r
Registered for transmission by post as a magazine.
TRANSACTIONS
AND
Oi ^ PEOCEEDINGS
A
OF THE
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
FOE THE YEAR 1917
<"CV
"''a»»-
VOL. L
(New Issue)
EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD
OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE
ISSUED 15th JULY, 1918
P'tllhtgton, fl.&.
MARCUS F. MARKS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
William Wesley a* -. Son, 28 Essex Street, Strand, London W.C.
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.
NOTICE TO MEMBERS.
The publications of the New Zealand Institute consist of —
1. Transactions, a yearly volume of scientific papers read before
the local Institutes. This volume is of royal-octavo size.
2. Proceedings, containing reports of the meetings of the Board
of Governors of the New Zealand Institute and of the local
Institutes, abstracts of papers read before them and of papers
dealing with New Zealand scientific matters and published else-
where, list of members, &c. The Proceedings are of the same
size as the Transactions, and are bound up with the yearly
volume of Transactions supplied to members.
3. Bulletins. Under the title of "Bulletins" the Board of
Governors hopes to be able to issue from time to time im-
portant papers which for any reason it may not be pos-
sible to include in the yearly volume of the Transactions. The
bulletins are of the same size and style as the Transactions,
but appear at irregular intervals, and each bulletin is com-
plete in itself and separately paged. The bulletins are not
issued free to members, but may be obtained by them at a
reduction on the published price.
Library Privileges of Members. — Upon application by any member
to the Librarian of the New Zealand Institute or of any of the affiliated
Societies such works as he desires to consult which are in those libraries
will be forwarded to him, subject to the rules under which they are
issued by the Institute or the Societies. The borrower will be required to
pay for the carriage of the books. For a list of the serial publications
received by the Library of the New Zealand Institute during 1917 see
p. 381.
MEMORANDUM FOR AUTHORS OF PAPERS.
1. All papers must be typewritten, unless special permission to send
in written papers has been granted by the Editor for the time being.
2. The author should read over and correct the copy before sending
it to the Secretary of the society before which it was read.
3. A badly arranged or carelessly composed paper will be sent back
to the author for amendment. It is not the duty of an editor to amend
either bad arrangement or defective composition.
4. In regard to underlining of words, it is advisable, as a rule, to
underline only specific or generic names, titles of books and periodicals,
and foreign words.
5. In regard to specific names, the International Rules of Zoological
Nomenclature and the International Rules for Botanical Nomenclature
must be adhered to.
6. Titles of papers should give a clear indication of the scope of the
paper, and such indefinite titles as, e.g., " Additions to the New Zealand
Fauna " should be avoided.
7. Papers should be as concise as possible.
8. Photographs intended for reproduction should be the best pro-
curable prints, unmounted and sent flat.
9. Line Drawings. — Drawings and diagrams may be executed in line
or wash. If drawn in line — i.e., with pen and ink — the best results are
to be obtained only from good, firm, black lines, using such an ink
as Higgin's liquid India ink, or a freshly mixed Chinese ink of good
quality, drawn on a smooth surface, such as Bristol board. Thin,
scratchy, or faint lines must be avoided. Bold work, drawn to about
twice the size (linear) of the plate, will give the best results. Tints or
washes may not be used on line drawings, the object being to get the
greatest contrast from a densely black line (which may be fine if
required), drawn on a smooth, white surface.
10. Wash Drawings. — If drawing in wash is preferred, the washes
should be made in such water-colour as lamp-black, ivory black, or
India ink. These reproduce better than neutral tint, which inclines too
much to blue in its light tones. High lights are better left free from
colour, although they may be stopped out with Chinese white. As in
line drawings, a fine surface should be used (the grain of most drawing-
papers reproduces in the print with bad effect), and well-modelled
contrasted work will give satisfactory results.
11. Size of Draivings. — The printed plate will not exceed 7Jin. by
4^ in., and drawings for plates may be to this size, or preferably a multiple
thereof, maintaining the same proportion of height to width of plate.
When a number of drawings are to appear on one plate they should be
neatly arranged, and if numbered or lettered in soft pencil the printer
will mark them permanently before reproduction. In plates of wash
iv Memorandum for Authors of Papers.
drawings, all the subjects comprising one plate should be grouped on the
same sheet of paper or cardboard, as any joining-up shows in the print.
Text figures should be drawn for reduction to a width not exceeding
4-J- in. If there are a number of small text figures they should be drawn
all for the same reduction, so that they may be arranged in groups.
12. Maps. — A small outline map of New Zealand will shortly be obtain-
able at a low price from the Lands and Survey Department, Wellington,
upon which details of distribution, &c, can be filled in according to the
instructions given above for line drawings.
13. Citation. — Eeferences may be placed in a list at the end of an
article or arranged as footnotes. The former method is preferable in long
papers. In the list references are best arranged alphabetically, reference
in the text being made by writing after the author's name, as it occurs
the year of publication of the work, adding, if necessary, a page number
and enclosing these in parentheses, thus : " Benham (1915, p. 176).'
Example of forms of citation for alphabetical list : —
Benham, W. B., 1915. Oligochaeta from the Kermadec Islands, Trans. N.Z, Inst.,
vol. 47, pp. 174-85.
Park, J., 1910. The Oeology of New Zealand, Christchurch, Whitcombe and
Tombs.
When references are not in alphabetical order the initials of the author
should precede the surname, and the year of publication should be placed
at the end.
14. In accordance with a resolution of the Board of Governors,
authors are warned that previous publication of a paper may militate
against its acceptance for the Transactions.
15. In ordinary cases twenty-five copies of each paper are supplied
gratis to the author, and in cases approved of by the Publication Com-
mittee fifty copies may be supplied without charge. Additional copies
may be obtained at cost price.
TEANSACTIONS
AND
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
FOR THE YEAR 1917
VOL. L
(New Issue)
EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD
OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE
ISSUED 15TH JULY, 1918
aHdltngfon, $.%.
MARCUS F. MARKS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
William Wesley and Son, 28 Essex Street, Stband, London W.C.
ERRATA.
Page 64, line 5 : For Hypolepsis read Hypolepis.
Plate VI, fig. 1 : This figure should be inverted.
ALEXANDER MCKAY.
[ Frontispiece.
OBITUARY.
ALEXANDER McKAY.
Alexander McKay was born at Carsphairn, in Kirkcudbrightshire, Scot-
land, in 1842, and was educated as part-time scholar at the village school.
He came to New Zealand in 1863, landing at the Bluff from the ship
" Helenslee," and for some time he followed the occupation of a gold-miner,
both in Otago and at Wakamarino, after which he went to Australia and
worked on the New South Wales and Queensland diggings. In 1866 he
returned to New Zealand, and for the next four years was engaged in
exploring and prospecting the south-west part of the Mackenzie country,
conducting his explorations alone and at all seasons of the year. It was
during this period that he first became acquainted with Dr. (afterwards
Sir Julius) von Haast, then Provincial Geologist for Canterbury. Later,
in 1870, while engaged in prospecting for coal at Ashley Gorge, he again
met Dr. von Haast, who engaged him as an assistant in prosecuting some
geological surveys which he was carrying out for the New Zealand Govern-
ment. After exploring the central mountain regions of Canterbury and
the Shag Point coalfield the party returned to Christchurch, and Mr.
McKay was further employed to collect from the saurian beds of the
Waipara Eiver, North Canterbury, for the Canterbury Museum. In 1872
he carried out the excavation of the " Moa-bone Cave " at Sumner under
Dr. Haast's directions. Towards the end of that year, Dr. (later Sir James)
Hector, noting the fine saurian collections in the Canterbury Museum,
engaged Mr. McKay to make a collection of similar remains from Amuri
Bluff for the Colonial Museum and Geological Survey. On the conclusion
of this work, in March, 1873, Mr. McKay came to Wellington, and shortly
afterwards was appointed a permanent officer in the Geological Survey,
remaining in this employment until the suspension of the Survey in 1893.
After that date he held the appointment of Mining Geologist to the Mines
Department, and subsequently of Government Geologist, until his retire-
ment from the Public Service in 1906. He died at Kelburn on the 8th
July, 1917.
The geological work carried out by the Survey under Sir James Hector
did not include much mapping or detailed field-work, but consisted chiefly
of geological reconnaissance and exploration of unknown localities, together
with reports on individual mines or small mining districts. Mr. McKay
was employed at first largely in fossil-collecting ; but at a later date, as
his colleagues Hutton, Cox, and Park dropped out of the Survey, the
greater part of the exploration fell to his share. As a fossil-collector he
had a keen eye, but he had rather too high an estimation of the power of
a palaeontologist to reconstruct a whole specimen from fragments, and in
consequence a considerable proportion of his collections are now being
found to be of doubtful utility. It was unfortunate that his collections
were not examined and described at once, for with his undoubtedly great
aptitude for collecting, and his memory for species, he would have been
quick to acquire that special knowledge which is essential to the finest
work. His collections were apparently looked over by Sir James Hector,
viii Obituary.
and a few selected specimens were displayed in the Colonial Museum
under their generic names, but the great bulk were stored away and have
only recently been partially re-examined. Over 120,000 fossils were
acquired by the Geological Survey under Sir James Hector, and of these
a considerable majority were collected by Mr. McKay. This tangible
result was considered by him his greatest achievement, but it is easily
outweighed by his contributions to the field and structural geology of
New Zealand.
During his geological explorations Mr. McKay covered almost the whole
area of New Zealand, and in accordance with the practice then in vogue
he prepared reports on all his travels. These papers, published in the
Reports of Geological Explorations, still form the only source of information
for many districts in New Zealand. In his later years he resumed many
of his earlier observations in papers dealing with larger districts, such as
, Central Otago, Marlborough, and the West Coast. As a writer he was
not always lucid, and seldom graceful in style ; indeed, his earlier papers
show that writing must have been a great labour to him. He was under
the further disadvantage of not being able to give a simple descriptive
account of what he observed, but of having to interpret it in terms of the
official classification adopted by the Survey. Nevertheless he had the
merit not to suppress any discordant observations, and it is easy for one
familiar with the classification adopted to obtain from the reports a clear
enough account of the geological sequence he observed. As a field geologist
he was a reliable worker, and in districts regarding which controversies
have arisen his account has generally stood the test of time.
During the last few years of the old Geological Survey, and subse-
quently during his employment by the Mines Department, Mr. McKay
broke fresh ground in the domain of structural geology. In 1884-85 he
traversed the Middle Clarence Valley, and in 1888-89 the Awatere Valley,
in each of which there are long strips of Notocene rocks resting on one
side of the valley unconformably on the older rocks, and bounded by long
fault-lines on the other. On each side the old rocks rise into mountains
of 6,000 ft. to 9,000 ft. The presence, in the Notocene series, of the Amuri
limestone, a fine-grained chalky limestone containing little or no terrigenous
sediment, led Mr. McKay to conclude that at the time of its formation the
Kaikoura Mountains, as such, were not in existence. Since the Notocene
series is structurally involved in the mountains, he concluded that the
latter originated at a comparatively recent (post-Miocene) date. His
subsequent work was devoted mainly to the extension of this theory of
mountain-building by block-faulting (although he did not actually use
these terms) throughout the rest of New Zealand, and notably in Central
Otago. Although this work received little attention at the time, it is
now accepted as substantially correct by the majority of New Zealand
geologists, and it is greatly to Mr. McKay's credit that he originated the
idea independently of any influence from other countries.
In his later years he devoted much attention to photography, and was
very successful in obtaining photomicrographs of igneous rocks, and also
long-distance views of the Tararua Mountains from his home in Kelburn.
J. A. T.
UJ
CONTENTS.
BOTANY.
Art. I. The Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris. By the Rev. pages
J. E. Holloway, D.Sc. . . . . . . . . . . 1-44
IV. A New Species of Hypolepis. By H. Carse . . . . . . 64
XIII. Notes of a Botanical Visit to Hollyford Valley and Martin's Bay,
with a List of Indigenous Plants. By D. L. Poppelwell and
W. A. Thomson . . . . . . . . . . 146-154
XIV. Notes of a Botanical Visit to Bunker's Island (Stewart Island).
By D. L. Poppelwell .. .. .. .. .. 154-157
XV. Notes of a Botanical Visit to Coll or Bench Island (Stewart Island).
By D. L. Poppelwell . . . . . . . . . . 158-159
XVII. Notes on New Zealand Floristic Botany, including Descriptions
of New Species, &c. (No. 3). By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S.,
F.R.S. .. .. •• •• •• •• 161-191
XXI. On the Distribution of Senecio saxifragoides Hook, f., and its
Relation to Senecio lagopus Raoul. By A. Wall, M.A. . . 198-206
XXII. Descriptions of New Native Flowering-plants. By D. Petrie,
M.A., Ph.D. .. .. .. .. .. .. 207-211
XXV. Notes on the Autecology of certain Plants of the Peridotite Belt,
Nelson: Part I — Structure of some of the Plants (No. 1).
By M. Winifred Betts, M.Sc. . . . . . . . . 230-243
GEOLOGY.
Art. V. The Stratigraphical Relationship of the Weka Pass Stone and
the Amuri Limestone. By R. Speight, M.Sc. F.G.S., and
L. J. Wild, M.A., B.Sc, F.G.S. . . . . . . . . 65-93
VI. Structural and Glacial Features of the Hurunui Valley. By R.
Speight, M.Sc, F.G.S. . . . . . . . . . . 93-105
VII. The Volcanic Rocks of Oamaru, with Special Reference to their
Position in the Stratigraphical Series. By G. H. Uttley,
M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S. . . . . . . . . . . 106-117
VIII. Geology of the Oamaru-Papakaio District. Bv G. H. Uttley,
M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S. .. .. .. .. .. 118-124
XVI. On the Age of the Alpine Chain of Western Otago. By James
Park, F.G.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
XX. On the Age of the Waikouaiti Sandstone, Otago, New Zealand.
By J. Allan Thomson, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S. . . . . . . 196-197
XXIII. The Geomorphology of the Coastal District of South-western
Wellington. By C. A. Cotton . . . . . . . . 212-222
XXVI. The Succession of Tertiary Beds in the Pareora District, South
Canterbury. By M. C. Gudex, M.A., M.Sc. . . . . 244-262
XXVII. The Tertiary Molluscan Fauna of Pakaurangi Point, Kaipara
Harbour. By P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc. . . . . . . 263-278
XXVIII. Notes on the Geology of the Tubuai Islands and of Pitcairn. Bv
P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc. . . . . . . . . . . 278-279
XXIX. A Note on East Coast Earthquakes (N.Z.). 1914-17. By George
Hogben, C.M.G., M.A., F.G.S. . . . . . . . . 280-281
32412
( 'oiitents.
ZOOLOGY.
Art. III. Revision of the Cirripedia of New Zealand. By L. S. Jennings, pages
B.A., M.Sc. . . . . . . . . . . . . 56-63
IX. Descriptions of New Species of Lepidoptera. By Alfred Philpott . . 125-132
X Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera. By E. Meyrick, B.A.,
F.R.S. .. .. .. .. .. .. 132-134
XI. Notes from Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station, Cass :
No. 6— The Insect-life. By F. W. Hilgendorf, D.Sc. .. 135-144
XII. On a Partially White Form of Puffinus griseus. By D. L. Poppel-
well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144-145
XVIII. A Note on the Young Stages of Astraea heliotropium (Martyn). By
Miss M. K. Mestayer . . . . . . . . . . 191-192
XIX. On Mosquito Larvicides. By H. B. Kirk, M.A. . . . . . . 193-196
MISCELLANEOUS.
Art. II. The Resistance to the Flow of Water through Pipes. By E.
Parry, B.Sc. . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-55
XXIV. New Zealand Ironsands : an Historical Account of an Attempt to
Smelt Ironsands at Onehunga in 1883. By J. M. Chambers . . 223-230
XXX. Further Notes on New Zealand Bird-song : Kapiti Island. By
Johannes C. Andersen . . . . . . . . . . 282-295
XXXI. Notes on Eels and Eel-weirs (Tuna and Pa-tuna). By T. W. Downes 296-316
XXXII. On certain Tripolar Relations : Part III. Bv E. G. Hogg, M.A.,
F.R.A.S. . . . . . . . . . . . . 317-322
PROCEEDINGS.
Fifteenth Annual Meeting of the Board of Governors
Wellington Philosophical Society
Auckland Institute
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury
Otago Institute
Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute
Manawatu Philosophical Society
Wanganui Philosophical Society
325-342
343-345
346-349
349-350
350-351
352
352-353
353-354
APPENDIX.
New Zealand Institute Act and Regulations
Hutton Memorial Medal and Research Fund
Hector Memorial Research Fund
Regulations for^administering the Government Research < J rant
Carter Bequest
New Zealand Institute — List of Officers, &c.
Roll of Members
Serial Publications received by the Library of the Institute
List of Institutions^ which the Publications of the Institute are~presented
Index
357
357-359
359-361
361-362
362
363-366
367-380
381-385
386-391
392
/$?.
AR Y
LIST OF PLATES.
Alexander McKay
Frontispiece.
FOLLOWS
PAGE
2
22
Hollow ay, J. E. —
Plate I. — Tmesipteris tannensis (lanceolata)
Plate II. — Longitudinal section, prothallus of Tmesipteris
Plate III. — Longitudinal section, point of attachment of young plant of
Tmesipteris to the prothallus . . . . . . . . -2
Speight, R. —
Plate IV. — Contact of Amuri limestone and Weka Pass stone, showing
nodules of phosphatized Amuri limestone, on roadside,
Weka Pass . . . . . . . . . • . . 74
Plate V.— Contact of Amuri limestone with Weka Pass stone on escarpment
east of viaduct, Weka Pass . . . . . . . . 74
Plate VI.—
Fig. 1. Contact of Amuri limestone with greensand layer containing
phosphatic nodules, Port Robinson . . . . . . 82
Fig. 2. Nodular layer in Amuri limestone, south side of Amuri Bluff . . 82
Plate VII.—
Fig. 1. Nodular layer in Amuri limestone, Maori village, Kaikoura
Peninsula . . . . . . . . • • • - 82
Fig. 2. Nodular layer in Amuri limestone, Atiu Point, Kaikoura
Peninsula . . . . . . . . . . • • 82
Park, J. —
Plate VIIL— Bob's Cove, Lake Wakatipu, showing warping of the Tertiary
beds .. .. .. •- .. ..160
Cockayne, L. —
Plate IX. — Leptospermum scoparium Leonard Wilson . . . . . . 178
Plate X. — Flowering branch of Leptospermum scoparium Leonard Wilson . . 178
Wall, A. —
Plate XL — Relief map of Banks Peninsula . . . . . . . . 198
Plate XII. — Young plant of Senecio saxifragoides . . . . . . 202
Plate XIII. — Plants of Senecio lagopus . . . . . . . ■ 202
Cotton, C. A. —
Plate XIV.- — General view of southern end of coastal lowland . . . . 218
Plate XV —
Fig. 1. Fan with cliffed seaward margin, north of Paekakariki . . 218
Fig. 2. Dissected bench of Otaki sandstone near Shannon . . . . 218
Gudex, M. C. —
Plate XVI —
Fig. 1. View of the fluted limestone at Otaio Gorge . . . . . . 250
Fig. 2. Solution-pits in the limestone of Holme Station . . . . 250
Plate XVII.—
Fig. 1. Road-cutting on Squire's Farm. The columnar structure of the
loess is seen . . . . . . . . . . [ 250
Fig. 2. The upper part of Little River Valley, viewed from Squire's Farm 250
Xll
List of Plates.
Maeshall, P. —
Plate XVIIL-
Plate XIX.-
Plate XX.-
Plate XXI.-
-Fossils from Pakaurangi Point
-Fossils from Pakaurangi Point
-Fossils from Pakaurangi Point
-Fossils from Pakaurangi Point
Plate XXII. — Fossils from Pakaurangi Point
FOLLOWS
PAGE
264
264
270
270
272
Downes, T. W .—
Plate XXIII. — Small pa-tuna at Ngutuwera, Moumahaki River
Plate XXIV. — Making a poha, Waitotara
Plate XXV.—
Fig. 1. Pa-tuna, or eel-weir, at Kauwae-roa, Whanganui River, looking
down -stream
Fig. 2. Pa-tuna at Kauwae-roa, Whanganui River, looking up-stream. .
Plate XXVI. — Pa-tuna on Te Aute-mutu Rapid, Whanganui River
Plate XXVIL—
Fig. 1. Utu, or lamprey- weir, at Parikino, Whanganui River, looking
down stream
Fig. 2. Utu, or lamprey-weir, at Parikino, Whanganui River, looking
up stream
Plate XXVIIL—
Figs. 1, 2. Hinaki herehere of different patterns
Fig. 3. Korotete
Plate XXIX. — Hinaki
Plate XXX. — Hinaki
Plate XXXI. — Hinaki
Plate XXXIL— Hinaki
Plate XXXIIL— Hinaki
Plate XXXIV.— Hinaki kareao
pattern (ripeka)
pattern, showing arrangement of ribs
pattern (elongated ripeka)
pattern (pakipaki or aurara) . .
pattern (phable)
310
310
310
310
310
312
312
312
312
312
312
314
314
314
314
TEANSACTIONS.
RARY
TRANSACTION S
OF THE
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE,
19 17.
Art. I. — The Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris.
By the Rev. J. E. Hollo way, D.Sc.
[Received by Editors, 31st December, 1917 ; issued separately, 24th May, 1918.]
Plates I-III.
It has been mainly, perhaps, owing to the fact that the various members
of the Psilotaceae are confined to tropical and subtropical regions, and to
the temperate countries of the Southern Hemisphere, that our knowledge
of the gametophyte and of the embryogeny of the sporophyte of this
interesting group of plants has increased so slowly. This order has been
the last to yield information with regard to the early stages in the life-
history of its members, and so to furnish evidence which may help us
to form reasonable theories concerning its genetic relationships. The
genus Tmesipteris, for example, is confined to Australia, New Zealand,
and certain Pacific islands, and hence has remained for the most part
beyond the reach of European and American botanists.
With regard to not a few of the chief pteridophytic groups, not only
has the number of those who have searched for the prothallus been
limited, but the search itself has been rendered difficult on account of
the fact that the gametophyte is often subterranean, and also that
although the adult plants are not as a rule rare in their occurrence, yet
their abundance in any particular locality is often due largely to their
powers of vegetative reproduction, for the germination of the spores
seems only to take place in localities where the conditions are peculiarly
favourable, and where also the prothallus and young plant will remain
quite undisturbed during the protracted period of their development.
However, it seems to be evident from the writings of most of those who
have given an account of the details of their search for pteridophytic
prothalli that when once one can learn from experience in the field to
recognize the localities favourable to the development of the particular
kind of prothallus searched for there is no obstacle other than the necessity
1— Trans.
2 Transactions.
for patience in dissecting to hinder its being collected in comparative
abundance.*
There is no doubt that the wet temperate climate of that part of
New Zealand subject to the excessive western rainfall is especially favour-
able to pteridophytic growth and to the sexual reproduction of the plants.
In the present paper I propose to give an account of my search for
and discovery of the prothalli and young plants of Tmesipteris in the
neighbourhood of Hokitika, in the Province of Westland, New Zealand,
and to describe the form, structure, and development of the prothallus
and sexual organs and of the young plant, and also to trace some of the
early stages in the development of the embryo. Two writers have pub-
lished certain results obtained by them in their search for the gametophyte
of the Psilotaceae. Lang (1904) has given a description of a single pro-
thallus which he has provisionally referred to Psilotum. This prothallus
is certainly a puzzle, for on the one hand the finding-place strongly
suggests that it belongs to Psilotum, but on the other its form and
structure differ very widely from what I propose to describe for Tmesi-
pteris, and from what Professor A. A. Lawson, of Sydney University,
has already described. Lawson (1917a) gives a preliminary account of
the prothallus of Tmesipteris based upon several specimens obtained by
him from different localities in eastern Australia. This account was pub-
lished early in 1917, but came into my hands only at the end of the
year, when my own paper was almost completed. No reference to it.
therefore, will be found in the body of the present paper, but in the
concluding section I have compared in detail my own results with his,
and noted our points of agreement or otherwise. There is a considerable
literature dealing with the anatomy and morphology of the adult plant
in the Psilotaceae. The more recent of those writings, such as those of
Scott (1909), Bower (1908), Seward (1910), Thomas (1902), Boodle (1904),
Ford (1904), and Sykes (1908), have brought together a weighty body of
evidence for relating the Psilotaceae with the fossil Sphenophyllales. In
my comparative remarks I have endeavoured to consider the results
obtained from the study of the prothallus and young plant of Tmesipteris
with regard to the systematic position to be assigned to Tmesipteris and
Psilotum.
As on other occasions, I desire to acknowledge the special debt of
gratitude I am under to Dr. L. Cockayne, F.R.S., for his constant
encouragement and advice, and also to Professor C. Chilton, M.A., D.Sc,
for his kindness in giving me free access to the Botanical Laboratory at
Canterbury College.
*The following may be cited in this connection: H. Bruchmann, Uber die Pro-
thallien und die Keimpflanzen mehrerer europiiischer Lycopodien, pp. 4 and 5, 1898 ; D. H.
Campbell, The Euspomngiatae (the adult gametophyte of Ophioglossum molucca num and
O. pendulum), pp. 11 and 13, 1911 ; M. Treub, "Some Words on the Life-history of
Lycopods" (tropical species), Ann. o/ Bot., vol. 1, pp. 119-23, 1887; J. E. Holloway,
••Studies in the New Zealand Species of the Genus Lycopodium, Part I," Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 48, pp. 259-63, 1916. In the last- mentioned paper I described the discovery
of three species of Lycopodium prothalli of the L. c< rn u u m type, one epiphytic species
of the L. Phlegmaria type, and three subterranean species of the L. complanatum and
L. clavatum types, the three latter being found in abundance. Since writing this paper
I have found the prothalli oi the three epiphytic varieties of Lycopodium which occur
in New Zealand, in the case of two of them in great abundance, and have also continued
to come across sporeling plants and prothalli of the three subterranean species in many
different localities, and in large numbers.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate I.
60
O
Oh
3
"to
hH
-If?
&
cu
GO
aT
CD
la
a
60
a
o
s
a
60
C
O
60
00
5.
5V
lace p. 3.1
3 Holloway. — The Protlvallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris.
Occurrence and Habit.
Tmesipteris occurs commonly throughout New Zealand as an epiphyte
on the stems of tree-ferns and other forest-trees. The much-branched
brown rhizome penetrates through the mass of aerial rootlets which densely
clothes the stem of the tree-fern, and especially is to be found under-
neath the decurrent stipites of its fronds. Certain of the rhizome-
branches turn upwards, and emerge as green aerial shoots, bearing
scattered scale leaves below and above the full-sized leaves of charac-
teristic form and the sporophylls.
There is a certain amount of variation noticeable in the habit and
general form of the plant, which is probably to be put in connection with
the nature of the surface on which it grows. However, it must be noted
that some writers have recognized distinct varieties. For example, when
growing on certain species of the tree-fern Cyathea the whole plant is gene-
rally somewhat stunted in size, the rhizome being more scantily branched
and the aerial shoots short and semi-erect. In these cases the surface of
the tree-fern stem consists solely of the mat of black brittle aerial rootlets,
the stipites of the fronds not reaching down the stem much below its
crown, and consequently there being only the dense tough mat, of greater
or lesser thickness, of the interlaced rootlets in which the Tmesipteris
plants can grow. My experience has been the same probably as that of
others who have tried to dissect out the plants from such intractable
material. It is almost impossible to get the plant with all its various
branchlets complete, and one gives up in despair the search for the young
plants or for the prothallus.
In those parts of New Zealand, however, especially in the botanical
districts, as defined by L. Cockayne,* which lie for the most part west of
the Southern Alps, together with that ecologist's South Otago and Stewart
Districts, where the average rainfall is very heavy, there is an extremely
rich growth of Pteridophytes, and Tmesipteris occurs abundantly on the
tree-fern Dicksonia squarrosa and on moss- or humus-covered forest-trees,
and also in the heaps of humus which lie on the ground at the bases of the
trees. Here the size and habit of the plant are markedly different from those
described above. The penetrating rhizomes may be as much as 2 ft. or
3 ft., or even more, in total length, and are for the most part extensively
branched ; also, it is an easier matter to dissect out a plant entire from
such a substratum. The aerial branches arising from a single plant are
fairly numerous, and droop down 2 ft., 3 ft., and 4 ft. in length, the branches
of groups of plants hanging like a fringe from some tree-branch or fallen
tree-stem. In Plate I is shown a single plant with a much-branched
rhizome and three aerial stems, the latter showing fertile regions.
I have found in the neighbourhood of Hokitika, Westland, in the low-
lying forest which borders the sea-front, both young and mature plants
of Tmesipteris growing on the stems of Dicksonia squarrosa in great
abundance. On this particular tree-fern the frond-stipites run down the
stem for some distance before they enter its surface, and hence in young
individuals the greater part of the stem, and in older plants the upper
portion, is covered with the adhering bases of the fronds. The young
plants of Tmesipteris occur both immediately underlying the stipites and
in the ridges of aerial rootlets which project outwards between them.
During the month of September, 1917, I obtained several lengths of tree-
* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vcl. 49, p. 65, 1917.
1*
4 Transactions.
fern stems which showed the presence of abundant young plants of
Tmesipteris, and took them home for dissection. Between twenty and
thirty prothalli were discovered on this occasion in all stages of develop-
ment (except, of course, the very youngest), some of these prothalli
bearing young plants in various stages of growth. During the following
two months many other prothalli were obtained in the same way, the
total number to date being between sixty and seventy, as well as many
isolated prothallial plantlets, some of the latter being complete and others
broken in process of dissection.
By reason of their brown colour and large size, the prothalli and the
rhizomes of the young plants are clearly to be seen amidst the tangle of
black aerial tree-fern rootlets. There is not much humus present, but
the rhizoids of the prothalli and plantlets are closely intermixed with
ramenta from the tree-fern. Prothalli and plantlets also of Lycopodium
Billardieri var. gracile were found in abundance on these tree-ferns, and
also the prothalli of various ferns and several liverworts. The spores of
Tmesipteris germinate best on those parts of the tree-fern stems where the
surface, owing to the presence of the frond-stipites, is more loose and open.
The young plants, once established, will develop, and their rhizomes ramify
in all directions, even after the bases of the fronds have completely fallen
away and their places have been filled up by the mat of aerial rootlets ; but
the younger plantlets will only be found higher up the stem. It was
noticed that in the groves of Dicksonia squarrosa in this particular locality
many young tree-ferns of from 6 ft. to 8 ft. in height bore young developing
plantlets of Tmesipteris, but that it was only on still taller stems that the
mature plants were to be seen, whilst from those of 15 ft. or more in
height the plants had generally disappeared altogether from the lower
portions of the stem and were only to be found on the upper half. It
would seem that Tmesipteris prefers a fairly loose substratum both for the
germination of its spores and also for the full development of the plants.
That this is so becomes apparent when one observes the conditions
under which it flourishes on Stewart Island and on those parts of the
mainland {e.g., Bluff Hill) which face Stewart Island across Foveaux
Strait. In these localities Tmesipteris occurs very commonly in the masses
of loose humus which are gathered at the bases of forest-trees and tree-
ferns, and there the plant often reaches a most luxuriant development.
Also, on such large branches and tree-trunks throughout the forest as
are covered with humus, and especially on those which lie more or less
horizontal, there is frequently a rich growth of the plant. In January,
1915, I made a visit to Stewart Island for the purpose of searching for
the young plants and prothalli of Tmesipteris. This botanical district
is well known to be exceptionally favourable for the growth of epiphytic
ferns and lycopods, on account of its wet climate. There is one locality
especially, bordering the shore of Preservation Inlet, near the upper reaches
of its south-west arm, where there is a very characteristic and interesting
type of forest. This has been described by L. Cockayne in his Report
on a Botanical Survey of Stewart Island (Government Printer, Wellington,
1909). Cockayne speaks of this type of forest as " the Yellow-pine (Dacry-
dium intermedium) Association." This particular association is confined to
wet ground, and the low forest consists mainly of the small pine which gives
its name to the association, and of other conifers, as, for example, Dacry-
dium biforme, Podocarpus Hallii, and certain other species belonging to
these two genera ; while the floor of the forest is covered with curious
Holloway. — The Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris. 5
large globular cushions of mosses and liverworts {e.g., Dicranoloma Bil-
lardieri and species of Plagiochila) from 1 ft. to 2 ft. or more in diameter,
and with three species of Lycopodium (L. volubile, L. scariosum, and L.
varium) growing in wonderful luxuriance. Lycopodium varium here grows
in great clumps, which are as much as 6-8 ft. across. Tmesipteris and
filmy ferns are also in great abundance — in fact, the general appearance
of the vegetation is suggestive of a past age when Gymnosperms and
Pteridophytes were dominant rather than Phanerogams. During my visit
to Stewart Island I arranged an expedition to spend a few days in this
locality, but owing to heavy rains and floods the party was isolated on
the sea-coast and nearly met with disaster. However, on the last day
I reached the spot, and during an hour's search succeeded in finding
several young prothallial plantlets of Tmesipteris growing in thick loose
humus on a fallen tree-trunk. There is no doubt that with longer time
at his disposal a searcher would find the place a most favourable one for
the discovery of both the young plants and the prothalli.
It was not till the spring of 1917 that the further discovery was made,
in the neighbourhood of Hokitika, of both plantlets and prothalli of
Tmesipteris, as recorded above. In the dissection of these specimens
from the mass of aerial rootlets on the stems of the tree-ferns a certain
amount of patience and care had to be used, for these rootlets are ex-
ceedingly tough and are closely intermatted, and both the prothalli and
rhizomes of Tmesipteris are very brittle and easily broken. However,
by pulling away the stipites of the tree-fern fronds and carefully tearing
apart the mass of aerial rootlets the golden-yellow rhizomes and the brown
prothalli were easily to be seen (by reason both of their characteristic
colour and of their comparatively large size), and, the black aerial rootlets
being cut away with dissecting scissors, they were readily obtained.
General Form and Structure of the Prothallus.
The prothallus-body is cylindrical in form, being radially constructed.
It is brown in colour, and is covered with numerous long golden-yellow
rhizoids. It never seems to reach the light, and is quite destitute of
chlorophyll. The largest specimens found are shown in figs. 5, 6, and 8,
being 18 mm. and 13 mm. respectively in total length, and the smallest
in figs. 11 and 12, these being from 1 mm. to 2 mm. long. In its un-
branched form the prothallus is carrot-shaped, tapering down gradually
from a fairly thick head and upper region towards the basal first-formed
end, which culminates in a more or less long-drawn-out point (figs. 1, 2,
and 11). The first-formed basal region does not show such a marked
primary tubercle as is so well known in the case of the prothalli of
Lycopodium cernuum or in those of Ophioglossum and Helminthostachys,
but there is commonly a succession of gentle swellings from the original
point of growth upwards by which the prothallus grows in girth (figs. 1, 2,
11, and 13). The actual head is generally the stoutest region (figs. 12,
13, &c), being sometimes curiously swollen, and the growing apex is
bluntly rounded.
Sooner or later the head of the prothallus forks dichotomously, and
one of the branches so formed may later fork again. In some cases the
first branching is postponed till after the prothallus has attained a length
of as much as 8-10 mm. (figs. 1, 2), and the result is the carrot form ;
more often, however, the first forking takes place comparatively early
(fig. 6), and many adult prothalli were found in which one of these
Transactions.
Fig.
Fro.
branches had developed into the main prothallus-body, whilst the other
had either broken away or persisted towards the base of the first in
a state of arrested growth (figs. 4, 5, 6). The forking generally seems
to result at first in two equal
apices of growth (figs. 1, 2), and
hence may be termed dichotomous,
and, except in the case of the first
branching as just described, which
takes place when the prothallus
is still comparatively small, the
resultant branches become more
or less equally developed (figs. 2
and 5). Hence in most adult
prothalli found the original simple carrot-
shape form had been lost, and the prothallus
had become more irregular in appearance,
L dp such as is generally the case with epiphytic prothalli.
Thus in this respect the prothalli of T mesipteris can
be compared with those of the epiphytic species of
Lycopodium and Ophioglossum. In a few instances,
moreover, such as those illustrated in figs. 6 and 66,
a still greater irregularity of form had been brought
about through the branching not taking place dicho-
tomously. In the former of these two prothalli the
forking seems to have been trichotomous. Still another
irregularity in the form of adult prothalli is brought
about by the equal development of both
daughter branches at the first forking of the
prothallus, not, as is usually the case, at an
angle to one another, but in directions dia-
metrically opposite (fig. 7). This is still more
pronounced in the case of the large prothallus
shown in fig. 8, in which one of the branches
resulting from the first forking had forked
again, the two branches of this second forking
proceeding to develop in opposite directions
].— Complete prothallus, carrot to one another in the same straight line,
form, bearing young plant. Thus the branched form of the adult pro-
thallus is attained normally by the dichoto-
mous forking of the apex, but I observed also
a few instances in which short undeveloped
branches had arisen apparently laterally.
However, even in the most irregularly shaped adult individuals the manner
of growth can always be easily traced, for even if the original long-drawn-
out point be not preserved, yet the oldest region can always be dis-
tinguished from the rest of the prothallus by its darker brown or even
almost black colour.
On some of the prothalli a large cup-shaped prominence with an
obviously lacerated rim was to be seen (figs. 4 ard 73). This is where
a young plantlet had been broken away, the cup-shaped prominence
having been formed by the localized outward growth of the prothallial
tissues around the embryo and their final rupture by the developing
plantlet. Such a point of attachment of the plant to its parent prothallus
, and showing original end intact.
X 10.
1a. — Original end of prothallus
shown in fig. 1. X 24.
Hollow at. — The Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris.
may be seen sometimes in the lower regions of the latter (fig. 5), indicating
that the growth of the prothallus is by no means arrested by the develop-
ment on it of a plant, but may go on after the latter has attained a
considerable size or has even become detached from the prothallus.
When first seen amongst the tangle of black aerial rootlets of the tree-
fern stem the prothalli may easily be mistaken for broken portions of
the rhizome of young plants or for very young complete isolated plantlets,
and vice versa. Both the prothalli and the rhizomes are brown in colour,
and both are covered fairly thickly with the long yellow-brown rhizoids
Fig. 2. — Complete prothallus, carrot form, commencing to fork, bearing young
plant, x 9.
Fig. 3. — Prothallus, carrot form, original end broken off, showing swollen head. X 12.
Fig. 4. — Prothallus, branched, one branch broken off, shows original end intact,
also point of attachment of young plant, x 12.
Fig. 4a. — Original end of prothallus shown in fig. 4. x 36.
or with the characteristic small brown circles formed by the persisting
bases of broken-ofi rhizoids. The similarity holds also with regard to their
growing apices, which are always somewhat swollen and are clear and
whitish in appearance and show rhizoids only in their earlier stages of
development. Each object dissected out has generally to be separately
cleaned and examined under a low power of the microscope before its
nature can be definitely determined. This is especially so in the case
of the branched prothalli, whereas the carrot - shaped individuals are
more easily recognized. However, generally speaking, the colour of the
8
Transactions.
prothallus is more opaquely brown than that of the rhizome, the latter
appearing a clearer golden brown, with its surface cells outlined with great
distinctness, this difference in appearance being due possibly to the denser
fungal element in
the interior tissues
of the prothallus.
The older basal
regions of the pro-
th alii are often
darkly brown in
Fig, 5. — Complete branched pro- 3
thallus of large size, bearing^]
young plant which "shows \
both rhizome and aeri
stem, x 3.
Si WF" p
colour or even blackish, owing
not so much to any withering-
away of the tissues as to the
presence of the mycorhiza
in this region in the cells
immediately underlying the Q.
epidermis, and, in the oldest
regions of all, in the epidermal
cells also, as well as in those
more centrally situated.
The prothallus in trans
verse section is round in out
line (figs. 16 and 17), this
being so throughout its length, so that its construction is consistently
radial. Its growth in length is referable to the activity of a single
cell (figs. 20 and 21), such as is the case also with the cylindrical pro-
thalli of the Ophiogk ssaceae. A transverse section through the main
Fig. 6. — Complete branched prothallus of large size,
one main branch showing further irregular
branching, x 10.
Hollow ay. — The Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris.
body of the prothallus shows its tissues to be composed of cells of uniform
size and shape, there being do differentiation of central long conducting
cells or of fungal zones such as are so well known in most of the types of
Lycopodium prothalli. The dense fungal coils occupy uniformly practically
all the cells in the central region, the epidermis and a zone three or four
cells in width immediately underlying it alone being free from these coils.
In the limbs of the larger prothalli this subepidermal layer sometimes con-
tains much starch. Moreover, meristematic activity sometimes shows itself
in these cells (fig. 19), though whether in connection with the storage of
starch or with the development of the sexual organs is not quite clear. The
mycorhiza extends uniformly right up through the length of the prothallus
to close behind the actual apex, keeping pace with the forward growth of
the latter. A series of transverse sections behind a growing apex shows
that at its uppermost limit the mycorhiza occupies only a narrow central
Fig. 7. — Complete, branched prothallus, in which the branches are not
inclined to each other at angle but in opposite directions. X 10.
Fig. 8. — Branched prothallus, one branch broken ; the other has
branched again in the manner described for fig. 7. X 5.
core of cells, which gradually tapers off upwards, and that in these cells
the hvphae are more scantily developed. The fungal hyphae in these
growing regions of the prothallus are wholly absent from the cells which
surround the central core, this fact showing that when once the mycorhiza
has entered the prothallus in its earliest stages of development no further
infection is needed, but that the fungus extends upwards in a uniform
manner, keeping pace with the growth of the prothallus. The clear white
colour of the actual apex is, of course, due to the absence of the fungus
from its cells. In the older parts of the prothallus hyphae can often be
distinguished penetrating through the length of rhizoids and across the
outer layers of cortical cells, but it is probable (as is also considered to
be the case in other pteridophytic prothalli which are infected with a
mycorhiza) that this signifies no organic connection between the fungal
10
Transactions.
hvphae within the prothallus and those in the surrounding humus. A
great outward growth of hyphae was noticed from the surface of teased-up
portions of young rhizomes which had been kept for some days in water
in a watch-glass, and many of the threads showed what seemed to be single
round spores at regular distances along their length. At its uppermost
limit the hyphae of the mycorhiza in the interior cells of the prothallus
are scantily developed, but farther back the coils become more dense.
Throughout the greater part of the prothallus the fungal contents of each
cell show as a dense globular mass, in which the identity of the hyphal
Fig. 9. — Old withered prothallus. carrot form, attached to plantlet which is broken
above and below. X 3.
Fin. 10. — Old withered branched prothallus, attached to plantlet from which aerial
stem is broken off. X 2.
FlG. 11. — Very young complete prothallus, showing original end intact and antheridia
on its head. > 4~>.
threads can no longer be traced. These globular contents of the cells
present a very characteristic feature both in the prothallus and young
rhizome. (See Plate II.)
Not a few well-grown prothalli showed the original point of growth
almost intact, and the remains of the first-formed filament, which arises,
presumably, immediately from the spore, could be very clearly seen
(figs. 1a, 4a, 11, 12, and 13). In two instances — namely, the very young
prothallus shown in fig. 11 and the much older one in fig. 1a — there
was present at the extremity of the basal end a short filament of cells, two
or three in length, which in the former case was seen to be incomplete,
Holloway. — Tin Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris. 11
but in the latter was apparently quite complete. The prothallus shown
in fig. 4a tapered off at the basal end to a single cell, which showed
no sign of original farther extension such as would compare with the
longer filament in figs. 1a and 11. But the single cell in which the
basal point of most of the youngest prothalli found by me terminated
did give evidence of having had a farther cellular extension broken away
from it, In all these prothalli the terminal basal cells, whether single or
in the form of a short linear filament, all contained the same dense masses
of the fungal element which are present in the other parts of the prothallus.
Thus it would seem that the
fungus enters the prothallus im-
mediately the spore begins to
germinate, unless perhaps we
take it that it spreads downwards
into the filament subsequent to
the infection of the prothallus
through the first-formed rhizoids.
Probably the delicate original
basal filament owes its preserva-
tion to the fact of the presence in
its cells of these fungal masses,
the collapse of the cells being
thus prevented. At any rate,
the preservation of the actual
original point of the prothallus
of Tmesipteris in so many indi-
viduals, some of which were well
grown, is rather remarkable. It
would seem, then, though it must
be stated that the remains of the
originating spore itself have not
been seen, that on germination
the spore gives rise to a short
linear filament of cells, and that
this, after from one to three or
more single cells have been cut
off, proceeds to the formation of
a cell-mass. This basal primary
tubercle is well preserved in the
prothalli shown in figs. 1, 2, 4,
11, 12, and 13, and it will be seen
that in most cases it shows no great development. The further stages of
growth of the prothallus can be clearly seen from a comparison of the
young and the older individuals shown in these figures. The prothallus
grows in a succession of gentle swellings, each a little bigger than the last,
the increased cell-multiplication which these swellings indicate being due
probably to the accumulation of food material at the apex, consequent
on the activity of the mycorhiza. In fig. 14 is shown one of the limbs
of the large prothallus illustrated in fig. 6 ; serial sections through this
limb showed that the cells of the apical region were packed with starch.
Thus, as the prothallus grows, its apex becomes more and more bulky, so
that the whole prothallus-body acquires the carrot form, until at length,
owing probably to the stimulation set up by the presence of abundant
Fig. 12. — Very young complete prothallus,
showing papillose -like outgrowth of epi-
dermal cells. Antheridia on head. X 45.
12
T fa nsact ion s .
food, contents in its cells, the head of the prothallus forks and the carrot
form gives place to the branched form characteristic of the full-grown
individuals.
The Distribution of the Sexual Organs.
There is no differentiation of the prothallus into vegetative and repro-
ductive regions, such as is usual,- for example, in the terrestrial forms
of Lycopodium prothalli. The sexual organs are distributed over the sur-
face of the whole prothallus-body in large numbers, and often in groups.
A transverse section of the limb of a prothallus will often show either
antheridia or arcliegonia distributed more or less all around the surface
(figs. 16 and 17). The sexual organs are for the most part more inter-
mingled than is the case in the branched prothalli of the epiphytic
lycopodiums, and correspond in this particular rather to the prothallus of
Ophioglossum (Campbell, 1911, p. 10).
The young developing sexual organs are to be found immediately
behind the growing apex of the prothallus, but also, as is known to
be the case in 02Jhioglossum (ibid., p. 29), they frequently arise much
farther back from it amongst old organs. As a rule, however, both the
antheridia and the archegonia arise immediately behind the growing apices
in acropetal succession. In nearly every prothallus I noticed developing
antheridia on the growing branches,
in some cases the youngest being
fairly close behind the actual apex,
whilst in others (where possibly the
growth in length of the branch was
taking place more rapidly) at a greater
distance back from it. In only a
very few out of the large number of
prothalli found by me were groups
of young archegonia to be seen close
behind the apex. This fact, however,
is probably due to chance only, for
archegonia always occur in large num-
bers on the main prothallus-body,
though the tendency to grouping is
more to be remarked in the distribu-
tion of the archegonia than of the
antheridia. It may possibly be that
the archegonia arise in an irregular
manner on older parts of the pro-
thallus more frequently than do the
antheridia. In several instances of
adult prothalli (figs. 1, 2, and 3) where
growth had slackened, old archegonia
were present in fairly large numbers
close behind the apex.
In the very young prothalli shown in figs. 1 1 and 12 it will be seen that
the sexual organs begin to develop comparatively early, and that it is
the antheridia that are first formed. The basal regions of older prothalli
also generally show the presence of old antheridia. In surface appearance
the young developing antheridia are seen as colourless hemispherical pro-
turberances (figs. 6, 12, 13, &c). This is generally one of the most
Fig. 13. — Young complete prothallus,
showing swollen bead, sexual
organs, and original end. X 16.
l'lii. 13a. — Original end <>f prothallus
shown in fig. 13. > 3(1.
Holloway. — The Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris. 13
marked features of the growing head of the prothallus. Developing
antheridia in surface view are shown in fig. 14. There is a single
opercular cell at the apex of the protuberance, whose walls early become
brown in colour, thus defining the cell very clearly. This browning
soon extends to the walls and contents of all the outer cells on the free
portion of the antheridium. In the ripe antheridium the interior mass
of spermatocytes can clearly be seen in surface view. The antheridium
is emptied through the breaking-down of the opercular cell, the aperture
thus formed becoming enlarged in still older individuals by the breaking-
away also of those cells which adjoin the opercular cell. Thus the cha-
racteristic appearance of old antheridia all over the main prothallus-body
is that of brown cup-shaped structures projecting from the prothallus-
surface (fig. 14, &c).
Fig. 14. — One of the large heads of prothallus shown in fig. 6, with antheridia in
various views. X 52.
Fig. 15. — Small head of a prothallus, showing archegonia in various stages of
development, x 66.
The young archegonium is first visible in surface view from the
division into four of its outej: cell and their arrangement quadrantwise.
At first, near the apex of the prothallus, this group of four cells is
colourless, but in older organs the cell-wails and the aperture of the
neck-canal between them becomes brown in colour, and the archegonia
are thus clearly defined in surface view (fig. 15). The neck of the arche-
gonium early projects from the surrounding epidermal cells, and is straight
rather than curved. Generally speaking, in older parts of the prothallus
the neck has broken short off, so that the characteristic appearance of
the group of four cells which surround the aperture of the archegonium
14
Transactions.
in these eases is that of the lowest tier of neck-cells. In fig. 15 is shown
the head of a small limb of a prothallus with archegonia in different stages
of development, in surface view.
There are not lacking signs of dorsiventralitv in the distribution of
the sexual organs, but these are probably unimportant. For example,
the old antheridia are sometimes much more numerous along the edges
of the prothallus (in the plane in which it naturally lies), and also at the
growing apices the young antheridia sometimes occur more numerously
towards the edges. This tendency to dorsiventralitv is more apparent
still in the fact that in some of the younger prothalli one surface was
antb
ax.
Fig. 16. — Transverse section of limb of prothallus behind growing apex,
showing antheridia and archegonia. x 100.
noticed to be almost if not entirely free from rhizoids and sexual organs,
whilst the opposite surface bore them both. In the young prothallus
shown in fig. 12 one surface was quite naked and smooth, but on the other
there were a fair number of rhizoids, and the surface was noticeably rough
on account of the protruding of the epidermal cells in a papillose manner,
and also at the edges were both rhizoids and antheridia to be seen. These
indications of dorsiventrality in the distribution of the sexual organs are
not, however, always to be observed, and, on the whole, both antheridia
and archegonia may be said to be distributed more or less evenly around
the surface.
Holloway. — The Pro! hull us and Young Plant of Tmesipteris.
15
Development of the Sexual Organs.
As has been stated in the preceding section, developing antheridia were
commonly seen at the growing apices of the prothalli, but only in a very
few prothalli did I find groups of young archegonia. In the older regions
of the prothallus, where both antheridia and archegonia not infrequently
arise singly amongst old organs, I did not find any in the earliest stages
of development, though many of both kinds in later stages were to be
seen. The fact that the apex of the prothallus is generally very broad
militated somewhat against the study of the young developing organs,
for transverse sections in this curving region of the prothallus-head cut
ar.
Fig. 17. — Transverse section of main limb of prothallus in older region, showing
portions of old sexual organs, also two fertilized archegonia. X 100.
them often obliquely. However, I was able to obtain a fairly good series
of both, although certain points must be left for a more complete study.
Perhaps it would not be out of place for me to describe at this juncture
the methods adopted for the preparation of my material for microscopic
investigation. After the preliminary study and drawing of each prothallus
as it was dissected out of the tree-fern humus, it was killed and fixed by
immersing for twenty-four hours in a solution of chromo-acetic acid, the
formula for which is that given by Chamberlain on p. 21 of his Methods
in Plant Histology (3rd ed., 1915). This was found to answer quite satis-
factorily so far as the more obvious histology of the prothalli and sexual
16
Transactions.
organs was concerned. Some of the material was sectioned by the micro-
tome, but I found that it showed a tendency in the older regions to resist
infiltration by the paraffin. I was inclined to ascribe this to the very dense
nature of the fungal element. The prothalli of Tmesipteris are so firm and
large that I decided to hand-cut a number of prepared specimens (having
no lack of material) in order to supplement my serial sections with others
to as great an extent as possible. I found that, on the whole, the hand-cut
sections gave good results, being free from the shrinkage so often associated
with the microtome sections. Moreover, they took the stain better. The
obvious disadvantage of the hand-cut sections is that they are not kept in
Fig. 18. — Portion of main limb of prothallus in tangential longitudinal section,
showing archegonia. X 70.
Fig. 19. — Portion of main limb of prothallus in transverse section, showing meri-
stematic activity underneath the epidermis, x 137.
Fig. 20. — Transverse section of apex of prothallus. showing single apical cell. X 137.
Fig. 21. — Longitudinal section of apex of slender limb of prothallus, showing single
apical cell. X 137.
proper sequence. I used throughout Delafield's haematoxylin as a stain,
combining it with safranin for the vascular tissues. This haematoxylin
was very satisfactory, especially for differentiating the young embryos.
However, this method of staining failed to show anything of the process
of spermatogenesis. Campbell (1911, p. 28) recommends using the com-
bination stain safranin and gentian violet for this purpose, as, indeed,
generally for prothallial work.
In detecting the youngest stages in the development of the sexual
organs one is guided by the fact that they occur in close association with
others and also with slightly older organs, and also by the greater size of their
Holloway. — The Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris. 17
nuclei and the deeper staining both of these and of their other cell-contents
than is the case in the ordinary vegetative cells. They do not arise so
near the actual apex of the prothallus as is the case in the Ophioglossaceae
or as I have found in the epiphytic prothalli of Lycopodium Billardieri.
Figs. 22-33. — Series showing the development of the antheridium. X 150.
Fig. 34. — Mature antheridium, showing opercular cell. X 137.
In the development of an antheridium from an epidermal cell the
first division wall to be formed is a periclinal one cutting off an outer
from an inner cell (figs. 22 to 25). Sometimes the inner of these, and at
18 Transactions.
others the outer, is the larger. The mother cell does not at first project
beyond the surface of the prothallus, but by the time the first division in
it has taken place it has enlarged considerably and has begun to project
noticeably. The next division takes place in the outer cell by an anti-
clinal wall (figs 24, 25). I have no direct information as to the exact
sequence of divisions which takes place in the cover-cell, but it is clear
that it gives rise to the whole of the outer free wall of the antheridium,
whilst from the inner cell is formed the mass of spermatocytes. From
figs. 26 and 28 it would seem that a good deal of segmentation takes place
in the inner part of the developing antheridium before the outer wall
begins to project at all strongly. I did not observe in my preparations
any instances of an antheridium in this stage in transverse section, but
it will probably be the case that quadrant and octant divisions are formed
in the inner cell, as is known in other Pteridophytes. The free wall of
the antheridium is never more than one cell in thickness. The mature
antheridium projects very strongly beyond the surface of the prothallus as
a hemispherical globular body, the number of cells in the free wall being
large. From mature antheridia seen in surface view (fig. 14), it is evi-
dent that the division walls in the cover of the antheridium intersect
one another more or less at right angles, so that the opercular cell is four-
sided. This cell is situated at the apex of the antheridium, and is first
to be distinguished in surface view by its walls becoming brown in colour
(fig. 14). This browning later extends to the adjacent cell-walls, and,
before the antheridium has discharged, both walls and contents of most
of the cover-cells in the exposed portion of the antheridium have assumed
the same coloration. The interior cells of the antheridium rapidly sub-
divide (figs. 29 to 33), so that a large number of spermatocytes is formed,
although the number is not so great as in certain of the Ophioglossaceae
and in the subterranean types of Lycopodium prothalli. From the adjacent
prothallial cells a wall of more or less flat cells is cut off surrounding the
lower portion of the antheridium. The opercular cell seems to vary in
size for different antheridia. Rupture of the antheridium is initiated by
the disorganization of this cell, while in still older antheridia it is generally
to be observed that the cells of the outer wall which adjoin this aperture
have also broken down, so that the characteristic appearance of the
numerous old discharged antheridia on the main prothallus body is that
of small brown saucer-like structures projecting from the surface. The
details in the formation of the sperms were not followed. I was unsuc-
cessful in my endeavour to make the sperms swarm in fresh prothallial
sections, and the method of staining was not suitable for showing the details
of spermatogenesis. Possibly, also, a better killing and fixing solution would
have to be sought for this purpose.
The earliest stages in the development of the archegonium are to be
distinguished by the very large size of the nucleus in the inner cell. As
in the young antheridium, the first wall to be formed is a periclinal by
which an outer is cut off from an inner cell. The outer or neck cell divides
next by an anticlinal wall (figs. 35, 36), a surface view showing that
two such walls are quickly formed intersecting at right angles, so that
the archegonium neck-cells have the usual quadrant form (fig. 15). These
four cells give rise to the neck of the archegonium, and soon project sharply
beyond the surrounding epidermal cells (figs. 36 to 38, and 40). My
preparations show that up to this point the inner cell has not divided,
but has merely pushed up slightly between the neck-cells along with the
Hollowat. — The Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris. 19
Figs. 35-49. — Series showing development of the archegonia. Figs. 35-41 x 150;
fig. 42 X 137; figs. 43-49 X 150.
Figs. 50a, 50b. — Series of transverse sections through mature archegonium from
above downwards. X 137.
20 Transactions.
outward growth of the latter. Thus a basal cell to the archegonium is not
formed. In figs. 39, 41, and 42 it will be seen that the large nucleus of
the inner cell next divides, and a horizontal wall is formed, this (according
to my interpretation) cutting off a neck-canal cell from a central cell.
This neck-canal cell seems to be evident in the slightly older archegonia
shown in figs. 43 and 46. The neck-cells lengthen considerably, and divide
by horizontal walls generally two or three times, so that a straight neck
is formed (figs. 15, 45, 46) of three or four tiers of cells. The neck-
canal cell pushes up between the neck-cells, and probably divides once or
twice in the usual way, although I could not demonstrate this, except
perhaps in the instance shown in fig. 45 — much less was a ventral-canal
cell to be traced. In fig. 15 is shown the rounded apical head of a small
prothallus branch on which two archegonia will be seen with protruding
necks. In these cases the neck consists of the lowest tier of cells, which
have already taken on the characteristic brown coloration, and an upper
tier of elongated cells which will divide again by two or three horizontal
walls. As soon as the outermost tier separate the neck-canal becomes
conspicuously brown. Sooner or later, after the archegonium has matured,
the outer three or four tiers of neck-cells fall off, leaving only the lowest
tier, whose walls become strongly cutinized. These cells have already
assumed the brown colour in their walls, and their nuclei and contents
soon do the same. The exposed horizontal walls of this tier of four cells
slope inwards towards the canal in a saucer-like form (fig. 15). Although
an occasional old archegonium may be seen on the older parts of the
prothallus still showing the full length of neck, yet the characteristic
appearance of old archegonia is that just described, the four brown rather
peculiarly projecting neck-cells, which originally constituted the lowest
tier in the neck, surmounting the brown egg-cell (figs. 47 to 49). A close
inspection not infrequently shows the remains of the broken-off cell-walls
still attached to the outer surface of these persisting neck-cells.
The Development of the Embryo.
Unfertilized old archegonia are abundant on most parts of the main
prothallus-body, and are very evident on account of the brown colour of
the egg-cell and of the persisting lowest tier of neck-cells. I sectioned
a good number of large prothalli on which I found no fertilized archegonia
at all, but there were several prothalli on which I found both fertilized
archegonia in which the egg-cell had not as yet shown any cell-division, and
also several young developing embryos. Also I obtained a number of pro-
thalli which bore single young plantlets in various stages of development,
while most of the largest prothalli showed the presence of the ruptured
cup-like eminence from which a young plant had become detached. Thus
although developing embryos do not occur on the prothalli of Tmesipteris
as numerously as in certain of the large terrestrial species of Lycopodium
prothallus (vide, e.g., Bruchmann, 1898, p. 37), yet it ought to be pos-
sible to obtain a complete series. It was to be noticed that in several
instances both the fertilized archegonia and also the developing embryos
were grouped, whilst one embryo was found close alongside the point of
attachment of a young plantlet. Fig. 17 shows a transverse section of
a prothallus in which two fertilized egg-cells are to be seen. It may be
noted here that I found Delafield's haematoxylin a satisfactory stain for
differentiating clearly the young embryos from the surrounding tissue.
After fertilization the egg-cell grows considerably in size (figs. 17, 51, 52)
Hollow ay. — The Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris. 21
Fig. 51. — Longitudinal section of fertilized archegonium. X 175.
Fig. 52. — Longitudinal section of two fertilized arehegonia, in one of which segmentation
has begun. X 175.
Fig. 53. — Longitudinal section of very young embryo, showing earliest segmenta-
tion. X 175.
Fig. 54.— Median longitudinal section of young embryo. X 137.
Fig. 55. — Median longitudinal section of young embryo. X 137.
Fig. 56. — Tangential longitudinal section through upper portion of same embryo as
shown in fig. 55. X 137.
Fig. 57. — Median longitudinal section of young embryo. X 137.
22 Transactions.
and the nucleus retreats (at first, at any rate) to the inner end of the
cell. The ovum surrounds itself with a delicate membrane, which arches
up somewhat into the base of the neck-canal of the archegonium and at
that point thickens. It grows to a fairly large size before it segments,
somewhat, though not to the same extent, as Bruchmann has described
in the case of Lycopodium clavatum and L. annotinum (Bruchmann, 1898).
The first division wall to be formed is more or less transverse to the axis
of the archegonium, and seems to be approximately in the middle of the
cell (figs. 52, 53). This wall thus divides the embryo into what we may
speak of as the lower and upper regions. This first division may be
clearly traced afterwards in older embryos. The next division wall to
appear is in the lower half, and extends at an angle from the first
wall to the lower end of the embryo (figs. 52, 53). It also may be clearly
seen in older embryos. No embryos were found in transverse section,
so that this description of the earliest stages in segmentation can only
refer to the appearance of the embryo in longitudinal section. Still older
embryos are shown in figs. 54, 55, and 57. I find it difficult to describe
with any degree of certainty the sequence of segmentation which has taken
place either in the lower or in the upper parts of these embryos.
In addition to the section of the embryo shown in fig. 55, already referred
to, a second section (fig. 56), obviously not so nearly median, shows a part
of the same embryo which I am inclined to think is the stem-rudiment. In
it there are two main walls intersecting at right angles, and in one of the
cells so formed another wall has appeared cutting out what might well be
an apical cell. This part of the embryo took the haematoxylin stain rather
more darkly than did the rest, and the nucleus of the " apical " cell was
conspicuously large, the suggestion being that this part was forming rapidly.
It will be evident from a comparison of the two sections of this embryo
that this portion which we are now considering belongs to the upper region
and has arisen laterally from it. If it proves to be correct that the shoot
originates from the upper half, this fact would distinguish the embryo of
Tmesipteris from that of the Lycopodinae, where the upper primary segment
constitutes a suspensor, but would, on the other hand, suggest the embryo of
Equisetum and the Ophioglossaceae. Of course, one main reason why the em-
bryo of Tmesipteris is likely to prove of special interest is the fact that the
adult plant has no root, consisting only of an underground branched rhizoid-
bearing rhizome and an aerial branched leaf-bearing portion. Anticipating
here what I shall be bringing forward in connection with the developing
plantlet, we may say that the young plant of Tmesipteris is " all shoot,"
just as the embryo of certain members of the Ophioglossaceae has been
described as " all root." The question naturally arises whether there is
in the embryo of Tmesipteris anything which may be interpreted as the
undeveloped rudiment of a root. Only a much fuller study of the develop-
ment of the embryo than that given above can satisfactorily decide this
point. I hope to be able to gather more material for such a study. The
stages described above stop short at a most interesting point, and I have
found it difficult to interpret sonic of them. Keeping pace with the growth
of the embryo, the surrounding prothallial cells rapidly subdivide, so that
the embryo is enwrapped by a small-celled tissue which soon begins to
project as an eminence from the side of the prothallus (figs. 55, &c).
Before passing on to the section of this paper which deals with the
developing plantlet there is still an important and interesting point to
be brought forward which concerns the question of the " foot " of the
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate II.
'. .
Longitudinal section, prothallus of Tmesipteris, showing young plant attached.
( Photomicrograph. )
lace />. 22. \
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate III.
% ■* r' jTy
Longitudinal section, point of attachment of young plant of T mesipteris to the
prothallus. (Photomicrograph.)
Holloway. — TJk Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris. 23
embryo. Longitudinal sections through the point of attachment of a young
plantlet to its parent prothallus. such as that shown in tigs. 58 and 59, and
in Plates II and III, in all of which the plant-axis is in transverse section,
hut the foot in longitudinal section, reveal the fact that the region of the
plantlet which is m immediate contact with the prothallial tissues— i.e.,
the " foot " or absorbing region is prolonged into a large number of long
haustoria-like processes, which penetrate the tissues of the prothallus and
evidently function as absorbing organs. These processes are generally two
cells wide at their base, whilst the forward end of each is prolonged info a
row of single cells, the terminal cell of the row being more or less elongated
Fig. 58. — Transverse section of young plantlet through point of attachment
to prothallus. showing foot and haustorial outgrowths. X- 42.
and rounded. They emanate, appearing in section like the fingers of a hand,
from a region which consists largely of cells which are dividing. The cells
both of the processes and of the region from which they arise stain very
conspicuously with haematoxylin both in their walls and nuclei. In trans-
verse section the processes are circular in outline. This will be seen in
fig. 60, which also shows the nature of the surrounding prothallial cells.
On the side towards the plant-axis the cells gradually increase in size, and
median sections through the whole plant-foot reveal the fact that vascular
tissue, both xylem and phloem, extends from the plant-axis into the foot.
In fact, longitudinal sections of detached plantlets of similar age such
as that shown in fig. 68 indicate that the entire vascular bundle of the
young plant inclines at an angle into the foot. The obvious explanation
would be that at an early stage in the development of the young plant
24 Transactions.
an apical meristem is set apart from which a plerome strand arises, and
that this strand of tissue functions solely in the transportation of food
from the parent prothallus up to the growing apex of the shoot. There
is nothing to indicate a possible root-rudiment. The haustorial processes
are many in number, and no one of them more than any other could be
suspected of being such a degenerate or arrested root organ. There is also
the broad zone of meristematic cells lying between these processes and
the axis of the plant. Of what nature is this ? Only a series of embryos
more complete than that described in this paper can indicate at all satis-
factorily the first differentiation of the embryo into shoot and foot, and
whether or not a root-rudiment is present. If the shoot develops from
the lower half of the embryo, then there would necessarily have to be a
curvature in the forward growth of that region (as in the Lycopodium
embryo) so as to allow the shoot to emerge, as it certainly does, at the apex
of the prothallial eminence on which the embryo has been developing. The
segmentation in the upper primary half of my embryos is certainly not as
clear and regular as it is in the epibasal region of the Equisetum embryo,
which there gives rise to the shoot-axis ; but, on the other hand, it does
not suggest the Lycopod suspensor. My own opinion, based upon the
study of the embryos described in this paper and of the young plantlets.
is that the shoot arises from the upper region (i.e., nearest the arche-
gonial neck), and that the lower half gives rise only to the foot, the surface
cells of the latter growing out into the peculiar haustorial processes. I see
nothing to indicate a root. There is no cotyledon, the first leaves being
formed at a very late stage as mere scales from the apical cell of the
shoot after the latter has emerged from the surface of the humus and has
changed its character from a rhizome to a green aerial stem.
A still younger plantlet than that just described is shown in median
longitudinal section in figs. 61 and 62. The shoot took the form of a
globular protuberance from the surface of the prothallus. Sections through
the foot showed that the characteristic haustorial outgrowths were only
in the first stages of formation. The spherical shoot showed at one point
a slightly conical projection, which in section was seen to be composed of
meristematic tissue. This was obviously the actual apex of the shoot, but
no vascular strand had as yet arisen from it. The main portion of the
shoot consisted of large uniform cells in which the coils of the mycorhiza
were already established. The apical region consisted of smaller regularly
arranged cells, free from fungus, and showing conspicuous nuclei. I was
not able to distinguish whether or not there was a single, apical cell
present. Fig. 61 shows the plant as a whole in median longitudinal
section, but the shoot-apex is cut somewhat obliquely, as its direction of
growth did not coincide with the plane of the section. From a study of
this particular plantlet I am still more of the opinion that the embryo
gives rise to two main organs only — viz., the foot and the shoot — the
former arising from the lower half and the latter from the upper. Whether
or not a definite stem-apex is differentiated early in the embryo my
material does not show, although the embryo shown in fig. 56 would seem
to indicate this.
Development op the Young Plant.
A good number of prothalli were found on which single young plants
in various stages of development were borne. Also, I dissected out of the
tree-fern humus a large number of complete plantlets which had become
Holloway. — The Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris. 25
Fig. 59. — Section through point of attachment to prothallus of same young
plantlet as shown in fig. 58, to show manner of detachment of plant
from prothallus. X 42.
Fig. 60. — Tangential section through foot of young plantlet shown in fig. 58,
showing haustorial outgrowths in transverse section. X 125.
Fig. 61. — Median section through very young developing plantlet, showing
foot and apical region. X 84.
26
Transactions.
detached from their parent prothalli. I am thus able to give a connected
account of the development of the young plant. The earliest stages, in
which the young shoot has just broken through the surface of the prothallus,
and before a vascular strand has made its appearance (see fig. 61), has
>■/;■/■& i
i // yU/-
Fig. 62. — Section through foot of same young .plant let as shown in fig. 61, showing
outgrowth of epidermal cells of foot. X 74.
Fig. 63. — Transverse section of young plantlet similar to that shown in fig. 68, showing
PJ initiation of secondary apex of growth. X 64.
Fig. 64. — Very young detached plantlet, showing apex of growth, and fragment of
prothallial tissue attached to foot. X 18.
Fig. 65. — Very young detached plantlet, showing foot and both primary and secondary
apices of growth. x 16.
Ftg. 66. — Young developing plantlet attached to prothallus ; secondary apex of growth
not yet developed. X 8.
been described at the end of the last section. The shoot-apex in this
particular plantlet had already been differentiated, though precisely at
what stage in the development of the embryo I cannot say for certain.
The subsequent elongation o the originally spherical shoot takes place
at this apex. In figs. 64 and 65 are shown two early stages in the develop-
Holloway. — The Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris. 27
ment of the young plant, in these cases the plantlets having become
detached from their parent prothalli during the process 0f dissection.
I have no plantlets of this age in section, but judging from its conical and
somewhat pointed shape I would say that the actual apex is occupied by
a single apical cell. That end of the young plant which is opposite to the
growing apex is obviously the " foot " or absorbing region, where the
plant was in connection with the prothallus. In the detached plantlets
shown in figs. 64 and 65 this end is roundish in outline, it being evident
that the haustoria-like processes of the foot had been left embedded in
the tissues of the prothallus. Still older plantlets consist of a lengthen-
ing undifferentiated rhizome, golden-brown in colour, thickly clothed with
long straight golden-brown rhizoids. Where the rhizoids are broken off,
characteristic ring-like outgrowths are left projecting slightly from the
epidermal cells. The latter are brown in colour, and, owing to the clear
colour of the rhizome generally, stand out very distinctly in outline.
The original point of attachment of a detached plantlet of this age to its
parent prothallus can always be readily distinguished as a dark circular
patch situated on a slight but distinct conical prominence at the basal
end of the rhizome. Sometimes there is a brown fragment of prothallial
tissue which may show old sexual organs still attached to this foot-
prominence.
The manner of detachment of the plant from its prothallus may best
here be described. It was found during the process of dissecting that
the plantlets very easily become detached from their parent prothalli.
Reference to the longitudinal section of the plantlet and prothallus
given in fig. 59 will show that a saucer or cup-shaped line of dehiscence
extends from the edge, where the developing plant has ruptured the tissues
of the prothallus, down into the central regions of the foot. This line
of dehiscence is clearly marked out by the browning of the cell-walls
along the line. Figs. 58 and 59 show clearly both how readily the plant
can become detached from the prothallus, leaving behind in the tissues
of the latter the haustoria-like processes, and also how the large cup-like
point of attachment, which so often is a characteristic feature on full-
grown prothalli, comes to be formed.
All the youngest plantlets found, whether detached or still in connection
with the prothallus, showed only one apex of growth, the other end of the
plantlet being bluntly rounded and in no way differing in external appear-
ance from the rest of the rhizome surface (figs. 66 and 67). The point of
attachment to the prothallus was at this undifferentiated end of the plant.
Longitudinal sections of the prothallus and plant shown in fig. 66 revealed
that there was nothing at this end of the plant to indicate an apex of
growth. Sooner or later, however, a new apex of growth is differentiated
at this point (figs. 1, 68, 69), and the young rhizome then proceeds
to grow in length in a direction more or less exactly opposite to
the primary direction of growth. This new portion of the plant-
rhizome is sometimes in a straight line with the first-formed shoot
axis (fig. 70), but more often is inclined to it at an angle, the brown
point of attachment in the latter case being then to be seen on the
angle (figs. 65, 69, 71). In some instances this secondary apex of growth
was not differentiated until the plant had attained a considerable size
(figs. 67, 68, 69), but in others, again, it was differentiated early (fig. 65).
In fig. 1 is shown a plant attached to its prothallus in which the main
shoot had a very irregular and peculiar appearance, and at the base of
28 Transactions.
which the new apex of growth could be seen. In longitudinal section it was
seen that the rounded protuberance at the base of the plant shown in
fig. 68 was formed by a surface group of actively dividing meristematic
cells (a single apical initial could not be traced), and that from this
meristem a plerome strand connecting with the central strand of the plant
was in process of formation (fig. 63). Also it was seen that two tracheides
were leading out from the centre of the plant-axis towards the new apex.
Thus we may say that the development of the new axis of growth is
adventitious, and may compare it with the well-known adventitious origin
in the epidermal and outer cortical cells of older rhizomes of groups of
meristematic cells which are frequently to be observed either in a state
of arrested development or about to develop into lateral buds. It must,
however, be noted that whereas these lateral buds are not confined to any
part of the rhizome, but appear in a quite haphazard manner, the secondary
apex of growth in the young plantlet is always differentiated in the one
position. Thus there is no root to be distinguished in the young plant
of Tmesipteris, there being developed, both above and below the original
foot, a rhizome identical in the two cases in appearance, function, and
manner of growth.
A series of transverse sections through the foot of a young plant which
consists of both primary and secondary rhizome portions — such, for example,
as that given in fig. 72- — shows that there is a continuous vascular strand
throughout the whole rhizome, identical in structure in the two portions
of the rhizome, and unbroken in the foot region. Before the secondary
apex of growth is differentiated in the young plant the vascular strand
inclines bodily into the foot. When the new apex is formed a plerome
strand is differentiated from it, and it would appear that this joins on
with the primary strand at the angle where the latter inclines into the
foot. Possibly the first vascular elements in this secondary strand are
actually formed from the angle of the primary strand in connection with
the transport of food from the prothallus to the new apex. In fig. 63
is shown the stage at which the plerome strand of the secondary portion
of the rhizome is in its earliest development, but vascular elements seem
to be leading out to meet it from the point where the strand of the
primary part of the rhizome leads down into the foot.
The growing apices of the young developing plantlets are whitish-grey
in colour and more translucent than the rest of the rhizome, and are often
slightly swollen. In this respect, and in the general appearance of the
young rhizome, there is a certain similarity between detached portions
of prothalli and of young plants. The fungal coils are present in the
cortical cells of young plants which are still attached to their prothalli,
but apparently the fungus does not spread from the prothallus to the
plant, but the latter is early infected through its rhizoids. Several of the
young rhizomes bore short swollen lateral shoots (fig. 72), clear or almost
light-green in colour, and one frequently noticed on the rhizomes of both
young and older plants points of meristematic activity. Besides this adven-
titious method of branching, the rhizome-apex may fork dichotomously
(fig. 75). Sooner or later one or other of the main ends of the young
rhizome grows upwards as an erect aerial shoot, losing its rhizoids and
decreasing in thickness in the transition region. The aerial shoot is at
first whitish in colour and is quite devoid of both rhizoids and scale leaves,
but at length its apex becomes green and gives rise to the first scale leaves
(figs. 5, 73, 74). After a few of these scale leaves have been formed,
Holloway. — The Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris. 29
larger leaves of the characteristic form take their place. Both ends of
the young rhizome may in some cases emerge from the humus as aerial
stems (fig. 73). The actual apex of the young aerial shoots is slender
and sharply conical (figs. 5, 73, 74), and even in surface view under a low
power of the microscope the single apical cell can be seen. In longitudinal
section the apical cell and the order of segments cut off from it is almost
diagrammatically clear (fig. 77). The broader apex of young rhizomes also
shows a single apical cell (fig. 76). In several instances young plants of
a considerable size, showing differentiation into both subterranean and
aerial portion, were found still attached to their prothalli, the latter being
in some cases firm and health v (figs. 5, 73), and in others old and withered
(figs. 9, 10).
Fig. 67. — Young detached plantlet. showing fragment of prothallial tissue attached to
foot ; secondary apex of growth not yet developed. X 8.
Fig. 68. — Young plantlet attached to prothallus, showing secondary apex of growth.
X 5.
Fig. 69. — Young detached plantlet, showing foot and secondary apex of growth. X 7.
Fig. 70. — Young detached plantlet, showing foot and also primary and secondary apices
of growth on either side of foot. The two apices are not inclined to one
another at an angle. X 8.
Fig. 71. — Young detached plantlet, showing foot and also primary and secondary
regions of rhizome on either side of the foot. X 6.
Fig. 72. — Young developing complete plant, showing foot and also lateral bud; the
latter and the two apices are swollen. X 4. •
Development op the Vascular Anatomy.
The anatomy and morphology of the adult plant of Tmesipteris has
already fairly recently been described by Miss Sykes (1908), so that there
is no need for me to go over this ground again. Miss Sykes's material
came from New Zealand, and she notes that it comprised two forms which
30
Transactions.
had previously been separated by some writers as two species — viz., as
T. tannensis and T. lanceolata. She gives figures of the aerial stems of
these two forms. In the section in the present paper which deals with
" Occurrence and Habit " I noted the fact of these two forms, and indicated
that the prothalli and young plants which I had obtained belonged to
the form which grew to the greater size and had the more pendulous and
flaccid habit and possessed the larger leaves. This is the form referred
to by Miss Sykes as T. lanceolata. Cheeseman (1906) does not recognize
more than the one species in New Zealand, to which he gives the general
name T. tannensis, although in a note he adds, " By some authors it is
split up into three or four, distinguished mainly by the shape of the apex
Fig 73. — Complete young plant, showing parent prothallus, foot, lateral bud, and also
both ends of rhizome developed into aerial stems. X 2.
Fig. 73a. — Apex of smaller aerial stem shown in fig. 73. X 9.
Fig. 74. — Apex of a young aerial stem, showing initiation of leaf-formation. X 9.
Fig. 75. — Apex of rhizome of young plant, showing dichotomy. X 10.
of the leaf (which I find to be variable even in the same individual) and by
certain histological details, the constancy of which has yet to be established."
I have not had access to the papers referred to by both Miss Sykes and
Mr. Cheeseman as setting forth the exact morphological and histological
details on which the distinction is drawn between the different forms of
Tmesipteris, so cannot refer particularly to them. However, I shall be
noting in this section of my paper certain details in the stem-structure
of the two forms referred to above.
Having an abundance of young plants of Tmesipteris of the form
T. lanceolata of all stages of growth, I made a study of the development
of the vascular cylinder of both the rhizome and the aerial shoot. I have
no serial sections of the youngest plantlets, such as those shown in figs. 64
Holloway. — The Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris. 31
and 65, in which the differentiation of vascular tissue between the shoot-
apex and the foot would be in its earliest stages. Transverse sections
of plantlets of the same age as that shown in fig. 68 are given in figs. 78,
79, and 80 There is a slight central strand consisting of, in the one
case, one, and, in the other, two, narrow scalariform tracheides placed
more or less collaterally with a group of darkly-staining phloem elements.
Fig. 76. — Longitudinal section of apex of rhizome of young plant shown in fig. 5, showing
single apical cell. X 140.
Fig 77. — Longitudinal section of apex of aerial stem of young plant shown in fig. 5,
showing single apical cell. X 140.
Fig. 78. — Transverse section of stem of young plant similar to those shown in
figs. 66-68. X 50.
Fig. 79. — Transverse section of stele of stem shown in fig. 78. X 200.
Fig. 80. — Transverse section of stem stele of another young plant. X 200.
There is an endodermis in which the characteristic radial markings are
clear. The cortex is uniformly parenchymatous and harbours the fungal
coils more especially in its middle zone, whilst the epidermis is cuticularized
and individual epidermal cells are prolonged into rhizoids. Longitudinal
sections of a young prothallial plantlet similar to that shown in fig. 68
revealed the fact that the vascular strand of the shoot curved bodily
round at the base of the plant into the foot, where it ended blindly. From
32
Transactions.
sections of the plant and prothallus shown in fig. 66 it was clear that even
at this early stage the peculiar brown deposit referred to by other writers in
their studies of the mature rhizome of Tmesipteris and Psilotum is present in
its first beginnings in the innermost layer of cortical cells. The rhizome
and the aerial stem of the plant shown in fig. 5 were similar to each other
in their vascular structure, three or four xylem elements lying more or
less collateral with a group of phloem. The fungal element was present,
in the cortical cells of the rhizome but not of the aerial stem, and in
Fig. 81. — Transverse section of stele of rhizome of young plant. X 160.
Fig. 82. — -Transverse section of stele of rhizome of medium-grown plant. X 125.
Fig. 83. — Transverse section of stele of large rhizome of plant shown in Plate I. X 125.
Fig. 84. — Transverse section of stele of aerial stem of young plant shown in fig. 85.
X 125.
neither case was the brown deposit to be seen. The endodermis was
here not so clearly defined as in younger plants. A transverse section
of the rhizome of a slightly older plantlet is given in fig. 81, and shows
that here the single group of xylem elements is placed centrally in the
midst of the darkly-staining phloem, the metaxylem having been formed
centripetally. Immediately surrounding the phloem are one or two layers
of larger cells, probably to be identified as pericycle and endodermis, whilst
the cortex is slightly collenchymatous and its innermost layer shows
marked evidence of the brown deposit. The middle cortical zone contains
the mycorhizal coils, while the outer surface and the rhizoids had the
Holloway. — The Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris.
33
same brown coloration as has the peculiar deposit already referred to.
In the vascular cylinder of a medium-grown rhizome, sectioned at some
distance behind the apex, there is a tendency for thin-walled elements to
invaginate the centrally placed group of xyleni (fig. 82), and in some
sections it was seen that it had separated it into two groups. In these
rhizomes the brown deposit can be seen in all stages of formation, and
it may be detected also in individual cells in the middle cortex, while the
fungal coils have almost disappeared from the cortical cells. In fig. 83
is shown the vascular cylinder of the largest ground-growing rhizomes of
the form T. lanceolata obtained by me in Stewart Island. Here the xylem
is definitely split up into two main curving plates more or less surrounding
a central group of thin-walled elements. The comparison of a number
of sections showed that the configuration of these xylem groups was
constantly changing, sometimes two adjacent ends of the groups joining,
and at other times one or both of the two main groups subdividing so
that the number became three or four. It would seem, then, from a
comparative study of the rhizomes of plants of different ages, that along
with the increase in number of xylem elements in the central cylinder
there is a diminishing disposition on their part to cohere in one group, so
that the original monarch condition becomes lost and the xylem is disposed
in separate plates or groups in the midst of the phloem, the tendency
being in the oldest rhizomes for these groups to be arranged more or less
in the form of a ring surrounding a central group of thin-walled (so-called
" pith ") elements. It must be noted that this alteration in the xylem-
grouping is in no wise occasioned by any branching of the stele. In these
very large humus-growing rhizomes also it was seen that the fungal
element was almost entirely absent from the cortical cells, nor did the
latter show any signs of thickening at their angles.
The development in size and configuration of the rhizome stele cor-
responds in a general way to what Miss Sykes (1908) has described in
the gradual differentiation of the stele behind the growing apex of the
mature rhizome, except that she refers the splitting-up of the original
single xylem group into two or more groups only to the transition region
between rhizome and aerial stem. Her material probably did not include
such large-sized rhizomes as those examined by me.
As I have stated above, in the youngest plantlets which show
differentiation into both aerial stem and underground rhizome the vascular
cylinder is identical in configuration in both. The stele is monarch, the
xylem group containing from two to six scalariform elements. In aerial
stems of slightly older plants, however, there is a marked change, the
characteristic structure of the adult aerial stem, with its separate mesarch
xylem strands, beginning to manifest itself. A transverse section of such
a young stem shows the pressure of large adherent leaf-bases forming
conspicuous angles to the section (fig. 85), the cortical tissue in the angles
containing abundant air-spaces. In the central cylinder there are two
groups of xylem, obviously mesarch, on the outer side of each of which is
phloem, whilst the tissue separating the two groups has the appearance of
ordinary parenchymatous cells (fig. 81). I could not identify endodermis
or pericycle. There are in young stems of this age no leaf-traces, the
leaves as yet being no more than scale leaves. There is, of course, as in
all aerial stems, no fungus present. Again, in the aerial stems of still older
plants there are to be seen three such separate groups of xylem (figs. 86
and 87) placed in the form of a triangle, the position of the xylem
2— Trans.
34
Transactions.
groups corresponding to the leaf-bases. There is a very slight leaf-trace,
consisting of a few narrow phloem-like elements with no xylem. The
cortical cells are still thin-walled, but in some sections it is apparent
that the phloem and the other parenchymatous elements in the central
cylinder are beginning to show a slight thickening of their walls. Lastly,
in figs. 88 and 89, are shown the steles of the aerial stems of more
mature plants, in which there are five mesarch groups of xylem. In the
largest aerial stems of all there is a tendency for neighbouring groups of
xylem temporarily to join together, thus forming curving plates (fig. 89).
In these oldest stems the phloem and the " pith " elements are partly
Fig. 85. — Transverse section of aerial stem of young plant. : 46.
Fig. 86. — Transverse section of stele of aerial stem of y:>ung plant shown in
fig. 87. X 140.
Fig. 87. — Transverse section of aerial stem of young plant. X 46.
lignified, as has been described by Miss Sykes (1908, p. 70). In fig. 90
is shown a single xylem strand, illustrating its mesarch character and
the lignified nature of the surrounding elements. The leaf-trace is
collateral, and consists of two or three xylem elements and a group of
phloem (fig. 89). I must remark again that the plants of various ages
which I examined, and which are described above, all belonged to the
particular form of Tmesipteris referred to as T. lanceolata. In none of
the aerial stems of this form did I find the cortex collenchymatous, or
the presence of the brown deposit in its innermost cells. This is in con-
trast with what Miss Sykes states in her paper (1908, p. 70), for she found
Holloway. — The Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris.
35
both these characters present in the aerial stems. I sectioned also some
material, obtained from a tree-fern, which presented a very typical example
3&
iRbWP^
°t%Jr
Fig. 88. — Transverse section of aerial stem of mature plant. X 60.
Fig. 89. — Transverse section of aerial stem of mature plant, showing coalescence
of neighbouring xylem groups into bands, and also a leaf-trace. X 60.
Fig. 90. — Transverse section of single xylem group in stele of aerial stem of
mature plant. X 175.
Fig. 91. — Transverse section of base of aerial stem of mature plant of Tmesi-
pteris tannensis which showed characteristic short erect xerophytic habit,
showing strongly lignified cortex and presence of brown deposit. X 50.
Fig. 92. — Longitudinal section of stele of rhizome of same material as that
indicated under fig. 91, showing method of deposition of brown sub-
stance in inner cortical cells. X 70.
of the form illustrated by Miss Sykes as T. tannensis. The aerial stem
was short and suberect and very compact in habit, and the rhizome firm
and brittle. A transverse section taken towards the base of this particular
2*
36 Transactions.
stem is shown in fig. 91, in which it will be seen that the cell-walls of
the entire cortex are strongly thickened (taking both the safranin and
the haematoxylin stain) and that the brown deposit is also present. In
fig. 92 is shown the vascular cylinder of the same region of the stem in
longitudinal section, in which there is a good example illustrated of the
progressive method of deposit of the brown substance in the inner cortical
cells. The conclusion I would drawT is that whereas the general configura-
tion of the vascular tissues is the same for both forms, T. tannensis and
T. lanceolata, as regards both the rhizome and the aerial stem, yet there
are certain less important but constant histological differences between
them. The rhizome of T. tannensis does not attain as large a size as
that of the loose-humus-growing T. lanceolata, and hence does not show
the same extent of development of vascular tissues with the consequent
splitting-up of the xylem into constantly changing groups. Also, in the
drooping aerial stem of T. lanceolata there is an absence of the thickening
of the walls of the cortical cells and of the formation of the brown deposit,
both of which features are present in the more xerophytic stem of
T. tannensis.
From the present study it would seem that there is no great difference
between the stele of the rhizome and that of the aerial stem, and this one
would expect, seeing that they are merely different regions of the plant-
shoot, differing only in function. Any of the rhizome-branches are able
to emerge from the surface of the humus and develop leaves. In the
youngest plantlets the shoot is all rhizome, and one or both ends of it
turn upwards and acquire the aerial habit. The rhizome portion functions
largely probably as a storage organ, bearing rhizoids, harbouring an
abundant mycorhiza, and showing the presence of starch in the cortical
cells. The aerial stem shows an absence of all these characters, but the
comparatively large leaves, with their strongly decurrent bases and the
fertile structures, constitute its dominant feature. In the youngest plants
the configuration of the vascular tissues is identical in both rhizome and
aerial region. In both, as the number of vascular elements increases, there
is manifested a disposition for the xylem to arrange itself in groups
surrounding a central " pith," this being more marked and definite a
feature in the aerial stems, probably on account of the influence of the
leaf-trace system. In the aerial stems the xylem strands are character-
istically mesarch, and Miss Sykes has shown that this is so also in those
parts of the rhizome where the xylem is arranged in separate strands.
In both there is a disposition for neighbouring xylem strands to coalesce
to form curving plates of tissue surrounding the central pith as by a broken
ring. Thus the nature of the full-grown stele throughout the Tmesipteris
plant, and the manner of its development both at the apex of the mature
rhizome and in the young plant, from the monarch or collateral condition,
through the stages of diarch, triarch, and quadrarch to the ring-like con-
dition, may be closely compared with the form and development of the
stele in the adult plant of Psilotum triquetrum such as Miss Ford (1904)
and Mr. Boodle (1904) have described it. In his paper Boodle traces the
similarity between Tmesipteris and Psilotum with regard to the stem-
anatomy, and shows that one great point of difference between them —
viz., the mesarch structure of the xylem strands in the aerial stems of the
former — to a certain extent breaks down owing to his discovery of isolated
instances of mesarch structure in the lower regions of the aerial stem of
Psilotum.
Holloway. — Tht Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris 37
In view of the fact that Boodle and others have found secondary
xvlem in the transition region of the stem of Psilotum, I closely examined
the stems of Tmesipteris from this point of view, but found there no traces
of it. Also, it may be mentioned that I did not find any evidence of
vegetative propagation in Tmesipteris corresponding to the formation of
bulbils (Brutknospen) described by Solms-Laubach (summarized in Engler
and Prantl, 1900, pp. 612-14) for Psilotum. The long aerial stems of
T. lanceolata are sometimes branched, but I did not examine the branch-
ing of the stele. It is interesting to note that on the fertile stems the
sporophylls occur in clearly defined regions corresponding to the habit so
well known in Lycopodium Selago, and that on the longest stems as many
as five or six such fertile regions may sometimes be observed separated
from one another by sterile regions.
Comparative Remarks.
It now remains for me to compare the prothallus and young plant of
Tmesipteris as described in this paper with what has already been brought
forward by other writers wTith regard to the gametophyte generation in
the Psilotaceae, and also to include in this comparative survey certain
other pteridophytic types of prothallus.
Lang's prothallus (1904), which he has provisionally assigned to
Psilotum, conforms to a type which certainly differs markedly from that
of Tmesipteris as described by Lawson and in the present paper. The
differentiation of the prothallus into vegetative and reproductive regions
with the meristem located between them, the organization of fungal zones
and their evident influence upon the form and structure of the prothallus,
is in striking contrast to what has been described for Tmesipteris. This
we would probably not have expected, considering the strong morpho-
logical and anatomical resemblances between the two genera with respect
to the adult plant. And yet, after all, there is not much greater
difference between Lang's prothallus and that of Tmesipteris than
what there is between, for example, the subterranean and the epiphytic-
types of Lycopodium prothalli ; and we have come to look upon
the latter as being but different modifications of a common funda-
mental structure of Lycopodium prothallus. Lang notes that the
prothallus described by him is ' practically identical with [that of]
Lycopodium comphuiatum " (1904, p. 576), and goes on to show that
it would not lie surprising if the prothallus of Psilotum were of the
subterranean type, for it commonly grows as a terrestrial plant as well
as an epiphyte. Apparently he did not obtain from this single prothallus
any information with regard to the archegonium or embryo ; but as re-
gards the structure of the antheridium there is certainly a great difference
between what he has described and what is now known in the case of
the antheridium of Tmesipteris. However, there is nothing to be gained
by drawing out any further this comparison, for Lawson (1917a, p. 786)
states that he has discovered '" a single specimen of a structure that he
believes to be the prothallus of Psilotum . . . [and that this] bears
no resemblance to the supposed prothallus described by Lang." In a
later paper he has described the prothallus of Psilotum, but this account
I have not yet seen. The point that I wish to emphasize here is that in
view of the remarkable diversities in form and structure known amongst
the prothalli of the various species of Lycopodium we cannot regard the
fact of the great difference in these respects between Lang's prothallus
38 Transactions.
and that of Tmesipteris as constituting a valid argument against the
possibility of the former belonging to the Psilotaceae.
I must enter more into detail in comparing Lawson's observations on
the prothallus of Tmesipteris with my own, because although it will be
clear that they correspond in many particulars, yet it will be just as
obvious that the two accounts differ in many other respects.
First of all, then, with regard to the similarities in the two accounts.
The prothallus is shown in both to be subterranean and saprophytic in
habit, of a characteristic brown colour, and covered with numerous lonu
rhizoids. It is cylindrical in form, is not differentiated into reproductive
and vegetative regions, and can branch. There is an endophytic fungus
which is found in any part of the prothallus-body and is not localized in
definite zones. The antheridia and archegonia are intermixed, and are
distributed in large numbers over practically all parts of the surface of
the prothallus. The two accounts of the structure of the mature sexual
organs are closely similar. The embryo is carried on a distinct pro-
tuberance of the prothallial tissues, the result of localized meristematic
activity in the cells of the latter keeping pace with the development of
the embryo. The embryo shows a hypobasal and an epibasal portion, the
latter being characterized by a peculiar development from its surface of
lobes or protuberances. This general similarity in the two sets of prothalli
and their essential organs might be sufficient to show that they both belong-
to the same order, Psilotaceae, or even also to the same genus, Tmesipteris.
But there are also some very striking differences between them which
must be considered. To begin with, Lawson states that, " compared with
the Lycopodiales and other Pteridophytes, the prothallus of Tmesipteris is
small." His largest specimen measured only I in. in length. My prothalli,
except the very youngest, were very large compared with this, several of
the largest being up to f in. in length. The tissue of Lawson's prothalli
" is extremely soft t,nd fragile," and easily destroyed in the process of
cleaning with a camel's-hair brush, whereas my prothalli are firm and
solid and thick, and are very favourable objects for hand-sectioning in
elder-pith. A small but striking point of difference lies in the fact that
Lawson describes the rhizoids as characterictically twisted, but in my
figures they are shown as perfectly straight. Lawson speaks of the endo-
phytic fungus as being " more conspicuous in the surface cells and those
near the surface,'" although it may extend into the very interior of the
prothallus. I found that it was only in the oldest and lowest regions of
the prothallus that the fungus inhabited the epidermal cells and those of
the cortex immediately underlying it, but that it was uniformly present
throughout the prothallus-body (except, of course, at the growing apices)
in the more centrally placed cells. A comparison of figs. 1, 2, and 3 in
Lawson's paper with any of those in mine which show the complete
prothallus will reveal a noticeable difference in the fact that in the latter
cases there is always a bluntly rounded apex to each branch of the
prothallus, the growing apices usually taking the form of a swollen head,
whereas in the former the ends of the branches are shown (if not broken)
as pointed structures. It will be noticed that these differences between
the two accounts relate entirely to the external form of the prothallus and
the disposition of the fungal element. The appearance and structure of
the mature sexual organs is identical in both accounts. I must here point
out that the archegonia as seen and figured by Lawson, and described by
him as being very simple and peculiar, are only the old organs which, as has
been shown in the present paper, have lost the upper tiers of ceck -cells.
Holloway. — The Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris. 39
If it were not for the fact that in Lawson's figures of the prothallus
some of the pointed ends of the branches are shown as complete and
unbroken, I would be inclined to think that his specimens were merely
fragments of old prothalli and not complete ones. All the points of
difference enumerated above seem to point to this ; and there is another
fact which bears upon the same point — viz., that in none of the prothalli
figured by him does he show a meristematic region. There is, how-
ever, quite another explanation of the differences between our prothalli,
which is that whereas mine belong to the form sometimes spoken of
as T. lanceolata, which, as I have shown, differs from the other form,
T. tannensis, not only in general habit but also in certain histological
details, Lawson speaks of his prothalli as those of T. tannensis. We have
become so familiar with the fact of the manifold variations in the types of
prothallus of the different species in the genus Lycopodium — new variations
being found in almost each additional species discovered — that it is not
unlikely that the prothalli of Tmesipteris as described in the two accounts
will be found to be those of two different forms which have hitherto been
grouped under the collective name T. tannensis. The fact that Lawson's
prothalli were obtained by him almost singly from widely different localities
and in different years indicates that they represent a constant type of
prothallus.
The prothallus of Tmesipteris shows certain resemblances, such as its
cylindrical, radially symmetrical, and more or less drawn-out form, its apical
growth, and its branching, to certain other pteridophytic types of pro-
thallus, such as those of the epiphytic Lycopodiaceae and Ophioglossaceae
and Helminthostaehys. But these resemblances are only what might be
looked for in prothalli having the same epiphytic habit. Even with regard
to these general characters the resemblance does not hold quite closely,
whereas in the. matter of other main features, such as the nature of the
basal (or k primary tubercle ") region, the distribution of the fungal
element, and the differentiation of vegetative and reproductive regions
in the prothallus, there are striking differences. Thus on a general sum
of characters the prothallus of Tmesipteris stands apart from that of both
the Ophioglossaceae and the Lycopodiaceae. Still less does it show any
evidence of affinity to the prothallus of Equisetum. This conclusion is
strengthened by a comparative study of the sexual organs, embryo, and
young sporophyte. The antheridium is strongly projecting in a manner
almost resembling that of the male organ of the leptosporangiate ferns,
whereas that of the Ophioglossaceae and Lycopodiaceae is sunken. How-
ever, in the manner of its development it agrees with that of the two latter
orders. The archegonium also is peculiar in that there is apparently no
basal cell cut off in the young rudiment, and the form of the mature
organ is very characteristic. It is not certain from which primary half of
the young embryo the shoot and the foot respectively develop, or whether
there is or is not a suspensor present. But the peculiar development of the
foot into long haustoria-like processes, the total absence of a root, and the
dominance of the shoot mark out the embryo of Tmesipteris as bearing
very little resemblance to that of any other class of Pterid.opb.ytes. From
the single embryo found by him in which three lobes were present on the
lower half Lawson is inclined to interpret one of these lobes to be the
rudiment of the root, ascribing the others to the foot. The fact that in
older stages there are a large number of these lobes present, and that they
are all similar in appearance, seems to me to indicate that they are nothing
more than haustorial outgrowths; and this would also appear to be borne
40 Transactions.
out by the fact that the vascular strand of the shoot is in close connection
with them. However, their early appearance in the young embryo is
noteworthy. Lawson's embryo presents an interesting stage slightly older
than those, described in the present paper, but there is still a gap in the
series which conceals the first differentiation of the young stem-apex,
although such very young plantlets as those shown in figs. 61, 64, and 65
in the present paper seem to indicate that the shoot arises from the hvpo-
basal portion of the embryo.
Scott (1900, ]). 499) first pointed out the similarity between the sporo-
phyll of the Psilotaceae and that of the Sphenophyllales, and repeated
his statements more fully in the second edition of his Studies (1909,
pp. 626-31). Thomas (1902) strengthened this idea by showing that
the nature of the frequent abnormalities which occur in the sporophylls
of both Tmesipteris and Psilotum bring those structures liearer still to
those of certain of the Sphenophyllales and especially to that of Cheiro-
strobus. Miss Sykes (1908) has also supported this with additional evi-
dence by her elucidation of the vascular structure of the sporophyll and
synangium of Tmesipteris. Both Bower (1908) and Seward (1910, p. 14)
have accepted the suggestion of the affinity of the modern Psilotaceae
with the fossil Sphenophyllales.
A general similarity in vascular structure in the mature plants of
Tmesipteris and Psilotum has been pointed out by various writers, and,
as described in the present paper, the study of the development of the
stele in both the rhizome and aerial stem of Tmesipteris helps to make the
nature of this structure more clear. Scott (1900) noted the similarity
between the stem-anatomy of the Psilotaceae and that of the Spheno-
phyllales, and Boodle (1904) has developed the idea and made it more
marked still by the discovery of what he believes to be reduced secondary
xylem in the subterranean parts of Psilotum.
There is no need for me to recapitulate here all the details concerned
in this double correspondence between the Psilotaceae and the Spheno-
phyllale?, for they have been thoroughly co-ordinated and analysed by most
of those who have written recentlv on the subject, as, e.g.. Scott (1909),
Sykes (1908), and Boodle (1904).
