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TRANSACTIONS.
OF
The Canadian Institute.
VOLUME VII.
TORONTO:
PRINTED FOR THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE
BY MURRAY PRINTING COMPANY.
1904.
OME LC ER S
OF
THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.
1900-1901
President,
JAMES BAIN, Jr., Eso.
Ist Vice-President, 2nd Vice-President,
PROF. A. P: COLEMAN, Pu.D. PROF. A. B. WILLMOTT.
Secreta = ees aS. © Ry Fa, STUPART, Eso.
Treasurer, Ba ee ae ae ; : - WILLIAM SCOTT, M.A.
Liblatiatsc 2) eS 2 oe = DRY, AB. - MACALLUM:
Curator, eee a A! CS. ONE ARMSTRONG: hs.
Editor, - : 2 a - - GEORGE KENNEDY, M.A.,- LL.D.
Members of Council,
JOHN MAUGHAN, Esg., CHAIRMAN BIOLOGICAL SECTION.
B. FE. WALKER, F.G.S.
S. DILLON MILLS, Esq.
ARCHIBALD BLUE, Esq.
PROFESSOR SQUAIR.
G. G.. PURSEY, Esa.
Assistant Secretary and Librarian,
MARGARET J. LOGAN.
OAT PC BRS
THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE,
1901-1902
President,
JAMES BAIN, Jr., Esg.
Ist Vice-President, 2nd Vice-President,
PROF. A. P. COLEMAN, Pu.D. PROF, A. J. BELL, Pu.D.
BECO, es ere a, RO STUPART,: Eso.
Creasurer, Bt ence) eee WIE ETAM: SCOTT .“M-A.
Eibravian, © - : - : = PROF. A. B. MACALLUM, M.A., M.B, Pu. D.
Curator, oe SS NS eC. HSPARMSTRONG,; Eso.
Editor, = i Ree - GEORGE KENNEDY, M.A., LL.D.
Members of Gouncil,
JOHN MAUGHAN, Eso., CHAIRMAN BIOLOGICAL SECTION.
PROF. W. H. ELLIS, M.A., M.B.
PROF. J. FLETCHER, LL.D.
E. C. JEFFREY, B.A., Px.D.
i B. E. WALKER, F.G.S.
S. DILLON MILLS, Eso.
Assistant Secretary and Librarian,
MARGARET J. LOGAN.
CP Pecans
THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.
1902-1903
PROF. A. P. COLEMAN, Pu.D.
Ist Vice-President, 2nd Vice-President,
R. F. STUPART, Eso. PROF. A. J. BELL, Px.D.
Secretary, - eta a ae?” PROF, J: J. MACKENZIEY: BOA MB.
Creasurer, Shek by iy ae EL LAM SCY TE OMA:
’ Librarian, - - > - - PROF; A. B. MACALLUM, M.A., M.B., Pu.D
Curator, - 0 = 3 oC,“ H. ARMSTRONG, Eso.
Editor, apres GEORGE KENNEDY, MLA OLE, D:
Members of Council,
JOHN MAUGHAN, Esog., CHAIRMAN BIOLOGICAL SECTION.
B. E. WALKER, F.G.S.
PROF. W. H. ELLIS, M.A., M.B.
S. DILLON MILLS, Esq.
JAMES BAIN, D.C.L.
JOHN BERTRAM, Eso.
Assistant Secretary and Librarian,
MARGARET J. LOGAN.
CONTENTS.
Officers of The Canadian Institute, 1900-01
6 . ‘6 “ 1901-02
‘“ & Cte 1902-03
On the Anatomical Characters of the substance ‘‘ Indian Soap ”
Miss M. Dawson, B. Sc.
On the Structure of *‘ Indian Soap "
Explanation of Plate, : ;
On the Ancient Desiees at Niagara Falls
P. W. CURRY.
The Course of the Pre-Glacial Tonawanda River in Canada
Hypothesis of the Mode of Gorge Formation and Character of thie Floor of
the Gorge , 3 ; : : : : ; ; : 3 A
Déneé Surgery : ; . : : :
Rev. FaTHer A. G. Morice, O.M.I.
The Classification of the Dénés
LETTER FROM THE REV. FATHER MORICE.
Critical Examination of Spanish Documents Relative to the Canary Islands, sub-
‘mitted to the writer by Sefior Don Juan Bethencourt Alfonso of Tenerife
Joun CAMPBELL, LL.D., F.R.S.C.
The Canary Island Inscriptions 2
General Vocabulary
Comparative Vocabulary of Peruvian
Grammatical Analysis of the Inscriptions
Phonetic Values of the Canary Island Inscriptions
Compound Characters on Rocks
The Ripening of Cheese and the Réle of Micro-Organisnis in the Process
y Pror. F. GC. HARRISON.
Number and kind of Bacteria in Cheese at Different Stages of Ripening .
Acid in Cheese .
Yeasts
Literature
Goethe’s Faust ; : : : ; :
Pror. L. E. HORNING.
Physical Geology of Central Ontario : :
ALFRED W. G. WILSON.
~
~~]
vi. TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VOL.
Introduction .
Topography of the Pre- ance Fleor
The Palzeozoic Series
Post-Carboniferous History
Literature
Observations on Blood Pressure, with Special Reference to Chloroform
R. D. Rupotr, M.D.,; M.R.C.P.
Introduction ;
The Normal Effects of Gravity
Abdominal Pressure : E
The Effect of Certain Drugs on the Blood Pressure
Complications arising during the Administration of Chloroform
Methods of Resuscitation in Chloroform Poisoning
Rev. Henry Scadding, D.D.
An Investigation into the Effects of Water and Aqueons Solutions on some of the
Common Inorganic Substances on Foliage Leaves .
JAmMEs B. DANDENO, A.M.
Introduction
Historical Résumé ; é
Absorption of Water by Foliage I Leaves
Incrustations, Guttation Drops, Dew
Does Distilled Water become Alkaline when placed upon Leaves of Plants ?
The Effects of a Nutrient Solution and of Distilled Water upon Leaves of
Plants) )=7; : ; ; : : : . : . : =
The Effects of Strong Solutions ne to the Cut Ends of the Petioles of
Foliage Leaves : : 3
On the Effect of a Solution Bhs to the Leaf Surface .
Tobacco-Leaf ‘‘ Spot” : = ?
Some of the Effects of Sea-Water on the Air
On the Effects of Water and Nutrient Solutions upon Developing Buds of
Willow Twigs
Summary of Results and Conclusions . , ; : : 5 Fi
Bibliography :
The Windward Islands of the West Indies
J. W. Spencer, M.A., Pu.D., F.G.S,
Introduction and How to Reach the Islands
Sombrero ; ;
The St. Martin Archipelago .
The St. Kitts Chain, Montserrat and the Saba Banks ~
Antiqua and Barbuda
The see ene Archipelago .
Dominica
Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines
Vil.
PAGE
140
142
157
162
s, eke in
eS Ce! FE ee
1902-03.] — CONTENTS. vii.
PAGE
Trinidad , : . : : : : 3 : , : - jut #305
Barbados : : F E : f ; nS 466
General Changes of Level of Land and Sea : : q J : ; 368
Photography in Natural Colours : : : i ‘ : ; ; : Soe aa
i . J. S. PLasKetT, B.A.
Joseph Brant in the American Revolution . 2 : é 2 : : 3 391
LizuT.-CoL. E, CRUIKSHANK.
The Beginning of Municipal Government in Ontario 3 5 : “ g . 409
PRoF. ADAM SHORTT.
Sawdust and Fish Life . : ; ; : , ; 4 : ; : 425
y Pror. A. P. Knicut, M.A., M.D.
‘Historical : ‘ , : : : : : . : ‘ ; S426
Experimental : ‘ : é ; : : : : : : é 433
The Sinking of Sawdust . : 5 : - : : ‘ : : pease
Extracts from Sawdust : : : , : : : : : , 436
Source of Poison 4 ¢ : : 5 3 : ’ : 37,
Pulp Industry, Beet Sees adele é : . : E : : A 439
Strength of Sawdust Extracts : ; 3 ; . : ; : . 440
Extracts from Cedar (Ontario) . ; . . : ; ‘ : : 441
Extracts from White Pine ; : ; : : : ; : : » 444
Other Wood Extracts . : : ; . ; 447
Extracts Quickly Soluble 534 Boa the 5 ; Ree . ; . 449
Fish at Mill-Ends 3 ; : : : é . 3 ; : j 450
A Stagnant Artificial Pool ; Z ; : ; t ; : . Fash
Comparative Results. : ; : : : : : ‘ : ; 452
Experiments with Bark . : : 4 : : : 3 P : - 456
Decaying Sawdust : = : 5 : ; : 2 : ; : 458
Aromatic Compound : : : ah tee ; : : 4 . - 459
Nutritive Relations : 5 é : : : : ; ; : ; 461
On the Bonnechere River : ; ; : ; ; ; : 5 HS AG2
Conclusions, Acknowledgments . : 5 3 5 ; ; 5 , 465
Appendix . : ; : ; : ; : ; : : : ; . 466
' The Bacterial Contamination of Milk and its Control . : , : 467
d Pror. F, C. HARRISON.
Contamination from the Fore-Milk . : ‘ ; : 4 : Aaa7O
Contamination from Animal and Milker , : ‘ : : 48P
Methods of Prevention . i - ; : : ; : 5 eA a82
Milking Machines 2 : p ; ‘ : 483
Cleaning Milk by the use of a Gravel Filter : i ; : ; : » 485
Cleaning Milk by Centrifugal Force . : : 5 ; : : 486
The Bacterial Content of Milk before and after Seen : ; ; . 489
Vili.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUT
Contamination of Milk from the Stable Air .
Contamination of Milk from Dairy Utensils
Bacterial Contents of Cans cleaned in various ways
The Effect of Temperature : ; : :
Certified Milk : ‘ F f : : : '
References
The Chemistry of Wheat Gluten
GEORGE G. NAsmiITH, B.A.
Historical
Observations :
Properties of Gliadin
Properties of Glutenin
The Ferment Theory of Gluten Formation -.
The Aleuron Layer of Wheat .
Conclusions
Bibliography
The Nah:ane and their Language
Rev. FATHER A. G. Morice, O.M.I.
E,
[VoLt. VII.
PAGE
490,
491
The Palzeochemistry of the Ocean in Relation to Animal and Vegetable Proto-
plasm
Introduction .
The Origin of the Physiological Relations of the Chemical Elements in
Blood Plasma
Pror. A. B. MacaLLum, M.A., M.B., Pu.D.
Gr
ia)
wm
¥ - SBSB
The Origin of the Relation of the Chemical Elements within Protoplasm
itself
The Composition of the Primeval Ocean
The Relation of the Salts in the Ocean to Protoplasm
Evidence from the Lakes and Rivers of the Present Period
Tables giving the Proportion of the Elements in a number of Rivers and
Lakes
Summary of Conclusions
F i
a eA
“Ke :
at
myn
ONLY, Academy
Of Sciences
REV.) HEIN RY S\i© ADDING. Ds):
1813—1901,
PRESIDENT OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, 1870-76.
TRANSACTIONS
OF
ike CANADIAN - INSTIEU VE.
ON THE ANATOMICAL “CHARACTERS OF’ ‘FHE
SUBSTANCE SINDEAN SOAP?’
By Miss M. Dawson, B.Sc. (LOND. AND WALES).
(Read 3rd March, 1900).
ON THE STRUCTURE OF “INDIAN SOAP.”
In December, 1898, a piece of the material used by the Indians of
British Columbia as a substitute for soap, was sent to the Botanical
Laboratory, Cambridge, by Prof. Anderson, of the Department of
Agriculture, Victoria, B.C.
Enclosed with this was a report upon the material from Dr.
Fletcher, who stated that Prof. Macoun had identified it as a Polyporus,
allied to P. betulinus, which had become changed by its own mycelium
into punk. Dr. Fletcher explained that the scroopy feeling upon
rubbing the soap between the fingers is due to the presence of quantities
of resin, also that it burns freely with a strong resinous odour and much
black smoke, in a similar manner to birch bark, which accounts for its
use by the children of the district as candles. With hot water, it
scarcely produces a lather, but rubs up like clay, and leaves a chalk-like
deposit on the hands after drying.
Some of this “Indian Soap” was handed to me last April by Prof.
Marshall Ward for a more detailed study of its anatomy. A superficial
2 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII.
examination suggests that the substance is either a dead fungus of the
larger Polyporus type, or a mass of wood destroyed by a fungus.
It is whitish cream in colour, very friable, breaking into long, thin
strands, which seem to be held together by fragments of dead matter.
To the touch, it has a curious saponaceous feel, but as Dr. Fletcher
remarked, does not produce any appreciable lather when rubbed up
with water. If cut dry with a razor, the sections peel off like shavings,
and even in very small pieces they are exceedingly impervious to cold
water,—they will float on the surface for weeks. Hot water or alcohol,
however, wets them readily.
If a small portion of the “soap” be teased out, it is found to consist
of a meshwork of hyphz, covered over with, and more or less bound
together by irregular fragments of very varying size. With iodine, or
Schultz’s solution, the hyphz stain a faint yellow, the fragments a
deeper yellow. Iodine and sulphuric acid at first give a deep yellow
colour, but then the sections gradually dissolve up. Phloroglucin or
aniline chloride and hydrochloric acid give no trace of colour. The
hyphz stain readily with haematoxylin, Congo-red, carbol, fuchsin,
aniline blue, etc., either in alcoholic solutions or in water solutions, if
the sections have been previously treated with alcohol.
After soaking in alcohol, thin layers of the substance become semi-
transparent, and show very clearly longitudinal strands, which in section
show irregularly arranged circles, held together by darker portions of
the material. Distributed over the “soap” occur deep brown areas,
which, to the naked eye, appear like a stain. This colouration is very
intense in some places, whilst in others it is scarcely noticeable. The
deeper brown areas seem to mark successive layers in a direction at
right angles to the longitudinal strands ; there is, however, no regularity
in the thickness of the layers, and here and there the dark areas cross
each other. When examined microscopically, besides these longitudinal
strands above referred to, the most striking character is the presence of
a double set of hyphe lying one above the other. Thus, as shown in
Fig. 2, the substance is seen to consist of interwoven hyphe, running in
alternating strands longitudinally and transversely, with a more densely
matted line separating these strands. The hyphe arranged thus are
colourless, very rarely branched, regular, somewhat thick walled and
show but very few transverse divisions. Clamp connections occur here
and there. (Fig. 12). Overlying these and very irregularly distributed
are numerous dark brown hyphe, showing frequent swellings and
branchings and occasional transverse septa. (Figs. 5 and 11). To their
1900-1.] ON THE ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS OF THE SUBSTANCE “‘INDIAN SOAP.” 3
presence undoubtedly the brown colour, mentioned above, is due, since
though present throughout the material, they are very much more
numerous in the more deeply “stained” areas. With this exception, it
is impossible to discover any method in their distribution.
The longitudinal strands of hyphz are especially clearly seen if a
rather thick section is mounted in eau de javelle or potash, and
examined under low power. The section gradually clears, owing to
the almost complete solution of the coarsely granular substance, which
adheres in fragments to all the hyphz, and seems to be the cementing
materia! which holds the whole structure together. Indeed, thin
sections treated with potash are almost immediately disintegrated,
breaking first along the boundary lines of the strands of hyphe, and
then the individual hyphz are separated from one another completely.
Sections cut transversely to the direction of the longitudinal strands
show circular areas of loosely interwoven hyphe, with intermediate
layers, consisting of a denser meshwork of hyphe, running between
these areas. As before, the overlying brown irregular hyphe are visible
all over the sections. (See Figs. 1 and 3).
No trace has been found of any remains of woody elements, though
a very large number of sections have been carefully examined. Nor
has it been possible to obtain any indication of the presence of lignin
with any of the usual micro-chemical tests.
In connection with the large colourless hyphe, one and only one
group of spores has been found. They had obviously been considerably
compressed and dried up, but were sufficiently clear to show a few
still attached at intervals down some hyphe. The spores are very
small, apparently spherical or oval in the fresh, colourless, with slightly
thickened walls. The evidence of their mode of formation is not very
satisfactory, but they seem to be borne sessile upon the hyphe in
groups of two or more. (Fig. 4).
A second group of spores of another kind was found in connection
with the dark brown hyphe. Like them, they are deep brown in
colour, with thick walls, mostly oval in form, and much larger than
those described above. Though lying amidst the hyphe, this group did
not show any spores attached, consequently no information could be
gained as to their method of formation, though there could be no doubt
of their connection with this set of hyphe. (Figs. 5 and 6). In Figs. 8
and g are shown very thin microtome sections, cut transversely and
longitudinally as regards the strands of hyphe.
4 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vov. VII.
Staining either with Congo-red or with hematoxylin after twenty-
four hours treatment with iron alum, showed the existence of a third
set of hyphz, which had not been noticed before. These form a
meshwork between the strands of larger hyphe; they are extremely
delicate and colourless, and in fewer numbers can be seen running
amongst the other hyphe, within the strands. This detailed structure
was most satisfactorily seen by mounting the sections in glycerine.
Dehydration with alcohol, and clearing with either clove oil or xylol,
caused the hyphz to collapse to such an extent that the appearance of
the sections is greatly altered. An examination of hyphe separated
out by eau de javelle, under Zeiss Hom. Imm. 4, confirmed the
presence of these delicate colourless hyphae amongst and upon the
larger ones. (Fig. 10). This suggests that they are parasitic in
nature.
As regards the function of the brown irregular hyphe, their general
characters and distribution suggested, at first, that they might represent
a conducting system such as has been described by Istvanffi and Johan
Olsen* = (Fig 11):
This, however, is apparently not their function, for no treatment has
been successful in decolourizing them. Even after fixing in alcohol or
Rath’s solution, embedding, dehydrating and clearing, they retain their
brown or yellowish brown colour. They appear, too, to be present
throughout the material, and though more numerous in some regions,
they do not here exhibit any special characters. Beyond this, moreover,
the occurrence of a group of spores, in connection with these hyphe,
makes it impossible for them to be conducting in function, but points
rather to their being the hyphe of a fungus parasitic upon the main
fungus, which consists of the large, colourless hyphe.
We come next to the consideration of the nature of the substance,
which causes the saponaceous feel possessed by the material. It has
already been suggested that this character is due to the presence of
resin, and from all the results, which an examination of its behaviour
has given, this seems to be the correct view.
It is insoluble in water but very slowly in strong alcohols, and more
slowly in ether or chloroform, in each case resulting in a clear, golden
brown liquid. Ether or chloroform does not precipitate it from the
alcoholic solution.
* “Uber die Milchsaft behdlter bei den héheren Pilzen.” Bot. cent., 1887.
Istvanff, ‘‘ Untersuchungen iiber die physiologische anatomie der Pilze, etc.” Pringsh. Jahrb., xxix.
1900-1.] ON THE ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS OF THE SUBSTANCE ‘INDIAN SOAP.” 5
When these solvents are allowed to evaporate off, a whitish brown
amorphous mass remains.
If small pieces or sections of the material be treated with eau de
javelle or potash, a bright red colouration is produced, running along
the boundary of the longitudinal strands and gradually diffusing over
the substance. By degrees a red liquid oozes out, which turns brown in
a few hours. (Fig. 7).
If these solutions be treated with acid, a heavy, brownish white
flocculent precipitate is produced, probably the resinous acid.
Staining with dry sections of alkanna root and fifty per cent. alcohol
gave an intense reddish pink colour, universally over the sections, but
somewhat more intense along the edges of the strands. Alcoholic
solutions of alkanna or sudan iii.* were obviously useless, owing to the
extreme solubility of the substance in question in alcohol.
Some better results were obtained by using a concentrated ethereal
solution of sudan. The sections, cut dry, were left in the stain for a few
seconds only, then washed in water and mounted in glycerine.
These showed that the hyphze themselves were quite unstained,
whilst attached to them and scattered irregularly over them, were
deeply stained fragments and drops; in addition, along the meshwork
of hyphe dividing the strands of larger hyphz, a pale pink stain was
given. The dark brown hyphe were still visible, retaining their usual
colour. (Figs. 13 and 14). This confirms the view that the resinous
substance is present in the innumerable fragments, adhering to all the
hyphe, and the presence of this substance explains the clearing of
sections with clove oil, xylol, or potash, when these fragments are almost
completely dissolved away.
A spectroscopic examination of an alcoholic solution of the resinous
substance shows a complete absorption of the blue rays.
As regards the nature of this substance “ Indian Soap,” the general
arrangement and character of the large colourless hyphe seem to
support Prof. Macoun’s conclusion that it consists of a fructification of
a Polyporus,—the longitudinal strands representing an incipient stage
in the formation of the Polyporus tube. The spores found, however,
were not in any definite position relative to these tubes, nor was their
arrangement on the hyphe in accordance with basidial formation. The
* This dye has been described as a test for resins, fats, etc., by Buscalioni,
Un nuovo reattivo per l'istologia vegetale. See Bot. Centr., Nr. 22, 1899.
6 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. |Vot. VII.
whole structure has obviously been much changed by the action of
parasitic hyphe, so that we may perhaps, with justice, conclude that it
consists of some large fungus, probably of the Polyporus type, which
has been destroyed by two parasitic fungi, probably also to be classed
with the higher forms. As a result, degeneration of some of the
interwoven hyphz seems to have taken place, giving rise to a resinous
substance, to whose presence the characteristic saponaceous feeling is
due.
EXPLANATION OFPLATLE,
Fic 1.—Section at right angles to strands of hyphz. Treated with potash and mounted
in glycerine. Obj. %.
Fic. 2.—Section parallel to strands of hyphz. Obj. %.
Fic. 3.—Section as in Fig. 1 under 1 inch obj. (Reduced %).
Fic. 4.—Group of spores in connection with the large, colourless hyphz. Stained with
carbol fuchsin. Oc. 4. Obj. Hom. Imm. ;}5.
Fic. 5.—Brown hyphz with group of spores. Oc. 4. Obj. Zeiss D.
Fic. 6.—Spores of the above group. Oc. 4. Obj. Zeiss F.
Fic. 7.—Small piece of ‘‘soap”’ treated with potash (5%). Shaded portions coloured
deep red. (Macroscopic).
Fics. 8 AND 9.—Microtome sections showing three systems of hyphz. Iron alum (24
hours), and hematoxylin. Oc. 4. Obj. Zeiss D.
Fic. 10o.—A few hyphe, separated by the action of eau de javelle. Brown hyphz were
present, but are omitted from the figure, which shows the fine colourless
hyphz running amongst the larger colourless ones. Oc. 4. Obj. Zeiss D.
Fic. 11.—Portion of section, treated with potash, showing the arrangement of the
brown overlying hyphz, resembling that of a conducting system. Oc. 4.
Obj. Zeiss D.
Fic. 12.—Portions of separated colourless hyphz, treated with alcoholic potash.
Oc. 4. Obj. Zeiss Hom. Imm. 7.
Fics. 13 AND 14.—Staining of resinous fragments by an ethereal solution of sudan iii.
Oc. 4. Obj. Zeiss F.
‘
Trans.of Canadian Institute Vol. VI, Pl. 1. i
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PROriE OF AiviR Borror
Scare 30's Wor 1859
reg ecu or ae * wis! ee
SHAOLO PORTION SHON FL00R of BRIDGE
Saonam 61nk Some FOR T/on OF SeunOIng-
Sowwavee TARE OUR me Semman or ane |
ENGINEER'S REPORT OF SOUNDINGS AT M.C. R. BRIDGE.
1900-1. | ON THE ANCIENT DRAINAGE AT NIAGARA FALLS. 7
ON THE ANCIENT DRAINAGE AT NIAGARA FALLS.
By P. W. CURRIE.
(Read oth March, rgor).
IN preparing this paper, the writer has gone over the ground
confirming and adding proofs of the statement of others in regard to
the old watercourses of the Niagara District.*
THE COURSE OF THE PRE-GLACIAL TONAWANDA RIVER
IN CANADA.
The river crossed the present Niagara river nearly at right angles.
The edge of the southern bank where it crossed the river is now
indicated by the line of breakers above the Falls. The hollow below
these breakers is directly due to the erosive action of the ancient
stream. Its northern limit was the bank now called Hubbard’s Hill,
ending on the Canadian side at Mr. Alexander Fraser’s house, and
shown also on the opposite or American bank of the modern
river.
Further evidence of this former channel is found in the character of
the soil and of the rock levels in Queen Victoria Niagara Falls Park.
At the Dufferin Islands and at Table Rock, the rock level is at the
surface. At the Power House where the bed rock is exposed, it is
about eleven feet below the level of the water in the channel east of
Cedar Island. Opposite the Carmelite Monastery, the rock level is
about twelve feet below the water level in this same channel. At
the gravel pit rock was found at a depth of about eighteen feet
below the same water level. Near the high bank forming the
* He has to acknowledge the kindness of Dr. J. W. Spencer, whose theory as to the old watercourses
is the one accepted in this paper; also many favours from Mr. Wilson, Superintendent of Queen Victoria
Niagara Falls Park; Mr. C, H. Mitchell, Engineer at Niagara Falls, and his assistant, Mr. Howard Dixon ;
Mr, Rothery, Superintendent of the Park and River Railway; and Captain Carter of the ‘‘Maid of the
Mist,” all of whom aided very much in gathering materials for the paper.
8 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VIL.
south boundary of the Park, where the Ontario Power Company
sank a test pit, rock was not found till the hole was down thirty-
three feet in the sand, or between thirteen and fourteen feet below
the water in the channel above referred to. The dip in this part
of the Park is to the south, but it is too slight to account for these
differences in level.
The above facts show the existence of a V-shaped depression in the
Park, the rock level sloping downwards north and south, to a point at
or near the present gravel pit. The bottom of this depression is lower
as it recedes from the river, so that if it were cleared of drift, the water
would even now flow down it. It is also generally in a line with the
course of the old Tonawanda River across the course of the present
Niagara. The course of this channel through Niagara Falls South is
not so easy to trace, but what evidence there is, is confirmatory. At
the Michigan Central Station at Niagara Falls Centre, the rock is
within a foot or so of the surface. In digging the sewer in front of
Victoria Hall, the excavation went down nine feet, six inches, but no
rock was found. At the line between Niagara Falls and Niagara Falls
South, a well was dug over thirty feet without striking rock, and where
the street car turns to go to Drummondville, a well thirty-three feet
deep is resting on hard pan, that is, it is not yet down to solid
rock. Between Niagara Falls Centre and the Niagara Falls South
boundary, the land level rises about sixteen feet, leaving sixteen
feet fall in rock level in 960 feet, a difference not accounted for by
the dip.
The next place where conclusive evidence of the channel is found is
at St. David’s ravine. The opening in the escarpment worn out here
is about one and a half miles across. The banks slope gradually as do
those of all ancient channels, and have not vertical walls as the gorge
and other modern cafions have. The old river bed at St. David’s is at
present used for obtaining the fine sand which is deposited there.
These sandpits are very deep, and the arrangement of the sand and
gravel in them is very interesting. On the Governor Maitland estate,
near them, a well over 150 feet deep was dug through sand and
gravel. Mr. Warder, of Stamford, who dug many of the wells of
this district, says that a deep deposit of sand and gravel is found
continuously from St. David’s Ravine to Niagara Falls South.
On the way to the latter place, the depth of soil overlying the
rock increases, but the increase in depth, he thinks, is due to
the greater accumulation of drift in that direction, and not to any
5 IR
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WHIRLPOOL RAPIDS SHOWINC
OUTLET OF THE WHIRLPOOL.
DOWN THE ST. Davip’s RAVINE FROM G. T. R.
1900-I. | ON THE ANCIENT DRAINAGE AT NIAGARA FALLS. 9
depression of the rock level. The latter, he thinks, remains nearly
constant.
In the St. David’s valley below the escarpment, are found several
flowing wells. Above the escarpment, the surface drainage is either
towards the Whirlpool or Thorold. It is possible these flowing wells
are caused by the water of the Niagara soaking through the porous
soil of the drift.
The course of the channel below the escarpment is harder to trace
accurately, but by ascertaining from the farmers the facts in regard to
their wells, some very interesting information was obtained, throwing a
good deal of light on the subject.
Mr. Warder, whose opinion with regard to rock levels above the
escarpment has been stated already, says that in St. David’s village
the rock is generally sixty or seventy feet below the level of the
surface. On the road to St. Catharines, within a mile of the
village, wells are found dug in the rock, which is, relatively, close
to the surface.
On Lot 54, north of Usher's cement works, Mr. Muir has a good
well. In digging it he struck red sandstone rock about twenty feet
from the surface. Between Mr. Muir’s farm and the lake, as far as
Virgil, good springs are very scarce, and those who dig wells do not
strike rock. On Lot 58, a well was dug fifty-three feet without striking
rock. On Lot 33 they dug thirty-five feet, then bored fifty feet without
striking rock. Mr. Harris, west of Lot 61, found rock at one hundred
feet below the surface. The northern boundary of this channel seems
much more indefinite than the southern one.
Where this channel crosses the Niagara river, is clearly visible on
both sides of the river from the deck of the Toronto steamers. Near
Queenston the river bank is formed of red shale. At a projecting point
about three miles below Queenston, the shale changes to clay, and the
bank is formed of clay from here to a place near the middle of Paradise
Grove, where shale of the same kind as that at Queenston again forms
the bank.
The space between these points, about three miles, was at one time
filled with shale of the same kind as that at Queenston and Niagara.
This was washed out by the ancient river, and during the glacial period,
10 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. {[Vot. VII.
filled with clay. The map shows the probable course of this ancient
stream.
Into the main stream flowed a tributary which joined it at St.
David’s. Its channel was relatively much narrower than that of the
main stream. It appears to have been formed by the union of three
small tributaries, whose waters finally came together at the Whirlpool.
One followed a buried channel through the Collegiate Institute
srounds, in Niagara Falls, Canada, to go by way of the present Niagara
to the Whirlpool; on the way it was joined by a tributary flowing on
the American side from Eagle Mount; while a third tributary seems to
have flowed south from the present Devil’s hole to join the combined
stream at the Whirlpool.
Beyond the Whirlpool, the combined stream followed nearly the
course of the present Whirlpool ravine, although the latter seems to be
a little to the south of the old channel. This is shown by the rocks,
Niagara and Clinton, found in place in the bed of the stream at present
flowing through the ravine. The bed of this stream was probably not
as deep as the bottom of the present Whirlpool, the latter having its
depth increased by the rotary motion of the water.
The Whirlpool ravine crosses the Grand Trunk tracks about a
quarter of a mile south of the Stamford station. After this, it crosses a
field and road. On the far side of the road is a pond fed by a spring
creek, whose source is near the Presbyterian church in Stamford
village.
From a little above the pond a wide depression, not very clearly
defined, follows back towards Stamford, veering, however, northwards
in the direction of the sandpits at St. David’s. At the highest point of
this depression in swampy ground near the side of the road, is a little
grove of trees. From this starts a depression slanting downwards
almost without a break to within one hundred yards of the sandpits.
Any moisture falling on this depression could easily soak through the
intervening gravel into the sandpits and St. David’s ravine.
OUTLET OF ANCIENT STREAM AT DeviL’s HOLE. ErRopED BED POINTS UP
PRESENT STREAM.
SAND Pits, ST. DaAvip’'s.
Send Wack
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ENGINEER’S REPORT OF TEST-BORINGS AT
M.C. R. BRIDGE.
1900-1. | ON THE ANCIENT DRAINAGE AT NIAGARA FALLS. II
HYPOTHESIS OF THE MODE OF GORGE FORMATION AND CHARACTER
OF THE FLOOR OF THE GORGE.
The water wears a large pit in the shale underlying the Niagara
limestone, leaving it projecting until, unable to support its own weight,
it breaks off and falls into the water. The Clinton limestone is under-
mined in the same way. After falling, these great masses of rock in
front of the centre of the Canadian fall, are used as pestles by the
tremendous power of the water, ground against one another and against
the floor of the stream, until a great hole or basin is worn out down
stream from the falls.
As the water gets down stream further from the fall, it loses energy,
and finally a point is reached at which it can no longer move
the larger rocks. At this place they are deposited in what formerly
was the floor of the basin, and over these larger pieces smaller ones are
deposited successively on account of the decreasing power of the water
until, at some distance from the stream, the deposit attains a maximum
height, acting there as a dam, over which the accumulated water flows.
This water, by erosion, wears off the top of the old deposit, so that the
position. of the shallow dam, of the basin in front of the falls, and of the
falls itself. is gradually advancing up stream, leaving behind it, in the
bed of the river, the accumulated mass of fallen blocks.
This is the way in which the gorge has been made, at least from
Foster’s Flats. Below this, there may be part of the stream flowing on
a bed of rock in place, as there was a time in the history of the Falls in
which there were three separate cascades, and this condition would
destroy the power of the water to dig out a deep hole as described
above.
The borings made by the Michigan Central Railway to test the
foundations of the Cantilever bridge afford a remarkable confirmation of
this hypothesis. For 150 feet below the waterline, or nearly 70 feet
below the deepest part of the river at this point, before striking rock in
place, they bored down through clay and boulders. The rock they
found was the red shale of the Medina, which, according to the above
hypothesis, was the bottom of the deepest part of the basin worn by the
Falls when passing this point.
In his report, the engineer called some layers, lime rock, sandstone,
bastard lime rock, etc. Thinking these layers might represent remains
12 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
of the original hard rock, the shale having been removed by the action
of the water, and its place filled by detritus, Mr. H. Dixon, assistant
engineer to Mr. C. H. Mitchell, went with the writer to Queenston,
where we, using transit and chain, found the thickness of the different
layers of rock and shale along the cliff. We tried to correlate the hard
layers with those mentioned in the borings under the bridge, but found
no relation whatever existing between them. We then decided that
these masses of solid rock were simply very large boulders. In his
report on the soundings taken under the bridge, the engineer expresses
the same opinion.
The Canadian fall at present furnishes very good evidence of the
correctness of the above hypothesis. On the margin of the Horseshoe
Fall, both next Goat Island and the Canadian shore, great boulders are
lying at the foot of the cliff. There is no sign of any such in the centre.
Then one of two things must happen,—the rocks sink where they fall at
the base of the cliff, or the force of the water carries them down stream
to be finally deposited somewhere else. The soundings support the
latter hypothesis, for the water is deepest not right under the fall, but a
considerable distance down stream. The force of the water carries the
rocks forward while their gravity causes them to sink, so they wear out
the basin described above.
The American fall has great masses of huge boulders at its base.
These, as in the Canadian fall, have dropped from the overhanging
Niagara and Clinton rocks, but the water coming over them is not
strong enough to displace them. Accordingly they pile up where they
fall, and instead of wearing a deeper hole, protect the underlying shale
from erosion and stop the wearing action of the fall. This explains the
fact that, so far, observations on the American fall can detect but little
retreat, as all differences found in measurement are not appreciably
greater than the allowance which may be made for errors of
observation.
Evidences of a similar state of affairs are found at Niagara Glen.
The main stream on the American side was strong enough to move the
great rock masses, and the erosion went on continuously, leaving a clear
channel, while on the Canadian side a fall of water much smaller in
volume and corresponding to the present American fall, descended.
During the greater part of its course it was unable to remove the larger
rocks, though its central part was stronger than the sides, and in the
lower part, at least, left a tolerably clear channel. In the upper part,
1900-1. | On THE ANCIENT DRAINAGE AT NIAGARA FALLS. 13
however, as at present in front of the American fall, the great rock
masses are now piled up close to the cliff in such a way as effectually to
stop the water from wearing away the soft shale.
The deep channel being in this way partially filled, the action of the
weather on the lateral walls gradually causes a talus to be deposited on
the sides of the gorge, giving the older parts of the river the rough
V-shape shown by the soundings taken at the Cantilever bridge.
One more thing remains to be accounted for, viz., the Whirlpool.
Where the current from the Whirlpool rapids enters the Whirlpool, a
ledge of rocks projects from the east bank into the Whirlpool. The
appearance of the water indicates a shallow part, probably a continua-
tion of the ledge, running clear across to the other side. The Whirlpool
basin itself is very deep, probably deeper than it was worn by the Falls
or by the pre-glacial stream which formerly passed here. Where the
water leaves the pool the passage is very narrow, rocks in place project-
ing into it both from the Canadian and American sides. Even in the
centre of the channel the water appears to be quite shallow.
The depth of the water in the pool is due to the course of the river.
Even while it ran on the top of the bank, before the Falls reached the
Whirlpool, there would be here a deep pond, in character much the
same as the present one. After the Falls passed this point, the same
cause would deepen the hole where the change in direction of the
stream occurred.
The shallowness of the exit of the Whirlpool is comparatively easy
to account for. As the Falls cut their way back from Queenston, a
time would come when only a very thin wall would remain between the
water of the Whirlpool and that of the gorge. As this partition would
break down rapidly in its upper part, the level of the Pool would
suddenly lower, leaving the last part of the quartzose sandstone to be
eroded only by the mechanical force of the running water—a very slow
process.
The ledge above the Whirlpool was left during the time that the
thin wall below was being taken out, before the cataract at the upper
part had attained power enough to excavate deeply.
The Whirlpool basin was then probably no deeper than the Medina.
Since then, the peculiar character of the motion of the water and the
erosive action of the stones and pebbles carried by it, have deepened
the basin to its present depth.
14 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
The following is a list of the works consulted in the preparation of
this paper :
‘* Travels in North America,” Lyell.
“‘ Geol. of the Fourth District of New York,” Dr. Jas. Hall.
“The Report of the Commissioners of the State Reservation at Niagara, 1893-94,”
containing Mr. J. W. Spencer's papers on the ‘‘ History of Niagara Falls.”
“* Another Episode in the History of Niagara Falls." From ‘‘Am. Jour. of Science,
Vol. VI., 1898,” J. W. Spencer.
““The Tenth Annual Report of the Commissioners for Queen Victoria Niagara
Falls Park, 1895,’ containing Prof. G. K. Gilbert’s Monograph on
““Niagara Falls and their History.”
‘* Origin of the Gorge of the Whirlpool Rapids,” F. B. Taylor.
1900-1. ] DENE SURGERY. . 15
DENE SURGERY.
By THE REv. FATHER A. G. MORICE, O.M.I.
(Read 3rd February, 1900).
FROM the icy wastes of the Arctic circle to,the barren borders of
Patagonia, under whatever clime and with any environment, or mode
of life, the American Indian is more or less shamanistic in his beliefs
and practices. To him disease is not that deviation from the normal
state of the living organism which is understood among us to result
from natural causes. In his estimation, it is mainly due to the ill-will
of certain minor spirits whom he generally believes to be under a
greater, rather undefined power, and even subservient to the incanta-
tions of the conjurer whose role it is to exorcise them out of the
patient, free the latter’s body of any noxious matter due to their
machinations, or otherwise influence them to the extent of restoring
him to his former state.
This particularity of the native mind is well known, inasmuch as
there hardly ever was a tribe without one or more shamans, or medicine
men. What would seem to be less generally understood is the fact
that, even in the olden times, the aborigines were far from relying
exclusively on the mysterious powers of their conjurers in cases of
bodily distress. Either on the advice of the latter or independently
therefrom, they frequently had recourse to natural means in order to
regain lost health, alleviate temporary ailments, or obviate the result
of accidents. The vegetable kingdom furnished them with antidotes
against almost any ill that humanity is heir to, and, in several instances
too, they resorted freely to external treatment and artificial devices,
the most important of which were, among the Northern Dénés, surgi-
cal bleeding and burning.
Prof. O. T. Masson has given us, at the end of his paper on “ The
Ray Collection from the Hupa Reservation,” a valuable list of the
plants, both economical and medicinal, used by the northern California
Indians. Mr. James Mooney has rendered a like service to science in
his valuable essay on the “Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees.”* I
* VII, Annual Report Bureau of Ethnology, pp. 324-327; Washington.
16 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
might also refer the reader to what I have myself written on the same
subject in my “Notes on the Western Dénés,* pages 130-132 inclu-
sively. This part of my study, though not intended to be exhaustive
at the time of its writing, might for the present, take the place of a
complete treatise on Déné medicine. But, though bleeding at least
was and remains a very prevalent practice among the natives, I have
been unable to discover more than one reference thereto in the whole
range of the American ethnographic literature at my command. Very
valuable and detailed monographs there are on almost all the chief
stocks into which the northern American race is divided, which
consider them from every possible standpoint, but, with the one above
mentioned exception, they invariably ignore the practice of bleeding so
much in vogue among the different tribes.
My attention was lately drawn to this desideratum by an article
from the pen of the Rev. H. C. Meredith, published in the December
number of the American Archeologist} The cuts which accompany
his paper represent stone implements of such unique design as to
render them worthy of a moment’s consideration.
Those implements have quite a history. Found, close by Indian
skeletons, in the vicinity of Stockton, California, by several persons of
good social standing, some of them came into the possession of the
above-mentioned gentleman. To make a long story short, a few of the
latter subsequently passed into the hands of a South California collector
of antiquities who, after much hesitation and a consultation with a
would-be expert, pronounced them to be frauds and published his
opinion to that effect in the American Archeologist. One of his
main reasons for predicating dishonesty was that he “could not imagine
any practical use to which they could have been applied,’ an excuse
which is hardly satisfactory. Thereupon Mr. Meredith came up with a
spirited reply containing sworn affidavits and detailed information
which leave no doubt that his relics are genuine. A number of similar
objects had already, it seems, found their way into the United States
Museum, Washington, D.C., and it is probably of them that a Mr.
Lyman Belding wrote in Zoe; that they “differ from anything” he
had “seen elsewhere.”
Those implements are chiefly noticeable for three distinct features
which are more or less reproduced in all the specimens illustrated,
* Trans. Can. Institute, No. 7.
+ The American Archeologist, vol. I, p. 319.
1 Vol; ILE, ip. "200.
Fie, I
From ‘' THE AMERICAN ARCHEOLOGIST.”
By permission of the Proprietor, Pror. W. K. Moorehead, Saranac Lake, N.Y.
¥ ‘i
a
1900-1. ] DENE SURGERY. 17
namely, their sharp points, their curved outlines and their serrated —
edges.
The first particularity is probably what led Mr. Meredith to incline
“to the opinion that they were used on occasions of sickness and
ceremony for lacerating and bleeding the temples.”* My own studies
of the Northern Dénés allow me, taking into consideration that analogy
found in most things aboriginal, to subscribe to the reverend gentle-
man’s conclusions. But there remain the invariable and apparently
unnecessary curvedness and the indentations of the relics. That these
two peculiarities were intended for a specific purpose it would be idle
to deny. What was that purpose? The idea of their having been
designed as saws must be abandoned owing to the nature of the
material, soft and brittle obsidian. Both Prof. Wilson and Mr.
Meredith are agreed on that point. On the other hand, temple-
bleeders do not require to be crooked in outline or serrated on the
inner curved edge as is the case with most of the implements figured
in Mr. Meredith’s article. A brief reference to the custom of blood-
letting as it is practised among the Northern Dénés may throw some
light on the question.
Among those aborigines, bleeding may be considered under five
different heads. There is_ blood-letting proper, darting, piercing,
gashing and scarifying.
The Northern Dénés have always been poor, unzsthetic workmen
and, as I have noted elsewhere,t among them “where extra exertion
was not absolutely necessary, it was very seldom bestowed upon any
kind of work.” This explains how it is that none of my informants
could remember the use of, or any reference to, anything like a lancet
or bleeder by their ancestors. A sharp piece of stone, a flake from one
of the few tools or weapons they made, or, more generally, even a
common flint or obsidian arrow-head did that duty. Yet it would
seem that, in pristine times, they had something like a_ bleeder,
for one of the tribes, the Carrier, has a word, hokweth, to designate
that instrument
The first process, I said, was, or rather is—for in that respect native
surgery has not changed with the advent of the whites—we?r’s’wket or
blood-letting proper. As among us, the operation is performed either
on a vein or an artery. In the latter, and by far the commonest, case,
* oc; cit.
t ‘Notes on the Western Dénés,” Trans. Can. Inst., vol. IV., p. 36.
3
18 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
the chosen subject is the temporal artery. This is slightly cut with as
sharp an instrument as can be procured, and the blood is allowed to
escape until a rich red colour has succeeded the dark hue of the first
flow which is supposed to be the cause of the ailment. The wound is
then compressed by the application of a piece of skin or of a green leaf,
according to the season. The head is afterwards bandaged so as to
ensure the speedy healing of the wound.
In cases of phlebotomy, the vein at the bend of the elbow is the
one operated on. Head-ache, general uneasiness, nervous complaints,
catalepsy or any accidental stiffness of a limb furnish the usual pretexts
for this sort of bleeding. Pains in the legs are, however, more com-
monly relieved by pricking or darting either side of the knee when fire
was not resorted to, as shall be seen further on.
This leads me to speak of the second process, which is darting or
thrusting. Though widely different from the first, it is, in the eyes of
the Indians, nothing but a modification thereof, and it goes by the
same name. The natives have recourse to it mostly in cases of local
pains, when it is a question of congested blood either in the course of
a malady or as the result of an accident, as in cases of contusions
consequent on a blow, a fall, etc. It differs from the first method of
blood-letting in having the flesh, not the veins, as its seat of operation.
The skin is first thoroughly softened with hot water, the diseased flesh
is firmly gripped or pinched out by the left hand while, with the right,
the blade of a sharp knife is thrust therein. The escape of the thick,
blackish blood affords immediate relief, though the operation may have
to be repeated time and again. All these details I know by personal
experience.
A modification of this process, the usefulness of which is prac-
tically confined to cases of head-ache, is piercing. .In connection
therewith, the fleshy part of the forehead is grasped as in the previous
operation and then several times transfixed with an awl or a like
instrument.
The fourth way of using the lancet, ze/’s# tas, is simply the gashing
or cutting open of a swelling, a sore or any unhealthy excrescence on
the skin. The Dénés are rather impatient under the stress of long
standing ailments. They much prefer undergoing a painful operation
to waiting for the natural issue of any complaint.
We now come to the fifth way of using the surgical bleeder which
1900-1. | DENE SURGERY. 19
will, I think, explain the curvedness and inner indentations of Mr.
Meredith’s crooks. It is nesn@lW’tes or scarifying. This is very
commonly resorted to in all cases of rheumatism, local aching and
mal de raquettes, or the spraining of the instep resulting from too
severe snow-shoeing. It is also regarded by many as a panacea
against several other ills of a temporary nature. It consists in scratch-
ing numerous lines on the afflicted limb, followed, in many cases, by a
liberal application of the bruised root of the hemlock plant (Conium
maculatum).
Now let the reader glance at Mr. Meredith’s crooks. What is more
natural than to suppose that the indentations thereon were designed
as so many teeth of a stone currycomb intended to lessen the labour
of the native surgeon, as the scratches must be very numerous, while
work done with a single point would necessarily result in a useless flow
of blood from the first scarifications and unduly prolong the sufferings
of the patient? On the other hand, the crooked outlines of the
bleeder are easily explained by the use the implement is put to. Its
curvedness is simply a means of having it fit the various parts of the
arm or leg whereon the simultaneous scarifications are produced.
That this is not a mere fancy of mine can readily be inferred from
the fact that this peculiar method of bleeding is not confined to the
Déné race. We read in the paper by Mr. J. Mooney already referred
to that, among the Cherokees, “there are two methods of performing
the operation (of blood-letting), bleeding proper and scratching, the
latter being preparatory to rubbing on the medicine which is thus
brought into more direct contact with the blood.” He then explains
that “scratching is a painful process.... In preparing the young
men for the ball play, the shaman uses an instrument somewhat
resembling a comb, having seven teeth, made from the sharpened
splinters of the leg bone of a turkey.” He further enters into
minute details concerning the operation which he says is performed
“on each arm below the elbow and on each leg above and below
the knee.”
So much for the curvedness of Mr. Meredith’s implements. The
indentations noticeable on some of the outer or straight edges may be
explained by the fact that finally “the instrument is drawn across the
breast from the two shoulders so as to form a cross, ... so that the
body is thus gashed in nearly three hundred places.”*
* VII. Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, p. 334.
20 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
Surgical scratching on flat surfaces is also practised, though seldom
enough, by the Northern Dénés.
Here are two late instances that will illustrate the circumstances
under which bleeding is mostly resorted to here. About two months
ago, I returned from a trip of over three weeks duration to an outpost
of my central mission. On the way back, one of my companions experi-
enced some physical difficulty with one of his feet which rendered
snow-shoeing exceedingly painful, if not quite impossible. Without
any loss of time, his instep was duly scarified with a pocket-knife
by one of his fellow Indians. Upon my return here, I noticed one
of our women who since some time had been suffering from some
nervous derangement, possibly catalepsy, bandaged about the head.
Enquiry brought out the fact that, during my absence, she had
undergone an almost identical operation in the vicinity of the
temples with the addition, this time, of a poultice of bruised hemlock
roots.
Another surgical practice which was formerly much in vogue
among the Carriers, but has now fallen into desultude, was that of
burning. It could not properly be called cautery, as its object was
not the searing of the flesh as a means of stopping blood or of
preventing the extension of a local trouble. It was used mainly
against rheumatism or any ill of a cognate nature, and its chosen
seat of operation was very generally the joints of a limb, either the
wrist, the elbow, the shoulder, or the knee. Sometimes also any part
of the spine, and more seldom a spot on the bony surface of the head
were likewise experimented on.
This is how the operation was performed. When an Indian had
resolved to get rid of an aching pain that had become too acute
for patient bearing, he took a round piece of tinder perhaps one-third
of an inch in diameter, wetted with his saliva that part of its surface
that.was to come in contact with the flesh, and then pressed it firmly
on the joint the healing of which was deemed most likely to ensure
the prompt recovery of the whole limb. Next, he himself, or an
obliging friend ignited the top of the tinder, which was suffered to
burn down to the very flesh, wherein a corresponding sore or cavity
was inevitably produced. The excruciating pain consequent on the
slow combustion of the piece of fungus was ordinarly borne in the
most stoically indifferent way possible. A moment of the severest
anguish is nothing to the Indian, especially if accompanied by the
1900-1. } DENE SURGERY. 21
hope of a speedy recovery ; but almost any bodily discomfort, if too
prolonged, is to him a torment past endurance.
To return to our surgical experiment. Should the tinder totally
consume itself on the flesh, the operation was deemed a failure, and it
was at once repeated on an adjoining place. Was the result of
the second attempt identical with that of the first, a third spot,
always close to the joint, was operated on, until, under the effect
of a slight explosion due, perhaps, to the sudden contact of the
fire with the serous fluid under the epiderm, the burning piece of
tinder flew up as a sure token of the disappearance of the cause
of pain.
The greatest faith was placed in the. efficacy of this operation,
and many an old Carrier bears to this day indelible marks which testify
to his former trust in that “ fire cure.”
Another kind of operation in connection wherewith fire figured as
a most important factor, was that resorted to as a cure against ear-ache.
It has an even more superstitious complexion, and it is likewise on the
wane. In such cases, a few hairs picked from the tail of a dog were
singed and their extremities introduced, while burning, into the drum
of the ear. Should the hair used have been that of a she-dog, the cure
was regarded as a matter of course.
Another appliance much in vogue among the Carriers, and which,
though taken from the vegetable kingdom, is hardly less effective than
fire, is a sort of blister made of the bruised green leaves and stems
of a plant called waltak in Carrier, and of the botanical identity of
which I am not quite sure, though I incline to the belief that it is the
Ranunculus sceleratus. Its caustic properties are so great that it is
seldom applied directly to the flesh, sometimes a thick covering of
linen stuff being unequal to the task of rendering its application
bearable for more than a few moments. It is used against almost
any acute pain of a local character.
Passing now to the various branches of the surgical art such as it is
practised among the Northern Dénés, we may come to the setting of
broken limbs. This, I am bound to say, is done in a most clumsy
way. Though all our Indians, being expert huntsmen and therefore
experienced butchers, know and name without the least difficulty any
part of the animal anatomy, the most they formerly could do in
connection with the injured human body was to try, not always
22 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
successfully, to reduce dislocations. As to fractures properly speak-
ing, no setting of the broken ends of the bone was attempted. The
limb was simply enclosed, with hardly any padding, in several
envelopes of birch bark with a few wooden splinters bound around
as tight as possible, and then left to heal as best it could. In every
instance deformity ensued as a matter of course, and even now more
than one crooked leg or stiff arm is a witness to the inefficiency of
Déné surgery.
In no case was amputation resorted to, except when it was self-
evident that the limb, foot or finger, was too deeply cut to allow of the
edges of the wound becoming reunited. In such cases, the bark of the
aspen root (Populus tremuloides) was much esteemed as an astringent.
More than once, too, persons supposed to be endowed with magic
powers, and who were on that account styled uwzé hutgaz (he whose
mouth effects cure), were in times past, asked to suck the blood out
of the wound so as to prevent gangrene or any other undesirable result.
Such persons were so much the more inclined to render this service,
as they well knew that it would not be left unpaid for. And so it
was that even on such occasions superstition claimed rights which, as
shall be seen in the course of this essay, affected more or less nearly all
surgical operations. |
But if the cut did not materially affect the bone, and in other cases
as, for instance, that of a serious bite from a vicious dog, the Carriers
had, and indeed continue to have, recourse to suture, generally with
satisfactory results. In olden times, very often shreds of moose sinews
were used as thread, while sharp splinters of bone, commonly of a swan
wing, did duty as a needle.
Ligature against hemorrhage was unknown. Applications of the
chewed bark of aspen root took its place. When the wound or
sore manifested a tendency towards decomposition, a sort of blister
of the inner bark of the willow (Salix longifolia) and of the
outer bark of the bear berry bush* was applied, generally with
good results.
All cases of hernia are treated by bandaging. But sometimes the
* Not to be confounded with the Kinnikinik plant or Arctostaphylus uva-urst, The plant I now
refer to is a shrub four or five feet high, whose name seems to be unknown to all the English-speaking
people I have met, though the plant is very abundant all through my district. French Canadians in the
service of the Hudson’s Bay Company call it, it would seem, /’arbe aux sept écorces, though it is no
tree at all. The medical properties of its leaves, bark and root are highly valued by the Indians, The
word I call it by is merely a translation of its Carrier name sces-mai-tccen, bear-berry-stick, or bush.
1900-f. ] DENE SURGERY. 23
rupture has been so serious that it results in a complete protrusion of
the abdominal viscera. Such cases are always fatal here. Unable
to effect a cure, the Dénés try to alleviate the sufferings of the patient
by means of an eagle or goose quill, slightly cut at the end, and stuck
in the outward excrescence. This serves as a duct for the purulent
matter which is usually formed in the vicinity of the rupture.
Incredible as it may seem, I never heard of any case of inguinal
hernia, and the natives I questioned on that subject profess to be
ignorant thereof.
Gunshot wounds are now treated first by sucking out the fine
soot-like residue generally concomitant with the tearing of flesh by
a projectile from a fire-arm, after which the shots or ball are extracted
if possible, the wound carefully washed and finally covered with some
emollient medicinal herbs.
I have said that amputation was unknown among the Northern
Dénés. This is strictly true as regards surgical operations; but,
among the Sekanais, there was another kind of amputation which
was often practised, especially by the women. This consisted in the
voluntary cutting off of a finger or of part thereof as an outward sign
of extreme grief, anger or resentment. It was resorted to mostly on
the occasion of the death of a beloved child, sometimes upon the loss of
a kind husband and, more seldom, in cases of disappointed love.
More than one mother went even further, and did not hestitate to
horribly lacerate the breasts her dead offspring had sucked, as a mark
of her disgust that she should be left alive after the object of her
affection was gone.* Not long ago there died among the Sékanais,
who trade their peltries at Fort McLeod, a woman who is said to
have had but two fingers left intact. Even here, at Stuart’s Lake,
we have among the Carriers, a Sekanais woman whose shortened
index attests the intensity of her past troubles. On such occasions
a common axe replaces the surgical knife.
The treatment of incipient deformities is hardly more serious than
that of fractures. As a matter of fact, in most cases it is commenced:
too late and stopped too soon to be of much benefit. As with
fractures, pieces of birch bark, with the addition occasionally of
wooden splinters, are kept very tight over the spine or the diseased
* Such outward marks of sorrow recall facts recorded in the history of barbarous nations. Thus we
read that, at the death of Attila, his followers manifested their sense of the loss they had suffered by
lacerating themselves with knives.
24 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
limb by means of stout bandages. But as the patient is generally a
child, and as youth has pretty much its own way among the natives,
it commonly happens that said patient soon grows tired of the
restraint imposed by the apparatus and easily persuades his parents
to throw it away before half the time necessary for a cure has elapsed.
Thus it is that hunch-backs, mostly females, are not unknown among
the Dénés.
Speaking of females reminds me of a circumstance in connection
wherewith Déné surgery is, as a rule, more successful. I mean that
dangerous complaint known to medical men as prolapsus uteri. As
most of the drudgery of the daily life, especially when on the wing,
still falls to the lot of the woman, accidents, oftentimes quite serious,
follow as a matter of course. Heavy packing, stumbling, falling, or
the straining of the lower extremities frequently enough occasion the
displacement, more or less pronounced, of the womb. In such cases,
the treatment observed is quite rational, and therefore, it is ordinarily
crowned with success. The patient is immediately laid in a recumbent
position with the head rather lower than the womb, and quite commonly,
by dint of external manipulation, the injured organ is pressed up to
its normal place, after which strong bandages covering a plaster-like
padding, added to copious draughts of the decoction of the stems of the
raspberry bush, help to neutralize the effects of the accident. But I
am bound to confess that, in the more severe cases, sterility ensues
even in otherwise healthy women. Some persons of this Mission are
quite noted for their skill in connection with all complaints of this and
a cognate nature.
Considering the inconstancy of the native temperament, it speaks
well for their comprehension of the gravity of such complaints that,
in extreme cases, they should keep the patient as long as a full month
reclining with the head in a lower plane than the rest of the body
after the womb has been duly replaced. I know of one such case
which was so serious that the organ had escaped from the body and
was protruding almost in its entirety. It happened in a remote village
long before I was here, and its treatment may therefore be considered
as an instance of unassisted native surgery. It was consequent on a
painful delivery, and the mother was so skilfully operated on that
she lived to see several grandchildren by the daughter who was the
involuntary cause of the whole trouble.
On such occasions, our Carrier women wrap their hand, preparatory
to internal manipulation, with a kerchief or some soft material
1900-1.] DENE SURGERY. 25
and, of course, perform the operation as gently and as gradually as
possible.
Midwifery was formerly unknown among the Carriers as it has
remained among the Tsilkoh’tin, another Déné tribe. But since the
advent of civilization, it would seem that our women are not half as
hardy as they used to be*, and, whenever possible, one or more of their
female neighbours are now called in to assist nature in the process of
parturition. So far as I know, this aid consists in external pressure
only. It goes without saying that none of the various instrumental
operations resorted to in grievous cases among civilized people are
known among poor children of the forest, whose only cutting tools
were, but yesterday, roughly flaked stone implements.
As parturifacients, three plants are chiefly valued and used to this
day among the Carriers. They are the horse-tail (Equzsetum hyemale )
which is taken in strong decoctions, the bark of the Devil’s bush
(Fatsia horrida), and that of the elder (Sambucus racemosus), hot
infusions of which are drunk previous to parturition or before the
after-birth is expelled.
A particularity subsequent to delivery which is proper to the
natives and is based on superstitious notions, is that relative to the
placenta. This was formerly wrapped and suspended from a tree at
some distance from the village. Should it have come in contact with
water, the mother was believed to be doomed to perpetual sterility.
Any reader, ever so little conversant with American aboriginal
sociology, knows of the sudatory or sweat-bath wherein the whole
naked body is exposed, within an hermetically closed space, to the
effect of steam emanating from heated stones. This is quite common
among the Northern Dénés. But those Indians have besides a partial
or local vapour-bath which is a favourite with lately delivered women.
This is called yen-diz'ai (it—an object long or heavy—lies on the
ground), while the regular sweat-bath is known as f¢se’-z@/, or the heat
of stones. Yen-diz az consists in a round, shallow hole about one
foot in diameter dug in the ground, wherein two or three red hot
stones are laid. Across the apex of the cavity, small sticks are
deposited gridiron-wise and then covered with moistened grass,
* That this is a common result of civilization over savage populations is shown by the following state-
ment, one of the many which could be adduced: ‘‘ When they begin to take on civilized habits, the Dakota
women find they can not continue to follow the customs of their grandmothers.” Riggs’ Dakota Grammar,
etc., p. 208,
26 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
Finally some rag, as an old towel just soaked in water—the equivalent
of the piece of tanned skin of former years—is thrown on the grass,
thus completely closing the aperture of the hole, and the patient
steams herself over it in the region of the womb. This contrivance
is, it seems, fruitful of the most satisfactory results.
As soon as the new-born child has received the first cares necessi-
tated by its entry into the world, due attention is paid by its mother
and her attendants to its future personal appearance. Here long heads
do not meet with favour; therefore the head of the infant is frequently
compressed or squeezed between the hands applied to its top and to
the chin. No mechanical or permanent contrivance is called into
requisition. Futhermore, its eyes are time and again opened and
the lids pressed asunder, not any too gently, so as to cause
generous dimensions for the balls, and the tiny eye-brows* are
from time to time manipulated into the most elegantly arched shape
possible.
I will now close this review of the Déné surgery by mentioning
an operation which the preceding pages have not prepared the reader
to anticipate, I mean the extraction of cataract. Few ills are more
common here than diseases of the eye. The number of blind people
among the Carriers, and the Babines especially, is altogether out of
proportion with the population. Snow-haze, accidental blows on the
face received in the thickets, smoke from the camp fire or from
underneath the fruit-drying or salmon-curing shanties, added some-
time to uncleanliness on the part of the old people, are the main causes
of this too prevalent complaint. Cataract is easily discerned by the
natives who treat it in this wise.
A minute pellicle is torn from a piece of birch bark (Bztula
papyracea), after which it is doubled up and its extremities firmly
held between the fingers. One of the sides of the curve thus formed
is then used as the edge of a scraper on the corner of the eye next
to the bridge of the nose, and the thin film-like covering on the eye-ball
is worked on till part of it is torn asunder, thereby affording a hold for
the grasp of the fingers. These now complete the operation by gently
drawing off the whole impediment to vision.
Instead of birch bark, others use for the same purpose a piece of
calcined bone which, coming in contact with the waste tissue formed
*I suppose I will not teach anything to my readers by recalling the fact that Indian babies are almost
always born with a full crop of hair and more than once with several teeth.
1900-1. | DENE SURGERY. 27
on the eye, seems to have the same drawing properties as a magnet has
on a bit of iron.
In either case, the eye is left sore and bloody. It is now carefully
washed, and, as a final treatment, it is bathed with a cooled infusion of
the inner bark of the bear berry bush to which a little woman’s milk
has been added. The former especially is reputed to be quite a specific
against any soreness of the eyes, though its mordant properties render
its application very trying at first. With this last preparation the
patient is made to retire, and, when he wakes up on the morrow,
he generally feels quite well. Such operations are even now quite
common and as uniformly successful. But I am inclined to believe
that, considering the primitive way they are performed, at least as
much credit is due to the endurance of the patient as to the skill of
the oculist.
The most common form of ophthalmic trouble among the Northern
Dénés is snow blindness and its resulting whitening of the affected
pupil. A persistent haziness in the atmosphere and the refraction of
a strong light on the water will sometimes have the same effect on
persons of a delicate constitution. If allowed to develop itself
unhindered, this deterioration of the pupil will completely destroy the
sight. The Carriers’ great remedy against this complaint, as in all
cases of soreness resulting from accidental blows or tearings, is the
balsam of young spruce tops (Adzes nigra). The upper shoots once
cut off the sapling are bent and split in two and then left by the
fireside. After the resinous liquid they contain has been heated out,
the ball of the eye is gently coated therewith by means of a bird quill.
28 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL VII.
THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE DENES.
LETTER FROM THE REV. FATHER MORICE.
STUART'S LAKE MISSION, 2 /an., zgo7z.
Editor ‘‘ TRANSACTIONS C.I.,””» TORONTO.
DEAR SiIR,—In a late communication from Prof. O. C. Mason, of the Smithsonian
Institution, I find the following :—
“‘In the publication which you sent me, you call attention to the list of Atha-
paskan tribes published in the Standard Dictionary. Supposing me to be the author
of that list, you make some just observations about its meagerness. I am happy to
» tell you that, while I wrote a great number of definitions for the Standard Dictionary,
I did not make any ethnological list whatever.”
Prof. Mason here refers to remarks published in the latter part of the first of my
papers lately printed in the Memorial Volume (p. 82). It is indeed very unfortunate
that I should have been guilty of such an injustice with regard to a scientist whom
I know by personal experience to be so pains-taking and conscientious in his work.
My regret is so much the greater as I more than half suspected the real author of
the classification incriminated in my little paper. But the list of the editorial staff
of the Standard Dictionary prefixed to that valuable publication left me no choice
but to attribute the incomplete Déné classification to Prof. Mason, who is described as
having been in charge of the anthropological department, while the actual compiler’s
name is therein associated with a branch of lexicology which has no necessary connec-
tion with ethnography. ’
Hoping you will kindly give this rectification as mnch publicity as was granted
to the statement which has necessitated it, I remain, dear Mr. Editor,
Yours faithfully,
A. G. MORICE, O.M.I.
1900-1. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 29
Citi AL {EXAMINATION (OF» SPANISH “DOCUMENTS
RELATIVE TO: THE CANARY ASLANDS, SUBMITTED
TO, THE WRITER BY “SENOR DON, JUAN BETHEN-
COURT ALEONSO, OF TENERIFE.
BY: OMN. CAMPBEEL, iki Pik.o.C. Eres
Professor tn the Presbyterian College, Montreal.
(Read 26th January, rgor).
A VALUABLE treatise, published in Paris, and bearing date 1629-30,
is entitled: “Histoire de la premiere Descouverte et Conqueste des
Canaries. Faite des l’an 1402, par Jean de Bethencourt, Chambellan
du Roy Charles VI., etc.” <A translation of it is to be found in the
publications of the Hakluyt Society, which first appeared in 1872.
De Bethencourt was the first European discoverer of the Canary
Islands, which passed into the hands of Spain, in whose possession
they still remain. A lineal descendant of the Conquistador is Senor
Don Juan Bethencourt Alfonso, a doctor of medicine and scholar of
note in Tenerife. With a generous confidence in the philological
attainments of the writer, he sent him last summer (1900), through
M. Henri O’Shea, of Biarritz, member of the Royal Academy of
History of Madrid, three important documents presenting problems
for solution. These are a printed pamphlet of fifty-six pages octavo,
entitled, “ Vocabulario del antiquo Dialecto de los Canarios” ; a folio
manuscript of seventy-seven pages, designated, “Complemento al
Vocabulario del antiquo Dialecto de los Canarios”; and a nineteen
page manuscript quarto, with many pen and ink illustrations, bearing
the heading, “ Aclaraciones: Inscripciones de las islas Canarias.”
The first contains vocabularies of the Guanche or Canary Island
language, now extinct, taken down from the lips of the aborigines
from 1503 onward. A few words go farther back, at least as far as
1482. The vocabularies embrace Religious Concepts, Titles, Arms,
Clothing and Utensils, Aliments, Animals and Vegetables, Proper
Names of Persons and Places, Miscellaneous Words, and a few Phrases
or Sentences. They are from Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria,
Tenerife, Gomera, Palma and Hierro. The second implements the
30 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII.
first very largely, especially in names of places, and in valuable notes,
historical and documentary. The third is virtually a supplement to a
manuscript entitled, “ Inscripciones de la isla de Hierro,” sent to the
writer by Dr. Bethencourt in 1898, for translation. A French version
of the translation, made by M. O'Shea, appeared more than a year
ago in the transactions of the Biarritz Association ; and the English
version is now in press for the transactions of the Royal Society of
Canada. The most important inscription in the present document
is that on the statue called “La Virgen de Candelaria,” from Tenerife,
in apparently Roman letters; others in ruder script are from rock faces
in Canaria, Gomera and Hierro. Such then is the material on which
the writer is called upon to express a scientific opinion, as a student
of language and of ancient Turanian and other inscriptions. The
threefold relations of the Canary Islands to Africa, Europe and
America, invest the study with special interest.
In allowing Dr. Bethencourt to speak for himself, the writer must
crave his.and the Institute’s indulgence, inasmuch as he has dabbled
but little in the Spanish tongue since college days, which lie thirty-
five years in the past; and he finds some of the Doctor's rhetorical
forms and quaint expressions to transcend the range of the ordinary
grammar and dictionary. Unconsciously, at times, he interlards a
Guanche term, perfectly significant to the dwellers on the islands, but
ignored by the Castilian lexicographer. The first document has no
text, being pure vocabulary. The second, or folio manuscript, contains
six pages of introduction, which are as follows: “I send as much as is
known of the Guanche language and of those spoken in the other
islands. The printed document comprises all the words and phrases
published up to this date, during four or five centuries, by authors
native and foreign ; and the manuscript contains what I have been able
to bring together in a period of thirty years.
“Either list is replete with errors, not only of orthography and
pronunciation, since each collector has gone on accommodating
speeches and words to his own age, but also we have arrived at taking
as Guanche what is the purest and noblest Castilian. Moreover, there
is such a tendency among our people to contraction or apocope, that
even speeches reduce themselves to a single common word, as, for
example, the word Lerines, of the isle of Hierro, which I am sure,
through thorough investigation, arose out of La era de Inez. If, to
this ignorance, under the disadvantage of which labour the majority
of the words which we have collected, be added the fact that almost all
refer to localities and personal proper names, and that there have lived
1900-1. ] SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. ai
in the islands French, Portuguese, Irish, and natives of many different
provinces of Spain, as well as Jews of various origins, and Indians or
emigrants from the islands who have returned after many years spent
in all parts of America, it will be understood how many foreign words
have naturalized themselves in the country.
“ However, the difficulties of the problem do not cease here, since it
is complicated by the thousands of negro slaves and captive Moriscos,
who, in some islands more, in others fewer, have dwelt in all since the
time of the first conqueror, Juan Bethencourt, until our day. It is not
too rash to assert that, at certain periods, the half of the population of
Lanzerote and Fuerteventura was Arab and Morisco. As the clergy
and the inquisitors went about, always on the lookout for the filtration
of heresy through the chinks of toleration, they employed every kind of
means to put an end to it. In the parochial archives of Betancuria
(island of Fuerteventura) there may be read in the book of visitation,
drawn up for the delegation by the licentiate Aceituno in 1660—‘ that
the Moriscos generally speak the Morisco language, and teach their
children to speak it, and not to speak our language; for which reason it
has been commanded and is commanded that, from this time forward,
no Morisco shall speak the said language nor teach it to his children,
under the penalty of 300 maravedis’ for each offence. In the
instructions of the bishop Zimenez in 1666 (according to the same
archives) it is ordained that, ‘from this time forward, the said Arabic
language shall not be spoken, neither Traigan nor Alquiceles nor
Tagolines ; that the Moriscos, male and female, and other persons, shall
not sing Morisco songs in the Arabic language, such being a scandalous
thing and full of suspicion. The same took place in the island of
Lanzerote. In the archives of the Puebla of Teguise, referring to 1665,
appears this decision, ‘that, being informed that the Moriscos of this
island commonly make use of the Algarabian tongue of the Moors, and
teach their children to speak it, the evil be not permitted to continue.’
“Until far on in the eighteenth century, down to the reign of
Charles III., the freebooters of the islands sustained intimate relations
with those of the neighbouring coast (of Africa), visiting each other,
inter-marrying, and maintaining amicable and family connections. It
is an undoubted truth that the pirates of the nearest coast of the main-
land, which is removed by but half a dozen hours of navigation from the
islands, had as many Canarians of the isles as Moriscos in the mutual
cabalgadas and ragstas which they made. Some years ago I went
through these regions, accompanied by certain friends, to examine the
scene where were summoned the dwellers in one of the various forts or
R2 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
castlets, who do much to catch little. We went round about among the
Celestinos or Moors of the coast, inspecting those who exhibited negro,
mulatto and Arab types, others indefinable, and many that were ruddy,
with blue eyes. While contemplating these last, I asked myself the
question: ‘Were they descendants of the ancient Guanche family
that existed prior to the historic epoch in the remote ages of Atlantis,
or of captives taken in the Canaries, from the fifteenth century onwards,
or, perhaps, specimens of the Vandal population or of other barbarians
who had passed into the north of Africa?’ In regard to the islands of
Canaria, Tenerife, Palma and Gomera, they contained many Moriscos
and many more negro slaves, not only in private service, but also as
labourers on the plantations. The first of the islands referred to still
has pueblos, such as Santa Lucia de Tirajana, in which half of the census
is negro shaded or of a significant darkness, an obscurity that extends
to several villages. Similar conditions obtain in Tenerife as at Adeje
and other points, and the same is the case in Gomera and Palma. As
for the island of Hierro, although not altogether free from these extra-
neous ethnic elements, it was the least contaminated, for a native
peasantry lived frugally beside the many waters that irrigated their
sugar and other plantations.
“Tenorance of these historical facts, and a superficial examination of
the subject, have given occasion to certain writers to state, with a
scientific air, that the Guanches were prognathic, not that they could
find any living example of an acute facial angle, but, from the discovery
of skulls fulfilling the conditions, taken from tombs opened and little
studied, they generalized from rare exceptions, being misled by the
spirit of novelty. This question led me, as by the hand, to occupy
myself, though but lightly, with the subject of the Guanche race, in
order to aid in re-establishing historic truth concerning it. Terrified by
the assertions of books, the press and other deterrents, both natives and
strangers repeat to all new-comers, with affected lamentation, that they
possess evidence of the annihilation of the Guanche population by the
conquistadores. It is this common and vulgar, foolish talk that professes
to give knowledge. Guanches are we and all ours, all, even to the
foundation of the population of the archipelago, with the foreign
elements already remarked. Without doubt, inasmuch as we live,
speak, dress and think in European fashion, one would have difficulty
in discovering it. Let us turn to our pastoral idylls and primitive skin
dress in order to recognize ourselves.
“Until the end of the eighteenth century, none of our chroniclers
said, or was able to say, such impostures. Unfortunately, our writers of
1900-1. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 33
this age confused their minds with the ideas of the French Encyclo-
pedists, from whose influence escaped no one of the most illustrious
historians of the Canaries, not even the most notable, the erudite Viera
y Clavijo. This man of positive merit, without knowing how or why,
without any foundation, alienating a truth which he ought to have
known, first launched his specious falsehood with all the authority with
which his reputation invested it. The rest belonged to the romantic
school, a couple of generations of satyr-poets, who corrupted our history.
The first to protest against these falsities was M. Berthelot in his
notable work, and he was followed by others in his laudable purpose.
But neither the serious labours of these men, which most people do not
read, even including the literati; nor the testimony of the archives, in
which appear wills, and contracts of purchase and sale of the aborigines,
as well as marriage contracts and judicial procedures ; nor the teaching
surrendered by the very opened tombs, has sufficed to retard the
velocity acquired by the ball, launched forth to roll in time by the
unforgotten Viera, meanwhile gliding over the area of superficial
ignorance in which we live.
“On the other hand, as before the conquest, so after the fourteenth
century, adventurers and pirates came from Europe to capture Guanches
and sell them for slaves. From the sixteenth century onwards the
natives must of necessity have taken knowledge of the Spanish nobility,
not descended from Moor, Jew or Guanche ; and from this and a world-
wide anxiety after pride of birth, have forgotten their affiliation, of
which at the time they had ability to obtain proof. Who knows
whether the disappearance and frequent burning of archives and other
documents was part and parcel of this foolish pride? As the erudite
historian Millares tells us, the inquisitors, certainly without any fraudu-
lent design, made.very full lists of Guanche descents.
“TI proceed to add the tedious illustrations. I have deemed it
suitable to prefix these preparatory considerations for those who are
little versed in the internal history of the Canary Island people, a people
little known even to those who study uninteresting tribes leading
distant and secluded lives. I trust these data will not be lost on him
who undertakes the serious but glorious task of making the study of the
Guanche tongue. I know of no other materia!s than those I send; and
I do not know if there is sufficient for such an enterprise, in order to
re-construct or even make known the affiliation of a language which has
entirely disappeared. It is a miracle of mercy to have the subject
investigated by a genuine philologist, who alone knows how to exercise
a wise discrimination and a useful sifting among the farrago of errors
3
34 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
which we hold as vocabularies of the Guanche language. Had the
Canary Islanders a common tongue, or, at least, a common origin?”
So far Dr. Bethencourt, who, the writer sincerely hopes, will not be .
tempted to apply to him the Italian proverb, “ Traditore non Tradut-
tore.” The foregoing paragraphs present at least the gist of his
introduction to the vocabularies, and nothing in it has been omitted.
Many books have been written on the Canary Islands, both before and
after the publication of the English histories of Glasse and Thomas
Nicols. The writer has had access to some of these, among them to the
work of M. E. Pégot-Ogier on the “ Fortunate Isles.” This author and
others contend for the Celtic origin of the Guanches, and for their
relation with the Berber tribes of northern Africa, whence old Guanche
traditions concur in bringing their ancestors. The Berber dialects are
much corrupted with Arabic and in part with negro languages, but their
substance in vocabulary and grammar is Celtic. While a very consider-
able body of Celts emigrated from the East through Europe, leaving
colonies in Bavaria, the Tyrol and Umbria, and peopling Gaul and the
British Islands, a large number of them, even according to British
traditions, Welsh, Irish and Scottish, passed westward through Africa
and left their name to the province of Numidia. Of these latter some,
at least, must have crossed over into Spain accompanied by the Iberic.
Mauretani, to constitute together the Celt-Iberian population of that
peninsula. A smaller, yet not insignificant, emigration took place, at
some remote period, from Cape Nun, in Morocco, or some more western
point, to Lanzarote and the adjoining islands. Was this last tide of —
migration purely Celtic or, like that into Spain, was it Celt-Iberian ?
Not to speak here of antiquities, such as architectural remains,
arms and utensils, manners and customs, of which the writer has treated
elsewhere, there remain two sources of information as to the affiliation
of the Canary Islanders; the evidences of their written and of their
spoken language. Of inscriptions the writer has translated about
sixty, thirty and more of which have been already published, leaving
twenty-seven, that have not so far seen the light, to illustrate this paper.
They are, with no single exception, Iberic, their characters being those
of Etruria and Iberic Spain, and the language they yield being archaic
Basque. The best Basque scholars of France and Spain have homolo-
gated the translations already published, and have thus placed them
beyond the reach of cavil. The fact seems, therefore, to be established,
that, not only in Hierro, whence came most of the inscriptions, but also
throughout the archipelago, a population akin to the Basques of the
Pyrenees existed in a state of literary culture, and holding the reins of
1900-1. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS, 35
power. Two of the inscriptions published by M. O’Shea, President
of the Biarritz Association, in its “ Bulletin Mensuel” of December,
1898, namely, Nos. XX. and XXII., make mention of one Lamia,
a Roman functionary. In 23 B.C., Atlius Lamia and L. Apronius were
proconsuls in Africa (Tacitus, Annales, IV., 13); and the death of
Lamia is noted as occurring in 33 A.D., in Lib. VI., 27, of the same
historian. But an Atlius Lamia fought against the Cantabrians, as
lieutenant of Augustus (Horace, Odes, III., 17). L. A#lius Lamia
again was consul in the year 3 A.D.; and L. Alius Plautius Lamia was
suffragan with Domitian in the year 80 (Fasti Consulares). The
Canary Islands were discovered by the Romans before 78 B.C., for
Sertorius had the idea of passing his last days in them (Plutarch, Life
of Sertorius). While it is hard to decide who the Lamia was that the
Hierro inscriptions celebrate, it is probable that his date lies between
23 B.C. and 80 A.D. At least three generations of Iberic kings
preceded his advent to the island, thus giving a pre-Christian era for
the settlement of the Canaries from Africa.
The spoken language, as represented by the vocabularies which
Dr. Bethencourt has, the writer thinks, unduly disparaged, supports, to
a certain extent, the written evidence for an Iberic immigration.
Among the words found in Fuerteventura occurs sorrocloco, which
Dr. Bethencourt translates— “ consistia en acostarse el marido durante
los dias que lo estuviera su muger durante el puerperio, con iguales
atenciones.” This is “la couvade” of the Basques, which M. Francisque
Michel thus describes: “les femmes se lévent immédiatement apres
leurs couches, et vaquent aux soins du ménage, pendant que leur mari
se met au lit, prend la tendre créature avec lui, et recoit ainsi les
conpliments des voisins” (Le Pays Basque, p. 201). This custom is
mentioned by Apollonius Rhodius, the author of “The Argonauts,”
as peculiar to the Tibareni of north-eastern Asia Minor; Diodorus
Siculus attributes it to the Corsicans ; Strabo, to the Iberians of Spain ;
Marco Polo, to an aboriginal population of China, identified with the
Miau-tze, whence Butler in his Hudibras, writes:
‘*For though Chinese go to bed,
And lie in, in their ladies’ stead ”’;
and Du Tertre and Dobrizhofer found it among the Caribs of the West
Indies and the Abipones of the Gran Chaco in South America. The
whole subject is discussed by the late Max Miiller, in his essay on
“Manners and Customs,” in the second volume of Chips from a
German Workshop. The writer, though allowed by competent
36 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoLt. VIL.
authorities to be proficient in Basque studies, has sought in vain for
the native name of the couvade. At length it comes to meet him from
far Fuerteventura. M. Michel cites Boulanger, in seeking the origin
of this strange custom. He says: “Il semble que l’on doit regarder
cette conduite du mari comme une sorte de pénitence, fondée sur la
honte et le repentir d’avoir donné le jour a un étre de son espece.”
There is no doubt that the first part of sorvrocloco is the Basque sor,
birth or the creature born. If Boulanger is right, the second will be
ahalge, shame ; the whole meaning “the shame of the birth.” But the
second may be acholtsu, in which case the word signifies “the care of
the newly born.’ As the botanist rejoices over a new plant, and the
numismatist over a new coin, so will etymologists be delighted with the
recovery of the long lost sorrocloco.
The “couvade” was an Iberic, and thus a Turanian custom, and
there is no evidence that Celts ever practised it. A further examin-
ation of the vocabularies, both of common and proper nouns, reveals
very few more Basque terms, however. It is possible that adarno,
a tree, may be the Basque wdarondo, a pear-tree; ava, a goat, the
B. avz,a ram; while chede, a boundary, is pure Basque. Also estafia,
to beat, may come from the B. astz; and gofio, porridge of maize, is
certainly the B. sofa, zopa, meaning the same thing. A mace or club,
magado, seems to connect with the B. makatu, to strike with a stick ;
and moca, a javelin, with the B. moko, a point. Burnt ears of wheat,
rapayo, may be derived from the B. erre-dzhz; and the B. dupha is as
near to the Canary ¢adajo, a milk-pail, as the Gaelic ¢ubog. A flint
knife, tafiqgue, appears of kin to the B. epfakz, to cut; and tamaro,
tamarco, denoting a skin cloak and dress, recall the B. zamarra, a
blouse; while aczchez, beans, is the B. ekosari, chilate, a graminaceous
herb, the B. chzlzsta, lentils, and smorangana, strawberry, the B.
marigurt. But these are only fifteen words out of more than 450,
for which corresponding Celtic terms have been found. The Basque
terms were evidently in the position of loan words. That well-known
word /aznco, God, does not appear in the lists, but is replaced by
Acoran, the Celtic Crom; and the same is true of all distinctively
Basque terms, which could not be absent if the Guanches had been an
Iberic people, and the engravers of the inscriptions.
The writer does not profess to be a Celtic scholar in the best sense
of that term, but among the six hundred languages and dialects to
which he has given more or less attention in a fairly busy life, he has
not neglected the Celtic and their remains. He is fortunate also in
possessing the friendship and collaboration of that eminent master of
1900-1. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 37
the Celtic languages, the Rev. Dr. MacNish, of Cornwall, who has
kindly undertaken a task bevond the writer’s powers, that, namely, of
assigning Celtic values to the almost innumerable proper names.
furnished by Dr. Bethencourt, as well as to investigate the construction
of larger locutions, phrases or sentences provided by him. I[n_ his.
attempt to explain the remaining terms, chiefly common nouns, with
some verbs and adjectives, the writer must apologize for the slender
Celtic outfit for the work which his library supplies. The books
chiefly drawn upon are O’Reilly’s Irish Dictionary, which is admirably
full of botanical names, and Edward’s English and Welsh Dictionary,
which is correspondingly deficient.
The work of comparison had not progressed very far, before the
Guanche tongue revealed itself as more Cymric (Welsh and Breton),
than Gaelic. The very name Guanche seems to connect with the
Welsh gzwyxz, white, and thus to have denoted a white population in
the vicinity of African negroes, swarthy Arabs, and red Iberians.
Among distinctively Cymric terms appear the Canary Island
guatatiboa, the national festival, in which it is not hard to recognize
the Welsh ezsteddfod; guayafan and guayafacan, co-adjutor of the
governor, answering to the W. cympen and cympencun,; punapal, first
son, the W. pen-epprll, the chief descendant ; salgareo, rough music, the
W. mawlganu, to chant; guevech?, dignity, the W. gofyged; tttogan,
heaven, the W. ¢uddo-cwn, the covering of the head; amogante, berry,
the W. magon,; guanoco, weak, infirm, the W. gwan,; and zguanoso,
with the same signification, the W. egwan. Compound words are
specially valuable as tests of correct or scientific comparison. Take,
for example, the Guanche word valeron, which denotes, “the cave of
the vestals””; it is the Welsh ffau-lle-rhian, “the cave apartment of the
virgin.” The name of a Guanche god was Atguaychafortanaman, and
this appalling word of seven syllables, means “he who holds the heavens.”
In Irish Gaelic, it is adh-se-a-cabhatr-t-neamh,; and the latter part
“holds the heavens,” is in Welsh cymhorth-nef. The Guanches had very
many words to denote goats and other domestic animals with peculiar
markings, and these, as provided by Dr. Bethencourt, so outran the
writers patience, that, after translating a few, he gave the rest up as
hopeless, save in the hands of one to the Celtic manner born. Thus
manonda is a black goat with white feet; but dan-an-dubh, Irish Gaelic,
and gwyn-yn-du, Welsh, mean “white in black.” A white and
cinnamon goat was called puzpana, which is Irish buzdhe-ban, “ yellow-
white.” A male or he-goat was carabuco, the Irish culbhoc, but the
Welsh bweh-ga/r.
38 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
Articles of food come early into the life of a nation and stay long.
In the Canaries a butter-cake was called dorondango, which is just the
Welsh barachdaen, a slice of bread and butter; ‘¢acerquen, syrup of
mocanes, is the Irish deasguin, molasses; aculan, fresh fat, is the
W. agalen, a lump of butter. It has no doubt puzzled investigators
of the vocabularies to understand how as¢tis-tirma, atis-tirma and
tis-ttrma could mean at once “invocation to God,” “ cry of surrender,”
and “a sacred cliff.” The Gaelic explains it, for its aztchim-trom, “1
beg for protection,” is alike applicable as a prayer to deity and to a
victorious enemy ; while aagha-drim, in the same language, denotes a
sacred ridge or mountain. Take again the Guanche battle-cry, which
shows what devout warriors they were, like the crusaders at Jerusalem.
Its form, as handed down, is datana, which looks dangerous enough for
a “Cruachan”; but it is the Irish deodhann, “by God’s help!” which
in Welsh is a ga gan Dduw. The lists give fara, tarha, tarja as “sign
of remembrance”; it is really the Irish ¢arra, tarrsa, and the Welsh
dere, dyre, which mean “come thou!” Some words denoting rank,
and which the writer, with smaller vocabularies, once counted to the
Iberic Turdetani, who seem to have formed part at least of the Iberic
population of the Canaries, are purely Celtic. Achiman, for example,
was a famous royal name among the Turdetani, but the achzmenceys, or
nobles of the Guanches, were acmhaingeach, which O'Reilly translates
“ powerful, puissant, rich.” So artamy, prince, is the Gaelic ardmhaor,
chief magistrate; chzchiciguico, a squire, is gatsgidheach; and guaire,
noble, is just gwazre, “excellent, noble, great,” says O'Reilly.
Celtic words beginning with the letter t are often doubtful, for, as
O’Reilly remarks, “the letter t is used as an adventitious prefix to all
Irish words beginning with a vowel, which are of the masculine gender
and are preceded by the article az, which in English signifies che.”
The Berbers, with whom the Guanches were most intimately related,
make free use of t both before and after words. Thus medina, the
Arabic for town, they convert into tamdint; murrah, “a woman,” into
tamraut, and dar, “a house,” into taddert. It will, therefore, not be
a matter of surprise that a comparison of the many Canary words,
beginning with this letter, with the Celtic vocabulary, pays but little
heed to what is frequently adventitious, and of no root value. In
tracing the origin of certain Guanche words, it has been necessary to
combine Gaelic and Cymric elements. Such, for instance, is the
universal Guanche word guaniz/, denoting “wild cattle.” Here the
Irish agh gives cattle, and the Welsh azzal, wild. So magarefo, a tall
thin boy, combines the Gaelic mac, a son, and the Welsh d/ga, lanky.
1900-1. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 39
A peculiar combination, but within the limits of the Irish dictionary,
translates the Guanche omanamastuca, bright red; it is omh-aineamh-
dathach, which means “blood stain coloured.” Some very out-of-the-
way epithets are well preserved. Thus dadz/on is the nickname given
by the inhabitants of other islands to a boy of Tenerife; and it is the
Irish buzbzollan, a coxcomb, which leads one to infer that the gilded
youth of Tenerife prided themselves upon their personal appearance.
The son of a plebeian was achicasna, the Welsh gweszx ; a brave man
was altaha, the Irish lath or anthaa, the Irish nzadh; an idler,
debase, was the I. tatmheach,; a vestal virgin, harmaguade, was the
I. er-maighdean, noble virgin; a tall vulgar person, tamarco, was either
the I. ¢amhanach, or the Welsh amrosgo, or both; and a tall slender
man, ¢zgalate, was the I. tezrcfheolach.
Either the Guanches lost the sound of r in many words, or their
reporters omitted to notice it, while, in other cases they intruded that
sound, as in ¢acerqguen compared with the Gaelic deasguzm. Among the
botanical names of the Guanches that are determined, which are few,
occurs that of the Cytisus, which is ¢agasaste; now tragasaste would
not be exactly the same as ddrewgoed, the Welsh name of a Cytisus,
the laburnum, but it is not far from it. Again /azta, treason, leaves out
the r of the Welsh dvad. A peculiar variation is found in the word
which denotes “rod fishing from the shore”; 7z/mero is the Guanche
form, and genwezrio, the Welsh. Yet they are plainly the same word.
In Gomera, Dr. Bethencourt found the term parano, which he defines,
“especie de armazon 0 canizo que se pone sobre el hogar para curar el
queso, etc.,” ie, a stand or hurdle to place on the hearth for curing
cheese, etc. This is just the Irish drannra, a. stand, a prop, support,
doubtless of the same ancient pattern in the old Guanche homes of
Gomera, and in the farm houses of the Green Isle) The words
signifying man are a fair indication of relationship. Of these, axtraha
answers to the Irish azra, common people; coran, to the Welsh gwr ;
cotan, to the I. cathatdhe, warrior; guamf, to the Welsh ymbaffiwr,
fighter; szago, Guanche, to the I. mogh, man; mahey, hero, to the
I. mogan ,; tesetque, great man, to the I. Zozseach,; and tengalate, tall
thin person, to the I. tan-clezth.
The writer has placed the botanical names in a separate vocabulary,
both because they constitute a special study, and because of the indeter-
minateness of most of them, which are simply called, a plant, a herb,
a bush, a tree. Already the Canary Island ¢agasaste, Cytisus, has been
compared with the Welsh ddrewgoed. The two words chzbusco and
chibusquera, a berry and the plant that bears it, can hardly be other
40 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
than the Gaelic subha, a raspberry, and subcraobh, a raspberry bush,
Rubus Idaeus. In creses, beech-nuts, appears the Irish gvech. The
two Irish names, Caorznleana, Valeriana officinalis, and Caorogleana,
Lychnis flos cuculi, should between them explain the Canary gzrolana,
a bush. Calgbrudhan, Ruscus aculeatus or butcher's broom, is hardly
so recognizable in gzvarvera, hivalvera, the Canary word for it; but
guaydil, Convolvulus floridus, answers rather to the Irish codalzan,
Mandragora or mandrake, and codh/an, Papaver or poppy. Bophthal-
mum is yorazda in Canary, the nearest to which in Irish is ceannruadh,
Chelidonium majus or celandine, which Piny extols as an eye-salve.
The Irish szzzczx, Sempervivum or houseleek, resembles the Canary
sanjora, denoting the same. The Dracunculus Canariensis is Zacorantza,
and the name of the Irish Arum of the same family is gacharonda. A
bulbous plant, sarambuche, invites comparison with the Welsh crwaxben,
a bulb. Mallows seem to abound in the islands, being known as
aguamante, amagante, juesco and vesto, with which may be compared
the Irish ucas-fiadhain, mil-mheacan, ochus, and fochas. The botanical
list embraces ninety-three names of plants or their products, of which
one only is certainly Basque, namely, the word for strawberry. Had
Edward’s Dictionary contained any botanical names worth speaking
of, greater results might have been obtained, but enough are in evidence
to prove the Guanches to be Celts, and Celts, moreover, in possession of
some of the plant lore of the Druids.
It is unfortunate that among the Guanche words taken down at
various times, the full forms of the personal pronouns do not appear.
There is every reason to suppose that they were akin to those of the
Berbers, which are:
I, nekhki. We, xeknz.
Thou, emi. Ye, kunwt, kunwith.
He, xet¢ta. They, xuthnz.
The nearest pronouns to these in the first and second persons are,
strange as it may appear, the Peruvian of this continent. Such are:
I, 7oca. We, xocanchic.
Thou, cam, chema. Ye, camchic.
He, hupa. They, upanaca.
The divergence of the third persons is hard to explain, but the
Peruvian furnishes the purer Celtic forms, since the Aymara upa and
hupanaca answer to the Welsh efe, efo, he, and hwynt, they. The Celtic
character of much of the Peruvian vocabulary was indicated by the
writer as far back as 1879, in the pages of the Canadian Naturalist of
1900-1. | SPANISH DocUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 41
Montreal. Now that no doubt remains as to the language of the
Guanches of the Canaries being Celtic, a new interest is created in
the Peruvian problem. The Celtic connection of the Peruvians is not
a subject confined to the writer. In 1871, V. F. Lopez, published in
Paris and Monte Video, a book entitled, “Les Races aryennes du
Pérou,” in which very learnedly he contended that, in spite of post-
positions and other indications of Turanian syntax, the Quichua and
cognate Peruvian dialects pertain to the Indo-European family of
languages. M. V. Henry, a philologist of some note, made a laudatory,
but, at the same time, destructive, criticism of the volume in an article
read before the International Congress of Americanists, held at
Luxemburg, in 1877. As, however, he therein exhibited no acquain-
tance with the special features of Celtic speech, his decision is not to
be accepted as final. As to postpositions, he ought to have known
that they are as common in Sanscrit as prepositions, an indication that
the normal prepositional order of Indo-European language had, in
its case, been greatly modified by the intimate presence among its
speakers of a population making use of a postpositional Turanian
language. If it appear that the twin elements, Celtic and Iberic, of
the Canary Islands, migrated together to America, finally reaching
Peru, and there insensibly fusing the divergent elements of their two
distinct forms of speech, the problem of a language which puts
Celtic vocables into Iberic grammatical order need no longer present
difficulty. It is granted that postpositions to nouns, the postposition
of the word governing the genitive, and similar peculiarities, are not
Celtic, but Iberic and Turanian. Moreover, there are many Turanian
vocables in Peruvian, and the ruling class in Peru, namely, the Incas,
was distinctively Turanian. The unanswerable fact, however, still
remains that the larger part of the Peruvian vocabularies are Celtic.
Before passing to the consideration of these, it may be stated that a
German author, Herr Frenzel, has recently contended for the Celtic
origin of the Peruvians and of the Aztecs of Mexico.
The writer’s Peruvian material has not been sufficiently abundant
to enable him, as he would gladly have done, to compare the Canary
Island words with it to any extent. An intimate acquaintance with
the obscurer forms of Peruvian speech would be necessary for such a
purpose. Ordinary vocabularies have little to tell of Eisteddfods,
rock-pools, piebald goats, stone implements, and problematical plants,
such as fill the Guanche lists. He has, therefore, been compelled to
compare the usual vocabulary for comparative purposes with corres-
ponding terms in the Celtic languages to the amount of some three
42 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL VII.
hundred. These appear in the Appendix, after the Canary Island
comparative table. Accidental coincidences in the form and sound of
words may be found, to a certain extent, in all languages, however
remotely disconnected. One wonders, therefore, at the statement in
the Peruvian Antiquities of Messrs. Rivero and Tschudi: “The
analogy so much relied on between the words of the American
languages and those of the ancient continent have induced us to
make an approximate estimate, as far as our means would permit, of
the numerical value of the idioms of both hemispheres ; and the result
was, that from between eight and nine thousand American words, one
only could be found analogous in sense and sound to a word of any
idiom of the ancient continent ; and that in two-fifths of these words,
it was necessary to violate the sound to find the same meaning.” The
one word evidently that the learned authors have discovered is “the
Quichua word for the sun, /#¢z, which unquestionably derives its origin
from the Sanscrit root /zdh, to shine, to burn, to flame, and which is
identical with the East India word /zdra, the sun.” The real fact
of the case is, that the supposed solitary zz¢z is a contraction and
attenuation of the Welsh gazazd, the sun, and appears to relate to an
old Irish title of that heavenly body, which is zon. The reason why
pretended philologists have not been able to discover relationships in
languages is their ignorance of the Old World tongues that are
suitable for the purpose. The gospels of St. Matthew and St. John
have been translated into African Berber, and that of St. Luke into
Peruvian Aymara, without the translators being conscious that they
were dealing with Celtic languages, so little are these languages made
use of in the sphere of comparative philology.
The three words which first drew the writer’s attention to the Celtic
element in Peruvian, are the following :
sheep, ccaura, Aymara. caora, Gaelic.
lamb, una, as uan, se
goat, paca, 30 boc, oe
The Quichua word //ama, which denotes the diminutive camel of
South America, is the old Irish /amhan, a lamb, and the Aymara
pupinto, a butterfly, is the Welsh dalafen. A few words in which
d or t is the chief factor will exhibit the Celtico-Peruvian connection :
earth, idatu, Cayubaba. tudd, Welsh.
father, tata, Aymara, Etc. tad, hs
father-in-law, ttosi, Atacama. tadcu, ss
house, uta, ata, Aymara. ty, oe
seed, atha, oC had,
woman, tana, /¢enes. dynes, ay
1900-1.
Here is a series of verbs:
to beat,
to bind,
to drink,
to enter,
to go,
to hate,
to heal,
to kiss,
to know,
to learn,
to load,
to love,
to run,
to sew,
to sleep,
to speak,
to teach,
to wash,
panay, Quechua,
huacta, es
huatay,
upiya,
mantana, Aymara.
huma, ss
coysma, AZacama.
callana, Aymara.
ce
6e
quischama, Atacama.
yatina, Aymara.
yaticha, sf
penaclo, Atacama.
ee
qquipi,
huayra, Quzchua.
paway, é¢
chucuna, Aymara.
iquina, «
arusi, GC
yatichana, ‘‘
harina, sé
maylla, Quzchua.
SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 43
pwnio, Welsh.
chwatio,
caethiwo,
yfed,
myned,
66
oe
imich, Gaelic.
casau, Welsh.
gwellau,
cusanu,
adwaen,
dysgu,
pynorio,
hoff,
gyru,
ffoi,
gwnio,
huno,
areithio,
addysgu,
glanau,
ymolchi,
oe
oe
ce
Here are eighteen common verbs perfectly corresponding, after
centuries have separated the branches of the parent stock that speak
them in the New World and in the Old. Like the Guanche tongue,
the Peruvian is Cymric rather than Gaelic ; and, like the former, the
Peruvian frequently omits the liquids r and 1, as in the following :
angry,
to break,
door,
feather,
flower,
hail,
hot,
house,
jaw,
night,
strong,
thigh,
throne,
pina, Quechua.
pakiy, ‘‘
PunCcUS
puyu, dymara.
pucher, Atacama.
chijchi, Aymara.
capi, Atacama.
puncu, Aymara.
kaki, Quzchua.
haipu, Aymara.
capac, Quzchua.
changa, Quztena.
tiana, Quzchua.
ffrom, Welsh.
bregu,
porth,
plu,
fflur,
cesair,
craf,
ffronc,
cargen,
gosper,
cryfach,
clun,
tron,
ee
ay
This species of phonetic decay is a common feature in the history
of language all the world over, and finds its most familiar illustration
in the Italian and other Romance languages as compared with the
original Latin.
The English word “ writing’
)
is rendered by the Quichua guzppu.
As a matter of fact, so far as is known, the Peruvians possessed no
44 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
system of writing, but preserved their records and tallies by collections
of knotted cords of different colours, to which they gave this name. It
is the Welsh coffau, to record, a term that exactly expresses the object
of the cords. The word hualpa or atahualpa, which enters into the
composition of the titles of the last three Incas, often written ualppa,
denotes a fowl, and is a common Celtic designation for many kinds of
birds, such as the Gaelic gealbhan, sparrow, gealbhan-cutllion, bulfinch,
gealbhan-garaidh, hedge sparrow, gealbhan-lion, linnet, gealbhan-sgiobotl,
bunting, and the Welsh golfan, sparrow, golff, swallow, and gylfinog,
curlew, whence the lowland Scottish “whaup,” which is just Auallpa.
While on the subject of birds, it may not be amiss to remark that
English dictionaries set down condor as Spanish, and some Spanish
lexicons at least claim it as such. It is really the Peruvian name of the
vulture of the Andes, and is a corruption of the Welsh gwylldyr, a
vulture, to which the Gaelic gazrrfhiach only half corresponds. The
Latin vultur would thus appear to be of Celtic origin. The combin- -
ation of the guttural and the labial in the Welsh gw explains the rise,
out of the same common original, of such apparently divergent forms
as condor and vultur. A corruption of another kind appears in the
Atacamena guelechar, truth, as compared with the Welsh gzw7rder,; and
in ualcher, bad, wicked, in the same dialect, in comparison with the
Welsh ysgeler. A tendency to replace dentals by sibilants is found in
the Aymara cachomasz, friend, and arusz, to speak, corresponding with
the Welsh cydymazth and aretthio. Many other points of comparison
are worthy of note, but the vocabulary must speak for itself This
much is certain, whatever syntactical modifications have supervened in
the original language, by virtue of Iberic or other Turanian admixture,
the bulk of Peruvian speech is Celtic, and that almost exclusively, yet
not completely, Cymric.
The problem remains, how and when did Cymric Celts find their
way to the far western shore of South America? The Peruvian annals,
preserved by Montesinos, Garcilasso de la Vega, and other historians,
give no credible account of the advent to the vicinity of Cuzco of the
ancestors of the present native population. But in both the histories
named, the year 1052 is affirmed to have been the beginning of a new
order of things, subsequent to a period of great corruption and decline
of royal authority. Then Inca-Rocca or Sinchi-Rocca founded the
dynasty which continued in power till the time of the Spaniards. This
date of 1062 is very significant, for in that year, Huemac III., the last
Toltec king of Tollan, in Mexico, began.to reign. Two years later,
according to the Mexican historians, he and his Toltecs fled before
1900-1. ] SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 45
their Chichimec enemies into the south. Some records affirm that he
was pursued and put to death; others that he escaped, and, in a far off
land, established a new kingdom of the Sun. The only empire in the
south rivalling that of Mexico, with the exception of the states of
Oaxaca, Yucatan and Guatemala, which were no doubt in existence
in 1062, would be that of Peru, which is then said to have had its
beginning. Had the Peruvians called themselves Toltecs, the migra-
tion might be taken for granted, but there is no evidence that they
did so.
Anahuac was the name of the Mexican region in which the Toltecs
founded, in 717 and 752, the kingdoms of Culhuacan and Tollan.
Shortly before the first date, they and the Olmecs, who have no
separate history, came to Potonchan on the east coast, from a region
far beyond the sea, called Chicomoztoc or the Seven Grottos. They
are said to have passed through the channels of the Bahamas, to have
left some of their seven crews on the shore of Florida, and to have
coasted along the Gulf of Mexico till they came to their landing
place and permanent settlement. The Toltecs were large, well-made
men, almost as white as Europeans, and fully clothed. They were
sun-worshippers and offerers of human sacrifices. In the arts of
architecture, metal-work, the manufacture of cloth and many other
useful articles, they excelled, and were skilled in music and in
medicine. They possessed monastic institutions for men and women,
had a great variety of religious festivals, and a class of learned men
called amoxoaguis. Their history, however, as related by Aztec writers,
is so corrupted by the large infiltration of very ancient traditions, such
as that of Quetzalcoatl, which belongs to a period thousands of years
in the past, as to be almost incapable of disentanglement, save in its
chronological outline.
Apart from the matter of physical stature and complexion, for
which the present Peruvian, in a state of subjection and degradation,
furnishes no trustworthy data to compare, the above description of the
Toltec is applicable to the subjects of the Incas. They were great
masons, which as a rule Turanians are not, being carpenters instead,
and built both enormous megalithic structures, and edifices of hewn
stone, besides constructing admirable roads and bridges. They
excelled in the textile and metallurgic arts. They worshipped the
sun, and had monasteries and vestal houses devoted to that deity.
Their Amautas or wise men correspond to the Toltec Amoxoaquis,
and these cultivated music, astronomy and medicine, in the first and
last of these far excelling the Mexicans. Their year consisted of
46 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
twelve months, while that of the Aztecs and Central American peoples
contained eighteen. The names given by the Amautas to some of the
plants of their pharmacopceia have survived, but their botanical names
are only known in a few cases, and these to South American botanists.
There is a valerian among them, the Valerzana coarctata, and it is
called Huaritura. The European species, Valertana officinalis, bears
the Irish name Carthan-curaigh, out of which Huaritura may have
been evolved. A euphorbia, species not mentioned, was H/uachancana.
The Irish title of the Euphorbia tithymalis is Butdhe-na-ningean, in
which the final 2zzgean answers to the ancana of the Peruvian word.
The uncouth term Llamapnahui denotes the Wegretia inflexa, a plant
unknown to the writer. It is not unlike the Irish Lzon-an-abhain, the
“Ranunculus aquatilis,’ but its fuller form, and its use in medicine,
suggest the Lzon-na-mbean-sighe, which is the name of the “Linum
catharticum,” or purging flax. The “Krameria triandria” is called
Maprato and Ratana, and these names suggest the Irish bzor-nam-
bride, the dandelion, and Lzathan, the not-unsimilar marigold. The
Peruvian title of the “Molina prostrata” is Parhataguia, and Baladh-
chnis is the Irish yellow ladies bed-straw, or “Galium verum.” The
plant Chznapaya is not identified, but it is probably the Chenzpa of
the Canary Islands, the Irish Czazb, and the well-known “Cannabis
sativa,’ or hemp. Another unidentified plant is the Chenchelcome,
the nearest to which is the Irish Samharcain, the primrose, “ Primula
veris.”. The Panguz may be the Fanaigse or dog violet, “Viola
canina”; the Fuzuseach or enchanter’s night-shade, Circcea lutetiana ;
or Puineoga, sorrel, “ Rumex acetosella.” The names, Checasoconche
and Chucumpa, invite comparison with the Irish Sgeach-chumhra,
sweet-briar, and other sgeachs and sgeachanachs, which are thorn
bushes. Another plant J/udlz may be the Mol of the Canaries,
an aromatic shrub, or the Asmaley of the same, an herb, for which
equivalents are offered in the vocabulary. The Matecllu may be the
Irish MJeastorc-caotl, St. John’s wort or “Hypericum androsaemum ” ;
or the Bodan-na-cloigin, yellow rattle or “ Rhinanthus cristagalli.”
The nearest equivalent of Zasta is the Irish Sazsde which denotes
sage, “Salvias” of many species. The name Masca suggests many
Irish botanical words, such as Jasog, a small red berry ; MWzosach,
another name of “Linum catharticum”; Measog, the acorn; Meascan,
butterwort, “Sanicula”; and Feusogach, the bearded capillary or
“ Adiantum.” The same is the case with C&zdlca, for the Irish
Caolach denotes fairy flax, Ceolagh, purging flax, Cloch, henbane,
Sailchuach, violet, Salchuach, “Viola odorata,’ Sezleach, willow,
etc. Finally Huacra-huacra resembles Fochair, a sprouting plant,
1900-1. | ’ SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 47
Toclus, healing herbs, Ozghreog, wild strawberry, and Uachdar, “Sanicula
montana.”
The Peruvians called their kings Tahuantin-Suyu-Capac, or Lords
of the four quarters of the earth. The title is a very old one, as certain
ancient Babylonian monarchs termed themselves kings of the four
regions, and others commemorated their victories over the four races
or kiprat arba. It is to be remembered also that there was a Kirjath
Arba in Palestine, it being a name of Hebron, in what afterwards
became the domain of the tribe of Judah; but it is to be noted that,
while arvba is Semitic, and even Mongol for the number four, it is not
so in Hittite. The Basques are familiar with the term, as appears
in the Rev. Wentworth Webster’s Basque Legends, one of which
represents Mr. Laur Cantons as seeking a vine-dresser’s daughter in
marriage. Laur Cantons is the Four Quarters. There was an ancient
hero called Arba, the father of Anak, whose sons, the Anakim, were
Sheshai, Ahiman, and Talmai (Joshua xv., 13, 14). They were
Hittites, and pertained to the Gesshurite branch of the Zerethite,
Cherethite, or Dardanian family. Talmai, king of Gesshur, the father
of Absalom’s mother, was of this race. The name Anak became a
title, and was borrowed by the Greeks in the form anzax, to denote
“a prince.” In the New World it became Inca, and the Inca was
suitably Lord of the Four Quarters. Arba is a common name in the
Iberic inscriptions of the Canaries, and Telama or Talmai is also found
in them as a princely name. Jackson, in his version of Shabeeny’s
Travels, says: “The opinion of the author of the History and Conquest
of the Canary Islands, is, that the inhabitants came originally from
Mauritania, and this he founds on the resemblance of names of places
in Africa and in the islands”: “for” says he, “ Telde, which is the
name of the oldest habitation in Canaria, Orotaba, and Tegesta, are all
names which we find given to places in Mauritania and Mount Atlas.
It is to be supposed that Canaria, Fuertaventura, and Lancerotta, were
peopled by the Alarbes, who are the nation most esteemed in Barbary ;
for the natives of those islands named milk Ako, and barley Temeczn,
which are the names that are given to those things in the language of
the Alarbes of Barbary.” The Al-Arbes as founders of places called
Telde seems to suggest the presence of the Toltecs in Barbary and the
Canary Islands. Immediately opposite the African coast in southern
Spain dwelt the Iberic Turdetani in the days of the classical
geographers. Strabo calls them “the most intelligent of all the
Iberians ; they have an alphabet, and possess ancient writings, poems,
and metrical laws, six thousand years old, as they say.’ Whether
48 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
Pliny’s four jurisdictions of the region in which they dwelt was native,
or the creation of the Roman conquerors cannot be decided.
The epomym of the Turdetani was an ancient Hittite prince named
Zereth, from whose appellation, Zareth Shachar, Zaretan, and Zartanah,
in Palestine were called. The doubtful nature of the initial letter as
mediating between a sibilant and a dental, led the Egyptians, who had
good knowledge of his descendants, so to write their name upon the
monuments that decipherers have variously rendered it by Sardinian,
Dardanian, and Cretan. In the Old Testament, they are called Chere-
thites; they colonized and named Crete; and some of their descendants
are the Kurds of what was once Assyria. It is also more than probable
that Sardinia received its first colony from this adventurous race; and
the Chronicon Paschale states decidedly that the Dardanians were
descendants of Heth. The Turdetani were Spanish Dardanians. The
final zz of Dardani was the old Hittite plural; the name of the people
was Zereth or Zareth, Dart or Dard, Telt or Teld. Hence arose the
words Telde and Toltec, identified in various quarters with the names
Arba and Anak. Another word that accompanies this race is the
ancestral Hittite name Ashchur, that of the father of Zereth. The
anaktes patdes of the Greeks were the Dioscuri; the Basque language
is the Euskara; and a frequently recurring Inca name is Huas-car.
The Umbrian Engubine Tables speak of the ¢7zfor Tarsitnater, Tuscer,
Naharcer, Iapuscer, or the threefold Tyrrhenians, Euskara, Navarrese,
and Guipuscoans. The men of Navarre or the Naharcer, became in
part the Nahuatl or Navatl of Mexico. It is necessary now to consider
the Celtic element in relation to the Iberic Toltecs.
From an early period, yet by no means so far back in the past as
some capricious German explorers would have the world believe, the
Sumerians occupied a position on the page of history. Urukh or
Orchamus was king of Sumir and Accad, as was his son Dungi or
Tarkhun-dara, together with Burna-Buryas, Ulam-Buryas, and many
more. The Sumerian name is Zimri in Jeremiah xxv., 25, where it is
united with Elam and the Medes, and it is well placed in historical
time, in spite of adverse forms of biblical criticism, as that of the
descendants of Zimran, the eldest son of Abraham by the Perizzite
princess Keturah. The Hebrew Zimran or Zimri, ‘celebrated in song,”
stands in intimate philological relation with the Gaelic amhra, amhran,
‘a poem or song.” The Zimri are mentioned along with the Elamites
on the monolith of Samas-Rimmon of Assyria, a contemporary of Ahab,
Jehu, and Hazael of Syria; and on the Black Obelisk of Shalmanezer
1900-1. } SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 49
II. The Persians knew them as the Gimiri, the Greeks as the Cim-
merians, and they are in part represented by the Cymri or Welsh
people of the present day. Dungi or Tarkhun-dara, the son of Urukh,
wrote a letter to Amenhotep IV., the Pharaoh of Tel-el-Amarna, in
pure Celtic, asking for the hand of his daughter, the princess Akh,
called in Egyptian Ankh-nes-paaten, whom he afterwards married,
and by whom he became a Pharaoh under the title of Tutankh-Amen.
The Celtic tongue in which he wrote was the Sumerian or Zimrite.
A descendant of Zimran, and father of Urukh, or more properly
Orchamus, was Peresh, the Buryas of the Babylonian monuments, and
the brother of Orchamus was Ulam-Buryas, or Ulam, the son of Peresh.
This Ulam figures in Irish legendary history as Ollamh, whom the old
chronicles call Ollamh Fodhla, and represent as a great lawgiver and
patron of learning. The word ol/amh came to mean a doctor or
professor of any kind of learning, as it does to the present day. A
son of Ulam was Bedan, the Phaethon of the Greeks, fabled to have
been drowned in the Eridanus or Padus named after him, the Eridanus
being the Jordan of Palestine. This name so far has not been clearly
identified on the oriental monuments, but it survives in Greek story.
The second Ilus of the Dardanian line was his father Ulam, who had
married into the Zerethite family of Zareth-Shachar on the Dead Sea,
and had thus acquired supremacy over the Dardanians. The son of
Ilus was Laomedon, which truncated and apocopated word represents
Ulam-Bedan, in an inverted or Turanian order, meaning Bedan of
Ulam, but which in Celtic syntax should read Bedan-Ulam. As a
geographical term, it survives in Bodon-hely of Hungary, known to
the classical geographers as Ulmum of Pannonia, through which
country the Boii and other Celts passed on their way to the west and
north ; and also in the more western combination of Baden with Ulm
of Wurtemburg. Potonchan, where the Toltecs and Olmecs landed in
Mexico, Peten, and the Votan of legendary American history, all have
reference to the ancient fame of Bedan, son of Ulam; and the Bladud
of British history, who flew like Phaethon and was dashed to the earth,
but who built Caer-Badus or Bath, is a corruption of Bedan, since
Nennius places Badon hill at Bath. The Ulams or Ollamhs were the
Olmecs of Mexican story, who were confederate with the Toltecs.
Did we know more of Guanche history, their name and that of the
Bedanites might appear in the Canary Islands. The Celtic Vettones
in Strabo’s time dwelt side by side with the Iberic Turdetani in Spain.
It is not beyond the reach of possibility, that the Latin name of the
Canary archipelago, “Fortunate Insule,’ may be a corruption of
“Fotunate Insule,’ or the Islands of Votan or of the Votanides.
4
50 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
A larger name, however, marks this branch of the Celtic family.
It is the Zimrite, Sumerian, Gimirian, Cimmerian, or Cymric. As the
Gaelic amhra, amhran represents exactly the Hebrew Zzmrz, Zimran,
one may expect to find the initial sibilant or guttural absent at times.
The Berbers of north-western Africa, with whom it is now generally
agreed that the Guanches were most intimately related, had, and
probably have to-day, tribes called Zimuhr and Amor. Of the Zimuhr,
_ it-is said: “ They are a fine race of men, well grown and good figures ;
they have a noble presence, and their physiognomy resembles the
Roman.” And of the Amor it is recorded: “When the Sultan
Muhamed began a campaign, he never entered the field without the
warlike Ait Amor, who marched in the rear of the army ; these people
received no pay, but were satisfied with what plunder they could get
after a battle; and accordingly, this principle stimulating them, they
were always foremost in any contest, dispute, or battle.” Gomera, the
name of one of the Canary Islands, favours the connection of the
Guanches with the Zimuhr of Africa and the Cymri, as the language of
their vocabulary has already done. In Peru the tribe whose form of
speech most closely approaches the Welsh is that of the Aymaras. It
almost follows that the Peruvian Aymaras are the Mexican Olmecs
under a larger designation. The Aymaras, according to Forbes, claim
to have had an older and more advanced civilization than the Incas,
and they were undoubtedly the masons to whom Peru owes its massive
stone remains. Dr. Tschudi erroneously supposes the Aymaras to
have been the tribe with whom the Incas originated. He says: “The
crania of these people present differences equally remarkable, according
to their respective localities, and particularly in the contour of the arch
of the cranium. It is proper here to remark that there is a very
striking conformity between the configuration of this race and that of
the Guanches, or inhabitants of the Canaries, who used also the same
mode of preserving the bodies of their dead.’ The latter reference
is to mummification, common to the Guanches and the Peruvians.
According to Forbes, the Aymaras wear their hair very long, the men
plaiting theirs into one pig-tail and the women into two. This was a
Guanche custom as Pégot-Ogier remarks. He also says that, “the
oven of the Guanches was a hole under ground like that of the
Peruvians.” This writer Compares a Guanche temple with similar
remains at Carnac in Brittany as proof of their Celtic origin. Megali-
thic structures of the same character have been found throughout the
Berber area, such as that at Bless in Tunis, described by Mr. Frederick
Catherwood in the Transactions of the American Ethnological Society.
The chief seat of the Aymaras was about Lake Titicaca, and a short
1900-1. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 51
distance from its shores stand the ruins of Tihuanaco, consisting of a
large group of immense stones, each from six to seven yards high,
placed in lines at regular intervals. It has been fitly termed “a
Peruvian Stonehenge,” and a tradition prevails concerning it identical
with that which ancient chroniclers preserve regarding the famous
English structure, namely, that it was erected in a single night by an
invisible hand. Another historical parallel, that no longer seems
strange, occurs in the Peruvian story of the war between the Inca
Yupanqui and his warlike subject Ollanta, in which the Inca’s General
acted the part of Sextus Tarquinius in Livy’s account of the taking of
Gabii, and that of Zopyrus in Herodotus’ relation of the capture of
Babylon. As the original Ulam was the uncle of Dungi, who calls
himself Tarkhun-dara, or Tarquin the second, he may have been the
Ollanta of the legend. But there remain to this day a town and the
ruins of a strong fortress called Ollanta-Tambo, the latter perched
high up in a narrow tract on the banks of the river Urubamba. At
any rate, in the word Ollanta survives the Olmec name. The final ¢a
of Ollanta is a dialectic variation, corresponding to that which changed
the Welsh éa/afen, butterfly, into the Aymara pzlpznto.
Having thus cleared the way for explanations, it is time to indicate
traces of the Olmecs in the vicinity of Mexico. Referring to the statue
of Chaac-Mol at Chichen-Itza in Yucatan, Professor Short says, in his
“North Americans of Antiquity”: “he is adorned with a head-dress,
with bracelets, garters of feathers, and sandals similar to those found
upon the mummies of the ancient Guanches of the Canary Islands.”
And again: “Dr. Le Plongeon observed that the sandals upon the feet
of the statue of Chaac-Mol, discovered at Chichen-Itza, and of the
statue of a priestess found at the island of Mugeres, are exact repre-
sentations of those found on the feet of the Guanches, the early
inhabitants of the Canary Islands, whose mummies are occasionally
met with in the caves of Tenerife and the other isles of the group.”
Now, the Mayas, Pokomams, and other Yucatecs, belong to a race
entirely distinct from both the Iberian and the Celt, being of Malay-
Polynesian origin. Brasseur de Bourbourg, quoting a Quiche document,
informs us that there was in the vicinity of Yucatan a little kingdom
of Peten, the name of which is neither Maya nor Quiche, but recalls
Bedan and Poton-chan. The chief of this principality was Canek, a
handsome and warlike young monarch, beloved by the daughter of a
king and the most beautiful woman of her time, but who, against her
will, had been betrothed to the king of Chichen. While the chief
nobles of the latter’s court were bringing home the bride in joyous
52 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL aVaile
procession, Canek fell upon them and carried off the princess. Then
gaining the sea shore, he embarked with his prize and bore her away
to his kingdom of Peten. This is the Celto-Dardanian story of Helen,
taken by Paris from Menelaus, the aged bridegroom, and carried to
Troy by way of Sidon. In the Celtic or British story, as told in the
Mabinogion and by Geoffrey of Monmouth, the lover of Helen was
Conan Meriadoc, who would have taken her from Maxen Wledig, to
whom her father Eudav or Octavius, had married her. This Conan is
the Conn of Ossian and of Campbell’s Tales of the West Highlands ;
and, in Irish story, is Conn of the hundred battles, the father of an
Art or Arthur. As Paris was called Alexander, so in the Indian
Puranas he bears the name Harischandra, and his son that of Rohita,
the Irish Art. Whatever truth may lie in the varying details of his
story, this hero was a historical personage, being Baal-chanan, the last
but one of the ancient line of kings, who, before the time of Moses,
reigned in what subsequently became the domain of the Edomites.
From the Chanan part of his name came the British Conan, the Gaelic
Conn, and the American Canek. The British addition Meriadoc, like
the Gaelic Murdoch and Murtough, is a Turanian or Hittite word,
Merodach or Berodach, meaning the son of Beor, who was Bela or
Baal, whence Baal-Peor; Merodach, therefore, is a synonym of Baal,
and Conan Meriadoc is virtually Hannibal. The Greeks cut down the
full name Baal-hanan to the form of Priamos, and made him the father
of the handsome libertine instead of himself, and they represented him
as the son of Laomedon or Ulam-Bedan, while his true father’s name
was Achbor, perhaps, although this is not settled, a brother of Bedan.
He reigned over the Dardanian region in which lay Zareth-Shachar,
and of his race were the Celtic army leaders of the Hittites; for
Achbor was the Saprer of the Egyptian monuments who ruled in the
time of Ramses I., and his son was called Mauro-sar. But the sons of
the latter, one of whom gave his daughter in marriage to Ramses the
Great, were Mauthanar and Khetasar. The first the Greeks called
Antenor, and the second, Ramses’ father-in-law, receives but scant
mention as the Cytissorus or Cytorus of Herodotus and Strabo.
Baalhanan, as the son of Achbor or Saprer, must have been the
elder brother of Mauro-sar, and thus the uncle of Mauthanar. With
inversion of parts, for these compound names, as on a treaty of peace
with the Hittites, are in Turanian order, Mautha-nar would read
Nar-mautha. This is Brugsch’s form of the name; Lenormant’s is
Maut-nur. Now this Nur-maut is Celtic, being Near-mada, “the boar
pig,’ and, with a change of the initial dental, is Diarmaid, the ancestor
of the Campbells, and the slayer of the mighty boar, by which he was
1900-1.'] SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 53
himself slain. As the son of Mauro-sar or Sar-mauro, perhaps a Gaelic
Ceir-bheoil, the name of the father of the first Irish Diarmaid, he could
not claim the Campbell name, which was that of his uncle Chanan-baal,
or Baal-hanan, with inversion of parts. They were, therefore, pure
Celts who carried the story of Canek or Conan to Central America.
The exigences of the Celtic proof, and no desire to refer to the origines
of the family to which he has the honour to belong, have led the writer
to what may seem to some a genealogical excursus. The Bu-chanans
and Bu-chans are very probably of the same Baal-chanan ancestry.
The burden of proof the writer lays on the vocabularies, which
present incontrovertible evidence that the language of the Guanches
was, with the exception of a few loan words of Iberic origin chiefly,
purely Celtic, both in vocabulary and in grammatical construction, and
that that of the Peruvians, and in particular of the Aymaras, though
Iberic in grammar, was very largely Celtic in vocabulary. He has also
presented evidence of various kinds for the advent of an Olmec or
Celtic people to the shores of America, for their presence in the
vicinity of Mexico, and finally for their existence at the present day
in Peru. And in many ways he has shewn that these Celts came from
the Canary Islands, where they and Iberians once dwelt side by side,
and from which, as Olmecs and Toltecs, they migrated in company.
As to the period of that migration, there is nothing to proceed upon
but the statements of the Mexican historians as to the foundation of
the Toltec monarchies. That of Culhuacan began, under the King
Nauhyotl, in 717, and that of Tollan, under Mixcohuatl-Mazatzin, in
752. Are these Toltec names or Aztec disguises? Nauhyotl means
in Aztec “the four quarters,” and answers to the Peruvian title of the
Incas. The old Basque term for /aur, four, was nora, as several
Etruscan records testify, perhaps the original of the Aztec xawh or
nahut. To make the four quarters, the Basque offers the addition of
alde, une, gune, tegt, tokt or zirt, each meaning “a place, region, or
quarter.” A name in the eleventh inscription of Hierro, published by
Mr. O’Shea, is rendered provisionally Notara. As the Basques use
lau as often as /aur to denote four, the Iberians of the Canaries may
have abbreviated nora to mo. Then ¢ara or tari would represent the
present B. zzrz, and the Japanese azar7, a region; the whole as xo-tarz,
Sivie) “the tour regions.) |. Mixcohuatlh or, “the .cloud) burst.” 1s, a
purely Mexican word: duhumba would be the Basque equivalent, and
bofu, the Japanese.
The land of Chicomoztoc or the Seven Grottos, whence came the
Toltecs and Olmecs, admirably describes the Canary Islands both as
54 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vor Vide
to number -and the peculiarities of their rock formation. These the
emigrants sailed from some time in the early part of the eighth
century. Now 714 was the year of the conquest of Spain by the
Arabs, and before this they had taken possession of Northern Africa,
whence it was but a short voyage to the Canaries. Not having access
to any of the Tarikhs or Chronicles of Maghreb and Andalus, or
Western Africa and Spain, the writer is unable to state when the
Canary Islands were invaded, and Sir William Muir’s admirable work
on “The Caliphate” makes no mention of them; but Sir William
Ouseley’s statement, in the preface of the anonymous translator of
“Sadik Isfahani,’ that the Mahometan geographers calculated their
longitude from the Fortunate Isles eastward, would evidently indicate
an ancient acquaintance with them as the world’s Ultima Thule in the
west. Whether the Arabs were the invaders, or the Berber tribes that
refused to obey the authority of the Koran, fleeing before their arms,
sought refuge in the islands, a pressure of a hostile people took place
some time between the years 700 and 717. The result in any case was
the westward migration of, in all probability, the whole of the Iberic
population, and of a very considerable number of the Guanches. If
any of the former, who, in the time of their inscriptions, were the
dorminant race, remained ‘behind, the vocabularies both of proper
names and common words, as well as what chronicles survive, indicate
that they lost their identity, and forfeited their authority to the Celtic
Guanches.
What were the circumstances of their long voyage straight in the
line of the tropic of Cancer, will probably never be known. The reason
why, on reaching the American islands and coasts, they did not take
up their abode on them, was, perhaps, the same that made them leave
their beautiful homes of many centuries, the presence, namely, of a
hostile population on these, and their desire to lead a peaceful life in
the New World. From at least 717 they built up their Toltec empire
in Mexico, pressed upon from time to time by new immigrants from
the north and west, until, after more than three centuries, they could
bear the pressure no longer, and took up their weary travels again.
Neither the Mexican account of their flight, nor the Peruvian story of
their sudden appearance at Cuzco, favours the idea of a second voyage
from the west coast, followed by.a landing at a Southern Pacific
port. It is more likely that they made their way overland, through
Guatemala and the deadly Isthmus of Panama, helped here and there
by lakes and rivers, until, traversing the mountains of Colombia, they
found and named the Ucayali river, against whose tide they steered
1900-1. ] SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 55
their way to Cuzco, and Lake Titicaca. There they soon forgot the
stirring events of former national history in the task of founding a new
empire. Four centuries and a-half of Peru followed the three hundred
and fifty years of Mexico, as these had succeeded seven hundred and
more of Canary Island life; and then the Spaniard came to conquer
these brave wrestlers against adverse fate, who had never really been
conquered before, and to abase their pride in the degradation of hope-
less servitude. It is a pathetic story, made tenfold more so by the
knowledge that they were, and are to-day, more than half of them, our
kindred Celts, who, under better conditions might have emulated the
best achievements and lives of Wales and Brittany.
THE CANARY ISLAND INSCRIPTIONS.
Of these Dr. Bethencourt writes as follows: “As far as my inform-
ation goes, there are no other inscriptions than those already sent, and
those which I now send. As regards those of the island of Hierro,
it may be that some are here repeated, but I prefer this tiresome
redundancy to the fear that there should be any incompleteness of
material for elucidating the subject. If I do not remember amiss, M.
Berthelot generalized the idea that the written characters of Hierro
were Libyan, founded on the opinion of General Faidherbe. Later,
some have begun to doubt the truth of this assertion, but nobody has
interpreted them. The studies of Mr. Campbell not only confirm the
conclusions of anthropologists, but also open up unsuspected horizons,
and point out new departures in the history of the Guanche population,
along highways almost closed for about four centuries. May it please
God to deign to direct him in fixing his attention upon so interesting
a problem.
Prehistoric Inscriptions of the Canary Islands.
Island of Tenerife.
“In reality none are known here, unless we count among them the
Roman letters on the image of the Virgin of Candelaria, probably of
scant historical interest, and the inscription of Anaga of our illustrious
friend, Dr. Manuel Osuna, to my mind of doubtful existence as an
inscription.
The Virgin of Candelaria.
“ According to our chronicles, this image suddenly appeared on the
shore of the little kingdom of Guimar, about the year 1390, over a
56 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
century before the conquest of the island; and, in the course of the
15th, 16th and 17th centuries, they repeat with much frequency
miracles wrought by it and similar objects throughout the archi-
pelago, as well as in the said island of Tenerife; so that, after
dispassionate critical judgment, there is nothing to do but accept the
historical fact of the presence of the effigy during these centuries.
There are those who observe that, in the fourteenth century, reports
were current of the presence of vessels of many different nationalities
in these seas, some pursuing legitimate commerce, but most entering
them in order to perpetrate all sorts of piracy ; and it is quite possible
that some one of these barks may have lost the said image, may have
bartered it as an article of trade, or have made a present of it out of
a spirit of religion. Some of our people have given heed to the version
of a friar, who asserted that the Virgin was the nymph or figure-head
from the prow of a ship, through observing in the hinder part of the
figure the marks of the rings whereby it was fastened. This image
disappeared, being carried out to sea in consequence of a terrible
inundation that visited the island in the twenty-sixth year of last
century. As the theogony of the Guanches was abundantly complex,
and they, beside being Sabaeans, were also idolaters, they supplanted
one of their idols by this new sculptured figure which had fallen into
their hands, giving to it special worship; what, perhaps, contributed
to this being the counsel of a certain Guanche that, after a time of
captivity and civilization, it would bring them their own land, as the
chronicles relate. This is the foundation of the pious religious legends
of the Virgin of Candelaria, which our people have preserved, and of its
subsequent exaltation by the Catholic clergy.
“The appearance of the image, according to the ancient historians
who had seen it, was as follows. It was of painted wood, compact but
not very heavy, and about five hands high, along with the pedestal
which was two fingers in thickness. Its colour was brown, the face
of a fair size, and the eyes large and full. The head was bare, with
the hair spread out on the shoulders and braided in six plaits. The
female figure carried a naked infant on the right arm, which in its time
grasped with both hands a little golden bird, and in the left hand was
a taper painted green, with a hole in the lower part for the purpose of
increasing it at will. It was fully clothed from the throat to the feet,
without any opening whatever. Its cloak was of blue and gold,
with much golden flower work behind, and, falling in front over the
shoulders, was attached at the breasts by a coloured cord of a span
wide. The left foot, a little uncovered by the skirt, was shod with
1900-1. ] SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDs. 57
coloured serge. The dress and cloak were adorned with Roman letters
of green colour upon a gold ground, which nobody so far has been able
to interpret. On the collar are the following :— See [uscription J. a.
“On the border or margin of the dress below are these :—See
Inscreption I. b.
“All are not here, for in order to give away as a relic, some one had
broken off a piece of the skirt and of the pedestal. In the part of the
sleeve near the left wrist are :—See /nuscription I. c.
“The robe was girt about below the breasts, which on both sides
had a very graceful effect, with a girdle of blue, on which were the
following :—See Inscription I. a.
“The border of the cloak was of burnished gold, and the right side
contained these letters :—See /uscription I. e.
“The letters on the border of the left side were :—See /uscription
Lf.
“On the lower part of the cloak at the back were these letters :—
See Inscription I.g.
“The scientific importance of deciphering these letters may limit
itself to an acquaintance with one of the nations that navigated these
seas in antiquity.
(The description of the supposed inscription of Anaga is omitted,
since it presents no definite trace of phonetic writing).
Island of Canaria.
“Some inscriptions have been publicly talked of, as found in the
ravine of Los Balos in the pueblo of Santa Lucia, and, as far as I can
remember, the subject was treated either by Dr. Chil or the Senores
Millares, all illustrious historians of our archipelago, but the first to
make them known through the press was Dr. Verneau, about 1882, in
the ‘Revue d’Ethnographie’ of Paris. Up to this time in which we
find ourselves no one has deciphered them.—See /uscriptions IT. and
Ld.
“Inscriptions of the ravine of Los Balos in the pueblo of Santa
Lucia in Gran Canaria. (Dr. Bethencourt’s notes on the supposed
written remains of Gomera are omitted, because his illustrations are
mere fragments, conveying no information. His statement regarding
Fuerteventura is, that no real inscriptions have come to light there.
58 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.L. VII.
And his carving from the island of Palma is an obscure pictograph, of
which the writer has no solution to offer).
Island of Hierro.
“Besides the inscriptions which I had the pleasure of sending you,
and which you have so brilliantly interpreted, in turning over some
papers which I had forgotten, relating to different excursions made
to this island, I came across some that I do not remember to have
mentioned. In this state of doubt I take the liberty to send them.
Inscriptions of La Dehesa.
“These are engraved on strata of lava, some of a dark brown colour,
others of a reddish yellow, those of the latter tint presenting themselves
first when the superficial layer broke or peeled away. These same
characters are either in a dark brown or ina light gray ground, which
makes one suspect they were engraved at different periods, given the
uniformity of the state of the rock, and the depth of the layer. But
this is no place for premising, without serious foundation to support
it. The characters have a very marked savour of antiquity. and we
are disposed to believe that in order to trace them, stone chisels were
made use of, perhaps of phonolite (clinkstone) which abounds in those
regions, having been brought from other parts, and also hammers,
likewise of stone. Our people are under the impression that the
etchings were engraved with such instruments, and the sight of them
justifies the conjecture. Moreover, we have observed no bold strokes
nor sharp cuts, such as would be made by a metal chisel. These sites
present all the characteristics of having been inhabited in remote ages,
by the remains of curious edifices of a primitive type, which we do not
describe, so as not to overload the notes, like ztchen-mzddens in
increasing strata, by little altars or ‘pireos,’ on which the natives
sacrificed live ewes and kids. In the different mounds of lava, more or
less cleft by the wear of time, which has torn away from the foot of the
outside slope that forms, from east to west, as it were, a semicircle, and
which are found laid out on a ground more or less inclining to yellow
and grayish brown, consisting of granulated lava, mixed with hillocks
of sand, we copied the following inscriptions :—See Inscriptions IV.,
enn ae
(There are over twenty altogether, but the rest are either mere
useless fragments of phonetic writing, or pictographs, which the writer
does not profess to decipher).
ad
1900-1. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 59
Inscriptions of Tezeletta.
“They are sculptured on prisms of basalt which form a steep rock
five or six metres high. Some of them have given way. The rock
faces the west, being thus protected from rain and the prevailing winds.
The characters have been also traced with a stone chisel, like those of
La Dehesa, though basalt is much harder than lava :—See /uscriptions
VALS VILL LX UX.
Inscriptions of the Port of La Caleta.
“These are also engraved on prisms of basalt which form a wall
about three metres high, as well as on others fallen away from this to
the sea-shore. In these sites are vestiges of the habitations of the
Bimbapes or aborigines of Hierro, shell-heaps and kztchen-middens,
small altars, stew-holes or ‘ pireos’ for sacrifice. Many of the prisms
have fallen away :—See /uscriptions XI. to X X VI.
Inscriptions of La Canadta.
“They are engraved in a cave which was formed at a salto or
jutting rock at the base of the ravine (darranco).’—See Inscription
NOV TT.
There are two more in this group, but they are too imperfect to
admit of satisfactory decipherment. Such then is the material which
Dr. Bethencourt has furnished to shed light upon the ancient history
of the Canary Islands. Having studied the Northern Turanian
characters as found in many lands and ages, from the Sinaitic of
hoar antiquity to the Etruscan and Celt-Iberian of a pre-Christian
century or two, and from the Buddhist Indian of the fourth century
B.C. and the Siberian of the fifth A.D., to those of the American
Mound-Builders as late as the thirteenth century, the writer had no
difficulty in identifying the lines of the Virgin of Candelaria, and the
ruder outlines of the rock-faces, with what is best known as Etruscan
script, although it is morally certain that its writers in the Canaries
never saw Etruria. Copies of the interpretations now submitted have
been sent not only to Dr. Bethencourt, to whose courtesy the writer is
indebted for his knowledge of the inscriptions, but also to Mr. O’Shea,
the well-known author of “ La Maison Basque,” “La Tombe Basque,”
and many other valuable works in English, French and Spanish, who
will submit them to the critical judgment of the best Basque scholars.
60 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [VoL. VII.
This it is necessary to state, because, while there are many in Canada
who can pass a pertinent opinion upon the Celtic side of the argument
presented in this paper, it is doubtful if there be one possessed of
sufficient knowledge of Basque to appreciate the simplest and most
evident coincidences between that language and the subject matter of
the inscriptions. The writer may, perhaps, be permitted to insert here
one of the many flattering testimonials that have come to him, alike
through printed publications and literary correspondence, as to his
proficiency in Basque studies. Mr. O’Shea, after other kind things,
remarks: “QOur native Basque scholars cannot account for your thor-
ough acquaintance, not only with the modern forms of their language,
but with that also of the primitive roots.’ And yet the writer was
once publicly taken to task in this Institute for presuming to know
Basque!
The old Turanian characters are not alphabetic, but constitute a
more or less imperfect syllabary, imperfect because in many cases one
character represents all the powers of a consonant, for instance, A,
which may be ra, re, ri, ro or ru. In transliterating, the equivalents of
the characters are grouped, as nearly as convenient, first in the order
in which the characters appear in the inscriptions, and afterwards in
their order of modern reading. A table of phonetic values of the
characters, and a grammatical analysis of the texts, is appended to the
paper, so that those who are curious to examine the method of inter-
pretation may have every facility for so doing. Of the former there
are necessarily two parts, inasmuch as Dr. Bethencourt’s Roman letters
on the Virgin of Candelaria present that Graeco-Roman aspect of the
Etruscan characters, which has misled almost, if not all, interpreters to
assign to them the phonetic equivalents of the European alphabet,
which naturally has led to no results.
INSCRIPTION I.
The Virgin of Candelaria.
Line a.—ko i en tu po no en tu me ne ra au.
kot entu pono entu Menera au.
desire hear grief hear Menera this.
“Let this (goddess) Menera hear the prayer, hear the sorrow!”
(The ornamental cross at the end of this line and in the following
lines is a mere punctuation mark).
1900-1. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDs. 61
Lane b—ni ar ba mi, au ra ne ka.i ka 1, ba me.ne-ra er en ai.
nt Arba imi, aur ne Kat Kat, ba Menera errunat.
I Arba place, child to Caius Caius, if Menera will pity.
“J, Arba place (this) for the child Caius, if Menera will compas-
sionate Caius.”
Line c.—so to be ri u ga ne ka ai ta en tu kai ba ra ka ko.
Sotoberri uga neke atta entu Kai barka ka.
Sotoberri mother weary father hear Caius forgiving by.
“ Hear the mother Sotoberri, the weary father, by forgiving Caius.”
Line d.—mi ra er mi to ri se me ma gu re er en,
mira erim~ etorri seme ema gure erren.
spectacle cause place come son give our compassion.
“Coming to cause to set up a spectacle, to give the son our com-
passion.”
Lines e-—ma sa mi, u ga raer ka an re, au ra ne la ka tu ne mi, ar ba
be ne ka.
emaitsa tmt, uga ra erruki anre, aur ne lekatu ne imi Arba be
neke,
gift place mother to pitiful lady child to please to place Arba
under weary.
ga be au ka ri di o me te ba hi ga be ai ta au kai di o er ka.
gabe au ekarrt dio ematu bahi-gabe aita au Kat dio errukz.
deprivation this to bear he calm pledge deprived father this
Caius he pities.
“Placing a gift to the mother (and) to the child of the compass-
ionate lady, to be pleased to put (strength) under Arba this weary
loss to bear. Let him calm this pledge-deprived father; let him
compassionate Caius.”
Lines f-—pa be tu mi aura kari, ni ga be tu mi koi, en tu ka mi ra au
ra, be re be ha be ha ka er ka.
pabetu imi aur ekarrt, nt gabetu tmz kot, entuka mira aur bere
beha behaka errukz.
to help place child carry I bereaved place desire in hearing
regard child own behold in beholding pity.
ar tu be ha me ne ra au doi be kai er ka ga gora te ka.
artu beha Menera au dot be Kat erruki gogoratu ka.
take glance Menera this justice under Caius compassionate
remembering by.
62 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL, VII.
“T the bereaved, place the desire to have help to carry the child (in
remembrance). In hearing, look at the child; behold (thine) own
(and) in beholding, pity. Take a look, thou Menera; with justice
compassionate Caius by remembering.
Line g—ka ol au mi ni o, er ka ka nio du en ar ba mi o bi ne au pa
be ba.
achol au imt nto, errukt egi nio duen Arba imi obi ne au
pabe ba.
care this place I to him, pity make I to him it is who Arba
places tomb to this help place.
“] place this attention to him; I make pity for him; it is I, Arba,
who set at the tomb a place of help.”
This inscription, or series of inscriptions, is as Etruscan as if it had
come from a Tuscan cemetery, in which the bones of many a Caius lie.
