TRANSACTIONS
AMEEICAN SOCIETY
CIYIL ENaiNEERS
(INSTITUTED 1852)
VOL. LXIT
MARCH, igog
Edited by the Secretary, under the direction of the Committee on Publications.
Reprints from this publication, which is copyrighted, may be made on condition that
the full title of Paper, name of Author, and page reference are given.
NEW YORK
POBlilSHED BY THE SOCIETY
1909
TA
a
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1909, by the American Society of
Civil Engineers, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
HSr
-This Society is not responsible, as a body, for the facts and opinions advanced in
any of its publications.
CONTENT^
PAPERS
No. PAGE
1093 IRRIGATION : AN INFORMAL DISCUSSION.
By George (i. Anderson 1
F. H. Newell 10
J. P. A. IMaignen ^ 15
A. L. Fellows 19
W. W. FOLLETT 22
Gardner S. Williams 37
F. C. Finkle 37
Thomas H. Means 42
G. N. Houston 45
Richard R. Lyman 46
Arthur P. Davis 5:3
George G. Anderson 53
1093 CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES.
By Ernest W. Schoder 67
Discussion :
By George Jacob Davis, J r 97
Ernest W. Schoder 112
1094 THE SINKING OF THE PIERS FOR THE GRAND TRUNK PACIFIC BRIDGE
AT FORT WILLIAM, ONTARIO, CANADA.
By H. L. Wiley 113
Discussion :
By C. R. FiCKBS 120
George B. Francis and Robert A. Marshall 123
F. W. Skinner 129
H. L. Wiley 132
1095 NOTES UPON DOCKS AND HARBORS.
By Luther Wagoner 135
Discussion :
By W. B. RuGGLES 149
E. P. Goodrich 152
Howard J. Cole 153
Rudolph Hering 155
1096 CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION.
By Oliver S. Lyford, Jr 157
Discussion :
By Joseph Mayer 175
Charles Rupus Harte 180
W. K. Archbold 185
Theodore Varney 187
George N. Cole 190
W. S. Murray 191
R. D. Coombs 194
Oliver S. Lyford, Jr 196
No. PAGE
1097 THE HYDRO-ELECTRICDEVELOPMBNT AND TRANSMISSION LINES OF
THE CANADIAN NIAGARA POWER COMPANY.
By A. H. Van Cleve 199
Discussion :
By John C. Parker 238
William J. Boucher 241
A. H. Van Cleve 241
109H FORESTS AND RESERVOIRS IN THEIR RELATION TO STREAM FLOW,
WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO NAVIGABLE RIVERS.
By H.M.Chittenden 245
Discussion :
F. COLLINGWOOD 319
Thomas P. Roberts 321
Stephen Child 328
L J. Le Conte 329
F. B. Maltby 332
J . Francis Le Baron 3.S3
Edward P. North 336
A. Miller Todd 310
William W. Harts 347
George Otis Smith 361
George F. Swain 365
W. H. Leffingwell and A. M. Strong 377
Bailey Willis 384
M. O. Leighton 394
W. D. Pickett 423
Robert E. McMath 430
H. F. Labelle 437
Emil Kuichling 445
Robert Fletcher 447
J. P. Snow 4.».0
Clarence T. Johnston 454
Gipford Pinchot 456
H. M. Chittenden 466
MEMOIRS OF DECEASED MEMBERS
Thomas Fitch Rowland, Hon. M. Am. Soc. C. E 547
Richard Milford Berri an, M. Am. Soc. C. E 550
Stephen Arnold Mitchell, M. Am. Soc. C E 552
George W. Rafter, M. Am. Soc. C. E 554
Charles Harold Tutton, >I. Am. Soc. C. E 560
Clarence George Vaughn, M. Am. Soc. C. E 562
James Isaac Haycroft, Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C. E 564
PLATES
PLATE
I.
IV.
V.
VI.
vn.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XII r.
XIV.
XV.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXV.
XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.
XXIX.
XXX.
XXXI.
XXXII.
XXXIII.
XXXIV.
XXXV.
XXXVI.
XXXVII.
XXXVIII.
XXXIX.
XL.
XLI.
PAPER
Reinforcement and Paving, Terry Lake Embankments; and Sluice-
way and Drop Below Gates, Windsor Reservoir 1092
Concrete Spillway, Deseret Irrigation Co. and Irrigated Lands
Co.. Millard County, Utah 1092
Experimental Pipe Line at Cornell University Hydraulic Labora-
tory; Nozzle and Curves 1093
Diagram Showing Results of Experiments on Curve Resistance in
Water Pipes 1093
Interiors of Cast-Iron "Drainage" Elbow No. 3, and Cast-Iron
" Short Turn " Elbow, No. 4 1093
Views of Grand Trunk Pacific R. R. Bridge, Fort William, Ont. . . . 1094
Pivot Pier and Derrick; and Falsework and Derrick Car, Pivot
Pier 1094
Interior of Shell of Pivot Pier, Showing Bracing; and Completed
Piers 1094
Statistical Chart Showing the Progress of Banking, Commerce,
Shipping, Population, etc 1095
Derrick Car for Setting Trolley Poles, D. & I. R. R 1096
Erecting Brackets, and Stringing Wires 1096
Straining and Gauging Trolley Wire, etc 1096
Insulator Pull-Off and Anchorage 1096
Line Insulator, Steady Strain, and Deflector 1096
Views: Relation Between Signals and Poles; Light Tower; and
Bracket Hoist 1096
Views Showing Siemens-Halske Compound Catenary; and Com-
pound Double Catenary 1096
Angle-Iron Bridge, Syracuse, Lake Shore & Northern R. R.; and
Smoke Coatings on Insulators 1096
Views of Siemens-Halske Light Steel Bridges 1096
Standard Wooden-Pole Construction on Double Track Road; and
Catenary Bridge Construction 1096
Views of Coffer-Dam, Canadian Niagara Power Plant 1097
Views of Ice Rack, and Submerged Arches under Forebay Wall 1097
Views of Wheel-Pit, and Tunnel Portal 1097
General Plan of the Works of the Canadian Niagara Power Com-
pany 1097
Views of Power-House 1097
Views of Part of Penstock, and Power-House Interior 1097
Sections of Power-House and Wheel-Pit 1097
General Arrangement of Tail- Water Regulating Gate 1097
Cross-Section of 10 000-H. P. Turbine 1097
General Arrangement of 10 000-H. P. Turbine 1097
Oil Step Bearing 1097
Oil-Pressure Governor, and Switch-Board 1097
Views of Draft-Tubes, and Transmission Lme 1097
General Map of Transmission Lines, Niagara Falls to Buffalo 1097
Plan and Details of Standard Pole for Transmission Line 1097
Section and Elevation of Bertie Hill Tower, Fort Erie, Ont 1C97
High Tower on Transmission Line 1097
Views of Snow in Forest, and Snow-Drift in Yellowstone Park 1098
•' In the Basket " 1098
" On the Line " 1098
Freshet Destruction in White River, Washington; and New Growth
of Forest Timber 1098
Cut-Off on Missouri River; and Tree- Felling from River Bank 1098
PAGE
47
51
69
79
111
115
117
119
139
159
163
167
169
173
179
181
183
185
211
213
215
217
219
221
235
237
263
279
VI
PLATE
XLTI,
XLIII.
XLIV.
XLV.
XLVI.
XL VII.
Lake Winnibigosliish Dam; and Pine River Dam
Leecii Lake Dam; and Lake Clieesman Dam
Views of Lake George, and the Eastern Slope of the Sierra Nevadas
Views in the Sierra Nevadas
Cedar Lake, on Cedar River Water Shed
Snow on Evergreen Trees
PAPER
PAOE
1098
299
1098
301
1098
381
1098
388
1098
493
1098
495
AMEEIOAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS
INSTITUTED 1852
TRANSACTIONS
Paper No. 1092
IRRIGATION.
All liifonnal Discussion at the Annual Convention, June 25th, 1908.
By Messrs. George G. Anderson, F. H. Newell, J. P. A. Maignen,
A. L. Fellows, W. W. Follett, Gardner S. Williams, F. C.
FiNKLE, Thomas H. Means, G. N. Houston, Eichard
E. Lyman, Arthur P. Davis, and
George G. Anderson.
George G. Anderson, M. Am. See. C. E. — The subject of irrigation Mr. Anderson,
presents such a wide field, is of such great importance and magnitude,
and of such varied characteristics, that it cannot be treated otherwise
than generally in the course of a discussion of ordinary limits. The
speaker proposes, therefore, to confine his remarks to a particular
field, to a section of Colorado which is typical of the whole State, which
is, in large measure, typical of much that marks, or will mark, most
other regions which will be reclaimed in the Western States.
Near Denver may be seen some portions of a great agricultural
territory which owes its present development solely to irrigation. The
valley of the Cache la Poudre Eiver is to-day as fine an agricultural
territory devoted to ordinary farming products as can be found, not
only in the arid region, but anywhere throughout the United States
within the range of its possible products.
It represents the best that has been accomplished within the State
of Colorado; what has been done there, can be and is being done
throughout the State, and it has been done solely by private enter-
prise.
The work that has been achieved in that valley has really formed
the basis for most other irrigation development, and not only has
the practical result been the best and highest type of home building,
which Mr. Newell has pointed out as being the ultimate aim of the
governmental works of reclamation, but there has been built, out of
» DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Anderson, the growth of the district, a code of laws which largely forms the
foundation of all irrigation law throughout the arid region.
It appears to be difficult, even for the dweller in the arid region,
to say nothing of the stranger within the gates, to realize and com-
prehend fully the significance of the agricultural development of this
region, and the future possibilities of similar districts under irriga-
tion; and it is equally difficult to remember and acknowledge the debt
owed from one generation to another, and from one region to another,
in the process of such evolution as the arid region is now under-
going.
It will not be out of place if a very hasty sketch be given of the
progress of irrigation development in Colorado. It has been marked
by at least three periods, the individual, the community, and the cor-
porate, and latterly the last has been in large measure resolved back,
under recent legal enactments favoring such process, into what is
really a form of the community effort.
The first or individual period was contemporaneous with, or fol-
lowed closely upon, the advent of the gold seekers into the State. It
is interesting to note that the dates of the earliest appropriations from
the various streams on the eastern slope of the moimtains run from
1859 to 1861— Denver was founded in 1858. Either the failure to find
gold in paying quantities and the necessity of making a living in
some form, or the ready money to be made in raising food for man
and beast, and securing enormous prices therefor, drove certain of
the pioneers to the less attractive but more certain pursuit of farming
by irrigation. It is quite probable that these gained their knowledge
of primitive irrigation methods from the Mormons, who undoubtedly
introduced it into Utah in or about 1847.
The early irrigation farmers confined their efforts to the construc-
tion of small ditches for the reclamation of limited areas on the river
bottoms, for the cultivation of hay and the cereals.
The next period was marked by what may be termed the "com-
munity" effort, which reached its best development in the Greeley
Colony, in or about 1870. The community efforts sought the reclama-
tion of more extended areas, by longer and larger ditches, built by
somewhat improved methods, and as the result of the combination of
several land owners.
In the latter Seventies and early Eighties the field of development
attracted the attention of large corporations and combinations of
capital, building larger ditches or canals, reaching out upon the mesas
or bench lands, which, prior to this time, were considered unfit for
cultivation and altogether inferior to the lands on the bottoms. This
somewhat extraordinary view, in the light of later development, was
quite extensively entertained of the original projection by ex-Governor
Eaton, assisted by what was locally called the "English Company," of
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 6
the Larimer and Weld Canal, to irrigate the lands adjoining the now Mr. Anderson.
prosperous Town of Eaton.
The corporate investment in large irrigation works, by no means
confined to the Poudre River, continued throughout the decade from
1880 to 1890. Two companies, alone, invested, within that period,
between $2 000 000 and $3 000 000 each.
About midway in this period, there came a realizing sense of the
limited supply of water ordinarily obtainable from the streams, at
least on the eastern slope of the mountains.
Under the law, no restriction was placed on the filing of appropria-
tions upon any stream, and there was practically no real knowledge
of the ordinary seasonal flow of any stream prior to that time. The
earliest continued measurements of stream flow date from about 1885,
though some gaugings were made as early as 1883.
It is not surprising, therefore, to find a canal with an appropria-
tion of more than 450 cu. ft. per sec. dating from 1881, on a stream
which averages about 840 cu. ft. per sec. in July, and with more than
4 000 cu. ft. per sec. appropriated ahead of it.
At about the same time, the Courts declared that the corporate
companies, owners of canals, could not charge a price for water right,
or "royalty," but that these canals were merely "common carriers" —
that the act of appropriation involved the two separate acts of diver-
sion from the stream and of application to beneficial use. Under such
decision, the only revenue that could be derived from such canals
was from rentals, and these were under the regulation of the Board
of County Commissioners. While the Court subsequently held that
these County Commissioners could not fix rentals so low as to be
unremunerative, the immediate effect of the decision was disastrous
to many of these corporate canal companies.
To that failure, the difficulty of securing at that time sufficiently
rapid settlement of the lands tributary to the canal systems undoubtedly
contributed. Nearly all farmers at that time were novices in the use
of water for irrigation, and all the conditions tended to dissatisfaction
and friction.
It is not an unusual experience to find the pioneers in any line of
industry meeting with failure, which is finally turned to success by
those who follow on the same lines. It has certainly been true that
a large number of the unfortunate ventures in irrigation enterprise in
Colorado have finally developed into successful undertakings. Many
of them were projected before the conditions were ripe; they were
merely in advance of the times.
The full realization of the "shortage of water," of the inadequacy
of the stream to supply ordinarily all the canals and ditches depending
on it, impelled the movement toward the storage of water.
Mention has been made of a canal with an appropriation dating in
4: DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Anderson. 1881, with more than 4 000 cu. ft. per sec. ahead of it, in point of time.
It is rarely ever entitled to a supply of water from the direct flow of
the stream. Finally realizing this, its owners built the first mountain
reservoir on the Cache la Poudre, in 1885, and the storage of water for
irrigation purposes had begun.
Since that time, that company has extended its operations to such
an extent that it now owns or controls nine large reservoirs, containing
more than 20 000 acre-ft., and provides water supply to them by the
diversion of the waters of the Laramie and Grand Eivers across the
main range. From the position of last on the stream for direct supply,
the company has placed its system among the best and most successful
in the valley, and more than 40 000 acres of the most productive land
in the valley are dependent on it. This has been accomplished, not
only by the diversion of water from other streams and by its storage
and subsequent use, but also by the "exchange" of water, a system
of management of water supply which has resulted in much practical
benefit. In its simplest form, it means that a canal company which
has stored water in basins below its canal level, and which it cannot
again divert into its canal system, will deliver such stored water into
another canal, on a lower level, the direct supply to which from the
stream will be diverted by the canal company having the stored
water.
As illustrative of what can be done in resuscitating an apparently
dead venture, and in putting this "exchange of water" into practical
and economical form, some reference may be made to the North Poudre
Irrigation Canal. This canal was originally started in the early
Eighties, and sufFered temporary disaster about 1886.
The canal took its supply — merely flood waters — from the North
Fork of the Poudre, and embraced about six reservoirs, with a total
capacity of about 10 000 acre-ft. None of this was available for the
lands tributary to the canal, and was only valuable for exchange.
Mr. B. D. Sanborn, a well-known irrigationist, secured the system,
and early in 1901 commenced the construction of the Fossil Creek
Reservoir, which could impound the natural flow and flood waters
of Fossil Creek, and could also be supplied from the flood waters of
the Poudre River, by an inlet canal some 5 miles long. This reservoir
is very remote from the other reservoirs of the system, and is on the
opposite side of the river. It, also, was purely an "exchange water"
proposition, and dependent on flood waters, and at its conception was
met with the opposition of most of the best informed irrigationists in
the valley, for several reasons.
The reservoir was built, however, notwithstanding considerable
financial difficulty, and has proved a financial success. It is usually
filled with water, and, as a result, the North Poudre ditch usually gets
water through the irrigation season; and, largely on that account, the
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
fine section around "Wellington has been developed, and raises the Mr. Anderson,
valuable late crops that have added so materially to the prosperity of
the region. The reservoir has a capacity of about 11 000 acre-f t.
Taking the reservoirs dependent on the Poudre Eiver alone, there
are more than twenty-five in operation, with a capacity aggregating
about 100 000 acre-ft.
Some interesting details of these aids to irrigation are given in
Bulletins 92 and 134, of the Office of Experiment Stations of the
United States Department of Agriculture. In the latter, much con-
sideration is given to the character and value of crops raised by the
aid of these reservoirs, and this important statement is made (date
1903) :
"The best estimates give $1 000 000 as the worth of these reservoirs
to the Cache la Poudre Valley each year."
In Mr. Tonge's "Handbook of Colorado Eesources," the area of
agricultural land in Weld County alone is given as 223 218 acres, with
a valuation of $4 022 870.
In the introduction to Bulletin No. 92, dated December 15th, 1900,
Mr. A. C. True says:
"In the Cache la Poudre Valley a series of reservoirs haS' been
constructed by local and individual enterprise, which in connection
with a system of rotation in the use of water, has resulted in doubling
the area capable of being irrigated by the canals alone and in securing
more thorough and effective irrigation than is usual without the aid
of storage reservoirs. This account of the experience of the Cache la
Poudre Valley in the construction and use of storage reservoirs has
been prepared and is recommended for publication in the belief that
it will prove valuable to many other localities, not only in Colorado
but in other arid States."
And in his introduction to the same Bulletin, Colonel E. S. Nettle-
ton, the author, the most prominent irrigation engineer in the early
development of the canal system of Colorado, says:
"Ten years only have been required to build up the most complete
system of storage in the United States. This has not been accomplished
by a large expenditure of money, nor because of unusually favorable
locations for reservoirs, nor was it wholly by accident that the people
of this valley took up this line of irrigation development. Conditions
forced them into it. They did not wait for the general government or
the state to build reservoirs for them. * * * While this system is
by no means completed, the owners have already reaped mucli larger
rewards for their labors than they expected, reaching into the millions
of dollars.
"Although the necessity for storage reservoirs and their utility
and benefits are generally recognized, but few people outside of nortli-
ern Colorado are aware of what has been accomplished in that locality
by the utilization of small things or of the ingenuity displayed in
making the most of them."
b DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
And, in his conclusions, he makes the following remarks:
"Exchange of water facilitates its distribution and amplifies its
use."
"The concert of action in the exchange of water appears to have
lessened the number of legal conflicts."
and
"Greater economy in the application of water is attained by alter-
nating rather than pro rating in times of scarcity, both among canals
and among users from canals."
And he could well have added, what the experience of the years
since he wrote the Bulletin has proved beyond peradventure, that
the storage of water, by itself, in the sense of increased security to the
water user and the certainty of its availability for application just
when needed, has materially aided in the actual economy in the use
of water itself, to which feature reference will be made later.
About 1896 Captain Chittenden, for the United States Government,
examined, among others, two reservoir sites in the State of Colorado,
both of which it might have been thought were beyond the reach of
private enterprise. One was then called the Goose Creek Site, on the
South Platte River; the other was Boyd Lake, tributary to the Big
Thompson River.
The first was substantially constructed as the private enterprise
of the Denver Union Water Company, and is now utilized for the
storage of water for the domestic supply of the City of Denver.
Regarding the Boyd Lake enterprise, some interesting details may
be given. A small section of it, known as the Seven Lakes, was
developed some years ago as a storage reservoir for irrigation purposes
as the private enterprise of Mr. B. D. Sanborn. In connection with
this reservoir, Mr. Sanborn held some shares in two ditches which
could feed it, and in an effort to store such ditch water, a litigation
ensued which has far-reaching effects upon the irrigation interests of
the State, and the speaker may be pardoned for a brief reference
thereto.
It had previously been held by the Courts that, for flood waters
and the winter flow of the stream, ditches with solely reservoir appro-
priations, or appropriations for the storage of water, had priority for
filling over ditches with appropriations simply for direct supply.
This decision was used to prevent the Seven Lakes Reservoir from
storing in the basin any of the water represented by its shares in
the ditches during the irrigation season. The reservoir company did
not claim the right to make any invasion on the river, but sought to
have the right to change the character of farming from early crops,
such as wheat and alfalfa, to late and more profitable crops, such as
beets and potatoes, and to store in the reservoir in the early part of
the season — May, June, and July — their pro rata share of water in
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 7
direct supply to use later in the season, and in this they were finally Mr. Anderson.
upheld by the Courts.
It has been charged that Court decisions in irrigation matters
have been inconsistent, but consistency may mean stagnation, in-
consistency may mean marching in the line of progress and develop-
ment.
Seven Lakes Reservoir has a capacity of nearly 10 000, and can be
developed to about 14 000 acre-ft. Boyd take is a very large basin,
covering more than 2 000 acres at high-water line, with a depth of
68 ft. It is about 4 miles long and 1 mile wide, and its capacity is
about 55 000 acre-ft.
There was much reason to believe it to be larger than any available
water supply, but Mr. Sanborn has developed it, and in its first year
there was stored in it more than 30 000 acre-ft. The waters stored
are to be used in exchange also^ — and at present the reservoir is in the
ownership of one individual, no arrangements having been completed
for a reservoir company, and there is some consideration of utilizing
it in connection with power development.
These developments are referred to as examples of the work of
private enterprise prior to 1901. It is not intended that they should
include all the work done by such, not even in the district specially
considered.
It may be well to note the development of the Great Plains Reser-
voir system in the Arkansas Valley, with a capacity of about 264 000
acre-ft, as well as the Twin Lakes, the Sugar Loaf, and others.
The year 1901 has been mentioned, as that marks the period of
another irrigation era in the districts iinder consideration. At about
that time the introduction of the sugar beet and the demonstration
of its adaptability to this district practically revolutionized conditions,
in relation to water, to crops, and to values.
At about that time, also, some legislative enactments were passed
which have given an impetus to further development in the construc-
tion of ditches and reservoirs.
The Carey Act, approved in 1894, empowers the Secretary of the
Interior, with the approval of the President, to contract and agree to
patent to States having desert lands, not to exceed 1 000 000 acres of
such lands under certain conditions.
The Colorado Legislature, in 1895, accepted the conditions, and the
grants of land to the State, under the provisions of the Act of Con-
gress, and provided for the manner in which the irrigation, reclama-
tion, occupation, and disposal of the same should be carried out.
The last Report of the State Engineer of Colorado states that
three companies are taking advantage of this act, the largest making
application for about 38 000 acres of land, with an estimated expendi-
ture for works of more than $200 000.
8 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Anderson. An Irrigation District Act was passed by the Colorado Legislature
in 1901, and amended in 1905, and, under its provisions, several large
undertakings have been completed, and a number are under waj.
The act gives such districts the power of quasi-municipal corporations,
the right to construct or to purchase canals and reservoirs, to operate
them, and to issue bonds for these purposes, such bonds constituting
a lien upon the real estate within the district.
It practically provides municipal ownership, and by it the water
users are enabled to combine for their own direct interest, and, with
intelligent co-operation and management, the best results are likely
to follow upon its extended adoption.
Through the energy mainly of one man, Mr. D. A. Camfield, the
following districts have been organized, and the works completed
since 1902:
Acres.
Fort Morgan District 15 000
Bijou District 40 000
Green City 2 000
Julesburg 30 000
Eiverside 60 000
Hillrose 20 000
Montezuma 55 000
232 000
It is understood that more than $3 000 000 have been expended in
the construction of these various enterprises.
In addition, the same gentleman and his associates have under
way two districts, the Laramie Poudre, with 100 000 acres, and the
North Sterling, with 80 000 acres, and an enterprise adjoining the City
of Denver which will reclaim probably 60 000 acres.
Further, in the last Eeport of the State Engineer, there are three
irrigation districts other than those already mentioned, in which bonds
have been sold for $560 000 on 28 200 acres ; and, since the date of
that report, further bonds have been sold by the Otero Irrigation Dis-
trict for the construction of a reservoir on the upper Arkansas River.
By private enterprise, outside of the Carey and Irrigation District
Acts, 50 000 additional acres in Weld County have been brought under
irrigation by the extension of the Larimer and Weld Canal, the
Greeley No. 2, and the Pierce Lateral, and by the extension of the
Larimer County Canal; and there is also the very extensive reservoir
undertaking in close proximity to Denver, known as Standly Reservoir.
It is also well known that other enterprises, mostly under the
District Act, are in progress, the details of which it is not possible
to give at this time.
It is not intended that this list should be exhaustive or attempt to
DTSCTTSSTOK ON IRRIGATION 9
state the total expenditure contemplated, nor to give the present area Mr. Anderson.
now under cultivation by irrigation within the State, or the cost of the
works which have made that possible-r-or the value of the reclaimed
area. The only purpose is to indicate the extent, character, and value
of the work which has been carried out and will be carried out by
private enterprise.
Within a reasonable time, and with reasonable conditions which
are now apparently provided, it is not too much to say that private
enterprise will undertake the conservation of all the waters on the
eastern slope of the Eockies. There have been years, and those of
moderate flood, in which all the waters of the Poudre River have been
conserved and economically applied to beneficial purposes, and the
steady extension of the enterprises in that valley indicate that ere
long the maximum floods will be conserved in the same way. With the
projects outlined on the South Platte, the same conditions will soon
prevail in the immediate vicinity of Denver.
The various stages of irrigation development outlined at the outset
inevitably call for some remarks on the character of the construction
which then obtained. In the earliest days it was, naturally, of the
crudest, the gradient of the ditch being developed either in the
primitive Mexican way of allowing the water to find its course, or the
bed of the ditch was laid out with the spirit level or triangle. Better
methods obtained as the plans enlarged, but the critical observer in
the Poudre Valley and elsewhere will still see parallel ditches, un-
necessarily heavy gradients and distinctly bad alignment. It is not
too much to say that these conditions are materially improving, that
the engineer is permitted more scope, and that the projectors look for
and demand a better character of construction throughout. Much more
permanent work is being done than ever before, and the tendency is
steadily toward betterment rather than otherwise, though the private
investor looks for and expects marked economy in all lines, and the
engineer has to regard carefully the returns on the expenditure.
In the past, the most serious error has been due to the projection
and construction of large canals from rivers the normal water supply
of which had previously been exhausted, and that error, not solely —
and probably rarely — the engineer's, was due, as has been pointed out,
to the lack of real information as to stream flow.
There has been a very marked improvement since 1887, but the
best that is to be had to-day is far from being as complete or as accu-
rate as is desirable. In view of the development of storage and of
l)Ower-plants, accurate knowledge is required of the flow of the stream
for the whole season. At the present time, gaugings are ordinarily
maintained for the irrigation season only.
The State authorities are crippled by the lack of funds to carry
out the work properly and fully, and it is evidently impossible to
10 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Anderson, arouse the legislators to make a sufficient increase of appropriations
for this purpose.
Co-operation has been had at times with the hydrographic branch
of the United States Geological Survey, and even that co-operation
has been seriously threatened, as the funds at the disposal of the
Survey are at all times inadequate for the work.
The importance of this matter to all engineers must be so apparent
that it cannot require anything further than mere mention of the
matter to secure the active assistance of the Society, individually and
as a body, to secure, for the proper branch of the Federal Service,
sufficient appropriations to maintain continued and accurate gaugings.
There is one gratifying condition in the present irrigation situation
in Colorado, as compared with a generation ago, and that is the great
progress which has been made in the use, and the economy in the use,
of water by the user himself. It is not too much to say that the
approach to a reasonable and low duty of water has been almost wholly
due to the user himself, to the greater intelligence he displays in its use,
and the sense of the resulting benefit to every interest affected. And
that, again, is due to the greater reliance on storage, the greater sense
of security storage conveys to the user, and to the sense of personal
and pecuniary profit thereby.
The speaker trusts that in these remarks, hastily prepared as they
have been, he has been able to bring eastern engineers into closer
intimacy with the subject so vital to those living in the arid region,
and to give local engineers an opportunity to discuss still further the
subject that is ever old and ever new.
Mr. Newell. F. H. Newell, M. Am. Soc. C. E. — The object of water storage and
distribution, for irrigation or for industrial purposes, is to make homes
for citizens. This is the underlying consideration in the passage of
all the Acts of Congress which have to do with the reclamation of the
public domain, either by private, corporate or public funds. It is the
basal reason urged by promoters or by public-spirited men who favor
any reclamation project, large or small, or whether conceived for the
purpose of making money or not. The argument used to attract
general interest is that homes will be made, population increased,
values will rise, and all corelated investments will be made more secure,
because of the fact that these homes will be created and production
will be stimulated.
The stability and permanence of the commonwealth are assured
by the conservation of water resources which otherwise would go to
waste. The destructive floods and the excess water of the streams are
held in reservoirs. The stored waters when needed are put to bene-
ficial use upon lands which without them would lie desolate. Men
otherwise unemployed are put to work, and are enabled to become
owners of homes. Water storage is thus one of the first and most
DlSCUSSIOiSr ON IRRIGATION" 11
obvious of the many lines of conservation of the resources of the Mr. Newell.
nation.
Conservation has come to be recognized at the beginning of this
century as the great principle to be followed. Exploitation has
characterized the last century. It has been carried to a point wiiere
serious-minded men are beginning to vs^onder whether it is not time
to call a halt and take account of stock to see whether the resources
of the nation are adequate, under the present wasteful methods, to
realize the great promises which the future should hold in store.
The President of the United States has taken up this matter. He has
called a conference of the Governors of all the States, and this con-
ference has gone upon record as declaring the firm conviction that
conservation of our natural resources is a subject of transcendent
importance which should engage unremittingly the attention of tlie
nation, the States, and the people in earnest co-operation. This is a
recognition of what has been long prominent in the minds of engi-
neers; in fact, it may be said that this conservation movement has
been initiated by the engineers who, from their training, have come
to regard the conservation of waste as the great element of success.
Our "captains of industry" have demonstrated this in their great com-
binations, where it is asserted that success is attained not so much by
processes or invention as by the economies which are possible in opera-
tions on a large scale through the saving of the waste products and
through the working up of the by-products into profitable output.
In considering, therefore, the question of water storage and dis-
tribution, we are simply keeping in line with the great movements of
the present day, both in corporate and governmental affairs. The sure
foundation upon which only success can be assured is a full knowledge
of the facts. If we are intelligently to conserve any waste resources, we
must acquire the most complete knowledge available concerning the
matter in hand and all of the limiting circumstances. In taking up
water storage, therefore, the first consideration is to obtain accurate
facts concerning the topography of the country, its hydrographic
relations, and the political or human elements, such as ownership of
lands and of vested rights. We must obtain by actual observation and
surveys on the ground all facts which are available, and even with
all the physical data which we can obtain there must be a notable
margin of uncertainty which can only be bridged by the use of sound
judgment based on wide experience.
The lack of this full knowledge, so necessary for intelligent con-
servation of water, has wrecked many a brilliantly conceived enter-
prise. It is unnecessary to relate the details of any cases; the memory
of every engineer who has reached middle life is stored with instances
where enthusiasm has been substituted for knowledge, and good inten-
tions have paved the way to bankruptcy. A recognition of this fact
12 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Newell, has led the Government, in its effort at reclamation through water
conservation, to go into preliminary examinations with a thoroughness
which at times has seemed superfluous, but which, almost invariably,
has been shown to be not only necessary, but perhaps has not been
fully adequate for the solution of all the problems which have ulti-
mately arisen.
The work of the Government in water storage, as a rule, has been
preceded, as far as possible, by topographic surveys of the drainage
area and of the lands which are to be irrigated. This has been accom-
panied by hydrographic surveys carried on by men of experience who,
while the topographers were making maps, have measured the flow of
water in the streams day by day and season after season, and have
obtained all available information concerning the water supply from
the time it reaches the ground until it disappears or has passed
beyond control.
The methods of topographic and hydrographic surveying necessary
for water conservation have been developed in accordance with western
conditions. The United States Geological Survey was authorized in
1888 to investigate the extent to which the arid lands might be re-
claimed, and there has grown up in the twenty years since that time
a highly developed system by which results have been obtained
economically and effectively. Both of these may now be regarded
as highly specialized lines of work in which well-educated engineers
are making a livelihood. Without the continuity of purpose and the
broad field of work made possible by the Government, it would not
be practicable to perfect the existing systems.
The information obtained by the topographic and hydrographic
examinations of the Geological Survey has been utilized by the engi-
neers of the Reclamation Service, in the preparation of designs for
works, such as storage or diversion dams, head-gates, and canals suit-
able for holding the excess water or diverting it to lands where it can
be used. There has thus arisen a need of experts in a field distinct
from that of topographers and hydrographers, namely, men who have
had experience in the storage and distribution of water, not merely from
the engineering side, but also from the so-called practical or human
side. There has thus been evolved by degrees the characteristic
designing and constructing work of the Reclamation Service, with the
subsequent requirements of maintenance and operation.
As we progress in the preparation of plans and reach the point
where it is necessary to lay out systems of distributing water to the
lands, a high degree of technical skill is not only requisite, but to this
must be added for success a knowledge of human nature and of human
institutions, laws, and court decisions. As we approach the place
where the water is actually turned to the farm and distributed to the
individual we meet conditions where the human element becomes more
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 13
and more prominent, and where the relations of man to man and to Mr. Newell,
the community in general must modify very largely the practical con-
siderations of the subject, overshadowing in part many of the simpler
engineering details. Academic considerations may be fallacious, and
may lead to the ruin of the best theoretical plans. More quarrels can
arise in an arid region than on whiskey! There are to be con-
sidered, also, of course, important questions relating to the character
of land and of products, nearness to markets, and a thousand other
details which are not strictly engineering in themselves, and yet their
successful handling makes or mars the value of the engineering work.
In all cases, whether the structures are built by public or by private
funds, the works must ultimately pay for themselves. If built by
investors, they must not only pay for themselves, but must yield a
reasonable profit and interest upon the investment. If built by the
National Government, under the terms of the Eeclamation Act, the
question of interest or profit does not enter directly, as water is
furnished at the estimated cost, including in this the expenses of
administration, which must be provided and must be considered care-
fully in any estimates of the cost of such works. Cost, therefore, is
always an important element.
In the structures designed for the storage of water, the primary
consideration beyond effectiveness is that of durability. These works
must be among the most permanent built by Man, not only because
their use will continue forever, but because of the fact that no risks
should be taken where so many lives and so much property are involved.
Plans for the construction of storage works, while they must be pre-
pared with regard to reasonable economy, must be with a view to being
not merely safe but looking safe. People must not merely be told that
they are substantial, but when the plain citizen visits the work he
must see for himself that there is every indication of the permanency
and stability of a great storage dam. It will not do simply to tell
him that the work is safe and that his children and his property,
located beneath the dam, are in no danger; he must feel, to the very
innermost recesses of his consciousness, that the structure is beyond
all question.
Water storage may be provided in many ways. The simplest is
that provided by Nature in the woods, where the litter on the forest
floor holds back the water and serves to regulate the flow of the
streams. Complete water storage must begin with the forests on the
mountains, and any movement for full conservation of the waters of
the country must begin with a full study of forest protection. The
policies of the Federal Government have now been determined along
this line. As far as can be done at this late date, the National Forests
will be preserved for the conservation of the streams having their
sources in the mountains of the West.
14 DISCUSSION^ OM IRRIGATION
Mr. Newell. Next to forest conservation comes the consideration of engineering
questions of increasing the storage capacity of natural lakes, or of
making artificial lakes by closing narrow outlets through which the
drainage from some basin of notable size escapes. Here is where
begins the large work of the hydraulic engineer in the location, de-
sign, and construction of dams. Their character is various. In the
vicinity of Denver are to be found almost all the types of dams
which have been built by Man, from the rude timber and stone dam of
the lumberman through the earth dams, rock dams, and finally con-
crete structures which characterize the present century.
The distributing works, as a rule, do not require such permanence
of construction or massiveness of design as the storage works. They
may be modified or rebuilt in accordance with the development of the
country. There is required, however, a reasonable permanence in
these structures, for around them are grouped all the improvements
made by Man in an arid region. The irrigating canals soon serve as a
sort of base line delimiting the desert from the irrigated farms. All
property values are associated with the irrigating ditch, so that its
first location and construction governs all future land values. A
correct location may mean prosperity to a large section; an incorrect
location may mean permanent loss to the community or otherwise
valuable areas of land.
The speaker wishes to express his appreciation of Mr. Anderson's
discussion, and to emphasize, if possible, some of the points which he
makes, especially as to the position of the engineer in this great
work of water storage and conservation. In the early days, as he
has pointed out, each farmer could build his ditch according to his
own ideas. With the development of the country and the realization
that water is limited in quantity, while land is practically unlimited,
has come the appreciation of the need of accurate knowledge of the
water resources. There is thus a demand for accurate observation, and
for skill to utilize the results of experience. In water storage there
may be perhaps one of the combinations most dangerous to human life
and property. Stored water, like fire, is an excellent servant but a
bad master. The States of the West are recognizing this, and are
creating or strengthening their State engineering departments, in
order that they may supervise the construction of large storage works.
In ordinary construction, if mistakes are made they can usually be
rectified, but when the public enters upon this great work of water
storage, it must have structures which will outlast the centuries.
There should be no possible risk to lives and property resulting either
from the direct destruction of the reservoir, the lowlands, or from
the indirect loss which follows the loss of the stored water. In this
the need of good engineering is coming to be recognized more and
more. This meeting in Denver will be of great aid to our professional
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 15
friends in the West in strengthening the hands of our local engineers Mr. Newell.
so that they may demand larger recognition of the fact that the
Engineer should dictate, rather than follow the desires of the pro-
moter, or of the man who wishes to develop water. In the past the
engineers have been compelled to cut too closely to fit the amount of
money available. There is coming abovit a better recognition of the
fact that adequate funds must be provided in advance, in order to build
structures which will be reasonably permanent, and that this is as
important as a full knowledge of the water supply which can be de-
pended upon to fill storage reservoirs.
It is interesting to note that the use of temporary material, such
as wood, is gradually being done away with in irrigation works, in
favor of more permanent construction. This may be called the age of
concrete, in Western irrigation development. Hydraulic cement and
concrete are being used more and more; concrete flumes, concrete
turn-outs, and especially concrete storage dams are being built. This
demand for cement is being met by the building of cement mills in
different parts of the West, and with the increasing demand there is
a lower price. New supplies of raw material are constantly being
found; there is hardly a large county in the West where materials are
not found favorable for the making of some form of cement. There
is danger, however, of going to the extreme. It has been found that
some of the smaller concrete structures have failed, or crumbled, and
it is necessary that investigations be made as to the cause of failure
of some recent concrete work. Such failure is due, presumably, to
the strong alkali waters coming in contact with the cement. Chemical
reactions, presumably not yet fully understood, take place between the
sulphates in the natural waters which are used to a certain extent in
irrigation or occur in connection with drainage.
J. P. A. Maignen, Assoc. Am. See. C. E. — This discussion on Mr. Maignen.
irrigation has suggested to the speaker a few thoughts which may
perhaps not be altogether devoid of interest. It has been stated that
in some irrigation works, where the water is pumped from muddy
rivers, and where the country to be irrigated is flat, it has been found
advisable to construct near the head-gates of the works a settling
basin or grit chamber of sufficient capacity to reduce the velocity of
flow so as to assure the deposition of the heavy silt.
Would it not be interesting to consider for a moment what is
called "mud," and what harm or good it may do in irrigation works?
It is evident that stone, gravel, and sand can do no good on the land,
but, on the contrary, may do much mischief by accumulating in the
channels intended to convey the water. On the other hand, the fine
"mud," of organic or inorganic origin, which is light and capable of
floating in moving water, is useful, partly to close up leaks in the
earth channels and partly to fertilize the soil. Therefore, at all irriga-
IC DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Maignen. tion works taking water which is usually or occasionally muddy, it
would appear to be desirable to provide some small works intended
to effect the division of these two constitutents of mud — the heavy
grit, which is to be prevented from getting into the irrigation system
proper, and the light floating loam, which may be allowed to go
wherever the water goes.
The second matter of interest is this: The water of rivers is gen-
erally soft and particularly suitable for irrigation, but what about
ground-water which contains lime and magnesia in solution? The
speaker well remembers the great interest taken in the question of
water by the Jury on Horticulture at the Paris Exhibition in 1889.
The members of that jury were practical men. They knew the
difference between watering plants with soft water and with hard
water. They knew that the latter chokes the stomata of the leaves, the
HyO is partly evaporated and partly absorbed, but the lime salts are
left behind as a deposit, and, if seen through a powerful microscope,
would appear like limestone stalagmites. They also knew that hard
water applied to the ground to feed the roots is unable to take into
solution the organic or inorganic substances which are necessary to
the life of the plants, and which soft water easily dissolves. In other
words, hard water brings about the anemia of delicate plants by
closing the respiratory pores of the leaves and by coagulating or turn-
ing to stone the soluble food of the soil. The members of the jury
were so much impressed by this fact that they were on the point
of recommending the use of distilled water for watering orchids
and other delicate house plants. When they found that hard well
water could be softened and made practically equal to rain water by
softening processes, they showered medals and commendations on the
inventors.
The speaker supposes that the National Government, engaged in
these great irrigation works, is fully alive to the desirability of having
accurate information on the quality as well as on the quantity of
water available, and upon its suitability in different regions for raising
the various kinds of crops.
When in the East, and previously in England and France, the
speaker has often heard it said that the waters of the West were
"alkali," but he has not found any one yet able or willing to tell what
is meant by "alkali." In England and France water is said to be
"hard" or "soft." It is considered "hard" when it contains more than
85 parts per million of bicarbonate of lime, sulphate of lime, carbo-
nate of magnesia, and sulphate of magnesia (counted as carbonate of
lime) ; and "soft" when the total amount of dissolved mineral solids
is less than 85 parts. The salts above named can be decomposed,
precipitated, and separated from the water by water-softening pro-
cesses, and this has been done extensively in Europe in order to make
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 17
hard water suitable for drinking and for boiler use, for hot-water Mr. Maignen.
systems, etc.
Would it not be desirable that the chemists of the National and
State Governments, if they have not already done so, should take up
the study of "alkali" waters, and determine how far they are objec-
tionable in agriculture, and whether anything can be done to correct
them?
The third point suggested is : What is "sour" soil ? It is said that
a soil is "sour" when it refvises to grow plants. What is the cause
of the sterility of such soil? Is it that the roots are "drovTned" in
water? Is it that the seeds or roots are eaten or decomposed by
animalcules or micro-organisms growing in excessively wet soils?
Or, is it that the soil itself has been poisoned by the toxines or soluble
residue of the metabolism of the plants that have grown on it before,
or by the toxines produced by the micro-organisms actually growing
in the impoverished soil?
The first of these suppositions is that commonly accepted.
The second was suggested to the speaker by an observation made
in the laboratory. Corn had been planted in muddy material with
an excess of water. It did not grow, and upon microscopical examina-
tion it was found to have been reduced to a jelly-like paste, and worm-
like animalcules were seen in proximity to the rotten corn. Was there
any relation between the decayed grains and the animalcules?
The third supposition is the object of scientific inquiry now being
carried on by the chemists of the Bureau of Soils, United States
Department of Agriculture, at Washington, D. C.
If any member can give any information on the subject of "sour"
soil, it will surely prove of considerable interest to all.
Another subject may be mentioned. In filtering water and sewage
it has been found, over and over again, that coke is an excellent
filtering medium, but it has always been deemed too expensive for
large plants. Hence it is that sand, gravel, and cinders have been
generally chosen. It has occurred to the speaker that if coke is the
best material for the purpose, it should be used, and if the cost is too
high, that cost should be reduced by finding a new use for the coke
after it has done duty in filters.
In these days, when everyone is concerned in the preservation of
the "natural resources" of the country, and when the land is being
impoverished for want of fertilizing material, why should the mud
collected on filters be washed away and returned to the river? Should
it not be collected and distributed on the land with care?
Has coke any value as a manure? It should be remembered that
the word "manure" comes from the French word, " manceuvrer,''^
which means "working by hand" or "tilling." Upon inquiry, the
speaker was encouraged to study this feature, and he thinks that he
18 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. MaigDen. can answer in the affirmative. He believes that new coke has a value,
as a manure and as a soil sweetener, at least equal to its cost, and
that when it is charged with "mud" from water filters or sewage plants,
it has a value in excess of its cost.
"It improves the physical condition of the soil, together with its
water-holding capacity, particularly on heavy clays."
By helping to darken the soil, it "makes it more absorptive of the
sun's rays and therefore warmer."
New coke contains 56% of cellular space. This cellular space
absorbs water and gases in a concentrated form, and gives them up
later as required. If to these natural qualities are added the nitro-
genous matters derived from the solid residue of water or sewage
filtration, the result is a product likely to be of some value to
agriculture.
The speaker has used coke in several filter plants, but more par-
ticularly in what is known as the Belmont Preliminary Filter at
Philadelphia, dealing with 40 000 000 gal. of water daily. Experiments
made with the spent coke of this filter plant have satisfied him of the
correctness of the above views.
The question of the color of the soil is exceedingly interesting.
In some of the books on agriculture may be found the statement
that dark soils may be 14° warmer than light soils. One day,
the temperature being below 40°, the speaker put his hand on a
tuft of black top soil which had been exposed to the rays of the sun
for a few hours. The earthy material warmed his hand. Coming
back to the same spot a few hours later, the speaker suggested to a
friend that he should put his hand on a piece of coal which lay on
the ground. The coal warmed his hand. He turned the piece of coal
upside down, and found that the under surface was warmer than
the upper surface, and very much warmer than the surrounding
atmosphere.
Many have heard of the experiment made by Benjamin Franklin.
He put a black cloth on a piece of ice and the sun's rays melted the
ice quickly. He put a white cloth on another piece of ice under the
same conditions, and the ice did not melt for a long time. This
evidently shows that black absorbs the sun's rays more than white.
Another observation made by the speaker may be worthy of record
at this time. At the filter plant designed by him for Lancaster, Pa.,
which has now been working for some years, a somewhat curious
phenomenon was observed which may give room for thoiight and
discussion.
The filter plant is composed of fifteen beds, 16 ft. wide and 150 ft.
long, and filled with sand. On seven of the beds a coating of fine
coke had been deposited on the surface of the sand. The coating
was not more than jV in, thick, and the coke material used was as
DISCUSSION OiN" IRKIGATION 19
fine as lampblack — the surface looked black. Seven of the other beds Mr. Maignen.
had no coke, the sand being exposed to the sun's rays. There was
the same depth of water above the sand in all the filters — about 18 in.
The plant was put in service at the end of April. The filter beds were
uncovered, so that the full sunlight could act on the water. After a
few days, the seven beds which had no coke were literally covered with
a luxuriant growth of algse, like a forest of diminutive pine trees; the
whole surface was green, but there was not the slightest trace of algae
or green in the seven beds which had the coke. The coke of some of
the sterile beds was scratched in spots so that some of the sand was
exposed to the action of the light; in the next day or two algae grew
over the exposed sand spots and not where the coke film was intact.
What caused the difference? The water was the same, the sand
was the same, the exposure was the same, the only difference being
the film of coke. Were the coke filters sterile because the black
material absorbed the sun's rays, while the exposed sand in the other
filters reflected them? The speaker can offer no reasonable explana-
tion. He simply states the fact for further investigation.
Another phenomenon of the same nature occurred at South
Bethlehem, Pa. In a filtered-water basin, the walls were made of rip-
rap. These stones had become black from the soot of passing loco-
motives. The superintendent of the water-works, thinking that he
would show off the beauty of the filtered water, whitewashed the stones
above and below the water level. A few days afterward a beautiful
crop of green algae grew on the whitewashed stones which were under
the water, and gave some anxiety lest they should ultimately give a
bad taste to the filtered water. After a certain time the soot of the
locomotives blackened the stones again, the whitewash disappeared and
the algae disappeared also.
It has been stated, over and over again, that it is necessary to
cover reservoirs containing filtered water to protect it from algae
growth. The speaker is not satisfied that this is absolutely necessary.
Algae do not grow in water which is dirty or full of suspended clay,
because it may be supposed that the suspended matter prevents the
transmission of light, but they grow profusely in clear water.
It has been seen that black appears to be a protection against the
growth of algae. The speaker, therefore, would suggest that further
observations be made along these lines. Perhaps it may be found
that a coat of black asphaltum paint, applied to the walls and the
floor of a reservoir, will protect the water against the growth of
algae. This, of course, would be more economical than roofing. The
same kind of experiment might be made with the concrete portion
of irrigation works.
A. L. Fellows^ Esq. — The conservation and use of water is a sub- Mr. Fellows.
Ject in which the engineers of the West have more interest than those
20 DISCUSSIONT ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Fellows, of the East. In arid countries, water is the most valuable asset. The
West, therefore, is interested in the greatest possible extension and
best possible use of its water supply — in fact living depends on it;
agriculture, stock interests, and mining industries are to a very great
extent dependent on its proper conservation, and the important ques-
tion naturally arises: What is the best use that can be made of such
supply? The problem is a very complicated one. The speaker has
considered carefully the discussions on this subject, particularly those
by Mr. Anderson and Mr. Follett, each of whom presents many
important matters. There are one or two points, however, which the
speaker will emphasize to some extent, and also some suggestions which
he will add.
A few years ago, a great engineer. Major J. W. Powell, a master
in the subject of the conservation and use of water supply, devoted
much study to this great question. At the time that he made his well-
known recommendations, he had probably studied the subject more
thoroughly than any other engineer, particularly with regard to the
use of the waters of the West. It was his opinion that the greatest
benefit would be derived by allowing the water to be used as many times
as possible. For example — taking the Arkansas Eiver as an illustra-
tion — he said that its waters should be stored high up in the mountains,
for the development of electric power, for mining, for lumber mills,
for stamp mills, for the lighting of cities, for transportation lines, and the
other innumerable uses of hydro-electric power. Then the water should
be stored again in other reservoirs, and passed on down to the plains,
where it would serve for irrigation and other agricultural uses. Major
Powell said to a Congressional Committee that the waters of the
Arkansas should be used where they could be used to the best ad-
vantage, which was along the canon of the Arkansas, about Canon City,
and again about Pueblo; then, by storage on the side streams, they
could be used again, for example, in the vicinity of such a valley as
that of Rocky Ford, and so on down the river. The same conditions
apply to a great many Colorado streams; for example, on the South
Platte River there are numerous reservoir sites which may be utilized
in the development of hydro-electric power in the mountains, and the
water released from these reservoirs and again stored in others may
be used to as great advantage, or even greater, in irrigation below.
The situation is greatly complicated, however, by the fact that
the priorities of the irrigation ditches — the irrigation rights — are
superior, to some extent, in time at least, to the later claims for power
purposes; but there are certain features which must be remembered.
Water is an asset of such great value in Colorado, and is so indis-
pensable to its prosperity, that it must have the widest and best
possible use. The western streams furnish a water supply greater
than required by the irrigable lands under them; therefore, in time.
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 21
their waters will be carried across the range to a much greater extent Mr. Fellows,
than they have been, because they will be more valuable on the
eastern than on the western slope.
Attention is called to a suggestion by Mr. Follett in regard to the
use of the waters of the Colorado River. In coming centuries the
best results in the use of the waters of this river will undoubtedly be
obtained by storing them in great reservoirs in the Rocky Mountains,
and subsequently equalizing the flow of the Grand, the Green, the
Gunnison, the San Juan and other great streams that make up the
Colorado. Power will be developed as the result of such storage; the
flow of the streams, after being equalized through these reservoirs,
will be used in the irrigation of great tracts of land such as those
in the vicinity of Grand Junction; then the water will be stored in
other reservoirs, perhaps in the canons of the Green and of the Grand,
and then it will be used in the Imperial Valley in the way described
by Mr. Follett. The same may be done on the Rio Grande. It is true
that there was considerable early use of water on the Rio Grande, but
in this, as in other things, "the old order changeth, yielding place to
new," and, on this river, also, there must be, in time, the best and
most extended use of the water that is possible. It is a natural law,
and cannot be repealed. There is a higher type of civilization in the
more temperate climates, and there the water will be used to the best
advantage.
Another example is the San Luis Valley. The waters, eventually,
will be stored in the mountains surrounding this valley, and be used
in that locality. There are other important reasons why such an asset
as this should be used to the best advantage. The water in such
localities will go farther, and will serve more ground; in other words,
its duty will be greater, more lands can be irrigated, and, besides, there
is the return water from seepage which can be re-utilized.