The peculiar features of the Psilotaceae are open to interpretation in
any of the following three ways : They may be regarded as primitive, or
as the result of reduction, or as being recent adaptations. This is so also,
of course, in other pteridophytic groups, such as, for example, the Lyco-
podiaceae and the Equisetaceae, and an instructive parallel may be drawn
between them and the Psilotaceae in this respect. Through our knowledge
of the fossil plants of the Carboniferous and succeeding periods we have
learned to look upon each of these two groups as being the modern repre-
sentatives— mere remnants — of families which dominated the forest of
the Palaeozoic age. The modern Lycopods and Equisetums do not show
the presence of secondary wood (except in one known instance), and this
may indicate either that they have lost it by reduction in their descent
from large Carboniferous ancestors which possessed it, or that they are
descended rather from humbler ancestors which existed side by side with
the tree forms but which had never attained to secondary growth. The
comparative study of the stem-stele in the modern Equisetums and the
fossil Calamites reveals the presence of a primary structure common to
both, so that the modern group in this particular, as also in external form
and in the nature of the strobilus, is regarded as preserving primitive
characters. The Lycopodiaceae may be read, according to two main
Holloway. — The Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris. 41
theories, either as a reduction series or as a progressive scries, the simpler
type of Li/copodium, such as L. Selago, being thus regarded either as very
much reduced or as primitive in form. Certain features of the embryo and
young plant, moreover, peculiar to a section of the Lycopodiaceae have
been interpreted as primitive, and primitive not only for the Lycopodiaceae
but for vascular plants generally. These are the protocorm and its sur-
CORRIGENDUM.
Page 40, lines 7-8 : For hypobasal read upper.
has been derived from this particular section by reduction. Again, a third
interpretation has been suggested, that the protocorm is a modified form
of stem due to reduction, the basis of probability for the truth of this
theory being the very large size attained by the Carboniferous ancestors
of the Lycopodiums. These varying interpretations of the outstanding
features of the Equisetaceae and the Lycopodiaceae are so well known
that there is no need for me here to do more than merely indicate them
or to cite the authorities. They are mentioned to serve as an analogy to
the various interpretations which are possible in the case of the Psilotaceae.
It will be necessary for me to discuss briefly the evidence in favour of
regarding the Psilotaceae either as reduced forms or as retaining primitive
characters.
Boodle (1904, p. 511) interprets the secondary tracheides found by
him in certain parts of the stem of Psilotum as reduced secondary xylem,
and considers that this feature reinforces the similiarity which has been
traced between the Psilotaceae and the Sphenophyllales. He speaks of
Psilotum and Tmesipteris as being reduced from '* a common parent form,
in which the aerial stem had a rayed mesarch xylem mass "' (ibid., p. 515)
and which also showed secondary thickening. Such a stem, he says, would
bear a strong resemblance to the axis of Cheirostrobus ; but at the same
time he is careful to point out that such a character as the presence of
secondary xylem is too adaptive to be taken by itself as evidence of affinity
(ibid., p. 513, note 1). However, the presence of secondary xylem in the
stem of Psilotum, he says, possesses certain significance in view of the fact
that the fertile organ of the Psilotaceae finds its nearest parallel in that
of the Sphenophyllales.
There is no doubt that the saprophytic habit of both Psilotum and
Tmesipteris, the extreme reduction in the leaves of the former, and the
presence in the rhizomes of a mycorhiza, may be taken as suggesting that
their present form and structure is, at any rate partly, due to reduction.
And, of course, the absence of a root organ may be regarded in the same
way. Probably the most interesting point to be elucidated by a study
of the life-history of the two members of this class is whether or not there
is a rudimentary root organ to be traced in the embryo. Lawson (1917a,
p. 793), from his study of the one embryo found by him, concludes that
there is such a rudimentary root present. My own study of a number
of embryos and of a fairly complete series of young plants has convinced
me that there is not, but that the peculiar outgrowth of the absorbing
region of the embryo which Lawson speaks of as a rudimentary root is
only one of a large number of such outgrowths which are to be regarded
Transactions.
-^ of the shoot is in close connection
in the young embryo is
"-"•re slightly older
- in the
series ..
although sucli vi
in the present paper seen"
il portion of the embryo.
Scott (1900, p. 499) first pointed out
phvll of the Psilotaceae and that of the Sphenophyllai.-*.
his statements i e fully in the second edition of his Studies u_
pp. 626-31). Thomas (1902) strengthened this idea by showing that"
the aature of the frequent abnormalities which occur in the sporophylls
of both Tmesijilcris and Psilotwm bring those structures nearer still to
those of certain of the Sphenophyllales and especially to that of Gheiro-
strobus. Miss Sykes (1908) has also supported this with additional evi-
dence by her elucidation of the vascular structure of the sporophyll and
synangium of Tmesipteris. Both Bower (1908) and Seward (1910, p. 14)
have accepted the suggestion of the affinity of the modern Psilotaceae
with the fossil Sphenophyllales.
A general similarity in vascular structure in the mature plants of
Tmesijfteris and Psilotum has been pointed out by various writers, and,
described in the present paper, the study of the development of the
stele in both the rhizome and aerial stem of Tmesipteris helps to make the
nature of this structure more clear. Scott (1900) noted the. similarity
between the stem-anatomy of the Psilotaceae and that of the Spheno-
phyllales, and Boodle (1904) has developed the idea and made it more
marked still by the discovery of what he believes to be reduced secondary
xvlem in the subterranean parts of Psilotum.
There is no need for me to recapitulate here all the details concerned
in this double correspondence between the Psilotaceae and the Spheno-
phyllales, for the}- have been thoroughly co-ordinated and analysed by most
of those who have written recentlv on the subject, as, e.g., Scott (1909),
Sykes (11)08), and Boodle (1904).
The peculiar features of the Psilotaceae are open to interpretation in
any of the following three ways : They may be regarded as primitive, or
as the result of reduction, or as being recent adaptations. This is so also,
of course, in other pteridophytic groups, such as, for example, the Lyco-
podiaceae and the Equisetaceae, and an instructive parallel may be drawn
between them and the Psilotaceae in this respect. Through our knowledge
of the fossil plants of the Carboniferous and succeeding periods we have
learned to look upon each of these two groups as being the modern repre-
sentatives mere remnants of families which dominated the forest of
tin- Palaeozoic age. The modem Lycopods and Equisetums do not show
the presence of secondary wood (except in one known instance), and this
may indicate either that they have lost it by reduction in their descent
from large Carboniferous ancestors which possessed it, or that they are
descended rather from humbler ancestors which existed side by side with
the tree forms but which had never attained to secondary growth. The
comparative study of the stem-stele in the modern Equisetums and the
fossil Calamites reveals the presence of a primary structure common to
both, so that the modern group in this particular, as also in external form
and in the nature df the strobilus, is regarded as preserving primitive
characters. The Lycopodiaceae may be read, according to two main
HoiiLOWAY. — The Prothallus and Yowig Plant of Tmesipteris. 41
theories, either as a reduction series or as a progressive series, the simpler
type of Lycopodium, such as L. Selago, being thus regarded either as very
much reduced or as primitive in form. Certain features of the embryo and
young plant, moreover, peculiar to a section of the Lycopodiaceae have
been interpreted as primitive, and primitive not only for the Lycopodiaceae
but for vascular plants generally. These are the protocorm and its sur-
mounting protophylls. According to this theory, the protocorm is regarded
as an indication of the way in which the primitive sporophvte first became
independent of the gametophyte, and in pursuance of this idea the peculiar
plant PhyUogJossiim has been spoken of as the most primitive form of
Lycopod. However, a simpler explanation of the protocorm, and one
widely accepted, is that it is merely a vegetative adaptation peculiar to
one or perhaps two sections of the Lycopodiaceae, and that Phylloglossum
has been derived from this particular section by reduction. Again, a third
interpretation has been suggested, that the protocorm is a modified form
of stem due to reduction, the basis of probability for the truth of this
theory being the very large size attained by the Carboniferous ancestors
of the Lycopodiums. These varying interpretations of the outstanding
features of the Equisetaceae and the Lycopodiaceae are so well known
that there is no need for me here to do more than merely indicate them
or to cite the authorities. They are mentioned to serve as an analogy to
the various interpretations which are possible in the case of the Psilotaceae.
It will be necessary for me to discuss briefly the evidence in favour of
regarding the Psilotaceae either as reduced forms or as retaining primitive
characters.
Boodle (1901, p. 511) interprets the secondary tracheides found by
him in certain parts of the stem of Psilotum, as reduced secondary xylem,
and considers that this feature reinforces the similiarity which has been
traced between the Psilotaceae and the Sphenophyllales. He speaks of
Psilotum and Tmesipteris as being reduced from '" a common parent form,
in which the aerial stem had a rayed mesarch xylem mass " (ibid., p. 515)
and which also showed secondary thickening. Such a stem, he says, would
bear a strong resemblance to the axis of Gheirostrobus ; but at the same
time he is careful to point out that such a character as the presence of
secondary xylem is too adaptive to be taken by itself as evidence of affinity
(ibid., p. 513, note 1). However, the presence of secondary xylem in the
stem of Psilotum, he says, possesses certain significance in view of the fact
that the fertile organ of the Psilotaceae finds its nearest parallel in that
of the Sphenophyllales.
There is no doubt that the saprophytic habit of both Psilotum and
Tmesipteris, the extreme reduction in the leaves of the former, and the
presence in the rhizomes of a mycorhiza, may be taken as suggesting that
their present form and structure is, at any rate partly, due to reduction.
And, of course, the absence of a root organ may be regarded in the same
way. Probably the most interesting point to be elucidated by a study
of the life-history of the two members of this class is whether or not there
is a rudimentary root organ to be traced in the embryo. Lawson (1917a,
p. 793), from his study of the one embryo found by him, concludes that
there is such a rudimentary root present. My own study of a number
of embryos and of a fairly complete series of young plants has convinced
me that there is not, but that the peculiar outgrowth of the absorbing
region of the embryo which Lawson speaks of as a rudimentary root is
only one of a large number of such outgrowths which are to be regarded
42 Transactions.
simply as haustorial protuberances of the surface cells of the foot. If
there is no evidence forthcoming that the absence of the root is due to
reduction, other than a certain degree of probability arising out of the
present habit of the plants, coupled with the fact that in other isolated
pteridophytic classes we seem to trace signs of reduction, we must ask,
Is there anything to adduce in favour of the theory that the absence of a
root in the Psilotaceae is a primitive feature ( In this particular character
the Psilotaceae stand alone amongst existing Pteridophytes. The funda-
mental differences between the various classes of Pteridophytes in the
manner in which the root is differentiated in the embryo shows that those
classes have been distinct from one another from a far-distant period,
and accordingly if one of them shows the total absence of a root from
its embryo this may quite conceivably be due to the preservation in the
one particular line of descent of a primitive character of vascular plants.
Such a theory will, of course, best be substantiated by direct evidence
from the fossil record. Such evidence has lately been brought forward
by Kidston and Lang in their account of the fossil plant Rhynia Gwynne-
Vaughani (1917). It must suffice here for me to mention briefly those
points in their paper which bear directly upon the present subject. The
authors themselves state that they have reserved to a later paper their
own discussion of the relation of their plant to the important questions
concerning the differentiation of primitive Pteridophytes into stem, root,
and leaf {ibid., p. 775).
Rhynia Gwynne-Vaughani occurs in the Old Red Sandstone of Aberdeen,
and is, as its investigators point out, " the most ancient land-plant of which
the structure is at all fully known." Fortunately, the plant was preserved
in large numbers as it grew, and Kidston and Lang have been able to
elucidate fully its general habit of growth, external form, and structure.
The plant was leafless and rootless, the branched cylindical stems being
differentiated into underground rhizoid-bearing rhizomes and tapering aerial
stems. Branching of the stem was by the dichotomous division of its
apex, or more frequently by the formation on the stem of adventitious
lateral branches. The vascular system of the plant consisted throughout
of a simple cylindrical stele composed of a slender solid strand of tracheides,
with no distinction of protoxylem and metaxylem, surrounded by a zone
of phloem. The possession of these general characters leads Kidston and
Lang to compare Rhynia with the existing Psilotales ; but the presence of
certain other characters, such as the total absence of leaves, the consistent
simplicity of the stele, and especially the single large sporangia borne
terminally on short stalks, has decided them to recognize a new pterido-
phytic class (to which they propose to give the name " Psilophytales ;')
somewhat resembling the modern class Psilotales, and embracing with
Rhynia certain Devonian plant fossils. The authors note that the com-
parison which they institute between Rhynia and the Psilotf ceae " would
lead us to regard the Psilotaceae as having preserved many primitive
characters, and not as reduced. On this view the Psilotaceae would be
the little-modified survivors in the existing flora of a type of plant that
existed in early geological times, the most fully known example of which
is now Rhynia Gwynne-Vaughani. It does not follow, however, that a
direct line of descent is to be drawn between Rhynia and the Psilotaceae
as we know them " (ibid., p. 776).
It might, of course, with some reason be argued that the simple morpho-
logical nature of Rhynia was due to reduction ; but, all things considered,
it is more likely that the characters of this ancient plant are primitive
Hollow ay. — The Prothallus <t>ul Young Plant of Tmesipteris. 43
rather than reduced. The account given in the present paper of the
life-history of Tmesipteris lends weight to Kidston and Lang's suggestion
that the Psilotaceae, on account of their remarkable resemblance to Rhynia,
are to be regarded as possessing j)rimitive characters. The structure of
the sexual organs, of the embryo, and of the young plant of Tmesipteris
confirm the idea that the Psilotaceae should be removed from all other
existing classes of Pteridophytes. The structure and form of the prothallus
is also peculiar, but probably the gametophyte generation is always too
adaptive to form the basis for much generalization. The simple stele
found throughout the young plant of Tmesipteris in both rhizome and
aerial stem resembles that of the Psilophytales. The theory that the
mature plant of the Psilotaceae, as regards both its more complete vascular
anatomy and also the nature of its sporophylls, finds in the Sphenophyllales
its nearest resemblances is quite compatible with the belief that in other
respects the Psilotaceae have preserved the same primitive characters as
are exemplified in Rhynia.
Just what is the degree of relationship between the Psilotaceae and
these groups of fossil Pteridophytes is still, of course, far from clear. But
this much, at any rate, may be said : that we have learned to look for the
nearest relationships of this peculiar modern class of plants in the fossil
record, just as has been done in the case of the Lycopodiums and Equi-
setums ; and that while undoubtedly certain outstanding characters in the
case of each of these modern remnants of once flourishing and important
groups are best interpreted as reduced or even as adaptive, others, again,
must be regarded as primitive, for they may be directly compared with
corresponding characters in fossil plants.
Postscript.
At the same time that the proofs of this paper were returned to me from
the printer for a second revision Professor A. A. Lawson's second account of
the prothallus of Tmesipteris (Lawson, 1917b) was kindly sent to me
by its autl or, so that I am able to give in the form of an appendix a
short comparison of his corrected results with mine.
My own account of the prothallus of Tmesipteris as given above
corresponds more closely with that given by Lawson in his second paper
than in his first. Since writing his preliminary account Lawson found
a large number of prothalli, a certain proportion of which would be more
or less complete, at any rate as regards their growing apices. One of
these is figured by him (fig. 1). This prothallus shows a close resemblance
to those figured in the present paper. Certain differences are due to the
fact that Lawson's prothalli occurred terrestrially in a sandy soil, whereas
mine were found amongst the tangle of aerial rootlets on tree-fern stems
where the humus was scanty. More important differences to be noted
are that Lawson does not describe or figure the first-formed tapering
region of the prothallus : he describes the branching as irregular, whereas
I have shown that it takes place normally according to a regular sequence
of dichotomies ; and the growing apices of his prothalli are not swollen,
as were most of mine ; also, my prothalli are stouter and more strongly
grown. Otherwise, it seems to be clear from our two accounts that our
prothalli are identical in nature. My account of the mature archegonia
and antheridia corresponds also with that given by Lawson in his second
paper. He there corrects his previous account of the mature archegonium,
and shows, as I also have pointed out above, that there is a straight
44 Transactions.
projecting neck of four tiers of cells, which in most cases in the mature
organ falls off almost level with the surface of the prothallus. In figs. 7
and 8 he shows two stages in the development of the antheridium. He
gives no account of the embryo in this second paper, but leaves this
subject for a still further communication.
In the same paper Professor Lawson describes and figures the pro-
thallus and sexual organs of Psilotum. Here again his description is
based upon ample material. There is no need for me to go into any detail
other than to notice that Lawson draws attention to the remarkably close
similarity between the prothalli and sexual organs of the two genera.
This similarity in the matter of the gametophyte generation hears witness
to the very near affinity of Psilotum with Tmesipteris, and serves also to
draw our attention to the fact of the essential similarity in the stelar
anatomy of the sporophyte. Lawson notes that the prothallus of Psilotum
as described by him differs wholly from that which Lang provisionally
assigned to Psilotum.
I have not seen Darnell-Smith's paper on the gametophyte of Psilotum
{Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. 52, 1917), quoted by Professor Lawson, in
which he gives his observations on the germination of the spore, so cannot
compare what he there says concerning the first-formed part of the
prothallus with what I have described in the present paper in various
well-grown prothalli with regard to the same.
Literature consulted.
Boodle, L. A., 1904. On the Occurrence of Secondary Xylem in Psilotum, Ann. Bot.,
vol. 18, pp. 505-17.
Bower, F. 0., 1894. Studies in the Morphology of the Spore-producing Members,
I. Equiset. and Lycopod., Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond., ser. B, vol. 186.
1908. The Origin of a Land Flora, London.
Brttchmann, H., 1898. fiber die Prothallien und die Keimpjtanzen mehrerer europiiischer
Lycopodien, Gotha.
Campbell, D. H., 1911. The Eusporangiatae — The Comparative Morphology of the
Ophioglossaceae and Marattiaceae, Washington.
Cheeseman, T. F.. 1906. Manual of the New Zealand Flora. Wellington.
Engler. A., and Prantl, K-. 1900. Pflanzenfamilien. Teil 1, Abteihmg iv, Psilo-
taceae.
Ford, Miss S. O.. 1904. The Anatomy of Psilotum triquetrum. Ann. Bot.. vol. 18,
pp. 589-605.
Kidston, R., and Lang, W. H., 1917. On Old Red Sandstone Plants, showing
Structure, from the Rhynie Chert Bed, Aberdeenshire, Pt. i, Rhynia Givynne-
Vaughani, Trans. Roy. Sic. Edin., vol. 51, pt. 3, No. 24.
Lang, W. H., 1902. On the Prothalli of Ophioglossum pendulum and Helminthostachys
zeylanica, Ann. Bot., vol. 16, pp. 23-56.
1904. On a Prothallus provisionally referred to Psilotum, Ann. Bot., vol. 18,
pp. 571-77.
Lawson, A. A.. 1917a. The Prothallus of Tmesipteris tannensis, Trans. Roy. Soc.
Edin., vol. 51, pt. iii, pp. 785-94.
— — 1917b. The Gametophyte Generation of the Psilotacea*?, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.,
vol. 52, pt. i, pp. 93-113.
Scott, D. H., 1909. Studies in Fossil Botany, 2nd ed. (1st ed. 1900), London.
Seward, A. C, 1910. Fossil Plants, vol. 2, Cambridge.
Sykes, Miss M. G., 1908. The Anatomy and Morphology of Tmesipteris, Ann. Bot.,
vol. 22, pp. 63-89.
Thomas, A. P. W., 1902. The Affinity of Tmesipteris with the Sphenophyllales, Proc.
Roy. Soc, vol. 69, pp. 343-50.
Tretjb, M., 1884-90. Ktudes sur les Lycopodiacees, Ann. duJard. bot. de Buit. (Refer-
ences in standard works.)
Parry. — Resistance to Flow of Water through Pipes. 45
Art. II. — The Resistance to the Flow of Water through Pipes.
By B. Parry, B.Sc, Public Works Department, New Zealand.
[Read before the Technological Section of the Wellington Philosophical Society, 7th
July, 1917 ; received by Editors, 31st December, 1917 ; issued sepaiatrly, 24>ih May,
1918.]
Introductory.
In a previous contribution to this subject communicated to the Philo-
sophical Society, and printed in the Transactions ot the Neiu Zealand
Institute,^' an attempt was made to determine the limits between which
the resistance to the flow of water in a turbulent state is found to
vary, first, for riveted steel pipes, and, secondly, for wood-stave pipes.
This was done by plotting all the experimental determinations of loss
of head which are on record and afterwards enveloping the observations
as a whole by curves, the form of which was deduced from analogy with
the ascertained law of resistance to flow through smooth pipes. In
the present contribution an attempt is made to analyse the effect of
different surfaces more in detail and to extend the study of the subject.
The principle herein employed has been applied by the author to the
observations upon the resistance to the flow of water in open channels,
and the results communicated to the New Zealand Society of Civil
Engineers.!
It is well known that the flow of water or any fluid assumes two
different modes, the one in which the flow is linear and known as stream-
line or viscous motion, and the other in which the flow is non-linear
or sinuous, the flow being otherwise described as eddying or turbulent.
The two terms "linear" and "sinuous" describe the two states very
well, and are used herein in the sense defined. Between the two states
there is an unstable region below which the flow is linear and above
which it is sinuous.
In the linear stage the relationship between the elements affecting the
resistance to motion is simple in character, and in consequence the nature
of the relationship was discovered by experiment at an early date and
subsequently rationalized, and is expressed as follows : —
" = a (Z.)
v2 \vd)
(1)
where s is the hydraulic gradient, r the hydraulic mean depth, d the
diameter of the pipe, v the mean velocity, v the kinematic viscosity
(i.e., the viscosity divided by the density of the fluid), and a a constant.
Here the resistance is expressed as a loss of head per unit length of pipe,
as is customary in engineering practice, whilst the customary notation has
also been adopted — viz., r and s for the hydraulic mean depth and
hydraulic gradient respectively.
In the sinuous or eddying stage, on the other hand, the relation
between the elements of resistance is evidently complex, and as a
*E. Parry, Resistance to the Plow of Fluids through Pipes, Trans. N.Z. Inst..,
vol. 48, pp. 481-89, 1916.
t E. Parry, A Critical Discussion of the Subject of the Fiow of Water in Pip^s
and Channels, wi h Special Reference to the Latter, Proc. N.Z. Soc. Civil Engineers,
vol. 3, pp. 116-32, 1917.
46 Transactions.
consequence the efforts of experimenters to discover the nature of the
relationship has been fruitless, and, as little or nothing is known of the
transformation of energy within fluids in sinuous motion, a precise mathe-
matical solution was impossible. It may, however, be deduced from
certain dynamical principles that the resistance is some function of ( — J
\vdj
provided that there is a proportionality between the dimensions of the
eddies and of the cross-section of the pipe, leaving the form of the
function to be determined by experiment.
The law of resistance, then, in its most general form, which applies to
both states of motion, is expressed as follows : —
3-*(a) <2>
where <£ stands for " function of" and the other symbols have the same
significance as in equation (1). As already explained, the relation
between the quantities in the linear state is a simple one, the left-hand
expression in equation (2) being a simple linear function of the right hand.
As regards sinuous or turbulent flow, it was supposed at one time
that the nature of the function was of the form
rs
/>i2
•U" <3>
but it is now known that this form is defective, and that the range of
observations upon which it was based was not wide enough to determine
the true form ; it was soon found that equation (3) did not fit the facts,
and in consequence a modification of this was adopted in which v was
treated as a constant, and independent indices given to v and d, yielding
a formula of the form
v = kr*sv (4)
where k, x are constants and r is the hydraulic mean depth numerically
equal to d/4 for round pipe.
This formula is one of considerable flexibility, and of late the whole
phenomenon of the flow of water in pipes has been analysed afresh
and expressed in the form given in equation (4). Its adoption has not,
however, contributed anything towards extending our knowledge of the
subject, and it is much to be regretted that steps were not taken to
extend the range of observations when equation (3) was found to be
defective. Tnis aspect of the question has been apparently overlooked.
Such a series of observations extending over a wide range was recently
conducted in the National Physical Laboratory by Stanton and PannelP
upon oil, air, and water in smooth brass pipes. The diameters of the
pipes used varied from 0 142 in. to 5 in., and the mean speed from
a fraction of a foot to 20 ft. per second. These combined with other
observations upon the flow of water in smooth pipes when plotted
with -- as ordinates and log. — as abscissae were found to be sufficientlv
v% V
near to enable a curve to be drawn through the mean which was fairly
representative of the whole, despite the fact that the condition of
geometric similarity was not observed in respect to the surface of the
* T. E. Stanton and I. R. Pannell, Similarity of Motion in Relation to the
Surface Friction of Fluids, Phil. Trans Roy. Soc, A.'vol. 214, pp. 199-224, 1914.
Parry. — Resistance to Flow of Water through Pipes. 47
pipes. According to Professor Lees,* the mean curve can be expressed
in the form
rs
n
+=a\x) +b (5)
the values, the coefficients, and the index being as follows : —
a = 0-00801 ; b = 0000028 ; n = 0-35
all the quantities being in foot-pound units.
More recently Landert carried out an extensive series of experiments
upon the flow of water and steam at speeds varying from 191 ft. per
second to 11*55 ft. per second through ordinary commercial drawn-steel
pipe of 0*423 in. diameter, and upon plotting the values of — against log.
he finds than an equation of the form (5) satisfies the relation between
them. He, however, obtains different values of the coefficient and of the
indices, the values being
a = 00202 ; b = 0*0000622 ; n = 0*44
all values being in foot-pound units.
It is evident on contemplating the two sets of experiments that an
equation of the form given in (5) correctly expresses the relation between
the quantities near enough for all practical purposes, and it remains to
be seen how far the principle is applicable to larger diameters and
rougher surfaces, and it is the purpose of this paper to test its ap-
plicability to cast-iron, riveted steel, and wood-stave pipes of such sizes
and characteristics as are in common use in the arts.
Before proceeding further in the direction indicated it may be useful
and interesting to compare the form of equation (5) with Chezy's formula,
viz. : —
v = c </rs (6)
where o is a coefficient and r the hyraulic mean depth. It will be seen
that c can be expressed in the form
1
c =
v-(£)"+» p>
Comparing this with other well-known formulae for c, we have Prony's
equation, viz. : — ■
1
-^•G)
+ b
whilst Darcy and Bazm's formula may be expressed as follows : —
1
= V"(i) + >
Evidently the influence and value of v predominate in Prony's experi-
ments, whilst the value of d predominated in Darcy's experiments ; and
* C. H. Leks, On the Fiow of Viscous Fluids through Smooth Circular Pipes,
Proc. R>>y. Soc, A, vol. 91, pp. 46-53, 1914.
f C. H. Lander, Surface Friction : Experiments with Steam and Water in Pipes ,
Proc. Boy. Soc, A, vol. 92, pp. 337-53, 1916.
48 Transactions.
it does not seem to have occurred to any one to combine the two and
thereby obtain an approximation to equation (7).
Kutter's formula for c is too complicated for ready comparison, and,
after all, what is required is not a formula for c, but a sufficient number
of observations for each class of pipe to enable a curve to be drawn
correlating — to — The precise form of the equation expressing the
v v
relationship is really only of academic interest.
Returning to equation (5), the results of the experiments on smooth
pipe by Stanton and Panned are plotted in figs. 1, 2, and 3, and indicated
by the number 6, whilst the result of Lander's experiments on drawn-
steel pipe is indicated by the number 10, the abscissae being values of
log. and the ordinates values of — . In fig. 4 the same equations
v v2
/ vs \ vcl
are plotted in terms of log. (— — b) and log. — . Line 6 represents
Stanton's experiments, and line 10 Lander's. These two lines converge
at or near to a point 0, where the motion changes from linear to sinuous.
Line 12 represents linear flow, and should be common to all pipes within
limits. The convergence of these three lines indicates that the two pipes
fulfil the condition as regards geometric similarity. The method of
plotting adopted in fig. 4 affords a ready means of determining the
characteristic of any description of surface, provided that the condition
before mentioned is fulfilled, for it is only necessary to make one
observation of the quantities involved and to join the point representing
the observed value to the point 0 in order to determine the whole
characteristic. There is one remarkable coincidence between Stanton's
and Lander's results — viz., the ratio of a to b is the same in both ;
which suggests a possible relationship which would be most useful if it
can be proved to have any dynamical significance, but no deduction
can be made in the absence of such a proof.
In applying the principle involved in equation (2) to experiments
upon large pipes we encounter several elements of uncertainty. One
is that the temperature of the water has not, as a rule, been observed
and recorded ; but as the error involved in assuming a uniform tempera-
ture and applying it to all the experiments is considerably less than
the error arising out of other disturbing factors, and probably less than
the error of observation under the conditions prevailing during the
experiments, the temperature error is of no great moment.
Another factor which affects the harmony of the results arises from the
fact, that large-diameter pipe lengths are shorter than small-diameter
pipes, and that in consequence the joints are more frequent ; and, as the
joint is a disturbing element, a large pipe and a small pipe of the same
material and surface — such, for instance, as cast iron — are not strictly
comparable on account of the increase in the number of joints, and often
also because of the different nature of the joint. There is also the
possibility that in two experiments on pipes of the same size and material
the joint of the one may be better made than that of the other, and
greater care taken in aligning the pipes.
In the case of riveted steel pipes we have still other disturbing factors.
The longitudinal joints ma\ be lapped or butted. There may be one, two,
or three longitudinal joints in the circumference The circumferential
joints may be alternately in and out, or taper ; in neither case is the
diameter of the pipe uniform. In one case we have a larger diameter
alternating with a smaller diameter by twice the thickness of metal, with
Parky. — Resistance to Flow of li'ater through /'/pes. 49
the plate at the joint alternately facing and not facing the stream ; in
the other case we have the plate or section tapering from a large end to
a small end hy twice the thickness of the plate, whilst none of the joints
face the stream. There is further the disturbance arising out of the
different thickness of plate used, and in comparing two riveted pipes
of different diameter it will be realized that they are not similar in
all respects unless the thickness of plate bears some proportion to the
diameter. The same remarks apply generally to spirally riveted pipe.
The principle involved demands that for the same values of vd at the
same temperature the same value of shall be obtained ; but unless the
v'2
frequency of jointing and the nature of the joints is the same, and unless
there is a proportionality between diameter, thickness of plate, and size
of rivet, it cannot be expected that the principle can be strictly applied, or
that it can be proved to be applicable at all unless the characteristics
mentioned are taken into account.
In spite of the vast array of experiments upon pipes of different
kinds, it will be found that few of them are of much assistance in the
present investigation. The characteristics of the pipe are not always
precisely defined. The experiments on any one set are usually not
numerous enough, or, if numerous, do not cover a sufficient range.
Those experiments that are at all suitable have been used in the present -
paper, and a study of the diagrams will afford an indication as to the
scope which should be given to further experiments.
In addition to the disturbing factors arising out of the nature of
the surface, and frequency and nature of the joints, the thickness of plate
in riveted pipe, and riveting, there is evidently another disturbing element
arising out of the elastic compression of the water and from the accelera-
tion and retardation of the flow. Most of the available observations
on large pipe have been obtained under working conditions, and subject
to disturbances arising out of change in velocity of flow due to the
operation of valves and governors. When a change in velocity of flow is
made, a wave of alternate compression and expansion is set up which
takes some time to die down, especially if the pipe is a long one, and it
is quite possible to obtain widely conflicting results on the same pipe and
for the same average flow, due to the operation of the various impulses
that may be set up. Another possible source of irregularity is the
occlusion of air in larger or smaller quantities due to fluctuations of
pressure. This might affect the flow considerably at a given head, whilst
the proximity of the gauge to a bend or to a discharge-opening has been
found to vitiate the results. That some disturbances of the kind men-
tioned are at work will be quite evident on contemplating the graphs
showing the results, to which attention will now be drawn.
Cast-ikon Pipe.
A very complete list of experiments on loss of head in cast-iron pipe
will be found in Barnes's work, Hydraulic Ftoiv Reviewed, including some
particularly careful determinations by the said author himself, which
fulfil all the requirements. The examples selected are taken from the
publication mentioned. Four experiments by Darcy on clean, new,
uncoated cast-iron pipes are represented by a, b, c, and k in tig. 1, the
diameters varying from 02678 ft. to 16404 ft. The readings are erratic,
and no conclusion can be drawn from them further than that the trend
of the observations generally follows the curve for drawn-sceel pipes.
The remaining experiments are upon asphalted cast-iron pipes, either
50
Transactions.
Parky. — Resistance to Flow of Water through Pipes.
51
IN
6
52 Transactions.
newly cleaned or new. The diameters vary from 3-333 ft. to 5-0938 ft.
by four different observers and six sets of observations. All the readings
are remarkably close, and form a most valuable groundwork for further
investigation. There are in all forty-six observations, all within the
limit of observational errors, which could be represented by a single
curve. All that is required in regard to this class of surface is a number
of observations between the values of log. = 6 and log. _ = 7. Even
V V
as they stand a curve could be drawn with a fair amount of probability
as to its correctness, as the observations follow the curve for brass tube ;
but, as the determination of the function is essentially an experimental
one, the completion of the curve should be left to experiment.
Wood-stave Pipe.
Among the available experiments on wood-stave pipe, the most
complete are those by Moritz." Two classes of pipe are used — viz.,
jointed and continuous. The frequency of joints in the former case is,
however, not specified. The observations on I8in., 14 in., 12 in., 8 in.
jointed pipe, and on a 55fin. by Moritz, and a 31 in. continuous by
Moore, are plotted in fig. 2. It will be seen that in spite of the care
exercised the results obtained on some of the pipes are somewhat erratic,
due, no doubt, to the effect of impulses travelling through the water.
The results as a whole are not consistent, and they do not lie near enough
together to enable them to be represented to a single line, as the under-
lying principle demands. Nevertheless, they do not disprove the ap-
plicability of the principle, as the results are not consistent, whilst the
difference between the observations on the same pipe are greater than
the differences between the different pipes.
Kiveted Steel Pipe.
Of the numerous experiments on riveted steel pipe, but two or three are
suitable for the purpose of this paper. As a rule, the range is short and
the readings erratic, whilst the particulars of the pipe are not complete.
One of the most complete and extensive sets of observations is that made
by Marx, Wing, and Hoskinsf upon a pipe 601 ft. in diameter, the
circular joints being butted, with a strap on the outside. The longitudinal
joints are also butted, with a strap both inside and out. The length of
pipe was 4,427 ft., with fourteen joints, and contained thirteen bends of
30 ft. radius and one of 40 ft. radius. The temperature of water is also
recorded. The results are plotted in fig. 3 and marked a. On the same
diagram are plotted experimental values by Herschellj on a 48 in. pipe
marked b and a 36 in. pipe marked c. In each case the plates are Jin.
thick and asphalted, built with alternate large and small cross-sections.
All three sets of results are erratic, giving widely different values of 1/c2
vd
for the same value of , and the readings on the same pipe differ more
v
than the difference between the pipes, so that no conclusion can be drawn
as to the complete applicability of the principle involved. All that can be
* E. A. Moritz, Experiments on the Flow of Water in Wood stave Pipes, Trans.
Am. Soc. Civ. HJng , vol. 74, pp. 411-51, 1911.
t C. D. Marx, C. B. Wing, and L. M. Hoskins, Experiments on the Flow of
Water in the Six-foot Steel and Wood Pipe Line of the Pioneer Electric Power Com-
pany at Ogden, Utah, Second Series, Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng., vol. 44, pp. 34-54, 1900.
I One Hundred and Fifteen Experiments on the Carrying-capacity of Large Riveted
Metal Conduits, John Wiley and Sons, N.Y.
Parry. — Resistance to Flow of Water through Pipes.
53
54
Transactions.
<*>
A
to
K.
^
'
•a
ft
<&
c\
*4
\_
sj
^
\
\
C)
\
V
M
\
l£
f
\>
\
'
(
'F
w
rpf
'JUt
r_
\
\
x.
\
i
K
NS
^
<■
'•
1
H
^
C5
Parry. — Resistance to Flow of Water through Pipes. 55
gathered from contemplating them is that their general trend indicates
that the law of resistance can be expressed in the form of equation (5).
The observations are, however, not consistent enough among themselves,
and, if they were, they do not cover a sufficiently wide range to enable a
curve expressing the relation between - and to be drawn. There is
V" V
evidently some disturbing factor at work which seems to have a greater
effect at low values of the mean velocity and low friction heads.
Comparisons.
Comparing the results as a whole as plotted in figs. 1, 2, and 3,
it may be said that their general trend is such as to conform with
the law expressed in equation (5), and that they do not disprove the wide
application of the principle to comprehend both large and small diameters,
provided that the surface characteristics are similar.
As regards cast iron with clean, asphalted surfaces, the results of the
more recent experiments are remarkably consistent and afford strong
evidence in support of the theory, and it only requires a few more
experiments in the proper region of exploration in order to enable a curve
to be drawn for this class of surface.
As regards wood-stave pipe, the available results are not consistent,
and new observations are required throughout the range.
As regards riveted steel pipes, none of the existing data are of much
assistance, because of the wide variations between the readings. It
is evident that in all the experiments some disturbing factors were
operating in such a way as to vitiate the results, these making their
influence felt more at low than at high velocities. More experiments
extending over a wider range are required.
Conclusion.
The result of this investigation is not very conclusive. A beginning
is, however, made in the direction of applying a principle which has been
found to be applicable throughout a wide range of values of vd, and for
widely different fluids, such as water, air, and steam, and extending it
to large pipes in commercial use ; and before further progress can be
made more experiments are required on pipes of different diameters and
different surface characteristics, selected with a view to extending the
range of observations already obtained.
Whether or not this theory is applicable under all conditions,
there is considerable advantage to be derived from plotting the results of
observations against — , as by this means one is able to exercise a far
V
greater degree of judgment in selecting a probable value of c than by
studying all the literature on the subject which exists, and the method is
to be recommended on this account.
Eeaders are referred to a previous paper, ;:: printed in the Transactions
of the New Zealand Institute, for a diagram representing the coefficient of
viscosity and the coefficient of kinematic viscosity of water at different
temperatures, and also a diagram showing the relation between the values
of log. - and vd for water at temperatures 0, 10, 20, and 30 degrees
V
centigrade, the use of which will facilitate the manipulation of the
diagrams presented in this paper.
* E. Parry, Resistance to the Flow of Fluids through Pipes, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 48, pp. 487-88, 1916.
56 Transactions.
Art. III. Revision of the Cirripedia of New Zealand.
By L. S. Jennings, B.A.3 M.Sc.
Communicated by Dr. Charles Chilton.
[Bead before, the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, ■'>tli December, 1917 ; received by
Edit rs, 31st December. 1917 : issued separately, 24th May, 1918.]
Introductory Note.
The late Captain L. S. Jennings commenced the study of the New Zealand
Cirripedia, a group of animals that had received very little attention from
local naturalists, in 1910, and, becoming greatly interested in the subject,
he continued his observations with much enthusiasm and great thoroughness,
and hoped to be able to prepare a comprehensive paper dealing with the
whole group. In 1915 he published a paper on the " Pedunculate Cirripedia
of New Zealand and Neighbouring Islands " (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47,
p. 285). In this he gave a revised list of the species known to occur in the
New Zealand region, established a new variety of Lepas anatifera Linn.,
and gave a critical discussion of the specific characters of Lepas anatifera
Linn, and of the New Zealand species Pollicipes. He had nearly completed
his examination of the sessile Cirripedia when he left for the front, and
before his departure he gave into my charge all his specimens and manuscript
notes. Though nearly all the essential work of identifying the species had
been done, the manuscript was not arranged in a form suitable for publica-
tion. Mrs. Jennings has carefully gone over the collection, under my super-
vision, and has put the notes in order for publication. The paper contains
a list of the New Zealand species examined by Captain Jennings, with
localities, &c, of the different species.
References have been added to Pilsbry's " Sessile Barnacles (Cirripedia)
contained in the Collections of the U.S. National Museum" (1916*), and to
Borradaile's " Report on the Cirripedia of the ' Terra Nova ' Antarctic
Expedition " (1916 and 1917) — works which Captain Jennings had no oppor-
tunity of seeing.
In the list given below only those species are included which had been
examined by Captain Jennings. Additional species are recorded from
New Zealand by Hutton (1879, p. 330), Filhol (1885, p. 485), and Borradaile
(1916, p. 128).
Those references only have been given which appear necessary for New
Zealand workers.
The collection has been named and arranged in order, and is stored in
the Biological Laboratory of Canterbury College. It contains a few speci-
mens added after Captain Jennings left New Zealand, mainly from the
collections of Mr. W. R. B. Oliver.
Captain Jennings was killed in action in France on the 15th September,
1916. By his death New Zealand was deprived of one of the most promising
of the younger generation of workers in science.
Chas. Chilton.
* The references are made by the year of publication to the bibliographical list
on p. 63
Jennings. — Bevision of the Cirripedia of New Zealand. 57
Family LEPADIDAK
Lepas anatifera Linnaeus.
Lepas anatifera Linnaeus, 1758, Systema Naturae, 10th ed., p. 668 ;
Darwin. 1851, p. 73 ; Gravel, 1905, p. 108 ; Pilsbrv, 1907, p. 79 ;
Chilton, 1911a, p. 571; L. S. Jennings, 1915, 'pp. 285, 288,
figs. 1 {a, b, c), 2.
Specific Diagnosis. — " Valves smooth, or delicately striated. Right-
hand scutum alone furnished with internal umbonal tooth : uppermost
part of peduncle dark-coloured. Filaments, two on each side." (Darwin.)
Var. (a). " Scuta and terga with one or more diagonal lines of dark
greenish-brown, square, slightly depressed marks." (Darwin.)
Var. (b). " Carina strongly barbed." (Darwin.)
Var. (c).* ;l No trace of an umbonal tooth on either scutum. The
carina is not barbed and square patches on the capitulum are not visible."
(Jennings.)
Localities. — General type : Sunday Island, Kermadecs (Bell and W. R. B.
Oliver). Locality unknown — Specimens in Canterbury Museum.
Var. (b) : Sunday Island, Kermadecs (W. R. B. Oliver).
Var. (c) : Chatham Islands (Miss S. D. Stand) ; hull of " Terra Nova,"
Lyttelton (C. Chilton) ; Waitakerei River, washed up on beach (W. R. B.
Oliver).
Lepas hillii Leach.
Pentalasmis hillii Leach, 1818, Tuckey's Congo Exped., p. 413. Lepas
hillii Darwin, 1851, p. 77, pi. i, fig. 2; Gravel, 1905, p. 110,
figs. 124. 125 ; Pilsbrv, 1907, p. 80, pi. viii, figs. 2, 7 ; Jennings,
1915, p. 287.
Specific Diagnosis.— " Valves smooth : scuta destitute of internal um-
bonal teeth ; carina standing a little separate from the other valves, with
the fork not close to the basal margin of the scuta ; uppermost part of
the peduncle either pale or orange coloured. Filaments three on each side."
(Darwin.)
Locality. —Hull of " Terra Nova," Lyttelton Harbour (C. Chilton).
Lepas pectinata Spengler.
Lepas pectinata Spengler, 1793, Shifter Naturhist. Selbshabet, 2 B.,
2 H., Tab. x, fig. 2 ; Darwin, 1851, p. 85, pi. i, figs. 3, 3a ; Hutton,
1878, p. 329 ; Gravel, 1905, p. 107, fig. 119 ; Pilsbry, 1907,
p. 81, pi. viii, figs. 4-8 ; Chilton, 1911a, p. 571 ; Jennings, 1915,
p. 286 ; Borradaile, 1916, p. 131.
Specific Diagnosis. — " Valves thin, coarsely furrowed, often pectinated.
Scuta with a prominent ridge extending, from the umbo to the apex, close
to the occludent margin ; fork of the carina with the prongs diverging at
an angle of from 135° to 180°. Filaments absent, or only one on each
side." (Darwin.)
Var. (a). ' Upper part of the terga (bounded by the two occludent
margins) produced and sharp ; surface of all the valves often coarsely
pectinated, and with the carina barbed." (Darwin.)
*This variety has been described as a new species by Borradaile, under the name
L. affinis (see Borradaile, 1916, p. 131, and 1917, p. 229).— C. C.
58 Transactions.
Localities. General type : Chatham Islands (A. Dendy).
Var. (a) : Kermadec Islands (W. R. B. Oliver) ; Waitakerei River,
washed up on beach (W. R. B. Oliver) ; off Three Kings Islands (L. A
Borradaile).
Lepas australis Darwin.
Lepas australis Darwin, 1851. p. 89, pi. i, fig. 5 ; Hutton, 1879,
p. 329 : Gravel, 1905. p. 109, fig. 122 ; L. S. Jennings, 1915,
p. 285.
Specific Diagnosis. — " Valves smooth, thin, brittle ; scuta with internal
umbonal teeth on both sides. Carina with upper part broad, flat ; much
constricted above the fork, which has wide, flat, thin, pointed prongs, with
the intermediate rim not reflexed. Filaments two on each side." (Darwin.)
Localities. — New Plymouth beach (Mrs. B. D. Jennings) ; Sumner
(A. F. Barrell) ; New Brighton (G. E. Archey and L. S. Jennings) ; hull of
•' Terra Nova." Lyttelton Harbour (C. Chilton) ; Cape Campbell (T.
Mc Alpine).
Lepas fascicularis Ellis and Solan der.
Lepas fasciculari* Ellis and Solander, 1786, Zoophytes, Tab. xv,
fig. 5 ; Darwin. 1851, p. 92, pi. i, fig. 6 ; Hutton, 1879, p. 329 ;
Gravel, 1905, p. 105, fig. 116 ; Pilsbry, 1907, p. 81, pi. ix, fig. 6 ;
Chilton, 1911a, p. 572 ; Jennings, 1915, p. 286.
Specific Diagnosis. — " Valves smooth, thin, transparent ; carina rect-
angularly bent, with the lower part expanded into a flat oblong disc.
Filaments, five on each side ; segments of the three posterior cirri with
triangular brushes of spines."' (Darwin.)
Localities. — New Brighton (A. Dendy) ; Sunday Island, Kermadecs
(W. R. B. Oliver) ; Waitakerei River, washed tip on beach (W. R. B. Oliver).
Lepas denticulata Gruvel, 1900.
Lepas denticulata Gruvel, 1905, p. 106, fig. 118; Chilton, 1911a,
p. 571 ; Jennings, 1915, p. 286.
Specific Diagnosis. — *w Capitulum avec cinq plaques tres serrees, de
couleur tres blanche et fortement pectinees. Carene terminee en fourche
a sa partie inferieure, chacune des branches portant, du cote pedonculaire,
deux pointes saillantes, l'interne plus longue que l'externe ; crete mediane
dorsale avex quatre fortes dents et une serie de plus petites entre les
premieres. Bord occluseur des scuta, convexe et fortement saillant an-
terieurement. Une dent a Tangle umbonal interne du scutum gauche.
Rien a droite. Pas d'appendices filamenteux." (Gruvel.)
Locality. — Kermadecs (Captain Bollons, 1907).
Conchoderma auritum (Linnaeus).
Lspas aurita Linnaeus, 1767, Systema Naturae, ed. 12, p. 1110.
Conchoderm-a aurita Darwin, 1851, p. 141, pi. iii, fig. 4 ; Chilton,
1911c, p. 132 ; Jennings, 1915, p. 287. Conchoderma auritum,
Gruvel, 1905, p. 144, fig. 167 ; Pilsbry, 1907, p. 99, pi. ix, fig. 2 ;
Pilsbry, 1909, p. 71, pi. viii, figs. 5, 6, 7; Borradaile, 1916,
p. 132, and 1917, p. 230.
Jennings. — Revision of the Cirripedia of New Zealand. 59
Specific Diagnosis. — " Capitulum with two tubular ear-like appendages,
seated behind the rudimentary and often absent terga ; scuta bilobed ;
carina absent, or quite rudimentary ; peduncle long, distinctly separated
from the capitulum."' (Darwin.)
Localities. — Hull of " Terra Nova," Lyttelton (C. Chilton) ; from Mega-
ptera nodosa in the Bay of Islands and off Cape Brett (L. A. Borradaile) ;
on whales (specimens in Otago and Auckland Museums).
Conchoderma virgatum (Spengler).
Lepas virgata Spengler, 1790, Shifter Naturhist. Selbskabet, B. ] ,
Tab. vi, fig. 9. Conchoderma virgata Darwin, 1851, p. 146, pi. iii,
fig. 2; pi. ix, fig. 4: Chilton, 1911c, p. 132: Jennings, 1915,
p. 287. Conchoderma virgatum Gruvel, 1905, p. 144, fig. 168 ;
Pilsbry, 1907, p. 99, pi. ix, fig. 1 ; Borradaile, 1917, p. 230.
Specific Diagnosis. — " Scuta three - lobed : terga concave internally,
with their apices slightly curved inwards : carina moderately developed,
slightly curved : peduncle blending into the capitulum.'' (Darwin.)
Localities.— -Hull of " Terra Nova," Lyttelton Harbour (C. Chilton) ;
ship's hull, Dunedin (specimens in Otago Museum).
Scalpellum villosum (Leach).
Scalpellum villosum Leach, 1824, Encyclop. Brit. Suppl., vol. iii,
pi. lvii ; Darwin. 1851, p. 274, pi. vi, fig. 8 ; Hutton, 1879, p. 329 ;
Gruvel, 1905, p. 33, fig. 32 ; Pilsbrv, 1907, p. 9 ; Jennings, 1915,
p. 286.
Specific Diagnosis. - ■' Capitulum with fourteen valves : sub-rostrum
present : carina nearly straight : three pair of latera ; upper latera tri-
angular. Mandibles with four teeth, of which the second is the smallest :
maxillae with a projection near the inferior angle : no caudal appendage.
:' Complemental male attached externally between the scuta, below the
adductor muscle ; pedunculated ; capitulum formed of six valves, with
the carina not descending much below the basal angles of the terga : mouth
and cirri prehensile." (Darwin.)
Localities. — Stewart Island (W. R. B. Oliver) ; Port Robinson (J. R.
Wilkinson) ; Godley Head (W. R. B. Oliver) ; Cheltenham Beach, Auck-
land (W. R. B. Oliver) ; Oamaru (L. S. Jennings).
Scalpellum spinosum Annandale.
Scalpellum sjrinosum Annandale, 1911, p. 164, figs. 1-4 ; Chilton,
1911b, p. 311 ; Jennings, 1915, p. 286.
Specific Diagnosis. — Capitulum broad, fifteen smooth pinkish valves
present, covered with a minutely hairy translucent brownish membrane.
Terga large, lozenge - shaped ; scuta broadly triangular. Carina short,
nearly straight, ridged dorsally but not laterally. Upper latera narrowly
triangular. Rostrum, latera of the basal whorl, and subcarina prominent,
pointed, spine-like. (Abridged from Annandale.)
Localities. — Farewell Spit, Nelson (W. B. Benham) ; " Nora Niven "
Expedition, Station 5, off Stewart Island.
60 Transactions.
Pollicipes* spinosus (Quoy and Gaimard).
Anatifa spinosa Quoy and Gaimard, Voyage de V Astrolabe, pi. xciii,
fig. 17. Pollicipes spinosus Darwin. 1851, p. 324, pi. vii, fig. 4 ;
Hutton, 1879, p. 329 ; Gruvel, 1905, p. 20, fig. 24 ; Jennings, 1915,
pp. 286, 291, figs. 3a, 36. Pollicipes sertus Darwin, 1851, p. 327,
pi. vii, fig. 5 ; Gruvel, 1905, p. 22, fig. 25 ; Jennings, 1915,
pp. 286, 291. Pollicipes darwini Hutton, 1879. p. 329 ; Gruvel,
1905, p. 21 ; Jennings, 1915, pp. 286, 291.
Specific Diagnosis.— " Capitulum with one or more whorls of valves
under the rostrum : upper pair of latera only slightly larger than lower
latera : membrane covering the valves (when dried) light yellowish-brown :
scales of the peduncle of unequal sizes, unsymmetrical, arranged in rather
distant whorls." (Darwin.)
Localities. — Kaikoura (collector unknown) ; Port Pegasus, Stewart Island
(collector unknown) ; Russell, Bay of Islands (W. R. B. Oliver) ; Tauranga
(W. R. B. Oliver) ; Godley Heads (W. R. B. Oliver) ; Stewart Island (W.
Traill) ; Kaikoura (L. S. Jennings) ; Oamaru (L. S. Jennings) ; St. Clair,
Dunedin (L. S. Jennings) ; Taylor's Mistake, Banks Peninsula (L. S. Jennings).
The reasons for considering P. sertus Darwin and P. darwini Hutton
to be synonyms of P. spinosus Quoy and Gaimard have already been fully
discussed. (See Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47, p. 291, 1915.)
Family BALANIDAE.
Balanus tintinnabulum (Linnaeus).
Lepas tintinnabulum Linnaeus, 1758, Systema Naturae, ed. 10, p. 668.
Balanus tintinnabulum Darwin, 1854, p. 194, pi. i, figs, a-l;
pi. ii, figs, la-lo: Gruvel, 1905, p'. 211, figs. 230-33: Pilsbrv,
1916, p. 54.
Specific Diagnosis. — " Shell varying from pink to blackish-purple, often
striped and ribbed longitudinally : orifice generally entire, sometimes toothed.
Scutum with the articular ridge broad and reflexed. Tergum with the basal
margin generally forming a straight line on opposite sides of the spur."
' Var. (8) concinnus : Globulo-eonical ; walls finely ribbed : dull purple,
tinged and freckled with white ; scutum, with a broad, hooked, articular
ridge, with an extremely sharp plate-like adductor ridge, and with a cavity,
bordered by a plate, for the rostral depressor muscle." (Darwin.)
Locality. — Hull of tk Terra Nova," Lyttelton Harbour (C. Chilton).
Balanus decorus Darwin.
Balanus decorus Darwin, 1854, p. 212, pi. 2. figs. 6a, 66 ; Gruvel,
1905, p. 214; Chilton, 1909, p. 670, and 1911, p. 311. pi. 58.
figs. 1-3 ; Pilsbry, 1916, pp. 53, 77.
Specific Diagnosis. — " Parietes pale pink ; radii rather darker. Scutum
with a small articular ridge. Tergum with longitudinal furrow very shallow
and open ; basal margin on both sides sloping towards the spur." (Darwin.)
Localities. — British Museum, from New Zealand (type) ; New Brighton
* In accordance with the rules of priority, Pilsbry uses the generic name Mitella
in place of Pollicipes (see Pilsbry, 1907, p. 4. and 1911, p. 33).— C. < '.
Jennings. — Revision of the Girri/pedia of New Zealand. 61
Beach (L. S. Jennings) ; Wanganui (S. H. Drew) ; Chatham Islands (Dr. E.
Kershner) ; Auckland Islands (C. Chilton).
Bv the " Nora Niven " Trawling Expedition this species was taken at
several localities on the New Zealand coast, many of them growing on the
carapace of Paramithrax longicornis Thomson, with which crab the cirripede
seems to be specially associated.
Balanus trigonus Darwin.
Balanus trigonus Darwin, 1854, p. 223, pi. 3, tigs. ~<i-lf Hutton,
1879, p. 330 ; Gruvel, 1905, p. 223, figs. 248, 249 : Pilsbry, 1916,
p. Ill, pi. 26, figs. l-13e.
Specific Diagnosis.-- " Parietes ribbed, mottled purplish - red ; orifice
broad, trigonal, hardly toothed. Scutum thick, with from one to six longi-
tudinal rows of little pits. Tergum without a longitudinal furrow ; spur
truncated, fully one-third of width of valve.*' (Darwin.)
Locality. — Rangitoto Reef, Auckland Harbour (W. R. B. Oliver).
Balanus porcatus Da Costa.*
Balanus porcatus Da Costa, 1778, Hist. Nat. Test. Brit., p. 249 ;
Darwin, 1854, p. 256, pi. 6, figs. 4«-4e ; Filhol, 1885, p. 487 ;
Gruvel, 1905, p. 237, fig. 264. Balanus balanus Pilsbry, 1916,
p. 149.
Specific Diagnosis. — "Shell white, generally sharply ribbed longi-
tudinally : radii with their summits almost parallel to the basis. Scutum
longitudinally striated : tergum with the apex produced and purple."
(Darwin.)
Localities. — Auckland (H. Suter) ; New Zealand (localitv not stated)
(W. R. B. Oliver).
Balanus crenatus Bruguiere.
Belanus crenatus Bruguiere, 1789, Encyclop. method, (des Vers), p. 168 ;
Darwin, 1854, p. 261, pi. vi, figs. 6a-6g ; Gruvel, 1905, p. 240,
figs. 268, 269 ; Pilsbry, 1916, p. 165, pis. 39, 40.
Specific Diagnosis. — " Shell white : radii with their oblique summits
rough and straight. Scutum without an adductor ridge : tergum with spur
rounded." (Darwin.)
Localities. — Hull of " Terra Nova," Lyttelton Harbour (C. Chilton).
Pilsbry (1916) distinguishes several varieties of this species.
Tetraclita purpurascens (Wood).
Lepas purpurascens Wood, 1815, General Conchology, p. 55, pi. 9,
fig. 42. Tetraclita purpurascens Darwin, 1854, p. 337, pi. xi,
figs. la-Id ; Hutton, 1879, p. 328 ; Gruvel, 1905, p. 285, fig. 308« ;
Pilsbry, 1916, p. 249.
Specific Diagnosis. — " Shell depressed, pale purple or dirty-white, with
the surface longitudinally ribbed, or corroded and granulated : radii or even
sutures none, or radii well developed and broad, with summits parallel to
* According to the rules of priority, this species should be named Balanus balanus
(Linnaeus), the name adopted by Pilsbry in 1916. For convenience of reference to papers
dealing with New Zealand Cirripedia the name used by Jennings in his manuscript
notes has been allowed to stand in the text. — 0. C.
62 Transactions.
the basis : basis membranous : scutum transversely elongated : tergurn
small, with the spur extremely short and rounded." (Darwin.)
Locality.— Otago (W. R. B. Oliver).
Elminius modestus Darwin.
Elminius modestus Darwin, 1854, p. 350, pi. 12, figs, lo-le ; Hutton,
1879, p. 328 ; Gruvel, 1905, p. 296, figs. 319-322 ; Pilsbry, 1916.
p. 261. Elminius sinuatus Hutton, 1879. p. 328 ; Gruvel, 1905,
p. 295.
Specific Diagnosis.— "' Shell folded longitudinally, greenish or white :
radii of moderate breadth, smooth-edged : scutum without adductor ridge :
tergum narrow, with the spur confluent with basi-scutal angle." (Darwin.)
Localities. — Lyttelton Harbour (L. S. Jennings) ; Riwaka, Nelson Har-
bour (L. S. -Jennings) ; Takapuna Beach ; Half-moon Bay, Stewart Island
(W. R. B. Oliver) : Ponui Island, Hauraki Gulf (C.' Chilton).
E. sinuatus Hutton is probably only a variety of E. modestus Darwin.
In groups of E. modestus many young specimens have parieties of each
valve with two rounded folds, referred to by Hutton in his description of
E. sinuatus. The two distinct folds show also when specimens are not
crowded together.
Elminius plicatus Gray.
Elminius ■plicatus Gray, 1843, Appendix to Dieff enbach 's Travels in
New Zealand, p. 269 ; Darwin, 1854, p. 351, pi. 12, figs. 2a~2f ;
Hutton, 1879, p. 328 ; Gruvel, 1905, p. 296, figs. 318, 321 ; Pilsbry,
1907, p. 261.
Specific Diagnosis. — '' Shell deeply folded longitudinally, corroded,
coloured in parts orange : radii very narrow, with their edges sinuous, and
slightly dentated : scutum having an adductor ridge." (Darwin.)
The valves show many variations in elongation of terga, prominence of
grooves and ridges, straightness of tergal articular ridge, length and inflexion
of tergal furrow, bluntness or beaked nature of apex.
The general appearance of the shell is also extremely variable. When
very corroded the walls are extremely thick, by the inward production of
the internal ridges, giving an appearance of porosity. These specimens
are usually depressed, and are of a grey or dirty-white colour.
Localities. — ICaipara Harbour (Spencer) ; Shag Point, Otago (W. R. B.
Oliver) ; Lyttelton Harbour (L. S. Jennings) ; Puhoi Beacon, Auckland
Harbour (C. Chilton) ; Hawera (L. S. Jennings) ; Ponui Island, Hauraki
Gulf (C. Chilton) ; Oamaru (L. S. Jennings) : Takapuna, Auckland
(W. R. B. Oliver).
Coronula diadema (Linnaeus).
Lepas diadema Linnaeus, 1767, Systema Naturae, ed. 12, p. 1109.
Coronula diadema, Darwin, 1854, p. 417, pi. xv, figs. 3, 3a, 3& ;
pi. xvi, figs. 1, 2, 7 : Hutton, 1879, p. 329 : Gruvel, 1905, p. 273 :
Pilsbry, 1916, p. 273, pi. 65, figs. 3, 4.
Specific Diagnosis. — -" Shell crown-shaped, with longitudinal convex ribs,
having their edges crenated ; orifice hexagonal : radii moderately thick,
very broad : terga absent or rudimentary." (Darwin.)
Localities. — Waikouaiti, on a whale (F. W. Hutton) ; on whale (speci-
mens in Auckland Museum).
Jennings. — Revision of the Cirripedia of New Zealand. 63
Chamaesipho columna (Spengler).
Lepas columna Spengler, 1790, Skrifter Nafurhist. Selbskabet, B. 1,
Tab. vi, fig. 6. Chamaesipho columna Darwin, 1854, p. 47<».
pi. 19, figs. 3a-3c ; Hutton, 1879, p. 329 ; Gruvel, 1905, p. 282,
figs. 306, 307.
Specific Diagnosis. — " Sutures, excepting during early youth, generally
obliterated both externally and internally: tergum with small pits for
attachment of depressor muscle." (Darwin.)
Localities. — Cuvier Island (Grenfell and Barr) ; Nelson (L. S. Jennings) ;
Shag Point, Otago (W. R. B. Oliver).
List op References.
Annandale, N., 1911. Description of an Undescribed Barnacle of the Genus Scalpellum
from New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, pp. 164-65, with text-figs. 1-4.
Borradaile, L. A., 1916. Crustacea, Part III, Cirripedia, in British Antarctic (" Terra
Nova") Expedition, 1910.
- 1917. Barnacles from the Hull of the '* Terra Nova," a Note, Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist., ser. 8, vol. 19, pp. 229-30.
Chilton, C, 1909. The Crustacea of the Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand, The
Subantarciic Islands of Neiv Zealand, pp. 601-71 (with 19 figures in text), Wel-
lington, N.Z.
- 1911a. The Crustacea of the Kermadec Islands, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43,
pp. 546-73 (with text-figures).
- 1911b. Scientific Results of the New Zealand Government Trawling Expedition,
1907, Crustacea, Rec. Canterbury Museum, vol. 1, pp. 285-312, pi. 58 and text-figures.
1911c. Note on the Dispersal of Marine Crustacea by means of Ships, Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, pp. 131-33.
Darwin, C, 1851. Monograph of the Cirripedia : the Lepadidae, Ray Society.
1854. Monograph of the Cirripedia : the Balanidae and the Verrucidae, Ray
Society.
Pilhol, H., 1885. Mission de File Campbell, in Recu. Passage Venus, vol. 3, ii, Zoo!.,
pp. 349-510, pis. 38-55.
Gruvel, A., 1905. Monographic des Cirrhipedes, Paris.
Hutton, F. W., 1879. List of the New Zealand Cirripedia in the Otago Museum, Trans.
• N.Z. Inst., vol. 11, pp. 328-30.
Jennings, L. S., 1915. Pedunculate Cirripedia of New Zealand and Neighbouring
Islands, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47, pp. 285-93, with text-figures.
Pilsbry, H. A., 1907. Barnacles (Cirripedia) contained in the Collections of the U.S.
National Museum, U.S. National Museum Bulletin 60.
- 1909. Barnacles of Japan and Bering Sea, Bull. Bureau Fisheries, U.S.A., vol. 29.
- 1911. On the Nomenclature of Cirripedia, Zool. Anz., Bd. 37, pp. 33-35.
1916. Sessile Barnacles (Cirripedia) contained in the Collections of the U.S. National
Museum, including a Monograph of the American Species, U.S. National Museum
Bulletin 93.
64 T ran mcliom.
Art. IV. — A New Species of Hypolepis.
By H. Carse.
[Head befort tin Auckland Institute, 11th December, 1917; received by Editors, 24th
December, 1017 ; issued separately, 24th May, 1918.]
Hypolepsis Petrieana sp. nov. ('arse.
Hypolepis bipinnata, H. millefolio Hook, affinis : differt stipite glabro +
tuberculato ; ramis primariis numerosis parum distantibus. Superioribus
a rhachi angulis valde obtusis provenientibus ; pinnis secundariis in lobos
breves late obcuneatos, acutos, subacutos, v. fere obtusos, integros v. + alte
(plerumque a margine superiore) incisos, pro parte maxima alternos, sectis.
Sori parvi rotundati pauci, in lobis singulis, 1, rarius 2.
Khizoma tenue, repens, squamis linearibus ferrugineis dense vestitum.
This undoubtedly new species of Hypolepis was discovered in December,
1907, by Mr. D. Petrie, M.A., Ph.D., with whose name I have pleasure
in associating it.
Rhizome slender, creeping, thickly covered with linear rusty scales.
Stipes 4-6 in. long, rigid, moderately stout, erect, yellow (as are the
rhachis and primary costae) or the lower part brownish, glabrous, somewhat
rough with scattered depressed tubercles.
Fronds 12-14 in. long, 8-10 in. broad, broadly obcuneate-ovate, subrigid,
bipinnate, secondary pinnae pinnatifid or their lower part pinnatisect ;
primary branches numerous, rather closely placed, the upper diverging
almost at right angles.
Rhachis and primary costae sparingly or somewhat closely clothed with
delicate crisped hairs ; lower primary pinnae narrow ovate - lanceolate,
6-8 in. long, suberect or ascending, shortly stipitate, the upper gradually
shorter, narrower, and more strongly diverging ; secondary pinnae very
shortly stipitate, broadly linear, 2j in. long or less, cut half-way down, or
almost to the costa, into short entire or + deeply cut (mostly at the upper
edge) broadly obcuneate, acute, subacute, or almost obtuse, usually alternate,
lobes, that are glabrous above and nearly so below ; midrib with a few
short hairs, chiefly on the under-surface.
Sori 1, or rarely 2, on each ultimate lobe, small, rounded, the common
one partially covered by a very short reflexed lobule projecting from the
upper basal border of the lobe, the second (when present) placed about half-
way up the lower side of the lobe and more or less covered by its slightly
expanded and recurved margin.
Indusium composed of the almost unaltered reflexed portions of the lobes
described above.
Hab. — Vicinity of Otorohanga, Waipa County, and Port Charles, Coro-
mandel County. D. Petrie !
Speight and Wild. — Weka Pass Stone and Amuri Limestone. 65
Art. V. — The Stratigraphical Relationship of the Weka Pass Stone and
the Amuri Limestone*
By R. Speight, M.Sc, F.G.S., Curator, Canterbury Museum, and Lecturer
on Geology, Canterbury College ; and L. J. Wild, M.A., B.Sc, F.G.S.,
Lecturer on Chemistry, Canterbury Agricultural College, Lincoln.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 5th September, 1917 ; received by
Editors, 31st December. 1917 ; issued separately, 24th May, 1918.]
Plates IV-VII.
Contents.
Introduction.
Detailed Description of the Limestones.
Amuri Limestone.
The Nodular Layer.
, Phosphatic Nodules.
Microscopic Description of a Typical Nodule.
Nodular Limestone.
Weka Pass Stone.
Historical Summary.
Detailed Descriptions of Important Sections.
Weka Pass.
Main Branch of Weka Creek.
Upper Waipara.
North-east Slope of Mount Grey.
South Branch of Omihi Creek.
North Side of Waikari Creek between Waikari and Scargill.
Gore Bay.
South Bank of the Hurunui.
On Coast South of the Blyth Ri ver.
Stonyhurst, in a Creek near the Homestead.
Motunau River.
Boundary Creek-
South Side of Amuri Bluff.
On Bluff North of the Mikonui Creek.
Near Maori Village on South Side of Kaikoura Peninsula.
North of Atiu Point, East End of Kaikoura Peninsula.
North Side of Kaikoura Peninsula.
Mouth of Lyell Creek, Kaikoura.
Puhipuhi Valley and Long Creek.
Contact of the Grey Marl with the Underlying Limestone.
Main Branch of Weka Creek.
Near Old Wharf, North Side of Kaikoura Peninsula.
East Side of Kaikoura Peninsula.
South Side of Amuri Bluff.
Evidence that the Series is Conformable.
The Peculiarities of the Junction of the Amuri Limestone and Weka
Pass Stone.
Introduction.
The area referred to in this paper stretches from the neighbourhood of the
Waipara River in a north-easterly direction across the Hurunui River, up
the coast past Amuri Bluff, to just north of Kaikoura, a total distance of
* We desire to state that .we have been enabled to make the observations recorded
in this paper largely through the award of a grant by the New Zealand Institute for
research work on the phosphate-bearing rocks of Canterbury.
3— Trans.
6fi
Transactions.
about eighty miles (see map). Throughout the region there is a great
development of the Tertiary sedimentaries, and some of the localities have
been looked on as classical in the discussion of various points relating to
New Zealand stratigraphy. Notably is this true of the areas in proximity
to the Waipara River, the Weka Pass, and Amuri Bluff, probably no parts
of New Zealand furnishing better opportunities for studying the relation-
ship of beds with a Cretaceous fauna to those with a Tertiary fauna. Never-
theless there have been and now exist remarkable discrepancies of opinion
on the part of writers, and as we have had in the course of our search for
Scale of Miles
10 5 0 10
HapuJcii'/i..
Kaikoura
Amur/ B/uff
Conway 1?
Waiaiz R.
Gore Bay
Port Robinson
HomnuC Ji
K> * y^Alapenape Beach
"^S tcrnyJiliris t
Boundary CreeTi
IWazfxxmi /<?.
Locality-map of part of the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand.
phosphatic rock ample opportunities to study the relationship of the beds
in different localities, and, as many miles of outcrops have been carefully
examined, especially those concerning which the discussion has been keenest,
we consider it appropriate to place on record the result of those observa-
tions, as far as they affect the question of the stratigraphy, in the hope
that they may aid in a definite opinion as to the points at issue being
arrived at.
The most important question suggested by the investigation is the
matter of the conformity or unconformity of two limestones which are
Speight and Wild. — Weka Pass Stone and Amuri Limestone. 67
typically developed in the southern part of the area. The beds involved
in this discussion are as follows, commencing from the bottom of the
series : —
(1.) Greenland.
(2.) The Amuri limestone, an argillaceous limestone, named from its
great development in the neighbourhood of Amuri Bluff, but
also occurring, outside the area under consideration, in the valleys
of the Clarence and Awatere, and perhaps in the south of the
North Island.
(3.) A nodular band, less than 1 ft. thick, composed of phosphatic
material of two kinds in a matrix of greensand or marl.
(4.) The Weka Pass stone, a glauconitic arenaceous limestone as it occurs
in the typical locality at Weka Pass, but probably ecmivalent to
the higher parts of the Amuri limestone elsewhere, and perhaps
to the lower part of the next succeeding higher bed in localities
near Kaikoura and Amuri Bluff.
(5.) The Grey marl, in its lower portions a glauconitic, arenaceous marl,
which in its higher parts in some localities becomes distinctly
argillaceous and takes on a true marly facies, and at times
becomes decidedly sandy as it passes up into the next higher
member of the series.
There follows a more detailed description of the second, third, and fourth
of these beds, which are the most important as far as this discussion is
concerned.
Detailed Description of the Limestones.
Amuri Limestone.
Although the macroscopic properties of the Amuri limestone have been
fully described previously by various observers and its microscopic charac-
ters have been dealt with by Marshall (1916, p. 95), it may be as well to
restate its salient features in this connection.
As typically developed south of Kaikoura it is an argillaceous limestone,
breaking up freely into quadrangular blocks owing to the presence of a
well-defined system of cross-joints, a property which is eminently charac-
teristic of it wherever it occurs. Owing to some of these blocks being thin
and flaky, its surface takes on a tile-like appearance, especially where inclined
beds are exposed on a shore-platform. This character is shown throughout
the whole thickness of the limestone at Kaikoura and at Amuri Bluff, but
farther south, as at Weka Pass, the so-called Weka Pass stone (the higher
part of the Amuri limestone as maintained by the authors) does not exhibit
to a marked degree this jointed structure, though echoes of it are un-
doubtedly present.
The rock is at times chalky in texture, but is usually hard and occasion-
ally crystalline, especially where it has been subjected to pressures result-
ing from earth-movements. Notably is this the case at Kaikoura, where
it sometimes takes on a subschistose character. Mention should be made
here of the chalk deposit at Oxford, which represents this rock in the
Waimakariri basin, judging from stratigraphical and lithological evidence.
The microscope shows the presence of numerous grains of glauconite
even in the white-coloured rock, but distinct layers and lenticules of green-
sand occur at times, as can be seen in localities like Weka Pass, though it
occurs more freely farther north. At Kaikoura it occurs right through the
stone, but more especially at the higher levels, where it is organized into
3*
68
Transactions.
well-defined layers, this being especially the case above the zone of phos-
phatic nodules. Similar well-defined interstratified greensand bands are
noted by McKay and by Thomson as occurring in the development of
Amuri limestone in the valley of the Clarence. This is important, seeing
that this higher portion, notably at Kaikoura, has been definitely recog-
nized by various authorities as belonging to the Amuri limestone and not
separated from it by any unconformity.
Another notable constituent of the limestone is flint, which occurs in
lenticules and in irregular masses, as has been fully described by Thomson
(1916, pp. 52-58). In Marlborough flint is specially important, but the
amount progressively diminishes on being traced south. It is a well-marked
constituent at Amuri Bluff and at Gore Bay, and it also occurs in the
chalk deposits at Oxford, thus having a somewhat wider distribution than
might be inferred from Thomson's paper. The flint is found both above
and below the layer of nodules in the Kaikoura and Amuri Bluff districts,
so that its presence or absence cannot be regarded as a criterion of age.
Thomson has regarded the flint as formed by chemical precipitation (1916.
p. 56). If that is so it must have been precipitated subsequently to the
boring of the limestone, unless the boring animals have been able to pene-
trate flint itself, as the flint occurring in situ occasionally shows burrows
filled with glauconitic material.
The lower portions of this limestone are decidedly more argillaceous,
and merge into a true marl.
Table I. — Analyses of Amuri Limestone from Weka Pass.
Si02
A1203
Fe203
CaO
MgO
P206
co2
Moisture and organic matter
Alkalis, &c.
(1.)
(2.)
(3.)
(4.)
(5.)
11-12
7-52
6-74
7-25
14-45
1-78
1-64
1-50
0-66
0-54
1-03
0-77
46-55
49-33
49-75
49-64
45-67
0-22
0-22
0-67
0-45
0-61
0-28
0-19
0-12
n.d.
n.d.
36-41
38-49
38-76
39-00
35-89
1-74
1-05
1-20
2-06
.1-58
1-90
1-56
1-26
0-40
100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00
(1.) Amuri limestone at contact, near railway viaduct.
(2.) Amuri limestone, upper layer, same locality.
(3.) Amuri limestone, 35 ft. below upper surface.
(4.) Average sample, thickness of 40 ft.
(5.) Sample 2 ft. below upper surface.
Table II. — Partial Analyses of Amuri Limestone from Kaikoura.
Insoluble in acid
Fe203 and A1203
p o
x 2w5
(1.) Sample 2 ft. to 4ft. below contact.
(2.) Sample at the contact.
(1.)
(2.)
11-96
10-40
3-20
4-80
82-60
82-62
0-57
0-51
Speight and Wild. — Weka Pass Stone and Amuri Limestone. 69
The Nodular Layer.
This layer is most important, as giving some idea of the conditions
which obtained in the interval between the deposit of the two limestones,
and therefore it will be described in detail. The most important constituent
in point of volume is a calcareous greensand which fills borings in the upper
surface of the Amuri limestone and passes up into the overlying Weka
Pass stone, the lower parts of which are decidedly glauconitic, and there is
apparently no pronounced line of division between them. Included in this
matrix of greensand are numerous nodules which are more or less phos-
phatic, so that it may be called the phosphatic nodule bed. This nodular
material is of two kinds — (1) true phosphatic nodules, and (2) nodular
masses of Amuri limestone.
Phosphatic Nodules. — The descriptions of similar nodules occurring in
deep water south of the Cape of Good Hope, on the Agulhas Bank,
as given in the reports of the " Challenger " Expedition (" Deep-sea De-
posits," p. 396) applies so exactly that we can use the same words to
describe appropriately those occurring in our own limestones. The descrip-
tion is as follows : " The concretions vary from 1 to 3 cm. in greatest dia-
meter ; exceptionally they may attain from 4 to 6 cm. in diameter. They
are surmounted by protuberances, penetrated by more or less profound
perforations, and have on the whole a capricious form, being sometimes
mamillated with rounded contours and at others angular. Their surface
has generally a glazed appearance and is usually covered with a thin dirty
brown coating, a discoloration due to the oxides of iron and manganese."
The description further points out that grains of glauconite form a notable
constituent in their composition, and especially is this the case in those
from shallower water, which are larger and have a greenish-coloured external
appearance. This is important, as the great majority of those found in
the limestones have a greenish-coloured external appearance. The con-
cretions are described as being hard and tenacious, " the fundamental mass,
in spite of its earthy aspect, being compact, and having a hardness that
does not exceed 5." This description so fits the nodules in the greensand
layer that one cannot help suspecting a similarity of origin in the two cases.
For the purpose of comparison of the chemical composition we quote
three analyses — the first, of one of the Agulhas Bank nodules ; the second,
one cited by McKay (1887, p. 84), of a nodule from the greensand layer at
the Weka Pass ; the third, of a nodule collected by us at Boundary Creek.
Table III.
('•)
(2.)
(3.)
Si02
. 14-78
. .
17-25
A1203 .
3-34
# ,
, #
Fe203 .
3-87
. .
, t
CaO
. 39-58
42-17
45-90
MgO
0-84
. .
0-72
P205 .
. 19-96
' 17-45
21-12
CO,
. 12-05
15-36
sol
1-37
It is unfortunate that the second and third analyses are not more com-
plete, but the general similarity of the results obtained will be noted.
The nodules from deeper water, as pointed out subsequently in the
report (p. 393), differ from those just referred to, and the same applies
70 Transactions.
to those reported on by Murray as occurring in the " Bottom deposits "
obtained by the " Blake."*
The association of nodules with greensand does not, however, point to
a genetic connection between the two, since nodules are found on the bottom
of the present sea not associated therewith. They are of different origin
and character, as may be inferred from the report on the " Blake " deposits,
and as is noted in the report of the " Challenger." The point is well brought
out by Collet and Leef : —
" La glauconie et ses concretions phosphatees se forment actuellement
sur le fond des mers, existe-t-il une relation entre ces deux formations au
point de vue de leur genese ? Cette question se pose naturellement quand
on etudie les depots marins, et nous croyons etre maintenant en mesure
d'y repondre negativement.
" Les concretions phosphatees sont pour ainsi dire l'image du fond dans
lequel on les rencontre, ce qui prouve bien leur formation in situ. Ce fond
est-il sable vert, comme dans le cas de l'Agulhas Bank, les concretions
phosphatees contiendront de la glauconie en grand abondance ; est-il une
boue a globigerines formee non loin du continent mais en eau profondc
(3,475 metres pour un des echantillons du Challenger), la concretion sera
entierement formee de globigerines avec mineraux detritiques mais sans
glauconie."
Therefore the association of the greensand with phosphate nodules in
the case of the limestones merely indicates that the nodules were formed on
a sea-bottom at such a depth that greensands were being laid down at the
same time. The depth was approximately that at which the limestones
also were being deposited, as is evidenced by the interstratification of
the greensand and limestone and the presence of glauconite grains in the
limestone. The Amuri limestone has been shown by Marshall (1916, p. 95)
to be practically equivalent to an ooze, and its chemical composition shows
that it contains over 80 per cent, of CaC03, so that it may be concluded,
judging from the table given in the " Challenger " report (p. 79), that the
depth was under 1,000 fathoms.
Microscopic Description of a Typical Nodule. — Under the microscope the
base consists of irresolvable matter, probably calcite, with numerous teste
of Foraminifera, and small fragments of quartz, feldspar, and occasionally
mica. The base contains patches of microspherulitic structure, exhibiting
between crossed nicols a well-marked cross with dark arms parallel to the
cross-wires. They resemble to some extent' small spherules of chalcedony,
but from their high polarization colours they are no doubt composed of
radiating fibres of calcite. There is a greenish stain of glauconite all
through the slide, and the mineral at times 'forms distinct grains, in many
cases filling the cavities of Foraminifera. These last are very numerous and
constitute the bulk of the rock. The following genera were recognized :
Globigerina (which is by far the most important), Textularia, Nodosaria,
Rotalia. Badiolaria are also present. The glauconite is light-green as a
rule, but occasionally dark-green and black aggregates also occur as a result
of the peroxidation of the iron present. Small fragments of bone were also
noted in one of the nodules.
Nodular Limestone. — This second class of phosphatic material consists
of detached portions of the Amuri limestone included in the greensand.
* Ball. Mus. Comp. Zool, vol. 12, p. 52, 1885-86.
tRecherches sur la glauconie, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. 26, ]>t. 4, p. 260, 1906.
Speight and Wild. — Weka Pass Stone and Amuri Limestone. 71
which have an origin quite distinct from the true phosphatic nodules referred
to previously. The nodular limestone, though easily recognized in the hand-
specimen, differs little from the true nodules under the microscope, except
that it is less glauconitic and approaches very closely to normal Amuri
limestone. There can be no doubt that for a considerable. period the lime-
stone formed the ocean-floor (as is indicated by the phosphatic nodules),
and that it was honeycombed by the borings and burrows of marine
organisms operating at that depth, and that the additional phosphatic
material was obtained from the ordinary limestone by a process of concen-
tration, and from remains of those organisms responsible for the burrows.
It is quite intelligible that during a period of halt in the deposition the
solvent action of sea-water would cause a disappearance of a portion of the
floor, and, as the phosphatic material is less soluble than the calcareous,
some concentration of the phosphate would result.
This idea finds strong support in the following partial analyses of speci-
mens obtained at Weka Pass. At this particular section the Amuri lime-
stone is seen to be perforated to a depth of 4 ft. 6 in., the cavities being
filled with the calcareous greensand that represents the overlying Weka Pass
stone at this locality. The upper 18 in. of the Amuri limestone is much
honeycombed with burrows, and completely detached fragments are to be
found lying within the Weka Pass stone as much as 6 in. above the present
surface of the Amuri limestone. It is to be understood that we look upon
these nodular fragments as remnants of the original upper portion of the
Amuri limestone which, during a halt in the deposition, was broken down
by the combined action of boring-animals and solution by sea-water, some
at least of the phosphate so set free being concentrated in the residual
portions of limestone.
Table IV.
(1.)
Insoluble in acid . . . . 12-08
CaO .. .. 48-65
P205 0-16
(1.) Sample 2 ft. from present surface of Amuri limestone.
(2.) Sample from upper 6 in. of honeycombed portion of Amuri lime-
stone.
(3.) Detached nodules of Amuri limestone lying in the Weka Pass
stone a few inches above the present surface of the Amuri
limestone.
(4.) Lower 2 ft. of Weka Pass stone.
In both types of nodules fehere is little difference from the associated
limestone in the character of the Foraminifera and general structure of the
rock, and they seem to have been formed under similar conditions. The
description applies to specimens from Amuri Bluff and Stonyhurst equally
with those from Weka Pass.
Under the microscope the material that fills the borings appears to
be composed of much the same material as the associated limestone, and
resembles in texture the Amuri limestone rather than the Weka Pass stone.
There is, however, more granular glauconite, and there are more numerous
shreds of mica and fragments of quartz. The glauconite does not fill the
cavities in the Foraminifera so markedly, though undoubtedly some are
filled. The genera of Foraminifera appear to be the same as in the Amuri
limestone, Globigerina, Nodosaria, and Rotalia being clearly recognizable.
(2.)
(3.)
(4.)
11-95
11-52
55-68
42-20
44-85
0-45
4-09
1-34
72
Transactions.
Weka Pass Stone.
In the typical locality near Weka Pass this rock consists of an aren-
aceous, glauconitic limestone. In its lower portion the rock presents the
facies of a calcareous greensand of very fine grain, with a comparatively
low percentage of calcium carbonate, but this percentage increases in the
higher levels. (See analyses.) Specks of glauconite are, however, distri-
buted throughout the rock. It breaks at times into quadrangular blocks,
but rarely with the tily arrangement which characterizes Amuri limestone,
though at times there is considerable similarity between the two rocks.
Under the microscope it appears to be composed largely of Foraminifera,
notably Globigerina, with a considerable amount of quartz and occasional
shreds of biotite. The glauconite exists as grains, sometimes as a stain on
the quartz, and occasionally filling the cavities of Foraminifera. As com-
pared with Amuri limestone it is coarser in texture, more glauconitic and
arenaceous ; but the Foraminifera appear to be the same, and, as in the
former case, have their cavities filled with calcareous material. The depth
at which deposition took place would in all probability be slightly shallower
than that at which the Amuri limestone was laid down.
Away from the typical locality the rock exhibits considerable variation.
It is sometimes more glauconitic, and in fact passes into a calcareous green-
sand ; while in other places it becomes more sandy and friable. The former
of these two facies represents in all probability a deposit either in shallower
water or nearer a shore-line, but there is no doubt as to its equivalence to
the more calcareous rock. It is perhaps not truly synchronous, in that it
may mean the gradual extension of the deposit into shallower water as
physical conditions in the area changed ; but the stratigraphical position
and the relationship of the two facies to the underlying Amuri limestone
are practically identical.
Table V.-
Analyses
of Weka
Pass Stone.
(1-)
(2.)
SiO,
. . 34-95
22-51
Al903
.
m
6-44
3-92
Fe203
.
, .
. .
2-76
2-08
C0CO3
,
. .
47-62
67-60
MgC03
.
.
1-46
0-80
CaO
,
, ,
1-50
0'-80
p2o5
n.d.
n.d
Organic n
latter an<
I water .
3-50
2-29
(1.) Weka Pass stone 2 ft. above Amuri* limestone. (Coll. J. Park.)
(2.) Weka Pass stone, average sample " from Waikari end of Weka
Pass, from cliffs N.E. of stream a few chains above the railway
viaduct." (Coll. J. Park.)
Historical Summary.
The following is a summary of the opinions held by the authors cited
in the bibliography at the end of the paper, in the order of time in which
they are expressed : —
Hector says (1869, p. xii), " The above (3 and 4) [grey marl] rest uncon-
formably on blue and grey marly sandstone, sometimes passing into chalk,
the formation resembling, in mineral character, the English chalk marl.
In the same formation, farther north, flints occur." There is some doubt
Speight and Wild. — Weka Pass Stone and Amuri /limestone. 73
concerning the proper interpretation of the beds as detailed by Hector, but
the record of cup-shaped Bryozoa as occuri ing in (4) evidently points to what
is called the grey marl in the Waipara section, and the beds with flints to
the Amuri limestone, and the grey marly sandstone to the Weka Pass stone.
It is evident, therefore, that Hector did not recognize an unconformity
within the beds indicated above.
Haast evidently considered the two beds of limestone as quite conform-
able. He says (1879, p. 297), " In some localities a break seems to occur
between the upper and lower calcareous series, as, for instance, in the Weka
Pass ranges, where the lower, more calcareous strata are sometimes separated
from the glauconitic massive upper beds by a small band of greensand con-
taining concretions of a more calcareous nature. However, in many other
localities this small bed does not occur, and the boundary between the two
series is either gradual or sharpy defined. Moreover, the upper beds are
found to be always conformable upon the lower where the latter exists,
being, in fact, a continuation of the same series, and, owing to the sinking
of the land, of greater horizontal extent than the more calcareous beds
underlying them." We have quoted this description in full as it appears
to us to explain concisely the whole case.
Hutton (1877, 1885, 1888) always maintained the unconformable relation-
ship between the Amuri limestone and the Weka Pass stone, urging that
the contact was a normal erosion-surface, and in none of his writings cited
in the bibliography does he depart in the slightest from this position.
McKay (1881, 1886, 1887) considered the sequence conformable.
Thus it is that, among the older geologists of this country who have
reported on this matter, three agree that the sequence is conformable, while
one maintains the contrary.
We come now to the opinions of those of a more modern date. The
first to be considered is that of Professor Park, who forms a kind of link
with the older geologists. His views are by no means certain, and exhibit
considerable evolutionary development. In his report published in 1888 he
says, "As a result of the examination of many of the magnificent sections
between the Weka Pass and the Waipara, I am strongly of the opinion that
a complete sequence of beds exists from the base of the Cretaceo-Tertiary
to the close of the Pareora formation, although the varying character of
the deposits and their fossil remains show that the sea-bottom on which
they were deposited was subject to frequent oscillation." Again (1905,
p. 546), he says, " Captain Hutton contends that there is an unconformity
between the Weka Pass stone and the Amuri limestone. I have carefully
examined the line of contact of the two rocks, but was unable to find any
evidence of unconformity ; and on this point my view coincides with that
of Sir James Hector, Sir Julius von Haast, and Mr. McKay." In his
Geology of New Zealand (1910) Park evidently regards the two limestones as
conformable, a position which he maintained in 1911 (p. 546). Next year,
however, as a result of the finding of Pecten huttoni in the Weka Pass stone,
he moved his unconformity to the base of the Weka Pass stone, which he
then stated lay conformably under the Mount Brown limestone, although
he had in 1888 demonstrated on stratigraphical grounds the existence of
an unconformity between them. His position, therefore, seems somewhat
obscure.
Marshall (1911, 1912) has always maintained the physical conformity
between the beds of this series, and in this he has been supported by Cotton
and Speight, both in conjunction with him (1911) and independently (1912).
74 Transactions.
Thomson also (1912, p. 8) has noted the physical conformity of the beds in
the typical locality, whereas Morgan (1915, pp. 90-93), the latest writer on
the subject, as a result of a hurried visit came to the conclusion that the top
of the Amuri limestone presented a true erosion surface, but as the result
of more complete examination of the relationship of the beds expresses
himself in a less dogmatic manner (1916, pp. 17-28, and 1916a, pp. 10—11),
and has evidently some doubts as to the correctness of his first interpretation,
although he still agrees tentatively with Hutton and Park in his latest
pronouncement.
Detailed Descriptions of Important Sections.
In order to arrive at a thorough appreciation of the problem a detailed
description will be given of all localities where contacts occur from the
neighbourhood of Mount Grey to just north of Kaikoura, and from the
sea-coast as far inland as limestones occur which furnish any evidence.
This ranges over a belt of country nearly one hundred miles in length and
with a maximum breadth of fifteen miles. The localities first taken are
those in the neighbourhood of Weka Pass, the typical locality ; then those
near the Waipara River and Mount Grey. They are followed north-east to
Cheviot, when a return is made along the coast by way of the Hurunui
mouth, Stonyhurst, and Motunau ; and the series concludes with those at
Amuri Bluff, Kaikoura, and the Puhipuhi River. We do not think that
any important locality in that area has been omitted from consideration.
It will be noticed that there is a general similarity of the sections throughout
the area, both in its length and its breadth, which the advocates of uncon-
formity will find difficult to explain, while the evidence for conformity is
particularly strong.
Weka Pass.
Good contacts can be seen at various places in the neighbourhood of the
pass — e.g., on the roadside just past Seal Rock, in the little gorge near the
viaduct, on the northern face of the escarpment just east of the viaduct,
and on both sides of the denuded anticline to the west of the viaduct.
(Plates IV and V.) The following description fits in each case : —
(1.) Amuri limestone: White, and jointed into flaky quadrangular blocks,
the upper 2 ft. or more being bored by marine worms and the casts filled
with glauconitic limestone. The amount of boring increases progressively
upward till what may be called the transitional layer is reached.
(2.) Transitional layer : This consists in its lower part of Amuri lime-
stone material thoroughly bored, with the interstices filled with glauconitic
limestone. The result of boring increases progressively, and the quantity
of glauconitic material also increases pari passu. The upper 6 in. is com-
pletely bored, so that peninsulas of Amuri limestone project at times into
i he overlying glauconitic layer, and at times become detached and resemble
subangular pebbles in appearance. They are more phosphatic than the
underlying limestones, and the included glauconitic limestone is more
phosphatic than the overlying glauconitic layer. The number of residual
fragments of limestone decreases till they are entirely absent from the
distinct layer of strongly glauconitic limestone. Included in this band
are small angular nodules, green or black in colour, which are strongly
phosphatic. Very occasionally, small well-rounded pebbles of quartz, about
I in. in diameter, are met with.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate IV.
.9
a,
CO
O
o
3
9 co
«,*
O (D
-9>
J 0)
0.9
-+^> co
CO rQ
CO £
CO O
c8 ^
^ 9
»i
_ m
CD
-
O
o
9
o
O
Face p. 74.]
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate V.
o .^
♦
V / . ' .'■•
I
tft
^f
02 O
bfl
ID
Q
Ph
03
O «
W
d -Q
o c
c
c w
£.5
a
o
c
O
o
Speight and Wild. — Weka Pass Stone and Amuri Limestone. 75
(3.) Glauconitic calcareous sandstone : This is a distinct layer, about 6 in.
thick, of strongly glauconitic fine-grained calcareous sandstone, which passes
up into Weka Pass stone.
(4.) Weka Pass stone: This is a distinctly glauconitic, arenaceous lime-
stone. The green and black nodules which mark the contact appear to
diminish in number on going south-west along the escarpment, but they
are occasionally present and so mark a continuous horizon ; but on approach-
ing the Waipara River the difference between typical Amuri limestone and
Weka Pass stone disappears, and the contact becomes indefinite — in fact,
the two beds merge into one limestone without any break.
Main Branch of Weka Creek.
There is an excellent exposure of the contact in the branch of the Weka
Creek north-west of the main road, just where it is crossed by the subsidiary
road running from Weka Pass behind the Mount Brown escarpment in the
direction of the Waipara River. The stream has in this locality cut a deep
narrow gorge right across the strike, and the contacts of the Weka Pass
stone with the underlying Amuri limestone as well as with the overlying
grey marl are excellently shown, both being quite conformable.
In the case of the former contact we have the following sequence : —
(1.) Amuri limestone, breaking into quadrangular blocks, with interstitial
calcareous greensand in layers parallel to the bedding in its upper
portions, very occasional burrows extending to 6 ft. below the
actual junction. On approaching the junction the amount of
greensand becomes greater, both in layers and in burrows, till
near the contact the two form nearly equal proportions in the
rock. Thereafter the Amuri limestone diminishes in importance,
and inclusions of limestone in the greensand become rare. Dark-
green and black nodules (phosphatic) as well as ironstone con-
cretions also occur. The thickness of the layer where the two
occur is about 12 in.
(2.) Greensand layer, without inclusions of Amuri limestone, about 1 ft.
in thickness, but passing up into
(3.) Weka Pass stone in its typical development.
The contact between the two limestones is clearly seen on the escarp-
ment to the north, and is visible at times on the south as far as a limestone
knob a mile south of the creek, when for some distance towards the Waipara
the junction is obscured. As far as it is visible it displays the same charac-
teristic features.
Upper Waipara.
Excellent sections showing the relationship of the two facies of the
limestone are to be seen above the limestone gorge of the Waipara River
along the bold escarpment facing north-west. At the gorge itself there is
the following sequence : —
(1.) The marly facies of the Amuri limestone forms the lowest portion
in this locality, and passes up into
(2.) Typical jointed Amuri limestone with interstratified bands of argil-
laceous and glauconitic limestone. The upper layer of Amuri
limestone is a compact white rock containing glauconite, the
upper 6 ft. or 8 ft. with a concretionary fracture and passing up
into
(3.) Weka Pass stone of more than usual glauconitic character.
76 Transactions.
No nodules r borings are present on the line of junction, which is indistinct
one rock gradually passing into the other.
Along the escarpment to the south-west the same general features are to
be observed, the Amuri limestone being decidedly glauconitic at times and
the greensand layer at the junction more marked than near the gorge,
while the Weka Pass stone exhibits in places the typical facies, though in
others it is like the Amuri limestone, and in others again it is of sandy
texture, approaching a freestone, and is so friable that it can be rubbed into
powder with the fingers.
At the point where shells of Pecten huttoni are found in the Weka Pass
stone, which is a few chains east of the low part of the escarpment where
the road crosses, the junction presents the usual features of worm-borings
and the presence of scattered dark phosphatic nodules, while on the
weathered surface of the Amuri limestone there are small protuberances of
limestone, evidently more resistant than the remainder of the rock, and
owing their preservation to the presence in them of an amount of calcium
phosphate in excess of that in the surrounding rock.
When traced west the limestone outcrop passes over into the water-
shed of Boby's Creek, and in the bed of its most northerly tributary an
excellent exposure is to be seen. This is as follows : —
(1.) Amuri limestone, the upper 3 ft. bored more and more till the
junction is reached, the borings being filled with greensand.
Detached fragments of more phosphatized limestone occur along
the junction. The limestone is here much thinner than it is on
the escarpment to the north-east, and thins out still more when
followed to the south-west towards Mount Grey.
(2.) Nodular layer : This consists mostly of detached fragments of
limestone, the true nodules being small ; all are enclosed in a
greensand matrix. A well-rounded pebble of greywacke was
found embedded near the junction, indicating in all probability
the close proximity of a shore-line. This passes up into
(3.) Greensand, with fewer and fewer nodules.
(4.) Weka Pass stone, more glauconitic than usual, as is usually found as
the deposits approach an outstanding greywacke mass ; in this
case it is that of Mount Grey. In the lower part of this layer
shells of Pecten huttoni were found in a somewhat poor state of
preservation.
The strike of all the beds is north-east and south-west, with a dip to
the south-east of 35°.
No evidence of unconformity, excepting the pebble, is given by this
locality, although it affords ample opportunity for locating one did it exist.
The interstratification of glauconitic limestone in the Amuri stone indicates
that no great change in depth occurred between the deposit of the typical
Amuri limestone and the Weka Pass stone, the interstratification of the
glauconitic material in the former preparing the way for the final develop-
ment of the pronounced glauconitic type.
North-east Slope of Mount Grey.
The fine escarpment which runs south-west through Mount Brown
towards Mount Grey is deflected when it reaches the vicinity of the mass
of greywacke of which the latter is composed, no doubt partially owing
to earth-movements, of which there is decided evidence in the locality.
Speight and Wild. — Weka Pass Stone and Amuri Limestone . 77
A well-defined fault-scarp runs along the eastern face of the mountain in a
north-west and south-east direction in a line with the western margin of the
depression which continues towards Heathstock and the Upper Waipara
basin. On the western side of this, in the vicinity of Mount Mason and
elsewhere, there is evidence of deformation where the limestones abut against
the older rocks. This line of deformation evidently belongs to the series of
north-west and south-east earth-fractures which are characteristic of the
mountain region of Canterbury. As a result of this and related movements
the Mount Brown beds and the underlying limestones are bent round till
on the divide between Boby's Creek and Kowai Biver they strike north-
west and dip to the north-east at high angles, about 70°. The edges of the
beds are thus exposed, and the relations of the Amuri limestone to the beds
immediately overlying it are well seen in one or two places. The sequence
is here as follows : —
(1.) Amuri limestone, of the usual type, well jointed, and not more
than 25 ft. thick ; it thus shows the characteristic thinning-
out as it approaches a shore-line. In its upper layers it is glauco-
nitic, and deeply bored, with the borings filled with greensand.
(2.) Nodular layer : This is about 4 ft. wide, with pieces of limestone in
a matrix of greensand. This bed is closed with a fairly well-
defined layer of fragments in which limestone predominates over
greensand, as if there were a partial reversion to limestone con-
ditions when this part of the bed was being deposited. The
calcareous nodules are distinctly bored, and show a marked
qualitative reaction for phosphoric acid. There are occasional
small, rounded, dark-greenish nodules, up to f in. in diameter,
but these are more important in the next bed.
(3.) Calcareous greensand, strongly glauconitic. It appears that the
Weka Pass stone takes on this decidedly glauconitic facies as
it approaches a shore-line, and also the phosphatic nodules are
apparently more numerous under these conditions, suggesting a
resemblance to the conditions obtaining on sea-bottoms of the
present day where greensands and green muds are associated
with these nodules.
South Branch of Omihi Creek.
South-east of the Omihi Valley, and dividing its drainage area from that
of the slopes facing seaward, lies the prominent limestone escarpment of the
Cass, or Limestone, Bange as it is sometimes called. On its northern side
there are excellent exposures of the limestones and the underlying sands
and sandstones resting unconformably on the Trias-Jura beds. Owing to
a fault which runs approximately north-east and south-west, with a throw
of some 1,000 ft. to the north-west, the outcrops are repeated, and we thus
get two sections which show the horizon of the nodular layer. They exhibit
a striking difference, however. One section has a facies which shows the
proximity of a shore-line, in agreement with the fact that the Trias-Jura
beds are in evidence but a few hundred yards away in the direction of the
rise of the beds, whereas the other section, about a mile and a quarter to
the south-east, has a facies which is characteristic of deeper water.
The first of these sections is well displayed near a small waterfall on
the east side of the road which runs south past the shepherd's hut in the
direction of the limestone escarpment. The typical Amuri limestone is here
7 8 Tra?i sac tions .
absent, but it is represented stratigraphically by a strongly glauconitic lime-
stone, whose glauconitic character is strongly marked in the flaky quad-
rangular blocks into which the stone is divided, but more strongly still in
the interstitial portions. A well-defined layer of nodules occurs in this lime-
stone, the matrix being a markedly glauconitic limestone. The nodules are
of two types— (1) ordinary phosphatized limestone, and (2) small dark -green
nodules up to 1 in. in diameter, scattered through the nodular layer and
through the next 4 ft. of the bed above. The nodular layer is not so well
defined as usual, but passes gradually into the beds above and below it.