The image is that of the goddess Menera and her son, the first of whom
can hardly be Minerva, a virgin deity, but some mother goddess, whose
name is compounded of the Basque men, “ power, authority.” The
name of the father of Kai or Caius, namely Arba, is, as has already
appeared, one of the chief personal designations of the royal line of the
Canary Island Iberians, who named the Teldes, and in migration
became the Toltecs. There is, therefore, no reason to suppose the
image foreign to the islands, but rather is there reason to regard it as
a survival of the mortuary votive offerings made by their Iberic
inhabitants in ancient times. The image of Menera and her son, with
the inscribed prayer, was originally attached to the sepulchre of young
Kai or Caius by his father, Arba, and his mother, Sotoberri, as a
phylactery. Wherever the Celtic Guanches first obtained it, there
seems to be little doubt that they were ignorant of its real nature, and
regarded it as one of their mother-goddesses, that the Abbé Banier,
in his “Mythology Explained by History,” and other writers, show to
have been common throughout the Celtic area of Europe. Judging
it alike by the form of its characters and the simplicity of its language,
the image and its inscription must have been of much antiquity,
perhaps a century before the Christian era. The grammatical forms
dio, nto and duen denote attention to literary style such as does not
characterize many of the inscriptions of the same region.
The next inscription is from Canaria, and reads in Japanese order
from top to bottom, but, unlike Japanese, the columns begin at the left.
1900-1. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 63
INSCRIPTION II.
ge u go ko go
ma tsi ma 1 ma
ma ta ta ta ma
sio ta ya ya ma
ya ba so go ma
be
Age Mama zio utsite Taya ba Goma Taya so,
indicates Mama to him to leave Taya if Goma Taya regard.
kot Taya jabe Goma ema Mama
wishes Taya lord Goma gives Mama.
“Mama indicates to him (that he will) evacuate Taya, if Goma
desires the regard of Taya. Mama gives Goma (to be) lord of Taya.”
As the Iberic name Telde remained in the islands after the
departure of the Toltecs, it is probable that they left other names,
which the Guanches did not supersede, just as many Pictish and other
Iberic names survive in the British Islands. Such in Scotland are the
Goldenberry hills, whose true name was the Basque go/de-nabara, “ the
ploughshare.” Places called Taya and Taha are not uncommon in the
Canaries. The inscription records the cession of an inhabited tract,
so called, by a chief named Mama to another bearing the designation
Goma, or perhaps gomu, the remembrance. That it was inhabited is
indicated by the so or regard of its people as a factor in the cession.
Taya may be the modern 7zfaz, a scythe, reaping hook, so called on
account of its appearance, like the Greek Zancle or Messana. The
prefix of vowels, such as the z of ztaz seems to be a modern feature of
language ; in Etruscan days, the verbs “to give” and “to place” seem
to have been ma and m2, not ema-n and z7-n2, as now.
INSCRIPTION III.
This is to be read in the same order as No. II.
pi
mo ra
ta au
ya do de
au i be
bisi ta sisa
ta ka be
te ma hi
64 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VIE.
Pimo Taya au bizttate arau dot Taka ematu debe esatz beh.
Pimo Taya this inhabitant right just Taka gives forbidding word
cows.
“ Pimo, this inhabitant of Taya, according to law, gives Taka notice,
forbidding cows (to trespass).”
This also is an inscription of Taya belonging to a different period
from that of the first Pimo, which is the Etruscan or old Basque
numeral “one,” and may here mean /prenceps, replacing the former
Mama and Goma. The inscription is imperfect, the word “to trespass,”
“to pasture,’ “to seek shelter,’ being doubtless defaced as is often
the case with prohibitory notices. This is not the only inscription
relating to cattle, which appear, in ancient times to have constituted
the chief wealth of the islands.
The remaining documents that are legible are from the island of
Hierro, the smallest and most westerly of the group, where the Iberic
element seems to have been in greatest force, and whence, in all
probability, it migrated to America.
INSCRIPTION IV.
This is to be read in the same way as the foregoing:
ma bi
sis-a ma al
la ku
Machisala Bimaku al.
Machisala Bimaku power.
“ Machisala, the potentate of Bimbachos.”
Dr. Bethencourt says that the aborigines of Hierro were called
Bimbapes. In the inscription, one Machisala, perhaps motz-zale, “the
Shearer,’ is made Lord of a place called Bimaku. Such a name as
Bima or Bimaku would have no chance of surviving as such on the lips
of Latin peoples, but would undoubtedly be strengthened into Firma
or Palma.
INSCRIPTION V.
This brief document is to be read horizontally, from left to right :
ga no be ta.
Gantbeta.
“ Knife.”
1900-1. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 65
In the writer's article on “The Oldest Written Records of the
League of the Iroquois,” in Vol. VI. of the Transactions of the Insti-
tute, p. 260, he has translated a Sinaitic inscription of the nineteenth
century B.C., which reads: ‘“ Hadad, lord of the whole earth, son of the
metallurgist, the noble Bedad,” in which “ metallurgist” translates
ganibeta. Never dreaming of finding the name or title in the Canaries,
he wrote: “This is undoubtedly the Hadad, son of Bedad, of Genesis
XXXVI, 35, 36, who succeeded Husham in the range of Hor, and smote
Midian in what afterwards became Moab. The name of his city was
Avith, that is to say, Abydos in Egypt. His father, Bedad or Beda,
he calls the metallurgist, as one who was among the first to work
the mines of Arabia Petraea. The modern Japanese name for a
metallurgist is Lane-fukz, but the ancient Hittite term for smelting
was Geta. The remarkable thing, however, about the word kaneleta is
that it is the original of the English uzfe and French canzf, which
were derived from the Basque ganzbet, a knife, the meaning of which
in old Hittite days was simply ‘smelted or manufactured metal.’ ”
M. Van Eys suggests a derivation from the Proveng¢al canzvet, but the
debt is plainly the other way. As the writer has indicated elsewhere,
(The Nations of Canaan; Presbytertan College Journal, November,
1900, pp. 10-13), the Hebrew Hadad is an attempt to render the
Basque O¢adz, which means a field of gorse, broom, or whin. In
Egyptian, an equivalent leguminous plant was called wsert, the oszrztzs
of Pliny, and, with the addition of sez, a tree or shrub, gave name to
the Usertsens of Abydos, famous Pharaohs of the so-called twelfth
dynasty (Brugsch, Egypt under the Pharaohs). These Usertsens were
Hadads or Otadis. A body of their tribal descendants arrived in
Britain at some pre-Christian period, and were known to the classical
writers, drawn upon by Richard of Cirencester, as the Ottadini, who
dwelt along the borders of England and Scotland. Their ancient
traditions formed the subject of the “Gododin” of Aneurin, a famous
Welsh bard. A lordly offshoot of this family remained behind in
Anjou in, France, till, in the twelfth century, \their chief, Geoffrey,
married Matilda, Queen of England, and brought into that country
the royal line of the Otadis, Usertsens, or, in Latin speech Planta-
genistas (which are words that perfectly translate the former) to
become the Plantagenets, from whom, in the female line of John of
Gaunt, His Gracious Majesty King Edward in part descends. In
translating two of the already published Hierro inscriptions, Nos. XVI.
and XXI. of M. O’Shea, the writer mistook the value of two characters
and rendered by Osa¢a what should have been Ofaaz. The person so
called in No. XVI., is termed “the Son of Tane, King of Amahetzio.”
5
66 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
In the persons of Ganibeta and Otadi, this family must have been fully
domiciled in Hierro, and this will account for the number of inscriptions
in that island. Ganibeta and Otadi belonged to the Hamathite, Beero-
thite, or Kenite stock, who were, par excellence, scribes (I. Chronicles II.,
55), and who wrote the inscriptions of Arabia Petraea called Sinaitic.
As Hamathites, they are represented by the greatly cherished name of
the Japanese, Yama-to, or “The Mountain Door,’ as well as by the
Amoxoaquis of the Mexican Toltecs, and the Amautas of the Peruvians,
who were their wise men, for the synonymous word Kenite is derived
from the Japanese Ken, “intelligent, clever, wise.’ These scribes must
in part have accompanied the Zerethites or Toltecs of the Canaries, both
in their migration thither, and afterwards to America ; for, not only
were the sages of Peru called Amautas or Hamathites, but also the
word Amauta enters into the composition of no fewer than eleven
names of the Incas given by Montesinos. While the original word
Hamath undoubtedly meant the same as the Japanese Yama-to, the
Mountain Door, from the application of the term to scribes, it came to
denote a book or library, as in the Akkadian forms sumuk, samak, the
Japanese and Loo-Chooan shomotsu and shimutzt, and the Mexican
amox, whence the wise men or Amoxoaquis.
It is worthy of note in this connection that Berothai, the Syrian
capital of a Hadad-ezer or Ben-Hadad of this race, leads back to an
ancient Hittite Beeroth, named evidently after Beeri, a father-in-law
of Esau, whose wife was Bashemath, and his daughter Judith or
Yehudith. Homer and the Greek dramatists have preserved the
eponym of Beeroth as Proteus, the old man of the sea; his wife
Bashemath as Psamathe, and his daughter as Eidothea. Beeri, the father
of Bedad and grandfather of the first Hadad, or Usertsen of Abydos,
gave name to the Bharatan race of India, celebrated in that famous
epic, the Maha-Bharata, of which Yudhish-thira or Hadad-ezer is the
principal hero. The Parthians of the Persian Empire were the same
race, and their kings, Tiri-dates, bore the name with inversion of parts.
In Welsh history the well-known word Brython has nothing to do with
the Cymri or any other Celtic people, and as certainly has no
connection with the Sassenach. The Brython were Iberic Picts, in
other words, the Ottadini. There are two curious passages, in the poems
of Taliesin, the Welsh bard, and in one by an anonymous author, which
seem to point, not only to an Iberian connection of the Welsh, but to
the fact that the Iberians were their instructors in mythology and many
things beside. In his Angar Cyvyndawd, Taliesin says :
‘*Traethator fyngofeg,
Yn Efrai, yn Efroeg.”
1900-1. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 67
Davies translates this in his “Mythology of the British Druids”:
“My lore has been declared in Hebrew, in Hebraic.” The other poem,
entitled The Praise of Lhudd the Great, contains the following passage
in a foreign tongue, which Davies thought might be Phoenician :
‘*O Brithi Brith oi,
Nu oes nu edi,
Brithi, Brith anhai
Sych edi edi eu roi.”
This the writer turns into more modern Basque form as follows:
‘“© Brithi, Brith oi,
Nu o-etsi, nu adi:
Brithi, Brith anai
Zac adi, adi au arau.”
This is more Etruscan than modern Basque, and means:
‘© Brithi, associate of Brith,
Pay attention to me, hear me:
Brithi, brother of Brith,
Do thou hear, hear this measure.”
Either Brith or Brithi, besides being Proteus, the sea-deity, and the
Indian Bharata, is the Brutus of Geoffrey of Monmonth, and of the
Brut d’Angleterre. His original sanctuary or oracle was called Beeroth.
The Viscomte Chasteigner applied to the writer last winter (1899), for
the derivation of the name Biarritz, which he had traced back in various
forms of orthography as far as 1186. After much study, its original
was found in Beeroth, derived from Be-ur-z, or “he of the great water
or the sea,’ as Be-avr-ots, “ the sound of the great water,” or as Le-ur-z¢z,
“the speech of the great water.” It was at first, doubtless, an oracle of
the Ottadini, whose name Pliny disguises as Oscidates, and places in
the vicinity of Biarritz. Such is the long excursus to which the simple
mention of Ganibeta has, it is to be hoped, not unprofitably led. It
remains to observe that Amahetzio, the city of Otadi, son of Tane, has
a Hamathite, or, Peruvianly speaking, Amauta look. In the Etruscan
inscriptions is found the equivalent of the Japanese shomotsw and
Mexican amox, “a book,” which is wanting in modern Basque, namely,
ezaumeka, in the compound word egzn-ezaumeka, which translates the
Latin Volumnius, “a book maker.” This is virtually the Akkadian
sumuk, samak, “a library.”
68 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vor. VII.
INSCRIPTION VI.
This also reads horizontally from left to right; it is of no historical
importance.
be ha tu de be
Behatu debe
to look forbid
“It is forbidden to look.”
INSCRIPTION VII.
It follows the order of Nos. II. and III.
au ai
arbe ta
ma arbe
ma
Au Arbema atta Arbema.
This Arbema father Arbema.
“ Arbema, the father of this Arbema.”
The name of father and son may be Arxpzmo, “the first in front.”
Hittite names generally descend from grandfather to grandson.
INSCRIPTION VIII.
It reads like No. VII.
arbe ta ma
sis-a bera
sama
Arbe esatz asma Tabera ema.
Arbe spoken indication Tabera gives.
“Tabera gives a sign of speech to Arbe.”
M. O’Shea’s No. XVII. mentions Tabera, whose name,
accompanied by the figure of a turtle, suggests the modern Basque
chaberama, the turtle or tortoise, and the Iroquois axowara. He its
made the father of three chiefs, Ola, Mamaye, and Machi. Ola’s son
was Temane; his, Maneta; and Maneta’s Olaochita or Ahaluste, in
1900-t. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDs. 69
whose time the Roman envoy Lamia visited Hierro. This lapces
Tabera four generations before that event, and if Arbe be his
progenitor, as is probable, this must be a very ancient monument
indeed.
INSCRIPTION IX.
This reads from left to right in both lines, save in the case of the
solitary subscribed character at the end of the first :
ma mu ta mai ta ta mo
be
Sirta-Si tatu
Mamuta mat Tatamobe Chitachi edatu.
funereal tablet Tatamobe Chitachi erects.
“ Chitachi erects a sepulchral tablet to Tatamobe.”
Arname like Cintacht is’ Chisetachi of M. ©O’Shea’s No: XXIII. “It
may connect with chzchtatu, ststatu, ststatze, “to pierce, strike with a
pointed weapon.” Chisetachi erected a monument to Chioko.
Tatamobe may be edat-ambe, “great extent,’ or it may connect with
tumpa, “the sound made by a slight blow.”
INSCRIPTION X.
This is to be read perpendicularly :
be ma
la ka
Bela-maka.
“Bela-Maka.”
Bela-Maka or Maka-Bela is a common Hittite name, found on the
Mound-Builder tablets of Davenport, Iowa, as Wala-Maka and Maka-
Wala. Its first appearance in history is in Genesis xxiii, 9, 17, 19,
where it has the form Machpelah. It thus appears to have been a
Zocharite or Teucrian name, rather than Zerethite or Dardanian. In
the form Belamaka it may possibly relate to that strange Basque word
palanka, palenka, “bar of iron.” The Japanese maki-wart, an axe,
suggests some form of the Basque maka, makatu, to strike, in
connection with smakzlla, a stick, as if it had been originally mak-p7/a,
a striking instrument.
70 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VIL.
INSCRIPTION XI.
To be read perpendicularly and from the left :
sipisai
si ma R
bara ma u
at ma ma
ta te ri
Ichpichot Stbara atita Mama ema Temara 3 umerri.
In tribute Sibara holder Mama gives Temara 3 young cattle.
“Temara gives Mama, the lord of Sibara, three young cattle in
tribute.”
Mama has appeared in No. II. as ceding Taya to Goma. Here he
occupies the position of a chief of feudal rank, to whom Temara is
subject. The estate or kingdom of Mama was Sibara, perhaps
derived from sapar, a bush, zembera, thickets, with reference to the
nature of the land. ;
INSCRIPTION XII.
This is read in the same way:
te go
ra sas-a
au ma
ra i
ma pi
Tera aur ema kosatze mai Pimot.
Tera child gives inscribed tablet Pimo to.
“ The child of Tera gives an inscribed tablet to Pimo.”
Tera may be Azerz, the sheltered or serene. Pimo is the Etruscan
numeral one. It may be that Tera or Ateri’s son’s name was also
Pimo, and that the Pimo of the inscription was his grandfather.
1900-1. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDs. 7h
INSCRIPTION XIII.
Reads as the preceding :
pisa
pi ma
mo bi
sisa
Pimo Opisama bizitza.
Pimo Opisama inhabiting.
“ Pimo, the inhabitant of Opisama,”
It is more than probable that this is the Pimo of No. XII., and that
Opisama should be read 067 samatz, the vault, or literally, “the court of
the grave.”
INSCRIPTION XIV.
Follow the same order, but see final u-ma-ri.
ma bi
be masi si 3 ri
oO al au sa u ma
sl ar ka te
koi te ra
aita
Otsekot atta be Alarte ema emaitz Aukara bizttzate 3 umerrt.
Otsekoi father under Alarte give present Aukara inhabitants 3
young cattle.
“The inhabitants of Aukara give a present of three young cattle
to Alarte, under the father of Otsekoi.”
It is possible that aztabe is one word and the same as the modern
attaba, grandfather, in which case the inscription would read “to Alarte
the grandfather of Otsekoi,’ The names are all significant. Aukara
is evidently Awkera, the choice, rather than offer, oblique, or ukhur,
leaning forward. An instance of the use of the word “choice” in
geographical nomenclature is Rogelim in Gilead (II. Samuel, xvii,
27, etc.), which is the Gaelic vogh-eallamh, “the choice of the flock.”
Alarte is the holder of power or authority, and Otsekoi is the ambitious,
literally, “desirous of fame.”
72 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
I
2 Tee Bs Sok POM Ge eae
6 BAFM © I[RENINIX FMEAREI &
c LPVRINENIPEPN] FANT
A MAR MPR POT ALR IE
ce OLMHINRANER EIAEBNPEN ER FVENENV—
-[NA PIMII PEN VPIP I NIT A Noe
P
PV PMIRMA HS ENVPMTIFKERNM RIREVRVIVIN-
~RNEAPVIMERI EPI VNIANENTRIFN OE
pNBIM EL ANNEI PERFMIVG@IFVE
: Va vy
if V
ee O U
5 w cp L/
: Nh 2 One ie) Zone
Oe Vag ve
ro oh Me ata ; Lae ee
HRN as
Ay if —L IX
Hh = v eo il ej =p
y Le aN) Gals DUD WD be
nf anaes. Can ee !] es VII
inn Orage eee .
erie Oho b oo Nn
INSCRIPTIONS.
el
4o
SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS.
1900-1. |
[9S:s-"=
ple ns
> Teas
=) ae ~°PA'!T®X3z092 3 a
= =~
Berenice. ted See
jo < = Se e
as ale 3
ee 50S =
Ic + 20= be otis
<eerdr S
ao ist ea ae fone C -
B = * Broo es a
2 0 per s =
= SB :
Soe ol
> 40l C= EO: Dt =
S ao eee lee Se sheen
Secret Sant >
C+ VN
elie (eA) :
Son to o Wx “SS
SS > =
—~ OB BIE ~4eO7 ls 9
a Soa Or) oe Seas thee
ie ee i ee 8 = + At
l= ox Siu
INSCRIPTIONS.
74 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vov. VII.
INSCRIPTION XV.
Follows the same perpendicular order:
go
pi ti
au mo tu
ka ma
pi si i be
+ SeaX) i ar ar
ma au au
Pimo ema Kasi au mai arau: Pimo be goititu arau.
Pimo gives to Kasi this tablet suitable : Pimo under erects suitably.
“Pimo gives this fitting tablet to Ikasi: the underling of Pimo
correctly sets it up.”
This is evidently an earlier inscription than No. XIII., which
commemorates the death of Pimo or the first. Ikasi, the learner, has
no other memorial. The postposition de, under, below, is probably
the shortest name in the world for a servant.
INSCRIPTION XVI.
In the same order :
da au
no la
da ra
te
Danda au Alarte.
Tribute this Alarte.
“The tribute this Alarte (gives, receives, etc.).”
In No. XIV. Alarte, the grandfather of Otsekoi, receives the tribute
of Aukera. This may be another record of such feudal dues, paid on a
different occasion. The document is imperfect.
1900-1. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDs. a
INSCRIPTION XVII.
The order of reading is the same:
au
it te ra
saha ka de
ra ra ka
ma
te
Itzahar Tekara aur Deka mate.
Itzahar, Tekara child Deka King.
“Ttzahar, son of Tekara, King of Deka.”
The word for king is the equivalent of the Japanese #2-to, mz-kado,
the honourable door, or sublime porte. In Basque it would be 7z-ate, an
abbreviation of szra-ate, the admirable door. The Basque a¢e and the
Japanese ado, are probably the original of the English “gate,” and
cognate words in other languages, including the Gaelic geata. Lexico-
graphers are almost absolutely ignorant of the extensive Iberic element
in all Indo-European and even Semitic languages. There are also
debts the other way, as in the Basque fan-Zoka, a pile of stones, and the
Japanese dan-jaku, a boulder, in which pax and dan are not native
words, but ancient survivals of the Semitic eden, a stone, denoting
former intercourse with Hebrews, Assyrians and similar orientals.
Itzahar means “the old ox,” which, in Turanian nomenclature, is not
remarkable. Sitting-bull belonged to the same race. Even in Celtic,
the Babylonian Sin-Gasit, who is the original of the British legendary
Hen-gist, is sean-gazscidh, the old warrior, a name which he no doubt
received as a child. Tekara may be the Basque zzgora, the rod, scourge,
etc. Deka again may stand for zdekz, open.
INSCRIPTION XVIII.
In perpendicular or Japanese order :
be
au ha
ra ka
u ma
Au arau Mama beha Kama.
This right Mama regards Kama.
76 ’ ‘TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. |Vot. VII.
“Kama thus suitably shews regard to Mama.” »
The name Mama has already appeared in No. II., an inscription not
of Hierro, but of Canaria, where it is combined with that of Goma, a
word not unlike Kama or Gama. Canaria is a considerable distance
from Hierro, but the multitude of its inscriptions, as compared with
other islands, suggests that Hierro may have been chosen by the Iberic
aborigines as their place of sepulture, and thus that the Mama and
Gama of this inscription are the Mama and Goma of No. II.
INSCRIPTION XIX.
Read in the same way:
te de
ma ma
ra ma al
sai ma
Temara Dema Masai al ema.
Temara tribute Masa-to power gives.
“The tribute of Temara gives sovereignty to Masa.”
The name of Masa does not occur elsewhere, unless it be in: M.
O’Shea’s XXII., in which the Roman Lamia is called a Masa, Basque
mesu, mezu, envoy. Instead of Masa as a proper name, one might read
mezut “to the envoy” or Lamia, which would relegate the inscription to
the early days of the Roman empire. Temara has already found
mention in No. XI., as the tributary of Mama, lord of Sibara. Temara
may be zamarz, the horse, or zamar, the crab. In Japanese ¢emarz is a
hand-ball.
INSCRIPTION XX.
Reads like the preceding, but has lacunae or partial defacements :
ra
ma i bi rabe no
no te no no
ma be be go
be berabe berabe ma ka
ha no sari be
Mai anoma beha au bite * * * * vyabe no Beberabe no ranono
Beberabe zari Goma beka.
Tablet contributed regards this envoy * * * * vade of Beberabe
of towards Beberabe commander Goma chief.
1900-1. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDs. 77
“The contributed tablet regards this envoy (bitezar) * * * * (a
tribute) towards Beberabe: the commander Beberabe, chief of Goma.”
This imperfect inscription seems to relate to a military man and an
envoy, so that, instead of, “the chief of Goma” standing in apposition
to him, the words may denote the giver of the tablet. The writer
knows of no Basque or Etruscan name or word like Beberabe, but as
Bibi-rube, it is just what an Etruscan document would turn the Latin
Vibius Rufus or Rufinus into. There was a C. Vibius Rufinus in the
Roman consulate 22 A.D., to whose family the supposed éz¢tezar or
envoy may have belonged, although his date would suit the time of one
at least of the Lamias.
INSCRIPTION XXI.
Goma beka.
Goma chief.
“The chief of Goma.”
Unfortunately, the name of the chief is lost.
INSCRIPTION XXII:
u at u be ar be
da erbe da hei di
beri fe) ha tu za
al bi te de no
ma a am be
u te bera mopira
sa da mopira
te
Udaberri al ema osa atherbe obt ate edate: udahate ambera beheitu
debe mopira mopira ardizain be.
Spring power gives overseer shelter cave door extend: summer
more than lower forbids eight eight shepherd under.
“In spring, the overseer gives authority to open the door of the
cave shelter : in summer he forbids to lower (into it) more than cight
(times) eight, under a shepherd.”
[Vou. VIL.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.
73
The inscription, which does not contain a single proper name, is
the best test of the correctness of the method of interpretation.
INSCRIPTION XXIII.
This reads horizontally, from left to right, with a slight variation :
simasa te la no si le ya
te
no
ma i ma
no
Chimasa Tela nausi, Leyate non mat ema.
Chimasa Tela lord. Leyate, who tablet gives.
“Chimasa, lord of Tela, Leyate who.gives the tablet.”
Talaya, by some derived from the Arabic, denotes “a look out on
the coast; Chimasa may be a form of szematu, to threaten, meaning
“the menacer,” and Leyate signifies “the zealous.”
INSCRIPTION XXIV.
This irregular inscription is to be read in the main perpendicularly :
be go am 5 a
la ramama oO hal
ma ro ure
aita i 2 te
ka
Belamaka Goramama atta 010i 5 amar 3 ahal urte.
Belamaka Goramama father remembers 5 tens 3 power year.
“ Belamaka, the father of Goramama, remembers fifty-three years of
authority.”
The name of this aged sovereign appears alone in No. X. His
son’s may be gora-mama, “ the exalted spirit.”
1900-1. } SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDs. 79
INSCRIPTION XXV.
oO go
le be
ro arpe
ka
te i
Olero gabe Arpekatet.
Olero lord Arpekate to,
“To Arpekate, lord of Olero.”
Olero or Oloro invites comparison with Oleron or Oloron in the
Lower Pyrenees. Arpekate is, perhaps, a verbal form of evfeka, a
stroke of the claws, meaning “to claw.”
INSCRIPTION XXVI.
Also, with one variation, perpendicular :
re)
Sa al
ma i ta
ar 1
be al
Osa mat Arbe attat Alberri.
Pays-attention tablet Arbe father to Alberri.
“The tablet honours Alberri, the father of Arbe.”
Arbe appears in No. VIII., as one of the oldest of the kinglets of
Hierro. Alberri, his father, furnishes a still higher antiquity. The
name may mean as it stands “new authority.” It is not at all likely to
be alfer, lazy, alabere, similarly, etc., but it might easily be e/barrz, the
crippled, lame, z/berrz, the new moon, or z/bera, the waning moon.
80 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
INSCRIPTION XXVII.
Perpendicular, like the last :
a a u le ro) te
be berabe me rosari be da al
re be ri mo ka tu me
u ka pi ka a na
me ma ri
ri
Abere aberabe be umerri: umerrt kama lerrozarri mopika : obeka
athedatu art almena.
Cattle tread under lambs: lambs shepherd place-in-order by twos:
better take away ram virility.
“Cattle tread under the lambs. The shepherd will place the lambs
two inarank. It is preferable to deprive the rams of their virility.”
This last inscription is worthy of comparison with No. XXII., both
denoting, not only the existence in Hierro of a pastoral Iberic popula-
tion, but also that of a population whose humble class of shepherds was
able to read such engraved notices. This seems to indicate that educa-
tion was general in the islands, or at least among the Iberians in them,
before the Christian era, and in the early Christian centuries. Can it be
that all their writing was confined to rock faces ; or had they, as Strabo
asserts regarding their congeners, the Turdetani of Spain, books and
parchment documents, containing, among other things, an account of
their eventful history? Everything tends towards the suspicion that
they once had such memorials, which may not all have perished.
Librarians and similar custodians pay little attention to documents
which they cannot read, and can, therefore, neither class nor catalogue.
The question is worth asking, not only of archivists in the Canary
Islands, but also of the same in Spain, southern France, Italy, and
north-western Africa, whether a little research may not bring to light
important historic facts concerning a race that has played no small role
on the stage of the past.
1900-f. |
SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS, 81
GENERAL VOCABULARY.
COMPARING THE CANARY ISLAND DIALECTS WITH IRISH-GAELIC,
WELSH AND BASQUE: I., W., B.
aala, alamen,
abara, abora,
abimbar,
acaman, achaman,
acano,
acaman,
achacae, chacais,
achahuaran,
achemen,
achic,
achicaxna,
achicuca, aguahuio,
achijerres,
achimaya,
achimencey,
achjucanac,
achjuragan,
achormaza,
acoran, achoran,
acucanac,
aculan,
adago,
adarg,
adargomo,
adarno,
aemo,
afaro,
aguayan,
ahicasna,
ahico,
ajerjo,
aho, ahof,
alcorac, alcoran,
algarabana,
alio,
aljereque,
almogaren,
6
water,
god,
to throw stones,
highest god,
lunar year,
sun,
rock pools,
great god,
milk,
son, descendant,
peasant, clown,
illegitimate son,
trifles,
mother,
noble,
supreme god,
god and lord,
green figs,
god,
highest god,
fresh fat,
goat's milk,
shoulder (of rock),
arm of rock,
tree;
water,
corn, grain,
dog,
son of plebeian,
dress, skin shirt,
torrent,
milk,
god,
wheat and barley,
sun,
narrow wall,
temple,
lo. lua, uaran, I. ur B.
adbar, adbal I. cause; peryf W.
creator.
beim-bair I.
acmhaing I. puzssance.
eigh I. moon, cann I. full moon, eang
I. year.
huan W., samh I., shems Arabic.
cuas I. cavity.
aigh-urraim I. upholding power.
segh I. mz/k, seghamhuil [. mz/ky.
ae I., esil W.
gwasan W.
ac-cuig I. secret son.
ceirriach W.
iog, iogain I,
acmhaingeach I.
uchaf, uchbenaeth W.
uachdarach I., udd-dragonoll W.
boccore Arabic.
crom I.
aige-ceannach I., ‘the wpholder of
authority.
agalen W. lump of butter.
at I. mzlk.
otir I,
otir-gob I.
udarondo B. fear-tree.
aw W., amh, amhan, en I.
bar I.
cian W.
gwesyn W., oganach I.
gwise W., haik Arabic.
easar, easard I.
as, ceo I,
uileghlic I, a@d/-w7se, uilecoireach I.,
ollgwyr W. all-just.
iolach-arban I. mzxed grazn.
haul W.
cul-gwyrch W.
armighthear I. sanctified, airmhidh
I. vow, airmhidin I. reverence.
82
almogaroc,
altacayte,
altaha,
althos,
amago, umiago,
amodagas,
amolan,
ana,
anepa,
anthaa,
antieux,
antraha,
ara,
aramatonaque,
archormaze,
arguna,
aridaman,
artamy, arteme,
asidir-magro,
asitis-tirma,
atguaychafortanaman,
atinavina, atinaviva,
atis-tirma,
auchones,
auchor,
azamotan,
axa,
axo, xayo,
azarquen, tacerquen,
babilon,
baifo,
balma,
belete, beleten,
benesmen,
benesmer,
bimba,
bochafisco,
borondango,
bosigaiga,
burgado,
cancos,
cariana,
cariano,
carabuco,
carabuco,
casjua,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE
adoration,
brave man,
brave man,
god,
sacred mount,
sticks sharpened with
fire,
butter-cake,
sheep,
lance,
brave man,
house,
man,
goat,
barley cakes,
green figs,
saddle bag,
flock of sheep, etc.,
chief, prince,
invocation to God,
invocation to God,
he who holds the
heavens,
hog,
cry of surrender, invoca-
tion to God,
connections of caves,
cave dwelling,
barley bread,
goat,
mummy,
syrup of mocanes,
nickname of Tenerife
child,
kid,
cloud, veil,
first milk,
harvest,
August,
round stone,
roasted grain,
butter-cake,
el pene (Spanish),
shell-fish,
priests of medium rank,
rush basket,
large bag,
earthen jar with handle,
male goat,
the cud,
CANADIAN INSTITUTE.
[VoL. VII.
ermygiad W., urnaighe {I, frayer,
iarrata I. asked.
lath-cathach I. warv-champion.
lath I., lluyddwr W.
alla, alladh, alt, art I.
myg W. sacred.
maide I. stick, miodog I. bidog W.
dagger.
eim-aran I.
oen W., uan I. lamb.
omna I.
niadh I. hero.
anedd, W.
anra I. meanYmen.
ari B. ram.
eorna-taoisnighthe I.
bokkore Arabic.
bolgan W.
airmheadh I, herd of cattle, altain I,
flock, porthmon W. drover.
ardmhaor I. chtef magistrate.
magh-adraidh I. feld of adoration.
aitchim-trom I., 7 deg for protection.
adh-se-a-cabhairt-neamh I, cymhorth-
nef W.
aitheach-ban I. sow, hob W.
aitchim-trom I., 7 beg for protection.
uaigh, uaighneach I, cave.
ogof W., coire I.
haidd-miod W. éarley cake.
seaghach I. e-goat.
ecc, echt I. dead.
deasguin I. molasses, etc.
buibiollan I. coxcomé.
beag-boc I., bitika B.
beala I.
flaith I.
pen-cywain W. first harvest.
beinn fomhar I. first harvest.
beim I, Zo strike.
poeth-plisgo W., bocht-blaosg I.
barachdaen W. bread and butter
barantionsan I.
biach I., potzuak B.
bylchiad W., murac I.
carnach I, heathen priest.
crannog I.
crannog I.
cailphig I.
culbhoc I., bwch-gafr W.
athchagnadh I.
1900-1. | SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 83
cel} moon, gealach I.
cela, month, gealach I.
chabogo, chaboigo, cavern, ogofawg W.
chabor, royal palace, sabhal I. granary, storehouse.
chacanisos, feet, cos I.
chafija, debility, afiechyd W.
chacares, castanets, cliciwr W.
chafariles, rock pools, tiobhar I.
chajaco, chajasco, litter, bier, caiteach I. wzznow sheet.
chajaija, dark colour, gwywgoch W.
chajajo, corpse, dead, aisc, eag, oighidh I.
chajinasco, cumular clouds, eachanach I. stormy.
chalafusco, crevice in mountains, scalp I.
chamato, woman, cyffoden, cymones W., gamh, caom-
hog, coint I.
chayofa, nose, comar, comhor lI.
chede, limit, boundary, chede B.
cherga, belly, croth W.,, cilfin I.
chescaro, mean, penurious, cagaltach I., cyrrithus W.
chibichibi, a game, gogampau W., subha I.
chibusco, rope, suag, sioman I,
chichiciquico, squire, gaisgidheach I.
chihisquico, cavalier, gwych W.
chilhisquizo, squire, giollasguain I.
chinea, lower hell, anwn W.
chinichibito, change of pasture, cyfnewydiad W. change.
chiribito, ear mark on cattle, cearbhach I. ragged, torn, clustnod W.
chirrimile, small helix, cregyn W., creachan I.
chirripota, pubescent girl, gwryf W.
chiscano, bone, seic, asna I., asgwrn W.
chiscanado, bony, asnach I., esgirnig W.
chivato, kid, gabhar I. goat, giden W.
ciguena, female goat or ewe, ceathnaid I, sheep.
chocos, chips of wood, casnaig I., coed W. wood.
coran, man, gwr VW.
coruja, red owl, sgreachog I.
cotan, man, cathaidhe I. warrior.
creses, beech-nuts, grech, creachach I.
cuna, dog, cu I., cian W.
cuncha, cancha,
little dog,
cynos W.
cuteto, piebald animal, caideacha I. sfotted.
datana, war cry, deodhann I. é6y God's help, a gagan
Dduw W. god grant.
debase, idler, taimheach I.
eccero, limit, boundary, ewr W.
echeyde, hell, avagddu W.
efequen, place of worship, impuighim I. pray.
embroscar, poison water, amh-briosog, rossachd I.
enac, night, nos W.
ere, eres, erales
fresh water holes,
feirsde, earc I.
esmira, bee-hive, smeraighe I. swarming of hive.
esquen, house, iosdan I,
estafia, to beat, asti B.
84
fagayo,
faira,
faisca,
faita,
fayacan,
faycao,
faysage,
fe,
firancas,
firanque,
fol, fole,
furna, furnia,
gabio,
gabeit, gabiota,
gagames,
gahuata,
gaire, gayre,
galiot,
gama,
gambuesa,
ganigo, guanigo,
ganofa,
gara,
garajao,
garepa,
garepa,
garfa,
gocho,
gofio,
gongo,
goran,
goro,
gouro,.
groja,
gua,
guacacque,
guacaros,
guachafisco,
guaclo, juaclo,
guague,
guaire,
guamf,
guan,
guanac,
guanac,
guanaja,
guanarteme,
guanhot,
guanoco,
guanoth,
guanil,
guapil,
teat, udder,
round stone,
spark of fire,
treason,
governor,
priest,
councillor,
crescent moon,
stray,
beetle,
big bag,
abyss,
evil spirit,
devil,
appetite,
devil,
war-councillors,
devil,
enough,
shed for wild cattle,
earthen pot,
generous,
island, rock in sea,
water fowl,
chip, shaving,
spark,
lance,
little yard,
porridge,
hole,
yard,
circus, arena,
little yard for kids,
laughter,
son of,
jug of measure,
bettle,
reduce to powder,
natural cave,
measure,
noble,
man,
son of,
estate,
republic,
devil,
king,
favour, gift,
weak, infirm,
steward of estate,
wild cattle,
skin cap,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.
boig I., piw W.
bair I., bwrw W.
bacht I. :
brad W., fionaih I.
pencun W.
faigh I.
| VOL.
feasach I., knowing, skillful.
fasuigheadh I., 4xowledge of law.
fas I., crescent, growing.
bracach I.
primpiollan I., chwilen W.
bolg I.
uffern W., ith frionn I.
siabhra I.
siobradh I.
geogamhail I.
sighidh, siogidh I.
gearait I., prudent.
goilline I.
cmyhwys W.
gabhann I., a pound.
cunnog W., cuinneog I.
hynaws W.
sgeir I.
curcag I., gwyach W.
sgealp, sgolb I.
gwraich W., caor I.
geurgath I., gwaywffon W.
cata I.
sopa, zopa B.
ionga I.
cro.cruy lL:
chwareufa W.
cal, corlan W.
gaire I., chwardd W.
ua I.
cuachog I.
chwil W.
creafog I.
ceule W., iseal I.
cuachog I.
guaire I., gwerlin W.
ymbaffiwr W., fighéer.
gein I., cenaw W.
ceannas I.
ceannach I.
einioes W.
ardmhaor, airdimnhe I.
cymhorthi W.
gwan W.
ceannart I.
agh I., cattle, anial W., weld.
cwflen W., caba, caibin I.
VII.
1900-1. |
guardaseme,
guarirari,
guatatiboa,
guaya, iguaya,
guayca, guaycos,
guaycas,
guayafacan,
guayfan,
guayere,
guayoto, huayota,
guijon,
guirre,
guisne,
gurancho,
gurgusiar,
gurgusiar,
hana,
hara,
harba,
harhuy,
harmaguade,
hecheres hamanates,
herguele,
hero, herez,
hirahi, hiragi,
huirmas,
ife,
iguanoso,
iguaya hiraji,
ilfe,
irichen,
iruene,
irvene,
jameo,
jao, josio,
jarco,
jeren,
jilmero,
jucancha,
jurnia,
juvague,
leren,
ha,
lion,
machafisco,
magado,
magarefo, magarejo,
magido,
mago,
maguas, magada,
king,
who anchors the world.
national festival,
spirit,
buskins,
sleeves,
co-adjutor of governor,
co-adjutor of governor,
populace,
devil,
ship,
vulture,
pudenda,
cave for animals,
to cry,
to examine, pry,
help,
ewe,
loan,
sheep skin,
vestal virgin,
councillors,
shoeing,
cistern,
heaven,
large sleeves,
white,
weak, infirm,
god of heaven,
hog,
wheat,
devil,
apparition,
water hole in lava,
term of endearment,
dead,
shaft of mill,
rod fishing from the
shore,
god universal,
abyss,
fat ewe,
irrigation ditch,
summer sun,
sun,
object of little value,
mace, club,
tall thin boy,
fire wood,
Guanche,
vestal,
SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS,
airdcheim I., ewzznence.
accaire I., heor W., anchor.
eisteddfod W.
sia I.
asachcos I., gwentas W.
cuachog I.
cympencun W.
cympen W.
gwerin W.
sigidh, gosda I.
cwch W.
buri W., gairrfhiach I.
caise I.
gurna I., cor-ychain W.
gairgala, golghair I.
chwilgar W., cuartughadh I.
anaice, congain I.
caora I., sheep.
airle I.
caorach I.
er-maighdean I., xob/e virgin.
agarach comchaint I., uchreithwr
cymanfa W.
archeniad W.
fuaran I.
earc I.
llawes W.
aoibhe I., fazv, abead Arabic.
egwan W.
sia erc I.
lia I., lwdn W.
rhygen W., 7~ye.
iarog I.
airidh, arrach I.
uam, uain I., a hollow.
cu, W.
erca I.
garan W., seaghlan I.
genweirio W.
sia-ceannach I.
fuirne I., uffern W.
mamog W.
llyr W., flirim I.
les, leus, lo L., Zgh?.
laom I., dlaze of frre.
meas-beag I.
piocaid, picidh, fascut I., makatu,
makilla B.
mac I., doy, llipa W., /anky.
fagoid I., ffagod W.
mogh I., maz.
maighdean I.
86
mahey,
maho, maxo,
majec,
malgareo,
maniota,
manonda,
marona,
masiega,
maxio,
mayan,
menceit,
mesdache,
minaja, minajo,
misgan, misg'ano,
moca,
moneiba, moreiba,
malan,
naguayan,
oche, hoche,
Omanamastuca,
oranjan,
orduhy,
parano,
puipana,
punapal,
quebehi, quehibi,
quevechi,
quevihiera,
rapayo,
reste,
sabor,
sabuco,
safiro,
samarin,
sera,
serfacaera,
sigone,
sisa,
sorrocloco,
sunta,
suzmago,
tabajo, tabajoste,
tabese,
tabite, tebite,
tabona,
tabor,
tafiaque,
tafique,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.
hero,
shoe,
sun,
rough music,
little bag,
black 'goat with white
feet,
fried meat,
thatch,
enchanted spirit,
piece, part,
heir apparent,
relaxation,
goat,
cat-hole,
javelin,
female idol,
buttermilk fat,
animal, insect,
grease, fat,
bright red,
god,
court, hall,
a stand,
[Vot. VII.
mogan I.
mogan I., amgoesan W.
mais I., mychedin W. szsshzne.
mawlganu W.
mang I., amner W.
ban an dubh I., gwyn yn du W.
white in black.
mollwyn W. mutton, bruin I. stew.
imscing I. covering.
mwci W.
men Arabic.
fineachas I. z#herttance.
feisteas I,
meann, mionnan I. zd.
musgan I,
meas I., moko B. foznt.
menerbh I. goddess of dyeing.
mehin W. fat, molchan I. dzttermilk
cheese.
ednogyn W., snagan I.
usg, iach I,
omh aineamh dathach I. 6/ood stain
coloured.
arnaigh I,
ard-tig, alladh I.
brannra I.
white and cinnamon goat, buidhe-ban I, yellow-white.
first son,
dignity,
dignity,
greatness,
burnt ears of wheat,
support, defence,
counsel, advice,
sharpened stick,
insect,
priest,
cheese-hoop,
priestess,
noble, leader,
pen-eppill W.
ceap I,
gofyged W.
gwchder, cynghori W.
erre-bihi B.
airchiseacht I.
cyfarwyddiad W.
yspig W., cipin I.
gwiban W., giuban I.
seanmoirighe I.
cor, cylch W.
seirbhiseach I. attendant.
seighion, soichinealach I.
yard to attract wild cattle,gaiste I. ¢vap.
the couvade,
sor-acholtsu, sor-ahalge B. care of
newly-born, shame of newly-born.
(This is not a Celtic custom).
war fleet,
dart,
milk-pail,
cooked whey,
handled pot,
stone knife,
royal palace,
lancet shaped flint,
flint knife,
uiginge I.
saeth W., sais-macha I.
tubog I., duphe B.
chwig W. whey.
poite, poitin I.
deimhne I. edge tool.
sabair I., ysgubor W. granary.
twca W., diobadh I.
samhagh I, edge, epaki B. cve?.
—
us
tamaismia, tamasma,
tamaro,
tamarco,
tamarcano,
tamarco,
tamarco,
tamasaque,
tamazen,
tamogantacoran,
| ears en acoran,
tamonante,
tamogitin, tamogantin,
tamozanona,
tamozen,
tano, tafio,
tara, tarha, tarja,
tarhais,
taro,
tarqui,
tarquis,
tarute,
tasaigo, teseque,
tasasa,
tasorma,
teberite,
tebija,
tefene,
tegala,
tazufre,
tegue,
teguevelt,
teguevita,
tehuete,
SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS.
1900-1. |
tafrique, stone knife, lancet,
tafugada, much, abundant,
tagoro, tagoror, town council,
taguacen, hog,
taguado, taguao, taguas,squeezing ladle,
tahatan, ewe,
tahuyan, skin petticoat,
tajalaque, palm leaf,
tajorase, goat under one year,
_ tajos, night-bird,
tajuco, milk-pail,
talabordon, slope against the sea,
tamaide, fountain,
tamaite, big, swollen,
sparrow,
short fur cloak,
skin dress,
violent blow,
tall vulgar person,
large fat adder,
lance,
hog,
house of God,
inspired priesthood,
house,
fried meat,
barley,
straw basket,
sign of remembrance,
tree,
stone granary,
call to speak,
certainly,
ambassador,
corpse,
shaft of mill,
flat stone,
cattle mark, ear clip,
little handled earthen
pot,
roasting grain,
shepherd’s enclosure,
goat skin bag,
yellowish chalk,
ewe,
goat,
small skin bag,
87
spealg I. splinter.
hafog W.
tagra I., dadllewr W. dzscuss.
arcain I.
guasge W. a squeeze.
dafad W.
hugan W., gown.
duilleog I. leaf.
aos arraise I., oes cyrhaedd W.
age attaining.
eos W. nightingale.
dabhach I.
tuilemara don I. om account of the tide.
tiobraid I.
ymchydd W.
camhuin, scamoghuin I. wry-meck.
zamarra B., ionar I.
zamarra B., sgabul I.
tuargain I. deating.
amrosgo W., tamhanach I.
diamhar I.
amusadh I. attack.
mochyn W.
tamhait an crom I.
W.,
conjurer.
tamhaighim I. J dwell.
mochyn W., #zg, muc anong I. /frzed
pork.
tumdhias I. bushy ear of corn.
toin, tonna, tonnog, tunog I.
dere, dyre W., tarra, tarrsa I. come
thou ( here ).
dair I., derw W. oak.
daras I. house.
dewin deamhnoir I. frophet,
see tara.
deigh I,
treithu W.
taise I.
deatachan I. chzmney.
sarn W.
diobhaladh I. muzz/ation, gofyriad W.
clipping.
pig, pigin I.
teibidh I. havvest making.
teagair I.
tais-cofra I.
dathach I. coloured, chromatic.
othaisg-allaidh I. weld sheep.
othaisg-fiadha I. weld sheep.
tiach, tiochog, I., cod W.
88
teigue,
teique, teseique,
tejuete,
teniques,
teofuivite,
testadal,
teste,
teseique,
tezerez,
tezezez,
tibiabin,
tibibeja,
tifia,
tifiar,
tigalate,
tihagan, tihaxas,
timargo,
timixiraqui,
tingalate,
tirma,
tisamago,
tistirma,
titogan,
tofio,
tofio, tabajoste,
tolmo,
tozio,
trichen,
trifa,
tufa,
tujite,
urraja,
valeron,
varode,
verdone,
xerco,
yubaque,
zeloy,
zonfa,
zucaha,
zucasa,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.
hard land,
argillaceous earth,
shepherd’s bag,
three stones of hearth,
goat or ewe skin,
coloured chalky earth,
trace of animal,
great man,
cudgels,
sticks of wild olive,
priestess,
small handled earthen
pot,
correction,
to steal,
tall slender man,
ewe,
invocation,
measure, weight,
tall thin person,
sacred cliff,
sacred cliff,
sacred cliff,
heaven,
handled pot,
cattle trough,
land slide,
crockery,
wheat,
corn, grain,
ewe,
little purse,
cry to scare hawks,
cave of vestals,
lance,
big stick,
shoe,
reed mat,
son,
hole, centre, navel,
daughter,
legitimate son,
[VoL. VII.
tingh I., tew W. dense.
toes W., doigh, taos I. dough.
tiach I.
teinngha I. relating to the fire, teinntein
I. the hearth.
fetha-boc I.
des-dathach I.
deisidh I. 7z¢ sat, rested.
toiseach I.
tagar I. fight, zigor B.
zotz B. small sticks.
dewin-ben W.
pibcyn W.
cosp W.
cipio W.
teircfheolach I.
othisc, othaisg I.
diomrac, I. ¢emfle, diamaireachd I.
mystery.
tomhas, toimhseacan I.
tan-cleith I.
drim I, trum W. cif.
diagha-magh I. sacred field.
diagha-drim I.
ditiu ceann I., tuddo cwn W. covering
of the head.
cib W., tupin B.
dabhach I.
deillion I. s/de away.
toes W., taos I. dough.
triosg I. grazn.
arba I.
dafad W.
tiach, tiachog I.
oergri W.
ffau-lle-rhian W. cave-room-virgin.
bruidh, bioradh, morgha I.
buailtin, baircin, farachdach I.
cuarog I., archen W.
beach I.
gille I.
ion, ionga I.
oghachd I.
ac-aicsi I. hezr.
1900-1. ]
aceben,
acichei, haquichey,
aderno,
afaro, ofaro,
agonan,
aguamante,
aijara,
aijota,
aites,
ajinajo, jinajo,
alcaritofe, algaritofe,
alchofe,
algafita,
algarfe,
amagante,
amogante,
amuley,
anarfeque,
aromatan,
balo,
bejique, bequeque,
bequeque,
berode,
beya,
bicacaro,
SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS, 89
NAMES OF PLANTS.
plant,
beans, vetches,
hardwood tree,
grain,
plant,
mallow roots,
bush or bramble,
mushroom,
plant,
bush,
Cedronella canar,
yellow flowered thorn,
Agrimonia,
Cedronella trip,
mallow,
berry,
herb,
wormwood,
barley,
Plocamia pendula,
Sempervivum,
Canaria,
easping-ban I. ox-eye daisy, Chry-
santhemum leucanthemum.
ekosari B.
derwen W. oak,
bar I., brachtan I., wheat.
ccenamb I., samphire, Crithmum mar-
itimum.
ucas-fiadhain I.
sylvestris.
casair I. thorn.
caochog I. puff-ball.
uath I. whzte thorn, Crataegus ox-
yacantha, iodha I. yew, Taxus
baccata, ote B. 6éroom, Genista
tinctoria, aiteann I. jurze, Ulex
europzus.
conasg I. furze whins, Ulex euro-
pzus.
lus-grafandubh I. horehound, Ballota
niger.
oirchiabhach I. golden hatred.
leatach-buidhe I. /ady’s mantle, Alche-
milla vulgaris.
lusgrafanban I. forehound, Ballota
alba.
mil-mheacan I. mallow, Malva syl-
vestris.
magon, bacon W,
amharag I. mustard, Sinapis arven-
sis; amaraich I. scurvy grass,
Cochlearea officinalis.
mormont I. wormwood, Absinthium
latifolium ; norp I. houseleek, Sem-
pervivum tectorum.
eorna I,
bhalla I. wall pellitory, Parietaria
officinalis.
beidiog W. evergreen.
feusogach I. bearded capillary, Adian-
tum capillus veneris.
bythwyrdd W. evergreen.
bihi B. corn, fead I. bulrush, Typha
latifolia; fiag I. rushes, Juncus ;
feith I. honeysuckle, Lonicera peri-
clymenum.
bascart I. cénmamon, Laurus cinna-
momum.
mallow, Malva
go
bubango,
cadil, cail,
carisco,
chabora,
chajil,
chajinate,
chaguira,
chenipa,
cheremina,
chibusquera,
chibusco,
chilate,
cofecofe,
cosco,
creses,
garao, garse,
garasera,
girolana,
givarvera, hivalvera,
golgora,
guasimo,
guaydil,
gurman,
haran,
iguaje,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.
gourd,
food plants,
grapes,
plant,
plant,
plant,
plant,
herb,
plant,
plant,
berry of same,
graminaceous herb,
Chenopodium,
herb,
beech-nuts,
sacred tree,
plant,
bush,
butcher's broom,
plant,
plant,
convolvulus floridus,
plant,
fern,
plant,
(VoL. VIL
pepog I., pompiwn W.
cadhal, cal I. coleworts.
caora I.
seamar, seamrog I. clover, Trifolium
repens.
cagal I. cockle, Agrostemma githago;
cuisle I, hepatica, cucuillean I, bed-
straw, Galium verum; casair I.
thorn.
casmhoidhach I. haresfoot.
chosgair I. J/aurel, Laurus nobilis ;
cocoil I. drdock, Arctium lappa.
cnaib I. emp, Cannabis sativa.
chermen B. fear, goirmin I. woad,
Isatis tinctoria ; coireaman I. cov7-
ander, Coriandrum sativum ; guir-
min I. zzdigo, gorman I. d/uedottle,
Centaurea cyanus; surramont I.
southernwood, Artemisia abrotanum;
searbhan I. dandelion, Leontodon
taraxacum.
subcraobh I. raspberry, Rubus idaeus.
subha I. rasp-berry.
chilista B. /extzls, seirg I. clover, Tri-
folium pratense.
pigogo W. sfzzach, Spinacea olera-
cea ; gabaisde I. cole-worts.
cusag |. wzld-mustard, Sinapis arven-
sis.
grech I.
caorran I. mountatn-ash, Pyrus aucu-
paria.
glasair I. defony, Betonia officinalis.
caoirinleana I. valertan, Valeriana
officinalis ; caorogleana I. meadow-
pink, Lychnis flos cuculi.
calgbrudhan I., Ruscus aculeatus.
zurchuri B. joflar, culuran I. dirth-
wort, Aristolochia; galluran I,
angelica, Angelica sylvestris ;
glasair I, defony, see garasera.
gaoicin I. arvwm, Arum maculatum ;
hasuin B. zeftle.
codhlan I. popsy, Papaver ; codalian
I, mandrake. Mandragora.
corrman I. wall pennywort, ? Sedum;
gorman I. dluebottle, Centaurea
cyanus, see cheremina.
ira B., chorrain I. Asplentum.
cuigeag I. cénqguefotl, Potentilla
reptans: cusag I. wld mustard,
Sinapis.
irichen,
jarjado,
jirdana,
jopebe,
joriada,
jorjal,
juesco,
loro,
marmojarse, marmojoce,
marmolan,
mocan,
mol,
morangana,
name, niame,
orijama,
orixama,
pirguan,
romame,
sajira,
sanjora,
saquitero,
sorame,
shrub,
wheat,
shrub,
shrub,
herb,
Bophthalmum,
plant,
mallows,
tree,
herb,
mountain tree,
Visnia mocanera,
aromatic shrub,
strawberry,
plant,
plant,
Cnecrum pul,
plant,
fruit of thorn,
plant,
Sempervivum,
tree,
little bush,
SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. gI
arne I. sloe, Prunus spinosa; oruin
I. beech, Fagus sylvatica; uillean
I. honeysuckle, Capritolium pericly-
menum.
ceirchen W. oats.
groisaid I. gooseberxy, Ribes grossu-
laria ; curcais I. flag, bulrush.
caorthainn I. gutckbeam, ?. Pyrus
aucuparia; crithean I. asfez,
Populus tremula ; cailtin I. haze/,
Corylus avellana; scrutan I.
hawkweed, Hieracium; sraidin I.
shepherd's purse, Capsella bursa
pastoris.
sobha I., hebog W. sorrel, Rumex
acetosa ; copog I. dock, Rumex
obtusifolius ; fib I. dzlberry, Vac-
cinium myrtilus.
ceannruadh I., celandine, Cheli-
donium majus.
crostal, crutal I. moss.
ochus I., Malva vulgaris.
llawryf W. /aurel, Laurus nobilis.
barbog, barbrog I. barberry, Ber-
beris vulgaris; borramotur I.
wormwood, Artemisia absynthium ;
feoran-curraigh I. water horehound,
Lycopus europzus.
malabhar I. dwarf elder, Sambucus
humilis.
meacan I. ¢aprooted plants, meangan,
maothan I. oszer.
marros I. yvosemary, Rosmarinus
officinalis.
mariguri B.
noinin I. dazsy, Bellis perennis.
oragan I. weld marjoram, Origanum
vulgare.
ragaim I, sneezewort. Achillea
ptarmica.
fraochan I. dzlberry, Vaccinium
myrtilus; bairgin I. dzttercep,
Ranunculus repens, mearacan I.
foxglove, Digitalis.
romhan I. /rench wheat, ? Polygonum
fagopyrum.
seichearlan, seicheirghin I. przmrose,
Primula veris.
sinicin I. howseleek, Sempervivum.
sgeachmhadra I. wz/d rose, Rosa
canina.
surrabhan I. southern wood, Artemisia
abrotanum.
92
tababoire, tabajoiri,
tabaibo,
tacorantia, taragontia,
tadaigo,
tagasaste,
taginaste,
tajose, tajarnollo,
tamozen,
tanjose,
tarabaste,
tarambuche
tarhais,
tasaigo,
tebete,
tinanbuche,
titimalo,
togia,
trichen,
trifa,
vesto,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.
aromatic herb,
Euphorbia,
Dracunculus canar,
bush,
Cytisus,
bush,
plant,
barley,
plant,
herbaceous plant,
bulbous plant,
tree,
plant,
mountain tree,
bryony,
purgative plant,
sand plant,
wheat,
wheat,
mallow roots,
[VoL.- VII.
bofulan I. megwort, Artemisia vul-
garis; biorfheir I. water-cress,
Nasturtium officinale.
dathabha I. hedllebore, Helleborus
niger.
gacharonda I. arvum, Arum macula-
tum.
sceitheog I. hawthorn, Crataegus
oxyacantha.
ddrewgoed I. J/aburnum, Cytisus
alpinus.
giogun-ard, oigheannach I. /hzstle
Cirsium lanceolatum.
cuigeag, cuigmhearmhuire I. common
cingueforl, Potentilla reptans.
tumdhias I. bushy ear of wheat.
caineog I. éarley and oats.
treabhach I, wzveter rocket, Eryssimum
barbara ; trombhod I. vervain mal-
low, Malva ?
gropis I. allow.
erwnben W, éz/b.
darach I. oak.
sgathog I. cotton grass, Eriophorum
polystachion ; sgathog I. ¢refozt,
Trifolium.
eabhadh I. asfex, Populus tremula.
cnaibuisge I. water neck weed.
taithfhuillean I. qwood-béne, Lonicera
periclymenum.
taga I. ¢eazle, Dipsacus.
rhych W. ~xye.
arba I.
fochas I. mallow, Malva.
COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY O05 BPERUVIAN:
(Q. QuicHUA, QT. QuITENA, A. AYMARA, AT. ATACAMA, I, ITENES, C. CAYUBABA,
S. SAPIBOCONO, AND Y. YURACARES), WITH CELTIC (A. ARMORICAN, G. GAELIC,
E. ERSE, AND W. WELSu#.)
above,
after,
air,
all,
angry,
arm,
armpit,
Peruvian,
araja A.,
ucata A.,
huayra Q.,
taque A.,
pina Q.,
hicani A.,
huallhuancu Q.,
Celtic.
goruch W.
gwedi W.
awyr W.
gac E.
ffrom W.
caine W.
cesail W.
a
1900-1. |
arrow,
ashes,
ask,
bad,
basket,
beard,
beat,
belly,
below,
bind,
bitter,
black,
blood,
blue,
body,
bone,
bow,
branch,
bread,
break,
breast,
bring forth,
butterfly,
buy,
cheek,
choice,
clear,
cloak,
clothes,
cold,
corpse,
cut,
dance,
dark,
dead,
death, die,
deep,
demon,
deer,
dew,
dice,
do,
dog,
Peruvian.
micchi A.,
quella A.,
isquina, mayina A.,
valchar, ualcher At.,
sappa A.,
tironcayu A.,
panay Q.,
huacta Q.,
puraca A.,
urac Ot.,
ichen At.,
huata, huatay Q.,
haru A.,
chamaka A.,
coca A., hachi At.,
huila A.,
yahuar Q.,
selqui At.,
hanchi A.,
cchaka A.,
picta O.,
ali A.,
tanta Q., ttanta A.,
pakiy Q.,
haiti At.,
pivur At.,
sarma At.,
pilpinto A.,
rantiy O.,
buca I.,
ahllay Q.,
illan, illari Q.,
iscallo A.,
sau A., acsu At.,
chiri Q., serar At.,
aya O.,
cuta A.,
raymi O.,
kata Q.,
hinata A.,
huanhu, huanuy Q.,
amaya A.,
mulsi At.,
ccorahua A.,
supayu A., zupai QO.,
huantahualla A.,
lluchos, taruco Q.,
taruja A.,
sulla A.,
huayru Q.,
rurani QO.,
anu A.,
alljo Q., locma At.,
SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS.
Celtic.
picell W.
ulw W.
gofyn, ymofyn W.
ysgeler W. wicked.
cawell W.
rhawn W. hair.
pwnio W.
chwatio W.
bru, bolg G.
goris W.
is, isod W.
caethiwo W.
chwerw W.
much W.
cuchiog W.
fuil G.
crau W., cru G.
glas G. W.
neach G.
seis E.
bwa W.
osgl W,
teisen W. cake.
bregu W.
uchd E.
afell W.
esgor W.
balafen W.
prynydd W. dzyer.
boch W.
ethol W.
glain, eglur W.
casul W.
gwise W.
oer, goroer W.
ecE:
cat W., a cut.
llemain W.
caddug W. darkness.
ymado W.
angau, angeu W.
mas W.
marw W.,
craff W.
siabhra E.
enaidmall W.
cellaig W. stag.
gwlith W.
ffrist W.
llunio W. make.
cain W.
llechgi W. czr,
93
94
door,
dress (woman's),
drink,
dry,
dust,
ear,
earth,
eat,
end,
enter,
equal,
eye,
face,
faggot,
fall,
falsehood,
fat,
father,
father-in-law,
fear,
feather,
field,
figure, form,
fire,
flesh,
flower,
fly,
foot,
fountain,
fowl,
fox,
friend,
frog,
ghost,
girl,
give,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.
Peruvian.
puncu A., O.,
anoco A.,
upiya Q.,
chaki Q.,
turo Q.,
iradike C.,
idatu C.,
hoire At.,
lacca A.,
oloma At.,
ccorpa A.,
mantana A.,
cusca A.,
nairi A.,
iyocori C.,
akanu A.,
picho A.,
tincuna A.,
selima At.,
karina A.,
lanccu A.,
huira QO.,
tata Al{1S:, O:;
ttosi At.,
ajsarana A.,,
puru Q., puyu A.,
cancha Q.,
vaca At.,
yapu A.,
tunar At.,
culam At.,
humur At.,
nina A., O.,
cuati S.,
aicha A., aycha Q.,
sabur At.,
pucher At.,
cuspi Q.,
kayu A., cuchi At.,
ebbachi S.,
puquio O.,
hualpa A.,
atoc QO.,
cachomasi A.,
hampatua A.,
ccaira A., kayra Q.,
llantu QO.,
ppucha A.,
tahuaco A.,
imilla A.,
huiti [.,
[Vou. VII.
Celtic.
porth W.
gynog W. gowned.
yfed W.
sych W.
stur G,
clust W.
tudd W.
daiar W.
Ilwch W. dust.
llewa W.
gorphyn W.
myned W.
cystal W.
meilyn W.
suil G., crai W.
gwyneb W., cainsi E.
ffasg W.
disgyniad W.
celwydd W.
creinio W. Zo le.
bloneg W.
gwer W.
tad W.
tadcu W.
dychryn W.
pluen, plu W.
caint W.
maes W.
ceufaes W.
cymle W.
eilun W.
ufel W.
tan W.
goddaith W.
hig A., eig W.
ymborth W. meat.
fur W.
gwiban W.
cas G.
ped W.
ffynon W.
golfan W. sparrow, gylfinog W.
curlew, etc.
gwyddgi W.
cydymaith W.
llyffant W.
creiniog W.
gwyllon W. Alural,
bachgenes W.
hogen W,
plah A., merch W., daughter.
dodi W.
1900-1. |
So,
goat,
gold,
good,
granary,
great,
green,
hail,
hand,
harness,
hate,
have,
he,
head,
heal,
health,
heart,
heaven,
horn,
hot, heat,
house,
in,
increase,
iron,
jaw,
king,
kiss,
know,
lamb,
lance,
laugh,
leaf,
learn,
leg,
life,
light,
lip,
Peruvian.
humi A. QO.,
paca A.,
sila, telir At.,
ccori Q., coori A.,
asque A.,
alli Q.,
coptra Q.,
capur At.,
ccari, khal At.,
komer Q.,
chijchi A.,
tachlli A., arue C.,
uru I.,
recau At.,
coysma At.,
tausi At.,
hupa A.,
dala Y.,
ppekei A.,
lacsi, hlacse At.,
callana A.,
hampi Q.,
ccaya At.,
haiti At.,
urajpacha A.,
huakra Q., quajra A.,
cambs At.,
capi At.,
huntu A.,
conic Q.,
uta, ata A.,
puncu A.,
turi, thuri At.,
huasi Q.,
na A.,
aliyani A.,
quella A.,
kaki Q.,
capac Q.,
curaca Q.,
quischama At.,
yatina A.,
una A.,
chita QO..
chuqui Q.,
teshma At.,
llakka A.,
yaticha A.,
chara A.,
haka A.,
ceana A.,
uirpa, sirpi Q.,
SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS.
Celtic.
imich G.
boc G.
Nill W.
aor W.
gwiw W.
llesol W.
ysgubor W.
syberw W.
cri, glas W.
gorm G.
cesair W.
liaw W.
trec W.
casau W.
dygyd W.
efe W.
talcen W.
pen W.
llyw W.
gwellau W.
cymodi W.
iechyd W.
uchd E. dveast.
goruch W. adove.
adharc G.
twym W.
craf W.
chwantus W.
cynhesu W. ¢o heat.
ty W.
ffronc W. hut.
twlo W. hut.
ios-da G.
an G.
helaethu W.
caled W.
cargen W.
ceap E.
goruch W. szprenie.
cusanu W.
adwaen W.
uan G., oen W.
gid W. kzd.
gwayw, ysgeth W.
dychwardd W.
duilleag E.
dysgu W.
esgar W., cara E.
bwch W.
cain, cynneu W.
gwefus W.
95
96
load,
love,
louse,
male,
man,
medicine,
meet,
middle,
moon,
morning,
mother,
mountain,
mouth,
much,
°
nail,
neck,
night,
no,
nose,
old,
open,
paint,
palace,
peace,
pigeon,
pike,
plant,
pot,
priest,
rabbit,
race,
rain,
reed,
rest,
red,
rich,
ripen,
river,
road,
Peruvian.
penaclo At.,
qquipi At.,
lappa A.,
orko Q.,
chacha A.,
kkari A., Q.,
huataki I[.,
ccolla A.,
tinquy Q.,
chaupi Q., taipi A.,
irare C.,
quilla Q.,
ccamur At.,
ccara A.,
mama A., Q., At.,
cua S.,
monono Y.,
kkollo A., iruretui C.,
pata Q., pico I.,
quaipi, khaipe At.,
simi Q.,
alloja A.,
khin, qquini At.,
sillu A.,
cunka Q., conka A.,
haipu A.,
hani A.,
ibarioho C.,
cenca Q.,
ucuti I.,
istorana A.,
llampi Q.,
inca-pillca Q.,
tecum At.,
culcataya A.,
tupina Q.,
liga A.,
payla A.,
potor At., ppucu A.,
pachacuc A.,
cuys Q.,
ayllo A.,
hallu A.,
curcura A.,
sama A.,
pako A., Q.,
capac At.,
quaraj Q.,
poccoy Q.,
hahuiri A.,
mayu G.,
peter At.,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. | VOL.
Celtic.
pynorio W.
hoffi, cudeb W.
lleuen W.
gwryw W.
cia G.
gwr W.
cathaidhe E., warrior.
iachaol W.
cynghyd W.
cefnaint W.
lloer W.
gealach G.
eighmor E.
gwawr W. dawn.
mam W.
iog E.
mynydd W.
gallt, garth W.
ponc, bre W.
safn W.
genau W.
lliaws W.
ewin W.
hoel W.
cegen, W. ¢hroat.
be E., gosper W. evenzng.
chan G.
ffri W.
comhor E.
gwth W.
egori W.
lliw W.
plas W.
tangnef W.
colom-cuddan W.
gwaywffon W.
llys W.
paeol W.
pot W.
faigh E.
cewning W.
hil W.
gwlaw W.
corsen W.
seib W.
basc E.
cyfoethog W.
goludog W.
ffaethu W.
suir G.
afon W., amhain G.
fford W.
VIL.
1900-T. |
round,
run,
see,
seed,
servant,
sew,
shadow,
sheep,
shoe,
sick,
sin,
sister,
sit,
skin,
sleep,
small,
smoke,
snake,
sour,
speak,
spread,
Star,
stone,
string,
strong,
sun,
swallow,
sword,
tail,
take,
teach,
thigh,
throat,
thorne,
throw,
tie,
trumpet,
trunk, stock,
truth,
village,
7
Peruvian,
moyoc Q.,
huayra Q.,
paway Q.,
ulla A.,
ricu Q.,
unjana A.,
atha, sata A.,
yana A.,
chucuna A.,
chitua A.,
ccaura A.,
usuta, ojota A.,
onchok Q.,
chata A.,
collacha A., turay Q.,
tiyay Q.,
ccara Q.,
punu Q., iquina A.,
iqui A.,
huchuy Q.,
hisca A.,
heuque A.,
katari A.,
callcu A.,
sana A.,
ni Q.,
arusi, arusina A.,
takay Q.,
sillo, huarahuara A.,
coyllur Q., halar At.,
ccala A.,
lica O.,
chanca A.,
capac QO., At.,
inti-As,, Oc,
villca A.,
puine Y.,
camosi S.,
reganama At.,
calhua Q.,
chupa Q.,
hapi Q.,
yatichana A.,
changa Ot.,
etippi S.,
tiana Q.,
tocenaclo At.,
chinuna A.,
cqueppa O.,
capintin QO.,
quelechar At.,
lican At.,
SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS.
Celtic.
amgant W.
gyru W.
ffoi W.
seall G., gweled W.
edrych W.
cenio W.
had W.
gweinydd W.
gwnio W.
cysgod W.
caora G.
esgid W.
gwanychu W. stcken.
gwyd W.
chwaer W.
eistedd W.
croen W.
hun A, huno W.
cysu W.
ychydig W.
bach W.
mygu W.
nathair G., neidr W.
sarug W.
cynanu W.
yngan W.
areithio W.
teddu W.
seren W.
reult G,
careg W., gall G.
llin W.
tant W.
cryfach W. stronger.
ganaid W.
haul W.
huan W.
samh E,
llyncu W.
claiseach E., cledd W.
cynffon W.
tybio W.
addysgu W.
clun W.
gwddf W. xeck.
tron W.
tawlu W.
cynhas W. mutual tte.
cadbib W. ffe.
cyff W.
gwirder W.
Ilan W.
97
98 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
Peruvian. Celtic.
vulture, condor At., gwylldyr W.
wall, percca QO., bwrch W.
wash, maylla QO., ymolchi W.
harina A., glanau W. :
water, eubi S., aw W.
$ puri At., mer W.
yaku A., QO., uisge G., gwy W.
sama Y., como I.,
huma A., amh E. ocean.
weave, tilana A., . eilio W.
well, pucyo A., pydew W.
white, hanco, hancona A., guen A., gwyn, can W.
yurac O., pur W.
wife, liqui At., gwraig W.
wild, kita Q., chwidr W.
will, muna A., myn W.
chicatha A., gogwydd W.
orichnhuenhua C., gorchymyn W. ¢éo w7//.
winter, casac-puchu A., gauaf W.
wizard, pachacuc Q., faigh E.
woman, rakka Q., gwraig W.
; marmi A., merch W.
tana L., dynes W.
word, aru A., gair W.
worm, lacco A., llyngyr W. worms.
writing, quippu O., coffau W. /o record.
young, youth, huaina A., ieuaint, ieuanc W.
iroco I, ir W.
GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS “OF THE ANSCRIP TIONS
No. I. a. koi Lasgue, desire.
entu Basgue, to hear.
pono Basgue, root of pontsu, heumeur sombre.
Menera, a goddess, composed of B. mex, power.
au B., this.
Me Fav N83 Ie
Arba, proper name masculine, probably the root of the B. arrapatu, to
seize.
imi B. imi-ni, ipi-ni, to place.
aur B., child.
ne B., n, an, en, to.
Kai, proper name latinized as Caius.
ba B., if.
erru-nai, compound of evr, root of B. exrukz, compassion, and zaz, will.
1900-1. |
co.
SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. 99
Sotoberri, proper name feminine, compounded of B. soo, vault, cellar,
and éerrz, new.
uga, old B. word for mother, survives in wgazama, second mother zgazazta,
second husband of the mother, and wga¢z, mother’s milk.
neke B., difficult, fatiguing, trouble, poverty.
aita B., father.
barka, root of B. darvkatu, to pardon.
ka B., postposition, by, with. .
mira B., astonishment, admiration from mtratu, to behold, but here
employed as a substantive, a spectacle or object to be seen.
erimi, from B. ev, cause and 7772-727 (see above, 4).
etorri B., to come.
seme B., son.
ema, root of B. ema-n, to give.
gure B., our.
erren, peculiar form of erruki (see erru-vaz, 6).
emaitsa B., present, gift.
imi, see 4.
uga, see c.
ra B., to.
erruki B., compassion, here an adjective.
anre B., lady.
aur, see 0.
ne, see 0,
lekatu B., to please.
be B., under.
neke, see c.
gabe B., without, deprivation,
ekarri B , to carry: original of the English word.
dio B., he does it to him.
ematu B., to calm.
bahi B., pledge.
gabe, see above.
erruki, see above.
pabetu B., to help.
imi, aur, ekarri, see above 4 and e.
gabetu B., to deprive.
entuka B. ez¢u, to hear, and a, by. -
mira B. mzratu, behold, see.
bere B., own.
beha B. édehatu, behold.
beha-ka B., by beholding.
artu B., take, hold.
doi B., just, right.
gogoratu B., to remember.
achol B., care.
nio, Etruscan for dzo/, 1 do it to him, but B. imperfect of the same is 7707.
egi B. egz, to do.
duen B., who has, for B. dev, who is.
obi B., tomb, grave.
pabe B., help.
ba, Etruscan and Japanese, place.
100 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. |Vou. VII.
No. II. age B. appearance, age-17, declaration.
zio, Etruscan for do, he does it to him; but the B. imperfect of the
same is cov Or 220n.
utsite B. wfzz, wtzzten, to leave.
ba B., if, see No I. 6.
so B., regard.
jabe B., lord.
No. III. bizitate B. diztandu, bzztar/e, inhabit, inhabitant.
arau B., rule, night.
doi B., see No. I.
ematu B., to give, fuller form of ema-v.
debe B., prohibition, B. debekatu, forbid.
esatz B. esaz, esaten, to say.
behi B., cow.
No. IV. al, ahal B., power.
No. VI. behatu, see No. I. f
debe, see No. III.
No. VII. au, aita, see No. I. a, ¢.
No. VIII. esatz, see No. III.
asma B., a sign, indication.
ema, see No. I, d.
No. IX. mamuta B. mamu, phantom, mamutu, act a ghost.
mai B., table, tablet.
edatu B., to stretch, to extend.
No. XI. ichpichoi B. zchficho, ‘‘ pari, gageure,” in dative.
atita, obscure form of atchtkz, ztchekt, to hold.
umerri B., lamb, small cattle.
No. XII. kosatze, now B. koskatzen, to carve.
mai, see No. IX.
No. XIII. bizitza, see No. III., d¢sz#za now means ‘‘la vie.”
No. XIV. aitabe B. aztaba, grandfather.
emaitz B., see No. Le.
bizitzate, see No. XIII.
umerri, see No. XI.
No. XV. goititu B., to raise.
No. XVI. danda B. ‘‘pact, obligation.”
No. XVII. mate, explained in text ad Joc.
No. XVIII. No new words.
No. XIX. dema B., ‘‘ gageure.”’
1900-3. |
No.
No
No
No.
No
XX.
. XXII.
. XXII.
XXIII.
SeEXONIVE
5 20:6
. XXVI.
. XXVII.
SPANISH DOCUMENTS RELATIVE TO THE CANARY ISLANDS. IOI
anoma B. ano, portion and ema, given.
bite-zar B., envoy.
no B., sign of genitive.
ranono B. rao, towards.
zari in B., agint-zarz, buru-zarz, a captain; Japanese kashira, Semitic sar,
Sclavonic czar, Teutonic sazser, etc., etc., a universal word.
beka, form of B. dekox7, front, forehead, a chief.
beka, see above.
osa, old form on Iberic inscriptions of the Isle of Man. Its root is 0 as in
B. o-ariu, to give attention. In Japanese it is wya-maz, and also means
““to give reverence.” Here it denotes, sa, the person giving 0, atten-
tion, to the flocks.
atherbe B., shelter.
obi B., grave, pit, cave.
ate B., door.
edate B. edatu, extend.
udahate is not B. wdahaste, a synonym of udaberr?, spring, but, as uda-berré
is literally ‘‘new summer,” so uda-haze will he ‘‘end of summer.”’
ambera, now B. azubertze, as many as.
beheitu, B. deheztz, to lower.
mopira, Etruscan 8. See the writer’s Etruria Capta.
ardizain B., shepherd.
nausi B., master, more commonly nabusz.
non, Etruscan ‘f who.”
oroi B., to remember, fuller ovoztu.
am for amar B. ten.
ahal, al B., power, authority.
urte B., year.
jabe, see No. II.
osa, see No. XXII., here employed as verb ; perhaps it should be written
o-tsu.
abere B., cattle.
aberabe, survives in apurtu, apurtzen ‘‘ baisser.”’
kama, evidently denotes one who has the care of sheep and other cattle.
The writer does not know it as Basque. To keep domestic animals
in Japanese is kai-oki.
lerrozarri B. /evvo, a rank, and ezarrz, to place.
mopi-ka, Etruscan mof7, 2, and B. ka, by.
obeka B. oéek7, better.
athedatu for B. zfoztea, or ateratzen,
artib..)cam-
almena B., power, vigour.
102 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.
(Vou. VIL.
PHONETIC VALUES OF “THE CANARY ISLAND
CHARACTERS:
vowel, diphthong, aspirate syllable,
b, p syllables with a, 0, u,
ee Sense
to, tu, syllables,
fasste tins ee
da, de, di, syllables,
ka, ga, is ace
ko, ku, go, gu, syllables,
go, syllables,
i «
ma, mo, mu, syllables,
me, mi, s
na, no, nu, ‘.
neni os
r, syllables,
sa, so, su, syllables,
se, si, chi, zi, syllables,
Virotn. Rocks.
I | =o. ee
Je Fis
Vi Te eee
M supplied from above.
$ S26
& supplied from above.
AR A,N. An, A
L LC
eel
COMPOUND CHARACTERS ON ROCKS.
m MN bara © mama / nobe (aiensasa:
behetu a
uy _berabe t he emaich
vV bebe Oo
Vi, LW bera
te besa
masi
&
(1 mara
ig
alma D4 mopira
b sama
FV, Ww arbe SQ simasa
DLA vosari an oe as ie
sipisa
S ramama Vy iP
1900-1. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 103
THE RIPENING OF CHEESE AND THE ROLE OF
MICRO-ORGANISMS IN THE PROCESS.
F. C. HARRISON, AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, GUELPH.
(Read 23rd March, 19or).
DURING the last twenty-five years the ripening of cheese has been
the subject of numerous investigations, and although the problem has
been attacked in many varied ways, it cannot be said, even now, that
the changes which cheese undergoes from the time it is made until it is
ready to be eaten have been fully explained.
The task of the investigator is, no doubt, a difficult one, owing to
the many different kinds of cheese manufactured, the various ways in
which they are made, and the diverse methods used to ripen them.
The difficulties do not by any means end here. No two cheeses are
exactly alike; the bacterial flora of the milk changes constantly ; the
methods of manufacture differ slightly from day to day, and more so
from season to season; the temperature and humidity of the curing
room usually alter with the outside temperature; and lastly the
difficulty of sampling and the methods of analysis leave much room for
improvement. The constant publication of some new culture method
for lactic acid bacteria suggests that as yet no completely satisfactory
method of cultivating them has been discovered.
Ferdinand Cohn, in 1875, declared that the ripening of cheese was a
fermentation due to the influence of fermenting organisms. He micro-
scopically investigated rennet, and finding bacteria present in this
substance concluded that the ripening of cheese was due to bacteria
introduced into the cheese from this source. He considered that the
milk sugar underwent butyric fermentation. He also found J. ¢ermo,
microccz, and the Hay bacillus present in the cheese, and came to the
conclusion that these were introduced with the rennet, because Remak
had found &. sazdtzlzs in the stomachs of calves.
A few years later Duclaux published his researches upon Cantal
cheese) a soft cheese manufactured in France. He isolated a number of
micro-organisms, six of which he supposed were of special importance,
—an alcoholic, a lactic, a butyric, and a ferment acting upon casein and
104 TRANSACTIONS, OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
forming alkaline nitrogenous compounds of simple composition. Of
the remaining two ferments, one was a vibrio, which preferred an
optimum temperature of 75° to 80 F., formed spores, and caused the
development of carbonic acid and hydrogen gas when grown in milk.
The casein was transformed into an albuminous substance, soluble in
water; small amounts of butyric acid and sodium butyrate were
formed.
Duclaux attributed the matting together of the cheese after it was
cut, to the action of this vibrio, which he thought caused the parts of ©
the coagulum to stick together and form a solid mass of cheese;
consequently the presence of this germ was desirable, but unfortunately
should the germ enter the coagulum itself gas was produced ; and, as a
consequence, the cheese became puffy or swollen.
The other ferment was more objectionable because it formed acetic
acid, and a substance of an intensely bitter taste.
In conclusion, he considered the ripening to be caused by the
butyric ferment, because under its influence the casein was precipitated,
but afterwards gradually dissolved or digested. This ferment was
probably helped by others which acted upon the albuminoids so as to
split them up into compounds of a less complex nature; ammonia being
the simplest.
Benecke made a microscopical analysis of Emmenthaler cheese of
different ages. He found Cohn’s rod-like bacteria, which were probably
identical with 4. swbtzlis, and also yeasts. In consideration of the
circumstance that the formation of peptone like bodies took place
chiefly at the beginning of the ripening process, and that at this time an
increase of schizomycetes, probably identical with 4. sadzeles, was
noticed, Benecke arrived at the conclusion that the ferment which
brought about the peptonization of the fresh curd was B. subtelzs. The
objection that 4. subtzlzs was an aerobe and could not live in the interior
of hard cheese, he set aside and followed the observation of Liborius,
according to which 4. sudéz/zs retained its peptonizing qualities even
though the air was shut off, provided that some kind of sugar was
available. The gradual disappearance of the milk sugar was account-
able for the diminishing of the rod-like forms in cheese which had
reached a more advanced stage of ripeness. In conclusion, Benecke
believed that the formation of amides (Leucin, etc.) was not due to the
action of the Schizomycetes.
In 1887, Duclaux published the results of further studies upon
1900-1. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 105
Cantal cheese, and was able to study them in pure culture. The
dilution method of culture was then in vogue, and some writers have
criticised the accuracy of his work on this account. Not only did
Duclaux isolate a large number of species, but he was able to contribute
other interesting details as to form, spore formation, aerobic and
anaerobic characters, physiology, and the nature of the fermentation
products of the different micro-organisms, that he studied. To all
species isolated, he gave the generic name Tyrothrix (cheese-threads),
and of these seven were aerobic and three anaerobic. All but one of
these germs possessed the ability of coagulating the casein; and,
subsequently digesting the coagulum. From one of the most energetic
of these bacteria ( 7yrothrix tenuzs) Duclaux isolated a ferment which
was able to convert the casein into a soluble peptone. This he called
casease and the product of its action on casein he named “ caseone” ;
this latter substance might be even further split up into other substances,
as leucin and tyrosin. Several of the other species isolated also
produced the last named substances.
Adametz, working at Sornthal, in Switzerland, in 1889, upon
Emmenthaler and Cottage cheese (a soft variety) isolated nineteen
different, well characterized schizomycetes and three yeasts. Of the
first, seventeen were new species and were supposed to influence the
ripening process. Contrary to previous investigations, neither b. sudzzlzs
nor &. butyricus was found. He divided these bacteria into three
groups.
(a). Such as dissolved the paracasein, or changed it to a peculiar
spongy condition. Soluble albuminoids and peptones were produced in
greater or less quantities at the same time, and these were accompanied
by traces of smelling (e.g., Butyric acid) and tasting (e.g., bitter extractive
matters) substances.
(6). Such as developed slowly in sterilized milk, and for which
unchanged paracasein was not a favorable soil, but they easily
assimilated the substances produced by the first group.
(c). Such as had no appreciable effect upon any of the nutritive
substances herein concerned, and whose presence or absence made no
difference to the ripening of the cheese.
The Cottage cheese was distinguished bacteriologically from
Emmenthaler by the following points :
1. The larger bacterial content (in one gram of Emmenthaler
850,000 germs, and in one gram of Cottage cheese 5,600,000 bacteria).
106 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
2. The greater number of species.
3. The relation of the peptone gelatine liquefying to non-liquefying
colonies (1:300 to 1:600 in Emmenthaler against 1:90 to 1:200 in Cottage
cheese).
The bacterial content of Emmenthaler was shewn to grow during
the ripening process from 90,000 to 850,000 and finally he ascribed to
the liquefying germs the réle of ripening the cheese.
Adametz also demonstrated that when disinfectants like Thymol
and Kreolin were mixed with the curd, the ripening process was totally
checked. The same result ensued from attempts to ripen Hauskase
(Cottage cheese) in an atmosphere of Carbon disulphide.
De Freudenreich by the use of better methods, such as the employ-
ment of whey peptone gelatine, and more accurate triturations obtained
much higher figures than Adametz. He followed, step by step, the
ripening of a single cheese, in order to see if the changes the cheese
passed through were the work of special microbes, and to see if the
species present at the commencement of ripening continued active until
the end of the process. The cheese was analysed at intervals of eight
to fifteen days, and like Adametz he found in fresh cheese many
different micro-organisms which quickly disappeared as the cheese aged,
so that at the end of eighteen days, a microbe called Baczllus x, by the
author, predominated in the culture plates ; and at the end of sixty-four
days, only this bacillus was found. The analyses were continued until
the 155th day when the ripening was perfect. The cheese at this time
contained 1,662,500 bacteria per gramme, all being Baczllus x. The
highest number counted was 8,975,000 when the cheese was fifty-two
days old, but there were considerable fluctuations in the numbers
found.
The acillus x was a true type of lactic acid germ, somewhat similar
to Adametz’ No. xix, and forming, like it, lactic acid.
De Freudenreich described minutely the morphology, physiological
properties, and the resistence of this germ to desiccation and chemical
agents, and in the end came to the following conclusions :
1. The ripening of cheese was the work of bacteria; without bacteria
there was no ripening.
2. Two periods could be distinguished in the ripening: the first
characterized by the presence of many species, and the second dis-
tinguished by the predominance of one bacterial species. In most cases
1900-1. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 107
this single microbe was Aaczllus x, when it was absent, it was replaced
by other bacteria belonging to the same class of lactic acid ferments.
Adametz had also found in predominating numbers a germ very
like Bacellus x, and which also behaved as a true lactic ferment.
It did not appear probable that these germs alone produced all the
phases of ripening without the co-operation of other bacteria.
Lloyd, who was appointed by the Council of the Bath and West of
England Society to make investigations upon Cheddar cheese making,
did much work on this subject; and, although no numerical data are
given, he stated after making over 100 separate cultivations that, “In
the manufacture of Cheddar cheese, one and only one organism plays an
important part up to the time the curd is put into the vat, and that
organism is Baczllus acidi lactict. Further, when the cheese was ripe,
this bacillus was most abundant, and that the ripening during the first
few months depended mainly on 4. aczdz lacticz, supplemented as the
cheese grew older by the growth and action of 4. amylobacter.”
De Freudenreich in 1895 followed up his first work by a very
extensive contribution to the subject. He analysed bacteriologically
five Emmenthaler cheese made at the Riitti Dairy School. By means
of special methods, such as the use of milk serum gelatine, milk agar,
anaerobic culture methods, and partially sterilized cheese emulsions, he
endeavoured to give the best opportunities for the liquefying species to
grow, especially Duclaux’s Tyrothrix forms. The latter were, however,
found only a few times. The principal liquefiers present were bacilli
belonging to the sudéeles and mesentericus groups. These researches
corroborated his former work.
The lactic acid species, abundant from the start, increased greatly
during the ripening process, whilst the liquefying germs were few in
number and decreased rapidly.
The most complete numerical data given of a single cheese were as
follows :
Age in Days. Number of Bacteria per Gramme.
EreshyCheese aires. svat. cele dis ieee Sn ae eer 750,000
(0 eee aE oe MMO RE Sires rep en SH ed a tate 15,000,000
Gia ea LCR aa ech eens ee Ak Neh ee 20—30,000,000
LWIG GOA OOO LoDo coy GOCDAS ona clase ago 40,000,000
G5 tea savciensceiel ect eustels ae eae eper hasta ciate 20,000,000
Forms resembling Tyrothrix were found only four times out of
sixteen analyses.
108 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
Hay bacillus types were found only six times out of eleven analyses.
Agar surface plates were used for isolating these germs as they favoured
the growth of this group of micro-organisms.
The remaining analyses agreed very closely with the above; on one
occasion, however, the large number of 100,000,000 lactic acid bacteria
per gramme were found in cheese ten days old.
In addition to these analyses, a number of cheese were made with
starters made from the microbes isolated during the investigation, as
well as many of Duclaux’s Tyrothrix forms. The experimental cheese
were compared with control ones; and in most cases the ripening was
not normal. In conclusion, de Freudenreich drew the following con-
clusions from his observations and experiments :
1. Those often looked upon as prime factors in the ripening of
cheese—the gelatine liquefying bacilli (Tyrothrix, Potato, or Hay
bacillus) are not numerous in cheese, and generally not in milk.
2. Far from multiplying in the cheese, they seem, even if added to it
in great quantities, to die off rapidly, unless when added in the spore
form, in which case they remain alive for a longer time, but without
multiplying.
3. Added to milk set for cheese, they seem neither to produce
fermentation nor favour it.
4. Probably various lactic ferments play the principal, if not the only
part, in the ripening of Emmenthaler cheese. In the soft cheese, on
the contrary, Ozd¢um lactis, and also yeasts, take part in the ripening.
Under the heading of “Character and Variability of species of
Tyrothrix,’” W. Winkler found after an examination of species of
Tyrothrix that, “whilst some, as 7. ¢ezuzs, were more allied to the hay
and potato bacilli, others as 7. uvocephalum and T. filiformis were more
nearly connected with the granulo-bacteria. They adapted themselves
with great ease to different nutrient media, and their characters thereby
became altered. In milk, they were more or less peptonizing. Butyric
acid was only produced by a few of them. Milk sugar favoured their
growth, but seemed to interfere with their peptonizing power.” Three
varieties of Tyrothrix tenuis were cultivated: (1) a form which
peptonized milk and liquefied gelatin; (2) a form which produced
lactic acid, but did not liquefy gelatin; (3) a fluorescing type which
formed a red pigment on potato.
Winkler stated that, “ Baczllus xv1, Adametz, which was undoubtedly
1900-r. | THE RIPENING ‘OF CHEESE. 109
a species of Tyrothrix, was an example of the conversion of a lactic
acid bacterium into a peptonizing organism. 7. urocephalum and T.
tenuts were found to aid the ripening of cheese, and there were grounds
for believing that in this ripening, peptonizing bacteria played the
principal part. A bacteriological examination of hard cheese always
shewed a greater preponderance of lactic acid bacteria, and this might
possibly be explained in this way, that certain peptonizing bacteria
changed in the cheese to lactic acid bacteria, especially strongly
developing the property of producing lactic acid. Aside from the
behaviour of 7. ¢enuzs and 7. urocephalum that of Bacillus xvz, Adametz
in Emmenthaler cheese confirmed this view.”
These results of Winkler were subsequently made the subject of a
special research by Wittlin working under von Freudenreich. The
experiments were made with a culture obtained originally from
_ Duclaux, and after many cultivations on gelatin, no evidence was
forthcoming to support the conversion contended for. Wittlin failed to
be convinced that 7yrothrzx tenuzs could be converted into a lactic acid
bacterium ; and the author supposed that Winkler’s results were due to
contamination.
By making emulsions of various cheeses and inoculating milk
therewith, De Freudenreich was able to obtain absolutely anaerobic
bacilli. These bacilli probably formed butyric acid. One of the two
isolated, formed spores and from its shape, it was evidently a clostridium
form. He named it Clostridium foetidum lactis. This germ,as its name
implied, imparted a disagreeable odour to the milk, did not grow on
gelatin, but on agar developed slowly giving rise to a cheesy odour. It
apparently entirely dissolved the casein of milk, this medium turning
yellow, only a slight sediment remaining. Later de Freudenreich
became convinced that this clostridium was identical with the bacillus
of malignant oedema. I have also found this bacillus in two small
experimental cheese, made from Swiss milk, its pathogenicity and
cultural characteristics leaving no room to doubt its identity.
In a Holland cheese, Weigmann found two aromatic bacilli. These
gave the milk cultures a cheese aroma. When pasteurised milk was
inoculated with these forms, and cheese made, it ripened and resembled
Swiss cheese. These germs were gelatine liquefiers and digested the
casein of the milk.
A very systematic study of the rise and fall of the bacteria in
_ Cheddar cheese was made by Russell and Weinzirl. Six cheeses were
analysed at various periods, and the qualitative distribution of the
110 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
bacteria found at the different stages is thus graphically delineated by
the author’s diagram.
The general results are thus summarized :
1. There is at first a marked falling off in the number of bacteria
in green curds for a day or two. (Period of initial decline).
2. This is followed by a very rapid increase in numbers, in which
the bacteria reach scores of millions of organisms per gram. (Period of
increase).
3. This period is followed by a diminution in numbers at first rapid
but later more gradual, until the germ content sinks to insignificant
proportions. (Period of final decline).
4. The time necessary to reach the maximum development (second
period) is hastened or retarded by such external conditions as tempera-
tures ete:
5. The second period also marks the beginning of the physical
change that occurs in the cheese in the earlier part of the breaking down
of the casein.
6. The bacterial flora of cheese differs markedly from that of milk.
In milk, the lactic acid bacteria predominate, but accompanying them
are always liquefying or peptonizing organisms, and as a rule bacteria
capable of developing gaseous bye-products.
In the ripening cheese the peptonizing or casein digesting bacteria
are quickly eliminated; the gas producing bacteria disappear more
slowly, sometimes persisting in very small numbers for a long time.
The lactic acid bacteria on the other hand develop enormously for a
time until the cheese is partially ripened, when they too begin to
diminish in numbers.
7. The generally accepted theory that the peptonizing or digesting
bacteria are able to break down the casein in the cheese as they do in
milk is improbable because this type of bacteria fails to increase in the
cheese and usually disappears before there is any evidence of physical
change in the condition of the casein. The same is true where cheese is
made from pasteurised milk to which copious starters of these peptoniz-
ing organisms have been added.
8. The coincidence existing in point of time between the gradual
ripening of the cheese and the marked development of the lactic acid
1900-1. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 11f
bacteria seems to indicate that these phenomena are causally related.
This view is further strengthened by the fact that cheese made from
pasteurised milk in which the lactic acid bacteria have been destroyed
fail to ripen in the normal manner, while the addition of a pure lactic
acid ferment to the pasteurised milk permits the usual changes to occur
in a probably normal way.
Schirokich took up the study of this problem by preparing in milk
pure cultures of some peptonizing bacteria as well as of lactic bacteria
and then investigating by means of chemical analysis the changes
which took place in the milk in the course of the development of the
micro-organisms in it. The change in the composition of the milk was
studied as to (1) the quantity of the casein of the milk converted into
soluble form ; (2) the amount of ammonia found in the cultures, and (3)
the amount and kind of fatty acids produced by the micro-organisms.
With reference to the first point, it was found that while the
peptonizing bacteria converted during the first fifteen days of their
culture almost all of the casein of the milk into proteids soluble in
water, and the remainder into products of decomposition, the lactic
bacteria did not alter in the slightest, the amount of nitrogen in the
soluble protein matter after thirty days of culture. In other words,
while the bacteria of the former group acted very energetically on the
casein, those of the latter group did not affect it at all. The fungus
Ordium lactts was also found very active in changing the casein,
although in a lesser degree than the peptonizing bacteria.
Further, the author found in the cultures of the Ozdtum dactts \ess
ammonia than in those of the peptonizing bacteria, and none whatever
in the cultures of the lactic bacillus.
Finally, on comparing the nature of the fatty acids formed in cheese
(the author experimented with hard Gruyére and soft Brie cheese) and
those produced by the bacteria in pure cultures, he found that the
mixture of the volatile acids caused by the bacteria not liquefying
gelatine did not correspond to those which are formed either in the hard
or in the soft cheese. On the contrary, the volatile acids produced by
the peptonizing bacilli were found to be very similar to the mixture of
these acids produced in the ripening of Gruyére cheese. And, lastly,
great similarity was observed between the volatile acids of the soft Brie
cheese and those produced by the fungus Ozdzum lactzs.
Thus, all three lines of investigation pursued by the author lead to
the conclusion that the bacteria of lactic fermentation, though present in
112 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII.
milk and cheese in very great numbers, do not induce the changes in
the casein in the process of ripening, and if they exert any influence at
all, it is only indirect, since these bacteria do not dissolve casein, do not
give off ammonia, and do not form the volatile acids characteristic of
ripened cheese. The peptonizing bacteria and the fungus Ozdzum lactis,
on the other hand, produced all the changes of casein which take place
in the ripening of cheese; they yield soluble proteids and decompose
albuminous compounds with the formation of ammonia and _ volatile
acids corresponding to those occurring in the cheese.
It is pointed out that the peptonizing bacteria would appear from
the foregoing to play an exclusive part in the ripening of cheese, but
such a conclusion would overlook the important fact established by the
analysis of Bondzinsky, viz.: that there is in cheese only a small quantity
of peptone which is not precipitated by ammonia sulphate. In
opposition to this fact, the author found while investigating the nature
of the soluble albuminous bodies in pure cultures of peptonizing bacteria
that, under the influence of these micro-organisms, the casein is con-
verted almost entirely into peptone. In view of these opposing facts,
the author concludes that the joint action of the peptonizing bacteria
and the lactic acid bacteria must be considered as essential to the
ripening of cheese, and that this should serve as a starting point for
future investigations of the process.
The lactic acid bacteria are not capable of producing this process,
while the peptonizing bacteria, when they multiply without any check,
carry on the decomposition too energetically and to an undesired extent,
but in the presence of lactic bacteria, which in a measure restri¢t and
regulate the development and activity of the peptonizing bacteria, the
joint effort of all these micro-organisms gives the desired results.
From this point of view, the chief care in the production of cheese
should be that both the peptonizing and the lactic bacteria are in the
curd, and that the proper conditions for their life activity are provided.
But the peptonizing bacteria, especially the Bacillus subtilis, are very
widely distributed and multiply with extreme ease ; therefore from a
practical standpoint, no provision need be made for their presence, and
attention should be confined to the lactic acid bacteria.
Having defined the part which the peptonizing bacteria play in the
ripening of cheese, the question still remains unsettled whether these
bacteria, which are according to de Freudenreich present in hard cheese
in small numbers, act as such in the process of ripening, or by means of
1900-1. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 113
diastase secreted by them at the beginning of the process. The author
states that in experiments made by him, it was shown that the diastase
in question, named by Duclaux, casease, acts just as energetically in the
absence of the bacteria by which it is secreted as in their presence.
From this, it would follow that if casease is a factor in the ripening of
cheese, it would have to be present only in a small amount.
Von Freudenreich’s results in two series of experiments made in
1897, considerably strengthened the theory that the lactic acid germs
were the chief factors in the ripening process. He grew a number of
lactic acid bacteria, isolated from cheese, in sterile milk to which chalk
had been added to neutralize the acid formed by the bacteria. These
bacteria were thus able to continue their growth, and at the end of two
or thtee months a portion of the casein was found to be converted into
soluble products. Thus cultures of three different species of lactic acid
germs gave 5.1, 6.4, and 2.4 times as much soluble nitrogen as there was
present in the original milk. The reaction of these cultures was not
acid, but neutral or slightly alkaline.
Von Freudenreich concludes his second paper by stating that “ It
appears from my experiments that the lactic acid ferments, especially
those isolated from cheese, are endowed with the power of rendering the
casein soluble and decomposing it. Emmenthaler cheese, as compared
with the results of Bondzynski, gives even more conclusive results.
Thus, the latter author found in the filtrate of two emulsions made from
ripe Emmenthaler cheese 1.44 and 1.51 per cent. of soluble nitrogen.
The nitrogen of the amides gave 0.93 and 0.82 per cent. These figures
are nine to ten times higher than mine, but Bondzynski analysed cheese
and I milk. But it takes eleven kilograms of milk to make a kilogram
of cheese and the agreement is as perfect as can be when we consider
that the experimental conditions (temperature, etc.), were not identical.
These results, proved by my numerous experiments, show that the lactic
acid ferments are in enormous numbers in ripening cheese, whilst other
species, as the Tyrothrix class, are relatively rare, and this fact permits
us to affirm that the microbic agents in the ripening of cheese ought to
be looked for among the lactic acid ferments.”
A new factor in the ripening of cheese was the discovery of an
unorganized ferment, or enzyme, in milk by Babcock and Russell. These
authors kept milk in contact with an excess of chemical substances that
destroyed the metabolic activity of bacteria, but which did not suspend
entirely the action of the organized ferments. Under these conditions
the milk coagulated, and there was a progressive formation of soluble
8
114 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
proteids (albumoses and peptones) comparable to the breaking down of
the casein in the normal ripening of cheese. Bacterial life was not
absolutely excluded from the milk with which the experiments were
performed, but by elaborate precautions, their numbers were minimized
as much as possible.
Cheese was also cured under anaesthetic conditions. A cheese
kept under chloroform and heavily saturated with this anaesthetic, even
when more than a year old was physically thoroughly broken down and
resembled a well cured cheese. Chemically, more than fifty per cent. of
the casein was converted into soluble products, which amount is about
the same as that found in normal cheese of the same age. Bacteriologi-
cally it was sterile.
These experiments seemed to the authors to indicate that the
inherent enzymes in the milk played a very important rdle in the break-
down of the casein.
The year following this discovery, 1897, the authors published
additional studies, and named the ferment ga/actase, on account of its
presence in milk. It was found that this enzyme was allied to trypsin,
the digestive ferment of the pancreas, and in this connection, it is inter-
esting to note that Jensen independently discovered that cheese made
from pasteurised milk with the addition of ether to prevent bacterial
action, and a certain amount of pancreas to furnish the trypsin, cured
more quickly, and contained nearly fifty per cent. more soluble nitrogen
than cheese made without the addition of pancreas.
This ferment, however, differs from trypsin, in that it gives rise toa
certain amount of free ammonia. It also differs with regard to the
temperature at which its action is most energetic.
Storch’s test for determining whether milk has been heated to a
temperature exceeding 80° C. depends on the presence of galactase, the
activity of which is destroyed by this temperature.
Babcock and Russell also made extensive researches on the distribu-
tion of galactase in different species of mammalia, in individual milks at
the same or different periods of lactation, etc.
As to the structures in the body in which the enzyme is found, the
authors have not yet examined the mammary glands for its presence,
but suggested the close relationship between the blood and milk, as seen
in the production of immunizing substances in the milk of animals
rendered artificially immune to bacterial poisons.
1900-1. THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 115
Barthel has recently pointed out that normal cows’ milk contains
large numbers of leucocytes, and attributes Storch’s test to their presence
in the milk.
He even considered the leucocytes, or an enzyme secreted by them,
as the cause of the phenomena observed by Babcock and Russell and
by them attributed to galactase. The leucocytes also behave in the
same manner towards anesthetics as galactase, and another indication
that the colour reaction obtained in Storch’s test is due to the presence
of leucocytes, is that whey gives a reddish-brown and not a blue colour
as in the case of milk. The latter colour has been shown by Storch to
be due to the casein of the milk.
Schirokich, in 1898, experimented on the diastases produced by
Lyrothrix tenuts. He grew the bacillus for four days at 35° C., and then
filtered the culture through a porcelain filter, and added the germ free
filtrate to sterilized milk. The milk was digested and the casein
became soluble in water, but the liquid had not the odour of cheese.
He then tried another method. A pure culture of a lactic acid ferment
was made in sterilized milk, and, as soon as complete coagulation had
occurred, five per cent. of the sterile diastase from Tyrothrix was added,
and the mixture kept at 35° C. The diastase acted slowly on the
casein, and at the end of fifteen days the mixture had a typical cheesy
smell. This experiment was repeated several times with like results.
Further experiments showed that the intensity of the cheesy smell
depended on the amount of acid present in the milk when the diastase
was added.
In conclusion, Schirokich suggested the use of pure cultures of lactic
acid together with digesting bacteria and casein, as the ripening seemed
to be a special kind of symbiosis.
In a series of articles in the Milch Zeitung (1899) Weigmann
discussed the rdéle of the lactic acid bacteria in the ripening of cheese,
especially referring to the work of de Freudenreich. He drew the
following conclusions, from his own experiments and also those of
other investigators :
1. The special lactic acid bacteria are not cheese ripening bacteria,
the form used by de Freudenreich in his experiments being only
facultative, or more probably degenerate lactic acid bacteria.
2. Lactic acid bacteria have an important rdle in cheese ripening,
not in actually taking part in the ripening, but by directing the process
in the right direction.
116 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
3. This function consists in eliminating certain forms of bacteria and
fungi by the lactic acid formed, and providing an acid nutrient medium
upon which only such bacteria and fungi can thrive as can withstand
the acid or consume it. The micro-organisms which consume the acid
prevent its accumulation in too strong a degree, take part in the
peptonizing and flavour producing processes, and enable other bacteria
or fungi, whose activity was weakened by the acid, to continue their
work.
4. The specific character of a particular kind of cheese depends
upon the predominating form of micro-organism, which the manner of
preparation and the handling of the cheese have brought about.
Boekhout and Vries made Edam cheese from pasteurised milk
inoculated with a lactic acid ferment isolated from Edam cheese, but
this cheese failed to ripen.
Cheese made from pasteurised milk and inoculated with a plug of
fourteen day old cheese did not ripen, and the same result took place
with cheese made from pasteurised milk and mixed with five per cent.
market milk.
Better cheese was made from milk heated to 55° C. for half an hour
and treated exactly as in the above experiments, but even this cheese
could not be called normal.
Then these investigators attempted to get milk as germ free as
possible, by washing the hind quarters of the cow with soap and water,
followed by three per cent. boracic acid. The milker’s hands were
similarly treated. The milk obtained was not quite sterile, but so
poor in bacterial content that a portion remained a long time in the
incubator at 22° C. without change.
This milk was divided into two equal portions without the addition
of any cultures, and this part acted as a check on the other portion with
which the following three experiments were made:
1. Milk inoculated with fourteen day old cheese.
2. Milk inoculated with a lactic acid bacterium isolated from Edam
cheese.
3. Milk inoculated with market milk.
In numbers one and three experiments, there was a normal ripening,
but the cheese made from milk inoculated with the lactic acid bacillus
failed to ripen.
1900-1. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 117
The cheese made from the control milk did not ripen at all.
From these experiments, the authors concluded, that:
1. The heating of milk changes the casein and prevents ripening.
2. If we look for the ripening organisms among the lactic acid
bacteria, we must remember that not all the lactic acid bacteria are able
to cause the ripening.
3. The theory of Babcock and Russell is incorrect, otherwise the
control cheese would have ripened.
4. If the theory of Weigmann should be confirmed, it must be
qualified in so far that the organisms are still alive on the fourteenth
day, for the cheese used was inoculated with fourteen day old cheese.
De Freudenreich and Jensen’s experiments on the relation between
lactic acid ferments and the ripening of Emmenthaler cheese were very
extensive and thorough. They conclude that the Tyrothrix bacilli take
no part in the ripening. They did not multiply in normal cheese, and
even when added in large numbers they exerted no influence on the
decomposition products, in fact their influence was harmful.
The natural enzymes (galactase) perhaps participate in the ripening,
by rendering the casein soluble, and thus facilitate the operations of
the lactic acid ferments. Pasteurising deteriorates the quality of
Emmenthaler cheese. Another fact brought out was the loss of the
soluble constituents of cheese during ripening.
The results of de Freudenreich’s experiments in 1900 confirmed the
work of Babcock and Russell upon galactase. Several new facts were
also demonstrated. The presence of 0.3 and 0.5 per cent. of lactic acid
considerably decreased the action of the diastase.
Twenty per cent. of ether was added to milk sterilized at 120° C.
and this was then inoculated with a few drops of an emulsion of spores
of Tyrothrix tenuis, and kept at 35° C. Another lot was similarly
treated, except that the emulsion of spores was previously heated to
100° C. to destroy the enzymes present. At the end of three months,
the latter sample had undergone no, change and contained 0.053 per
cent. of soluble nitrogen ; and in the first sample, a change commenced
at the end of four weeks, and progressed rapidly during the next two
months. At the end of that time; there was some digestion of the
casein, and the chemical analysis showed 0.098 per cent. of soluble
nitrogen. This experiment showed that not only were the diastases
118 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
produced by bacteria capable of action on casein, but even bacteria
themselves or even their spores might contain digesting enzymes.
De Freudenreich does not believe with Babcock and Russell that
galactase plays the principal réle in the ripening of cheese, but that
in rendering the casein soluble, it probably prepares for and facilitates
the work of the bacteria which cause the ripening, and the special taste
of cheese.
Jensen studied the origin and properties of the enzymes found in
cheese, both hard (Emmenthaler) and soft (Limbourg) varieties. To
determine if galactase played any part in the ripening, he examined the
following four points :
1. Is the galactase of milk in sufficient quantity in the curd to be
able to produce an appreciable transformation of the casein ?
2. How long does galactase remain in the cheese ?
3. Are the natural conditions met with in cheese such, that the
galactase can exercise its action ?
4. Does the pepsin of the rennet take part in the ripening of cheese?
By a series of analyses, too long to quote in this paper, Jensen
partially answered the above questions. Thus he concluded :
1. As cheese is made with rennet, galactase and the pepsin in rennet
are present in sufficient quantities to produce changes in the casein.
2. Soft cheese is richer in enzymes than hard cheese.
3. The quantity of free lactic acid in soft cheese is sufficient to
hinder the action of galactase, and consequently favour the action of the
pepsin. In hard cheese, on the contrary, the quantity of free lactic acid
present is smaller and only helps in a slight degree the action of pepsin
at the expense of the galactase.
To determine which of the two factors, the lactic ferments or.
galactase, plays the principal réie in the ripening of Emmenthaler
cheese, Jensen compared the changes which naturally occurred in the
casein of cheese with those caused by each of the two factors above
mentioned. The action of galactase was rendered insignificant by using
one per cent. of Formalin to prohibit bacterial action. Whilst to show
the action of this enzyme, fifteen to twenty per cent. of ether was used
to destroy the bacterial life. Again, the chief function of galactase is in
its rendering albuminoid substances soluble, and the principal role of the
°
1900-1. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 119
lactic ferments is to form decomposition products. Thus, at the
commencement of the ripening of Emmenthaler cheese, soluble
albuminoid substances are first formed and only traces of decomposition
products ; and as soon as the free lactic acid is neutralized, the lactic
acid bacilli commence their work, and immediately there is a consider-
able increase in the decomposition products. The quantity of these
latter products constantly increases during the rest of the ripening
process, whilst the augmentation of soluble albuminoid substances
diminishes. In other words, the lactic acid bacteria or their enzymes
become more and more the only factor in the ripening, probably
because the galactase becomes gradually enfeebled.
In a few words, the changes that occur in the casein during the
ripening of Emmenthaler cheese seem to consist of a metabiosis
between galactase and the lactic acid bacteria.
From the results of his researches, Jensen thus describes the process
of ripening in Emmenthaler cheese:
The curing is due to different fermentations accompanied by two
simultaneous processes—salting and drying. The term fermentation
is used to signify the chemical decomposition, due to organized ferments
or to unorganized ones.
Salting helps to keep the cheese, moistens the crust, and facilitates
the drying. These two actions (salting and drying) delay fermentation,
especially at the outside of the cheese.
Before transferring the cheese to a warmer room, salting and drying
continue for some time, during which interval the galactase begins
its action and dissolves or renders the casein soluble. At the same
time, the amount of free lactic acid gradually diminishes.
As soon as the cheese is placed in a warmer room, the lactic acid
bacteria commence to increase, the temperature of the interior of the
cheese probably rises, and the greater part of the soluble albuminoid
substances form and the production of the holes finishes. The drying
out of the cheese also occurs more quickly at this temperature. Finally,
the cheese is transferred to a cooler room, in which the cheese age, until
they are considered ripe. During this time, the bacteria slowly die out,
but their enzymes continue to act, and increase the quantity of the
products of the decomposition of casein. During the last fermentation,
the final salting is given, and drops of liquid (tears) form in the holes in
the cheese.
120 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [Vot. VII.
Babcock and Russell, in 1900, experimented upon the action of
rennet on cheese, and concluded from a number of experiments :
1. That an increase in the amount of rennet extract used in making
cheese does increase the amount of soluble nitrogenous products, which
measure the progress of cheese ripening.
2. Increase in amount of rennet used does not increase the water
content of cheese; and, therefore, the ripening of cheese cannot be
indirectly affected in this way.
3. The products of peptic digestion in milk and cheese are confined
to the higher decomposition products, viz., albumoses and peptones
precipitated by tannin.
4. The increase in soluble nitrogenous products and also in milk due
to an increase in amount of rennet extract used are confined to those
bye-products that are peculiar to pepsin, thus indicating that the
digestive action of rennet extract is attributable to the action of the
pepsin incorporated with rennet extract.
5. The crucial test of this conclusion was made by adding purified
pepsin to milk and making the same into cheese, where rennet extract
was or was not added to curdle the milk. In such cheese digestion has
been increased in those cases to which pepsin has been added, and this
increase has been confined to those bye-products that are characteristic
of pepsin, and which also appear in cheese made with high quantities of
rennet.
6. The digestion in cheese incident to pepsin is determined mainly
by the degree of acidity developed in the milk and curd. In Cheddar
cheese, peptic digestion probably does not begin until the acidity of the
milk is approximately 0.3 per cent. lactic acid.
7. Acid salts as phosphates, etc., favour peptic digestion in milk in a
manner comparable to free acids.
8. Free acid does not normally exist in Cheddar cheese, the
apparent acidity being due to acid salts.
The results of the first researches of Chodat and Hofman-Bang were
published in 1898, and their conclusions were as follows:
1. A single species of bacterium can produce the digestion of the
casein and the characteristic odour of cheese.
2. That contrary to the opinion of de Freudenreich but in agreement
1900-1. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 121
with that of Duclaux, bacteria which are not lactic acid producers can
ripen cheese.
3. The acidity at the commencement of ripening was not necessary
to bring about the solubility of the casein.
In their second paper (1900), they criticised de Freudenreich’s work
and report fresh results. De Freudenreich had shown that lactic acid
bacteria could attack and render soluble portions of the casezn of milk,
but Chodat and Hofman-Bang point out that it has not been shown that
the lactic acid bacteria can attack coagulated casein; and these two
substances are so different that the results which have been obtained
with the casein of milk cannot be applied a przorz to coagulated
casein.
These authors then experimented to see if the lactic acid bacteria
were capable of dissolving coagulated casein. They isolated five
different germs from Emmenthaler cheese, all of which produced lactic
acid, and others volatile acids, as formic, acetic, and valerianic. These
germs were grown on coagulated sugar-free casein, which had been
previously sterilized at 120° C., for three successive days. At the end
of three months, the acidity of the lactic ferments and the percentage of
soluble nitrogen were determined, and it was found that the bacteria
were well developed and were not contaminated, and that the quantity of
soluble nitrogen had not increased. All the cultures had a feeble
butyric odour. From this experiment, the authors concluded that de
Freudenreich was wrong when he said “That the lactic acid bacteria
play the principal rdle in the ripening of Emmenthaler cheese.’
Further, they thought the lactic acid bacteria in their cultures grew at
the expense of the casein dissolved in the water used for moistening the
curd in the culture flasks.
The lactic acid bacteria were also sown in flasks containing casein
modified by casease obtained from a species of Tyrothrix. The casein
was not dissolved by the Tyrothrix, and after the lactic germs had
grown on this substance for two-and-a-half months, there was no
increase in the percentage of soluble nitrogen.
Again, they seeded sterilized casein with living Tyrothrix, allowed it
to grow until the curd was softened, without becoming liquid, and then
sterilized germs and casein together at 120° C. Upon the casein thus
prepared they placed a lactic acid bacillus, but with negative results, no
increase of soluble nitrogen was demonstrated, which showed that the
lactic acid germ had not been able to attack the casein.
122 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII.
Klein and Kirsten rendered heated milk suitable for cheese-making
by adding calcium chloride. In their experiments they were able to
produce normal cheese of several varieties (Bachstein, Spitz, Remoudou,
Kloster, etc.) by heating the milk to temperatures varying from 85° C.
to 100° C. for different periods of time, treating it with calcium chloride
(twenty-five grams of calcium oxide per litre) and adding either cultures
or starters. Cheese made by this method not only ripened normally
but also gave a larger yield than cheese made from non-heated milks.
My own studies on the bacterial content of cheese were com-
menced in 1896 at the Bacteriological Laboratory of Dr. Russell, at
the University of Wisconsin. During that summer and the following
one of 1897, many analyses of Canadian Cheddar cheese were made, the
methods of analyses being similar to those already published in the
various reports of the Wisconsin Experiment Station. Briefly described,
they are as follows :
A sterilized test-tube was sent to a factory with the request that a
plug of cheese be placed therein, and asking that the cheese trier be
sterilized with steam before use. A typewritten form accompanied each
tube, upon which the cheesemaker filled out particulars as to the age of
the cheese, condition of manufacture, amount of rennet used, ete.
From one to five days elapsed between the taking of the sample and the
making of the analyses; and, on many occasions, the cheese received
was very greasy or had otherwise deteriorated owing to the very hot
weather, and the length of time taken in transit. Doubtless these facts
have contributed to bring about the diversity of the results shewn in my
first table.
On arrival at the laboratory, one gram of cheese was weighed out
and triturated with ten grams of sterilized sugar, sand or powdered
glass. Sterilized water was then added and various dilutions made,
differing with the age of the cheese. The medium used at Wisconsin
was the ordinary beef peptone gelatin, with or without the addition of
milk sugar. From two to five plates were made.
Subsequently this method was improved on, by using sterilized
warm water (37° C.) for the dilutions, and yeast water lactose gelatin for
medium. To this a small quantity of precipitated chalk was usually
added. This medium gave excellent results compared with the ordinary
nutrient gelatin or whey peptone gelatin, the colonies of the lactic acid
bacteria were larger, and the dissolving action of these germs on the
chalk materially aided the labour of counting.
1900-I. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 123
Following de Freudenreich’s plan of obtaining the liquefying germs,
surface cultures were occasionally made. This method also helped in
the isolation of yeasts, the surface colonies of which were far easier to
spot than those deep in the gelatin.
Anaerobic methods of culture failed to show any obligate anaerobes.
Pake’s apparatus was used for counting the colonies, but when these
were too numerous, a low power of the microscope was employed and
from five to ten per cent. of the total number of microscope fields in a
Petri dish of eighty m.m. diameter were counted, and computations
made therefrom.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.
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1.]
THE RIPENING OF CHEESE.
NUMBER AND KIND OF BACTERIA IN CHEESE AT DIFFERENT
STAGES OF RIPENING.
tN
nn
CHEESE I.
Aeein Days No. of Bacteria Lactic Acid Gas Producing Deore Vioasts
per gram. Bacteria. Bacteria. Becton
| eee ote seal | Sena BE RELLY bo 0 2 aN eee
|
Curd. 290,000,000 289,700,000 : 50,000 250,000
2 Days. 430,000,000 429,599,000 serena ake ote 1,200 400,000
ee 387,000,000 B805549;0000) waar: 1,200 750,000
1@y 217,000,000 | 2193599; COOOM NN auerretey-let-t- 700 40,000
D5 eos 85,000,000 SMistsyOll9) || Sasuaces 50 182,000
BO ns 64,000,000 | 63,800,000 Ue aeerp ede ta By cunt 200,000
Diao 38,000,000 resol) | ss ata cele Aah sieees ere? 190,000
Syne ott 22,000,000 Puc KOneey || " bioepadoo || SEOs 240,C00
Hay 19 7,000,000 | 6,867,000 : 25 ¥33,000
50) 3,500,000 BGO || Soo50c00 || oovnde 70,000
REMARKS.—The temperature of the curing room was from 65° F. to 75° F.
The ripened cheese was of good flavour and texture.
CHEESE II.
: Be ntl Ss 4 Casein
eretanh Days: No. of Bacteria Pacue Acid G28, Producing MeesGae Veaste:
per grain, acteria. acteria. Bactonan
1 Day. 520,000,000 514,900,000 5,000,000 LOOsOOO!|l yay eis cae
ae 480,000,000 477,000,000 3,000, 000 25,000 2,000
Tie i 275,000,000 274,250,000 700,000 2,000 45,000
Tez ues: 270,000,000 269,900,000 OOO! itl) wares. 27,000
Tage, 130,000,000 120;000,000))|| Nn aeeeeee 500 70,000
Baris 83,000,000 SZ5900;Q00) 0) Moe ce 100 32,000
Sle ae 31,000,000 31,000,000 ise) ae bracseal ih wm oleparererals 14,000
aij 6 OU 6,700,000 (7OOKOC |) | be dhooos 0,500
® CHEESE III.
: E No. of Bacteria Lactic Acid Gas Producing Casein : ;
Age in Days. per gram. Bacteria. Bacteria. Digennue Yeasts.
2 Days. 340,000,000 34050005000) Steen erie 5,000 10,000
Clie 214,000,000 ZITA; GOO;OOO0w! a)", | Mewar NN aaceeees 70,000
1 SE 134,000,000 133-.750,000 Be / A aera Uy sebh cea 250,000
a aga 88,000,000 865500; 0008S amnreracrt tee 1,500,000
Zor is 37,000,000 264750, O00)! 1 Ui reaceh-wereneteatll tml iire. eet a 1,220,000
Bipten 27,500,000 20; 7OO,OO0)\ |) sles tee ae mea 800,000
At iuiics 12,250,000 Tis Q5O; OOO isis -tepenare uel Mab atese ee) 300,000
Both of the above cheeses were of good flavour.
126 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
ACID IN CHEESE.*
Method.—Five grams of cheese and an equal amount of glass were
ground together in a mortar; 100 c.c. of water was then added and well
mixed with the cheese. After standing fifteen minutes, the mixture
was filtered through a dry filter paper, and 25 c.c. of the clear filtrate
taken for the determination of the acidity. Phenolphtalein was used as
indicator.
Where the acidity was determined in an unfiltered portion, as much
as two per cent. of acid was found in the older cheese, probably due to
the casein neutralizing the alkali.
Curd at Milling showed .54 per cent. acid figured as lactic acid.
GC Seutivaee 9 00 .76 on oe
Cheese 6 days old from Salting showed 86 per cent. acid.
oe 6 “e oe ce 86 -¢
ae 13 oe ee oe 81 oe
sé 13 ee oe ae 79 ot
oe 20 6 ae oe 86 be
* 20 ee oe ae .9gO oe
ee 27 ee ae oe go ot
“e BF oe os ae 86
ae 34 oe -t oe 93 oe
ee 34 ‘ oe 1.02 oe
ae 41 ae ee I o8 ae
oe 41 ‘ “ce 1.08 ee
oe 48 ‘ oe oe I os ‘
‘ 48 oe “ae 1.08 ‘
é 55 EE Ca Cofs) :
eats HOS: ‘
ae 225 ae ‘ ce 1.08 ‘
The work of Russell and Wenizirl on the normal cheese flora of
Wisconsin cheese, during the entire history of the cheese from the
time it was made until it was consumed, has been duplicated in my
laboratory, but with these differences :
1. Canadian Cheddar cheese was the subject of study.
2. The culture medium used was somewhat different ; yeast-water,
lactose gelatine, whey peptone gelatine, and ordinary beef broth lactose
gelatine were employed. From six to ten Petri dishes were poured for
each analysis.
*These determinations were made by R. Harcourt, Associate Professor of Chemistry, Ontario Agri-—
cultural College.
1900-1. THE NING OF CHEESE. 12
9 THE RIPENING OF CHEESE 7
3. The oldest cheese analyzed was fifty-one days old. Russell gave
the result up to 108 days for two cheeses, and up to 237 days for one.
The general results of these studies on Canadian cheese are shown
by the diagram and tables, and demonstrate the enormous increase
of the lactic acid bacteria in the initial stages of cheese-making. From
the moment the milk is placed in the vat, every condition favourable for
the growth of this class of micro-organism is carefully fostered. The
greatest number found was in cheese two or three days old; at this age,
one cheese contained 520 millions bacteria per gram, nearly five times
as many as Russell observed in Wisconsin cheese.
From this point the numbers decline at first rather rapidly, but
subsequently the decrease is more gradual.
Comparing my results with Russell’s and summarizing them, I
might state that in Canadian Cheddar cheese there is:
1. Period of increase in which the bacteria develop most rapidly in
the curd, and in the cheese up to the age of two or three days, followed
by
2. Period of rapid decline, in which the numbers fall away somewhat
rapidly until about the thirteenth day, when the cheese may be said to
enter the final
3. Pertod of slow or general decline, in which their numbers slowly
decrease, at the 430th day but 1,400 per gram were found.
The results, whilst agreeing with Russell's, as to the enormous
development of the lactic acid bacteria in cheese, differ in that there is
no period of “Initial Decline,’ and that the “Period of Increase”
virtually takes place in the curd. The maximum number are present
in the cheese at the moment it is taken out of the press. The “Period
of Final Decline,’ I have subdivided, although my two divisions may be
quite well taken together.
If in connection with this remarkable increase of lactic acid bacteria,
we examine the amount of acid present in the curd and cheese, we find
that the greatest increase in acidity occurs between milling and salting.
From this point until the cheese is forty days old there is a gradual and
progressive increase. Thus, the increase in acidity from the time of
milling until the cheese was six days old was 0.32 per cent. calculated
as lactic acid, and the increase from the latter age to forty-one days old
128 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL, VIE
was exactly the same, 0.32 per cent.; but in the former case, the
increase was accomplished in six days, and in the latter thirty-five days.
Whilst the increase in numbers of the lactic acid bacteria can fully
account for the initial increase in acid, no ready explanation can be
given for the gradual and progressive development of acidity from the
sixth to the fortieth day. The acidity is due more to acid salts than to
free acid, and it may be that some change occurs in the acid bases, and
perhaps some of the fatty acids are liberated.
The “Period of Rapid Decline” is practically synchronous with the
gradual increase of acidity, and the “period of gradual decline” is
coincident with the maximum amount of acidity. This increase,
followed by an almost perinanent amount of acidity, may possibly
explain why the bacteria die out at first rather rapidly and subsequently
somewhat more slowly, the least resistant germs being killed off quickly
by the slow accumulation of acid followed by the gradual death of the
stronger individuals.
Lactic acid bacteria—The prevalent lactic acid species present in all
samples was undoubtedly the 4. aczdi lactict of Esten. This author
stated that this bacterium is identical in every particular with Giinther
and Thierfelder’s organism. In most of the samples of cheese it was
the predominating lactic acid bacterium present. Next in numbers
was B&. lactis aerogenes, or a form closely allied to it. This microbe
curdled milk into a soft curd, and after some time gas bubbles appeared.
When cultures of the above two organisms were seeded together in
sterilized milk, a firm curd was produced with little or no gas.
Occasionally a micrococcus producing a buff-coloured colony, and also
torulae were found. Both of these turned litmus red and coagulated it
into a solid curd with no separation of whey.
Gas producing bacteria—The gas producing bacteria belonged
usually to either the 4. cofz group or else to the 4. dactis aerogenes
group. In the former group many varieties have been cultivated,
showing considerable differences as to motility, indol and gas produc-
tion. Nearly all writers on dairy bacteriology blame varieties of this
bacillus for producing gassy milk and bad flavours. In_ several
instances the cheese was mottled when this germ was present and this
result might be possibly brought about by the bleaching action of the
hydrogen liberated in the cheese by this ubiquitous microbe.
According to Weinzirl the “huffing” of cheese results from the
activity of a large number of Hueppe’s B. aczdz lactzct. Cohn considers
1900-I. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 129
this germ to belong to the aerogenes group, but the forms of this
bacterium that I have met with in Canadian cheese show considerable
variations from the type, especially with regard to the appearance of the
gelatine colonies which simulate rather that of B. acidi lactici (Esten).
This group does not increase in cheese and I have not found them
in cheese older than thirty days.
The liquefying bacterta found in Canadian cheese were not numerous,
and their numbers decreased as the cheese ripened, so that in three
weeks old cheese they were seldom found. <A constant endeavour was
made in order to isolate micro-organisms belonging to this class, but
usually without success. On one occasion the presence of a larger
number of digesting bacteria than usual was associated with a bad
flavour in the cheese.
Some seven different species of liquefying germs have been isolated.
Probably the commonest species were forms almost identical with
Hueppe’s Bacillus butyricus. This germ was several times found in fair
numbers, from cheese taken from very warm curing rooms. The next
most common species was a clostridium form, which grew in long
threads. On gelatine, it formed a brown granular colony, and milk was
completely digested. It might belong to Duclaux’s Tyrothrix group.
What was evidently a variety of Conn’s &. varzans lactis was also
isolated.
Two or three forms met with seemed allied to the Proteus group,
and seemed to be closely related to 4. fulvus (Zimmermann). These
were found only in young cheese.
Practically the whole of this group gave rise to bad flavour or odours
in milk. Butter has been made from cream ripened with some of these
bacteria, and invariably a bad product was produced.
YEASTS.
I have found yeasts quite commonly present in Canadian cheese,
and frequently in large numbers. This fact was first noted whilst
studying at Wisconsin University in Professor Russell’s laboratory, but
no special endeavour was then made to give them the best conditions
for growth. Since, I have used yeast water gelatine, and ale wort
gelatine, for their isolation. The latter medium is excellent, as other
bacteria that may be present in the sample do not find it a suitable
pabulum.
9 :
130 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
So far as my experiments are concerned, they are the only micro-
organisms that actually increase in cheese. Cheese No. 3 illustrates the
increase of yeasts that may take place in cheese, and some of the
analyses in Table 1 support this conclusion.
Whilst I have applied the name yeasts to this class, most of them
are species of Zorula, as they form no spores, even under the con-
ditions prescribed by Hansen. They may be classified roughly here as
beneficial and injurious. The former either act like the lactic acid
bacteria in milk, produce acid, and give a firm curd, or they may make
but little acid and after considerable length of time digest the casein.
The injurious species have more diverse habits. Thus some are able to
ferment lactose, form gas, and give rise to bad flavours in the cheese.
A species of torula isolated in 1900, besides causing gas formation, pro-
duced a bitter flavour, which gave much trouble in as many as four
factories in the same district.
Another species of torula caused no perceptible change in milk, but
when grown with a lactic acid bacteriutn it produced a mottled appear-
ance in the cheese. I was able to produce such mottles in milk con-
taining a little cheese colour, and seeded with a lactic acid bacillus, or a
drop of lactic acid and the torula.
The great difficulty which a cheese maker experiences when working
with yeasts is the remarkable tolerance they shew to acidity, so that a
maker is unable to repress an undesirable yeast fermentation by the
addition of a vigorous lactic acid starter. Some of the torulae I have
isolated grew luxuriantly in peptone solutions containing 2.25 per cent.
of lactic acid. This fact undoubtedly explains their increase in cheese.
Nothing can be said as to the place of origin of these yeasts.
Other bacteria tn Cheese—During these investigations a number of
other forms, not falling into any of the classes I have mentioned, have
been isolated. Some of these produced undesirable flavours and others
were inert. Nothing need be said of these in this paper, on account of
their occasional occurrence, or unimportance to my subject.
My experiments and results are perhaps rather few, and too little
chemical work has been done to justify much theorizing on what causes
the ripening of cheese, but from a review of the works of others and my
own results, I may perhaps be justified in making a few remarks.
Three most important facts seem well supported by good evidence
and trustworthy experiments :
1900-1. | THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 131
1. The enormous number of lactic acid bacteria in hard cheese, and
the very small numbers of liquefying or digesting bacteria.
2. The existence of galactase, a natural enzyme inherent in fresh
milk. |
3. The ability of rennet to cause the change of non-soluble nitro-
genous products to soluble ones.
If. we grant that these three facts are proved, and we may safely do
so, our inquiry into the cause of the ripening of cheese will be somewhat
simplified.
The lactic acid bacteria seem to be able to cause an increase in the
amount of soluble nitrogenous products in the casein of milk (de Freud-
enreich). Klein and Kirsten also state that normal cheese may be
made from pasteurised milk (hence free from enzymes) with the aid of
starters. Russell, before the discovery of galactase, stated “that the
addition of a pure lactic acid ferment to the pasteurised milk permits
the usual changes to occur in a perfectly normal way.”
On the other hand, Boekhout and Vries were unable to produce
normal cheese (Edam) made from aseptic milk with the addition of a
culture of lactic acid bacteria, but at the same time they admit that
perhaps some other variety of lactic acid bacteria might bring about the
ripening changes.
Chodat and Bang grew lactic acid bacteria on coagulated casein, but
the quantity of soluble nitrogen in this mass did not increase ; so that
taking into account these facts, we are bound to admit that there exists
more or less doubt as to the ability of the lactic acid bacteria to alone
bring about an increase in the amount of soluble nitrogen.
Babcock and Russell’s discovery of galactase led them to consider
that the “ breaking down of the casein was due in larger part to the
action of this enzyme” ; in fact, they attribute to galactase the principal
role in the ripening of cheese. Both de Freudenreich and Jensen con-
firmed the presence of this enzyme in milk, but they do not consider
that it is the all-important factor in the curing process. Boekhout and
Vries completely deny its ability to ripen cheese, and Klein and Kir-
sten’s experiments show that soft cheeses ripen normally, even when
made from milk in which the enzyme has been destroyed by heat.
My experiments show that the amount of acid present in Canadian
Cheddar cheese is sufficient to inhibit and perhaps altogether stop its
action in cheese; for, if as shown by de Freudenreich, 0.5 per cent. of
132 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII.
lactic acid can considerably enfeeble its action, then the amount of
acidity in normal Canadian Cheddar cheese might still more diminish
the action of galactase, as the percentage of acidity in the manufactured
cheese varies at different ages from 0.76 per cent. to 1.08 per cent.
Thus, we are bound to conclude that, as far as Canadian Cheddar
cheese is concerned, the presence of galactase is of little importance.
There now remains the question of the ability of rennet to cause the
ripening changes.
Jensen was the first to show that curing might be accelerated by
incorporating pancreas with the curd, and subsequently Babcock and
Russell and Jensen simultaneously proved that the pepsin in rennet
increased the higher decomposition products, as albumoses and peptones
in cheese.
There is also the well-known fact that cheese-makers increase the
amount of rennet when they want a fast curing cheese.
Now rennet acts more quickly and better in acid solutions, and
it seems that the rdle of the lactic acid bacteria, whose growth in the
milk is so carefully fostered by the cheese-maker, is to bring about or
create the requisite acidity so that the pepsin of the rennet can exercise
its digestive action on the cheese.
There is practically no increase in the number of lactic acid bacteria
after the cheese have been taken from the press, but the amount of
acidity increases and Schirokich’s experiments proved that the diastase
of Tyrothrix (which is similar to rennet in its action) was able to act on
the casein when the requisite amount of acid was present.
This connection, for we can hardly call it symbiosis, between the
action of rennet and lactic acid bacteria will serve to harmonize the
results of the experiments of other investigators. Thus, if we substitute
the enzymes of rennet for Schirokich’s bacterial enzymes, the curing
process may thus be explained, and Weigmann’s theory that the lactic
acid bacteria direct the process of curing in the right direction by
eliminating undesirable forms of bacteria by the lactic acid formed, is
quite in accord with my proposal.
Summarized, the ripening of cheese may be said to be caused by the
digestive action of the rennet on the insoluble nitrogenous matter of the
cheese, in the presence of acid formed by the lactic acid bacteria. The
large amount of acidity also prevents or inhibits the growth of other
(and perhaps undesirable) species of bacteria.
1900-1. ] THE RIPENING OF CHEESE. 133
EIMPERALURE:
ADAMETZ. ‘‘ Bakteriologische Untersuchung iiber den Reifungsprozess der Kase.”
Landw. Jahrbiicher, XVIII, 1899, p. 227-260.
Bascock & RussELL. XIV, XV, XVI and XVII, Reports of the Wisconsin Experiment
Station (1897-1900).
BARTHEL. Nord. Mejeri. Tdn. 14, 1899, p. 215, E.S.R. XI, p. 785.
BENECKE & SCHULZE.. ‘‘ Untersuchungen iiber den Emmenthaler Kase und iiber Einige
andere Schweizerische Kdsersorten.” Landw. Jahrbtcher, XVI, p. 317-400, and
Centralblatt f. Bakt., I, 1887.
BOEKHOUT & OTT DE VrRikFs. ‘‘ Untersuchungen iiber der Reifungsprozess des Edamer
Kases.” Centralb. fiir Bakt. II Abt., 1899, p. 304.
CHopatT & HOFMAN Banc. Bulletin de I’herbier Bossier, 1898, p. 713. Annales de
L’ Institut Pasteur, 1go1, p. 37.
Coun, F. ‘‘Beitrage zur Biologie der Pflanzen.” 1875, Bd. 1, 3 Heft. s. 191.
DucLaux. ‘Fabrication, maturation et maladies du fromage de Cantal.’’ Annales
agronomique, 1878.
‘‘Le lait, etudes chemiques et microbiologique.” Paris, 1887. (Deuxieme tirage
augmenté, 1894.)
VON FREUDENREICH. ‘‘ Recherches preliminaires sur le rdle des bacteries dans la
maturation du fromage d’Emmethal.’’ Annales de Micrographie, II, 1890, and
Landwirt. Jahrb. d. Schweiz, V, 1891. ‘‘ Weitere bakteriologische Untersuchungen
und Reifungsprozess des Emmenthaler Kases.” Landwirt. Jahrb. d. Schweiz,
VIII, 1894, und Centralb. f. Bakt. II Abt., Bd. 1, 1895.
“* Ueber den jetzigen stand der bakteriologischen Forschung auf dem Gebiete des
Kasereifungsprozess."’ Centralb. f. Bakt., II Abt., 1 Bd., 1895. ‘* Ueber die
Erreger der Reifung bei dem Emmenthaler K4se.”’ Annales de Micrographie, 1897,
and Landw. Jahrb. d. Schweiz, XI, 1897, ‘‘Sur la maturation des Fromages.”
Annales de Microg., X, 1898, p. 279. ‘* Ueber die Beteiligung der Milchsaure
bakterien an der Kdsereifung.” Centralb. f. Bakt. II, Bd. 5, 1899, p. 24.
VON FREUDENREICH. ‘Note sur la galactase.” L’Annuaire Agricole de la Suisse, 1goo.
VoN FREUDENREICH & JENSEN. Centralb. f. Bakt., II Abt., 1900, 12 et seq.
Harrison. ‘‘ Die Lebensdauer des Tuberkel-Bacillus im Kase.” Landwirt. Jahrbuch
der Schweiz, 1900.
JENSEN. ‘‘Studien iiber die Enzyme im Kase.” Centralb, f. Bakt. II, Bd. VI, 1goo.
Landwirtschaf. Jahr. d. Schweiz., 1900.
‘* Tidskr. for Fysik og Kemi.” 2, 1897, pp. 92-114; abs. in Centbl. Agr. Chem., 26,
Pav O7e
KLEIN & KirRSTEN. ‘‘ Versuche betreffend die Herstellung von Kasen aus erhitzer
Milch.” Milch Zeitung, 1900, 1901.
134 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
Lioyp. ‘‘ Observations on Cheddar Cheese Making.” Bath and W. Eng. Soc.
Reports 1891, 1892 and 1893.
PAMMEL. ‘‘ An aromatic bacillus of cheese.’’ Iowa Agricul. Expt. Sta. 1894, Bull. 21.
RUSSELL & WEINZIRL. ‘‘ The rise and fall of Bacteria in Cheddar Cheese.” Centralb.
f. Bakt., II Abt., III Bd., 1897. Wisconsin Experiment Sta. Report, XIII, 1896,
p. 95.
SCHIROKICH. ‘‘Sur le Maturation des Fromages.” Annales de 1|’'Institut Pasteur, Vol.
12, 1898, p. 400.
‘*The ripening of cheese and the role of micro-organisms in the process.”” Selsk
Khoz. Lyesov., 98, 1896, pp. 263-288. Abstract in E.S.R., Vol. 9, 1897-8, p. 286.
STORCH. ‘‘ 4o Beretring fra den Kgl. Vetrinar-und Landbohdjskoles Laboratorium for
landékonomiske Forség, 1898.”
WEIGMANN. ‘‘ Ueber den jetzigen stand der bakteriologischen Forschung auf den
Gebiete des Kasereifungsprozess.” Centralb. f. Bakt. II, Bd. II, 1896, No. 5.
Centralb. f. Bakt., II Abt., 1898, p. 593.
Milch Zeitung, 1899.
WEINZIRL. ‘* The Bacterial Flora of American Cheddar Cheese.” Centralb. f. Bakt.
II, Bd. VI, 1900.
WINCKLER. ‘‘ Zur Charakterisierung der Duclauxschen Tyrothrix arten, etc.” Cent-
ralb. f. Bakt. II, Abt., Bd. 11, 1896.
WITTLIN. ‘‘ Ueber die angebliche Umanderung von Tyrothrix tenuis in ein Milch
sdurebakterium.” Centralb. f. Bakt. II Abt., Bd. II, 1896.
we
n
1900-1. GcTHE’s Faust. I
GCE THE’S FAUST.
BY PRoF. L-_E:; HorRNING
(Read 13th April, 1907).
The following tabular comparison of the three stages in which
Geoethe’s Faust, Part I. is known, has been drawn up by Prof. Horning,
of Victoria University, Toronto. It was submitted in the first of a
series of studies in Gcethe’s masterpiece.
The numbering of the lines is according to Schmidt’s Edition of the
Urfaust, Seuffert’s reprint of the /vagment and the Weimar Edition of
Part I.; where advisable totals of lines in the corresponding scenes are
indicated.
|
URFAUST, 1773-1775? FRAGMENT, 1790. ParRT I., 1808.
1. Zueignung, 1-32.
to
. Vorspiel auf dem Theater,
| 33-242.
3. Prolog im Himmel, 243-353.
1. Nacht, 1-248. 1. Nacht, 1-248. 4. Nacht.
@ 354-605 (252 lines).
Wists 1A, Tag = 12. Winiin2 2 sees 4755
** 194, 195 replaced by ** 194, 195 replaced by 548.
195. 507, 547, 598-601 are
155, 194 are added. added.
6 606-807.
5. Vor dem Thor, 808-1177.
6. Studierzimmer I., 1178-1529.
2. 2. 7. Studierzimmer II.
@ 1530-1769.
6 1770-1867. (98 lines).
@ 249-346 (98 lines).
¢ 1868-2050-Schiilerscene.
Schiilerscene, 249-444 6 347-529 (183 lines) me
(196 lines). Schiilerscene. Ee a eee ay
2PAG—262— 1 505—S 1) Exteel 347-360. 57 added:
263-266= 1882-95 ‘‘ . . 361-374. Bara a as da,
2 O73 Q2 eee eee elim |S ayencia ;
333-340= 1896-1903PtI.|...... 375-382.
1904-1909 ‘‘ |.. ...383-388. Changes ?
AE aa ea Lilite eases
1Q64—2000) “© JE. .).. 443-479. : ‘
395-444=2001-2050 “ |...... 480-520. ad Faust tritt auf, 2051-2072.
c Faust tritt auf, 530-551.
136
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.
[Vot. VII.
URFAUST, 1773-1775?
FRAGMENT, 1790.
ParT I., 1808.
3. Auerbach’s Keller.
@ 445~452-
6 25 lines of prose.
c Rattenlied.
d 48 lines of prose.
é Flohlied.
Jf 83 lines of prose.
(In all 210 lines).
3. Auerbach’s Keller.
552-815 (264 lines).
Changes ?
4. Landstrasse, 453-456
4. Hexenkiiche, 816-1067.
(252 lines).
5. Strasse, 457-529.
5. Strasse, 1068-1140.
8. Auerbach’s Keller.
2073-2336 (264 lines).
Changes ?
9g. Hexenkiiche, 2337-2604.
(268 lines).
2306-77 | =additions.
2390-93 J
10.
Strasse, 2605-2677.
6. Abend, 530-656.
6. Abend, 1141-1267.
7. Allee, 657-718
(62 lines).
8. Nachbarinn Haus,
7. Spaziergang, 1267-1327.
(60 lines).
Note.—Between 1277 and
1278 two lines omitted
= 667-668 of Urfaust.
. Abend, 2678-2804.
2.
Spaziergang, 2805-2864.
(60 lines).
Note.—Between 2814 and
2815 two lines omitted=
667-668 of Urfaust.
of
8. Der Nachbarinn Haus, | 13. Der Nachbarinn Haus.
719-878. 1328-1487. 2866-3024.
Note.—726 and 727 WVote.—Two lines inserted Note.—Two lines inserted=
blank. = 1356-7 = between 748 2893-94= between 748 and
and 749 of Urfaust. 749 of Urfaust.
g. Faust and Mephisto-| 9. Faust and Meph., 1488-| 14. Faust and Meph., 3025-3072.
pheles, 879-924(46). 1535 (48). (48).
Wie ist’s ? : :
Note.—Lines 1509-10 Note.—Lines 3046 and 3047
added, = between 899 added=between 899 and
and goo of Urfaust. goo of the Urfaust.
Changes ? Changes ?
10. Garten, 925-1053. 10. Garten, 1536-1664. 15. Garten, 3073-3204. (132).
(129): (129). Note 1.—‘‘ Er liebt mich”
line 3184 is counted as one
line in Fragment = 1643. Is
this a printer's error ?
Note 2.— Lines 3149-52 added
=between 1611 and 1612
of Fragment.
11. Ein Gartenhauschen,| 11. Ein Gartenhaduschen, 16. Ein Gartenhauschen.
1054-1065.
1665-1676.
3205-3216.
1900-1. ]
GcETHE’sS FAUST.
137,
URFAUST, 1773-1775?
FRAGMENT, 1790.
See 18 4.
See 15:
Gretchens Stube,
1066-1105.
12.
. Gretchens Stube,
1677-1716.
~
. Marthens Garten,
1106-1235.
Am Brunnen,
1236-1277 (42 lines)
14.
3.
. Am Brunnen, 1847-1889.
Marthens Garten,
1717-1846.
(43 lines).
Note.—Ach, 1853, count-
ed as one line.
|
See 18 é.
|
|
. Wald und Hodhle,
a 1890-2014 (125 lines).
>
2015-2042 (28 lines).
¢ 2043-2046 (4 lines).
Note.—b=Urfaust 18 4.
Note posttion of scene
zn Part J.
PaRT I., 1808.
17. Wald und Hohle.
@ 3217-3341 (125 lines).
b 3342-3369 (28 lines).
€ 3379-3373 (4 lines).
Note 1.—b= Urfaust 18 4.
‘* 2.—This scene= Frag-
ment I5.
Changes ? Espec. II 3346-48.
3363.
3366.
. Gretchens Stube, 3374-3413.
19. Marthens Garten,3414-3543.
20. Am Brunnen, 3544-3586.
S)
e}
Note.—Ach, 3550, counted as
one line.
Seeuie7=
15. Zwinger, 1278-1310. 16.
See 17 for Part I. a.
See 18 a for Part I. c.
Zwinger, 2047-79.
21. Zwinger, 3587-3619.
Dropped.
Nacht—Strasse vor Gret-
chens Thiir.
@ 3620-45. (26 lines) o£ Ur->
faust 17.
6 3646-49.
¢ 3650-59. (10 lines) cf Ur-
faust 18 a.
22.
(4 lines).
d@ 3660-3775 (116 lines).
- Dom, 1311-71
(61 lines).
. Dom, 2080-2137 (58 lines).
Note 1.—After 2094 line
omitted= Urfaust 1326.
Note 2.—2124-27=5 lines
in Urfaust = 1356-60.
Note 3.—2131-35=6 lines
in Urfaust = 1364-69.
23. Dom, 3776-3834 (59 lines).
Note 1.— Line 3789 added
after 1323 of Urfaust.
Note 2.—After 3791 a line
omitted=Urfaust 1326.
Note 3.—Lines 3821-24=5
lines in Urfaust, 1356-60.
Note 4.—Lines 3828-32=6
lines in Urfaust, 1364-69.
138 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.
URFAUST, 1773-1775?
FRAGMENT, 1790.
ParRT I., 1808.
[VioOxr...Valiis
17. Nacht — Vor Gret-
chens Haus, 1372-
97 (26 lines) cf
Part ele 2h. Dropped.
18. Faust and Mephisto-
pheles (vor Gret-
chens Haus).
@ 1398-1407 (1to lines) Dropped.
Gp leawtell, Aaa
6 1408-1435 (28 lines) Seeuus 2:
Ga art leaneae.
19. Faust and Mephisto-
pheles. Dropped.
Prose.
20. Nacht, 1436-1441. Dropped.
21. Kerker.
Prose. Dropped.
See 22 a.
See 22 ¢.
See 17 0
24. Walpurgisnacht, 3835-4222.
. Walpurgisnachtstraum,
4223-4398.
. Triber Tag.
Prose.
. Nacht, 4399-4404
. Kerker, 4405-4612.
Verse.
Other Changes ?
1900-1. ] PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 139
PHYSICAL. GEOLOGY OF CENTRAE ONTEARIO*
By ALFRED W. G. WILSON.
(Read 20th April, rgot.)
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
LOCATION.
Historical References, and Sources of Information.
Résumé.
TOPOGRAPHY OF THE PRE-SEDIMENTARY FLOOR.
Diverse Character of the Crystallines.
Even-topped Character of the Uplands.
Dissection.
Gradients.
Three Problems Stated.
First PROBLEM.—THE PRE-SEDIMENTARY TOPOGRAPHY.
Inliers.
Outliers.
Conclusions.
Examples Elsewhere.
SECOND PROBLEM.—DATE OF EROSION.
THIRD PROBLEM.—CONDITIONS OF EROSION.
SUMMARY.
THE PALZZOZOIC SERIES.
A Question of Correlation.
SANDSTONES.
ARKOSE.
BLACK RIVER AND LATER FORMATIONS.
SUMMARY OF THE PALOZzOIC HISTORY.
POST-CARBONIFEROUS HISTORY.
MEsozoic, CAINOZOIC, AND EARLY PLEISTOCENE EPOCHS.
Measure of Erosive Work.
* This paper was written as a thesis for the Doctorate of Philosophy at Harvard University, and was
presented in May, r1gor.
140 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.. VII.
PRESENT FEATURES.—General Description.
Pleistocene Deposits.
Eastern Rock-Valleys.
Jointed and Fissured Uplands.
Gorges and Valleys of the Niagara Cuesta.
Islands and Outliers.
Depth of Excavation.
Lowland Rock-Surface.
Summary.
PLEISTOCENE History.—A Summary.
RECENT History.—A Summary.
LITERATURE.
INTRODUCTION.
LocATION.—That portion of the Province of Ontario designated
CENTRAL ONTARIO is a triangular area with its base on Lake Ontario
to the south ; the western arm is formed by the Niagara escarpment in
its extension from Hamilton to Collingwood ; the northern boundary:
follows the edge of the crystalline rocks from Georgian Bay to a point
on the St. Lawrence river a short distance east of Kingston.
Fitstorical References and Sources of Information.—Previous to the
institution of the Geological Survey of Canada, in 1843, there had been
no systematic studies of the geology of Upper Canada, now the
Province of Ontario. Before that date much even of the then unsettled
parts of the Province had been surveyed into townships, and more or
less accurate maps prepared. Admiral Bayfield’s surveys of the Great
Lakes were the most important work upon the shore-lines of the
Province. The present available maps, though in part corrected by
more recent work, are based largely upon these early surveys. Dr. J. J.
Bigsby had published (1829) a few papers in which reference is made
to certain features of the area under discussion. After the institution of
the Survey, the most important work is that of Alexander Murray.
Between 1843 and 1856 Murray had explored and mapped a large
portion of the present Province. His work in 1843 in the western
portion of this area, and in 1852 in the eastern portion, forms the basis
of our present knowledge of its geology. The first systematic account,
in which all of Murray’s work is summarized, was published by Sir
William Logan in 1863. This volume, entitled “The Geology of
1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 141
Canada,” is still the standard work of reference for the geology of
“Old” Ontario. Since 1863 there has been little work in the area under
the auspices of the Survey, except some work in 1886, the results of
which have not yet been made public. Both previous and subsequent
to Logan’s summary there have been many shorter papers published
upon various topics. Some of these will be noted in the text.
In the preparation of the present paper the writer has made use of
many sources of information, and due acknowledgment will be made
in the appropriate places. During the last few summers, as opportunity
offered, the greater number of localities referred to in the context have
been visited, and use has been made of the writer’s own observations in
the field.
The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Mr. J. M.
Clarke, of Albany, for the identification of a number of fossils ; and to
Professor W. M. Davis, of Harvard University, for advice and criticism
while this paper was in preparation.
Résumé—The area comprises, in all, about 6,500 square miles of
territory. Within its limits are found rocks ranging in age from the
Archean to the Niagara. These are overlaid by a great complex of
deposits dating from the Pleistocene epoch. Everywhere along the
northern boundary the various members of the crystalline series are
found passing beneath the Cambro-Silurian sediments ; in some locali-
ties outliers of the sediments are found upon the crystallines ; again,
inliers of the latter are found wholly or partially surrounded by the
former. At one time the sediments extended much farther towards the
north; their removal has revealed ridges, valleys, and residual monad-
nocks, the sub-mature topography of a well-dissected plain of denuda-
tion, a plain long antedating the Cambrian.
The basal members of the sedimentary series are destitute of fossils,
and consist of more or less coarse detritus ; above them thick deposits
of fossiliferous limestone were’ formed, and in many localities this
limestone rests directly upon the crystallines. These limestones are in
turn overlain by bituminous shales.
A second cycle of slow depression, much greater than the former,
resulted in the formation of a similar series of deposits, the upper
members of which lie beyond the area under consideration.
In the long interval from the close of the last period of deposition
within the area until the beginning of the Pleistocene epoch, during
142 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
which the northern portion of this continent is supposed to have, at
different times, stood at different but undetermined elevations above the
then sea-level, the rocks of this area were exposed to the atmospheric
agencies of disintegration and degradation. The result was the develop-
ment of a topographic system whose remnants, though partly obscured
by the deposits of the Pleistocene epoch, are still recognizable.
Extensive climatic changes, by some supposed to be the product of,
or accompanied by, elevation of this and adjacent portions of North
America, interrupted these processes of dissection ; ice, in the form of
sheet-glaciers, modified the topography produced in previous epochs, and
introduced large amounts of material from the adjacent crystalline area.
During the close of the epoch, the time of melting of the glacier, the
clay, sand, gravel and boulders which it carried were deposited. The
waters collected in great lakes in front of the retreating ice. Around
their shores deltas were built, beaches formed, and benches cut; anda
new system of drainage lines was instituted.
Again, however, changes in relative elevations of different parts, and
the withdrawal of the ice, led to the partial dismemberment of the
drainage systems, to the definition of the present lake basins, and to the
development of new lines of drainage, which are essentially the same
to-day, though these and the lake levels are being slowly modified by
secular changes of elevation.
TOPOGKAPHY OP THE PRE-SEDIMENTARY: FLOOK
Diverse Character of the Crystallines—The crystalline series along
the northern boundary of the area comprise rocks in greatest variety,
crystalline limestones, micaceous and hornblendic schists, and gneiss,
the latter very abundant. Associated with these are plutonic and
volcanic rocks, acid, basic, and of intermediate varieties. The whole
region has been one of complicated folding and intense metamorphism.
The schistose structure of the rocks, throughout the area, is nearly
vertical, and has a northeast southwest trend, with local variations
from this general direction.
This great variety of rocks would necessarily offer different resisting
powers to erosive agencies, and give rise to very diverse topography.
In travelling through the region on foot one is continually ascending or
descending. Even then he cannot fail to note the many small tarns,
muskegs, and beaver-meadows found so frequently upon the upland
areas.
. £900-T. ] PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 143
Even-topped Character of the Uplands.—Al\most anywhere in the
region the ascent of a height, from which a good view can be obtained,
will disclose a remarkably even sky-line, indicative of the even character
of the upland surface, with occasional greater elevations standing out in
relief. One of the best localities to see this is from the crest of the
divide between Deer bay and Stony lake, almost the middle point of
the northern boundary of the area. The waters of Deer bay lie 120
feet below ; to the north-east is ‘the small Lovesick lake; to the east,
three miles away, is the basin of Stony lake, the water-level being
thirty feet below that of Deer bay. The sky-line of the upland upon the
opposite side of these basins is remarkably even. Almost directly east,
twelve miles in an air line, are the Blue Mountains at the other end of
Stony lake, rising above the general level. These ridges, locally called
mountains, are syenitic masses which stand out nearly 200 feet above
the rolling surface of the surrounding district.
A most striking view over the upland is that obtained from the
summit of the cliff near the narrows of Haliburton lake, in the town-
ship of Harburn, forty-five miles north of Stony lake. Here the
observer will be standing about 175 feet above the lake, and over 1,000
feet above Lake Ontario, this being one of the highest points in Central
Ontario. The waters of Haliburton lake flow southerly. Within a
radius of ten miles are a number of small lakes and streams whose
waters flow to the west, north or east, eventually reaching the Georgian
Bay or the Ottawa river.
Looking towards the east, south or west, the even upland plain
appears to have a slight inclination to the south. Towards the north
the direction of inclination is not so evident. Over the upland there are
sometimes large, nearly flat areas of muskeg, a feature in which it is
comparable to the uplands of Norway.
Dissection.—Though still in an early stage of the cycle, the region
as a whole is much dissected. Minor ridges and valleys trending
prevailingly northeast and southwest are the dominant topographic
features of the upland areas ; deep, steep-sided valleys, due apparently
to later dissection, interrupt the continuity of the upland surface ;
slopes, frequently of almost bare rock, are common, and steep cliffs not
infrequent. At the borders of the sedimentary series the difference in
level between the general upland surface and the bottoms of the larger
valleys would average about 150 feet; further north, in areas which
have perhaps been much longer denuded, this difference is much greater.
All the deeper valleys are now lake basins; many of the larger basins
144 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
in the vicinity of Haliburton are deep, so that the depth of the valley
bottoms below the level of the upland plain is frequently as much as
400 feet. The less-deep lateral valleys seem frequently to be graded
with respect to the lake surfaces. In some localities, in small areas
upon the upland, the topography is rolling, with only occasional low
ridges and shallow valleys, except close to the present lake depressions.
Gradients—The general even character of the skyline throughout
the crystalline area justifies a comparison of the arithmetic gradients of
the surface upon which the sediments rest, as ascertained by the
differences between the elevations of a number of localities within the
area. Data to institute a comparison along a series of parallel lines,
outside of the sedimentary area, are not available. Radially from the
upland surface in the vicinity of Haliburton lake to a number of points
along the base of the Cambro-Silurian escarpment, between Georgian
Bay and Kingston, the average gradient is nearly nine feet per mile.
Figure 1.—AB represents the plain beneath the sedimentary cover ; BC, the plain north of the edge of
the cover ; DB, the plain over the surface of the sediments; a, the escarpment, 6 and ¢, outliers. Vertical
exaggeration about forty times.
At Toronto the crystallines are known to be about 1,100 feet beneath
the present surface. Two other borings, one at Cobourg, and the other
in the township of South Fredericksburg, indicate that the floor is over
500 and over 600 feet, respectively, below the surface at these localities.
The average gradient beneath the sedimentary cover along a series of
lines from the foot of the Cambro-Silurian escarpment to the bottoms of
these borings indicates that the gradient beneath the cover varies from
twenty-two feet per mile in the western portion of the district to over
forty-one feet per mile at the eastern end. The relative attitudes of
these two surfaces are represented in figure 1, where AB represents
the edge of a cross section of the plain beneath, and BC the edge of
a cross section of that outside the sedimentary area.
Upon the surface of the sediments toward the eastern part of the
area, the gradient appears to lie between that beneath and that without
the cover (fisure: 1, DB). - Im) the vicinity, of Toronto it, in part,
approximately coincides with that upon the surface of the crystallines
1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 145
to the north. The surface is too irregular to justify any general
comparison. In the area studied, that portion lying east of a line
running a little to the east of north from the west side of Balsam lake
is inclined towards the southeast. West of this line the inclination is
towards the west.
The meagre data available thus indicate that beneath the sediment-
ary cover towards the western end of the area the average gradient is
more than double that of the uncovered portions, while at the eastern
end it is about four times as great. Near the western end, the gradient
from the summit over the crystallines to the Black River escarpment,
and over the surface of the Palaeozoic strata, is nearly the same. This
gradient is less than half the average gradient of the northern side of
the basin of Lake Ontario (23.7 feet).
The relative positions of the three plains suggest certain problems
which may be summarized thus :—
1. Do these three plains represent three distinct periods of
planation ?
2. Are AB and BC of the same age, but now discordant by warping ?
3. Did the plain AB formerly extend upward in the direction BF ;
is BC of the same age as DB, or is it younger ?
4. Is the discordance between AB or DB and BC produced by
warping ?
The accordance of the plains DB and BC towards the western end
of the area is suggestive of warping elsewhere. Data of a detailed
character as to the gradient upon the uncovered crystalline areas and
upon the sedimentary outliers of the plain AB between the point
represented by B and the front of the escarpment @ have not been
obtained. Without them the evidence available is inadequate to solve
the problems.
It should be added that the relative arrangement of the three plains,
represented as meeting in a broad angle at B, is purely fortuitous. The
data in hand are not enough to determine whether AB and BC represent
two intersecting plains, or portions of a continuous arc, and whether all
three have a common point of intersection.
Similar relations between two plains of denudation upon crystalline
rocks, meeting at low angles, have been found by Van Hise in Wiscon-
sin (96), and by Smyth in the region south of Lake Superior (’99).
10
146 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII
Darton has described a somewhat similar case in Virginia (’94, 582).
In the Grand Cafion of the Colorado we have an actual transverse sec-
tion of two such intersecting plains, both older than the Cambrian, but
meeting at a much higher angle.
THREE PROBLEMS STATED.—Among the many problems which
present themselves for consideration, three, which have reference to the
character of the sedimentary floor, seem worthy of special attention :—
1. Have we here an ancient sub-maturely dissected plain of denuda-
tion, a kind of geographical fossil, or is this topography the result of
post-sedimentary causes ?
2. In either event is there any possibility of approximately dating
its origin ?
3. Is the plain wholly the product of sub-aerial processes, or have
we here a plain of submarine abrasion, and subsequent dissection ?
FIRST PROBLEM, PRE-SEDIMENTARY ‘TOPOGRAPHY.—Turning
now to a consideration of the first of these problems, it will be necessary
to describe, with some detail, a number of special localities which seem
to afford evidence for its solution.
Inliers—In the township of Verulam, about midway between
Sturgeon Point and Bobcaygeon at the foot of Sturgeon lake, conspicu-
ous among the hills just north of the lake, is a ridge of aplitic granite
known locally as Red Mountain. The exposed base is about sixty feet
and the crest one hundred and ninety feet above the level of Sturgeon
lake. The ridge itself is about 2,000 feet in length and 600 in breadth ;
the longer axis strikes N 23°E. The crest is rounded, but falls off at
the northwest corner very abruptly, at an angle of about 80°; on the east
the inclination, though less, is still too steep for a person to descend in
safety. At the south end the descent on both sides, though steep, is
less precipitous. The crest and sides, especially towards the north, are
free from boulders ; but the southern end, where the crest is lower, is
strewn with large and small sharply angular fragments derived from the
ridge itself, together with some large blocks of limestone. Forming a
belt one hundred yards in width is marshy ground, beyond which are
lower ridges of morainic material. Half a mile to the west of this ridge,
occurs a second much smaller granitic ridge trending in the same
direction. The deposits of drift seem to obscure any limestone deposits
which occur in the immediate vicinity. Four and a half miles to the
west, at Sturgeon Point, thin-bedded fossiliferous Trenton limestones
1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 147
are found dipping north at less than one degree. On the south shore of
the lake other outcrops of limestone occur, with very light southerly dip.
To the north, the edge of the Cambro-Silurian escarpment, looking out
over the main body of the Archean, is found at a distance of about 11.5
miles (as measured on the maps).
Is this the summit of a monadnock, buried when the sediments were
deposited, and since uncovered in the progress of denudation ; or have
there been granitic intrusions since the formation of the stratified
deposits? In this locality positive evidence either way seems to be
lacking.
Further east, just north of Varty lake, and four miles from the edge
of the escarpment, is a small oval dome of pink gneiss. Towards the
north end of the dome four shafts, on a line transverse to the longer axis,
penetrate the overlying limestone and show that the dip is nine degrees
east on one side, and very much less on the other. A short distance away
from the dome the strata have a dip of less than one degree. Near the
southern end, where the gneiss is exposed, the limestone strata, quite
close to the contact (the last few feet are covered with sod) are in an
attitude which indicates that they abut against the gneiss. The higher
strata, which once must have overarched the dome, have been eroded
away. Here then we have beds of limestone strictly conformable with
each other, and parallel to the surface upon which they rest, where seen
in the shafts, arching over a dome of gneiss. So far as could be
ascertained there is no evidence of post-sedimentary elevation.
In the valley of Mill creek, a small stream, the outlet of Sydenham
lake, about five miles from the main area of the archean, is a small ridge
of gray micaceous gneiss. The valley of the creek is about one mile in
width, and flat floored ; the nearest of the two bounding escarpments is
400 yards away, and the crest is 105 feet above the valley floor. The
small crystalline ridge has evidently been exposed by the agency which
carved the deep broad valley. Similar exposures of gneiss are found in
the depressions occupied by many of the lakes of the Trent river system,
on the Moira river, and elsewhere in like situations.
Still further east, at Kingston Mills, just west of the bridge across
the gorge of the Great Cataraqui creek, there is a railway cut transverse
to a granite ridge. The west end of this cutting passes through a small
mass of calcareous quartz conglomerate, lying in a hollow upon the
flank of the granite. The contact between granite and conglomerate
shows in cross section on both sides of the cutting. There are, in all,
148 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
about twelve feet of strata, dipping lightly to the west. The contact
plane between these strata and the granite has, for the upper two-thirds
of its length, a dip of about thirty-five degrees to the west. Towards
the base this dip flattens out, and just where the line of contact passes
beneath the material of the railway bed, the bedding of the sediments
and the surface of the granite seem to be parallel (figure 2).
In this calcareous conglomerate are found fragments of crinoid
stems and the casts of a Cameroceras. Several specimens of the latter,
composed of white crystalline calcite, were taken from one of the lower
beds at a point six inches from the granite. Other specimens more
than five feet distant from the granite are identical in appearance with
FiGuRE 2.—Diagram to show the relative positions of the calcareous quartz conglomerate and the
granite at Kingston Mills railway cut. Horizontal and vertical scales equal.
those obtained close to it. Neither rock has undergone any changes
such as might be expected were the granite a _ post-sedimentary
intrusion.
On the southwest flank of the same hill, at a slightly higher
elevation, is a small exposure of a compact, fine-grained, gray lime-
stone, with a conchoidal fracture, and in close proximity to the granite,
which can be followed around it. A quarter of a mile west the lime-
stone beds in the valley are fifteen feet in thickness.
Three and two-thirds miles almost directly south of this, at Fort
Hill, on Barriefield common, midway between the Gananoque road and
the river shore, occurs an ovoid quaquaversal dome with a gneissic
core. The direction of the main axis of the dome is about northeast.
The strike of the gneissic structure is about east and west, while the dip
is almost vertical. The limestone forms a low infacing ridge, in places
broken down. The maximum dip, sixteen degrees, occurs on the
southwest side of the dome, but rapidly becomes less as one recedes
1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 149
from the central core. On the northeast side the dip is five and a-half
degrees to the south of east, but away from the core, this also diminishes.
The limestone is compact, fine-grained, and fossiliferous. In texture it
much resembles that found upon the higher exposures on the southwest
flank of the granite ridge at Kingston Mills. (figure 3.)
FIGURE 3.—Transverse section of the quaquaversal dome at Fort Hill, Kingston. Horizontal and verti"
cal scales equal.
One-third of a mile east of the dome, the nearly horizontal lime-
stones form an easterly-facing escarpment, talus covered, facing a large
area of crystallines, partly gneiss, but mainly a dark red granite. The
valley between is about one hundred yards in width, but towards the
northeast the depth and width diminish, and the limestones, still almost
horizontal, outcrop near the granite (figure 4). This granite is itself a
Figure 4.—Diagram to show the apparent relative positions of the limestone’and crystallines east of
Fort Hill. Horizontal and vertical scales equal.
large inlier from the western side of the arm of the crystalline series
which connects the Canadian archean with that in New York. East
and north, through the township of Pittsburg, there are many ridges
of gneiss with a general northeast trend, thes trikes being sympathetic
with the direction of the ridges, and the dips nearly vertical, or when
inclined, the inclination is generally the same on both sides of the
ridge in question. Between some of the ridges long tongues of
horizontai strata extend northeastward, frequently, though not always,
with an escarpment facing the gneiss. In no place does the limestone
show a dip sympathetic to the inclination of the ridge adjacent,
though there are cases where the relative positions of the two are such
that the dip ought to be nearly thirty degrees, if the gneissic ridge were
elevated after the deposition of the sediments.
With reference to these ridges of gneiss, and to the unroofed dome
at Fort Hill, Dr. Drummond writes: “ The Laurentian strata have been
here elevated into these great ridges at a period subsequent to the
150 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VIE
Black River times” (’92, 110). So far as indicated in the context,
the only evidence upon which this deduction is founded, is the occur-
ence of the limestone strata “at a high angle,” dipping outward from
the central dome of gneiss. The evidence, as stated, seems inadequate
to admit of the broad conclusion reached.
If the ridges were elevated subsequently to the deposition of the
strata, z.e., were ridges of deformation, certain necessary results would
follow. Over large areas the gneissic structure is frequently parallel.
If, in such an area, a ridge is formed by elevation without faulting, in a
region where the dips are not ex-
actly vertical, the inclination on
the side of the new ridge towards
which the structure hades would
be steepened, and
that on the
side opposite lessened. A traverse
across the ridge in the direction
of hade would show a decrease to
Figure 5.—If AB represent the position of the
surface of the gneiss before upheaval, and ACDB
the position of the surface of the dome after up-
heaval, then that portion that moves upward at a
will have a less distance to rise than that at 0,
Therefore the dips between @ and 4 will be steepened.
Similarly, on the opposite side the dips will be
a minimum where the grade was
lessened. Beneath the crest the uplift will be uni-
form, and hence there will be no alteration of dip.
Where the grade of the new ridge is steepest the
change from the original dip will be greatest.
greatest, followed by an increase
through the normal at the crest,
to a maximum where the grade
was at a maximum upon the op- .
posite side, and then decrease to the normal (figure 5). In a series of
such ridges this dzverszty of dip would occur unzformly across the ridges.
Secondly, strata adjacent to a// the ridges would be inclined in
sympathy with the elevation, the greatest inclination being nearest the
steepest and highest ridges; where the inclination of the ridge is very
steep the strata would be affected for a longer distance away from the
centre of elevation, or if the uplift did not affect the strata at any great
distance, faulting and slipping would occur.
If the uplift took place gradually, or rapidly, during the period of
deposition of the strata, the wuzform diversity of dip in the structure of
The strata would tend to thin
If the uplift
were very great some of the beds might even end in wedges against the
sides of the ridge. The other necessary results would be as in the
former case, though faulting and slipping are less likely to occur, owing
to the softness of the beds. In the sections as usually exposed it would
be very difficult to distinguish between intersedimentary and _post-
the ridges would be as in the first case.
‘out over the crest, if the material were somewhat coarse.
sedimentary uplift.
1900-1. ] PHysICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 151
Had the ridges existed prior to the deposition of the sediments,
having been the product of erosion, the structure of ridge and valley
would frequently have the same dip; in cases where the dips varied the
diversity would not be systematic. The position assumed by the
sediments would depend upon three factors, two of which are, in
practice, determinable by observation, the third by inference only. The
steepness of the grade of the ridge would necessarily be an important
factor. Where the grade was light the sediments would be deposited
evenly over the inclined floor. As the inclination of the floor increased
the tendency would be for the beds to wedge out and finally to abut
against, rather than to rest upon the incline. The fineness or coarseness
of material and the degree of agitation of the water would be important
varying factors. Where the waters were quiet, and the sediments
coarse, the deposition could take place upon slopes down which the
materials would readily move if the waters were agitated. If the
sediments were fine, the slopes upon which they could rest would be
much steeper. The angle of repose for the sediments will then vary as
each factor varies, and hence numerous variations are possible and
many of these are also probable.
The deduction leads to inquiry as to what is the maximum angle of
repose at which, under what may be called normal conditions of
deposition, strata of different compositions may be deposited, for
obviously this must be known before we can determine, from the dip
alone, whether strata were deposited in an inclined position. The
number of variants is too great to permit of a complete reply to the
question; it seems advisable rather to apply the criteria already
deduced to the facts under consideration, and indirectly to obtain a
partial answer to the last problem.
In the areas where the gneiss is not obscured by a cover in the
bottoms of the valleys, we frequently find the dips the same over large
areas of ridge and valley ; sometimes there is diversity, in the valley it
may be vertical while in the ridge it is inclined, or vice versa, but
uniform diversity is not found. This wszform continuzty and lack of
uniform aiversity, particularly in areas where the structures are inclined
away from the vertical, would alone indicate that these are not ridges of
deformation, but on the contrary, would lead us to infer that they are
the result of erosion.
Attention has already been called to the lack of sympathetic dip in
limestones adjacent to steep gneissic ridges. At Kingston Mills cut the
upper part of the granite face was too steep for the coarse sedimentary
152 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII
deposits to rest upon it under the then existing conditions. Conse-
quently they moved down, as deposited, to a position of stable
equilibrium, producing in the slipping, the slight upward drag seen in
the beds just at the contact. At the ridge near Varty lake, and at that
one now fronting the escarpment east of Fort Hill, similar conditions
probably prevailed. The steep face of the ridge in the latter case has a
slope of about thirty-five degrees, in some places it is even steeper, yet
the limestones show no sympathetic dip, (figure 4). At Fort Hill,
where the grade indicated by the strata is zow sixteen degrees, the
water would probably be somewhat deeper, and the calcareous sediments
were very fine grained. The inclined position of the much coarser
sediments at Kingston Mills, and the state of preservation of the fossils
in these coarse sediments, indicate that the water was moderately quiet
so there seems no adequate reason why the finer material should not
have been deposited in its present inclined position at Barriefield com-
mon, (figure 6). With reference to the other criteria, thinning out of
Figure 6.—An ideal section to show the probable conditions at Fort Hill betore degradation and denuda-
tion. The dotted lines show the bottom and top of figure 3.
beds, faulting and slipping, so far as known the two latter are absent,
and the first can only be applied rarely.
The balance of evidence thus seems to indicate that the ridges are
of pre-sedimentary origin, and that the sedimentary strata were
deposited essentially in the positions in which we find them to-day. It
is interesting to note that at the base of the cliff on Deer bay, in the
distance of a little over a mile, there is a continuous transverse section of
no less than five light anticlinal domes in strata which are only removed
a few feet from the gneiss, here below the water level. The arch dies out
in about the first twenty feet of strata. Above that, so far as the eye can
judge, they are nearly horizontal.
Logan (68, 98), refers to strata near Millburn (then, Daly’s Mills)
having comparatively high angles of dip near the junction with the
1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO, 153
Laurentian, where they seem “almost always to be slightly accommo-
dated to the worn surface.” Laflamme (’84, 15; '86, 43) has noted
similar features in the Lake St. John region; and Adams ('938, 338)
has drawn attention to the fact that the roche moutonnée character of the
Laurentian rocks was impressed upon them in pre-Cambrian times.*
Outlers—Similar evidence as to the character of the pre-
sedimentary surface is offered in the vicinity of the numerous outliers
upon the crystallines.
Conclustons.—\n Central Ontario, from the evidence afforded by the
inliers of Archean within the area of Palzozoics, and of the outliers of
Paleozoic strata upon the Archean, it seems that the sediments were
laid down upon an uneven floor essentially the same as that presented
at the present day by the Laurentian areas along the borders of the
Cambro-Silurian escarpment.
Examples elsewhere—These buried oldland surfaces are found in
many other localities. Sometimes the eroded surface is almost a plane,
as seen in the Grand Canon section of the plain upon which the lower
Paleozoic deposits rest. Again the surface may have had irregularities
many hundred feet in height, as shown by the Baraboo ridge in
Wisconsin, or as seen in an area in the Scottish Highlands, described
byGreilkien s(oce Newberry, Oo. 57; living; (72,.60, and 77. 427;
Dutton, '82, 209; Geikie, 88, 400; Bell, ‘94, 362; Keyes, '95, 58;
Van Hise, ’96, 59).
SECOND. PROBLEM, DATE OF EROSION.—The second and third
problems for consideration have reference to the time and conditions of .
erosion by which this pre-sedimentary topography was produced.
From the writings of the earlier geologists the prevailing view seems
to have been, that the Paleozoic sediments were laid down upon a
rising sea bottom, and that the Archean areas in Canada represent the
first emerged land. The more recent view is that the sediments were
accumulated on a sinking land surface.
In this area, the granites, gneisses, and schists date from Archean
time. The evidences of a vast amount of denudation afforded by the
truncating surfaces, and the absence of lower and middle Cambrian
sediments from every portion of the area, make it improbable that
during the deposition of these sediments elsewhere the land here was
below sea level. The consensus of opinion, based upon the study of
* See also Lawson, 1890.
154 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
the conditions of the pre-Cambrian floor, and upon the distribution of
the Cambrian sediments over North America, is that during the interval
of the deposition of early Cambrian sediments there was a great interior
continent, of which Central Ontario would form a part.
Walcott (91, 567) thus sums up the conclusions from his studies on
“North America during Cambrian time” :—1. “The pre-Cambrian
Algonkian continent was formed of the crystalline rocks of the Archean
nuclei, and broad areas of superjacent Algonkian rocks that were more
or less disturbed and extensively eroded in pre-Cambian time. Its area
was larger than at any succeeding epoch until Mesozoic time.”
4. “ The interior continental area was, at the beginning of Cambrian
time, an elevated, broad, relatively level plateau between the Paleo-
Appalachian sea on the east, and the Paleo-Rocky Mountain barrier on
the west.”
7. “The Cambrian Sea began to invade the great Interior Contin-
ental area in late Middle Cambrian time, and extended far to the north
toward the close of the period.”
8. “The depression of the continent in relation to sea level began in
pre-Cambrian time and continued with a few interruptions until the close
of Paleozoic time.”
Many conclusions with reference to events which occurred so long
ago must necessarily be somewhat uncertain. With our present know-
ledge of the evidences, it seems that during Archean and early Cambrian
times this area formed part of a continental area. The processes by
which the even-topped upland was produced operated so long ago that
it is impossible to determine their precise nature. The character of the
subsequent dissection appears to indicate that the present topographic
features of the uplands were, in the main, the product of subaerial
erosion during a pre-Potsdam period of elevation.
The balance of evidence thus leads to the conclusion that the present
surface features of the crystalline area, at least along the borders of the
Paleozoic sediments, are essentially the same as they were in pre-
sedimentary times. The problem now arises as to the process by which
the degradation and the denudation produced the even-topped upland
and the varying features of the present topography.
It would be well to note with reference to the term even-topped, that
a personal equation must be considered. The expression is used here
1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 155
to describe the sky-line of the upland plain, where for long distances, so
far as the eye can judge, it appears with no marked irregularity. In
many parts of the area the surfaces of large lakes offer horizontal lines
for comparison. Occasional irregularities occur, and these frequently
make abrupt changes in the otherwise even line. Upland plain has
been used to indicate that imaginary surface whose elevations accord
with the elevations of the even sky-lines, as seen in many parts of the
area. Upland indicates portions of the present land surface whose
elevation accords closely with the upland plain, and whose surface
presents only minor irregularities, as compared with the greater irregu-
larities of the surface of the region as a whole (figure 7). The present
FicureE 7.—Diagram to illustrate the definitions of terms.
topography is such that although the slopes are frequently graded, there
are few areas to which the corresponding term lowland should be
applied. The change in gradient from the valley side to the upland is
frequently so marked as to justify the use of the term shoulder to
describe the place where the change occurs.
THIRD PROBLEM, CONDITIONS OF EROSION.—Two hypotheses
have been offered to account for the origin of topography of this nature.
The one would consider it as the product of a single cycle, the other as
the product of two or more (n+1) cycles. The first, the “ bevelling”
hypothesis, would consider the present features as those of an ancient
mountain system reduced to maturity and possibly re-elevated and
made more rugged. The second would consider that the even uplands
(produced during a long interval of time, at a period when the land
stood relatively near base level) are remnants of the upland plain, and
that the present valleys and lowlands were due to an increased activity
of the agencies of degradation and denudation because of subsequent
elevation.
If the area is part of an old mountain system reduced to its present
form by bevelling, the present elevations must have once been higher
and more rugged than they now are (figure 8, ABCDEF). In the
process of degradation the ruggedness would be reduced and the slopes
become graded by the removal of waste from the mountain sides and
its transportation to the valleys, where it would either remain or be
159 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
removed according to circumstances. Eventually, there would be a
uniformly graded slope from stream bed to mountain top (AGCDHF).
After the production of this slope the process will continue, but more
slowly, with the gradual reduction of the crest, and corresponding
Ficure 8,
decrease in grade, approaching but never reaching complete horizon-
tality. Of necessity there will always be one point, or a series of points
in line, higher than all the rest. From here the gradient would be
downwards in all directions. In the late mature stages, when there is
some approach to a nearly smooth surface over the whole mountain,
there will be no abrupt change in slope.
Such an explanation of the process of degradation makes no pro-
vision for the occurrence of areas of greater or less extent with almost
identical elevation, (A’ IC, DK); nor for the abrupt changes in gradient
such as occur at the shoulders before mentioned (A’, C, D.) Hence, in
the writer’s conception of the process, it seems inadequate to explain
significant facts of the present case.
The two-cycle (n+1 cycle) hypothesis would explain these peculiar-
ities by postulating a previous cycle (or cycles) of erosion in which the
land was cut down to a surface of very faint relief and subsequently
elevated and dissected, the new valleys not having yet extended their
graded slopes far enough to completely obliterate the plain of the
former cycle. The shoulders were produced where the change in
gradient from the present valley side to the older plain occurs.
In almost every locality where the Cambro-Silurian sediments are
seen in contact with the crystallines, the surface is seemingly quite
fresh. Except in one known locality, where a distinct arkose of angular
material is found, the old soil cover seems to be completely gone. The
process by which this cover was removed and the surface of the Archean
freshened, is at present undetermined.
SUMMARY.—The present topography of the pre-sedimentary floor
may be regarded as the product of a degradation which produced a
1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 157
planation surface, and the residual monadnocks, as indicated by the
even-topped upland. This surface was uplifted to permit of the
renewed activities that carved and denuded the ungraded, or partly-
graded slopes of sub-maturity, now presented wherever it has been freed
from the Paleozoic cover. This latter dissection and denudation ante-
dates the sediments, within this area, commonly called Potsdam, and
may well] have taken place in early and middle Cambrian times.
The ancient pre-sedimentary surface may be conveniently described
as a sub-maturely dissected and denuded peneplain dating from before
early Cambrian times.
SHE PALAOZOIC: SERIES:
A Question of Correlation.—\n tracing the geological history of this
area, by means of the nature and relations of the different deposits
found adjacent to and within its boundaries, there is a question that
must not be disregarded, as to the correlation of partly eroded stratified
deposits, at a low angle of dip, around the margin of an oldland area.
In the formation of a series of deposits upon a slowly sinking land
surface, the normal distribution of material is the formation of sand and
pebble beds at the shore line, grading gradually into clays and muds,
and thence into calcareous deposits (figure 9). Any given stratum
must have three synchronous members, each merging gradually into the
FiGuRE 9.—Diagram to represent the normal distribution of sediments. A, oldland; B, sandstone and
conglomerate zone ; C, shale zone; D, limestone zone. Transition zones are indicated by lines.
adjacent member. The beds composed of strata which have been
deposited successively must also each consist of these three members.
During the time of the formation of any given bed the forms of life
existing at that time will be distributed over the surface of that bed,
each in its appropriate locality. The sand-loving forms will be near the
shore, the mud-loving forms in the areas which afterwards become
converted into shale, and the forms which thrive best in deep clear
water will be found further seaward. At the transition zones where
158 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
there is a merging of conditions there will be a merging of forms.
Accidents may happen by which the normal distribution is slightly
disturbed ; and some few forms may exist in all three zones.
Since the production of the deposits, their thickness, and their other
relations depend upon the two factors, rate of depression and rate of
supply of detritus, with varying conditions as to depth of water, there
are many possible variations from the normal arrangement. The result
of one such variation is represented diagramitically in figure 10, where
the rate of supply of detritus has been sufficiently in excess of the rate
HSU humno
FicurE 10,—Diagram to represent a special variation in the distribution of sediments. A, oldland ;
B, sandstone and conglomerate zone; C, shale zone; D, limestone zone. Transition zones are indicated by
lines. dc, sub-aerial deposits.
of depression of the land, to permit of the transgression of the sands
over the seaward zones. If a rapid variation had taken place in the
opposite direction, the muds and sands might become mingled along the
shore, and eventually the limestones might rest directly upon the
oldland surface. Irregularities in the variations of each factor will lead
to many irregularities and overlaps along the zones of transition.
By subsequent processes, after a greater or less interval of time,
these deposits will become indurated and form sandstones and conglom-
erates, shales, and limestones. If, after uplift, the greater part of the
sediments are eroded away, and small remnants, perhaps as outliers,
remain in protected areas, we may find limestone in one place which is
contemporaneous with sandstone in another, though the fossils in each
are wholly unlike. Moreover, deposits, of entirely different epochs, may
be almost identical because derived from the same source.
SANDSTONES.—In Central Ontario, particularly towards the eastern
end, where the sediments occur in ellipsoidal basins, and with a very
slight and irregular dip, the sandstones and some of the other beds
entirely without fossils, there is a strong a priori argument for consider-
ing that the saxdstones and some of the limestones are contemporaneous.
The oldest sediments, within the area, which can be identified by fossils,
are the Black River limestones. Conformably below these are beds,
1900-1. ] PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 159
which in some cases carry fossils that are supposed to mark a transition
vertically from the Chazy at least, but which equally well may mark a
transition horizontally. Chiefly as outliers, but occasionally passing
beneath the non-fossiliferous beds below the identified beds of the Black
River formation, are a series of sandstones usually termed Potsdam.
(The maximum thickness is, locally, sixty feet). As no fossils, except
some very obscure Scolithus borings, have, so far as the writer knows,
ever been found in these beds; and as Potsdam is a term introduced to
describe rocks where certain definite stratigraphic and faunal relations
hold, it is inadvisable to apply the term until these well defined relations
are proven to exist here. Even were fossils found in the sandstone, the
possibility of their being, zz ¢hzs locality, contemporaneous with the
lower limestone beds, would not be diminished.
Much of the sandstone of these deposits, in this area, occurs in
depressions between pre-sedimentary ridges. There are many angular
fragments of gneiss and quartz, both large and small, included in
the sandstone. In many places there are no known beach-worn
pebbles, and no fossils, even in very thick beds; the material has
been well sorted and consists almost wholly of quartz grains; the
beds are frequently very massive and obscurely cross-bedded ; ripple
marks are absent or very obscure in many localities. There thus seems
to be good reason for thinking that much of this sandstone may be
waste which was laid down here, possibly by streams, after the crystal-
line surface had been smoothened and freed from its residual soil, if
such ever existed, but before the advent of the sea, and that the shore-
line of that time is now concealed by the overlying deposits. Subse-
quently, in the rapid depression of the land immediately preceding the
time when the limestones overlapped upon the crystalline area, the
surface of these sands may have been evened off, and perhaps a small
amount of new material was added.
ARKOSE.—There is one known locality in which the non-fossiliferous
sediments beneath the identified Black River limestone are especially
interesting. At the foot of the escarpment on Deer bay, just at water
level,a few well marked beds of arkose are exposed. The beds average
about ten inches each, the whole deposit being an unknown amount
over six feet in thickness. This arkose consists of translucent partly
worn crystals and fragments of quartz and angular fragments of pink
orthoclase feldspar, cemented with a dark reddish-purple feldspathic
and calcareous cement, with occasional patches which resemble the
argillaceous portions of some of the succeeding beds. The rock is
160 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
readily friable and forms a beach of small gravel just at the foot of the
cliff. The constituents of this arkose are distinctly different from those
of the adjacent gneiss. The nearest outcrop of gneiss is one hundred
yards away, and the water between reaches a maximum depth of nine
feet, but, from the conformation of the bottom, the exposed portion of the
deposits must evidently be within a very few feet of the gneiss imme-
diately below it. The deposits may be regarded as a remnant of the
old soil cover of pre-sedimentary times, slightly rearranged.
BLACK RIVER AND LATER FORMATIONS.—Succeeding these
unidentified beds are the Black River limestones, which form a cuesta,
whose northern boundary forms an escarpment extending from
Georgian Bay to Kingston. The Black River beds are succeeded by
the Trenton limestones with a thickness, as calculated from the dips near
the eastern end across Prince Edward county, of over 1,400 feet. These
are overlain by about 100 feet of Utica shales. Above this are nearly
800 feet of Lorraine shales and sandstones, overlaid in turn by 545 feet of
Medina marls and sandstones. The upper bed of the Medina is, in
Central Ontario,a heavy gray sandstone, about twelve feet in thickness,
but occasionally thicker. The beds above this, found in the Niagara
escarpment, consist of Clinton dolomitic limestones and shales, overlaid
by the Niagara limestone. Throughout the region, so far as known,
there is no observed unconformity between the beds of the various
formations.
SUMMARY OF THE PALAOZOIC HISTORY.—The geologic history
of the area, subsequent to the period of denudation and dissection of
the crystallines, was begun by a depression of the land, during which some
small amounts of sand were deposited along and near the shores, with
deposits which formed shales and limestones in the deeper waters.
This depression continued somewhat faster than the rate of supply of
detritus, and finally limestones, which, however, contain siliceous
material, were deposited over the whole area. The waters were “ richly
tenanted by a great variety of forms of invertebrate life, and repre-
senting the culmination of invertebrate animals in the Lower Paleozoic”
(Dawson, ’89, 73). The great thickness of the deposits indicates that
the Trenton epoch was of considerable duration. Towards the close of
the limestone-forming epoch a variation took place, the new material
supplied to this area was in the form of clays and muds. The change
in the character of the deposits was accompanied by a change in the
types of animal life here present. This change, marked by the Utica
shales, was probably caused in part by a decrease in the rate of depres-
1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO, 161
sion of the land. That it did not cease is shown by the thickness of the
deposits.
Throughout the Lorraine epoch the area has been one of large
sandy mud flats, alternately bare, exposed to the sun and rains, and
submerged. The shallow sea appears to have endured for some time,
since these deposits gradually give place to the sandstones of the
Medina epoch. During the Medina there has been an alternation of
the depth of the ocean here, as evidenced by the mingled sandstones
and marls, the former with mud cracks, ripple and current marks. The
final stage of the Medina led to the accumulation of a broad thick band
of fine-grained siliceous sandstone, free from ferric oxide, in marked
contrast to the majority of the lower beds.
The succeeding epoch must have begun with a relatively rapid
depression of the land, since the overlap of the Clinton dolomitic lime-
stone upon the upper sandstone of the Medina is abrupt. The depres-
sion seems to have continued rapidly enough to permit of the overlap
of the succeeding Niagara rocks upon the crystalline areas far to the
north. From the purity of the limestone, and from the types of organic
remains, and their abundance, it is inferred that the waters of this epoch
were clear and warm. The materials from which the limestone is made
were probably drawn from the sea water by the invertebrate animals in
the making of their hard parts.
This second great limestone-making epoch was followed by a
gradual shallowing of the water, during which the Guelph dolomites
were formed. Eventually the water became very shallow ; enclosed
lagoons, occasionally flooded, were numerous ; in these lagoons the salt
and gypsum beds of the Onondaga were formed by the evaporation of
the water and the concentration and precipitation of the saline
compounds in solution.
The sandstones of the succeeding Devonian period are now many
miles distant from the front of the Niagara cuesta. They may at one
time have reached out and overlapped it, but if so, what their north-
eastern extension may have been is unknown. During the period of
their formation the central portion of the Archean area may have been
above water, and the denudation which has subsequently removed all
the Niagara limestone, with a very few small protected areas excepted,
could then have already begun. It is interesting to note that the
peneplain represented by BC (figure 1, page 144) may date its beginning
from this Devonian degradation.
Tl
162 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vor Vi,
The area had thus taken part in three great cycles of deposition
concomitant with three great continental oscillations, or a long continued
single oscillation of varying rate. During two of the cycles great lime-
stone deposits were made within its boundaries. The nearest known
areas of Lower Carboniferous are in Michigan, 140 miles away, and their
composition is such that it is usually inferred that ever since the close
of the Devonian period this area has been above sea level and exposed
to denudation and dissection.
POST-CARBONIFEROUS HISTORY.
MESOZOIC, CAINOZOIC AND EARLY PLEISTOCENE EPOCHS.—There
is little or no direct evidence of the history of the area during Carboni-
ferous and Mesozoic time. The late Mesozoic was a period of extensive
peneplanation throughout most of North America. In Wisconsin and
Michigan to the west, and in New York and Pennsylvania to the south,
the remnants of the planation surface have been recognized. It seems
probable that the same planation processes, working northward from
these areas, and southward from the Arctic region, may have, in part,
produced the younger of the two plains upon the Archean areas in
Canada. It is true, this plain may be of pre-Palzeozoic age. Whether
it is such, and yet younger than that beneath the sediments cannot be
shown until it is proven that the sediments once actually rested upon it,
and not upon a surface now eroded away. This latter would be the
former northward extension upon which they now rest (figure 1, BF
p. 144). The study of the isolated outliers, such as those of the small
areas of limestone in the Lake Nipissing region and elsewhere, may
show that they are preserved because thrown into their present protected
positions by the downthrow of a fault block. If so, the probability of
this plain being of Cretaceous age will be strengthened. By way of
comparison it may be noted that a series of faults dislocated the early
sedimentary rocks of Sweden and Norway. Later planation left only
a few small patches at baselevel, upon the downthrown blocks. Subse-
quent elevation of the whole area, and erosion of these softer remnants
produced a series of depressions, in some of which are still found isolated
patches of the soft rocks. The lower portions of these depressions
frequently form lake basins, the most noted of which are Boren, Roxen,
Glan, and Braviken.
The period of Cretaceous planation was followed by an undetermined
amount of elevation of portions of the continent, probably including this
area. The immediate effect of such an uplift would be the active
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1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 163
renewal of the process of subaerial degradation, and the development
of topographic forms and an adjusted drainage system appropriate to a
region underlain by alternate series of strong and weak rocks at low
angles of dip. During the extensive Pleistocene glaciation the topo-
graphic features, the product of the preceding cycle, may have been
largely modified, destroyed, or otherwise obliterated, and new forms
produced.
Measure of erostve work.—Our measure of the work performed
during these two periods must necessarily be derived from a knowledge
of the present features, and of the conditions existing before the oper-
ation of the erosive agents. The proportion to be assigned to either
period depends upon a knowledge of the relative competence of the
processes of degradation, and of the time during which they were oper-
ating. The amount of work performed by either process, and by both,
will vary with the locality, and with the conditions under which the
process is in operation, eg. geographical position, elevation, position
with reference to baselevel, character of the rocks, relation to the ice
front and to the névé of a glacial lobe. At present the knowledge of
the total effects of both processes, and of the method of operation of
sheet-glacier ice, seem too limited to warrant the assignment of a
definite portion of the work to either, except in local cases.
PRESENT FEATURES.—General Description—The Niagara cuesta
is a prominent topographic feature extending along the south shore of
Lake Ontario from east of Rochester to Hamilton, thence northward
across Ontario to the Manitoulin Islands, thence curving southwestward
to the east of Green Bay and across parts of the States of Wisconsin,
Illinois and Iowa. Lakes Erie, Huron, and Michigan are situated upon
the outer lowland; Lake Ontario, Georgian Bay, and Green Bay lie
upon the lowland in front of the cuesta; Lake Superior lies in a
position outside of both lowland and cuesta.
The cuesta-front forms one boundary of a great inner lowland. The
southwestern loop of this lowland is best developed in the State of
Wisconsin, and may thus be appropriately designated the WISCONSIN
LOWLAND. The eastern part, the ONTARIO LOWLAND, includes the
basins of Lake Ontario and Georgian Bay, as well as the adjacent land
areas. The two parts of the inner lowland are connected by a narrow,
more or less submerged belt, passing across the Manitoulin Islands. It
has been found convenient to refer to the present unsubmerged part of
the Ontario lowland, within the Province of Ontario, as the CENTRAL
ONTARIO LOWLAND. (Map I.)
164 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, {[Voxt. VII.
The northeastward extension of the Ontario lowland merges gradu-
ally with the cuesta formed by the Black River strata. The escarp-
ment-front of the Black River cuesta extends from the vicinity of
Kingston northwestward to Georgian Bay, and thence across the bay,
beneath whose waters it seems to be still traceable, to the Manitoulin
Islands. The unsubmerged portion of the escarpment averages about
ninety feet in height, and locally is occasionally much higher. In the
region west of Lake Simcoe, and in northern parts of Hastings and
Addington counties, it is partly obscured by drift deposits.
The fronts of both cuestas present many irregularities appropriate to
development under subaerial processes. The principal physical features
of “Old” Ontario are those characteristic of an ancient coastal plain
which has passed through a period of planation followed by one of
uplift, dissection, and the development of an adjusted drainage system.
Similar topographic forms have been developed, also with varying
strength and expression, in Middle England, in the Paris. Basin and
elsewhere near oldland areas.
The drift deposits in Central Ontario form a prominent ridge, or
series of ridges, the Oak Ridges, of varying breadth, lying at an average
distance of about ten miles north of Lake Ontario, and extending east-
ward to the vicinity of Trenton. At the western end, near Palgrave,
the thickness of the deposits is sufficient to almost obliterate the escarp-
ment of the Niagara cuesta. A number of spurs extend southward and
northward from the main ridge.
This morainic ridge divides Central Ontario into two drainage slopes,
a northern and a southern. The Trent river, the largest stream within
the area, conveys a large percentage of the drainage from the northern
slope, and from the southern slopes of the crystalline area to the north,
across the ridge to the Bay of Quinte in the vicinity of Trenton. The
remaining portion of the drainage of this northern slope reaches
Georgian Bay, chiefly by the Severn river from Lake Simcoe basin, and
by the Nottawasaga river. The waters from the southern drainage
slope reach Lake Ontario by a number of small streams. East of
Trenton the drainage, which is across the area from within the Black
River cuesta, is controlled almost wholly by the rock topography.
The present features of Central Ontario, as a product of the
operation of the two processes, Pliocene and early Pleistocene subaerial
erosion, and Pleistocene erosion by sheet-glacier ice, are of special
interest, not only in themselves, but because of their relation to the
PLATE I.
FIGURE 1.—Pleistocene deposits at Taylor’s Brick Mills, Toronto. The lowest beds are
Lorraine shales; these are overlain by a thin sheet of till, and this in turn
by the beds of the first Interglacial epoch. (Photo. taken 1895).
FIGURE 2.—Pleistccene Deposits at Taylor's Brick Mills, Toronto. Beds of the second
Interglacial epoch. (Photo, taken 1895).
1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 165
question of the origin of the basin of Lake Ontario. Although over
large areas the topography of the rock floor beneath the Pleistocene
deposits cannot be ascertained, there are also large areas in which there
is no difficulty in determining its essential features, often even to minute
details. Since the interpretation of the features of this rock topography
depends upon its relation to the overlying Pleistocene debris, it has been
thought best to first describe in outline, these latest deposits.
Pleistocene Deposits—Hinde (77), Coleman (94, ’95, ’97, 98, ’99,
1900), and others, have described Pleistocene deposits occurring in the
vicinity of Toronto, notably at Scarboro’ Heights, describing three sheets
of glacial till. The two upper sheets overlie thick deposits of stratified
and finely laminated clays and stratified fossiliferous sands and gravels.
(Plate I.) One hundred miles east of Toronto, just north of
Trenton, occur series of deposits in which is cut a sea-cliff attributed to
Lake Iroquois. The crest of the Iroquois sea-cliff is 718 feet (bar.), and
the rock surface just east of this, along the Trent River is about seventy-
eight feet above Lake Ontario.* The total thickness is thus 640 feet.
These deposits show three till sheets alternating with two series of strati-
fied beds, chiefly sands and gravels. The precise thickness of each of the
five series of beds has not been ascertained as yet, but the till beds
certainly, and the stratified beds probably, are much thicker than the
similar beds at Toronto.
Between this locality and Toronto, in each of four other transverse
sections northward from Lake Ontario, the three till sheets have been
encountered by the writer. In a trip, on foot, along the lake shore from
Presqu’ Isle to Burlington beach, the two lower of these three till sheets
have been traced for a long distance. East of Port Hope, between Bow-
manville and Whitby, and west of Toronto, a till sheet rests in many
places directly upon the rock surface. Sometimes only the upper
portion of this sheet is visible, and occasionally it passes wholly below
the lake level. Provisionally this lowest sheet may be considered as
the equivalent of the lowest till sheet at Toronto and at Trenton.
From Port Hope westward a second till sheet, with varying thick-
ness, resting upon stratified deposits, both sands and laminated clays,
and once (near Oshawa) upon the lower till sheet, can be followed along
the lake shore almost continuously to Scarboro’. At Scarboro’ there is
a nearly continuous section about nine miles in length. Between Port
Hope and Trenton the edge of this sheet lies from one to four miles
*There is a continuous exposure of rock surface along the Trent, transverse to the ridge, and ina
number of localities to the eastward the general topography of the rock surface can be well established.
166 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL VII.
back from the lake shore. Provisionally this bed, from its position, not
from any identification of underlying beds, may be correlated with the
middle till sheet, the lower of the two sheets exposed at Scarboro’.
Except in the Scarboro’ section, the edge of the third till sheet is
found at a varying distance back from the lake shore. At Trenton it is
about three miles from the Bay of Quinte ; in Northumberland county
it is about six miles north of the lake. Its extent northwest of Toronto
has not been traced. The upper till in these localities is thus provision-
ally correlated with the upper till in the Scarboro’ section and in the
vicinity of Toronto. In no place, so far as the writer is aware, is it
known to rest upon the middle till sheet, but always upon stratified
sands, gravels, or clays. In Northumberland and Durham, and else-
where, the upper till sheet is overlain by a series of stratified sands and
gravels.
In the districts around Lake Scugog and around Lake Simcoe, and
for some distance on either side of these areas, till sheets, overlying
sands and gravels also occur. From their relative position and other
relations, there is reason to think that the upper one of these is the
equivalent of the third till sheet on the Lake Ontario side of the ridge.
The middle till sheet rests unconformably upon the beds of the first
interglacial epoch ; the amount of erosion which preceded its deposition
cannot at present be determined because the necessary data are not all
collected. Obviously the amount of erosion to be attributed to the ice
sheet is also, at present, indeterminate. A maximum limit of less than
five miles may be assigned in one case for part of the underlying
deposits, because of the fragments of Utica shale in the middle till. It
may be possible to define the upward limit later when the precise
relations of the stratified beds are worked out.
In the Scarboro’ section this till sheet fills an old erosion valley in
the underlying stratified deposits. Hinde (’77, 402), who first described
the depression, regarded it as a result of glacial erosion, but recent
investigators, because of its form, location transverse to the direction of
the ice movement, and the absence of any evidence of violent erosion,
consider it an old river valley. Similar but smaller depressions, some
of which even Hinde regarded as stream channels, are found elsewhere
in the Scarboro’ section, and more rarely in sections to the east. At
the eastern end of the Scarboro’ section, where the ice ascended across
the beds, the stratified beds, which underlie the till sheet, are very much
contorted and plicated. Westward from this there is little or no
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near Newtonville.
1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 167
plication, not even at the crossing of the old depressions, and the till
sheet descends at the opposite side of the section. Some twelve miles
further west it again ascends over plicated beds. In some sections east
of Scarboro’ the till sheet is seen in clear cut cross section ascending
across the beds with almost no plication of the underlying deposits
(Plate IT).
Whether the three periods of glacial transgression and retreat,
marked by the three till sheets and the intermediate deposits in Central
Ontario, are to be correlated with similar periods as determined to the
south of the lake, or represent local variations in the later positions of
one ice sheet, it is at present impossible to say. The correlation of the
deposits in the two localities, for lack of sufficient knowledge of inter-
vening areas, is not yet definitely determined. Professor Chamberlin
has provisionally classified the fossiliferous beds beneath the middle till
sheet as contemporaneous with the interval preceding the Wisconsin
formation, regarding the middle till sheet of the Toronto sections as
equivalent to the Wisconsin till (’95b, 273). He suggests that the
Toronto beds might lie in a position at least one hundred miles back
from the front of the ice sheet whose till deposits overlie them (’95a,
768 ; see also, Coleman, 1900).
A feature of particular interest is the fact that here are two sheets of
glacial till, overlying still soft sands and gravels, over which the ice that
deposited the till sheets must have transgressed. In its transgression
the ice sheet has passed over large areas without leaving any mark of
disturbance in the underlying beds. In some cases, not in all, where it
ascended, the beds on the side from which the ice came are very much
disturbed, but the disturbance is confined to the place of ascent. Many
instances of modern glaciers over-riding soft deposits have been cited as
evidence of the inability of the ice to do significant erosive work. To
this the principal objection has been that this inability is shown only at
the edge of the sheet. In Central Ontario, whatever the distance
between these beds and the edge of the ice sheet which overlay them
may have been, it is extremely improbable that at its maximum exten-
sion they were just at the margin. There were two periods when the
ice overran obviously very incoherent deposits, and there is no known
evidence of great erosion by these ice sheets a/one, over a distance of
more than one hundred miles in length, and of a width undetermined,
but more than six miles for the middle till sheet, and over an area very
much larger for the upper, and perhaps for both. Whatever may have
been the amount of material eroded by the ice during these two
advances, there is an enormous amount still in place, lying between the
168 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [VoL. VII.
rock floor and the youngest till sheet. The inability of the sheet-
glaciers, under certain unknown conditions, to remove this material
during the two last periods of transgression, raises the question as to
whether these conditions may not have existed also during the period of
operation of the first ice sheet, when it was overriding bed rock instead
of soft sands and clays. This question can in part be answered by a
study of the bed rock features.
Eastern Rock-Valleys—The eastern boundary of the moraines is
approximately a line running northeast from Trenton to a_ point
just south of Croyden in the northern part of the township of Camden,
Addington county. East of this line in the southern part of the county
of Hastings, in Prince Edward, in Lennox and Addington, and in Fron-
tenac, the topography of the underlying rock surface is but little
concealed, large areas of almost bare limestone are quite common.
This is also essentially true of the rock topography along the margin of
the Black River cuesta between Mud Turtle lake and Kingston, with
the exception of a narrow belt in part of Huntingdon and Hungerford
townships.
In the eastern counties the drift cover is very thin, and rock valleys,
now occupied by streams, can be followed readily from their outlet on
Lake Ontario or the Bay of Quinte, more or less completely across the
limestones towards the Archean. In these counties there are six at
least which can be followed all the way across, each to a long narrow
lake whose limestone scarped basin is floored with crystalline rocks.
There are many more which reach nearly across (Map II). From a
map study of Jefferson county, New York state, it seems probable that
at least some of the streams in that state belong to this category. The
whole series of valleys, some twenty-five and more, is remarkable for its
parallelism, the general direction being southwest, and for the regular
spacing of the streams. The valley depressions of some are readily
traceable under the lake waters, with some complications, to a line
running between Stony Point and Point Peter, and in some cases
beyond. Where these valleys are unsubmerged, their sides, at the
lower ends, are generally steeper on the southeast, towards which the
rocks dip, and less steep, sometimes broadly open, on the northwest.
Towards the upper end, especially in the case of those which reach the
Archean highlands, the valleys are sometimes still broad, but both sides
are of about equal altitude and steepness. The average depth is about
one hundred feet, locally often much more, and rarely less, except in
the smaller valleys. Towards the lower end the width varies to about
five miles, while at the upper ends they are usually much narrower.
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170 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
Near the edge of the cuesta, the breadth is sometimes over a mile, and
some of the valleys are remarkably flat-bottomed, occasionally with
gneiss outcropping in the floor, the sides being limestone. Very
frequently the bounding walls in the upper reaches are so steep that
they are in places unscalable.
The intervalley spaces are flat topped, inclined gently southward at
a less angle than the dip, and have a thin, more or less discontinuous
covering of drift, rarely enough to significantly change the flat upland
topography. Some few of the intervalley areas, though flat topped, are
very narrow in parts, even to one hundred yards in width.
The drift blocked equivalents of these valleys are found all the way
to the vicinity of Lake Simcoe and perhaps beyond. The upper
reaches along the Black River cuesta, are generally occupied by streams
or lakes. The Trent river, through part of its course, occupies portions
of several of these. The Bay of Quinte, itself a complex, may be a
member of the series.
The lower courses of all lie below the level of the first interglacial
deposits, and in some cases the lowest till sheet, overlaid by some of the
interglacial beds, is found within the valleys. They are thus either of
glacial or of preglacial origin.
The axial direction of the drumlins in Hastings county, corroborated
by the direction of striz upon the inter-valley upland surfaces, indicates
that the direction of ice flow sometimes made an angle of about fifteen
degrees with the direction of these valleys. Sometimes, just at the edge
of the escarpment, striations are found on a curved rock surface bending
down obliquely into the valley. The best example is on Mill creek,
about two miles west of Sydenham. Occasionally in the valley bottom
striz are found which are not accordant in direction with those upon
the adjacent upland, but which nearly accord with the direction of
the valley sides, suggesting in some cases, local oblique motion beneath
the general ice stream. In other cases the direction of ice motion and
that of the valley coincide. As a rule the escarpments and valley-sides,
where the rock is exposed, are little, and generally not at all, scoured.
On the other hand, where there is a change in the direction, and the
valley is bounded by a steep rock wall, that cliff face is sometimes
polished smooth on the thrust side, but not elsewhere, in one case, near
Napanee, for over one hundred feet below the crest. The postglacial
retreat of the escarpments has been very small in some cases, and in
others nothing at all, there being no talus in some places, in others stric
rounding over the edge, or, again, the cliff presents a polished face. In one
PEASE il:
FIGURE 1.--Long Reach, on the Bay of Quinte—a drowned rock-valley.
FIGURE 2.—Benches on the lower Trent, north of Trenton.
1900-1. | PuHysICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 171
case a broad open valley (Great Cataraqui) suddenly turns slightly and
narrows to a gorge cut in granite, through which the ice has passed. In
another case (Consecon creek, Prince Edward county) the present
creek heads on the upland and runs southwesterly, the valley gradually
broadening and deepening. About a mile to the east of its head the
Bay of Quinte valley, (Plate II1., fig. 1) whose depth below the upland
at this place is 185 feet, cuts across at an angle of about fifty-five
degrees.
These valleys are all, with the single exception of the gorge at
Kingston Mills. carved out of homogeneous limestones, lying in a nearly
horizontal position. Before the carving of the valleys the country must
have been one of almost no relief. The adjacent region, from which the
ice came, is also one of low relief. There are thus no topographic
features which would cause the action of the sheet-glacier to be concen-
trated along certain lines which are oblique to its own general direction
of motion, and there is no reason why these lines should sometimes
unite into one trunk valley. The expectation is that a sheet of ice
would under such circumstances tend rather to reduce than to accentu-
ate topographic features. This was true in this area in the case of
the second ice sheet, and has been shown to be true elsewhere,
and therefore is not an assumption as to a method of sheet-glacier
action. It is known that an zce stream, which invades a valley of sub-
aerial erosion tends to destroy the systematic arrangement of spurs and
re-entrants. That a sheet-glacier in a less confined area would tend to
erode systematic valley-systems more or less athwart its course seems
highly improbable.*
On the contrary, their form and adjustments are appropriate to
stream erosion. Loose debris in the bottoms of the valleys near their
heads, pinnacles, and isolated outliers along the valley sides, are, how-
ever, almost completely wanting. Occasionally the present stream is
held back, forming a small pond, by the accumulation of a little drift
debris across a portion of the valley, or by a rock obstruction. Where
the tributary valleys join a main valley there is no discordance, or as
Playfair puts it, there is “such a nice adjustment of their declivities,
that none of them join the principal valley, either on too high or too
low a level; a circumstance which would be infinitely improbable, if
each of these valleys were not the work of the (predecessor of the)
stream that flows in it.” (’02, 102).
The fact that these valleys are broadly open towards the southwest,
*Compare with the valley of the Rhue, Davis, 1900, p. 275.
172 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
and are narrow and steep-walled towards the northeast, indicates that
the streams which carved them flowed towards the southwest. These
streams may have been initially consequent on a plain inclined towards
the southwest, but whose inclination has since been altered by secular
uplift or depression, so that the present St. Lawrence flows over the
lowest portion of the sag. The direction of the streams has undoubtedly
also been controlled by the direction of the master joints of the lime-
stone, and the valleys may have been developed by headward growth of
streams guided by these joints. To the writer this latter alternative
seems the more probable, though additional field work is necessary
before a definite opinion can be expressed. The outlet to the present
St. Lawrence seems to be a complex of several of these valleys in which
the water is now flowing in a reversed direction owing to secular changes
in elevation.
Jointed and Fissured Uplands.—Another feature of the rock surface
of the limestone uplands, found upon the intervalley ridges, along the
Black River escarpment, and upon the many outliers in front of the
escarpment, is the joint structure, which has split the surface layers into
rhomboidal blocks of various sizes. Subsequent weathering of the
upper blocks especially, has widened the fractures and rounded the
edges of the blocks more or less. In some cases we find till and pieces
of gneiss in these widened fractures, and in others the glacial striz bend
obliquely downwards in crossing the curved surfaces near the open
fissures. Again, over wide areas of almost bare rock, the joints occur,
but the blocks are close together and there is no weathering or rounding
of the edges, and the striz cross the joints without deflection. These
features occur sometimes within short distances of each other on lime-
stones that are identical in texture, and so far as known, identical in
composition. They are found both at the edges of the upland and some
distance back from them ; unfissured areas are sometimes found close
to the edge of the escarpments.
The jointing which produced the rhomboidal blocks preceded the
earliest ice advance. The relation of the ice-scoured surface to the
open fissures shows the existence of these fissures before the advent of
the ice which planed that surface. The low temperature of the sub-
glacial water, and the absence of organic matter in solution, except the
small amount derived from the preglacial soils, render it improbable
(but not impossible) that the subglacial waters could have materially
widened them. During interglacial times, at least portions of the area
were below the level of standing water, and were possibly covered with
ice, so that it seems very probable that much of the weathering pro-
PILI, WW
FIGURE 1.—Blocks on the Black River cuesta, about one-third of a
mile from its edge, near Stoco Lake.
FIGURE 2.—The front of the Black River cuesta, Deer Bay. Talus
nearly to the crest.
1900-1. } PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 173
cesses which opened the fissures must have operated during preglacial
time. In any event ice which was capable of scouring passed over the
area after the fissures were opened, removed some of the blocks from
small areas, but left still larger areas with the blocks still in position,
even on narrow ridges,
The topography of these uplands is in many places similar to that
peculiar to a limestone region undergoing the process of subaerial
degradation. A comparison with ridges in like situations in the
unglaciated area of Wisconsin shows that the similarity is very striking.
In central Ontario, however, there are no pinnacles nor small promin-
ences in front of the escarpments. Many of the larger outliers still remain
as such, generally each with a steep cliff and talus slope in the direction
from which the thrust of the ice-sheet came. On the lee side there is a
long trail of rhomboidal blocks from the rear slopes of the outlier.
Cilate TVertro.: 1)
Along the escarpments where the old cliff faced the ice thrust there
is always a well defined talus slope, sometimes right up to the crest,
(Plate IV., fig. 2.) When the direction of the cliff approaches parallelism
with the direction of ice motion, the talus is frequently much smaller
and occasionally nearly wanting. Where the valley sides are graded to
the edge of the upland, loose blocks usually seem to be altogether
wanting in the valleys. Whether any of the original soil covey is still in
situ it is at present impossible tosay. Certainly much of the present soil
is imported.
Gorges and Valleys of the Niagara Cuesta—Along the Niagara
cuesta from east of the Dundas valley, described by Spencer (’81), to
Cabot’s Head on Georgian Bay, are a number of incisions transverse to
the escarpment, varying from deep and narrow gorges to deep but
broadly open valleys, sometimes as much as ten miles across the mouth,
whose bottoms are occupied by obsequent streams flowing to the inner
lowland. . There seem to be three types of these valleys; first, narrow
short and deep gorges, which in some cases might almost be described
as hanging gorges, since they are not yet cut down to grade with respect
to the rock floor in front of the escarpment. Second, narrow steep-
walled gorges, which so far as known appear to be graded with refer-
ence to the frontal rock floor. Third, deep broadly open valleys,
whose upper reaches may become gorges. They are graded with
respect to the rock floor of the inner lowland some distance, sometimes
a number of miles, away from the immediate vicinity of the escarpment.
174 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
The gorges of the first type seem to be free from drift debris, and
their immature form would indicate that they are largely of postglacial
origin. The second and third types are usually more or less drift filled,
especially in the upper reaches of the third type. The valleys of the
second type are relatively narrow and steep walled. The level to which
their mouths are graded is not known. The valleys of the third type
are broadly open at the point of exit from the cuesta, and some of
them penetrate ten to eighteen miles back from its front. Occasionally
they are indicated by topographic depressions beyond the point where
the bounding rock scarps can actually be followed, though the amount
of drift material upon the cuesta has usually obliterated all rock-surface
features beyond the limits already mentioned. The rock-walls of each
valley (except the Dundas valley as far as can be traced at present)
tend to converge, but convergence to a point of union has only been
demonstrated for the walls of some of them. Some have also tributary
lateral gorges. Spencer has described several entering the Dundas
valley. In these tributaries the walls usually unite and the present
stream falls over a cliff. The tributary gorges may belong to any one
of the three types.
Owen Sound, sometimes wrongly designated a fiord, Colpoy’s bay,
and other bays upon the Georgian Bay coast, may serve as illustrations
of the type (Map III). There are, however, between Owen Sound and
Burlington, a number of valleys, not submerged, and equally typical.
The north shore of Manitoulin Island seems also to possess many com-
parable with these, but developed on Trenton and older strata.
As in the case of the rock-sided valleys at the eastern end of the
area, we lack an accurate knowledge of the precise form of valley which
a sheet-glacier, acting on homogeneous rocks in a region of very low
relief, might possibly be capable of eroding, and of the form of escarp-
ment-front, which it might, acting alone, produce. It is necessary then
to make the partial assumption, that if the sheet-glacier were capable of
producing such topographic features, the products would bear a definite
relation to the direction of ice advance, and would, in homogeneous
rock, assume forms less tortuous than those carved by the more mobile
erosive agent, running water charged with sediment.
The direction of the valleys as a whole is entirely independent of the
general direction of the ice movement, whether it be determined from
the evidences out upon the lowland or from those upon the crest of the
cuesta at the edges of the valleys. They lie in all positions through an
angle of about 180°; all but one (that at Dundas) in such a position
PLATE V.—VALLEYS IN THE NIAGARA CUESTA.
FIGURE 1t.—View across the unsubmerged valley of the Bighead river.
Cape Rich in the right background. Looking west.
FIGURE 2.—View across a portion of the unsubmerged valley of the
Beaver river. Blue Mountains in the distance. Looking east.
FIGURE 3.—Fisher’s Gully, a tributary of the Dundas valley, showing
systematic arrangement of spurs and reentrants.
1900-1. ] PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 175
that any water which formerly flowed through them must have reached
the lowland in front of the cuesta. In many of them the rock scarps
which form their sides show no evidences of glacial action. Had the
ice advanced up or down them we would expect to find ascending or
descending glacial striz. In places there is a systematic arrangement
of alternate spurs and _ re-entrants, producing a tortuous channel,
eminently characteristic of stream erosion, but, if we may judge from
existing examples elsewhere, such as no ice stream could have passed
through. (Compare with the valley of the Rhue, Davis, 1900, 275.)
The Owen Sound valley, and several others along the Georgian Bay
shore, both northwest and southeast of this, in their lower reaches,
flare broadly open towards the direction of the ice advance. Striz
show that in part they controlled the direction of the ice motion,
diverting it, in the Owen Sound case, about fifteen degrees to the east
of its general direction. This broadly open portion of the valley was
certainly modified by the ice. Along the eastern side of Owen Sound,
and similarly in some of the other embayments in the escarpment,
there are spurs which have not been removed, while upon the western
sides, which received the thrust of the ice, the escarpment presents a
much more even face.
North of Owen Sound in Colpoy’s bay, and between Lion’s Head
and Cape Croker, there are a complicated series of channels, irregular
bays, and islands in front of the escarpment. The different channels
bear no definite relation to the direction of the ice movement in adjacent
regions, some being even transverse to it. There is no evidence of
discordance where the smaller side channels join the principal channel.
Between Owen Sound and Collingwood there are two unsubmerged
sinuses extending far inland. Through one of these the Bighead river
enters Georgian Bay at Meaford. The other, which reaches back for
more than fifteen miles, over eight miles in breadth at the mouth, and
about 1,000 feet in depth, is now the valley of the Beaver river, which
enters the bay at Thornbury (Plate V, figs. 1 and 2). Between
Collingwood and Hamilton there are a number of similar valleys. The
most important of these are those now occupied by the Noisy, Mad,
Nottawa, Nottawasaga and Credit rivers, Sixteen-Mile creek and
Twelve-Mile creek. A branch of this latter heads on the outlier west of
Milton, and through its upper course passes between it and the main
escarpment. The largest of all the valleys is that at Dundas, described
by Spencer (’81). (Plate V, fig. 3.)
176 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
In most of these the mouth of the valley is more or less drift-
encumbered, but it can be shown in several cases at least that they are
graded with respect to some level lower than that of the Medina
sediments immediately in front of the escarpment. This is definitely
proven for those which lie northwest of Collingwood, for the Dundas
valley, and for some others north of Burlington.
Hence, the systematic form of each, their direction independent of
the ice movement, and other features cited, render it very improbable
that they are due to glacial erosion. On the contrary, they may all
except the Dundas valley, be regarded as due to the development of
obsequent drainage, tributary to some master stream or streams running
along the inner lowland. Some of them are, in their lower courses,
occupied by till, which in some cases is, and in others probably is, that
of the lowest till sheet ; many of them are graded to a level on the rock
floor, which must have been deeply submerged at the time of the
deposition of the lowest interglacial beds. In the Dundas valley some
stratified deposits are found overlying the till. The similiarity of form
and development of the valleys whose relations to the lowest till sheet
and to the interglacial beds has been proven, to those in which the
relations are unknown, because not worked out, renders it probable that
none of them are of interglacial origin. It is possible, though very
doubtful, that the upper reaches of some of them may have developed
during interglacial time.
Islands and Outliers —In Lake Ontario towards the eastern end, and
extending as far west as Presqu’ Isle, are a great many large and small
limestone islands and shoals, all lying north of the line between Stony
Point and Point Peter. Gull Island, four miles west of Cobourg, is also
a limestone island. In the northern part of Lake Huron, between Cape
Hurd and Grand Manitoulin Island, are a number of small rock islands.
Some of these are of rock fragments at water level, the bed rock not
being visible, but the large majority are composed of bed rock in situ.
The Manitoulin Islands are rock islands. In Georgian Bay many of
the islands are of limestone rock—attention will be specially called to
those along the Bruce peninsula (Map III). In Lake Simcoe, along the
east side, there are a few islands with limestone bases. Many of these
islands are unsubmerged portions of the higher irregularities of the
series of escarpments. Some of them lie in front of the main escarp-
ments, as indicated by soundings around them.
On the Central Ontario lowland in Halton county, just west of
Milton, is an outlier, capped by Niagara limestone, severed completely
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1900-1. | PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 179
from the main escarpment, having a surface area of about four square
miles (Map IV). Were the land under water this would form a large
island, comparable to some of the islands already noted along the Bruce
peninsula. Similar outliers may occur elsewhere along the line of the
escarpment. In some other localities in front of the cuesta, outliers,
capped with Medina sediments and surrounded by drift-filled valleys,
were noted, suggesting a similarity to the Milton outlier, but being
further out on the lowland, they had perhaps undergone greater degra-
dation.
In front of the Black River escarpment, notably in Hastings county,
are a number of outliers of limestone, with much jointed and fissured
upper beds. Some few of the outliers are of sandstone. If the region
were partly submerged these also would form islands in front of the
escarpment. As already noted, many of these outliers present a steep
face, with a talus slope at the base, towards the direction of the ice
advance, and a long trail of loose blocks on the lee side.
Some of the islands and outliers were certainly in areas protected
from ice erosion. The case of the Manitoulin Islands cannot be con-
sidered, as the writer has not sufficient personal knowledge of the facts.
In the great majority of cases, however, they do not occupy such
protected places, and there is direct evidence that the ice transgressed
them. Their relation to the escarpments, and the effects which have
been produced by the ice, seem clearly to indicate that they had an
existence prior to the advance of the ice sheet. The more salient
features were smoothed off, but the essential features are still pre-
served.
Depth of Excavation—Another interesting fact is the remarkable
uniformity in the depth of excavation of the lowland below the crest of
the Niagara cuesta. At Cabot’s Head the depth is about 800 feet, at
Collingwood 1,100, near Dundas 1,000.* The unsubmerged portion of
the Ontario lowland is located on rocks ranging from the Trenton to
the Medina; the submerged portion is on Trenton in both cases. The
lowland has thus been excavated on rocks of four different horizons,
and of very diverse texture.
Lowland Rock-Surface-—An almost continuous transverse section of
the rock surface of the lowland is shown along the north shore of Lake
Ontario, parallel to the Dundas valley, from Hamilton to Lorne Park
(twenty-five miles). Between here and the river Rouge (thirty miles)
*743 measured, 1,000 calculated, Spencer, 781, 323.
180 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
there are many exposures in the valleys of creeks and rivers. and in a
few places along the shore. It is thus known that there is no extensive
discordant deepening for forty miles east of Burlington Heights. The
lowest part of this section, with reference to the present lake level, is
situated on Lorraine shales and sandstones. The surface is lightly
rolling, but the average elevation toward the escarpment is about one
foot per mile. At right angles to the lake shore it varies to about
fifteen feet per mile.
Between the Rouge and Whitby (thirteen miles), there is no known
rock exposure. At Whitby and near Bowmanville the Utica shales
come to the surface; between these two points there is possibly a valley
twelve miles in breadth, but probably of no great depth. For twenty
miles east of Bowmanville, to Gull Island (three miles east of Port
Hope) the rock, Trenton limestone, is again concealed. From Gull .
Island to Presqu’ Isle (twenty miles), there are a number of exposures
of Trenton limestone. East of Presqu’ Isle the rock is continuous to
below Kingston.
Between the Rouge and Presqu’ Isle the upper edge of the lowest
till sheet seldom sinks below the water line. Were there any very deep
or canon-like depression of the rock surface the till might reasonably be
expected to give some indication of the existence of such depression,
for in every case within the area, where such depressions are known to
occur, the till sheets above would give ample evidence by their accord-
ant depressions.
Along the Georgian Bay unsubmerged portions of the old valleys
are in some cases over 1,000 feet below the escarpment, and are graded
with reference to a level still lower. So far as is at present known
there is no evidence of discordant deepening due to the movement of
the ice along the front of the escarpment in a direction different from
that of the general movement; if such deepening has taken place it is
not located on the soft Medina strata, but on the Lorraine, which are
known to form escarpments, or upon the Trenton. In no case,so far as
the writer is aware, has drift from a higher geological horizon been
found overlying a lower horizon, well out on the lowland, a result
which must obtain if there has been significant lateral motion of the ice
from the Georgian Bay region.
Summary.—The work of the ice sheet in Central Ontario seems to
have been that of smoothing off pinnacles, small spurs, and other out-
lying features of the limestone areas. Only the larger of these topo-
graphic forms were able to resist the ice, and these, more or less
1900-1. ] PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 181
modified, have remained to form islands or outliers in front of the
different escarpments, or the spurs of the intervalley ridges along the
valley sides. The essential features of the topography are not destroyed,
though they are more or less completely obscured and obstructed by
drift.
The relation of the area to the fronts of the ice sheets which crossed
it is not yet determined. The results of the writer’s studies at present
suggest that the great moraine of Central Ontario is largely an inter-
lobate moraine between an ice lobe coming from the east of north, and
a lobe coming from the east ; and that the lateral spurs, on the north
and on the south sides of the great moraine, represent the positions
successively occupied by the retreating ice front.* The area seems to
have been almost always one receiving deposits rather than one from
which the soil and rock was being removed.
The streams which produced the pre-glacial valleys throughout the
Central Ontario lowland, and the obsequent streams of the Niagara
cuesta must have been tributary to some trunk stream, or perhaps to
two such master subsequents. The location of these trunk streams
would normally be along the lines of deepest cutting. Their direction
of flow cannot be determined at present, though that of the tributaries
is known from the forms of the valleys. Those on the Black River
cuesta flowed southwest, those from the Niagara cuesta northeast, east,
and southeast. Obviously the trunk stream, though flowing parallel to
the escarpment, must have had some outlet from the region. Deter-
mining the location of this valley has been one of the chief difficulties
to be met by the river-erosion hypothesis for the origin of the basin of
Lake Ontario. The attitude with respect to the present St. Lawrence
valley, and certain other features of the rock valleys in the vicinity of
Kingston, and the immature character of the present St. Lawrence
channel render it extremely improbable that the waste from the lowland
was ever carried out through this channel. If the drainage of the
Ontario lowland was that of a normally developed river lowland there
is but one known outlet which is at all suitable, that by the Dundas
valley.+ The course of the valley from the vicinity of Copetown west-
ward is highly problematic. Spencer considers that it was towards the
south, while Grabau (1901) has recently advocated an extension
towards the west, in continuation of an initial consequent direction.
The direction of flow of the streams that occupied this valley has not
*See Chamberlin, 95a, p. 768.
tThis suggestion had occurred to the writer before he was aware of Dr. Grabau’s opinions, referred to
below.
182 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.t. VII.
been definitely determined. A river flowing westerly through this
outlet would be a normal consequent stream, and tributary streams
from both sides would occupy the position of normally developed sub-
sequents. The attitude of the broadly open valleys along the Georgian
Bay suggest that there may have been a second master stream with an
outlet southwestward from the bay. At present our knowledge is so
imperfect that the direction of flow of these master streams, and their
relations to these different valleys, which may be members of a
normally developed system, have not been determined.
The probability that there were streams on the Central Ontario
lowland, to which the streams in the preglacial valleys, already
described, were tributary, makes it equally probable that similar features
were developed to the southeast along the basin of the present lake.
At present we know neither the depth to the rock floor of the basin, nor
the amount of drift filling. The relation of the basin to the ice lobes is
also unknown. Hence differential deepening, which has not operated
on the unsubmerged lowland, may perhaps have been in effective
operation in the portion of the basin east of the Niagara river, and
west of Stony Point.
PLEISTOCENE HISTORY—A Summary—The Pleistocene deposits
of Central Ontario present a complex which has not yet been studied in
sufficient detail to warrant more than a brief reference to certain salient
features. The best known locality is that in the vicinity of Toronto,
where the order of succession of the deposits has been established.
The probable relations of these deposits to similar beds elsewhere in the
area have already been noted. Mention has also been made of certain
sands and gravels which overlie the third till sheet in some parts of the
area. The fossils of the lowest group of interglacial beds at Toronto
indicate that the climate of that part of the region was, for a time, warm
and temperate, perhaps like that of Ohio. During this period the lake
was connected with the Mississippi drainage, a connection which may
have been an inheritance from the cycle preceding the first ice advance.
Whether the ice sheet at this time had withdrawn wholly from the
region, or only part way, must at present be a matter of conjecture.
The fossils of the upper beds of the first interglacial deposits indicate
climatic conditions approaching those of the lower Gulf of St. Lawrence
and the Labrador coast at the present day. The close of the inter-
glacial period was followed by an interval during which there was a
considerable amount of erosion, just how extensive is not determined.
The interglacial beds of the latter epochs have, as yet, been little
investigated.
PLATE VI.—PLEISTOCENE LAKE BENCHES.
FIGURE 1.—Transverse section of the Ircquois bench and sea-cliff, Scar-
boro’ Bluffs.
FIGURE 2.—Iroquois bench and sea-cliff, and light morainic topo-
graphy of the third till sheet, Scarboro’ Bluffs.
PLATE VII.—PLEeEISTOCENE LAKE BENCHES.
FIGURE 1.—Iroquois bench and sea-cliff, Scarboro’ Bluffs.
FIGURE 2.—Boulder pavement in front of a sea-cliff, near Lake Simcoe
and south of Orillia.
1900-1. ] - PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 183
While the ice sheet was retreating across Ontario, a series of lakes
were formed between its front and the highlands to the south and west.
In the latter stages of the ice retreat, portions of the present land area
of Central Ontario were beneath the waters of these lakes. The land
was being gradually elevated at the northeastern end, so that at present
the old shores are not parallel with the surfaces of the existing lakes.
The deposits of the different periods of ice transgression and retreat
have been so little studied, and so little differentiation seems to have
been made between the deposits of sands and gravels of these periods,
and those formed by their re-arrangement during the periods of the
great Pleistocene lakes, that at present there is much confusion with
regard to the history of the area during the Great Lakes epoch. (Plates
VI and VII.)
RECENT HISTORY—A Swummary.—Since the withdrawal of the
Pleistocene lakes the amount of erosion has been small. The courses
of the present streams are in part determined by the valleys of the
preglacial rivers, in part by the position assumed by the drift deposits
with respect to the retreating ice sheets, and in part to the controls
exercised by the Pleistocene-lake beach-deposits. There is at least one
lake (Scugog) whose drainage seems to have been affected by the
differential uplift indicated by the present attitude of the old lake
beaches.*
Some of the streams have cut through the glacial deposits into the
bed rock. Streams entering Lake Ontario west of Toronto, or flowing
into the Georgian Bay, have cut deep steep-sided ravines and valleys
through drift and shale. Some few, in the vicinity of Oakville, have
cut deep straight-sided, flat-bottomed valleys through about forty feet
of drift and eighty-five feet of shale-- The present streams meander in
courses largely independent of their valley sides, here truncating an old
spur, there widening the former meander belt. Sometimes there are
two or three back meanders between adjacent spurs of the old valley.
In the upper courses, where the stream is still working upon glacial
debris, these misfit meanders are especially common, In the great
majority of cases there seems to be but one terrace below the general
level of the area adjacent to the valley.
North and east of Toronto, the Trent, the Moira, and a few smaller
streams, have in part cut new channels in Trenton limestones. The
channels, which average perhaps twenty-five feet in depth, are straight-
*This may be true of Pigeon and Chemong lakes also.
tIn one case 400 yards in width.
184 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VIL.
sided and flat-bottomed. In almost all of these the river breaks into
rapids, and occasionally plunges over a low fall (Plate VIII). In parts of
the lower course of the Trent there are two rock terraces, one a small
rock-cut bench, the other due to the removal of the drift debris from the
old rock surface. There is reason to think that in parts of the course
there are remnants of yet higher terraces upon the drift, but they are
not conspicuous topographic features (Plate III, fig. 2, p. 171).
The relations of all of these terraces to the Pleistocene lake levels
and to the former water supply are interesting problems which have not
been considered. The present valleys are inappropriate in size and
form to the present streams in flood.
Parts of the present valleys of these streams and their tributaries,
and the valleys of all streams east of the Moira, are rock-valleys, not of
recent origin, and have already been described under the caption
“Eastern Rock-Valleys.”
Along Lake Ontario the waves have cut benches and sea cliffs in the
drift deposits. The longshore action is distributing the material, thus
derived, east and west from the vicinity of Whitby, forming bars, spits
and hooks. Towards the west the most important of these are Toronto
Island and Burlington Beach. Towards the east, from Presqu’ Isle
neck to Point Peter, there are a great many bars blocking the ends of
partly submerged rock valleys, and forming large and small lakes.
Back from some of these bars, small sand-dune belts have formed.
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ae
1900-1. ] PHYSICAL GEOLOGY OF CENTRAL ONTARIO. 185
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Lawson, A. C., 1890. ‘‘ Note on the Pre-Paleozoic Surface of the Archean Terranes
of Canada.” Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. I, pp. 163-174.
Locan, W. E., 1863. ‘* Geology of Canada.” Can. Geol. Survey.
MuRRAY, ALEX., 1843. ‘Report on the Geology of parts of the champaign region of
Western Canada.” Can. Geol. Surv., pp. 51-91.
’
1848. ‘* Report on the Western and Huron Districts.” Can. Geol. Survey.
1850. ‘“‘ Report on parts of the Western Peninsula.” Can. Geol. Survey.
1851. ‘‘ Report on the Geology of the Region between the St. Lawrence and Ottawa
Rivers.’’ Can. Geol. Survey.
1852. ‘‘ Report on the district between Kingston and Lake Simcoe.” Can. Geol.
Survey.
NEWBERRY, J. S., 1858. ‘‘ Colorado Exploring Expedition.” Lieut. J. C. Ives, Part III,
Published by order of the Secretary of War, Washington, 1861.
PLAYFAIR, J., 1802. ‘‘ Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth.”’ Edinburgh.
SmyTH, H. L., 1899. ‘‘ The Crystal Falls Iron-Bearing District of Michigan.” Mono-
graph XXXVI, U.S.G.S., part II, pp. 329-487.
SPENCER, J. W., 1881. ‘‘ Discovery of the Preglacial Outlet of the Basin of Lake Erie
into that of Lake Ontario; With Notes on the Origin of our Lower Great Lakes.”’
Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., Vol. XIX, pp. 300-337. Abstract in Can. Nat. and Geol.,
New Series, Vol. X, pp. 65-79.
Van Hise, C. R., 1896. ‘A Central Wisconsin Baselevel.”’ Science, New Series,
Vol. IV, pp. 57-59.
WaccotTtT, C. D., 1891. ‘* The North American Continent during Cambrian Time.”
12th Ann. U.S.G.S., pp. 523-568.
1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 187
OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE.
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO CHLOROFORM.
BY ka D. RUDOLE, MED. EDIN., M:R.@.e) Lonps=) LORONTO.
(Read 27th April, 1907).
INTRODUCTION.
THIS paper contains the results of work which I have conducted
during the past three years in the Physiological Department of Toronto
University. A grant of money was made by the Scientific Grants
Committee of the British Medical Association towards defraying the
expenses, and is here gratefully acknowledged.
The work has been of a somewhat intermittent character, owing
chiefly to the difficulty in obtaining a steady supply of animals. The
kymograph used was a Ludwig one, with a glass pen writing in ink
upon white paper. The tracings thus obtained were very long, as often
experiments extended over several hours, and only short pieces of them
are able to be used here to bring out the points mentioned in the text.
I have as far as possible avoided theorizing, being rather content
to state the results which were actually obtained under given
conditions ; a certain amount of speculation is occasionally inevitable
however.
I am greatly indebted to Professor A. B. Macallum for much
valuable advice, and to Mr. Scott, D.Sc., for constant assistance in the
carrying out of the experiments.
Before actually passing on to discuss alterations in blood pressure
produced by definite causes, one should mention that occasionally
strange falls in the blood pressure of dogs occur without any apparent
cause. If these were not noted they might be wrongly interpreted.
I
vy
: of Nt omni" Tyr
Mai nt
MMi My Mona \ my WV vy Ym yy
TracinG I.—9/38.—Dog under Morphia. No Chloroform for several minutes. This fall in blood
pressure occurred without apparent cause and gradually disappeared,
Tracing 1 shows one of these vagaries. The animal, a mongrel
188 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
spaniel, weighing about 40 Ibs., had been given three-quarters of a grain
of morphia an hour before the experiment began. It then was chloro-
formed. After it was completely insensible and for several minutes had
not been taking any more of the anesthetic, this fall in pressure
occurred. It looked somewhat like that produced by irritation of the
vagus nerve, and it was suggested that the canula in the left carotid
might be producing this, but nothing was altered and yet the pressure
recovered of itself and the fall did not recur during the two-hour
experiment.
PuUgtatatavatatatnrarara avatitstatatavatarara atatatntaravavavatatatarivarstatstVavataUavanatatatatatatatatsn tat anum uni imi tangtaretamniuc ni innate emu net
Tracine II.—3/7.—Dog under Morphia. No Chloroform for several minutes. Shows marked fall in
pressure with slowing of pulse. Animal horizontal. Cause of fall not apparentand it was spontaneously
recovered from.
Tracing 2 shows another fall occurring under similar circumstances
to the last. The animal had not had any chloroform for several minutes.
In this case the fall is even more marked, and looks extremely like that
produced by irritation of the vagus, but it completely disappeared
without any of the factors having been altered, and did not recur.
Such falls as these, when they happen to occur during the actual
administration of chloroform, may be the unexpected ones described by
the Glasgow Commission on Chloroform, and which Lieut.-Col. Lawrie
ascribed to asphyxia ; we will refer to this point later on.
It was frequently noted how much different dogs varied as regards
the amount of their blood pressure and pulse rate. Often poorly-
nourished and small varieties of dogs had high pressures, whilst large,
well-nourished animals had the opposite.
1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 189
THE NORMAL EFFECTS OF GRAVITY.
It has long been known clinically that the circulation of the blood is
affected by the posture of the body, and that in weakened states of the
circulation the blood and other fluids, obeying ordinary hydrostatic laws,
tend to accumulate in the most dependent parts of the body. Further,
it had been noted that if the posture of the body be suddenly altered,
é.g.,if a person be raised from the horizontal to the erect posture, the
inertia of the blood tends to make it lag, and as a result the upper pole
of the body, including the brain, temporarily becomes more or less
bloodless, and in consequence the individual may actually faint. This
method of inducing insensibility was actually employed by a Parisian
surgeon, who then operated upon his patient, rendered thus insensible to
pain. George Hayem' writes as follows: “ Phlebotomists had known
for a long time the influence of position on the production of syncope
when Piorry instituted his experiments on the subject. He bled some
dogs upright, and they fell at the end of a certain time into a sort of
state of dissolution with suspension of respiration. He stopped the
hemorrhage then and placed the animal head downwards, and immedi-
ately it breathed again. Often the same experiment could be repeated
many times on the same dog. I repeated the experiments in 1880 and
found them to be perfectly correct.” It has constantly been observed,
moreover, that some individuals are much more susceptible to such
changes of posture than others, and that almost any person if temporarily
weakened in any manner, will tend to suffer from dizziness or even
faintness on suddenly assuming the erect posture.
The effects of different postures and of sudden and _ gradual
alterations of these, have of late years been studied more accurately in
animals by means of tracings of the blood pressure. The very beautiful
tracings put on record by the 2nd Hyderabad Commission on Chloroform
are examples of these observations, and more recently Mr. Leonard Hill
has added some of the same nature. My experiments were done on
dogs, with the exception of a few upon cats, and they confirm largely
what has already been observed and recorded. In each case the animal
was secured in a trough which was so constructed that it could be swung
into any angle with the horizon, with the canula in the artery always
remaining in the axis of rotation. The canula was further carefully
kept at the same level as the manometer. Unless for some special
reason the canula was always placed in the proximal end of the left
1 ** Death from Hemorrhage,” Archive de Physiologie, 1888, p. 102,
190 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII.
carotid artery. The animals were all under the influence of some
aneesthetic, the nature of which is mentioned when necessary ; but as
the effects of posture were more or less the same in all cases, it may
be inferred that they were not due to the anesthetic, except as regards
degree. As a rule some morphia was first given hypodermically, and
then very little chloroform sufficed to keep them quiet.
Tracing 3 is from a dog under chloroform. Where the tracing begins
he is horizontal, and the canula is in the carotid. At 1 the hind feet
were suddenly lowered. and the pressure is seen to markedly fall. When
placed horizontal again at 2 the pressure rapidly rose and went above
the normal for a short time, 3, and then resumed the normal line. This
is a very constant feature in such tracings, and is probably due partly to
inertia, and partly to the compensation which has been taking place
5 4 3 2 I
tT ng mnt
pit
TracinG III.—1/3.—Normal effects of gravity on carotid blood pressure. Dog under Chlorotorm.
1 Animal placed vertical (feet downwards). 2 Horizontal again. 3 Compensation continuing. 4 Head
downwards. 5 Horizontal again.
against the effect of the vertical position still continuing after the animal
is again horizontal. This compensation, as we shall see, is partly
affected by increase in the rate of the heart-beat and partly by
constriction of the arteries, while contraction of the abdominal wall is
also of service here.’ At 4 the animal was suddenly placed in the
vertical feet-up posture, and at once the carotid pressure rose. This
rise was not so great as the fall which occurred in the feet-down posture,
and a rule may be deduced that the lowering of a pole of the body does
not raise the arterial blood pressure in it so much as ratsing that pole
lowers tt.
When placed horizontal at 5 the pressure fell below the normal line
for the same reasons that it rose above that line at 3.
Some dogs are not nearly so susceptible to the effects of gravity as
1 ‘Influence of Gravity on the Circulation.” Hill and Barnard. Journal of Physiology, Vol. XXL.,
1897.
1900-1. ] OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 1g!
others. Thus, Tracing 4 is from a dog under morphia and chloroform
just as in the previous experiment, and yet the change in pressure in
the different postures is very slight. I found that cats are especially
alien, gh | oT
Balatgigintalaratalalalaigtpinigialatataiatgigtgigin vad)
TracinG 1V,—9/22.—Dog under Morphia and Chloroform, x Vertically teet downwards, 2 Hori-
zontal. 3 Head downwards. 4 Horizontal.
immune to the effects of change of posture; and Mr. Leonard Hill
records'that some animals, e¢g., certain species of monkeys, actually
over-compensate, and thus have a higher carotid blood pressure in the
feet-down than in the normal posture.
Most animals compensate somewhat after a short time for the
vertical feet-down position. As one might expect, animals that
habitually or frequently assume the vertical posture are better able to
compensate against any fall in blood pressure in this posture than are
animals which do not naturally become vertical. Thus apes and domestic
fowls compensate well, while snakes and hutch rabbits compensate
badly.
2 I
3
Seat
Pyavt wer TT yA TON My
Pi
~~, 0 sf
ran
TracinG V.—g/19.—1 Vertically feet downwards. 2 Compensation occurring for vertical posture.
3 Horizontal again.
Tracing 5 shows such compensation. At 1 the animal was placed
vertical, and at 2, though still in the vertical posture, the blood pressure
1 ‘* The Cerebral Circulation,” page 88.
2 Leonard Hill, ‘‘ Further Observations on the Influence of Gravity on the Circulation,” Supplement to
the Journal of Physiology, Vol. 23, Feb. 27th, 1899.
192 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL “VEL
is seen gradually to right itself. At
3, on the animal being placed hori-
zontal, the pressure went for a
moment above the normal line, the
compensation still continuing.
But if the vertical posture be
maintained for a long time this
compensation will fail, as shown by
Mr. Hill on certain animals', and as
often shown clinically when people
faint from long standing. The
swelling of horses’ legs from long
standing is another familiar illustra-
tion of the same thing.
4 Horizontal.
Tracing 6 shows compensation
for the feet-up posture. At 3 the
feet were raised and the pressure in
the carotid temporarily rose, but
although the animal was kept in this
position it soon fell to the normal
Compensation for this posture shown.
8 line, and when the animal was placed
E horizontal at 4, the compensation
” continuing for a while, the pressure
3 actually went below the normal.
s When the canula is placed in
: the proximal end of another artery,
5 eg., the femoral, as in Tracing 7,
i the same phenomena are observed.
fa Then, of course, the vertical feet-up
posture causes a fall in pressure, and
the vertical feet-down a rise. This
tracing illustrates well again the rule
that the rise produced in the pres-
sure in the vessels of a pole of the
body by lowering that pole is not
so great as the fall produced by
raising it.
1 Ibid.
Tracinc VI.—o/28.—Canula in carotid.
i
‘
g
=
1900-T. ] OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 193
4 3 2 I
a WN yy yo hi Ma nl
TracinG VII.—9/26.—Canula in horizontal end of femoral artery, 1 Feet down. 2 Horizontal.
3 Feet up. 4 Horizontal.
The effects of posture are less marked in the distal end of a divided
artery than in the proximal. Tracing 8 is taken from the distal end of
the femoral artery. In it the respiratory waves appear, and the whole
pressure is considerably lower than in the proximal end of the same
3 2 I
i a ee
TracinG VIII.—o/22.—Canula in distal end of femoral artery. 1 Horizontal. 2 Head downwards,
3 Horizontal.
artery. When the hind feet are lowered the pressure is scarcely altered
(before tracing begins), but when they are raised the pressure slowly
falls somewhat. This is another illustration of the rule above mentioned.
15 T4 13 12
On t v;
[ost ty att font Mw iV Nia) Ces
Tracine IX —1/5.—Canula in proximal end of splenic artery. 12 Vertically teet down. 13 Hori-
zontal, 14 Feet up. 15 Horizontal.
Tracings taken from the proximal end of the splenic artery show a
marked fall in the feet-down position, and a slight fall in the feet-up.
Thus the pressure falls in both vertical postures, but especially in the
feet-down one. Tracing g is taken from the proximal end of the splenic
artery. At 12 the feet were lowered, and after a short hesitation the
pressure fell markedly. At 13 the animal was replaced in the horizontal
13
194 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
position. At 14 it was swung into the vertical feet-up position, and a
slight fall occurred.
So much for the changes in pressure uninfluenced as far as possible
by anything except posture. I next proceed to the effects of certain
factors in increasing and decreasing the blood pressure, and its suscepti-
bility to gravity and inertia.
ABDOMINAL PRESSURE.
Tracings 10 and 11 show the effect of firm abdominal pressure in
raising the blood pressure while this is low from the animal being in the
vertical posture. In 11 the vertical position assumed at 18 produced a
slight fall, and abdominal pressure applied at 19 raised the tracing to
6 5 4 3
inn
a aca
TRACING X.—3/10.—3 Vertical. Pressure continued to fall. 4 Abdominal pressure. 5 A pressure
removed. 6 Horizontal.
TracinG XI,—1/2.—18 Vertical. 19 Abdominal pressure. 20 Horizontal.
even above the normal line. In the former tracing the pulse was
hastened by the abdominal pressure, in the latter it remained unaltered.
Abdominal pressure, however, in order to be effectual, must be of an
exceedingly firm nature, and probably pressure upon the aorta itself has
something to do with the result. It has been shown indeed that when
the aorta is compressed by itself a marked rise in the general blood
pressure occurs’. Far more abdominal pressure is necessary than would
be required merely to empty the abdominal veins—this being the usual
explanation of how the resulting rise in blood pressure is brought about.
1 J. A. McWilliams, British Medical Journal, Vol, II., 1890, p. 835.
1900-1. ] OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 195
Hill and Barnard give a tracing’ showing the effect of abdominal
pressure. In it the pressure actually goes above the normal line, as it
also did in tracing 11 just given, and in order to get such a rise a large
amount of abdominal pressure must have been applied, and probably the
aorta was more or less completely obstructed by this. I tried the
tightening of an abdominal bandage as described by Mr. Leonard
Hill? but got almost negative results. Consequently I believe that
slight supporting of the abdominal walls by bandages can have little or
no effect upon the general blood pressure, and the comfort given by
such to a certain class of patients cannot be attributed to any
appreciable rise of blood pressure. One point, however, must be here
borne in mind, and that is that while in healthy animals the abdominal
wall is normal, in certain individuals it is abnormally flaccid.
46 4
nn
44
oO _—- — — ———_—_—_ ——_—_—_— woe
TracinG XII,—1/3.—Spinal cord previously divided at level of last dorsal vertebra. 44 Vertical.
45 Abdominal pressure. 46 Horizontal,
Tracing 12 shows the effect of abdominal pressure on a vertical
animal in which the blood pressure was standing almost at zero on
account of previous division of the spinal cord.
Ls)
=_
—_———-----ereroarrr nnn lr
Tracine XIII.—g/20,—Canula in distal end of fermoral artery. 1 Abdominal pressure. 2 Pressure
removed,
Tracing 13 shows the effect of abdominal pressure on the blood
pressure in the distal end of the femoral artery. The animal being
horizontal, as seen the pressure slowly fell, which goes to prove that, as
1 Tracing 86, Journal of Physiology, Vol. XXI., 1897.
2 ‘The Cerebral Circulation,” p. 100.
196 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vor. VII.
previously stated, the aorta must be compressed during firm abdominal
pressure.
\o
ip 2)
~
ve oe ae
Tracinc XIV.—1/3.—Dog under Atropin. 7 Vertical. 8 Struggling. g Horizontal. Lower line
is respiratory tracing.
Tracing 14 shows the effect of posture on an animal in which the
vagi had been paralysed by atropine. At 7 it was placed vertical, with
very little fall in pressure. The effects are practically the same as
when the vagi are intact.
Division of the Spinal Cord at various levels.
This always produces a great lessening in the compensation for the
feet-down position.
14 13 12
ann
Hh
nth
TracinG XV.—3/10.—Spinal cord previously divided opposite 8th dorsal vertebra. 12 Vertical.
13 Horizontal, 14 Head down.
Tracing 15 illustrates this point. The cord had been divided
opposite the eighth dorsal vertebra, and the pressure in the horizontal
position fell somewhat. When the animal was placed in the vertical
feet-down posture at 12, the pressure fell rapidly and threatened to
actually become negative. The pulse did not hasten, in fact, slowed
somewhat. The pressure rose about the ordinary amount in the feet-up
posture, as shown at 14.
1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE.
Tracing 16 shows the carotid blood pressure
occurring in a dog in which the spinal cord had
been divided near the eleventh dorsal vertebra.
In this case the pulse increased greatly in rapidity
as the pressure fell on the animal being placed vertical
at 27. The animal was kept in the feet-down position
for some minutes without any appearance of compen-
sation occurring, and was placed horizontal again at
29. Now the vaso-motor fibres for the splanchnic
nerves leave the cord above the level of the eighth
dorsal nerve; the section in this experiment took
place well below this, and thus the vessels of the
splanchnic area were not paralysed by the operation,
yet a very marked fall occurred. This would point
to the fact that the vessels of the lower part of the
body are very largely concerned in the keeping up of
the normal blood pressure in the feet-down position,
because when they are paralysed the pressure
markedly falls.
27,
28
29
Tracing XV1.—7/25,—Spinal cord previously divided opposite 11th dorsal vertebra,
NS
No compensation occurred,
29 Horizontal again.
27 Vertical.
198 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL VII.
lf the distal end of the divided spinal cord be stimulated by the
Faradic current, the pressure in the carotid artery is decidedly raised, as
shown in Tracing 17. Here the animal, in which the spinal cord had been
previously divided in the lower dorsal region was placed feet-down at
43, with the result that the pressure fell. At 44 the distal end of the
46 45 44 43
Tracinc XVII.—1/2.—Spinai cord previously divided in lower dorsal region. 43 Vertical. 44 Faradic
stimulation of distal end of cord. 45 Horizontal. 46 Distal end again stimulated—no effect.
divided cord was stimulated as mentioned, and a considerable rise in
pressure took place. At 45 the animal was replaced in the horizontal
position. This experiment again shows how dependent the general
blood pressure of the body is upon the vaso-motor tone of the vessels
in its lower part. When the animal was placed horizontal again,
38 3a
Yunnan Ne
mn WW nym
TracinG XVIII.—8/22.—Spinal cord previously divided opposite last dorsal vertebra. Animal
horizontal. 37 Distal end of cord stimulated by Faradic current. 38 Stimulus removed,
similar stimulation of the distal end produced no effect. Tracing 18
shows only a slight rise on stimulation of the distal end of the cord
while the animal was horizontal. This is a result which one would
naturally expect.
The vaso-motor influence of the lower part of the body is supposed
to be very limited and chiefly confined to the skin.’ The experi-
ments just related, however, would suggest that the vascular tone of the
lower part of the body is of considerable importance in the regulation of
the general arterial blood pressure. Without doubt the splanchnic area
is the one chiefly concerned in the regulation of the blood pressure, but
it is here suggested that the tone of the lower limbs is of more import-
ance in this regard than is generally recognized.
r Foster’s Physiology, Part I.
1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 199
THE EFFECT OF CERTAIN DRUGS ON THE BLOOD PRESSURE.
Morphia.—Morphia was used hypodermically upon about forty-five
dogs. It was followed in every case by salivation, in the majority of
instances by vomiting and in a few by purging. The action of this drug
on dogs appears to be very much like that of Apomorphine on man
in these respects. Morphia produced distinct slowing of the pulse,
and made the animal go under chloroform more easily and stay
unconscious longer, and this entirely coincides with what many clinicians
have observed.
Chloroform.—This anesthetic was always administered on a towel,
and no attempt was made to measure the dose. In none of the dogs
did vomiting occur after the administration of chloroform had been
commenced even when they had had morphia previously, and I find no
mention of this complication occurring during the anesthesia of these
animals in any literature.
In all of fifty-two dogs killed by chloroform the respiration distinctly
stopped before the heart. The period between the stoppage of the
respiration and the cessation of the heart’s action varied from a few
seconds to several minutes. Asa rule, the more concentrated the chloro-
form vapour was, the shorter this period became. In nearly all cases
the respiration stopped before the pulse tracing had disappeared, but on
several occasions, when it seemed as if the heart had ceased, auscultation
showed that it was still beating. After the respiration had stopped the
first sound of the heart would get weaker and weaker and at last cease,
while the second sound would remain loud and clear for some time and
then gradually also cease. The question as to whether the respiration
or the heart stops first in chloroform poisoning is one about which a
great deal of controversy has raged, and the point is not yet unani-
mously settled. The Hyderabad Commission held that the respiration
always stopped first, and that there was no such thing as chloroform
syncope.’ Dr. A. R. Cushny performed many careful experiments with
different dilutions of chloroform to see the effect on the heart. If the
vapour was very concentrated the heart was affected, but he says,
“ Although I cannot agree with the Hyderabad Commission that the
heart always continues to beat after the respiration ceases, yet the
difficulty of maintaining the concentration necessary to paralyze the
heart simultaneously with the respiration is extremely great, and |
r Lieut.-Col, Lawrie, Lancet, March 14th, 1891.
200 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VIL.
should think in ordinary chloroform administration such a simultaneous
paralysis can never occur.’ Lieut.-Col. Lawrie stated in Appendix
No. 3, of the Report of the Hyderabad Commission’ that chloroform
has no direct action upon the heart, and this is quoted again in
a letter upon the Report of the Anesthetic Commission in the
British Medical Journal of January rg9th, 1901. I have no doubt,
however, but that chloroform does poison the heart muscle in the
same way as it must more or less poison every organ in the
body. As _ stated, in all of my fifty-two experiments in this
regard the respiration stopped before the heart. If the amount of
chloroform given be very great, however, artificial respiration, even if
immediately commenced, will not save the animal—showing that the
heart as well as the respiration is poisoned. Dr. H. C. Wood in an
address delivered before the International Medical Congress in Berlin in
1890,’ says, “ We definitely proved that in the dog chloroform has a
distinct direct paralysing influence on both respiration and circulation ;
that the respiration may cease before the heart, or the two functions
may be simultaneously abolished ; but that in some cases the heart is
arrested before the respiration. We have several times seen the respira-
tion continue as long as one or even two minutes after the blood
pressure had fallen to zero, and the blood had completely disappeared
from the carotid artery.” This might well be and yet the heart might
have been found to be still beating if auscultation had been practised.
In trying to explain the results of the Hyderabad Commission he says
further on, “It may be that the heat or other climatic conditions sur-
rounding the pariah dog make his heart less sensitive to the action of
chloroform than the hearts of dogs in northern climates.” J. Harris‘ in
testing an apparatus for producing painless death of lower animals by
chloroform, which had been taken out from England to India, found
that it would not work, the reason being that the high temperature: pre-
vented the concentration of the chloroform vapour. By placing ice in
the chambers animals were readily killed. I can quite understand this,
and have frequently noticed during the Indian hot weather that it was
more difficult than usual to get patients “ under,” especially if a punkah
were swinging near by. On the other hand it is hard to explain the
following statement, “It is stated that iced chloroform has been used in
14,000 cases in Wiirzburg, Bavaria, without any ill results. Rapidity of
administration, comparative freedom from danger and absence of nausea
1 Lancet, March 14th, 1891.
2 Lancet, January, 1893.
3 British Medical Journal, August 16th, 1890.
4 Indian Medical Record, May roth, 189g,
1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 201
are the advantages claimed for this preparation.” My experiments
were done through the several Canadian seasons upon many varieties of
dogs, and yet I never found the heart stop before the respiration,
although, as stated, on several occasions the pulse tracing did so. Dr.
B. W. Richardson in my opinion stated the case aright when he wrote
that “death in man during chloroform anesthesia is not generally due
to respiratory failure, but that in animals the physiological death from
chloroform is a respiratory failure.” He says that Snow also thought so.
In my experiments the animals were killed with chloroform in the
horizontal and vertical postures, after poisoning with various drugs,
cutting of one or both vagi nerves, division of the spinal cord at various
levels, opening of the abdomen, bleeding, etc., and yet, as stated, the
respiration always stopped before the heart.
Post mortem examinations were made on most of the animals
so killed, but the condition of the heart and great vessels then
does not seem to be any indication of what it was just after
death, as artificial respiration, abdominal pressure and other restora-
tives were all tried, and these must have altered the conditions
of things. Such remarks may also apply to the results of post
mortems on persons who have so died. With this proviso, one may
say that the right side of the heart was always engorged with blood, and
that the left was generally more or less empty, but occasionally also was
full. In one case after death from chloroform, followed by artificial
respiration, the animal’s body was frozen, and transverse sections of the
chest made. Here the right side of the heart was found to be engorged
and the left was partially filled with blood.’
The most dangerous time for a dog is while he is going under first.
Then, if he be struggling, the danger is great. In most cases, as already
stated, when the breathing had stopped under these circumstances,
artificial respiration would restore it and save life, but occasionally it
failed to do so.
When chloroform is given slowly and sufficiently diluted then
the animal goes under completely without necessarily much, if any,
fall in blood pressure. This is in agreement with Shore and Gaskell’s
results The least struggle, however, even if only of the nature of
increased respiration, temporarily sends up the blood pressure more or
1 Philadelphia Medical Journal, 1900, Vol. IT., p. 1,113.
2 Asclepiad, 1890.
3 ‘ Death from Chloroform,” by the author, Canadian Practitioner and Review, Feb., 1898.
4 British Medical Journal, 1891, Vol. II., p. 1089.
202 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.L. VII.
less, and as surely lowers it immediately afterwards. This after lowering
may be partly of the nature of compensation, but it is most probably
due, in part at least, to the struggling causing a greater inhalation of
the drug, and hence poisoning by it.
9 8 70
a
ea ie ae oa ues
me mm mmm me ee e-em ow = a a a a a nn = nn ee we eae aw we oo on se ne nee er ene oe- a rerrene
TRacinc XIX.—o/31.—Chloroform poisoning. Animal Horizontal. 3 Chloroform pushed. 4
Struggling. 5 Pressure falling and pulse slowing. 6 Chloroform removed. 7 Respiration ceased.
8 Pulse very slow. 9 Artificial respirations.
Tracing 19 shows a very typical tracing of chloroform fozsonzng.
The animal was horizontal when the chloroform was pushed at 3. He
had not had any morphia. A slight temporary fall, with slowing of the
pulse occurred, which is very frequently the case, followed by struggling
at 4, with a consequent rise and hastening of the pulse. Then about
forty seconds after the commencement of the chloroform, a rapid fall
with slowing of the pulse, set in. The chloroform was removed at 6, but
several seconds later, the respiration ceased, and the pressure fell more,
with great slowing of the pulse. Artificial respiration was commenced
twenty seconds after the respiration failed, and the animal recovered.
Even though the chloroform towel be removed as soon as ever the
struggling sets in, the temporary rise followed by a fall occurs, sufficient
chloroform vapour being present in the air passages to produce this
train of events. Conclusion 19 of the Anzsthetic Committee of the
British Medical Association is that “struggling must be regarded as a
source of very grave danger under chloroform,” and Lieut.-Col. Lawrie’s
rule, as given in his recent book on chloroform (p. I11) is “never to give
chloroform while there is struggling or irregular breathing.” With this
clinical rule my experiments on dogs entirely agree.
4 3 2 gy ss)
1. al ~ Mee NO ISS
mn “al
F /
ha Any A! Vy My UU ni
[fw
a He
Tracing XX.—3/11.—Chloroform poisoning. S Struggling. 1 Chloroform pushed. 2 Pressure
began to fall quickly. 3 Chloroform removed as pulse slowing. 4 Respiration stopped.
1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 203
In. Tracing 20 another illustration of the same thing occurs. At S,
the animal, which was not at all under the influence of an anesthetic,
began to struggle violently, and the result was a rise in pressure, with
quickening of the pulse. At 1 chloroform was started and pushed.
The pressure began to fall quickly at 2 with great hastening of the
pulse. At 3 chloroform was stopped, as the slowing of the pulse
heralded threatened respiratory failure, but at 4 the respiration did
cease, with the usual great slowing of pulse and fall of blood pressure.
The animal eventually recovered under artificial respiration. This
extreme and sudden fall of the blood pressure occurring synchronously
with the stoppage of the respiration was noted by the first Hyderabad
Commission, who stated the case as follows. “ Although a gradual loss
of tension in the arteries took place after the first stage, the decrease of
tension was more abrupt when the respiration became affected. The
stoppage of the respiration was always succeeded by a sudden increase
in the relaxation of the coats of the femoral artery and a fall in tension.”
It is difficult, however, to understand how they could have concluded
that, “It was further observed that struggling demanded that the
chloroform be pushed and not withheld.” No advice could well have
been more dangerous than this, and fortunately the second Hyderabad
Commission put it right. The chart just given shows that struggling
raises the pressure, and that if chloroform be commenced during the
struggling, then the pressure falls almost at once, in fact, it seems from
what we have observed that the preliminary rise in blood pressure in
chloroform anesthesia is not due to any vaso-motor stimulation, but
rather to the almost constant slight struggling—it may be only increased
breathing—which occurs then. Dr. J. A. McWilliam’ found that
“with moderate respiration the results of a certain dose of chloroform
were very slight, whereas the same dose during exaggerated respiration
caused great depression and extensive fall of blood pressure.”
While all admit that a considerable dose of chloroform produces a
great fall in blood pressure, it is not settled how it does so. Many
believe that it is due to the paralysing action of the drug on the vaso-
motor centre, while on the other hand, Shore and Gaskell’s cross
circulation experiments seem to prove that it is due to the direct action
of chloroform on the heart. These cross circulation experiments,
however, involve a very difficult technique, and when repeated by others
have not always given the same results.”
1 British Medical Journal, Oct. 1890.
2 Journal of Physiology, Vol. XXI., Nos, 4 and 5, 1897.
3 ‘‘ Cross Circulation Experiments,” Lieut.-Col. Lawrie, Lancet, 1898, Vol. II, p. 24.
204
42
(une
43 Respiration still very ample although pressure almost zero,
42 Right carotid divided and with it the vagus.
TracinG XXI.—14/39.—Dog horizontal.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.L. VII.
There can be no doubt but that chloroform
can weaken and even paralyse the heart, and that
chloroform can weaken and even paralyze the
vaso-motor centre, but the question at issue is,
which of these two actions is it that occurs first.
In my opinion it would be exceedingly unlikely
if either one should occur alone, and the proba-
bilities are that the fall in pressure is due to both
factors occurring in different degrees in different
animals. In one case the vaso-motor centre might
prove the more susceptible to the poison, while in
another the heart might first show its effects. In
both cases a fall in pressure would occur.
The importance of the fall is very differently
guaged by different observers. As already stated,
all have noticed it. The Hyderabad Commission
actually considered it a safeguard, arguing that
where the pressure was low less chloroform would
be carried to the centres, and therefore these were
not,so) likely to “be: poisoned); jand! JA. Mice
William argued in the same manner.’ On the
other hand Mr. Leonard Hill thinks that this fall
in pressure, due in his opinion to paralysis of the
vaso-motor centre by chloroform, is actually the
cause of death in such cases, and he believes that
the respiratory failure which occurs so constantly
in dogs poisoned by chloroform is due to the
anemia of the respiratory centre resulting from
a fall in pressure. Without venturing to express
atl Opinion on so important a point one may say
that a mere fall of blood pressure with assumed
anemia of the respiratory centre does not soon
cause stoppage of the respiration but rather
stimulates it, as shown in Tracing 21, where the
animal was bled to death and the respiration
continued even after the blood had ceased to flow
from the severed vessel. «Hy "G-) Weods ‘and
W: S. Carter “haves shown that “even “ereat
1 British Medical Journal, 1890, Vol. II. p.834.
2 Journal of Experimental Medicine, Vol. II, p. 139.
1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE, 205
anemia of the brain produced by tying both carotids and both
vertebral arteries produces little if any change as a rule in the
respiration. From this fact they were led to the conclusion that, “ The
respiratory centres are remarkably insensitive to a lowering of their
blood supply.” Further, I have frequently observed that the respiration
stopped while the pressure was still comparatively high, and only after
the cessation of the breathing did the pressure somewhat suddenly fall
to zero. Tracing 20 illustrates this point. One might say in fact that
the pressure only falls very low after the respiration fails and that
probably the stoppage of the respiration due to poisoning of the respira-
tory centre is the cause of this sudden extra fall in the already slowly
falling pressure. It seems that as the factors which maintain the blood
pressure become weakened by chloroform the respiratory pump
becomes more necessary to the upkeep of this pressure than it usually is,
and hence when it stops the pressure drops at once. Possibly, however,
an anemic respiratory centre is more susceptible to the toxic effects of
chloroform than one not so anemic, and this special susceptibility Mr.
Hill believes he has noticed along with others.’
When the blood pressure falls greatly from chloroform and
remains low, life must be endangered, but in my experience animals
do not die more easily from chloroform administered in the vertical
than in the horizontal position, and it is decidedly harder to kill
a dog with chloroform when the pressure is very low from
hemorrhage than when this is not the case. The second Hyderabad
Commission noted this point thus, “ In Experiment III, the splanchnics
were divided, a proceeding which, as is often said, bleeds the animal
into its own vessels. The pressure was after this exceedingly low,
but chloroform was given and various other actions taken, and then
chloroform had to be pushed on a saturated sponge enclosed in a cap for
eleven minutes before the respiration ceased.” Again J. A. McWilliams
writes as follows,’ “The fall of blood pressure is in a certain sense
protective. It retards the continued access of the anesthetic into the
vital organs. I have frequently been struck with the good resisting
power shown to the influence of both chloroform and ether in animals
in which a very low pressure was present due to other causes than
anesthetics, e.g., vaso-motor paralysis.” He rightly adds that, “On the
other hand the fall of blood pressure may become excessive and prove a
source of great danger.” If then it is harder to kill a dog by chloroform
1 ‘Causation of Chloroform Syncope,” by L. Hill, British Medical Journal, April 17th, 1897.
2 Second Hyderabad Commission Report.
3 British Medical Journal, October, 1890.
206 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII.
when the pressure is low than when it is not so, why should it be that
all anesthetists are agreed upon the danger of giving anesthetics when
the patient is sitting up? The answer I believe lies in the fact that most
deaths which occur in practice in the administration of chloroform are
not cases of poisoning from the drug but ave due to syncope resulting
either from the pain of an operation commenced too soon or from fear. A
close perusal of the Clinical Report of the Lancet leads one to the same
conclusion. Very many of the deaths which have occurred during the
administration of chloroform were not cases of poisoning at all, as the
dose was too small. The following cases summarised from this report
are probably examples of these.
Sertes A, Case 3.—Fistula in ano, dose % dram on towel, anes-
thesia incomplete, felt pain ; in one minute pulse failed.
Case 28.—Extraction of tooth, sitting posture, 25 drops on sponge,
only 4 or 5 respirations, operation not begun, on being asked a question
answered in thick and trembling voice and stretched out her arms, face
became bluish, eyes haggard, head and arms fell, she was dead.
Case 73.—For delirium tremens following a fracture, 1% dram on lint,
after 2 or 3 inspirations the man writhed and fell back dead, not under
influence.
Series B, Case 56.—For removal of finger, 30 drops on lint, syncope.
Case 105.—Castration, 15 to 20 drops on lint, pulse ceased.
Case 285.—Reduction of dislocation, % dram, pupils dilated and
heart’s action failed.
Case 426.—Dressing sprain of ankle, a few drops, syncope.
Sir J. Y. Simpson well remarked in this connection! that, ‘ All the
patients that die under the hand of the operator when chloroform is
used do not necessarily die from the effects of the chloroform upon the
constitution. In several of the recorded cases the dose given was too
small to have had any such fatal effect. Before the time that
anesthetics came to be used deaths on the operating table often
occurred. Such cases have been recorded by Brodie, Cooper, Home,
Travers, etc., etc., but they excited no marked share of professional
t Works of Sir J. Y. Simpson, p. 148.
1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 207
attention, as they were generally supposed to be accidents against which
no action could be of any use. Of late vears and since chloroform has
been employed they have usually been directly and at once ascribed to
the deleterious action of chloroform.” He then gives details of a num-
ber of cases of fatal syncope immediately before or during operations in
which chloroform had not been used. Here is one example, “A few
days after the discovery of chloroform, a case of hernia which had been
strangulated for a few hours was brought into the Infirmary, and Pro-
fessor Miller thought it a case demanding operative interference and one
in which chloroform should be tried; but I could not be found in time
to give it, and the patient was operated on without an anesthetic. Pro-
fessor Miller had only proceeded the length of dividing the skin when
the patient fainted and died with the operation unfinished. If the
chloroform had happened to be used and this fatal syncope had
occurred while the patient was under its action the whole career of the
new anesthetic would have been at once arrested. Such cases teach
us at least that caution is required in our reasoning and _ inferences,
seeing death may occur and has occurred in operations without chloro-
form, and with phenomena quite similar to those ascribed to the action
of chloroform.” The distinction between deaths from chloroform and
deaths simply occurring during the administration of chloroform is even
more important to-day than it was in Simpson’s time. Nowadays so
many patients have a dread of chloroform that one would expect cases
of syncope to occur occasionally when patients are going under the
anesthetic and are still conscious and afraid. R. Ballard! discusses
this point well and argues that children and dogs are less apt to be
afraid, and hence are less likely to suffer from syncope; and the British
Medical Journal in an annotation suggests’ that the reason why
parturient women are less apt to suffer from chloroform is that they do
not dread it. Snow* mentioned several cases in which, although chloro-
form was administered, death was attributed by him to fright. In all
only a small quantity of chloroform had been given and that freely
diluted, and in every case great fear and apprehension were noted
before the administration. The fact that many deaths which occur
during the use of chloroform are not due to the use of the anesthetic,
is further brought out by the recent Report of the Anzsthetic Com-
mittee of the British Medical Association. Out of eighteen cases of
death “under chloroform” they found that only three were due
entirely to the drug, four were chiefly due to it, and the remaining
1 Lancet, 1898, Vol. I, p. 1,253.
2 British Medical Journal, 1900, Vol., p. 35.
3 Treatise on Anesthetics, 1858.
208 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
eleven—more than 50 per cent—were doubtful. Their 17th Conclusion
is that, “Imperfect anesthesia is the cause of a large number of cases
of danger under chloroform.”
We have seen that workers differ greatly as to the danger of great
falls in blood pressure due to chloroform administration. It seems
clear, however, that such falls are at any rate indications that the patient
is very deeply under, and if only one could clinically recognize such a
fall with ease it would be a valuable danger signal. Duplay and
Hallion! hope before long to describe a method of ascertaining the
blood pressure during surgical operations under anesthetics; and if
they or any one else should succeed, a valuable result will have been
attained.
Occasionally during the administration of chloroform, sudden falls of
blood pressure may occur, along with marked slowing of the pulse,
evidently of the nature of vagus inhibition of the heart. Such falls were
noted by the Glasgow Commission, and were considered to be a cause of
sudden death under chloroform.2, The members of this Commission, in
discussing the points of agreement between them and the Hyderabad
Commission, say that “ Both observed peculiarly sudden and unexpected
falls of pressure and slowing of the heart. The Commissions differed as
to the origin of these. The Hyderabad Commission attribute it to
asphyxia ; the Glasgow Commission say not asphyxia, whatever may
be the cause.” These falls closely resemble those which we gave early
in this work as occurring occasionally in dogs apparently without
cause; no chloroform being administered at the time. When
they occur during the administration of chloroform the Hyderabad
Commission, as stated, consider them to be asphyxial and of no danger,
in fact, the opposite, as tending to prevent the further absorption of the
poison. Lieut.-Col. Lawrie* dogmatically states that, “The special
effects which the Glasgow Commission attributed to chloroform were
produced by accidental asphyxia . . . the slowing of the pulse and
circulation through stimulation of the vagus is a safeguard in chloroform
: : Pe)
poisoning.
Tracing 22 shows such a fall. Chloroform was started at 7, the dog
being already slightly under. He struggled a little. The sudden fall
occurred ten seconds later. The chloroform was not removed, and yet
1 Archiyes Generales de Medicine, Aug. 1900.
2 Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, Vol. XIII., p. 395.
3 ‘* Remarks on the znd Hyderabad Commission,” by Drs, McKendrick, Coats and Newman, British
Medical Journal, June 14th, rgoo.
4 Lancet, June 21st, 1900.
1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 209
twenty seconds later the fall had been partly recovered from and the
pulse had resumed its former rate. A strong resemblance will be seen
between this tracing and one produced by either stimulation of the
8 7
. 9
nny Wy www
TracinG XXII.--9/23.—No Morphia. 7 Chloroform pushed, dog being horizontal. 8 Sudden fall in
pressure with slowing of pulse. Chloroform continued and yet pressure normal again at 9.
distal or the proximal end of the vagus, as shown in Tracing 23, and it
seems that all are agreed that such falls are of the nature of vagus
inhibition. Whether the vagus centres are directly stimulated by the
chloroform, or are more or less reflexly affected through afferent nerves,
or whether the stimulation is of the nature of asphyxia, it is hard to say.
From the fact that the fall disappears even if the chloroform be
continued, I would be inclined to agree with the Hyderabad Commission
13a 13 12a 12
Trin Malt) Vth
TracinG XXIII.—3/11 Dog horizontal. Left vagus previously divided. 12 Distalend of cut vagus
stimulated by Faradic current. 13 Proximal end stimulated.
that such is not a source of danger; and as regards the nature of the
vagus inhibition, from the same fact, I would consider that it is caused
by strong vapour irritating the sensory branches of the vagus, and as
the sensory nerves become numbed the reflex disappears. It is not a
constant phenomenon, however, even when very concentrated vapour is
used. Another case from similar stimulation might show reflex
laryngeal spasm. The fact that these occasional, probably safe, falls in
pressure do occur in dogs is not sufficient ground in my opinion for
14
210 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
changing the view that usually a markedly slow pulse is an urgent
indication for the immediate removal of the anesthetic.
As arule, unless an animal has just been struggling violently, the
pulse becomes considerably slowed when he is going under chloroform
and becomes fast when he is coming out. The exception mentioned is
struggling, and this, as has been already shown, may so hasten the pulse
that it only slows when, or just before, the respiration stops. The cause
of this slowing is doubtful, some attributing it to stimulation of the
vagus by the chloroform vapour, some to the direct poisoning of the
heart muscle, and others again to asphyxia. Whatever the cause of
this gradual slowing may be, it is a valuable sign clinically. The fall of
pressure is evidently not due alone to it, as shown by the fact that such
falls occur when the vagi are divided, when atropine is given (vide
tracing 47), or while the pulse is still fast after struggling (vide tracing
20). Nevertheless the fall in pressure and the slowing of the pulse as a
rule go hand in hand in deep chloroform narcosis.
As regards the effect of posture during chloroform narcosis, generally
speaking the animal is rendered less resistant to the effects of gravity
than is one not so poisoned, and hence the vertical feet-down position
produces a greater fall than it would otherwise do. If the animal be
first placed feet-down and then chloroform be pushed, as might be
inferred, the pressure falls more freely than when the drug is given in
the horizontal position. This is in accordance with Mr. Leonard Hill’s
observations, when he considers chloroform to be the most powerful
agent known for abolishing the mechanisms which compensate for the
influence of gravity.’
The effects of various operations on the blood pressure while the
animal was under chloroform were tried, and as a rule they were
chiefly negative.
TracinG X XIV.—3/8.—Dog under Chloroform and horizontal. 10 Abdomen opened freely. 11
Splenic artery tied.
Tracing 24 is taken from a dog completely anesthetized with
chloroform and lying horizontal. At 10 the abdomen was freely opened
1 Journal of Physiology, Vol. XXI, Nos. 4 and 5, 1897.
1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE.
and the splenic artery was tied at 11, and yet
no fall in pressure occurred. A slight rise in
fact occurred at 11, which might have been
due to the tying of the artery. Thus no sign
of shock appeared, and this is in accordance
with the results obtained by the Hyderabad
Commission, who were unable to produce
shock in dogs under chloroform by any
operation they tried.
COMPLICATIONS ARISING DURING THE
ADMINISTRATION OF CHLOROFORM.
Various complications may occur at any
time during the administration of chloroform,
which produce more or less effect on the
blood pressure and are as well often danger-
ous. Vomiting never seems to take place in
dogs under chloroform, as already noted.
The effects of struggling have been already
discussed.
The inhalation of fluid when occurring
during anesthesia is sometimes a source of
great danger. Tracing 25 is taken from a
dog under chloroform. When this tracing
begins he is already in the feet-down
position. At 9g two hundred ccs. of an
aqueous solution (of chloretone) were poured
down his throat. He swallowed distinctly
several times, but did not seem to breathe
again. The pressure after a slight transi-
tory rise fell rapidly, but the pulse remained
fast. At 10 he was placed horizontal, and
some rise of pressure occurred. Atrtificial
respiration was tried, but did not seem to
work well—no sign of life appeared and he
was evidently dead. On opening the thorax
the right side of the heart was found to be
enormously distended with blood, as were
also" the wens “enterine it Whe left side
was nearly empty. The lungs contained
10
fe Wve WA een econ in
2I!I
10 Horizontal.
9 200 cc. of fluid poured into fauces.
Tracing XXV.—7/18.—Dog under Chloroform and vertical.
212 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
frothy blood, and evidently the animal had died of drowning. This
chart shows that in acute asphyxia, as stated by the Hyderabad
Commission, the pressure may fall rapidly. The pulse, however, did not
slow as the Commission found it to do, and the chart bears no
resemblance to one in which death occurs from chloroform poisoning
(unless indeed the animal be already under atropine.)
In Tracing 26 a dog under chloroform ‘had already had some solu-
tion (of chloretone) poured into the stomach by means of a tube.
While still vertical the remains of the solution, about I oz., were poured
into the fauces, the tube having been removed. At once at 7 the
nat
Tracinc XX VI.—3/8.— Dog under Chloroform and vertical. 7 An ounce of fluid poured into fauces-
gasped. 8 Some of solution inhaled. g Horizontal. Animal recovered.
pressure fell, then rose for a few seconds, and then began to fall steadily
with slight hastening of the pulse. The animal was placed horizontal
and began to breathe again, and finally recovered. This chart shows
the danger of even small quantities of fluid accumulating in the fauces
while the laryngeal reflex is done away with by an anesthetic. Even
tracheotomy might not save the patient, as the fluid is quickly drawn
into the lungs themselves, as shown by the post mortem examination of
the dog from which Tracing 25 was taken.
These charts agree then with Lieut.-Col. Lawrie’s contention that in
asphyxia the pressure falls. The fall is only marked in odstructive
asphyxia, however. When asphyxia is brought about by free opening
of the pleural cavities producing pneumo-thorax, so that although the
animal is breathing hard no new air enters the collapsed lungs, then
after many violent acts of inspiration the respiration ceases and then
only the pressure falls and the pulse becomes markedly slowed. Kcnow
and Shenbeck' showed that in animals whose respiration was paralyzed
by Curara asphyxia produced arise in pressure, then a gradual fall, then
a strong increase and finally a fall to death.
rt ‘On Blood Pressure in Asphyxia,” Skandin Arch. f. Physiologie, I, 603-641. Tap. 5, 6.
1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. PIG
Tracing 27. In this animal double pneumo-thorax had _ been
produced in the manner described with very free openings through the
parietes. The whole tracing is too long to reproduce here, but the
Tracinc XXVII.—3/11.—Double pneumothorax previously produced with very free openings through
parietes. Pressure well maintained until respiration stopped at 22. Pressure then fell with slow pulse—
asphyxia.
pressure was well maintained until respiration stopped at 22. Then it
fell and the pulse became very slow and ceased a couple of minutes
later.
A momentary rise will be noticed at 22 just after the respiration
ceased.
In Tracing 28, on the other hand in which both pleure had been
freely opened, a marked respiratory wave appeared with some rise in
pressure when the trachea was clamped at 22. At 23 the attempts at
2 22
=
vi | a hy at
TracinG XXVIII.—3/11.—Double pneumothorax previously produced. 22 Trachea clamped. 23
Efforts at breathing ceased and then arterial pressure fell.
respiration stopped, and then the pressure fell slowly with marked
slowing of the pulse. About three minutes later the pulse became fast
and the pressure rose a few mms., giving a good example of delirium
cordis.
Thus it may be seen that very different tracings are got in
different conditions of asphyxia, and that no one description will suffice
for every form. This probably is the reason why Lieut.-Col. Lawrie and
his critics got so far apart in their statements, some asserting that the
pressure fell in asphyxia, and others that it rose, eg., Dr. J. H. Potter
214 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
wrote:'| “We have in asphyxia increased blood pressure with lividity;
in fatal chloroform narcosis we have just the opposite, viz., diminished
blood pressure with pallor.” They were both right probably, for, as
shown, the question of whether the pressure rises or falls in asphyxia
entirely depends on how the asphyxia is produced. It seems that as
long as efforts at respiration are made as in 28 the pressure is main-
tained but as soon as such efforts cease then the pressure falls. In
chloroform poisoning the respiratory centre is paralyzed and there are
no efforts at respiration and therefore the pressure may at once fall.
vA _ ,
TracinG XXIX.—o/31.—Animal inhaling strong Chloroform vapour. Inspiratory stridor.
Inspiratory Stridor—Tracing 29 shows the effect upon the blood
pressure of inspiratory stridor produced by the inhalation of strong
chloroform vapour. A fall occurred during each inspiration.
In Tracing 30 the left vagus had been already cut. At Io the
right vagus was being handled, which produced some fall of pressure.
At 11 this nerve was divided and immediately the pulse increased in
rate, the pressure rose and the respiratory curve became more marked.
Each dip in the tracing was accompanied by an inspiratory stridor,
VOLO tad gt Marl May
Tracinec XXX.—o/31.—Left vagus already divided. 11 Right vagus cut. 12 Inspiratory stridor set
in evidently of a paralytic nature.
evidently caused by the flapping together of the vocal cords, the muscles
of which had been paralyzed by division of the vagi. This result, how-
ever, is not a constant one on division of the vagi. Thus, either spasm
of the laryngeal muscles as shown in Tracing 29, or paralysis, as shown
in Tracing 41, may produce inspiratory stridor, and this stridor is shown
to have a marked effect on the pressure. The stridor due to spasm
disappears as the animal becomes more deeply anesthetized ; that due
to paralysis does not so go away.
1 The Lancet, Vol. I, 1890.
1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 215
A Rigid Condition of the Body may occur while the animal is
deeply under chloroform and may disappear as he comes out. Tracing
31 is taken from a case of this kind. The animal was completely
anesthetized and still taking chloroform at 6, but the jaws were rigidly
closed. At 7 he was still very rigid and the jaws could not be forced
apart. Chloroform was stopped at 8, and soon the spasm lessened and
the jaws relaxed, and without giving any more chloroform a stomach
8 7 6
PAHs tonne moore
Tracinc XXXI.—1/4.—Animal completely under Chloroform. 7 Rigid condition of body. 8
Chloroform stopped and rigidity soon ceased.
tube was passed with ease. I have seen this rigidity occur clinically
occasionally under ether to a marked degree, and to a less extent under
chloroform. G. O. C. Mackness' mentions a case where “suddenly
clonic spasms of the face and limbs came on” under chloroform where
the patient recovered ; while E. W. Dickson’ gives an instance where
such ended fatally. Fourteen cases are mentioned by the Anesthetic
Committee of the British Medical Association in which fits or epileptic
convulsions were noticed.’
METHODS OF RESUSCITATION IN CHLOROFORM POISONING.
Of all methods tried artificial respiration was found to be by far the
most certain method of restoring animals in which the respiration had
stopped as a result of chloroform poisoning. In the majority of cases it
was successful, though occasionally, even when started as soon as the
natural respiration had ceased, it failed to save life. In these latter
cases probably the heart and vaso-motor centre were paralyzed almost
synchronously with the respiration. The method followed was
rhythmical compression of the chest, and the effect on the blood pressure
consists in a rise during each expiration. In using the method the air
passages must be kept free by keeping the tongue firmly pulled out and
if necessary introducing the tip of the index finger into the rima
clottidis, by which means the vocal cords are kept apart. The Lancet
Clinical Report mentions a case “ where mechanical stimulation of the
larynx by pressing the finger down to the rima glottidis was said to
r British Medical Journal, Dec. 7th, 1895.
2 British Medical Journal, Oct. 19th, 1895.
3 Report of the Anaesthetic Committee, British Medical Journal, Feb. 23rd, 1891.
216 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
have been successful in restoring life,’ and apart from this probable
reflex action, the pressure of the finger assures the operator that the
cords are swung apart.
One soon learns to tell whether artificial respiration will be success-
ful or not in a given case by the “feeling” of the chest. If this feel
elastic, and it be easy to make the air pass in and out, all is well; but
if this be not the case, even although the air passages be free, it is bad.
Why this should be I am not quite certain, but certainly artificial
respiration on a dead dog will not produce the amount of respiratory
tide in such that it will do in a living animal. It must be remembered
that when one compresses the chest the air is not thus a@zrectly pressed
out, but the compression lessens the cubic capacity of the thorax and
then the elasticity of the lungs drives the air out. If this elasticity be
lessened then compression of the chest will not so readily cause the air
to pass out. This is observed in cases of Emphysema, where the
elasticity of the lungs is more or less lost’ and expiration in con-
sequence becomes difficult.
As the animal recovers under the influence of artificial respiration it
becomes progressively easier to make a good flow of air in and out of
the chest, until at last this occurs spontaneously, and when once this
stage has been reached I have not seen the respiration fail again. The
Hyderabad Commission report such cases, however.
Tracing XXXII.—9/4o—Dog poisoned with Chloroform, 4 Respiration ceased but heart could be
heard on anscultation. 5 Artificial respiration. 6 Pulse appeared and pressure rose. 7 Artificial
respiration stopped at 6 and pulse here failed and pressure fell again. 8 Artificial respiration again. 9
Pulse started again and soon after natural respiration commenced and animal recovered,
Tracing 32 illustrates the beneficial effect of artificial respiration on
the pulse on blood pressure. At 4 the animal was very deeply poisoned
with chloroform, the pressure was almost zero, and the respiration
had stopped, and the pulse was absent from the chart though the heart
could be heard to be beating. The chloroform had been removed. At
5 artificial respiration was started, and the waves produced by it are
visible on the tracing. At 6 the pressure suddenly rose, and with it the
pulse appeared. At 7 artificial respiration was stopped, and at once the
pressure fell again and the pulse disappeared. At 8 artificial respiration
was resumed, and at 9 the pressure rose again and the pulse reappeared.
1 Diseases of the Lungs. Sir Douglas Powell.
1900-1. ] OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 217
Artificial respiration was stopped and the pressure fell slightly, but
natural respiration soon set in, and after that the animal gradually
recovered, the pulse as usual becoming very fast during recovery.
This tracing shows then the good effect of artificial respiration
on the heart. The method might almost as properly be called
“artificial circulation” as “artificial respiration ;” which name would
constantly remind one that he was directly acting on the heart while
performing the movements of the method.
The effect of Tracheotomy on the blood pressure is interesting.
Besides being useful in cases where some obstruction in the air passages
exists above the level of the wound thus made, the operation appears to
Tracinc XXXIII.—9/31.—Dog poisoned by Chloroform. Respiration stops. Artificial respiration
tried without avail. 17 Trachea opened and respiration commenced at once and remained,
stimulate the respiration reflexly. In Tracing 33 the respiration had
ceased as a result of chloroform poisoning, while the pulse continued.
Artificial respiration had been performed, but no attempt at natural
respiration appeared. The tongue had been drawn out forcibly and
repeatedly (ILaborde’s method), and the air passages were clear.
Tracheotomy was performed at 17, and at once the animal commenced
to breathe and soon recovered.
Tracing 34 shows the same phenomena even better. Natural
respiration had stopped here for several minutes. The puncturing of
the trachea at 27 at once was succeeded by a gasp and rise in biood
28 27
ee
TracinG XX XIV.—9/28.—Dog poisoned with Chloroform. Natural respiration stops for ten minutes ;
Artificial respiration being continued. 27 Trachea opened and artificial respiration continued as
before. 28 Natural respiration occurred and animal recovered.
pressure as shown in the tracing, and the animal recovered. The air
passages were clear. The effect on the respiration here is evidently of
the nature of reflex stimulation. The same thing is seen often when
the surgeon is performing tracheotomy for any condition. As the
trachea is punctured a violent gasp occurs. In desperate cases of
218 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
chloroform poisoning it might be justifiable to thus operate in the hope
of producing this reflex effect.
Forcible Pulling Forward of the Tongue seems, as has long been
noted clinically, to stimulate respiration, and in several of the dogs it
seemed to be the last straw starting respiration. Professor Syme in a
clinical lecture delivered in 1884’ said,“ Attention to the tongue is
another point we found of great consequence. When respiration
becomes difficult or ceases we open the mouth, seize the tip of the
tongue and pull it well forward, and there can be little doubt that death
would have occurred in some cases if it had not been for the use of this
expedient.” It has been recently demonstrated that pulling on the
tongue does not open the glottis, and it would seem more probable that
it reflexly stimulates the respiration. The chloroformist who has been
trained in Edinburgh always has a pair of fenestrated artery-forceps
handy for this purpose.
The preceding notes and tracings emphasize the following points as
regards the effects of chloroform.
First, that any struggling during its administration greatly hastens
the toxic effects, and that hence the drug should be removed while such
lasts, and then should be given more gradually when the patient is
quiet again. One frequently sees clinically the chloroform pushed at
such a juncture, especially if the struggling has been started by the
surgeon commencing the operation; but struggling without any such
cause generally indicates that the vapour is too concentrated, and
struggling due to this is doubly dangerous.
Second, a fall in blood pressure is hard to detect accurately clinically,
but it is usually accompanied by slowing of the pulse, and such isa
danger signal, and the chloroform should be at once removed. This
slowing may occasionally be of a transient nature and due to stimulation
of the vagi by concentrated vapour; or it may be the more serious
slowing in the wake of which lies respiratory failure.
Third, if respiratory failure should occur—and it is much more likely
to do so during the preliminary administration than later on—then
artificial respiration is by far the most valuable method of restoring it.
Artificial respiration not only keeps up the respiratory tide but also, as
shown in Tracing 45, directly stimulates the circulation and raises the
blood pressure, in fact the circulation may be feebly carried on for a
1 Lancet, June 21st, 1885.
1900-1. OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 21
9
short time by respiration alone. Thus, whether one believe that chloro-
form kills by respiratory paralysis or by heart failure, or by vaso-motor
paralysis, artificial respiration should be resorted to at once, and should
rank, in my opinion, above all other remedies which may afterwards or
along with it be attempted.
Fourth, forcible pulling out of the tongue, the placing of the finger
in the rima glottidis, and the performance of tracheotomy all seem to
stimulate respiration.
Fifth, the horizontal position is advisable when chloroform is being
administered, not because respiratory failure is less likely to occur in
that position, but because the risk of syncope is thus greatly lessened.
Syncope is in my opinion the cause of death in most cases reported, and
in many at least is not due to chloroform poisoning at all, but to the
shock of pain or emotion before the patient is fully under or when he ts
coming out.
The actions of three drugs were investigated in regard to choroform
poisoning. These were, Nitrite of Amyl, Hydrocyanic Acid, and
Atropine.
Nitrite of Amyl—This drug was given in several cases where the
respiration had ceased as a result of chloroform poisoning, but no
beneficial results were obtained. In each case one or more capsules
containing the drug were crushed in the fauces while artificial respiration
was being maintained.
Hydrocyanic Actd—On the first of January, 1898, an article
appeared in the Lancet by Professor Hobday, of the Royal Veterinary
College of London. In it he suggested the use of hydrocyanic acid as
an antidote in cases of chloroform poisoning. The dose recommended
was I minim of Scheele’s acid by the mouth for every seven or eight
pounds of body weight. He stated that he had found it invariably
useful in animals in which, as a sequence to chloroform poisoning, the
respiration had stopped. He had already published’ a list of forty-three
observations on various animals, including dogs, cats, horses, sheep and
calves, showing the results obtained by this method of resuscitation. In
the last paper he refers to a series of fifteen additional consecutive
cases in which H.C.N. had been successfully used in dogs after the
respiration had actually ceased. Dr. A. Wilson, of Manchester, in the
next number of the Lancet? opposed this view very strongly, arguing
on theoretical grounds that as H.C.N. is the most powerful of all respira-
r Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics, June 1896.
2 Lancet, Jan 8th, 1808.
220 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
tory, poisons, hence it could not be useful when the respiration was
already paralyzed by chloroform. He concluded by saying that “ It
would be useful if Professor Hobday could give an account of the effects
of the dose he recommends on a healthy animal.” The argument that
because H.C.N. is the most powerful of all respiratory poisons in fatal
doses, therefore it could not do good in any dose, was so obviously open
to criticism that I determined to take advantage of Dr. Wilson’s sugges-
tion to Professor Hobday and to try the effect of the drug in non-lethal
doses on a healthy animal.
Ex. I—A healthy mongrel collie dog, weighing thirty-three pounds,
was given hypodermically in the back 9 3-7 minims of Acid Hydrocyan.
Dil. (equal to 4 5-7 minims of Scheele’s Acid, ze., 1 minim of Scheele’s
Acid to every seven pounds of body weight) at 2.48 p.m. The room was
at 58° F. Notes were made every thirty seconds of his condition. They
may be summarized by saying that in two minutes the animal was
breathing hard and rapidly, with mouth open as if after exertion. This
continued for five minutes and then he vomited. The breathing
gradually became normal again. He vomited once more at 3.1 p.m.
and then all symptoms disappeared and he remained well.
The effect then of a dose of 1 minim of Scheele’s acid to every
seven pounds of body weight is, very briefly, first, great stimulation of
the respiration; second, vomiting ; third, recovery.
In order to note the effect of the drug on the blood pressure, pulse
and respiration, several dogs were used. They were previously given
some morphia hypodermically and afterwards just enough chloroform
to keep them quiet so that there should be no struggling to mar the
results.
7 6 5
ROUT
Tracinc XXXV.—1/4.—Effect of small dose of H.C.N. Dog slightly under Morphia and Chloroform
and horizontal. 5 Five minims dilute H.C.N. into fauces. 6 Respiration more ample. 7 Pulse raised
from 87-106. Recovery.
Tracing 35 illustrates the effect of a small dose of the drug. The
animal had been given % grain of morphia hypodermically half an hour
before the experiment began. He weighed about seventeen pounds.
At 5 he was lying horizontal and breathing quietly, twelve to the
minute, with a pulse of eighty-seven, and was slightly under chloroform.
1900-T. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE, 221
5 minims of dilute H.C.N. (equal to 24% minims of Scheele’s acid) were
injected into the fauces. The respiration almost at once became more
ample—although this is not fully brought out in the tracing—but it
was not hastened ; and the pulse was raised from 87 to 106. No bad
effects followed, and 7% minutes later the animal was reported as quite
normal again. Here then a dose of about 1 minim of Scheele’s acid to
seven pounds of body weight increased the amplitude of the respiration,
slightly hastened the pulse, but did not otherwise alter the tracing, and
no bad effects were produced.
1A a IN
TRACING XXXVI.—o/29,—Effects of small dose of H.C.N. Dose administered just before tracing
begins. 4 Respiration very ample, pulse slightly irregular, pressure unaltered,
Tracing 36 is from a dog of about nine pounds weight which had been
given 4 grain of morphia half an hour before the experiment
commenced. One minute before the tracing commences 3 minims of
dilute H.C.N. were injected hypodermically. A few seconds later (at 4),
the respiration was deep and sighing and somewhat irregular, the pulse
was slightly faster, and the pressure remained unaltered. After that the
respiration became hastened, but beyond the tracing the animal com-
pletely recovered. Thus a slightly larger dose than Professor Hobday
recommended, about I minim of Scheele’s acid to six pounds of body
weight, produced no bad effects when given hypodermically. The chief
alteration noticed was marked increase in the amplitude of the
respiration.
Tracing XXXVII.—3/10.—Effects of H.C.N. Dose administered at 8. 9 Breathing very ample,
pressure rather higher,
222
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
17 First dose, respiration excited and somewhat irregular, pulse hastened and pressure slightly raised,
Repeated doses of H.C.N.
Tracinc XXXVIII.—13/35.
Tracing 37 is from a dog twenty-two pounds
in weight which had previously been given %
grain of morphia hypodermically. Some minutes
before this tracing begins he had been given 6
minims of nitrite of amyl, but the effects of this
had completely worn off. He was now given
three minims of Scheele’s acid by the mouth, ze.,
about the maximum dose recommended by
Professor Hobday. In a few seconds, as shown
by the tracing, the respiration became very ample
and then hastened, the pulse somewhat increased
in speed and the pressure was a little raised. No
bad effects ensued.
Next we come to a series of experiments
undertaken to find the effects of repeated doses
Of He Ne
Tracings 38, 39 and 40 are from the same dog
and show well the effects of repeated doses of the
drug. The dog was a fox terrier weighing about
twelve pounds. At 17, 3 minims of Scheele’s
acid were placed on the back of the tongue.
Almost immediately the pulse hastened, the
respiration became greatly excited, irregular and
more ample, and the blood pressure rose somewhat.
A couple of minutes later, fifteen seconds before
tracing 39 begins, the dose was repeated. The
same effects occurred, but soon wore off, and at
18a the tracing looks as it did before the first dose
of H.C.N. was administered. Two minutes later
the dose was again repeated at Ig (in tracing 40).
The respiration once more became excited, but
soon grew infrequent, the pulse became much
slower and the pressure fell, making the chart look
like that from one form of asphyxia, and soon the
animal died of respiratory failure. The thorax
was quickly opened and the heart was seen to be
still beating—and it continued to beat even after
it was completely removed from the body ; and,
when the contractions had ceased, they could for
several minutes be started again by simply putting
1900-1. ]. OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 223
the heart under a stream of cold water. But although the heart
was beating when the chest was opened it was practically empty,
and a wound made in the left ventricle did not bleed to any extent.
In this case death resulted from 9 minims of Scheele’s acid given
to a twelve pouna dog in three doses within four minutes. The
result was death from respiratory failure, but before this occurred
18a 18
WW
Tracinc XXXIX.—o/26.—Repeated doses of H.C.N. 18 Second dose given. Respiration excited.
18a Pulse slowing.
there was great and repeated stimulation of the respiratory centre.
As with many other drugs, a small dose produces one effect and a
larger dose the opposite—stimulation in the one case, paralysis in
the other. It is the first stage, that of stimulation only, which is
produced by the dose recommended by Professor Hobday. N.
Grehaut’ showed that repeated small doses of H.C.N. produced powerful
stimulation of the respiration. After the injection of 5 c.c. of a 1/10,000
20 19
VR aint ale me,
Tracinc XL.—o/17.—Repeated dose of H.C.N. 19 Third dose. Respiration excited and then
slowed and stopped about 20. Pulse slowed, pressure fell to zero,
solution of pure H.C.N. into the jugular vein of a dog weighing 10
kilo., the respiratory movements immediately became more ample
and soon again returned to their ordinary rhythm. He found
that 7/1,000 cc. of pure H.C.N. killed a 9 kilo. dog in seventeen
minutes.
Next, single doses just sufficient to produce death were given to
several dogs in order to note the sequence of events. An animal
weighing about sixteen pounds was given 10 minims of dilute H.C.N.
(equal to 5 minims of Scheele’s acid) hypodermically. He had
already had 3 minims half an hour before. The pulse rate, blood
1 Physiolog. Researches on H.C.N. Archiv. de Physiol, 1890, p. 133.
15
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vor. VIE
15 Heart stops.
Last respiration occurred about 14.
Tracinc XLI,—7/16.—Final stage of fatal H.C.N. poisoning.
pressure and respiration were noted at frequent
intervals as given below:
Pulse. Respira- Blood
tion. Pressure.
Just before administration... 105 24 125 mms.
Two minutes after admin-
IStratiOnk er .-lerlarralss 156 39 125 mms.
Two minutes later........ 228 29 140 mms.
Two minutes later........ 168 24 140 mms.
Two minutes later........ 174 iii 140 mms.
Four minutes later........ 160 18
Poursminutes laters III 12
Hour minutes latena. wee. 44 10
(Tracing assuming an
asphyxial type with
great amplitude of
pulse waves.)
Four minutes later......... 34 5
Awowminutes: later 7.1.1 88 7 Pressure now
commencing
to fall
steadily.
Two minutes later..:...... 118 2
Tracing 41 shows the last stage of this
case. The last respiration occurred at 14, the
pressure fell steadily, and the pulse became
fast at the last.
Another dog was treated in the same manner,
and the next tracings show the effects at inter-
vals. The animal weighed about ten pounds
and was given IO minims of dilute H.C.N.
hypodermically, following on 4 minims a few
minutes before. He had had no morphia. Just
before the last dose was given the pulse was
82, the respiration 16, and the pressure good.
(He had quite recovered from the first small
dose. )
Pulse, Respira- Blood
tion. Pressure.
Two minutes after
last administration 160 26 In statu quo.
Two mirutes later.. 50 7 In statu quo.
Three minutes later
(tralcie942) opie eee a In statu quo.
Three minutes later. 100 Just stopped Falling steadily.
Six minutes later...Tracing 43 shows the termination
of this experiment. The heart
stopped after beating rapidly to
the end.
1900-I. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE, 225
yyy yyy
Watolateteistalatetett iatalatatalatatalalalallatalalatslatatslsalalalalolelelatalallatlstsltoletelelal lalatalalabatalatatentatatalatptalatatalalatalalalsUalaUa lal Ualalavay
TracinG XLII.—9/28.—Poisoning by H.C.N. seven minutes after fatal dose was given. P. 42 R.
7 pressure still maintained.
ee ee
eta taatata tutus arataa arate latatatata Caraatatatu tau uuu urs atau tatutartainu na rtanran un rannnnttt tttetatetatettatabstatattontetet mtetet rt ttt tetettetay
Tracinc XLIII.—9/34.—Poisoned by H.C.N. Last stage. Respiration already stopped.
The sequence of events then from a small fatal dose is as follows:
First, preliminary stimulation of the respiration and pulse, the former
increasing in amplitude as well as in speed ; second, slowing of the
respiration and pulse, the pressure being maintained ; third, stoppage
of the respiration, pulse increasing in speed and pressure falling ; fourth,
pressure falling to zero, pulse remaining fast until death.
I poisoned four dogs thus which had previously had a hypodermic
dose of morphia. In none of them did vomiting occur, nor convulsions.
One dog which had had no morphia or chloroform showed a strong
tendency to convulsions before death from a dose just sufficient to
obtain a fatal result. He vomited frequently. When the dose of the
drug is largely in excess of what is necessary to produce death, then
the animal almost at once passes into a state of convulsion.
From these experiments it would seem that the dose of Scheele’s
acid recommended by Professor Hobday, viz., 1 minim of Scheeie’s acid
to seven pounds of body weight, is a safe one in a dog. Sucha dose, or
a lesser one, produces the stage of stimulation of the pulse and respira-
tion with no alteration in the blood pressure. The effect of the drug
soon wears off, and the animal seems to be none the worse.
The next tracings show the effect of using H.C.N. when danger “as
occurred from chloroform poisoning. A thirty-pound dog while vertical
was given chloroform until the respiration stopped. In Tracing 44 the
respiration stopped at 18. At 19, 4 minims of dilute H.C.N. were
1
226 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo. VII.
administered hypodermically. At 20 he was placed horizontal and
respiration of a very fast nature at once commenced. In the tracing the
big waves represent the pulse, slow because asphyxial, and the little
ones are the respiration. The pulse is sixteen per minute, and the
respirations are sixty. Beyond this the pulse hastened, the pressure
improved and the animal completely recovered. No artificial respira-
tion was here employed, and it seems probable that this animal was
saved by H.C.N. The placing of him horizontal greatly aided the
result.
21 20 19 18
(
ar yriret u
nitnt
LARA MInAAAAninnnannnannnannnannns
Tracinc XLIV.—3/10.—Antidotal use of H.C.N. Animal vertical, 18 Asa result of Chloroform
pressure fell and respiration stopped here. 19 Animal apparently dead. H.C.N. hypodermically. 20
Horizontal. 21 Respiration 60 per minute, pulse 20 (large waves are pulse and smaller ones respiration).
Animal recovered.
II 10 9
| yh
WWW, AN te Ann ale
RAnnAnnnannn
Tracinc XLV.—3/11.—Antidotal use of H.C.N. Animal being vertical, Chloroform pushed, pressure
fell and respiration ceased ato, 10 H.C.N. given. 11 Pressure rising, respiration rapid (not shown on
tracing).
In another case an animal was apparently saved from fatal chloro-
form poisoning only to die from H.C.N. poisoning. A dose equal to
I minim of Scheele’s acid to three pounds of body weight was used,
and hence it was not to be wondered at that he eventually died.
Tracing 45 was taken from this case. While the animal was in the
vertical posture chloroform was pushed, and at 9 respiration stopped,
and the pulse as usual became exceedingly slow—ten per minute—and
the pressure fell to almost zero, At 10, twenty-five seconds after the
cessation of respiration, 7% minims of dilute H.C.N. were injected into
the fauces. Respiration of a very rapid nature commenced almost at
once, although it produced no sign on the tracing, and at 11 the
following note was made: “Blood pressure rising; respiration good
although not shown on chart.’ Thus, so far nothing but good had
resulted from the H.C.N., and the animal seemed certain to recover.
But now symptoms of H.C.N. poisoning set in as follows: 2% minutes
from the time of administration of the H.C.N. natural respiration
1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE. 227
stopped, and the pulse was thirty-eight. One minute later artificial
respiration was commenced. Five minutes later the animal was placed
horizontal, with the result that the pressure rose slightly. The finger
was introduced into the glottis. With each artifical respiration a spasm
of the depressor muscles of the lower jaw was felt. This spasm gradu-
ally spread to the muscles of respiration, and eight minutes after the
administration of the H.C.N. the spasm evolved itself into natural
respiration. This stopped two minutes later, and artificial respiration
this time failed to restore it. The animal died 19% minutes after the
administration of the H.C.N. This animal “died cured” so far as the
chloroform was concerned.
Bearing in mind the extreme uncertainty of the strength of prepara-
tions of H.C.N., I took special care to procure from a reliable source a
fresh supply for each of the experiments. Scheele’s acid is roughly
double the strength of the dilute Hydrocyanic Acid of the British Phar-
macopeeia. I used the drug both by the mouth and hypodermically, and
seemed to get about the same results by either method. My experiments
taken in conjunction with the more numerous ones of Professor Hobday
would suggest that in ¢rwe cases of chloroform poisoning, when the
respiration has stopped or seems likely to do so, it would be well to try
the use of a medicinal dose of this powerful drug. It could be given,
hypodermically or by the mouth, as an adjunct to artificial respiration
and other restoratives. Cyanide of potassium would be the most
suitable preparation to keep on hand for such emergencies, being a
more staple body than the solution of acid. The B.P. dose of the dilute
acid is 2 to 6 minims, and that of the U:S:P) 1 to 15 minims.
Professor Hobday recommended a dose of 1 minim of Scheele’s acid
to seven pounds of body weight. For a man weighing, say 140 pounds,
according to this the dose would be 20 minims of Scheele’s acid ;
that is 40 minims of the dilute acid. Although such a dose appears
to be safe in animals, I should very much hesitate to recommend it in
practice even in an emergency; but the full B.P. dose of 6 minims
could be employed with absolute safety, and that of the U.S.P., viz.,
15 minims of the dilute acid, might be used if necessary. Forty-
nine minims is the smallest fatal dose of which I can find any record.!
Atropine——The action of this drug has been very thoroughly and
repeatedly studied of late, and my experiments do little but confirm the
results which others have obtained. Atropine has been termed by
Binz’ “the most powerful of all stimulants”; Wood and Cerna’ have
1 Taylor's Medical Jurisprudence.
2 Lectures on Pharmacology Binz, Vol. I., p. 93.
3 Journal of Physiology, 1892, p. 882.
228 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
proved its potent action in stimulating the respiration, increasing “the
air movement,” as it does in suitable doses, from 100 to 300 per cent.
Nevertheless the drug does not seem to have come into general use in
practice as a stimulant, although Lauder Brunton and others have
urged its value in conditions requiring stimulation. I have discussed
this question more fully elsewhere.’
I used ten dogs in studying the action of atropine in conjunction
with chloroform, and the results may be discussed under two headings:
First, The effects of atropine when administered previously to the
giving of the anesthetic, and
Second, the antidotal action of atropine when given after poisoning
from chloroform has occurred.
Seven of the dogs were previously given morphia, while three were
not so treated.
In the first place it may be noted that the effect of gravity on an
animal under the influence of atropine may be quite as marked as without
it. In Tracing 46 the dog, while thoroughly under atropine, was placed
vertical at 5 and the pressure is seen to fall in a very decided manner.
This is scarcely what one would have expected on general principles,
and it may be that the heart is already beating up to its maximum and
hence can do no more when called upon to compensate for the fall in
pressure. In tracing 14, however, gravity produced very little effect
under similar conditions.
The use of atropine with a view to preventing danger during the
administration of chloroform has long been strongly recommended by
certain writers, and has been as vigorously opposed by others. Many
anesthetists, especially in Scotland, regularly give a hypodermic
injection of it either alone or combined with morphia before com-
mencing chloroform, and in Lyons this method is much used. The
Glasgow Commission found as a result of their experiments that
atropine lessened the danger of death from chloroform, believing as they
did that strong inhibition of the vagus from chloroform was a real
danger, which would be impossible when this nerve was paralyzed by
atropine, Lieut.-Col. Lawrie, on the other hand, representing the
second Hyderabad Commission, opposed the use of the drug, arguing
that: “If the Committee regard the effect of atropine as beneficial they
1 ‘‘ Notes on Atropine,” by the author. Montreal Medical Journal, October, rgoo.
2 ‘Les Accidents du Chloroforme et leur Reméde.’”” Ann. et Bull. de la Soc. de Méd. Gand. 1889,
Pp. 253-
ist
‘ulvde [eyUOZOF{ 9 «‘[eonsaA S ‘uldosje sapun Boq—'f1/6—"J ATX ONIOVAL
SLU Us eeu un
OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE.
1900-1. ]
230 TRANSACTIONS OF THE
f
Sat satinw: r = ~ —a —_ _ — Oem ee
em see et ee Ve me eee ee we eee ee eee ee ee, oe’ ec -_— — ~ —
Respiration
Pressure fell rapidly, but pulse remained fast.
Chloroform pushed at 7 while animal struggling,
Horizontal.
Tracinc XLVII,—7/18.—Dog under Atropin.
did not stop and animal recovered. 8 Chloroform removed.
CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
must intend to imply that the
inhibitory action of the vagus
is a danger in chloroform
administration when atropine
is not used; <or ‘thatetie
normal action of a healthy
nerve is a danger to life.”
This is in my opinion a
most fallacious argument.
An animal inhaling concen-
trated chloroform vapour is
not in a normal condition ;
and because in normal life
the gentle inhibitory action
of the vagus does no harm,
it does not at all follow that
a great amount of the same
inhibition set up by the
action of chloroform may not
be dangerous. Although I
consider that this argument
is fallacious I do not go so
far as the Glasgow Commis-
sion did in believing that
vagus inhibition is really a
danger in chloroform admin-
istration. When such inhibi-
tion occurs, if the chloroform
merely be continued, the
reflex is soon deadened and
then the heart is released.
In my limited experience a
dog under the influence of
atropine is decidedly harder
to kill with chloroform than
one not so conditioned, what-
ever be the theory as to how
the atropine acts. If, how-
ever, chloroform be pushed
persistently in an atropinized
dog the pressure falls steadily,
the pulse remains fast, and
after some minutes — 5%
1900-1. ] OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE.
minutes in one experiment and 7 % in another
—the respiration stops, and two or three
minutes later, the pressure being nearly at
zero, the pulse ceases.
In Tracing 47, the animal having been
previously placed under atropine, chloroform
was pushed at 6. No morphia had been
given. A good deal of struggling occurred,
followed by a rapid fall in blood pressure.
Chloroform was removed, and the animal
quickly recovered. It is interesting to note
that although the pressure fell so low the
respiration did not stop as would almost
certainly have been the case if atropine had
not been given. This tracing shows inci-
dentally that the fall in blood pressure in
chloroform poisoning is not dependent upon
slowing of the heart’s action.
The action of atropine as an antidote to
chloroform poisoning does not seem to have
attracted much attention. Dr. H. C. Wood!
found that in a dog in which the respiration
had stopped from chloroform poisoning “a
hypodermic injection of 10 c.cs. of a two per
cent. solution of atropine altered the rate of
the pulse but had no apparent effect on the
pressure and respiration, and in no wise
prevented, the final cardiac arrest.” ro c.cs.,
however, was such an enormous dose, repre-
senting as it does about three grains of
atropine, that he might well have got sucha
result when a more moderate quantity might
have saved the animal. This quickening of
the pulse which Dr. Wood refers to is
shown in Tracing 48. In this case the
animal had been atropinized and then chloro-
form had been pushed until the respiration
stopped at 18. After that the pressure rose
gradually and then as gradually sank again
with hastening of the pulse. After the pulse
1 British Medical Journal, Aug. 16th, 1890.
‘
231
Co ee a Se Se ee
19 Shows slight rise in pressure.
Respiration stopped at 18.
TracinG XLVIII,—7/23.—Dog previously atropinized. Then Chlorotormed.
282 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.t. VII.
had disappeared the second sound of the heart could be heard on
auscultation for about half a minute and then it too disappeared and
the animal was dead.
This slight rise after the respiration had stopped occurred in all the
dogs poisoned with chloroform following on atropine, and probably
points to a circulation made more vigorous by atropine. Dr. Reichert,
of Philadelphia, in a recent article, shows that after the respiration has
been paralyzed by atropine, if the breathing be maintained artificially,
then even as much as six times the lethal dose of the drug may be
administered and yet recovery may ensue. He shows, as is of course
well known, that atropine kills by paralysis of the respiratory centre ;
that next the vaso-motor centre is poisoned ; and last of all the heart.
These results if confirmed emphasize the importance of artificial
respiration being continued if necessary for hours in cases of atropine
poisoning in man.
In several dogs in which the respiration had stopped as the result of
an overdose of chloroform, I found that atropine seemed to have a
powerful antidotal action, acting in this respect very much as
Hydrocyanic acid does. In a fox terrier dog which was being anzs-
thetized by chloroform the respiration, subsequent to some struggling,
rather suddenly ceased. The canula had not yet been introduced into
the carotid. Artificial respiration was used without success. The
tongue was forcibly dragged upon and was seen to be deeply cyanosed.
The heart could not be heard on auscultation. 1/50 of a grain of
atropine was injected under the skin over the precordia, and the
swelling thus produced was rubbed until it disappeared. About one
minute later the heart was felt to be beating rapidly, artificial respira-
tion was stopped, and in a few minutes natural respiration commenced
in a shallow manner and the animal recovered. Exactly the same
sequence of events occurred in another dog. Unfortunately in neither
of these animals had the canula been adjusted in the carotid, and there-
fore we are unable to produce any tracings. The former dog had had
\Y grain of morphia hypodermically thirty minutes before the
emergency occurred ; the latter had not had any.
I reproduce one tracing from a case in which recovery from chloro-
form poisoning seemed at least to be hastened by the use of atropine.
In Tracing 49 the animal was so deeply poisoned by chloroform that
the respiration had already stopped. -Atropine was injected at 13.
1 Philadelphia Medical Journal, Jan. 19th, rgor.
1900-1. | OBSERVATIONS ON BLOOD PRESSURE, 233
T3
Tracinc XLIX.—9/26.—Dog poisoned with Chloroform. Respiration had already stopped.
Atropine injected at 13. No artificial respiration used,
The pulse soon became fast and respiration commenced. No other
means of resuscitation were employed.
My experience would lead me to the following conclusions :
First, the previous use of atropine lessens the tendency to death
from chloroform poisoning in dogs. Theoretically also one might
assume that from its powerful stimulating effect on the circulation it
would, especially if combined with morphia, tend to lessen the chance of
syncope occurring during, but not necessarily due to, chloroform
administration.
Second, that when, during the administration of chloroform, danger
has occurred, either in the form of syncope or of respiratory failure,
atropine in moderate doses (say tio grain) would tend to stimulate
both the circulation and the respiration, and hence would be a valuable
adjunct to other means of saving life in such emergencies.
ad
1900-1. | Rev. Henry Scappine, D.D.
REV. HENRY SCADDING; D:D:
Since the last issue of THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE CAN-
ADIAN INSTITUTE, one of its most honoured members has
passed away in the person of the Rev. Dr. Scadding, who died
on 6th May last, in Toronto, at the great age of eighty-eight.
Born at Dunkeswell, Devonshire, England, on 29th June, 1813,
where his father was factor to Major-General Simcoe, he came
to Canada when only seven years of age, and his whole subse-
quent life has been identified with Toronto, except the four
years—1833-1837—that he spent at St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge. Before proceeding to Cambridge for his university
education, he had received his preliminary training at Upper
Canada College, of which institution he was the first “head-
Dovaaheceivine hisiib. A, destee “in 1837, he returned ste
Canada, and became one of the masters in Upper Canada
College. He was also the first rector of Holy Trinity Church,
Toronto, and laboured for many years in both capacities, till
compelled by failing health to relinquish active work. But
though in a manner retired from public life, he by no means
became an idler. His eighteen years of editorship of TZ%e
Canadian Journal, and his numerous contributions to its pages,
are the record of a busy, though tranquil life. In addition to the
numerous papers read by him before The Canadian Institute,
he published several volumes, chiefly elucidating historical and
archeological points relating to Canada, and especially Toronto.
For the six years, 1870-1876, he filled the office of president of
The Canadian Institute. He was also the first president of
The York Pioneers, and was one of the founders of The Ontario
Historical Society. He was an M.A. of Cambridge, 1840;
235
236
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VOLee Walle
D:D. of Cambridge, 1852 and DD." of *Oxford,, 1367-7 Or
Scadding was pre-eminently a lover of books, and in his long
life accumulated a large and valuable library, in which were many
rare and curious books. He was also an enthusiastic numis-
matist, and until his latest years he preserved a deep interest in
his native county, and was on terms of intimacy with various
members of the Simcoe family; and one of the objects for which
he most earnestly laboured was the erection in Toronto of a
statue of the first lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada. It
must have been a peculiarly heavy affliction to him that in his
later years his sight so failed him that his whole intercourse
with his beloved books was maintained through a reader. And
yet he did not repine. His was a peculiarly gentle and placid
nature. Courteous, kind, modest, unassuming, he shewed him-
self in his relations with his fellows the genuine, humble,
Christian gentleman. Of him it may truly be said that he wore
the white flower of a blameless life ;
Cui Pudor, et Justitiz soror,
Incorrupta Fides, nudaque Veritas
Quando ullum inveniet parem ?
It will be long before his venerable figure will pass out of
the recollection of his friends. It was fitting that the end of
such a life should come gently and quietly. There was no
disease, no pain; it was only the exhaustion of Nature’s
powers; and he slept into eternal life as peacefully as he
had lived.
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 237
ANS INVESTIGATION, INTO. THE EFRECTS: OF WATER
VDP AOUELOUS) SOLUTIONS OF SOME, OF Tir
COMMON INORGANIC* SUBSTANCES ON
POLTAGE (EE AVES:
By JAMES B. DANDENO, A.M.
(Assistant tn the Botanical Museum of Harvard University.)
(Read 4th May, rgot.)
CONTENTS.
PaGr
I.—INTRODUCTION : : 5 ‘ ¢ : ; : : : : 6) Bhs)
II.—HistToricaL RESUME , : . : : . 0 ° : : 241
III.—ABSORPTION OF WATER BY FOLIAGE LEAVES. : : : : a aks)
IV.—DeEw, GuTTATION Drops, CALCAREOUS INCRUSTATIONS. : : s 257
V.—ON THE ACID OR ALKALINE QUALITY OF DISTILLED WATER WHICH
HAS REMAINED UPON A LEAF FOR SOME TIME. . : 5 c zog
VI.—ON FEEDING A PLANT THROUGH THE LEAVES BY A NUTRIENT SOLUTION. 269
VIIL—OnN THE EFFECT OF SOLUTIONS APPLIED TO THE CUT ENDS OF
PETIOLES OF LEAVES. 5 A ; ; : 2 , : E22
VIII.—ON THE EFFECT OF SOLUTIONS APPLIED TO LEAF SURFACES IN DROPS,
How a Drop EVAPORATES, THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF SOME
OF THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE BORDEAUX MIXTURE. . : : 5 Grote)
Tospacco SpottTtnG:—Natural, Artificial. 4 C : j : : 320
IX.—GASES AND SALTS IN THE AIR AND THEIR EFFECTS UPON PLANTS :—
EXPERIMENT WITH SEA-WATER AND SALT SOLUTION, ANALYSES OF
LAWES AND GILBERT, EXPERIMENTS OF R. ANGUS SMITH, APPLI-
CATIONS OF EXPERIMENTS. ; : f : ‘ F : ; =) 329
X.—ONn THE EFFECTS OF WATER AND NUTRIENT SOLUTIONS UPON DEVELOP-
ING Bups OF WILLOW TwiIGs. : : : C C ; : Es39
XI.—GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . : : c : : é 344
BIBLIOGRAPHY. ; : . : j . : . : : 5 . 346
* The inorganic substances reterred to include some of the strong acids, a few alkalies, and some of the
more common mineral salts.
238 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
INTRODUCTION:
SINCE so many questions, relating more or less directly to the main
one, are involved in the progress of the proper discussion of the chief
subject, and since the field is so very broad, it became necessary to
select from the very large number of experiments involved, those which
seemed to tend more directly towards a full development of the subject.
As the main question is an investigation into the effect of certain
solutions of inorganic salts upon foliage leaves, and, as the intelligent
answer to this question depends so largely upon the capability of leaves
to absorb water and the more dilute solutions, ¢.g., rain water, soil water
and spring water, it was found necessary to investigate the matter of
the absorption of water and aqueous vapour by leaves. This naturally
led to a consideration of the atmospheric conditions which might,
through time, give rise by adaptation to certain qualities which leaves
may have acquired through ages past. Enquiry was made at the
Weather Bureau at Washington, to learn to what extent inorganic salts
were known to pervade the atmosphere, either in the neighbourhood
of the sea or inland, but it was found that, so far as America was
concerned, no work of any importance had up to the present been done.
The investigations made in Europe were too general in character to
apply directly to the subject under discussion. This made it necessary
to investigate the matter experimentally, and a series of experiments
was performed to ascertain if the salts of the sea did permeate the
atmosphere without the aid of spray or winds. These experiments
are described in detail further on.
Investigation was also made into the question suggested by a
statement of Sachs, that distilled water which remains upon a leaf of a
plant becomes alkaline.
Plants adapted to a moist climate were selected and arranged as
shown in Fig. 7, the roots being supplied with nothing but distilled
sterilized water and air, while the leaves were fed with a nutrient
solution furnished by means of an intermittent spray. Composition
of the nutrient solution :—H,O, 10000 grams; KNO; 1.0 grams ;
MgSO, .5 grams; CaSO, .5 grams; K, ‘PO, .5 grams; FeSO, .01
grams. The object of this experiment was to determine whether a
plant could wse a nutrient solution so applied. On account of the long
1900-1. ] EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 239
duration of the experiments, the solution had to be changed from time
to time.
To learn from another point of view how a nutrient solution affects
the early growth of young leaves developing from the bud, a series of
experiments was performed with young willow twigs, during the months
of March and April, this being the time of the year when the process of
the opening of buds seems to depend only upon a favourable tempera-
ture. This experiment was designed also to test water absorption by
young leaves.
The solutions (other than nutrients)
used in the experimental work in con-
nection with this paper were made by
dissolving the molecular weight, in
grams of the substance, in a liter of
water. This method of preparation is
similar to that indicated by Pfeffer*
(Ewart’s Trans. 1900, p. 146), and by
Detmer and Moor (p. 326), who desig-
nate them zormal solutions. This
method is also that adopted by True
(1898, p. 410-411) and (1900, p. 185).
These, however, are not xormal solu-
tions as defined by Mohr? and other Sag Se:
analytical chemists. When salts con-
tained water of crystallization, or
hygroscopic water, it was found more Rae sacle RRR eC
convenient to determine the specific _ position by the support P, are finely gradu-
Bxavity cof the solution and from this {se mice atacied a cabler tube. One
calculate its concentration. A con- _ of the tubes is inserted in distilled water at
3 5 the temperature required, the other in the
BeW@icni appatatus tor “finding the’ iia ie-be messuredi The stopcock S
specific gravity of a solution was is opened and the ascent of liquid due to
; capillarity, A and A', measured. Then by
eieanegeds; and as Such apparatus May cucting on the rubber tube the liquids rise
be of some use in a laboratory of plant to D,etc. Now the sp.g. of M is
physiology, a full description with i
diagram is given (Fig. 1). The stock solution once obtained, there
was no difficulty in preparing solutions of less concentration as occasion
required. The solutions of hydrochloric and of sulphuric acids were
normal solutions, as were those of potassium and of sodium hydrate.
These were procured ready prepared from the chemical supply house.
&
Seon i da ae laa nT
1
1
FIG. x.
* See bibliography at the end.
+ Titrimethode, p. 56.
240 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.L. VII.
Both kinds of solutions, since they differ so little when in dilute form,
are designated in this paper, “sz”; and the dilution is indicated by a
number written as the denominator of a fraction.
Since so much seemed to depend upon the question of water-
absorption by leaves, a rather full discussion is entered into, more
particularly upon the literature pertaining to this subject, in order to
establish upon what grounds present views of plant physiologists are
based. Some experiments were made to test water-absorption directly,
but it was found that more light could be thrown upon the subject from
other sources. It was from the indirect side mainly that the question
was attacked, as it seemed, in the judgment of the writer, to be more
productive of fruitful results ; so the question of guttation drops, dew-
drops, and calcareous incrustations upon certain plants, was examined
in some detail with a view to learn something of their cause, chemical
nature and function.
For the examination into the effects of solutions applied to the cut
ends of the petioles, leaves were selected which would readily. show an
acid or an alkaline reaction, and which would live for a considerable
time in water without sending out roots. It was not so much to
determine how long leaves could endure the solution and live, as to
examine into the effects produced by the solutions so applied, and to
learn something of the cause of death. The same is true with regard to
the application of the solutions to leaf surfaces; and a comparison is
made of the effects of some of these upon Spirogyra, with that upon
leaves.
On commencing the work of experimentation, and upon examining
into the literature pertaining to the subject, it was found that the
question first to be answered was in regard to whether living green
foliage leaves absorb water through the epidermis, or through the
stomata, in some way or other, from the surrounding medium, either as
liquid or as vapour. The popular notion is that water is so absorbed,
but the view expressed by many of the recent text-books on botany is
quite generally opposed to this. Some writers have “proved” experi-
mentally that water could be absorbed, while others apparently equally
reliable “proved” the opposite. This condition of affairs rendered it
necessary to examine the question in detail by careful and prolonged
experiment, and to study with considerable care, the literature which
pertains directly and indirectly to this subject. That water-absorption
is the very “corner-stone” of the problem is at once apparent, because
all the solutions used are aqueous, and many of them are in very dilute
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 241
form. Plants under experimentation are always regarded as “ving
plants—not simply as so much tissue—and from this point of view the
phenomena are chiefly considered.
In order to clear the way to the main issue it was found necessary
to investigate certain questions which at first sight may appear not
directly a part of the subject; but it is only through these subordinate
and relative questions that we are able intelligently to explain, with
any degree of exactitude, the various elements, as connected with, and
forming a part of the whole general subject which is a unit. It is
recognized to be of importance that one who undertakes a problem
should confine himself strictly to that problem ; but it is of greater
importance that one should, while confining himself within the limits of
his problem, understand and explain not only the details relative to it,
but the relationship of that problem, if solved, to scientific knowledge
already obtained. In other words he must be able to assimilate his
results with the laws of science. This is mentioned in order that it may
be fully understood at the outset that the question has branched out
into directions not contemplated at the commencement.
The “spotting” of the tobacco leaf is dealt with in some detail
because of its economic importance, it being a particular aspect of the
question involved under the heading :—“The effects of solutions applied
to leaf surfaces.”
II. HISTORICAL RESUME.
As has just been said in the introduction, the question of water-
absorption by leaves, being so important a part of the general subject,
and having been dealt with by several writers (some as early as the
middle of the 17th century), will have a prominent place in this chapter,
not only because of its importance of itself, but also because it is the
only side of the problem that has been investigated to any considerable
extent, though unfortunately with results that seem never to have
settled the question. The subject of the absorption of dilute solutions
by leaves, being so closely related to that of water-absorption, would be
in a similar position to-day, were it not that attention has been turned
in this direction by the practice of spraying plants, subject to fungous
diseases, with solutions known as fungicides; and of killing of weeds by
means of a spray of a poisonous solution.
The first author of any note was Mariotte (1679, p. 133), who
242 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
showed by experiments that living foliage leaves could absorb water
both as rain and as dew. His work was important, and he has been
quoted by many, especially by the earlier writers, possibly in part
because of his careful and close reasoning coupled with his rather
unique experiments. After Mariotte the records of work done in this
connection are fragmentary and scattered, and it was not till about fifty
years later, when the experiments of Stephen Hales (1726, p. 56) were
published, that a new impetus was given to the subject. In 1753
Bonnet (1754, p. 26) made some important investigations relative to
water-absorption and came to the same general conclusions as did
Mariotte and Hales, namely, that water was absorbed by leaves with
evident advantage to plants, and that water-absorption was a normal
function of leaves. Senebier in his text (1806, 3, p. 94) refers to the
works of Bonnet and Hales, and, after reviewing some of their experi-
ments, concludes that water is aborbed. In the work of Dutrochet
(1837, p. 328), one finds the idea that water is absorbed somewhat
extended, and as Dutrochet puts it—‘Physiologistes ont consideré les
feuilles comme des sortes de racine aériennes destinées a puiser dans
atmosphere l’eau et les autres principes qui contribuent a la nutrition
du végétal.” This view seems rather too strong on the side of
water-absorption when one examines the works of the earlier writers
whom he quotes, and upon whose works he very largely bases his
statements.
All the works just mentioned are now looked upon as classic, and
the names will be remembered as long as plant physiology is deemed a
subject worthy of investigation. These works form a sort of epoch, not
only in matter of time, but also in views and conclusions; and one
is struck by the singular similarity in aims and argument among those
authors.
In the botanical works of Treviranus (Vol. I., 1835), we find that the
views upon the question are opposed in part to that of the authors just
mentioned, especially to that of Bonnet and Hales; and his work
introduces a side of the question which has stood its ground up to the
present time. That a function of foliage leaves was to absorb water
and dew, had up to this time been looked upon as established, not so
much because of the works and views of Mariotte, Hales, Bonnet,
Senebier and Dutrochet were accepted as proving so much, but rather
because the view was according to the popular notion and seemed self-
evident. The experiments of Treviranus, and of others of less note,
about the same time, raised some startling questions in regard to the
1900-1. } EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 243
‘then recognized power of leaves to absorb, and it would be well to give
the words of Treviranus—‘ Man muss daher wie ich glaube eine
Einsaugung von tropfbarer Fliissigkeit durch Blatter nur da zulassen,
wo entweder die Oberhaut fehlt oder, wie bei, unausgebildeten und
leberhaupt bei zarten Blattern sehr diinn ist.” 2... 0°: “Nur Dunst
wird eingesogen.”
Two rather important papers by Garreau (1849, 1851) appeared
later, the first of which dealt with this question of water-absorption.
Garreau goes into the matter thoroughly and examines this question
from the standpoint of anatomy, as well as that of physiology, and
concludes that water can be absorbed. One ought to draw attention
to the fact that do absorb and caz absorb are two different things, a
point which will be discussed in the chapter dealing with water-
absorption.
Hugo von Mohl (1852) gives but little attention to the subject, but
states in a somewhat general way that water-vapour is absorbed. It is
important to notice that the view here expressed by von Mohl was
a cautious one, and that it was now considered by no means certain
that water-absorption was a function of leaves. Then came the work of
Duchartre (1861, p.10g), whom one might call the founder of the
position taken by writers of modern text books in regard to absorption
of water by leaves. One finds Duchartre’s work almost always referred
to, while the works of several others of no less importance seemingly
ignored. One reason probably for this is that Duchartre had performed
his experiments with growing plants; while most of those holding
opposite views had based their conclusions upon experiments with
detached leaves and cut shoots. Moreover, Duchartre held that the
moistening of a leaf surface by rain or dew only caused a diminished
transpiration, which resulted in an increase of turgor; and stated also
that as transpiration was a normal function of leaves it was not easy
to see how absorption could also be a normal function at the same
time.
Itaportant special papers upon the subject then began to appear,
notably that of Cailletet (1872, p. 242), who showed by means of a
manometer that water was readily absorbed under certain conditions ;
and Boehm (1877) who placed leaves (not detached) of seedlings under
such conditions in which it was possible for them to absorb water to
advantage when, under like conditions, the roots were unable to do so.
The works of Mer (1878, p. 105) and Boussingault (1878, p. 289)
corroborated those of Cailletet and Boehm. The work of Henslow
244 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
(1880, p. 313) was exhaustive, and he thought he had settled the
question of water-absorption ; and, as he says, he thought he had settled
it in the affirmative. Lindley in his early work (1866, p. 193) referring
to stomata, says :—“ It is by means of this apparatus that leaves absorb
water and gaseous matter from the atmosphere.” In Lindley’s “Theory
of Horticulture,” (1859), the belief is expressed that leaves do absorb
fluid from the air; and it is stated that the stomata are well adapted to
this purpose. Lindley refers at some length to the work of Knight
(1886), in which it is stated that leaves may absorb to the extent that a.
descent of sap is produced in the alburnum, and also that one leaf may
be made to supply its neighbour below it with water. Gregory (1886)
proved that leaf hairs of many plants contributed actively to the supply
of water in the plant.
Since this time but little work of importance has been done, though
the question seems farther from being settled now than it was a
hundred years ago. Of the later works on the subject, two of them are
deserving of mention,—Burt (1893), and Ganong (1894, p. 136). The
former concluded that leaves and cut shoots may absorb water, while
the latter concluded that leaves do not function as water absorbers to
an extent sufficiently great to be worthy of note.
As to the text books on botany and on plant physiology, other than
those mentioned, commencing with Pfeffer, one finds that the positions
taken, though varied to some extent, are generally and rather uniformly
on the side of non-absorption ; at least one might say, judging from the
attention paid to the matter, it was considered of little or no physio-
logical importance. It is interesting to notice further that of those
works, such as Pfeffer (1881) and Detmer (1883), that have been
recently revised, there is little modification of the view rather cautiously
expressed in the early editions ; and, with a proviso or two, practically
the same stand is taken in the latest editions as in the first. This is as
might be expected, for no work of any importance had been done in
this line in the meantime. Sachs, in his “Plant Physiology” (1887)
takes the ground that the question has not been at all satisfactorily
settled. In Goodale’s Physiology almost no attention is given to the
matter. Van Tieghem (1884) states that water vapour is readily
absorbed by the plant. Vines (1886) gives some attention to the
subject, but leaves one to zzfer rather than to read his conclusions. He
admits that under peculiar circumstances water and dilute solutions
may be absorbed, but holds generally to the idea that this, if it be a
function at all, is of but little consequence. In both works of Pfeffer
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 245
scant attention is given the subject, and it is plain that Pfeffer had
little, if any, experimental knowledge concerning it, though he cites
some of the more important works relating thereto. In the work of
Detmer (1883, p. 112) is discussed to some extent the question, with the
conclusion, that if the tissue of the leaves is fully turgescent, then there
will be no absorption, but if not turgescent, then they are capable of
taking in water which may be in contact with the leaf surface. Sorauer
(1895, p. 32) states that it is only in cases of extreme dryness that
plants are able to make use of the heavy deposits of dew. The view
expressed by Haberlandt (1896) is worthy of special notice because he
goes into the matter more fully, and because his views stand out some-
what prominently in contrast to those expressed in almost all the other
modern text books. He has no doubt whatever that foliage leaves can,
and do, absorb water to the advantage of the plant, and he mentions
some plants whose leaves function regularly as water-absorbers. In the
work of Detmer and Moor (1898) we have the view rather cautiously
expressed :—“The question of water-absorption by leaves is not of great
physiological interest,’—and but a very few lines are devoted to the
subject. In Macdougall’s work (1898) it is stated that leaves do not
absorb water. Very little is said concerning the question in Strasburger
(1900), excepting that in some peculiar cases, as in that of scaly hairs,
water may be absorbed. In a recent text book on Plant Physiology,
that of Belzung (1900) the question is discussed with the conclusion
that water is absorbed as dew, and may be absorbed under other
peculiar circumstances.
From this brief summary it may be seen that the subject has had a
rather peculiar history, and one which is not without interest from the
standpoint of physiology as well as that of economic botany.
The question of the absorption by leaves of solutions introduces
a new element into the discussion; and until quite recently very few
experiments of importance relating to the subject have been performed.
Whatever work has been done has been from the side of the injurious
effects of solutions causing poisoning of the leaves, and even of the
whole plant. Boitard (1829) noted that if mist contained saline matter
it was injurious to plants; but no work relating to the question, so far
as can be learned, was done until 1872, when R. Angus Smith (1872)
was appointed to look into the effect produced upon vegetation in the
neighbourhood of chemical works in England. That the fumes from
these chemical works did affect the plants injuriously was readily seen,
but whether it acted directly upon the leaves or upon the roots was
2
246 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VIL.
a disputed question. Smith showed pretty clearly that the leaves were
affected directly. Schléssing (1874, p. 1700), and Mayer (1874) showed
that solutions of ammonium carbonate were absorbed by leaves ; and
Schlossing showed that the ammonia thus absorbed increased the
growth of the plant. Boussingault (1878) showed that calcium sulphate,
potassium phosphate and potassium nitrate may be absorbed by leaves
of plants. There is no mention made by Boussingault as to how these
substances affected the tissue of the leaf, or whether they proved
of advantage or of disadvantage to the leaf of the plant as a living
organ or organism.
Cuboni sprayed leaves with lime, and concluded that it increased the
growth, if not by the absorption of the solution of lime, then by a
stimulation. In Sachs’ Lehrbuch reference is made to the work of
Boussingault, and Sachs further states that the absorption may be
proved by using a soluble lithium salt, then using the flame test to
determine the extent of the absorption. Oliver (1893), after investigat-
ing the effects of urban fog upon vegetation, showed that certain acid
vapours and other substances affected the leaves, injuring the chlorophyll.
About this time investigations were made into the effects of the
bordeaux mixture (other than as a fungicide) upon plants. Prominent
among these investigators were Zimmerman (1893, p. 307), Rumm
(1894, p- 445), Galloway (1895), Frank and Kriiger (1894, p. 8), and
Aderhold (1893). Aderhold concluded that the increase in growth was
due to the lime of the bordeaux mixture being absorbed by the roots.
Frank and Kriiger held that it acted as a stimulus, as did also Rumm,
while Zimmerman opposed this view maintaining that the solutions
were absorbed directly by the leaves.
It has recently been observed that the application of ether vapour to
foliage leaves stimulates the plant to a more rapid development, and
horticulturists have taken advantage of this to force plants for the
market (Fisher, 1900, p. 283-284). This shows rather clearly that
chemical substances applied to the leaves of plants may be made to
promote growth as well as to injure the plants. In the work of Lawes
and Gilbert (1883), it is shown that certain substances in the air,
especially in the neighbourhood of towns and cities, at times, affect
injuriously the foliage of plants. Some investigations with this end in
view, were recently carried on by Wieler and Hartleb (1900, p. 188)
with a view to learn the effects of HCl upon -the assimilation of
plants.
The question of the destruction of weeds by poisonous chemical
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 247
substances, has quite recently become a prominent one with experiment
stations, and this question has thrown much light upon the subject
directly under discussion ; for it has been shown that certain poisonous
solutions may kill some plants and actually promote growth in others.
Some experiments have been performed with this end in view,—notably
Wales (1900), Foulkes (1897) and Bollery (1899). The object of these
investigators was to find a solution which when sprayed on the leaves
of a grain crop, would kill the weeds and not injure the grain. The
weed most troublesome was Arasszca sinapistrum which occurs so com-
monly in grain fields. They found that a 2°/, solution of CuSO, would
kill the mustard and, not only not injure the wheat or oats, but actually
increase the yield at harvest. Other experiments have been performed
within the past year, both at Ottawa, Ont., and Guelph, Ont., as well as
in England and France, with similar results to those obtained by the
authors just mentioned.
The matter of the destruction of weeds in gravel walks and waste
places is not so important, though some work has been attempted with
this end in view. Jones and Orton (1899) used several substances such
as NaCl, CuSO,, arsenic, kerosene, carbolic acid, etc, and found
carbolic acid and sodium arsenate the best. Superphosphates were
found by Mazieres (1899, p. 851) to be very effective in killing some
Cruciferous plants, while ammonium sulphate and other salts were tried
with varying results.
It will be seen at a glance that this physiological problem is being
pressed forward from its economic, rather than from its scientific side ;
and that it is only within the last few years that attention has been
drawn to the fact that an increase in growth resulted in some cases
from the application to leaf surfaces of substances in solution. There
are many experiments, if the records are trustworthy, which prove
beyond a doubt that a spray of certain solutions may increase the
growth of plants ; but there are several views as to the real cause of the
increase—(I) it may act as a stimulus pure and simple—(2) it may act
upon the soil and through this upon the roots—(3) it may be absorbed
as food by the leaves. The experiments described in this paper aim at
answering this question.
248 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
III.— ABSORPTION OF WATER BY FOLIAGE LEAVES.
THE experiments relating to this subject were designed to determine
whether detached leaves and cut shoots could absorb water. Four
series of experiments were arranged. For the first series the leaves
were collected on June 6th, at 4 p.m., and allowed to wilt until 9.30
a.m., June 7th, when some of them were placed in distilled water and
left immersed for twenty-four hours. The others were similarly
immersed six hours after the first, and left
for eighteen hours (Fig. 2). The second
series of experiments was with cut shoots,
and was conducted similarly to the first,
es excepting that no weighings were made.
Leaf immersed in water, P, a :
strip of litmus paper. The third was to test absorption by the
petiole. The fourth series was designed to
test by measurement the amount of water absorbed by a leaf under
conditions such as are shown in Fig. 4.
Immediately after the leaves (series I. and II.) were immersed,
a small strip each, of red and of blue litmus paper was laid on each leaf
at a point where part of the leaf was close to the surface of the water
(Fig. 2). This was to determine if acids or alkaline substances left the
leaf tissue to enter the surrounding water, for if such substances did so,
it was not unreasonable to suppose that this indicated that the water
from the vessel had entered the tissue of the leaf according to the laws
of diffusion.
The question of the passage of neutral salts through the epidermal
tissue under similar conditions is discussed in Chapters IV. and V.
It is thought that the weighing of the leaves before and after
immersion would not of itself decide the question, because it is impos-
sible to know that the leaves are externally in the same condition
as when weighed previous to immersion ; and, moreover, as the leaves
are constantly changing in weight by losing water by evaporation, very
accurate quantitative results are not easy to obtain. Since substances
are extracted from leaves by the application of distilled water (Chapters
IV. and V.), account of this must be taken in the weighings.
In order to bring out more prominently the results it was thought
well to use a scale of numbers—12... . 0, the number Io indicating
1900-1. |
EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES.
249
complete restoration of normal turgidity, and 0 indicating no restora-
ation, and therefore no absorption.
The other numbers represent
grades of restoration, twelve being greater than normal in the plant, two
things being taken into consideration in grading the leaves—(1) the
increase or decrease in weight, (2) the visible rigidity.
EXPERIMENTS TO TEST WATER ABSORPTION BY DETACHED LEAVES.
EXPER. I. ; TIME ABSORBING 24 HOURs.
Turges-
cence Reaction of water Is water in inter-
Leaf. Reaction. grade after stirring. cellular spaces ?
by No.
INEICE 65 apg goege eae oe uibObe acid 10 acid no
INoSagaciculaniSirasiiiece ts stl| acid 3 acid no
DCMS! “saosodouscusogous neut. 12 neut. no
Polyzonumy\../.- acid 5 acid no
Dicentinay osc cts crocias sits neut. 12 acid no
Glematisten gs secee yen cere acid very 10” acid no
PIRWNIENEH) Sooccdognoopen H0d6 alkal. o alkal. no
Snows 55.9 vodendueeoho peur alk., very 10 alk., slightly some
lirntal aero nt aretaceceicg? © sokscawts neut. 10 sl., acid no
Prone, 665 sconosouaaooe neut. 7 acid some
NASI Gooo0 acosanadgocd neut. 10 acid not
Tl aVeSMNVOYISS | oo ene pecooobOoC neut. 8 acid not
lahyelqoyslnyslitinesoscposeapode neut. 10 acid no
(CERAMIING coe boca guooUM ode neut. 10 acid no
Onoponrd on Pence eel neut. 10 acid no
AGSCUIWG »sa0cuocossspouUdnr alkal. 10 neut. no
PDN. c aopesccoba sap ooGeUeT acid Fi acid no
WHQIES oie Gee. SO Dose Te DR or alkal. 6 acid some
SIQheyiG sesconcac, ooucs5 alkal. 9 acid no
IRinyelingel Slo’ gaga caecocd spec alkal. 9 acid no
SEINE) Somacacoas oenoo dace alkal. 9 acid no
Shiite eercesieee eons cio nh ce eiectere eK neut. 8 sl., acid considerable
POLE pes coda ce oe CODCOD acid 10 acid no
Siloti Goyn Sebo Soldqooboce alkal. 10 neut. no
SAU NOAM (6 Alnis con oie sab. alkal. 8 acid no
Exper. II.; TimE ABSORBING 18 Hours.
AZAR ay tecVssatens’® 5 es, = ister s/s ans acid 9 acid no
‘SERSINESRV SG dace ooodoas 3 acid 9 acid no
(DINGS Ape peeh Cade apr ooeec | acid 5 acid some
Convallania 23 rcnc22 sti acid 9 acid no
Bpidendnumllsen es) 1 neut. 10 neut. no
ANGERS ch 6 o CR OBS EA aE IUe ao neut. 8 neut. no
* Branch with six leaves more turgid than either of the two separate ones.
+ The cut end of the petiole had dipped under the surface of the water.
250 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [VoL. VII.
EXPERIMENT TO TEST WATER ABSORPTION BY DETACHED LEAVES
BY USING THE BALANCE TO DETERMINE THE INCREASE IN
AMOUNT.
EXPER. IA.; TIME ABSORBING 24
Hours.
Weight in grams.
Leaf. Weight | Weight after
Wilted. Immersion.
Sear a =
INalpaleanne ia. cia -8632 9821
ROSA eele te tie ee -634 -6372 he: p :
Echinops.......... leis) See Exper. IIa,; TIME ABSORBING
Polygonum........ 6501 | .698 18 Hours.
Dicentra..... ae SS2ns 4381
Clematisy. 4566. .6318 -7316 Weight in grams.
Plantagore.. 4. Bc 1.9316 1.930(loss) a ===
5 ia 2 A Leaf. Weight Weight after
Silphiumien eee 3-218 3-932" wee inca
Ifa eres eae eioda ar 6.8321 7.1214
Potentillas:.. 2... 3619 3922 ay: 52% aaa
Nasturtium). =°-..: S878 1.0830 | Ce ie 5 ge eS ee poe
Mhermopsiss..s--: 321 pS3er aye Mae te Ft : | Paee
: 5625 aoe WO WerenSes. jae 1.3261 | 1.8120
Pocee 2 tam fees Ae cee | Convallaria’...2...|/= 41.1206" || 2570
na : ; idend a .8162 .96
Onopordon ys... Bones 2.9106 Ree ras ~ : See - ae
AGS CUI Crg bb a soon G23 TAU 7206 : Pe ad :
Hun kiaeerertens sess c -3101 68288 — - =
Niolamaasecen Seale a 7l23 .7864
Helianthus: -/2.. 2: .8916 -9126
Rudbeckia........ -7328 | .8611
Sematulayeeeee il -8102 | .9386
diiliaiasce = ence -X-6361 4 (oa Thr |
ROteriuninemercee -7216 | .8014 |
Sil phiumhepee eee 1.1236 | 1.2116
Xanthorriza.... .. 1.5128 | 1.5812
From these experiments there is little room for doubt that the
leaves had absorbed water, which resulted in a renewal of turgor, toa
greater or less extent, and which produced a substantial increase in
weight. Before weighing the leaves—upon taking them from the water,
—they were dried between sheets of absorbent paper for a couple of
minutes, but, as was said before, it was difficult to know just when the
surface water was dried off, and in some cases this was evident in the
abnormal increase in weight. Experiments with cut branches were
arranged in a similar manner, and the results recorded show a condition
similar to that recorded in the table given above, but no weighings
were made for two reasons, (1) the branches being large and cumber-
some could not be weighed with a fine and delicate balance, and _ if
weighed with an ordinary pulp balance, accurate results could not be
expected ; (2) if turgor be restored wholly or in part, this can easily be
recognized by the general appearance, especially so in the case of cut
shoots.
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES, 251
Branches of the following plants were tested :—Rosa, Polygonum,
Clematis, Potentilla, Zizia, Acer, Dicentra, Hydrophyllum, Quercus and
Tilia; and as the results were practically the same as those given
concerning single leaves, it was deemed unnecessary to give a record of
the special observations. In all cases care was taken to have the cut
end of the shoot zof immersed in the water. It is clear that, had the
cut end of the shoot touched the surface of the water, or dipped below
it, the value of the experiment would have been destroyed.
The water in which these leaves were immersed was found to have
acquired some substances from the tissue of the leaves, as shown by the
litmus indicator. Since leaves lose substance to the surrounding water,
weighing of the leaf alone will not determine increase due to absorption
of water. It was partly because of this fact that the weighings were
correlated with other phenomena in estimating the grade given in
column three. The restoration of turgor in cut shoots was more readily
determined because the smaller branches, the petioles, as well as the
blades of the leaves, aided in making comparisons. These results as
tabulated are corroborated by Cailletet, Boussingault and Henslow, who
used slightly different methods.
Duchartre opposed these views by saying that leaves and cut shoots
do not function as living plants, and that they may be compared to the
detached limb of an animal. It is not difficult to see, that for purposes
of comparison, there is little similarity. His chief experiments were
performed with-plants in flower-pots, and in consequence he had to use
a coarse balance for making his weighings.
He gives these records :—
Weight of plant in evening....... .... SGotogoonOooO se 1730.6 grams.
Weichinextimonninges (Sixmoiclock) ia.) ere erie L733 2 es
Wetchtvatter wipincyleavesmnciises-t1- s-icicter ater eel GOnS “
Wieishtiof plantunieveningy mi) aej--1 srs cirri oeieiere aets 1677 as
Weicht next merning (Six oiclock): .5..420.-) oe. ie 1679.4 ne
Weishtnext morning, (ninevorclock))7-. esa eeien eae 1677 a
One can see that the weighings could not have been very accurate,
and the differences given prove little or nothing either way, as they are
scarcely beyond the margin of error in using coarse balances as
indicated by those figures. When one examines Duchartre’s work, he
is more and more struck with surprise at the prominence given to it, in
face of the work done by such men as Cailletet, Boehm, Henslow and
others. It is not so much an examination into the writings of these
_men, as it is a study of their experiments, that carries conviction.
252 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
In order to supplement the experiments to demonstrate the
capability of leaves to absorb water, an apparatus was arranged some-
what after the method of Bonnet (Fig.
3). Leaves with petioles of considerable
length were selected and placed with
the petioles in. the form. off a ae
dipping into a vessel of water. The
blades and the cut ends were exposed
to the air. Leaves placed under these
conditions remained green and turgid
much longer than leaves exposed wholly
to the air. Several kinds of controls
were arranged to support this experi-
ment. This indicates that leaves can
absorb water through the surface of the
FIG. 3. petiole.
Leaf with petiole immersed in water.
A point brought out, during the
course of these experiments, was that leaves, eg. Primula, possessing
trichomes, seemed to absorb through the petiole more to the advantage
of the leaf than did those without trichomes.
In order to enquire into the matter more fully, an apparatus was
arranged as shown in Fig. 4, where the capability of a leaf to absorb
water in one surface and transmit it to the other is tested. Leaves of
—-—- ge ee eee ee ---- SS
ime --
le ae Ce te in eel cn on ens | eee
x
FIG. 4.
Apparatus for testing the power of absorption and transpiration of leaves. C, a tank containing water
orasolution. W W, a piece of plate glass ground to fit the edge of the tank C. O, an aluminum gauze.
L, aleaf. Cl,aclamp. D, ajar trom which the tank can be supplied from time to time. EF, represents
the height of liquid due to capillarity. AB represents the amount of pressure up against the leaf L. The
margin of the jar is first smeared with grafting wax. As the water evaporates through O the liquid flows
towards the left from B, and can be measured readily. When it has reached A’ open the clamp on the tube
at D and suck the end B until the water comes to the desired point, then close the clamps at B and D; then
open clamp at B. BA may be made long or short to increase or decrease the pressure as may be required.
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 253
Acer, Ampelopsis, Liriodendron and Tilia were tested, first with the
lower surface in contact with the water, and then with the upper surface
in contact. It was found that in the case of Tilia it was with the
greatest difficulty that leaves free from small holes could be obtained,
and that when one was found, apparently without holes, there was
observed a very rapid transmission of water through the leaf, and
it was necessary to elevate and lower the measuring tube with the
greatest care so as to keep the liquid in contact with the leaf and yet to
have no pressure against its surface. With the leaf of the Liriodendron
the transmission was very slow, and several centimeters pressure did
not materially hasten it. During the course of the experiments it was
noticed that the humidity of the atmosphere affected the rate of
transmission of water. There was a decrease in the rate of transmission
of water, associated with a decrease in the humidity of the atmosphere,
as indicated by the psychrometer. This was also the case when filter
paper was in the position of the leaf, but there was in no instance an
increase in volume as resulted with the leaves.
The records given in the following table show the change in volume
of liquid in the apparatus to which the leaf was fixed, the temperature
of the room, and the relative humidity of the atmosphere. The
measurements upon the horizontal tube of the apparatus are made from
a fixed point, so that the figures in the column under “distance” at
once indicate an increase or decrease in the volume of liquid in the
tank.
Ie III.
eee eee enaia ee anon at Det, Vi eciosiy) POPP estare | aitya:
June 27 8.30 197 71 a,
June 21 4.50 Te ES ES ee Nh tke 159 2 e799,
ch? 22 8.45 731 45 93 inte 2.00 34 76 76
pea 22 1.00 678 73 85 | 2.05 CS 76 76
22 4.35 703 47 82 Ce 3.20 19 76 7
COAG 4 20 56 77 80
UG ay 5.10 75 75 80
Ul. << 28 8.30 14! V2 80
1 IV.
June 24 1.20 125 73 7 ell
ae 8.35 150 68 7s, |
ees 12.20 78 72 tale) June 22 4-35 703 aa 82
ve 2B 12.55 53 72 SOW || earaaess 8.10 995 7! 79
Ob Zaks 2,2 6 73 81 omnes 10.00 1025 74 74
he 2c 5.00 56 73 85 fo pe 12.40 1019 74 aT
* The larger number denotes DECREASE, and the smaller INCREASE,
+ Pressure raised to ten inches for five minutes.
254 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
We VI.
Date. | (o'clock), |"Distance-eratuve,| ity. || Date. | (o'clock), |"Distanceleratare,| ality
|
June 25 5.00 50 | 78.) 8594) June 22 8.45 772 | 75 988
oY AG) 8.35 212 68 75 ie Pa. 22 T.00 712 78 85
EAA) 1.00 175 70 TO allt Seo2 2.40 691 76 80
co 20 2.20 128 730 ai See 22 4-35 691 77 82
tue 520 4.10 41 72 81 oae23 8.10 995 71 79
AS) 5-10 28 72 81
I. Liriodendron leaf; upper side up; pressure four inches; diag. VII.
le 66 ce lower ce 6c 6c v6 “cc ;
III. Ampelopsis 23 lenee, 88 4 a ge
IV. oe oe upper “6 “ce ce oe oe
Wh Acer ce lower ce as a3 oe ec
Wile Acer “ upper se “ec “ec ce ec
SUMMARY OF MEASUREMENTS.
UPPER SIDE OF LEAF UPPERMOST.
Exper. Day. Night.
I 28 mm. (increase in tank). 4f mm. (increase in tank).
4 —24 (decrease in tank). —292 (decrease in tank).
6 81 (increase in tank). —304 or a
LOWER SIDE OF LEAF UPPERMOST.
2 206 mm. (increase). —25 mm. (decrease).
8 272 a —216 ne
5 184 re —286 ae
NUMBER OF STOMATA PER SQUARE mm.
Leaf. | Upper Surface. Lower Surface. Average.
MEE (G Doel OQ\atscseoussade oaaee | fC) 300-350 | B25
Aimpelopsiss(gpandadi) ier. einer: | fo) 80-120 100
Liriodendron, (1 and 2) fo) 180-220 200
* The larger number denotes DECREASE, and the smaller INCREASE.
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 255
These experiments are difficult to conduct, and several had to be
discarded owing to defects in the leaves and to the entrance of air when
filling the apparatus. It was thought that a living leaf would act, in a
measure, just as a paper would in the same position, but it was found
that there was no important point in common between them. The loss
of water from the jar, over which the paper was placed, was uniform and
constant, this being shown by the movement of water along the
horizontal tube. The number in the column under “distance” indicates
a distance from the fixed point placed out towards the open end of the
tube, so that the larger number indicates a diminished volume of liquid
in the apparatus, and the smaller number an increased volume. The
diameter of the tube was such that 10 cm. in length indicated 1 cub.
cm. of water.
From these experiments we may conclude that the leaves used,
absorbed water, as vapour from the air, and as liquid from the tank.
There was generally a loss of water from the tank during the night and
a gain during the day. The increase in amount in the tank during the
day was much greater when the lower side of the leaf was exposed to
the air.
In regard to changes occurring at night, there seemed to be little
difference, whether the leaves had their upper side up, or their lower
side up. During the day, however, there was a remarkable differ-
ence.
The table showing the relative numbers of stomata is given, though
no application is made of it further than to show that the stomata are
found upon the lower surface only.
Filter paper, placed in the position of the leaf in the experiment,
produced a steady decrease in amount of water in the tank.
The question of water absorption by a¢tached leaves is not so easily
dealt with. In an experiment with willow twigs it is shown that water,
as well as a nutrient solution, may be absorbed by developing leaves.
(seerexper, Chapter X. ).
Some plants, ¢.g., Ampelopsis, (Fig. 11), have certain peculiarities of
leaf structure which seem to indicate an adaptation for absorption.
Such are the corrugations over the veins and in the regions of the
stomata. It may be that the striations around the ‘bases of the
256 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
trichomes in Primula (Fig. 5, 1) serve a similar purpose. The tissue
next the epidermis over the veins in Ampelopsis is composed of thin-
walled parenchyma cells without chlorophyll (Fig. 10, H). Just how
far one is justified in reasoning from anatomy to function is not
easy to say. These anatomical conditions are not mentioned as
proof, but as evidence in favour of absorption.
Stahl has endeavoured to show that corrugations and hairs over
the veins, aid in shedding water, but this does not accord with the
results of the experiments per-
formed by the writer and recorded
in Chapter VII. The hairs along
the veins, by capillary action,
cause solutions to ascend the
petiole and pass out over the veins
to such an extent that the leaf
becomes coated with salt when the
water evaporates. Henslow (1888)
and Garreau (1851) held that such
corrugations and hairs over the
veins aided in absorption, as well
as in spreading drops of water
over the leaf.
It is shown elsewhere in this
paper that solutions are absorbed
by leaves even when the plant is in
EIG: 5. a saturated atmosphere (Chapters
(1). A semi-perspective view of a trichome of VI. and VI 13):
Primula stellata, partially laid over towards one
side showing trichome Tr. in part; Chloroplasts,
ch. ; striations, St.; surface view of epidermal The evidences in support of
a oe spitionGe a! Wachome ap ipacey eee absorption by leaves upon
view of cross section of petiole showing basal the plant may be summarized as
cell Bl. of trichome, also epidermal layer and follows :—Detached \eaves absorb
water, and since they function, in a
measure, as when attached to the living plant (Chapter VII.), it
may be concluded that attached \eaves absorb. Dilute solutions are
absorbed, and therefore water may be absorbed. Certain anatomical
structures make it seem probable. Since distilled water will extract
inorganic salts from leaves, it follows that water may enter the tissue
during the process. The historical evidence is overwhelmingly in
favour of absorption. Since substances contained in water of guttation
parenchyma Pa.
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 257
and in dew, are resorbed by leaves under certain conditions, it seems
probable that water may be absorbed. This last mentioned point will
be discussed in detail in the following chapter.
IV.—INCRUSTATIONS, GUTTATION DRops, DEw.
Certain plants, belonging to the orders Sarifragacee and Plum-
baginaceé, are frequently, when under natural conditions, found with
incrustations upon the leaves, and the chief object of this chapter is to
make clear, if possible, the cause and the function of these peculiar
deposits of lime and’other substances upon foliage leaves.
The chemical composition of this deposit has been examined by
several botanists, notably Treviranus, Mohl (1861, p. 227) and Volkens
(1884), and they all agree that the inorganic part of the deposit is
composed almost wholly of CaCO,. They found also a certain amount
of organic matter associated with it, but this they did not analyze in
detail.
To see if this deposit could be produced artificially, dew-drops were
taken in early morning from time to time, from leaves of the following
plants,—Trapzolum, Lilac, grass, Mentha, and Polygonum, and placed
upon clean cover-glasses. The cover-glass being now kept free from
dust, the dew was allowed to evaporate. When the drop had evaporated,
a deposit of a whitish crystalline substance remained, showing clearly
that the dew-drop had held in solution some salts. Upon carefully
heating the cover, and then examining with a lens or microscope, one
could see that a certain amount of charred substance had been produced
by the heating. This charring indicates the presence of some organic
substance. The inorganic portion is soluble in dilute HCl, with
liberation of CO,, showing that a carbonate is present. The quantities
were too small to permit of a further test for the base or bases in
solution, but as considerable of this substance is re-dissolved in distilled
water, there arises the suggestion that it is not all CaCO,,-but very
probably largely potassium carbonate with potassium oxalate.
Since the dew is, in part at least, formed by the condensation of
aqueous vapour of the atmosphere, the question arises as to the source of
the salts which were deposited when the drops were evaporated. Did
they come from the tissue of the leaf or were they derived from the
atmosphere? To answer this question a series of experiments was
258 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (Vou. VII.
conducted to determine whether similar substances could be ertvracted
from leaves by the application of distilled water.
Leaves were gathered on December 12th, and after two hours placed
in distilled water in positions as shown in Fig. 2. In no case did the
cut end of the petiole dip beneath the surface of the water. The leaves
had lost almost nothing by transpiration during the time intervening
between gathering and placing in the dish of water.
Leaf. | Reaction, 24 hours. | Reaction, 144 hours.
Bele ye OM eyate e12)-t 5 Ae aks © caeks if, PAA cise s Se eles Strongly alkal.
Abbutilonr ees. cet cise padsca ve : fA ian anec cco Alk.
INCE Ses o.dgn ones sacubooonEde SO ASE BO SOB OM OSES bs Strongly alk.
Eaparoniam\reetcc en ok ciel Soe Reroute Sin Rei Acid.
Crassula scree ances ese yevslosiee Weakly alksy.. <i, a-r- Alk.
HeHOtropmmyceis yee eter 4G sonar aterotnateiens Strongly alk.
IS{SeWe Womens o.cm BODOSB Ub TGOr Neutrality emis tise Slightly alk.
[PENANG chats pocaponD SeONO OS AN Sotho oa pCa GOOr Alk. especially at margin.
IPMOAIFGNC, Lacomecoosodgéoe sc Wiealklysallln- eee Acid.
INGADISs eee cieia a Stree oe eiiede, #0 evi SO gocaascac Alk.
BerimUalasstsaccrs eeiee @siesieeteys loNeutrallesmercennener Acid.
Brimulatobse- eee Sooeeamacrs | BOS UN a Ao Maree ote Strongly alkal.
‘TUirojoeselhiten caceseksasoanoase HO potnogsagnese On leaf, acid, water alk.*
The water was then allowed to evaporate, which it did in a period of
about ten days. The dishes were protected from dust by placing a tray
loosely over the top.
-
The water had not penetrated into the intercellular spaces of the
leaves to any noticeable extent. The amount of substance given off by
the leaves was considerable in every case, and in some cases was quite
remarkable. When the water had all evaporated from the dishes, and
the leaves were removed, a beautiful white “print” of the leaf was left
upon the bottom of the glass dish. This “print” was deeper at the
margin of the leaf, and was composed of feathery white crystals. In
the case of three or foutr of the leaves used, the surface in the neighbour-
hood of the veins was not in actual contact with the bottom of the dish.
Here water lay during the experiment, and in this region there was a
prominent accumulation of crystals. Where the leaf surface actually
touched the glass there was little or no deposit. This would remove all
doubt as to the possibility of dust particles or gases from the air having
anything to do with the crystalline deposit. The alkaline or the acid
quality of the liquid was peculiar, in that the results in twenty-four
hours differ from those in six days, as shown in the table. This is
probably due to chemical changes peculiar to the material composing
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 259
the cell sap in each case; and also due, perhaps, to different degrees of
diffusibility of the substances entering the surrounding water from the
leaf; and it may have been due to bacteria. In all cases the juice
compressed from similar leaves, at the time of gathering from the plant,
and twenty-four hours afterwards, was decidedly acid. Then it is fair
to conclude that the leaf juices, or cell sap, did not pass out by
mechanical] means, or by mere filtration, for then the surrounding water
would be acid. This throws some light on the question as to why
Duchartre, De Candolle, Ganong and others reached the conclusion that
plants, as growing plants, could not absorb water through the leaves.
The fact was, that in the washing, spraying or drenching of the leaves,
some of the cell contents had been taken out into the water by osmosis ;
and so naturally in the resulting weight there would be a slight decrease
owing to this loss of substance, though at the same time there may
have been water absorbed which the balances could not show,—nay,
there must have been if the water used for drenching was pure water.
That leaves when immersed in distilled water lose a considerable
amount of substance, was proved by De Saussure (1805) who made
some analyses to determine, not only the nature of the substance
extracted by the water, but also the amount actually taken out. He
collected some leaves of Corylus on May Ist and found that they
yielded upon analysis 26 per cent. of dissolved salts which were mostly
alkaline. Similar leaves, after being submerged for fifteen minutes in
distilled water, yielded only 8.2 per cent. of dissolved salts. The
phosphates, he found, were not perceptibly affected by the drenching.
De Saussure does not give any details of his analysis of the salt taken
out of the leaf by the water, beyond that it is a combination of alkaline
salts,—that is to say that they are salts of potassium, calcium, and, it
may be sodium. The writer has also found that this substance
extracted by water is composed of potassium and calcium carbonates
and potassium oxalate, with traces of organic substance. Hence it is
found that the residues from the evaporation of the dew-drops, and of
this liquid in which the leaves were submerged are practically the same.
According to Van Tieghem (1808, p. 313) the liquid found upon plants
in early morning contains in solution calcium bicarbonate in consider-
able quantity. This is the calcium compound absorbed by the roots of
plants, according to Roux (1900, p. 331). As it is a very unstable
compound, breaking down readily into CaCO,, CO, and H,O, it is only
reasonable to suppose that it is largely through this bicarbonate that
the carbonate is found upon leaves in the form of incrustations. From
260 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
this decomposition CO, may be furnished to the plant. It may be that
the chemical action resulting in the formation of calcium oxalate in the
leaves of some plants, and calcium carbonate in others, results also in
a liberation of CO..
It has been observed by (Senebier t. 3, p. 98) Morozzo, that dew- |
drops, remaining upon the leaves until late in the morning, have an acid
reaction upon test paper, and that this reaction is due to CO, contained
in the dew-drop. _Senebier analyzed dew and found that when treated
with lime-water it gave a flocculent precipitate, which when tested with
H.SO, produced an effervescence of CO,.. He concluded, however, that
the dew-drop is always a deposition from the atmosphere, and that it
occurs in drops for the same reason that water spread upon an oiled
surface will collect in drops. He collected dew in large quantity and
made some analyses which are rather striking. From 3791 kilos of
filtered dew, he obtained 2276 grams of a solid as a residue from the
evaporation of the water, and, after treating this residue with alcohol,
then filtering, he obtained as a solid 603.74 milligrams; on dissolving
this in acetic acid, he obtained 421.29 milligrams of an insoluble white
substance which he concluded was CaSO, From these results we may
conclude that, from the amount of dew he collected, he obtained 182.45
milligrams of a carbonate, probably CaCO, He believed the dew to
contain an acid carbonate, as did Van Tieghem. He found also that if
he first filtered the dew he got less effervescence of CO, when treated
with EESO;
In order to test the effects of a dry atmosphere upon leaves holding
dew-drops, a number of leaves were taken in early morning and placed
immediately in a dry atmosphere which produced a rapid evaporation
of the drops. On examination it was found that a slight deposit of a
whitish substance was left upon evaporation. This result showed
clearly that a saline substance had been dissolved in the dew-drop.
At the time of collecting the leaves for this experiment, other
plants of the same species were marked for observation later. In
the case of these plants no deposit was found. This experiment was
repeated six times during the summer with practically the same result.
The substance contained in the dew-drops must have been largely, if
not wholly, extracted from the leaves of the plants. These experiments
indicate also, that under favourable circumstances, leaves resorb the
saline substance contained in the dew; and there is a suggestion also
that some of the dew-water may be absorbed in the process.
As the dew experiments seemed to indicate that saline substances
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 261
were extracted from leaves, and also that under certain conditions these
salts were resorbed, a series of experiments was arranged to test the
matter from another point of view.
Guttation drops were produced upon the following plants :—
Tropzolum, Maize, Tomato and Phaseolus. Five leaves of each were
then placed in a moist, atmosphere, and five of each in an atmosphere
whose humidity was very low. When the water of the guttation drops
had disappeared it was found, upon close examination, that a whitish
deposit lay where the larger drops were upon the leaves in the dry
atmosphere. Upon those lying in the moist chamber no deposit was
found.
These drops contained, as shown by analysis, potassium carbonate,
calcium carbonate and some organic substances. This analysis is
corroborated in part by that of Nestler (1899) who states that he found
potassium carbonate in drops produced upon leaves of Phaseolus, and
on some of the J/alvacee.
In order to determine whether a substance similar to that produced
by immersion could be extracted in a shorter time than that employed
in the foregoing experiments, a number of tests were made with growing
plants. Ten different species were taken and the leaves subjected to a
fine spray of distilled water for fifteen minutes. The water was then
carefully collected and slowly evaporated down to dryness. In six out
of the ten cases, a faint crystalline deposit was found upon evaporation.
In one case, that of Nicotiana, a very considerable amount was found.
This plant was one of those which showed with the distilled water, a
strong alkaline reaction in a short time. When the leaves of the other
three plants were tested as in the first series they also produced a
deposit after a short time.
In regard to the calcareous incrustations found upon desert plants,
Volkens calls attention to the fact that they occur chiefly upon desert
plants which grow upon soil which was once the bottom of an inland
sea, and which, therefore, contains a considerable amount of lime. It
may be said that two things particularly contribute to their formation,—
abundance of material, and an atmosphere periodically moist and dry.
They are spread over the surfaces of leaves, according to Nestler, and
also Noll, by means of hairs and corrugations, leaving no indication as
to the place upon the leaf from which they came. The writer has noticed
leaves of plants, other than those producing incrustations, having peculiar
striations and trichomes which may function, as Nestler suggested, to
transport water or solutions over the surface of the leaf (Fig. 10).
3
262 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoOxL. ) Valle
The supply of calcareous substance is furnished by the roots of
plants in the form of the bicarbonate of calcium (Roux 1900). Volkens
(1884) states that this bicarbonate of calcium is the chief saline substance
contained in the guttation drop. This is in accordance with analyses
made by the writer, and the view held by Van Tieghem. It is well
known that one of the commonest substances found in spring water is
calcium bicarbonate, and Roux states that the CO, given off by the
roots aids in its formation. There is every reason to suppose, then, that
the plant obtains its calcium chiefly from this substance. It is also well
known that CaCO, in the presence of CO, and water, forms the soluble
bicarbonate thus :—CaCO,+CO.+ H,O=CaH,(COs),; but, as this
compound is very unstable, it breaks down again if the conditions be
seriously disturbed. These interactions may be, therefore, important in
plant economy.
The function of incrustations are (Volkens, 1884) :—(1) to keep up an
equilibrium between absorption of the roots and transpiration of the
leaves; (2) in the excretion of useless and harmful products; (3) to
prevent too rapid evaporation ina dry hot climate. Pfeffer (1897) states
that the function may be to induce an abundant formation of dew.
Since calcium bicarbonate is a very unstable compound, breaking down
into CaCO,, CO, and H,.O, it may be, that in the formation of the
deposit of CaCO,, a source of supply of CO, is suggested. The roots
take in the bicarbonate and it is found upon leaves of plants in the
morning. In the early morning when photosynthesis is becoming
active this bicarbonate begins to break down, resulting in a liberation of
CO, which is then in demand by the plant. From these data the writer
assigns another probable function to these incrustations, namely, that of
furnishing CO, to the plant.
Since analyses show that the deposits from the dew-drop, the
euttation drop, and the water of immersion or drenching, are similar to
those in the calcareous incrustations, one may infer that the causes of
formation are similar. As the process involved in the formation is one
of diffusion, the loss or gain to leaves will depend upon relations exist-
ing between internal and external conditions.
In summarizing the results of these discussions and experiments, we
may say that the residue obtained from the evaporation of dew-drops,
guttation drops, and of the water used in drenching leaves, is practically
the same. This residue is similar in chemical composition to that of
the calcareous incrustations found upon certain Saxifrages and other
plants. The relative proportions of the constituents, however, are
1900-T. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 263
different. In the calcareous incrustations, the quantity of calcium
carbonate is much more pronounced than is the case with dew and
geuttation water. Under certain conditions guttation water and dew-
drops are absorbed by leaves, leaving no deposit of saline matter on the
surface of the leaf. When the evaporation is rapid a deposit is found.
When the drop contains calcium bicarbonate in solution, carbon dioxide
is liberated during the process of evaporation. It may be that in desert
countries the calcareous incrustations, in the presence of moisture
during the night, serve the purpose of retaining the CO, given out in
respiration. Owing to lack of decomposition of vegetable matter there
is a low percentage of CO, in the air in deserts. This might indicate an
economy of some importance to the plant.
These results throw some light upon the question of water-absorption,
and suggest something in regard to the nature and the cause of such
absorption.
V.—DOoES DISTILLED WATER BECOME ALKALINE WHEN PLACED
Upon LEAVES OF PLANTS?
In Sachs’ Pflanzen Physiologie (1882, p. 305) he states that if distilled
water be placed upon the leaves of plants for a few minutes, it becomes
alkaline, and he refers to a paper of his own, (1862, p. 259), upon “The
acid, alkaline and neutral reaction of the cell-sap of plants.” The
subject is merely referred to in his paper, Sachs himself having made no
direct investigation into this particular point. The conclusions he
draws are based upon work done by Payen and Gaudichaud. These
two men entered into a warm discussion, in which Payen held that an
alkaline reaction is produced by the leaf, and Gaudichaud showed that
the sap of plants in general is acid and rarely, if ever, alkaline. He
argued further, saying that the few particular cases mentioned by
Payen were irrelevant; and as no further reply was given by Payen,
the matter stood thus for a considerable time. However, in looking
into Payen’s work (1848), one finds that he saw far more in the subject
than Gaudichaud gave him credit for; and also that he had the best of
the argument as Gaudichaud recognized later on. Payen gave also in
connection, some analyses which are interesting. In one of these he
found upon evaporating the water taken from Mesembryanthemum
crystallinum, crystals of potassium oxalate. A quotation from Gaudi-
chaud, (1848, p. 35), gives his position upon the question. “Toutes les
autres plantes que j’ai observées depuis par ce moyen méme Urticées se
sont montrées acides dans le méme éspace de temps. On sait que l’eau
de ces sortes de macérations devient promptement alkaline. * * *
264 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
“Je coupai deux ou trois branches de cette singulier plante, et les plagai
dans un verre avec un peu d’eau. Le lendemain matin en poursuivant
mes recherches la pensée me vint d’essayer aussi de l’eau du verre ot
avaient séjourné ces branches et je fus tres surpris de voir le rouge
passer au bleu.”
Later on Gaudichaud made other experiments by placing distilled
water upon leaves of many plants, and found an alkaline reaction.
Two of the plants he mentioned are Trapaeolun majus and Cucurbita.
He accounted for this alkalinity by saying that the alkaline substances
diffused out more readily than the others. This agrees with De
Saussure’s results, which Gaudichaud gives, and which are already
referred to in the chapter on incrustations. That alkaline substances
diffuse out into the surrounding water, seemed to be quite clear to
Gaudichaud.
In the paper, just referred to, by Sachs, he shows that there is
generally an alkaline reaction in the sap in the conducting vessels (stem
and roots) of the wood, while the reaction of the parenchyma is
generally acid. He says :—
“Die beschriebenen Falle ziegen, dass Payen’s und Gaudichaud’s
Ansicht, als ob alkalische Safte nur in “specifischen” Zellen einiger
“exceptionellen” Pflanzen vorkamen, nicht gerechtfertigt ist, dass
vielmehr die alkalischen Safte in einer grossen Zahl unserer gemeinen
Culturpflanzen neben sauren Saften vorkommen ; und zwar ziegen die
vorstehenden Untersuchungen, dass gerade diejenigen Safte vorzugsweise
alkalisch sind, denen wir eine hohe Wichtigkeit fiir das Leben der
Pflanzen nicht absprechen diirfen, naémlich in den diinnwandigen
Zellen, welche bei vollstandig ausgebildsten Gefassbiindelen krauter
Pflanzentheile zwischen dem Baste und den Gefassréhren liegen. Dass
gerade diese diinnwandigen Zellen die wesentlichsten Elemente der
Gefassbiindel darstellen, darf zunachst aus dem Umstande gefolgert
werden, das dieselben in den Gefassbiindelen lebenskraftiger Theile wie
es scheint, niemals fehlen. Es sind offenbar diese diinnwandigen |
Elemente der Gefiissbiindel, welche auch bei solchen Familien der
Gefasspflanzen schon auftreten, wo eigentliche Gefasse und Bastzellen
noch mangelen, und wahrend in den Aussersten endigungen der
Gefassbiindel der Blattnerven héherer Pflanzen der Bast und die Gefasse
beinahe oder ganz aufhiren, bilden die Leitzellenbiindel die Aussersten
Endigungen.”
This gives the location of the substance which produces the acid
and the alkaline reactions respectively. This also lays the foundation
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 265
for a reasonable explanation for the phenomena chiefly under discussion
in this chapter.
The nature of the substance diffusing out through the leaf tissue, to
cause this alkaline reaction, is discussed in more detail in the foregoing
chapter. Several phenomena developed during the course of the
following experiment, which are interesting and important. On
examining the recorded details of the experiments, one notices first that
the time required to cause a sufficient change of colour of the litmus is
an appreciable interval, and it varies widely with different plants, as
might be expected. The time required to cause a distinctly alkaline
reaction of the water applied to the surface, depends upon the
permeability of the cell walls, especially upon that of the cutin upon
the epidermal layer, upon the diffusibility of the salts extracted by the
external water, and directly upon the readiness with which the acid
contents of the cells make their way out and neutralize the alkaline
substances taken from the tissue by diffusion. The CO, in the
atmosphere, and in and about the leaf surface, is no unimportant factor
in determining the colour of the test paper. As is shown in the preceding
chapter the substance which diffuses out is largely K,COs, CaH, (CO;),,
and probably some potassium oxalate. Two of these substances,
potassium carbonate and potassium oxalate, have a reaction rather
strongly alkaline, while the other is slightly acid to litmus test paper.
If the last-mentioned salt (CaH, (CO,).) predominate strongly, there will
be a weakly acid reaction, as is shown in some plants. This substance,
being so very unstable, breaks down (upon evaporation of the solution),
into CaCO,, CO, and H.O, leaving as a residue the carbonate of lime.
If, however, water is present and more CO, available for absorption into
the solution, it would become gradually more and more acid, as is shown
in the results of the experiment.
One very important difficulty in the way of success in demonstrating
this phenomenon, is that reddened litmus paper will often become
slightly blue if placed in distilled water which is allowed to evaporate
down to dryness. That there might be some slight action between the
water and the sodium or the potassium of the glass, is barely possible.
Small quantities of ammonia in the air may have some effect. An
experiment was performed to test this phenomenon. Two well-cleaned
panes of glass, 160 by 210 mm, were placed face to face together, with a
few drops of distilled water and a few strips of red litmus paper between.
Owing to the adhesion of the water for the glass and the slow
evaporation, the water remained there several days, and the colouring of
266 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL.. Vile
the paper might be seen readily at any time without disturbing the
plates. One could hardly say that atmospheric conditions had much to
do, under these circumstances, with giving the water between the plates
any quality, either acid or alkaline. The strips of paper all turned
slightly blue, showing that the water and glass had probably something
to do with the change. This change took place long before the water
had evaporated, showing that the evaporating down to dryness was no
important factor, though, so far as is known to the writer, this is the only
reason assigned for the change.
FIG, 6.
F, is a flask enclosing a leaf and kept in position by a support. P, a plug of cotton in the flask.
R & B, red and blue litmus paper strips.
Experiment to test the acid or alkaline quality of distilled water
which has been allowed to stand upon a living leaf for some time.
Plant used, Helianthus. Plant placed under a bell-jar.
I.— December 15th, 1900.
3 strips red litmus paper placed on glass slide under jar and moistened,
became blue in 24 hours; dry.
2 strips red litmus paper placed on the inside of jar; moist ; no change.
3 strips (red) placed upon leaves touching jar; moist ; turned blue.
3 strips (red) placed upon leaves not touching jar; dry ; no change.
Il —December 16th. Observations made in 24 hours ; reddened litmus paper used.
4 strips on glass slide, moist, under jar... . Reactzon, bluish.
4 ‘* touching inside surface of jar, moist. “ 3 red; 1 (dry) blue.
4 ‘** on leaf touching jar, moist ........ NY bluish.
4 ‘* in beaker of dist. water under jar... a red.
4 “* on slide, moist, under beaker not
Mises oolsGaseta sonogsacs tt bluish.
4 ‘* oninside moist beaker inverted..... ve bluish (dry).
Ae. on under side of leaf, moist......... ss blue.
1900-1. EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 26
go 7
IIll.— December 17th. Observations made in 24 hours.
Zi, Diop Wwhaveleren the ihn leiden ooadpecadwoscas Reaction, 2r. and 2 faded.
Teen De und era amoOnnmoistislidel. ssn eee Fe Hs 1 bluish one blue, (dry)
3b. 4r., touching inside moist jar........... a BD ts
2DE 2G unGdemside Ofleat. i). ase eoe : Be 2b. 2 bluish.
3r., on upper side of leaf touching jar...... 7 3 bluish.
Ir., on upper side of leaf not touching jar... “ 1 bluish.
Ir. 1b., under beaker in beaker............ as lie Ane
2r., on moist slide under beaker .....,.. , on 2 bluish, (dry).
1b., under cover glass under beaker........ HS blue.
IV.
Time. Reaction.
January 25th.—Pelargonium ; plant in the open air.
In all cases the litmus paper was first
moistened.
3r.,0n upper sideiof leaf... sEGoOSOT 6 hours. 3 blue.
Ir. on upper side of leaf as in (Fig. 6). StiddaoBads 24 hours. 1 reddish.
February r6th. Plant under jar.
Dik VBE SGIS OH MERI g c5od50 soe 000 can doo nGON 24 hours. 2 bluish.
AlDy, WV? OCIS Gi NEE SoobuogseenacvocbodoDE OF 24 hours. 2blue.
February 2rst. Plant in open.
4b. on upper side of leaf and left for........... 3 days. 4 blue.
February 2ist. Plant under jar.
BbMOnbuppemsiderotel eaten mrariiaclieeltcteleitere ets 3 days. 3 blue.
January 25th. Nicotiana; plant in open.
ios, Bae! So, Cla (Wjejorere SnCIS Che NEeWinlg Ghano poop anec 6 hours. 6 blue, very.
February 2rst. Plant under jar.
Riana. DOntUppersideror leataemmerteitrnertee 6 hours. 6 blue.
February 21st. Chrysanthemum ; plant in open.
Birnie 2b OnLUp perm Side) olpleat..)-/-1eeeie = se 6 hours. No change.
eraand: 2b on under side ot leaf, a... eci-e 6 hours. No change.
February 2rst. Plant under jar.
Ber CM Moyer GIS ICE soousgocodbouaouomanne 24 hours. No change.
January 25th. Solanum; plant in open.
Bi ancdesbwonmuip per sideyonleaty nase sear) 6 hours. 3r. and 3b.
Die Biel Aly GIR AIS sho (Unesco cacassuodoc 2,24 hours: 4 reddish.
January 25th. Capsicum; plant in open.
BieecanicesbwOnmuppem side ofl eat veritatis c 6 hours. 6 blue.
Qrrandesbwom under sidelonleat.-qce. «0-1 sails 6 hours. 6 blue.
February 2rst. Plant under jar.
3r. and 3b. on upper side of leaf. Nese ooadon |) AAl lioerecy 6 blue.
gr. and 3b. on upper side of leaf (Fig. 6) p Bye eusarais 6 hours. 3 bluish, 3 blue.
3r. and 3b. on upper side of leaf (Fig. 6). ...... 24 hours. 6 reddish.
From these experiments one can see that there is a certain alkaline
reaction of the water which had been left upon the leaf surface for a
268 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
e
short time. A very dry atmosphere surrounding the leaves will cause
such rapid evaporation of the water that there may be no definite
reaction either way on some plants. It is not difficult to see that the
time required to extract substances in solution osmotically from the leaf
tissue will vary with different plants. Both the substance to be diffused
and the septum through which diffusion takes place, have to do with the
amount diffused in a giventime. This process is in accordance with the
general laws of diffusion, the solution within the cells on the one side of
the septum and the water on the other. All the experiments described
show that a substance is actually extracted from the leaf, the time
required being different with different plants.
When the plants were placed under bell-jars to reduce in amount the
evaporation from the leaf surface they were under different climatic
conditions from the surrounding plants in the open. These differences,
however, were not of such a nature as to interfere with the progress of
the experiment, as is shown by the numerous controls. During the day
time there would be, when photosynthesis is active, a diminished amount
of CO, in the air in the jar ; while during the night when photosynthesis
is checked, or stopped altogether, and respiration is still going on, there
would be an excess of CO, in the air of the jar. The action of an
excess of CO, would be to render the water drops clinging to the sides of
the jar of an acid quality.
When the water had evaporated slowly down to dryness upon a
glass surface there was always a sézght alkaline reaction to the litmus
paper. The general results of the experiments with the plant
Helianthus (exper. I, II, II1), are that distilled water became alkaline in
twenty-four hours after being placed upon leaves. The same reaction
was found whether the water were placed on the upper or on the lower
side of the leaf. As the plant was inside a bell-jar, as in experiment I,
it was easy to have a leaf touching the moist inside surface of the Jar,
with a strip of test paper touching both jar and leaf in the presence of
water. The strips placed clinging to the inside surface of the moist jar
were in fair comparison with that touching leaf and jar, and in the latter
case the portion touching the leaf showed the stronger alkaline reaction.
This tends to prove that the alkaline reaction is caused by the leaf, and
not wholly or in large part by the glass, as was suggested by the writer
to have been possible. |
Sachs shows (Bot. Zeit. 1862, p. 257) that the substances contained
in the conducting vessels in the stem of the plant, in petioles and in
veins of a leaf are alkaline. It is therefore possible that this alkaline
1900-1. ] EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 269
substance in solution is largely in the same condition as when found in
the xylem of the root. So we have in the leaf an alkaline liquid on its
way towards the minute tracheids entering into whatever chemical
compounds are natural to the leaf. The alkaline substance which
diffuses out through the leaf surface to the distilled water is not in all
likelihood wholly the same as that coursing upward through the
conducting vessels, for there diffuses out through the leaf, potassium
oxalate, a compound organic in its nature, and one which therefore has
had to do with the plant metabolism. Sachs shows that the liquid in
the xylem of the roots is alkaline and that this alkaline quality is
maintained throughout its course into the leaf.
To sum up, one may conclude from these experiments and from
those recorded in Chapters II]. and IV., that a substance is extracted
from leaves of plants by the application of distilled water, and that this
substance gives generally an alkaline reaction. This alkaline reaction
is produced largely by compounds of potassium (potassium carbonate
and potassium oxalate). If distilled water extracts salts from leaves it
may be that rain-water does, and this will result in a loss of substance
to the leaf. If the substance be zujurzous to the plant this process
might be called a process of excretion. The amount which diffuses out
differs with different plants, and the alkaline reaction may be masked by
the presence of. other substances as shown above. It has been shown
that, in the case of the potato plant (1895), distilled water when applied
to the leaves, acts as a stimulus to growth, and the suggestion is here
offered that the stimulus may be a result of the loss of injurious salts
which had accumulated in the leaves, the removal of which substances
would benefit the plant.
Vib ShRECrS OF A. NUTRIENT SOLUTION AND OF
DISTILLED WATER UPON LEAVES OF PLANTS.
The experiments here described in detail were designed to extend at
intervals over a period of two years, and to have the plant as nearly as
possible under natural conditions. It was expected that these investi-
gations would throw some light upon the much disputed question as to
whether leaves can absorb water and solutions to the advantage of the
plant. Arrangements were made to have the roots of the plant isolated,
so to speak, from the atmospheric conditions surrounding the leaves, and
to have the roots supplied with nothing but distilled water and air. It
was thought that if no food were supplied to the roots, growth could not
270 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
continue for any extended length of time. If liquid food be supplied to
the leaves and a distinct growth results—that is, a growth more
= Ey
—
CT AA
FIG. 7.
H, reservoir for nutrient solution; R, regulating tap; A, tube through which water and air are
supplied to the roots; B, ventilator; P, sheet rubber ; M, wax; E, exit tube; D, distilled water; S,
spray: F, receiver.
pronounced than that in the case of water alone—it is deemed
reasonable to conclude that some of the food solution was absorbed to
1900-1. } EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 271
the advantage of the plant. (For illustration of the method used to
supply the leaves with food see Fig. 7). It was found expedient to
paint the bottles in which the roots were immersed, with black bicycle
enamel to protect the roots from the light. |
SERIES SE
The first of the following series of experiments was begun on October
13th, 1899, and carried on at the physiological laboratory at the botanic
gardens, and is the first of the series to test whether a nutrient solution
can be made to support the life of a plant by applying it to the leaves in
the form of a spray. The roots were placed in distilled sterilized water
and the supply was kept up by means of a system of tubes arranged for
the purpose. The corks of the bottles were smeared with a specially
prepared soft wax, and above this was placed a piece of sheet rubber,
cut so as to go round the stem of the plant in the form of a hollow cone,
then cemented in this position so as to shed the liquid used as a spray,
and to keep as much as possible of the spray from coming into contact
with the wax. The wax served the purpose of doubly securing the
liquid at the roots from contamination with the liquid used as a spray.
(see Hie. 77):
Plants used—Thunbergia alata.
Plant A.—Roots in distilled water and leaves fed by a spray of
nutrient solution (Fig. 7).
Plant B r.—In distilled water but no spray.
Plant B 2.—Under same condition as B 1.
Plant B 3.—Roots in distilled water, plant under jar and
moistened daily.
Plant C.—Control, in flower-pot in soil.
The records of growth in length are for the purpose of inquiring into
é . . . -
the manner in which the growth is affected when the plant is placed
under these conditions. Measurements are given in millimeters.
272 : TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. Vile
PLANT A. PANG Bogie
¥ | Length of last | 4 |%
2 ‘ate migdes: & 2 = ay =
a) 2 = + | Oc § Of loc
Date. & 0 | Suh con aa inten Date. ey [ish St || ee Remarks.
E c 5 Ss Oo |} wP}oe
6 | 39 & | & eh |) ee zh 6 | 5-£/o8
Za se. |) a) a es Pap lta Sie
Ores 1A5))| G2 2 hi :
Wyo tlle Ret eee Nie tll ge Pill oe Octt 27...) 819
ADs 5|| 2H || se Poll etialleeeea roc 28 3) |) 25 ||
22 eZ Aw OOO M|1O2 2 80/7561) 31
24 | 26/75 | 28) 9 37 go .| 8119 | 44
20.308 6) 6037 66 Bilal) uO) |) 1 || A
Ar. o|| 3 \| © || Ue) || 6 Wes7 Nov. I..| 10 |100 |137
ZO ee Q aun OMe sells 7, 28 2..| 10 |112 | 75 |Plant wilting.
Baal 2), Gills || Ge 2 I) 2S 3--| 10 |125 | o |Turgor slightly re-
NOVA Teor) 1Onlmesmires | 50 4...| 10 |125 |’ o |Top dead. [stored.
PaNAN 2yshel CY RAN Fie 25 Real) 1o) ers |)
Bool ze. || © || 5© |) as 69 6..] 10 {125 | o |Dying.
fo oll 82 | (|| As) |ree% 166 7 .| 10 |125 | o |Dead. (11 days).
925) 46 | 6) Too) || 76 | '
11 ZI) ||) (8) was || 6 69
13 51 6 | 50 @ ae ||| 225)
15 55 eR aS | ee | is 244
16..| 61 QA S73) 3) h44
17 61 100 | 19 | 12 | 3 | 69
nts) || (8) LOM 37 | LOM Le Oy,
19 | 65 Fo |) 9/5 N25) 225
20..| 67 100 | 30 8 45 \216 BEAN D2:
22 ear 31 | 50. 1-37. |" 3: |e6™
74a oll GB) co | ate) || mz) || ee || so) [eS
Aeo|) tt Wee i HC) | Sy | eee |) FS EO OCs A7oa|| 23°] 21) toc
7ADs HK ico || pe || BE) 1) Ge \letiy jis 748) al) 8h || | ©
27 83 47 | 56 | 8r | 25 141 29 cede lll Siro), Ie
28 .| 87 12 /100 | 12 | 50 |I91 30 8 | 37 | 19
Ae jitsis) |io5 ) 60) uey || Bp Ee |has Biigial| UO |! ey il i}
BOme POU e500 56m Oem ene ama INO) piss||selOu are ra
DEC e083) Ic 6 | 81 | 81 | 31 | 87 2..| 10 | 19 | 6 |Plant wilting.
| 97 50 | 6] 6 | 62 1175 Bo ol] 2) |) 2H || ©
3--|LO1 |) Swe |p aire NS aD > 4..| 10 | 25 | o |Top dying.
4..|105 BON O29 | So 75 oz Renu? |) 2 |) ©
5.) |Lo7 75 |\100 | 62 | 62 | 75 6..| 10 | 25 | o |Dying.
Fh slit. | 3c 6 | 50 | 50 |100 |172T 7ho olen) || As ||) Ye) |[IDERIC (Coe i570).
| |
*Root is seen at 3rd node on main stem,
tPlant growing vigorously, at conclusion of experiment. (55 days).
On testing the leaves it was found that starch was present, excepting
in the four most recently developed leaves, and in the terminal buds.
Another plant (B. 3) was substituted on November roth.
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES,
PLANT B. 3.
3 Length of aa ||
Date. ra last internodes. g | Remarks.
6 3
Z foo
MOVs l@sceacons 4 31
Tig erersteye stele 4 34 saa
Teese ete sie ys 4 37 3 |
Die sesevern 6 3 6
ilo eoniniae 6 9 6
Gt percha relent 6 22 12
TO}e: 8 B 19
ogo woods 8 12 9
TG satevesae: are 8 19 6
UG@\oceroutons 8 44 25
ZO weareensne oc 8 62 19
Pied aly ees 8 100 19
AE OOO AOE 10 6 12 9
PAR exe cheers 10 6 12 oO
ZO oreo 10 6 12 fo)
DI sips is 10 6 19 7
2 See tte cs ie) 6 19 fo)
7X8) a 10 6 22 3
BDcocacasss 10 6 31 9
WSC <5 sya 10 6 37 6 | Flower-bud developing.
2a FSS 10 6 37 o up opening.
Soasosoae 10 6 37 fe) vt open.
AS ccis atest 10 6 37 o | Flower open.
hag 10 6 37 oO a ale.
(Cyc te 10 6 37 fo) Plant dying.
Flocoa oor | 10 6 | a7) °° “dead. (27 days).
PLANT C.—(CONTROL, IN FLOWER-POT IN SOIL).
Ps % 3
Date. 3 SE 25 = Remarks,
° wo 8 Onc =
3 Feed aoee 3
Zz =) 5 =
OCR 7 s50e eee 8 19 (a)
INO Soioea 8 19 fo)
QA avarats 8 i9 oO
IB. 8 19 o
Rib o8 6c inte 3 6 6
Deere ers sveic.< 10 12 6
ZO eyed a'e si 3 ako 25 12
Tp Ica eos 10 By 12
28 10 56 19 .
2 OMevey ste + 12 19 22
BObear es, 5 4,4,0 12 25 6
BI reyes 12 3 12
None as. 12 oe 19
Pac patter 12 12 37
Bonu cae 14 19
4 14 44 25
274 : TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vor. VII.
PLANT C.—Continued.
Z me | é |
2 EW acy | |
fatto |i nem) i2 Ss.
Date. ‘ ae 5 tees Remark
S et ee
Ze ie iS Be |
eae | ie tasrganer|
|
INOVERScie: se os 14 75 aia)
One e. 16 12 eel
Scene 16 19 6. |
i@)e, *afvsogs 16 62 4a |) peel
ACES overs a aun ies | Broken off ; bud from 4th node recorded.
TES eeae 25 | |
14-..-....- 3 28
iGo Sobor Go) 919 |
MW®oroaasoe 12 19 |
T7---see6 S371 25
ited 2 25
ieleo euler ac 6 19
Ai apo e og UZ 6 |
D2 Dicinicleneioushe 12 (|
FINS obi OO 19 al
ZS RODE C | 31 12h «i
BOnz eas och 44 niece BAN ce cau An y
reteset kei 50 6 | .. | Two buds springing from near the base.
Aco OOOO a3 12 TOM) ce
29 BR ieee sh A ma bse Branches from near the base recorded and
Bodeoacoc 56 be mae lene only the /o/a/ increase in length of stem
IDEs igs eoton% aye ae ee 38 given.
Dierenievelave 62
Bier te uae 12
Alera censycts | 24
Bcobcooet ano oe ans ests: ;
te nejevsers te me eh 53 End of the series. (51 days).
It will be noticed that the plant in soil in the flower pot being
transplanted from soil, remained almost at a standstill for six or seven
days, when growth proceeded more or less regularly. The plants whose
roots were in water suffered no such standstill in regard to growth as
did the plant in the soil, although all were taken from the same
propagating-box.
SERIES II.
This series of experiments was carried through in the physiological
laboratory at the botanic gardens during the month of December, 1899.
The records given in the table below show the daily increase in length
of stem and also the increase in number of leaves. All the plants were
subjected to the same conditions of light, and as nearly as possible, to
the same conditions of temperature, but owing to the fact that some of
the plants were under bell jars, the condition of temperature, as well as
of moisture could not be kept exactly the same.
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 275
Plant used, Helianthus (Sunflower).
; Apparatus was arranged as in Fig. 7 for plants 1 and 2 in the same
bell-jar. The spray was a nutrient solution and the roots were in
distilled water.
Plants 3 and 4 were arranged as in I and 2, excepting that the spray
was of distilled water.
Plants 5 and 6 were in nutrient solution, as in the ordinary water
culture, but under a jar with ventilation at the top and bottom.
Plants 7 and 8 were under a bell jar with ventilation at the top, and
the inside was kept moist by means of flat dishes of water; roots were
in distilled water. Numbers 9 and 10 were in soil and were kept under
a jar. Numbers 11, 12, 13, 14 were in soil in an ordinary flower-pot in
the room.
Ke ee
DATE. 63] 8
Ze tas
Es| 5
| lecl ed
PLANT. | fal ay Sea GS Wares
Chath EV At eS BET MEMEP Nee jl Sep ea) PNG sto] Res,
3) a 3 c | ¢ oO < £ e Is § 2 6
v vo 2x o o | » we 2) a | a
a) Q Q AQ QA | Q — foal mw |< =<
PLANT 1.
INOmOIMIEAVeES sapere hss oc tek cue $i 8) 28) Sil roll wee re
engiholhstemas ise a 162| 200) 200) 219] 219) 237) 245) 245) 83
PLANT 2
INomoipleavies teint. lajys2 states 8| 10 110) “Tolsir2|2 eral ers|= 18) ro) Sea ie
Benotiiorsteme aseyiceis aes oe aes 206] 248] 248] 256] 284] 284] 300] 300] ‘ 94]....| 86
PLANT 3.
IN@; Ot IGEN GS oMpcouenas “sooudodas Gy ii kei) aie] ais] sie) ell eA Go eSIinoo5
ENS EMNOL StENY 2 or. Sens.) iims iciose 15G| 194] 225] 256} 300; 300] 328} 328) 169).
PLANT 4.
INI@>, OMIGEN Eb pccedee0d bocode sooe SH oj] NG} 1G} GH GY, TIO) UC AP llega -
Wenstinotuste ms sry. of celery ails 181| 206] 256] 256} 272| 272] 281) 281] 1oo].. 134
PLANT 5. |
INommOtpleAVES is cf5 co )e. sls oteusysiiet wieroe © |S |S | ae RS | | | TT ee
Length of stem....... iste rafcrcya, states 147| 169} 182] 197] 219} 244] 250] 250] 103
PLANT 6. |
INO mmolpleaveSsicoes) . okcieisidcn ess Gi ol ei Sl VS) Ge 10 Al peaiers
Wenpihvof stem). << 4.5 ..02- i. ese) 131] 162| 162] 169] 206] 209) 222] 222] 91 97
PLANT 7. *! |
INGwmolpleavescc 5a cis eset s< be Oh Ore ears on Ole eS) S/N ks
Lenetbomstem fo e6.\0. 2 sac ce 0 sd 162] 225) 256] 256] 291) 300| 312/ 312) 150
PLANT 8.
INO Ofpleaviesnmayte Saisie sed ce ts Sia es Pes |S |e S| |S neo Wises
Lengtiotgstenlp occn)ecics cates: 150] 181| 181] 181] 181! 200] 203] 203] 53]....| 102
276 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
| 6 ..|
DATE. | \22| 3
| eee
PLANT. | SB ARUN re | asi om ¢ | #2| Ge
3) 3} Sy 3} 3} 3} . = 2 g 3 ie;
£)/6)8)4)8)4)a)é| 2 lea
|_| | -— — S| - | — +]
PLANT 9. |
INOMEOIPIEAVES', «205.00 s/o sei sins. Sievers 8] 8| 8} to} Yaz Saal ira} Sag) ele eee
Wen bhvotstem\a. a.sc Oy o leiele 225| 262] 303] 312| 387| 406| 469] 469] 244|....|....
PLANT Io. | |
INomot@leaviesnc.ce Ietteck err icr 8| 8]. ol) £2) 12\- 12) 16) 16) 78) eae
Wenpthiofystemls. 1. --)- ere ttele 219} 281| 291| 316] 337] 337] 387| 387] 168] .. | 206
|
PLANT II. |
INO seo fl GaVvesis saci yen cae tea ee 8|> Tol) Virol rol rel) ree era 16 ee eee
IE EaVe MOLE Cea 6e 0 bGH5 oo b0e 237| 284) 325) 352] 381| 387] 500] 500] 267|....|....
PANT 12: | |
Non of leaves is citias aoasts aye 6) 8) eS) y rel) “Tol, 2! r2i- rely Glare
IKene-thiofstemis.--eee 2 .. .| 194] 253] 269] 319] 363] 375] 431] 431| 237
PLANT 13.
INotmofileaves) incessant 8] S| <8) tol. a0) 402) 12) te) 4a eee
eng thiot stems sacs eee: 219] 285] 322] 381| 381] 412|. 462] 462 243]....]...-
PLANT 14.
INiSY Cit IEEE a> haan adeeb neOUo dec 8) > 3), 8)" To} sr2) 7 12] ree aa ees eee
Wengtihvofistems G5 cs. oeqecis os 137| 170] 212] 269) 272] 325] 365] 356 210|....| 214
Plants 1-8 were each. carefully weighed before being placed in the
bottles, with a view to ascertain by weight the increase in growth, if any,
but it was found during the course of the experiment that it would be
impracticable to employ this method to determine growth throughout a
series of experiments continued for so long a time as here contemplated,
because some of the plants lost many of their leaves. As soon as a leaf
dropped it began to absorb of the solution, as detached leaves do, and
consequently quantitative determinations of ash increase might lead to
error.
On December 21st plant 1 had developed an aerial root about 16
mm. in length, and on 23rd this had increased in length to 34 mm. On
December 21st plant 4 showed three small roots just coming forth from
the stem at the second internode, and on 23rd these roots had grown to
a length of about 6 mm. On December 25th one of these had grown to
a length of 19 mm., but on 28th had withered. The root that developed
on No. I was dead on December 3st.
On December 30th, observations were made as to the general
appearance of the plants, and it was found that the leaves of 1 and 2
showed a tendency to curl, and had the appearance of plants grown in
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. AiG
too rich soil. The leaves were much crowded towards the top and they
showed a good green colour. Plant 3 seemed to be dying and the
uppermost leaves were becoming very pale. It may be that death was
being brought about by fungi which attacked a dead leaf that clung to
the stem and decomposed there. The stem of plant 4 had become pale
and the upper leaves had become a pale yellow and begun to roll in
from the tips, not curling at the edges as in 1 and 2. The leaves of
plants 5 and 6 curled similarly to 1 and 2, but had a much more stunted
appearance. The plants were now removed from the jar and they did
better after being removed. These plants do not seem to take kindly
to water cultures. Plants 7 and 8, leaves flat and thin, becoming very
pale; stems thin and bending. Plants 9 and Io, growing well, and have
ficrappearance Ob It, 12,13, 14.
The difficulty with these plants seemed to be that they could not
well endure a moist atmosphere, and they had a tendency to send out
aerial roots. Of course, in the case of No’s 1 and 2 this would spoil the
experiment, as the roots would, or could, then do the absorbing. In
nearly every case, however, the atmosphere at some time became too dry
for the roots, and so they died down. The spraying, in the case of 1, 2,
3, 4, lasted continuously for about thirteen hours, then a rest was given
for at least twelve hours, nearly always much more than twelve hours.
The roots were aerated regularly by means of a hand pump through the
tube left for this purpose in the bottle. Distilled water was fed regularly
to the roots through the tube just mentioned.
Notwithstanding the fact that these plants were not well adapted to
this experiment, there are some conclusions of more or less importance
to be drawn, and which bear upon the subject under discussion. The
average increase in length of stem of 1 and 2 is less than that of 3 and
4, as is also the case with 5 and 6. In both cases the nutrient solution
seemed to retard the growth in length of the stem. The average
increase in length of stem of 3 and 4 is greater than that of I and 2,
though the number of leaves is greater in I and 2. In the case of 7 and
8 a small increase in length of stem and in number of leaves was
found.
The following conclusions, applicable to this plant, may fairly be
drawn from the experiment, though due allowance must be made for
slight exigencies :—
(1). A spray of water seemed to stimulate growth for a time.
h
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoOL. Vie
(2). The general effect of placing the plant under a bell jar is to
retard growth of stem but promote growth of leaves.
(3). Plants deprived of all food matter, except that contained in the
air and in pure water, will grow rather rapidly for a time but will
gradually die, the leaves first turning yellow.
(4). Plants grown in a moist atmosphere tend to send out roots at
the internodes as well as at the nodes.
(5). A nutrient solution fed in the form of a spray to a plant seems
to affect the plant in a way similar to that of a nutrient solution applied
to the roots, as in the ordinary water culture, and therefore it may be
assumed that some, at least, of the solution had been absorbed* and had
been used in the general vital processes of the plant. Though the plant,
fed with a solution applied to the /eaves in the form of a spray, did not
show a healthy or vigourous growth, yet the same may be said of the
plant whose voo¢s were supplied with the solution.
On the completion of the experiments, January 7th, the liquid
medium in which the roots dipped was examined, and it was found that
in the case of I and 2, none of the liquid spray had made its way down
into the water about the roots. The liquid, however, showed an acid
reaction in all cases. It was found further that those plants growing in
distilled water, 7 and 8, had a much more extensive growth of roots
than 5 and 6, those in the nutrient solution.
SERIES III.
The following series of experiments was arranged and conducted in
the basement of the University Museum where the atmosphere was
exceedingly dry at that season of the year, but the temperature was
fairly constant, ranging from 60 to 70 degrees F. The plants supplied
by a spray were arranged as shown in Fig. 7, while the others were
placed under bell jars with ventilators. These were aerated daily, as
were also the roots of the plants, and this aeration was accomplished by
forcing a stream of air into the liquid surrounding the roots. The
capacity of the bell jars was twenty-four liters.
The number of leaves was recorded regularly, and measurements
* Absorption by the leaves is indicated also by the experiments in Chapter X.
1900-I. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES, 279
were made upon the last three internodes in particular, and recorded,
and also upon the whole plant as nearly as possible, so as to give the
increase in growth from time to time. The measurements are in all
cases given in millimeters.
Plant + A.—Thunbergia alata, roots in distilled sterilized water
and fed with a spray of nutrient solution.
Plant 1 B.—¥agopyrum esculentum (buckwheat), under the
same conditions as 1 A.
Plant 1 C—Ipomaea purpurea (morning-glory), under same
conditions as I B., and substituted for it.
Plant 2 A.—Thunbergia alata, roots in distilled water and
plant kept under a jar frequently moistened and _ venti-
lated, no spraying.
Plant 2 8.—Fagopyrum, under same conditions as 2 A.
Plant 2 C—Thunbergia, substituted for 2 A. and kept under
same conditions.
Plant 3 A.—Thunbergia alata, roots in a nutrient solution,
formula given on p. 238 ; atmospheric conditions same as
2a.
Plant 3 &.—¥Fagopyrum, same as 3 A.
Plant 4 _A.—Thunbergia alata, roots in distilled sterilized water
and under the same conditions as I A., excepting that the
liquid used for spraying was distilled water instead of a
nutrient solution.
Plant 4 &—¥agopyrum, under same conditions as 4 A.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.
A.— OBSERVATIONS.
280
PLANT I.
S|
* | Length of last | %
2 internodes. 5 3
o = «
Date, 1900. as £ £
3 |™-m.|m.m.im.m,.| & =
a m.m.|m,.m
Reba Qe er Cy ae shi Sl Felleone
Ming AG 81> 22) 937i) 190) 97] 19
Was séood 8| 22) 44) 37] 122) 25
Mi Qits ceckeays 8| 25] 44| 56) 144| 22
WSooeoac 10} 25) 44! 87] 175! 31
OE goons To} 44] 100) 12] 200) 25
17. ..--| 10] 44| too} 22) 209) 9
18...»..|. I0| 44] 100) 31] 219) Io
W@hcoeoe 12| 112] 44| 3] 247| 28)
Bilooooes 12 LCG| OZ s|n28siag6
DA geri: 12} 119] 125| 25] 350| 67
Aho lace 12] 119] 137} 50] 387| 37
Prose SA 12| 119] 137| 100) 437} 50
WARS A co5 oc 14] 137| 119] 6) 467) 25
Rscooed 14) 137| 125] 19) 519] 47
Secscie 14g 72522 |S 221s
2c. ses lets 7 ele 5 | 25\5 250s
!
[Vou. VII.
Remarks.
| One bud is seen at 5th node.
Bud noted on 28th is a flower bud.
| There is a second flower-bud.
Stem referred to above, died down, and a branch is recorded below.
4) 3h) 3 3
Ae 3 Oana
4; 31) 37| 12
41 31) 44 37
6 44, 56 3
6| 44) 62] 19
6| 44) 62!) 28
6) 44| 62] 28
66)s20-
15 9
81 6
2 ear
134| 22
156} 22
166} 10
166 fo)
Second flower-bud broken accidentally.
Flower-bud developing naturally.
Another branch developed which is recorded below ; the one recorded above had
ceased to grow.
The flower mentioned on February 28th dropped off.
April23...... GH Su AU GH eiitilagoc
28. 8] 47] 44] 6] 109) 28
Was? “Rsdoeoc 8] 47). 44| 6] 109) Oo
7 fie : 8| 47| 44) 6] 109) oOo
BLE tee chess | Si) S5olea7 en Ole nTO a7
TiS iwere ce eneSi S0| a4 7 aeOl SU LOle 0
Another branch developed.
MiayatSe ssc PA 19) Bim22 enor
ZO 4\....| Ig) 9} 20s
DQVnysors 4; 19} 16} 3] 37 9
PATE Rin hic Aleeto|ly 22 3) 44, 6
27, Ft) =i AWS tel) 2 oS Sst oS)
ONE” sce owe Alt aang|e25)) sWOlh a5 3iago
|
End of experiment ; plant living.
(118 days).
1900-1. } EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 281
PLANT 1 B.—OBSERVATIONS. ‘
=
¥ Length of last | %
» internodes, 5 3
Date, 1900, = 3 3 Remarks.
° to) 2
¢ |m-m.|m.m,./m.m i= iS
Zz m.m.|m.m.
Feb. (9::. Boocall HGo}| 4) sao oar
Hit oooade Bier 100| 16) 116) 4
TQ yee votes lg.c 100] 16) 116) o
bie eee eae 4|.. tool 25) 125, 9
TG ysrevevaisc A. Ioo] 28] 128} 3
WOncpooc ZN sero} Gill) wil Gey G)
1 (IRIS 4| 100} 37 3] 141 7
oie cae 4| 100] 44| 3] 147) 6
LO e crac 4| 100| 44] 6] 150| 3!
PIN 55380 4| 106] 44] 9] 159] 9,
2S 5000.0 4] 106] 44) 9] 159] oO
AQ. odeoc 4| 106} 44! 9} 159 o Chlorotic.
PH CBISS 4| 106} 44! 9) 159] 0 Very chlorotic.
DS tare ters fetexeve!| fe loneter|(ev sd|laoballoes allt Dead ; killed apparently by fungi. (19 days).
PLANT 1 C. SUBSTITUTED.
Maren Sic ts 5 4| 19] 75) 37| 144
Wesaisiege 4| 50] 37| 31] 206) 62
Wgoonge 5| 50| 37) 25] 275) 19
@oo0ace A Sel Sail SYA) Seyi ue
Dieataleree\ 5| 50) 50] 44] 256) 19
Zhe. 5} 50} 50) 44 256| 0] Dying down from topand attacked by fungi.
2G),ces 5] 50] 50] 44] 256] o
Moacscog|lodoalias d ollascace Soollec Plant taken from the jar, carefully cleaned
and replaced.
VEXED Kei lear Aer aneves| svey srsl ararsscil ese ail | terere ltsierece lrevexers PLANT 1 C. living but attacked by aphides.
Siearee Silloieo.8| leads lene oro fs beginning to thrive again.
2 Brcimeiere ves ewes Skene eiliss-eiaetuer ss thriving vigourously.
23h. Seid al lace paetel oor leer Ct thriving well and a small branch
NEA Va Zisis cc ci< ol eimibi2 272g |e | OO |erehe growing from near base.
Unie ooolle E29) 73) 1OQ| 43) i-.6.6
LS dew nsllda ox 19} 37} 19] 175| 66| Growing very rapidly.
Tesi AUP etsiecators 37| 50] 19] 178] 3
AMR COOK BF OZ Si 209| su
2By i ils 75| 62| 19] 278] 69
A sco anollooo 69} 22} 3] 291 4
Gumte sO). ele. 75| 31) 19] 322} 31] Plant healthy. (90 days).
PLANT 2 A.—OBSERVATIONS,
ING, Opnoasao Al Gl) Bel Be) vvelioe
iocedas Aleoz iene ein SGl)) 10
1s scone ‘| 2A) A Coll Bei)
UGavoocr Gl 2a) Aa al Bel
OOo Cae Gle25 |, 251) 3) 75| 16
LIS) obaae 6| 25; 25| 3| 75] 16| Leaves losing colour.
MS oo a6 6| 25| 25| 3] 75| 16| Leaves dropping.
Mar. 2 6| 25) 25/ 3| 75| 16
Stealers 6) 25) 25| 3| 75| 16| Plant dead. (24 days).
282 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
PLANT 2 A.—Continued.
New plant substituted—same species.
_ | Length of last 3g
ee internodes, dp “5
Zz 2 | 2
Date, 1900. 2 res Bi Remarks.
6 m.m,|m.m.|m.m 2 FS
$ . . . . , ial pis
Z m.m.|/m.m
WES teh da ee 5) 2) es h| (eae lO
W2ngoaoc Gi 12) eau ees STs
Wyo ge an Ee eid] siil| u@)| Tara! ais
i@b.ceean El Se) Srdh Uie || ey)
7) Pee 6} 37] 37) I9] 119] Oo
PUNE S eens 6} 37| 37} 19| 119} | Two lateral branches starting.
20% einer 6} 37| 37] 19) 119] oj Plant dying from top.
iteong ae 4| 37| 37| 19] 119] 0} Leaves turning yellow.
Aprilia eee eee 4| 37| 37| 19] 119| 0} Leaves dropping.
Sic eke Al 371 371 To] 119), 0
2B Raiosepae 4| 37) 37| 19) 119] o| Plant dead. (46 days).
PLANT 2 B.—OBSERVATIONS.
IDE. @eosoue a) @) uCo}) ual) Alo ses
TAL esi Ale 50|sLOo|ean2} ania to
104n Beeot 4| 25) roo} 16) 116; 4
Nae coco 4| Too} 34) 6) 125) 9
Tilsnio GO bie 4| 100] 34 141; 16
Uocodee 4| 100] 37| 12| 159]. 9
1G je 4| 100] 37) 16) 153] 3
WO iorrelerets 4) 44) ro) 3) 166] 13
TO eerie 4| 44] I9} 3] 169) 3
BI Atisisis 4| 44) 22) 16] 184) 15
Pero aoeie Bae 2 12| 212] 38
Dieu Neretare Ginga) Sai) roln225 18
28. “| 34! 34] 22] 228 3
WEN Ae AB re Gneszi Sz e25ieesi 3
Boocenc Fea Br 6| 244] 13
ee 7| 37} 37| 9} 250) 12
MOacsoac S37 37) 19|h266)s 10
UO one sc Sieeaizin aG|) . 6|e2601h eas
IDAs angie 8| 37] 19) 3] 2690] o
AGS Saor 8| 37| 19| 3 269] 0} Losing colour and dying from top.
Ql ite sieve 8| 37/ 19] 3] 269] o| Apparently dying.
April eae. wes 8| 37; 19| 3) 269 0} Losing turgor and leaves dropping.
8. 8| 37| 19] 3] 269) oj Dying.
DO rotet ia 8| 37) 19] 3] 269] 0] Dead. (73 days).
1900-1. EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 283
PLANT 3 A.
F <a
& | Length of last tp
a internodes. 5 a
) i)
Date, 1900. = g o Remarks.
i) 5 Q
oy |m.m,|m.m.]m.m.} =
Z m,.m,|m.m, |
INH Clasac 6)... TO| sO e25 |e
MTA stich eress 6].. LOle La ea 6
TZ verse Olas NG Gal Se. al
Tee 6).. n@\|) wal is
TGieitys cuss 6).. NG! TW) Bi)
I Reeniceor loo UG nA! BE) ko
Wipers Me A\ ere 1O|er2 | 35| oO
TSeraeca srs fM AG) ale yl
HOVE Maric Ay TG! Tal ail “Zyl
24... Ay UG HE Ba
An ee ‘Al i) A) zai)
ASocacoe 4) ro! r2i> 3) 44 o
Ways eae Alene |e | es ne
Sieve MM nG| TA) Bl an @
Tia scare 6s @} nah ng) 3] so) 2
MO arvates 6} 16) 37] 9] 69] 16
Pio od pio Bl ete a7 LOlN75|) 16
740 \5 ASOD A 12 e307 ee Ola 75| a
BT scarsrei: 4| 12| 37; 16| 75| 0o| Topdead; a branch springing from base.
April 4 A 12 71 O71 | ee
5 4| 12] 37) 16| 75) 0, Growth confined to branch.
BRANCH.
INDE) 28 Astin Ale Me Me eens clsee Plant not dead but seems stunted, and
growth so slow that no further observa-
tions are taken. (68 days).
PLANT 3 B.
Hebe VOrreime al | GA G Wlloo ac
itis ‘soc Ale Ol = O2iert2l) 875\0) 16
OP ere Ay eenO | 75a 19 KOA |e 1S)
Noe cae AN esO|EO7| 22 LOO ats
Wop00,00 All —G)| t37il I! Tere
MOR aise er. “ul | Si7| Yl A) Uae)
107 See AIO AlrSiiee az agi r2cl. -.3|
LO tcysesies Al S74 Ok es
Ne qao as Alem 7\(enr 44 ental el Ag a3
BiG SAO 6 Al 44256 si r59| 15
Paha eo BO 4| 44) 50! 3! 184) 25
Za eereloter 4, 44, 50] 19] 200, 16
Chev ha era | 5| 44) So] 25; 206/ 6
Mary (25tcte,. 4 | Se 4 eS Oe i7| 219 |e
Sraeerme | 5| 50 44/ 3] 228) 9
Wee wo oe Ole SOOO 37 269} 41
16......| 5] 50} 50! 37] 269] oj and lateral branch.. 12
Por 5] 50]. 50] 37] 269) o 2 2 16
BO ee ces ec ee SOS Ol 37) 200| nO oe ne 19
Terese ee ees Ol SO 37 e200) 0 a te 25
April 4 Shh Geese lee Hee eases Growing very slowly ; flowers all dropping.
2 Sr crrsenets WA ail. Growing very slowly ; seems to have spent
its energy in flowering. (78 days).
284 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
PLANT 4 A.
: <
& | Length of last & :
5 internodes, 5 z
Date, 1900. ie g v Remarks.
i) 3 8
6 |m.m.|/m,m./m.m.| © = 2
Z m.m,/m.m. :
FEY Closocas 7 e222 |e lr)
1 thes BD Oe al FE ay al “ORI us
1 Co. 60% 72244 Ole 72) ro
Tin ayers a Gl Zs SOL ule} hdl 16)
Mococas aa Soll aye TiAl air
W@sbdoe- 6} 25) 50] 50] 125] 13
Wife 6} 25) 50) 53) 128) 3
MO atetay st S| SO 75 |iees | etSOlnnen
I@)oo10000 8} 56) 81} ~3) 166) 7
Pie 5 onto 5} 56; 87) 9g] 178
PS DOQSE 5, 56 87) 16) 184) 6
Phe snonteg sere 4| 56) 87; 19] 187! 3
Miatrs. 2h ster 4| 56) 87] 25] 206) 19
Ceeuc 4| 56, 87 25] 206) o}| Leaves turning white.
W)sodo 9 4| 56; 87) 31] 212] 6
2s 2} 56} 87) 31| 212) 0} Almost dead, excepting a lateral branch
near the base.
BRANCH
Mair; On -- 2). | Ore
MW\ococuE 2). 22 |lresllereyac
Al cooooe Ale DDI voteeellloneters
Asc oac 2}. AOL
Ble teistes Alc Bole te eer
JAR ester Ol eyatetell one sslltcterere | ..| Dead. (54 days).
| |
PLANT 4 B.
IED Caccces Blow 87) 12] Ioo}..
iiieaag so 4+. 87| 37| 125] 25
Moocoos 4| 87) 44) 12] 144] 19
WRoGoOoe 4| 87) 50, 16) 153) 9
iGoonace 4| 87 50 19] 156, 3)
TOlepetse¥ers 4| 87| 50, 22) 159! 3) Commencing to flower.
NG 5 a0 Sie 25) tz! 2) Ole 200) eat
MOteyer seis 6} 25] 22) 6] 209] 9
WOligaues 625 iiee2|) (Gle2r2 teens
AL SGogac Gl) 225] e225 (6/2272) Vo!
AR ets Gl) 25 ee | eer Ole 22 eo}
250 as 6) 52 olzi2z/ so) 5;
WIE: Potcage 6| 25] 22| 6) 212| oj Lateral bud developing.. 19
Sicilians Sip 25|) 226), 272/-¢= (ol ef ce 19
i@saon60 4, 2 22 6) 212 fo) as ts 19
Tete Al. 25|\eeezi" sG)en2)) Mo
Wp Gaba 4, 25| 22) 6) 212} o| Dying down.
ROA vexetetecs 4; 25} 22 6) 212) 0} Branch dies.
Bile loo be A254) 122\Ole212 fo)
200 Bike Sle 2 0222 | O
Bile. vistsets 2) 2522 |G eae |
April 4. 2) 25), 22) 6) 272) to) Dead: a ((Saraays):
|
|
|
|
1900-1. ] EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 285
SERIES IV.
The following series of experiments was carried on in the basement
of the University Museum, and was set up on December 2Ist, after the
manner shown in Fig. 7.
All the plants used were of the species Thunbergia alata.
Plant A. In a spray of nutrient solution, roots in distilled
sterilized water, Fig. 7.
Plant B. Same as A.
Plant C. Plant under bell-jar, roots in distilled sterilized water,
no spray.
Plant F. Sameas C.
Plant FE. Plant under bell-jar, roots in a nutrient solution half
the concentration of that given on page 238, no spray.
Plant D. Same as E.
Plant G. Plant with roots in distilled sterilized water, spray of
distilled water, Fig. 7.
Plant f. Same as G.
A.
G | ‘ :
2
Date. = Length of internodes, Remarks,
|
es |
z ai “3 7 7
IDS i gaooae 4| 25| |.-..|...-|.-.-|----| Poorest plant and not very green.
FOS eye 6| 30) 9 cl psests
2 fe Ge sofa t2) 0 J5)a02.|2-.-\n0--| One cotyledon) yellow,
Oils Cea Bie aN “Bio meatal Ache Saalleigeal local Cotyledons dropped.
liane Bisoeens 6| 30] 16] 15) .|
Pais GIRS 30| a6 354
TOme Gl 4) Sl AG) Wile oSdllacc.
117 Ree SiesO eels! 40!) 25 2|
ited bee 8}... 3.6 40] 10}.
Divers 8}.. 65] 220}....|
AWDor eave Fla 68) 20)....| One leaf dropped.
A.I
INA, Wodenoe 5b. dulle weal aria a coal lees ... |.. ..| Plant removed; broken by accident ;
Brsoeos rid] Ce a erorctal nodtae, lokeuaral lecsec strong one substituted.
Bancoos Tel 7/5 |e LO | Perave
TL iecisets Wei (|| Sacco) Sl Roce le
PID Oo aoc I7| 75} 70} 90] 20] ..|....| Two leaves dropped.
WIENS 1G) Gee Io} 75} 70} go} 95) 80] ..| Three well marked flower buds.
TS irene wee | 8} 75| 70} go} 95] S85|....| Flower opening.
A.—41 days ; A. 1.--46 days, plus, very healthy at the close of the experiment.
286 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
B.
g
Date. S Length of internodes, Remarks.
5
Zz
Dec 2tre G25 |G) ee Plant small and not healthy looking.
Mie doe we (2) Cllegaolloanalians +! as55
rhs pana 8) 25) Ss) elas 5
ORE Oe 4) 28) =o) 3ie- Cotyledons dropped.
Nanyesiactse ZA Sedei Oy oraltooalloooc
7 Paes CaP le 8 | amo | 7 lepenevell eereral| (ere
lW@nose os EaZOty FOlieg * Fill’. Jai|em evel somes One leaf dropped.
iso ath.clls o-6ollooonl bec 55 Io greta lene Died down seemingly.
Mods woln||n0 doll>eoh|hnocolloaaollsdoxolics sulle oo Revived.
So odd obleddo Bent over and apparently dying.
ilo ener Taken out and replaced by another which had been kept in soil in case
of accident. (29 days).
W@)soo50¢ @) TO ARI <<ioo
PYG Grol 25" 10
8)\n00C SieetOl25 | 30 Gie
ebm hese: Siro} 25 i) 45 |) 2)
Tyla toe Orr eS GI Two leaves dropped.
ARG oO Ale hearer 50m Four leaves dropped.
Mair O) cpr Bhs ayailiodesspell atoketl| ake So|loe0dlleace| Broken down by accident.
MO te reyeroney cil soos ic. ose l areca are oly maayel|iarticesll GrcesreH| Dead. (58 days).
1
IDse an 4) 20) 4)....|. Medium in quality.
FW as cic Al eer aes
oo oase 6) 21 3 lees eal ee
BT mayer Sl) 25) SX) toc
janengee 6 21) 32 eloe
Hoooook Fn 20\ 435/130 : One cotyledon dropped.
10. Clee SS |e esol te Two cotyledons dropped.
he aitoda G2r) 35/55) s5le Lower leaves chlorotic.
sig eGe ts Sie oalintedlbos sleidc. Lower leaves gone.
Fike 6|.. | 60} 60
Fey Jesacllaaso||oo9q0|(a0 6 IG. oreneel hove Broken off at lowest internode.
BRANCH RECORDED.
aa |
IME | Reo dade EW Ales solloeae |becenevell Pseetall tetas One leaf dropped.
HIPs chavs Bie gueiae tele Leaves turning yellow.
Bian qi" 12) Signe
Mar.inonee. er 2 EZ} LO}... Leaves yellow.
isis dow LN Pips beri) bere alte Ale ee llr oA Leaves yellow. (87 days, plus).
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES.
Cc.
g *
>
g
Date. as Length of internodes. Remarks.
6
Zz
Dec...) Alle 2S Wen lest |letesatch toy el
2 Alyse eke O) BO] US cocllentajesac
Beate « @| “Bol 2) Gloss sjoac Two cotyledons dropped.
Bhs is evens Al eeGOl a2 il ZO liereralevetere||=
(elie: ec aires Go ate ER) 1 cesolle
at chars (|, Byoy| 23sil| Ga) Gia So alle
TOR sha s\> 6} 30] 28) 60) 7ol....|.
Ilo Goo 7| 30] 28] 60} roo) 20}. Two lower leaves chlorotic.
TSi55 45 a 6| 30) 28) 65] 110} 45).
PN Se oglloote jooee alloc =| 50
ZO oRL |More cacrsisil suet a i|[esenotel | eretens 60
BraNncH RECORDED.
| |
EDN ee anaces 4 | ool aeallas aoe assllocde Leaves turning yellow.
II...... Ble ccclececlesccl[eccc[eccclocce
2 Byers! «.% Al MN eS |Pe vray lueeats)|(oxelcH| (eke sts Chlorotic.
UES 6 aren eve 7a) e Te tellatternal loic Mt
MereeFeret ks GW SEI) Kel clio o (87 days, plus).
|
1D
| |
We C2). 4 as) Hlecoc|oeadincsallacce
BAVots sy sios 4] 40) 12/....]-... loeculleace
Aika dcoood O40) 30) Bll le ere ||-1-1- ¢
Sil ge Kiceallooor Poaeios Se acta tect | eriter Plant wilted down.
SUBSTITUTE.
IND. Ge aee 8] 100) Blige ec :
Bo oebee Si) 1G Wea aiidiooollsen s lecerets
TT ew 8] 110] 45 alee
BIS Saran 1A TAO Sle ooo lc ; ot Sie
| |
BRANCH RECORDED.
KD aceiobes 1194) Re] bio tal mse
PIR cre |) TSl 2) 2Sicocadllascslladesll
Mar Oo renee SSO Ol Ol 20), TO...
EOuiia dare 15} 30] 50] 125) 175| 145) 15
)
E.—41 days ; substitute
(46 days, plus).
288 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VIL.
1D}
g
:
Date. & Length of internodes. Remarks,
3
Zz
Decs2inee-.c 6) 4 oO) H=18 | ee ral Severell es ereilete:
2iatney fer Bl eRAO Wy 22|lcvelle croc oomaelincise
7 Pe RE 6} go} 25). 8
Bia craters Ae) S| AAle.cullbooclleoar One cotyledon dropped.
Ee ea ocne GIAO 25) es5 | Siecle:
Freer oe (jp aC} AR ACH. elloszaollsooc
TOPs qh oO] Ae AG iil ooalle se
VA cis sans A Al PE 9 2X6) Ales ollocoe Lower leaves wilting.
DB eisceahe 7 Sella ; iis coalloo ou
Dae ev 4|.- ‘ 1S |
Oi Naveretone CNS ers |[60.04l [boo Els oaolfooo0
Bie bres e-7r\-1- Goo dolledoolonos Dall ¢
IGitAn aaa 8].. 28)..
BRANCH RECORDED.
1G Ake i Alb Ss 5 dlhe
BG ene 1O| es |e | ere
Mairstone eet: ie 4], OU! eh oo Pollo oamloaas
3] 15|----|-
Ley: \siecere 12 | es (to eS] e2ol| ego
Ale ea laeap|le (87 days).
G.
IDEs Bi oso nnd 6| 20) 6| sell teatts Best plant in the series.
odie ei € Gi e20) 35
BG svaveuers 6] 20 18) fl areeriis tateney | Wescurtes
Bloor 6| 20) 18) 20 Two cotyledons dropped.
ane. (3) tine Gl S20) Sets] 4G) gas cetan lanier
Fe dectapes Gly 3o)- 1Sia Ol esiere lane
TOres chess Sia rSiees50) mSOlmmasie
DAS ores 8} 20) 18} 50} 60) 25).
ie) ea ciate IO}.. feel 80 10
BAAS ec: TO). Seal wate. taste I00| 20
ZO ates Sli se 100| 25] Branch at first node.
IHEDS Wits gonoe Ol ere easier on
ASSAD 4| IO} 15/ 3)--+-Jereeleee- : :
Marg20) 1. =. | eetOl ats i cO| hire Slightly chlorotic.
Ti eeerogeves 2 Chlorotic. (87 days).
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 28
H.
Bi
Date. % Length of internodes, Remarks,
6
Zz
WDECE2 Ts -)-1<10's “lo ike = LOlleweallacagllaoedlisecs
DAY Aa. o(n15): Gj), eikel) st callodcallgnoallasos
Pie fateicare Gi} fits] IG) PSG lGecellasonll ee
hie aa we “i ais itsl| TOV assaooalloode Cotyledons dropped.
ENG. Sie ooeae Ge -atsl) ake AEs colle coaiionus
Tier: i tsi uIP eI Sloe asl oes
1i®), 6G GOc Gisecollecnall: Ge] nCllanemlleaca
T4i /sysyalyis Gls aHdlloaaal| ARO Macl aeice| [aoe
TO ores Tiss iollov ud load Gel) lion on
Ailenc oe Goo olloaoallacce SA ate|laaae
Asoc con 7 | roe | ements eae 55| 20|....| Branchat first node.
BRANCH RECORDED.
Beb yy sses. <. SIP IZOW Sle eeealine calla erillsoere
Wilgeeyomrys's 4) 35| 10
DG eratscreys 4] 35] 15
Mar TO} 2-2 A OG) Abllecaslloossllageclonos
18. papi liters aie awe ee ...| Dead. (85 days).
From these experiments certain conclusions may be drawn, an
investigation into which would throw some light, not only upon the
absorption of non-poisonous dilute solutions, but also upon the question
of water-absorption. The plants best suited to this foliage culture are
those whose leaves are adapted to moist conditions, and those whose
roots are fibrous and numerous. Those having tap-roots will draw upon
the food stored in the tap-root, defeating, to some extent, the results of
the experiments. If plants can utilize food solutions applied to their
leaf surfaces, it may be that rain-water, after a period of dry weather
more or less prolonged, falling upon leaves, aids directly in nourishing
the plants. Galloway and Woods have shown that lime-water used as a
spray acts as a food, or at least produces a growth distinctly above the
normal. It is now known that the bordeaux mixture causes an increase
in growth by supplying food, or by action in the nature of a stimulus.
The nutrient solution applied to the leaves produced a substantial
increase in growth, indicating that the solution was absorbed, or that it
acted as a stimulus, or both. The conclusions in regard to growth are
based upon :—(1) large increase in number of leaves and in total leaf
area, (2) increase in length of stem, (3) the production of flowers, coupled
290 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
with a general appearance which can scarcely be described in words and
figures. In the case of the plant Helianthus, the solution used seemed
to be too strong when applied to the roots as well as when applied to
the leaves. The effects, though in a measure injurious, were similar,
making it seem probable that the solution was absorbed.
The effect of water used as a spray was to stimulate growth for a
time, then to produce a chlorotic unhealthy appearance. In the case of
the buckwheat plant, the characteristic reddish colour of the stem was
maintained where the nutrient solution was applied to the leaves, as well
as when applied to the roots. Where the spray was of water the stems
became pale. These experiments being carried on through such an
extended period of time give strength to the conclusions reached. It
will be noticed in a few cases that accidents happened to the plants,
owing to frequent manipulation of the apparatus necessary to carry on
the work. This was unavoidable.
To sum up we may say, that a nutrient solution when applied to the
leaves affected the plants as did the solution when applied to the roots,
that the nutrient solution produced a substantial growth, and that water
used as a spray stimulated growth for a time.
In order to ascertain more fully the effect of the nutrient solution
applied to the leaves in this way, it was thought that an estimation of
the ash content would throw some light upon the matter.
The following experiment was designed to determine the effect upon
the content of ash by feeding a plant with a nutrient solution applied to
the leaves in the form of a spray (Fig. 7). Eight plants of the same
species (Justicia speciosa) were selected so as to have them as nearly as
possible uniform in size and quality. They were divided into two
groups of four each, the division being made so as to have by estimation
the same amount of ash in each group. This was of course only an
approximation, but it was made in such a way as to leave error, if error
there was, on the safe side. The selection of plants was not made by
the writer.
Group I.—M, N, O, P; Group II.—A, B, G, H.
The plants of Group I. were at once dried and then analyzed to
ascertain the content of ash. Those of Group II. were fed, as described
above, for seventeen days, when they also were dried, weighed and
analyzed in a similar way. The plants in both cases were dried first in
air, and then for two days in a desiccator for dry weight calculations.
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 291
The following tables show the results of the experiment; weight
given in grams, length of stem in centimeters :—
IIe
| |
Plant. | Leaves. Length of Weight dry. Weight of ash, | Per cent. of ash
| ster. to dry weight.
|
VU eyo) ose e -savafo) ohlsl«s hake 8 | 14 . 2631 ZOO4 mae 16.91
INGE ian stab cee oa cee esite & 8 15 | . 3900 .0610 15.64
MO rrr Ppp ts) ieyeiare/ si] 6 12 | .1719 .0281 16.34
PS ogy DORs ae Eeead 8 I | - 3930 .0653 16.61
30 | 52 1.2180 1589
Average per cent. of ash to dry weight 16.37.
Minar
JN. selo.cronig Cae OOO DOO cD 6 10
Bade pass Seuicin coe era 6 | 12
{Gis 5 eta ea eeeees 8 14
LA tersis atime ee 8 II
28 47
LE b
In Geel oro erate ob ON een 8 tl 3281 0592 18,04
[Beant 6 Cae clo on Om mre 8 3667 0663 18.08
Grier 12 | 22 5722 . 1005 17.56
Plierar ie ct uert tis 10 | 3575 .0640 17.90
a a a) : = peas =
38 | 61 1.6243 . 2900
Average per cent. of ash to dry weight, 17.89.
Gain per cent. in number of leaves. ........ Settee: Desor/
oe ut feng thwotestemm.. seme e eee Sere se 207
s as dry weight. 22... ssmocemceie 5 ence RG o Sy
= ss IS) CRE NS PA a nee MRO cid bd Go treaeee Tt O25
The plants fed with the nutrient solution contained 1.52 per cent. more
ash, in proportion to dry weight, than did those which were not fed.
The important point brought out in this experiment is, that each
plant of Group II. (those fed with a nutrient solution in the form of a
spray), contained a higher per cent. of ash in proportion to dry weight
than did those of Group I. This is the more striking because it does
not depend upon approximations, as do the comparisons in weight with
Group I. Since it is impossible to calculate the amount of ash in a living
292 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [VoL. VII.
plant in order to ascertain if that plant makes any increase, it is neces-
sary in al] such investigations to base results upon estimates with similar
plants grown under similar conditions.
The results of this experiment support the conclusions arrived at in
regard to the effect of nutrient solutions applied to leaves in the form of
a spray. There is not only a visible increase in number of leaves and in
length of stem, but also a substantial increase in dry weight and in
weight of ash. Since the actual content of ash in proportion to dry
weight is increased, there can remain no doubt that the leaves had
absorbed some of the substance applied in the form of a spray.
VII.—THE EFFECTS OF STRONG SOLUTIONS APPLIED TO THE
CUT ENDS OF THE PETIOLES OF FOLIAGE LEAVES.
It was necessary first to determine whether solutions when applied
to the cut ends of the petioles of leaves ascended through the blades.
It was found by chemical analysis that solutions did ascend through the
blade of the leaf even to the margin. This having been proved, it was
then possible to investigate the effects of solutions entering leaves in >
this way. The leaves were placed in solutions as shown in Fig. 8, and
the records of the experiments are self-explanatory.
For the first series of experiments leaves of the following plants were
chosen :—Malva, Primula, Nicotiana, Ranunculus and Dicentra.
In twenty-four hours after setting up the ex-
periment, solutions (HCl) and (H.SO,) produced
a decolorization of the leaf tissue from the base of
the leaves outwards in all the leaves, especially so
in the leaves of Primula and Nicotiana. This
decolorization, in some cases was slightly more
extensive in the region of the large veins, but had
when small the shape of a semicircle whose centre
was at the junction of the petiole and the blade
of the leaf. Solution (NH,OH) had caused a
blackening of the tissue in the part of the blade
nearest the petiole ; and had produced a deepen-
ume, ing of the green colour out towards the margin.
FIG. 8. Solution (NaHCQO;) had caused a “ frozen” ap-
S.. solution used; A, pearance between the main veins, extending from
cardboard cover to prevent the margin inwards, especially so in the case of
too rapid evaporation. "NT: 3
Nicotiana.
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 293
On October 15th, seventy-two hours after the leaves had been placed
in the solutions, observations were made upon all the leaves and records
taken.
FeSO, *m/16, veins blackening generally but in the case of the
Dicentra there was a blackening up the centre.
ZnSO, m/4, Malva dry, Dicentra whitish up the centre, and the
others limp with a freckled appearance.
HegCl, m/16, leaves all dead ; salt ascending except in Dicentra,
brown from the base outwards along the chief veins.
CuSO, m/16, all dead, with the apparent exception of Dicentra,
which seems to be living ; Ranunculus is darkened all over ;
Malva dried with a deep green margin. |
Ba(NO,), m/4, Malva crisp from the margin inwards, especially
between the chief veins ; Dicentra dry along margin.
KCI m/2, Malva dried and salt had crept well out along the
veins, Dicentra wilting at the margin.
Na,CO, m/4, Malva dried and discoloured outward from a
yellowish green to dark ; Ranunculus darkened on the veins,
with the dark colour spreading ; Dicentra dry at the margin.
HCl m/4, all brownish from the base outward, the region next
the margin is green and apparently living.
H.SO, m/4, similar effect to that produced by HCl, but rather
more extensive decolorization, especially so in Ranunculus.
KOH m/4, dark from the base outward with all the leaves
resembling the effect produced by Na,CO.
NaOH m/4, same effect as KOH.
NH,NO;, m/2, all slightly wilted, and. some have a_ frozen
appearance near the margin.
NaHCO, m/4, all wilted dry and Ranunculus darkened.
NH,OH 5/, all wilted and dead ; Malva very dry.
* 66
m” is a solution made by dissolving the mol. wt. in grams of the substance in a liter of water,
thus FeSO, m/16 means 152 grams in 16 liters of water.
5
294 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vous Wair
Glycerine m/2, all fresh, Nicotiana spotted.
Gr. sugar m/2, all fresh.
Ca. sugar m/2, all fresh.
MgCl, m/2, similar to KCl.
NaCl m/2, similar to that of KCI.
It was found that in ten to twelve hours after taking the leaves from
the solutions some of them underwent other changes worthy of note.
- The part of the blade of the leaf turned yellowish-brown by the acids
had changed to a bluish colour, showing that very probably the tissue was
undergoing further changes, resulting in a product having an alkaline .
reaction.
Judging from their effects. these substances may be classified as
follows :—
Weidsa. .eeee oie chs cute doniGl eH sSOx
ikalies seven. Sp KOH NaOH:
Decomposable alkalies..... waNa.CO- WINE. OE:
Poisons pease ha. hn Pi ake ones CuSO,, HgCl,, PbA,, FeSO,, ZnSO,.
Osmotically active substances..MgCl,, KCl, NH,NOs, etc.
In a second series of experiments the arrangement was as shown in
Fig. 8, and continued for three days, when the leaves were taken from
the solutions, and observations made upon their conditions then and
afterwards. The acids, in a measure, acted as did the alkalies, showing
that these substances alike penetrate readily the walls of the cells in
all directions, and do not follow the veins. Acids and alkalies to some
extent dissolve the cellulose, and so make a way for themselves readily
in all directions.
LEAF OF PRIMULA STELLATA, PLACED AS IN FIG. 8.
I.
Strength of Solution, m|g; set up November oth.
Solution. Died in. Remarks.
INaG@liees asses Loldays Salt ascended.
Bai (N@e) soacece: | 1 day
ICMOs 55000005 | 2days
KGa yar toca severe: 18 days Salt ascended.
WikedtGiles soon aaac 8 days
IGN @ Scere: | 10 days Salt ascended.
Nae COneanct ni eeeaday.s Like that of NaOH.
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 5
1.— Continued.
Solution. Died in. Remarks.
LS noeseesis 64 2 days Depressed spots.
159 i eC ae ae 3 days
| BOS reaiaoacuen 7 days
J al( GIs cede cromneroreee 3 days Petiole and base of leaf very red.
Ue SO ore steps cizys 2 days Like that of HCl.
INAIOU i csctere <cs 3 days Petiole and base blue.
IMOsGeenr 2 days Stronger than that of NaOH.
NH,OH 2.5% 2 hrs. Killed by gas, not by solution.
Cale eae... 4 days
Go CUBE oo a6 dor 5 days [acid.
Pa SULAL loa omc 4 days Sugar decomposed and leaf killed probably by an
Givicéeryr ees. 4 days Became freckled.
ING@la (COs ctanses 4 days Salt ascended.
INIECIN OSes: 5 6 days Bluish, due to a decomposition NH,NO,;,.
5G] PO ae ye Srenaicioints 1 day Seem to be very poisonous.
Il.
Strength of Solution, m/8; November 2zst.
INANE osc ponmnce 11 days
ba (NOs) saoenen 2 days Crisp.
IN(CHO}s a onoacdac 3 days Veins lighter.
CuSO pes seis oi 1 day Limp.
I< Chogicedadgucon 15 days Salt ascending.
Met Gs eps OAT g days Base blue.
ISEINI@)) 3 sis atsteve <i<,ss 15 days Water in intercellular spaces as if frozen.
INIBp COR coos a6o0 6 days Base blue. :
ENS OV 2s 3 os + 3 2 days Frozen appearance.
= LUG rca Penn ras 2 days Acted between the veins first.
INSP G0, daeoso sian g days Freckled.
Gls cabooses cane 2 days Veins not blackened.
Fe Ar eters (ctsiaicc) Che 2 days
lnled Olle cogooe peer 2 days
1s Cle Seene ieee 3 days Base and petiole red.
lnLASO)n pomorsenn 3 days Same as for H,SO,.
INGO oseseneoe 6 days Base blue.
IR@JEL yay cems: «oro 5 days Similar to NaOH.
IN FEI OEMS os 3.5.52" 1 day (1.75% strength), base blackened.
(CAC; Ganeeaeenn 7 days
ES Ovens ssc 2 days Veins blackened.
QUPSUP AE. csr. se 3 6 days
INGEN (GO nope sees 5 days Salt ascending.
INIEUIN@ aoouees 7 days
le O eas Cae 1 day
Eo, MEAP oocoadee 14 days
Gilivicerserry es 16 days
296
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE.
Ill.
Strength of Solution, m[16 ; December rst.
Solution. Died in. Remarks.
ENC aomegausaD | 27 days Salt ascended, turned yellow.
Ba(NO;)2-----.| 2 days Wilted first between the veins.
KiGlO nee. citer 8 days Wilted from the margin.
CuSO 1 day Limp.
Oliva 0s naneeawan 18 days Margin bluish.
Mie Clovis. a sess ars 8 days
LINIOK cohes soene 36 days | Salt ascended.
NEC. cg case 5 days | Salt ascended, base blue.
ZNSO We sis nsas s 4 days Bluish between veins, light green above.
15a ogee oniere 6 days Margin crisp.
OB Ppuenereseeesal) 97 eeh a | Margin crisp.
INKOL, spsocn ocd 5 days Limp, veins not blackened.
PAD Ay sea teresersicies 1 day Bluish.
Ble Gl revere eferee e« I day Died from the base outward.
| C) Laer ea ceracies 2 days Petiole and base red.
lalate) Ono aecor 2 days Same as HCl.
INEVO} 5 Ga caosecnc 10 days Base blue.
ISOs bos Apcaoee 8 days Same as NaOH.
NIETO. aera 7 days | (.625%) base blackened.
AC a. o2 ee ac 35 days Spotted bluish at margin.
FeSO} ak ee cies: 2 days Veins blackened
©, GUETIEGGeodcad 14 days Turned yellow.
SeSUP Alice 8 days Killed by an organic acid (probably C,H,O,.
rele eeoooer 14 days Did not turn yellow. f
NaHCO, 10 days Salt ascended.
INL NOs. <2. 14 days Did not turn yellow.
KE Ore acer 2 days Limp.
IV.
Strength of Solution, m]32; December rath.
NAGE Sy 2 soe. date | 41 days plus | Fairly fresh.
Bay (NOP) ete | 2 days Blue.
ISCIOE 2 < 16 days | Glazed looking, veins light green.
CUO Bo cdtene | 1 day | Limp.
1 Oe eerie | 33 days |
MELO) bacco 16 days | Turned yellow.
IGN @ Fee cork 36 days | Wilted.
NBL CO; coase dee 9 days Salt ascended, bluish spots.
TENS Ons cooecced) GCENES | Blue spots on back.
He ereee orale. ohatacer> | 8days Crisp margin.
IEB eye sis iete se 2 41 days Salt ascended.
INCE 4 tes Cupane 8 days Wilted from margin.
PRA eer cls 2 days Veins dark towards the margin, blue.
Isles no éousnor 4 days | Yellow up the veins.
HG eer 3 days | Petiole red.
Ish Onigaooote alee gidays |
NaOR@e rere: | 18 days | Salt ascended.
KOT ceri 11 days | Salt ascending.
NIG OR sacs ace 1 day | (.3125%) base blackened.
[Vou VIL.
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLJAGE LEAVES. 297
1V.— Continued.
Solution. Died in. Remarks.
(CAC coocodooun 41 days plus
INAS, peau saooe 2 days Veins darkened, blade blue.
es SUEZ TF oasenoo0 14 days Turned yellow.
Po SUMA Tasers « 15 days Solution acid.
aWyGGiocasucosss 24 days
IN@EREC OR. 11 17 days Salt ascended.
INJal KOR Goes as 14 days Wilted from margin.
IN EO Higenpme oe 2 days Died from margin.
V.
Strength of Solution, m/64,; January 5th.
INGIC Biseopcusoor 54 days plus
Ba (NOs) ey secre 3 days Bluish.
IK(CHO)le 5 Agaeaau 4 days
(Cus One sbdcouos 1 day Very limp.
15 Ol oan 27 days Spotted yellow, salt ascended.
NEA Ghee saeoncne 14 days Turned yellow.
1S (ORES nie pecan 30 days Turned yellow.
INC Olanitar otc. 36 days Limp.
ZEMIOn AneceoooS 3 days Freckled on upper side, spotted blue on back.
AGT Rec are ever evaysntsveies 5 days Base bluish.
IRECIL, Sod peo 4 days Veins not blackened.
POA Ss comoeeoee 2 days Blade stiff, not limp, back blue.
Inle( Gln sGbeoaoGe 5 days Petiole blue.
18 (Cl Seats Serer 5 days Petiole red.
inl SOnonso6ao 0 4 days Petiole and base red.
NAOH o522%. 14 days Very limp second day, turgor restored on third day.
[Ola bacon ssc ge 11 days Very limp second day, turgor restored on third day.
Nal OSL G dono 1 dav (.31254) base blackened.
Cally sdboguaocd 54 days
IFGISKO)n SoudoauaE 5 days Veins blackened.
Go SulseversAR acco 12 days Wilted, not yellow.
ae, CUEETOAQ as Sptod 1o days Solution reddened.
aly COteryars tia. 54 days plus
INEUSUCO MS sae sae 14 days Gradually wilted down.
NH,NO, 17 days
[x5] PX OO es ieee 6 days | Died from margin.
SAIS Tate Soe aie ose 47 days Turned yellow.
VI.
Strength of Solution, m[r28 ; January 22nd.
NaCl . 44 days plus | Salt ascending.
BANOS) go s-...6. 5 cave : Spotted.
EOCIO nes wise. os 4 days Crisp margin.
COTES Ont aaa 1 day Limp.
OG) acee See Cenee 44 days plus | Salt ascending.
Mic. Glee. 30 days Turned yellow as it wilted.
JONKOON ot emcee 44 days plus
NEVI COR ogsanoce 30 days Crisp margin, turned yellow as it died.
ZENSOG Ss ee 13 days Back of leaf blue.
1 SL RES A 14 days Margin blue.
298 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
VI.— Continued.
Solution. Died in,
ISB epee eta 44 days plus
Re Glan vrumeracl 4 days
IR DAG cae ees 14 days
EA GUS seven Guyer. 4 days
ENCE eerie ac 4 days
ISIS 0 Desa eogeee ec 4 days
INAO Tatas: 44 days plus
[COE (ea eeaeras cade 29 days
NIHOH: 34 days
CaGlingencr acer 44 days
eS Ole teteccis) os 4 days
CSUR Aegis 13 days
SUSU Alerteale si a7e 12 days
ply Cetpeperstcre je 44 days plus
NalHiGOfeeeee 34 days
INIETIN © eaerensters 32 days
IK ROR cesar: 5 days
Remarks.
Salt ascending.
Margin, blue, veins not blackened.
Petiole blue.
Base most affected, petiole blue.
Petiole red.
Petiole red.
Salt ascending.
Salt ascending. [(.15625/).
Much wilted second day, but recovered afterwards
Veins blackened.
Petiole decomposing.
Petiole decomposing.
Became yellow from margin.
Yellow margin.
Summary of records, of experiments! J., IL, ITE SDV.; VV [aie
figures in the vertical columns denote the time required (in days) to
kill the leaf. The letter “p” after a number indicates that the year
was living and fresh at the termination of the experiment.
Solution. m/4
INA GI ae mite eee ot as 16
IRC ee ortetstors espe ioheieies 18
LINK ORE Seaitaae 10
CaCl ea 6 eee see 4
Wilf ©) ys a acinar Gaoee 8
INAB EOF li astieasnice 4
1X] BY ORS Sea gt ere eco 7
ClO Fron cen ate 2
LC lc obitremoccmae ae 3
INEM @)) 2 Geecetereeaicend Soe B
IN(O) 3 ER Oot Sones 2
CANCEIS Mat ana gop ou 4
Ine Gl Eeeah srocarnaeoe _—
RES OLR ee ce raceenee —
KR Okina ar. I
CUS OMe rata er chec cr —
INAEIGOR Pee ccue cn. 4
INIEL RIN Oe cece ts > asstsere | 6
IB an(IN@ yates ciel. ce I
RDA Eaton an eter: —
HegCl, =
HCiz.- 3
HeSO re een Gia | 2
Com SUIT Freie reel ols) <teter= | 5
PSUS Alin sale hin te | 4
LVS © pcan oye eee 2
m/8 m/16 m/32 m/64 m/128
11 27 41p 64p 44P
15 18 33 2 44p
15 36 36 30 44p
a 35 4Ip 54P 44p
9 8 16 14 30
6 5 9 36 30
9 Ul 41 47 44p
3 8 16 4 4
2 | 6 8 5 14
6 10 18 14 44p
5 8 11 II m29
16 14 2 54P 44p
2 5 8 4 4
2 2 2 5 4
I 2 2 6 5
1 I I I I
5 IO 17 14 34
7 14 14 17 32
2 2 2 3 5
2 I 2 2 I4
2 I 4 5 4
3 2 3 5 4
3 2 3 4 4
Teta 14 14 12 13
| 8 15 10 Tee
2 a 5 3 13
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 299
Experiments with solutions applied to the cut ends of the petioles
of leaves (Fig. 8). May and June.
I.—LEAF OF PRIMULA OBCONICA.
Solution. | Strength. Time to kill. Remarks.
a 'm/4 5 days Wilted from margin.
2 rs 1o days plus
3 oF 9 days Wilting.
4 oe g days Wilting.
5 = 6 days Large veins turning white.
6 aC 5 days Veins blackening from base.
7 m/400 8 days Spotted.
8 m/4 2 days Very crisp.
9 m/400 to days plus Very healthy looking.
10 - 1o days plus
11 -- to days plus
I].—LEAF OF CUCURBITA.
I m/4 10 days Margin became crisp.
2 ue 9 days
3 pe 7 days Trichomes much swollen.
4 4 6 days > Covered with crystals.
5 a 9 days Turned dark brown,
6 m/50 3 days Veins black.
7 m/4oo0 | 6 days Veins turned yellow.
8 m/4 2 days Coated over with crystals.
9 m/400 10 days plus | Very green but glossy.
10 — 10 days plus | Turning yellow at margin.
11 — 10 days plus | Turning yellow at margin.
|
I1].—LEAF OF TRAPAEOLUM.
I m/4 I day Soft.
2 oe 1 day Dry.
3 Bs 1 day Dry.
4 f 1 day Soft.
5 oC 1 day Soft.
6 m/50 1 day Dry.
7] m/400 1 day Dry.
8 m/4 2 days
9 m/400 to days plus Very fresh looking.
10 — g days Wilted from margin.
TI — 2 days Crisp.
*1. NH, NOs; 2. KCl; 3. MgCl,; 4. KNO,; 5. NaHCO;; 6. FeSO,; 7. HgCi,; 8. Ba (NOg),
g. PbA, ; 10. H.O dist.; 11, HO tap.
300 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [VoL. VII.
IV.—LEAF OF LUPINE.
Solution. Strength. Time to kill. Remarks.
I m/4 5 days Had a tendency to curl.
2 ae 4 days Same as I.
3 a 5 days
4 a 5 days Tendency to curl.
5 Pe 5 days Much curled.
6 m/50 2 days Veins black.
7 m/400 1 day Veins yellowish.
8 m/4 2 days Salt on surface.
9 m/400 10 days plus Very fresh looking.
10 | —- 8 days Dried spotted yellow.
1} — 7 days Spotted.
V.—LEAF OF PRIMULA OBCONICA.
I m/8 10 days | Spotted and ‘‘ frozen” appearance.
2 m/8 10 days plus | Wilting at the margin.
8 m/8 10 days plus | Spotting.
4 m/8 10 days plus Quite fresh.
5 m/8 7 days Spotted, then all yellow.
6 m/100 3 days | Veins blackened.
7 m/400 5 days | Sick looking in two days.
8 m/8 3 days Wilting second day.
9 m/400 10 days plus Very fresh.
10 _ 10 days plus | Fresh.
11 -- to days plus | Fresh,
VI.—LEAF OF CUCURBITA.
I m/8 | 3 days ‘*Frozen”’ appearance.
2 m/8 | 3 days Crisp at margin.
3 m/8 | 2days Spotting.
4 m/8 | 3 days Salt ascending.
5 | m/8 3 days Freckled appearance.
6 | m/r100 2 days Veins blackening.
Gf m/400 2 days Veins becoming yellow.
8 m/8 1 day Salt ascending.
9 m/400 | 10 days plus Very fresh.
10 — 6 days Yellow at margin.
11 — 5 days Yellow at margin.
VII.—LEAF OF CUCURBITA.
“Tol m/8 3 days plus Salt on the upper surface.
74 m/8 3 days plus Salt upon the upper surface.
19 m/8 2 days Wilted second day.
73 m/8 2 days Died in spots.
72 m/8 3 days plus Quite fresh.
100 m/8 3 days plus Fresh, salt not all dissolved.
76 m/256 1 day Veins brown.
*191. Neut. sol.; 74. Ks PO,; 19. KCIO;; 73. ZnSO,; 72. Naz HPO,; 100, CaSO,; 76. CuSO,
160. K,0; 70. KI; 71. Na, CO3; 111. KBr; 75. Na A; 10. HO dist.; 11. H,O tap.
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 301
VII.—LEAF OF CUCURBITA.—Condinued.
Solution. Strength. Time to kill, Remarks.
160 m/8 2 days Poisoned look, salt ascended.
70 m/8 2 days Died in spots.
7 m/8 2 days Very limp.
TI m/8 3 days plus Very fresh.
75 m/8 3 days plus Sait ascending on upper side.
10 = 3 days plus Fresh.
II — 3 days plus Fresh.
VITI.—LEAF OF LUPINE.
191 m/8 3 days plus Fresh.
74 m/8 2 days Dead trom the margin.
19 m/8 2 days Light green, veins yellow.
73 m/8 | 3days Wilted second day.
72 m/8 3 days Light green.
100 m/8 3 days plus Salt not all dissolved.
76 m/256 1 day Lighter green.
160 m/8 3 days plus Almost dead.
70 m/8 2 days Veins green.
7p m/8 3 days Brown at margin.
I1I m/8 3 days Fresh.
75 m/8 3 days | Veins green.
10 — 3 days plus Fresh.
II —- 3 days plus Fresh,
! .
IX.—LEAF OF PRIMULA OBCONICA.
1gI m/8 3 days plus Fresh.
74 m/8 3 days plus Fresh.
73 m/8 2 days Spotted.
76 m/256 1 day Very limp.
160 m/8 2 days Poisoned looking.
70 m/8 3 days Dead in spots.
All others! 3 days plus)
VII. a.—Leaf of Acer.
i m/4 3 days Colour lighter green, wilting from margin.
2 m/4 3 days plus Almost dead, wilting from margin.
31 m/4 3 days plus Almost dead, tendency to spot.
4 } m/4 3 days | Freckled between veins and with yellowish
spots.
5 m/4 3 days Veins darkened, dried from the margin, black
near the petiole.
6 m/50 2 days Wilting in twenty-four bours, petiole and veins
blackened, blade deeper green.
» 7 m/400 4 days plus Slightly wilting fourth day, petiole dying.
8 m/4 1 day Frozen appearance between veins.
9 m/400 5 days plus This leaf remained fresh much longer than any
of the others.
*1o — 5 days Wilted.
par — 5 days Wilted.
* Numbers ten and eleven died in five da
longer,
ys while number nine remained fresh until May 28th, eleven days
302 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
VIII. 6.—Leaf of Ampelopsts.
Solution. | Strength. Time to kill, Remarks.
ai | m/4 4 days Veins darkening, brown in streaks.
2 | m/4 4 days plus Dead and crisp at the margin.
3 | m/4 4 days Blade spotted.
4. | m/4 3 days Blade spotting, wilting and limp second day,
| drying up fourth day.
5 m/4. 4 days Base brown, margin green, petiole and veins
| | darkening.
6 | m/50 2 days | Margin black.
7 m/40o 4 days plus | Blade wilting some, petiole dying, margin
| black, veins dying near base of leaf.
5 m/4 1 day Frosen appearance between veins, veins de-
colourized.
9 m/400 4 days plus Slightly wilted.
10 -- 4 days Wilting on second day.
II | _— 5 days plus Fresh.
* In the cases in which the leaf died it became blackened after death.
Certain solutions seemed to produce, after a few days, a translucent
appearance in the region between the main veins. It appeared as
though the intercellular spaces in this part of the leaf were injected with
water. On examination it was found that the cells in this region were
plasmolyzed. Then, from these considerations, namely that the cells
were plasmolyzed, that water appeared to be in the intercellular spaces,
and that solutions of considerable concentration were known to ascend
through the blade, it may be concluded that the cells in this region were
killed by an osmotic action, causing a loss of water to the cell.
It was noticed that normal solutions of H.SO, and of HCl had
practically the same toxic power, as might be expected, since they are
chemically equivalent and contain the same amount of replaceable atoms
of hydrogen. This result does not accord with the results obtained by
Kahlenberg and True (1896, p. 92), who showed that 1/6400 gram-
equivalent solution of H,SO,; was as Toxic to Lupine radicles as 1/3200
gram-equivalent solution of HCl. Judging from their results and
conclusions, one might infer that they regarded a gram-equivalent per
liter solution of H,SO, to contain ¢wzce as many ions as a gram-equiva-
lent solution of HCl which, however, is not the case according to
Mohr,* Talbott and others. 3 :
From the experiments here recorded it may be concluded that
certain salts kill the leaf by osmotic action, while others produce death
by chemical action. The latter may be classed as poisons and the
* Titrimethode, p, 56.
+ Quantitative chem, anal., 1900, p. 65.
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVEs. 303
former as non-poisons. Among the poisons, CuSO, was the most
deadly. With dilute solutions it always rendered the leaf quickly limp,
commencing at the margins. With strong solutions there seemed to be
a complete “ paralysis,” the whole leaf becoming wilted in a very short
time. With HgCl, the action took place from the base outwards,
showing that the solution made its way out laterally from the vein only
with great difficulty, while the CuSO, seemed to penetrate the whole
leaf rapidly, causing a wilted condition but no discolouring.
The experiments with the sugars are of little importance, because of
the fact that a fermentation took place quickly, and the solution became
a solution of an organic acid, resulting from a decomposition of the
sugar. The grape sugar, as might be expected, was much more suscep-
tible to fermentation than was the cane sugar.
Certain of the salts, notably ZnSO, produced a depression of the
surface in spots, due to a decrease in the turgor at that point, generally
without that “ water-logged ” appearance so common in cases where a
leaf is being killed by osmotic action.
The cause of the
“water-logged” ap-
pearance seen in the
case of certain non-
poisonous, but strong-
ly osmotic substances,
is due to the fact that
these salts in solution
upon reaching the
thin walled paren-
chyma cells in the
leaf, draw water os-
motically from the
cells into the inter-
cellular spaces, at first
in the region between
the main veins. In nide; P, a precipitate; Z, a zone of water; B, saturated with
FIG, 9,
A, filter paper cut in the form of a leaf, it is saturated with
ferric chloride, and then placed ina solution of potassium ferrocya-
; , potassium sulphocyanide, and then placed in a_ solution of ferric
some cases this is
noticed at the margin in excess ; d, wholly soluble in excess; M, margin of area if a living
= leaf be used,
of the leaf, but the
drying action of the air upon the water drawn into the intercellula
chloride ; a, dilute solution ; b, strong solution ; c, partially soluble
spaces, causes the leaf to become crisp and dry along its margin.
The salts ascend readily into the leaf and penetrate the whole blade,
304 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VOLS Valle
as is proved by testing the leaf for the salt taken up by the petiole. The
cells of the leaves having the “water-logged” appearance are plasmo-
lyzed, showing that water has been extracted osmotically by the salt.
This phenomenon is mentioned by Vines (p. 40).
Certain solutions will, therefore, if applied to the cut ends of the
petioles, kill the leaves by extracting water from the cells. This effect
is not so rapid as might be expected, because the solution which ascends
the petiole and enters the leaf, is not of the same concentration as that
supplied in the test-tube. This fact is not as yet generally known to
botanists, because in the experiment to demonstrate the rate of ascent
of sap in plants, a solution of a lithium salt is taken, and the distance of
ascent is determined at any given time by the height of the lithium salt.
It is known that the experiment with eosin is not accurate, for the
reason that the water ascends faster than the eosin. What is true of
eosin is true of lithium, and probably of any other solution, as may be
demonstrated as follows :—Saturate a piece of filter paper with a solution
of potass-sulpho-cyanide, allow it to dry, then place one end of the
paper in a solution of ferric chloride. As the iron solution ascends, the
height of the solution is indicated by the deep brown-red colour, formed
where the salts meet, in consequence of the chemical action between
them. <A zone of water may be seen to advance ahead of the substance
in solution by the translucent effect which it produces upon the paper.
The difference between the height of solution and the height of this
zone of water at any given time is considerable, as is the case with eosin
and other coloured solutions. In the case of lithium it can not be seen
because the solution is colourless, but it acts as other salts do, as has
been shown by experiment (Fig. 9).
In Detmer and Moor (p. 233) it is stated that the lithium ascends as
high as the water does in which it is dissolved. This is not opposed to
the ground taken by the writer, namely, that lithium in solution does
not ascend as rapidly as the water. This has been proved by the writer
by cutting the strip of absorbent paper just below the point reached by
the water whzle the water ts ascending and before it has reached its
maximum height. This portion of absorbent paper contains no lithium.
Sachs’ view was that a decomposition of the lithium must result if the
water ascended higher than the lithium salt, for he says (p. 236) :—“ The
lithium solution possesses, as I convinced myself with the aid of the
paper strips previously mentioned, the advantageous property of
ascending without being decomposed.”
The present view of the lithium test for the rate of ascent of water is
based chiefly upon work done in 1877 by Sachs’ (1878, p. 165). He
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 305
shows that in all coloured solutions used, water ascends faster than the
substance in solution; he cites sixteen solutions in which it is said the
water is known to rise more rapidly than does the substance in solution,
and he states that three substances, colourless in solution, ascend as high
as the water. Lithium nitrate is one of the latter. It should be stated
that Sachs’ experiments were chiefly for the purpose of determining
whether solutions ascended on the surface of the cell walls (by capil-
larity), or in the substance of the wall (by imbibition). Lithium, he
said, ascended by capillarity and reached a point as A4zgh as the water
and so there was no decomposition. Sachs’ results, therefore, are not
contradictory to those of the writer.
It is shown by using such solutions as potassium ferro-cyanide and
ferric chloride, or mercuric chloride and potassium iodide, or any pair of
solutions which produce a precipitate soluble in excess of either solution,
that the solution loses in concentration as it ascends.
The solutions used to demonstrate the fact that water ascends more
rapidly than the substance in solution were :—
Potassium ferro-cyanide and ferrous sulphate.
Potassium sulpho-cyanide and ferric chloride.
Potassium iodide and mercuric chloride.
Potassium iodide and lead acetate.
Copper sulphate and potassium ferro-cyanide.
Silver nitrate and hydrogen sulphide solution.
Silver nitrate and potassium iodide.
Salicylate of soda and ferric chloride.
To test the rate of ascent of water by the rate of ascent of lithium in
solution will lead to error, as has been proved by actual experiment, and
as is inferred from experiments with other solutions which produce a
precipitate (see Fig. 9).
A leaf whose petiole is in a solution does not absorb the solution in
quite the same way as does a filter paper. The solution in the case of
living leaves extends over the leaf so that the area affected is sym-
metrical to the whole leaf (Fig. 9 B, and Photo. 1-6). With the filter
paper the solution extends equally in all directions without any regard
to the outline, commencing at what represents the base of the leaf
(Fig. 9).
306 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VIL.
Where the solution was not of such a nature as that of strong acids
or alkalies, but where it followed the veins, it was found that the distances
from the base of the leaf to the extreme point of discolourization along
each vein was proportional to the total length of the vein, causing the
solution to reach the margin of the leaf at all points about the same
bime“(Ehotes: is 2543):
Experiments to test the effects of water upon certain leaves when
applied to the cut ends of the petioles. Primula obconica.
Leaves A, B, C, D, E with petioles in distilled water (Fig. 8).
Leaves F, G, H, I, J with petioles in tap water.
Weight.
Difference. Conditions.
October 5th. November 12th.
AG an las 025 1.48 .0825 Loss Fresh.
Been 9875 .976 .0385 Gain Fresh.
Cisne 130 esi .O14 Gain Fresh.
Dee 330 .875 -425 Loss Yellow and wilted.
rae 75 1.245 7 O Gain Fresh.
Bee 2 eo25 1.097 .0755 Loss Yellow and wilted.
(Gisa -975 -705 . 270 Loss Yellow and wilted.
eligi -9375 .g16 .0385 | Gain Fresh.
De. .Q125 .766 . 1465 Loss Wilting.
‘fale .925 .979 .054 Gain Fresh.
November 12th. December 3rd.
1.48 1.4245 | .0555 | Loss | Fresh.
B .976 .9109g .0651 Loss | Fresh.
(Cogan Hogue 1.2829 | .O311 Loss Fresh. [dead.
|DeBe, Seen fees Sc00 3050 Not weighed; as the leaf was
E ganic, 1.1935 .O0515 Loss Fresh.
IY Gos Maloy, .933 . 164 Loss Wilted.
Gouo8 .do.0 ae sooe 3006 Not weighed ; leaf dead.
H .g16 .9845 .0685 Gain Fresh.
I 7 700m 9) .7209 .0451 Loss Fresh.
J .979 -9569 .0221 Loss Fresh.
Examined on December 15th for starch.
A.—Plenty of starch all through the blade, especially bet ween veins.
B.—Starch in veins from base out wards.
C.—Starch in veins; none at margin; leaf commencing to wilt.
D.—No starch.
E.—Considerable starch in mid-veins ; some elsewhere.
F.—Abundant starch.
G.—No starch; leaf was yellow and dead.
H.—Starch abundant in distal part of blade ; lobes of base yellow.
I.—Considerable starch.
J.—Slightest trace of starch near one part of margin.
1900-1. ] EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 307
During this experiment and from others used as controls in the
solution experiments, a few very remarkable phenomena developed. It
would appear as though these leaves had gone on living and performing
all the functions natural to them, although detached from the plant, and
some of them had actually increased in weight. Very many leaves
under such conditions develop roots from the petiole, but it was not so
with these. In only one case did a leaf of Primula develop roots, and
this one was standing in water along with a leaf petiole of Impatiens
which developed an extensive root system. When the leaves were
gathered for the above experiment, they were immediately placed in
paraffin paper to render the loss by evaporation as small as possible
‘during the interval between gathering and placing in water.
Those leaves which, during the experiments, had begun to turn
yellow had lost considerably in weight and showed little or no starch.
One leaf (not referred to in the above table) which had been gathered
on May 3Ist, remained apparently alive and fresh till October. On
October 15th it was becoming yellow, but showed on examination
considerable starch in its mid-veins. It had developed no roots. One
fair conclusion from these experiments is that these detached leaves
function* as if upon the plant, though they have no roots to supply food.
The petioles of these leaves were always surrounded with water for from
one to two inches above the surface of the liquid in the vessel, the
trichomes raising the water by capillary action.
The leaf of Primula stellata lends itself readily to experiments such
as those described in this chapter, because it will live on for months
without sending out roots, if the petiole be kept in water ; and the lower
surface being reddish, acid and alkaline reactions are clearly marked.
These results may be summarized as follows :—
Some solutions kill the cell by extracting water osmotically from it,
thus hastening its drying out. Other solutions affect the cell contents
without causing plasmolysis.
V3
Ferrous sulphate’ produces a blue colour which is shown on the cell
wall. This colour appears black when in the veins of leaves. This
blue colour is not produced by /erréc iron, showing that it is not due to
the presence of tannin.
‘The rate of ascent of solution through the leaf blade varies as the
length of vein.
* They produce starch, retain their turgor, and keep the chloroplasts in a normal condition.
308 » TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
Solutions do not ascend through the blade of the leaf as they do
through filter paper (Photos. 1-6, and Fig. 9).
The lithium test for the rate of ascent of water is not accurate for
filter paper, and may not be therefore, for plants.
Detached leaves may carry on some of their normal functions for a
long period of time.
VIII—On THE EFFECT OF A SOLUTION APPLIED TO THE
LEAF SURFACE.
This introduces one of the most important phases of the subject, and
one towards which the attention of the fruit-grower and the farmer has
been directed for the last decade or more. Since the protecting of
plants from the ravages of fungi and of insects has been attempted by
means of spraying with liquids of a more or less poisonous character,
the attention of many, especially of those in experiment stations, has
been turned towards the increase or decrease in crop, owing to the
application of the poison, in solution, to the leaf of the plant. Some
experiments have been carried on, notably at the Agricultural Experi-
mental Station, Ottawa, 1900, with a view to the extermination of
weeds by spraying. The experiments performed by the writer, and here
described, show, as has been shown elsewhere, that leaves of plants are
affected differently by the same solution. What one leaf will endure
will kill another; and taking advantage of this fact, plants susceptible to
the solution may be destroyed. It has recently been learned that the
common field grains, such as wheat, barley and oats, are well adapted to
the shedding of drops applied in the form of a spray, because of the
chemical nature of the surface, because of the shape of the leaf and of its
natural position with regard to the stem.
Probably the most troublesome weed now in many parts of the
northern United States and Canada, is the wild mustard (Brassica
sinapistrim, Boiss.) ; and the means just referred to have been success-
fully used towards its extermination. A spray of a solution of
CuSO, and of FeSO, have been used with singular effect, and a certain
strength of solution was found which would kill the mustard and not
materially injure the grain crop. At Ottawa it was found that the
solution of FeSQ, of 10/ strength produced some “scorching” of the
barley, but stripped the mustard of its leaves and “scorched” the stem
to some extent, but did not completely kill it. The 2/ CuSO, solution
produced only a slight injury to the barley crop but completely killed
PHoTro. 1.—Acer rubrum ; FeSO,, m/56; three days in solution; veins blackened.
Veins blackened to points equally distant from the margin.
to whole leaf.
PHOTO. 2.—Primula obconica; FeSO,;
m/56; blackening of the veins not com-
plete. E, utmost limit of the darkening
of the veins.
Area affected symmetrical
PHOTO. 3.—Primula obconica ; FeSO, ;
m/56 ;
even to
complete blackening of the veins
the very minute terminations.
Almost no diffusion of the salt away from
the veins.
iter Wigih wv
oe
ris
ts
¥y
PHoro. 4.—Primula obconica; HCl; m/4; two days; shows clearly the edge of the
wave which is entirely independent of the veins.
PHOTO. 5.—Primula obconica ; H,SO,;
m/4; two days. The edge of the wave PHOTO. 6.— Nicotiana tabacum ; H,SO,;
follows in a measure the contour of the ™/4; three days; yellow striped centre,
leaf. bounded by a green stripe shown at G,
beyond which is a brown surface. Xylem
(m) laid bare by the acid.
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 309
the mustard. This method of weed extermination has been carried on
successfully, it is said, in England and France, but in matters
pertaining to the farm there is usually very little, if any (Experi,
Station Bulletins ref. Chapter II.), literature pertaining to the
subject. The amount of liquid used per acre at Ottawa was of
CuSO, solution fifty gallons, made up of two pounds of CuSO, to
ten gallons water No observations seem to have been made as to the
actual effect upon the crop, though it is inferred that the barley crop
did not suffer materially.
The experiments just referred to, together with those performed by
the writer (tobacco spotting) leave no room for doubt whatever that
solutions are absorbed by plants. The most important part, however, of
this very interesting subject, as has been observed by several writers, to
whom reference has been made in Chapter II., is the fact that these
solutions which will kill one plant may actually promote growth in
another. No experiments were performed by the writer with this end
in view.
The main objects of the following experiments were to ascertain
whether solutions are absorbed by leaves (the test employed by
Boussingault was adopted), and to determine the physiological effect.
SERIES I.
Effect of solutions applied to leaf surfaces tn the form of drops.
July, t900, leaf Ampelopsis ; solution applied to lower side. Column 1,
solution used ; 2, absorbed*; 3, dry, moist or crystals; 4, dark ring;
5, colour of spot ; 6, less apparent effect on the lower surface of the leaf.
The strength of the solution used, excepting the nutrient solution and
the copper sulphate, was m/4. The copper sulphate was m/56.
2 3 4 go | 6
Mig Cle eae exce2 Nearly all. Moist. | Yes. Yellow. | Less.
ES One| Not all: Dry. | Slightly. Wellows |" Less:
Nar COM ai) No: Crystals. | No. Black. Less, decidedly.
ISBigpicraees No. Crystals. Wes: Yellow. Most decidedly.
NaHCoOy... | No. Crystals. No. None. | Neither.
INA Sean Nearly all. Moist. Mes: Brown. Less.
Ke Oke see blcul tf Crystals. | Yes. Brown. Less, slightly.
CuSO ence All heise Yes. Brown. No difference.
Nut; sSolterere All seanets Sicteset LN RR MeRtayse crates oll ll easier gaya. Gnich erie
GOR EG soa ul) ING Crystals. Wes: Yellow. Less, decidedly.
[SG Diente Seva c No. Crystals. Wes: Yellow. Little difference.
* Absorbed if no deposit remained after evaporation.
6
310 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
The leaves were in the open air without protection against too rapid
transpiration, and in consequence there was a greater amount of
crystalline residue than might otherwise have been expected. Those
substances recorded as moist were so twenty-four hours after the drop
was placed upon the leaf, and they remained so for a longer time, though
The fact that a darker ring occurred was
noted particularly because of the peculiar formation of the crystalline
no further record was made.
deposit formed as the drop evaporates.
Boussingault and Schléssing
noticed this ring of crystals, and
Boussingault noticed also that
in some cases of more dilute
solutions, a darker green ring
was produced on the leaf by the
No attempt
was made by Boussingault or
drop of solution.
any one else to explain this, so
it was thought well to make the
point clear, although it belongs
properly to physics.
When a solution is applied
to a leaf surface in the form ofa
drop, the salt upon rapid eva-
poration of the water, forms
XY is a section of a glass slide upon which is
a drop of solution BCD, which takes the form
roughly of a flattened spheroid touching the glass in
the form of a circle with two points on the circum-
terence, as B and D. As the drop evaporates it
assumes roughly the form BMD and BND, the
points B and D remaining, and the circle ot crystals
forms roughly as shown in S‘ S", C’ C’. The curve
BFA being sharper than the curve CE, there will be
more rapid evaporation and consequently crystals
will form first at Band D, where they remain forming
the ring. Owing to cohesion and tendency to
crystallize, the first crystals formed attract solution
until almost all evaporates. Z, ground plan of drop.
itself in a visible ring, which re-
sults in an unusually strong
action upon the leaf tissue im-
mediately under this ring of
crystals. This ring formation is
not confined to leaves, but is
true of crystalline substances in
general. If a drop of a salt
solution be placed upon a clean
glass slide and allowed to
evaporate, it is found that there
is a ring of salt at,or near, the edge of the original drop, while inside
the ring there are very minute crystals evenly spread over the surface.
Let XY (see Fig. 10) represent a glass slide, and BCD a section of a
drop of solution.
Because of the internal cohesion of the particles of
the liquid, these tend to form a sphere, but this tendency being in part
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 311
overcome by the attraction between it and the glass, and of gravitation,
it assumes the form of a flattened spheroid, something like the form
shown in the diagram. The curves BFA and DGE being sharper than
any other curves on the surface of the drop, there will be a greater
surface exposure to the air in proportion to the mass of liquid in the
immediate vicinity, and consequently a greater evaporation and
condensation of solution. There will clearly be less evaporation from
the surface AC than from the surface AOC ; and if AOC be a similar
curve to a part of BFA, there would be less evaporation from AC than
from the part referred to of BFA. Now it follows, as diffusion through
liquids is very slow, that the first crystals will form at Band D. These
crystals are now no longer floating, but take up a fixed position—from
their weight—upon the glass, and remain there. As evaporation
proceeds, the distance from C to the plate becomes less and less, while
the distance BD along the plate remains almost constant; BCD
becomes BMD and BND. This is due to the fact that the crystal in
growing attracts other particles towards it to build it up, and as it
cannot now move, the particles move to it; and also because the
substance of the crystal, having a strong affinity for water—otherwise it
would not dissolve readily—attracts water towards it, because of a
physical affinity now called capillarity, amd which some term surface
tension. If a drop, half evaporated, be placed under the microscope
this may be easily observed, and it will then be noticed that the margin
of the area of contact between the drop and the glass is only very
roughly the circumference of a circle, because the crystals first formed,
(not being formed all at the same time), will be distributed irregularly,
the first farthest from the centre. The place of the first crystals laid
down will determine the position of the ring of salt found after
evaporation has been completed (represented by C' and C™ in diagram).
The prominence of the ring will depend upon several things,—affinity of
the substance for the solvent, crystal-forming power, and the diffusing
power of the substance in solution, etc., which it is not necessary to
discuss here.
Though the solution was applied to the lower surface of the leaf,
there was an effect more plainly visible upon the upper surface, showing
that the solutions had acted especially on the cell contents and upon the
chlorophyll granules. The substances were conveyed through the
spongy tissue in the lower portion, to the palisade tissue where the
chlorophyll is most abundant. The ring, in several instances, was well
marked upon the upper, as well as upon the lower surface. Those
substances remaining moist, did so because of their strong hygroscopic
properties.
312 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VIL.
When CuSO, is applied in solutions more dilute, as in strength
m/640, one finds it also producing a ring. This is easily recognized by
applying the solution to the under surface of a leaf of Primula stellata
(Hort.), which has a red colour. When the drop has remained for some
hours upon the leaf, one can see by the colour where the tissue has been
killed. The red colour disappears, and there appears a blue ring where
the tissue has shrunken below the general leaf surface.
Strong acids and alkalies do not produce this ring because these
substances dissolve a way regularly through the tissue, permeating in all
directions, as is the case when these substances are applied to the cut
ends of the petioles. (See photographs 4, 5, 6).
SERIES II.
Experiments with solutions of CaH.(CO;), and Ca(OH), upon
leaves of Begonia, Primula obconica, Primula stellata, Pelargonium and
Heliotropium.
When drops of each of these solutions were placed upon the upper
surface of these leaves, and allowed to evaporate in the open air, there
was a slight residue in each case; but if the leaf were placed in a flask
(Fig. 6), or if a detached leaf* were placed under a beaker to prevent too
rapid evaporation, the salts entirely disappeared. (The object of this
experiment was to test the effect of the soluble carbonate upon the
surface of the leaf). It took between two and three days to absorb
completely the drop of solution. If the drop became dry in less than
twenty-four hours there was a_ residue, showing that the loss by
evaporation was too rapid. Though the Ca(OH), solution left upon
evaporation a small amount of crystalline matter, this was undoubtedly
not the hydroxide of lime but the carbonate, produced by the action of
CO, upon the evaporating solution of the hydroxide. The deposit of
CaCO, then upon the leaf vanished upon the application of more water,
and especially so if the leaf were kept in a moist chamber as shown in
Fig. 6. An interesting fact to notice, was that if a leaf holding upon it
the residue from a drop of the solution of the bicarbonate which had
been allowed to evaporate rapidly, were placed as in Fig. 6, this white
residue vanished after a time. This was due to the moisture in the air
in the flask acting just as the water did upon the residue, causing it to
become again, in the presence of CO.,,a solution of the bicarbonate,
which was then in this condition absorbed. This proves that a part of
the calcareous substances found upon the leaves of some plants, may be,
upon occasion, in the presence of moisture and CO,, resorbed by the
plant.
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. ang
From these experiments, and’ from others not recorded, the
conclusions may be drawn that, while a solution applied in the
form of a fairly large drop may be harmful, applied as a fine spray
it may not be so; that it is the upper surface especially that shows the
“scorching,” no matter whether the solution be applied to the lower or
to the upper surface of the leaf; and that calcium carbonate may be
absorbed in the presence of moisture and carbonic acid gas.
SERIES III.
On the action of strong solutions upon Spirogyra.
CuSO, m/8, one and three-fourths hours, no plasmolysis,
chlorophyll band broken up and of a lighter green colour,
spiral form lost, protoplasm very granular, and excepting
these granules it seemed to be dissolving, membrane not
visible.*
HgCl,, m/8, one and a-half hours, no plasmolysis, chloroplast
yellow and has lost its form, protoplasm full of dark
vranular bodies each having a bright red center.
PbA,, m/8, two hours, no plasmolysis, protoplasm full of very
fine granules which are not dark, chloroplast shrunken but
still spiral.
FeSO,, m/8, one and a-half hours, no plasmolysis, chloroplast
yellowish, broken up into fragments each retaining a
pyrenoid, the walls between any two cells constricted and
of a beautiful deep blue colour, the other walls of the cells
of a faint blue tinge giving the whole a blue cast.
HCl, m/8, one and three-fourths hours, no plasmolysis, chloro-
plast yellow, protoplasm dissolving, no granules, band has
kept its form and is very conspicuous.
NaOH, m/8, two hours, no plasmolysis, chloroplast of a light
yellow colour and dissolving, protoplasm dissolving.
NH,OH, 57%, one and three-fourths hours, no plasmolysis,
chloroplast in pieces and dissolving, general colour light
yellow and the cells swollen.
* Nageli (1893, p. 1-51) states that copper in very strong solution causes extreme plasmolysis ; and
that weaker solutions cause a chemical poisonous action with a breaking up of the chlorophyll bands. The
strong solutions used by Nageli are therefore much stronger than m/8. 2
314 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
In all cases the protoplasmic membrane was dissolved, or had not
been separated from the cell wall; the strands had disappeared.
The object of this experiment was to discover, if possible, the action
of poisonous solutions upon Spirogyra. In the case of CuSO, HgCl,
and PbA, there was a peculiar formation of small dense particles in
the protoplasmic substance, showing that some chemical change had
taken place, resulting in a precipitate; or in an action upon globules,
colourless by nature, within the protoplasm. These substances either
dissolved the protoplasmic membrane, or passed through it without
any apparent obstruction, as no plasmolysis occurred. These dark
particles were especially large and dark with the HegCl, solution, a
result which in the case of a mass of cells would produce a darkening
of the general colour. Such a change took place in the case of leaves
which were acted upon by this solution applied to the cut ends of the
petioles. The darkening in the case of the FeSO, solution was entirely
different, being due to the action of the iron solution upon the walls
of the cells, producing a blue colour which appears black in mass.
This was shown particularly where the cells of the filaments were
joined. This dark colour was shown in the leaves whose petioles had
been dipped in a solution of FeSQ,, the veins becoming dark even to
their) minute) extremities:, “(See photographs (1,2, 3): “ihe ene
penetrated the cell wall quickly and dissolved the protoplasm. NaOH
and NH,OH quickly penetrated the cell walls, dissolved the protoplasm
and broke down the chlorophyll band.
Potsonous solutions applied to the upper side of a leaf compared with
the same solutions applied to the lower side.
SERIES IV.
Detached leaf of Primula stellata; petiole in water; time twenty-
four hours ; solution strength m/64o.
PbA, upper .... ... Residue slight No effect visible.
lOWretesets..) 25 Residue slight No effect visible.
GuS@OMupperm sa. o5- Residue slight No effect visible.
WONG 5 o56 cal Residue none Red colour destroyed in a ring.
|
Ba (NO,). upper .. | Residue slight No effect visible.
lower ... Residue none No effect visible.
HeGly upper. s.4 2.1 Residue none No effect visible.
IOGRAR 6 diet oo Residue none Red colour destroved in a ring.
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 315
It was found that the solutions applied to the lower side were
absorbed more quickly.
These experiments show that the leaves of this plant are more
sensitive to these solutions when they are applied to the lower surface.
When drops of these solutions were placed upon leaves of
Bouvardia, there were distinct spots “scorched” upon the leaves, but
when a filter paper was saturated with some of the solution and folded
flat upon the leaf, upper and lower side being covered, there was no
visible effect. This seemed very peculiar, more especially as the paper
was saturated three times upon three successive days, enough of the
solution being applied to kill several leaves if placed upon them in
drops. This may have been due to the fact that the filter paper* held
the solution mechanically in its tissue by capillary action, and as the
water evaporated, the salt was retained in the paper; little, if any,
could have entered the leaf.
When the solution of CuSQ,, and solutions of those substances,
which produced dark* green rings at the margins of the drops, were
applied in sufficiently low concentration to cause no “scorching” of
the leaf, but yet strong enough to bring about after some time this
darkening of the green colour (see also Griffon, An. Sc. Nat. 8, 1-2,
1899), the action was probably in the nature of a stimulus to growth,
and produced a better development of chlorophyll and of protoplasm in
the region where the tissue appeared dark to the naked eye. (See.
Fig. 12). The explanation of this is given in the chapter on ‘“ Tobacco
Leaf Spot.”
The yellow spots and marginal stains noticed by Smith upon the
leaves of plants (1872), were due to the poisonous substances held in
solution by water clinging to the leaf, either in the form of drops, or
held by capillary action on the edge of the leaf. The poisonous
substances came, as Smith showed, in the form of fumes, from the
neighbouring chemical works. How exceedingly sensitive plants are
to these noxious vapours and fumes, is shown in the following
statement of Smith :—‘ When the air has so much acid that two to
three grains are found in a gallon of rain water, or forty pints in a
million, there is:no hope for vegetation in a climate such as we have
in the northern part of the country.”
In discussing the question of the application of solutions to leaves
* This is in accordance with the common method of purifying distilled water from compounds ot
copper, etc., by placing pure filter paper in the water.
316 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
of plants, one must examine into the condition of the leaf surface,
because this surface might exert a mechanical influence upon the
solution. Plants whose leaves are coated with. an oily or waxy
substance will shed the
liquid applied, while other
plants which apparently
shed the drops, actually
spread the liquid over the
veins by the capillary
action of the hairs and
striations which occur on
the grooves of the epider-
mis over the veins. This
is plainly shown when a
harmless solution of con-
siderable strength is used ;
for after the evaporation
of the water the dry salt
is clearly seen. Some
plants, such as Primula
sinensis, have striations
radiating from the large
ee trichomes, which would
A, epidermis, lower surface, showing striations; B, é id . é ria li id
epidermis, upper surface; C, section through epidermal al In conveying iqul
cells, lower surface; D, upper surface, epidermal cells ; which happened to be
E, epidermal cell, lower surface; F, epidermal cell, upper i | | b
surface showing ‘‘pits’’; G, epidermal cell over vein; roug it near the ase, up
H, section through leaf through one of the smaller veins ; the trichome to a surface
P, thin-walled parenchyma; S, striations. ailbe 5
less cutinized. . (Fig. 55)se);
The leaf of Ampelopsis has peculiar striations (Fig. 11, H.S.), radiating
irregularly from the stomata. Striations are found on both sides of
the leaf over the veins. Decrock (An, Sc. Nat 8,13; 1, p) on, 160m
noticed similar striations upon several plants of the Primulacez.
Corrugations have been observed by Henslow and Stahl, though Stahl
assigned to them a far different function from that assigned by
Henslow. FE. L. Gregory (1886) concluded from experiments
performed with many plants having hair coverings upon the leaves,
that the basal cells of the hairs were best fitted for the absorption
of water.
An interesting instance of the absorption of salts by the leaves of
plants is given by Boehm (1875, p. 287), reviewed in Bot. Jahrsber,
hr875.S. S60:
wii
oe)
re
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES.
“Nachveiner tfruheren Untersuchung: .j..%% . ‘gehen Keimpflanzen
der Feuerbohne in distillertem Wasser sehr bald zu Grunde, wahrend
dieselben bei Zusatz von Kalksalzen sich vollkommen normal
entwickeln. Es sollte nun gepriift werden, ob die Aufnahme des zur
Entwickelung nothwendigen Kalksalzes auch durch die Blatter der
Feuerbohne geschehen kann. In distillirtem Wasser gezogene
Keimpflanzen wurden zu diesem Zwecke tiiglich drei mal wahrend je
I5 minuten mit ihrem obern Ende in distillirtem Wasser mit 2
pro mille Kalksalz eingetaucht. Diese Pflanzen erhielten sich so
lang frisch, bis die cotyledonen eingeschrumpft und bei dem Versuchen
im Dunkeln simmtliche Starke aus dem Stengel verschwunden war,
wahrend Controlpflanzen, die nicht in die Kalklosung getaucht wurden,
friihzeitig abstarben.’
2?
This supports the conclusions made by the writer, both in regard to
the absorption of water by developing buds and living undetached
leaves.
In regard to the question of the absorption of dilute solutions of
poisonous substances there is something to be said. It has generally
been held that the copper of the bordeaux mixture is not absorbed by
the leaves of plants, but by two special experiments, the writer has been
able to prove that CuSO,,m/640, or when applied in a more dilute form,
is absorbed. Of course CuSO, is not the compound of copper in the
bordeaux mixture, although it is in this form before mixing, still the
experiment with CuSO, will apply to the Cu(OH),, or whatever soluble
copper compound may result from the combination of the substances in
the mixture.
If a drop of a dilute solution (m/640) of CuSO, be placed on the
under side of a leaf of Primula stellata, and left for twenty-four hours,
no trace of the CuSO, is found upon the surface, but there is a
discolouring, to some extent, of the natural tissue of the leaf. Similar
experiments with other salts were performed by Boussingault and by
Schléssing, and they concluded that if no salt was visible upon the leaf
surface, total absorption took place.
If one were to spot rather freely a similar leaf with a solution of
CuSO,, m/640, for four or five successive days, then wash quickly the
surface with distilled water, dry, incinerate carefully, collect the ash and
dissolve as in qualitative mineral analysis; and if, after getting rid of the
surplus acid and evaporating down to a small quantity, this solution be
placed in a small test-tube, and in the solution a clean, bright iron wire,
318 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII.
in a couple of hours afterwards there will be a coating of metallic copper
upon the iron wire even if there be but a small trace of copper present.
Piano wire will do for this experiment. Chuard and Porchet (1900, p.
- 71), state that copper was not found present in the leaves of grapes
which had been sprayed with the bordeaux mixture. They state further
that the effect of copper upon growth has been exaggerated, but admit
that the sugar content of the grape is increased. The deeper green
colour of the leaves, they claim, is not due to an increase in the amount
of chlorophyll. This statement is not consistent with experiments
performed by the writer, nor with those of Griffon (1900, p. I). A
certain stimulus there is, which results in an increase in the size of the
chloroplasts, especially in the palisade tissue, and which is referred to in
the explanation of the green ring produced by certain solutions applied
to the leaves. This green colour may be due in part to a movement of
the chloroplasts as noticed by Stahl in the case of other stimuli.
A long series of experiments was performed by Galloway and
Woods (1895), to investigate the effects of bordeaux mixture upon the
growth of potatoes. They used the substances contained in the
bordeaux mixture separately and in various combinations in order to
determine which constituent had to do with the stimulus to growth, or
whether it was due to the effect produced upon the soil by the solution.
They show clearly that, while the bordeaux mixture applied to the
leaves undoubtedly increases the growth, it is not the copper compound
alone that causes the increase. The lime is found to be a very
important factor, and they show that spraying with lime-water causes a
large increase in leaf surface, showing that the lime-water is very
probably absorbed directly by the leaves and utilized there. The
spraying of the soil with lime-water caused some increase, but not so
much as the spraying of the leaves.
The writer has shown (Chapter IV.) that Ca(OH), in water (lime-
water), is absorbed by leaves, and that this substance very probably
exerts an active influence upon CO, of respiration, retaining it for
resorption by the plant.
The experiments of Galloway and Woods show that a spray of
water, while not increasing or decreasing the growth of the leaves,
produces a decided decrease in the gross weight of tubers produced.
This may be due to the loss of substances sustained by the leaves due
to the drenching with water. (See experiments, Chapters III. and IV.).
The experiments just referred to, corroborated by those of De Saussure,
Gaudichaud and Sachs, leave no room for doubt that a very considerable
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 319
amount of inorganic alkaline salts is extracted from leaves by the
application of pure water to the leaf surfaces. This may in some cases
prove of advantage to the plant, but it also might under certain
circumstances prove a decided disadvantage resulting from the too great
loss of useful mineral nutrient substances.
Regarding the absorption by leaves of iron in solution, it is easy to
speak with certainty ; for, if one secure a plant, chlorotic (from lack of
iron in the culture medium), but otherwise in good condition, and place
a few drops of a dilute solution of Fertic chloride (m/640) carefully upon
a leaf, in twenty-four hours afterwards a green circular area is seen
where the drop was applied. Thunbergia alata was the only plant upon
which a sufficient chlorosis was obtained to demonstrate clearly this
phenomenon. The green area spread over the whole leaf in three days
to such an extent that the deep green of the leaf was uniform. Plants
chlorotic from starvation, as were some of those referred to in the
experiments in Chapter VI., will not become green by the application
of an iron salt solution. This fact of the utilization of iron applied to
the surface of a chlorotic leaf is referred to by Sachs (1887, p. 285).
This same result was obtained some years ago in the case of a Maize
plant, by Miss Minns at the physiological laboratory, Botany Garden of
Harvard University. Definite information regarding this experiment
the writer has not been able to obtain.
Summarizing the results of the experiments here described we may
conclude that :—
(1) Salts in solution are absorbed through both surfaces of leaves of
plants whether the leaves be detached or not if the surrounding atmos-
phere be favourable. Absorption generally takes place more readily
when the solution is applied to the lower surface.
(2) Dilute solutions applied in drops stimulate the leaf tissue in a
ring, whereas if the solutions are concentrated the entire area covered
by the drop is affected.
(3) The effects produced by poisonous solutions upon Spirogyra aid
in explaining the effects of similar solutions upon foliage leaves.
320 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vor. VIL.
‘LOBACGO-LEBAR “Spon?
Tobacco leaves, under certain conditions which are as yet but little
known, become somewhat mottled or spotted at a certain period in
the growth of the plant, and these spots remain throughout the entire .
process of curing, and come out on the dried leaf to be used for the
wrapper of the cigar. It is generally supposed that leaves having
these spots are also characterized by their superior flavour and burning
qualities, both of which are valued very highly by those who use
tobacco. So important has this become in the marketing of the
tobacco leaves that “spotting” has been attempted by means of
caustic alkalies, such as carbonate of soda, caustic potash and caustic
soda. While this artificial spotting may be only an outward imitation
of the natural leaf, yet there are many evidences of its affecting the
quality of the leaf from the smoker's standpoint, as will be explained
later on. Attempts have been made by some of the smaller tobacco:
dealers to “spot” the tobacco by means of acids and other chemical
irritants, thereby producing a leaf in imitation, to some extent, of the
Sumatra leaf, and an article which is more saleable, but which doubtless
possesses properties which would render it inferior to the leaf of the
same tobacco plant which was not spotted. The only spotting under
particular examination, however, is that of the natural Sumatra leaf
and of that produced by caustic alkalies.
The real Sumatra leaf when nearly ripe has a peculiar mottled
appearance which the leaf retains, more or less, throughout the curing
process, and which indicates to the consumer a superior quality. It
has been asserted by some who have investigated the cultivation of
the Sumatra tobacco that the spot is due to the contact of wood ashes
with the leaves during their growth. The plants which produce the
best quality of Sumatra cigar wrapper are grown upon recently cleared
and burned land. The jungles which contain a large amount of
underbrush are made ready for cultivation by fire. The consequence
of this is that there is mixed with the top soil a very considerable
amount of ash, which, during the course of the summer, is blown by
the wind upon the leaves, and which produces certain effects which
result in the leaves having this spotted appearance. It is also stated in
proof of this, that after two or three years cultivation of this recently
cleared land, the tobacco plant does not become spotted to any great
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 321
extent during its growth; and the leaves are of a thicker and more
gummy nature, and are less valuable as a cigar wrapper. If these
statements just repeated regarding the cause of the spotting of the
Sumatra leaf be true, then it opens up the way to produce it artificially,
and that too at little expense. It is well known that ordinary wood
ashes contain a high percentage of caustic alkalies, especially caustic
potash and caustic soda (if water be added), and that these substances
do affect the leaves of plants, causing them to resemble, in outward
appearance at least, the leaf grown upon the newly cleared ground
in Sumatra.
The Sumatra tobacco when planted early in the year is generally
without spots, but when planted late it spots freely. It is grown in
Florida quite extensively and becomes spotted similar to the real
Sumatra leaf, and in texture and general appearance resembles it
closely. It is also cultivated in Cuba.
This tobacco, whether grown in the East Indies, Florida or Cuba,
has another rather desirable quality, namely, that of a good “burn.”
This quality is especially wished for in the wrapper of a cigar. When
once ignited it burns away quite steadily without producing flame, and
more rapidly than the ordinary tobacco leaf which is used for filling
purposes. This can be proved experimentally by placing two or more
leaves in similar positions, then by igniting them and comparing the
areas burned in a given time. When compared with the bright
Virginia wrapper, the writer found that there was little or no difference
between them, when the average was taken of a large number of cases.
The Virginia leaf was not spotted, but was a thin bright yellow leaf
containing apparently very little of this gummy substance generally
found in the darker coloured leaves used for filling the body of
the cigar.
This quality of burning steadily and rapidly is a desirable one in a
cigar wrapper for reasons which the smoker readily understands, and
which we need not enter upon here; and it follows that any
investigation which results in developing this quality in a plant
naturally, or in producing it in a leaf artificially, would be important
both from a scientific and from an economic standpoint. The spotted
leaf has this quality to a very high degree, and all very thin well-cured
leaves possess it also to a considerable extent.
It was shown by Nessler in 1867 that when different kinds of paper,
322 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vor. VII.
leaves, etc., were impregnated with certain substances the burning
quality was affected,—that phosphates and chlorides were detrimental
to, and that potassium nitrate aided in the burning.
Adolph Mayer, writing upon combustibility, shows that potassium
carbonate was favourable to burning, and that chlorine compounds were
unfavourable. If leaves lack potash they have a “poor burn.” He
shows also that these qualities may be produced in two ways, (1) by
using certain fertilizers, chiefly Chili saltpetre, (2) by impregnating the
cured leaf with this substance. By saturating tobacco having a “ poor
burn” with a solution of potassium nitrate or potassium acetate he
caused the leaf to have what he called a “good burn.” He also found
that when Chili saltpetre was used abundantly as a fertilizer for the
tobacco crop, a spotting was often produced in the cured leaf, because,
as he states, the leaves cured more slowly and unevenly ; and that when
the leaves were simply dried instead of cured, a greenish mottled
appearance was liable to result.
In Griffon’s researches (1900, p. 1), he proves that nitrates in the soil
and in nutrient solutions add greenness to the leaves of plants, and that
salts of copper in minute quantities augment the dimensions of the
chloroplasts and the intensity of the colour, though it may kill the roots.
Sodium chloride is uniformly unfavourable, and an excess of lime causes
a paleness and a consequent lessening of assimilatory power. The
palisade tissue, chiefly, is affected (by the abnormal conditions), both as
to the dimensions of the chloroplasts and the cells themselves, and in
the colouration of the chloroplast. The writer has found, when decoctions
are made of the leaves of several kinds of cured tobacco, by steeping
them in distilled water for ten or twelve hours, that these decoctions, to
a litmus indicator, show a decided acid reaction in most cases. The
litmus paper used was purposely made slightly alkaline in order to
insure evenness in quality of the paper and to emphasize strongly the
experiment. One can secure litmus paper of an even quality by
steeping the paper to be used, in distilled water to which a very few
drops of ammonia have been added. The Virginia leaf changed the
colour of the deep blue litmus paper in ¢wo minutes, the Sumatra leaf
taking five minutes, the artificially spotted leaf zez minutes and the leaf
artificially spotted then dried, not cured, taking three and a-half
hours.
Mr. A. J. Ewart has shown (1896), that plants tend to neutralize both
acids and alkalies, and that so long as the substance in which he placed
1900-1. } EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 323
the leaves femained alkaline, the chlorophyll was of a darker green
colour. Twenty-four hours produced less effect than sixteen. He
experimented with Elodea and Utricularia in a solution of ammonium
carbonate (one tenth of one per cent. strength) in water. Darwin,
in 1872, noticed that a precipitate in the cell-sap was produced
on treatment with dilute alkalies. This shows that the alkali
penetrates both the cell-wall and the lining of the protoplasm;
only after prolonged exposure were the cells killed. This precipitate
consists of tannin and other substances excreted by the ammonium
carbonate.
Among the tobacco growers of America there are recognized two
diseases, or two forms of the same disease, of the tobacco plant, the
“calico” and the “mottled head.” “ Mottled head” is a condition in
which only the uppermost leaves are affected, and where the spotting
occurs at a somewhat later stage in the life of the plant. When the
plants are affected early in life, the middle and the lower leaves have the
characteristic appearance. This is known as “calico.” About fifteen
years ago there was observed a peculiar mottled condition of the tobacco
plant in Holland. Dr. Mayer made some investigations upon this
condition and gave to it the name “ Mosaic Disease.” He concluded
that the disease was a bacterial one, but his investigations were not
carried on far enough to warrant his conclusion. He proved that a
sound plant might be inoculated with infected sap; but that one plant
could not infect a neighbouring plant.
In some early works giving a general description of the tobacco
plant, we find that one character given is that the plant on reaching its
maturity in a natural condition is quite likely to have light coloured
spots on its leaves. These spots were in no sense looked upon as a
disease, or as being at all hurtful to the plant. The leaves of the
suckers from healthy plants or stumps are often found spotted (Sturgis.
1898), and this would tend to show that this feature was not so much a
disease as a condition of the plant depending upon soil and atmospheric
conditions, or was philogenetic in its nature. It has also been shown
by Otto Carl Butterweck that one means the farmer has of knowing
when the tobacco is, ready to cut is that the leaves begin to turn lighter
green, and light coloured spots appear upon them. This is doubtless
the time when the plant ceases to draw nourishment from the air and
soil, and is now concentrating its nourishment that was scattered
through all parts. According to Dunal on Solanacee (1852), some
species of this genus, Nicotiana, have peculiar grey-spotted, or a dirty
324 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vov. VII.
green colour naturally ; and one species of the genus has its specific
name from this character.
About the time that Dr. Mayer was carrying on his investigations in
Holland, a disease was described which occurred in South Eastern
Russia which resembled very closely the “calico” of America. Some
examination was made in detail as to the nature of the disease, as it was
called, and the conclusions reached were that the cause was not due to
bacteria nor to enzymes, and was therefore in no sense what might be
termed an organic disease, but entirely physiological in its nature.
It was proved by experiment (Sturgis, 1898) that the lower leaves of a
tobacco plant will become spotted when the plant is beginning to starve
because of a lack of water; and it occurs similarly when a period of
excessive humidity is followed by hot sunshine, which results in a very
rapid transpiration. It was, moreover, asserted by some, that spots
were produced by drops of water adhering to the leaves and acting as
lenses, and in direct sunlight actually burning the leaf. This is
probably not true, as tobacco is not one of those plants to whose leaves
the water adheres in drops; besides we are unable to bring this about
by artificial means upon this plant. Others state that particles of sand,
dust, : etc., will, when adhering to the leaf, cause a “speck” tombe
produced as a result of the contact and the irritation brought about by
the particle. This is quite probably not correct unless the particle
adhering acts chemically upon the leaf cutin and the cells and their
contents. It may be that where the land was fertilized freely with
ashes, lime, or other rather strongly alkaline substances there is a
modicum of truth in the statement; and indeed this would tend to
confirm the assertion that the spotting of the Sumatra leaf is due to
wood ashes brought into actual contact with the leaves by means of the
wind.
A few years ago Marchal described a disease of the tobacco, similar
to “calico.” He concluded that it was a bacterial disease, as he saw
in the spots a bacillus which he was able to grow upon pure culture
media, and in turn to inoculate healthy plants with the pure culture.
Others have found since Marchal’s investigations were made that the
mottling is due to a sort of enzymitic action. Now it is obvious that
these so called diseases, “ mottled-head,” “Mosaic disease,” “calico,”
etc., are distinguishable in a general way from the “Tobacco Spot”
which is so universally admired in a cigar wrapper; and that so
far as investigations have been made upon the subject up to this
time, it may be regarded that “Tobacco Spot” is a_ physiological
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 325
condition, while the others mentioned are produced by fungi or by
enzymes.
This naturally leads up to the producing of the spotted leaf by
artificial means. There are various methods employed by the small,
but not too scrupulous tobacco dealers to produce an imitation of the
Sumatra leaf, as has been already mentioned, but these will not be
dealt with here as they have, so far as the writer can learn, no scientific
bearing upon the subject under discussion. There is a method,
however, of producing a spotted leaf by means of strongly alkaline
substances, applied with a sprayer to the leaves, a few days before
they are harvested. This process has been investigated in some detail
by the writer, and it is found that certain effects are produced upon
the leaves, which render them more desirable as a cigar wrapper, for
two reasons:—(1) They burn more rapidly and are less liable to
become extinguished than similar leaves not so treated. (2) The leaf
when cured has a more silky appearance, and is slightly thinner. As
to this latter it should be mentioned that a very limited number of
leaves were compared, and so too much stress should not be placed
upon it. With regard to the former it is found, by experiment with
different kinds of leaves, that when saturated with caustic potash,
caustic soda or carbonate of soda, then dried and ignited, they will
burn more evenly and readily than leaves not so treated. It is the
same, but to a much more noticeable degree, with filter paper, writing
paper and other kinds of paper. Leaves vary much in the capability of
being affected in this way, probably due to differences in chemical
constituents of the substances contained in the different plants. Both
paper and leaves, when not saturated with the alkali, have a tendency,
_more or less marked, to burst into flame when ignited; while if first
treated, and then dried and ignited, they burn and glow steadily
without producing flame.
The next question that naturally arises, is:—Do plants when
growing absorb through their leaves any of the alkali which is applied
forthe leaf surfaces? Certain experiments with the object of
answering this question, were performed at the Botanic Gardens, and
elsewhere, July, August and September (1899), in order to ascertain
whether leaves’ did absorb substances and transport them to other
parts of the plant. Species of the following genera were operated
on :—Solanum, Nicotiana, Aralia, Ampelopsis, Fraxinus, Pelargonium
and Helenium. The following solutions were used :—Caustic soda in
strengths of 1, 2%, 5, 10, 20 per cent.; and sodium carbonate in
7
326 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, |Vor. VII.
strengths of 5, 10, 20 per cent. It was found that caustic soda at
10 and 20 per cent. was too strong, producing holes in the leaves
after a few days. The strength of solution required to produce a spot
similar in appearance to the artificial tobacco spot, differed considerably
among the several plants tried, but the ten per cent. sodium carbonate
solution seemed to be the most generally successful. Twenty per
cent. sodium bicarbonate was used in the Nicotiana, but it was not
sufficiently strong to produce a spot and so no further attempt was
made with this substance. To each solution was added about one per
cent. by weight of lithium nitrate, for the purpose of utilizing the flame
test in determining whether the alkali was absorbed and transported
to other parts of the plant. It was found in all leaves that were tested
by means of the flame and the spectroscope, that the lithia had
penetrated to other parts of the same leaf, and also down to the
extreme end of the petiole. Lithia was not found in other leaves of
the plant, but it is inferred that the strength of the solution of lithia
was too low and that the instruments were not sufficiently accurate
or delicate to recognize it in such minute quantities, rather than there
was no transportation of lithia to other parts of the plant. Lithia
was found in few cases in the stem below the leaf, and in a very few
cases above the leaf node. Of course it might be objected that the
fact of the lithia being found transported did not prove that the caustic
soda was conveyed with it. This is a fair objection, because the
caustic soda might easily be all decomposed in acting chemically upon
the cutin, cell walls and cell contents. However, it is thought fair to
assume that at least a certain amount of the caustic soda or the sodium
carbonate, as the case may be, would accompany the lithia through
the plant tissue. Some of the caustic may be decomposed, as has
been proved by the writer in the case of the beautiful liquid colouring
matter in the epidermal cells of the red leaves of Ampelopsis in the
late autumn. Caustic soda turns the red liquid a deep blue, but this
blue rapidly disappears giving place to a greenish colour which soon
changes to a yellow. When an acid is now applied, there is no
reddening of the liquid, showing that some chemical change has gone
on upon the liquid contents by the action of the alkali.
In all the leaves spotted artificially it was found that no spots or
mottling appeared except those spots plainly visible when the leaves
were lying upon a dark surface; while in all the Sumatra leaves
available it was found upon examination with transmitted light that the
leaves were all mottled with darker coloured patches, spots and dots,
not visible by reflected light. This might suggest the notion that the
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 327
Sumatra leaves examined were affected also with a disease similar to
the “ Mosaic disease,” and to “ calico.”
Now as to the internal effect of the spraying with caustic, the writer
has found that the tissue undergoes some changes of importance in the
vicinity of the spot.
(Seer Bic. 12; sec-
tion perpendicular
to the leaf surface).
It appears that the
caustic alkali kills
the chloroplast and
the protoplasm in
the cells where
the spot becomes
whitish ; and that
on the darker green
ring bordering the nGhek
light spot, the cells Section through tobacco leaf ‘‘ spot.” O, natural condition ; P, ring ;
Q, dead part of spot; C, chloroplasts; Int., intercellular spaces; A,
towards centre of spot.
become larger and
the chlorophyll
bodies more numerous, especially in the palisade cells. There they are
found very abundantly along the sides of the palisade cells, which have
increased in length very considerably. The guard cells in the ring are
well filled with protoplasm and chloroplasts, more so than in the
ordinary guard cells of the leaf (see illustrations in Fig. 13). The
stomata in the ring present therefore a different appearance in surface
view from both the spot and the ordinary tissue. We notice also that
the leaf is much thicker and denser in this ring, and that the chloroplasts
are larger and more numerous. In the spongy parenchyma there is
some enlargement due to the expanded cells and to the increased area
of intercellular spaces. In the spot itself the protoplasm was dead)
exceedingly pale, and much shrunken. It ts quite possible that there is
a stimulus to growth produced by the caustic solution used. If this be
the case it would increase the activity of the protoplasm in the ring
immediately surrounding the part that was dead, and consequently
produce more numerous and larger chloroplasts. It has been shown by
Griffon, Ewart, Mayer and others, that potassium nitrate and potassium.
carbonate affected the chloroplasts in some way resulting in increased
dimensions and in general in a deeper green colour of the leaves.
Griffon shows, too, that it is only the palisade cells that are affected.
The writer has found that in the case of Nicotiana and Ampelopsis both
328 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vor vil
palisade tissue and spongy parenchyma are affected,—including the
guard cells of the stomata,—
in a manner which is quite
-3 noticeable and important
(Fig: 13). Outside “ofe tis
e green ring is seen one slightly
FIG. 13. lighter in “colour Waiiiees
Surface view of guard cell of tobacco leaf. A, from probably due to the fact that
area P, Fig. 12; B, natural condition; C, from area Z
Oorre an extra supply of nourish-
ment is now required by the
enlarged and more active cells in the green ring, and these cells outside
the ring are drawn upon to furnish this supply.
In experimenting upon Chilomonas, an infusoria, W. E. Garry,
(1899, p. 291) shows that when certain solutions are allowed to diffuse
gradually toward the colony, a ring of the animals appears. This ring,
formed by the crowding of the animals, gradually widens, and with some
solutions, after a time, recedes. This would tend to show that the ring
is formed of animals, not only those driven away by the irritating liquid,
but also of those attracted towards it. In fact H.S. Jennings goes so
far as to state that Paramecia are negative to strong acids and positive
to weak acids. Whether this offers any explanation to the condition of
the leaf around the spot it is not easy to say. At all events the
phenomena are similar and in both cases exceedingly remarkable.
The diagrams here given are self
explanatory, and are intended to
illustrate the general appearance of
the spot upon the leaf several days
after the application of the alkali
to the surface, to show the effect
upon the stomata and upon the
general tissue of the leaf. The
spot does not at first appear light
coloured but rather of a rusty
brown, gradually becoming lighter.
It was also quite noticeable that
the thickness of the leaf was
somewhat less in the case of ; IG. 14.
cured tobacco leaves, some dis- Tobacco leaf showing spot. Cr, deep green
tance away from the spot than it ae Re age aye macy
was in the centre of the spot.
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVEs. 329
Summary of the results of the investigation :—
There are four causes (in a measure quite distinct), which produce
the spotted condition of the tobacco leaf, due to :—
(1) Fungi, (Cercospora, Macrosporium), Bacteria, Enzymes.
(2) Conditions of soil, moisture, temperature, fertilizers, etc.
(3) The recurrence of a philogenetic condition. (This is but a
suggestion).
(4) Local applications of chemical irritants.
With regard to the last (4) the important points may be
enumerated. The alkali kills the tissue in direct contact with the
irritant ; it stimulates to abnormal development the tissue immediately
around the spot; the cells outside of the stimulated area are drawn
upon more than ordinarily and are consequently poorer in protoplasm
and chlorophyll than that of the tissue in the ring, and in the tissue
of the ordinary part of the leaf.
The deductions to be made from this are, that plant growth may
be stimulated by local applications to leaves, that leaves can transport
the absorbed substance, and consequently the texture of the leaf may
be modified by artificial means.
IX.—SOME OF THE EFFECTS OF SEA-WATER ON THE AIR.
The question as to whether the inorganic salts in solution in
sea-water ever pass off into the air, in the neighbourhood of the sea,
in any measurable quantity, has so far never received much attention
from scientific men, but it has long been suspected by many people
that sea-water does, in some way or other, enter the air, but little
has as yet been done in a scientific way to ascertain the nature of the
process, if any, by which the sea salt and other inorganic substances
may leave the solution and permeate the surrounding atmosphere. It
is obvious that, upon the occasion of storms and winds, the sea spray is
blown into the air, and if the air be below the saturation point, as
it generally is, much of the water evaporates while suspended in the
air, and in consequence, minute particles of salts are left floating in the
atmosphere, and later are blown about and deposited upon the surface
of the sea, or upon the land and the leaves of plants within a reasonably
short distance of the sea shore. Leaving this condition altogether
aside, it is still an open question whether the salt may be taken up
into the air without the aid of wind or spray and afterwards deposited
upon substances that have a physical contactile affinity for the salts ;
330 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VIL.
and with many of these substances with which these salts come into
contact, form chemical compounds of a more or less stable nature.
With this object in view, from the standpoint of vegetable physiology,
it was thought advisable here to ascertain in an indirect way whether
it be possible for substances in aqueous solutions to leave the solution,
not with the liquid as a liquid, or as a vapour in the state in which the
particles are so large as to refract and reflect light and therefore render
it visible; but to leave the solution with the solvent water, or in small
particles that are in the layer immediately upon the surface of the
water, at the same moment the water particles become taken up
by the air.
A series of experiments was arranged, as shown in Fig. 15.
Four kinds of iron were obtained:—(1) Chemically pure iron (98.87);
(2) Fine soft iron wire; (3) Coarse, common iron wire; (4) Piano
wire. Each of these specimens of
wire was cut up into three approxi-
mately equal portions, and one
from each specimen was_ placed
under a bell-jar in a watch glass
perfectly clean. Under the ®jae
was a crystallizing dish filled with
sea-water in one case, salt water in
the second case, and pure water
in the third. Each jar then had
under it four different kinds of
iron, and excepting for the liquid
used, all conditions were as nearly
as possible the same. The speci-
FIG. 15. mens of iron were all weighed with
R, samples of iron; W, liquid used. the nicest accuracy upon com-
mencing the experiment, and they
were in clean watch glasses in order to be able to see if any of the
solution happened to be precipitated in any way, or come in contact
with the metal while the solution was in the air in the form of a liquid
or spray. A liquid containing even the faintest trace of a salt in
solution will leave plain evidence of the salt if the smallest part of a
drop be allowed to evaporate from the surface of a well-cleaned glass.
The surface of the watch glass was very large in comparison with the
specimen upon it, and it is fair to conclude that if no salt settled in
any way upon the glass none came in contact with the iron in the
same way. The jars were each placed upon four glass plates laid
1900-1. ] EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 33!
about half an inch apart, leaving an open ventilating canal in the form
of a cross, in order to secure some ventilation and yet to have no direct
current of air within the jar. Each jar was removed every two days
and sprayed upon the inside from a wash-bottle having a fine nozzle.
This spray was of a liquid corresponding to that in the receptacle
under the jar :—(1) Sea-water ; (2) Salt water; (3) Distilled water.
The spraying was done at some distance from the specimens, and in no
case was there enough of the spray to cause drops to run down and off
the side of the bell-jar. The object of this was to secure a moist
atmosphere and to aerate fully.
There was one very peculiar phenomenon which developed during
the experiment and one which is worthy of note. The jar containing
the sea water did not become dry on the inside, even after four or five
days, while the others dried completely (during the course of the frst
experiment) in twenty-four hours or less, consequently the jar containing
the sea-water was not sprayed as often as the others, although it was
the intention, when the experiment was arranged, to spray them all
regularly. Why did the jar containing the sea-water remain moist,—
the water clinging in small drops—while the others dried so readily ?
This phenomenon raises one of the most interesting questions relating
to atmospheric conditions, and the effect upon plant and animal life.
The experimental work belongs rather to physics and chemistry than to
botany, so it will be deemed sufficient to merely answer the question
leaving the details to the realm of physics where it belongs. Experi-
ments were performed with some solutions, simple and compound, by
placing a drop upon a leaf and leaving it undisturbed for several hours,
and in some cases for several days, for the purpose of finding out
whether the solution was absorbed by the leaf. During the performance
of this experiment, among other things observed was that certain
solutions did not seem to evaporate for some days, while others became
dry in from one to six hours. Some solutions remained upon the leaf,
having the appearance of a drop of water, for a remarkably long time.
The same was then tried with glass plates, instead of leaves, and it was
found that similar results were obtained—the same solutions remaining
moist. A comparison was then made between glass and leaves and
results obtained which showed that the moist condition was kept up
longer by those drops which were on the leaves. Certain salts are very
hygroscopic in their nature, e.g., magnesium chloride, sodium acetate,
etc., and it was these salts which remained longer moist,—retaining not
only their necessary water of crystallization, but also enough besides to
keep the whole in a liquid form. Certain mixed solutions exhibit this
332 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL, VII.
property to a greater degree than a solution containing only a single
salt, but of equal concentration. It is thus, probably, with this compli-
cated solution known as sea-water.
After the conclusion of the experiment described above, owing to
some rather peculiar results as shown by the figures in the tables of
weights given, it was thought advisable to continue the experiment for
some time longer and to add another,—a fourth specimen of iron. This
was a piece of piano wire, bright and clean. The other specimens, being
now rusted, were cleaned with emery paper,—the rust being removed in
this way—and after being carefully weighed were again placed under
the jars. _An interesting phenomenon had developed, in consequence,
probably, of the change in humidity of the room in which the
experiment was conducted, due to the increased firing necessary to heat
the building. (The experiments were carried on in the basement of the
university museum where during autumn there is considerable humidity
in the atmosphere and where, when extra heating is required, the
atmosphere in the basement becomes very dry).
Samples A, B, C, were of coarse iron wire, well cleaned.
Samples D, E, F, were of finer soft iron wire, well cleaned.
Samples G, H, I, were of 98.87% pure iron wire, well cleaned.
Samples O, P, Q, were of fine piano wire.
Samples A, E, H, O, under jar No. 1 (sea-water).
Samples B, F, I, P, under jar No. 2 (salt solution).
Samples C, D, G, Q, under jar No. 3 (distilled water).
The weighings are given in grams.
TABLE I.
WEIGHT.
Specimen. = ———— Gain. Gain %. Time, 74 days.
Oct. 29th. Novy. rz2th.
aN oR! ago Cape Oe 8.1000 8.1128 0.0128 0.1580
Biri edie: 55 ec 1.9446 | 1.9480 0.0034 0.1748
EAA Aa yeers sie easels az 0.5710 0.5809 0.0099 I .7340
Boge Bcerstareneas wkoyess reces Fie2O0 Tl eeeZO5O 0.0059 0.0807
Oe mebrt a Acie eis yee 19305 |) 19386 0.0021 0.1087
Docitnay orci legate nels see 0.5230 0.5300 0.0070 1.3380
Cifed teteays crore tare oars 7.6096 7.6128 0.0032 0.0420
IDE Sigainnoie oa Doe 1.8845 | 1.8856 0.00or! 0.0583
Greene tee arenes 0.6764 0.6810 0.0046 0.6800
1900-1. ]
EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES.
(ABLE lavas
333
WEIGHT.
Specimen. Gain. Gain Z%. Time, 74 days.
Nov. rath. Nov. 26th.
AM’ 5 6640 ROR ADEBE 8.1128 8.1145 0.0017 0.0209
EPP vere siasleisles Wee ga 1.9480 1.9499 0.0019 0.0975
Rl Geryccovets ct onars etecerns 0.5809 0.5839 0.0030 0.5760
13) Voce ORES ee eee 7.2950 7.2950 o) o
ei aye 3 1.9336 1.9350 0.0014 0.0718
NGPA sats weiss osyer ss 0.5300 0.5305 0.0005 0.0943
Croc Glpeeeeocens 7.6128 7.6159 0.0031 0.0407
Weer etcletorn cistote the 1.8856 1.8888 0.0032 0.1690
\Gioo bo Sete Ree eC 0.6810 0.6859 0.0049 0.7190
TABLE II.
Nov. 27th. Dec. 13th.
WA eeaiaicis cies ck iets 8.0589 8.0642 0.0053 0 0657 16 days.
Bere rofcterc tS stoic sovess eve 1.8471 1.8491 0.0020 0.1082
Ee syctisic: atarckare: tity’ ic 0.5409 0.5450 0.0041 0.7580
Ol edeo pune aaraeE 2.6095 2.60995 0.00045 0.0172
3 5 OBR es Seren Fs WALK Fim 2A gy o o
EE tet frat este ss, be I.QIOI I.gI01 o fa)
Ul Otida pee pnoU cee 0.5093 0.5093 o o
ge 2.5559 2.5559 o o
(Gro apnea ers aon 7.7426 7.7426 fo) o
LD) 5 uc oa eee 1.8586 1.8591 0.0005. 0.0269
SBP ssc rs cia acs: 0.6581 0.6608 0.0027 0.4100
aocp Conese 2.56455 2.5646 0.00005 0.0019
TABLE Il. a.
Dec. 13th. Jan. 4th.
2M, Cee gana 8.0642 8.0661 0.0019 0.0235 22 days.
18 oc aie Cee ee 1.8491 1.8510 0.0019 0. 1027
8. oooh 0.5450 0.5453 0.0003 0.0550
Ohocicn sac se ce 2.60995 2.60996 0.00001 0.0003
1S oath See 4.1247 7.1247 o o
Bieter... 3. IT .QIO1 1.9105 0.0004 0.0209
LLb.o.8 SURROS einen 0.5093 0.5093 fc) fo)
12 oe ako Bl One Ea 2.5559 2.5559 fo) oO
Cy ns oo eee 7.7426 7.7456 0.0030 0.0387
renee atone 1.85G1 1.8613 0.0022 0.1183
Ge cma Heaehrios 0.6608 0.6619 0.0011 0. 1664
ORAS cme ears aye 2.5646 2.5649 0.0003 0.0117
334 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
As indicated in these tables there are some rather peculiar
phenomena, some of which are not easy to explain. Experiment I. a.
was simply a continuation of I, as the specimens were weighed and
returned to the jars without being cleaned of the accumulated rust.
The same is true of II. a.
In both cases where the specimens were put in, well-cleaned of rust,
those in the atmosphere under the influence of sea-water had made the
largest proportional increase in weight, showing that the sea-water
affected the atmosphere, which in turn caused an addition in weight of
the iron due to oxidation. In jar No. 2, in which was the salt solution,
there was found a greater percentage increase than in that of the
distilled water. This, it was expected, would show that salt and water
would always produce an increase in weight over that of the distilled
water, and that the substances in solution had to do with the increased
accumulation of rust, but in all the subsequent weighings this was
reversed,—that of the salt and water showing little or no increase in
weight. This seemed to upset any preconceived notions, or any
conclusions that might be drawn from the first experiment, but when
one takes into consideration other atmospheric conditions there is an
explanation which may be fairly reasonable. This peculiar phenomenon,
as was mentioned before, was associated with the difference in
atmospheric humidity in the room where the experiments were
performed. Almost all through the course of the first experiment the
humidity was from seventy to eighty, and temperature fifty-five to sixty
degrees F., while during all the other experiments it was at thirty-five
to forty and temperature sixty-five to seventy. At first, when the
humidity was about seventy-five, the jars remained moist for about
twenty to twenty-four hours, whereas in the later experiments the
moisture disappeared in five to six hours in jars two and three.
At first it was thought sodium chloride and other salts mzght pass
into the air, but these experiments point rather to another conclusion,
namely, that the salts affected the formation of iron oxide, only where it
contributed to the atmospheric humidity, and that sodium chloride
actually protected the iron from rust by absorbing water vapour from
the air and thus reducing still further its humidity. The reason why
the sea-water salts did not produce the same effect as the common salt
solution was because of its extraordinary hygroscopic properties
maintaining an atmosphere with more moisture than would be the case
with a sodium chloride solution. It should be mentioned that during
the latter part of the experiment the inside of jar No. 2 was covered
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES, 335
with salt crystals, due to the residue of solution sprayed upon the inside;
and there had been placed inside the jar at the commencement of the
experiment a watch glass containing dry salt. Besides this, the salt
from the solution in the crystallizing dish had crept up round the margin
of the dish, and there had collected in considerable quantity, but only
on the half of the margin on the side towards the source of light. No
attempt is made to explain this last mentioned phenomenon. The
greater increase per cent. of one sample of iron in jar three as compared
with the same in jar one in experiments I. a. and II. a. is due to the
fact that the specimen in jar one had been fairly well coated with rust
from experiments I. and II.; and so the iron having the smallest
amount of rust upon it at the commencement of the experiments I. a.
and II. a., made, as might be expected, the greatest gain in the suc-
ceeding experiments.
From these experiments we might conclude :—
(1) That sea-water causes the atmosphere to produce rust upon iron
to a greater extent than does fresh water.
(2) That the presence of salt (NaCl) causes an accumulation of rust
upon iron when the humidity is high—about seventy to eighty—but
when the humidity is low—about thirty-five to forty-five—it prevents
rust formation.
(3) That sea-water affecting the atmosphere in maritime localities
may also affect vegetation.
The only investigations of importance relating to the question of
chlorides in the atmosphere were carried on at Rothampstead, England,
by Lawes and Gilbert (1883), and by Dr. Frankland (1881). Their
determinations were made by analyzing the water from rain-falls, and,
in the case of Lawes and Gilbert, the experiments extended over a
period of six years, 1877-83. The results obtained by these men did
not fall into any very regular series and several points were left by them
unexplained. Quoting from Lawes and Gilbert :—“In the account
given in the earlier results of this investigation it was pointed out that
the winter rain-fall was far richer in chlorine than the summer rain-fall ;
we are now able to take a step further, and show the general character
with respect to chlorine of each month of the year. The minimum
amount of chlorine occurs in the rain of July. In August and September
there is a distinct but not a very large increase in quantity. In October
336 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
and November a great rise occurs, the quantity of chlorine contained in
the air being three times as large as during the preceding months.
After the period of maximum there is a fall, but the chlorine remains
high throughout the winter months, the diminution towards the summer
period not commencing till April. The rain of March has yielded the
highest proportion of chlorine per million of water, but this is partially
due to the small rain-fall of this month. Rather more than two-thirds
of the annual supply of chlorine is contributed by the winter months.”
And they say further in explanation:—“It would appear that in
summer the supply of chlorine is very limited, for a large increase in the
rain-fall is attended with but little rise in the quantity of chlorine
brought down per acre. In winter, on the other hand, the supply of
chlorides in the atmosphere is so constantly renewed, that an increased
rain-fall results in a considerable addition to the supply per acre. The
rather wide irregularities in the composition of the groups of rain-fall
for the whole year, are principally due to the different proportion of
summer and winter months which enters into the various groups.
“ The large excess of chlorides found in winter rain is probably due
in a great measure to the chlorides volatilized during the combustion of
fuel ; the excess in question is too uniform to be dependent~chiefly on
the action of strong winds blowing from the sea ; it is also remarked in
calm months as well as in stormy weather. Exceptionally high results
are, however, probably due to storms. When we turn to the nice
gradations observed among the winter months, it is difficult not to
believe that the temperature of the air has some influence on the results.
In the more rarified atmosphere of summer, gaseous diffusion will
probably be more active, while the power of transporting minute solid
particles will be diminished.
“It is difficult to ascertain the influence which the direction of the
wind has had on the composition of a monthly rain-fall; a partial study
has been made of the data at our disposal, but with no definite result.”
From this it would seem that no satisfactory explanation was then
known for the small amount of chlorides in the air in summer in
comparison with the winter months, and if we except the volatilizing of
sodium chloride by combustion, and the spray of the sea, there is no
explanation given for the chlorides being in the air at all. Both of
these, however, do not account for it; but from the light of the
experiments of Lawes and Gilbert, and of those described in this paper,
the conclusion is suggested that the leaves of plants may absorb sodium
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 337
chloride in solution from the atmosphere, resulting in a decrease in the
amount during summer. If it were not for plants, therefore, there
would be a greater amount in the atmosphere in the summer than in
the winter; and when vegetation is checked in October and November,
and leaves have fallen, one would expect the largest amount when the
temperature was still comparatively high and the leaves incapable of
absorbing much of the chlorides. This is, however, only a suggestion.
In Griffon’s researches (1899) it is shown that leaves of plants in the
vicinity of the sea differ in assimilating power from those of the same
species inland. He shows that for a given unit of area of leaf surface
there is less assimilation in the leaf of a plant grown near the sea than
of one inland. Whether this is due to salts in the soil or to salts in the
air Griffon does not say. This may in part be due to salt water in the
soil, but possibly not wholly so, as the chief differences are to be found
in the leaf rather than in other parts of the plant.
In the work of Smith (1872), there are many and extensive
collections of tabulated results of analyses of rain-water in northern
Europe. The principal analyses were made of the rain-fall of England
and Scotland, and minute details are given. He shows that chlorides
and sulphates, as well as many other substances, are found in the air,
and states that the amount of chlorides depends upon two things :—(1)
the proximity to the sea; (2) the combustion of fuel in factories. He
concludes, however, that the presence of chlorides was not wholly due
to spray, for he says :—“ The common salt from the sea is not spray, or
at least not spray purely; if it were so there would be the relative
amount of sulphates to chlorides which we find in sea-water.” It has
been observed that salt is often found on windows far from the sea
when a violent wind is blowing. Now the question naturally arises,
did the salt reach the glass as an aqueous solution (in small drops) or as
dry particles? If it were carried in the form of small drops that would
be simply as rain or mist ; but such, however, is not the case as there is
neither rain nor mist, but simply a strong wind blowing from the sea.
If it were in the form of dry particles one would scarcely expect it to
stick to the dry pane of glass. How then was the salt conveyed from
the sea? It was this question that the writer attempted to answer by
the experiments described at the beginning of this chapter. Though
some rather important phenomena were developed in the course of the
experiments, yet little light was thrown upon the above mentioned
question. That chlorides and sulphates and other inorganic salts are in
the air in rather considerable and constant quantities is what mainly
concerns us here.
338 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.. VII.
Smith gives :—
London, 1869, chlorides 1.2 grams; sulphates 16.45 grams per million.
Glasgow, Oe 6 8.97 sé cs 70.19 6 (73 “c
Ad. Bobierre (Smith, 1872), gives :—
Nantes, ammonia 1.997 grams per cubic meter.
salt 13-9 a oe s
M. Bobinet (Smith, 1872), gives :—
Paris, calcium sulphate 20 grams per million.
According to Smith the sulphates found in the air are alkaline
sulphates, and these sulphates are largely the product of organic
decomposition. On acomplete analysis he found that a hectare of land
at Caen received in rain-fall in one year :—
INE Ol hgn sede Goon nee. qbedoo) oobeos 37-5 kilograms
FGI re eters sietelerols seer sue eee ere eine ake 2 s
WilsiCiln S450 cade nocooD Nobo Odde FednO6 ZAI os
CAC iettoc ecient ner 1.8 os
Nas SO) eee cdeemtionme ee, aareene 8.4 se
CASO S a6" Aig 10.0.0 5s tayste sy sasusiotsielerere eisai 8.0 Me
Mis SQired tee ecincc cemockacter actin rten: 6.2 ES
CaS Olsen lerstet siete rielstoreneenae 5-9 oe
and besides these he found ammonium salts, iron oxide, and oxide of
manganese and nitric acid.
From this it may be seen that rain-water is an excellent nutrient
solution in a very dilute form and it is extremely probable that some of
the food substances of the plant are obtained directly from this source.
One important conclusion may be drawn from the experiments
described in this chapter. Since growth of plants is dependent for
energy upon destructive metabolism, and since destructive metabolism
is (for aerobic plants) dependent upon the absorption of free oxygen
(Vines, p. 332), it follows that because oxidation of iron is hastened in
an atmosphere under the influence of sea-water, growth may be hastened
by a similar chemical process. What applies to the destructive
metabolism of plants applies in a large measure to the same process in
animal life.
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 339
X.—ON THE EFFECTS OF WATER AND NUTRIENT SOLUTIONS
UPON DEVELOPING BUDS OF WILLOW TWIGS.
In order to investigate in some detail the question as to whether
nutrient solutions affected the budding and the general commencement
of growth of twigs of a plant belonging to the genus Salix, and as to
the manner in which they affected growth, a series of experiments was
performed during the months of March and April, 1900. Apparatus
was arranged as indicated in Fig. 16.* The twigs were taken at a
season of the year best suited to the purpose, the internal conditions of
the plant being then of such a nature as to produce immediate active
growth if subjected to right conditions of temperature and of moisture.
The twigs were, as nearly as may be, of uniform size and quality. As
will be referred to, a comparison was also made between the effects of
distilled water and of tap water upon the development of roots and
buds. Willow twigs, being of such a hardy nature, and having the
capability of sending forth adventitious buds and roots, even under
rather unfavourable circumstances, and each small part of the twig
being in itself, so to speak, the embryo of a new plant, they lend
themselves readily to experiments designed for various ends. The main
purpose of the experiments here described was to find out whether the
bud, as it is developing, absorbs water or solutions, and whether it is
affected by the liquid in which it is immersed. This is the main point.
The other results recorded are subordinate to this, so far as this paper is
concerned, and will consequently receive less attention, but they may
not be subordinate from the standpoint of scientific interest.
Three twigs were placed as in Fig. 16, A B, with both ends in
liquid, the first, (a), with both ends in distilled water, the second, (b),
with distilled water in the lower vessel and a nutrient solution in the
upper, the third, (c), with nutrient solution in the lower and distilled
water in the upper vessel. Each twig had two undeveloped buds in
each jar of liquid, and several others outside the jars. The lower jar in
each case was wrapped with dark paper to exclude most of the light.
The upper jars were of transparent glass and had no wrapper. The
twigs were all inserted alike in having the top, or smaller end, upper-
most. The upper and the lower liquids were renewed from time to
time as occasion required ; and in the case of (b), there was a complete
* These diagrams are for the purpose of illustrating accurately the whole conditions under which the
experiments were conducted.
340 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
change necessary occasionally, owing to the very rapid growth of algae
in the solution, which, if not removed, might in a short time become a
hot-bed of bacteria injurious to the young buds upon the twig.
Observations were made and results recorded upon five different
times during the course of the experiment which lasted over a period of
forty-three days. :
On March roth, five days after the apparatus was set up, it was
found that upon (a) there were growing buds between the two vessels
FIG. 16,
G and H contain water or solution as required. A, C, E, bottles with bottoms removed and upturned
to hold liquid, cork being made so as to prevent liquid from running out. K, is a large ‘‘ T” tube filled
with water through which a twig passes.
but none in either liquid. Twig (b) had one growing bud zz the upper
liquid but no others growing. Twig (c) had none at all.
On March 26th, twig (a) had no growing buds in the upper liquid
but had very healthy buds between the jars; twig (b) had growing
buds between the jars and the two in the upper solution were also
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 341
growing ; (c) had growing buds between the jars but none in the upper
liquid.
On April 8th, (a) had no buds in the upper liquid while (b) and (c)
had, =
On April 23rd, twig (a) had roots in the upper liquid but no growing
buds ; (b) had leaves between the jars, the lower ones especially drying
up; those in the upper liquid were living and fresh ; (c) had roots in
the upper liquid, and one of the buds was developing, seemingly at the
expense of the other.
April 26th, (a), roots but no buds developed in the upper liquid ;
(b), no roots developed in the upper liquid but the leaves were
flourishing ; (c) had roots and one green branch in the upper liquid.
On April 26th, all were taken from the liquids and the root systems
compared. It was found that no buds developed in the solution in the
lower jar; the roots of (a) were the most healthy looking and the most
flourishing in every way ; (b) was second, and (c) was much the poorest
in development and had a miserable looking root system in comparison
with the other two.
From these experiments we may conclude, (1) that a nutrient
solution, such as that used here (in comparison with pure or tap water),
does not favour the development of a healthy root system of this plant-
It would not be safe, perhaps, to make this conclusion upon two or
three experiments alone, but in every case of similar and of different
experiments there was no exception to this. On young roots, water, in
every case, seemed more favourable to the development of a healthy and
extensive root system. (2) Leaves can live and develop in water and
in a nutrient solution. (3) The development of roots and leaves is not,
as is often stated, confined to the poles,—the one system at the one pole,
the other at the other,—certain conditions of moisture supply having an
important bearing upon their development. An important point to
note, and one which will be discussed later, is that the nutrient solution
in some way or other affected injuriously, after a time, the leaves on the
plant, other than those immersed in it, and that the solution (as in b)
affected the root system. This point is the stronger when compared
with other similar experiments.
Coincident in time with the experiment just described was one set
up as shown in Fig. 16, CD, in which we have (d) with distilled water in
both the upper and the lower vessels; (e) with distilled water in the
8 2
342 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
lower vessel and nutrient solution in the upper (two buds in the liquids
in each case).
March 19th, we found small buds developed, (a//) above the upper
liquid in (d); in (e) no buds developed yet.
March 26th, (d), all the buds above the upper liquid were developed,
(e) small buds developed in the upper solution which was somewhat
green owing to a growth of algae which seemed to thrive vigorously in
the solution used.
April 8th, (d), both buds developing in the upper solution and some
above but none below; (e) both buds in the upper solution growing,
several above and one below were growing.
April 23rd, (d), leaves all living above the upper solution; (e),
leaves all dried above the upper solution and below it, but not in the
upper liquid.
The one important difference between this experiment and the
preceding one is that there was no development of roots in the upper
liquid, and almost no development of leaves between the jars where
there was a vigorous growth of leaves in Series I.
At the conclusion of the experiment, upon examining the root
systems of the twigs, it was found that (d) had a healthier root system
than (e). This must have been due to the difference of conditions,
which were, that there was a nutrient solution in the upper jar in the
one case, and water in the other, the nutrient solution above, having
apparently entered through the buds and penetrated as far as the roots.
Seriés III. was arranged on the same date as the others, and
according to the plan shown in Fig. 16, 5; (f) was in a nutrient
solution ; (g) in distilled water; and (h) in tap water. (Two buds in
each liquid, and several others besides).
March roth, the roots of (f) were most numerous but short, and the
buds of all three twigs were commencing to develop; little if any
difference between (g) and (h). .
April 8th, the tips of the buds of (f) were dead, while the buds of the
others were living.
April 23rd, the leaves of (f ) were all withered and the twig appeared
dead. Both the others were living. The root systems were compared
and it was found that the roots of (f) were rather numerous but stunted
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 343
and of a yellowish brown colour, while those of the others were long,
whitish and-healthy-looking. When these results are correlated with
those of the preceding it is found that, in a measure at least, they
confirm certain conclusions previously stated.
Series IV., shown in Fig. 16, 4, was set up at the same time as the
others and consisted of three jars with twigs as shown in the diagram,
having in the jar in (i) tap water, and having the “ butt” end of the twig
in the jar. In (j) there was distilled water in the jar but the twig was
placed with the “top” end in the water. In (k) the “butt” end was in
the solution, (nutrient).
March roth, (i) had five healthy roots (one of which was about an
inch long), growing equally from all sides of the twig and nearly
perpendicularly to its axis. Twig (j) had sent out four short roots and
(k) two roots, one of which was about three mm. long.
April 8th (1) seemed to be thriving excellently both as to roots and
buds. Twig (j) had a very poor growth; (k) had a few roots in the
liquid but they were short and the tips were darkened ; a couple of buds
were developing near the tip of the twig.
April 23rd, (i) flourishing nicely ; (j) not dead but exceedingly slow
in growth both as to roots and buds; (k) buds become darkened and
seemed to be drying up, the roots were discoloured and of a stunted
growth. We note the difference in growth between (i) and (j) when
moisture and polarity are contending forces ; also the effect again of the
nutrient solution upon the growth of both the roots and the buds.
Series V., Fig. 16, 1, in the diagram shows the arrangement of the
apparatus. Two sets were arranged—(1l) and (m), all the jars being
wrapped about with black paper and no observations were made of the
ends of the twigs until the close of the experiment on April 23rd. In
(1) there was distilled water in both jars; in (m) nutrient solution in
both jars. Before the close of the experiment it was observed that both
twigs had considerable growth, but that in the case of (m) the leaves
had a tendency to curl and ‘to turn black, wilt and die, though the plant
was certainly living at the close of the experiment. Upon examining
the ends of the twigs on April 23rd it was found that (1) had many
roots at the butt of the twig, some of them 75 to 100 mm. in length,
that it had ten roots at the “top” and one green bud. Two of the
roots at the “top” were each 60 mm. long. The roots at the “ butt”
of (m) were short and stunted, none being over 25 mm. long. The
tips of these roots were brown in colour. It had developed two roots
344 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vox, VII.
at the “top,” and also one bud. These roots, strange to say, were
longer than those in the jar at the “ butt” of the twig.
To test if water might enter through the bark, an experiment was
arranged as shown in Fig. 16, 6, and left from March 14th to April 23rd
(forty days). One internode of the twig was kept in water, while both
adjacent nodes and the free ends were in the air. Absolutely no growth
occurred and the twig dried and shrivelled up at both ends. The
middle which was constantly in water shrivelled up considerably.
From all these sets of experiments, varied as they are, some rather
important general conclusions may fairly be drawn. The nutrient
solution when applied to developing buds of the willow seemed to affect
the development of the roots of the twig in the same way as when
applied to the place of origin of the roots. It also affected developing
buds, other than those immersed in it in the same way as they were
affected when the roots were in the liquid. All these results point
towards absorption of the liquid by the developing bud. .
Water was in all cases more favourable to growth than was the
nutrient solution; and distilled water was more favourable than tap
water.
XI.—SUMMARY OF RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS.
Wilted leaves, whether detached from the plant or not, will absorb
water, if immersed, or if water be applied to the surface in the form of a
spray. Weighing a leaf or a branch-to estimate the amount of water
absorbed, will be deceptive, because a certain amount of substance is
extracted by the water; and unless this substance be taken into
consideration in the weighing, a loss instead of a gain say result, and
yet an absorption of a considerable amount may have taken place.
Special parts of leaves of certain plants seem to be adapted to the
purpose of absorption as shown by the surface of the epidermal cells
over the veins, at the base of the trichomes, and in other regions.
Trichomes in sotne cases are particularly susceptible to the action of
water and of solutions applied to them. Striations and hairs or
trichomes aid exceedingly in spreading liquids over the regions which
seem to be adapted to absorption; and trichomes prevent a rapid
evaporation of the liquid so spread, by retaining air. Absorption of
water may take place also through the surface of the petiole.
*
Guttation drops and dew-drops contain substances in solution which
1900-1. | EFFECTS OF WATER ON FOLIAGE LEAVES. 345
are generally resorbed by the plant. Carbonates as incrustations may
serve to store up, in the presence of moisture, CO, at night, and utilize
the same as the bicarbonate is reduced to the carbonate in the day time.
Incrustations may be, therefore, not only an adaptation to retain water
in desert countries, but also to utilize to the full the loss of CO, caused
by respiration. CaCO, though insoluble in water, may be absorbed if
water and CO, be present.
Distilled water becomes alkaline, generally, if allowed to remain
upon leaves of plants for a shorter or longer period of time.
*
Certain plants adapted to a moist climate may be made to take in
all the food necessary for growth through the leaves. Distilled water
used as a spray acts for a time as a stimulus to growth. It may be that
it acts as a means of drawing from the plant surplus alkaline salts
which, if formed in too large quantity in the cells, might become harmful.
Calcium and sodium compounds, and also potassium oxalate have been
extracted from leaves by distilled water. Rain water may act as a
stimulus in this way.
Solutions if applied to the surfaces of detached leaves, or to leaves
upon the plant are generally absorbed as shown by the increased content
of ash. Solutions, so applied, often stimulate a certain portion of the
tissue to an abnormal development. The ring produced upon a leaf by
the application of a drop of solution, is the result of the peculiar action
of the evaporating drop.
Solutions applied to the cut ends of the petioles of leaves are
generally conveyed to the minute terminations of the tracheids, where
they kill the tissue in one of two ways:—(1) by drawing water
osmotically from the cells into the intercellular spaces, producing a
translucent appearance of the tissue ; (2) by chemical action,—upon the
walls of the cells, (b) upon the protoplasmic membrane, (c) upon the
protoplasm as a whole. The first determinable reaction after death is
alkaline, even though the tissue be killed by an acid. Some leaves will
remain green and fresh longer in a dilute solution of the poison lead
acetate, than they will in either distilled or tap water. This applies
to leaves which ordinarily wilt away in water in a fortnight or so.
Certain substances in solution ascend through the blade of a leaf, at
rates which vary as the lengths of the different veins of this leaf, and the
area of the part affected is symmetrical to the area of the whole leaf.
The lithium test gives rise to error because the water ascends faster
346 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. | VoL. VII.
than the lithium, and because the rate of ascent in the same leaf, varies
as the length of the vein.
A detached leaf is a living thing which may continue its functions,
to some extent, for several months after being detached from the plant.
The food required by woody branches of Salix in the early growth
of spring is water. A nutrient solution at this stage proved harmful.
Water and nutrient solutions are not absorbed through the bark but
affect the developing bud and young leaves in a manner which seems to
indicate absorption through the buds.
Since sea-water affects the atmosphere in such a way as to produce
an accumulation of rust upon iron, greater than that produced in an
atmosphere under the influence of pure water, it is reasonable to conclude
that the atmosphere in the neighbourhood of the sea may affect plants,
because physiological processes are associated, in large measure, with
chemical processes.
The best thanks of the writer are due to Professor Goodale for
opportunity and much kindly assistance and encouragement in regard to
this paper, to Professor Sharples for material and help in the work on
the “spotting” of the Tobacco leaf, and to Mr. Robert Cameron, foreman
of the Botanic Gardens, for material cheerfully furnished at all seasons.
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1901-2. | THE WINDWARD ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIES. 351
THE WINDWARD ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIES.
BY; Wo SPENCER, M.A.-PE Dy IeG:S:
(Read 2nd November, 1907 ).
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION, AND How TO REACH THE ISLANDS,
SOMBRERO.
St. MARTIN ARCHIPELAGO :—StT. MARTIN, ANGUILLA, ST. BARTHOLOMEW.
THE St. Kitt’s CHAIN, MONTSERRAT AND THE SABA BANKS.
ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA.
THE GUADELOUPE ARCHIPELAGO.
DomMINICa.
MARTINIQUE, ST. Lucia, ST. VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES.
TRINIDAD.
BARBADOS.
GENERAL CHANGES OF LEVEL OF LAND AND SEA.
INTRODUCTION AND How TO REACH THE ISLANDS.
THE West Indies have had a long and thrilling history, includ-
ing even the small Windward Islands, that separate the Caribbean
Sea from the Atlantic Ocean. These lesser Antilles were formerly a
source of great commercial wealth. They have been the birth place of
many distinguished families, and the scenes of actions of world-wide
importance. But most of these things and their literature are more
than half a century old. The small amount of scattered knowledge
concerning their physical features scarcely amounted to more than a
statement that they were volcanic islands or coral rocks. It was even
most difficult to get information as to the facilities of travelling about
among the islands, especially the smaller ones. Although some
popular books of travel have been written, the best account of the
features of the islands is that of Elisée Reclus.* But the different
islands have varied and most interesting geological and geographical
phenomena. It was for the study of these that I visited the Windward
Chain in 1896-97 ; for previously, I had discovered in the West Indian
region the evidence of the great changes of level of land and sea in late
* “ The Earth and Its Inhabitants.” Vol. II., pp. 431-486. (Appletons, 1893).
352 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
geological times, which was published several years ago.* The
results of my investigations of the geology of the Windward Islands
have only in part been completed, and that portion has* recently
been published by the Geological Society of London.t The final
studies have not yet been made. The object of the present paper
3 St¥incent Barbados
.Arcona Breakers :
J. GRENADINES
PSP rapes iene! Peace :
bs ® Vas Bicenadn
deAvee as <o Orca 2 {Loe Hermanos
gif ons nS x 4
Map of the Windward Chain of Islands.
is to describe the physical geography of the region and the changes
it has undergone.
* “ Terrestrial Submergence Southeast of the American Continent.” Abs. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. Vol.
V. (1893), pp. 19-22, with map. ‘
**Reconstruction of the Antillean Continent.” Ib. Vol. VI. (1894), pp. 103-140.
“Geographical Evolution of Cuba.” Ib. Vol. VII. (1895), pp. 67-94.
‘“Great Changes of Level in Mexico and Interoceanic Connections.” Ib. Vol. IX. (1897), pp. 13-34.
**Late Formations and Great Changes of Leyel in Jamaica,” and ‘* Resemblances between the Declivities
of High Plateaus and those of Submarine Antillean Valleys.” Trans, Canadian Institute, Toronto. Vol. V.
(1898), pp. 324-357 and 358-368,
t “On the Geological and Physical Development of Antigua.” Quar. Jour, Geol. Soc., Lond. Vol. LVII.
(1891), pp. 490-505.
“On the Geological and Physical Development of Guadeloupe.’ Ib., pp. 506-519.
“On the Geological and Physical Development of Anguilla, St. Martin, St. Bartholomew and Sombrero.”
Ib., pp. 520-533.
**On the Geological and Physical Development of the St. Christopher Chain and Saba Banks.” Ib., pp.
533> 544-
“On the Geological and Physical Development of Dominica, with Notes on Martinique, St. Lucia, St.
Vincent and the Grenadines.” In preparation.
“On the Geological and Physical Development of Barbados, with Notes on Trinidad.” In preparation.
1901-2. | THE WINDWARD ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIEs, 353
A few words may be said as to the means of reaching the different
islands. From New York the ships of the Quebec Steamship
Company leave on irregular dates, but averaging three or four sailings a
month, sometimes first touching at St. Croix, next at St. Christopher
(universally ‘called St. Kitts) and then sail onward to the south. On
other voyages the ship calls first at St. Martin, and then proceeds
as before. Again St. Kitts may be the first stop. While most of the
larger of the more southern islands are visited on each trip, this is by
no means so certain as on the north bound voyages. After touching at
St. Lucia, or St. Vincent, the steamers proceed to Barbados and often
to Demerara, and some of the tourist steamers in winter, to Trinidad.
Another line sails for Grenada and Trinidad direct. The Pickford and
Black Line, from Halifax, sails regularly every four weeks for Bermuda,
St. Kitts, and on to Trinidad. Local steamers of the Royal Mail Line
sail regularly once a fortnight between the larger islands. There are
other occasional steamers by which passage between the islands can be
made. But to the smaller islands, one must depend upon small
schooners or sloops of perhaps only ten tons capacity, which may
usually be found sailing weekly from the larger islands, for carrying the
mail, etc. Thus there is a weekly sloop from St. Kitts to St. Martin,
Anguilla and Sombrero; from St. Martin to Guadeloupe; from St.
Croix to St. Thomas and the Virgin Islands, etc. To and from Barbados
and Martinique there are fortnightly steamers to England and Franée,
and other steamers to the South American ports and Colon, as also to
Jamaica. The Quebec Line and the Pickford and Black steamers
sailing among the islands usually travel at night, so that the tourist can
go ashore for the day and get a glimpse of these most beautiful tropical
lands. The coasting vovages of the Royal Mail Line give no oppor-
tunities for seeing the islands, as they make brief calls, day or night, and
then proceed onward.
SOMBRERO.
Sombrero is a lonely sentinel away out in the Atlantic, at the
northern end of the Windward Chain, being situated forty miles beyond
Anguilla. It is less than a mile long, with a breadth of a quarter its
length. Its flat top is pitted by former workings for phosphate of lime.
It is about thirty feet above the sea, with vertical walls, so that landing
at the foot of a ladder is difficult. It is composed of a coral-bearing
soft white limestone, found to be of early Pleistocene age. Pockets on
the surface have been converted into phosphate of lime by birds.
which, during some portion of the Pleistocene period, made it their
354 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
home. There is not a tree on the island. The great lighthouse of this
region is here, and six men are in attendance upon it. Tt sma
dependency of St. Kitts, a sloop from which visits the island weekly
(see map, Plate A, appended).
THE ST. MARTIN ARCHIPELAGO.
St. Martin, St. Bartholomew and Anguilla rise out of the same
banks which are submerged from 100 to 200 feet. The whole forms a
physical unit, being an isolated remnant of the dissected and submerged
Antillean plateau. The margins of the plateau are further indented by
deep valleys, heading in amphitheatres, as shown west of Anguilla and
St. Martin, and south of St. Bartholomew, where the incisions on the
two sides of the drowned tableland have united into a channel across it.
These features are shown on the map (Plate A, appended). This mass
rises prominently above the broad channel, 2,500 feet in depth,
separating it from the Saba banks, but from its eastern side the descent
to the Atlantic abyss is not known to be interrupted by other features.
St. Martin (see map, Plate A, appended) is mostly composed
of mountain ridges (the highest point of 1,360 feet may be seen
in figure 1, Plate I.) and valleys which broaden out rapidly, from
the cul de sac of each, and terminate in bays, in front of which
there are often beaches, such as that shown in the illustration, where
the Dutch town of Philipsburg is built. These valleys are formed
by the rapid erosion of high lands due to the tropical storms, one of
which I witnessed, when eight inches of water fell in three hours.
Such rainfalls in the dry season are due to the mountains, even low
ones, condensing the moisture out of northeastern trade winds, while
neighbouring flat islands, like Anguilla, have a great scarcity of rain.
On the western side of St. Martin, Simpson’s Inlet is a beautiful bay or
lagoon, enclosed by ridges connected by sand beaches. Only an incon-
siderable portion of St. Martin could be considered a coastal plain.
The mountains are composed of the old West Indian igneous
foundation, probably, in part, older than the Tertiary era, though
perhaps, in part, belonging to the earlier Eocene days. There are also
volcanic tuffs, and a formation of grey limestone which is composed of
calcareous layers intercalated with tufaceous beds, but the calcareous
strata are more or less silicified into chert. Such are well seen along the
shore, as at Pelican Point, illustrated in figure 2, Plate I., where also
boulders three or four feet in length, more or less rounded by the
1901-2. | THE WINDWARD ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIES. 1355
waves, may be seen. The silicified formation contains manganese which
has been economically worked, and also iron ore. Similar igneo-
calcareous formations have been found in St. Bartholomew to belong to
the Eocene period, from the fossils which Cleve* obtained in the
calcareous layers. Remnants of the white limestone, or the Antigua
formation, (of the Oligocene period) occur about Simpson’s bay, and
in the French portion of the island.
Tintamarre, an off-lying island, rising to a height of ninety feet above
the sea, is a remnant of the former coastal plain of St. Martin. It is
composed of two calcareous formations, both of white limestone, but the
strata of the lower are more or less upturned, and contain Oligocene
fossils ; the upper, substantially horizontal, contains an old Pleistocene
fauna.
Anguilla (see map, Plate A, appended) is a low-lying island,
separated by a strait of four miles in width from St. Martin, of
which it was a former coastal plain. Its highest point, near the
northern cliffs which are being encroached upon by the sea, rise
to only 213 feet in height. At points the old igneous foundation
may be seen near waterlevel, beneath the white limestones. The
disturbed lower beds contain an Oligocene fauna, and the upper
horizontal beds hold Pleistocene fossils. It is often difficult to
distinguish these formations apart, although separated by such a long
geological gap. This island is also interesting from the occurrence of
Pleistocene bones discovered by Mr. Wager Ray, and found by Prof.
Ed. Cope to be those of Amblyrhiza,—rodents, as large as a Virginia
deer, whose ancestors had ‘migrated from South America in the
Pleistocene period, when there was a continuous land connection with
that continent.
Gravel formations have been found in these islands belonging to
later days of the Pleistocene period. Coral reefs are now flourishing,
especially off the coast of Anguilla, but they are not raised above the
sea level.
The roads of the flat island of Anguilla are well made, as also those
of St. Martin, which, however, have to pass over several high hills. St.
Martin is politically divided between Holland and France. St. Barthol-
omew is French. Both French colonies are dependencies of Guade-
loupe, and both are free ports. Anguilla is an English dependency of
*On the Geology of the Northeastern West India Islands,” by P. T. Cleve. Trans. Roy. Swedish
Acad. Sc., IX., No. 12, p. 26.
356 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
St. Kitts. From St. Kitts there is a weekly schooner to St. Martin,
Anguilla and Sombrero, from St. Martin a fortnightly schooner to St.
Bartholomew and Guadeloupe; from St. Martin to Saba and Curacao
sails a monthly schooner. At St. Martin the Quebec Steamship Line
calls about once a month on the outward passage from New York.
Anguilla has practically no exports and is a very poor island, the
negroes living on “ground” provisions (tubers), some fruits, etc. St.
Martin formerly produced sugar, but this industry has almost disap-
peared. Some cattle are raised for export, but the salt production is
now the principal source of wealth. The few thousand people of these
islands are almost entirely black or coloured, with only a few whites,
mostly the descendants of the planters of slave days. But many of the »
old families have disappeared. English is the language spoken in the
Dutch portion of St. Martin, but it is also generally understood on the
French side of the island and in St. Bartholomew, whose inhabitants are
largely of French origin. Before leaving this subject, I wish to express
my very high appreciation of the Honorable Diedric C. Van Romondt,
K.N.O., and formerly Governor, and his family, and to thank them for
the princely hospitality shown to Mrs. Spencer and myself, such as
characterized the palmy days of the West Indies. His charming
suburban home is in the beautiful valley of Cul de Sac, opposite
the highest point of the island, both of which may be seen in figure 1,
Riace le
THE ST. KITTS CHAIN, MONTSERRAT AND THE SABA BANKS.
Here we find three elevated remnants of the dissected Antillean
plateau rising up as tablelands to 3,000 feet or more above the floor of
the drowned valleys. But the channels separating them have a
depth of 15 to roo feet below the ‘surface off the )sea, Om
the St. Kitts remnant, St. Eustacia, St. Kitts itself and Nevis
rise as the mountainous back-bone of the region, with the Saba
banks, as a slightly submerged coastal plain, to the south. (See
map, Plate A, appended). Montserrat is a repetition of the central
mass. Saba is simply an extinct volcanic cone, rising precipitously
from the floor of the sunken Antillean ridge, but at the foot of
a submarine tableland now forming the Saba banks. Its height .
above the sea is 2,830 feet, with the water 2,250 feet or more in depth.
On the floor of an extinct crater, at the height of several hundred feet, is
perched the town of Bottom. It is a small Dutch settlement where the
inhabitants are engaged in boat building, or as mariners.
1901-2. | THE WINDWARD ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIES. 357
Saba banks have an area of 800 or 900 square miles, rising to within
100 or 150 feet of the surface of the sea. This is a fine example of a
submarine tableland not surmounted by any mountains. Its surface has
been levelled over by coral growths and sands derived from them. It is
the only conspicuous remnant of the coastal plains on the Caribbean
side of the mountainous back-bone of the Antillean ridge until the
Grenadines are reached. (See map, Plate A, appended).
Saba and Statia (the colloquial name of St. Eustatius), are both
within sight of St. Martin, and can occasionally be reached by sloop
from St. Martin and St. Kitts.
Statia, St. Kitts and Nevis are all situated on a narrow submerged
ridge. The north-western end of Statia and the south-eastern end
of St. Kitts are the remains of the old dissected and degraded mountains
composed of the ancient trappean foundation of all the Antillean islands
of the Windward chain, but the remaining portions of these two islands
and Nevis are surmounted by volcanic ridges, belonging to geological
days more recent than the early Pleistocene epoch, with the volcanic
activity continuing down so recently that some of the craters are still
preserved, such as that of Mount Misery (4,314 feet above the sea), with
one side removed to a depth of 600 feet. It is about a quarter of
a mile in diameter, with a lake partly filling the depression (according
to my friend, Dr. Christian Branch, who then resided in the island).
Statia has also a perfectly preserved crater, called the “Quill,”
rising to a height of 1,950 feet. (See view, figure 1, Plate II.). From
the central ridges, the surface slopes in the form of a g/acts, which is
deeply dissected by valleys, as shown in figure 2, Plate II. At only
one point on the north-eastern side of the island did I see any lava, and
that belonged to a Pleistocene eruption, but Dr. Branch informed me
that some black rock had been reported from near the summit of Mount
Misery. The soil is made up of volcanic ashes of great fertility, which
is constantly creeping down the slopes. At Basse Terre, St. Kitts, in
1880, a cloud burst upon Monkey hill, back of the town. (See figure
3, Plate II.). Over thirty inches of rain fell within three hours. The
floods from such storms carry ruin before them. Great, deep valleys
are rapidly excavated out of the loose, volcanic soil, while the material
removed from them settles upon the more level land, in this case filling
the streets and gardens with mud to several feet in depth. On the slop-
ing ground every structure is washed away by the sheets of water, and
people overtaken by them are whirled into the sea. Sometimes where the
bodies are caught by an obstruction, this impediment to the current
causes a deposition of mud, so that they may be quickly buried on the
9
358 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vor Mi
plains before reaching the sea. A similar flood, though not so severe,
yet drowning many people, occurred in Montserrat during my stay on
a neighbouring island. These floods give some idea of the very rapid
changes in the physical features of this tropical region. But in addi-
tion the Atlantic ocean is encroaching upon the eastern sides of all
the islands, owing to the waves being thus driven by the north-eastern
trade winds. Accordingly, almost all the ports are upon the leeward
sides of the islands. In St. Kitts, there are wild monkeys, but they
belong to an African species, and it is not known who imported
them.
Nevis is a nearly circular island radiating from a volcanic dome
which rises to an altitude of 3,596 feet. It is nearly always wrapped in
a cloud, like the summit of Mount Misery in St. Kitts. Its sloping
surfaces are similar to those of St. Kitts, of which it is now a political
dependency, though formerly the more important. In the seventeenth
century there were several thousand white settlers who were forced to
leave owing to the concentration of the lands into the hands of a few
owners. Now the whites are few and poor. Here was born Alexander
Hamilton, one of the fathers of the American republic. So also the wife .
of Lord Nelson, who, at his marriage here, was attended by Prince
William (afterwards King William IV.), as best man. The island is
separated from St. Kitts by a strait only a few miles wide, and very
shallow.
The old eruptive foundation of these islands belonged to the very
beginning of the Tertiary era, or to a little earlier geological time. Dur-
ing the Miocene, and until about the close of the Pliocene period,
this region was a land surface, and no formations were accumu-.
lated beneath the sea. But in the Pleistocene period a most interesting
phenomenon occurred. A volcanic upheaval raised Brimstone hill on
the flanks of St. Kitts to a height of about 700 feet, without having pro-
duced a crater. (See view, figure 1, Plate IV.). In the outburst, the
floor of the sea was thrust up so that a limestone veneer, about thirty
feet thick, covers the sides of the hill, which is about half a mile in
diameter, to a height of 400 feet, on which a strong fort was formerly
raised. The formation thus lifted up contains fossils which show that it
was formed at the close of the Pliocene or beginning of the Pleistocene
period. The same phenomenon was repeated twelve miles away in
Statia (see figure 1, Plate II.), but there the limestone mantle occurs to
a height of over 900 feet, and on the summit a well preserved crater was
formed.
1901-2. | THE WINDWARD ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIES. 359
Montserrat (see map, Plate B, appended), shows the old igneous
foundation, small remnants of the earlier Tertiary (Oligocene) limestone,
and the surface accumulations from two volcanic cones of apparently
the same age as those of the other inner islands of the Windward chain.
Most of the roads in these islands are well made. Very fine sugar
estates cover the slopes of St. Kitts and Nevis, but the industry is
paralyzed, and prevailing poverty has succeeded the luxuriant wealth of
a generation or less ago. In Montserrat, great quantities of lime juice
and citric acid are produced. The people are mostly negroes, with a
considerable number of Portuguese, descendants of labourers imported
some time ago into St. Kitts. The old English white families are dis-
appearing from different causes, the final being the intermarriage of
those in reduced circumstances with people of colour, that is to say, with
those whose blood is very slightly coloured. These in their turn become
commingled with others of darker shades, so that eventually you find
descendants of the most distinguished white families appearing like full-
blooded negroes, in spite of the very strong prejudice against the
mixing of the races, which socially ostracises the slightest trace of
African blood.
ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA.
These two islands (see map, Plate B,, appended) form another
distinct tableland, rising 2,000 feet or more above the floor of the
submerged Antillean plateau (see map, Plate B, appended). The island
of Antigua impressed itself upon me as a little continent, with all the
features necessary to complete one, and indeed this impression is not far
wrong, for here may be studied all the geological and physical history of
the dismembered and drowned tableland between North and South
America, except the phenomena of the later volcanic activity. It is the
starting point of investigation. Moreover, it is a fertile island and
suggests prosperity, until one looks beneath the surface and finds that
the prices paid for the sugar now are no more than the smallest pittance
required for sustaining slave labour. The south-west quarter of the
island is mountainous, the highest peak rising to 1,330 feet. This
district is broken up into narrow ridges, with the valleys rapidly
increasing in size, so that their lower reaches are broad flats extending
into the shallow bays, where corals grow in profusion. In these valleys
are small rivers, but over most of the other sections of the island the
drainage is underground without water courses. The central belt of the
island is a low depression, out of which rise several hills. The north-
eastern part is sothewhat higher and undulating. The mountain district
360 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
is characterized by the old Antillean igneous foundation dating back to
the beginning of the Tertiary era, or in part a little older. Even the
latest trace of volcanic activity does not appear to have been as late as
the Miocene period. The central portion of the island is underlaid by |
tuffs derived from the older volcanic remains, but contain some beds of
silicious limestone and others of fresh-water origin with silicified wood
and land shells. It belongs to the Eocene formation. The north-
eastern part of the island is composed of white limestone—the Antigua
formation belonging to the Oligocene period. But over this is a
mechanical limestone, composed of the broken débrzs of an older one,
dating back to the close of the Pliocene or beginning of the Pleistocene
epoch, and probably still another series of late origin composed of the
same material, but distinguished by unconformity and the contained
fossils. There is also a still newer formation of gravel belonging to a
later Pleistocene epoch.
Barbuda is a flat limestone island, with lagoons on the west. The
highest point rises to only 115 feet. It is the remains of the old
Antillean coastal plain extending seaward from the mountains of
Antigua.
The termination of the central plain in the harbour of St. John’s is
illustrated in figure 1, Plate III., where the cliffs of the eastern rolling
country are shown in the distance. Figure 2, Plate III., shows a
fragment of the dissected coastal plain at Hodges’ hill, which appears in
the background to the right.
The population and the present conditions of Antigua are similar to
those of St. Kitts. The roads are nearly always excellent. Being
generally low, the island is rather dry and is not subject to the same
rain-fall as the more mountainous islands. Dr. Christian Branch could
find no remains indicating the permanent occupation of Antigua by the
Caribs, who were numerous in all the other islands, and he attributes the
fact to the scarcity of water at certain seasons of the year.
THE GUADELOUPE ARCHIPELAGO.
This is another remnant of the dissected Antillean plateau, of which
the lower lands are now submerged. The summit of the ridge con-
necting it with Antigua is covered by about 2,000 feet of sea, but
both sides of it are indented by deep embayments (see map, Plate B,
appended). The tableland has been deeply dissected, so that being now
sunken there are deep channels between theislands. The archipelago is
1901-2. | THE WINDWARD ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIES. 361
underlaid bythe old igneous foundation common to the Windward group,
but on Guadeloupe proper this is surmounted by tuffs and by volcanic
accumulations, which have been ejected during the time extending from
the close of the Pliocene period to the present. There are several cones,
the highest of which is 4,863 feet. Several eruptions have been recorded
in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Grande Terre is a rolling
coastal plain, separated from the main island by a narrow strait, called
Salt River. Its general characteristics are those of the limestone
section of Antigua, being underlaid by white calcareous marl of the
Antigua formation, with the remains of a mantle of mechanical limestone
above, and also another calcareous formation belonging to the beginning
of the Pleistocene epoch, while on the mainland, as at Petit Bourg,
there is a mid-Pleistocene deposit of sand and gravel. Marie Galante
and Petite Terre are also limestone islands like Grande Terre, forming
part of the old coastal plains in front of the mountain section. The
Saintes are remnants of the old igneous basement. Remains of a small
elephant which emigrated from South America in the Pleistocene period
have been found in Guadeloupe.
The roads in this French island are good. A coasting steamer sails
round the island and to the dependencies. The main industry is sugar,
which is principally raised on Grande Terre. Fine coffee is also culti-
vated, as well as some cocoa and vanilla. The people are mostly
coloured, with a larger white population than in the English islands, but
the.coloured population is more unsatisfactory from our point of view,
and dislikes the intrusion of foreigners. And in their policy they have
done much to impair the prosperity of the island. In disembarking or
embarking at Basse Terre, the capital, one is liable not merely to the
imposition of the boatmen, but one’s life may be imperilled by them,
practically, without redress. So also one may be insulted, or even
assaulted, as was the case of even an American Consul. The successful
revolution in Haiti has left here a bad effect which has not disappeared.
But from the white people with whom I came in contact I received only
the greatest courtesy.
DOMINICA.
Here is a repetition of the mountainous part of Guadeloupe, trom
which it is separated by a depression about 2,000 feet below sea-level
(see map, Plate B, appended). It (see map, Plate C, appended) has no
coastal plains like Antigua and Guadeloupe, unless we so regard the
banks, some twenty miles to the south-eastward, as the remnant of the
362 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. MOEA VILE
Antillean tableland, now dissected and submerged. Again one finds the
old igneous basement, over the denuded surface of which are several
igneo-sedimentary deposits (of the older Tertiary era) surmounted by
the newer volcanic formations, which culminate in cones, one of which is
4,747 feet above the sea. The earliest eruptions occurred about the
commencement of the Pleistocene period, and the last in 1880. After
the renewal of volcanic activity, there was an early Pleistocene deposit
of coral rock, preceded and succeeded by gravel accumulations; all
except the last of these formations have been mostly removed by
denudation so that only fragments are now to be found, on the small
remnants of the coastal slopes, the best example being the Grand
Savanna, as shown in its relationship to the mountains in figure 2,
Plate [V. Some little flat land is found in the rapidly widened valleys,
such as that at the mouth of the Layou river (figure 3, Plate IV.).
Fragments of terraces in their natural condition are few, but one may be
seen at Roseau, on which the church is built, (illustrated in figure 1,
Plate V.). Back of the town is an erosion plain (Morne Bruce), at 400
feet above the sea, which was once a coastal feature. The correspond-
ing terrace, on the other side of the valley, shown in figure 2 (which is
almost a continuation of figure 1, and might be joined at letters A B),
may be seen sloping outward, owing to the local elevation of the
volcanic centres, and not to the regional rising of the land.
Dominica is the most beautiful of the islands. Portions of it have
never been cultivated, and in some of the valleys one may see a
tropical vegetation, among which are tree ferns of great size and loveli-
ness. The situation of the town of Roseau, the capital, at the mouth of
the Roseau valley, and in front of the terrace of Morne Bruce with the
sloping terraces on the other side of the valley, which is headed ina
high mountain (not seen in Figures 1 and 2 owing to cloud at the time
of photographing them), is unsurpassed in its graceful beauty, in spite
of the dilapidated appearance of the town. The valley itself becomes
enlarged, after passing above its mouth, which is, in fact, a canon or
gorge cut by the river since the recent elevation of the land. It is
shown in figure 3, Plate V., the view being taken from the summit of
Morne Bruce.
On account of the floods of the swollen mountain streams, the coast-
wise roads are badly cut up, and because of the almost impossible under-
taking of maintaining bridges, one is compelled to travel on horseback,
except for a few miles near Roseau. There are a few degenerated
descendants of the freedom-loving Caribs, who were so ruthlessly
1901-2. | THE WINDWARD ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIES. 363
destroyed alike by the Spanish, French and English during the early
bloody history of the West Indian region. As if by an irony of fate, the
islands have ceased to be of commercial value to the conquerors, and
their descendants have mostly disappeared, or sometimes have become lost
in the admixture with the. negroes, whom they imported to supplant the
natives on their own soil. The negroes here are mostly from French
settlements, and speak a jargon, almost unintelligible to the English
or French visitor. Hardly any industries flourish. A little sugar
is still cultivated, cocoa and limes are grown quite extensively. Mr.
Frampton has started the cultivation of the kola bean.
MARTINIQUE, ST. LUCIA, ST. VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES.
These islands (see maps, Plates C and D, appended) form a
continuation of the mountain chain of Guadeloupe and Dominica
and are composed of the same old igneous foundation and
overlying tuffs, and later gravel deposits, and probably of some
remnants of the old Pleistocene limestone (as in Guadeloupe
and Dominica), though I did not see them. The older basement
is more exposed than in the more northern islands, and the
old traps are decayed to considerable depths. In fact, as we go farther
south, the physical features assume more mature forms. Thus Mar-
tinique is deeply indented by the Bay of Fort Royal, and the hills to the
south of it are erosion features. But the northern part of the island is
surmounted by the more recent volcanic ridges and cones, the highest of
which rises to a height of 4,438 feet. Martinique is more or less flanked
with sloping surfaces (due in part to the sloping beds of tuffs underlying
them) as in St. Kitts (illustrated in figure 1, Plate VI.). Remains of
base level erosion benches may be seen as in figure 2, near St. Pierre.
Martinique is the most important of the French islands, but, unfor-
tunately, it is so often placed in quarantine, on account of yellow fever,
from which the other islands are generally free, that one is uncertain of
being able to visit it, for if even a single case of fever breaks out, the
traveller cannot leave, except by going on a French steamer bound for
France, or by chartering a sloop and lying at sea for sixteen days,
an experience which, for even a few days, one does not desire to have
repeated. On this account, although lying in front of the island we
did not land. This was the home of Josephine Beauharnais, afterward
the wife of Napoleon I.
St. Lucia (see map, Plate C, appended) is surmounted by a cone
rising to 4,000 feet. The igneous rocks, belonging to the ancient
364 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII.
basement of the island, are deeply eroded and also decayed. Here is
the best harbour among the islands, generally the only anchorage being
in the open roads. We also find here the only pier in the Windward
Islands, at which the ocean steamers can land, and this was built
on account of the great coaling station. There is also a fine botanical
garden at Port Castries, the capital. The slopes of the southern side of
the island are largely cultivated for sugar cane. As elsewhere, the
coloured population greatly predominates. The fer de lance, one of the
most poisonous of the snake family, is as common as in Martinique. On
the south-western coast, the Pitons rise on one side out of the sea (to
2,019 feet) as shown: in figure 3, Plate VI. . They are remains one
crater, partly blown away, partly carried off by the waves, and
denuded by torrential rains. Travellers frequently mention them.
St. Vincent (see map, Plate C, appended) repeats the features of St.
Lucia. The highest cone in the Soufriere mountains rises to an altitude
of 4,048 feet. Just south of it, the large crater is occupied by a lake at
an altitude of 1,930 feet, but the rim of the crater is from 3,000 to 3,600
feet above the sea. The volcanic eruption of 1812 sent the ashes to
Barbados, more than a hundred miles away, where the dust obscured the
sun for three days. Some of the valleys have a mature form, as that of
the very beautiful Buccament, illustrated in Plate VII. This, however,
was desolated by a hurricane about four years ago. The valley crosses
the island to the sea, so that a little submergence would separate the
hills, to the right in the picture, from the main portion by a strait.
This feature is constantly appearing among the Windward Islands.
There was a very fine and far-famed botanical garden before the
hurricane, which carried every tree-top away, blew every insect off the
land and covered the island with showers of fine earth.
The Grenadines (see map, Plate D, appended), represent the most
complete subaérial dissection of the ancient volcanic foundation, so that
a large number of islets and rock rise above the extensive banks which
have a length of over a hundred miles, and are submerged 100 or 150
feet. But Grenada, as large as St. Vincent is surmounted by the later
volcanic ridges with the highest point attaining an altitude of 2,749
feet. Grenada is the most celebrated of the islands for tropical fruits
of fine varieties. The Trinidad steamers from New York stop here,
but not the Windward Island lines, except the regular fortnightly Royal
Mail steamer.
IQOI-2. } THE WINDWARD ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIES. 365
TRINIDAD:
This is not an Antillean island, (see map, Plate D, appended), but a
part of South America, being situated on the continental shelf, and
separated from the mainland by only a shallow strait.
Along the northern coast there is a range of mountains containing
crystalline schists, and rising to points 3,000 feet above the sea.
Isolated ridges occur in other parts of the island, in some cases having a
height of 1,000 feet. Elsewhere the island is generally low, with occasional
extensive swamps. Apart from the northern mountains, the sandy,
shaly, and calcareous strata are of a much more clastic nature than the
formations of the Windward Islands, for these materials have been
supplied by the South American rivers, such as the Oronoco ;—but
they belong to the same geological periods as those of the Antillean
chain. There are no volcanic accumulations as in the other islands.
During the long Miocene-Pliocene period, land surfaces prevailed and
gave rise to most of the present topographic features. These, however,
were thinly covered by subsequently deposited mantles, so that the
general changes of level of land and sea, the connection with North
America, and the drowning of the region again, are phenomena common
to the history of the other islands. Among the strata certainly no more
recent than the Eocene period, are radiolarian and foraminiferal
organisms that were accumulated at abysmal depths of the ocean,
of perhaps two miles or more. These are of importance in showing
that where there had been shallow seas, or even land, the region had
sunken to the great depth mentioned, and been raised again, so that
other shallow water formations could cover them and constitute the
foundation of the modern land features.
Trinidad is a beautiful island of large size, but its fertile plains are
only partly cultivated, as much of the island is still covered by primeval
forest. The roads of the cultivated districts are excellent. Sugar cane
is the principal product. Pitch Lake is most valuable, and is far famed.
It lies on a flat plain a mile from the sea and 110 feet above it, and has
an area of about a hundred acres. No high land occurs within sight of it.
It is immediately surrounded by a small open wood. It is a dreary spot.
The pitch rises and overflows a loose sandstone, which is covered
by a red earthy loam. The surface of the pitch is hardened, and only
plastic near the centre, so that it can almost everywhere be walked upon.
But through the fissures of the crust are numerous springs of water and
366 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII.
sulphuretted hydrogen, sending an offensive odor through the whole
district.
Situated near one of the mouths of the Oronoco, Port of Spain is
a city of commercial importance, and having been almost destroyed by
conflagrations, it has been rebuilt with a modern appearance. Near it is
located the largest and most celebrated botanical garden in the West
Indies, except that of Jamaica.
In Trinidad there is a larger percentage of whites than in the other
islands described, but they embrace several nationalities. Besides the
negro labourers, there are many Hindoos imported to the sugar estates.
Being on the edge of the belt of Trade Winds, with the intervening
mountains, the island seems much warmer than Barbados, which is
separated by less than two degrees of latitude. Trinidad has direct
steamship communications with New York, but not by way of the
Windward Islands. The Halifax steamers touch it once every four
weeks. The Royal Mail line gives a fortnightly connection with
Barbados. Occasional vessels of various lines also stop here, by which
one is able to reach the Venezuelan ports, the Isthmus of Panama,
and Jamaica.
BARBADOS.
This outlying island (see map, Plate E, appended) is situated
somewhat more than a hundred miles east of the main Antillean Chain,
but on the same submarine plateau (see maps, Plates D and E). The
surface of Barbados rises in terrace steps, or slopes, to an altitude of
1,104 feet. Except in, and adjacent to the Scotland valley, on the
northeastern side of the island, the surface rocks are composed of a
white limestone, or a coral formation. But in the valley referred to,
‘and adjacent to the coast, there are beds of sand, accumulated when
this region was connected with the continent, and received the sands
carried down the rivers—perhaps the ancient Oronoco. This deposit
cannot be newer than the early Eocene days, and I am inclined to
regard it as belonging to the Cretaceous period. Upon its surface is a
marly deposit containing foraminifera and radiolaria, like similar
accumulations in Trinidad. These were formed in oceanic abysses at a
depth of two miles or more, in a geological epoch that may be referred
to the Eocene period. The region, after having sunken to such a great
depth, rose so that upon the oceanic beds we find a shallow-water
formation of white limestones, as in Antigua and the other islands
mentioned before, belonging to the Oligocene series. During the long
19OT-2. | THE WINDWARD ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIEs, 367
Miocene-Pliocene period the land underwent changes of level, at times
very high, so that the broad valleys between the island and the main
group were being modified into rolling features by atmospheric agents,
acting for a very long time. About the close of the Pliocene period,
the region was depressed, so that only a very small islet remained away
out in the Atlantic. Then followed the great elevation of the region,
when all the islands and the continent were united. This was succeeded
by another subsidence, so that the terraces round Barbados were cut out
of the new coral reefs, as the land was again rising. Since their
elevation the streams and rains have begun to excavate small canons
into the margins of the terrace steps. The occurrences of these terraces
and little valleys give diversity to the surface features, for there are no
mountains here. (See figure 1, Plate VIII.). The sea is encroaching
upon the east coast, as in all the other islands, on account of which all
the ports are on their western or leeward side. An illustration of the
encroachment is shown in figure 2, Plate VIII., where the raised coral
reef is breaking away and great blocks are lying along the coast.
The fertile sugar estates have been occupied by numerous owners,
which has given rise to social conditions somewhat different from that
found in the other islands. Within twenty years after the arrival of the
first planters (1625), the population rose to 50,000, including many
cavaliers, Irish labourers, and Indians stolen from other islands. The
population now numbers 200,000, of whom one-fourth are whites. As
the area is only 166 square miles, it is the most densely settled country
in the world, so much so that the labourers on the estates get only three
days’ work a week, and another set work the remaining time—and that
at twenty cents a day. More than half of the coloured infants die within
a year, but even this does not keep down the increase. These conditions
intensify misery caused by the ruined sugar trade. The people live
on “ground” provisions (sweet potatoes, at fifteen cents a bushel, when
bought; yams, a large tuber); bread-fruit, used green in place of
potatoes ; sugar cane and some fruits. They also get a small quantity
of fish at times, of which the flying fish is most delicious.
In the church of the parish of St. John is the tomb of Theodore
Paleologos, the last representative of the Christian Emperors of the
Eastern empire, he having died here an exile in the seventeenth
century. f
368 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII.
GENERAL CHANGES OF LEVEL OF LAND AND SEA.
The primary object of my three visits to the West Indies and to the
Central American region, and another to be begun in a few days, has
been to carry on my investigations of the great changes of level which
have occurred in late geological times, for there one finds the most com-
plete evidence at present obtainable. In visiting the Windward Islands,
I wished to extend the observations made elsewhere bearing upon the
time of the great earth movements, and in doing so I had to investigate
the geological formations, the results of which have been published in
papers mentioned in the foot-note. Besides the geographical descrip-
tions, with some geological results given here, I have included the charts
of the region from which much more information can be gathered.* On
these I have also drawn certain lines of soundings to bring out the
drowned valley-like features.
While a somewhat less elevation of the region would connect the
more northern of the Windward Islands, as we have seen, a rise of 3,600
feet would unite Dominica and Martinique (by way of the banks shown
on map, Plate C), with an embayment between them reaching to a
depth of 6,600 feet, miles within the line connecting the two islands.
An elevation of 3,300 feet would bring the ridge between Martinique
and St. Lucia to the surface, with another deep indentation to the west,
a tributary of which heads in an amphitheatre, incising the island mass
north-west of St. Lucia to a depth of 6,624 feet, within the line where
the shelf is sunken only 600 feet. Between St. Lucia and St. Vincent,
the connecting ridge is mostly within 1,200 feet of the surface, except
for about five miles where the channel across the col reaches to a depth
of about 3,000 feet below sea level. From this point the drowned
valley rapidly deepens to nearly 6,600 feet within the line of the islands.
The deepest part of the drowned valley crossing the ridge between St.
Vincent and the Grenadines is only a mile wide and does not exceed a
submergence of 1,300 feet. The Grenadine banks, really a submarine
tableland, are covered by 100 or 150 feet of waiter, and the western slopes
show the indentations, amphitheatres or cirques reaching to the same great
depth, and still further away the soundings suggest that the submerged
Antillean .plateau in part rises more than 9,000 feet without quite
reaching the surface of the sea. The cirques or amphitheatre-valleys
on the eastern sides of the islands have not been so fully shown as on
* The charts are a reduction of Chart 40, U. S. Hydrographic Office. The various larger charts ot
the different islands should be consulted.
1901-2. | THE WINDWARD ISLANDS OF THE WEST INDIES. 369
the western, on account of the eastern slopes being the more
precipitous, and the soundings fewer in number. Between the
Grenadine and Trinidad banks (see Plate D), the connecting plains
may not be submerged to more than 750 feet, except in a narrow
channel. The various forms of the valley-like indentations of the
border of the great submarine Antillean plateau are similar to those
upon the slopes descending from the high tablelands of Mexico and
Central America, which have been fashioned by the rains and streams,
and accordingly their occurrence is interpreted as evidence that the
former altitude of the now sunken plateau was as great as the
present submergence of the valleys now drowned. This conclusion is
only to be modified, in referring to the islands, or their districts, which
have been the scene of Pleistocene or more recent volcanic activity,
for here we find local elevation due to plutonic forces which have not
affected the great earth movements of the region. Among the Wind-
ward Islands the evidence of the full height at which the land stood
has not been determined, as among the Bahamas and on the south-
eastern margin of the North American continent, where we have found
that it exceeded 12,000 feet. At the time of the great elevation of the
Antillean plateau, the region west of the Caribbean sea—Central
America—was low.
The valleys are the result of two periods of erosion,—namely that
of the Miocene-Pliocene, with the production of broad rounded forms,
and that of the early Pleistocene days when the elevation reached the
maximum height and all the islands were united so as to connect South
and North America. This last epoch was of the shorter duration with
the deepening of the old valleys, the formation of canons, and the
excavation of cirques or amphitheatres, at the heads of the narrow
valleys, as they were dissecting the tablelands.
In the remains of elephants, and the large rodents of Guadeloupe
and Anguilla, we have confirmatory evidence of the great elevation
during the early Pleistocene epoch, for these mammals migrated from
the continent about that time. But all the Pleistocene animals have
disappeared from this region, and the modern species have not found
their way to these islands, for since the very general subsidence which
exterminated the former species, there has been no connection between
the islands and the continent.
Beyond the proper limits of this study, between St. Croix and St.
Thomas, of the Virgin Island banks, there is a remarkable basin
attaining a depth of 15,000 feet (see map, Plate F), unlike any other
370 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
feature in this region. But the col at the head of the valley connecting
it with the channel leading to the Atlantic basin is submerged only
6,402 feet, or about the same depth as the cirque of St. Lucia, or the
indentations within the lines of the Windward Islands, and consequently
this St. Croix indentation can be brought within the same investigations
of changes of level as the Antillean Chain. By the rise of the land to
this amount the migration of South American mammals could have
even reached the North American continent. Such was the explana-
tion of the occurrence of the numerous South American types of bears
found at Port Kennedy, near Philadelphia, upon the remains of which
Professor E. D. Cope was at work when overtaken by his untimely
death, for these types had no geographical distribution that would
suggest a connection with South America by way of Mexico and
Central America.
In conclusion, I must thank the many kind friends, whom we made
in all the islands, for their lavish hospitality, so that our scientific trip
was converted into a social holiday and a pleasant memory never to be
forgotten.
PLATE I.
FiGure 1.—View of the Valley of Cul de Sac. Beach on which is built the town of
Philipsburg, with salt pond in rear, Island of St. Martin.
FIGURE 2.—Pelican Point, St. Martin, with sea rolled_boulders, some four;feet long.
era |?
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PLATE II,
FIGuRE 1.—The ‘‘ Quill’ of Statia, from Brimstone Hill, St. Kitts.
FIGURE 2.-—G/ac?s of volcanic ashes, dissected by rains, St. Kitts.
FIGURE 3.—Monkey Hill, and town of Basseterre, St. Kitts.
rea. IOUT,
FiGuRE 1.—Harbour and City of St. John’s, Antigua.
FIGURE 2.—Coast of Antigua, near Hodge's Hill (on the right).
RvAcie els
FIGURE 1.—Brimstone Hill, 700 feet high, on the flanks of the volcanic ridge, St. Kitts.
FIGURE 2.—Grand Savanna and Mountains, Dominica.
FIGURE 3.—Layou Valley, Dominica.
PLATE V.
FIGURE 1.—Roseau Town and Valley, Dominica. Morne Bruce in foreground
(40o feet high).
FIGURE 2.—Nearly joins Fig. 1 at AB. Sloping terraces back of Town.
FIGURE 3.—Roseau Valley, from Morne Bruce.
Renae WIL
FIGURE 1.—View of the north-western side of Martinique.
FIGURE 2.—View near St. Pierre, Martinique.
FIGURE 3.—The Pitons, St. Lucia.
leyeNauo; W/E
Buccament Valley, St. V
incent.
PLATE VIII.
+ COPRINGTON Gotrest, B'nos:
FIGURE 1.—View about Codrington College, Barbados.
FiGuRE 2.—East Coast of Barbados, showing Terrace at 150 feet altitude, and
fallen masses of coral rock.
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1901-2. PHOTOGRAPHY IN NATURAL COLOURS, 371
PHOTOGRAPHY IN’ NATURAL COLOURS,
BY. JS: PLASKEDT, B.A:
(Read 15th March, 1902.)
THE subject to be discussed in this paper has, ever since the
discovery of photography some sixty years ago, excited the keenest
interest and attention, not only among photographers and scientists, but
among the lay public as well. From time to time, results have been
obtained which have led many people to believe that the problem was
approaching a solution. Again and again glowing reports have been
published stating that the long-looked-for process had at last been
discovered. But in nearly every case it has proved that the colours
obtained were either unlike, or, if like, were not dependent upon the
colours of the light waves which produced them; and it is very
‘doubtful whether any real progress towards realizing a practical solution
of the problem of obtaining a direct photograph in colours has been
made.
The nearest approach to such a solution is reached by the
Lippmann process, in which the colours are produced by the inter-
ference of light, this interference giving rise, in the taking process, to
what are known as standing waves in the photographic film. These
standing waves cause a peculiar, laminated structure in the deposit of
silver on the plate, the position of the laminae corresponding to the
lengths of the waves, and hence to the colours, that give rise to them.
The explanation of the colours seen, when sucha plate is viewed by
reflected light, is quite similar to that accounting for the colours of thin
films such as soap bubbles. The theory is not, however, perfectly
complete and satisfactory as the cause of certain abnormalities in the
process is not evident. The true colours can only be seen when the
heliochrome is viewed by reflected light at normal incidence, and are
hence not very easy to observe. Probably the most satisfactory way of
viewing it is to strongly illuminate the surface and, by means of a lens,
form an image of this surface upon a screen. The technical difficulties
of the process are very great, so great, indeed, that, during the ten years
it has been discovered, only comparatively few good examples of
interference heliochromy, as it is termed, have been produced.
372 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
Even this process does not give us a direct photograph in colours,
taken in an ordinary camera, like an ordinary monotone such as the
world is looking for, and still less does the three-colour process, which is
an indirect and composite method, fulfil such an ideal. It is, however,
the only really practical method at present available, and is the one I
shall attempt to describe in this paper. It was, in its inception, based
on the Young-Helmholtz or three-colour theory of vision, and, although
the principles of the three-colour process are independent of any visual
theory, yet a short statement of the essential points of this theory may
be of service in simplifying the succeeding explanations.
The facts of colour vision are accounted for in the Young-Helmholtz
theory by assuming that there are three fundamental colour sensations,
a red, a green, and a blue-violet; and that all colours, except deep
spectrum red and the extreme violet, according to Abney’s latest
researches, are compound sensations, produced by the excitation
simultaneously of two, or sometimes even of the three colour sensations.
Although this theory has been very generally discredited by
physiologists and psychologists, it still possesses many strong advocates
on the physical side, and will always retain considerable interest on
account of the historical associations connected with it. It has the
merit of giving a simple and direct explanation of the main facts of
colour vision, while those not explainable on this hypothesis meet with
little better fate at the hands of the other theories advanced.
Maxwell supported this theory and, by means of a modified form of
spectroscope which he called a colour box, made measurements to
determine the ranges of these colour sensations. These measurements
placed in the form of curves, can be projected upon the screen (Fig. 1).
They are of great interest to all students of the three-colour process,
not only for their historical value, but principally by reason of the fact
Fic, 1.—Maxwell’s Colour-Sensation or Colour-Mixture Curves.
Positive from above Negative.
Blue-Green Complementary to Red.
PLATE.
Positive from above Negative,
Magenta-Pink Complementary to Green,
The Three Positives Superposed,
Negative taken through Blue-Violet Filter,
Positive from above Negative.
Yellow Complementary to Blue-Violet.
1901-2. | PHOTOGRAPHY IN NATURAL COLOURS. 373
that they were and are used by Ives as the basis of his method of
obtaining photographs in colour. These curves indicate graphically
what Maxwell believed to be the amount of action produced on each of
the colour sensations by any particular part of the spectrum. It has
long been known, however, that, although these curves give a fair
approximation, they do not exactly represent the ranges of the
sensations and they are now superseded by the new measurements of
Sir Wm. Abney, probably the most widely known authority on colour
photometry and on photography. He spent some nine months in
1898-99, in redetermining the colour-sensation curves on the Young
theory, and his paper treating on the subject was published in the
Transactions of the Royal Society for 1899. A diagram of these new
values can next be shown (Fig. 2) illustrating the difference between
the two sets of curves. It will be noticed that, although the general
G.
BV.
A «BC D pe kt G H
Fic. 2.—Abney’s Colour-Sensation Curves.
forms are similar, Abney’s sensation curves include each a longer range
of the spectrum than Maxwell’s but are not so long as those of
Helmholtz where each sensation embraces the whole spectrum. But
Abney’s values, determined by the aid of more modern methods, and in
the light of recent researches must be regarded as giving the closest
approximation to the truth. From the method of their determination,
and as will be seen later, Maxwell’s curves could more appropriately be
called colour-mixture than colour-sensation curves, and are very
essential in both the theory and the practice of the three-colour process.
The three-colour process of photography is based on the experi-
mental fact, which is probably most readily explained by the Young
theory, that all spectrum colours, and hence all the colours of nature,
can be imitated, to a very close degree of approximation, by mixing in
varying proportions colours taken from three narrow sections of the
spectrum. These sections or colours coincide very approximately with
ie)
374 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
the dominant hues of the sensation curves; that is they are a particular
red, green, and blue-violet. Abney has chosen as the most suitable
position for these primary, fundamental, or reproduction colours about
246700 in the red, 45120 in the green, and A4600 in the blue; these
particular wave lengths, which are in ten millionths of a millimetre,
coincide very approximately with the wave lengths due to the red and
blue lithium and the green magnesium lines and are hence easily
located in the spectrum.
Before discussing and illustrating the mixing of spectrum colours, it
will be advisable to clearly distinguish between two methods of colour
mixture commonly employed which will be frequently referred to in
this treatment of the subject. These are positive and negative mixture,
or mixture by addition and mixture by subtraction. The former is
effected by adding coloured light to coloured light, and the latter by
adding absorption to absorption; while the resultant colours produced
in the two cases are, in general, essentially different. Perhaps the
commonest fallacy on the subject of colour mixture is the prevailing
belief that the mixture of yellow and blue gives green, but it can
easily be shown that the mixture of yellow and blue lights can not by
any possibility give green. If a piece of yellow glass be placed in one
lantern, forming a yellow patch upon the screen, and a piece of blue
glass in another lantern, forming a blue patch, the overlapping of these
patches and the consequent mixture of the coloured lights, as is at once
seen, [shown] gives us white light, which, although it may be yellowish
or bluish in hue, is without any approach to a greenish tinge; by no
variation in the intensities of these colours, provided the hues remain
yellow and blue, can green light result. If, however, one lantern be
stopped and the yellow glass placed in front of the blue glass, a green
patch at once appears on the screen, [sowz] showing that the colour
produced by superposing the absorptions, as is always done in the
mixture of paints or pigments, is essentially different to that resulting
from the mixture of coloured lights. To prevent confusion, it is very
necessary that this distinction be carefully borne in mind in the
subsequent treatment; and it will at once be evident that positive
mixture is the only kind that can be employed in mixing spectrum
colours.
The mixing of the three primary spectrum colours is effected by a
modification of Abney’s well known colour patch apparatus. This
consists, first of all, in a means of forming a pure spectrum, and,
secondly, of an arrangement for combining any of the spectrum colours,
1901-2. | PHOTOGRAPHY IN NATURAL COLOURS. 375
in any desired proportions, to form a patch upon the screen, visible to
the entire audience. The light from the crater of the electric arc is
converged, by the condensers of the lantern, upon the slit at one end of
a collimating tube which contains at the other end a lens whose
principal focus coincides with the slit. The beam of light from the
lantern hence emerges from the collimating tube parallel, and will form
a distinct image of the slit at the principal focus of any lens inserted in
its path. The interposition, between this and the collimating lens, of
direct vision prisms, constructed to give dispersion without deviation,
breaks up the single uncoloured image of the slit into a number of over-
lapping coloured images forming a pure spectrum [showz] in the plane
containing the principal focus of the lens. If a large condensing lens be
placed beyond this plane, its function will be to collect all these coloured
images, and form an image of the last surface of the prisms. This image
is, however, too small to be visible at any distance, and an enlarged image
of this image may, by means of another large lens, be formed upon a
screen beyond, and of such a size as to be plainly visible to all. By
causing this image to fall upon a small square of white card on a black
velvet background, the effect of coloured edges can be eliminated ; and
the colourless nature of the image formed in this case is evidence that
the union or recomposition of all the spectum colours gives white light
[shown]. If a card containing a narrow slit be moved along in the
plane of the spectrum, the patch on the screen will assume each
spectrum colour in turn, isolated, of course, from its fellows and hence
uninfluenced by contrast. The substitution for this single slit of a
brass frame containing three slits, whose relative positions and apertures
can be varied at will, and which was specially constructed for this.
experiment, enables us to determine the resultant colour produced by
the mixture of any two or three spectrum colours, in any desired
proportions. If the positions of these slits be made to coincide with the
primary colours, as determined by Abney, which can easily be done
by burning lithium and magnesium salts in the arc, thus “scaling” the
spectrum, the resultant colours produced by the mixture of these
primary colours can be at once determined.
The union of the three primaries, red, green, and blue-violet, in
certain definite proportions, easily determined by trial, and measured by
the relative apertures of the slits, produces an uncoloured patch on the
screen [sown]; and this white light, although not optically equivalent,
being produced by the mixture of three narrow isolated bands instead
of the whole range of the spectrum, can not be distinguished from
ordinary white light. Nor can colours, produced by the mixture of
376 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (VoL. VII.
these spectrum primaries, he distinguished visually from spectrum or
natural colours. By closing the green and blue-violet slits, the red of
the spectrum, through the third slit, colours the patch red ; the gradual
opening of the aperture in the green produces, by the mixture of red
and green, orange-red, orange, and yellow; the green aperture
remaining open and the red being closed gradually, gives yellow-green
and green. The same procedure followed with the green and blue-
violet slits produces blue-green, blue, and blue-violet; and with the
blue-violet and red slits forms violet, purple, and red, the whole range
of spectrum colours including also the purples. (J/atching of colours
shown). Any colour in nature may be matched in like manner, the
tints being produced by first matching the hue, and then opening all
the slits sufficiently to add the required amount of white; the shades
being produced by making the slits narrow enough to sufficiently
diminish the luminosity.
The ccrrect proportions of the primary colours necessary to
reproduce the colours of the spectrum are indicated graphically by
Maxwell’s sensation or, more properly, colour-mixture curves (Fig. 1).
These curves, determined by the aid of his colour box, a modified form
of spectroscope, and in principle similar to the experiment just
described and shown, do not so nearly represent the stimulation of the
fundamental nerve sensations or processes of the eye to produce any
colour sensation, as the amount of the primary colours required to
match the same colour. Although the positions of Maxwell’s primaries
are not quite correctly chosen, the amount of error introduced in his
colour-mixture curves is practically negligible ; and hence the amount
or intensities of the primaries necessary to reproduce any spectrum
colour are immediately given by measuring the lengths of the corre-
sponding ordinates to the curves. The relative intensities of the
primaries necessary to produce any colour whatever can be determined
by matching the colour by the three slits, and then measuring their
relative widths ; unit width being determined by the relative apertures
required to give white light.
The possibility of matching any colour by the mixture of the three
primary or reproduction colours forms the basis of the three-colour
process of photography. If, by any photographic process, three
coloured images of any coloured object can be obtained, one red, one
green, and one blue-violet; and if each image contains in its various
parts, the correct proportions of its own colour required to match the
colours of the object, then the optical superposition or mixture of these
1901-2. ] PHOTOGRAPHY IN NATURAL COLOURS. 377
images should give us a correct representation of the colours of the
object. The red, green, and blue-violet images of some fruit against a
red background can be shown side by side upon the screen by means of
three lanterns. On bringing these images to one position or super-
posing them on the screen [showz], their mixture produces, as is seen, a
very good reproduction of the original colours.
The method of obtaining these coloured images, as will be at once
observed, is to back with coloured glass photographs on glass or
transparencies in black and white, exactly similar to ordinary lantern
slides. Consider the red image only for simplicity. A transparency of
the object must be obtained in which the relative transparency of the
various parts corresponds exactly to the amount of the primary red
required (in union of course with the green and blue-violet), to match
the colours of the object. Working backwards from the transparencies,
the negatives from which they are made must have the relative opacities
of their parts corresponding exactly with the amounts or intensities of
the reproduction colours required to match the colours of the object.
Negatives fulfilling these conditions will be correct, not only for the
method of positive superposition already referred to and shown, but for
every method of synthesis.
The colour-mixture curves of Maxwell (Fig. 1), indicate graphically
the amounts of red, green, and blue-violet light required to match the
Fic. 3.—Colour-Record Negatives of the Spectrum,
378 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
colour of any part of the spectrum, and, from what has just been said,
can therefore act as standards indicating the correct opacity patches
on a set of negatives of the spectrum. The projection, upon the screen,
of three negatives of the spectrum on one plate (Fig. 3) shows the
approximate agreement of the deposits with the curves; while a trans-
parency from these negatives shows the agreement between their
relative transparencies and the curves.
The method of obtaining such negatives is that of selective
absorption. The effect of interposing red, green, and blue glasses or
stained films in a beam of white light is to absorb, roughly speaking, all
but the red, green, and blue light, respectively ; this can be easily shown
by interposing them in the beam producing the spectrum [shown]. If
———|
ft 0
WOWGY] GREEN [BC
|
[ BLUE | BV | VIOLET
—__ -ypaniry] er agsouutes t if
Fic. 4 —Action of the Spectrum on Photographic Plates.
they be placed in the path of the light entering the camera, near the lens
say, they will perform the same office of picking out or selecting, hence
the name, the red, green, and blue parts of the object, and allowing only
these parts to be registered on the respective plates. This seems simple
enough, but in practice the question of colour screens or filters, as they
are termed, is much complicated by the fact that no photographic plate
yet produced represents the spectrum in degrees of monotone corrc-
sponding to the visual intensity. It will probably be remembered, by
those who heard the paper presented by the writer to the Institute last
year on “Colour Values in Monochrome,” that, only after tedious
experimenting, could orthochromatic plates be made to render the
spectrum approximately correctly. The curves representing the action
of the spectrum on such plates are shown in Fig. 4, by the irregular
curves in each part of the diagram, the regular curves indicating the
1901-2. ] PHOTOGRAPHY IN NATURAL COLOURS. 379
luminosity or visual intensity. It is the compensation of these
irregularities by the filters that renders their adjustments so difficult.
The spectrum method of adjusting filters, which are almost universally
composed of stained films or liquid solutions, consists in so altering
their absorptions that the opacity patches produced on negatives of the
spectrum obtained through them agree with the colour-mixture curves
(Fig. 1). Photometric measurements of the densities of the negatives
are required, and the tedious nature of this process renders it impractic-
able for commercial use. It would I am satisfied give results un-
excelled by any other means, and this statement I hope to prove at
some future date by constructing a set of filters by such a method.
The ideal method has, so far, only been considered ; the use of pure
red, green, and blue-violet spectrum light for the primary or reproduc-
tion colours, and the theoretical colour curves, based on measurements
made with such light. In practice, however, such conditions can not
prevail; the nearest approach to the pure colours obtainable by
selective absorption must necessarily be used for the reproduction
colours, and the colour curves must be changed slightly to compensate
for the errors thus introduced. The stained films that were used for
backing the transparencies already shown are examples of such
monochromatic colours. Their analysis in the spectrum shows that all
but a fairly narrow band of the spectrum is absorbed [s/ozwz], but they
do not approach the purity of colour obtained by the three slits. These
reproduction colours, which must, first of all, fulfil the same condition as
the three spectrum primaries that, when mixed positively, white light
shall be produced, can be used in the same way as the three pure
colours to match any colour. This is effected by backing with these
colours three circular openings one in each of the three lanterns and
causing the three coloured patches thereby produced to overlap on the
screen [showz]. The intensity of the colours can be diminished, not, as
in the spectrum experiment, by narrowing the aperture but by inter-
posing patches of developed grey of different densities. By suitably
varying the intensities of these reproduction colours, in a similar degree
to the spectrum primaries, the whole range of spectral and extra-
spectral colours can be produced [shown] exactly as in the former
experiment.
The use of these reproductions, instead of the pure colours naturally
leads to the use of an artificial instead of a pure spectrum as a test
object in the adjustment of filters. A number of small squares of
coloured glass, representing the principal colours of the spectrum as
red, yellow, green, blue, violet, and also including purple and white, are
380 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
mounted on another piece of glass forming the artificial spectrum. The
amount of the reproduction colours necessary to match each of these
glasses in luminosity and hue is accurately measured, giving the
analogue. of Maxwell’s colour-mixture curves. The photometric
measurement of the densities of the resulting negatives is avoided by
reducing the luminosities of these glasses sufficiently, by means of
rotating sectors or patches of developed grey, to render the quantity of
red light, say, coming through each glass equal. A negative of such an
apparatus, taken through a correctly adjusted red filter or screen, should
give a series of patches of equal density ; and, since the equality of the
densities of adjacent patches can be accurately estimated by the eye, no
photometric measurements are necessary, and the adjustment of filters
is much facilitated. A similar apparatus is, of course, required for the
green, and for the blue-violet filters.
This device, due to Sir Wm. Abney, is usually called an Abney
sensitometer, and is of very great service in three-colour work; a
simpler form of the same instrument is also very largely employed in
the adjustment of compensating filters for orthochromatic plates. The
set of filters employed in making the examples of three-colour work to
be presently shown were adjusted by an Abney sensitometer, and were
supplied by Mr. Sanger Shepherd, of London, who was awarded the
medal of the Royal Photographic Society in 1899 for his three-colour
filters. They were adjusted for use with the Cadett Spectrum plate, and
will evidently, when the varying colour sensitiveness of different plates
is remembered, only give correct results with this plate. The Cadett
Spectrum and the Lumiere Panchromatic are the most suitable plates
for three-colour work. There are other panchromatic plates manufac-
tured, but these have hardly, as yet, entered into serious competition
with the above named brands. The Cadett plate is not so sensitive to
red as the Lumiere and requires a longer exposure through the red
filter, but has the decided advantage of giving a much longer scale of
correct gradation, and, in subjects with much contrast, will be more
likely to produce correct results. It is possible to use a different brand
of plates with each filter, but not advisable where good work is desired
as it will be found almost impossible, on account of the different
qualities of the plates, to secure a harmonious set of negatives. In
three-colour photo-mechanical process work, this last procedure is
frequently followed but the negatives and positives require and receive
considerable retouching and etching.
On comparing the absorptions of these taking screens with those
of the reproduction glasses [showz], it is at once seen that the former
1901-2. | PHOTOGRAPHY IN NATURAL COLOURS. 381
pass much broader bands of the spectrum than the latter. This
distinction is very important, and was first pointed out by Mr. F. E.
Ives, of Philadelphia, perhaps the most familiar name in the literature
of the three-colour process. It is mainly owing to his genius and
perseverance that photography in colours occupies the position it does
to-day. The necessity for this distinction can perhaps be most clearly
seen in attempting to make a colour photograph of the spectrum. If
the reproduction glasses are used as taking filters, the evident result
will be three narrow isolated bands of colour instead of the continuous
spectrum ; while if the taking screens are used as reproduction glasses,
unnecessary impurity and degradation of colour will result from the
mixture of colours, other than the primaries, in the taking filters.
The negatives obtained through these filters will not be alike, but in
some cases the differences are not marked. This, of course, is due to
the fact that the colours in nature are, in general, of a very complex
character, and. pass, when analysed by the spectroscope, nearly all the
spectrum colours; hence all three negatives will frequently be
influenced by the same colour though not of course to the same degree.
The projection of three such negatives side by side upon the screen
[shown] will illustrate, more fully than can be described, the various
points of difference between them [Plate]. The differences are most
marked in negatives of the spectrum and least marked in outdoor
subjects where the colours are, as a rule, very impure or mixed in
character. The purer the colours the more the filters differentiate them
into their three classes, and the greater the differences in the negatives.
The negatives may be called colour-record negatives, and are quite
similar in appearance to ordinary negatives [Plate], possessing no colour
whatever in themselves. The slight variations in the densities of the
corresponding parts are the means employed, in the various methods of
synthesis, of obtaining the positives in colours; the same negatives being
suitable for every kind of synthesis.
The two principal methods of obtaining colour positives from the
colour-record negatives are by positive synthesis and by negative
synthesis. Positive synthesis includes triple projection and the
Kromskop, and is the method followed by Mr. Ives. Triple photo-
graphic prints on paper, the three-colour photo-mechanical process, and
triple superposed transparencies all come under the heading of negative
synthesis. The latter subdivision embraces most of the work done by
the writer which has, so far as he knows, not before been undertaken in
Canada. Positive synthesis depends on positive colour mixture or the
superposition of coloured lights, while negative synthesis depends on
382 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vox. VII.
negative colour mixture, the addition of absorptions, or the super-
position of coloured dyes or pigments.
In positive synthesis, a transparency in black and white, an ordinary
lantern slide in fact, is made from each of the three negatives; and each
transparency is illuminated by its own reproduction colour. That is to
say the transparency from the negative taken through the red filter is
illuminated with pure red light, that from the green filter with pure
ereen light, and that from the blue-violet filter with pure blue-violet
light ; this is effected, practically, by backing each transparency with its
corresponding reproduction glass. Since the relative transparency or
redness of the red positive is proportional to the amount of the primary
red, of the green positive to the amount of the primary green and of the
blue-violet positive to the amount of the primary blue-violet required,
when united, to match the colours of the object, evidently any method
wre een - ee - ee
Fic. 5.—Ives’ Lantern Kromskop.
of seeing these three images at one time and in one position on the
retina should reproduce the colours of the object. One method of
effecting this is by ‘triple projection in which the three images are
superposed and registered on the screen. The three lantern slides from
the three negatives are placed one in each lantern and backed with
their suitable reproduction glasses, thus giving the required red, green
and blue-violet images on the screen. Each of these images, it may be
mentioned in passing, according to the Young-Helmholtz theory,
stimulates its respective process to the same degree as the original object.
Again, the superposition of the green and blue-violet images, on the
same theory, would, to the red colour-blind person appear similar to
the original object, the superposition of the red and blue-violet would
1901-2. | PHOTOGRAPHY IN NATURAL COLOURS. 383
appear natural to the green colour-blind, and of the red and green to the
violet colour-blind.
The superposition and registration of the three images [show],
give us as you will agree, a very good reproduction of the original
colours. It may be as well to point out, however, that it is a mere
optical illusion, for the colours though visually similar are not optically
the same. In the one case we have, collectively at any rate, the whole
range of the spectrum and in the other only three narrow bands in the
red, green, and blue. The principal drawbacks to this method of
synthesis are the necessity of using three lanterns and the difficulty of
registration. These can be partially overcome by means of Ives’
lantern Kromskop a diagram of which may be shown (Fig. 5). A beam
of light from the source, preferably the electric arc, is rendered parallel
by the condenser g, and divided into three approximately equal
portions by the unsilvered reflectors # and z and the silvered mirrors 7
and £; these three beams then pass through the reproduction filters
a, 6, c, and the three transparencies and are focussed and registered
upon the screen by the objectives @, e, f which are adjustable for this
purpose. The three transparencies are made on a single oblong plate
from negatives on a single plate, these negatives being taken in a
special camera which insures the same relative position of the three
images in every case. Registration for one slide then will be registra-
tion for all and this difficulty is lessened. Only a comparatively small
picture can be successfully shown, however, owing to the loss of light in
the colour screens, a diameter of three or four feet being the limit for a
brilliant image.
Instead of superposition on the screen the three images may be
united by superposition on the retina. This can be effected by another
device of Ives, called the Kromskop or photo-chromoscope, a diagram of
which is given in Fig. 6. It depends upon the principle of transparent
or partially transparent reflectors. In Ives’ instrument A. B. C. are
the positions of the three transparencies from the red record negative
at A, from the blue-violet record negative at B, and’ from the green
record negative at C. At A is the red reproduction screen and at B is
a violet screen; D is a transparent mirror of blue-green glass and Ea
transparent mirror of yellow-green glass. The red image from A falls
upon the mirror at D and is reflected to the eye, any entering the
mirror being absorbed since its colour, blue-green, is complementary to
red. The violet image at B is reflected from the yellow-green mirror at
E and transmitted through D, becoming blue-violet and thus reaches
384 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
the eye. The transparency at C, being transmitted through yellow-
green and blue-green, reaches the eye as green. The red, green, and
blue-violet images are superposed on the retina, reproducing, in a very
faithful manner, the original colours.
The writer was unable to obtain either a lantern attachment or a
Kromskop. The difficulty was overcome in the former case, as has just
been seen, by the use of three ordinary lanterns ; in the latter case by
constructing a modification of Ives’ Kromskop. This differed in
principle by the substitution, for the coloured glass reflectors, which
could not be obtained, of transparent mirrors silvered on the front
surface. If unsilvered or uncoloured glass were used the reflected
images would be doubled and registration could not be obtained.
Fic. 6.—Diagram of the Kromskop.
Considerable difficulty was experienced in getting a satisfactory film of
silver upon the thin plate glass used. It must be remembered that the
construction of a mirror, silvered on the front surface, even when the
coating is opaque, is by no means an easy matter; moreover that the
mirrors for the Kromskop require a transparent and uniform coating of
silver on the front surface, which must be of such density as to transmit
a definite proportion of the incident light, the quantity transmitted
being determined by the condition that the field of the instrument
remains uncoloured. Evidently the silvering process was not a simple
matter, and several trials were necessary. Success was, however, finally
obtained and the instrument constructed gives excellent results.
The great objection to these methods of positive synthesis lies in the
fact that the colours can only be seen by means of special apparatus,
and although effects are produced by the Stereo-Kromskop, embracing
1901-2. | PHOTOGRAPHY IN NATURAL COLOURS. 385
both the natural colours and stereoscopic relief, which can not be
excelled by any other method, yet some process of producing slides to
be projected by an ordinary lantern or viewed like an ordinary tran-
sparency, would be decidedly more useful.
Such slides and transparencies are examples of the second method
of producing coloured positives, ze. by negative synthesis. They
depend upon the superposition of coloured transparencies or pigments,
and the basis of the method is essentially different. It is, in fact,
exactly complementary to the former method, in which the effects were
produced by adding coloured light to coloured light, hence the name,
positive. This latter method depends upon the addition of absorption
to absorption, or the addition of colours (by negative mixture remem-
ber) which are obtained by subtracting the positive colours from white
light, and is called negative by reason of the subtractive nature of the
superposed absorptions.
From the three negatives, transparencies are made as in positive
synthesis, but, instead of being in black and white, they are in colours
complementary to the reproduction colours. That is, from the red-
record negative, a transparency is made in minus red or blue-green,
from the green in magenta-pink, and from the blue-violet in yellow.
The colour and appearance of these three transparencies are represented
approximately, although not exactly, by the three coloured positives
shown in the Plate. The superposition and registration of the three
transparencies produces a slide similar in external appearance to an
ordinary lantern slide but exhibiting the colours of the object.
Let us examine into the reason for the complementary nature of the
printing and reproduction colours; that they are very nearly com-
plementary is at once evident by the spectroscopic test [show].
Consider the transparencies, by the two methods, from the negative
taken through the red filter. In positive synthesis its lights are
coloured red, or red is transmitted, while its shadows are dark or red is
absorbed. In negative synthesis its lights are white or red is trans-
mitted and its shadows blue-green, complementary to red, and hence
red is absorbed. Thus red is transmitted by the lights and absorbed
by the shadows in the two cases; and the same thing will be true for
the green and blue-violet records. so that the superposition by the two
methods should give identical results.
A simple concrete example may perhaps help to render this some-
what difficult point more clear. Consider the effect of photographing a
386 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
pure green patch on a white ground. The grounds in the three
negatives will be opaque; the patch in the red and blue-violet record
negatives transparent, and in the green record negative opaque. The
corresponding transparencies will have transparency of the grounds
from all three, transparency of the patch from the green and opacity of
the patch from the red and blue-violet record negatives. In positive
synthesis the ground will be composed of red, green, and blue light
superposed, giving white; while the patch will be green since the
opacity of the other two prevents red or blue-violet from reaching the
retina or screen. In negative synthesis, in the superposed tran-
sparencies, the three grounds will be colourless giving white, while the
patch will be coloured biue-green in the transparency from the réd, and
yellow in the transparency from the blue-violet record negative, there
being no colour from the green record negative. The superposition, by
negative colour mixture, of blue-green and yellow gives pure green.
The results are identical, visually, although they may be and, in fact,
are essentially different spectroscopically.
An illustration of the three prints, in the complementary colours,
and of the finished picture resulting from their superposition is found in
the Plate. The method of formation of any colour in the picture by the
negative mixture of varying quantities of the three printing colours will
illustrate, better than any description, the reason for using com-
plementary colours in the printing or staining of the components. The
principal steps in making a transparency or print by the three-colour
process are illustrated in this Plate. The three negatives, without
colour of course, taken through the red, green, and blue-violet filters
illustrate the essential differences in densities due to different colours,
and indicate the general character of colour record negatives. The
separate prints are quite similar to ordinary prints from the above
negatives, but are in colours complementary to the reproduction colours.
The superposition of these three, or the printing of one over the other,
produces the finished picture. In the Plate the printing was effected by
three process blocks made from the three negatives, but it could be
accomplished photographically by using carbon tissues of the required
colour, and transferring them to a.;common support in accurate register.
Such a process would be exceedingly tedious and somewhat uncertain,
and an easier method is offered in three-colour transparencies or
lantern slides. Here three separate coloured films are made and
superposed giving, when bound together, the finished slide. The
examples of colour prints made by the writer are by this latter method
of superposing three transparencies, and can be projected upon the
1901-2. ] PHOTOGRAPHY IN NATURAL COLOURS. 387
screen. In the majority of cases, as will be seen later, the colours are
fairly true to nature, and, where such is not the case, the reason is
generally obvious. It must be remembered, however, in criticising
three-colour work that the slightest change in conditions during one
stage of the process may be the cause of considerable change in the
colours produced. Hence absolute accuracy should not be expected,
but a range of colours agreeing very well, in general, with the originals
can be, with care, always obtained.
The three methods of negative synthesis, above referred to, follow
exactly the same principle. In the three-colour transparencies, part of
the transmitted white light is absorbed by the colours giving the
resultant effect. In three-colour prints on paper, whether photographic
or photo-mechanical, the white paper reflects all the colours, part of
them being absorbed by the dyes or inks in the same manner as in the
transparencies; hence similar results should be obtained by the three
methods.
As a matter of fact, however, leaving three-colour photographs out
of the question, as being not yet in a practical stage, the range and
gradation of colours obtained in three-colour transparencies is superior
to that usually reached by the three-colour photo-mechanical process.
The causes of this inferiority of the latter process are not far to seek.
In the first place, printing inks fulfilling the theoretical conditions of
absorption, transparency, and permanency required for this purpose
have not yet been produced; and certain shades of green and brown
cannot be obtained by thcse already in use. Fugitive inks, more nearly
complying with the two first conditions, can be obtained giving better
colour renderings, but the employment of these for most purposes is
undesirable. In the second place, the difficulty, I think, lies in the
process worker trusting too entirely to empirical methods, and not
attempting to place his work ona true scientific basis, without which
complete success can not be hoped for. It is unfortunately true that
some sort of coloured effect can be obtained with incorrect screens and
printing colours, but delicate and accurate colouring is impossible with-
out the use of scientifically adjusted filters and colours.
Before concluding, a short description of some of the principal
technical details of the process may prove of interest and possibly even
of some service to those undertaking this fascinating branch of
photography.
The first step in the process of making a three-colour transparency
388 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VOL. Wile
is to obtain the correct ratios of exposure through the three filters.
Remembering that in the synthesis equal quantities of the reproduction
or printing colours gave white or grey, it is evident that objects free
from colour must be represented by equal density in the three
negatives. The ratios of the exposures made, in a steady light, on such
a test object as a piece of crumpled white blotting paper, must be so
adjusted that the density of the resulting negatives, after development
for the same time in one tray, will be equal. Each batch of emulsion
requires a test of this nature as the relative colour sensitiveness of
different batches varies slightly; for example, in one emulsion the
ratios of exposure were found to be red, 60; ‘green, 8; blue, 1; anda
another red, 30; green, 6; blue, I.
The exposure through the red filter is about five hundred times the
normal exposure without a filter, so that, using ordinary apparatus, and
allowing for the changing of plate holders, filters, etc., a set of three
exposures, under the best possible conditions, of a well lighted outdoor
subject will require at least a minute; while for indoor exposures ten
minutes and upwards, depending upon the light, will be required. Any
movement of camera or object, any error or omission in the sequence of
operations, about fifteen in number, or any change in the quality of the
light, unless correctly allowed for, renders all three negatives useless.
The use of a special camera, in which all three exposures are made
simultaneously, considerably reduces the time of exposure, and, by
lessening the number of operations, diminishes the liability to error;
but such a camera is expensive to purchase and troublesome to keep in
order.
It is advisable before development to mark or letter a corner of the
film on each plate, as it will be frequently found difficult to distinguish
the negatives from one another. The plates are developed together in
one tray in a metol developer, without bromide; with any other
developer, especially hydroquinone, the images will not appear equally,
and a different range of gradations will be obtained giving faulty
results. Short development producing soft delicate negatives is
required; over development bleaches out the light tints of colour.
Under exposure causes excessive colour contrasts, while over exposure
weakens the contrasts. The negatives are fixed and washed in the
same manner as ordinary negatives, and after drying are ready for
making the transparencies.
For positive synthésis, whether for triple projection or the kromskop,
IQOI-2. ] PHOTOGRAPHY IN NATURAL COLOURS. 389
three ordinary lantern slides are required. These must also be soft,
delicate, of a neutral tint, and of the same density.
The three-colour transparencies, by negative synthesis, are com-
posed of three coloured positives, one on glass and two on celluloid.
From the negative taken through the red filter an ordinary lantern
slide in black and white is made, and the black silver image is changed
to a blue-green or minus red colour by an iron process. The positives
from the green and blue-violet record negatives are made, by a modi-
fication of the carbon process, on transparent celluloid coated with a
soluble emulsion of silver bromide in gelatine. These films, which are
quite similar to the regular Kodak film, are sensitised by soaking for
three minutes in a solution of bichromate of potash; and when dry
are exposed under the negatives to daylight, the celluloid side being
next to the negatives. The image, being partially visible, forms a guide
to the length of exposure required, which averages about five minutes
in diffused light. The parts of the bichromated gelatine unexposed to
the light dissolve in warm water, and, when the silver bromide is also
dissolved out in a solution of hyposulphite of soda, there is left an
image in colourless gelatine in relief.
The colour is given to these images by soaking in baths of aniline
dyes; the print from the green-record negative in minus green or
magenta-pink, and from the blue-violet-record negative in minus blue
or yellow [Plate]. The gelatine being in relief, varying depths of
colour in the images are obtained, reproducing all the gradations.
Perhaps the most tedious part of the process is to obtain the correct
depth of colour in the prints. This can be tested by observing the
roughly superposed prints. A general blue, pink, or yellow tinge
throughout the picture shows that the corresponding prints are too
deeply stained. The colour given to black or grey objects also forms a
delicate test; rusty brown blacks indicate that the pink print is too
strong, greenish blacks too weak ; violet blacks indicate that the yellow
print is too weak. Prints too strong are quickly reduced by soaking in
water, while if too weak are strengthened, to a certain limit, by a longer
immersion in the dye bath. This, of course, does not apply to the blue-
green image which when once made cannot be changed in intensity,
and, if not suitable, the only remedy is to make another.
When the colours are correctly adjusted, the prints must be
mounted in register. The registration is not difficult if the prints are
all of the same size, and, when effected, a cover glass may be put on
and the slide bound in the ordinary way. The numerous internal
II
390 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
reflections diminish the brilliancy of the image, and it is preferable to
seal the components in optical contact with Canada balsam. Although
this is a disagreeable and troublesome process, one is amply repaid by
the superior brilliance of the slides. These may be viewed in the hand
or projected by an ordinary lantern similarly to the regular slides and
require no special care in their handling.
The natural colour slides made by the writer, some twenty in
number, embrace reproductions of the spectrum, colour charts, and
coloured pictures ; flowers, and fruit; views around the University and
some other subjects. These, which can now be exhibited, illustrate
fairly well the capabilities of the process [Sides shown]. Many
instances, in which a slide in the natural colours, if obtainable, would
prove of very great value, will at once suggest themselves and the
process has now reached the stage where any such slides can be made;
and the further simplification of the details ought to render such slides
a regular commercial product.
The three-colour process is an indirect, and, to a certain extent,
cumbersome method, and not at all what is usually looked for in colour
photography. The ideal process would be such that a photograph in
colours could be produced similarly to, and with little more trouble
than a photograph in monochrome. This problem, however, seems no
nearer a practical solution than it has for the last twenty or even fifty
years, and there is no process at present in sight which holds out any
hope of realizing such an ideal. But, in consideration of what has
already been accomplished in science and the arts, he would be foolish
who would venture to put a limit to man’s achievements in this or any
other branch of science.
. 1901-2. ] JOsEPH BRANT IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 391
JOSEPH BRANT IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.
By LIEuUT.-COL. E. CRUIKSHANK.
SECOND PAPER.
(Read 26th April, 1902).
THERE can be no more convincing proof of the extreme importance
that was attached to the subjugation of the Indians than the fact that
Washington was willing to detach an entire division of his best troops
upon this service for the greater part of a year and weaken his own
army so much in consequence that he was obliged to remain almost
wholly on the defensive during their absence. Preparations for this
expedition began in the winter of 1778-9. As early as February 11th,
1779, Washington had instructed Major-General Philip Schuyler to
collect intelligence for that purpose.
“Tt will be necessary immediately to employ proper persons
unacquainted with each other's business to mix with the hostile Indians
that the most unequivocal information may be gained of their strength,
their intentions, and what ideas they may have acquired of our design.
We should also learn what support or assistance they expect in case
our intention should be known to them or, what precautions they are
taking to oppose our operations.
“The Indians in friendship with us may be sent on this purpose.
The half-tories also, if they can be engaged and will leave pledges as a
security for their fidelity, might prove very useful instruments. Similar
investigations should be carried into Canada and the garrison at
Niagara.
“T shall likewise depend on your having the routes to the object of
the expedition critically explored both by Indians and others so that
a complete knowledge of distances, natural difficulties, and the face and
nature of the country may be obtained.”
On March 3rd, 1779, letters were addressed to President Reed,
of Pennsylvania, and Governor Clinton, of New York, informing them
of the proposed invasion of the Indian country and requiring the
assistance of a body of militia from each State, suggesting at the same
392 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII. .
time that as great a proportion as possible of the troops to be furnished
by them should be composed of persons who had been driven from the
frontier by the Indians.
“This class of people,” Washington observed, “besides the advan-
tages of a knowledge of the country and the particular motives with
which they are animated, will be most likely to furnish the troops best
calculated for the service. They should be a corps of active rangers
who are at the same time expert marksmen and accustomed to the
irregular kind of wood-fighting practised by the Indians.”
A few days later the command was offered to Major-General Gates
who possessed the highest reputation of any officer in the Continental
army in consequence of his success at Saratoga.
“The objects of the expedition,” he was informed, “will be effec-
tually to chastise and intimidate the hostile Indians, to countenance
and encourage the friendly ones, and to relieve our frontiers from the
depredations to which they would otherwise be exposed. To effect
these purposes it is proposed to carry the war into the heart of the
country of the Six Nations, to cut off their settlements, destroy their
next year’s crop, and do them any other mischief which time and
circumstances will permit.”
The force it was intended to place at his disposal was stated at
4,000 Continental troops, rank and file actually fit for service, and as
numerous a force of militia as might be deemed necessary.
But Gates absolutely declined to undertake the service on the plea
that he no longer possessed the “requisite youth and strength” for such
an enterprise, and the choice of Congress then fell upon Major-General
Sullivan, an officer of considerable military experience and ability.
Rumours were then spread abroad designedly of an intended
expedition against Quebec by way of Coos, N.H., to prevent the
British garrisons in Canada from affording any support to the Indians
with regular troops.
On March 25th, Washington definitely stated the proposed plan of
operations in a letter to General Schuyler.
“The route by the Susquehanna appears to be more direct, more
easy and expeditious, and more secure. There is very practicable
navigation for boats of eight or ten tons all the way from Sunbury to
Tioga, about 140 miles, and for small boats as far as Shemung about
1901-2. | JOSEPH BRANT IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 393
eighteen miles beyond Tioga. The distance from Shemung to the
heart of the Seneca settlements is not above 60 or 70 miles through an
open and travelled country very susceptible of the passing of a body of
troops with artillery and stores.”
After announcing his intention of dividing the invading force into
three columns to move simultaneously up the Mohawk, Susquehanna,
and Allegany rivers, he added :—
“ These different attacks will terrify and distract the Indians, and, I
hope, facilitate our project. It is also to be hoped in their confusion
they may neglect in some places to remove the old men, women, and
children and that these may fall into our hands. If they attempt to
defend their country, we may obtain some decisive advantage, if not,
we must content ourselves with distressing them as much as possible
and destroying this year’s crop.”
The Congress of the State of New York promptly furnished a
thousand militiamen under General James Clinton, a brother to the
Governor, who was instructed to assemble this force at Canajoharie on
the Mohawk river by May 12th. The first blow was directed against
the Onondaga village, the most accessible settlement of the hostile
Indians. On April 20th, Clinton advanced swiftly from Fort Schuyler
with about 500 soldiers and surprised the village in the absence of most
of the men, captured thirty-four women and children and burnt every
building there.
The preparations for the main expedition under Sullivan’s com-
mand went on without interruption. Hundreds of boats built for the
purpose were incessantly employed for several months in transporting
supplies to Wyoming, which was selected as the base of operations.
“The expedition you are to command” Washington wrote to
Sullivan on May 3Ist, “is to be directed against the hostile tribes of the
Six Nations, their associates and adherents. The immediate objects
are the total destruction and devastation of their settlements, and the
capture of as many prisoners of every age and sex as possible. It will
be essential to ruin their crops now in the ground and prevent their
planting more.
ee panies should. ee deeched le waste all the
settlements around with instructions to do it in the most effective
manner that the country may not be merely overrun, but destroyed.
394 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
“ After you have very thoroughly completed the destruction of their
settlements, if the Indians should show a disposition for peace, I would
have you encourage it on condition that they will give you some
decisive evidence of their sincerity by delivering up some of the
principal instigators of their past hostility. Butler, Brant, the most
mischievous of the Tories that have joined them or any others that
may be in their power that we are interested to get in ours. They may
possibly be engaged by address, secrecy, and stratagem to surprise the
garrison of Niagara and the shipping on the lakes and put them in our
possession.”
The inroads by Brant upon the Minnesink and by Macdonnell on the
west branch of the Susquehanna were mainly designed to divert
Sullivan from prosecuting his invasion of the country of the Senecas,
but he resolutely refused to detach any portion of his force for the
defence of the frontiers. Finally when all his preparations were com-
plete he advanced on August 11th, to Tioga Point at the confluence
of the Tioga with the Susquehanna where he formed a fortified depot
for his supplies. About the same time Brant with his party returning
from his attack on Minnesink rejoined Colonel Butler at a place called
Chuckmet, or New Town, fourteen miles from Sullivan’s encampment,
where he was endeavouring to assemble the Indians for the defence of
the Seneca towns. A letter written by Brant about this time to
Colonel Daniel Claus has been preserved.
SHIMONG, August 19th, 1779.
“T am deeply afflicted; John Tayojaronsere, my trusty chief, is dead.
He died eight days after he was wounded. Five met the same fate. I
am very much troubled by the event as he was of so much assistance to
me. I destroyed Onawatoge a few days after. We were carrying off
two prisoners. We were overtaken and I was wounded in the foot with
buckshot but it is of small consequence. I am almost well.
“We are in daily expectation of a battle which we think will bea
severe one. We expect to number about 700 to-day. We do not quite
know the number of the Bostonians already stationed about eight miles
from here. We think there are 2,000 besides those at Otsego, repre-
sented to consist of two regiments. This is why there will be a battle
either to-morrow or the day after. Then we shall begin to know what
shall become of the people of the Long House. Our minds have not
changed. We are determined to fight the Bostonians. Of course their
intention is to exterminate the People of the Long House. The Seven
IQOI-2.] JOSEPH BRANT IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 395
Nations will continue to kill and devastate the whole length of the
river we formerly resided on.
“T greet your wife. I hope she is still well and that you yourself
may also be well.”
On the same day that this letter was written Sullivan was joined by
Clinton’s brigade which floated down the Tioga on the crest of an
artificial freshet they had created by damming that river near its source,
and increased his force to above 5,000 effective men. The Indians
became panic-stricken at the appearance of such an overwhelming army
which was attended by a multitude of packhorse drivers and boatmen,
and the majority seemed to think only of placing their families and
moveable property in a place of safety. Butler bitterly complained that
he was unable to assemble more than 300 warriors to resist the enemy’s
advance when their chiefs had promised to join him with at least a
thousand. He had brought with him from Niagara to their support
about three hundred of his corps of rangers and fourteen volunteers
from the detachment of the 8th or King’s Regiment then stationed at
that post. With this comparatively small force be kept up a show of
confidence and assured the faltering chiefs that he hoped to repel the
invaders with the rangers, assisted only by their brethren led by Brant
even if they declined to come to his assistance.
On August 27th, he advanced a few miles nearer the enemy’s camp
and occupied a position selected by the Delawares as the place where
they should await an attack. It was a ridge extending from the river
to the foot of the mountain and covered in front by a large creek, but
was much too extensive to be held by so small a force. The defence of
the right flank in the low ground next the river was entrusted to
Captain John Macdonnell with sixty rangers assisted by Brant with
thirty volunteers from the loyalists and Indians.
Two days later Sullivan advanced ard after cannonading their
position for several hours turned their left flank when the Indians in
that part of the field made such a precipitate retreat that the rangers
and Brant’s volunteers were nearly surrounded before they became
aware of this movement and forced to disperse to effect their escape
which they succeeded in doing with slight loss.
The Indians were so thoroughly dispirited by this affair, which was
called by the Americans the battle of Newtown, although they had lost
only five men killed and nine wounded, that they could not be induced
to make another stand even by the influence and example of Brant and
396 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [Vot. VII.
the Seneca chief Sangerachta, who are described by Butler as having
behaved on all occasions with great courage.and determination.
The victorious army destroyed forty Indian villages with their
adjacent orchards and cornfields but did not succeed in taking more
than a dozen prisoners, and failed to lay waste a considerable part of
the fertile valley of the Genesee, whither the Indians retreated. Brant
continued during these operations to watch their movements with great
vigilance but his sole success was the destruction of an isolated party of
thirty men under a Lieut. Boyd.
On September 8th, Butler reported that the enemy had taken
possession of Canadasaga, the principal Seneca village the day before.
“ Joseph Brant who stayed to reconnoitre says that to all appearances
they cannot be less than 3,000.”
Two days later he stated that Sangerachta had gone with Brant to
meet the chiefs at Genesee. “There is a very good understanding
between them and they concur with each other on every occasion.”
“Shortly after Lieut.-Colonel Mason Bolton, the commandant at
Niagara, reported that the Indians are extremely dissatisfied that
troops have not been sent to Oswego or this [post] notwithstanding all
the efforts of Major Butler, Sangerachta and Joseph Brant to keep them
in line.”
In his next letter (September 17th) Bolton remarked that “ Joseph
Brant who upon all occasions deserves everything that I can say in his
favour, has just arrived. Sangerachta has behaved extremely well. He
has great weight with the Six Nations. Joseph some time ago was not
on the best terms with him. They had their quarrels like other great
men.”
Early in October Brant again returned to Niagara from the Seneca
country and reported that the invaders had retired to Wyoming. By
this time, Sir John Johnson had arrived there with a reinforcement of
four hundred troops from Montreal, and after a consultation with
Colonel Bolton sailed for Oswego with the intention of attempting a
raid upon the Mohawk valley. Bolton stated that “Joseph with a
number of the Six Nations went by land to the Three Rivers, the place
of rendezvous, determined, I believe, to cut off the Oneida village and
attempt something more if opportunity offers, but as the season is so
far advanced I think it scarcely possible.”
1901-2. ] JOSEPH BRANT IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 397
His forecast proved correct. Foul weather set in and continued
until the expedition was abandoned and Brant returned to Niagara on
November 15th.
Snow fell that winter to an extraordinary depth and many Indian
women and children perished miserably from cold and famine mainly
in consequence of the devastation of their settlements. The animosity
of the Indians against their enemies was thus greatly intensified.
Guy Johnson arrived at Fort Niagara late in the autumn and
superseded Butler in control of the Indian Department. About the
middle of February Brant was despatched to the frontier with Captain
Hendrick Nelles, Lieut. Joseph Clement, twelve white volunteers,
and 220 Indians. This was much the largest force he had yet com-
manded and he began operations by forming a close blockade of Fort
Schuyler, by which the garrison was reduced to great distress. There is
no record of his movements for several months, but the following
manifesto has been preserved which is dated at the Delaware on
April 10, 1780.
“That your Bostonians (a/zas Americans) may be certified of my
conduct towards all those whom I have captured in these parts know
that I have taken off with me but a small number. Many have I
released. Neither were the weak and helpless subjected to death, for it
is a shame to destroy those who are defenceless. This has been
uniformly my conduct during the war. These being my sentiments
you have exceedingly angered me by threatening or distressing those
who may be considered as prisoners. Ye are (or once were) brave men.
I shall certainly destroy without distinction does the like conduct take
place in future.”
At the end of April Brant was still out, but had sent in Lieut.
Clement for supplies, and he does not seem to have returned to Niagara
until the end of June when he reported that the Oneidas were prepared
to abandon the rebels on the first favourable opportunity.
Early in July he marched out again “with a strong party of
warriors” with the intention of raiding the few remaining settlements in
the Mohawk valley. On August 8th Bolton reported his first success.
“ Joseph has paid a visit to the Oneida village which with the fort
he set on fire. One hundred of them are now on their way to this post
and the rest thought it proper to retire to Fort Stanwix which obliged
him and his party of 370 men to march with all expedition possible
398 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
towards the Mohawk river as there was no doubt but that an express
would be sent off to alarm the inhabitants.”
Three days later Guy Johnson furnished additional details.
“Captain Brant has already effected a very good piece of service
and is advancing against the rebel frontiers. On his march from hence
he came upon the only remaining Indian village, sixteen miles from
Fort Stanwix. He found the village abandoned but met some Indians
who told him they had returned through fear of parties of strange
Indians with many other particulars in which it appeared they had
deceived him for they soon deserted and gave notice to the garrison of
Fort Stanwix. Captain Brant then burnt the rebel fort at the village
with other buildings and marched to the Indians below Fort Stanwix
where he met the Oneidas in camp and called upon them to follow the
example of the rest of their people and return to the British Govern-
ment. About 100 replied that it was their desire and they are now
partly come into this place. The small remainder ran towards Fort
Stanwix which they reached except two who were shot. He then drew
towards the fort where he proposes to remain a few days to deceive the
rebels and then proceed against the frontiers. The fort burnt by that
party was a great inconvenience to us, and its destruction with the
return of the Indians to their true alliance will distress the rebels
and lay that route open to our parties.
“Lieut. Clement has just arrived express from Captain Brant. He
has destroyed and taken so many cattle with what may be expected
from his having subdivided his party who are gone against other places,
must be severely felt by the rebels along that country. This occurred
about the 2nd inst.
“ Lieut. Clement reports that Captain Brant has burnt and destroyed
the Oneida village of Conowaroharie with the rebel fort and village, and
retired somewhat to deceive the enemy. They proceeded to the
Mohawk river with about 300 Indians and arrived at the settlement
called the Kley’s Barrack about 10 o’clock a.m., on August 2nd, which
having reconnoitred, he and the chief warriors thought proper to detach
David Karacanty with the greater part of the Indians to make a detour
and suddenly attack Fort Plank, while Joseph and the remainder should
come on directly and prevent any scattering parties from taking shelter
in the fort. In this they were disappointed by the too great eagerness
of the Indians to take prisoners, who scattered and alarmed the settle-
ment, by which a considerable number of men got into the fort which
1901-2. | JOSEPH BRANT IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 399
made an attack inexpedient, as it was well fortified and had two pieces
of cannon mounted. Disappointed in this they advanced to the upper
part of the settlement where the rebels had a fort at the house of
Hendrick Waldrod which they abandoned. This they immediately
burned, and scattering, the Indians destroyed houses till they came to
Elias Map’s where they had another picketted fort which they likewise
burned. The extent of the settlement destroyed was on the Mohawk
river in length above two miles and above five in breadth, and contain-
ing above 100 houses, two mills, a church and two forts. They took
and killed about 300 black cattle and 200 horses besides hogs, poultry,
etc., and destroyed a considerable quantity of grain of different kinds.
The number of rebels killed and prisoners amounts to about 45. Captain
Brant released a number of women and children and having effected
this he retired to Butlers Mills about three days since. With the
greater part of the Indians he intends to pay the rebels another visit
before their return, for which purpose they have divided into seven
- parties.”
These detachments marched by separate routes against Schoharie,
Cherry Valley, and the German Flats, where they took many prisoners,
destroyed buildings, and created intense alarm.
By one of these parties Brant transmitted a threatening message to a
militia officer at Schoharie which has been preserved in the Clinton
Papers.
“T understand my friends Hendrick Nuff and Cook are taken
prisoners near at Esopus. I would be glad if you will be so kind as
to let those people know that took them not to use my friends too hard,
for if they will use them hard and hurt them I will certainly pay for it,
for we have severai rebels in our hands [which] makes [me] mention this
for it would be disagreeable for me to hurt my prisoners. Therefore I
hope they will not force me.”
Early in September General Haldimand determined to despatch two
strong expeditions against the frontier of New York, which were designed
to advance simultaneously, one from Crown Point towards Albany, the
other from Oswego upon the Mohawk valley. The objects of these
movements, he stated, were “to divide the strength that may be brought
against Sir H. Clinton, to favour any operations his present situation may
enable him to carry out as well as to destroy the enemy’s supplies from
the late plentiful harvest and to give His Majesty’s loyal subjects an
opportunity of retiring to this Province.”
400 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
Lieut.-Colonel Butler, with 200 rangers and 220 regular troops from
the garrison of Niagara, was directed to join Sir John Johnson at Oswego
and act under his orders. His instructions forbade him to take “a single
man who is not a good marcher and capable of bearing fatigue. I hope
Joseph is returned,” the Governor added, “as I would by all means have
him employed on this service.”
Contrary winds prevented Butler from arriving at Oswego until
October Ist, and by that time the garrisons on the Mohawk were warned
by their Indian spies that he had sailed from Niagara on an expedition
of some kind. It was not until daybreak on the 17th that the weary
column, commanded by Sir John Johnson, passed the fort at the head of
Schoharie, having made a long detour through the wilderness for the
purpose of attacking the enemy in an entirely unexpected quarter, and
swept along the west bank of that stream down to the Mohawk, burning
every building and stack of grain as they went along. Sir John then
“detached Captain Thompson of the rangers and Captain Brant with
about 150 rangers and Indians to destroy the settlement at Fort Hunter
on the east side of Schoharie Creek, which they effected without opposition,
the inhabitants having fled into the fort.” Advancing swiftly up the
Mohawk the invaders laid waste the country on both sides until midnight,
when utterly exhausted they halted at the narrow pass called “the
Nose” to snatch a few hours’ sleep. Before daybreak they were again on
the march and soon encountered Colonel Brown with 360 men from Stone
Arabia who attempted to check their further progress. While the
detachments of the 8th and 34th Regiments advanced directly upon the
front of the enemy’s position, Brant with a party of Indians made a
circuit through the woods to turn their right flank, and Captain John
Macdonnell led a body of rangers in the opposite direction to turn their
left. The position was carried with trifling loss to the assailants, while
Colonel Brown was killed and about a hundred of his men killed or taken.
Johnson reported that “Captain Macdonnell and Captain Brant exerted
themselves on this occasion in a manner that did them honour and
contributed greatly to our success. Captain Brant received a flesh wound
in the sole of his foot near his former wound.”
Before night they were forced to fight a sharp rear-guard action with
a pursuing force of more than a thousand men under General Van
Rensselaer. They turned upon their assailants, drove them from their
position and crossed the river unmolested. During their raid they had
destroyed thirteen gristmills, many sawmills, a thousand houses and about
the same number of barns, containing, it was estimated, 600,000 bushels
1901-2. | JOSEPH BRANT IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 401
of grain. The severity of the blow from a military point of view was
freely acknowledged by their enemies.
James Madison wrote from Philadelphia on November 14th, 1780 :—
“The inroads of the enemy on the frontiers of New York have been
most fatal tous in this respect. They have almost totally ruined that fine
wheat country which was able, and from the energy of the government
was likely, to supply magazines of flour both to the main army and the
northwestern posts. The settlement of Schoharie which alone was able
to furnish, according to a letter from General Washington, 80,000 bushels
of grain for public use has been totally laid in ashes.”
Brant returned to Niagara where he remained about two months to
recover from the effects of his wound, but on the first day of February he
again marched for the Mohawk river at the head of 185 Onondagas and
Oneidas, accompanied by thirty rangers under the command of Lieut.
John Bradt, a nephew of Colonel Butler, and Volunteer Hare. “He was
instructed to blockade Fort Stanwix and observe the motions of the
enemy generally. The perils and hardships of such an expedition had
been vastly increased by the destruction of the Indian villages and the
devastation of the border settlements, as Colonel Johnson pointed out.
“This post (Niagara) is unluckily at a great distance from the rebels
settlements, which not only occasions delay, but causes each party to
carry three weeks or a month’s provisions as (since the loss of the Indian
towns,) none can be had by the way. The Mohawk river has ceased to
be an object as being almost totally ruined.”
They arrived one day too late to intercept a convoy of provisions, but
cut off a party of soldiers sent out from the fort to cut wood of whom
was one killed and sixteen captured. After lurking in the vicinity for
several weeks, they returned to Niagara on March 17th.
By this time reports had been received from Detroit that parties of
frontiersmen from Pennsylvania and Virginia had been directed to
assemble at various stations on the Ohio river, under the command of
Colonel George Rogers Clark, with the avowed intention of invading the
territory of the Western Indians and possibly attacking that post.
Colonel Guy Johnson accordingly determined to despatch Brant with an
escort of seventeen young Seneca warriors to deliver “a speech and belt
[of wampum] to the Indians there and also to the Shawanese villages, to
encourage them to act with vigour and to watch the enemy’s motions,
with the promise of such aid as time and circumstances will permit
from hence,”
402 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII.
For some time Brant had received pay as commanding officer of a
corps known as “ Captain Brant’s Volunteers,” composed partly of white
men and partly of Indians, but soon found that this station impaired
his influence among his own people.
Brigadier General Watson Powell, who succeeded Colonel Bolton in
command at Fort Niagara, wrote to General Haldimand on May
15th, 1781 :-—
“1 do not think Captain Brant is quite pleased with his situation, as
he told me the day before he went off that he wished to give up his
company. I believe he would be happier and have more influence with
the Indians which he in some measure forfeits by their knowing that he
receives pay.”
He added that Brant was very anxious to go to Oswego, where a
British post had lately been established and make it his base of
operations as soon as he returned.
Brant and his party sailed for Detroit in one of the armed vessels on
Lake Erie about the middle of April, and on the 26th of that month
Major De Peyster, attended by the officers of the garrison, held a council
with a number of the chiefs and warriors of the Hurons, Ottawas,
Pottawatonies, and Miamis at which they declared their firm deter-
mination to support the Shawanese who were believed to be the first
object of the enemy’s attack.
Brant’s speech at this council is thus reported :—
“The-ya-en-dinega (aézas) Capt. Brandt addressed himself to the
several Indian nations and said :—
“T am pleased to find that you are ready to assist your brethren the
Shawanese. You see me here. I am sent upon business of importance
to your several nations. I shall follow you and your father to the camp
that is to be formed at Sandusky at which place I shall deliver to you
the speeches of the Six Nations in presence of the Ohio Confederacy
who will be there. I hope when you are acquainted with the contents of
my embassy, it may furnish means to unite you more strongly in the
cause we are mutually engaged, and continue our friendly intercourse as
the meeting will be general.” (Haldimand Papers, B 123, p. 27).
Scarcely had the council dissolved when a messenger arrived from
Sandusky with the alarming report that a strong body of the enemy,
under Colonel Brodhead, had surprised and destroyed the Delaware
village of Cooshocking and had then divided into two parties which
1901-2. ] JOSEPH BRANT IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 403
were supposed to be advancing upon Sandusky by different routes.
Brant immediately marched with his small party to the assistance of the
Hurons at that place and was soon followed by Captain Andrew
Thompson with a company of Butler’s Rangers.
Shortly after Brant’s arrival at Upper Sandusky he addressed the
following letter to Captain Matthew Elliot and Isidore Chene, the Huron
interpreter, who had remained at the village near the mouth of the river
known as Lower Sandusky.
“ UPPER SANDUSKY, May roth, 1781.
SIR,—This is to acquaint you that we received an account last night
from Moravian Town that there is two thousand rebels coming to this
place in four parties, each of them five hundred. They intended to
meet together about two days’ journey from this place. Two of the
Moravian Indians brought this news. If this is true they can’t be now
far off from this place. But I think you had better remain still where
you are till you hear from us again, because the news is not certain yet
until our spies return. Sir, I will be very glad if you can send me five
gallons of rum by the bearer, I mean if you can do it conveniently, also, I
wish you to spare me eight pieces of pork. George Girty and an
Indian just arrived from the Shawanese towns brought a string of
wampum message from those different nations, that they would be glad
if they could get some of the ammunition as soon as possible, which
Major De Peyster promised them, and also would be happy if the Major
would send some of his men to assist them, because they are now sure
the enemy will soon get into this country. They think if he does not
send men immediately it will be too late as it happened last summer.
They have sent four different parties for spies but [they] are not yet
returned. They are doing according to the Major’s desire. This is the
purport of their message. I leave it to yourselves whether you will let
Major De Peyster know this news or not. Do what you think is best.
It would not be amiss if you could get a few horses and send some of
the ammunition to this place.
I wish you to do all you can to encourage the Indians that came
from Detroit who are not yet tired of staying there for it won’t be long
before we shall meet the enemy. No more at present.
I remain your
Sincere friend and humble servant,
Jos. BRANT.
(Haldimand Papers, B 101, p. 73).
404 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
Brant appears to have remained at Sandusky for several weeks until
it was definitely known that a considerable body of the enemy was
descending the Ohio in boats with the design, it was supposed, of
attacking the Shawanese villages near Chillicothe and thence advancing
upon Detroit. Captain Thompson with his company of rangers and
Brant and McKee at the head of a body of Mingos and Hurons
hastened to the assistance of the Shawanese. From Chillicothe Brant
and George Girty went forward with a small party to the confluence of
the Big Miami and the Ohio, to watch the movements of the enemy.
Their initial success was reported by Brant in a letter to McKee
dated “about ten mile below the mouth of the Big Miami river,
August 2Ist, 1781.”
“Three nights ago we layed at the mouth of the Miamies river.
We heard a number of boats pass but we could not tell how many for it
was dark. When they go past the mouth [they] fired cannon. We
was going to attack them but we could not. We suppose [them] to be
Clark’s army. I [have] been at the Bone Lick yesterday to see whether
he was there, but I could see no sign of it.
“ This morning we saw a boat coming down the river and got ready
ourselves and took the boat with seven men, one major amongst them,
of militia, Cracrath, who was following Clark as he is gone down sure
enough and has about three hundred and fifty men with him. They
[are] deserting from him very fast. The prisoners do not know who
far Clark is gone down the river. They suppose [him] to be at the
Falls. Likewise the prisoners says there is one hundred and fifty men
coming down the river with ten small boats, one large one and one still
larger horse boat [with a] number of them in it, which is expected to be
here next day after to-morrow the longest. They was at the Three
Islands five days ago. We are about ninety strong at present with
different tribes. These Indians and chiefs particular desires you and
the Indians that is with you to come on as fast as possibly you can to
join this party. Whilst the enemy are scattered we can easy manage
them. And further desires [an] express should be sent to different
Indian villages, for every man of them should come immediately to this
place for there is no signs, any other party can go against the Indians
except Clark as the prisoners say there is no other can be sent. No
more at present, please to excuse my writing, I wrote in a hurry.
“ Please let all the Indians know if they don’t corne to assist us we
[are] determined to attack the enemy as well as we can.” (Haldimand
Papers, B. 182, p. 424.)
1gor-2. | JOSEPH BRANT IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 405
The detachment that they then lay in wait for consisted of one
hundred of the “best men of Westmoreland County ” in Pennsylvania,
including a small company of rangers, under the command of Colonel
Archibald Lochry, the lieutenant or commandant of the militia of that
county. On August 24th, Lochry’s flotilla arrived in the vicinity of
the spot where Brant’s party lay in ambush and observing an _ inviting
natural meadow on the Indiana shore he ordered his men to land there
for the purpose of cooking provisions and cutting grass for their horses.
While thus employed they were surprised and driven to their boats but
their escape was prevented by a party of Indians in canoes. The entire
corps was cut off. Lochry and six other officers and thirty privates
were killed, and twelve officers and fifty-two men were made prisoners
including Craycraft’s party.
A few days later Brant was joined by Thompson and McKee with
all the men they could assemble at the Shawanese villages, and the
united force proceeded down the Ohio in the hope of overtaking
Colonel Clark. They had advanced within thirty miles of Louisville
where it was reported that he was awaiting Lochry’s arrival, with the
intention of attacking him in his camp when they found that so many
of their Indian followers had deserted and returned to their homes, that
they were obliged to abandon this design and resolved to attack some
of the smaller forts in Kentucky instead. On arriving at the main road
leading from Louisville to the upper forts, a party of Miami Indians
who formed their advance guard surprised and captured a convoy of
wagons escorted by a party of horsemen, several of whom were killed.
An ambush was formed near the scene of this attack and next day they
entrapped a strong party of Kentucky militia led by Colonel Floyd, the
lieutenant of the county. Floyd and forty of his men were killed and
a number taken prisoners with the loss of only four Indians.
During this expedition Brant accidentally wounded himself in the
leg with his own sword and was consequently obliged to remain for the
winter at Detroit where he was joined by his wife who came from
Niagara to nurse him.
Late in April, 1782, he arrived at Fort Erie in the first vessel from
Detroit, accompanied by the small band of Seneca warriors who had
followed him during his western campaign. Soon after his return to
Fort Niagara he consented to go to Oswego although he stated that he
would have preferred to join the Shawanese again with whom he
thought his services would have been more effective, and on June 24th
12
406 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
he embarked in one of the armed vessels on Lake Ontario for that post
with about 200 warriors.
At this time his relations with the officers of the Indian Department
do not seem to have been very satisfactory, as General Watson Powell
wrote a few days after his departure :—
“T am sorry to say there have been frequent complaints since I
came here that Captain Brant was a great expense to the Government
and more difficult to please than any of the chiefs, and more particularly
since his return from Detroit.”
After Brant’s arrival at Oswego there was practically a cessation of
hostilities all along the New York frontier and the garrison of that
place undertook no offensive operations. In September, 1782, he
accompanied Sir John Johnson and Colonel Hope in a tour of
inspection by way of the Ottawa and French rivers to Mackinac and
Detroit. From the latter post he went with Captain Potts of the 8th
Regiment to the mouth of the Miami river on Lake Erie to select a
site for a new military post and proceeded to Sandusky to meet
Captain McKee on his return from another raid into Kentucky which
had culminated in the battle of the Blue Licks.
After his return to Niagara his dissatisfaction seems to have greatly
increased as he wrote to Sir John Johnson in the following terms on
Christmas Day, 1782 :—
“ T have been very uneasy since we had the news of the Shawanese’
misfortunes who fell into the hands of the white savages, the Virginians,
and did alarm the Five Nations greatly and made them to hold
councils about the matter and make speeches to the General but badly
translated into English. We, the Indians, wish to have the blow
returned on the enemy as soon as possible, but I am afraid it will again
be a trifling affair when our speech gets below, which is too often the
case, which will be a very vexatious affair, because we think the rebels
will ruin us at last if we go on as we do, one year after another, doing
nothing only destroying the government goods and they crying out all
the while for the great expenses, so we are, as it were, between two hells.
I am sure you will assist all you can to let us have an expedition early in
the spring, let it be a great or small one. Let us not hang our heads
between our knees and be looking there. I beg of you, don’t tell us to go
hunt deer and find yourselves shoes because we shall soon forget the
war for we are gone too far that way already against the rebels to be
doing other things. I have changed my mind since my arrival here.
19OI-2. } JOSEPH BRANT IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 407
You know I was very sparing of the Indian officers to be struck off. I
am writing now to be; so if you do leave few, a little department, you
will save so much money. Government may be able again to give the
warriors proper clothing as they formerly had. You never saw such
confusion in the department, nothing equal to at present.
“My complaint in the ear is still bad but I hope I shall be able to
get out this winter to the Mohawk river. I will try to be at Oswego in
thirty days’ time or little more. I am as much forward to go to war as
T ever did but I am not so well contented as I used to be formerly,
because the warriors are in want. They are treated worse instead of
better. I shall tell you the particulars if you should want to know why
I write you so.”
Some months later Colonel Allan Maclean, of the Royal Highland
Emigrants, who had succeeded General Powell in the command of Fort
Niagara, observed that “ Captain Joseph Brant, though a brave fellow
who has been a faithful, active subject to the King, has been the most
troublesome because he is better instructed and more intelligent than
any other Indian.”
The dissatisfaction of the Indians had by that time greatly increased
upon learning the proposed terms of peace by which they considered
that their interests were sacrificed.
The war was at anend. Brant’s reputation as a successful partisan
stood high both among friends and enemies. None of the leaders of
the Indians had been so actively and continuously engaged, and none
had been so uniformly distinguished by courage and ability.
1900-2. } THE BEGINNING OF MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN ONTARIO. 409
THE BEGINNING OF MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN
ONTARIO.
By PROF. ADAM SHORTT, QUEEN’S UNIVERSITY.
(Read rath April, 1902.)
AFTER the conquest of Canada, very satisfactory progress was being
made towards the converting of the country into an English colony, by
methods very similar to those which had worked so successfully in the
colony of New York, originally a Dutch settlement. But, unfortunately
for this promising development of a united Canada, difficulties arose
between the mother country and the older colonies. The nature of the
rights claimed by the colonists, proved to the majority of the ruling
party in Britain that full British rights and liberties, even as they were
in those days, were quite inconsistent with the retention of the colonies
in that condition of submissive dependence, which was called for by the
colonial system of the time. The object of this system was to foster the
colonies, not with a view to their own good, but with a view to the good
of the mother country. Nevertheless, it was honestly believed by many
of its advocates, that, in serving the purposes of the mother country, the
colonies would share in her prosperity and greatness, and obtain all the
benefits that were possible to people who had abandoned the political.
social, and other privileges of the home land for the greater material
gain, but necessarily inferior life of the colonies.
As the difficulties with the colonies increased, the conviction grew
that the colonists had been permitted to usurp many liberties, which
were quite inconsistent with their dependent position. It was freely
admitted by many that France and Spain, not England, had dealt wisely
with their colonies in keeping them in due subjection.
Possessed of such convictions, and with a view to employing the
joint French-Canadian and Indian forces as a rod of correction to bring
the arrogant colonists to a due sense of their inferior status in the
empire, every one of the numerous measures, then either in operation or
preparation, for the Anglicizing of Canada was abandoned. All the or-
dinances passed after the Conquest were repealed by the Quebec Act,
which re-established in its purity the French-Canadian civil laws and
410 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
institutions. Only the English criminal law was retained, since it would
afford, it was thought, a better hold upon the people, it being much
more severe than the French criminal law.’
This reactionary attitude on the part of the British Government,
which was responsible for the loss of the American colonies, requires
special attention in connection with the subject before us, since it serves
to account for the peculiar attitude of the colonial governors towards the
self-governing aspirations of the loyalists and others who afterwards
settled in the western districts.
The more intelligent loyalists and early settlers, while refusing, from
circumstances or conviction, to break with the Home Government, were
not by any means prepared to endorse its views with reference to the
entire subordination of the colonies to the wishes of the mother country.
No sooner, therefore, were the loyalists settled in the newer districts of
Canada, than the Government began to be bombarded with their claims
for British rights and British institutions.”
Haldimand, Dorchester and Simcoe, the governors who first had to
deal with them, all complain of the independent spirit which they
manifested. While it cannot be denied that the governors had much
cause for resentment at the turbulent arrogance of many of the loyalist
troops and some of their officers, when disbanded, yet they showed no
little suspicion as to the real loyalty of the best of them.? Both Haldi-
mand and Dorchester strongly favoured the retention of the whole col-
ony, including the loyalist settlements, under the French-Canadian laws
and institutions established by the Quebec Act. They professed to fear
another revolution as the natural and inevitable consequence of granting
them British freedom ; and in this they were probably not far astray,
assuming that their views of what a colony should be were correct.
Dorchester’s experience, however, at length compelled the reluctant
admission that, owing to the temper of the people, together with the
example before them of the late colonies now enjoying their British
institutions in independence, it would be impossible to retain the
loyalists and others under the French-Canadian system.‘
1 See the correspondence of Governors Carleton and Cramahe with the Home Government. Canadian
Archives, Vols. Q. 5 to Q. 11. Also the Debates on the Quebec Act, from the notes of Sir Henry Caven-
dish, London, 1839.
2 Numerous references to this subject are scattered throughout the state papers of the period. See
more particularly, Canadian Archives, Vols. Q. 24, 25, 27.
3 Among many official papers in the Canadian Archives bearing on this subject, see the collections of
despatches relating to the settling of the loyalists, in the Haldimand papers, Vols. B. 63 and 64.
4 See various despatches in Canadian Archives, as in Vols. Q. 39 and 42.
1go1-2. | THE BEGINNING OF MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN ONTARIO. 4it
He took part, therefore, in framing, or at least revising the Consti-
tutional Act of 1791, which made possible the adoption of English laws
and institutions in Upper Canada. But when we come to look into that
act, we observe that the greater part of it is taken up with provisions for
establishing an hereditary political aristocracy and an episcopal state
church.
It was a firm conviction with the high Tory party of the time, that
had the colonies been supplied with an hereditary landed aristocracy
and a well-endowed state church, there never would have been any
revolution in them.’ Hence, great care was taken by the authors of the
Constitutional Act, to make very special provision for these two
bulwarks of monarchical rule.
Having thus briefly outlined the situation to be occupied by the early
settlers of Western Canada, we are in a better position to understand the
peculiar circumstances attending the attempts to introduce local or
municipal government in Upper Canada.
It was at once natural and inevitable that those loyalists who had
really exercised full citizenship in the colonies, should seek to reproduce
here the various customs and institutions economic, religious, social and
political, to which they had been accustomed in the colonies before the
Revolution. While, therefore, the Government might look askance
upon these institutions as the real cause of the Revolution, the loyalists,
nevertheless, cherished them as the very essence of the British system
as they had known it. To these things they had remained loyal, for
these they had fought and suffered. We can imagine their feelings,
therefore, on being told that all these laws and institutions were illegal,
that to be good British subjects they must give up all that they had
hitherto valued as the very essence of the British system, and adopt a
French-Canadian system, which they had hitherto regarded as of all
things the most alien. To accept the laws and institutions of a
conqueror might indeed be hard, but must be expected as the natural
sequel of conquest. But how little to be expected that those who had
followed the British flag should lose more completely the essentials of
British freedom than those who had remained in the revolted colonies ?
The supposition could hardly be taken seriously, it was too bad to be
true.
Being for some time engaged in procuring the merest necessaries of
life, and laying foundations for future property, interpretations of the
1 See, among other literature of the period, Knox’s Extra Official State Papers, Vol. II., pp. 21, 30,
23, etc.
412 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VIL.
civil law, and the services of a local administration were not much in
request, and their want was not felt. Criminal law was more in demand
for the punishment of breaches of the peace, and the criminal law was
English. Only on one point did the first British-American settlers
come into direct contact with French-Canadian institutions, and that
was in the tenure of their lands. These were granted only on the
French-Canadian feudal basis, with all the obligations and restrictions
which that involved. This, therefore, was the burden of the first com-
plaints which poured in upon the Government. A little later the settlers
began to express a desire for those institutions of local government to
which they had been accustomed, and which in some sections they were
tentatively reproducing before there was any legal sanction for them.
What, then, was the nature of those municipal institutions which the
people sought to introduce ?
There were two quite distinct types of local government developed
in the American colonies. Their differences chiefly depended upon the
character and circumstances of the immigrants from Britain, who laid
the colonial foundations.’
The New England colonists of different migrations were almost
entirely drawn from the middle classes of the mother country, and
especially from those districts in which the Puritanic spirit had been
strongly developed. But Puritanism is simply a general expression for
a type of mind characterized by independence of thought, and conse-
quently of action, in the various departments of practical life, whether
religious, social, economic or political. Where almost the whole of the
social fabric was composed of such people, and especially in a new
country, self-government in general, and local government in particular
were inevitable.
The settlers of New England, being very largely of the same social
class, and having few or no servants, maintained their individuality, and
exercised with the freedom of a new country those local rights and
privileges which they had introduced from England.
In the southern colonies, on the other hand, of which Virginia was
the special type, the settlers were mainly of the middle and upper
classes, with less of the Puritanic strain. Moreover, they soon obtained
from Britain a large element of the lower class in the capacity of
servants. These were much inferior to their masters in moral fibre,
t For an excellent summary of the municipal institutions of the American Colonies, see ‘‘ Town and
County Government in the English Colonies of North America, by Edward Channing, Ph.D., Johns
Hopkins University Studies in History and Political Science, Second Series, Vol. X., 1884.
1991-2. | THE BEGINNING OF MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN ONTARIO. 413
intelligence, enterprise and strength of character generally. Later the
planters obtained negroes as servants, and the whites, gradually
emancipated from service, yet remained for the most part in a backward
condition as a permanent lower social order. Under these circumstances
the superior white minority asserted and secured the right to rule in
local as well as central affairs.
The other colonies exhibited various modifications or combinations
of these two types, according to their social structure, or their contact
with New England or Virginia.
The majority of the loyalists and other settlers in Upper Canada
came from New York colony, with smaller proportions from the
adjoining colonies of Pennsylvania, New Jersey and New England. In
these regions the New England type of local government prevailed.
The local unit of the New England system was the old English
parish or town, with officers who were at once civil and ecclesiastical,
and who combined in themselves legislative, executive and judicial
functions.
The New England parish or town, in its town meeting, had power to
legislate on all matters of purely local interest, affecting the everyday
life and comfort of the people ; and its legislation, expressed in by-laws,
was executed by officers of its own. The town had certain duties with
reference to the parish church, the relief of the poor, and the oversight
of the public morals. These duties were performed by the wardens,
usually termed church wardens, though they were really civil officers.
The town clerk kept a record of the proceedings of the town meetings.
The constables looked after the peace and protection of the town, and
raised hue and cry in pursuit of offenders.
There were also overseers of the highways who attended to the
maintenance of the roads and levied a labour tax for that purpose. Other
officers were the assessor and collector of the taxes, fence viewers and
pound keepers. There was also a body of select men, corresponding to
our present town or township councillors, having a general oversight of
town matters, with power to act in emergencies. All these officers were
elected annually at the general town meeting.
The Court of Quarter Sessions, which was early established in the
colonies, was mainly a court of justice in New England. Nevertheless,
all regulations made by the select men of the town had to obtain the
sanction of the Court of Quarter Sessions before being regarded as legal,
The Quarter Sessions also had the duty of laying out all the highways
414 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
in the county, though the several towns undertook their opening up and
maintenance. From this body, too, licenses were to be obtained by the
keepers of public houses. It also levied certain rates for the support of
its own officers and functions, and apportioned these rates to the several
townships. The executive officer of the Court, for the county, was the
sheriff, who was appointed by the governor. For militia purposes the
colony was divided into shires, for each of which a lieutenant was
appointed, whose duty it was to call out the militia.
In Virginia the shire, or county, was the central unit of local govern-
ment, presided over by a lieutenant, corresponding to the Lord
Lieutenant of an English county, and appointed by the governor-in-
council. There was also a sheriff, with sergeants and bailiffs as required.
Then there were the county courts, composed of justices of the peace,
corresponding to the Courts of Quarter Sessions of New England, but
with much more extensive municipal authority. They exercised most
of the powers allotted in New England to the town meeting and the
select men. Thus the county court, which met monthly, had power to
erect and keep in repair the court house and jail, it had sole charge of
the highways and bridges, and let contracts for their construction ; it
divided the county into walks or precincts, over which surveyors were
appointed, corresponding to our pathmasters, who called upon the
people for their quotas of labour. The court also appointed constables,
and as in New England, licensed inn-keepers. The poor were looked
after in Virginia by the Church, through its vestry and church wardens,
the latter being two in number, appointed by the vestry from among
themselves. In this connection it is interesting to note that New York,
and after it Upper Canada, combined both systems, the town meeting
electing one church warden, and the parson appointing the other.
Inasmuch as the justices of the peace were appointed by the governor-
in-council, the local administration of Virginia was in no way dependent
upon the will of the people in general, whereas, in New England, local
government was very directly dependent upon the people. In Upper
Canada, as we shall see, the people sought to obtain the New England
system, while the governor and council endeavoured to fasten upon them
the Virginia system.
Having thus briefly summed up the two typical forms of local
government in the American colonies before the Revolution, we are in a
position to understand whence came much of the peculiar combination
which was afterwards found in Upper Canada.
In New York colony the population was made up of very hetero-
1901-2. | THE BEGINNING OF MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN ONTARIO. 415
geneous elements, as regards nationality and creed, hence the ecclesias-
tical features of the New England system are wanting. On the other
hand, the powers of the Court of Quarter Sessions were more extensive
than in New England, though much less so than in Virginia. While,
therefore, in most parts of New York the town meeting was a very
important institution, yet it had a narrower field of operation, being
encroached upon in this respect by the Court of Quarter Sessions. It is
this modification of the New England system which we should naturally
expect to find reproduced in Canada.
After the Quebec Act, which uprooted all previously planted British
institutions, and the American invasion, which prevented the operation
of almost any civil government, the governor and council once more set
to work to build up a system of courts and local administration, in
accordance with the re-established French-Canadian laws. Little pro-
gress, however, was made in the latter field before the arrival of the
loyalists in 1785. Throughout the war, a steady stream of refugees
sought the protection and aid of the British Government in Canada.
The first regular body of loyalists, strictly so called, was brought in and
settled under military leadership. Governor Haldimand had expected
to superintend their settlement himself, but being engaged in other
quarters, he assigned the task to Sir John Johnson in May, 1784. Ina
couple of private letters to Johnson, he stated that he intended to
recommend him for the position of Lieutenant-Governor and Commander
of the Western District, and Superintendent General of all the refugee
loyalists to be settled there.' Though this plan was not realized, yet in
July, 1784, Johnson was appointed to superintend the settling of the
loyalists and Indians in the new district.
In order that the leaders might have adequate authority to deal with
such legal matters as were connected with the settlement and the
keeping of the peace, magistrates’ commissions were given to Sir John
Johnson, Maj. De Lancey, Maj. Holland, Maj. Ross, Maj. Jessup, and
Mr. Collins, who were thus constituted the first justices of the peace for
the new settlements.’
As already stated, these settlements were to be established under
French-Canadian law, and the lands granted under the French feudal
tenure. The dividing of the district into townships had nothing to do
with legal administration or local government, but was entirely a matter
of convenience in surveying the territory and recording the lots of land.
1 Canadian Archives, B. 65, pp. 22 and 29,
2 Canadian Archives, B. 65, p. 28.
416 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [ VoL. VII.
Express instructions were issued that the townships should not be
named, but merely numbered ; they were not even to be referred to as
townships, but as Royal Seigneuries.. Thus did the government seek
in advance to head off the distrusted town meeting.
In dealing with the malcontents among the loyalists, Haldimand,
writing on August 20th, 1784, recommends to Major Ross, then in
command at Cataraqui, to employ the civil power as far as possible, and
adds that he will send up commissions of the peace for Major Van
Alstine and Captain Sherwood, which he believes, in addition to those
already sent, will make a sufficient number.’
As yet these justices were merely peace officers, there were still no
Courts of Quarter Sessions. In all matters not permitted to be disposed
of in a summary manner by one or more magistrates, recourse must be
had to the courts at Montreal. But in the following year, 1785, an
ordinance was passed “ for granting a limited civil power and jurisdiction
to His Majesty’s Justices of the Peace in the remote parts of this
Province.”
Meanwhile, the magistrates and chief men of the settlements, headed
by Sir John Johnson, began to send in those petitions already referred
to, for relief from the French-Canadian system, and for more extended
local administration. In their petition of April 11th, 1785, sent directly
to the King in London, they submitted a plan for the government of the
new settlements. In brief, it provides for the forming of the territory,
from Point Beaudet westward, into a district distinct from the Province
of Quebec. It was to be placed under the direction of a-lieutenant-
governor and council, subordinate, however, to the governor and council
in Quebec. This district, having Cataraqui as its metropolis, was to be
subdivided into smaller districts or counties, with courts of justice
appropriate to each. The petition expatiates at length upon the
advantages of such an arrangement, and upon the hardships of the
present situation. Those who signed this petition, ten in number, were
all officers who had served in the late revolutionary war.*
The following year, the magistrates at Cataraqui and at New
Oswegatchie (Prescott), being requested to do so, sent their views as to
the needs of the Western settlements. in a memorial addressed to Sir
John Johnson, the superintendent of the district. In these memorials,
in addition to the usual prayer for deliverance from the French-Canadian
: Canadian Archives, B, 65, p. 34.
2 Canadian Archives, B. 64, p. 182.
3 Laws of Lower Canada, Vol. 1, p. 103.
4 Canadian Archives, Q. 24-1, pp. 76-84.
~
TgO1-2. | THE BEGINNING OF MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN ONTARIO, 417
system, they show a growing anxiety with reference to local government,
education and facilities for trade. In the Cataraqui memorial, after
referring to the need for local courts of justice aud increased, powers for
the magistrates, they continue, “ The election, or appointment, of proper
officers in the several townships, to see that the necessary roads be
opened and kept in proper repair, we conceive would be of great utility,
by facilitating the communication with all parts of the settlement.
Humanity will not allow us to omit mentioning the necessity of
appointing overseers of the poor, or the making of some kind of pro-
vision for persons of that description, who from age or accident may be
rendered helpless. And we conceive, it would be proper that the persons
appointed to this charge, as well as the road masters, should be directed
to make regular reports of the state of their districts to the courts at
their meetings, and be in all cases subject to their control.” Here, we
observe that the magistrates, naturally favouring the conservation of
their own power, lean to the side of the Virginia system, in which the
Court of Quarter Sessions, and not the town meeting, should be the
centre of local administration.
The New Oswegatchie memorial, though briefer, is to the same
effect. It prays that the new settlements may be formed into separate
counties or districts, from Point Beaudet upwards, each having its own
courts, judges and civil officers.’
These memorials and many others affecting the whole judicial and
local administration of the Province of Quebec, were referred to a
committee of the Council, composed of one English and two French-
Canadian members. Their report is very exhaustive and very inter-
esting, but only certain portions of it bear directly on the question in
hand. It brings out, however, the utter inadequacy of such local
administration as existed under the French-Canadian system, for the
regulation of the loyalist settlements, where the quasi-civil machinery of
the French Canadian Church was entirely wanting. Mr. Finlay, the
English member of the committee, strongly supported the claims of the
loyalist settlements to be erected into separate districts, and recom-
mended an ordinance to be passed authorizing this division. But the
two French-Canadians on the committee strongly opposed any weaken-
ing of the French-Canadian system, and supported their views with most
interesting and subtle argument based on legal, social, political and
international grounds.®
1 Canadian Archives, Q. 27-2, pp. 510-518,
2 Canadian Archives, Q. 27-2, pp. 519-520.
3 Canadian Archives, Q, 27-1, pp. 199-206.
418 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
However, the outcome of the matter was the ordinance of April,
1787, making further provision for the administration of the new
settlements." The most important section bearing on our present
inquiry is the following, “Whereas, there are many thousands of
loyalists and others settled in the upper countries above Montreal, and
in the bays of Gaspe and Chaleurs below Quebec, whose ease and con-
venience may require that additional districts should be erected as soon
as circumstances will permit, itis enacted and ordained by the authority
aforesaid, that it may be lawful for the Governor or Commander-in-chief
for the time being, with the advice and consent of the Council, to form
by patent under the seal of the province, one or more new districts, as
his discretion may direct, and to give commission to such officer or
officers therein as may be necessary, or conducive to the ease and con-
venience of His Majesty’s subjects residing in the remote parts of the
province.” In accordance with the authority granted in this ordinance
Lord Dorchester issued a proclamation, dated July 24th, 1788, dividing
the western settlements into four districts, named Lunenburg, Mecklen-
burg, Nassau and Hesse.” On the same day appointments were made
to the following offices in each of the new districts: judges of the Court
of Common Pleas, justices of the peace, sheriff, clerk of the Court of
Common Pleas, and of the Sessions of the Peace, and coroners.’
Courts of Quarter Sessions were thus organized, and began their
sittings the following year. The first court for the district of Mecklen-
burg was held at Kingston on April 14th, 1789, and the first court for
the district of Lunenburg was held at Osnabruck, on June 15th, in the
same year.’
Except as regards the criminal law, the justices were still required to
administer the French system in accordance with the Quebec Act. But
as this immediately led to difficulties, the justices of the district of
Mecklenburg submitted certain problems to the Government at Quebec.
For instance, proclamations to be legal were required to be made at the
church doors of the parish, and to be published in the Quebec Gazette.
But in the whole of the western settlements there were only two church
doors, and no one was known to take the Quebec Gazette. The justices,
therefore, made a characteristic suggestion, namely, that as most of the
settlers had to go to one or other of the two grist mills of the district, at
1 Laws of Lower Canada, Vol. I., p. 121.
2 Canadian Archives, Q. 37, p. 178.
3 Canadian Archives, Q. 39, pp. 134-139.
4 Early Records of Ontario, Queen’s Quarterly, Vol. VII., p. 55.
5 Lunenburgh, or the Old Eastern District, by J. F. Pringle, Cornwall, 1890. p. 47.
1901-2. | THE BEGINNING OF MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN ONTARIO. 419
Kingston and Napanee, the proclamation should be posted there, a
suggestion which was accepted. Again, having no officers corresponding
to the French notaries, mortgages and other documents requiring
registration could not be registered. Further, under the French system
the public highways were under the direction of the officers of the
militia, subject to the supervision of the grand voyer. But this arrange-
ment could not be carried out in the English districts. The granting of
licenses to keep taverns was in the hands of the Secretary of the
Province or his agent, and could be arranged only in Montreal. And
finally it is prayed that if Government will not grant them any relief
from the French system, then, inasmuch as they are entirely ignorant of
the requirements of that system, the Government may send them full
instructions as to the laws and how they are to be enforced.’ But by
this time a change in the constitution had been recognized as inevitable
and was then being prepared, hence no action was taken on this
memorial. In default of instructions the justices in civil matters simply
followed the laws and customs which they had known, and decided
cases on the good old English principle of equity and good conscience.
The duties of the Court of Quarter Sessions, as interpreted, were
partly judicial, as in connection with the maintenance of the peace,
partly legislative, as in prescribing what animals should not run at large,
or what conditions should be observed by those who held tavern
licenses, and partly administrative, as in appointing certain officials, and
in laying out and superintending the highways.” We find, for instance,
that before 1789 the magistrates had appointed church wardens for the
township of Fredericksburg, and doubtless for several others, and that
these church wardens were exercising their powers as if they were living
in an English colony under English laws.’
It is noteworthy that most of the civil or municipal administration
undertaken by the justices of the peace was based upon the old English
law and custom as it was in the days of Queen Elizabeth and the
Stuarts, and not as subsequently modified in Britain.
The first loyalist settlers were chiefly military men, many of them
not having been actual settlers in the colonies, and some of them being
German auxiliaries. They came to Canada under command of their
officers, who, as we have seen, were appointed the first magistrates of
the districts. As might be expected, most of these settlers did not take
1 Canadian Archives, Q. 43, 1 and 2, pp. 404-415.
2 Early Records of Ontario, Queen’s Quarterly, Vol. VII.
3 Early Records of Ontario, Queen’s Quarterly, Vol. VII, p. 58.
4 Early Records of Ontario, Queen's Quarterly, Vol. VII., pp. 58, 243, 327.
420 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
a very strong interest in introducing and maintaining the self-governing
institutions of the former colonies. Yet some of the first and nearly all
of the later arrivals, being largely farmers and civilians, such as those
settled in Fredericksburg, Adolphustown and the Prince Edward
peninsula, at once attempted to reproduce in Canada their familiar
institutions. Thus, while in the townships in the immediate neighbour-
hood of Kingston, there appears to have been little anxiety with
reference to town meetings, yet in the townships named, town meetings
were established before there was any legal warrant for them, as, for
instance, the record of Adolphustown will show.’
But we must turn now to that change in the fortune of the western
settlements which came with the passing of the Constitutional Act of
1791. By it the western districts were formed into an independent
province, witha representative assembly and an opportunity to introduce
English laws and institutions.
To preside over the formative period of this new Government,
General John Graves Simcoe arrived in Upper Canada. Simcoe was a
man whose life had been spent in the profession of arms. He was, from
all accounts, a most efficient officer, saturated with the military spirit.
A man of simple, straightforward ideas, devoted to military methods,
when in authority he was accustomed to give his commands to go and
come and find them obeyed without question. Almost incapable, by
temper and experience, of recognizing any other form of administration,
he sought to organize his Government as nearly as possible on a
military basis. Self-government by the people at large he fervently and
frankly abhorred. Aristocratic military and ecclesiastical rule he con-
sidered to be the only possible form of stable government for a decent
and respectful people and a well-meaning ruler. As governor of Upper
Canada he felt that the whole responsibility for the successful adminis-
tration of the colony rested upon his shoulders. His sense of responsi-
bility, however, was felt not towards the colonists, but towards the
Home Government, hence his extreme unwillingness to share with the
colonists the administration of the country which they occupied.
Canada did not belong to the colonists, but to Great Britain; the
fovernor was not appointed by the colonists, or in any way responsible
to them. He was sent out to administer a British colony in the
interests and for the glory of the country which sent him. True, those
interests and that glory were to be expressed in a happy and prosperous
condition of the colony, but the proper methods and means for accom-
1 Early Municipal Records of the Midland District, in Appendix to the Report of the Ontario Bureau
of Industries, 1897.
1901-2. | THE BEGINNING OF MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN ONTARIO. 421
plishing that result were not matters upon which the colonists could be
expected to have sound ideas, and a little experience of them proved to
Simcoe’s own satisfaction that his ccnviction was well grounded. Only
men of military training were fit to be trusted to carry out with loyalty
and discretion the commands of their superiors. | Hence, while still in
London, Simcoe surrounded himself with a band of military men,
chiefly fellow officers in the late American war, and took them with him
as his Executive Council, and afterwards as the chief members of his
Legislative Council. The minor officials he expected to select in the
colony from among the officers already settled there. He had also
arranged to have the Assembly composed of military men, trusting that
the loyalists would, under his direction, aided by the influence of Sir
John Johnson, select as their representatives the half-pay officers in the
Province. Here, however, he came upon his first disappointment.
Writing from Navy Hall to the Colonial Secretary, on November 4th,
1792, he states that in his passage from Montreal to Kingston, while
the first election was in progress, he discovered that the general spirit of
the country was against the election of half-pay officers, but that, to use
his own words, “the prejudice ran in favour of men of the lower order
who keep but one table, that is, who dine in common with their own —
servants.” Only by stopping over at Kingston, and specially exerting
his personal influence, did he manage to bring in his attorney-general,
Mr. White. If such was the attitude of men but lately disbanded from
the ranks in which they had fought against the advocates of self-govern-
ment, what might be expected from later arrivals who were merely
loyalist in name? No wonder that Simcoe should gravely attempt to
put into practice a scheme for maintaining a number of military com-
panies scattered over the colony, into which he intended to recruit crude
republicans from the neighbouring states, and there, on soldier’s pay, by
salutary drilling, useful manual labour, and friendly lectures on the evils
of self-government, convert them into well affected British subjects, fit
to be trusted with a bush farm in a back township.* No doubt the broth
would have been well flavoured had he been able to catch his hare.
The settlers having preferred men of the lower order to Simcoe’s
half-pay officers, we are prepared to find some assertions of popular
claims which did not meet with the approval of the governor. We
come upon one such at the very threshold of the new legislation. The
1 His plans for the government of Upper Canada are detailed in his letters to Dundas, written in
London. See, for instance, letters of June 2nd and August 12th, 1791, Canadian Archives, Q. 278, pp.
228-255, and 283-307.
2 Canadian Archives, Q. 279-1, p. 79.
3 Canadian Archives, Q. 278, p. 287.
13
422 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
first bill introduced into the Assembly of Upper Canada, in the first
session of the first parliament, September 19th, 1792, was a bill, “to
authorize town meetings for the purpose of appointing divers parish
officers.” But, after passing its second reading, it was ordered that the
further consideration of the bill be postponed for three months. On the
same day another bill was introduced to authorize “the justices of the
peace to appoint annually divers public officers.” This, again, was
followed by a bill to authorize “the election of divers public officers.”
None of these, however, managed to get through the House.
In these proposals we observe the conflict of the two rival American
systems typified by New England and Virginia, the one seeking to vest
in the people the election of their local officers and the regulation of their
local affairs, the other seeking to confine these rights to the justices of
the peace in Quarter Sessions, who again derived their positions from
the Governor-in-Council.
Simcoe, in his report on the session to the Home Government says
that the lower House “seemed to have a stronger attachment to the
elective principle in all town affairs than might be thought advisable.”
The following session the bill with reference to town meeting was once
more introduced and passed, but with such modifications as made it
quite harmless as a measure of local self-government. Writing to
Colonial Secretary Dundas, in September, 1793,’ Simcoe says that he
managed to put off the bill of last session on town meetings as some-
thing that should not be encouraged. But as regards the opposite
measure proposed, he says that “to give the nomination altogether to
the magistrates was found to be a distasteful measure.” Many well
affected settlers were convinced that fence viewers, pound keepers and
other petty officers to regulate matters of local police would be more
willingly obeyed if elected by the householders, and especially that the
collector of the taxes should be a person chosen by themselves. “It
was therefore thought advisable not to withhold such a gratification to
which they haa been accustomed, it being in itself not unreasonable, and
only to take place one day in the year.” When we turn to this act* we
find that it merely permits the ratepayers to elect certain executive
town officers, whose duties were either prescribed by the act, or left to
be regulated by the justices in Quarter Sessions. Beyond the permission
to fix the height of fences, the town meeting had not legally any
1 See Journals and Proceedings of the House of Assembly of the Province of Upper Canada, 1792,
Canadian Archives, Q. 279-1, pp. 87 et seg.
2 Canadian Archives, Q. 279-1, p. 83.
3 Canadian Archives, Q. 279-2, pp. 335 et seq.
4 33rd Geo. III., cap. 2.
1901-2. | THE BEGINNING OF MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN ONTARIO. 423
legislative function. The town officers were independent of each other,
and responsible, not to those who elected them, but to the magistrates.
By an act passed the following year’ a slight additional legislative power
was given to the town meetings, permitting them to fix the limits of
times and seasons for certain animals running at large, but even this
power was afterwards curtailed. This first act, therefore, while author-
izing town meetings, effectively strangled all interest in them, except
where, as in Adolphus and neighbouring townships, the limitations of the
act were to a certain extent disregarded. For years to come the Court
of Quarter Sessions remained the only living centre of municipal affairs.
Recognizing the democratic tendencies of the people, Simcoe reports
to the home Government that, “in order to promote an aristocracy,
most necessary in this country, I have appointed Lieutenants to the
populous counties, which I mean to extend from time to time, and have
given to them the recommendatory power for the militia and magis-
trates, as is usual in England.” He selected them as far as possible
from the Legislative Council.
With the same object in view he proposed to erect the towns of
Kingston and Niagara into cities, each with a corporation consisting of
a mayor and six aldermen, to be justices of the peace, and a suitable
number of common councillors. This was a standard arrangement in
Britain, as it was afterwards in the first chartered cities in Upper
Canada. But the members of Simcoe’s corporations were advised “ to
be originally appointed by the Crown, and that the succession to vacant
seats might be made in such manner as to render the election as little
popular as possible, meaning such corporations to tend to the support
of the aristocracy of the country.”®
In 1795, the Duke of Portland, writing to Simcoe, discourages his
projects for the incorporation of cities, and disapproves of his appoint-
ment of lieutenants of counties. He is afraid that the effect may be
the very opposite of what Simcoe intended, that instead of strengthening
the power of the central government, it may weaken it by scattering its
functions, while it requires to be strong to check the influence of the
popular assembly.*
What we find, then, as the result of the various influences brought
together in Upper Canada is, that the Virginia type of local or municipal
1 34th Geo. III., cap. 8
2 Canadian Archives, Q. 279-1, p. 85.
3 Canadian Archives, Q. 287-1, p. 164.
4 Canadian Archives, Q, 281-2, pp. 328 et seq.
424 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [VoL. VIL.
government, and not that of New England, was practically brought
into operation in this province. This was mainly through the influence
of Governor Simcoe, aided by the justices of the peace already in the
field, who naturally wished to enlarge their powers. Hence the
municipal administration of the country centered in the Courts of
Quarter Sessions, whose members being appointed by the Governor-in-
Council were responsible to the Executive alone.
The various acts passed for local administration simply enlarged the
powers of those courts to deal with municipal matters. In course of
time certain towns obtained special charters and with them a measure of
local self-government varying in range from town to town. But it was
only after the struggle for responsible government had resulted success-
fully, that representative municipal institutions, such as we now know
them, were introduced and applied to the whole Province.
1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FISH LIFE. 425
SAWDUST AND FISH LIFE.
By A. P. KNIGHT, M.A., M.D., PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL
BIOLOGY, QUEEN’S UNIVERSITY, KINGSTON.
(Read 14th February, 1903.)
CONTENTS.
ParT I.—HISTORICAL . 426
Part I].—ExPERIMENTAL : 433
SINKING OF SAWDUST 434
AQUEOUS EXTRACTS FROM SAWDUST 436
AERATION OF WATER CONTAINING EXTRACTS. . : : ‘ : : ‘ 437
SOURCE OF EXTRACTS
437
Woop CELLS AND CELL ConTENTS : : : 3 : ; ‘ 438
Pup INDUSTRY. 9 : : : : : A : : e4aa9
BEET SUGAR INDUSTRY é : : : : : : 439
SOLID MATTER IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION PINE ; : : : : : : - 440
SOLIDS FROM CEDAR : : ; ‘ : 440
EFFECTS OF CEDAR Sawpust SOLUTION ON PERCH > 5 5 falda
at es LEECH, SNAIL, “VORTICELLA ; 442
‘s pe oe Worms, TADPOLE : : F sel 4'3
ae re ue BLACK Bass FRY 5 : : 444
ss PINE EXTRACTS ON FISH EGGS . F - 444
es ah 3s MINNOws, PERCH, Worms, TADPOLE < : 445
ie UL ue CRUSTACEANS, Hypra, VORTICELLA, Bass, - 446
ss MAPLE EXTRACTS ., : : : : : : ‘ , : 448
se HEMLOCK EXTRACTS : : 5 : : 5 Like}
Me BRITISH COLUMBIA CEDAR EXTRACTS . C : . : ; 448
UG RED PINE, OAK, ELM. . : 5 449
RAPIDITY OF SOLUTION : : é : : : : : F : 449
FisH AT MILL ENDs . : A c : ° ; 5 c : é : 45°
A STAGNANT ARTIFICIAL POOL é : : : : : : : : 451
COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF PINE, CEDAR. : ¢ : 3 : A G2;
oS ee HEMLOCK BARK, CEDAR BARK . : ‘ . 453
Ss ‘ HarD Woop SAWDUST 6 c 5 : : ea G4
i 2p CONCLUSIONS BASED ON : 6 : . ; 456
EXPERIMENTS WITH WHITE PINE Bark . . : ‘ : : : : 5) AB
sf ‘¢ HEMLOCK AND CEDAR BARK : : : : . 457
DECAYING SAWDUST . 4 4 : A : j : ; z 7 450)
BACTERIA IN Woop Extracts . : : - : : : ; : c 458
AROMATIC. COMPOUNDS : 459
NuTRITIVE RELATIONS c 461
SAw MILL ON THE BONNECHERE | RIVER A S 5 5 : : 462
CONCLUSIONS. C : : : 4 : : : : : 465
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . : ; : - : - ae 4os
Dr. CONNELL’S BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION : : : ¢ : : 466
NOTE.—The trees mentioned in the following report are: White Pine (Pinus Strobus, L.), Red Pine
(Pinus Resinosus, Ait.), British Columbia Cedar (Thuya Gigantea, Nuttall), Ontario Cedar (Thuya Occi-
dentalis, Linn.), Hemlock (Thuya Canadensis, Carr.), Maple (Acer Saccharinum, Wang.), Elm (Ulmus
Americana Linn.), Ash (Fraxinus Sambucifolia, Lam.), Qak (Quercus Rubra, Linn), Spruce (Picea Alba,
Linn),
426 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
PART [—HisToRicaLr:
THE following is a continuation of my preliminary report upon the
effects of polluted waters on fish life. The work was first begun at the
Dominion Biological Station, St. Andrews, N.B., in 1900, and has been
continued since then at the biological laboratory of Queen’s University,
Kingston, and along the saw dust beds of the Bonnechere River in the
county of Renfrew, Ontario.
The investigation was begun at the suggestion of Professor Prince,
the fish commissioner for the Dominion of Canada, and has been carried
on largely through the encouragement which he has given from season
to season.
The question, “Is sawdust injurious to fish life?” has been before
the Canadian public for over forty years. The Frshery Act of 1858 for
the two Canadas provided that fish ways should be erected upon dams
that obstructed the passage of anadromous fish to their spawning
grounds in the shallow head waters of rivers; and it forbade also throw-
ing lime, chemicals, and other poisonous material into such rivers. It
did not mention sawdust or mill rubbish, but it provided for the making
of regulations by the executive, and in the exercise of this power we find
that on May 16th, 1860, a by-law was passed making it illegal to
throw “slabs, edgings, and mill rubbish into any river or stream which
may have been leased or reserved by the Crown for propagation, or
where fish ways have been erected.”
This by-law was embodied in the amended Act of 1865, the clause
relating to sawdust reading as follows :—
“ Lime, chemical substances, or drugs, poisonous matter (liquid or
solid), dead or decaying fish, or any other deleterious substance shall not
be thrown into, or allowed to pass into, be left, or remain in any water
frequented by any of the kinds of fish mentioned in this Act, and saw-
dust and mill rubbish shall not be drifted or thrown into any stream
frequented by salmon, trout, pickerel, or bass under a penalty not ex-
ceeding a hundred dollars.”
Immediately after confederation the Act was further amended, and
a very important proviso was attached to the foregoing clause, viz.:—
1902-3. | SAWDUST AND Fis LIFE. 427
“Provided always that the Minister shall have power to exempt from
the operation of this sub-section, wholly, or from any portion of the
same, any stream or streams in which he considers that its enforcement
is not requisite for the public interests.”
Evidently the promoters of this legislation either did not feel sure
that sawdust was poisonous, or they thought it just, in the interests
of the lumber industry, to exempt from the operations of the
eta certain larse rivers’ in (the! maritime provinces, Quebee “and
Ontario. Exemptions were continued by the minister from year to
year down to 1894, when they ceased by Act of Parliament. Parlia-
ment itself, however, extended these exemptions down to 1899.
In 1873 an Act was passed making it illegal to throw mill refuse
into navigable rivers, on the ground that in some parts of the Dominion
rivers once navigable had ceased to be so on account of the accumula-
tion of mill rubbish. The Otonabee River in Ontario, and the La Have
in N.S., were two rivers which were obstructed in this way.
Most of the Eastern United States have legislated against throwing
sawdust into streams containing protected fish; but so far as I have
been able to discover, the promoters of the legislation have never been
able to prove conclusively the poisonous action of sawdust. At any
rate, the scientists of the United States Fish Commission have not been
unanimous in their opinions regarding the matter.
For example, in the Fish Commissioner's report for 1872-3, part i.,
“Inquiry into the Decrease of Food Fishes,’ Mr. Milner, one of the
investigators, says (page 49): “In a number of rivers entering into
Green Bay, the white fish was formerly taken in abundance in the spawn-
ing season. Saw mills are numerous on all these streams at the present
day, and the great quantity of sawdust in the streams is offensive to
the fish, and has caused them to abandon them. In one or two rivers
of the north shore (Michigan) they are still found in autumn.”
In this same report another scientist, Mr. Atkins, referring to the
Penobscot River, says (page 303): “The extensive deposits (of saw-
dust) have in some instances so altered the configuration of the bottom
as to interfere with the success of certain fishing stations; but beyond
that I see no evidence that the discharge of the mill refuse into the river
has had any injurious effect on the salmon. It does not appear to deter
them from ascending, and being thrown in below all the spawning
grounds it cannot affect the latter.”
428 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
In the Fish Commissioner’s report for 1872-3 and 1873-4, vol. I.,
we meet with another confident statement, but no proof. Mr. Watson,
in an article on “ The Salmon of Lake Champlain and its Tributaries ”
(page 536), says: “The sawdust stained and polluted the water, and the
sediment and debris of the mills settled largely on the gravelly bottoms,
which had been so alluring to the salmon, changed their character, and
revolted the cleanly habits of the fish.”
Four vears after this the Commissioner inserts in his report (1878)
a translation of an article by Professor Rasch, of Norway, on “ The
Propagation of Food Fishes”: “ That the rivers on which there is con-
siderable cutting of timber gradually become more and more destitute
of salmon is an undeniable fact; but while it is asserted that the saw-
dust introduced into the river from the saw mills causes the salmon
coming from the sea either to forsake the foster stream because of
meeting the sawdust, to seek another river not polluted, or else when
the fish attempts to pass through the areas quite filled with sawdust then
this by fixing itself in the gill openings, or between the gills causes its
death, yet later experience seems to entitle us to the assumption that
sawdust neither causes the salmon to forsake its native stream, nor pro-
duces any great mortality among the ascending fishes. The hurtfulness
of the sawdust to the reproduction of the salmon is not so direct, but
is exceedingly great in this, that it partly limits and partly destroys the
spawning grounds of the river.”
In his report for 1879, the Commissioner gives a translation from
another Norse writer, W. Landmark, on “The Propagation of Food
Fishes.” This scientist mentions four objections to sawdust :—
1. “Sawdust gradually sinks to the bottom, and thus fills the very
place where the fish eggs are to develop, with impure and injurious
matter.”
2. “ When eggs are brought into contact with sawdust or any other
rotting wooden matter for any length of time, the eggs are overgrown
with a species of fungus, which invariably kills the germ.”
3. “When the water rises and causes the masses of sawdust which
have gathered-in the river to move, a large number of young fish are
carried away with it, and are gradually buried in the newly-formed
piles of sawdust.” In a foot-note he says: “It has been said that saw-
dust will drive the salmon entirely away from a river, but I think that
1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FIsH LIFE. 429
this is very improbable, and could only be possible in cases where a
river has been completely filled with it.”
4. “The refuse from the saw mills, in many places, interferes with
the fisheries.”
For the next eight years we find little or nothing in the reports of
the United States Fish Commissioner regarding the ill-effects of saw-
dust. In an appendix to his report for 1887, entitled “ Fisheries of the
Great Lakes in 1885,” we find the following expression of opinion from
Hugh M. Smith and Merwin Marie Snell: “The fishermen appear to
be considerably hampered in their operations by the presence of great
quantities of drift wood and sawdust from the mills. At times this
debris covers the lake (Michigan) for miles around, and very seriously
interferes with the seining and netting. The most disastrous effects,
however, are seen on the fish themselves, especially during the spawning
season. Spawning grounds formerly existed in this vicinity, but they
have been deserted for some years owing to the deposit of sawdust
thereon.”
On November 29th, 1888, there was started in Forest and
Stream a very remarkable correspondence, which lasted nearly a year.
The general topic was the effect of sawdust upon trout. The writers
lived in Canada, the New England States, and some in the west as far
as California. Both sides of the question were presented with great
vigor. Most of the correspondents were evidently keen sportsmen and
close observers of nature, and the only regret one feels in reading
through these letters is that some of the men did not test their ob-
servations and conclusions by experimenting with sawdust. The
following is a typical letter :—
A CENTURY OF SAWDUST.
Editor FOREST AND STREAM.
I was delighted with the intelligent way in which your correspondent ‘‘ Piscator ”
handled the sawdust question in your issue of December 27th. It is a comfort to listen
when a well-informed person speaks, but in these days of callow pretension experience
is usually elbowed back from the front.
In my opinion the famous Mill Brook, of Plainfield, Mass., which has a record ofa
century asthe finest trout water in the Hampshire hills, supplies those very conditions
and corroborative data which ‘‘ Piscator ” declares are essential to determine what
pernicious effect the presence of sawdust has upon the denizens of mill streams. Here
is a water power which carried no less than thirteen manufactories fifty years ago.
These included a tannery, a sawmill and factories for making brush and broom handles,
whipstocks and cheese and butter boxes, all of which discharged, more or less, sawdust
and shavings into the streams, to say nothing of three satinet factories and a felt hat
factory, whose waste must have been deleterious to fish life.
430 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
Most of the buildings have since been destroyed by fire or tumbled into pieces by
decay, but the old foundation, walls, and dams remain, and untold tons of tanbark and
sawdust still cover the beds of the abandoned mill ponds knee deep, all of it in a perfect
state of preservation, as I happen to know from wading the stream last summer.
Nevertheless, the brook continues fairly stocked with small trout, despite the supple-
mentary fact that it has been unmercifully fished ever since the memorial days of the
** Mountain Miller,” fifty fingerlings per rod being not unusual now for a days’ catch.
Besides, at no time within my recollection have there been less than three sawdust-pro-
ducing mills on this stream at once, so that it may be asserted that its waters have not
been normally clear for a century. Where the current is rapid and the water broken
by ledges and boulders, the presence of the sawdust is scarcely perceptible, but at mill-
tails, and in the basins above the dams, it accumulates in quantity and remains, becom-
ing water soaked and sinking to the bottom.
Obviously, in localities where the entire bottom is imbedded by sawdust, fish can
neither spawn nor feed ; but it happens that such deposits do not form on their breeding
places, nor is the area of their foraging ground appreciably diminished by their
presence. Even in the half-emptied and now useless ponds, the current constantly
scours out a central channel through the sawdust, leaving the bottom clear and pebbly ;.
so that, in fact, these local beds are of no more detriment to the fish than so many sub-
merged logs. The trout can range far and wide without encountering them at all. Yet,
strange to say—that is, it must seem strange to those persons who take it for granted
that sawdust kills fish—the most likely places for the larger trout are these self-same
pebbly channels in the old ponds, along whose edges, despite a hundred freshets and
ice-shoves, the persistent sawdust and tanbark lie in wind-rows so deep that the wader
feels as if he were going to sink out of sight whenever he puts his foot into the yielding
mass, every movement of which stirs up a broadening efflorescence which spreads for
rods away, distributing itself throughout the stream.
From these sawdust beds I can always fish out three or four good trout with a
cautious fly, and at certain times the surface is fairly dimpled with breaking fish, which
presumably are after larvz and insects which the sawdust has harboured, though careful
investigation might discover other inducements for their congregating there.
In passing I would remark that this Mill Brook is fed by seven lateral brooklets,
which tumble into it from the adjacent hillsides at intervals between dams, and are so
effectually protected by overgrowth that they must always serve as prolific breeding
places, secure from predatory birds and small boys, as well as places of refuge to trout
which wish to escape the sawdust of the main stream. I have seen trout streams,
especially in the pine barrens of Northern Wisconsin and Michigan, which were by no
means as favoured as this Mill Brook, the current being comparatively sluggish, and not
so capable of purging itself of sawdust ; yet I know ot few trout streams in any lumber
region where its denizens cannot avoid the sawdust if they will, by withdrawing to the
headquarters or lateral tributaries, provided fishways are supplied to enable them to sur-
mount the dams where the accumulations chiefly occur. What I remark as most
singular in the Mill Brook is, that the trout gather most where the sawdust is thickest,
both on old mill sites and on sites where mills are running now. I take my best trout
right from under the flume of a whipstock factory and sawmill, where the refuse is
dumped as fast as it forms.
But I recall to mind a still more striking example of the innocuousness of sawdust.
There are in Hampshire county, Massachusetts, a series of three large natural reser-
voirs, varying from half a mile to two miles in length, which for fifty years have
abounded in pickerel, perch, eels, and bullheads,
It is said that they originally contained trout, but the water is dark and discolored
1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FISH LIFE. 431
by the drainage of spruce and cedar swamps. At the outlet of the lowest pond once
stood a village called Hallockville, which operated a grist mill, sundry sawmills, and
what was then the largest tannery in Massachusetts. It was burned in 1846 and never
rebuilt, and the dams and foundation walls are now almost destroyed and buried by a
new growth of forest. But the sluice and flood stream below are still clogged with
the sawdust and tan bark deposited a half century ago, and the water is black and for-
bidding, though much broken into swirls and rapids by boulders and ledges. But for
the colour of the water, it is a most likely-looking place for trout, though it has been
tested time and time again without successful results. It has always been maintained,
from the date of the building of the tannery, that there were no trout in it. I used to
fish it myself when I was a boy. Last summer I took therefrom five small trout with a
worm. They had doubtless worked their way up from the Buckland streams below, for
they never came through the dam from the pickerel ponds above. Nevertheless, the
lower streams are occupied by many sawmills, and carry their proportion of sawdust,
that substance which some of your correspondents maintain is fatal to fish life. I leave
your readers to draw their inferences, and trust that Mr. Fred. Mather will feel himself
sustained by this testimony of the streams. That gentleman is not apt to make mis-
takes. He is grey with the experience of years, and that is better than guess work.
WASHINGTON, December 29th. CHARLES HALLOCK.
In this same year (1889) a very remarkable report on this subject
was sent to the Hon. C, H. Tupper, the Minister of Marine and
Fisheries, Ottawa, by W. H. Rogers, late Inspector of Fisheries for Nova
Scotia. The report did not appear among the State papers, and it was
consequently published in Halifax under the title of “ The Suppressed
Sawdust Report.’ No one can read this pamphlet without being
staggered with the mass of information which is supplied to prove the
harmlessness of sawdust, and the marvel is that the Minister did not
order a thorough investigation to be made into the whole subject.
Of course, diametrically opposite views were expressed by other
fishery officers, in whose judgment, no doubt, the Minister had perfect
confidence. For example, Mr. S. Wilmot, the Superintendent of the
Dominion Fish Hatcheries, wrote a very vigorous report denouncing
the deadly effects of sawdust, and his opinions were certainly entitled to
some weight. But there was this marked difference between the reports
of the two officers: Mr. Rogers’ was bristling with facts and observa-
tions based evidently upon first hand knowledge of the subject, whereas
Mr. Wilmots’ report showed no close acquaintance with it.
Turning again to the reports of the United States Fish Commis-
sioner, we do not find any further reference to sawdust until 1892, when
Mr, Hugh M. Smith again reports upon “The fisheries of the Great
Lakes.” At page 404 he says :—“ At first white fish and trout were
both abundant. . . . Since 1881 or 1882 they have been com-
paratively scarce. . . . The gill-net fishermen lay the blame on the
small meshed pound-nets. The pound-net fishermen, on the other hand
432 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
threw the responsibility on the saw mills and the gill-net men. The
saw mills, they say, pollute the waters with sawdust and vegetable
refuse, and the gill-net men lose a great many nets, which with the fish
in them soon decay and become a putrid mass, which contaminates the
fishing grounds, and causes the fish to leave for other places.”
Comparing this with his report for 1887 it will be seen that Mr.
Smith refrains from asserting any ill effects from sawdust, and places
the responsibility for such statements upon the fishermen. A similar
remark applies to the International Fish Commissioner’s report for 1893,
and to the report of Mr. Richard Rathbun in 1899 on the “ Fisheries in
the Contiguous Waters of the State of Washington and British Colum-
bia.” “ Attention,” he says, “has been especially called to the Skagit
river, on whose banks there are numerous shingle mills, from which a
very large amount of refuse is allowed to enter the water. According to
the statements of the fishermen in that region this practice has caused a
great deal of damage to the spawning grounds of the salmon and has
affected the fishery in other ways.”
Coming to 1899 we find a very important report from the Dominion
Fish Commissioner, Professor Prince, and one from the Deputy Com-
missioner for the Province of Ontario, Mr. Bastedo. Both reports
command attention from the fact that they take opposite sides upon the
sawdust question. Professor Prince says: “So far as our present knowl-
edge goes, sawdust pollution, if it does not affect the upper waters, the
shallow spawning and hatching grounds, appears to do little harm to the
adult fish in their passage up from the sea.” . . . “ There is no case
on record of salmon, or shad, or any other healthy adult fish being found
choked with sawdust or in any way fatally injured by the floating
particles.”
Again, in summing up his conclusions upon all forms of pollutions :
“In the first place it is evident that circumstances modify the effects of
all forms of pollutions, so that waste matters which would be deadly in
one river will pass away and prove of little harm in another, where the
conditions are different. In the second place it shows how varied are
the effects of various waste products under the same conditions upon
different species of fish. Salmon will survive unharmed where shad and
gasperaux would be killed off. Further, these notes indicate how little
is actually known of the effects upon fish life of these various pollutions
from accurate and thoroughly scientific experiments.”
Contrast with this Mr. Bastedc’s opinion as published in his report
1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FISH LIFE. 433
for the same year: “There can be nothing more destructive of fish life
than the depositing of sawdust in the rivers and lakes. It is said to
absolutely kill all vegetation, and it is well known that in waters where
there is no vegetation fish life is noticeably absent. Minute crustacea of
various kinds feed upon the juices of the plants which are to be found
at the bottom. These afford food for the smaller fish, and again these
furnish food for others of larger size.”
Such was the state of our knowledge in 1900, when at the sugges-
tion of Professor Prince, I undertook some experiments at St. Andrews,
N.B., for the purpose of ascertaining whether or not sawdust was injuri-
ous to fish life.
PART I].—EXPERIMENTAL.
The results of these experiments were published in the report of
the Minister of Marine and Fisheries, Ottawa, in 1901, and went to show
that brook trout were not injured by living for two weeks in a water
tank largely filled with sawdust, so long as a copious supply of water
was allowed to run into and out of the tank. These results were abund-
antly corroborated this summer (1902) in a series of experiments carried
on for several weeks in the biological laboratory of Queen’s University,
Kingston. Perch, rock bass and black bass fry were all used. In fact,
the tests this season were, if anything, more exacting than they were in
1900. The volume of pine and of cedar sawdust used was 20 per cent.
of the whole volume of the tank, and both adult fish and black bass fry
(these latter only about six weeks old and an inch long) were kept for
four or five days in the mixture, without any apparent injury.
When, however, sawdust was allowed to lie in still water, or in very
slowly running water, entirely different results were obtained. Then,
the most disastrous effects followed the immersion of different animals
in the poisonous mixture. Not merely did adult fish die in it, but fish
eggs, fry, aquatic worms, small arthropods, animalcules and water
plants. Nor was the cause of death due to suffocation from lack of
oxygen, because when air was made to bubble rapidly through the solu-
tion the final results were the same, the only difference being that death
was somewhat delayed. Noone could paint too vividly the deadly
effects of strong solutions of pine or cedar sawdust when soaked in
standing water. Adult fish died in two or three minutes ; fish eggs ina
few hours; fry and minnows in from ten to fifteen minutes ; aquatic
worms and insects, eight to twenty-four hours; aquatic plants, a few
days. Every living thing died in it, and if one were to judge of its
434 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (Vor, AVAL
effects by laboratory experiments alone, then the prohibitory legislation
needs no better defence.
Without anticipating further the results of these experiments, I
shall proceed to describe them, so that the reader may be in a position
to draw his own conclusions, if he differs from mine.
THE SINKING OF SAWDUST.
As regards the sinking of sawdust, the following experiment was
typical of a large number which were carried out, in order to determine
how much and how quickly sawdust sank after being thrown into the
water at the tail end of a mill.
A litre measure was filled up to 900 c.c. with tap water, and then
100 c.c. of moderately packed pine sawdust was poured upon the water.
The moment the sawdust touched the surface, particles began falling to
the bottom, and continued to fall for nearly twenty minutes. During this
time the water had penetrated 100 c.c. of the floating sawdust, and this
volume of it began to sink very slowly ex masse. Figure 1 represents
the conditions in the experiment at the
end of the 20 minutes. No less than
70 c.c. of the sawdust lay at the bottom ;
100 c.c. were between the 700 and 800
goo ¢.c. marks, and about 20 c.c. only were float-
ing. The 100 cc. of sawdust at the
beginning of the experiment had swollen
700 C.C, to nearly 200 c.c. On giving the vessel
a slight tap, the 100 c.c. of water-logged
sawdust, lying between the 700 and 800
seo c.c. marks, suddenly upset and most of it
sank to the bottom. The large parti-
cles, however, rose again to the top, so
Sawdust floating BOONE Ce
20 C.C,
Sawdust sinking 800 c.c.
Too C.Cc,
600 C.Cc.
400 C,C,
CC. . .
va that in less than three minutes more, only
200 €.¢. 30 c.c. were floating, and the rest, swollen
to 170 c.c., were lying at the bottom.
70 C.C. 100 C.C,
Sawdust sunk
The following conclusions are based
FIG. 1. upon the results of many similar experi-
Litre measure at end of 20 minutes. ments: From 50 per cent. to 80 per
cent. of white pine sawdust sinks in
standing water, in from two to three minutes. The variations in quantity
and time depend upon, (1) the size of the particles (2) upon the manner
1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FisH LIFE. 435
in which they are made, (3) upon whether the water is perfectly still
or agitated, and (4) upon whether the particles are dry or moist.
Large particles sink much more slowly than small ones, because the
latter are more easily penetrated through and through by the water.
Dust made with a hand-saw sinks more slowly than sawdust made
with a large mill saw. The difference seems to be due to the difference
in the force with which each is made. A large upright or circular lum-
ber saw strikes the log with great force, squeezes out the imprisoned air
from the wood fibres, renders them denser, and as a consequence they
sink more quickly than particles of a similar or smaller kind which have
been made by a hand-saw.
When water is slightly agitated, sawdust thrown upon it sinks more
quickly than when the water is perfectly still. Consequently, in the
swells of a steamer, in the waves made by wind, and in the ripple of a
slight rapids, all the sawdust excepting the largest particles would sink
to the bottom in a few minutes.
If thrown into a rapidly flowing stream, sawdust is carried down-
wards until it reaches comparatively still water, and then the finer
particles sink ; the coarser may be carried for miles and miles down a
river and out into the bays of a lake or sea.
In laboratory experiments the coarser particles would float for
days, because the water is unable to penetrate the fibre and displace the
imprisoned air, which gives to wood its buoyancy. Wood fibre is, of
course, heavier than water, and therefore sinks ; and pine logs would
sink much more quickly than they do only that the water cannot pene-
trate their interstices and drive out the air. Yet they do sink in con-
siderable numbers, as every lumberman knows.
Hardwood logs cannot be floated to market at all, because the
water of the cell-sap permeates them, rendering them heavier than
water and they sink. A very simple experiment illustrates how pine
logs sink after being in the water some time. Throw a piece of black-
board crayon into a dish of water. At first it floats, but soon bubbles
of air escape from the chalk, and in a few moments it sinks to the bot-
tom. So is it with sawdust and logs.
Sawdust from cedar takes a longer time to sink than that from
pine. In fifteen minutes 66 per cent. only had sunk, probably because
it contains more resin and consequently water-logs more slowly. Maple
436 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VIL:
sawdust ranged half way between pine and cedar—66 per cent. sinking
in eight minutes. Elm sawdust differed from pine, maple, or cedar in
that only about 30 per cent. sank in twenty minutes ; 75 per cent. of
oak sawdust sank in six minutes. So that as far as my experiments
went the different kinds ranged as follows : oak sank most quickly, then
white pine, maple, cedar, elm. But it must be remembered that the
particles in my experiments differed from each other in size and in the
moisture they contained, and consequently different results might easily
be obtained. The important point is that all kinds sink in a few min-
utes, especially in agitated water, but not, of course, in a stream with
anything like a rapid current.
EXTRACTS FROM SAWDUST.
The first experiments of the season were performed for the purpose
of determining the effects of sawdust upon fish eggs. The St. Andrew’s
experiment had shown that adult trout were not injured by sawdust in
rapidly running water ; but two other points remained to be determined :
(1) Whether sawdust killed fish eggs, and (2) whether it destroyed the
food of young, or full grown fish.
Perch eggs were collected along the shallows of Collins Bay, just
west of Kingston, and brought to the laboratory on May 12th.
They were placed in a clean aquarium with a stream of tap water (from
Lake Ontario) running into and out of the vessel. On the same day a
bag made of bleached cheese cloth, and filled with a peck of white pine
sawdust was placed in an aquarium, 40M%in. x I5in. x 164%in. It was
weighted with stones to keep it on the bottom. Water entered the
aquarium very slowly, so that the conditions of the experiment ap-
proximated somewhat to those in the pools of a sluggish stream.
Next morning it was noted that asa result of the bag of sawdust
being in the aquarium all night, the water had dissolved out a_suf-
ficient amount of material from the
sawdust to turn the bottom layer
of water a yellowish brown color.
This layer measured 13¢in. in a
total depth of 16% inches. Above
the yellowish brown layer, and EEE
separated from it by a well-defined
surface, the water was as clear as
that of Lake Ontario. Only about
$ths of the bottom of the aquarium
ra
TTI IIT eee
1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FIsH LIFE. 437
was covered by the bag ;its upper surface stood about halfan inch above
the brownish liquid. These conditions are represented in figure 2,
Four batches of eggs were placed in the aquarium at 10 a.m. of the 13th
of May, viz.: two batches on the very bottom of the aquarium in the
brownish water, and two on the surface of the bag of sawdust, well
within the clear water.
Next morning at 9.00 a.m. every egg in the yellowish brown water
was dead ; and every egg in the clear water was alive.
Assuming that the brownish water was a saturated solution of
material extracted from sawdust, two other solutions were made from it,
—one of 25 per cent., and one of 50 per cent. strength, in tap water.
Fresh batches of eggs were placed in each of them. In twenty-four
hours the eggs in the 25 per cent. solution were all alive; half of those
in the 50 per cent. solution were dead. In twenty-four hours more
some of the fry had hatched out, but eggs and fry in both solutions
were all dead.
In order to ascertain whether the death of both larve and fry was
not due to lack of oxygen, rather than to poisonous extracts dissolved
from the wood, air was made to bubble rapidly through some of the
brown water. This experiment was begun at 12.30 p.m., and 800 c.c.
of air per minute were passed through 230 c.c. of the discoloured water.
At 5.30 p.m. of the same day, a batch of 60 eggs was placed in this
aérated water, and air was passed continuously through it all night at
the rate of 400 c.c. per minute. Next morning at 10 a.m. every egg in
the batch was dead. The conclusion, therefore, is quite clear. The
eggs were killed, not by lack of oxygen in the water, but by the poison
contained in the water and evidently dissolved out of the sawdust.
The water had changed during the night to a much darker shade
of brown. This marked change in colour will be discussed in a sub-
sequent report.
SOURCE OF POISON.
The source of the poison given off by sawdust is undoubtedly to
be found in the contents of the wood cells. Sugar, starch, oil, resin,
gum, jelly, alkaloids, and acids are all examples of material stored in
different parts of plants.
In the older parts of trees the protoplasm and sap disappear com-
pletely from the cells, and they may then contain nothing but the
438 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
stored material. In the pine family there is stored in the wood and
bark cells an abundance of crude turpentine and resin. The Norway
spruce of Europe furnishes in this way turpentine and Burgundy pitch.
The yellow pine of the Southern United States yields spirits of turpen-
tine by distillation of the crude turpentine which runs away from the
tree by cutting intoit. The residue after the distillation is resin.
Now the poisonous material in sawdust must be either the cell wall
or the stored material. It cannot be the cell wall, for this is just the
wood fibre or material used in making paper, and pure paper is cer-
tainly not harmful to fish life. The poison can scarcely be anything
else than the turpentine and other substances stored in the cells.
Different trees, such as tamarack, pine, cedar, spruce, etc., generate
and store different kinds of reserve material. When a log from one of
these trees is cut into boards, the sawdust gives off proportionately
much more poisonous matter than the slabs, edgings and bark. The
reason of this is easily understood. As each cell or vessel is micros-
copic, and contains only a very small quantity of poison, and as the cell
wall must be broken open in order to let out the contents, it follows
that the greater the number of cells that are opened, the greater will be
the quantity of turpentine, resin, etc., poured out. Hence, a saw log
converted into sawdust, or ground into shreds, as in a pulp mill, gives
out the maximum of poison; whereas a similar log sawn into boards,
edgings and slabs, will give out a much less quantity. The minimum
will be given out by a saw log floating in the water.
The total waste in manufacturing saw logs into boards is some-
times stated as equal to the lumber obtained for market ; but this is a
gross exaggeration. Prominent manufacturers like the Rathbun Co.,
W.C. Edwards, M.P., and J. R. Booth estimate the waste as varying
between 25 per cent. and 35 per cent. of the whole log. The proportion
of refuse varies with the size of the logs, with the kind of lumber into
which the log is cut, and with the kind of saw used in the mill. The
old-fashioned gang saw and the large circular saw produce a higher
percentage of waste than the more modern band saw. There is more
waste in cutting a log into inch boards than into 3-inch deal, and small
logs produce proportionately more waste in bark, slabs and edgings than
large logs. The waste in sawdust alone varies from 10 per cent. to 20
per cent.
1902-3]. SAWDUST AND FISH LIFE. 439
PULP INDUSTRY.
There are other industries in Canada, which in preparing their
products for market grind up plants and trees, and thus let out their
cell contents. One of these is the pulp industry—likely to become very
extensive in the near future. Two processes are in vogue in this indus-
try. In one, the logs are macerated with chemicals, the mills being
known as sulphite mills. In the other process, the logs are ground into
shreds in what are known as mechanical mills. Both processes liberate
the greatest possible quantity of stored material from the wood cells,
and if this material is equally poisonous with that liberated from saw-
dust, then the waste water discharged from a pulp mill should be much
more poisonous than from a sawmill. The St. Andrew’s experiments
determined the percentage of poison from a sulphite mill which is fatal
to fish life, but, so far as I know, the percentage of poison from a
mechanical mill has never been determined. A provisional conclusion,
however, may be based upon some of the experiments to be described
later in this paper.
BEET SUGAR INDUSTRY.
The manufacture of sugar from the maple and from the beet
depends upon the fact that sugar is one of the reserve materials stored
in the cells of these plants. In order to liberate the sugar from the beet
roots they must be thoroughly ground into a mash, so as to rupture the
cell walls. The more effectively this is done, the higher is the percent-
age of sugar obtained from the beet. It is easily conceivable that the
water that escapes from beet sugar factories may contain matter that
is poisonous to fish life.
Professor Prince called attention to both these sources of pollution
in his report for 1899, and they are referred to now merely for the pur-
pose of emphasizing the fact that other industries may pollute the
streams of Canada to even a greater extent than lumbering. In all
three industries the source of pollution is. the contents of the wood or
plant cell.
There is a similar action going on in nature all the time. Leaves,
branches, and trunks of dead trees are decomposing continuously ; their
cell contents are being dissolved in rain and melting snow, and are in
part carried away in streams and rivers. The only difference is that in
440 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
this latter case the poisons come away so slowly that air (oxygen), sun-
light, and bacteria have ample time in which to change their poisonous
character ; whereas in the saw mill, the pulp mill, and the beet sugar
factory, the poisons are quickly discharged into running water, and
tend at once to produce their effects upon fish and other life.
STRENGTH OF SAWDUST EXTRACTS.
As already explained, the first experiments were made with solu-
tions obtained by soaking white pine sawdust for at least twenty-four
hours in tap water from Lake Ontario. When the sawdust was soaked
for four days in tap water, 1,000 c.c. of the yellowish-brown solution
already described as oozing out from the bag of sawdust, and lying at
the bottom of the aquarium, yielded 1,240 milligrams of solid matter
after evaporation in a platinum crucible. The ash from this weighed 80
m.gs., which was found to be exactly the same as that from tap water.
Deducting this from 1,240, leaves 1,160 m.gs. as the weight of the
material stored in the pine cells of the sawdust, and dissolved out in
1,000 c.c. of water in four days.
After filtering off the first water, and adding fresh water to the
same sawdust, and allowing the mixture to stand five days longer, it was
found that 1,000 c.c. of this second solution yielded a total of 360 m.gs.
of solid, or allowing for the ash in tap water, a net residue of 260 m.gs.
of reserve material was dissolved out the second time.
The corresponding figures for cedar (Ontario) sawdust were as
follows :—
1. Solid from 1,000\c.c. soaking four days...--.-..--...-- 1,300 m.gs.
2. Same sawdust with first water filtered off, fresh water
added and allowed to stand five days .... ......, =550 m.gs.
3. Same operations repeated, soaking five days ........ = 350 m.gs.
No allowance is made in these figures for the ash from tap water,
viz., 80 m.gs.
These figures indicate clearly enough that the reserve material
stored in the wood cells comes away in diminishing quantities every
time fresh water is added to the sawdust.
The next point sought to be determined was the number of times
that fresh water could be added to a fixed weight of sawdust and con-
tinue to produce solutions which would be poisonous to fish life. For
1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FIsH LIFE. 441
the purpose of getting information on this point two series of experi-
ments were carried on, one with cedar sawdust and one with white pine.
EXTRACTS FROM CEDAR (ONTARIO).
On the second of June 400 grams of cedar sawdust were placed in
a cheese-cloth bag and sunk to the bottom of a small glass aquarium
(12 in. x 8 in. x 6 in.) containing 7,000 cc. of tap water. Next day.
there had formed at the bottom, to a depth of two inches, a dark yellow-
ish brown solution. The uppermost four inches were tinged a light
yellow by diffusion, but there was a perfectly distinct surface of a greyish
colour separating the upper from the underlying dark water. These
characters became still more marked during the week, at the end of
which time 1,400 c.c. of the lower liquid were siphoned off into a shallow
circular dish and a perch weighing seventy grams immersed in the solu-
tion. In thirteen minutes it was lying on its back moribund, but revived
when returned to fresh water. The control animal was kept twenty-four
hours in 1,400 c.c. tap water in a similar vessel and then returned to the
aquarium.
A perch weighing twenty-five grams was placed in 400 c.c. of this
extract and air bubbled rapidly through it all the time. In twenty-
eight minutes it was dead. The control animal in tap water under
similar conditions was alive at the end of seventy hours.
Three Daphni@ in this extract died within two hours.
Fresh water Hydra died almost instantly in it. Paramcecia were
unaffected by either cedar or pine extracts. These scavengers were often
observed apparently feeding upon the dead bodies of Hydra that had
died in the poisonous extracts.
On the 13th, all the water was poured off and fresh water added.
On the 14th, a perch weighing seventy grams was placed in 1,400 c.c.
of the solution formed during the preceding twenty-four hours. It was
moribund insix minutes. With air bubbling rapidly through some more
of this solution, another perch placed in it was moribund in seven
minutes.
Pond silk appeared to be unaffected by an immersion of four days
in this water.
June 15th. A perch moribund in fourteen minutes in a third solu-
tion—all the water being poured off and fresh added.
442 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.. VII.
June 16th. A perch moribund in eight minutes in a fourth solution
from the same sawdust.
June 16th. A perch moribund in ten minutes in a fifth solution
formed by soaking this same sawdust in fresh water for seven hours.
June 17th. A perch moribund in ten minutes in a sixth solution.
With air bubbling through more of this solution, another perch moribund
in twenty-one minutes.
June 18th. A perch moribund in twelve minutes in a seventh solu-
tion. The water was poured off twice to-day, making an eighth solution.
June 19th. A perch moribund in eight minutes in a ninth solution,
At I1 a.m. a pond leech was placed in this solution. It had eighteen
young ones, five large and thirteen small, attached to its back. Three
of these young at once detached themselves from the mother’s back.
The adult showed every symptom of discomfort by swimming rapidly
round the vessel, then pausing and rolling itself up into a wheel as if to
escape the effects of the water. It tried to leave the vessel, but was put
back again. Gradually the smaller young detached themselves from the
mother until only two or three of the smallest (about 44 inch in length)
remained on her back. The larger young ones were about an inch long,
but when extended they were an inch and a half. Finally the smallest
dropped off and wriggled about with the others on the bottom. The
mother came to rest in about three-quarters of an hour. The young
were all dead at 4.30 p.m.; the mother was moribund at 6 p.m., and
died during the evening.
Two pond snails lived just twenty-four hours in this solution. The
larva of an aquatic insect lived five and a half hours in it.
At 11.30 a.m. three bunches of vorticellz were placed in the solu-
tion. Their cilia at once stopped moving in all the individuals, and they
assumed the spherical form. By 5 p.m. most of these animals had
dropped from their stalks and lay quite motionless at the bottom of the
glass. Apparently they were dead. Returned them to fresh water, but
found them all apparently dead next morning.
A bunch of embryos of the pond snail placed in this extract at
5.30 p.m. to-day were all found dead the next morning.
June 20th. Placed a perch weighing seventy grams in 600 c.c. cedar
1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FIsH LIFE. 443
water drawn off for the eleventh time; air bubbling through it very
rapidly. Moribund in ten minutes.
Placed in this extract about a dozen worms gathered from the mud
in water about three feet deep. These animals were massed together
and lying among the roots of aquatic plants. The moment the solution
touched them they separated all over the bottom of the watch glass,
wriggling in all directions and voiding their faeces. In three hours they
were all dead. So were two small phyllapod crustaceans which happened
to be along with the worms.
June 24th. Placed a batch of about fifty aquatic worms in cedar
extract drawn off for the twelfth time. At first great wriggling ensues
with evacuation of faeces ; then constrictions occur in each segment of
the body, making the animal look somewhat like a string of beads ;
then the hinder end appears to disintigrate but leaves the front end
living and moving ; finally the head dies. In two hours most of them
were dead, but in a few the head was still alive.
June 25th. At 9.15 am. placed a tadpole one inch long in cedar
extract drawn off for the twelfth time. Apparentty dead in fifteen
minutes, but revived in about an hour when returned to fresh water.
Up to this time all experiments with cedar extract had been con-
ducted with what might be considered as saturated solutions ; that is,
the solution used was siphoned off from the bottom of the aquarium
where the sawdust was ]ying and where the dark colour showed the
extract to be the strongest. From this date the experiment was varied
by throwing out all the water, filling up the aquarium with fresh water
and allowing the bag of sawdust to float at the top of the water. In
this way the solution was uniform in colour and strength throughout the
aquarium. The animals were then as a rule placed in the aquarium
and usually swam about below the floating sawdust bag.
June 27th. Mr. Halkett, an officer of the Department of Marine and
Fisheries, arrived to-day from Belleville, bringing with him about 100
black bass fry. The weight of one of these of medium size was found
to be 135 milligrams ; its length one inch.
_ Placed two of these fry in cedar extract drawn off fourteen times.
Both appeared to be dead in two minutes. Placed in fresh water they
did not revive.
June 28th. Two black bass fry in cedar extract drawn off sixteen
times from the same sawdust, died in two hours.
444 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo-. VII.
June 30th. Changed all the water on the cedar sawdust to-day no
less than five times. Immediately after adding the fresh water black
bass fry were placed each time in the aquarium, and in each case the
animal was dead in from half an hour to forty minutes.
July 7th. The last experiment with this sawdust was performed to-
day. The water was changed this morning at 9 a.m. for the thirty-first
time, and immediately afterwards a black bass fry was immersed in it.
It swam about below the floating bag which contained the sawdust.
The odour of the cedar was scarcely perceptible in the water. The
strength of the solution was, of course, increasing all the time. At
II a.m. the fry was dead.
Some of the water that was drained off from the sawdust at 9 a.m.
was found to contain 235 m.gs of solid matter per 1,000 c.c. Allowing
for the residue after ignition, there would still remain 155 parts per million
of poisonous extract dissolved out of the cedar cells in the thirtieth
withdrawal. This is quite remarkable when it is remembered that the
sawdust had been soaking continuously for five weeks, and the water on
it changed thirty times.
Comparing the solid in this solution with that in a saturated solu-
tion ‘already given, viz., 1,240 per 1,000 c.c., we conclude that there has
been a continuous withdrawal of poisonous extracts from the cedar.
The question, therefore, of whether a river is polluted with sawdust or
mot, simply becomes a question of determining the quantity of sawdust
poured into a known volume and flow of water, and the further question
of determining whether the resulting solution is poisonous enough to kill
fish eggs, fry, adult fish or fish food.
Warm water was found to extract the poison from wood cells much
‘more quickly than cold water.
EXTRACTS FROM WHITE PINE.
The general effect of pine extracts upon fish eggs has already been
described. It only remains to point out some special effects under
varying conditions. One of these is that eggs live longer in aérated
sawdust water than in unaérated. This is quite clear from the following
experiment: At 9.45 a.m.of May 18th, two batches of eggs were placed
in pine water at the bottom of the aquarium. At 5.30 p.m. every egg
but two was dead.
At 11.15 a.m. of May 17th two batches were placed in pine water
through which air was bubbling at the rate of 400 c.c. per minute. At
1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FisH LIFE. 445
9.45 a.m. of the 18th, twenty out of one batch of thirty-three were dead ;
and in the other, thirteen out of seventy-three were dead. At 5.30 p.m.
of the same day all of the first batch of thirty-three were dead, and
only seven were alive in the other.
The effect of aérating the pine water was made apparent in another
way. At 10.25 a.m. of the 18th, 120 eggs were placed in pine water ina
shallow dish so that the water was only three-eighths of an inchdeep. At
5.20 p.m. only a few were dead ; all the rest were very quiet. At 9 a.m.
the next morning forty-seven were dead ; at 6 p.m. all were dead except
five. At 10.30 a.m. of the 20th four of these five had hatched out and were
quite lively. This experiment shows that the large surface exposed to the
air absorbs oxygen, and therefore tends to prolong the life of both larve
and fry. In contrast with this it is interesting to note that the same
quantity of poisonous water put into a tall jar at 6 p.m. of the 19th had
killed every egg in a batch of nineteen by 10.30 a.m. the next morning.
In this case, the depth of the water and the small surface exposed to the
air prevented the diffusion of the oxygen downwards to the eggs, lying
at the bottom of the vessel.
There can be no doubt that fish instantly perceive the poisonous
character of pine or cedar extracts. A minnow was placed in the
large marble aquarium already described, and being driven to one end
of the vessel, it sank through the clear water and into the yellowish
brown extract lying at the bottom. The moment his head touched it
he started towards the surface. I drove him back several times, and
each time he sank into the coloured water he made frantic efforts to
escape from it. He refused finally to be driven into it. Immersed
in the pine extract in a separate vessel the minnow was moribund in
three minutes and could not be resuscitated in fresh water.
A perch placed in goo c.c. of pine water, in a shallow dish, was
moribund in three minutes.
Another perch in pine water with air bubbling rapidly through it
lived three and a half hours.
Two limicolous worms died in thirty minutes; two rotifers lived
only ten minutes.
One tadpole half an inch long lived two hours. Another tadpole
of the same size died in half an hour in a weak solution. A similar
animal in strong cedar extract lived only six minutes.
A copepod placed in it at 11 a.m. was alive at 3.30 p.m., but died
during the early evening.
446 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. iViou. Vaile
Daphnia and the larva of an aquatic insect lived three days.
One hydra immersed at 10.40 a.m. was dead at 5 pm. Its body
was partly disintegrated and many paramcecia appeared to be feeding
on it. Another hydra on being placed in the extract contracted its
tentacles, detached itself from its support, contracted the lower half of
its body, voided the intestinal contents, and appeared to be dead in two
hours. It revived in fresh water.
A colony of vorticelle at first showed no signs of discomfort ; the
cilia kept on moving, and the stalks contracting spirally. Soon the
stalks ceased their movements; a little later the cilia stopped; the
animals took the spherical form and within one and a half hours all were
apparently dead.
A rock bass weighing seventy grams when placed in 1,300 c.c. of the
extract became moribund in twelve minutes. All of the fish revived in
from five to twenty minutes when returned to fresh water.
A perch weighing thirty grams when placed in a jar containing 400
c.c. of the pine water with air bubbling rapidly through it was moribund
in ten minutes.
June 16th. Up to this time my experiments with this extract had been
made with strong solutions. To-day a series of experiments were begun
for the purpose of ascertaining, if possible, how long the same sawdust
would continue to give off poisonous solutions when the saturated water
was drained off and fresh water added from time to time.
With this end in view 360 grams of white pine sawdust were placed
in a cheese cloth bag at 9 a.m. and sunk to the bottom of a small glass
aquarium, I2 in. x 8 in. x 6 in., containing 7,000 c.c. of tap water. Two
hours after, 800 c.c. were siphoned off from the extract at the bottom of
the vessel. This was found to be very slightly poisonous to adult fish.
Next morning at 10 a.m. 800 c.c. more were siphoned off. A rock bass
lived in this one hour and twenty minutes. Another fish lived six hours
in it when air was made to bubble rapidly through it. The third and
fourth withdrawals of 800 c.c. each were thrown away.
June 21st. The larva of an aquatic insect lived twelve hours in the
extract drawn off for the fifth time: vorticellae lived twenty hours, limi-
colous worms twenty hours, a pond snail seventy hours. The sixth and
seventh withdrawals were thrown away.
June 27th. The eighth withdrawal of 800 c.c. made by soaking the
pine eighteen hours, killed a perch in three hours, and three black bass
fry in half an hour.
1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FIsuH LIFE. 447
June 30th. A slight modification was made in this experiment. In
place of siphoning off the strong extract at the bottom of the aquarium,
the whole 7,000 c.c. of water were drained off, and the aquarium was
filled up with fresh water. The weights were removed from the bag:
which at once rose to the top of the water. Consequently the extract
coming off from the sawdust, being heavier than the fresh water, fell
towards the bottom and became uniformly diffused throughout the
vessel. This was the twelfth withdrawal. Black bass fry lived five hours
in this water, which was, of course, becoming more poisonous all the
time.
July 7th. The last experiment with this sawdust was made to-day.
The bag is still floating. The water was changed for the twentieth time
at 9 p.m. last evening. At 9 a.m. to-day a black bass fry was immersed
in this solution. In two hours it was dead. Some of this solution was
evaporated and was found to contain 160 m.gs., or, allowing for the re-
sidue after ignition, eighty parts per litre. That is, pine sawdust soaking
continuously since June 16th, with the water on it changed twenty times
furnished in twelve hours eighty parts per million of poisonous extracts
from its wood cells.
Comparing these figures with those for a saturated solution already
given, viz.,1,160 parts for 1,000 c.c., we see that there has been a continuous
withdrawal of poisonous material from the sawdust. The question,
therefore, of determining whether any stream is polluted with pine saw-
dust or not is largely the question of determining the minimum amount
of sawdust extracts which will kill fish eggs, fry, adult fish, and fish food.
Needless to say, such determinations would have to be made for every
sawmill stream in Canada, and for each separate kind of fish.
OTHER Woop EXTRACTS.
A number of experiments were made with extracts from other
woods besides pine and cedar. Norway, or red pine, British Columbia
cedar, maple, hemlock, oak, ash, elm were all used, but it was soon dis-
covered that the most poisonous extracts were obtained from tie pines
and cedars. Consequently experiments with the hard woods were soon
discontinued.
From all hard woods, however, the saturated yellowish-brown
extract was found to be very poisonous to both adult fish and fish eggs.
The following experiments give typical results in the case of each
of these woods.
448 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
MAPLE SAWDUST.
A dark orange liquid oozed out from maple, and lay at the bottom
of the aquarium. This was separated from the clear liquid above by a
perfectly well-defined greyish surface. At the top of the water (16%4
inches deep) intake and outflow pipes allowed tap water to flow into and
out of the aquarium at the rate of 600 c.c. per minute. A perch having
sunk into this extract once or twice could not afterwards be driven into
it. The animal soon found where the fresh water inlet was, and when
driven to other parts of the aquarium would always come back to the
fresh water.
Aquatic plants in maple extract lost their chlorophy] in three days.
Returned to fresh water they regained their colour, but the tips of their
leaves had died.
HEMLOCK SAWDUST.
Hemlock has always had a bad reputation, but does not deserve it.
On July 27th, six black bass fry were placed in a mixture of five
volumes of water to cne volume of hemlock sawdust. The vessel was
covered with four layers of cheese cloth, and a copious stream of water
was made to fall upon it from a tap about a foot above it. The fry
were all alive and well at the end of three days, when they were returned
to the aquarium.
As a control experiment, five black bass fry were kept for the same
length of time in the same volume of water, viz., 600 c.c., with air
bubbling through it all the time. These animals also were quite lively
and well at the end of the experiment.
BRITISH COLUMBIA CEDAR SAWDUST.
This sawdust sank rapidly, 75 per cent. falling to the bottom of
perfectly still water in two minutes. It gave off a very poisonous
extract. Two black bass fry lived only one minute in a solution made
by standing five and a-half hours. The colour was a beautiful amber
with a strong smell of cedar. A solution made by one gram of saw-
dust standing in 500 c.c. water for three hours rendered a black bass
fry moribund in two hours. A solution from one gram in 750 c.c. water
for twenty-seven hours, killed another fry in two and a-half hours.
Even as homeopathic a solution as one gram in 1,500 c.c. killed fry in less
than eighteen hours.
If much of this sawdust is poured into British Columbia streams,
1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FIsH LIFE. 449
the stockholders of British Columbia Fish Canning Co’s will need to
look closely into the future prospects of their industry.
NORWAY, OR RED PINE.
Within three minutes, 90 per cent. of the sawdust from this wood
had sunk. A strong solution made in eighteen hours rendered a black
bass fry moribund in one hour. This water when aérated, but not
filtered, rendered another fry moribund in exactly the same time. In
both cases the gills of the animals seemed to be affected by fine
particles of the wood fibre clinging to the filaments and preventing re-
spiration. This was not observed to be the case with any other kind of
sawdust.
A solution made by soaking one gram of this sawdust for nine hours
in 250 c.c. of water killed a fry in less than an hour.
Another fry lived fifteen hours in a solution made by soaking one
gram in 850 c.c. water for six hours.
OAK.
Contrary to expectations, oak sawdust was not so poisonous as
pine and cedar. It communicated an orange colour to the water just as
other woods did. A tadpole lived three days in a strong solution, and
was quite lively at the end of that time.
ELM.
A few experiments were made with elm sawdust. Here again a
dense yellowish-brown layer forms at the bottom of the aquarium.
This kills adult fish in from half an hour to two hours. A tadpole lived
over an hour init. When this water was thoroughly aérated a perch
lived twenty hours in it, and was then active and apparently well.
EXTRACTS QUICKLY SOLUBLE.
The experiments hitherto described would seem to indicate that
some considerable time was required for the water to dissolve out the
poisonous extracts from white pine sawdust, but such is certainly not
the case. This was clearly shown in the following experiment, Fig. 3.
Two minnows were confined in a bottle containing 600 c.c. water and
eighteen grams of white pine sawdust. Fresh water was made to enter
and leave at the rate of 100 c.c. per minute. The inlet tube passed
straight to the bottom of the vessel, and its lower end was therefore buried
in about an inch of sawdust. One animal lived forty minutes, the other
fifty. When the incoming water was reduced to 80 c.c. per minute three
450 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vox. VII. -
minnows lived only from three to five minutes. Outlet.
When the fresh water entered at the rate of 125 c.c. +"
per minute, minnows lived from twenty to ninety
===? Inlet.
minutes. The control animals were kept for a week
in a similar bottle, without sawdust, of course, and
with water coming in at the rate of 110c.c. per minute.
In these experiments the poisonous extracts must
have been coming away all the time. The moment
the bottle was full of water the minnows were
slipped into it. Consequently, when the fish were
killed in five minutes, the 600 cc. at first in the bottle,
and 400 c.c. additional water were poisoned. When
they were killed in ninety minutes, no less than 11,250
c.c. were poisoned. That is, the percentage weight of sawdust to
poisoned water was .16 per cent. This determination is important, as
we shall see later, when we come to compare it with the percentage of
sawdust thrown into the Bonnechere River.
FIG, 3.
FISH AT MILL-ENDS.
Millmen and anglers alike testify that many kinds of fish are taken
by hook and line at mill-ends, no matter how excessive the sawdust may
be. The sawdust does not kill the fish so long as there is a rapid and
abundant flow of water. Why do fish thus congregate at mill-ends?
To answer this question we must remember two things: first, rapidly
running water is better aérated than sluggish water ; and secondly, some
fish, such as trout and salmon, ascend streams until they reach suitable
spawning grounds, or are stopped in their ascent by high falls or mill-
dams. In ascending a river these fish are but obeying a law of their
nature ; in congregating at mill-ends they are equally obeying a law of
their nature,and are instinctively seeking water which furnishes their blood
with a plentiful supply of oxygen. This instinct is well illustrated in
the experiment just described in Fig. 3. The experiment was repeated
a number of times, and in every instance the fish discovered where the
fresh water came in. In one instance, in order to get close to the in-
coming water, a minnow stood on its head for fifteen minutes with more
than half of its body buried beneath the sawdust. It was thus acting
under the impulse of two fundamental instincts, viz., the instinct to avoid
poisoned water on the one hand, and to seek fresh water on the other.
The experiment seems to throw light upon the experience of anglers who
have found that trout desert the main stream when saw mills are running,
and betake themselves to the unpolluted branch streams lower down.
1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FIsH LIFE. 451
ro
A STAGNANT ARTIFICIAL POOL.
Reference has already been made to the fact that black bass fry,
minnows and perch, when placed in an aquarium, invariably avoided the
poisonous sawdust water at the bottom. Having sunk into it once or
twice, it was found almost impossible to drive them into it again. Here
was a conflict between two fundamental instincts. On the one hand
was the natural instinct to hide in deep water ; on the other hand, the
equally natural instinct to avoid the poisonous solution at the bottom.
Which instinct would the fish obey if compelled to make a choice ?
The following experiment was designed for the purpose of seeing
which instinct was the more powerful, and for the further purpose of
imitating what might possibly occur in a stagnant pool along the course
of a sawdust polluted stream.
A glass aquarium 12 in. x 8 in. x 6 in. was placed in a much larger
vessel and a mixture of ice and salt packed in the latter so as to sur-
round the aquarium. The aquarium was then half-filled with white pine
extract which had been forming for three weeks, and which killed adult
fish in from one to three minutes. After the extract had been cooled
down to 8° c., tap water at the tem-
ori perature of 13° c. was slowly admit-
é Taco _ os ee ted to the aquarium so as not to
ai ays: ie disturb the underlying poisonous
water. The tap water, being warmer,
floated clear and transparent on
the dark purplish extract below.
The clear water entered and left
the aquarium at the rate of 150 c.c.
per minute. The arrangement of apparatus is represented in Fig. 4.
At first two minnows were placed in the aquarium. They at once
dove to the bottom, encountered the poisonous water, immediately came
up again, repeated the operation a few times, and finally remained swim-
ming about in the clear water. Three black bass fry, liberated one after
the other, went to the bottom and never came up—suffocated and
poisoned in the dark stagnant water at the bottom. Of two other
minnows dropped into the aquarium, one large one never came to the
surface ; the other joined its fellows in the clear water above. All three
soon found the end at which the fresh water was entering and remained
there facing the stream.
This experiment shows what might possibly happen in pools parti-
452 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
ally filled with sawdust. Wood extracts would form, and being cooler
and heavier than the clear water, would lie at the bottom of the pool.
Of course, fish already in the pool would be driven away, but those
coming up or down stream through shallow stretches, and trying to hide
in the deeper waters of the pool, might be suffocated or poisoned.
COMPARATIVE RESULTS.
After obtaining the general results detailed in the preceding part of
this paper, it seemed desirable to plan a series of experiments that
would show comparative results at a glance. With this end in view,
two grams each of different kinds of sawdust were placed in shallow
circular dishes containing respectively, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800,
gO0O, 1,000, 1,200, 1,500, and 1,700 c.c. of fresh water. After soaking
for about five hours in each case, a minnow was placed in each of the
dishes. The length of time each animal lived was carefully noted, ex-
cept in those cases where death occurred during the night. The results
are given in the following tables :—
WHITE PINE SAWDUST.
Weight of | Volume Time Time at which minnow Resnies
Sawdust. |Waterc.c.| Scaking. was immersed, SSEUSL
From
2 grams. 300 10 a.m. 2.43 p.m. Lived about 9 minutes.
oe 400 ce oe ae “ee
os 500 ce e “cc “6
oe 600 “ec oe oe oe
ae ‘ ‘ “e “ec
700 f : ‘
“ 800 ue ss ** To minutes.
oe e oe iad oc
900 I
oe 1000 “ce “e ce Fe “e
“ | 1200 «6 “6 “ 20 “6
oe 1500 e oe “e 2 oc
oe 1700 ce “e “ce 29 ac
ONTARIO RED PINE.
i
2 grams. 300 10 a.m. 2.47 p.m. Lived 47 minutes.
oe 400 ay “e “ce 50 “e
“et 500 “ ce “ec 50 ce
se 600 oe ae «« 1 hour and 28 minutes.
ee “ce “ce “ee “e ce
700 I I
oe 800 ce “e “ee I ce a oe
“é goo “e ce “ce ] «ce 53 é
‘s 1000 ee OG ‘¢ 2 hours and 20 sé
oe 1200 «ec “ce oe 2 “ec 50 ce
“e ae ec ae ay 66
2 1500 ; 3 45
‘ 1700 ‘ ae oe 3 oe 45 ae
1902-3. |
SAWDUST AND FISH LIFE.
ONTARIO CEDAR.
Weight of | Volume Time Time at'which minnow Results:
Sawdust, |Waterc.c.| Soaking. was immersed.
From
2 grams, 300 10 a.m. 2.33 p.m. Lived 8 minutes.
66 oe oe ce ce
ae 400 se oe oe 9 ce
oe ae ce “ce ae oe e
tole) 20
es 700 ce ce oe 21 oe
6é 800 “ce ce ce 22 ce
ce goo ce ae ce 27 ac
oe 1000 “ec ee “oe 27 “ec
by 1200 os us Shouts
a 1500 “ ge 1 and asiminutes:
inf 1700 ia) oe 6é I ce ce 55 oe
BRITISH COLUMBIA CEDAR.
2 grams. 300 |10.15 a.m. 2.51 p.m. Lived 6 minutes.
ce 400 sce “ce ae 6 ing
6s 500 6é ims ce 15 “ec
“ce 600 ee 6é | “ec 53 ce
cc 700 ae oe | oe “ce
ae 800 te as ‘« 1 hour and 9 minutes.
Ge goo ee Gt | Jumped out of dish unnoticed.
ss 1000 ce Se Lived 1 hour and 32 minutes.
oe 1200 ec oe ce I “oe 36 “6
be 1500 oe oe “ec 3 ae 50 ee
oe 1700 oe “ec “ce 3 ce 29 ce
HEMLOCK BARK.
Bark.
2 grams. 300 |10.10 a.m. 2.36 p.m. Lived 55 minutes.
a 400 os a “* 1 hour and 32 minutes.
o¢ “e ae ae oe “6
oe ae cs oe ce : “oe i cc
a 700 as ‘ SS) 2ehours.
os 800 ss és “« 1 hour and 32 minutes.
rs goo ae GG Jumped out of dish unnoticed.
1000 es “s Lived 2 hours and 18 minutes.
oe 1200 “ee (a4 ce 3 oe 24 oe
oe 1500 “oe ae ce 4 oe
ce 1700 ce cay ce 4 “e 15 ce
454 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [Vot. VII.
Harp MAPLE SAWDUST.
F Vv . : pfouawe
eeare lwatedeelRsoitnes | wcotnineaaenns Re
From July rs5th.
2 grams. 300 10.38 a.m. 3-30 p.m. Lived 2 hours and twenty minutes.
July 15th.
‘S 400 z sé July 21st, 1oa.m._ Still alive.
as 500 es sh ‘« 16th. Died last night.
<6 600 ee ue oo 21st, toa.m: Stillvallive:
“ 700 ae a «16th. Died last night.
oe 800 ss ss So 21Steeloaeime Stllvalives
3 goo . ss Lived only 2 hours.
i 1000 a as July 18th. Died between 4 p.m.
and 8 p.m.
ts 1200 sf #s Lived 3 hours and 30 minutes.
ee 1500 es “ July 18th. Died between 4 p.m.
and 8 p.m.
oe 1700 og < “SS 20th: sDiedisip-m:
This experiment was discontinued July 21st, 10 a.m.
ONTARIO CEDAR BARK.
|
2 grams. 300 |10.20 a.m. 2.41 p.m. Lived 37 minutes.
se 400 es Se ‘¢ 1 hour and 20 minutes.
os 500 ss Ef se 50 minutes.
ae 600 es GG ‘« -50 minutes.
os 700 ag a ‘« 1 hour and 20 minutes.
ae ae “6 ee ce ce
: 800 I 31
‘ goo oe “ce “ce I oe 40 “ee
ce 1000 “ae “ce “e I ac 57 ae
ee 1200 OG es <2 hours 10 ee
oe 1500 oe ae ce 4 ce
“ce 1700 “se ce ce 4 “oe 20 ce
ELM SAWDUST.
2 grams. 300 |10.44 a.m. 3-30 p.m. Lived 4 hours and 30 minutes.
July 15th.
“s 400 sf os Died toa.m. July 16th.
=a 500 Oe “ Lived 1 hour and 30 minutes.
a 600 on a ‘« 2 hours and 30 we
a 700 “s ss ‘« 1 hour and go ss
on 800 +f ne July 21st, 10oa.m. Still alive.
goo yy «« 78th. Died last night.
ss 1000 rs ss “« 2ist. Died last night.
“ 1200 ee ae Lived 1 hour and jo minutes,
a 1500 oe uf ‘« 4 hours and 30 oe
a 1700 Se ss «« 1 hour and 30 oY
This experiment was discontinued July 21st, 10 a.m.
1902-3].
SAWDUST AND FISH LIFE. 455
Oak SAWDUST.
Weight of | Volume Time Time at which minnow Results
Sawdust. |Waterc.c.| Soaking. was immersed.
Since July 23rd.
2 grams. 300 |10.15 a.m. 2.30 p.m. Lived 2 hours and 30 minutes.
of 23rd.
sé 0o se 66 66 2 6c fe) “ce
ee ues oe “eé ce 3 oe 3 oe
ee 600 oe ce oe 7 ee 30 ce
ce 700 oe oe ee 2 “eé 20 “ce
A Me . f One lived 2 hours and 20 minutes.
820 giaminials \ July 24th. Died last night.
Fe Ke ; ? { One lived 7 hours and 30 minutes.
ae aaaimals \July 24th. Died last night.
HS 1000 es ie July 25th. Jumped out unnoticed.
a 1200 ub os ‘¢ 30th, gp.m. Stillalive. Released.
a 1500 oe e Lived 3 hours and 30 minutes.
3 3
uy 1700 eg * July 25th, 3 p.m. Dead.
ASH SAWDUST.
2 grams. 300 =|10.48 a.m. 3.30 p.m. July 21st, 10a.m. Still alive.
of July 15. July 15th.
ae 400 ss ‘s Lived 1 hour and 30 minutes.
oe 500 a ss July 21st, 10oa.m. Still alive.
es 600 ss ae Lived 1 hour and 40 minutes.
on 700 gs cs ‘« 2 hours and 10 se
mg 800 a a July 21st. Died last night.
us goo +4 cs Lived 1 hour.
by 1000 Se Re July 21st, 1o a.m. Still alive.
1200 es uG «« 2tst. Died last night.
ut 1500 ub es «2st, 1Ioa.m. Still alive.
es 1700 re ie “« joth. Died to-day.
This experiment was discontinued July 21st, 10 a.m.
HEMLOCK SAWDUST.
2 grams. 300 |I0.15 a.m.| 2.30 p.m. July 26th, 9.30a.m. Dead.
of 23rd. July 23rd.
“6 400 6 ce ia ce “ec
< 500 fe se July goth, 9a.m. Released.
e 600 “e “ce se oe sé
oe 700 “6 a3 “c «6 “
a 800 & < July 26th. 9.30a.m. Found dead.
oh goo ss sf Lived 45 minutes.
we 1000 us og July 26th, 11 a.m. Dying.
My 1200 on ss Sez othya.00.) 3 Dead:
+ 1500 es fs Lived 1 hour and 45 minutes.
a 1700 ae a July 26th, 9.30 a.m. Dead.
456 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
SPRUCE SAWDUST.
Weight of | Volume Time Time at which minnow
Sawdust. |Waterc.c.| Soaking. was immersed. Results.
2 grams. 300 |10.30 a.m. 2.40 p.m. Lived 3 hours and 30 minutes.
of 23rd. July 23rd.
a 400 es “f July 24th, 9.30 a.m. Found dead.
oc 500 ee ce “ec “se «ce
oee 600 oe ce ce 26th, “ ce
ce 700 “ce oe ce 24th, ae ce
ee Ke : iW f July 24th, 9.00. Dying.
800 2 animals Vane deaths a Found dane
a goo ie FE July 26th, 9.30 a.m. Found dead.
ss 1000 ss ss goth, g.00 a.m. Released.
“e 1200 eo ce ae oe Dying.
es 1500 WY es ‘¢ 27th, 7.30p.m. Dying.
ss 1700 ny oy «« 26th, 9.30 a.m. Found dead.
The reader will, of course, understand that in all experiments due.
allowance must be made for constitutional differences in individual fish.
Some men survive the effects of cold, hunger or poisonous drugs
longer than others. In the same way some species of fish, and some
individuals in each species, are naturally more hardy than others, and
can survive in poisoned water a longer time. Some are more delicately
organized and are, therefore, more easily killed. For example, black
bass fry lived longer than minnows in some of my experiments. Conse-
quently too much importance must not be attached to the exact number
of minutes or hours that a fish will live in any given strength of sawdust
solution. When we are dealing with vital phenomena, all we can con-
sider is the general average of a number of experiments. Keeping this
in view, some conclusions may fairly be drawn from the foregoing
results.
1. White pine sawdust is by all odds the most poisonous substance.
2. Next comes Ontario cedar.
3. Then British Columbia cedar.
4. Red pine, cedar bark and hemlock bark are moderately poisonous.
5. Maple, oak, ash, elm, hemlock and spruce may all be grouped
together as only slightly poisonous.
EXPERIMENTS WITH BARK.
From the frequent references to the pernicious effects of bark which
may be found in the literature of sawdust pollution, one would naturally
1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FIsH LIFE. 457
expect to find that bark solutions were very destructive to fish life and
fish food. The very opposite was found to be the case. Compared
with the wood extracts, the bark solutions were comparatively harmless.
Even tan bark, much execrated by fishermen and anglers alike, was not
so poisonous as one might expect, but the experiments must speak for
themselves.
WHITE PINE BARK.
a
Only 11 per cent. of sawdust from this bark sank in ten minutes.
A black bass fry seemed perfectly unharmed after being three hours ina
solution of this bark that had been forming for twenty-two hours (one
gram in seventy-five c.c. tap water). The animal was then returned to
the fresh water aquarium.
This same bark, after soaking two weeks, gave a solution that killed
solely by suffocation. This was quite apparent from the fact that two
minnows when placed in this water (freely aérated) lived for fwenty-four
hours and were then liberated. When the solution was unaérated the
minnows died in an hour or two. Pouring the solution several times
from one vessel to another aréated it sufficiently to enable two minnows
to live three days in it without apparent harm.
After standing six weeks a scum formed on the surface. This was
removed and the solution aérated by pouring it several times from one
vessel to another. A minnow now lived in it for two days and was
liberated, apparently as well as ever.
HEMLOCK BARK.
A solution made by soaking one gram of this sawdust bark for
fifteen hours in 100 c.c. of tap water killed a minnow in six minutes.
After soaking for two weeks this water killed a minnow in one hour,
even when thoroughly aérated. But these were very strong solutions
compared with the ones obtained from wood.
CEDAR BARK.
Only 5 per cent. sank in fifteen hours. In two days it had all sunk
excepting about I percent. A I percent. solution (one gram in 100
c.c.) made in fifteen hours, rendered a minnow moribund in fourteen
minutes. Here again the solution was a very strong one compared with
those obtained from wood sawdust and used in the experiments previ-
ously described.
458 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [VoL. VII.
As bark extracts, therefore, are not more poisonous than those from
pine and cedar woods, it seemed useless to conduct separate experi-
ments upon their effects.
DECAYING SAWDUST.
One objection frequently urged against the practice of throwing
sawdust into streams and rivers is that the decaying sawdust imparts
suclhy a disagreeable odour to the water that sensitive fish are driven
away to other waters not so polluted. It seemed to me, therefore, that
some progress might be made towards a definite conclusion in this
matter, if sawdust were allowed to stand for several weeks in an aquar-
ium and tested from time to time as to the changes going on in it, and
the influence of these upon fish.
With this end in view about 1,000 grams of white pine sawdust
were placed in an aquarium three feet four inches long, fifteen inches
wide, and filled up to sixteen and a half inches deep with fresh water.
This was done June 24th. No water was allowed to enter or leave the
vessel. No direct sunlight fell upon it.
The usual results followed, viz., a well defined layer of pale, yellow
water one and three-quarter inches deep formed in a few hours and lay
at the bottom. On top of this was the perfectly clear layer about fifteen
inches deep.
After soaking for two days, bubbles of gas began to rise to the sur-
face of the water, but no attempt was made to analyze it. The bottom
yellowish layer had become so dense that no object could be seen across
it—a thickness of fifteen inches. Its upper surface was sharply marked
off from the overlying transparent water by a thin greyish layer.
Microscopic examination of this layer showed it to be swarming with
bacteria.
At the end of a week, only about an inch at the bottom had retained
the original yellow colour ; the next inch had changed to a yellowish
brown ; then came a greyish layer about one-sixteenth of an inch thick ;
above this, what had at first been fourteen inches of perfectly clear water
had turned to a dark grey, though still quite transparent. Black bass
fry placed in the aquarium at this time at first sank to the bottom, but
after meeting the poisonous extract once or twice could not subse-
quently be driven intoit. On the contrary they swam along the top with
their nose just touching the surface of the water, and behaved as if suf-
fering from lack of air. They lived only about two hours.
1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FISH LIFE. 459
Four days after this, black bass fry placed in the upper fourteen
inches lived only about one hour. They also swam along the surface
and appeared to be gasping for air. That they were suffocating in both
cases was proved by the fact that when fry were placed in a wash bottle
of this water with air bubbling through it, they lived on for twenty-four
hours, and were then apparently well and exceedingly active. On being
transferred from the wash bottle to the aquarium the animals at first
plunged downwards to the bottom, paused there a moment, but soon
came towards the surface breathing very rapidly. Evidently they were
suffering from lack of oxygen. They swim along the top with noses
upwards and body inclined at an angle of about thirty degrees with the
surface. Gradually they tire; sink towards the bottom ; rise again ;
swim convulsively towards the surface ; jump clear out of the water with
gaping mouth ; become exhausted by their convulsive efforts and finally
sink to rise no more. Of all the fish killed in this extract not one ever
rose to the surface after death.
It would be difficult to say whether this experiment throws any
light upon a point much discussed in the literature of sawdust. The
point is this: if sawdust kills fish, why are they not found dead in con-
siderable numbers along the course of the strearn? In my experiments
the dead bodies of the fish never rose out of the poisonous liquid.
AROMATIC COMPOUND.
The foregoing experiments show that the oxygen naturally dis-
solved in the upper fourteen inches of water had, at the end of a week,
all disappeared. It was used up either in supporting the life of the
bacteria, or in oxidizing the wood extracts through the agency of the
bacteria. Bacteria were abundant in every part of the aquarium, but
especially in the underlying solution. Moreover, either by their action
on the pine extracts, or by the chemical decomposition of these extracts,
an aromatic compound of a sweetish pleasant smell had begun to form.
At the surface the smell was faint ; but in the water siphoned off from
the bottom the perfume was strong and agreeable. The production of
this compound is possibly due to micro-organisms, and if the special
bacterium could only be isolated and used upon the extracts without
admixture with other forms, it might be possible to manufacture a per-
fume from pine which many people would find agreeable. Alcohol,
lactic acid, acetic acid, etc., are all formed by the action of bacteria upon
vegetable substances in solution ; the quality, too, of butter and cheese
is determined by the action of bacteria on the constituents of milk ; and
460 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (VoL. VIL.
it would, therefore, be only in accordance with well known facts to find
that aromatic compounds, some pleasant, some unpleasant, could be
formed from pine extracts by the action of different kinds of micro-
organisms.
Some of the bottom water was distilled for the purpose of seeing
whether this aromatic compound could be thus separated from the water,
but the attempt failed. The distillate had the aromatic odour of the
original water, but mixed with it was a disagreeable burnt smell. This
distilled water killed minnows in half an hour, both when aérated or
unaérated.
At the end of three weeks the uppermost fourteen inches of water
had gradually become a steel grey or slaty colour and was quite
opaque. The outlines of a window sash ten feet away could not be
seen through it. The extract at the bottom still killed by its vegetable
poison ; the slate coloured water above still killed by suffocation.
At the end of five weeks these conditions were but slightly changed.
In place, however, of the pleasant aromatic odour previously arising from
the surface, a musty, disagreeable smell had taken its place. As the
laboratory windows were always open, mosquito larve became numerous
and appeared to be feeding upon the bacteria. These larve died in
sawdust solutions only when prevented from coming to the surface to
breathe.
The water at the very bottom was still of a yellowish tinge; the
uppermost was smoky or slate coloured, as already explained. About
6,000 c.c. of this slate coloured water was siphoned off from the middle,
on July 31st, and placed outside of the laboratory in direct sunlight. The
object of this was to compare changes taking place in the slaty water
placed in sunlight and breeze, with changes taking place in the slaty
water which remained in the aquarium.
Dr. W. T. Connell, Professor of Bacteriology,made cultures from these
two waters and compared them on three different occasions. His report
which will be found in the appendix to this paper, shows that while the
number of colonies from water in the shade increased from 3,435 per
cubic centimetre to 7,870 per cubic centimetre ; the number of colonies
from water in sunshine increased from 3,435 per cubic centimetre to
37,070 per cubic centimetre. These latter were different bacteria from
the former. Sunlight and air had killed off those kinds of bacteria
which flourish in shade and in absence of oxygen, and had stimulated
the growth of other kinds of bacteria which flourish in sunshine and
1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FIsH LIFE. 461
moving water. As a result of sunlight, warmth and breeze, what had
been exceedingly disgusting water was changed in a fortnight to water
brownish in colour, without any odour, and perfectly transparent. A
heavy precipitate lay at the bottom. Minnows were able to live in it,
and soon made havoc with the mosquito larve. In short the water had,
within the fortnight, changed to normal water, while that in the shade
still retained all its disagreeable and poisonous characters. The decay-
ing mass of sawdust and water was kept for three months, and up to the
very last showed no improvement. Slimy, a dark slate colour, foul
smelling, teeming with anaerobic bacteria and mosquito larve, it was
utterly unfit to support any kind of fish life.
NUTRITIVE RELATIONS.
However, the connection between a few links in the chain of animal
life was apparent enough, viz., wood extracts supported bacteria, bacteria
supported mosquito larve, and these again (after aération of the water
such as would occur in running water) supported fish life. These obser-
vations dispose to some extent of the oft repeated charge against sawdust
that it destroys the food of young or newly hatched fish. When min-
nows relished mosquito larvze as food, and I frequently saw them eating
the larve, it requires no great stretch of the scientific imagination to
understand how fish fry of different kinds, such as trout and salmon,
might subsist upon the larve of mosquitoes and other aquatic insects,
these latter in turn subsisting upon bacteria, and the bacteria subsisting
upon the organic matter derived from the decaying vegetation of the
forest.
Another thought comes up in connection with the presence of
organic matter in streams and rivers. The organic matter which passed
into a river when Canada was covered with forest must have been quite
different in character from that which this same stream receives to-day
from the vegetation of the farms along its valley. The surface drainage
from a forest must differ in kind from the surface drainage of a farm,
and the bacterial life in each must differ also. Moreover, the waters of
our smaller streams were, years ago, shaded by trees, and the varieties
of their bacterial life must thus have been quite different from the
bacterial life in sunlit streams of to-day. Consequently, it may fairly be
argued that the insect life, in and along the streams of an agricultural
district, differs both in kind and number from what characterized these
same streams 100 or 200 years ago.. And if larval and adult insect life
has dwindled or disappeared, so must the fish life which subsisted
upon it.
462 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
The Anglo-Saxon has always been a disturbing factor in the bal-
ance of life. Forests, game and fish all disappear with his arrival. To
get good fishing or good hunting now-a-days one must travel back to
unsettled districts. No one expects game to be plentiful along the
shores of Lake Ontario, but many people are amazed that fish are not
abundant in it. They still hug the pleasing delusion that if brooks
have been overfished, the fish hatchery can restock them. But with the
disappearance of our forests it is exceedingly doubtful whether we can
ever again, by all the help of hatchery, overseers and fish commissioners,
re-people the streams which have been depleted by man through over-
fishing and deforestation. He has upset the balance of life; it can
only be fully restored by a return to primitive conditions. When game,
therefore, becomes plentiful on the streets of Ottawa city, fish will be
equally abundant below the saw mills of the Chaudiere Falls.
Such, at least, is the conclusion to which my experiments point,
notwithstanding the indisputably poisonous effects of strong solutions
from sawdust near the source of pollution. As I have already pointed
out the question of whether any particular stream is sufficiently polluted
with sawdust to kill fish life is simply the question of determining
whether enough sawdust is passed into the stream to poison its waters.
The forestry engineer will soon be trained to determine the strength of
sawdust solutions, and will then be able to settle this question of pollu-
tion beyond the possibility of doubt.
ON THE BONNECHERE RIVER.
At present, however, a final judgment cannot be pronounced upon
the poisonous effects of sawdust. These effects must be studied near
the mills and along the sawdust beds of our rivers. A three weeks’
study of the Bonnechere river, a tributary of the Ottawa much polluted
with mill rubbish, led me to modify very considerably the conclusions
which I had based upon my laboratory experiments. I visited the mill
represented in two of the illustrations of this report fully expecting that
not one fish could survive in such surroundings. But pike were abundant
for miles below the mill, and fish (chub) could be caught any day along
the side of the submerged driftwood. Stranger still, the fish so caught
lived for three hours in a pailful of sawdust water drawn from the very
centre of a sawdust bed. A few brook trout had been caught earlier in
the season just below the mill when it was running. At the date of my
visit, August 20th, 1902, the mill had been closed for seven weeks and no
sawdust was then passing into the river.
1902-3.] SAWDUST AND FIsH LIFE. 463
The owner of the mill furnished the following information: The
water passing over the dam is a stream nineteen and a half feet wide, by
one and one-half feet deep, and moving two feet per second. This
would mean that about sixty cubic feet of water were passing over the
falls every second. Add to this, leakage through the dam, mill, and
timber slide, estimated as equal to what passes over the dam, or sixty
cubic feet more, a total of 120 cubic feet per second. The total water,
therefore, passing down the river in July, August and September, would
average 10,368,000 cubic feet per day, and weigh 642,816,000 pounds.
The mill cut an average of 375 logs per day. The logs averaged
twelve inches in diameter and were chiefly sixteen feet long, but many
Sawmill on the Bonnechere river, a branch of the Ottawa. Sawdust and
edgings pass into the river from the end of the mill.
were thirteen feet. Taking the specific weight of wet pine as .75, each
log would weigh about 560 pounds. Of this weight about 13 per cent.
would pass into the river as sawdust. This 13 per cent. was obtained as
the average of five estimates furnished by such lumbermen as E. W.
Rathburn, Esq., J. R. Booth, Esq., and W. C. Edwards, Esq. Conse-
quently about seventy-two pounds of sawdust would pass into the river
from every log cut into inch boards, or a total of 27,000 pounds of saw-
dust per day. Expressing this as percentage of water (642,816,000
pounds) we get .004 as the percentage strength of sawdust in this water.
464 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot., VALE
During the high water of April, May and June the strength of the
solution would be considerably less than .004 per cent., and as chub and
brook trout were caught on and off all summer below the mill, this
strength of sawdust solution was certainly not strong enough to kill off
all the fish, though it is quite conceivable that it might drive fish down
the river into tributary streams where there could be no sawdust
pollution.
Comparing this percentage with that in two of the laboratory ex-
periments described on pages 450 and 452 we find that in one case two
grams of white pine sawdust in 1,700 c.c. of fresh water, z.¢., .12 per cent.
strength, soaking for five hours, killed a minnow in twenty-nine minutes ;
and in the other case a percentage of .16 killed in ninety minutes.
Slabs, edgings and sawdust, half-a-mile below the mill.
Of course, these figures are mere approximations, but they point
unmistakably to the conclusion that the sawdust poured into the
Bonnechere river is not destroying its fish life. Moreover, in Golden
Lake, an expansion of this same river, and ten miles above any saw
mill, lake trout used to be very abundant. Every October large num-
bers were caught in nets along their spawning beds. Now these spawn-
ing grounds are reported to be deserted by the fish, and certainly
sawdust cannot be blamed for their disappearance. Higher up the river,
in Round Lake, the October fishing is still good, solely because there
are fewer settlers and less fishing.
1902-3. | SAWDUST AND FIsH LIFE. 465
CONCLUSIONS.
1. Strong sawdust solutions, such as occur at the bottom of an
aquarium, poison adult fish and fish fry, through the agency of com-
pounds dissolved out of the wood cells.
2. The overlying water in such an aquarium does not at first kill
fish. After about a week it does kill, but solely through suffocation, the
dissolved oxygen having all been used up.
3. Bacteria multiply enormously throughout all parts of such an
aquarium, and through oxidation change the poisonous extracts to harm-
less compounds. Mosquito larve live on the bacteria. No doubt, in
natural pools, other aquatic insect larvez live on bacteria also.
4. Subsequent aération and sedimentation of sawdust water purify
it, so that fish can live in it without injury.
5. Since adult fish and black bass fry both refused to be driven into
pine extracts in the bottom of an aquarium after they had experienced
its poisonous effects, we may infer that fish would desert a river much
polluted with sawdust, going down stream and into tributaries to escape
from the disagreeable influence of sawdust extracts.
6. No stream can be pronounced off hand as poisoned by sawdust.
Each stream must be studied by itself and the varying conditions must
be thoroughly understood before a judgment can be pronounced. The
chief things to be considered are (1) the quantity of sawdust, and (2)
the volume of water into which the sawdust is discharged. Subordinate
conditions are the rapidity or sluggishness of the stream, the amount of
sunlight or shade, and the character of the water, whether from agricul-
tural lands or from primitive forests.
7. Further observations and studies along sawdust polluted streams
and rivers of Canada are urgently needed before more definite con-
clusions can be reached.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
Acknowledgment is due to Toronto University. the Public Library,
Toronto, and the Canadian Institute, for the privilege of consulting their
libraries in order to write the historical part of this report.
I am under special obligations to my colleague, Prof. J. C. Connell,
M.A., M.D., for the large number of minnows which he procured for me,
and which were so indispensable for the laboratory experiments.
466 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
Dr. John Waddell and Mr. C. W. Dickson, M.A., both of the School
of Mining, Kingston, rendered valuable aid in determining the amount
of solid matter in sawdust water.
The Ontario Fisheries Department facilitated my task on the Bon-
nechere by instructing their overseers to assist me in every way possible.
APPENDIX TO DR. KNIGHT'S REPORT ON ‘SAWDUS®
AND FISH UE:
BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF SAWDUST WATER IN SHADE
AND IN SUNSHINE.
Examination of sawdust water in aquarium made July 31st, 1902.
Two agar plates made. The frst averaged 3,300 colonies of bacteria per cubic centi-
metre. None of the colonies were spirilla which were present in large num-
bers in direct microscopic examination of the water. The chief colonies were
those of a spore bearing bacillus, a variety evidently of B. Subtilis; also a few
sarcinae, particularly one like Sarcina Lutea. The second plate averaged 3,570
colonies per cubic centimetre. In general characters they were the same as in the
first plate.
AUGUST 4TH, 1902. Waterin aquarium. Agar plates averaged 3,570 colonies per cubic
centimetre. These were in all respects like those of July 31st.
Same water in sunlight since July jrst. Agar plates average 4,200 colonies per cubic
centimetre. These colonies contain the same bacteria as in the aquarium water,
but in fewer numbers. Further, there is present a fluorescent bacillus, making up
half the number of colonies present.
AUGUST 8TH, 1902. Water in aquarium. Agar plates develop 7,870 colonies per cubic
centimetre. These colonies are of the same type as those found on previous plates
with the addition of about 1,000 colonies of B. Mesentericus Vulgatus per cubic
centimetre.
Water in sunlight. Agar plates develop 37,070 colonies per cubic centimetre. These
consist mainly of B.:Fluorescens Liquescens ; also of Sarcina Lutea, and an occa-
sional colony of B. Subtilis.
Ww. T. CONNELL,
Prof. of Bacteriology.
1902-3. BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 6
902-3 4
THE BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK AND ITS
CONEROE:
By F. C. HARRISON, PROFESSOR OF BACTERIOLOGY, ONTARIO
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.
(Read 28th February, 1903.)
MILK as sold in cities, towns or villages contains a varying number
of bacteria according to its age, the amount of sediment in it, and the
temperature at which it has been kept. Soxhlet,’ Uhl,? Backhaus* and
others have shown that the more dirt or sediment, the more bacteria
there will be, and Renk* has given us some interesting experimental data
on the amount and kind of filth present in ordinary market milk. This
filth is largely made up of excrementitious matter, vegetable fibres,
epithelial debris, hairs of the cow, dust particles, etc., and the amount of
filth contained in a litre of milk furnishes a positive index of the degree
of cleanliness observed in the dairy stable. Renk found the following
amount of dried impurities in the milk supply of the following German
cities: Leipzig, 3.8 milligrams; Munich, 9 milligrams; Berlin, 10.3
milligrams; Halle, 12.2 milligrams per litre; and Hird® found in the
Washington, D.C., milk supply, 5.30 milligrams of filth per quart.
Backhaus’ has also shown that 50 per cent. of fresh manure dissolves
in milk and does not appear as sediment ; and therefore the weight of
undried filth in all these samples would have been more than doubled.
This investigator has also determined by actual tests that the daily milk
supply of Berlin, Germany, contains about 300 pounds of dirt and filth.
Further, many of the bacteria derived from such sources are very harm-
ful, for not only are such fecal bacteria concerned in the intestinal
troubles of infants, but they also give rise to abnormal fermentations in
butter and cheese, producing taints, off-flavours, and decomposition
products in these foods.
For the guidance of the dairyman who buys milk for sale, and for
the housewife, Renk‘ suggests the following rule: If a sample of milk
shows any evidence of impurity settling on a transparent bottom within
two hours, it is to be regarded as containing too much solid impurities.
When we examine the results relative to the number of bacteria in
European market milk, we are at once struck by the enormous numbers
that are frequently present.
468 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (VoL. VII.
Thus, Clauss* found that the number of germs per c.c. of Wurzburg
milk ranged from 222,000 to 2,300,000. The average was between one
and two millions per c.c. Knopf’ found from 200,000 to 6,000,000 per
c.c.in the milk of Munich. Bujwid* examined the milk of Warsaw, where
there was an average of 4,000,000 per c.c. In the milk immediately after
it was drawn from the cow he found 10,000 to 20,000 perc.c. In Amster-
dam, Geuns? found 2,500,000 per c.c. in fresh milk. Renk! examined the
market milk of Halle and found from 6,000,000 to 30,700,000 per c.c.
Uhl" in 30 tests of Giessen milk found from 83,000 to 169,600,000 per
c.c. In the month of June he found an average of 2,900,000 per c.c.
The average in May was 22,900,000. Uhlexplains this difference by the
supposition that the cows and stables were kept clean during this latter
month, and there was less night’s milk mixed with the morning’s.
Knochenstiern!” examined more than 100 samples of the milk of
Dorpat. He divided the samples into four classes, according to their
sources. The averages of the numbers in the several classes ranged
from 10,000,000 to 30,000,000 per C.c.
The milk supply of Helsingfors was studied by Hellens,*’ who
found in samples taken in the summer from 20,000 to 34,300 bacteria
per c.c., while in the winter the bacterial content ranged from 70,000 to
18,630,000 and averaged 2,111,000 per c.c. About 60 per cent. of the
summer samples contained over 1,000,000 bacteria per c.c., against 35
per cent. in the winter samples.
Rowland" found in twenty-five samples of London, England, milk
an average of 500,000 bacteria per c.c.
Sacharbekoff® examined more than eighty samples of St. Peters-
burg milk. The number of bacteria ranged from 400,000 to 115,300,000
per c.c., with an average of 16,596,000.
Conn" has already pointed out the fact that the market milk of
American towns and cities contains fewer bacteria than are to be found
in European supplies; and he has explained as the reason for this
difference, the free use of ice in North America.
Sedgwick and Batchelder!” examined a number of specimens of
milk from Boston. They found, as an average of several tests that milk
obtained in a clean stable from a well-kept cow, milked into a sterilized
bottle, contained 530 bacteria per c.c.; but when the milking was done
under the ordinary conditions of farm practice, the number of bacteria
reached on the average, 30,500. From fifteen samples of milk obtained
1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 469
from the houses of people in the suburbs of Boston, the average was
69,000 germs ; from fifty-seven samples from milkmen the average was
2,350,000, and from sixteen samples secured at groceries, the average
was 4,577,000 bacteria per c.c.
In 1901, Park’® reported on the milk supply of New York. He
found that during the coldest weather the average was about 250,000
bacteria per c.c., during cool weather about 2,000,000, and during hot
weather about 5,000,000. Regarding the harmfulness of these bacteria
the writer cites the universal clinical experience “that a great many
children in cities sicken on the milk supplied in summer, that those who
are put on milk that is sterile, or that contains few bacteria, as a rule,
mend rapidly, while those kept on the impure milk continue ill or die.”
Leighton” determined the number of bacteria in the milk supply of
seventeen dairies at Montclair, N.J., the investigation extending over a
period of three years. In dairies of the most approved type the average
number of bacteria per c.c. was below 15,000. Poorly equipped dairies,
in which the owners had endeavoured to do their utmost to produce a
pure product with the crude means at hand, gave an average of between
40,000 and 70,000 per c.c.; and in those dairies in which neither good
equipment nor good intentions prevailed, the average number of bacteria
was over 180,000.
McDonnell® sampled 352 lots from eleven American cities. The
worst samples were found in restaurants, and with small retail dealers.
Twenty-eight per cent. of all samples contained less than 100,000
bacteria per c.c., while 34 per cent. had less than 500,000 per c.c.
Loveland and Watson” found fn the supply of Middletown, Conn.,
from 11,000 to 85,500,000 per c.c. ; and milk as delivered by milkmen to
their private customers in the city of Madison, Wis.,” ranged from
15,000 to 2,000,000 organisms per c.c., varying mainly with the seasons
of the year.
The writer examined about twenty samples of Guelph market
milk, a few years ago, and found an average of 650,000 bacteria per c.c.
Eckles* has made a bacteriological study of the milk supply of a
creamery. He found from 1,000,000 to 5,000,000 organisms per c.c. in
winter, and in summer from 10,000,000 to 80,000,000 per c.c.
During the summer of 1901,” whilst investigating an affection
known as bitter milk in a large cheese factory, the writer had the
opportunity of analysing the milk of ninety-six patrons who delivered
470 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
milk to the factory. The results of this examination showed that the
mixed milk of each patron contained from 4,000,000 to 30,000,000 of
micro-organisms per c.c. Astonishingly large numbers (from 100,000
to 5,000,000) of the Colon bacillus were found in many samples.
Having seen from this review of the bacterial content of European
and American milk supplies, let us now examine the sources of this
contamination.
The bacteria which find their way into milk come from :—(1) The
fore-milk; (2) The animal and milker; (3) Dusty air; (4) Unclean
utensils. And, as Russell remarks, “the relative importance of these
various factors fluctuates in each individual instance.”
I.—CONTAMINATION FROM THE FORE-MILK. (See /7zg. 7).
The constant presence of bacteria in freshly-drawn milk is a matter
of considerable importance, and this fact helps to explain the ineffectual
attempts to obtain milk in commercial quantities uncontaminated by
bacteria. At the same time it has been but very recently that investi-
gations as to the number and nature of the organisms that gain access
to the milk through their localization and multiplication in the milk
ducts, have been made. The first recorded experiments are those of
Leopold Schultz* in 1892. He examined milk bacteriologically at the
first of the milking, in the middle of the milking and at its close. This
examination consisted merely in counting the number of bacteria
present, and asa result, the following figures were determined :—The
first milk contained from 55,000 to 97,200 germs per c.c.; the middle
milk from 2,000 to 9,000 germs per c.c.; and the last milk was in some
cases sterile, and sometimes contained about 500 germs perc.c. The
number of germs in the last milk, he says, depended upon the quickness
with which the milking was done. When done quickly, all the germs.
were washed out, so that “the last milk was often, but not always,
sterile.”
Gernhardt” investigating the same subject found a larger number
in samples from the middle of the milking than at the beginning. To
explain this result, as well as to explain irregularities in the numbers, he
suggested that the bacteria made their way up through the milk-ducts
of the teats, through the cistern, and into the smaller ramifications of
the ducts which connect the cistern with the ultimate follicles. As
many of the colonies so formed are not easily removed, they are not
found in the first milk, but appear later when they have become broken
up by the persistent movements of milking.
1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 471
Von Freudenreich,* on the other hand, states that when in the
udder milk is free from bacteria, except when the milk glands are ina
diseased condition.
H. L. Bolley and C. M. Hall,” in their studies of the bacterial flora
of the milk of ten healthy cows, isolated sixteen distinct species of
bacteria, some of which were common to both the first and last milk,
and others to only one of these. All the micro-organisms found were
bacteria, and none were found which produced gas.
Russell” in his text-book on Dairy Bacteriology, published in 1894,
states that he has found an average of 2,800 germs per c.c. in the fore-
milk, while the average of the remainder of the milk only had 330 germs
per c.c. In characterizing this, he says that “the number of species is
usually small, one or two kinds usually predominating to a large
degree. Those that are commonly found are those that produce lactic
acid, as these microbes find in milk the best medium for their growth.”
Gosta Grotenfelt,?! however, in his text-book on the “ Principles of
Modern Dairy Practice,” reasserts the statement of Von Freudenreich
that when the milk is drawn from the udder of a healthy cow, it is germ-
free or sterile.
Rotch” concludes, from an examination of the bacteria found in
four cows’ milk, that the bacteria do not necessarily come from external
sources, but that they may also come from some part of the milk-tract
between the udder and theend of the teat. The few colonies, however,
obtained in the plates from the latter half of the milkings, are considered
as possible contaminations between the “cow ” and the “ plates.”
Moore* states that in investigations made upon this subject, he
found that, in addition to the bacteria in the fore-milk, the last milk
from at least one-quarter of the udder in every case contained bacteria.
Conn,* reviewing this subject, says that the different results of
many of these early experiments are due to the small quantities of milk
taken, while in the latter experiments large quantities have been taken.
He adds, “ Undoubtedly the milk-gland of the healthy cow produces
milk which is uncontaminated with bacteria, but the large calibre of the
milk ducts makes it possible for bacteria to grow in the duct to a con-
siderable extent, so that it becomes a matter of extreme difficulty to
obtain milk from the cow, even with the greatest precautions, which will
not be contaminated.”
Harrison,» in 1897, in a report of investigations upon this subject
472 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.. VII.
stated. “When milking is done there remains in the teat of the cowa
little milk that affords nourishment to any bacteria that may come in
contact with it through the opening at the end of the teat.” The
average of a number of analyses made by him shows the presence of
18,000 to 54,000 germs in the fore-milk, and 1,000 to 3,000 in the after-
milk.
Experiments have also been conducted on human milk by Pal-
leske,*® Honigmann,®” Knochenstiern,* and Ringel,®* but all of these have
independently found it impossible to get human milk from the mammary
gland in such a way as to be sterile.
The most recent work upon this subject has been done by Moore
and Ward,” of Cornell University. They investigated the source of a
gas and taint producing bacterium in cheese curd for a certain factory
that was troubled with “ gassy curd.” They easily located the trouble
in the herd of a particular patron. On inquiring into the history of the
herd it was ascertained that at the time of parturition, the placentae had
been retained by a number of cows, and these had been allowed to
decompose in the uterus. It was soon after this that the “gassy curd ”
began to appear. A thorough bacteriological examination located the
bacilius which was the cause of the “gassy curd” in the udders of the
cows of the herd; and it seemed very probable, though, of course, not
demonstrable, that it had gained access to the udders from the decaying
placentae.
Subsequent to this, Ward conducted further experiments, and in an
article on “ The Persistence of Bacteria in the Milk-Ducts of the Cow’s
Udder,”*! he concludes, (1) “ certain species of bacteria are normally per-
sistent in particular quarters of the udder for considerable periods of
time, and (2) it is possible for bacteria to remain in the normal udder
and not be ejected alongwith the milk.” These conclusions controvert
the statement previously made by Von Freudenreich and Grotenfelt
that the milk-ducts are always sterile at the close of milking, becoming
tenanted from the outside alone by organisms which chance to come into
contact with the end of the duct.
The results of still later investigations by the same author are pub-
lished in a bulletin on the “ Invasion of the Udder by Bacteria.” In
these investigations a bacteriological examination was made of the
udders of milch cows slaughtered after reacting to the tuberculin test.
In all cases the udders were perfectly normal. Just before slaughtering
the animals were milked as thoroughly as possible and samples of the
milk taken, and a bacteriological examination made. After slaughter-
1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 473
ing, a similar examination was made of the tissues of the udder. In all
cases, even in the upper third of the udder, bacteria were found, and
they were identical with those found in the milk. He concludes that
“milk, when secreted by the glands of the healthy udder, is sterile. It
may, however, immediately become contaminated by the bacteria which
are normally present in the smaller ducts of the udder.” However,
“the bacteria so far found in the interior of the udder do not affect milk
seriously. This, however, does not preclude the possibility that forms
more injurious to milk may invade the udder.”
From the above resumé it is apparent that widely different results
have been obtained by different investigators, and it has been a very
interesting study to see whether the experiments conducted at Guelph
would throw any light upon these divergencies in results.
The plan of experiment has been as follows: For a number of days
samples were taken from the fore and after milk of a number of cows
on the College Farm. The samples were collected in sterile test-tubes,
and previous to taking the milk, the flank, udder, and teats of the cows
were thoroughly washed with a 1I-1000 solution of mercuric chloride.
Gelatine plates were then made from these samples, and afterwards the
number of colonies counted and the different species isolated and culti-
vated on the various media. It soon became apparent that while
several species were more or less constant in the udders of all the cows,
yet there were many variable species present in the milk of some cows
that were not present in that of others, and not even in the same udder
on two successive days. Therefore, in making a systematic study, it
was deemed best to confine our attention to those species that were
more or less constantly present in the milk of all the cows, and to make
a complete study of those existing in the udder of one particular cow.
The number of bacteria present in both the fore and after milk of
the various cows, and of the same cow, and even in the different
quarters of the udder of the same cow, were so widely different that
little stress can be laid upon an exact enumeration.
The following samples, which are typical of many others, will
illustrate the point :
Cow No. 1. Determination 1.
Kore-mulky right front teat... i022 scencacas 86,400 per c.c.
ss SO many, SS. 9 ura Stas viene era ee 120,000 oe
SMMNeS yy peo TON, May). wo cera nye a 40,800 -
ce
rote ture SSS) ees cpettorsl clea cre: 57,000 he
474 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
Determination 2.
Hore-milkjerisht front steaty eee cele eee 48,000 per c.c.
a Se, SNAG pts CUR ie ecciste tanta forest tetee: 24,080 ss
WS left) '“irortws* oie tie tress enes 22,400 ss
gs O" volnimd’ Mas ce oave ete ckoreele ears 35,100 ss
Cow No. 2. Determination 1.
Bore-millke .s2rccinietareyaretere cepetn ooeeie Sererera erotik 200-500 per C.c.
ANfter=mi ilk: |.) Sc ldintee ets oistetet ti cietsioks ohieieeiers 0-100 £8
The results of a large number of determinations, of which the above
are typical, showed on an average 25-50,000 germs per c.c. in the fore-
milk. The numbers in the strippings or after-milk varied greatly with
the manner of taking. For example, when the milking was done
quickly, but very few and sometimes no colonies were found in the
“ strippings,”’ whereas, when the milking was done slowly and some time
lost before the samples from the last milk were taken; the number of
bacteria was very variable, being in one case as high as 57,000.
The important point, therefore, is not the exact number, but the
fact that bacteria were found in large numbers, not only in the fore, but
in the middle and last milk of nearly all the cows tested.
The number of species present in the udders of cows is very small.
Of this number some are more or less constantly present, whereas others
are very variable in their presence. Of those species which are present,
the characters are in many cases so slightly marked that their identifi-
cation proved a very difficult matter. In fact, with the exception of
Bacillus acidt lactict, not a single species discovered was strongly
characterized. A number had a very little or no effect upon milk, and
even the digestors were in every case very slow digestors.
B. acidi lactict (Conn No. 206), B. acid lactici (Conn 202), and B£.
lactis aerobans (Conn 197) are the only ones that have been found con-
stantly present in the samples, and in every case they have composed at
least 95 per cent. of the germs present. The following species have
been only more or less variably present, and in no cases have been
found in large numbers.
B. halofaciens (N. Sp.). This bacterium approaches in characteris-
tics Bact. annulatum (Wright), but differs from it in several details, so
that we do not hesitate to call it a new species. The name refers to the
characteristic halo found in gelatin cultures. As this bacterium was of
quite frequent occurrence, we made butter from cream ripened with a
culture of it, and found that the flavour of the butter, while not strong
was quite disagreeable. At the same time, its presence in relatively
1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 475
small numbers, and the fact that the flavour was not strongly marked,
make this an inconsiderable item so far as the “natural ripening” of
such milk is concerned.
Micrococcus vartans lactis (Conn 113 and 104). Conn, in speaking
of this coccus, considers it one of the most important of dairy species,
and suggests that it likely exists in the milk-ducts.
Bacillus No. 18, Conn. This species appeared very frequently in
all samples examined, but never in very large numbers. In old gelatin
and agar cultures, spores appeared at the ends of the bacilli. Two
cultures from these heated for ten or fifteen minutes at a temperature of
85° to 99° germinated in one day. The species is very similar to
Bacillus No. 18 Conn, but differs in that growth on potato is not spread-
ing, and no spores are found in potato culture.
Bacillus No. 7. This bacillus was quite constantly present for
some weeks, but afterwards disappeared. It seems to resemble J.
cremoris (43) (B. lactis No. 9 Flugge), but differs in its effect on milk, so
that it would appear to be an allied species.
Bacterium No. 8. The gelatine plate colony appears very similar to
No. 7, but the organisms otherwise differ, both morphologically and
culturally in many particulars. Like No. 7 it appeared quite constantly
for some weeks and then disappeared.
B. exiguum (Wright). This bacterium was found almost con-
stantly present in the milk of one of the cows tested, but was never
found in that of any other. There were never more than from one to
four colonies per plate present, so that its effect on the milk was very
inconsiderable. Its similarity to Bact. exiguum (Wright) is most marked.
Wright isolated this bacterium from water, but the fact that he found its
optimum temperature to be 36° and that it is a facultative anaerobe
does not make it at all surprising that it should be found in the udder of
a cow.
Micrococcus No. ro. This coccus comes in the same class as Conn’s
167, and may be identical with it. The most marked variations are the
gelatin colony, and the fact that in no culture of this germ was there the
slightest indication of a yellow colour. At the same time it agrees in
morphological characters, and especially in the fact that, although a
liquefying coccus, it fails to curdle milk.
Like several of the forms previously described, this coccus was
found to be present for some time in the samples taken, but afterwards,
476 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (Vou. VII.
in a few weeks, completely disappeared. In no cases was it present in
large numbers.
Comment has already been made upon the fact that by far the
largest number of species determined in all the samples tested, were
lactic acid species, and that other species, although more or less con-
stantly present, were not invariably so, and never in very large quantities.
This is a most important, practical consideration, for it means that,
although by the most scrupulous care, it may not be possible to procure
milk free from germ-life because of those that are present in the udder
of the cow, yet the species that gain access to the milk through this
source are, for the most part, beneficial ones. In Bulletin No. 21, 1900,
of Storr’s Agricultural Experimental Station, Conn speaks of a method,
now widely adopted in American dairies, for procuring what is known
as a “natural starter.” The method consists in drawing milk, just as
has been done in all the examinations we have made, into sterilized
flasks, and using cultures from these as starters. Conn says, “ there can
be no question that the use of natural starters thus made has been a very
decided advantage to the buttermaker,’ for the reason that “the
bacteria which are within the cleanly cow’s udder and thence get into
the milk, are most commonly of the desired character.” There is, no
doubt, some uncertainty about this method, but so far as all examina-
tions conducted by us are concerned, the cultures so obtained would be
good ones, being largely composed of lactic acid species.
While the large per cent. of lactic acid species present is the
paramount characteristic of the bacterial flora of freshly drawn milk, yet
there are other peculiarities of considerable, if not equal, importance.
By reviewing the description of the species determined, it will be
noted in every case that, although each species would grow at room
temperature, yet the optimum temperature was in the neighbourhood of
37°. This fact was well demonstrated in comparing gelatin plates, made
from the general milk supply, with those made from the aseptically
drawn milk. These plates cannot be kept at a temperature higher than
22°, and it was most marked that when plates from the former were quite
covered with bacterial growth, those from the latter were still clear. On
the other hand, when agar plates were used and kept at a temperature
of 37°, the order of growth was slightly reversed. This explains facts
that were noted in reference to the keeping quality of the aseptically
drawn milk, as compared with that of the general milk supply; for,
when kept at room temperatures, the former remained gocd considerably
longer than the latter ; whereas, when kept at 37°, both became curdled
in less than twenty-four hours.
1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 477
Another marked characteristic of all the species was that they were
facultative anaerobes. The anaerobic faculty was especially marked in
the two species, Nos. I and 2, that were found to be so uniformly
present in all the milk tested. This is just what one would naturally
expect, for the conditions in the udder must be largely anaerobic
conditions. In virtue of these conditions, and possibly other undeter-
mined conditions, the udder, so to speak, exerts a selective action upon
the bacteria which may be temporarily present in it. In this they are,
of course, aided by the mechanical expulsion of bacteria in the process
of milking.
In order to throw a little Jight upon this problem, experiments
were conducted in inoculating udders with well-marked but harmless
bacteria, which could be easily recognized by their cultural characteris-
tics. Bacillus prodigiosus and £. exiguum, both of which were marked
by their pigment production, were the ones experimented with. Cul-
tures of these were smeared upon the ends of the teats, so that the
bacteria might work their way up into the udder, just as any other germ
might which comes in contact with the ducts of the teat. In the case
of B. prodigiosus, about 20,000 per c.c. were present in the fore-milk at
the first milking eight hours after inoculation. By the third milking
only a few were present, and after that it disappeared completely. The
experiment was repeated with 4. ex¢guum with similar results, although
a smaller number—240 per c.c.—were present in the first milking, and
by the fourth milking it had disappeared. No doubt the small number
was due to the fact that this germ grows more slowly than B. pro-
digiosus.
In view of Ward’s discovery of Bb. fluorescens liquefaciens in the
udders of certain cows, it seemed advisable to attempt to colonize this
germ in the udder, and a bouillon culture was smeared upon the ends of
the teats of a cow in the manner already described. This bacillus was
discovered in the fore-milk six hours after the teats were smeared, but
was not found in the fore-milk of the second and third milkings.
It does not seem probable that an aerobic bacterium of this
character is able to live and compete with facultative anaerobic bacilli.
Further, the optimum temperature for the fluorescing bacterium is not
37°.
Possibly, by continuous experimentation, we might have finally dis-
covered a species which would persist in the udder, but at the same
time, the bacteria chosen have evidently fared much the same as other
478 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.. VII.
more or less injurious forms which may occasionally find temporary
lodgment in the udder. Exception, however, may occur, as we have the
gas and taint producing bacillus located by Ward and Moore in the
udders of the cows of a particular herd.
Another fact that may have a bearing on this problem is that
normal healthy organs, taken from the body immediately after death,
may contain bacteria which are capable of development. Thus,
Ford® has shown that 80 per cent. of healthy organs, removed from
killed guinea pigs, rabbits, dogs and cats, contained living bacteria. No
udder tissues were examined by him, and in order to ascertain if
bacteria existed in the udder of healthy animals a few experiments were
made along these lines, but they are open to criticism because it is
impossible to say, with any degree of certainty, that the bacteria found
came from the animal’s glands or blood, or from infection through the
teat. However, by selection of cows which had been dry for several
weeks before slaughter, the latter objection is to some extent overcome.
The liver was examined at the same time, and its bacterial content, if
any, noted.
The methods employed in this work were essentially those used by
Ford—a large piece of the tissue to be examined was excised with a
sterilized knife, placed in a sterile jar, and immediately taken from the
slaughter house to the laboratory. Small pieces of tissues were then cut
from ¢he zuside of the large piece with sterilized knives, and then held in
the flame of a Bunsen burner with sterilized forceps, until the whole of
the outside of the piece was well scorched. The piece was then trans-
ferred to beef bouillon or peptone whey bouillon, and the preparations
placed in the incubator at 37°. On the fourth day gelatine plates were
made from the different pieces of tissue, and the bacteria, if any, were
isolated.
I. An aged cow, dried up five weeks before slaughtering, udder
small, with considerable fatty tissue. All organs perfectly healthy.
Bouzllon. Peptone Whey.
Liver ob ne
Subsequent plating and sub-cultures gave :—
BL. mesentéricus vulgatus.
B. subtilis, and a Micrococcus, identity not established.
Bouzllon. Whey Peptone.
Udder ae a
1902-3. ] BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 479
Plates gave colonies of :—
B. subtilis.
Micrococcus (sp ?).
II. An aged cow, dry for some time, the butcher not knowing the
exact length of time. Udder of a fair size, and well formed. All organs
apparently healthy and normal.
Bouzllon. Whey Peptone.
Liver 4 a
Plates gave colonies of :—
B. lactis aerogenes.
Proteus.
Peptone. Whey Peptone.
Udder — =
III. An aged cow, dry for four weeks previous to slaughter. Udder
fair size. Organs normal and apparently healthy.
Bouztlon. Whey Peptone.
Liver + +
Gelatine plates gave colonies of :—
B. subtilis.
A spore-bearing bacillus, which produces no effect in milk.
Bouillon. Whey Peptone.
Udder a a.
Gelatine plates gave cultures of :—
Micrococcus varians lactts.
These results, whilst agreeing with Ford’s, are not sufficiently
authoritative to allow us to assert positively that the bacteria found in
the udders of the two cows came from the blood or lymph stream, rather
than through the teat, but in conjunction with the results obtained by
Ford, they threw doubt on the supposition that all udder infection
comes originally through the orifice of the teat. It is also noteworthy
that a spore-bearing bacillus belonging to the sudzzlzs group, and several
micrococci were isolated by Ward from udder tissue. Another fact,
which is difficult to explain and which may possibly have some influence
on the bacterial content of the udder in its normal condition, is the
strong germicidal power of freshly drawn milk. This property was first
480 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
noticed by Fokker,* and subsequently confirmed by Freudenreich,” and
quantitative studies of freshly drawn milk, inoculated with various
bacteria, show that an actual destruction of bacteria took place. This
germicidal property has been shown to exist in the milk-serum, and is
evidently allied to the similar bactericidal property of blood, for Brieger
and Ehrlich*® and Wassermann® have found that the milk of immune
animals can confer immunity.
If then, this germicidal power exists in fresh drawn milk, it is
certain to be present whilst the milk is still in the udder, and may
inhibit or prevent the rapid multiplication of adventitious bacteria,
which penetrate up the opening of the teat. Although we have fre-
quently found large numbers of lactic acid bacteria in freshly drawn
milk, yet the reaction of this milk is never acid.
De Freudenreich* has also shown that the bactericidal power is not
the same for all species, that whilst the cholera vibrio, the typhoid
bacillus, and even 2. Shafferi (a colon bacillus), are destroyed in large
numbers, the bactericidal action is less pronounced on lactic acid
bacteria. These facts may possibly explain why the germs of the colon
type are so seldom found in the healthy udder, for we know that the
teats and udder of the cow are constantly brought in actual contact with
particles of manure, and even the hands of the average milker are soiled
with stable filth, which undoubtedly contains colon bacteria.
It might be reasonably asked if the advice, commonly given to
those who wish to procure milk as near sterile as possible, to milk the
first few streams in a separate utensil, is good. And in reply we would
say, decidedly yes, for not only is the number of bacteria in the fore-
milk much in the excess of the bacteria found in the rest of the milk,
but frequently the number of species found in the fore-milk is consider-
ably larger than that in the after-milk. (See zg. 2).
In reviewing the subject there can be no doubt that the number of
bacteria present in the milk as it exists before being drawn from the
udder is somewhat startling, and were nothing more than an enumera-
tion of the germs given, there might be some occasion for alarm.
However, a systematic study of the germs proves that, with the
possible exception of rare cases, this source of bacterial life is much
more beneficial than baneful to the average consumer of milk and its
products.
1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 481
CONTAMINATION FROM ANIMAL AND MILKER.
A prolific source of contamination is from the animal and milker,
and the following realistic statement,” describes a condition which
unhappily is only too common on many farms :—
“The day has gone by when a pretty milkmaid went, in clean white
apron and with shining milk pail, to milk the cow with the crumpled
horn, out among the buttercups on a dewy morning. Instead, some old
fellow stumbles out of the house and to the barn, with the stump of a
clay pipe in his mouth, and wearing overalls and boots saturated and
covered with the filth acquired by a winter’s use. When he reaches the
barn he selects some recumbent cow, kicks her until she stands up
dripping and slimy, and as he is a little late and the milk will hardly
have time to cool before the man who carries it to the city will come
along, he does not stop to clean up behind the cow, but sitting down on
a stool, proceeds to gather the milk, and whatever else may fall, into a
pail which perhaps is clean and perhaps is not. Of such refinements as
washing the udder of the cow or wiping her flanks he has never heard.
If he has, it is only to scoff. Then he stands the milk behind the cows.
That is bad enough, but it is not all the story. Everyone knows that in
straining the milk the strainer becomes obstructed, more or less, with
dirt and filth, and when the milk does not run fast enough, he would be
a rare milker who hesitated to scrape away a place with his fingers so
that the milk might run more freely. Those who have seen certain
fingers, as I have, know what that means.”
This description seems hardly credible, but when one visits an
ordinary cattle stable, he is prepared to believe almost anything under
this head. The hair of cows, even those that are kept very clean, swarms
with bacteria. (See Fzg. 3). Many hundreds may be isolated from a
few particles of hair, and this fact alone shows the importance of keeping
cows clean, well carded and well brushed. When in this condition, they
are not so liable to lose hairs, nor are the hairs so easily dislodged during
the movements of milking. The particles of manure and filth which
cling to the sides, flank, udder and tail of animals are laden with germ-
life. Wiithrich and Freudenreich*®! have found far more bacteria in
manure when the animals are given dry food than when kept upon grass,
and the most numerous species present were the colon bacillus, the hay
bacillus, and other species able to liquefy gelatine, and peptonise casein.
Great care should be taken in the construction of cow stalls. If they are
too long the hind-quarters of the animal are apt to be plastered with
482 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [VoL. VII.
manure when she lies down; and when too short, the hind-quarters and
tail find their resting place in the gutter. (See /zg. 4).
The milker, too, is not always above reproach. Clothed in dust-
laden garments, used for all kinds of farm and stable work, without even
washing his hands, he does the milking as he would do any other job
on the farm. Too often the milker has the filthy practice of moistening
his hands and the cow’s teats with milk. Freudenreich* reports. some
experiments in which the germ-content of milk was reduced from several
thousands to 200 where the hands were well rubbed with vaseline before
milking, and as pointed out by Russell,® a pinch of vaseline not only
helps the milker to obtain a firmer grasp, but also prevents scales or
dirt from being rubbed from the teats, and its effect on sore or chapped
teats is healing.
METHODS OF PREVENTION.
Contamination from the milker can, however, to a very large extent,
be prevented by moistening thoroughly the flanks and udder of the cow
before milking. Germs cannot leave a moist surface, and the dust-like
particles are thus held in place. (See Fig. 5). The following instructive
experiment is cited by Russell°? :—
“When the animal was milked without any special precautions
being taken, there were 3,250 bacteria per minute deposited on an area
equal to the exposed top of a ten-inch pail. When the cow received
the precautionary treatment, as suggested above, there were only 115
bacteria per minute deposited on the same area. This indicates that a
large number of organisms from the dry coat of the animal can be kept
out of the milk if such simple precautions are carried out.” It has been
frequently found that the germ-content of the milk in the pail is increased
from 20,000 to 40,000 bacteria per minute during the milking period by
the dislodgment of organisms from the animal.
By diminishing the exposed surface of the milk-pail, (see Fzg. 6), a
considerable amount of dirt may be excluded, as it is obvious that less
dirt will fall in a pail with a small opening. A number of different
types of such pails are now in use, and Eckles® and other investigators
have given us experimental data on the subject. Thus 43,200 bacteria
per c.c. were found in the milk drawn in a common pail, as against
3,200 per c.c. in the covered pail. The milk soured in forty-three hours
in the first case ; sixty-four hours in the latter case.
The milker should put on a clean, loose, cotton or linen smock over
1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 483
his clothes, and invariably wash his hands immediately before milking.
The milking smock should be washed frequently and should be kept, not
in the open barn or stable, but in some place as far removed as possible
from all kinds of dust and dirt. The practice of moistening the hands
or cow’s teats with milk should be scrupulously avoided.
“
MILKING MACHINES.
Of late years several milking machines have been introduced to
obviate the difficulty in obtaining milkers, and to lessen the time taken
in milking. Such machines, in order to be a success, must do the
milking naturally, quickly, thoroughly and without any annoyance to
the cow. Further, milk drawn by such a machine must be of good
keeping quality, and the machine must be adaptable to the requirements
and arrangements of an ordinary dairy farm.
When first introduced many dairymen expressed the opinion that
these machines would guard against the admittance of all dirt, but
unfortunately this requirement has not been fulfilled by a machine
installed in the Dairy Stable of the Ontario Agricultural College.* This
machine, called the “ Thistle Milking Machine,” (see zg. 7), was in more
or less constant use in our stable during the summer of 1899, and we
took advantage of this opportunity to make bacteriological analyses of
the milk milked with the machine as compared with milk drawn by
hand milking. We found that the machine milk had a far larger germ
content than that milked in the usual manner, and after making a direct
comparison between the number of bacteria in machine milk and the
number in hand milk, we found that the proportion varied greatly, from
three to twenty times as many bacteria being found in the machine milk
as in the hand drawn milk. The averages were as follows :—
Machine Milk. Hand Milk.
No. of Analyses. No.of Bacteria No. of Analyses. No. of Bacteria
insecm:. of inC.CM.. OF
morning s milk. morning's milk.
161 141,600 78 10,600
Evening’s Milk. Evening's Milk.
74. 165,000 16 12,900
These results were greatly in favour of hand-milking, and the large
number of bacteria found in machine milk was attributed to three
causes:
484 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
1. When the rubber teat-cups are fastened on the cow, a small
portion of the hairy coat of the udder is included in the cup, and no
matter how clean the animal is, germs are sure to be present on this
coat in considerable numbers, depending upon the cleanness of the udder.
When the suction of the machine is applied, the force exerted
naturally draws any loose or dry particles that may be on the teats and
that portion of the udder within the cups, down into the milk. In this
way, many germs on these particles gain access to the milk, and find in
it suitable conditions for their growth and multiplication.
2. The teat-cups and connecting tubes to the milk pail are made of
rubber, and consequently cannot be scalded or steamed, as scalding
water or steam would crack and spoil the rubber ; hence it is impossible
to cleanse them thoroughly from germ life. They may look clean after
being rinsed in warm water and kept in cold water, but they are
certainly not bacteriologically clean, z.e., free from germs; and in the
process of milking many of the germs on the inside of the rubber and in
the crevices of the tubing are washed into the milk. Conclusive
evidence on this is afforded by the fact that, time and again, germs that
were constantly present in water in which the rubber tubing was kept
between milkings, were also found in the milk.
3. In detaching the cups from one cow and putting them on an-
other, attendants sometimes let them fall upon the floor of the stable,
and in this way germ-loaded particles of dust and dirt get into the teat-
cups and find their way into the pail as soon as the milking of the next
cow begins. Of course, this may be put down to carelessness on the
part of the attendants ; but in our experience, no matter how careful the
transfer was made from one cow to another, instances of the cups falling
occurred from time to time, and each time undoubtedly made a large
addition to the germ content of the milk. |
In 1898, the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland” offered
a prize of £50 for the best milking machine. Only two makers entered
their machines for competition, viz., Mr. W. Murchland of Kilmarnock,
(the Murchland Milking Machine Company), (see Fzg 8), and the Thistle
Mechanical Milking Machine Company. The judges, after an exhaustive
trial, awarded the prize to the Murchland Milking Machine, it having in
every respect most effectually filled the conditions which they originally
agreed should guide them in making their awards. In every instance
the samples of milk drawn by this machine were found to keep satis-
factory. After a lapse of forty-eight hours, they were found in no
1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 485
respect inferior to the samples of milk drawn by hand, in fact, if any-
thing, rather superior in point of flavour. The judges regarded the
Murchland machine as a practical success. On the other hand, the
chief defect in the Thistle Milking Machine was the effect it had upon
the keeping qualities of the milk. Most of the samples from it de-
veloped sourness in twelve to twenty-four hours, while samples drawn
by hand from the same cows at the same time, and kept under precisely
the same conditions, remained perfectly sweet for from thirty-six to
fifty hours.
The Murchland Machine was also placed in competition for a prize
of £50 at the York meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society® at York.
In the opinion of the judges it presented such difficulties for efficient
cleaning, that they were unable to report that it adequately fulfilled the
requirements set forth in the regulations for these trials. No award was
made in the competition.
CLEANING MILK BY THE USE OF A GRAVEL FILTER.
The gravel filter in most general use is the model used by the
Copenhagen Milk Supply Company, (see Figs. 9 and ro). It consists
of two enamelled iron tanks placed at different levels; a pipe in the
form of a siphon has its long limb connected with the bottom of the
upper tank, and its short limb with the bottom of the lower tank, so
that the milk poured into the upper tank comes up as a kind of spring
at the bottom of the lower one. On the bottom tank there are three
layers of gravel, that in the lower layer being about the size of a pea; in
the middle layer somewhat smaller, and in the third or top layer, a little
larger than a pin’s head. The layers are separated from each other by
perforated tin trays. On the top of the uppermost layer of gravel are
five thicknesses of fine cloth. The whole is kept in position by a
pyramidal frame-work which presses down the tin trays. As the milk
rises to the top of the tank, it passes into a large storage or mixing
receptacle. These filters require the most careful management, and are
generally taken to pieces immediately after use, when the gravel is
‘washed in hot water until the water comes off clean. It is then steamed
at atemperature of 202° F., after which it is spread out in shallow trays,
and baked at a high heat. For the concluding operation, the gravel is
placed in a winnowing machine, which drives off all particles of fine dust.
Schuppan* seems to have first called attention to the use of gravel
filters as a means of reducing the number of bacteria in milk. He
486 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, [Vot. VII.
reported in 1893 that the bacterial content of milk was reduced 48 per
cent. by sand filtration; and at the meeting of the German Dairy
Association in 1893, he strongly recommended the use of sand filters for
removing dirt and germs from milk. The use of sand filters was,
however, questioned by other members.
Backhaus,® whilst giving no numerical data, reports that these
filters have no effect in reducing the number of bacteria in the filtered
milk. The mechanical separation is good, all coarse particles, such as
hair, straw, manure, etc., are arrested ; but the bacteria are washed out of
the manure, and the milk contains more bacteria than before filtration.
In 1899, Dunbar and Kister®® made an exhaustive study of the
working of this class of filter. In twenty-two analyses of raw and
filtered milk there were in seventeen cases more bacteria present after
filtration, and in four cases fewer bacteria. A few examples of their
results will suffice :
Raw Milk. Filtered Milk.
80,000 per cC.c. 60,000 per C.c.
793,000 “ 44,100 -
95,000 r 49,400 "
819,000 : 94,000 is
Average 446,700 e Average 61,800 :
In these cases filtration diminished the bacterial content of the milk.
Of the seventeen other samples, the bacterial content after filtration
was increased, thus :—
Raw Milk. Filtered Milk.
0,000; Derr cic: 600,000 per C.c.
I p
650,000 o 0,000 %
)
650,000 S 1,260,000 rf
320,000 ii 620,000 fs
3,900,000 { 14,300,000
The average of the seventeen analyses was :—
Raw Milk. After Filtration through Gravel.
1,300,000 per C.c. 5 507,000, Per cic.
CLEANING MILK BY CENTRIFUGAL FORCE.
Clarified milk, (see zg. zr), or milk that has been passed through
a separator, has been recently quite extensively advertised. The effect
1902-3. ] BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 487
of this method of cleaning milk is similar to that of the gravel filters, and
according to Backhaus,® 95 per cent. of the mechanical impurities (hairs,
manure particles, etc.), are eliminated. The separator divides the milk
into three parts, the slime which adheres to the bowl of the machine, the
skim-milk and the cream. Several investigators have given us data of
the number of bacteria which are found in these three products. Thus
Popp and Becker™ found the germ content per c.c. of the whole milk, to
be 72,954; of the cream of this milk, 58,275 ; the separator skim-milk,
21,735; and the separator slime, 43,891.
Scheurlen® found in one litre of milk 2,050,000,000 of bacteria, and
after separation 1,700 in the 200 c.c. of cream, 560,000,000 in the 800
c.c. skim-milk, and 18,000,000 in the 6 c.c. of slime.
Other investigators have also shown that centrifugation does not
decrease the number of bacteria in milk. Thus, Fjord and Fleisch-
mann® claim that centrifugal separation has little value as a means of
purification, and Conn® states that “ milk after passing through a centri-
fuge, although it contains less gross impurities, shows more bacteria than
before. This is explained by the fact that masses are broken up, and
large numbers of bacteria liberated, “and again,” the same writer says,
“centrifugal purification does not materially affect the bacteria, for there
seem to be about as many after treatment as before.”
Niederstadt®* obtained similar results, for he found that by the
centrifugal treatment of 300 litres of milk, about 130 grams of sediment
were obtained. The cream was richer in bacteria than the sediment.
The separator effected no purification of milk from bacteria, and 75 per
cent. of the bacteria went into the cream.
Dunbar and Kister,” in an exhaustive series of experiments, found
in four instances fewer bacteria after separation, the average of these
four instances being as follows :—
Raw Milk. Centrifuged Milk.
446,000 per c.c. 146,000 per c.c.
But in the remainder of the experiments, twenty-four in number,
more bacteria were found in the separated milk, the averages in this case
being :
Raw Milk. Centrifuged Milk.
I,400,000 per c.c. 2,200,000 per C.c.
It would seem from these figures that the smaller the number of
bacteria present in the whole milk, the more efficient was the separator
in reducing their numbers.
488 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
Eckles and Barnes* have also investigated the purification of milk
by the centrifugal separator. They found a large proportion of the
bacteria removed by centrifuging, but no enhancement in keeping
quality.
Russell in a private communication to the writer expresses his
opinion thus :—“I do not think clarification is worth the trouble, unless
the milk is exceptionally dirty.’
At the suggestion of the Ontario Department of Agriculture, we
(my assistant, Dr. Streit and myself) have reinvestigated this subject.
A power belt separator was used, run at the speed indicated by the
manufacturers. The milk came from farms in the vicinity, and was of
average quality, similar to the ordinary factory supply. About 150
pounds of this milk were thoroughly mixed in a sterilized can witha
sterilized stirrer. A half-pint sample of the milk was taken in a steri-
lized jar, the rest of the milk being put through a separator. The cream
and skim-milk were caught together in a sterilized can, and were again
thoroughly mixed with a sterilized stirrer, and another half-pint sample
of the clarified sample was taken. Both samples were immediately
carried to the laboratory, where suitable dilutions were made and plates
poured.
The culture medium used was whey gelatine, with one per cent. of
peptone. The plates were kept at 20° C. and counted at the end of
forty-eight or seventy-two hours, depending on the size of the colonies.
In most cases the plates were counted by each of us independently, so
as to reduce the personal equation.
Each result given in the table is the average of four plates, and thus
the gross average represents the numerical results obtained from 240
plates or analyses.
1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK, 489
THE BACTERIAL CONTENT OF MILK BEFORE AND AFTER
SEPARATION.
BEFORE SEPARATION. AFTER SEPARATION.
| More bac-
DATE. Total No. of Liquefying MotallUNosof) 9) Liquefying | teria after
Colonies. Colonies. Colonies. | Colonies. \Separation +
| | or less —
ae |
April 8 447,000 25,000 775,000 64,000 +
eer iS 391,000 23, 300 1,000,000 196,000 ai
Cee 491,000 6,500 529,000. 18,700 4°
GC ie) 442,000 7,500 469,000 16,000 ss
HG Wat) 1,351,000 88, 500 2,495,000 271,000 =}
coe 1,990,000 67,500 2,070,000 110,000 =f
Sal UOC) || Asszoe | 4, 250,000 21,600 ~
O87 3,000,000 3,800 | 35750,000 | 9,000 | +
S19 1,850,000 6,600 | 2,700,000 | 30,700 +
HS atte) 2,500,000 6,000 | 2,800,000 25,700 +
22 1,100,000 4,200 || 1,160,000 10,850 +
fe N22 1,200,000 10,850 || 1,200,000 18,750 | +
Age on 2,000,000 15,000 || 2,000,000 10,000 =
“Ch 24 2,000,000 11,000 || 2,250,000 13,000 ag
[26 996,000 6,000 | 1,100,000 | 12,600 +
“a6 I, 100,000 11,000 || 994,000 | 8,600 =
UIE Soya 2,700,000 4,800 2,900,000 | 12,000 +
eee ona 3,000,000 13,000 | 2,700,000 7,600 -
May 1 714,000 22,800 | 790,000 56,000 de
ful 646,000 30,000 | 730,000 32,000 +
BG a) 950,000 38,000 | 908,000 36,000
ay 3 832,000 26,000 964,000 | 38,000 | 3
SOE, 530,000 30,000 710,000 40,000 | te
LO ay 480,000 13,000 || 805,000 | 22,000 | -
SG] 2,250,000 31,000 || 2,470,000 | 61,000 +
SOG) 2,060.000 6,000 | 3,000,000 | 61,000 fe
ae ZO AOS. |) aba eae 2,750,000 | +
20 Ze SOOLOOOMME NN 2 ss acai: 25300; 000M ire =
ze 16,000,000 20,000 15,000,000 | 19,000 —
73 12,000,000 26,000 17,000,000 | 26,000
Average 2,359,000 19,800 2,759,000 | 44,540 | ~
400,000 bacteria per c.c. more in centrifuged milk.
24,740 liquefying bacteria per c.c. more in centrifuged milk,
A perusal of the table will show that on six occasions there were
fewer bacteria after separation than before, and on twenty-four occasions
more bacteria present after clarification than in the raw milk.
Another striking fact brought out by this investigation is the large
increase of liquefying colonies in the separated milk. The bacteria
which liquefy gelatine are usually harmful, some are spore-producing
germs and they give rise to off flavours in both cheese and butter.
Many of this class are present in manure, on particles of fodder, etc., and
490 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
our results seem to show that these bacteria exist in clumps or masses
in such material and the centrifugal process breaks these up and
distributes them through the milk.
These results obtained at Guelph are identical with those obtained
by Dunbar and Kister, and go to show that centrifugal purification, as
far as bacteria are concerned, is ineffectual.
CONTAMINATION OF MILK FROM THE STABLE AIR.
Although it is difficult to separate contaminations from animal and
milker and that from the air, it is better to consider the latter source of
infection separately, as the number of germs floating in the air depends
to a great extent upon the amount of dry fodder and straw that may be
used in the stable. If manure is not frequently and thoroughly cleaned
out, it gets dry and small particles from it help to swell the number of
microbes in the air. The greater disturbance of these dusty fodders at
any time, the greater will be the germ content of the air at that time.
The following data show the number of bacteria per minute deposited
in a 12-inch pail. In series A. (see Fzg. 12), the exposure was made
during bedding ; in B. (see /zg. 73), one hour after this operation.
Series A. 16,000 13,530 12°216 12,890
15,340 19,200 23,400 27,342
42,750 27,820 18,730 [2)200
average... 20,100
Series B. 483 610 820 Wass
1,880 1,987 2 Tae 1,650
990 1,342 2,370 1,750
Average.... 1,400
These results indicate that many bacteria are attached to particles
of considerable weight, as they soon settle on the floor.
Cows are frequently bedded with dusty straw at the very time when
milking is going on, a forkful of straw in some instances that have come
under my observation, having been thrust under the cow that was being
milked. Dusty fodders are often thrown down from the loft when the
milking is in progress, filling the stable with dust, every particle of which
carries spores of moulds and bacteria. It must be remembered also that
very undesirable spores which are very difficult to kill, even by long-
continued steam heat, abound in straw and hay.
1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 491
Much benefit would ensue either from moistening the fodder or
from feeding and bedding an hour or so before milking commences, to
allow the dust, etc., of the air time to settle. In many of the more
modern dairy farms, the stables are thoroughly cleaned and ventilated,
the floors sprinkled, and the manure removed from the building before
milking commences, or a milking room is provided, into which the cows,
one, two or three at a time, are brought for milking. This room is
supplied with water, conveniently located, and kept in an absolutely
clean condition.
CONTAMINATION OF MILK FROM DAIRY UTENSILS.
Probably more trouble is caused to butter and cheese makers by the
use of dirty utensils than any other way. Every article that is brought
into contact with milk is at once infected with bacteria. When milk is
left in storage cans for some time, a tremendous number of microbes
develop, and a vast number of spores or latent forms of bacteria are
produced. In this way, vessels are infected, and the bacteria find
lodgment in all the cracks and crevices of pails, cans, dippers, strainers,
etc. Take any milk-can and run the point of a pen-knife along the
seam of the can, and you will find a stinking, cheesy mass, composed
very largely of bacteria, all ready to grow and re-produce when fresh
milk is poured in the can. Nothing is tnore difficult to clean than these
dairy utensils, with the facilities at hand on the average farm. Scalding
with hot water is often insufficient to kill the bacteria on the inner
surface of the can, and in the cracks and crevices which are usually
present. The following experiments will suffice to show the importance
of utensils as a factor in milk contamination. Thus Russell? took two
cans, one of which had been cleaned in the ordinary way, while the
other was sterilized by steaming. Before milking the udder of the cow
was thoroughly cleaned and special precautions taken to avoid the
raising of dust; and the fore-milk was rejected. Milk drawn into these
cans showed the following germ-content :
Number of Bacterta. Hours before Souring.
SPEMIMEC\PAall o's? ... « ROTM Of Gerona a ed hh a MR 281%
Oroidanry parks... 6.0 4,265 aye aus he ae 23
The writer® has also shown the great differences in the bacterial
content of cans by a bacterial analysis of the can washings. Cans were
rinsed with 100 c.c. of sterile water, and numerical determination of this
rinsing water was made.
492 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.. VII.
The following data are from cans poorly cleaned, (see /zg. 74), cans
washed in tepid water and then scalded—the best farm practice—and
cans washed in tepid water and then steamed for five minutes (see /7zg.
15).
BACTERIAL CONTENTS OF CANS CLEANED IN VARIOUS WAYS.
Number of Bacteria per c.c. of Can Washings.
Roony Cleaned tyus 2s 238,500 342,800 215,400
618,000 806,000 5 10,000
230,000 600,000 418,000
Average. .442,000.
Ordinary Method...... 89,000 84,000 _ 26,000
24,000 38,000 76,000
15,000 44,000 93,000
Average. . 54,300.
Approved Method..... 1,100 1,800 890
355 416 725
Average. =. 1880:
Allcans should be constructed so as to facilitate cleaning. Stamped
pails, without seams, may now be purchased, but if seams are present
they should be examined to see that they are well flushed with solder.
The bottoms of all cans should be concave, and not convex, to expedite
cleaning.
After thorough rinsing to remove organic matter, cans should be
washed in hot water, to which borax or soda may be added. After
washing, rinse with boiling water, and if available place the can over a
steam-jet for a few minutes.
THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE.
After the milk is infected with bacteria, the temperature at which
itis kept exerts an important influence on the rate of growth or multi-
plication of the bacteria in the milk. Freudenreich® obtained some
milk, which when delivered at his laboratory two and a-half hours after the
milking, had 9,300 germs per c.c. Samples were stored at 15°, 25° and
36° C. (or 59°, 77° and 95° F.), and the results were as follows per c.c.:
iS. 25° 354
g OMESe sey 16,000 18,000 30,000
6 NS) wee 25,000 172,000 12,000,000
Cp OE aeycinie 46,500 1,000,000 35,280,000
ah aE re eee 5,700,000 577,000,000 50,000,000
1902-3. | BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 493
If we analyze this table we find that at 15° the increase during the
first half hour was 700, or 7 per cent., which would indicate that the
average duration of a generation is thirteen hours. Inthree hours more,
the increase is 15,000, or 150 per cent., which gives the average duration
of a generation as two hours. In the next three hours, the increase is
21,500, and the average duration of a generation about 3% hours. From
the ninth to the twenty-fourth hour, the average is about 2% hours. At
25°, the times required for a doubling of the number are for the
successive periods, about half an hour, about an hour, and about
7% hours. At 35° the time occupied in a generation was about twenty
minutes at first, then about forty-five minutes, and at last thirty-seven
hours. These results are curious, but could only be explained by a
fuller knowledge of the species concerned, and of the cause influencing
the changes.
The most important point brought out in this experiment is the
tremendous rate of increase at the higher temperatures ; therefore, much
may be done to restrain this rapid multiplication by cooling the milk as
rapidly as possible. Milk allowed to cool naturally takes some time
before it reaches the temperature of the air. Hence, measures should
be promptly taken to reduce the temperature quickly.
CERTIFIED MILK.
Of late years a number of sanitary, model dairies have been estab-
lished in the vicinity of large cities in various parts of the United
States and Canada, (see Figs. 16 and 17), which have placed on the
market, milk with a relatively low bacterial content. Such milk is
known as “hygienic,” “ sanitary,” or “certified.” It is interesting to note
that these establishments prosper, an indication that the discriminating
public appreciate the honest endeavour of these dairies to produce milk
which will fulfil the requirements of the most exacting sanitarian.
These establishments put.into practice the suggestions made by
various experimenters and investigators, as the result of their experi-
mental inquiries, and these have been more or less briefly outlined in
this paper. The freedom from bacteria obtained in these dairies
depends on the thoroughness with which all details are carried out.
Russell? has shown that when samples of milk are secured under as
nearly aseptic conditions as possible, the germ content was 330 organisms
per c.c.; but when drawn under ordinary conditions, the bacterial
content was 15,500 organisms per c.c. Marshall® gives similar results,
494 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
for example, milk drawn under aseptic conditions averaged 295 bacteria
per c.c.; under ordinary conditions, 786,000 per c.c.
In certain cases milk coming from sanitary dairies is endorsed by a
board of examining physicians and experts. Thus, the Milk Com-
mission™ of the Medical Society of the County of New York endorses
milk from various dairies when the acidity of the milk is below 0.2 per
cent., and when the milk contains less than 30,000 bacteria per c.c. The
Milk Commission of the Philadelphia Pediatric Society give their
endorsement for milk free from pus and injurious germs, and having not
more than 10,000 germs per c.c.
Such milk naturally has enhanced keeping qualities, and milk and
cream from several such hygenic dairies in the United States were
shipped to the Paris Exposition in 1900, arriving in good condition
after 15 to 18 days in transit.
The adoption of a numerical standard seems a very necessary step.
Bitter suggests that 50,000 organisms per c.c. should be a maximum
limit in milk intended as human food. Park thinks that any intelligent
farmer, with sufficient cleanliness and a low temperature, can supply
milk averaging not over 100,000 bacteria per c.c., when twenty-four
hours old,and suggests that the sale of milk should be so regulated
that that containing more than this number per cc. should be
excluded from the market. Rochester, N.Y., has already tried the
enforcement of this standard, with good results. In the opinion of
Russell, “the practical difficulties to contend with in establishing a milk
standard based upon a quantitive bacterial determination are such as to
render its general adoption extremely problematical.” On the other
hand, this investigator advocates the employment of the acid test, and
postulates that milk should not contain more than 0.2 per cent. figured
as lactic acid, and if possible the acidity should be brought down to
O.1§ per cent.
To conclude, from what. has been brought up before you, it is
undoubtedly easy to see the reason for cleanliness in all operations con-
nected with the dairy business. “ All the results of scientific investi-
gation,” says Fleischmann, “which have found such great practical
application in the treatment of disease, in disinfection, and in the
preservation of various products, are almost entirely ignored in milking,”
and the only remedy for this state of affairs is “a campaign of education
among the farmers who produce milk, concerning, first, the simple
protection of a readily putrescible fluid from pollution with dirt or other
elements of decay ; and, second, the sanitary protection of milk from
infection.’®
1902-3. ] BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION OF MILK. 495
REFERENCES.
. SOXHLET. Deut. Viertjschr, f. off. Gesundhtspfig, Bd. 24 (1892), pp. 8-75.
UHL. Zeitsch. f: Hyg. Bd. 12, (1892) p. 475.
. BacKHaAus. Milch Zeitung, 26, (1897), p. 357.
RENK. Cent. f. Bakt., Bd. 10, (1891), p. 193.
Hirp. Report Health Officer, District of Columbia, 1895.
. CLaAuss. Inaug. Diss., Wurzburg, 1899.
. KNopF. Cent. f. Bakt., Bd. 6, (1888), p. 553.
. BujJwip. Quoted from 7th Report Storrs’ Experimental Station, Conn., (1894), p. 70.
. GeEuNS. Neder. Tydschr. v. Geneesk., 2 R., XXI., (1885), Arch. f. Hyg. 3.
. RENK. Cent. f. Bakt., Bd. 10 (1891), p. 193.
CE leo Camciis
. KNOCHENSTIERN. Inaug. Dissert. (1893), Dorpat.
. HELLENS. Inaug. Dissert. Helsingfors (1899), Cent. f. B. II., VI., 261.
. Rowan. British Medical Journal, II. (1895), p. 321-
. SACHARBEKOFF. Cent. f. Bakt. 2 Abt., Bd. 2 (1896), p. 545.
. CONN. Report Secretary Conn. Board of Agriculture, 1895.
. SEDGWICK AND BATCHELDER. Boston Medical Surgical Journal, Jan. 14, 1892.
SELARKes SClenCes MeiSehsh3) (LOO), ps) 322.
. LEIGHTON. Science, n. ser. 11, (1900), p. 461.
. MCDONNELL. Penn. Department Agriculture Report (1897), p. 561.
. LOVELAND AND Watson. Report Experimental Station, Storrs, Conn. (1894), p. 72.
. RussELL. Dairy Bacteriology, 3rd Edition, p. 59.
. HARRISON. Ontario Agricultural College and Experimental Farm Report 22,
(1896), p. 107.
. EcKLES. Iowa Experimental Station, Bulletin 59, 1got.
. Harrison. Ontario Agricultural College and Experimental Farm Bulletin 120,
May, 1902.
ScHuLTz. Archiv f. Hyg., Bd. 14, (1892), p. 260.
. GERNHARDT. Inaug. Dissert. Dorpat, 1893.
. FREUDENREICH, E. von. Dairy Bacteriology, London, 1895.
. BoLtny & Hay. Cent. f. Bakt., II Abt., (1895), pp. 1-795.
MINUSSE IL eOG. Cit.
. GROTENFELT. The Principles of Modern Dairy Practice, N.Y.
. Rotcu. Transactions Association American Physicians. IX., (1894), p. 185.
. Moors. Bureau of Animal Industry, 12th and 13th Annual Reports, p. 261.
. Conn. United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations,
Bulletin, 25, p. 9.
. Harrison. Ontario Agricultural College, Report 22nd (1896), p. 207.
. PALLESKE. Virchow’s Archiv, C XXX., (1894), p 185.7
. HONIGMANN. Zeitsch. f. Hyg. XIV. (1893), p. 207.
. KNOCHENSTIERN, H. Inaug. Dissert., Dorpat, 1893.
496
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Voc. VII.
. RInGEL. Munch. Med. Wochenschr., (1893), No. 27.
. Moore AND Warb. Cornell University Agricultural Experimental Station, Bulletin
158.
. WARD. Journal App. Micr. I., p. 205.
. WarpD. Cornell University Agricultural Experimental Station, Bulletin 178.
. CHESTER. Determinative Bacteriology, N.Y., 1901.
. WRIGHT. Memoirs Nat. Acad. Science, VII. (1895), 246.
. Forp. Transactions Association American Physicians, XV. (1900), p. 389. Journal
of Hygiene, Igor.
. FOKKER. Fortschr. d. Medecin. VIII. (1890), p. 7.
. FREUDENREICH, Von. Ann. de Micrographie, ILI. (1891), p. 118.
. BRIEGER AND EHRLICH. Zeitschr. f. Hyg., XIII., (1893), p. 336.
WASSERMANN. Zeitsch. f. Hyg. 18 (1894), p. 235.
50. SMITH. Journal Mass. Association Boards of Health, II. (1892), p. 23. (Quoted by
Sedgwick (68).
. WUTHRICH AND FREUDENREICH. Cent. F. Bakt., II. Abt. 2., (1895), p. 873.
RussELL. Dairy Bacteriology, 5th Edition (1902), p. 36.
. ECKLES. Quoted from Russell’s Dairy Bact., p. 38.
. HARRISON. Cent. f. Bakt., II. Abt., 5 (1899), p. 183.
. DRYSDALE. Transactions Highland and Agricultural Society, Scotland, 5 Ser., 10
(1898), p. 166.
. Journal Royal Agricultural Society, Eng., (1900), p. 468.
. SCHUPPAN. Molk. Zeit. 7, (1893), p. 241- Cent. f. Bakt., XIII., (1893) p. 155.
. BACKHAUS. Milch Zeit. (1897), p. 357-
. DUNBAR AND KISTER. Milch Zeit. (1899), p. 753, 787-
. Popp AND Becker. Hyg. Rundsch., 3 (1893), pp. 530-534-
. SCHEURLEN. Cent. f. Bakt., XI., (1892), p. 54.
. FLEISCHMANN. The Book of the Dairy, p. 98.
. Conn. The Dairy (1902), p. 21, London, Eng. Agricultural Bacteriology (1901),
p- 189, Phila.
. NIEDERSTADT. Chem. Centbl. I (1893), p. 396.
. FREUDENREICH. Ann. de Microg., 2 (1890), p. 115.
. MARSHALL. Michigan Agricultural Experimental Station, Bulletin 182, 1900.
. PEARSON. Seventeenth Report Bur. An. Ind., Washington, D.C. (1900), p. 191.
. SEDGWICK. Principles of Sanitary Science, N.Y., 1902.
Nore.—I desire to acknowledge the courtesy of Mrs. Massey, Dentonia, for the use
of Figs. 16 and 17 ; Major Alvord, of the United States Department of Agriculture, for
Fig. 6; The City Dairy Co. for Fig. 11; The Kjobenhavn Maelkforsyning for Figs. 9
and ro.
Fic. 1—CONTAMINATION FROM THE FORE Fic. 2—BACTERIAL CONTENT OF MILK,
MILK. THE FORE MILK BEING REJECTED.
Gelatine Plate shewing colonies of bac- Gelatine Plate shewing colonies of bac-
teria in ;1; c.c. (about 2 drops) of the fore teria in 75 c.c. (about 2 drops) of milk
milk. (First few streams from all four taken from the middle of the milking.
teats).
Shewing the bacterial contamination from hairs.
FIG. 4—CONTAMINATION FROM ANIMAL FIG. 5—CONTAMINATION FROM ANIMAL
AND MILKER. AND MILKER.
Gelatine plate exposed under the udder Gelatine plate held under cow for one
of a cow for one minute, while milking minute while milking. The udder and
under ordinary conditions. flanks well moistened with water.
Fic. 6—SANITARY MILK PAIL AND MILKER PROPERLY CLOTHED.
Tutstik Motsixs Macuing wn Orzaarios, §
Fic. 7—THISTLE MILKING MACHINE.
2 Ss REN
ec acme
“Yurences APEARATOS, =:
FIG. 10—FILTERING MILK THROUGH GRAVEL.
“SUOLVUVdAIS "GS “AONOY IWOAAININAD AT MTX DNINVATO—I1 ‘DTW
: ayy
a0
Fic. 12—GERM CONTENT OF BARN AIR DuriInNG- FIG. 13—GERM CONTENT OF BARN AIR DURING
BEDDING, CLEANING UP, FEEDING, ETC. BEDDING, CLEANING UP, FEEDING, ETC.
Gelatine plate exposed to the deposition ot Gelatine plate exposed to the deposition of
germs for one minute in a stable when some of | germs for one minute in a stable when all the
the above operations were in progress. above operations had been completed.
Fic. 14—-CONTAMINATION FROM THE USE OF FiG. 15 CONTAMINATION FROM THE USE OF
IMPROPERLY CLEANED DAIRY UTENSILS. PROPERLY CLEANED DAIRY UTENSILS.
After a can had been washed with warm water, After a can had been washed, scalded and
and thoroughly drained, a quantity of sterile steamed for five minutes, and thoroughly drained,
water was added and the can well rinsed. This a quantity of sterile water was poured in and the
gelatine plate was made from ;},5 c.c. (a very can well rinsed. This gelatine plate was then
tiny drop) of this water. made from 1c. c. (about six drops) of this water,
Fic. 16—A SANITARY DAIRY.
FILLING BOTTLES.
-
3
a
»
SRS
Fic. 17—A SANITARY DAIRY.
BOTTLE WASHING AND BOTTLE STEAM STERILIZER.
THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN. 497
THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN.
By GEO. G..NASMITH, B.A.
(Read 26th April, 1902.)
I.— HISTORICAL 5 : 2 : . 3 ‘ 4 5 é 497
Il. —OBSERVATIONS : : : ‘ : : : : : ESOL
IIl.—PROPERTIES OF Geen : : é ; : : : : : 509
ne —PROPERTIES OF GLUTENIN . : : . a . RU@
V.—THE FERMENT THEORY OF Spree oenmalias : : : ; 511
VI.—THE ALEURON LAYER OF WHEAT : : ; : ; : : a BUS
VII.—CoNcLuSIONS ‘ A ; 5 ‘ : : : : j : S14
VIII.—BIBLIOGRAPHY : i : : : : : ; : é : eee LO
].—HISTORICAL.
THE first preparation of gluten from wheat flour by washing away
the starch from dough seems to have been made by Becari,’ but
Einhof? was the first to give special attention to its composition. He
extracted wheat gluten with dilute alcohol, and he found that the
substance which precipitated on cooling, diluting or concentrating the
solution was practically identical with gluten itself.
Taddei® named the portion soluble in alcohol gliadin, the residue
zymom.
Berzeliust thought that he found a second constituent in the part
of the gluten soluble in alcohol, which he called mucin, and which was
precipitated by acetic acid. | He® regarded Taddei’s gliadin as identical
with the substance obtained by Einhof from wheat, barley and rye.
The insoluble residue Berzelius called plant albumin, from its great
similarity to animal albumin.
De Saussure® found that wheat gluten contained about 20 per cent.
plant gelatin, or glutin, as he proposed to call it, 72 per cent. insoluble
plant albumin, and 1 per cent. mucin; the latter, although differently
prepared, he considered to be similar to the mucin of Berzelius, and it
had, as he thought, the power of transforming starch into sugar.
Boussingault,’ like Einhof, considered that part of the gluten
oluble in alcohol to be identical with the entire gluten proteid.
Liebig* named the portion of the gluten insoluble in alcohol plant
498 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
fibrin; he rejected the term zymom given by Taddei, and also that of
plant albumin of Berzelius, in the latter case because solubility in water
is a characteristic of albumins. The portion soluble in alcohol he called
plant gelatin, and considered it to be a casein-like compound of a
proteid with an undetermined organic acid.
Bouchardat® found in gluten a substance soluble in extremely
dilute acid, which he named albumin, since he regarded it as forming
the chief constituent of egg albumin, blood fibrin, casein and gluten.
Dumas and Cahours” found four proteids in flour, namely, an
albumin which was obtained from the water used in washing out the
gluten; plant fibrin left as a residue on extracting gluten with alcohol ;
a proteid from this alcohol which separated on cooling, and finally a
second proteid which precipitates from the same alcohol on concentration
and cooling. This latter he called glutin.
Mulder" prepared plant gelatin by extracting gluten with alcohol,
filtering hot, allowing to cool and redissolving the white precipitate
which settled out twice. This he considered to be a compound of
sulphur with protein, and he found that it did not contain phosphorus.
Von Bibra” stated that on exhausting gluten with hot alcohol
insoluble plant fibrin remained behind, while plant gelatin and plant
casein dissolved ; the plant casein separated on cooling. These bodies
he thought had the same elementary composition, and were in fact
isomers.
Giinsberg® held that gluten was composed of three proteids, gliadin
being a mixture of two. These were, (a) gluten fibrin, soluble neither in
alcohol nor warm water ; (b) gluten casein, insoluble in hot water but
soluble in alcohol ; (c) gluten gelatin, soluble in alcohol and hot water.
Ritthausen™ found four proteids in gluten, namely, gluten casein,
gluten fibrin, plant gelatin or gliadin, and mucedin, of which the last
three are soluble in dilute alcohol. His casein was prepared by ex-
tracting gluten with boiling alcohol, cooling, exhausting the casein
which settled out with absolute alcohol, then with acetic acid, and finally
neutralizing the clear filtrate from this with ammonia. The decanted
alcoholic fluid from the casein contained the gelatin, which separated on
evaporation.
Scherer” digested gluten with artificial gastric juice and observed
that the greater part went into solution in about fourteen hours.
Martin” found that only one proteid was extracted from gluten by
1902-3. | THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN. 499
dilute alcohol or hot water, which gave the reddish violet reaction of
proteoses and peptones. Because of this reaction and its comparative
insolubility he called it insoluble phytalbumose. The residue was
coagulated by boiling water, and was soluble only in acids and alkalies.
He claimed that dilute alcohol extracted only fat from dry flour, and
came to the conclusion that insoluble phytalbumose was produced from
a soluble albumose, and gluten fibrin from a globulin by pre-existing
ferments.
Chittenden and Smith” made preparations of gluten casein accord-
ing to Ritthausen’s method, which averaged 15.86 per cent. of nitrogen.
Osborne and Voorhees® in an exhaustive research brought many
opposing views into harmony. Like Martin they found only one
proteid in gluten that was soluble in alcohol, and considered that the
various proteids claimed by previous investigators to have been soluble
in alcohol were impure preparations, perhaps mixtures with fat. Martin’s
gluten fibrin they termed glutenin, and found its composition to be
practically identical with that of gliadin, a conclusion that had not
hitherto been suggested. The high percentage of nitrogen they thought
due to their improved method of preparation by which all starch, etc.,
had been removed. Contrary to Martin’s experience they found that
dilute alcohol extracted gliadin directly from flour.
Osborne and Voorhees further arrived at the conclusion that gluten
is made up of two forms of the same proteid, one being soluble in cold
dilute alcohol and the other not. They found that flour exhausted with
sodium chloride solution yielded the same amount of gliadin as was
obtained from the gluten made from an equal quantity of flour, or by
direct extraction of the flour with 70 per cent. alcohol. They, therefore,
held that gliadin exists as such in the seed.
Teller’ noted again the fact that gliadin possessed proteose-like
characters, as previously stated by Martin. Gliadin he found to be
slightly soluble in dilute salt solution, and he regarded it as identical
with that body classified by Osborne and Voorhees as proteose.
O’Brien” found himself in agreement with Osborne and Voorhees
in considering that gluten pre-existed as such in flour in the same
proportions as in gluten, and that there was but one mother substance in
flour which gave rise by a process of hydration to gluten. His con-
clusions were, (a) that the differently described derivatives of gluten
soluble in alcohol merge into one another ; (4) that the portion soluble
in alcohol may be made to pass into the insoluble stage ; (c) that a
proteose is readily formed as a secondary product from gluten.
500 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
Fleurent,?! whose work, like that of O’Brien, was unfinished when
Osborne and Voorhees’ results were published, found himself also in
agreement with the latter in concluding that only one body soluble in
alcohol was present in gluten. Besides gliadin and glutenin he found a
very small quantity of a third body which he called conglutin.
Morishima” found only one proteid in gluten (that he named
artolin) which he prepared by kneading gluten with dilute alkali and
treating the decanted fluid with hydrochloric acid until it contained one
per cent. of the acid in excess. .The precipitate washed with one per
cent. hydrochloric acid and made up with alcohol toa solution containing
70-80 per cent. of alcohol, was filtered and saturated with absolute
alcohol and ether.
Its composition he found to be:
ARTOLIN (MoRISHIMA).
Cron seicvetctar ecto eeree ereiece 52-29
1 Le eer tnonn GOR RIAL Ac cM ac Re 7.02
IN (a isofers ois iohe sisi Ga bas ae iaiaera eee 16.51
She See seas oc iereaanie ecteeastetn eh mip teerer 74
O's Gar ty seb) deaieg seers ae creieeraye ie terns
O) OATS CN EMEP acicic oes oO Ccorrecact oe TeGi7
Mayer*™ held that the old name of plant gelatin was inappropriate,
since it was chemically unlike gelatin: the latter does not contain sul-
phur, and is insoluble in dilute alcohol.
Ritthausen** commented on Fleurent’s and Osborne and Voor-
hees’ careful work, but, nevertheless, clung to the views propounded in
his early paper. In criticizing the work of Morishima, he pointed out
the fact that proteids are soluble in dilute acids, and concluded that
artolin was glutenin linked with hydrochloric acid.
The subjoined analyses, taken from the paper ef Osborne and
Voorhees were found by reference to the original papers to be accurate:
BoussINGAULtT. JONES. Dumas and CaHours. Mutper. Von Bipra.
Plant. Plant. Plant.
Gliadin. Gelatin. Casein. Glutin. Gelatin. Gelatin.
C .....eee 52.30 54-44 53-46 53-27 54-85 53-57
EL At. sitehtee 6.50 7.42 Folks rhe s7| 7.05 Tele
IN ee 5 fiteh@ye) 15.98 16.04 15.94 D537 15-57
Syke A Sere sietsse aS sie .60 .88
© een Aric 22.30 22.16 23537 23.62 21.79 22.86
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
1902-3. |
THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN.
501
GUNSBERG. ———-——RITTHAUSEN——-—— ~~ OSBORNE and
Plant. Gluten Plant. VOORHEES.
Gelatin. fibrin. Gelatin. Mucedin. Gliadin,
(Gos Sa csce 52.68—52.65 54-31 52.76 54-11 52.72
Beds petatins. conus 6.77— 6.88 7.18 7.10 6.90 6.86
Seosccssccrist Nimkl Sere Srsteis 1.01 85 .88 1.14
INSraieyaveversince 17.76 —17.45 16.89 18.01 16.83 17.66
OR oases 22879—23502 20.61 21.08 21.48 21.62
100.00 -100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
GLUTENIN.
JONES. SCHERER Dumasand CaHours. Von Bipra. RITTHAUSEEN.
C....... 52-79 54.60—52.34 53-37—53-23 55-57 52-94
Hi 7.02 7-45— 7-13 7.02— 7.01 6.95 7.04,
Nive conte: 15-59 15-81—15. 36 16.00—16.41 15.70 17. 0a
Sater worn maererith 1h Wen Malaya steven) ors 1.02 96
(Osean 24.62 22.14—25.17 23-64—23.35 22.76 21.92
100.00 100. 00-100.00 100.00-100.00 100.00 100.00
CHITTENDEN OSBORNE
and SMiIrH. and VOORHEES,
Coe ome raeias 52.87 52-34
Flbgepettpes ate wate c's 6.99 6.83
Nie Siniatzc ane 15.86 17-49
Sict flan ineise a Tesl7 1.08
(Chae ae 22a 22.26
100.00 100.00
II.—OBSERVATIONS.
While working at the composition of wheat flour, Professor
Macallum suggested that [ should trace to its source the phosphorus
which he found to be present in the cellular elements of the wheat
grain. It was sought for and found in gluten, no matter how carefully
prepared or how long it had been washed in tap or distilled water.
Gluten was prepared in the usual manner by kneading dough in a
stream of water until free from starch, dried at 110 C. until the weight
was constant and the phosphorus estimated according to Neumann's”
method, which was found by experiment on known solutions of phos-
phoric acid to be perfectly accurate. Two quantities of gluten yielded
o.11 and 0.12 per cent. of phosphorus respectively.
In order to determine next which of the constituents of gluten (z.e.,
gliadin or glutenin) contained phosphorus, gliadin was prepared by
502 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
extracting starch-free gluten with 70 per cent. alcohol, filtering the
solution repeatedly, and afterwards evaporating completely to dryness.
Average of five estimations 0.83 per cent. ash.
fe two ¥ 0.29 4 phosphorus.
Gliadin was prepared by extracting gluten with 70 per cent. alcohol,
filtering and diluting with twice its volume of 1 per cent. sodium
chloride solution ; the white precipitate, separating out, was collected,
washed with distilled water, till free from chlorine, and dried at 110 C.
The analyses gave :—
I IT Of IV
Phosphorus........ 0.19 0.19 OnIS yy Ween ee
INS NG 6 coding ob Ohodde Os205 OVZOW nm 2 OG stervenc hoa Wane eraventes
INbuMoyets oy Soaancedan 17.705 17.435 17.64 17.555
The ash from these was dissolved with hydrochloric acid ; the solu-
tion evaporated almost to dryness in a platinum crucible, was diluted
with distilled water, and treated with a quantity of dilute hydrochloric
acid containing also potassium ferrocyanide. A blue colouration im-
mediately indicated the presence of iron; repeated trials invariably
yielded the same result.
In order to determine whether the iron was organic or inorganic,
a solution of gliadin in ammonia-free distilled water was added to a
solution of haematoxylin. No darkening whatever occurred, showing
that the iron must be organically combined. Inorganic iron salts with
hematoxylin give an intense dark blue colour. Pieces of freshly-pre-
pared gliadin, suspended in haematoxylin, gave no reaction in thirty
hours. The iron, like the phosphorus, must be in organic combination.
Previously to this I had found that on digesting gluten with arti-
ficial gastric juice, and repeatedly renewing the fluid, a part remained
insoluble even after two months. This residue, after extracting with
absolute alcohol and ether, was dissolved in 0.2 per cent. sodium hydrate,
and precipitated by 0.2 per cent. hydrochloric acid, the precipitate being
insoluble in excess of the acid. Evidently this was a nuclein, and must
have come from the gliadin or glutenin of the gluten.
A gram of gliadin, purified by precipitating, dissolving, repreci-
pitating, and extracting with absolute alcohol and ether, was digested
with artificial gastric juice at 38°C. A residue remained which gave all
the reactions for nuclein, and undoubted reactions also for organic iron
and phosphorus.
1902-3. | THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN. 503
A large amount of gliadin was now prepared by extracting gluten
with 7o per cent. alcohol, filtering, concentrating to a small quantity,
precipitating with 95 per cent. alcohol, extracting in the Soxhlet
apparatus for sixteen hours with absolute alcohol to remove fat and
lecithin, and finally drying for three hours at 110°C.
Analyses gave the following :-—
GLIADIN.
Ciera opts a) s.chu5 52.39 Av. 6.
1 | aaa cian 6.84 Av. 6.
Nona dbalneancnte ca 1/704 Ole Awe 2e
Siachayspaie ct iete scele Te 2 eA
Oe ich IGE CRT OEE 21.89
1 eae nee ane 0.267 Av. 2.
BORER erase nse 0.034 Av. 2.
100.00
The iron was determined gravimetrically since the amount was so
small that only a few drops of 1/40 normal solution of potassium per-
manganate were necessary by the volumetric method, and the exact end
point was consequently difficult to determine. Taking all necessary
precautions to eliminate aluminium and calcium, results were obtained
by extracting the iron from the ash, which were concordant with those
obtained “from the filtrate after precipitating the phosphorus as
ammonium phospho-molybdate. The weight of ferric oxide seldom ex-
ceeded 0.6 milligram. The analyses in other respects agree very well
with those of Osborne and Voorhees, except that the carbon and
nitrogen contents are slightly Jjower, and that they obtained no
phosphorus.
A large quantity of gliadin was prepared and digested at 38°C. with
artificial gastric juice in litre flasks. Digestion was continued for three
weeks, the flasks being frequently shaken, and the clear supernatant
fluid renewed several times. The considerable residue was collected on
filters, washed free from proteoses and peptones with water, then with
70-95 per cent. alcohol which removed some fat. The residue dissolved
in 0.2 per cent. sodium hydrate solution, was filtered, and the solution
precipitated with excess of dilute hydrochloric acid, the process of solu-
tion and precipitation being repeated several times; the precipitate was
then collected on “hardened” filters and washed with distilled water
till free from chlorides. Extracted with absolute alcohol in the Soxhlet
apparatus for sixteen hours, dried at 110 “C., and analyzed, the residue
yielded the following results :—-
504 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VIL.
GLIADIN NUCLEIN.
Cretan hratetcetess 49.47 per cent. Av. 2.
EA eee ttve ane eure 6.98 oe LM 2
ING ce abit tenentne § 16.60 as AW. 2:
Srecaele eases 0.80 oe One.
Peet yeealetey sence taeers 0.2 pe Av. 2.
GL ioe mee oeats 0.04 es Av. 2.
OkSachi oomoeust 25.82
100.00
INN Pes seoeceaause Gseyoee ConiG sai 2
The amount of phosphorus was very small, practically the same,
in fact, as the gliadin from which it was prepared. The chemicals used
were carefully tested in blank experiments, but no trace of phosphorus
was found in any of them. Possibly the prolonged digestion with
frequent renewals of hydrochloric acid solution had removed some of
the phosphorus. The result was, however, quite unsatisfactory, since it
was to be expected that the amount of phosphorus and iron would be
much greater than in the substance from which it was derived. The
analyses of the gliadin and the nuclein, derived from it, may be com-
pared side by side :—
Gliadin, Gliadin Nuclein,
(Cia medaacodmos Sess) 49.47 »
Fle ches cetisiicies 6.84 6.98
Ngee ascee 17-47 16.60
SWS ext Bs onion core rh 10 0.80
Oe teat foe 21.89 25.82
Pissaaeesaiares = C3207 0.29
IN GRAR See aiotaé EOL O0R4 0.04
100.00 100.00
From this it may be gathered that the two compounds are quite
distinct chemically as well as physically.
Glutenin was prepared, as recommended by Osborne and Voor-
hees!® by extracting all the gliadin from gluten by dilute alcohol,
dissolving the residue in 0.2 per cent. potassic hydrate, and precipitating
by exactly neutralizing with 0.2 per cent. hydrochloric acid; the pre-
cipitate washed with 70-95 per cent. alcohol, was again dissolved in 0.2
per cent. potassic hydrate and filtered perfectly clear through heavy
filter paper in an ice chest. Precipitated from the solution by exact
neutralization with 0.2 per cent. hydrochloric acid, washed with distilled
water till free from chlorides, then with 70-95 per cent. alcohol, extracted
1902-3. | THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN. 505
in the Soxhlet apparatus for ten hours with absolute alcohol, and dried
for three hours at 110 °C., the glutenin so prepared gave on analysis the
following :—
GLUTENIN.
NasMITH, OSBORNE,
Caeke sae oles 52-75 52-34
|is ae erere ae ore Tee 6.83
IN Sere Se rebeee 16.15 17.49
Sioa etecelinee 1.06 1.08
Oe ee eontener 22.58 22.26
1s eae ee aoe 0.215
Freie iavevetstaneste iste 0.026
100.00 100.00
Ash 0.188 per cent.
Another preparation by Fleurent’s method”! which was also care-
fully filtered, yielded 16.55 per cent. nitrogen. The figures are not at
all in agreement with those of Osborne and Voorhees for this compound.
Mine are considerably higher in carbon and hydrogen, and much lower
in nitrogen, a result which might be accounted for by carbohydrate
impurity. Since, however, it was prepared exactly as described by him
this seems unlikely. The fact that the amount of iron and phosphorus
is practically the same as in gliadin at once suggested the possibility of
these elements being derived from a certain amount of nuclein mechant-
cally carried along with these compounds in the attempted purification
process.
Impure glutenin was digested with pepsin and hydrochloric acid,
but the insoluble residue was so difficult to separate from soluble starch,
and was so evidently impure that the complete analysis was not made,
though the presence of iron and phosphorus in it was demonstrated.
In repeating the work of Morishima” a copious precipitate as usual
occurred at the neutral point, but when more acid was added nearly all
went into solution ; after twenty-four hours only a trace of precipitate
settled out. Glutenin has again and again been shown to be soluble in
dilute acids. Artolin, as I found, is derived from another source than
Morishima supposed. A 0.4 per cent. hydrochloric acid extract of flour
was made, filtered perfectly clear and potassic hydrate added until
neutral, when a precipitate was thrown down, which proved to be nearly
all gliadin. If to this 0.4 per cent. hydrochloric acid extract more acid
was added, a precipitate began to appear which increased with the
acidity. This in large part separated on heating, and it proved entirely
soluble in 70-80 per cent. alcohol, the result showing it to be gliadin.
506 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
This property of gliadin, of being precipitated with excess of acid, has
not, I think, been hitherto noted. Since the compound of Morishima
was prepared in practically the same way artolin is evidently gliadin in
acid combination. Glutenin remains in solution. The body obtained
under these circumstances by Morishima would perhaps correspond to a
proteid salt,” eg.,.a chloride of gliadin. I obtained the substance
called conglutin by Fleurent”! but in quantity insufficient for analysis.
In order to decide whether the iron and phosphorus in gliadin and
glutenin were actually in molecular combination in these compounds,
resource was had to the microscope. Grains of Manitoba hard wheat
were imbedded in celloidin and sectioned. Macallum’s methods for
determination of iron”? and phosphorus* were used.
For iron the celloidin was removed by equal parts of alcohol and
ether, the sections passed through absolute alcohol and inorganic iron
salts removed by 2.5 per cent. hydrochloric acid in 95 per cent. alcohol.
Sections so treated showed no trace of colour with pure hematoxylin in
aqueous solution (0.5 per cent.) after the lapse of thirty minutes. The
sections now placed in sulphuric acid alcohol (4 vols. acid, 100 alcohol)
at 40° C. were removed at intervals of half hours ; on washing out the
acid, and placing in hematoxylin, the sections gave a marked reaction
for iron, the organic iron combination having been broken up and the
inorganic iron salt formed retained in sitt.
Sections unextracted by hydrochloric acid showed much inorganic
iron in the aleuron layer and germ. When this had been removed by
hydrochloric acid no colour whatever appeared after standing for twenty
minutes in hematoxylin solution. After treatment with sulphuric acid
alcohol the nuclei of the aleuron and large parenchymatous endosperm
cells were stained with hematoxylin purplish blue-black. The aleuron
cell contents gave no reaction, nor did the proteid matter of the
endosperm, which constitutes gluten. Gliadin and glutenin, therefore,
do not contain iron in their molecules, and that present must have been
derived from the nuclei of the cells of the endosperm and aleuron layer;
and possibly in small amounts from embryo cells.
The distribution of iron in the embryo, or germ, is a point of interest.
The closely packed cells of the embryo each contained a large nucleus
coloured with hematoxylin almost black. In the rapidly dividing cells
of the radicle and plumule a diffused purplish blue-black reaction
occurred, which under the highest power could not be identified with any
definite granules or structures. Some of the cells, other than those in a
1902-3. | THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN. 507
rapid state of division, gave a faint purplish reaction, perhaps from iron
derived by diffusion from the nucleus.
In order to show the distribution of organic phosphorus the inor-
ganic phosphates were first removed by soaking for half an hour in
acetic acid alcohol. Sections removed at the end of this time, placed
for a few minutes in the nitric-molybdate solution, and then in one per
cent. solution of phenylhydrazine hydrochloride showed no trace of
green colouration, this fact indicating that all inorganic phosphates had
been removed.
Such extracted sections were now placed in nitric-molybdate
solution at 35° C. and removed in series at intervals of half an hour.
When placed in a solution of phenylhydrazine hydrochloride for a few
minutes, they showed a green colour, which increased in depth with the
times during which the section remained in the molybdate solution. In
twenty hours the aleuron layer and embryo were stained a bright green.
Sections which had had the celloidin removed by alcohol and ether, and
which were subsequently extracted with absolute alcohol in the Soxhlet
apparatus for several hours, gave exactly the same reactions as those
unextracted. Consequently lecithin could not have been present. The
aleuron cells in such preparations showed a large nucleus of a much
deeper green than the rest of the cells, and under the high power the
colour was seen to be confined to the spaces between the aleuron grains,
the coloured parts appearing in the form of a network. The network
had a more or less punctated appearance, the grains themselves were
perfectly colourless.
In the endosperm of such preparations the nuclei alone were
coloured, though sometimes, after twenty-four hours, the proteid matter
packed between the starch grains, and even the cellulose gave the
phosphorus reaction. Possibly phosphorus had diffused from the nuclei.
The manner in which the phosphorus is distributed in the different
types of embryo cells is quite varied. The palisade-like absorption
cells between the endosperm and embryo appeared finely granular and
of a uniformly dark green tint. The cytoplasm of the radicle and
plumule cells were of a finely granular character, and gave the phos-
phorus reaction. Around these tightly packed cells of the radicle and
plumule were other cells much more loosely connected, whose contents
appeared vesiculated. The intercellular material gave a faint phosphorus
reaction, while the large granular nucleus was much darker and very
prominent. z
508 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.. VII.
Between these vesiculated cells and the absorption tissue of the
embryo were large cells loosely bound together. These cells, even
under the low power, were very different from the others, containing
large, well-separated granules, coloured a bright green. Under the high
power these granules appeared round, angular, or often crescent-shaped.
In very thin sections they were quite separated from one another and
very brilliantly coloured; in thin sections the nucleus often was not
apparent. In thicker sections these granules were seen to be connected,
forming a loose kind of meshwork, the spaces between being filled with
a finely granular substance, giving a faint but distinct phosphorus
reaction. When treated for the iron reaction a very faint violet tinge
appears in these cells, but only between the bodies which stain so
brightly for phosphorus,
From this it seems that, with the exception of the rapidly dividing
cells such as those of the radicle and plumule, iron is found in the nuclei
only of the various cells of the wheat grain.
Phosphorus is more widely distributed, appearing between the
aleuron grains ; in fine grains in the radicle and plumule cells ; in the
foam-like mesh work of another type of embryo cell ; in the very distinct
large granules just described, and in tke nuclei of all these cells. From
the various ways in which these different cells stain, and the several
methods of phosphorus distribution in them, one may conclude that
there are probably several nucleins present.
Osborne and Campbell” extracted wheat germ with petroleum
naphtha, ground the residue to a fine flour, extracted this with water,
saturated the clear filtrate with sodium chloride, and subjected the re-
sulting precipitate to a vigorous peptic digestion. The nuclein so pre-
pared, they conclude, “ is not an original constituent of the extract nor
of the cells of the embryo, but results through several molecules of
nucleic acid with oneof Protein.” To this nuclein, washed with water
and dissolved in dilute potassic hydrate solution, was added hydrochloric
acid until a precipitate formed, which readily separated. When this
was filtered off a considerable excess of hydrochloric acid was further
added to the filtrate, whereupon a precipitate of nucleic acid separated
out which became so dense and brittle that it could be ground under
water.
This operation, as described, I repeated, but a small quantity only
of nucleic acid was obtained, which, however, did not become brittle
under water. As I expected, the ash of this nucleic acid and of the
1902-3. | THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN. 509
nuclein, also prepared, gave distinct reactions for iron, even after stand-
ing for several weeks under dilute hydrochloric acid, a fact unnoticed
by Osborne, and showing that part at least of his nuclein had come from
the nuclei of the cells. If this nuclein had been derived from the
nuclei of the embryo cells, it must have contained iron, since, as above
demonstrated, its presence is invariable in the nucleus. Probably his
nuclein was derived both from nuclei and ground substance of the cells.
It may then probably be admitted that the phosphorus and iron in-
variably found in gliadin and glutenin, no matter how carefully they
have been prepared, are present in the form of nuclein or nucleic acid,
which have been derived from the nuclei of the parenchymatous
endosperm cells chiefly, and carried with them in the purification pro-
cess. Perhaps aleuron and embryo cells imperfectly separated in the
milling process contribute part of them.
III. PROPERTIES OF GLIADIN.
Gliadin extracted directly from raw flour by dilute alcohol is
always contaminated with fat, which gives to its solution a yellow
tinge. On diluting this solution with an equal volume of sodium
chloride solution, a snow-white precipitate separates, which, if the ailu-
tion is sufficient, collects into brownish flocculent masses, and either
rises or sinks, according to the strength of the salt solutions. Prepared
in this way gliadin is exceedingly viscid, adhering to everything with
which it comes in contact. When precipitated by water alone, gliadin
will not readily separate. Evaporation of the alcoholic solution and
cooling cause a considerable gummy mass of gliadin to separate, while
a few drops of sulphuric acid to the supernatant fluid throw down
almost all of the gliadin left in solution.
A solution of gliadin evaporated to dryness forms a glue-like
brittle, opalescent, yellow mass ; hydrated gliadin, exhausted with abso-
lute alcohol and ether, and dried over sulphuric acid, forms a pure white
friable mass. Either variety will almost wholly go into solution on
warming in dilute alcohol. Gliadin is slightly soluble in distilled water,
and then gives the pink biuret reaction ; it is not entirely insoluble in
dilute salt solutions, as stated by Osborne and Voorhees. In dilute
alkalis it readily dissolves, and the greater part of that dissolved
separates on neutralizing. Its action with hydrochloric acid is peculiar ;
it may be extracted directly from flour by dilute acids, filtered per-
fectly clear, and yet an additional drop of acid throws down a cloudy
precipitate which increases in quantity with further addition of acid,
510 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
but separates completely only on heating ; as it cools, however, more or
less of the precipitate goes back into solution. A drop of alkali to the
acid solution only produces a faint opalescence, which does not increase
with additional alkali until the neutral point is reached, when a sudden
clouding occurs, and a precipitate settles out on heating.
A cold alcoholic solution of gliadin filtered clear, clouds slightly
in twenty-four hours, depositing a small precipitate which increases in
quantity with the length of time under alcohol. It is much more
soluble in boiling than in cold alcohol, a saturated solution of the
former depositing a heavy precipitate on cooling. Heating to 130° C.
in the autoclave renders gliadin insoluble in alcohol. In artificial
gastric juice at 38° C. it rapidly dissolves, depositing a small amount of
nuclein, and yielding a considerable amount of true peptone, as evi-
denced by the deep red colouration with potassic hydrate and cupric
sulphate in the filtrate after removal of proteoses by saturation with
ammonium sulphate. It is a unique proteid, in that it gives this red
biuret reaction before as well as after digestion. In this particular the
name “insoluble phytalbumose” applied to it by Martin’® does not
appear appropriate. The proteid is entirely insoluble in absolute
alcohol, and is precipitated by strong alcohol from solutions in weak.
Addition of salt to a solution of gliadin in 70 per cent. alcohol does not
produce precipitation until water is added. Millon’s reagent, and nitric
acid give the usual proteid reactions.
Gliadin is distributed throughout the endosperm, especially toward
the periphery, where the small proteid granules are much thicker and
the starch granules they enclose smaller. It is also contained in bran,
and probably in aleuron cells as part of the packing between the aleuron
grains, for both bran and.shorts yield gliadin to dilute alcohol.
IV.—PROPERTIES OF GLUTENIN.
Glutenin is almost completely insoluble in salt solutions, water, and
alcohol ; readily soluble in dilute acids and alkalis, from which solu-
tion the proteid is precipitated unaltered when the solution is rendered
neutral to litmus. It has a definite coagulation temperature which lies
about 70° C. Gluten dehydrated with absolute alcohol and ether, is very
slowly soluble in dilute acids and alkalis, more or less remaining un-
dissolved. Experimental evidence seems to show that glutenin exists
as such in the wheat grain. Its composition, according to Osborne, is
practically identical with that of gliadin, results differing greatly from
£902-3. ] THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN. 51
those of previous investigators, who had only in one instance obtained
from glutenin as much as 17 per cent. of nitrogen.
Osborne considered it an altered form of gliadin, but the fact that
it has a definite coagulating point, while gliadin has none, would indi-
cate that it is improbable. No one has yet succeeded in making
gliadin assume a form at all resembling glutenin. In my opinion the
two proteids are entirely distinct in origin as well as in properties.
Osborne states that glutenin is slightly soluble in cold but much more
in hot dilute alcohol, the dissolved proteid separating on cooling. Since
glutenin is coagulated at about 70° C. the proteid dissolved must have
either been due to gliadin imperfectly separated from the glutenin, or to
part of the latter split off by heat. The trace soluble in cold alcohol, as
Osborne himself hints, may have been gliadin, which is exceedingly
difficult to separate from glutenin.
V.—THE FERMENT THEORY OF GLUTEN FORMATION.
The question whether gluten exists as such in flour, or whether it
results by the activity of a ferment, is one on which there. are consider-
able differences of opinion. Wey] and Bischoff* considered gluten to be
formed from pre-existing globulins by a pre-existing ferment in flour.
They held that flour extracted by 15 per cent. solution of sodium
chloride, and heated to the coagulation point of globulin, gave no gluten.
They were, however, unable to isolate the ferment.
Martin ° thought that gluten did not pre-exist in flour as such, but
that his gluten fibrin was derived from a precursor globulin, and his in-
soluble phytalbumose or gliadin, from a soluble albumose. He stated
that gliadin was not extracted directly from flour by 70 per cent. alcohol.
Johannsen*! advanced arguments against the ferment theory, and
thought gluten existed as such in a finely divided state in the wheat
grain. He stated that a temperature of 60°C. did not injure the gluten-
forming power of flour, and that flour made by mixing dry starch and
finely-powdered gluten behaved like ordinary flour.
Ballard® maintained that gluten pre-existed as such in flour.
Osborne”* arrived at the same conclusion. O’Brien?° found that flour
heated to 100° C. for thirteen hours gave practically the usual amounts
of gluten; also that a paste made with boiling water yielded gluten in
apparently normal quantities: that flour left twenty-four hours under
absolute alcohol and ether, yielded gluten when these evaporated. He
concluded that there is but one compound soluble in alcohol, that the
512 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII
portion soluble in alcohol may be made to pass over into the insoluble
stage, and that there exists but one mother substance of gluten in flour.
None of the proofs as to the existence or non-existence of a ferment
appear at all conclusive. Dry heat at 1oo° C. or even 110° C. for
several hours does not kill ferments, neither does alcohol for a short
period. To prove the non-existence of a ferment presents in this case
peculiar and apparently unsurmountable difficulties, but a few facts
bearing on the point may be given here.
Seventy per cent. alcohol, cold or hot, applied directly, extracts
gliadin from dry flour ; warm 95 per cent. alcohol does the same ; flour
moistened with 95 per cent. alcohol and heated to 80° C. yields abundant
cliadin, as does flour stirred into boiling water and then extracted with
alcohol. When flour, however, is slowly sifted into boiling water, so
that every particle comes into instant contact with water or steam at
100° C. it yields no gliadin to dilute alcohol.
Dough made from flour and boiling water does yield gluten on
washing, as stated by O’Brien, but it is smaller in amount and is of
irregular consistency. The temperature of the dough when mixed was
found to be only 52.5° C. Now glutenin has a definite coagulation
point. Martin’ stated that the residue after extracting gluten with
dilute alcohol was coagulated by boiling water. Before noticing his
work I had found the coagulation point of glutenin to be about 70° C.
When, therefore, a dough was made with boiling water, and only
reached the temperature of 52° C. only a comparatively small amount
of the flour must have been heated to 70° C.,a temperature which
ccagulates glutenin. Consequently a quantity of gluten would be
formed from the portion of the flour not heated to that point. A dough
made in this way and gradually heated till it reached a temperature of
80° C. yielded no gluten, proving that its formation depended upon the
glutenin not being coagulated.
A dry heat of 110° C. for ten hours does not coagulate proteid, and
flour heated to this point still yields gluten ; but if flour is heated to
120° C., or even 100° C., for half an hour in the autoclave a dough of
little coherence results, and no gluten is obtainable on washing even
over silk. The glutenin had been coagulated. In other words any
temperature or manipulation that would kill a ferment which might be
present would coagulate the glutenin and therefore gluten could not be
obtained. The fact that gluten has a definite coagulation point would
seem to indicate that it is not derived from the same substance as
1902-3. | THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN. 513
gliadin. I have never been able to transform one of these compounds
into anything at all likethe other. With the idea of finding out whether
gluten changed into gliadin, I extracted all the latter from flour, let one
half stand over night under water and the other under alcohol for
twenty-four hours, but neither yielded anything to dilute alcohol.
The fact that ground, dried glutin mixed with starch yielded dough
of normal properties, as stated by Johannsen*! is no proof as to the non-
existence of ferment action, since if ferment action were present the
dried gluten itself would have been the resultant product of the ferment
action.
Flour was slightly moistened with absolute alcohol and heated on a
warm bath to 70° C., being stirred all the while with a stout thermome-
ter in order to heat the mixture evenly throughout. Alcohol was used
to prevent any possibility of ferment action. After drying in the air, one
half was taken and made into a dough, from which, as I expected,
gluten could not be obtained. A small quantity of raw flour was
intimately mixed with the other half and this was also made into
a dough. In this case also no gluten could be obtained. This proved
that the formation of gluten depended altogether on whether glutenin
was coagulated or not, since the ferment if existing should have been
present in the added raw flour.
Now ground air-dried gluten mixed with starch and made into
dough yields gluten of normal properties. Such a dough of ground
gluten and starch warmed above 70° C. does not yield gluten since the
glutenin has been coagulated. Therefore when glutenin which had been
already made, as in the the second case, or glutenin, or even its pre-
decessor in the raw flour in the first case, was coagulated, a similar
result obtained. The probability, therefore, seems to be strong that
glutenin is present in flour as such. And since gliadin is extracted
directly from flour or bran with 70-95 per cent. alcohol, cold or boiling,
and also by dilute acids or alkalis, it also apparently is present as such
in flour, and not derived, as O’Brien” holds, from the same parent sub-
stance as gluten.
VI.—THE ALEURON LAYER OF WHEAT.
The outer endosperm layer of wheat was stated by Sachs*® in
1862 to be rich in oil and nitrogenous compounds. Ten years later
Pfeffer* pointed out the fact that gluten was not derived from the
aleuron layer as was commonly believed. He maintained that the high
514 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
nitrogenous value of the latter was due to substance not proteid in’
nature, and to adhering endosperm rich in gluten.
Johannsen in 1888 again emphasized the fact that aleuron cells do
not contain gluten; he stated that these cells contained nitrogenous
granules imbedded in a soft protoplasmic mass, rich in fatty matter.
According to O’Brien” the protoplasm of an aleuron cell is con-
tinuous with that of adjacent cells, aleuron as well as endosperm. He
found oil present in considerable quantities. The individual aleuron
grains on addition of water appeared to consist of a central core which
was more or less soluble in water, salt solutions. dilute acids and alkalis,
and not readily stainable. The layer surrounding this core he found to
stain readily with iodine, hematoxylin and aniline stains, and to be
insoluble in any of the above mentioned reagents.
From an aqueous extract of bran he obtained a coagulable proteid,
probably a globulin, and proteose which, when evaporated to dryness,
yielded a gelatinous semi-transparent substance, partly separating in
small round spherules, regarded by him as artificial aleuron grains, since
they gave all the reactions of those imbedded in cell protoplasm.
He also extracted from bran by means of dilute alcohol a proteid
which corresponded to gliadin.
Dilute alcohol, I found, extracted gliadin from both bran and
shorts. Aqueous extracts of bran gave a globulin coagulable by heat,
and also a proteose-like body which was not gliadin. On evaporation
of this proteose extract no granule corresponding to O’Brien’s artificial
aleuron grains could be obtained, although a granular material did
separate ; the solution at the same time exerted a very strongly reducing
action upon Fehling’s fluid. I was unable to make out a double coat to
the aleuron grains. The substance between the aleuron grains seems to
be chiefly gliadin, and contains inorganic iron, calcium salts and phos-
phorus-holding compounds.
VII.—CONCLUSIONS.
Gliadin and glutenin do not come from the same parent substance,
nor are they of the same composition. Gliadin has not a definite coagu-
lation point, while glutenin has. Gliadin is obtained from rye, barley,
and maize, and from the bran and shorts of wheat, while glutenin
cannot be obtained from these. By chemical or other means one has as
yet not been transformed into anything at all resembling the other.
1902-3. | THE CHEMISTRY OF WHEAT GLUTEN, 515
Both gliadin and glutenin invariably give the reactions for organic
iron and phosphorus, but are not nucleo-proteids. Under the micro-
scope the gluten matrix in thin sections of wheat does not show any
indication of iron or phosphorus, and it must, therefore, be concluded
that the organic iron and phosphorus found in gluten are due to nucleins
or nucleic acid derived from the nuclei of the large endosperm cells.
Probably part is derived from nuclei of the aleuron cells, or of the
embryo cells, or from the nucleins present in the cytoplasm of the
embryo cells.
Gliadin exists as such in the wheat grain, and the theory of its
formation by means of ferment action is not justifiable. Strong alcohol
mixed with flour and then diluted with water to a 70 per cent. solution
extracts gliadin from it ; boiling alcohol also extracts gliadin from flour
or bran.
Glutenin exists as such in the wheat grain; any manipulation that
will destroy the hypothetical ferment will coagulate glutenin, thus mak-
ing gluten formation impossible.
Gluten formation is not merely a mechanical mixture of gliadin
with glutenin, but a definite physical state of the two mixing substances
is necessary. Coagulated glutenin with gliadin does not form gluten.
There are probably several nucleins or nucleo-proteids in wheat, as
shown in the various ways phosphorus is distributed in the different
types of embryo cells. Organic iron is found only in the nuclei of the
endosperm, aleuron, and embryo cells, and in the cytoplasm of the
absorption layer, plumule and radicle cells. The proteid between the
aleuron grains shows the presence of organic phosphorus only.
516 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII.
VIII.—BIBLIOGRAPHY.
1. Common Bonon I, 1, p. 122.
2. Journ. d. Chemie, von Gehlen, V, p. 131, 1805.
3. Abstr. Schweiger’s Journ. f. Chem. u. Physik, XXIX, 514.
4. Lehrbuch d. Chemie, 3te Aufl., VI, p. 453.
5: Berzelius, Jahresb., VII, p. 231, 1826.
6. Schweiger’s Journ., LXIX, p. 188, 1833.
7. Ann. de Chem. et de Phys., LXV, p. 30; Abst., Berzelius Jahresb., XVIII, 327,
1837.
8. Ann, der Chem. u. Pharm., XXXIX, p. 129, 1841.
g. Ann. der Chem. u. Pharm., XLIII, p, 124, 1842.
10. Journ. f. prakt. Chem., XXVIII, p. 398, 1843.
11, Ann. d. Chem. u. Pharm., LII, 419, 1844.
12. Die Getreidearten und das Brot, 1860.
13. Journ. fiir prakt. Chem., LXXXV, p. 213, 1862.
14. Journ. fir prakt. Chem., LXXXV, p. 193.
15. Annalen der Chemie, XXXIX—XL, 1841.
16. Br. Med. Journ., II, p. 104, 1886.
17. Journ. Physiol., XI, p. 419, 1890.
18. Am. Chem. Journ., XV, 392, 1893.
19. Am. Chem. Journ., XIX, p. 59, 1897.
20. Annals of Bot., 1895, p. 182.
21. Comptes Rendus, 1896, p. 327.
22. Arch. fiir exp. Pathol. u. Pharm., XLI, p. 345; Abst. Chem. Central-blatt, II, 1898.
23. Chem. Central-blatt, I, p. 465, 1898.
24. Journ. f. Prakt. Chem., p. 474, 1899.
25. Archiv. f. Anat. u. Physiol., Physiol. Abth., 1900, p. 163.
26, Proc; Roy.) S0cs, lz, Pp. 2774, 1s0l1-2:
27. Journ. of Physiol., XXII, p. 95, 1897-8.
28. Proc. Roy. Soc., LXIITI, p. 471, 1898.
29. Journ. Am. Chem. Soc., XXII, p. 379, 1900.
30. Berichte d. D. Chem. Gesel., 1880.
31. Ann, Agronom., XIV, p. 420; Abst. Journ. Chem. Soc., March, 1880.
32. Journ. de Pharm. et de Chem., 1883-84, Ser. 3, T. VII.
33. Bot. Zeitung, 1862. -
34. Pringsheim’s Jahrb., VIII, 1872.
35: Journ. Am. Chem. Soc., 1902.
Man in Modern Costume.
icine
Medi
me
A Nah:
1902-3. | THE NAH‘ANE AND THEIR LANGUAGE. 517
THE NAH‘ANE AND THEIR LANGUAGE.
By THE REv. FATHER A. G. MorRICcE, O.M.I.
(Read gth April, 1903.)
OF the twenty odd tribes which compose the great Déné family,
few, if any, are so little known as the Nahvane.
Many are the travellers who had passing references to them in the
course of their writings, but exceedingly few are those who had as much
as seen one of them. In fact, Dr. G. M. Dawson is the only author who
can be said to have introduced them to us, and his information, frag-
mentary, and at times inexact as it is, is confined to the limits of a few
pages.
Writers are not even agreed as to their very nameas a tribe. Thus
while Pilling in his valuable Bibliography of the Athapaskan Languages
has adopted the spelling Nehawni, Kenticott calls them Nahawney ;
Ross writes their name Nehawney; Richardson changes this into
Noh’hanne; MacKenzie dubs those he met Nathannas ; Campbell and
Dawson alternate between Nahanie and Nahaunie; others prefer
Nahawnie, and Petitot himself never speaks of them but as the Na”anne,
his” being the equivalent of my upper dot, which stands for the hiatus.
He derives that appellation from Nari’an-o'tine, “people of the
West,” but does not state from which dialect the word is borrowed. All
the western Déné who know of that tribe, as well as its members them-
selves, pronounce it Nah‘ane, and there can be no doubt that Petitot is
correct in the meaning he ascribes to that term, whatever may be said
of its derivation. For sunset or occident, the Tsilkotin say zare7zN, the
Carriers zaanaz, the Tsékéhne zaven‘oN, and the Nah‘ane themselves
naean. The final e is expressive of personality and sometimes of
plurality or collectivity.
On the other hand, Mr. J. W. MacKay! repeatedly calls the tribe
Ku-na-na, the name given it by the Tlhinket, its neighbours in the
south-west. But that he is somewhat mixed as to the ethnographical
status of those Indians is shown by his remark that “the Ku-na-nas of
the Stickine valley are closely allied to the Tlinkeets of that section,
1 B.A.A.S. Tenth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, p.p., 38-39.
518 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
z.e., the Skat-kwan.”! As a matter of fact, the latter are just as pure
non-Déné as the former are undoubted Déné.
In common with all the Déné and many other aboriginal families,
the Nah‘ane recognize as their property no other vocable than Déné,
“men,” though the branch of that tribe best known to me, the Thalh-
than, will occasionally call themselves Tcitco’tinneh or “ stick-people,”
whereby they simply translate the name given them by outsiders, since,
according to Dawson, and as I have myself ascertained, “the interior
Indians are collectively known on the coast as ‘stick Indians.’ ”?
So much for the name of the tribe. Now as to its ethnographical
status. This seems even more of a mystery tothe few writers who have
ever referred to it.
It is now over nine years since I stated myself that the Nah-ane
“hunting grounds lie to the north of those of the Tsékéhne. But I am
not familiar enough with their tribal divisions to state them with any
degree of certainty, nor do I sufficiently possess their technology to
speak authoritatively of it.”
I am glad to be now in a position to say that, in the course of the
present year, I have taken a trip to their chief village Thalhthan,* in
order to add as much as possible to my knowledge of that tribe and its
language. I have succeeded in gathering besides the material for a
grammatical compendium, quite a goodly little dictionary, and not a few
texts in its dialect which I intend shortly to publish. Yet I must con-
fess that we must still fall back, for the details of their frontiers and
some other particulars, on what the late Dr. G. M. Dawson wrote of them
in 1887--Notes on the Indian tribes of the... northern portion of
British Columbia.° Inaccurate as it is from a philological standpoint,
his is the only account of the Western Nah‘ane worth referring to.
1 Notes on the Indian Tribes of the Yukon District, etc., p. 2.
2 Tenth Report, p. 39, note.
3 Notes on the Western Dénés, Transactions Canadian Institute, Vol. IV., p. 31.
4 Most writers spell this word Tahltan, when they do not have it simply Taltan, and Dr. Boas
corrects them by Changing it into Ta’tltan, All sin through ignorance of the Déné phonetics and of the
meaning of that word, which is a contraction of Tha-selhthan, tha, the usual alteration of thz, water
n compounds, and s@lhthan, a verb which has reference to some heavy object lying therein.
s Annual Report of Geological Survey of Canada.
1902-3. ] THE NAH‘ANE AND THEIR LANGUAGE. 519
iL
Broadly speaking the tribe consists of four main divisions. To my
certain knowledge, its principal seat in the west is Thalhthan, a salmon
fishery at the confluence with the Stickeen of a river of the same name,
by about 58° 2’ of latitude north. From the new village in the im-
mediate vicinity of that place, these aborigines radiate as far south as
the Iskoot River, taking in all its tributaries and some of the northern
sources of the Nass, and in the east to Dease Lake and part of the
Dease River, extending also to all the northern tributaries of the
Stickeen. Further north, we meet the Taku branch of the tribe, which
claims “ the whole drainage basin of the Taku River, together with the
upper portions of the streams which flow northward to the Lewes, while
on the east their hunting grounds extend to the Upper Liard River and
include the valleys of the tributary streams which join that river from
the westward.”
The third division of the Nah‘ane is the so-called Kaska, about
whom much misapprehension seems to exist among the whites I met in
the course of my journey, a misapprehension of which Dr. Dawson
constituted himself the echo when he wrote: “The name Kaska is
applied collectively to two tribes or bands occupying the country to the
eastward of the Tahl-tan. I was unable to learn that this name is
recognized by these Indians themselves, and it may be, as is often the
case with names adopted by the whites, merely that by which they are
known to some adjacent tribe. It is, however,a convenient designation
for the group having a common dialect. This dialect is different from
that of the Tahl-tan, but the two peoples are mutually intelligible, and
to some extent intermarried.””
In the first place I must remark that Kaska is the name of no tribe
or sub-tribe, but McDane Creek is called by the Nah‘ane KasHa—the H
representing a peculiar gutturalo-sibilant aspiration—and this is the
real word which, corrupted into Cassiar by the whites, has, since a score
of years or more, served to designate the whole mining region from the
Coast Range to the Rocky Mountains, along, and particularly to the
north of the Stickeen River.
All the whites who mentioned the subject to me concurred in
Dawson’s opinion that the so-called Kaskas form quite a different tribe,
and in a footnote to the latter’s essay, a Mr. Campbell goes even so far
1 Notes on the . . . northern portion of British Columbia, p. 3.
2 Ibid., p. 9.
520 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. |Vou. VII.
as to state that the “ Nahanies of the mountains (who correspond to a
subdivision of the Kaskas), are quite a different race trom the Nahanies
of the Stickeen (Tahl-tan)”!. Now the Thalhthan Indians I questioned
on the subject unanimously declared that those pretended foreigners
spoke exactly the same language as themselves, with, of course, some
local peculiarities. From a Kaska boy, with whom I travelled for a
number of days, I ascertained that even such non-Déné words as ’ki,
paper, khukh, box, ’kunts, potatoes, which I thought proper to the
Thalhthan Indians, who borrowed them from the coast, were the only
ones current among his people to designate those objects.
The physique of the Kaska is somewhat different from that of the
Thalhthan aborigines, inasmuch as I recognized in the former the thin
lips and small, deeply sunk eyes of the Tsé’kéhne, while the latter
resemble more the Carriers of the Coast Tlhinket, with whom from time
immemorial they have more or less intermarried.
The sociology of the two divisions of the Nahvane is as widely
different, and their respective mode of life aud social organization
confirm my previous assertion in former papers that, to all practical
purposes, the western Nah‘ane are Carriers, while their eastern brethren
are Tsekehne.
Another circumstance which has contributed not a little to the
estrangement of the two tribal divisions, is the long-standing feuds
arising out of difficulties concerning the hunting grounds, the making of
slaves, and other causes. Even to this day the Kaska resent the
Thalhthan’s assumed or real superiority, and will not be confounded
with them as co-members of the same tribe. Hence their declarations
to the whites and the travellers’ and traders’ printed statements.
According to Dr. Dawson, the so-called Kaskas are sub-divided into
the “ Saze-oo-ti-na” and the “ Ti-tsho-ti-na” and their habitat is in the
neighbourhood of the Dease, Upper Liard and Black Rivers. His
“ Saz-oo-ti-na” may be Sas-otine or “ Bear-People,” while his Ti-tsho-ti-
na’s real name is no doubt Tihtco’tinne, or Grouse-People, an appellation
which would seem to leave it open to discussion whether we have not in
them rather the names of two different phratries or gentes than those of
two genuine ethnical subdivisions of a tribe.
“ Eastward they claim the country down the Liard to the site of old
Fort Halkett, and northward roam to the head of a long river (probably
1 Notes, etc., p. ro.
1902-3. | THE NAH'’ANE AND THEIR LANGUAGE. 521
Smith River) which falls into the Liard near this place, also up the
Upper Liard as far as Francess Lake.”?
This statement would seem to dispose of Petitot’s Bad-People or
Mauvais-Monde, a“ very \ittle known tribe,” he says, “ which used to
trade at the now abandoned Fort Halkett to the number of 300 or 400
souls,”?
Father Petitot furnishes us with our fourth division of the Nah‘ane
when he states that “a little band of 300 Na’annes (Déné) roam over
the mountains of the MacKenzie. They are the Nathannas of Sir A.
Mackenzie. We can add thereto the Etaottines of the Good Hope
mountains, and the Espa-t’a-ottines of Fort des Liards in equal
number.’?
To the above certain divisions of the Nah‘ane tribe, we should
perhaps add the Ts’Ets’aut, an offshoot of some inland Déné, whom Dr,
F. Boas discovered some years ago on Portland Inlet, on the Pacific
Coast, somewhat to the southwest of the Nah‘ane proper. That Dr.
Boas would himself connect them with the Nah‘ane tribe is apparent
from the statement that “ Levi (his informant) named three closely
related tribes whose languages are different, though mutually intelligible ;
the Tahltan (Ta-tltan) of Stickeen and Iskoot Rivers, the Laq’uyip or
Nagkyina, of the headwaters of the Stickeen, and the Ts’Ets’aut.”
This surmise is fully confirmed by Mr. MacKay, his annotator,
who states that those Indians “belong to the Kunana, a tribe which
inhabits the lower Stickine valley and whose headquarters are at
Tahltan.”®
But here scénduntur doctores. According to Dr. Boas this handful
of natives, which now consists of a mere dozen individuals, would have
numbered about 500 souls sixty years ago, while Mr. MacKay has quite
a different story to account for their separate existence as a tribe. He
relates that, not more than forty years ago,® three or four families hailing
from Thalhthan in the course of their wanderings made for Chunah, on
the sea coast, but took a wrong direction and struck on the west shore
of Portland Channel, where they were practically forced to remain in a
1 Notes, etc., p. ro.
2 Mémoire abrégé sur la Géogrphie de |’ Athabaskaw-MacKenzie, p. 46.
3 Lbid. ibid.
4 Tenth Report, B.A.A.S., p. 34.
5 lbid. p. 38.
6 It is now eight years since both statements were published.
un
ty
nN
TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
subject condition by the Tsimpsians, among whom they had unwittingly
tumbled.
Be this as it may, the language of the Ts’Ets’aut such as recorded
by Dr. Boas himself, while it shows here and there undeniable traces of
a Déné origin, has become so corrupt by the admixture of foreign terms
and the alteration of its original lexicon, that the propriety of their being
classified as Nah‘ane is now quite problematical.
The population of the whole Nah‘ane tribe must remain little more
than a matter of guess. From the Iskoot, close to the Pacific, to the
Mackenzie, across the Rocky Mountains, is indeed a broad stretch of
land, and the very fact that it is so sparsely peopled renders it so much
the more difficult to obtain anything like an exact computation of the
tribesmen. I myself took some years ago a census of the Thalhthan
village, and my figures were in the close vicinity of 190 souls. The
population has since decreased, so let us call it 175.
From native sources I ascertained that the “Kaska were more
numerous, perhaps 200.. Petitot puts at 600 the number of the trans-
montane Nahvane and allied subtribes. Allowing for the probable
decrease and possible exaggeration, let us say 500. There remain the
Taku, of whom I have no means of ascertaining the exact numbers.
Probably 150 would be a conservative figure.
We thus obtain a total of 1,025, or in round numbers, 1,000 souls
for the whole tribe, and I believe this is as fair an estimate of its
population as could possibly be had at the present time.
As already stated, the eastern Nah‘ane somewhat differ in physique
from their western congeners, the only portion of the tribe with which I
am familiar enough to describe it de vzsu. Their stature would be
rather below than above the average, the maximum height being five
feet eight inches. Their feet and hands are small and well shaped, and
their head is round and not so large as that of the neighbouring
1 In the course of his account of that adventure and the circumstances which lead to his getting
acquainted therewith, Mr. McKay takes occasion to speak of an invasion by the Tsimpsian of the
territory which is now the Tsimpsian peninsula, whereupon Dr. Boas remarks that “‘there is no traditional
evidence of the invasion of the Tsimshian tribe to which Mr. McKay refers,” adding that ‘‘it is probable
that the Tsimshian were originally an inland people,” two statements which, apparently difficult to recon-
cile as they at first appear, nevertheless are in no way conflicting. There may be no tradition of such an
invasion among the Tsimpsian, but their very name betrays their origin. The Skeena River is known to
them as the A’s#én, and they call themselves 7’s@m-sién, people from the Skeena, or the river. To this day,
anybody can see, two miles from Hazelton, on the Upper Skeena, a prairie or ancient townsite, where one
can distinguish the cavities over which were built their winter subterranean houses. Now the name of the
locality is Tamlarh-am, the beautiful place, in Tsimpsian, and those two words are still used in that con-
nection by the inland Kitkson to the exclusion of any name in their own dialect.
1902-3. | THE NAH‘ANE AND THEIR LANGUAGE. 523
Tlhinket. With them the nose, without being of the regular aquiline
type, is not so squatty as among the Tsilhkoh’tin and other tribes. The
lips are full, the eyes dark and not quite as large as is common with the
Carriers. The forehead is low, broad and bulging immediately above
the eyes. The hair is invariably black, coarse and straight.
Their beard is scanty, though a few, especially such as have taken
to shaving—they are very progressive and great imitators—disport a fair
quantity of dark, bristly facial hair.
As to their complexion, it varies considerably according to the
individuals. Contrary to what I have noticed in other tribes, some of
the eastern Nah‘ane women have cheeks of a tinge which might almost
be characterized as rosy, though the facies of others is quite swarthy.
All the adults above forty have the septum pendent and pierced
through with a hole which held formerly a large silver ring, perhaps two
inches in diameter. The leading men or notables wear likewise silver
rings hanging from the lobes of the ear, and these are the only present
remnants of the many ornaments which the helix was originally made
to support.
Neither in blood, customs nor language are the western Nah-ane pure
Déné. They are indebted to no small extent to the Tlhinket of Fort
Wrangell for their present make-up. To them also they undoubtedly
owe that lack of moral strength and force of character which has left
them such an easy prey to the vices of unscrupulous white men. Very
few are to-day the western Nah‘ane who can be represented as bodily
sane. Syphilis, a disease hardly known among the other Déné, is but
too prevalent among them. Liquor is also slowly but surely killing
them out.
I am bound to add, however, that adverse circumstances are a
great deal to blame for the development of such pitiful results. Had
missionaries established themselves among them before the rush of
strangers to the Cassiar mines, the natives would not, in all probability,
be the degraded beings they have become. Since the last few years, a
representative of the Anglican Church has struck his tent on the arid
hill of Thalhthan. But I am sure he could not well himself take
exception to my statement that his influence has not been in the interest
of temperance.
Though no other Déné that I know of have had to undergo the
test of being left alone to wage their war against such a degraded foe as
524 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (Vor VAI:
a majority of the Cassiar miners have shown themselves to be, it is
difficult for me to imagine for a moment, for instance, the Tse’kéhne
tribe sunk to the low moral level of the present Nah‘ane whom I have
met or have been told about.
While the eastern Nah-ane lead the simple patriarchal life of the
Tse’kéhne, with hardly any sign of a social organization, their western
congeners, with the remarkable adaptiveness proper to the Déné race,
have adopted practically all the customs and some of the mythology of
their heterogeneous neighbours on the seacoast. Thus it is that matriar-
chate or mother-right is their fundamental law governing and regulating
all inheritances to rank or property.
Though they have no totem poles, they know of the gentes, which
at Thalthan are those of the Birds and of the Bears. Each of these have
several headmen or ¢énxé-thie (the equivalent of the Carrier teneza), who
alone own the hunting grounds, and on festival occasions, such as dances
or potlatching, are granted special consideration. These ceremonial
banquets are much in vogue, and as a result, almost every house in
Thalhthan is now crowded with a quantity of trunks containing goods
publicly received or to be likewise given away.
Those houses are now of rough unhewn logs, with stoves instead of
fire-places. But the tribe’s residences were originally much less
elaborate, and consisted of brush shelters, sometimes with low walls
made of long, slender poles. Therein they dwell, generally several
related families together.
Marriage was never accompanied with any ceremony or formality.
It seems to have been based principally on the bestowing of furs or
other goods on the parents of the prospective bride.
Polygamy was known everywhere, but it is now practically abolished,
the only exceptions being a very few cases among the present Kaska.
As to divorce, it is obtained without any formality, and is often enough
resorted to.
Shamanism was originally the only form of worship common to the
whole tribe, and in the east witchcraft, and the social disturbances it
entails seem even now quite prevalent. The Kaska boy I have already
mentioned as a companion on part of my trip from Thalhthan was just
being taken away from revengeful fellow-tribesmen who had already
done to death two of his brothers under the plea that their parents were
responsible for the sickness and ultimate death of some Indian or
1902-3. | THE NAH‘ANE AND THEIR LANGUAGE. 525
Indians against whom they were believed to have exercised their black
art.
As among the other Déné, such deaths were the cause of family
feuds of long duration and bitter hatred, when they did not lead to
reprisals and a series of murders. Thus would originate their inter-
necine wars, which consisted merely in ambuscades, surprises and
massacres, accompanied sometimes with the enslaving of the women and
the children.
2
But their “ wars” were more frequently directed against foreigners,
such as the Tsimpsian of the upper Skeena, or against the Tlhinket of
the coast. They had no war chiefs, or indeed any chief at all in our
sense of the word.
In times of peace, their special avocation and means of subsistence
are hunting and fishing, to which a few of the younger men add packing
for the miners andthe Hudson’s Bay Company. As their territory is so
extensive, it still abounds in fur-bearing animals and game of almost all
descriptions. I found moose especially plentiful all over the country.
The mountains are also rich in sheep and goats,
No wonder then, if the Nah‘ane are well-to-do. In fact I consider
that the western part of the tribe is at present dying on a golden bed.
In the house of my hosts at the time of my visit were to be seen,
besides gilt bronze bedsteads and laces of all kinds, two sewing
machines, two large accordeons, and, will the reader believe it ?--a
phonograph! All this in the forests of British Columbia, north of the
58th degree of latitude!
Since I have mentioned death, I may remark that cremation was,
until recently, the mode adopted by the western Nahvane to dispose of
their dead. And, in this connection, we have a ludicrous admixture of
the new order of things with the olden ways, in the small travelling
trunks bought from the whites, which are to be seen planted on two
posts, in several places along the trails, and which contain some of the
bones of the dead picked up from among the ashes of the funeral pile.
In
As to the language of the Nah‘ane, much might be said. I shall
point out in the following pages only those particularities which are its
exclusive property, and leave out most of the general features which are
common to all the Déné dialects, and which the reader will find detailed
526 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
in my paper on “the Déné Languages,”! and in my forthcoming com-
plete grammar of the Carrier language. Furthermore, all the following
remarks shall apply more particularly to the idiom of the western
Nahvane, the only one I have ever studied.
Neglected by the ethnographers as the Nah-ane have remained to
this day, their dialect has still been more of a ‘terra incognita to the
philologists. With not even the least grammatical note has it been
honoured so far in all the linguistic literature at my command, and the
only vocabulary by which it has ever been represented in scientific pub-
lications consists of the four columns of Thaihthan words printed by the
late Dr. Dawson.? .
And here I may be allowed to state that, after a careful study of
their language, I have had the satisfaction of ascertaining that of all the
corrections in the latter’s vocabulary which I lately declared* were de-
manded by the general rules of Déné phonetics and suggested by my
knowledge of the other related dialects, not one have I found to be un-
warranted.
Before going further I must also correct the one statement Dr.
Dawson makes concerning their language. Speaking of the Thalhthan
and Taku Nahvane, he writes: “These Indians speak a language very
similar to that of the Al-ta-tin, if not nearly identical with it, and so far
as I have been able to learn, might almost be regarded as forming an
extension of the same division. They appear to be less closely allied
by language to the Kaska, with which people they are contiguous to the
eastward.”4
I have already done justice to the latter assertion. By Al-ta-tin,
Dr. Dawson means the Lh’ta’tin, or ‘“ People of the beaver dams,” as the
Tsé’kéhne are called by the Carriers. His notion about the similarity
of the two dialects I have found prevalent in other quarters. To prove
its utter groundlessness, I need but reproduce here the Nah-ane and the
Tsékéhne versions, for instance, of the doxology. Was the Chippe-
wayan version available, I have no doubt that it would be found more
alike to that of the Tsé’kéhne than to that of the Nah‘ane. Grammati-
cally speaking, there is more affinity between the Tsé’kéhne and the
Chippewayan—two very distinct tribes—than between the Tsé’kéhne
and the Nahcane.
1 Transactions Canadian Institute, Vol. 1.
2 Notes on the northern portion of British Columbia, p. 19. e# seg.
3 Transactions Canadian Institute, Vol. VI., pp. 99-109.
4 Notes, etc., p. 2.
1902-3. | THE NAH‘ANE AND THEIR LANGUAGE. 527
THE DOXOLOGY.
IN NAH‘ANE. IN TSE’KEHNE.
Séesdga (Etha’ ‘ka’tcéh, CEtcimeé: Utqon CE&tha: qfh, CEtcwinh qfih,
ka’tcéh, Ahtige-Ti ’ka’tcéh hut’sihkaihtin. | Yétqire-Ingi qfih ut’scerhautcez.
Lhann kastséh tfida ahih’té la, td’gu Sé rhasséh tarhit’qé ille a, qf qdih,
*ka’tcéh, ue’té ’katcéh, ét’tha ta’da cetfi | awuz‘on qfih int’lhon gé ta ussé utcetazit
wotdzite a'téh éyéne ’ka’tcéh hu’karo’té ni. | e’tah éyétce qfih hahut’gé.
To start with the sounds as such, I will remark that the following
desinential letters or groups of letters are never found in Carrier or
Chilcotin, but are quite common in Nahrane: «¢, és, tc, tlh, kth, to which
we must add the medial -s//-, as in as/hé, I make, and -svh-, as in etisrhuh,
I snore. Final ¢s occurs often enough in Babine, and final Zc is as
frequent in Tsé’kéhne, but the other compounds are never found even in
those idioms.
On the other hand the letter », which sometimes terminates a word
in Carrier, never occupies that position in Nah‘ane. We should not
forget either to notice that the double letter 7 or a7, which is so frequent
in Kutchin appears also in Nahvane to the exclusion of all the other
Déne dialects.
Some Carrier letters have their fixed equivalents in Nah‘ane. Thus
the Carrier initial 7 is often replaced by ¢in Nah‘ane. Ex.: vz, mind,
Nahvane, ¢z2: ma, eye, Nah‘ane, fa: aunzlh, purposedly, Nah‘ane, atzh ;
dtinz, he will say, Nah-ane, dé#tz. The initial » of many Carrier words
becomes 7 in Nahvane (as well as in Tsé’kéhne), and we have pen, lake,
in Carrier, but mex’ in Nah‘ane; ¢hapa, shore, in Carrier, thama in
Nahvane ; #@-, his, in Carrier and mwe- in Nahane.
A Nahvane sound, which I have found in no other Déné idiom is
that which I render by H. It is a kind of a guttural aspiration, much
more pronounced than that of the common xz. Its equivalent in the
other dialects is 4, or the Greek rho, and in the possessive case, it is
inflected into a soft 7. Ex.: 7s, pus ; possessive, me-r7ze, his pus.
The first particularity which strikes a Déné scholar in his study of
the Western Nahvane, is the presence therein of a regular accent, some-
thing quite unknown in all the northern Déné dialects. I have no doubt
that the intercourse of that subtribe with the Tlhinket of Fort Wrangell
is responsible for that feature of itslanguage. This accent has for effect,
not only to lengthen the syllable it affects, but even to raise the pitch of
the voice when the accented syllable is pronounced. Thus it often falls
on monosyllables. Gun is #@ma (a Tlhinket word) in Nah‘ane; ussa’
528 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
means, “I do not know ” in the same dialect. Much stress must be laid
on the wz of the first word and on the sa of the last, otherwise neither
would be understood.
On the other hand the voice must also be raised with a sort of con-
strained effort when one pronounces the words ‘khon’, fire, nehn’, land,
tzé, gum, etc., though many other monosyllables lack this distinguishing
feature.
In this connection I must not fail to record what, to a student of
the Carrier idiom, seems something of an anomaly. In my “ Notes on
the Western Dénés,”! I wrote some years ago: “ In these nouns there is
generally one syllable which is more important and contains, as it were,
the quintessence of the word. Thus it is with the ze of te@ne.... In
composite words such syllables only are retained.
Now it happens that in Nah‘ane the accent falls precisely on the
first syllable of that word (which means “ man” in all the dialects), and
not on the second, which is hardly audible when pronounced by a native.
In the same way, instead of using only the second half of the word, as is
usual with the Carriers and the Chilcotin when they refer to the human
body or to any part thereof, as in ze-y@s’te, human body ; xe-va, human
eyes ; me-¢'stltcen, human neck, etc., a Nah‘ane will always utter the
whole word, giving particular prominence to its first part, and say, for
the same objects, ¢én’e-r2, tén’e-ta, ten’ e-’kwos, which the careless listener
will most probably take for zén’rz, cén’ta, etc.
Beside their accent, the Nah‘ane have, when speaking, a particularly
marked intonation. This is so pronounced that it could almost be com-
pared toasong. In fact, I have noticed the following modulation as
being of very frequent occurrence. Its finale especially is hardly ever
omitted.
=
Tu’gu tzenés’ thiye ecya asqah,
2.6., Lo-day I have become very sick.
Students of native languages must have noticed that most tribes or
portions of tribes have their own peculiar way of singing out, as it were,
the sentences of their respective idioms. When there is nothing in their
elocution which can be compared to a song, the finale, at least, is almost
certain to stray out of the recto tono. So the ending of each Shushwap
sentence is infallibly from G to upper C, while the Coast Salish, or at
1902-3. | THE NAH‘ANE AND THEIR LANGUAGE. 529
least the Sicalh, content themselves with raising the voice from G to A,
or one full tone.
The intonation of the Carriers varies too much according to the
different groups of villages to be recorded here. I will choose but one,
which is characteristic of the Hwozahne, or people of Stony Creek.
Ntcen _ lheeetni, au t’scetoest’soek ;
z.€., What does he say, we don’t understand him.
The elocution of the Chilcotin and of the Tsékéhne is more
uniform. Any member of the former tribe would, I think, easily
recognize the following sentence, which they are ever ready to utter
when anything is asked of them which they are not disposed to grant.
lat kan’te kule ; z.é¢., There is none.
But to return to our Nahvane dialect. From a terminological point
of view, it has all the appearances of an eclectic language. Indeed, I
would fain compare it to English, as it occupies to some extent, with
regard to the other Déné dialects, the position held by that language
relatively to the European idioms. Its vocabulary furnishes us, besides
fully forty nouns,! which are more or less Tlhinket, several terms which
duly belong respectively to the Kutchin, the Hare and the Chippewayan
dialects. Here are a few examples. Kutchin: djugu, now, Nahcane,
tugu ; Lhaon, quite, Nah‘ane, /han ; wkwet, knee, Nah‘ane, ekwet; Hare
due, no, Nahvane, tueh ; guntze, elder brother, Nahvane, e¢zye; Chippe-
wayan: sorha, well; Nahane, séga; esdan, 1 drink, for which the
Nahvane have an absolutely homonymous synonym.
Even the Tsimpsian has lent them one word, /e/k, to designate the
snake, a reptile which is not found within Nahvane territory. A few
words of English have also crept into the Nah‘ane vocabulary, and it is
worthy of remark that whenever an / occurs in them, the Nah‘ane have
t I may here draw the reader’s attention to the fact that a people of a low mental standard, a nation of
uncultivated intellects, may borrow many unchangeable words from the vocabulary of its heterogeneous
neighbours, but will never attempt to appropriate verbs. The former they will leave in their original
form, or allow them through neglect or ignorance to slowly degenerate into more or less different terms;
but when it is a question of verbs, the low type intellect is not up to the task of adapting them to the
exigencies of its grammar, In other words it cannot digest and assimilate them,
530 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
altered it into an x. Thus for gold, they say gon; for silk, s¢zk; for
dollar, dana. The word fas for barrel they owe to the Tlhinket, who
had themselves borrowed it from the English speaking skippers and
traders (kas =cask).
Chinook has contributed masmas (a corruption of musmus), cattle,
and probably kzmdan (for kiutan), horse. Following the example of the
coast Indians, the Nah‘ane have likewise changed the Chinook for cat,
pus, into tuc.
At times this propensity for appropriating foreign terms leads to
curiously hybrid compound words. For instance, the Nah-ane equivalent
of organ is half Tlhinket and half Déné. All the Déné call that instru-
ment a “ paper that sings.” As the Nah‘ane had already borrowed the
Tlhinket work ’k#k for paper, and on the other hand, as they did not
know or could not use the Tlhinket synonym for “sings,” they un-
scrupulously retained the first vocable to which they added their own
equivalent for the verb and said “k7k-etqzne.
The dictionary may be regarded as a thermometer which faithfully
registers a people’s status and chief avocation. Its readings are seldom
at variance with fact, and when it records, for instance, a multitude of
fish names or, still better, when it possesses several names for the same
fish according to its age or condition, it will inevitably denote a nation
of fishermen. In like manner the sociological status of our Nah‘ane is
betrayed by their vocabulary, which abounds in fine distinctions for the
names of the larger animals on which they mainly subsist.
I will take but one example to illustrate my meaning. With them
the generic name of the marmot is ¢etzyé,and the female is called
hosthelh, while the name is known as oe?’getha. A little marmot in
general is named oe’kane, or usthe-tsetle. But if it is only one year old
it goes as wsaze; the next year it will be known as ovekhutze, and when
in its third year, it will be called ¢w@tzyé-tucztze. And note that all of
those eight words apply to only one kind of animal, since there is
another term to denote the smaller variety of marmot (arvctomys monax).
We have therefore our Nah‘ane stamped by their very vocabulary
as a people of trappers and huntsmen, and the abundance of their terms
for a mountain animal furthermore sheds a good ray of light on the
topography of their country.
Another reliable indicator of a primitive people’s main occupations,
to which it adds a valuable hint at the nature and climate of its land, is
1902-3. | THE NAH‘ANE AND THEIR LANGUAGE. 531
the calendar. Subjoined is that in use among the western Nahcane, and
the careful student of Americana will perhaps find it worth his while to
compare it with those of the Carriers and of the Tsé’kéhne published in
my “Notes on the Western Déné.”! Of course, all the months therein
recorded are lunar months, and coincide but imperfectly with our own
artificial divisions of the year.
January, sa-?’sés/hze, moon of the middle (of the year).
February, ta@non-thene, the snow is a little frozen over.
March, z/2’sz-sa, moon of the wind.
April, ¢/hz-penetsé-e, the dog uses to bark.
May, zh:aze-sa, moon when all the animals leave their winter retreats.
June, @yaz-e-sa, moon of the little ones (when animals have their
young.
July, etcetc-e-sa, moon when they moult.
August, 72’ka-e-sa, moon when they fatten.
September, “osthelh-e-sa, moon of the female marmot.
October, 22@n-then-tsetle, moon of the small ice.
November, s@n-then-tco, moon of the big ice.
December, kevrh-urwoesse, the rabbit gnaws.
We have tarried so long over the sounds and substantives of the
Nahvane language that our remarks on the other parts of speech must
necessarily be brief.
In its numerals we finda confirmation of what I said some time ago
when I wrote, speaking of the roots of languages in general: “ The
numerals and the pronouns. . . generally have a kind of family air in
cognate dialects. As to the pronouns, I think that hardly any
qualificative reservation is necessary, but it is not so with all the
numerals.” Of the ten Nah‘ane numbers, only three (one, //zge, Carrier,
ilho ; three, thade’téh, Carrier, tha; and five, /hol/a, Carrier, kwollaz’) have
any affinity with the Carrier, Babine, Chilcotin or even Tsé’kéhne
numerals. The other seven have not the faintest resemblance thereto.
A peculiarity worth recording in this connection is the fact that the
numbers two, three and four are in Nahvane perfectly regular verbs
which are conjugated with persons—plural, of course—and tenses. Let
us take, for instance, the number three, shade’ téh. We have at our dis-
posal any of the words of the following conjugation :
t Transactions Canadian Institute, Vol. IV., p. 106.
2 The Use and Abuse of Philology, Transactions Canadian Institute, Vol. VI., p. 92.
532 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo.. VII.
PRESENT. PROXIMATE FUTURE.
tha-des? téh, we are three tha-di'tilh, we are going to be three
tha-dah'téh, you are three tha-dah’tilh, you are going to be three
tha-hide'téh, they are three tha-heda’ tilh, they are going to be three
Past. EVENTUAL FUTURE.
tha-des? tée, we were three tha-di tée sa, we will be three
tha-dah’tée, you were three tha-dah’ tée sa, you will be three
tha-hide'tée, they were three tha-hedt' tée sa, they will be three
In all these words the main root for three is, of course, ta. Yet
thadest téh, etc., are single words whose neither first nor last component
parts can be used separately.
The only approach to these conjugable numerals I know of is to be
found in the speech of a small portion of the Carrier tribe. It is
restricted to the number two, zatue, which becomes xa?’soetnue, we are
two (persons), zahtne, you are two, etc. I should not forget, however, a
peculiar set of numerals for which I find no more appropriate qualifi-
cative than the epithet “inclusive.” These not only have in Carrier all
the persons and tenses of the above, but they are even modified so as to
form a separate class of adverbal numerals. Here are a few examples:
na-t sel torh, both of us ;! na-neltorh, both of us; xa-nelhtorh, both of
you ; za-rheltorh, both of them.
The following are impersonal verbs: xa-hwultorh, both times,
na-hwothil torh, it is going to be both times, etc.; tha-hwul’torh, all of
the three times ; ¢7-hwultorh, all of the four times, etc.
All these forms, tenses or persons can be applied in Carrier to all
the numerals of that class, except the first, the ninth and the tenth, and
in this respect, as in so many others, that language surpasses in richness
all the other Déné dialects.
The Nahvane lacks an equivalent for the personal plural particle ze,
which the Carriers suffix to the verb when in English we make use of
the demonstrative and relative pronouns “ those who,” as in /zwo?’szt-ne,
“those who lie,” the liars. Instead of this, the Nahvané will say, by a
curiously abnormal commingling of a plural pronoun with the corres-
ponding singular verb: “he-lies they,” ¢sed’szt oekhune. This renders
speech unnecessarily long and rather unwieldy.
1 With an idea of impersonality, which it is impossible to express in English, and which is absent in
nanel torh.
‘auInjsoD) suloued ut
UDWIO AY IJUR. UPA
\
THE NAH‘ANE AND THEIR LANGUAGE, 533
A feature of the possessive pronouns which the Nahvane shares
with some related idioms is the absence of a term for the second person
of the plural. Most of the eastern Déné dialects even lack altogether
the same person of the personal pronouns, but the Nahvane are not so
verbally destitute. In their minds, however, there lurks some vague
confusion about the difference between the first and the second person
plural of those pronouns which, at times, does not seem to be fully
grasped.
In common with those of the other Déné dialects, the Nah-ane
verbs are rich in persons, some, like the verbs of station and the verbs of
- locomotion, having as many as eighteen for each tense, as against the
twenty-one their Carrier equivalents boast of. In the face of that
relative richness it is somewhat of a surprise to find that the regular or
common verbs have not even a single person representing the dual,
which is rendered, as with us, by the plural, while even the Carrier,
which is rather deficient in that respect, possesses, at least, the first
person dual for all the verbs.
A point of resemblance with the eastern dialects is the plural of
some Nahvane verbs, which is formed by the incorporation of the particle
da, without any alteration of the desinential syllable. Thus, until we
come to the plural, the conjugation of the verb ?s¢-mészit, | wake up, is
practically that of its Carrier equivalent. But after this, the similarity
is confined to the main or initial root, which, through all tenses and
with any person, remains invariable in all the dialects. The following
partial conjugation of the present of the above mentioned verb will
illustrate my remark :
CARRIER. NAH‘ANE.
Dual.—/?’se-n2tzit, we wake up, both of us. Dual. —? se-nittzit.
?sé-nehzit, you wake up, both of you. t’sée-nahzit.
?sé-rhenzt, they wake up, both of them. ? se-henizit.
Plural. —?/’se-?sentzth, we wake up. Plural.—?sé-dasi¢z7t,
Usé-nehtilh, you wake up. t sé-dahztt.
?'sé-rhentith, they wake up. ? sé-dahesit.
Another most important point of resemblance of the Nah‘ane with
the eastern Déné dialects, is the utter absence in the former of any
special negative form. This particularity may be said to constitute its
fundamental difference from the Carrier, Babine and Chilcotin idioms,
the verbs of which are distinguished by at least one, and frequently two
or even three syllabic inflections in addition to the negative particle.
“TRANSACTIONS 0 OF THE CANADIAN Insrirore.
verbally ae than the Carrier. It is also” oe pure in
_more embarrassed in its phraseology, and owing to its aceens
_ delicate i in its ohonates. a ay UM
1902-3.] THE PAL4OCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 535
THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN IN RELATION
TO ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE PROTOPLASM.
By A. B. MACALLUM, M.A., M.B., PH.D.
Read 17th January, 1903.
CONTENTS.
ie NGER ODUGTION( hays do. eh pak Gest ay! toy bef de sie eed ok <x 1 stp eta g ad cy oN ESBS
II.—THE ORIGIN OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE CHEMICAL
ELEMENTS: INL DE@OD. PLASMA? i fives serie Ja. 0) ot es ey a gO
III.—THE ORIGIN OF THE RELATION OF THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS WITHIN
PROTORUASM: VESHER Sy. 1 a55 5) sha ohy of yeny ep ith 280) yea bse wees ems SAO
IV.—THE COMPOSITION OF THE PRIMEVAL OCEAN. . ....... . 542
V.—THE RELATION OF THE SALTS IN THE OCEAN TO PROTOPLASM . . . 552
VI.—EVIDENCE FROM THE LAKES AND RIVERS OF THE PRESENT PERIOD. . , 555
VII.—TABLES GIVING THE PROPORTION OF THE ELEMENTS IN A NUMBER OF
UVR STAND LAE S (eos di fia Mie ak Siw mic | ohinin | Spee gear) cnna eg
RELL SUMMARY OR CONCLUSIONS.) 205). eS ee a oe 60
I.— INTRODUCTION.
THE history of the composition of ocean water is a question of
very great interest to the geologist, the physiographer and the
biologist. To the geologist and physiographer its importance lies
chiefly in the fact that it is associated with the history, on the one hand,
of erosion and denudation of land surfaces of the globe, and, on the
other, of the formation of all the sedimentary strata. The ocean, ever
since the first condensation of water on the rockcrust of the earth,
_ has acted as a gigantic solvent, and the salts it now holds in solution
represent what it has retained after its action for millions of years as
a leaching and filtering agent. The sedimentary rocks are thus but a
vast precipitate from the ocean of what had been partly suspended and
_ partly dissolved matter in it during all the geological periods. The
history of the composition of the ocean is, on this view, the complement
of the history of all the terrigenous changes necessary to fill out all
the pages of the record of events that have transformed the surface of
the earth.
536 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vor. VII.
To the biologist the value of the question obtains from a different
point of view. The sea is the original home of all life on the globe,
and it was in the sea that the differentiation between animal and
vegetable life, as well as the evolution of the great divisions of the
animal kingdom were effected. Indeed the great events in the evolu-
tion of animal forms have been rendered possible by changes which ~
have taken place in the composition of ocean water. These changes
have modified organisms, and have created conditions which have
served as factors in directing the course of development. This may be
specially illustrated by reference to the case of the calcium salts in sea
water. That the earlier Archzan seas contained comparatively small
quantities of calcium compounds seems to be clearly indicated by the
fact that in pre-Cambrian strata the limestone deposits are very limited,
not more than two per cent. of the thickness of the beds, the Huronian
portions of which, now generally recognized as of sedimentary origin,
are, according to Lawson,* over 50,000 feet in thickness. The small -
amount of limestone deposits could not have been due to the absence
of living organisms, for the oldest Cambrian beds contain Trilobites and
Brachiopods, and such highly specialized forms postulate a long course
of pre-Cambrian life. The very fact that the Brachiopods of the early
Cambrian were largely those provided with a horny or chitinous shell,
indicates that all the animal forms of the preceding period had imper-
fectly acquired the lime “habit,” which, one may reasonably believe,
would have earlier made its appearance had calcium salts been present
in considerable quantities in ocean water from the first. It is perhaps
due to the absence of this lime “habit” that fossils do not obtain in
pre-Cambrian strata. ;
Once, however, the lime “ habit” was acquired, through adaptation
of the animal cell to its environment, the course of development became
accelerated, and the evolution of the higher types of Invertebrate tife,
as well as all the forms of Vertebrata, became possible. The Vertebrate
skeleton, and all that it implies in evolution, is, therefore, a result of the
gradual increase in the quantity of calcium in the oceans of the pre-
Cambrian period.
To both the geologist and the biologist the history of the chemistry
of the ocean has recently acquired an additional interest from the
attempt made by Jolyt+ to determine the age of the earth, who uses for —
that purpose as factors the amount of sodium now in the ocean, and that
* Geol. Survey of Canada, 1887, pp. ror and 1oz, F.
+An Estimate of the Geological Age of the Earth. Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc., Vol. 7. (Ser. 2),
1899, P. 23.
1902-3. ] THE PALAOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 537
estimated to be in the annual river discharge of the globe. Joly took
for these the results of Murray,* who, basing his calculations on the
discharge of nineteen of the principal rivers of the world, estimated the
total amount of the sodium and other salts annually put into the sea by
river water. Joly finds from Murray’s tables that the sodium annually
discharged is 157,270,000 tons, and the quantity in the sea is 14,151I,-
000,000,000,000 tons. Dividing the latter by the former he gets as
quotient, approximately, 90,000,000, which, expressed as years, would
be the age of the earth, or, rather, the period of time which has elapsed
since the first condensation of water vapour took place on the globe.
Joly admits that the ocean at first contained a considerable quantity of
sodium as sodium chloride, and this he puts at about 14 per cent. of the
present amount in the sea. This would make the amount discharged
into the sea by river water less than that stated above, but, on the other
hand, the volume of the ocean may, as a result of more recent estima-
tions, be given a higher value, and in consequence the mass of sodium in
it would be 15,627,000,000,000,000 tons. Further, of the sodium
annually put into the ocean, Joly allows as much as Io per cent. for that
which is taken from the ocean by the rain and returned again in river
water, and this estimate would make the amount of river sodium, which
is annually leached out of the rocks and strata, as 97,800,000 tons.
With these values Joly finds that the corrected figures for the age of
the earth is 89,300,000 years.
In support of his contention Joly shows that as compared with the
igneous rocks there is in the sedimentary rocks, which are derived from
them, a deficiency of sodium, and that the sodium now in the sea would
approximately account for the difference. The bearing of this fact is
that all the sodium now in the ocean was derived from the original
rock crust by processes which to-day are in operation in decomposing
rock material and removing the sodium therefrom. In other words, the
discharge of sodium into the sea has been in the past a uniform one, or
at least subject to no great variations that would constitute a factor
against determining the age of the earth by this method.
This estimate has been ably criticized by the eminent geologist,
the Rev. Osmond Fisher,+ who points out that the sodium which is
derived from the decomposition of crystalline or igneous rocks is in the
form of carbonate rather than chloride; and he asks whether it is not
possible that the chloride of river water is derived, not from crystalline,
* On the Total Annual Rainfall on the Land of the Globe, and the Relation of Rainfall to the Annual
Discharge of Rivers. The Scottish Geogr. Mag., Vol. 3, 1887, p. 65.
t Geol. Mag., New Ser., Vol. 7, p. 124, 1900,
538 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vo. VII.
but from sedimentary rocks, or from what Sterry Hunt calls “ fossil sea
water, still to be found imprisoned in the pores of the older stratified
rocks, and presumably in the younger as well.” To answer this affirma-
tively would be of necessity to assert that the sodium which now goes
to the sea as sodium chloride comes from the supply derived from and
deposited by the sea in ancient geological strata—that is, what was at
one time in the sea is being returned to it again. Fisher also points out
that the strata which are now in the process of formation, imprison
sodium chloride in their mass, taking it from the sea. There would
thus be a constant circulation of sodium chloride from the ocean to the
stratified rocks and back again to the ocean. That would also postulate
that the sea was almost as rich in sodium chloride in Silurian times as
it is now, and it would go far to support the view that “the sea was salt
from the first ;’ but if we assume that the sodium of the sea is derived
from those sodium compounds supplied by rivers other than the
chloride, the estimate of the age of the earth, as given by Joly, would
have to be multiplied several times in order to get the approximate
length of the period which has elapsed since the oceans of the globe
were first formed.
Another criticism of Joly’s view, made along the lines followed by
Fisher, is that advanced by Dubois,* who, from a comparison of the
amounts of sodium and chlorine supplied to the sea by a large number
of rivers, concluded that only a small portion, if any at all, of the sodium
derived from denudation appears in river water as sodium chloride;
that the sodium chloride discharged into the sea annually is derived
from the rainfall, and the salt deposited in the older strata by the sea.
As Fisher has already pointed out, it is the sodium compounds
other than the chloride that ought to be considered as being primarily
derived from the disintegration of rock mass, and, therefore, primarily
added to the sea. What the total amount of this sodium is cannot be
determined with approximate certainty, but Dubois is inclined to regard
it as about one quarter of the total discharge of sodium into the sea as
given in Murray’s tables, and, consequently, Joly’s estimate of the length
of the period which has elapsed since water first condensed on the
earth’s surface would have to be multiplied by four, the product being
approximately 400 million years.
* On the Supply of Sodium and Chlorine by the Rivers to the Sea. Kon, Akad. v. Wetensch., Amsterdam,
Proceedings of the Section of Sciences, Vol. 4, p. 388, 1902.
~ 1902-3. ] THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 539
II.—THE ORIGIN OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL RELATION OF THE
CHEMICAL ELEMENT IN BLOOD PLASMA.
I have thus dealt at some length upon the importance of the
history of sea water, and with Joly’s views and those of his critics,
because all this leads up to a question which is of very great importance
to the physiologist. The life of the globe in the earlier geological ages,
so far as the strata reveal to us the past history of the earth, as already
pointed out, was closely associated with the sea. It is indeed almost
universally assumed that life began in the ocean and continued in
association with it alone till the close of the Cambrian period, although
the presence of graphite in Cambrian and older rocks seems to indicate
that vegetable organisms were accommodating themselves to a land life.
Even this may not be an exception, for these rocks must have been laid
down under water, and therefore their organic remains would be those
of the sea. If accordingly we could know what the composition of the
sea water in the Cambrian and pre-Cambrian periods was, we would, in
all probability, be able to determine some of the chemical and physical
forces to which living matter was then subjected and thus explain the
relations which obtain to-day in living matter between it and its
salts. Ina recent paper* I have pointed out that the relative propor-
tions of the elements, sodium, potassium, and calcium in the plasma of
the blood are surprisingly very like those which are found in the ocean
water of to-day, and that the differences which obtain between the two
series of proportions of these elements. may be explained on the ground
that such proportions in the blood plasma are those that obtained in
ancient sea water when the ancestral form of Vertebrates, in which sea
water was the circulatory fluid, as it is in many marine forms to-day,
acquired a closed circulatory system. That the ancient proportions are
reproduced to-day in all forms, which have a closed circulation, I
attribute to the influence of heredity, the cells of the organisms having
for ages been associated with the sodium, potassium, and calcium in
certain proportions, and having been accommodated to them, the
relations ultimately became so fixed that living matter reproduces the
ancient proportions in the fluids which bathe itself. There is one point
in which the proportions in the circulatory fluid and those in sea water
differ, and that is in respect to the magnesium. In the sea water of to-
day there are 11.99 parts of magnesium for every 100 of sodium, while
in plasma there are 0.8 parts of magnesium to 100 of sodium. This is
* On the Inorganic Composition of the Medusze, Aurelia flavidula and Cyanea Arctica, Journ. of
Physiol., Vol. 29, p. 213, 1903.
"540 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VIL.
a striking difference but it is easy of explanation. The proportion of
magnesium in sea water is now slowly growing. In the pre-Cambrian
oceans it must, therefore, have been very small, not perhaps as low as it
is in blood plasma, for in the latter the magnesium would only represent
the proportion of an earlier period than that in which the circulation
became closed, as the tissues would only reproduce the proportion
which had by long accommodation become fixed in them. Even the
organisms which live in the sea to-day, whose ancestral forms have lived
in the sea since the Cambrian, do not take up the magnesium from the
sea water in the full proportion which it has in the latter.
II] —THE ORIGIN OF THE RELATION OF THE CHEMICAL
ELEMENTS WITHIN PROTOPLASM ITSELF.
There is, therefore, so far as the circulatory fluid of Vertebrates is
concerned, a reproduction of the proportions of the sodium, calcium,
and potassium of the pre-Cambrian oceans. The problem which now
arises is one whose solution involves greater difficulties. If organisms
should reproduce in their own circulatory fluids the proportions of the
elements in the early geological periods, what contributed to. those re-
markable proportions which obtain, not in the circulatory fluids, but in
the living matter itself? These proportions are widely different from
those found in the circulatory fluids, and one cannot bring oneself to
regard the former as derived from the latter. In vegetable organisms
the potassium and the calcium much exceed the sodium, and even the
magnesium may be greater in amount than that of the latter. In
animal organisms the proportions are difficult to ascertain owing to the
presence of skeletal and other structures in which the calcium and
sodium greatly preponderate, but even in these the potassium is nearly
equal to the sodium, and in muscle it is greatly in excess, while the
calcium and the magnesium are much less than the sodium. Thus, in
the muscle of the dog the relative values for each are* :—
[Va. K. Ca. Me.
100 354 7.20 aGE
These proportions may or may not represent approximately those
found in unicellular organisms like an Ameeba, or even a white blood
corpuscle, but do they represent to any degree the proportions which
obtained in the early pre-Cambrian seas when life was represented by
unicellular organisms only; which accommodated themselves to the
sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium in their habitat, just as the
* Julius Katz, Pfliiger’s Arch., Vol. 53, p. 1, 1896.
1902-3. | THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 541
marine unicellular organisms of to-day have accommodated themselves
- to these elements in the sea water? Ifthe blood plasma of Vertebrates,
because of the. forces of heredity, reproduce the proportions which
obtained in pre-Cambrian oceans, why should not the cells of the tissues
because of the same forces, reproduce in themselves the proportions
which obtained in sea water of a much earlier geological period? In
other words, if the proportions in the plasma are inherited, why should
not those found in the living matter be considered as inherited also?
An affirmative answer to this question would postulate that the propor-
tions of the four elements in early pre-Cambrian seas were very greatly
different from what they are now in the ocean—as different almost as
the proportions of the four elements in muscle are from those found in
the blood plasma.
The question is one of great importance in physiology, and, though
its solution presents great difficulties, its very interest compels a con-
sideration of it. We know that the unit of living matter, the cell,
whether of animal or vegetable kingdom, presents, on the whole, the
same type of structure, and it goes through the same morphological
changes. Some of these are grouped under the process of division, and
its characteristic details are the same in both animal and vegetable
forms. Now, the animal and vegetable cells are derived from a single
type which must have existed at the very dawn of life on the globe.
The whole process of division, with its peculiar morphological features,
was elaborated in this single-celled organism, which transmitted it to its
descendants. Since, as already stated, the process of division is the same
in both kingdoms, it is obvious that it has continued almost unchanged
through an infinity of generations, animal and vegetable, and for many
millions of years, and that this preservation of the original type is due to
heredity. If, now, heredity is so powerful in regard to structure, is it a
negligible force in regard to chemical composition? Is living matter
fixed in structure almost beyond change, however widely the conditions
under which it lives may vary, but unfixed and changeable in its rela-
tions to the chemical elements? As structure depends so largely on
composition, it would be difficult to explain how living matter could so
widely vary its relations to the elements and at the same time retain its
structure.
We are, therefore, forced to a choice of hypotheses of which one
postulates that all of the relations of living matter to sodium, potassium,
calcium and magnesium are a result of inherited forces, while the other
concedes that in regard to the circulatory fluids the proportions are
542 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vou. VII.
determined by heredity, but the relations of these elements in living
matter itself are due to quite different forces in which heredity is a small
factor or no factor at all. The acceptance or rejection of either
hypothesis depends on the evidence which we can bring as to the
composition of the ocean in the very earliest geological periods.
The conclusions which we can formulate on this point depend on
what we accept as the composition of the original crust of the lithosphere,
and in our knowledge of the character and composition of the sedi-
mentary rocks, and they must also be based on the changes which are
admitted to have taken place in the composition of the ocean during all
the periods. These conclusions I propose to deal with here in a general
way only, for a full consideration of all the facts which have a bearing
on them would demand a detailed treatment. which would far exceed
the limits set for this paper.
IV.—THE COMPOSITION OF THE PRIMEVAL OCEAN.
The original condition of the earth was a molten mass in which
the temperature was so high that many of the elements now in the rock
crust were in a gaseous condition, and dissociated, just as they are at
present, in the solar atmosphere. As the dissipation of heat went on
some of these must have condensed at degrees of temperature which
approximated their present respective volatilization points, while the
remainder, oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, sulphur and carbon would
combine to form water, hydrochloric, sulphuric and carbonic acids.
The elements, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and aluminum
would also before condensation take out of the original atmosphere
chlorine, sulphuric acid, oxygen, and perhaps, carbonic acid, to form
the chlorides, sulphates, oxides, and carbonates of these elements, but
whether these compounds obtained after condensation depended on
whether the temperature of the heated rock surface was still as high as
their respective dissociation points. When the molten magma had
cooled down to a degree below the lowest dissociation point, all the
compounds referred to would be either deposited on the hot rock
surface or in the form of vapour in the then atmosphere. When the
temperature of the latter had fallen to about 1000°C, all these com-
pounds were removed by condensation, for although, under the atmos-
pheric pressure which now obtains, the temperature of condensation is
for nearly all these compounds about 200° iower, the very great atmos-
pheric pressure of the pre-oceanic period must have rendered the
1902-3. | THE PALOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 54
combination of the dissociated elements and the condensation of the
compounds formed from them possible at a much higher temperature.*
At such a temperature the previously molten rock had become
rigid, and of course the condensed compounds would be deposited on
its surface, and when refusion of the rockcrust occurred, as it must
have done over large areas, large quantities of the deposited compounds
would be diffused through the superficial crust. When the cooling of
the atmosphere and globe progressed until the temperature of the former
was 370°C, the first condensation of water took place on the rock
surface. The atmospheric pressure, according to Joly,t must have been
about 270 times what it is now. According to Clarke’s { estimate of the
relative values of water and carbon dioxide to that of the solid portion of
the globe, the atmospheric pressure before the first condensation took
place, was about 247 times what it is at present. Joly affirms that at
370 C a pressure of 190 atmospheres would produce a condensation of
water, and, as the pressure was much higher, condensation would go on
till the pressure fell below 190 atmospheres. This would entail rapid
evaporation, for at many points the temperature of the rock surface
would be so high that the water would condense only to boil away
immediately. This would collect the salts deposited on the surface in
masses, and it would, as in the case of the chlorides of magnesium, iron
and aluminium, convert these into oxides of these metals and free
chlorine, which, uniting with hydrogen, would form free hydrochloric
acid. The other chlorides, namely, those of sodium, potassium and
calcium would be unaffected. The ferric chloride would in some cases
be volatilized but to be recondensed.
This condensation of the water vapour, and the re-evaporation would
occur a countless number of times before there would obtain a perman-
ent body of water on the globe. Where such first occurred there would
be a lower temperature than elsewhere, and in consequence further
condensation of water vapour would occur there also. The result would
be the first ocean basin, the weight of the body of water acting on the
* The volatilization points of potassium, sodium and magesium are 667°C, 742°C, and 1100°C respec-
tively. The melting points of calciumand aluminium are unknown. The melting points of certain sodium
and potassium compounds are, according to V. Meyer & Riddle (Ber, d. d. Chem. Gesell. Vol. 27,
P. 2,443,) as follows:
Nem Ol eset asic eeettce aS ee 851°C. HEC eae acieias eaten ica 23 766°C.
IN aR Eee esto a atest eto 727°C | Ker Paaaysclaraceic ane elas 715°C
IWISPIIESS cc ORB Oe Odere Cees 650°C ' Me Wyre tote ae tess ts 623°C
Nagi GOster aces eens 1098°C.. Keg Og tea iaciac oon slocie's > 1045 C.
INaaSOgm es Gites Soec es 843°C | Mea S Og eect o rats rae slap eae 1073 C
t Op. cit.
} F. W. Clarke, The Relative Abundance of the Chemical Elements. Bulletin U. S. Geol. Survey
No. 78, 1891.
“Ves
544 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vox. VII.
thin crust and easily affecting the depression. These phenomena
would be repeated at other points as the temperature of the crust and
the atmosphere gradually lowered, until at a point below 100°C. nearly
all of the water originally present in the atmosphere had condensed to
form the oceans of the globe. :
The composition of the ocean would follow from the occurrence of ,
the soluble chlorides, sulphates and carbonates of the metals which
came in contact with the first condensations. As pointed out, the con-
densation of superheated water would convert the chlorides of mag-
nesium, iron and aluminium into magnesia (Mg O) oxide of iron
(Fe, O;) and alumina (Al, O;), the first of which is soluble only in
55308 parts of hot or cold water,* while the two latter are practically
insoluble, even in dilute acids. The magnesia, of course, would dissolve
in water which contained either hydrochloric or carbonic acids, but the
amount dissolved would, on account of the slight quantity of these
acids in the water, be very small. The other chlorides, namely, those of
sodium, potassium and calcium, although equally abundant, would not
be leached out of the rock surface in equalamounts. The solubilities of
these salts differ. For example, 100 parts of water dissolve at 99°C 154
parts of calcium chloride, 56.3 parts of potassium chloride, but only39.7
parts of sodium chloride. In consequence there would be different
quantities of each chloride dissolved, and the calcium chloride would by
far predominate, while the potassium chloride would be more abundant
than the corresponding sodium compound. There would, as already
pointed out, be very little ferric chloride and what would be dissolved
would gradually all be converted, first into the colloidal ferric hydrate,
and eventually into the insoluble oxide of iron.
It does not follow that the ocean would contain, even after a long
period of action on the rockcrust, the whole of the chlorides of
calcium, potassium and sodium originally disposed over and diffused
through the now more or less rigid rockcrust. The constant washing
out of the land areas would no doubt tend to remove these salts from
the rocks until there would be little left in the latter and at the same
time they would become correspondingly more abundant in the sea
water. But other salts would begin to appear there also. The magnesia
derived from the chloride of magnesium, through the action of super-
heated water, would, under the action of carbonic acid in the rain water,
go into solution as carbonate, but the amount so dissolved, would, on
account of its low degree of solubility, be very small and it would only
*Fresenius, Liebig’s Annalen, Vol. 59, p. 123.
1902-3. | THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 545
after a long period of time become appreciable in the ocean. The
carbonic acid in the rain water must have acted, as it does now, on the
silicates of sodium, potassium and calcium in the rocks and produced
free silica and carbonates of these elements, these latter going into
solution and thus reaching the ocean, where, acting on the chloride of
calcium, carbonate of lime and chloride of sodium and potassium would
be formed. The calcium carbonates would be removed by deposition
and thus constitute the origin of the limestone beds of the pre-Cambrian °
age, but the chlorides remaining in solution, thus contributed to an
increase in the amount of sodium and potassium in the sea water.*
The sulphates in the rock crust disintegrated or affected would also
be carried to the sea, but, as these would be small in quantity, they need
not be specially considered here.
Thus the history of the sea must have begun and continued for a
period of unknown length. The only change came from the discharge
into the sea of the carbonates, the consequent removal of the lime and
the slow increase in amount of magnesium, sulphuric acid, and of potas-
sium and sodium. The two latter elements were not removed from the
sea except through the rainfall. As I shall presently point out, the pot-
assium compounds are to-day removed from the ocean apparently as
rapidly as they are added by river water, and, in consequence, the
amount in sea water now appears to be stationary. In the earliest
geological period the conditions which now contribute to this result did
not exist, and the ocean retained all the potassium it held or received
through river discharge. In all probability the potassium equalled, and
even exceeded, the sodium inamount.t When sediments began to form,
and, when soils made their appearance, then, and then only began the
elimination of the potassium from the ocean. It has been long estab-
lished that potassium manifests a marked capacity to unite with silicates
of alumina to form firm compounds, and these obtain whenever potassium
salts in solution come in contact with argillaceous material, sedimentary
or otherwise,* while the sodium, magnesium, and calcium are unaffected.
*Sterry Hunt (Chemical and Geological Essays, Boston, 1875) held the view that the most abundant
Constituent in primeval sea water was calcium chloride, and that with the gradual addition of sodium carbon-
ate calcium was removed as carbonate and sodium chloride consequently took its place.
t Joly (loc. cit.) assumes that the greater part of the chlorine now in the ocean was originally united with
the iron, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium, these elements entering into combination in proportion
parallel to the proportions in the rockcrust as determined by F. W. Clarke (/oc. cit.) This postulates that 14
per cent. of the chlorine now in the ocean was united with sodium, and consequently the ocean originally
contained about one-seventh of thesodium it now holds. As the proportion of sodium to potassium in the
rock crust is 100 to 95, 0n Joly’s hypothesis the potassium in the primaeval ocean must have really equalled
in amount the sodium therein. Joly, however, is in error in supposing that the chlorides of magnesium and
iron could have existed, and he should consequently have made a greater allowance for the amounts of chlorine
combined with the sodium, potassium, and calcium.
{ Sterry Hunt (of. cit. p.95.)
546 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
The capacity to abstract the potassium is increased if the silicates are
mixed with organic matter. Consequently the potassium which rain
water may contain is in great part removed when the latter filters
through soils, and, therefore, the water discharge from alluvial areas is
always richer in sodium than potassium. This capacity of soils to
abstract potassium is a matter of direct demonstration, and it “ explains
the presence of so small an amount of potassium salts in the waters of
rivers, lakes, streams, and oceans where the lime and soda have accumu-
lated.”* This cause of deficiency acts not only in the case of the potas-
sium leached out of disintegrating rock by rain water, but also on the
potassium carried from the sea to the land areas by rain water. The
potassium thus carried is not inconsiderable, for, according to M. J.
Pierre, the rain water in the neighbourhood of Caen (France) annually
carries to each hectare of land, about 7.9 kilograms of this element, or
about 1.23 tons per square mile.
This mode of elimination also operates in the ocean, where, how-
ever, the organic matter responsible for the removal, is derived from
plankton organisms, which, on dying, fall to the sea bottom and their
remains decomposing, the potassium they hold reacts with the argil-
laceous material on which the deposits rest and forms the mineral
known as glauconite, containing as low as 0.95 per cent. of oxide of
potassium, but other estimates range from 2.52 to 4.21 per cent. The
sodium present is very much less in quantity.} This mineral is now
being formed, as it has been formed in the past, on the ocean bottom
over the areas which fringe the continental coasts and it constitutes as
much as, or more than,half of the deposits in shallower waters. Consider-
ing the extent of these areas as well as the fact that they cover the sea
bottom of those localities into which river discharge takes place, it will
be recognized what a very important factor the constant formation of ~
glauconite is in eliminating potassium from sea water and thus prevent-
ing an increase in the amount of that element in the ocean. This
formation has been going on in the past geological periods, for it is to be
found§ in the primary formations of Russia and Sweden, in the sands
* Mendeleef s Chemistry, Vol. 1, p. 547, 1897.
+ The reference is given in Dr. Angus Smith’s “ Air and Rain,” which is quoted by Joly (loc. cit.)
t The analysis of five specimens as given by Murray & Renaud (Challenger Report, Deep Sea Deposits,
p. 389) gaye:
Z. I. TEES VL Vw Vz
(GE OAR Gna Re aBeaoM Tomita obras aaor 1.69 1.26 1.27 1.34 1.19
Whe 0). a cbhickcosdo pores SGceonon he oc « 12.49 93.13 ~ 3.04 2.83 4.62
UGE OE ecto coundasposasenaepcsucsaadar a j5A Gund a2 3.86 3.36 0.095
IEW Ondo. sna) DOME BoC de Beane ae 0.90" "0.25 10725 0.27 0.62
Other analyses quoted by Roth, (Allgemeine and Chemische Geologie, Vol. 1, p. 559, 1879) gave a per-
centage of potassium (not Ke O) varying from 2.8 to 7.3.
§ Murray & Renaud, op. czt., p. 384.
1902-3. ] > THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 547
and gravels of the Cambrian sandstone of North America, in the
Quebec group of Canada and in the coarse Silurian sands of Bohemia.
In the Mesozoic period it was more abundantly formed and its deposits
are very marked in the strata of the Cretaceous division. It is also found
in the Tertiary from the lowest strata to the highest of the series. It is
thus shown that the formation of glauconite occurred in all the geolo-
gical periods from the commencement of the Palzozoic Age to the
present time and that thus a very large proportion of the potassium
which the ocean would now contain, were it not for the formation of
glauconite, has been removed from it.*
In the formation of glauconite, organisms appear to play a very
distinct part and amongst these the Foraminifera are the most important.
The decomposing organic matter of the dead forms liberates sulphur
which combines with the iron in deposits to form sulphide} This
latter is converted into sulphuric acid which, acting on the fine clay
sets free colloidal silica and ferric hydrate in a condition which pro-
motes their union and the silicate so formed combines with potassium to
form glauconite. It is obvious that organic matter is a very important
factor in the process and that in the absence of animal organisms no
glauconite would be formed, a view which explains the almost complete
absence of this mineral from the deep sea areas, but it also postulates as
decidedly, that before the appearance of living forms in the primeval
ocean, there was little or no potassium eliminated from it, and this, taken
in conjunction with the fact that in earlier pre-Cambrian times there
could not have been much or any soil to affect the potassium in the
waters discharged from the land areas, makes it quite clear that there
was a period during which the potassium content of the ocean must
have increased absolutely and that this was succeeded by a period in
which the amount of the potassium ceased to increase or remained
practically stationary, while decreasing relatively to other constituent
elements. The beginning of this latter period coincided with the ap-
pearance of living forms in large numbers in the sea.
The history of sodium in the ocean has been one of uniform in-
crease through all the geological ages. The addition that is to-day
being made by river discharge is large and must have obtained as
abundantly in the past. There have, on the other hand, been no im-
portant agencies which have served to eliminate it from the ocean.
The great salt deposits, some of which are as old as the Cambrian, are,
*Forchhammer was the first to point out that potassium is being removed from the ocean, (British
Association Report, 1844, p. 153.) From his analysis of Fucoids and of the metamorphosed Fucoid schists of
Scandinavia he came to the conclusion that Fucoids constitute a very important factor in the process.
t Murray and Renaud, of. cit., p. 389.
548 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (VoL, VIL.
as is certainly the case with the Stassfurt beds, the result of the evapor-
ation of land-locked arms of the sea.* and they are constituted of but an
infinitesimal fraction of what is contained in the ocean. Sodium chloride,
like other constituents of sea water, is carried landward with evapora-
tion and rain clouds, but it appears to be returned to the ocean, without
any perceptible loss, through the river discharge. The only method of
elimination which at all possibly counts is that in which it is imprisoned
mechanically in the sedimentary deposits during their formation. , That
sodium chloride is removed in this way has been pointed out and em-
phasized by Osmond Fisher, but there are no data which serve to indi-
cate that this is a considerable factor in diminishing the sodium content
of the ocean. All the known facts point in the contrary direction.
There is no mineral in the course of formation, which is extensive or
abundant in its distribution and which also requires . considerable
quantities of sodium for its production, and there are, further, no
agencies acting in the soils which serve to remove sodium compounds
from the percolating water.
In these considerations we find a full explanation for the relative
proportions (100: 3.613) of the sodium and potassium which now obtain
in sea water, and also for those which obtain in the river discharge of the
globe. According to Murray’s estimate for nineteen principal rivers, the
proportions would be 100: 38.6. We may postulate from this that in the
early geological periods of the pre-Cambrian period, when soils did not
exist, the quantities of each element discharged by rivers or bodies of
water derived from the land surface, were nearly equal. Since the
primeval ocean, as pointed out above, contained these elements in almost
equal quantities, this condition must have continued until long after soils
holding organisms and organic matter had appeared, and even for an
indeterminable period after organisms had made the ocean their
habitat. The change in the relative proportions once begun must have
gone on with extreme slowness, and oceanic organisms, at first wholly of
the unicellular kind, must have, after acquiring a relation to these
elements, just as slowly responded to the changes in the proportions of
their medium.
The river discharge of the globe has been from primeval times add-
ing also magnesium and calcium to the sea. According to calculations
based on Murray’s data, the proportions relative to the sodium shown in
these are 134 and 591 respectively to every 100 of the latter. This is,
of course, based on approximate estimations, and they may be incorrect,
* See G. P. Merrill’s ‘* Treatise on Rock and Rock Weathering and Soils,” p. 120, 1897.
1902-3. | THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN, 549
as they seem to be, if one scrutinizes the proportions that are
found in rivers whose waters have been carefully analysed. There are
only two rivers, the Amazon and the St. Lawrence, which give nearly
the proportion of magnesium called for by Murray’s estimates, while the
Ottawa, the Mississippi, and the Nile give quantities much below that
of the sodium, and the quantities of the calcium are found to vary very
much for the different rivers. If we disregard Murray’s estimates and
base our observations on the analyses of the various rivers, we can
safely conclude that, while the quantity of calcium added, except in the
case of the Nile, is always, and sometimes very much, greater than the
sodium addition, the latter does not probably exceed the amount of the
magnesium discharged. In the ocean, however, the sodium, calcium,
and magnesium have the proportions of 100, 3.91 and 12.0.
The comparatively low proportion of magnesium in sea water is
explainable. In the first place, as pointed out above, there must have
been in the primeval ocean but very little magnesium, owing to the
conversion of all the chloride of magnesium into magnesia which is,
except in minute quantities, insoluble. The conditions which so affected
magnesium chloride left the chlorides of calcium, sodium and potassium
unchanged, and in conseqence these went into solution in primeval sea
water, and were, therefore, as compared with magnesium, very abundant.
Further, the ocean at first must have contained only traces of the latter
element and the subsequent addition of it through river discharge
would increase the amount in sea water, but not to such an extent as
to make it overtake the sodium.
There is another factor which operated in limiting the amount of
the magnesium. This is the tendency shown by the chloride to interact
with the carbonate of lime when the latter undergoes deposition to form
limestone, and, in consequence, this always contains carbonate of
magnesia. When the latter exceeds Io per cent. the mixture of the
carbonates is given the conventional name of dolomite, and in some
formations of this kind the magnesia is found greatly to exceed the lime.
Dolomites are found in all the periods down to and including the
Cambrian and even in the pre-Cambrian, it is associated with the
crystalline schists.* An exact estimation of the magnesium so
localized is impossible, but on the average it cannot be more than Io
per cent. of the quantity of the calcium due to deposition, so that the
amount of magnesium removed annually from sea water must fall far
behind that of the calcium. It follows from this that whatever were
* Zirkel, Lehrbuch der Petrographie, 1894, Bd. 4, p. 499.
550 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
the proportions of these two elements in primeval sea water, the propor-
tions must have slowly changed, and as a consequence the magnesium
must have gradually increased while the calcium practically remained
stationary. .
It must of course be admitted that magnesium is withdrawn from
the ocean by organisms, but the amount thus removed is very small,
and in no case is it an important method of eliminating the element
from sea water. In the hard part of corals it is as a rule under one*
per cent. and in the coralreefs it is less than that in amount, while the.
calcium constitutes nearly 40 per cent. Forchhammer’st analyses of the
ash of sea weeds reveal a quantity of magnesium which he regarded as
important, and he held that the Fucoids thus remove quantities of this
element and deposit them in the beds which contain the solid substances
of sea weeds as far as they are insoluble in water.{ According to the
analyses of Gédechens,§ the ash of Fucoids contains from 4 to 7 per cent.
of magnesium. That the element is eliminated from sea water by these
forms may be conceded, but it is doubtful if the quantity removed in
this way is sufficient to affect materially in time the total amount
retained in the ocean. 5
We may conclude, therefore, that in the formation-of dolomites, of
magnesia-holding limestones and chalk deposits, and, to a minor degree,
in the activities of animals and plants, elimination of magnesium from
sea water has always obtained ; and, further, that the amount eliminated
annually does not equal the amount of magnesium added to the sea by
river discharge. This postulates a constant increase in the amount of
magnesium in the sea; and in this respect it must be ranged with
sodium, which increases in amount at a greater rate, since, so far as is
known, there are for it no agencies of elimination in operation which
compare with those affecting the potassium, the calcium, and even the
magnesium. The sodium, therefore, though it is not added in greater
amount than in the case of the latter, is increasing at a greater rate, and
thus the proportion of sodium to magnesium in sea water is slowly alter-
ing. As pointed out above, the primeval ocean must have contained’
but an exceeding small quantity of magnesium, and the amount of the
latter now in it is practically wholly derived from the leaching out of the
land surfaces during the intervening ages.
As regards the calcium in sea water there is less uncertainty. The
* According to Forchhammer the corals, Jsis nobzlis and Corallium nobile, contain 6,36 and 2.1 per cent.
respectively of magnesium carbonate.
t Roth, of. cit., p. 616, where the results of analyses of a number of forms are given.
t Op. cit., p. 159.
§ Ann. d Chem. und Pharm., Vol. 54, p. 351, 1854.
1902-3. ] THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 55
calcium of river discharge greatly exceeds in amount that of the three
other elements, and yet it is less abundant than either in the ocean. If
there were no elimination of calcium from sea water, the salts of the
latter element would long have reached the point of saturation in the
ocean. The present condition is easy of explanation. On the one hand
calcium separates from sea water through the formation of sulphate and
carbonate of lime, which are to a high degree insoluble. This constit-
utes in part the origin of the gypsum beds and of the limestones of
sedimentary origin. On the other hand the myriads of organisms that
have their habitat in the sea have the lime “habit,” and they conse-
quently remove from solution enormous quantities of calcium. This is
the case not only with all forms provided with exoskeleta and endos-
keleta, into the composition of which lime largely enters, but also with
those which exercise the precipitating effect on the calcium salts they
absorb from sea water, the precipitation rarely going so far as to form a
distinct deposit in the cells or tissues of the organism. This power to
precipitate is universal, as shown by the fact that the capacity to form
calcareous skeleta is almost universal, and this capacity is merely an
enhancement of the power to precipitate. The latter, therefore, operat-
ing so largely, separates calcium from sea water, and on the death and
disintegration of the organisms, the element is deposited on the sea
bottom either as phosphate or carbonate of calcium.* These deposits,
owing to the fact that they contain few calciferous fossils, are regarded
as due to chemical reactions alone; but if they are, sedimentary lime-
stones should be of a more uniform distribution, whereas we find them
more or less localized. The explanation that they are due to protoplasmic
“secretion ” and not to either chemical reaction or skeletal deposition in
living forms accounts for much, and indicates what a factor living proto-
plasm, animal and vegetable, is in the separation of calcium from sea
water.
Sterry Hunt + advanced the view that in the primeval ocean the
chief salts were chlorides of calcium and magnesium, and that the
constant, large output by river water of carbonates of sodium and
potassium, and particularly of the former, affected a conversion of these
_ into carbonate of lime and chlorides of sodium and potassium which
were retained in solution, while the carbonate was deposited. The
objection to this view is that, if it is correct, the conversion ought to have
taken place in the pre-Cambrian period, and, therefore, there ought to be
extensive limestone deposits in the rocks attributed to that period.
*Sterry Hunt, of. cit., pp. 82 and 311,
t Of. cit., pp. 2 and-41.
552 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
There is, indeed, in these rocks only a small amount of crystalline or
other limestone, and there appears to be still less in the divisions of the
Huronian, which, as pointed out, have a thickness in the Lake of the
Woods and Rainy Lake districts, according to Lawson,* aggregating
50,000 feet, all representing sedimentary formations. What limestone
and gypsum are present in pre-Cambrian rocks can very well be attri-
buted to the occurrence of calcium salts in the oceans of the Archzan
in quantities, however, which could not have very greatly exceeded those
which obtain to-day in sea water.
V.—THE RELATION OF THE SALTS IN THE OCEAN TO
PROTOPLASM.
From the considerations advanced in the preceding section of this
paper, it follows that the ocean has been, and is now, slowly changing,
not in its composition, but in the proportions in it of the various
elements to each other, and that, as a consequence, it is now in this
respect greatly different from what the primeval ocean was in the
period following the first condensations of water vapour on the rock
crust of the globe. It may again be noted that in all these changes
there are two distinct periods. In the first, or older, life was not
represented except towards its close, and therefore, the only factors
engaged in eliminating any of the elements from the sea were purely
chemical ones such as are illustrated in the precipitation of lime as
carbonate and sulphate and of magnesia as carbonate. In this period
the elements must have differed in amounts from each other less
markedly than they do to-day, and the constant addition to these
from the discharge from the land surfaces did not tend to alter, even
after a very long interval, the proportions which first obtained. This
period must have terminated some considerable time after the appear-
ance of living forms on the globe, and especially only after the adapta-
tion of vegetable forms to a land life, and the consequent production —
of soils. The second period could not have begun at once after the
appearance of living forms, for these must first have acquired a relation
to the elements and then have developed the habit of disposing of the
various salts which they took out of the sea water. This period may
well be supposed to have begun when there had developed not only a
considerable diversity of forms in the sea, but also the organisms
which contribute to the production of organic matter in soils. In this
period the removal of potassium from the land surfaces decreased,
* Loc cit.
1902-3. ] THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 553
and the combination of this element with argillaceous matter at the
bottom of shallow portions of the sea began. As a result the amount
of potassium in sea water became stationary. At the same time the
removal of calcium on a larger scale than obtained in the preceding
period commenced and this checked the increase of calcium salts.
The first forms of life in the primeval ocean were undoubtedly
unicellular, and they were probably also organisms which presented
features intermediate between those of the vegetable kingdom on the one
hand, and those of the animal kingdom onthe other. These forms must
have persisted for a period of unknown but very great duration, for in
them developed not only a nucleus but also the capacity on the part of
the latter to divide in the remarkable and complicated manner illustra-
tive of karyokinesis, and which is characteristic now of the cells of both
kingdoms. This process of division, so alike in its main features in
animal and vegetable cells, must have become fixed before specialization
had gone so far as to evolve both animal and vegetable types, for, had it
been otherwise, there would have been greater differences in the pro-
cess in animal and vegetable forms. That the process has continued
practically unchanged in all the intervening millions of years shows how
deeply fixed in the organism this morphological habit has become, and,
therefore, the act of fixation must have taken an incredibly long period °
of time during which the ocean was changing, not in the relative propor-
tions to each of the elements it contained, but in the absolute amounts
of these.
During this long period, these organisms, neither distinctly animal
nor distinctly vegetable, exposed as they were to action of these
same elements, must have acquired a relation to them as fixed as the
karyokinetic process was becoming. Their protoplasm had established
all its normal processes in the presence of potassium, sodium, calcium,
and magnesium in certain proportions in sea water, and, after the lapse
of the long period of time required for the elaboration of the karyo-
_ kinetic method of division, these processes became unalterably depen-
dent on the presence of the elements in the proportions which then pre-
vailed. Without this fixed relation life could not continue, and when
specialization into animal and vegetable forms occurred this fixed relation
was transmitted to the forms of both kingdoms. How long these latter
forms remained unicellular cannot, of course, be surmised, for there are
no means of determining the length in time of this or any part of the
pre-Cambrian age, but that it was of very great duration can hardly be
questioned, and it must have strengthened the relation which obtained
between protoplasm on the one hand and the elements in certain pro-
554 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. | VoL. VII.
portions, on the other.* In consequence, their descendant forms
inherited this relation, and transmitted it to the forms and species which
arose through variation and other causes. When multicellular forms
arose these were endowed with the same relation.
The proportions of the elements in the early pre-Cambrian ocean
with their long action on protoplasm must then have conferred a more
or less fixed property on the latter and, in consequence, living matter,
whether animal or vegetable, now shows in its ash proportions of the
elements greatly different from those found in the media in which it
lives or in the circulatory fluid which bathes it. This relation or
property resists change even after exposure to altered conditions for a
very long period of time. ~Before the circulatory fluid (blood plasma)
was established in multicellular animals, a great change must have
occurred in the proportions of the elements in the ocean, a change which
would account for the wide differences between the proportions in the
protoplasm or tissue on the one hand, and those in the blood on the
other.
The proportions of the elements in living matter are due then to
conditions which obtained in the ocean far back in the pre-Cambrian age,
while those in the blood or plasma are due to conditions which occurred
in the ocean long after this and yet before the beginning of the Cam-
brian period. The proportion of potassium to sodium in blood plasma is
nearly+ double what it is in the ocean and therefore that difference must
have resulted in the period that has elapsed since the rudiments of a
circulatory system were developed in those Metazoan animals which
gave rise to Vertebrates.
As pointed out above, it is difficult to obtain the exact proportions
of the sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium in living matter, for,
except in muscle fibre, protoplasmic structures cannot in sufficient
quantities be freed from adherent material which carries these elements
in very different proportions. Calcium exists in tissues apart from the
protoplasm and as precipitates or deposits, and according to recent
observations which I have made, this is true in a very large degree of
* Geologists concede a very long time to the pre-Cambrian, a duration which, according to the different
estimates, ranges from one-third to tour-fifths, and even nine-tenths, of the whole geological period. The
very fact that all the chief types of animal lite, and perhaps also of vegetable life as well, appeared before the
close of the pre-Cambrian age, indicated that the latter was of inconceivably long duration.
+ Amongst the oldest and highly specialized forms are Olenellus and the Brachiopods of the Cambrian.
The oldest Vertebrate remains are in the Trenton division of the Silurian, more recent than the Cambrian,
but these are ‘‘ ganoid” in character and this fact postulates a long preceding period of development out of
Protovertebrate forms which therefore could not have first appeared much later than the beginning of the
Cambrian. The circulatory system of Vertebrates accordingly has a history which began in the pre-
Cambrian age.
1902-3. | THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 555
potassium. With regard to this element it may be said that active living
matter has the power of absorbing it in large quantities and disposing
of it in an inert form by precipitating it at the peripheries of cells or in
inert organic masses within them, and, as a consequence, the ash of
animal and vegetable cells shows a larger quantity of potassium than the
protoplasm of the cells required. This illustrates how diffcult it is to
determine the primitive and fixed proportions of potassium and calcium,
and further, how little we should depend, even in the case of muscle,
on the analyses of the ash of organs or organisms, for this purpose. If
a sufficient quantity of Amcebze* could be obtained for analysis it might
yield results of value but until that is done, the exact proportions of
sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium must be a matter for con-
jecture. It can scarcely be that the proportions found in muscle repre-
sent even approximately those which should obtain in undifferentiated
propoplasm or cells.+
VI.—EVIDENCE FROM THE LAKES AND RIVERS OF THE PRESENT
PERIOD.
It may be pointed out that in the composition of the rivers, large
lakes, and seas of the world, there is evidence confirmatory of the view
that potassium and calcium predominated in the pre-Cambrian seas.
The conditions, of course, which contribute to the composition of the
lakes of to-day are not the same as those which existed when the
oceans of the globe were formed. There are but infinitesimal traces of
the chlorides of calcium and potassium in the rock crust or sedimentary
strata, and, further, there are, apart from the deposits of salt, and that
amount of it due to rainfall, but small quantities of sodium chloride
which can to-day come under the leaching action of water. There are
also soils to alter the proportions of the chemical elements derived
from them.
Nevertheless it happens that in lakes surrounded, either wholly or
* Fresh water, unicellular animal organisms are apparently free from excess of the elements. They are, as
a rule, free from potassium, at least in such quantities as are found in other organisms.
t According to J. Katz (Pfluger’s Arch., vol. 63, p. 1), the proportions in muscle from different animals
are: ;
Na, x, Cay Msg:
Meares s/o ea tteloies aoe aE boo a Oe mates 100 400 9-3 26.4
PIGS A oie satis cist aparece Fone ule WES 100 354 7.20 25,1
Rea ib sce hie, abe ayietan wonee toe as eT mele wie ee areal 100 870 40.0 60.5
12 i OER SRO OO Ete e OC RCE meet Der cee, I0O 1415 145.0 105.0
These and other results of the same observer are open. to the objection that no effort was made to get
muscle fibre free from all adherent tissues. Visible blood vessels, tendons, nerves and fat were indeed re-
moved but these constitute only a part of the non-muscle portions of the tissue and they may be the cause of
the variations shown in the results.
556 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [Vot. VII.
partially, by regions in which pre-Cambrian formations occur, or are
the only apparent rocks, the potassium predominates over the sodium.
For example, in the water from Reindeer Lake, which is situated 400 ©
miles directly north of Lake Winnipeg, Professor Adams found the
potassium to exceed very greatly the sodium. In the water from the
Churchill River, as well as in the water from the Saskatchewan River
above the junction of the Big Stone River, the potassium is much richer
than the sodium.* These rivers drain rocky areas chiefly of the pre-
Cambrian type. Rocks of the primitive kind, therefore, contrary to the
prevailing opinion,t supply to the water which comes in contact with
them more potassium than sodium.
Even in the case of Lake Superior which draws its supply not only
from the primitive rock region on its northern side, but also from the
areas covered with soils of alluvial and drift origin on the south, the
potassium is about equivalent to the sodium. In the lakes of the
Bavarian Highlands, Rachel See, Wiirm See and Ronig See, the
potassium is twice in amount that of the sodium. In Lake Zurich the
potassium exceeds the sodium. In Lake Geneva, in Pyrenean and
Vosgean Lakes and in those of Russia, Armenia and Central Asia the
potassium is approximately two-thirds of the sodium. It is probable
that if proper methods for estimating potassium had been current in his
day, C. Schmidt would have found for the lakes of Russia, Armenia and
Central Asia a higher potassium value than he obtained, for the
methods then in vogue for the determination of the element in the
presence of sodium were very faulty and gave very low results. It is
probable also that this may explain the low value found by Sterry Hunt
for the potassium of the Ottawa River, whose waters, as well known, are
derived largely from Archean regions.
The Tables A and B show further that, in nearly all cases, the
calcium is very abundant. In the Nile only, amongst the rivers, is it
less than the sodium, while it very greatly exceeds it in the rest. In the
lakes it is very abundant relatively, with the exception of the Rachel See
and Lake Onega. In the Bavarian lakes, Lake Geneva, Lake Zurich,
and some others, it is exceedingly abundant relatively.
The magnesium is always less than the calcium, and the relative
difference is sometimes very great. It may fall below the sodium, but,
as arule, it is greater in amount.
These proportions, one can readily understand, must have been
* F, D. Adams Geo, and Nat. Hist. Survey of Canada, 1880-2, p. 6, 4. '
+ This opinion is based largely on the fact that the potash feldspars are difficult to decompose while
the soda feldspars readily undergo decomposition,
1902-3. | THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 557
uniformly maintained for an indefinitely long period. It may even be
claimed that, in the case of Lake Baikal, of Reindeer Lake, and
other lakes supplied from Archzan areas the proportions have obtained
from pre-Cambrian times, and further, that the river discharge of that
period, coming as it did from pre-Cambrian rock areas wholly, would
contain the four elements in these or similar proportions. That would
postulate that the primeval ocean was merely a gigantic body of fresh
water, in which the sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium obtained
in quantities and proportions as they now obtain in a lake situated in
Archean area. As already pointed out, these proportions gave place to
others, and to-day, as in the past, the relative amounts of each element
are changing, so that in a few million years hence the composition of
ocean water will be appreciably different from what it is now.
One can, indeed, illustrate what changes have taken place in the
ocean by reference to such a large body of fresh water as Lake Superior.
If the latterwere to lose its outlet no doubtits area would be larger than it is
now, but when that had attained a certain extent the evaporation would
balance the inflow as in the case of the Caspian Sea, and in consequence
the salts held in solution would constantly increase in amount, but each
at different rates up to a certain point, when the proportions would begin
to approximate those in ocean water. One cannot of course say that
this is what has happened in the case of either the Caspian or the Sea
of Aral, for these bodies of water were connected with the ocean as late as
the beginning of the Tertiary age, but it may be pointed out that if their
composition was, to start with, the same as that of the ocean in Tertiary
times, their present composition is strong evidence of the effect that the
salts derived from leaching of the land areas have in modifying the
proportions, for in that respect either is markedly different from the
other and from the ocean.
The Great Salt Lake of Utah may be adduced as an instance of the
change of a body of fresh water into one which presents a high degree
of salinity and which in the proportions of its salts is remarkably not
unlike the ocean. This lake, which is in part of the area covered by the
glacial Lake Bonneville, is considered by G. K. Gilbert to have been a
body ot fresh water about 25,000 years ago. He arrived at this result
by determining the discharge of chlorine into the lake by river water
and comparing it with the quantity at present obtaining in the lake.
Lake Bonneville had* an outlet delivering its waters into a tributary of
the Columbia River and thus the lake was kept fresh. When, however,
this outlet was lost, changes climatic and physical operated to reduce
* Monographs of the U. S. Geol. Survey, Vol. 1, Lake Bonneville, 1890, p. 254.
558 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
the volume of water, and, evaporation keeping pace with the inflow, a
concentration of the salts held in solution took place. An examination
of the present sources of inflow shows that these do not contain the
sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium in the relative proportions
which are found in the lake. Gilbert estimates that it would take only
eighteen years to give the lake through its fresh water inflow, all the
calcium it now contains and that 850 years would to this end be re-
quired for magnesium. He does not deal with the case of the potassium
of which the analyses he reports show only traces in the inflow water,
but this also may have been due to faulty methods of determining that
element. These latter seem to be the only explanation for the great.
discrepancy between the amounts of potassium found by Talmage* in
1889 and Bassettt in 1873{.
Short as is the extreme period required by Gilbert’s calculations to
affect all the changes in the composition, it has epitomized the history
of the ocean. Even if we postulate that the primitive rock crust of the
globe in pre-Cambrian times contained more sodium chloride than what
is found now in Archzan formations, there is also more of this salt in
the strata of later geological periods which cover the drainage area of
Utah Salt Lake. Of course there is not a complete parallel between
the latter and the ocean, for the relative proportions are not exactly the
same, but their approximate similarity is striking, and, it may be added,
very convincing as to the extreme probability of the thesis maintained
above.§
TABLE A.
RIVERS.
Na. kK. Ca. Mg. SO}. Cl. Si. Fe.
1. St. Lawrence ... 100 22.9 638.0 143.4 136.0 223.0 343.0
2 POORER WA dsc 6 che pce 100 64.2 416.7 82.5 67.3 224.3 402.0 yee
3. Mississippi...... 100 35:5 462.0 82.0 1 8.4 86.4 17.0
4. Amazons........ 100 72.6 1,089.0 135.6 36.0 90.0 eae
BSEPIN GlGiserete auc hese 100 2212 risen 41.5 18.5 16.0 44.4
6. Assinaboine..... 100 10.5 122.0 69. 4 127.9 50.0
4. Red River....-. 100 12.3 133-3 83.2 190.0 QI.4
8. Nineteen Rivers
(Murray) <2... 100 38.6 590.9 134.2 197.6 53-5 145-3 37:9
* Science, Vol. 14, 1889, p. 445.
t Chemical News, Vol. 28, 1873, p. 236.
See Table B, Utah Salt Lake, 26 and 27.
§ In Lake Shirwa, according to J. E. S. Moore, (‘‘ The Tanganyika Problem,” 1902, p. 2z,) we have a
lake which was once fresh, but has become salt through the loss ot its outlet. So far as I know no
analyses have been made of its waters.
1902-3. | THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 559
TABLE B.
LAKES AND SEAS,
Na. WE Ca. Mg. SO}. Cl. sSze Fe,
OMPSUPCHION slenite< 5 100 97.2 1,015.0 208.0 27.5 103.2 19.3 enue
10. Rachel See «.... 100 =: 199.4 13.0 Heat 17.5 5 eae 1.6
11, Wiirm See ...... 100 223.9 2,445.0 809.0 Sone
412. Walchen See.... 100 117.7 2,557.0 808.5
1g. JROMIg See ~ 2.55 « 100 207.9 5,812.0 588.8
Eqeeschlier Sees... x. 100 96.4 3,141.0 661.0
15. Lac Gaube
(Pyrenean)..... 100 66.3 421.0 17.9
16. Lac Gerardmer
(Vosges)....... 100 70.4 117.6 29.8 cor 3e ta ese
17. Lake Geneva.... 100 74.5 2,345.0 341.3 Sve 55-0 1,806.0
18. Lake Zurich... ... 100 =III.7 ~ 1,843.9 272.0 441.0 36.0 60.8 Sno
19. Lake Peipus..... 100 ign 929.5 159.9 18.5 134.0 1353 3.4
20. Lake Onega .... 100 41.4 67.3 51-4 33-4 104.7 36.9 2.2
21. Lake Tschaldyr
(Armenian High-
lands) )ee-> 37.2: )1OD 59-3 219.3 45-7 88. 2 65-3 172.1 5:5
22. Lake Baikal..... 100 58.9 399.6 60.6 98. 5 41.7 16.1 IG fee
23. Sea of Aral ..... 100 2.38 18.6 24.2 113.0 156.0 aete
24. Caspian Sea..... 100 3°35 9-4 2257 80.0 163.7
Be MWCACISEA! Gein os 100 28.4 40.3 1.27 2.0 556.1
26. Utah Salt Lake.. 100 Ba22 1.22 7.81 14.9 169. 2
27. Ee Seeds TOO 25.8 1.56 7.82 19.1 192.2
DO NOGEA Neste eee ai'eiers 100 3-613 3.91 12.0 20.9 180.9
REFERENCES FOR ANALYSES.
1 and 2. Sterry Hunt, Phil. Mag., 4th series, Vol. 13, p. 239, 1857.
3. Warren Upham, The Glacial Lake Agassiz, United States Geol. Survey, 1895, p. 543.
4. Mellard Reade, Am. Journal of Science, Vol. 29, p. 295, 1885.
5. O. Popp, Annalen d. Chem. und Pharm., Vol. 155, p. 344, 1870.
6 and 7. Warren Upham, Op. C7z., p. 542.
8. John Murray, Scottish Geogr. Mag., Vol. 3, p. 76.
9. Warren Upham, Of. C7z., p, 542.
10. Johnson und Lindtner, Liebig’s Ann. der Chem., Vol. 95, p. 230, 1855.
11-14. Adolf Schwager’s Analyses in Willi Ule’s Der Wiirm See (Starnbergersee)
in Oberbayern, Leipzig, 1901.
15-17. Delebecque, Les Lacs Frangais, Paris, 1898, pp. 197-205.
18. F. Moldenhauer, Schweizer Polytechn. Zeitschr., 1857, I., p. 52. (Reference in
Kopp and Will’s Jahresber. der Chem., 1857, p. 724).
19-22. C. Schmidt, Bulletin’s Acad. Imp. de St. Petersburg, Vol. 28, 1883, pp. 245-6.
23 and 24. C. Schmidt, Bull. Acad. Imp. de St. Petersburg, Vol. 20, pp. 134 and 143, 1875.
25. R. F. Marchand, Journ. fiir Prakt. Chem., Vol. 47, p. 365, 1849.
26. J. E. Talmage, Science, Vol. 14, 1889, p. 444-6.
27. H. Bassett’s Analysis, reported by G. K. Gilbert, Lake Bonneville, U. S. Geol. Sur-
vey. Monographs, p. 253, 1890.
28. — Dittmar, Challenger Report, Physics and Chemistry, Vol. 1, p. 203.
560 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. [VoL. VII.
SUMMARY.
The points discussed in the preceding pages may be summarized as
follows :—
1. The composition of the ocean represents the result, on the one
hand, of the leaching action of water on the land surfaces of the globe
continued throughout all the geological periods, and, on the other, of
the chemical and other agencies modifying or enhancing the power
of sea water to retain in solution the mineral constituents derived from
the land surfaces through river water since the beginning of the primeval
period.
2. The relative proportions of the elements, and especially of
sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium, in river discharge are not
parallel to those of the same elements found in the sea. In river water,
the calcium is always more, and the potassium less, abundant than the
sodium, while the magnesium appears to approximate in amount the
latter. In the sea, on the other hand, the sodium is much more abun-
dant than the other three elements, and this is due to the continuous pre-
cipitation of a very great portion of the calcium added by rivers as
carbonate, to the subsequent fixation in the limestone so formed of the
magnesium as carbonate, and to the removal, continually taking place,
of potassium, which is affected through animal and vegetable forms, and
its consequent fixation in submarine deposits as glauconite and other
potassium-holding minerals. The calcium and potassium appear to be
stationary in amount, while the magnesium added by river water appears
to exceed in amount that removed from the sea, and, in consequence, is
slowly on the increase in the ocean, but its rate of increase is far behind
that of the sodium.
3. The relative proportions of the elements in the ocean have,
therefore, always been changing, and these proportions must have been,
in the earlier geological periods, very different from what they are now.
In the ocean of the earliest period the relative proportions of the
elements approximated those found in river discharge, or rather those
found in fresh water shed from areas covered with Archean rocks. In
this the potassium approaches the sodium in amount while the magnes-
ium exceeds the latter, and the calcium is relatively very abundant.
4. This condition must have continued until living forms made
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1902-3. | THE PALZOCHEMISTRY OF THE OCEAN. 561
their appearance in the ocean when the gradual elimination of the
magnesium, and particularly of the potassium and calcium, began. The
forms were in all probability unicellular, and as the period must have
been of great duration, the organisms and their protoplasm acquired a
fixed relation to the four elements.
5. With the appearance of vegetable land forms and the formation
of soils the removal of potassium from the land to the sea by river
water diminished, and this, in conjunction with the elimination of the
element from sea water by organisms, made the amount in the sea
stationary. Through the action of living forms the calcium also in sea
water has been kept stationary since that remote period.
6. In the transition from the ocean of the more ancient composi-
tion to that of the present, the unicellular forms became multicellular,
and developed circulatory systems, the vascular fluids of which were
at first simply modified sea water. In the blood plasma of Vertebrates,
the three elements, sodium, potassium, and calcium are in relative pro-
portions strikingly like those which now obtain in sea water. The
magnesium only is considerably less than it is in sea water. The whole
is due to heredity, the proportions of the saline constituents of the
plasma being a reproduction of the proportions which obtained in sea
water when circulatory plasmata were developed.
7. The proportions of the four elements which obtain in living proto-
plasm are as yet unknown, for the latter has the power of precipitating the
potassium, calcium and probably the sodium and magnesium as ipert
compounds in itself or in its adventitious structures, and thus analyses
- would comprehend the inert material as well as the quantities of these
elements which are actively participating in the processes of the living
substance. If we could determine the latter quantities alone we could
regard them as a representation of the proportions obtaining in prime-
val sea water to which the protoplasm of unicellular organisms had
established a fixed relation.
8. That such a relation could be inherited may be inferred from the
fact that the karyokinetic process, being practically the same in the
animal and vegetable cell, has continued unchanged in both from the
primeval period when the karyokinetic process first developed in a
parent unicellular organism neither distinctly animal nor distinctly
vegetable. This indicates how marked an influence heredity wields.
g. Briefly, animal as well as vegetable protoplasm owes its relations
562 TRANSACTIONS OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (Vou. VII.
to the elements sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium to the com-
position of sea water which obtained when all forms were unicellular,
just as the blood plasma owes its relations to the same four elements to
the composition of sea water which prevailed when circulatory fluids
were established. In other words the relation of protoplasm to salts is
due to the action for ages of sea water, for incalculably long periods of
time, on the living matter of unicellular organisms.
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