It is a suprising fact that fully one-third, or in some cases one-
half, of the total quantity of water used in irrigation returns to the
stream. On the Black River of New Mexico, for example, half the
water used for irrigation returns to the stream and is used again. It
is clear that such re-use of water would not be possible if it were
required that it must be used lower down on the river at the
expense of the lands above. The South Platte might be cited as
another example, the return waters being about one-third of the total
quantity used. If, for example, all the waters of this stream were
allowed to flow to the plains of Nebraska, owing to some early priority
there, involving necessarily great losses in transit, as well as the im-
possibility of securing the advantages of return seepage, there would
be a tremendous loss to Colorado. The same is true of nearly all the
streams of the West, for most of them rise either in Colorado or in
Wyoming. Thus, on the Grand River, there is a great surplus of water
23 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Fellows, going to waste. In the development of Colorado the best possible use
of water depends on turning at least a portion of it over to the eastern
side of the range. Objections will be made, but it has been done,
and it will be done again and again, until that point is reached where
the water supply shall have been most fully conserved.
Mr. Foiiett, W. W. FoLLETT, M. Am. Soc. C. E. — Imperial Valley. — Picture to
yourselves a desert — a desert so barren, so devoid of life that not a bush,
a shrub, a blade of grass, nor even a cactus, can be seen, nor trace of
animate nature in any form; a desolation broiling under the pitiless
intensity of a semi-tropic sun. Such, seven years ago, was the greater
portion of the Salton Desert, in Southern California, and the rest of it
was but little better. Its eastern edge was some 40 miles west of the
Colorado Eiver, barren sand hills intervening. It was about 40 miles
wide and 100 miles long, its lower end extending into Mexico. No fresh
water was found within its bounds. Neither man nor beast could cross
it without carrying drinking water. In its lowest portion, 287 ft. below
sea level, was a deep deposit of salt, showing that it once formed an arm
of the Gulf of California, and that, when shut off by the advancing
delta of the Colorado Eiver, the sea-water had evaporated.
For many years it had been a dream of several men to turn the
waters of the Colorado into this desert for irrigation use, but only one
man kept up the fight. Dogged, determined, C. E. Eockwood persisted
in his efforts to impart to men with money his confidence in the future
of the desert and in the feasibility of his plans.
Eeferring to the map. Fig. 1, it will be remembered that Mr.
Eockwood's scheme was to take water from the Colorado at Hanlon's,
about 8 miles below Yuma, Arizona, by a canal the bottom of which
would be so far below the river's bed that the water would flow into it
without the necessity for a dam. This canal would parallel the
river for some 4 miles and then swing away from it and reach an old
channel called the Alamo, 8 or 10 miles farther on. Down this channel,
which leads to the Salton Sink, he proposed to carry water to a point,
afterward named Sharp's Heading, some 35 or 40 miles down stream,
or from 45 to 50 miles below Hanlon's. Here an earthen dam was to
be built, the water was to be raised to the surface of the country, and
a large system of main canals and laterals was to be constructed, by
which the whole arable portion of the desert would be covered. Some
600 or 800 sq. miles of the lowest part of it is so salty as to be unfit for
cultivation. A portion of this is now occupied by the Salton Sea.
For years Mr. Eockwood's efforts to interest capital were fruitless,
but he kept on trying, discouraged but not dismayed by repeated fail-
ures. In his dreams, he saw a colony of prosperous homes and fertile
farms irrigated by the Colorado's waters, rich with its fertile silt, and
he named it the Imperial Valley. How many laughed at him and ridi-
culed his pretentious name, he alone knows. At last, after many disap-
msOUSSlON ON IRRIGATION
23
24 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Foliett. pointmeiits, he formed, with some associates, tne California Develop-
ment Company, and landed water on the desert in the spring of 1901,
and his Imperial Valley sprang from the arid waste under its magic
touch. So quickly did settlers come, and so rapidly was land brought
into cultivation, that the canal people were at their wits' end to keep
up the supply of water. The permanent Hanlon's gate had not been
built, only a temporary heading existed, and the canal lacked several
feet of being down to the proposed grade. In October, 1904, with
about 90 000 acres of land under cultivation and with 10 000 inhabitants
in the valley, the heading of the canal began to silt up, and a water
famine was imminent. An open cut was made from the river to the
canal 4 miles below Hanlon's, and the world-famous Colorado crevasse
resulted. It is not intended to go into the details of this crevasse, but,
placed in Mr. Eockwood's position, nine out of ten engineers would
have opened this cut just as he did — this is said advisedly, the speaker
having an intimate knowledge of all the facts in the case.
It is now a matter of history that this crevasse was twice closed
and that the second time it was held against the greatest flood which
the Colorado has ever carried. These closures were accomplished only
after a long struggle, extending over a year or more, and after several
attempts had failed. The closures were made by H. T. Cory, M. Am.
Soc. C. E. Behind him he had all the resources of a great transconti-
nental railroad and the help of a most efficient corps of assistants. He
fought two veritable battles with the river. During their height, lim-
ited trains were side-tracked and held for hours in order that the move-
ment of stone trains might be expedited; everything possible was done
by the Southern Pacific Company which would hasten the work.
During all that year, the crevasse and its possible effects if it
remained unclosed were exploited by able writers in newspapers, maga-
zines, and proceedings of technical societies, nearly every writer stating
or implying that its closure was impossible with the methods being
used, and that, unless other supervision intervened, the Imperial Valley
was doomed. The men on the ground said nothing, but sawed wood
and quarried stone. A few of their friends had abiding faith in them.
It would not do to admit even the chance of failure — too much was at
stake. The potential value of the valley runs into the hundreds of
millions. The crevasse was closed, and will probably remain closed.
If, through some freak of the Colorado Eiver, it should again be
opened, so again will it be closed.
The Imperial Valley, with two broad and deep scars across its face,
where the runaway waters flowed down Alamo and New Eiver channels
toward the sink and scoured out gorges from 40 to 60 ft. deep, and as
much as 1 000 ft. wide, is still flourishing. At no time during the exist-
ence of the crevasse was any of the cultivated valley deprived of water
except that portion, some 15 000 acres, which was west of JSTew Eiver,
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 25
although there was imminent danger all the time that certain waste- Mr.Foiiett.
gates at the head of the Alamo would go out and lower the water level to
such a point that no land could be irrigated. Heroic, well-directed, and
persistent work in the face of great odds held these gates in place.
Only some 2 000 acres of land actually under cultivation were
washed away, 400 acres of this being in Mexico.
These two deep channels, from 2 to 10 miles apart, running down
through the lowest part of the valley, assure good drainage to the irri-
gated lands forevermore. Before the crevasse, the lands on the bottom
of the valley were in danger of becoming water-logged. Now they are
safe from that danger, and this safety alone repays the cost to the
valley of the loss of area and all other losses.
Another advantage to the valley accruing from these cuts is the
improved opportunity which they offer for the generation of electricity.
At Holtville, on the Alamo, there was a power-plant prior to the cre-
vasse, with a fall of some 40 ft. ; this is now increased to more than 60
ft. At Calexico, where no chance for power formerly existed, there is
now a sheer fall of 60 ft. into the bed of New River. It is evident
that this is an opportunity for a large production of power. The tail-
water, both on the Alamo and the New, can be picked up and used for
irrigation before the Salton Sea is reached.
The valley is now booming. Settlers are going in at the rate of 1 000
per month, and the irrigated area is increasing so rapidly and in so
many different places that it is difficult to give correct figures as to
this year's area or products. The following statistics are probably
under rather than over the facts.
There are between 18 000 and 20 000 people in the valley, and they
are watering this season 150 000 acres of land. They will export this
year about $3 500 000 of products, besides their home consumption,
and, while doing this, they will be incidentally extending the area of
cultivated land, planting trees, building homes, and largely increasing
their holdings of live stock and personal property. When it is remem-
bered that at least 40% of this area was raw desert land a year ago, the
full extent of the twelve months' work is seen.
To haul out this crop, the Southern Pacific Company has built
about 80 miles of track south of Imperial Junction. One small city,
Imperial, and several thriving towns, Calexico, Brawley, El Centre,
and Holtville, are found in the valley.
Look on this picture and then think of the conditions seven years
ago, remembering that the valley went backward rather than forward
during 1905 and 1906, and you will begin to realize what irrigation
means to an arid country.
Nor is the story yet half told. It is a fetish in the orange country
of California that oranges will grow only on a sloping porous ground
with gravelly subsoil, and it was not supposed that they would mature
26 filSCUSStON ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Foilett. in the Imperial Valley. Some venturesome man, however, planted a
few trees at Imperial, and he has seen ripen on them the finest oranges
one ever ate. So that the possibilities of this valley as an orange grove
are so great as to become bewildering.
Owing to the advantage of the old Alamo channel, and of the oppor-
tunity offered by the rock point at Hanlon's for founding a headgate
on bed-rock without a dam across the river, the construction of this
enormous canal system has been comparatively cheap, even counting
the cost of closing the crevasse. The only permanent structure on the
system now, outside of the river levee, is the reinforced concrete head-
ing at Hanlon's. It rests on solid rock, and its capacity is greater than
will probably ever be needed. To complete the whole system, with
permanent structures, and with canals extended to cover all the land
available, will cost, together with the money now expended, less than
$5 000 000. This will cover about 400 000 acres in California and
200 000 acres in Mexico — say that, in all, 500 000 acres are eventually
irrigated. The cost is seen to be $10 per acre. The Reclamation Service
projects run from $25 to $40 per acre. The low cost of the Imperial
Valley scheme is due entirely to its favorable location.
Mr. Rockwood's Imperial Valley is no longer a dream. It is a
pulsing reality, and is growing more worthy of its name each year.
In seven years more it will be a veritable empire.
Lower Bio Grande. — Now, let us go, with the crow, 1 500 miles
south of east from Imperial to the lower reaches of the Rio Grande.
Here the river has formed a delta extending for 100 miles back from
the Gulf of Mexico — a delta of rich dark loam, of almost unknown
depth, and of exceeding fertility. The rainfall is not sufficient to
mature a crop, but it is enough to cover the ground thickly with a
jungle of arid-land vegetation, mesquite, catclaw and ebony trees, cacti
of many varieties, and grama-, buffalo- and bunch-grass. Along the
low bottom lands of the river are scattered Mexican ranches, where
crops are raised from the moisture left in the ground after overflows.
These ranches are very old, the Mexicans having lived there for many
generations. Their livelihood is a precarious one, because no overflow
means no crop, and the river does not top its banks every year.
The Rio Grande in this delta is not as large as the Colorado. Its
maximum flood discharge at Brownsville is about 35 000 cu. ft. per sec,
as compared with 110 000 cu. ft. per sec. for the Colorado at Yuma. Its
minimum flow is seldom less than 1 800 cu. ft. per sec, except in rarely
dry years. This is about one-half the minimum of the Colorado. Its
mean low-water flow, on which irrigation projects may be based, is
from 3 000 to 3 200 cu. ft. per sec.
Although this delta lies some 350 miles farther south than the
Imperial Valley, its climate is better. The heat of summer is tempered
by the Gulf breezes and probably by the dense covering of vegetation.
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 27
Frosts occur in the winter, and sometimes cold "northers" make it Mr.Foiiett.
disagreeable for a few days, but generally the winter climate is
delightful.
It has been known for 10 or 12 years that sugar cane grows here
luxuriantly and carries a large percentage of sugar. Rice also produces
bountifully, if the ground is drained so as to be kept free from alkali.
Alfalfa furnishes six or seven cuttings per year, and onions and other
garden truck make enormous crops.
Within the past 2 years several different projects have been ex-
ploited for pumping water from the river and using it for irrigation.
One company is taking out a gravity canal which is to be reinforced by
pumping during low water. The Eio Grande forms the boundary
between the United States and Mexico, and all the projects here men-
tioned lie north of the river, or in the United States. There is much
more land available than water. Mexico is entitled to half the latter;
so that all the land cannot be watered, and the best on each side should
be chosen. These delta lands should be preferred to bench lands higher
up the river, and, in the United States, perennial irrigation for, say,
150 000 acres and flood irrigation for as much more is the extreme
which can be expected.
In addition to raising the crops just mentioned, it may prove
to be a good grape and nut country, but this is not yet demonstrated.
The frosts will probably preclude the growth of citrus fruits.
With the exception of one company whose works, built some 5 years
ago, were mismanaged and proved to be a failure temporarily, none of
the sixteen companies, now putting in plants, is more than 2 years old.
Indeed, none of the plants is yet completed, yet this year they are water-
ing 15 000 acres, and will water three times as much next year, and the
increase will continue for several years. The water is lifted by cen-
trifugal pumps, the lift when the river is low averaging about 16 ft.
Pumps having a discharge up to 36 in. are in use. The latter are rated
to throw 45 000 gal. per min., or 100 cu. ft. per sec. Wood or oil is used
for fuel, and the pumping is done cheaply.
The amount of land now watered is comparatively small, but the
increase will be rapid, and the cultivation is intensive. There is direct
rail connection with the northern and eastern markets, and hardy vege-
tables can be grown all the year around.
Last winter this country had a veritable invasion of home seekers.
Many bought land, and the boom is on, but it is too soon to show such
specific results as does the Imperial Valley. Enough has been done,
however, to prove that it will be a great sugar-producing country, and
large quantities of other products will be raised. The "back country"
for 100 miles north of the river is the great Texas cattle-breeding
ground, and there is no reason why this stock should not be fattened on
alfalfa grown along the river instead of being shipped north to eat
28 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Foliett. Kaiisas and Nebraska corn. The potentiality of this section is enor-
mous. Although it has lain dormant for generations, the awakening
has come, and progress will now be rapid. Nothing on earth can com-
pare with the wonderful metamorphosis which irrigation development
produces.
Both the Imperial Valley and the Brownsville country are being
developed by private capital. The Federal Government has not con-
tributed to the work in any way.
The Bio Grande Project. — The Rio Grande's source in Colorado
is high up on the Continental Divide. It first runs east and then south
through the San Luis Valley, with its 450 000 acres of irrigated land,
a plateau from 7 500 to 8 000 ft. above sea level and surrounded by
lofty snow-capped mountain ranges several thousand feet higher. The
river enters New Mexico, still among the snow mountains, and con-
tinues in them until it passes Santa Fe. In the extreme northern end
of the San Luis Valley there is an area of some 2 600 sq. miles — about
half mountain and half plain — which contributes no run-off to the main
river. The remainder of the area above described, as far south as
Santa Fe, N. M., has a large snow fall and furnishes much water.
Below Santa Fe, no living streams enter the river for a distance of
more than 500 miles. There are several torrential channels which occa-
sionally discharge for a short time large volumes of water heavily
loaded with silt. El Paso lies near the lower end of the middle third of
this strip. From this point to its mouth the river forms the boundary
between the United States and Mexico.
At the lower end of this 500-mile section, there enters from Mexico
the Conchos River. This is a torrential stream, discharging occasion-
ally enormous quantities of water. It also has a small perennial flow.
Below the Conchos, the river enters a caiion many hundred miles long.
In it are numerous springs which, together with the Conchos and two
or three other tributaries, make up quite a stream. Its maximum
flood waves are at Eagle Pass, where 240 000 cu. ft. per sec. have run for
24 hours. Below, the waves flatten out, and the water ponds in old
channels and on low ground, so that, at Brownsville, as before stated,
the maximum flood is 35 000 cu. ft. per sec. The total annual discharge
here, however, is greater than at Eagle Pass. The total length of chan-
nel, from its source to the Gulf of Mexico, measured along its sinuosi-
ties, is about 2 000 miles.
In New Mexico, along the Rio Grande and its tributaries, exist the
oldest irrigation works on the American Continent which are still in
use. When the Spaniards entered New Mexico, more than 350 years ago,
they found the Pueblo Indians, living in their many-storied towns and
cultivating the land of the valleys, bringing water to it by acequias or
irrigating ditches. Many of these are in use to this day. How long
these Indians had been there is unknown, but they were then old inhab-
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
29
30 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. FoUett. itants. There are 17 or 18 of these pueblos. The one lowest down the
river is at Isleta, about 15 miles below Albuquerque. Below here, as
far down as Socorro, ditches were taken out by the Spaniards at an
early date, but the Jornada del Muerto and the fertile Mesilla Valley
were the stamping ground of the Apache Indians until comparatively
recent years. The first ditch in the Mesilla Valley was built in 1844.
In the El Paso Valley, below the Mesilla, the Indians were driven out,
and irrigation began in the latter part of the sixteenth century.
These settlements were very prosperous until the early Eighties of
the nineteenth century. Then the large development of irrigation in
the San Luis Valley began to affect the Rio Grande above the mouth
of the Conchos, and since that time it has frequently gone dry and
remained so for months. No water reached the Conchos for 20 months
prior to May, 1900. At El Paso, the river was dry, or practically so,
for 227 days out of 365 in 1902. It was practically dry (carrying less
than 15 cu. ft. per sec.) from January 9th to August 8th, 1904 — 213
days of continuous drouth. Of this time the record shows "no flow"
(which means less than 2 A cu. ft. per sec. or none) from March 1st to
August 8th — 161 days. In September, 1896, the speaker saw weeds 2 ft.
high growing clear across the bed of the river above the mouth of the
Puerco, more than 200 miles above El Paso and about 35 miles below
Albuquerque. The river was then dry as far north as Albuquerque. Its
flood discharge at El Paso almost reaches 25 000 cu. ft. per sec, and at
San Marcial it exceeds 30 000 cu. ft. per sec. The total discharge at El
Paso in 1902 was 50 800 acre-ft. In 1903 it was 1 033 000 acre-ft., and
in 1905 it was more than 2 000 000 acre-ft.
These figures show that it is here a torrential stream, and that, to
obtain the best economic results from the use of its waters for irriga-
tion, they must be stored. Fortunately, there exists an available reser-
voir site in which can be stored 2 000 000 acre-ft. of water — possibly
2 500 000 acre-ft. This is located about 125 miles above El Paso, 10
miles west of Engle, N. M., and some 60 miles below San Marcial. To
build a dam and the necessary distribution system will cost $8 000 000.
The land on which this water will be used lies in the Territory
of New Mexico, the State of Texas, and the Republic of Mexico.
The first cost is too great for individual capital to attempt. The
diversity of interests is too complicated for individual or corporate
powers to handle. But the Reclamation Service, under the able direc-
tion of F. H. Newell, M. Am. Soc. C. E., can handle it, and has taken
hold of the enterprise. Through the exertions of one of its best-natured
engineers, B. M. Hall, M. Am. Soc. C. E., the antagonisms of many
years between the different interests were allayed, and all the communi-
ties interested are now working in harmony. Two Water Users' Asso-
ciations, one in New Mexico and one in Texas, have been legally
formed, and the lands have been signed up under the Reclamation Act.
AH that the land owners can do has been done.
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 31
Across the river from El Paso lies the Mexican settlement of Juarez. Mr. Foiiett.
Many years ago it was noted for its grapes and other fruits, and its
large crops of wheat. The records in the old Juarez church show that
the Acequia Madre was in existence and doing business more than 300
years ago. When the dry river came, the fruit trees and the vines died
for lack of water, and thousands of acres of cultivated land were aban-
doned. The population dwindled to a fourth of its former number.
The Mexicans felt themselves aggrieved in that their water, theirs for
centuries, the breath of their life, the one thing which gave value to
their lands, had been taken from them. The United States Govern-
ment recognized their moral, if not legal, claim, and by solemn treaty
has agreed to deliver to them, of the water to be stored in the Engle
Reservoir, 60 000 acre-ft. each year, and has appropriated from general
funds $1 000 000 toward the $8 000 000 required for completing this vast
Rio Grande project. The remainder will come from the Reclamation
fund when it is needed. Thus, this great enterprise is under way.
Already, a diversion dam, costing, with its appurtenances, $200 000,
has been built at the head of the Mesilla Valley, and is now in use. At
the Engle site a rubble concrete dam, 270 ft. or more from bed-rock to
coping, and 1 200 ft. long on top, will, it is hoped, soon begin to grow.
More than 200 000 acres of fertile alluvial land will be watered, and
its products, being in the center of the arid country and near large
mining camps, will find ready sale. To-day there is an attempt made
to irrigate some 50 000 acres of land scattered in the long, narrow val-
leys stretching from Engle to old Fort Hancock, 1Y5 miles down stream,
but the result of planting is uncertain, especially below El Paso, and
the sparse population has a precarious livelihood ; but, a few years from
now — it may be 5 and it may possibly be 10 — these valleys will teem
with happy homes. The farmer will put seed into the ground with a
surety that it will fructify and return a bountiful harvest, because he
knows that the water to produce his crop is already stored in the reser-
voir up the river. His dependence is not in seasonable showers nor in
uncertain river flow, but in that stored water, and it is safe.
This reservoir is made so large in proportion to the area to be irri-
gated for two reasons : First, a succession of dry seasons may necessi-
tate carrying water over for several years. Thus, it would have been
necessary to have held some of the 1896 flow until 1902, in order to
have exploited fully the capacity of the stream. Second, space must
be given for the deposit of silt. While it is believed that plans are
developing which will take care of all the sand moving on the bottom of
the stream and of a large part of the silt in suspension, carrying it out
of the reservoir, some silt will remain, and extra space must be pro-
vided for it. It is believed that this reservoir can be constructed so as
to supply 200 000 acres indefinitely, and that silt as well as water can be
furnished to the land, thus keeping up its fertility.
Do you all realize what these figures mean? Two hundred thou-
d'i DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Foiiett. Sand acres does not seem so much when you write it down, but, when
you from the East start home, remember that if this land were in a
strip one mile wide with the railroad through the center, and all were
irrigated, you would ride for more than 300 miles through a veritable
garden. If you were to go by water, and were traveling on a steamer
drawing 15 ft., these 2 000 000 acre-ft. would furnish water for a chan-
nel all the way to New York, with 5 ft. under the keel and a waterway
nearly 450 ft. wide.
This will be by far the largest artificial lake in the world. At
present an Indian reservoir, which is filled only once in 20 years or so,
is the largest, with a capacity of 950 000 acre-ft. Then comes the
Assouan Reservoir, on the Nile, which, as now constructed, holds 900 000
acre-ft. When completed, the Roosevelt Dam, now being built by the
United States Reclamation Service, on Salt River, in Arizona, will
impound 1 300 000 acre-ft. of water, and thus will hold the record of
being the largest artificial reservoir in the world, until the completion
of the Engle Dam.
A Few Indian Irrigation Worhs. — For the sake of comparison, let
us glance at the reclamation works of far-away India. There the
English engineers have built, and are now quietly building, irrigation
systems having a magnitude beside which the largest in the United
States look almost insignificant, as far as acreage covered, and size and
length of canals, are concerned. The speaker has collected the follow-
ing information from the 1905 edition of Buckley's "Irrigation Works
of India."
In 1903, in British India, more than 44 000 000 acres of land were
irrigated, of which about 20 000 000 were watered from canals built by
the engineers, and from the funds of the British Government. Of this
latter area, more than 3 600 000 acres were watered by three canals
taken from branches of the Indus, in the Punjab. The Bari Doab,
taken from the Ravi, carries 4 500 cu. ft. per sec, and waters 850 000
acres. The Sirhind, taken from the Sutlej, has a capacity of 8 200 cu.
ft. per sec, and, in 1903, watered 1 170 000 acres. The Chenab heading,
in the river of the same name, has a capacity of 10 800 cu. ft. per sec,
and, in 1903, served 1 600 000 acres. Its mean flow during the rainy
season was more than 8 000 cu. ft. per sec, and, during the dry season,
6 000 cu. ft. per sec It is said to have watered in one year 2 000 000
acres, or as much land as is now irrigated in the whole State of Colo-
rado. It covers more than 2 600 000 acres, and cost to build about
$10 000 000, or less than $4 per acre. This low cost is doubtless partly
due to natural advantages of the country and partly to cheap labor. It
paid 21% on its cost in 1903, clear of the cost of collecting rentals and
of maintenance.
On the Ganges River, the Upper Ganges Canal carries 8 000 cu. ft.
per sec. It serves not only to irrigate 1 300 000 acres of land, but also
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 33
acts as a feeder to the Lower Ganges Canal. The latter carries 5 000 cu. Mr. Foiiett.
ft. per sec, and, with the help of the upper canal, waters more than
1 200 000 acres. Water, taken from the river by the upper canal, is
carried 180 miles before it is turned into the lower canal, and then
travels 240 miles farther before it is all used. The irrigator on the delta
at the junction of the Ganges and Jumna Rivers turns on his land
water which has been transported 420 miles in an artificial earthen
channel.
Up to 1903, the British Government had spent about $150 000 000
on canal systems, or an average of $7.50 per acre for the land actually
watered. In that year, it derived an average net revenue of 6.3% on
the cost. Many systems were operated at a loss, and will probably be
so for many years. They are intended to ameliorate famine conditions.
Two large projects were then approved and funds provided for them.
These would cover upwards of 5 000 000 acres, and are now doubtless
completed and in use.
Stupendous as these projects are, they do not mean so much in pro-
portion to size as do those in the United States in adding to human
advancement. It is stated that the Chenab has made available homes
for 1 000 000 people — or two inhabitants for every three acres irrigated.
Some of the other systems have a denser population, and their construc-
tion has served principally to lessen the death rate from famine. They
have ameliorated the condition of the natives, but have not brought in
so high a civilization as do smaller enterprises in the United States,
where homes are made, universities founded, churches built, and all the
complexities of a higher civilization set under way. During this Con-
vention will be seen what 40 years have done in reclaiming the desert,
and, although the total acreage is less than one-third of that watered
by the Chenab alone, a vast addition to the happiness of mankind may
be observed.
The Law of Prior Appropriation. — In the humid States the old com-
mon law of riparian rights obtains. Every man owning a frontage
upon a living stream has the right in perpetuity of undiminished flow
in it. He may use the water in any way he wishes, as for power pur-
poses, provided he does not injure his neighbors above by flowing their
lands, and provided he returns to the stream below the water practically
undiminished in volume.
This law will not serve the arid country, where water, taken from a
stream for irrigation, returns no more to it except, in some cases, in
greatly diminished volume, as seepage. Should the tenets of riparian
law be enforced, irrigation would stop. Therefore, a new principle was
evolved from the necessity of the situation — the law of prior appropria-
tion. The water of all streams is declared the property of the public
or of the State, subject to appropriation for beneficial use, and he who
first appropriates all or a portion of the water of any stream and perfects
34 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Foiiett. his ckim by putting it to a beneficial use, obtains a legal property right
to that water. It becomes his as much as is the land on which he uses
it for irrigation, if this be the purpose of his appropriation, and such
it usually is.
You may own the land on both banks of a stream for miles, and yet,
should you allow its waters to go to waste, a neighbor below you can
enter on your land, locate and build a dam and a headgate in the
stream, condemn a right-of-way for his ditch across your land, build
it, and divert that water to his lands below, and you lose all rights to it.
Where several appropriators take water from the same stream, the
one who first took it must have what water he needs, up to the amount
of his appropriation, before the second is allowed any, and so on up the
list. These rights are determined by different methods in the different
States, but they are all called "adjudications." After a stream is adju-
dicated, the water is distributed among the several ditches by a State
official.
Thus far, this adjudication has been confined to that portion of
interstate streams which lies in each State, all rights of the State lower
down being ignored by the one above it, but there is no logical reason
why an imaginary line across a stream should give the land owner
above that line a right to take the property of the man below it,
whether it be a county, state, or international boundary. For, in an
irrigated country, the land has no value without the water, and the
property right vests in the latter. If a man's water is taken from him,
he is robbed, whether or not an imaginary line crosses the stream of
supply between him and the robber.
There are many ramifications of this law, and it is materially modi-
fied in different States, but the basic principle applies to the water laws
of all the arid and semi-arid States except to those of California.
There, the riparian theory ostensibly holds, but it has been modified
to such an extent by statutes and court decisions that it is unrecog-
nizable.
Those interested in this phase of irrigation will find the subject
fully discussed in "Irrigation Institutions," by Elwood Mead, M. Am.
Soc. C. E.*
It has never seemed to the speaker that the storage of water for
the development of electrical power and for irrigation go together.
The supply of stored water for electrical development must be one
which is continuous throughout the whole low-water season of the
stream which it supplements. Water stored for irrigation will be
used within a comparatively short time. It may be stored and held
for several months, or even, in the case of large reservoirs, for years.
♦The above paper was read to the meeting of June 24th, 1908 ; the discussion
which follows vvas contributed by Mr. Follett at the meeting of June 25th, 1908.
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 35
and then all used in two or three months. This will not serve for Mr. Foliett.
electrical power development.
Now, as to seepage: The seepage return in Colorado has been care-
fully studied by Professor Carpenter and others, and it exists, as has
been stated. On the Rio Grande, however, there is no seepage return
from irrigation below the San Luis Valley. In that valley there is a
small return in some places and a large loss from seepage in others —
as on the main Rio Grande between Del Norte and Monte Vista. In
the foregoing paper the speaker mentioned having seen weeds growing
2 ft. high across the bed of the Rio Grande below Albuquerque, in
September, 1896. During that season, and for 200 years prior to that
time, there had been, in the 40 miles of the valley of the river above
the point where these weeds were growing, some 20 000 acres of land
under cultivation. It had been irrigated every year, and still there
was not one drop of seepage return from that irrigation water going
into the channel of the stream.
The whole Rio Grande Valley is an alluvial deposit. The river
in most places lies on the top of the valley, and the water, once taken
from the stream, never comes back. A few days after those weeds were
seen, the speaker visited a point, a hundred miles or more down the
river, where there was a reef of rock which crossed the river bed and
probably forced to the surface all the underflow which might be going
down the stream. When visited, there were about 4 cu. ft. per sec.
running, the river being dry above that point.
In 1904 Professor Slichter, who has measured the velocity of
underground waters in various places for the Reclamation Service,
came to El Paso and attempted to measure the velocity of the under-
flow in the Rio Grande where it runs through "the Pass" just above
that town. There the hills shut the river into a space about 350 ft,
wide, with bed-rock 70 to 90 ft. below the bed of the stream. He
could not detect any velocity.
The question naturally arises: What becomes of the waste water
from irrigation and also from overflow? The only answer which
the speaker can give is, that it evidently sinks into the ground and
is held there until it is evaporated or transpired through growing
vegetation. The material of the valley is fine sand and alluvium in-
terspersed with thin layers of clay. Water does not percolate through
it at any appreciable rate of speed. The river is a torrential stream,
becoming dry at times, and irrigation goes on for only six or seven
months of the year. The rainfall is 8 to 10 in. per annum, and the
evaporation from a pan in water is about 6 ft. per year plus the rainfall ;
so that, between floods and between irrigation seasons, the subsurface
water is dispersed in the air to such an extent that room is made for
the next year's surplus.
In this discussion it has been stated, as a general economic prin-
36 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. FoUett. ciple, that water should be stored for the development of electrical
power and then used for irrigation, and the inference was that the
water was stored but once. When the speaker challenged this state-
ment, it was then said that two reservoirs must be used, one above
the power-station and another below, and that the lower reservoir need
be only one-third as large as the upper, provided the system could be
started off with the lower reservoir full.
After considerable study of the problem, the speaker is unable to
accept this statement. He does not believe that the scheme will work
in practice, especially on streams whose perennial flow is over-appro-
priated for direct irrigation and whose flood supply, in seasons of
small spring flow, is over-appropriated for storage of water to be used
later for irrigation. The first condition obtains on every stream on
the eastern slope of the Rockies, south of Wyoming, and the latter
exists on many. Perhaps the statement of a concrete example will
make the speaker's position plainer.
The Cache a la Poudre, which supplies the Fort Collins and Greeley
Country, had a deficient flood flow this spring, and, as a result, the
numerous reservoirs on the plains, holding storage rights to flood
water, were only one-half to one-third filled. The full capacity of
these reservoirs is always needed in August to mature the potato
crop and to irrigate alfalfa.
Now, with these conditions existing, assume that a large reservoir
had been built up the stream in the mountains for power storage and
had been filled with water during the spring of 1908. Under the law
of prior appropriation, this water would be the property of the reser-
voir owners on the plains, as their reservoirs were tmfilled. The
power company would need the water to supplement the low-water
flow of the stream throughout the whole period of small flow. This
period runs from the latter part of June or early in July until February
or March, and the draft for power on the mountain reservoir should be
so proportioned, month by month, as to make the water last for the
seven or eight months during which it may be needed.
Owing to the shortage of water, all the plains reservoirs become
empty in August, and crops are suffering and dying for want of water.
The power reservoir is filled with water to Y0% or more of its
capacity. This water, had it not been stored there, would have been
held in the plains reservoirs and would have been used toward saving
the crops. Under these conditions, it is almost certain that the Water
Commissioner for that district would compel the power people to turn
that water loose, and let it all come down the stream in two or three
weeks' time. By September 1st the reservoir would be dry, and the
power plant would be crippled for the next six months. No small
secondary reservoir would be of any material service.
It may be claimed that this is an exaggerated case. Perhaps it is,
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 37
but it illustrates clearly the speaker's position, and is one which may Mr. Foiiett.
be, and will be, approximated on any stream of the Gulf drainage
from the Continental Divide.
Where power plants are developed with the storage of flood waters
not already appropriated, their operation will result in increasing the
perennial flow of the stream below their wheels and so will benefit
irrigation. If it is desired to store the flow from the plant after the
cropping season is over, for use the following year, this can be done
if reservoir sites can be found; but the speaker would consider this
an entirely distinct development independent of the power plant, and
one which would be properly undertaken by those to be benefited by
the storage and not by the power company as such.
Gardner S. Williams, M. Am. Soc. C. E.— There seem to be rather Mr. Williams,
conflicting ideas on the matter of return water; but, to some extent,
they can be explained quite satisfactorily in the light of what is known
of the absorption of water by various kinds of plants, and the variable
amount of evaporation from different soils. It may be suggested that
in the Rio Grande Valley the quantity of water spread upon the land
has not been sufficiently great to leave any excess over that needed
by the vegetation and that evaporated directly from the soil; whereas,
in other localities there may be so much difference in the situation
that the demands of these two agencies for water have left some over
to fill up the subterranean basins, and that possibility may account
for the difference in the return water from the several drainage areas.
It may even happen, as time goes on, if the soil be sufficiently porous,
that a part of the water used for irrigation purposes in the Rio Grande
Valley will return to the streams.
F. C. FiNKLE, Esq. — Mr. Eollett has stated that the development of Mr. Finkie.
electric power may be greatly restricted, or entirely prohibited, in many
sections of the arid region, because of the conflict with irrigation.
He bases his conclusion on the conflicting nature of the uses of water
from streams for irrigation and power. It is true that water for irri-
gation must be available during the months of seeding, sprouting, and
growing, and that it must be conserved during the remainder of the
year. Usually, five or six months of each year cover the irrigation
season, and these are during the spring and summer. Throughout the
arid West the only exception to this is in the sections of Southern
California where citrus fruits or winter fruits and vegetables are
grown. For these crops it sometimes becomes necessary to irrigate
every month in the year, during seasons of deficient rainfall, or "dry
years."
On the other hand, water for power purposes must be continuous
throughout the year; must, in fact, be more plentiful in autumn and
winter because days are shorter and more power is consumed for
illumination.
38 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Finkie. The mountain streams suitable for developing power have their
greatest flow in summer, usually become very low in the fall, and attain
their minimum flow in winter. This arrangement is favorable to
irrigation, except when the snows melt so rapidly as to cause great
floods in the early spring and a scarcity during the summer growing
If such streams are equalized, so as to make their use profitable
for the development of power, the effect will be two-fold, as far as
irrigation is concerned. The large floods may be stored in reservoirs
and released when the stream naturally discharges less water than
is needed to operate the power-plant. This does not interfere with irri-
gation. Or, if the power development is planned on a larger scale, it is
necessary to store some of the normal spring and summer flow to
regulate the streams to a higher flow during the minimum months.
This will interfere with irrigation unless measures are taken to return
the water thus impounded — when it is necessary for irrigation — at
some subsequent time, and it will then have an equal value for that
purpose.
Such a result can be accomplished by the use of secondary storage
below the tail-race of the power-plant. This will amount to double
storage for a part of the water used by the power-plant.
To illustrate: For a stream having a discharge of 200 or 300
cu. ft. per sec. during May, June, July, and August, and a dimin-
ished flow, as low as 20 cu. ft. per sec, during December, January,
February, and March, it is necessary to store water at the head-
waters, so as to regulate it to give a flow of not less than 100 cu. ft.
per sec. during the whole year. If the storage is available and
accomplishes this, the surplus over 100 cu. ft. per sec, which is
demanded continuously for the power-plant, must be stored during
May, June, July, and August. Now, if all the water is required for
irrigation during these months, it is clear that the storage of any part
of it will interfere with its use for that purpose. It will be necessary,
therefore, to construct another reservoir, at some point below the tail-
race of the power-plant and above the intake of the irrigation canals,
by means of which the water used in the power-plant can be im-
pounded during the non-irrigation months, and released during the
following irrigation season. This is called a secondary reservoir, and
the purpose it accomplishes is called secondary storage. After it is
once filled, its operation effectually prevents any conflict between the
power and irrigation interests on the stream. This operation merely
consists in releasing contemporaneously from the secondary reservoir
the same quantity of water as that taken to fill the reservoir above the
intake of the power-plant.
During the months of low flow in the stream, the secondary
reservoir is again filled from water passing through the power-plant.
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 39
which at that time is not demanded for any other purpose than that Mr. Finkie.
of generating power. Thus the process becomes an endless chain, by
which the natural flow of the stream is maintained for the benefit of
irrigation, and at the same time it is regulated for use as required by
the power-plant.
No difficulty and interference with irrigation need be anticipated
when first filling the secondary reservoir, as this may be done from
water flowing during the non-irrigation months, while the power-plant
is being constructed.
There are examples of power-plants, where this method is used to
harmonize the interests of users for power and irrigation on the same
stream.
To illustrate this the speaker can refer to those plants of the
Edison Electric Company, of Los Angeles, on Mill Creek, in San
Bernardino County, California, known as "Mill Creek No. 1" and
"Mill Creek No. 3," which he designed and constructed for that
company many years ago.
The entire flow of Mill Creek is used for the irrigation of valuable
citrus orchards near Eedlands, Cal. These water rights are among
the oldest in the State, having been appropriated by the Indians for
the irrigation of their gardens and corn fields sometime before 1826.
They passed later to the Mexicans and from them to the Americans,
being at the present time valued as high as $100 000 for each cubic
foot per second of perpetual flow of water.
The use of the water for power would not be profitable unless
regulation of some kind by storage could be accomplished, because the
flow of the stream is extremely variable and not adapted to the load
curve obtainable for a power-plant. Yet no storage could be permitted
which would alter the natural discharge of the stream without in-
fringing on these very valuable irrigation water rights.
The problem was solved by constructing a primary reservoir above
the head of the force main for the upper power-plant. Erom this
reservoir the water is used through the upper plant, under a head of
1 923 ft., and then through the lower one, under a head of 630 ft.
Below the tail-race of the lower plant and above the point of diversion
of the "Mill Creek Zanja," which is the main conduit of the irrigation
system, is located the secondary reservoir. By means of this reservoir
the stream is regulated back to its natural flow.
This system has been in operation for many years, and has worked
successfully. No injury has resulted to the irrigators, and the power-
plants have not been hampered by conflicts over vested irrigation
rights, nor deprived of the water required for their business.
Acting on the same principle, the Eastern Colorado Power Com-
pany is now constructing a power-plant on Middle Boulder Creek,
about 30 miles from Denver. In connection with this development,
40 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Finkie. storage reservoirs in the mountains are being constructed to impound
water in summer, which will be turned through the conduit to the
power-plant for use in winter, when the natural stream flow is wholly
insufficient.
In order that the water used for power in winter may not be taken
away from land requiring its use for irrigation, the company is
preparing to build a secondary reservoir below the power-house. By
means of this reservoir, what has already been explained will be
accomplished, namely, re-storage of the water used for power in winter
and its use for irrigation during the following summer.
A report has been made for a similar power development for the
Eastern Colorado Power Company. This is on the Big Thompson
Eiver, and also on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains. Several
excellent reservoir sites in the mountains are available, and locations
for two power-plants below these have been recommended. For
secondary storage, Boyd Lake Reservoir, referred to by Mr. Anderson,
has been selected. This reservoir has been practically completed by
Mr. B. D. Sanborn, a Greeley capitalist, who has given an option on
a portion of its capacity to be used by the Eastern Colorado Power
Company as secondary storage in connection with the Big Thompson
power projects.
The principles thus applied to practical use are necessary in carry-
ing out power projects on the eastern slope, in Colorado. The
streams flowing from the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains are
either completely used for irrigation, or the demand of the future is
so great as to make their conservation for this purpose a necessity. It
is apparent, therefore, that power-plants in this region must be planned
with double storage.
Time has only permitted a discussion of the general principles
involved, but it may well be added, that the secondary storage need
not be as large as the primary. This is a detail which must be care-
fully worked out from the data presented by each individual case.
Mr. Newell has referred to another very important matter for the
irrigation engineer, that of concrete work failing under certain
conditions.
An instance of this was observed about 10 years ago, at Santa
Barbara, Cal., where a concrete pipe became completely disintegrated.
The pipe was made originally from the best hydraulic Portland cement,
all carefully tested, and the aggregates were of the best quality of sand
and gravel. The workmanship was the same as on similar pipes which
have been used for more than thirty years and are apparently un-
affected by time. Investigation revealed only one possible cause for
failure: The soil in which the pipe was laid contained iron pyrites,
which by decomposition produced sulphuretted hydrogen, and the pre-
sumption is that this affected the cement.
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 41
A similar failure of concrete pipe occurred at Cucamonga, Cal., a Mr. Finkie.
few years ago. The pipe had been properly constructed, and was laid
in a swamp. Examinations of the soil and water revealed only one
theory by which the softening of the concrete could be explained.
The conclusion that decomposition and fermentation of the vegetable
matter in the swamp produced carbon dioxide, which caused the
trouble, seemed inevitable. It is known that carbonic acid gas has
a strong alEnity for lime, and it is supposed that its combination with
the lime in the cement produced carbonate of lime. The cement in
the pipe had become soft, and resembled talc, or a mixture of clay
and limestone dust. To all appearances, it had returned to the state
in which it was found before it was burned into cement.
Cement is supposed to be one of the most indestructible materials,
and yet it cannot be used under all conditions.
It is well known that steel, iron and wood must be used with great
discretion in order to build works of a permanent character. Re-
ferring to wood, and particularly as a material for water pipes, it is
interesting to recall the paper* by Arthur L. Adams, M. Am. Soc.
C. E., regarding the water-works at Astoria, Ore.
The case cited by Mr. Adams is one of several where wooden-stave
pipes have been unsuccessful, while there are many other instances
in which they have been entirely successful. The failure at Astoria
is undoubtedly due to the large quantity of vegetable matter in the
soil, which makes it a "muck" soil. This conclusion is borne out by
experiments made elsewhere to learn the effect on wood in soils where
large quantities of vegetable matter are undergoing decomposition.
Among some of the wood-stave pipes which have proven highly
successful are those of the Denver Union Water Company. The
soil in which these pipes are laid is only slightly alkaline with
chloride and sulphate of sodium, there being no carbonate of sodium.
The pipes are also under a heavy pressure, which is favorable to long
life by maintaining complete saturation in the wood.
These matters are referred to merely for the purpose of showing
the grave responsibility resting on an engineer when he selects ma-
terials for use in construction work.
The discussion by Professor Carpenter on alkali is also a matter
of much importance to an irrigation engineer. It does not necessarily
follow that all land containing alkali, even in considerable quantities,
is useless. The most common forms of alkali in California are sul-
phate of sodium and chloride of sodium. These are not harmful to
the growth of many crops, and some such alkaline land, as for example
in the great Imperial Valley, is extremely productive and valuable;
but it is important to know that it is necessary to cultivate such land
with intelligence, after it is brought under irrigation. Instances have
* Tninxdciionfi. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. LVIII, p. 65.
43 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Finkie. been observed where such land has been heavily fertilized with manure,
or where it has been plowed, turning under large amounts of vegetable
matter, and then irrigated. Invariably, this results in fermentation
and the production of carbonic acid gas in the soil. As carbon di-
oxide has a greater affinity for sodium than either sulphuric acid gas
or chlorine, the sulphates and chlorides of sodium are converted into
carbonate of sodium, which is a very destructive alkali and renders the
land worthless.
Alkali land which may thus be impaired should be cultivated with
as little humus for fertilizing it as possible, and should not be over-
saturated with irrigation water, but kept as dry as possible, consistent
with the production of crops, and must at all times be well cultivated
in order to aerate the soil.
Mr. Means. Thomas H. Means, Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C. E. (by letter). — Irriga-
tion is now the vital problem before the people of the western part
of the United States. From the early individual effort, through cor-
poration and State extension, the problem of irrigation has at last
taken on a National aspect, and the future hope of the West lies in
National irrigation. The majority of easily built systems have been
taken up, leaving only the more expensive works which are beyond
the means of corporations. Home-building is the gTeat problem in the
West; here lie the great grazing areas, the forests, the great mineral
deposits of the United States, and large areas of the most fertile soil.
The high mountains offer many opportunities for power development
and, as these power propositions are taken up, manufacturing will be
started.
It is gradually creeping into the minds of Western men that
Government ownership and control of such resources as water and
forest offer the best means of managing and conserving these resources
for the good of the whole people for the longest time, and as the
people of the West come in personal contact with the operations of
the Forest Service and Reclamation Service, the great prejudices
against Government ownership and management are disappearing.
One phase of home-building, that is, power development, has not
been considered as seriously as seems advisable. Such development
provides means of employment in manufacturing and, consequently,
home-building for factory operatives.
To bring about the greatest development and the making of the
greatest number of homes, irrigation and power development should
be under one control.' When there comes a conflict of interests, it
becomes a question of calculation of which use of the water will return
the most to the people and permit the greatest development of homes.
An interesting method of calculating the relative value of water for
power and for irrigation has been suggested by A. P. Davis, M. Am.
Soc. C. E. If the value of 1 h.p. averages 1 cent per hour, and the
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 43'
returns from the land be $25 per acre, and it be assumed that 50% Mr. Means.
of the theoretic power can be realized and sold, and that 3 acre-ft. of
water are required for irrigating 1 acre of land, it is interesting to
determine the height which the water necessary to irrigate 1 acre of
land would have to be dropped before it was as valuable for power
as for irrigation. Under the conditions just stated, the water will
have to be dropped 1 120 ft. to bring the same returns for power as
for irrigation. Where the returns from irrigation are greater than
those given, the height which water must be dropped is greater, and
where power is correspondingly higher in price, the height is less.
While these calculations are crude, and, perhaps, do not fit conditions
in any district of the West, they serve to show that where water is
used for power, to the exclusion of irrigation, the power must either
be very valuable or the fall considerable. Where, however, the water can
be used for irrigation below the power-house or caught in storage
reservoirs, the development of every possible horse-power is a duty which
belongs to the organization having charge of the development of
the stream.
If the irrigation possibilities of a given stream are in the hands
of one organization, and the power possibilities left for any one to
secure, the best development of resources and the home-building, so
desirable in the West, can never be carried to their fullest extent.
Already hundreds of instances can be pointed out where power develop-
ment of previous years is now standing in the way of the fullest
development of home-building by irrigation, and many instances are
on record where large power companies have control of power possi-
bilities with no intention of development, holding the rights only to
keep out competitors. Future power rights should be granted only
to parties who will immediately develop the right granted, and grants
should be made only for a term of years. Every power right granted
should be approved by that organization having in charge the develop-
ment of the stream in question, and should only be granted after
careful investigation to determine whether such right will ever inter-
fere with more valuable future developments. The man who tacks a
little piece of paper on a tree, thereon claiming power privileges,
should never have the right without development, but should be re-
quired to act promptly or to turn the right back to the Government
for development.
It would seem that the time is almost ripe for a National Depart-
ment of Natural Eesources, in whose charge will be placed mining,
forest, irrigation, grazing, and other natural resources now belonging
to the people, and the title to which should never leave the people.
Irrigation consists of a great deal more than building storage dams
and digging ditches, that water may run down hill in an orderly
manner. Many dams are built, thousands of miles of ditches are in
44 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Meaus. operation, and yet there are many little kinks in the problem which
must be straightened out before the greatest success can be attained.
These are now the problems before the West. Many men have found
themselves in charge of well-built irrigation systems with good water
supply and thousands of acres of fertile soil, yet years of earnest
effort were required before the system could be considered a success.
The problem is largely a human one. The success of many an
irrigated country has resulted only after many individual failures, and
sometimes two or three groups of settlers have come and gone before
entire success has been obtained, yet the first man had the same
opportunities for success as the man who finally succeeded, and the
fault was largely his own.
A Government irrigation project will have more of these difficulties
to contend with than the project under private management, for the
man attracted by the Government is of an entirely different type from
the man who selects a private irrigation system. Moreover, the Govern-
ment cannot select its settlers as a private company does, but must
accept the water-right application of any man who has the money for
a first payment. The Government project attracts the man who is
looking for the Government to give him something, for the idea of
a "homestead" is a "free home." No more mistaken idea was ever
conceived. An irrigation homestead is not free; there are definite
financial obligations to be met, and the settler must have money or
crops must be grown and sold before these obligations can be met.
The settler must either have the capital to meet these obligations or the
experience to enable him to grow crops at once.
Government irrigation has been so widely advertised in papers and
magazines, and the glories of a farm in the free West have been
painted in such true pictures that many city-bred men are coming
west. The man in the gloomy back office in Chicago, who reads of the
sunshine and freedom of the West, where a man can wear overalls
and a flannel shirt and yet be respected, often overlooks the fact that
he will have to wield the business end of a pitchfork in the hot sun,
instead of a pen beneath the cheerful buzz of an electric fan. He
thinks of the cool shade of a grape arbor and has an idea that, by
sitting on the back porch, he can pull a string which will lift a gate
and irrigate the back lot. When he gets into the real practice of
irrigation, and his ditch breaks and drowns half his crop and the other
half dries up before the ditch is fixed, and his whole year's work is
gone; or when, in the middle of a hot afternoon, the blinding sweat is
pouring over his face as he pitches a few more tons of hay on the
wagon, he thinks of that Chicago office with the electric fan as one
of the most attractive of places, and it is no wonder he becomes a
little bit discouraged.
A statement of this kind is made to show some of the difficulties
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
45
in the way of Government irrigation. In spite of these, Government Mr. Means,
irrigation is now a success and promises to become all the more a
success. The future of the West depends on it, and far-seeing men look
to the time when the control of the natural resources of the country-
will be guarded by an impartial set of men, working for posterity as
well as for the people of to-day.
G. N. Houston^ Assoc. M. Am. See. C. E. (by letter). — Irrigation Mr. Houston,
structures in Colorado are in the transition period mentioned by Mr.
Newell. The old timber structures are giving way to steel and concrete.
In the spring of 1906 the writer was called on to suggest some
method of protecting the embankment of Terry Lake, a reservoir
owned by the Larimer and Weld Reservoir Company, and located about
one mile north of Fort Collins, Colo.
SKETCHES SHOWING METHOD OF WAVE PROTECTION
ON EMBANKMENTS OF TERRY LAKE RESERVOIR, FORT COLLINS, COLO.
Footing 1
TYPICAL CROSS-SECTION OF THE 1800 FT. OF EXPERIMENTAL PAVING
BUILT IN THE SUMMER OF 1906
TYPICAL CROSS-SECTION OF REMAINDER OF PAVING
BUILT IN THE SUMMER OF 1907
Before the improvement was made it had a capacity of 7 400
acre-ft. and covered about 500 acres. In spite of the heavy rip-rap,
the wave action had eroded the banks so much that the reservoir had
become a menace to the lives and property of the people living below
it. There was about a mile of this embankment, varying from 16 to
25 ft. in height. Two typical cross-sections, showing the condition of
the bank, are given in Fig. 4.
After considering several schemes for this work, it was decided, as
an experiment, to put in 1 800 lin. ft. of reinforced concrete slope
paving where the wave action was most severe. The bank was cut
back below and filled out above high water to make a li to 1 slope.
46 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Houston. On this the paving was laid in sections 7 ft. in width, running from
top to bottom.
During the following year, no serious crack having developed in
this paving, the remaining embankment was covered. This new work,
however, was laid entirely on fill with beams, 16 ft. from center to
center, moulded in place in trenches cut in the bank to support it in
case the earth settled away from it.
The cost of this paving was $1.68 per sq. yd., the cement costing
$2.40 per barrel. It has proved very satisfactory, and four or five other
reservoirs have adopted the same scheme.
Another type of structure is shown in Fig. 2, Plate I. It con-
sists of a reinforced concrete ditch lining, outlet gates, sluiceway, and
drop by which the waters in the Eaton Ditch are discharged into the
Windsor Reservoir. This is located about 12 miles east of Fort Collins,
Colo.
There are five gates, having 4 by 6 ft. clear opening, the sills being
3 ft. below the bottom of the ditch. The lining extends about 30 ft.
up the ditch to prevent the scouring of the banks due to the increased
velocity when the gates are opened. Above the gates, and under the
platform from which they are operated, there are five overflow weirs,
their crest being 6 in. above high-water line.
In case of a sudden rise in the ditch, the surplus water would dis-
charge into the same sluiceway as the gates. The channel below the
gates is gradually narrowed to a width of 9 ft. and a depth of 5 ft.,
and this extends 200 ft. to a 10-ft. drop. The water then discharges
through an open cut into the reservoir. The side walls of this channel
are supported against the earth pressure with 8 by 8-in. reinforced con-
crete struts. In all this work the Johnson bar was used as reinforce-
ment.
Mr. Lyman. RicHARD R. Lyman, Assoc. Am. Soc. C. E. (by letter). — The writer
has been impressed by the fact that some irrigation work, done for
individuals and for private companies, is necessarily different, in at
least two respects, from that shovsm and discussed by Mr. Newell. The
first difference is in the cost, or quality of the work. Individuals
and private companies cannot often afford to invest, in the storage
and distribution systems they construct, the amount of money that the
Government uses for similar structures. Then, in the second place, in
many agricultural districts, the point at which the water is diverted
is often located in soft earth, while all the structures shown by Mr.
Newell were built in places where it was comparatively easy to reach
bed-rock in the bottom of the stream from which water was to be
diverted.
The writer has recently designed and constructed two dams in the
channel of the Sevier River, near the central part of Utah, where the
slope of the bed of the river is only about 3 ft. to the mile, and where
PLATE I.
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENGRS.
VOL. LXII, No. 1092.
HOUSTON ON
IRRIGATION.
Fig. 1.— Placing Reinforcement and Paving on Terby Lake Embankments,
Ft. Collins, Colo.
Fig. 2.-— Sluiceway and Drop Below Gates op Windsor Reservc
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 47
the distance to bed-rock is unknown. Wells have been driven in this Mr. Lyman,
neighborhood to depths of several hundred feet, and in no case has a
layer of rock been encountered. The earth through which these wells
have been driven is made up of alternate layers of clay and sand, these
layers varying in thickness from a few inches to a few feet.
The writer is not presenting this matter with a view of dwelling
upon the construction of the dams themselves, even though they have
been constructed in this soft material, but it is his opinion that
perhaps the construction of the concrete spillways over these dams
may be of interest, since each must carry at times a flow of water
amounting to about 2 500 cu. ft. per sec. and must deliver this water
to the channel of soft earth below with a velocity such that the moving
water will not disturb the surrounding earth so as to endanger either
the dam or the spillway itself.
The first of these dams was designed and built for the Deseret Irri-
gation Company, of Hinckley, Utah, and the Irrigated Lands Company,
of Salt Lake City, Utah.
It is in Millard County, about 24 miles west of the new town of
Burtner, on the line of the San Pedro, Los Angeles, and Salt Lake
Eailroad.
The writer submitted, for the consideration of the companies con-
cerned, the design of a steel reinforced concrete spillway very different
from that which has been constructed, and estimated its cost at $24 000.
These figures might have been perfectly satisfactory for such a con-
struction if the Government had been going to do the work, but not so
when the money had to be furnished by the farmers of the neighbor-
hood. Nor was any fault found with the design. In fact, the only
part of the plan that was given any consideration was the estimated
cost, and this appeared so high to those concerned that the plan was
quickly rejected and a new and cheaper design demanded.
This new design, in conformity with which construction was finally
begun, was estimated to cost $8 500. Such additions and changes in
design were made, however, that the actual completed structure cost
about $14 000.
It was perhaps the financial consideration thus thrust upon the
writer which, during his rather careful consideration of this design,
led him to construct the basin shown in cross-section at A in Fig. 6,
a construction unlike anything of the sort that has come to his
attention.
The curved chamber or basin at B, Fig. 6, into which the water
falls after passing over the bulkhead at (which is not shown in
place) involves the same principle as does the chamber at A, that is, the
water in it takes up the velocity, more or less, of that water which
comes over the bulkhead, and thus decreases the shock upon the
structure due to the falling water.
48 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Lyman. The Structure was completed in the fall of 1907, and since that
time water has been running over it almost constantly.
When, with all the timbers removed, that compose the bulkhead, the
water was running over the crest at C 4 ft. deep, the sheet assumed a
uniform thickness of about 1 ft. on the long slope, and across the
bottom to the vertical wall D, before the thickness changed. When the
wall, D, was encountered (or the self-formed water-pad, E, perhaps),
the stream went vertically into the air to a height of some 8 ft., and
then fell virtually upon itself practically without horizontal velocity.
The water then moved on down the stream almost without commotion.
It will be noted in the views on Plate II, as well as in the
sketch. Fig. 6, that the velocity of the water in the basin. A, is just
sufficient to keep the down-stream water from backing into the basin,
and therefore it maintains the vertical wall of water shown. This
spillway has six openings, each 16 ft. wide from center to center.
The piers between the openings are each 18 in. thick, making the net
width of the stream between the outside piers 87 ft.
This dam with its spillway was constructed in the bottom of a
channel cut by a reservoir full of water in the spring of 1906. This
water escaped from the reservoir after the washing out of an old
wooden spillway which was located on the site where the new one has
been built.
The second of these dams was built for the Melville Irrigation Com-
pany, 8 miles farther up the river. The dam is about 800 ft. long, and
has a maximum height of 36 ft. above the bottom of the river. This
work has also been done by the farmers of Millard County.
The land upon which this construction was made was poorer than
that where the spillway and dam of the Deseret Irrigation Company
was built, for the reason that the latter was clean clay, of compara-
tively good quality, which had been recently laid bare by flood waters,
while the former was land in the bottom of the old river bed, which
had been subjected to repeated freezing and thawing for an indefinite
length of time, and had probably been shifted about more or less by the
high waters of the river.
Borings were made to determine the nature of the ground on this
site, and it was discovered that in some places the clay was within
a few feet of the surface, while in others an excavation some 10 ft.
deep and a boring 14 ft. farther were made before the clay was
rea"ched.
In order to tie the puddle core of the dam to this underlying clay,
excavations were made, but where the depth to this clay was such that
sufficiently deep excavations could not be made conveniently, sheet-
piling was driven, for the purpose of uniting the core and the clay.
There was hardly any seepage through or under this dam, except
in the river channel, where the presence of the river at one time, and
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
49
Mr. Lyman.
50 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Lyman, the haste to get the fill up safely beyond the water surface at another,
may have caused some imperfect work in taking the soundings and
driving the piling. The seepage at this point, however, is not very
great, and, since this slight flow is clean, it is doing little or no "cut-
ting," and, therefore, will probably give no serious trouble.
A cross-section of the spillway over this dam is shown in Fig. 5.
The wall. A, is the principal feature of difference between this
spillway and that previously considered. In Nature, where the
velocity of a flowing stream is reduced, more or less, in a comparatively
short time, the water makes a large or small basin, the size depending
upon existing conditions ; and this basin, filled with water, protects the
surrounding material from further disturbance. It was in an effort to
produce this same condition, in connection with these spillways, that
led the writer to make the designs mentioned above.
In the first case, as shown by the views on Plate 11, as well as
in Fig. 6, the velocity acquired by the water as it runs down the slope,
during the high-water periods, is such that it drives all but the moving
water out of the basin ; and it was to compel the water leaving the slope
to enter a body of more or less quiet water that the wall. A, in Fig. 5,
was introduced into the second construction.
Since, however, a tunnel or culvert of reinforced concrete extends
through and under this second dam, it has not been found necessary,
as yet, to discharge any great quantity of water over the spillway.
Most of the water has gone through the tunnel; some, however, has
been diverted into the canals, while only a small portion has gone over
the spillway.
The tunnel is 8 ft. high and 4 ft. wide. It is built on a slight
grade, and discharges, as shown in Fig. 7, into one end of the basin.
The effect of this basin filled with water upon the velocity of the
water flowing through the tunnel is not all that could be wished.
Since the basin is but 4i ft. deep, while the depth of the tunnel is 8 ft.,
the bottoms of both being on the same level, the Z\ ft. of water flowing
in the upper part of the tunnel {G , Fig. Y) goes directly over the lower
wall of the basin as if no basin existed, while the lower 4^ ft. of water
creates comparatively little commotion in the waters of the basin.
Practically, the 4 J ft. of water is confined while the 3 J ft. is free;
therefore, for this reason, perhaps, most of the water actully moves in
the upper portion of the tunnel. If the cross-section of the tunnel
had been changed from the 8 by 4 ft. gradually to, say, 4 by 10 ft., the
4 ft. being the height, all the water would have been discharged against
the down-stream wall of the basin, and its velocity would probably have
been reduced practically to zero before the flow down stream com-
menced. The net width of the spillway in this second case is also
87 ft.
This basin feature has also been used in the construction of all the
PLATE II.
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENGRS.
VOL. LXII, No. 1092.
LYMAN ON
IRRIGATION.
Fig. 1.— Concrete Spillway. Deseret Irrigation Co. and Irrigated Lands Co..
Millard County, Utah.
Fig. 3. — Vertical Wall of Water at Dci-wn Sthe.am Side of Basin at Foot of
Spillway.
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
51
head-gates, diverting devices, and "canal drops" of the Melville Irriga- Mr. Lyman,
tion Company, whether the construction has been of concrete or wood,
and, although the canal system has been in operation but a few weeks,
the results in this soft soil seem to be very satisfactory.
The plan of a portion of the Melville Spillway, Fig. Y, shows that
the direction of the long slopQ, F, makes an angle of 38° with the
piers, P, which are at right angles with the direction of the dam. This
change in direction was made in order to divert the flowing water
53 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Lyman, toward a, railway l^ridge some few hundred feet below, instead of
toward the large earthen fill at the end of the bridge.
The tunnel that extends through the dam is shown at A, Fig. 7.
Its height above the apron over which the v?ater flows when it leaves
the spillway is shown by the curved line, C, in Fig. 5.
The reinforced concrete gate-well, B, Fig. 7, contains the 4 by 8-ft.
gate in the tunnel, and two circular gates attached to steel pipes,
C and G, 4 ft. and 3 ft. in diameter, respectively. To these pipes
water-wheels for power purposes are to be attached.
The dam here considered is used only for diverting water. The
reservoir necessarily constructed is of no value for storage purposes, as
the water must always be held at approximately the same elevation.
This, therefore, is one of the unusual cases where an irrigation project
and a power-plant go well together.
One other feature connected with this construction — the provision
for a temporary gate at the upper end of the tunnel — may be of
interest. As shown in plan at D, and in section at E, Fig. 7, a plane
surface, 6 in. wide, making an angle of 45° with the horizontal, sur-
rounds the up-stream end of the tunnel, and this is used as a seat for a
temporary wooden gate. The pressure on this wooden gate, while
it is being put in place, can be regulated by opening or closing one of
the gates in the tunnel.
By opening a hole 6 in. in diameter near the top of this temporary
gate and closing the gates in the gate-well, the tunnel can be filled
with water and the pressure on both sides of the temporary gate be
equalized so that the temporary wooden gate, after being slightly
moved, will float to the surface.
Mr. Davis. ARTHUR P. Davis, M. Am. Soc. C. E. (by letter). — ^The valuable
studies made by Professor L. G. Carpenter and others have shown that
in many cases a large proportion of the water applied for irrigation
returns to the drainage lines below such lands.
In every case, however, this results from a careless and excessive
application of the water in irrigation; if it were applied in an ideally
perfect manner, only so much would be used as would supply the
needs of the growing plants and the unavoidable evaporation from
the soil.
There is a wide margin between this ideal condition and the condi-
tion where such an excessive amount is applied as to satisfy the plants
and also to over-supply the potential evaporation to such an extent as
to produce an appreciable return seepage.
Wherever valuable quantities of return waters are available, it is
conclusive evidence of a wasteful use which, in the ultimate develop-
ment of irrigation, cannot be tolerated, and will not be sustained by the
Courts. The right to water for irrigation in all the arid States depends
on beneficial use, and the Courts have consistently held that this means
reasonably economical use and not waste.
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 53
Any water right dependent upon return seepage for its supply is Mr. Davis,
precarious, and may at any time be cut off by voluntary or enforced
economy on the part of the wasteful users above, if there is additional
land on which they are permitted to use the water.
This excessive use of water is well-nigh universal, and its wasteful-
ness is not its worst feature. The excess waters often reappear upon
lower lands, and render them either alkaline or swampy, or both. Large
areas of fertile lands have thus been ruined.
The tendency of improved irrigation, and also of the extension of
irrigation development, is to greater and greater economy, which must
eventually result in eliminating the factor of return seepage, or in
reducing it to a negligible quantity. There are areas with an open
subsoil of gravel where it is difficult to apply any water without losing
some in the subsoil; but, even in such cases, the interests of the water
user or of his competitors for water may eventually compel the abandon-
ment of such lands or the application of such methods as will prevent
excessive waste.
In considering the ultimate development of a large river system,
such as the Rio Grande, it is undoubtedly wise to use a considerable
proportion of the water in the upper reaches soon after it leaves the
mountains and before it has had much opportunity to evaporate. As
more tributaries reach the river, the additional water supply justifies
other diversions lower down.
As development progresses, storage becomes necessary in order that
the winter waters and the spring freshets may be held until needed,
but, for irrigation purposes, such storage requires favorable natural
reservoir sites, which are usually of rare occurrence. It will not be
possible to find such sites on all the important tributaries of such a
stream as the Rio Grande. In addition, there is a multitude of small
tributaries, each insignificant in itself but aggregating a vast drainage
area, which cannot be used except by storage on the lower part of the
main stream.
To iitilize entirely the M^ater supply of a large basin with a varied
climate, it is necessary, therefore, to have at least one large storage
reservoir well down stream, and, to make such a reservoir financially
feasible, sufficient water supply must be reserved for its use to justify
its construction. Otherwise, a large percentage of the drainage from
the basin must forever run to waste.
George G. Anderson, M. Am. So.c. C. E. (by letter). — It is very Mr. Anderson,
gratifying to the writer that his brief opening address has elicited
much discussion on several features of great importance to the develop-
ment of irrigation in the Western States at this time.
The growing recognition of the importance of the engineer's posi-
tion in relation to development, alike in public and private works, is
largely an outgrowth of that process of evolution which it was the
endeavor to outline. In the early primitive works, his function was
54 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Anderson, merely that of a surveyor. In the larger works, he either did not take,
or was not permitted to take, sufficient time to study the country to be
reclaimed, with the consequence that, merely in the matter of loca-
tion, the economic aspect was invariably lost, and, unfortunately,
canals cannot be straightened out later, as can railroads, to save dis-
tance and gradient, when the settlement of the country warrants such
betterments. In the matter of construction, as has been suggested,
structures were originally, and almost of necessity, of a temporary
character, by reason of the more or less speculative nature of the
enterprises in those times.
To the credit of the engineers, it may be justly said that they were
the earliest advocates of stability and permanency in construction.
The gradual change from the temporary to the permanent began with
the realization of the frequent repairs and reconstruction, and was
earliest manifested, the writer believes, in the renewal of lateral head-
gates. These are now, invariably, and especially in the larger canals,
of stone or concrete, culverts and steel gates. The old timber flume
is gradually being replaced by siphon pipes either of wooden staves
or concrete, mostly the latter, and numerous types of steel flumes have
been introduced. The enhanced land values, following the introduc-
tion of the sugar beet, assuring larger and more certain returns for
irrigation enterprises, stimulated the movement for structures of a
more permanent character, and that has been aided materially by the
example set by the Eeclamation Service in the general type of con-
struction adopted in the public works under its control, though the
projectors of private enterprises, relatively limited in capital and re-
strained by the requirements of immediate return on investments, are
not yet prepared to follow on the more ambitious lines, and are
probably not prepared to admit the immediate necessity therefor.
Mr. Houston has submitted an example of development in character
of construction, as applied to reservoir embankments, protecting the
water slope against erosion by wind action.
Previously, rip-rap was considered all-sufficient. The defect in this
method consisted largely in the failure to provide any foundation for
the rip-rap. Usually, the rock was placed immediately upon the
earthen face of the embankment, which became softened by the wave
action, working through the rock interstices, and resulting in the
telescoping or uneven settlement of the rip-rap. A substantial facing
of gravel or small boulders, to some extent, overcomes this defect, and
also protects the face of the embankment from burrowing animals.
The concrete face, as described by Mr. Houston, is thoroughly
effective, and is being extensively adopted, as he says. There may be
settlement and cracking if the facing is put in place before the earth
composing the embankment has consolidated and settled — a contin-
gency which was avoided in the cases he mentions, as the embankments
DISCUSSION ON IRRIOATION 55
had been constructed for some years prior to the placing of the con- Mr. Anderson.
Crete. The slope of the inner face of the Terry Lake embankment,
which he mentions, would appear to be too steep, and it is to be noted
that, recently, the standard cross-section of reservoir embankments
has been reversed, in order to lessen the area of the section of con-
crete; that is to say, where the standard slopes would be 3 to 1 inner
face and 2 to 1 outer slope, the water face is given a slope of 2 to 1.
Some recent concrete linings have been greatly reduced in thickness,
in one case, in the writer's knowledge, to 3 in., with reinforcement
of ordinary Page wire. As the reservoir created by this embankment
is very wide, with long exposure, it will be interesting to watch the
results in the concrete facing.
On the same lines with the structure for the Windsor Reservoir
are a number of drops on the canal system of the Great Plains Water
Storage Company; and a number of concrete siphons and concrete
linings have been used on the diversion canal from the Arkansas River,
recently constructed by the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company.
Mr. Finkle has given some instances of the failure of concrete work
in irrigation structures, under certain conditions. In the first case, the
conclusion is that sulphuretted hydrogen affected the cement, and in
the second, that carbon dioxide from decomposition and fermentation
of vegetable matter in a swamp, in combination with the lime in the
cement, prodiiced carbonate of lime, destroying the cement. He also
mentions the wooden-stave pipe of the Denver Union Water Company,
laid in soil only slightly alkaline with chloride and sulphate of sodium,
there being an absence of carbonate of sodium.
This leads, naturally, to the consideration of the action of these
alkaline soils — containing the sulphates, carbonates, and chlorides —
upon concrete structures, and incidentally, to Mr. Maignen's questions
as to what constitutes alkali and what are its effects.
The Experiment Station of the State Agricultural College has
made considerable investigation of these effects, and has published
several bulletins on the subject by Professor William P. Headden, the
Chemist of the College. Bulletin No. 132, "The Destruction of Con-
crete by Alkali," has recently been published, and in this Professor
Headden treats of the disintegration, within eight or nine months after
laying, of concrete tiling 16 or 18 in. thick. He found the point
of attack to be either in the center of the cement mass or near the
inner surface, and concludes that the decomposition is due to the
action of the water, i. e., of the salts held in solution. An analysis of
two samples of the water acting on the tiling showed 1 252.6 gr.
and 542.3 gr. total solids per Imperial gallon, respectively; in the
former there were 493.5 gr. of sulphuric acid with an extremely
large proportion of magnesia, in the latter, 42.31 gr. of magnesic
oxide — 7.8% of the total solids. He had examined numerous samples
5G DISCUSSION" ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Anderson, of the waters from that district, presumably the Arkansas Valley, and
found them "uniformily heavily laden with the sulfates of lime and
soda with comparatively large quantities of magnesia," and uniformly
some carbonate present.
He considers "the amount of chlorine or the corresponding chlorides
not large and are probably subordinate elements in the alteration of
the cement," and concludes that : "The action of the ground-waters seems
to have been one of chemical change converting the lime of the cement
into a sulfate and carbonate accompanied by the removal of silicic
acid, alumina and lime and totally destroying the cohesiveness of the
concrete."
Quite recently, the writer observed a concrete division gate in the
Arkansas Valley, which was constructed less than two years ago. It
had every appearance of being well built and of good proportions, but
the apron, apparently 6 in. thick originally, was entirely honey-
combed and could be pulverized in the hand. About half a mile from it
was a reservoir embankment in which the apron of the outlet was
similarly destroyed, exposing the reinforcement, which was in no way
affected by the destructive element, and the exposed part of the out-
let was showing similar rapid disintegration. The inner slope of the
reservoir embankment was paved with reinforced concrete, and was
apparently unaffected — the reservoir being full at the time of inspec-
tion, though it is probably rarely so.
The Bureau of Soils, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, has
devoted considerable effort to the investigation of the analysis of soils
in the arid region, and to the analysis of waters applied in irrigation
as well, and it is to be hoped and expected that their valuable work
may be continued and extended.
Attention has also been directed to the drainage of tracts that have
become over-irrigated and alkalied, examples of which may be found
extensively in the Poudre Valley. Some individual efforts have been
made, and successfully, in the drainage of such lands, but the writer
is of the opinion that the best results can only be achieved by co-
operative effort, in large districts, and on broad and comprehensive
lines.
The feature of "return flow" or seepage waters has received con-
siderable attention in the course of this discussion. It undoubtedly
exists, in considerable volume in some streams under certain condi-
tions, and in slight volume or not at all in others. It may be true that
greater development has occurred in Colorado by the extension of irri-
gation ditches and canals from the heads of the streams outward to
the plains than would have been possible, within the State limits, at
any rate, and under the conditions which have prevailed, had the out-
lying plains area been the field of earliest reclamation. If the con-
tention of Mr. A. P. Davis and others be correct, that the large volume
of return flow is the direct result of wasteful methods in the applica-
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 57
tion of water for irrigation — and it cannot be denied that wasteful Mr. Anderson,
methods have existed and do exist — then the irrigable area has not
been increased above what it ought to have been, but has merely been
spread over a greater territory. It is doubtful if this return flow is
increasing either actually or in proportion to the increase of the irri-
gated area, or if its amount is as great as asserted, by Mr. Fellows, for
instance, in the statement that from one-third to one-half of the water
applied to irrigation in the South Platte River returns to the stream,
or by Professor Carpenter that "about 30% of the water applied in
irrigation on the Poudre returned to the river."
Return flow has been the subject of some investigation in Colorado
in the past twenty years, and in view of its importance and the atten-
tion devoted to it in this discussion, the writer may be justified in
entering into some detailed consideration of these investigations.
Beginning with 1885, on the Cache la Poudre, measurements have
been made, usually in the fall of the year, to ascertain the amount
of return flow, the existence of which, at least on that stream and on
the South Platte River, was apparent to ordinary observation. In
1889, similar measurements were commenced on the South Platte, and
later, the field of observation was extended to most of the tributary
streams in the northern part of the State, to the Arkansas River, and
still later, to the Uncompahgre, the Conejos, and the Rio Grande Rivers.
Except on the South Platte, there have been occasional breaks in the
continuity of these measurements. A record of them will be found in
the 13th Biennial Report of the State Engineer of Colorado, 1905-1906.
In 1896, a report was prepared by Professor L. G. Carpenter on
the measurements which had been made up to that time, and issued
as Bulletin No. 33 of the Experiment Station of the State Agricultural
College, in which will be found a description of the methods followed
in making the observations. Professor Carpenter, subsequently, in
the 10th and 11th Biennial Reports of the State Engineer, reviewed the
results up to 1902, and it is understood, as therein stated, that another
bulletin on the subject is in preparation by the Experiment Station.
In the Bulletin, certain conclusions are arrived at, and these are
repeated in the 10th Biennial Report of the State Engineer, with the
remark that they need but little modification. The later measurements
clearly call for modification of these conclusions.
It is unfortunate that not only are these observations themselves
of insufficient character, in that they are confined to only one day in
each year, and that in the fall of the year, when the inflow is
naturally the greatest — though on that point there is evidently divided
opinion — but they are not accompanied by accurate and continuous
data on such matters as the area of land irrigated in the districts
tributary to the streams observed or the amount of water applied for
irrigation each year.
58 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Anderson. There is no doubt that the greatest return inflow occurs on the
Poudre and South Platte Rivers; but in consideration of later meas-
urements there is nothing to show either that the increase of such
inflow is more as the irrigated area is greater, or that the increase
is approximately proportional to the irrigated area. It would be
profitable to make a detailed analysis of the measurements did space
permit, but generalizations must suffice at present.
On the Poudre, an increase of 80% in the irrigated area in the past
twelve years has yielded an increased inflow of 24%, while it now
requires 1 282 acres to yield an inflow of 1 sec-ft. in place of 700 acres
in 1896.
On the upper reaches of the South Platte, the return shows either
an actual decrease or an increase below that due to the increase of
irrigated area.
On the lower South Platte, the gain in return flow is also less than
the gain in irrigated area, though it is still a high return.
On that stream the percentage is now and always has been greater
than on any other stream in which the inflow has been observed; and
it is strictly in accordance with actual conditions to say that there
is now and always has been more wasteful use of water on that stream
than elsewhere, in the northern section, at least.
In 1895, for instance, the amount used on 106 000 acres in the
Poudre Valley was 260 000 acre-ft.,* which gives an average duty
of 2.45 acre-ft. per acre.
In 1906, the two upper divisions on the South Platte used 377.741
acre-ft. on 109 474 acres or an average duty of 3.45 acre-ft. per
acre.
That may be accounted for largely on one feature only — there has
been less development of storage reservoirs on the Platte than on the
Poudre; reliance is almost exclusively confined to the direct supply of
the stream, always more or less inadequate, and when it is adequate,
the water is used profusely to provide against the period of shortage
certainly following. There is no doubt that reliance on stored water
has most materially aided in securing a higher duty of water — in con-
vincing the user that better results can be obtained from the applica-
tion of moderate quantities of water.
There cannot be any doubt that much the larger percentage of
return inflow is due to wasteful methods of irrigation, nor, from these
later results, that it is decreasing — an evidence in itself of better
methods which are likely to be continued and improved, as storage is
developed and the consumer gains in appreciation of his own best
interests.
And some of this inflow may be due to other causes than the appli-
cation of water to the land for irrigation purposes.
* Bulletin No. 33, p. 40.
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 59
Mention is made of a canal near Greeley, where considerable Mr. Anderson,
damage was done by seepage immediately after its original construction.
In 1895 this damage was renewed, apparently by the removal of the
top layers of sand in the bed of the canal, in the process of cleaning
and repairs, and in October of that year, apparently it was determined,
by actual measurements, that there was a loss of 5.06 sec-ft. from an
original volume of 25.86 sec-ft. in about 770 lin. ft. of the canal.
That loss continues in large measure — at least, the damage by seepage
on the adjoining land continues — necessitating drainage and sug-
gesting the puddling or lining of the canal itself. Undoubtedly, the
great loss is due to the presence of a subsoil of coarse gravel, per-
mitting rapid percolation, and it appears there is a large area of such
subsoil in the immediate vicinity.
In that area, the pumping station of the original Greeley Water -
Works was located. On the cessation of pumping after the installa-
tion of the new gravity system, the well-house filled up in an in-
credibly short period, almost before the pumps could be removed.
It is unquestionably true that there is greater inflow in the lower
section of the South Platte River than in any other stream observed
or measured; but it is doubtful if all of it should be attributed to
irrigation operations, properly so-called.
Bulletin No. 33 gives some information that is very suggestive in
that connection :
"A relatively large proportion of the irrigation is given to the
bottom lands, which are used for hay. * * * The river overflows the
bottoms many years, and did so in 1893, 1894 and 1895, and soaks them
with water sometimes for a considerable period. More water is applied
in the bottom irrigation than in the uplands. The practice of fall
irrigation is very extensively followed. The river then having suffi-
cient water, all the lands with few exceptions are soaked. We do not
have measurements to show how much water is thus applied, but from
what I observed, and from the conditions, the watering seems to be a
very profuse one. This land receives more water than an equal area
on the Poudre, and is, as a whole, much closer to the river. These
conditions tend to give a more profuse and a speedier return to the
Platte."
The conclusion is inevitable that, if the above conditions prevail
at the time of the annual measurements, a large part of the water
found in the stream is overflow, and not the return inflow of seepage
waters.
In 1906, on Big Thompson River, the mean inflow, the highest
recorded, 65.31 sec-ft., gives 1 sec-ft. from every 1 500 acres.
On Boulder Creek, the mean inflow, again the highest recorded,
39.4 sec-ft., gives 1 sec-ft. from every 1 862 acres.
On St. Vrain Creek, the mean inflow, 30.49 sec-ft., gives 1 sec-ft.
from every 3 430 acres irrigated.
60 Discussioisr on irrigation
On Clear Creek, the average inflow of four measurements, 15.63
sec-ft., from 109 900 acres irrigated, gives 1 sec-ft. from each 7 031
acres, though considerable portions of the area irrigated drain directly
to the South Platte River.
The Arkansas River has been treated in two sections, and has only
been measured three times in an interval of ten years. The results
on a stream of its magnitude, with the great territory tributary to it,
are significant. In the lower section of 208 miles, the return inflow in
1897 was 331 sec-ft., in 1907 it was 250 sec-ft.
On the Rio Grande River, in the San Luis Valley, only three meas-
urements have been made, and at considerable intervals. It is not
possible to conclude from them that there is an increase on that stream.
In 1900, there was a loss between Del Norte and Monte Vista, as stated
by Mr. Follett, and also a small loss from the Conejos to the State
Line, the former converted into a gain in later years, and the
latter, in one year's observation only, barely maintaining the up-
stream gain.
It is concluded that the inflow is practically the same throughout
the year, that it is more in svimmer and less in winter, principally
because of the effect of the temperature on the soil. That conclusion
will not readily be accepted. Ordinary observation indicates other-
wise. Upon that, little reliance would be placed, against the clear
evidence of continued observations. It does not seem reasonable to
conclude that the result of the measurement of such inflow on one day
in the year, and that in the fall, would determine or indicate the flow
for the remainder of the year.
The few measurements made at other periods, while varying in pro-
portionate amount, as would naturally be expected, strongly indicate
that the reverse of the conclusion as stated above is really correct.
Of all the combined measurements, only twelve have been made in
any season other than the fall, and, from these few individual summer
measurements, it cannot be concluded that the inflow is greater in
summer; on the whole, it seems to be much less, and that is in ac-
cordance with observation unaccompanied by measurement. Indeed,
there would seem to be a period of inflow, extending from October
throughout the winter months to the following March or April, in
accordance with the natural conditions which would seem to affect their
operation.
With the conclusion, in its general terms, that the passage of
seepage waters through the soil is very slow, so that it may take years
for the seepage from the outlying lands to reach the river, there will
be ready agreement.
Mr. Follett has called attention to the investigations made by
Professor Slichter on the Rio Grande River, and to other examina-
tions for the U. S. Geological Survey, the results of which are em-
bodied in Water Supply and Irrigation Papers Nos. 67 and 141, and
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 61
Mr. Follett has himself contributed valuable information on the Mi
subject.*
And this well-known fact of the slow movement of seepage water
may, to some extent, at least, account for the erratic and seemingly
unresponsive volume of the inflow in relation to the amount of
surface flow.
For instance, 1900 and 1905 were years of high surface flow in most
of the streams in the northern section of the State, especially during
April, May, and June, and, in such years, when the application of
water would naturally be greater than normal, the return inflow would
naturally be expected to show an increase. Such, however, is not the
case, in these years ; the inflow is either normal or below normal.
On the other hand, 1902 was a year of phenomenally low flow, and
in all the streams of the northern section the return inflows were
below — in some instances, greatly below — normal.
In Bulletin No. 33, it is concluded that "the amount of seepage is
slowly but constantly increasing." The later measurements do not bear
out that conclusion, except on the Poudre and South Platte Rivers,
and on these only slightly, and not in proportion to the increase of the
irrigation area.
It is further concluded that: "The seepage being nearly constant
throughout the year, while the needs are greater in summer, the use of
storage will best utilize the water from inflow."
It has already been pointed out that there are not sufficient data
to warrant the conclusion of the constancy of the inflow, and that the
evidence of the few measurements made outside of the fall of the year
strongly indicates that the reverse is true. It is quite evident that the
greatest return flow, proportionately and in fact, occurs on the South
Platte River, and the following table of the mean surface flow of the
stream at Denver and near the mouth of the Poudre River, for the past
thirteen years, clearly indicates the period of return inflow:
Month. At Denver. At Poudre River.
January 124 sec-ft. 1 105 sec-ft.
February 141 " " 1 041 " "
March 186 " " 724 " "
April 473 " " 1158 " "
May 1090 " " 2 464 " "
June 956 " " 1 987 " "
July 467 " " 598 " "
August 397 " " 334 " "
September 248 "" , 219 " "
October 198 " " 501 " "
November 204 " " 806 " "
December 159 " " 915 " "
*In a report embodied in Part 2, Senate Executive Document 41, Fifty-second Con-
gress ; and in an address, " The Underflow of the Great Plains," read before the Irrigation
Congress held in Denver in 1894.
63 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Anderson. The irrigation season extends from April to October, inclusive ; the
normal high-water season embraces April, May, and June. It is to be
borne in mind that the flows at the Poudre Eiver are the volumes in
the stream after the demands for the up-stream irrigation have been
supplied. It will be noted that in August and September only are the
discharges of the down-stream station less than that of the up-stream,
while the great increase in the flow at the down-stream station in the
non-irrigation season, and also in the last irrigation month, October,
is the strongest evidence that the great bulk of the return inflow occurs
in these months.
By storage only can full advantage of this feature of the results of
irrigation, whether avoidable or not, be realized, and it is extremely
fortunate that the character of the country is such that it is possible
to develop reservoirs in which to store these waters, and that they are
rapidly being constructed in connection with some of the irrigation
districts referred to in the opening discussion.
As Mr. Davis well points out, the water supply dependent upon
return seepage is precarious, and may at any time be cut ofi by
involuntary or enforced economy on the part of the wasteful users
above. That such economy is gradually being voluntarily practiced
above the lower reaches of the South Platte River, there is little room
for doubt — the consumers are wise in extending reservoir development.
Coming flnally to the conclusion that as much as 30%, or from
one-third to one-half of the water applied in irrigation returns to the
stream, there would be some surprise at the result were it not made
plain, in Bulletin No. 33, that the assumption is made that the inflow
shown on one day in the fall of each year is the inflow for every day
in every year. Lacking more extended if not continuous measure-
ments, that cannot be accepted as a correct assumption. If it were, it
would be true that on the Poudre River in 1895, the return flow was
30% of the water applied in irrigation. But it would not be true in
1906, when the inflow had not greatly increased over that in 1895 while
the irrigated area had doubled and there is no available information
as to the amount of water applied.
If it were a correct assumption, then in 1905 the return inflow at
the State Line on the South Platte River exceeded the water applied
in irrigation in all the divisions of that stream and all its tributaries
with the exception of the Poudre River.
There would not appear to be much room for doubt as to the cause
of this return inflow. The water applied in irrigation, not actually
absorbed by growing plants and by evaporation, fills the subsoil and
gradually drains out into the streams. During the irrigation season
of normally seven months, the sponge is being filled; in the remainder
of the year it is being squeezed out. It can scarcely be hoped that the
ideally perfect manner of applying water, mentioned by Mr. Davis,
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 63
will ever be reached ; it can be approximated, however, as these later Mr. Anderson.
"seepage" measurements clearly indicate. It may also be concluded
that the sponge does not demand the same quantity of supply, but it
would seem to be most important to determine, if possible, the relative
quantity of inflow at all seasons of the year, if for no other reason
than to make accurate conclusions as to the real quantity of water to
be depended on from this source, if it is to be depended on at all.
That is merely an extension of the suggestion made by the writer in
the opening discussion, that more liberal appropriations be made, bj'
the Nation and by the States, for hydrographic observations, in order
that these may be accurate and full.
Mr. Davis correctly says: "The right to water for irrigation in all
the arid States depends on beneficial use, and the Courts have con-
sistently held that this means reasonably economical use and not
waste."
Unfortunately, some of the Courts, in Colorado at least, recognize
this return flow as a necessary consequence of irrigation, and, in a
broad sense, seem to regard it as a beneficial use — -led, perhaps, to that
view by the belief that such return flow is of the relatively high pro-
portion heretofore deduced. In applications for the transfer of water
rights of early appropriations on the upper sections of streams to the
lower sections, to which there seems to be general and well-founded
objections in principle, there has recently crept in the recognition of
this feature of return flow, and it has been argued, and, in some cases
within the writer's knowledge, it has been decided, that the lavish use
of water in the upper sections of the streams is beneficial in the sense
of creating this return inflow. That has been the case in the Arkansas
River, where the average duty of water has been 30 acres, in one in-
stance 20 acres, per sec-ft., and where it would be difficult to demon-
strate the return of one-tenth of the water applied.
It is too early to pronounce Government irrigation a success, as
Mr. Means does. A few of the projects of the Reclamation Service
have reached, and others are rapidly reaching, that critical stage in
which only the element of success can be determined — the administra-
tive period, the period in which the return of the capital invested
must be secured, and the settlement of the lands tributary to the pro-
ject accomplished.
It has always been and always will be a comparatively simple matter
to expend money in irrigation enterprises, public and private, and
always easier in public than in private ventures. It is another and
much more difficult matter to secure the return of these expenditures,
and that, after all, and under the terms of the Reclamation Act itself,
is the true test of success. There are those who declare that the
Government can afford to make these expenditures, without return, in
order that these great areas of arid lands may be reclaimed and
64 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Anderson, homes provided for countless thousands. The Eeclamation Act, how-
ever, is not a philanthropic measure. As Mr. Means points out, "the
irrigation homestead is not free; there are definite financial obliga-
tions to be met." The Act plainly provides that the charges which shall
be made upon the entries on lands under the various projects "shall be
determined with a view of returning to the reclamation fund (in
annual installments, not exceeding ten) the estimated cost of con-
struction of the project, and shall be apportioned equitably," and esti-
mated cost is doubtless intended to cover actual cost. It is further pro-
vided that the reclamation fund shall be iised for the maintenance and
operation of the various works constructed under the provisions of the
Act, with the further provision that, when payments have been made
for the major portion of the lands irrigated, the management and
operation shall pass to the owners of the lands irrigated, and be main-
tained thereafter at their expense. It is again concluded that the
cost of management and operation, prior to that time, must be re-
funded by the land-owners.
The essential difference between private and Government irriga-
tion enterprises, in their purely commercial aspect, is at once apparent
from the above statement. Provided that settlement follows upon the
completion of construction and the settlers meet with financial suc-
cess, the Government is assured in the return of all its capital ex-
penditure, be that greater or less than originally estimated, alike in
construction and in maintenance and operation charges. These be-
come a fixed charge against the lands reclaimed, returnable in not to
exceed ten years after entry. The Government dispenses with in-
terest charges, which the private company could not well afford to do.
The private companies, certainly those that did not arrange for con-
tracts for the supply of water to the tributary lands prior to invest-
ment in construction, assumed a large element of risk, which, super-
ficially, does not exist in the Government enterprises.
On the other hand, the Government enterprises incur expendi-
tures proportionately greater than would have been deemed commer-
cially practicable a decade ago, and which, even now, are, in some in-
stances at least, higher than the cost of "water rights" in private
enterprises, where all the conditions are otherwise equal. That may be
justified by the enhanced value of irrigable land in the past ten years;
by the introduction of more profitable crops, better adapted to irriga-
tion conditions, and the gradual improvement in methods, in the
economical use of water; in better systems of agriculture; and, to
some extent, the presumed greater security under the canal systems of
modern construction.
Withal, to secure the return of the capital invested in the Govern-
ment enterprises is one of the many kinks of the problem Mr. Means
refers to, and, under all the circumstances, will be followed with the
keenest interest. When accomplished, and not until then, the success
DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION 65
of the undertakings can be declared, and it will not alone be gratifying Mr. Anderson,
to the advocates of the Reclamation Act, but will prove a stimulus to
private enterprises, the sphere of whose operations is by no means cir-
cumscribed yet.
That part of the problem, as Mr. Means writes, is largely a human
one, and it ought to be a simpler problem in the future than it has
been in the past, if, for no other reason, than that the settler on irri-
gated lands at this time has the benefit of the dearly-bought experience
of his predecessors in that line of development, and the management
can, equally well, profit by the failures and shortcomings of the men
who devoted years of earnest effort before success was awarded them.
It is true, as the writer has pointed out, that "a large number of the
unfortunate ventures in irrigation enterprise have finally developed
into successful undertakings," but it does not necessarily follow, and,
as a matter of fact, in the majority of cases, it is not correct to say,
as Mr. Means does, that the fault was largely that of the original pro-
moter or manager, who certainly did not have "the same opportunities
for success as the man who finally succeeded."
These early efforts were simply ahead of their time in the course
of development, and they failed largely for want of the proper methods,
the proper conditions underlying farming by irrigation, and the dif-
ficulty of securing settlers, not only of the right type, but with even
the smallest knowledge and appreciation of the elemental principles
of farming by irrigation. That the Government must accept the water-
right application of any man who has the money for a first payment,
does not place it in any worse position than the private companies who
certainly could not and even now cannot very well afford to reject the
application of any man offering money. The private company who had
or has a selection of settlers is in the nature of a rara avis — more
frequently they had to search the highways and byways of the older
communities, and labor with the straggler to convince him of the
advantages of irrigation farming.
To secure settlement is the crux of the irrigation problem. It may
be more difficult in these latter days for the reason that the intending
farmer under irrigation is better equipped than formerly; he has more
adequate knowledge of the requirements in all respects; he has keener
appreciation of the real value of water; he is, as a rule, a better busi-
ness man, and is possessed, or believes himself to be possessed, of
ability to manage the irrigation works that contribute so largely to his
individual failure or success; in other words, the advantages of the
canal system in all its ramifications, equipment, and management,
under which he will elect to stake his fortune and his future, must be
convincingly apparent to him as a commercial proposition.
To Government ownership and management of the streams in the
arid region there is strong and growing opposition.
At the Fifteenth National Irrigation Congress, which met at Sacra-
66 DISCUSSION ON IRRIGATION
Mr. Anderson, mento in 1907, the report of a "Committee on Interstate Water Rights"
was submitted, in which, among other things, this question was con-
sidered. The Committee had canvassed the opinion of forty-seven
representative men, leading lawyers, engineers, and men skilled in
the use of water for irrigation in all parts of the United States, to
whom had been submitted interrogatories on that and similar ques-
tions, twenty-eight expressed themselves in favor of absolute State
control of the water within the borders of the State, whether flowing
in interstate or local streams, thirteen in favor of Government control
and two in favor of divided control.
That result is indicative of the prevailing sentiment on the question
and of the conclusion that, with many defects yet to be corrected,
State control, as expressive of the desires of the actual user of water,
has given and will continue to give satisfaction to the people. It is
entirely in line with the conclusion which must be irresistible to those
who have watched and have been closely identified with the develop-
ment of irrigation in the last generation, that the consumer of water
himself is fully alive to the real requirements of the situation and is
best fitted for the management of all that pertains to its welfare and
progress.
AMEEIOAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENG-INEEES
INSTITUTED 1852
TRANSACTIONS
Paper No. 1093
CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES.
By Ernest W. Schoder, Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C. E.
With Discussion by Messrs. George Jacob Davis, Jr..
AND Ernest W. Schoder.
The object of this paper is to present the results of some measure-
ments which seem to throw new light on a subject that awakened con-
siderable interest and discussion among the members of this Society
some seven years ago.
A. V. Saph, Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C. E., and the vsrriter, in their
discussion of the paper* by Messrs. Williams, Hubbell and Fenkell,
presented results of experimental studies on the flow of water in a
line of 2-in. brass pipe with 180° curves, or return bends, of varying
radii of curvature. It seemed difficult to harmonize these resultsf with
one of the principal conclusions in the paper, namely :
"That curves of short radi-us, down to a limit of about 2^ diam-
eters, offer less resistance to the flow of water than do those of longer
radius."^
In their closing discussion, this conclusion is further defined by
Messrs. Williams, Hubbell and Fenkell in these words :§
"In a given length of pipe consisting of two tangents joined by a
curve of 90°, the loss of head will decrease as the radius of the curve
* Transactions, Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XLVII, "Experiments at Detroit, Mich., on the
Effect of Curvature upon the Flow of Water in Pipes."
t Pages 319-332 of same.
i Page 101 of same.
§ Page 348 of same.
68 CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
is decreased, to a limit of about 2i diameters, and will increase as the
radius is increased above that limit, the total length remaining the
same."
Also:
"* * * for the range of these experiments, at least: To unite
two points on two tangents intersecting at 90°, and equally distant
from their intersection, by a pipe line consisting of portions of the
two tangents and a curve of 90°, the line of least hydraulic resistance
will be one in which a curve of about 2^ diameters radius is used."
At the time, no critical comparison was made between the results
of the loss-of-head measurements on 180° 2-in. brass pipe curves and
those on 90° curves in 12-in., 16-in., and 30-in. cast-iron water mains.
This seemed hardly justifiable, with the limited data available. How-
ever, Mr. Saph and the writer did point out* the probability of large
piezometric errors involved in the Detroit Experiments.
On this account, and because of other unsatisfactory features to
be mentioned later, the writer felt the desirability of making further
experiments in an attempt to clear up the situation. He is now able
to present some new evidence that tends to limit the general applica-
tion of the results of the Detroit Experiments, if it does not essentially
contradict them.
The chief experimental problem that the writer set for himself
was to find the losses of head due to each of a number of 90° curves
of different radii, for as great a range of velocities as the available
facilities would permit. Given two long runs of straight pipe con-
nected by a 90° curve, one part of the problem is to measure the loss
of head in a portion of the pipe line including the curve. The portion
must be long enough so that the full effects on the flow of the water
due to the curve are realized in the down-stream straight run of pipe.
Another part of the problem is to find the loss of head in the same
straight pipe used with the curves when it is uninfluenced by effects
of curvature (or other disturbance) and when it is in the same con-
dition as when used with the curves. This last is a difficult matter
in any case with pipes of large size, as will appear presently. Evidence
will be given to show, also, that it is often practically impossible,
where the pipe lines are fixed in place underground.
The straight pipe chosen for the experiments first to be described
. * Transactions, Ain. Soc. C. E., Vol. XLVII, 1903, pages 317-321.
PLATE III.
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENQRS.
VOL. LXII, No. 1093.
SCHODER ON
CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES.
Fig. 1. — Six-Inch Pipe Line (At the Right)
AS Set Up for First Straight-
Pipe Experiments.
Fig. 3.— Cornell University Hydro-
Electric Power Plant, and C-In.
Pipe Line for Curve Experiments.
"-i
"^/^^
gSSv
. i ' ",-»
"''- ' l-^
Fig. 3. — Nozzle at End of 6-In. Pipe Line.
Fig. 4.— Six-Incu, tiO" Curves, Nos. 1 to 12.
CURVE EESISTANCE IN WATER PirES G9
was 6-in. wrought iron. Before the curve experiments were made, a
straight line composed of six pipe lengths was set up in the pipe alley
alongside the large canal of the Cornell University Hydraulic Labora-
tory. The pipes were flange-connected. The total length of 6-in.
pipe was 122 ft. The loss of head was measured in a length of 99.33
ft., a length of 20.04 ft. being allowed up stream from the first
piezometer for the disturbances due to entry from a 12-in. header to
die down. The piezometers consisted each of two diametrically op-
posite holes in the pipe wall into which i-in. T-handle cocks were
screwed. A three-way connection served to join the short hoses from
these cocks and the single long hose to the gauge. A water differential
gauge was used to measure the loss of head. A calibrated concrete
measuring tank, of 500 cu. ft. capacity, received the discharged water
from a 4-in. pipe with a 4-in. regulating valve through which the 6-in.
line discharged. An instantaneous diverter deflected the discharge into
the tank or allowed it to run to waste, as desired. The measurements
lasted from 5 to 10 min., the time being accurately taken. Fig. 1.
Plate III, is a photograph showing the pipe line. The results of
these measurements are given in Table 2, where data from later
straight-pipe experiments are given also.
After this the pipes were marked, disconnected, and transported
to the bottom of the Fall Creek Gorge, in Ithaca, near the hydro-
electric plajit of Cornell University. Here the curve experiments
were performed. Fig. 2, Plate III, is a photograph of this plant,
and Fig. 1 is a plan of the pipe line.
The pipes composing the experimental portion of the line were the
same, and were set up in the same order as when tested as a straight
pipe line. The curves were placed between Pipes Nos. 1 and 2, the
two up-stream pipes in the experiments described above, and as shown
by Fig. 1. The down-stream tangent portion thus consisted of Pipes
Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5. Pipe No. 6 was not used for the curve experiments
because this would have b'rought the end of the pipe line out into the
creek.
At the discharge end of Pipe No. 5 there was attached a brass
nozzle for measuring the velocity in the pipe line. This nozzle is
shown by Fig, 3, Plate IH. It had been calibrated previously by
tank measurements in the Hydraulic Laboratory. The average dis-
charge coefficient from 40 experiments, with pressure heads at the
70
CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
base of the nozzle ranging from 1.649 to 50.208 ft., was found to be
0.988.
The lengths of the pipes, from face to face of flanges, are given in
Fig. 1; the following are the inside diameters — the means of four
measurements, two at each end:
Pipe No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. No. 6.
6.106 in. 6.086 in. 6.102 in. 6.078 in. 6.072 in. 6.083 in.
PLAN OF
6-lNCH WROUGHT -IRON
PIPELINE,
Cornell Univeisity
Hydro-electnc
Power Plant
Up-stream ''
The Curves. — The curves used were made to order, except that
Nos. 10 and 12, respectively, were standard "long sweep" and "short
turn" 6-in., cast-iron, flanged, 90° elbows. Curves Nos. 1 to 6, in-
clusive, were bent from 6-in. wrought-iron pipe. Curves Nos. 7 to 12,
inclusive, were of cast iron. All were 90° curves; and all were left
uncoated.
The wrought-iron pipe curves had about 6 in. of straight pipe at
each end. The ends had been threaded to receive standard flanges.
The cast-iron curves were flanged, faced, and drilled complete, ready
CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
71
for setting up. Fig. 4, Plate III, is a photograph of the curves stacked
against the power-plant wall.
TABLE 1. — Dimensions of Curves.
i
s.
i:S)
t
o
Material.
a
3
â– ftg
4l
1
1
a
d
.1
^
CQ
+
^f
op
1
Wrought iron.
10.00
20
10.54
10.52
21.06
16.77
6.09 in.
2
7.50
15
8.04
8.02
16.06
12.84
6.18 "
3
11 14
5.00
10
5.59
5.57
11.16
9.01
6.16 "
4
4.00
8
4.54
4.52
9.06
7.34
6.11 '.'
5
3.00
6
3 60
3.58
7.18
5.89
6.11 "
6
2..i0
5
3.05
3.10
6.15
5.08
6.09 "
7
Cast iron.
2.00
4
2.25
2.25
4.50
3.64
5.91 "
8
1.50
3
1.75
1.75
3.50
2.86
5.95 "
9
" "
1.08
2.16
1.50
1.50
3.00
2.54
5.91 "
10
'• "•
n.95
1.90
1.08
1.08
2.16
1.75
5.91 "
11
u It
0.8rt
1.76
2.00
2.00
4.00
5.95 "
12
" "
0.67
1.34
0.67
0.67
1.34
1.05
5.93 "
The dimensions of the curves are given in Table 1, in which ref-
erence is raade to the dimensions indicated in Fig. 2. The dimensions
in Table 1 are for the curves as placed in the pipe line, the wrought-
iron bends having screw flanges attached. The distances from the
faces of the flanges to the ends of the wrought-iron curves were as
follows: Curves Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, up-stream end, I in., down-stream
end, ^1 in.; Curve No. 5, up-stream end, i in., down-stream end, | in;
Curve No. 6, up-stream end, 1 in., down-stream end, f in. The inside
diameters of Curve No. 6 were measured also at points 22^°, 45° and
67^° from the up-stream end. At these points, ^-in. taps for the in-
sertion of a Pitot tube had been made on both the vertical and hori-
7Z CURVE EESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
zontal diameters. The measurements were as follows: at 22J°, 6.92
and 6.09 in.; at 45°, 6.08 and 6.08 in.; at 67^, 5.95 and 6.15 in.
Curves Nos. 9 and 11 were made in error, the foundry making
curves of quite short radius, with straight portions at each end, so
that the dimensions from the center to the face were 18 and 24 in.,
respectively, where the writer's order called for curves with the same
radii as the center-to-face dimensions. Curves Nos. Y and 8 were made
later, to correct this error.
The experimental pipe line was arranged with the idea of keeping
all conditions the same except for the introduction of the several
curves. Consequently, the flange joints in the portion down stream
from the curves were not disturbed throughout the experiments. The
entire length of 85 ft. of 6-in. wrought-iron pipe, together with the
nozzle, was shifted bodily when a new curve was placed in the line.
This was rather vigorous exercise for two men, but it was accomplished
by a judicious tilting of the wooden horses supporting that part of
the pipe line. The portion up stream from the curves was left un-
changed during the experiments.
The same up-stream piezometer was used for the curve experi-
ments as for the first straight-pipe experiments. The dovsra-stream
piezometer was a new one, of the same type, placed 1.05 ft. up stream
from the down-stream end of Pipe No. 5 which adjoined the nozzle.
A similar intermediate piezometer was placed 2.00 ft. up stream from
the down-stream end of Pipe No. 3.
At first it was assumed that some effect of the curves might ex-
tend 100 or more diameters down stream in the straight pipe beyond.*
The losses of head in all the curve experiments were measured be-
tween the piezometer just up stream from the curves and the piezometer
just up stream from the nozzle, distant 168 diameters down stream
from the curves. These two piezometers were connected to the two
branches of a differential U-tube mercury gauge by lines of f-in. or
4-in. three-ply rubber tubing. The nozzle piezometer was connected to
one branch of an 8-ft. mercury U-tube gauge, the other branch of
which was open to the atmosphere. These gauges were provided with
blow-off cocks for the removal of air from the gaiige and connections.
In experimenting, the 6-in. valve was first opened wide to establish
a swift flow through the pipe line. The gauge hoses connected to the
* Transactions, Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XL VII, 1902, p. 802.
CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES 73
piezometers were allowed to run for a while before connecting them
to the gauges, being pinched near the gauge end while connecting up.
Finally, the pet-cocks were opened, and all traces of air were blown
off. Then the gauge readings were recorded and checked. The 6-in.
valve was then closed a little, and the readings were taken again as
scon as the flow had become settled. In this way ten or twelve runs
were made, the last being generally a repetition of the first run with
the valve wide open. If there was time, a new curve was then placed
in the line. Otherwise, the change was deferred until another day,
in which case one or more check runs were made at the high velocities
before removing the curve and substituting another. For each set-up,
the level of the center of the nozzle with reference to the nozzle
mercury gauge scale was determined. The alignment of the down-
stream tangent was corrected after each change of curves.
When the work on the twelve curves had been finished, Curve No.
G was replaced in the line to find whether or not any appreciable
change in the condition of the pipes had occurred during the experi-
ments. Then a number of Pitot-tube studies were made to determine
the conditions of flow at the piezometers and in the curve. Later, a
6-in. screw elbow, of the ordinary steam-fitting type, was placed in
the line, and a series of measurements made on it as for the other
curves. Finally, the loss of head was measured in the portion (46.10
ft. long) of the experimental section farthest down stream, Pitot tube
traverses having shown normal flow in the pipe 38 ft., or 76 diameters,
down stream from the curves. Hence, this portion represented straight
pipe unaffected by curvature effects.
The results of these loss-of-head measurements are given in Table
2. For simplicity, there is given only the mean velocity in the pipe
line as deduced from the nozzle mercury pressure-gauge indications.
The differential mercury gauge differences are taken directly from the
checked subtractions in the field notebook. These differences, multi-
plied by 12.57, would give the loss of head, in feet of water, the
specific gravity of mercury being taken as 13.57.
To illustrate the calculations involved in obtaining the velocity
in the pipe line from the observations in the mercury pressure gauge
the following is a sample :
In Experiment No. 1, Curve No. 1, October 10th, 1907, the gauge
readings were: left 0.270, right 7.900. The difference is 7.630 ft.
74
CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
The center of the nozzle-tip level was at 1.81 on the gauge scale.
Hence the top of the left mercury column was 1.54 ft. below the
center of the nozzle tip. The pressure head at the base of the nozzle,
therefore, was 7.630 X 13.57 — 1.54 = 102.1 ft. The diameter of the
nozzle tip was 2.738 in., and the diameter of the nozzle base was 6.123
in., the ratio of areas being 1 : 5. Theoretically, the nozzle-tip velocity
Jttt'
is C \J /ly V 2gh=^ CX 8.19 v'/t, where h is the pressure head
at the nozzle base. As stated above, the coefficient, G, for this nozzle
had been found to be 0.988 by experiment. The mean diameter of the
pipe line is 6.084 in. Therefore the mean velocity in the experimental
portion of the pipe line was :
V = 0.988 X 8.19 X (1^) ' V/i= 1-639 ^h.
This gives, for this experiment,
V = 1.639 X \/ 102.1 =16.56 ft. per sec.
The results given in Table 2 were plotted logarithmically on 10-in.
base paper. Plate IV shows these plottings assembled.
Now, in order to study the effects of the curves, it is necessary to
select a uniform basis of comparison. Thus the experiments were
made by introducing the various curves between two fixed lengths of
pipe. For this case, the observed losses 6f head may be compared with
each other at once by using Table 2 or Plate IV; but such a basis
takes no account of the comparative lengths of the several pipe lines,
nor does it consider whether or not the same two points are joined by
the combinations of straight pipes and curves.
The writer has chosen two bases of comparison. In one, all cases
are reduced to equal lengths on the center lines of straight pipes and
curves. In the other, all cases are reduced to what they would be if
two fixed points had been connected by two straight pipe lines with
the various 90° curves between them.
For both these cases it is necessary to know the loss of head in the
straight pipe when it is imaffected by curvature. Two series of ex-
periments already described give this information.
Turning to Plate IV, it is seen that the results of the first
straight-pipe experiments do not agree with the later ones. Each
series gives a good straight line, but the two lines have different slopes
CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
75
TABLE 2.
_
CS
CS
of
i
Date,
1907.
o a
i
1^1
^1
i
n
III
If
Date,
1907.
II
â– |||
ill
a ="
P
c
URVE No.
1.
Curve No.
3.
Oct. 10. .
1
1.155
16.56
49
Oct. 12..
1
1.065
16.66
48
2
1.085
16.00
2
0.994
16.11
3
0.990
15.27
3
0.859
14.95
4
0.772
13.41
4
0.770
14.05
5
0.708
12.81
5
682
13.28
6
0.625
12.06
6
oieoo
7
0.380
9.29
7
0.488
11^09
8
0.285
7.96
8
0.318
8.85
9
0.198
6.59
9
7.69
10
0.118
10
oiiio
4.99
11
0.055
3:46
11
0.051
3.45
12
1.158
16.58
13
1.065
16.66
Oct. 12..
13
1.169
16.58
47
Oct. 14..
13
1.062
16.65
46
14
1.104
16.10
14
1.005
16.16
15
0.956
14.95
15
892
IS. 18
16
0.858
14.13
16
01750
13.91
17
0.756
13.24
18
0.680
12.53
19
0.590
11.64
20
0.436
9.96
21
0.308
8.20
22
0.187
6.38
23
0.074
3.82
24
0.034
2.67
C
URVE No.
2.
Curve No.
4.
Oct. 12..
1
1.097
16.65
47
Oct. 14..
1
1.071
16.62
46
2
1.019
16.04
2
1.034
16.30
3
0.718
13.35
3
0.834
14.59
0.859
14.73
4
0.682
13.15
0.549
11.55
5
0.572
12.01
0.460
ie.62
6
0.349
9.29
0.350
9.18
7
0.158
6.10
0.196
6.76
8
0.062
3.87
0.107
5.02
9
0.438
10.46
0.048
10
1.070
16.63
0.036
sisi
1.096
16.65
Oct. 15. .
11
13
13
1.070
01732
16.63
16.27
13.67
45
76
CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
TABLE 2 (Continued).
Uate,
1907.
o a
II
1
it
11
i
Date,
1907.
a
ii
111
111
'°
,t3
'hi
11
ii
if
Curve No. 5.
Curve No. 8.
Oct. 15..
Oct. 17..
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1.053
0.985
0.762
0.642
0.460
0.240
0.100
0.048
1.052
1.045
16.63
16.09
14.05
12.85
10.80
7.63
4.86
3.42
16.63
16.61
45
Oct. 21..
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
10
1.008
0.858
0.782
0.694
0.331
0.419
0.172
0.100
0.050
1.016
16.60
15.26
14.50
13.64
9.26
10.50
6.56
4.99
3.44
16.62
43
Curve No. 6.
Curve No. 9.
Oct. 17. .
Oct. 19. .
Oct. 26..
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
1.036
1.004
0;644
0^410
0.238
0.121
0.046
1.028
1.026
1.034
1.015
0.963
16.65
16.40
15:41
13.04
8.67
10.36
7.78
5.53
3.41
16.61
16.60
16.61
16.45
16.01
47^
42
Oct. 22..
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
1.020
0.981
0.881
0.730
0.426
0.230
0.107
0.041
1.020
16.63
16.40
15.40
14.00
10.55
7.58
5.15
3.13
16.63
42
Curve No. 7.
Curve No. 10.
Oct. 19..
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1.024
0.819
0.631
0.544
0.287
0.212
0.12:5
0.076
0.039
1.025
16.61
14.80
12.90
11.94
8.58
7.31
5.62
4.38
3.20
16.62
47i
Oct. 22..
Oct. 24..
1
2
3
4
5
I
9
10
11
12
13
1.016
0.990
0.905
0.778
0.595
0.324
0.288
0.214
0.126
0.064
0.024
1.016
1.013
16.63
16.40
15.65
14.48
12.60
9.26
8.70
7.41
5.60
3.97
2.46
16.64
16.66
42
CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
77
TABLE 2 (Continued).
Date,
1907.
il
III
a to
is
II
o $
m
m
If
Date,
1907.
n
si
PI
Corresponding
differential mercury-
gauge difference for
4<3.10 ft. of pipe.
a
â– ag
II
>
c
CJRVE No.
11.
Straight-Pipe Experiments.
Oct. 19..
1
2
1.050
926
16.59
15 53
47^
( Temperature of water:
First Series: - 68° at beginning,
1 70" at enl
3
4
0.607
12.40
8.99
5
0.275
8.41
Sept. 4. .
1
1.901
0.0701
6.03
6
0.241
7.75
2
1.687
0.0622
5.67
7
0.202
7.07
3
1.449
0.0535
5.22
8
0.120
5.41
4
1.341
0.0458
4.80
9
0.056
3.78
5
1.900
0.0369
4.29
10
0.032
2.87
6
0.831
0.0307
11
1.046
16.56
7
8
0.704
0.473
0.0260
0.0175
3.55
2.87
Oct. 21..
12
1.052
16.58
43
9
0.307
0.0114
2.27
13
0.715
13.60
10
0.160
0.0059
1.61
C
URVE No.
12.
Oct. 24. .
1
1.046
16.62
43
2
1.009
16.31
3
0.818
14.65
4
0.558
12.01
.5
8.92
6
0.168
6.43
7
0.072
4.21
8
0.037
3.74
9
0.612
12.61
10
1.046
16.61
Screw ^lbow.
1.098
1.053
0.912
0.682
0.515
0.331
0.174
0.071
16.55
16.21
15.03
13.94
11.20
8.92
6.40
4.04
16.55
SecondSeries*: ] '^^STsS-'lahr.
Corre-
sponding
values.
13.70
13.19
10.84
6.83
4.40
2.45
Observed
values.
0.506
0.487
0.378
0.2525
0.1625
0.0905
16.56
16.23
14.29
11.56
9.36
* The velocities for the second series are
computed for the mean diameter of the ex-
perimental section (46.10 ft. long) which was
e.orsin.
78 CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
and represent different laws of flow. The equations of these lines, re-
duced so as to represent loss of head in feet of water per foot length
of pipe, are
For the first series, JT = 0.000 069 F^-^^
For the later series, iT = 0.000 508 V^-^'
To show more clearly the magnitude of this difference, the follow-
ing calculated values are given:
Loss of head, in feet of water per foot of length :
r=3ft. r=51:t. F^lOtt. r=16ft.
per sec. per sec. per sec. per sec.
First series 0.0052 0.0135 0.049 0.119
Later series 0.0050 0.0135 0.052 0.129
Thus, at the outset, comes the question which must arise in all
experiments of this kind: What was the law of flow of the identical
straight pipe used with the curves when unaffected by curvature, but
otherwise in the same condition? On this depends the calculation of
the excess loss of head caused by the curves.
There are a number of possible causes for the difference shown
above :
1. — The pipe may have beco.me rougher by rusting in the interval
between the two series of experiments;
2. — Pipes Nos. 4 and 5 together may have had different hydraulic
properties from Pipes Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5 together ;
3. — The different temperatures of the water may have caused a
difference in loss of head.
It was intended originally to bring the straight pipes back to the
hydraulic laboratory and again test them as at first for loss of head
after the curve experiments had been finished, but the lateness of the
season prevented this.
Later in this paper the above possible causes of differences will be
discussed more fully. In order to remove any question as to mistake)!
judgment, the results are worked up in both ways.
The individual observations, directly, are not used in the final
comparisons. From the mean lines drawn on the logarithmic diagran],
where all observed values for each curve have been plotted, the gauge-
difference values for velocities of 3, 5, 10, and 16 ft. per sec. have
been picked off. These values are given in Table 3.
6-INCH PIPE. WXURVE EXPERIMENTS.
Logarithmic Plotting of Observed Differential Mercury Gauge DifFerences, with
Mean Velocities In Ihe Pipe line, showing the Losses of Head in the Experimental
Length as varied only by the introduction of the several Curves. Also the corre-
sponding Plotting for Straight Pipe without Curvature Effects.
Differential Mercury Gauge Difference, Feet
Velocity, in Feet per Second
CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
79
All the cases have been reduced to the length conditions existing in
the set-up for Curve No. 1. For the first comparison, the observed dif-
ferential mercury-gauge differences for the other curves have been
increased by an amount corresponding to the additional length of
straight pipe necessary to give the same length on the center line as
existed between the tvpo piezometers vphen Curve No. 1 was in the pipe
line. For the second comparison, the added quantity corresponds to
the extra length of pipe required to make the sum of the tangent
distances from the point of intersection equal to that for Curve No. 1.
These two cases may be called, for brevity, respectively, the equal-
lengths and the two-fixed-points cases.
TABLE 3. — Differential Mercury-Gauge Differences from the
Mean Lines Drawn for the Plotted Points for All the Ob-
servations, IN Feet.
No. of curve.
Velocity, in Feet per Second :
3
5
10
16
1
0.0444
0.1180
0.443
1 090
2
0.04U8
0.1083
0.410
1.011
3
0.0400
0.1062
0.402
0.991
4
0.0400
0.1062
0.403
0.991
5
0.0395
0.1046
0.396
0.978
6
0.0376
0.1008
960
0.0381
0.1013
0.385
0.950
8
0.0375
0.1002
382
0.942
9
0.0375
0.1002
0.382
0.943
10
0.0375
0.1002
0.382
0.942
11
0.0382
0.1030
0.394
0.981
12
0.0.387
0.1031
0.392
0.968
Screw elbow.
0.0403
0.1077
0.413
1.030
TABLE 4.
-Lengths of Straight Pipe to be Added to Reduce All
Cases to Conditions of Curve No. 1.
No. of curve.
For equal
lengths on
center lines.
To connect
two fixed
points.
No. of curve.
For equal
lengths on
center lines.
To connect
two fixed
points.
2
3
4
5
6
3.92 ft
7.75 '
9.42 '
10.87 •
11.68 •
13.12 '
5.00 ft.
9.90 •'
12.00 "
13.88 "
14.91 "
16.56 •'
8
9
10
11
12
Screw elbow.
13.90 ft.
14.22 "
15.01 "
13.14 "
15.71 "
17.56 ft.
18.06 "
18.90 "
17.06 "
19.73 '•
30. .56 "
Table 4 gives the length of straight pipe to be added for each
curve for the two cases to reduce all to the conditions of Curve No. 1.
The loss of head per foot of length of straight pipe is given in Table 5v
80
CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
Using Tables 5 and 4, the individual corrections are calculated.
The results are given in Table 6.
TABLE 5.
From the First Experiments :
From the Second Experiments :
in feet
per second.
Mercury diflferential-
gauge differences,
in feet.
Feet of
water.
Mercury differential-
gauge differences,
in feet.
Feet of
water.
3
5
10
16
0.000412
0.001071
0.003903
0.00943
0.00518
0.01346
0.0491
0.1185
0.000399
0.001075
0.00413
0.01026
0.00502
0.0135
0.0518
0.139
TABLE 6. — Corrections to be Added to Observed Differential Mer-
cury-Gauge Differences to Reduce All Cases for Comparison
WITH Conditions of Curve No. 1, in Feet.
For Equal Lengths on Center Lines:
To Connect Two Fixed Points:
Velocity, in feet per second.
No. of
curve.
Velocity, in feet per second.
curve.
3
5
10
16
3
'
10
16
On Basis of First Straight-Pipe Experiments.
2
0.0016
0.0043
0.015
0.037
3
0.0U32
0.0083
0.030
0.073
4
0.0039
0.0101
0.037
0.089
5
0.0045
0.0117
0.042
0.103
6
0.0048
0.0125
0.046
0.110
7
0.0054
0.0141
0.051
0.134
8
0.0057
0.0149
0.054
0.131
9
0.0059
0.0152
0.056
0.134
10
0.0062
0.0161
0.059
0.143
11
0.0054
0.0141
0.051
0.134
12
0.0065
0.0168
0.061
0.148
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Screw
elbow
0.0031
0.0041
0.0049
0.0057
0.0061
0.0088
0.0072
0.0074
0.00T8
0.0070
0.0081
0.0085
0.0054
0.0106
0.0139
0.0149
0.0160
0.0177
0.0188
0.0194
0.0202
0.0188
0.0211
0.0320
0.020
0.039
0.047
0.054
0.058
0.065
0.069
0.070
0.074
0.067
0.077
0.080
0.047
0.098
0.113
0.131
0.141
I 0.156
I 0.166
0.170
0.178
0.161
0.186
0.194
On Basis of Second Straight-Pipe Experiments.
0016
0.0043
0.016
0.040
2
0.0020
0.0054
0.031
0.051
3
0031
0083
0.082
0.080
3
0.0040
0.0106
0.041
0.103
0.00.38
0.0102
0.038
0.097
4
0.0048
0.0129
0.049
0.123
5
0043
0.0117
0.045
0.112
5
0.0055
0.0149
0.057
0.143
6
0.0047
0.0126
0.048
0.120
6
0.00.59
0.0160
0.061
0.153
7
0.0052
0.0141
0.054
0.135
7
0.0066
0.0178
0.068
0.170
8
0055
0.0150
0.057
0.143
8
0.0070
0.0189
0.072
0.180
9
0.0057
0.0153
0.()."i9
0.146
9
0.0073
0.0194
0.074
0.185
10
0.0060
0.0161
0.063
0.154
10
0.0075
0.0303
0.078
0.194
11
0052
0.0141
0.054
0.135
11
0.0068
0.0183
0.070
0.175
12
0.0063
0.0169
0.065
0.161
12
0.0079
0.0212
0.081
0.202
Screw I
elbow (
0.0083
0.0231
0.085
0.211
CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
81
The values in Table 6 are added to the corresponding ones in Table
3 to obtain the losses of head when the length conditions are the same
as for Curve No. 1. If, from these latter losses of head, there are sub-
tracted the losses of head in the same length of straight pipe without
curvature effects, the results are the excess losses of head due to the
curves. This has been done, using the values in Table 7. The units
are in feet of difference on a mercury differential gauge.
TABLE 7.
From the First Experiments :
From the Second Experiments :
Velocity,
in feet
per second.
Lossper 101.98 ft. of
straiglit pipe, the
length on center
line, for Curve No. 1.
Loss per 106.27ft. of
straight pipe , the
sum of the tangent
distances from the
P. I., for Curve No. 1.
Loss per
101.98 ft. of
straight pipe.
Loss per
107.82 ft. of
straight pipe.
3
5
10
16
0.0420
0.1093
0.398
0.0438
0.1139
0.415
1.002
0.0407
0.1096
0.420
1.046
0.0424
0.1142
0.438
1.190
The excess losses of head, found as above described, are given in
Table 8, having been reduced to feet of water by multiplying by 12.57.
(On a mercury differential gauge the difference corresponds to a
water difference 12.57 times as great, the specific gravity of mercury
being 13.57.)
In Table 9 these excess losses of head are expressed in terms of the
lengths of straight pipe that would give the same losses. In Table
10 they are expressed in terms of the velocity heads. Tables 9 and 10
have been worked out on the basis of the second series of straight-
pipe experiments only. The excess losses of head, given in Table 8,
are plotted on Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6, to show the relation to the radius
of curvature. The points have been connected by short straight lines,
no attempt being made to draw smooth averaging curves. The results
given in Table 9 have been plotted in the same manner in Figs. 7 and
8. The results are now in shape for discussion on the influence of
curvature.
Fig. 5 indicates for increasing radius of curvature a decided
lessening in the excess loss of head throughout the range of the ex-
periments. Fig. 3 seems to indicate on the whole a gradual decrease
82
CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
as the radius of the curve increases above about 1.25 ft., or 2^ diam-
eters. Certainly, there is no general indication of an increasing loss
of head.
TABLE 8. — Excess Loss of Head of Straight Pipes Joined by a 90°
Curve over Straight Pipe Alone, in Eeet of Water.
Fob Equal Lengths on Center Lines :
To Connect
rwo Fixed Points
No. of
Velocity, in feet per second.
No. of
curve.
Velocity, in feet per second.
curve.
a 1 ,
10
16
3
5
10
16
On Basis of First Straight-Pipe Experiments.
1
0.030
0.111
0.57 1
61
1
0.007
0.053
0.35
1.11
2
0.005
0.041
0.34 1
09
2
-0.011
-0.002
0.19
0.71
3
0.006
0.067
0.43 1
29
3
0.004
0.037
1.04
4
0.024
0.089
0.53 1
49
4
0.014
0.066
0.43
1.29
5
0.025
0.089
0.50 1
50
5
0.018
0.071
0.44
1.35
6
0.005
0.051
0.43 1
36
6
-0.001
0.037
0.36
1.25
7
0.019
0.078
0.48 1
41
7
0.014
0.064
0.44
1.31
8
0.006
0.074
0.48 1
40
8
0.011
0.064
0.45
1.34
9
0.018
0.078
0.50 1
44
9
0.014
0.072
0.46
1.39
10
0.021
0.089
0.54 1
54
10
0.019
0.083
0.52
1.49
11
0.020
0.099
0.59 1
80
11
0.018
0.093
0.58
1.76
18
0.040
0.134
0.69 1
94
12
0.038
0.130
0.68
1.91
Screw 1
elbow, f
0.063
0.199
0.98
2.79
On Basis of Second Straight-Pipe Experiments.
1
0.O17
0.105
0.29
0.57
1
0.025
0.047
0.06
O.IK)
2
0.031
0.035
0.07
0.06
2
0.005
-0.007
-0.09
-0.35
3
0.030
0.061
o.ir
0.32
3
0.020
0.033
0.06
O.Ol
4
0.039
0.084
0.26
0.53
4
0.030
0.060
0.16
0.30
5
0.039
0.083
0.26
0.56
5
0.033
0.066
0.19
0.38
6
0.020
0.047
0.17
0.43
6
0.014
0.032
O.Il
0.29
0.033
O.0?2
0.24
0.49
0.089
0.060
0.19
0.38
8
0.029
0.069
0.24
0.49
8
0.026
0.060
0.20
0.40
9
0.031
0.073
0.26
0.53 I
9
0.029
0.067
0.23
0.47
10
0.035
0.083
0.30
0.63 1
10
0.033
0.078
0.28
0.58
11
0.034
0.093
0.35
0.88
11
0.033
0.088
0.33
0.83
12
0.054
0.130
0.45
1.05
18
0.053
0.126
0.44
1.01
Screw (
elbow. ]
0.077
0.195
0.75
1.90
Figs. 4 and 6 show how the results are modified when the results
of the first straight-pipe experiments are used. Fig. 4, especially, is
of interest in comparison with Fig. 3. Both are based on the equal-
lengths comparison. In Fig. 3 the excess loss tends to approach zero
for the long-radius curves, but, in Fig. 4, the average excess appears
to be nearly constant for the longer radii. If this latter constant
CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
83
TABLE 9. — Lengths of Straight Pipe, in Feet, to give Loss of Head
EQUAL TO THE ExCESS LoSS DuE TO THE CURVES. On THE BaSIS OF
THE Second Straight-Pipe Experiments.
For Equal Lengths on Center Lines :
To Connect Two Fixed Points :
Velocity, in feet per second.
Velocity, in feet per second.
No. of
No. of
curve.
curve.
3
5
10
16
3
5
10
16
1
9.4
7.8
5.6
4.3
1
5.0
3.4
1.2
0.0
2
4.2
2.6
1.4
0.5
2
1.0 â–
-0.6
-1.7
-2.7
3
6.0
4.5
3.8
2.5
3
4.0
2.3
1.2
0.3
4
7.8
6.3
5.1
4.1
4
6.0
4.4
3.1
2.3
.5
7.8
6.1
5 1
4.3
5
6.6
4.8
3.7
3.0
6
4.0
3.5
3.3
3.3
6
2.8
2.3
2.2
2.3
7
6.6
5.3
4.7
3.8
7
5.8
4.4
3.7
3.0
8
5.8
5.1
4.7
3.8
8
5.2
4.4
3.9
3.1
9
6.2
5.4
5.1
4.1
9
5.8
4.9
4.5
3.7
10
7.0
6.2
5.8
4.9
10
6.6
5.7
5.4
4.5
11
6.8
6.9
6.8
6.8
11
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.4
13
10.8
9.6
8.9
8.1
12
10.6
9.3
8.5
7.8
Screw 1
elbow. S
15.3
14.4
14.5
14.7
TABLE 10. — Excess Losses of Head Due to Curves, Expressed in
Terms of Velocity Heads. On the Basis of the Second
Straight-Pipe Experiments.
For Equal Lengths on Center Lines :
To Connect Two Fixed Points :
Velocity, in feet per second.
Velocity, in feet per second.
No. of
3
5
10
16
No. of
curve.
i
1
i
i
curve.
o
II
^
II
CO
3
5
10
16
^1^
L{.-
^^
Ms
0.04
1
0.34
0.27
0.19
0.14
J
0.18
0.12
0.00
2
0.15
0.09
0.05
0.02
3
0.04
—0.02
-0.06
— o.t«
3
0.21
0.16
0.11
0.08
3
0.14
0.08
04
0.01
4
0.38
22
0.17
0.13
4
0.21
0.15
0.10
0.08
5
0.28
0.21
0.17
0.14
5
0.24
0.17
0.12
0.10
6
0.14
0.12
0.11
0.11
6
0.10
0.08
0.07
0.07
7
0.24
0.18
0.16
0.12
7
0.21
0.15
0.12
0.10
8
0.31
0.18
O.lf)
0.12
8
0.19 .
0.15
0.13
0.10
9
0.22
0.19
0.17
0.13
9
0.21
0.17
0.15
0.13
10
0.25
0.21
0.19
0.16
10
0.24
0.20
0.18
0.15
11
0.24
0.24
0.23
0.22
11
0.34
0.23
0.21
0.31
12
0.39
0.33
0.29
. 0.26
12
C.38
0.35
1
Screw elbow.
0.55
0.50
0.48
0.48
84
CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
tendency represents the truth, then a remarkable dilemma is presented.
As the curvature of a pipe becomes less and less, the external condi-
tions approach nearer to those of straight pipe. The natural in-
ference is that the loss of head also approaches straight-pipe values,
unless, indeed, it be argued that the slightest deflection from straight
pipe immediately causes a considerable excess loss of head.* For-
4 5 7
lliuliiisof Cuivu, ill fi-et.
Figs. 3 and 4.
tunately, there exist experimental data which will assist in the con-
sideration of these points. These will be given presently.
Fig. 6 shows the same tendency as Fig. 5, although the decrease in
loss of head with increasing radius of curvature is less decided on the
basis of the first straight-pipe experiments.
♦Detroit Curve Experiments. Transactions, Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XLVII, 1902, Con-
clusion J, page 191, and pages 186-187.
CURVE EESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
85
As to the difference found between the results of the two straight-
pipe series, the following may be stated. Conditions of temperature
were favorable for some rusting during September, after the first
straight-pipe series and before the first curve experiments were made.
l.Or
0.9-
0.8
'n 0.
X <u
« a 0.6
g s
r.l '•'
II 0.
•°-i 0.3
S 2 0.2
0.1
-0.1
-0.2
-0,3
-0.4
1 2 3 4 5 G
Radius of Curve, in feet.
pT
\
90°CURVE EXPERIMENTS,
6-INCH PIPE
<?
K,
\
"^
\
/
-^
S^,
i
..
-..
rsi
Q
\
/
■''■^^^„
^^_
k--^
) — c
b--^
-^
£^.
^
^
. --
—
r
^
^
â– "-
-~.-T-
\
/
\
y\
n
1
\
y
^ ^ ^. 2.0
O Ml O
1 1 1 'â– '
g^ 1.4
a ^ S
\
Same as Plotting above but using First Straight
Pipe Experiments in the Calculations.
VeIocity=l 3 Ft. per Sec,
3 iS"^ 0.8
-•Si
p a I 0.6
'^ 0.1
0.2
During the curve experiments, the data show no indication of increas-
ing roughness, or of any effect of changes in temperature of the
water.* All the straight pipes had been used in a steam-heating main
*This is remarkable. It has been observed, for smooth brass pipes of all sizes between
^ji in. and 5 in. in diameter, that the loss of head is increased about 4% for a decrease of
temperature of the water of 10° fahr. Rougher pipes, such as galvanized iron and wrought
iron, show no effect due to temperature changes.
4
Kadi
5
us of Curve,
6
u feet.
Figs
Sand 6.
CUllVE KESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
for some years, and all seemed to have a uniform internal appearance.
The first series had no velocities greater than 6 ft. per sec, while the
second series had velocities as high as in the curve experiments. A
m
â– l-z 4
;m <u
If 1-1
cm''"
3 4 5 6 7
Radius of Curve, in Feet
Fig. 7.
9
M 1 1 1 1 M I
?,
90°CURVE EXPERIMENTS,
6-lNCH PIPE
,-'^
\
/
\^
^S
K-
\\
/ )
>—.-
~— (
!.
'%
N
\\l\
'â– 11
^-
'^\
-<^u
,
'-'
/'
^
r
^-.
^
s
\
^U,
-%
,'
'
•
•'
\
.\
ki%o.
'â– ^v
>v^
/'
'
^1
\
^i^k:
^^
\
•
/
^
*^
,^
^\
y
/
y^
/
\
'~^:
f''"
X
N
^
1
5
r
)
10
Feet
Radius of Curv(
Fig. 8.
separate measurement of the loss of head in Pipes Nos. 2 and 3 when
uninfluenced by curvature was not made, and it is impossible to de-
cide as to their hydraulic properties as compared with Pipes Nos. 4
and 5.
CUllVE KKSI8TANCE IN WATER PIPES 87
It is thus clear that, without additional evidence, it is not possible
to reject one of the straight-pipe series and accept the other, or to feel
safe in using average values.
In relation to this matter, the writer desires to present the data
from measurements on an 8-in. cast-iron water main. This main sup-
plies raw water to the Cornell University Filtration Plant.* It had
been laid and in use for three years before the experiments in the fall
of 1906. Before laying, the inside diameter of each length had been
calipered. At the time of laying, each pipe length was set accurately
to line and grade with a transit. After laying, and before covering
CORNELL UNIVERSITY
8-INCH CAST-IRON RAW WATER
PIPE LINE This intermediate tangent contains _ , j j
, , r, • . ^^ -~^ „. , , . , Change of grade made
three 12-ft.pipe lengths .^^^ Change of grade made hy i th b d
Change of grade made by ^^\four equal deflectlonfl in "L/^j M Qftn-
flve equal deflections in ^nsecutive pipe j-'-" ^TinTl||'^'^^'^''-' -
Change of grade made by consecutire pipe joints. \ \ 'i?l^^ 890'
equal deflections in^
PROFILE
Lengths betweenV™"""'"" ■>■» Diameters, Vertical, at . -g^Q.
cenier line, Feet piezometer taps. Inche,
E-F 116.80 I -J 1.06.95 E 7M 7 7,98 M 7.8S.g60-
F-a 84.68 J-K
0-B 82.82 S:-L 83.80
B 7.98 J 7,97
8.06 K
B-l 169.07 Z'-M 96.28 H 8-02 J 7..9t
Mean diameter^ Inches.
£ - F 7.999 I -J 8,006
F-a 8.036 J-E 8,022.
"plaK"
.^>ll' Eller
Fig. 9.
the pipe, the piezometer holes were drilled and tapped, and the diam-
eters measured at these points; the i-in. brass piezometer cocks were
inserted so as not to project inside, and the lengths between the
piezometers were measured and checked in the ditch.
The plan and profile of the pipe line are shown by Fig. 9. There
are eight experimental sections, four of which contain deflections, and
four of which are straight, preceded by considerable lengths of straight
pipe.
The piezometer taps were placed on top of the pipe and 1 ft. up
stream from the joints, except that those before deflections were placed
2 ft. up stream from the joint where the first deflection occurred.
The flow in the pipe line was measured at the filter plant by a
♦Designed by G, S. Williams, M. Am. Soc. C. E. See The Engineering Record, April 9th, 1904.
»» CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
Venturi meter which had been accurately calibrated in place by
volumetric measurements. A differential water gauge was used with
the meter. The losses of head were measured with a portable differ-
ential water gauge mounted on a tripod. The gauge was set up on
the ground midway between two piezometer wells, and pressure con-
nections were made with small three-ply rubber hose after thoroughly
blowing off to remove all air.
The flow was controlled by a valve at the filter plant. It was pos-
sible to shut this valve down entirely, and thus get no-flow conditions
and a check on the gauge readings. The electric motor-driven two-
stage centrifugal pumps at the lower end of the pipe line allowed this
procedure without any trouble.
After changing the valve setting and allowing the flow to become
steady, simultaneous readings were taken on the meter and the loss-
of-head gauges. The results are shown graphically in Figs. 10 and 11.
For the straight sections the observed losses of head have been reduced
uniformly to loss per 1 000 ft. It will be seen on Fig. 10 that the
straight sections differ among themselves. Thus Section E-F has less
and Section E-L has greater loss of head than the average of the four
sections; in fact, Section K-L has about 15% greater loss of head
than Section E-F. The equation of the mean line for the four sec-
tions of straight pipe is
iT=0.rxSG F'-^i
where H is the loss of head, in feet per 1 000 ft, and V is the velocity,
in feet per second. (The corresponding values of C, in 7 = C \/b^.
are: at 1 ft. per sec, 101; at 4 ft. per sec, 107.)
Fig. 11 shows the difference between this average law of flow for
the straight portions and the hydraulics of the sections containing de-
flections. It is remarkable that Section F-G with a single 3.8° de-
flection. Section H-I with a curve composed of five 3.17° deflections.
and Section J-K with a reverse curve composed of one curve with
five 2.18° deflections and another with four 2.81° deflections, all show,
on the whole, less loss of head than the average of equal lengths of
straight pipe. Section L-M, with a short-radius bend giving a deflec-
tion of 12° 66', is the only one showing a greater loss of head.
The writer does not argue from this that such easy curves or de-
flections are more favorable for the flow of water than straight pipe,
but he does see the indication that any difference is very small and
CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
89
10
r
/
8
/
f
6
5
4
M
OS
•
ect
on
E-F
G-If
/
+
"
I-J
L
â– 4fn
j^"
3
f
r
(
IT
1.5
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0,6
4
i'c
f
)
/
/
r
>
r
f
/
/
8-1 NC
:h cast-iron pipe
'/
LO
3ARITHMIC PLOTTING
FOR
y
s
Se
TRAIGHT SECTIONS
i Fig.9 for Dimensions
/
0.3
(
y
/
5
G
7
80
9 ]
1
5
2 2
5
i
.
) fi
Velocity, in Feet per Second
Fig. 10.
90 CURVE EESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
may be less than the difference between two straight sections in the
same pipe line, as occurs in the case above recorded.
The 6-in, wrought-iron pipe experiments also give some informa-
tion on the question of the effect of slight deflections in otherwise
straight pipe. The first series, of October 10th, 1907, was made with
a decidedly zigzag appearance of the down-stream tangent, that is,
the joints were not in a straight line, although the individvxal pipe
lengths themselves were straight. On October 12th the series was re-
peated, but with the down-stream tangent carefully aligned. No dif-
ference in results is noticeable.
Viewed in the light of the foregoing, it is easy to decide that the
first 6-in. straight-pipe experiments do not apply to the later curve
experiments because the deduced excess loss of head does not continue
to approach zero for the long easy curves. In this respect, the differ-
ence between Figs. 3 and 4 is noteworthy.
Now, all of this contradicts the findings of Messrs. Williams, Hub-
bell, and Fenkell in the Detroit Experiments. The writer cannot
imagine that radically different laws apply to the cases investigated
by him and by these experimenters.
One difference in conditions is to be noted, however. The long-
radius curves in the 30-in. Detroit main were made up of several
pieces, while the writer's 6-in. curves were all one-piece bends. As to
the probable small effect of the joints, the writer's 8-in. pipe experi-
ments, with small deflections, give some idea ; but there are other pos- •
sible causes for the divergence of the findings. The smallness of the
measured losses, with the comparatively low velocities available in the
Detroit 30-in. main, would tend to magnify excess losses due to other
effects than curvature. Thus, in Figs. 3 and 5 it will be seen that a
very different appeal to the eye is given by the line for a velocity of
16 ft. per sec. than by the line for a velocity of 3 or even 5 ft. per sec.
There remains, also, for the Detroit Experiments, the possibility
of relatively large errors due to several causes. These errors were
considered by Messrs. Williams, Hubbell, and Fenkell in their closing
discussion, and a table was presented* in which corrections — as large
as 50% in one case — were made to the results given in the main part
of the paper. These corrections materially alter the appearance of
the remarkable Eig. 00 of the paper.
*Table No. 89, page 360, Transactions, Am Soc. C. E., Vol. XL VII, 1902.
CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
91
The lines are not drawn to fit the plotted points
but represent the conditions in the straight
portions of the pipe line for lengths equal to
the lengths of the sections with deflections.
Hence this plotting shows graphically the
excess or deficiency in loss of head due to the
deflections.
See Fig.9 for Plan and Profile of Pipe lane
with dimensions.
0.02
0.5 0,6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
1.5 2 3.5
Velocity, in Feet per Second
Fig. n.
92 CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
If, now, in the Detroit Experiments, to the causes for incorrect
deductions above mentioned there be added the effect of using for com-
parison the results of experiments on short sections of straight pipe
that might have had quite different hydraulic properties from the
straight pipe in the curve section, it is easy to see that the combination
of circumstances may have led to conclusions not at all general in
their applicability, and perhaps even wrong for the case in hand; but,
as to this matter, the writer is quite content with suggesting the
salient arguments.
After all, however, the engineer will be particularly interested in
the magnitude of the excess losses of head due to curves. Are they
seriously large in an extreme case?
Figs. Y and 8 show that the excess loss of head for the shortest 90°
curve is equal to the loss in 7 to 10 ft. (or 14 to 20 diameters) length of
straight pipe. When the radius is 2^ diameters the excess loss of
head is equal to the loss in 5 to 10 diameters length of straight pipe.
In this relation Fig. 12 is interesting. It is seen that, for the smooth
brass 180° curves, the excess loss of head is rather less than the loss of
head in 7 diameters length of straight pipe. The expression,
0.15 = \-, , seems to give a fair average value for the range of these
brass-curve experiments.
Table 9 shows that the 6-in. screw elbow gives an excess loss of
head equal to the loss in about 27 diameters length of straight wrought-
iron pipe. The writer has also the record of some accurate measure-
ments on the loss due to 3-in. and 4-in. screw elbows, from which it
appears that the losses are equal, respectively, to the losses in 25 and 27
diameters length of straight wrought-iron pipe.
When, therefore, the Detroit Experiments, after thorough revision,
indicate for a long easy curve in 30-in. pipe an excess loss of head
equal to the loss in 50 diameters length of straight pipe, not only does
the loss seem to be too large when compared with the loss in a screw
elbow where sudden enlargement and contraction are present in addi-
tion to extremely short-turn curvature effects, but the whole trend of
the results is directly the opposite of what is shown by the writer's
experiments on 6 and 8-in. pipes.
Now, it may be that Nature changes her methods somewhere be-
tween pipes of 8 and 30 in. in diameter, as regards the effects of
CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
93
curvature. It must be so, if both the Detroit Experiments and those
of the writer have been interpreted correctly. The evidence seems
to stand as follows: In Detroit, with a small range of low velocities
(the greatest about 3 ft. per sec.) the 30-in. pipe line shows an increas-
0.07
0.06
0.05
1 1 1 1 1 L
H
//
180°CURVESiIN 2.09-INCH
BRASS PIPE LINE
RITHMIC PLOTTING OF DATA FROM TAB
Transactions AM SOC. C. E., VOL. XLVll,
1902, PAGES 318-319.
EXPERIMENTS BY SAPH AND SCHODER
• Curve No.l, Radius=9.58 Pipe Diameters
o " "2 " 7.63 .'
+ " •3 " 5.77 "
O ■• "4 .' 4.76 •'
n ■• "5 " 4.33 ■'
® •■•■6 •' .3.84 "
i
'J
^
•
[
1/
i
1
tJ 0.03
C 0.02
â– K
S
'/
4
f
.
°v.
"S 0.008
J//
)
t' /
i'/
53 0.005
>
o
d 0.004
a
o
#/
â–¡
// â–
)
f
i
^ 0.002
0.001
+
/
/
f
f
®
D
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
n-
®
0.6 0.7 0.8 O.'J l.O 2
Velocity, in Feet per Second
Fig. 12.
ing loss of head with increasing radius of curvature for curves with
radii between 5 and 25 diameters. (The other pipe lines, 12 and 16-in.,
have only short-radius curves, and the results are not consistent.) The
writer's experiments on 6-in. pipe, with velocities up to 16 ft. per sec,
94 CURVE I?ESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
show the opposite. His 8-in. pipe experiments indicate no measurable
excess loss of head for bends composed of a series of small deflections
al consecutive joints in ordinary cast-iron pipe, and his 6-in. pipe also
shows no appreciable excess loss for several small deflections. The
quantitative results for the long Detroit 30-in. 90° curves are far in
excess of the 180° 2-in. brass curves, the writer's 6-in. 90° curves, the
S, 4 and 6-in. screw elbows, and, as above stated, are contradicted by
the no-excess results of the 8-in. long, easy curves.
If, then, for any reason, an engineer wishes to use a long, easy
curve, or a series of small deflections, in the .I'oints between straight
pipes, the writer's experiments indicate just what most hydraulic en-
gineers have assumed, namely, that there is practically no difference
between the loss of head due to a long, easy curve and that due to an
equal length of straight pipe.
No calculations on the basis of the loss of head per foot length of
curved portion have been made, because all the excess loss of head
probably does not occur in the curve, an unknown part of the loss
taking place in the down-stream tangent in the region where the ab-
normal flow returns to normal. Partly for this reason, also, it was
not deemed wise to attempt any correction on account of the smaller
diameter of the 6-in. cast-iron curves, or, indeed, on account of the
variation in the diameters of any of the curves from the mean diam-
eter of the straight pipe. Besides, we have no precise knowledge con-
cerning the effects of slight sudden enlargements or contractions, such
as are involved in these experiments.
The writer has found this an interesting study, and would gladly
have extended the experiments to other sizes of pipes, but the cost, in
time and money, is rather large. He would suggest the desirability
of similar studies on other small sizes, and of many further experi-
ments on curves in existing large pipe lines.
The writer desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to Professor
W. B. Gregory, who worked with him throughout the 6-in. pipe ex-
periments, and in subsequent Pitot tube investigations* in the course
of which it was shown that normal flow prevailed at all the piezometers
in the 6-in. pipe.
After preparing this paper, the writer's attention was called to a
* See paper, " Some Pitot Tube Studies," by W. B. Gregory and E. W. Schoder. Proceed-
ings, Am. See. Mech. Engrs., May, 1908.
CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
95
record of experiments on 90° bends in 3 and 4-
m. pipes
* These ex-
periments covered a right-angled elbow and right-angled bends having
radii equal to 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 14 diameters in 3-in. pipe, and the
same, excepting the last two, in 4-in. pipe.
The arrangement resembled that by the writer except that the
down-stream piezometer was located rather close to the curves, being
6 ft. 8 in., or 27 diameters, distant for the 3-in. pipe, and from 5 ft.
to 6 ft. 7i in., or from 15 to 19 diameters, distant for the 4-in. pipe.
The length of straight pipe up stream from the up-stream piezometer
was 7 ft. for both the 3 and 4-in. pipes.
Fig. 13 is a reproduction of Mr. Brightmore's plotting of the re-
sults of his experiments. There is a striking similarity between the
LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO BENDS IN PIPES
3 AND 4 IN. IN DIAMETER
iO GD SD 10i>
Radius of Jieml, in Diameters.
Fig. 13.
shape of his curves and those by the writer in Fig. 3 (which corre-
sponds to Fig. 13). The hump in the curves between 6 and 8 diam-
eters appears in both Figs. 3 and 13. The quantitative results are not
readily compared. For Mr. Brightmore's 4-in. pipe the straight pipe
(rusted cast iron) had a coefficient of 47.5 in the formula, V =C V R S.
For the 3-in. pipe (galvanized) the coefficient was 65 to 70 for V
ranging from 3 to 11 ft. per sec. In the writer's experiments, the co-
efficient for the 6-in. wrought-iron pipe was 119 to 125 for V ranging
* Paper No. 3679, " Loss of Pressure in Water Flowing through Straight and Curved
Pipes,'' by Arthur William Brightmore, M. Inst. C. E., Minutes of Proceedings, Inst. C. E.,
96 CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
from 3 to 16 ft. per sec. Mr. Brightmore purposely allowed the pipes
and curves to become rusted, but, he states, not tuberculated. The
foregoing figures indicate that he was working with much rougher
pipes than the writer used, and the quantitative values shown on Fig.
13 indicate the same in comparison with Fig. 3.
It is evident that further experiments are desirable before precise
laws can be stated, although the qualitative results by Mr. Bright-
more and the writer agree in indicating a decreasing loss of head for
an increasing radius of curvature.
DISCUSSION ON CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
97
DISCUSSION
George Jacob Davis, Jr., Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C. E. (by letter). — Mr. Davis.
During the past six months some experiments on curve resistance
in water pipes have been made, under the writer's direction, in the
Hydraulic Laboratory of the University of Wisconsin. A description
of these experiments and a discussion of the results are given in the
hope of throwing some additional light on the subject.
The experiments were first undertaken in the spring by Messrs.
H. Hosier, C. M. Kehr, and R. K. McComb as a graduating thesis
in the College of Mechanics and Engineering. They were continued
during the summer school session by Messrs. A. F. Coleman, C. M.
Kehr, and B. M. Reynolds. Credit is due these gentlemen for the
diligent care exercised in making the observations and most of the
computations.
The apparatus, which forms part of the equipment used in the
regular course of instruction in experimental hydraulics, is shown in
Eig. 14. The pipes, marked "Pipe No. 1" and "Pipe No. 2," were
lap-welded pipes of iron or steel, and were new at the beginning of
the work. The nominal size was 2 in., but the actual internal diameter
was 2 rtT in. In all computations of velocities, ratios of radius to
diameter, etc., the actual diameter was used. The piezometers, as
shown in Fig. 14, consisted of four i-in. holes drilled through the pipe
walls, 90° apart, and communicating with an equalizing chamber.
yS DISCUSSION ON CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
Mr. Davis, which led to the gauges, and from which accumulated air could be
allowed to escape. Water differential gauges were used to measure
the loss of head. The water was measured in a galvanized-iron tank
of 50 cu. ft. capacity, and the time was observed with a stop-watch.
During the spring experiments the length of pipe between the drum
and the first piezometer, marked "l" on Fig. 14, was only 9 ft., and
while calibrating Pipe No. 1 this distance was only 3 ft. It was
believed that normal flow in the pipe had not obtained in so short a
distance from the rounded entrance to the pipe; therefore, in the
summer experiments, the length, "I" was made 62 ft.
The loss of head due to friction in the straight pipes was deter-
mined for both pipes before the baffles, shown in Fig. 14, were placed
in the drum. A second determination was made for Pipe No. 2 after
installing the baffles, and no change was noticed in the friction loss,
but the gauges were steadier. At the completion of the spring work,
the friction loss was again determined for both pipes. Only a slight
difference was noticed, due probably to rusting of the pipes. At the
completion of the summer work, the friction loss was again determined
for both pipes. This determination gave a loss of head per foot length
of pipe equal to
h = 0.00240 v^-^^
The loss per foot was the same in both pipes. The results of the
friction loss determinations are plotted logarithmically in Fig. 15.
Only the curve representing the last determinations was drawn. As
may be seen from Fig. 15, a line through the points of the earlier
determinations would have had a flatter slope and would have lain
above the one drawn, up to a velocity of about 10 ft. per sec, at
which point the lines cross. It is believed that the effect of rusting
would have raised the line instead of lowering it, and the lower values
of the friction loss are believed to be due to a steadier and more normal
flow at the greater distance from the drum. All the curves having a
ratio of radius of curvature to diameter of pipe equal to or greater
than 24 were experimented on under the improved conditions; more-
over, during all measurements of loss due to elbows, the nearest
piezometer was 19 ft. from the drum. It was thought, therefore, that
the nearest estimate of the friction loss was obtained by using the
curve drawn in Fig. 15. Any errors due to uncertainty regarding the
value of the pipe friction would be small, and would only affect the
short-radius curves, the losses in which are large.
All the curves experimented on made a turn of 90°, and had radii of
curvature as given in Table 11.
Nos. 1 to 6, inclusive, were standard fittings purchased from the
. Crane Company. No. 7 was cast from a pattern made in the shop of
the mechanician of the Engineering College. Nos. 9 and 10 were bent
from 2-in. pipe by the University blacksmith.
DISCUSSION ON CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
99
n
/
/
i
© Section CEl^ast Determination.
a -.4 5 -
— V " CJS First
A " " Second "
X" '' A B After Baffling.
+ " " First Determination.
5
^
/
/
/
-?
1
I
/
1
/
'f
J
y
i
y
{
7
V
/
/
2-lNCH WROUGHT-IRON PIPE
LOGARITHMIC PLOTTING
FOR
STRAIGHT SECTIONS
/
/
/
/
'f\
1 II 1 II
3 4 5 6 7 8
Velocity, in Feet per Second.
Fig. 15.
100 DISCUSSION ON CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
Mr Davis. TABLE 11.
No.
Description.
Internal
diameter of
elbow, in inches.
d
1
Malleable-iron elbow
1
1
2
Cast-iron, long-turn, drainage elbow...
1 150
3
Cast-iron, drainage elbow.
728
4
Cast-iron, short turn
5
Cast-iron, long sweep
1.530
6
Cast-iron tee
7
Cast-iron
8
Wrought-iron or steel
5 000
9
10 000
Drawings of Elbows Nos. 1 to 6, inclusive, are shown in Fig. 16.
No. 7 was similar to Nos. 2 and 3; the only difference being in the
longer radius of curvature. Nos. 8 and 9 were fitted with ordinary
flanges, no attempt being made to obtain a flush joint.
While experimenting on the loss due to the curves, the loss of
head was read by three separate water differential gauges; the first
being connected between Piezometers B and (Fig. 14) ; the second
between Piezometers C and D, and the third between Piezometers
D and E. The results show that the curves caused a great increase in
loss of head in Sections B-C and C-D, but none in Section D-E, even
in the case of the tee which caused the greatest total loss of head.
Therefore, it is safe to conclude that, by reading the head between
Piezometers B and E, the entire loss caused by the curves was in-
cluded. The results were all worked up on this basis.
A summary of the data is given in Table 12. Each value of v,
which represents the actual mean velocity in the pipe, is the average
for several runs taken under identical conditions, except for very slight
variations in flow due to pressure changes in the supply mains. Like-
wise, the value of H^, which represents the loss of head between Piezo-
meters B and E, is the average for several runs, the gauges having
been read from five to ten or more times during each run.
Discussion of Kesults.
In discussing the results of experiments on curve resistance, con-
fusion may arise on account of the many ways in which the problem
may be considered. Professor Schoder has presented his results
worked up on two different bases. The results of the writer's work
were studied on five different bases, and the results are compared in
curves A, B, C, D, and E, in Figs. 18 and 19.
Case A.— In Case A the writer has assumed that a straight pipe,
the friction factor of which is already known, is to be bent into a
curve of some given radius, and it is desired to know how much more
the loss of head will be than in the straight condition. This is the
DISCUSSION ON CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES 101
ELBOW No. 4
ELBOW No. 3
102
DISCUSSION ON CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
2 S'2
2 25."-
-1 -J- to to lo i-- o o
£Sc
Wd ">
CO o p oc p en *. CO M
J i(^ *. CO k^ '-' â–º-' o o
;gg=2ggg
ooooooo
iiiiiii
05 O »} 00 to 05 CO
31
Oft,
)eoc;i05-jococo4
. to O OD -J 05 W *. NIK)
2$ a-
OOCi-'h--l
oooooooopc
X o »i to c
|g5|§|§22
o » o
31
*.»OOOD-IOSC
g§5
!?§
ggggs
too-j*>.i
o o o o o
1.3
..tooao-ja; *^coj
(I <^
hi
! 30 -1 en I
COOOOO
2; CD
p3
?1'
»0>-'OQ005Cn*.Mi-'t-'
s-g
•(^ N. O O "J Oi tn •«» to _-'
tOCO-lCO^SwOODCO
2 <
ill
icncoM'-'-'OOO
5000C o c ooo
g.3
DISCUSSION ON CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES 103
1
/ ///
1 00
-ill
-f
""^^^
f
l-llof
—
r 'I
1 1
fl
/
vl 1
if
—
/
^
/
hl!\
'1
J
/
i)l\h
}
/
/
IM
/
-' 4r 11
=
/
/' //
0.U8
/
i / M
/ ,
//
//
ti
/,/
//
—
/
1
///
/
/
/ 1
//,
/
/ 1
//
f
H
//
-
1
L
01
u
^y
1
)
^ B^d= 0.00
< " 0.728
f " 1.15
3 - 2.50
H " 5.00
> " 10.00
/
/ /
/ /
/ /
/
/
/
/
1
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20
Velocity, in Feet per Second.
Fig. 17.
104
DISCUSSION ON CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
basis of comparison used by the author in Figs. 3 and 4 and the
plotting of Mr. Brightmore's experiments in Fig. 13. This case may
have a practical bearing in connection with such flexible pipes as fire
hose. In this case the desired data were secured by deducting from
the total loss of head, as shown by the gauge readings between Piezo-
meters B and E, such an amount as would be obtained by multiplying
the actual center-line length, measured along the curve between B and
E, by the loss of head per foot of straight pipe at the given velocity,
1
8
j
'
Velocity^lS Ft. per Second
Angle of Tangents^ 90'
^- ^
m\ \
•S 5
i
w ^
M V
-D-
,
K
- —
--
-.^_
\^
h^
^^
8__
-D-
-c-
^-^
^l..
â– â– ~-
--^
^^_
3
^^
-«-
—
— ^
"^
.-.
---
-X
:,-^,
.
•~*
-==
^
â– B-
"
^
S3
/t
.A-
— —e
_ — 1
-^
-E~
— -<
^^--J
rcr
-^
Ts^Srrrr::^-'^ —
P-^^^-^^
.F-
-^
"â– -
--^
-~
"""""
— ._
__.
â– ^
~~
- —
— -
2
1
3
3
1
1
2
4
1
6
1
s
20
Radius of Bend, in Diameters.
as taken from Fig. 15. The results of such computations are plotted
on logarithmic cross-section paper in Fig. 17. It will be seen that such
a plotting gives a straight line for each pipe curve, at least for veloci-
ties greater than 2 ft. per sec. Unfortunately, the lines are not parallel,
which indicates that the radius of curvature of the bend, expressed
in terms of pipe diameters, has some effect on the exponent of -u in a
formula of the form
where H^ = the excess loss of head as considered in this case. From
Fig. 17, the curves marked A, in Figs. 18 and 19, have been prepared
DISCUSSION ON CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
105
by reading off the values of U^ where the various lines cross the v lines Mr. Davi
for V = 15 and t; = 5 ft. per sec. By an inspection of Curve A it will
be seen that a right-angled turn, such as a tee, gives a loss of head
of 5.6 ft. under a 15-ft. velocity. As the radius of curvature, R, in-
creases from the value 0, given by the tee, the loss of head at the given
velocity very rapidly decreases, reaching a minimum when R is ap-
proximately equal to four diameters of the pipe. The curve then
apparently rises to a maximum at about eight diameters, and then
probably drops off again gradually. Unfortunately, the pipes tested
did not have the proper radii of curvature to fix absolutely the mini-
mum and maximum points, nor any points beyond R = lOd, and the
portions of the curves to the right of the latter point have been merely
sketched in, in accordance with the writer's estimation of their direction,
as based on Mr. Brightmore's curves shown in Fig. 13. Perhaps these
curves should rise more, as indicated by the Detroit experiments.
1.0
! 1
Velocity=5 Ft. per Second
Angle of Tangents = 90 '^
I
V
\ \\
\^^-
P-
.
—
—
rr
—
-
—
--.
V
^H__
-c-
—
_J
—
.
•—
— '
-F-
^^1
— —
^B'
"
— =
^^
—
-^
—
--
^^^=
__.
â €”
-
—
-1
-\
—
— .
- —
r-^^r~=
â–
-^T i
>3p.2
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 .20
Radius of Bend, in Diameters.
Fig. 19.
Case B. — It may at times be desired to know the loss of head occa-
sioned by a curve in a pipe line, without regard to its length or what
effect a variation in its length may have on the total friction loss of
the system. It is not possible to measure this loss by piezometers
placed at the two extremities of the curve, because a considerable part
of the curve loss occurs in the down-stream tangent. A curve dis-
charging into the air at its down-stream extremity will not develop
the resistance that it would with a piece of straight pipe beyond; but,
by observing the actual loss between two points, as B and E in Fig. 14,
and deducting from it the loss normally occurring in a length of
straight pipe equal to the length of straight pipe actually existing
between B and E, the loss, as defined in this case, will be obtained.
The loss of head for this case is plotted against the velocities on
logarithmic cross-section paper in Fig. 20. It will be noted that the
lines for the curves of different radii are more nearly parallel than
those of Case A. From Fig. 20, the curves marked B, in Figs. 18 and
106 DISCUSSION ON" CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
19, have been prepared in the same manner that Curve A was pre-
pared from Fig. 17. It will be remembered, from the definitions, that
Curve B gives the total loss, while Curve A gives only the excess loss
over what would occur in an equal length of straight pipe. The
vertical intercepts between Curves A and B, therefore, must be equal
to the loss of head in a length of straight pipe equal to the length of
the curve. The straight lines, F, in Figs. 18 and 19, give the friction
loss at the respective velocities of 15 ft. per sec, and 5 ft. per sec. for
various lengths of pipe expressed in terms of diameters of pipe. The
ordinates to this straight line are equal at all points to the vertical
intercepts between Curves A and B. Curve B will never fall below the
straight line, F, for it does not seem reasonable to suppose that the
loss in any curve can be less than the loss in an equal length of straight
pipe. If Curve A has been drawn too low or too high, beyond the
point where B = lOd, then Curve B is also too high or too low by an
equal amount.
This case is mentioned by Professor Schoder as one in which the
various curves are introduced between two fixed lengths of pipe. It
has not much practical value, but is discussed here because it shows
the relation between Ciirve A and the other curves to be described.
Case C. — In this case will be considered the losses occurring in
pipes Consisting of a straight part and a curve, the total lengths to be
the same in all, but the lengths of straight part to vary inversely
as the length of curve. The amount of straight pipe to be included
must be chosen arbitrarily. The writer has used a length equal to 20
pipe diameters when the length of the curve is zero. Then, when the
length of the curve is equal to 20 pipe diameters, the length of straight
pipe included will equal zero. Curves C on Figs. 18 and 19 were most
easily plotted by simply adding to the ordinates of Curve A an amount
equal to the ordinate of Curve F at the 20d point. That is, Curve C
represents the sum of the loss due to friction in 20 diameters of straight
pipe, plus the excess loss in the curve, over the loss in an equivalent
length of straight pipe. Curve C might have been plotted also by add-
ing to the ordinates of Curve B the friction loss due to the various
lengths of straight pipe required to make the total length of pipe equal
20 diameters. These lengths are given in Table 13.
Case D. — Of more practical importance than any of the cases thus
far discussed is the case where two fi^ed points are to be connected
by two straight pipes joined by a 90° curve, and it is desired to know
the relative total losses which will occur between the fixed points with
different curves. Here it is necessary, arbitrarily, to assume some
fixed points. In the computations the writer has chosen points that
would lie at the extremities of a curve having a radius of 20 diameters.
For this curve there would be no straight pipe, but the loss due to the
curve, occurring in the down-stream tangent beyond the point con-
DISCUSSION ON CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES 107
3 3 4 5 6 8 10
Velocity, in Feet per Second.
Fig. 20
108
DISCUSSION ON CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
T.i.L.avis. TABLE 13.
-Lengths of Curve and Straight Pipe when the Total
Length = 20 Diameters.
R
d
Length of curve, in feet, for
a •'Jyg-in. pipe.
Length of straight pipe,
in feet.
0.0
0.728
1.15
a.50
5.
10.
20.
0.0
0.20
0.31
o.es
1.35
2.71
5.41
5.41
5.21
5.10
4.73
4.06
2.70
0.0
8idered,*has been taken account of. When the radius of curvature is
zero, the total length of the two straight pipes would be 6.88 ft. for a
2x6- -in. pipe. Curve D represents the losses for this case. The curve
can be constructed by adding to the ordinates of Curve A the product
of the loss per foot in the straight pipe multiplied by the length of
straight pipe required to connect the given points. These lengths are
given in Table 14.
TABLE 14.
R
d
Length of curve, in feet, for
a 2JBin. pipe.
Length of straight pipe,
in feet.
0.0
0.728
1.15
2.50
5.00
10.00
20.00
0.00
0.20
0.31
0.68
1.35
2.71
5.41
6.88
6.63
6.48
6.02
5.16
3.44
0.00
Owing to the arbitrarily assumed position of the fixed points. Curve
D will meet Curves C and B at the 20d ordinate. If some other posi-
tion of the fixed points had been chosen, it would simply shift Curve D
an amount depending on the length of additional straight pipe intro-
duced between the fixed points. For example. Curve D' has been
drawn for the loss of head between two points located so that a 90°
turn having a radius of 30 pipe diameters would connect them.
Case E. — None of the curves. A, B, G, or D, is very convenient to
use in estimating the loss of head in a given pipe system containing
bends. Curve E has been plotted for more b d a
convenient use.
In Fig. 21, let x represent the loss of head
which would occur in a length of straight pipe
equal to AB -\- BC; let y represent the loss
which would occur in a length of straight
pipe equal to DB + BE, and let z represent
the actual loss caused by the curve, DE, as
given by Curve B on Fig. 18.
DISCUSSION ON CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
109
Then the actual loss of head occurring between A and C would be Mr. Davis,
given by
X — 2/ + 2.
For the case of the tee, y becomes zero. For curves of various radii, x
in the above equation remains constant, while y increases with the
radius of curvature, and z follows the law illustrated by Curve B of
Fig. 18. Since a; is a constant for all cases, the points, A and C, can
be most conveniently chosen so that ic = 0. Then Curve E, Fig. 18,
can be plotted, using z — 2/ as ordinates. The distance, DBE, is equal
to 1.27 times the length of the curve, hence it is likely that, for bends
of large radius, the loss, y, may be greater than the loss, z, and Curve
E may then have negative ordinates. This Curve E corresponds to
the author's curves in his Figs. 5 and 6.
To estimate the total loss of head in a pipe system, therefore, one
should compute the loss in the straight pipe as though it ran directly to
the point of intersection of the tangents and to this loss add the loss
given by Curve E for the particular bend to be used. Of course, an E
curve must be computed for each velocity. The data for Curve E, for a
velocity of 15 ft. per sec, are given in Table 15.
TABLE 15.
R
d
Length
of tangents,
DBE.
I-oss
in curve.
Loss
in tangents.
Net loss.
0.0
0.728
1.15
2.50
5.00
10.00
0.0
0.25
0.396
0.8S
1.72
3.44
5.6
2.5
2.2
1.6
1.9
2.5
0.0
0.09
0.15
0.3
0.63
1.20
5.60
2.41
2.05
1.30
1.27
1.30
The Effect of Pipe Diameter.
In Fig. 22 a comparison is made of the loss of head occasioned in
pipes of different sizes by curves having a ratio oi R -^ d equal to 4,
in all cases, for velocities of 5 ft. per sec, and 10 ft. per sec. Points A
are taken from Curves A in Figs. 18 and 19. Points B and C are from
the author's plotting of Mr. Brightmore's work in Fig. 13. Points D
are from the author's curves in Fig. 4. Point E is from Table 36 of
the Detroit experiments.* These points seem to indicate that, for a
radius of curve equal to 4 pipe diameters, the loss of head is inde-
pendent of the size of pipe. An inspection of the data seems to indi-
cate that the law holds for other ratios of B to d. Point D, it will be
noted, is based on the author's first straight-pipe experiments. Point
* Transactions, Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. XL VII, p. 181.
110 DISCUSSION ON CURVE KESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
Jir. Davis. F IS based on his second straight-pipe experiments. The fact that it
does not lie on the line for a velocity of 10 ft. per sec, where it belongs,
leads the writer to think that the author's second straight-pipe experi-
ments should not be used, but that the first experiments give reliable
results.
Magnitude of Losses.
The author has given an indication of the magnitude of the losses
by computing the lengths of straight pipe giving losses equal to those
caused by the various curves at different velocities. The writer wishes
to show the actual horse-power consumed in pumping water against
the curve resistance. The horse-power may be obtained by using the
formula tr s/ ^y a v, <..-. ^
h V = H e^vXAX 62.5
550
in which H ^ = the head lost, as given by the methods of Case E,
V = the mean velocity, in feet per second,
A = the area of cross-section of the pipe, in square feet.
0.6 r
o-^ c
k
V^locity=
plO ft. t
)er Seco
nd
t
h
(.
^D
i?-^
d=.4, t
)!• all pc
ints
<:
)B
c
>F
Velocit
y=5-ft:
-perSec
1
X
A
C
D
E
% 0.2
c
2 3 4 5 6 r 8 9 10 n 12
Diameter of Pipe, in Inches.
Fig. 22.
By this formula, curves were plotted for the 2-in. pipe of these
experiments. The total horse-power lost, due to a bend in a pipe of
this size, is necessarily small, owing to the small weights of water dis-
charged. The writer, therefore, has made use of his assumption that
the loss of head is independent of the size of pipe, and has enlarged
the horse-power scale to give the losses in a 12-in. pipe, by simply
12 X 12
multiplying by ^ -, â– , since the weight discharged is proportional to
the square of the diameter of the pipe. Therefore, Fig. 23, prepared in
this way, may be used for any size of pipe by constructing a suitable
horse-power scale.
PLATE V.
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENQRS.
VOL. LXII, No. 1093.
DAVIS ON
CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES.
DISCUSSION OX CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
111
It is the writer's intention, at the first opportunity, to continue the Mr. Davi
experiments on the 2-in. pipe, in an attempt to fix more definitely the
direction of the curves for bends of long radius, and the results of the
further study will constitute the basis of a Bulletin to be published by
the University of Wisconsin.
The Effect of Enlargements.
Referring to Table 11, it will be seen that Curves 2, 3, 7, 8, and 9
had the same internal diameter as the pipe, while the others were
slightly larger. In the foregoing discussion only the curves having
r.o
6.5
6.0
5.5
^.4.5
.5
el
;;4.o
I 3.5
CO
t.3.0
f
o
1
-
1
.
\\
\i
-
\i
-
w
Wv
-
\\\
\
A\\\^
^
-
WW H-
Der Sec
ond
-
1
^
v\^;^
L.^
-
^
-
=— S', ''
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10
Radius of Bend, in Diameters.
Fig. 23.
the same diameter as the pipe have been considered. The points on
Curve B, Fig. 18, have been numbered to correspond with the numbers
of the elbows. It was found that Elbow No. 1 gave the same loss of
head as Elbow No. 3. The increase in loss to be expected in Elbow No.
1, due to the slight enlargement and contraction of section, seems to
have been exactly balanced by the reduction in loss due to a slightly
longer radius of curvature.
113 • DISCUSSION ON CURVE RESISTANCE IN WATER PIPES
Ml Davis. An idea of the increase in loss due to the enlargement from 2tV
in. to 21 in. and again contracting to the smaller size may be had by
comparing Elbows Nos. 3 and 4 which are both of cast iron, of about
the same degree of roughness, as may be seen in Figs, 1 and 2, Plate
V, and both have a radius at the center line of 0.728 diameter. The
pieces of pipe shown riveted to the sections of the elbows are not the
pipes used in the experiments, but were inserted merely to show the
actual distance that the pipes were screwed into the elbows. The pipes
used in the experiment were used full length and had no burr at the
end, like those shown, which was caused by hand cutting.
On the basis of Case B, the loss of head for Elbow No. 3 is given by
H^ = 0.0113t;2,
and the loss of head for Elbow No. 4 is given by
E^ = 0.0202t;2.
The loss in Elbow No. 4, therefore, is about 1.8 times the loss in Elbow
No. 3.
Elbow No. 5 gave about the same loss as Elbow No. 2.
Mr. schoder. Ernest W. Schodeb, Assoc. M. Am. Soc. C. E. (by letter). — The
studies of Mr. Davis make valuable additions to our knowledge. His
plotting (Fig. 22), showing the effect of pipe diameter with — - = 4,
indicates that law and order exist. Further investigations in this
interesting field will doubtless give closer definition to the present
vague outlines of the laws of curve resistance.
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS
INSTITUTED 1H53
TRANSACTIONS
Paper No. 1094
THE SINKING OF THE PIERS
FOR THE GRAND TRUNK PACIFIC BRIDGE
AT FORT WILLIAM, ONTARIO, CANADA.*
By H. L. Wiley, Jun. Am. Soc. C. E.
With Discussion by Messrs. C. E. Fickes, George B. Francis and
EoBERT A, Marshall, F. W. Skinner, and H. L. Wiley.
This paper outlines the construction methods used in sinking the
piers for the Grand' Trunk Pacific Railway Bridge, crossing the
Kaministiquia River, at Fort William, Ontario, Canada.
The proposed terminals of the Grand Trunk Pacific at the head of
Lake Superior are separated from the main line by the Kaministiquia
River. At the bridge site the river has a maximum depth of about 20
ft. at low water, being at that stage 325 ft. in width. The north bank
of the river, to which the draw span of the bridge swings, is steep,
and rises to a height of about 35 ft. above water. The south bank is
low, sloping from the river at a grade of 1 : 10.
Test borings, taken at the bridge site during the winter of 1906-07
by the railway engineers, showed a stratum of firm blue clay, about 35
ft. thick, covering a layer of water-bearing gravel varying in thickness
from 3 to 7 ft. The water contained in this gravel was under sufficient
pressure to maintain a steady flow through several of the abandoned
test holes, and, when confined, it rose to an elevation 4 or 5 ft. above
* Presented at the meeting: of September 16th, 1908.
114
SINKING BRIDGE PIERS
the river level. This ^avel is underlaid with bed-rock, from 57 to 60
ft. below the water surface. The rock surface is comparatively level,
dipping to the north about 2 degrees.
The plans prepared by the railway showed only the general design
of the two piers, the details and construction methods being left for
field decision. The pivot pier consists of a steel shell, 31 ft. in diam-
eter, sunk to bed-rock and filled with concrete. The south pier is com-
posed of two smaller shells, set side by side. These are 15 ft. in diam-
eter, and 18 ft. apart from center to center.
SKETCH SHOWING FOUNDATIONS
G. T. P. BRIDGE,
FORT WILLIAM, CANADA
The plans called for i-in. plate, single-riveted on the horizontal
seams, and double-riveted on the vertical seams, and |-in. rivets with
round heads. The contract for the work having been let in the latter
part of August, 1907, an interval of about 3 months remained before
severe cold weather would set in, closing navigation and rendering all
outside work more costly. Therefore operations were begun imme-
diately.
For the falsework at the pivot pier, two rings of piling were driven
about the center of the pier, the diameter of the inner ring being 37
ft., and of the outer one 54 ft. These piles were cut off and capped
8 ft. above the water. The caps were of 12 by 12-in. fir timber, radial
from the center of the pier, and overhanging the perimeter of the steel
shell 2 ft. There were twenty piles in each ring. These were cross-
braced and tied securely, making the structure as rigid as possible, to
lessen any movement that might be caused by the current, which
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENQRS.
VOL. LXII, No. 1094.
WILEY ON
SINKING BRIDGE PIERS.
Fig. 1.-— Grand Trunk Pacific Railroad Bridge at Fokt "William, Ont.
Piling at Pivot Pier Cut Off and Capped.
Fig. 3.— Fal.sework of Piers Completed.
SINKING BRIDGE PIERS 115
varied from 3 to 6 miles per hour. The piles were driven to gravel,
to prevent settlement in the finished falsework. The structure was
then decked and a circular track built upon it. This track was for a
small derrick car, the purpose of which was to pick up the plates
forming the shell, carry them to place, and hold them in position while
being bolted up ready for riveting.
A slot, 2 by 8 in., was cut through the caps where their center lines
intersected the perimeter of the steel shell, and a casting, through
which "hanger rods" worked, was set on each cap. The hanger rods
were for holding a course of plates during riveting, supporting the
finished shell until the river bottom was reached, and for controlling
the movements of the shell until it rested on bed-rock. The rods were
8 ft. long, of li-in. steel, threaded, and an eye of Swede iron was
welded to the lower end of each. Hook-plates, hung in these eyes,
connected the hanger rods and the plates forming the shell. There
were two hanger rods at each cap, 4 in. from center to center, one
outside of the shell, and one within it. The hook-plates covered four
rivet holes, and were bolted to the steel plates while the derrick car
held them suspended, the weight of the plates being transferred to the
hanger rods by slacking the chain blocks with which the derrick car
was rigged.
The plates were of i-in. steel, 10 ft. long and 5 ft. wide; they were
curved to a radius of 15^ ft., and weighed about 1 100 lb. each. There
were 130 plates in the shell, 13 vertical courses of 10 plates each. The
time required to swing the plates for one course from the storage yard
to the derrick car, and to bolt them up ready for riveting, averaged
about 2J hours, or 15 min. for each plate. Five courses were riveted
up when the shell touched bottom. The weight of the shell caused it
to penetrate the bottom to an average depth of 1 ft. A 2-in. water-jet
was then rigged from a single-cylinder, 6-in., steam, force pump, and
by this means the material at the cutting edge was disturbed suffi-
ciently to permit a further settlement amounting to about 1 ft.
Each outside hanger rod was then carried back to the pile carry-
ing the cap from which the rod was suspended, and bolted to the pile,
thus tying the inner end of the cap in place. Jacks were placed under
each cap, resting on the edge of the shell, and the combined action
of the water-jet and twenty jacks forced the shell about 5 ft. farther
into the bottom, the total penetration being at this time 7 ft.
116 SINKING BRIDGJ5 PIERS
The shell was then pumped out. As the water was removed, a
course of bracing was placed at each horizontal seam of the shell.
This bracing was of 12 by 12-in. hemlock, four timbers being set in
the form of a square. Two squares were placed together, one being
turned 45° about the center of the pier, thus forming a star-shaped
set of bracing, giving eight points of support to the sides of the shell,
and leaving an octagonal central opening about 18 ft. across.
Five days after the shell was cleared of water, the material under
the cutting edge gave way, and the shell filled, the blow being confined
to about 4 ft. of the perimeter. This hole was carefully filled, and the
shell was pumped out again, only to blow out, about 5 hours later, at a
different point.
At this time a flow of water within the shell was noticed, coming
apparently from one of the holes left by the test borings, and being
approximately equivalent to the flow from a 4-in. pipe. It was evident
that there would be great difficulty in keeping the shell cleared of
water, and an attempt was made to sink it still farther into the river
bed. It was loaded with 1Y5 tons of steel rails, the jacks were placed
in position as before, and it was forced downward another 5 ft., the
total penetration then being 12 ft. Another attempt to clear the shell
of water, resulting in failure, indicated that the flow from the gravel
had destroyed the integrity of the material within the shell. This
method was abandoned and the work proceeded as follows:
The overhanging caps were cut off, and two more courses of steel
were riveted up. Timbers were placed across the top of the shell, and
a tight floor, about 1 ft. from water level, was hung from these timbers,
within the shell. A form was built, following the octagonal outline
of the inner opening left by the timber bracing, and concrete was de-
posited between this form and the steel shell. Meanwhile, a derrick
was erected on a fender crib which had been sunk immediately up
stream from the pivot pier, and excavation was commenced within the
shell, using an orange-peel bucket. The settlement of the shell was
constant from this point, and, as it sank, the ring of concrete was
carried upward, thus forming a steel-protected pipe or drum, having
an outside diameter of 31 ft., the inner opening being octagonal.
When the shell finally reached rock, the surface of the rock was
cleaned, and a layer of concrete about 7 ft. in thickness was deposited
under water, which sealed the flow from the water-bearing gravel and
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENGRS.
VOL. LXII, No. 1094.
WILEY ON
SINKING BRIDGE PIERS.
Fig. 1.— Pivot Pier and Derrick.
Fig. S.— Falsework and Derrick Car. Pivot Fikr.
SINKING BRIDGE PIERS 117
allowed the removal of the bracing. When the timber was removed,
the interior opening was filled with concrete, forms were built at the
water level, and the pier was carried up to its final elevation.
The concrete used was a 1:3:5 mixture, the gravel and sand being
brought in by train from a point thirty miles distant on the line of the
Grand Trunk Pacific. This material was clean, and in its natural
state closely approximated the required proportions. Tests were made
from time to time to determine its condition, and enough sand was
added to make it comply with the specifications. Screening was con-
sidered unnecessary. To prevent the concrete from freezing, the sand
and gravel were heated. Three heaters, made from sections of 36-in.
cast-iron pipe, were placed near the stock piles. Wood for heating
purposes was plentiful, and the cost of heating all material averaged
about $1.00 per cubic yard of concrete. The materials were conveyed
to the mixer by cars, and the concrete was swung to the derrick on the
fender crib by using a second derrick located on the river bank. After
the ice formed, the derricks exchanged boxes on the ice, and the mixer,
running constantly, kept one batch of concrete moving at all times.
The batches averaged 22 cu. ft., the average output being 11 cu. yd.
per hour.
In the concrete, pieces of stone, containing from 2 to 15 cu. ft.,
were placed by the derrick on the fender crib. These stones were
heated by immersing them in a tank of hot water for a few minutes,
the volume being indicated by a displacement scale marked off inside
the tank. In this way a check on the total volume of material was
obtained, the combined volumes of stone and concrete equaling the
quantity indicated from measurements made inside the shell. The
total quantity of stone and concrete in this pier is 2 200 cu. yd.
Conditions at the smaller pier on the south side of the river were
somewhat different, the water being only 17 ft. deep, and bed-rock 57
ft. from the water surface.
This pier consists of two concrete-filled steel shells, 15 ft. in diam-
eter, set side by side at right angles to the center line of the bridge,
with a space of 3 ft. between them. Falsework, similar to that at the
pivot pier, was erected. To handle the steel plates, a derrick was
placed on the center line of the bridge, resting on three small cribs
sunk for the purpose.
The shells were lined with concrete as they sank, and, owing to the
118 SINKING BRIDGE PIERS
fact that they could be pumped out, about two-thirds of the total ex-
cavation was completed in the dry, the derrick disposing of the ma-
terial as it was excavated. The shells were in no way connected, but
were carried down with as nearly the same amount of progress as
possible. The general progress was in jumps of from 2 to 5 ft. The
steel was carried high enough at all times to prevent any chance of
the shell disappearing beneath the surface. The progress could be
closely controlled by the amount of excavation. The shells were
brought to place finally with a difference in elevation of less than i in.
Along the center line of the bridge, they were about 4 in. out of posi-
tion. This was corrected when the forms were built at the water line,
where a slight offset had been provided for such a contingency.
There are 1 055 cu. yd. of concrete in this pier, the same mixture,
1:3:5, being used as in the pivot pier. The two shells were joined at
the top by a reinforced concrete beam. The sand and gravel for this
pier had been placed on the south bank of the river before the close of
navigation. This material was dredged from the bed of Lake Superior
during the summer, and was used without screening. The mixing
plant for this pier was located on the south bank, and the concrete was
conveyed to the derrick by cars running on a track laid on the ice.
It was thought that difficulty might arise from the shrinkage of
the concrete inside the shell, with a consequent destruction of the bond
between it and the steel, and, to prevent this, the first course of con-
crete was allowed to set under water, where some expansion would
occur. The concrete in the piers was kept warm, where exposed to the
air, by covering the piers and turning live steam into the enclosed space.
The concrete below the ice line, and under water, was, of course, in no
danger from freezing.
The steel shells were rendered water-tight by caulking them at the
laps, and by driving a small triangular wedge at the scarfs. The re-
sistance of the material through which the shells were sunk was
found to vary from 275 to 320 lb. per sq. ft. This is the net skin
friction, after deducting the resistance caused by the cutting edge,
the laps in the plates, and the rivet heads.
The cutting edges were reinforced by riveting, to the lower course
of steel, an additional i-in. plate, 3 ft. wide. This was considered
sufficient, as the test borings had shown the material to be clear, and
free from sunken trees or boulders.
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. E-NUHb.
VOL. LXII, No. 1094.
WILEY ON
SINKING BRIDGE PIERS.
Fig. 1.— Interior of Shell of Pivot Pier,
Showing Bracing.
Fig. 2.— Completed Piers, Looking Up Stream from the South Bank.
SINKING BRIDGE PIERS 119
The riveting and caulking were done with air, the compressor be-
ing of the locomotive type. Owing to the atmospheric moisture,
the air line and hammers at times gave some trouble, due to the intense
cold.
The plates for the shells were punched and bent at Chicago and
shipped ready for erection. They were fitted up easily and rapidly,
as the work of bending and punching had been done well and carefully.
Work was carried on as rapidly as possible, three shifts being em-
ployed on the concrete at times. The total time consumed in this
work, disregarding lapses and minor delays, was about 5 months. The
cost of the two piers was about $60 000.
The work came under the supervision of Mr. George A. Knowlton,
Division Engineer in charge of the Lake Superior Branch of the
Grand Trunk Pacific Railway. The writer designed the lay-out of the
plant and the method of construction, and was in charge of the work.
130 DISCUSSION ON SINKING BRIDGE PIERS
DISCUSSION
Mr.Fickes. C. K. FiCKES, M. Am. Soc. C. E. (by letter).— This paper is of
especial interest to the writer, who recently completed the deep
foundation work for a bridge over Eed Kiver near Shreveport, La.,
for the St. Louis Southwestern Railway Company.
The weather conditions were not so frigid as those described by
Mr. Wiley, but such conditions would have been welcomed in view
of a yellow fever epidemic that occurred during the construction of
the bridge.
Seven piers and one abutment were founded by the open-caisson
method. Four of these, including the pivot pier, were carried down
to solid rock, while the others were built on piles driven under water
by a long follower.
The method of founding the pivot pier may be of interest.
This pier was in the channel of the stream, which had a velocity
of about 4 miles per hour at ordinary stages of the water and 8 miles
at high-water stages. There is a variation of about 40 ft. between
extreme high- and low-water stages, and the tropical rains of that region
often bring on a rise of 20 ft. or more in 12 hours.
Borings previously taken at the site of this pier showed that the
rock was about 90 ft. below the ordinary stage of the water, and was
overlaid by a stratum of stiff blue clay 20 ft. thick. " Above this, up
to the bed of the stream, the borings showed alternate layers of clay,
gravel, and coarse sand for a thickness of 40 ft. This made about
65 ft. of soil to be penetrated by the caisson.
The coffer-dam was octagonal in shape, being 37 ft. on the short
diameter. It was built of heavy timbers of yellow pine varying in
size from 12 by 12 in. in the bottom courses to 8 by 12 in. at the top
of the crib. These timbers were fastened together by i-in. drift-bolts,
4 ft. apart in each course, and the crib was braced inside by 6 by 12-in.
sticks joining the centers of alternate sides of the octagon. These
braces were from 4 to 6 ft. apart vertically and also served as sup-
ports for a cylindrical movable form to be described later.
The cutting edge of the caisson was formed of f-in. plates, 30 in.
wide, joined at the corners with 4 by 4-in. angles and well riveted. The
cutting edge was fastened to the bottom courses of the timbers with
heavy iron straps and i-in. bolts.
All joints between timbers were carefully caulked with oakum before
being lowered beneath the water.
Vertical sheeting of 2 by 12-in. surfaced planking was spiked on
the outside of the crib to lessen the friction.
The caisson was built on a platform supported by piling driven
circular around the site of the pier, and lowered to the bed of the
stream by eight lowering screws 3 in. in diameter and 30 ft. long.
DISCUSSION ON SINKING BRIDGE TIERS 131
Inside this octagonal caisson, and concentric with it, was supported Mr. Fickes.
a cylindrical movable form 25 ft. in diameter, made of 2 by 6-in. by
12-ft. lagging-, smooth on the outside of the cylinder and well braced
inside. This left a space about 5 ft. wide between the form and the
inside of the caisson, which was filled with concrete as the caisson was
lowered. The form was raised as soon as the concrete hardened, and
was not allowed to become submerged in the water.
This wall of concrete gave the requisite strength to withstand the
pressure when the crib was pumped out, and also the necessary weight
to overcome friction in sinking.
This concrete shell was carried up 65 ft. from the cutting edge, so
that the top of it would correspond with the bed of the stream, when
the cutting edge had reached the rock.
Wlien the caisson had been lowered to the bed of the stream, the
material inside was removed by two 1-yd. orange-peel dredges operated
by derricks and hoisting engines mounted on a large floating barge
anchored beside the crib. Other barges carrying the concrete mixer
and material were anchored on the opposite side of the crib, and the .
operations of building up the concrete and timber wall and of excavat-
ing and sinking the crib went on alternately.
It was found that the weight of the wall was sufficient to carry tJie
crib down to the required depth and no additional loading was
necessary.
Occasionally, when the excavation had been carried down 3 or 4 ft.
below the cutting edge and the crib failed to follow, a small charge of
about half a stick of dynamite, dropped into the hole and exploded,
caused the crib to settle at once. Several logs were encountered by the
cutting edge. These were broken up by dynamite placed by divers and
exploded by an electric battery.
No trouble was had at any time from material running in from the
outside under the cutting edge.
Only one mishap occurred during the construction of this pier,
and that happened when the cutting edge lacked only a few feet of
reaching the rock. The top of the concrete wall was then about 3 ft.
above the bed of the stream, and above this was about 25 ft. of timber
crib extending a few feet above the water. A sudden rise in the river
brought down several acres of driftwood, carrying away four clusters of
protection piles which had been driven up stream from the pier, and
finally breaking off and carrying away that part of the crib above the
concrete wall. All barges and floating equipment were torn loose from
their anchorages and only recovered with much difficulty several miles
down stream.
The problem now was to replace the lost part of the crib and attach
it to that portion left intact under about 20 ft. of water. This was
accomplished as follows:
122 DISCUSSION ON SINKING BRIDGE PIERS
Mr. Fickes. A new crib of the same shape as the old, but 2 ft. less in diameter,
was built and floated into position over the submerged portion, and,
by means of weights, sunk so that its lower edge rested on the concrete
wall just inside the old timber part of the crib. On the lower edge
of this new crib was placed a pad of felt, 2 in. thick, for the purpose
of partially caulking the joint. The new crib was securely fastened to
the old one by f-in. straps and spikes driven by divers who also com-
pleted the caulking of the joint.
When this was accomplished, the excavation of material from the
inside of the crib was continued by the dredges, and the cutting edge
was soon lowered to the rock.
Divers were then sent down inside the caisson, and the surface of
the rock, which was found to be fairly level, was cleaned off as
thoroughly as possible by water jets. A hydraulic sand pump was also
used for removing the material stirred up by the jets.
A layer of 1:2:4 concrete, 4 ft. thick, was then deposited over the
surface of the rock by bottom-dump buckets carefully lowered through
the water. This concrete was placed without any interruption so that
there would be no joint. Forty-eight hours was given for this concrete
to harden, after which two 8-in. pulsometer pumps were lowered into
the hole, and unwatered the caisson in a few hours. The bottom was
found to be sealed effectually by the layer of concrete already described,
and the shell of concrete was practically water-proof. Some little
leakage occurred at the joint between the old and new parts of the crib,
but this was soon overcome by caulking.
After this, the concreting proceeded rapidly in the dry, and the
well was soon filled up to the point where the neat work was to begin.
The forms were then erected and the pier carried to completion with-
out mishap.
The average daily distance of sinking the caisson was about 4 ft.,
and the greatest distance sunk in ten consecutive hours was 8 ft. This
is exclusive of time lost by reason of high water and replacing the
crib as described.
The completed pier is 26 ft. in diameter above the water, and
contains approximately 3 000 cu. yd. of concrete. It is the support for
a 300-ft. single-track railway swing span.
The cost of the completed foundation was much less than the
average cost of pneumatic work, and has several advantages not
possessed by the latter, among which is the fact that the continuity of
the concrete is not broken by a deck of timber as is the case with
pneumatic foundations.
No trouble was experienced in keeping the caisson in position
during the sinking. By careful work with the dredges, the crib was
kept practically level at all time's. When finally landed, it was less
than 2 in. off center in either direction.
DISCUSSION ON SINKING BRIDGE PIERS 123
The other caissons sunk by this method were rectangular, 40 by Mr. Fickes.
22 ft., and had concrete walls inside the timber cribs, 4 ft. thick, with
a cross-wall of concrete dividing the inside into two wells 12 ft. square,
through which the earth was excavated as from the single well of the
octagonal caisson.
No trouble was experienced with any of these caissons, as no
sudden rise occurred in the river during their construction and
sinking.
In the case of one pier erected on shore, the caisson was carried
85 ft. through the soil. Weight in addition to that of the concrete
wall was necessary in this case, and was secured by loading the crib with
large boxes filled with earth removed by the dredges from the inside
of the crib.
The completed bridge consists of four through spans of 200 ft.
each, one of 150 ft., and a swing span of 300 ft. There are about 100 ft.
of creosoted pile and steel trestle approaches at each end of the bridge.
J. W. Schaub, M. Am. Soc. C. E., was Consulting Engineer for
the work, and prepared the plans. M. L. Lynch, M. Am. Soc. C. E., is
Chief Engineer of the St. Louis Southwestern Railway. The contract
for foundations and steel erection was held by the Missouri Valley
Bridge and Iron Company, the steel being fabricated by the Phoenix
Company, The writer had direct charge of the work as Resident
Engineer from start to completion.
George B. Francis and Robert A. Marshall, Members, Am. Soc. Messrs.
C. E. (by letter). — The description of this foundation work possesses ^Marshal^i!*^
more than usual interest from the fact that it is a successful execution
at or near the extreme depth below water at which open coffer-dam
work is practicable. From general observation of such work, no case
comes to mind where such depths have been reached by open coffer-
dam, either in open water or through strata beneath such a depth of
water. The common limit for such work is 50 ft. or less; beyond that
depth pneumatic caisson methods are usually adopted. The question
might be asked why the open method was selected in preference to the
pneumatic, or why a pile foundation was not used.
The description has also proved very interesting from the fact that
recently the writers were called on to design a method of sinking or
placing piers, at quite similar depths, in the Ohio River. Two methods
were outlined, which, although not used, may nevertheless prove
interesting.
In the study on these designs the writers found two recent instances
— one, the Pyrmont Bridge, at Sydney, Australia, the other at Bristol,
England — of the founding of similar piers in deep water, which have
been fully described.*
* Minutes of Proceedings, Inst. C. E., Vol. CLXX, Dec, 1907.
124
DISCUSSION ON SINKING BRIDGE PIERS
Francfs aud "^ Comparison of the case described in the paper with the Ohio River
Marshall, designs, the Sydney Bridge and the Bristol Bridge, taking typical
piers, would be as given in Table 1:
TABLE 1.
Fort William Bridge
Ohio River Bridge..
Sydney Bridge
Bristol Bridge
Size of
pier,
iu feet.
Depth
of base
below
highest
water,
in feet.
Depth
of base
below
bed of
str-eam,
in feet.
Base
rests
on :
31, diam.
35 by 80
42, diam.
43 by 37
60
48
60
45
±40
±36
±36
±17
Rock.
Rock.
Rock.
Marl.
Material of
pier.
( Concrete in
1 steel shell.
I Concrete and
/ stone.
( Concrete in
/ steel shell.
j Concrete and
I stone.
( Steel shell
â– < sunk and
( pumped out.
Steel sheet-
-; piling, and
( pumped out.
Wrought-iron
< shell sunk and
( pumped out.
i Timber sheath-
â– { pile eofifer-
{ dam.
Proposed Methods of Placing the Piers for the Ohio River Bridge.
— The proposed bridge was designed to have three piers of an average
size of 35 by 80 ft., founded on rock about 36 ft. below the river
bottom, with a depth of water ranging from about 1 ft. at extreme low
water to about 41 ft. at record flood level.
On account of the magnitude of the work, the time required for
construction would necessarily extend through the seasons productive
of the maximum variation of depth of water.
The flood records in the Pittsburg office of the Weather Bureau
were examined and plotted, and it was found that while the record
flood of 1907 rose 41 ft. above low-water level, the rise and subsidence
of water was rapid and the majority of the peaks were not more than
10 ft. above low-water level.
A coffer-dam high enough to keep out the record flood of 1907
would be impracticable. It was found that a coffer-dam high enough
to keep out an 11-ft. rise of water would permit work on the founda-
tions about 330 days per year, and give practically no interruptions
from high water between April 15th and December 1st.
The two principal requirements of construction were that the rock
should be uncovered for inspection and then leveled or stepped; and
that the concrete foundation should be a solid monolithic mass under
the entire pier.
The first requirement made it impossible to deposit concrete under
water, as was done in the Fort William Bridge; the second required
the protective works to be entirely outside the lines of the pier.
The first plan consisted of the use of a timber crib, the bottom
section of which would be built ashore, launched, and towed to the site,
DISCUSSION ON SINKING BRIDGE PIERS
135
which, in the meantime, was to be partially dredged. The crib, after
being securely moored, was to be sunk by loading with material dredged
from the river bottom. It was designed with a V-shaped bottom, and
the sini^ing was to be continued by dredging the interior, building up the
sides, and continuing the loading until it rested on rock. In construction,
the crib was to be made of squared timbers, laid in cob-house fashion,
and thoroughly braced and fastened with dock spikes. The outside and
inside were to be covered with tongued and grooved sheathing well
driven up, which would give better protection than two lines of sheet-
piling, without any of the irregularities from obstacles frequently
encountered in driving. The interior was then to be pumped out, and
cross-bracing between the sides added as the water was lowered. Should
unevenness in the rock surface cause a blow or serious leak, it was
proposed to stop it by driving outside sheet-piling at the point where
needed.
OHIO RIVER BRIDGE
DESIGN FOR CRIB COFFER-DAM
Francis and
Marshall.
imber Crib ColFer-dam
Top of Crib 672.5
Pool Full 668.3
Build lower 10 of Crib ashore.float to
position, gradually sink to rock, if
possible, building up crib meanwhile
as much as is nesccssary
After completion of Pier reiuove all
of Crib appearing above bed of River
After cleaning and leveling the bottom, concreting was to commence,
and the cross-bracing was to be removed as fast as the concrete was
placed.
As an alternative to the method outlined above, a coffer-dam made
of interlocking steel sheet-piling was considered, as it is possible to
drive such piling to rock at all points and thus have a tighter job
around the bottom, than is the case with a crib which must necessarily
stop at the highest point of rock.
The material at the site consisted generally of compact sand and
gravel, and, by partial dredging, the cost of driving could be materially
reduced.
126
DISCUSSION ON SINKING BRIDGE PIERS
Messrs. The progress, as outlined, consisted of dredging to a depth of 15 to
Marshall. 20 ft., driving and bracing the necessary guide piles which would also
support the working platform in a manner similar to that used in the
Fort William Bridge piers; then driving to rock a single line of inter-
locking steel sheet-piling weighing 45 lb. per sq. ft. The coffer-dam
would then be pumped out, the sheathing being securely braced as the
water was lowered. The remaining material inside the coffer-dam
would be dredged to rock and concreting commenced, the interior
bracing being removed in advance of the concrete.
When the pier was completed to the top of the coffer-dam, the sheet-
piling would be pulled and used again on the next pier.
After careful consideration of both methods, it was decided to
recommend the use of the steel sheet-piling, the estimates prepared
showing it to possess a larger element of economy than the crib
construction.
OHIO RIVER BRIDGE
ALTERNATE DESIGN FOR COFFER-DAM
Top of Sheet Piling
lllljl Steel Sheet Piling Coffer-dam
}4L-1 #=^1 -Lo» -^y^-'ter—j^^— r^^^^^
-Diedfje to this line
before diiving Piles
The manufacture of steel sheet-piling is of comparatively recent
development, and it possesses advantages in foundation construction
which, heretofore, were not available.
Method of Placing a Typical Pier for the Sydney Bridge.— The
caisson, which formed a part of the pier as well as a coffer-dam, was
a double wrought-iron shell with an external diameter of 42 ft., an
internal diameter of 32 ft., and a total height of about 53 ft., the
shells being concentric and brought together at the bottom to form a
cutting edge at the line of the outer diameter. This caisson was sunk to
the river bed, then loaded with concrete and, while the interior was
being dredged out, the caisson was sunk to bed-rock.
The water was then pumped out, but a blow-out occurred which
necessitated the excavation for the leveling off of the irregular rock
DISCUSSION ON SINKING BRIDGE PIERS
127
surface by the aid of divers, with the caisson full of water. Some of ^ Messr^.^^^
the concrete in the base, around the outer margin of the circle, was ifal^haii.
placed by divers. After this no trouble was experienced in pumping
out the caisson, and the remainder of the work of leveling and of placing
concrete was done in the open air. From a point just below low water,
the concrete pier was carried up with a facing of cut stone. The time
occupied in sinking the caisson was nine months.
THE PYRMONT BRIDGE
SYDNEY, N.S.W
Pyrmont End
Sydney End
PYRMO.NT BRIDGE, SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA
BASE OF CENTER PIER
Bag Concrete
-Bottom 'of Caisson
Fig. 5.
Bag Concrete
The thickness of the wrought-iron shell used in the caisson varied
from i to th iii-? and the concentric rings were connected with angle-
bar bracing.
This bridge was opened for traffic in June, 1902.
Method of Placing a Typical Pier for the Bristol Bridge.— The
method adopted was to drive a timber coffer-dam of a single line of
12-in. material, between guides, and to caulk this with oakum, making
Messrs,
Francis and ^ ,„„+„„
Marshall. iOW Water,
128 DISCUSSION ON SINKING BUIDUE PIERS
dam to hold back 28 ft. of water at high water and about 2 ft. at
Excavation was made in the open without trouble to a point about
6 ft. below low water, when several blow-outs occurred at times of
RIVER AVON BRIDGE, BRISTOL, ENGLAND
HALF NORMAL
CROSS-SECTION
OF SWING SPAN
HALF CROSS SECTION
THROUGH CENTER PIVOT
HALF ELEVATION
OF CENTER PIER
high tide, after which excavation was carried on only at low tide.
Concrete foundations were placed in air, at low-tide periods, to low-
water elevation, and, above that elevation, the concrete core was faced
with cut stone and laid up in the open air at all stages of the tide.
DISCUSSION ON SINKING BRIDGE PIERS 12d
A double line of timber sheathing for the coffer-dam was not practica- Moshis.
ble on account o£ the waterway required for navigation. Marshal"
F. W. Skinner, M. Am. Soc. C. E. — Most deep piers have been sunk Mr. skiimo
through soft material by using open steel caissons or pneumatic
caissons.
The possibilities of the open-caisson method are illustrated by two
cases: One was the sinking (on two different occasions) of the ex-
tremely deep pivot piers of the Omaha Bridge. These piers were made
with double steel cylindrical shells, sunk more than 100 ft., to a satis-
factory bottom, by dredging, undermining the cutting edge, loading,
and jetting. After the excavation was completed the interior chamber
was filled with concrete.
Another very interesting example is shown by the river piers of the
Poughkeepsie Bridge, which, like those of the Interprovincial Bridge at
Ottawa, and various other examples not so well known, were made
with timber cribs sunk by loading the pockets and dredging the in-
terior. Those of the Poiighkeepsie Bridge were sunk more than 120 ft.
In such work, the principal objection — a very strong one and made
frequently — is the difficulty of inspection and the uncertainty of the
bearing and character of submerged work. Of course, divers can
he sent down, but most engineers have a rather well-founded prejudice
against implicit reliance upon a diver's report, for something has to
be accepted on chance. However, those methods of pier construction
are of great value. So, also, are the pneumatic-caisson methods ; but both
are costly, especially the latter; and, as the ratio of cost increases, the
desirability of supplementing them by some other and less expensive
method also increases. The speaker is thoroughly convinced that,
within a very few years, the open caisson of rigid steel will be super-
seded in many instances by its equivalent, a sectional steel caisson,
which, as Mr. Francis has suggested, should be made of interlocking
piles.
The advantages, or some of them, are obvious; the greatest, prob-
ably, is that such caissons are sunk very readily. The rigid steel
cylinder has to be sunk as a unit, and the frictional resistance to be
overcome is enormous, amounting to thousands of tons, and it soon
increases entirely beyond the possibilities of operation, as is often
found in sinking tunnel shafts. A cylindrical shell can be carried
30 or 40, or even 50 ft., and then it generally becomes immovable
owing to the frictional resistance or because of contact with large
stones. All portions of it must move imiformly and simultaneously,
and it is impossible to concentrate or increase the force at any one
point; the sinking force must increase directly with both diameter and
length of shell. In a sheet-pile caisson, each pile is sunk independ-
ently; the whole available force may be concentrated on it, and the
force being successively applied to the piles is moderate and does not
130 DISCUSSION ON SINKING BRIDGE PIEUS
Mr. Skinner, increase with the diameter of the caisson. Mr. Francis mentioned
another important point, but did not enlarge upon it, namely, that a
rigid steel cylinder can only be sunk to the highest point of rock,
whereas, by the use of a large number of strong, narrow units, a sec-
tional steel caisson can be operated independently, can be sunk regard-
less of inequalities, and made to conform to the rock surface, and each
section can be carried on as far as necessary.
Hitherto, the objections to the steel cylinder or polygon have been
two: first, that up to five or six years ago steel piling did not exist;
and, second, that since its development, which has been phenomenal,
and its adoption, which has been equally remarkable, there has not
been, until very recently, a real water-tight joint. Joints can now be
made actually water-tight; previously, it was hoped that they would be
water-tight. In some instances leaky joints were finally made approxi-
mately water-tight, either by filling, caulking, grouting, or by the
deposit of material in them ; but those methods of tightening are slow,
costly, and uncertain, and not to be relied upon. Now there is in
the open market a spring-lock steel piling which is absolutely water-
tight, and is capable of withstanding very heavy pressures.
Furthermore, steel piles, as generally known heretofore, have been
largely adapted to extremely heavy work. They would stand a great
deal of punishment, but were not elastic in their design.
It is now possible to secure steel piles which are entirely elastic in
design, and may be made to conform to any conditions of loading or
pressure, and to almost any conditions of driving. In fact, the joint
is pliable and elastic, and "live," under any requirements which may
be imposed by the designers, and any given degree of strength,
elasticity, or rigidity may be secured. Therefore, the speaker belie^^es
that sectional steel coffer-dams will be successfully and generally used.
In the construction of previous work there has been much difficulty
in driving any sort of piling, not only on account of the spring and the
natural trouble in driving very long units, but on account of main-
taining the alignment and interlocking. Those difficulties are in a
fair way to be well solved by methods devised for installing sheet-
pile units of great width and small thickness; and applications of
temporary and removable reinforcement will solve many other diffi-
culties incident to hard driving, so that the steel piling can be profitably
used in many new cases.
There recently came to the speaker's notice, and was the subject
of considerable study and detailed designing, a case where it was
likely to become desirable to build a sectional steel-caisson cylinder
of the interlocking type, under uncertain conditions where it was
thought that, while it might be sunk successfully to a hard stratum,
it might, on the other hand, be stopped sooner by serious obstacles such
as logs or boulders. It was found to be entirely practicable to build
DISCUSSION ON SINKING BRIDGE PIERS 131
a simple, cheap caisson for these conditions, and a detailed design was Mr. skinner.
made which enabled the sectional coffer-dam to be sunk to a previously
unknown depth as a steel-pile proposition, but which also provided for
the transposition of that form of construction to the pneumatic-caisson
construction, should any obstruction be encountered which made the
further driving of any of its component units too difficult.
The details were very simple, and, when submitted to contractors
of large experience in pneumatic-caisson work, met their unqualified
approval, so that it was not entirely chimerical. Although the proposed
work was not eventually executed, it was evident that without in-
curring any additional preliminary expenses, beyond what would have
been required for an ordinary steel-pile proposition, the cylinder could
have been started and sunk as deep as proved feasible and then trans-
formed quickly to a pneumatic caisson at a very small additional
expense, thereby saving the large expense of initial pneumatic-caisson
construction which might not prove necessary and would at best
impose a form of construction inimical to the most economical or
rapid work. If air pressure were ultimately resorted to, it would be
under more favorable conditions than if at first applied, and a large
difference in the cost of the work would be saved.
So much for the steel pile; but that does not entirely cover the
ground. It is well assumed, in the light of developments which will
be made public in the near future, that various kinds of substructures
with a wide range of materials, functions, and dimensions, can be built
underground in some of the most difficult soils, by a new and very
simple unit method, not at all experimental in its nature, which will
greatly increase the rapidity, accuracy, and efficiency of installation
of coffer-dams, retaining walls, core-walls, abutments, foundation foot-
ings, piers, all kinds of steel sheet-piles and sheeting, pipe and con-
duit laying, sewer building, and many other kinds of concrete and
reinforced-concrete work. This method eliminates serious difficulties
heretofore obtaining in the execution of such work; assures very great
accuracy and certainty of inaccessible connections; and facilitates the
reduction to the theoretical working limits and stress sections of
members which heretofore have had to be given excessive dimensions
in order to provide for construction requirements which were un-
necessary for the final functions — for instance, great strength and
weight in steel or other sheet -piles to resist the abuse of hard driving.
These two important new propositions: water-tight steel sheet-pile
units of elastic design, suitable for easy and difficult caisson and coffer-
dam work and cheap enough for ordinary trenching and general wet
excavation, and substructure installation by the unit system, have been
for several years under investigation and experiment, the designs have
been thoroughly revised and approved, and, as soon as commercial
arrangements are perfected, will be publicly demonstrated, exploited,
132 DISCUSSION ON SINKING BRIDGE PIERS
Mr. Skinner, and put under contract competition. The speaker believes that they
will have an important influence on foundations and other substructure
work, especially in soft, wet or plastic soils.
Mr. Wiley. H. L. WiLEY, JuN. Am. Soc. C. E. (by letter).— A study of various
bridge foundations constructed during the past twenty years discloses
numerous cases in which greater economy and equally satisfactory
results might have been obtained by methods other than the ones used.
Pneumatic caissons have been used in instances where, to base
one's criticism upon the available records, the work could have been
performed in less time and for less money by other means. In addition
to the increased time required for pneumatic work, the costs of
finished foundations would seem excessive. There is, however, a factor
of assurance in pneumatic work, and a greater degree of certainty that
the work will progress without serious delays.
Often the success or failure of the open-caisson method, from the
standpoint of those who pay for the work, is more or less in the hands
of the persons making the preliminary investigations in the field. Care-
lessness, inexperience, or direct neglect of duty on the part of the
investigators, has meant added and unnecessary expense in open-
caisson work, where an accurate knowledge of the material under the
ground surface is so essential for economy.
The writer concurs with Mr. Skinner and Messrs. Francis and
Marshall as to the value of interlocking steel piling for work of this
class, but numerous conditions can exist which might render the steel
piling more costly than a caisson or coffer-dam of another type. If the
steel piling forms part of the permanent structure, the cost of the pier
may be greater than if steel plate were used to form the shell of the
caisson. The salvage value of steel piling after it has been once used
in heavy work is greater in theory than in fact. Where the material
penetrated contains logs or boulders, the piling gives trouble, and an
obstruction that would often be forced aside by a heavy caisson, or
which could be removed when encountered, may easily displace the
steel piling and destroy the connection with the adjacent sections,
resulting in a costly complication.
With a concrete shell the enclosed space may usually be cleared of
water soon after sinking commences, but with steel piling the work
of unwatering and excavating is directly dependent upon the success
of the driving, and cannot be commenced until that part of the work
is completed.
Mr. Skinner states that in open-caisson work the "sinking force
(required) must increase directly with both diameter and length of
shell." The skin friction on the lower section of the caisson increases
directly as the depth sunk, but, unless the material is very unstable or
practically in a liquid state, the friction at any given depth on suc-
cessive sections of the caisson is not as great as that exerted on the
DISCUSSION ON SINKING BRIDGE PIERS
133
cutting edge and lower section of the caisson while at that point ; or, Mr. Wiiey.
in other words, the passage of the lower part of the caisson smoothes,
lubricates, or in some other manner tends to decrease materially the
friction on the following sections.
A wall thickness of 5 or 6 ft. gives weight enough to overcome any
friction that may develop ordinarily, unless the material penetrated
be exceptionally difficult. Table 2 illustrates to some extent the wide
variation in the amount of friction in such work.
TABLE 2.
Type of caisson.
Method of
sinking.
Materials
penetrated.
Si .3
Cast iron
Cast iron
Cast iron
Wrought iron
Cast iron
Cast iron
Cast iron
Steel construction
Cast iron
Timber construction
Steel construction. . .
Steel construction. . .
Steel construction. . .
Steel construction. . .
Iron construction
Cast iron
Steel construction. . .
Masonry
Timber construction
Steel construction. . .
Timber construction
Timber construction
Timber construction
Timber construction
Timber construction
Steel construction. . .
Timber
Iron cyUnder
Timber construction
Timber construction
Timber construction
Timber construction
Timber construction
Timber construction
Open excavation
Open excavation
Open excavation
Open excavation
Open excavation
Open excavation
Open excavation
Open excavation
Open excavation
Open excavation
Open excavation
Open excavation
Open excavation
Open excavation
O^jen excavation
Open excavation
Open excavation
Pneumatic
Pneumatic
Pneumatic
Pneumatic
Pneumatic
Pneumatic
Pneumatic
Pneumatic
Pneumatic
Pneumatic
Pneumatic
Pneumatic
Pneumatic
Pneumatic
Pneumatic
Pneumatic
Pneumatic
Gravel, clay
Sand, clay
Sand
Sand, clay
Sand, clay, gravel
Sand
Silt
Silt, sand, clay
Silt, mud, clay
Sand
Silt, clay
Silt, clay, sand
Mud, sand
Clay
Sand, gravel, clay
Clay
Clay
Sand, mud
Clay
Clay, sand
Silt, sand, mud
Sand, clay, gravel
Sand, clay, boulders
Clay, sand, gravel
Sand, gravel, clay
Sand, boulders
Silt. clay, gravel
Sand, shale
Sand
Sand, clay
Sand, gravel, clay
Sand
Sand, boulders
Silt, sand, cJay
125
225
125
1000
125
125
125
190
100
1300
700
1200
1 300
1 500
200
125
150
2 550
1200
1925
4 500
1300
2 700
1800
1200
1 700
1 400
2 000
1 200
2 100
1700
In many cases an "all concrete'' caisson could be used to great
advantage. The cutting edge of the caisson could be protected and
strengthened with a sheathing of steel plate for 5 or 6 ft. A channel,
riveted to the inside lower edge, would hold the first section in shape
and offer a support for the concrete forms at the cutting edge.
This channel would be subject to the heaviest duty, and, with the
plate, would prevent serious damage if boulders or timber should be
encountered. With a caisson of this type, all concrete could be
134 DISCUSSION ON SINKING BRIDGE PIERS
Mr. Wiley, deposited in the dry, unless there might be a stratum of porous material
containing water under heavy pressure above the bed upon which the
caisson would finally rest, as was the case at Fort William.
The steel shell of an open caisson is often of no actual value except
as a form for the concrete, and, in cases where it might easily be
eliminated, it would seem to be an unnecessary expense.
AMEKIOAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS
INSTITUTED 1853
TRANSACTIONS
Paper No. 1095
NOTES UPON DOCKS AND HARBOES.
By Luther Wagoner, M. Am. Soc. C. E.
With Discussion by Messrs. W. B. Ruggles, E. P. Goodrich,
Howard J. Cole, and Rudolph Hering.
During the year 1907 the writer visited the principal ports of
Europe and the United States for the purpose of procuring data for
the preparation of a report upon the future needs of San Erancisco
in the matter of port improvements.
For the foreign work he had exceptional facilities for observing
completed works and receiving information concerning new or pro-
jected work. As a result, he obtained a large quantity of technical
literature, maps, plans, and photographs, as well as notes, and, be-
lieving that some of the data obtained may be of general interest to
the profession, he has prepared the following paper.
Comparison of European with American Harbors.
A striking difference in the ground plans of port works is at once
apparent to the visiting engineer. The development by piers or
jetties, like that of San Erancisco or New York, has no parallel. Gen-
erally speaking, the European idea is one of enclosed basins, with or
without locks, as tidal conditions may require. In the Mediterranean,
where the tide ranges from 10 to 20 in., there is usually no protection
* Presented at the meeting of September 2d, 1908.
13G NOTES UPON DOCKS AND HARBORS
from the sea, so a mole or breakwater is built and behind it a safe
harbor is created by dividing up the protected area into basins
separated by solid filled piers, usually from 300 to 400 ft. wide. Upon
these piers there is first a space of from 20 to 25 ft. for cranes and one
railway track. Next are the sheds, from 75 to 130 ft. wide; then there
is an open space between the sheds for two railway tracks, and a wagon
road between them. At Naples it was necessary to build such a wall
in 110 ft. of water; at Genoa, in depths of from 50 to TO ft., and at
Marseilles from 60 to 75 ft.
At cities like Antwerp, Rotterdam, Bremen, and Hamburg, on
tidal rivers, the problem has been one of obtaining the desired area by
dredging out basins and enclosing them with quay walls, leaving suffi-
cient space for railway connections, sheds, warehouses, and roads, the
whole being arranged so as to facilitate business. In this matter it is
specially noteworthy that railway connections have been provided at
all points, and, generally speaking, freight can be transferred directly
from the ship to the car or vice versa, thus avoiding delay and extra
handling.
Liverpool, which is essentially a receiving and forwarding port,
has perhaps the best arrangement of railways and stations. In a
length of 6 miles of water front there are ten or more great railway
freight stations, all being just at the rear of the docks. In point of
efficiency of belt-railway service, there is nothing at present in the
United States that is comparable with that of any first-class European
port. Within the City of Philadelphia there are more railway lines
connecting manufacturing establishments with the various roads than
in any other city of the same area, but, on the other hand, the rail-
ways own and control about 80% of the available water front. New
York has no belt-railway, and it is doubtful if it will ever have one,
as the price of land required for it is prohibitory. San Francisco is
fortunate, in this respect, as the State owns the water front, along
which there is a street 200 ft. wide, and upon which there is a State
belt-railway. If the recent plans for the port improvements are carried
out, the new street along the water front will have a width of 350 ft.,
upon which there will be ample room for belt-roads, warehouses, and
railway freight stations, as well as street cars and other vehicular
traffic.
In Europe the systematic planning of new work is especially note-
NOTES UPON DOCKS AND HARBORS 137
worthy. For example, in Antwerp, a broad, comprehensive scheme of
port enlargement has been carefully prepared, and is of such magni-
tude that it will require many years for its execution. The Board of
Control has acquired the lands, and planned the roads and rail con-
nections long in advance of actual needs, thus permitting its orderly
execution without regard to any vested interests. As the city grows
up around the new port, it will not have to make expensive changes.
Similarly, Rotterdam has planned a gigantic basin where it is in-
tended to dredge 650 acres to a depth of 40 ft. and deposit the soil on
the low lands below. It is estimated that the completion of this work
may require from twenty to thirty years. All the larger ports in
Europe are planning and executing systematic extension of their
facilities to hold their present and secure a share of expected increased
trade. Coincident with such work, much attention is given to making
the city attractive, a place where one would like to live, and where a
visitor would like to go again. They have, in general, a good ad-
ministration, and are able to select and keep employed men of ability
to administer the public utilities. As a rule, they look further ahead
than Americans; in other words, they think more before taking action.
Statistical Chart.
Among the duties imposed upon the writer was the request to try
and forecast the amount of the future commerce of the port of San
Francisco, and plan improvements ample for such purpose, say fifty
years hence. The method of investigation and the results are shown
upon the diagram, Plate IX. After a preliminary study of the
data, it was found that, owing to the rapid increase in the quantities
platted, and the natural irregularities of the subject, the ordinary
method of showing the time relation was not suitable for prediction
purposes, and the logarithmic method was used. In the diagram,
Plate IX, the year 1700 is zero, 1800 is 100, and 1900 is 200, and the
logarithms of these numbers were used for the time scale. Four ver-
tical scales of 1 to 10 were drawn, so as to cover all the data used
without confusion of lines. In such a diagram an inclined line de-
notes an exponent; for example, the average line drawn through
"Value of Merchandise Exports and Imports, United States," is the
graphical representation of
Average value = 0.0000244 (Year — 1700)"'"^.
138 NOTES UPON DOCKS AND HAEBOES
For Hamburg's tonnage, the exponent is about 10, and for the popu-
lation of the United States the exponent is about 4. The degree of
accuracy of this method of forecasting can be readily seen by going
back, say, to 1870 or 1880, and projecting ahead to the present time.
The application of logarithmic platting to such purposes is believed by
the writer to be new.
It is commonly held by experts that the production of pig iron and
steel is a good financial barometer. The production of iron and steel
(not shown on Plate IX), the horse-power used in United States
manufactures, and the total bank deposits in the United States
are three curves which can be almost exactly superimposed by moving
them vertically into position; in other words, they have a common ex-
ponent or law of increase.
Some very interesting conclusions may be drawn from this diagram.
For example, up to the year 1900, London and Liverpool tonnage were
moving at a common rate of growth. London then needed port im-
provements, but expended its energy in discussion (and a very thorough
one it was), while Liverpool deepened and extended its docks; the re-
sult can be plainly seen upon the diagram after 1900. The diagram
also shows that the exponent of increase of population in the United
States is about 4; exports and imports of the United States, about 6;
world's commerce, about 6; United States bank deposits, about 10; the
horse-power, and manufacture of pig iron, steel, etc., about 11 to 13;
consequently, per capita, this means a rapid increase of business for
the engineer, because the increase in such activities, referred to a time
relation, is measured, per capita, by the difference in exponents.
The data relating to steamships are quite interesting. They were
compiled from a valuable report,* by Elmer L. Corthell, M. Am. Soc.
C. E. Attention is called to the very rapid and uniform increase in
the average tonnage of vessels, about 841 tons in 1873, 1 955 tons in
1903, and now about 2 300 tons.
The draft (loaded) of a vessel can be expressed by an equation in
this form:
Draft = K (length X breadth)*,
in which K ranges from 1 for small vessels to 0.88 for those of the
largest type. There is no doubt that K would be uniformly taken
* To the Tenth Congress, Milan, 1905, Permanent International Association of Naviga-
tion Congresses.
PLATE IX.
TRANS. AM. 80C. CIV. ENQRS.
VOL. LXII, No. 1095.
WAGONER ON
DOCKS AND HARBORS.
A STATISTICAL CHART
SHOWING THE PROGRESS OF BANKING
COMMERCE, SHIPPING. POPULATION, ETC.
COMPILED FROM THE LATEST AND MOST AUTHENTIC
SOURCES, FOR THE USE OF THE FEDERATED HARBOR
IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATIONS
LOGARITHMIC PLATTING
JANUARY 1908
-OOO-OOO-Tons-
Whiarf Receipts, San Francisco
mo w.
NOTES UPON DOCKS AND HARBORS 139
about 1, if the depth of water in ports permitted it. It is quite prob-
able that vessels will go on increasing in general dimensions, because
it is more economical to do transoceanic business 'in large vessels of
great depth than in small ones. Naturally, there must be an almost
general work of deepening ports and docks before there can be any-
great advance in draft. The average ship is a tramp, and does business
at any place, and, for the present, not many ships of great draft can
be operated, and those only between ports in which there is the
requisite depth of water and dockage; but it may confidently be pre-
dicted that the natural economic law of draft will involve the uni-
versal deepening of at least all the world's greater ports.
Very notable is the relation between the exponent of growth of
population of the United States — about 4 — and that of the trade of the
United States and of the world's commerce — about 6. This means per
capita : An increase as the square of the time since the year 1700, or,
for every dollar's worth of trade per capita now, about $1.50 of trade
45 years hence.
Still more marked is the relation, if population be compared with
such activities as the production of steel and pig iron, horse-power
used in manufactures, and bank deposits. All these activities have in-
creasing exponents, the difference being from 6 to 9, which means
that, per capita, in the United States these activities are increasing
as the 6th to the 9th power of the time, measured from the year 1700,
all of which points to an ever-increasing demand for competent techni-
cally trained men to direct such service.
Concrete Piles.
Concrete piling has been used in Eavenna, Venice, Boulogne,
Rotterdam, Hamburg, Southampton, and a number of places. Speak-
ing generally, the experience has been satisfactory, although in some
cases serious difficulty has been encountered in driving such piling.
Some trouble was observed in Hamburg, where concrete piles, from
30 to 36 ft. long, were being driven for the launching ways of a ship-
yard, many of the piles being badly broomed and broken. In this
case, they were driven in a sand fill, without the use of a water- jet.
Southampton is the best place at which to observe such work, as
experience there covers a longer time, and the piles are of greater di-
mensions than elsewhere. At the time of the writer's visit, 15 by 18-in.
140 NOTES UPON DOCKS AND HARBORS
piles, 60 ft. long, were being driven as sheet-piling at the front of a
quay wall which had failed by sliding outward. These piles were
driven about 30 ioi. in front of the wall by using a jet and a steel
bonnet lined with a cushion of sawdust. The penetration was 28 ft., a
heavy steam hammer being used for driving. Embedded in each pile
near its center there was a |-in. iron jet pipe with an elbow about 2 ft.
from the top. At the bottom this pipe was screwed into a cast-iron
point; the nozzle opening was § in. The pressure was 200 lb. and the
quantity of water used was from 5.5 to 6 cu. ft. per min. A period of
at least 60 days was allowed for seasoning. No trouble was experienced
in driving, and no brooming or breakage was noticed.
At this place there is a coal wharf on reinforced concrete piles
which also has diagonal braces of concrete and a concrete deck. This
wharf has been subjected to an unusual amount of buffeting and hard
service, and is quite elastic. Two piles which were broken off under
water by a eollison were repaired by divers. The broken parts were
removed, then an iron tube was inserted and caulked in place, after
which the tube was pumped out and filled with concrete.
Extensive improvements being under way for the London & South
Western Railway (the owner of the docks), their engineer, Mr. Shields,
had just completed a careful inspection of all concrete work. He re-
ported that all work below water was in sound condition, but that a
few remarkable eases of rusting and exfoliation had occurred above
the water, for which no satisfactory explanation could be found. In
this the writer saw a very strong resemblance to the failure of ex-
panded metal in concrete floors, reported to the Structural Association
of San Francisco in 1906. As a final result, it was decided that for
any new work at Southampton, there should never be less than 2 in.
of concrete covering the reinforcement, both above and below water.
At Paris the writer was informed by E. T. Quinette de Rochemont,
M. Am. Soc. C. E.,* that although the length of experience with re-
inforced concrete piles was not greater than from 5 to 7 years, he was
favorably impressed, and that the Corps of the Fonts et Chaussees
would use them freely if the conditions required it.
Young's million-dollar pier at Atlantic City is an example, on a
large scale, of the use of concrete piles. These piles have a riveted case
of TB-in. steel to which is secured a concrete point. They were hoisted
Tnxpecteur General des Pants et Chaussees.
NOTES UrON DOCKS AND HARBORS 141
into position and filled with concrete to a depth about equal to the
water; they were then lowered and put down by jetting about 15 ft.
into the sand, care being taken to have the concrete filling at all times
above the surface of the water. There are no reinforcing rods, and,
when the outer galvanized cylinder fails, the structure must depend
on the tensile strength of the concrete to resist the lifting action
of the waves, which, owing to the exposed position of the pier, may be
quite severe during a storm.
The Wear of Concrete.
Most of the quay walls observed in Europe are faced with rubble or
ashlar. In Belgium, Holland, and Germany they have a rubble facing
of hexagonal basalt blocks about 2 ft. deep, to prevent wear. In the
Albert Dock, London, a concrete non-faced quay wall has been in use
about 30 years, and, having been subjected to much buffeting from
lighters as well as ships, it has worn away about 2 in.
Careful inspection was made as to a possible action at or near the
water line due to freezing, or wave action, or both, but nothing note-
worthy was seen. However, at Baltimore there is a noticeable excep-
tion, for, on certain bridge piers, and for a vertical range of 18 in.,
the concrete has disintegrated to a depth of several inches about at
the ordinary water line. Aside from the affected part of the concrete,
which was covered with a vegetable growth more dense than in the
lower unaltered part, nothing unusual was observed. The concrete
above and below the affected zone is good.
Various theories have been advanced to account for the decomposi-
tion. The most plausible one is that, with a small tidal range, there
is a destructive action by the waves lapping the affected zone, and this,
perhaps, is assisted by ice action. None of the theories suggested,
when weighed and considered in reference to similar structures else-
where, appears to the writer as tenable. Believing it worthy of investi-
gation, the matter has been reported to the United States Geological
Survey, with a request for an investigation and report.
Concrete Caissons.
In Europe extensive use is being made of hollow concrete caissons,
both plain and reinforced, for breakwaters and quay walls. The
structure is towed into position and sunk, after which the hollow cells
142 NOTES UPON DOCKS AND HARBORS
are filled. Some of those used for breakwaters weigh more than 5 000
metric tons.
At Kotterdam, caissons 131.2 ft. long, and having a width of 32 ft.
at the base and 16 ft. at the top, and 43 ft. high, were being used. A
middle division wall through the length, and nine cross-walls, divide
the caisson into twenty cells. Four such caissons were built at the
same time in an improvised dry dock. The first step was the prepara-
tion of a base, about 2 ft. thick and 32 by 131.2 ft., well reinforced,
and in this were embedded the vertical rods for the walls. The ex-
ternal side walls, about 14 in. thick over the base, were carried up with
a batter. When the caisson walls were up to about five-eighths of their
final height, the gates were opened and the caissons were floated out to
a place in the harbor where they were secured to mooring piles. There
they were completed, meanwhile being afloat for one or two months.
As there are streaks of peat in the soil at Eotterdam, the bad parts
are removed by a dredge, and then the dredged cut is filled with sand
at least 6 ft. deeper than the base of the caisson. Then the caisson is
towed into place, and, by means of a tongue and groove on the ends,
the floating mass is brought into alignment, the free end being con-
trolled by tackle. Next, by opening valves, the caissons are sunk on
the prepared bed of sand, after which the water is pumped out of the
front row of cells and these are filled with concrete; the rear row of
cells is filled with sand to save expense.
In the older construction, the site was dredged, then a brush-
mattress facing was placed, and this was allowed to stand for one or
two years to secure thorough settlement of the mass on and to the
rear of the mattresses. Afterward wood piles were driven through the
mattress and, by using a special diving bell, were cut off and capped
below low water; then they were decked with wood or reinforced con-
crete upon which was built the quay wall. The floating, reinforced
concrete caisson method was stated to cost less per linear foot than
for piles decked with concrete and more than for piles decked with
wood. Practically, the cost may be said to be the same, with the de-
cided advantage of a nearly monolithic wall.
Where rock is convenient, this method might be used with ad-
vantage : Having made the dredged cut, next place along the front line
of the caisson one or more rows of piles, which might be driven to, or
cut off, say, 2 ft. below the grade of the bottom of the caisson; and
NOTES UrOiNT DOCKS AND HARBORS 143
then rock fill to grade; the object of the piles covered by rock would
be to prevent any rotation of the concrete block around the outer toe
due to a thrust from the shore side.*
COMPRESSOL.
In Paris the writer witnessed a demonstration of the Compressol
method of preparing foundations. By a sort of pile-driver, a heavy
conical weight is dropped repeatedly upon the soil, and, when the de-
sired depth is obtained, small stones are dropped into the hole, and,
by special forms of conical weights, are forced down and out into the
soil, after which concrete is rammed into place by the same means.
A completed pile will generally be 1 m. in diameter and have a bulb at
the base.
One contractor in Belgiimi has eighteen of these machines at work.
There are many places where such a system might be used; its special
value would appear to be in a firm soil of loam requiring piling, and
where the pile heads would be above the permanent water plane.
Whether, in point of economy, it presents any advantages over some
of the patented American systems is not known to the writer. It is
asserted, by those advocating the Compressol system, that, owing to
the thorough compression given to the ground, both laterally and ver-
tically, combined with the mushroom-shaped base of the pile, it is
capable of sustaining two or three times as much load as piles used in
American systems. Certainly there must be considerable merit in it,
otherwise it would not be used so extensively.
Wood Piles Driven at an Angle.
At Bremen, and notably at Bremerhaven, it is the practice to con-
struct much of the new work in the dry. The area to be enclosed is
stripped, by land dredges and cars, to 3 or 4 ft. below low water, and
is kept dry by pumps. Along the proposed line of quay wall, two
single-rail tracks are laid, about 33 ft. apart; these serve to carry a
pile-driver which traverses a carriage supported by the two rails. The
pile-driver is arranged to swivel in two directions; thus the driver can
be placed with great precision and dispatch, and piles can be driven
at any desired batter. It is the practice to select long piles, and first
drive each tenth bent of piles. The ways are marked with a metric
* A good illustrated technical description of the work at Rotterdam may be found in
De Inqenieur, July 20th, 1907, The Hague, Holland. This has not yet been translated into
English.
144 NOTES UPON DOCKS AND HARBORS
scale, and an attendant records the position of the pile at each fifth
or tenth blow. From these data piles of suitable length are selected
for the intervening nine bents, and a similar record of driving is
kept. Should one or more piles in a group settle too much during
the last ten blows, a longer pile is driven in the bent or in the ad-
joining bents to give additional bearing power. The bents, when
driven, batter about 1 on 5, like the letter A. At the cross of the A,
two strong timbers are bolted to the framed piles, and longitudinal
wales are bolted to the piles and side pieces, and a 6-in. wood floor
completes the foundation. Upon this foundation a quay wall of rubble -
faced concrete is built, and is bonded to the rear piles by tension rods,
after which the area is opened and excavated to the full depth by
dredges. A construction of this kind resists most effectively the thrust
from the landward mass of earth, the outer piles being compressed and
the rear piles in tension.
Mr. Claussen, Dock Engineer at Bremerhaven, says that he con-
siders 15 tons per pile a safe load when used in tension. A number
of long walls, such as the sides of a dry dock, quay walls, and locks
in use for ten years, were remarkably straight, and offered strong evi-
dence as to the value of this system of construction. This could not
be used if limnoria or teredo were present, unless the piles in the outer
row were covered by a concrete wall; but it might have application
for mooring bits, etc., where the piling is protected, and perhaps would
be advantageous where it is required to erect a temporary bulkhead
and load the ground landward for a year or more, so as to consolidate
it before commencing the permanent construction of a quay wall.
Cranes.
In nothing is the difference between the United States and Europe
so marked as in the non-use here and the general use there of power
cranes, usually hydraulic, but often electrically operated.
It is quite common for a merchant to visit Europe and, having
noted the many excellent things to be seen, quite naturally think that
among the improvements required in the United States are cranes.
In Europe several thousand cranes are installed; upon an average
there is one crane to 283 ft. of quay wall, and their usage is quite
variable.
NOTES UPON DOCKS AND HARBORS 145
At Marseilles, in 1903, thirty-four hydraulic cranes, having a
capacity of 2 750 lb., worked 121 days per year for each crane, on a
9-hr. basis, and averaged 26.2 loads per hour. Ten cranes of double
power, but working at one metric ton, worked 115 days; and working
at 3 tons, 16 days each per year.
The whole number of loads was 1 116 980, which gave an income of
166 312 francs, or 2.92 cents per load. The average income of a crane
was about $745 per year, which includes the power and the crane
operator. This port has perhaps a more intensive use of cranes than
those farther north, where generally only one crane out of four or five
is observed to be working.
At London it is alleged that cranes do not pay interest upon their
cost, but the ship owners insist that the dock owners have them and
do not use them, except perhaps for a small part of a cargo.
It is possible that the crane idea is a survival from the days of
sailing ships, when they were first introduced and were really re-
quired; next they were copied by other places, and by sheer inertia
dock owners persist in having them. The people of the United States
are quick to seize and appropriate a good idea, and the fact of the
non-use of cranes, cornpels a strong belief that the appliances used —
the ships' tackle and the stevedores' hoists^are ample. It has been
asserted that a difference in the nature of the business done in the
different countries is responsible for the general use of cranes abroad;
but this does not appear to be a reasonable view of the matter.
The writer does not wish to give the impression that cranes are not
useful; on the contrary, he believes that a partial adoption of the plan
in the United States — to the extent, at least, of having wharf cranes
which would serve to lift anything in excess of the capacity of a
ship's tackle — might prove useful.
At Liverpool many cranes are supported upon the top of the ware-
house front wall and a rail upon the peak of the roof. This is a very
excellent disposition, because the crane is always out of the way.
Dock Strikes.
There is and has been much trouble at many ports in Europe
from labor strikes, and, upon the whole, these are probably worse than
any that have happened in America.
It is difiicult for a stranger to form an accurate estimate of this
14G NOTES UPON DOCKS AND HARBORS
subject, because he hears various versions of the cause and nature of
the trouble.
The writer questioned the officials of the ports visited, and, as a
check, obtained the views of the marine underwriters and sometimes
the Jesuit Fathers, who are usually in a position to estimate the
troubles impartially. The general unrest appears to have below it a
raising of the standards of living, for the cost of living and the wants
of the laborer have increased faster than his wages. On the other
side, the employers assert that, in view of the serious competition be-
tween ports, a small amount of extra cost will cause a diversion of
business, therefore they oppose an increase of wages.
The nature of the work is irregular, there are periods of great
activity followed by lessened opportunity for work. Genoa has been
greatly troubled in the past by strikes, and the present port governing
board, which is closely modelled on the lines of the Liverpool Dock
Trust, has assumed that it has the power to settle such questions by
creating a permanent force of laborers who perform any sort of service,
from discharging cargo to road making, if required. The board takes
on extra men for short periods to cover emergency cases. The laborers
receive less pay than men engaged by private employers, and it is said
that, on account of a strong union organization, they do less work.
The outside criticism was, that the laborers practically dictated hours
and terms to the dock board. The experiment is a valuable one, and its
outcome will be a matter of interest.
During the writer's visit, a mild strike was in progress at Le Havre,
and at Antwerp a severe one, which required the importation of some
2 000 English strike breakers, who, for their protection from assault,
were housed on vessels in the harbor. In August the strike culminated
in burning the timber yards and required calling out the troops in
order to save the city from fire and quell the rioters.
To the writer, the wages seemed to be too low, but unless concerted
action were taken by all the competing ports, it would be difficult to
effect a raise. It does not appear that the form of government has
any very decided influence upon strikes or violence arising therefrom.
The striker is usually a voter, and some one in authority may need
his vote. About the only safe deduction that can be made is that a
small aggressive minority comes pretty near getting all it desires.
NOTES UPON DOCKS AND HARBORS 14^
Average Data.
The following average data concerning foreign ports, compiled
from a paper,* entitled "Results of Investigation Into Cost of Ports
and Their Operation," by Mr. Elmer L. Corthell, and corrected by the
writer in a few particulars, presents in a summarized form informa-
tion of considerable interest:
The ports included are London, Liverpool and Birkenhead, Glas-
gow, Bristol, Hamburg, Rotterdam, Le Havre, Dunkirk, Bilbao, Ant-
werp, Bremen and Bremerhaven, the Tyne Ports, Marseilles, Amster-
dam, Lisbon, Bombay, and Buenos Ayres.
Total cost of port improvements to 1906 $764 388 000
Registered tonnage, entered and cleared in one year
(about 1905-1906) 185 652 000
Goods dealt with in one year, 1005-1906, in long tons
of 2 240 lb., approximately 143 000 000
Gross revenue in one year (about 1905-1906) 58 206 000
Expenses " " " " " " 29 003 000
Net revenue " " " " " " 29 203 000
Gross revenue per registered ton " " 31.4 cents
Gross revenue per long ton " " 40.6 cents
Quayage length, in feet 1 192 000
Quayage length, in miles 227
Approximate length of rail, in miles , 930
Length of rail divided by length of quayage 4.11
Ratio of area of sheds to quayage (44 467 770 sq. ft. of
sheds to 1 067 120 ft. of quay) 41.1 to 1
Average weight of goods dealt with per year per linear
foot of quay, in long tons 120
Percentage of gross income on capital cost 7.615%
One crane to each 283 ft. of quay wall.
General Reflections on Commerce.
The greatest factors to-day in the material and moral development
of the world are transportation and commerce. By their agency, people
and their products are moved from a region of a lesser to one of a
greater use and demand. They are the greatest of all the civilizing
* Proceedings of Permanent International Navigation Congresses, Brussels, 1907.
148 NOTES UPON DOCKS AND HARBORS
agencies, because they promote an exchange of thought as well as of
commodities.
The growth of modern commerce is closely interwoven with the
development of the steam engine, railways, and electricity. It is a
question of power and its applications, and its present enormous di-
mension is largely the work of the engineer. Its growth has been
phenomenal, and is ever increasing; it is far more rapid in its rate of
increase than that of population, which means increased wants upon
the part of the people, and increased ability to buy and to enjoy. Its
future is a question of great philosophical interest ; but, until the people
of the world are raised to the general level of intelligence of the more
favored nations, it is reasonable to believe that its march will continue,
and that day is so far distant that it does not immediately concern the
present age. Until then, the signs point to an ever-increasing scope in
the functions of the engineer.
DISCUSSION ON" NOTES UPON DOCKS AND HARBORS 119
D I S C XJ S S I C) IST
W. B. RuGGLES, M. Am. Soc. C. E. (by letter). — If, as the author Mr. Ruggies.
says, there is a "striking difference'' between the plans of the port works
of the United States and those of European countries, there is quite
as marked a difference of methods between the ports of the States and
those of Latin-American countries.
Briefly, the prevailing custom south of the United States is to
handle all freight to and from steamers with lighters. To some
extent — but not entirely — this is due to a lack of good, deep-water har-
bors. There are few satisfactory harbors on the Pacific Coast of North
and South America south of San Francisco. The peninsula of Lower
California gives some protection to the few ports along the Gulf of
California, but the deep-draft vessels going north from Panama, with
sixteen regular ports, can only dock at Corinto in Nicaragua, Manza-
nilla in Mexico, lately completed, and Salina Cruz, at the western
terminus of the lately constructed Tehuantepec Railway, in Lower
Mexico. The latter port has been supplied by the Mexican Government
with modern harbor facilities, and the railway is expected to compete
sharply for transcontinental business. Steamers going south from
Panama, with forty-five scheduled ports, find good piers only at two,
Callao and Valparaiso.
On the Caribbean Sea, vessels coasting north find adequate docking
facilities at Port Limon, and others are being provided at Puerto Bar-
rios; but these are reported to be in comparatively shallow water. The
northerly or Gulf port of the Tehuantepec Railway (Mexico) has the
lately completed pier of Coatzacoalcos. Tampico has a Government
steel pier and custom-house. Vera Cruz has a stone pier and a pro-
tected harbor 33 ft. deep. Atlantic steamers on their south-bound
voyages can dock at Barranqiiilla and Cartagena.
There are a number of piers on the north coast of Venezuela, and,
beyond Venezuela, on the east coast of South America, there are good
harbors at long intervals.
The Island of Cuba is especially fortunate in its land-locked, deep-
water harbors, and yet the bulk of the cargoes to and from foreign
ports is handled by lighters, some coastwise sailing vessels being of
such light draft as to reach the small landing piers usually found in
shallow water. Havana Harbor is ideal; that bay, the Harbor of
Cienfuegos — 6 miles long and of good depth — and the Harbor of Santi-
ago, with another 6-mile bay, are all as closely land-locked as they
could be and give good entrances. Santiago has a pier for the Juragua
Iron Company and a commercial pier, but not for vessels of deep
draft. Guantanamo, 50 miles from Santiago, is a good harbor under
improvement; but, as it has been taken over by the United States as a
coaling station, it is hardly to be considered as a Cuban port. Car-
150 DISCUSSION ON NOTES UPON DOCKS AND PIARBORS
Mr. Ruggies. denas Bay is moderately well protected, but, except as dredged, is shal-
low at its entrance. Matanzas Bay, extending 6 to 8 miles inland, is
open, but deep — ^more than 1 000 ft. deep within a mile or so of the old
Customs wharf. Lighters are used in all these harbors. Nipe Bay,
on the north coast, is now a terminal point for a railroad, and no doubt
will be improved. Bahia Honda is a magnificent harbor, one of those
which it was expected would be taken as a coaling station by the
United States, but it has no port town of importance. Barracoa is
good, and there are other fair harbors.
Except that in the course of nearly 400 years of existence the City
of Havana has so encroached upon the bay as to make any kind of a
belt railway very expensive, the harbor offers one of the best opportuni-
ties to provide the most modern facilities for the handling of the heavy
passenger and freight business of what was once the fourth port of North
America. In the ten years dating from the early American occupation
of Cuba, plans for such improvements have been perfected, and in some
measure approved by the Cuban Government, although, in the late
adjustment of affairs, the present Provisional Government has appar-
ently not found it advisable to give these projects precedence over the
older and approved contracts for the sanitation of the city. Possibly
the results of efforts to provide adequate harbor facilities for Matanzas
may, in some measure, have led to this conclusion. Early in the former
American occupation of Cuba, the Intervening Government was for-
mally asked, by the city authorities at that port, to provide suitable
harbor accommodations for the Bay of Matanzas, and after a year or
so of preparation, in which the local, civil, and commercial interests
were frequently consulted, and with no openly declared opposition from
any interest, plans and specifications were submitted for a deep-water,
creosoted-pile pier in the least exposed part of the bay, having per-
manently constructed connections with the two railways entering the
city. One of the very last acts of the outgoing Intervening Govern-
ment, after a full review of the situation with, and a hearty consent
hj, the new Cuban authorities, was the approval of the contract with
a reliable New York firm for the construction of the pier, railway, steel
bridges and other accessories, at a cost of approximately $300 000 ;
with some subsequent modifications of plans and specifications, the
works were built in 1902-03, but, in the five years since their comple-
tion, they have been used very little, if at all. The attitude of the local
owners of the fleets of lighters and of the warehouses, of which Matan-
zas has an exceptionally substantial and extensive system on, or near,
the San Juan River, has been distinctly hostile to the new arrangement,
and, so far, they appear to have controlled the situation. It was hoped
the new provisions would ultimately lead to more direct shipments from
the interior of the island to the vessel. Even if the warehouse and
lighter interests are themselves shippers, as it happens they are, it is
DISCUSSION ON NOTES UPON DOCKS AND HARBORS 151
but natural that they should hesitate to support such a system, for Mr. Ruggies
their profits lie principally in handling the sugar, etc., at the port.
In Jamaica, a possession of the very commercial English people,
there is an excellent closed harbor and deep-water pier at Kingston,
and like facilities at Port Antonio on the north coast. The Port of
Spain, in Trinidad, another English harbor, though not the deepest,
provides at least for Koyal Mail steamers.
The Danish port at St. Thomas has a floating dock. In San Do-
mingo, a pier at Macoris, built under political grant, is reputed to
have paid its considerable cost by port duties. The ports of Haiti are
noted as "slow and inefficient." In Puerto Rico, San Juan is a dredged
harbor, and, with other ports of the island, is being improved since it
became an insular possession of the United States.
Before the construction of the Panama Railroad in 1850-55, Puerto
Bello, 18 miles below Colon, was the desirable harbor on the Caribbean
Sea, well protected and deep; it is still used as a shelter harbor at
times of violent and long-continued gales.
The Harbors of Colon and La Boca, near Panama, were not natu-
rally very good, both being originally shallow and, except for the
islands in the Pacific, open, but the dredging for the Panama Canal
makes their development into good ports reasonably practicable. All
vessels can receive and discharge freight' at the new wharf, No. 11, at
Cristobal — that part of the harbor town within the Canal Zone. The
Royal Mail and Hamburg-American lines still have their own piers
at Colon, where, to date, they have proved adequate. On the Pacific
side, the old Erench pier at La Boca, with its extensions, lying along
the Canal line, provide berthing space for four or more large, deep-
draft vessels at a time. These extensions were made about two years
ago when it was presumed that the Canal entrance would be moved
eastward to the point of Sosa Hill, and the new structures are, conse-
quently, not of as substantial construction as the original Erench
Canal company's pier, which is 960 ft. long, built 22 years ago with
steel trusses and frames on steel cylinders, 5 m. in diameter, sunk to
rock and filled with concrete. As the new train loads of the Panama
Railroad are much greater than at the date of the construction of the,
pier, the two loading tracks have been removed from the trusses to a
roofed pile trestle on the easterly side of the old shed, giving a cor-
respondingly greater storage capacity; otherwise the structure is prob-
ably good for another generation. The new channel is being dredged
to 45 ft. below mean sea level, and when the breakwater, now in course
of construction toward Naos Island, is completed, the entrance to the
piers will be well protected. The Erench company provided loading
devices on the old pier and a very large crane of 15 tons capacity at
the outer end for heavy machinery. On the late extension there are
eight new electric cranes of nominally 8 000 lb. capacity^the writer
152 DISCUSSION ON NOTES UPON DOCKS AND HARBORS
Mr. Ruggies. has seen 10 000 lb. handled on a trial. At Cristobal there are no cranes
en Wharf 11, but at Pier 14 there is a large Brownhoist cantilever
crane for coal, iron, etc.
Provisions are now being made for the construction of perma-
nent piers between No. 11 and No. 14 along the Canal, the channel of
which is kept dredged to required depth. Breakwaters are likewise
proposed for this bay, and there is now a small dry dock above Pier 14.
Attention has lately been called to the fact that, except at the port
of San Francisco and at Bremerton, Wash., there is no dry dock on
the Pacific Coast.* This would seem to imply that the timber dry
dock at Puget Sound, built in 1896, is not now available. Of the
three at San Francisco, the largest is that of the San Francisco Dry
Dock Company, 750 by 122 ft. The statement also fails to mention
the dry dock at Salina Cruz, which is 600 by 100 ft., with a depth of
31 ft. In view of this fact and that commercial corporations and com-
panies, such as the above and the Mersey Dock and Harbour Board
at Liverpool, do not consider their port work complete without a dry
dock, almost always a graving dock (one English firm, The Smith's
Dock Company, on the Tyne, has six graving docks supplemented with
two floating docks), it would appear desirable to have other harbors
supplied with these provisions for cleaning and repairing. There is,
it is true, a growing use of floating dry docks, but where there are, for
instance, such good foundations within easy reach, with ample space
and wide range of tide, as can be found between Corozal and the Canal,
two or three miles inland from the La Boca piers, the cost of a perma-
nent graving dock of large dimensions — double if necessary — would
probably be no greater than for a corresponding provision for floating
docks, if the additional repeated dredging for an operating basin, esti-
mated as at least 50 ft. deep, for a dock of 30-ft. draft, shore anchorage
works, etc., be added. At the site suggested it happens there could
easily be coaling stations and railroad yards.
In late years the English Government has made great extensions
in the harbors at which vessels are loaded with coal, notably that of
Blyth, where improvements to cost approximately $900 000 are under
way, and England, Holland, Denmark, and, to some extent, France,
make special provisions for their fishing vessels. At the Boston, Mass.,
fish wharves this year nearly 1 000 000 lb. of fish were marketed in
one day. As for the coaling staithes, or stations, the Pacific Coast may
come in time to provide oil stations instead, but it cannot yet be said
that there should no longer be any provision made for coaling steamers,
for fuel, and for cargo.
Mr. Goodrich. E. P. GOODRICH, M, Am. Soc. C. E. (by letter). — Some investiga-
tions made by the writer in connection with the Meadow Reclamation
^Cassier's Magazine, March, 1908.
DISCUSSION ON NOTES UrON DOCKS AND HARBORS 153
and Dock Commission led to the independent discovery, several months Mr. Goodrich,
before the publication of Mr. Wagoner's paper, of several points
brought out therein.
The rate of increase of population of many American cities, and
approximately that of the United States as a whole, was found to be
in a logarithmic ratio. A similar law holds for the foreign tonnage
of many ports, thus providing a fixed relation between tonnage and
population, and, in many instances, the growth of manufactures fol-
lows the same law. Because of these facts the per capita values of
such commercial and industrial items are of great value in predicting
probable future requirements of ports and communities.
Accurate plotting of statistics on logarithmic paper of large scale
discloses many interesting facts, among which the following may be
cited : At each war of any magnitude, the rate of increase of the popu-
lation of the United States as a whole, and of a majority of its cities,
received a check, and a changed rate was established. Commerce and
industry are somewhat similarly affected, but to a much greater
extent, by each financial panic which is almost literally a war in those
lines.
Prediction of future port requirements is almost as complex as
predictions concerning their tidal changes, but without as complete
data. Railroad extensions and their rates to a certain port and to com-
peting ports, the prompt adoption of improvements in handling facili-
ties at those ports, the effects of natural limitations and advantages,
the possibilities of change in the extent of neighboring industries,
like fishing, lumber, grain, etc., in localities where these predominate,
are some of the factors entering the problem when studying the neces-
sities of such projects as those of Nejvark or Jamaica Bay, in the
vicinity of New York City, or of increases in facilities in Baltimore,
New Orleans, or San Francisco.
Howard J. Cole, M. Am. See. C. E. (by letter).— The author Mr. Coie.
calls attention to the extensive use of concrete piles in Europe in con-
nection with various harbor improvements, and incidentally mentions
the patented systems of concrete piles in America.
Previous to 1902 the use of concrete piles in the United States was
very limited, but about that time some methods of construction were
patented and placed on the market, and since then their use has been
constantly increasing; now there are structures in most parts of the
country that rest on a foundation of this type, some of the installa-
tions containing 6 000 piles.
Concrete piles can be divided into two classes, depending on the
general method used in their construction, viz., those "made in place"
and those "moulded" before their installation.
In the "made-in-place" class, there are two systems in general use,
both of which are patented, the "Simplex" and the "Raymond."
154 ])rscussiuN on notes uroN docks and harbors
The "Simplex" concrete pile is formed by driving a hollow steel
shell or pipe of 16 in. external diameter, into the ground to refusal by
a heavily constructed pile-driver, the lower end of the pipe being
closed with a patent shoe to prevent the entrance of earth. When
the proper depth is reached, a charge of concrete is dropped into the
steel pipe or driving form which is then raised about 1 ft. by a strong
tackle attached to the driver; an iron rammer is then dropped inside
the driving form and by its impact opens the shoe and forces the con-
crete out into the cavity formed by the withdrawal of the driving form.
This process is repeated until the concrete has reached the required
elevation, when the form is entirely removed, leaving the space it
formerly occupied filled with concrete, thus making a concrete pile.
The "Raymond" concrete pile is formed by driving to refusal a
tapering collapsible mandrel or form, covered with overlapping sections
of sheet iron ; then collapsing the mandrel and removing it, leaving the
hole formed by the mandrel completely encased in sheet iron that serves
as a mould for the concrete, which is placed within the casing as soon
as the mandrel has been removed. These piles taper from a diameter
of 20 in. at the top to about 8 in. at. the point.
There is another pile that comes in the "made-in-place" class,
though it is not strictly a concrete pile, and that is the "Clark," which
is a steel-concrete pile, and is formed by forcing a steel pipe, about
i in. in thickness and of 12 in. external diameter, to the underlying
bearing stratum, partly by impact and partly by jetting, and then
removing the earthy material from the inside of the pipe and replacing
it with concrete, the steel shell being left in position and forming a
part of the pile.
All these piles are reinforced, when necessary, by the insertion of
steel rods.
The second-class or "moulded" piles are cast or moulded near the
site, and then allowed to set or season before being jetted or driven
into their final position. All piles of this class are reinforced to enable
them to withstand the rough handling to which they are subjected.
There are many different types of moulded piles, the best known
being the "Hennebique," the "Corrugated," and the "Chenoweth," each
of which differs from the other in method of construction and cross-
section, but all are driven in the same manner, either by jetting or by
a hammer; in the latter case, it is necessary to provide a cushion
between the hammer and the pile to avoid injury to the pile.
The "Hennebique" is square in cross-section of the same area
throughout and heavily reinforced with steel rods placed near the
corners of the pile, the reinforcement being tied together at regular
intervals; a jet pipe is built in the center of the pile.
The "Corrugated" is a tapered pile, octagonal in cross-section, and
has a deep semi-circular corrugation in the center of each side, which
DISCUSSION ON NOTES UrON DOCKS AND HARBORS 155
increases its superficial area. It is reinforced with wire cloth ami Mr. Cole
also contains a jet pipe, in fact practically all moulded piles are pro-
vided with jet pipes, though some solidly moulded piles have heen suc-
cessfully jetted into position by the method used with timber piles.
The "Chenoweth" pile is circular in cross-section and maintains
the same area throughout its entire length. It is made in a manner
wholly different from any other pile, and is rolled, not moulded or
cast like the others. It is formed by rolling wire cloth, plastered with
mortar, around a jet pipe that serves as a core in the rolling process
and later is used for jetting, the additional reinforcing being placed in
proper position on the wire cloth before rolling; layers enough are added
to make the pile of the required diameter, and it is then placed in the
seasoning yard to harden.
"Made-in-place" piles have been built to a depth of 48 ft., while
moulded piles have been used successfully up to 60 ft. in length.
Under ordinary conditions concrete piles are more expensive than
timber piles, but, owing to their greater carrying capacity, they can be
frequently installed at a considerable saving on the cost of timber
piles, especially under favorable subsurface conditions.
Rudolph Hering, M. Am. See. C. E. — The speaker recently visited Mr. Heiing.
three of the harbors described by the author, viz., Liverpool, Hamburg,
and Rotterdam, in all of which remarkable developments have taken
place within the last two decades.
One of the differences between European and American harbors
mentioned by the author, which the speaker thinks is the chief
reason for the present excellence of foreign harbors, is that, in Europe,
there are permanent boards or special commissions to lay out and
design all the works pertaining to the entire harbor, and to carry out
the different parts of the work, as they are needed, in order to make
them conform to the intended plan. This plan embodies not only the
docks, but also the railroads leading to them and the warehouses where
goods are stored temporarily, and all the machinery for loading and
unloading vessels.
Another difference between European and American practice is the
fact that, in Europe, artificial basins are provided to a much greater
extent than in the United States, because their rivers are smaller and
their commerce is growing rapidly. Nowhere can there be seen slips
placed at right angles to the river as in New York City. Neither in
the Elbe nor in the Maas could big liners turn conveniently and
enter such a slip without interfering seriously with the river traffic.
Instead, the vessels generally enter at a convenient but small angle
with the river, necessitating only a slight turn. In Hamburg and
Rotterdam enormous excavations have been and are to be made for
such basins, necessitated by the increasing traffic.
156 DISCUSSION ON NOTES UPON DOCKS AND HARBORS
Mr. Hering. In nearly all cases the railroads come close to the dock lines. It
is possible, particularly in Hamburg, which is perhaps the best ar-
ranged harbor in the world, to unload from the ships directly to the
railroad cars or to the warehouses. This work is done by electric
cranes, and requires very little labor.
Referring to the concrete work in the Liverpool docks, the speaker,
during his first visit to Liverpool, in 1880, saw the iron or steel rein-
forcement of concrete for the first time. Some alteration in a dock
had required the breaking through of one of the walls in which
were several |-in. rods. They had been in the work for some years, and
were absolutely without rust, which convinced the speaker of the
practicability of thus fully protecting iron against corrosion. In
Berlin, in 1880, he also saw the concrete work which formed the lower
half of a sewer then under construction and still exposed to the sun. The
interior was actually dusty, while the ground-water stood above the
bottom of the sewer on the outside, proving that, with good materials
and workmanship, it was entirely practicable to make water-tight
concrete, a fact which was not then generally admitted in America.
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENaiNEEES
INSTITUTED 1852
TRANSACTIONS
Paper No. 1096
CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION.
By Oliver S. Lyford, Jr., M. Am. Soc. C. E.
With Discussion by Messrs. Joseph Mayer^ Charles Rufus Harte,
W. K. Archbold, Theodore Varney^ George N. Cole^ W. S.
Murray, E. D. Coombs, and Oliver S. Lyford, Jr.
The catenary trolley work of the Denver and Interurban Railroad,
in details of design and in methods of construction, exemplifies the
special features involved in the problem of providing an overhead sys-
tem for electric operation on roads using steam for motive power
previous to and during electrification. Such roads generally have
rigid regulations, and the operation of steam trains during the con-
struction period imposes material limitations upon the work. The
object of this paper is to outline some of the governing conditions re-
lating to catenary construction for such roads, and the means adopted
to meet these conditions in this most recent instance.
The Denver and Interurban Railroad is a part of the Colorado and
Southern Railway System. This is the seventh large railroad system
to inaugurate electrical operation on its lines, the other roads being the
following :
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad: 750-volt third-rail in Baltimore
Tunnel;
* Presented at the meeting of October 7th, 1908.
158 CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad: 600-volt trolley
on certain branches, and 11 000-volt single-phase catenary
trolley on the New York Division and other branches;
Long Island Eailroad : 600-volt third-rail on suburban lines, and
2 200-volt single-phase catenary construction on inter-
urban line;
Pennsylvania Railroad: 600-volt third-rail on West Jersey and
Seashore Division;
New York Central Railroad: 600-volt third-rail on main line,
and 600-volt overhead trolley on West Shore Division
and on branches;
Erie Railroad : 11 000-volt single-phase catenary trolley on
Rochester Division, and 600-volt direct-current trolley
on other branches.
Other large steam roads, now installing electrical equipment, are
as follows:
Grand Trunk Railroad : 3 300-volt single-phase catenary trolley
in Sarnia Tunnel and approaches;
Michigan Central Railroad: 650-volt third-rail in new Detroit
Tunnel ;
Great Northern Railroad : 6 000-volt three-phase trolley in Cas-
cade Tunnel;
Southern Pacific Railroad : 1 200-volt direct-current trolley on
Alameda Mole suburban lines at Oakland, Cal. ;
Pennsylvania Railroad: New York Terminal and Tunnels —
electrical system not determined.
The foregoing lists do not include any interurban trolley lines
which were originally constructed as electric roads, or the few short
steam lines which have been changed over to electric roads.
The Denver and Interurban Railroad is the fifth to adopt the single-
phase system, and the third to use 11 000 volts on the trolley.
In the foregoing lists there are five roads using the direct-current
third-rail system, two using the 600-volt direct-current trolley system,
five using the single-phase system, one using the 1 200-volt direct-current
trolley system and one using the three-phase alternating-current sys-
tem. The last two systems have not met with general favor in America,
PLATE X.
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENQRS.
VOL. LXIl, No. 1096.
LYFORD ON
CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION.
CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION 159
and the single-phase system has been selected by most of the railroad
companies whose decision to electrify has been made since the com-
mercial success of this system has been demonstrated. The principal
merit in the single-phase system lies in the ability to operate at high
voltage with a single overhead conductor, and, therefore, to transmit
power long distances with a minimum number of sub-stations and a
minimum quantity of copper. These arguments apply particularly to
trunk-line operations, and this system, therefore, appeals especially
to the managers and engineers of large railroads. On the Denver and
Interurban Railroad, the extent of curvature, the number of cuts and
fills, parallel tracks, sidings, and other local features have introduced
into this undertaking many of the principal construction problems
which are likely to develop in a single-track road with moderately
heavy traffic. Of the total length of track of this line, 43% is on
curves.
The lines electrified are shown on the map. Fig. 1, and consist of
a main line from the city limits of Denver to Louisville Junction,
and two branches thence to Boulder. There is also a spur from the
Marshall Branch to Eldorado Springs. The portion outside the termi-
nal cities is equipped with the single-phase system. Within the limits
of each terminal, operation is by the 600-volt direct-current trolley
system. The cars, therefore, are equipped with electrical apparatus
suitable for operation by either system. There are 44 miles of single-
phase construction. In Boulder, the railroad company has provided
IJ miles of 600-volt direct-current construction. In Denver, the cars
are operated on the city streets, over the lines of the Denver Tram-
ways Company.
The principal features involved in the design and construction of
such overhead work are outlined in the following notes:
Sufficiency. — The first cost of electrification work for railroads is
high, but the cost of electrical operation is low, as compared with
steam-locomotive operation, provided the equipment is properly de-
signed, erected, and maintained. High-voltage catenary work cannot
receive the close daily inspection of the track-walker, and, because
this is so, there is the greatest necessity for thoroughness and per-
manence in the construction. Intelligence and experience, therefore,
are at a premium in this field of engineering and operation.
Rapid Construction Worlc. — The details of design and methods of
IGO CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
construction must be worked out with special reference to rapid erect-
ing operations. Time spent in the drafting-room in developing details
which go together quickly means much time and expense saved in the
field, where each construction operation is repeated hundreds of times.
Much ingenuity can also be exercised in planning the field work. The
accompanying photographs illustrate the quick methods of construc-
tion used in the Denver and Interurban work.
Worlc Train. — Much depends upon the proper equipment of the
work train. For pole-setting, a derrick car is provided (Plate X),
and, for overhead work, box cars are equipped with platforms at
the proper height for convenient operation (Fig. 1, Plate XI).
Where overhead obstructions exist, these platforms must be collapsible.
The interiors of the box cars are arranged with storage bins, work-
benches, tools, etc. Where construction is interfered with by the
operation of schedule trains, the preparation work proceeds while the
work train is on the siding, and everything is arranged for progress
with the utmost despatch as soon as the main line is available.
Poles. — Poles are set at a distance of 8 ft. 6 in. from the center of
the track to the inner side of the pole. This is sufficiently close to the
track so that pole setting direct from the cars can be done to great ad-
vantage. The figures on Plate X illustrate such work. A record
day's work with such an equipment, without interruption, is 117 poles
set, including digging holes and tamping. This was done with 26 men.
In one instance, 13 poles were placed in their holes in 15 min.
Brachet- Setting. — The effectiveness of the work train for bracket-
setting depends somewhat on the extent to which the line may be kept
free from regular trains. Where interference is infrequent, the work
train can be used to advantage in the manner indicated in Figs. 2 and
3, Plate XL The locomotive places the cars opposite the poles,
and bracket erection proceeds at four or five poles simultaneously. As
soon as the brackets are in place, the locomotive couples up the cars
and moves on. The brackets, of the type shown in Fig. 3, Plate XI,
can be erected complete and adjusted to the right height at the rate of
150 per day, with 18 men and a work train of 5 cars. Fig. 3, Plate
XI, shows the support placed on the top of the car for setting the
bracket at the proper height, allowance being made in this setting for
the deflection which will occur with the load of the catenary structure.
Placing Wires. — For placing wires the derrick car is arranged to
CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
161
B U L l> E R
MAP OF ELECTRIFIED LINES OF
THE DENVER & INTERURBAN R.R. CO.
11000-VOLT SINGLE-PHASE
TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION.
MILES Electrified Tracks High tens'iou
Alternating Current.
.^"ri^ Electrified Tracks 500 Volt.
MILE S Feeder lines
MILES Catenary Constrviction.
X Section Breaks.
• Passenger Station.
lobeviUe
RIVERSIDE
CEMETERY.
162 CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
carry the reels and pay the wire out over elevated rollers (Fig. 4,
Plate XI). The best day's run on messenger v^ire was 7 miles
strung and tied in. This took 17 workmen and two train crews. The
best day's run on stringing and splicing trolley wire was also 7 miles,
with 12 workmen and one train crew. The best day's record of clipping
up messenger and trolley wire was 3J miles with 13 workmen and one
train crew. A working day consisted of 9 hours, with transportation
from headquarters each day on the company's time, leaving about 7
working hours. The ground-wires and feeder-wires are placed before
the brackets are erected, and the wire is paid out over the end of the
boom of the derrick.
Adjusting the Sag. — The intention, in the design of catenary con-
struction of this type, is that the trolley wire shall remain as nearly
flat as possible, and the tension in the messenger wire and trolley
wire must be determined with considerable definiteness between the
minimum, which will prevent excessive deflection, and the maximum,
which must be within safe limits for the material.
In the Denver and Interurban work the sag table used was that
given in Fig. 2. To verify this table a special dynamometer was
provided, consisting of a calibrated car-spring. The setting of the
tension in the messenger and trolley wires by using this dynamometer
on the top of the work train is illustrated in Fig. 1, Plate XII.
The use of this dynamometer disclosed a point of interest in connec-
tion with the erection of long lengths of wire and cable. For an
average sag of the messenger cable, which, according to the sag table,
should result in a tension of 2 300 lb., the dynamometer showed an
initial tension of 6 000 lb. This initial strain decreased to 4 000 lb.
before quitting, and, after expansion and contraction over night, came
down to the figure in the sag table. This excessive initial strain
occurred on a portion of the line which is full of curves, and was due
to the lack of equalization between the different spans of a 1-mile sec-
tion. On tangents, the initial strain was between 3 500 and 4 000 lb.
This is a point to be borne in mind in calculating the proper elastic
limit for such wires and cables.
Pole Collars. — Experience with semaphores and other heavy struc-
tures on wooden poles has shown that such poles deteriorate most
rapidly at the ground line and at points where bolts pass through the
pole. With this experience in mind, the Denver and Interurban
PLATE XI.
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENGRS.
VOL. LXIl, No. 1096.
LYFORD ON
CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION.
CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION 1G3
brackets have been attached to the poles with pole collars (Fig. 3.
Plate XI), and no bolts pass through the poles.
Treatment of Pole Butts. — To increase the life at the ground line,
the poles have been treated with carbolineum.
Ground-Wire. — In the Denver and Interurban work, a ground-wire,
consisting of TB-in. stranded galvanized-steel cable, has been strung
over the pole tops for the entire length of the line. This wire has a
number of functions :
It affords means for grounding the brackets and cross-spans so
that working upon these parts is safe;
The ground connection of the running rails can be made at
every fifth pole instead of at every pole, as would be
necessary without this cable;
It affords a third circuit in parallel with the two running rails
for the return current ;
Being at ground potential and at an elevation above the trolley
wire, it affords effective lightning protection;
It is a cheaper construction than the grounding of each bracket
to the running rail and the addition of lightning
arresters.
Trach Connection of Ground-Wire. — Cross-bonding of the two run-
ning rails is necessary at frequent intervals. By placing these cross-
bonds opposite every fifth pole it is possible to use the cross-bond as a
means of connecting the ground- wire to the track, as shown in Fig. 6.
A track connection of this kind is subject to abuse by the section men,
and also from the vibration due to trains. A rather heavy ground-rod
is necessary for protection from the section hand, and fl.exible con-
nection to the rail is necessary because of the action of the trains.
The combination of these requirements is best provided for in the
manner illustrated. The conductor in this case is a tg by l|-in. iron
strap. The flexible connection to the rail is obtained by attaching
this strap to the center of the cross-bond. This gives a connection to
each rail. The cross-bond is subject to the abuses of track repairers,
but to a minimum extent. The figure illustrates the track connection
for cross-span construction, but the same arrangement is used for
bracket poles.
Grounding the Running Rails. — In order to avoid any considerable
3 64 CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
potential between the running rails and the ground, it is necessary to
provide ground-plates at frequent intervals, with adequate connections
between these and the running rails.
Iron and Steel Worh. — ^Most of the iron and steel parts used in
catenary construction are small in cross-section. For long, life, a
preservative coating is necessary. Proper inspection, cleaning, and
painting are accomplished with difficulty, and, although such care is
essential, there is considerable probability of neglect. A short-lived
coating, therefore, is not sufficient. Galvanizing seems to be the only
suitable method of protection thus far developed. The combined action
of the elements and locomotive gases on galvanized work has been
watched carefully. The locomotive exhaust forms a hard deposit on
wires placed directly above the center of the track, and this deposit
seems to act as a preservative coating over the galvanized surface.
In this work there is special necessity for ample thickness of un-
galvanized sections, because of the difficulty involved in adequate in-
spection and painting.
Trolley Wire. — It is essential that the trolley wire shall at all times
be under sufficient tension to avoid appreciable sag between the 10-ft.
supports. With catenary construction, of the type herein referred to,
a tension of at least 2 000 lb. is necessary in order that the pantagraph
shoe may ride smoothly under the trolley wire. With lower tension
there will be chattering of the pantagraph, and abnormal wear of the
pantagraph shoe and trolley wire. If the minimum tension at 100"
fahr. is 2 000 lb., the theoretical strain at 0° fahr. will be approxi-
mately 6 000 lb., as shown in the curve sheet of sags. Fig. 2. The
actual strain will be some indeterminable figure less than this, depend-
ing on the general elasticity of the system. The average tensile
strength of a 4/0 hard-drawn copper wire when new is 50 000 lb. per
sq. in., or 8 310 lb. for a 4/0 wire. The elastic limit is 35 000 lb. per
sq. in., or 5 817 lb. for a 4/0 wire. As the copper wire is reduced by
wear, the tensile strength is reduced more rapidly than the physical
section, because the center is not as strong as the skin. "Phono-
electric" wire has physical characteristics which are much better suited
to this service, as follows:
Tensile strength : 68 780 lb. per sq. in., or 11 330 lb. for a 4/0
wire;
CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
165
Temperature, Fahrenheit
FPO
-
-y
â– 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
^
~
~
—
X77
iJ-PcuU-
._.
a
_
\
« M M M
1
?i
»;
-
—
~
—
,
-
-^
tu-uu
_
_
__
„
_
_
p==~^
SpiV
-
-(—
=
—
-
-
-
—
~.
^j
—
' — ,
^ — —
^''â– ^^ *
fl"
tr
^
â– "â–
~.
— 1«^
- ~-
"51
^ --^
>^^
"" â– ~.
^
"~-^
"^ -"^
^5^
=1
^
1 —
^^ ,
J
^
^s
^^f
W"
-
^
^.
»^
'^v^
^-.
"=^
"^^ :
s^
?^-
f^;;-
Y
Si
^ 1 1 1 i J i
1
-
-
^g
--
-
-I
1
-g- -
8--
__.
►-»
c
^ °
=
1^:
s
- 1 1 M 1 1
S _J
- ;
—
., '-
§^
- M 1 1 M
s
""'"'
g
g
=
-
jz :
-
-
—
—
Tr
io
^:
~
~ 1 1 "â–
-
-
-^
—
-
:
-
-
=;
"
_
-'-
:~
-
-
__.
— -
-
— -
^
^4:
-
—
-!-«.
r
â– ^
â– ~-
"^--^
5-
^
^^^
f-t
f^
^
â– J-^
<+-
t
^
^
^^.
^v
S^ -
^V ^^c
<
h.
V
\
166 CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
Elastic limit : about 58 000 lb. per sq. in., or 9 640 lb. for a 4/0
wire;
The material is homogeneous throughout;
The material is considerably stiffer than hard-drawn copper;
The wire may be worn to the limit permissible by the hanger
fastenings before the strain at minimum temperature
will equal the elastic limit of the reduced section.
The conductivity of this material is about 45% of that of hard-
drawn copper, but, in alternating-current railway work, this is of
less importance than in direct-current work, for several reasons. The
track resistance is much higher than with direct current, because of
the self-inductive effect of the rails, which are of magnetic material.
There is, also, an additional drop in the circuit, due to the induction
between the trolley wire and the rails.
Taking all these factors into account, the increase in the combined
drop, resulting from the use of this material with low conductivity, is
only 38 per cent. Furthermore, as the circuit has to be calculated for
the maximum load, and the daily average is a small proportion of this,
the increase in the average energy loss is inconsiderable.
In view of the cost of labor and supplies in renewing the trolley
wire, and the interference with operation while this work is going on,
the advantage of long life is apparent. Therefore, the physical ad-
vantages are largely in faA'or of the phono-electric wire, and the elec-
trical disadvantages which offset these are not serious. This material
is used in the Denver and Interurban work.
Splicing Sleeves. — Mechanical splicing sleeves, in which the trolley
is bent on short radius, do not preserve the full strength of the trolley
wire, as the outer fibers on the bends are strained beyond their elastic
limit. For this catenary work, where the higher strains are necessary,
as above stated, it is essential that the splicing sleeve, including the
ends of the trolley wire connected thereto, shall have the same strength
as the main body of the wire. To this end, the wire must enter the
splicing sleeve with practically no bends. The best sleeve thus far de-
veloped is one of the style indicated in Fig. 3, in which the joint is
made with solder.
Trolley Hangers.- — The trolley wire is supported from the messen-
ger wire at intervals of 10 ft. The supporting device, or "hanger,"
PLATE XII.
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENGRS.
VOL. LXII, No. 1096.
LYFORD ON
CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION.
1-
'•
^^K
CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
167
varies in length according to the sag of the messenger cable. As many
thousands of these hangers are used, it is important that the design
be suited to the special conditions of erection and operation. The
Denver and Interurban hanger, illustrated in Fig. 4, embodies the
following features:
The trolley clamp and hanger rod can be assembled in the work
car before erection ;
The operations necessary when erecting are such that they can
be performed with the utmost speed;
The hanger can be easily loosened, when necessary to pull the
slack out of the trolley wire;
It has 4 in. adjustment in length;
All nuts move freely, but lock in position;
It is strong, but light.
DETAILS OF DEAD-END
AND SPLICING
TROLLEY SLEEVES
Drill snug fit ^
for^'Bolt^ L_ig_^
f<
— ei-v-G
"sfepi-
!<
-lOX-
#ir:
B
Kote: Material to be Rolled Bronze section .
Dimensions apply for Bronze having an
Ultimate Tensile Strength of at least iO 000 Lb.per Sq.In
SOLDERED TROLLEY DEAD-END SLEEVE
A-^
\
h
-^.-R. — ^— ji^R.^-
"
;
13" -"^
;i
-?aH
^— laf^
^-\%—A
\^mm^
<yxy^yy/A<////y///////y\
-j=..-r_7_7
^
HALF SECTION
Note: Material to be Rolled Bronze
SIDE VIEW
SOLDERED TROLLEY SPLICING SLEEVE
section a- a end vie/
Fig. 3.
E]i0
I nsulation. — An insulation failure on a high-tension electric system
means the loss of power over the entire section in which the trouble
occurs. This may mean that a number of trains will be brought to a
stand-still, and, unless the trouble is quickly located, a considerable
1G8
CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
blockade will result. This makes it necessary that high-voltage trolley
systems be put up so as to minimize line troubles. This condition has
led to exhaustive investigation of different types of insulators and
different methods of construction. Porcelain is the best material thus
far found for insulating purposes, and, with sufficient factors of safety
ADJUSTABLE TROLLEY HANGER.
tSE
against mechanical strain and electrical tension, catenary structures
insulated with porcelain have been found very reliable. The insulator
used in straight-line work in the present case is illustrated in Fig. 1,
Plate XIV. This is a triple-petticoated insulator designed for regular
operation at 22 000 volts. Each insulator was tested at the factory
CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION 169
with 70 000 volts when dry and with 43 000 volts when subjected to an
artificial rain. The same insulator is used in the "steady strain" de-
scribed below. For pull-offs, a disc-type insulator is used, as illustrated
in the upper part of Plate XIII. This insulator will stand a com-
bined mechanical strain of 6 500 lb., and electric tension of 30 000
volts. For dead-ending work, spool-type insulators are used, as il-
lustrated in the lower part of Plate XIII. These insulators, when
properly harnessed, as shown in Plate XIII, can be subjected to a
combined test of 14 000 lb. compression and 55 000 volts electric
potential. All strain insulators are used two in series so as to double
the electrical factor of safety; and the harness is interlaced, so that,
should one insulator break, the structure will not fall to the ground,
but the remaining insulator will be adequate, electrically, to permit
the continuation of operation until repairs can be effected.
Steady Strain. — To keep the trolley wire in a position vertically
below the messenger wire on curves, it is necessary to use a special
device known as a "steady strain." The construction must be such
that in no case will it interfere with the pantagraph trolley. The
steady strain must be insulated from the supporting bracket. The
insulator and the means of fastening it to the bracket are necessarily
heavy, and, should they become disconnected from the bracket, would
sag to a position where they would be below the plane of the panta-
graph. To provide against this emergency the steady strain used on
the Denver and Interurban road is of a new design, and is arranged
so that in case of breakage the insulator and the parts attached thereto
are automatically released from the member attached to the trolley
wire and fall to the ground, thus preventing interference with the
pantagraph. This device (Fig. 1, Plate XIV) is inexpensive and
effective.
Deflector. — To avoid the possibility of the pantagraph becoming
caught in the diverging wires of a turn-out, it is customary to pro-
vide an arrangement called a "deflector," consisting of intermediate
wires suitably mounted between the two trolley wires. The device
used in the case under discussion is illustrated in Fig. 5, and also In
Fig. 4, Plate XII, and Fig. 2, Plate XIV.
Cross-Spans. — The cross-span construction for 11 000-volt work of
the Denver and Interurban Railroad is illustrated in Fig. 6. The en-
tire structure is grounded for safety.
170
CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
Offset of Trolley Wire. — In the Denver and Interurban work the
pole setting on curves has been such as will permit of keeping the
trolley v?ire within 3^ in. of a line directly above the center of the
track. The poles were spaced according to the figures in Table 1.
TABLE 1.— Pole Spacing.
Degree of curvature of
track.
Pole spacing, in feet.
Divergence of trolley wire
from track, in inches.
Tanerent.
120
0.
120
1.87
2
no
3.37
8
90
3.06
4
80
3.37
5
70
3.06
6
60
2.87
r
50
2.34
8
50
2.64
9
50
2.94
10
50
3.24
Many roads have used greater offsets than shown in Table 1, in
order to save poles, but it should be borne in mind that the use of an
overhead conductor in a permanent position above the tracks has a
material effect upon existing practice in maintaining roadbeds. Hither-
to, the tracks have been constantly shifted by the section men in the
correction of the alignment and in ballasting, and there have been no
close limitations. With catenary work above the track, the section
man is forced to work within close limits. For instance, 1 in. super-
elevation of one rail means 4^ in. deflection of the pantagraph. If
this is a bump in the track and causes the car to sway, the divergence
may be considerably more. If this happens on a curve, the deflection
of the pantagraph and the offset of the wire act together. Obviously,
it will be some time before section men are trained to the necessity
of close work, and they should be given as much latitude as possible.
This means that there should be as little offset as practicable in the
original design. Furthermore, the use of small deflections means a
minimum of side strain on the structure, and, therefore, a minimum
likelihood of displacement of insulators, steady strains, etc. With
wood poles at present prices, adherence to this practice of using small
offsets does not materially affect the cost.
Advantage of Light Supporting Structure. — The use of wooden
poles for catenary construction is in many respects preferable to the
CATEXARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
171
172 CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
use of heavy steel bridges. The principal advantage is in the ease of
repair. It is unfortunate for catenary work that the supply of wooden
poles is rapidly diminishing. An equally light, but strong, substitute
is desirable. The question naturally arises as to what will happen to
the catenary structure, if the poles are struck by a derailed train. One
answer to this question was given in the case of similar catenary work
for the Erie Railroad. A derailment of the work train occurred dur-
ing the construction period, and the caboose was driven into one of
the electric poles. The pole was cut off at the ground line, the in-
sulator torn loose, and the pole thrown to one side entirely free from
the catenary work. The tie-wire, by which the messenger cable is
attached to the insulator, acted as a safety connection in such a case,
as, by breaking, it released the catenary structure from the bracket
and pole. With the tensions used in the ordinary catenary structure
of the Denver and Interurban, two adjoining poles may be destroyed
and the trolley wire will only sag to 17A ft. above the track in the
maximum case.
Sectionalizing the Trolley Wire. — For convenience in locating
faults which may develop in the catenary construction, it is advisable
to divide the conductor into sections 4 or 5 miles in length. These
sections are normally connected so as to make a continuous circuit,
the connections being through switches which can be opened for test.
Clearance of Overhead Obstructions.— The proper height for the trol-
ley wire above the running rail is 22 ft. This means a standard height
of 24 ft. for the clearances of through and under bridges, and still
greater clearances for other overhead obstructions wherever physical
conditions permit. In a large majority of cases, new construction can
be designed for 24 ft. clearance without much difficulty or material
addition to cost. It is recommended that railroads adopt this as the
standard height for clearances in the future, except for tunnels,
municipal bridges, etc., where other conditions govern. For clearances
of less than 24 ft. special constructions of the catenary work have to
be provided, which are more or less objectionable.
Hard Spots in Catenary Structure. — For high-speed operation, it
is essential for satisfactory operation of the pantagraph that the maxi-
mum flexibility of the overhead structure be maintained at all points.
For this purpose, it is important that heavy weights and hard spots
be kept out of the system wherever possible.
PLATE XIV.
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENQRS.
VOL. LXII. No. 1096.
LYFORD ON
CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION.
Fig. 1.— Line Insolator and Steady Strain.
CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION 173
Bonding. — Experience with the numerous types of bonds which
have been placed on the market indicates that wherever possible the,
bonds should be placed under the splice-bar. Bonding the tracks of
a road which is in constant use is a difficult and slow operation with
bonds of this type, but the advantage to be gained in the way of per-
manence and security warrants the trouble.
Repair Work. — In view of the fact that line trouble usually means
loss of power, the work train cannot be taken to the fault by an elec-
tric locomotive; therefore an independent unit should be provided,
that is, either a steam locomotive or a gasoline car, preferably the
latter, because the stand-by losses on such a car are small, and it can
be quickly put into service.
Power Supply. — The power for operating the cars of the Denver
and Interurban Railroad is furnished by the Northern Colorado Power
Company from its power-station near Louisville. For this purpose,
two 1 000-kw. single-phase turbo-generators are provided. Two feeders
connect this power-station with the center of distribution at Louisville
Junction. The switch connections at Louisville Junction are such
that both feeders may serve all three legs of the trolley simultaneously,
or one feeder may serve the main line and the other feeder serve the
two branches (Fig. 1). Single-phase generators necessarily cost con-
siderably more than generators designed to deliver the same output
into a three-phase system, and in some cases it is preferable to generate
three-phase current and serve separate sections of the trolley line from
each of the three phases. As a general rule, however, where new
generating equipment is provided for single-phase operation exclu-
sively, the advantages are in favor of the single-phase generation, even
at the increased cost.
Telephone and Telegraph Interference. — Single-phase current has
an inductive effect on parallel telephone and telegraph circuits, caus-
ing interference with the operation of such circuits unless special pro-
tective means are used. Simple devices have been contrived for over-
coming this interference, so that there is now but little difficulty with
the operation of such parallel circuits. In most of the single-phase
roads there is a telephone system on the same poles as the trolley
line, and, with proper transpositions and suitable means for removing
the induced charge from the telephone line, it operates very satis-
factorily and without shock to the operators.
174 CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
Cost. — The cost of this catenary construction varies between rather
wide limits, depending on the amount of electric train service to be
operated, the physical conditions as to curves, grades, obstructions,
and pole foundations, and the amount of traffic on the line during elec-
trification. These conditions affect the cost of both material and labor.
The labor operations mentioned in this paper are those performed un-
der most favorable conditions. It has been found that, because of
conditions beyond the control of the designer or the construction crew,
the amounts of work per day may be cut to one-third, or even as low
as one-seventh, of the figures given herein. In general, it may be said
that, under favorable conditions, 11 000-volt catenary construction on
wooden poles, with conductors sufficient for a half-hourly operation of
two-car trains, and including track bonding, costs from $3 500 to
$5 000 per mile of single track electrified.
DISCUSSION ON CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION 175
DISCUSSION
Joseph Mayer^ M. Am. See. C. E. (by letter). — This paper ably Mr. Mayer,
presents the results of the latest, practical, American experience with
catenary trolley construction. -The main features of the line described
are: A 0000 phono-electric contact wire of one and two-thirds times
the elastic limit of the best hard-drawn copper wire, with 2 000 lb.
tension, at 100° fahr., 120-ft. spans of the carrying ropes on tangents,
and shorter spans on curves, and solid round hangers 10 ft. apart.
By calculating the bending strains and tensions in the contact wire,
the writer has reached, and published, the conclusion that a really
safe catenary suspension for high speeds is impracticable with a copper
contact wire without introducing adjustments of the length of the
wire to balance the effects of changes of temperature. The large
bending strains and tensions in the contact wire cause the practical
failure, with high speeds, of the older catenary suspensions. In the
United States, the remedies are the use of a stronger wire, and, in
some cases, of a supplementary wire, and of short spans of the carrying
ropes; in Europe, a supplementary wire and complicated adjustments
for changes of temperature are used. The supplementary wire of the
German Siemens-Schuckert suspension carries the contact wire in
loose loops, and secures, without excessive tension in the contact wire,
on the regular line, an approximately straight motion of the current
collector. The jumping of the latter is thereby avoided.
For obtaining continuous contact at high speed, the usual single-
wire catenary suspensions require a light current collector and a
large minimum tension in the contact wire. With a drop of 140° in
the temperature of the wire, this tension, with a copper wire, is
increased about 21 000 lb. per sq. in. The deflections of the wire
produced by the wind pressure, the pressure of the current collector,
ice loads, and changes of temperature, result in another increase of
the tension, and, at the steady strains especially, in considerable bend-
ing strains. The maximum strain in the wire, therefore, exceeds the
elastic limit of the best copper wire. Since the bending strain in the
wire is inversely proportional to its least radius of curvature, it can
be reduced by making the wire bend in curves of long radius; since
the tension, with a given span, is inversely proportional to the sag, it
can be reduced by increasing the sag. This has suggested to the writer
a new method for obtaining a safely suspended wire, namely, by sus-
pending it, with a large sag, from such hangers as will make it bend
in curves of long least radius. The large sag gives a simple automatic
adjustment for changes of temperature, because the wire can shrink
on account of cold, with reduction of the sag, and without excessive
increase of its tension. By such a suspension of the contact wire
176 DISCUSSION ON CATENARY TKOLLEY CONSTRUCTION
Mr. Mayer, from a tapering steel bar, 6 ft. 7 in. long,* and by omitting the carrying
ropes and the intermediate suspenders, the tensions and bending
strains in the wire, with 120-ft. spans, can be reduced to less than one-
half the amounts resulting from catenary suspension with the same
span between the main supports. The current collector, instead of
oscillating rapidly, will then move up and down slowly in long shallow
waves. The reduction of the contact pressure, due to centrifugal
force at high speed, is then trifling and its increase moderate, and
the latter occurs under the hangers where the wire is reinforced by
them. A small static contact pressure, with reduced wear of the wire
and the current collector, becomes thereby practicable. This sus-
pension is equally suitable for trolley wheels and sliding bows, while
catenary suspensions are not well adapted to the former. With
copper wires, 220-ft. spans give a safe suspension, requiring current
collectors 7 ft. long; with phono-electric wires of the kind described by
the author, 300-f t. spans with an average sag of 3 ft., can be used safely
on tangents. The loads and wind pressures per linear foot carried
to the brackets are about one-third of those with single catenary sus-
pensions. Poles and brackets of 120-ft. catenary spans are adequate
for the 300-ft spans of the new suspension. Curves call for the same
hangers and shorter spans, but, on account of the reduced tension and
wind pressure and the consequently diminished side pull, much longer
spans than those used by the author become practicable.
Mr. Lyford states that for high-speed operation the maximum
flexibility should be maintained at all points, and that heavy weights
and hard spots should be kept out of the system wherever possible.
What is here called for is impossible and unnecessary. An accurate
definition of what is really needed is of much importance for obtaining
a good track for a high-speed current collector.
The line should be built so that the current collector will move
in curves of long least radius. With sliding-bar collectors, the vertical
curvature of the motion of the collector is alone important; with
trolley wheels its horizontal curvature must be equally considered.
The collector exerts a normal pressure on the contact wire; this should
be as uniform as possible. The centrifugal force arising from the
curved motion of the collector and of the rigidly connected parts of
its supporting frame produces an equal variation of the contact
pressure. Where the motion of the collector is convex upward, the
contact pressure is increased; where it is convex downward, it is
decreased. In the former case excessive bending strains in the wire
and large local wear of it may result; in the latter, there may be
interruption of contact and consequent sparking. The excessive curva-
ture of the motion of the collector may arise from too much flexibility
of the contact wire; it will often arise from a sudden change in
* One form of such a bar is shown in Transactions, Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. LXI, p. .31.
DISCUSSION ON CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION 177
flexibility. A weight moving in a curve produces a centrifugal force, Mr. Mayer.
C=z , vphere W is the weight, v the velocity, in feet per second,
32.2 r
and r the radius of curvature of the motion, in feet. The current
collector and parts of its rigidly-connected supporting frame do not
move in the same manner, the radius, r, being variable. The weight,
W, which produces, when moving like the contact point, the same
centrifugal force as the collector and its frame, is called the equiva-
lent weight. This equivalent weight and the radius, r, of the curva-
ture of the motion of the contact point determine the variation of the
contact pressure due to centrifugal force. The radius, r, depends
largely on the design of the overhead line, but is also influenced by
the static contact pressure and the size of the product, Wv^. An
overhead line is only safe and adequately smooth up to a certain maxi-
mum value of this product, therefore, this must be known in order
to judge as to the adequacy of the line. The value of r must be
calculated from the nature of the overhead line and the given value
of the static contact pressure and of the product, Wv^. To neglect
the calculation is to incur risk of failure, unless the safety of the
design and the smooth running of the collector can be inferred from
previous experience, similar or less favorable in all essential points.
Catenary suspensions make no satisfactory provision for harmlessly
changing the direction of the overhead line and of the motion of the
current collector. Such change is unavoidable at the main supports
and, to a larger extent, at low overhead crossings and tunnels where
the line must be lowered and raised. Sparking or excessive contact
pressure and large bending strains in the wire generally result from
high speed at these points. They are weak spots, and are rarely men-
tioned in descriptions. On the regular line the sharpest curvature of
the wire and of the motion of the collector, in the author's design,
occurs near the hangers and steady strains. In this design, the wire
has 10-ft. spans, with the ends nearly fixed in direction. If the wire
were practically hinged at the hangers and the steady strains, these
bending strains and curvatures, and the consequent risk of jumping of
the collector at high speed, would be greatly reduced. Hangers made
of flat bars, J in. thick, with proper end connections, which are used on
some lines, provide practically hinged clamps for the wire; they are
preferable, therefore, for high speeds. With a light current collector
and moderate speeds, this defect of the hangers used by Mr. Lyford
can be partly neutralized by using a larger minimum tension in the
contact wire than would otherwise be required. This will give smooth
running of the collector, but will result in larger tensions and bending
strains in the wire and larger side pull on curves. The current col-
lector raises an advancing wave in the contact wire. The wire in
front of the collector turns up and rises; in the rear, it turns back and
178 DISCUSSION ON CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
Mr. Mayer, falls. If the clamps holding the wire were light and if each was con-
nected to its hanger by a horizontal bolt, normal to the wire, passing
through a slotted hole, permitting the clamps to turn and to rise when
the collector passes, the hangers would not prevent a practically
straight motion of the collector, and chattering would be avoided with
the highest speeds and with moderate tension in the contact wire.
This remedy is impracticable at changes of vertical slope. The wire
carries a part of the wind pressure and some vertical shear to the
steady strains and is subjected to consequent bending strains. These
become large with long spans and compel the use of short spans. If
the steady strains are replaced by flexible, tapering bars holding the
wire under them, these bending strains and sharp vertical and hori-
zontal curvatures of the contact wire are reduced to small amounts,
and long spans become safe. A 0000 phono-electric wire suspended
from a steel-wire rope with a dianaeter of | in., the former with 2-ft.,
the latter with 5 ft. 6 in., maximum vertical sag, gives, with 300-ft.
spans, with proper hangers and with flexible bars for steady strains,
a safe catenary suspension for the highest speeds, suitable for sliding
bows.
The flexible bars also furnish a satisfactory means of overcoming
all difficulties arising from irregularities of the line at tunnels and
overhead crossings. Such long spans are heavy and exposed to large
wind pressure; they would have to be carried by substantial steel or
reinforced concrete posts with concrete foundations.
If a wire is hung, without carrying ropes, in straight rigid clamps,
it is bent sharp at their ends. To reduce these bends and the conse-
quent blows at high speed from the current collector, short spans and
small sags of the wire become necessary. If, instead of a rigid clamp,
a long flexible bar is used, the wire being attached all along the bar,
and the bar being of such shape that it will bend vertically and
horizontally approximately in circles, then the radius of least curva-
ture of the motion of the collector becomes very long, and long spans
with large sags can be used. Any desired change in the direction of
the wire can be made by using such bars without large bending strains
in the wire or excessive contact pressure. All irregularities in the
line, which, in most suspensions, are the most serious sources of
trouble, can be provided for satisfactorily. It can be easily shown that
the cost of construction and maintenance of safely suspending the
contact wire by such flexible hangers is only about half as much as
with safe catenary suspensions.
For a certain maximum value of the product, Wv"^, not stated by the
author, the design described by him gives, with adequate poles and
brackets, a safe and suitable suspension for curves and tangents. No
information is given for other irregularities of the line. Wherever the
value of the product, Wv-, is small enough to give smooth running of
PLATE XV.
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENQRS.
VOL. LXII, No. 1096.
HARTE ON
CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION.
K
I . liir^
tet.
i^-
DISCUSSION ON CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION 179
the current collector, Mr. Lyford's design is decidedly preferable to the Mr. May*
Siemens- Schuckert suspension, which is more complicated and more
expensive to construct and maintain. The safe value of the product,
Wv-, and, therefore, the limits of usefulness of the design have evi-
dently not been determined by the author.
In the writer's opinion, the introduction of carrying ropes and
numerous hangers to suspend the wire at short intervals in an approxi-
mately straight line is a mistake. It complicates the design, calls for
short main spans and a very strong large wire, and it produces a
rapidly oscillating and sharply curved motion of the current collector
with consequent large variations of the contact pressure. The sus-
pension, therefore, is unnecessarily expensive to construct and main-
tain. These complications were introduced to remove the sharp bend-
ing of the wire at the ends x)f the hangers. This can be more easily
and efficiently accomplished by spreading the bending uniformly over
a sufficient length of the wire. The amount of curvature at the ends
of the hangers with a given span and sag is extremely variable. It
depends on the wind pressure, the pressure of the current collector, the
ice load, and the temperature. The long transition curve at the
hangers, therefore, must also be variable, and it can only be simply
produced by connecting the wire to a long elastic bar. To make the
bar cvirve uniformly, it must have cross-sections decreasing in a suit-
able manner from the center toward the ends. Calculation shows that
a nickel-steel bar consisting of two truncated cones and a short central
cylinder, is both sufficiently strong and flexible to meet all require-
ments of high-speed operation on curves and tangents with an ample
factor of safety, and to give, at the time of maximum tension, small
bending strains in the wire. With the long spans thereby made
possible, the current collector does not lift the wire above its supports ;
it therefore diminishes its main curvature, except under the hangers.
With the frequent hangers of the catenary suspensions, the wire is
lifted above the supports, and the collector moves in short waves. To
judge the radii of curvature of the long and the short waves, it is
well to consider the heights of waves of different lengths having the
same radius of curvature. These heights are as the squares of the
lengths. Eegular waves, 300 ft. long and 48 in. high, have the same
curvature as waves 10 ft. long and 0.0533 in. high. The motion of the
collector with the suspensions here considered is in both cases a very
irregular wave motion; the above equivalent heights give, therefore,
only a roughly approximate idea of equivalent deflections of the wire
for the two kinds of suspension. An impracticable tension of the con-
tact wire would be needed to limit the height of the small waves to
the amount above given. The comparison clearly shows that a large
sag of the wire with long spans is not necessarily an obstacle to the
smooth running of the collector at high speed, and to small variation
180 DISCUSSION ON CATENARY THOI.LKY CONSTRUCTION
Mr. Mayer, of the contact pressure. It also shows that the vertical alignment of
the numerous supports of the contact wire must be very accurate to
avoid large increases in its curvature and in the variation of contact
pressure at high speed. With the long spans an error of 6 in. in
the position of a hanger produces but small additional strains in either
the wire or the hanger. The erection of the long spans, therefore,
requires little accuracy; 300-ft. spans, with phono-electric wires, re-
quire a maximum deflection of 4 ft. and a nearly corresponding varia-
tion of the height of the current collector. If this is objectionable,
200-ft. spans with 2-ft. sag can be used. With these shorter spans, a
sliding bow 4 ft. long is adequate. Heavy weights in the line are not
harmful if provision is made that they will not cause sharp curvature
of the motion of the current collector. A modification of the flexible
bar here proposed can always be adapted to achieve this end. A line
safe for high speed through its whole length becomes thereby
practicable.
The advantages of long spans between main supports are especially
conspicuous where wooden poles stuck into the ground are not con-
sidered a sufiiciently substantial and durable carrying structure. When
concrete foundations and creosoted poles are used, the first cost of the
supports is greatly increased, and the saving of half of them becomes
immediately important; and still more so where steel or reinforced
concrete poles are used. In such cases still longer spans are desirable;
362-ft. spans give an amply safe structure with a 00 galvanized-steel
contact wire. The risk of damage by derailments is greatly reduced
by the use of fewer supports. A flexible bar suspension requires only
one kind of hangers, brackets, and poles, and the number of spare parts
needed for quick repairs, therefore, is small. The small number of
supports allows the choice of substantial and durable ones without
excessive cost of the line.
Mr. Harte. Charles Eufus Harte, M. Am. Soc. C. E.— The successful opera-
tion of a number of heavy-service electrified lines, together with re-
turning financial confidence, indicate that further development in the
direction of such electrification is almost certain, and make this paper
most timely, particularly as there yet remains to be spoken the last
word on the distribution and collection of electric energy in large
quantity and at high speed.
The author's record of electrification of steam roads will apparently
bear slight correction: In view of the pioneer work of Colonel N. T,
Heft, it would seem desirable, in recording the New York, New Haven
and Hartford Railroad electrification, to note the third-rail installa-
tion between Hartford and New Britain. The electrification of the
West Shore Division of the New York Central (unless the speaker is
greatly mistaken) is 600 volts, third-rail, and not overhead trolley.
The overhead construction on an electrified line is one of the very
PLATE XVI.
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENQRS.
VOL, LXII, No, 1096.
HARTE ON
CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION.
Fig, 1. — Siemens-Halske Compound Catenary, Rotterdam-Haag-Scheveningen Line.
-CuMPoUNu Double Catenary, N, Y,, N, H. & H. R. R,, New York Division.
DISCUSSION ON CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION 181
important features, for a failure on its part is most unfortunately Mr. Hai-te.
apparent. Delays on a steam road, affecting as a rule but two or
three trains, are passed over by the public as inevitable, but a failure
of the overhead of the same line when electrified, with the consequent
paralysis of traffic in the affected section, calls down the severest
criticism, although the aggregate monthly train minutes of delay in
the latter case are almost invariably far less than for the corresponding
period under steam operation.
Not only in its general relation to the line is the overhead a critical
feature. As Mr. Lyford clearly points out, the fact that it is not
easily reached for inspection necessitates a class of work that will
stand up satisfactorily under neglect; and this is particularly true
when, as is apparently the case on the Denver and Interurban, a large
portion of the line is fed directly through the trolley. The overhead,
therefore, should be of the best, as regards both material and labor,
and should be of such a design and character that failures are reduced
to a minimum and the necessary repairs can be made with the least
possible interference with operation.
This relation to operation, too, will usually be found the controlling
factor in installation. Where the work train can have a reasonably
clear field, a derrick car is decidedly economical for pole setting, but
where there are many train movements, particularly if these are largely
freights, not on regular schedule, the cost of delays on sidings will
frequently be found to more than offset the mechanical gain. The
lay-over loss can be reduced by using the derrick merely to pick up
and place in the holes the sticks, the final setting being made with
pikes while the derrick is "bottled up," but the danger of an untamped
pole toppling toward and fouling the track makes the economy ques-
tionable.
The clearance of 8 ft. 6 in. from track center to pole face seems
scanty. Present-day steam road practice favors at least 10 ft. as
clearance distance, and this is essential to good sighting of signals,
a very common location for the latter being with mast 8 ft. from
rail, in which case the spectacle is in line with a pole set 8 ft.
6 in. from the center line. Moreover, with a pole spacing of 150 ft.,
and the poles at all near the track, there is, at high-speed operation,
the optical effect of a narrow lane to which the vision of the engineer
is restricted. The plan of pivoting the signal blades at the center
instead of at the end assists the view materially, and has been followed
on several electrifications. Aside from the question of signals, the
tendency of track gangs to shift the track bodily in lining up, particu-
larly at curves, makes it very desirable to have a little more leeway
than is given by the clearance on the Denver and Interurban.
For the installation of the catenary itself some form of work train
is of course a necessity, and it is desirable that this be at least the
183 DISCUSSION ON CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
Mr. Harte. length of the standard span. The entire span can then be installed
at one setting of the train, and on close multiple-point suspension there
is given no opportunity for the aggravating interchange of hangers of
slight difference in length. On the New York Division electrification
of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Kailroad, flat cars were
used, a series of towers being built upon them; here the hangers are
10 ft. apart. On the Midland Division electrification, where the
hangers are 50 ft. apart, single towers were largely used, an over-
hang giving access to brackets. On the Berlin-Middletown-Meriden-
Westfield simple suspension, the contractors, Messrs. Latey and Slater,
used a regular tower car where there was little traffic, but between
Middletown and Berlin, where shuttle trains kept the line hot, there
was successfully used a light tower on a grampus which could be taken
bodily off the track to pass trains. Brackets were erected by a simple
device consisting of a pipe arm carrying the hoisting tackle and
having a jaw to fit the pole, together with a galvanized-strand guy
which slipped over the top of the pole. One man could readily place
this, after which, bj the attached tackle, ground men hoisted the
heavy bracket arm and held it while it was being installed. On this
line the feeders were run out by the derrick car, a sheave at the end
of the boom delivering the heavy cable on the cross-arm very success-
fully.
As to what can be done with such methods, not much can be said
that is of any value in another case. Under favorable conditions, an
astounding amount of work can be done in one day, but the conditions
may be counted upon to be varying somewhat in degree, and are always
unfavorable.
In using a trolley wire of greater abrasive strength than copper,
the author takes a step in the right direction. Joseph Mayer, M. Am.
Soc. C. E., some time ago suggested the use of a mild-steel contact
rod,* to be fed from the copper distribution system, and the compound
catenary on the New York Division of the New Haven follows this
general plan, the intermediate messenger of copper feeding a trolley
of high resistance to abrasion and low conductivity. In the latter
installation, by hanging the contactor from points midway between
the primary hangers, using clips which grip the contactor but slide on
the messenger, there has been obtained the elasticity of the Siemens-
Schuckert compound catenary with a much simpler design. The re-
sults, apparently, are extremely satisfactory.
It is interesting to note the high tension used in the Denver trolley,
and, particularly, the very high initial stress, which closely approxi-
mates the breaking strength of 0000 copper trolley in the brazes (6 000
lb.). The speaker specifies that 0000 trolley shall be pulled to a sag of
3 in. for 100-ft. spans at 60° fahr., and on several occasions too-
* Transactions, Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. I-VII, p. 484.
PLATE XVII.
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENQRS.
VOL. LXII, No. 1096.
HARTE ON
CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION.
Fig. ].— Angle-Iron Bridge,
isYRAcusE, Lake Shore and Northern Railroad.
-Smoke Coatings on Insulators from Railroad Right of Way,
Insulator at Right Uncoated.
DISCUSSION ON CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION 183
enthusiastic line foremen have parted the trolley at a braze. This Mr. Harte.
weakness at the braze, however, acts as a safeguard to the body of the
trolley, parting before the elastic limit of the latter is reached, and
as the brazes in ordinary 0000 wire are not more than 325 ft. apart, the
cumulative resistances of the supports have little opportunity to be
large between brazes.
Theoretically, the high pulling stresses used in temperate weather
should result in extremely severe stresses in winter, but Mr. Lyford's
experience has been that of others who have pulled trolley flat in
warm weather. As long as the tangents are not extremely long or the
trolley anchors are not too rigid, the contraction stresses are very
largely absorbed by the yield of the poles.
The splicing sleeve and special dead end (Fig. 3) are doubtless ex-
cellent, but the question naturally arises: Why not one of the market
types of soldering sleeves for the first, and an eye turned in the trolley
itself for the second, rather than special material?
It is the hanger, however, which really opens up the critical ques-
tion: uniform characteristic of line. The trolley is a track as well as
an electric conductor, and as soon as car speeds exceed 30 miles per
hour the former function becomes by far the more important. Un-
questionably, the absolutely rigid conductor, if smooth, would give
ideal conditions, but, up to the present time, the successful develop-
ment has been in the direction of the flexible type.
It is a question whether the hanger shown by the author will not
by its weight cause hard spots and consequent pantagraph troubles.
There is a critical speed for any type of pantagraph and hanger spac-
ing at which chattering of the former is harmonic with the time
value of the latter. Under such conditions, the blows of the pantagraph
increase in violence until they lose step with the impulses, when they
die down, leaving the trolley kinked at each hanger. After a number
of repetitions the trolley breaks. Incidentally, on alternating-current
systems, the rapid make-and-break contact tends to set up surges of
tremendous energy.
To obviate the hardness at the hanger, there have been devised
flexible-strand hangers, hangers sliding on the messenger, clips sliding
on the hanger stem, dash-pots, and spring connections between hangers
and clips. The most satisfactory kind known to the speaker is the
compound type devised originally by the Siemens-Halske Company, of
Berlin. As built by this company, a main messenger carries from
flexible-stranded wire hangers a secondary messenger to which the trolley
wire is hung by short and frequent loops which allow the trolley to
rise without lifting the entire system, and at the same time permit
the operation of the compensators which maintain constant tension.
The New Haven's modification has screw clips rigidly connected with
the trolley and free to slide on the intermediate messenger, and relying
184 DISCUSSION ON CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
Mr. Harte. on the yield of the intermediate to give the desired flexibility, the clip
coining midway between hangers, but not rising on the intermediate
messenger.
The speaker would like to know what, if any, troubles have oc-
curred from smoke, deposits. Insulators close to railroad tracks con-
dense the locomotive exhaust, which is always more or less oily; the
wet surfaces gather carbon and other dust from the smoke, and with
the carbonizing of the oil because of current leakage there is formed a
coat unaffected by wind or water, which lessens the capacity of the
insulator very materially. Dr. Perrine, in 1904,* noted that trans-
mission lines were largely abandoning railway rights of way as loca-
tions, for this reason; and the effect upon catenary insulation, so much
closer to the source of trouble, should be, and undoubtedly is, cor-
respondingly worse. The speaker knows of one installation where a
shield has been placed beneath the insulator, but it is rather too soon
to determine with what success.
The steady brace shown is excellent of its kind, but the speaker
prefers a pull-off having a flexible strand. Such a pull-off can be at-
tached to the down-curved end of the bracket if the curve is of large
radius, but is preferably fastened to a bridle strung between the poles,
which latter must then be on the outside of the curve. It is essential,
however, that the hanger rod be sufficiently strong to stand the strain.
Certain early types of hanger were deficient in this respect, and on
sharp curves bent badly. On light curves it is undesirable to use
small sizes of wire, but the strand used for sharper curves is so heavy
that there is unpleasant sagging. Mr. Gillette, of the Washington,
Baltimore and Annapolis, has cleverly overcome this difficulty by split-
ting the i-in. seven-strand cable for 4 or 5 ft., serving the main wire
with one of the strands and leading one-half of the remaining strands
to the top of the hanger and the other half to the bottom.
The speaker would like to know why the cross-span was put in in
catenary instead of simple suspension.
The close-pole spacing on curves, to secure minimum deflection,
is much to be commended, and the point that the track is tied to place
by the poles is well taken, particularly with such scant clearance as in
this case. Not Qnly does a large deflection throw the wire well away
from the center of the pantagraph, but the inclination of the latter,
due to the curve elevation, gives a powerful horizontal thrust which
tends to push the trolley still further away, with likelihood of actual
movement off the pan.
At present the speaker knows of no entirely satisfactory substitute
for wooden poles, but developments in steel bridges and steel poles, in
connection with long spans, promise much. One of the most interesting
of the pole types is being investigated and developed, but is not quite
♦International Electrical Congress, St. Louis.
PLATE XVIII.
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENQRS.
VOL, LXII, No. 1096.
HARTE ON
CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION.
Fig. 1.— Siemens-Halske Light Steel Bridge, Rotterdam-Haag-Scheveningen Like.
Fig. 2.— Siemens-Halske Light Steel Bridge,
Blankenese-Altona-Hamburg-Ohlsdorf Line.
DISCUSSION ON CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION 185
ready to be placed on the market. Of the types actually in service, Mr. Harte.
the Archbold-Brady bridges, of the Syracuse, Lake Shore and Northern,
have proved very satisfactory. These bridges, of channel and angle
sections, carry 300-ft. spans of heavy single catenary for double tracks.
It has been stated that the cost of bridges, including concrete founda-
tions, was only $800 more per mile than standard wooden pole con-
struction. On the same line, frames made from angles back to back
were used on a viaduct. Although these were satisfactory after the
catenary was installed, the structure was very flexible before it was
tied to the messengers, and it is said that there was considerable dif-
ficulty in getting men to work on them.
Abroad, the Semenza transmission lines are carried on poles of
angles, back to back, while the Siemens-Schuckert catenary installa-
tions have had very interesting developments in the way of bridges
and bracket poles of light section. The Lancaster Branch of the Mid-
land Railroad, of England, also has a bridge which is of the same
general type. It would seem, therefore, that further development might
bring out a design of low enough cost to compete successfully with
wood, particularly in view of the high maintenance cost of the latter.
While it will be generally agreed that 24 ft. head-room under bridges
is most desirable for electrification work, the extra 2 ft. will hardly be
secured in New England without heavy expense, even in the open
country, while, in the more thickly settled portions, property damage
offers a most serious bar. By setting 24 ft., however, for the standard,
and working as nearly to this as possible, one of the serious overhead
problems will be materially simplified.
W. Iv. Archbold, Esq. — The speaker has been much interested in Mr. Archbold.
this paper, as he has had to meet problems of the same class. He
agrees with the author that a reasonable-priced substitute for wooden
poles for catenary work is desirable, and believes that steel construc-
tion can be provided at a sufficiently low cost. Catenary and trans-
mission-line work require poles of large sizes and of good quality, and
it is difficult to procure such poles in large quantities.
The cost of renewals of wooden poles is likely to be a serious
element in maintenance in the near future. The speaker is familiar
with two roads, not yet four years old, where sawed-pine poles were
used, and about half the poles have either been renewed or will
require renewal in the near future. The cost of such renewals, espe-
cially where high-tension lines are also carried, is of course high
and the work dangerous. Timber is becoming scarce, and, while chest-
nut poles seem to have longer life in the North, they are usually crooked
and are also growing scarce.
In discussing Mr. Coombs' paper,* the speaker described some
single catenary construction on bridges 300 ft. apart, on the Syracuse,
* Transactions, Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. LX, p. 547.
186 DISCUSSION ON CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
Mr. Arcbboki. Lake Shore and Northern Railroad near Syracuse, N. Y. While it is
now decided that the road is to be operated permanently by direct
current with wheel trolleys, instead of 6 600-volt, single-phase current,
as first planned, the bridges and catenary construction are to be used
for a 14-mile extension to Phoenix and Fulton. The bents on the
bridges have been lightened somewhat, the trusses remaining prac-
tically as before described.
For a comparison of cost, the speaker would call attention to Fig. 1,
Plate XIX, showing standard wooden-pole construction on double-track
road, as specified by T. H. Mather, M. Am. Soc. C. E., under whose
direction the catenary construction has also been erected. The wooden
construction is cross-span, using not less than 35 ft. 8-in. top poles,
with a standard spacing of 85 ft. on tangents.
Fig. 2, Plate XIX, shows a catenary bridge construction. Based on
item prices and records, the additional cost of the bridges and catenary
trolley over the actual cost of the standard wooden construction shown,
with ordinary trolley, is $800 per mile of double-track road.
In addition to the statement made by the speaker in discussing
Mr. Coombs' paper, it can still be said that, thus far, there has been
absolutely no difficulty from side sway on the 300-ft. spans. It was
stated at that time that there was yet doubt as to whether or not the
line would prove to be too stiif in the vertical plane. There was some
difficulty in the hot weather, and it was observed that a part of the
line on which the hangers were spaced at 20-ft. centers as an experi-
ment worked better than where they were placed at 10-ft. centers. It
was determined, therefore, to go one step further, and that the new
construction should have the hangers placed at 30-ft. centers, and
that enough hangers should be taken off the first section to give them
the same spacing. Experience proves that this is much better. Stand-
ing on the rear platform of the car, and holding the trolley rope, a
considerable chattering could be felt when the spacing was 10 ft.,
and, with a heavy car, considerable arcing could be observed at the
trolley wheel. With the 30-ft. spacing, a slight rise and fall of the
trolley wheel can be noticed by holding the rope, but there is no chat-
tering effect.
The Ohio Brass Company's insulators, sister-hooks, rods, and
Detroit clamps used on the first construction will be used on the
extension. There was a question as to whether the use of the porcelain
insulators should be continued, but as there has been no difficulty from
the breakage of these insulators, and as the composite trolley insulating
materials deteriorate in time, Mr. Mather decided to make no change
in the type of insulators, although, at the maximum, the voltage will
be 600, direct-current.
In the operation of work trains on steam railroads, the speaker's
company has found the same difficulty as described by the author.
PLATE XIX.
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENGRS.
VOL. LXII, No. 1096.
ARCHBOLD ON
CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION.
-Standard Wooden Pole Construction on Double-Track Koad.
Fig. 2.— Catenary Bridge Construction.
DISCUSSION ON CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION 187
Frequently, only from 3 to 5 hours' work a day can be obtained from Mr. Archbold.
a work train with the linemen assigned to it. The charges for con-
struction trains run from $25 to $50 per day, and the payroll of the
construction force may easily be as much more. Experience shows
that as much work as possible should be done independently of the
train. It will be necessary, of course, to deliver bridges, or poles,
and to string out the wires from trains during the day time. Where
traffic is heavy on a road, it would perhaps be economical to set the
hangers at night, and better and more economical results can be
obtained, after the wires are strung, by pulling them up with ropes
and blocks, with a team or by hand.
The use of a dynamometer in stringing wire has not seemed prac-
ticable, in the speaker's experience, and the best results have been
obtained by sighting the wires and using a sag table with proper
corrections for temperature changes. The large difference in initial
strains in pulling the messenger cable, mentioned by the author, are
not so important in the work on the bridges with 300-ft. spans, as
there are, of course, fewer points of support to make friction on the
wire, and the bridges are more stable than bracketed poles. In the
work mentioned, use was made of pulleys, which were attached to the
top chords of the bridges, and over which the messenger cables could
be run. Even with this plan, there would be some difference in
initial strains, but, of course, it would be reduced to a minimum;
and, to permit the spans, to equalize, the messenger wire should not be
tied in until the expiration of a day, or, preferably, two or three days,
after it is strung.
Theodore Varney, Esq. (by letter). — Referring to Mr. Lyford's Mr. Varney.
statements regarding the rapidity with which the construction work
was carried out on the Denver and Interurban Railroad, his final
rough estimate — $3 500 to $5 000 per mile of single-track construction
— appears to be high. This, however, as he says, is probably due
largely to interruptions and other contingencies affecting the labor
item. It would be interesting to know what the author's estimate
would be under the same conditions, providing no regular service had to
be maintained during construction, as, for instance, on a new road.
Referring to the question of sag in the messenger cable and trolley
wire, the author is undoubtedly correct in his idea of having the
trolley wire and messenger cable taut at all temperatures, but it would
seem that 2 000 lb. at 100° is tighter than necessary. The diagrams.
Figs. 7 to 10, indicate conditions which appear to be entirely prac-
ticable. In these curves the tensions in the messenger cable correspond
to the load produced by trolley and hangers. In Europe, where
automatic tension devices are used, it may be noted that a tension of
about 1 100 lb. is maintained on a wire a little less than 000 in size.
It is believed that the pole spacings are rather closer than are
188
DISCUSSION ON CATENAUY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
Mr. Varney.
4000 40 000
MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SINGLE CATENARY LINE CONSTRUCTION
-10 10 20 30 JO 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Teuipeiuture of Wire, in degrees, Fahrenheit.
DISCUSSION ON CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
189
Mr. Varney.
MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS
SINGLE CATENARY LINE CONSTRUCTION
â– 20 -10 10 20 30 40 50 CO 70 80 90 100 110 120
Temperature ofWire, In degrees, Fahrenheit.
1000^
â– v4oo(
TOTAL WEI
OC
GHT F
00 TROLLEY.
'ER FOOT OF SPAN =
1.13 LB.
3000
T 30 000 ^~~<
-v^
â–
^00.
1
rr, 25 000
-^
2^5^^^
k
2000
« 20 000
^5
Vs/„
T^
-:^
^^
1500
1
S. 15 000 jie Jecger
Deflect
^i
Si^
~^
J^
^
e=3
icA
-^
\
â– ^"^^
^
1000
g" 10 000
500
S 5 000
~^
^^
It
,uey_^
.fttctio
^
^^
i
.....
-\.
-20 -iO :0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Temiierature of Wire, in degrees, Fahrenheit.
Figs. 9 akd 10.
190 DISCUSSION ON CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
Vaniey. actually required to keep the wire on the pantagraph contact. In the
case of a new road, it is undoubtedly best to limit the "stagger" at
first until the roadbed has settled, but afterward more deviation than
that given in Table 1 is believed to be safe, and will result in longer
life to the shoes. It would be interesting to know the length of life
of a pantagraph shoe on the Denver and Interurban Railroad. Devia-
tions of at least 7 or 8 in. on each side of the center should be safe
for a shoe 4 ft. long on the flat portion.
The question of grounding the bracket arms is one which is
deserving of careful consideration. In cases of roads with two or
more tracks; where the lines may be broken into comparatively short
sections; where the traffic may be diverted to other tracks, while one
is tied up for repairs; and, especially, where the necessity for great
stability and long spans demands steel supporting structures, a
grounded support for the insulator is not objectionable. In these
cases, however, automatic devices should be used in order to isolate
the grounded section and not tie up the entire system when an
insulator breaks. The case is different, however, for a single-track
road without automatic sectionalizing devices and with little attend-
ance. Broken insulators are now being replaced on some roads, with
6 600 volts on the line.
It is believed that it would pay to investigate methods of impreg-
nating wood poles in order to make them weather-proof and also fairly
good insulators. In every pole 20 ft. of good insulation is being
wasted, and this, in case of a broken insulator, should suffice to keep
the road operating until the insulator can be replaced,
ir. Cole. George N. Cole, Assoc. Am. See. C. E. (by letter). — It is very
evident from this paper that one of the main objects in the care used
in the erection of trolley lines is to obtain a perfectly level trolley,
eliminating sag and swaying.
By eliminating sag a smooth-running pantagraph at high speeds
is obtained, and, to eliminate this sag, frequent trolley hangers are
necessary. Reference has been made to the fact that at certain speeds
a considerable vibration is set up in the pantagraph which causes it to
hammer the wire with considerable force, and Mr. Harte mentions a
trolley wire which was badly bent at its support from this very cause.
It is evident that this vibration is induced when the rate of passing
the trolley hangers is the same as the rate of vibration of the panta-
graph and its springs, or some multiple or harmonic of it.
Since, from its present construction, the pantagraph has inevitably
a rate of vibration, it occurs to the writer that vibration of the panta-
graph would never be started if the trolley hangers, from the messenger
wire to the trolley wire, were placed so that no regular rate of passing
them would ever occur.
This can readily be accomplished by spacing these trolley hangers
DISCUSSION ON CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION 191
at such irregular intervals that they will fail to pass the pantagraphMr. Cole,
in a rhythmic manner or set up a beat in it.
Care should be taken that this variation in spacing is not made
a fixed or regular variation, or a higher vibration might be set up in
what one might call an overtone, and give rise to an objectionable hum,
or worse.
W. S. Murray, Esq.* (by letter). — This paper has naturally brought Mr. Murray,
to the writer's mind the allied features common to the New Haven
electrification. It is, of course, to be noted that there is a wide dis-
similarity between the form of construction adopted on the New
Haven system and that described by the author. Both, however, are
tied to a common factor, namely, the frequency, phase, and voltage,
and although, even here, certain detailed electrical operating condi-
tions are not entirely similar, the closeness of the relation may make
valuable the citation of some experiences on the New Haven system.
The writer approves heartily of the methods relative to construction
in the field, so well described in this paper. Doubtless Mr. Lyford has
found out that the work train is the "heart-wringer" of the operating
department. It requires the highest order of intelligence to control
its movements, and the labor in connection with it is paramount. It
is most important that the work-train organization be of a character
to insure the maximum possible number of work-minutes during the
day and the least number of minutes of interference with the revenue
train schedule; the roster of each man's time must be laid out by
previous schedule, and not arranged on an ex-tempo basis in the field.
In reviewing the time rates Mr. Lyford has mentioned, concerning the
erection of poles and brackets, it would seem that just such a perfec-
tion of work-train schedule had been secured. The cost of labor can
jump in factors of two, three and, indeed, as high as four times the
minimum if every care is not exercised in the outlay of the time and
the location of the work-train service. Again, emphasis should be
placed on the necessity of the contractor remembering that the train
despatcher can be either his best friend or his worst enemy, and, if the
latter, he can easily be forgiven, as there is nothing that makes such
havoc in a railroad schedule as a work train.
Mr. Lyford's summation of the several railroad companies who have
trains under electrical operation or have framed definite plana for their
operation by electricity is of great interest, and the fact that, out
of the number mentioned, 50% have chosen single-phase electrification
proves the directional tendency of the new art. Many have already
grown gray-haired over the period in which car or train propulsion has
been obtained by the direct current, and, indeed, all may be proud of
the splendid achievement and the degree of perfection secured in this
form of electric propulsion. As a matter of fact, its very limita-
* Electrical Engineer, New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad.
192 DISCUSSION ON CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
Mr. Murray, tions have been the cause of its perfection, and in the new art may-
be seen this high notch of direct-current perfection, the starting point
for greater attainments to be secured in the application of single-
phase traction.
There is no little pleasure in the realization ot a prophecy the
writer felt so sure would be fulfilled, namely, the approval by the
Public Service Commission of the high-tension wires erected on the
right of way of the New York Central Company within the limits of
the City of New York. In the recent decision of Commissioner Eustis
may be found a just and careful reasoning. The greatest argument
against the use of high-tension wires within city limits is prejudice.
Analyze prejudice and invariably the fibers of its structure disintegrate.
Officials who are above prejudice, and judge a situation absolutely on
its merits, must be constrained to decisions in which the public and
the railroad company's interests are fairly equated. It is no strain
of conscience or discernment to realize that frequently the railroad's
interest is the public's interest.
The writer fears that he is deviating slightly from a discussion of
this paper, and yet Mr. Lyford says:
"The principal merit in the single-phase system lies in the ability
to operate at high voltage with a single overhead conductor, and^
therefore, to transmit power long distances with a minimum number
of sub-stations and a minimum quantity of copper. These arguments-
apply particularly to trunk-line operations, and this system, therefore,
appeals especially to the managers and engineers of large railroads."
Concerning the use of phono-electric trolley wire versus hard-drawn
copper, the writer cannot quite agree with Mr. Lyford in the reason-
ing by which he arrives at the unimportance of its low conductivity,
in virtue of the higher resistance of the steel rail to the path of the
current; the writer would rather be led to the necessity of keeping out
any further extra resistance. It is quite true that, by the introduction
of this higher rail resistance, the percentage of drop in the overhead
wire to the total circuit drop is less, but it is the total and not this
percentage which is of the greater importance. However, notwith-
standing this reasoning to the contrary, between the two wires, the
writer is in favor of the choice made by Mr. Lyford in the use of the
phono as a contact wire (conductivity being supplied by other means),
for, as such, experience indicates that, though always higher in cost
per pound, it is not only cheaper than copper, as its life is more than
twice as long, but its reliability and resistance to fracture is also one
of its marked advantages.
To return to the form of construction described by the author, its
successful operation is dependent entirely on the speeds to be made.
If such speeds as have obtained on the New Haven tracks are to-
be negotiated on Mr. Lyford's line, the writer would prefer the form:
DISCUSSION ON CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION 193
of suspension the New Haven road has recently adopted. It is un- Mr. Murray.
questionably more expensive than the type described by Mr. Lyf ord, but
it fulfills one of the requirements laid down by him under "sufficiency,"
with which the writer is in full accord, namely:
"High-voltage catenary work cannot receive the close daily inspec-
tion of the track-walker, and, because this is so, there is the greatest
necessity for thoroughness and permanence in the construction."
There is a perfect analogy between a catenary form of overhead
trolley construction and a regular highway suspension bridge. If a
highway bridge of the suspension type is to be built, the engineer first
asks what is to be its traffic density; how many car tracks are to be
laid on it; how many wagons are to be permitted to pass; what load
is to be concentrated at any point; in short, what is to be the com-
mercial duty of the bridge? Having obtained this information, he
then designs the cables and general members of the bridge, and finally
the floor, the latter usually being cheap and quickly and easily replaced.
The electrical engineer likewise wants to know something about the
traffic on his bridge. He will certainly want to know what the current
density is to be, and, with this information, he must design sufficiently
strong cables to hold up his copper conductors and take care of the
current traffic; and, finally, why should he not design the floor of his
bridge, namely, the cheap easily replaceable iron wire? Can it not be
agreed that electrical engineers have been making the mistake of
running on the membe^-s instead of the floors of their bridges, and thus
slowly, but surely, decreasing the (current) traffic capacity of their
structures? If the engineers of the highway suspension bridges were
to run on the members of their structures, the bridge would soon fail ;
thus, by the use of the auxiliary wire, one approaches, if he does not
reach, a state of the electrical art which has for its guarantor many
years of mechanical experience.
The relative life of phono versus steel wire is one of the most ab-
sorbingly interesting details, and later the writer hopes to be able to
offer some statistics which may be valuable to those engaged in elec-
trification. There is no more important link in the distributing system
than the contact wire. Next to the traffic rails, it is the most abused
piece of metal exposed, and it deserves a high order of consideration.
The writer agrees most heartily and earnestly with the author in his
statement that hard spots in the catenary construction should be
eliminated. Indeed, they make inoperative a high-speed line, and,
considering the hard spots individually, the writer would name, in the
order of their degree of menace to high-speed operation, deflectors,
section breaks, and hangers. Engineers have eliminated the hard spots
due to the hanger, and are studying how to eliminate the others. It is
a happy provision that the two latter are comparatively few as com-
pared to the first named. The writer has every reason to believe that
194 DISCUSSION ON CATJiNARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
Mr. Murray, the Same success obtained in cushioning the hard spots, due to hangers,
can be secured in the proper design of steady strains, deflectors and
section breaks. In any one of these classes of construction an ad-
herence to the general form of line construction should be followed.
It is pleasing to note Mr. Lyford's choice of 4 or 5 miles as section-
alizing distances. Actual operation has proved the advantage of this
distance, and, although originally sections averaged IJ miles in length,
in some instances, this distance is now increased to the figures above
named.
It is interesting to note the figures, mentioned by Mr. Lyford, cov-
ering single-phase electrification; the writer is able to vouch for their
conservativeness. The careful record of expenditures made, to date,
upon a four-track electrification has presented a distribution of costs
most interesting to study. The entirely successful experience under-
gone in the past year with the cross-catenary form of construction in
the East Portchester yard, where as many as ten tracks are spanned,
strengthens the writer's previous belief that in the future this form of
construction will have excellent application to roads having four or
more tracks, upon which occasion he believes the cost of electrification
per single track will be considerably below the figures named by Mr.
Lyford.
Mr. Coombs. E. D. CfooMBS, M. Am. Soc. C. E. — In connection with the detail of
the trolley splicing sleeve shown by Mr. Lyford, the following tests
recently made during the installation of the experimental line of the
Pennsylvania Terminal and Tunnel Railroad on Long Island, may be
of interest.
TROLLEY WIRE SPLICE GROOVED 0000 COPPER
L tk" ^^—~3^' >i< tu" i
^ 1 r I'o" -y-t ^>; '^s l^j^'J
Make of l"x l" RoUert Cra.ss,aad,after drilling, ' '
luachine to UinKntiont? showu
Fig. n.
On account of the small vertical distance between the secondary
messenger and the trolley wire, a compact splice was required, and four
samples were made and tested.
The first sample was identical with that shown in Fig. 3 ; the second
was like the first, except that the bottom surface was rounded; the
third and fourth were as shown in Fig. 11. It was the intention to
solder short lengths of 0000 grooved trolley wire in each sleeve and
then test them to destruction in a tension machine. On attempting to
solder the first and second samples, the material cracked along the
DISCUSSION ON CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION 195
middle of the bottom surface for a distance of about 6 in. from the Mr. Coombs,
end. The tliird and fourth samples were soldered without difficulty,
using 0000 hard-drawn grooved copper wire for the former and 0000
medium-steel grooved wire for the latter.
No. 1. — Cracked in soldering.
No. 2. — Cracked in soldering.
No. 3.— 0000 copper, 7 630 lb. ultimate strength, 46 000 lb. per sq. in.
No. 4.— 0000 steel, 11 630 lb. ultimate strength, 72 000 lb. per sq. in
In both instances failure occurred in the trolley wire outside of the
splice. Two additional pieces of the wires used were tested and gave
substantially the same results, showing that no injury was done to the
wire in soldering.
By planing off the upper corners, as shown in Fig. 11, the speaker
attempted to lessen the weight of the splice and obtain if possible some
slight elasticity at the ends of the sleeve. It would appear, from these
tests, that the removal of this unnecessary material tended to prevent
unequal contraction and cracking.
As stated by Mr. Lyford, intelligence and experience are needed
in the design of overhead material, and the cost of time spent in
developing workmanlike designs will be saved over and over again in
the field. Not only the simplicity of each aerial erecting operation,
but also the number of operations, must be considered. Assuming that
a given catenary detail is mechanically able to perform its function,
that it will not interfere with the desired elasticity of the line, and
that it induces a minimum of aerial work, it will still be undesirable
unless free from wear and corrosion.
This question of maintenance deserves more careful consideration.
On lines of little traffic repairs may be possible at a reasonable cost, but
it is not believed that the average operating department would view
with composure the need for much work-train service on a busy line.
The life of galvanized material exposed to the elements or to loco-
motive gases, or to both, is a subject upon which there is great
difference of opinion among engineers. If it is a fact that galvanized
material cannot withstand the atmosphere of the coke regions for even
a short period, there would appear to be urgent need of tests before
gnlvanizing alone, or in conjunction with a carbon deposit from the
locomotive exhaust, is accepted as sufficient protection. Further, the
value of the usual tests of galvanized material is open to some sus-
picion, if the application of a minute quantity of grease will enable
a rejected sample to pass the test.
The speaker is of the opinion that longer spans and fewer supports
are desirable. As stated in a previous paper,* the multiplication of
posts near the tracks is objectionable in appearance, increases the risk
* Transactions, Am. See. C. E., Vol. LX, p. 505.
li)G DISCUSSION OX CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
Mr. Coombs, from derailments, interferes with the view of signals, and is subject
to considerable discussion as a measure of economy.
Theoretically, as the cost of the material between the supports is
relatively low, much longer spans would be economical. The principal
objection to long spans is founded upon the possibility of lateral dis-
placement by wind. This is undoubtedly possible, but, in the speaker's
opinion, it has been given undue importance in various designs; in
fact, he believes that even the 300-ft. spans recently installed on two
roads in the United States might have been increased with advantage.
Mr. Lyford. OLIVER S. Lyford, Jr., M. Am. Soc. C. E. (by letter). — The writer
wishes to express his appreciation of the valuable contributions made
in the discussion.
Referring to Mr. Ilarte's remarks, the writer regrets the oversight
in not mentioning the notable pioneer work of Colonel Heft in the
third-rail installation between Hartford and New Britain.
The methods of overhead construction described by Mr. Harte
are significant as indicating how the construction problem must be
studied in advance of the selection of methods.
Answering the inquiry regarding soldering sleeves : There was
no sleeve on the market which was as strong as the wire and would
not weaken the wire at the point of entry. The objection to an eye
turned in the trolley wire is similar; bending the wire on a short
radius materially reduces its strength. The sleeve described was the
best expedient suggested in the emergency. Mr. Coombs relates ex-
perience with trolley sleeves, of the pattern described in the paper,
which cracked when being soldered. There were no such experiences
reported on the Denver and Interurban work, and this trouble with the
untapered sleeves was probably due to flaws in the drawn bar from
which the sleeves were made. This is not an infrequent occurrence
with drawn material, selected at random, and subjected to transverse
internal strains.
The rigid hanger construction is probably limited to service where
the speeds are not more than 60 miles per hour, and to construction
with close pole spacing, that is, not greater than 120 ft. If the trolley
wire is hung properly and does not stretch badly, pantagraphs used in
connection with such construction will have a life of from 12 000 to
20 000 miles, and the wear of the wire is slight. The following letter
from Mr. R. C. Thurston, Electrical Supervisor of the Rochester
Division of the Erie Railroad, is quoted :
"Erie Railroad Company.
"Avon, Sept. 21, 1908.
"Mr. O. S. Lyford, Jr., New York.
"My dear Mr. Lyford:
"Replying to your letter of Sept. 16th, will say that about Aug. 16th
I measured the trolley wire on both ends of the line with the following
result :
DISCUSSION ON CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION 197
"New wire measures 0.438 in. from top to bottom, or wearing Mr. Lyford.
surface; on the Rochester end the wire at the date mentioned above
measured 0.434 in., or an approximate wear of 0.004 in. at this point
since going into operation, and represents the wear of 7 440 cars. On
the Mt. Morris end the wire now measures 0.429 in. or a wear of
0.009 in., "and represents the wear of 10 230 cars. You will probably
ask if the wear is greater in low spots (as going under bridges) than
at standard (22 ft.) height. I could not detect any difference. I might
add that in spots the dimensions are less, owing to the fact that in
these cases the trolley clamps are not square with the wire, which made
a 'kink' and caused the pantagraph to hit harder than usual.
"Regarding the wear of the pantagraph shoes, will say that about
15 000 miles is the life of them; they are made of 3/32-in. steel.
"Yours truly,
"R. C. Thurston."
The line referred to is approximately 34 miles along. The number
of cars passing one point daily on the Rochester end is 16, and on
the Mt. Morris end 22. These cars are geared for 55 miles per hour.
The trolley wire is 000 hard-drawn copper; possible wear, before strik-
ing hanger clamps, 19 in.; life of wire subject to normal wear, on this
basis, 20 to 30 years. The wear at certain points is no doubt greater
than this, and renewals in spots will be necessary in much shorter time.
Increase in the service will naturally decrease the life of the wire pro-
portionally. It is believed that the harder and stronger material used
on the Denver and Interurban will make a much better showing than
the hard-drawn copper^
The smoke troubles on the Erie have been very slight. The same
line insulator is used as on the Denver and Interurban, and the design
seems to be suitable to resist the deleterious action of a moderate
amount of steam locomotive gases.
In answer to Mr. Harte's question, the cross-catenary span con-
struction was used, instead of simple suspension, in order that in-
sulators and pins of the same type as on bracket construction could be
used. The pull-oflfs are also provided without special work.
Mr. Varney's comment, that the figures quoted by the writer for
cost per mile of catenary construction appear to be high, is probably
due to the fact that he views these matters fiom the standpoint of the
contractor rather than that of the railroad. In such work there are
many items of cost which the railroad has to take into account, but
which the contractor for the catenary work does not share; that is,
greater or less changes in road construction are necessary, connections
to the power-station have to be made, etc. The limits given are be-
lieved to be as close as practicable for a general case such as described
under the heading of "Cost."
Mr. Varney's sag tables, as the writer understands them, give the
characteristics of a line after it is erected, but give no indication of
how a line could be erected to match the curves. The curves given in
198 DISCUSSION ON CATENARY TROLLEY CONSTRUCTION
Mr. Lyford. the paper are in reality a set of instructions for erecting the messenger
and trolley wire, and do not give the strains expected after the line is
completed.
Comment is made that a minimum strain of 2 000 lb. appears to be
high, but such information as has reached the writer from other roads
indicates that where the trolley wire, supported with rigid hangers, has
been strained with low tension, it has usually been necessary to pull
out the slack before the pantagraph would ride smoothly on the wire.
Concerning Mr. Murray's comments regarding the importance of
low conductivity, some additional figures will perhaps clarify the state-
ments made in the paper.
Under the probable condition of peak loads on the Denver and
Interurban, the calculated voltage drop in the trolley and tracks with
000 hard-drawn copper wire is 690 volts, and with phono-electric wire
960 volts. The delivered voltage being 11 000, the drop in trolley and
tracts, expressed in terms of the delivered voltage, is increased from
6.27% to 8.73% by the use of the alloyed metal.
In this high-voltage system the drops experienced in an overhead
structure, the elements of which are selected for mechanical sufficiency,
are much less than those commonly experienced in low-voltage, direct-
current systems. This means better speed characteristics on the sec-
tions at a distance from the power or sub-station.
One other advantage anticipated from the use of a metal harder and
stronger than copper for the contact wire is that it will not stretch
as pure copper does. It seems probable that copper wire will continue
to stretch and the slack must be pulled out periodically.
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS
INSTITUTED 1852
TRANSACTIONS
Paper No. 1097
THE HYDRO-ELECTRIC DEVELOPMENT AND
TRANSMISSION LINES OF THE CANADIAN
NIAGARA POWER COMPANY.*
By a. H. Van Cleve, M. Am. Soc. C. E.
With Discussion by Messrs. John C. Parker^ William J. Boucher,
AND A. H. Van Cleve.
History and General Scope op the Development.
As soon as the hydro-electric development of The Niagara Falls
Power Company, at Niagara Falls, N. Y., was fairly under construc-
tion, the attention of capitalists was attracted to the water-power
possibilities of the Canadian side of the Niagara River. The condi-
tions for development there differed materially from those on the
American side, owing to the fact that all the land adjoining the
Horseshoe, or Canadian, Falls was and is owned by the Province of
Ontario, being reserved as a public park and administered by a Park
Commission. As is evident by an inspection of Fig. 1, the Queen Victoria
Niagara Falls Park embraced all the most desirable sites for power-
plants, and, as the entire lower bank of the gorge from the Falls to a
point near Lake Ontario was included in the Park Reserve, it was
evident that a hydro-electric development could take place only by
arrangement with the Park Commissioners.
* Presented at the meeting of October 21st, 1908.
200 THE CANADIAN NIAGARA POWER PLANT
Accordingly, on April 7th, 1892, an agreement was entered into
between Messrs. Albert D. Shaw, Francis Lynde Stetson, and William
B. Rankine (representing a company thereafter to be incorporated),
and the Commissioners for the Queen Victoria Niagara Falls Park,
granting exclusive rights for taking and using the waters of the
Niagara River within the limits of the Park, excepting as certain
minor grants had previously been made. The agreement provided for
the payment of certain rentals, which increased from year to year and
were independent of the amount of power developed.
In view of the present state of the art, it is interesting to note that
the company was granted the right to generate and transmit pneumatic
power as well as electricity, thus showing that, in the minds of the
incorporators, at least, the success of the generation and transmission
of electric power was not so assured as to dispense with a provision for
other forms of power.
The agreement further provided that, on or before November 1st,
1898, the company should complete water connections for the develop-
ment of 25 000 h. p., and should at that date have ready for use and
transmission 10 000 h. p. The agreement with the Park Commissioners
was ratified by the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Ontario
on April 14th, 1892. The company formed to carry on the power
development was known as the Canadian Niagara Power Company.
By reference to Fig. 1 it will be seen that there was a body of
water separated from the rapids above the Falls by Cedar Island.
In the original plans it was proposed to deepen this natural channel
and to connect it with the river by a wide mouth at the upper end of
Cedar Island. Such canal was to supply water to three successive
developments of 50 000 h. p. each, two tunnels being provided for dis-
charging the water north of the Horseshoe Falls. There were numer-
ous engineering objections to the plan proposed, and it is, indeed,
doubtful whether a plant thus located could have been operated suc-
cessfully during adverse ice conditions. In locating and designing a
power-plant in a beautiful park, EEsthetic, as well as engineering,
conditions must be conformed to, and such conditions affected not
only the site originally selected but also that finally adopted, the
question of harmony with the surroundings being ever present in the
minds of the designers.
No construction took place at the point described. Many of the
PLATE XX.
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENQRS.
VOL. LXII, No. 1097.
VAN CLEVE ON
THE CANADIAN NIAGARA POWER PLANT.
Fig. ].— Potiing Puddle in Coffer- Dam.
Fig. 2.— Method' of Removing Coffer-Dam.
THE CANADIAN NIAGARA POWER PLANT
201
202 THE CANADIAN NIAGARA POWER PLANT
capitalists were interested both in the Canadian Niagara Power Com-
pany and in The Niagara Falls Power Company, and, during the
years from 1890 to 1900, the latter company was working out many
novel problems in hydro-electric development, and it was desired that
the Canadian company should take advantage of all the experience to
be gained in the design and operation of the American plant.
The period referred to in the original grant thus elapsed with only
a nominal amount of work being done, and, on July 15th, 1899, a
supplemental agreement was entered into between the Canadian Niagara
Power Company and the Park Commissioners which rescinded that
clause of the former agreement which made the company's rights for
the use of water a practically exclusive one, made the rental partially
dependent upon the amount of power generated, and extended the
time for the completion of the first development to July 1st, 1903.
The time at which the company was to have ready for use, supply,
and transmission 20 000 h. p. was afterward extended by agreements
and legislative enactments to January 1st, 1905, and the requirements
were complied with at that date.
The agreement of July 15th, 1899, provided in detail that not
only the designs of the works of the company but also the manner
of their construction should be subject to the approval of the Park
Commissioners, and the document was accompanied by the map shown
on Fig. 2, indicating the point at which the first development was to
take place, as well as the general character of its design.
It will be noted that the works have been moved up the river
from the site originally selected. The length of the discharge tunnel
was thus increased, but the form and location of the inlet canal
were better suited to meet ice conditions. But small saving could
have been effected by utilizing the natural watercourse, as it was shal-
low. It is evident that the ideal location for the power-house was on
the shore of the river opposite its present position, but objections were
made to such a site on the ground that a building at that point would
interfere with the view of the rapids.
The plan shown on Fig. 2 contemplates an ultimate development of
100 000 e. h. p. by twenty units of 5 000 e. h. p. each, with two spare
machines. This plan was one of the general drawings accompanying
the agreement of July 15th, 1899, previously referred to. Thus far
in the course of the design, units of a capacity greater than 5 000
PLATE XXI.
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENGRS.
VOL. LXII, No. 1097.
VAN CLEVE ON
THE CANADIAN NIAGARA POWER PLANT.
Fig. 1.— Outer Ice Rack.
fit
Fig. 2.— Submerged Arches Uneer Forebay Wall.
THE CANADIAN NIAGARA POWER PLANT
203
e. h. p. had not been contemplated, but the state of the art had advanced
sufficiently so that in 1901 inquiries submitted to manufacturers of
both hydraulic and electrical machinery elicited favorable replies as
to their ability to design and furnish machinery for units of 10 000
SECTION OF CANAL AND POWER-HOUSE ON LINE C-D
Scale <.f Fei-t
CANAL AND POWER-HOUSE.
DEVELOPMENT OF 15000 H.P. WITH WATER
CONNECTIONS FOR 25000 H.P. AND PROVISION FOR
EXTENSION FOR DEVELOPMENT OF 100000 H.P.
e. h. p. The larger unit was adopted for the final design, the following
being among its advantages:
(a) — Somewhat lower cost of hydraulic machinery per horse-
power developed;
(6) — Materially lower cost of electrical machinery per electric
horse-power developed;
(c) — Decreased length of canal, wheel-pit, and power-house,
thus effecting a large economy in the cost of excavation
and masonry;
204
THE CANADIAN NIAGARA POWER PLANT
(d) — Opportunity for increased development within the area
in the Park assigned to the Canadian Niagara Power
Company ;
(e) — Convenience and economy of operation due to the reduc-
tion in number of units, it being remembered that the
bus-bars of the plant under consideration were to be
connected with those in the power-houses of The
Niagara Falls Power Company, where 5 000-e. h. p.
units were available to subdivide the 'load.
The increase in the size of the units, of course, resulted in changes
in the entire design of the plant, and on Fig. 3 is shown the general
arrangement finally adopted.
At the time of the agreement of July 15th, 1899, it was the inten-
tion to provide water connections for 25 000 h. p. only, and to excavate
a wheel-pit for only five units of 5 000 e. h. p. Before any contracts
were let, it was decided to make water connections for 50 000 h. p. and
to excavate a wheel-pit 250 ft. long, two units of 10 000 e. h. p. to be
installed. Finally, on February 2d, 1903, a contract was let for the
completion of the canal and wheel-pit to their full capacity. The
plant, as now constructed, consists of a canal, wheel-pit, and tunnel
having a designed capacity of 100 000 e. h. p., an installation of five
PLATE XXII.
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENGRS.
VOL. LXII, No. 1097.
VAN CLEVE ON
THE CANADIAN NIAGARA POWER PLANT.
Fig. 1 —South End of VViieel-Pit Under Oon.striction.
Fig. 2.— Tunnel Portal, Under Construction.
THE CANADIAN NIAGARA VOWEll PLANT 205
units, each having a nominal capacity of 10 000 e. h. p., and a power-
house sufficiently large to enclose them.
Having given the foregoing introductory remarks in regard to
the history and general scope of the development, the writer will now
describe the more important features of the several parts of the plant.
Coi'Fer-Dam and Canal.
In order to obtain a sufficient depth of water at the entrance to
the canal, it was evident that a portion of the river bottom would
have to be unwatered, that the necessary excavation might proceed.
It was a perilous matter to obtain in the rapids the soundings which
were requisite for a determination of the limits within which such
excavation was necessary, but, after several narrow escapes in the
turbulent current leading to the Horseshoe Falls, the necessary
soundings were obtained and a coffer-dam was constructed to enclose the
desired area, a depth of 15 ft. of water being secured where possible.
The coffer-dam consisted of two rows of rock-filled cribs with a puddle
space between, additional tightness being secured by double sheeting
and; a concrete toe on the inside. Fig. 1, Plate XX, shows the
coffer-dam at the stage when the puddle was being placed, and, as
shown in this photograph, the turbulence of the water gives an idea
of the difficulties encountered in its construction.
The removal of the coffer-dam proved almost as difficult a problem
as its construction. The progress made by the contractor was so
slow' that, in view of the necessity of operating the plant, the engi-
neers had to assume control of this work. The method finally adopted
is illustrated in Fig. 2, Plate XX. The rock was removed to the
water line by hand, the puddle was dredged by an orange-peel bucket
attached to a Brown hoist, and the turnbuckles uniting the cribs were
blown apart by dynamite. The upper timbers were removed, the cribs
were racked by light charges, pulled apart by the heavy traveling der-
rick shown at the left, and the remaining material was dredged with
the extra heavy orange-peel bucket. Soundings determined when the
original surface was uncovered. Unusually severe winter weather added
materially to the difficulty of the work.
Fig. 3 shows the form and dimensions of the finished canal
and its relation to other parts of the plant. The water areas are
selected so that, when 100 000 h. p. is being generated, the average
206 THE CANADIAN NIAGARA POWER PLANT
velocity, with the water at low stage, will be 2.7 ft. per sec. at the
entrance, 3 ft. per sec. under the bridge, and 2.35 ft. per sec. through
the submerged arches separating the forebay from the main canal.
Bridges were necessary to carry a driveway and a double-track
electric line across the canal and ice sluiceway. Occupying a promi-
nent position in the Park, it was desirable that the bridges should
present a pleasing appearance, and reinforced concrete arches faced
with limestone were adopted, there being five spans of 60 ft. each at
the canal crossing. No special difficulties were encountered in the
construction of this bridge, and, notwithstanding the small ratio of rise
to span (1:10), the settlement was negligible.
The position of the plant below the principal cascades of the river
makes the ice conditions difficult, as the Niagara River carries large
quantities of ice during the greater part of the winter. Normally, the
most of it passes close to the northerly side of the river, but when the
wind is easterly and northerly large quantities are carried to the
Canadian side, and, in its progress down the rapids, is finely broken
and, by the turbulence of the water, is carried to a great depth below
the surface. Under certain conditions true frazil is abundant, but is
far more prevalent on the American than on the Canadian side. The
plant is protected against ice in the following manner:
(a) — ^By a rack of 2-in. inclined bars, spaced 12 in. apart, connected
with a steel framework carried by the masonry piers at the entrance
to the canal, such piers being shown at the bottom of Fig. 1, Plate XXT.
This rack extends 4J ft. below the normal water surface, and was origi-
nally intended to ward off only large cakes of ice. For the purpose of
keeping out fine ice, steel plates were afterward attached to the rack,
and, although only partly successful in accomplishing their purpose,
produced an unlooked-for result. The water outside of the rack is in a
state of violent disturbance, the waves being about 5 ft. in height.
Before the attachment of the plates, the rise and fall of the water
surface inside the rack was the same as that outside, but the plates
naturally produced a stilling effect and the river surface was alter-
nately higher and lower than that in the canal. This alternation of
relative levels had the effect of a constantly recurring series of blows
upon the piers to which the rack is attached. Although the several
courses of masonry were connected with two IJ-in. rods, these were
in some cases broken, and the upper portion of the piers tilted outward.
THE CANADIAN NIAGARA POWER PLANT 307
It has become necessary to strengthen the piers by the addition of
two 2-in. rods carried from the top into the ledge rock 2 ft. below the
canal bottom. Fig. 1, Plate XXI, clearly shows the rack as origi-
nally constructed and the bridge previously referred to. Afterward,
a railing and electric light, poles were added to the footwalk.
(&) — The outer wall of the forebay superstructure rests on a wall
of first-class masonry containing a series of arched openings 19 ft.
9 in. wide, the crown of each arch being 2.1 ft. below low water or
4,8 ft. below mean water. Two openings are provided for each unit.
The edges of the openings are rounded, and their sides are smooth-
pointed. Fig. 2, Plate XXI, a photograph taken near the close
of the construction period, shows the character of the masonry arches
and their relation to the power-house and forebay. This arrangement
of submerged openings effectually prevents the entrance into the fore-
bay of floating ice and such other floating material as may find its
way into the canal.
(c) — It was evident that some means must be provided for removing
from the canal such finely-divided ice as might pass the outer rack,
as otherwise it would accumulate in the canal and, by adhesion to the
underside of the surface ice, reduce the water area materially. If
allowed to accumulate to a depth below the tops of the arches, it would
be carried into the forebay. The construction of a shaft connecting
with the outlet tunnel would have been expensive, and to have dis-
posed of the ice in this way would have reduced the tunnel area avail-
able for discharge water from the turbines and would have introduced
serious cross-currents in the tunnel. Fortunately, the rapid descent
of the river below the mouth of the canal enabled a discharge channel
to be built, as shown on Fig. 3. A difference of level of about
2 ft. is thus obtained between the surface of the water in the sluiceway
and that in the canal. The sluiceway has a width of 16 ft. and a depth
of water of about 10 ft. It is separated from the canal by masonry
weirs, the tops of which are 2.2 ft. below low water. A further separa-
tion is effected by steel gates sliding in cast-iron grooves, as shown on
Fig. 4. Two openings, each 16 ft. in width, provide for the flow of
ice from the canal, while a third gate of similar construction allows
the escape of any material which may enter the forebay. The gates
are operated by hand-power, although provision is made for the attach-
ment of motors.
308 TIIK CANADIAN NIAGARA POWER PLANT
(d) — A steel rack, composed of 3 by i-in. bars, 1[| in. apart,
making an angle of 60° with the horizontal, extends the entire length
of the forebay, thus protecting the entrances to the penstocks. Its
construction calls for no remark except the statement that it is in
three sections vertically, the middle sections, 3 ft. 4 in. wide, sliding
in grooves and adjustable in any desired position. The supporting
framework was designed to resist a water pressure of 2 ft., it being
considered that a sudden flow of frazil might clog the racks before
they could be cleared.
The excavation of the canal involved the removal of about 14 ft.
of sand, clay, gravel, and boulders, and from 1 to 3 ft. of ledge rock.
The total quantity of earth excavated from the canal and wheel-
pit was 85 000 cu. yd. Most of this earth excavation was well adapted
for steam-shovel work, but that method was iised by the contractor
for only a small part of the work, most of the material being removed
by pick and shovel and hauled to the dump in 1-yd. wagons.
Wheel-Pit.
Although the general location of the plant predetermined the
generation of the power by wheels placed in an excavation and dis-
charging through a tunnel having an outlet below the Falls, yet the
form of such an excavation was dependent on the question of vertical
or horizontal shafts for the machinery. This problem was decided in
favor of vertical shafts, not only because of the greater convenience
in operation afforded by having the generators on the power-house
floor, but because of the practical difficulties which would be en-
countered in arranging the machinery for easy dismantling if hori-
zontal shafts were used. The fact that no excavations of similar depth
had been made on the Canadian side of the river introduced an un-
certainty as to whether a wheel-pit could be made sufficiently dry to
maintain electrical machinery successfully therein. On account of
these and other considerations, it was determined to use units with
vertical shafts, the spacing of the units to be 48 ft. The length of the
wheel-pit was fixed at 566.84 ft. and the depth, to meet the tunnel
grade, 171.1 ft. below the power-house floor, the width of rock excava-
tion being 20.5 ft. The maximum depth of rock excavation was about
153 ft., the total quantity of rock excavation in the wheel-pit proper
being about 226 000 cu. yd. To insure close adherence to the limits
PLATE XXIV.
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENQRS.
VOL. LXII, No. 1097.
VAN CLEVE ON
THE CANADIAN NIAGARA POWER PLANT.
Fig. 1.— North End^of Power-House.
1 •*•■â–
1 "%r
r ^^" w"
^^ '^ .
^— rrnJ- U^
flp
--^
^ _ p;;:^,'..:j:sa-^,.r— IP -
1^'^f^p^*'*'wn
-^
^^^^^g
i„U^
.'^^ ^\^ ,^i,p,te , .'I'l ^'. , r
--fl
i,i
*^ ' '>J,^lfeJ,%-.-;ft,
J&,
^n
â–
fe ' .-£^iiiiJa^iB^
mr-
• ~^^
Fig. 2. — View of Power-House from the East.
THE CANADIAN NIAGARA POWER PLANT
209
SLUICE GATES FOR ICE-RUN
CANADIAN NIAGARA PQWER COMPANY
PLAN SHOWING GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
SECTION LOOKING WEST
FiCi. 4.
210 Tin-; CANADIAN NIAGARA POWER PLANT
of excavation, and to prevent the shattering of the rock, and conse-
quently the increased flow of water, the sides and ends of the pit were
channeled. On account of the clearance requirements of the channel-
ers, the cuts were made on an angle, a 6-in. offset being provided at
the bottom of each cut of 6 ft. The rock was a limestone of varying
character for two-thirds of the depth, and the lower third was shale.
Plate XXVI shows the completed wheel-pit, with the machinery
installed, and also the lines of excavation and the brick lining walls.
Above the turbine deck the average thickness of the lining walls is
15 in., and below that level it is 24 in., vitrified brick being used in
the invert and a portion of the side walls. Fig. 1, Plate XXII,
shows the rock walls, and the channelers at work, the pit having been
excavated for about one-third of its depth when the photograph was
taken. The brickwork seen in the upper left-hand part of the view is
that built along the outside of a longitudinal recess cut into the rock
at a water-bearing seam in order to collect the water. All the floor
beams and girders shown on Plate XXVI rest on castings built into
the side walls ; the openings for these castings were gadded and broached.
Excavations for the draft-tubes were treated in a similar manner. As
the latter recesses were 51 ft. by 10 ft. 6 in. by 7 ft. 10 in., and
were in close proximity to other checks, their excavation was a matter
of no little difficulty. Four chambers, 21 ft. wide, 50 ft. long, and of
varying depths, were cut into the east side of the wheel-pit to provide
for the installation of auxiliary machinery, such chambers being lined
with brickwork 2 ft. thick.
The excavation of the wheel-pit was let in two contracts, the first
covering a length of only 270 ft. The final blasting in the second
section of the pit was not completed until July, 1905, or 6 months
after the plant was put in operation. It was necessary, therefore, to
take great care, in blasting in the extension, to avoid disturbance of
the alignment of the machinery. The movement of the wheel-pit walls
was also increased by the excavation in the extension, and, although
no serious results followed, the conditions, for the time being, were
very undesirable. As the tunnel work was in advance of the wheel-pit
excavation, an efi'ort was made to save time by carrying it under a
part of the wheel-pit. This excavation shattered the side walls, and it
is questionable whether anything was gained by this method.
The bottom of the wheel-pit was given a grade of 3% in order to
FLA I h X.X.W.
TRANS. AM. SOC. CIV. ENQRS.
VOL. LXII, No. 1097.
VAN CLEVE ON
THE CANADIAN NIAGARA POWER PLANT.
Fig. 1. — Brick Ring Around No. 1 Penstock Mhuthpiece.
^H
â–
^Hj^pppv;^
s
H^ISfl'-'''
m
^
1
1
0"
1
â– wl^L
iWi
^
|hb ^
1
if"
,„^
^_^
^^alHHKM^^
â–
ii
V\G. 2.— Interior op Power-House, Showing Enclosure fob Oil Switches.
THE CANADIAN NIAGARA TOWER PLANT 211
equalize as fully as possible the velocities in the discharge water in
the wheel-pit. To preserve an absolutely uniform velocity, with all
the wheels in operation, would require that the width of the invert
should decrease toward the south end, but such a design would have
involved many complications not justified by the advantage to be
gained.
The upper part of the wheel-pit, to a depth of from 25 to 30 ft.'
below the power-house floor, is lined with a retaining wall, the upper
portion of which is faced with first-class, close-pointed masonry, while
the lower part is of concrete. In connection with this upper lining
wall, were built the arches, 24 ft. in length, supporting the stationary
part of the generator. These may be seen on Plate XXVI.
The six floors in the wheel-pit require little comment; there are
also platforms around the shaft at four other levels. Access is thus
provided for the inspection and repair of all bearings and shaft
couplings. The principal decks are covered with "Ne-o^er-Slip" plate;
the platforms and lower deck are composed of rack-bars. All main
cross-beams are carried on castings, to which they are attached in
such a way as to permit the freedom of motion required by the move-
ment of the wheel-pit walls.
Tunnel.
The general alignment of the tunnel is shown on Plate XXIII,
which also indicates the completed plant and its relation to surround-
ing objects. The southerly tangent was of necessity in the prolonga-
tion of the wheel-pit, and it was also desirable that the alignment
at the portal should be approximately at right angles to the face of
the cliff. The wheel-pit of the Niagara Falls Park and Eiver Railway
was to be avoided, and the portal could not be placed beneath its
discharge tunnel. The rock formation at the point selected seemed
most satisfactory. These conditions resulted in a tunnel 2 164 ft.
long, the alignment consisting of 48% tange 