Worm-borings are a feature of the occurrence, and there is an entire absence
of any evidence of unconformity. The whole arrangement gives a good
illustration of the modification in the character of the Amuri limestone as it
approaches a shore-line, and supports the contention of some writers that
greensand can be laid down in comparatively shallow water.
The other type of contact showing the relations of the Amuri limestone
to the Weka Pass stone can be clearly seen on the northern slope of the
escarpment to the south at an elevation of between 1,600 ft. and 1,700 ft.
The following is a description of the contact as seen over a considerable
length of the escarpment : The Amuri limestone is from 150 ft. to 200 ft.
in thickness, well stratified and jointed, divided by narrow layers of more
or less marly material, in the lower part and by seams of glauconitic material
in the higher part, with occasional worm-borings on the top of the hard
limestone layers. These borings are filled with marly material in the lower
parts and by glauconitic material in the higher parts, corresponding to the
character of the layer which was being deposited while the borings were
being made. Glauconitic material becomes more pronounced in the higher
parts till it passes into the Weka Pass stone, which is here slightly more
glauconitic than in the typical locality. The sequence is perfectly con-
formable throughout, the limestones changing from the Amuri to the Weka
Pass facies with characteristic passage beds in which the two types are
interstratified along the line of junction. In some places it is difficult to
tell the precise line of demarcation of the two. No nodules were seen.
North Side of Waikari Creek between Waikari and Scargill.
On the north side of this stream lies a prominent band of limestone
with a west-south-west strike, dipping south -south-east. It is a remnant
of a more extensive covering sheet of Tertiary sedimentaries which has been
faulted into a position less exposed to destructive agents as a result of earth-
movements which have affected the whole region. The main fault-line
follows approximately the line of the stream-valley, but a number of sub-
sidiary faults running parallel to this on its northern side are plainly in
evidence in the upper basin of the Scargill Creek, where there are a number
of parallel belts of limestone, generally dipping south-east, the repetition of
the outcrops being directly attributable to this series of faults. The steep
scarps face north-west, and they give good opportunities for examining the
limestone through its whole thickness. Specially good exposures occur on
the north side of the high escarpment behind the greywacke barrier which
divides the Scargill basin from the Waikari Valley, and fronting the stripped
surface of greywacke which separates the former from the Culverden basin.
The section shows that the limestone band is composed of alternating
layers of more or less glauconitic material, some of which, usually the less
glauconitic, have the jointing characteristic of the Amuri limestone, while
Speight and Wild. — Weka Pass Stone and Amuri TAmestone. 79
other layers have the Weka Pass stone facies. Worm-borings are found ac
various levels, and very occasional nodules are sporadically distributed.
Rock of similar features is to be seen on the north bank of the Waikari
Creek about two miles below the Waikari Township. In this place frag-
ments of whale-bone occur in rock of the Weka Pass type.
There is no evidence in either of these localities of any break in the suc-
cession, the whole being certainly conformable. Although there is some
variation in the lithological character of the rock from that in typical locali-
ties, yet there is no reason to suppose that it has not been formerly in
close lateral continuity with the masses on the south side of the valley which
show the typical differentiation into stone of two facies. There is just the
difference that one would anticipate were the beds north of the Waikari
deposited in an area in closer proximity to a shore-line than that in which the
beds were deposited in the main Waipara, the Weka Pass, or the Cass Range
areas. The fact that the sequence is unbroken in what appears to be a
shallow-water facies, where one would anticipate breaks, supports the con-
tention that the deeper- water beds are conformable.
Gore Bay.
An interesting locality is Gore Bay, near Cheviot, where sections are
well exposed on the cliffs along the shore and on the southern side of the
gorge which the Jed River has cut along the line of junction of the grey-
wackes and the overlying Cretaceous and Tertiary beds. These latter are
bent up into a well-marked syncline, which forms such a characteristic
feature of the cliffs behind the sandhills of Gore Bay. Faulting is common,
and on the southern wing of the syncline this has resulted in considerable
crushing and brecciation along the belt of movement ; nevertheless the
relations of the beds are clear. The Amuri limestone in its typical facies
is somewhat thin in this locality — about 12 ft. ; but there is an under-
lying succession of marls with interstratified sandstone which is no doubt
the equivalent of the lower part of the Amuri limestone at Kaikoura
and other localities farther north and in the neighbourhood of Weka Pass.
The upper surface shows a characteristic junction, with phosphatic nodules,
succeeded by a calcareous greensand, the probable equivalent of the Weka
Pass stone. (See Hutton, 1885, p. 271, for a similar occurrence near Stony-
hurst.) There is no evidence, however, of an unconformity, the sequence
throughout being entirely regular. The following is a detailed description
of the occurrence in a deep washout in the cliffs about a quarter of a mile
north of the disused landing-stage at Port Robinson. The beds are much
crushed, but their relations in the vicinity of the line of junction are clear
and characteristic. (Plate VI, fig. 1.)
Amuri Limestone. — The typical portion is about 12 ft. thick, but it is
underlain by greyish marl. Borings begin about 3 ft. below the upper
surface, but they increase in number till the contact is reached. The
cavities are filled with greensand.
Nodular Layer. — This is 6 in. to 8 in. thick. The nodules are in a matrix
of greensand, some being of phosphatized limestone, the other more charac-
teristic ones varying in colour from light green through olive-green to dark
green and black.
Calcareous Greensand. — This is the probable equivalent of the Weka
Pass stone. It is strongly calcareous, and contains nodules sporadically
up to 3 ft. above the junction. Some of these have the external appearance
of greywacke but are distinctly phosphatic, and are dark green in colour.
They are up to 1\ in. in diameter, but numbers of them are small.
80 Transactions.
An exactly similar section occurs on the north wing of the syncline where
the road comes down on to the beach near the old lime-kiln. This locality
is also noteworthy since the limestone contains abundant nodules of flint.
There is no evidence of unconformity. A similar junction occurs on the
steep scarp facing the Jed Kiver, but farther north-west, on the south side
of the road leading to Cheviot, we weie unable to locate it definitely owing
to the covering of grass where the loose greensand had been removed ; but
the borings in the limestone were noted in various places, so no doubt a
similar contact exists there as well.
South Bank of the Hurunui.
On the south bank of the Hurunui, half a mile up-stream from the lowest
bridge and about a mile from the sea, the whole series from the greywacke
upwards is clearly exposed on the river-bluffs. The section consists of the
following : —
(1.) Sands.
(2.) Amuri limestone, over 50 ft. thick, with a north-and-south strike,
and a westerly dip of 10°. It is of the usual character, the upper
4 ft. perforated with borings, the cavities filled with greensand.
Included in the limestone are lenticules of greensand, and in the
uppermost 2 ft. this condition is more pronounced, typical green
nodules occurring sporadically.
(3.) Nodular layer : This is 6 in. in thickness, the nodules being dark
green to brown in colour, up to 2 in. in diameter, subangular,
the whole layer being densely compacted with greensand cement.
(4.) Calcareous greensand, soft, very glauconitic, and containing nodules
scattered through the lower 2 ft.
(5.) Calcareous greensand, 30 ft. thick. A fragment of coal 3 in. in length
and 1 in. thick, lignitic in character, was noticed in this bed.
The section is closed by brown sands. Parts of the section are faulted,
but where there is no evident disturbance the conformity is clearly dis-
played. Especially is this the case on the river-cliffs. In a cutting on the
road in close proximity water-worn pebbles of greywacke are apparently
involved near the junction, but they also occur in greensand 2 ft. above
the junction ; the occurrence is only a few feet in length, quite local, and,
as the rocks show disturbance, may be attributed to fault or slip movements,
since no similar phenomenon was observed elsewhere.
On Coast South of the Blyth River.
This section can be seen near the top of the magnificent limestone cliffs
which form the background of the Napenape beach, one of the finest coastal
scenes in New Zealand. Here old shore-platforms with beach-gravels on
top occur at a height of 500 ft. The sequence exposed is as follows :—
(1.) Amuri limestone: This strikes north-east, and dips south-east at
low angles ; it is probably affected by slight local folding, but,
owing to slipping, the precise direction is difficult to determine ;
its thickness is at least 300 ft. The rock is beautifully white,
compact in texture, jointed in typical fashion, but much disturbed
by slips and faults owing to erosion of the shore and to natural
fractures. A small mollusc shell was found in the upper layer,
which has been identified by Mr. Suter as a variety of Pecten
williamsoni.
Speight and Wild. — Weka Pass Stone and Amuri Limestone. 81
(2.) Greensand layer : This is loose, calcareous but strongly glauconitic,
8 ft. thick, without nodules as far as could be seen on the face
of the steep cliff, and passing up into
(3.) Glauconitic arenaceous limestone, 12 ft. thick, resembling Weka Pass
stone but rather more sandy.
(4.) Grey marl : This succeeds (3) with perfect conformity. Its thick-
ness cannot be estimated, since the highest shore-platform has
been cut in it.
The upper layer of Amuri limestone contains borings filled with green-
sand, and the marl also contains borings filled with marl.
Stonyhurst, in a Creek near the Homestead.
This place was visited in order to obtain observations of the section
recorded by Hutton (1885, p. 271). It is unfortunate that he does not give
the precise locality, but a careful examination of the creek in the neighbour-
hood of the station showed that only one section in the course of the stream
was possible, and a description of this is given below. Hutton's remarks
are, however, very important. He says, " Here the Amuri limestone is
overlain by grey sandstone, probably the representative of the Weka Pass
stone. Between the two rocks is a bed of conglomerate formed by sub-
angular pebbles of slate. At first sight all three appear to belong to one
system, but a close inspection shows that the surface of the limestone is
fissured, and that the sandstone penetrates through the conglomerate into
the limestone. This, however, may be due to chemical erosion."
The special importance of these remarks is that they contain a record
of pebbles of greywacke along the junction ; it is extremely likely that
these pebbles are phosphatic nodules, since at times the latter closely
resemble greywacke in external appearance. It is unfortunate, therefore,
that Hutton's precise locality cannot be determined.
In the creek near the homestead the beds lie very flat, and are obscured
by surface accumulations and vegetation. At one place a clear section was
seen, the only one occurring in the creek. Its record is as follows : —
(1.) Typical Amuri limestone, striking north-east, and dipping south-
east at an angle of about 25°.
(2.) Nodular layer, 6 in. thick, with the usual characters.
(3.) Calcareous greensand. This passes up into
(4.) Weka Pass stone of more than usually glauconitic character.
The locality is disturbed by faults, but away from the disturbance the
dip and strike of the Amuri and greensand limestones are identical.
Motunau River.
An excellent section through the whole series is to be seen in the lower
course of the Motunau River, and the limestones are well exposed in its
limestone gorge about two miles from the sea. The beds strike here north-
north-east, and dip east-south-east at an angle of 20°, the whole being
absolutely conformable. The sequence is as follows : —
(1.) Amuri limestone, with typical macrostructure, its estimated thick-
ness being 300 ft., the upper 4 ft. with borings filled with green-
sand.
(2.) Nodular layer, 3 in. to 4 in. thick, composed of subangular nodules
in a matrix of greensand ; the nodules are up to 3 in. in diameter,
dark-blackish-green in colour, with brown shade inside ( \ Hutton's
greywacke pebbles).
82 Transactions.
(3.) Greensand, 25 ft. thick with sporadic nodules in the lowest 2 ft.,
more thickly distributed near the junction. This passes up with
occasional more marly or arenaceous layers into arenaceous lime-
stone (Mount Brown limestone) ; passage beds are well developed
along the junction.
Boundary Creek.
Boundary Creek, which lies midway between Stonyhurst and Motunau,
was also examined, since McKay (1881, p. Ill) records a good section there.
The exposure was found to be very unsatisfactory owing to slips, although
probably it was in better condition when McKay described it nearly forty
years ago. The Amuri limestone appears to be about 20 ft. thick, but the
exact contact with the overlying beds is not visible at present. Large blocks
of greensand also occur in the bed of the stream, showing plentiful subangular
nodules similar to those in the Motunau, associated with borings filled with
greensand, no doubt near the actual junction. McKay does not mention
this greensand layer, and says that grey marls immediately overlie the
Amuri limestone. Judging by the dip, the limestone is in a conformable
position under the top beds of the series, which have a general synclinal
arrangement with the eastern limb towards the present coast-line ; but
there are local variations in dip well displayed on the sides of the deep
gorge which the stream has cut through the non-resistant sands and marls
which close the Tertiary series in this locality. It is noteworthy that McKay
considers the sequence below the Motunau beds to be perfectly conformable,
although he places a stratigraphical break immediately at the base of these
beds, a conclusion which appears to us not warranted by observations of
dip and a general examination of the section both here and in the Motunau
River. The similarity of the sections in the two localities is most marked,
and the evidence available from one supports that from the other.
South Side of Amuri Bluff. (Plate VI, fig. 2.)
The Amuri limestone is much jointed into flaky quadrangular blocks
something like a tiled roof ; it strikes north-east, and dips south-east 30°.
The top 4 ft. are bored through and through with tubes which are well
filled with calcareous greensand, the phenomena being progressively more
marked as the upper surface is reached, where the rock is completely honey-
combed and the fragments are detached. These are from 1 in. to 3 in. in
diameter and are also completely bored. From this level upwards the
pebbles decrease in importance and the greensand increases. All through
the greensand layer nodules occur, which become smaller in the upper
portions ; the thickness of the greensand layer is about 2 ft., and the nodular
portion where the structure is most marked is about 1 ft. thick. Above
the greensand layer the rock passes gradually upward for about 3 ft. into
typical Amuri limestone. The nodules of the upper layer are markedly
phosphatic, while those of the lower layer are only slightly so ; the phos-
phatization apparently diminishes progressively from the nodular layer.
There are numerous sharks' teeth and occasional bones (? whale-bone) in the
nodular layer.
On Bluff North of the Mikonui Creek.
The bed is exposed on the face of the cliff immediately to the north
of the point where the track rises over the shoulder of the spur to escape
high tides. Here we have the following sequence : First, typical Amuri
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate VI.
[7'. Fletcher, plwto.
Fig. 1.— Contact of Amuri limestone with greensand layer containing phosphatic
nodules, Port Robinson. A small fault is also apparent.
[R. Speight, photu.
Fig. 2. — Nodular layer in Amuri limestone, south side of Amuri Bluff.
The parallelism of the layers is very marked.
Face p. 82.]
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate VII.
[R. Speight, photo
Fig. 1.— Nodular layer in Amuri limestone, Maori village, Kaikoura Peninsula.
The dark, flat surface marks a fault almost parallel to the strike.
/
~!f<"s^f' >-iy
[iJ. Speight, photo.
Fig. 2. — Nodular layer in Amuri limestone, Atiu Point, Kaikoura Peninsula.
Note the parallelism of the beds.
Speight and Wild. — Weka Pass Stone and Amuri Limestone. 83
limestone, followed by greensand with inclusions of Amuri limestone, 5ft.
thick in one place, and containing distinctly angular, black phosphatic
pebbles. In some parts of the contact the Amuri limestone has inclusions
of greensand, the latter being in relatively small amount. This is suc-
ceeded by 12 in. of nodular layer of the usual type, and followed then by
glauconitic limestone with small green nodules and black nodules. As the
band is traced north and south from the point under consideration the
greensand is not so prominent but is mixed with Amuri limestone, which
is especially glauconitic on or near the junction.
Near Maori Village on South Side of Kaikoura Peninsula. (Plate VII, fig. 1.)
The contact is well exposed in this locality on the raised shore-platform
which covers a large area on the south side of the peninsula. The follow-
ing sequence in ascending order occurs here : —
(1.) Amuri limestone, of the usual type, but rather more flaky than
jointed, perhaps the effect of faulting.
(2.) Fault, almost parallel with the strike, with a small but increasing
throw when followed to the south-west.
(3.) Calcareous greensand from 8 in to 10 in. thick, showing honey-
combed borings filled with glauconitic limestone, together with
masses of greensand of irregular form. The lower part is filled
with cavities, some of the worm-bored type, while others are
much larger and irregular in form, the whole being filled with a
uniform type of calcareous greensand. In the upper portion the
worm-casts and greensand masses are smaller.
(4.) Nodular layer : The nodules are green and black, and the structure
is very well developed, so that the intervening spaces are small.
These are filled with calcareous greensand.
(5.) Glauconitic limestone, 4 in. to 5 in. thick.
(6.) Greensand, |- in. thick.
(7.) Glauconitic limestone, rather more glauconitic than (5), 5 in.
(8.) Greensand, 1 in.
(9.) Glauconitic limestone, more glauconitic in the lower layer but passing
up into one which is less glauconitic, 10 in.
(10.) Limestone, of Amuri type, with flints, 6 in.
(11.) Glauconitic limestone, with only a small amount of glauconite.
(12.) Amuri limestone as typically developed, 120 ft. in thickness.
This section shows no sign of unconformity.
North of Atiu Point, East End of Kaikoura Peninsula. (Plate VII, fig. 2.)
The contact is well displayed in this locality on the shore-platform at
the base of the cliffs and on the cliffs themselves. The following is a
description of the beds in immediate proximity to the contact : —
(1.) Amuri limestone.
(2.) Calcareous greensand : The rock is bored in the usual manner and
the interstices filled with calcareous greensand, and becomes
more glauconitic upwards, and contains nodules green in colour,
irregular in shape, up to \ in. in diameter. This merges gradually
into the nodular layer.
(3.) Nodular layer, consisting of phosphatic nodules, more continuous
than usual, the progressive development being more marked, the
nodules being in a cement of calcareous greensand.
(4.) Limestone, 1\ in. thick, with nodules in small number.
84 Transactions.
(5.) Calcareous greensand, 2h in. thick, well bedded.
(6.) Glauconitic limestone, 8 in.
(7.) Greensand, 3 in.
Above this there are regularly distributed layers of calcareous greensand
and glauconitic limestone throughout the next 3 ft. above the nodular layer,
and this is followed by
(8.) Amuri limestone, with flints, the lower 10 ft. of which is bedded in
layers which are more or less glauconitic, which finally passes up
into typical stone striking north-west, and dipping south-west
10-15°.
All the layers of this sequence are much folded, the intensity of the
deformation being of the same order in each case.
The same beds are seen on two other cliffs north of Atiu Point where
the strata strike almost parallel to the shore-line but with acute minor
folding. The nodular bed is 8 in. to 10 in. thick, with the same general
features as before ; the greensand layers are, however, between thicker
beds of limestone above, but underneath are the same as usual.
The nodular layer also occurs on the shore-platform in this locality,
but is much contorted and separated by faulting from the main layer.
North Side of Kaikoura Peninsula, on the Shore-platform between the Old
and New Wharves.
This occurrence has not been noted previously, as it is somewhat difficult
to locate. The limestone in which it occurs is much folded and contorted,
but where the contact occurs the strike is north-east, and the dip south-east
at an angle of 50°. The following is the sequence as here shown : —
(1.) Amuri limestone, flaky in general, but subschistose occasionally
owing to the movements of the beds, and with crystalline texture.
The upper 6 in. of the limestone contains a considerable amount
of flint, some of which contains calcareous greensand in borings,
an extremely important point bearing on the origin of the flint.
(2.) Nodular layer, 6 in. thick, with nodules in a glauconitic matrix but
less rich in nodules than usual, and succeeded by
(3.) Glauconitic limestone and calcareous greensand in alternate layers,
the former 3 in. and the latter | in. in thickness. The lowest
3 ft. contain small and typical green phosphatic nodules. There-
after the layers of glauconitic limestone are thicker, but still
alternate with narrow bands of calcareous greensand to a depth
of 20 ft. to 25 ft. It should be noted that at one spot three
angular pebbles of basalt 2| in. in diameter were found. These
may have been of contemporaneous origin, but more likely were
embedded at a later date, as others were found loose.
Mouth of Lyell Creek, Kaikoura.
The contact of the typical Amuri limestone with the overlying stone
of the Weka Pass facies is to be seen close to the mouth of Lyell Creek on
the northern side of the Kaikoura Peninsula. It is on the western wing of
the anticline which forms the main mass of the peninsula. The beds strike
here east-north-east, and dip north-north-west at an angle of 20°, the
agreement between the two facies of the rock being complete.
The following is a description of the contact as far as it can be seen ;
at the time of our visit it was unfortunately partly obscured by a covering
of beach shingle.
Speight and Wild. — Weka Pass Stone and Amuri Limestone. 85
The underlying beds are of Amuri limestone as typically developed,
very white, with flaky jointing and nodules and masses of flint, and with
borings filled with greensand. Over this lies, with the intervening beds
obscured by gravel, a glauconitic limestone, with inclusions of Amuri lime-
stone which is decidedly phosphatic, the thickness being uncertain but
certainly not more than 3 ft., the upper portion containing more of these
than the lower part. It is succeeded without any unconformity by a much
more glauconitic limestone — in fact, a greensand — from 6 in. to 8 in. thick,
containing borings, and also small, dark, oxidized nodules. This is followed
by a glauconitic limestone, also with nodules, which become smaller and
smaller in the higher levels. The glauconitic character is very marked,
with a concentration of the glauconitic material in well-defined layers ;
and borings filled with more highly glauconitic material occur throughout
the whole thickness of the bed. This is succeeded in about 30 ft. (?) by the
ordinary type of Amuri limestone, which very occasional glauconitic layers.
No flint was observed in the upper part of the limestone. The whole section
is strongly reminiscent of that at Weka Pass.
Puhipuhi Valley and Long Creek.
The limestone up the Puhipuhi Valley and that occurring up Long-
Creek on the southern side of the Hapuku River were also examined in
order to see if any similar horizon occurs marked with phosphatic nodules,
but with unsatisfactory results. The best exposure that was encountered
was in a cutting just past the bridge over the Clinton River, a similar
junction, somewhat obscured, being observed in the gorge of the Clinton
River itself. The beds in this locality are much folded, and have suffered
crushing as a result of folding and faulting movements, so that their strati-
graphy is not clear. In the road-cutting to the north of the bridge the
beds strike east-north-east, and dip north-north-west at an angle of 60°.
The ordinary Amuri limestone is succeeded by layers of calcareous greensand,
the layers being more or less glauconitic through about 15 ft., some being
distinctly greensand. This is succeeded by hard greyish-green arenaceous
limestone, well jointed, and with bands of more greenish tint running
through it. It is much crumpled and faulted, and at least 70 ft. thick,
and passes up into layers of more arenaceous character. This limestone
is decidedly phosphatic. There is a strong similarity to the beds exposed
some ten miles away at Lyell Creek, but no nodules of phosphatic nature
were met with. Although they are apparently absent, it seems quite
reasonable to maintain that the junction is on the same horizon. There
is no evidence of unconformity.
Contact op the Grey Marl with the Underlying Limestone.
Although discussion of this contact is not directly connected with the
principal subject of this paper, it has some bearing on the question, and
therefore a description of all the contacts noted is here included. As the
grey marl is easily eroded and apt to weather readily into soil, good ex-
posures are rare. Those examined, however, show certain features which
resemble the contact of the Amuri limestone and the Weka Pass stone,
notably the bored upper surface of the limestone and the presence of
detached fragments of the lower layer included in the higher, and it seems
reasonable that if unconformity is demanded in one case it must also be
demanded in the other. A consideration of the following sections will
illustrate our contention as to similarity of evidence.
86 Transactions.
Main Branch of Weka Creek.
This section occurs in the main branch of Weka Creek, below the small
bridge on the road from Weka Pass in the direction of the Waipara River
to the north-west of the Deans Range. The junction between the Weka
Pass stone and the overlying marl is well seen in the bed of the creek and
on the sides of the deep but narrow gorge where the road crosses. The
agreement in dip is absolute, and the contact does not show any signs
of unconformity. The Weka Pass stone exhibits on its upper surface
the same kind of borings which mark the contact of the two limestones,
but the bored zone is narrower. This is succeeded b}r 1 ft. of slightly
glauconitic sandy marl, then by 12 ft. of slightly glauconitic sandstone,
passing up into sandy marl and becoming more argillaceous higher up
but still preserving something of its arenaceous nature.
Near Old Wharf, North Side of Kaikoura Peninsula.
The upper surface of the Amuri limestone is tily in character, as at
Amuri Bluff, with lenticules of grey marl included in the limestone, as also
there are inclusions of limestone in the grey marl, the inclusions being more
phosphatic than the limestone and marl in general, which are practically
free from phosphate. The marl is decidedly glauconitic near the contact,
and presents all the features of a fine-grained glauconitic sandstone, the
sandy facies extending for 10 ft. or 12 ft. above the contact. The contact
is conformable stratigraphically, any divergence from a normal junction
being due to folding or faulting.
East Side of Kaikoura Peninsula.
The general strike of the beds is north-east. The Amuri limestone is
much contorted, brecciated by folding, faulted, and, as a result of these
structural movements, crystalline in many parts and at times subschistose
in appearance. The grey marl is folded on the same lines, and sometimes
included in the limestone as a result of folding. The grey marl has been
subjected to just the same intensity of deformational movement as the
limestone, but it exhibits the results of these movements to a much smaller
•degree except at the immediate contact with the limestone, where it is
subschistose in structure. The whole locality exhibits faulting, some of
the major faults running north-north-east parallel to the general trend of
the coast-line of the Island, but there are numerous others crossing at right
angles, so that the whole locality may be described as a complex of faulted
anticlinoria and synclinoria, but wherever the junction between the marl
and the limestone is clear the junction is conformable. It might be noted
here that Hutton's figure of the East Head (1885, p. 273) is entirely
incorrect.
On the south side of the peninsula, near the Maori village, the contact
is of the same character as on the north side. The Amuri limestone is
slightly glauconitic, becoming more so near the junction. There is a layer
about 6 in. thick where the limestone and the marl are mixed, a phenomenon
which is in part due to boring. The grey marl is glauconitic in its lower
part for a thickness of several feet, and contains numerous fragments of
whale-bone. Along the line of contact faulting is much in evidence, the
faults being both normal and reversed, with a direction in general at right
angles to the strike. The figure by Hutton (1885, p. 273) is evidently
given under a misapprehension of the effects of faulting, the irregular line
of contact being attributed by him to erosion.
Speight and Wild. — Weka Pass Stone and Amuri Limestone. 87
South Side of Amuri Bluff.
In this locality the sequence is well exposed on the finely developed
shore-platform on the south side of the bluff and around the coast-line as
far as the mouth of the Okarahia Creek. Above the nodular layer there
is about 15 ft. or so of limestone, and this is succeeded conformably by a
greenish calcareous sandstone, perhaps the equivalent of the lower part of
the typical grey marl, or perhaps, as is more likely, the equivalent of the
Weka Pass stone. The upper portion passes into a typical marl of decidedly
argillaceous character. Hutton considered that this locality furnished
strong evidence of unconformity between the grey marl and the Amuri
limestone, his main line of evidence being the discordance in the dip of the
former as it occurs in the neighbourhood of the mouth of the Okarahia
Creek and south of it with the limestone at the bluff. This apparent dis-
crepancy in angle of dip is due to folding and twisting movements
affecting the beds unequally in the two localities. The limestone south of
the creek dips at a very high angle, and the marl is in perfect accord with
this ; while when traced in a north-easterly direction towards the bluff the
beds flatten out, and nowhere present any evidence of discordance.
Evidence that the Series is Conformable.
This detailed account of the sections taken from widely separated parts
of the area gives some idea of the general nature of the contact and empha-
sizes the similarity of its features. Relying entirely on the evidence of the
borings in the upper surface of the Amuri limestone and the presence of
detached fragments of the limestone in the greensand matrix of the nodular-
layer. Hutton and Morgan came to the conclusion that it was a true erosion
surface, the supposition being that the erosion took place in the vicinity
of a shore-line. No palaeontological evidence was advanced by either in
support of their contention as regards the two limestones, the reason being
that they are both, the Amuri limestone especially, according to Hutton,
almost unfossiliferous ; thus in their opinion the existence of an uncon-
formity rests entirely on stratigraphical evidence. We, however, relying
on stratigraphical evidence, have come to a conclusion that the sequence
is conformable, the reasons for this conclusion being as follows : —
1 . In every case there is absolute agreement in the dip of the beds above
and below the nodular layer. When this occurs over a region of a hun-
dred miles in length by some fifteen in breadth, unconformity appears
extremely doubtful. It means that a limestone has been laid down on a
deep-sea bottom, the rock has become consolidated, raised above the sea,
eroded, and again depressed into deep water so that another layer of
calcareous material may be deposited, and all this without any variation
in angle due to structural movements or to conditions of deposition over
hundreds of square miles. Such a contention appears unreasonable.
2. Apart from the evidence furnished by the included fragments of
limestone in the nodular layer, and the report of the occurrence of pebbles
of greywacke at Stonyhurst, which can be explained as probably the result
of mistaken identification, there is no evidence of erosion of the upper sur-
face of Amuri limestone. On any present-day surface of Amuri limestone
there are distinct irregularities, and especially is this the case on the shore-
platforms where tidal channels, &c, are a marked feature, and none of these
are to be seen at any part of the contact, although it is exposed for many
miles in different parts of the area, not only parallel but at right angles to
88 Transactions.
the present shore-line. It would be expected that they should occur some-
where. Present-day shore-lines show surfaces of Amuri limestone with
no similarity whatsoever to those associated with the nodular layer, even
when those parts of the shore-platform are composed of nearly horizontal
layers. Any change in the nature of the rocks due to folding and conse-
quent induration which might be cited from the Kaikoura neighbourhood
as modifying the conditions would not apply farther south, where the
influence of such movements has been comparatively slight.
3. There is no true shore or shallow-water deposit of any kind over
the whole area. It is certain that during the depression demanded by
the unconformists, when the surface of the Amuri limestone was lowered
from forming part of a land surface or a shore-line to such a level that
glauconitic limestone and greensand were deposited, beach and shallow-
water beds would occur in some parts of the area. Nevertheless they are
absent entirely.
4. In many places is it impossible to determine the dividing plane between
the two limestones, so gradual is the transition — that is, they furnish in some
places no evidence of a break. In fact, as a general rule the upper and
lower layers display such a similarity in their characters, notably in the
presence of glauconite, that transitional forms are to be expected.
5. In the case of the borings in the upper surface of the Amuri limestone,
and also those in the Weka Pass stone in contact with the grey marl, the
borings are filled with the material of the overlying bed, however deep they
are down below the surface. If this is a greensand the tubes are filled with
oreensand, if a marl they are filled with marl. Also, there are cases of
tubes in the body of the limestone which are filled with the material being
laid down on the surface into which the borings were made. If, now, these
borings were made on an ordinary beach or shore -platform they would be
filled with beach deposit, and would not remain open till they were de-
pressed to a depth at which limestone or greensand was the characteristic
deposit.
6. The remarkable uniformity in the thickness of the layer over long
distances appears to be inexplicable on the basis of its being a shore-line
deposit, since these are notably variable both in thickness and in the nature
of their constituents. The parallelism of the upper and lower surfaces of
the layer is well brought out in the photographs taken from various widely
separated localities where the bed is well and clearly exposed.
7. The analyses of the so-called " rolled pebbles " at the junction between
the two layers (see page 71) shows that they are not ordinary detached
fragments of Amuri limestone such as would be found on a beach, which
should resemble the parent rock in chemical composition. They have cer-
tainly been modified by agencies other than those operating on a shore-line.
Morgan (1915, p. 92) cites a paper by Edward M. Kindle on " The
Unconformity at the Base of the Onondaga Limestone in New York, and
its Equivalent West of Buffalo";* and remarks, "This paper describes
fully an unconformity not easily detected at all points by stratigraphical
evidence alone." He uses it to emphasize the fact that an unconformity
can occur between two limestones. But it seems to us that such contacts
are by no means unlikely, since limestones of various ages form a notable
feature of the rocks of the earth's crust, and the probability of a contact
between two limestones as compared with that between limestone and
* Journ. Geol, vol. 21, pp. 301-19, 1913.
Speight and Wild. — Weka Pass Stone and Amuri Limestone. 89
another rock of different lithological composition is in proportion as these
rocks form part of the earth's crust in the locality where the limestones are
being laid down. The criteria of unconformity in general, apart from the
possibility of chemical erosion on the plane of contact, will be the same as
between limestone and another rock. In Kindle's paper attention is drawn
to the difference in dip of the two limestones in question, and to the
decided surfaces of erosion of the lower limestone. The photographs that
he uses to illustrate his paper are quite convincing, and show pronounced
differences in the contact as compared with that between the Weka Pass
and Amuri limestones, and we have seen no locality where similar pictures
could be obtained from the contact of the two New Zealand rocks.
For the reasons given above the authors consider that the contact
between the two limestones is not due to erosion, and that after the deposit
of the lower bed no emergence from the sea took place before the second
limestone was deposited. Some alteration in depth or in the conditions
of deposition no doubt occurred, but they were of no greater amount than
that which takes place when a bed of different lithological character is laid
down in a perfectly conformable sequence.
It has been pointed out that both above and below the nodular layer
there is an interstratification of greensand in the limestone, the deposition
being conformable, which shows that slight oscillations of level or conditions
took place. The phosphatic nodules are exactly analogous to those forming
now on ocean-bottoms at depths of over 100 fathoms in association with
greensand, and such do not form on a shore-line. Such nodules are fre-
quently found in the Cretaceous limestones of Europe and America without
an unconformity being demanded, although some lapse of time and change
of conditions must have occurred. The phosphate nodules occurring in the
Cretaceous beds of the south of England and the north of France and in
Belgium usually lie at the base of the series which succeeds another after
some lapse of time. In some cases, however, distinct unconformity has
been demonstrated on account of the presence of pebbles and rolled fossils,
the break being of more decided character and amounting to an uncon-
formity, but in other cases there is no pronounced break.
The association of these nodules with a bored surface seems to indicate
clearly that the boring took place not on a shore-line, but on a sea-bottom
formed of a soft calcareous ooze before it had consolidated and hardened
into rock. The borings extend to such a depth beneath the surface that it
may be doubted whether it is possible for marine organisms to tunnel such
a distance into hard rock, whereas if it be admitted that the boring took
place before the rock had consolidated and while it was actually in process
of deposition there is no difficulty. The filling of these deep tunnels with
greensand, as has been pointed out, certainly suggests boring on a sea-
bottom. Although many marine organisms have the power of making
burrows, it occurred to us that they were in all probability made by marine
worms, and therefore we applied to Dr. Benham for his opinion on the matter.
In a private letter he says, " Unfortunately we know nothing, so far as I
can find out from monographs on the Polychaeta, &c, about the burrows
in deep water. When the dredge is used the surface of the mud, &c, will
still be disturbed ; and even if the worms are captured the walls of the bur-
rows, if any, will fall in, and the burrow, of course, will be smashed. So that
I find no reference at all to burrows of worms living beyond the littoral-
zone area. But we may expect that if they are formed at these greater
depths they, too, will be U-shaped. You ask at what depths worms live
90 Transactions.
and work. Certain species have been found at as great a depth as 3.000
fathoms, though at depths below 1,000 fathoms they are much rarer than
at less than 100 fathoms — that is, the great majority live along the con-
tinental shelf, and especially along the littoral area."
This opinion is not conclusive, but it certainly indicates that it is possible
for worms to produce borings at the depth at which greensand is deposited.
The statements of Cayeux (1897, pp. 431-32 and 532-33) are of interest
in their bearing on this point. He shows that phosphatic nodules occur
in ths chalk of France and Belgium at levels marked by change in the depth
of the sea, whether this be in the direction of increasing or of lessening
depth — that is, they occur at the points of inflexion of the curves indicat-
ing the depths of the sea over the area at any particular time. He says
(p. 431), " La production du phosphate de chaux de la base de la craie
a Belemnitelles correspond a une rupture d'equilibre de la mer cretacee,
phenomene dont on a maintes preuves." These are then given, and among
them may be noted the hardening of the upper layer of chalk and the
presence of perforations. The first of these is perhaps analogous to the
hardening of the fragments in the upper layer of Amuri limestone which
may be attributed to phosphatization, and the second is a most character-
istic feature of its upper surface. Farther on (p. 432), he says, " La craie
phosphatee du department du Nord est en relation avec un mouvement
d'exhaussement qui a eu pour resultat de chasser la mer du golfe du Mons.
Son existence est liee a une periode de regression de la mer pour le Nord."
Of the two instances quoted, the former applies to an increase in depth of
the sea and the latter to a diminution in depth. The latter in all probability
is analogous to the change from Amuri limestone to calcareous greensand
which characterizes the level of phosphatic nodules in the New Zealand area.
Further, Cayeux considered that the accumulations of phosphatic
material took place at such a distance from the shore that the change in
depth of the sea did not permit of any marked variation in the character
of the terrigenous material associated with the chalk. This is borne out to
some extent in the area under consideration, as it has been shown that the
material of the phosphate nodules is not markedly different from that of
the beds with which they are associated. In any case, Cayeux does not
postulate any emergence of the sea-bottom to account for phenomena which
are quite analogous to those near the junction of the Amuri and Weka Pass
limestones.
The Peculiarities op the Junction of the Amuri Limestone and
Weka Pass Stone.
It must be admitted that the junction of the Amuri and Weka Pass
limestones is a peculiar one and demands some special explanation, seeing
that unconformity is not admitted. The irregularity of the junction in some
places could be attributed to chemical erosion, and the increased amount
of phosphate in the detached pieces of Amuri limestone in the nodular band
supports this contention ; but it may be explained in another way, or
perhaps the two explanations are not mutually exclusive. It seems to us
that the so-called erosion surface has been the result of extensive boring
during the interval between the deposition of the typical Amuri limestone
and the upper more glauconitic part of the bed when it formed part of a
sea-bottom. As a result of the complete penetration by borings the upper
surface consists in places of peninsulas of limestone surrounded by green-
Speight and Wild. — Weka Pass Stone and Amuri Limestone. 91
sand. In places, too, these jutting portions have been completely cut off,
so that they become detached fragments. Similar occurrences can be
seen at times in the estuaries which are filled with calcareous mud and
have been completely honeycombed by borrowing molluscs, &c. In this
way an apparent erosion surface can be formed ; but the character of the
junction under consideration requires a uniformity of conditions over wide
areas, and this would be obtained if the bored surface were a sea-bottom
and not a shore-line. The increased phosphatization of the fragments of
Amuri limestone, and perhaps of the true phosphatic nodules, might be
accounted for by the decay of the bodies of the boring organisms, in
addition to probable increased phosphatization owing to concentration by
the dissolving-out of the more soluble calcium carbonate from the rock.
The remarkable persistence of the nodules of phosphatic material at a
limited level in the limestone renders them extremely useful as a datum-
level for comparing the relative age of rocks in the series, and this is all
the more valuable owing to the comparative absence of fossils. It may,
of course, be suggested that there is more than one layer in the limestone,
and that the phosphatic nodules at Kaikoura occupy a different position
from those at the Weka Pass ; but the whole of the attendant circumstances
of the surrounding beds renders it extremely likely that only one layer
exists. If the nodules had been laid down on the bed of a deep sea, then
it is likely that the sea extended all over the area in question, and their
synchronous formation would be very probable indeed.
Assuming that this is so, it would clearly indicate that the Weka Pass
stone was the equivalent of the upper part of the Amuri limestone in the
Kaikoura district and also at Amuri Bluff ; but, seeing that the lower portion
of the grey marl at Kaikoura and Amuri Bluff is lithologically a calcareous
greensand, it is not at all improbable, that Hutton was partly correct in
correlating the Weka Pass stone with the grey marl, only that it is the
lower portions of the marl that are equivalent to the upper layers of the
Weka Pass stone. However, between the marl and the limestone in the
Kaikoura region there is a junction which is analogous to that between
the two limestones, in that the limestone immediately below the lowest
layer of the grey marl is bored and sporadic phosphatic nodules occur in it.
This, of course, indicates some break in time.
At the Amuri Bluff the thickness of the limestone above the nodular
band is reduced to 15 ft. as compared with a thickness of 100 ft. or more
at Kaikoura and a great thickness as exposed on the sea-cliffs between
the Oaro and Mikonui Creeks. It must be mentioned, however, that as
the beds are traced along the coast south of Amuri Bluff towards the
Conway River they thin out and the limestones lose their distinctive features.
This certainly suggests the vicinity of a shore-line, and therefore there is
no improbability that the lower part of the grey marl in that neighbour-
hood, especially that part with sandy texture, may be the stratigraphical
equivalent of the glauconitic facies of the Amuri limestone farther north, the
sea evidently deepening in a northerly direction. It is probable that an
easterly extension of the land, either continuous or in the form of islands,
divided the Kaikoura part of the sea from that south of the Hurunui. The
existence of such a land if it were of low relief would not, of course, negative
the contention that a sea extended generally over the site of the present
Kaikouras, and that the land had been base-levelled to some extent before
being depressed and covered with a veneer of Tertiary sediments. But it
must be clearlv understood that the shore-lines of this land must not be con-
92 Transactions.
sidered as related to the present orographic features. These are, no doubt,
a very late development, as demanded by McKay and by Cotton. The
failure to appreciate this point thoroughly no doubt influenced Hutton,
and to some extent Morgan (1916, p. 28), in attempting to fix the position
of the shore-line of the Tertiary sea in that region.
Since we maintain the conformity of the two limestones, and since we
can suggest no other horizon where a physical break occurs in the series
under consideration, our present contention involves the recognition of
the stratigraphical conformity of beds in the lower part of the sequence
containing Cretaceous fossils with those higher containing Tertiary fossils.
(For the latest pronouncement on the Cretaceous age of the lower members
of the series see Trechmann, 1917, p. 295.) In our opinion the beds
with Cretaceous fossils are definitely Cretaceous, and those higher up with
Tertiary forms are Tertiary. The anomaly is accounted for by the slow
and continuous deposition of the beds, so that when the period of deposition
commenced the time was Cretaceous, and when it closed it was Tertiary,
judging by European standards of geological time. The earlier part of this
period was marked by slow depression of the land, with a corresponding
change in the nature of the deposits (see Speight, 1917, pp. 350-51).
During the time of maximum submergence the greensands and limestones
were deposited, and as the sea-bottom was raised a reversal of the order
took place with slight minor oscillations. When one considers the small
area of land which was probably in existence above sea-level in the vicinity
of the region under consideration, the slow rate of deposition can be readily
understood. Thus during this long period of submergence of the area the
local fauna had time to change from a Cretaceous to a Tertiary facies.
Bibliography.
Cayetjx, L., 1897. Terrains sedeinentaires, Memoires de la Societe geologique du Nord,
Tome IV.
Cotton, C. A., 1912. Typical Sections showing the Junction of the Amuri Limestone
and Weka Pass Stone at Weka Pass, Proc. N.Z. Inst., pp. 84-85.
Haast, J., 1871. Rep. Geol. Explor. dur. 1870-71, pp. 15, 25.
Haast, J. von, 1879. The Geology of Canterbury and Westland, p. 297-98.
Hector, J., 1869. Rep. Geol. Explor. dur. 1868-69, p. xii.
Hutton, F. W., 1877. Rep. Geol. Explor. dur. 1873-74. p. 27.
1885. The Geological Position of the Weka Pass Stone, Quart. Jou,rn. Geol. Soc.,
vol. 41, pp. 266-78.
1888. On Some Railway Cuttings in Weka Pass, Trans. N.Z. hist., vol. 20,
pp. 257-63.
McKay, A., 1877. Rep. Geol. Explor. dur. 1874-76, p. 36.
1881. Rep. Geol. Explor. dur. 1879-80, pp. 108-17.
1886. Rep. Geol. Explor. dur. 1885, p. 27.
1887. Rep. Geol. Explor. dur. 1886-87. pp. 74, 78.
1890. Rep. Geol. Explor. dur. 1888-89, p. 85.
Marshall, P., 1911. New Zealand and Adjacent Islands, Handbuch der regionalen
Geologie, pp. 22-26, 39-41.
1912. The Yoimger Rock Series in New Zealand, Geol. Mag. (n.s.), dec. 5,
vol. 9, p. 314.
1916. The Younger Limestones of New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 48,
pp. 87-99.
1916a. Relations between Cretaceous and Tertiary Rocks, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 48, pp. 100-19.
Marshall, P., Speight, R., and Cotton, C. A., 1911. The Younger Rock Series of
New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, pp. 378-407.
Morgan, P. G., 1915. Weka Pass District, North Canterbury, 9th Ann. Rep. (n.s.)
N.Z. Geol. Surv., Pari. Paper C.-2, pp. 90-93.
Speight and Wild. — Weka Pass Stone and Amuri Limestone. 93
Morgan, P. G., 1916. Notes on a Visit to Marlborough and North Canterbury, with
Especial Reference to Unconformities post-dating the Amuri Limestone, 10th Ann.
Rev. (n.s.) N.Z. Geol. Snrv., Pari. Paper C.-2b, pp. 17-28.
1916a. Record of Unconformities from Late Cretaceous to Early Miocene in
New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 48, pp. 1-18.
Park, J., 1888. Rep. Geol. Explor. dur. 1887-88, p. 25-35.
1905. Marine Tertiaries of O£ago and Canterbury, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 38, p. 546.
1910. The Geology of New Zeala ml.
— ■ — 1911. The Unconformable Relationship of the Lower Tertiaries and Upper
Cretaceous of New Zealand, Geol. Hag. (n.s.), dec. 5, vol. 8, pp. 539-49.
— — 1912. The Supposed Cretaceo-Tertiary Succession of New Zealand, Geol. Mag.
(n.s.), dec. 5, vol. 9, p. 314.
Speight, R., 1912. A Preliminary Account of the Lower Waipara Gorge, Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 44, p. 221.
1915. The Intermontane Basins of Canterbury, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47, p. 336.
1917. The Stratigraphy of the Tertiary Beds of the Castle Hill or Trelissick
Basin, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 321-56.
Thomson, J. A., 1912. Field-work in East Marlborough and North Canterbury,
6th Ann. Rep. (n.s.) N.Z. Geol. Surv., pp. 7-9.
— — 1916. The Flint-beds associated with the Amuri Limestone of Marlborough,
Trans. N.Z. Inst, vol. 48, pp. 48-58.
Trechmann, C. T., 1917. Cretaceous Mollusca from New Zealand, Geol. Mag. (n.s.),
dec. 6, vol. 4, pp. 294-305, 337-42.
Art. VI. — Structural and Glacial Features of the Hurunui Valley.
By R. Speight, M.Sc, F.G.S., Curator of the Canterbury Museum.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 5th December, 1917 ; received by
Editors, 31st December, 1917 ; issued separately, 24th May, 1918.]
The Hurunui Valley is one about which little has been said in geological
literature, though it is one of the most interesting of the main river-valleys
of Canterbury, not only for its structural pecularities, but also for the glacial
features of the country in the vicinity of its headwaters. The comparative
neglect is perhaps due to the relative inaccessibility of its higher parts owing
to the absence of roads, though before the discovery of Arthur's Pass it was
the recognized route from Canterbury to Westland, while the lower portions
were, till the opening of the Cheviot Settlement and the completion of the
Waipara-Cheviot Railway, epiite off the main lines of communication.
In 1865 Haast made a journey up the river across the island, an account
of which is given in his Geology of Canterbury and Westland (1879), includ-
ing a general description of the chief landscape features of the upper part
of the basin. In 1871 he visited the middle Hurunui, and furnished a
report (1871), in which he referred to the basin of the Mandamus, the main
northern tributary of the Hurunui. Hutton (1877, pp. 34, 35; 1889) also
gave some account of the locality, and dealt with the origin of the Hurunui
Plains (1877, pp. 55, 56). This is practically all that has been written on
the features of the main valley, except a brief reference by myself (1915,
pp. 347-48) to the formation of the Waiau-Hurunui intermontane basin.
Of course, there is abundant reference to the country to the north and
south of the river, such as the Pahau Valley, and to the interesting
stratigraphical questions connected with the Waikari and Greta Valleys,
but a consideration of these is foreign to the scope of this paper. It is
intended to give an account of the general geology of the basin only in so
far as it is connected with its peculiar structural and glacial features.
94
Transaction a.
General Topography.
(See map, fig. 1.)
The chief stream of the Hurunui rises in the main chain of the Southern
Alps, and flows east between bush-clad mountains whose height approxi-
mates between 5,000 ft. and 6,000 ft. till after a straight course of some
eighteen miles it empties into Lake Sumner. This is a fine lake, seven miles
long by one a half wide in its widest part, 1,724 ft. above sea-level. Thence
the Hurunui flows south-east for about eight miles, and receives on the
south a tributary almost as large as itself, called the South Branch, the
main stream being sometimes called the North Branch. In this part of its
basin are several small lakes, the most important being Lake Katrine
(which is practically an indentation near the head of Lake Sumner), Lakes
Taylor (1,914 ft.) and Sheppard (1,916 ft.) in a valley between the two
branches, and Lake Mason in a side valley of the South Branch.
Below the junction of the two main streams the valley continues for
nearly three miles in a south-easterly direction between somewhat pre-
cipitous mountain-sides, and then turns east and passes through a deep,
narrow, picturesque gorge, locally known as Maori Gully, and believed to
be the scene of an engagement between two Maori tribes in early days.
tRobinson
JBlythR.
FAULT L//VES
AXES OF FOLDING 0_0_0_0
Fig. 1. — The Hurunui Valley.
The river then flows north-east for nearly ten miles through a hilly region
in a narrow channel cut in the floors of detached basins and deeply incised
in the ridges dividing them, till it reaches the Mandamus River.
Just below the junction with this stream the direction of the main river
turns through a right angle and it enters the Hurunui- Waiau basin, flowing
for about ten miles through an aggraded flood-plain till it receives the
Waitohi on the south. It then makes a sudden turn and runs north-east
along the southern edge of the Hurunui Plain, receiving the Pahau River
on the north ; but after a course of about eight miles it again breaks through
a mountain barrier in a south-easterly direction and receives the Waikari
River on the south and the Kaiwara Creek on the north, immediately after
which it breaks through yet another mountain barrier and debouches into
the Greta-Cheviot basin, across which it flows in a broad bed with terraced
banks in an easterly direction till it discharges into the sea after cutting
a somewhat deep gorge through a rocky bar just at its mouth.
The most striking feature of its course as a whole is the peculiar zigzag
direction of the reaches which characterizes the middle part of its basin.
These zigzags have alternate north-west and south-east and south-west
and north-east arms, and it is their special relation to the grain of the
country in some places and their absence of relation in others which is
peculiar.
Speight. — Structural and Glacial Feature* of Hurunui Valley. 95
Basement Rocks of the Area.
The characteristic basement rock of the region is a greywacke such as
is typically developed in the mountains of Canterbury farther south. This
is usually of the hard grey facies, but slaty greywackes also freely occur,
which break down under the weathering agencies into clay and form a
covering on the mountain-slopes. On these forest once became thoroughly
established, but it has been largely destroyed in the higher parts of the
riv«r-valley by the grass fires of settlers. The greywackes have a general
north-easterly strike, with local variations. Beds of dark-red slaty shale
also occur, as well as occasional outcrops of volcanic rock. Basalts and
andesites occur near Lake Sumner on the Crawford Range, and there is
in the Canterbury Museum a specimen from the same area marked " eurite "
by Hutton. Basalt pebbles occur in the Seaward River, a tributary coming
in from the south about three miles below the junction of the two branches,
and similar rocks occur in position between it and the Waitohi River.
The most interesting occurrence is near the Mandamus. About a mile
above its junction with the main stream a massive intrusion of augite
syenite occurs in the greywacke. This has a general north-easterly trend,
and it appears to have the character of a sill, being approximately parallel
to the dip and strike. Its thickness is more than 200 ft., and it extends
over a mile in length. Associated with it are trachyte dykes, and flows of
augite andesite occur in close proximity. Hutton was of the opinion that
the syenite represented the core of a volcano of which the andesite was the
effusive representative. But angular fragments of the syenite are found in
the andesite, in some places in considerable quantity, so that the intrusion
of the syenite was evidently anterior to the andesite. We have therefore,
in order of time, (1) greywacke, (2) syenite, and (3) andesites. In this
district, too, there are basic volcanic tuffs having in their higher levels a
calcareous tufa facies passing into a true limestone; but the volcanic beds
are much better developed to the north-east, in the Pahau and Culverden
districts, where there are interstratifications of volcanic material between
beds of limestone. The occurrence at the Mandamus points to several
periods of vulcanicity, the channel opened by the syenite affording a passage
for later magmas.
Younger Rocks.
Volcanic rocks have exerted little effect on the area covered by the river-
basin, in which greywacke is now by far the most dominant member ; but
at one time the lower parts of the valley were covered with a veneer of
Tertiary sediments, remnants of which are still to be found. These later
beds have all a north-easterly strike, so that they cut across the river at a
average angle of 45°, and at present they occupy separate compartments
of the valley, cut off from adjacent ones by ridges of greywacke. These
isolated areas are as follows : (1) In the Dove River, a tributary of the
Mandamus coming in on the east ; (2) in the Hurunui- Waiau basin ;
(3) in the Waikari-Kaiwara basin, or rather trench ; (4) in the Greta-
Cheviot basin. The special features of these may be taken in turn.
(1.) The Dove River Area.
The Dove River basin is important, not from its size, but because it
gives an indication of the origin of the landscape features of a considerable
area of hill country forming a kind of platform or terrace at the base of the
96 Transactions.
higher region to the north-west. The Tertiary beds here consist of the
following : —
4. Limestone, passing down into
3. Calcareous breccia with volcanic fragments.
2. Volcanic tuffs and ash-beds.
1. Sands with concretionary layers.
The lower parts of these probably contain coal, seeing that an adjacent
stream is called Coal Creek. (See also Haast, 1871, p. 30.) The limestone
is crystalline in texture, but shows traces of bryozoan forms on its
weathered surfaces. The strata are bent up into a sharp syncline whose
axis runs north-east, the remnant now existing being less than a mile
in length and 300 yards in breadth. The underlying beds are naturally
existent over a somewhat wider area, and extend across the Mandamus
towards the Hurunui, the direction of one of the reaches of this stream
corresponding in alignment and direction to that of the axis of the syncline.
The limestone has evidently been squeezed up by folding movements
and has occupied the structural basin in which it lies, but the form of the
land surface on which the limestone was laid down was not basin-shaped.
There are similar basins in the country to the north-west, with parallel
orientation, which do not now contain limestone outliers, but their form
is so characteristic that their origin is probably similar to that of the
Dove. These parallel elements may explain the north-easterly direction
of the Hurunui in this part of its course, for after it leaves Maori Gully
it apparently follows the line of these basins, with breaks across from one
to another.
It may be noted also that the hills in this part of the valley rarely exceed
3,000 ft., but immediately to the north-west mountains rise to between
5,000 ft. and 6,000 ft., the marked difference in height being perhaps due
to the fact that the lower area was faulted down along a line of settlement
parallel to those occurring a short distance away in the Hanmer area and
still farther away in the Kaikouras.
The indications certainly point to this submontane area having been
covered with a veneer of sediments during Tertiary times ; that it was
raised with some faulting, and certainly with folding, in late Tertiary or
in Quaternary times, the folding producing anticlines and synclines of the
beds of limestone with a general north-easterly trend ; and that these
limestones were removed from the basins with the exception of that of
the Dove. The drainage which now occurs may be called, as Cotton has
suggested (1917, p. 253), " anteconsequent," in that it was perhaps conse-
quent on the former land surface, but antecedent as far as the present
surface is concerned. The determining factors of the original consequent
drainage must in this case be highly speculative and almost impossible to
determine.
(2.) Hurunui-Waiau Basin.
The salient features of the Hurunui-Waiau basin have been mentioned
before by myself (1915, pp. 347-48). The formation of this mountain-
ringed area is attributable primarily to faulting or folding movements, or
a combination of both, for there is ample evidence that both are present.
The Tertiaries on the north-west side of the basin lie on the basement beds
of greywacke with a general dip to the south-east, but with occasional
reversals where they abut against the older rocks. This is specially well
seen near the road past Mount Mason into the Virginia country, where the
limestones in close proximity to the greywackes experience a sharp fold
Speight. — Structural and Glacial Features of Hurunui Valley, 97
backwards as if the beds had been dragged down along a fault-line. Farther
north towards the Hurunni Gorge, opposite their junction witli the Mandamus,
they appear quite normal, but in the Pab.au again their structure is obscure,
though that may be attributed to the disturbance in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of a volcanic vent. Farther north-east towards Culverden their
arrangement is again normal. The floor of the basin is almost completely
masked by the gravels of the Hurunui and Pahau Rivers, the only indication
of what is underneath being given in the vicinity of Hurunui Mound. Here
the Tertiaries rise like an island in the sea of gravels, and they are evidently
folded acutely. In the cliffs on the bank of the river near the railway-bridge
the structure is anticlinal, but at the Mound itself, about half a mile to the
north-east, the beds are also folded, though not on the same line. There
is evidence, therefore, of a more complex structure under the plains — that
is, they approach a synclinorium.
The southern margin of the plain from the road-bridge eastward is
determined by a fault-scarp, along the foot of which the river flows. The
settlement of the block of country under the plains appears to be more
marked on the south-east side (cf. the Waikari and Greta Valleys, also
the fault system of the Kaikouras : Cotton, 1914), and the river has therefore
occupied it as the lowest level possible on the plains. The outlet, however,
is marked by high-level terraces indicating a former higher level of the
river. It is almost certain, therefore, that the deformational movements
which caused the basin had not terminated wThen the river had established
its course through the gap at the south-east corner of the plains. Of such
recent movements the surrounding districts furnish ample evidence (cf. .
the fault-scarps near Hanmer, at Glen Wye, and also the recent gorge of
the Middle Waipara). The course of the river from the junction of the
Mandamus has followed the line of steepest descent to the fault-line, and
is therefore approximately at right angles thereto. This explains the
necessity of the sudden sharp turn when the line of the fault is reached.
Although the high-level terraces at the outlet may be attributed to recent
movements in the basin itself, they may be correlated with the uplift which
all this region has recently experienced, and therefore are the result of the
river accommodating itself to a new and lower base -level. The river-course
across the plains is marked by terraces of no great height. It here follows
a direction consequent on a surface of its own making, for which the
term auto-consequent could be used. Thus the courses of the Rakaia,
Rangitata, and other large rivers of Canterbury across the plains are auto-
consequent.
(3.) The Waikari-Kaiwara Basin.
After leaving the Culverden Plain the river flows through a gorge cut
in greywacke for about six miles till it enters on the Waikari-Kaiwara
basin. This extends down the river to the immediate vicinity of the
Ethelton railway-station, when the river passes through another gorge
cut in greywacke. The basin is therefore completely enclosed by pre-
Tertiary rocks. Although the area has a basin-shaped form, its origin is
somewhat different from the Waiau-Hurunui intermontane area, and owes
its formation entirely to the faulting-down of a strip of Tertiary beds and
the subsequent enlargement of the tributary valleys through the rapid
erosion of relatively weak beds. These consist chiefly of sands with harder
concretionary bands, sandy clays, and marls, with occasional irregular
layers of shells, mostly in a fragmentary condition : they are, in fact, the
equivalents of the Motunau or Greta beds. Mount Brown beds are existent
4 — Trans.
98 Transactions.
as well, but I have found no appearance of limestone, which is so well de-
veloped in the Waikari district to the south-west. Limestone does occur
in the upper part of the Scargill Valley, in the form of faulted strips, but I
have not traced it farther towards the Hurunui. The beds have a general
north-east strike, and a dip to the south-east of from 15° to 20°. Where
the beds cut across the Hurunui. which they do at an angle of about 45°,
they are disturbed from their proper dip and are pulled up along the line
of a fault on the downthrow side till they are nearly vertical ; but this
disturbance does not extend far from the fault-line, and may be attributed
entirely to the movements caused by it. The result is that the beds form
a strip running along the north-west side of the Waikari-Kaiwara de-
pression, with slope accordant to that of the underlying surface, and if
they were removed a characteristic " stripped surface," as described by
Thomson,* would be disclosed. I do not know what special name has
been applied to valleys of this form, except that I think the term " basin
range valley " has been applied to somewhat similar valleys in the western
United States ; but the Waikari Valley is of a somewhat different type,
and also the name just cited is an unfortunate conjunction of terms. The
name " rift valley " does not apply, because such are determined by faulting
running along two sides, whereas these under consideration are attributable
to tilting which has accompanied faulting along one line only. I suggest
the name tilted strip as being a suitable name in case none has been
already applied.
The most remarkable feature of the course of the Hurunui is its con-
tinuance across this depression without any apparent effect on its course.
Although the earth-movements accompanying the faulting must have been
of fairly recent date, the river has maintained its original course. It is
interesting to compare this case with that of the Clarence Valley, farther
north, where a similar valley caused by faulting on a much larger scale
has dominated the course of the river. In the case of the Hurunui the
movement must have been slow, and some cause must have been present
which enabled the river to reach a lower base-level almost as fast as the
downward movement occurred in the beds in this portion of its course.
This cause will be evident from a consideration of the features of the next
compartment into which the river-valley has been divided.
(4.) The Greta-Cheviot Basin.
The greywacke gorge of the river continues for about three miles below
the Ethelton Station, when the valley opens out and the river has a wide
shingly bed with flanking terraces cut in the marls of the Motunau or
Greta series. Soon after its emergence from the gorge it receives the small
Greta Creek, which occupies a valley similar in form and origin to that of the
Waikari and Kaiwara. The beds let down by the fault which determines
this valley develop northward into those of the true Cheviot basin, which
is some five miles across, and extends past the Cheviot township across
the Waiau as far as the Conway River. The structure of this basin is
dominantly synclinal. The beds exposed on the floor of the basin are
clays, sandy clays, sands, &c, of Mio-Pliocene age, passing down conform-
ably into calcareous oreensands (= Weka Pass stone) and hard limestone
(= Amuri limestone). The limestone is exposed in places along the western
edge of the greywacke ridge which separates the basin from the sea, and
through which the Jed has cut its gorge. On the seaward side of this grey-
* J. A. Thomson, Coal Prospects of the Waimate District, South Canterbury, N.Z.
Geol. Survey. 8th Aim. Rep., p. 1(50, 1914.
Speight. — Structural and Glacial Features of Hurunui Valley. 99
wacke barrier the limestone also occurs, with reversed dip, and under the
limestones are exposed sands and greensands with saurian bones, and thin beds
of impure coal. On following the beds across the strike a synclinal arrange-
ment is found, and the limestone forming the south-eastern limb appears
as a reef at Port Robinson, striking out to sea just as the limestone reefs
do at Amuri Bluff. This syncline is well seen in the cliffs at Gore Bay, and
it no doubt extends south-west as far as the Hurunui, and appears where
the rocks dip up-stream just above the lowest bridge across the river. The
upturned beds of the south-easterly wing of this syncline rest at Port Robin-
son on greywackes, and at the Hurunui Bridge on the same rocks. In the
last-mentioned locality there is evidence that the Tertiaries are bent over
this core of grey wacke in mild anticlinal arrangement. The river has cut
a gorge through the greywacke, which has been used as a solid basis for
the abutments of the bridge.
Up-stream from this, the traces of the anticlines and synclines which
occur between Port Robinson and Cheviot can be seen occasionally where
the Motunau beds are exposed in the river-terraces, but no limestone is
visible ; the general arrangement is, however, synclinal.
An important point as regards the history of the river is the compara-
tively recent elevation of the coast-line. This has amounted to as much
as 600 ft., judging from the shore-platforms extending to that height at
Port Robinson, between the mouths of the Hurunui and the Blyth Rivers
(three miles to the south), and just south of the Blyth River on the summit
of the Napenape Cliffs. This elevation has been noted previously by
Haast, Hutton, and McKay. In the last-named locality there are sea-
planed limestone surfaces 600 ft. above sea-level covered in places with
marine gravels. In the country just south of the Hurunui this plain of
marine denudation extends back from the present coast-line for some five
miles to the base of the greywacke hills, and exhibits a peculiarity in that
the wave-cut surface is higher near the coast than farther inland. This
suggests that a slight warping has taken place since the plain was cut ; but
the peculiarity may perhaps be explained by the more ready erosion of the
softer beds farther inland than the harder limestone exposed near the
coast where it forms the floor of the high platforms. The first explanation
is, however, the more reasonable, and if it is correct the axis of warping
would approximate to that of the line of the greywacke bar near the river-
mouth. Apart from the effect on the river in this vicinity, probably apparent
in the gorge of the river incised in a somewhat wide flood-plain, an elevation
of the land totalling some 600 ft. would exert considerable influence on a
river which had reached approximate base-level, as it is reasonably certain
that the Hurunui had, before the coastal elevation took place. The power
of vertical corrasion would be greatly increased over a considerable part
of the course of the river. At the present time a considerable portion of the
Culverden Plains are under 600 ft. above the sea, and unless some compensa-
tions in level have taken place inside the coastal belt the level of the river-
bed should have been greatly affected as far as the junction with the Man-
damus at least, where the solid bars of rock would delay adjustment for a
long period after it had taken place in the relatively weaker beds farther
down-stream. There is, however, evidence of a lowering of the inland
portion of the river-basin relative to the coastal portion as a result of the
faulting which took place on the Greta line, on the Waikari-Kaiwara line,
and again in the deformational movements of the Hurunui-Waiau basin.
The effect of this would be to make this portion of the stream an aggrading
one if the lowering were in excess of the coastal elevation. This has
certainly been the case, for the aggregate throw of the faults must total
4*
100 Transactions.
considerably over this. The effect of this has no doubt been to make the
river an aggrading stream in that part of its course which lies in the Cul-
verden Plain, and to neutralize the effect of the elevation perhaps as far
down as Ethel ton, but to rejuvenate the part between the Greta and the
sea. Even this part is near a temporary base-level, judging by the great
amount of shingle in its bed and the very low terraces of some parts of its
course. This rejuvenation enabled the river to maintain its course in its
lower portion across the grain of the country, to cut deep gorges through
greywacke rocks, and to do this in spite of movements which would tend
to turn it from its original course. As the present valley of the river is
situated, there are several easier routes than that which it actually follows,
such as that past Hawarden down the Waikari Valley, or past Hawarden
into the valley of the Waipara and thus into the sea near Amberley. But
it appears that under certain conditions, when the course of a river is once
definitely established it will maintain that position in spite of influences
which should divert it from its original path.
Development of the Course of the Hurunui Eiver.
The geological features of this region which have primarily determined
the course of the river are briefly stated as follows : On a greywacke sur-
face, incompletely base-levelled, a series of beds was deposited chiefly in
middle and late Tertiary times. These consist of sands sometimes with
coal, greensands, limestones, marls, sandy shell-beds, and sandy marls
passing up into conglomerates, the higher members being of Pliocene age.
The general character of the strata indicates deposition on a sinking sea-
bottom in the early part of the period, followed by deposition on a rising
bottom at the end, the whole sequence being laid down without a physical
break. It is probable that there was some differential elevation towards
the close of the time, so that some of the earlier beds were eroded in places
while continuous deposition was going on elsewhere. The sea in which
deposition took place gradually extended over a wider area with the sinking
of the land, since the higher members overlap the lower and cover a more
extensive area. Thus it is that limestone is very thin or entirely absent in
certain localities — for example, the Greta and Waikari Valleys — the land
occupied by those localities being the last to be invaded by the sea during
submergence, and having an entirely different form from that which it now
has. No doubt a slightly elevated area occupied the site of those valleys
in early Tertiary times.
The covering beds extended far to the eastward, but have been cut
back bv marine erosion, which is at present making marked inroads on
the sea-cliffs composed of loose sands and marls ; while to the westward
the Tertiaries extended beyond the Mandamus Eiver, probably to the
vicinity of Maori Gully, but fragments of the greywackes rose like islands
in the cover of more recent beds, though not in the position of the high
lands existing at present.
On this surface of covering beds as it emerged from the sea a consequent
drainage was established, consisting of subparallel streams running seaward
in an easterly direction. Although it cannot be stated with certainty, it is
probable that the first elevation of the land took place with comparatively
little deformation, and the river-courses were well established before the
dislocations became pronounced. After the rivers had been completely
established, folding and faulting took place on lines cutting the direction of
the main streams at an angle of approximately 45°, and these lines have
determined the courses of the principal tributaries, most of which enter the
main valley along fold and fault lines. The recency of the movements is
Speight. — Structural and Glacial Features of Hurunui Valley. 101
emphasized by the marked dependence of the landscape forms on the features
resulting immediately from these movements. In some cases time has not
been sufficient for the weak covering beds to be removed from the higher
elevations, though in general these are more, perfectly preserved in the folded
and faulted intermonts. The movements producing these must have been
slow, although they have been comparatively recent, since the main stream
has preserved its original direction with but slight modifications, in spite
of- the opportunities presented for departing from it as a result of these
movements, while farther north in the Kaikoura region the movements
were on such a scale that the stream-systems are almost entirely dependent
on them for their direction. The Hurunui region thus illustrates the con-
dition that a powerful stream may at times maintain its original direction
in spite of strong forces tending to deflect it. Dr. Cotton has drawn my
attention to a paragraph in a paper by Professor W. M. Davis, entitled
" An Excursion in Bosnia, Hercegovina. and Dalmatia," * which seems
appropriate in this connection. It reads as follows : It is evident that
this hypothesis [warping] accounts simply enough for the occurrence of
irregularly alternating basins and uplands ; and that the basins thus pro-
duced might lie connected by gorges eroded through the uplands by the
master rivers : the gorges marking either the paths of antecedent streams
that had maintained their course in spite of the warping, or paths selected
by the drainage consequent on some early stage of warping and antecedent
to the rest." This idea of anteconsequent streams has been elaborated
by Cotton (1917. p. 253), and it seems entirely applicable to the case of the
Hurunui. except that faulting has ensued as a result of the strains set up
in the warping movements.
Glacial Features of the Hurunui Valley.
(See map, fig. 2.)
Although there are no present-day glaciers in the valley of the Hurunui,
the mountains not being sufficiently high in that part of the alpine region
to intercept sufficient snow to feed them, the upper part of its basin was
subjected to the severe glaciation which affected a large part of the South
Island of New Zealand in Pleistocene times and perhaps later. Haast has
indicated (1879, plate 11) that the Hurunui Glacier at its greatest exten-
sion came down below the junction of the Waitohi River with the main
stream — that is, well on to the Culverden Plains ; but on what evidence he
bases this meat extension is not clear, and in my opinion there is no reason
to demand it. The absence of morainic and other glacial deposits, as well
as the form of the river-valleys in the middle course of the Hurunui, render
his supposition very improbable. Especially is the latter evidence strong
in the case of Maori Gully, the striking gorge which the river has cut in the
edge of the high-mountain country before it runs through the foothills of
the Alps. This is so deep and narrow that it is almost impossible that ice
could have come through it and left it in its present condition. It seems
to me extremely probable that the ice did not extend below the junction
of the two main branches of the river, if. indeed, it came so far, since there
is no proof of its former presence even at this point except the somewhat
indefinite evidence based on the form of the river-valley, which may be
attributable to ice action or may be the result of ordinary stream erosion.
In the absence of other proof this solitary line of evidence must be viewed
with considerable reserve.
Bull. Grog. Soc. Philadelphia, vol. :L No. 2, pp. 21-60, 1001.
102
T ransa ctions .
Above the junction of the two branches the evidence is undoubted,
especially from the vicinity of the Lakes Station and Lake Sumner towards
the head of the river. Old moraines, smoothed and rounded surfaces, and
the form of the cross-section' of the valleys furnish indubitable evidence of
the former presence of ice. In the upper part of the course of the North
Branch the even alignment of the valley-walls, their steep lower slopes
and gentler upper ones, the truncated and semitruncated spurs, and the
roches moutonnees on the valley-floor are as characteristic of the results of
glaciation as anything in the valleys of the Southern Alps farther south.
On the north side of the river the mountain-tops have a very flat plateau-
like form, and this feature continues as far as the valley of the Waiau, if
n
L/A/E.S OF C///£:/r G LAC ML. STtfgAMS
Fig. 2^— Upper Hurunui Valley.
not|farther,^so that the streams run in deep trenches incised in the table-
land. To the south of the river the mountain-tops are more like those
characteristic of middle and southern Canterbury, with rugged summits
and wide expanses of moving debris dislodged from solid rocks by the action
of frost. To the east of the plateau region the mountains take on this form
even to the north of the river.
Specially interesting features of the river-basin have resulted from
the action of these ancient glaciers on a mature valley-system which had
become established in pre-glacial times. These features are so strongly remi -
niscent of those of the valleys farther south, especially of the Waimakariri,
that thev must be attributable to a common cause. The only difference in
the two cases is that the features of the Hurunui are not so strongly marked,
which is no doubt due to the more moderate intensity of the glaciation in
the northern river. Thus there are distinct traces of the original directions
of the streams, which are wanting farther south, but which may give some
clue to the origin of the characteristic features of the valleys.
Parallkl Valley System of Upper Part of Basin.
The most striking landscape form of the upper basin of the Hurunui is
the series of subparallel valleys flanking the North Branch on its southern
side. These are quite analogous to those of the Waimakariri, also on its
southern side, and to those in the vicinity of Lake Coleridge in the valley
Speight. — Structural and Glacial Features of Hurunui Valley. 103
of the Rakaia. The arrangement is as follows, taking the valleys in their
turn, commencing from the north : —
(1.) The main valley of the North Branch leading into Lake Sumner. This
has a general east-and-west trend, with wall-like sides in good alignment,
I nit broken by tributary valleys, especially on its northern side. Lake
Sumner occupies a continuation of this valley, but about half-way along
the lake the trend assumes a north-west and south-east direction more in
agreement with that of the others. This corresponds in direction and
salient features with the main valley of the Wainiakariri. but the landscape
characters are on a smaller scale.
(2.) The set of subparattel valleys lent/inn from the vicinity of the head of
Lake Sumner, near Lake Katrine, and running south-east. At the head of
the system there is only one main valley, but it breaks up within a short
distance into distributaries consisting of- (i) A valley immediately to the
south of Lake Sumner and divided therefrom by a ridge of which the peaks
known as The Brothers (4,563 ft. and 4.507 ft.) are the highest points ;
(ii) a valley in which lies Lake Sheppard, divided from (i) by a discontinuous
ridge ending in The Sisters (3,281 ft.) ; (iii) a valley in which lies Lake Taylor,
divided from the former by Conical Hill (2,783 ft.) and from the valley of
the South Branch by the Oronoko Range. These valleys are quite analogous
to those in the Wainiakariri basin, which may be called (i) the Lake Black-
water Valley, (ii) the Lake Sarah - Sloven's Creek Valley, and (iii) the Lake
Grassmere - Lake Pearson - Winding Creek Valley. They also resemble the
still more remarkable and perfect system to the east of the Rakaia basin
in the vicinity of Lake Coleridge.
The ridges which divide these valleys are analogous in their physical
characters. They are very steep-sided, with somewhat narrowed cross-
section, so that when viewed end-on they appear conical ; hence the frequent
occurrence of such names as " Sugarloaf " and " Conical Hill ** in North
Canterbury. But when viewed from the side they form long ridges cut
into well-defined saddles (c/. Mitre Peak). When this saddle is low and
little elevated above the floor of the valley in the vicinity the ridges become
isolated hills, which are often in pairs or linear series, and give rise to
such names as " The Brothers " or " The Sisters.'"
The valleys indicated above junction with the main valley of the North
Branch after it leaves Lake Sumner and takes the first decided bend of the
river to the south-east. It soon afterwards receives the South Branch. In
its upper part this valley has an east-west direction, but it soon takes
on the characteristic north-west and south-east orientation, and finally turns
and joins the other branch nearly at right angles. The dividing wall be-
tween it and the Lake Taylor Valley to the north, called the Oronoko Range,
has been partially broken down in several places. The most important of
these lies just opposite the head of Lake Sumner, where a low pass leads
from the northern to the southern valley of the Hurunui. On the southern
side of the pass is Lake Mason, tucked away in a tributary valley of the
South Branch. The country in this neighbourhood has been highly glaciated,
rochet moutonnees and smoothed surfaces forming characteristic features of
the landscape. Opposite the Lakes Station there is another saddle — some-
what high, it is true and the ridge has also been lowered in a line with
the Lake Taylor Valley leading directly to the North Branch south of Dog-
Hill, indicating an overflow in that direction.
The partial dismemberment of this ridge affords a clue to the conditions
which obtained before dissection and isolation overtook the ridges to the
north-east. By noting its features it is possible to restore with reasonable
104 Transactions.
certainty the general direction of the streams that flowed through this
tract of country anterior to the glaciation. In addition to the two main
branches of the river a large stream rising near the head of Lake Sumner
followed the course of the Lake Taylor Valley, parallel with the South
Branch ; this entered the North Branch about half-way between Lake
Sumner and the junction of the two main branches. A small tributary
entered this valley on the north side, rising near the head of Lake Taylor
and following the course of Lake Sheppard. Another small stream rose
near Lake Katrine and joined the North Branch below the outlet of
Lake Sumner. In pre-glacial times the ridges dividing these valleys would
be more or less entire, though they might have saddles at their heads.
It is impossible to reconstruct such features exactly, but the description
just given affords a fairly accurate view of the stream conditions which
obtained in this tract of country before it was modified by glaciation.
Whatever was the prime cause which promoted glacier extension, it is
reasonable to assume that it was gradual in its incidence. Snow would
slowlv accumulate, glaciers would be formed at higher altitudes and slowly
extend down the valleys. Thus the heads of the small valleys would pro-
bably be filled with corrie glaciers, while the glaciers of the first order would
be extending down the main valleys. These would help to lower the divides
in the way suggested by Matthes.* As the ice-flow increased in volume the
main streams would be filled, and in time overflows would take place over
the lowest part of the divides, which would be lowered at the same time
by active ice abrasion. It is significant that the greatest amount of lower-
ing has taken place near the head of Lake Sumner. This would be due to
the marked overflow of ice from the main Hurunui Valley, no doubt due to
the narrowing of the cross-section of the valley at Lake Sumner, which
caused the ice to overcrowd into the headwaters of the neighbouring streams,
as it has done in several of the valleys of the Canterbury rivers. The full
force of this would be felt at the head of the Lake Taylor Valley, and thus
its divide has been completely reduced. The headwaters of the intermediate
tributary valleys were also invaded and the saddles at their heads reduced.
Thus a clear passage for the ice was opened down these valleys past the
site of the Lakes Station in the direction of the south-easterly reach of the
North Branch below Lake Sumner, while the main stream of ice followed
down the valley now occupied by this lake.
In addition to the overflow toward Lake Taylor, a powerful stream passed
over into the tributary which runs into the South Branch from the north.
The saddle at the head of this stream was thus reduced, but not so much
as its neighbour, which was more in the line where the ice-stream would
impinge on the valley-wall. If, however, glacier action had continued this
saddle would have been reduced and the mountain ridge to the north of
the South Branch would have been completely isolated. It is possible that
ice also overflowed into the valley of this stream near the Lakes Station,
and as at the height of the glaciation the country in its vicinity would have
the form of an intermontane basin, and would be an efficient gathering-
ground, overflows from it took place along several lines from the front of
the ice-sheet in the direction of the valley of the North Branch. These
would produce the breaks in the valley-wall between the South Branch
and the country to the north which occur immediately up-stream from the
junction of the two branches.
* F. E. MATTHES, Glaciation of the Biu Horn Mountains. U.S. Geol. Sun: 21st Ann.
Rep., 189U--1900.
Speight. — Structural and Glacial Features of Kurunui Valley. 105
The dismemberment of the ridges would no doubt be promoted bv the
sapping-back of the valley-walls and their complete reduction in places
where the ice-stream impinged more powerfully. If we compare the results
of the glaciation in other valleys we see that in their cases the dismember-
ment has been more complete, the dissection of the dividing ridges carried
to a further stage, and the straightening of their sides more thoroughly
carried out. because they experienced more complete glaciation. If we were
furnished in these cases with more clear indication of the intermediate
condition of the direction of drainage it would be possible to reconstruct
the original stream-system.
There is one point, however, which has not been considered fully —
viz., the agreement in the direction of the tributary valleys with those of
the Waimakariri and Rakaia. Is this agreement in orientation the result
of accident, or is it based on some structural condition which has influenced
the country in the basin of the Hurunui as well as the country farther south '.
I have shown (1916, pp. 142-43) that there exists in the mountain region
of Canterbury a well-marked series of fractures or lines of folding which
lie in a north-west and south-east direction. Cotton (1917, p. 273) draws
special attention to the importance of the north-west system of earth-
fractures in Otago as compared with the other parts of this Island, but
they certainly occur in Canterbury in conjunction with the Kaikoura
system, and it is possible that in the upper Hurunui, as in the Waimakariri,
they are co-existent. Since writing the article referred to above I have
noted additional lines with the north-west orientation, especially in the
upper valley of the Waipara and in South Canterbury in the country between
Fairlie and Cave. In both these cases there are undoubted, well-marked
lines of fault. It is possible, therefore, that the general direction of the
valleys at the head of the Hurunui were determined initially by lines of
structural weakness. It is remarkable also that some of the valleys on the
northern side of the river have a characteristic east-north-east orientation,
and these are parallel to other valleys farther north, such as the Hope, in
the basin of the Waiau. On the line of one of these upper valleys is the
hot spring which forms a notewerthy physical feature of the Upper Hurunui,
and I am informed that other springs occur in the valley which stretches
north-east from this locality. This certainly points to the presence of an
earth -fracture with east-north-east orientation.
Another feature of this district should be noted — viz., the north-and-
south trend of the upper valleys of the Waiau and Clarence, a direction
which is parallel to the twin valleys of the Mandamus, and to that of the
Glenrae, lying to the west of these. The arrangement may be only a
coincidence, but it is certainly a striking one.
Bibliography.
Cotton, C. A., 1914. The Physiography of the Middle Clarence Valley, New Zealand..
Geo;/. Journ., vol. 42, pp. 225-46.
1917. Block Mountains in New Zealand, Am. Journ. Sci., vol. 44, pp. 249-93.
Haast, J. vox, 1871. Rep. Geol. Explor. dur. 1870-71, pp. 30, 48, sections.
■ 1879. Geology of Canterbury and Westland, pp. 69-78, 216-17.
Hutton, F. W.; 1877. Rep. Geol. Explor. dur. 1873-74, pp. 34-35, 55-56.
— 1889. The Eruptive Rocks of New Zealand, Trans. Urn/. Soc. N.S.W., vol. 23,
pp. 125. 15li.
Speight, R., 1915. The Intermontane Basins of Canterbury, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 47. pp. 347-48.
101 (i. The Orientation of the River-valleys of Canterbury, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 48, pp. 137-44.
106 Transaction*.
Art. VII. — The Volcanic Rocks of Oamaru, ivith Special Reference to
tlicir Position* in the Stratigraphical Series.
By G. H. Uttley, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S., Principal, Scots College, Wellington.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 16th July, 1016 ; received t>y Editors,
31st Deceinber, 1917; issued separately, 24th May, IH18.]
Contents.
I. Introduction.
II. Succession of the Rocks of the Oamaru Series.
III. Previous Opinions in regard to the Horizon of the Volcanic Rocks.
IV. Effects of these Opinions on the Classification of the Oamaru Series.
V. Descriptions of the Sections.
(1.) Oamaru Lighthouse.
(2.) Oamaru Rifle Butts.
(3.) Hutchinson Quarry and Neighbourhood.
VI. The Pillowdavas.
VII. Chemical and Petrographical Notes.
VIII. Conclusion.
I. Introduction.
Interpretations of the geology of the Oamaru coastal district where the
typical Oamaru series is developed have varied greatly in the past, and,
although there is now pretty general agreement as to the broad features
of the rock-sequence, it is essential that more detailed stratigraphical work
should be attempted if the best results are to be obtained from the deter-
minations of the Tertiary fossil Mollusca and Brachiopoda, which are being
carried out by Mr. H. Suter and Dr. J. Allan Thomson. Many of these
fossils have been collected from the Oamaru district, the exact locality
and rock from which they have been gathered are known, and, if the strati-
graphical sequence can be determined in greater detail than has been done
in the past, correlation of Tertiary rocks in other parts of the Dominion
with those developed in the typical locality will possess a sounder basis
than it does at present.
Misinterpretations of the rock-sequence at Oamaru have undoubtedly
been caused by faulty identification of the horizons of the volcanic rocks,
and it will assist stratigraphical work if these can be determined more
accurately.
The position of the lowest volcanic rocks, the Waiarekan, is not in ques-
tion ; it is generally agreed that they lie immediately below the Ototara
limestone, and my work in the North Otago district has convinced me
that they are invariably associated with deposits of diatomaceous earth
in the Oamaru and Papakaio areas. Difference of opinion has, however,
been sharply marked when dealing with the volcanic rocks near the Oamaru
coast. These have been correlated with the tuffs in the Waiareka area ;
important unconformities have been introduced into the sequence, on the
ground that the volcanic rocks are clear evidence of the existence of
a former land surface. An attempt will be made in the present paper to
define more clearly the place of the volcanic episodes in the late geological
history of the Oamaru district. In 1916 I gave a detailed sequence of the
rocks east of the Waiareka Valley, and some of the evidence on which the
succession was based was presented in that paper. It is now proposed to
bring additional evidence by describing several sections in the neighbourhood
Uttley. — Volcanic Hocks of Oamaru. 107
of the town of Oamaru. The pillow-lavas that occur in some localities
will be described, and a preliminary reference will be made to the micro-
scopic characters of some of the rocks, a detailed description of which must
be reserved for a future paper. I am much indebted to Dr. Thomson
and Mr. H. Suter for naming many of the fossils. Their determinations
are indicated by an asterisk placed in front of the name of the fossil. The
other determinations have been made by myself by comparison with forms
determined by these palaeontologists.
II. The Succession of the Rocks of the Oamaru Series.
It will be advisable at the outset to state briefly the detailed succession
of the Oamaru series as developed in the typical locality. The classification
of the upper rocks is based mainly on evidence to be brought forward in
this paper.
To the west of Oamaru, in the basin of the Kakanui River, the lowest
Tertiary rocks are the grits, clays, and sandstones, sometimes associated
with lignite deposits, the whole forming the Ngaparan stage. These are
followed by a considerable thickness of greensands, and these in turn are
succeeded by a great thickness of breccias and tuffs, occurring in the Waia-
reka Valley. Towards the top these become fine-grained and tachylytic,
and are interbedded with deposits of diatomaceous earth, which, in addition
to the vegetable micro-organisms, contains an equal abundance of sponge-
remains and Radiolaria. Dykes and sills have intruded the tuffs and diatom-
aceous earth, and the siliceous rock has in many places been completely
metamorphosed into a flinty substance. These constitute the Waiarekan
stage. The Ototara limestone is the next succeeding rock. In its lower
portions it is interstratified with thin beds of marl, and occasional thin layers
of rolled volcanic pebbles. In its middle portion it is in some localities
intercalated with tufaceous bands, but these are probably detrital only.
In other localities the deposition of the limestone continued uninterruptedly ;
and it is free from volcanic material. Towards the end of the limestone
period volcanic activity was renewed in localities near the present coast-
line with the eruption of the breccia at Kakanui and the volcanic rocks
in the neighbourhood of Oamaru, the upper pillow-lava of the latter locality
being younger than the breccia. After volcanic action had ceased limestone
continued to be deposited, but in many places it contains large well-rounded
masses of volcanic rocks, and minerals similar to those occurring in the
breccia below. It is more than probable that the Kakanui breccia formed
small islands or submarine banks, for it is followed by limestone bands and
tuffs, the former containing rolled fragments of the breccia. In Oamaru
Creek these interstratified tuffs and calcareous bands are invaded by a
thick mass of dolerite which has overflowed to the north and formed the
upper pillow-lava near Grant's Creek. This in its turn is followed by
the limestone containing the large volcanic boulders. The latter disappear
towards the top of the limestone, which closes the Ototaran stage. The
greensands of the Hutchinsonian stage followed the limestone, and the
sequence closed with the mudstones of the Awamoan stage.
III. Previous Opinion in regard to the Horizon of the Volcanic
Rocks.
Hector (1865) considered that the volcanic rocks near Hutchinson Quarry,
in the town of Oamaru, were submarine, but he based his conclusion on the
108 Transactions.
erroneous assumption that the hard limestone bands in that locality had
been metamorphosed during deposition by a lava-flow.
Hutton (1875, p. 54) said, " No eruptive rocks are found associated
with the older or Ototara group of strata .... but at Oamaru Heads
we have clear evidence that during the deposition of the Upper or Trelissic
group of beds volcanic action was going on."
In 1876 McKay placed the Waiareka tuft's below the Ototara stone,
and asserted that a younger series of volcanic rocks occurred at Oamaru.
In 1886 Hutton verified McKay's observations as to the position of the
Waiareka tuffs, but repudiated his own former statement that volcanic
rocks were associated with the upper beds of the series. He recognized
but one horizon of volcanic rocks, the Waiarekan, and considered that the
volcanic matter in the upper part of the limestone was detrital only.
In 1905 Park asserted that volcanic activity commenced at the end
of the Waihao greensand period and culminated during the deposition of
the Hutchinson Quarry beds.
Summarily, according to McKay there were two distinct periods of
eruption, the pre-Ototaran and the pre-Hutchinsonian ; according to Hutton
but one, the pre-Ototaran ; while according to Park activity continued
during the Waiarekan, Ototaran, and Hutchinsonian periods.
IV. Effects of these Opinions on the Classification of the Oamaru
Series.
The fact that the volcanic rocks are always followed by limestone
has undoubtedly caused confusion in classification, and in the absence of
distinctive fossils in the limestone the igneous rocks near the coast have
been assumed to be Waiarekan. McKay, although recognizing the Tertiary
volcanics at Oamaru as distinct from his Cretaceo-Tertiary Waiarekan tuffs,
erroneously supposed the breccias at Kakanui to be Waiarekan (1877, p. 56),
whereas they are middle Ototaran. Hutton in ascribing the volcanic rocks
at Oamaru to the Waiarekan was necessarily compelled to introduce an
unconformity above them to account for the non-existence of the Ototara
stone. Park's contention that volcanic activity culminated during the
Hutchinson Quarry period may be true or not true ; it depends entirely on
the connotation of the term " Hutchinson Quarry beds." McKay seems
to have been the first geologist to use the term in classification (1882, p. 58).
Later in the same report (p. 76) he seems to restrict the term to the green-
sands alone, correlating the calcareous beds with the Otekaika limestone,
and the volcanic rocks below with the Kekenodon beds. In other words,
in the typical locality he excludes the limestone bands. This is in sub-
stantial agreement with Thomson's use of the term 'Hutchinsonian"
(1916, p. 34).
Hutton was probably correct in considering much of the volcanic matter
detrital only, as will be demonstrated in the sequel. Further, McKay con-
sidered the volcanic rocks of Oamaru Creek as evidence of a land surface,
and he supposed the overlying rocks to be markedly unconformable to
them (1877, p. 58). My own opinion, based on the evidence furnished below
and on further observations in other parts of the Oamaru district, is
that deposition was continuous from the base of the Ototaran to the top
of the Awamoan, but interrupted locally by submarine eruptions resulting
in the formation of volcanic banks or islands, which, however, suffered rapid
denudation, and this minor phase is recorded in the slight unconformities
now to be seen in the tnfaceous beds.
Uttley. — Volcanic Rocks of Oamaru-. 109
V. Descriptions of the Sections.
(1.) Oamaru Lighthouse.
In the sea-cliff below the lighthouse near the Oamaru Breakwater a
good section is exposed (see fig. 1).
The. tufaceous beds (a) are interstratified with limestone bands, which
often contain large subangular pieces of vesicular basalt. The bands
themselves vary up to 1 ft. in thickness, the lowest being 170 ft. below
the base of the lower pillow-lava. There is a marked discordance in the
dip of the tufaceous rocks below (a). These are not shown in the figure.
They dip 40° N. by E., while the dip of (a) is only 20° N. by E. It is
probably at this point that McKay introduces his unconformity between
his Cretaceo-Tertiary and Upper Eocene beds (1877, p. 58). From the
calcareous bands in the tuffs I collected the following forms : *Emarginula
wannonensis Harris, Siphonalia sp., Dentalium solidum Hutt., *Pecten
hutchinsoni Hutt., Sip/ionium planatum Suter, Liothyrella oamarutica
(Boehm), L. boehmi Thomson, Terebratulina suessi (Hutt.), Aetheia gualteri
(Morris), and Hemithyris sp.
The overlying pillow-lava is at a minimum estimate 100 ft. thick. The
interspaces are filled with fossiliferous limestone, much hardened in places
by a secondary deposit of calcite, and the fossils are difficult to extract
A detailed description of this peculiar rock and others similar to it will be
given later. The following fossils were obtained from the interstitial lime-
stone : *Trochus sp., *Turritella sp., *Polinices huttoni von Ihering, *Lima
bullata Born, *Lima lima (L.), Ostrea sp., and Hemithyris sp.
d, e f q
jrIG. i. — Section near lighthouse, Oamaru. (a) Tuffs with limestone bands ;
(b) lower pillow-lava ; (c) fine tuffs (current-bedded) ; (rl) tuff-
bed (very calcareous) ; (e) limestone band with rounded and
subangular pieces of volcanic rock ; (/) blue tufaceous clay ;
(g) limestone ; (h) tufaceous limestone ; (j) raised beach ;
(k) broken pillow-lava.
The tuff-beds (c) are very fine and current-bedded, but unfossiliferous.
The overlying tuffs (d) are very calcareous and coarser in texture. I col-
lected the following forms : Epitonium lyratum (Zitt.), Lima Jeffrey siana
Tate, Ostrea sp., Venericardia purpurata (Desh.), and Diplodonta zelandica
Gray.
The limestone band (e) is crowded with subangular pieces of volcanic
rocks, while small pieces of augite were also identified. Bed (g) is a much
purer limestone than bed (h), which is very tufaceous.
In the limestone (g) the following forms occurred : Epitonium lyratum
(Zitt.), *Pecten hutchinsoni Hutt., *P. delicatulus Hutt., Terebratulina suessi
(Hutt.), *Liothyrella boehmi Thomson (?), and *L. oamarutica Boehm.
The overlying tufaceous limestone (h) is also fossiliferous, and the
following species were identified : *Limopsis aurita Brocchi, Pecten deli-
catulus Hutt., *Lima jeffreysiana Tate, Ostrea sp., ^Venericardia purpurata
(Desh.), V. zelandica (Desh.), Protocardia pulchella (Gray), .and Terebratulina
suessi (Hutt.).
110
Transactions.
This bed passes insensibly into a completely tufaceous bed with occasional
pillows scattered through it. The tufaceous matter, however, rapidly
diminishes, and the rock becomes a pillow-lava, which will be discussed in
the sequel.
(2.) Oamaru Rifle Butts.
Near the Oamaru Rifle Butts, on the south-west side of Oamaru Cape, a
clear section is exposed on the beach. It is interesting, as the pillow-lavas
are absent and a bed of limestone nearly 50 ft. thick is followed almost
immediately by the Hutchinsonian greensands. A fault occurs immediately
north of this section, and just beyond the fault there is a marked strati-
graphical break in the tuff - beds, exactly similar to the unconformity
described in the tuffs near the breakwater.
The section extends from a point immediately north of the target sheds
to the fault which cuts the tuft's just past the first headland.
S50°W
Fig. 2. — Section northwards from Rifle Butts, distance about 160 yards, (a) and (ax)
tuffs ; (6) calcareous fossiliferous tuffs, 1 ft. ; (c) limestone agglomerate,
2 J ft. ; (d) (7 ft.) and (dt) (40 ft.) limestone; (e) fine blue tuffs, 8ft.;
(/) greenish calcareous tuffs, 11 ft. ; (</) indurated nodular limestone,
4 ft. 4 in. ; (h) brachiopod green sand ; (?) shell-bed, 2 ft. ; (j) blue clav
100ft.; (k) raised beach.
The tuffs (a) and (at) are calcareous throughout. From the band (b)
I collected the following forms : Turbo sp., Turritella sp., Siphonalia conoidea
Zitt., Venericardia purpurata (Desh.), Diplodonta zelandica Gray, Chione meso-
desma Reeve (?), Dosinia caerulea Reeve, Mesodesma subtriangulatum (Gray),
Siphonium planatum Suter, and Liothyrella oamarutica (Boehm).
Band (c) is a limestone crowded with subangular pieces of volcanic rock,
with occasionally inclusions of a coarsely holocrystalline basic igneous rock.
Masses of tuff, broken minerals, and pieces of rounded vesicular basalt
occur, one of those being 1 ft. in diameter. The bed (e) is a fine brownish
tuff weathering blue, and containing several limestone bands. I obtained
the following fossils from one of these bands : *Pyrula sp., *Lima lima (L.),
*Pecten sp., and Penacrinus sp.
Mr. Henry Suter writes in regard to the genus Pyrula, " It is an unex-
pected addition to our fauna, and indicates a much warmer sea, the genus
living now only in tropical latitudes. It is not found Recent in Australasia,
but a species was described in 1888 by Pritchard from the Eocene of Table
Cape, Tasmania."
The thicker bed of limestone (d) resembles the building-stone of the
Oamaru district ; it is poor in Mollusca and Brachiopoda, but I collected
the following: Siphonium planatum Suter, *Pecten hutchinsoni Hutt.,
Aetheia gualteri (Morris), and Hemithyris sp.
Overlying the limestone is a fine light-greenish calcareous tufaceous
mud, which is very fossiliferous. The species identified were : * Siphonalia
conoidea (Zitt.), *Limopsis zitteli von Ihering, *Pecten delicatulus Hutt..
*Lima angulata Sow., *L. bullata Born, *L. colorata Hutt., * Venericardia
purpurata (Desh.), and *Mesodesma australe (Gmel.).
Uttley. — Volcanic Rocks of Oamarti.
Ill
The nodular limestone is of a similar character to the concretionary
bands described by the present writer at Kakanui (1916, p. 23). but in the
present occurrence there is very little glauconitic sandy material present,
and the band is extremely hard throughout, the nodules being set in a
calcareous matrix. The nodules vary in size up to the size of a cricket-
ball ; they show a concentric structure, with occasionally a central nucleus,
while sometimes the centre is hollow.
The brachiopod band is a calcareous glauconitic sand, crowded with the
typical Hutchinsonian fossil Pachymagas parki (Hutt.). Other species that
occur are Pecten delicatulus Hutt. and Pecten (Pseudamusium) huttoni Park.
The shell-bed (i) is 2 ft. thick, and consists of a mass of shells embedded
in fine grey sands. The fossils are much broken and very friable, and it
was difficult to obtain specimens. The bed, however, is similar to the
shell-beds at Target Gully and Ardgowan described by Marshall and myself
(1913). One fossil obtained here was Aetheia gualteri (Morris), which has
not hitherto been obtained above the characteristic Pachymagas parki
greensands. Overlying the shell-bed is a blue mudstone with well-preserved
fossils which clearly indicate that the bed is Awamoan. A list of fossils
from this rock has been given by Marshall (1915, p. 384).
The two sections described above are exposed on the extreme north and
extreme south respectively of a main anticlinal fold, the arch of which has
been thrown into minor undulations and faulted in several places. Between
the two exposures tuffs are exposed everywhere along the foreshore, but
they have not yet proved fossiliferous. Although, as mentioned above,
there are stratigraphical breaks in these tuffs and breccias, they are appa-
rently of minor significance, as the rocks above and below are lithologically
similar. Former observers have considered this underlying mass of volcanic
rocks to be Waiarekan, but there is not the slightest positive evidence to
support this contention. If they are Waiarekan, the breaks in the sequence
mentioned above assume a much greater importance, for they will represent
the time during which the greater part of the Ototara stone was being
deposited.
(3.) Hutchinson Quarry and Neighbourhood.
Near the abandoned quarry at Eden Street the typical Hutchinson Quarry
beds occur. Although the exposures in this locality are small and discon-
nected, the succession is clear, and will
be best represented by a diagrammatic
vertical section.
The lowest beds are fine calcareous
tufaceous rocks (a) weathering greenish-
brown, containing in places large frag-
ments of decomposed vesicular basalt,
and ramified throughout by calcareous
veins. The bed is 20 ft. thick in the
section, but the base is not visible. This
passes gradually into the overlying bed
(b), which is 6 ft. in thickness. It is
a confused mass of glauconitic sands,
hardened limestone, and tufaceous matter.
In places, however, the limestone shows
in bands from 1 in. to 1 ft. in thickness.
Fragments of fossils are visible but none
Fig. 3 — Section at Hutchinson Quarry.
(a) Tufaceous rock, 20 ft. ; (6) lime-
stone bands with tufaceous rock, 6 ft. ;
(c) limestone conglomerate, 11 ft. ;
(d) greensand, 15+ ft.
are recognizable.
Overlying is a mass
112 Transactions.
of limestone (c) thickly crowded with decomposed rolled volcanic rocks up
to 1 ft. in diameter, while the limestone itself contains small fragments of
augite and olivine. The junction of this bed with the underlying tufaceous
bed is unconformable in the section, but is probably due to contemporaneous
erosion. Towards the top the limestone is free from the conspicuous
volcanic boulders, and becomes very hard. This limestone has been
proved phosphatic. It is overlain by glauconitic greensand — the typical
Hutchinson Quarry greensand — crowded with brachiopods belonging
chiefly to the two species *Pachymagas parki (Hutt.) and *Rhizothyris
rhizoida (Hutt.).
As the gully is followed towards the Oamaru reservoir, outcrops are
conspicuous on the hillside, but the sequence is similar to that just described.
Past the farmhouse, however, the underlying massive volcanic rock crops
out, and this proves to be the same rock that occurs at Chelmers Street
quarry as a thick dyke which has overflowed to the north, and developed
pillow structure in the bed of Oamaru Creek near Grant's Creek. At the
latter locality it clearly underlies a limestone " conglomerate " and limestone
capped by the greensands, exactly as at Hutchinson Quarry. The section
at Grant's Stream is described in another paper in this volume (p. 121).
The brecciated pillow-lava is undoubtedly the same as the upper pillow-lava
that occurs above the fossiliferous beds near Oamaru Breakwater (see p. 109).
Park, McKay, and Hutton, in discussing the section at Oamaru Breakwater,
referred these fossiliferous beds to the Hutchinson Quarry horizon ; but
whatever interpretation is given to this term, these beds at the breakwater
are certainly below the volcanic rock which, at Hutchinson Quarry and the
locality near Grant's Creek, is overlain in ascending order by tufaceous
beds, from 10 ft. to 20 ft. of limestone, and the typical Hutchinson Quarry
greensand.
The well-rounded appearance of the volcanic boulders in the limestone
in the neighbourhood of Oamaru Creek, and the confused intermingling
of limestone, greensand, and rolled igneous rocks above the brecciated
pillow-lava furnish evidence of denudation of the underlying volcanic
rocks, which had formed small islands in the Tertiary sea. Formation
of islands by submarine eruption is not an uncommon occurrence even in
quite recent times, and has been noted by competent observers, who have
always recorded the rapidity of their disappearance. This is probably the
explanation of the various stratigraphical breaks that have been already
referred to.
Lister (1891, pp. 596-606), in a paper on the geology of the Tonga Islands,
arranges the islands in three main divisions — (a) purely volcanic islands ;
(b) islands formed of volcanic materials laid out beneath the sea, since
elevated , with or without a covering of reef-limestones ; (c) islands formed
entirely of reef-limestone. Some of the islands of class (b) exhibit suggestive
resemblances to the upper Ototaran rocks. These resemblances may be
summarized under the following heads : —
(1.) They are built up of layers of tuff capped by calcareous rocks ;
(2.) The fragments of some of the breccias are cemented by a calcareous
matrix ;
(3.) Rounded boulders of volcanic rocks occur in layers embedded in a
calcareous matrix ;
(4.) Some of the tuffs are penetrated by volcanic dykes which do not
penetrate the overlying limestone ;
(5.) Fragments of basic plutonic rock occur on one of the islands ;
Uttley. — Volcanic Rocks of Oamaru. 113
(6.) Some of the limestones are not true coral-reef limestones, but.
according to Sir John Murray, are " chiefly made up of cal-
careous organisms, fragments of molluscs, echinoderms. Polyzoa,
and calcareous algae, together with a large number of Foramin-
ifera."
The plutonic rock mentioned above is a gabbro. Garnet also occurs, as
it does in the Oamaru rocks. The intrusive rocks, however, are augite and
hypersthene andesites.
In view of Mr. Suter's remarks in regard to the genus Pyrula, mentioned
above, it is interesting to find that this genus occurs as a fossil in the
tufaceous rocks of the island of Mango, one of the Tonga Islands.
VI. The Pillow-lavas.
Park (1905, p. 513) was the first geologist to recognize the lower rock
near the breakwater as a pillow-lava. Since then the present writer has
discovered the same peculiar rock in other localities of the district — in the
basin of Oamaru Creek, and in the Awamoa Creek near Deborah. At the
breakwater, also, the upper so-called " tachylyte breccia " is undoubtedly
a pillow-lava which in parts has become brecciated, probably through local
explosive action when coming into contact with the sea-water.
The lower pillow-lava (see fig. 1) consists mainly of spheroidal masses
of lava with the interspaces filled Math fossiliferous limestone. The junction
with the tuffs below is quite even, and the surface of the tuft's shows no
irregularity or indication of having been baked. The. dip of these beds
is N. 20° E. at an angle of 16°, and the tuff-beds overlying the lava have a
similar dip. Each pillow has a tachylytic selvage about 1 in. in thickness,
but the rock is noncrystalline at the centre. The pillows at the base of the
flow are somewhat irregular in shape, but higher in the mass they become
more spheroidal. One of the pillows near the base has a diameter of 30 ft.
Higher in the section they are smaller, decreasing in diameter, to about
2 ft., but towards the surface they again increase in size. Some of the
pillows are much elongated ; sometimes they show an indented peripherv ;
occasionally the indentation has penetrated to the centre of the mass, and
the upper half appears as if it had fallen over toward the lower half while
still in a viscid state. Vesicles are by no means prominent in the rock.
Occasionally large scattered ones occur, but on the tachylytic margin they
are small and rounded. At the bottom of the flow the vesicles are small,
and occur chiefly towards the exterior of the spheroid. Near the top of the
lava the pillows are almost free from vesicles. By infiltration of calcareous
solutions the rock in places becomes amygdaloidal. The fossiliferous lime-
stone which separates the pillows is indurated, but there is no indication of
alteration by heat.
The broken-up pillow-lava, which is separated from the rock just
described by a thickness of 50 ft. of calcareous tuffs and interstratified
limestone, has always been referred to as an agglomerate or breccia ; but
it is clearly a pillow-lava that has been locally broken up during flow.
The pillows vary much : some are similar to those already described,
others are much elongated and almost scoriaceous, the vesicles being-
abundant and much drawn out. The rock throughout is much more
vesicular than the lower lava. One pillow was noticed in which a large
central cavity was coated with tachylyte, as well as the periphery. There
is great variation in the size of the masses, the smallest having a diameter
114: Transactions.
of 6 in., while the largest are as much as 10 ft. across. The material that
separates the pillows consists of fragments of pillows that have become
broken lip ; some of the pieces are tachylyte, others have a selvage of
tachylyte, while others are free from tachylyte ; and this interstitial
material is cemented by crystalline calcite. Only in one place does fossil-
iferous limestone fill the interspaces, and that is in the neighbourhood
of a " limestone dyke," seven or eight of which have penetrated the vertical
fissures in the lava. As limestone occurs above the rock, it is more than
probable that in this case at least the separating material has come from
above. Boulton (1904, p. 158), in describing British pillow-lavas similar
in many respects to the present rock, was of the opinion that the limestone
came from below.
In places the fragmentary matter makes up most of the rock, with a
scattered pillow here and there; elsewhere pillows are massed together and
the group is isolated in a matrix of the finer tufaceous-looking material,
while the greater portion of the pillows are grouped in a fashion similar
to the lower pillow-lava.
The occurrence of f ossiferous limestone between the pillows at Oamaru
Cape, together with the fossiliferous tuffs and limestones above and below
the lower lava, undoubtedly point to eruption under submarine conditions.
The glassy selvage which is everywhere present indicates rapid cooling of
the masses, and this would take place in contact with water. The differ-
ences in the structure of the two rock-masses just described evidently point
to some difference in the mode of eruption. Reid (1907, p. 51) says, " It
is still a moot point whether pillow-lavas are true outflows or are intruded
sills." Tempest Anderson (1910, p. 632) witnessed the formation of the
pillows as the lava entered the water at Savaii. Geikie (1897) and Teall
(1899) ascribe the structure to intrusion into loosely compacted sediments.
Benson (1915, p. 125) recognized intrusive contacts with the surrounding
sediments in the Nundle district, New South Wales. In the present case
the lower lava may be intrusive, but there is no positive evidence to
support this view, except the fact that there is no sign of explosive action
in the mass, as there is in the upper lava. The indications in the field
strongly suggested that the latter rock after coming into contact with the
water, and after the invidualization of the pillows, underwent disintegration
through local explosions in the mass of the flow, the resulting fragments
then settling down through the water and becoming incorporated in the
main mass as it flowed over the sea-bottom. After cooling, the rock became
fissured, and the subsequently deposited calcareous mud penetrated and
filled the cracks, forming dyke-like masses. Pillow-lavas, although fre-
quently occurring as deep-sea lava-flows, are not restricted to conditions of
great depth, for Tempest Anderson observed the lava flowing into the sea
at Savaii. The nature of the sediments above and below the upper lava
at Oamaru clearly indicate shallow-water conditions. In fact, there is
reason to believe that the rocks of the Oamaru series were all deposited in
comparatively shallow wa'.er.
VII. Chemical and Petrographical Notes.
Some preliminary work has been done on the microscopical characters
of these pillow-lavas, and chemical analyses made of one of the freshest
types from Awamoa Creek near Deborah. More detailed field work is
necessary before a full account can be given of these rocks.
Uttley. — Volcanic Rocks of Oainaru.
115
Analyses of Pillow-lava, Awamoa Creek.
Interior of
Tachylytic
Pillow.
Selvage.
SiO, ..
49-7
50-6
Al26, ..
18-6
17-55
Fe,0, . .
3-2
1-11
Fe< ) . .
8-15
11-3
MgO . .
8-62
7-92
CaO . .
8-2
8-4
Na,0 ..
1-24
1-13
K20 . .
0-61
0-55
H20 +
2-25
1-23
100-57
99-79
H„0
0-79
0-52
The specific gravity of the tachylytic selvage was found to be 2-74,
while that of the interior of the pillow was higher, 2-83. This is in accord-
ance with Hutton's results for the similar rock at the lighthouse, his figures
being 2-72 and 2-80 respectively (1887, p. 416).
The pillow-lavas at Awamoa Creek (near Deborah) and at the lighthouse
near the breakwater show much the same character. In the field there is
noticeable on each pillow a distinct black resinous-looking selvage about
1 in. in thickness, while the central portion has all the characteristics of
a basalt.
A number of sections have been made from these rocks, and as far as
examined they present several features of some interest : it is possible to
trace the gradual changes from a basaltic glass with a few phenocrysts,
undoubtedly of intratelluric origin, to a holocrystalline dolerite, in which
the phenocrysts display a similar attitude towards a completely crystalline
ground-mass.
The extreme edge of the tachylyte selvage consists of light brownish-
yellow glass in which small porphyritic labradorite crystals and larger crystals
of olivine occur as phenocrysts. Skeleton crystals of a basic feldspar also
occur, and minute granules of magnetite are scattered sparingly through
the glass, which is irregularly fissured. The olivine is almost invariably
corroded by the ground-mass, and some of the crystals are penetrated deeply
by the glassy base, this being particularly noticeable in the case of the larger
ones. Flow-structure is indicated by the parallel alignment of the feld-
spars. In a section cut farther from the edge the feldspars are bordered
by a dark-brown fringe, giving a shadowy extinction between crossed nicols.
Under a high power this resolves itself into minute spicules arranged radially
around the feldspars. Where the growth has occurred around a minute feld-
spar there is an approach to a spherulitic arrangement, and an indistinct
black cross is seen when the nicols are crossed. It is noticeable that the
glass is not bleached on the periphery of this aggregation of crystallites,
as is frequently the case in spherulitic tachylytes. Near the centre of the
pillow the glass has completely disappeared, and the ground-mass consists
of this fibrous brown material shot through with innumerable skeleton
feldspars in all stages of growth, the whole enclosing the same minerals
that were developed porphyritically in the tachylitic variety of the rock.
Still nearer the centre of the spheroid the ground-mass becomes lighter
in colour, and rods' of magnetite are plainly distinguishable in a faintly
] 16 Transactions.
polarizing base. Another slide from the centre of one of the larger pillows
possessed similar characteristics in parts, but augite in bladed ragged forms
occupied the same relative position in regard to the feldspars that the
spicular growth did in the other sections. The last two varieties of the
rock can be paralleled exactly in sections cut from the intrusive rock in
Oarnaru Creek, west of Hutchinson Quarry. This rock is found to vary in
different parts of its mass, however, and a specimen taken from the lower
quarry was holocrystalline, and the augite enclosed the feldspars ophitically.
The rock shows another variation, in that larger feldspars and olivines are
embedded in a mass of granular augite and smaller feldspars. This specimen
is much coarser in texture than the other varieties. This granulitic variety
of the dolerite is probably due to movement towards the end of the process
of consolidation, while the ophitic type indicates that the cooling took place
under quiescent conditions.
Pillow-lavas invariably belong to the group of intermediate or basic
igneous rocks. Among the Palaeozoic rocks well-developed pillow-lavas are
of frequent occurrence in Great Britain and are known as " spilites."
These rocks are characterized by their richness in soda and poverty in
potash, and mineralogically by the abundance of a soda-feldspar. Albite
is the principal constituent, next in importance is augite, and olivine
occasionally occurs. There is frequently a glassy base, occasionally the
feldspars are microporphyritic, and often those of the ground-mass have
pointed or acieular forms. Sometimes they consist almost wholly of
feldspar laths with a rluidal arrangement. In some types the augite may
occur as irregular masses enclosing the ends of feldspar rods, producing
a subophitic structure. Diabases, representing the intrusive magma,
invariably occur with these rocks. Flett (1911, p. 246) considers that
the characteristic feldspar of these rocks, albite, is due to the action of
pneumatolytic emanations containing water with soda and silica in solution
upon the basic feldspars soon after the rocks had solidified. Further, he
states that the spilitic suite of rocks are essentially rocks of districts that
have undergone a long-continued and gentle subsidence.
The Tertiary pillow-lavas at Oarnaru contain no albite, and this is
confirmed by chemical analysis, which shows that the present rocks are
remarkably poor in soda, but, like the spilites, remarkable for their
poverty in potash. Their structure and mineralogical composition can be
paralleled in the spilites, except, of course, for the absence of albite. The
rocks were erupted under submarine conditions, but the water was shallow.
The association with the intrusive olivine dolerite is analagous to the
association of variolitic pillow-lavas with diabases in Anglesey and Cornwall.
Yet the poverty of the rock in soda precludes its classification as a spilite.
VIII. Conclusion.
1. There are three horizons of igneous rocks- — the Waiareka tuffs,
Kakanui breccia, and the upper pillow-lava — although the latter two were
almost contemporaneous, the breccia being the earlier.
2. The stratigraphical unconformities and "limestone conglomerate*'
may be explained on the assumption that volcanic islands were rapidly
formed and rapidly destroyed.
3. The unconformities introduced into the sequence by former observers
are merely local, and of no significance in classification.
4. The Oarnaru series is otherwise conformable throughout.
Uttley. — VoVc&nic Rocks of Oamaru. 117
5. The Oamaru pillow-lavas, like similar rocks in other parts of the world,
owe their peculiar structure to eruption and solidification under submarine
conditions.
6. These rocks, though similar in some respects to British Palaeozoic
pillow lavas, are clearly differentiated from them by their poverty in soda.
7. The structural and lithological resemblances of the upper pillow-lava
at the lighthouse and the pillow-lava in Oamaru Creek are sufficiently strong
to justify the assertion that they are at the same horizon. The succession
of rocks at the latter place and at Hutchinson Quarry is similar from the
lava to the top of the Hutchinson Quarry greensand. At the breakwater
we get a clear succession of the beds below the lava down to the tuffs. At
the Rifle Butts we get a sequence from the Awamoa mudstone down to
the tufaceous rocks. Piecing the evidence together, it would seem that the
top of the thicker limestone at the Rifle Butts represents the horizon of the
upper pillow-lava, and it is probable that the rocks shown below these in
figs. 1 and 2 will be found equivalent. The beds are fossiliferous throughout,
and careful and more exhaustive collecting should enable this point to be
decided.
8. The fossiliferous beds below the upper pillow-lava at the lighthouse
are not the equivalent of the fossiliferous beds at Hutchinson Quarry, as
asserted by former observers, but are separated from the latter by a con-
siderable thickness of lava, tufaceous beds, limestone, and " limestone
conglomerate."
Bibliography.
Anderson, T., 1910. The Volcanoes of Matavanu in Savaii, Quart. Journ. Oeol. Soc,
vol. (36, pp. 621-3H.
Benson, W. N., 1915. The Geology and Petrology of the Great Serpentine Belt of
New South Wales, Part iv. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., vol. 40, pp. 121-73.
Boultox, W. S., 1904. On the Igneous Rocks at Spring Cove, near Weston-super-
Mare, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 60, pp. 158-69.
Dewey, H., and Flett, J. S., 1911. On some British Pillow-lavas and the Rocks
associated with them, Geol. Mag., dec. 5, vol. 8, pp. 241-48.
Geikie, A., 1897. Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain (ref. to p. 26).
Hector, .)., 1866. Reports and Awards of the Jurors, Appendix A, New Zealand
Exhibition, 1865, pp. 371-416.
Hutton, F. W.; 1887. On the Geology of the Country between Oamaru and Moeraki,
Trans. X.Z. Inst., vol. 19, pp. 415-30.
Hutton, F. W., and Ulrich, G. H. F., 1875. Report on the Geology and Goldfields of
Otago.
Lister, J. J., 1891. On the Geology of the Tonga Islands, Quart. Journ. Geol. Sor.,
vol. 47, pp. 590-617.
McKay, A., 1877. Oamaru and Waitaki Districts, Rep. Geol. Explor. dur. 1876-77,
pp. 41-66.
1882. Waitaki, Vincent, and Lake Counties, Rep. Geol. Explor. dur. 1881, pp. 56-76.
.Marshall. P., 1915. Cainozoic Fossils from Oamaru, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47,
pp. 377-87.
Marshall, P., and Uttley, G. H., 1913. Some Localities for Fossils at Oamaru, Trans.
X.Z. Inst., vol. 45, pp. 297-307.
Park, J., 1905. On the Marine Tertiaries of Otago and Canterbury, with Special
Reference to the Relations existing between the Pareora and Oamaru Series, Trans.
X.Z. Inst., vol. 37, pp. 489-551.
Reid, C, 1907. The Geology of the Country around Megavissey, Mem. Geol. Surv.
England and Wales, pp. 1-73.
Teall, J. J. H., 1899. Silurian Rocks of Britain, Mem. Geol. Surv. Great Britain
(ref. to pp. 420-31).
Thomson, J. A., 1916. On Stage Names applicable to the Divisions of the Tertiary
in New Zealand, Trans. X.Z. Inst., vol. 48, pp. 28^0.
Uttley*, G. H., 1916. The Geology of the Neighbourhood of Kakanui, Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 48, pp. 19-27
118 Transactions.
Art. VIII. — Geology of the Oamaru- Papakaio District.
By G. H. Uttley, M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S., Principal. Scots College, Wellington.
[Bead before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 19th September, 1917 ; received by
Editors, 31st December, 1917 ; issued separately, 24th May. 1918.]
Contents.
1. Description of the Area.
II. Historical Summary.
III. Aim of this Paper.
IV. Description of the Sections.
1. Devil's Bridge.
2. Grant's Stream.
3. Water-race Creek.
4. Lanclon Creek.
5. Flume ( 'reek.
V. Summary.
I. Description^op^thk Area.
The area (about twenty square miles in extent) with which this paper is
mainly concerned is the north-eastern corner of the Province of Otago. It
is bounded on the north-east by the val'.ey-plain of the Waitaki Biver, on
the south-east by the sea, on the south by a line drawn east and west
through one mile north of Oamaru, and on the west by a line drawn due
south through Peebles (:-ee fig. 1).
A considerable portion of the district, particularly between the township
of Papakaio and Oamaru, is capped by heavy river-gravels and silts ; these
are evidently the remnant of a formerly extensive plain which sloped to the
south-south-east, as the general trend of the streams that drain the area
is in that direction. This former surface has been sculptured into well-
rounded ridges and hills, attaining an elevation of 650 ft. near Papakaio in
the north, and falling to the 350 ft. level in the south-east. In the north-
western part of the district the Ngaparan coal-grits, mudstones, and green -
sands crop out, and a ridge of quartz gravels in this locality attains a height
of over 1,000 ft. Noticeable features of the country south of this ridge are
the two well-marked depressions in the vicinity of Tabletop Hill and on the
Ardgowan Estate. The Oamaru Creek in flowing over the softer greensands
and tuffs of the former locality has by rapid lateral erosion widened its basin
considerably, leaving, however, two limestone-capped flat-topped hills stand-
ing prominently above the surrounding low-lying area. The stream on
leaving this open tract of country becomes much constricted as it flows over
the limestone, and at the Devil's Bridge it passes beneath a natural bridge
of limestone before it reaches the Ardgowan area, where the softer Hutchin-
sonian and Awamoan rocks have undergone extensive denudation, forming
the second depressed area. The stream then enters the volcanic area north
of Oamaru, and its narrow bed is flanked by precipitous cliffs of basaltic
rock.
Uttlbt. — Geology of the Oamaru-Papakaio District.
119
Fig. 1. — -Geological map of the Oamaru-Papakaio district.
superposition is inverted.
In the legend the order of
120 Transactions.
II. Historical Summary.
Although the older Geological Survey did a considerable amount of work
in the Oamaru and Waitaki districts of North Otago, little reference has been
made to the geology of the Papakaio district.
In 1874 Traill collected fossils at Pukeuri, and Hector (1882, p. 123)
assigned the mudstones there to the horizon of the nummulitic beds of the
Upper Eocene — that is, he placed them below the Hutchinson Quarry beds.
McKay in 1876 made collections at the Devil's Bridge and at Ardgowan.
He also examined the limestone at Landon Creek and referred it to the
Cretaceo-Tertiary. The volcanic rocks in the watershed between Oamaru
and Landon Creek he referred to a horizon higher than the Waiareka tuffs,
and rightly ascribed them to the second period of vulcanicity. Park (1905,
p. 519), on palaeontological grounds, placed the Pukeuri beds below the
limestone, and stated that the limestone at the Devil's Bridge overlav the
Hutchinson Quarry beds. Marshall and Uttley (1913, p. 303), on palaeonto-
logical and stratigraphical evidence, placed the Pukeuri beds above the
limestone — that is, above the Oamaru beds — and the Hutchinson Quarry
beds at the Devil's Bridge also above the limestone.
III. Aim of this Paper.
In 1916, in a paper on the geology of the Kakanui district, I gave a
detailed succession of the beds of the Oamaru system east of the Waiareka
Valley, and that paper gave some of the observations on which the sequence
was based. The Waitaki stone of Professor Park was shown to be the
Ototara stone in the locality where he had described it.
It is the aim of the present paper to produce further evidence of post-
Waiarekan volcanic activity, to give an account of some hitherto unde-
scribed sections in the Oamaru and Papakaio districts, and to show the
relationship of the beds to those in the south of the Oamaru district.
IV. Description of the Sections.
It has already been mentioned that gravel deposits form the surface
rock over a great part of the country, but the Tertiary beds crop out in
the basins of Oamaru and Landon Creeks, and at several places on the
Oamaru-Kurow Road. The sequence is usually clear, but at Papakaio
the beds are faulted, and the continuity of an otherwise excellent section is
broken.
In the Devil's Bridge area the deposition of the limestone appears to
have been continuous from the close of the Waiarekan period to the com-
mencement of the Hutchinsonian ; in the other localities to be described,
deposition was interrupted by a recrudescence of vulcanicity. It is pro-
posed, therefore, to give an account of the Devil's Bridge section, to be
followed by descriptions of sections in the district that show important
departures from the normal sequence as represented in that area.
1. Devil's Bridge. (Fig. 2.)
Fig. 2 represents a section from the Devil's Bridge in a west-north-west
direction to a point about a mile beyond the area mapped, so as to include
the Waiarekan beds.
The tuffs (a) are very fine and tachylytic, and are interbedded with
bands of diatomaceous earth. Dykes and sills intersect the tuffs and the
Uttley. — Geology of llit Oamaru-Papakaio District,
121
diatomaceous earth, and the latter is altered in places to a hard flinty
rock. There are inclusions of quartz in the dolerite, this being a notice-
able feature of the earlier intrusive rocks associated with the Waiareka
tuft's. The quartz has probably been incorporated during the passage of the
molten rock through the quartz grits that lie at the base of the Tertiary
series. The limestone is poor in fossils, and is similar to the building-stone,
but in parts it becomes chalky. A peculiar nodular surface marks the
junction of this rock with the overlying greensand, although it is not so
conspicuous in this locality as in other parts of the district. The green-
sand (c) overlying is glauconitic, casts of Foraminifera being plentiful.
Some distance above the base Pachymagas parki (Mutt.) occurs in abund-
ance, other fossils being scarce. The brown sands (d) are also glauconitic
a2
Fig.
a,
h C nL
2. — Section (diagrammatic) W.N.W. -E.S.E. through the Devil's Bridge.
(a) Tuffs and diatomaceous earth, intruded by dolerite (fflj); (ft) lime-
stone ; (c) greensand ; (d) Awamoa beds ; (e) gravels.
and very fossiliferous. The nodular band contained Terebratula sp.. Aetheia
gualteri (Morris), Hemithyris sp., and stems of Isis. The greensand (c), in
addition to Pachymagas parki (Hutt.). contained Pecten huttoni Park. The
fossils from the brown sands (d) have been recorded by Marshall and Uttley
(1913, p. 303) and clearly indicate that the beds are Awamoan.
Park (1905, p. 518), in describing the beds here, placed the limestone
above the Hutchinsonian and Awamoan ; but the greensands lie hard upon
the surface of the limestone, which is undoubtedly the Ototara stone. The
rocks are conformable throughout, and dip towards the coast at an angle
of from 10° to 16°.
2. Grant's Stream. Ardgowan. (Fig. 3.)
At Ardgowan, near the junction of Grant's Stream with the Oamaru
Creek, a small section is exposed on the roadside. The lowest beds (a)
consist of a brecciated pillow-lava, which can be traced in a continuous
section along the banks of Oamaru Creek to the town of Oamaru. This
bed is overlain by a limestone (b) 10 ft.
thick, containing occasional water-worn
masses of decomposed vesicular basaltic-
rock. This passes into an indurated
limestone (c), which becomes nodular
at its junction with the greensand (d).
The nodular portion contains many
fossils, but chiefly as casts. Stems of
Mopsea also occur. The actual junc-
tion with the overlying greensand (d)
is not seen, as the latter occur sepa-
rated from the main exposure. From the nodular surface of the lime-
stone I obtained the following forms: Turbo sp., Polinices sp., Turritella
sp., Lima lima (L.), Ostrea sp., Cardium sp., Liofhyrella boehmi Thomson,
Terebratulina suessi (Hutt.), Aetheia gualteri (Morris), Hemithyris sp. The
section is interesting as it indicates clearly the horizon of the volcanic
rocks, which are here about 20 ft. below the nodular bed.
Fig. 3. — Section at Ardgowan. (a) Brec-
ciated pillow-lava, &c. ; (ft) limestone
(with rounded boulders); (c) limestone;
(d) greensand ; (e) gravels.
122 Transactions.
3. Water-race Creek, Oamaru District. (Fig. i.)
This creek is a tributary of Landon Creek. The rocks cover an area
of about half a square mile, and the exposure is isolated, but it is quite pos-
sible to determine the horizon of the upper beds. The section is noteworthy,
as it shows a bed of limestone of considerable thickness between two beds
of fragmental volcanic rocks. The beds dip E. 30° S.. at an angle varying
from 10° to 16°.
The tuffs (a) are greenish-brown, much weathered, and cemented by
crystalline calcite. They are finer than the breccia higher in the section,
and do not contain the same variety of minerals. The limestone (b) is
tufaceous in parts, sometimes containing distinct bands of calcareous tuff.
Bed (c) is a thick breccia similar in character to the '* mineral breccia "
of the Kakanui locality (cf. Uttley, 1916, p. 20). This is overlain by a
limestone which becomes glauconitic and fossiliferous towards the top.
The fossils obtained were : Epitonium lyratum (Zitt.), Pecten delicatidus
Hutt., P. poh/morphoides Zitt., Liothyrella boehmi Thomson, L. landonensis
Thomson, Murravia catinuliformis (Tate), Terebratulina suessi (Hutt.).
Pachymagas ellipticus Thomson, Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.), Hemithyris sp.,
Aetheia gaulteri (Morris).
cu ~b C
Fig. 4. — Section, Water-race Creek, Oamaru District. (a) Turfs: (b) limestone;
(r) calcareous mineral breccia ; (rt) limestone, glauconitic and fossiliferous
in its upper portion; (?) limestone band: (/) greensand: (g) hard
bracbiopod band : (h) river gravels.
This bed is followed by a very hard white limestone (e) about 18 in.
thick.
The greensand (/) overlying is crowded with brachiopods. The fol-
lowing fossils were collected here: Pecten hutchinsoni (Hutt.), P. huttoni
(Park), Epitonium lyratum (Zitt.). Pachymagas parki (Hutt.), Rhizothyris
rhizoida (Hutt).
The bed (h), which is really the upper portion of (g), is a hardened
glauconitic stone. It contained Pachymagas parki (Hutt.) and Pecten
huttoni (Park).
This greensand (g) and (A) evidently represents the Hutchinson Quarry
greensand, while the hard limestone band (e) represents the nodular band
at Kakanui and All Day Bay (cf. Uttley, 1916. pp. 20, 21, 23).
1. Landon Creek, Papakaio Survey District. (Fig. 5.)
About a mile west of Trig. Station B, limestone and greensand occur
on both banks of Landon Creek. The section across the creek is shown
in fig. 5. The beds dip S. 30° E. at 8°. and this would take them beneath
the Awamoa beds at Pukeuri cutting.
The lowest bed is a calcareous tuff, which, however, is not exposed in
section. The material excavated from the tunnel for the ( )amaru-Papakaio
water-race is a tuff, and from the position of the tunnel it must lie beneath
the limestone. This limestone is at least 50 ft. thick. It is pure and white
in it lower portion, but in its upper 20 ft. it becomes glauconitic, and near
the junction with the overlying greensand (c) there is an alternation of
Uttley. — Geology of the Oamarit-Papakaio District.
123
hard limestone with looser glauconitic sand, giving the rock a flaggy appear-
ance. At their base the greensand (c) is intermingled with limestone,
and where the former has been removed by weathering an irregular nodular
surface is exposed on the surface of the limestone.
From the upper glauconitic portion of the limestone (6) I collected the
following forms : Liothyrella boehmi Thomson, L. landonensis Thomson,
Terebratulina suessi (Hutt.), Pachymagas ellipticus Thomson, Rhizothyris
rhizoida (Hutt.), Aetheia gualteri (Morris), and Hemiihyris sp.
S23'£
Fig. 5. — Section, Landon Creek, Papakaio district, (a) Tuffs : (b) limestone ; (c) green-
sand .- (d) hard glauconitic band; (e) river gravels.
The greensand (c) yielded Epitonium lyratum (Zitt.), Pecten poly-
morphoides Zitt.. Terebratulina suessi (Hutt.), Pachymagas parte (Hutt.),
Rhizothyris rhizoida, (Hutt.), Aetheia gualteri (Morris), Hem.ithyris sp., and
Mopsea hamiltoni (Thomson) (?). A hard glauconitic band (d) overlies,
containing Pachymagas parte (Hutt.) and Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.).
The sequence in this locality differs somewhat from the section in Water-
race Creek, for the breccia is missing, and the hardened limestone in the
latter locality is apparently represented by the flaggy limestone in the present
section, and the latter is evidently at the horizon of the nodular band in the
Kakanui localitv.
5. Flume Creel-, Papakaio District. (Fig. 6.)
This section is exposed near the township of Papakaio in a small gully,
spanned by the flume of the water-race. The section is not continuous,
and the dip of the rocks in the lower part of the creek varies somewhat.
There are distinct signs of faulting in the neighbourhood. At the head
of the gully a bed of diatomaceous earth crops out, and lower down a small
exposure on the left shows the same bed lying beneath a fine calcareous
tachylytic tuff, dipping N. 70° E. at 20°. Greenish-brown laminated tuffs (c)
cu b c d F e f
Fig. 6. — (a) Diatomaceous earth ; (b) taehylyte tuff ; (c) fine laminated tuffs ; (<7) lime-
stone ; (e) tuffs j (/) glauconitic limestone ; (g) hardened limestone ; (h) green-
sand ; (F) fault.
overlie, and then follows a flaggy limestone (d). There is a break in the
section at this point, but tuffs containing minerals occur in situ at the
bottom of the bank. Then follows a coarser and more glauconitic lime-
stone, which has a steeper dip than the lower flaggy limestone. A hard
band of limestone (g) about 15 ft. thick caps the more glauconitic stone.
Greensand (h) lies hard upon (g), and the junction is marked by the great
abundance of the stems of Mopsea.
124 Transactions.
The greensand yielded Epitonium lyratum (Zitt.). Terebratulina suessi
(Hutt.). Pctchymagas parki (Hutt.). Aetheia gualteri (Morris), and Hemi-
thyris sp.
In this locality also we have the nodular band occurring at the base
of the greensand, and notable for the abundance of alcyonarian stems.
Dr. Thomson informs me that a nodule collected by him. from this
locality was analysed by Mr. B. C. Aston and showed 1*8 per cent. P205.
equivalent to 2-9 per cent. Ca3P208.
V. Summary.
(a.) There has been at least one period of vulcanicity subsequent to the
Waiarekan tuffs. It is more than probable that there were two periods
of eruption, the mineral breccia of Kakanui being the record of the first,
while the volcanic rocks at Grant's Creek indicate the last phase. This is
not so evident in the present area, as nowhere are the two types of volcanic
rocks represented in the same section, although the breccia at Water-race
Creek is certainly farther down in the limestone than the volcanic rocks
at Ardgowan. In the town of Oamaru, however, the intrusive rocks cut
across interbedded limestone and breccia beds.
(b.) The mineral breccia of Kakanui (see Thomson, 1906) extends into
the Papakaio district, and forms a well-marked stratigraphical horizon
throughout the whole Oamaru coastal district.
(c.) The diatomaecous-earth deposits occur at Papakaio associated with
tachylite tuffs, as in the earlier known deposits in Cave Valley. This repre-
sents a considerable extension of its range.
(d.) The nodular band is persistent throughout the Oamaru and Papa-
kaio districts from Kakanui to Papakaio, a distance of about twenty miles,
and is phosphatic at both these localities. As a hardened band of lime-
stone often underlies it, and has been proved phosphatic by Morgan (1915)
at Hutchinson Quarry, it may reward investigation elsewhere.
(e.) In the Papakaio district there is no evidence of two distinct lime-
stones separated by the Hutchinson Quarry and Awamoa beds, as contended
by Park (1905).
(/.) Dr. Thomson informs me that the fauna beneath the Maerewhenua
limestone, farther up the Waitaki Valley, bears a strong resemblance to
that of the upper part of the Ototara stone in the Landon Creek area.
Detailed stratigraphical work between Papakaio and the Maerewhenua
districts should therefore go far towards settling the vexed question of the
relationship between the Oamaru and Waitaki stones. There are many
excellent natural sections in the Maerewhenua district that have not yet
been described.
Bibliography.
Hector, J., 1882. Index to Fossiliferous Localities in New Zealand, Rep. Geol. Explor.
dur. 1881, pp. 118-2S.
McKay, A., 1877. Oamaru and Waitaki Districts, Rep. Geol. Exphir. dur. 1876-77,
pp. 41 66.
Marshall, P., and Uttley, G. H.. 1913. Some Localities for Fossils at Oamaru, Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 45, pp. 297-307.
Morgan, P. G., 1915. Phosphate Occurrences in the South Island, 9th Ann. Rep.
(n.s.) N.Z. Oral. Surv.: pp. 97-98.
Park, J., 1905. On the Marine Tertiaries of Otago and Canterbury, "with Special
Reference to the Relations existing between the Pareora and Oamaru Series,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, pp. 489-551.
Thomson, J. A., 1906. The Gem Gravels of Kakanui, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 38,
pp. 582-95.
Uttley, G. H., 1916. The Geologv of the Neighbourhood of Kakanui, Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 48, pp. 19-27.
Piiilpott. — Descriptions of New Species of Lepidoptera. 125
Art. IX- -Descriptions of New Species of Lepidoptera.
Bv Alfred Philpott.
Communicated by Dr. W. B. Benham, F.R.S.
[Raid before the Otago Institute, 9th October, 1917; received by Editors, 22nd December,
1917 ; issued separately, 24th May 1918.']
Hydriomenidae.
Hydriomena canescens n. sp.
J. 29 mm. Head, palpi, thorax, and abdomen rather dark grey.
Antennae, ciliations 1. Legs grey, tarsi annulated with ochreous-white.
Forewings triangular, costa subsinuate, apex obtuse, termen subsinuate,
oblique, brownish-grey : a broad curved basal band obscurely paler : veins
interruptedly blackish : second line thin, obscure, ochreous, anteriorly
margined with white ; indications of alternate ochreous and white lines
between this and termen ; a black line round termen, interrupted by
ochreous dots on veins : cilia dark grey with a faint paler median line.
Hindwings whitish-grey, darker terminally ; numerous alternate waved
darker and paler lines ; terminal area and cilia similar to forewings.
Near H. hemizona Meyr., but the ground-colour is wholly different, and
there are many minor distinctions.
Queenstown, in March. A single specimen taken by Mr. M. 0. Pascoe,
in whose collection the type remains.
H. praerupta n. sp.
j. 33-34 mm. Head yellowish-green. Palpi yellowish-green mixed
with brown. Antennae brown, ochreous-tingecl. Thorax yellowish-green
mixed with black. Abdomen ochreous. Legs ochreous-grey, more or less
infuscated. Forewings triangular, costa moderately arched, apex obtuse,
termen slightly bowed ; yellowish-green : markings dark olive-green ; a curved
irregular band near base, preceded by an obscure line ; space between
basal and median bands pale ground-colour with suffused dark median
area ; median band broad, anterior margin curved, with strong indentations
above and below middle, posterior margin irregularly curved, with strong
bidentate projection at middle; subterminal line greenish-white, subdentate,
broadlv margined anteriorly with dark suffusion which almost touches pro-
jection of median band, thus nearly interrupting the stripe of pale ground-
colour ; an oblique dark striga from below apex to terminal line, deliminating
a pale subtriangular apical patch; a crenate blackish terminal line: cilia
yellowish-green with some dark scales. Hindwings grey-whitish : a waved
fuscous median line and several similar but imperfect preceding and fol-
lowing lines ; a thin blackish crenate line on termen : cilia ochreous-grev.
Closely related to H. callichlpra (Butl.), from which it can be best
separated by the pale apical area, the more dentate subterminal line, and
the stronger projection of the posterior margin of the median band. Tin-
species may be regarded as the mountain representative of callichlora.
Mount Cleughearn, Hunter Mountains. Two males in January, 1916.
A single male in Mr. M. 0. Pascoe's collection was taken at Lake Howdeu
in November, 1912. Type in coll. A. Philpott.
126 Transactions.
Notoreas incompta n. sp.
cJ 2. 26-31 mm. Head, palpi, thorax, and abdomen white densely
irrorated with black. Antennae black, finely annulated with white, pectina-
tions in <$ rather short. Legs black, irrorated with white, tibiae and tarsi
annulated with ochreous- white. Forewings triangular, costa subsinuate,
termen evenly rounded, oblique, white, densely irrorated with black, especially
on median band and terminal area ; an irregular curved black basal line,
median portion mixed with brownish-ochreous ; an obscure double dentate
evenly-curved black line at \ ; median band more or less suffused with
ochreous, inner margin waved, regularly curved, outer margin twice angu-
larly projecting above middle, more or less incurved beneath ; subtermina]
line obscure, interrupted, white ; veins blackish interrupted with white :
cilia white barred with black and with a thin median black line. Hindwings
greyish-fuscous, terminal area dark fuscous ; a pale median fascia and
some obscure darker lines on apical half ; in some specimens the median
area is tinged with brownish-ochreous : cilia as in forewings. Undersides
grey-whitish, terminal area broadly fuscous : a black discal dot ; some
obscure waved dark lines before middle ; a prominent waved irregularly-
curved black line beyond middle ; subterminal line more distinct than on
upper surface.
Hardly distinguishable in coloration from N. orphnaea (Meyr.), but
easily separable by the shorter antennal pectinations and the lesser develop-
ment of the palpal hairs. It is considerably larger than N. anthracias
(Meyr.), and the markings are less clearly defined.
I am indebted to Mr. R. Gibb, Curator of the Southland Museum, for
the opportunity of describing this interesting form, two of each sex having
been taken by him on the Kepler Mountains, at an elevation of about
3,000 ft., in January. Types, <J (1483) and $ (1484) in coll. Southland
Museum.
„ ..... Pyraustidae.
Scopana dechvis n. sp.
o . 28-32 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax brown densely sprinkled with
white. Antennae brown. Abdomen pale whitish-ochreous, grey beneath.
Legs grey mixed with fuscous, tarsi with pale ambulations. Forewings
elongate, triangular, costa hardly arched, subsinuate, apex obtuse, termen
almost straight, rounded beneath ; fuscous-brown irrorated with white; basal
area to first line rather pale ; first line whitish, straight, outwardly oblique ;
stigmata obscure or obsolete ; reniform represented by a dark transverse
mark ; . second line curved, deeply indented beneath costa, white ; sub-
terminal broad, parallel to termen, suffused, whitish ; a series of indistinct
dark dots round termen : cilia grey with two fuscous lines. Hindwings
pale whitish-ochreous : cilia pale whitish-ochreous with two darker lines.
A browner species than S. petrina (Meyr.), and differing also in the
straight first line.
The type specimen was taken at Commissioners Creek (Wakatipu) in
February by Mr. W. G. Howes. I have also an example from Macetown,
taken, also in February, by Mr. H. Hamilton.
Scoparia scripta n. sp.
cJ $. 29-32 mm. Head ochreous-grey-whitish. Palpi moderate, maxil-
laries white, labials white within, brownish-black without. Antennae ochreous-
whitish, filiations in $ f. Thorax brownish -grey. Abdomen ochreous-
whitisli. Legs ochreous-white, much infuscated, tarsi banded with fuscous.
Philpott. — Descriptions of New Species of Lepidoptera. 127
Forewings elongate, triangular, costa subsinuate, apex subacute, termen
sinuate, slightly oblique, rounded at tornus ; pale ochreous densely sprinkled
with fuscous and more or less suffused with white on costal half ; a thick
black basal streak from costa, curving to centre of wing, thence straight to
about J, apex acute ; first line faintly whitish, posteriorly fuscous-margined,
from costa at J strongly outwardly oblique for about §, thence sharply
angulated to dorsum before middle ; orbicular large, touching first line,
oval, black, pale-centred, lower half thick, prominent, upper half hardly
traceable: claviform obsolete; reniform irregularly X-shaped, large, black.
upper aial lower halves filial with fuscous, inner lower arm produced so as
sometimes to touch orbicular ; second line indistinctly whitish, preceded by
a series of cuneate black dots, sharply indented beneath costa ; a series of
roundish black dots on termen : cilia ochreous mixed with fuscous : two
indistinct darker lines. Hindwings pale whitish-ochreous ; lunule, sub-
terminal line, and terminal band infuscated : cilia as in forewings but rather
paler.
Closely related to S. rotuella (Feld.) and S. clavata Philp. From the
former it may be distinguished by the disconnected orbicular and reniform,
and from the latter by the acutely pointed basal streak.
Hunter Mountains, in January. Four males and one female taken in
damp gullies at about 3,000 ft
Scoparia caliginosa n. sp.
<£. 17 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax ferruginous-brown mixed
with grey. Abdomen ferruginous-brown. Legs grey-brown, tarsi obscurely
annulated with paler. Forewings moderate, triangular, costa almost straight,
apex obtuse, termen straight, slightly oblique, ferruginous-brown densely
irrorated with whitish on basal f ; a short oblique brown fascia from costa
at base ; first line obscurely paler, curved, indented at middle, suffusedly
margined posteriorly with ferruginous-brown ; orbicular indistinct ; clavi-
form irregular, blackish on fold ; reniform obscurely 8-shaped, ferruginous-
brown, pale-centred ; second line parallel to termen, subsinuate, interruptedly
margined with ferruginous-brown anteriorly, whitish : subterminal line close
to termen. indistinct, whitish : cilia fuscous-grey with darker basal line.
Hindwings fuscous-grey, darker terminally : cilia' grey with two darker
lines.
Near S. ergatis Meyr. and S. organaea Meyr.. but separated from both
by the form of the second line.
A single male received from Mr. J. H. Lewis. Locality doubtful, but
probably Matakanui.
_ ,, ToRTRICIDAE.
Eurythecta curva n. sp.
cj. 14-15 mm. Head and palpi ochreous. Antennae fuscous, cilia-
tions 1\. Thorax whitish-ochreous. Abdomen grey - whitish, anal tuft
ochreous. Legs ochreous - whitish. Forewings, costa strongly arched at
base, apex round-pointed, termen straight, oblique ochreous- whitish with
scattered fuscous scales ; a rather bright ochreous mark in disc above middle
from \ to | ; sometimes a similar but more obscure mark below middle ;
the fuscous scales sometimes tend to form lines on veins : cilia whitish-
ochreous with two darker lines. Hindwings, termen markedly sinuate,
greyish-fuscous : cilia as in forewings.
Nearest to E. eremana (Meyr.), but differing in size and wing-shape.
Hunter Mountains, in January. Fairlv common on low herbage at
3,500 ft.
128 Transaction*.
Epichorista theatralis n. sp.
$. 14 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax ochreous. Antennae fuscous, annu-
lated with ochreous towards base. Abdomen fuscous-grey. Legs grey-
whitish. Fore wings moderately arched at base, apex rectangular, termen
almost straight, hardly oblique, rather bright ochreous ; markings silvery
metallic but rendered obscure by an admixture of ground-colour ; a broad
fascia from ^ costa to \ dorsum : a narrow fascia from \ costa, strongly out-
wardly oblique to middle of wing at §, thence angled downwards to dorsum
before tornus ; a slightly curved subterminal line : cilia bright ochreous.
Hindwings dark greyish-fuscous : cilia greyish-fuscous with a darker basal
line, ochreous round apex.
Apparently nearest to E. emphanes (Meyr.), but entirely different in
coloration. A single male being all the material available, the generic
position of the species must for the present be regarded as provisional.
Hunter Mountains, in January. The type was secured in Nothofagus
forest at about 2,750 ft.
_ , , . Gelechiadae.
Gelechia sparsa n. sp.
<$. 10-11 mm. Head and thorax white densely mixed with brown.
Palpi white., brown beneath. Antennae fuscous with some admixture of
whitish. Abdomen fuscous. Legs pale fuscous, tarsi obscurely annulated
with whitish. Forewings elongate, narrow, costa slightly arched, apex
acute, termen extremely oblique ; white densely irrorated with fuscous and
ferruginous-brown : an out tea idly-oblique ferruginous-brown fascia from middle
of dorsum, reaching half across wing ; a blotch of similar colour at tornus:
cilia grey-whitish sprinkled with fuscous. Hindwings, termen strongly and
angularly emarginate, fuscous : cilia fuscous-grey.
Not closely approaching any other Gelechia ; perhaps nearest to 67. glauco-
terma Meyr.
Dunedin, in November. Three males taken by Mr. C. C. Fenwick,
whose collection contains the type.
Oecophoridae.
Borkhausenia honorata n. sp.
<$. 12 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax dark bronzy-brown.
Abdomen dark fuscous. Legs fuscous, tarsi annulated with yellow. Fore-
wings moderate, costa moderately arched, apex obtuse, termen rounded,
oblique, dark fuscous-brown ; a broad yellow stripe along dorsum, indented
above before middle and tornus ; an irregular yellow blotch beneath costa at ^
and a similar one before f, both sometimes absent ; a broad straight yellow
fascia from costa at i, parallel to termen, reaching § across wing : cilia fuscous.
Hindwings and cilia dark fuscous.
Allied to B. chrysogramma Meyr., but differing entirely in the arrange-
ment of the yellow markings.
Two examples secured in the neighbourhood of Invercargill, and a third
at Knife and Steel Boat-harbour (Fiord County). All taken in forest in
December. Mr. G. V. Hudson has a specimen from Lake Harris, taken in
Jamiary, 1906, this being the first of the species to be brought to light.
Borkhausenia sabulosa n. sp.
S ?. 10-11 Dim. Head, palpi, thorax, and abdomen greyish-brown.
Antennae greyish-brown annulated with darker. Legs grey-brown, tarsi
obscurely annulated with ochreous. Forewings moderate, in $ lanceolate,
Philpott. — Descriptions of New Species of Lepidoptera. 129
costa strongly arched, apex obtuse, termen very oblique, greyish-brown
with numerous scattered ochreous scales, especially in $ ; in <J thickly and
irregularly sprinkled with fuscous-brown : cilia grey with fuscous sprinkling.
Hindwings fuscous-grey : cilia grey with darker basal line.
Approaches B. melanamma Meyr., but is smaller, and differs in the
peculiar speckled appearance.
Central Otago. Taken commonly by Mr. J. H. Lewis, to whose
liberality I am indebted for the type of the species.
Trachypepla semilauta n. sp.
S ?. 15-16 mm. Head ochreous-white. Palpi ochreous-white infus-
cated at base beneath and with a fuscous band before apex. Antennae
fuscous, obscurely annulated with ochreous, ciliations in <$ 2J. Thorax
fuscous mixed with ochreous. Abdomen fuscous-grey. Legs whitish-grey
with some infuscation. Forewings rather broad, costa moderately arched,
apex subacute, termen almost straight, strongly oblique ; white, faintly
tinged with yellowish; base narrowly fuscous-black, extending on costa to J;
an outwardly -angulated fuscous-black fascia from dorsum at middle, not
reaching costa, broadest on dorsum where it is sometimes bright ochreous ; a
triangular black fascia from costa at J, its apex, which encloses a white spot,
reaching centre of wing, thence continued as a line to tornus ; a small black
mark preceding this below middle ; a curved black fascia from costa at
f round termen to tornus, anteriorly margined with white, the space
between this and the median fascia being filled with bright ochreous ; a
black apical blotch ; in some specimens the space between the costal fasciae
is suft'usedly' filled with dark fuscous, the ochreous and white colouring
being almost obsolete : cilia whitish-ochreous more or less sprinkled with
fuscous ; apex fuscous. Hindwings dark greyish-fuscous : cilia grey-fuscous
with darker basal line.
Distinguished from T. ingenua Meyr., its nearest ally, by the white
basal area of forewings.
Hunter Mountains, in January. Three, specimens beaten from under-
growth in Nothofagus forest at about 2,750 ft.
Heliodinidae.
Thylacosceles radians n. sp.
d $. 8-9-| mm. Head and palpi shining white. Antennae white, infus-
cated on apical third. Thorax grey- whitish. Abdomen ochreous- whitish,
apical half in 3 dark fuscous. Legs white, tibial fringe black. Fore-
wings moderate, parallel-sided, costa hardly arched, apex acute, termen
extremely oblique, leaden fuscous, somewhat ochreous-tinged in $; an obscure
suffused white blotch in disc at f , sometimes preceded by a white spot on
tornus : cilia fuscous. Hindwings and cilia grey-fuscous.
Smaller and darker than T. acridomima Meyr.
Seaward Bush (Invercargill). Fairly common in December. T. acri-
domima is attached to the fern Aspidium aculeatum var. vestitum, and it is
possible that the food plant of T. radians is Polypodium diver sifolium, which,
with other epiphytic growth, frequently covers the trunks of the kamahi.
GrLYPHIPTERYGIDAE .
Hieroderis (?) stellata n. sp.
<?. 20 mm. Head ferruginous-brown. Palpi dark fuscous, apex of
second joint beneath and apex of terminal joint whitish. Antennae
5 — Trans.
130 Transactions.
narrowly annulated with ferruginous-brown and white. Thorax, anterior
half dark cupreous with purplish sheen, posterior half white. Abdomen
greyish -fuscous. Legs fuscous-grey, anterior pair darker, tarsi broadly annu-
lated with white. Fore wings, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen
subsinuate, little oblique, rounded beneath ; shining cupreous ; markings
white ; an irregularly-triangular basal patch on lower half of wing, its upper
edge indented ; a round spot beneath costa at \ ; a chain of small spots
from costa at \ curving round to costa at § ; an inwardly-oblique series of
two or three spots from costa at | ; a dot on costa before apex: a large
triangular patch on dorsum before middle, its apex reaching to centre of
wing and its base broadly bifid ; a round spot on dorsum at \, followed by
a series of spots which curve round to tornus : cilia cupreous with white
patches beneath apex and at tornus. Hindwings elongate-ovate ; dark
fuscous : cilia paler, with obscure dark basal line and tips whitish round
apex.
Very handsome and distinct. The generic position is provisional ; the
species probably belongs to a genus not hitherto recorded from New
Zealand.
Blue Cliff (Fiord County). A single specimen taken in January by
Mr. C. C. Fenwick. It was captured in a bush track after dark. Type
in coll. C. C. Fenwick.
Glyphipteryx barbata n. sp.
<$. 15-20 mm. Head and thorax fuscous-grey. Palpi fuscous-grey,
second joint with dense rounded tuft of long hair. Antennae blackish.
Abdomen fuscous-grey, segmental divisions and anal tuft paler. Legs
fuscous-grey, tarsi annulated with fuscous and whitish. Forewings elongate-
ovate, costa strongly arched, apex acutely projecting, termen extremely
oblique; fuscous-grey with faint brassy sheen: a white median stripe from
base to beneath apex, becoming obsolete towards extremities : apical ^ of costa
more or less whitish with three or four dot-like strigae near apex : cilia
fuscous-grey with obscure darker basal line. Hindwings fuscous-grey :
cilia fuscous-whitish, paler round apex.
Superficially very like G. bactrias Meyr.. but at once distinguished by the
tufted palpi.
Discovered by Mr. C. E. Clarke, who found it fairly common at Waitati
(Dunedin) in November. Type in coll. C. E. Clarke.
Hyponomeutidae.
Zelleria rorida n. sp.
6* $. 13-15 mm. Head and palpi white densely sprinkled with ochreous.
Antennae brown. Thorax white mixed with ochreous. Abdomen grey-
whitish. Legs grey-whitish, anterior pair infuscated. Forewings elongate,
of uniform breadth, costa slightly arched, apex subacute, termen very
oblique, pale, gregish-ochreous irrorated with blackish-brown, an irregular
interrupted white suffusion along dorsum, continued up lower half of
termen ; three series of blackish-brown spots from base to termen, some-
times more or less obsolete, first on costa, second on upper median vein,
third on lower median ; sometimes a similar series below fold ; a broad
inwardly-oblique brown fascia from costa to dorsum at $ ; a semi-oval
brown spot on dorsum at \ ; an irregular white blotch on costa near apex :
cilia ochreous-grey, brown round apex. Hindwings grey : cilia ochreous-
grey.
Philpott. — Descriptions of New Species of Lepidoptera. 131
Differs from Z. sphenoid (Meyr.) in the presence of the preapical white
blotch.
Bluff and Invercargill, in coastal forest ; a male and female in Novem-
ber. Mr. J. H. Lewis has taken the species in Central Otago.
Plutellidae.
Dolichernis jubata n. sp.
<J. 14 mm. Head ochreous. Antennae ochreous, annulated with
fuscous. Palpi ochreous mixed with brown, terminal joint brownish.
Thorax ochreous, shoulders brownish - black. Abdomen ochreous - grey.
Legs ochreous-grey, anterior tarsi fuscous annulated with ochreous. Fore-
wings elongate, costa strongly and evenly arched, apex obtuse, termen
rounded, oblique ; light ochreous ; markings blackish brown ; a broad stripe
along costa, irregular beneath, interrupted before apex, apical spot darker ;
first discal spot obliquely before plical, touching costal stripe ; plical at \,
oviform : second discal transverse, touching costal stripe ; a broad fascia
along termen, interrupted below apex: numerous scattered dark scales on
lower half of wing : cilia ochreous with broad dark basal line. Hindwings
grey-whitish : cilia grey with darker line round apex.
Verv distinct. The species is placed in Dolichernis pending the dis-
covery of further material ; with the exception of the proportionate length
of antenna to forewing the characters agree very well.
Tisbury, Invercargill. A single male taken in kamahi (Weinmannia
racemosa) forest in January, 1917. Mr. G. V. Hudson has also a single
example, taken at Kaeo in January, 1913. Evidently a wide-ranging
though scarce species. Type in coll. A. Philpott.
Orthenches polita n. sp.
j. 11mm. Head whitish - brown. Palpi white, brownish beneath.
Antennae bronzy-brown, broadly annulated with white. Thorax shining-
dark brown. Abdomen and legs grey-fuscous. Forewings rather long,
costa moderately arched, apex obtuse, termen rounded, oblique : shining
brassy with cupreous reflections ; a large white oviform spot in middle near
base; a broad white striga from dorsum at middle reaching half across wing ;
an irregular white blotch above tornus ; a streak of purplish -violet from
beneath basal spot along fold to tornus, attenuated at extremities and
interrupted at median fascia and before tornus ; a similarly coloured but
more obscure streak from above median fascia to tornal blotch : cilia grey,
darker round apex. Hindwings and cilia grey.
Not closely related to any other Orthenches ; perhaps nearest to
0. drosochalca Meyr., but quite different in the arrangement of markings.
Invercargill. The type was taken in July, and another specimen was
secured in February.
, . TlNEIDAE.
Sagephora exsanguis n. sp.
<J. 10-12 mm. Head white, face ochreous. Palpi white, apical half
of second joint brown. Antennae, thorax, and abdomen white. Fore-
wings elongate, narrow, costa moderately arched, apex round-pointed,
termen rounded, extremely oblique ; white ; costa and dorsum broadly pale-
brownish throughout reducing ground-colour to a median stripe ; apical half
of dorsal stripe irregularly margined above with blackish ; a few dark scales
on costa near apex : cilia concolorous with wing - markings. Hindwings
and cilia shining white.
132 Transactions.
Differs from the other members of the genus in its pale coloration.
A single specimen taken at Bluff in November, and a few secured by
Mr. C. E. Clarke near Dunedin in October, November, and December.
_ , , MlCROPTERYGIDAE.
Sabatinca barbanca n. sp.
6*. 10-11 mm. Head rather bright ochreous. Antennae pale ochreous.
apical portion black. Thorax ochreous. Abdomen dark greyish-fuscous.
Legs ochreous, tarsi annulated with black. Forewings ovate-lanceolate,
costa moderately arched, apex acute, termen extremely oblique ; pale
ochreous ; a bright coppery suffusion along dorsum often segregated into one
or more spots ; base of costa obscurely darker ; an interrupted irregular
coppery fascia from costa near base to tornus, sometimes including an
almost black spot at middle ; sometimes one or more coppery spots on
costa at \ ; three coppery (sometimes blackish) spots on costa at apex,
from which an irregular coppery fascia runs towards dorsum, connecting
with first fascia above tornus ; sometimes a blackish dot on termen at
middle : cilia pale ochreous.
Near S. caustica Meyr., but larger and more vividly marked.
Seaward Bush (Invercargill). Eight examples taken amongst low
herbage in the forest in December and January.
Art. X. — Descriptions of New Zealand Leyidoptem.
By E. Meyrick, B.A., F.R.S.
Communicated by G. V. Hudson, F.E.S.
\Read before the. Wellington Philosophical Society, 12th December, 1917 ; received by Editors,
22nd December, 1917 ; issued separately. 24ih May, WIS.]
The material for these notes was received from my esteemed correspondent
Mr. G. V. Hudson.
Phycitidae.
Delogenes n. gen.
Tongue developed. Antennae in <$ shortly ciliated, slightly sinuate
and thickened towards base of stalk, basal joint moderate. Labial palpi
moderate, subascending, second joint considerably thickened with dense
appressed scales, terminal joint very short, obtuse. Maxillary palpi imper-
ceptible. Forewings with 4 and 5 stalked, 9 and 10 out of 8. Hind wings
with cell not quite reaching middle ; 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 7 out of 6,
anastomosing with 8.
This remarkable and interesting genus is a notable addition to the scanty
local representation of the family.
Delogenes limodoxa n. sp.
<$. 24 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax grey suft'usedly irrorated with
whitish. Abdomen whitish - grey, anal tuft ochreous - whitish. Forewings
very elongate-triangular, very narrow at base, costa almost straight, gently
arched towards apex, apex obtuse, termen slightly rounded, oblique ; fuscous,
finely and suft'usedly irrorated with white ; lines dark brown sprinkled with
blackish, first rather oblique, nearly straight, dilated towards costa, second
Meyrick. — Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera. 133
at | parallel to termen, sharply angulated outwards in middle and inwards
above this, marked with a series of short black dashes on veins, and followed
by a whitish shade becoming white on costa and edged posteriorly with a
series of small dark-fuscous marks ; two cloudy brownish sometimes con-
nected spots transversely placed on end of cell ; a terminal series of cloudy
dark-fuscous dots or marks : cilia light fuscous irroratecl with white. Hind-
wings light grey : cilia whitish-grey.
Waitati (Clarke) ; two specimens. Superficially this suggests a Scoparia.
Carposinidae.
Carposina sarcanthes n. sp.
c?. 15 mm. Head white, with a few grey specks. Palpi whitish
sprinkled with grey, basal half dark fuscous. Thorax grey with a curved
white median bar, patagia white with some grey scales. Abdomen pale
pinkish-ochreous. Forewings elongate, rather narrow, posteriorly somewhat
dilated, costa gently arched, apex obtuse, termen straight, oblique ; pale
grey, irregularly mixed with white and somewhat sprinkled with dark
fuscous ; a semi- oval blackish blotch on base of costa ; seven dots of blackish
irroration on costa between this and apex ; two small round grey spots
edged beneath with blackish and circled with white beneath costa towards
middle ; a blackish-mixed tuft edged posteriorly with white in disc at |3
one beneath middle of disc, and two on end of cell, discal area between
these blackish - sprinkled and without whitish scales ; an irregular sub-
terminal series of blackish dots edged posteriorly with white : cilia pale
grev irrorated with white. Hindwings whitish-grey, basal half suffused
with pale pinkish-ochreous : cilia grey- whitish.
Wellington (Hudson) ; one specimen. Specially characterized by the
pale pinkish-ochreous basal half of hindwings.
Gelechiadae.
Epithectis Meyr.
Basal joint of antennae without pecten. Labial palpi with second joint
slightlv rough beneath, terminal joint nearly as long as second. Forewings
with 7 and 8 out of 6. Hindwings nearly 1, trapezoidal, apex pointed,
produced, termen sinuate ; 3 and 4 connate, 5 somewhat approximated,
6 and 7 stalked.
A widelv distributed genus, not previously known from New Zealand.
Epithectis zophochalca n. sp.
c?. 9 mm. Head shining bronzy - metallic. Palpi whitish - bronzy,
second joint hardly rough beneath, anterior edge of terminal joint dark
fuscous. Thorax purplish-bronzy-fuscous. Abdomen dark fuscous. Fore-
wings lanceolate ; glossy rather dark bronzy-fuscous ; stigmata blackish,
plical obliquely before first discal ; small cloudy whitish spots on costa
before § and on tornus slightly anterior to this, on one wing connected
by a faint straight whitish shade : cilia fuscous, round apex with a dark-
fuscous antemedian line. Hindwings with apex considerably produced ;
dark fuscous ; a fine longitudinal hyaline line in disc : cilia fuscous.
Auckland, in January (Hudson) ; one specimen.
Oecophoridae.
Borkhausenia thranias Meyr.
Two examples sent, taken at the Dun Mountain, Nelson, in January
(Hudson) ; one of these is quite like the unique type specimen from
134 Transactions.
Whangarei (which lias cilia of forewings yellow), but the other has the cilia
of forewings light grey, giving a quite distinct aspect; as they were taken
together, and are alike in all other respects, they are doubtless the same
species, but it is an unusual form of variation.
Trachypepla photinella Meyr.
■ An example in good condition sent by Mr. Hudson shows a well-marked
scale-tuft above dorsum of forewings at \ (rubbed in all examples previously
seen), and therefore the species is referable to Trachypepla, and not to
Eulechria as hitherto supposed.
TlNEIDAE.
Endophthora pallacopis n. sp.
<J. 12 mm. Head white. Palpi white, externally dark fuscous.
Thorax pinky-whitish sprinkled with fuscous (partly defaced). Abdomen
light grey. Forewings narrowly elongate lanceolate : 7 and 8 stalked ;
pinky-whitish, with scattered light olive-brown scales ; a slender blackish
streak along costa from base to near |, edged beneath by a light olive-
brownish streak : a black basal dot in middle, and one on lower edge of this
streak towards apex : some scattered black scales along dorsum ; a blackish
mark on costa before middle, edged beneath by a light olive-brown spot
connected anteriorly with a similar spot beneath it in disc by a transverse-
linear black dot ; a blackish mark on costa at §, with a light olive-brownish
spot adjoining it beneath : an irregular light olive-brownish spot on tornus,
and one resting on termen below middle ; some black irroration along
termen ; two irregular blackish dots on costa near apex : cilia whitish,
basal half suffused with light grey and slightly sprinkled with blackish.
Hindwings light grey : cilia whitish-grey.
Wellington, in December (Hudson) ; one specimen.
MlCKOPTERYC; I DA E .
Sabatinca eodora n. sp.
<$ $. 10 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax fulvous. Antennae ochreous,
with a black band of three joints above middle and another of three or
four joints beneath apex. Abdomen blackish-grey. Forewings suboblong,
costa rather abruptly arched anteriorly, then nearly straight, slightly arched
towards apex, apex obtuse, termen slightly rounded, rather strongly oblique ;
light rosy-pink, more or less sprinkled or suffused with grey except on basal
third; basal third orange - fulvous, including a bright - yellow transverse
blotch edged with a few black scales from costa at j ; a yellow dot edged
with black on dorsum before middle ; a somewhat oblique bright-yellow
fasciate blotch from middle of costa reaching half across wing, edged with a
few black scales and margined with orange-fulvous continued as an orange-
fulvous fascia to dorsum beyond middle, its anterior margin marked with
a yellow black-edged dot below middle and a black mark on dorsum ; an
irregular narrow orange-fulvous fascia from f of costa to tornus, partially
edged with black scales, and marked with two or three small variable yellow
dots ; two small yellow anteriorly black-edged spots on costa towards
apex and two on termen : cilia yellow barred with grey, base tinged with
rosy. Hindwings deep purple, becoming dark grey anteriorly : cilia dark
grey, on costa with two indistinct pale-yellowish bars.
Shedwood Forest, Tapawera, near Nelson, in January (Hudson); four
specimens. A very elegant and distinct species.
HiijGENdorp. — Insect-lift at Cass Mountain Biological Station. 135
Art. XI. -Notes from Canterbury College Mountain Biological Shit ion,
Cass.
X o . 6 . — The Insect-lif e .
By F. W. Hilgendorf, D.Sc.
[Rnul befon th< Canterbury Philosophical Institute, 5th September, J'Jli , received hi/
Editors, 31st December, 1917 ; issued separately, 24th May, 1978.]
Introduction.
Thk general descriptions which have been written of the physiography
and plant-associations in the neighbourhood of the station are essential
starting-places for, as well as stimulants to, more detailed study. With the
object of preparing a similar paper on the insect-life near the station I made
some collections during the summer and autumn of 1917. and arranged the
specimens thus captured in a small museum case deposited at the station
for reference by future students. The notes on the collection were at first
intended to be purely systematic, but it was soon recognized that the insects
were so noticeably a part of the landscape that they should be dealt with
in the order of their occurrence rather in that of their zoological classifica-
tion. Thus on tussock or in swamp or forest different associations of
insects are found, and in the following pages these associations are de-
scribed, and in some cases attempts are made to explain their relationships
to their environment. Of course, in dealing with several orders of insects
no attempt at a complete catalogue can be made even when only a small
area is under consideration, and so these notes deal only with the species
that from their size or numbers come readily under the observation of the
student.
A. The Environment.
The topography and physiography of the neighbourhood of the station
are described by Chilton* and Speightf. The variation in land and water
is such as to encourage a great diversity of insect-life. Within a radius of
little more than a mile from the station there are a lake, a swamp, a sluggish
stream, many rapid streams, a shingly river-bed, a stretch of open tussock
country, open shrub-land, shrubby thicket, patches of forest, and areas
of bare rock, with slopes of scree. Each topographic form is in general
associated with a special kind of plant-covering, and this, of course, forms
the dominant factor in the environment of the insect population. The
p>lant-associations are described by Cockayne and Foweraker,f and such
a description is essential as a basis for any attempt at detailing the modes
of life of the insects.
The plant-life of the area is to a certain extent unaltered by the advent
of man. The forest, the shrub-land, and the river-bed and rock plants
are probably almost entirely primitive. Even the tussock-land has been
altered but little, and the alteration that has occurred seems more in the
direction of varying the proportions of the primitive plants than in their
replacement by introduced species.
* C. Chilton, Notes from Canterbury College, .Mountain Biological Station, No. 1"
Tru»s. X.Z. Ins!., vol. 47, p. 331. 1915.
t R. Speight, ibid., vol. 48, p. 145. 1916.
I L. Cockayne and C. E. Foweraker, ibid., vol. 48, \>. 166, L916.
136 Transactions.
Hypochaeris radicata, however, is found all over the open country, and
is freely visited by the small bee DasycoUetes hirticeps. Trifolium minus, .
too, which occurs in the gullies, is probably visited by some insect, as it
sets seed freely, and the seeds have been germinated from sheep-dung.
These are the only cases noted where change of vegetation may have
influenced insect-habits.
In the animal world, however, or at least in the vertebrate world, the
most profound changes have been made. Over practically the whole of
the area the sheep reigns supreme, and the effect of its grazing upon certain
flowers has doubtless been reflected on the insect population. With the
sheep has been introduced Oestrus ovis, the sheep's nasal bot-fly, which lays
its eggs in the sheep's nostrils, so that on hot days the persecuted beasts
may be seen stamping their feet, tossing their heads, or standing huddled
together with noses to the ground. Sheep's dung, too, must be fed upon
by numerous maggots and beetles, and the animals that die have a marked
effect upon the numbers of blow-flies that infest this and all similar locali-
ties. Except the sheep, the only mammal that could affect the vegetation
is the hare, and of this only occasional specimens are seen. Bird-life is
not at all plentiful, and has probably changed considerably as a result of
human occupation. Of water-birds, the paradise duck (Casarca variegata)
is the most common, flocks of twenty or thirty being frequently seen on
Lake Sarah and in the swamps. Grey ducks (Arias superciliosa) and a very
tew black swans also occur on the lake. An odd pukeko (Porphyrio mdano-
notus) may be seen in the swamp, and an occasional shag (Phalacrocorax
carbo) passes from stream to stream. The black-cap tern (Sterna albistriata)
and the seagull (Larus dominions) are rather common on the river-beds.
Of native land-birds the grey warbler (Pseudogerygone igata) is the com-
monest in shrub-land and forest-skirt. The kea (Nestor notabilis) occurs in
flocks of ten to twenty above the line of about 4,000 ft., and traces of its
scratching for earth-boring insects are frequently seen. The banded dotterel
(Ochthodromus bicinctus) is common on the river-beds, an occasional hawk
(Circus gouldi) nests in the swamps, and very rarely a morepork (Ninox
novae-zealandiae) may be heard from the patches of forest. Introduced
birds are much more numerous. The skylark (Alauda arvensis) is found
everywhere, and a nest with eggs was seen among the rocks at an elevation
of nearly 5,000 ft. Skylarks are in this locality almost purely insectivorous,
though in the agricultural districts poisoned grain scattered over a field
of sprouting wheat kills more larks than sparrows. The house-sparrow
(Passer domesticus) and starling (Sturnus vulgaris) build about the railway-
station, but, while the sparrow keeps near the buildings, the starling may
be seen a mile away on the rocks and the tussock-land. Thrushes (Turdus
musicus), blackbirds (T. merula), red-poll1- (Linota nifescens), and, most of
all, yellowhammers (Emberiza citrinella) have invaded the shrub-land, and
doubtless exert a considerable effect on the insect-life.
Tt seems likely that birds were once much more numerous than they are
at present. This opinion is based upon two facts : (1) The development
of protective coloration among all orders of insects is very perfect, and
seems much more elaborate than is necessary to escape the meagre army of
enemies now present. Further, many insects are abandoning (or, it may
be. had never acquired) the habits that would conduce to safety from
bird-attack. Cramhus flexuosellus, the common yellowy-white moth of the
tussocks, is a familiar example. While stationary it is invisible, but it
rises before the walker at every step, and its movement when disturbed
tiiLGENuoRF. — Insect-life at Cans Mountain Biological Station. 137
would soon lead to its extermination if there were a hungry insectivorous-
bird population. The highly protectively coloured Scoparia philerga of
the forest-glades is quite invisible as it sits at rest on the trunks of the
beech-trees, but if one walks noisily forward the moth will fill the air in its
fluttering hundreds. It is true that in both these cases the kind of noise
demanded is not that associated with a bird-attack, and the short zigzasf
flight and quick settling may lead to escape from other dangers. Still,
protective coloration and the crouching habit are nearly always associated,
and in many insects at Cass that association does not exist. (2) The
second fact indicating a more plentiful bird-life in the past is the great
profusion of berries and drupes borne by the shrubs. The close connection
between the presence of birds and the production of succulent fruits is
denied by Guppy,* bat his views do not appear to have received wide
acceptance. The writer's view is that if there were no frugiverous animals,
then the characteristic of producing brightly coloured, fleshy, and palatable
fruits would not have been fixed in so high a degree as is commonly found,
and that a large number of plants bearing such fruits is evidence of a large
bird population. The suggestion that frugiverous birds would have no
effect on the insect-life is of little weight, as the annual variation in the food
of birds is not well known. The variation is probably considerable, as is
indicated by the fact that so purely a grain-eating bird as the sparrow feeds
its nestlings for about six weeks on nothing but insects. Of more import-
ance is the suggestion that the birds probably visited certain districts only
during the fruiting season of the plants they specially favoured, and at that
time would almost entirely neglect insects as food.
Except the birds, the only native land vertebrate is the common lizard
{Lygosoma moco), which is found not infrequently on the tussock. In the
lakes and streams, however, fish, especially trout, are very common, and
the introduction of trout must have made an enormous difference to the
insect and probably to the bird population of the district. Hudsonf has
shown that the stomachs of 60 trout taken from various localities contained
4,804 Neuroptera, 662 other insects, and 28 other animals. At this rate
the reduction of Neuroptera in our streams must be enormous, and, as these
insects, while aquatic in their immature stages, are aerial when adult,
insect-eating birds may also have suffered a reduction in food-supplies
sufficient either to drive them from the neighbourhood or at least to compel
them to take to other food. In either case the reaction upon the general
insect-life of the district must have been very considerable, and it becomes
obvious that the insects are, on the whole, living in an environment that
is much changed since the advent of the white man.
Two important factors in the environment are dead sheep and white
flowers, for these are correlated with the two most striking features of the
insect-life — namely, blow-flies by day and moths by night. The two com-
mon blow-flies are Calliphora quadrimaculata, the well-known bluebottle,
and C. oceana, which is somewhat smaller, and is covered with bright-
yellow hairs below. Both these species occur in hundreds everywhere,
and fill the air with their buzzing wherever a human being rests for a few
minutes. When a sheen dies the blow-flies are attracted from near and
far : each lays a hundred or more eggs upon it, and the resultant maggots
are fully fed through their active life. But the thousands of flies thus
* H. B. Guppy, Observations of a Naturalist in the Pacific, vol. 2, p. 99, 1906.
t O. V. Hudson, New Zealand Neuroptera, West and Newman, London, 1904.
138 Transact tons.
produced do not always find a dead sheep on which to lay their eggs, and
therefore they are urgently attracted to any place where there is the faintest
scent of animal matter. I have seen C. quadrimaculata so violently impelled
to lay her eggs somewhere that she has done so on a bicycle-tire where it
had just been pressed with a perspiring hand.
After nightfall the swarms of moths are as insistent as are the blow-
flies by day. These night-flying honey-suckers are represented by about
twenty species, and, as these were obtained chiefly round the lamp in the
living-room of the station, definite search would probably double the number
of species. Now, the day-flying honey-suckers number only eight species,
and the disproportion in individuals is much greater. The entomophilous
flowers of the neighbourhood, therefore, must depend chiefly upon night-
flying insects, and the colours of their flowers should be most commonly
white, or some pale tint, rather than the darker colours of red, blue, or deep
yellow.
An examination was made of the list of plants near the station as given
by Cockayne and Foweraker, and the colours of such of them as produce
nectar were taken from Cheeseman's Manual of the New Zealand Flora. The
examination showed that fifty-one native plants were described as having
flowers either white, rosy white, or pale blue or white, while only sixteen
were described as yellow, red, blue, or brown. Dr. Cockayne has pointed
out to me the undeniable fact that, to the human eye at least, white
flowers are much more conspicuous even by day than those of any other
colour, so that it would probably be quite incorrect to regard every white
flower as cross-fertilized by night-flying insects. At the same time, given
the nocturnal or crepuscular honey-suckers, it would obviously be advan-
tageous for the plant to have white flowers : abundance of such flowers
would encourage the multiplication of the insects that depend on them
for their food; so that the large excess of plants bearing white or pale
flowers is here regarded as an important factor in the character of the
insect population.
B. The Insect-associations.
The above term has been used to indicate that, as the plants of the area
are grouped into definite associations depending on environmental con-
ditions, so the insects are grouped together according to their environment,
of which, of course, the plant-covering is the most important factor. The
insect-associations have been named more or less closely after the plant-
associations, partly to avoid multiplication of names, and partly because
the plant-covering is more conspicuous and forms the determining factor
in the character of the insect-association. The range of species in an insect-
association is, of course, not so clear-cut as in the plant-associations ; for,
while one may be able to say to a yard where tussock ends and swamp
begins, the insects proper to one kind of environment may be found flying
over the plants of another — as, for instance, when dragon-flies or sand-
flies are found on the tussock. Again, insects that feed on the plants of
one association may take shelter in another, as in the case of numerous
moths which probably feed on the flowers of the shrub-land, but shelter
by day in the forest, or may be attracted by night to a light on the
tussock. The variety of plant-associations in close proximity to the
station is a great advantage from most points of view, but in the present
instance may lead to some errors in assigning certain insects to their proper
associations.
Hilgendorf. — Insect-life at Cass Mountain Biological Station. 139
1. The Tussock Grass-land.
Large numbers of yellowish-white moths rise from the tussocks at every
step. These are chiefly Grambus flexuosellus, but Scoparia salbulosella is
almost equally common. Crambus simplex and ('. ramosellus also occur.
These all have a wing-span of about 23 mm., and the Scoparia has pale-
grey front wings. The metallic-blue butterfly Chrysophanus boldenarum, of
22 mm. wing-span, nutters about the open spaces a few inches from the
ground, and sinks from sight as it folds its wings over its back and displays
only their mottled-grey undersides. The large attractive butterfly Argyro-
phenga antipodum flies lazily or sports merrily, usually in pairs, a few feet
from the ground. This insect displays one of our best examples of pro-
tective coloration adapted to a special environment. The expanse of the
wings is 45 mm., and their upper surfaces as well as the lower surfaces of
the front pair have a rich brown background with bold orange masses,
picked out with black and white spots. The remaining surfaces — namely,
the lower ones of the back wings — have a buff background with longitudinal
bright-silver stripes. The insect is most conspicuous while on the wing,
but as soon as it settles on a tussock, its invariable resting-place, it becomes
quite invisible : it exposes the buff and silver surfaces of its wings, which
harmonize with the leaves of the tussock to an almost incredible degree of
exactness. Occasionally Chrysophanus salustius, a yellow and black butter-
fly of 27 mm. wing-spread, may be seen flying low down, especially near
the shrub-land, and a few moths of the night may be accidentally disturbed.
The blow-flies will always be hovering round, and the eye will be caught by
the furtive flights of several other Diptera, usually protectively coloured.
The repulsive bristly Hystricia pachyprocta, with a stout yellow body 15 mm.
in length, and the somewhat smaller Macquartia kumaraensis and M. subtilis,
often remain stationary long . enough to permit of observation ; while the
darting Limnia striata, 7 mm. long, and with curiously mottled wings, will
usually require a grab with the hand to effect its capture. Two smaller
flies that will hardly be noticed may be captured in scores by walking along
with a net held near the surface of the tussock. One of these is probablv
an undescribed species of Trypeta, and the other may be a representative of
a new genus of the family Dexiidae. Itamus varius, a predatory fly, 17 mm.
in length, is very common.
Among the Hymenoptera the attractive Ichneumon solicitorius , with a
yellow and black parti-coloured body, 15 mm. long, is frequently seen.
Lissonota flavopicta, 10 mm. in length, with an ovipositor as long again,
also occurs, as well as two other ichneumons that have not so far been
identified. The common native bee, Dasycolletes hirticeps, with its bright-
golden hairs on thorax and legs, is commonly seen working among the
flowers of the introduced Hypochaeris radicata, and probably assists in the
spread of this weed, which is the commonest introduced plant on the
tussock-land. It may be noted here, for as far as it bears on insect-life,
that this plant opens its flowers only from 8.30 a.m. till 3.30 p.m. even on
the longest and most sunshiny days of the year. Another bee, 9 mm. in
length, black but with downy white hairs on the thorax, also occurs on the
tussock, but has not so far been identified. Specimens of the Coleoptera are
not common. Down on the ground our handsome metallic black and green
Trichosternus antarcticus, up to 30 mm. long, may be seen hurrying along,
and dead specimens may be found in scores or hundreds lying on the gravel
between the railway-lines. As this beetle is incapable of flight, it is diffi-
cult to see how it manages to climb over the rails, or how, once having
140 Transaction*.
got between them, it cannot get out again. Six specimens of a new and
handsome species of Mecodema, bright shining black and 25 mm. in length.
have also been taken crawling along among the tussocks, as well as a
few specimens of the handsome Nascio enysi, 9 mm. long, black with
four large yellow spots, and the less common Aemona separata, a large
pale - yellowish • brown beetle, and the small black Anchomenus feredayi.
On clayey banks among the tussock Cicindela feredayi, or a closely allied
species, with an intricate yellow edging to its brownish - black elytra,
darts in and out of its holes in the ground or takes short nights to elude
capture.
The only Orthoptera noted are the common grasshopper, Phaidacridiam
margin-ale, which varies in colour from brown to green but always has a
pair of white lines along the sides of the back of the thorax, and Paprides
australis. Members of the other orders are not common. The cicada
Melampsalta nervosa is more frequently heard than seen, and one of the
Coccidae sometimes produces a striking appearance in the heart of the
wild-spaniard (Aciphylla squarrosa). At first glance it appears as if a cup
of flour had been emptied into the centre of the rosette of leaves, but
on examination this is seen to be the waxy excretion of Pseudococcus
oamaruensis, living specimens of which may be seen crawling among the
mass of mealy powder. Anywhere near the swamps sand-flies are bound
to occur, and an occasional dragon-fly may dart past.
Here also must be mentioned three introduced insects : the house-fly,
which occurs sparingly indoors ; the European earwig (Forficula auricularia),
which is very common under boards, &c, lying round the railway-station
buildings ; and the sheep's nasal bot-fly (Oestrus ovis), which lays its eggs
in the sheep's nostrils.
2. The Lake and Swamp.
In the shallow water near the edge of the lake the water-boatman
(Anisops) occurs freely, darting up to the surface for air and clown again
to feed. In the same position the larvae and nymphs of most of the dragon-
flies may be found, but they are so effectively protected by their trans-
parency or greenish tints th; t they easily escape observation despite their
length of 20 mm. or over. In the swamp round the lake and lower down the
Grassmere Stream the dragon-flies are the most conspicuous insects. The
largest is Uropetala carovei, which is 8 cm. or 9 cm. in length and 10 cm. or
11 cm. in wing-span. As well as being the largest it is the rarest of the
dragon-flies, perhaps because its larva and nymph, which is found in Lake
Sarah up to 4-5 cm. long, must afford such suitable food for the large trout
which abound there. This dragon-fly shows in perfection the habit of many
of the .species in frequenting a favourite spot over which it ranges in its
hawking flights. Besides the swamps it is common on the rock-faces that
border the Waimakariri. Next in size and frequency is Somatochlora
smithii, 4-5 cm. in length and 6 cm. in wing-span. The thorax is metallic
green, and in the male the proximal segments of the abdomen are of reduced
diameter. This species dives into the water of smooth pools and picks
off the surface floating larvae of certain gnats. It appears to wet only its
head, and may make ten or twenty dives in a minute. Lestes colensonis,
A <in. in length and with a very slender abdomen, is the commonest species,
and the females seem to preponderate largely. Finally comes Xant/tagiion
zealandieum, 2-7 cm. in length, with an abdomen that is often reddish in
the male and blue in the female.
Hilgendorf. — Insect-life at Cass Mountain Biological Station. 141
Of the Diptera by far the commonest is the gnat Chironomus, about
7 mm. long, which frequently occurs in such numbers that its swarms
appear at a distance like columns of smoke. Various crane-flies are also
common, the most noticeable being Tipula novarae, 25 mm. in length,
and with a wing-span of 45 mm. T. obscuripennis and an unnamed species
also occur. One particular moth, Xanthorhoe clarata, a handsome species
with wavy lines of brown and yellow on the forewings, which are about
40 mm. across, has been captured only on the swamp-land, but its real
home is probably in the adjacent shrubs.
v
3. The River-bed.
In the waters of the rapidly running streams are to be found the larvae
of the sand-fly {Simulium australense) hanging to or crawling on the upper
surface of the submerged stones, and there also occur underneath the stones
larvae of the several Neuroptera to be mentioned immediately. These
together with the sand-flies hover over the stony or shrubby banks of the
river, or drift on to the tussock. The commonest species is Coloburiscus
humeralis, with a wing-span of 30 mm., and three tails, the two outer of
which are considerably longer than the body. Pseudoeconesus mimus occurs
near streams in the forest. Pseudonema obsoleta, whose larva inhabits bored-
out twigs in the forest-streams, is strongly attracted to light, and some-
times occurs in hundreds on the windows of the station. Its wing-expanse
is about 35 mm. to 40 mm., and its antennae reach a length of 45 mm., being
about three times as long as its body. Hydriobiosis umbripennis, whose
larva is remarkable in that it does not live in any kind of case, occurs
commonly. It has a wing-expanse of 25 mm., the front wings being sooty
brown and the back ones transparent. Besides these there are one or
perhaps two species of Epheniei idae that have not been so far identified,
and the larva, but not the adult, of some species of Oniscigaster has been
captured.
The river-bed is rich in other insects besides the Neuroptera. The moth
Crambus xanthogrammus is very plentiful, flitting from stone to stone when
disturbed. Its wings have a span of 25 mm., and the forewings are marked
with broad wavy lines of black and white. I have not seen this moth
elsewhere than on the river-bed, and regard it as very characteristic of this
association. Several striking flies also occur, chiefly Anabarhynchus inno-
tatus, with its bluish-grey body 14 mm. in length ; Calcager apertum, of
almost equal size ; and the small Trypeta mentioned before as occurring
on the tussock. At least one large but unidentified bee occurs on the
river-bed, but nowhere else, so that, on the whole, this is a very distinct
association, and a very numerous one considering the limited number of
apparent food plants.
4. The Shrub-land.
The insects of this association are much fewer in number than would
have been expected — unless, indeed, species more easily captured else-
where in reality belong to the shrub. Among the beetles the green manuka-
beetle (Pyronota festiva) is sometimes common, but remains unseen unless
it is found away from its natural background. The rarer P. sobrina, with
its bronze elytra, may also be found. Clay banks in the open spaces swarm
with the active Cicindela tabercidata ; and the yellow-spotted black lady-
bird, Vedalia cardinalis, occurs rarely. The same clay open spaces are
frequented by great numbers of the hymenopterous Dasycolletes purpureus,
142 Transactions.
and flitting among these may be seen the slender Gasteruption flavipes, a
black wasp-like insect 10 mm. in length. A single specimen of stick-insect,
probably an immature Clitarchus, has been found ; and these, with an
unidentified bug, comprise the total of the insects readily noted on the
shrub-land. There are, however, some twenty moths that have been
captured by night on the tussock or by day in the forest, and it is probable
that the feeding-ground of these insects is the shrub-land, where nectar-
producing plants are commonest.
5. The Forest.
Although twenty-four species of plants are recorded as growing in the
forest, thirteen of these grow only along the stream-banks, and, of the
remaining nine, one outnumbers all the others together by thousands to
one. This plant is the Nothofagus cliff ortioides , the mountain-beech. It-
is the only plant that reaches tree-size, the others forming merely a very
scattered undergrowth, which in many places is quite absent. From this
description it would be expected that the insect-life would be scanty.
Moths, however, are very numerous, especially in individuals. As men-
tioned before, the noisy advance of an intruder will fill the air with
hundreds of darting, fluttering specimens of Scoparia philerga, of 25 mm.
wing-span. The front wings are mottled grey, and when closed have a
conspicuous pale band across their basal third.
Hydriomena deltoidata, of 35 mm. wing-span, an attractive moth with
brown front wings crossed by wavy bands of white, and Asaphodes megas-
pilata, a reddish-yellow moth of 23 mm. wing-span, are very plentiful
in the clear spaces within the forest, while round its edge one disturbs
thousands of specimens of Palaeomicra zonodoxa, a small yellow moth with
fringed wings that glance like gold in the sun as the insect darts from shelter
to shelter.
All these, however, are probably shrub-land insects hiding in the forest
shades by day, for the patches of forest are so small that no part of them
is far away from the surrounding shrub-lands.
The case-moth, Oeceticus omnivorus, however, belongs to the forest, as
is shown by the beech-leaves woven in to conceal its leathery case.
Approaching the forest-streams one finds the river-bed insects becoming
common, the sand-flies, caddis-flies, and Ephemeridae, with Pseudonema
obsoleta specially numerous, as would be expected from the twig-boring
habits of its larva. A single Dipteron, Mycetophila fagi, also occurs in
large numbers.
6. The Rocks.
Large areas of bare rock occur at and above the 4,000 ft. line near the
station, but none of these was visited except the small exposures on the
Sugarloaf (4,475 ft.). Here the most conspicuous insect is a fat stone-grey
grasshopper, up to 25 mm. in length. It is very distinct from all the species
of which record has been found. The only other insect inhabiting these
rocky spaces and not found on the tussock near by are three moths of about
25 mm. wing-span. Notoreas ferox has dark-brown almost black upper
sides to its front wings, while the other wing surfaces are bright-orange
with black wavy lines. Dasyuris anceps and an unidentifiable Harmologa
are pale yellow on the wing-surfaces concealed when at rest, but stone-
grey or brown on the surface exposed on alighting.
IIilgendorf. — Insect-life at Cass Mountain Biological Station. 143
C. List op Insects captured near the Station.
T = tussock; S = swamp; L = lake; R = river-bed; Sh = shrub-land; F = forest ;
R = rock. ? means that owing to conditions of capture it is not certain that the
insect really belongs to the association to which it is ascribed.
Dasycolletes hirt iceps.
D. puipureus. Sh.
Prosopis sp. T.
P. sp. R.
Ciciudela fereday i ( ? ) . T .
G. tuberculata. Sh.
Mecodema n. sp. T.
Trichosternus antarcticus.
. I nchomen us feredayi. T.
Order Hymenoptera.
Ichneumon solicitorius. T
/. sP1>. T.
Lissonota flavopicta. T.
Gasteruption flavipes. Sh.
Order Coleoptera.
Pyronota f estiva. Sh.
P. sobrina. Sh.
Aemona separata. T.
Nascio enysi. T.
Vedalia cardinalis. Sh.
Order Lepidoptera.
Nyctemera annolata. T.
Orthosia comma. T. (?)
Physetica coerulea. T. (?)
Leucania propria. T. (?)
L.nullifera. T. (?)
L. acontistis. T. (?)
Melanchra compositis. T. (?)
M. insignis. T. (?)
Agrotis ypsilon. T. (?)
Hydriomena deltoidata. F. T. (?)
FewMsm undosata. T. (?)
Asaphodes megaspilata. F. (?)
Xantkorhoe rosearia. T. (?)
X. clarata. S. (?)
Dasyurus anceps. R.
Notoreas ferox. R.
T.
T.
T.
Sestra humeraria. T. (?)
^4 }*<7^ / ophenga antipodum .
Chrysophanus salustius.
C. boldenarum. T.
Scoparia philerga. F.
/S. salbulosella. T.
Plat ipt ilia falcatilis.
Crambus flexuosellus.
C. simplex. T.
C. ramosellus. T.
C. xaaihogrammus. R.
Oeceticus omnivorus. F.
Hannologa p. R.
Proteod.es carnifex. T. (?)
Palaeomicra zonodoxa. F. (?)
Porina umbraculata. T. (?)
Order Diptera.
Mycetophilus fagi. F.
Chironomus zealandicus. S.
Tipula obscuripennis. S.
T. novarae. S.
T. sp. S.
Simulium australense. S.
Ryphns sp. T.
Anabarhynchus innotatus. R.
Itamus varius. T.
Limnia striata. T.
Trypeta sp. T. R.
Macquartia kumaraensis .
M. subtilis. T.
M. sp. R.
Hystricia pachyprocta. T.
Calcager apertum. T.
Species of fam. Dexiidae.
Calliphora quadrimaculata.
C. oceana. T.
Musca domestica. T.
Oestrus ovis. T.
T.
Order Hemiptera.
Anisops wakefieldi. L. j Pseudococcus oamaruensis.
Melampsalta nervosa. T. S.
T.
144
Transactions.
Uropetala caroveA. S.
Somatochlora smithii. S.
Lestes colensonis. S.
Xanthagrion zealandicum. S
Coloburiseus humeralis. R.
Order Neuroptera.
Oniscigaster sp. R.
Pseudoeconesus mimus. R.
Pseudonema obsoleta. R. F.
Hijdrobiosis umbripennis. R.
Order Orthoptera.
Clitarchus sp. S.
Phaulacridiian marginale.
Paprides australis. T.
Species of Acrid iidae. R.
Forficula auriculata. T.
Art. XII. — On a Partially White Form of Piiffrmis grisens Gmelin.
By D. L. Poppelwell.
[Bead before the Otago Institute. 12th June, 1917 ; received by Editors. 22nd December,
1917 : issued separately, 24th May, 1918.]
Albinism of a complete or partial nature has several times been reported
in connection with New Zealand birds, but the cases of its occurrence are
not so frequent but that they should be recorded. On the 26th April, 1916,
when returning from a trip to Stewart Island, I was shown by Mr. John
Smith, of the Bluff, a live specimen of a mutton-bird (Puffinus griseus)
which showed partial albinism. This interesting specimen was captured
by Mr. Smith on Piko-mamaku-iti, the most northerly of the Titi Islands,
where Mr. Smith was mutton- birding. The bird was a young one, and was
caught in a nest. It was almost fully fledged. The head, neck, and upper
part of the breast of this interesting specimen were pure white, back and
upper part of the wings partly black, abdomen brown, the tail white. The
bird, as mentioned above, was a young one, and in parts still had the
down attached. Its beak was of a pinkish white, its legs pink, and its eye
greenish. I examined the bird closely, and took certain measurements
and other particulars, which were as follows : —
Inches.
Length from tip of beak to butt of tail . . . . 13-50
Length of side of beak
Length of beak from tip to nostrils
Length of wing from flexure
Total length of wing
Total spread of wings
Length of tarsus
Length of middle toe
Number of feathers in tail, fourteen
2-25
1-25
12-00
19-00
42-50
2-25
2-75
Note. — The above measurements are, I believe, correct; but, as the
bird was alive and resented handling, some difficulty was experienced in
Poppelwell. — Partially White Form of Puffinus griseus Gmel. 145
getting some of the measurements exactly. The normal colour of P. griseus
is, of course, a sooty brown, the bill horn-colour, and the legs and feet
brown. Mr. Smith informed me that partially white mutton-birds are
not uncommon, but are yet sufficiently rare as to make a specimen of
special interest even to the birders. I had hoped that this specimen would
be sent to the Otago Museum, but I understand it has been disposed of
privately.
As the normal number of feathers in the tail in Puffinus is only twelve,
may not the above specimen be a hybrid between Puffinus griseus and
some closelv allied genus, such as Priocella. which has fourteen feathers
in its tail \ Of course, I may have made a mistake in identification, but
the measurements closely accord with P. griseus. We know so little of
the habits and life-histories of many of our sea-birds that some such
explanation of these abnormal forms seems reasonable. The slight differ-
ence in the measurements with those laid down for P. griseus may be thus
accounted for.
On the 14th June, 1916, I had an interview with Mrs. Sidney Ladbrook,
of Mataura, who had just then returned from a birding expedition to
Evening Island, off South Cape. She informed me that her party had
found a pure-white mutton-bird on the island mentioned, but it was turned
loose again. It seems that according to Maori superstition it is an evil
omen to catch one of these rare specimens, portending death in the family
of the captor. Mrs. Ladbrook informed me also that such a specimen is
called a " jimmy bird " if it has white or pink eyes, but if the eyes are
black it is known as a " queen bird " and the portent is less serious. The
specimen which was caught on the trip just then completed was a pinkish
white, but had black eyes. My informant says that these aberrant forms
are sometimes found about the same spot in successive years. This latter
statement receives corroboration from Mr. J. Bragg, of Half-moon Bay
(see p. 38, Cockayne's Report on a Botanical Survey of Stewart Island.
Parliamentary Paper C.-12, 1909 : Government Printer).
Postscript.
Since the above article was written a curious coincidence has occurred
which will probably serve to intensify the southern Maori superstition
concerning the danger of interfering with a white mutton-bird. The bird
referred to by Mrs. Ladbrook was, I understand, caught by her husband.
During the birding season of 1917 Mr. and Mrs. Ladbrook went to the
same island again, and during a storm two children — a daughter and a
niece — whom they had taken with them were washed off the rocks and
not seen again. Mrs. Ladbrook informed me that some fear of the result
was expressed by the Maoris when the bird was caught. The belief is that
the calamity will occur within a year, and in this instance has strangely
proved quite accurate.
46 Transactions.
Art. XIII. — Notes of a Botanical Visit to Holly ford Valley and Martin's
Bay, with a List of Indigenous Plants.
By D. L. Poppelwbll and W. A. Thomson.
[Read before the Ota go Institute, 12th June, 1917 ; received by Editors, 22nd December,
1017 : issued separately, 24th May. 1918.]
During the Christmas holidays of 1916-17 we, in company with some
others, paid a visit to Martin's Bay, via the Hollvford Valley. We spent
in all about ten days in the locality, examining the vegetation. Owing to
lack of time and the difficult nature of the country, we were unable to
climb any of the mountains, and consequently our notes relate only to the
forest vegetation of Hollvford Valley and that of Martin's Bay itself. No
list of the plants of these areas seems to have yet been published, so we
append particulars of those seen by us, with some notes as to the ecological
conditions and the forest vegetation.
Topography and Climate.
The Hollvford Valley from the point at which we entered it to the sea at
Martin's Bay is about forty miles long. For over twenty miles of this
distance it runs almost due north, and is bounded on the west by the Darran
Range, which consists of very high and precipitous mountains, varying
from 7,000 ft. to 9,000 ft. The principal peaks are Mount Christina (8,675 ft.)
and Mount Tutoko (9,042 ft.). On the east side the mountains range from
4,000 ft. to 6,000 ft. in height. The valley is a narrow one, varying from less
than a quarter of a mile to about two miles in width. The lower part trends
more to the west, and consists of Lake McKerrow, twelve miles long, and
a strip of three miles of level land to the sea. The mountains become much
lower as the sea is approached. There is little doubt that this valley is
subject to a very large rainfall, as is most of the western side of the South
Island. The river is increased during its course by many snow-fed streams,
which in the spring must be raging torrents. The Pyke River, which
drains Lake Alabaster, is the largest of these streams, and is sufficiently
deep to require horses to swim even when quite low, as it was at the time
of our visit. We do not think this valley is subject to much frost in winter,
and can vouch for the fact of great heat in summer. Our party did not
experience a single shower during its visit, and from observations taken
with the thermometer the shade temperature for several days exceeded
80° F. Where the track meets the valley below Howden Saddle the height
above sea-level is between 500 ft. and 600 ft. The fall of the Hollyford
River will therefore average about 15 ft. to the mile, although it is much
greater in the upper part, as the last fifteen miles (including Lake McKerrow)
is tidal.
Ecological Conditions.
The narrow valley, hemmed in by high mountains, and the high rainfall
make the atmosphere warm and humid, and it consequently affords ideal
conditions for plant-life. The soil mostly consists of detritus from the
mountains, mixed with decaying vegetable matter, and is therefore rich
and suitable for rank and rapid growth. The hanging mosses on all the
tree-trunks and branches attest the high degree of atmospheric moisture.
Poppelwell and W. A. Thomson. — Botany of Hollyford Valley. 147
The hillsides are very steep, and give ample facilities for the growth of both
sun- and shade-loving plants. The bush -line ascends to about 2,800 ft.
or 3.000 ft. The trees throughout the valley are very high and have fairly
close tops, but the high rainfall helps the formation of a stronger under-
growth than is usual in beech forests.
The Forest Association.
Round about Lake Howden the forest is almost entirely a Nothofagus
one, but an immediate change is noticeable as soon as the descent to the
Hollvford is commenced. The principal beech-trees are Nothofagus Menziesii
and N. Solanderi, although N. fusca is found in patches and N. Blairii is
also present. Gradually the forest changes as the valley is descended, until
the taxads Dacrydium cupressinum, Podocarpus spicatus, and P. fenugineus
form a large part of the vegetation. P. Hallii and P. dacrydioides are also
found, but do not appear to be anywhere very plentiful in the valley. The
undergrowth consists of a second tier of smaller trees, the association being
principally Pittosporum, Colensoi, Nothopaiia.r Edgerleyi, Carpodetus serratus,
Metrosideros lucida (not abundant), Weinmarj,nia racemosa (comparatively
rare), and Griselinia littoralis, with a fair sprinkling of the fern-trees
Hemitelia Smiihii and Dicksonia fibrosa, and a considerable growth of
Coprosma scrub and ferns. The islands in the river are usually covered
with Coriaria ruscifolia. Cordyline australis, and Ann/do conspicua, while
Pratia angulaia and Helichrysum bellidioides cover the open spaces.
Summary.
Perhaps the most interesting of our " finds " are Metrosideros florida
Smith, and M . scandens Sol. Freycinetia Banksii A. Cunn. was common at
both Martin's Bay and Lake Alabaster. Wahlenbergia eongesta N. E. Brown
was noted at Martin's Bay, which adds to the few known habitats of the
species. The locality where found and relative abundance of the species
are mentioned in the list. The total number of species noted was 226,
belonging to 129 genera and 56 families.
LIST OF INDIGENOUS PLANTS.
PTERIDOPHYTA.
Hymenophyllaceae.
Trichomanes reniforme Forst. f. Forest ; not uncommon.
venosum R. Br. Forest ; rare.
Hymenophyllum sanguinolentum (Forst. f.) Sw. Tree-trunks.
dilatatum (Forst. f.) Sw. Not very common.
ferrugineum Colla. Fairly common.
tunbridgense (L.) Sm. On tree-trunks.
demissum (Forst. f.) Sw. Not uncommon.
fiabellatum, Labill. Not plentiful.
Cyatheaceae.
Gyathea medullaris (Forst. f.) Sw. Martin's Bay ; somewhat rare.
Hemitelia Smithii (Hook, f.) Hook Throughout
Alsophila Colensoi Hook. f. Not uncommon.
Dicksonia fibrosa Col. Not plentiful.
Leptolepia novae-zelandiae (Col.) Kuhn. Head of Hollyford Valley.
148 Transactions.
POLYPODIACEAE,
Polystichum kispidum (Sw.) J. Sin. Throughout.
vestitum (Forst. f.) Presl. Throughout.
Lindsaya viridis Col. Rare.
Asplenium adiantoides (L.) C. Chi. Near Mid Hut.
bidbiferum Forst. f. Common throughout.
— — fiaccidum Forst. f. Common on trees.
Blechnum Patersoni (R. Br.) Mett. Fairly plentiful.
discolor (Forst. f.) Keys. Dry open spaces.
— vulcanicum (Bl.) Kuhn. Epiphytic on rocky cliffs.
lanceolatum (R. Br.) Sturm. Steep banks.
— penna marina (Poir.) Kuhn. Plentiful throughout.
- — capense (L.) Schlecht. Abundant.
— — fluviatile (R. Br.) Lowe. Not uncommon.
Hypolepis tenuifolia (Forst. f.) Bernh. Open spaces.
Adiantnm affine Willd. Hidden falls, rocks.
Histiopteris incisa (Thbg.) J. Sm. Not abundant.
Pteridium esculentum (Forst. f.) Cockayne. Open places only.
Polypodium Billardieri (Willd.) C. Chr. Epiphytic on tree-trunks.
gramdtidis R. Br. Epiphytic on tree-trunks.
— — diver sifolium Willd. Climbing on tree-trunks.
Dryopleris pennigera Forst. f. Not uncommon.
Cyclophorus serpens (Forst f.) C. Chr. Climbing on trees.
G LEICHENIACEAE.
Gleichenia dicarpa R. Br. Swampy places.
OSMUNDACEAE,
Leptopteris hi/menophylloides (A. Rich.) Presl. Fairly common.
superba (Col.) Presl. Fairly abundant.
Ophioglossiaceae.
Botrychium ternatum Sw. Martin's Bay only.
Lycopodiaceae.
Lycopodium scariosum Forst. f. Not uncommon.
volubile Forst. f. Fairly common.
Billardieri Spring. Rare.
Tmesipteris tannensis Bernh. Not common ; tree-trunks only
SPERMOPHYTA.
Tax ace ae.
Podocarpus Hallii T. Kirk. Not plentiful.
nivalis Hook. f. Only at high levels.
ferrugineus Don. Common.
spicatus R. Br. Plentiful,
- dacrydioides A. Rich. Throughout.
Dacrydium cupressinum Sol. Fairly abundant throughout.
intermedium T. Kirk. Only near Martin's Bay.
Colensoi Hook. Martin's Bay only.
Phyllocladus alpinus Hook. f. Not uncommon.
Poppelwell and W. A. Thomson. — Botany of Holly ford Valley. 149
POTAMOGETONACEAE.
Potamogeton Cheesmanii A. Benn. In ponds, &c.
SCHEUZERIACEAE.
Triglochin striata Ruiz. & Pav. var. jilifolia (Sieb.) Buchen. Wet places,
Martin's Bay.
Gramineae.
Microlaena avenacea (Raoul) Hook. f. Common throughout.
Danthonia semiannularis R. Br. var. setifolia Hook. f. Rare ; Hidden Falls.
pilosa R. Br. Head of Lake McKerrow.
Cunninghamii Hook. f. Not abundant.
Arundo conspicua Forst. f. Abundant on islands, &c.
Poa Colensoi Hook. f. Cliff-faces.
Festuca littoralis Labill. Sand-dunes.
Pandanaceae.
Freycinetia Banksii A. Cunn. Abundant on creek-banks and at Martin's
Bay and Lake Alabaster.
Cyperaceae.
Scirpus inundatus (R. Br.) Poir. Swampy places, Martin's Bay.
nodosus (R. Br.) Rottb. Brackish water.
frondosus Banks & Sol. Sand-dunes.
Carpha alpina R. Br. Dry heath, Martin's Bay.
Gahnia procera Forst. Damp places.
— — xanthocarpa Hook. f. (?). Martin's Bay only.
Uncinia uncinata (L. f.) Kiiken. Common in forest.
Carex ternaria Forst. f. Damp places.
lucida Boott. On bush tracks, damp ground.
pamila Thbg. Damp sand.
Leptocarpus simplex A. Rich. Salt marshes.
Juncaceae.
Juncus polyanthemos Buchen. Damp places.
Liliaceae.
Rhipogonum scandens Forst. Not abundant.
Enargea parvifiora (Banks & Sol.) Hook. Fairly common.
Cordyline australis (Forst. f.) Hook. In Hollyford Valley.
■ indivisa Steud. Rare ; near Howden Saddle.
Astelia nervosa Banks & Sol. Very abundant.
mordana (T. Kirk) Cockayne. Dry places.
Dianella intermedia Endl. Lake McKerrow.
Phormium tenax Forst. River-bank.
Coohianum Le Jolis. Creek-banks, cliffs, &c. ; common.
Iridaceae.
Libertia pulchella Spreng. Near Howden Saddle only.
■ ixioides Spreng. Dry places in forest.
331
150 Trans actions.
Orchidaceae.
Dendrobium Cunninghamii Lindl. Tolerably common.
Marina mucronata Lindl. Epiphytic on tree-trunks.
autumnalis (Forst. f.) Hook. Epiphytic; not common.
Pterostylis Banksii R. Br. In damp forest.
Thelymitra longifolia Forst. Martin's Bay.
Corysanth.es macrantha Hook. f. Damp banks, &c.
■ — — oblonga Hook. f. Forest-floor.
Gastrodia Cunninghamii Hook. f. Beech forest.
Bulbophyllum pygmaeum Lindl. Rocks. Martin's Bay.
Chloranth ace ae .
Ascarina lucida Hook. f. Fairly plentiful; Martin's Bay.
Monimiaceae.
Hedycarya arborea Forst. Hollyford Valley and Martin's Bar ; common.
Fagaceae.
Nothofagus fusca (Hook, f.) Oerst. Common.
Menziesii (Hook, f.) Oerst. Common.
Solanderi (Hook, f.) Oerst. Common.
cliffortioides (Hook, f.) Oerst. At higher altitudes.
Blairii (T. Kirk) Diels. Not common.
Urticaceae.
Urtica incisa Poir. Common in forest.
ferox Forst. Forest tracks ; plentiful.
LORANTHACEAE.
Loranthus mieranthus Hook. f. Martin's Bay
Elytranthe Colensoi (Hook, f.) Engl. Common on beech-trees.
tetrapetalus (Forst. f.) Engl. Common on Vagus; also found on
Griselinia.
flavida (Hook, f.) Engl. Comparatively rare.
POLYGONIACEAE.
Bumex neglectus Kirk. Martin's Bay.
flexuosus Sol. Martin's Bay.
MuehlenbecJcia australis (A. Cunn.) Meissn. Not abundant.
complexa (A. Cunn.) Meissn. Fairly common.
■ axillaris Walp. Rare.
Caryophyllaceae.
Stellaria parviflora Banks & Sol. Open tracks, &c.
Colobanthus acicularis Hook. f. Rocks and dry places.
Ranunculaceae.
Clematis indivisa Willd. Rare.
Ranunculus hirtus Banks & Sol. Not uncommon.
rivularis Banks & Sol. Martin's Bay.
■ lappaceus Sm. Open spaces, Martin's Bay.
Poppet, well and W. A. Thomson. — Botany of Hollyford V alley . 151
Magxoliaceae.
Drimi/.s colontta Raoul. Not common.
Cruciferae.
Cardamine heterophyUa (Forst. f.) 0. E. Schultz var. Forest tracks.
Saxifrauaceae.
Carpodetus serratus Forst. Fairly plentiful.
PlTTOSPORACEAE.
Pittosporum Colensoi Hook. f. var. Scattered throughout.
CUNONIACEAE.
Weinmannia racemosa L. f. Comparatively rare.
Rosaceae.
Rubus australis Forst. f. Throughout.
— cissoides A. Cunn. Not plentiful.
subpauperatus Cockayne. Not uncommon.
Potentilla anserina (L.) var. anserinoides (Raoul) T. Kirk. Damp places.
Acaena novae-zelandiae Kirk. Throughout.
— Sanguisorbae Vahl. Common.
microphylla Hook. f. On tracks, &c.
Geraniaceae.
Geranium microphyllum Hook. f. Near Martin's Bay.
sessiliflorum Cav. var. Sand-hills.
Oxalis magellanica Forst. Near Lake McKerrow.
Olacinaceae.
Pennantia corymbosa Forst. Not plentiful.
Euphorbiaceae.
Euphorbia glaaca Forst. f. Sand-dunes only.
CORIARIACEAE.
Coriaria ruscifolia L. var. Abundant and of great size.
thymifolia Humb. & Bonp. var. Fairly plentiful.
angustissima Hook. f. Not common.
Leguminosae.
Sophora tetraptera J. Mull. var. Lake McKerrow and Martin's Bay.
Carmichaelia flagelliformis Col. (?). Martin's Bay.
Elaeocarpaceae.
Aristotelia racemosa (A. Cunn.) Hook. f. Not abundant.
Colensoi Hook. f. Rare.
fruticosa Hook. f. Common.
Elaeocarpus Hookerianus Raoul. Comparatively rare.
152 Transactions.
Malvaceae.
Hoheria populnea A. Cunn. var. Pyke River.
Gay a Lyallii Baker. River- valleys.
Violaceae.
Viola Cunninghamii Hook. f. . Not uncommon.
filicaulis Hook. f. Head of Holly ford Valley ; rare.
var. hydrocotyloides (J. B. Armstg.) T. Kirk. Damp tracks.
Melicytus ramiflorus Forst. Common throughout.
Thymelaeaceae.
Pimelea Lyallii Hook. f. Sand-hills, Martin's Bay.
Myrtaceae.
Leptospermum scoparium Forst. Martin's Bay ; not plentiful.
Metrosideros lucida Forst. f. Growing throughout, but local.
hypericifolia A. Cunn. Lower Hollyford.
florida Sm. Martin's Bay.
scandens Sol. Forest, Martin's Bay.
Myrtus pedunculata Hook. f. Common.
Onagraceae.
Epilobium rotmidif olium A. Rich. Bush tracks.
— — linnaeoides Hook. f. Open spaces.
melanocaulon Hook. f. Creek-beds.
— — nummular if olium A. Cunn. var. minimum T. Kirk. Forest.
Fuchsia excorticata L. f. Not uncommon.
Golensoi Hook. f. Rare.
H ALORRHAGACE AE .
Halorrhagis erecta (Murr.) Schindler. Sand-hills.
Gunnera albocarpa (T. Kirk) Cockayne. Damp places.
Araliaceae.
Nothopanax simplex (Forst.) Seem. Throughout.
Edgerleyi (Hook, f.) Seem. Throughout.
Colensoi (Hook, f.) Not plentiful.
linearis (Hook, f.) Harms. Near Howden Pass.
Pseudopanax crassif olium (Sol.) C. Koch vav. unifoliaium T. Kirk. Not
common.
Schefflera digitata Forst. Damp situations ; fairly common.
Umbelliferae.
Hydrocotyle novae-zealandiae DC. Damp places.
Apium prostratum Labill. Near sand-hills.
filiforme (A. Rich.) Hook. Not uncommon.
Anisotome intermedia Hook. f. Rocks and creek-banks, Martin's Bay.
CORNACEAE.
Griselinia littoralis Raoul. Not uncommon.
lucida Forst. Martin's Bay ; not uncommon.
Ericaceae.
Gaultheria antipoda Forst. f. var. erecta Cheesem. Near Martin's Bay.
Poppelwell and W. A. Thomson. — Botany of Hollyford Valley. 153
Epacridaceae.
Styphelia acerosa Sol. Martin's Bay and Howden Saddle.
- Fraseri (A. Cunn.) F. Mnell. ' Martin's Bay.
Archeria Traversii Hook. f. Bare.
DracophyUum longifolium (Forst. f.) B. Br. Not plentiful.
Myrsinaceae.
Suttonia divaricata (A. Cunn.) Hook. f. Throughout.
Rapanea Urvillei (A. DC.) Mez. Bare.
Convolvulaceae.
Calystegia tuguriorum (Forst. f.) B. Br. Bear of sand-hills.
sepium B. Br. (?). Near sand-hills.
Soldcmella B. Br. On sand, Martin's Bar.
BORAGINACEAE.
Myosotis Lyallii Hook. f. (?). Bush tracks.
Labiatae.
Mentha Ounninghamii Benth. Bush tracks.
SCROPHUL ARIN ACE AE .
Veronica salicifolia Forst. Common ; creek-banks.
■ subalpina Cockayne. Creek-banks.
leiophylla Cheesem. (?). Hidden Falls ; not common.
Lyallii Hook. f. Not uncommon.
catarractae Forst. Hidden Falls.
buxifolia Benth. Bare.
Ourisia caespitosa Hook. f. Near Howden Saddle
Bubiaceae.
Coprosma lucida Forst. Common throughout.
parviflora Hook. f. Fairly plentiful.
— — acerosa A. Cunn. var. arenaria T. Kirk. Dunes.
— — foetidissima Forst. Common in forest.
rotundifolia A. Cunn. In forest.
areolata Cheesem. In forest.
Nertera dichondraefolia (A. Cunn.) Hook. Common.
depressa Banks & Sol. Comparatively rare.
Campanul ace ae .
Pratia angulata (Forst. f.) Hook. f. Common.
variety with small leaf. In forest.
Wahlenbergia albomarginata Hook. Open spaces.
congesta (Cheesem.) N. E. Brown. Sand-hills, Martin's Bay.
Lobelia anceps L. Wet places, Martin's Bay.
Compositae.
Lagenophora pumila (Forst. f.) Cheesem. Not uncommon ; Martin's Bay.
-* petiolata Hook. f. Plentiful.
Olearia arborescens (Forst. f.) Cockayne and Laing. Creek-banks.
ilicifolia Hook. f. Plentiful.
avicenniaefolia Hook. f. Common in places.
Celmisia longifolia Cass. var. Not plentiful.
154 Transaction* .
Brachycome Sinclairii Hook. f. On tracks. &c.
Raoidia glabra Hook. f. Dry places.
australis Hook. f. Shingle-beds.
Gnaphalium luteo-album L. Not uncommon.
Lyallii Hook. f. Rocks. Martin's Bay.
Helichrysum bellidioides (Forst. f.) Willd. Not plentiful.
Craspedia uniflora Forst. f. var. robusta Hook. f. Common : Martin's Bay.
Cotula dioica Hook. f. Open places ; common.
Senecio elaeagnifolius Hook. f. Not plentiful.
Art. XIV. -Notes of a Botanical Excursion, to Bunkers Island (Stewart
Island) .
By D. L. Poppelwell.
[Read before tin Otago Institute, 12th June. 1917 ; received by Editor*. 22nd December,
1917: issued separately, '24tlt May, 1918.1
On the 7th April, 1917, in company with Mr. 0. Biggar, of Croydon, I paid
a visit to Bunkers, one of the group of islands off the north-east coast of
Stewart Island. This scrap of land lies to the eastward of Herekopere,
and is one of the Fancy Group. It is only about 700 metres long, with an
average width of less than 100 metres. The highest point above sea-level
is about 35 metres. The eastern end is a separate island at high tide, and
in another part the island is almost cut in two hy the action of the sea.
The geological formation consists of rotten granite, a good deal of it being
simply a sort of gritty clay. The sea has eaten into this soft material on
the southern side, with the result that there are several slips and cliffs there,
all of which show much recent denudation. Mr. C. Hansen, of Half-moon
Bay, informs me that there is comparatively shallow water on the south
and south-west of the island, which suggests that at no distant date the
island Avas larger than at present.
Ecological Conditions.
In common with all other islands of the Stewart Group, Bunkers is subject
to a high rainfall, with high winds, but a comparatively mild and equable
temperature. On this island there is only a thin coating of peat. Probably
it is on this account that there is but little evidence of bird traffic so far as
the burrowing petrels are concerned, although penguins were not uncommon.
The edaphic conditions and the exposed situation combine to prevent any
extent of forest vegetation, although there are not wanting signs of a one-
time forest formation. Probably when the island was larger such a forma-
tion existed, but the present plant- covering might be called a " scrub "
association.
Plaxt-formations.
These may be divided under the heads of " scrub " and " rocks and
cliffs," but with a view to saving space I do not intend to do more than
outline the associations.
The physiognomy of the scrub shows a smooth exterior, and has the
usual grey-green colour of the Olearia- Senecio association of the Stewart
Botanical District. Olearia angustifoUa is the commonest plant near the
sea, but Senecio rotundifolia and Veronica elliptica are common. Curious
to relate, Olearia Colensoi, so common in similar associations on the islands
in the vicinity, appears to be absent. Here and there Stilbocarpa Lyallii is
seen in patches, and also the common coastal ferns Asplenium lucidum and
Poppelwell. — Botanical Excursion to Bunkers I slain/. 155
A. obtusatum. Here and there are open patches covered with Hlerochloe
redolens mixed with Pteridium esculentum and Histiopteris Incisa, and in other
places with Arundo conspicua. On the higher portion of the island the
principal " shrub " is Olearia arborescens, which grows to the dimensions of
a small tree with a thick trunk and much-branched top. Great patches
of Poly pod in hi diversifoKum are common under the scrub. The rock and
cliff vegetation consists of the usual Poa Aston i. Crassida moschata, Mi/osotis
albida, Cijclophorus serpens, Tetragonia trigyna, and Apium prostratum.
I do not propose to further describe in detail the plant-associations, but
am appending a list of the plants noted, from which it will be seen that a
somewhat varied type of plant finds a home on this isolated piece of soil.
Conclusion.
The list of species shows certain surprises. 1 saw no sign of Olearia
Colensoi, so common on many other islands in this locality. Poa foliosa and
Senecio Stewartiar. so plentiful on Herekopere, only about a mile distant,
were also absent. On the other hand, the presence of Melicytus lanceolatus,
Hemitelia Smithii, Weinmaunia racemosa, and the orchids Earina mucro-
nata and E. an/ am nails suggest a former forest vegetation, of the destruction
of part of which by fire there was some evidence. The total number of
species listed is seventy, belonging to fifty-three genera and twenty-eight
families. In addition to these, five introduced species were noted.
LIST OF PLANTS NOTED.
PTERIDOPHYTA.
Cyatheaceae.
Hemitelia Smithii (Hook, f.) Hook.
Alsophila Colensoi Hook. f.
PoLYPODIACEAE.
Polystichum vestitum (Forst. f.) Presl.
Asplenium obtusatum Forst, f.
- scleroprium Homb. & Jacq.
- lucidum Forst. f.
flaceidum Forst. t
Blechnum capense (L.) Schlecht.
Histiopteris incisa (Tlibg.) J. Sm.
Pteridium esculentum (Forst. f.) Cockayne.
Polypodium diversifolium Willd.
Cyclophorus serpens (Forst. f.) C. Chr.
Lycopodiaceak.
Lycopodium fastigiatum R. Br.
rolubile Forst. f.
Billardleri Spring.
S PEEMO LJH VTA.
Gramineae.
Hiewchlo' redolens (Forst. f.) R. Br.
Arundo conspicua Forst. f.
Poa Astoni Petrie.
— caespitosa Forst. f.
imbecilla Forst. f.
156 Transactions.
Cyperaceae.
Scirpus nodosus (R. Br.) Rottb.
Uncinia pedicellata Kiiken. (?).
JlJNCACEAE.
Luzula campestris DC.
Liliaceae.
Astelia nervosa Banks & Sol.
Phormium Cookianum Le Jolis.
Orchidaceae.
Earina mucronata Lindl.
autumnalis (Forst. f.) Hook.
Thelymitra longifolia Forst.
Prasophyllum Golensoi Hook. f.
Polygoxaceae.
Muehlenbeckia australis (Hook, f.) Meissn.
AlZOACEAE.
Tetragonia tiigyna Banks & Sol.
Cruciferae.
Cardamine heterophylla (Forst. f.) 0. E. Schultz var.
Crassulaceae.
Crassula moschata Forst. f.
Cunoniaceae.
Weinmannia racemosa L. f.
ROSACEAE.
Acaena Sanguisorbae Vahl. var. pusilla Bitter.
GrERANIACEAE.
Geranium microphyllum Hook. f.
Viol ace ae.
Melicytus lanceolatus Hook. f.
Thymelaeaceae.
Pimelea Lyallii Hook. f.
Onagraceae.
E'pilobium pubens A. Rich.
Halorrhagaceae.
Halorrhagis erecta (Murr.) SchindJer.
Gunnera albocarpa (T. Kirk) Cocka)*ne.
Araliaceae.
Stilbocarpa Lyallii J. B. Armstrong.
Nothopanax Colensoi (Hook, f.) Seem.
Poppelwell. — Botanical Excursion to Bunkers Island. L57
Umbelliperae.
Hydrocotyle novae-zealandiae DC.
Apium prostratum Labill.
CORNACEAE.
Griselinia littoralis Raoul.
Myrsinaceae.
Rapanea Urvillei (A. DC.) Mez.
C ON VOLV UL ACE AE .
Calystegia tuguriorum (Forst. £.) R. Br.
BORAGINACEAE.
Myosotis albida (T. Kirk) Cheesem.
SCROPHULARINACEAE.
Veronica elliptica Forst. f.
Rubiaceae.
Coprosma lucida Forst. f.
areolata Cheesem.
foetidissima Forst.
— acerosa A. Cunn.
— parviflora Hook. f.
Nertera dichondraefolia (A. Cunn.) Hook. f.
depressa Banks & Sol.
Campanulaceae.
Wahlenbergia gracilis (Forst. f.) A. DC.
Compositae.
Lagenophora puutila (Forst. f.) Cheesem.
Brachycome Thorn soni T. Kirk.
Olearia angustijolia Hook. f.
__ arborescens (Forst. f.) Cockayne and Laing.
Gnaphalium luteo-album L.
collinum Labill.
Helichrysum bellidioides (Forst. f.) Willd.
filicaule Hook, f .
Senecio lautus Forst. f.
— — rotundifolius Hook. f.
Sonchus littoralis (Kirk) Cockayne.
I N T RUDU 0 E D P L A X T S.
Holcus lanatus L.
Poa trivialis Lind. (?).
Stellaria media Vill.
Brassica oleracea L.
Hypochaeris radicata L.
1 58 Transactions.
Art. XV. Notes on a Botanical Visit to Coll or Bench Island (Stewart
Island).
By D. L. Poppelwell.
[Read befori tin Otago Institute, 12th -June, 1917 ; received by Editors, 22nd, December,
1917 ; issued separately, 24th May, 1918.']
Ox the 10th April, I'.MT. in company with Mr. G. Biggar, of Croydon. I
had the opportunity, by courtesy of Mr. Henry Hansen, of Half-moon Bay,
of spending a few hours on the above island — one of those off the north-east
coast of Stewart Island, distant about six miles from the mainland, at
Half -moon Bay. The whole surface of the island is clad with a close forest
and scrub association, which in parts is difficult to get through, and conse-
quently my list can hardly be considered exhaustive, but it gives a good idea
of the plant-covering. The general characteristics of the coastal scrub of
all these outlying islands are very similar. This island, however, contains
a forest association something like Pukeokaoka,* differing considerably from
both Herekoperef and Bunkers,! which are its nearest neighbours. The
top of the island is somewhat broken by a series of undulations, and the
chief features of the vegetation are the close coastal scrub, the great
quantities of Stilbocarpa Lyallii, and the large groves of Dicksonia squarrosa.
The ferns of the forest-floor are of immense size, the fronds of Asplenium
bulbiferum and A. falcatum attaining a height of 1-5 metres. Petrels and
other burrowing-birds do not seem very plentiful except towards the
southern end of the island, but penguins (Megadyptes antipodium) were
common at the time of our visit, and appeared to be moulting The
influence of these birds on the vegetation must be considerable, both on
account of their traffic and by the enrichment of the ground by their
droppings.
I do not intend further describing the plant-associations in detail, but
append a list of species noted. From this it will be seen that these number
fifty-four, belonging to thirty-seven genera and twenty-four families. For
the first time, I think, Senecio Stewart iae is definitely reported from this
island. It is plentiful at the south end, but was not seen elsewhere.
LIST OF PLANTS NOTED.
PTERIDOPHYTA.
Cyatheaceae.
Dicksonia squarrosa (Forst. f.) Sw.
Hymenopii y llaceae.
Hymenophyllum sanguinolentum
(Forst. f.) Sw.
dilatatum (Foist, f.) Sw. Polypodiaceae.
demissum (Forst. f.) Sw. Polystichum vestitum (Forst.) Presl.
tunbridgense (L.) Sin. — • hispidum (Sw.) Sm.
'■' See 1). L. POPPELWELL, Notes on the Plant-covering of Pukeokaoka, Stewart
Island. Trans. N.Z. Inst, vol. 48, p. 244. 1916.
t See D. L. Poppelwell, Notes of a Botanical Visit to Herekopere Island, Stewart
Island, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47. p. 142, L915.
X See article in this volume, p. 1 ">4
Poppelweli.. — Botanical Visit to Coll or Bench Island.
159
PTERIDOPHYTA contimtt d.
POLYPODIACEAK continued.
Asplenium dbtusatum Forst. f.
scleroprium Homb. & Jacq.
lucidum Forst. f.
bulbiferum Forst. f.
— flaccidum Forst. f.
falcatwn Lam.
Blechnum durum (Moore) C. Chr.
penna manna (Poir.) Kuhn.
Histiopteris incisa (Thbg.) J. Sm.
Polypodia ceae continued.
Pic ri<l inn esculentum (Forst. f.) Cock-
ayne.
Polypodium Billardieri (Willd.) C.
Chr.
grammitidis \\. Br.
diversifolium Willd.
Lycopodiaceae.
Tmesi jttrris team crisis Bernh.
Taxaceae.
Podocarpus ferrugineus Don
Geamineae.
SPERMOPHYTA.
VlOLACEAE.
Melicytus lanceolatus Hook. I.
Myrtaceae.
Hierochloe redolens (Forst. f.) K. Br. Metrosideros lucida (Forst. f.) A. Rich.
Poa Aston i Petrie.
Araliaceae.
Cyperaceae. Stilbocarpa Lyallii J. B. Armstrong.
Scirpus aucklandicus (Hook. f.)Boeck. Nothopanax Edgerleyi (Hook, f.)
■ nodosus (R. Br.) Rottb. Seem
Carex trifida Cav. Pseudopanax crassifolium (Sol.) C
lucida Boott. Koch var. unifoliatum T. Kirk.
LlLIACEAE.
Rhipogonuvn scandens Forst.
Orchidaceae.
Ear ma mucronata Lindl.
POLYGONIACEAE.
Muehlenbeclia australis (Forst. f.)
Meissn.
AlZOACEAE.
Tetragonia trigyna Banks & Sol.
(Jhassulaceae.
Crassula moschata Forst. f.
PlTTOSPORACEAE.
Pittosporum Colensoi Hook. f. var.
CUNONIACEAE.
Weinmannia racemosa L. f.
Pi OS ACE A E.
Rubus australis Forst. f.
I U BELLI FERAE.
Hydrocotyle novae-zealandiae DC.
Apium prostratum Labill.
CORNACEAE.
Griselinia Unocal is H;ioul.
Myrsinaceae
Rapanea Urvellei (A. DC.) Mez.
Scrophularinaceae.
Veronica elliptica Forst f.
Rubiaceae.
Ooprosma rotundifolia A. Cunn.
ureolulu ( !heesem
foetidissiniu Forst
X cdcra dichondraefolia (A. Cunn.)
Hook. f.
( lOMPOSITAE.
Olearia ant/us/ifolia Hook. i.
Erechtites scaberula Flook. f.
Senecio Stewartiae J. B. Armstrong.
rot undifol ius Hook f.
160 T ransacUons.
Art. XYI. — On the Age of the Alpine Chain of Western Otago.
By Professor James Park, F.G.S.
[Bead before the Otago Institute. 9th October, 1917 ; received bij Editors, 22nd December,
1917 ; issued separately, 24th May, 191S.]
Plate VIII.
The alpine chain of Western Otago consists of folded altered rocks of older
Palaeozoic age. Deeply involved in the eastern folds of this chain there
occurs a remarkable wedge of Cainozoic marine strata that can be traced
as a narrow band from Bob's Cove, on the north shore of the middle arm
of Lake Wakatipu, across the Richardson Mountains to the sources of the
Shotover River, a distance of over twenty-five miles. The trend of this
band is north-north-east, and its limits in that direction have not yet
been defined. As exposed in the deep gorges with which the mountains
are scored, the visible involvement exceeds 4,500 ft. 'At its southern end
the thickness of the infolded beds is about 80 ft., and in the Shotover
Mountains 12 ft.
At Bob's Cove, where these beds cover an area about half a square mile
in extent, the succession is : Breccia-conglomerate (bottom) ; sandy clay ;
limestone ; sandstone, in places pebbly.
Fossil mollusca* are fairly abundant, but usually badly preserved. The
few forms collected by me during my survey* of the Queenstown district
in 1908-9 indicated an Oamaruian (Miocene) age, but the absence of certain
molluscs that are held to be characteristic of that period left the matter of
their age in some doubt ; and in view of the profound involvement of these
beds and the bearing this involvement has on the date of the tectonic move-
ment that culminated in the building of the alpine chain I revisited Bob's
Cove last January, and on that occasion collected from the sandstone lying
below the limestone good examples of the following : —
Pecten huttoni Park.
Cucullaea alt a Sowerby.
Limopsis zitteli Iher.
Cardium huttoni Iher.
Venericardia purpurata (Desh.).
Ostrea wullerstorfi, Zittel.
Polinices ovatus (Hutton).
Ancilla hebera Hutton.
Dentaliimi mantelli Zittel.
Of these, Pecten huttoni, Cucullaea alta, Limopsis zitteli, Cardium huttoni,
Ostrea wullerstorfi, and Dentalium mantelli are, so far as at present known,
confined to the Oamaruian, and their presence may be regarded as satis-
factory evidence that the Bob's Cove beds belong to the higher portion of
that system, and the mountain-building movement which led to the deep
involvement! of these beds took place in post-Miocene times, probably in
the early Pliocene.
* James Park, The Geology of the Queenstown Subdivision, Bull. No. 7 («•*.),
N.Z. Geol. Surv.. p. 66, 1909.
f hoc. e*7., pp. 60-66.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate VIII.
«
c
o
-*>
s
o
O
o
in
C
• i— I
P-,
C
O
C6
hi
>
o
O
O
cq
./•'«cs! p. mo.]
L. Cockayne. — Notes on New Zealand Floristic Botany. 161
Art. XVII. — Notes on New Zealand Floristic Botany, including Descrip-
tions of New Species, &c. (No. 3).
By L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.S., Hutton and Hector Memorial
Medallist.
[Rear! before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 24th October. 1917 ; received by Editors,
31st December, 1917 ; issued separately, 30th May, 1918.]
Plates IX, X.
I. Introduction.
In this series of papers, two of which have already appeared,* I am carrying
out, as far as lies in my power, the views regarding species and taxonomic
procedure expressed in my paper entitled " A Consideration of the Terms
' Species ' and * Variety ' as used in Botany, with Special Reference to the
Flora of New Zealand. "f These views are by no means of my own formu-
lating. On the contrary, they represent what I believe to be the consensus
of opinion of those engaged in the only true way of studying specific distinct-
ness— i.e., by means of experiments in genetics according to present-day
methods. If my views possess any originality it lies in the method of stating
the case and in the proposals suggested for meeting the practical difficulty
of making a flora serve its primary purpose of enabling any plant to be
readily recognized and accorded its proper name. As the length of the
paper cited above and the method of presentation of its arguments may
serve to somewhat becloud the practical application of the theories advocated
therein, I now briefly state the principles which in this series of papers are
the guide for the establishing of species or varieties : —
(1.) The starting-point in the setting-up of species is the individual.
(2.) Groups of individuals which resemble one another in every character
and reproduce their like, subject, of course, to unfixed fluctuat-
ing variations, constitute specific units and may be designated
" microspecies. "J
(3.) One microspecies, if all its related microspecies have been oblite-
rated or have never existed, constitutes an invariable or fixed
systematic species. Examples : Agathis australis, Veronica cu-
pressoides, Epilobium pallidiflorum.§
(4.) Two or more closely related microspecies may be united into a
group for the sake of : (a) convenience in identification, (b) em-
phasizing the close relationship of minor groups (microspecies),
(c) phytogeography.
(5.) Such a major group as constituted in (4) forms an aggregate or
collective species.
(6.) Aggregate species are the " variable species " of floras. Examples :
Poa anceps, Ranunculus lappaceus, Pimelea prostrata.
(7.) An aggregate species has obviously no real existence ; it is a con-
venient abstraction only.
* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 48, pp. 193-202, 1916 ; and ibid., vol. 49, pp. 56-65, 1917.
t Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 66-79.
% Other names given to such groups are " biotypes," " petites especes," and
" elementary species."
§ It might well be argued that there are no species which consist of only one micro-
species, and that intense study and experiment will demonstrate their polymorphy.
6— Trans.
162 Transactions.
(8.) Each microspecies of the combination forming an aggregate species
should theoretically receive a varietal name.
(9.) But in practice the procedure advocated in (8) would defeat its
purpose if the microspecies were too much alike, so in this case
groups of virtually identical microspecies can receive varietal
rank.
(10.) It follows then that, similarly with species, varieties are of two
kinds, one reproducing itself true and the other an aggregate.
(11.) Aggregate varieties, though abstractions only, so far as the eye goes
approximate to true entities.
(12.) The description of an aggregate species applies to no special indi-
vidual, but includes the striking characters common to all its
varieties; obviously, then, there is no "type."
1 13.) If the opinions as given above are accepted, a trinomial nomen-
clature becomes necessary, the first name being that of the genus,
the second that of the species, and the third that of the variety.
(14.) If the opinion is held that every microspecies has been at one time
related closely to other microspecies, it follows that even the in-
variable species mentioned in (3) should be given varietal names.
But this procedure seems unnecessary, and perhaps mischievous,
since a binomial for such species is convenient and it indicates
that the specific group stands apart from all others.*
(15.) In certain cases groups, otherwise well defined, seem to be united
by " intermediates " which cannot be joined to such groups or
made into one or more species. Such " intermediates," according
to the teachings of genetics, may be assumed to be hybrids be-
tween microspecies, and their occurrence should not forbid the
separation into species or varieties, as the case may be, of the
distinct true-breeding groups (microspecies) which are connected
by such presumably hybrid intermediates. f
As a botanical ecologist, endeavouring to define and classify the plant-
communities of New Zealand and to learn something about the physiological
requirements of the species and the physiology of form, I have keenly felt,
for many years, the want of names for many well-marked groups of indi-
viduals which, though fitting fairly well into one or other of the recognized
aggregate species, differ so greatly in their ecological requirements from
other members of the species to which they are referred that to call them
by the same name is most misleading, and in no few instances will cause
incorrect ecological deductions.t
* Of course, as at present accepted, there are many different degrees of specific
isolation, but it should be possible to gradually bring about greater uniformity in this
regard.
f This has frequently been done in the New Zealand flora, but not because of any
special biological explanation such as that of microspecific hybrids. Celmisia discolor
and C. incana (Manual, pp. 304-5), Gna/phalium Lyallii and G. trinerve (Manual, p. 323),
and many species of Veronica are cases in point. On the other hand, distinct micro-
species are denied specific rank owing to their being connected by " intermediates."
Examples are : Epilobium pedunculare reduced to a var. of E. nummular if oliuiii (Manual.
p. 180), the treatment of the groups included under Huheria populnea (Manual, p. 7!l).
and the retention of vars. robusta, minor, and lanata as varieties of Craspedia uniflora
(Manual, p. 348).
J Of what value would be an account of the leaf-anatomy or the rate of transpiration
in the leaves of certain individuals of Pittosporum tenuifolium, Acaena Sanguisorbae,
Aristolelia fruticosa, Geranium sessiliflorum, Celmisia coriacea, and Myosotis antarcfica
under the above specific names, unless a description of the actual plants dealt with were
given — i.e., unless they were accorded for the time being the status of microspecies ?
L. Cockayne. — Notes on New Zealand Floristic Botany. 163
It may well be argued that the trend of botanical taxonomy the world
over is to bestow specific names on the varieties, thus breaking up the long-
recognized aggregates into so-called " valid species." Certainly such groups
distinguished by binomials are convenient for the ecologist working at
synecology, but they are of far less use to the autecologist, the floristic
phytogeographer, or the student of evolution or genetics than are aggre-
gates with their varieties distinguished by trinomials. Once cease to empha-
size the genetic aspect of taxonomy, away goes its philosophy — indeed, it
ceases to be a science !
To apply the principles enumerated above is far from easy ; they pro-
bably represent ideals impossible of full attainment. Research is demanded
in many directions ; above all, living material is essential — field observa-
tions as accurate as possible must be made, and experiments in the garden
must finally decide those doubtful points impossible to be solved either in
the field or the herbarium.
With regard to the species, &c, dealt with in the present paper I have
received valuable assistance from various sources without which the work
could not have been carried on. I must especially thank Mr. H. H. Allan,
M.A., F.L.S. (Ashburton) ; Mr. B. C. Aston, F.I.C. (Wellington) ; Mr. H.
Carse (Kaiaka) ; Mr. C. E. Christensen (Hanmer) ; Miss E. M. Herriott,
M.A. (Christchurch); the Rev. J. E. Holloway, D.Sc. (Hokitika) ; Mr.
R. M. Laing, M.A.. B.Sc. (Christchurch) ; Messrs. Nairn and Son (Christ-
church) ; Mr. D. Petrie, M.A. (Auckland) ; Mr. R. H. Rockel, M.A. (New
Plymouth) ; Professor A. Wall, M.A. (Christchurch) ; and Mr. J. Young
(Christchurch) — all of whom have given me much-valued aid both in
material and information. I must also acknowledge the kindness of Pro-
fessor H. B. Kirk, M.A. (Wellington), who has afforded me every facility
for using the herbarium of the late Mr. T. Kirk, F.L S. ; of Dr. J. A.
Thomson for similar privileges with regard to Colenso's herbarium in the
Dominion Museum ; and of Mr. A. Turnbull, F.L.S., who has allowed me
to consult his splendid library of Australasian and Pacific literature.
As far as possible I have deposited in the herbarium of the Canterbury
Museum, Christchurch, type specimens of all the species, &c, dealt with in
this series of papers.
II. Taxonomic.
25.* Carmichaelia Fieldii Cockayne sp. nov.
Frutex parvus, glaber, afoliatus nisi juventute, prostratus. Rami usque
ad 40 cm. longi sed saepe multo breviores, 2 mm. lati, arcuati, compressi,
striati, pauciramosi, cortice luteo-viride obtecti. Racemi brevissimi, nun-
quam fasciculati, 2-5 flori ; pedicelli + 3 mm. longi, glabri. Flores non
visi. Legumen 3-4 mm. longum, oblique-ovoideum vel -oblongum, quam
maxime turgidum, subrugosum, nigrum ; rostrum basi crassum, curvatum,
apiculatum. Semina 2-5 (plerumque 3-4), pallide brunnea.
South Island : North-western Botanical District — Growing as a small
colony on a wind-swept sandstone ledge on a small island rising, at low
water, out of the mud-flat of Westhaven (West Wanganui). W. H. Field
and B.C. Aston !
The above description is drawn up from insufficient material. In
many cases the capsules were much damaged.
Carmichaelia Fieldii appears to come nearest in affinity to C. juncea
Col., but it differs in its prostrate habit, broader always more or less
* The numbers follow on consecutively in this series of papers.
164 Transactions.
compressed branchlets, shorter fewer-flowered, racemes, glabrous pedicels,
and smaller dehiscent pod, with much stouter beak, which contains not
1-3 but 2-5 seeds. From Carmichaelia prona, the only purely prostrate
species yet described, it is distinguished at once by its leafless adult
branches, dehiscing pod with longer beak and greater number of seeds.
Except for the dehiscence of the pod, the species under consideration
would come into the subgenus Huttonella.
The plant was discovered by Mr. W. H. Field, M.P., to whom it is
dedicated. Mr. Aston was with Mr. Field at the time of the discovery,
and he kindly handed over to me for publication the material he had col-
lected, gave me two living plants for cultivation and further observation,
and supplied the information given above regarding the habitat and habit
of the species.
26. Carmichaelia grandiflora (Benth.) Hook. f. var. alba T. Kirk.
The var. alba of Carmichaelia grandiflora was established in 1899 by
T. Kirk to accommodate a plant which grows abundantly near the out-
skirts of subalpine Nothofagus forest in the neighbourhood of the junction
of the White River and the main branch of the River Waimakariri, not far
from their sources (Western Botanical District). There it has been collected
by Kirk himself, Cheeseman, Wall, myself, and others. Cheeseman (Manual,
p. 115) recognizes only the " type ': —obviously a mixture — and var. divari-
cata T. Kirk, but (Illustrations of the New Zealand Flora, facing pi. 33)
he writes regarding C. grandiflora. " It is an exceedingly variable plant.
Mr. T. Kirk in his ' Students' Flora,' enumerates three varieties, and there
are other distinct-looking forms. These varieties* differ in size, in the mode
of branching, and in the size and shape of the pod. But before their
systematic position can be properly understood they all require careful study
and examination in the field." From this it is evident that, according to
Cheeseman, the " varieties " of C. grandiflora differ from one another in
virtually all the essential characters used to define the species of Carmichaelia.
Coming to var. alba, this is probably now accepted by Cheeseman as o
variety, since in the Illustrations, when criticizing Kirk's remarks about its
odour, Cheeseman writes, " Mr. T. Kirk in the ' Students' Handbook ' says
that the flowers 'smell disgustingly of mice.' But this peculiarity, so far
as my own observations go, is only noticeable when the plant is being dried.
In the fresh state the odour of the flowers is decidedly pleasant."
Since there is blossoming just now in my garden (30th December, 1917)
a plant of the variety under consideration, collected for me last year by
Professor A. Wall, M.A., from the original locality of the plant, I am in
a position to add a few details about the variety from living material,
which, unless being slightly less luxuriant and blooming more scantily, is
essentially the same as if gathered from a wild plant.
Kirk describes his var. alba as follows : " Branchlets more robust,
compressed, deeply grooved, fastigiate or nearly so. Flowers as in the
typical form, but white. Ripe pods not seen. Smells disgustingly of
mice " ; and he adds that it is " possibly a distinct species."
The plant in my garden is certainly not " fastigiate " ; on the contrary,
the branches are wide-spreading, being 60 cm. in their spread, while the
shrub is but 30 cm. high. The branches are dark green, flattened, about
* It is not clear whether the author means only Kirk's published varieties or these
together with the " other distinct -looking forms," but I think the latter are meant to
be included.
L. Cockayne. — Notes on New Zealand Floristic Botany. 165
3'5 mm. diameter throughout for their final 15 cm. of length, grooved but
not nearly to the same extent as in dried material, and more or less arcuate.
The branchlets vary from about 4 cm. to 15 cm. in length ; they are inserted
on the flanks of the branch at an angle of about 30° and at about 2'5 cm.
distance from one another. They are straight, bright yellowish-green,
striate, flat, 3 cm. wide more or less, and almost uniform in width through-
out. The leaves are numerous where sheltered, and then in fascicles of
2-4 at the base of young stems ; elsewhere they are inserted in the notch of
the stem at an angle similar to that of the insertion of the branchlet ; the
largest are about U8 cm. long, 3-foliate, their petiole 7 mm. long and chan-
nelled above ; the leaflets are uniform in size, rather dull green, obcordate-
cuneate, their midrib sunken above but slightly keeled beneath ; other
leaves have similar characters, but they gradually decrease in size towards
the tips of the branchlets until they become only 5 mm. long, or even less,
and may consist of one leaflet only. In the cultivated plant the leaves
are glabrous, but wild specimens show a few hairs on the under-surface,
especially on the midrib. By all previous authors C. grandiflora is described
as having glabrous leaves, but in all my herbarium specimens collected in
various localities, including the classical habitat, Milford Sound, the under-
surface of the leaf is more or less hairy, and sometimes considerably so.
The flowers are white, except for a distinct pale-purple blotch through the
median line of the standard, and honey-scented but rather cloying ; they
are in lax-flowered racemes, about 16 mm. long, furnished with short
peduncles 4 mm. long or less. The calyx is campanulate and 3 mm. long ;
its tube is green or mottled pale purple, and the teeth are acute, small,
pale purplish-brown, and ciliolate with white hairs. The standard slightly
exceeds the keel, being 6 mm. long by 6 mm. broad ; the wings and keel
are equal in length (5-5 mm.).
The above description corresponds, as far as changes through drying
allow a comparison to be made, with that supplied by dried specimens.
The var. alba may therefore be defined as follows : A wide-spreading shrub
with the branchlets situated on the flanks of the stems, the racemes numerous,
4-6-flowered, the flowers white with a pale-purple blotch down the centre
of the standard and sweet-scented, the standard as broad as long and rather
longer than the keel, which equals the wings.
Up till now C. grandiflora var. alba has been recorded from its one original
station only. But that it has so restricted a distribution seems highly
unlikely. It is more than likely that through taxonomists working mainly
with dried material the colour of the flowers has been frequently overlooked,
and that specimens are now included in herbaria along with the " type,"
or other possible varieties, which may agree in colour with var. alba. How
greatly colour has been neglected in diagnoses of species of Carmichaelia
is demonstrated by the facts that Kirk mentions colour specifically in only
four out of twenty-three species (Huttonella included) and that Cheeseman
refers to colour in only seven out of nineteen species.
27. Carmichaelia juncea Col. ex Hook. f. (var. from Upper Clarence
Valley).
Carmichaelia juncea Col. was described in the first place by J. D. Hooker
in the Flora Novae- Zelandiae, vol. 1, p. 51, from specimens collected by
Colenso from " east coast, Hawke's Bay and Taupo." In the Handbook
Hooker referred plants from the East Cape (coll. Sinclair), from Akaroa
(coll. Raoul), and from the Canterbury Plains (coll. Travers) to this species.
166 Transactions.
Petrie in his list of Otago plants (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28, p. 546, 1896)
recorded C. juncea from various localities in what I now call the " North
Otago Botanical District." Shortly afterwards, Kirk in the Students' Flora
accepted Petrie's determinations, and, as will be seen, enlarged Hooker's
original conception of the species. Finally, Cheeseman, in the Manual,
followed Kirk, but gave a fuller description of the species than had been
published up to that time.
Both Kirk and Cheeseman agree in considering that the Otago plant
may belong to an undescribed species, basing their opinions chiefly on the
size of the pod and position of its beak.
On the 9th December, 1917, Mr. Christensen noted a Carmichaelia
growing on the bank of the River Clarence (North-eastern Botanical Dis-
trict), between the roads leading to Jack's and Jollie's Passes, which he
described as "' a bush 2 ft. to 3 ft. in height, with the branches drooping
over the water." He very kindly sent me specimens, one showing immature
flowers (for the most part) and the other abundance of leaves. Towards
the end of the month he again went in quest of fully opened flowers, and
sent me a large living specimen fully in bloom, which is now growing in
my garden.
The above specimens I have been able to compare with Petrie's North
Otago plant and with Colenso's type specimens of the species. Below I
give a full description of the Clarence Valley plant. It appears to come
into the conception of the C. juncea of Cheeseman's Manual, but it differs
from both the type and the Otago plant in the racemes never being in
fascicles, the glabrous calyx, and the much longer calyx-teeth. I have not
yet seen the pod.
As for the calyx-teeth, they are different in the three forms. In the
type they are so small as to be almost wanting ; in the Otago plant they
are small but quite distinct, and broad at the base ; in the Hanmer plant
they are comparatively long and narrow. Other distinctions between the
three forms may be noted on comparing the following description with
Hooker's, Kirk's and Cheeseman's diagnoses.
Until fruiting specimens are received, and perhaps comparison made
with living material from Hawke's Bay and Otago, which I am hoping to
secure, it seems best to let the matter of Carmichaelia juncea remain as
Cheeseman has left it. But there seems little doubt that the species as
at present constituted is an aggregate, with distinct varieties of restricted
distribution. As regards the Akaroa and Canterbury Plains plant I know
nothing.
Description of Carmichaelia juncea var. from the Upper Clarence Valley.
A low shrub 60-90 cm. high, with abundant slender drooping branches
and numerous short racemes of small sweet-scented flowers.
Branchlets numerous, close-set, passing from stem at a very narrow
angle, bright green, compressed, but oldest branches terete, 2-3 mm.
broad or rather broader but gradually tapering to an extremely narrow
apex, usually leafless, glabrous. Leaves on younger branches, 1-3-foliate,
+ 16 mm. long, petioles up to 6 mm. long ; leaflets variable in shape and
size, frequently oblong or ovate-oblong but occasionally obovate, linear, &c,
retuse, bright green, glabrous above but somewhat hairy beneath with
short appressed hairs, lateral leaflets much smallest, terminal + 9 mm.
long. Racemes solitary, apparently never fascicled, + 6 mm. distant,
4-12-flowered but not dense, up to 12 mm. long ; pedicels and rhachis
L. Cockayne. — Notes on New Zealand Floristic Botany. 167
•
slightly pubescent especially when young, pedicel at most equalling the
calyx, pale-coloured. Flowers minute, about 3-5-4 mm. long; calyx cam-
panulate, glabrous, 2 mm. long (to tip of tooth), pale yellowish-cream
dotted pale purple, teeth narrow, acute, rather long, dark purple ; standard
about 3 mm. long by 4 mm. broad, upper surface cream-coloured on lower
half, above dark purple marked with almost black lines passing obliquely
from median line of leaf, paler beneath, slightly exceeding the keel ; wings
cream-coloured more or less tinged yellow, equalling keel, oblong, rather
narrow ; keel near apex dark purple, beneath yellowish to cream-coloured.
28. Carmichaelia Monroi Hook. f.
Two years ago Mr. B. C. Aston, F.I.C., while investigating the flora
of the Clarence River basin, collected a supposedly undescribed species of
Carmichaelia a description of which is given below. The examination of
Aston's material led me to a comparison with that in my herbarium of
C. Monroi Hook, f., with the result that the Clarence Valley plant may be
the true C. Monroi, and that the forms included by Kirk, Cheeseman, and
others under that name may be either one or two undescribed species or
very distinct varieties of C. Monroi. This conclusion is quite unexpected, for
few species in the flora seemed to be better understood than is C. Monroi.
Description of Aston s Clarence Valley Species of Carmichaelia.
A stout rupestral much-branched shrub with spreading, more or less
drooping, leafless branches, up to 60 cm. long. Branchlets rigid, green,
flat, grooved, + 12 cm. long and up to 9 mm. wide, hoary pubescent when
young with short appressed hairs which also extend at times to the older
branchlets. Racemes + 5 cm. long, frequently 7-flowered ; rhachis and
pedicels densely pubescent with appressed white hairs ; pedicels slender,
about 6 mm. long. Flowers about 10 mm. long. Calyx campanulate, densely
hairy, 5 mm. long ; teeth 3 mm. long, narrow-triangular, acute, standard
rather longer than the keel, 10 mm. long, 7 mm. broad, ? cream with large
purple blotch in centre whence 1 purple lines radiate to margin and apex ;
wings 6 mm. long, 2-5 mm. broad, marked with ? purple lines ; keel 9 mm.
long, blotched with 1 purple near apex and marked with ? purple lines.
Pods 12-17 mm. long, black when ripe, turgid ; valves wrinkled ; beak
oblique (straight in one specimen), usually short but up to nearly 3 mm.
long ; seeds pale brown mottled with black, rather large, 3 mm. long.
South Island : North-eastern Botanical District — On shaded faces of
limestone cliffs in various gorges on the south-eastern side of the Inland
Kaikoura Mountains. B. C. Aston!
Had this limestone-cliff plant been the only species of Carmichaelia
in its immediate locality, its altogether different habit, together with its
much longer and wider branches and hoary branchlets, its 7-flowered
racemes, and its larger flowers, would separate it from any forms of C.
Monroi as at present understood. But on stony debris, in close proximity
to the rock-plant, but in the open, Mr. Aston collected specimens of a Car-
michaelia with short close branchlets like those of C. Monroi of the Manual
except that they are pilose as in the rupestral plant. Unfortunately their
pods, &c, are too immature in the specimens at my disposal for further
comment.
The type of Carmichaelia Monroi Hook. f. was collected by Monro
" from half-way up to the summit of Macrae's Run " (Awatere River basin) :
168 Transact ion s.
Handbook of the N.Z. Flora, p. 49. Hooker's description is very short and
inadequate. But the branchlets are described as glabrous, while the flowers
are smaller than in the above rupestral plant. Considering that Carmichaelia
Monroi Hook. f. and the Clarence Valley plant grow on opposite sides of
the same range of mountains, and that the ecological conditions of both
areas are not very different, it seems fair to offer the suggestion that perhaps
Hooker neglected to note the hairy branchlets of the Awatere plant, and
that the groups here discussed are not distinct, but one and the same. But
this question can alone be decided by comparing Awatere and Clarence
Valley material and growing both rupestral and debris plants from seed
and then cultivating the seedlings under identical conditions.
Coming next to Carmichaelia Monroi in the sense used by Kirk and
Cheeseman, this is invariably a low- growing shrub with dense erect branch-
lets forming open flat cushions on stony ground. But an examination
of the material of this species at my disposal and a comparison with the
descriptions of Hooker, T. Kirk, and Cheeseman respectively have led
me to the opinion that more than one varietal group is included. For
instance, Petrie's Otago specimens have glabrous calyces — a marked contra-
distinction to Hooker's description of his Awatere specimens as having a
" hoary " calyx. Also, specimens collected by me in the Eastern Botanical
District have almost tomentose calyces, while Cheeseman describes the calyx
as " silky, sometimes densely so," but he does not suggest that it is ever
glabrous. These Otago specimens, too, have triangular, but not narrow-
triangular, calyx-teeth as given by Cheeseman, while the Eastern Botanical
District plant has small calyx-teeth.
From the above it seems clear that the Otago plant at least should be
separated from its allies as a variety, but I do not propose to take this step
until the taxonomy of the whole group is made clear.
Again, there is an allied but much taller plant than the above cushion-
form. This I have collected at Biversdale (Waimakariri Biver basin) and
on the Waimakariri River bed on the Canterbury Plain near the protection-
works. A specimen was planted by me in the gardens of the Biological
Department, Canterbury College, but, unfortunately, before I could describe
it, it was killed during the building of the new chemical laboratory. Another
living plant was for many years in the old " native section " of the Christ-
church Botanical Gardens, and it may still be there. Also, there is in my
herbarium, under the MS. name Carmichaelia humilis, a specimen collected
by Mr. Petrie in the North Otago Botanical District.
To sum up, there is a group of more or less low-growing forms of
Carmichaelia closely allied to and including Hooker's original C. Monroi
which does not consist of a number of identical individuals, but of minor
groups distinguished from one another by well-marked characters, so that
the major group is either a collection of closely allied species one of which
is Carmichaelia Monroi, or this latter should be treated as an aggregate
species consisting of perhaps five quite distinct varieties.
29. Cassinia albida (T. Kirk) Cockayne.
In Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 38, pp. 368-69, 1906, after considerable
experience both with Cassinia Vauvilliersii Hook. f. and the var. albida
T. Kirk, I proposed to rank the latter as a species. Cheeseman (Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 39, p. 446, 1907), criticizing my procedure, said that the course to
be followed in this matter would " depend largely on the point of view and
personal judgment of the observer, coupled, of course, with a full consider-
L. Cockayne. — Notes on New Zealand Floristic Botany. 169
ation of the evidence available." More recently Cheeseman {Illustrations
of the N.Z. Flora, facing pi. 107) accepts C. albida as a species.
With my views as to the relations of species and variety greatly changed
since 1906, I would now reverse my decision, were it not that both C. Vau-
villiersii and C. albida embrace more than one microspecies, and that if
the latter were reinstated as a variety of the former it would be necessary
to establish subvarieties in addition to varieties, so overburdening the
nomenclature.
In Trans. N.Z. Inst., loc. cit., a var. canescens of Cassinia albida is defined
by me. This is distinguished from the type, to which the distinguishing
varietal name " tijpica " is here given,* by the leaf being so densely covered
on the upper surface with a mat of white hairs as to look as if powdered
with dust or mildew.
Some time ago Professor A. Wall sent me living plants of both varieties.
These cultivated in my garden have put forth many young shoots, which
maintain their distinguishing varietal characters, though in var. canescens
the hoariness is somewhat less marked. Both varieties are confined to the
North-eastern Botanical District, but recent observations of Wall show
that possibly neither variety extends to its southern boundary.
In addition to the two varieties dealt with above, Mr. Aston two years
ago collected in the Clarence Valley a variety of Cassina albida which is
woolly on the under-surface of the leaf and rather more hoary on the upper
surface than is var. canescens. But, as I have only the one specimen, I
merely call attention to this apparently distinct form.
It is a matter of interest that on the Lord Auckland Islands the closely
related Cassinia Vauvilliersii (Homb. & Jacq.) Hook. f. is represented by
two varieties — viz., the type and one with a canescent upper surface to
the leaf. These characters are so striking that the two varieties can be
recognized at a distance.f
30. Epilobium chloraefolium Hausskn.
This extremely common subalpine species was first described by Hauss-
knecht in 1879 from dried material (Oestr. bot. Zeitschrift, vol. 29, p. 149).
Although, as Haussknecht points out, the species bears no resemblance to
E. rotundifolium Forst. f., the dried material which he examined in various
English herbaria showed him that it had been referred to the latter. But
long after Haussknecht's subjecting the New Zealand Epilobia to a searching
inquiry- -indeed, up to the publication of Kirk's Students' Flora in 1899 —
with but few exceptions, the New Zealand Epilobia, now known to number
at least thirty-eight species, J as well as some strongly marked varieties,
had been crammed into the Procrustean bed of Hooker's arrangement in
the Handbook, where but seventeen species were admitted. This summary
* Cassinia albida (T. Kirk) Cockayne var. typica Cockayne var. nov. Foliis supra
pilis sparsissime obtectis.
t See L. Cockayne, The Ecological Botany of the Subantarctic Islands of New
Zealand, The Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand, vol. 1, p. 216, 1909.
| Since the publication of the twenty-eight species admitted by Cheeseman in the
Manual the following have been described either as new or "restored": Epilobium
antipodum Petrie, E. arcuatum Petrie, E. cinereum A. Rich, (to replace E. junceum Sol.
in part), E. Coclcaynianum Petrie, E. erectum Petrie (to replace E. junceum var. macro-
phyllum Hausskn.), E. hirtigerum A. Cunn. (to replace E. junceum var. hirtigerum),
E. nerterioides A. Cunn., E. pedunculare A. Cunn., E. rubra- marginatum Cockayne,
E. tasmanicum Hausskn. (the last two to replace E. confetiijolium Hook. f. so far as it
applied to plants other than those of the New Zealand Subantarctic Botanical Province).
170 Trait mictions.
treatment was foi the most part due, I believe, to Hooker's statement m
the Handbook (p. 76), as follows : l I have repeatedly studied the New
Zealand ones [Epilobia], many of which completely puzzle me. The following
descriptions represent in many cases perhaps prevalent forms rather than
species ; and the student will certainly find intermediates between most
of them. It is useless attempting to name many species until copious
suites of specimens are collected, the characters being to a great extent
comparative."
Cheeseman's description of Epilobium chloraefolium in the Manual is ex-
cellent. However, he states (p. 178) that, though a well-marked plant, it is
'" at the same time a very variable one, especially in height, degree of branch-
ing, size of flowers and capsules, &c." But this variability depends, so far as
my investigations go, not upon there being a number of true-breeding races
(microspecies) included in either Cheeseman's or Haussknecht's groups, but
rather upon true variability according to environment — shade- and sun-
plants, for instance, differing greatly in certain particulars. Also, I rather
suspect that certain hybrids are included by Cheeseman in his group.
In this note I am suggesting an enlargement of the conception of the
species by adding a distinct true-breeding group which, although it fits well
into the original description if size of organs is ignored, far surpasses the
type in this respect. I am also giving a varietal name to the " type," so
that to those accepting my conclusions the group E. chloraefolium will
consist of the two varieties and of any other allied varieties which may be
segregated from the individuals now constituting the species, or in course
of time be discovered.
(a.) Epilobium chloraefolium Hausskn. var. kaikourense Cockayne var. nov.
Habitu robustiore, floribus duplo majoribus a typo differt.
This well-marked variety is distinguished at a glance from any form of
Epilobium chloraefolium by its exceedingly robust habit and large white
flowers, which at times are quite 28 mm. in diameter when fully opened.
The stems, decumbent at first, finally erect and woody in their older
parts, are stout, purple, shining, smooth, and minutely bifariously pubescent.
The leaves are numerous, moderately close-set, pilose especially on the
margin at the base and on the petiole when young but finally glabrous,
rather thick, coriaceous, somewhat glossy, bright- or yellowish-green above,
often reddish beneath, and taper into a short, broad, channelled petiole
about 4 mm. long ; the lamina is more or less broadly oblong or even elliptic,
about 20 mm. long by 12 mm. wide and distinctly but minutely toothed,
its apex is obtuse, the midrib is strongly keeled, and the lateral veins distinct.
The flowers are few in the axils of the terminal leaves, white, invariably
large, and often attain 28 mm. diameter. The plant continues blooming
for more th;m six months. The capsule is about 3-3 cm. long, dark purple,
minutely pubescent ; its peduncle is only 3-5 mm. long — i.e., it is much
shorter than the subtending leaf, which may be 19 mm. long or longer.
The seeds are numerous, + 1-75 mm. long, light-brown, and papillose.
The great differences in appearance which the above - described vars.
of E. chloraefolium present made me inclined at one time to consider the
var. kaikourense a distinct species, especially as it came true from seed
and occupied a special limited area of distribution. So long ago as 1892
Mr. T. Kirk wrote to me regarding a specimen (herb. L. Cockayne, No. 3668)
I submitted for his opinion, " May prove distinct, but further specimens
must be examined — a very interesting form."
L. Cockayne. — Notes on New Zealand Floristic Botany. 171
A careful comparison of living plants of both varieties in my garden
shows that there is no important difference between them except size,
while the structure of the flower is identical in both.
The plant was found in the first instance by myself in 1892, growing in
rather moist soil on cliffs a little distance from the sea at Kaikoura, and
shortly after that I found it to be abundant under the subalpine scrub on
Mount Fyffe (Seaward Kaikoura Mountains). Plants were cultivated in
my New Brighton garden, where they, or their seedlings, remained for six
years at least ; and seeds were sent in 1897, and probably earlier, to various
European botanical gardens under the name Epilobium Cockaynianum*
Petrie ined., but which Petrie never published. In 1905 Mr. H. J. Matthews
and myself again observed the plant on Mount Fyffe, and I recorded its
occurrence in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 38, p. 373, 1906, as Epilobium sp. aff.
E. chloraefolium Hausskn. Since then the plant in question has been found
by Mr. C. E. Foweraker and myself in the Awatere Valley, by Mr. B. C.
Aston in the Clarence Valley, and by Professor A. Wall on the Seaward
Kaikoura Mountains ; while a plant from Mount Isabel, at Hanmer, collected
by Mr. C. E. Christensen probably is var. kaikourense. In other words,
the variety is confined to the North-eastern Botanical District, where it
is of wide distribution from sea-level to at least 900 m. altitude, and grows
on rock, beneath shrubs, and probably in shady tussock grassland.
Phytogeographically the distribution of E. chloraefolium var. kaikourense
is an interesting case of a true-breeding race of a species of wide distri-
bution being confined to a limited area which possesses a special ecological
character, as reflected in the great number of locally endemic plants.
From the horticultural standpoint, the ease of culture of the plant, its
general habit, beautiful long-blooming flowers, and purplish foliage and
stems render it worthy of any rock-garden ; nor is there fear of its becoming
a weed, as in the case of certain New Zealand Epilobia.
(b.) Epilobium chloraefolium Hausskn. var. verum Cockayne var. nov.
This equals E. chloraefolium as described by Haussknecht in Mono-
graphic der Gattung Epilobium., p. 299, Taf. 19, fig. 81, 1884. No further
description is needed. The differences between var. verum and var. kai-
kourense are given above.
31. Epilobium pedunculare A. Cunn. var. brunnescens Cockayne var. nov.
Caulibus pallidis saepe brunneis tinctis. Foliis ovato-oblongis vel
oblongo-rotundatis, supra pallide viridibus saepe brunnescentibus, margine
remote dentatis, subtus purpurascentibus. Capsulis glaberrimis, pallide
bruneis, + 5-3 cm. longis ; pedicellis colore capsulis etiam, multo elongatis,
6-6 cm. longis.
This variety forms large more or less circular patches. The leaves vary
in size, but about 9 mm. long is frequent ; the petioles are about 3 mm.
long. Where exposed to bright light the leaves assume a brownish tinge.
The flowers are small, white, and about 5 mm. diameter. The calyx-
segments are narrow-oblong, 3 mm. long, brownish, and end in a swollen
purplish apex. The capsule is more than three times the length of the
ovary, and the peduncle increases from about 2-2 cm. to 5-7 cm. as the
capsule develops.
* E. Cockaynianum Petrie in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 41, p. 140, 1909, has no
relationship to this, but is related to E. alsinoides A. Cunn.
172 Transactions.
Epilobium pedunculare var. brunnescens has a wide range, but this 1
cannot at present define, nor its ecological distribution. However, I have
plants in my garden identical in every particular collected from localities
far distant from one another — viz., Mount Egmont (coll. L. C.) (Egmont-
Wanganui Botanical District) and Four Peaks (coll. A. Wall) (south of the
Eastern Botanical District).
Haussknecht describes a var. laxa of E. pedunculare, and it may be
that my new variety is the same. But without actually comparing the
material on which Haussknecht founded his variety it is impossible to come
to a conclusion, so it seems to me better to risk the establishment of a
synonym, which for a time will serve a definite phytogeographic purpose,
than to withhold publication or refer the group to var. laxa, which it may
not be after all.
The further question arises, am I right to uphold the species Epilobium
pedunculare A. Cunn. rather than follow Hooker, Kirk, and Cheeseman,
and deal with it as a variety of E. nummularifolium ?
Haussknecht — relying only, however, upon dried material — keeps the
two species distinct, and strongly supports his position by the two fine
figures 94 and 96 {Monographic der Gattung Epilobium, Taf. 22 and 23).
He also states that in herbaria E. pedunculare is frequently found mixed
with E. nummularifolium, but that they are readily distinguished by
E. pedunculare having the leaves smaller, more close-set, thicker, entire,
and with shorter stalks ; the capsule glabrous and its peduncle more slender,
and the seeds covered much more thickly with papillae (I.e., p. 303 — freely
translated).
My own experience, after many years' observation of various groups
included under the specific names nummularifolium and pedunculare, both
growing in many parts of New Zealand and also cultivated by me, has
convinced me that the two species are absolutely distinct, and separated
by well-marked unchangeable characters.
Epilobium nummularifolium, in one form at any rate — and the species
may quite well contain only the one form — is common throughout the
North and South Islands, but absent in Stewart Island ; it appears to be
mainly a lowland plant, but there is no exact record of its distribution,
such being confused with that of E. peduncidare, which ascends at least
to the subalpine belt.
E. nuiitntularifolium may be best distinguished from the aggregate
E. pedunculare by its orbicular or suborbicular bright-green leaf with at
times a more or less truncate base, its rather long petiole which is
winged above, its capsule not glabrous but closely covered with a short
(increscent pubescence, its fruiting peduncle not lengthening so greatly as
in E. peduncidare, and its less papillose seeds. Even the leaves alone of
living specimens enable the two species to be identified in an instant.
32. Epilobium pedunculare A. Cunn. var. minutiflorum Cockayne var.
nov.
Varietas distinctissima, caulibus gracilibus rubro-purpureis, foliis parvis
rotundis subrotundis vel ovatis viridibus, floribus minutis, pedunculis
statu fructu solum 3 cm. longis et capsulis purpurascentibus brevibus
11 mm. longis facile distinguenda.
South Island: Eastern Botanical District — (1) Trelissick Basin, but
details regarding habitat wanting : A. Wall ! (2) Rakaia River bed not far
from mouth of river : H. H. Allan !
L. Cockayne. — Notes on New Zealand Floristic Botany, 173
The above variety is described from a plant which has been in my
garden for only a few weeks, collected by Professor Wall as above.
The plant forms matted patches. The leaves vary in size from less
than 3 mm. long up to about 5 mm. The reddish-purple stems, petioles,
and peduncles contrast with the bright-green leaves. The flowers are white ;
the calyx is pale brown tinged and margined with reddish-purple ; the
petals are white ; the slender petiole only increases from 2 cm. to 2-5 cm.
when the capsule is ripe.
33. Epilobium pedunculare A. Cunn. var. viride Cockayne var. nov.
Oaulibus teneris pallide viridibus ; foliis oblongis vel rotundatis remote
et obscure dentatis, laminis usque ad 7 mm. diam. ; floribus 6-5 mm. diam..
pedunculis brevibus 5-11 mm. longis ; capsulis circ. 2-8 cm. longis ;
viridibus secundum suturam brunneo tinctis.
North Island : North Auckland Botanical District — On river-bed near
Fairburn, Mangonui County. H. Carse !
This variety is readily distinguished from E. pedunculare var. brunnescens
by its green leaves and. stem and by the much shorter peduncle of the
flower, which does not elongate to nearly the same length as that of var.
brunnescens in the fruiting stage. The flowers and capsules are also smaller.
The plants now growing in my garden, from which the above diagnosis
is drawn up, were collected specially for this paper by Mr. H. Carse as
an example of the form of Epilobium pedunculare in his neighbourhood.
Whether the above variety is identical with the plant originally described
by Allan Cunningham I cannot say, for the original description is quite
general and would fit almost any variety of the species.
34. Gunnera densiflora Hook. f.
In 1864 Hooker published his Gunnera densiflora, basing his description
on specimens collected by W. T. L. Travers at an altitude of 4,000 ft. in the
Acheron and Clarence Valleys — i.e., it must have been collected not far from
the sources of these rivers if the altitude as given is correct. For some
thirty-two years no Gunnera was discovered that could be referred to the
above species until, in 1896, I collected a species of Gunnera in the Craigie-
burn Mountains (Eastern Botanical District), at the headwaters of the
Hogsback Creek, at an altitude of rather more than 900 m. Specimens
were sent by me to Kirk, who referred them, apparently without hesitation,
in his Students' Flora (1899) to G. densiflora. Cheeseman, in the Manual,
working with the same material as Kirk, drew up a new diagnosis of the
species based partly upon Hooker's original brief description and partly
upon my not-too-well-prepared specimens. Regarding these latter Cheese-
man writes that they u are the only ones I have seen that can be referred
the species."
So the matter remained until, in 1911, Mr. R. M. Laing, M.A., B.Sc,
during a botanical excursion towards the headwaters of the Rivers Clarence
and Waiau, discovered, in abundance, on the western side of Lake Tennyson
a species of Gunnera which, in my opinion, is equivalent to the plant on
which Hooker founded G. densiflora.
Mr. Laing submitted his material first of all to Cheeseman, who sug-
gested that it might quite well be Gunnera cordifolia Hook, f., hitherto
thought to be confined to Tasmania. Later, Mr. Laing submitted specimens
for my opinion, telling me also what Cheeseman had said. G. cordifolia
1 74 Transact ions .
is well illustrated in Das Pflanzenreich (IV. 225. Halorrhagaceae, p. 108,
fig. 31). After examining Mr. Laing's specimens, and comparing them with
the above-cited figure, &c, I came to the conclusion that the species was
either G. cordifolia or a variety of that species, and so dealt with it in my
unpublished Vegetation of New Zealand.
Laing (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 44, pp. 65-66, 1912) drew up a detailed
description of the Gunnera in question in the field with the living plant
before him, and his and my original opinions are considered below.
Regarding the Craigieburn Mountains plant, Laing stated (I.e., p. 66)
that Cheeseman had informed him it was distinct from the Lake Tennyson
plant, and that it had been identified' by the Kew authorities as Gunnera
densiflora Hook. f.
Learning recently that Professor Wall intended paying a botanical visit
to the Trelissick Basin, I explained to him as exactly as I could — no easy
matter — the precise spot where I had collected the Gunnera in 1896, and
urged him to make a thorough search. This he most willingly did, and not
only found the plant in quantity in the locality indicated, but discovered
other stations for it in the neighbourhood. He secured ample material,
of which he sent me abundance both living and dried, some of the former
being now growing. in my garden. As it is a matter of considerable phyto-
geographical importance to get detailed knowledge of this rather critical
species of Gunnera I am publishing a description.
Description of the Gunnera from the Craigieburn Mountains.
Rhizome short, ± 19 mm. long by 5'5 mm. thick, rooting with straight
roots about 8 mm. long, and giving off stout, terete, dark-brown, more or
less strigose-pilose stolons each about 3 cm. long and 2 mm. diam. Leaves
in rosettes of about 4 or 5 + 3"5 cm. across ; petiolate with petiole variable in
length from about 2-2-8 cm., fleshy, pale often tinged pink, terete or chan-
nelled above or only near junction with lamina, pilose with strigose white
hairs on back and margin but variable in this respect as to density of hairs
on different leaves of same plant ; lamina moderately bright green, coriaceous,
usually more or less cordate at base, sometimes truncate, auricled at base
with two small toothed appendages + 2 mm. long which are bent upwards,
orbicular or broadly ovate-orbicular, hairy above and on margin, glabrous
beneath, rounded at apex or occasionally almost subacute, rather coarsely
but sharply toothed with about 9 teeth + 1 mm. long on each side, veins
evident above and beneath, midrib stout and keeled beneath.
Flowers unisexual, numerous. Male flowers in spikes about 2-5 cm. long
terminating rather stout scapes about 2-8 cm. long arising from axils of
leaves and densely covered with brown strigose hairs ; pedicels very short,
subtended by a small narrow subulate bract about 2 mm. long ; calyx-
lobes 2, narrow-triangular, about 1 mm. long ; petals 2, transverse, narrow
linear-spathulate, much exceeding anthers, 4 mm. long and 0-5 mm. wide
near the black acute apex ; stamens 2, situated on base of petals, broadly
ellipsoid, 2 mm. long, rounded at apex, filaments extremely short. Female
crowded into a dense globose head about 6 mm. long terminating a stout,
fleshy, pale or pale-brown scape 10 mm. long, pilose with numerous white
hairs ; calyx-tube urceolate, pale green, smooth, about 2 mm. long ; calyx-
lobes 2, subulate, purple with black tip, about 0-75 mm. long. Styles 2,
wide-spreading, pale brown, 4-5 mm. long, stigmatic throughout.
On compa ing, detail by detail, the above description with that of Laing
(for the Lake Tennyson plant), of Schindler (for the Tasmanian plant),
L, Cockayne. — Notes on New Zealand Floristic Botany, 175
and of Hooker (for the type of Gunnera densiflora), my opinion is that the
New Zealand plants are all one and the same, and that the Tasmanian may
also belong to the same species. On the other hand, the New Zealand
Gunnera, accepting Schindler's description and illustration of the Tasmanian,
differs from the latter in the petals, which are much longer and narrower
in the New Zealand than in the Tasmanian plant, and in the shape of the
drupe, pyriform in the New Zealand, ovoid according to Hooker ex Schindler
in the Tasmanian plant. Also Schindler's figure shows the margin of the
leaf of his plant as strongly ciliated, whereas in the New Zealand plants
the ciliation is virtually confined to young leaves. Bearing the above in
mind, it seems best to maintain Gunnera densiflora as a species, but to
remember that it is extremely closely related to G. cordifolia Hook. f. of
Tasmania, and is a further link between the floras of the eastern Australian
and New Zealand regions.
35. Haastia recurva Hook. f. var. Wallii Cockayne var. nov.
Foliis et capitulis quam ilia typi minoribus ; plerumque pilis albidis
munitis sed eis prope ramulorum apices interdum subfulvidis tinctis ; bracteis
involucri apiculatis.
The variety differs from any example of Haastia recurva that I have
seen hitherto in the much smaller size of all its parts, in its dense wool being
white nearly everywhere and only slightly fulvous near the apices of the
branchlets, and in the apiculate apex of the involucral bracts. The leaves
are generally less than 10 mm. long, or only half the length of good-sized
leaves of the type. The flower-heads are 7 mm. diam., or not half the size
of medium-sized heads in the type.
The plant was collected by Professor A. Wall on a shingle-slip near the
summit of Mount Fyffe, Seaward Kaikoura Mountains. Unfortunately,
only the one plant was noted. On receiving the specimen I thought this
plant with white wool and slender branches might be the common form
of the Kaikoura Mountains in general, but upon comparison with Mr. Aston's
specimens from Mount Tapuaenuku (Inland Kaikoura Mountains) this
apparently is not the case. Specimens from Shingly Range (Awatere) also
belong to the type.
36. Haastia Sinclairii Hook. f.
Judging from specimens in my herbarium, there appear to be two dis-
tinct groups of plants included under Haastia Sinclairii Hook. f. by Cheese-
man (Manual, p. 321). One of these gronps is figured in Cheeseman's
Illustrations of the N.Z. Flora, pi. 100, and this appears characteristic of
the species so far as the North-western and Western Botanical Districts
are concerned ; . but the Fiord Botanical District group appears to differ in
certain particulars as compared with the more northern plant, especially
in its smaller leaves, which are covered beneath much more thinly with
fulvous (not white) wool, and above are thinly covered with wool or, at
times, almost glabrous. Also, the heads of the Fiord plant are much smaller.
I do not propose here to separate the species into two varieties, the intention
of this note being to call the attention of collectors in the area of the species
to probable differences in plants of this species which they may find.
In the Illustrations of the N.Z. Flora Cheeseman comments upon the
distribution of Haastia Sinclairii as follows : " H. Sinclairii, which is a true
: shingle-slip ' plant, never found away from the slopes of dry shingle which
form such a prominent feature on the eastern 'side of the Southern Alps."
176 Transactions.
And farther on— " But it was soon found to have a wide distribution on
the eastern side of the Southern Alps, and is now known to extend from
the northern portions of the Mount Arthur Range southwards through the
Canterbury Alps to the south-west of Otago. ... I am not aware,
owever, that it occurs in any locality well on the western side of the
watershed of the Alps."
The above statements, though topographically true in our present state
of knowledge, neglect the ecological viewpoint. There are two distinct
classes of shingle-slips — the one very dry on the surface and situated beyond
the average limit reached by the western rainfall, and the other not by any
means so dry a station, since it lies within the wet area. These two classes
of shingle-slip are clearly defined by their plant inhabitants. A dry or
eastern shingle-slip contains that wonderful assemblage of which the follow-
ing, to cite only a few, are characteristic : Craspedia alpina, Notothlaspi
rosulatum, Poa sclerophylla, Ranunculus Haastii, Stellaria Roughii, Veronica
epacridea. On the other hand, the western shingle-slip contains none of
the above species ; in fact, there are but few plants common to both —
e.g., Epilobium pycnostachyum is one. The species of Haastia, too, are
an especially good index. On an eastern shingle-slip (using the term
ecologically and not as used in the quotation above) Haastia recurva is
alone to be found, but on a western shingle-slip it is absent, being repre-
sented by H. Sinclairii. So, too, the dry east gives Veronica Haastii, but
once well into the area of excessive rain it is V. Haastii var. macrocalyx.
As for Haastia Sinclairii not having been found to the west of the actual
Divide, I suspect this is chiefly due to the fact that shingle-slip is not
much in evidence on the west, speaking comparatively, and also that, the
North-western Botanical District excepted, few collections have been made
on mountains possessing shingle-slips, these true western mountains being
almost entirely unexplored botanically.
37. Hymenanthera crassifolia Hook. f.
Hymenanthera crassifolia Hook. f. was originally a mixture of Scaevola
novae - zelandiae A. Cunn., now known as Hymenanthera novae-zelandiae
(A. Cunn.) Hemsley, and plants from Cape Palliser and Nelson. These
latter, along with certain other plants, form H. crassifolia in its restricted
sense. But the distribution of the species is uncertain, owing to lack of
knowledge as to the limits of polymorphy to be allowed or the variation
which takes place not only in H. crassifolia but in the species next dealt
with — H. obovata T. Kirk.
At any rate, so far as I know, true H. crassifolia is found in the Ruahine-
Cook Botanical District, on the coast both of the Wellington and Sounds
Subdistricts, whence it extends, but not in an unbroken line, to the coast
of the South Otago Botanical District. Certain inland plants have been
referred to this species, as also a Stewart Island plant, but all these deter-
minations must be received with caution.
Although there is an admirable plate of H. crassifolia in the Flora Novae-
Zelandiae, there is no description easily available which deals with the colour
of the flower, and as this is an important character for identification pur-
poses the following description of the flower may prove useful.
Description of Flowers of Hymenanthera crassifolia Hook. f.
Flowers inserted on under-surface of twigs, numerous but quite hidden
from view on living plant, very small, usually solitary but close-set, her-
L. Cockayne.— Notes on New Zealand Florist ic Botany. 177
maphrodite, slightly sweet-scented, pedunculate with decurved or straight
green peduncle rather shorter than the flower, furnished with two minute,
broadly triangular, scarious brown bracts inserted a little below its centre.
Sepals orbicular, about one-half length of petals, green with broad, purplish,
minutely fimbriate margin. Petals waxy in appearance, lemon - yellow,
oblong, + 3 mm. long, obtuse, recurved at apex which on margin is some-
times purplish ; in bud deeply stained purple.
The pollen is shed just before the flower opens or shortly afterwards
and so easily falls on the stigma. There is no honey. Abundance of
pollen reaches the stigma. After pollination the ovary, &c, rapidly
enlarges.
In the neighbourhood of Wellington H. crassifolia commences to bloom
some time during the first two weeks of September.
38. Hymenanthera obovata T. Kirk.
Hymenanthera obovata, as established by T. Kirk in_1895 (Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. 27, p. 350), and upheld by Cheeseman in 1906 (Manual, p. 50),
is based on material from two sources — the Trelissick Basin (Canterbury)
and various localities in Nelson. An examination of the type material in
Kirk's herbarium shows that the Trelissick and Nelson material look very
different, and the feeling at once arises that the species as at present con-
stituted is a combination of two distinct groups of individuals, each of
which is entitled to rank as a species.
The above difficulty is increased, firstly, by the imperfect knowledge of
the flowers of either the Trelissick or Nelson plants, and, secondly, by the
discovery by Mr. B. C. Aston, some years ago, of another group of indi-
viduals with, it is now known, a local distribution along the shores, &c,
of Cook Strait from the French Pass and Kapiti Island to Somes Island
in Wellington Harbour. This last-named group far more closely resembles
the Nelson than the Trelissick group — indeed, when the flowers of the Nelson
group are investigated it possibly will be found either that the two groups
are identical, or that they are microspecies which must be united under
one name. Likewise, judging from Kirk's type specimens, from my per-
sonal knowledge of the genus Hymenanthera in the Trelissick Basin, and
from fresh specimens of the plant in question recently collected in the above
locality by Professor Wall, it seems not unlikely that the Trelissick group
may eventually be referred to H. crassifolia.
The present state of knowledge regarding Hymenanthera obovata, which
I have attempted to concisely indicate, demands that any further knowledge
should at once be made available for students and collectors, so that
the real status of the species, and of the groups cited above, may be
established.
Thanks to Mr. Aston, who last year (1916) put me in the way of seeing
the Wellington plant in more than one locality, and who assisted me in col-
lecting ample flowering material, I am in a position to describe the Welling-
ton plant. Further, Mr. Aston at the close of the year 1917 collected
material of the Nelson plant from the Riwaka-Takaka hills, which he has
placed in my hands. Finally, Professor Wall has procured for me living
and dried material of the Trelissick plant ; while Miss Herriott (Biological
Laboratory, Canterbury College) sent me some time ago from Cass (Wai-
makariri River basin) seedlings of the Hymenanthera of that locality, which
must be either H. obovata T. Kirk (in part) or H. dentata var. alpina,
another group of quite uncertain position.
178 Transaction*.
Description of the Wellington Coastal Hymenanthera (= ? H. obvata T. Kirk
in its restricted sense).
A low shrub more or less flattened, to the substratum into which its
prostrate stems root, but its height varies with regard to degree of exposure
of the plant.
Branches more or less divaricating and interlacing, with younger twigs
clad with pale bark covered with a fine pubescence, but older twigs having
grey bark dotted freely with lenticels.
Leaves obovate or oblong-obovate, varying greatly in size according to
situation, but from 1 cm. long by 7 mm. wide to 3 cm. long by 1-6 cm. wide
are a fair average, though there are others both larger and even smaller,
very dark green above, whitish-green beneath, very thick and coriaceous,
obtuse, often emarginate, generally entire but occasionally there is a coarse
tooth on either side,* above veins obscure, beneath evident but not
numerous ; petiole short, about 3 mm. long. (In shade reversion-shoots
occur with leaves thinner, larger, more irregular in shape, sometimes
rhomboid, 1-2-toothed on either side.)
Flowers numerous, about 4 mm. diam., mostly on the naked branches.
in the axils of former leaves, solitary or in fascicles of about 4, apparently
hermaphrodite, almost twice as large as those of H. crassifolia (see above,
No. 37), paler yellow, more urceolate, and margins of petals edged with a
bright-purple line ; pedicels about 4 mm. long, pale green, fleshy ; bract
broadly triangular, acute ; sepals 4-5 times shorter than petals, much
broader than long, green at base but strongly margined with purple,
rounded at apex which is fimbriate ; petals linear-oblong or narrow ovate-
oblong, about 5 mm. long and 2 mm. broad, pale yellow, obtuse, sometimes
emarginate, strongly recurved ; stamens with orange staminal process ;
scale (nectary) obovate, slightly praemorse at fimbriate apex, and abundance
of honey at base.
Apart from the much greater size of the leaves, and, where not exposed
to the most powerful wind, the much more open character of growth, the
above species is distinguished at once from H. crassifolia by the flowers,
which are twice as large, the sepals not half length of petals but only one-
third or one-fourth as long, the narrower, longer, pale-yellow not lemon-
yellow petals.
With regard to Nelson specimens of undoubted Hymenanthera obovala
(in the restricted sense), Aston's specimens are from two sources. The
first grows " in crevices of limestone rock at from 2,500 ft. to 2,700 ft. on
the Riwaka Hill, and 1-3 ft. high " (fide Aston). Specimens of this plant
show (as described for the Wellington plant) the leaves linear-obovate to
occasionally almost linear, very numerous, alternate or fascicled, from more
than 4 cm. long to 1-5 cm. or even less, not thick, probably rather dark
green above, pale beneath, tapering into a short petiole, entire, rounded
at apex. The second was taken from one plant growing at Golden Bay,
near the cement-works. It was a " shrub with trunk about 10 ft. high
and pendulous branches growing in shade on limestone country" (fide
Aston). This specimen has leaves up to 7-5 cm. long, some are 3 cm. broad,
cpiite small leaves are rare. They are bright green above, pale beneath,
entire, occasionally emarginate, not in fascicles.
Although the two plants just noted differ so far as the leaf is concerned
in some particulars from the Wellington plant, such differences are probably
*The Manual description reads, "quite entire," but even Kirk's type specimens
show some leaves not entire.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate IX.
w.
[J. E. Young, photo.
Leptospermum scoparium Leonard Wilson, growing naturally near Port Levy,
Banks Peninsula.
Face p. 178.]
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate X.
[;/. E. Younij, photo.
Flowering branch of Leptospermum scoparium Leonard Wilson, showing the
double white flowers.
L. Cockayne. — Notes on New Zealand Floristic Botany. 179
entirely environmental. The most interesting point is the greatly reduced
leaves present with much larger ones on the Riwaka plant, and such suggest
that perhaps the Trelissick Basin plant is, after all, a reduced form. An
examination of flowers and fruit can alone settle this interesting point, but
I am still inclined to agree with my opinion as stated above -that the
Trelissick plant is one species, and that the Riwaka and other Nelson plants
should be united with the Wellington plant either as a polymorphic or an
epharmonic group.
39. Leptospermum scoparium Forst. (forms with double flowers).
(Plates IX and X.)
In New Zealand Plants and their Story, p. 149 (1910), I have called
attention to a form of Leptospermum scoparium with double flowers which
was discovered by Mr. E. Phillips Turner, F.R.G.S., in the Volcanic Plateau
Botanical District.
A second plant with double flowers was found some four years ago at
Torrent Bay, Nelson, by a lady residing at Motueka. This information I
received from Messrs. Nairn and Sons, nurserymen, of Christchurch.
A third plant with double flowers must now be recorded. This was
found recently by Mr. Leonard H. Wilson on his property at Port Levy,
Banks Peninsula. I am indebted to Mr. J. Young, Curator of the Christ-
church Botanical Gardens, for calling my attention to this interesting
plant and for supplying the fine photograph (see Plate IX) of the wild plant
in its original habitat, the photograph being taken by his son,, Mr. James E.
Young. Cuttings from the Port Levy plant were struck by Mr. Young,
so that there is now a vigorous specimen in the collection of New Zealand
plants in the Christchurch Botanical Gardens.
Since the doubling of flowers is essentially a teratological phenomenon,
one cannot look on such a race, capable only of being reproduced artificially
from cuttings or layers, as equivalent to a taxonomic variety. I would
propose for it the garden name of " Leonard Wilson," the plant to be
known therefore as Leptospermum scoparium Leonard Wilson.
40. Myrtus Ralphii Hook. f.
This species was founded by J. D. Hooker on specimens collected by
Dr. Ralph near the City of Wellington in the very early days of the province,
and on the east coast of the North Island by Colenso, and it was first pub-
lished in the Flora N ovae-Zelandiae in 1853. Later, in the Handbook of the
New Zealand Flora, Hooker suggested that it might be a variety of Myrtus
bullata Sol. The species was accepted by T. Kirk (*%McZe«<s' Flora, p. 165)
and by Cheeseman {Manual, p. 169), both authors agreeing that it is closely
allied to M . bullata.
During the last few years I have had ample opportunity for examining
the "' species " in the field, and in consequence have come to the conclusion
that it is a polymorphic hybrid between M. bullata Sol. and M. obcordata
(Raoul) Hook. f.
My reasons for the above conclusion are (1) that the " species " is never
to be found unless both Myrtus bullata and M. obcordata are present, and
(2) that the individuals are strongly polymorphic even when growing in
close proximity, some closely approaching M . bullata and others M . obcordata,
while leaves of the obcordata and bullata types occur frequently on the same
individual.
I do not think a much better example can be found of the often -men-
tioned " series of intermediate forms " connecting two species than is to
180 Transactions.
be seen in the multiplicity of forms assumed by M. Ralphii and connecting
M. bullata and M. obcordata. Thus, to those believing that " intermediates "
obliterate the distinctions between groups which if not so connected would
be species, the only logical course to take would be either to unite all three
species of Myrtus under the earliest name, 'l bullata" or to uphold M. bullata
and M. obcordata, which form the unlike poles of the series, and to treat
the intermediates — i.e., M. Ralphii — as unnamed varieties of whichever
of the two species they most resembled. For action of this kind the New
Zealand and many other floras offer ample precedent ; indeed, one or other
of the methods suggested above would be the orthodox taxonomic course
to pursue. All the same, the most inveterate " lumper " could not bring
himself to unite groups so absolutely different as those represented by
M. bullata and M . obcordata.
Some exact details regarding the polymorphy of Myrtus Ralphii may
here be given in support of my contention that it is of unfixed hybrid origin.
On and near the saddle joining the Kaukau Range and Mount Crowsnest,
near Wellington City, there is a remarkable scrub-association which owes
its presence to excess of wind. In certain places near its outskirts there
is abundance of the three species of Myrtus mentioned above growing side
by side. Although frequently somewhat stunted in habit, M. bullata can
be recognized at a glance ; so too, generally, with the individuals of M .
obcordata. But on examining the bushes of M. Ralphii it is seen at once
that there is no uniformity amongst the individuals, some coming some-
what near to M. bullata in colour, shape, and blistering of leaf, while others
are far more of the obcordata type — some, indeed, being almost identical with
that species. Thus a hybrid origin is at once suggested, and close examina-
tion for and against such a supposition demanded.
Happily for such an investigation, Myrtus bullata and M. obcordata
possess certain well-marked distinguishing characters. Thus, taking the
leaves alone, even were the flowers of the two species identical, so different
are the leaves that no taxonomist would unite the species. For bullata
there is (1) the large leaf, (2) its bullate surface, (3) its usually acute apex,
(4) its power of becoming reddish-brown when exposed to the sun, and
(5) the base of the lamina not narrowed into the petiole. True, the bullate
surface may be strongly flattened in a plant grown in complete shade, but
it is always present more or less and is a marked unit-character. Then,
for obcordata there is (1) the small leaf, (2) the rounded emarginate apex,
(3) the flat surface, (4) the tapering base of the lamina, and (5) the more
feeble response to coloration by intense light.
A number of specimens were collected of the three " species " of myrtle
growing side by side on the outskirts of the wind-swept scrub, each speci-
men being taken from one individual. Of these, after examination, some
were put on one side as true Myrtus bullata, others as true M. obcordata,
and twenty-two were considered to be M . Ralphii.
A closer examination of these twenty-two showed that the specimens
fell into two classes — the one with large brownish-red, more or less bullate
leaves, and the other with much smaller, greener, and flatter leaves. But
these differences affected only the bulk of the leaves of each specimen. From
even the largest-leaved specimens with leaves of bullata type small leaves
of obcordata type were picked. Any of the fundamental characters mentioned
above might be present, absent, or even combined. The twenty-two
M. Ralphii specimens were each numbered and examined in detail. Here
arc a few results : —
L. Cockayne. — Notes on New Zealand Floristic Botany. 181
No. 1 had leaves about 17 mm. long by 15 mm. broad, with reddish
slightly bullate surface, the apex subacute, and the lamina-base not tapering
— i.e., they were almost pure bullata type. But other leaves were only
10 mm. long by 9 mm. broad, and had the obcordata lamina-base, while
one leaf was slightly emarginate.
No. 4 had many obovate leaves, but others tapered at both apex and
base of lamina, and in one case the apex was acute ; some were almost
flat and some slightly bullate.
No. 5 had its slightly bullate leaves generally emarginate with tapering
lamina-base ; some leaves were almost rotund. This specimen might well
have been taken for M. obcordata were it not for the slightly bullate leaves.
No. 7 had leaves up to 19 mm. long by 15 mm. broad, their apex
o-enerally rounded or subacute, but the bases of the laminae generally tapered
and a few leaves had an emarginate apex.
No. 8 showed little sign of any obcordata character, but a few leaves
had their bases strongly tapering.
No. 9 was a distinct form with the large (20 mm. by 15 mm.) leaves
pale green, but here again actual obcordate leaves were present.
No. 10 strongly approached M. obcordata, but traces of the bullate sur-
face were present, while in some leaves the emarginate apex was wanting
and in many not strongly developed.
No. 14 was a distinct form with quite small leaves, but these were
distinctly of the bullata type, though even here one obcordate leaf was noted.
No. 16 is specially worthy of mention. It had bright-green flat leaves,
small, but larger than in M. obcordata of the locality. There was hardly
a trace of emarginate apex, and the base of the lamina did not markedly
taper. Here the most characteristic feature of the series of intermediates-
— the more or less bullate surface — was absent, but so was the emarginate
apex of M obcordata.
No. 17 was similar to No. 16, and were it not for the number of leaves
with non-emarginate apex and a very slight trace of a bullate surface here
and there the specimen would be M. obcordata pure and simple.
My contention of the hybrid origin of Myrtus Ralphii does not rest upon
the above examples alone. At the " Meeting of the Waters," near New
Plymouth, there, not in a wind-swept habitat, but in the moist, still atmo-
sphere of the forest-interior, I saw an astonishing series of intermediates
between M. bullata and M. obcordata, both these species being also present.
It was seeing these plants, indeed, which first suggested the theory of hybrid
origin, and which led me to carefully examine the plants of the Wellington
wind-scrub. Unfortunately, I was not in a position at the time to secure
material for a searching examination.
At Kenepuru Inlet, Marlborough Sounds, I collected specimens of
Myrtus Ralphii. At that time I had no suspicion of its hybrid origin, or
I should have collected far more, copiously and taken special notes. But
the specimens did strike me as not typical M . Ralphii. Examining them
(five specimens) now I see that most of the leaves are more or less rotund,
large, + 15 mm. long, and have little trace of a bullate surface. But an
emarginate apex is present in a good many cases, and occurs on leaves-
even 10 mm. long. One specimen has much smaller leaves, obcordate or
broadly obovate, and it may be true M. obcordata.
In Colenso's herbarium, now to be consulted at the Dominion Museum,
Wellington, there are a number of Hawke's Bay specimens of Myrtus-
Ralphii. Amongst these there is no uniformity, and they present features,
such as already described.
182 Transaction*.
The distribution of M. Ralphii needs a few words. As Cheeseman has
pointed out, it is a local plant and occurs throughout the North Island,
Ahipara being the most northerly locality yet recorded. This is the only
locality in Mangonui County known to Carse (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43,
p. 210, 1911), but M. obcordata and M. bullata grow in the same locality,
which, like M. Ralphii, is according to Carse the only locality for the former.
Here is indeed a crucial case. M. bullata is common throughout Mangonui
County, according to Carse (a most trustworthy observer) ; M . obcordata is
only known at Ahipara, but this, too is the sole station for M. Ralphii !
Without going into further details, I think all must agree that a strong
case is made out for the hybrid origin of Myrtus Ralphii. How far all
the individuals are actually the Fl generation between M. bullata and
M. obcordata it is impossible to say, but the extreme polymorphy suggests
that F2 and perhaps other generations are present where individuals are
abundant. It is also interesting to see how certain characters may appear
unchanged (pure), how others are obvious mixtures, and how others are
suppressed ; but without actual breeding experiments no conclusions can
be drawn.
Taxonomically the only change demanded if M. Ralphii be considered
a hybrid is to write the name thus : X M. Ralphii.
Appendix.
Since writing the above I have received from Mr. R. H. Rockel, M.A.,
a representative collection of the myrtles growing in the forest at the
" Meeting of the Waters," near New Plymouth. Each specimen of the
sixty-one specimens sent was taken from a different individual, and so great
has been the care exercised by Mr. Rockel and a friend of his who assisted
in the work that probably nearly every form of the area in question is
represented.
A casual glance at the collection shows that my former word " astonishing "
used with regard to the polymorphy of Myrtus Ralphii in that locality is
no exaggeration. A more detailed examination of the material shows every
gradation between typical Myrtus obcordata and typical M . bullata ; there
are, in fact, specimens which could be called " giant obcordata " and " dwarf
bullata^ There is also a series of specimens which match the figure (No. 94)
of M. Ralphii in Kirk's Forest Flora. Though, taken as a whole, the speci-
mens can be arbitrarily divided into a number of groups, the majority of
the specimens has each its special characteristics. The following call for
particular mention : —
(1.) Leaves stained brown, slightly bullate, apex rounded usually but
some with obtuse apex and one or two slightly emarginate, bases
rounded or tapering; lamina generally large — e.g., 2-5 cm. by
2-3 cm.
(2.) Leaves similar to those in No. 1 but very pale green in colour.
(3.) Leaves quite of obcordata type so far as size, base, and colour go,
but none are obcordate.
(4.) Leaves similar to those of No. 3 but considerably larger, but one
or two of the smallest leaves are true obcordata.
(5.) Leaves for the most part very deeply stained with purple, base
much tapering, apex rounded or subacute, blistering considerable,
lamina frequently about 1-9 cm. by 1-2 cm.
(6.) Many leaves almost rotund but all with emarginate apex, lamina
averages about 11 mm. by 11 mm.
L. Cockayne. — Notes on New Zealand Floristic Botany, 183
(7.) Most of the leaves large, deeply coloured with purplish-brown,
somewhat bullate, and suddenly narrowed into an acute apex,
but some of- the smaller leaves have a rounded apex.
(8.) Leaves strongly bullate, apex rounded but occasionally emarginate
in the smaller leaves, average lamina about 1-7 cm. by 1-5 cm.
(9.) Average lamina only 8 mm. by 6 mm., surface flat, hardly a trace
of emarginate apex.
(10.) Leaves tapering both at apex and base, most rather large, flat,
one or two rather large obcordate leaves present.
Comparing the series of specimens just dealt with, on the whole each
specimen shows more uniformity than in the Kaukau-Crowsnest series,
but this may be due, in part, to the specimens being smaller. There does
not seem to be any evidence of a fixed race being present.
41. Senecio (the coastal species of West Wanganui Inlet, hitherto referred
to *S'. rotundifolius (Forst. f.) Hook. f.
In Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 39, p. 446, 1907, Cheeseman records, without
special comment, Senecio rotundifolius as growing at West Wanganui Inlet.
Earlier (Manual, p. 383, 1906) the same botanist had referred the shrub
common near Cape Foulwind to the same species. More recently Petrie
(Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 46, p. 30, 1914) has referred, " without hesitation,"
the Cape Foulwind plant to Senecio elaeagnifolius Hook, f., stating, " I
examined a great many specimens of this shrub [the Cape Foulwind
plant], and found that the leaves, though more coriaceous than usual, are
nearly always longer than broad, in outline more or less ovate or ovate-
oblong, and not rarely waved or repandly toothed at the margin. At an
elevation of 2,300 ft. or so on the Longwood Range, Southland, specimens
of S. elaeagnifolius may be seen in the forest with leaves approaching
those of S. rotundifolius much more closely than do any to be found near
Cape Foulwind."
Recently I have received from Mr. B. C. Aston a living specimen, but
not in flower, of the West Wanganui Senecio. This specimen I should
certainly hesitate to refer either to S. rotundifolius or to S. elaeagnifolius.
For instance, it differs at once from both species in that the branchlets,
the very youngest excepted, are covered with a smooth, not grooved,
purple bark altogether lacking tomentum but, in part, most minutely
pubescent, whereas similar, or indeed older, branchlets of the other two
species are densely covered with pale-buff tomentum. Also, the tomentum,
of the under-surface of the leaves is rather thin, white and not buff as in
S. rotundifolius and S. elaeagnifolius, and puts one in mind of that of
Olearia arborescens (Forst. f.) Cockayne and Laing. The youngest branch-
lets are covered more or less with a white pellicle of hairs, through which
the purple bark soon becomes visible. In addition, the shrub, according
to Mr. Aston's notes, is only a few feet high, and not almost a tree as is
Senecio rotundifolius. But this low stature may be caused by the plant
growing on cliffs, the only habitat where it was noted.
As for shape, none of the leaves are rotund, but obovate and oblong
are the commonest forms. The leaf-base is slightly unequal and cuneate,
but such a base is shown in specimens of Senecio rotundifolius which I
collected at Anita Bay (Fiord Botanical District). The midrib is much
keeled, sometimes glabrous or almost so for its entire length, or it may
be covered by a thin pellicle of white hairs.
184 Transactions.
From the above it seems clear that the taxonomic position of the West
Wanganui Inlet plant is quite uncertain ; it may indeed be, as Mr. Aston
suggests, an undescribed species. It is certainly not typical Senecio
rotundifolius, the northern limit of which appears to be Jackson's Bay,
as stated in the Manual. Neither is it typical S. elaeagnifolius. At present
it seems best to look upon it as belonging to a group confined to the
North-western Botanical District which may be either a distinct species
or a variety of either S. elaeagnifolius or S. rotundifolius.
42. Sophora prostrata Buch.
Buchanan described Sophora prostrata as a " rigid prostrate rambling
shrub 12-18 in. high " {Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. 16, p. 395, 1884). Kirk
and Cheeseman both describe it as prostrate. That it frequently is quite
prostrate and but a few centimetres high is true enough, but this extreme
degree of depression appears to be due entirely to its environment. The
really important characters which distinguish the species from any of the
other species of Sophora are its divaricating growth-form, the smaller flowers
solitary or in pairs, the standard almost equalling the wings, and the small
pod with few seeds. Specimens more than 1-8 m. high, and probably much
higher, are common enough, but they never grow out of the divaricating
growth-form stage of development. The species reproduces itself true from
seed.
The actual southern limit of Sophora prostrata has not been ascer-
tained, but it does not seem to extend into the North Otago Botanical
District, although the conditions there are ideal for its requirements.
Personally, I have not seen it on the Canterbury Plain south of the
Rakaia River, nor in the mountainous area to the south of the Waimakariri
River basin. According to Cheeseman (Manual p. 123), S. prostrata is
found in the mountains. But it also occurs in the lowland belt, nor do I
think it ascends much above 900 m.
43. Veronica salicifolia Forst. f. var. angustissima Cockayne var. nov.
Foliis lineari-lanceolatis, racemis longis gracilibus laxifloris, calycis lobis
anguste lanceolatis acutis.
North Island : Ruahine-Cook Botanical District — Otaki Gorge, base of
Tararua Mountains, on more or less stony ground. L. C.
This variety is distinguished at once from any other described variety
of Veronica salicifolia by the following combination of characters : Linear-
lanceolate thin leaves + 10 cm. long by + 10 mm. broad, slender racemes
+ 17 cm. long with the flowers rather distant, the rhachis and pedicels
most minutely pubescent, the deeply-cut calyx almost as long as the
corolla-tube with long narrow lanceolate acute segments, the white corolla,
and the far-exserted purple anthers.
When not in bloom the plant might be easily confused with broad-
leaved forms of Veronica angustifolia A. Rich., but from that species it is
at once separated by the much longer racemes, the larger calyx, and the
narrow acute not obtuse calyx-segments.
III. Phytogeographic.
Although the localities given below have for the most part not been
recorded hitherto, in this series of papers the station of a species, though
.already published, if it is not generally known, will in certain cases be
L. Cockayne.— Notes on New Zealand Floristic Botany, 185
given. Another class of species, the distribution of which requires defining
with much more detail, includes those mentioned in the Manual as " often
local," " probably not uncommon but easily overlooked," and similar
statements.
The distribution of varieties needs far greater attention than is usually
accorded them. The variety and not the aggregate species being the real
entity, until varietal distribution is put on a sounder footing any truly
scientific discussion of the distribution in general of the New Zealand flora
will not be possible. What are really wanted from the evolutionary and
historical standpoints are accurate records both of the distribution of the
aggregate species and of the microspecies which compose them ; but before
such a study is possible many so-called " valid species " must be joined
together as aggregates, while many more varieties of the present aggregates
must be constituted.
The crying need of New Zealand floristic botany on the phyto-
geographical side is undoubtedly a much more intensive study of distri-
bution. Full lists of species, &c, for unbotanized localities are demanded.
The critical points, where two botanical districts join one another, require
a most intensive study. These boundaries at present are nearly all highly
problematical, even in areas apparently well known. The botanical hunt
should not be merely for l' something new " : the presence or absence
of the commonest species is generally a matter of far greater importance
than the finding of a rarity.
1. Acaena saccaticupula Bitter.
South Island : North-eastern Botanical District — (1.) Eastern part of
Hurunui River basin : A. Wall ! (2.) Trelissick Basin. Canterbury, at
about 900 m. altitude : A. Wall !
This species is. Acaena adscendens, in part, of the Manual. It is appa-
rently common on the eastern side of the Southern Alps generally, but is
not usually found in great abundance in any station. It appears to occur
chiefly in wettish ground. Exact information as to its ecological require-
ments, distribution, and polymorphy is wanted.
2. Acaena Sanguisorbae Vahl. var. viridior Cockayne.
South Island: (1.) Sounds Subdistrict of Ruahine - Cook Botanical
District — Near the Nelson City waterworks: L. C. (2.) North-eastern
Botanical District — In the Kaikoura neighbourhood : A. Wall !
Most likely this well-marked variety is of wTide distribution, but so far
it has not been recorded to the north of the neighbourhood of the city of
Wellington or to the south of Banks Peninsula.
3. Angelica geniculata (Forst. f.) Hook. f.
South Island : Eastern Botanical District — (1.) On rock, Malvern Hills:
A. Wall ! (2.) On limestone rock at junction of the River Porter and the
Broken River, Trelissick Basin : A. Wall !
This species has now been reported far inland in various parts of New
Zealand, and can no longer rank as a special coastal plant.
4. Apium prostratum Labill. var.
South Island : Eastern Botanical " District — By side of stream on
wet bank near Scargill, Canterbury, at about seven miles from the sea.
A. Wall and L. C.
186 Transactions.
5. Asperula perpusilla Hook. f.
North Island : Volcanic Plateau Botanical District — Tall tussock grass-
land (*' grass-steppe " of my Report on a Botanical Survey of the Tongariro
National Park), Waimarino Plain. H. Carse.
6. Asplenium Colensoi Hook. f.
North Island : Ruahine-Cook Botanical District — Common on moist
shady banks near streams in forest of Mount Crowsnest, Wellington. L. C.
7. Carex dipsacea Berggren.
North Island : Volcanic Plateau Botanical District — By the, roadside,
Waimarino. H. Carse.
<S. Carex Solandri Boott.
North Island : Volcanic Plateau Botanical District — Margin of forest,
Waimarino. H. Carse.
9. Carmichaelia grandiflora Hook. f.
South Island: Eastern Botanical District — (1.) Mount Torlesse :
A. Wall ! (2.) Mount Hutt : A. Wall !
Professor Wall's specimens were too small for me to refer them to the
special variety of the species to which they belonged.
10. Celmisia Armstrongii Petrie.
South Island : Western Botanical District — Mount Tuhua, in herb-field,
subalpine. J. E. Holloway !
Mount Tuhua is a peak, 1,093 m. high, situated to the east of Lake
Kaniare, near Hokitika, and distant from the sea about fifteen miles. Its
flora was unknown until the Rev. Dr. Holloway sent me a small collection
of plants collected by him mostly above the forest-line. This collection
shows the flora to be much the same as that at similar altitudes on the
actual Divide.
11. Celmisia intermedia Petrie.
South Island : Western Botanical District — Mount Tuhua, in herb-field,
subalpine. J. E. Holloway !
12. Claytonia australasica Hook. f.
South Island : Western Botanical District — Styx Valley. J. E.
Holloway !
13. Coprosma foetidissima Forst.
North Island : Ruahine - Cook Botanical District — Near Makerua
Railway-station, on sandstone bluff. L. C.
14. Coprosma serrulata Hook. f.
South Island : Western Botanical District — Browning's Pass. J. E
Holloway !
L. Cockayne. — Notes on New Zealand Floristic Botany.. 187
15. Corallospartium crassicaule (Hook, f.) J. B. Armstg.
South Island: Eastern Botanical District — Mount Hutt, subalpine.
A. Wall !
16. Donatia novae-zelandiae Hook. f.
South Island : Western Botanical District — Mount Tuhua, subalpine.
J. E. Holloway !
17. Dracophyllum Kirkii Berggren.
South Island : Western Botanical District — Browning's Pass. J. E.
Holloway !
18. Drapetes villosa (Berggren) Cheesem.
South Island : Western Botanical District — Mount Tuhua, subalpine.
J. E. Holloway !
19. Epilobium chionanthum Hausskn.
South Island : Eastern Botanical District — Swamp on Waimakariri
River bed, on the Craigieburn Run. A. Wall !
20. Euphrasia cuneata Forst. f.
North Island : Ruahine-Cook Botanical District — (1.) Near Plimmer-
ton, in a remarkable subassociation of a Typha-Phormium swamp where
Leptocarpus simplex is dominant: L..C. (2.) Waikanae, on Sphagnum:
W. H. Field.
21. Forstera Bidwillii Hook. f.
South Island : Western Botanical District — Mount Tuhua, subalpine.
J. E. Holloway !
22. Gaultheria perplexa T. Kirk.
South Island: Eastern Botanical District — Near the Rakaia Gorge.
A. Wall !
23. Gentiana serotina Cockayne.
South Island: Eastern Botanical District — Hills near "The Point,"
Rakaia Gorge. A. Wall !
24. Gleichenia Cunninghamii Heward.
South Island : Eastern Botanical District — Forest at base of Mount
Hutt. A. Wall !
The localities previously known for this fern in the Eastern Botanical
District are : Mount Peel ; Alford Forest ; Banks Peninsula, especially
near Port Levy (T. H. Potts, Out in the Open, p. 53, 1882).
25. Isotoma fluviatilis (R. Br.) F. von Muell.
South Island : (1.) Eastern- Botanical District — Shore of Lake Rubicon,
Mount Torlesse : A. Wall ! (2.) North-eastern Botanical District — Awatere
River basin, subalpine : C. E. Foweraker and L. C.
This species, first recorded for New Zealand in the Manual, p. 401, is
now known to occur in all the botanical districts of the South Island
excepting the Western and Fiord Districts.
188 Transactions.
26. Lobelia anceps L. f.
North. Island : Ruahine-Cook Botanical District — On drained ground of
the Makurerua Swamp, but apparently not common. L. C.
27. Lycopodium cernuum L.
South Island : North-western Botanical District — Near Westhaven (West
Wanganui). B. C. Aston !
This discovery of Mr. Aston's is of considerable phytogeographical im-
portance, since it extends the southern range of L. cernuum from the neigh-
bourhood of Lake Taupo (Volcanic Plateau Botanical District) for a distance
of about eighty-four miles. It also adds another species to the following
remarkable list of plants which occur in the North-western Botanical Dis-
trict, but which otherwise are confined to the Northern Botanical Province
or extend only a short distance beyond its southern boundary : Astelia
Banksii, Adiantum aethiopicum, Blechnum Fraseri, DracopJiyllum latifolium,
Schoenus tendo, and Pterostylis puberula.
28. Lygodium articulatum A. Rich.
North Island : Volcanic Plateau Botanical District — In forest, Wai-
marino ; apparently rare. H. Carse.
The Manual gives the Bay of Plenty and Kawhia as the southern limits
of this fern. The above record extends its southern range considerably.
29. Metrosideros lucida (Forst. f.) A. Rich.
South Island : Eastern Botanical District — In patches of forest in
gullies on hills near " The Point," Rakaia Gorge. A. Wall !
30. Myosotis Townsoni Cheesem.
South Island : Western Botanical District — Browning's Pass. J. E.
Holloway !
This well - marked species has hitherto been recorded only from the
Brunner Range and Lyell Mountains, in the North-western Botanical Dis-
trict ; its known range is thus extended about sixty miles to the south.
31. Notospartium torulosum T. Kirk.
South Island : Eastern Botanical District — In the vicinity of the Rakaia
Gorge. A. Wall !
I have only a mere scrap, but it seems identical with Kirk's type. The
species has now been recorded from the above locality, from Mount Peel
(where it was recently rediscovered by Mr. R. M. Laing, B.Sc), the Waikari
Hills, the Hanmer Plains area, and the vicinity of the River Mason.
Mr. D. Petrie, M.A., suggested to me some time ago that the Clarence
Valley plant discovered by Mr. Aston was possibly neither the above nor
Notospartium Carmichaeliae ; and he may quite well be right, as its much-
swollen pod looks very distinct.
32. Olearia Colensoi Hook. f.
South Island : Western Botanical District — Mount Tuhua ; an im-
portant member of the subalpine scrub. J. E. Holloway !
L. Cockayne. — Notes on New Zealand Floristic Botany, 189
33. Ourisia macrocarpa Hook. var. calycina (Col.) Cockayne.
South Island : Western Botanical District — Mount Tuhua, in herb-field.
J. E. Holloway !
This variety has been recorded by Mr. D. L. Poppelwell from as far
south as the mountains near the Haast Pass, but its exact southern limit —
i.e., where it is replaced by var. cordata (the type of the species) — is not yet
known.
34. Plagianthus cymosus T. Kirk.
South Island : South Otago Botanical District — Banks of Waihopai
Stream, near Invercargill. J. Crosby Smith !
As Mr. Crosbv Smith's record of this interesting plant in his list of
Southland plants (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 46, p. 223, 1914) may be easily
overlooked, I am calling attention to this station.
35. Pseudopanax lineare (Hook, f.) C. Koch.
South Island : Western Botanical District — In subalpine scrub of Mount
Tuhua. J. E. Holloway !
36. Ranunculus chordorhizos Hook. f.
South Island : Eastern Botanical District — Mount Hutt, on subalpine
shingle-slip. A. Wall !
37. Ranunculus Enysii T. Kirk.
South Island : Eastern Botanical District — Mount St. Bernard. H. Wall !
R. Enysii, according to the Manual, is said to occur not only in the
Waimakariri River basin, but also, without there being any stations inter-
mediate, on the East Taieri Hills (South Otago Botanical District) and near
Lake Harris (Fiord Botanical District). The Taieri station is given on the
authority of Buchanan, his Ranunculus tenuis from that locality being con-
sidered by Cheeseman as a form of R. Enysii with the leaves more pinnately
divided than usual. But R. tenuis Buch. includes not only the Taieri plant
but one from Masterton (Ruahine-Cook Botanical District), while the figure
(Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 20, pi. xii, 1888) does not match any form of
R. Enysii from its original habitat ; therefore I think the Taieri habitat
should not be accepted. I would also exclude the Lake Harris and
Masterton (probably Tararua Mountains) habitats. Should it eventually
be proved that I am right, then the species under consideration is, on our
present knowledge, confined to the Waimakariri River basin and to the
south-eastern portion of the Hurunui River basin, where Professor Wall
recently collected it.
Two very distinct forms of the species were collected by Wall on Mount
St. Bernard, and I have also in my herbarium and garden several well-
marked form?, but I await cultivation tests before going into the matter
of varieties in this rather puzzling aggregate species.
J. B. Armstrong (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 12, p. 336, 1880) includes
Ranunculus geraniifolius Hook. f. in his catalogue of the plants of Canter-
bury, but is seems almost certain that the plant he had in mind was
R. Enysii, to which R. geraniifolius bears no small resemblance.
190 Transactions.
38. Ranunculus insignis Hook. f.
North Island : Volcanic Plateau Botanical District — Mount Ngauruhoe,
on wet lava cliffs. H. Carse.
This species is not mentioned in my Report on a Botanical Survey of
the Tongariro National Park, but it has since been noted by Mr. Allison, of
Wanganui, on the south-eastern side of Kuapehu ; by Mr. E. Phillips Turner
in the bed of the Maungaturuturu River ; and by Mr. Carse as above. All
the same, it appears to be an uncommon plant for the central group of
volcanoes in general and the adjacent part of the Volcanic Plateau.
39. Raoulia glabra Hook. f.
North Island : Ruahine-Cook Botanical District — On summit and other
stony exposed places on the Kaukau Range. L. C.
In Aston's catalogue of Wellington plants (Trans. N.Z. List., vol. 43,
p. 235, 1911) the only localities given for R. glabra are the Rimutaka and
Tararua Mountains.
40. Rubus parvus Buchanan.
South Island : Western Botanical District — Styx and Arahura Valleys.
J. E. Holloway !
In the Manual the Taramakau Valley is given as the southern limit of
Rubus parvus. It is, however, now known to extend almost to the Fox
Glacier, and probably it extends still farther to the south. It appears,
indeed, to be fairly common on old river-bed, though perhaps somewhat
local, throughout the North-western and Western Botanical Districts.
Poppelwell does not record its occurrence in the neighbourhood of the
Haast Pass or the River Haast.
41. Scirpus inundatus Poir. var
Nortl
H. Carse
North Island : Volcanic Plateau — Wet ground on Waimarino Plain.
42. Selliera radicans Cav.
South Island : Eastern Botanical District — (1.) Near the junction of the
Porter River and the Broken River, Trelissick Basin : A. Wall ! (2.) On
the shores of certain of the small lakes (Marymere, &c.) and the slopes
adjacent, near Mount St. Bernard : A. Wall !
The Manual gives only quite general information regarding the inland
distribution of this extremely common coastal plant. Aston (loc. cit., p. 236)
states that it ascends to 3,500 ft. on the Kaimanawa Mountains. Petrie
records it (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 28, p. 565, 1896) as " rare inland [Otago]
and much reduced in size, as at Lakes Wanaka and Te Anau. Ascends to
1,000ft."; and the Manual, p. 395, "ascending to over 2,500ft. at the
base of Ruapehu." Wall's specimens agree with Petrie's remarks as to
reduction in size.
43. Urtica ferox Forst. f.
North Island : Volcanic Plateau Botanical District — On bank of river,
Makatote Gorge. H. Carse.
L. Cockayne. — Notes on New Zealand Floristic Botany. 191
44. Urtica linearifolia (Hook, f.) Cockayne.
North Island: Ruahine-Cook Botanical District-- Makurerua Swamp,
where drained, climbing over shrubs. L. C.
45. Veronica amplexicaulis J. B. Armstg.
South Island : Eastern Botanical District — Mount Peel, subalpine.
H. H. Allan !
Previously I have only known this species from the cultivated plants
in the Christchurch Botanical Gardens, which were probably cuttings from
the original plant. Also, in the Manual Armstrong's original habitat,
" Upper Rangitata," is the only one given. Mr. Allan's specimens have
not yet bloomed in my garden, but they seem to match exactly the not-
readily-mistaken vegetative form of V. amplexicaulis, of which I have also
a cultivated example.
46. Veronica Haastii Hook. f. var. macrocalyx (J. B. Armstg.) Cheosem.
South Island : Western Botanical District — Browning's Pass neighbour"
hood. J. E. Holloway !
I am inclined to think it would be better to treat this variety as a
species. If not, then V. epacridea should also be united to V . Haastii.
The plant in question has so far been recorded only from Mount Rolleston,
the vicinity of the Waimakariri glaciers, the Rangitata Valley, and the
above locality.
Art. XVIII. — A Note on the Young Stages of Astraea heliotropium
(Martyn).
By Miss M. K. Mestayer.
Communicated by R. L. Mestayer, M.Inst.C.E.
[Read beforr the Wellington Philosophical Society, 12ih December, 1917 ; received by
Editors, 31st December, 1917 ; issued separately, 30th May, 1918.]
In his "A Commentary on Suter's Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca"*
Iredale makes the following statement on page 444 : " My disposition of
the species ranked by Suter in the families Liotiidae, Vitrinellidae, and
Cyclostrematidae are as follows: "Transfer Liotia serrata Suter, 1908, and
Liotia solitaria Suter, 1908, to the genus Angaria Bolten, 1798, in the family
Trochidae," &c. ; and on page 439 of the same volume, speaking of the
genus Angaria Bolten, he says, " This genus has not yet been recorded
from New Zealand, though I have recorded two species at the Kermadec
Islands. . . . The two species, Liotia serrata Suter, 1908, and Liotia
solitaria Suter, 1908,- are probably both juveniles of this genus: the latter
certainly is, whilst the species Suter compared it with — viz., L. stellaris
Ad. & Rve. — is also a juvenile Angaria, as is shown here in the British
Museum, the type being so placed when it was described."
I have a number of specimens dredged by Captain Bollons from various
localities which show very clearly that Iredale was mistaken in transferring
* Trans. X.Z. Inst., vol. 47, p. 417-508, 1915.
192 Transactions.
Liotia solitaria Suter to the Trochidae, as it is undoubtedly a juvenile
Turbinidae, belonging to the genus Astraea Bolten, 1798 — it being, in fact,
the juvenile of Astraea heliotropium (Martyn).
In the Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca, 1914, Suter records Astraea
heliotropium (Martyn) as occurring from the Bay of Islands to Stewart
Island — that is, practically all round the New Zealand coast. It has been
obtained alive in Wellington Harbour, and is plentiful at Kapiti Island.
From a dredging off Cuvier Island in 38 fathoms I obtained two specimens,
of which Mr. Suter says, " No doubt the embryonic shells of Astraea
heliotropium (Martyn). Identical with my unfortunate Liotia solitaria.''''
From near the Hen and Chicken Islands, in the Hauraki Gulf, in about
30 fathoms, a minute specimen, of 0-5 mm., without spines, was obtained,
which Mr. Hedley said was the embyro of an Astraea, and it is identical
with the protoconchs of the Cuvier Island specimens. Then, from off
Channel Island, in Hauraki Gulf, 26 fathoms, five specimens were obtained,
measuring 1-5 mm., 2 mm., 2-5 mm., 3 mm., and 4 mm. diameter — all
specifically identical with the Cuvier Island specimens. On the last spine
of the largest specimen the adult sculpture of Astraea heliotropium is just
beginning to show. Unfortunately, it is rather damaged and water-worn.
A dredging off Chetwode Island, Cook Strait, 55 fathoms, gave two
young Astraea heliotropium (Martyn), of 18 mm. and 19 mm. diameter, so
far developed as to be quite unmistakable ; and two smaller ones, of 5 mm.
and 3-5 mm., the larger of which is much broken, though enough remains to
identify it with the larger ones, while it at the same time shows most
clearly its specific identity with the smallest, which is specifically identical
with the northern specimens. The smallest (3-5 mm.) has only three whorls,
and a wide umbilicus, within which all the whorls are clearly visible. The
upper surface is very slightly concave, the whorls coiled almost in one
plane ; colour white, the interior of the lip slightly nacreous. The largest
specimen has the protoconch sufficiently distinct to establish the specific
identity of the smallest.
Mr. J. C. Andersen collected three young specimens of Astraea helio-
tropium (Martyn) on the beach of Kapiti Island — good examples, 30 mm.,
34 mm., and 40 mm. In all three the protoconch is unusually clean, and
under a powerful pocket-lens the embryonic shell is clearly visible ; while
the largest one is particularly useful as exhibiting the gradual development
of the spines, the change from the depressed discoidal spire of the juvenile
to the somewhat raised spire of the adult, and the gradual increase of the
at-first nodulous spiral ribs, which when the shell reaches a diameter of
about 25 mm. change to close sharp growth lamellae on the spirals. These
three specimens are in the reference collection in the Dominion Museum,
Wellington.
From dredgings in Dusky Sound I have a series of seven, of which four
are quite minute and the other three are unmistakable young Astraea
heliotropium (Martyn), 20 mm., 19 mm., and 13 mm. diameter, with clean
spires which show the embryos very well. This is perhaps the best locality
for this species.
If all these specimens were mixed together it would be an absolute
impossibility to be sure of the locality of any single specimen. Specimens
illustrating this change from juvenile to adult have been placed in the
Dominion Museum.
Kirk. — On Mosquito Larvicides.
Art. XIX. — On Mosquito Larvicides.
By H. B. Kirk, M.A., Professor of Biology, Victoria University College.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 25th July, 1917 ; received by Editors,
31st December, 1917 ; issued separately, 10th June, 1918.\
In connection with work that has been entrusted to me in some of the
military camps in the matter of fly-control it has been necessary to investi-
gate the effectiveness of various substances as killing agents. Incidentally,
the matter of larvicides for mosquitoes came under investigation. This
year the New Zealand Institute has set aside a sum of £25 from the Govern-
ment research grant, which sum may be drawn upon in refund of actual
expenses in investigating and experimenting in this direction. The present
paper deals mainly with the relative value of certain mosquito larvicides.
The experiments have been made mainly with the larvae of various species
of Culex found in New Zealand and with the larvae of a culicine mosquito
found often in brackish water on the coast near Wellington. As there is
probably a real danger that Anopheles or other harmful forms may at
any time be introduced into New Zealand, it is advisable that methods
of extermination should be as effective as possible. I hope to be able
shortly to make some contribution to our knowledge of the best means of
dealing with adult mosquitoes.
The work that has been done in the Panama Canal zone under Corgas,
at Khartoum under Balfour, and in other places where disease-bearing
mosquitoes occur is well known. Larvae are generally dealt with by means
of a film that prevents their breathing when they come to the surface, or
by use of a lethal agent that diffuses evenly throughout the water. The
substance used as a film is generally crude petroleum. One of the best-
known direct lethal agents is an emulsion of crude carbolic acid.
In Notes on Fly-control in Military Camps, issued last year by the
Defence Department, I called attention to the value of light oil* as a
killing agent. It is sprayed in mixture or in emulsion with 3 or 4 parts of
water, and is very fatal to maggots and to adult flies. It has to be applied
in greater strength to kill fly-pupae. Experiments with light oil as a
mosquito larvicide show that it is a most valuable substance, whether used
as a film or as an emulsion.
The question whether it is best to use a film or an emulsion depends
upon several considerations. Of these, the relation of volume of water to
surface may be important. This is, however, a consideration of economy
or of ease of treatment. A consideration of actual efficiency is the exposure
of the surface to wind. If a surface is wind-swept a film is broken very
quickly. Certain experiments in toughening the films will be referred to
later. In certain cases it may be best to use both film and emulsion,
especially if many pupae are present, these being less easily killed by
the emulsion than are the younger larvae.
Light oil makes a film that spreads more rapidly than crude petroleum ;
its colour enables the operator to see at a glance whether the film is com-
plete : it is very fatal to insects, and a larva thrusting the breathing-siphon
* " Light oil " is the lowest of the three great fractions into which the distillation
products of coal-tar are first broken, and it comprises those constituents that have
a boiling-point up to about 200° or 210J C. The two higher fractions are known as
" medium oil " and " heavy oil " respectively.
7— Trans.
194 Transactions.
into the film is paralysed and seldom comes again to the surface. Dishes
of equal size, 2 ft. by 1 ft. 3 in., containing the same quantity of water and
the same number of larvae at the same stage, have been treated, one with
light oil, the other with crude petroleum in like amount. In all experi-
ments— and I have repeated them over a dozen times — the larvae under the
film of light oil have been dead or helpless on the bottom within fifteen
minutes, while in the petroleum dish some have been active after an hour or
more. In view of the possible breaking of films, comparative rapidity of
action is a matter of great importance. The experiments referred to have
been repeated on the large scale on pools in various parts of the North
Island, and the laboratory results have been amply confirmed.
The film is best produced by spraying the pool, but the oil may be
sprinkled from a bottle or other vessel, or a leafy twig may be dipped in it
and shaken over the water. In choosing a spraying instrument for light
oil it is necessary to choose one without rubber tubing, as some constituents
of light oil are solvents of rubber.
Experiments with regard to the toughening of films to render them less
easily broken are now being made. Up to the present I have found nothing
better than raw linseed-oil. It should be shaken up well with the light oil
before being applied. I am not yet sure that the advantage gained is suffi-
cient to justify a strong advocacy of its use ; but it certainly' does make a
film more resistant.
In testing the killing-power of crude carbolic acid I have taken the
formula for the emulsion from the report of the Wellcome Laboratory at
Khartoum for 1911, p. 109, where directions sent from Panama are quoted :
" Crude carbolic acid* containing about 15 per cent, phenol is heated to
212° F., finely pulverized resin is added, and the mixture kept boiling until
the resin is all dissolved. Caustic soda is then added, and the mixture
kept at 212° F., for about ten minutes, or until a perfectly dark emulsion
without sediment is obtained. The mixture is thoroughly stirred from the
time the resin is added until the end." It is stated that 1 part of this
mixture in 5,000 parts of water containing mosquito-larvae will kill all
the larvae within five minutes. If it is used in the proportion of 1 to 8,000
the larvae are killed in thirty minutes. In my experiments I was unable
to obtain results as good as these. I obtained, however, much better results
when using an emulsion of light oil.
The experiments tabulated below are only a few of a very long series,
and all have been verified by actual work at normally infested pools in
the open. With regard to various entries in the table I may make the
following explanation : —
In the column headed " Twitching " is noted the time at which the
larvae were first observed to be all motionless or twitching helplessly at the
bottom of the vessel. This is for all practical purposes the time of death,
as the larvae do not recover from this condition unless removed to fresh
water. Time of actual death is, however, of importance in view of the fact
that mosquitoes sometimes breed in slowly flowing water.
In the column " Apparently dead " is entered the time at which response
could not be obtained to weak induction shocks.
* A fine account of the efficacy of crude carbolic acid and other larvicides is given
by Howard, Dyar, and Knab in The Mosquitoes of North and Central America and the
West Indies, vol. i, pp. 379 et seq., Carnegie Inst., Washington, 1912.
Kirk. — On Mosquito Larviddes.
195
In the column " Dead " is noted the time at which removal to abundant
fresh water was made in cases where this removal did not bring about at
least temporary recovery. For this purpose I regarded proof of death as
sufficient if no movement of any kind took place within twenty-four hours.
No very young larvae were used in these experiments.
Emulsion.
Strength.
a s
Time.
Larvae observed to be
Active. Twitching.
Apparently
Dead.
Dead.
Remarks.
Carbolic
>?
Cresolia
Light oil
1 4,000
3
5 p.m.
6 p.m.
7.30 p.m.
9 p.m.
1 8,000
3
6.25 p.m.
7.25 p.m.
11.30 p.m.
1/16,000
3
6.30 p.m.
3 days
later
4 days
later
1/4,000
3
3.40 p.m.
4.20 p.m.
4.20 p.m.
1/8,000
2
3.50 p.m.
. .
4.30 p.m.
6.20 p.m.
6.20 p.m.
1/4,000
*2
4.50 p.m.
4.52 p.m.
4.52 p.m.
1/8,000
6
3.15 p.m.
. .
3.22 p.m.
3.55 p.m.
3.55 p.m.
1/16,000
*6
2.50 p.m.
2.52 p.m.
3 p.m.
7 p.m.
7 p.m.
1/32,000
6
2.50 p.m.
3 p.m.
7 p.m.
2 p.m.
next day
Recover in fresh water.
One recovers in fresh water.
Dead in 40 minutes.
Dead in 2 hours 30 minutes.
Dead in 2 minutes.
Dead in 40 minutes.
No observation between
3 p.m. and 7 p.m. Dead
within 4 hours 10 minutes.
No observation between
7 p.m. and 2.52 p.m. next
dav. Dead within 24 hrs.
* One of these was a pupa.
Many other substances, including well-known disinfectants and plant-
sprays, were used, but with no results worth publishing. Sulphates of
iron and of copper, potassium ferrocyanide, and other well-known sub-
stances gave, in the dilution of 1 in 4,000, negligible results.
From the above table it will be seen that when there is no access
of fresh water an emulsion of light oil may be used in the proportion of
1 in 32,000. The emulsion that will give this result must, of course, be one
that contains nearly all the light oil that the emulsionizing agent can carry
and that has no needless water. The formulae here given, chosen from a
number that have been arrived at, may be relied upon : —
(1.) Soft-soap .. .. .. .. .. 100 parts.
Light oil . . . . . . . . . . 440 „
Water .. .. .. .. . . 100 „
Caustic soda . . . . . . . . 80 ,,
It is best to add the light oil after the other substances have been heated
together to a temperature of 100° C.
This is a thick jelly, and may be diluted with water to liquefy it.
(2.) Soft-soap . . . . . . . . 20 parts.
Light oil . . . . . . . . 50 ,,
A thick jelly-like soap.
Where transport was not an important consideration the desired amount
of water to make these emulsions liquid would usually be added when they
were being made.
(3.) Castor-oil . . . . . . . . 50 parts.
Caustic soda (sat. solution of 98 per cent, caustic
soda) . . . . . . . . 15 ,,
Water . . . . . . . . . . 20 „
Light oil . . . . . . . . . . 170 „
7*
196 Transactions.
It is best first to make a soap by boiling the castor-oil and the caustic-
soda solution. When an even yellow-green soap is formed the light oil may
be added. Constant stirring is, of course, necessary whichever formula is
used.
As is well known, potash is generally more suitable than soda, but its
greater cost makes it unsuitable for this purpose. Owing to a shortage of
potash, soft-soap is becoming costly, and therefore other emulsionizing
agents are being experimented with. Up to the present good results have
been got with resin, neatsfoot-oil and whale-oil. The last-named is the
cheapest, and will be used for work in military camps. Unfortunately, it is
sometimes difficult to saponify it by the mean': always available.
The castor-oil emulsion referred to above is a clear liquid emulsion, and
keeps well.
Art. XX. — On the Age of the Waikouaiti Sandstone, Otago, New Zealand.
By J. Allan Thomson, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., Director of the Dominion
Museum, Wellington, New Zealand.
[Received by Editors, 31st December, 1917 ; issued separately, 10th June, 1918.]
Although contradictory opinions were held by Hutton and Haast on the
one hand, and Cox, McKay, and Hector on the other, as to the relative age
and relationships of the Notocene rocks of the north and south sides of the
Shag River, all these geologists were in agreement in correlating the Wai-
kouaiti sandstone on the one hand with the Caversham sandstone, and
on the other with the Ototara limestone. Both these correlations were
accepted also by Park (1910) ; but it is necessary to remember that at
that time he placed the Ototara stone as the uppermost member of the
Oamaruian. Marshall, in 1906, did not attempt a more detailed correlation
than that the Caversham sandstone belonged to the Oamaru system, but
in 1916 he referred to the foraminiferal limestone at Sandymount, which
he had previously correlated with the Caversham sandstone, as a repre-
sentative of the younger limestone of New Zealand— i.e., Ototaran. Thus
practically all geologists who have written on the subject have agreed that
the Caversham sandstone and Waikouaiti sandstone are the same horizon
and are Ototaran.
The rightness or wrongness of this conclusion has more than a merely
local interest, for on it hang two other questions of a more general nature.
First, the age of the Dunedin volcanic series can only be limited as regard-
ing its commencement by reference to the Caversham sandstone — until
a detailed palaeobotanical investigation of the intervening Fraser's Gully
plant-beds is available. Secondly, the Miocene age of the Oamaruian is
based very largely upon Chapman's conclusions regarding the Foraminifera
collected by Park from the clays underlying the Waikouaiti sandstone, and
if the latter is Ototaran the clays are lower Ototaran, or more probably
Waiarekan, and the Middle, or more probably Lower Oamaruian, is Miocene.
Opinions to the contrary, however, have recently been independently ex-
pressed by Marshall and myself (1917). Discussing the Hampden beds, I
stated that " the percentage of Recent species in the Waiarekan is not
inconsistent with an older age than Miocene for this stage," while Marshall
concluded that " these Onekakara [i.e., Hampden] beds seem to be more
rightly classed with the Eocene than with any other European system."
J. A. Thomson. — Age of the Waikouaiti Sandstone. 197
Obviously, then, if Chapman's correlation of the clays of Waikouaiti with
the Miocene is admitted, either (a) the lower Ototaran or Waiarekan is
Miocene, and the opinions stated by Marshall and myself err in ascribing
too great an age to the Waiarekan, or (b) the Waikouaiti sandstone is not
Ototaran.
During a visit to Waikouaiti at Easter, 1917, in company with Pro-
fessors J. Park and W. N. Benson, of Otago University, I collected from
the Waikouaiti sandstone at the North Head a number of brachiopods, of
which seventeen were referable to Pachymagas abnormis Thomson, while
the remaining three belonged to a small species of Pachymagas with meso-
thyrid foramen, probably nearly related to the more orbicular forms of
P. parli which occur in the Hutchinsonian of All Day Bay.
Pachymagas abnormis was one of the species which I adduced in 1917
as evidence of the Upper Oamaruian age of the beds in the Takaka Valley,
and subsequent discoveries have not invalidated its usefulness in this
respect. 1 have since collected it in the uppermost bed of the Mount
Brown limestone at the foot of the dip slope of the cuesta opposite Weka
Pass — i.e., at a slightly higher horizon than the holotype, but still probably
Hutchinsonian — and a single specimen in the Hutchinsonian greensands of
All Day Bay. It occurs abundantly in the Awamoan mudstones of All
Day Bay, and thus ranges in the Oamaru district from Hutchinsonian to
Awamoan, but has not been found in the Ototaran. Now, a larger number
of species are known from the Ototaran of the Oamaru district than from
any other stage in any locality in New Zealand, so we are quite justified
on the present evidence in considering P. abnormis a purely Upper Oamaruian
species.
Mr. S. S. Buckman, of Thame, England, has suggested in correspondence
that Pachymagas abnormis should not be referred to Pachymagas, but should
be made the type of a new genus on account of its beak characters, and if
this course is followed it would be possible to differentiate a number of
species within the somewhat variable series I have referred to P. abnormis.
The specimens from the Awamoan mudstones of All Day Bay and from the
Waikouaiti sandstone would, however, still have to be retained in the same
species.
The conclusion to be drawn from the presence of this brachiopod, then,
is that the Waikouaiti sandstone is not Ototaran (i.e., Middle Oamaruian),
but Upper Oamaruian, and it may well be Awamoan, and the underlying
clays Hutchinsonian. In this connection an examination of the brachio-
pods from the sandstone at Seacliff, and from the Caversham sandstone and
the greensands underlying the latter rock at the back of Flagstaff, would
be of considerable interest, and I should be glad to receive specimens from
these localities.
List of Papers cited.
Marshall. P., 1906. The Geology of Dunedin (New Zealand), Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc,
vol. 62, pp. 381-424 (ref. to pp. 389-90).
1916. The Younger Limestones of New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst, vol. 48,
pp. 87-99 (ref. to p. 93).
1917. Fossils and Age of the Hampden (Onekakara) Beds, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 49, pp. 463-66 (ref. to p. 465).
Park, J., 1904. On the Geology of North Head, Waikouaiti, and its Relation to the
Geological History of New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 36, pp. 418-30.
1910. The Geology of New Zealand, Christchurch (ref. to p. 139).
Thomson, J. A., 1917. Diastrophic and other Considerations in Classification and
Correlation, and the Existence of Minor Diastrophic Districts in the Notocene,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 397-413 (ref. to pp. 409-10).
198 Transactions.
Art. XXI. — On the Distribution of Senecio saxifragoides Hook. /.'
and its Relation to Senecio lagop.us Raoul.
By Professor A. Wall, M.A.
Communicated by R. Speight, M.Sc.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 5th December, 1917 ; received by
Editors, 31st December, 1917 ; issued separately. 10th June, 1918.]
Plates XI-XIII.
1. Introduction.
(a.) General.
The problem to be attacked in this paper is suggested in the following
passage from L. Cockayne (" Notes on the Plant Covering of Kennedy's
Bush and other Scenic Reserves of the Port Hills," Report on Scenery
Preservation, Parliamentary Paper C.~6, 1915) concerning S. saxifragoides :
" It also is a most striking plant. Now, an almost identical species, named
Senecio lagopus, also occurs on the main mass of Banks Peninsula, which
differs from S. saxifragoides merely in the possession of numerous bristles
on the leaf, whereas in the latter such are absent. Yet, so far as is known,
S. lagopus does not occur on the Port Hills, nor S. saxifragoides on Banks
Peninsula proper. If this is truly a fact, the distribution of these two
species, each equally well suited to the rock-conditions of the area, is one
of the most remarkable cases of plant-distribution in the world."
The same authority, in his description of his new species, Senecio south-
landicus {Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 47, p. 118, 1915), further says, " The
species is, indeed, far more distinct from S. bellidioides and S. lagopus than
are these from one another. The classification of the whole series, includ-
ing those already mentioned, together with S. saxifragoides Hook. f. and
S. Haastii Hook, f., is in a most unsatisfactory position. Specimens are
constantly coming to me from various correspondents which it is impossible
to place with any degree of satisfaction. There are undoubtedly a number
of well-marked forms, which demand, at the least, varietal names. Even
one fixed character may serve quite well as a specific mark. This is illus-
trated in the case of S. saxifragoides and S. lagopus (the type from Akaroa),
where the presence of numerous bristles, or their absence, on the upper
surface of the leaf is the sole distinguishing character, so that, so far as
large plants of the two are concerned, if this character were not present no
one could consider them in any degree different."
In this paper attention has been directed to these two species solely as
they occur on Banks Peninsula.
Banks Peninsula is situated in lat. 43° 32' S. and long. 175° 30' E., and
forms a rough elliptical salient on the east coast of the South Island of New
Zealand. Its diameter in a N.W.-S.E. direction is about twenty-five miles,
and its breadth at right angles thereto about eighteen miles. Some forty
miles to the westward stretches the main chain of the Southern Alps, from
which the peninsula is separated by the gently inclined expanse of the
Canterbury Plains, so that it is almost as completely isolated as regards
the distribution of subalpine vegetation as if it had been separated from
the mountain region by the sea.
The oldest rocks within its limits consist of Trias-Jura sedimentaries
overlain in places by a thin veneer of Cretaceous rhyolites, but the main
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate XI.
*
W:*- ?:
TO
giAMii^ pE/Hi^uibH
^-
v*?v
%?'**
Photographic reproduction of relief map of Banks Peninsula, from original
in Canterbury Museum by S. C. Farr.
Face p. 198. \
Wall. — Distribution of Senecio saxifragoides Hook. f.
199
mass of the peninsula was built up in mid-Tertiary times by flows of basalt
and fragmentary material of similar lithological character, poured out from
two vents situated somewhere near the centres of Akaroa and Lyttelton
Harbours. A third focus of activity lay near Mount Herbert (3,012 ft.),
but it was of less importance, although it was responsible for the formation
of the highest peak in the area. The high cones thus formed were subject
to paroxysmal explosions of moderate intensity, and their surface was modi-
fied by the establishment on their outer slopes of a well-developed system
of radiating valleys. Volcanic action ceased in all probability long before
SMt Pleasant
Sugar Loaf o LYTTELTON
Cass Peak o
s •.
p
Cooper's Knob o
5-
0 ^ M
Castle
Rock
Ml. Herbert
' , Mt. Sinclair
• L .°.l
° ° ° o
c Mt Filigerald ° »
Rocky Peak °
Map of Banks Peninsula and Port Hills, showing distribution of the two speciea of
Senecio. L, Senecio lagopus ; S, Senecio saxifragoides; A, rhyolite escarpment
where S. lagopus occurs ; B, rhyolite escarpment where neither species occurs.
the end of the Tertiary era. After the stream-system had reached a mature
stage the land sank, and the sea entered the floors of the enlarged craters
and extended a considerable distance up the lower reaches of the valleys,
and these now form marked indentations of the coast-line. Owing to the
prolonged weathering the land is now covered with a rich and fertile soil,
and steep rock-faces occur only on the coast and at higher levels, where
the more resistant basalts form at times precipitous cliffs — the characteristic
habitat of the senecios under consideration.
The following are the most important geological considerations affect-
ing the distribution and ecological conditions of plants established in the
locality : —
(1.) The isolation of the region from neighbouring mountain areas since
it was first formed.
200 Transactions.
(2.) The uniformity of the lavas which form the majority of rocks in
the area. No anomalies of distribution can be interpreted in the
light of lithological differences in these rocks.
(3.) As a result of prolonged denudation the crater-ring of the Lyttelton
volcano has been broken down at its south-western side and a
sector completely removed, so that a stretch of comparatively
low country, nowhere over 875 ft. in height, and consisting of
exposed rhyolites and sedimentaries, separates the northern part
of the crater-ring from the other part of the peninsula. This
northern part forms the low range usually called the "' Port
Hills," and is referred to throughout this paper, as the habitat
of Senecio saxifragoides, by this name.
For a fuller account of the geological features of this area see J. von
Haast, Geology of Canterbury and Westland, 1879, and R. Speight, " The
Geology of Banks Peninsula" (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. 365-92, 1917).
(b.) Historical.
Senecio saxifragoides was first described by Hooker in 1853 (Flora Novae-
Zelandiae, vol. 1, p. 144), and in the Handbook its discovery is accredited
to Lyall (Handbook, p. 159).
Hooker, Kirk (Students' Flora, p. 339), and Cheeseman (Manual, p. 372)
agree in describing S. saxifragoides as distinguished from S. lagopus only
in respect of the leaf, which is described as " clothed with shining silky
and woolly hair " (Hooker), " silky or villous " (Kirk), " silky or villous "
(Cheeseman), upon the upper surface only, and wanting the stout bristle
which characterizes S. lagopus and S. bellidioides. Kirk says, " The leaves
are often glabrous or glabrate on the upper surface, but never bristly as
in S. lagopus." Cheeseman says, " A handsome species, separated from
large states of S. lagopus, some of which approach it very closely, by the
much stouter habit, more copious villous hairs, and larger thicker leaves,
which are silky above and never show the stout bristly hairs so charac-
teristic of S. lagopus and S. bellidioides."
All agree that these three species, *S. lagopus, S. bellidioides, and S.
saxifragoides, are very closely allied. Hooker (Handbook) says, ' This
[S. lagopus] and the two following [i.e., S. bellidioides and IS. saxifragoides],
though most dissimilar in their usual states, appear to me to be united
by intermediate forms," and (Flora Novae-Zelandiae), " This and the two
following are closely allied and very singular species."
The distribution of S. saxifragoides is given by Hooker as ' Port
Cooper " ; by Kirk as " Port Lyttelton, Banks Peninsula " ; and by Cheese-
man as " Port Lyttelton and other localities on Banks Peninsula."
All agree in describing the leaf of S. saxifragoides as broader or more
nearly orbicular than that of S. lagopus ; but they do not quite agree as
to the relative size. Hooker makes the leaf of S. lagopus 2 in. to 4 in.
long (!) ; that of aS. saxifragoides 3 in. to 5 in. long. Kirk makes the leaf
of S. lagopus 1 in. to 8 in. long (excluding the petiole), and that of *S. saxi-
fragoides 3 in. to 6 in. long. Cheeseman makes the blade of *S. lagopus
1 in. to 5 in. long, and that of S. saxifragoides 3 in. to 6 in. long. Raoul's
description of S. lagopus (Choix, p. 21) gives the leaf about 1 decimetre
(4 in.) long and from 7 to 9 centimetres (3-3J in.) broad. Hooker's and
Raoul's descriptions would seem to have been based upon comparatively
small specimens of both species.
Wall. — Distribution of Senecio saxifragoides Hook. f. 201
The distribution of S: lagopus is given by all authorities as from the
Ruahine Mountains to South Canterbury.
The original description of S. lagopus by Raoul, and his plate (Choix,
pi. 17), must here be referred to, as of the greatest importance in the study
of the two species. In describing the petiole of S. lagopus, Raoul says,
" Petioli . . . canaliculati in vaginam semiamplexicaulem dense lana-
tam dilatati " ; and in describing the leaf he says, " Folia . . . pilis
rigidis grossis, spinescentibus praesertim ad margines inspersa." His plate
shows a plant with four large and several small leaves. Of the four large
leaves three are glabrate (as the old leaves of both S. lagopus and S. saxi-
fragoides always are) : the fourth bears the characteristic " bristles " very
thickly close to the margin all round the leaf, or nearly so, and near the
apex ; less thickly upon the upper third of the leaf or thereabout ; the
lower part of the leaf bears the hairs only, very thickly distributed. The
hairs and bristles occur together over some portions of the leaf, about the
middle and towards the apex, but at the apex itself and in its immediate
neighbourhood the bristles alone occur. The dual occurrence of hair and
bristle* on the same leaf, which no subsequent authority describes at all,
will appear to be of great importance to this inquiry ; and it may be added
that my descriptions of the variant forms of S. saxifragoides given below
were fully made before I had seen Raoul's plate.
The species are further thus referred to by Laing and Blackwell (Plants
of New Zealand, pp. 437-38, 1906) : ' The handsome S. saxifragoides, sup
posed by Kirk to be confined to Banks Peninsula, is undoubtedly the
typical S. lagopus of Raoul. It still produces its large-leaved rosettes on
the southern faces of cliffs, where Raoul found it, near Akaroa. It is
also plentiful behind Lyttelton, often growing in altogether inaccessible
localities, and it is the only Senecio which haunts these situations on the
Peninsula."
2. Special ^Characters of the Two Species [under Consideration.
1. All round the margin of the leaf of S. lagopus, S. saxifragoides, and
S. belUdioides occur at very regular intervals — i.e., at the ends of the veins
— rounded glandular protuberances of a very dark red or purple colour.
Microscopical examination shows these to be typical hydathodes.
2. The petiole of the leaf of S. lagopus bears quantities of dark-red or
purple bristles, generally spotted or pied with white ; these are continued
up the back of the midrib nearly to the apex of the leaf, and are also
present along the margin all round the leaf.
3. S. saxifragoides also shows this purple or pied bristle upon the petiole
and the back of the midrib exactly as in S. lagopus, and also bears this
bristle all round the margin of the leaf, making a continuous fringe. The
young leaves of S. saxifragoides have yellow marginal bristles, which change
gradually into purple and continue to deepen in colour up to maturity.
The yellow bristle, however, is usually present together with the purple,
the yellow being upon the upper surface of the leaf just within the margin,
the purple being upon the margin itself ; but they are sometimes more or
less mixed together.
4. Forms of Senecio lagopus and Senecio saxifragoides which grow in
situations shaded by other vegetation, as among long tussock-grass, or on
* The term " bristle " is kept throughout, as that employed by previous authorities
though the organ is really a glandular hair.
202 Transactions.
the edge of forest, or beneath large plants of Linum monogynum, show a
complete or almost complete absence of the purple colouring-matter in the
glandular hairs, and also tend to be larger, to have a much longer petiole
than usual, and to be less thickly covered with silky hairs or bristles (as
the case may be) than the usual form.
5. Though the plant of S. saxifragoides is probably on the average a
little larger than that of S. lagopus, the difference is not great. Kirk's
measurements do not agree with the others. A leaf of S. lagopus 8 in. long
without the petiole would be most exceptional, but leaves 6 in. long with a
petiole of from 3 in. to 4 in. are common — e.g., on Mount Herbert — and
S. saxifragoides can hardly ever be much larger than this, though its leaves
are generally broader and more substantial. I have a very strong impres-
sion, which I hope to verify by future observation, that the plants of
S. lagopus in the neighbourhood of Akaroa Harbour are in general distinctly
smaller than those of the Mount Sinclair to Mount Herbert area. This
would explain the small measurements of Raoul's type. Some of the large
individuals of the Mount Herbert area, indeed, almost seem to be inter-
mediate states such as Hooker speaks of. The largest leaf of S. lagopus
measured by me shows the following dimensions : Length of blade, 6 in. ;
length of petiole, 3 in. ; breadth of blade, 4 in. This plant grew on the
south-western peak of Mount Herbert, and was exceptionally large. Its
measurements equal those of S. saxifragoides in any authority and exceed
most of them. A most exceptionally large plant of S. saxifragoides, how-
ever, gave the following 'measurements : Length of blade, 1\ in. ; length
of petiole, 4J in. ; breadth of blade, 6f in. This is much above the average
of the species, the plant being shaded by plants of Linum monogynum and
tussock-grass.
6. Thus the leaf of typical S. lagopus is found to bear six different types
of structure — (a) The thick brownish " wool " of the rootstock, which covers
the base of the petiole and seems to pass gradually into (b) long white silky
hairs, which clothe the petiole and are continued up into the sinus and on
to the lower portion of the leaf ; (c) the characteristic stout bristle Which
occurs, as described below, on the margin and upon the upper part of the
blade especially ; (d) the dark-red or purple bristle which is thickly inter-
mixed with the white hairs upon the petiole, from the point where the
brownish " wool " passes into white hairs up to the apex, or nearly, on
the back of the midrib ; (e) the glandular marginal purple protuberances ;
(/) the white tomentum upon the back of the leaf.
7. Many plants of S. lagopus bear the silky hairs as well as the charac-
teristic stout bristles. The silky hairs usually occur very thickly on the
petiole and at the base of the leaf and in the immediate vicinity of the
midrib ; less thickly, if at all, on the rest of the leaf, as depicted in Raoul's
plate.
8. Many plants of S. saxifragoides bear the stout bristles which have
been hitherto considered to be characteristic of S. lagopus and S. belli-
dioides. The bristles occur in S. saxifragoides under these conditions :—
(a.) They occur near the apex of the leaf upon the upper surface of
about one-fourth or one-third of the whole — not near the base,
and but rarely on the lower half of the leaf at all (as in Raoul's
plate of S. lagopus), though specimens have been observed with
the bristles fairly evenly distributed over the whole surface. (See
Plate XII.)
(b.) They occur regularly and as a permanent character all round the
margin exactly as in S. lagopus and S. bellidioides.
Trans. X.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate XII.
Youno- plant of Senecio saxifragoides, showing bristles, from Mount Pleasant.
Port Hills.
face p. 202
Trans. X.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate XIII.
£
_2
to
tn
02
o
o
02
a
-
o
a
o
T3
<o
So
o
o
=o
s
a,
G
Wall. — Distribution of Senecio saxifragoides Hook. f. 203
(c.) They occur sometimes, not infrequently, near the margin, upon the
surface of the leaf, to a distance of about \ in. or -| in. from the
margin all round the leaf, as in Raoul's plate of S. lagopus.
(d.) They occur most frequently upon small, ill-nourished, or depauper-
ated individuals. They occur more frequently upon the lower
and outer leaves than upon the upper and inner leaves. Leaves
bearing many bristles have been often found upon plants which
are in every other respect typical specimens of S. saxifragoides ;
some whole plants bearing such leaves have been preserved in the
collection mentioned below.
The stout bristles may be almost certainly observed upon all
individual plants which are found growing alone, apart from the
large masses in which they generally cluster, such plants being
generally small and unfavourably situated as regards aspect or
soil. Many leaves of such plants have been preserved in the
collection, and in many cases the bristles are to be seen as thickly
congregated, as evenly distributed, and as stout as in typical
examples of S. lagopus and *S. bellidioides. Such leaves are, how-
ever, all small, much below the average size of the species, but
they are from undoubted examples of S. saxifragoides which are
seedlings from neighbouring masses of quite normal specimens.
A small plant of S. saxifragoides from Mount Pleasant, Port Hills,
which is now under cultivation at Canterbury College, has its
leaves thickly and evenly covered with the stout glandular hairs
here mentioned, and is in no respect to be distinguished from
specimens of S. lagopus of the same age. (See Plate XIII.)
9. Microscopical examination of the so-called bristle yielded the follow-
ing results : —
(a.) The bristles are simply typical glandular hairs.
(b.) The bristles have exactly the same structure in both species.
(c.) The bristles upon the margin of each species differ from those of
the blade only in the length of the stalk, except that in the case
of S. saxifragoides there is a slight difference in colour.
(d.) The " silky hairs " of both species have exactly the same structure.
The " hair " arises from a single cell, the " bristle " from several.
(e.)The glandular organ on the margins of the leaves is a typical hyda-
thode.
(/.) The variegated appearance of the bristle is due to the arrangement
of the colouring-matter, which is present in some cells, absent in
others, with no definite arrangement.
3. Distribution on Banks Peninsula.
For the purpose of this study the forms of Senecio lagopus were observed
on all the chief peaks on both sides of Akaroa Harbour, such as Brasenose,
Stony Bay Peak, Mount Bossu, and Carew Peak ; then on the principal
high points on the ridge connecting the Akaroa Harbour heights with the
main mass of Mount Herbert, such as Mount Sinclair and Mount Fitz-
gerald. These points are all between about 2,500 ft. and 2,700 ft. high.
Both peaks of Mount Herbert, 3,000 ft. and 2,800 ft. respectively, were
visited on several occasions. Specimen leaves of S. lagopus were collected
from various points, especially from Mount Herbert, and preserved.
The forms of Senecio saxifragoides were next observed, and found to
occur on all the peaks of the Port Hills from that south-west of Cooper's
204 Transactions.
Knob to Mount Pleasant, from all of which specimens were collected.
These points are mostly from 1,600 ft. to 1,800 ft. high.
Senecio lagopus was found to occur plentifully in all favourable localities
—that is, especially on and about all steep rocks which face south and
south-west — practically continuously from the Akaroa Heads, on both sides
of Akaroa Harbour, to within a mile of the Port Hills. There is hardly
a space of even two miles in extent anywhere along this main line in which
S. lagopus does not occur ; it occupies an almost continuous line between
the points mentioned, and does not here differ generally from the form of
S. lagopus as known elsewhere in New Zealand.
The most rema kable point about this distribution concerns the gap of
about four miles, a low undulating neck, which connects the south-west
peak of Mount Herbert with the Port Hills. This area is mostly under
cultivation, and offers but few escarpments. There are, however, three
or four possible localities, rhyolite escarpments or peaks, from 600 ft. to
875 ft. high, chiefly on the northern side of the gap. Upon the highest
and most likely of these stations, rocks between Gebbie's and McQueen's
Valleys, about 875 ft. high, neither has been found ; but upon two of them
(about 600 ft. to 700 ft. high), one just north of the road from Teddington
to Gebbie's Valley and the other just north of that, Senecio lagopus occurs
—not plentifully, but undoubted typical S. lagopus. Between these two
points and Mount Herbert, a distance of about three miles, neither plant is
found, the ground being nearly all under cultivation. The northernmost
of these points is barely one mile from the nearest peak of the Port Hills,
that south of* Cooper's Knob (about 1,600 ft. high), and here S. saxi-
fragoides begins to appear. This seems to me a most striking and puzzling
fact. Upon the peak next again to the south (on the Port Hills), though
it offers an ideal locality, neither plant occurs.
We may conjecture that under the original conditions some part of this
gap at least was occupied by both species, but at present S. lagopus only
is found there, and that only upon the northern side, and upon what is
virtually a spur of the Port Hills. Mr. K. M. Laing, however, informs me
that he has collected plants of S. saxifragoides at various points on Banks
Peninsula proper, in the neighbourhood of Akaroa, and it has been seen
above that both Kirk and Cheeseman give Banks Peninsula as a locality
for the species. It may be suggested that states of S. lagopus, " some of
which," as Cheeseman says, " approach it very closely," have been mis-
taken for S. saxifragoides. In any case, I cannot say that I have found
any examples of undoubted S. saxifragoides, having no bristles at all, on
Banks Peninsula proper.
On the other hand, no plants of typical S. lagopus were found by me
anywhere along the Port Hills, though, as shown above, plants were fre-
quently found in that locality which showed more of the special characters
of S. lagopus than have hitherto, apparently, been observed or recorded.
Except for a doubtful record in the Kaikoura neighbourhood, Senecio
saxifragoides seems to be confined to this locality. Forms observed by me
in April, 1917, on Mount FyfEe and some other points on the Seaward
Kaikouras were all typical S. lagopus.
The specimens collected from Banks Peninsula and the Port Hills were
preserved and fixed in such a manner as to make confusion impossible, and
were then submitted while still fresh to Dr. Cockayne, together with certain
inferences and conclusions to be drawn from them.
While both plants show a preference for high rocky situations and dark,
cold faces, neither is by any means restricted to such localities. Both are
Wall. — Distribution of Senecio saxifragoides Hook. f. 205
found growing among tussock and occasionally on northerly faces, and both
descend nearly to sea-level in situations hacked by high hills, but appa-
rently not otherwise. It may be conjectured that both were far more
widely distributed (within the limits here described) before the advent of
white men, for where the ground has been permanently fenced and pro-
tected from stock S. lagopus, in particular, grows freely at a distance from
rocks, especially on steep slopes and those facing south and south-west (as
on the old Summit Track, where it rises to the ascent of Mount Sinclair
on the south side, and where it runs along the southerly flank of Mount
Herbert). Both also are found to grow among grass, &c, at the foot of
cliffs and crags ; but here, being accessible to stock, they live but pre-
cariously, and cannot form the large masses in which they cluster upon the
rocks themselves. Thus both species, while now almost purely rupestral in
their habit, were probably present in quantities over a very large area
where they can now obtain no foothold.
4. Conclusions.*
1. Cockayne's surmise in regard to the restriction of the habitat of
S. saxifragoides is proved to be absolutely correct, though it is possible that
the plants of the Mount Herbert district are intermediate, or even hybrid
forms.
2. The " bristles " of Hooker's, Raoul's, and subsequent descriptions are
simply glandular hairs, and both species bear them, though in varying
quantity and differently distributed upon the leaf in the two cases.
3. Both species, in common with S. bellidioid.es and S. Haastii, have
typical hydathodes at the ends of the veins, and both bear purple glandular
hairs which are not mentioned in previous descriptions.
4. Neither species has the glandular hair or " bristle " as a distinctive
character. The two species differ from one another only in respect of the
frequency and locality of occurrence of both glandular hairs (" bristles ")
and silky hairs. Those differences in degree, being certainly hereditary,
constitute true unit characters. The two kinds of hairs are thus unit
characters common to the two species, but the abundance or sparseness of
such hairs is a unit character peculiar to either species, as the case may
be, and their sole distinction.
5. As the two groups of individuals keep their individuality, each in its
isolated, fairly wide area, they are almost certainly microspecies, and they
should be grouped together as an aggregate, with saxifragoides as the name
of one group and some other name for the lagopus group. It would seem
advisable that S. bellidioides, S. Haastii, and S. southlandicus should also
be brought into this aggregate, since they have in common with them the
woolly rootstock, marginal hydathodes, and glandular hairs upon the sur-
face and the margin of the leaf.
6. Such varieties as the two under consideration, which have every dis-
tinguishing character in common, and which differ only in the hereditary
degree of intensity, or the distribution of such characters, form a class of
varieties (microspecies) different from those which are usually considered
such through their possession of one or more quite distinct characters.
7. The question whether the remarkable variation of S. saxifragoides
can be explained at all is only approached here with extreme caution and
* Regarding these conclusions I have consulted Dr. Cockayne, and they owe their
present form to his suggestions.
206 Transactions.
diffidence. As it is well established that the occurrence of silky hairs in
great quantity is a xerophytic phenomenon,* it might be suggested that
this character in S. saxifragoides is of climatic origin. The Port Hills, upon
which S. saxifragoides nourishes, are nowhere higher than 1,800 ft., and
most of the seven or eight high points upon them are between 1,500 ft. and
1,800 ft. in height ; while the Akaroa peaks are on the average about 800 ft.
higher than this, and Mount Herbert just exceeds 3,000 ft. As a conse-
quence, the rainfall on Banks Peninsula proper is, and presumably has been
for ages, considerably greater than on the Port Hills, the annual rainfall
at the Convalescent Home station on the Port Hills being 25-52 in., while
that of Akaroa is 44-72 in. There is no geological evidence to show that,
since the formation of Lyttelton and Akaroa volcanic areas, Banks Pen-
insula proper and the Port Hills have not always stood in the same relation
to one another as at present in respect of altitude, rainfall, and climate
generally, though when the level of the whole was higher than at present,
as it once undoubtedly was, the rainfall upon the Port Hills might have
been more greatly reduced, relatively, than that upon Banks Peninsula
proper. It might thus be argued that the drier climate of the Port Hills
has directly determined the development of S. saxifragoides as above out-
lined. If this were the case we should expect to find similar forms
developed in other dry localities, but it is doubtful whether any equally
suitable situation exists within the limits of distribution of S. lagopus. If
the Port Hills form a unique locality in this respect one could understand
how S. saxifragoides has such a narrowly restricted range.
Upon this theory S. saxifragoides and S. lagopus would be classed as
two varieties of the same plant, differing only in the degree of efficiency
reached, under stress, in the development of their xerophytic apparatus.
Presumably, also, the other peculiarities of these two plants, such as
the woolliness of the rootstock and petiole, might be assigned to the same
general cause. Presumably all the six structures above described upon the
leaf of S. lagopus, except, perhaps, the marginal glandular structures, would
perform a similar function, though attention has here been confined to
those two which characterize the upper surface of the blade of the leaf.
I desire to express my acknowledgements, first, to Dr. L. Cockayne,
F.R.S., to whom I owe the original suggestion of this paper, and without
whose kindly encouragement and invaluable aid the work could not possibly
have been carried out by me ; also to Miss E. M. Herriott, M.A., assistant
in the Biological Laboratory, Canterbury University College, who made the
microscopical examinations of the various structures and described them
(as above) in the most able manner ; and, finally, to Mr. R. Speight, M.Sc,
F.G.S., Curator of the Canterbury Museum and Lecturer in Geology at
Canterbury University College, who supplied the geological history of Banks
Peninsula here given, and also very kindly photographed for me the plants
of Senecio lagopus on Mount Sinclair (Plate XIII).
* E. Warming, Oecology of Plants, pp. 114, 193, 1909.
Petrie. — Descriptions of New Native Flowering-plants. 207
Art. XXII. -Descriptions of New Native Flowering-plants.
By D. Petrie, M.A., Ph.D.
[Head before the Auckland Institute, 11th December, 1917 ; received by Editors, 24th Decem-
ber, 1917 ; issued separately, 10th June, 19 IS.]
1. Myosotis cinerascens sp. no v.
M. perennis, follis culmisque pilis albis subrigidis appressis cinerascentibus.
Culmi a radice complines graciles simplices vel parce divisi, 10-20 cm. alti,
paene ad racemorum basim foliosi. Folia radicalia anguste obovato-spathu-
lata ± 4 cm. longa circa 8 mm. lata obtusa, petiolis laminas aequantibus ;
caulina approximata consimilia + 1*5 cm. longa lineari - obovata sessilia
acuta. Racemi plerumque + divisi breves subcapitati, raro simplices ac
elongati. Flores albi breviter pedicellati ; calyx + 4-5 mm. longus, pilis
rigidis patentibus subuncinatis dense hispidus, lobis brevibu acutis ; corolla
calyce subduplo longior anguste infundibuliformis, tubo lobis rotundatis
brevibus ter quaterve longiore ; stamina lineari-oblonga filamentis gracillimis
duplo longiora, ad squamarum apices pertinentia ; stylus maturus calycem
ter quaterve superans. Nuculi oblongi, ter longiores quam lati, tenues
brunnei.
Perennial, ashy-grey in all its parts. Culms from the root few or several,
erect or ascending at the base, simple or sparingly branched, 10-20 cm.
(4-8 in.) high, slender, leafy to near the base of the inflorescence. Radical
leaves narrow obovate-spathulate, + 4 cm. (If in.) long, 8 mm. (|in.) broad,
gradually narrowed into petioles about as long as the blades, obtuse rather
membranous, densely hispid on both surfaces with rather long stiff appressed
whitish hairs ; midrib little conspicuous ; cauline all much alike, closely
placed and usually overlapping, linear-obovate acute sessile, about 1*5 cm.
(§ in.) long. Racemes usually closely branched, short subcapitate, more
rarely simple and more or less elongated. Flowers white on strongly
hispid pedicels ; calyx + 4-5 mm. (| in.) long, equalling or exceeding the
pedicels, densely hispid with stiff spreading more or less hooked hairs, cut
for about one-third its length into narrow acute lobes ; corolla narrow
funnel-shaped, nearly twice as long as the calyx, cut into broadly rounded
lobes one-fourth as long as the tube ; stamens linear-oblong, twice as long
as the very slender filaments, reaching quite to the top of the scales ; style
slender, longer than the corolla, and ultimately about thrice as long as the
calyx. Nutlets oblong, thrice as long as broad, thin, dark brown, shining.
Hab. — Limestone shingle-slip, Trelissick Basin, North Canterbury;
730 m. alt. : L. Cockayne ! Broken River, on limestone debris, Canter-
bury Alps; 2 400ft.: D. P.
This species is allied to Myosotis Traversii Hook, f . as Cheeseman under-
stands that species, but by no means closely. It was almost certainly
included in M. Traversii by Hooker f., and is no doubt the plant from the
" Waimakeriri Valley " mentioned on page 195 of the Handbook of the New
Zealand Flora. The specimen examined do not show the radical leaves
in good condition, while the corollas are more or less withered and shrivelled.
208 Tra n set ct io n * .
2. Myosotis saxatilis sp. nov.
Perennis, pilis subtilibus brevibus albidis appressis viridi-incana. Caules
pauci graciles, 8-12 cm. alti, supra pro parte tertia nudi. Folia radicalia
obovato-lanceolata, 3 cm. longa 8 mm. lata, obtusa v. subacuta in petiolum
sublatum angustata ; caulina pauca subdistantia sessilia lineari-lanceolata
acuta, radicalibus \ breviora. Racemi conferte ramosi, ramis brevibus ;
flores 9 mm. longi, albi. Calyx alte 5-partitus, lobis linearibus ; corolla
infundibuliformis, tubo sublato calycem duplo superante ; stamina corolla e
tubo vix breviora ad faucis squamas pertinentia ; filamenta antheris breviora.
Perennial, greenish-grey, everywhere hoaiy with delicate short appressed
whitish hairs. Stems few from the root, slender, more or less ascend-
ing at the base then erect, the upper third naked, 8-12 cm. (3|— 5 in.)
high. Radical leaves rather numerous forming a compact rosette, obovate-
lanceolate, 3 cm. (1* in.) long, 8 mm. (^% in.) broad near the tips, rather
membranous, obtuse or subacute slightly apiculate, gradually narrowed
into rather broad petioles about as long as the blades ; midrib evident,
otherwise nerveless : cauline leaves few. rather distant, sessile or the
lowermost shortly petiolate, linear-lanceolate, acute or subacute, about
half as long as the radical. Racemes compactly branched, branches
short ; flowers crowded, fairly numerous, almost sessile, 9 mm. (fin.) long,
white. Calyx deeply 5-partite, lobes linear acute, sparsely clothed with
more or less spreading hairs ; corolla funnel-shaped, the tube rather wide
and twice as long as the calyx, lobes spreading shortly oblong obtuse ;
stamens slightly shorter than the corolla-tube, reaching just to the level of
the prominent throat-scales ; anthers short, broadly linear, filaments about
half as long as the anthers ; style as long as the corolla and elongating after
flowering. Mature nutlets not seen.
On dry rocks, Shingly Range, Awatere Basin, Marlborough ; about
4,000 ft.
For the opportunity of examining this plant I am indebted to Dr. L.
Cockayne, F.R.S., F.L.S., of Wellington. Perhaps its closest ally is my
M. oreophila.
3. Myosotis diversifolia sp. nov.
Species M. petiolatae Hook. f. affinis ; differt caulibus erectis, foliis
valde membranaceis, caulinis acutis, pilis foliorum culmorumque longioribus
tenuioribus vix rigidis minus arete appressis, pedicellis brevioribus, corolla e
tubo duplo longiore, antheris angustioribus subapiculatis.
Perennial ; stems several (usually three or four) from the top of the
moderately stout root, slender leafy to near the base of the racemes, simple
or forked at the point of origin of the inflorescence, rather sparingly clothed
with soft spreading white hairs, 8 in. (20 cm.) high or less. Leaves very
membranous, sparsely clothed on both surfaces and along the edges with
soft loosely appressed rather long delicate hairs, with a conspicuous rather
fine submarginal nerve running all round ; radical + 2h in. (6-3 cm.) long,
blade elliptic l|in. (2-8 cm.) long, fin. (2 cm.) broad, apiculate, sharply
contracted into rather narrow softly pilose petioles somewhat longer than
the blades ; cauline progressively smaller and narrower, distant (internodes
J— | in. long), the lower shortly petiolate, the upper sessile by a broad base,
all acute and apiculate. Racemes ± 3 in. (7-5 cm.) long, simple or forked
many-flowered Flowers £- in. (6-7 mm.) long, white, shortly pedicelled
Petrie. —Descriptions of New Native Flowering-plants . 209
(pedicels shorter than the calyx), ebracteate, crowded in the earlier
flowering stage ; calyx + § in. (4 mm.) long, cut half-way down into narrow
ovate acute strongly ciliated lobes with short spreading hooked hairs at the
basal part ; corolla funnel-shaped, tube about twice as long as the calyx,
narrow below, cut above into rather short rounded lobes ; scales of the
throat short and broad ; stamens inserted a little below the scales, reaching
as high as the clefts of the corolla-lobes ; anthers narrow, scarcely elongated,
almost apiculate, about three times as long as the very slender filaments
to which they are attached a little below the middle ; style short, scarcely
exceeding the calyx even in fruit ; nutlets (scarcely mature) pale brown,
suborbicular.
Hab. — Ruahiue Mountain-range, above the forest-belt.
Collected by Mr. H. Hill, B.A., of Napier, to whom I am indebted
for sr^ecimens.
Mr. Cheeseman (Manual, p. 468) referred this plant to M. petiolata
Hook. f. The latter is a coastal form, and it is doubtful if it ever grows
inland or at considerable elevations. In my view M. petiolata is a purelv
coastal form, the montane plants referred to it probably belonging elsewhere.
I am not certain of the colour of the corolla when fresh.
4. Myosotis tenericaulis sp. nov.
M. annua (?) M. spathulatae Forst. f. affinis ; diflert caulibus primo sub-
erectis demum ± late diffusis, 20-30 cm. longis, valde tenuibus flaccidisque ;
caulibus foliisque cineraceis ; floribus minoribus ; corollae tubo limbi divi-
suras bis terve superante ; antheris anguste oblongis subapiculatis filamenta
excedentibus, vix ad faucis squamas breves latas manifestas pertinentibus ;
nuculorum integumentis pallide flavidis, nucleo atriore per integumenta +
pellucida manifesto.
Annual (?) ; stems numerous from the root, 20-30 cm. (1 ft. or less) long,
suberect below, spreading and diffuse above, sparingly and distantly branched,
branches elongated (internodes long), very thin and flaccid, like the leaves
ashy-grey, slightly hispidulous with short appressed whitish hairs, rarely
nearly glabrous. Leaves very thin, often subapiculate, with evident midrib,
sparsely sprinkled with short appressed whitish hairs, the lower surface
sometimes nearly glabrous; radical 3-5 cm. ( + ljin.) long, the blades
elliptic-obovate contracted into slender petioles nearly twice as long as the
blades ; cauline distant, smaller, narrow-obovate, sessile by a broad base,
obtuse or the uppermost subacute. Flowers solitary distant, usually opposite
the axils of the upper cauline leaves, on very slender pedicels about as long
as the calyx ; calyx narrow + 2 mm. (about T\ in.) long, cut nearly to the
base into linear subulate segments, sparingly hispidulous with the usual
appressed hairs ; corolla narrow funnel-shaped, the tube about one-half
longer than the calyx, lobes broadly rounded about one-third as long as
the tube ; throat-scales short and broad ; stamens narrow-oblong sub-
apiculate, scarcely reaching to the level of the scales ; filaments very short,
affixed to the anthers near the base ; style slender, equalling the corolla,
and scarcely elongating in fruit. Nutlets shining, pale yellow especially at
the thin margins, elsewhere brownish owing to the deeper colour of the
nucleus of the seed showing through the rather pellucid integuments.
Hab. — Inch-Clutha, Clutha County. The exact locality where this plant
was collected can be easily found. It is about a mile from the Romahapa
210 Transaction*.
station on the Catlins River railway line, where the line crosses the Puerua
Stream and enters the alluvial plain of Inch-Clutha. It grew in moist spots
alongside the creek.
Mr. Cheeseman {Manual, p. 467) doubtfully referred this plant to
M. spathulata Forst. f., which is its nearest ally, though not a very
close one. He further mentions that it has been collected by the late
Mr. T. Kirk near Winton, Southland County. It appears to be confined
to the southern lowlands of Otago.
5. Myosotis macrantha Hook. f. var. westlandica var. nov.
A forma typica differt foliis radicalibus longioribus multo tenuioribus
anguste obovatis molliter pilosis, venis a costa ad venam submarginalem
conspicuam oblique progredientibus, culmis longioribus gracilioribusque,
floribus flavis.
In a moist shady ravine on Eangi Taipo, Jackson's, Taramakau River ;
about 4,000 ft. : L. Cockayne, D. P.
When better known this form may prove to be a distinct species ; for
the present it seems better to rank it as a variety.
6. Pterostylis areolata sp. nov.
Gracilis glabra ± 15 cm. alta. Folia pauca, caulina, sessilia, culmum
amplectentia ; inferiora scariosa squamiformia ; superiora (plerumque 3)
valde tenuia, in siccitate pellucida, lanceolata v. oblongo-lanceolata, acuta
v. subacuta, plurinervia manifeste areolata, 3-5-4 cm. longa 1 cm. lata ;
culmo folium summum longe excedente. Flores solitarii 3-5 cm. longi
±1-5 cm. lati. Galea pro parte majore erecta, pro parte tertia recurva ;
sepalum superius in apicem brevem acutum haud filiformem desinens,
petalis acutis paulo longius ; labii inferioris divisurae anguste obcuneatae,
in apices subulato-filiformes summam galeam haud excedentes desinentes ;
labium subcrassum lanceolato - oblongum subacutum ; columna gracilis
elongata galeae partem erectam aequans.
Slender, glabrous, + 15 cm. (6 in.) high. Leaves 4 or 5 (in the specimens
seen), rather distant, sessile and sheathing the stem ; the lower reduced
to scarious sheathing scales ; the upper very thin, pellucid when dried,
3-5-4 cm. (+ l|in.) long, 1cm. (± fin.) broad, lanceolate or oblong-
lanceolate, acute or subacute, entire, narrowed towards the base, with
conspicuous veins running nearly straight along their whole length and
connected by delicate more or less oblique veinlets into an open network ;
the uppermost leaf placed about half-way up the stem and reaching about
half-way up to the flower. Flowers solitary, 3-5 cm. (+ 1^ in.) long,
+ 1-5 cm. (f in.) broad, green more or less streaked with reddish-brown ;
galea erect for two-thirds its length, then sharply bent forwards ; upper
sepal ending in a short more or less acute non-filiform tip, a little longer
than the acute petals ; lower lip narrow-cuneate for nearly half its length,
forking widely into narrow obcuneate subulate-filiform-tipped lobes that
do not exceed the top of the galea ; lip brownish when dried, rather thick
and firm, lanceolate-oblong, subacute with exserted tip ; column slender,
as long as the erect part of the galea, the lower lobe of its wings large
long obtuse.
Hah. — Base of Shingle Peak, Awatere Valley, Marlborough ; 3,000 ft. ; in
shade: L. Cockayne! Bealey, Waimakariri Valley, Canterbury: T. Kirk !
Petrie. — Descriptions of New Native Flowering -plants. 211
This appears to be a well-marked species. The late Mr. Kirk referred
his specimens, which are in fruit and are rather stouter than Dr. Cockayne's,
to P. micromega Hook, f., but they are destitute of radical leaves, while the
cauline leaves are much larger and broader than those of P. micromega,
and do not extend above the middle of the stem. As I have seen only
dried specimens, the details of the structure of the column may be im-
perfectly sketched here.
7. Poa campbellensis sp. nov.
Species P. pusillae Berggren affinis : differt foliis numerosis erectis v.
suberectis conduplicatis apice obtusis ; ligulis longioribus + oblongis laceris
v. erosis ; spiculis paulo majoribus viridibus colore purpureo-spadiceo +
tinctis ; glumis florigeris subacutis basi pilis crispulis brevibus exigue
instructis ; paleis apice subalte bifidis ac a carinis delicate ciliatis.
Culms very slender densely tufted, leafy below and usually clothed by
the sheaths of the cauline leaves to above the base of the panicle, 5-10 cm.
(2-4 in.) rarely 15 cm. (6 in.) high. Basal leaves much shorter than the
culms, erect or slightly spreading, narrow blunt-pointed, smooth, folded,
rather stiff ; sheaths about as long as the blades, broad, thin, loose, mem-
branous, striate ; ligules variable in length, shortly oblong (rarely longer
and narrowed upwards), thin and scarious, erose or lacerate at the tops.
Panicle small, 2-5-4 cm. (l-l|in.) long, narrow-ovate, of 6-9 spikelets
placed on rather long glabrous or slightly scabrid pedicels ; branches
capillary, the lower much longer. Spikelets + 7mm. (Jin.) long, ovate-
lanceolate, greenish, faintly stained with purplish -brown, 2-3-flowered ;
outer glumes slightly unequal, about two-thirds as long as the flowering-
glume immediately above, smooth or slightly scabrid along the keel ; the
lower narrow-ovate acute faintly 3-nerved, the upper broader subacute
strongly 3-nerved ; flowering-glumes ovate-oblong, subacute, thin, more or
less scarious around the tops, smooth except on the finely scabrid keel,
with a scanty tuft of delicate crisped hairs at the callus, 5-nerved ; the
two lateral nerves faint, the median nerve alone reaching the top ; palea
a little shorter than the flowering-glume, rather deeply bifid at the top,
finely ciliate along the nerves.
Hob. — Campbell Island, and Port Boss in the Auckland Islands : B. C.
Aston ! (January, 1909).
The Port Ross specimens are considerably taller than those from Camp-
bell Island. In my report on the Gramina in vol. ii of The Subantarctic
Islands of Neiv Zealand this grass was united with my Poa incrassata.
I am now satisfied that this treatment of the plant is incorrect. The
original description (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 34, p. 394, 1902) and that
given in Mr. Cheeseman's Manual (p. 911) are therefore the correct
ones. Mr. Cheeseman has noted that Poa incrassata is most nearly
allied to Poa exigua Hook. f. The present species has its nearest ally in
Poa pusilla Berggren.
212 Transactions.
Art. XXIII. — The Geomorphology of the Coastal District of South-
western Wellington.
By C. A. Cotton, Victoria University College, Wellington.
[Bead before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 12th December, 1917 ; received by
Editors, 31st December, 1917 ; issued separately, 10th June, 1918.]
Plates XIV, XV.
Contents.
Introduction.
The Foundation or Old Land.
The Coastal Lowland.
Theoretical Discussion of the Growth of a Coastal Lowland
under Conditions of Fluctuating Waste -supply.
An Alternative Explanation.
The Paekakariki Coast.
Another Alternative Explanation.
Subdivisions of the Lowland.
The Otaki Series.
Topography of the Otaki Series.
Distribution of the Otaki Series.
Lithology and Structure of the Otaki Series.
The Fans or Gravel Plains.
The Delta of the Manawatu.
The Modern Dunes.
Lakes and Swamps.
Introduction.
The coastal district of south-western Wellington (fig. 1), forming part of
the fertile " Manawatu " and largely comprised within the limits of Horo-
whenua County, presents a considerable variety of physiographic features
all of comparatively modern growth* and explicable on an assumption of
a geological history of a somewhat unusual kind.
I have been informed by Dr. L. Cockayne and Mr. A. H. Cockayne that
the ecology and agriculture of the district are closely related to the physio-
graphy, and I am tempted to present this somewhat sketchy description
and attempted explanation of the forms in the hope that it may be of use
as a basis for further studies.
The Foundation or Old Land.
The skeleton or foundation' of the coastal district of south-western Wel-
lington is the upland block of somewhat old rocks sculptured into strong
relief that forms the Tararua Mountains and the lower ridges farther south.
Lithologically these rocks are greywacke-sandstones with occasional bands
of argillite, the latter much sheared by earth-movements. f All are closely
* Geologically the whole history of the lowland is comprised within a portion of the
Notopleistocene period.
f The early geologists termed these rocks the " Rimutaka series," a local name that
might be now appropriately used for them. Subsequently to the issue of the geological
map of 1873 the name " Rimutaka " gave place to " Maitai," as it was believed that
the two formations were identical ; but it was used occasionally by McKay in the
" seventies " for the whole or part of the rocks of the Rimutaka and neighbouring ranges.
Cotton. — Geomorphology of South-western Wellington.
213
folded, so that the strata are now everywhere nearly vertical, and the strike,
though variable from point to point, averages a little to the east of north.
Some bands of the rock are thoroughly shattered and allow of the perco-
lation of water along closely spaced joints, so that they yield rather readily
to deep weathering and erosion. Other bands have escaped shattering
or have had the network of crevices re-sealed by a deposit of secondary
mineral matter, so that there are now few joints, and weathering and
erosion go on relatively slowly. These latter relatively resistant bands of
Wtxiruxi, R.
-175
Fig. 1. — Map of the coastal district of south-western Wellington, including the
upland ranges eastward to the main divide. Scale, 10 miles to 1 in. The
inset map shows the locality.
rock stand out boldly as ridges, while the bands of shattered rock are now
followed by streams, and, where of considerable breadth, are reduced to
somewhat subdued forms with moderate relief.
It is not known with certainty that the alternating bands of resistant
and weak rocks, which owe their varying strength, as just noted, to the
extent to which they are fissured, correspond exactly to the bedding ; but
they are at least elongated in the same general north-north-easterly direc-
tion, and the shattering in the weakened bands was probably caused by
214 Transactions.
the ancient folding. (An exceptional belt of shattering close to the city
of Wellington, which crosses the strike diagonally, is not here referred to.
It appears to be connected with fault movements of a much later date than
the folding of the rocks.*)
The texture of the dissection on both the higher ridges of resistant rock
and the lower belts of subdued topography is somewhat fine, owing, no
doubt, to the low permeability of the mantle of residual clay that results
from the weathering of the greywacke.
The development of the present mature topography seems to have been
interrupted from time to time by renewed uplift, as ' in the Wellington
peninsula farther to the south-west,")" but the high valley-floors of the earlier
cycles are here maturely dissected, and the land-forms of the various cycles
merge almost or quite completely into one another. Some of the later
pauses in the uplift are probably recorded by the fragmentary terraces in
some of the valleys. These are generally rock terraces, but some are formed
of alluvium — e.g., in tne Otaki valley a thick mass of fluviatile gravel
underlying a portion of a terrace and extending below the present level of
the river suggests trenching, due to uplift, and later refilling of the trench,
perhaps during a temporary submergence preceding an uplift to which the
cutting of the present narrow inner valley of the river is due. The terrace
features cannot be ascribed wholly to vertical movements of the land, how-
ever, for they must be closely connected with certain to-and-fro movements
of the shore-line which will be described below.
The margin of the upland block is a mature coast-line rising in places
as high cliffs, but fronting the sea now only at the south-western end,
beyond the limits of the district here dealt with, and bordered elsewhere
by a coastal lowland the width of which increases north-eastward. With
respect to this lowland of later growth the upland block may be spoken of
as the " old land." The ancient coast-line of the old land appears to have
originated as a fault coast, for its almost straight north-east and south-
west trend crosses the grain of the country obliquely. Whatever the initial
form may have been, however, a mature coast of simple outline developed
by marine erosion now forms a nearly straight boundary-line between the
upland block or old land and the strongly contrasted coastal lowland.
The Coastal Lowland.
Different parts of the coastal lowland are of different ages, and their
present topographic forms have been developed in different ways, and the
materials of which they are composed, though in some cases originally
identical, are in different stages of consolidation and decay, so that they
yield very different soils. The materials also came originally from two
distinct sources.
The divisions of the lowland are best introduced by a discussion of the
conditions under which it seems to have come into existence. All the
features of the lowland may have been produced by an alternation of retro-
gradation (or retreat of the shore-line under wave-attack) with progradation
(or advance of the shore-line due to accumulation of the waste of the land).
Such an alternation is necessarily connected with a fluctuation in the supply
* C. A. Cotton, Supplementary Notes on Wellington Physiography, Trans. N.Z
Inst., vol. 46, pp. 294-98, 1914.
t C. A. Cotton, Notes on Wellington Physiography, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 44,
pp. 245-65, 1912.
Cotton. — Geomorphology of South-western Well in (/'on . 215
of waste, leading to a fluctuation in the ratio of wave-energy to load, for,
when the supply of waste is small, waves attack a coast vigorously, cut it
back, and draw much of the waste produced in this process back into the
deeper water off shore, where it comes to rest ; whereas when there is a
large supply of gravel or sand, either brought in by local rivers or trans-
ported along-shore by the activity of waves and currents from a more
distant source, the energy of the waves is used up in maintaining a graded
off-shore profile of the bottom as the abundant waste accumulates at all
depths, and some of the material is thrown up on the beach, so that the
shore-line advances seawards, leaving a prograded strip of new land.
In the case in question it is probably the supply of sand, which comes
from rivers farther to the north-east, that has fluctuated, rather than that
of gravel brought down by local streams. The cause of the fluctuation is
not apparent. Changes of level of small amount would have an effect, no
doubt, by disturbing the graded profile of the neighbouring sand-covered
sea-bottom, and would perhaps produce alternate overloading and under-
loading of the waves at the shore-line. The fluctuation in the supply of
sand is too great, however, to be attributed to that cause alone. I have
not recognized the concomitant effects of such small movements on the
coastal topography, nor succeeded in distinguishing them from the effects of
advance and retreat of the shore-line, and so they are necessarily ignored
in this account.*
Theoretical Discussion of the Growth of a Coastal Lowland under Conditions
of Fluctuating Waste-supply.
Where a coast, perhaps originally a fault coast — though this is not
essential — has been cut back to the mature stage, like the ancient coast
of the old land of south-western Wellington (fig. 2, A), and a change to
progradation takes place, a strand-plain, generally dune-covered, is de-
veloped (fig. 2, B). The material is mainly " imported " sand, if it is
assumed that the excess of material has been brought from another section
of the coast, but there will be mixed with it some gravel of local origin
near the mouths of streams. As the streams grow in length seaward,
however, with the growth of the prograded strip, they are constrained to
aggrade so as to build up channels with sufficient slope to maintain their
flow, and a proportion, perhaps the whole, of their gravel is thus used up,
and accumulates as fans along the base of the cliffs of the old land (fig. 2, B).
Clearly, if these streams are somewhat closely spaced and bring down much
gravel their fans will become confluent, forming a piedmont alluvial plain ;
but, on the other hand, if their supply of gravel is smaller in proportion to
the amount of sand being thrown up along the shore-line they will remain
separate, and on the spaces between them dune sand may accumulate to
a considerable thickness.
There is thus developed a coastal lowland of general seaward slope, with
a somewhat irregular surface, and possibly with a width of many miles.
* Adkin reports that a trial well-boring on the lowland passed through a swampy
layer (i.e., a land surface) far below present sea-level (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, p. 498,
1911). I have not been able to obtain official records of any of the bores that have been
put down ; but if this interpretation is correct it indicates that the lowland, during
an early period of outward growth, advanced, or was at least maintained, in spite
of considerable subsidence (as in the case of the Canterbury Plain). To make this
possible the supply of waste at that stage must have been very abundant.
216
Transactions.
If now the landward dunes have become
fixed by vegetation and somewhat con-
solidated, they will in time have a
normal drainage system developed on
them, and their irregularity of surface
will be reduced by the filling of the
hollows and the wearing-down of the
initial hills, so that their surface will
become a peneplain (fig. 2, C).
If now after a period of slow pro-
gradation, perhaps followed by a period
of stationary shore-line, retrograda-
tion begins again, the seaward-sloping
coastal lowland, as its toe is cut back
to a line of cliffs of growing height,
will be dissected owing to the shorten-
ing of its streams. Since the dune
sand areas lie between the larger streams
from the old land, they will be traversed
only by systems of small streams arising
on them or heading on the cliffs behind.
The energy of such streams is slight,
but they work on very weak material
and so erode quite rapidly (fig. 2, D).
The larger streams from the old land
will now trench the fans they formerly
built, and they may destroy the fan-
surface altogether or reduce it to frag-
mentary terraces, developing stream-
eroded plains at lower levels, which may
in places be widened so as to plane
down parts of the dune-sand areas.
The lowland will now resemble in a
general way a dissected coastal plain
of subaqueous origin, but there will be
differences in detail, for the initial form
in this case is a subaerially graded sur-
face, and when the streams entrenched
below it have again become mature the
slopes of their valley-plains will ap-
proximate to that of the interfluves, and
also such of the interfluvial areas as are
underlain by dune sandstone will not be
quite flat, but will retain the small relief
of a peneplain.
There may be pauses in the re-
trogradation of the coast, and even
reversals from time to time, and thus
several series of terraces or valley-in-
valley forms may be developed (fig. 2,
E).
It may be postulated that after the
coastal lowland has been cut back bv
Cotton. — Geomorphology of South-western Wellington. 217
the sea to perhaps half, or less than half, its former width progradation
again sets in, and a new strand-plain, dune-covered like its predecessor,
grows seaward from the recently cut cliffs. This will give rise to various
modifications in the form of the dissected lowland. It will cause vigorous
aggradation in all the gravel-bearing streams from the old land, and some
of these may completely fill the valleys they have previously excavated in
the lowland. Thus the fans are reconstructed (fig. 2, F). Intercalated
short periods of retrogradation or other causes may lead to channelling of
the fans from time to time, followed by renewed aggradation, and similar
results may be produced by fluctuation of level. Thus there may be a
considerable amount of complexity in the structure of fans.
Along the border of the inter-fan areas the even seaward slope of the
lowland is not so readily restored. Some aggradation will take place, how-
ever, along the lines of the small dissecting streams, but irregularly, the
greatest effects being seen where the channels, perhaps kept open for
a time across the newer strand-plain, becomes blocked by sand-dunes,
forming lakes partly within and partly beyond the border of the older dis-
sected lowland (fig. 2, F). These, when filled, become swamps with arms
extending up the floors of the tributary valleys, which are in process of
aggradation with fine silt. Similar swampy flats will occur as normal
features also among the dunes on the newer strand-plain.
Meanwhile the cliffs along the toe of the older lowland will be reduced
to gentler slopes by subaerial erosion, which goes on quickly in this soft
material, and reduction of the surface will still continue. Parts of it are
by now maturely dissected, and there may be close interfingering between
the spurs of the older and the dunes of the newer lowland.
In a coastal lowland developed as outlined above four quite distinct
physiographic types of surface can be recognized : (1) The older dune-
sandstone areas of the dissected older lowland, with peneplained tops,
mature topography towards the margins, and more or less dissected ter-
races in the valleys ; (2) the gravel fans, which may still be confined
between low banks of the dune sandstone or may overlap its peneplained
surface ; (3) the newer sand-dunes, which still exhibit the forms due to
accumulation ; and (4) swampy flats, which have accumulated in lakes due
to ponding among the newer dunes or between these and the toe of the
older lowland, or are the result of aggradation in the silt-bearing small
streams trenching the older lowland. In the coastal lowland of south-
western Wellington all four of these physiographic elements are important
An Alternative Explanation.
An alternative explanation which would account for the existing forms
in the broader part of the lowland fairly well would make the " older low-
land " of the foregoing a coastal plain of subaqueous sands, which was
subjected to subaerial erosion with the shore-line stationary for a period
long enough to allow of peneplanation, and afterwards cliffed at the margin
and dissected. The remaining events would be the same as those outlined
in the previous explanation. An objection to this explanation is found in
the nature of the material of the older dissected lowland, which will be
referred to on a later page ; and an argument in favour of the explanation
previously given is found in the clearly decipherable history of the lowland
at its extreme south-western end (at Paekakariki), where there is evidence
of alternating progradation and retrogradation on a scale sufficiently large
to warrant the assumptions made.
218
Transactions.
The Paekakariki Coast.
South -westward from the tapering end of the lowland at Paekakariki
the cliffed margin of the old land is now being cut back, and there is no
evidence to show whether this part of the coast has ever been prograded.
The dune-covered strand-plain is now extending in that direction along the
base of a line of high, fresh cliffs cut diagonally across one of the resistant
ridges of the old rocks (Plate XIV).
A mile or two north-eastward, however, there is evidence of the former
presence of a strand-plain and of its removal prior to the growth of the
present lowland. This evidence is found in the presence of cliffed remnants
of fans of locally-derived gravel, one of which is of such dimensions that the
fan when complete must have extended seaward about a mile beyond the
margin of the old land.
These fans were built forward in what may be termed the first (strictly
the nth) progradational phase (fig. 3, B), following the first (strictly wth)
retrogradational phase, in which the cliffs of the ancient coast-line of the
Fig. 3. — Diagram of successive stages of a coast alternately retrograded and prograded.
old land were cut (fig. 3, A). These cliffs are now subdued and rounded,
and pass by smooth concave curves at the base into the fans and talus
slopes.
The fans are irregularly truncated by a younger line of cliffs developed
in a second [(w-(-l)th] retrogradational phase, and these are cut back far
enough in places to intersect the line of older cliffs (fig. 3, C). The cliffs
previously referred to as lying behind the extreme end of the lowland are
continuous with these of the second [(w-f-l)th] retrogradational phase.
In front of this newer line of cliffs lies the modern lowland or dune-
covered strand-plain, a belt of dunes enclosing between themselves and the
cliffs a narrow strip of marshy plain (fig. 3, D). Fig. 4 is a panoramic
.sketch of this portion of the coast, illustrating the features described.
Plate XV, fig. 1, is a photographic view showing the truncated fans.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate XIV.
[('. .1. Cotton, photo.
General view of the narrow southern end of the coastal .'owland, looking northward
from the cliffs south of Paekakariki.
lace p. 21*.]
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate XV.
■t^Mis*^
sjc
i
; 4
■* %. if ■*• ,
^mm-
[C A. Cotton, photo.
Fig. 1.— Fan with cliffed seaward margin, north of Paekakariki.
[<?. L. Adkin, photo.
Fig. 2.— Dissected bench of Otaki sandstone near Shannon.
Cotton. — Geomorphology of South-western Wellington.
219
. .*>m\
o
g
J3
is
GO
O
o
Another Alternative Explanation.
An account of the geological history
of the coastal lowland which diverges
considerably from that assumed in the ex-
planation of the physiography here adopted
was given by Adkin,* whose account deals
in particular with that part of the lowland
adjoining the Ohau Kiver.
Adkin's classification of various stages in
his concept of the history of the lowland as
Early Pleistocene, Middle Pleistocene, Later
Pleistocene (First, Second, and Third stages),
and Recent must be discarded, as he had
no means of correlation with deposits of
Pleistocene age elsewhere ; and for the
present purpose the stages " Early Pleis-
tocene ': to ' Recent " may be renamed
stages 1 to 6.
According to his interpretation, at stage 1
the Ohau River built a great fan over hypo-
thetical undissected uplifted Pliocene forma-
tions with a plane surface, the latter being
vaguely ;t inferred from the configuration
and character of the superimposed fluviatile
deposit." Large parts of the surface of
the fan formed at this time are regarded
as surviving to the present day, though
buried by a marine deposit and re-exposed
by erosion in the intermediate historical
stages.
Stage 2 was a period of complete sub-
mergence of the lowland beneath the sea.
This was followed by a period of still-stand,
succeeded by uplift continuing to the
present day. During the submergence at
stage 2a" raised-beach formation " was
deposited, consisting of beach sands spread
over the whole area of the lowland partly
during the advance of the sea and partly
during its retreat. This " raised-beach for-
mation" comprises the partially consolidated
sands of the older lowland. Adkin states
that its present level surface is not the
original one, as it has been lowered by
erosion. It is not clear, however, to what
base-level he ascribes the planation, or at
what stage of the history it occurred. Dis-
section of the surface by small streams is men-
tioned in the description of an illustration.
* G. L. Adkin, The Post-tertiary Geological
History of the Ohau River and of the Adjacent
Coastal Plain, Hoiowhenua County. North Island,
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 43, pp. 496-520, 1911.
220 Transactions.
The remaining stages are marked by changes in the courses of the Ohau
and other streams over the Ohau fan, for the explanation of which Ferrel's
law is invoked, though it is much more probable that such changes as have
taken place in stream-courses have resulted from spilling over as a normal
accompaniment of aggradation. At the same time the shore-line advanced
steadily seaward. It is not clear whether this is regarded as entirely the
result of an inferred movement of uplift, but this is probably what the
author had in mind, as he speaks of the whole lowland as a coastal plain.
The new land formed thus was progressively covered with sand-dunes, which
impounded lakes.
The account is somewhat difficult to follow, but the foregoing is a
fair summary. Adkin regards the gravel plains, such as the Ohau fan, as
the oldest, instead of placing them among the youngest elements of the
lowland physiography, as is done in the explanation now offered ; and his
conclusion that any portions of the existing fan-surfaces or gravel plains
were in existence prior to the deposition of the sands of the older lowland
is an extremely doubtful one, whatever the correct explanation of the mode
of accumulation of those sands may be.
It must be added that Adkin's work is obviouslv based on a large
amount of careful field-work ; and his mapping in the Ohau River district
(Horowhenua) is extremely useful.
Subdivisions of the Lowland.
The Otahi Series.
The oldest physiographic element in the lowland is, then, the dissected
peneplain of soft sandstone corresponding to the " older dune-sand areas "
of the theoretical discussion previously given, and comprising the " raised-
beach formation " of Adkin. To the lithological formation of sandstone
thus indicated the name Otaki series may be applied as a local formation-
name, as it is well developed just north of the Otaki River and town.
Topography on the Otaki Series. — The topography is that described in
the theoretical section as developed on the " older dune-sand areas," and
shown diagrammatically in fig. 2, F (see also Plate XV, fig. 2). I agree with
Adkin* that the gently undulating tops of the broad benches of this forma-
tion are parts of a surface of erosion and not of deposition. In some parts
of the district a considerable area of the surface of the Otaki series consists
of broad terrace-remnants of valley-floors at intermediate levels developed
generally by very small streams which now make their way along the
flat, swampy floors of inner valleys. A striking characteristic of the small
dissecting streams arising within this formation is the steepness of their
valley-sides, which remains practically constant as the width of the floor
increases, and the same slope continues around the valley-heads. To their
very heads the valleys are box-shaped rather than V-shaped. The slopes
separating the broad terraces at intermediate levels were evidently once
exactly similar to those of the inner trenches, though they have become
somewhat dissected and broken down since the streams were revived
and undercutting of these slopes ceased. Where the terraces have been
developed by gravel-bearing streams heading in the old land they are
gravel-covered.
Distribution of the Otaki Series. — Between the southern end of the
coastal lowland and the Manawatu River the Otaki series, with its charac-
* Loc. cit., p. 509.
Cotton. — Geomorphology of South-western Wellington. 221
teristic topography, covers an area of perhaps sixty square miles, of which
about half consists of nearly flat summits. One considerable area occurs
between the Otaki and Ohau Kivers ; an island " of it, surrounded by
gravel plains evidently parts of the Ohau fan spread by distributaries of
that river, occurs at Weraroa, where the Central Development Farm of
the Department of Agriculture is situated partly on this formation and
partly on the fan ; and there is then a nearly continuous bench, broken
only by some gravel-covered valley-floors, extending north-eastward for
twenty miles.
Lithology and Structure of the Otaki Series. — The prevailing material in
the Otaki series is grey sand similar in mineral composition to that of the
present beach and the associated dunes. In addition to quartz, the sand
contains a considerable proportion of feldspathic, ferromagnesian, and iron-
oxide grains. The mineral grains, including those of quartz, though not
completely rounded, have their angles smoothed off, and they thus contrast
very strongly with the sharp, angular grains of the present beach. This
suggests aeolian accumulation. All the samples examined are somewhat
weathered, however, and the rounding of grains may be ascribed in part to
weathering.
The more or less coherent sandstone formed of this material weathers
at the surface to a residual sandy clay, usually containing scattered
spheroidal masses of the sandstone. The permeability seems not to be
great, for the water-table is generally close to the surface. Much water
seeps out along the bases of even low scarps, and necessitates draining.
In the few sections where bedding has been noted the beds are inclined
at about 35°. It is quite clearly cross-bedding on a large scale, and again
suggests subaerial accumulation. Cross-bedding and also ripple-mark are
noted by Adkin.* A horizontal pseudo-stratification, due, apparently, to
deposition of iron, is also generally present. Though less prominent, it
seems to resemble that noted by Berkeyj* in the aeolian San Juan
formation of Porto Rico.
The non-discovery of fossils, J though a negative character, points also
to the possibility of subaerial accumulation of the sand of the Otaki series.
Clay lenses and bleached soil-beds, which are interbedded with the sand-
stone, accumulated, no doubt, in lakes and swampy areas impounded among
dunes. The clay-bed between upper and lower sands noted by Adkin, §
which he ascribes to marine deposition at a period of maximum depression,
is perhaps one of these.
In one section near Shannon layers of small pebbles occur interbedded
with the sand. Here is probably the course of one of the smaller streams
from the old land, or perhaps the margin of one of the larger fans. If
gravel fans and dune sands accumulated side by side, as is assumed in the
theoretical section, there must be a considerable amount of intermixture of
material along the transition lines where gravel passes laterally into sand.
Along these lines, indeed, a complex interfingering of gravel and sand beds
may be expected.
The Fans or Gravel Plains.
Throughout the length of the lowland there are numerous gravel fans,
both great and small. The largest are those of the Otaki and Ohau Rivers,
* Loc. cit., p. 507.
t C. P. Berkey, Geological Reconnoissance of Porto Rico, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci.,
vol. 26, pp. 1-70 (see p. 50), 1915.
J G. L. Adkin, loc. cit., pp. 497, 507.
§ Loc. cit., p. 507.
222 Transactions.
which have a combined area of about forty square miles. Some parts
of their surfaces are thickly covered with small boulders or coarse gravel ;
others have a gravelly soil ; while others, again, have a superficial layer of
silt overlying gravel. Most of the fans are trenched and terraced to a small
extent. The surfaces of the fans and of terraces cut in them are very
similar to one another, as are also gravel-covered terraces within the border
of the old land. All these may be classed as gravel plains. The gravel-
bearing streams are at present aggrading as though to refill the trenches
in the fans. The actual stream-beds are,' therefore, areas of bare gravel
over which the streams flow in changing, braided channels. As previously
mentioned, the upper surface of the Otaki formation passes in some places
into that of a fan without any abrupt break of slope.
The Delta of the Manawatu.
More or less analogous with the fans of the. southern part of the lowland
is the delta of the Manawatu River ; but this is one, perhaps the chief, of
the sand-supplying rivers. Its delta is composed mainly of fine material,
and its gradient is very gentle as compared with that of the gravel fans.
The Manawatu delta forms a plain of wide extent lying at present almost
entirely on the north side of the river, and continued up-stream by a wide
flood-plain, below which the river is now slightly entrenched, and above
which there are broad terraces on the northern side. The seaward margin
of the delta is covered with dunes, some belts of which extend inland many
miles. The Manawatu River at present bends to the south-west after
emerging from its gorge across the old land, and at a not very distant date
it swung still farther to the south. The toe of the bench formed by the
Otaki series is here cut back to a line of cliffs by the action of the river,
and at the base of these a considerable area of ill-drained flood-plain, now
abandoned by the river owing to its slight entrenchment, forms the great
Makurerua Swamp (see fig. 1). The whole of the delta plain was formerly
swampy, but a great part has been artificially drained.
The Modern Dunes.
The modern dunes are built of grey sand similar to that forming the
sandstone of the Otaki series. All except a narrow belt close to the sea
are fixed by vegetation, but beneath the superficial layer of humus the
sand is still quite loose. The belt of dunes has a width of from three
to six miles, and their average height is 170 ft. Adkin notes that
their general arrangement is in ridges at right angles to the coast-line.*
The shore-line of the dune-covered foreland advances as a broad cusp
towards Kapiti Island (a high island of old rocks some four miles from the
mainland). This is evidently an early stage of island-tying.
Lakes and Swamps.
Several lakes and many small ponds and swamps formed by the silting-
up of ponds lie between the modern dunes and the margin of the other
physiographic elements of the lowland, and there are many swampy areas
among the modern dunes. The valley-floors in the Otaki formation are
practically all swampy, as a result either of normal aggradation with fine
silt or of ponding by sand-dunes followed by accumulation of silt. The
largest swamp in the district — the Makurerua Swamp — has been referred to
above.
* G. L. Adkin, loc. cit., pp. 514-15.
Chambers. — New Zealand Ironsands. 223
Aet. XXIV. — New Zealand Ironsands : an Historical Account of an
Attempt to Smelt Ironsands at Onehunga in 1883.
By J. M. Chambers.
Communicated by Mr. Evan Parry.
[Read before the Technological Section of the Wellington Philosophical Society, 13th Jane,
1917 ; received by Editors, 31st December, 1917 ; issued separately, 17th June, 191s. |
It is extremely difficult after a lapse of nearly thirty-five years to obtain
a complete history of this undertaking, as the directors of the New Zealand
Iron and Steel Company (Limited) are all dead — in fact, almost everybody
who had any connection with it. Its records have been lost or destroyed,
and the only data I have have been obtained from a private letter-book
and a few odd documents which I found amongst my father's papers.
In 1866 Mr. John Chambers arrived in New Zealand, and soon after-
wards saw the ironsand on the beaches of Taranaki. He was much im-
pressed with it as a valuable asset, if the material could be converted into
marketable iron. From some early settlers he learnt that 100 tons of sand
had been sent to Staffordshire, where it was manufactured into iron by
David Hipkins, who wrote that he smelted and puddled the sand into bars,
sheets, hoops, boiler-plates, and fencing-rods, afterwards making it into
horse-shoes, chain, &c. All were tested and pronounced equal to any of
the Staffordshire irons ; but owing to cost of manipulation he would not
recommend his principals to obtain further supplies or establish a works
in New Zealand.
Later, in 1876, Mr. Chambers took a parcel of ironsand to England and
the United States. He interviewed many ironmasters, but could get none
sufficiently interested to experiment seriously with the samples, excepting
in laboratories, where a few pounds of iron and steel were produced in
crucibles.
In 1886 I attended the Indian and Colonial Exhibition, where there were
exhibited a parcel of sand and some iron manufactured by the above com-
pany. While in London I was introduced to W. T. Jeans, Price Williams,
and Sir Henry Bessemer, all of whom were interested in the sands of New
Zealand and Canada. Arrangements were made with Sir Henry Bessemer
to carry out a series of experiments. His report was unsatisfactory, for,
although he claimed that the best-quality iron and steel could be produced,
it would require a great deal of research work, and he was too old to go on
with it.
Just before Sir William Siemens died, in 1883, he stated that his atten-
tion had been called to the ironsand in New Zealand and Canada, contain-
ing about 50 per cent, of metallic iron, and he demonstrated with a patent
rotating furnace that he could manufacture iron from the ironsand of
Canada, producing iron balls in four hours, which were then treated in
the open-hearth furnace and converted into mild steel. At that time his
process was tried in Pittsburgh, but unfortunately it did not prove a
commercial success, on account of cost.
Mr. John Chambers visited the Philadelphia Exhibition in 1876, and
there tried to induce men in the iron and steel trade to test the ironsand ;
but nothing could be arranged, as all the ironmasters of America were fully
occupied in building additional works to handle the trade which they could
224 Transactions.
easily get in America for all the iron that could be produced from ordinary
iron-ore at a cheap rate. But before leaving New York Mr. Chambers
heard that Mr. Joel Wilson, of Dover, New Jersey, had in 1873 patented a
furnace which he claimed would treat ironsand and convert it directly into
wrought iron ; but everything was in an embryo state, and it was arranged
for an agent to watch the work of Mr. Wilson, who claimed in 1882 to be
able to manufacture successfully from sand. Mr. Guy H. Gardner, of New
York, obtained an option on the New Zealand patents, purchasing them
jointly with Mr. Chambers ; and so sanguine was the inventor that he
agreed to send out his best man, Mr. W. H. Jones, to demonstrate the
working of his patent in New Zealand.
A full-size furnace was erected in 1882 to manufacture 3 tons of iron
per day. The furnace was built from a drawing accompanying patent speci-
fications granted to R. L. Malcolm (J. Wilson)* and G. H. Gardner,"}" except
that the reducing-furnace contained eight retorts, instead of sixteen as
shown on the drawing accompanying Malcolm's patent. The drawing of
the furnace as built has been reconstructed and shown in the figure accom-
panying this paper. It consisted of a deoxidizer, A, and of an ordinary
reverberatory or open-hearth furnace, about 17 ft. long, divided into three
compartments — B, the balling-furnace ; C, the puddling-furnace ; D, the fire-
grate. The coal used for firing on the ordinary furnace-bars was from
Westport and Newcastle. The hot gases from the furnace played direct
on the floor of the puddling-furnace C, passed on to the balling-furnace B,
then passed through the roof into a central flue F, about 2 ft. in diameter,
and were carried up the full length of the deoxidizer, a height of 21 ft. ;
the gases struck the crown at the top of the furnace, and passed in a
downward direction between the retorts R, there being radial spaces F
between the retorts for the gases to pass through ; on reaching the bottom
they were deflected so as to pass upwards (F) on the periphery or outside
of the surface of retorts, and between that and a firebrick lining against
the shell of furnace. On the gases reaching somewhere near the top they
passed out into an annular flue and by way of an iron chimney into the
atmosphere.
The deoxidizer held 10 tons of carbon and ironsand. After the silica
had been extracted by a magnetic separator it was thoroughly mixed with
20 per cent, to 25 per cent, of coal or charcoal, Taupiri coal being used.
The material was hoisted to a platform above the deoxidizer, from which
each retort was filled from filling-boxes. It required twenty hours to
deoxidize or carbonize the iron by driving out the oxygen. The sand was
red-hot, but not so sticky that it would not run through the chutes leading
to the balling-furnace, which were controlled by heavy gate-valves.
The deoxidized sand dropped on to the floor of the balling-furnace,
where it lay for some thirty minutes, there being a door at the side of the
furnace to permit the puddlers to test the condition of the material before
balling it. It would work up exactly as cream works into butter, having
very much the same appearance. On a ball of about 18 in. diameter being
made it was rolled or passed over to the puddling-furnace C, when it was
again attacked by a fresh set of puddlers, who vigorously worked it up
*" Malcolm, R. L. — 8th January, 1883 — Improvements in furnaces for reducing
iron-ores," N.Z. Pat. Reg. No. 762.
t" Gardner, G. H. — 23rd April, 1883 — Improvements in furnaces for the manu-
facture of bar iron and blooms," N.Z. Pat. Reg. No. 818.
Chambers. — New Zealand Ironsands.
225
until it was ready for the squeezer ; or, in the case of the first trials, the
ball was placed on the anvil of a steam-hammer and gently squeezed into
a square form, after which it could be hammered with the full force of the
hammer and drawn into the shape of a billet or bloom.
The cost of the first furnace was £500. It was completed early in
February, 1883, and on the 27th the first iron by the new process was
Design of Ftrnace.
A, deoxidizer : B. balling-furnace ; C, puddling- furnace ; 1), fire-grate;
F. flues; R, retorts.
made into billets, and it was shown that the quality exceeded all expecta-
tions. On the 5th March George Fraser and Sons, Auckland, made three
bars, 8 ft. long, 2 in. square, of perfect quality. The furnace, under the
charge of W. H. Jones, was kept working for about ten days, and at that
time good blooms were produced, which were worked up into bar^ and
thoroughly tested by several leading blacksmiths in Auckland, Mr. George
8— Trans.
226 Transaction*.
Leahy making a large double pair of ornamental gates of beautiful design
to demonstrate the quality of the iron, which was equal to Netherton Crown.
After a stoppage for some necessary repairs the fires were lit for a second
time. The best results obtained from one charge in the deoxidizer was the
manufacture of 6,751 lb. of iron from 14,625 lb. of sand ; the slag or cinder
amounted to 7,215 lb., the loss of cinder and waste in furnace being reckoned
at 659 lb., resulting in 46^ per cent, of iron being produced from the sepa-
rated sand. The operations were carefully watched by Messrs. James
Stewart and Edmund W. Otway, of Auckland, who on the 29th March
made the following report : —
tc We have the honour to state that, as requested by you, we have
attended at your works erected at Onehunga for the reduction of the iron-
sand, for the purpose of examining in detail the whole process and obtaining
data for reporting on the cost of production. We are as yet unable to make
a complete report, but hasten to give you a few of the more important
results, and the deductions which may fairly be drawn from them. We,
hope shortly to report in a more exhaustive manner.
" On Monday, the 19th instant, four retorts were filled with a mixture
of ironsand and charcoal, in the proportions of one measure of sand to two
of charcoal. Other four retorts were filled with a mixture of ironsand and
ground Waikato coal, in the proportions of two measures of coal to three
of sand, the intention being to put in 20 per cent, by weight of both char-
coal and coal in proportion to the sand. The above mixtures give that
percentage of coal, but more than that of charcoal, and in subsequent
operations in filling up the exact ratio of 20 per cent, was adhered to.
" The fires were lighted on Monday night, and on Wednesday a small
charge was tried, but found not sufficiently carbonized or deoxidized-
either term appears correct. Puddling was therefore deferred until Thurs-
day, the 22nd, and was then commenced with the coal mixture principally.
But it soon became apparent that the coal was not in sufficient proportion
to carbonize the ore, and after working all day with a very poor result it
was determined to discharge all the coal mixture remaining in the retorts
and recharge with charcoal and ore.
" On Friday work was resumed with better success, but, as coal mixture
had been used to fill up the shrinkage in the retorts remaining to be worked,
its presence still caused trouble, principally by the great amount of slag
produced, and iron dry and difficult to work to nature, causing the blooms
to be returned to the furnace once, and sometimes twice.
" On Saturday the work went on very well, and if the draught of the
furnace had been perfect little could have been desired in the result.
" We have worked out the result in two ways : (1 ) total sand ore worked
by both mixtures, against total yield of iron : (2) discarding the yield of
iron on Thursday, when the iron-ore was mixed with the coal, as obviously
the fairest view to take. The first result is 38 cwt. of iron from 149 cwt.
of sand, equal to 25-5 per cent, (very nearly) of puddled blooms. The
second view gives 33-25 cwt. from 98 cwt. of ore, equal to 34 per cent,
(nearly) of puddled blooms.
" From the somewhat extemporized nature of the works, we feel con-
fident that the above percentage at least can be maintained by carbonizing
with charcoal. And by increasing the coal mixture to an amount equiva-
lent to 20 per cent, of carbon we have reason to believe a like result will be
obtained.
" Discarding Thursday's run, the coal used in puddling and keeping up
the heat at night on Friday, Saturday, and Monday, including the coal
Chambers. — New Zealand Ironsands. 227
»
necessary to keep the furnace hot over Sunday, was 3-21 tons, which works
out to 38-6 cwt. per ton of blooms. We feel quite safe in saying that with
continuous working the conversion of the ore can be effected at under
30 cwt. of coal per ton of iron, and that all the heat and firing required
by the whole process can be supplied by the waste heat from the furnace
and retorts in the use of that weight of coal. This is even with the direct
use of coal ; but with the most improved gas regenerative furnace not only
will the amount of coal be very largely reduced, but much inferior fuel
may be used.
" Keeping in view all the above points, we have no hesitation in saying
that the process has been shown to be profitable, but to what extent we
are yet unable to say. We trust, however, that this interim report will be
of service to you."
It was estimated the cost of manufacture would be as follows :—
Cost of 3 tons of ironsand at works, at 6s. 8d. per
ton
30 cwt. coal at works . .
Carbon for retorts
Puddling, per ton
Shingling, rolling into puddle-bars, weighing, shear-
ing, piling, reheating, and rolling into 1 in. bars 0 10 0
Engine-driver's time, millwright, bricklayers, &c,
and incidental expenses . . . . . . 0 10 0
£5 0 0
Add 25 per cent, for establishment charges, depre-
ciation on plant . . . . . . ..150
Cost per ton . . . . ..£650
£ s.
d.
1 0
0
1 10
0
0 10
0
1 0
0
When the furnace was working during April the works were visited by
Mr. Pearson, of Pearson, Knowles, and Co., of Warrington, who took a
great interest in the work, and said the process represented the greatest
advance of the present age. At the same time they had another distin-
guished visitor — Mr. Sydney Gilchrist Thomas, of London, inventor of the
basic process which did so much to cheapen the cost of manufacturing
steel. He declared that for the first time he had seen wrought iron made
direct from ore, and it was what all ironmasters had been trying to do for
a century. He was prepared and wished to enter into a contract for the
purchase of 5,000 tons of blooms per annum.
As a result of the visits of these two men and the favourable reports
obtained from all quarters it was resolved to form a company with a capital
of £200,000, made up of 40,000 £5 shares : of these, 9,103 were subscribed
by the public, leaving a balance of 30,897 ; the paid-up capital being
£45,515. The total expenditure was about £58,000, the plant and build-
ings costing £34,329.
The company proposed to order sufficient material and plant for the
erection of ten deoxidizers and furnaces. A rolling plant was ordered from
Messrs. Walker, Eaton, and Co., of Sheffield, who supplied an 18 in. forge-
train with squeezer, pendulum shears, and engines, a 14 in. and 10 in.
merchant mill, hot-saw, two shingling-hammers (each of 50 cwt.), and all
necessary gear for a complete works to turn out 30 cwt. of bar iron or rolls
per day. Four Lancashire boilers and four Wilson gas-producers were
228
Transactions .
ordered from Tangyes Limited, to provide gas for heating furnaces, firing
boilers, &c, it not being proposed to use coal in any furnace or place.
The site on which the experimental furnace was erected was purchased,
consisting of about 5 acres on the south-east side of the Onehunga railway-
station, from which a siding was run into the works. It had a water
frontage, which became valuable by a canal being cut to deep water to
enable vessels of light draught to come right into the works, so that West-
port or Newcastle coal could be delivered direct. It was a fine site, having
many advantages, several springs providing a good supply of fresh water.
It was admirably situated for cheap and economical working, for it was
intended that the ironsand should be brought from the North Head of
Manukau Heads, where a Government lease, of sixty-six years, was obtained
for 6 j miles of beach and 1,000 acres of land, on which there were millions
of tons of iron. There was good shelter and deep water at the Heads for
loading, it being proved from actual experience that the sand could be
raised, trucked, delivered to vessel, and conveyed to works at a cost not
exceeding 6s. 8d. per ton. The average sample of ironsand obtained from
the Manukau Heads would analyse as follows :—
iron-oxiae
Titanium
Lime
Magnesia
Silica . .
Loss
88-88
0-30
Trace
9-98
0-84
100-00
Equal to 66-36 per cent. iron.
The patience of the shareholders was somewhat tried by the long wait
for machinery to come from Great Britain. Contracts were let for a furnace-
house to contain the forge-train, which measured 106 ft. by 100 ft. The
roof of this building had a single span. There was also a similar building,
100 ft. square, for the merchant mills and reheating furnaces. Offices,
laboratory, carpenters' and engineers1 workshops, foundry complete with
cupola, set of furnaces for making crucible steel, storage, drying and mixing
shed for coal and sand, were all got under way, and, in addition, a brick-
kiln, which turned out 200,000 firebricks before the machinery arrived.
The prospects were bright and every one was sanguine of success ; but
on the 23rd December the company suffered a great blow by Mr. W. H.
Jones quarrelling with a bricklayer, whom an hour or two afterwards lie
shot in the main street of Onehunga, for which he got ten years' hard
labour. No suitable man could be obtained from America, and it was
thought that Mr. Edmund Otway, an old ironmaster, would fill the position,
which he did for some months. He was a very capable man, but unfor-
tunately he broke down and died in June, 1884. This was looked upon
as a serious loss, but fortunately the position was filled by Mr. John
Heskett, at one time manager of one of Bolckow Vaughan's works at
Micldlesborougli, who proved to be thoroughly capable, and manfully
carried on the work. He, unfortunately, had to fight against great diffi-
culties through ill health, and finally broke down at a critical time, when
the works were completed and ready to commence operations.
On the 7th November, 1884, the first machinery arrived from England ;
it was quickly erected, for by the 1st May, 1885, the fires were lit in two
furnaces, when it was shown that 1 ton of bars could be made from 3 tons
Chambers. — New Zealand Iron sands.
229
of 75 per cent, oxide that is, the sand as found on the beaches. The new
furnaces were supplied by gas under forced draught generated by the four
Wilson gas-producers, and all worked well for a few days, when it was
found that the coal contained too much moisture, which destroyed the
heating properties of the gases. Again and again endeavours were made
to overcome this difficulty. The fires would be lit in the gas-producers,
and the quality of gas for the first few hours would be perfect ; but as the
furnaces became hot and just about ready for men to work the sand and
deoxidizers the heat gradually fell away, or a series of explosions took
place, which showed it was time to stop. This was one of the first diffi-
culties met with, and one that was never overcome in spite of many
experiments.
By this time the shareholders were becoming impatient, for they wanted
to see returns. The loss of two managers, followed by the enforced retire-
ment of Mr. John Heskett, had a good deal to do with the company
breaking up.
Mr. James McAndrew, an ironmaster, who had been on the Clyde,
accepted the position of manager, and did his best to produce iron from
sand, but none of Mr. W. H. Jones's successors could produce iron of the
same quality as he did. There were difficulties with the deoxidizers : air
seemed to leak through or get into the retorts, resulting in a portion of
the sand not being deoxidized, and, although it would work up into a bloom
which had the appearance of being good, when passed through the forge-
rolls the bars would fracture through the sand not being properly deoxidized
or cemented together.
The directors got a rude awakening by receiving a report from Mr. John
Coom, which showed that the iron was brittle and could not be sold as a
first-class commercial article. The report reads as follows :—
' The iron was tested for tensile strength and by bending ; the steel
was made into tools and used in wheel-turning and general work.
' Three pieces of the iron (marked ' A ' in the schedule) were drawn
down to a sectional area of J in. ; the two pieces marked ' B ' were tested
as sent from the works, the section of these being about 1 square inch.
' The apparatus used in testing is not one specially designed for the
purpose : the results cannot, therefore, be looked upon as strictly accurate.
,c For your information I have shown results of some of Kirkaldy's tests
of Bowling and Lowmoor iron, and the specification of the iron supplied
for the Ohio (America) railroad bridge.
No. of
Piece.
Brand.
Mean Breaking -weight
per Square Inch of
Original Section.
( 'ontraction of
Area at
Fracture.
Mean
Elongation.
Tons.
Per Cent.
Per Cent.
1
A
26-00
23-4
7-3
2
A
26-46
25-1
4-1
3
A
31-93
27-6
10-9
1
B
16-26
20-6
8-5
5
B
16-26
4-5
2-7
. .
Bowling
27-86
45-3
29-4
' •
Lowmoor
27-59
53-1
26-5
. .
Ohio River Bridge
26-75
25-0
15-0
specification
230 Transactions.
; The pieces 1, 2, and 3, which were drawn down from a large section,
are superior to the pieces 4 and 5, which were tested in same section as
received.
" The results show the iron to be of a hard and unyielding character,
but it evidently is improved by working ; it would require this before it
could be safely used in engineering-works. The mean breaking-weight is
high, but the contraction at the fractured area and the elongation are low,
showing the iron to be as I state.
" A further test of the iron was made by bending cold, and the results
were fairly good : two pieces were bent double and showed but few cracks.
' The steel was made into tools for use in the wheel and other lathes ;
these were given to the turners with instructions to use them for a week
and then report. Their report was very favourable : they say the tools
stood as well as most of those made from the imported article.''
The company then resorted to manufacturing wrought iron from scrap,
but this was not profitable. First-class chemists were engaged in the labo-
ratory, Mr. D. S. Galbraith working very hard in the hope of overcoming
difficulties, but this was never done.
The company struggled on until November, 1886, when, with its capital
spent and a liability of £20,000, an attempt was made to reconstruct ; but
the shareholders would not find money, and the assets of the company
were taken over by the mortgagee. For a short time it was worked under
tribute in the manufacture of bar iron from scrap, but this was never profit-
able, and finally the plant was broken up and shipped to China, to be used
there in new ironworks.
So ended the most serious attempt at manufacturing iron from the
sands of New Zealand, and one wonders now why it was not a success.
Everything was done that could be thought of at the time by all con-
cerned, for they were sanguine to the last, and hoped to retrieve the
fortune spent in endeavouring to create a great industry for the Dominion.
Art. XXV. — Notes on the Autecology of certain Plants of the Peridotite
Belt, Nelson : Part I Structure of some of the Plants (No. 1).
By M. Winifred Betts, M.Sc.
Communicated bv Professor Benham, F.R.S.
[Bead before the Otago Institute, 9th October, 1917 ; received by Editors, 29th December,
1917 ; issued separately, 24th June, 1918.]
Introduction.
At a short distance from the city of Nelson there is an area known as the
' Mineral Belt." This is a zone of boulder-strewn land-surface, often dun-
coloured in appearance, underlain by peridotite and serpentine rocks, which
extends from D'Urville Island, in Cook Strait, south-west for a distance of
sixty miles. It is an almost continuous band, but it disappears for about a
mile between the valleys of the Lee and Serpentine Rivers. At its nar-
rowest part the Mineral Belt is 100 yards wide, and it reaches its maximum
width of 3 miles 50 chains in the vicinity of the Dun Mountain. The area
occupied by the Mineral Belt is about 29 \ square miles.*
* J. M. Bell, E. de C. Clabke, and P. Marshall, The Dun Mountain Subdivision,
N.Z. Gcol Sun: Bull. No. 12, 1911.
Betts. — Avtecology of Plants of Peridotite Belt, Nelson. 231
The vegetation of the Mineral Belt presents a striking contrast with
that of the neighbouring land-surface, which is clothed with luxuriant
forests of southern-beech {Nothofagus spp.). On the Mineral Belt there are
three principal plant-associations :-
1. Shrubland. — This is usually found near the margin of the Belt, and
is composed of many species that are found in the adjacent forests, but on
the Belt they are much dwarfed — e.g., Griselinia littoralis is usually a
tree 10-16 metres high, but in the shrub formation on the Mineral Belt it is
reduced to a woody shrub 3— 2 metres high; Nothofagus fusca, a forest-tree,
is represented by small trees 2-3 metres high. In addition to these dwarfed
representatives of the neighbouring forests there are in this association a
number of shrubs which are not reduced. Such plants are Cassinia Vau-
villiersii var.. Coprosma propinqua, Dracophyllum longifoliumvax., and Lepto-
spermum scoparium var. In this association there are a number of small
herbs — e.g., Glaytonia australasica, Colobanthus quitensis, and Epilobium
pedunculate var.
2. Open Scrubland. —In this association the most characteristic plants
are Cassinia Vauvilliersii var., Dracophyllum rosmarinifolium, Exocarpus
Bidwillii. Hymenanthera dentata var. alpina, Veronica, buxifolia var., V.
Menziesii var., V.pinguifolia^.), Pimelea Suteri, and Muehlenbeckia axillaris.
Among the herbs to be found in this association are Myosotis Monroi,
Notothlaspi australe, Gentiana corymbifera, Anisotome aromatica, and A.
filifolium.
3. Tussock Grassland. — The' dominant plant is Danthonia Raoulii var. ;
sub-dominant are Phormium Coohianum and Astelia montana var.
It is proposed to describe the anatomy of a number of the plants of the
Mineral Belt in a series of short papers, and then the results obtained from
these investigations will be considered.
In addition to the anatomy of the leaf and of the stem of the different
species, a brief description of the growth-form of the plant is given. In those
cases where the usual form of the species is found on the Mineral Belt this
description is quoted from Cheeseman's Manual of the New Zealand Flora
(1906). Where the species is modified in form, a description of the usual
type is quoted, and then that of the plant as it is found on the Mineral
Belt is given.
1. Nothofagus fusca Oerst.
Usual Growth-form. '' A noble forest-tree 60-100 ft. high ; trunk 4-8 ft.
diam. ; bark dark-brown or black in old plants, deeply furrowed, smooth
and greyish- white on young trees ; branchlets and petioles pubescent.
Leaves evergreen, petiolate, f-1^ in. long, broadly ovate or ovate-oblong,
obtuse or rarely acute, cuneate at the base, rather thin but firm, pubescent
above and glandular beneath when young, glabrous when old, deeply and
sharply serrate, veins conspicuous; stipules linear-oblong, caducous."'
Mineral Belt Growth-form. — A small tree 6-8 ft. high, with leaves |-f in.
long.
Anatomy.
Leaf.- The upper epidermis consists of small cells, more or less oval in
transverse section. The cell-walls are thin, except the external walls, which
are slightly thickened and also cuticularized. Some of the epidermal cells,
in the vicinity of the vascular bundles, are produced into long unicellular
hairs which have thin, slightly cutinized walls. There are no stomates on
the upper surface.
The lower epidermal cells are small, oval, and thin-walled, the external
walls being slightly thickened. A thin cuticle is present. Stomates are
232 Transactions.
confined to the lower surface : the guard-cells are small and on the same
level as the other epidermal cells, the stoma being protected by guard-cell
ridges. On the lower surface there are hydathodes, which are sunk in slight
depressions.
The chlorenchyma is differentiated into palisade and spongy tissue.
The former consists of 3 rows of thin-walled cells, the outer layer with
the cells very closely arranged so that there are no intercellular spaces :
the 2 inner layers are arranged more loosely. The spongy tissue consists
of small thin -walled irregular cells which have rather small air-spaces
between them. Manv of the chlorenchymatous cells contain tannin.
The midrib is slightly prominent. Surrounding the vascular bundle of
the midrib there is a sheath 1-3 cells thick, consisting of small sclerenchy-
matous cells. Around this there is a sheath of larger cells, also with
lignified walls. The xylem consists of vessels of moderately large diameter
and of wood-fibres. Above the xylem there is a small amount of parenchyma.
The phloem is in the form of a crescent : the parenchymatous elements
contain tannin.
Stem.- The cork is a fairly wide band of tissue, consisting of small, very
compact cells.
The cortical cells are large, and oval in transverse section. These cells
are thick-walled, and many of them contain tannin. They are closely
arranged, so that there are only small intercellular air-spaces.
The pericycle fibres form a wide band, in which the cells vary consider-
ablv in size in transverse section. Some are small, with their cell-walls so
much lignified and thickened that the lumen is almost obliterated ; con-
necting groups of these cells are much larger cells, also with thickened,
lignified walls, but the cell-cavities are large.
The phloem forms a narrow band, and the parenchyma contains tannin.
The spring wood consists of a large number of vessels of large diameter,
together with wood-fibres. The autumn wood is formed of much smaller
vessels, and of wood-fibres in which the lumen is almost obliterated.
The medullary rays are uniseriate, and the cells have thickened lignified
walls, and contain tannin. The pith cells are large and round, have thick-
ened lignified walls, and contain abundant starch.
2. Nothofagus cliffortioides Oerst.
Usual Growth-form- "A small tree, usually from 20ft. to 40ft. high,
rarely more, with a trunk 1-2 ft. diani., in alpine localities often dwarfed
into a much-branched bush 5-12 ft. high. Branches spreading, often dis-
tichous, especially in young trees : branchlets densely pubescent. Leaves
shortly petiolate, distichous, |-| in. long, ovate-oblong or ovate or ovate-
orbicular, acute or subacute, rarely obtuse, always broadest at the unequally
rounded or almost cordate base, quite entire, very coriaceous, glabrous
and reticulated above, more or less clothed with greyish-white appressed
hairs beneath, margins thickened, often recurved ; stipules membranous,
caducous."
Mineral Belt Growth-form. A much-branched bush 4 8 ft. high, with
leaves \-\ in. long.
Anatomy.
Leaf.— The upper epidermis consists of small cells which are more or
less square in transverse section. These have their cell-walls thickened,
and there is a thick cuticle. Some of the epidermal cells contain tannin.
On the upper surface there are numerous glands which are formed from
epidermal cells.
Betts. — Aut ecology of Plants of Peridotiti Belt, Nelson. 233
The palisade and the spongy parenchyma, the lower epidermis, and the
stomates are the same as in iV. fusca, but on the lower surface some of the
epidermal cells are produced into unicellular hairs, which have thin non-
cutinized walls. There is a thick cuticle on the lower surface. Many of the
mesophvll cells and the cells of both the lower and the upper epidermis
contain tannin.
The vascular bundles are the same as in .V. fusca. but the midrib is
smaller.
Stem. — The structure is essentially the same as in N. fusca, the only
differences being— (1) There are more pericycle fibres; (2) the phloem
forms a wider band ; (3) the pith cells do not contain starch ; (4) there
are more numerous vessels of large diameter.
3. Exocarpus Bidwillii Hook. f.
Growth - form. - -" A small much - branched rigid procumbent shrub
6-24 in. high, branches ascending, short, stiff, terete, deeply furrowed.
Leaves reduced to minute triangular scales, alternate, persistent."
Fig. 1. — Exocarpus Bidwillii. Portion of plant (£ natural size).
a. fruit ; b, leaves reduced to triangular scales.
A portion of the plant is shown in fig. 1, which also shows the fruit,
which is seated on the much-enlarged thickened red and succulent peduncle.
The perianth-segments are persistent under the fruit.
Anatomy.
Stem (figs. 2-4). — The structure of the stem is shown roughly in fig. 2.
From this it will be seen that the furrows are lined with stiff hairs, that
there is a thick cuticle, &c. The more detailed structure of the stem is
shown in fig;. 4.
The epidermis consists of small squarish cells with thin cell-walls and
an extremely thick cuticle. In the furrows the epidermal cells are larger
and there is only a thin cuticle. Many of the epidermal cells in the furrows
are produced into stiff hairs, which have thick walls which are cuticularized.
In the furrows are the stomates, but these cannot be seen well in transverse
section, as their long axes are placed transversely to the surface of the stem.
234
Transactions.
Fig. 3 gives the epidermis from a longitudinal section ; from this it will be
seen that the stomates are at the same level as the epidermal cells, and the
opening is protected by guard-cell ridges.
The cortex is composed of closely packed more or less polygonal cells
with thin walls. In the outer part of the cortex, and especially in the
Fig. 2. — Exocarpus Bidwillii. Diagrammatic transverse section of the stem ( x 24).
a, thick cuticle ; b, furrow lined with hairs ; c, pericycle fibres.
Fig. 3. — Exocarpus Bidwillii. Longitudinal section through epidermis ( X 350). a, guard-
cell ridge.
Fig. 4. — Exocarpus Bidwillii. Transverse section of stem (x 120). a, thick cuticle:
b, tannin-containing cells ; c, chlorenchyma ; d, pericycle fibres ; e, phloem :
/, vessels of xylem ; <j, lignified pith.
ridges, the cortical cells contain tannin : in the inner part of the cortex
most of the cells contain numerous chloroplasts, but some contain tannin.
At intervals there are large groups of pericycle fibres, composed of small
cells with very thick lignified walls and small lumen.
Betts. — Autecology of Plants of Peridotite Belt, Nelson. 235
The phloem forms a wide band in which the elements are very regularly
arranged. Most of the parenchymatous cells of the phloem contain tannin.
The xylem consists chiefly of wood-fibres of small diameter ; these have
very thick walls and small lumen. The number of vessels is small in com-
parison with the amount of wood, and they are not of wide diameter.
The medullary rays are numerous and uniseriate ; the cells have lignified
walls, and contain tannin. The pith is solid, and consists of polygonal or
roundish cells with pitted lignified walls.
4. Muehlenbeckia axillaris Walp.
Growth-form. — '* A small much-branched prostrate or diffuse shrubby
plant, usually forming densely matted patches 3-12 in. diam., but sometimes
open and straggling ; stems and branches woody ; branchlets puberulous.
Leaves on rather long petioles, small, T^y— -Jin. long, broadly oblong or
ovate-oblong or almost orbicular, obtuse or refuse, rounded at the base,
flat, quite glabrous, dotted beneath."
Anatomy.
Leaf. — The upper epidermis consists of large cells with thin walls,
except the external ones, which are slightly thicker. There is a very thin
cuticle. The epidermal cells form mucilage-sacs. The lower epidermis is
similar to the upper. A few stomates are found on the upper surface, but
they are much more numerous on the lower surface ; the guard-cells are
small and are level with the other epidermal cells. On both surfaces of the
leaf there are hydathodes, which are sunk in small depressions ; they are
more numerous on the lower than on the upper surface.
The chlorenchyma is differentiated into palisade and spongy tissue
The palisade tissue is found on both surfaces of the leaf ; there are 3-4
layers of cells on each side. The cells are small, their walls are thin, and
they contain numerous small chloroplasts. The outer layers contain tannin.
The cells are closely packed, so that there are only very small intercellular
air-spaces. The spongy tissue consists of fairly large cells with thin walls
and containing numerous small chloroplasts. The air-spaces in this tissue
are larger, and some of the cells contain tannin.
The vascular bundles are frequent, but of small size. Above the xylem
there is some stereome, and above this small-celled parenchyma. There
is also small-celled parenchyma below the phloem. Each vascular bundle is
surrounded by a sheath of large parenchymatous cells, which contain tannin.
Stem. — The cork forms a fairly wide zone of very small compact cells.
The cortex consists of oval cells which are closely packed together, so
that there are only very minute intercellular air-spaces. Most of the cells
contain tannin.
The pericycle fibres form a narrow, more or less continuous band 1-2
cells wide. The cells are small, and have thick walls and small lumen.
The phloem forms a wide band, in which the parenchymatous cells contain
tannin. The xylem consists almost entirely of wood-fibres, but there are
a few vessels of large diameter.
The medullary rays are multiseriate and are very wide. They consist
of small cells with thickened lignified walls, and they contain abundant
large starch-grains.
The pith consists of rounded or polygonal cells with thick lignified walls.
They are closely packed together, and are full of large more or less poly-
gonal starch-grains, and some contain tannin.
236
Transactions.
5. Claytonia australasica Hook. f.
Usual Growth-form. — " A perfectly glabrous tender and succulent usually
matted plant, with slender creeping stems 1-6 in. long. Leaves very vari-
able in size, J-H in. long, alternate or in distant pairs, narrow-linear or
linear-spathulate, obtuse, dilated into broad membranous sheaths at the
base."
Mineral Belt Growth-form. — In the Mineral Belt plants the leaves are
i-i in. long.
Anatomy.
Leaf (figs. 5 and 6). — The upper and the lower epidermis are similar ;
the epidermal cells are large and have thickened walls. A very thin
cuticle is present. Stomates are confined to the upper surface of the leaf.
Fig. 5. — Claytonia australasica. Diagrammatic view of leaf ( x 40). a, palisade
tissue ; b, aqueous tissue.
Fig. 6. — Claytonia australasica. Transverse section of leaf, passing through
midrib (X lfiO). a, guard-cell ridge; b, palisade tissue; c, xylem;
d, phloem ; e, aqueous tissue.
The guard-cells are at the same level as the other epidermal cells, and the
opening is protected by guard-cell ridges. The cells of the epidermis contain
a few small chloroplasts.
Betts. — Aitt ecology of Plants of Peridot ite Belt, Nelson. 237
Fig. 7. — Claytonia australasica. Transverse section of prostrate stem (X 210). a, ridged
cuticle ; b, chlorenchyma ; c, starch-grains ; d, endodermis ; e, pericycle ;
/, phloem ; r/, xylem.
Fig. S. — Claytonia australasica. Transverse section of the outer part of stem, showing
a stoma ( X 210). a, guard-cell ridge.
238 Transactions.
The chlorenchyma is differentiated. The palisade tissue consists of about
5 layers of somewhat irregular cells. These cells are very large and are com-
pactly arranged, so that there are only small intercellular air-spaces. The
cells contain a large number of small chloroplasts.
The spongy tissue is composed of very large thin-walled more or less
rounded cells, with a thin peripheral layer of protoplasm in which are
embedded the small chloroplasts. This tissue is for water-storage. There
are frequent air-spaces in it, but they are small compared with the size of
the cell.
The vascular bundles are small, and are surrounded by a sheath of paren-
chymatous cells which have thin walls and which contain a few chloroplasts.
The xylem and the phloem are of the usual type. The amount of lignified
tissue is small.
Stem (figs. 7-8). — The epidermis consists of small somewhat dome-
shaped cells which have very thick walls and which contain a few small
chloroplasts. A ridged cuticle is present. The stomates are not numerous ;
the guard-cells are smaller than the other epidermal cells, and the opening
is protected by guard-cell ridges (fig. 8).
Below the epidermis there is a single layer of large cells which contain
numerous chloroplasts and which have thickened cell-walls. The rest of
the cortex is a very wide zone consisting of large round cells with very
thick walls and with air-spaces between them. These air-spaces are small
compared with the size of the cells. These cells contain a large number of
starch-grains, which are heaped at the base of the cell.
There is a well-marked endodermis, consisting of cells with thin suberized
walls. The pericycle also is well marked ; it is composed of 2 layers of
smaller cells with thickened cell-walls.
The xylem is composed of wood vessels which form a more or less
continuous cylinder, with a few small parenchymatous pith cells in the
middle. The phloem forms a continuous band round the xylem and con-
tains a fair amount of parenchyma.
6. Colobanthus quitensis Bartl.
Growth-form. — " A small densely tufted much-branched plant 1-2 in.
high, forming rather soft rounded patches. Leaves variable in size, lower
sometimes over \ in. long, upper often very small, ^-^-in., narrow-linear or
linear-subulate, acute or mucronate but not acicular at the tip, connate at
the base, flat or concave above, convex beneath ; texture soft."
Anatomy.
Leaf (fig. 9). — Fig. 9 shows a transverse section of half the leaf. The
upper epidermis consists of cells which in transverse section are fairly large
and oval. The lateral and the internal walls are thin, but the outer walls
are very much thickened. There is no cuticle. The lower epidermis is
similar to the upper, except that the cells are slightly smaller and their
external walls are not so thick. Stomates are found on both surfaces, but
they are more numerous on the upper. The guard-cells are small, have
thickened walls, and are raised above the other epidermal cells, but are
below their thickened external walls.
The chlorenchyma is differentiated. The palisade tissue consists of
about 3 layers of cells, containing numerous small chloroplasts. The cells
are more or less oval in transverse section, and have thin walls ; the inter-
cellular air-spaces are small.
Bbtts. — Autecology of Plants of PeridotiU Belt, Nelson,
239
The spongy tissue consists of fairly large roundish cells which have very
thin walls and which contain only a few small chloroplasts. There are fair-
sized air-spaces between the cells of the spongy tissue, which forms a water-
storage tissue. A few of the cells of the chlorenchyma contain crystal
aggregates of calcium oxalate.
The vascular bundles are small, and have only a small amount of lignified
tissue. Each bundle is surrounded by a sheath of parenchymatous cells,
which contain a few small chloroplasts.
Stem (fig. 10). — The epidermis is composed of more or less rounded cells
with thick cell-walls. A ridged cuticle is also present. Inside this layer
there is a zone of tissue 5 or 6 cells deep ; these cells are empty, have
thickened walls, and near the outside are regular in shape, but towards the
inside are more irregular. The innermost cells of this tissue are suberized.
Fig. 9. — Colobantkus quite nsij. Transverse section of half of leaf (x 125). a, thick
cuticle ; b, small raised stoma ; c, aqueous tissue.
Fig. 10. — Colobantkus quitensis. Transverse section of stem ( X 125). a, epidermis ;
b, dead cortex ; c, suberized tissue ; d, thick-walled cortex ; e, phloem ;
/, xylem.
Next comes a band of small suberized cells. The 2 innermost layers
of these cork cells are practically square, but the remainder of this band is
composed of the usual flattened cork cells. All the cells of this tissue have
thin walls.
The cortex consists of small cells with very thick mucilaginous cell-walls
and small cavities.
The phloem forms a continuous wide band around the xylem ; the cell-
walls are thickened and mucilaginous. The xylem consists of vessels of
fairly large diameter, together with a large amount of xylem parenchyma.
The pith is small and solid, and consists of rounded or polygonal cells
which are closely packed together, so that there are only minute air-spaces
between the cells.
7. Clematis Colensoi Hook. f. var. rutaefolia Hook. f. (?).
Growth-form. — A woody liane with slender flexuous branches. The
stems and branches are glabrous, but silky at the tips. The leaves are
biternate, with the secondary leaflets stalked. The leaves are slightly
coriaceous.
240 Transactions.
Anatomy.
Leaf. — Both the upper and lower epidermis consist of large cells, some-
what rectangular in transverse section ; the walls are slightly thickened,
the external ones more so. A thin cuticle is found on both surfaces.
Stomates are confined to the lower surface. The guard-cells are large and
thick-walled, and are at the same level as the other epidermal cells.
The chlorenchyma is differentiated. The palisade tissue consists of about
3 layers of large irregular cells, which are somewhat loosely arranged, so
that there are moderately large air-spaces between the cells. The spongy
tissue consists of very irregular cells, which are loosely arranged. Both
palisade and spongy tissues contain numerous fairly large chloroplasts.
The vascular bundles are small, and each is surrounded by a sheath of
small thin-walled parenchymatous cells which contain a very few chloro-
plasts. Associated with both ploem and xylem is small-celled parenchyma.
The amount of lignified tissue is small.
Stem. — The epidermis is composed of somewhat squarish cells with
thickened cell-walls. A moderately thick cuticle is present. Some of the
epidermal cells contain a few chloroplasts. Stomates are frequent, the
guard-cells, which have thickened walls, being at the same level as the other
epidermal cells.
The cortex consists of roundish or irregular cells. This tissue can be
divided into two regions — an outer one containing numerous chloroplasts,
and an inner colourless region. The cells of the chlorenchyma are rounded
or irregular, and their walls are slightly thickened. The colourless cortex
consists of somewhat squarish cells regularly arranged.
There are 6 vascular bundles, with a mass of pericycle fibres above the
phloem.
The pith is solid, and consists of thin-walled parenchymatous cells.
The medullary rays are wide, and are composed of large round or polygonal
cells with thickened lignified walls.
8. Notothlaspi australe Hook. f.
Growth-form. — A small densely tufted alpine herb, 2-1 in. in height.
It is " usually much branched from the base ; branches leafy, spreading,
1-4 in. long. Leaves radical and cauline, numerous, \-\\ in. long, petiolate,
linear- or oblong-spathulate, entire or crenate, glabrous or with a few
cellular hairs."
Anatomy.
L"af (figs. 11-12). — The cells of both the upper and the lower epidermis
are large, and oval in transverse section, and have their external walls
thickened. There is a thin cuticle on both surfaces. Stomates are very
numerous on both surfaces ; on the upper surface of the leaf they are
6 1 ghtly sunken, but not on the lower. The guard-cells are small and have
their walls thickened. On the younger leaves there are some hairs ; on
the older leaves there are a few on the lower part of the blade. The hairs
are large, thin-walled, and slightly cutinized at their base. They contain
protoplasm, and are probably water-absorbing hairs. They are shown in
The chlorenchyma is differentiated. The palisade tissue consists of 4
'ayers of cells, the layer adjacent to the epidermis being composed of
roundish cells and the other 3 layers of large elongated cells. Chloroplasts
are numerous but small. There are small intercellular air-spaces between
the cells. The cell-walls are thin.
Betts. — Avtecology of Plants of Peridotite Belt, Nelson. 241
The spongy 1 issue consists of large thin- walled roundish cells which
contain only a few very small chloroplasts, and which form a water-storage
tissue.
The vascular bundles are small, and each is surrounded by a sheath of
small parenchymatous cells. There are very few vessels in the xylem, and
these are of small diameter.
Fig. 11. — Notothlaspi australe. Transverse section of leaf ( x 100).
Fig. 12. — Notothlaspi australe. Upper epidermis of leaf ( x 100).
Stem (figs. 13-15). — The epidermis is composed of large cells, which
have thin lateral and internal walls, but the external walls are slightly
thickened. There is a thin cuticle. Some of the epidermal cells are con-
siderably larger, and form special water-storage cells.
Beneath the epidermis there is a single layer of rounded cells, which
contain numerous chloroplasts. The remainder of the cortex, which is a
very wide zone, consists of very large round cells with thin cell-walls. All
the cortical cells except the outermost layer form an aqueous tissue. The
intercellular air-spaces are small.
The phloem and the xylem form continuous cylinders. The amount
of lignified tissue in the xylem is small, and there is a moderately large
amount of parenchyma in both the xylem and the phloem.
The pith is solid, and consists of large rounded thin-walled cells, which
form an aqueous tissue.
242
Transactions.
Fig. 13 gives a schematic view of a transverse section. There are 3-5
furrows in the stem, and beneath these furrows there are zones of smaller-
celled tissue in which the cells are closely packed together and contain small
chloroplasts, especially at the corners (see fig. 14).
Fig. 13. — Notothlaspi australe. Diagrammatic view of a transverse section of the
stem ( X 20). a, phloem ; b, xylem ; c, small-celled tissue beneath
furrows.
Fig. 14. — Notothlas-pi australe. Transverse section of cortex below furrow ( X 90).
Fig. 15. — Notothlaspi australe. Transverse section of stem ( X 90). a, chlo-
renchyma ; b, aqueous tissue ; c, phloem ; d, xylem.
9. Weinmannia racemosa Linn.
Usual Growth-form— " A tree 50-80 ft. high
f.
or more, with a trunk
1-4 ft. diam. ; glabrous when mature, except the raceme, which is pubescent.
Leaves of young plants pinnately 3-5-foliolate, thin and membranous, often
pubescent ; of mature plants 1-foliolate, 1-4 in. long, oblong-lanceolate or
oblong-ovate to orbicular-ovate, obtuse or subacute, coarsely and obtusely
serrate, very coriaceous, quite glabrous."
Mineral Belt Growth-form. — A shrub 4-8 ft. high.
Betts. — Aut ecology of Plants of Peridotite Belt, Nelson. 2-Ao
Anatomy.
Leaf. — Both the upper and the lower epidermis consist of small cells
which in transverse section are oblong. The cell-walls are thin, but the
lateral and external walls are cutinized. The cuticle is smooth and fairly
thick. Stoma tes are confined to the lower surface. The guard-cells are
at the same level as the other epidermal cells, and the stoma is protected
by guard-cell ridges.
Below the upper epidermis there is a hypoderma composed of 2 rows
of large cells with thick walls. These cells contain tannin. Above the
lower epidermis there are 1-2 broken layers of kypodermal cells; these
in transverse section are more or less rounded, have thick walls, and contain
tannin.
The chlorenchyma is differentiated. The palisade tissue consists of
3 rows of cells with thin walls and numerous chloroplasts. The two 'outer
layers are very compact, but the third layer has fairly large air-spaces
between the cells. The spongy tissue consists of irregular thin-walled cells
with abundant chloroplasts. These cells are loosely arranged, so that there
are large intercellular air-spaces.
The midrib is prominent. Above and below it the epidermal cells are
smaller and the hypoderma is thickened. On the lower surface there is
collenchyma. Below the hypoderma there are a few small cells, which
contain chloroplasts. The vascular bundle forms an irregular cylinder, in
the centre of which there are round cells with lignified walls. The xylem
consists of vessels of small diameter and of wood-fibres. The phloem is a
narrow zone formed of small cells. Outside the phloem there is a narrow
band of small sclerenchymatous cells with thickened walls.
Stem. — The cork is a wide band of tissue in which the cells are large
and irregular. The phellogen is well marked.
The cortex consists of oval cells with thick walls. These cells contain
abundant starch-grains, and are compactly arranged, so that there are only
small intercellular air-spaces.
The pericycle fibres form a continuous band around the phloem. These
fibres vary considerably in diameter, and have their walls very much
thickened, so that the lumen is small.
The phloem forms a fairly wide band with numerous uniseriate medullary
rays which contain tannin passing through it. The xylem is well developed,
and is composed of vessels of fairly large diameter and of wood-fibres with
thick walls and small cell-cavities.
The medullary rays are numerous and are uniseriate, and have thickened
lignified walls, except in the phloem, where the walls are not lignified. The
pith is solid and consists of roundish cells with thickened lignified walls.
The cells contain abundant starch-grains and are closely packed together,
so that there are only very small intercellular air-spaces.
244 Transactions.
Art. XXVI. — The Succession of Tertiary Beds in the Pareora District,
Smith Canterbury.
By M. C. Gudex, M.A., M.Sc.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 1st December, 1915 ; received by
Editors, 31st December, 1917 ; issued separately, 24th June, 191S.]
Plates XVI, XVII.
Contents
Field-work and Acknowledgments. Detailed Descriptions by Localities.
Introduction. Table of Fossil Mollusca.
General Description of the Stratigraphy. Bibliography.
Field-work and Acknowledgments.
The field-work on which this paper is based was carried out prior to
October, 1914, but illness prevented the completion of the paper for
publication at that time. Since then the interesting discoveries made by-
Messrs. Speight and Thomson in the Castle Hill Basin and by Professor
Marshall at Wangaloa have thrown new light on the classification and
correlation of the younger rocks of New Zealand, and a more detailed
examination of the lower beds in the Pareora district has become desirable.
I hope to make additional collections from these beds in 1918.
My thanks are due to Mr. H. Suter for assistance in the identifications
of fossils, to Dr. Thomson for the identification of the brachiopods from
the limestones and for much help in the arrangement of this paper, and to
Mr. R. Speight for the assistance and encouragement so freely given at all
times.
Introduction.
Although the Pareora district was one of the earliest to be visited as a
locality for fossils, and has given its name to one of the main divisions of
the New Zealand Tertiaries in older classifications, no careful examination
has hitherto been made of its stratigraphy. Its geology, in addition,
presents other features of great interest, in which are included the physio-
graphy and structure, the existence of a great sheet of dolerite, and the
presence of thick deposits of yellow clay considered to be a loess. The
present paper deals only with the stratigraphy of the Tertiary beds, and
covers the area between the Otaio and Tengawai Rivers.
The first geologist to visit the district was W. Mantell (1850), who
traversed the coastal part on his journey from Christchurch to Dunedin
in 1848. He mentions the presence of a vesicular volcanic rock at Timaru,
and states that he was informed that a bed of coal, 10 ft. thick, cropped
out on the banks of a stream inland of Timaru.
Haast in 1865 examined the country between Mount Horrible and
Timaru, and the banks of the Pareora River, with a view to obtaining a
water-supply for Timaru. The Tertiary beds are described as consisting
of tufaceous limestones, calcareous sandstones, and marly and argillaceous
Gudex. — Succession of Tertiary Bed* in Pareora District. 245
beds alternating with each other for many hundred feet, and are correlated
with the Curiosity Shop series of Middle Tertiary age. The prominent
dolerite sheet which extends from the summit of Mount Horrible to Tirnaru
is compared with that of the Harper Hills, and it is considered as closing
the marine deposits of the district. An earlier eruption of dolerite, forming
an intercalation in the marine series, is stated to outcrop on the western
slopes of Mount Horrible.
In 1873 Hutton, in his Catalogue of the Tertiary MoUusca, &c, introduced
the Pareora formation as one of the four chief divisions of the Tertiary,
dividing it into an upper and a lower group, but he identified no fossils from
Pareora, and was uncertain whether this locality should be referred to the
upper or lower group. The reasons for the choice of the name for the
formation are quite obscure.
McKav in 1877 visited the Pareora district in the course of an examina-
tion of the younger rocks skirting the Canterbury Plains between Waipara
and Oamaru. The succession is described in terms of the Cretaceo-Tertiary
succession of the Waipara district. From his account, together with a
section through the district from north-west to south-east, the following
succession may be pieced together : (1) The silts of the Timaru Downs ;
(2) older gravels, with sands and lignites, resting unconformably on (3) ;
(3) grey sands, with beds of shells, overlying dark-blue sandy beds with
concretions (Pareora beds) ; (4) light-grey marly sandstone (grey marls) ;
(5) calcareous greensands (Weka Pass stone) ; (6) chalky limestone (Amuri
limestone) ; (7) sharp grey quartzose sands, with occasional beds of pebbles,
often containing sharks' teeth (concretionary greensands, saurian beds, &c).
The junction between the Pareora beds and the so-called "grey marls" was
not observed, but an unconformity is presumably indicated by the absence
of the Mount Brown beds of the Waipara succession.
In 1905 Park, in discussing the relations existing between the Pareora
and Oamaru series, referred briefly to the Pareora district. He considered
the sections at the lower and upper ends of the Pareora Gorge as too obscure
to be of value for the determination of the relations between the beds
containing the " Pareora fauna " and the Oamaru stone, and stated that
at White Rock River the fossiliferous clays and sandstones there exposed
rest on the basement rock of the district. Lists of fossils from the sand-
stones of the Pareora River at the lower end of the gorge, the bluish-green
sandy clays at White Rock, and the limestone on the south bank of the
Tengawai River near Cave are given, the latter being correlated with the
Mount Brown beds.
Park's general conclusion was that the Pareora series was an integral
part of the Oamaru series, which when completely developed includes
two limestones separated by the Hutchinson Quarry and Awamoa beds,
and that the Pareora fauna is only found in beds underlying the Waitaki
stone, to which all the limestones in South Canterbury are apparently
referred.
In 1908 Hardcastle published a small pamphlet on the geology of South
Canterbury, in which the Tertiary rocks are dealt with more from a point
of view of climate than of general stratigraphy. The lowest beds, the
coal-measures, are comparatively thin, consisting of white or pale-coloured
clays, beds of sand (usually white, of all degrees of fineness and coarseness),
white grits and gravels of quartz, and seams of coal or lignite. The climate
was considered to be mild, without frost, allowing a luxuriant vegetation
to flourish, and the above beds were considered as terrestrial, the whiteness
246 Transactions.
of the rocks being largely due to the bleaching properties of the humous
acids of the soil. Subsidence then ensued, with deposition of marine
sandstones which are red in colour, followed by a growth of coral reefs
resulting in limestones, the climate still remaining mild. Elevation now
occurred, and new terrestrial beds were formed by a rewash of the older
marine beds, such rearranged sands with marine fossils being recognized
in a bore well at Timaru. The climate now became colder, culminating
in a glacial age, during which the older red gravels were accumulated.
A warmer period then ensued, during which a soil formed on the older
gravels, preserved under the dolerite-flow of Mount Horrible. This was
followed by a second glacial age, during which the loess was formed on
the surface of the dolerite.
Thomson in 1914 made some observations on the Waihao district which
have an intimate bearing on the neighbouring Pareora district. Briefly
stated, he concluded that in South Canterbury and Otago there are not
two limestones separated by beds with the " Pareora fauna," as Park in
1905 supposed, but one limestone separating two sets of beds with the
" Pareora fauna," and suggested that these two similar faunas must show
some differences when carefully examined.
Marshall in 1916 described a specimen of the lower chalky limestone
of the Otaio Gorge, and, arguing from the presence in it of Amphistegina,
correlated it with the Amuri limestone. Thomson in 1917 disputed this
correlation, on the grounds that the Otaio limestone overlies rocks with
an Oamaruian fauna, while the Amuri limestone everywhere overlies rocks
with a Cretaceous fauna and contains a lower Oamaruian fauna in its
uppermost part in the Castle Hill Basin.
My examination of the district shows that the Tertiary beds of the
district are all conformable, and not separable into two unconformable
groups as McKay supposed ; that the upper beds with a " Pareora fauna "
are above the limestone, and not below it as Park supposed ; and that there
is a similar fauna above and below the limestone, as Thomson suggested.
I agree further with Thomson that the lower chalky limestone of the Otaio
River is not the correlative of the Amuri limestone, but represents a higher
horizon. The differences between the fossils above and below the limestone
may be gleaned from the tables appended to this paper, but it is not ad-
visable to draw far-reaching conclusions as to the zonal values of the fossils
which have a restricted range in this district, until similar lists from the
neighbouring Kakahu, Waihao, Waitaki, and Oamaru districts are available.
General Description of the Stratigraphy.
The complete sequence of Tertiary beds in the Pareora district may be
resumed in tabular form as follows : —
Ft.
Red sands and sandstones 400 [ p gerieg
Blue clay . . . . . . 350 i
Limestone . . . . . . 80
Crab-beds and marls . . . . 100
Lower sands and sandstones . . 100
Coal-measures . . . . 300 )
This really represents the average thickness as seen in the different
localities, but it is probably a low estimate. The blue clay may never be
more than 350 ft. thick, but the other members are sometimes much
Oamaru series.
Gudex. — Succession of Tertiary Beds in Pareora District.
247
thicker than shown above. Thus the limestone sometimes reaches 120 ft.,
and the upper red sands may reach as much as 500 ft. The quartz grits
also are frequently thicker than in the table ; this is seen in the foothills
between White Eock and Squire's Farm.
Rg. 1. — -Stratigraphical map of the Pareora and neighbouring districts. (Scale.
4£ miles to 1 in., approx.) 1. Trias- Jura rocks, usually greywackes and
mudstones. 2. Beds underlying the limestone, including quartz grits, sands
and sandstones, crab-beds (greensands), and marls. 3. Limestone, including
the white and flaky, "dark," and ordinary limestones. 4. The Pareora beds,
including the blue clay and upper red sands. 5. Dolerite. 6. Gravels
(old and new) and loess. The line AB gives the section across the Upper
Pareora Basin.
Fig. 2. — -Section across Upper Pareora Basin (along the line AB in the map). Dis-
tance, 10£ miles; direction. E.S.E.-W.N.W. 1. Mesozoic rocks. 2. Grits
and sands. 2a. Lower red sands with calcareous limestone. 3. Limestone.
4. Blue clay. 4a. Sandy clays (part of "upper red sands"). 5. Gravels.
248 Transactions.
The Coal Series.
Bordering the Hunter's Hills these beds are composed of grits and con-
glomerates alternating with coal-seams and followed by sands and
sandstones. Farther east the lowest members of the series consist of
pipeclays, followed by quartz grits, while the coal itself is represented
by a narrow band of carbonaceous clay.
Usually the conglomerates are " puddingstone " conglomerates, con-
sisting of quartz pebbles in an iron-stained matrix. The pebbles have a
wide range in size, but ordinarily they are slightly larger than peas. They
may also vary much in colour. They may he firmly cemented, forming
a coarse sandstone, or they may be crumbly masses of quartz grains.
The pipeclay, which is of considerable thickness in some places, contains
numerous concretions of iron-pyrites and limonite. Sometimes these con-
cretions are long and narrow, containing a carbonized substance, which
probably represents a piece of wood. The pipeclay has probably been
formed by the kaolinization of the feldspar, which, with quartz, is the
chief constituent of the greywacke and slates of Mesozoic age. These
rocks form the backbone of the country, and the Tertiary series has been
deposited on the flanks of the old land. By long-continued denudation
these rocks gave up their constituents to form the deposits of the Tertiary
series. The coal-beds thin out as they are followed eastward, and are
replaced by the other members of the series.
There are only two important outcrops of coal in the Pareora district,
and there is good reason to believe that they occupy different positions
in the series. The coal at Otaio lies at the base of the Oamaru series,
while the coal at White Rock seems to lie near the top of the Pareora
series. The Otaio coal is a good brown coal when obtained from a dry
part of the seam, but wet blocks crumble away and leave only a mass of
" slack." The beds dip at 60°, so that it would be very difficult to follow
the seam. It is also probable that the seam is not continuous over any
large area, as it is not found at all in the excellent section of the coal series
exposed at Craigmore. Like much of the New Zealand coal, it seems to
have been formed in an estuary or bay. This theory is supported by the
fact that the grits below the coal contain a small amount of carbonaceous
matter, while the coal contains much grit, and the overlying clays again
contain pieces of wood. The coal does not seem to have been formed by
growth in situ.
The Lower Sands and Sandstones.
The grits and clays which alternate with the coal-seams are immediately
followed by a succession of sands and sandstones. These vary in colour
from grey and green to bright red. Usually the shells in the sands are
in poor condition, but those which are found in the sandstones are well
preserved. One noteworthy feature of these sands and sandstones is the
quantity of carbonaceous matter found in them. In certain layers there
are species of simple corals, which are characteristic of this horizon through-
out South Canterbury and North Otago. The evidence of the fossils and
of the lithological characters of the beds demonstrates that they were
formed in comparatively shallow water.
The Crab-beds and Marls.
The crab-beds are dark-coloured marls, which grade upwards into grey
marls. They are usually brown, but often they are so glauconitic as to
deserve the name of " greensands." Their character is very uniform
Gudex. — Succession of Tertiary Beds in Pareora District. 249
throughout South Canterbury and North Otago, so that they are easily
recognized. A few pectens and oysters are almost the only molluscs to
be seen in the marls, but the numerous concretions which these contain
enclose several species of molluscs, in addition to sharks' teeth and crabs.
These lower marls are rather coarse, suggesting that they were formed
not far from the old shore-line. Petrified wood and fossil amber are found
in these beds as well as in the lower sands and sandstones. The distinction
between these and the lower sands and sandstones is an artificial one, as the
one set of beds grades into the other.
The overlying marls are almost unfossiliferous, probably because the sea
was becoming too deep for the shell-fish that had existed in the earlier
periods when the beds were laid down in comparatively shallow water.
They are transition beds, which were formed before the deep-sea fauna
could take possession of its new territory. The first of the new colonists
were crinoids, and later came molluscs, such as Atrina and some pectens,
together with echinoids and brachiopods. In the western part of the
district these marls pass up into a chalky limestone ; farther east the
marls pass up directly into a dark limestone.
The Liv test one.
This is an arenaceous limestone which passes upwards into clays and
downwards into marls. Its colour varies from yellowish to greenish-white,
owing to iron-stains and glauconitic sand. In some places near the old
shore-line the surface of the limestone is dotted over with black spherules
of ferric oxide, and sometimes small quartz pebbles may be found. It is
possible that these pebbles were carried out from the shore by clumps
of seaweed. The limestone is nearly always divided into hard and soft
layers, which in weathering give the rock a characteristic fluted appear-
ance. (See Plate XVI. fig. 1.) Followed eastward the rock becomes less
arenaceous, and more compact and siliceous, especially in the upper layers.
We find, too, that the thickness of the limestone has increased from 55 ft. to
100 ft. At the bottom of the ordinary stone there is a darker and more
arenaceous bed which contains many brachiopods, in addition to large
lamellibranchs, such as Pecten huttoni (Park), Lima laevigata Hutt., Lima
(Acesta) imitata Sut. Sharks' teeth are common in this layer, but only a
few are scattered through the upper part of the limestone. Sometimes the
lamellibranchs are so numerous as to define a joint-plane : thus a fallen
block may sometimes show hundreds of shells lying in the one plane.
Beneath this dark layer there is sometimes a fine-grained chalky lime-
stone in which there are no traces of fossils. The whole of the main lime-
stone is glauconitic, but this character is best seen in the lower (dark) band.
Not only is the limestone thicker in all the areas remote from the old coast-
line, but the change from limestone to marl is much more definite. There
are numerous caves, which sometimes contain bones of extinct birds, such
as Harpagornis, Gnemiornis, and Dinornis. A noteworthy feature of the
weathering of the limestone is the tendency of solution to form deep, well-
like shafts. In one place I noted as manv as thirteen within an area of
less than 20 acres. (See Plate XVI, fig. 2.)'
The uppermost layer of limestone, passing into the blue clay, when
examined microscopically is seen to be of very even texture, with a base
of some argillaceous substance. Globigerina tests, and round bodies that
are probably the detached chambers of Globigerina. are scattered all
through the rock. These are sometimes replaced by an iron compound.
250
Transactions.
Small rounded grains of quartz are very common, and there are in addition
plates of biotite and muscovite, and grains of glauconite and magnetite.
Marshall (1916) has described a specimen of the Otaio limestone as
follows : " A fine-grained type, with many minute quartz grains and a good
deal of glauconite. .Mainly Globigerina, but one specimen of Amphistegina."
The Pareora Beds.
These consist of bluish-green clays, which pass gradually up into fine
reddish-brown sands and sandstones. Where fully exposed these beds
show a total thickness of about 700 ft. Throughout South Canterbury
and much of North Otago they are extremely constant in such characters
as the bluish-green colour of the clays and the reddish colour of the sands.
Again, the lower parts of the red sands always contain concretions, while
the middle parts always have many layers of calcareous sandstones crowded
with molluscs. Finally, the highest part of the red-coloured beds is prac-
tically devoid of fossils, suggesting that the water was so strongly charged
with iron as to kill the shell-fish. The change from a blue clay to an
iron-stained sand supports the inference that these were the closing members
of the series. Thus the great cycle of deposition was completed : con-
glomerate, grits and coal, sands and sandstones, marl, glauconitic lime-
stone, ordinary limestone, blue clay, red sands. At the Lower Waipara.
in North Canterbury, Speight (1914) has shown that the uppermost marine
beds are interstratified with gravels.
Detailed Descriptions by Localities.
Otaio Gorge.
Here the whole sequence from the quartz grits to the limestone is
exposed in a section where the beds are seen dipping E.N.E. at 60°. The
field relations of the beds are shown in fig. 3. The grits contain at least
FNE
Fig. 3. — Section along Otaio River, near the Gorge. Distance, slightly over
200 yards; direction, W.S.W.-E.N.E. ; dip", 60°. 1. Sands and grits
with coal. 2. Lowest fossiliferous sands. .'!. Sands with calcareous
sandstone. 4. Red sands. .">. Crab- beds with c< >nc id inns (greensands).
fi. Grey marls. 7. White flaggy limestone and dark limestone.
la. Ordinary limestone. S. Gravels.
eight coal-seams, of an average thickness of 2 ft. The first of the marine
sandstones occur as layers in sandy clays. These clays contain few fossils,
but the sandstone is crowded with shells of Cardium waitakiense Sut.
and Veneiicardia zelandica (Desh.) var.
In the sandy clays there are layers of corals, chiefly Balanophyllia hectori
T.-W. The overlying crab-beds have even fewer fossils than usual, but they
are easily recognized by their colour and their numerous concretions, while
an occasional crab may be found. Besides the latter, I collected Pecten
huttoni (Park) and Panope sp. The marls, as usual, are practically devoid
of fossils. The lower sands and sandstones overlying yielded a rich
molluscan fauna, tabulated in column 1 of the table on page 259, and in
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate XVI.
Fig. 1. — View of the fluted limestone at Otaio Gorge. Almost the whole
thickness of the limestone is shown in the photograph.
Fig. 2. — Solutioivpits in the limestone on Holme Station, seen from the
Gordon"s Valley -Little River Road.
Face p- 350.]
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate XVII.
Fig. 1. — Road-tutting on Squire's Farm. The columnar structure of the
loess is well seen. The lower part is a residual clay, passing
into coarse gravels which lie on the limestone.
Fig. 2. — The upper part of Little River Valley, viewed from Squire's
Farm. The rock in the foreground is the uppermost part of
the limestone, with soft layers. In the middle distance, on the
left, the white flaky limestone is seen passing up into the dark
and ordinary limestones, which in turn pass up into the blue
clay. The wide river-terraces are well shown here.
Gudex. — Succession of Tertiary Beds in Pareora District. 251
addition some fish-remains, echinoderm-spines. and the following corals :
Flabellum sphenodeum T.-W., Balanophyllia hectoii T.-W., and Spite not melius
huttonianus T.-W.
The chalky limestone has no fossils excepl Foraminifera and other micro-
scopic forms, while the dark limestone and the ordinary limestone have
only a few brachiopods — viz., Pachymagas ellipticus Thomson and Aetkeia
gualteri (Morris).
Bluecliffs.
Following the Otaio for four miles, we come to a long line of cliffs of blue
clay, whence the district takes its name. These beds can be traced all
the way from the Otaio Gorge, and are certainly resting on the limestone,
though no actual junction is shown. The relation of the two beds, how-
ever, is clearly seen at Squire's, Gordon's Valley, Cannington, and Mount
Horrible.
W.N.W. i st 5£S£
Fig. 4. — Section along Otaio River at Bluecliffs. Distance, about § mile ;
direction, W.N.W.-E.S.E. ; dip, 20°. 1. Blue clays. 2. Lower part
of the red sands, with concretions. 3. Middle part of the red sands, with
calcareous sandstone. 4. Upper part of the red sands. 5. Gravels.
The blue clays seem to reach their maximum thickness here, for they
are at least 350 ft. thick (see fig. 4). The fossils occur very sparingly,
but the great exposure of strata enables one to make a good collection.
These bluish-green clays yield the molluscs tabulated in column 5 of the
table of fossil mollusca, and in addition small nautiloids, annelids, scutes,
and Pachymagas parki (Hutt.), Trochocyathus mantelli T.-W., Flabellum
circulate T.-W., and F. laticostatum T.-W.
Southburn Cutting.
At the Southburn Cutting, at the end of the Bluecliff section, the blue
clays are seen passing into red sands, with concretions. Higher up in
these sands there are bands of calcareous sandstone. These beds are not
richly fossiliferous, like the corresponding beds elsewhere, and in the
highest part of the series there are no fossils at all.
This exposure shows the sands to be very thick, probably 400 ft. at
least, and I think that the uppermost part of them is the youngest marine
formation in South Canterbury.
From the sands, concretions, and sandstone layers I collected the
molluscs tabulated in column 9 of the table of fossil mollusca, and in
addition the brachiopod Pachymagas parki (Hutt.).
Gordon's Valley.
This valley begins near the western end of the exposure of blue clays
at Bluecliffs, and passes first of all through the limestone, and then
through the blue clays and red sands. The stratigraphy is clear, and
shows the relations of the Pareora beds to the limestones. The upper part
of the limestone at the head of the valley is more siliceous than usual, and
has a fluted appearance due to the alternation of hard and soft layers.
There are practically no fossils in the upper part, but in the lower part there
are echinoids and crinoids, with a few brachiopods.
252
Transactions.
Just below Mr. P. Elworthy's homestead the blue clays are seen over-
lying the limestone and passing up into the red sands and sandstones. If
the road from Gordon's Valley to Little River Valley be followed, first
the blue clay and then the limestone will be passed over. In the valley
leading down into Little River Valley the limestone is well exposed in
cliffs 100ft. high. The lower parts contain many brachiopods, and a
few other fossils, such as Epitonium browni (Zitt.), but the upper parts arc
very siliceous, and in places there arc flint nodules which stand out like
pegs from the weathered surfaces.
The red sands have their usual characteristics : thus the lower part
has concretions scattered through it, and then come alternating layers
of hard sandstones and soft shelly bands. Above this there are the true
red sands, with layers of shells, such as species of Venericardia, Polinices,
Turritella, Limopsis, and Dentalium. These beds may be traced down to
the back of the homestead at Holme Station.
On the road over into Little River Valley, the solution - pits in the
limestone can be seen. (Plate XVI, fig. 2.)
From the limestone at this locality I collected Pericosmus compressus
McCoy and Pentacrinus stellatus Hutt. The red sands yielded the molluscs
tabulated in column 10 of the table of fossil mollusca.
Squires Farm. (Plate XVII, figs. 1 and 2.)
This locality is very important for showing the relationship between
the Pareora beds and the underlying beds. Every member of Marshall's
" Oamaru system " as developed in the Pareora district is exposed in the
banks of the Little Pareora River where it flows through this farm. The
grits of the coal series are very thick here, but the coal itself is not shown
in any exposure. Pudding-stone conglomerates are interbedded with the
5W
Fig. 5. — Section along right bank of Little River, in Squire's Farm.
Distance, 300 yards ; direction, N.E.-S.W. ; dip, 40°. 1. Grits
and sands of coal series. 2. Lowest fossiliferous sands. 3. Lower
red sands, with calcareous sandstones. 4. Red sands. 5. Crab-
beds (seen in the bed of the river), (i. Grey m ails (seen in the bed
of the river). 7. White flaky limestone and dark limestone.
8. Limestone, current-bedded. 0. Gravels.
grits. The lowest fossiliferous beds are found near the top of the land-
slip facing the road to Otaio Gorge. They are strongly impregnated with
iron oxides, which have replaced the fossils, so that only casts can lie
obtained. The harder bands stand out as reefs and ridges on the hillside.
The fossils obtained were Dosinia lambata (Gould). Pecten huttoni (Park),
Chione sp., and Polinices sp.
The crab-beds and marls are not exposed on the hillside, but they appear
in the bed of the river near the sharp turn in the river. They may be
described as typical greensands with concretions, but usually these beds
are rather too brown and marly to be called " greensands." They yielded
Pa nope worthingtoni Hutt. and Turritella sp.
Gudex. — Succession of Tertiary Beth in Pareora District. 253
The next bed exposed consists of a white limestone, which breaks into
small cubes and flakes similar to those found in the A mini limestone at
Weka Pass. This limestone is seen in the bed of the river for more than
a quarter of a mile, and is well exposed in a section on the right bank.
Its greatest thickness in an exposure is 14 ft., but it may really be as much
as 20 ft. Near the top its uniform texture changes, and the rock assumes
a speckled appearance, due to the presence of tubes or pipes rilled with
grey limestone, similar to that found in the overlying stone. There is no
erosion surface or other sign of unconformity, so that the change in the
character of the rock was due to a change in the conditions of deposit.
Some of the tubes appear to be worm-borings, but most of them are too
large for such an origin.
The dark limestone is 4 ft. 6 in. thick in one section, but its thickness
varies. In places it is indistinguishable in colour from the ordinary lime-
stone, but it is always softer and more arenaceous, and it contains more
fossils. In the first exposure seen on Squire's Farm this limestone is
crowded with brachiopods, and sharks' teeth are common in " pockets."
Fig. 6. — Section across Little River, in Squire's Farm. Distance, about
180 yards; direction, S.S.W. - N.N.E. ; dip, 25°. 1. White flaky
limestone. 2. Dark limestone. 3. Limestone. 4. Limestone with soft
iayers, passing into blue clay. .3. Blue clay. 6. Lowest horizon of
upper red sands, with large concretions. 7. Gravels.
The uppermost layer, about 1 ft. thick, contains frequent specimens of
Lima (Plagiostoma) laevigata Hutt. and Pecten huttoni (Park). In many of
the fossils, the carbonate of lime is replaced, wholly or partly, by iron
oxides. The complete list of fossils collected is as follows : Epitonium
lyratum (Zitt.), E. browni (Zitt.), Lima laevigata Hutt.. Pecten huttoni (Park),
P. scandula Hutt. (?), Echinus sp., Eupatagus greyi Tate, E. tuberculatum
Zitt., Balanus sp., Aetheia gualteri (Morris), Pachymagas eUipticus Thomson,
Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.), Liothyrella landonensis Thomson, Lamna huttoni
Davis, L. incurva Davis, Oxyrhina grandis Davis, and Kekenodon onomafa
Hector (?).
The ordinary limestone affords a fine example of current-bedding, and
this fact, taken in conjunction with the arenaceous nature of the rock and
the number of quartz grains seen in a microscopic slide, shows that the
deposit was not formed in deep water. The fossils obtained from the
ordinary limestone were: Epitonium, lyratum (Zitt.), E. browni (Zitt.), Lima
laevigata Hutt., L. paleata Hutt. (?), Pecten huttoni (Park), P. williamsoni
Zitt., Atrina zelandica Gray, Eupatagus greyi Tate. Pericosnvus compressus
McCoy, Pentacrinus stellatus Hutt., Cidaris spines, Retepora (?), Graphularia
sp., Aetheia gualteri (Morris), Liothyrella landonensis Thomson, Terebratu-
lina suessi Hutt., Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.), Pachymagas huttoni Thomson,
P. parti (Hutt.), and Hemithyris nigricans (Sow.).
254 Transactions.
Farther down the river the white flaggy limestone appears in the left
bank, but most of the dark limestone is covered with shingle. The
ordinary limestone is well shown, but it has even fewer fossils than usual.
The section is perfectly clear, and shows the limestone passing very gradually
into the blue clay. The transition is marked by alternations of hard and
of soft layers. There is a small reversed fault here, with an upthrust of
2 ft. and a hade of 5°. In the first interbedded soft band a small nautiloid,
Pecten huttoni (Park), Pachymagas parki (Hutt.), and species of Flabellum
are almost the only fossils. In the first horizon of the blue clay proper
the commonest fossils are species of Flabellum and Trochocyathus, and
Limopsis aurita Brocchi. In the creek-bed many small species are found,
such as Alectrion socialis (Hutt.) and Corbula canaliculata Hutt. At the
foot of the landslip the ordinary fossils of the blue clay appear ; of these
Pecten zitteli Hutt. is more common than usual. A list of the molluscs
obtained is given in column 6 of the table, and in addition the following
were found : a small nautiloid, Pachymagas parki (Hutt.), Flabellum circulare
T.-W., Trochocyathus mantelli T.-W., a scute (?), and whale-bones.
Near the top of the slip, in the little patch of bush, the blue clays are
seen passing into red sands with concretions. These beds are best seen
on the right bank a little below the slip, and the middle and upper horizons
are seen half a mile down the river on the left bank. The following fossils
were collected : TurriteUa semiconcava Sut., Polinices ovatus (Hutt.), P.
gibbosus (Hutt.), Siphonalia 'costata (Hutt.), Ancilla hebera (Hutt.), Surcula
fusiformis (Hutt.), Pecten huttoni (Park), Venericardia pseutes Sut., Nucula
sagittata Sut., and Chione meridionalis (Sow.). Owing to the smallness of
this collection, it so happens that no Recent species were found here, but
the character of the beds, the stratigraphy, and the nature of these fossils
all show that these are the ordinary upper red sands.
The loess is well shown in the saddle between the Otaio Gorge and Little
River, and in a cutting made for a new road through Squire's Farm. (See
Plate XVII, fig. 1.)
White Rock.
Here only the upper beds of the series are exposed, but their rich fauna
has made them very important. The beds show the effects of gentle
folding, for the dip alters gradually as we go westwards. There is an
interesting occurrence of a lignite in these beds. It does not belong to
the coal series, but seems to be almost contemporaneous with the marine
fauna found in the ordinary layers. The fossils are found in wonderful
profusion in a few narrow layers, but they seem to follow exactly the same
order as at Sutherland's. Thus the struthiolarias are confined almost
wholly to the upper layer, while the flat lamellibranchs, such as Zenatia
acinaces (Q. & Gr.), Chione speighti Sut., &c, are confined to the lower.
The molluscs collected are given in column 11 of the table, and in addition
Myliobates sp. and Arachnoides placenta were obtained.
Mount Horrible (Pareora River).
At the foot of Mount Horrible the river has exposed the limestone, the
blue clay, and the red sands. The limestone clearly underlies the blue clay,
which in turn passes up gradually into red sands. The limestone at the
kiln is very siliceous, with flint nodules. The blue clays are well exposed
in the slip at the Fishermen's Huts, and can be followed down the left
bank of the river for about one mile and a half. The red sands are found
at the level of the water-race above the slip, and in a gully which runs up
Gudbx. — Succession of Tertiary Beds in Pareora District.
255
towards the dolerite. The highest exposure of the red sands occurs about
20 ft. below the dolerite, but, as at Sutherland's and Southburn Cutting,
the uppermost beds are devoid of fossils. The intermediate parts of the
red sands — namely, those with concretions and layers of shelly sand-
stones— are not well exposed on the left bank, but they appear on the other
side of the valley, in Holme Station.
N.W.
SE.
Fig. 7. — Section across south-west corner of Mount Horrible. Distance,
about l£ miles; direction, N.W. - S.E. ; clip, 15°. 1. Limestone.
2. Blue clays. 3. Red sands. 4. Gravel. 5. Ash. 6. Dolerite.
7. Talus.
From the blue clay I collected the molluscs tabulated in column 7 of the
table, and in addition Pachymagas parki (Hutt.), Flabellwm circulare T.-AV..
F. laticostatum T.-W., Trochocyathus mantelli T.-W., and annelid-tubes.
From the upper red sands I obtained Ampullina suturalis (Hutt.), Hetm-
conus trailli (Hutt.), and Chione sp.
Cave ami Sutherland's.
The beds exposed in these two localities are — the lower sands and
sandstones, the crab-beds and marls, the limestone, the blue clay, and
the upper red sands. The sequence is exactly the same as at Squire's.
Farm. Mount Horrible, and Cannington. The lower red sands are seen
in the right bank of the Tengawai, a quarter of a mile above the railway-
station. They contain only a few fossils, as they are the uppermost
horizon ; the lower horizons, with corals, have not yet been cut into by the
river. In one exposure these sands show current-bedding.
K
y
_tT-<' fs t"J\
N
Fig. 8. — Section across Tengawai River, at Cave. Distance. \ mile ;
direction, N.-S. ; dip, 35°. 1. Greywacke. 2. Sands. 3. Crab- beds
(greensands) with concretions. 4. Marls. ' 5. Dark arenaceous lime-
stone. 6. Ordinary limestone. 7. Gravel-.
The crab-beds and marls are well exposed on the left bank, above Cave.
They have their usual lithological character, but the concretions contain
molluscs, chiefly lamellibranchs, instead of crabs. On the left bank the
marls are seen to be overlain by a dark arenaceous limestone, which is
thicker than usual. From the surface of contact I collected Lima imitata
Sut. and various pectens. The limestone is also seen in the bed of the
river and in the right bank at the bridge. Just below the bridge I col-
lected a number of fossils from the limestone. Fine exposures are found
256 Transactions.
on the left bank, where the limestone forms cliffs over 80 ft. high. Still
farther down there is an exposure of the limestone close in against the
greywacke. This would seem to have been faulted down, but the throw
of the fault could not have been very great. In the quarry there are two
faults, with slickensides, and much of the limestone appears to have been
crushed and deformed by pressure.
The blue clay is seen in the river-bed at the new bridge leading to
Totara Valley, and in the terrace south of the railway-line, where the
road passes over to Tycho Flat. Half a mile farther down the red sands
are well exposed beside the railway. The upper portions of the red sands
are exposed all along the valley at the back of the school, but the fossil-
iferous horizons are not well exposed there. Near the railway-line the
first beds are brown sands, with calcareous sandstone in layers. These
sands change to very red sands, with practically no fossils. Again the
beds are brown, with no fossils. The first layer of sandstone in this
horizon is crowded with species of Psammobia and other flat shells, and
Polinices and Natica. The top layer has many specimens of Turritella
cavershamensis Harris, and species of Struthiolaria, Glycymeris, and Dosinia.
There are also two soft shelly layers crowded with Turritella cavershamensis
Harris, as at White Rock. This is the horizon of Latirus brevirostris
(Hutt.) and Hemiconus trailli (Hutt.). Except for the difference in colour,
the beds are exactly similar to those of White Rock.
From the lower red sands (Waihao beds) I obtained the following :
Turritella cavershamensis Harris, T. symmetrica Hutt., Struthiolaria sp.,
Polinices gibbosus (Hutt.), Ancilla hebera (Hutt.), Cardium waitakiense Sut.,
and Glycymeris laticostata (Q. & G.).
The crab-beds at Cave yielded Cucullaea alta Sow., Chione meridionalis
(Sow.), and Limopsis aurita (Brocchi).
I collected from the limestone at Cave Ampullina sp., Pecten williamsoni
Zitt., P. burnetii Zitt.. P. huttoni (Park), Lima (Acesta) imitata Sut.,
Ostrea sp., Pachymagas parki (Hutt.), P. huttoni Thomson, Liothyrella
gravida (Suess), Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.), Terebratulina suessi Hutt.,
Balanus sp., Pentacrinus stellatus Hutt., Pericosmus compressus McCoy,
and Eupatagus tuberculatus Zitt.
The upper red sands at Sutherland's yielded the sixty-four species
of molluscs tabulated in column 12 of the table.
Little River and the South-west End of Craigmore.
On the banks of the Little River and its chief tributary there are fine
exposures of all the beds from the quartz grits up to the limestone. The
grits and sands of the coal series are typically developed above the junc-
tion of the two streams, but the coal is represented by a narrow band of
carbonaceous clay. The lowest Tertiary bed consists of pipeclay which
was laid down on the eroded surface of the Mesozoic rocks. The grits
are snow-white in most of this locality.
The lower sands and sandstones are seen lying on top of the grits, but
they are not so fossiliferous as at Otaio Gorge. Below the junction these
beds are found in the river-bed, and consist of sands with bands of con-
cretionary sandstone and layers of soft crumbly shells. The commonest
fossils in this exposure are Venericardia zelandica (Desh.) var. and
Turritella symmetrica Hutt., and a few specimens of Ostrea gudexi Sut. may
be found. The lower sands and sandstones are exposed all along the left
bank until the end of the valley is reached, and they appear in the cuttings
on the road that passes above the Pareora dam.
(Judex. — Succession of Tertiary Beds in Paredra District. 257
The crab-beds are well seen half-way up the hill on the left bank of
the tributary, and have their usual character. The concretions contain a
few crabs, while specimens of Cucullaea alia Sow., partly replaced by iron
compounds, are found scattered through the beds. The crab-beds may
be followed all along the Little River Valley, first on the left bank, then
in the bed of the river, and then along the right bank until the lime-kiln is
approached. One mile above the kiln the crab-beds are seen passing up into
marls of a greenish-grey colour. These are the " grey marls " described
by McKay. The same beds are seen in the left bank, above the bridge.
YiG. 9. — Section along left bank of main tributary of Little River, above the
junction Distance, f mile ; direction, N.W.-S.E. ; dip. 10°. 1 . Trias-Jura.
2. Pipeclay. 3. White quartz grits, with carbonaceous shales. 4. Sands
with calcareous sandstone. 5. Crab- beds (greensands) with small con-
cretions. 6. Marls, grey at the top. 7. Limestone.
The limestone forms the crown of the Craigmore Block, and appears
on Holme Station at a lower level. It exhibits folding at both ends of
Craigmore, where an anticlinal structure appears. At the north end, in
a section S.S.W.-N.N.E., the dip is 10° to the south-south-west; and still
farther on, in a section W.-E., the dip is 40° to the west ; while in a section
at the crest, running west and east, the dip is 0°. The eastern limb
has been almost completely shorn away by the action of Little River,
but the limestone on Holme Station and in Mount Horrible enables us to
reconstruct the anticline. At the south-west end of Craigmore the struc-
ture is not quite so clear, chiefly because the anticline dies away in the
next mile or two, and is followed by an unsymmetrical syncline in the
direction of Squire's Farm.
There is a small, superficial fresh-water deposit on the left bank of Little
River, about two miles above the bridge, and from it I collected specimens
of a fresh-water gasteropod which Mr. Suter says is new.
The lower red sands and sandstones yielded Polinices suturalis (Hutt.),
Typhis maccoyi T.-W.. Volutospina sp., Crassatellites obesus (A. Ad.), and
Astarte ? sp.
From the crab-beds on the left bank I collected Struthiolaria tuberculata
Hutt., Ancilla hebera (Hutt.), Surcula fusiformis (Hutt.), Cucullaea alta
Sow., C. attenuata Hutt., Atrina zelandica (Gray), Ostrea sp., and Macro-
callista assimilis (Hutt.).
From the upper crab-beds, one mile above the lime-kiln, I obtained
Turritella symmetrica Hutt., Polinices gibbosus (Hutt.), Ancilla sp. now,
Dentalium solidum Hutt., Crassatellites obesus (A. Ad.), Ostrea nelsoniana
Zitt., Gryphaea tarda Hutt., Pecten (Chlamys) williamsoni Zitt., P. hilli
Hutt., P. huttoni (Park), P. delicatulus Hutt., Pecten sp. nov. between
triphooki and zelandiae, Macrocallista assimilis (Hutt.), Teredo directa Hutt..
Holaster sp., and Cidaris spines.
9— Trans.
258
Transactions.
Craigmore.
At the north end of Craigmore there is an exposure of the whole series
of Tertiaries from the quartz grits to the limestone. The grits are resting
on the Mesozoic rocks, which have been cut down to a dej)th of about
300 ft. by the Pareora River. The marine sandstones, as usual, contain layers
of Cardium waitakiense Sut. and Venericardia zelandica (Desh.) var. The
limestone which forms the crest of Craigmore occupies the summit of an
anticline, which pitches west to form the Upper Pareora basin. From the
limestone I collected Epitonium lyratum (Zitt.), E. browni (Zitt.), Pecten
huttoni (Park), Lima laevigata Hutt., Aetheia gualteri (Morris), Terebratulina
suessi Hutt., Rhizothyris rhizoida (Hutt.), Liothyrella landonensis Thomson,
Pachymagas parki (Hutt.), Flabellum radians T.-W., F. circulare T.-W.,
Retepora sp., Graphularia sp., Eupatagus tuberculatus Zitt., E. greyi Hutt.,
Pericosmus lyoni Tate, P. compressus McCoy, Pentacrinus stellatus Hutt.,
Oxyrhina grandis Davis, Lamna huttoni Davis, L. incurva Davis, and Keke-
nodon (?).
Tycho Valley.
Along the right bank of this valley there is a steep limestone slope, and
in one place this is overlain by a deposit of blue clay, which is the only
evidence that all this limestone was once covered by the blue clay. From
the clay I collected Chione meridionalis (Sow.), Crassatellites obesus (A. Ad.),
and Limopsis aurita (Brocchi).
Holme Station.
In this locality the upper red sands and sandstones are seen dipping-
south-east at 15°. The lowest beds have few fossils, but the upper beds
contain concretions and hard calcareous layers, as at Southburn Cutting
and Gordon's Valley. They contain a rich fauna, and it is noteworthy
that this is the exposure from which the first " Pareora " fossils were
collected. I collected here the sixty-nine species of molluscs tabulated
in column 13 of the table.
Cannington.
The only Tertiary beds exposed here are the limestone, the blue clay,
and the upper red sands. The section is noteworthy, as the beds dip into
instead of away from the Trias-Jura rocks. The limestone is well seen
on the right bank, where it dips in one section to the north-north-east at
40°, and in another section to the north-north-west at 10°.
Fig. 10. — Section along left bank of Pareora River, near the upper
gorge (Cannington). Distance, about f mile ; direction.
S.S.E. -N.N.W. ; dip, 10°. 1. Greywacke. 2. Limestone.
3. Blue clay. 4. Gravel. (The westerly part of the section is
obscured by gravels.)
On the left bank the limestone is followed conformably by blue clays,
as at^Squire's Farm, but heavy deposits of gravel have obscured the upper
Gudex. — Succession of Tertiary Beds in Pareora District. 259
parts of the section. About a mile farther down, however, the red sands
are seen in the cuttings made for the road that passes over the steep hill
on the left bank.
The limestone yielded Epitonium lyratum (Zitt.), E. orowni (Zitt.),
Pachymagas sp., echinoderm spines and plates, and Pentacrinus stellatus
Hutt.
From the blue clay lying only a few feet above the limestone I collected
TurriteUa concava Hutt.. Crcpidula gregaria Sow., Pplinices sp., Surcula
fusiformis (Hutt.), Dentalium mantelli Zitt., D. ecostatum T. W. Kirk, Malletia
austral is (Q. & G.), Pecten huttoni (Park), P. zitteli Hutt., Chiorte meridionalis
(Sow.). Chiorte chiloensis truncata Sut., Limopsis aurita (Brocchi), Corbula
canaliculate Hutt., Cochlodesma angasi (C. & F.) (?), and Pachymagas parhi
(Hutt,).
Ford's, Fenn's, and PringWs.
If we follow the road along the foothills, from Squire's Farm to White
Rock, we find that almost the only Tertiary beds exposed are the grits of
the coal series. Between Squire's Farm and the first tributary of Little
River, however, a marine sandstone is found in one of the road-cuttings,
and farther on there is a small outcrop of limestone on the left of the road.
This limestone lies close in against the greywacke, and its position is hard
to account for, unless it has been faulted down.
From the sandstone I collected the following fossils : TurriteUa sym-
metrica Hutt., Ancilla australis (Sow.), Psammobia lineolata Gray, P. zelandica
Desh., Venericardia pseutes Sut., V. zelandica (Desh.) var., Macrocallista
assimilis (Hutt.), Modiolus dolichus Sut., and Cardium waitakiense Sut.
Table of Fossil Mollusca.
(Recent species are marked with an asterisk before the name ; complete faunas of
formations throughout the district are followed by a double rule.)
Column 1 .
Column 2.
Column
Column
Column
Column
Column
Column
Column
Column 10.
Column 11.
Column 12.
Column 13.
Column 14.
Column 15.
Lower sands and sandstones, Otaio Gorge.
Complete fauna of lower sands and sandstones (Waihao beds) throughout
the district.
Complete fauna of crab- beds and marls throughout the district.
Complete fauna of the limestones throughout the district.
Bluish-green clays, Bluecliffs, Otaio River.
Blue clays, Squire's Farm.
Blue clays, Pareora River, foot of Mount Horrible.
Complete fauna of blue clays throughout the district.
Upper red sands with concretions, Southburn Cutting.
Upper red sands, Gordon's Valley.
LTpper beds of the series. White Rock River.
Upper red sands, Sutherland's.
Upper red sands, Holme Station.
Complete fauna of upper red sands throughout the district.
Complete fauna of the Pareora series (columns 8 and 14).
1. I 2.
3.
6.
8.
9. 10. 11. i 12. 13. 14. 15.
Alectrion social is (Hutt.)
Ampullina suturalis (Hutt.)
Amusium zitteli (Hutt.)
* Ancilla australis (Sow.)
* .. depressa (Sow.)
„ fabera (Hutt.)
* „ novae-zelandiae (Sow.)
„ papillata (Tate)
„ waikopiroensis Sut.
9*
x
X
X
X
X
X
. .
X
X
Cf.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X X
.. X
X X
.. X
X X
. . X
.. X
X
X
X
X
X
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
. .
X
X
. .
X
. .
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
260
Transactions.
3.
4.
5.
6.
1
7. 8. 9.
10.
11. 12.
13.
14.
15.
Archilectonica cf. ngaparaensis Sut.
Astarte australis Hutt. (?)
,, sulcata (Hutt.)
Borsonia cincta (Hutt.)
Bulla sp. ( ?) . .
*Calyptraea alia (Hutt.)
* ,, maculata (Q. & G.) . .
* „ „ inflata (Hutt.)
Cardium greyi Hutt. . .
„ waitakiense Sut.
C'erithiutn hector i Harris
Chione acuminata Hutt.
„ chiloensis truncata Sut. . .
„ meridionalis (Sow.)
„ speighti Sut.
*Cochlodesma angasi (C. & F.) (?)
Cominella carinata (Hutt.)
„ pulchra Sut.
Corbula canaliculata Hutt.
Crassattllit.es amplus (Zitt.)
* „ obesus (A. Ad.)
*Crepidula costata (Sow.)
„ gregaria Sow.
* ,, monoxyla (Less.)
., striata (Hutt.)
Cucullaea alta Sow.
„ attenuata Hutt.
„ australis (Hutt.)
Cylichnelki eny •si (Hutt.)
G'ymatium minimum (Hutt.)
Cytherea enysi Hutt.
Daphnella neozelanica Sut.
*Dentalium ecostatum T. W. Kirk
„ mantelli Zitt.
* „ nanum Hutt.
,, solidum Hutt. . .
*Divaricella cumingi (Ad. & Ang.)
*Dosinia greyi Zitt.
* „ lambata (Gould)
„ magna Hutt.
Drillia awamoaensis (Hutt.)
,, buchanani (Hutt.)
Epitonium browni (Zitt.)
,, elatum Sut.
„ lyratum (Zitt.)
* ,, zelebori (Dkr.)
Euthria media (Hutt.)
Exilia dalli Sut.
Ficus transennus Sut. . .
Fulgoraria aculeata (Hutt. )
* „ arabica (Mart.)
„ „ elongata(Swainn. )
„ „ turrita Sut. '
„ gracilis (Swains.)
*Fnsinus spiralis (A. Ad.)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
?
X
x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
?
X
"
••
X
X
X
X
X
X
..
••
••
i
' '
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x
x
• •
><
x
x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
••
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
9
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
9
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1 X
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x
i
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x
X
X
X
1 X
X
! X
X
X
X
X
X
i x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Gtjdex. — Succession of Tertiary Beds in Pareora District. "2(J1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7. 8. 1
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Galeodea senex (Hutt.)
Genota robusta (Hutt.)
Glycymeris cordata (Hutt.)
,, globosa (Hutt.)
* ,, laticostata (Q. & G.) . .
Gryphaea tarda Hutt. ..
Heliacus impcrfectua Sut.
Hemiconus ornatus (Hutt.)
Latirus brevirostris (Hutt.)
Leucosyrinx alta (Harris)
Lima colorata Hutt.
,, imitata Sut.
,, laevigata Hutt.
., -paleata Hutt. (?)
*Limopsis aurita (Brocchi)
,, catenata Sut.
,, zitteli Iher.
Loripes laminata Hutt.
Macrocallista assimilis (Hutt.) . .
Mactra chrydea Sut.
* „ discors Gray
* „ scalpellum Reeve
* Mallet ia australis (Q. & G.)
*Mangilia protensa (Hutt.)
Marginella conica Harris
Mesalia striolata (Hutt.)
Miomelon corrugata (Hutt.)
Mitra armorica Sut.
Modiolus dolichus Sut.
Murex zelandicus Q. & G.
*Natica australis (Hutt.)
* .. zelandica Q. & G.
*Niicula nitidula A. Ad.
Olivella neozelanica (Hutt.)
Ostrea gude.ri Sut.
„ nelsoniana Zitt.
Panope orbita (Hutt.) . .
„ worthingtoni (Hutt.)
* ,, zelandica (Q. & G.)
Paphia curta (Hutt.) ..
Pecten bumetti Zitt. . .
„ delicatulus Hutt.
hilli Hutt.
,, huttoni (Park) . .
„ scandiila Hutt. (?)
„ cf. triphooki Zitt.
,, williamsoni Zitt.
Placunanomia incisura Hutt.
* ,, zelandica (Gray)
*Polinices amphialus (Wats.)
„ gibbosus (Hutt.)
,, huttoni Iher.
,, ovatu? (Hutt.)
,, phtnispirus Sut.
* Psammobia lineolata Gray
,, cf. stangeri Gray
* ,, zelandica Desh.
Ptychatractus nodosoliratus Sut.
*Pupa alba Hutt.
Sinum cinctum (Hutt.)
,, miocoenicum (Sut.)
„ undulatum (Sut.)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
/
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
262
Transactions.
1. 2. !| 3. 4. 5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10. 11.
12. 13.
14.
15.
Siphonalia conoidea (Zitt.)
,, costata (Hutt.)
* „ dilatata (Q. & G.)
,, nodosa (Mart.) . .
„ subnodosa (Hutt.)
Strnthiolaria cincta Hutt.
„ papulosa (Mart.) . ,
,. spinosa Hect.
,, tuberculata Hutt. . .
Surcula fusiformis (Hutt.)
*Tellina glabrella Desh.
Terebra orycta Sut.
„ pareoraensis Sut.
* „ tristis Desh.
Teredo heaphyi Zitt. . . . .
,, directa Hutt.
Turbonilla prisca Sut.
*Turritella carlottae Wats.
„ cavershamensis Harris
„ concava Hutt.
„ patagonica Sow.
* ,, rosea Q. & G.
,, semiconcava Sut.
* ,. symmetrica, Hutt.
Typhis maccoyi T.-W.
Venericardia pseutes Sut.
* „ purpurata (Desh.) . .
„ zelandica (Desh. ) var.
Vexillum apicale (Hutt.)
„ rutidolomum Sut.
*Zenatia acinaces Q. & G.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
x
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Bibliography.
Haast, J., 1865. Report on the Geological Formation of the Timaru District, in reference
to obtaining a Supply of Water, 1 3 pp., and sections, Christchurch.
Hardcastle, J., 1 890. Origin of the Loess Deposit of the Timaru Plateau. Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 22, pp. 406-14.
■ 1891. On the Drift in South Canterbury, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 23, pp. 311-24.
1891a. On the Timaru Loess as a Climate Register. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 23,
pp. 324-32.
— — 1908. Notes on the Geology of South Canterbury, 62 pp.. Timaru.
Hutton, F. W.. 1873. Catalogue of the Tertiary Mollusca and Echinodermata of New
Zealand in the Collection of the Colonial Museum (ref. to pp. vii, viii).
Mantell, G. A., 1850. Notice of the Remains of the Dinornis and other Birds, and of
Fossils and Rock-specimens, recently collected by Mr. Walter Mantell in the Middle
Island of New Zealand. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. 6, pp. 319-42 (ref. to pp. 322-23).
Marshall. P., 1916. The Yoimger Limestones of New Zealand, Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. 48, pp. 87-99.
McKay, A., 1877. Oamaru and Waitaki Districts, Rep. Geol. Explor. dur. 1876-77,
pp. 41-66.
Park, J., 1905. On the Marine Tertiaries of Otago and Canterbury, with Special
Reference to the Relations existing between the Pareora and Oamaru Series. Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 37, pp. 489-551.
Speight, R., 1914. Additions to the List of Fossils from the Lower Waipara, Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. 46, p. 300.
Thomson, J. A., 1914. Classification and Correlation of the Tertiary Rocks, 8th Ann.
Rep. (n.s.) N.Z. Geol. Surv., pp. 123-24.
1917. Diastrophic and other Considerations in Classification and Correlation,
and the Existence of Minor Diastrophic Districts in the Notocene, Trans. N.Z.
Inst.'vol. 49, pp. 397-41 3.
Marshall. — Tertiary Molluscan Fauna of Pakaurangi Point. 263
Aet. XXVII. — The Tertiary Molluscan, Fauna of Pakaurangi Point.
Kaipara Harbour.
By P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc.
[Read before thr Wanganui Philosophical Society, 19th December, 1917 ; received by
Editors, 31st December, 1917 ; issued separately, 24th June, 1918.]
Plates XVIII XXII.
In a previous paper* a list was given of the Mollusca that had been
collected in this locality. Further collections have since been made which
have added considerably to the number of the species. Descriptions and
figures are given of all the new species. A discussion of the nature of the
fauna will be given after the descriptions.
Vaginella torpedo n. sp. (Plate XXII, figs. 7, 8.)
Shell of moderate size, 18 mm. by 3"5 mm. Form cylindrical with a
conical termination. Slightly compressed at the anterior end. Shell por-
cellanous with a shining surface. With a low-power pocket-lens a series of
fine longitudinal lines can just be made out.
Seven good specimens were obtained. Type in the Wanganui Museum.
Calliostoma gracilis. (Plate XVIII, figs. 1, la.)
Shell small : height, 7 mm. ; breadth, 10 mm. : trochoidal. Spire short,
of 3 whorls. Aperture oval. Columella slightly excavated. Protoconch
consisting of 2 whorls. Outline of each whorl of the spire slightly concave.
Three small spiral threads near the posterior suture of each whorl and a
larger one near the anterior suture. Body-whorl with a large number of
fine spiral threads in addition to those on the other whorls. Base with
similar small spiral lines, with two large and prominent ones that divide
the base into three approximately equal parts. Inner layer of the shell
highly nacreous.
One specimen, in good condition. Type in the Wanganui Museum.
Heliacus aucklandicus. (Plate XVIII, figs. 2, 2a.)
Shell small : height, 3 mm. ; breadth, 10 mm. Form obtusely conical.
Spire short, consisting of 5 whorls each with a straight outline. Aperture
regular. Umbilicus very large, with a strongly crenulated margin. Orna-
mentation : Each whorl with 4 beaded cinguli ; the two most prominent
of these border the anterior and posterior sutures closely. Base smooth
except for irregular ribs radiating outward from the crenulated margin of
the umbilicus.
One specimen only, in a good state of preservation. Type in the
Wanganui Museum.
Epitonium tricinctum n. sp. (Plate XIX, figs. 8, 12.)
Shell small and slender : length, 8 mm. ; breadth, 3 mm. Spire of 6
whorls, but it is not complete. Outline of whorls strongly convex. Suture
deep. Aperture not preserved. Ornamentation : On each whorl 3 strong
spiral lines. The uppermost of these is the most prominent : it is situated
* Tran*. N.Z. hist., vol. 49, pp. 447-48, 1917.
264 Transactions.
a little behind the middle of the whorl, and the other two lie between it and
the suture in front. Each of the spiral lines is continuous over the radial
lines, of which there are 18 in each whorl.
Only one specimen was found, and it is somewhat incomplete, but the
ornamentation is quite distinct from that of any other New Zealand species.
Type in the Wanganui Museum.
Fusinus corrugatus n. sp. (Plate XXII, figs. 9, 10.)
Shell of moderate size, fusiform, 21 mm. by 5 mm. Spire a little less
than half the length of the shell, consisting of 6 whorls, each strongly convex.
Aperture oval, and narrowing anteriorly' into a moderately long canal.
Protoconch of 3 whorls, smooth. Ornamentation : 7 rounded axial costae
in each whorl, extending from suture to suture, but much higher on the
keel than elsewhere. Spiral threads some 6 in number in each whorl but
extremely unequal, the one that marks the keel being much more pro-
minent than all the others, and the one anterior to it also much larger than
the rest. The spiral lines are particularly strong on the costae, where
they form prominent projections. Very small spiral threads between every
pair of larger ones. Suture not pronounced, wavy. Body-whorl with
similar ornamentation, the spiral lines being continued to the end of the
beak, but they are much less prominent there.
Two specimens, one almost complete, the other without its beak. Type
in the Wanganui Museum.
Dolicholatirus (Pseudolatirus) ornatus n. sp. (Plate XVIII, figs, 3, 3a.)
Shell of moderate size, 25 mm. by 10 mm. Shape fusiform. Spire of
6 whorls, protoconch of 2 whorls. Suture compressed wavy. Aperture
pyriform, almost half the total length of the shell, and produced anteriorly
into a long canal but somewhat truncated posteriorly. Outer lip thin,
with 12 internal projections. Columella slightly bent inwards where the
aperture narrows into the anterior siphon. Columella slightly callous,
smooth but furnished with 5 small projections, 2 of which are the terminal
points of columellar folds. At the base of the aperture 3 small pro-
jections. Ornamentation : 7 prominent radial costae on each whorl. The
costae in successive whorls are not arranged in a straight line but form
a spiral directed backwards. Each whorl with a large number of spiral
threads. About every fourth thread is much larger and forms prominent
elevations where they cross the costae. Strong lines of growth. On the
body-whorl the costae extend to the beginning of the anterior canal.
Six specimens. Type in the Wanganui Museum.
Siphonalia flexuosa n. sp. (Plate XXII, figs. 11, 12.)
Shell of moderate size, of oval shape, 28 mm. by 17 mm. Spire of 6
whorls rapidly decreasing in size. Aperture rather less than half the length
of the shell. Outer lip moderately thick and ornamented internally by
several short spiral lines. Anterior canal bent sharply to the right and of
moderate length. Ornamentation : 10 radial costae on each whorl : these
extend to the anterior suture but barely reach the posterior one : they are
more distinct in the upper whorls. Suture strongly margined anteriorly.
Posterior portion of each whorl concave in outline. All parts of the whorls
have spiral ribs, which are large and rounded. There is usually one small
thread between each pair of ribs. Large spiral threads are less pronounced
on the beak, and the interstitial threads are more numerous. Growth-
lines are numerous and conspicuous on the body-whorl.
Trans. N.Z. Ixst., Vol. L
Plate XVII I.
Figs. 1, la. — Calliostoma gracilis n. sp.
Figs. 2, 2a. — H el incus aucklandicus n. sp.
Figs. 3, 3;/. — Dolicholatirus (Pseudolatims)
n. sp.
Figs. 4, 4a. — Plios kaiparaensis n. sp.
Figs. 5, 5a. — PAos spiralis n. sp.
Figs. 6, 6a. — Cymbiola nitens n. sp.
Face p. 264.]
Figs. 7, la. — Cymbiola calcar n. sp.
Figs. 8, 8i. — Tunis ornatus n. sp.
ornatus Figs. 9, 9a. — Tunis kaiparaensis n. sp.
Figs. 10, 10a. — Borsonia (Cordieria) ovalis
Figs. 11, 11a. — Crenilabium zelandicum a.
Figs. 12, 12a. — C ymbiola masefieldi n. sp.
(All figs, x 2\.)
n. sp.
sp.
Trans. X.Z. Insi., Vol. L.
Plate XIX.
m *
^^d
• fy
9
10
m * f f
11
12
13
14
15
16
Fig. 1. — Tellina (Arcopagia) inconspicua
n. sp.
Fig. 2. — Tellina (Arcopagia) inconspicua
11. sp. ( X 2.)
Fig. 3. — Surcula nitens n. sp.
Fig. 4. — Corbula nitens n. sp.
Fig. 5. — Sarepta aucklandica n. sp. ( X 2.)
Fig. 6. — Sarepta aucklandira n. sp.
Fig. 7. — Corbula nitens n. sp.
Fig. 8. — Ejntonium tricinctum n. sp.
Fig. 9. — Mitrella inconspicua n. sp.
Fig. 10. — Mangilia axialis n. sp.
Fig. 11. — Drillia tenuispiralis n. sp.
Fig. 12. — Epitonium tricinctum n. sp.
Fig. 13.— Mitrella inconspicua n. sp.
Fig. 14. — Mangilia axialis n. sp.
Fig. 15. — Surcula nitens n. sp.
Fig. 1 6. — Drillia tenuispiralis n. sp.
(All figs, except 2 and 5 X 3.)
Marshall. — Tertiary Molluscan Fauna of Pahaurangi Point. 265
Several specimens, in good condition. Type in the Wanganui Museum.
This species most closely resembles S. costata, but the anterior canal is
more bent and the costae less pronounced, though the spiral ribs are more
distinct.
Coptochetus zelandicus n. sp. (Plate XXII, fig. 13.)
Shell of moderate size, 24 mm. by 8 mm., of a fusiform shape, with a
- 1 >ire of 5 whorls. Whorls slightly convex in outline and gradually decreasing
in size. Body- whorl somewhat incomplete. Aperture narrow and extended
somewhat anteriorly into a moderately long canal. Columella smooth and
almost straight. Ornamentation : Each whorl has 18 or 19 radial ribs. The
ribs are rounded, continuous, and of equal height from suture to suture.
The ribs are crossed by about 9 spiral threads of small size on each whorl.
Suture with a sharp border on the anterior margin. Body- whorl with
similar ornamentation to that of the spire. The radial ribs appear to
extend to the end of the anterior canal, though the imperfect condition
of the specimen does not show this clearly.
One specimen only, in an imperfect state. Type in the Wanganui
.Museum.
I am indebted to Mr. Suter for suggesting that the specimen should be
referred to this genus, though he states that he is not certain that it is
correct.
The genus Coptochetus appears to be restricted to the Oligocene and
Eocene. It occurs in Europe and Australia.
Phos kaiparaensis n. sp. (Plate XVIII, figs. 4, 4a.)
Shell small and oval, 7 mm. by 5 mm. Spire of 5 whorls, three of which
are apparently the protoconch. Aperture less than half the length of the
shell, broadly oval but narrowing anteriorly to a very short canal slightly
bent backwards. Ornamentation : 10 radial costae on each whorl, broad
and rounded but most prominent near the anterior suture. The whorls of
the protoconch have no costae. There are a large number of spiral ridges
on each whorl, well rounded, and continuous across the costae. On the
protoconch the threads are relatively larger and less numerous. On the
body-whorl the costae decrease in size anteriorly and end at about two-
thirds of its length. The spiral ridges extend to the end of the short siphon.
Suture impressed but not bordered.
One specimen only, in good condition. Mr. Suter thinks that it is not
mature Type in the Wanganui Museum.
Phos spiralis n. sp. (Plate XVIII, figs. 5, 5a.)
Shell small, oval, 10 mm. by 6 mm. Spire consisting of 5 whorls
rapidly decreasing : two of these are the protoconch. Aperture oval,
rather less than half the length of the shell. The aperture narrows some-
what anteriorly and forms a short canal. There is a slight callosity on the
columella, which is a little bent over to the left. Ornamentation : Axial
costae 13 in number, broad and low, extending from suture to suture.
They are crossed by a number of relatively large spiral ridges. There are
5 of these in the penultimate whorl, and they cross the costae without
diminution. Protoconch smooth. Outline of whorls convex, suture im-
pressed. The costae on the body-whorl become less prominent towards
the anterior end, but the spiral threads are continuous.
One specimen only, in a good state of preservation. Mr. Suter thinks
that it is not mature. Type in the Wanganui Museum.
266 Transactions.
Cymbiola masefieldi n. sp. (Plate XVIII, figs. 12, 12a.)
Shell of moderate size, 21 mm. by 8 mm. The type specimen, however,
is not quite complete: if it were, the length would probably be 25mm.
Shape fusiform. Spire of 5 whorls separated by a deep suture. Each whorl
with a convex outline rising steeply from the posterior suture but sloping
gently anteriorly. Body - whorl about two - thirds of the total length.
Aperture about one-third of the length of the shell, narrowly oval, extended
anteriorly into a short canal. Columella without callosity but with two
distinct plaits. Ornamentation slight. Two or three narrow spiral grooves
on the posterior portion of each whorl. Base with about 12 spiral grooves
filling all the space between the base of the aperture and the apex of the
canal. Growth-lines are distinct on all the whorls.
Three specimens, in rather an imperfect condition. Type in the Wanga-
nui Museum.
Cymbiola nitens n. sp. (Plate XVIII, figs. 6, 6«.)
Shell of moderate size, 26 mm. by 8 mm. Spire of moderate length,
consisting of 5 or 6 whorls. Each whorl slightly convex, with a steep slope
behind. Body-whorl about two-thirds the length of the shell, aperture
about one-third. Aperture narrow, extended anteriorly into a short canal.
Columella with no callus but with 2 strong folds of almost equal size.
Ornamentation : Surface smooth and polished. A few spiral grooves in
each whorl : these are deeper and more pronounced near the upper part of
each whorl. Body-whorl with 2 of these grooves near its posterior end,
with 13 grooves near its anterior end, where it is prolonged into a short
canal. Growth-lines distinct.
This species is very closely related to 0. masefieldi, but it has more
numerous but less distinct spiral grooves, and the outline of the whorls is
less convex.
Three specimens only, one of which is in good condition. Type in the
Wanganui Museum.
Cymbiola calcar n. sp. (Plate XVIII, figs. 7, la.)
Shell small, 9 mm. by 4 mm. Shape ovate. Spire rather short, of
7 whorls, rapidly decreasing : three of these constitute the protoconch.
Body- whorl distinctly longer than the rest of the shell. Aperture nearly
one-half the length of the shell, ovate. Outer lip not preserved ; columella
without callosity, but with 2 sharp folds, the posterior of which is sharper
than the anterior and more oblique than it. A well-developed but short
anterior canal. Whorls slightly convex, steep on the posterior side but
gently sloping on the anterior side. All the whorls have narrow spiral
grooves. Body-whorl with 6 strong distant narrow ridges on the anterior
part. Lines of growth distinct.
One specimen only, in good condition. Type in the Wanganui Museum.
Mitrella inconspicua n. sp. (Plate XIX, figs. 9, 13.)
Shell minute, 4 mm. by 1"5 mm., shortly fusiform. Spire of 6 whorls
almost flat in profile. Aperture considerably less than one-half the length
of the shell. Outer lip starting at a sharp angle, thick at first, but becoming
thin towards the short anterior canal. Columella with 6 distinct spiral
lines extending outward over the body-whorl. Protoconch of 3 smooth
whorls. Ornamentation : Whorls almost smooth, though with obscure
irregular radial lines. Suture impressed.
Marshall. — Tertiary Molluscan Fa nun of Pakaurangi Point. 267
One specimen only, in good condition. Type in the Wanganui Museum.
Mr. Suter thinks that this species is closely related to M . choava Eeeve,
but is distinct from it.
Ancilla spinigera n. sp. (Plate XX, figs. 1, la.)
Shell of moderate size, 23 mm. by 14 mm., oval in shape, but the spire
is extremely short, and is completely covered with a callus from which
the protoconch projects as a small spine. Aperture three-quarters the
length of the shell. The grooves in the columella are well marked, but
towards the base of the columella it becomes extremely callous. Fasciole
well marked. The body- whorl has distinct growth-marks, and on the
callus there are some indistinct radial mark-. The callus extends forward
from the columella over the body-whorl for about one-third of its circum-
ference, reaching as far as the fasciole. Three specimens, two of them in
good condition. Type in the Wanganui Museum.
Ancilla cincta n. sp. (Plate XX, figs. 2, 2a.)
Shell of moderate size, 28 mm. by 13 mm. ; form elliptical, the proto-
conch projecting as a sharp point. Spire short, and completely covered
with callus. Aperture nearly two-thirds the length of the shell. Columella
callous, and the callosity extends forward a short distance over the body-
whorl. On the callosity which covers the spire a few spiral ridges are rather
evident : these apparently indicate the whorls of the spire, which thus
seems to consist of 4 whorls. Lines of growth are distinct over that part
of the body-whorl that is not covered with callus.
One specimen only, in a fair state of preservation. Type in the
Wanganui Museum.
Surcula latiaxialis n. sp. (Plate XX, figs. 3, 3a.)
Shell rather large, 34 mm. by 11 mm. Shape fusiform, with a long spire
of 5 whorls, which are strongly convex. Aperture slightly longer than the
spire, but oval in shape, though rather prolonged anteriorly. Columella
distinctly bulging at the point where the aperture narrows to the anterior
canal. Ornamentation : 7 prominent axial costae in each whorl ; these
extend to the anterior suture, which bends forward slightly at the points
where the axials reach it. Posteriorly the axial sutures stop short of the
suture ; anteriorly the sutures are margined by a strong ridge, which is
itself marked by extremely fine spiral lines. Whorls marked by numerous
fine spiral lines, which traverse the axial costae as well as the other parts of
the whorl. The spiral lines are finer and more numerous in the posterior
part of the whorl, and are coarsest where they cross the axials. These are
crossed by irregular lines of growth, the form of which indicate that the
anal sinus was relatively shallow. The outer lip is not sufficiently well
preserved to demonstrate that point.
This species is rather similar to S. fusiformis Hutton, from which it
differs in the smaller number of its broad axial costae, which number 7 in
place of 11 ; by the spiral striation of the posterior part of each whorl, and
by the bordered and wavy suture.
Two specimens only, one of which is nearly complete. Type in the
Wanganui Museum.
Surcula nitens n. sp. (Plate XIX, figs. 3, 15.)
Shell small, fusiform, 8 mm. by 2-5 mm. Spire of 5 convex tapering
whorls, half as long again as the aperture. Suture slightly bordered
268 . Transactions.
anteriorly. Aperture oval, anal notch rather shallow ; anterior canal of
moderate length. Ornamentation : 10 broad and rounded radial costae in
each whorl. These costae extend to the anterior but not to the posterior
suture. Surface of the shell quite smooth except at the end of the beak,
which has 10 feeble spiral lines. Protoconch consists of 3 whorls.
The smoothness of the surface distinguishes this species.
Two specimens, in good condition. Type in the Wanganui Museum.
Surcula ordinaria n. sp. (Plate XX, figs. 4, 4a.)
Shell of rather large size, 32 mm. by 8 mm. ; fusiform, with a tapering
spire of 6 or 7 whorls. The narrow aperture is half the length of the shell,
and is prolonged into a long anterior canal. The outer lip is thin, with a
broad shallow anal notch near the suture but separated from it. Inner
lip smooth. Protoconch smooth, of 4 whorls. Ornamentation is not con-
spicuous. In each whorl the posterior suture is margined with a broad
spiral swelling. On this there are fine barely visible spiral striations, which
are also to be distinguished on all the posterior part of the whorl as far as
the keel. This is well marked, and has about 12 rounded tubercles on
each whorl. Anterior to the keel there are about 9 spiral lines, more con-
spicuous than those posterior to it. Lines of growth numerous and well
marked. Body-whorl with numerous spiral lines, about every fourth of
which is larger than the others. Fifteen of these larger lines can be
distinguished.
Three specimens, two of which are in good condition. Type in the
Wanganui Museum.
x&~-
Turris ornatus n. sp. (Plate XVIII, figs. 8, 8a.)
Shell small, fusiform, 18 mm. by 6 mm. Spire of 6 whorls, each with a
pronounced keel. Suture impressed. Body-whorl rather more than half
the total length, but aperture rather less than half. Aperture oval in
form and produced anteriorly into a long canal. Anal notch rather deep.
Columella nearly straight and. covered with a thin callus. Ornamentation :
A broad keel with about 24 rounded tubercles on each whorl. A second
smaller keel posterior to this, and a third near the posterior suture, but
the last is quite small : both of these are slightly rough but have no
well-defined tubercles. Two slender spiral lines in front of the keel and one
on the posterior side. Abundant and prominent growth-lines. Body-whorl
with a number of nearly equal spiral ridges in front of the keel, and these
are crossed by numerous growth-lines.
Two good specimens and other fragments. Type in the Wanganui
Museum.
Turris kaiparaensis n. sp. (Plate XVIII, figs. 9, 9a.)
Shell small, fusiform, 20 mm. by 7 mm. Spire of 7 whorls, strongly
keeled. Body-whorl about half the length of the shell. Aperture about
one-third, oval, rather obtuse posteriorly but anteriorly produced into a long
canal. Columella nearly straight and very slightly callous. Anal notch
deep. Ornamentation : A prominent keel with a slight median groove
bearing 22 rounded tubercles in each whorl. Eleven thin spiral threads
posterior to the keel, the one nearest to the suture being much the largest.
Spiral threads crossed by many thin lines of growth. Body-whorl with
3 prominent rather diverging spiral lines anterior to the keel : the middle
of these passes through the point where the outer lip joins the shell ; the
Marshall. — Tertiary Molluscam Fa nun of Pakaurangi Point. 269
anterior one passes into the aperture. There are many other spiral threads
on the body-whorl, every alternate one being relatively small.
A very common species at Pakaurangi Point, no fewer than forty
specimens being obtained. Type in the Wanganui Museum.
Borsonia (Cordieria) ovalis n. sp. (Plate XVIII, figs. 10, 10a.)
Shell small, oval, 13 mm. by 9 mm. Spire short, consisting of 4 rapidly
diminishing whorls. Outline of whorls slightly convex. Aperture oval,
rather less than half the length of the shell. Outer lip thick, inner lip not
callous. The columella with 3 distinct folds. Aperture obtuse anteriorly.
Ornamentation: Each whorl. with about 15 radial costae slightly raised
and continuous from suture to suture : these costae are turned slightly
backward. A number of sharp spiral threads, which, however, are inter-
rupted, on the costae. Suture impressed and not bordered. On the
body-whorl the costae decrease anteriorly, and are not distinct on the base.
Many of the spiral threads, however, continue into the aperture.
One specimen only, in a good state of preservation. I am indebted to
Mr. Suter for placing this specimen generically. Type in the Wanganui
Museum.
Drillia tenuispiralis n. sp. (Plate XIX, figs. 11, 16.)
Shell small, turreted, 12 mm. by 4 mm. ; fusiform in shape, with a taper-
ing spire consisting of 7 whorls. Outline of each whorl strongly convex.
Aperture rather more than one-quarter the length of the shell, with a
short anterior canal and a deep anal slit. Each whorl with 6 prominent
radial costae, which extend from the anterior suture for two-thirds of the
breadth of the whorl. At this point they terminate abruptly, and leave
the posterior portion of the whorl almost smooth. The anterior part of each
whorl is marked with numerous extremely fine spiral lines. On the body-
whorl the radial costae are far less prominent, and towards the outer lip
they are replaced by prominent lines of growth. Spiral threads are con-
tinued to the end of the anterior canal. A slight callosity on the columella.
Mr. Suter remarks that this species conies nearest to D. costifer Suter.
A single specimen, but in excellent condition. Type in the Wanganui
Museum.
Mangilia axialis n. sp. (Plate XIX, figs. 10, 14.)
Shell small, fusiform, 6 mm. by 2*5 mm. Spire consisting of 5 strongly
convex whorls. Aperture oval, more than one-third but less than one-half
the length of the shell. A very short anterior canal. Outer lip thick.
Columella' smooth. Ornamentation : Strong axial ribs to the number of
12 on each whorl : they are rounded and extend from suture to suture,
and are bent slightly forward in the lower part, though broader in the middle
than elsewhere. A large number of fine spiral lines, which are more pro-
minent in the interstices than on the ribs. Body-whorl with the same
ornamentation, the axial ribs extending almost to the end of the short canal.
Protoconch of 3 perfectly smooth whorls.
Rather similar to M. tenuispiralis, but the spiral lines of M. axialis are
finer, the axial ribs less pronounced, the body-whorl ribbed, and the form
is more slender than in M. tenuispiralis.
Three specimens, one in very good condition. Type in the Wanganui
Museum.
270 Transactions.
Conus (Leptoconus) lyratus n. sp. (Plate XX, figs. 5, 5a.)
Shell of moderate size, 28 mm. by 10 mm. Spire short, about one-fifth
the length of the body-whorl. Five whorls, each slightly convex in outline.
Each whorl rising by a decided step from the anterior suture. Aperture
narrow but expanding slightly anteriorly. Ornamentation : Whorls smooth
except for numerous distinct lines of growth which extend completely
across them. Body- whorl with distinct spiral lirae over its whole surface,
though they are more distinct in the anterior than in the posterior portion.
Lines of growth on the body-whorl are not numerous and not distinct.
A single specimen, in good condition. Type in the Wanganui Museum.
Conus convexus n. sp. (Plate XX, figs. 6, 6a.)
Shell of moderate size, 27 mm. by 13 mm. Spire conical, about one-
sixth the length of the shell, and consisting of 5 whorls. Outline of each
whorl convex. Aperture linear, narrow. Ornamentation : Whorls of the
spire lyrate with about 10 lirae, which are more pronounced on the anterior
than on the posterior part of the whorl. Lines of growth not distinct.
Body- whorl has fairly well-marked lines of growth, but it is otherwise
smooth except for some 10 spiral lirae near the anterior end.
A single specimen, in good condition. Type in the Wanganui Museum.
Conus (Lithoconus) abruptus. n. sp. (Plate XX, figs. 7, 7a.)
Shell of moderate size, conical, 20 mm. by 11 mm. Spire of 5 whorls,
almost flat, and from it the protoconch of 3 whorls projects sharply.
Aperture narrow. Columella with a spiral groove near its anterior end.
Ornamentation : The whorls of the spire each with about 5 spiral lirae
crossed by numerous growth-lines. Suture moderately deep. Body-whorl
with numerous but indistinct growth-lines. Eleven distinct spiral lirae
near the anterior end. Otherwise the surface is quite smooth.
One specimen, in good condition. This subgenus has not previously
been recorded from New Zealand. Type in the Wanganui Museum.
Crenilabium zelandicum n. sp. (Plate XVIII, figs. 11, 11a.)
Shell small, 10 mm. by 3 mm., tapering. Spire evidently short, but only
one whorl remains. Aperture more than half the length of the shell, narrow
below but rapidly widening in the middle. A short anterior canal. Outline
of whorl almost flat. Ornamentation : A series of rounded spiral lines
which extend to the anterior end of the shell. Columella with a thin fold.
One specimen only, somewhat imperfect. It is, however, certainly
rightly placed in this genus, which has not previously been recorded from
New Zealand. Type in the Wanganui Museum.
Anomia poculifera n. sp. (Plate XXI, figs. 1, la.)
Shell of small size : height, 25 mm. ; length, 18 mm. Shape rather
obtusely oval. Shell thin and inequilateral, with a nacreous interior. Right
valve strongly convex. Anterior end somewhat truncated, posterior end
somewhat longer. Foramen moderate, the processes united. Sculpture :
7 large rounded radiating ribs, somewhat bent, and extending from the
umbo to the ventral margin. Surface covered with small semilunar cups
just in contact with one another and with the convex side nearest the
umbo. Muscular impression large.
A single specimen of the right valve, in good condition. Type in the
Wanganui Museum.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate XX.
Figs. 1, ]a. — Ancilla spiniyera n. sp. Figs. 5, frt. — Conns {Leptoconus) hjratus
Figs. 2, 2a. — Ancilla cincta n. sp. n. sp.
Figs. 3, 3a. — Surcula latiaxialis n. sp. Figs. 6, 6a. — Cowms convexus n. sp.
Figs. 4, 4-*. — Surcula ordinaria n. sp. Figs. 7, 7a. — Conus{Lithoconus)abruptus
(All figs, x 2.) n- SP-
i^ace p. 270.]
Trans. X.Z. Inst., Vol. L
Plate XXI.
Figs. 1, la. — Anomia poculifera a. sp.
Figs. 2, 2a. — Spcmdyhis aucklandicus n. sp.
Figs. 3. 3a. — Mytilus tqrquatus n. sp.
Figs. 4, in. — Dosinia tumida n. sp.
(All figs, except 5 and 5a X 2.)
Figs. 5, fa. — Cardium (Glans) kaiparaensis
n. sp. (x 1|.)
Figs. 6, 6a. — M acrocallistartculplurata n. sp.
Marshall. — Tertiary Molluscan Fauna of Pakaur'angi Point. 271
Sarepta aucklandica n. sp. (Plate XIX, figs. 5, 6.)
Shell small and thin : height, 9 mm. ; length, 6 mm. Shape semi-
orbieular. Umbo fairly prominent, almost in the middle of the dorsal
margin. Ventral margin circular. Dorsal margin descending slowly behind
but gently rounded in front. Surface of the shell smooth and almost
polished, though faint concentric lines can be distinguished. About 9 small
teeth can be distinguished on either side of the umbo, but they commence
rather more closely to it on the posterior than on the anterior side.
Ligament-pit triangular and directed forward.
Not verv common. Only two good valves (both left) were found.
1 am indebted to Mr. Suter for information as to the correct place of
this species in classification. Type in the Wanganui Museum.
Mytilus torquatus n. sp. (Plate XXI, figs. 3, 3a.)
Shell small, elongated, inflated : height, 22 mm. ; length, 14 mm. ; thick-
ness, 9 mm. Inflated anteriorly, compressed posteriorly. Slightly winged
about the middle. Beak acute, strongly curved anteriorly. Dorsal margin
ascending for a short distance, then bent quickly through an angle of 70°,
forming a straight line along the anterior margin. Ventral margin gradually
rounded, returning with a gradual sweep to the dorsal margin. Surface
finely striated. The striae ramify repeatedly along the central line, then
extend without further branching to the margin. Striae rounded, very fine
on the anterior slope, about as wide as the interstices. They are crossed
by very wide concentric undulations and by small cross-threads.
Two specimens only, both right valves, in good condition. Closely
related to M. huttoni Cossmann = M . striatus Hutton.
Spondylus aucklandicus n. sp. (Plate XXI, figs. 2, 2a.)
Shell of moderate size, only 20 mm. high and 30 mm. long. Strongly
inequilateral with a considerable posterior expansion. Hinge-line straight
with a typical provinculum. On the left valve the area is small and
almost linear. Umbo not prominent. Crural teeth very large and with
2 or 3 crenulations on the dorsal side. Ligament-pit distinct, with a well-
marked ridge on either side. Ornamentation : One or two broad concentric
undulations crossed by a number of scaly but not spiny radiating ridges of
extremely unequal size. Generally 3 or 4 smaller ribs between the larger
ones. The ribs are somewhat irregularly curved, and are continued to
the margin, near which they are discernible also on the inner side. On the
inner surface, however, they only extend as far as the pallia! line.
Two specimens only, one of which is in a very good state of preservation .
Type in the Wanganui Museum.
No species of this genus has previously been recorded from the
Tertiary deposits of New Zealand, but Professor Woods has lately recorded
a specimen, too imperfect for description, from the Cretaceous rocks of North
Canterbury. There is also a very large specimen of Spondylus in the
Auckland Museum which is labelled as coming from Hawke s Bay.
Dosinia tumida n. sp. (Plate XXI, figs. 4, 4a.)
Shell small, ovato-orbicular : height, 17 mm. ; length, 20 mm. ; thick-
ness, 7 mm. Dorsal margin sloping gently posteriorly and developing
gradually into the almost circular curve of the ventral margin. Inner
surface of the margin delicately crenulated. Umbo fairly prominent and
distinctly bent anteriorly. Sculpture a fine concentric striation with
strongly incised concentric grooves at intervals. Hinge-plate rather small.
272 Transaction*.
Posterior cardinal tooth in the left valve less markedly bihd than in
D. greyi Zittel, but well separated from the posterior cardinal tooth.
Anterior lateral tooth small, but the posterior lateral large, long, and sharp.
A single left valve, in good condition. Type in the Wanganui Museum.
This species is closely related to D. greyi Zittel.
Cardium (Glans) kaiparaensis n. sp. (Plate XXI, figs. 5, 5a.)
Shell small, nearly orbicular : height, 30 mm. ; length, 35 mm. :
somewhat inequilateral and ventricose. Umbo pointed well forward and
strongly incurved. Anterior end the shorter and regularly rounded.
Dorsal margin gently sloping and ventral margin broadly rounded.
Sculpture : The surface is coarsely ribbed, some 35 ribs being present.
The ribs are narrower than the interstices, sharp and strongly nodulose.
Interstices crossed by numerous fine concentric threads, which do not cross
the ribs. Margin sharply dentate. Hinge-plate bow-shaped. Left valve
with 1 large cardinal tooth, 1 large and long posterior lateral, and 1 short
anterior lateral. Right valve : cardinal tooth long and slender ; posterior
lateral long, and anterior lateral small.
A common species at Pakaurangi Point, but the shells vary greatly in
size. Type in the Wanganui Museum.
Tellina (Arcopagia) inconspicua n. sp. (Plate XIX, figs. 1, 2.)
Shell small, very thin, broadly oval : length, 14 mm. ; height, 8 mm. ;
thickness, 4 mm. : slightly compressed, somewhat inequilateral. Beaks
rather produced, situated a little behind the middle. Dorsal edge straight,
ventral margin strongly rounded. Valves equally convex. Sculpture
consisting of numerous fine rather irregular concentric rounded ridges.
A large rounded radiating rib on the posterior portion of the right valve.
In the right valve the two cardinal teeth are of equal size. The anterior
lateral tooth is much nearer to the cardinals and is much larger than the
posterior tooth.
Not uncommon, but the thin and fragile nature of the shell makes it
difficult to obtain good specimens. Type in the Wanganui Museum.
Macrocallista sculpturata n. sp. (Plate XXI, figs. 6, 6a.)
Shell small, broadly ovate : height, 20 mm. ; width, 25 mm. Dorsal
margin arched. Anterior margin at first straight, then arched and rounded.
Ventral and posterior margins well rounded. The 3 cardinal teeth are well
marked and large. The first anterior lateral is small and obtuse. The
second anterior lateral is long and reaches to the margin. The 2 posterior
lateral teeth are sharp. Sculpture : A fine general concentric striation is
nearly obsolete. On the posterior portion a series of fine wavy striations
nearly parallel to the margin. On the anterior portion an angular or
V-shaped sculpture can be seen over a portion of the surface.
A single right valve in a good state of preservation. Type in the
Wanganui Museum.
Corbula nitens n. sp. (Plate XIX, figs. 4, 7.)
Shell very small : height, 4 mm. ; length, 7 mm. : subtrigonal. Valves
not greatly unequal in size, but the right valve is considerably more
convex than the left. Umbones of the two valves equal and incurved.
Dorsal margin sloping. Anterior end distinctly the shorter, and rounded ;
posterior end rather the longer, and rostrate. Ventral margin gently
rounded. Sculpture : Both valves with a rounded ridge extending from
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate XXII.
9 \ k
Fig. 1. — Pecten eostato-striatus n. sp.
Fig. 2. — Pecten eostato-striatus n. sp.
Fig. 3. — Pecten eostato-striatus n. sp.
Fig. 4. — Pecten subconvexus n. sp.
Fig. 5. — Pecten subconvexus n. sp.
Fig. 6. — Pecten subconvexus n. sp.
Fig. 7. — Vaginella torpedo n. sp.
Face p. 272.]
Fig. 8. — Vaginella torpedo n. sp.
Fig. 9. — Fusinus corrugatus n. sp.
Fig. 10. — Fusinus corrugatus n. sp.
Fig. 11. — Siphonalia flexuosa n. sp.
Fig. 12. — Siphonalia flexuosa n. sp.
Fig. 13. — Coptochetus zAandicus n. sp.
(All figs, x 2.)
Marshall. — Tertiary Molluscan Fauna of Pakaurangi Point. 273
the umbo to the posterior truncation : this is much sharper in the left valve
than in the right. - Near the umbo the right valve is smooth or has very
small concentric striae. The concentric lines become more and more pro-
nounced as the ventral margin is approached. The sculpture of the left
valve is similar but somewhat less pronounced than that of the right. The
outer coating of the shell is frequently absent, and then leaves a perfectly
smooth and polished inner layer.
A common species at Pakaurangi Point. Type in the Wanganui Museum.
Pecten costato-striatus n. sp. (Plate XXII, figs. 1, 2, 3.)
Shell small, slightly inequilateral, fan-shaped : height, 17 mm. ; breadth,
18 mm. Ears very unequal. Anterior ear large, nearly triangular, but
with the outer margin rounded. It bears 7 radiating ribs crossed by a
number of transverse bars which are almost spiny. The radiating ribs
which are near the hinge-line are much stronger than the others. Posterior
ear much stronger, smaller, with 5 ribs less strongly crossed by transverse
bars. Eight valve with about 40 rounded radiating ribs, many of which
subdivide into 3 each near the ventral margin. Each rib is crossed by a
large number of transverse striations : these are so deep as to almost make
the ribs appear to be composed of a large number of overlapping plates.
Towards the ventral margin these may develop into small spiny processes.
Interstices about as wide as the ribs, and crossed by a large number of fine
transverse lines.
I am much indebted to Mr. Suter for examining this species, which he
rightly remarks is closely related to P. burnetii Zittel. This species is
perhaps the most abundant of the pectens at Pakaurangi Point. Type in
the Wanganui Museum.
'■&'■
Pecten subconvexus n. sp. (Plate XXII, figs. 4, 5, 6.)
Shell small, fan-shaped : height, 16 mm. ; breadth, 16 mm. : slightly
inequilateral. Ventral margin nearly circular. Ears unequal, the anterior
distinctly the larger with 6 radiating scaly ribs ; posterior ear relatively
small but with the same number of ribs, though they are less scaly and
less prominent than those of the anterior rib. The shell has a large number
of rounded radiating ribs. Intervening grooves usually much narrower
than the ribs, and both the grooves and the ribs are marked by a large
number of fine cross-lines. In some valves some 5 large radiating undu-
lations can be distinguished.
Mr. Suter, who kindly examined these specimens for me, remarks that
the species is near to P. convexus Q. & G. This specie's is fairly abundant
at Pakaurangi Point. Type in the Wanganui Museum.
Including the species described above, the following is now the com-
plete list of the species that I have found at Pakaurangi Point. Those
marked * are Recent species.
Vaginella torpedo n. sp.
* Em arg 'inula striatula Q. & G.
Solar iella stoliczhai Zittel.
Calliostoma gracilis n. sp.
Astraea subfimbriata Suter.
Turritella semiconcava Suter.
Struthiolaria cincta Hutton.
Cerithiella fidicula Suter.
Crepidula gregaria Sowerby.
*Calyptraea maculata Linn.
Turbo etheridgei Ten. -Woods (?).
*Natica zelandica Q. & G.
Polynices gibbosus Hutton.
Ampullina suturalis Hutton.
*Trivia avellauioides McCoy.
Cymatium minimum. Hutton.
Epitonium browni Zittel.
Epitonium trilineatum n. sp.
274
Transactions.
*Crossea labiata Suter.
*Phalium qchatinum pyrum Lamk.
Galeodea senex Hutton.
Galeodea muricata Hector.
Galeodea sulcata Hutton.
Architectonica n. sp. {().
Heliacus aucMandicus n. sp.
Fusinus kaiparaensis Suter.
Fusinus morgani Suter.
Fusinus corrugatus u. sp.
Dolicholatirus (Pseudolatirus) or-
natus n. sp.
Ptychatractus pukeuriensis Suter.
Ptychatractus tenuiliratus Suter.
*Siphonalia dilatata Q. & G.
Siphonalia flexuosa n. sp.
Coptochetus zelandicus n. sp.
Cominella carinata Hutton.
Phos kaiparaensis n. sp.
Phos spiralis n. sp.
Alectrion socialis Hutton.
*Murex angasi Crosse.
*Murex zelandicus Q. & G.
Murex zelandicus komiticus Suter.
Cymbiola corrugata Hutton.
Cymbiola nitens n. sp.
Cymbiola masefieldi n. sp.
Cymbiola calcar n. sp.
*Ancilla australis Sowerby.
Ancilla jjapillata Tate.
Ancilla spinigera n. sp.
Ancilla cincta n. sp.
Marginella conica Harris.
Marginella harrisi Cossmann.
Surcula climacota Suter.
Surcula fusiformis Hutton.
Surcula latiaxialis n. sp.
Surcula nitens n. sp.
Surcula or dinar ia n. sp.
Leucosyrinx alta transennus Suter.
Turris ornatus n. sp.
Tunis kaiparaensis n. sp.
Drillia awamoaensis Hutton.
Drillia imperfecta Suter.
Drillia tenuispiralis n. sp.
Borsonia (Cordieria) oralis n. sp.
Bathytoma haasti Hutton.
Bathytoma sulcata excavata Suter.
*Mangilia dictyota Hutton.
Mangilia axialis n. sp.
Conus armoricus Suter.
Conus (Leptocomis) lyratus n sp.
Conus convexus n. sp.
Conus (Lithoconus) abrupt us n. sp.
sp.
Terebra orycta Suter.
Acteon oralis Hutton.
*Acteon craticidatus Murdoch and
Suter.
Crenilabium zelandicum n.
Cylichnella enysi Hutton.
*Dentalium ecostatum T. W. Kirk.
Dentalium pareorense Ikering.
Dentalium solidum Hutton.
*Cadidus delicatulus Suter.
Leda semiteres Hutton.
*Leda fastidiosa A. Adams.
Sarepta aucklandica n. sp.
Anomia poculifera n. sp.
*Arca novae-zelandiae Smith.
Area subvelata Suter.
Glycymeris subglobosus Suter.
Cucullaea alta Sowerby.
Cucullaea australis Hutton.
Mytilus torquatus n. sp.
Pecten beethami Hutton.
Pecten huttoni Park.
Pecten buruetti Zittel.
Pecten aldingensis Tate.
Pecten costato-striatus n. sp.
Pecten subconvexus n. sp.
Spondylus aucMandicus n. sp.
Lima color at a Hutton.
Ostraea wuellerstorfi Zittel.
Ostraea nelsoniana Zittel.
Ostraea tatei Suter.
*Cardita calyculata Linn.
Venericardia subintermedia Suter.
*Thyasira flexuosa Montague.
*Tellina eugenia Suter.
*Tellina glabrella Deshayes.
Tellina (Areopagia)inconspicua n. sp
Crassatellites att&n/uatus Hutton.
*Dosinia greyi Zittel.
Dosinia tumida n. sp.
Macrocallista scidpturata n. sp.
Macrocallista assimilis Hutton.
Macrocallista pareoraensis Suter.
Cytherea chariessa Suter.
*Chione meridionalis Sowerby.
Paphia curt a Hutton.
Cardita (Glans) kaiparaensis n. sp.
*Cardium pidchellum Gray.
Chama huttoni Hector.
Corbula canaliculata Hutton.
Corbula kaiparaensis Suter.
*Corbula macile>ita Hutton.
Corbula nitens n. sp.
*Panope zelandica Q. & G.
Marshall. — Tertiary MoUuscan Fauna of Pakaurangi Point. 27o
This collection from Pakaurangi Point is of rather more than usual
interest, as it is the first time that any attempt has been made to identify
or describe a Tertiary fauna of such an extensive nature from any northern
locality in New Zealand.
In the first place, there are several genera that have not previously
been recorded from any locality in New Zealand. These are Dolicholatirus,
Coptochetus, Crenilabium, Spondylus, Sarepta, and the subgenus Cordieria
of Borsonia. On the other hand, Acteou craticulatus, Cadulus delicatulus,
and Crossea labiata, all members of the Recent molluscan fauna of New
Zealand, have not previously been found in the fossil state. The genera
Cymbiola and Surcula are represented by more species than is usual in New
Zealand fossil collections from Tertiary localities. The four species of Conus
that have been collected give this genus a prominence that it fails to
attain in any other collections from New Zealand localities.
A more general survey shows that in this collection of 124 species there
are as many as forty-five, or 36-3 per cent., which have not been found
elsewhere, while 20-3 per cent, are Recent species. Generically and specific-
ally, therefore, this fauna is sufficiently distinct from any other that has
been recorded. There are, however, no specially archaic types, while there
are very many species identical with those that have been found in Tertiary
localities in Canterbury and North Otago in those places where full collec-
tions have been made. This consideration, and the further fact that nearly
21 per cent, of the species are of Recent occurrence, shows that the age
of the Pakaurangi beds is much the same as that of the beds at the North
Otago localities of Wharekuri and Otiake — or, in other words, of the
Oamaru limestone. In these localities the percentage of Recent species
was found by Marshall to be 23*3 and 24 respectively, but in each case only
some sixty species were collected.
In my previous papers insistence has been laid on the fallacy of relying
too implicitly on the criterion of the percentage of the Recent species for
the determination of the relative age of the Tertiary strata. The personal
equation in connection with the identification of the species, the varying
depth of the water, the geographical peculiarities of the station, are all
matters that have to be taken into consideration before any comparison
of real value can be instituted. In the present case, however, Mr. Suter
has been good enough to examine and classify the species from both the
Otago localities and from Pakaurangi Point : in consequence the personal
equation in this comparison is of little importance. Similarly, the depth
of the water in which deposition of the strata took place appears to have
been of the same order of magnitude in both cases. Probably it was
off-shore water in both cases approaching a depth of 100 fathoms.
The geographical features of the different localities may, however, have
an important bearing on the question. The localities are nine degrees of
latitude apart, and it is obvious that the species in the more northern
locality should suggest a warmer climate than those in a locality more
than six hundred miles farther south, in water relatively so shallow.
There is also a general belief that has been expressed by various authors
that the climate of the New Zealand area has become relatively cooler since
the early and middle Tertiary times. This opinion is based on the nature
of the Tertiary Mollusca as compared with the Recent fauna, on the rela-
tively large size of many of the Tertiary species, and of the greater variety
of the species. Similar features have been noticed in regard to other animal
groups. It is, of course, obvious that a general reduction of the temperature
276 Transactions.
within the New Zealand region would be more fatal to the northern
species, which, owing to the limited extent of the land, would have no
warmer littoral waters to which to migrate, than to the southern species,
which would have a large extent of northern coast-line to which they could
retire as the climate became cooler. This consideration supports the belief
that the small percentage of Recent species in the Pakaurangi beds does
not indicate a greater geological age than that of the beds at Wharekuri
and of Otiake in North Otago. Actually, as explained in an earlier paper,
these Pakaurangi beds succeed the white mudstones conformably, and these
mudstones merge into the hydraulic limestones in their lower members.
The hydraulic limestone is believed to rest conformably on the greensands,
which in certain neighbouring localities contain an Upper Senonian fauna.
This fauna includes the ammonoid genera Kossmaticeras, Phylloceras,
Lytoceras, and Baculites, as well as the gasteropods Amberleya, Cinulids,
and the lamellibranchs Malletia, Panojje, and Inoceramus, amongst several
others. It is hoped that this fauna, wThich has been found at Batley and
at Bull's Point, both within a few miles of Pakaurangi Point, may be fully
described in the next volume of the Transactions.
There are at Pahi, some five miles distant, some greensands lying
beneath the " hydraulic limestones." In these sediments there are a large
number of species of fossil Mollusca, but the shells are in a very poor state
of preservation, and no attempt has been made of recent years to classify
them. It is, however, the case that the species are mainly, if not entirely,
of Cainozoic types, and the horizon is certainly lower than that of the
Pakaurangi Point beds. Thus stratigraphically there is not any definite
indication of the age of the Pakaurangi beds. There are certainly Upper
Senonian beds at about 1,000 ft. below them, and the intervening strata
are partly extremely fine mudstones and Globigerina oozes with much
diatomaceous and radiolarian matter.
Palaeontologically also the exact age of the Pakaurangi beds is not
precisely indicated. The percentage of Recent species does not give a
satisfactory basis for a comparison with European horizons. The isolation
of New Zealand and the relatively rare arrival of species from outside the
New Zealand area make it probable that species would survive for a much
longer time here than on coast-lines where there was more competition
from newly arrived species. It is probable that a fauna in New Zealand
with 20 per cent, of Recent species would have a much greater antiquity
than a fauna with a similar percentage of Recent species in Europe or
America.
The actual genera that have, been collected do not appear to indicate
any precise Tertiary age. Exilia, Gilbertia, and other genera from the
lowest Tertiary beds of the South Island have not been collected here.
Fulgoraria has not been found, and Chione is poorly represented. But
such facts appear to depend upon station rather than age. Relative strati-
graphical position with respect to beds deposited in water of similar depth
in other parts of New Zealand would suggest an age rather younger than
that of Wharekuri and Otiake, and such a position would generally agree
with the palaeontological evidence . On the whole, I am inclined to correlate
the beds with those of All Day Bay — that is, next above the Oamaru
limestone.
As the work of collecting, classifying, and describing the Tertiary
Mollusca gradually proceeds the number of species becomes much larger,
and the fact emerges that there have been very few generic additions to
Marshall. — Tertiary MoUuscan Fauna of Pakaurangi Point. 277
our fauna during Tertiary times. On the other hand, it is clear that
many genera have become extinct. It is also the case that many of the
genera that were in earlier times well represented have but few species
in the present fauna. Those that have become extinct include Cymbiola,
Niso, Cypraea, Trivia, Conus, Latirus, Erato, Cerithium, Cardium, Exilia,
Cucullaea. More generally it may be said that of the 205 genera mentioned
in Mr. Suter's Hand-list of New Zealand Tertiary Mollusca (1915) some
forty-eight are now extinct. This statement, however, does not give a com-
plete idea of the magnitude of the change that has taken place. Many
of the genera that in Tertiary times contained a large number of species are
now reduced to a very small number. Of these, Epitonium, Surcula, Tunis,
Siphonalia, Struthiolaria, Mangilia, Pecten, and Polinices are the most
prominent examples.
In this comparison the purely littoral fauna cannot be properly con-
sidered, as remains of such organisms are so seldom preserved. No one
Tertiary horizon which has had its Mollusca properly collected and described
shows any notable introduction of species or genera which are absent from
lower horizons. Such facts go far to support the idea of a continuous isola-
tion of New Zealand throughout Tertiary times — a contention that has been
previously urged by the author on purely stratigraphical grounds. This
position has lately been supported by Thomson and Morgan, though
stated in a different manner : " Each Tertiary fauna seems to merge
gradually into the succeeding one."* Mr. Suter also has written to me
as follows : " There is no doubt that our molluscan fauna has greatly
decreased, and also that the Tertiary forms gradually merge into one
another." These statements appear to me to afford the strongest support
from the palaeontological standpoint to the view so frequently urged by
me that there is no important break in the succession of Tertiary sediments
in New Zealand. In the absence of satisfactory palaeontological material
in the past this view has been based on stratigraphical material, and it is
satisfactory to note that as the palaeontological material gradually accu-
mulates its verity is placed practically beyond doubt. jf^F"
It is to be hoped that a complete comparison may be possible ere long
between our Tertiary faunas and those of Australia, South America, and
North America. In the meantime one can only emphasize the well-known
fact that our Tertiary fauna closely resembles that of South America, wheie
the species of Turritella, Malletia, Struthiolaria, Epitonium, and Polinices
are evidently extremely closely related to ours. Again, the occurrence of
the genera Perissolax and Heteroterma in the Wangaloa beds shows a rather
unexpected relationship between our earliest Tertiary beds and those of
the Tejon and Martinez districts in California.
In New Zealand I have frequently stated that there does not appear
to be any stratigraphical discordance between the Upper Cretaceous
(Senonian) and the Tertiary horizons. In all known cases, however, deep-
sea beds of Globigerina or diatomaceous or radiolarian ooze intervene between
the Senonian and Tertiary horizons. In South America Wilckens, as
previously pointed out, has insisted on an important break between the
Senonian and the Miocene. Other authorities on the South American
stratigraphy hold very different opinions. The latest that I have seen is
that of von Ihering, who maintains emphatically that there is no break
between the Cretaceous and Tertiary : " Uberblicken wir die von uns
* Preface to Palaeontolocjiral Bulletin No. 5, 191'
278 Transactions.
gewonnenen Ergebnisse, so muss jede unbefangene Diskussion die Tatsache
anerkennen : dass die marinen Ablagerungen der oberen Kreide von
Patagonien eine starke, successive Abnahme von mesozoischen Charakter-
formen aufweisen, dass aber andererseits diese letzteren sick zum Teil
erhalten, dass mithin die Elemente der Kreidefauna teils unverandert, teils
modifiziert in die patagonische Formation iibertreten und dass keine Dis-
cordanz zwischen der Kreide und den Ablagerungen der patagonischen
Formation besteht."*
So far as New Zealand is concerned, then, it appears to be probable
that at the close of Cretaceous times a great movement of epeirogenic
depression took place. The land area was reduced to the dimensions of a
few small islands. Over much of the present land area deep-sea oozes
were deposited for a great lapse of time. Marginal deposits were restricted
and small. When elevation again commenced the Upper Cretaceous fauna
had been replaced by one of Tertiary characteristics.
Art. XXVIII. -- Notes on the Geology of the Tubuai Islands and of
Pitcairn.
By P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc.
[Read before the Wanganui Philosophical Society, 19th December, 1917 ; received by
Editors, 31st December, 1917 ; issued separately, 24th June, 1918.]
The scattered islands which constitute the Tubuai Group are situated
near 23° south latitude and 150° west longitude. Little geological infor-
mation has been published about them except in regard to their general
configuration and the nature of the coral reefs by which they are encircled.
A visit has lately been made to the group by Professor J. Macmillan
Brown in connection with his anthropological studies, and he has been good
enough to give me chips from implements that he obtained from Tubuai
and Rapa. In addition, the Chief Magistrate of Pitcairn sent me several
specimens from that island. I have previously published a note on rock-
specimens from Rurutu Island, another member of the Tubuai Group. f
Stone Axe, Tubuai Island. — A dense black rock in hand-specimens.
In section the structure is dominated by an abundance of small laths of
feldspar with the extinction angle of labradorite. There are a few large
crystals of olivine much serpentinized. There is also a little olivine in the
oroundmass. Augite is very plentiful in the groundmass in small colourless
trains. Magnetite very abundant. The rock must be classed as a dense,
rather acid basalt.
Stone Axe, Rapa Island. — In hand-specimens a dark fine-grained rock
without any crystals that can be distinguished macroscopically. In section
fine laths of feldspar are very abundant. They appear to be an acid
labradorite or andesine. Augite is very plentiful, but the grains seldom
have any crystalline outline, and they are quite colourless. A little olivine
is present in very irregular-shaped grains. Magnetite is very plentiful in
crystals up to 0-2 cm. in diameter. A little apatite can be distinguished.
This rock is also an acid feldspathic basalt, and, like the specimen from
Tubuai, it has an unusual quantity of magnetite
* Von Iheeing, Revista do Museu Paulisia, vol. I, Fasc. 3, p. 130 Sao Paulo, 1914.
f Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 46, p. 283, 1914.
Marshall. — Geology of Tubuai Islands and Pitcairn. 279
Poe Pounder, from Rapa Island. — In hand-specimens a coarse rock in
which feldspar, augite, and olivine can be easily distinguished. In section
the feldspar is found to have occasionally a large angle of extinction — as
much as 40°- — and thus is a basic type of labradorite. The great majority
of the crystals, however, have very narrow lamellae, and extinguish at angles
below 20°. The species apparently varies from andesine to basic labradorite,
which is confirmed by the low index of refraction, xiugite is present in large
ophitic plates with the pleochroism that is so common in the titaniferou*
varieties. Olivine is present in large irregular grains slightly serpentinized,
and it is often associated with minute flakes of brown mica. Iron-ore is
abundant. It is mainly ilmenite, as shown by the shape of the crystals
and by the frequent border of leucoxene. There is much apatite, especi-
ally as inclusions in the plates of augite.
I have lately received from Mr. G. R. B. Christian, the Chief Magistrate
of Pitcairn, a box of rock-specimens from that remote spot. He states that
the specimens sent represent the various kinds of rock that are to be found on
the island so far as can be judged by external appearance. My only
previous reference to rocks of this island is a statement that a specimen
given to me by Mr. G. W. Card was a glassy hypersthene andesite.* The
rock-specimens that I have now received cause me to correct the previous
classification. I now recognize the rock as a glassy basalt. In the specimen
previously examined only one small crystal could be seen. It was thought
to be hypersthene, but subsequent specimens now show that it was olivine
stained slightly with iron oxide. The more numerous specimens that I
now have are all fine basalts, many of which are glassy. The feldspar is
an acid labradorite. Olivine, usually in idiomorphic crystals, is usually
more plentiful than the colourless augite, which is always granular. The
fineness and frequently glassy nature of the rocks suggest that they have
a submarine origin. So far as these rock-specimens are concerned, they
indicate that on several of the islands of the Tubuai Group a similar rock
type occurs. Tubuai, Rapa, Rurutu, and Pitcairn at least have highly
feldspathic basalts. In general all of the rock-specimens that I have
examined are so similar that they all might have occurred on the same
island. The specimens from Tubuai and Rapa are types that have been
selected by the natives for the manufacture of weapons, and hence they
may possibly be unusual types on the islands, selected because of their
special fineness or toughness. The specimens from Rurutu and Pitcairn,
however, appear to be typical of the rock occurrences on those islands.
Generally it may be said that the rocks of the Tubuai Group appear to be
less basic than those of Tahiti and the Cook Islands, and the specimens so
far examined show none of the alkaline characters found in many of the
rocks from those groups.
* Handbuch der regionalen Geologie, Bd. vii, Abt. 2, p. 14, 1912. Michel Levy
(Examination petrographique de quelques roehes volcaniques des iles Tuamotu et de l'ile
Pitcairn, C. R. Acad. Sci. de Paris, cxli, p. 895-97, 1905) writes as follows: '"En resume
il existe a Pitcairn et a Mangareva deux series de roehes basaltiques : une plus acide de
basaltes andesitiques passant a des andesites a olivine et a des tachylites (Pitcairn):
une autre plus basique composee de basaltes labradoriques quelquefois tres augitique
d'autrefois tres riche en olivine du premier temps : cette derniere parait etre la plus
frequente. II faut voter en outre l'existence a File Pitcairn de ponces tracbitiques
presque entierement vitreuses et par suite peu interessantes au pointe de vue niine-
ralogique." The more basic type mentioned by Michel Levy was not represented in my
specimens.
280 Transactions.
Art. XXIX.— A Note on East Coast Earthquakes (N.Z.), 1914-17.
By George Hogben, C.M.G., M.A., F.G.S.
[Bead before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 12th December, 1917 ; received by
Editors, 31st December, 1917 ; issued separately, 24th June, 1918.]
Between February, 1914, and November, 1917, about thirty earthquakes
(not counting shocks of intensity I or II, Rossi-Forel) were recorded at
places on or near the east coast of New Zealand. The chief of these were
the earthquakes of 6th-7th October, 1914; 28th October, 1914; 22nd
November, 1914 ; and 5th-6th August, 1917. All the shocks came from
a region to which in a former paper* I have referred the earthquakes of
9th August, 1904; 9th March, 1890; and 17th February, 1863.
The most marked effects of the first three earthquakes (October and
November, 1914) appear to have been noted at Tokomaru and other places
a little to the south and south-west of East Cape ; but they were sharply
felt from Timaru and Greymouth to Auckland. Their intensity was suffi-
cient to throw down chimneys in the Tokomaru district, and to stop some
clocks in Wellington and other places.
The movements originating the vibrations appear to have taken place
in each of these cases beneath the sea-bed, probably both at the north-
east and south-west ends of the three lines Aa, Bb, Cc, beginning at the
north-east point, A, B, or C, and ending at the south-west point, a, b, or c ;
suggesting the existence of three fault-planes whose position is shown by
the lines on the map. These conclusions rest on the instrumental records
from Wellington and Christchurch (Milne seismographs), and from Apia,
Riverview (Sydney), and Batavia (Wiechert instruments), and a large
number of memoranda from telegraph officers in New Zealand, forwarded
to me by the courtesy of the New Zealand Post and Telegraph Depart-
ment— which it would take too long to discuss here. (It is quite possible
that better records would have made the three lines Aa, Bb, and Cc coincide.)
A fact worth noting is that the Milne seismograms of the 6th October
at Christchurch and Wellington both showed a considerable tilt of the
ground down on the eastern side (7 mm. at Wellington, 5-4 mm. at Christ-
church, or 2-28 and T76 seconds of arc respectively). This might have
been attributed to instrumental causes were it not that a Milne-Ewing
duplex pendulum at Wellington, set up on an independent column about
9 ft. from the column on which the Milne seismograph was placed, showed
a tilt of corresponding amount nearly towards the south-east. (The
needle of the duplex pendulum is, of course, free to move in any direction
horizontally, whereas the Milne seismograph records only the E.-W. com-
ponent of the motion.)
The earthquake of the 5th-6th August, 1917, was most severely felt
in the district between Masterton and Castle Point, especially at the
former placef — probably because of the alluvial character of the ground
on which the town is built. The epicentral area is near F, in lat. 42° 41' S.,
long. 178° 12' E., which is not far from the origin of the earthquake of
* G. Hogben, Notes on the East Coast Earthquake of 9th August, 1904, Trans.
N.Z. Inst, vol. 37, pp. 421-24, 1905.
f Probably the intensity at Masterton may be described as between VII and VIII
on the Rossi-Forel scale.
Hogbeiw — East Coast Earthquakes, 191^-/7.
281
8th August, 1904. A day later (6th— 7th August, 1917) a sharp shock,
though not so severe, was felt in the region from Gisborne to the East
Cape, evidently from the east or east-south-east. It is quite possible that
the latter was from the north-east end of a fault-line of which F marks
the south-west end. F is about 185 miles from Wellington, and 285 miles
from Christehurch.
Earthquake origins east of New Zealand.
The times relied upon for the determination of F were those of the first phase
("preliminary tremors") at Apia, Samoa, 15h. 56m. 27s. (Wiechert) ; Riverview,
Sydney, 15h. 55 m. lis. (Wiechert); Christehurch, N.Z., 15 h. 51m. 24 s. (Milne);
Wellington, N.Z., 15h. 51 m. 6 s. These, with a velocity of propagation of 9-17km.
sec, show the time at the origin to have been loh. 50m. 34s., G.M.C.T., 5th August,
1917 (3h. 20 m. 34 s., N.Z.M.T., 6th August). The respective distances of the four
places named from F are : Apia, 3,235 km. (chord) ; Riverview, 2,538 km. (chord) ;
Christehurch, 456 km. ; Wellington, 296 km.
The times and other observations forwarded from New Zealand telegraph -offices,
while less exact, afforded a general confirmation of the residt obtained from the instru-
mental observations.
282 Transactions.
Art. XXX. — -Further Notes on New Zealand Bird-song : Kapiti Island.
By Johannes C. Andersen.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 24th October, 1917 ; received by Editors,
31st December, 1917 ; issued separately, 24th June, 1918.]
The figures accompanying this article contain the new notes observed since
publication of the paper in the Transactions of 1917.* As before, for con-
venience of reference, the variations in the notes of each species of bird
have been numbered consecutively from (1) onwards, the earlier numbers
appearing in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 41, p. 422 ; vol. 43, p. 656 ; vol. 45,
p. 387 ; vol. 47, p. 593 ; vol. 49, p. 519. Reference is at times made to
these earlier-numbered variations. As practically the whole of the notes
were recorded on Kapiti, the island bird sanctuary in Cook Strait, it has
been thought advisable to prefix a list of the birds occurring on the island,
and seen or heard by me : —
Native Birds.
Pied fantail (piwakawaka), Rhipidura flabellifcra.
*Grey warbler (riroriro), Pseudogerygone igata.
White-breasted tit (miromiro), Petroeca toitoi.
North Island robin (toutouwai), Miro australis.
Whitehead (pokotea), Certhiparus cdbicapillus.
Ground-lark (pihoihoi), Anihus novae-zealandiae.
*Blight-bird (tauhou), Zosterops caeridescens.
Tui, Prosthemadera novae-zealandiae.
Bell-bird (korimako), Anthornis melanura.
Rifleman (titipounamu), Acanthidositta chloris.
*Shining cuckoo (pipiwharauroa), Chalcococcyx lucidus.
Long-tailed cuckoo (koekoea), Urodynamis taitensis.
Kingfisher (kotare), Halcyon vagans.
Pigeon (kukupa), Hemiphaga novae-zealandiae.
Kaka, Nestor meridionalis.
Red-fronted parrakeet (kakariki), Cyanorhamphus novae-zealandiae.
f Antipodes Island parrakeet, Cyanorhamphus unicolor.
Morepork (ruru), Ninox novae-zealandiae.
Woodhen (weka), Ocydromus sp.
fKiwi, Apteryx sp.
Blue heron (matuku), Demiegretta sacra.
Blue petrel, Halobaena caerulea.
Mutton-bird (titi), Oestrelata sp.
Gannet (takapu), Sulci serrator.
Tern (tara), Sterna sp.
(lull (karoro), Larus sp.
Introduced Birds.
Song-thrush, Turdus musicus.
Skylark, Alauda arvensis.
Goldfinch, Carduelis elegans.
Starling, Sturnus vulgaris.
Californian quail, Callipepla califomica.
* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, pp. .",19-30.
Axdersex. — -New Zealand Bird-song. 283
The birds marked * I neither saw nor heard, but I was assured by the
caretaker, Mr. J. L. Bennett, to whom I am deeply indebted for consider-
ation shown to me whilst on the island, and by Mr. Webber, who resides
at the north end of the island, that they are plentiful at times. The two
marked f have been introduced, and appear to have established themselves.
A longer residence on the island — I was there three weeks — would probably
show a large increase in the number of sea-birds ; and the lagoon in the
north is visited by ducks, but I saw none whilst there. I saw no live thrush,
but found one dead and heard one sing. Goldfinches suddenly appeared,
in flocks. Skylarks were there in numbers, and starlings also. On the
evening of the 2nd January, 1917, lying on the hillside, my attention was
attracted by a moving cloud above Evans Islet* — a small islet off the coast
of Kapiti, and lying between it and the mainland. The cloud vanished,
and formed, and vanished, like a cloud high in the blue sky of summer,
only with swifter transitions. It was a flight of starlings, many hundreds
in number, and the cloud formed by the crowded birds appeared and dis-
appeared according as they presented an edge or full body as they flew.
The unanimity of movement must have been perfect to cause the regular
melting and reappearing of the cloud. The birds gather from many
quarters on the mainland, and every evening fly in thousands to Evans
Islet, passing the night there, and leaving again, flock by flock, in the
morning. A similar habit is observed in Britain, but I have seen no note
of such nightly haunt, or starlingery, being divided by the sea from their
daily resort. Evans Islet is over two miles from the mainland, and is
uninhabited and unoccupied. There is another starlingery on the main-
land in a plantation of blue-gums close to Paraparaumu, between it and
the sea ; and at sunset there is a great clamour of twittering before the
birds settle down for the night. I am told that the birds visit Evans
Islet nightly during the breeding season also, but not in such great numbers.
I was surprised to see not a single sparrow ; but it is quite possible that this
bird, and the other finches, may pay occasional visits : they have, indeed,
been reported there at various times.
Fantail.
I did not see a great number of fantails at Kapiti, but all that I did
see were pied. Their song was generally the common whistling song, (15)
and (15a), heard about Wellington. The notes of (20) were heard on the
gva
etffc EE
JJrrrmtHt:
Wf
/ip f-e fee fee fee hp /<? feea fen? free feea feet?
10th January, 1917, the phrase being repeated twice or oftener each time
it was sung. The high notes may be slurred downwards slightly in the
change of vocalization from ee to a in teea, the sound of which was almost
dear dear dear.
White-breasted Tit.
When I heard the first song I did not see the bird, but the sound was
the same as that of the yellow-breasted tit's little plaintive warble. On
* Maori name, Tokuraapuna : known locally as Toku.
284
Transactions.
this occasion it was vocalized ri-di-dl, ri-dl, ri-dl (short " i " as in " pit "),
and it was sung at about eight quavers in a second. There was a very
short grace note before the first E, and traces of it at times before the
<h\> [^"lSU0 "<J» nun p
others. The phrase was sung two or three times with two or three seconds'
pause between the repetitions. Nine days later I saw the bird singing (2),
which in sound was nearer a whistle, but gave very faint traces of the
same vocalization as (1).
North Island Robin.
I saw a robin singing the first day I was on Kapiti. It was in a shady,
watered gully close on the beach, and he sat singing a few feet distant — a
gentle, bright warble, not so cheery as that of the whitehead, nor so shrill,
but more varied and longer continued. I was not yet armed with paper
and whistle, so was unable to take any notes, nor did I attempt anything
but enjoy the song, thinking I should hear him often enough, since he
greeted me thus on the first day. In this I was disappointed ; and I have
found that in these observations unless a record is noted down at once it
is probably never noted.
gva.
<*§lj
i i
i i i '.
RF
V-
VVl'l
gqegjabg
i:
gwf
7
till ,111;
w-^
W ■ fr(*
B -
■
(%
r
(ZH
■*-
H—
•
f '
"<
(3)
11
' — ■■ » ■
£
^V
ri-cfi/ee
V-
/ tv* f_ rr y
Mtt
■ » m m mm
m
ee-oo
ri-cfi/ee ri-eti-fte- eeoo
(4
I
t-J-
•_■_*
m:
I
=\
»g
cAiucAn*diiuc/i'\* ri o/i-itre ee-oo eeoo
On the 12th January, 1917, as I was climbing a bush-grown spur, a robin
appeared in the midst of a manuka thicket, and on my sitting down it
approached until within a foot of my side. After a time it uttered a very
subdued sound like che-e-er, almost like the muffled mewing of a kitten.
It was apparently a young bird, for presently another approached and
quickly popped a cricket into its bill. As the second bird approached, the
first che-e-er-ed louder and more continuously, and fluttered with its wings ;
then both went off together. The young bird was as big as the parent,
and both appeared the same in colour — almost black on the back, grey on
the belly, darker grey on the breast ; and it was noticeable that the dark
Andersen. — New Zealand Bird-song. 285
hues of the back, head, and breast were marked with discontinuous longi-
tudinal streaks of light grey, as if the body-plumage were grey, like the belly,
and overlaid with the darker shades. I heard more che-e-er-'mg close by in
another direction, so other young ones were evidently being fed. I saw
a goodly number of young during the day — three at one time.
The call-notes (1), heard several times, were clear, sharp whistles, uttered
at the rate of six or seven semiquavers or their equivalent a second ; they
are the same in quality as those of the South Island. A song was begun on
the 12th January, 1917, but got no further than (2). Three days later,
in the bush above the mid-valley of Taepiro, a robin immediately overhead
broke into the song of (3). repeating the single phrase, usually as in (3a),
but adding nothing more. The second note of the triplet was very faintly
uttered, as if it were not quite a separate note, but a " catch," and at a
distance the sound of the phrase was simply ti tee-oo or ti ti tee-oo (short
•• i " as in "pit"). It was a sharp plaintive whistle, the plaintiveness
coming in the slur. The robin went, whistling now and again from a
receding distance, when suddenly a whitehead settled near by, and in sight
and hearing whistled (4). The opening notes are its own ; the close is an
exact reproduction of the robin's phrase, save for the curious soft final
echoing of the slur. I have heard many instances of apparent imitation
by many birds, but this was the first occasion where the imitation was so
palpable that it might be recorded as indubitable.
Whitehead.
The commonest bird on the island, and the noisiest, was the whitehead :
he was always to be seen and heard, in all places and at all times of the
day. He is one of the optimists of the bush, finding pleasure everywhere,
and never scrupling to make the fact known. His most frequent cry was
a quick slurred note, as in (1), vocalized tswit. This was uttered almost
incessantly as the bird searched for insects. He would pause occasionally,
stand erect, with head elevated, beak open, tail vibrating, and cry "All's
well with the world," uttering the notes of (2) to (6), all of which, apparently,
are calls that call for no reply, or replies to calls which may or may not
have been given. At times one or other of these was uttered alone ; at
times in various combinations, two or three being connected, apparently
at random. The notes of (2) varied from four to ten in number, descending
enharmonically through from two to four semitones. The combinations
most commonly used were (2) followed by (3) or (4), or (3) followed by (4).
Less commonly (5) entered into the combination. The run (2) was
very frequently sung, the small steps in the pitch being quite distinct;
the vocalization chiu chiu, too, caused the notes to sound as if slurred
downwards slightly in every case. The notes of (3), sung much faster,
lost all trace of the slur, their vocalization, too, being ch ch ch instead of
chiu chiu chiu. The notes of (4), an octave lower in pitch, were clear,
mellow whistles, almost flute-like, quite different from the characteristic
warble notes of (2) and (3) : it was as though another bird concluded with
(4) on the whitehead opening with (2) ; but the bird was seen many times
whilst singing the two parts combined. One was heard warbling (2) (3),
another answering with (2) alone. The notes of (2) were, in quality and
fall, almost like the note of the chaffinch. When the combination (2) (3) (5)
was sung, the result was rather plaintive, owing to the slurred crotchets
at the close : usually the call-notes were loud, bright, vigorous, and cheer-
ful. The combined call (2) (3) was uttered in about a second and a half.
286
Transactions.
It has been objected that the tempo of the notes is indicated in a round-
about way by saying " so-many in a second," and that the musical terms
existing for indicating tempo should be used. But the musical terms are
Ar if//
/ crccf/-
382
^:
/>;:
jjflwi IpflWUPifflllrfilVf
(L
ft#£ »iuu$tf
o* e*£ cA o» cA
#:
i?
c 1 1 <
^i" jj»i5»^
tu Au Au Au Au-w«e
Sv*
A/ct /-/It /■"*
- 3*ra
z5> I 7balf£iz2
/2< /w A« Aa-ivtecr
— — — ■»
g~g
» . fat
^
^
"3E
<?—
^rrrrJJ
(ssh
g^p-P'T
Egg Ef I ^g g=j E r g *T I^LyfC
* [/ 1d =s> y 1/ 1/ k -k-JL
/■*/ cutar fvo cAee ft>o
£=
V /<y c/?ffp Aw c^«» /few cJfee Aoa cjree Ace cAtr<? fi?a
°7H^ 1 rTl rTl rf^
(/sf-
pmi
J^iWtfwm 4J$
A/ti /e fvo A/A/ Ae A*o A/f-i Ae Aeo
//'// Ae Aoo
Ai Ae Aoo
'Z2>
%
I
(iJ
P-zt&P » 55 5 frfr*1^
fr-=-9-
2t=S
— *
p y^^^ly^fl
m m a
£
/■/// a /•/ //'//
r<^
<^^ .»•«•«><■
*;> <
;^ff r g i h*
Bfcfrft *$>&%%'<?* mifr
m
*►
& |ft jNj ■ a »
frp-PPrl
W
iVVV
A/u A/uAiat/u
j*" n
1
V
•
■^
h
h ^
v+'M
h^
1
c
ri ri rr Aiu
altogether too indefinite : neither Lento nor Presto say exactly how slowly
or how fast the tempo is intended. The only definite indication in music
that will give the exact tempo is M.M. J = 120, which signifies that on
Andersen. — New Zealand Bird-song. 287
Alaelzel's metronome 120 crotchets are beaten in one minute. This would
mean two crotchets in a second, or four quavers, so that the combination
(2) (3) referred to, containing, say, six quavers uttered in a second and a
half, is practically in the tempo M.M. J = 120. It must be remarked
that the tempo of the whitehead's song varied exceedingly, from about
five to ten quavers a second — and that, too, within very short intervals of
time. The bird would appear to become momentarily excited, when the
notes increased both in tempo and in loudness. The combination (3) (4)
might be varied as (6), where again the low notes were clear whistles.
The slur entered into other calls, as in (7). This might be sung, at intervals,
many times in succession, the time occupied being a second and a half :
at times there was a vibrato on the slur. The slur of (8) was at times
preceded by fuller and slower whistles as in (11), notes richer and more
deliberate than the ordinary impatient warble notes. The time taken by
(11) was from a second and a half to two seconds : the opening notes were
sometimes sung alone, the E flat varying one to three in number. The
half-song (8) was also, at times, followed by higher down-slurs (9) and (10),
sometimes one, sometimes both, and (8) might then be repeated. The
full phrase (11) (9) (10) (9) (8), or like combination, formed the rudiments
of an agreeable song. The number of semiquavers in (8) and (11) was
quite indefinite. The notes of (12) and (13) made up phrases well suited
for song-building : the lower notes, as usual, were fuller and richer than
the higher, and (13) had a plaintive close. The notes B G were not slurred,
though they seemed connected in the phrasing, as though an intended slur
were broken by a momentary closure, keeping both notes pure. There
was a faint vibrato present, occasionally, on the G. The notes of (14) to
(16) were clear whistles, varying in number from three pairs upwards, about
four quavers a second. They were almost staccato, and were not always
clear, being at times vocalized as in (14), when it sounded as though the
bird had a stone in its mouth. The first short note was vocalized tu (short
" u " as in " but "). There was a curious and irregular variation in this
phrase : it might open as in (14), or the first four notes might be omitted ;
at times the last D was D flat, or the last two notes might be flat, as in (15),
or there might be a succession of flat and natural pairs as in (16). These
semitone variations were evidently under control, as the bird appeared to
sing one or other at will, and whichever was sung was clear and unhesitating.
The phrase (14) was reminiscent of the fantail's common song, and (17)
of a less common song by the same bird : the triplets, a clear rapid whistle,
were followed by the common enharmonic notes of (2). The phrase (18)
was sung for several minutes continuously, either singly at intervals, or
repeated twice, three times, or more. If three times, as in (19), a rapidly
developed accelerato took place, from about six to ten or more quavers a
second. In the vocalization the " i " and " e " were short. The sequence
was varied as in (20) and (21).
Whilst the usual notes of the whitehead were simply phrases such as
the foregoing, repeated either singly or in various combinations, it had
also a true song — that is, a continuous strain, built up of various phrases
combined so as not to be mere repetition. A portion of such a song is
shown in (22). The phrases (b) and (c) entered into it largely, and these
gave to the song its canary-like character. The phrase (d) is (a) repeated
without rests, and with an accelerato running through it. Some of the
notes were whistles, some warbles ; those of (c) had the sound of being
slurred.
288 Transactions.
The cry of (23) was probably that of a young bird : the note was vibrato ,
at first slow, in semiquavers, then rapidly faster until it throbbed like a
cricket's chirr, and broken as indicated. The notes of (24), heard occasion-
ally following (2), were very like the cry of the parrakeet. They were
uttered alone at times, lasting half a second. The whitehead almost
certainly imitates the robin ; it. is possible, in view of (14) and (17), that
he imitates the fantail, and in view of (24) the parrakeet. His deeper notes,
too, are often like those of the bell-bird, with which he at times associates.
Again, it is possibly not mimicry at all, but a chance resemblance of a few
of the notes to the notes of other birds.
Ground-lark.
There is a fair number of ground-larks on the open flats at Kapiti.
I did not hear its song ; but its call, during flight, is as in (2). These
(2) (Jb J^ -7 <TJ ^ ml 1 y *J 7 J* * • *J r=
pi-pif fi-pif p-l- pi/- pi-pif /It- pi/- p/-pi-plt
couples or threes are uttered in irregular sequence, and at irregular
intervals.
Tui.
The tui is very plentiful on Kapiti, and very tame. The call of (92)
with its many variations — (92a) to (92j) — took the place of the five-bell call
of the South. The repeated semiquavers varied from two to four, more
often two or three, sung at the rate of about ten a second, the effect being
the same as that of the rebounds of a hammer on an anvil. The com-
monest forms were (d) and (e), with three semiquavers ; these were sung
more or less every day. , The variation (c), was uttered in about a second
and a half at intervals of from fifteen to thirty seconds, the first note being
strongly vocalized ; in the whole of the variations, too, the first note was
vocalized more or less. Variations (a) and (b) were sung at 3 o'clock in the
morning, the difference in pitch being unvarying. Whether the notes were
by one or two birds it was impossible to say ; they came apparently from
the same quarter, and as they were calls before the morning chorus, in which
several birds took part, they were possibly by two birds. The notes of (f)
were sung in the air. The tui flew up, closed its wings, and dived per-
pendicularly from a height of 20-25 ft. into a karaka, spreading the wings
and tail at the moment of entering the foliage. The notes were sung during
the fall ; time, under two seconds. The tsrr tsrr was almost a squeak,
and the F was faintly vocalized kiau ; the " i " of the G was short as in
" pit " ; the notes on B were in full flute tones. The opening notes were
rarely downwards as in (g). At times the rebound quickened to a vibrato,
as in (h) to (j). The vibrato, on the first part of the note only, was very
light, though distinct. On the 25th December, 1916, a tui in the distance,
at evening, sang (93). Occasionally he sang the three consecutive notes
of (a), but more often he sang the notes singly, sometimes one, sometimes
another, at intervals — about three in two seconds. At times he sang (b),
more rarely (c) — all clear, flute-bell tones. (93d) was sung on the 2nd
January, 1917, and in it the notes of a minor chord occur — an unusual
Andersen. — New Zealand Bird-song.
289
chord in the bird-world : it was sung several times, the value of two
crotchets in a second. In (93f) occur the notes of an ordinary majo r
chord; this, and (93e), were sung in the afternoon of the 3rd January.
(93g) was in subdued, mellow, bell tones, the value of 3-4 crotchets a
second. More sound may have followed, but no more was heard, and the
bird was unseen. It is often impossible to say whether the notes of an
unseen bird are sung by a tui or a bell-bird, they have so many in common ;
but the bell-bird's notes are chiefly characterized by their rapid speed of
utterance, corresponding with the restless movements of the bird. On
hearing the notes (93g) 1 unconsciously expected a fourth note, a D—
and I suddenly became conscious that the first four notes were those of the
/■/ok
te f-e te te
&?&
^ J /-iau ^ J V
zm
&q ,^wj » Jj y3 p.rrr
/■srr ferr/r/au / kiau /
**kM t*f
1/xJ>T
/zbr.
s
(33%
t-t
fr^JJ |»f
FP
**■
WOrJrJrJ
(fe aJ:
i
£
2tf f=
wS
Z8™ -
»> • »
B-*
jyyeesetoo
^^
jeeseejeeeoi
opening of " Scenes that are Brightest. '" This led me to hark back in
memory to see if I could recollect other bird-phrases that recalled human
melodies, but only one came to mind, a phrase by a bell-bird — B flat.
B flat, E flat, G, B flat. E flat, B flat, G— which, with the addition of
E flat, F, is the second line of " Mill May " : " The bob-o'-link sings on the
tree." So far from its being remarkable that bird-phrases should some-
times be the same as human melodies, it is to me remarkable that they
are not more often the same.
10— Trans
290
Transactions.
The notes of (94), heard only occasionally, are reminiscent of calls in
the South. The opening sounds, at three quavers a second, were like the
sound of a bell through the horn of a gramophone ; they were followed
by the common call at a higher pitch. In (95), again, the notes of the chord
are sounded. It was sung once only, after flight, and after a second flight
the variation (95a). The notes were full flute notes, with regular vocaliza-
tion, aw in the low notes, e of " net " in the medium, and ee of " sweet *'
t
W
4
<v
a
4^4-4 V 4
as
(3Sf
n — a
tT? my
44 v 44^f i=y
j*v#<rf Snrv/~s***rf
[J^ft^ff^'fr^PPVVf^f^
&
fvfvP7 £7j7f7E7f7Pyi7f7p7 T7?7^^?^
(99)
->^/\ f\ i\ /| _ f\ /[ /] _ /) /| 1 /) /| /=
()N idiWTUt ^7 J 7 J 7*7^7 J 7 4JV47 4y °* 7 «'?7 •?
f ? j* f y f ^ f if ?,r f 7 f i f; f 7 g
*T hsfohi^ttttt^ift
^
,?'<»- -
^
5
^/^ //|, ':-p~n7
■*f
F*
P3 g ' F / |g
^ — *1 — *1 — (•
j7y J7 J«EpE
^
^=*
■7/7
^y^L
jK
-^
1
i? ■ m
jzp
<w
J*-F-
-P— 9-
2
?#•
II
^ — (^
-^
Zi±
**f s^eef- fwee) j ****/ s **eef s**eer
t
H-JMf
-F ¥-
in the high notes. The jews'-harp sound tanga or tanga-a-wang blended with
perfect smoothness. There was a slight accent on the second note and
on the dotted crotchet, and the whole phrase was sung in about two seconds.
In (96) a whisper-song was broken into by the ordinary call, which was
more reedy than bell-like, and might be reproduced on a clarionet. The
whisper-song was nearer a warble than whistle or flute tone. The bird
Andersen. — New Zealand Bird-song . 291
sang whilst a gale of wind, swayed the branches of the karaka in which
he sat. The theme was varied by varying the position of the parts, as
(c) (c) (a) (b) (c) (c) (c) (6) (c) (a) (c) (b), &c. The tempo was about eight
semiquavers a second. The short phrase (97) was sung in the evening,
softly, like the whisper-song. The first notes were vocalized sweet; the
others were clear whistles, with a sound of tee-ee tee-ee, and resembled the
fantail's whistling song. A violin-string might reproduce the tone if it
could be muted sufficiently.
I was out several limes to hear the morning chorus, which would begin
at about 3 o'clock, whilst still quite dark, with the common call, repeated
at intervals independently by two or more birds. After ten minutes or so
a bird would begin the beating theme of (98), varied as in (98, b). In the
latter the place of the rest was at times taken by a note, making the beat-
ing continuous. Others joined in, the sound being half bell, half flute ;
and though several birds sang, as could be heard owing to different birds
dropping to E at different times, and also varying to B at different times,
the result was quite harmonious. The common call continued to be uttered
at intervals.
The harmony was fuller on the 2nd January, 1917, when the call was
(92a) and (92b). The call sounded (a) (a), pause ; (a) (a) (b), pause ;
(a) (b), pause ; (b) never opening a call. When other birds joined in,
the theme (98) began, but the notes were G, D. There were at least two
birds singing the notes, as the D was at times accompanied by a tiu ; and,
whilst the notes of G were usually sounded together, at times there was
an interval between as though one bird lagged a little. At the same time
another bird sang C, in a thinner tone, more than an octave above the
rich bell tones of the others. The effect was as in (99). The top singer
was occasionally slightly out of time also.- The theme was, on the 4th,
varied as in (100). This was very beautiful, though apparently two birds
only were singing, a third making a sort of bass accompaniment with an
occasionally interjected tiu tiu. The fact that the higher singer was more
than an octave above the lower was especially noticeable when the C was
touched by both birds. Whilst a great number of birds may be singing at
the one time, they would appear to segregate into small parties or choirs of
from three to five, the song of each choir being in time and tune, whilst not
always harmonizing with the others. With the whole bush full of singing
birds, any segregation there may be would be lost. At dawn the small
birds joined in the chorus : I heard whiteheads and fantails, whilst out
above the flats sang an English skylark. Their songs did not harmonize
with the rich notes of the larger birds, but the wild chorus resulting was
most pleasing. It was impossible to say if the singers were tuis or bell-
birds, or both ; but the choruses are noted in this place as they began with
tui calls, and the calls continued to be heard, at least for a time, during
the singing of the chorus. One of the birds taking part, a tui, was seen
in a karaka, though his attention seemed more devoted to the ripening-
berries than to the chorus. In (101) there were four or five birds singing,
small birds again joining in towards the close. The parts of the principal
singers, parts 1 and 2, were very regular and long-continued : 1 began,
and, after a minute or two, 2 joined in, and these two continued for a
quarter of an hour or more. A few minutes after 2 had joined 1, 3 joined
in, singing irregularly and intermittently ; still later and more intermittent
was 4, almost a whisper-song. The call, as in 5, sounded occasionally.
The chorus was, for the most part, quite harmonious and in perfect time :
10*
292
Transactions.
occasional discords sounded, but they were not unmusical ; the singers sang
sharp or flat, or lost time, but soon recovered both tune and time. The
two principal parts showed a great variety of themes: on the 10th and
15th January they were as in (102), and on the 13th as in (103) — a most-
beautiful theme. In this the upper notes sounded very high in pitch,
\L
h
W-
ii
£
7 f V
¥^y
v-^-v-
002)
&
limn
fez Jy J -j : y J«E-JJ 1 y^rJ
8"-
P (• P
P~P-P
I
P-h P
$^M
p . »C-i»—
^
B=Q
k ' V ' V V
r ' v
VY \^i^^^\^i^\^^
especially when the high C was taken, yet they were <|uite musical. On
the 16th, in a neighbouring valley, the chorus was carried on mostly in the
high-pitched notes, sounding like tiny, light, resonant bells : the highest
notes were almost " sweet bells jangled out of tune and harsh," but so
softly uttered that, like the unharmonious upper partial tones, they gave
character to the chorus rather than discord.
Bell-bird.
On Kapiti the bell-bird, like the tui, was very tame, singing and
feeding close at hand. The notes of (24) appeared to be the call-notes.
Thev were the ones most generally heard, and correspond to (1). (2), (7),
(8), "(10), (13), (14), (17), (17a); (22), and (23). They were very rapidly
utteied — eight to ten semiquavers a second. They were clear whistles,
excepting the closing note, which was more full and flute-like. This call
was varied as in (24a) and (24b). A call somewhat similar, but more
flute-like in tone, was (25), taking something over a second. On a day
when a strong south-east wind was blowing, a bell-bird, hunting for insects
in a ngaio, sang at intervals of two or three seconds a single note on D,
(26), almost vocalized kahk. It sounded like the beat of a bell blown on
the gale from the distant mainland. The slurs of (27) were cried by a bell-
bird when swooping after a whitehead. The slur was repeated eight or
more times in succession, three or four times a second. The high staccato
note (28) was repeated by a young bird, the gape of its beak still white at
the base. It was searching, first in a manuka, then in an Olearia Forst.eri,
constantly uttering this single sharp note. Three weeks later the note
was F instead of A, and this young bird sat in the top branches of a
manuka repeating it incessantly twice a second for minutes at a time.
The old birds came one at a time at intervals to feed it. The cry would
cease for a couple of seconds whilst the food was given, and then begin
Andersen. —New Zealand Bird-song.
293
again. An old bird approaching with food cried the notes of (29), repeated
six times, about three slurs a second. It was vocalized dare dare. Some-
what akin to the call (24) is the phrase (30). sung in about two seconds,
the concluding notes being again flute-like. The rapid notes of (31) and
(32) are characteristic of the bell-bird: those of (31) are sharp whistles,
uttered about ten a second; (32) and the variant (32a) ace curious sharp
slurs vocalized tin, very quickly uttered, followed by a strange mellow
sya —
£
8'+
(zSt-
gm-
(~'i» j 1 1 r J
(Z6)
11
8"
JeahA
gtm — -
**%
kahk
gra.
9-^-
Ss/-e
/■si-e /*/■'
J
] *
"~l
4
frsFZ
u
( "'% z?
V
Auf
Es> fe»
<**§g gg j
atierre ofars
j** -, #***-
C3?;:
^Ka , ^nr
yr
//■« //'«■
Aooee-oo
a-—-
S"* -,
frlg> PPPP =f=f=f
<• — ^
t^~*
^
I
//i^/zift* £/u /ye* yyt'r or rtz/z* <ar <?z» o^ o<?
=K=¥
;*♦
^
^"T- - - -
*33
Han*
f-/*n*
t/ant
*«
*
££*:
9
■D ■ f j > >;
.7 "^ *-*"•
f-
^/S^at
>"Tivp
/j»y:
8**---
m
-*-?
5*
/*-M*?zf
%
<^3
/■/ogJc sweeter //ocfr streeter
W&
bell-like triplet vocalized hoo-ee-oo. The £m< is very commonly used by the
bell-bird, but in (33) it is not apparently slurred, the whole phrase being
a vocalized whistle, eight or ten semiquavers a second. The phrase (34),
taking two seconds, was repeated many times in succession in an obscure
ruinous vale, producing a strange, melancholy feeling. Like many bell-
bird phrases, this is in perfect time.
294
Transactions.
The whisper-song of the bell-bird appears to be more definite than that
of the tui. I took (35) to be one of the tui's bubbling whisper-songs until
I actually saw a bell-bird singing a similar theme. It was sung very softly,
with curious interjections separating the phrases, about five quavers a
second. Often the tlank, or other interjection, only is heard, when it may
be known that a whisper-song is in progress, and snatches may be heard
on a nearer approach. Similar in character was (37), the phrases being
again separated by one of the expletives so liked by the tui. These songs
are sung for two or three minutes at a time, are more clear than the tui's,
and appear more under the control of the bird. On the theme of (38) was
built a long whisper-song, and this song is one of the best examples of art
in bird-song that I have heard. It was perfectly regular in time, and each
varied phrase was introduced by an expletive. The first part was many
times repeated, at times as in the second part, and in several other forms.
The notes were mellow, occasionally swelling to a bell sound. At a distance
of 20 ft. nothing could be heard but the kwak. at regular intervals of about
two seconds. When at half that distance the song was barely audible ; yet,
soft as it was, there was a perceptible swell and dying-away in intensity.
The song was sung at dusk, and after continuing for two or three minutes
stopped abruptly on my attempting to approach up the slope to hear more
clearly. Another bird sat in sight close above me singing the short phrase
of (39) — partly a whisper-song, the tlock being clear and bell-like. The
song (40) suddenly came from close beside me, followed after a moment by
the common call.
Kara.
Noisy as the kaka usually is, the female has a crooning song at breeding-
time — a soft, gentle song, quite different from the usual raucous cry.
I saw several kaka at Kapiti, but they were quiet : the cry heard was
kree-ah, as in (1), taking a little over a second, or kee-aw-w-w-w, as in (1a).
the long aw being broken as if by momentary stoppages of the breath,
The vocalization was somewhat similar to the cry of the kea, but the
sound was fuller and broader. In a secluded valley I saw two kaka sitting
on a branch, one a little below the other. The lower bird seemed coaxing
the upper with a continual ke ke ke ke as in (2), repeated three notes a
second, at intervals of two or three seconds, leaning up towards it, shivering
its body and spreading it tail at each repetition. This went on for several
(0-
1^
kree-aU
D gy~ 1
/ * J J
*%
-+-L
1 M ■ X ■ 1
minutes, when the upper bird, thitherto quite unconcerned and inattentive,
seized the lower by the upper bill, apparently, and shook it. The shaking,
however, would appear to be due to the act of regurgitation ; the bird
was feeding the young one, which waved its wings and sometimes "whined"
a little during the shaking. The food was evidently passed into the mouth
of the young bird at the end of each quivering. The process was gone
through four or five times, the old bird running away each time, or flying
to a short distance, and sitting apart for a minute or so. Both birds, when
apart, scraped the sides of their beak on the branch, the young one also
Andersen. — New Zealand Bird-song .
295
opening and shutting its beak and working its throat as if swallowing, but
never moving from its place. After a time the old bird flew off, and the
young one seemed instinctively to know it was for good, as it shuffled off
along the branch and was hidden in the foliage.
Parrakeet.
The chuckling cry (3), uttered when resting or during Might, was varied
as in (6), six to eight semi cpia vers a second. The do be quick of (5), Banks
Peninsula, in 1912, was pretty quick, on one note, at Kapiti, (7), and on
one day the sound was distinctly pretty dick, the " d " uttered as by
one slightly tongue-tied. Buller makes a good deal of a bird, kept on a
railway-station, having been taught to say " Be quick " ; but there is
&
i
} »<*-
WXM
4z*
m
9-
(*ii
Au fu fu He fu fit f-u fu fu fu
m
i
/oreff/ aftic/r
little need for teaching, as this is the vocalization of some of the natural
wild notes. None but red-fronted parrakeets were seen, though on one
day an exceptionally large bird, bright green from a back view, and seeming
nearly as large as a kaka, flew silently from me up a short glade ; and as I
passed the caretaker's house he remarked that he had seen two exception-
ally large parrakeets. These would be the Antipodes Island birds liberated
at Kapiti by Dr. Cockayne at the end of 1907, or progeny from them.
Weka.
In only one pair of wekas could I detect any essential difference
between the cry of the male and the female. In this pair the cries were
as in (12) : the female's was a little higher in pitch, was on one note, and
- CMar/fiJ (flf/ncr
'"%>*> J 3 V HI 1 [7 J
J . (reo-ee Aroo-ee fee e
sounded shriller. When calling, the male stood erect, with bill and neck
stretched upwards, the bill open as the cry pulsed up through the pipe.
The deep mmb of the male often sounded at the same time as the call.
296 Transaction
s.
Art. XXXI.-- Notes on Eels and Eel-weirs (Tuna and Pa-tuna).
By T. W. