Reports
of Vice-Presidents of Divisions.

Mr. Hayford presented the report of the Division of Fish
Culture.

Mr. HAYFORD: Sportsmen are no longer satisfied with
anything less than trout 6 to 8 inches for stocking purposes.
Fish culturists must know how to breed a strong vigor into
trout, that the fish may not be susceptible to every hatchery
disease.

Mr. PooLe, Division of Commercial Fishing: The im-
portance of the fish industry in most parts of the world is
proven by the extent to which its welfare has entered into
national politics. The industry is languishing. It sorely
needs the assistance the Government can render. I recom-
mend that every member of this Society get behind the Bureau
of Fisheries program for the coming year. Give such as-
sistance as you can through your Representatives in Congress
on behalf of appropriations for Bureau activities.

The Vice-Presidents of the Divisions of Aquatic Biology
and Physics, Angling, Protection and Legislation, did not sub-
mit reports.

A greeting was read from Mr. Henry O’Malley, United
States Commissioner of Fisheries.

COMMITTEES.

PRESIDENT LEACH: I wish to announce the appointment
of the following committees.

Committee on Nominations: Nathan R. Buller, Carlos
Avery, E. A. Tulian, J. H. Brunson, C. F. Culler.

Committee on Time and Place of Meeting: John W. Tit-
comb, G. C. Embody, W. C. Adams.

Committee on Resolutions: Dr. R. C. Osburn, E. W. Cobb,
Dudley Berwick.

Auditing Committee: T. E. B. Pope, Fred J. Foster, Chas.
W. Burnham.

Special Committee re Financial Status: J. P. Woods, R. C.
Osburn, J. W. Titcomb.

Special Committee on Pollution: N. R. Buller, Chairman.
Other members of Committee to be selected by Mr. Buller.

14 American Fisheries Society.

PRESIDENT LEACH: We will now take up the reports of
committees.

PROPOSED AFFILATION OF SHELLFISH COMMISSIONERS

Mr. BowER: Mr. President, perhaps at this time the
question of the affiliation of the Association of Shellfish Com-
missioners with our Society may properly come up. Since
the last meeting there has been considerable correspondence
on the subject, with absolutely negative results.

Mr. JOHN P. Woops: Mr. Adams is better posted on this
subject than anybody else, I suppose?

Mr. BOWER: He had some correspondence on the subject
with Mr. Marshall. In fact, I wrote Mr. Adams and sent him
a copy of my communication to Mr. Marshall. It was not re-
turned, so I assume that he received it.

Mr. TITCOMB: I move that the matter be laid on the table
until Mr. Adams arrives.

Motion was seconded and carried.

Mr. BOWER: ‘There are two or three minor matters of
business to be disposed of. There is a request from the Deut-
scher Seefischerei-Verein, of Berlin, which desires to exchange
publications with this Society and to be placed upon its records
as corresponding member. I move that this organization be
added to our list of corresponding members.

The motion was seconded by Mr. Titcomb and carried.

REPORT FROM CORRESPONDING MEMBER

A letter from David G. Stead, Fisheries Enquiry Commis-
sioner of New South Wales, who is a member of the American
Fisheries Society, was received by the Secretary. He recom-
mended that all governments and countries bordering on the
Pacific undertake not only ordinary research work in fisheries,
but that they organize a system of fisheries research and ex-
ploration which will bring about results of national and in-
ternational economic importance. He suggested that the 1924
meeting of the American Fisheries Society be an International
Fisheries Congress to discuss the world’s future in fisheries.

Mr. BowER: A communication has been received from
the American Peace Award requesting that its literature be
made available to the members of this Society at this meeting.

There has been an extended correspondence with the
National Coast Anti-Pollution League, with headquarters at
Trenton, and a request has been made that a resolution be
passed by this organization, if possible, in connection with
the work of that League. Mr. Buller is connected with the
League, and I believe that he will have something to say in
respect to the matter at a later stage.

Fifty-Third Annual Meeting. 15

One of the members of our Society, Mr. Nap. A. Comeau,
of Godbout, province of Quebec, Canada, has written a book
which should be interesting to members of the Society. It
is entitled, Life and Sport on the North Shore. The book
treats of hunting, fishing, shooting, trapping, natural history
and Indian folk lore. It is a volume of 440 pages, containing
thirty-six photo engravures, and may be obtained at a cost of
$3.50 for cloth binding and $2.50 for paper, postage 20 cents
extra.

I may announce that two or three additional papers
have been received since the printing of the program. Mr.
John N. Cobb, Director of the College of Fisheries, University
of Washington, has sent a paper entitled, “The Future of the
Fisheries of the Pacific,” and Mr. E. A. Tulian has two brief
papers, one on the subject of the “Shrimp Industry” and the
other in regard to “Hatching.”

Dr. Osburn presented his paper, “Natural and Artificial
Conditions Affecting the Black Basses.’”’ Discussion followed.

Before a recess for luncheon there was a short discussion
on the position of the executive secretary.

Second Session, Monday Afternoon, September 17th.

President Leach presided.

Discussion of Dr. Osburn’s paper continued.

“The Sportsmen’s League.—A Neglected and Undeveloped
Power for Conservation,”’ was presented by Mr. Fred J. Foster,
U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Neosho, Mo. Discussion followed.

“Museum Methods in Relation to Fisheries,” was presented
by Mr. T. E. B. Pope, Curator, Public Museum, Milwaukee.
Discussion followed.

A paper entitled “Are We Maintaining the Whitefish Sup-
ply In Lake Erie?” by Mr. S. W. Downing of Put-In-Bay, was
read. Discussion followed.

“The Future of the Fisheries of the Pacific Coast,” by Pro-
fessor John N. Cobb, was read by Mr. Bower.

The meeting adjourned until Tuesday, September 18, at
9.30 o’clock, a.m.

Third Session, Tuesday Morning, September 18th.

The meeting was called to order at 9.30 a.m. by President
Leach.

Mr. TITCOMB: I would make the motion that the papers
of those who are here be presented in the order in which they
appear on the program, those of the absentees being deferred
util we have heard the others. In that way an opportunity
for full discussion will be afforded.

16 American Fisheries Society.

Ba motion was seconded by Mr. John P. Woods and car-
ried. a

Applications for membership were read to the meeting by
the Secretary and, on motion duly seconded and carried, the ap-
plicants were declared elected members of the Society.

Dr. Emmeline Moore, Albany, presented a paper on “A
Report of Progress on the Study of Trout Diseases.” Dis-
cussion followed.

Mr. Eben W. Cobb, of the Conservation Commission, Min-
nesota, read a paper on “Pike Perch Propagation in Northern
Minnesota.” Discussion followed.

Mr. Hare read his paper entitled, ‘“Headwaters.” Dis-
cussion followed.

PRESIDENT LEACH: Mr. Woods will present the Report
of the Special Committee appointed to inquire into matters
pertaining to the position of Secretary of the Society.

Mr. JOHN P. Woops: This committee recommends the
temporary formation of an Editorial Board of four, comprising
Dr. G. C. Embody, Managing Editor; Dr. Emmeline Moore,
Dr. R. C. Osburn and Mr. John W. Titcomb; all of whom are
to edit jcintly the papers, and all of whom promise to do so
with despatch.

I move that the report of the committee be adopted.

Mr. Pore: I will second the motion.

The report was unanimously adopted.

The meeting took recess for luncheon.

Fourth Session, Tuesday Afternoon, September 18th.

The meeting resumed at 2.30 p.m., Dr. Embody occupied
the Chair. Mr. Tulian presented a paper, “Present Status
of Louisiana Shrimp Industry.”

“Some Consideration Concerning the Canning of Sardines,”’
was read by Harry R. Beard, San Pedro, California. Dis-
cussion followed.

Mr. C. A. Bullock presented a paper on “Some Problems
in Bass Culture at Cold Springs, Georgia Station.” Discus-
sion followed.

A Symposium on Foods and Feeding of Fishes followed.

Fifth Session, Tuesday Evening, September 18th.

The meeting was called to order at 8.15 p.m. The Presi-
dent presided.

A paper on “Fish Distribution by the Federal Government”
was read by Mr. E. C. Fearnow.

“Production of the Fresh Water Mussel” was presented by
Mr. H. L. Canfield. Discussion followed.

Following the showing of slides and pictures, some of them
illustrative of the papers read, the meeting adjourned.

,
}

—

Se ee ee

oa se pir

Fifty-Third Annual Meeting. ae

Siath Session, Wednesday Morning. September 19th.

The meeting was called to order at 9.30 a.m. the President
in the Chair.

“Aneling: Past, Present and Future,” be ur. dauies A.
Henshall of Cincinnati, was read DY Mr. Bower.

Mr. AVERY: It seems to me that this paper ought not to
be passed without extending our greetings to Dr. Henshall!
and the thanks of the Association for his most excellent pre-
sentation of this subject. If any of us are fortunate enough
to reach the age of eighty-eight and possess the keen men-
tality of Dr. Henshall, it will be a matter of congratulation to
himself. I move you, Mr. President, that we extend our
greetings to Dr. Henshall on this occasion and that the Secre-
tary be requested to wire him accordingly.

The motion was seconded and carried unanimously.

PRESIDENT LEACH: It is a very remarkable paper from
a very remarkable man. Dr. Henshall is to be commended
for the interest he has taken in fishing; he is recognized as an
authority on these subjects throughout the United States and
Europe.

“Notes on the Propagation and Distribution of Pond
Fishes,’ prepared by G. W. N. Brown, was read by Mr.
Canfield.

Discussion on Pollution followed.

“Planting Eyed Salmon and Trout Eggs” prepared by C.
W. Harrison, was read by Mr. Foster. Discussion followed.

“Netting Coarse Fish vs. Black Bass’ was presented by
J. P. Snvder.

Under head of New.Business there was a valuable discus-
sion on Carp; Work of the International Association of Con-
servation Commissioners and Fearnow Transportation Pail.

Revorts of Committees followed.

It was moved and seconded that time and place of next
meeting be left to the Executive Committee of the Society.

The motion was carried:

The report of the Committee on Nominations was sub-
mitted. It was moved and seconded that the report be ac-
cepted. The motion was carried, and a ballot was cast for the
officers.

CER OSTIGH Tie Saad ise VNU ALR a UR OE AL ae Cae chactals GEO. C. EMBODY
aE SILC TEE Spectre eee eg 2s EN is sos ati thaacl eee ea EBEN W. COBB
BVO CUTIVE SCCTCEOLY oeesececcesssccssseeresecnn pole hte gd hg SUNG sae as JouN W. TITcOMsB
1 TUDE Of SSI OLLTEG Tf eee eA te RR Nae nee oA eee Eco FLoypD S. YOUNG
MOREE PEMD i sah 8s) ou 6 rd Re Bi) ey elton! Et la ie POPES

a a ee ee

3) NN Eee

18 American Fisheries Society.

Vice-Presidents of Divisions:

WOT OW Oy 2110) 1g Aen Re EOE aot SET eon Me vere ve eke BRL cra IRU EL, 6 C. F. CULLER
Aquatic Biology and Phystes 22.2.2 DR. EMMELINE MOORE
Thm gaagesp GAL MAMR A «GT 276 Ce AOU Manis opie se OSE pore e ain) me ce Sun ona JOHN N. COBB
ANQUNG i BE are ry NT AN oat aah ieee Dupvtry BERWICK

Frotection and Legislation US SNe ie) oN W. E. ALBERT

Executive Committee:

Charles O. Hayford, Chairman; Max D. Hart, Edward E. Prince,
Lee Miles, George Shiras, 3d., E. T. Judd.

Committee on Foreign Relations:
F. C. Walcott, Chairman; W. C. Adams, R. E. Follett, Ward T.
Bower.

Committee on Relations with National and State Governments:

Nathan R. Buller, Chairman; E. T. D. Chambers, Carlos Avery,
Henry O’Malley, W. E. Barber.

Special Pollution Committee: Nathan R. Buller, Chairman, to select
other members.
Editorial Board:

Raymond C. Osburn, G. C. Embody, Dr. Emmeline Moore, John W.
Titcomb.

The report of the Auditing Committee was submitted and
on motion, duly seconded, was adopted.

Chairman of the Resolutions Committee, read the following
resolutions:

ALASKAN SALMON FISHERIES

WHEREAS, The Congress of the United States has not adopted legis-
lation for the administration of the fisheries of Alaska which will give
the Secretary of Commerce authority adequate for the control and preser-
vation of the salmon industry of Alaska, and

WHEREAS, To meet the existing emergency reservations have been
created by the exercise of the power vested in the President under which
the necessary restrictions on operations have been applied in the districts
which include Cook Inlet, Kodiak and Afognak Islands, Bristol Bay,
Alaska Peninsula, and the Aleutian Islands, and

WueErEAS, A similar situation exists in the central and southeastern
districts of Alaska which threatens the continuance of the salmon fishery

Now therefore be it resolved, That it is the sense of the American
Fisheries Society in convention assembled at St. Louis, September 17,
18, and 19, 1923, that we heartily endorse the policy inaugurated by the
creation of these reserves and recommend that further action of this
nature be taken by the creation of reservations which will include all
of the fishing districts of Alaska not covered by the reservations already
in existence.

Fifty-Third Annual Meeting. 19

POLLUTION

WHEREAS, The presence of oil from oil-burning steamships and of
trade wastes from various industries in the navigable waters and in
streams of this country is resulting in an increasing amount of damage
to the fish, oyster and game bird food supplies of our nation, to the sea
bathing, boating, fishing and hunting, recreational opportunities of our
people, to the purity of our water supplies, and is a fire menace in many
quarters and

WHEREAS, There has recently been formed the National Coast Anti-
Pollution League, uniting in one program the various interests that wish
to end pollution of the waters and having these objects:

“To foster and aid the enactment and enforcement of adequate re-
medies and legislation to prevent the pollution of navigable waters and
to secure the co-operation of those responsible for such pollution in
accomplishing its elimination by all lawful means.”

Therefore, be it resolved, That we, the American Fisheries Society,
in convention assembled, do hereby endorse the efforts of the National
Coast. Anti-Pollution League to end pollution of the coastal waters by
oil, and

Further be it resolved, That the President of this Society is hereby
authorized and requested to appoint a committee of three to co-operate
in all matters relating to pollution of the waters with the National Coast
Anti-Pollution League to lend their fuliest support to its efforts, and
to attend if possible the conference of that League in Atlantic City on
October 1, 2 and 3.

DRAINAGE MISSISSIPPI BOTTOMS

WHEREAS, The maintenance of fish and other aquatic life is of great
importance to the people of the country, and is essential to their welfare
as a source of food supply and a means of recreation, and

WHEREAS, Suitable areas for the breeding and life of the fresh water
fishes are constantly being encroached upon for the avowed purpose of
commerce and agriculture by means of ill advised and unnecessary drain-
age, and

WHEREAS, Under present agricultural conditions large increase in
agricultural products, owing to an apparent over production of such pro-
ducts in this country, is unnecessary and because many drainage pro-
jects are of doubtful value as aids to agriculture, therefore

Be it resolved, That the American Fisheries Society is firmly op-
posed to the pending projects for dyking and drainage of the upper Mis-
sissippi River bottom lands, including that enterprise known as the
Winnesheik project is subversive of the best interests of the American
people, inasmuch as the culmination of these projects would obliterate
and destroy the greatest and most productive breeding grounds for warm
fresh water fishes on the North American Continent.

20 American Fisheries Society.

TRANSACTIONS

Be It Resolved, That this Society considers it extremely important
that the proceedings of reports received and papers read at the meeting
be printed and distributed to its members within the period of three
months after the close of the meeting.

ARTIFICIAL LAKES

WHEREAS, The creation of lakes by the construction of dams for
developing hydro electric power, or for conserving surplus water during
the spring, thereby preventing floods; said lakes open to the public at all
times during the open season for hunting, fishing or trapping and boat-
ing; said lakes likewise furnishing some of our best egg collecting fields,
thereby providing means of perpetuating and conserving fishing for —
future generations, therefore,

Be It Resolved, By the American Fisheries Society that it hereby
favors such projects as being the means for conserving surplus waters,
affording refuse for birds and fish and providing recreational pleasures
for the American public.

RESEARCH WorRK—N. Y. STATE CONSERVATION COMMISSION

WHEREAS, The attention of the American Fisheries Society has been
drawn to the very important work on fish diseases and parasites now
being conducted by the N. Y. State Conservation Commission, and

WHEREAS, This Society recognizes that such work is fundamental to
the future conduct and policy of fish culture, and

WHEREAS, The rapid growth of population and increase of travel
are placing a special drain on fish life,

Therefore, Be It Resolved, That this Society commends especially
this research work and expresses the hope that the State of New York
through legislative enactment and financial assistance, when necessary,
will continue to carry on this work which is recognized to be of great
benefit to the entire community.

ISAAK WALTON LEAGUE

WHEREAS, The activities of the Isaak Walton League of America,
its purposes, ideals and policies have been brought so prominently before
the public within the past few months, and

WHEREAS, The saving of the fish, game, forests and streams of the
United States and Canada is imperative at this time, the conditions of
wastefulness and indifference having become a crime, and their correction
an emergency, and

WHEREAS, The rapid growth of the Isaak Walton League of America
is almost phenomenal, spreading as the organization has to almost all
the states of the Union, and

WHEREAS, The efforts of the Isaak Walton League of America are
pledged to save and protect the fisheries that this Society is known to
foster and many of its members are engaged in producing, therefore

Fifty-Third Annual Meeting. re |

Be It Resolved, That the American Fisheries Society endorse the
work of the Isaak Walton League of America, and that it hereby pledges
its support and co-operation insofar as it is able to do, believing that the
Isaak Walton League of America will be a sustaining aid in the accom-
plishments of this Society.

CONDOLENCE

WUEREAS, The hand of death has removed a number of valued mem-
bers from our midst during the past year,

Be It Resolved, That this Society hereby expresses its sincere sorrow
at the loss of these devoted members, and that their names be printed
on a special “In Memoriam” page of the Transactions.

St. Louis CONVENTION BUREAU

Be It Resolved, That the American Fisheries Society expresses its
cordial appreciation to the St. Louis Convention Bureau for the admirable
arrangements provided for the meeting.

HOTEL STATLER

Be It Resolved, That the thanks of the American Fisheries Society
are due to the Statler Hotel’s management for its courtesies and service
during our meeting.

Their adoption was moved, seconded, and carried.

PRESIDENT LEACH: In connection with the representation
of this Society at the forthcoming meeting of the Anti-Pollu-
tion League at Atlantic City, I shall appoint Mr. Buller as
Chairman of the Committee to represent us; he will select two
others to accompany him.

Dr. Embody the President-elect, was conducted to the chair.

PRESIDENT EMBoDY: If I were permitted to have any one
policy in connection with the work of this Society, it would be
to bring into closer relationship the so-called scientific man
and the practical fish culturist. In a sense, I do not like using
those terms ‘scientific man” and ‘practical fish culturist.”’
The practical fish culturist must be scientific if he is to make
progress in his work, and the scientific man must have expe-
rience just as the pr actical fish culturist must have it, if he is to
attain the success that he desires. You are all working for the
same end; if you work together, something will be accom-
plished; if you do not work together you cannot hope to get
very far.

Is there any other business to come before the meeting?

Mr. Foster: I would like to offer a motion that a copy of
the resolution with regard to the drainage of the upper Mis-
sissippi River be forwarded to the President of the United
States and to the Secretary of War.

22, American Fisheries Society.

RETIRING PRESIDENT LEACH: I will second that, with the -
provision also, I suggest, that a copy be sent to the President —
of the Isaak Walton League.

The motion was agreed to. |

Mr. FOLLETT: Is it the intention of the Game Commis- ©
sioners to take up this question of the drainage of the upper
Mississippi? .

Mr. ADAMS: Yes. I do not know of any project in the —
United States to-day that is of greater importance than the
protecting of the breeding grounds on the upper Mississippi —
River. I personally have already written to President Coolidge
about this matter, and I think that every man in this room —
ought to do the same thing. We ought to do everything in our
power to uphold the Isaak Walton League in initiating this —
legislation.

Mr. LAWYER: I may say that the War Department has
approved of that project only from the engineering standpoint.

Mr. CULLER: But without that approval the project could —
not go through. 3

Mr. LAWYER: I am not so sure about that. I had that —
out at one time with some of the officials of the War Depart- ©
ment, and my understanding was that they were simply asked
to give their advice on the advisability of the question.

RETIRING PRESIDENT LEACH: I move that we adjourn. Y

Mr. JOHN P. Woops: Mr. President, before we adjourn ~
I think we ought to express our deep appreciation of the effi- —
cient services rendered by Mr. Leach during the past year. I
think it is appropriate that we should indicate our feeling in
that respect by a rising vote.

The motion was seconded and carried by a rising vote.

The motion for adjournment was seconded and agreed to, —
whereupon the Fiifty-Third Annual Meeting of the American
Fisheries Society adjourned sine die.

ee ln eee ae

.
;
i
«
i

du Memoriam

NAP. A. COMEAU

H. A. GRAMMES

JAMES B. MARVIN, Jr.

M. G. MUNLY

JOHN WADDELL

PART Il

PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS

NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL CONDITIONS DETRI-
MENTAL TO THE BLACK BASSES

By RAYMOND C. OSBURN
Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.

The black basses are outstanding among the game fishes
of the fresh waters of America. Whether,as many sports-
men maintain, they outrank all others in thisrespect, weneed
not discuss here. They have this advantage, at least, that
they appeal toa much larger and more widely distributed
population than any other game fishes, since the two species,
the large mouthed and small mouthed, which we shall con-
sider together for the sake of brevity, range from the Atlan-
tic States to the Great Plains and from the Gulf States far in-
to Canada and live in lakes, ponds, large rivers and smaller
creeks. They are important in that they yield a large
amount of food of excellent quality.

Time was,—and that not so very long ago,—when all the
waters of suitable sizein the eastern half of the United
States were supplied with these fishes to the full extent of
the balance of nature. Such is no longer the case, owing to
the checks which man has placed on their reproduction and
development, and these and other fish now find existence
impossible in multitudes of streams and some lakes and
ponds.

There has been much discussion of the possibilities of
bass propagation, in fisheries associations and sportsmens’
organizations, but still it appears to be worth while to dis-
cuss the various conditions which limit the production of
bass, and to attempt to estimate their future and the chances
of increasing their numbers,—a thing so near to the heart of
the large number of American anglers.

Let us first consider the various factors which limit re-
production and growth. Any given body of water under a
state of nature will produce only a certain number of adult
bass, depending especially upon the food supply, natural en-
emies and conditions for reproduction. As a very great
over supply of eggs and young are usually produced, we may
assume that the maximum number of adult fishes possible
under the living conditions are continually present in a state
of nature. The question arises whether it is possible to im-
prove upon nature and to produce a larger number than
could exist under natural conditions. We know that this

28 American Fisheries Society.

can be done in a limited way, because itis being done every
year in our state and government hatcheries, but whether in
the open waters, under more natural conditions, we can, to
paraphrase an old saying, make two fishes grow where one
grew before, is quite another matter. To dothis would re-
quire certain changesin the natural conditions, especially
the increase of the food supply and the removal of natural
checks on reproduction and growth.

NATURAL CHECKS

The natural inimical factors which tend to limit the sup-
ply of adult basses in any stream or lake are; first, conditions
interfering with spawning; second, parasitism and diseases;
third, natural enemies; fourth, amount of food.

Bass are rather sensitive to environmental conditions at
the spawning season, perhaps more so than any other fish.
The sudden lowering of the temperature even a few degrees,
just at the spawning season may interfere with the process
of egg laying and cause the female to become egg-bound so
that she may die asaresult. Cases of this sort are common.
Such temperature changes also cause the male to desert the
nest, so that any eggs already deposited are lost,—as every
hatchery superintendent knows to his sorrow.

Preceding such sudden drops in the temperature we
often find spring storms occurring and these at times are
sufficient to nearly or completely destroy the nests by wash-
ing them out or covering them with gravel, mud or other de-
bris. I have personally known all the bass nests of a whole
stream to be swept out by a succession of such storms during
the reproduction season, so that no hatch was observable,
even though numerous adults were present and nest mak-
ing had been in active progress before the storms.

In Lake Erie I have observed similar conditions around:

the Bass Islands where I have studied the reproduction of
the small-mouthed bass for the last five years. In 1919,
when the weather was especially favorable during the
breeding season, there was an astonishing hatch. One
could not draw a small minnow seine (we used a fifteen
foot common minnow seine in our studies) anywhere about
the Islands without taking large numbers of young bass.
The season of 1920 showed just the reverse. Heavy storms,
with sudden drops in the temperature at inopportune times,
apparently destroyed all the nests of the bass about the is-
lands, with the exception of a few in well protected localities
where the force of the storm could not reach. In 1921 this
condition was repeated and no young bass were to be found

Osburn.—Conditions Detrimental to Bass. 29

in any exposed situation. In 1922 conditions were much im-
proved and young bass were to be found on all but the more
exposed coasts. In the present year (1923) the condition
of 1919 was again repeated; the season was rather late, the
water was slow in arriving at the breeding temperature and
when the season did open it came without storms or sudden
temperature changes. The result again was an enormous
hatch of the young bass on all the coasts around the Bass
Islands and the other islands in their vicinity.

In smaller lakes and ponds storms do not play such
‘havoc as the waves do not reach such a depth as to wash out
or silt in the nests. The large mouthed bass is less affected
by such untoward conditions than the small-mouthed bass
for the reason that it is essentially a fish of the smaller lakes
and quieter waters. During the same five seasons which I
have just described as affecting materially the reproduction
of the small-mouthed bass, the large-mouthed bass in the en-
closed harbors of Catawba Island only a few miles away
were not interfered with in their breeding operations andthe
production of young was constant as far as could be deter-
mined. The same was true in the smaller lakes of Ohio as
observed especially in the Portage lakes near Akron and
Buckeye Lake near the center of the state. The season
(1923) was not as favorable for the large-mouthed bass as
the four preceding years, because the shallower waters of
smaller lakes did warm up to the breeding temperature and
then drop again, causing many male bass to desert the nests
and many females to become egg-bound.

It is doubtful just how much parasitism and disease
check the production of adult bass, for the reason that it is
very difficult to estimate the losses produced in this way
and they are extremely variable. The black basses are
apparently not often subject to epidemic diseases such as
sometimes play havoc with trout and other fishes. How-
ever, they are occasionally found dead with the gills par-
tially sloughed away and probably an appreciable numberof
them die from bacterial diseases, especially those affecting
the gills. Parasites, on the other hand are quite numerous
and it is rare to take a bass at any time of its life when it does
not harbor some of these unwelcome guests. In adult bass
they often occur in such numbers as to definitely injure the
host. Parasites in the skin or flesh, ‘‘grubs’” as they are
usually called by the layman, may be present in such num-
bers that the fish are thin and gaunt and the flesh unfit for
human consumption. Tapeworms also occur sometimes in
such numbers that the intestine is practically obstructed by
them. Larval tapeworms and other flatworms are also

30 American Fisheries Society.

found encysted in the liver and other internal organs in
large numbers and no doubt interfere with the functioning of
the organs containing them. Round worms, and especial-
ly the Acanthocephala, or thorn-headed worms, occur in the
intestine where they attack the lining membrane. Leeches,
crustacean parasites and some others may attack the skin
and subject the fish to infection by the deadly fish fungus
(Saprolegnia.)

Parasites produce the deadliest effects in the young fish.
Certain protozoan parasites, unicellular, miscroscopic organ-
isms, attack the skin of the young bass,even before they have
left the nest. While these do not remain long to affect the
fish, usually being gone before the young reach an inch in
length, they may cause the death of many of the young fry
by forming pustules in the skin which break to the outside.
These were abundant on young small-mouthed bass about
Put-in-Bay in June and caused considerable loss.

Internal parasites begin to affect the young bass as soon
as they begin to feed. The first of these to make their
appearance are young tape worms and fluke worms which
have their larval stages in the minute crustacea (water
fleas) which form the first natural food of the bass and most
other fishes. The presence of large numbers of the early
stages of these parasites at a time when the bass fry were
still feeding entirely on these minute crustacea, called the
attention of the writer to the fact that the parasites must
inhabit these crustacea as their intermediate host. A for-
mer graduate student, Dr. R. V. Bangham, took up the prob-
lem and traced various species of tapeworms and fluke
worms back to the species of crustacea which carry them.
It is no uncommon thing for a young bass less than an inch
long to harbor a score or more of these parasites and oc-
casionally the number is much greater than this. They
sometimes grow to maturity in the intestine of the bass, or
they may penetrate the wall of the intestine and encyst
themselves in the liver, spleen or other internal organs.
Sometimes the liver is so full of these young parasites that it
appears to have been riddled by them and there seems no
doubt that they may cause the death of the fish. More fre-
quently, it is probable they merely delay the development of
the fry and weaken them so that they readily fall victims to
the voracity of larger fish. Dr. Bangham has shown that
heavily parasitized fish are smaller than others belonging
apparently to the same hatch, so the effect is not mere sup-
position.

By the time the fry are an inch and a half long they have
also accumulated some of the round worms, especially the

Osburn.—Conditions Detrimental to Bass. 31

thorn-headed worms, which they obtain from larger crus-
tacean food. (Wickliff, Transactions, Vol. L. p. 364-371 and
Turner and Kraatz Transactions, Vol. L. p. 372-380, have
shown how the type of the food varies in relation to the size
of the fish.)

But it is not only the young fish that are affected by these
enemies. The adults may sometimes be heavily infested
with tape worms so that the intestine may be almost closed
by them. Fluke worms may attack the liver and the coeca,
especially, to injure the fish and thorn-headed worms may
occur sometimes by the hundreds in the intestine and the
coeca. Fishes so parasitized usually show it by the gaunt
appearance, the absence of intestinal fat, the smaller size
of the reproductive organs, etc. It isnot possible to esti-
mate with any degree of exactness the check which these
parasites produce on growth and reproduction and it prob-
ably varies greatly in different waters and in different sea-
sons, but it is undoubtedly important. It may not be possi-
ble to control parasitism in natural waters, but I shall have
something to say later concerning the control of parasitism
in hatcheries. Parasitic crustacea and certain of the fluke
worms occur on the gills, but I have not found these numer-
ous enough on the basses to produce serious results.

The natural enemies preying on the basses are many,
especially in their younger stages. The predaceous water
insects get some of them when they are very young. Pre-
daceous fishes take their toll and it is not a small one. I
have found young bass in the stomach contents of many fish-
es but especially in the yellow perch, the gars and the grass
pike. To a lesser extent I have found them in catfishes of
various species, the chubs, the crappies, the green sunfish
and occasional others, while the larger bass do not hesitate
to make a meal of their younger kin at times.

Frogs, snakes and turtles occasionally get the bass as a
part of their diet, though the bass is usually too quick for
such enemies. Various kinds of birds also take their toll of
the young bass, as is well known. The common tern is pro-
tected and there has been considerable discussion pro and
con as to the destructiveness of this bird on the game fishes.
This much has come under my own observation. The small,
barren Starve Island, near Put-in-Bay, Ohio, is inhabited by
large numbers of terns which breed there. I have been un-
able to find any young bass about this island in several sea-
sons, though the character of the bottom is suitable for
breeding purposes. Careful investigation of the food of
these birds may force us to include them among the un-
desirables.

32 American Fisheries Society.

FOOD

A factor which has not had sufficient consideration in
fish propagation under natural conditions is the amount of
food. Even men old in fisheries work sometimes appear to
overlook the fact that fish cannot live on pure water alone,
any more than land animals can live on fresh air. We have
probably seen waters stocked with many more fish than
could possibly find sustenance there. Furthermore, it is not
only the amount of water, at its lowest stage, that is con-—
cerned, for the food crop of a lake or stream depends uponas
many different factors as a crop on land and the chemicals
in solution, the amount and kind of organic matter, the tem-
perature, the amount of light, the character of the bottom
and various other factors affect the productivity of any body
of water. In the end this goes back to the production of
aquatic plant life, for, just as upon land, the amount and
character of animal life is conditioned by the plant life that
furnishes the primary food source. Clear water will grow
more food than muddy water on account of the amount of
hight which penetrates. Warm water will produce more
than cold. A stream or lake that maintains a fairly con-
stant level will produce more than the one which fluctuates
greatly. To judge the productivity of a body of water,
therefore, it should be studied at its worst and all the un-
satisfactory conditions known. Many streams and some
lakes become so low in dry seasons that they cannot support
a fish fauna commensurate with their size at other seasons.
Streams which are muddy for a considerable ‘portion of the
year cannot support as many game fish, nor as much life in
general, as waters that are clearer. This is one of the
reasons why lakes are more generally productive than
streams, for they are seldom roiled to any extent.

The natural limit of fish production is therefore not con-
ditioned by the reproductive capacity of the fish, which al-
ways produce an overplus of young if not interfered with,
but upon the various factors which check the development.

ARTIFICIAL CHECKS

These are in the nature of the unsatisfactory conditions

which the industry, the carelessness and the short-sighted- ~

ness of man have thrown in the way of the natural balance
of aquatic life. It is a sad commentary on human behavior
that very few of our waters produce any where near as
many fish as they did in a state of nature. “Increased pro-—
duction” has been the slogan of the farmer, the manufac-

Osburn.—Conditions Detrimental to Bass. 33

turer, the miner and many other producers, while atthesame
time they have worked great detriment and often made im-
possible the productivity of the water in the vicinity of their
operations.

The important human checks on the productivity of our
waters are (1) pollution, (2) interference with the water
supply and (3) over-fishing; these three, and the greatest of
these is pollution. I shall not need to consider the pollution
question at this time, for it has been discussed already and
we are all of one mind that it has wrought more damage to
our waters than all other things combined. The voters of
the country have the solution of this matter in their own
hands, but until they awake to the fact that there are more
important things in the world than to find the easiest way to
dispose of refuse and waste by dumping them into the water,
the menace will continue to grow. The individual in the
city is compelled to install plumbing and take other meas-
ures to care for household wastes and it is just as logical to
expect the manufacturer, miner, canner, etc., etc., to care for
his industrial wastes. It may make the products of indus-
try cost more to the consumer and it may reduce the income
of the producer somewhat, but there are some natural rights
of all the people valuable beyond price and pure water is
one of these. Pollution is the one absolute check on fish
production, though fish production is only one of the ques-
tions involved in the pollution problem.

Interference with the water supply is another important
menace to fish production, and this again is charged to the
score of humanindustry. Deforestation is perhaps the most
important phase ofthis problem. Itis a common experience,
observable everywhere in the more populous sections of our
country, that the streams and lakes no longer maintain their
original levels throughout the year. At the same time
floods are higher and more destructive with the passing of
the years, since there no longer exists the natural means of
holding back the rainfall until it sinks into the soil. Streams
that only a generation or so ago were good fish streams
now become so low in dry seasons that game and food fish
- cannot live in them at all or only in more limited numbers,
for the productivity of any body of water is measured not by
the condition at its best, but at its worst and it will produce
only such forms as will find cover and sustenance at its low-
est stage. Reforestation of the hill tops and steep slopes
will aid in stream recovery and the reduction of floods, and
should be a part of every fish conservation program.

The cleaning up of stream and river bottoms is another
factor in this problem. The brush and fallen tree trunks

34 American Fisheries Society.

that used to hold back the water at flood time have been re-
moved in many parts of the country. In some places the
stream beds have been straightened and dredged out and
apparently everything done to hasten the escape of the
water in as short a time as possible, and where this has been
done the production of fish is usually made an impossi-
bility.

Large areas of swamp land have been drained and
this cuts off another source of constant water supply as well
as a great source of food of the fishes. Many of the smaller
lakes have been drained for agricultural purposes in the
mistaken notion that a larger income can be obtained from
the land than from the water. Much of this so-called re-
clamation work has proved to be utterly useless.

Another source of interference with water supply is that
of drawing water from lakes for the manufacturing indus-
tries or for the purpose of making trifling improvements at
the water’s edge. It it only necessary to lower the water a
few feet in most of our lakes to force the young fish into the
open water where they are without protection and without
their supply of natural food. The manufacturing indus-
tries will, of course, take no heed of this matter and boards
of public works, when made up of political appointees and
changing every few years, are not likely to understand the
importance of maintaining a constant water supply in the
waters under their control.

It should be the self-imposed duty of every sportsmens
association and of every denvartment of fish and game to en-
courage reforestation and to insist on the constant main-
tenance of the water supply. If it becomes necessary to
lower the water for any purpose of construction, this should
be done only at the approach of colder weather, when the
fish naturally seek the deeper water.

Over-fishing is a menace that has increased with enormous
strides with the development of the automobile and the
motor boat. These two useful contrivances have made it
possible for a greatly increased proportion of the popula-
tion to go fishing. The ease with which one may now reach
fishing grounds is the chief cause of over-fishing. Many of
our smaller streams and lakes are annually almost depleted
of fish of breeding size. It is true that our state fisheries
bureaus can stock these waters and so maintain them for the
people interested. The modification of our game laws, by
increasing the legal size of game fish, would do much to
prevent over-fishing and to insure the constant production
of young. One of my assistants, Mr. E. L. Wickliff, has
measured the size and estimated the age at breeding (by

Osburn.—Conditions Detrimental to Bass. 35

the scale method) of many of our Ohio game fishes and has
| discovered that it is possible for the large-mouth bass to
reach the legal limit of 11 inches without having had oppor-
tunity to breed. The elimination of spring fishing would
curb this to some extent or the raising of the legal size to 12
inches would accomplish the same purpose. In the lakes
this is not so important a matter as it is in the streams, where
there are fewer fish and less cover and where over-fishing is
more likely to occur.

Over-fishing at any rate, is not so serious as the other
checks already discussed, for at least somebody profits by
the fish taken for food and by the recreation involved in
their capture and it does not hinder restocking, while pol-
lution and interference with the water supply present no
such mitigating features and make restocking futile. If
boards of fish and game were more careful to investigate
the waters they restock and refuse to stock waters that
are impure or are otherwise tampered with, they might at
least arouse the fishing population to the point where they
would insist on doing away with these menaces to fish pro-
duction.

Before closing I wish to say just a few words about the
checks on the artificial production of young bass in hatch-
eries. Here the conditions are made as satisfactory as pos-
sible and most of the checks above mentioned are elimina-
ted. Pure water is insisted on as a matter of course, but I
believe that it is possible to eliminate parasitism to a greater
extent. Some preliminary studies which I have made on
our hatcheries in Ohio, indicate that it is not good policy to
take water for the hatchery from lakes or streams and that
springs should be the only source from which water should
be drawn. We have both types in Ohio and while the per-
centage of hatch is about equal, the investigation of the
young bass indicates that parasitism is almost absent in the
young fish from spring-fed hatcheries where the ponds have
been kept clean, while in those fed by streams and lakes
parasitism runs as high as it does among the wild fish. Also
where ponds are in series and the lower ones receive their
water supply from those above, I believe it is the best policy
to winter breeders in the lowest ponds of the series and use
the upper ponds for breeding and rearing purposes. The
upper ponds may then be drained \jand cleaned over winter
and will be found practically free from organisms carrying
parasites when the young bass begin feeding. The clean-
ing of the hatching ponds is also good insurance against the
water becoming stale from the decomposition of organic
matter at the bottom, which sometimes results in the loss of

36 American Fisheries Society.

large numbers of fry when the temperature goes very high
during protracted hot spells. a

As to the future of bass production I wish merely to in--
dicate some of the possibilities for I realize that prophesying ~
is dangerous to the reputation. In judging of the possi- |
bilities it is necessary to consider whether the natural and
artificial checks which now exist may be modified in either
direction in the future.

1. As to conditions which interfere with spawning, it —
seems futile to attempt to devise any method of preventing ~
storms or sudden deleterious changes in temperature. —
Pollution may be cleared up so the bass can return to their —
original spawning grounds and thus extend their area of
distribution.

2. Parasitism and disease are not likely to be controlled ©
to any extent in wild fishes, except through the destruction ©
of fish-eating birds and other animals which are the inter-—
mediate hosts of fish parasites, though it may be possible to ©
prevent parasitism to a large extent in hatcheries, as is al- 7
ready stated. q

3. Natural enemies can be controlled to a great extent 7
and some of these are already much fewer than in a state of |
nature. Fish-eating birds and reptiles are less numerous ®
than formerly and likely to become still more reduced. 7
Highly predaceous fishes, such as the pikes and gars, which 7
prey on the basses, have been reduced to some extent. 9
The pikes are good game fishes and are edible, but the 9
worthless gars are usually more numerous. Every sports- §
man kills them when opportunity offers, of course, and in ~
some lakes they have been netted to advantage to get rid of ©
them. It would seem possible to reduce the number of en- ~
emies very considerably. It may be argued that the bass 7
are vicious enemies of their own young and this is sometimes ©
the case, but every young bass that enters the stomach of an —
older one at least contributes to the supply of larger bass,
so there is an element of consolation in this. Moreover if
there is plenty of cover and food the young bass are not like- ©
ly to be greatly depleted by attacks of the larger ones. h

4. The amount of food is naturally a very vital ques- ~
tion. The cleaning up of swamps and stream beds and the ©
bottoms and shores of lakes reduces the amount of natural —
food as wellas cover. Deforestation, resulting in alternate ~
floods and seasons of extremely low water, has the same re-
sult. The lowering of the water level in smaller lakes and
reservoirs for water power or for construction work has a
very deleterious effect on the food organisms as well asonthe ~
young fish directly. The cultivation of farm lands results —

Osburn.—Conditions Detrimental to Bass. ae

in the carrying into the streams a larger amount of silt and
the muddying of the waters to a greater extent than obtains
in nature and this is harmful to the food supply as well as to
spawning beds. The seining of minnows and other small
fish for live bait is a menace to bass production since it de-
prives them at once of a large amount of natural food. In
many smaller streams and on the shores of lakes this has
gone to the extent that anglers are complaining that they can
no longer get live bait. It is well known that large numbers
of the small fish taken for live bait die before they are used
and are thrown away. Time is about ripe for a cam-
paign against this useless waste of good bass food, for when
angiers are unable to obtain minnows for bait with a seine
the question arises; what are the bass finding for food to re-
place them? I am of the opinion that it would be well to
restrict the seining of small fish for live bait.

Reforestation will aid in reestablishing the water level
of streams and education will have some effect in preventing
over-cleanliness such as the removal of vegetation from
shallow water, etc., and in preventing the lowering of the
water level in lakes at seasons when fish and their-food are
most susceptible to the change. It is even possible to fer-
tilize a body of water to make it more productive of lower
organisms, to plant with aquatic vegetation suitable for
cover and to introduce smaller fishes which will serve asfood
for the basses.

5. Over-fishing can be controlled by limiting still far-
ther the size of the fish legally taken and by preventing
spring fishing before the adults have had an opportunity to
breed at least once. Restocking from hatcheries is a satis-
. factory method, as far as it goes, and my observations indi-
cate that often the fry may be taken from lakes and streams
without injury to the fishing in those waters, when the natu-
ral hatch is excessive. I feel sure that millions of young
small mouthed bass might have been removed from Lake
Erie about the Bass Islands the past season without doing
any injury to the future fishing prospects and the same has
been true of the large mouthed bass in many of our smaller
lakes season after season as I have observed them, for not
one out of a hundred young could possibly come to maturity
and find food and range. Over-fishing is probably the
least important of the checks to production except in re-
stricted localities.

6. As to pollution, I look forward to the time when the
American people will no more tolerate this than they do cer-
tain other public nuisances. Then the bass may be restored
to their original haunts and the area of bass production in-

38 American Fisheries Society.

creased again to its original limits. It will be a hard fight,
undoubtedly, but the people can have anything they want if
they are only willing to go after it.

One interesting and encouraging feature of the present
situation is the much larger number of people who are in-
terested in fishing as a part of their recreation. To be sure
many of these are now driving long distances for the purpose
of trying their luck, instead of attempting to improve condi-
tions at home, but they will be keen to improve their own
waters when they see the way to doit. Sportsmen’s organ-
izations are rapidly becoming more numerous and powerful
and these societies will have an excellent influence in edu-
cating the general public as to the ways and means of obtain-
ing what they want. To restore our waters to their origi-
nal cleanliess and productiveness should be our first organ-
ized effort.

Discussion.

PRESIDENT LEACH: The Bureau of Fisheries has been depending
on Lake Erie for a certain amount of brood stock each year which it has
transported to its nearby fisheries stations. We have noted that we
have transferred also some of the parasites of which Dr. Osburn speaks;
some, I believe, have been sent to Neosho for Mr. Foster to contend with.

I notice what Dr. Osburn says about Starve Island, the area of
which, I believe, is not more than about one half an acre. -May I ask
Dr. Osburn whether he attributes the scarcity of bass there to the terns?

Dr. OSBURN: Bass of breeding size are caught in numbers there
when the angling season is on, but in the course of five years, seining
for investigational purposes, we have never found any young bass.
I am not sure whether the terns are responsible. The matter needs
careful investigation. -

PRESIDENT LEACH: Have you found the same conditions regard-
ing the bass around Hen and Chickens Island, which are very thickly
inhabited by terns?

Dr. OsBuRN: I have not studied the conditions affecting the Big
Chicken Island, where sc many of the terns breed, though I have visited :
most of the others,—the Sister Islands, Green Island, Rattlesnake Is- ~
land, etc., where the terns are not numerous and where the bass fry >
have been taken. "

PRESIDENT LEACH: The Bureau has sent+ to its hatcheries, where —
they are used for the propagation of smaller fish, a great many adult ©
fish taken from Lake Erie; and the State of Ohio, I understand, distrib-
utes a great many of these adult fish to interior waters. Do you think”
that if that practice is continued the result will be a depletion of the
small-mouth bass?

Dr. OsBuRN: Of course, a great many bass are caught out each —
year by anglers and a good many are taken for the purposes you men-—

>
b

Osburn.—Conditions Detrimental to Bass. 39

tion, but that does not seem to have greatly affected the supply. As
for the large-mouth, we get a great many of them also and distribute
them to the quieter waters of the state. There are three large, well-
protected harbors on Catawba Island, comprising thousands of acres of
water ranging in depth from a few inches to a few feet, and there
the large-mouth hatch, in spite of the fact that many have been taken
for stocking and by anglers, has been well kept up.

As to the distribution of parasites referred to by Mr. Leach, of
course that is possible, provided that the parasite can find an interme-
diate host. It undergoes the larval stage in some small organism and
comes to the adult stage in the bass. If the small organism which
carries it in the larval stage does not occur in the waters stocked, the
parasite could not complete its life history. Certain kinds of parasites
might be transferred, others not.

Mr. S. W. DowNING: May I ask whether the taking of fish from
the vicinity of the islands and their distribution in the inland waters
of the state during the past eighteen years has increased the supply of
small-mouth bass in those waters?

Dr. OSBURN: I doubt if it has, but it has afforded a considerable
amount of angling in the waters down state, and that is where the bene-
fit has resulted. Whether or not the fish would have been caught had
they remained in Lake Erie is another matter. The fishing about the
Islands is not always as good as one might desire. I know from per-
sonal experience, though at times fish may be caught in considerable
numbers. Apparently, however, plenty of breeding bass remain in
Lake Erie; we had a good production of young bass this season when
the conditions were favorable to breeding. The adult bass may lay
from ten to twenty thousand eggs, and if a fair number of these hatch,
you get a very rapid re-stocking.

Mr. BURNHAM: How many years has the law been in effect pro-
hibiting the sale of adult small-mouth bass in Ohio?

Dr. OSBURN: I cannot answer that. It was in effect when I came
back to the state six years ago.

Mr. BURNHAM: It occurred to me that the number of adult fish
saved by prohibiting their sale might offset the numbers that are being
taken away for the purpose of stocking other waters.

Mr. DOWNING: If the stocking of these streams has resulted only
in providing a few day’s fishing for the anglers, who take the breeders
- out after they are put in there, would it not be a whole lot cheaper to
the state to furnish these anglers with a few messes of fish and leave
the bass in the lake?

Dr. OSBURN: But they get all the sport of catching them. In some
places the fish may be caught out before they have an opportunity to
breed, but we have a good many preserves in the state now where no
angling is permitted until after breeding, and that has helped to keep
up the supply of breeders. Where the taking of fish of legal size later
in the season involves the removal of practically all the breeders from
a stream or a considerable reduction of their numbers in lakes, the

40 American Fisheries Society.

introduction of more breeders does tend to continue our supply of fish
in a way that would not, I think be possible otherwise under our present
angling laws.

Mr. HAyForD: For a number of years we have been doing some of
this work in connection with certain of our reservoirs in New Jersey.
I find that if the adults are moved in the fall of the year we generally
have splendid results in the reproduction the following spring. In the
case of those that were handled about ten days before spawning, very
few of them ever spawned; and on opening them up we found the eggs
decomposed. If the big bass are left in the municipal reservoirs and
the yearling bass taken, those which are from five to seven inches long,
some results can be obtained, but as for removing the big bass, it is
simply cutting off the fountain head of supply.

Mr. BULLER: Iam very much interested in what Professor Osburn
has said in his paper with regard to the amount of fish in certain waters
depending largely upon the amount of food available in those waters.
In Pennsylvania the practice of seining for minnows, on the part of
fishermen and those dealing in bait fish, was practically destroying the
minnow life in our streams and inland lakes. It has therefore become
necessary for us, in addition to propagating fish for the stocking of
waters, to propagate minnows and introduce them into those streams
for food, at the same time prohibiting seining for minnows. We have
a law on the statutes today which imposes a penalty of $100 upon any-
one who seines in the waters of Pennsylvania at any time of the year,
with the exception of the waters below McCall’s Ferry dam and in the
Delaware river, as well as within the limits of the tidal waters. The
seines are permitted there for the catching of shad. That law was
enacted for the sole purpose of protecting the food which is absolutely
necessary to fish life in those streams.

Dr. OSBURN: Can live bait be used in Pennsylvania?

Mr. BULLER: Yes. We do permit the use of a small dip net not to
to exceed four feet in diameter, but there must be no seining. Since
the enactment of that law, and with the propagation and distribution
of minnows, the food is increasing, and, from the reports received from
the bass fishermen, bass fishing is improving in spite of the many dis-
advantages that we have to contend with. The increase in bass fishing
in Pennsylvania is due, in my opinion, not so much to artificial propaga-
tion and the stocking of waters as to the law that we have relative to
the taking of bass. The close season is up to the first of July, thereby
giving the adult bass a chance to reproduce.

Dr. OSBURN: There is no Spring fishing?

Mr. BULLER: No. These are two things that are helping bass fish-
ing in Pennsylvania. As to the removal of adult fish, we do some of
that work, and having the close season up to the first of July we are
reasonably sure that they have reproduced before the fishermen take
them.

With Pennsylvania—and I think every state has found itself in
the same position—the difficulty of getting sufficient funds out of the

Osburn.—Conditions Detrimental to Bass. 41

‘general revenues to carry on the work of the Department of Fisheries
‘had been getting more acute each year. About twelve years ago the
matter of requiring resident and non-resident fishing licenses was first
taken up. At each session of the Legislature for ten years I fought
to get some enactment of that kind on the statutes, and in 1922 it went
into effect, not in the shape in which it was introduced into the House
and the Senate, but in the form of a compromise. The original bill as
introduced by the Department placed the minimum age limit at sixteen
years; the bill we got through made the minimum age limit twenty-one
years. After consulting the Governor on the question, who helped in
every way to enact this law, we came to the conclusion that we had bet-
ter take half a loaf than no loaf at all, and depend on future legislation
to remedy any deficiency. Jn the first year that this law went in to
effect, 1922, the Department sold 203,000 resident fishermen’s licenses.
We had our officers make a careful study as to the fishermen who were
fishing the streams, and we found that two-thirds of them were under
twenty-one vears of age. In 1923, out of the turmoil we had in the
House and the Senate, we succeeded in having the maximum age
established at eighteen years, and the result is that we have sold this
year up to date resident licenses in the amount of $335,000.
Mr. JouN P. Woops: At what price?

Mr. BULLER: One dollar. We think that at the next session of the
Legislature, with the educational campaign that we are carrying on
among the fishermen, we shall be able to get the bill back to its original
shape, and we feel satisfied that we shall then sell every year 600,000
fishermen’s licenses. There are 600,000 hunter’s licenses sold in the
state to-day, and we feel, from the knowledge we have, that we have
as many fishermen as hunters. The men who are contributing this
money are entitled to take a few bass or other fish out of the streams
before they have had the chance to breed. They are the men we are
depending on today for funds, and they are the men upon whom, in my
judgment, every state in the Union will have to depend if we are suc-
cessfully to carry on our work.

Mr. Titcoms: I was very much interested in Dr. Osburn’s paper;
it covers a very large field. I would like to ask him to what extent he
examined the bass which he found egg-bound?

Dr. OSBURN: That has been chiefly the work of one of my assist-
ants, an instructor in the university, Mr. E. L. Wickliff. He has exam-
ined a great many of them, at Buckeye Lake especially. I had some bass
sent in to me by the Department of Fish and Game this spring which
were otherwise in perfect condition, but the eggs were degenerated and
a mass of raucous had formed a kind of block in the end of the oviduct.

Mr. Titcoms: When they become egg-bound they subsequently die?

Dr. OSBURN: Some of them undoubtedly die in that condition;
but it is an open question what percentage of death is from that cause.
We had this same experience in the New York Aquarium with fishes
that could not spawn because conditions were abnormal.

42 American Fisheries Society.

Mr. TitcomMB: That applies to other species as well?

Dr. OSBURN: Yes, many of the marine species. Almost always
the females would die off first. For instance, we kept striped bass until
some were more than twenty years old, and all we had left at the end
were a number of old males.

Mr. TiITCOMB: With regard to parasites, you referred to the desira-
bility of using spring water and keeping the adults in the lower ponds;
you would move these adults to the upper ponds for breeding purposes?

’ Dr. OsBuRN: Yes.
Mr. TiTcOMB: Do they carry the parasites with them?

Dr. OsBuRN: If they do, they would not in most cases distribute
them that year to the young fish. Some of these parasites have to be
carried over the year before they can reinfect the fish. That is to say,
the fish will carry the parasite through the summer season, the parasite
sometimes reaching the adult condition in a couple of months or so;
then they will produce their eggs, which pass out into the lower organ-
isms and there be carried over the winter. It is just a question, then,
of breaking up the life history of the parasite; if we can do that at any
point we have got him.

Mr. TITcCOMB: Do you think we could ke2p the ponds that are spr’ng
fed free from parasites for any definite period?

Dr. OSBURN: I think you could. Some of these lower organisms
can hibernate in the mud, or can encyst themselves and get through the
winter in that way, but a sudden draining off of the water would have
the effect of seriously interfering with this procedure. The result would
be that the next year you would start in free from that kind of organ-
ism carrying parasites.

Mr. TitcomsB: We have in Connecticut one small-mouth bass breed-
ing establishment that I am familiar with. There the water is supplied
to concrete pools used for breeding the dimensions of which are, I
should judge, about 10 feet by 30 feet. The bass are taken from the
private lake in the spring and reproduced in these lower pools; then
the fry are taken from the nests and put into these concrete pools.
The superintendent keeps two crews of men at work on the lake above
which is the source of water supply, two small power boats being en-
gaged in dragginy for plankton. He feeds the little bass in the concrete
pools on plankton until they are about an inch and a half long. Some
years he has a very good production, and some years he loses 100,000
in a night from what he has called fungus. I happened to be there at
the time this sudden mortality occurred; he thought it was brought
about by something in the plankton. What would be your theory about
that?

Dr. OSBURN: I do not think there is anything in the plankton that
could ordinarily bring about that sort of loss.

Mr. Titcoms: In that netting he would probably get the parasites

too, would he not?

Osburn.—Conditions Detrimental to Bass. 43

Dr. OsBURN: Undoubtedly he would get the organism carring the
parasites if he took them by netting the plankton, and the young fish
would then carry probably as many parasites as the fish in the lakes
where he got the plankton.

Mr. TITCOMB: I understand that you have been netting the lakes
in your state for adults tc move to the inland waters? Do I understand
from your remarks that the fishing in the lakes has kept up under those
conditions?

Dr. OsBuRN: As far as I know there has been no depletion of it
within five or six years.

Mr. Titcoms: That would mean that there is plenty of food to en-
able the young fish to go on naturally and take the place of those
which are removed?

Dr. OSBURN: Certainly, and there are plenty of breeders left.
There are enormous hatches right in the waters where many breeders
have been removed annually for inland use.

Mr. TITcoMB: And all these parasites and other enemies of the
fish which you recounted in your paper are the natural enemies you may
expect in any water to take care of the surplus reproduction? It is
simply the normal condition?

Dr. OSBURN: Certainly, under natural conditions there could not
be more than a certain number of bass growing in Lake Erie or any
other body of water, limited, as they are, by these natural checks on
reproduction and growth. The question is, whether we are maintaining
that number.

Mr. TitcomsB: Do you not think that in any lake inhabited by bass
if they can be protected through the spring until the spawning season
is over, and if limits can be enforced as to the size which may be taken
so that they may not be taken until mature, the natural reproduction
in such waters will be all that that lake can possibly take care of? In
other words, artificial propagation is not really necessary under those
conditions?

Dr. OSBURN: I agree with you. We have made a mistake, I be-
lieve, in many parts of the country in trying to increase the number of
fish, especially of large-mouth bass, by planting in lakes where they al-
ready exist. I know that in some lakes where the bass have been
planted from time to time there is a production of young that is far
beyond the capacity of the lake to support when they become adults.

Mr. Titcoms: Have you ever observed whether the female spawn
on more than one nest? Mr. Beaman, of Waramang Hatchery, who
has closely observed the bass in those small breeding ponds and has at
times tagged many of them, maintains that none of the females expel
all their eggs at one time; that after depositing a certain number of
eggs they leave the nest, and, a few days later either on the same nest
or another one deposit more eggs, and that sometimes this process goes
to the third time before all the eggs have been expelled.

Ad American Fisheries Society.

Dr. OsBuRN: ‘There is no doubt that the female does spawn several
times; the eggs do not all mature at once, as they do in some fishes, and
can not all be spawned ot one time. I see no reason why they should
not go to any nest that was convenient.

Mr. TiTtcoms: Do you find the large-mouth bass much more pre-
dacious or destructive of other fishes than the small-mouth?

Dr. OsBuRN: I have no exact data on that, but judging from
stomach contents, I would hardly say so.

Mr. Titcoms: Every time I have occasion to talk to a bunch of
sportsmen in Connecticut, they say that the large-mouth bass is very
destructive of other fishes; they attribute entirely to the large-mouth
the disappearance of bullheads from waters in which they had formerly
been very abundant. From what we have observed it is evident that
the bullheads decrease after the bass are introduced, and, in one instance
where the bass have been twelve years in quite a large body of water,
the bullheads have practically disappeared. I believe the majority of
the fishermen in Connecticut to-day are of the opinion that we would be
much beiter off if we did not have the large-mouth bass in the state at
all.

Dr. OsBURN: They are both, of course, feeders on bullheads to a
certain extent. The large-mouth bass lives in the quiet waters where
the bullheads are most frequently found, while the small-mouth prefer
the colder water and so do not come so largely in contact with bullheads.
That may, in part, be the answer. I have no evidence on the question
whether one is more predacious on the bullheads than the other, when
they can get at them.

Mr. Titcoms: We have an interesting situation in Connecticut,
which I think I mentioned at the last meeting. In that state it is un-
lawful to fish in the municipal reservoirs because of the danger of
contamination, and we have concessions from the water companies all
over the state under which we remove from these reservoirs all the
adult fish that we can catch in large numbers by the use of trap nets,
This is along the line of the work Mr. Buller is doing and along the
line also of the work in Ohio. Last spring we took out something like
30,000 adult fish, including bass; in some instances we took small-mouth
bass up to six or seven pounds. In keeping these fish where they will
have a chance to reproduce before they are caught—we do not allow
them to be fished until after the first of July—we are doing more than
we could possibly accomplish by artificial spawn culture. We begin
this work next week and will continue until the ice covers the lakes.
I think this is very much better than any attempt to propagate bass.

Dr. OsBuURN: Both methods are good. I am disposed to favor the
hatchery for certain kinds of planting, but I do not believe we need
very much of that in the case of the large-mouth bass, because in the
waters in which they are chiefly found, in our smaller lakes, they are
taking care of themselves very well. At any time during the five years
that we have studied them in the small lakes, one could have taken

Osburn.—Conditions Detrimental to Bass. 45

millions of young fry for the purposes of distribution without in any way
depleting the natural resources of the lake. In the case of the small-
mouth bass the situation is a little more difficult in Ohio because we get
them almost entirely in the streams; the lakes, aside from Lake Erie, are
as a rule too warm for the small-mouth.

Mr. TiTcoMB: One point that cannot be too strongly emphasized
is the seriousness of the depletion caused by the taking out of bait fish
by the angler. In some of our lakes the minnows are practically gone,
and we have to introduce minnows, along with our other work, in
connection with the reservoirs.

Dr. OsBURN: That was true around Sandusky and Put-In-Bay this
summer; there was no live bait to be had. In the seining about Put-in-
Bay harbor for study purposes I could always get some, but not anything
like what we should be able to get. Where we could formerly get
large numbers of minnows we can now only get a few, so there is no
question that there has been a great depletion. It can not be attributed
to pollution in streams where no pollution exists. The condition may
be due in part to other factors than seining,—the cutting out of
shelters and the elimination of the forests, the latter resulting in the
streams going so low that they will not maintain even the smaller fish
during the lowest water of the season, That is a great check on the
production of our small fish as well as of our larger rough fish, suckers
and so on, which are no longer found in streams where they used to be
abundant. f suppose the same conditions exist all over the country
where it is thickly populated.

Mr. Hare: Which of the two basses, the large-mouth or the small-
mouth, is more susceptible to that parasite which you term the grub.

Dr. OSBURN: I have not found any paticular difference in Ohio
waters; both are susceptible to it. I do not believe we have as much
trouble with it in our state as they do in some Canadian waters, judging
by reports.

Mr. HARE: Does it depreciate the value of the fish to any consider-
able extent?

Dr. OSBURN: When they are numerous enough they make the fish
unfit to eat, but it is uncommon in the waters of Ohio that the fishshould,
from this cause, be unfit for food.

Mr. Hare: Is this parasite more prevalent in warmer than in
cooler waters?

Dr. OsBuRN: I do not think so. I have not made comparisons of
this in Ohio, but you will find them both in the small-mouth bass in Lake
Erie and in those in the streams in the southern part of the state.

Mr. BULLER: May I supplement your remarks in reference to the
disappearance of the minnow by stating the conditions which, in our
judgment, were the cause of the disappearancee of minnow life from the
forest streams in Pennsylvania? It was reported by our officers that
bait fishermen who were fishing for minnows would pull up. say, a

46 American Fisheries Society.

bushel of minnows on the sand, pick out what they needed and leave
the rest on the sand. We came to the conclusion that that was one of
the real causes of the disappearance of the minnows; accordingly a law
was enacted to prohibit it.

Dr. OSBURN: There is no doubt that much waste occurs, because
many of the minnows die and because the larger, breeding ones are
taken.

Mr. HAYFOoRD: Speaking of the netting of reservoirs, I have no
doubt that in a great many instances good results are obtained, but I
would point out that to-day every fish culturist has to be familiar with
the raising of bass. When I went to New Jersey there was a good deal
of opposition to the spending of money on bass ponds; now each year
they are spending more money for artificial propagation. In some of
our lakes there is an abundance of fingerlings, but we have a lot of
ponds in which we find it very convenient to have artificial propagation.
For instance, in the case of one of our lakes the shores were simply
lined with large-mouth bass fingerlings an inch to an inch and a quarter
long, while in another lake the hatch was very poor; so that we put
fingerlings into the lake where the hatch was poor in order to try to
keep both going.

Dr. OsBURN: That raises a practical point. If bass fingerlings
are taken out of a lake, even though there may be a large surplus of
them in that water, the anglers interested are likely to raise strenuous
objections, because they do not quite appreciate the fact that no damage
is done to the fishing in the lake by removing a considerable number of
the young. If hatcheries can supply the bass for new reservoirs and
for waters that are depleted, the angling population who do not see the
scientific side of it is better satisfied, If we could educate them to our
point of view, perhaps we would not need so many hatcheries. In the
meantime it is better to have some hatcheries to satisfy the angling
population.

Mr. Foster: May I ask Dr. Osburn whether he has ever noticed
ege-bound females in any fish other than those from Lake Erie?

Dr. OSBURN: Oh yes, we have had them in our inland lakes. We
have had them in Buckeye Lake, in the central part of the state. A
couple of years ago the anglers were complaining about the law which
prevented the taking of fish in the closed season in that lake, because,
they argued, these fish would all get hooked by somebody and dieanyway.
Mr. Wickliff examined a large number of dead bass down from that
lake, and upon only a very small percentage of them could he find any
marks whatever. When he opened them he found they were adult

females egg-bound; they had not been hooked. The fact was that un-

favorable weather conditions had caused the loss of a large number of
females, and the anglers, seeing these floating on the surface, thought
they had died as the result of being hooked.

Mr. Foster: The reason for my inquiry is this: Two years ago
we received at Neosho station a number of adult small-mouth bass from

— .

Osburn.—Conditions Detrimental to Bass. 47

Lake Erie. The first season they did not reproduce; the second season,
when it was evident that they were not going to reproduce, a number of
them were opened and we found the ovaries degenerated and in a very
bad condition. This was attributed to the larval stage of the tapeworm
parasite; the larvae were actually present in the ovaries and also in the
intestines. It was very evident that those fish would not reproduce
that season, and it is questionable whether they ever would have re-
produced. I was wondering whether that was due to a parasitic condi-
tion peculiar to those lake waters only, or whether the same thing had
been found in other sections of the country.

Dr. OSBURN: The larvae of some parasites penetrate quite young
and remain there until the fish are eaten by something else; it is their
only means of getting out. Whether they would be the same parasites
feund in Lake Erie I could not tell without examining them,

Mr. Foster: They were pronounced the same.

Dr. OSBURN: You may have the same parasite there, for “tt I
know. Some of them have a wide distribution, but some, I know, are
limited to the Lake Erie drainage.

Mr. Foster: It has been brought out today that many waters
which are re-stocked do not need re-stocking, and it has even been
deemed necessary to defend the hatcheries in their work. I suggest
that an ounce of protection is worth a pound of propagation. I am
sure that that principle will hold good in many cases.

Dr. OSBURN: Quite right. In many cases we would not need to re-
stock if we would only give a little better protection.

Mr. BURNHAM: Mr. Titcomb says that in Connecticut the impres-
sion prevails that the large-mouth is more destructive to the young of
other species than the small-mouth. In our ponds at Louisville we pro-
duce young sunfish in the ponds with the small-mouth black bass, and
the bass do not seem to consume the young sunfish to any appreciable
extent. In regard to the large-mouth, they do not seem to have re-
duced the number of young catfish along the Mississippi river to any
considerable extent.

Mr. CuLteR: Can Dr. Osburn say what percentage of the stomachs
of large and small-mouth bass that he opened contained catfish?

Dr. OsBuRN: I have found catfish in their stomachs, but I could
not give you the percentage.

Mr. CuLLER: From the fish culturist’s standpoint, do you think it
advisable to take the adult fish out of Lake Erie and put them in streams
in the southern part of Ohio in which the conditions are not adaptable
to them?

Dr. Os8suRN: The same species occur, of course, in both waters; we
have evidence that they do establish themselves in southern streams.
In connection with our studies we have seined out fish in the southern
streams of Ohio where they had been planted at least a year before,
and we know they were Lake Erie fish because they carried special
Lake Erie parasites.

48 American Fisheries Society.

Dr. EMMELINE Moore: That is a very interesting point; it might
have some application in the case of the depletion of small-mouth black ~
bass around Starve Island. I was going to ask a question this morning —
on that point.

Dr. OsBURN: In relation to the terns?

Dr. EMMELINE Moore: Yes. However, I rise now to ask another —
question: What foods of small-mouth black bass—crustacean or insect
food—do you find most heavily parasitized?

Dr. OSBURN: Species of Cyclops, and Hyalella.

Dr. EMMELINE Moore: You do not find the Daphnias specially —
heavily parasitized?

Dr. OSBURN: No. .

Dr. EMMELINE Moore: Have you found the larvae of the midge to
be heavily parasitized with the round worm? I have found them so
occasionally.

Dr. OSBURN: Yes, but I have not made any careful studies of the
the midge. That is a problem which I hope to take up one of these
times. .

Dr. EMMELINE Moore: In the course of examination of young
small-mouth and large-mouth basses over two successive years, to the ~
number of about fifty each season I found that the fingerling large- —
mouth black bass were much more cannibalistically inclined than the
smal!-mouth.

Dr. OsBURN: That is quite true, and the fact that they grow much
faster and are able to take fish food much earlier than the small-mouth
is, I think, an important factor when they are kept with other fishes,
such as sun fish, etc.

Mr. Doze: Do you find that the small-mouth bass is a longer lived
species than the large mouth? The reason I ask is this: we have started
work with the small-mouth in Kansas, and we find that our average life
of the large-mouth is about ten years. We have got that from develop-
ment right in the hatchery.

Dr. OsBURN: The small-mouth would run about the same age, I
should think.

Mr. Doze: What remedy would you suggest for the fungus growth
on these fish?

Dr. OsBuRN: There is nothing that is effective. Individual fish ~
can be cured by salt baths and by use of various germicides, but it is —
impossible to do that in open waters.

Mr. Doze: Something has been said about closing the season on
bass during the spawning period. When the warm weather stage gets —
well on in August the bass become infected with worms, so that if we ,
pass legislation restricting the fishing in the spring in a large number —
of states we are going to cut out the only time that the angler can ©
catch big-mouth bass that are fit to eat. It is a tradition in our state |
that the bass will not bite when over the eggs, and I would like to know ~

Osburn.—-Conditions Detrimental to Bass. 49

what Dr. Osburn’s opinion is on that point. I am referring now to the
large-mouth male bass.

Mr. TiTcomMB: They will bite at a troll right over their nests in
the weeds.

Mr. Doze: Do they strike at it simply in anger, or for the purpose
of getting food?

Mr. TiTccMB: I do not know as to that.

Mr. Doze: J have found that they will not take minnows in the
spring.

Mr. BULLER: There were sent to my office for indentification about
the fifteenth of June seven small-mouth bass, ranging in size from
seventeen to twenty-two inches, which had been illegally caught with
live bait. Upon opening them we found that three were males and four
females. That is evidence that they will take food while they are on
the nest spawning.

Dr. OsBuRN: I would like to ask some of the old hatchery men
whether they find that the breeding fish in the ponds take the artificial
food the same as the others? That is my conclusion, from what I have
seen.

Mr. HAyForD: We find that they seldom eat very much during
those periods; if they do catch up food now and then they blow it right
out of their mouths. An occasional one may take the food, but as a
rule they eat only about ten per cent during that period of what they
eat right after they have finished spawning.

Mr. BuLLER: These fish that were brought into my office were
taken directly off the nest. The man who took them was caught in the
act and was arrested by one of our officers.

Mr. HAYForRD: Two years ago this spring I caught with a plug one
hundred large bass right off the nest, to get them for the following
spring as breeders. It seemed to me that they bit more in anger than
from any desire to get food.

Mr. DozE: We conducted an experiment in one of our hatchery
ponds where the water was very clear; we used all kinds of minnows on
the male bass, but we did not catch any; we did catch a couple of females.
We do not meet very much with the problem of egg-bound fish in
Kansas, but we do have cases where the female bass is killed by the
male bass. Possibly a good deal of the egg-bound trouble is due to the
fact that the numbers of males an d females are not properly balanced;
there are probably more males than females. td

Mr. TitcomsB: The condition of the so-called grubby bass you
attribute to the birds, do you not?

Dr. OSBURN: It is true that some of them do come from birds;
whether or not all do, I could not say. Most of these parasites which
we have studied in Ohio are intestinal parasites and those which pass
the larval stage in the organs of the body cavity. I am really unpre-
pared to discuss the bird question.

THE SPORTSMEN’S LEAGUE—A NEGLECTED AND
UNDEVELOPED POWER FOR CONSERVATION.

By FRreD J. FOSTER
U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Neosho, Mo.

Fishermen are as a class a patient lot, otherwise they
would not be followers of the “Gentle Art’’, for patience is
one of the chief characteristics of a successful fisherman.
Perhaps it is due to this abundance of patience and to that
other trait, so often found in fishermen, confidence in his
fellow man, which has caused him to permit the pollution
and depletion of our waters. In days gone by, had fishermen
been quick to do battle for their rights, we should not now be
facing disaster to the life in so large a percentage of our
lakes and streams.

We may thank providence, however, that patience and
persistence are usually found hand in hand and when pa-
tience ceases to be a virtue, as it most surely has in many of
our fish life questions of today, we may expect a militant
and persistent corrective effort on the part of this quiet and
lone suffering brotherhood.

Anger can seldom be condoned but righteous indignation
which has for its object the betterment of conditions or the
preservation of present favorable conditions is the com-
mendable and powerful incentive which has banded men to-
gether for ages.

In union there is strength, but how slow have been the
sportsmen to apply this old, old adage to the problems so
near their hearts. Those of us who realized the importance
of organization have neglected our duty in not devoting more
time and greater energy to the furtherance of sportsmen’s
leagues. Only within the last year has an organization been
developed whose aims, ideals and method of functioning are
such as to reach and hold the sportsmen of the entire country
and those interested in the preservation of our woods and
waters.

The American Fisheries Society has and is filling a most
worthy and important part in the advancement of fish cul-
ture and conservation of fish life but from the general char-
acter of its organization, the infrequency of its meetings and
lack of state organizations capable of immediate action
when necessary, we have not been able to stem the tide of
private interests, commercialism and ignorance which has
swept the fish from so many of our waters and reduced the

Foster.—The Sportsmen’s League. 51

supply in even a larger number. I do not wish to give the
impression that the character of our organization or the
procedure of our business should be changed, for ours is
only a single spoke in the wheel of conservation, which must
be maintained at its present strength and efficiency and it
would not be advisable for us as a body to scatter our
forces. But may we not as individuals give greater support
to the local sportsmen’s leagues in our communities, under
whatsoever name they may be operating and to that national
organization, The Izaak Walton League of America, which
it is the writer’s firm conviction, is destined to play a most
important part in the preservation of America’s out-of-
doors?

There are few among us do not realize the necessity for
a militant national organization whose voice is capable
of being heard in the national and state capitols, backed
by the influence and vote of such a vast army of sportsmen
that it will command immediate attention and respect.

Nationa! and state executives and legislators are, as a
rule, inclined to do what is just and right as soon as they
are informed that a sufficient number of persons are in-
terested. The proposed drainage of the famous Winneshiek
Bottoms of the Upper Mississippi is a glaring example of the
necessity of national pressure.

Many of the states represented here today have superior
laws for the propagation and protection of fish, but others,—
and I am forced to include dear old Missouri among the
latter,—are years behind in either protection or propagation
or both; not necessarily because of fault in the initiative
or administrative ability of the Fish & Game Commissioners,
but because there has been no concerted strength and man
power behind their recommendations.

One can hardly imagine the laws of a state permitting
the gigging of a 1014 pound rainbow trout from her spawn-
ing bed, and at the same time prohibiting the taking of this
species with an artiticial fiy months after the close of the
spawning season, yet this is exactly the condition in Mis-
souri today with other laws even more destructive because
they adversely effect the native fish found in the majority
of the waters of the state. With proper organization of the
sportsmen such laws would soon be replaced and all game
fish protected during the spawning season; a size limit per-
mitting a fish to have reached maturity and to have spawned
at least once before being put into the frying pan and a
creel limit that would prohibit the killing of 110 bass in one
day as accoplished by a certain sport—not sportsman—from
Kansas City this past summer.

52 American Fisheries Society.

This in turn leads to another most important duty and
privilege of the sportsmen’s league, that of educating the
general public and our boys and girls, particularly, in true
sportsmanship and the necessity for conservation. Do I
hear someone ask why the girls are included? If for no
greater reason than that some of our sons may enjoy at
least one vacation in three with a wife who is a companion
in God’s out-of-doors as well as at White Sulphur.

Much good can be accomplished by enlightening sports-
men to the necessity of exterminating the natural enemies of
fish, such as snakes, turtles, undesirable fishes and fish eat-
ing birds and animals. The sportman takes his toll of
fish but a few days, a month or season but the natural ene-
mies are present for months at a time or throughout the
entire season and the damage done by them would equal
the combined output of many hatcheries.

Sportsmen are eager for more knowledge as to the life
history and methods of propagation of their beloved finny
tribe and all the multitude of aquatic creatures that are re-
lated to them and the conditions which govern their exist-
ence. If we will but take the time to say a few words at
Sportsmen’s League meetings and impart a small fraction
of the knowledge we possess, be it scientific, fish cultural
or commercial, we will be repaid by the thanks of the most
attentive and appreciative audience one could wish.

The American Fisheries Society is organized, “To pro-
mote the cause of fish culture; to gather and diffuse informa-
tion bearing upon its practical success and upon all matters
relating to the fisheries: to unite and encourage all interests
of fish culture and fisheries; and to treat all questions of
a scientific and economic character regarding fish.” Yet
beneath these words is a hidden and greater meaning which
might be expressed as follows: To pass to the coming genera-
tion a greater knowledge of matters piscatorial; to maintain
the fight against commercialism and ignorance that idealism
may not perish and the human race may not degenerate to
a mass that knows not God in nature.

How much clearer life is seen from the porch of the
little log cabin overlooking the clear, swift waters of a
stream which winds its pleasant way through wooded
Ozark hills, than it appeared a week before amid the strife
and sham of city life.

The American Fisheries Society and the Izaak Walton
League of America, in their efforts to maintain fish life in
the waters of ovr country, are striving not alone to give
recreation and health but to maintain that even balance
in the hearts and minds of men so ably expressed in Edgar
A. Guest’s poem entitled “Out Fishin’ ’’.

SN ee eS

Foster.—The Sportsmen’s League. 53

Discusssion,

Mr. JOHN P. Woops: A year or so ago a chapter of the Isaak
Walton League was organized in St. Louis, and I was honored with the
office of President. Within a few weeks I found it necessary to go
abroad with my famiily, and therefore could not give to the work the
attention that it deserved. On that account I resigned the presidency,
but I have not by any means lost interest in the work of the organiza-
tion. Were it not for the fact that I am Chairman of the Resolutions
Committee I would be willing to present a resolution to this meeting en-
dorsing the work of that splendid organization, (Applause.)

PRESIDENT LEACH: Someone may have a resolution to offer to the
Resolutions Committee on that subject. Is there any further discussion
of this paper?

Mr. C. M. BASKETT (St. Louis) : I have been busy for the past
five and a half months organizing chapters in the State of Missouri for
the Isaak Walton League of America. In a period of fifty-five working
days we have instituted thirty-five chapters in the State of Missouri. I
have pledged the National Board one hundred chapters. This move-
ment is sweeping over the country like wildfire. Kansas is crying for
it; I organized a couple of chapters there a few weeks ago. Every state
wants it; it is the only thing that is going to save the day.

Mr. AveRY: What Mr. Baskett has said is wholly true, and he has
merely touched upon the subject. ‘The sportsmens organizations, of
which the Isaak Walton League is the most powerful example in the
country to-day, are going to do what he predicts, But this Society is
just as necessary as any other organization. The American Fisheries
Society is not a society for propaganda, not a Society to arouse the
people or to get legislation, as these other institutions and organizations
can do. I want to make this suggestion to Mr. Baskett: every chapter
of the Isaak Walton League ought to tale out a club membership in this
Society. If there are seven hundred chapters and they all took out
memberships in the American Fisheries Society, the Society would be
placed in a position to finance its work. This is a learned Society; its
purpose is investigation and scientific research, things which are
absolutely necessary to supplement the work of such organizations as
the Isaak Walton League, no policy, no code of laws which is worth a
cent, can be adopted in this or any other State or in the United States as
a whole unless it is based on actuai knowledge, upon scientific facts
which this Society is accumulating. Therefore I believe that the Isaak
Walton League could do nothing better than give its support to this
Society.

Mr. CuLLeER: I am a member of the Isaak Walton League, I am
proud to say. In connection I may point out that if the Winneshiek
bottoms, of which Mr. Foster spoke, are saved, it will be due only to the
Isaak Walton League, through Mr. Will Dilg, who made a personal
inspection of that country and who has written on the subject on a
number of occasions, and to a local chapter of the Isaak Walton League
in Iowa which arranged for funds to carry the case to the Supreme
Court of Wisconsin, hoping to gain time so that these bottoms could

54 American Fisheries Society.

be properly taken care of. I hope to see the day when the Isaak Walton
League will be the greatest organization of sportsmen in America.

Mr. FEARNow: The Bureau of Fisheries has dealings with over —
two thousand different organizations, under various names. We have
the Isaak Walton League of America, the various Fish and Game
Associations, the United Sportsmen’s Club, and so on. These organiza- —
tions are all of inestimable value in connection with our work; without
their aid we could not accomplish more than two-thirds of the work we
are now undertaking. Fish which we furnish to applicants are deliv-
ered at railroad stations; when we have done that we have fulfilled our
part of the contract. Representatives of these Associations meet our
messengers at the railroad stations, divide the fish up into small lots and
carry them to the headwaters of streams away back in the mcuntains.
It would cost the Bureau about as much to do that part of the work as
it does, to propagate the fish and deliver them at the railroad stations.
The importance, therefore, of the work that these organizations have
been doing in the matter of fish distribution cannot be over estimated. —
Moreover, I do not know where we could get from any other source the
valuable information which they furnish to us. They know every little
headwater; they know the right place to plant the fish so as to get the
maximum results. We should do everything possible to encourage the
formation of organizations that have in mind the protection of fish or the
fostering of the fish supply in our streams.

Mr. Baskett: I hope that Mr. Avery did not think I was in any
way disparaging scientific research. I am greatly interested in it.
But in the State of Missouri alone there are more than fifteen or six-
teen hundred “hill-billies’”, and they are the boys we have to educate.
They care nothing about your scientific meetings; but they know what
they want and are out to get it. When you can educate that chap down
there on the Niangu, the Current or the Black river that he is not to ©
dynamite fish; that he is not to gig fish in or out of season—the law
will be changed in Missouri. When you teach him that he is to quit
shooting with high-powered rifles and violating the game laws in various
ways; when you can impress that upon him, we are going to have more
fish in the streams and lakes of the United States. This is the work we
are endeavoring to do; we have to reach these fellows. We have to put
it to them in their own vernacular. I have fished and hunted among —
them for years, consequently I am having more success in these endeay-
ors than I otherwise would. I have come here to ask you gentlemen to
co-operate with the Isaak Walton League of America in its great work,
and from the remarks that have been made I see that co-operation is
here.

PRESIDENT LEACH: The Isaak Walton League of America fills a
long-felt want. It meets the sportsmen and fishermen all over the
country; it speaks their own language. The League will have the co- —
operation of the American Fisheries Society. Mr. Will Dilg is an
organizer; he has a large number of enthusiastic men behind him. Every
body should read the monthly publication that he publishes.

MUSEUM METHODS IN RELATION TO THE
FISHERIES SOCIETY

By T. E. B. PoPe
Curator of Zoology, Public Museum of Milwaukee.

The modern natural history museum is not in the fish-
hatching business, nor is it concerned in any financial or
other way with the commercial fisheries, but nevertheless
it is intensely interested in both of these directions as will
be briefly shown. It is, therefore, greatly concerned with
the proceedings of this Society and other allied scientific
bodies that are endeavoring to promote and encourage the
proper conservation, production and utilization of the natu-
ral history resources of this country.

If I should be asked as to the relationship that is so
claimed to exist between the modern museum that includes
natural history exhibits within its walls and the fisheries
industry in all of its phases, my answer would be that it
serves as a sort of public clearing-house between the society
concerned and the general public; it servés, or can well be
made to serve, as the medium for the tangible and actual
illustration of the results achieved in the field of production
and is in reality an agent, exponent, or publicity-medium
for the fishery and other ailied societies.

Let me now briefly attempt to illustrate by a few facts
and weliknown examples, some concrete evidence of the
claims so made. To do solI will be obliged to roughly out-
line the methods of a modern museum in this important re-
lationship to the Fisheries Society. The evidence I believe
will speak for itself.

1. The modern museum does actually serve or can be made
to serve as a direct agent between yourself and the people at
large even though its services as such have hitherto not been
solicited or openly considered in that capacity by you.

Despite the numerous papers that have been submitted
‘and read before this body on the identification of species,
nomenclature, apparatus, transportation, legislation, con-
servation factors, resources, etc., etc., the major number by
far have been directly concerned with the problems, methods
and various phases of production. To a large extent this
society has been recognized as a society of fish producers
and the most active participation in its meetings have con-
sequently been by public officials of the Federal Bureau, of
state hatcheries, state fish commissions, and conservation

56 American Fisheries Society.

appropriations for their work in turn has been, and is, de-
pendent upon the support, approval and enthusiasm of the
people’s representatives to the Federal and State legisla-
tures. These representatives again are influenced and
stimulated to support, or to cease to support, fishery ap-
propriations in accordance with the trend of public senti-
ment. Public sentiment finally is entirely based on the
factors of necessity for the service, public welfare or de-
sirability, and the practical results obtained. ‘‘The proof
of the pudding is in the eating.” In other words, if the
actual results of fishery production are not sufficiently ade-
quate, or can be demonstrated that they will be within a
reasonable period of time, then there always is the natural
prospect of greatly reduced appropriations, or, worse still,
an absolute discontinuance of the entire service. It natur-
ally stands to reason that appropriations will not be con-
tinued unless tangible results are forthcoming even though
the necessity for and the objects of the service are of the
most laudable character. Public interest and continued
support of the service, therefore, hinges upon the public
knowledge of the tangible results of the service.

This public knowledge of tangible fishery results at the
present date has been almost wholly restricted to the numer-
ous and voluminous reports, bulletins, and other publications
of the Federal] and individual State Governments, including
their respective departments (which although free for the
asking, are rarely obtained or read by even the mass of the
intelligent people); to the knowledge of citizens in scat-
tered local communities where hatcheries are situated (even
this local knowledge is often not only inadequate but negli-
gible as far as the mass of the country’s citizenry is con-
cerned) and also to a less extent to the irregular, and com-
paratively few circulars issued by conservation commissions.
It is, therefore, safe to say that the average citizen knows
practically nothing about the methods and actual results
of the fishery production service and the continued support
to the service is consequently left to the various state and
Federal legislators who may or may not inject petty poli-
tics into the system or decrease appropriations.

For some time, there has been a public institution that
has a decided interest in matters that you are concerned in,
—that is, all matters that are connected with the necessity
far, the production of, the distribution, the proper legisla-
tion for, and the conservation of fish life. It is the public
natural history museum. Conditions have radically changed
in the last ten vears or so in the policies and exhibition meth-
ods of museums. Only those persons that visit them fre-
quently or keep directly in touch with their work can realize

Pope.—Museum Methods. 57

the full sienificance of the great changes that have trans-
pired in later years. No longer is such an institution only
a permanent storehouse of varied specimens, no longer is the
system of ‘upholstering’ and relegating objects to dusty
shelves forever, in vogue, etc. Onthe contrary, the progres-
Sive muserm is today rapidly becoming an educational
power in the community and a broad-casting station through
the means of carefully prepared exhibits of value (involving
the most improved methods of technique of skilled techni-
cians) and free illustrated lectures on almost every topie con-
nected with the animal, plant and geological resources of
the country. It is directly in contact with the people, and,
with possibly the excention of the public library system, the
progressive museum with its exhipvition halls and free, num-
erous, illustrated lectures directly ‘rubs elbows’ with a
greater mass of the people annually perhaps than any other
educational or other public institution. Such an institution
‘is rapidly becoming the official heacdauarters of the people
in numerous large cities for the azeummulation and broad-
casting of knowledge on aii r.atters pertaining to the bio-
Jovical and geological resources, as well as other subjects,
within its scope. Its information, handed out in manifold
ways, is popular in form, within the understanding of the
- average citizen, it is not clothed and tainted with the ped-
antry of the university class room and laboratory. Again,
unlike the books of a library or the wearisome, dry, statisti-
cal pages of a public document, the information is brief,
digested down to the practical, ultimate facts and presented
to the public from the public lecture platform by word of
mouth, with stereopticon, with motion-film, printed on
specimen labels and in other forms. Further, this informa-
tion, unlike that of any other institution, is materially sup-
plemented by actual specimens of the fishes or other objects
under consideration, by actual apparatus, photographs,
charts, diagrams, models, etc., connected with the same.
For the proper dissemination of the tangible results of the
fisheries service, it may be here stated that all cf the im-
portant and salient facts are carefully ‘culled out’ from the
latest documents when received, the proceedings of such a
society as this are digested to obtain the most recent im-
provements in methods and the final results in popular form
up to date are printed upon the museum specimen labels,
incorporated in public lectures and broadcast to the public
at large. Thus it will be readily seen that the modern pub-
lic museum is constantly radiating ‘daylight’ on matters that
concern the public pocketbook, of which the average citizen
has hitherto been ignorant of, unable to get authentic know-
ledge of, or understand. By the same token it will be seen

58 American Fisheries Society.

that the modern progressive museum is, as has been claimed
in the early part of this paper, serving as a direct agent be-
tween yourself and the people at large even though its
services as such have hitherto not been solicited or openly
considered in that capacity by you. “Constant dropping of
water may wear away stones,” so the saying goes, and in
like manner the continual process of popularly enlightening
the public on your methods, objects and actual results, by
disseminating such information annually to hundreds of
thousands of people through the exhibits and lectures of a
single institution alone will no doubt sooner or later have a
decided effect upon the sentiment of the people and not im-
probably affect your necessary annual appropriations. In
short, it is becoming universally recognized that such public
institutions can and do possess the power to considerably
aed BURNS sentiment along the directions already men-
tioned.

2. The modern progressive public museum serves as the
people’s headquarters and agent for information within its
scope.

Inquiry will develop the fact that the United States alone
has hundreds of museums of all types, but that among them,
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, are a number of general
museums dealing with natural history that are well scattered
among the larger and most densely populated communities.
In recent times the tendency seems to be for the establish-
ment of public museums just as for public aquaria. It is
perfectly natural therefore that, in any community possess-
ing a natural history museum, such an institution should be
regarded as the official headquarters of the community for
information within its scope and to it the general public and
newspapers go with every possible kind of inquiry on natural
history. Should I attempt to elaborate upon the number
and nature of such inquiries and demands that include all
phases of fishery production, care and conservation ranging
from the remedies for goldfish diseases, or the identification
of local fishermen’s captures to the interpretation of Govern-
ment statistics, you might be both interested and amused.
Obviously vou will see why the modern museum is unlike its
predecessor in policies and exhibits. In the old days the
people appeared to be satisfied with the well-known system-
atic collections of animals and other objects placed in tire-
some array upon shelves with only a Latin name upon a
piece of pasteboard to differentiate one specimen from
another. Now such methods are cecidedly out of date.
The people want to see the various forms of life represented
in natural environment to show their relation in nature, one

Pope.—Museum Methods. 59

to the other (called by us Habitat Groups). They want also
exhibits to show the usefulness of these many fishes, birds,
reptiles, insects and other forms of life to man, if such have
an economic value; how they are obtained or captured,
what is the economic status of the animal, and how it is
converted into a useful purpose by man, etc., etc. The
people now want something for their money. They want
the best of exhibits, lectures, and, above all, they want the
latest and correct information. And the modern progres-
sive museum is keeping up with the times. It now posses-
ses, in the case of all the larger institutions, the staff and
facilities for gathering of suitable exhibitional material, the
proper installation of the same and the broadcasting of
popular information. That the people of a community do
want such an institution, can support it financially, as well
as back it up with actual attendance and encourage its
development, allow me to cite you the concrete example of
the Public Museum of Milwaukee. The museum is general
in scope, it is ranked as about fifth in size of all museums in
the country, even though the city only occupies the position
of thirteenth in population. In actual attendance, by the
same method of computation as employed by all other
museums, it ranks second, with an annual attendance of ap-
proximately 750,000, thus being next to a famous New York
City institution. This attendance places the museum in the
enviable position of being the only institution of its kind in
the country whereby the annual attendance is greater than
the entire population of the community in which it is located.
This fact is of no little significance when it is remembered
that the city is not noted for its ‘sight-seeing’ advantages and
therefore such abundant support is of local nature and
comes entirely from the people that support it financially
and not from transient patronage. Its public free lectures
were attended by close to 100,000 last year and that figure
is on the increase for the present current year. These facts
are not incorporated in this paper with any intention to
advertise the institution (because it already draws adequate
support, as shown, in its own local community) but simply
_ to offer a concrete example to the claim made above, namely,
that the public natural history museums of the country,
either individually or collectively, are in a position to pro-
mote considerable sentiment and dispense information on
subjects under public control as represented by fishery
production.

3. The modern progressive public museum has thé facili-
ties for promoting the cause of the American Fishery See

and allied scientific societies.

60 American Fisheries Society.

Needless to state, the average natural history museum
possesses a systematic collection of fishes. In addition to
that, the Milwaukee Museum has initiated the nucleus of an
Economic Fishery Collection in which it is planned to ulti-
mately include all of the economic food and game fishes of
the country, these to be supported by as complete a collec-
tion as possible of all apparatus used in their capture, of the
products and byproducts that come from the same with
ample charts, photos and models to illustrate the fishery
methods and commercial processes. Such a collection is ex-
plained in the copy of the Museum Yearbook submitted for
your reference.

In a museum of this kind is, therefore, the opportunity
for the installation of fish-cultural apparatus and exhibit
material, photographs, explanatory charts and diagrams,
models and all else that serves to publicly explain and illus-
trate the cause of the fish-culturalist and conservationist.
Legal and illegal apparatus could be exhibited with brief
popular descriptive labels that tell the aims and story of
the conservation commissions. In fact, there is today hardly
any useful public cause or occupation that is not conducive
to illustration through exhibits. But the material must and
should come directly from the interested parties themselves
if they would desire their own field of endeavor with its
aims, methods and tangible results to be more adequately
and intelligently presented to the people. The modern
museum is therefore in a position to encourage, foster and
promote the fishery industry but it should have active sup-
port from the interested scientific societies.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, therefore, allow me to state that our pub-
lic natural history museums, our fishery colleges (as repre-
sented by the Seattle Institution), our commercial museums
(as that of the Philadelphia Commercial Museum), and all
other similiar institutions of this country and Canada do
actually serve the fishery and allied causes and that active
cooperation between these institutions and the various so-
cieties concerned cannot be too strongly emphasized.

Discussion.

Mr. Doze: At Topeka recently they had a free fair; a pavilion was
built fcr the Fish and Game Department and we exhibited fish there. I
was told by those connected with the fair that this exhibit was the most
popular place in the grounds; there was not a time when the people were
not gathered three or four thick around the exhibits. We took advan-
tage of the opportunity of handing out literature published by the Fish
and Game Department, with suggestions in regard to organizing local

Pope.—Museum Methods. GE

sportsmen’s associations. Since I have heard from the gentleman from
Missouri speak of the Isaak Walton League I think we shall change
these to Isaak Walton Chapters, and if he comes over to Kansas we will
help him organize.

Dr. OSBURN: The experience of the gentleman who has just spoken
is the same as ours in Ohio in connection with our State fair. For a
number of years we have had an exhibit of fish and game, including a
small aquarium, and that place is literally packed during the whole
week of the fair. An exhibition of this kind is very important from an
educative point of view. A great many people from outlying districts
attend these fairs where they could not get this information in any other
way. Many who do not know one fish from another are found standing
by the tanks, carefully reading the labels and examining the fishes,
Another thing that has been a feature there for years is an exhibit of
illegal apparatus.

The public museums and the aquaria of the country are very im-
portant in that they offer the kind of education the people need. This
phase of education might be further augmented by a display of hatch-
ery methods. I do not know whether or not Mr. Pope’s museum has
undertaken that, but at the New York Aquarium for many years a small
model fish hatchery has been exhibited, and has always attracted a great
deal of attention.

I believe there is no better way of getting information to the public
than through the medium of sportsmen’s organizations. We never can
get legislation which is backed up by the people—and unless this is the
case it is not of much use—until the people get the information before
them, and the best way to do this is through such organizations as the
Isaak Walton League. Members of this and other sportsmen’s associa-
tions are always willing to get behind any movement in favor of con-
servation, not only of fish but of other resources as well. (Applause.)

Mr. Doze: Asa result of this display at Topeka, Wichita has bor-
rowed the idea and built a number of aquaria. Furthermore, next year
we are going to make a similar exhibit at the State fair at Hutchinson,
so that the exhibit will be made at three different places in succession.

PRESIDENT LEACH: Education of the people is necessary if you want
them to take an interest in such organizations as the Isaak Walton
League and the American Fisheries Society.

ARE WE MAINTAINING THE SUPPLY OF WHITEFISH
IN LAKE ERIE?

By S. W. DOWNING,
Put-In-Bay, Ohio.

I was asked to write a short article on whitefish, and it
was suggested that particular mention be made as to wheth-
er or not our work of propagating this most excellent food
fish is resulting in maintaining them in as great numbers in
Lake Erie as they were previous to the time the work was
undertaken.

At first thought this appears to be a very easy subjeet to
write upon, but in preparing these few thoughts, I find it to
be rather difficult to bring out the ideas and make them com-
prehensive. However, we will begin with the assertion that
we are not only maintaining the original number, but that we
are materially increasing it, and this in spite of the great ac-
tivities of the commercial fishermen who are taking them in
the largest numbers possible to supply the demand for them
as food fish.

Beginning as far back as the first year that the federal
hatchery at Put-in-Bay, Ohio, was put in operation in 1890,
and continuing from that date up to the year 1899, the
annual collection of whitefish eggs from the same fields oper-
ated since that time, ranged from eighty to two hundred
millions. (This record is not complete but from the data at
hand we believe this number to be fairly accurate.)

The fields from which the eggs were collected are as
follows: Monroe, Mich., and in Ohio, Toledo, Port Clinton,
Catawaba Island, Kelley’s Island, Middle and North Bass
Islands and Put-in-Bay Island, so called.

The collection of whitefish eggs from these fields during
the twelve years from 1900 to 1911 inclusive, yielded a
total of 2,658,486,000 eggs, or a total average of 223,498,000
each year. During the next six years, from 1912 to 1917
inclusive, they produced a total of 2,567,690,000 eggs, or an
average of 427,948,000, eggs, which shows an average
annual increase over the preceeding twelve years of 204,450,
000 or nearly double the number produced each of the first
twelve years.

During the last five years, from 1918 to 1922 inclusive,
the Ohio State Fish Commission operated the Kelley’s Island
field and a part of the Put-in-Bay field and the U. S. Bureau

Downing.—Whitefish in Lake Evie. 63

of Fisheries operated the balance of the original area, and
the total collection by both was 2,917,350,000 or an average
of 583,470,000 each year; showing an average annual in-
crease of 155,522,000 eggs over the collections of the six
years immediately preceeding, and a yearly increase of 358,
972,000 over the first twelve years considered, or more than
two and one half times as many from the same area.

Now as this is an assembly of persons more or less in-
terested in fish, and fish culture and the method used in the
work, it is taken for granted that most of you here are
familiar with our work up on the Great Lakes, but for the
benefit of those who are not, I will say:

Our entire work is strictly that of conservation, as we
neither catch or destroy any of the fish from which we secure
-our stock of eggs for propagation. On the contrary all the
eggs of all the species propagated by us are taken from the
fish caught for market by the commercial fishermen and
would have gone to market with the fish and been a total
loss to production had net we secured them for propagation.
Now as we secure our stock of eggs from the fish caught by
these commercial fishermen, it goes without saying that the
supply of eges naturally must correspond to the number of
fish taken by these commercial fishermen, and therefore if
the number of eggs secured by us has steadily increased dur-
ing all these years there must have been a like increase in the
number of fish caught, which we think will conclusively
prove to you that our assertion that we are maintaining the
number of whitefish in Lake Erie, is true.

Now this may seem to be avery short paper, and it is,
considering the importance of the industry under considera-
tion, and I will therefore touch upon another phrase or angle
of the subject, not so much with an idea of proving any thing
as to introduce the matter for discussion.

From the year 1900 to within a few years since, the
Monroe, Michigan, field, the most westerly of all our sta-
tions, was very productive, producing the great number of
306,000,000 of eggs in the year1913, but since that time the
collection at that point has gradually dropped off until since
the year 1919 we have not been able to secure any eggs at
all, and the take of fish by the commercial fishermen has de-
clined to such an extent that some of the firms operating in
this vicinity have purchased no new nets to replace those
worn out, believing that the fishing on these grounds has be-
come permanently ruined.

While the conditions at Toledo, another of the fields at
the extreme west end of the lake, are not quite so bad, the
catches of fish, and consequently the take of eggs, has ma-

64 American Fisheries Society.

terially diminished, having dropped from 82,560,000 in the
fall of 1914 to 15,600,000 in the fall of 1922, the decline be-
ing steady, with the exception of the fall of 1920 when the
number reached nearly 54,000,000.

Now the question is why? What is causing this decline
at the west end of the lake while the take of both fish and
eggs is increasing farther east or down the lake from these
fields mentioned? The take of whitefish eggs at Kelley’s
Island, one of the most easterly fields has steadily increased
during this time, why? We believe that the reason for these
changes is on account of pollution. What do you believe?

Discussion.

Mr. TiITcOMB: Have you any statistics of the whitefish catch during
any of these years?

Mr. DOWNING: No, I have not.

PRESIDENT LEACH: The State of Ohio, I believe, collects statistics
on this point every year. The commercial fishermen are required to
furnish the necessary information, and that is made a matter of record
at Columbus. The Bureau collects statistics out there about every five
years; it just completed one last year.

Mr. Doze: Is the pollution any greater at the upper end of the lake
than at the other?

Mr. DOWNING: Since the establishment of large powder factories
near Monroe at the upper end of the lake and the dumping of their
refuse into the water, the catch of fish has very materially dropped.
At Toledo they get the pollution from the Maumee River, which drains
a large section of the country; and there is all the sewage from the city
of Toledo.

Mr. TITCOMB: We have many organizations throughout the country
which are interested in this matter. Wehave the Anti-Pollution League,
which is to meet at Atlantic City in October; and there is another meet-
ing at Pittsburgh preceding that. We have the league with reference
to migratory fish, and we have this most recent acquisition, the Isaak
Walton League, which has come to be so powerful. Every one of these
organizations should be working to help the Bureau of Fisheries to get
appropriations to do intelligent work; and none of them can accomplish
a great deal if they are not intelligently directed. The Isaak Walton
League has to have the assistance of this Society and of the Bureau of
Fisheries. It is possible to knew definitely whether the disappearance
of the whitefish in certain sections of Lake Erie is attributable to certain

causes it can be worked out by the Bureau of Fisheries if they have i

proper suppert and the money to do it with. This is only one of the
things which these organizations ought to take hold of and push through.
A man like Carlos Avery, recognized as one of the leading conserva-
tionists of the country, can be put out of office and a politician put in

his place. Much of the work he has done is upset; no man, however

good he may be, can learn in fifteen years what Carlos Avery knows.
This is a chance for the anglers’ league; and the anglers’ Jeague has to
work with the commercial fishermen, otherwise the work they are trying
to do may be blocked.

om
{

THE FUTURE OF THE FISHERIES
OF THE PACIFIC

By JOHN N. COBB,
Director, College of Fisheries, University of Washington.

“Westward the Star of Empire Takes Its Way.”’— Berkeley

When the poet wrote the above line, he little recked how
soon they would come true, especially in fishery matters.
First the Atlantic Coast of North America wrested the fish-
ery preeminence from the old world, and for many years our
fishing vessels, manned by the hardiest and most daring
fishermen the world had seen up to that time, plowed the
seas from the ice-bound fastnesses of the Arctic to the even
more difficult ones of the Antarctic.

As time went on, and the shore of the Pacific gradually
became peopled with the hardy pioneers of the East and
Middle West, including also some of those who had partici-
pated in the later stages of the wonderful development of
the Atlantic fisheries, and the descendants of others, the in-
fant fisheries of the Pacific began to attract attention.
Starting with the salmon, our fisheries steadily increased in
value and importance until in 1919 they exceeded in value
and quantity those of the Atlantic seaboard, and unless all
the teachings of history are at fault, they will never again be
distanced by that section of our continent. If we are ever
to lose our supremacy it will be because the course of empire
has continued its way to the westward and the preeminence
rests with the Asiatic side of the Pacific.

Around the shores of the North Pacific are at present to
be found the most important commercial fisheries in the
world, and also the greatest undeveloped fishery resources
of the known world. The Mexican and Central American
fisheries on the Pacific have been but slightly developed;
there isroom for a large expansion of the present fisheries of
the Pacific States, Alaska and British Columbia; Siberia’s
vast fishery resources (both marine and freshwater) have
hardly been scratched as yet; the marine resources of Korea
and China are largely in an undeveloped state while Japan,
one of the leading fishing countries of the globe, is still hold-
ing herown. It has been estimated that the fisheries of the
sections bordering on the Pacific amounted in value in 1918
to $325,665,000.

66 American Fisheries Society.

With the exception of Japan, none of the countries bor-
dering on the North Pacific has exploited its fisheries to any-
thing like the extent that is practiced in the fisheries of the
North Atlantic. Most of our efforts in each section of the
Pacific have been centered upon a few well known species,
while the lesser known ones have been almost entirely neg-
lected. A typical example of this is the albicore. In 1907
Dr. Jordan stated ‘‘the flesh of the albicore is of little value,
unless, as in Japan, it is eaten raw.”’ That same year, Mr.
A.P. Halfhill, of San Pedro, California, discovered a method
of canning them, and as a result a large canning business,
amounting in 1919 to 657,624 cases, was built up. About
1903 the canning of sardines began on the Pacific Coast, but
it was not until the war created a large demand for food pro-
ducts that the industry became important; the pack in 191
(a dull year as the result of the ending of the war in Novem-
ber, 1918) amounted to 1,151,516 cases. Prior to the open-
ing of the war, the largest pack of pickled food herring in
our Pacific territory amounted to only about 15,000 barrels.
In 1922, we pickled for food nearly 200,000 barrels, and this
could be expanded enormously had we accurate informa-
tion as to the migrations of this species.

Cod.—The oldest fishing industry by Americans in Alas-
ka is that for cod, this having been started some years be-
fore the territory was purchased by the United States. The
principal off-shore cod banks in the North Pacific extend
from Middleton Island, in the Gulf of Alaska, to Unimak
Pass, and in Bering Sea, from Unimak Pass to Cape Newen-
ham. These banks comprise some 30,000 square miles. In
addition there are what are known as inshore banks, mainly
worked by the shore stations and which [ie between the off-
shore banks and the mainland shore. These comprise an
area about one-half as great as the offshore banks. In
Southeast Alaska considerable cod is also found, while there
are good reasons for believing that important offshore and
inshore banks exist on both sides of the Aleutian chain to the
westward of Unimak Pass.

The fleet operating on the offshore banks inl1921 com-
prised some 19 sailing and power schooners, while 17 shore
stations, equiped with launches and dories, operated on the
inshore banks. The total catch amounted to 4,787,831 cod,
valued at $457,320. This catch could be enormously in-
creased, and the only reason why this has not been done has
been because the Atlantic banks continue as heavy produc-
ers, and our fishermen find it difficult to compete in South
and Central American markets with the Atlantic coast deal-
ers who have controlled this trade for nearly 200 years.

Cobb.—Fisheries of the Pacific. 67

The present insignificance of the local fleet may be gauged
by the fact that the cod banks in the Atlantic off the Ameri-
can continent are less in extent than ours, and yet they give
employment to over 2,000 vessels, and this in despite the
fact that they have been fished continuously since 1502.

Trout.—The fresh and salt waters of the Pacific Coast
are infested with hordes of Dolly Varden trout, and some
day the preparation of these for market in a fresh, frozen,
pickled and canned condition will be a big industry. Atthe
present time but little use is being made of this species.

Miscellaneous Fish.—In our waters are to be found
many species but sparingly, or not at all, used as food and
among these may be cited silver hake, atkafish, various
species of flatfishes, “ling cod.” Sitka ‘“‘black bass,’”’ white-
fish, Alaska pollock, the various rock-fishes, etc.

Fish Offal— Thousands of tons of fish offal are thrown
away every season at the fish canning and other plants in
Alaska. <A very small fraction of this valuable material is
at present saved, and oil, meal, and fertilizer prepared, but
this production could be increased a thousandfold were an
effort made.

Included in this offal are tons of salmon eggs and salmon
melt. These, if properly prepared, would make excellent
food.

Clams.—The clam resources of the North Pacific are
enormous and it is only within the last 8 years that any se-
rious attempt has been made to exploit them, and this only
in one or two small areas. Most of the clams utilized were
canned, some thousands of cases being so prepared this year.

Oysters.—The oyster production of the Pacific Coast
cught to be almost as great as that of the Atlantic. As a
matter cf fact it is not more than a fraction of the quantity
produced in the latter region. This is due largely to the
fact that the growers have received almost no assistance
from the federal government in working out the problems
peculiar to this coast.

Shrimp and Prawn.—The shrimp and prawn industry of
Alaska at present is centered around Wrangell Narrows,
and produced in 1921 products to the value of $132,077.
Shrimp may be found in many other sections of Alaska and
as time goes on these supplies will be used quite extensively.
They are also said to be exceedingly abundant off the Sibe-
rian coast, and are only occasionally used for food.

Aquatic Manmals.—The north Pacific has always been
a favorite resort for aquatic mammals, and many whales,
(finbacks, sulphur-bottoms, humpbacks and belugas) are to
be found in their season, while porpoises, hair seals, sea

68 American Fisheries Society.

lions, and walrus are present in countless numbers. Sever- —
al stations are now being operated in Alaska in the catching
and rendering of whales. Oil, meal and fertilizer are the
usual products obtained, but each season witnesses a steadily
increasing demand for the meat as food in either a fresh,
frozen or canned condition, while a market has of recent
years been found for the hides of aquatic mammals in the
preparation of a high grade of leather.

Crabs.—Operations during the year 1922 indicate that
the canning of crab meat is now an established industry on
this coast, as some six or seven plants were operated. The
pack was comparatively small, and this is due to several
causes—the fishermen have not yet become familiar with the
habitat of the spider crab, the best and most profitable crab
to can; the duty of 15 ver cent on imported crabs does not
furnish enough protection to our packers, while in some in-
stances local methods of packing are susceptible of consid-
erable improvement. One of the first pieces of research
work taken up by the College of Fisheries of the University
of Washington after its establishment early in 1919 was the
working out of a process for cooking crabs and canning the
meat, and this was published in the Pacific Fisherman of
June, 1921. At the College we still have some of the origi-
nal pack, now a little over two years old, and whenever
opened these present a pleasing appearance, and in all cases
have proved sterile. When put up properly Pacific crab
meat is a delicious article and one that not only pleases the
eye but also the palate.

Most of the meat packed so far has been of the Dungenese
crab (Cancer magister), the common crab of this coast, and
which is found in the shallow coastal waters from Monterey
to some unknown point in Alaska, probably Cook Inlet. This
crab is a favorite in the markets of our coastal states, where
it is sold mainly in a boiled condition. Attains a maximum ~
weight of about five pounds, but the average weight is about
one and one half or two pounds. They are taken in oblong
pots, similar to the common lobster pot of the Atlantic, or in
open collapsible pots like waste paper baskets when dis- —
tended.

The fact that the spider crab has a whiter flesh, while the
red stripes on the outside of the leg meat is more brilliantly —
colored than that of the Dungenese crab, has led our packers ~
to institute a search for the former in our waters, and so far
it has been reported from the neighborhood of Wrangel Nar- —
rows, in Prince William Sound and Cook Inlet. In the last
named place, two canneries began catching and packing —
them last fall, and the produce turned out compares very
favorably with the best of the Japanese pack.

Cobb.—Fisheries of the Pacific. 69

What little knowledge we have of the spider crab is to
the effect that it is a resident of our deeper coastal waters,
and it is probable that it will be found all along the outer
coast, and possibly in certain of the straits and sounds of
Southeast Alaska.

MANY UNSOLVED FISHERY PROBLEMS

It is surprising how little we know of the life histories of
the aquatic animals of the Pacific. This is especially true
of the migrations, etc., of the herring, halibut, tuna, albacore,
mackerel, and other species, of the Pacific, and when the
life history of these has been worked out, I hope to see an
immense extension of the herring fisheries,-and a lesser
expansion of the others.

We have but fragmentary surveys of the fishing banks.
Most of this work has been done by the ‘‘Albatross’”’ on the
occasions when she was not otherwise employed. The sur-
veys were exceedingly meager, the data and material col-
lected very slight in quantity, while large areas that our
fishery people were interested in were not covered. It is
my belief that the cod banks off the Alaska coast extend
much farther to the westward than the government surveys
indicate; that the known banks are much more extensive
than are plotted; and that halibut will be found to extend
much farther to the westward than is now supposed to be
the case.

Small power vessels of the type used in halibut fishing,
would be ideal for making such surveys. The type has been
developed to fit the peculiar conditions prevailing in the
North Pacific ocean, and as they are extremely economical
to operate, the expense would be kept to a minimum.

As we are far from many of the consuming markets of
the world, it is necessary that we prepare most of our pro-
ducts in such a manner that it will be possible to hold them
for considerable periods of time, and also that they will be
in proper condition to be shipped to far distant markets.
Canning more nearly fills these requirements, but it is not
feasible with some products, while with others, the consumer
demands them either fresh, frozen, or pickled, in prefer-
ence to canned.

There is a wide field for the working out of the methods
best suited to the preparation of food products from the
many hitherto neglected, or but little used, aquatic species
found in the Pacific. Up to two years ago, this field was
almost totally neglected, and even today but little active

70 American Fisheries Society.

work is being carried on. It is hoped to devote our equip-
ment and a considerable part of our time, at the College of
Fisheries, to research work on the best methods of canning, ~
pickling, dry-salting, drying, freezing, and smoking fishery
products. A start has already been made along this line, ~
but, unfortunately, the lack of funds for carrying on such
work is already hampering our efforts.

EDUCATION IN FISHERIES.

The earliest of the nations to appreciate the need for
proper training of its men in fisheries was Japan. In 1889, ©
the Fisheries Society of Japan established the Fisheries
Training School for the sole purpose of training young men
to be future organizers and managers of the fishery sindus-
tries of Japan, but since the time of its transfer from the
society to the Imperial Government in 1897 the investiga-—
tion and experimental work pertaining to the fishery indus-
try has been added to its original scope. 4

The work has since been enlarged until in addition to—
the Imperial Fisheries Institute there are six local fishery
institutes, and various schools of grammar and high school ©
standing, giving Fishery education throughout Japan.

In these strenuous days, when nation is competing ™
with nation for commercial supremacy, it behooves each to ©
make use of the very best intelligence of its citizens, and as —
a result the nation that furnishes its citizens the best training ~
along economic and vocational lines will undoubtedly forge
to the front.

In 1919 the University of Washington established a
College of Fisheries, the only fully equipped one in the world
outside of Japan. In addition to the regular four-year
curricula leading to a degree, provision has been made for
special students who show aptitude for the work, but who
have not had the preliminary training requisite for regular
admission to freshman standing. These students may se-—
cure this in the University and thus become regular students —
eligible for degree if they wish. An exceedingly im-—
portant feature is the series of short courses offered in the —
various branches during the winter quarter, and which are
open to any person who understands English, is 20 years of ©
age or over, and who indicates ability to carry the work |
with profit. Most of those attending the Short Courses are
regularly employed in the industry. They come for the
purpose of enlarging their knowledge of the fisheries. {

Through the generosity of the manufacturers of canning
machinery our canning laboratory is well equiped for carry-
ing on research work of this character, while the U. S.

Cobb.—Fisheries of the Pacific. f(t

Bureau of Fisheries has greatly aided us in acquiring suffi-
cient equipment for fish cultural research work. We are,
however, much hampered by lack of equipment for freezing
and smoking work, and vessels for carrying on dredging,
plankton and other work, but hope in time to overcome this.

GOVERNMENT AID TO FISHERIES.

Many people have the impression that our federal Gov-
ernment has done much to foster and upbuild our fisheries,
and, while this is true to a certain extent, much of its efforts
have been ineffective through the failure of Congress to
appreciate the value of this work. Despite the very inade-
quate support of Congress, the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries has
been, and is doing much to aid and foster the industry.

The reverse is the case with Japan. Just as it was the
pioneer in fishery education, so it has been the pioneer in the
intelligent upbuildng of its fisheries and the expansion of the
foreign demand for its prepared products. Many people
object to certain phases of this work as carried on by the
Japanese, but I have nothing but admiration for the in-
telligent and immensely effective way they have gone about
it, and wish our own people would adopt the majority of
their methods, which I think would immensely profit us and
place our fisheries in an unassailable position both at home
and abroad.

Less than a decade ago the Japanese awoke to the fact
that they had at their doors raw fishery products similar to
those from which other nations were preparing much liked
secondary products, and drawing wealth therefrom. These
were principally salmon, cod, sardines, herring, mackerel,
tunny, trout, crabs, shrimp and prawns, oysters and clams.
A public sentiment on the subject was soon aroused and a
number of firms and companies engaged in the business of
preparing such, mainly by canning, and endeavored to dis-
pose of them abroad, the purchasing power of the Japanese
people not permitting them to become much of a consuming
factor in connection with such high cost products. Very
much to the packers’ and government’s surprise, the foreign
consumer almost uniformly refused to accept the products
with the result that the packers suffered large losses.

Did the Japanese tamely throw up the game at this
stage? Far from it. With their usual astuteness they
studied the matter pro and con and finally came to the con-
clusion that their methods of preparation had not sufti-
ciently taken into account the great progress which had been
made in canning methods in other countries, nor the likes

2 American Fisheries Society.

and dislikes of the consuming public in different countries.
When they had well digested this, they decided to begin at
the bottom and work up, instead of as before, beginning at
the top and working down.

They began first with crabs. Trained men from the
Imperial Fisheries Institute were sent abroad by the federal
government to study methods. These men, without any
blare of trumpets, (in fact but few people knew who they
were) went into plants as common workmen and watched
the various stages of preparation until they had mastered
the art. They then returned home and taught the commer-
cial canners. These, fortified with this expert knowledge,
installed modern canning machinery, and were soon turring
out a product which drove our domestic canned crab almost
completely from the Pacific Coast market. At the same
tire they were improving the product, and very materially
improving the container by perfecting one of the best lac-
quers known for the coating of the inside of the cans used
and thus preventing the product from blackening through
contact with the metal base should the tin be accidentally
eracked or scratched. .

After they had established their crab market they began
experimenting with sardines, but here they met with very
little success, although the last few years have shown an im-
provement in the demand from abroad. The same has also
been true with respect to the mackerel canning and pickling.

During the last 6 years they have been devoting their
attention to the development of foreign markets for salmon
and cod. Modern sanitary plants have been erected in
Siberia for canning salmon, in some of which American
experts are employed, and the product prepared compares
favorably with that produced on this coast.

With cod the work has been more difficult. The first
lots of dried cod were far from attractive and they met with
almost uniform condemnation. Again the experts who had
been trained at the Institute were requisitioned, and one by
one, they visited the various codfish producing sections of
the world and studied at first hand the different processes,
thence going to the consuming markets and studying their
likes and dislikes. Many of these experts have called upon
me upon arrival in this country, and I have always found
them earnest and indefatigable workers, trained to ob-
serve everything and ready to turn their hands to any kind
of work, no matter how laborious and disagreeable, only so
they could advance their knowledge of the subject. Some
of them have been kind enough to remember me with post
cards and letters throughout their travels, and it has been

Cobb.—Fisheries of the Pacific. 73

surprising how much ground they have covered and the

length of time devoted to the work. One of them went to
Alaska, thence to Puget Sound where he worked in one of
the home codfish stations where the fish were prepared for
market; then to Gloucester, Mass; thence to Norway, from
which country he expected to sail for home, his work having
occupied two years’ time.

And what has our government done in the meantime to
improve our methods of preparation and to find an export
market for our fishery products?

As to the first, it extended a little aid during the stress of

war in teaching those Alaska herring packers who wanted

to pack Scotch cure, and also did a little experimental can-
ning work at San Pedro, California, but all this has now been
abandoned for economy sake.

As to the second, but little has been done to aid our ex-
porters. A few persons have been sent abroad at times to
look up certain fishery matters. One, possibly two, investi-
gations were made which really produced results, but with
the exception of these the rest were barren of results.

If we are ever to greatly diversify our canned fishery
pack, it will be necessary for the federal government to
come actively to the aid of the packers in finding markets,

both domestic and foreign. The great increase in our

wealth which would result ought to be ample justification
for the government’s undertaking the work.

In this matter, we should take a leaf from the Japanese
book and send abroad properly trained men who know what
they are after and are able to understand preparation
methods when they see them and who are also fitted to
follow the products clear up to the consumers, if necessary,
in order to see if these cannot be rendered even more attrac-
tive to them.

Another way in which the government could aid our fish-

ermen and fish preparators, would be by a judicious system

of loans covering a long period of time and at a reasonable
rate of interest. The government has gone into the farm-
loan business on a large scale, and there are, in my opinion,
no reasons why the same kind of assistance can not be ex-
tended to the people who develop our fisheries, or who de-

sire to do so, but lack the money necessary.

A REPORT OF PROGRESS ON THE STUDY

OF TROUT DISEASES.

By EMMELINE Moore,
N. Y. State Conservation Commission.

begun last year and reported upon before the American Fish- ¥
eries Society in a paper entitled “Giardiasis of Trout.” It —

happens that the organism producing the disease is not —

Giardia, but Octomitus, a near relative whose full name, Oct- —

omitus salmonis, has been duly entered in the annals of the ©
society. Its name has been changed to satisfy taxonomic re-
quirements. Its habits, however, remain as verminous as ©
before. }

Following the reading of my paper last year on the presence ~

of Octomitus in the New York State hatcheries, it transpired _

that Dr. Davis, Pathologist of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, ~
was studying the organism, also, in the Virginia and Tennessee

hatcheries. Information has come recently of its presence at
hatcheries in three other states—Iowa, New Jersey and Mas- ~
sachusetts. Such spottiness may be interpreted to mean a ©

much more general distribution in the hatcheries of the eastern _
states, where its recognition awaits only greater discrimina- —

tory power in determining the reasons for mortality, now

often generously charged off as “normal loss.”

Before proceeding with my later findings, let me recall ©
briefly for the sake of orientation the more important features —
of last year’s report. i

It was found that Octomitus is a minute, protozoan para- —
site in the intestine of trout, that it is common under hatchery
conditions, and that it is the cause of serious epidemics ac-
companied by high mortality. It was found, also, that all
species of trout are susceptible to the disease, the susceptibility
of brook trout over other species being pronounced. e

The most significant and important information proceeding _

from the studies last year, and this refers both to Dr. Davis’ fs
work and my own, bears on the explanation of the mechanism
of the disease. It is now known with a fair degree of cer-

tainty what makes the fish die, and knowing this neither time
nor money need be wasted in doctoring symptoms. i
In advancing to the report of progress I must beg your —

indulgence in presenting unfinished work. It may not be en- —

couraging to point out that perhaps a not less difficult or- i]
74 ;

Moore.—Study of Trout Diseases. 75

ganism, the malarial parasite, challenged the best efforts of
Laveran, Ross, Grassi and others during a period of twenty
years before the facts associated with malaria were under-
stood, and the simple remedy of a dose of quinine could be
prescribed at the appropriate interval after ‘a chill. When
pressed to speed up results in the study of Octomitus for their
quicker application to practical fish culture, a cheerful refer-
ence to this fascinating bit of history proves an effective
anodyne in allaying a natural impatience for results. So I
beg your indulgence.

In the further study of Octomitus the efforts of the Com-
mission have been directed this current year to the following
phases of the problem:

1. The examination of wild brook trout waters to deter-
mine whether the organism is indigenous to our native brook
trout.

2. The examination of wild waters flowing from infected
hatcheries to determine the seriousness of infection in the
wild state.

3. To continue the life history studies of the organism,
including an investigation of the possibility of transmission
of the organism through the eggs of “‘carrier’”’ brood fish.

The question—Is the germ, Octomitus, indigenous to our
native brook trout?—is not easy to solve. I do not claim to
have solved it yet, I am merely attacking the problem. One
mode of approach has been by the study of wild waters which
for a long period of years have contained only brook trout.
Two such waters within the boundaries of New York State
have been located and studied this summer. They offer ex-
ceptional advantages for the pursuit of this question for the
following reasons:

(a) The lakes orginally stocked with native brook trout
have been isolated from other fisheries waters for a long period
of years. Natural dams, which in later years have been raised
somewhat, have kept out fish of various species inhabiting the
waters below, particularly the brewn trout, which have been
introduced into the region in more recent years.

(b) The lakes have been practically self-sustaining.
There appears to be one record only of the introduction of
“new blood” in these waters and this occured in both lakes
about ten years ago. To one lake there was a shipment made
f eyed eggs from a Pennsylvania brook trout hatchery and to
the other, eggs from a New Hampshire trout hatchery.

(c) Asmall hatchery exists on each lake whereby the nat-
ural increment of increase has been augmented by hatching a
certain number of eggs each year from the lake spawners
and planting them back in the lake as fry or fingerlings. In
this connection the hatchery itself, with its necessarily arti-

76 American Fisheries Society.

ficial features, would seem to supply the essential conditions
for the maintenance of the organism were it indigenous in the
trout of the lake.

The net result in the search for Octomitus among the brook
trout of these waters in the hatcheries and in the lakes has
been negative. Added to this negative evidence is the positive
evidence of our infected hatcheries, where the brook trout are
the most susceptible of all trout species, their susceptibility
distinctly limiting the period under which they can be carried
successfully. This very susceptibility yields strong evidence
that the organism is not indigenous when we reason by anal-
ogy from the manner in which many of our native plants
and animals, unimmunized to the disease germs introduced
from abroad, succumb to their ravages.

The possibilities for determining the indigenous or non-
indigenous character of the germ are by no means exhausted
and to this extent the problem further presents an interesting
subject for speculation. If not indigenous, how did the or-
ganism get here? Was it introduced into our brook trout
waters by way of the Brown or Loch Leven trout from
Europe? The inference is strong that it has been introduced
in this manner.

The history of the organism bears strongly on the point.
Last year Dr. Davis, of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, and I,
working at different hatcheries, simultaneously recognized
Octomitus as the infecting organism responsible for epidemics
of enteritis at the respective hatcheries under observation.
Hitherto this organism had not been observed or described in
this country. In Europe, however, this, or a similar organ-
ism, has been known for twenty years. In 1903 Moroff de-
ser ibed it as the inciting cause of disease among the introduced
rainbows of their hatcheries, and he makes the interesting ob-
servation that the browns are less affected. This is just what
might be expected to happen to the non-immunized rainbows
by contrast with the more hardened native browns. In 1920
Schmidt re-described Moroff’s organism, which for nearly
twenty years had been masquerading under the name of
Urophagus intestinalis, and rechristened it Octomitus intest-
inalis truttae. Ihave str ong suspicions that this and our own
species, Octomitus salmonis are identical, and that our species
was introduced and has now become a naturalized citizen.

The infection by Octomitus of wild waters flowing from
hatcheries in which octomitiasis exists seems inevitable under
the circumstances, for infectious material is constantly being
discharged by diseased fish into the waste waters which enter
the streams. As is usual in such streams there are numerous
fish which come up to the hatchery outfalls for stray morsels

ge ee Ee ee

Moore.—Study of Trout Diseases. rae

of food and they afford excellent material for observing how
serious the infection may be when they are free to range over
wild waters, where natural food is available.

In these situations the adult brown trout and fingerlings
carry the organism in varying degrees of intensity, seemingly
quite unaffected by it. It is a question, however, how long
they can tolerate such severe infections as have been observed
without becoming so devitalized as to succumb either to this
or some other disease. In the stream where the browns were
most heavily parasitized no brook trout were found and the
local comment is that they are now never found there. Of
course the explanation of their extermination from the stream
they once inhabited may lie along one or more lines, either
they die of the disease or they are driven out by the browns
and rainbows which now populate the stream. Probably both
factors operate in their extermination. Infected brook trout,

AAAI gyi MC LSSESUNT WATT oC ATTA GUPTA ACUEEE ecsenarety

Intestine

UOMO yA AAALIURCLONN cys csi AICO

Fig. 1.— Diagram illustrating a section of the digestive tract of trout in typical
infection by Octomitus salmonis. The organism in its various stages appears in
heavy lines in Groups A-F. Group A, segment of germinating spore and juveniles:
Group B. aiult with incicaticn. by arrows, of binary fission an: of cevelopmental
stages of growth within the epithelial cells of ceca and fore-intectine, D, indicating
multiple fission; Group E, stages concerned in the development of a resistant spore:
Group F, juveniles attached to a blood corpuscle.

78 American Fisheries Society.

aged two to three vears, in waters more distantly removed
from hatchery discharges have been found to be “carriers”
of the organism, though, at the time of observation, apparently
quite unaffected by it.

It is reasonable to suppose that immunity is relatively high
in wild waters compared with that under hatchery conditions,
where recurring waves of the disease have been observed after
the peak of the epidemic is passed, and where its reappearance
occurs among two-year-olds that have successfully passed
through the first attacks. But it is certain that before any
broad ¢eneralization can be made on the degree of resistance
that infected trout may acquire to Octomitus after planting in
wild waters more extensive study of the problem is necessary.

In passing to the discussion of the third and last subject,
the life history of the organism, I shall make use of the ac-
companying charts (Figs. 1 and 2), which illustrate in the one
case, the mechanism of the disease, and in the other, the more
formal representation of the life cycle so far as it is known.

THE MECHANISM OF THE DISEASE.

By reference to the chart (Fig. 1) it is seen that the seat
of infection where fatal lesions are produced lies in the fore-
intestine. Here the epithelial or lining cells of ceca and in-
testine (C, D and D,) are shown harboring the parasite in
various stages of development, from exceedingly minute
juveniles Jess than a micron in diameter to those of 9-12 mic-
rons in diameter, ready for emergence from the cells as typi-
eal flagellated adults. The time interval required to pass
through the intracellular staves is undoubtedly brief. for dur-
ing an epidemic the fatal lesions develop rapidly. From the
intracellular stage the parasites pass into the adult form
emerging into the lumen of the intestine on the dissolution or
disintegration of the parasitized cell. It can be imagined from
the diagram, which for purposes of clearness illustrates only
a mild infection, that the drain on the parasitized tissue must
be very ereat when the number of encysted organisms is ex-
cessively high.

As indicated, the stomach, fore-intestine, ceca and blood
seem to be involved in the cycle of development. The occur-
rence of the organism in the blood indicates the possibility of
erg infection from brood fish that are “carriers.”

Juveniles (A) are presumably set free in the stomach on
ingestion and germination of a spore, the resistant structure
concerned in the transmission of the organism. The mode of
‘progress from this point to encystment in the epithelial cells
of the fore-intestinal region is not yet clearly established
though the observation that the blood corpuscles seem to be

Moore.—Study of Trout Diseases. wa

carriers of the organism suggests their entry through the stom-

ach wall, thence into the blood stream, and finally into the

epithelial cells, where developmental stages resulting in the dis-

organization of tissue take place.

The motile adults whose habitat is the lumen of the intes-
tine move about in the mucous discharges of the epithelial
cells. They may be found at any point along the intestinal

Fig. 2.—The life cycle of Octomitus salmonis. I represents an epithelial cell
parasitized by two organisms, a juvenile and a later stage before the emergence of
an adult. I-IIs, side chain showing multiple fission. II, adult motile form common
In the lumen of the intestine. III, an encysted adult within the lumen of the intestine,
the 4-nucleate stage of a temporary spore. IV, a more advanced stage of III. F
a juvenile (merozoite), obtained from culture material by inoculaticn with adults.
Stages I-V, asexual cycle which may be repeated many times within the host fish.
Vi, binary fission simulating budding, a stage initiating development of a resting
spore with a hard, resistant wall. VII and VII,, two types of resting spores. VIII
and VIIil,, germination stages of resting spores, produced in cultures. IX and IX,
Bporozoites (?), produced in cultures.

80 American Fisheries Society.

tract, though they are generally most numerous near the seat
of infection in the fore-intestinal region. While the adults —
are thus swimming about transformations take place in the
various ways illustrated in the diagram, with the resultant
production of structures concerned in the further spread of
infection. Multiplication (B) oceurs by binary fission, the
division of one individual into two, and by another more pro-
lific means, schizogony, the intervening structure in this case
being a spore or cyst of temporary nature which functions ap-
parently in the spread of local infection.

The development of another type of spore, also a multinu-
cleated structure (E), appears to follow binary fission. Such
a spore possesses a hard resistant wall, passes to the exterior —
in the feces and functions in the transmission of the parasite
from fish to fish. It is the structure which doubtless accounts
for the presence of juveniles in the stomach in the initiation
of new infection.

THE LIFE CYCLE.

By assembling the important stages in the life history of
Octomitus in their natural sequence of development (Fig. 2),
it is possible to show more directly how the organism is
equipped for self perpetuation. Starting the cycle with an in-
fected epithelial cell (1), encystment stages carry forward the
development from minute juvenile stages to the adult stage
(II), by a route in all probability involving schizogony and
supplemented by steps shown in the side chain I, l, I,-I1).

Dr. Davis* has made a distinct contribution to our under-
standing of the life history of Octomitus by pointing out in-
tracellular development and indicating methods of increase of
the organism in the intracellular stages. These findings are
corroborated by the writer’s studies, though exception is taken
to the interpretation of structural features concerned in cer-
tain of the developmental stages. For example, Dr. Davis pos-
tulates a development of transitional stages whereby binu-
cleated individuals (adults) arise from uninucleated structures
(juveniles). The writer’s study of culture material in which
exceedingly minute juveniles have been observed indicate that
the organism throughout its life history is binucleated.

Passing from the adult (II), which is the final product
of encystment, two lines of development seem indicated within —
the intestinal tract, one involving the series of steps included —
in II-V, suggesting possibilities of increase by schizogony
from a temporary spore (III), and the other proceeding from
the division of an adult by binary fission (VI) eventuating in

*Davis, H. S. Observations on an intestinal flagellate of trout. Journ. of
Parasitology, 9: 153-160, 1923.

Moore.—Study of Trout Diseases. 81

the production of resistant spores (VII and VII,). Such
spores as indicated above pass from the intestinal tract and
function in the transmission of the organism from fish to fish.
The final products resulting from the germination of the spores
(VIII, 1X and VIII,, [X,), presumably in the stomach of the
new host, carry the cycle to the point of beginning.

To summarize briefly the observations of the year incline
to the belief :

1. That the organism, Octomitus, is not indigenous to
our native brook trout, but was introduced from Europe.

2. That infection extends to wild waters.

3. That the main features in the life history of the or-
ganism indicate a complete cycle of events within the body
of the fish, with transmission of the germ from fish to fish by
means of a resistant spore.

Discussion.

PRESIDENT LEACH: Dr. Moore has dealt very ably with the studies
in progress. Octomitiasis is a disease which has also given the Bureau
of Fisheries no little concern, and Dr. Davis, our pathologist, has also
made some interesting studies in this connection. J am sure that many
of you will wish to take part in the discussion.

Dr. OSBURN: I wish to congratulate Dr. Moore upon her presenta-
tion of this valuable paper and to commend her for the persistence with
which she has carried out this very detailed work. An infinite amount
of patience is necessary to the pursuance of studies of this kind. One
point upon which I am not quite clear is just what is the cause of death?
Is there any loss of blood from these lesions, or is death due to toxic
action of some sort?

Dr. Moore: There is loss of blood. In severe infection the epithe-
lial cells slough off and this must permit a more or less continuous loss
of blood from capillaries that are situated near them. Extrusions of
intestinal content show the presence of blood corpuscles, in greater or
lesser amounts varying with the severity of the disease, and I think it is
safe to say that this is an attending cause of death.

Dr.OsBuRN: How long does this condition last?

Dr. Moore: It appears to vary considerably. At some hatcheries
the disease manifests epidemic conditions early in the season, at others
later. An epidemic during which practically all fish become infected
may be in progress several weeks.

Dr. OsBURN: It might be a wasting disease as a result of loss of
blood might it not?

Dr. MoorE: Mortality is highest among the stunted and emaciated
fingerlings and there is every reason to suppose they have had the dis-
ease longest. They have large heads and thin wiry bodies, they carry
heavy infections of the organism and have been observed to take little or
no food.

82 American Fisheries Society.

Dr. OSBURN: Might death be due to interference with digestion?
If there is a diseased area covering a large portion of the intestinal tract,
the result would be a lack of the absorption of food. But, if there were
any intense toxic effect, you would expect that death would come sooner.

Dr. Moore: From the nature of the excretory products I should
say there must be more or less chronic indigestion. As to toxic effects
operating in more rapid cause of death, I am unable to judge except by
inference. Some diseased fish, less emaciated than others succumb to
the disease quickly, the reason therefor may be a toxic effect due to a
condition favoring an excessively rapid production of the organisms.

Dr. OSBURN: How much of the intestine is affected? What por-
tions of the intestinal area might be sloughed off in the severer cases?

Dr. Moore: The seat of infection is in the fore-intestine and ceca.
Other portions of the intestine are invaded by adults, but I am not yet
sure that the epithelial ceils there are parasitized. Dr. Davis’ findings
indicate that the parasitized tissue occurs only in the ceca and fore-
mtestine. These seem to be the portions that easily slough away. It
is possible that there may be invasion of epithelial cells lower down in
the intestine in the severer cases of infection of larger fish,

Mr. TitcomB: May I inquire whether the eggs of the fish carry
the organism?

Dr. Moore: That seems a possibility from the fact that the organ-
ism is carried in the blood.

Mr. TitcoMsB: It would be necessary to establish that if you are to
attribute the importation of the disease to the brown trout.

Dr. Moore: Yes. I realize that, and that it will require much time
and exhaustive study and experimentation to establish the fact one way
or another. '

Mr. Titcoms: It would mean all those states which are buying eggs
from infected commercial hatcheries are liable to introduce the disease.

Dr. Moore: The disease is certainly very infectious and probably
no state in the East is free from it.

Mr. TitcomsB: The disappearance of the brook trout has in certain
cases been attributed to cannibalism of the brown trout. Do you think
that part of that disappearance of brook trout may be attributed to this
disease?

Dr. Moore: It seems reasonable to think so, especially as our knowl-
edge of the feeding habits of the brown trout become better known.
It seems from the observation that the brown trout is more of a bottom
feeder than the brook trout.

Mr. Titcoms: You have not found anything new in the way of a
remedy, or anything in the diet to regulate it.

Dr. Moore: No. More perfect sterilization measures seem the only
hope at present. As to regulating the diet, I have not given any atten-
tion to that side of the problem. I understand that Dr. Davis of the
U. S. Bureau has been investigating that phase of the subject.

Moore.—Study of Trout Diseases. 83

Mr. Hare: Is there any connection at all between octomitiasis and
gill trouble? At the Manchester station the brook trout have for years
had an infection of the gills, and it seems they have never been able to solve
that problem. Under the glass they show no parasitic growth what-
ever. I am just wondering whether Octomitus would cause that trouble
at Manchester.

Dr. Moore: Since I have found the organism in the blood it has
seemed possible that various parts of the fish should show pathologic
conditions. Before my attention came to be drawn to the study of
octomitiasis at the Bath hatchery, where no doubt it had been endemic
for years, the mortality had been ascribed to “gill trouble,” because as
death ensued the fish seemed to exhibit symptoms of suffocation. It
has seemed to me that the gill symptom was due rather to mechanical
eauses. As the fish become less active during the progress of the dis-
ease various matters passing through the troughs in the water—algae
debris, food particles, ete—may easily clog the gills and cause the
feverish action so noticeable. There is room for further study of this.
phase of the question. Fish afflicted with octomitiasis will, under cer-
tain conditions, develop a red spot or congested area of the blood
noticeable beneath the skin, on the fin or the belly, in the eye and
other parts. Very minute congested areas are also found in the gill
tissue. These seem to be manifestations of the disease.

Mr. Titcoms: The so-called red spot disease, which has occurred
at Long Island, is not attributable to Octomitus?

Dr. Moore: The red spot which occured at Long Island in 1898
and 1904 is not the red spot to which I have referred. The Long Is-
land trouble was associated with an open sore and was similar to furun-
culosis.

Mr. Fearnow: As I understand it, the disease was introduced from
the brown trout. The brown trout is what we might term a more highly
cultivated fish than the brook trout or rainbow trout. Is it not possible
that this disease is one of the effects of a high degree of civilization in
fishes?

DR. Moore: It seems probable, in the light of observation and his-
tory that the disease has been introduced. I think really the brook
trout culture antedates brown trout culture.

Mr. FEARNOW: Is there any preventive for this disease, or any
known method of treatment?

Dr. Moore: The only preventive that seems at all practicable at
present is a careful regard for prophylactic measures. In an infectious
disease of this kind, thorough sterilization methods are certainly neces-
sary in keeping the disease under control. Attention must be given to cer-
tain details, such as the avoidance of the use of utensils, brushes, feathers
etc., the second season, since they may harbor the resistant spores.

Mr. TitcomsB: Would it be advisable, in the case of fingerlings at
any given plant, to divide that plant into sections and use separate
brushes for each lot of progeny reared through the season?

84 American Fisheries Society.

Dr. Moore: Yes. And a brush for every trough is even better.
This routine is very hard to establish as we find and as you will find,
no doubt. When the hatchery laborer has learned the various mechani-
cal operations and works efficiently and swiftly in cleansing one
trough after another keeping the same brush in hand, it is hard to
divert him from that routine. Even though you bring him to the
microscope and show him the organisms in all their stages and indicate
how infectious they are, it is difficult to impress upon him the greater
need of thorough sterilization methods. Everything that helps to re-
duce the spread of infection must be resorted to in keeping the disease in
check. The use of separate utensils and frequently scalding them must
in the long run be efficacious. Heat kills readily most pathologic
organisms of the fish. A fortunate circumstance, since otherwise we
should not enjoy fish in our diet as much as we do.

Mr. ADAMS: For the purposes of record, that the men in our hatch-
ries, that is, the young fish culturists, can get it, will you describe brief-
ly the exterior appearances or symptoms of octomitiasis?

Dr. Moore: I have been thinking a good deal about how “to put
it over’ to our hatchery men that they may recognize the disease and
deal with it early. Briefly the symptoms may be described as follows:
as observed in the troughs, badly infected fingerlings have a character-
istic behavior. Balance seems easily lost and they flop from side to
side, or roll over repeatedly with a “whirling” or “corkscrew” motion.
They appear to “bore” into the water. Just before death they lie on
their back with gills distended and in feverish action. Those greatly
weakened by disease and dwarfish in size congregate in the corners at
the lower end of the trough, or nose along the sides, keeping near the
surface. The fish usually die on the screen or nearby at the foot of the
trough. Sick fish removed from the water will give more specific
diarrhceal symptoms and pass a yellowish, watery fluid on the slightest
pressure. In the troughs the superabundance of excrement in partial
stages of digestion is noticeable also. Of course in other diseases afflic-
ted fish may turn on their backs and have difficulty in breathing; that is,
they may show a similar “gill trouble’ and emaciated ones may con-
gregate in the corners, but, if all the symptoms taken as a whole appear,
it is a pretty sure indication that octomitiasis is present. The symptoms
of a disease in which lesions occur internally should be supplemented by
microscopic examination. é

Mr. ADAMS: Are there no external marks on the fish?

Dr. Moore: Generally there are not. I strongly suspect, however,
that the red spotting I have previously described as due to a congestion
of the blood beneath the skin is an occasional manifestation of the
disease.

Mr. ADAMS: Side by side with that explanation, will you briefly
put into record a description of furunculosis?

Dr. Moore: In the literature we find furunculosis described by the
German pathologists as an infectious disease of adult and yearling trout.

Moore.—Study of Trout Diseases. 85

The first signs are most apparent internally in an extensive inflamma-
tion of the intestine and peritoneum. Sometimes the symptoms of
enteritis are lacking and the second, or ulceration stage, manifests it-
self directly. As described in typical furunculosis, hemorrhagic spots
appear in the deep or shallow portions of the muscle. These spots
quickly develop into sores which eventually break through the overlying
flesh. The skin gradually bulges out, producing “furuncles” or swellings
varying from the size of a pea to the size of a nut. The inside of the
sore contains a purulent mass of muscle fibres, pus and bacteria. On
perforation of the sores flat ulcers appear; some of them deep and not
larger than a five cent piece. A foul colored, bloody mucous flows from
them, but generally this is washed away by the movements of the fish in
the water and the spots appear less bloody. The later German author-
ities indicate that the ulcer or sore is a manifestation which may or may
not be present in furunculosis.

The course of the disease is usually short, death occurring in two to
three weeks after infection. In the earlier writings the authorities in-
dicated that the disease is most likely to occur where there is putrefac-
tion in the bottom of the pond and in the water, especially when in the
course of artificial feeding remains of food in excess foul the bottom.
But later, as observations were extended to wild waters, it was found
that pollution did not enter into the question, It was found that in wild
waters infection does not follow so suddenly, nor so severely as under
artificial conditions and the disease may last longer, including a period
of several weeks or several months. It was found that a bacterium
(B. salmonicida) was the inciting cause of the disease and produced a
very general infection, spreading throughout the body, in the blood,
liver, kidneys and muscles.

Certain manifestations of the “ulcer disease,’ as described by
Calkins and Marsh during epidemics at Cold Spring, L. I., show a
striking similarity to furunculosis. The difference between the two
diseases lies apparently in the origin of the ulcer. According to the
German authorities furunculosis is caused by a bacterium; according to
Marsh the ulcer disease is not but belongs to the type “whose living
causative agents are not to be cultivated outside the body by the usual
methods.”’ The ulcer, as described by Marsh, is of the rodent type. It
starts as a spot on the skin and erodes on all sides, progressing just be-
neath the skin, leaving overhanging edges or flaps of loose skin. In
furunculosis the ulcer penetrates the flesh. The ulcers described by
Calkins may be shallow or deep, and it seems quite probable that the
disease we have in this country is a manifestation of furunculosis.

Mr. ADAMS: Do you believe that furunculosis can be transmitted
through the egg, as is probable with the disease you have been discuss-
ing this morning?

Dr. Moore: It is possible that the disease is transmitted through
the egg. We know little as yet of egg infection, but by analogy with

86 American Fisheries Society.

what happens in chicks, where it is known that the disease “‘bacillary q
white diarrhcea of chicks” is so transmitted, it seems highly probable. ©

Mr. ApAMs: The reason I ask that question is that our brood stock —
at our fish hatchery at East Sandwich, consisting of about 25,000 fish,
was absolutely wiped out three years ago by what our biologists iden-
tified as furunculosis. We practically abandoned a portion of the
hatchery for a year, and we carried out the sterilizing and prophylac-
tie measures which you have described. Despite our efforts we have
reason to believe that the same disease has appeared at a couple of our
rearing stations this year, We know of no way to account for the ©
communication of the disease unless it was through the egg, for no
small fish have been sent from this hatchery to the rearing stations.

Dr. Moore: Do you think that a bird could have been the carrier?

Mr. ApAMs: It is barely possible, because we have the usual run-
ning fight with the kingfisher and the blackcrowned night-heron, and
even with the catbird and the robin.

Dr. Moore: The question comes to me, because two lakes in the
Catskills quite isolated from each other have been infected. There had
never been any contact between the two lakes so far as the transfer of
either eggs or fish is concerned. It looks in that case as if a bird might
be the transferring medium.

Mr. ADAMS: In regard to Octomitus, how long will the shell of the
spore remain intact in open water and remain sufficiently vital to ger-
minate when, subsequent to its being deposited in a stream, it finds
lodgment in the proper chamber of a fish to undergo further develop- 1
ment?

Dr. Moore: I cannot answer directly from my own experience.
Dr. Schmidt, in his work in Bavaria found that the spore was very
resistant to drying and to heat. His experiments extended over an ~
interval of several days. It is quite possible that the spore can retain
its vitality in water for weeks or even months and resist an equal period —
or longer of drought.

Mr. ApAMs: If this disease is found prevailing in a hatchery, ©
would you advise the liberation of the fish on the theory that upon being ©
restored to the wild state they may cure themselves?

Dr. Moore: I believe they do not entirely cure themselves. The —
infecting organism must perpetuate itself and on this account it would ~
be impossible to believe that the fish, when introduced into wild waters, ~
would be rid entirely of the germ. The fish are doubtless much helped —
by their more extensive range over wild waters and by securing their ~
natural food, and to this extent improvement could be looked for. ©
There is always the possibility however of infection being spread by the ~
carriers.

Mr. ADAMS: Would a change in the temperature of the water; that
is, a rise in temperature, retard or speed up the disease? .

Dr. Moore: It would tend to speed up the disease judging by the —
influence of increasing temperature on cultures of the organism. f

Moore.—Study of Trout Diseases. 87

Mr. Hare: I gather that these parasites are so minute that approxi-
mately four million of them could be placed on a twenty-five cent piece.
That being the case, I doubt whether we could recognize the parasite
even with the use of the glasses that we have at the stations.

Dr. Moore: In the days when I made my rounds of some of the
Federal hatcheries I recall that we had quite a number of small micro-
scopes ordered, particularly to study foods. They would be inade-
quate for the study of such organisms as these, whose size individually
is approximately ten 25 thousandths of an inch. A lens which will
magnify seventy-five times, i.e. a number sixteen objective on the
compound microscope, would enable you to recognize the organism.
With that magnification you would be able to distinguish minute, clear
watery, pear shaped objects darting about. A higher magnification, a
4 mm. objective, magnifying 900 times, would enable you to see a quite
remarkable beast equipped with the characterictic number of flagella at
the anterior and posterior ends and with a facility for using them which
is quite astonishing,

Mr. WEBSTER: Do you attribute fin disease to Octomitus?

Dr. Moore: I do not. One type of fin trouble is caused by a
bacterium, another by a flat worm. Ihave observed that the fin trouble
may be present together with octomitiasis. The causative agent in
each case is a specific organism.

Mr. Titcoms: That latter fin disease, Gyrodactyliasis, is very pro-
bably due to filth, is it not?

Dr. Moore: Possibly, it would be in some cases.

Mr. TITCOMB: With regard to the two Catskill lakes to which you
referred, perhaps the disease was introduced through artificial stock.

Dr. Moore: Artificial stocking took place only once in the history
of those lakes. It is extremely difficult to trace back to their beginnings
the causes and results of our complicated stocking policies.

Dr. OSBURN: I understood you to say that certain of these fishes
appeared to be more resistant than others and the question at once
occurred to me whether it might not be possible eventually to breed
from a more resistant strain as plant breeders and animal breeders have
been able to do, and so eliminate the disease, or at least eliminate the
effects of the disease, in that way. If that is the case it seems to me that
the practical thing for trout breeders to do is to get that resistant stock
and make a serious and continued effort to breed from that sort of strain
rather than take any type of wild trout that certainly will become in-
fected in the course of a few years. Trout eggs are being distributed
throughout the country in such a way that, if there is any possibility of
the disease being carried in the eggs, I see no way to prevent it from
spreading everywhere as various other diseases and pests have done. If
we could get under way a good resistant strain from which we could
supply hatcheries, it would only be a short time when trout bred from
that strain could be supplied everywhere and, even if we could not elimi-
nate the disease, we could largely eliminate its effects,

88 American Fisheries Society.

Mr. Foster: An interesting case came up at Neosho last
spring when Dr. Davis was there. He had just returned from
Manchester station after examining the effects of Octomitus. Hardly a
year previously we had received some yearling brook trout from the
Manchester station which no doubt had the disease at the time they were
brought to Neosho. These were examined by Dr. Davis as were other
trout at Neosho, and no trace of Octomitus was found. What the
condition was that eliminated it we do not know.

One of the symptoms mentioned by Dr. Moore, the heading of the
fish to the side of the trough, is also a symptom of disintegration of the
kidneys with crystals, which condition we have had to deal with for a
couple of years. The crystals are very prominent and the disintegra-
tion is quite noticeable. That can be corrected, as has been found in
some hatcheries, I believe, by thinning the fish from the troughs at an
early age and placing them out of doors. We found that by doing that
the trouble did not occur, whereas we did have it where the fish were
held in the house.

It would seem that there is some similarity between octomitiasis
and intestinal trouble in the human being in connection with which
the typhoid serum is administered, so that the measures employed in the
treatment of typhoid might apply in some degree to the treatment of
Octomitus. Of course, we can scarcely develop a serum for the
treatment of each individual fish, but some of the measures adopted
might be of use.

Dr. Moore: That is an important observation regarding the elimi-
nation of Octomitus from presumably infected trout and is paralleled
more or less by a single observation of my own. Not long ago I visited
one of our hatcheries where in recent years it has been impossible to
carry adult brook trout very long in the ponds at the station. One adult
male brook trout, about 12 inches long survived. On examination
it was found not to be infected with Octomitus but by another species
of protozoan parasite, a sporidian. Such observations, however, must be
greatly extended in order to generalize from them the conditions
favoring immunity.

The point raised by Dr. Osburn regarding the development of
immune strains seems a most practical and forward looking suggestion.
Dr. Embody has already started work along this line. From my obser-
vations at the Bath hatchery the trout fingerlings which survive do so
because they apparently acquire immunity. After the epidemic passes
the survivors attain a splendid growth and become remarkably fine fish
for planting. They are however “carriers” still. What happens after
planting in general is still a matter of conjecture. Some specific in-
stances of what happens near hatchery outfalls have been discussed in
my paper.

Mr. BuLLock: When our scientists took up the study of the cause
of malaria and found the organism, they not only recommended
prophylactic measures, but they found a medicine which was effica-

Moore.—Study of Trout Diseases. 89

scious in the treatment of the disease. When they took up the
question of the hookworm in the south, again they not only found the
organism in the intestinal tract and recommended sanitary measures, but
they also prescribed a medicine suited to the case. Now, have you
scientists done anything along the line of adding medicines to the food
of the fishes and noticing their effect on any of the organisms? Of
course, the first thing the fish culturist resorts to at the fish hatchery is
salt; that is his panacea for all ills. But has anything else been found
which would meet the case? Should we stop with locating the organ-
ism? Could not medicine be administered with the food?

Dr. Moore: Nothing of moment has been done yet in the matter of
interior medication. The use of salt, which has been regarded by fish
‘eulturists as a panacea for everything, has been vastly over-estimated
and is of no special value in octomitiasis. The administration of medi-
cine to fish that are an inch long, for that is about the size of the ear-
liest casualities, is a difficult and an uncertain proposition, even though
it could be administrated with the food. The possibilities of over-doses
‘and under doses, when so administered is a matter to ponder over.

Mr. BuLLocK: If it should be true that the organism is transmitted
through the egg, let us cure it in the adult fish and get good eggs; then
‘by employing the prophylactic measures, from the spring on down
through the hatchery, we have conquered the trouble, have we not?

Dr. Moore: We have, optimistically speaking.

Mr. HAyrorD: One of our commissioners, when he sends me to
‘these meetings, always asks whether Dr. Moore is going to be
there. The last time he said: “I have read Dr. Moore’s paper in
the last Transactions and it seems to me what we need is more Dr.
Moore.” In 1917 we started to compare the rainbow, brown and brook
trout in waters that were alike. We were in a position to do that be-
cause we have six chains of ten ponds, each running on the same water
‘supply, In the course of our operations we have come in contact with
‘the various things that the average fish culturist runs up against; in fact,
I believe we have all his problems. We are not always aware of them,
‘but now and then they break out and wake us up. In 1917 we started to
‘carry our own brood stock. In the case of some of our brook trout we
have reached the third generation; in our brown trout the second
eeneration.

Not being a scientific man I am simply going to talk as a practical
fish culturist, on the basis of observations I have made. The first trouble
we ran into was designated by our scientist as Bacterium truttae. We
started to study that; we did not eliminate it, but we helped to do it a
little bit. The next season we ran up against furunculosis. Neither of
these diseases was disturbing to any considerable extent. This year we
have both Octomitus and Gyrodactylus. Octomitus was present in the
brown and brook trout; of that I am positive. As to the rainbows, I am
uncertain. You must understand that I am not an expert microscopist

90 American Fisheries Society.

either, but, when I have been shown a bug, I can recognize him. You
cannot mistake Octomitus after seeing him once.

We have had some rather interesting experiences in connection with
Bacterium truttae. We tried changes of food and the benefit has been
so great that, on examining the brook trout this year, we found no traces
of this organism. Whether relief is only temporary, of course, we do not
know. With regard to furunculosis, we had last year about 2000 brown
trout breeders in a pond that would run anywhere from 10 to 16 inches
long. A warm spell came on and we changed the fish from one pond to
another, expecting the water temperature to drop. Instead of that it
rose and furunculosis appeared on about one hundred of the fish, whereas
in a pond where no change was made the fish exhibited no symptoms of
the disease. I believe the way to get at this trouble is based upon three
factors, namely: the study of the temperature of the water and its effects,
the study of fish foods, and the building up of resistant strains. There
are many instances in which a very slight change in temperature has
a marked effect. It has been our experience that Bacterium truttae is
never very bad after the fish attain the age of eight months and there are
very few symptoms of furunculosis after they attain the age of 12 or 18
months. In our plant we have at the present time, roughly speaking,
150,000 fish running from 4 to 12 inches long. There are probably only
about a hundred fish now afilicted with furunculosis.

Our ponds are so built that we can clean everything out and the
oftener we clean the ponds the less trouble we have. Cleanliness helps
a great deal in connection with Gyrodactyliasis. It also helps in the case
of furunculosis, but I cannot see that it means much so far as Octomiti-
asis is concerned. The fish culturist needs the scientist to check him up,
We have been employing Dr. Embody for the last five or six years. He
is much too modest to tell about the things he has observed, but he has
certainly been a wonderful help to us. We run our plant in four distinct
sections, each having its own water supply, and we have a man who looks
after each section. Acting on Dr. Moore’s suggestion, we keep the
brushes separate; we have determined to do that even if we have to put
a tag on the man and on the brush too. We find that it helps a great
deal. Another thing that helps is to be able to turn on a big flow of
water. The man in charge of these operations says, and I will quote
him exactly: “John, turn on a hell of a flow of water.”

Mr. JoHN P. Woops: On the assumption that this disease is the
result of a foreign invasion, I would like to ask Dr. Moore whence it
came?

Dr. Moore: It is impossible to answer positively. The brown trout
was introduced into this country from Germany in 1883. My theory is
that the disease may have been introduced through the importation of
eggs at that time. A hundred thousand brown trout eggs were sent to
Mr. Fred Mather, Superintendent of the hatchery at Cold Spring Harbor,
L. I., as a present from his friend, Mr. Von Behr, President of the Ger-
man Fisherei Association. According to the records, some of these eggs

Moore.—Study of Trout Diseases. oi

were placed in the Cold Spring hatchery, on Long Island, some in the
hatchery at Caledonia, N. Y. and others were presented to the U. S.
Bureau of Fisheries, being transferred to Mr. Clark at their Michigan
station. Seanning the literature for records of outbreaks of disease
both previous and subsequent to the importation of the eggs, I have
found very little authentic data to support my theory. Nothing but a
devastating epidemic has seemed worth mentioning in the annual re-
ports and these have not always been accompanied by the attending
symptoms of the disease. There must have been in the nature of things
many lesser epidemics. In this connection a too great modesty has
prevailed in mentioning them, perhaps for statistical reasons (laughter),
consequently we are deprived of much valuable information that might
serve as a basis in arriving at some conclusion as to the effects of these
foreign importations of fish eggs.

Mr. LEACH: This has been a very interesting paper, because the
subject is one of vital importance to everybody interested in trout. I
want to give all an opportunity to discuss the matter with Dr. Moore,
and, if she is willing to continue, we shall be glad to hear from any
others who wish to ask questions or speak on the subject further.

Mr. TitcomB: If you require specimens for examination, are fresh
specimens necessary?

Dr. Moore: It is possible to use preserved specimens, but generally
the preservative used is the one that is handy and that one is not usually
the most desirable for further study of the organism. The most ideal
way is to visit the hatchery with a microscope, then a diagnosis is
possible, often within a few hours. Fresh specimens in sufficient num-
bers are the next best thing.

Mr. TitcomMB: For the benefit of the laymen in the fish hatcheries
absent from this meeting, will you tell us what is the best way of putting
up fresh specimens to be shipped for examination?

Dr. Moore: Shipment in cans alive by ordinary shipping methods is
the best way. Diagnosis is simplified and in some cases only possible
when the fish are sent before death ensues, for the reason that various
invading organisms foliowing death, such as bacteria, protozoa and the
like, may obscure entirely the correct line of diagnosis. When fish
cannot be shipped in cans I have found it useful to have them wrapped
separately in a moist cloth, packed in ice, and expressed with dispatch.

Mr. BULLOCK: Would shipment in a solution of formaldehyde an-
swer the purpose?

Dr. Moore: Formaldehyde is a useful preservative, but it is used
indifferently at various concentrations. I do not know, however, of
anything better for general purposes.

Mr. Doze: The brown trout have been introduced in the higher
altitudes. Have you ever received specimens from the Rockies and do
you know whether or not this disease is prevalent there?

Dr. Moore: I have not received specimens from that quarter. I
think it would be very desirabje to get this information and for the

92 American Fisheries Society.

Pacific Coast Fisheries College to examine the rainbows in their native
haunts.

Mr. Doze: Is there any indication that Octomitus has ever attacked
our scale fishes of the warmer waters, including the sunfish, or the cat-
fish?

Dr. Moore: There are no records in this country of its occurrence
in any fish except trout. In Europe however, its presence, or that of
a similar organism, has been noted in a carp feeding at a hatchery outfall
where infection by Octomitus was prevalent. It has also been found in
the marine fishes, Box and Motella, in the Mediterranean.

Dr. EmBopy: Through the kindness of Mr. Hayford and the Fish
Commissioners of New Jersey, I was fortunate to have placed
at my disposal a number of specimens of trout infested with
this particular organism, Octomitus. Upon referring to Dr. Moore’s
paper, we were able to identify it definitely. There was one
diagnostic character that I noticed which I should like to mention. It
refers to the greatly distended condition of the upper intestine, giving
the appearance of a fish that has been greatly overfed. I thought,
when I first observed it, that the fish was gorged with food, but, on
examination, I found that the intestine was destitute of food, and filled
with gas. In nearly all the fish in which we found the intestine dis-
tended, there were large numbers of this particular organism. If it
proves to be a good diagnostic character, coupled with the other diag-
nostic characters that have been mentioned, it would be a very good way
to tell whether or not the disease occurs naturally. However, the only
sure way of recognizing the disease is to examine the intestinal fluid
with the microscope. Even then, unless you have had the organism
pointed out to you before, it may not be possible to tell whether this is
the particular organism that is causing the trouble.

Another point has come to my attention which bears upon the
question of how this organism can be carried. Dr. Moore has stated
that it exists in the encysted form which is resistant to influences that
will destroy other active organisms. If such is the case, would it be neces-
sary for it to exist in the egg of a fish in order that it might be trans-
mitted from one hatchery to another? In connection with our method
of dipping eggs out of a tray, dumping them on another tray and sur-
rounding them with moss for shipment, would it not be possible to
transfer some of the encysted forms in this way from one hatchery to
another? Might not that have been the case in the transportation of the
brown trout from Europe to this country?

Dr. Moore: It seems quite probable. Your observation regarding
the distended appearance of the intestine due to an accumulation of gas
seems to me not altogether trustworthy as a general symptom, though it
may be found so locally. Gas accumulations occur apparently in
connection with the development of yeasts in the intestine. These
I find do accompany the organism Octomitus at times in great quantity.

Moore.—Study of Trout Diseases. 93

Dr. Empopy: If it is found that this organism has come from
Europe, of course, it is nothing more than a repetition of what has taken
place heretofore in the case of many kinds of animals and plants. I
assume it is not an exaggeration to say that by far the greater number
of organisms that are giving trouble in this country now among plants
and animals have been imported from Europe. I cite the case of the
chestnut bark disease, the Chinese beetle, which has come recently, the
corn borer, and many others. If Octomitus came in that way, it only
repeats history so far as the importation of these things from Europe is
concerned. I prefer to think it came from Europe than to believe that
it was indigenous to this country.

Mr. Titcoms: It is important to inquire what precautions may
be taken when we buy eggs, to have them properly packed and steril-
ized—if that is the proper method—in order that we may not introduce
the disease into hatcheries where it does not now exist. It is eminently
desirable, even this fall, that we should take the necessary precautions
to guard against the transfer of Octomitus externally on the eggs.

Dr. Moore: Precautions should be taken, but, unfortunately, we
have not yet made any experiments as to the best method of procedure
in guarding against transferring the spore. This as I have indicated,
is a very small thing, about 25 microns, more or less, in diameter, or
about 1/1000 of an inch.

Mr. TITCOMB: ‘I'he eggs arrive at the hatchery with the same water
that has been constantly used in connection with them. Would it be
possible, do you think, to wash those eggs before they are packed, per-
haps taking the water at its source, thus washing out any of the convey-
ing cysts or spores?

Dr. Moore: That would seem a reasonable precaution to take, but
I do not know to what extent the natural stickiness of the outer envelope
of the egg would cause the organism to cling to it. These are questions
that should come up again and again until we know how to answer
them.

Mr. BULLER: In your opinion, would furunculosis be carried through
the food given to fish? The reason I ask is that some few years ago I
got the idea that we could produce a more highly colored trout by feeding
shrimp from Louisiana. In the pond in which shrimp were used as food
we lost practically every fish. I was wondering whether the disease
might have been introduced into that pond in that way.

Dr. Moore: My line of reasoning would be this: Organisms ot
disease which fish are heir to must invariably be present in greater or
lesser numbers in fisheries waters and, if the fish for one reason or
another become devitalized, infection might become so severe as to in-
dicate symptoms of disease. It is possible that feeding shrimps alone
would induce a lowering of vitality by way of its being an unbalanced
ration. Assuming the causative organism of furunculosis is present,
it would be only in some such indirect way as this that the shrimp could
be a contributing cause. We have, however, no knowledge of the

94 American Fisheries Society.

presence of the causative agent of furunculosis in any marine organisms
other than members of the genus Salmo.

PRESIDENT LEACH: Dr. Moore, on behalf of the Society, I wish to
thank you for your very interesting paper. It will make a valuable
addition to the Transactions of our Fifty-third Annual Meeting, and I
am sure both paper and discussion will be read far and wide. I
hope that you will continue this work and that at the next meeting you
will report upon your further findings.

PIKE-PERCH PROPAGATION IN NORTHERN

MINNESOTA.
By EBEN W. COBB.

Northern Minnesota is supplied by nature with the best
conditions for pike-perch to be found. Here are the head
waters of three great water systems with literally thousands
of clear lakes, many of which are of a large size. Much of
this territory is wild and will doubtless remain so for a long
time.

Pollution except in Rainy River, is a thing unknown and
only the acts of man interfere with the fish. Once the
supply of pike-perch seemed inexhaustible, but where good
roads have been opened and the summer tourists have come
in there has been a rapid decrease in the number of fish and
in some instances the depletion has been great enough to
eause poor fishing. The vicinity of Detroit may be taken as
an example. Here is one of the very best lake regions in
the state. Within a comparatively short period of time, the
pike-perch, which were here in seemingly countless numbers,
have been reduced to such an extent, that those whose pur-
pose it is to find pike fishing pass on to other waters.

The taking of pike-perch eggs by our state at one time,
was carried on for the purpose of securing eggs, that fry
might be furnished to lakes throughout the more thickly
settled portions of the state. As it became apparent that
the supply of these fish could be maintained only by locking
first after the large and productive lakes throughout the
northern portions of the state, a definite programme was
formed with this object in view. The building of field
stations, which were in reality hatcheries, was undertaken.
These were located at or near the spawning grounds and in
them were placed the eggs as they were taken from day to
day. A large part, and in many cases all, of the resulting
fry were returned to the waters from which the spawn was
secured. In some instances spawn was taken to the other
hatcheries. The primary object was to care for the spawn
producing lakes but it is interesting to note that the average
hatch where eggs were placed in jars without shipment ran
about 25% ahead of the hatch where shipment takes place
inthe green stage. This will be of interest to those studying
the causes of losses in pike-perch eggs. We also feel that
there is a saving in numbers due to the direct planting but

96 American Fisheries Society.

have nothing definite to offer on this. It can readily be seer
that the average cost of the fry was greatly decreased.

At present, we have twelve hatcheries equipped for
handling pike-perch eggs. Seven of these are operated
during the season for this work only. Last Spring we plant-
ed 353,647,000 fry. Nearly all of these hatcheries are in
the northern part of the state.

Besides this added propagation work we have succeeded
in extending the close season on these fish to May 15th, with
a days limit of ten and a limit in possession of twenty fish.
The buying or selling is prohibited.

A hatchery was constructed in the Rainy Lake region,.
and put into readiness for operation in 1922. During that
year 89,100,000 eges were taken and from these 75,075,000
fry were produced. During 1923 eggs to the number of
156,140,000 were secured from which 61, 949,000 fry were
produced and 10,000,000 eyed eggs were forwarded to other
hatcheries. Besides this 20,000,000 eggs were taken and
shipped in a green state.

Though this lake extends for a distance in a direct line
east and west for about forty miles and has many bays and
inlets we have operated one trap only in Rat Root River.
During the last season no attempt was made to take spawn
from all the fish coming into the trap and many thousands.
of spawning fish were allowed to pass above the nets and
continue uptheriver. The percent of hatch was not so good
in 1923 as in 1922 due to one large lot of very poor eggs.
We did not determine the cause of this condition. There is
no reason to believe that many times the number of eggs
secured could not have been taken had we been provided
with jars to care for them and men and equipment to take
them.

The total hatch for the season ran 42% on eggs shipped
green and 60% on eggs hatched where taken, which is a
little lower than is sometimes the case. The opportunities
for this work in Northern Minnesota are almost unlimited
and it is only lack of money which prevents the work being
increased.

The loss of eggs is one of the most interesting details of
the work. My observation leads me to believe that in
normal years when temperatures hold right during the
spawning season eggs of this species can be fertilized with
almost the same degree of success as with trout or salmon.
The great delicacy of the egg is our great source of trouble
but besides that we often meet conditions which we are
absolutely unable to explain. From one of our stations we
receive eggs well fertilized and they eye up a good percent-

Cobb.—Pike-Perch Propagation. 97

age. After the eggs are eyed up they begin to adhere to
the extent of causing a poor circulation. A slight movement
with a feather will start the circulation again but the eggs
are so delicate that the loss is considerable and we never
secure a good hatch from these eggs though a nice percent-
age reach the eyed stage. We find that when these eggs are
retained in the water, where taken, this condition does not
exist. We now hold all the eggs at this collecting station
in the hatchery located on the river in which the run of pike
takes place. We are unable to advance any reasonable ex-
planation of the condition. It is only one of the many prob-
lems not talked about by writers on fish culture.

Penning of fish is another problem capable of making
much trouble. We have been told that the welfare of the
fish while penned depended upon the circulation of water,
amount of oxygen, temperature and the number of fish con-
fined in a givenspace. We have had occasion to watch this
matter closely and fourteen years study has convinced me
that while the above conditions must necessarily affect the
fish, as they affect all life they are not the condition that
cause the most trouble in Minnesota.

In 1910 I spent the entire spawning season on Rainy
River. Our main problem was holding the fish. At that
time tremendous numbers of large pike could be taken be-
low the rapids at Birchdale and some of them yielded from
two to two and one-half quarts of eggs. The average of all
fish stripped was about one quart. The water ran extreme-
ly high being about fifteen feet above normal summer level.

Above the spawning grounds was a mile of rapids and
one mile below our pens were placed. This mile of water
was one rushing mass. Under these conditions there could
have been no lack of aeration and certainly no lack of water.
The temperature during the season was hardly above that
required for good spawning condition and sometimes below.
I placed the spawners in cribs made from netting and also
in pens made from boards. In some instances I closed
portions of the pens and left other portions free to circula-
tion so the fish could take their choice of current. I an-
chored pens in the current and also below the dock. Some
were crowded and some were nearly empty. The results
were the same in all cases no matter how placed and regard-
less of numbers. The fish showed signs of sickness the
second day. A pinkish color showed on the tail and also,
slightly, onthe cheek. Another indication which I have not
mentioned elsewhere was a slight depression along the cen-
ter of the belly which seemed to be caused by a shrinking of

98 American Fisheries Society.

the ovaries. Fish could not be held over the end of the
second day without loss.

At Tower, which is one of our best stations, we were not
penning fish at all but seining, stripping those ripe, and re-
leasing the balance to be handled over again. In 1912 I
put in three weeks at this point and put in a trap and holding
pens. Conditions of the water were similar to those at
Rainy River but on a smaller scale. I was glad to learn,
that at this point fish could be held indefinitely and under
almost any conditions which could be desired. Loss from
penning at Tower has never occurred and none of the signs
of sickness have been in evidence.

Other investigations have been carried on in other places
and though it will doubtless raise a question of scientific
reasoning I have found the following to hold true in every
case during my fourteen years service in Minnesota. Where
the run is composed of large yellow pike they cannot safely
be penned longer than from one day to the next. A run of
black pike can be held as long as desired and between these
colors the ability to stand penning very closely corresponds
to the degree of color. I will not try to explain this but hope
some time a scientific study of this subject can be made. Up
to this time I believe we have results from scientific reason-
ing which is altogether a different thing from scientific
study.

IT do not believe color would have any effect on fishes’
ability to stand penning but it does not follow that the con-
ditions which produced the color would not otherwise con-
trol the general life of the fish.

One thing has held true in all cases where conditions are
such that fish return for the day to some point further down
the stream. When they are released below the net the
same fish return at dark and will continue to come to the net
night after night until ripe apparently suffering no harm.
It all leads me to believe that the cause of the trouble is in
the nervous system of the fish rather than in the physical
surroundings and that the condition which brings this out
strongest has a direct bearing on size and color. In any
event we have only experienced trouble where instructions
based on this theory have been disregarded.

I have gone somewhat lengthly into the subject as it is
one of the most important questions with which we have to
deal. Were we able to pen and ripen the fish we could ex-
tend our work to almost any extent at comparatively small
cost.

The work has been extended as rapidly as circumstances
would permit and in this we have been greatly aided by the

Cobb.—Pike-Perch Propagation. 99

Bureau of Fisheries. The hatchery on Rainy Lake has been
operated by men assigned to the work from the Bureau and
the same holds true of all spawning work connected with the
hatchery. One of their men has also operated the Otter-
tail hatchery.

With all our work the fish can be saved in large numbers
only by rigid enforcement of our adequate laws. The con-
clusions arrived at from considering the notes on our work
as a whole might be of interest.

Those streams, in which the water comes to a suitable
temperature for spawning before the ice is out of the lakes,
into which they flow, are the most desirable for spawning
operations. The spawners come up in a well defined run
and are ripe, or nearly so, when taken. The best spawning
temperatures run from 45° to 50° preferably 46° to 48°
though eggs are taken at as high a temperature as 638°.
Eggs taken at the higher temperatures are as a rule poor.
Good hatches have been made from eggs subjected to a
temperature so low that slush ice has formed in the water,
and this in instances where eggs had already been taken.
Such conditions occurring when the run is on, invariably
drive the fish down stream and stop the run.

We find that the egg bearing females will not ascend
above the first swift water in any numbers while the males
pass over rapids to a large extent. The females pass up and
join them after depositing their eggs.

Below the rapids in Pike River we have found naturally
deposited eggs forming a mass from 6 to 8 inches. These
eggs were eaten by suckers during the night and another
mass deposited during the next day. This sometimes was
repeated for as many as three consecutive days. All efforts
to hatch eggs taken from this mass were a total failure. Not
one fish has been produced by such attempts.

The presence of eggs to this extent took place some years
ago though even now there are places where the egg mass is
considerable.

In most cases where an abnormally large loss has taken
place in eggs, indications have pointed to lack of care during
the hardening process. Rainy River is an exception to this
rule and here pollution is a determining factor. Lack of
care is generally the result of a sudden run producing more
eggs than the crew and equipment can care for in the
natural desire to secure the largest number of eggs possible.
The combination results in loss unless the men in charge of
the work have unusually good judgment.

100 American Fisheries Society.

A run of suckers is nearly always coincident with the
pike run, though no other rough fish appear in numbers
during the spawning time.

Discussion.

Mz. CuLteR: I understood Mr. Cobb to say that the unripe female
came back after being thrown below the net.

Mr. Coss: In certain places they do; in some places they do not.

Mr. Cutter: It might be unnecessary to nen the fish then.

Mr. Coss: In some instances where they come back we have no
pens. Pine River, where the water is very clear, the fish come in at night
but being unripe it is dropped out in the morning. In the evening it will
start to work its way back upstream and will get into the trap again that
same night. We do not pen where those conditions exist.

Mr. CULLER: That makes it very much better from the fish cul-
turist’s standpoint.

Mr. CoBB: Yes.

Mr. CULLER: In taking your eggs, what do you use, muck or starch?

Mr. Coss: Muck.

Mr. CULLER: Have you ever made an experiment with starch?

Mr. Cops: Yes, we have tried it, but liked muck better.

Mr. ADAMS: You spoke about the adherence of eggs in the jar.
Has any experiment been tried with the view of dripping automatically
into the jar a chemical that would not injure the egg but would be suffi-
cient to counteract that tendency to pack or collect?

Mr. Cops: I do not think so. We have never had any trouble ex-
cept at that one place.

Mr. ADAMS: You collect your eggs in very quick water?

Mr. CoBB: Yes.

Mr. ADAMS: What gear do you use to take the adult fish?

Mr. Coss: Pound nets.

Mr. Apams: You cannot anchor them in the quick water, can you?

Mr. Cops: We have succeeded in holding pound nets in water so
swift that it took two men to row a boat up to them, and in a channel
where we could not drive a stake—absolutely rock bottom. We ran two
wings to the shore, and put the big pound there.

Mr. ADAMS: But your debris goes down the river.

Mr. Cops: We turn that to one side of the stream with boom logs
run out by the leads.

Mr. ADAMS: Then you have to have booms on the up-side of the
stream —protect your trap in the same way?

Mr. Coss: We put a boom up above the works on an angle across
the river, and get the stuff away from our traps in that way. We fasten
two anchor lines up stream on either side of the banks, but we use no
stakes. In certain cases we put our pound into a frame, and anchor the
frame and then drop the pound into it. Then we build from that to the
end of the two leads, which are also fastened to trees on the shore.

Cobb.—Pike-Perch Propagation. 101

Mr. ADAMS: Assuming that on one side of a river the banks were
gravelly and that on the other they consisted of a ledge of rocks pro-
jecting out to the bottom of the stream, would you endeavor to anchor
that pound or trap toward either shore or more toward the middle of
the stream?

Mr. Coss: It is preferable in fishing for pike to get the pound
where you can lead into it on the side of the stream where the fish are
helped up at least a part of the way by a back eddy. It depends, how-
ever, entirely on the conditions.

Mr. ApAMs: In the case of such shores as I describe, the pike will
follow or be affected by the currents rather than by the contour of the
shore?

Mr. Cops: Yes. The female pike with the eggs will not work up
in the swift current; they will take advantage of the eddies which help
them along; and they hesitate when they come in that eddy to a point
where they face directly into the swift current.

Mr. ADAMS: Would you say that May 15th would be late enough
in the year for the close season to protect the spawning pike say in Mas-
sachusetts? I believe that is your limit now in Minnesota, is it not?

Mr. Coss: That is not late enough in Minnesota, and I presume it
would not be late enough in Massachusetts. We had a great deal of
trouble on account of the run being cleaned out by fishermen above our
nets after being spawned and dropped over. We now have a law by
which these places can be closed to fishing by the commissioner, which
takes the fish over the spawning period.

Dr. EMBoDy: There was a point concerning the spawning of the
pike-perch in which I was interested. I do not think anyone has ever
adequately described the spawning behaviour of the pike-perch. At
least, I have never found anything more than a general declaration that
the pike-perch scatters its eggs over a sandy bottom, the sandy shoals
near the mouths of rivers. Did I understand you to say that you had
actually found eggs of pike-perch laid naturally in this river?

Mr. CoBs: Yes.

Dr. EmBopy: And that they were massed together?

Mr. Cops: They were massed together. Shall I describe the con-
dition at that particular place? Slightly up the bay from the lake was
a very swift rapid, and above that rapid we found almost no female pike
with spawn. The males, especially the smaller ones, passed over there
in great numbers. These pike came up to the foot of this swift water;
they would wait there until they became massed in from the accumula-
tion of numbers, then they would rush up into the current, come to the
surface and break water; and in the large majority of cases when they
broke water, with a sort of splurge or splash, they would throw a part
of their eggs. Then they would drop slowly down to a little clearer
water, stay there a minute or two as if recovering from their effort;
and finally come up again. The eggs would drift down and gradually
settie to the bottom, where they would adhere.

Dr. EMpopy: I assume that would be a gravel bottom.

102 American Fisheries Society.

Mr. Cops: It was a rock bottom. I may say that with extremely
high water the swift current extends further down and sometimes
reaches an accumulation of mud; and the fish will even spawn right on
the mud bank if the swift current ends down there. Of course, that
takes place only once in a long time.

Dr. HMsBoDY: The disturbed condition of the water seems to be the
primary factor. If that is the case, would they not spawn in the lake
itself?

Mr. Cops: They do, but our work is confined almost entirely to
streams, because a large part of our fish do spawn in the streams, and
where you can get a run passing one way in a stream you can do a great
deal more business with the same amount of money and men than you
can out in the open lake. But they do spawn in the lake quite frequently.

Dr. EMBoDy: I was interested to know if they did actually spawn
in the lake. Or whether a stream was actually necessary. That might
throw some light on the type of lake in which we ought to introduce pike-
perch.

Mr. Cops: I have seen a heavy run in Pike River driven back by
snow. We had about a foot of heavy, wet snow. The water temperature
went down to freezing point, and the pike left the river. The bay in-
the river at that time was free from ice, and we found that the pike were
on the north shore of the lake, where the shore consists largely of broken
rocks. They were spawning where the waves were breaking over the
broken rocks, a good way from shore. They did not go back to the stream
that year.

Mr. DowNING: When the female fish break water and extrude eggs
at the same time, is the male with them?

Mr. Copp: In some cases yes, and in some cases no. We have
taken chunks of eggs that would fill a jar when you came to separate
them—eggs some six to eight inches deep, over a space 175 feet across.
On one occasion the pike were spawning all night; but a search in the —
morning would show the bottom clean. The same thing was repeated
three days in succession, and at the end there were no eggs there except, —
probably, a few that you could find in the crevices of the rock.

Mr. DowNING: The moral is to dispose of your suckers. .

Mr. Cops: We have given large numbers of them away for many
years.

Mr. Hare: Have you any idea of the percentage that were fertil-
ized among those you took from the bottom of the stream?

Mr. Coss: We were not equipped to determine the fertilization,
but we have made a good many attempts to hatch them. The whole —
thing needs more scientific study in order to arrive at definite conclu-
sions. We never hatched a fish from eggs taken in that way. 4

Mr. Titcoms: Did you find any egg-bound fish among those that
were turned back by change of temperature; or did you look for that?

Mr. Cops: I have never found any in such cases. |

Mr. Titcoms: In reference to Dr. Embody’s question with regard —
to the movements of pike-perch in connection with their spawning habits, —

Cobb.—Pike-Perch Propagation. 103

I may say that in some waters tributary to Lake Champlain there are
very large runs of these fish, but occasionally they are turned back by
the temperature conditions and spawn largely around the lake shore.
On Oneida Lake, in New York State, the principal run of fish is to the
shores rather than to the streams, but they are apt to run to the streams.
It depends on the conditions. If you get a rising temperature, causing
the pike to start up the river, and then a sudden drop in temperature
occurs, they back down and spawn around the shore; they do not go
back.

Mr. Coss: No, they will not go back that season.

Mr. Hare: Mr. Cobb has presented a very important paper, because
he has proved conclusively that modern fish cultural processes are abso-
lutely correct, and that there is a tremendous loss in natural reproduction.

Mr. Cops: One thing I did not mention in the paper—Mr. Titcomb’s
remark makes me think of it—is that the specific gravity of pike eggs
has caused much of the trouble. The eggs in some cases are so light
that we can hardly hold them in the jars, and our loss is tremendous
from that cause. At the slightest motion of the water they run out of
the jars and pass right down through our battery tanks and into the

fry tanks.
PRESIDENT LEACH: What type of jar do you use?

Mr. Coss: The Meehan jar.

Mr. Titcoms: You prefer that to the others?

Mr. Coss: I could not say as to that, except that I believe in using
the same type of equipment so that it is all interchangeable. I do not
believe there is any difference in the various types of jars so far as
capability of hatching goes.

Mr. ApAMs: In the case of the quick water you have described,
from the point where these eggs are extruded by the female about how
far down stream are they carried before they are anchored somewhere?
I recall your statement about the specific gravity of the eggs, some
apparently being lighter than others, but I am getting at the average
now.

Mr. Cops: The egg sinks fairly rapidly in still water. In that
case they pass directly down. But in a stream, where there is quite a
swift current and the fish are thick they keep everything agitated. In
this particular case the egg mass on the bottom began about at the lower
edge of the swift water and extended down in a mass for about 175 feet.
Mr. ADAMS: Where would they first lodge from the point where

you think they were released by the female?

Mr. Cops: Almost directly underneath, and from there for 175 feet
the great mass of eggs was on the bottom.

Mr. Apams: The wall-eyed pike has established itself in the upper
regions of the Connecticut River, at Turner’s Falls, Mass., particularly
where the sides and bottom of the river are very rocky. It is the place
these fish have selected as spawning ground, irrespective of the fact that
some distance above there is an obstruction across the river that would
prevent them from ascending. On the coast of Massachusetts we have a

104 American Fisheries Society.

run of salt water smelt, and it has always seemed mystifying to me how a
little, delicate fish like the smelt could spawn in the very quick water and
have practically all the eggs located right on the bottom and sides of the
stream in the quick water. That is why I wondered whether there was
much difference between the smelt spawning and the larger fish, such as
the wall-eyed pike; apparently there is not.

Mr. Cops: Iam not familiar with the spawning habits of the smelt.

Dr. EMBopy: Do I understand that you had a continuous mass of
pike-perch eggs nearly one hundred feet long on the bottom?

Mr. Cops: Yes. You could go out there, take a kick into it with
your boots and kick up a bunch that would fill a hatching jar.

Mr. DOWNING: There is one feature that Mr. Cobb has brought out
which is very gratifying to me. He tells us he has almost absolutely con-
trolled the taking and hatching of his eggs, whereas in our work the eggs
are taken under the most adverse conditions. They are taken in small
boats out on the open lake by the fishermen themselves, then we buy
the eggs from them. All our receiving stations are from twelve to forty
miles from our hatching stations. Some of our eggs are shipped on
trains and have to be held three or four days. It gratifies me to say
that under these conditions my hatch this year was forty-three per cent.
They were taken just the same as any other egg, without the use of
starch or muck.

Mr. Cops: Our percentage was a little light this year.

Mr. Hare: How can you determine your percentage on pike-perch?

Mr. Coss: It is not tied down to a definite number. We do not
make an exact count. We measure the eggs, and we measure the eyed
eggs just as late as possible before the hatch. We keep watching the
tanks for any that have died after the hatch. The loss is small from
that time on. Sometimes we have something that offsets that, but that
is what we take as a figure. It is quite accurate up to that last estimate,
which might cause a variation.

Mr. MANNFELD: Has Mr. Cobb ever tried to raise wall-eyed pike?

Mr. Coss: Only to a very early stage; I have never got very far
with them.

Mr. MANNFELD: I want to tell you something of an experiment
of ours in Indiana. Unfortunately, we have no waters from which we
can take fish in order to strip them; we have to purchase our eggs. We
have some friends in Michigan who have been kind enough to sell us eggs.
Two years ago I wanted to see what we really could do with pike-perch
fry. We planted between twenty and thirty thousand fry in a pond
which had absolutely nothing else in it; we were first careful to make
sure that the small insect life in this pond which would constitute food
for the fish was very prolific. Along in September we gave a State Fair
exhibit, and we took fingerlings out of the pond some of which were ten
and a half inches long, some five or six inches long. When we drained
that pond in the fall we had one fish that was seventeen and a quarter
inches long. Out of the twenty or thirty thousand that we placed in

Cobb.—Pike-Perch Propagation. 105

‘this pond we got 1,325. Perhaps that was a waste of pond area to rear
these fish to the fingerling stage, but it developed one very important
thing to me, that is, that that could be done.

Mr. Cops: How large was the pond?

Mr. MANNFELD: Over half an acre, and rather deep. We did not
feed the fish; they fed naturally on the Daphnia, Cyclops and other in-
‘sect life with which the pond was well supplied. At the Annapolis State
hatchery there are twenty such ponds. In addition there are five others
maintained by one of our Fish and Game Associations which are re-
sponsible for the fish collecting at this particular point. But we are
troubled with crawfish. The iittle crawfish in this pond were the main
food for the wall-eyes; of course, they feed on one another, undoubtedly.
‘That experiment, however, was worth while, although we have not since
repeated it because we can use our ponds better for the rearing of bass.
We rear large and small mouth bass, ring mouth bass, bluegills and
yellow perch, so we need all the pond area we can get for these purposes.
We have tried to plant fingerlings. We figure that fingerlings are more
valuable than fry. These particular fingerlings reared with the wall-
‘eyes were planted in a space in the park that is perhaps half a mile wide,
and we have some there now that are perhaps three feet long, weighing
four pounds. We are trying to establish a place where we can have
some breeders that we can strip right at Indianapolis. It may not be
possible.

Mr. Coss: Did you determine definitely what was the food of the
young pike?

Mr. MANNFELD: It was nothing but the natural food that was in
the water. They were not fed anything.

Mr. Coss: I would like to find out definitely what the first food of
the young pike consists of.

HEADWATERS

By F. E. Hare,

Manchester, Iowa.

I have always appreciated the opportunity of attending
meetings of the American Fisheries Society and the inspira-
tion derived from associating myself with men who have
reverence for the big out-of-doors, and the preservation of
our national resources. Men of this type, it seems to me,
are in the minority; consequently, many of nature’s most
gracious gifts to mankind have been sadly neglected and dis-
gracefully abused. Such carelessness and disregard for the
future welfare of the coming generations is a clean cut case
of public neglect. However it is gratifying to know that
public sentiment is gradually awakening to the supreme im-
portance of this subject, and some very commendable
legislation has been, and is now being enacted with a view
toward better protection for these natural resources.

A particular subject under the broad head of conserva-
tion which has interested and impressed me vividly during
the past few years has been what we commonly term, ““Head-
waters’’, and it is toward a realization of the importance of
this phase of conservation that I would direct your atten- |
tion, and then perhaps venture a few words suggestive of
remedial measures, which we as sportsmen and lovers of
wild life should consider.

I know it has been the privilege of most fishermen to
visit the headwaters of a pure sparkling stream of water
amongst towering hills or in virgin forest, and as you noted
the rugged grandeur of the scene, were you not impressed
with the peaceful and sublime surroundings?

I have in mind at this moment several mental pictures
of these sacred sanctuaries which I have visited during the
past few weeks, and I presume that many of you could con-
jure up in your mind’s eye visions of similar beauty.

It was not without adequate sense of reason that the
Indian, the true American sportsman, frequently took as his
shrine the sparkling and apparently living waters of some
crystal spring, the source of a limpid brook and a mighty
river. For him the land of headwaters seemed symbolic of
an infant, who gradually grew greater and wiser, until he

106

Hare.-—Headwaters. 107

was finally lost in that mystic unfathomable depths of the
ocean.

Can it be that I am a fanatic on this subiect, or will you
agree with me that the time is at hand when we shall come
to realize that headwaters are of vital importance. Not
only as places of surpassing beauty; but also as important
factors in the life of the waters below. Truly, it is as im-
practical to believe that a crystal stream could emanate
from putrid headwater as it is to believe that a golden
pheasant could hatch from the egg of a sparrow.

It is true that many of our headwaters are not especially
beautiful or economically important, or suitable for fish
propagation; but this fact makes it all the more necessary
that we should wrap the cloak of protection about those
which we recognize to be of specific importance. By the
most important headwaters, I refer to those streams which
originate in strong flowing springs back up in the hills, that
should be controlled and protected by state or national
supervision.

Frequently, by the purchase of a comparatively small
portion of land, springs and headwaters of this nature
could be brought under the proper control, and be utilized
for the purpose of prolific breeding places for water life,
and incidentally, as ideal locations for parks. I would call
your consideration to these in particular, and proceed at
once to state my reasons for so doing.

In the first place polluted water is one of the most
difficult problems with which we have to contend at this
time. Therefore, it is my conviction that every state in the
Union should employ a competent man to investigate head-
water conditions in each of the respective states, to de-
termine which are of most importance for fish propagation,
and take steps to place them under state control, as a means
of protecting them in their natural state of beauty and use-
fulness.

In many instances these headwaters contain ideal con-
ditions for fish hatcheries, and in many other instances con-
ditions are suitable for at least rearing adult fish for brood
stock and egg collecting purposes.

In fact, I would call your attention to the Manchester,
Iowa, Fisheries Station as an example of such headwaters,
where successful fish propagation has been conducted for a
quarter of a century. It has served as a delightful public
pleasure resort throughout these years, where thousands of
visitors find pleasure and recreation.

I have not traveled very extensively thru the rural dis-
tricts of my adopted state, Iowa, however, I could cite a

108 American Fisheries Society.

number of headwaters in that state that should be thorough-
ly protected at this very moment.

A short time ago I visited a number of the public parks of
Chicago. On inquiry I learned that some man or woman
with a future vision had donated land for the worthy pur-
pose of affording recreational grounds so long as time lasts.
These parks are now regarded as the lungs of the. city.
Similarly, we want these natural headwaters and the adja-
cent forests to become the safety zone for fishes and birds.

Finally, we should not forget that many destructive
floods and the consequent loss of property are directly due
to the deforestation of our headwaters. This is but another
clinching proof of the need of headwater protection for the
man who prefers the alluring song of a whirring reel, to the
disastrous report of the woodmens’ axe.

If we were all living in the proper relationship to this
grand old world, corrective measures would speedily come
as a natural result; but how are we to intensify man’s appre-
ciation toward mother nature and her children?

I have been wonderfully impressed with the writings of
James Oliver Curwood, in the Isaac Walton League Jour-
nal. It is the voice of Curwood, and the still voice of
Roosevelt and Isaac Walton, in co-operation with such
organizations as the Audobon Society, American Fisheries
Society etc., that are most effective in agitating sane and
sensible methods of dealing with these important problems.

In conclusion allow me to impress the importance of
headwaters upon your attention for the following reasons;
Namely, prevention of source water contamination: ideal
situations for fish propagation: suitable locations for public
parks, and prevention of destructive deforestation.

As sportsmen with practical vision, I would be pleased to
have you discuss the merit of headwater protection and
suggest some plan relative to the most practical method of
encouraging proper legislative measures for protecting the
beauty and usefulness of our most valuable headwaters.

Discussion.

Mr. FEARNOW: Mr. Hare has brought up some very important
points bearing upon the necessity for protecting the headwaters of
streams. Many of these headwaters are difficult to reach and for that
reason afford excellent breeding places for fish. I think it advisable
that iaws should be enacted which would close these headwaters or these
feeders of the main streams to fishing. The modern fisherman with his
automobile leaves the city and goes far into the mountains; he is able
to reach points that had been almost inaccessible in the past; he is
seeking the headwaters and the places where the fish naturally reproduce.

Hare-—Headwaters. 109

Another thing we might consider is the advisability of carrying
fish to the headwaters of these streams and planting them where they
will be immune from the attacks of their natural enemies. One of the
members of this Society last year made a very timely remark when he
said that he would rather have one can of fish properly planted than
half a dozen cans of fish dumped into pools where the larger fish con-
gregate at fords and bridges. We might consider the necessity of using
more judgment in planting fish as well as enacting laws for the pro-
tection of those fish in the small headwater streams. I do not wish to be
personal, but I would like to remind you of a little stream in West Vir-
ginia. I always think of that stream with fond recollections because it
was the stream wherein I used to dive; it was the old mill pond—Sleepy
Creek. When I left West Virginia years ago that stream was practi-
cally depleted; there were no fish in it that amounted to anything; the
people would go to the great Cacapon River and the Potomac River.
Well, the Bureau of Fisheries planted, not in Sleepy Creek proper but
in the tributaries of that stream, a quantity of fish; ample protection was
afforded; the laws were strictly enforced, and to-day the organizations
are going to Sleepy Creek on their fishing excursions instead of to the
great Cacapon River and the Potomac. That is one way of increasing
the supply of fish in public waters, and it seems to me that it is the most
important way.

Mr. Hare has raised a very interesting question, touching upon
many phases respecting the protection of fish, the enactment of laws,
and the planting of fish, and I do not think the matter he brings up
could be given too much consideration. We can interest the public gen-
erally through the Isaak Walton League; these men take special de-
light in carrying fish away up into the mountains. When we get the
headwaters of our streams so thoroughly stocked that the supply of food
becomes inadequate, the fish will know enough to come down stream
and let the angler catch him. We might, therefore, consider the advisa-
bility of having enacted legislation which would close entirely the head-
waters of certain public streams.

THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE LOUISIANA SHRIMP
INDUSTRY

BY EA) TULIAN;

Superintendent of Fisheries Division, Department
of Conservation of Louisiana, New Orleans, La.

As mentioned in the opening paragraph of my paper on
the production of shrimp in Louisiana read before this
Society on October 10th, the United States Census report
gave the total shrimp production of the United States for
1908, as 14,374,000 pounds, 60 percent of which, or 8,580,-
000 being produced by Louisiana. The U. S. Bureau of
Fisheries statistics gave the total catch for 1916 as 43,942,-
105 pounds for the territory extending from the northern
boundary of North Carolina to the western boundary of
Texas, and which takes in nearly all of the shrimp territory
of the United States. Approximately 53 percent or 23,160,-
586 pounds of this total was given as Louisiana’s produc-
tion.

At the time that paper was read, our study of shrimp and
the shrimp industry, both statistical and scientific, had al-
ready progressed to such a point that I freely predicted in
the closing sentences of that paper, that the time was com-
ing, when the shrimp industry would expand as never
before, yet in such a way that there would be no diminution
of the supply even if the maximum possible yield was
reached. Based on the severance tax actually paid to the
Department of Conservation on shrimp produced in Louis-
liana during 1921, the total catch during that year had
already risen to 34,992,443 pounds, a 50 percent increase
over the figures of 1916. The value of this catch for 1921
to those engaged in the industry was not less than $3,000,-
000.

There was a small decrease during the year 1922, owing
to the excessive pack of the canneries during the previous
year, which the market could not absorb. This was not due
in any way to a decrease in the supply in our waters and as
market conditions have now been relieved, the indications
are that the steady growth will continue. The present
open season began on August 16th, with more vessels and
tackle in operation than ever before.

110

Tulian.—Louisiana Shrimp Industry. 111

The phenomenal increase in the shrimp industry has
been due to several interrelated factors; the introduction of
the trawl, the enforcement of certain close seasons, and the
correction of wasteful practices, which factors will be dis-
cussed below.

The otter trawl for the purpose of catching shrimp made
its first appearance in Louisiana during 1917. Its great
advantage over the large shrimp seine as a labor saving
device, often enabling one man to take the place of ten(10),
and greatly increasing the shrimp output per man, was de-
cidedly in its favor from the standpoint of the commercial
fisheries. From four traw!s operated during 1917, the num-
ber increased to 250 during 1919, and 983 during 1921.
The number of shrimp seines has decreased over 50 percent
during the same period. It is clearly evident that the in-
creased catch of shrimp is entirely due to the trawls which
opened up new territory, the bottoms of our brackish water
lakes and bays and the coastal waters of the Gulf, whereas
the seine operated to advantage only along the shores.
Normally, the smaller shrimp take to the shallower waters,
except when migrating through passes. The trawls need
not necessarily catch the smaller sized shrimp during the
open seasons, and during the colder months when the large
shrimp take to deeper waters, there is a close season on in-
side waters where the smaller ones congregate, this season
extending from December 1st to February 15th inclusive.
The destruction of young shrimp, thus prevented, combined
with the fact that the adult shrimp spawn in the open gulf
where they are not as readily available during the breeding
season, are in my opinion the factors which will permit
still further expansion of the shrimp industry without reach-
ing the critical point.

The department has had little or no difficulty in enfore-
. ing the close seasons and the observance of the law is
attributable to the co-operation received from the more in-
telligent fishermen and dealers, and to the services of the
departments field inspectors and other employees. Unfor-
tunately, there has been observed now and then a disposition
on the part of some of the fishermen to take undersized
shrimp to some of the drying platforms where the manage-
ment did not seem to realize the injury they were doing to
the business by purchasing same and thereby encouraging
business of dubious character to the detriment of a profi-
table and legitimate business a few months later. Some of
the drying platforms referred to did not refuse totakeshrimp
measuring two and a half or three inches long. Platform
operators have been warned that the purchase of any con-

112 American Fisheries Society.

siderable quantity of these small shrimp must cease or the
provisions of the law which authorize the Commissioner to:
entirely prohibit the use of trawls in any inside waters, will
be invoked and the violators prosecuted to the full extent of
the law.
The situation in this respect is steadily improving and we
now feel certain that the shrimp industry suffers a great deal
less from the using of trawls than it did when seines were
principally used. Besides, the salt water fisheries have
certainly improved as a result of taking shrimp with this
apparatus. It may be said, that our chief food fishes belong
largely to the shore zone, and it is here that they find the
best feeding conditions and protection in the shallower
waters, since this zone of aquatic life presents a combination
of conditions, typical surface and bottom fish are found here
also. The seine catches all three zonal types of marine
animals, and not only the commercial species but the young
and old of most salt water fish are taken. Under average

conditions of practical operation, it has been shown thatif —

the number of shrimp or fish caught is considerable, practi-
cally the whole lot is doomed to die even if the bag with its
catch is not removed from the water, a few worthless species
such as gars, sharks, rays and catfish being the more notable
exceptions. In the first place, a large percent of the small
and young fish are gilled. Again the shrimp seem to give
off a powerfully irritating secretion, probably an alkaloid.
This in some way seems to poison the fish as most food fish
taken out of a seine bag full of shrimp, otherwise uninjured,
almost invariably die. There must also be considered the
effect of concentration of the fish and shrimp. While the
shrimp are being removed from the bag when it is in the
water, the oxygen content, especially in summer is no doubt
reduced to low terms, and besides, the mucous exuded by
the fish, especially when great numbers of such species as -
menhaden are taken, is considerable. This settles on the
gills of the fish, much dirt adhering to it, and thus further
prevents respiration.

Trawling takes place generally in deeper water, and
usuaily only bottom species are taken. Of our food fishes,
only four species, are taken to any extent in the trawls.
These, with one exception, the gulf flounder, may be con-
sidered second class fish, and of less commercial importance
than the important shore and surface feeders. As they are
all found over great areas and in great abundance, the
number actually destroyed may be relatively insignificant.
Besides, several factors inherent in the trawl itself, and the
method of operating, seem to permit of the escape of a great

Tulian.—Louisiana Shrimp Industry. 113

number of the small and young fish alive. In the first place,
the secretion produced by the shrimp is continually carried
away by the current of water passing through the trawl, and
its effects must be certainly minimized. Next, the smaller
number and aggregation of fish, especially the absence of
such abundant species as menhaden, and washing away
of what mucous there is prevents the accumulation on the
gills as in the case of seines. The smaller bulk of the catch
and the shorter time required to unload and separate the
catch are also factors to be considered. While the catch is
being scooped out, the trawl is generally dragging through
clear clean water at the surface, instead of the muddy water
near the shore. Another thing must not be lost sight of.
Typical bottom species, being associated with mud, natural
pollution, and less oxygen, are fortified by nature to resist
these conditions, and therefore those food species caught in
the trawls are generally the very ones which survive above
all others. Those returned to the open water, especially
during the colder months, stand a much greater chance of
survival than the less hardy shore or surface feeders or for
that matter than the same species liberated from the seines
in shallow muddy water.

Another factor in favor of the trawl is that most large
fish seem to escape, no doubt due to their own alertness and
rapid swimming. The rate of motion of the trawl is rela-
tively slow and the disturbance is sufficient to permit their
escape. The shrimp seine on the other hand catches large
and small fish of all kinds because of the large area sur-
rounded. The escape of the large fish from the trawl partly
compensates for the young of any species destroyed.

Since my last paper before this Society, there has been
done much research work pertaining to the life history of
the premiere shrimp found in our waters, and Mr. Percy
Vioscea, Jr. M. S. Biologist of the Fisheries Division of the
Department of Conservation of Louisiana, has gotten to-
gether a great deal of information on this subject. His
previous work has been amplified and as a consequence,
the Department possesses more intimate knowledge of the
life history and habits of the shrimp, Penaceus setiferus,
than any other denizen of our waters. Many of the remarks
made in this paper are based on his field observations.

I will conclude this paper by incorporating bodily, a
report made by Mr. Viosca to this Department, which
summarizes our present day knowledge of the life history
and habits of Penaeus setiferus.

“The following is a summary of the results of studies of
Penaeus setiferus, which have been taken up since July

114 American Fisheries Society.

1918, when the research in connection with the work of the
Fisheries Division.

“As comparatively little was known in a scientific way
about this common prawn of our salt and brackish waters,
better known locally as the lake shrimp, and as its habits

Wd me
re
90h Beart
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ae :
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ah 2 na
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Salt chscat crm ara name

Penaeus setiferus 1-2 natural size. Immature
female on left, sexually mature female on right.
Note that while longitudinal growth has been
slight, there has been considerable expansion in
width especially in the region of the cephalo-
thorax to make room for the developing eggs.
This transformation usually takes place when the
shrimp attain a length of six inches.

and migrations were very confusing even to fishermen best
acquainted with it, we had only a small foundation to begin
with, including the writer’s limited previous experience.
Furthermore, owing to insurmountable difficulties in the way
of rearing the species in captivity with the facilities at

Tulian.—Louisiana Shrimp Industry. 115

hand, observations had to be made entirely in the field;
little by little, bits of information regarding its life history,
habits and sexual development being gathered, often under
adverse conditions, and now, after putting these together
we consider that we have at least a substantial foundation
for further inquiry. Furthermore, the advent of the
otter trawl, which was to revolutionize the industry, made it
imperative to accumulate all the grosser facts possible re-
garding shrimp, especially those most readily and rapidly
available, so that they could be applied in a practical way
for the preservation of the species and the industry if that
was found to be necessary.

“Although, we have gained some headway with our
study of the early life of the shrimp, we must still look to
the researches of Fritz Muller and W. K. Brooks for the
larval stages in the development of Penaeus. We have
really only a fairly complete knowledge of the development
and migrations from the time they enter shallow waters
when they abandon their plankton life at the size of 1%
inches, until they return to the sea as fully matured adults
for spawning.

“Beologically, Penaeus setiferus is associated with the
sharky clay deposits precipitated by southern rivers upon
bay and gulf bottoms, and as a consequence of Louisiana
having much the largest river, we have much the largest
shrimp territory along the coast of this State. The species
is not associated with larger living vegetation of any kind,
the schools moving over soft mud bottoms where they feed
as scavengers upon organic material picked up in the ooze.
They avoid sandy bottoms, especially those composed of
coarse or compact sand. The breeding season, a rather
extended one, includes at least the period from April to
October, and is confined to the waters of the gulf, although
ripe adults may come at times rather close to the gulf beach,
especially during calm weather.

“By May, reasonable numbers of baby shrimp appear in
the shallow waters near the coast line and a large propor-
tion gradually migrate into brackish waters, all growing
rapidly throughout the summer. New schools of young
shrimp are continually coming in from the sea in greater
and greater numbers as summer advances. As they grow
older, they generally seek the deep water zones of the bays
or lakes in which they happen to be, and the schools are
usually of uniform sized individuals. Only a negligble
percent remain in the sea throughout this growing period of
their lives, and it is very evident that conditions there are not
suited to their development. The maximum sized indi-

116 American Fisheries Society.

viduals of this generation born in the spring reach a length
of six inches by the middle of September a rate of growth
of not less than one (1) inch per month throughout the
period. At this size there is a return migration to the sea,
and adult sexually mature specimens which are always

Shrimp trawl operated from
power-boat.

over six inches are never found in inside waters, the only
recorded exceptions being individuals caught in large passes
leading in from the sea and only on inrushing tides.

‘“‘When cold weather approaches, spawning ceases and
the rate of growth of the young which have not reached
maturity is greatly slackened, later becoming practically
checked during December and January. Because of winter
rains, there is usually at this time a temporary seaward
migration, even of very young individuals, these also seeking
deeper waters during cold weather. As the warm season
approaches, growth is quickened and the small individuals

Tulian.—Louisiana Shrimp Industry. db oy ¢

resume their erratic movements until they approach matur-
ity, when a definite migration to the sea can be traced.
This can be followed easily by watching the growth of the
smallest individuals which came in late the previous summer,
and wintered ata size of 2inches. These all reach maturity
and go to sea toward the latter part of May, and as the new
crop of babies is just beginning to come in, there are prac-
tically no shrimp of any size in the inside waters for a certain

Diagram illustrating the sizes of shrimp (Penaeus setiferus
found in Louisiana throughout the year.

In the above diagram, measurements are in inches, represented by
the vertical lines, the dotted squares indicating that shrimp between
those sizes are present in appreciable abundance during the correspond-
ing months. The blank spaces indicate that shrimp of those sizes are

118 American Fisheries Society.

not obtainable, except that shrimp under 1% inches, which are plank-
ton larvae, are not included in the table. All shrimp approximately
six inches or over can be considered as adults, while all between the
sizes of one and a quarter and six inches while possessing the ultimate
form of adults, are immature sexually.

Curve (a) (a) indicates the rate of growth of the minimum sized
individuals of the so-called spring crop, which is in reality the small
shrimp left over from the preceding fall, (a) (a) which grew very
little during the winter. Curve(b) (b) indicates the development of
the maximum sized individuals of the summer crop.

After reaching maturity, this rapid rate of growth evidently
ceases, so that we find individuals varying somewhat in size, at all
seasons of the year. During the summer there is an increase in the
average size of the adults and the maximum sized specimens obtained
in the littoral zone of the gulf during the various months are rep-
resented by the curve (c) (c), The sizes of shrimp to the left of the
dotted curve (d) (d) represent average sizes of shrimp taken from
inside waters while sizes to the right of this curve are from average
measurements of shrimp from outside waters in the littoral zone of the
gulf, usually from near the beach to five miles or more off shore. Such
a strict line cannot in reality be drawn as shrimp varying about an
inch either way of the sizes represented by the curve can be found both
in inside and outside waters though usually near the coast and in the
passes. Besides, there are many minor variations to be considered,
caused by irregular natural causes. Although this curve (d) (d) is
arbitrary and variable, it represents the approximate age at which
immature shrimp migrate back towards the sea during the various sea-
sons, they being much smaller during the winter months when the cold
weather migration becomes somewhat confused with the permanent
seaward migration.

period. The length of the period in which no shrimp are
found widens as we leave the coast line and in such lakes as
Ponchartrain and Salvador it is greater than the period
during which shrimp are found. In some lakes farther in-
land they may even appear only every few years and then
only for very short periods during the late summer. As
growing shrimp migrate with the tide, they can be consid-
ered an excellent index to the presence of sea water how-
ever small the amount.”’

“Much has been learned of the sizes and quantities of
shrimp present in various localities under varying conditions
and the sum of this knowledge has been tabulated and in
condensed form is herewith graphically presented.

“‘As shrimp under three inches are never taken in con-
siderable quantities by the fishermen because they are of
no commercial value, and as they are not usually associated
with the larger sizes, they hardly need be considered in the
formulation of a close season on shrimp. Protective meas-
ures should be devised more for the purpose of protecting
sizes between three and five inches and a study of the table
will clearly indicate during which months of the year a
close season should be recommended.

Tulian.—Louisiana Shrimp Industry. ES

“The table should also be applicable to conditions along
other sections of the gulf coast of the United States through-
out an average summer, but might have to be modified to
apply to conditions in a different latitude.

Hauling a long shrimp seine—a method of catching this sea food
that is being discarded in favor of the trawl.

“Now that we know something of the habits and habitat
of the adults, and the general development of their sexual
organs, we are in an excellent position to secure fine speci-
mens of all stages, for the preparation of slides for more
detailed miscroscopic study, without which we cannot be
sure of the exact extent of the breeding season. Until this
and other equally important basic scientific problems con-
cerning shrimp, all of which have significant and far-reach-
ing economic value, are worked out in great detail, we can-
not expect to conserve this great natural resource with the
fullest measure of success, by constructive legislation.”

120 American Fisheries Society.

= =

Shrimp on drying platform protected against
rain by tarpaulins.

Discussion.

Dr. Emspopy: Are there any questions on the subject dealt with
in this very interesting paper?

Mr. Titcoms: May I ask what the density of the salt water was in
which you found the shrimp?

Mr. TULIAN: They come up into Lake Ponchartrain and Lake Sal-
vador where the density is about one per cent.

Mr. FeaRNow: I wonder if I could get some information in regard
to the shrimp that are found in great abundance near the spillway at
the Gatun dam in the Panama canal. The shrimp are found there two
or three inches thick all over the concrete work. Apparently they are
trying to get into fresh water. Is it the habit of the shrimp to go into
fresh water at certain periods?

Mr. TULIAN: There are three or four different varieties of salt
water shrimp. Probably the one you refer to is closely related to what
we call the river shrimp—fresh water shrimp. It is considered a del-
icacy in New Orleans.

Mr. FearNow: These shrimp came out of the salt water and got
on to what is known as the apron, right below the spillway.

Mr. TULIAN: If they had got into the fresh water it would have
done for them.

Mr. FearNow: They were up on the walls to a great height.

rn. TULIAN: Probably there was a certain amount of salt water
up to the apron.

Mr. Frarnow: No, there was salt water to the apron, but the apron
is 300 feet long and the water is very swift on it. It is fresh water.

Oe Gents Fee a a oe

Tulian.—Louisiana Shrimp Industry. 121

Mr. TuLIAN: The fresh and salt water mixes below the apron.
The fully matured shrimp do not go up, but the small ones start to go
into the brackish waters and there they stay until along in the fall;
sometimes even in the winter they are found there. In Lake Ponchar-
train and all these lakes connected with the gulf, during a season like
this when there is a great deal of rain and large amounts of fresh water
coming in, the shrimp do not come up as far. There are three of four
different varieties, of course; I was speaking only of the particular
variety known as the brown shrimp or commercial shrimp.

Mr. FEARNOW: These seemed to be disappointed shrimp, it seemed
as if they wanted to go up into the lake proper.

Mr. TULIAN: They were lucky they did not get into fresh water.

Mr. Mark RiteEy: How do the shrimp in Louisiana compare with
those we have in Texas?

Mr. TULIAN: You have about the same kind. We have had a con-
siderable correspondence with your commissioner over there. They are
opening up quite a shrimp industry in Texas. No state has ever equalled
Louisiana in that respect on account of her thousands of miles of brack-
ish bayous.

Dr. OsBuRN: Does the industry extend right over to the Florida
coast?

Mr. TULIAN: Yes, they are catching large numbers along the lower
Atlantic coast of Florida.

SOME CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING THE

CANNING OF SARDINES

By HARRY R. BEARD,
Assistant Technologist, Experimental Laboratory, U. S. Bureau of Fish-
eries, San Pedro, California.

Sardine canning in the United States is carried on in
two localities, the coast of Maine, from Portland north to the
Canadian border, and on the California coast from Monterey
south to Mexico. In 1922 over two and one-half million
cases were packed, having a value in excess of nine million
dollars. These figures place this industry next to that of
salmon canning in importance and, excluding Alaskasalmon,
first among our canned fishery products.

Although other products are canned, the output in Maine
is essentially “‘quarter-oils’ being small herring with oil in
flat cans of approximately quarter pound capacity, while in
California the pack consists almost in total of from four to
ten large pilchards or sardines, with tomato sauce, in
fifteen ounce flat oval cans, giving the so called “pound
oval” pack. ‘“Quarter-oils’” are also canned in California
and, in Maine, small and large fish are put up in mustard
and tomato sauces.

The general method of preparation in Maine is to salt
the fish lightly or place them for a short time in brine, after
which they are spread on wire trays, next steamed and then
partially dried by moving warm air. When cool, the fish
are packed into cans, covered with oil or sauce, sealed, and
next cooked and sterilized in hot water or steam. Califor-
nia sardines are usually brined, partially dried, pre-cooked
in hot oil, cooled, packed into cans with the proper sauce and
exhausted. After sealing the canned fish are cooked and
sterilized in steam retorts. Some fish, however, are pre-
cooked by steam in California and by hot oil in Maine.

With the view in mind of aiding in the protection of
cheaper, yet at the same time better packs of sardines, the
U. S. Bureau of Fisheries has been experimenting upon the
technology of sardine canning in its Experimental Labora-
tory, San Pedro, California. Much research has been con-
ducted yielding results most interesting and practical. It
is the work which will now be briefly described and dis-
cussed.

122

Beard.—Canning of Sardines. 123

A first view of the sardine industry shows that a variety
of packs are produced and by methods apparently quite
diverse. Even the same method is seldom. alike in any two
canneries. Closer study reveals, however, that the produc-
tion of all canned sardines is dependent upon a few well
defined factors, which are:(1) the fish themselves, including
their condition, handling and cleaning; (2) the preparation
of the fish for canning; (3) the materials placed in the can
with the fish; (4) the canning procedure itself; and, (5) the
chemical and physical changes which take place within the
can during processing and later storage. Much is known
about some of these factors and less about others. In any
case, however, good methods of bringing about desired re-
sults and of obtaining excellent final products are known and
practiced, yet it is reasonable to assume that a better under-
standing of underlying principles and of more economical
methods of accomplishing the ends sought will be of assis-
tance, perhaps to a very material degree. This is especially
true concerning factor (2), the preparation of the fish for
canning; and it is for this reason that the investigation has
so far been directed into this field.

The first problem taken up was a study of the changes
which take place in oil used for frying sardines. This,
because of the rapid deterioration of the oil used, presents a
problem of importance, especially in California where pre-
cooking in oil is the usual procedure. Under operating
conditions, starting with a bath of fresh cottonseed, or other
oil, the oil in the fry-bath rapidly darkens in color, becomes
viscous and acquires a characteristic paint-like taste and
odor. Part of this oil, although perfectly sanitary, finds its
way into the canned product with results which are dis-
pleasing to some. The expense of frequent renewal of the
oil isso large that itis impracticable. Attempts to diminish
these effects and to recover the used oil by mechanical or
chemical treatment have met with little success. In studying
this problem experiments were conducted which show the
nature of the changes taking place and indicate the direction
. in which improvement should be made.

The results of the investigation may be summarized as
follows: Fish oil is present to a greater or less extent in oil
used for frying sardines. When the fish are placed in the
fry-bath, oil is rendered from them and mixes with the oil
already present. Upon removal the cooked fish mechani-
cally carry away some of the resulting mixed oils but leave
some of their oil, thus increasing the percentage of fish oil
in the fry-bath. When fat fish are fried this increase is
so rapid that it is only a short time before the fish are being

124 American Fisheries Society.

fried in an oil which is largely fish oil. It can be shown
by calculation that under conditions which are frequently
paralleled commercially, the oil will be over 90% fish oil
after 25 hours of service.

The use of corn oil or a hydrogenated oil such as Crisco,
in addition to cottonseed oil, was found to be feasible for
frying purposes. However, under conditions just described
it is evident that it makes little difference what oil is used
except at the first.

The presence of varying quantities of fish oil, and the
action of air and heat, are largely responsible for the chang-
es which take place in fry-bath oil. Under existing condi-
tions the fish oil content of fry-bath oil is not open to con-
trol, but the bad effects due to air and heat can be lessened
by diminishing to a minimum the action of these factors.
Fry-baths should be constructed so as to offer minimum
exposure of oil to the action of the air. By using the small-
est possible amount of oil for the purpose, replacements will
be large and this will diminish the effects coming from the
action of the air and heat upon the oil.

Attempts to reclaim used fry-bath oil by chemical treat-
ment were unsuccessful. It is not probable that a satisfac-
tory cheap method will be developed.

In concluding, it may be said that although some of the
difficulties of frying in oil are inherent much can be accom-
plished by attention to the following points: construction of
fry-baths which use the minimal possible quantity of oil for
the purpose; maximum protection of the oil from the action
of air and heat; removal of frying oil to as great an extent as
possible from the cooked fish before canning; and more
frequent oil removal, using cheaper yet high quality oil.

The second vroblem taken up was a study of methods of
preparing fish for canning as sardines. It is evident from
a consideration of the first investigation that some of the
difficulties incident with frying in oil can be materially les-
sened and that further study, especially upon the design of
equipment, offers promise, yet certain troubles undoubtedly
will still exist. Elimination of the necessity of frying as a
step in the preparaton of sardines for canning presents a
most desirable field for investigation. This was and still is
especially true in California where, at the time of planning
the investigation, considerable interest was evident, yet
little known about methods of accomplishing this end, and
as to how fish prepared in ways other than frying would
withstand storage and shipping. No commercial attempt
in this field had yet been satisfactory. Frying in general,

Beard.—Canning of Sardines. 125

had already been eliminated in Maine, because a steamed
pack was much cheaper to prepare. Steaming as done
there, however, is evidently not suitable for California use.
In this study three methods of preparing the fish for making
the California ‘‘pound oval” pack were investigated, samples
prepared, stored and shipped. These methods (named
from a characteristic step in the process) are: steaming,
cooking in brine and packing raw.

The preparation of fish for canning can be shown to be
essentially a process of removing excess water from the fish
and getting them into good physical condition for canning.
If sufficient water is not removed from the fish—sardines let
us say—before being sealed in the can they will shrink badly
and give up much water during the sterilizing process. This
gives a slack, so called “sloppy”? pack which not only pre-
sents a poor appearance when opened, but is in no condition
to withstand the treatment it might receive in being shipped.

Study shows that the procedure used when the fish are
fried is an excellent one for removing water from them. To
succeed, another process must accomplish this same end. If
this removal of excess water is well done, and if the fish are
in good physical condition when packed, a very good product
will be obtained having satisfactory keeping and shipping
qualities. This has been shown to be the case with the
experimental packs put up by the different processes.

The big drawback to the steaming of California fish,
especially fat ones, is that the skins break badly during the
process and that they then stick to the trays and to each
other when cold. Brining and drying before steaming,
especially the latter, were found to lessen, but not eliminate,
these bad effects, as does the use of trays the wires of which
are oily. The preparation for canning them in this methodis
to brine, steam, drain and cool the fish. Good results were
also obtained by packing the well dried fish into cans, invert-
ing them to facilitate draining and then steam.

Instead of passing the fish through hot oil, simmering
strong brine may be used. The fish should first be dried,
but not brined, as this combined with cooking in a salt solu-
tion gives a too salty final product. This same trouble is
encountered when small fish are used so the method is not
applicable to the preparation of ‘“‘quarter-oils.”” A ten-
dency towards a too salty final product can be met by leaving
the salt out of the tomato sauce. Although not so pro-
nounced as when the fish are steamed there is found to be
some trouble in this method regarding the sticking of the
cooled fish to each other and to the wire trays.

126 American Fisheries Society.

When fish are packed raw, brining and drying alone
must remove the necessary water, therefore, these steps
must be well carried out. Brining removes some water and
to make the most of this step the fish should be kept in sat-
urated brine as long as possible without making the final
pack too salty. The fish are then well dried and packed in-
to the cans raw, with thick tomato sauce. Any water which
cooks out of the fish is taken up by the thick sauce. A dis-
advantage encountered here is that the canning process must
be completed within a few hours after the preliminary prep-
aration, which is a disadvantage compared with pre-
cooked fish which may be held as long as 48 hours before
being packed.

Time is not available here for a full discussion of the
advantages and disadvantages of the different methods of
preparation just described. These, as well as other angles
of the problem and an elaboration of the parts of this paper,
including the experimental data are now to be taken up ina
Bureau of Fisheries bulletin which is now being prepared.

The third problem selected for study was the partial
drying of such fish as sardines for canning. So far, the re-
moval of some water from raw or steamed fish by subject-
ing them to the action of moving, warm air, has been an
essential step in all successful methods of preparing fish
for canning as sardines. Commercially the fish are scat-
tered upon wire trays or belts contained in a tunnel through
which air is blown or drawn, the air being heated by first
passing over steamcoils. The principles involved in this
method of removing moisture and their best application are
in general unknown to the sardine canner. Then, too, the
behavior of raw and cooked fish under various drying con-
ditions has not yet been worked out. Accurate knowledge
of this latter point is necessary, to permit the practical appli-
cation of the fundamental principles of air drying to the
designing of apparatus and to the improving and cheapen-
ine of this important step in the preparation of the fish
for canning.

This problem was approached by first studying airdrying
in general, followed by the construction of an experimental
dryer which was used in investigating the behavior of raw
and steamed fish under the different drying conditions.
Data were also obtained upon commercial sardine dryers
and their operation.

Before going into the results of the experiments it will
probably be well to discuss briefly the part drying plays in
the preparation of the fish for canning and the nature of air
drying.

Beard.—Canning of Sardines. 127.

Air drying is resorted to in Maine after the brined raw
fish have been steamed. These cooked fish still contain too
much water to can well so they are partially dried. Drying
of raw fish, however, prior to some form of pre-cooking pre-
sents a somewhat different problem from that of drying
steamed fish or fish to be canned raw. In these cases the
problem is more largely one of moisture, but to prepare fish
for pre-cooking the most important thing is to get them into
good physical condition for withstanding the rest of the
preparation for canning. It is a process of toughening the
skins and the removal of surface water and some internal
moisture so that the fish will undergo frying, steaming or
cooking in brine with minimum damage to themselves. The
actual amount of water removed is of secondary impor-
tance and may vary some without detriment to the final pack,
especially if plans are laid to remove more or less water in
the subsequent preparation.

If one looks into the nature of air drying it will be found
that when air is heated it has a greater moisture absorbing
capacity at the higher temperature. It is therefore possible
to take air which is already saturated with moisture, (as on
a rainy day), heat it, and use it for drying fish. The mov-
ing, warm air striking the fish warms them, furnishing the
heat needed to vaporize the water and then carries the water
vapor away from the fish. With other conditions equal and
favorable, an increase in the temperature of the air, or in its
velocity, or a decrease in its moisture content, will bring
about an increase in the amount of moisture removed from
-an object being dried. The application of these principles
is limited, however, by the physical and chemical proper-
ties of the object being dried, and practical considerations
which present themselves.

The experimental work upon the behavior of the raw fish
under different drying conditions has shown that the amount
of moisture in the drying air has but little effect upon the
rate of moisture removal from the fish, providing no conden-
sation of water on the fish takes place. Increasing the
temperature, however, brings about a marked increase in
‘the amount of water removed and this is also true for in-
creased velocity. With other conditions equal, either an
increase in temperature or in velocity will bring about
greater heat transfer from the air to the fish, thus increasing
the vaporization of the water, and its diffusion from the in-
terior to the surface. In this way a greater loss of water
from the fish is brought about. High temperatures acting
upon large “pound-oval” size fish for any considerable
length of time softens them considerably and causes some oil

128 American Fisheries Society.

to be rendered from them. For example, one hour expos-
ure in the dryer to a temperature of 120 degrees Fahrenheit
brings about these undesirable changes while one-half hour
does not. The fish enter the dryer at or below outside
air temperature, say 60 degrees Fahrenheit. and then the
temperature near the skin gradually rises towards that of
the drying air. During the first 30 minutes the temperature
may vary from 60 to 100 degrees and during the next 30 min-
from 100 to 110 degrees Fahrenheit. It would appear from
this example that the undesirable changes take place after
the fish attain a temperature of over 100 degrees. The
experimental evidence shows this to be the case with the
limiting temperature possibly a few degrees lower.

To use the higher temperatures, then, times must be cut,
yet it is found that if this is done the total moisture loss is
quite the same as at the lower temperatures with their longer
drying times. The fish are in excellent condition for frying,
too, and do fry perfectly satisfactorily. This angle of the
drying problem is a most important one, for it is entirely
possible that future study along this line may mean a great
deal; at least the preliminary work gives such a promise.

Drying conditions being equal, small fish will lose water
more rapidly than large fish. The rate of loss in any case
varies with the time; the percentage loss being considerably
larger during the first unit of time and after that, morenearly
equal for each succeeding unit of time. In no case were fish
dried longer than three hours.

Steamed fish lose water much more rapidly than raw
fish; otherwise they behave quite similar to raw fish under
different drying conditions. Much research, however, was
not carried out on steamed fish; this to be done later.

In the California industry where accurate data on com-
mercial dryers were collected, temperatures from 75 to 120
degrees Fahrenheit and velocities from 350 to 1450 feet per
minute were inuse. Times varied from 28 minutes to about
3 hours, with losses on large fish running from 3.8 to 10.7
percent. In all cases fish were being dried for frying in oil.
One canner was getting 314 times the efficiency from his
dryer that his next door neighbor was and they are both
big successful plants.

Having available data upon the behavior of the fish and
knowledge of the role of drying in the preparation of the
fish for canning, one is able to make better use of the general
principles of drying and their application as embodied in
dryer design. This means that present equipment and prac-
tices can be made much better and future installations
smaller and more efficient than the ones now in use.

Beard.—Canning of Sardines. 129

Experiments have shown that an important cause of
slow drying on certain days is due to a lack of drying for a
short time when the raw fish first enter the dryer. The fish
may come out of the brine with a temperature several de-
grees below the dew point of the air in the dryer and in that
ease there is some condensation upon them until they are
warmed to a temperature above the dew point, and not
until then does any drying take place. Several methods of
handling this difficulty are available, the question, however,
is to pick the best. This is going to be a part of the future
research to be carried out in the drying field. How to in-
crease the amount of air which may be recirculated in the
dryer (and thus save heat) depends in part upon a solution
of this problem. Itisalso planned to further investigate the
drying of steamed fish and to study existing commercial
installations used for this purpose. The most important
work, however, will be upon the use of high temperatures
and short times for drying raw and steamed fish.

A field of major importance is the use of live steam in
the preparation of the fish for canning. It is planned there-
fore, to make a study of this problem. This is, at present,
primarily a question of the Maine industry.

So far, all actual experimenting has been upon Califor-
nia fish and although most of the results can be applied to
problems in Maine, yet there are commercial aspects and
questions as to the behavior of the fish which must be settled.
Some experimenting in Maine with the fish there will give
the desired information. This is going to be done in the
future.

Much of the effect of industrial research of this type
and of as general a nature as this has been, is bound to be
more or less intangible; however, concrete evidences of its
value are beginning to collect. So far only the work upon
“Changes in Oil Used for Frying Sardines” has beeen pub-
lished. The rest, as previously stated, is now being prepared
for publication.

The results of the investigations and their application
to the problems at hand have been discussed with the
California sardine packers, most of whom state that they are
being of material assistance to them. In the case of a can-
nery just getting ready to install equipment for sardine
canning on a large scale, it has been possible to plan a dryer
which, per ton of fish handled, will occupy considerably
smaller space and cost much less to build and operate than
any California sardine dryer heretofore in use. The fry-
bath is also being designed so that material economies in
the use of oil will be effected. In several other cases

130 American Fisheries Society.

changes in existing dryers are being made so that their
capacity may be increased.

In concluding this discussion, attention is called to the
fact that during a lapse in Congressional support the Cali-
fornia State Fish and Game Commission met the expense of
the investigation upon ‘‘Changes in Oil Used for Frying
Sardines” and later contributed some towards the study of
“Methods of preparing Fish for Canning as Sardines.”
Appreciation is also expressed for the willing cooperation
at all times shown by the sardine packers.

PROBLEMS IN BASS CULTURE AT THE COLD SPRING,
GEORGIA STATION.

By CHARLES A. BULLOCK
Bullockville, Georgia.

Before reading the paver I want to describe the condi-
tions that prevail in the territory served by our station,
approximately the eastern half of Alabama and the west-
ern half of Georgia.

So far as conservation or fish protection, in any sense of
the word, are concerned, we have none. Bass, trout, bream
and catfish can be taken at any time during the year.
There is no well enforced restriction against seining for
game fishes at any time of the year. Under such conditions
it easily will be understood that the public streams have been
sadly depleted of their game fishes.

The people, down there, have apparently given up all
hope of remedying conditions through their legislature, and
therefore have built, and are still building a large number
of private ponds. A very large part of the output of our
station is distributed to furnish an initial broodstock for the
development of these ponds. This paper treats of our
problems in supplying the demand.

A systematic effort has been made in the last six years,
to lower the unit cost in the production and distribution of
young bass; and, as rapidly as possible, to increase the out-
put in order to meet the constant increase in demand.

Unit costs have been kept low by having all such skilled
labor as carpentering, plumbing, painting, blacksmithing
etc., performed by the personnel. Increasing our area in
pond waters by one-third was also accomplished by the
crew with the addition of a single temporary laborer. And
in all labor, skilled and common, the superintendent not only
directs but feels privileged to share a fair part.

While providing for an increase in the output through
increasing the size of the plant, the possibilities from inten-
sive culture were not overlooked.

Three springs furnish our ponds with water. They
are close together, so the quality is about uniform for the
three. It has never been considered a good fish-producing
water. It is deficient in dissolved mineral elements, par-
ticularly in calcium, so necessary in producing an abundance

131

ue ¥4 American Fisheries Society.

of the minute crustaceans on which the baby bass feed. It
is also deficient in all the elements that, under the action of
bacteria, change the dying aquatic plants into humus.

Of calcium it contains less than one part per million. At
some of the other Bureau’s stations the parts per million
are: White Sulphur, W. Va., 14; Erwin, Tenn., 17; Neosho,
Mo., 37; Wytheville, Va., 50; Northville, Mich., 60; and
Bozeman, Mont.,65. A comparison as to many of the other
elements would show a similar disparity. In free carbon
dioxide Cold Spring water is rich having 60 parts per million.

The effect of a difference in amount of mineral elements
is clearly shown by a comparison of the higher aquatics
that thrive at the stations mentioned with those that grow
at Cold Spring station. In the ponds at these stations are
found Chara, Water Cress, Potomogetons, etc. In our
ponds grow water grasses, sedges, rushes and Starwort.
These are the native species. The Milfoils and Pennywort,
introduced species, also thrive.

On our fish the effect of the deficiency in minerals in
solution and the presence of considerable free carbon
dioxide is shown in the high mortality of adults, often one-
fourth the total number, and in the number and thrift in
schools from domesticated stock when compared with the
greater numbers and more rapid growth of schools from
wild bass newly introduced from South Georgia waters.

A number of experiments have been made with the
purpose of improving the quality of the water and of en-
riching the bottom soil of ponds. One year a carload of
stable manure was broadcast over the drained ponds and
worked into the soil. It failed to decompose into humus pro-
perly and the results were negative.

The next year a carload of limestone, crushed to pass —
through a screen of 100 mesh per inch, was applied to the
pond bottoms. No benefit could be claimed.

This year a filter was made in a single pond. It con- —
tained, above the gravel and sand, a barrel of newly slaked
burned lime. Water was forced up through it from a three-
fourths inch pipe under a half pound pressure. Installed
and put into operation last September much of the lime had ~
dissolved out by the time fish began spawning. Though —
many eggs were spawned, no fry or fingerlings could be
found for collections, so about the first of May the filter
was disconnected. After that the pond gave good results; —
perhaps as good or even better than any other on the place. —
The results were not conclusive.

The problem of providing a better fish medium was ~
undertaken in another way, beginning last summer. Ponds

Bullock.—Problems in Bass Culture ives

were drained as soon after July 15th as we failed to find
schools present and the work could be begun and completed.

Three purposes were in view; first to sweeten pond
bottoms by letting air permeate through them as long as
possible; second to have summer suns and winter freezes
destroy the undesired weed, Pennywort; and third, and most
important, to reduce the number of carnivorous insects. We
had too many giant water beetles, Dytiscus, giant water
bugs, Benacus, water mites, water scorpions, small diving
and whirligig beetles, etc.

The results were satisfactory. The warm weather last
winter spared too much of the Pennywort, but carnivorous
insects were very scarce this season while more daphnids
could be seen along the shores in the early months than in
all the previous five years combined. The final proof of
the advantage of very early drainage is shown in the output.
It was much larger this year, as compared with any other
in the history of the station.

The food given to bass at this station had always been
chopped fresh mullet. Itis a species rich in oil; the many
dead bass examined showed the stomach surrounded by a
mass of fatty tissue, and it was thought that perhaps the
food might, in part, account for the high mortality, besides
the cost of mullet seemed prohibitive.

Grouper and other fish were offered the bass as a sub-
stitute, but were refused. Next strips of beef heart were
tried and were taken by the bass quite as greedily as had
been the mullet. They could be purchased for less than a
fourth the cost of mullet, at that time, and we became
optimistic. We knew that hearts were fed at many of the
Bureau’s stations and that their mortality and costs as well
were low.

Pig hearts were made our regular food, beginning July
Ist, 1921. All seemed going well until spring. Then loss
of adults became so high that on May 25th, 1922 the order
for hearts was discontinued and a return made to mullet as
fish food. Not only was the loss, under a heart diet, ex-
tremely high, but the output per adult was probably the
lowest ever experienced here.

It may at times be advisable to cut off the artificial food
altogether. In distributing our broodstock from the hold-
ing pond to the numerous spawning ponds, the past Febru-
ary, it was decided that the fish were too fat. All feeding
was discontinued for six weeks. The results were satisfac-
tory.

Probably all pond stations are troubled with algae. We
have it too. Our scientific advisers tell us it is not to be

134 American Fisheries Society.

considered as wholly a curse but in part a great blessing.
They say that, somewhat like weeds in a garden of vege-
tables, some of the great number of species of algae are the
principal foods of the daphnids; which in turn feed our
baby bass. They tell us further that the decomposing
higher aquatic plants release the nitrates necessary for the
growth of algae. These plants (algae) are seasonal in their
appearance. Certain varieties, making their appearance in
the winter months, are followed in rotation by spring, sum-
mer and autumn varieties. We know nothing of a method of
promoting the growth of the good ones while at the same
time checking the growth of those that are but a nuisance.

If nitrates, derived from decomposing plants in good
fish ponds, promote the growth of useful algae, perhaps
commercial nitrate of soda will give like results. It is our
intention to make an applicaton of it to the bottom of our
most barren pond, and then note results in algae, in minute
animal life, and in fish production.

Every pond station has its own peculiar problems and —
only through experimenting at our own, checking results —
with those derived by similar experiments of others, is
progress to be made.

Discussion.

Mr. TITcCOMB: That station was a political location, was it not?

Mr. BULLocK: ‘The station was selected in this way. Congress
provided for its location, with the restriction that the site must be do-
nated. The whole state was scoured to find a site that would be donated.
Many more desirable sites could have been gotten for a consideration;
this was selected as the best to be had as a gift.

Mr. Titcomp: When you get something for nothing you do not
usually get much. Would it not be better to abandon the station entirely?

Mr. BULLOCK: Well, my idea is this: While the present conditions
in our territory are permitted to continue; while station visitors can
boast of taking bream from bream beds, in numbers, for a single day, in
excess of our total broodstock, and others from 100 to 400 a day, Idonot
think the public is entitled to much more consideration or expenditure
for their public streams; so the idea of abandoning this station and es-
tablishing another does not appeal to me very much. Moreover, we are
fairly successful in supplying all applications. Our output is now sent
out while fish are still in the advanced fry or No. 1 fingerling stage.
In this way we get a satisfactory output; even though minute fish food
is scarcer in our ponds than could be desired. I have said in the past,
and I think the same opinion is probably held by a good many of you
gentlemen here, that I would not exchange twenty-five two and a half
inch fingerlings for a can of a thousand fry. I still adhere to the belief

Bullock.—Problems in Bass Culture LSS

that the distribution of fry in flowing streams is of little value. But,
when one party tells me that he found thousands of six and eight inch
bass on the bottom of his broken pond in October, the result of stocking
with fry in May, and others seem well satisfied with the number of
twelve inch bass two years after planting fry, I am convinced that fry
and small fingerlings are perfectly successful to plant in ponds. These,
by hard work, we can produce in satisfactory numbers.

Mr. Fearnow: While this station is not located at an ideal
place, it is performing a very useful work and, in spite of the
.difficulties that are being experienced there, we are producing

a fairly good type of fish. A great percentage of the output is used for
the stocking of private ponds, and in the southern states that often
means the stocking of ponds owned by companies who employ large num-
bers of people, such as the Cotton Mill Ponds that we have in North and
South Carolina and, I presume in Georgia as well. That matter was
brought to my attention some time ago by a congressman from one of
the southern states. He pointed out that these employees work long
hours; that fishing is their only recreation and that they fish these ponds
under restrictions. It seems to me, therefore, that the work being done
at that station in very important in that it contributes to the happiness
and comfort of the population. :

Mr. Titcoms: I did not have it in mind that we should give up the
fish culture work there, but I should like to give it up where it is not
profitable. I should like to see the government buy a place where they
could produce fish in maximum numbers at a minimum expense instead
of spending so much money in a place where conditions are so unfavor-
able. The station is rather valuable for experimental purposes. May
I inquire where you get your brood fish to replenish your loses?

Mr. Buttock: ‘The question of getting brood fish is our most bother-
some problem. For a number of years they were purchased in South
Georgia from the owner of a pond of between six and ten thousand acres.
Last year we could not get them there, and we had five unstocked ponds.
Prospects are very good for getting them for the next season at a very
low unit cost. It is better to buy at a low unit cost, than to try to raise
them. It may well be that they cost less than does the brood stock reared
from fingerlings at some of the other stations. Aside from purchase
of broodstock our operating expenses are kept low as we employ no

_temporary labor at our home station.

Mr. Woops: While we are on this subject, I may say that the
Missouri State Fish Commission is represented here in the person of
Mr. Kopplin, who has been in the Service for about thirty years. I
think you ought to call upon him, Mr. Chairman.

Dr. EmBopy: We shall be glad to hear from the representative of
the Missouri Commission.

Mr. Koppiin: I do not know that I have anything in particular to
say, though I should be pleased to answer any questions. The problems
involved are difficult, and each station will have to work out its own
salvation. Now, the matter has been discussed pretty thoroughly, and

136 American Fisheries Society.

I shall not detain you, but if there is any information you want I shall
do my best to furnish it.

Mr. GEORGE BERG: We have had cases where trouble developed
when the young fish reached about three-quarters of an inch. We term
it “cotton-mouth,” just among ourselves. The fish have a sort of growth
in the mouth; it looks something like a fungus, and it affects them
so seriously that they die off in large numbers. This year we lost some-
thing like fifteen or twenty thousand from that cause. The gentleman
from New Jersey is the only one I know of who has also experienced
it, and he does not know exactly what it is either.

Mr. Koppuin: I have had experience along that line, and I attribute
it to oil draining off our roads into the ponds. When we eliminate
the oil we can eliminate the trouble.

Mr. BERG: We have nothing of that sort. It might be due to some-
thing the fish eat.

Dr. EmMpopdy: Am I correct in understanding, Mr. Bullock, that
you spoke of there being as much as 60 parts per million of carbon
dioxide?

Mr. Buttock: That is what the state analysis gives.

Dr. EmBoby: Did you have a statement of the percentage of free
oxygen?

Mr. BuLLocK: No. The analysis is taken from the State bulletins.
The analysis is given therein of the waters of all the larger springs
in the State of Georgia. The free oxygen in the water of our springs
was not given.

Mr. Empopy: Sixty parts per million is so unusual that it seems
almost like a miracle to me that any fish we have in this country could
live in such waters.

Mr. Buttock: That occurs at the spring. The water flows from
there a few hundred feet to a stone crib; then it flows a few hundred
feet to the ponds, falling out of the crib to the lower line of pipes with
considerable splash—all tending to aerate it. But I am simply giving
the figures to you as published.

Dr. Empopy: It is very interesting.

Mr. Titcoms: I should think that the Society for the Prevention
of Cruelty to Animals ought to interfere when importing bass from wild
waters to any such place as that.

Dr. MoorE: The carbon dioxide might be well shaken out by aera-
tion by the time the water reaches the ponds.

Dr. Empopy: I should think you would have a rather dense growth
of green aquatic plants, which would eliminate it still more.

DR. Empopy: Some of the members of the Society have
asked for a symposium on foods and feeding of fishes. As
I understand it, they desire a general discussion of what
foods are used in the various hatcheries, what species of fish
are fed, how the foods are prepared, what experimental work

Bullock.—Problems in Bass Culture 137

is being done and what results have been obtained. The’
question of foods and feeding is a very important one; it has

a direct bearing upon the health of the fishes in the hatcher-

ies; if we do not give them properly balanced food, there is

bound to be trouble sooner or later. It will be very interest-

ing, therefore, to know what the practical men in the various

hatcheries of the country are using as food and what success

they are having in that direction. Mr. Titcomb, will you

lead the discussion on this subject?

FOODS AND FEEDING OF FISHES.

Mr. TiTcoMB: The suggestion that this matter be discussed was
the result of a conference among a number of fish culturists, and arose
partly out of a conversation concerning our various difficulties and
experiences. It would seem to be worth while that each of the practical
men here who is engaged in fish cultural work should recount very
briefly just what species of fish he is rearing what experiments he has
tried what the results were, and what he is doing to-day as a result of
his past experience. It was my idea that every man here who is engaged
in that work could get up and briefly answer these questions.

I must confess that in this connection we have not done very much
in Connecticut at the present time. We are, however, building up our
work very rapidly. We are raising all our trout to at least three inches
before distributing them. We had no hatchery where we could raise
fingerlings. We have no large sources of water supply, so that in
view of these conditions we are putting in what we call field stations or
rearing stations, which are nothing more or less than a battery of
hatching troughs set up as close as possible to the source of water
supply. There are no flowers; there is no green grass growing round—
just a feeding plant. We transfer the fry from the two hatcheries we
now have to these troughs and there feed them until they are at least
three inches long; then we distribute them until the last of them are
about five inches long. There are some advantages in that method:
we can keep the troughs perfectly clean; if our water supply turns out
bad or if we have any disease we can put the whole plant on a truck
and move it somewhere else. The largest one of these rearing plants
has eighty-six troughs. We are feeding principally beef liver. We
have fed shrimp with the liver this summer; we fed clabbered milk to
some extent also in the case of the trout. I am not yet prepared to
give the results of those experiments because this is our first season in
the testing of that variety of food. We now have three of these field
stations running and we are going to put up some more as rapidly as we
find suitable water supplies.

I cannot contribute much on feed because you all have fed the
beef liver. I prefer it to the livers of other animals, but I know that
the cost is a little more. One other species of fish that we are attempt-

138 American Fisheries Society.

ing to feed at the present time is shad. We had an appropriation of
$10,000 for studying the shad situation and a scientific staff has been
working on that all summer. Dr. Moore was borrowed early in the
season and gave us a great deal of assistance; we hope to have her
again next spring. She can tell you about the natural food of the shad.
We had some ponds in which shad were said to have been reared many
years ago, and it happened that during the period that those ponds were
stocked with shad the statistics of the commercial fisheries rose so
rapidly that the commercial fishermen, now that shad fishery is about
gone, keep harking back to what was done at that time. My exper-
ience in Washington and in New York had satisfied me, however, that
any attempts to raise shad in ponds was doomed to failure. I was
rather slow about going back to shad rearing in Connecticut, but we
planted about 300,000 shad in a pond of about ten acres. They did very
well, apparently, until they were about an inch and a half long. Shad
caught in the rivers where they are spawning, the tributaries of the
Connecticut and in the Connecticut River itself, are about twice that
length, some of them four inches long. The last time we took speci-
mens from this pond we found that they were going back; they were
slim, weak and apparently starving; and we found that the particular
species of plankton upon which they were known to feed were entirely
exhausted. The first of last week we started in dragging for plankton
in another lake with a view to transferring it to this pond in an attempt
to save these fish. We are also feeding cracker crumbs, and we are
using some dried shrimp, thinking that if they do not eat the shrimp
they might eat some food developed by it. We have a scientist follow-
ing up this work, taking specimens of young shad to see whether, for
instance, they are eating crackers or whether they are eating the shrimp:
it is an attempt to follow up this work of feeding shad through the
season in order to see what the actual results from feeding are.

Mr. Hare: At our station at Manchester, Iowa, one of the most
complete tests in connection with feeding is being made at the present
time that I have ever had any knowledge of. We have there a young
man from the western biological station, working under the direction
of Dr. Davis. I have never seen any man more devoted to his duties:
he reports promptly at eight o’clock in the morning and never quits
work until the evening. He has experimented with thirteen different
sorts of food, and the tests made are very complete indeed. I am not
in a position to state results, but when the next Convention meets a
report will be submitted on that very subject, and I am confident that

it will be one of the most complete reports on feeding experiments
that we have ever had.

I want to add this: if there is anything that will beat hearts for
trout, I would like someone to bring it to me. If you feed your beef
hearts until the fish are seven weeks old and make a gradual change to
sheep’s liver, you will produce the goods. If we do not send out
seven carloads of as fine fish as ever flipped a tail this year, I will eat my
hat.

Foods and Feeding of Fishes 139

Mr. CULLER: I have had some experience in trout work, and I agree
with what Mr. Hare says about beef hearts and sheep’s liver. I learned
my fish culture under the grand old man of Rainbow trout culture, Mr.
George A. Seagle of Wytheville, Virginia. He taught me that clean-
liness was next to godliness and that the fish need exercise. His teach-
ing was that if you kept everything clean and fed carefully, you could
raise trout; and he certainly raised them.

Dr. EMpoDy: Have you had experience in feeding other fish besides
trout?

Mr. CULLER: We have fed bass down there; and have had no trouble
whatever in feeding them with beef hearts; they took it the same as the
trout would.

Dr. EmBopy: How do you prepare it?

Mr. CuLLER: Cut it in strips to make it resemble angle worms.

We feed sunfish the same way, and yellow perch. In fact, we never
have any trouble in getting any species of warm water fishes to feed.

Mr. Titcoms: How do you cut it to make it look like angle worms?

Mr. CULLER: Divide the heart and cut it in strings.

Mr. TITcoMB: Using a sharp knife?

Mr. CULLER: Yes.

Mr. W. C. ADAMS: You are talking about adult fish?

Mr. CULLER: Small fish, too.

Mr. ADAMS: How small?

Mr. CVLLeR: I have fed black bass four inches long.

Mr. ADAMS: Small or large mouth, or both?

Mr. CULLER: Both. It depends a great deal on the care the atten-
dant gives the fish. If you get a man who wants to get through a job in
a hurry you do not have much success, but a man who is faithful to his
duty can soon teach the fish to feed. If necessary with your bass, put
them in a small pond, a confined area; put a few trout that are feeding
in with them and they will soon learn to take the food the same as the

trout.
Mr. BuLLocK: Black bass two inches long will soon learn to take

artificial food of that kind.
Mr. Cutter: I have fed No. 1 fingerling black bass in a trough,
using ground up beef heart. I have fed bass three-quarters of an inch

long.
Mr. TitcomMs: In other words, you feed them what you give the

trout.

Mr. CULLER: Yes; we put the young trout in there to teach them
to feed.

Dr. EMBoDY: Did you ever feed rock bass?

Mr. CULLER: Yes. we did not keep the small mouth in the troughs.
In the case of the large mouth, it was just an experiment to see whether
they would take the food.

Mr. FLEMING: And they took on an average growth?

Mr. CuLLER: Yes.

140 American Fisheries Society.

Mr. ADAMS: An interesting experiment was made at one of our
hatcheries this summer with the small mouth black bass which were
somewhere between half and three-quarters of an inch long. These
were bass fry that were sent out to one of our ponds; the superintendent
of the hatchery took several hundred of them for the purpose of his
experiment. He put them in a regular rearing pool and fed them with
the ordinary stuff that would be fed to brook trout fingerlings say two
inches long. The bass, however, gradually died off, the experiment
never produced any green fish or any that were advanced in size. But
it was rather interesting to see these little bass feed: they would go
right down and, almost standing on their heads, would eat off the bottom.
It was observed that the bass would go down and take the stuff off the
bottom and feed on it, where the brook trout wanted it in the water
where they could grab it. It seems to me that in this bass cultural work
the question is to discover some food that you can feed to the small
bass—I am talking now about small mouth black bass—that will
supplement the natural food. Ido not know how it is going to be done
or whether we shall ever be able to do it, but it is the eternal struggle of
trying to maintain enough animal life of the kinds that we have been
working with in the past in our bass ponds, reducing what would seem to
be the number of fish that ought to be raised in a bass pond, with inten-
sive cultivation. The present foods will have to be supplemented, it
seems to me, by something else if we are going to carry on this work on
a big scale.

Mr. Hare: Mr. Culler brought out a point that is far more impor-
tant than might be imagined, and that is that you want to give your
young trout something to do; you want to set them to work. There isa
simple way of doing that. I do not claim any credit for it; it is not my
own idea; I did not originate it. But in our troughs at the Manchester
station we use what we call division dams. The division dam is noth-
ing more than a piece of sheet metal across the trough; the water cannot
flow over the top of this dam but does flow underneath, and in that
way we have a strong current at three or four different positions in the
troughs, and you will always find the young trout right in next to this
division dam. They are always working against that current, which is
perfectly natural for the trout, and that has a great deal to do with
keeping them in a healthy condition. I just wanted to emphasize that
point brought out by Mr. Culler; it is really important,

Mr. CULLER: I can tell you where that idea came from: it is one of
Mr. Seagle’s inventions. .

Mr. HARE: He deserves great credit for it. It has worked wonders
for me.

Mr. CULLER: About 1905, under Mr. Titcomb’s direction, Mr. Seagle
conducted a series of experiments in connnection with which we tried
all the different kinds of food that were known at that time. In addi-
tion, we tried an aquatic bug from Mexico—cooked, ground up and
dried. We tried azotine and meal, and liver and meal.

Foods and Feeding of Fishes 141

Mr. BuLLocK: What you refer to as azotine is called “fishotine”
now?

Mr. CuLLER: It is the same thing. Well, do not feed that to your
fish until after they have reached two and a half or three inches, or you
will have mighty disastrous results. The digestive organs of the small
fish cannot take care of azotine.

Mr. BULLOCK: We feed it to bream when they are along about three
inches.

Mr. CuLLER: I have had experience in connection with trout, and
find that the feeding of azotine to the small ones brings about dis-
astrous results.

Mr. BRUNSON: I have fed everything that it is possible to prepare
for fish food—all kinds of dry food, mild cured food, smoked food, and
so on, and of all the foods I know I have always had the best results
with salmon carcasses, mild cured and freshened in running water—
allowed to stand in running water twenty-four hours, then ground
through one of those special plates we all use in the fish hatcheries.
Put it through that plate from ten to fourteen times; then take beef
spleen, prepare that in the same marner, and mix one spoonful of beef
spieen to three spoonfuls of salmon carcass. If that is fed through a
shaker it will come out resembling little angle worms; the size of the
holes in the bottom of the shaker would depend upon the size of the
fish you were feeding. I feed them that from daylight till dark. Then,
I feed one feed daily consisting of a mixture of some cereal with spleen.
We used to call that cereal middlings’”’; it was mixed with raw beef
spleen. With brook trout we would use cooked beef liver and cooked
spleen, although the raw spleen and the raw liver is best. In Montana
on brook trout and rainbow and native trout at present we use beef
liver, hog liver, sheep liver, beef hearts, sheep hearts, fish carcasses—
anything we can get, mixing it fifty fifty with cereal and feeding twenty
times a day. Mr. Culler has seen some of my fish, and he can tell you
whether or not I am getting results.

Mr. Titcoms: You are feeding twenty times a day?

Mr. BRUNSON: Yes. I cannot feed more than that because I have
not the money to hire the men.

Dr. EMBopy: These are your young fish, when they are first begin-
ning to feed?

Mr. BRUNSON: I hatch my brook trout out in September and in
December they get it, and they get it twenty times a day too. I think
the whole success in feeding is in the preparation of the food. If you
ean get your food fine enough so that your fish can digest it fast enough,
you will get the quick growth that is so desirable.

Mr. YouNG: A company at Put-In-Bay have been turning out a
food which is ninety per cent fish—lake herrings— and the rest cereal.
I was sent some samples of this food. The fish is cooked, ground very
fine and mixed in with the cereal, and it is claimed to produce wonder-
fully successful results. This food in its finished form is in fine particles

142 American Fisheries Society.

which go to the bottom, and the bigger fish do not pick them up, but
the fish will devour it ravenously if you can get it to them before it hits
the bottom. I believe the name of the manufacturer in Put-in-Bay is
Paxton. The cost of the food is six cents a pound.

Dr. EMBopy: It is a mixture of fish and cereals?

Mr. YounG: Yes. It is from seventy to ninety per cent fish.

Mr. Foster: The Paxton food has not proved as good for the small
fingerlings as beef heart.

Mr. TitcomB: Is it good for the fish after they get started?

Mr. Foster: It has not been definitely tried out. As far as I know
there have been no conclusive experiments on the larger fingerlings.

Dr. Emspopy: Have you used it alone without any fresh meat like
liver or melts?

Mr. Foster: Yes, alone and with combinations.

Dr. EmMBopy: I imagined that if you used dry food alone—

Mr. Foster: It is not very dry. It is a mush preparation.

Dr. EmBopy: Is it bought in that form?

Mr. Foster: Yes, it comes in a paraffin sack.

Mr. BRUNSON: Mr. Titcomb mentioned the use of dried shrimp for
fish food. We have used dried shrimp, tried it in every conceivable
manner, but it seemed to kill the fish that ate it. I would like to ask
the members of the society if anyone present knows whether dried food
does not always swell after the fish eats it, with the result that there are
internal injuries which may cause death.

Mr. TitcoMB: We boil the shrimp before we grind it. Moreover
it comprises only one-quarter of the food; we feed liver three times
where we feed shrimp once.

Mr. BULLER: I have been experimenting so many years with fish
food that some of the early experiments we have made in Pennsylvania
have been forgotten. I shall deal only with what we have found best in
the hatcheries of Pennsylvania and what we are using to-day. We are
propagating quite a number of different species of fish and rearing them
before they are placed into our streams. It is absolutely necessary,
if we want any results at all, to raise our trout up to at least nine
months; we never plant any trout in the waters of Pennsylvania which
are less than nine months of age—from that on up to two years. Now,
in order to grow these trout and to grow them in numbers we have
made different experiments with a few trout under favorable circum-
stances and have obtained results which we could not duplicate when we
tried to do the same thing in connection with the growing of trout by the
hundreds of thousands or millions; and invariably we have come back
to our old friend the sheep pluck as our principal food. The first feed-
ing is the ground sheep liver. We find in our hatcheries that that gives
the best results in the rearing of the fry, with the addition of milk curd.
We feed that to our trout in the fry stage, or up until they reach a size
of from two to three inches, Milk curd is a very good combination
with sheep liver.

Foods and Feeding of Fishes 143

Mr. TitcomB: How do you mix it?

Mr. BULLER: In the early stage of the fry it is mixed with the liver,
but as the fry advance we feed it at night; that is, the fish are fed con-
stantly all they will take. We have men who do nothing else but feed;
that is their business. Our aim is to keep our fish as full as possible,
keep them growing as fast as possible. The last food that man gives is
milk curd; that is put into the troughs in the evening and by morning
it has disappeared; there is never any of it left. As these fish grow in
size, the combination then is the liver and heart and lung ground to-
gether.

Mr. ADAMS: At what lengths do you begin to feed the complete
pluck?

Mr. BULLER: From two to three inches.

Mr. TitcoMB: Do you feed clabbered milk to the larger fish?

Mr. BULLER: Not to any considerable extent. We do occasionally
in the ponds, but in the fry stage and up until they are two or three
inches long we think it is a very beneficial food along with the sheep
pluck. As a result of long years of study we find that that food is
giving the best satisfaction with our trout, and we are sticking to it. As
I mentioned this morning we have started feeding shrimp. I am not
condemning shrimp at all—I hope I am mistaken in regard to it; further
studies would seem to be necessary on that phase of the subject. Every
fish culturist admires the beautiful colors of the trout which we are not
able to produce with this artificial food. In order to produce these
beautiful colors I conceived the idea of feeding the trout with shrimp. I
refer to trout that we were keeping for exhibition purposes; in fact,
that is the only purpose for which we keep any adult trout, with the
exception of brown trout. Well, in the pond where we fed the shrimp,
the trout practically all died. We intend, however, to carry that
experiment a little further; it may not have been the shrimp that
caused the trouble in that particular pond.

With regard to the feeding of bass, I suppose Pennsylvania has
spent as much money as any State in the Union on the rearing of small
mouth black bass. That is the fish that the sportsmen are insisting
upon having, though we are trying to convince them that it is absolute-
ly impossible to grow and rear them in any considerable quantities. At
least, I have never found any station yet that has grown small mouth
black bass in large numbers up to a size of four or five inches. We
have tried all kinds of ponds; we have tried all kinds of foods, and we
have not been very successful with any of them. But we have not
given up, though we might have if we had not been fortunate enough
to get the resident fishermen’s license, which has given us some money
to carry out further experiments with the small mouth black bass.

I would like to give you the benefit of some of the experiences of
some of the men in Pennsylvania in regard to the black bass. Some
years we raise some, other years we do not. We have one pond that
comprises an area of about half an acre, the depth of the water being

144 American Fisheries Society.

from eight feet to two or three inches. We have never in all our ex-
perience been able to retain small mouth black bass in any of our ponds
that would reproduce on artificial food; that is, when the time came for
the spawning of the eggs, invariably the bass were in such condition
that the eggs were never normal. So that we depend every year on
a new supply of breeders. We have tried all sorts of artificial food
without any results that could be considered worth while. Well in this
pond to which I referred, we introduced one year 100,000 small mouth
black bass fry.

Mr. ADAMS: Where did you get them?

Mr. BuLueR: Took them off their nests. The water conditions
were very favorable; we had plenty of plant life in the pond, an ample
supply of Daphnia for the fry when they were in the small stage. We
attempted to feed them artificially, and in October, when we drew
that pond down, we had one black bass nine inches long; he was the only
one there. What happened I am at a loss to explain; I am just telling
you about some of our experiments. In that same pond next year we
put about the same number of small fry and fed them with minnows
which we gathered daily from some of the storage lakes to which we
have access—we brought in from fifty to one hundred cans of small
minnows every day— and in October that year when we drew down that
pond we took out 49,000 bass from four to five inches long.

Mr. ADAMS: The pond being of the same size?

Mr. BULLER: It was the same pond. We have come to the conclu-
sion, therefore, that what work we do in future with the small-mouth
black bass will be done with live minnows, and with that end in view we
have now a pond on which work is proceeding—it will be completed in
four or five weeks—that will cover an area of from 95 to 125 acres, and
there we propose to carry on the rearing of small mouth black bass with
minnows. We have never been successful in doing it in small ponds,
and it is my opinion that anyone who wishes to continue the rearing of
small mouth black bass will have to use live food. I am not speaking of
hatching out small mouth bass and distributing them in the fry stage,
because our people will not accept them under those conditions; we must
raise the fish up until they are suitable to put into the waters.

Mr. ADAMS: The small mouth bass in that lake are of what size?

Mr. BULLER: Four, five or six inches in October; some three and a
half.

Mr. TiTcomB: At what time will you begin to introduce minnows
in this pond?

Mr. BULLER: As soon as the bass are three or four inches long.

Mr. TIrFcoMB: What size minnow will you use?

Mr. BULLER: Very small; we get them by the hundreds of thou-
sands now. Anybody who goes in for the propagating of bass must
realize that it is going to cost them money. It costs us a great deal;
we have to produce these minnows, we have to raise them; we have to
have places to do that, and it is going to cost us money. But that is

Foods and Feeding of Fishes 145

what the sportsmen expect us to do, and we are spending their money.
They are perfectly satisfied that we do spend it in that direction pro-
vided that we show them some results for the expenditure.

Other species of fish that we are propagating and rearing are the
yellow perch, the bluegill, and the catfish—that is the bullhead.

Mr. ADAMS: Before you leave the question of the bass, what do you
think of the plan—leaving out the wishes of the fishermen of Penn-
sylvania—of collecting up in ponds that have a liberal supply of bass,
the fry that are say half an inch long, and planting them in other
ponds?

Mr. BULLER: If you can get them half an inch and over I think it
would repay you.

Mr. ADAMS: Do you think that in the long run that would be as
profitable as to carry on the usual bass culture work that has taken place
in many States?

Mr. BULLER: Of course, bass culture work is very expensive, and I
am putting that before the Pennsylvania sportsmen as strongly as I
ean. We have a mailing list in our office of 560 Fish and Game
Associations in Pennsylvania with which I am closely in touch all the
time. I am frequently called upon to talk to these people and I try to
impress it upon them that the artificial propagation of bass is a very
expensive and a very difficult thing and that they need not expect, at
least for some years to come, that the State of Pennsylvania will be able
to distribute small mouth bass in the quantities that they distribute
other fishes. I have impressed upon them the fact that bass fishing is
increasing, in spite of the great number of fishermen, in our streams that
are suitable for bass, but I attribute that to the season that we have on
the bass more than to any restocking of the streams. We positively re-
fuse to plant any bass in any small lake in Pennsylvania, because in
every case where either the small mouth or the large mouth bass has
been introduced into the lakes of our State the rest of the fishes having
been destroyed. Our small lakes are not suited to the bass. They are all
on top of the mountains; the water is absolutely pure—they are what we
call ‘hell holes’’—no visible inlet to any of them.

Mr. Hart: What kind of minnows do you feed these bass on? How
do you raise them, and what does it cost?

Mr. BULLER: What we raise in our ponds at the hatchery are the
banded or striped minnows. Most of the minnows that are fed to these
bass are taken from such lakes as are in close proximity to the hatchery.
These are principally the little shiner—golden and silver.

Mr. BURNHAM: Do you get the best results from small mouth black
bass breeders collected in the spring, or from those collected in the fall?

Mr. BULLER: The collection in the fall is the safest. We have oc-
casionally in the spring of the year received our bass too late. If it is
possible to get them in the fall and you have the proper storage for them,
I think it is best.

146 American Fisheries Society.

Mr. Hare: In speaking of trout, did you speak of planting them
in the advanced fingerling stage?

Mr. BULLER: We do not call them fingerlings. We plant nothing
under nine months.

Mr. Hare: I want to ask you one of the most pertinent questions
one man can ask another in regard to fish culture. How do you arrive
at the conclusion as to the relative worth of trout fry and trout finger-
lings?

Mr. BULLER: That is a different subject.

Mr. Hare: If you will answer it we will crown you lord of all.

Mr. BULLER: I may say that we in Pennsylvania have probably
more difficult problems to work out than any other State. We have
for many years been planting fry without any results. We are increas-
ing and improving our trout fishing in spite of the many adverse condi-
tions that we have to meet, and it is done only by rearing trout until
they are a catchable size before they are put into the streams. I know
that there is a large hatchery on the Lackawaxen River, on the banks of
which I live; and you can put 10,000 fry into that stream and a month
afterwards you can search for trout without success. I know every
nook and hole and ripple in that stream, and I will give you fifty cents
for every trout you find there resulting from that planting. In this
same stream I have gone out in the morning and in half an hour come
back with from seven to nine trout twelve to sixteen inches in length,
any time I wanted to do it.

Mr. CULLER: Have you had any experience in planting eyed trout
eggs? ;
Mr. TitcomsB: I rise to a point of order.
Dr. EMBoDY: We have a paper on that subject; would it not be well
to defer any discussion until that paper is presented? Let us confine
our attention this afternoon to the matter of fish food.

Mr. BULLER: We have our trout fishermen, who believe in the elim-
ination of every other fish in our waters except trout, and who think
we should devote all our time and attention to the propagation and rear-
ing of trout. Then, we have the small mouth black bass man who takes
the same position in regard to the bass. We have another class of
fishermen, a class which outnumbers either the advocates of the trout
or the advocates of the bass, made up of people who love to catch
yellow perch, catfish, bluegills, suckers, and fish of that kind. We are
therefore devoting a lot of time, energy and money to the propagation
and raising of these various fishes.” We find that the most profitable
of the catfish in our waters is the common bullhead. We are rearing
these in great numbers and growing them until they reach a size of
two and a half to four inches with very good results,

Mr. ADAMS: With regard to your bullhead fry, will you tell us how

you get them, how you feed them and bring them to that size in the
fall?

Foods and Feeding of Fishes 147

Mr. BULLER: We have our bullhead breeding ponds as we call them,
we bring in our breeders in the fall of the year from the storage lakes
to which I have referred, and put them into the pond. The young cat-
fish are taken up into the rearing ponds and there they are fed until
October.

Mr. TitcomsB: What is the size of the breeding pond?

Mr. BULLER: About half an acre. In addition we also go on to the
storage dams and collect hundreds of thousands of catfish of the size
that you would get out of the rearing ponds. We only keep our rear-
ing ponds to guard against any unfavorable circumstance which would
prevent us gathering the fish at the proper time; thus we make sure of a
supply of young fish. These young fish are fed sheep liver and milk;
they are voracious feeders and grow rapidly on that kind of food. We
have never experimented with or tried any other food, but we will
probably do so when we get around to it. However, we are getting
very good results from the sheep liver and the milk.

Mr. TiTcOMB: You mean clabbered, soured milk?

Mr. BULLER: Yes.

Mr. ADAMS: When you collect your fry either from outside or from
your central producing pond where you have your adult stock, how
much of a body of water do you put them in to rear them?

Mr. BULLER: Our ponds run from a quarter to half an acre each.

Mr. ADAMS: How do you feed milk to these fish in bodies of water
that size?

Mr. BULLER: We put it around the shores and at the inlets. At
feeding time they will come to the troughs like a lot of bugs, and they
take a great deal of food.

Mr. ADAMS: The first feedings are these feedings of clabbered milk?

Mr. BULLER: Clabbered milk and liver.

Mr. ADAMS: You start right off with the liver as well as the milk?

Mr. BULLER: Yes.

Mr. ADAMS: Do you feed the two at once, or do you give the liver
during the day and follow at night with the milk, as in the case of trout?

Mr. BULLER: We feed all our milk at night. Of course, we en-
deavor to have as much aquatic life in our ponds as possible. We never
disturb any of these ponds with a net. Before the ponds were arranged
as they are at present and the fish were taken out with a net, the re-
sult was destruction of a good deal of aquatic life in the ponds. They
are now so built, however, that we draw out our fish.

Mr. ADAMS: How often during the day do you feed the small fish?

Mr. BULLER: They are fed morning, afternoon and evening. They
are practically feeding all the time.

Mr. ADAMS: Ground up liver about the size you would feed to your
small trout?

Mr. BULLER: Yes, very fine when you start, because they are small.

Mr. ADAMS: You feed them on shore?

Mr. BULLER: On shore and at the inlets too.

148 American Fisheries Society.

Mr. ADAMS: In the case of the bluegills, do you separate your fry
from your adult stock?

Mr. BULLER: No, we have our bluegills all in one place. We do not
separate the fry from the adults; we have not got to the point where
our room will allow that. Arrangements are now under way, however,
by which our present plant will be increased to the extent of about
forty per cent.

Mr. ADAMS: Would you think it practicable to catch up the fry
from the larger ponds where you have your bluegills now stocked and
transfer them to the rearing stations as you would the hornpout?

Mr. BULLER: Yes, I think so. We would be doing it now if we
could.

Mr. ADAMS: And you would feed the bluegills about the same way
you feed your horn pout—start them off with the clabbered milk and
then go on with the liver?

Mr. BULLER: Yes.

Mr. FLEMING: How many will you rear in one pond?

Mr. BULLER: The number varies. In the quarter acre and half
acre ponds we have anywhere from 80,000 to 300,000 fish. Some years
we are more successful than others.

Mr. TITCOMB: The average being about three inches?

Mr. BULLER: Two and a half to three inches.

Mr. ADAMS: You plant these small bluegills in the fall?

Mr. BULLER: Yes.

Mr. TITCOMB: Can you raise as many bluegills in that pond as you
can bullheads?

Mr. BULLER: No. It requires more water for the bluegills than it
does for the catfish. You cannot grow them as you can the catfish.

Mr. TitcomsB: Is there much cannibalism among the bluegills?

Mr. BULLER: We do not notice it. I do not believe there is.

Mr. ADAMS: Could you, at a given pond that houses, we will say,
the maximum number of brood stock in the spring, produce the maxi-
mum number of young bluegills which that pond is capable of hand-
ling?

Mr. BuLuer: If the adults were not in there, no.

Mr. ADAMS: In other words, you could supplement the stock which
you got from your adult fish by bringing in stock from the outside as
well.

Mr. BULLER: Yes, indeed.

Mr. BuURNHAM: Do your bluegills continue spawning all through
the summer?

Mr. BULLER: Yes. They are one of the long season fishes. What
we intend to do when the program is complete is to take these ponds
that contain the adult bluegills and the young fish, draw them out and
then retain the young fish until next October; they will then be a year
old before we let them go off the property. We believe that is the
right method to pursue, and that it will bring better results than we can

Foods and Feeding of Fishes 149

get by planting in October. There is a variation in the size of the
bluegills on account of the early and late spawning.

Mr. Hart: Is the butter fat taken out of the milk before it is
soured?

Mr. BULLER: Oh yes, it is skim milk. We have milk separating
stations in close proximity to the plant from which we can buy all we
want. We are paying twenty-five cents for a forty quart can of that
milk, so it is a rather economical food.

Mr. FLEMING: In your small ponds which, as you say, have a capa-
city of from 80,000 to 300,000, what growth do your bluegills take on
the first season?

Mr. BULLER: Sometimes they will be an inch and a quarter long,
and sometimes not more than half an inch. That is why, when this
plan is completed, these fish will be held over next year so that we shall
have bluegills which are two, three and four inches long.

Mr. FLEMING: I am raising bluegills, and I use no artificial food
whatever. In one of our ponds which is about the size you speak of, the
fish are as small as three-quarters of an inch, and I was wondering
whether artificial feeding produced better growth, or whether it did not.

Mr. BULLER: We have to feed in our ponds; we would not have any-
thing if we did not.

Mr. Woops: Did you ever try it without feeding?

Mr. BULLER: Yes.

Mr. Foster: JDid you ever try feeding clabbered milk in a skimmer
—just shake it in the water?

Mr. BULLER: Yes, but that is too’slow a process.

Mr. Foster: We found that we fed the fish on the milk they did
just about as well as when fed on beef hearts and sheeps liver. Those
fed on beef hearts went a little ahead of those fed on the sheep liver
and milk, and those given two feeds of milk with three feeds of beef
hearts did as well as any.

Mr. BULLER: We advocate the use of milk. We find it keeps our
fish in a healthy condition, fed in conjunction with some concentrated
meat foods.

Mr. TITCOMB: You separate the young of this year from your
adults this fall; you put the young in a pond by themselves?

Mr. BULLER: For shipping.

Mr. ADAMS: Are you doing anything now with the channel cat

‘or any of the catfishes other than the horn pout?

Mr. BuLLteR: I did have some channel cat, but we could not get
them to feed; they would not take live food or anything else, with the
result that fish which were a foot long when we got them were about
like my finger when we released them. We could not get them to feed
in the aquaria, either, I do not know why,

Mr. TitcomsB: Let us hear from Mr. Hayford.

Mr. HayrorD: In the course of five years we did a great many
things in regard to the rearing of bass, and the results were somewhat

150 American Fisheries Society.

discouraging. However, about three years ago, after Dr. Embody had
been with us about two weeks, we began to get tangible results. We
got them in this way: we started spending money—as Commissioner
Buller says, it is an expensive proposition. The first thing we did was
to dam up our water supply, or get it under control: by means of a
ten inch pipe a supply of pond or brook water which has been held back
is forced round into another pond of about three acres which is on a
lower level. I may say that probably few fish culturists have exactly
the same conditions as we have. Our ponds are mostly built by the use
of horses and scrapers, and our water fall is nineteen feet on our own
property in a distance of 3,000. That permits us to get good drainage.
We also have limestone water, in which most of the aquatic plants grow
profusely. After many troubles we have succeeded in hatching the
fry, and we get Daphnia and other minute organisms in sufficient num-
bers to feed the small fish until they are three-quarters of an inch to an
inch long. We found that when we got to that stage we were up against
it; and Dr. Embody suggested that we should try to raise mosquito
larvae. That would seem to be a big problem, but it is not as big as
it appears to be; the only thing is that you have to careful with the adult
mosquitos so that they do not get away from you, because you must
retain the friendship of your neighbors. We have overcome that by
taking the mosquito larvae and spreading them over ponds. ‘These
bass soon became very tame, almost like trout, Then, as they grew
larger we substituted maggots—we can produce these, of course, in
almost any quantity. But the bass would not eat maggot as it dropped
from the fish waste, or whatever we wished to use, direct into the
receptacles; we had to let them drop into chopped straw and bran and
wiggle down through. When we did not adopt this plan the fish would
take the maggots in their mouths and then blow them out, but with the
use of the straw and bran they would not do that. Well, we took them
_from an inch to an inch and a half on mosquito larvae and we got them
from an inch and a half to two inches and a half very nicely
with the maggots; then, of course, cool weather began to set in. We
then tried clam meal and shrimp from Louisiana, but that alone would
not bring about the desired result. We found that by getting a greater
density of plant life we could produce large quantities of shrimp and
crustacea there, and by supplementing these two foods with such
amount of clam and maggots as they would eat, we could get them
from the two and a half inch period up to the four inch period by
October. We have not yet done this on a large scale; and that brings us
back to Commmissioner Buller’s statement that when you get to working
on a larger scale you have to have quicker methods. Our piping sys-
tem is such that we can drain the ponds containing these larvae direct
into the supply pipe; we build our ponds generally on a higher level so
that we can open a valve in each one and blow this stuff into them in
order to add to the food that is already there. When we have food

Foods and Feeding of Fishes 151

enough, we do not disturb these two stock ponds very much ; we
let the water take its natural course around through the chain.

We have reached the point now where we have less trouble in
feeding the small mouth than we have with the large mouth. The
small mouth bass take the food more readily and become tame more
quickly. But we do have less trouble in the reproduction of the large
mouth than we have with the small mouth; therefore, each one seems to
have its own trouble. I find I can do much better with the small
mouth bass, under our conditions in New Jersey, in small ponds about
one-third of an acre, while with large mouth I can do better if I put
them into ponds from two to three acres and let them come up to a
point where they are, say, two and a half inches long. Then we draw
the pond off and grade the bass according to size, whereupon they are
put into smaller ponds that have the weeds in them.

Mr. Titcoms: Do you feed the large mouth?

Mr. HAYFoRD: Yes, we feed the large mouth too. We have always
worked on the plan of using the small minnow. We have one pond
there now that contains probably 2,000 large mouth bass fingerlings
from four to four and a half inches long, and we are able to get enough
small minnows to meet their needs. Last year we had some small
mouth bass in this pond, and I can see no difference so far as growth,
etc., is concerned. We expect to build from twelve to fifteen ponds
from time to time as we need them and as funds permit, to raise forage.
We believe, from experiments, that we are going to get a great deal in
the way of results from raising smal! goldfish, and it might be that we
could raise small carp; in fact, I think each one has to work out his own
problems; conditions respecting water, and so on, are so different in
different places. When I first started, if I could get from 500 to 1,000
bass to grow, I felt pretty big. That result, however, is no longer satis-
factory; in three different ponds this year we were able to get out from
16,000 to 24,000 per acre of fingerlings from two to four inches long.
We have four large ponds there, and we always have had three experi-
mental ponds.

Our department is only building as fast as we can show results.
We have been getting results from the reservoirs. This spring we took
out quite a few fry from the reservoirs as they came to the surface—
helpless, you might say—and transferred them into inexpensive ponds
which contained myriads of Daphnia. These bass grew very rapidly up
to an inch; of course, we could not go further than that, because we
had others in the ponds that we had put our breeders in. I may say
that in one pond where we had approximately 20,000 small mouth No.1
fingerlings, the fish became badly affected by fungus. The first signs
were spots here and there around the head; it was what we termed
“pin point” fungus—a little spot here and there which gradually merged
into one large spot. Therefore I think we have to be careful in bring-
ing the small fish in from the reservoirs. These fish were brought in at
night, and I asked the fellow who brought them in whether he noticed

152 7 American Fisheries Society.

anything the matter with them, and he said. “Oh no, nothing particu-
lar; it was dark but you could see little things on them, I suppose it was
clay stuff or something like that.”” But we had none of that in the ponds
this year that we hatched in. It has occurred in other ponds which were
newer, though: we have a clay formation on the bottom of the pond and
it takes from two to three years to get a suitable amount of black muck
and scum through the decomposition of plant life which will in turn
enable the ponds to grow plant life profusely,

In conclusion, as I have said, I think that every fish culturist has to
work out his own salvation, but he cannot do it without the assistance of
the scientific man, who can carry out experiments, examine stomachs,
apply his biological knowledge and training—something which, un-
fortunately, a great many fish culturists do not have. May I say also
that for whatever success we have attained the credit is due not so much
to me as it is to Dr. Embody.

Mr. Bearp: I am not a fish culturist, but I am a chemist. Mr.
Buller stated that he could raise small mouth black bass; one year they
fed them artificially and had no success; the next year they fed them
minnows and raised a large number. Now, these fish that grew on
minnows must have been furnished with certain food factors such as are
given to sick people, and so on, in order to get results. They must have
been furnished with such things as protein, different food constituents,
vitamines, and so on. Might it not be a good thing to study what the
requirements of the fish are from a biological standpoint; to find out
what they should have in the way of food constituents? It seems to me
that if that were done you would have some basis to work upon im
connection with the things you do. That is, instead of feeding this,
that and the other thing, irrespective of whether or not you are giving
them the proper food elements, it seems to me that here is a field that
might profitably be gone into through study and investigation. Wonder-
ful things have been done in that same line in connection with the food
of human beings.

Mr. HAYForD: Quite so; that is why we carry on a great deal of
our work along these lines.

Mr. BEARD: My idea would be to get the right type of man to corre-
late all these different facts so that proper scientific conclusions could
be arrived at with a view to getting definite results. There would
certainly seem to be opportunities along that line. Furthermore, if we
got down to the bioligical and chemical fundamentals, the food con-
stituents necessary in certain cases and at different stages, we might be
able to devise foods that would be not only better but cheaper, and a
large amount of money would thus be saved. We may be now paying
ten cents a pound for fish food which is not perfectly suitable, whereas
inquiry might result in the production of a food that could be turned out
at say $15 a ton. The thing is to know exactly what kind of food you
want to make.

Foods and Feeding of Fishes 153

Mr. HayrorD: I have been writing during the last month to various
eanners and people who put up fish, and I have obtained a great many
samples. It is in the analysis of these various foods that the chemist
has to play an invaluable part. I do not think it is in any sense a one-
man problem: you have to have the practical fish culturist, the chemist,
the biologist and the pathologist. As an example of what some of
these foods cost, we pay three and a half cents a pound for one type of
food delivered at the station, which means an expenditure of $9,000
a year for food alone at that one station. Where the fish culturist has
twelve or fifteen men, 160 pounds is about all he can handle if he wants
to keep things humming. That is where he needs the scientist to help
him. Our Department is going to let me have the services of Dr.
Embody from time to time, as he can be spared; the present program is
that he shall be with us four or five days in every sixty in order that he
may check us up. Then when he can spend a longer period with us he
can go into these various matters further. One of the commissioners
asked me if I would like a couple of thousand dollars to spend next
year for investigational purposes, and I told him, no; that by putting
the problem up to Dr. Embody we might have attention given to some
of the vital points and might have him start right off in the direction of
the work, thus avoiding any delay of a year or so in waiting for results
in the larger field. I suggested recently that it might be a good thing if
we could all submit our problems to a committee of three, consisting,
say of two scientific men and one practical man, with the understanding
that the knowledge imparted to him would be treated as confidential;
then each year we might have considerable progress to report in connec-
tion with these various problems. We are doing certain work in New
Jersey; other States are going into these various matters; there is a
good deal of duplication of work. If these problems were put through
such a clearing house of scientific men and boiled down to something
definite, I am quite sure we would get somewhere. In order to raise
fish in large numbers, a great deal of fish food must be purchased, and
that costs money. We probably use 150 tons of food a year. I will
mention one thing we do which results in a little more economy in the
use of foods. We have one mixture in connection with which we use
this by-product of shrimp; if we did not use shrimp with a certain num-
ber of the fish we would average twenty-eight pails of twenty-five
pounds each, but by putting in certain quantities of the shrimp we bring
that figure down to twenty pails. The feeding of shrimp, etc., seems to
do one thing especially—it stops nipping. It has been my experience
that when fish start nipping at one another their systems are out of
order, and the administering of a wider variety of foods seems to
eliminate that condition and to make them more peaceable.

Mr. BeAarD: A great deal of money is spent in more or less indefi-
nite experimentation, trying this, that and the other thing; and it does
cost money. If that money by some miracle, could be all taken together
_ and turned over to the right source, say the Bureau of Fisheries, and the

154 American Fisheries Society.

right type of man assigned the task of correlating all the facts and
working down to fundamentals, I believe that very definite results
could be produced. Take the different results obtained through the
use of shrimp meal: of course, no two shrimp meals would be alike. For
instance, one might have been scorched; undoubtedly some vitamines
may have been destroyed in the process, so that different effects would
be produced in different cases. If, therefore, you could hit upon a
shrimp meal of the right type, your feeding problem would be largely
solved. The same would be true in a large measure of fish meal. I
happened to be talking to a fish meal producer in California; I do not
know how much truth there is in what he says or to what extent his
reasoning is on a scientific basis, but he produces a fish meal that is
much better than any other produced in that part of the country. He
produces it in non-reducing atmosphere where the oxygen has very
little effect upon the meal in its production, and he produces a meal that
is not in the least degree scorched. He uses very fresh fish, and he
claims that when fed to dairy cows reactions are obtained which
could not be brought about by the use of the ordinary fish meal. Now,
the vitamine content of that meal, taken in connection with other
accessory food factors, must have some bearing on the reactions that
they get in these cows, and it is quite possible that all these things
would have a very direct bearing on the feeding of the fish if they
could be brought to the stage where they are definitely known and
understood.

Mr. TiTcoMB: The object of this whole symposium is to bring to-
gether the experiences of all the fish culturists, and it is my suggestion
that the man who is called on to give his little story on the subject
should be allowed to give the whole of it; then that he should be ques-
tioned on it; then that somebody else should go on in the same way. I
would like to ask Mr. Hayford to continue what he was saying about
the feeding of shrimp, and to ask him what results he has had in that
connection.

Mr. HAYFORD: We are feeding shrimp to the brook, brown and rain-
bow trout—that is the big end of it. We have not been able to get
the shrimp in sufficient quantities to be able to feed more than ten or
fifteen per cent. Our present ration is eighty-five pounds of sheep’s

plucks—the heart, liver and lungs of sheep—and fifteen pounds of -

shrimp. That produced very good results with us last year.

Mr. TitcomMs: Do you boil the shrimp before you grind it?

Mr. HAYFORD: No, we simply soak it in cold water to get rid of the
swelling. In order to do this work as we wanted to do it we bought an
International No. 6 Type ‘‘B’”’ Feed Mill, such as the farmers use for
grinding grain. You can put the clam or the shrimp or most any of
these products into that and grind it almost to a dust if you want to.
We grind the plucks and the whole thing together, after the meal is
added, spread it right out on the floor, take an ordinary scoop shovel
and shovel it right into this hopper.

Foods and Feeding of Fishes 155

Mr. TiTcoMB: Do you raise other warm water fishes than bass?

Mr. HAyForD: We have raised some perch and this year we tried
bluegills, but principally it has been the five species, rainbow, brook and
brown trout and large and small mouth bass.

Mr. TitcomsB: What do you feed to the bluegills?

Mr. HAYFoRD: Clam meal. The small mouth adult bass also eat it
ravenously. To the large mouth bass we give sheep’s plucks; we can-
not get them to eat the clam meal. We turn that out a little larger; it
comes out the size of a pencil.

Mr. TITCOMB: Can you get plenty of clam meal?

Mr. HAyForD: We can get enough for our purposes—two or three
tons a year. Last year I think we got two tons.

Mr. TITcoMB: Do you think they eat the clam meal entirely?

Mr. HAyForD: They eat it; they sit around waiting for it, you might
say. When you go down in the morning at ten o’clock to feed them,
they are all there waiting for it like a lot of hungry boys.

Mr. TitcomMe: Do you raise bullheads?

Mr. HAYForD: No, not to speak of. We have not any ponds for
that purpose as yet.

Mr. TiTcoMB: How do you produce the mosquito larvae?

Mr. HAyForD: We put sour milk into concrete tanks five by thirty.
The mosquitos seem to fly up from all over the sections, and next
morning the place is all covered with mosquito eggs.

Mr. TitcomMB: Do the bass consume all the larvae you put in?

Mr. HayrorD: Mosquito larvae to bass are like candy to a child.
The reason we went into this mosquito larvae question arose out of a
paper given at Allentown, Pa., by Dr. Embody, We also have a lot of
the shrimp in our ponds; it is not the little fellow or the big one; it is
one of medium size. What is the name of the shrimp we have there at
Hackettstown, Dr.. Embody?

Dr. EmpBopy: I think it is the Caledonia shrimp; if not that, it is
one very closely related to it.

Mr. HayrorD: In the case of the large mouth bass, if we put min-
nows in with the sheep’s hearts we always get a good fat fish.

Mr. TitcoMB: Do you raise minnows for food?

Mr. HayFrorD: We have not made a business of raising minnows.
I may say that one year I put about fifteen thousand fry into a pond
50 feet wide by 160 feet long and from 2 to 3 feet deep. I put them
in on the 15th of June, and on the 16th of September we took out
5,702 fingerling small mouth bass from one to three inches long. It may
be said also that there does not seem to be much loss up to the three-
quarter inch and one inch period; it is from there on that the loss

occurs.
Mr. TitcomsB: Do you find any particular kind of minnow preferable

to others?
Mr. HaAyrorD: What we have is largely the golden shiner. The
desirable thing, of course, is a slow moving fish; some of them move too

fast.

156 American Fisheries Society.

Mr. Doze: Do you raise any carp?

Mr. HayrorD: No—TI have to be careful how I say “carp”. But I
believe it would be a good thing to do.

Mr. CANFIELD: Have you ever tried the orange spotted sunfish?

Mr. HAYForD: No, not to any considerable extent. We have them
in this plant, but only in small number. It does not seem to make any
difference with these young bass how long a minnow has been dead: we
can take four or five cans, go up to the pond, and dump them in; and if
you go round the pond in an hour you wont even see a dead one.

Mr. CANFIELD: Do you find it cheaper to collect your minnows than

to raise them?

Mr. HAyForD: These ponds are on our own property.

Mr. CANFIELD: In other words, the labor in collecting them is less
than it would be in raising them?

Mr. HAyForD: Yes. The big cost is building—that is where the
pinch comes.

Mr. Doze: Have you the leaf hopper out there—a little green bug?

Mr. HayForD: Iam not familiar with it.

Mr. Doze: How are the grasshoppers?

Mr. HAYFOoRD: We have the grasshoppers.

Mr. Doze: Have you ever fed grasshoppers?

Mr. HAyForD: No, we have not come to that point. They are pretty
large for the small bass. Of course, we could not get them in quanti-
ties. When you get a big plant you have to get something of which you
can obtain large quantities.

Mr. CANFIELD: What is the average percentage of female small
mouth bass that spawn each year?

Mr. HayrorD: The first year I thought I was doing pretty well:
I put 29 pair on the nest; and I hatched 24 pair out of 29; but the next
year I put 49 pair on and hatched 7.

MR. CANFIELD: What is your average from year to year, over a term
of years?

Mr. HAyForD: I would say about 50 per cent. I had a pond of 14
nests this year, and I had 7 very fine nests come up. In another pond
I had 20 nests, and I had 11 come up; and I had three or four nests that
I did not see at all. But speaking of feeding, to me the thing is to get
the facts boiled down to where we can produce a proper food; and then
you have got to face the fact that the conditions are not the same in
any two places.

Mr. CANFIELD: Is it pretty much a local proposition?

Mr. HAYForD: Yes.

Mr. MANNFELD: I take it for granted that everybody here is more
or less interested in the propagation of the small mouth bass. We
have been carrying on some very interesting experiments in Indiana
relative to the rearing of the small mouth bass. Much has been said
about the feeding of the fish, but we have found by experience in our
State that the water supply is absolutely one of the important things.

Foods and Feeding of Fishes 157

Two of our hatcheries in Indiana are fed by lakes. One of these lakes,
Maiden Lake, is about eight feet higher than our hatchery; it comprises
about 360 acres. This lake is full of food life of various kinds—full of
vegetation. In our hatchery, which consists of about fifteen ponds,
some of them over half an acre in extent, we have repeatedly tried to
raise small mouth bass. We have had excellent results with the large
mouth in these ponds, but with the small mouth we have had no success.
We can get the nests and the fry come up, but they do not live, though
there is plenty of food available. On the other hand, we have two
hatcheries that are fed by spring water, one at Indianapolis, and one at
Bass Lake, and there Mr. Lavery for the last two seasons has had very
good luck with the small mouth bass, which he was raising along with
some of the large mouth. Perhaps you gentlemen can tell us some-
thing about your experiences in that connection, but, stating the case
briefly, I would say that the water supply is the big factor in raising
small mouth bass. I doubt very much whether anyone will have much
success in cases where the lake water is used. Mr. Lydell, whom most of
you will recognize, I am sure, as one of the greatest bass culturists in
this country, will tell you the same thing. I remember well that in 1907
he told us, ‘“When your State engages in the propagation of bass, espec-
ially small mouth bass, do not make the mistake of trying to rear them
in lake water.”’” We found that this was borne out by experience. At
these particular ponds where we have attempted to raise the small
mouth bass there is an abundant supply of many of the ordinary
foods—Daphnia, Cyclops, Synura, things that little bass and other fishes
live on, yet the results have not been satisfactory, while with the large
mouth we have done quite well. I may add that we screen all our nests
and take the young fish out and put them in rearing ponds; and we
examine the food life to see that it is there so that we may replenish it
when it becomes scarce.

We do some things with our bass, perhaps, that I do not know
very many others do. For instance, we spawn them more than once.
We find that by taking all the breeders out of a pond—in fact, taking
all the young fish out first, then removing the nest and seining out the
old breeders—putting them in other ponds freshly set and adding
some other females and some males, we can get the second spawning.
Then, when we get this second spawning we set another pond with
’ nests, take all the fish out again, and put them in a third pond. In that
way we get three spawnings, and you would be surprised at the enor-
mous number of fry that are produced in this manner. The question is,
of course, what to do with the fry. We have planted many fry that we
might have preferred to rear to the fingerling stage. We have some
difficulty in raising fingerlings, but this last season we had some on
display at the State Fair that were nine inches long. They had been
raised on live food—that is something to which Mr. Buller referred;
there is no doubt that that is the food that will make them grow fast.
We have had some that will grow longer than nine inches in four months

158 American Fisheries Society.

—small mouth bass we have had up to nine inches. That all shows
that food is the main thing in the propagation of fish. I have always
contended that if you want to rear fish and to get them growing fast
you must give them plenty of food, and if you use the right kind you
certainly will produce results.

Dr. EmsBopy: So far as the raising of bass is concerned, the whole
matter resolves itself into a question of producing the right kind of
food at the right time. If we can get the smaller animals—entomos-
tracans, let us say—in great abundance at the time when the bass are
fry, we will succeed at that point. Then we readily pass from that
stage to the size where they require larger food, and mosquito larvae
would seem to answer the purpose there for a while. From that stage
they go gradually into the minnow stage. If we can produce minnows
or some other fish—orange spotted sunfish, goldfish, or buffalo fish, so
that they will be just about the right size when the bass are ready to
feed on them, we will have done something to meet some of these prob-
lems in bass culture. The question is how to make available the
different sizes of food at the right time, and what species lend themselves
best to that procedure. Here there will be a variation, of course,
according to the location. It may be that our friends in Kansas can get
grasshoppers in sufficient numbers to permit their being fed to the bass;
we could not do it in New York—we can hardly catch enough grass-
hoppers there to fish with. So we must resort to something else, and
mosquito larvae seems to come along about the right time; in fact, we
can keep it going all summer by using more of the material which pro-
duces the culture. As Mr. Hayford has pointed out, the greatest
problem there is to prevent the pupal mosquitos from reaching the
adult stage. We can feed them before they become pupae all right,
but if you allow a great many of them to become adults, they will
permeate the neighborhood and make bad neighbors. I cannot see any
objection to raising goldfish for the purpose of feeding the young bass
from the time they are an inch and a half long and on, In June I
happened to visit the goldfish farms in western Maryland; if you have
never been there I advise you to go and see how these ponds are manip-
ulated. They have farms comprising anywhere from ten to fifty
acres, and it was a revelation to see the swarms of goldfish that were
crowded into these ponds. When I saw these fish it occurred to me
that there was what we needed to feed our bass. You will all remember
that our former member, Professor L. L. Dyche, advocated that very
thing in his book on “Pond Fish Culture’; that was the first time I
heard the suggestion made. It seems to me that the suggestion is a
good one. You can introduce the goldfish breeders into the ponds with
young bass; they can spawn there and it will not harm the bass. Young
sunfish will eat young bass; at least that is my experience. I do not
know whether the orange spotted sunfish will do it, but the common
sunfish will clean them up almost as fast as they are put in the pond.
Goldfish will not do that; they are quite harmless to the young bass. You

Foods and Feeding of Fishes 159

can get your pond fully impregnated with the goldfish; then the young
bass, when you turn them in, will clean up the goldfish. It would seem
that these are the main problems connected with bass culture at the
present time.

Dr. OSBURN: Do you mean by the common sunfish, the green sun-
fish? The bluegill will not eat young bass?

Dr. EmBopy: No, I refer to the one, named Eupomotis gibbosus. I
have my suspicions about the bluegills. I know they will eat young
bullheads as fast as they can capture them.

Dr. OSBURN: What do you think of the midge larvae versus the
mosquito larvae?

Dr. EmpBopy: I would prefer the midge larvae, but the question is
how to produce them in sufficiently large numbers to permit their being
fed to the bass. In fact, the mosquito larvae production experiments
are an outgrowth of our attempts to produce the midge larvae. Midge
larva is a superior food, and of course the adult midge would not do any
harm to our neighbors. But they would have to be produced by the
millions, and the question is how to do that,

Dr. OSBURN: In Ohio waters, judging by the stomach contents,
young fish from three-quarters of an inch to an inch and a half feed
very largely on midge larvae before they come to the minnow stage of
feeding.

FISH DISTRIBUTION BY THE FEDERAL. ;

GOVERNMENT.

By E. C. FEARNOW,

Superintendent of Fish Distribution
U. S. Bureau of Fisheries

INTRODUCTORY.

In connection with the distribution of living fish there

are always two main problems to be considered. The first
is how to produce a sufficient number of suitable species to
meet the ever-increasing demand; the second, how to obtain
sufficient funds to distribute the output which might be pro-
duced. As the purpose of this article is neither to consider
the methods of fish production nor the means by which
adequate appropriations may be obtained, the discussion
will be confined to the methods employed by the Federal
Government in transporting fish from its hatcheries and
collecting stations to various points throughout the states

and some of the problems encountered in this particular

work.

EARLY HISTORY OF DISTRIBUTION

In the early days of the United States Fish Commission,,.
by which name the Bureau of Fisheries was known until

July 1, 1908, the distribution of fish was conducted solely by

messengers who travelled in baggage cars on regular pas-
senger trains. The species distributed at that time con-
sisted of a few anadromous fishes which were, as a rule,.
planted in waters near the points where the hatcheries were
located, but as the output of the various stations increased it
became necessary to employ more efficient methods of trans-
portation.

The first car load of fish shipped by the United States
Fish Commission, and probably the first shipped in the
United States, was sent west in June 1873, but the consign-
ment was lost in a wreck near Elkhorn, Neb. An attempt
to send a car load of fish across the continent met with
success in 1874 when a shipment of shad was delivered in
California. Experiments conducted during the years 1879
and 1880 demonstrated that large numbers of fish could be

160

Fearnow.—Fish Distribution. 161

handled more. expeditiously and economically in car load
lots than in messenger shipments, and it was decided to con-
struct a car especially adapted for carrying live fish, ar-
ranged so that an even circulation of aerated water could be
maintained in the vessels containing the fish, and provided
with living accommodations for the crew.

In the winter of 1881 car No. 1, a baggage car known as
Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington car No. 4, was
purchased and fish-carrying apparatus installed thereon.
This car was eventually rebuilt and lengthened to 60 feet.

Experiments with car No.1 were very satisfactory and
Congress was asked to appropriate funds for another car
which was delivered on May 23, 1882. This was called
Baltimore and Ohio Passenger Car No. 450 but in a few
years the name was changed to United States Fish Com-
mission Car No. 2.

On July 7, 1884, an act of Congress authorized the con-
struction of car No. 3, the first specially designed fish dis-
tribution car in the United States. The refrigerator com-
partments of this car were placed below the floor with doors
opening from above through the floor. The compartments
could also be reached by doors opening from the outside,
which permitted a clear floor space.

It was found, however, that this arrangement prevented
the car from passing over short curves, and the compart-
ments were, therefore, eventually placed above the floor.

Old car No. 4, later changed to No. 5, was a combination
baggage and mail car built for a railroad in Mexico. It was
purchased by the United States Fish Commission totransport
salt water fishes to the World’s Fair at Chicago, Illinois. It
had no refrigerator compartments, being merely a baggage
car equipped with berths. .

An act of Congress approved March 3, 1899, appro-
priated $8,000 for building a new car to replace Car No.4.
The new car was designated No. 4 and the older one No. 5.

Car No. 6 was constructed for use in connection with the
Louisiana Purchase Exposition in 1904 and at the close of
the exposition it was turned over to the Bureau of Fisheries.

The Bureau now operates five cars, Nos. 8, 4, 7, 8 and 9.
The three last named are of steel construction and were
built within recent years. These cars are so equipped that
they can be carried in any of the standard passenger trains.
On completion of the three steel cars, four of the old wooden
cars (Nos. 1, 2, 5 and 6) were disposed of.

162 American Fisheries Society.

EARLY EXPERIMENTS

It was soon found that, in moving fish in car load lots,
it would be necessary to provide means for aerating the
water otherwise than by hand. On the first cars the power
used to run the pumps was obtained by connecting a belt
with one of the axles but this was very unsatisfactory as the
pumps could be run only while the car was in motion.
Later, a small boiler was used to furnish power for a water
circulating pump but was found to be unsuitable.

In 1885 the first hatching outfit was placed on Car No.3
and was used en route to the New Orleans Exposition. The
hatching of eggs on the distribution cars was carried on
for several years with a reasonable degree of success but
as the number of regular hatcheries increased, it was found
unnecessary to maintain hatching apparatus on the cars and
this part of the equipment was gradually eliminated. ©

A number of experiments have been made in filtering
and refrigerating water used in carrying fish. Filters have
been made of gravel and sponge through which water was
forced by a pump but they soon became clogged and unfit for
use. Car No. 3 was equipped with an air coil made of 1-
inch pipe through which water was pumped. The coil was
placed in an ice box, the ice being in the center and on top
of the coil, but this method of cooling water and air was
found to be inefficient in proportion to the amount of ice
used.

PROGRESS OF FISH DISTRIBUTION

An idea of the progress that has been made in fish dis-
tribution may be gained by comparison of Car No. 2 with
Car No. 9, one of the new steel coaches. Car No. 2 carried
92 milk cans or 9,200 83-inch fish. One of the new steel cars
will carry 240 pails or 24,000 38-inch fish. This increased
efficiency is brought about by(1) building cars with larger
compartments and (2) using the same amount of water and
more vessels, thereby exposing more water surface to the
air. On the assumption that the present carrying capa-
city of one of the steel cars is 100%, the efficiency of one of
the earlier cars was approximately 35%. Twenty-five per
cent of the increased efficiency has been brought about by
changes in the construction of the cars and 40% by changes
inthe equipment. Twenty years ago the cost of distributing
fish per thousand, based on the Bureau’s annual output, was
$0.027; during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1923 the cost
per thousand fish had been reduced to a little over $0.01.

Fearnow.—Fish Distribution. 163

An idea of the magnitude of the distribution work
accomplished by the Bureau of Fisheries may be gained by
a study of the records covering plants of fish made in the
last twenty years. During that period the output of the
various hatcheries amounted to 72,281,380,861 fish. In the
distribution of this output, the bureau’s cars travelled 2,029,-
416 miles and detached messengers 8,104,799 miles.

ASSIGNMENT AND ALLOTMENT OF FISH

In apportioning the bureau’s output of fish it is always
a problem to decide on what waters are most in need of re-
stocking and the species most suitable for introduction there-
in. There is a desire on the part of the public for non-indi-
genous fishes. In some of the northern states where the
small-mouthed black bass is common, applicants request
large-mouthed black bass, while in North Carolina, Tennes-
see, and other southern states where the waters are adapted
to the large-mouthed black bass, applicants insist that the
Bureau introduce small-mouth black bass. Frequently
lake trout are desired for stocking waters in southern states
and in several instances insistent demands have been made
for brook trout in Florida waters. Of course, such requests
cannot be granted but it requires a great deal of time and
patience to convince the applicants that they should con-
fine themselves to suitable species.

As the bureau has no representative to investigate the
condition of the various streams for which fish are desired,
it is necessary to rely to a great extent on information
furnished by the applicants. Sometimes, however, the
bureau consults the state fish commissions in regard to the
fish that should be placed in certain waters, this being
especially true with reference to requests for spiny-finned
species for trout regions.

In order that this information may be accessible at all
times, a card index system is maintained showing the species
of fish that have been planted in the various streams for a
number of years. These plants are followed up at intervals
and notations made on the cards showing what results
attended each planting. Thesystem will eventually become
a complete index of streams in the United States and will
show the results that have followed each planting of fish.

The number of fish can be furnished an applicant de-
pends on the area of the water to be stocked, size and num-
ber of fish available for distribution, and distance the fish
have to be transported.

164 American Fisheries Society.

PREPARATION OF FISH FOR SHIPMENT

The distribution problem begins at the hatchery and it is
necessary, therefore, to use proper care in preparing the
fish for shipment if they are expected to withstand the
vicissitudes of transportation. Fish are necessarily trans-
ported under unnatural conditions and diseased or weak-
ened fish that cannot be held at stations without consider-
able loss cannot be expected to survive in transportation
cans for days and even weeks.

Warm-water fishes, in order to be successfully trans-
ported, should be held in cool running water until they
have become “hardened”’. The importance of “hardening”
fish was recently emphasized by several shipments that were
sent to Central Station, Washington, D. C. In one instance,
five cans of gambusia were collected from warm stagnant
water and immediately shipped. The consignment arrived
in very poor condition and within twenty-four hours every
fish had died.

A shipment of the same species was then ordered from
another station, the time involved in shipment being about
the same. The consignor, in this instance, made the collec-
tion and held the fish in cool running water for about thirty-
six hours. It is needless to say that this consignment, which
was forwarded to Washington, D. C. without an attendant,
reached its destination in excellent condition and the fish
were successfully reshipped to various points throughout the
country.

An idea of the importance of shutting off food in advance
of shipment may be gained by reference to a consignment
of trout forwarded from one of the bureau’s hatcheries to
Washington, D.C. Two pails of fish were forwarded under
identical conditions except that the fish in one pail had
been fed within twenty-four hours of shipment. In the
second pail the fish had not received food within thirty-six
hours of shipment. On the arrival of the consignment at
Central Station, the fish that had not received food for thirty-
six hours were in excellent condition, while those in the other
pail were in but fair condition.

When fish which have cannibalistic tendencies are to be
shipped, it is quite important that they be graded so that
fish as near the same size as possible will be placed in a can.

If care is used in preparing fish for shipment, there is no
reason why such species as black bass, bluegill bream and
other warm-water species cannot be successfully transported
for weeks and probably months.

Fearnow.—Fish Distribution. 165

TRANSPORTATION OF FISH

When a distribution is to be made by one of the specially
equipped cars, the first matter of importance is to arrange
the trips with reference to the accessibility of the applicants,
who may be located in half-a-dozen different states. As
the cars are now equipped for carrying large loads of fish, it
frequently occurs that as many as 150 individual applicants
are supplied on a trip. Schedules for the car and for the
messengers are necessarily prepared in advance and appli-
cants notified by letter or by telegram concerning the exact
time that delivery of the fish is to be made. Owing to the
uncertainties of railroading, it frequently becomes necessary
to rearrange the whole schedule and renotify all applicants.

It is the rule to move the car to a certain point, dispatch-
ing en route messengers who either fill applications on roads
parallel to lines traversed by the car or pursue a circular or
semicircular route, joining the car further along the line.
The most expensive messenger shipments are those in which
the messenger has to retrace the same line, and the least
expensive and the ones most frequently made are the circu-
lar, semicircular and triangular. Happily, there are few
trips made at the present time that necessitate return travel
without fish. Shipments off the main lines are usually made
by express or in care of train baggage masters. Shipments
without attendants are made to probably 95% of applicants
living off the main lines, necessitating over 1,000 such ship-
ments in the course of a year. There are on record many
messenger shipments in which 75% of the deliveries were
made successfully without an attendant.

In distributing the annual output of the Bureau of Fish-
eries it is necessary to use, in addition to the regular distri-
bution force, probably as many as 150 station employees
who from time to time, make trips from the various hatcher-
ies.

RAILROADS

_ A number of the important railroads of the country have
extended courtesies to the bureau in the way of reduced
transportation rates for the movements of its distribution
cars. Practically all the important railroads have given the
bureau the privilege of carrying in baggage cars free of
charge shipments of live fish, the only condition imposed
being that the consignment be accompanied by an attendant
with first-class transportation.

As a rule, however, the railroad companies are more
liberal to the states than to the Federal government. It is

166 American Fisheries Society.

well known that free transportation is extended to messen-
gers of state fish commissions while regular fares are re-
quired of the bureau’s messengers doing distribution work
within the limits of the same state. While, in special cases,
free transportation has been furnished the bureau’s cars and
messengers, such courtesies on the part of the railroads call
for increased efficiency on the part of the recipient. That
free or reduced transportation is accorded is no excuse for
not employing efficient and economical distribution methods.
As reduced transportation carries with it the obligation to
use the most efficient methods, it is an abuse of the privilege
the railroad company has extended to carry two or three
times as much water as is necessary for the safe transporta-
tion of the fish. Within recent years the public has been
taught, after a great deal of effort, to judge a consignment
of fish not by gallons of water or number of cans but by its
value for stocking purposes.

The railroad companies have been quick to grasp the
economic value of the new transportation pails described by
the writer before the meeting of this society last year, as
evidenced from the fact that the roads which formerly in-
sisted that not more than twenty of the old-style cans be
carried by a messenger are now permitting forty and sixty
of the new pails to be so handled, when stacked so as not
to require more floor space than was formerly required by
twenty milk cans.

TEMPERATURE OF WATER DURING TRANSPORTATION

In transporting fish an equable water temperature is of
vital importance. It is generally accepted that low water
temperature within reasonable limits is desirable as the cool-
er the water the more gaseous oxygen it holds in solution.
The temperature of the water from which the fish were
taken and the temperature of the water to be stocked
should guide the messenger in the regulation of the temper-
ature during the period that the fish are in transit.

On each fish car there are two compartments, well in-
sulated, so that a proper temperature may be maintained in
the fish cans with a comparatively small amount of ice.

AERATION

For a number of years the bureau’s distribution cars
have been equipped with air compressors operated by 10

H. P. boilers. The air is driven through air distributors in —

the fish compartments, into rubber tubes leading to groups

Fearnow.—Fish Distribution. 167

of from 4 to 6 containers and forced into the water through
plugs of porous wood, preferably American Linden.

Recently there was installed on Car No. 8 a Worthington
feather-valve air compressor operated by a 14 H.P. electri-
cally-driven motor connected with the storage batteries
used for lighting the car. This device furnishes a sufficient
amount of free air to aerate the water in from 200 to 300
pails and has been used continuously for 14 hours without
producing any apparent deterioration in the batteries
which have a capacity of 375 ampere hours. As train line
air is available when the car is in motion, the electrically ©
driven compressor meets all requirements while loading
the car and during layovers at junction points. making it
unnecessary to use the steam boiler.

AIR LIBERATING PLUGS

The wooden plug which has been employed for liberating
air in fish containers has a number of disadvantages when
used in connection with modern equipment. In recent years
it has been difficult to obtain wood of the same degree of
porousness so that all plugs will liberate the same amount
of air. If for any reason the air pressure is shut off for a
time the wooden plug absorbs water to the extent that it
fails to liberate air when the pressure comes on again. Un-
der such circumstances it is necessary to go over the entire
load of fish as rapidly as possible and regulate the amount
of air in each pail. It is needless to state that the plugs
when they become dry contract and this makes it necessary
to completely overhaul the equipment after each trip.

ALUMINUM PLUG

An aluminum plug for use in equalizing the air either in
the pet cock which leads to the air distributor or in the out-
lets of the air distributors, was recently devised, and super-
-cedes the wooden plug. The plug is made of aluminum rod
and threaded to fit into the air pipe. It hasa 1/32-inch tube
drilled through it longitudinally and two 1/32-inch holes
are drilled through it transversely near each end and inter-
secting with the tube in the center, which allows 5 openings
on each end of the plug. With this arrangement there is
little difficulty in maintaining an even air pressure in the air
distributors and containers even though one or more of the
distributors is disconnected.

168 American Fisheries Society

“FILTROS”

Experiments are being made with “‘filtros,” a rock-like
substance which may be purchased in cylinders 5%-inch in
diameter and 614 inches long. This material is quite
porous and while it disintegrates in the course of time, it
lasts about four times as long as wood when used for liber-
ating air. ‘‘Filtros’ does not contract when not in use and
therefore requires little attention in the way of adjustment
However, the experiments with filtros have not been car-
ried far enough to warrant its general use on fish distribu-
tion cars.

JET AERATOR

During the spring and summer of this year a new aerat-
ing device which circulates the water in the container and
operates by air was used to a limited extent on the distri-
bution cars with very satisfactory results. This aerator was
devised for the purpose of aerating the water and removing
the carbon dioxide gas given off by the fish.

The device consists of a tube placed on the inside of a
larger tube, care being taken to allow room enough to per-
mit the water to be forced up in the space between the two
tubes.

There has always been a question in regard to whether
the liberation of free air in water is the best method of
aeration. It has been noticeable for a number of years
that when air circulation is discontinued the fish show signs
of distress in ten or fifteen minutes while, if the water is
thoroughly aerated by dipping or pouring, they may be left
without aeration for as long atime as one hour. The jet
aerator, by throwing the water into the air, furnishes a
more natural aeration.

The following extract taken from the log of Car No. 8
is typical of reports received from those who have tried the
jet aerator:

“These aerators showed their superiority over the ordinary wooden
plug when a number of fingerling sunfish were moved from La Crosse,
Wisconsin, to Denver, Colorado, in July of this year. When received on
the car, these fish had just come out of hot sloughs along the upper
Mississippi River and were very weak, There was a rather heavy
loss but the pails having the jet-pump aerators in them had consider-
ably less loss than the other pails with wooden aluminum plugs.”

Experiments with this device are still being carried on
and while its practicability is not generally perceived at

Fearnow.—Fish Distribution. 169

the present time, it is believed that it will be more fully
appreciated when further improvements are made in other
transportation equipment.

A system of water circulation which was tried out years
ago was a failure for the reason that the water when passing
through the pump picked up a small amount of oil which
proved inimical to fish life. There was also some difficulty
in regulating the overflow or return from the various cans.
Since all the water returned to a central tank, one can of
diseased fish might infect the entire shipment. The jet
aerator, by circulating and aerating the water in each con-
tainer overcomes these difficulties. The underlying princi-
ple of this aerator may be applied to a device for lifting
water or removing sediment from the cans.

AERATOR FOR MESSENGERS

Within the last year the dipper which was used for
aerating water has been largely replaced by the ‘‘Question
Mark” aerator, so named on account of the bend in its
handle which is made of 14-inch pipe and serves as an air
vent and means for suspending the aerator in a fish can when
notin use. The cylinder of the aerator is made of galvan-
ized rain spouting and is 414-inches in diameter by 6-inches
in length. The bottom contains twenty-one circular open-
ings which are screened to prevent fish from entering the
cylinder. The handle may be unscrewed and the device
carried in a small hand bag.

The device provides quick and efficient aeration, does not
injure the fish, can be used to remove sediment or to lower
the water in a container, and has a number of other sdvan-
tages over the ordinary dipper.

The Question Mark aerator has met with geneml ap-
proval as it seems to answer the bureau’s needs better than
any device that has heretofore been used.

PLANTING FISH

Closely linked with distribution work is the planting of
fish. While much has been written on fish propagation, it
seems that comparatively little has been said on fish plant-
ing. The tendency has apparently been to produc: fish and
trust to Providence to care for them, regardless of whether
planted in unfavorable environment.

Too much care and attention cannot be ae to fish
planting, as it is here that all the efforts of the fsh cultur-
ist may be placed in jeopardy. The practice a been to

170 American Fisheries Society.

get the fish into waters as soon as possible, frequently dump-
ing the entire consignment into one pool at some convenient
point such as a bridge or ford where the young fish merely
serve as food for a few larger ones. The importance of
carrying fish to the headwaters of streams where there is
plenty of natural food and immunity from enemies, and
depositing them in small lots in shallow spring-fed pools, is
not fully appreciated by all who make plants of fish. Fish
produced at great expense may be wasted by placing them
in unsuitable waters, or in suitable waters under adverse
conditions. The stations’ output for an entire season may
be completely lost, so far as increasing the food supply is
concerned, by injudicious methods of transporting and plant-
ing the young fish.

CONCLUSION

Fish properly hardened and graded may be carried foran
indefinite time in suitable vessels, means being provided
for controlling the temperature, removing the sediment and
adding enough water to compensate for that removed. If
shipment is made during warm weather, the melting ice will
afford a gradual change of water.

From 10,000 to 15,000 individual applications are filled
annually by the Bureau of Fisheries. The distribution field
includes practically every state in the Union; besides, ship-
merts have been made to Central Mexico, Porto Rico and the
Canal Zone; and only recently a consignment of gambusia
was sent from Edenton, North Carolina to Palestine.

Five years after plants of fish are made the results are
ascertained. This is the day of reckoning, for if the plants
have not been successful, “‘our sins will surely find us out.”
Thotsands of reports are received—excellent 31 per cent,
good 24 per cent, fair 13 per cent, and only 14 per cent in
doubt Hundreds of letters are received testifying to the
remarkable success that has followed the stocking of
streans, lakes and artificial ponds that contained no fish
life pr.or to its introduction by the bureau.

Th: distribution of fish is one of the most important
phases of fish-cultural work. It might be compared to the
dissemnation of seed grain. The end and aim is to increase
the supply of desirable fish in streams and lakes.

PRODUCTION OF THE FRESH WATER MUSSEL.

By H. L. CANFIELD,

Homer, Minnesota.

The Mississippi and its tributary rivers are the greatest
producers of warm water fishes in the world, and practically
all commercial fresh water mussels are produced in the
waters of the Mississippi basin. In time of spring flood the
Mississippi overflows its banks and inundates the islands and
adjacent lowlands in which are located sloughs, pools and
other depressions, and into this territory many fishes go to
feed and spawn. Later in the season the river recedes into
its banks and becomes quite low, leaving many of the fishes
in the depressions. As the season advances and the land-
locked waters become low and stagnant due to the low stage
of the river and to seepage, millions of fish are left high and
dry to perish unless removed to live waters.

During the fiscal year 1922, the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries
rescued from these land-locked pools of the Mississippi
River over 139,000,000 stranded game and commercial fish-
es of various ages and sizes, and released on the gills of suit-
able host fishes, in a state of parasitism, over two billion
larval commercial mussels.

The fresh water mussel is in great demand for use in the
manufacture of pearl buttons and the supply has become so
short that mussels sold at $10.00 and $15.00 per ton ten
years ago are now easily disposed of at $60.00 to $90.00 per
ton. The necessity for protecting measures and artificial
propagation of mussels is therefore easily understood. In
mussel infection work, quantities of fishes are required, so
the rescue of stranded food fishes and mussel infection are
combined to great economic advantage.

The larval mussel is developed in the adult female
mussel, then freed as a parasite into the water. To live it
must within a very limited time attach itself on the gill of a
proper host fish. Here it encysts and passes through a met
amorphosis which changes its internal structure. In about
two weeks or more, according to the water temperature, jit
releases itself as a juvenile mussel, to commence its inde-
pendent life. Th larval mussel is of light weight and is
therefore held in suspension by the water for a short time.
This is a very critical period of the larval mussel’s life, far it

171

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Li2 American Fisheries Society.

is necessary that it attach itself almost immediately to a
host fish by clamping its tiny valves to the gills of the fish.
(Only one of the commercial mussels becomes parasitic on
the fins of fishes.) The larval mussel has no power of
locomotion, so unless conditions are very favorable it will
fail to meet with a host fish and will fall to the bottom and
perish. The greatest loss of mussel life under natural con-
ditions is due to the failure of the larval mussel to connect
with its host fish. Artificial infection of fishes bring the
mussel and its host fish together.

After the land-locked fishes have been rescued and taken
to the open waters, such suitable host fishes as are available
are placed in clearing tubs preparatory to the infection. A
ripe female mussel is then opened and the larval mussels
from her gill pouches released in the tub with the fishes and
the water gently stirred. The myriads of larval mussels
held temporarily in suspension give the water the appear-
ance of being milky and the tiny larval mussels constantly
open and close their valves in their attempts to attach them-
selves to the fishes. As the fishes pass the water through
their gills in process of breathing, the larval mussels are
carried againt their gills with the water and they readily
attach themselves. After the infection has been effected,
the fishes are released in the open water with a positive and
correct infection of larval mussels.

If the juvenile mussel drops on favorable bottom, and is
not destroyed or devoured by enemies, it grows and matures
in from three to five years and is suitable for use in the
manufacture of pearl buttons in from four to seven years,
depending upon the species of mussel and its environment.

Discussion.

DR. OSBURN: To what extent are the fish that are of no particular
use for any other purpose available for mussel growth?

Mr. CANFIELD: The most striking instance of that kind is found
in the common river gar, which, I believe, is of no commercial value
and is usually thrown out when caught in the commercial fisherman’s
net. This gar is the only known host fish for one of the highest priced
commercial mussels that we have. Another instance is that of the
river herring, sometimes called the skipjack, which carries the nigger-
aead mussel, one of the important commercial varieties.

Mr. AvERY: Would it not be interesting if we could hear something
nore about the different varieties of fish that are hosts to the various
knds of mussels?

Mr. CANFIELD: The United States biological station at Fairport
has worked out very definitely the various host fishes of all the com-

Canfeld.—Fresh Water Mussel. 173

mercial mussels. In the slides that will be thrown on the screen later,
a number of host fishes will be shown. Such fish as the black bass,
crappie, sunfish, sauger, perch and pike are very useful hosts in carry-
ing what is known as the river mucket and the Lake Pepin mucket, two
of our most valuable button-producing shells. The sheephead is the
only known carrier of the butterfly mussel, another very good commer-
cial mussel. Then, such fish as the yellow perch also carry the mucket,
and catfishes carry the Quadrula mussel, the exterior of which is rougher
than that of the other types. The two main groups are the Lampsilus
group and the Quadrula group; most of the Quadrulas are carried by
catfishes and other lake fishes.

Mr. Pore: Is it possible to raise mussels from the glochidia stage
to the adult stage without the intervention of a host?

Mr. CANFIELD: There is just one mussel we know of that produces
an adult without its passing through a state of parasitism on fishes,
and that is known as the squawfoot mussel, which is of no commercial
value. There is, however, some question about that; it is also known
that the squawfoot mussel uses fishes as hosts.

Mr. Pore: Has it ever been established whether the encysting of
glochidia in the fins or gills of fish is for the purpose of protection, or
for the desire for food?

Mr. CANFIELD: Dr. Avery, as I understand it—I may be speaking a
little in advance, as he has not yet published his paper on the subject—
has very definitely shown that the mussel consumes food from fish.
I presume he would not object to my making the statement, although,
as I say, he has not yet published the results of his researches.

Mr. Porpe: Do you believe that the encysting is for the purpose of
obtaining suitable food?

Mr. CANFIELD: [ am satisfied from the slides which Dr. Avery
showed me—it is entirely his work, not mine—that the mussel consumes
a portion of the fish. In fact, the part that the tiny larval mussel bites
on to is eaten, if you can express it that way, by the cells during the
time that the larval mussel is passing through the metamorphosis.

Mr. Pore: Has the Bureau of Fisheries ever carried on any ex-
periments to determine whether it is possible to raise glochidia to adults
without the intervention of a host fish?

Mr. CANFIELD: Yes, but so far, all have been unsuccessful.

Mr. AVERY: Experiments in that line are still being conducted?

Mr. CANFIELD: Oh yes.

Mr. PoPpeE: What percentage of adult mussels have been known
actually to develop from glochidia encysted upon fish?

Mr. CANFIELD: You have asked me a difficult question. I do not
think we have any figures on that.

Mr. Pore: What percentage would you suggest?

Mr. CANFIELD: I should think that if we got one in a thousand to
maturity, we would be doing very well.

174 American Fisheries Society.

Mr. Pore: Do you think it would be advisable, or have any experi-
ments ever been made to that end, to provide suitable food for the glochi-
dia other than living fish, thereby largely increasing the percentage of
glochidia that reach the adult stage?

Mr. CANFIELD: We have no figures on the subject; there is no one
who could tell you definitely how many might be expected to develop
under those conditions. But it has been definitely shown that if the
mussel attains an age of six or eight months there is very little likeli-
hood of its meeting with enemies, and the chances are that you would
get a very heavy percentage in that case. The greatest death rate is in
the juvenile stage, after it leaves the fish. Of course, the great trouble
in nature is that it would be more or less an accident if the proper host
fish should happen along just as the female mussel happened to release
the larval mussel. However, it is said that in some cases the mother
mussel attracts the fish to it by means of its waving cilia-like fringes.
But we do not know even that. I may say that in several plants that
we made, we recovered after two years practically one hundred per cent
of the mussels that we placed out, but these were not placed out until
they were about six or eight months old. With protection you could
place even the larval mussels out, but unprotected there would be con-
siderable loss.

Dr. OSBURN: Does the sheephead prey on mussels?

Mr. CANFIELD: The sheephead is said to be an enemy of the mussel;
both the sheephead and the catfish have been known to devour them,
also the pumpkin seed sunfish. I have no doubt that many fishes will
take them during the juvenile stage.

Mr. Pore: Do you know of any experiments that have shown that
the glochidia are actually led by instinct to choose certain kinds of fish,
or is the fastening on a host an act of a mechanical nature?

Mr. CANFIELD: It is entirely of a mechanical nature.

Mr. Pore: Then why does it not take hold of the carp?

Mr. CANFIELD: They do take hold of the carp; they take hold of any
fish, but they do not remain on them—they are sloughed off or released
either by the fish or by the mussel prematurely.

Mr. BURNHAM: How do the protective laws protect the mussels?
Is it by providing a close season, or by limiting the size that may be
taken?

Mr. CANFIELD: Mainly by closing certain areas alternately. For
example, at a certain place they would perhaps close the upper part of
the river for a distance of five miles, while the lower part of the river
would be left open, the idea being to allow clammers and others who are
engaged in the industry to continue their operations and at the same
time to permit the closed portion to recuperate. Then, at the end of
five years, which is regarded as a suitable length of time to allow the
mussels to mature, they will change about; the open area will become
closed and the closed, open. In that way it is planned to keep up the
industry and also the mussels. I have every reason to believe it is an ex-
cellent law.

Canfeld.—Fresh Water Mussel. 175

Mr. AverRY: The regulations of the various states also provide for
the licensing of fishermen, limitations as to the sizes to be taken, and
various other regulations and restrictions?

Mr. CANFIELD: Yes—restrictive legislation.

ANGLING: PAST, PRESENT, FUTURE.

By Dr. JAMES ALEXANDER HENSHALL.

The Art of angling is as old as civilization, and has been
handed down to us through the fog and dust of remote ages.
The fish hook is mentioned in Holy Writ by the prophets Job
and Amos, which fact, as Father Isaak Walton observes, ‘‘must
imply anglers in those times.” The art of angling and its
practice, with the tackle then used, has been vouchsafed to us
by authors who lived four or five centuries ago.

The first book on the art of angling was written by a
woman, Dame Juliana Berners, a lady of noble birth, the
Prioress of Sopwell Nunnery, near St. Albans, England. Her
book was entitled a Treatyse of Fisshynge With an Angle, and
was published at London, England, in 1496. In this volume,
or ‘“‘plaunflet’’, as she called it, she gives explicit directions
for making rods, lines, hooks, floats and sinkers, illustrated
by rude wood cuts. She also gives the formulas for the dress-
ing of twelve artificial flies, most of which with slight modifi-
cations are in use to-day.

Dame Juliana gave precedence to the sport of angling over
the then popular sports of hunting, fowling and hawking.
Her advice to anglers is just as applicable to anglers of the
present day. The angler is counseled to take but few fish at
any one time; not to fish in private ponds or preserved waters
without permission, nor to trespass on private property, or to
break down hedges, or to leave gates open. Also to protect
fish from their enemies; and, in modern diction and spelling,
concludes thus—‘“‘And all those that do after this rule shall
have the blessing of God and St. Peter, which he them grant
that with his precious blood us bought.”

Angling, she assures us is conductive to long life and happi-
ness, and believes that it is not all of fishing to fish, for she
says “if the angler catch fish no man is merrier than he,” but
if he catch no fish and is ‘‘wet-shod to the tayl,” yet at the
least he hath his wholesome walk, and merry at his ease; a
sweet air of the sweet flowers of the mead maketh him hungry;
he heareth the melodious harmony of the birds.”

The next book on angling, in chronological sequence, was
The Book of Fishing, by Leonard Mascall, published in London,
in 1600. A half century later The Art of Angling, by Thomas
Barker, was published at London, in 1651. Barker’s direc-
tions for fly-fishing were afterward adopted by Isaak Walton
in his great angling classic, The Compleat Angler, or the “Con-

176

Henshall-—Angling. 177

templative Man’s Recreation,” which was published in London
in 1653. This well-known and remarkable book, which treats
of many subjects in addition to angling, has run through more
than a hundred editions, edited by various persons in Great
Britain and the United States.

Walton was essentially a bait-fisher, and his book relates
mostly to bait-fishing, but some twenty years after the first
edition of his wonderful book, there was added to it Part II,
by Charles Cotton which comprises his “Instructions how to
angle for a trout or grayling in a clear stream.” These direc-
tions treated mostly of fly-fishing, and the original book has
since been known as Walton & Cotton’s Complete Angler.
Isaak Walton, the patron saint of all good anglers, declared,
more than three hundred years ago, ‘“‘Angling to be an art, and
an art worthy the knowledge and practice of a wise man.” His
book is so universally known that any further reference to it
is not necessary.

During the latter part of the eighteenth century and in the
nineteenth century many books on angling were published in
Great Britain, good, bad and indifferent. In the United States
the earliest books on angling were published in the nineteenth
century. Among the first, most noteworthy and thoroughly
American, were the American Angler’s Book, by Thaddeus
Norris, treating of the brook trout and other fresh water
fishes. About the same time was published Fishing in Amer-
ican Waters, by Genio C. Scott, on the striped bass and other
brackish water species. Then came Game Fish of the North,
and Superior Fishing, by Robert B. Roosevelt, all being most
excellent works. Since these pioneer American books on ang-
ling, many others have been issued, some of much value, others
meritorious and desirable.

To return to Dame Berners, it may be well to give a list
of the fishes described by her in her treatise, and to refer to
the baits recommended for their capture. To her great credit
it may also be said that she mentioned only a single hook for
either the artificial fly or for natural baits. What a sad and
reproachful comment on our methods of the present day when
artificial lures are made of wood, metal or bone, each bristling
with from three to a dozen murderous fish hooks, and the
same may be said of Walton and Cotton and the anglers of
their time.

Substituting modern orthography, Dame Berners says of
the salmon: ‘‘For by cause that the salmon is the most stately
fish that any man may angle for in fresh water, therefore |
propose to begin at him. The salmon is a gentle fish, but awk-
ward to take.” For baits she names the red worm and a
“sovereign hait’” that breeds on a water dock; “Also you may

178 American Fisheries Society.

take him with a dubbe (artificial fly), at such time as he lea-
peth, in like manner when you take a trout or a grayling.”

For the trout she names the “stone fly,” several worms
and grubs, “grasshops” and crickets, and “‘ye fat of ye bacon.”
The grayling she says, “is a delicious fish to a man’s mouth,”
and is to be fished for with the same baits as the trout. De-
scriptions of barbel, carp, chub, bream, tench and roach
follow, all to be taken with worms of various kinds, pastes,
and natural baits. Then come the pike and perch, conclud-
ing with the eel.

In the foregoing list only the salmon and the pike are
natives of the United States, although the perch, trout and the
grayling are more or less closely allied to our own fishes of
the same names. The coarse fishes mentioned are not true
game-fishes, and belong mostly to the minnow family (Cypri-
nidae), but as they are found in free water, the fishing of nine-
tenths of English anglers is restricted to these common forms.

Of the pike the Dame’s discourse is thus: “He is a great
fish; but for he devoureth so many as well as of his own kind
as of other, I love him the less.” For baits she recommends
minnows, fresh herring and frogs, and young mice, with par-
ticular directions as to placing them on the hook.

It may be as well to note the tools and tackle recommended
by the good Dame four centuries ago. The rod was made in
three pieces, or joints, and was about fifteen feet long; the butt
piece was made hollow to accommodate the two smaller joints,
when the whole could be used as a walking-staff, and as Dame
Juliana says: ‘‘and there shall no man know whereabout you
zo.” I have known this ruse practiced successfully where a
law prohibiting fishing on Sunday is rigidly enforced. The
butt of the rod was fashioned of ash, hazel or willow, the sec-
ond piece of hazel, and the top piece of the green shoot of
hawthorn, crab, or juniper. All the joints were thoroughly
straightened and dried. The line was made of six hairs from
the tail of a white horse, dyed, and twisted together with the
aid of a simple device, shown by a rude figure. For trout and
erayling the hairs were left white. Full directions were given
for making hooks, floats and sinkers. From this it will be seen
that the angler of the Dame’s day was independent of tackle
stores even if there were any.

Passing by the unimportant and little-known books of
Mascall and Barker, we come to the wonderful Compleat Ang-
ler, by Isaak Walton, published a century and a half after
Dame Juliana Berner’s quaint and marvelous Fisshynge Wyth
an Angle. It should be remembered that these two books are
entirely original, and made of whole cloth. The rod recom-
mended by Walton was “‘five or six yards long,”’ depending on

Henshall.—Angling. 179

the width of the stream. His line, like Dame Juliana’s was
made of six white horse hairs, dyed, and twisted, if of seven
hairs the center was a black one. ‘But,’ he says, “if you can
attain to angle with one hair, you shall have more rises, and
catch more fish.” Of the rest of his tackle we may judge from
the following:

“My rod and my line, my float and my lead,
My hook and my plummet, my whetstone and knife,
My basket, my baits, both living and dead,
My net and my meat, for that is the chief,
Then I must have thread, and hairs great and small,
With mine angling-purse, and so you have all.”

From this list of essentials it may be inferred that Walton
was primarily a bait-fisher, as artificial flies are not included.
Artificial flies and fly-fishing originated with the ancient
Romans, and by them was introduced into Britain. It was
through the example of Charles Cotton that Walton became
interested in fly-fishing. They fished together many years,
and Cotton, in admiration and affection for his “father” Wal-
ton, built the famous fishing lodge on the River Dove, in
England, for their accommodation. Although it seems but a
step from the days of Berners and Walton and Cotton to our
own, it has taken four centuries to arrive at our present knowl-
edge of angling, and the marvelous perfection of tools and
tackle, but none the less do we venerate and revere the names
of those pioneers in the art of angling.

At the Columbia Exposition, or World’s Fair at Chicago,
in 1893, was the most wonderful exhibit of angling tools and
tackle accessories that the world has ever seen. As Assistant
Chief of the Department of Fisheries, that exhibit was pecu-
liarly my own. Among the notable exhibits were split-bamboo
rods made by the inventor, Samuel Phillippe, of Easton, Pa.,
and of others of the best makers since his time. Also there
was a fine collection of the famous Kentucky reels from those
of the inventor, George Snyder, of Paris, and those of his suc-
cessors the Meeks, Milam and Sage of Frankfort, and Hard-
man of Louisville. It was a wonderful coilection and a rev-
elation as showing to what a state of perfection had been
- yeached since the time of Berners, Walton and Cotton.

It happened that August 9th, 1893, was the tercentennial
anniversary of the birth of Isaak Walton, and it was to occur
at the height of the great Exposition. I determined, there-
fore, to celebrate the event in a becoming manner. I arranged
with the Chicago Fly-Casting Club to erect a replica of the
renowned fishing lodge built on the River Dove by Charles
Cotton for the accomodation of Walton and himself. I enlisted
the interest and co-operation of Mr. R. B. Marston, Editor of

180 American Fisheries Society.

the Fishing Gazette (London), who furnished specifications,
descriptions and photographs of the little edifice, and with the
eminent services of Mr. Burnham, chief architect of the Ex-
position, a perfect reproduction of the Walton and Cotton Fish-
ing Lodge was erected on the bank of the Lagoon in the
grounds of the Fair White City, where it proved to be the
Shrine and Mecca for anglers from the world over. It was
the headquarters for many angling events and numerous cast-
ing tournaments.

“The strangest part of the matter,” said Mr. Marston
afterward in the Fishing Gazette, “was that notwithstanding
the hundreds of angling societies in England, and a number of
angling journals, mine among the rest, no one, evidently,
thought of so important an event as the tercentenary of
Walton’s natal day, but it was left to an American angler and
an American angling club to celebrate and honor the occasion
in such a splendid and appropriate way.”

It is now thirty years since the Chicago World’s Fair, but
it was twenty years before, in 1873, that I began the crusade
to give the black bass its proper place among game-fishes,
and to call attention to its possibilities both as a game-fish
and a focd fish, and to make known the most suitable tackle
for its capture, in order to prove it “inch for inch and pound
for pound the gamest fish that swims,” and to verify my pre-
diction that, eventually, it would become “The great American
game-fish.” At that time, however, there was not a single
article of tackle made especially for black bass fishing except
the Kentucky reel. At that time the real art of black bass
angling was confined to a small zone of the middle west, of
which the “blue grass section” of Kentucky was the center.
Outside of that area black bass angling, as an art was un-
known. The earliest angling books by American authors, as
before mentioned were published during the sixties, namely
those of Browne, Norris, Scott and Roosevelt. Evidently these
authors knew little or nothing of the black bass or black bass
angling, inasmuch as they were either silent on the subject or
dismissed it with a few words; Robert B. Roosevelt, however,
referred to several incidents of black bass fishing in Canada.

Thirty years afterward, at the Chicago World’s Fair, it
was demonstrated that in the Angling Exhibit there were more
different articles of fishing tackle made especially for black
bass than for all other game-fishes combined. At that time
it may be said that black bass angling was never better, and
the species never more abundant. The inland streams were
comparatively pure and undefiled, and coastal waters uncon-
taminated. But, alas, the great popularity of black bass ang-
ling proved to be our undoing. Unheard of and uncouth mul-

Henshall.—Angling. 181

tiple-hooked artificial lures of wood or metal, known as plugs
and kill-devils, began to be advertised in the fishing journals
by profiteers, few of whom were anglers, and they persist to
this day, a bar-sinister on the escutcheon of true sportman-
ship, and a disgrace to the gentle art of angling. It is only
by propaganda of education that our erring brother anglers
can be induced to forsake these vile implements of destruction
and resort to honest and ethical means and methods of angling.

We have received the art of angling as a sacred trust and
heritage from times of great antiquity, and it behooves all
honest anglers to see to it that the trust be righteously and
faithfully regarded. From remote ages, from Biblical times,
through the dark ages, and the days of our Mother Superior
and Father Isaak to the present day, it has been proved that
age cannot wither nor custom stale the gentle art of angling.

It has been a pleasant task and a labor of love to trace the
past records of angling down to our own times, but I am now
obliged to broach a subject both unpleasant and forbidding,
but one, nevertheless, that must be earnestly and intelligently
considered, if we are to have any fishing left for black bass or
for any other game-fish in either fresh or salt water. We are
confronted by the most serious and appalling menace of this
century in the pollution of our inland and coastal waters. In-
land streams are, as you know, poisoned by industrial offal
and waste, and the coastal estuaries by the deadly effects of
oil pollution from tankers and oil-burning vessels. This means
that not only angling, but commerciai fishing as well, is almost
a thing of the past in certain sections. These facts are so
evident and apparent that it is up to this competent and tute-
lary society to work while it is yet day, for the night cometh
when it will be too late to save what little remnant is left of
our once glorious heritage of the piscatorial wealth bequeathed
to us by past centuries.

And now, as to the future. Watchman, what of the night!
The famous electrician, Dr. Steinmetz, tells us that the people
of the next century will wonder at our ignorance; that every-
thing at that time will be done by electricity, and that they
will work but four hours a day; Well, they will have more
time to go a-fishing, provided there are any fish to be caught,
which is problematical. I would not care to live in the next
century and take the chances.

But, seriously, something must be done and done quickly.
We must co-operate with the manufacturers to do away with
pollution by reducing it to a condition where it will be
harmless to animal life, and at the same time be a source
of profit to themselves; a proceeding that has already been
consummated. If this can not be done through moral suasion,

182 American Fisheries Society.

then the law must be invoked. As I have stated elsewhere,
more than once, our diminished streams may be augmented
by boring artesian wells along their banks, whose flow of
water, when aerated, would furnish an additional supply of
oxygen. This is not at all chimerical. When a schoolboy
my geography taught me that there was three times as much
water as land on the globe; and as there is nothing that has
ever existed on this planet that is absolutely destroyed, that
proportion of water must still exist. There are the seas,
lakes and rivers on the surface, and ‘‘the waters under the
earth.” These subterranean waters can be reached and uti-
lized through artesian wells of various depths. There are
many small cities and towns that procure their water supply
in this way. =

When I was transferred as superintendent from Bozeman,
Montana, to Tupelo, Mississippi, I found a dozen artesian wells
on the grounds of the latter station, about four hundred feet
in depth. When first bored they were flowing wells, but when
the city of Tupelo bored a well about a thousand feet deep for
an additional water supply, it caused the water in the wells
of the station to drop about ten feet below the surface, and
the water had to be pumped. There were but two of the
station wells in use, operated by steam pumps. There were
three ponds, and this supply of water was inadequate, for the
output of large-mouth bass had never exceeded twenty thous-
and at any one season. I did away with the leaky boiler and
the steam pumps and substituted electric motors and four
pumps, and thereafter the output was never less than three
hundred thousand per season. If funds had been available
half a dozen more ponds could have been constructed, and the
rest of the wells utilized, and the output could have been in-
creased to a million each season. In this connection it is as
well to say that when our streams have diminished in size and
purity, and are fishless, artesian wells may be bored on farms
or other private property, and stocked with fish.

I have an abiding faith in the integrity and practical work-
ing of the American Fisheries Society. Because I am one of
its oldest members, and have served as its president, I trust
the Society may see its way clear to adopt a resolution mem-
orializing the Congress to institute measures to abate or miti-
gate the pollution of navigable rivers and coastal estuaries.
And I feel sure that individual members of the Society from
the various states will give aid and comfort to any state move-
ment looking to the alleviation of pollution of inland waters
from industrial waste and sewage, and will assist with their
counsel and influence in the work of any combined effort by
protective associations or conservation organizations, or in

Henshall.—Angling. 183

needed legislation of their states. And I want to assure them
that I am not crying “wolf, wolf,” to urge others to their duty,
but that I am now, in eighty-eighth year, doing my bit for
conservation with the Isaak Walton League of America and

in conducting the department of pollution in its monthly maga-
zine.

NOTES ON THE PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION
OF POND FISHES.

By G. W. N. Brown.
The U. S. Fisheries Station, Orangeburg, S. C.

From observation and study of the spawning habits of
pond fishes it is learned that the proper manipulation of the
water supply is a factor in incubation that should not be
overlooked. Especially is this true in regard to the incuba-
tion of black bass eggs. Black bass begin nest building and
spawning during the first warm weather of the season,
which occurs, usually, about the middle of February. They
seek the shallow portions of the pond as the warmth of the
sun has there penetrated to the bottom. As is well known
the male fish remains with the nest after the spawning is
concluded. His purpose in this is not only to protect the
eggs from enemies, but also, to keep the water constantly
changing on them so that they may obtain the proper
amount of oxygen which is necessary to incubation as to the
life of the fry after hatching. He accomplishes this func-
tion by passing back and forth over the nest with a gentle
undulating motion of the fins. By this means he also pre-
vents sediment from collecting on and smothering the eggs.

Should anything occur to drive the male from the nest for
any considerable length of time the eggs, thus deprived of
his parental care, soon die. As the warm periods are
invariably followed by cold snaps which chill the surface
water it is necessary to close the supply valves to prevent the
cold surface water from the reservoir from displacing the
warm water at the nests and driving the male fish to seek a
more equable temperature in the deeper section of the pond.
For this reason the supply valves are closed at the Orange-
burg station until all danger of cold snaps has passed, some-
times remaining closed for four or five weeks.

A former custom of bunching the brood fish in a few
ponds for the winter and distributing them to the various
spawning ponds early in February has been abandoned. It
was found that better results can be obtained by placing
them in the fall, after the ponds are drawn and cleaned, in
the ponds in which they will remain during the spawning
season, as it obviates the necessity of handling them after

184

Brown.—Pond Fishes. 185

the eggs are nearing full development. About 35 pairs are
placed in an acre of water.

An experiment in hatching bass eggs in a trough was
conducted at this station last spring. A nest of eggs found
on the morning of March 5, believed to have been spawned
the previous night, was taken up and counted and found to
contain about 4,500. They were placed in a trough of run-
ning water on a cheesecloth tray. They were showing the
eye spot on the 7th and the following day the outline of the
fry could be seen. Hatching began on the 9th and was
completed on the 10th. It was estimated from 600 to 800
fry were hatched. The yolk sac had all been absorbed by
the 23rd. They rose from the tray that morning and contin-
ued to maintain themselves as free swimmers thenceforth.
Beef heart was passed several times through an Enterprise
chopper and then rubbed through a cheesecloth screen.
Water was added to make a thin soupy solution. This was
spread over the surface of the water by the use of a feather.
The fry rose to it at once and took it greedily. On April 9
they were delivered to an applicant, being in all 394 advance

In collecting advance fry for shipment advantage is
taken of the protective instinct of the male. He seems to
realize that by steering the fry near the shore he has only
one side of the school to protect from enemies. Close
observation is kept on the movements of the school and as
soon as they are old enough a cast-net is thrown over them
and the entire school, if possible, brought out. The ponds
should be carefully watched to locate schools before they
disperse, as a few fingerling bass can destroy an entire school
of advance fry in a short time. Proof of this was furnished
by a number 2 fingerling during the spring of 1922. A
school of advance fry were caught up and placed in a trough
for shipment. This fingerling was found among them with
a very much distended stomach. He was opened up and
found to contain 27 advance fry. Several of these were
digested, except the head, but with most of them the process
of digestion was only beginning. The loss through canni-
balism among fingerlings is far in excess of that of adults.
This shows the necessity of keeping in close touch with the
development of the fry, removing them for shipment before
they reach the fingerling stage.

Sunfish, warmouth and crappie do not begin spawning as
early asbass. The fry are more susceptible to injury by the
net, and are more easily overcome with the heat. Hence,
they can not be successfully handled for shipment during
hot weather. They are left to be distributed during Octo-

186 American Fisheries Society.

ber and November in connection with the residue of bass
collected when the ponds are drawn for cleaning. There is,
apparently, no cannibalism among these species.

After the young fish are taken from the pond with the
seine the tub in which they are carried is placed under
a half inch bibcock to equalize the temperature after
which they are transferred to a trough. From there they
are counted and placed in the transportation cans. If the
shipment is intended for.an early morning train the cans,
covered with a bobinet screen are set under a 2 inch pipe
which supplies water to the cans through half inch bibcocks
and they are held thus till time to load them for shipment
next morning.

All bass shipped to one applicant for planting in the same
pond should be the same size. When fry and fingerlings
are planted together the chances are ten to one the fry will
become food for the fingerlings. Plants should be made in
shallow water containing suitable pond vegetation in which
they may find an avenue of escape from enemies and where
the food supply is more plentiful. When young fish are plant-
ed in a new pond containing no vegetation they should be
fed on finely chopped beef heart two or three times each
week. Suitable pond mosses should be set in a new pond
as the water in turned in for the first time.

The number of fish shipped in a transportation can de-
pends on the size of the fish. 1,000 advance fry, 600 No.1
fingerlings, or 200 No. 2 fingerlings per can have given the
best results in shipments from this station. If the cans are
overloaded there is considerable loss of fish and those sur-
viving the trip are in a weakened condition. Having lost
the disposition to search for food they consequently die of
starvation. Every possible effort should be put forth to
deliver the fish to the applicant in first-class condition, as
this is the chief end and aim of propagation.

A change of method in some features of the distribu-
tion inaugurated during the early part of the fiscal year 1922
has resulted in a reduction of the cost of more than 50 per
cent during the last two years, as compared with former
years. During the fiscal year 1921, under the old method,
the average cost per thousand for distributing the fish from
the Orangeburg station was $5.60. Under the new method
the cost was $1.93 per thousand in 1922, and $1.99 in 1923.
The method consists in sending a messenger with fish to a
central railroad point with instructions to ship from various
points enroute to applicant living on connecting lines, in care
of the train baggageman, or by express. On arrival at his

Brown.—Pond Fishes. 187

destination he will ship in the same way to applicants living
on lines diverging from this central point. A case in point
was that of a messenger sent from Orangeburg to Fayette-
ville, North Carolina. He carried fish for 17 applicants.
At Florence, South Carolina, a shipment was made to three
applicants living on a connecting line between Florence and
Wilmington, North Carolina. Arriving at Fayetteville
shipments were made to eight applicants on various lines
diverging from that point. The messenger returned to
Orangeburg at 11:00 P. M. the same day, whereas, if he had
gone to all points and made personal deliveries it would have
required at least two days time and would have more than
doubled the cost beside the inconvenience and hardship of
holding most of the fish over night. It is important that
the fish be turned over to the baggageman, or expressman,
in first-class condition with proper instructions as to their
care enroute. Baggagemen generally have taken a decided
interest in rendering assistance in this work and very little
complaint has been heard from applicants in regard to the
condition of the fish received.

Discussion.

Mr. BULLER: Pennsylvania, as you gentlemen probably know, has
more pollution in its streams than any State in the Union, owing to its
vast mining interests and its large number of industrial plants. The
area of Pennsylvania is about 48,000 square miles. Up to the year 1923
these matters were vested in the Department of Fisheries so far as in-
dustrial and mining wastes were concerned, and under the Department
of Health were placed matters pertaining to sewage. This matter of
pollution has been a nightmare to the Commissioner of Fisheries. Year
after year articles have been published on the front pages of prominent
newspapers of the state; in ninety-five cases out of one hundred unjust
criticism was offered by people who never went to the trouble of studying
the situation and getting the facts. We have been working conscien-
tiously every year with a view to remedying this condition as far as
possible, in many instances with a great deal of success. But no matter
how successful we were in effecting improvements in certain streams,
the newspapers of the state made no references to these circumstances,
there were never any words of praise on their part in connection with
what had been accomplished. This, in my judgment, is the most serious
question confronting the people of the United States to-day, and it is
one that we are to find very cifficult of solution. It involves not only

188 American Fisheries Society.

the conservation of the fish but the health of the general public, par-
ticularly those connected with manufactures, railroads and mines. In a
great many states there is considerable agitation to-day in regard to
this matter. We elected as Governor of Pennsylvania one of the foremost
conservationists in the world, Mr. Pinchot, and under his administration
there has been a reorganization of the State Government officer in con-
nection with the question of the pollution of streams. The powers form-
erly vested in the Department of Fisheries and in the Department of
Health are now vested in what is called a Sanitary Water Board, com-
posed of the Chairman of the Public Service Commission of the State,
the Attorney General, the secretary of Health, the secretary of Forests
and Waters and the Commissioner of Fisheries. We have outlined a
definite policy in Pennsylvania relative to stream pollution and the De-
partment of Fisheries is at present engaged in making a compiete sur-
vey of all the waters of the State. This survey is being made under the
direction of the Commissioner of Fisheries by sanitary engineers, who,
working with maps which cover the whole state, are traversing the banks
of these streams on foot and making a complete survey as to the pollu-
tion. While we have many thousands of miles of streams that are badly
polluted, we also have many miles of waters which are yet
in their pure state. It is the policy of this Board, in making this sur-
vey, to place all streams that are not already polluted in class “A”,
and to insure that the purity of these streams is preserved, no manufac-
turer will be allowed to erect a plant along their banks and pollute the
waters, nor will there be any mines opened on that watershed. There
has also been created a Board called the Water and Power Resource
Board, and these two Boards are working in conjunction with each other.
The Water and Power Resource Board has authority over the construc-
tion of all dams in the state of Pennsylvania, irrespective of their size.
it is composed of the Secretary of Forests and Waters, who is the Chair-
man; the Secretary of Health, the Attorney-General, and a competent
consulting engineer appointed by the Governor, and the Commissioner of
Fisheries. A resolution was passed by that Board, on my recommenda-
tion, at the last meeting providing that no permit shall be granted to
any person or corporation impounding waters in the state of Pennsylvania
for manufacturing or power purposes unless they permit the public to
fish legally in those waters. This provision is going to open up a large
body of water in our state for recreational purposes.

The survey to which I have referred will also disclose to what ex-
tent some of the streams are partly polluted but not to such an ex-
tent that they cannot be remedied without placing too much hardship
upon the manufacturers who have their plants on the banks of those
streams. It is the policy of the Board to co-operate with the manufac-
turers and, with the assistance and advice of its sanitary engineers, to
attempt to remedy these conditions as far as possible. These partly
polluted streams will be placed in class “B”.

Then, we have another class of stream which will be known as
class “C” streams. To illustrate that class I will take the Lackawanna

Brown.—Pond Fishes. 189

River. This river rises in the northeastern part of the State, in the
Susquehanna watershed; it is a beautiful stream for a distance of about
twenty miles until it strikes the anthracite coal regions at Forest City,
and from Forest City to Pittston, a distance of about thirty miles, there
is one mine operation after another; it is said that even a typhoid germ
will not live in that section of the river. The courts of Pennsylvania
in 1825 unfortunately rendered a decision favorable to the mine operator
which has caused a great deal of the present trouble in relation to the
streams that mine water flows into. In this case, known as Sanderson
vs. the Pennsylvania Coal Company, the facts were that Mr. Sanderson
has a dwelling alongside the Lackawanna River; in his yard was a
fountain containing goldfish; when the mine operations commenced
the water in the river became so acid that as it flowed through the
fountain it killed the goldfish; and on this account Mr. Sanderson brought
action against the company. The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania de-
cided in that case that the mine operator had the right to flow that water
into the stream, irrespective of anyone’s private rights below. I have
spoken to a great many judges on that question, and they have agreed
that the decision was a very unfortunate one; had it been given in op-
posite terms, all these difficulties could have been foreseen and steps
taken to obviate them. There is now before the courts of Pennsylvania
a case on which this Board is anxiously awaiting decision, known as the
Mountainside Water Company et al vs. the Sagamore Coal Company
et al. It was a case brought in the Fayette County Court, as effecting
not private interests but public interests, and it was argued in the
Fayette court by thirty-six of the most prominent attorneys of the
State of Pennsylvania. The decision of the Fayette County Court was
against the Water Company; it is now before the Supreme Court, and
we are awaiting with much interest the decision of the Supreme court,
in view of the fact that the case is brought as affecting the public inter-
est. This case involves a $25,000,000 water project of the Pennsylvania
Railroad Company; so that in the case of class ‘“‘C’”’ streams, we are ad-
vising all those who are complaining that we will take no action until
we learn of the decision of the Supreme court with regard to mining
streams. I may say that we have provided that everyone who makes
a complaint about the pollution of streams and the killing of fish must
make it in the form of a sworn complaint, or we will pay no attention
to it.

PRESIDENT LEACH: I only wish that more States would take the
interest in this matter that Pennsylvania is now taking.

Mr. BULLER: I would like to know what some of the other states
are doing. It is a question that involves a great deal in the work of con-
servation.

Mr. Doze: What is being done about oil pollution?

Mr. BULLER: I think that is a matter that will be taken up in the
meeting of the commissioners which is to follow this.

Mr. DozE: We have that problem to meet in our state. The ques-
tion is, what are we going to do with the water that is polluted? It has

190 American Fisheries Society.

to reach the sea level. This question came up in Kansas in connection
with our oil wells, and in any action that is brought we will be beaten
every time because that water has to find its way to the sea level, and the
only way you can do that is through the streams. We do not want to
make a laughing stock of ourselves by being too severe toward the indus-
trial plants which are located along streams. In one of our counties
which is about the size of the State of Delaware, the result of the strik-
ing of oil was the destruction of one of the finest black bass streams in
the United States; there was no way of getting the water out except
through that stream. If you bring action in these cases, you are asked:
“What are you going to do with this stuff? It has to have an outlet,
and even if it is not put directly into the streams it will find its way there
through the subterranean sands or strata.” We will not get anywhere
by simply saying to people, “You must not do this,” because the develop-
ment of the nation requires that we open our coal mines and drill for oil.
The problem of oil pollution is of vital interest to me. I have had some
correspondence with the gentleman from Pennsylvania on the subject,
and I intend to go down there and see what his methods are of handling
the problem. I think this Society ought to hear him on how he is hand-
ling the oil situation.

Mr. HARE: We have a chemist in the room, and I would like to ask
him if it would not be possible to use every by-product that results from
the operations of these various manufacturing concerns. Have we not
a scientist who is competent to work it out on that basis?

PRESIDENT LEACH: I think I could answer that question by saying
that all the large manufacturing concerns of this country have their own
cheinists and that they are utilizing their waste products as far as pos-
sible. For instance, the Dupont Company used to make powder only;
now they make something like two or three hundred different by products;
these have become the main product of the plant, and powder has become
a by-product. Most of the large companies are doing the same thing.
It is only a matter of working these things out. Some of the companies
feel that they are not able to afford the necessary changes of machinery
and equipment involved in the utilization of these by-products, partic-
ularly when there would be some doubt as to the possibility of selling
them even when they were ready for the market.

Mr. Hart: I understand that they have a fine Sanitary Board in
Rhode Island which is giving attention to these matters. Is there a man
from Rhode Island in the room?

PRESIDENT LEACH: I do not think there is a representative from
Rhode Island present. This question of pollution is a very important
one, but we are depending upon the meeting which will convene after
ours to thresh that out. The Bureau of Fisheries is very much interested
in it, because it has a large bearing upon our work. We are glad that
Pennsylvania and some of the other states are tackling these problems.

PLANTING EYED SALMON AND TROUT EGGS.

By C. W. Harrison,
District Inspector of Hatcheries for British Columbia,
Vancouver, B. C.

For many years fish culturists have been attempting to
devise ways of planting, in their natural environment, the
eggs of fish artificially spawned. Particularly this has been
the case with salmon and trout eggs, and though several
methods have been tried, they have not met with unquali-
fied success: the faults in them have been obvious to those
engaged in the propagation of fish life.

One of the methods employed, particularly in Great
Britain, has been the screening off of sections of natural
spawning grounds and then scattering the eggs in these
enclosed areas. But the loss through exposure to sunlight,
natural enemies and through eggs which failed to lodge in
crevasses in these partly protected areas being washed
down stream, made popular acceptance of this method im-
possible. Another method was to construct boxes in the
streams and place therein layers of gravel and eggs through
which the necessary amount of water was allowed to circu-
late. This system, though successful in hatching the eggs,
was so limited in its application that the wide distribution
of ova—at which egg planting principally aims—was far
beyond its scope.

The method described below has overcome all obiec-
tionable features which apply to these artifices mentioned
and has for three years been employed in British Columbia
by the Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada with
a large degree of success.

Three years ago it was found necessary for the writer to
proceed to an unsettled and isolated portion of the northern
British Columbia Coast with a view to rehabilitating certain
streams which had become depleted of sockeye salmon and
to use for this purpose eyed sockeye eggs which were to be
planted in gravel under as natural conditions as possible.
The district to be seeded was many miles from a settlement
and conditions demanded that a speedy and inexpensive
means of distribution be employed. Planting in gravel on
the natural spawning grounds was the only way open and
although this work had been attempted before by various
means, on an experimental scale, the nature of the district
and the shortage of local material precluded the use of any

191

192 American Fisheries Society.

of these. Since the transportation of cumbersome equip-
ment was out of the question, it was necessary to invent
some new mobile apparatus capable of being handled by a
small number of men. The egg planting box described in
this report was the result.

The first plantings were made inasmall way. Extensive
and repeated experiments were tried with it until, last year
the Department of Marine and Fisheries, being thoroughly
satisfied with the feasibility of the plan, a total of 22,000,-
000 eyed eggs were planted with it in outlaying sections of
the Province, far from localities covered by hatcheries. In
this Province when planting trout eggs where not more than
one hundred to five hundred eggs are deposited in one plant-
ing, a box 18” or 20” in length with other dimensions in
proportion, is used.

Considerable improvements in the design and attach-
ments have been made, one of which was the elimination of
the hinged door on the top, and again, the fasteners for the
bottom shutters were replaced by a much simpler fastener.

Under existing conditions in British Columbia, the plant-
ing of eyed eggs in outlying districts is the only feasible
method whereby many extensive and important spawning
grounds can be stocked. A great number of these grounds
are so far removed from existing hatcheries that it is quite
out of the question to stock them with fry. The planting of
eyed eggs is the only method that remains and the Harrison
Box has proved to be the most efficient device so far devel-
oped to meet all the conditions liable to occur.

In experimental work it has been found that the best
results cannot be expected unless the eggs are deposited
under almost natural conditions, on no account must the
plantings be completely surrounded by small-meshed wire
screening. To determine the numbers of fry hatched out
from any given quantity of eggs planted, a narrow spring fed
creek which is not subject to freshets and containing a
clean, loose gravel bed is the most suitable. Screens may be
placed completely across the stream at intervals of about 20
feet one planting being made in each of these sections. The
screens must be properly placed and kept perfectly clean to
ensure thorough circulation of water. Conditions such as
these have been found to give good results and the resultant
fry can be accurately counted.

When undertaking extensive seeding of natural spawn-
ing grounds the man in charge of the egg planting opera-
tions should first select portions of any stream where con-
ditions are as nearly as possible identical with others where
it has been noted that parent fish naturally prefer to deposit

Harrison.—Salmon and Trout Eggs: 193

their eggs. In this province most satisfactory locations are
at points where clean loose gravel is to be found, ranging in
size from 14” to 2” in diameter. He should then have
channels dug in the bed of the stream of sufficient length
and width to accommodate the planting box. These chan-
nels should be about 5’ in length and 2’ in width, lying
lengthwise up and down stream with a depth in the gravel
about the same as that of the box. Care should be taken to
ensure that all plantings will be covered with water at all
times during incubation, thus a knowledge of what will be
the extreme stage of low water should be obtained and al-
lowance made accordingly.

In loading the box it is necessary that the gravel used
should be well washed, to clean out all silt and mud. This
is usually done by turning it over a few times at the edge of
the stream so that it is thoroughly cleansed by the running
water flowing through it. It is then placed in a heap in
close proximity to the place where the box will be loaded.
Where large numbers of eggs are going to be planted the
above is the proper method to follow but where small plant-
ings are to be made it is advisable to wash and screen the
gravel thus eliminating all silt, sand and mud.

The men in charge should arrange for the loading of the
box at a point as near as possible to the area where the eggs
are to be planted and a suitable stool should be provided to
keep the box clear of the water at a convenient height for
filling.

The method of loading the box is as follows: Place about
2” of gravel over the bottom of the box, then carefully scat-
ter eggs on the surface of the gravel, taking great care to
handle the eggs gently. The eggs will roll into the inter-
stices of the gravel. Over this carefully place a covering of
gravel, care being taken that the eggs receive no jar or ill
usage. Continue to introduce alternately eggs and gravel
to within about 4” of the top of the box. The remaining
space should be filled with fairly even-sized, clean gravel.
The box is then lifted and placed in one of the channels pre-
- viously prepared in the bed of the stream. Both sides are
banked with gravel to the full height of the box. Next
insert the long handled hook provided for the purpose, in
the iron ring in the center of one of the bottom shutters and
draw it clear of the box. Directly the shutter is withdrawn,
bankupthatend. Thesame procedure is followed with the
other shutter. It is advisable to first withdraw the shutter
and bank up the gravel at the upstream end, thus preventing
the eggs from being scoured out when the down stream
shutter is taken out. The contents will now be lying in the

194 American Fisheries Society.

bed of the stream confined in a bottomless box. Two men,
one at each end, now take hold of the handles and slowly
lift the box clear of the water, which leaves all eggs in the
bed of the stream under the same conditions as if deposited
naturally by parent fish. The quantity of eggs deposited at
each planting should be nearer 3,000 than 5,000; the eggs
should be well eyed, but not too near the point of hatching.

As stated in a previous paragraph, the first plantings
were confined to small numbers of eggs but as the value of
the new method became recognized, the Department author-
ized the planting of increased numbers.

From the collection of 1920, 750,000 eyed sockeye eggs
were deposited on natural spawning grounds by this method.
From the collection of 1921, the number of eggs thus planted
was increased to about 16,000,000 and from the collection
of 1922, 22,000,000 eggs were distributed by this. system.
The distribution from the 1922 collection includes about
1,500,000 trout eggs and 200,000 Atlantic salmon eggs.

All reports go to show that the results were eminently
satisfactory.

A number of experimental plantings conducted by the
superintendents of various hatcheries in the Province are
described.

At the New Westminster Hatchery on February 26th,
1921, one thousand eyed sockeye eggs were planted by
this method in a waste ditch in the immediate vicin-
ity of the retaining ponds. The Superintendent reports
that when the free-swimming fry left the gravel, 807 heal-
thy, vigorous fry were counted.

The Superintendent of the Cultus Lake Hatchery, in
connection with experimental plantings, reports as follow:

“Almost a month after the eggs of the same age held in
the hatchery baskets had become free-swimming, the fry be-
gan to appear from the gravel, those from a nest of coarse
gravel were the first to make their appearance. From the
very beginning the fry were wild and undoubtedly more
wary than those incubated in the hatchery.

The results are set down in the following table:

No. planted Description of nest No. Hatched.
500 Gravel from size of pea to hickory nut—
some clean sand. 350
500 Same as above with top coating of silt—
Yinch deep. 325
500 Fine gravel sand and small amount of clay

in sand. 200

Harrison.—Salmon and Trout Eggs. 195

500 Fine gravel and much clay or mud in sand. 170
500 Gravel from size of hickory nut to walnut,

very little sand, no clay or top covering of

silt. 420

In continuation he expresses the opinion that the alert-
ness of the gravel-hatched fish is a factor worthy of consid-
eration when estimating the relative chances of survival of
these and hatchery-reared fry.

One hundred cohoe salmon eggs were planted in coarse
clean gravel, within an hour after the parent fish were strip-
ped. Seventy-five fry hatched in healthy condition.

The following plantings of sockeye eggs were made
during the past season at the Harrison Lake Hatchery by
means of the Harrison Planting box:

Planting No. of No. of re-
eggs planted sultant fry.
No. 1 500 456
No. 2 500 420
No. 3 500 407
No, 4 500 200
No. 5 500 401

The superintendent reports that there was a hole in the
screen of No. 4 and fry escaped which were not counted.
Two plantings of green eggs in gravel were also made,
in one case with soft and in the other with hardened eggs,
with the following results: 3
1,000 soft green eggs produced 350 fry
1,000 water-hardened eggs produced 400 fry

Altogether at this hatchery 300,000 sockeye eggs were
planted in gravel in the vicinity of the hatchery last fall,
including the experimental plantings mentioned above. The
superintendent reports that the results of these plantings
have been good. Careful watch was kept and large num-
bers of young sockeye resulting from the plantings were
seen. The plantings at Morris Creek amounting to 1,413,-
000 eyed eggs also turned out very well. This point was
inspected and great quantities of sockeye fry were later
observed in the creek.

On January 29th, 1923, three plantings of eyed spring
salmon eggs were made in Oliver Creek near the Cowichan
Lake Hatchery—500 in each planting, with the following
results:

Planting No. 1 — 487 fry.

«¢ 2— 465 “
“ 3 — 476 “

196 American Fisheries Society.

Again on January 30th two plantings of eyed eggs—500
each—were made in the same creek, which produced:

Planting No. 1 —- 482 fry.

Planting No. 2 —- 463 ”

In 1922 the Superintendent of the Rivers Inlet Hatchery
made five plantings each containing 500 carefully counted
eved sockeye eggs. He reports as follows:

“Tn the first pond the gravel was coarse and the eggs
planted about six inches deep. Three hundred and eighty-
seven fry came out of the gravel.

In the second pond the gravel was finer and the eggs
planted about 6 inches deep. One hundred and thirty-
seven fry were counted.

In the third pond the gravel was about the same as in
the second pond and the eggs planted about 2” deep. Four
hundred and ninety fry were counted.

In the fourth pond the gravel was very fine, practically
all sand and the eggs were planted about 2” deep. A small
hole was found in the screening so no doubt some fry es-
caped. Two hundred and thirty-seven fry were counted.

In the fifth pond the gravel was very fine and the eggs
were planted 8” deep. Only 7 fry made their way out of the
gravel. These seven were much larger and stronger thanthe
fry hatched in the baskets in the hatchery or the fry that
came out of the gravel in the other four plantings. Appar-
ently only the very strongest fry were able to make their
way out of the very fine gravel when planted that deep.

In plantings of this nature the eggs and fry do not have
the same advantages as they would if not screened and in a
creek bed. The screening around the plantings gets clogged
up and prevents not only the surface water but also the
circulation of water through the gravel, which no doubt is a
great help to the fry when they are trying to make their
way to the surface.”

The Superintendent of the Anderson Lake Hatchery,
Vancouver Island, reports that he made four plantings each
containing 500 eyed sockeye eggs and the resultant fry,
accurately counted, were as follows:

No. 1 planting 487 fry.
No. 2 e 475 ”
No. 3 i Aas
No. 4 Mh 448 ”

In 1922 about two million sockeye eggs were planted in
Great Central Lake, Vancouver Island, and during the
summer of the same year large schools of fry were observed
in these waters by residents in the locality. Early this spring

Harrison.—Salmon and Trout Eggs: 197

employees of the Department operated fyke-net at the out-
let of the lake at the time the yearling sockeye were expect-
ed to migrate to salt water. A number of well proportioned
sockeye yearlings were captured and specimens forwarded
to the Department. These yearlings undoubtedly were the
result of egg planting as, owing to that impassable obstruc-
tion, Stamp Falls, no returning parent fish of this variety
were ever known to reach Great Central Lake.

The Superintendent of the Pitt Lake Hatchery reports
that in January, 1922, he made two plantings of eyed
‘sockeye eggs in one of the retaining ponds operated in con-
nection with that station, each planting containing 1,000
eggs. An accurate count showed that the number of fry
emerging from these plantings was 1940, indicating a loss of
only 60 from the 2,000 eggs deposited.

Other successful experiments might be cited but those
described above are sufficient to prove that this system has
an important place in future fish cultural operations.

The advantages to be derived from this method are
apparent to every fish culturist whose work is carried on in
a thinly populated country where means of transportation
are still of a very primitive nature. One man can carry an
egg planting box lashed to a Yukon pack board; a second
ean carry 100,000 eggs, and one or two others the shovels,
and so work their way up or down salmon rivers or creeks,
planting a tray here and a tray there—wherever conditions
are suitable. A wide distribution can thus be made. This
work has been done in this Province in the late fall as well
as in the early spring when the rivers first open and the
planting team have had to work from stream to stream on
snow-shoes. It has been carried on from a fishery patrol
boat travelling from cove to cove up the north coast stopping
at the nearest point to many of the innumerable short
spawning streams. In the latter case the team with extra
men to carry whatever additional boxes containing eggs
were needed, left the boat at dawn, pushed inland to pre-
viously selected spawning grounds, and were back to the
‘boat by night. Eyed eggs properly cared for, have been
held on board the boat in shipping boxes for one month
without any loss whatever, so that scores of miles of coast
line can, and have been covered in a single cruise.

These plantings along the coast can be made at whatever
time during the winter or spring the eggs are at the required
stage of development, but those made in the interior of this
Province, where severe winter conditions prevail, must be
completed either before the freeze-up or as soon as the
streams are open in the early spring. In the case of fall

198 American Fisheries Society.

plantings, to guard against frost during low water, the nests
are placed as near as possible to the foot or head of riffles
which give a more rapid circulation of water. In this kind
of planting, the box is set deeper in the gravel so that the top
of the nest is flush with the creek bed; but in the spring when
danger of frost and freshets is past and incubation is more
rapid, the plantings are made shallower, only part of the
nest being below the level of the stream bed, and the rest in
a flat mound through which the water circulates freely. In
this as in every other phase of this work a thorough acquaint-
ance with local conditions is imperative.

This method of distribution is not necessarily confined
to fish of purely commercial value. Last spring 200,000
Atlantic salmon eggs were distributed in this way, in
streams tributary to Great Central and Sproat Lake, on the
west coast of Vancouver Island, and plantings of cutthroat
and Kamloops trout eyed eggs were made at widely
separated points in many parts of the Province. The
majority of these places would have been impossible to reach
and stock with free-swimming fry or fingerlings. In almost
every case splendid results have been reported.

To facilitate the planting of sporting fish eggs, the writer
is now perfecting a one man outfit. This consists of a small-
er box, a shovel after the fashion of an army entrenching
tool and a light box for the trays, which is nested inside the
planting box while being carried. The carrying can be done
by means of shoulder straps attached to the box. With this
equipment, one man can make an almost ideal distribution,
planting small lots of one hundred to five hundred eggs in
suitable places over a wide area.

At one of the Canadian Government hatcheries at Cultus
Lake, experiments are being made in planting green eggs
directly after they are water-hardened. The results so far
obtained were as follows:

‘On December 10th, 1922, two female cohoes were spawn-
ed in separate pans, the eggs fertilized and allowed to
stand for 40 minutes in water at a temperature of 34 deg.F.
These eggs were then planted by the Harrison Box method in
two streamlets at the hatchery. On February 28th of the
present year planting No. 1 was examined, and on March
27th an examination was made of planting No.2 with the
following results:

Of the 687 eggs shown as fertile in planting No. 2 six
eggs when being picked up had the appearance of being
alive, but were found on subsequent examination to be in-
fertile. It will be noted that these are not included in the
column headed “Bad Eggs.”’

Harrison.—Salmon and Trout Eggs: 199

If this is found to be workable generally, a new and
hitherto unconsidered saving can be effected and great
natural wastage of seed prevented. One instance select-
ed from several of which the writer is aware will illustrate
this:

In Fifteen Mile Creek a tributary to Babine Lake in the
northern interior of the Province, there is a limited spawn-
ing erea not more than a quarter of a mile in length, yet
annually approximately 12,000 to 15,000 parent sockeye
gather off the mouth of this stream. When the first fish
are ripe they leave the large school and run up to spawn.
Succeeding runs enter the creek and in making their rudds,
turn up the eggs of the first spawners within a short time
after they have been deposited. This continues for several
weeks and finally only the eggs of the last run are left to
develop, unmolested. The wastage is enormous and be-
hind sunken logs or boulders it is possible to scoop up
immense quantities of eggs which have been turned out of
gravel and killed while in a delicate stage of development
by the later running fish. This loss is tremendous and un-
doubtedly the eggs destroyed would be sufficient to fill a
small hatchery to capacity.

When a sure method of planting water-hardened eggs is
perfected, as the writer is confident it will be, a spawning
camp can be located at the mouth of this creek, all eggs
taken as the parent fish become ripe and the spawning
ground abundantly seeded by this method. The surplus
eggs which otherwise would be lost will then be available
for transportation to other creeks in the district where the
runs are negligible, and planted there by means of the
Harrison planting box. What this saving would be, applied
to many other streams in this Province, where similar con-
ditions exist, the reader can well imagine.

In conclusion, the writer feels the need of reiterating
his statement that the successful development of this work
depends to a very great extent on the fish culturist’s know-
ledge a his district and the various natural conditions that
prevail.

Discussion.

PRESIDENT LEACH: This is a very interesting paper, particularly
so to those parts of the country where it is found necessary to plant eyed
eggs in more or less inaccessible waters. It is also of great importance
to those whe find it necessary to plant surplus eggs, and I am sure that
a close study of this paper after it is printed will reveal to you methods

200 American Fisheries Society.

by which you can greatly improve your present work. Are there any
remarks on this paper?

Mr. Cutter: The Bureau of Fisheries planted quite a few eyed
eggs in Yellowstone Park this summer, and I fully agree with what Mr.
Harrison says in regard to the feasibility of the plan. As to the
apparatus used, that is merely a question of opinion among fish cultur-
ists; the main idea is to have as simple apparatus as possible. Depth is
another matter of opinion; nothing has been decided in regard to it.
Experiments show that where there is fine gravel, sand, silt and clay,
the work is not successful, and for my part I would use a little larger
gravel where the plants are made than he used in his experiments.

BLACK BASS VERSUS NETTING OF COARSE FISH.

By J. P. SNYDER,
U. S. Fisheries Station, Cape Vincent, N. Y.

What effect in general does the netting of coarse fish in
the early spring before bass spawn and in the late fall after
bass leave the shoal waters have upon the abundance of
black bass? This is a local question coming up again and
again in the vicinity of Cape Vincent, New York, situated
at the junction of the St. Lawrence River with Lake Ontario.
Since this question undoubtedly comes up from time to time
all over this country where people are deeply interested in
bass fishing the writer feels justified in bringing it to the
attention of this society hoping it will provoke discussion and
be helpful to those who are frequently called upon to answer
the question. To the inhabitants of many of our tourist
villages along Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River the
correct solution of this question is of vital importance and
doubtless this is true of communities in many other states and
in many of the provinces north of us. The writer refers to
it as a vital question because the prosperity, in fact the very
life of many of our lake and river shore villages is depend-
ent upon good bass fishing that draws its devotees from all
parts of this country and from every walk in life. Many
millions of dollars are invested in boardinghouse and hotel
property maintained for the convenience and comfort of
men and women who enjoy the exhilarating thrill and sport
of catching black bass. Many hundreds of thousands of
dollars are also invested in boats and equipment for their
accommodation, and employment is given to thousands of
men who act as guides in conducting these summer visitors
to various fishing grounds. Even the catching of bait for all
these thousands of bass fishermen is no insignificant source
of employment and revenue. The revenue derived from the
people who annually visit Lake Ontario and the St. Law-
rence River runs into many hundreds of thousands of dollars
and it is the lure of black bass more than any other one thing
that impels them to come again and again and to stay as
long as they can. Poor bass fishing is immediately reflect-
ed in the attendance at our hotels, boarding houses and
tourist camps. Take away our bass fishing or destroy it to
such an extent thet it is no longer attractive to our summer

201

202 American Fisheries Society.

people and you take away the livelihood of thousands of
our citizens and destroy millions of dollars worth of prop-
erty.

But we have another class or group of people who are
not dependent on bass or on bass fishermen for their liveli-
hood. Irefer to our commercial fishermen or net fishermen.
Here also we have an industry that gives employment to
hundreds of people and many tons of good food to thousands
of people. Both industries are necessary to the prosperity
of many of our villages. Both are legitimate, proper, worth-
while and should be encouraged. The one directly brings
rest and health to tired bodies and fagged brains, gives a
new appreciation of the great outdoors, and directly and
indirectly gives employment to thousands of our people.
The other gives employment to hundreds of men, cheap and
healthful food to thousands of people and investment to
hundreds of thousands of dollars. The question arises,
are these two industries necessarily antagonistic to each
other? Are they fundamentally such that they cannot be
harmonized? Many think they are. Many think it possible
to harmonize them. Others think it may even be possible to
so fit them together that they will be helpful to each other.
The writer is not qualified to attempt to answer these ques-
tions. He simply happens to be employed where these
questions come up from time to time, and since his work
deals with fish those interested in fish often seek his guid-
ance. In the vicinity of Cape Vincent there seems to be no
conflict of opinion as to the use of nets in taking non-game
fish except when the nets are set in the St. Lawrence River or
along the lake shore and its indentations. In the open
water of the lake a mile or more from shore there is no
objection to the use of nets in taking fish. It is only when
these nets are set along the shore, or in bays, or rivers or
interior lakes that objection is made and here even the net
fishermen concede no nets should be set whilebassarespawn-
ing or during the warm summer months when bass entering
the nets would be likely to be injured and die. The question
then becomes limited to their use in the early spring and late
fall. At Cape Vincent it centers around early spring netting
along the lake shore before bass spawn and that seems to be
the most practicable time to catch coarse or non game fish
such as yellow perch, pike perch, pickerel, suckers, ling,
sunfishes, carp, bullheads, eels, ete. Nearly every man you
meet has rather pronounced views as to the advantages or
disadvantages of spring netting of these so-called coarse
fish and some men on both sides are so convinced as to the
correctness of their views that they give freely of their

Snyder.—Netting of Coarse Fish. 203

time and money to any effort to give effect to their views.
Unfortunately few, if any of these men who are so positive
of the correctness of their views, have given the question any
dispassionate thought or careful study. As a result their
views are of little or no help in uncovering the truth. How-
ever as this question has come up again and again all along
the Great Lakes and at many smaller lakes and along many
rivers and bays it seems that out of all this discussion some-
thing fixed, clear, definite, secure, should come. It is this
something fixed and safe that the writer wants. Many
factors necessarily enter into the solution of this question.
Many of these factors belong to a field in which the writer
regrets he is not qualified to enter, a field belonging to those
having a scientific education and training and a love or
passion for research work, but so general and wide-spread
is the interest in this question and so vital in its correct solu-
ton and applicaton to so many people that it seems some-
where there must be trained men who are giving or have
given it careful study. If there are any of these men pres-
ent at this meeting it is to them that the writer appeals.
Among the factors entering into the correct solution of the
question the writer takes the liberty to mention the follow-
ing:

lst—To what extent are we justified in spring netting
of coarse fish because of their commercial value to the net
fishermen and their food value to our people? Undoubted-
ly this phase of the question deserves careful consideration.
The writer understands that in a restricted disputed area in
the vicinity of Cape Vincent last spring over 60,000 pounds
of coarse fish were taken in nets and sold for food. The
food value of these fish was doubtless equal or greater
than the food value of all the bass taken throughout the year
from these same restricted waters. During the spring of
1918 when netting of coarse fish was permitted in the St.
Lawrence River hundreds of thousands of pounds of coarse
fish were taken and sold for food. This being true we can-
not ignore the food value of these coarse fish and we seem
- unable to get them in large numbers except by netting.
Netting is most effective in catching them in shallow water
in the early spring during their migration to shoal water
to spawn.

2nd—W hat effect does the removal of these coarse fish
have upon mature bass? We know that at least in some
measure small suckers, perch, bullheads, etc., serve as food
for mature bass and for bass fingerlings. Doubtless the
extent to which this is true varies greatly in different waters
but Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River seem to be well

204 American Fisheries Society.

stocked with many species of minnows, crawfish and other
natural foods for adult bass. In fact so abundant are these
foods that we often hear bass fishermen attribute poor bass
fishing to the abundance of minnows, etc. Are we then to
conserve these coarse fish because they in some measure at
least enter into the food of bass? Because of this are we
justified in outlawing spring netting of non game fish with
its accompanying results—the denial of employment and
revenue to netters and many thousands of pounds of cheap
food to our people? Here is food for careful thought and
study.

3rd—To what extent does spring netting of coarse fish
conserve the eggs of bass? Herein many bass fishermen lay
all their troubles to German carp, believing that carp de-
stroy the eggs of bass. What do our pond men say as to
this? Itseems this phase of the question could be solved by
putting German carp in bass ponds and observing what takes
place. Personally the writer has never seen carp eating
the eggs of bass except in cases where the parent bass had
been killed or driven away from its nest. The writer is sat-
isfied however from what reliable men have told him that
eels are destructive to bass eggs. They tell him that the
silver eel is one species of fish that brood bass seem unable
to drive away from their nests, that again and again they
have seen eels eating the eggs of bass. They also tell him
that suckers operating in schools are destructive to bass
eggs. Are we therefore justified in removing coarse fish
from bass waters because some of them at least at times eat
bass eggs?

4th—To what extent if any does spring netting of coarse
fish conserve bass fry and fingerlings? With us on the
eastern end of Lake Ontario suckers, carp, perch pike,
pickerel, bullheads, etc., all seek the shoal waters in which
bass later spawn. We know they spawn earlier than do
bass, that their eggs hatch earlier than bass eggs do, and
that their fry feed earlier. This being true to what extent
do these millions of little perch, pickerel, pike, etc., feed
upon bass fry, and particularly to what extent do they feed
upon the natural food of bass fry? Since the fry of these
coarse fish feed earlier than do bass fry they may be tre-
mendously destructive to bass fry by cutting down their
available food supply. The writer believes it is generally
conceded that the capacity of any body of water to produce
fish is largely influenced by its capacity to produce fish
food. To the writer this phase of the question deserves
careful consideration. The importance of this was brought
forcibly to his attention some years ago by an experience he

Snyder.—Netting of Coarse Fish. 205

had at Cape Vincent. A few miles from the station there
is a depression on an island that fills up with water during
the early spring forming a pond of one or more acres. In
the late summer this pond dries up and weeds and grasses
grow all over the pond bed. Some years ago in May the
writer put 100,000 yellow perch fry in this temporary pond
intending to remove them later before the pond dried up.
At the time the perch were introduced the pond was simply
teeming with minute aquatic animal life. By the middle of
June these baby perch ranged from half an inch to one
inch in length averaging about three fourths of an inch in
length. They were plump and well rounded and it seemed
that every one had survived but by that time they had
exterminated the foodinthe pond. A week later they were
emaciated and turned cannibals and in a few days they
actually cut their numbers down to about twenty thousand.
Hundreds and hundreds of these perch were seen eating
their weaker brothers. This was about the time with us
when bass fry were just beginning to take food. The
question arises what possible chance would bass fry have
had in that pond at that time? It is true this was a pond
in which conditions were intensified but in open waters of
the lake and river teeming with millions of perch, pickerel,
pike, bullheads, sunfishes, carp, suckers, etc., where each
spring these fish deposit untold millions of eggs and later
where the shore line and bays teem with hordes of their
young before bass fry need food isn’t there something of
this same tragedy effected? What chance have bass fry
where these conditions exist? The writer has seen myriads
of baby perch, bullheads, sunfishes, etc., along the lake shore
and in the shallow waters of the lake indentations prior to
the advent of bass fry and it seemed to him that these
myriads of little perch and other fishes must surely seri-
ously cut down the food supply available for baby bass. We
all know the cannibalistic tragedies that take place when
baby bass get hungry. It has been quite a few years since
the writer handled bass in ponds and doubtless many care-
~ ful observations and much progress has been made in pond
work since then but his observations led him to believe that
scarcity of food was the one biggest cause of loss of bass
fry in ponds. May not the same thing be true of bass fry in
the open water of lakes and rivers? If this is true then
will taking out coarse brood fish in the early spring before
they spawn conserve food for bass fry? At any rate the
writer feels that someone having the necessary training and
experience should delve into this, that we may have some-
thing authentic on which to base our judgments.

206 American Fisheries Society.

If we concede that in general these coarse fish or non
game fish should be removed from waters inhabited by bass
the question immediately arises as to the best time and most
effective method and appliance to be used in removing them.
Spearing is not effective in taking all kinds of coarse fish.
Gill nets are not recommended because bass entering them
are almost certain to be seriously injured. Poundnets are
outlawed in Lake Ontario. Fykenets are used in Canadian
waters near Cape Vincent. The New York Conservation
Commission favors the use of trapnets or so called sunken
poundnets and in this the writer concurs. These nets are
effecti ve in taking all kinds of fish and they seem to be less
injurious to bass that enter them than any other type of net
except poundnets and seines.

We have in the vicinity of Cape Vincent certain bays in
which no netting of any kind has been permitted for years.
In other local bays the use of trapnets in taking coarse fish
during the early spring and late fall has been permitted
for years until the present year. Across the boundary line
of the St. Lawrence River and of Lake Ontario fykenets have
long been used in taking coarse fish during the spring and
fall and it is worthy of note that it is generally conceded
even by those opposed to any netting of any kind that bass
fishing has for years been better in those areas where netting
has been permitted than elsewhere. For instance more
bass were taken by hook and line—the only way they can
lawfully be taken—along the north shore of the St. Law-
rence River than along the south shore. More bass are
taken in Chaumont Bay and around the islands of Grenadier
and Fox where netting has long been permitted than are
taken in Henderson Bay and Harbor where no netting has
been permitted for years. The question naturally arises to
what extent, if any, is this condition due to spring netting of
coarse fish? The writer does not attempt to answer any of
these questions but seeking information brings them to the
attention of this society.

Te eee

FISHERIES IN VIRGINIA.

By McDONALD LEE,

Commissioner of Game and Inland Fisheries, Richmond, Va.

It is rather a difficult matter to get the up-country people
to understand the value of our fish and oyster industries in
Tidewater—to the people of one-fifth of the state directly,
and indirectly to the state’s tax problem in general. But
for these water industries a large part of the Tidewater
section would be barren wastes, inhabited only by fiddlers,
sand-crabs and buzzards, and of no taxable value to the
state at large. It is largely due to this favorable location
on water-courses and nature’s gifts that the personal and
realty values of Tidewater equal or exceed those of other
grand divisions of the state. This should be the answer to
all criticism of legislators and others when the fish and
oyster industries are under discussion. Approximately
16,000 persons are wholly engaged in our water industries,
and probably 60,000 more indirectly connected.

Not only does Virginia present in its physical aspect the
best haven in area for shipping on the Atlantic coast, but it
occupies the central position of ingress and egress both
North and South. So much for its great Hampton Roads
and the five major rivers, with their splendid tributaries,
which feed it and course on tothe sea. Our topic at present
is nature’s material asset there— that of fishes and oysters.

The blue crab of the Chesapeake is really the only
commercial crab of importance, and Virginia furnishes the
greater part of this product. True Crisfield, Md., on the
border, is the center of the soft crab industry, supplied large-
ly from the crags of Pokomoke Sound (wholly within Vir-
ginia) and Tangier Sound (largely in our state.) To this
Maryland market comes also the soft crab from the Potomac,
. Rappahannock, York and the Eastern and Western shores of
Chesapeake Bay. Hampton, Virginia, is the center of the
hard crab market, for according to nature, hard crabs are
more abundant in the lower Chesapeake, while soft crabs
predominate in the upper Chesapeake. From both Cris-
field and Hampton soft and hard crabs are shipped North
and West in the raw state, and also canned for transport to
California as well as the European markets. The crab in-
dustry engages our watermen, and those of Maryland, at

207

208 American Fisheries Society.

periods when many other fishing industries are not in opera-
tion. Fortunately, or unfortunately, water-products rotate
in their seasons and watermen in general desert the land
the year round.

However, the oyster is the greatest commodity of our
water products. While the output in recent years has been
approximated around five or six million bushels annually,
there was a time when Virginia produced twelve to fifteen
million bushels, by far the greatest of any state on the Atlan-
tic coast. The upgrade work in oyster production, which is
being resumed since the world war, should in a year or two
approximate ten or twelve millions of bushels, and if so the
advanced price on oysters will cause the industry to be the.
most valuable in its record. The cost of oystershasadvanced
with all other products, largely because of the great in-
crease in demand and the high cost of labor. Norfolk is
the largest individual handler of oysters, the dealers there
getting their stock from the James River and Hampton
Roads points, as well as further up, from the York, Mobjack,
Cape Charles and even the Rappahannock, the Potomac and
the Sounds.

There are three classes engaged in the oyster business,
viz: the tonger or catcher, the planter, the packer. Ofttimes
the tonger may be a small planter, and quite frequently
the packer is also a planter. Each vying for preferment
brings a complex situation in the administration of these
affairs. For instance, he who packs and ships, only, is in
little accord with the catcher or planter; the planter is often
at loggerheads with the catcher, while the catcher is in
general opposed to the planting system. These conditions
exist only in a general way, for there are many exceptions in
each of the classes. The administration of oyster affairs has
always sought the best for each class while not infringing
upon the privileges or deserts of the other classes. Such
a policy, which is for the best good of the greatest number,
does not meet with approbation from any of thethreeclasses,
since it is human nature to want all for yourself or your
business. Nevertheless, conditions in the oyster regions in
Virginia today are quite favorable—both as to administra-
tion and the prospect for increased output.

Oysters and fish are probably the cheapest of meats
when the weight and caloric values are considered. None
could be more healthful. It is not hard to estimate that
about fifteen millions of dollars of the raw product goes
annually from the water industries of Virginia. As said, of
this the oyster is the greater portion.

Lee.—Fisheries in Virginia. 209

The fin fisheries add much to the income of Virginians.
More than six thousand licensed nets are engaged in the
commercial industry of fishing. and but for these there
would be very few or no fish on the markets. As it is, we
have much complaint of the scarcity of fish and against the
numerous nets. Year after year these complaints come up,
yet the records of many years indicate that there is decrease
in but few varieties of our fish, while the total output is
constantly increasing.

The demand for fish in Northern markets at high prices
induces the catcher to ship North instead of throughout the
state, and this unfortunate condition of scarcity in our own
markets is brought about by the demand of those who are
willing to pay higher prices, and not by scarcity of the fish.
While the rivers up the bay teem with commercial as well
as game fish, most of these go to Baltimore, Philadelphia
and New York. Those of the lower Bay and Hampton
Roads center around Norfolk and the Virginia peninsula,
Norfolk being the largest market for fin fish even as in
oysters. The commerce and trade derived from the water
delvers is a great asset to Norfolk and other marts on Hamp-
ton Roads.

Periodically, efforts are made to scare the public on the
Pollution theory as effecting oysters. Years ago the Fed-
eral Government made a terrific crusade on this line, and
beggared many thousands of people in the industry, and
frightened the general public almost into fits. The
campaign, lasting several years, was finally decided before
Secretary Houston of the U. S. Department of Agriculture,
who declared that the oyster had been greatly wronged.
Occasionally there bobs up some department of science
that wants to get into the limelight on the same subject
and the damage to localities and people is much before it
can be dissipated. With the exception of the waters at one
or two thickly populated sections of Virginia, our vast area
of tidal waters is free of pollution. From those isolated
spots alluded to no oysters are allowed to be taken, there-
fore the product of Virginia is certainly equal if not
superior to that of any Atlantic coast state. Competitors
North are usually the ones who agitate this pollution idea
for the Southern States, because they themselves have been
barred in the waters of their populous localities.

THE CONSERVATION OF THE FISHERY RESOURCES
OF THE PACIFIC.

By Dr. BARTON WARREN EVERMANN

Director of the Museum of the California Academy
of Sciences and of the Steinhart Aquarium.

The fishery resources of the Pacific are, chiefly, (1) the
fishes proper, such as the salmon, sardine, halibut, cod,
herring, albacore and the like; (2) the aquatic fur-bearing
animals such as the various species of fur seals and sea
otters; (3) the whales and other cetaceans; (4) the species
seaweeds.

Before man began to deplete these resources through
greed and destructive fishery methods, practically all these
species were excessively abundant in various parts of the
Pacific. The annual product of these natural resources has,
in years past, run into hundreds of millions of dollars.

In the present article attention will be called to only a
few of these natural resources.

FUR SEALS

It appears not to be generally known that fur seals were
once very abundant cn certain islands off the coast of
California and Lower California. Ihave recently looked up
some of the old records and I was surprised to find that
several of these islands were once the breeding grounds of
large herds of fur seals. For example, more than 200,000
fur seals were killed on the Farallons, only a few miles from
San Francisco and the Golden Gate, between 1806 and 1813.
Many thousands were killed about the same time on or about
San Miguel, Santa Cruz, Anacapa, Santa Barbara, San
Clemente and San Nicolas islands off the California coast,
and still other thousands at the Coronados, Guadalupe, the
Benitos Cedros and Natividad off the coast of Lower Cali-
fornia.

The total number killed between 1806 and 1820 must
have exceeded 400,000. At current prices of fur-seal skins
these would be worth more than $20,000,000. The killing
was done in the most reckless manner possible, without
any regard whatever to the preservation of the species, with

210

Evermann.—Fishery Resources of Pacific 211

the result that the rookery on the Farallons was entirely
wiped out by 1834. Not a single fur seal has been seen on
those islands since that year, although it is not impossible
that a few may be left on one of the uninhabited islands of
that group.

It is known that fur seals continued to be killed about
certain of the Channel Islands for many years after they
were commercially exterminated at the Farallons, and at
certain islands off Lower California as late as 1892. There
is good reason to believe a few still persist about some of the
isolated unfrequented islands whose rocky shores contain
caves which the fur seals frequent and in which they may
escape observation.

The fur seal which occurred on Guadalupe Island and,
presumably, on the other islands off the coast of Lower
California, was the Guadalupe fur seal (Artocephalus
townsendi), a species distinct from the Alaska fur seal
(Callorhinus alascanus) and, of course, distinct from the
Russian and Japanese species (Callorhinus ursinus and
Callorhinus curilensis). What the species was. that
frequented the Farallons and the other California islands is
not certainly known, as there is no specimen in any
museum. In all probability it was the same species as that
found on the Lower California coast—the Guadalupe fur seal.

Fur seals were formerly abundant not only on the coast
of California and Mexico, but in many other places further
south. Among islands which they at one time frequented in
large numbers may be mentioned the following:

1. The Galapagos Islands. Up to the beginning of the
present century fur seals were abundant about these islands
and a few are known to persist. Several were killed in 1905—
1906, and recent reports indicate that enough remain to
justify the belief that the herd can be restored. These is-
lands belong to Ecuador and that country should be interested.

2. Islands on the coast of Peru. Among the islands on
the coast of Peru where fur seals were once common are
Lobos de Afuera and Lobos de Tierra. It is believed a few
fur seals still remain in those waters.

2 Chile. At one time perhaps the largest fur-seal rook-
eries in the world were found on Mas-a-Tierra and Mas-a-
Fuera of the Juan Fernandez group on the coast of Chile.
Smaller herds occurred on other smaller islands off the south-
ern end of Chile. In the early part of the last century millions
of seals were killed in those waters and the herd was com-
mercially wiped out. But it is now known that the

212 American Fisheries Society.

species was not actually exterminated. Dr. Carl Skotts-
berg of Gothenborg, Sweden, recently visited those islands
and saw a number of fur seals, a few of which he collected
as specimens. No doubt this important herd could be
rehabilitated under proper international protection. Chile
is the country most concerned.

4. Uruguay. There is a valuable herd of fur seals on
Lobos Island in the mouth of the Plata River. This herd is
protected by the Uruguayan government but it receives no
international protection. Even Uruguay does not seem to
realize what a valuable asset this herd can become.

5. Falkland Islands. The Fur-seal herd on these islands
was once very large and valuable, many thousands having
been killed in the early part of the last century. Although
commercially depleted it is known enough seals remain to
make restoration of the herd an easy matter.

6. South Georgia. These islands, situated in the South
Atlantic east of the Falklands once had enormous herds of
fur seals. Considerable numbers are said to be there.

7. South Shetland. These islands in the Antarctic just
south of Cape Horn, in the early days, were the breeding
grounds of large nerds of fur seals and a good many are
still left.

The Falklands, South Georgia andSouthShetlandislands
all belong to Great Britain and that country should be deeply
interested in rehabilitating the herds.

8. New Zealand. Fur seals are still found in some
numbers on certain islands off the New Zealand coast, ac-
cording to Mr. Le Suef, Superintendent of the zoological
Park at Sydney.

9. Australia. Mr. Le Suef also reports that certain is-
lands on the coast of Australia have remnants of the large
fur seal herds that once frequented them.

10. Kerguelen Islands. A large herd of fur seals for-
merely resorted to these islands which lie southeast of the
Cape of Good Hope. A remnant still remains and France,
to which the islands belong, would no doubt be interested
in restoring the herd.

In all probability there are small remnants of several
other fur seal herds on several other isolated islands not
included in the above list. There is every reason to believe
that most if not all of these 15 to 20 herds can, through
international protection, be restored to their former abund-
ance.

we)
_
Ge

Evermann.—Fishery Resources of Pacific.

SEA OTTER.

Like the three northern species of fur seals, the North-
ern Sea Otter (Latazlutris) is fairly well protected by the
fur seal treaty of 1911. But the Southern Sea Otter (Lataz-
lueris nereis) which occurs on the Southern California coast,
receives no protection whatever except such as the State of
California can give it within the three-mile limit. Nor is
any protection afforded to sea otters in southern waters.

The early history of California makes frequent refer-
ences to sea otters and sea-otter hunting. Indeed, for many
years sea-otter and fur-seal hunting constituted almost the
only industry on that coast. Sea-otter hunting began there
at least as early as 1786, and the industry developed rapidly.
Sea otters were found all alcng the ecast from Trinidad Bay
southward. They were particularly abundant about the
Farallons, among the Channel Islands, and even in San
Francisco Bay. They were abundant southward at least as
far as the islands of Cedros and Natividad. One early man-
uscript (that of Vallejo) says: ‘“‘They were so abundant in
1812 that they were killed by boatmen with their oars in
passing through the kelp.”

In 1812 the Russians began to explore the coast, islands
and arms of San Francisco Bay. The records show that
they gathered great numbers of sea-otter skins. It is said
that, in some weeks they killed in San Francisco Bay alone
as many as 700 to 800 sea otters a week. In a period of five
years they took 50,000, and thereafter they took 5,000 a
year down to 1831. One writer says that by 1817 the otter
was exterminated from Trinidad Bay down to San Antonia
Cove, near San Francisco, but that hunting continued more
or less actively at various places along the coast farther
south for years.

Some of the hunters hired Aleuts and bidarkas from the
Russians, and Indians from Mission San Jose, and did quite a
good business for some time.

Particular places where sea otters were taken in large
numbers as mentioned in the old records were the Farallons,
San Francisco Bay, Purisima, Monterey Bay, SanLuis Obispo,
Santa Barbara, San Buenaventura, San Diego, Todos Santos
and San Quentin; and San Miguel Santa Barbara,SantaCruz,
Santa Catalina, San Clemente, San Nicolas, Coronados, San
Benito and Cedros islands. Even as late as 1914 sea otters
were occasionally killed about these islands, and it is known
that a few still persist in certain favored localities.

While some of the early accounts are somewhat lacking
in definiteness, and while there are many discrepancies, it

214 American Fisheries Society.

is nevertheless clear that both the fur and the sea otter were
exceedingly abundant on the coasts of the Californias 100
years ago. The total number of otters killed between 1786
and 1868 must have exceeded 200,000. At current prices
these would be woith at least $200,000,000, a very neat
little sum.

The remarkable rapidity with which the Alaska fur-seal
herd has increased during the last ten years under the pro-
tection of the fur-seal treaty of 1911, an increase from
127,000 in 1911 to more than 600,000 in 1921, which permit-
ted a kill in 1922 of 30,000 seals valued at $1,500,000 net,
demonstrates what a depleted natural resource of this kind
will do when given proper protection through international
cooperation. The world needs a similar but more compre-
hensive treaty covering, not only the other fur seals of the
at present unprotected areas, but alsothesea otters, elephant
seals, whales, walruses, fishes and other natural resources
of the sea. Such a treaty by the various countries inter-
ested would, in a few decades, result in rehabilitating these
depleted resources to an extent that would permit for all
time an annual product of at least $500,000,000.

Resolutions urging the necessity for early action by the
various countries concerned have been passed by numerous
organizations, including the Pan-Pacific Commercial Con-
gress, the California Academy of Sciences, the Scripps Insti-
tution for Biological Research, the San Diego Museum of
Natural History, the Los Angeles Museum, the Common-
wealth Club of California, and the Chamber of Commerce
of San Diego, Los Angeles, and San Francisco.

Such resolutions were adopted by the San Francisco
Chamber of Commerce on January 23 last, and by the West-
ern Society of Naturalists and the Pacific Fisheries Society
at Los Angeles last September.

There is no greater or more urgent conservation problem
than that of the natural resources of the sea which require
international cooperation for their development and ade-
quate protection.

It is hoped that our government may take the initiative
to bring about an international treaty for the protection of
these great natural resources.

3 9088 01016 3095

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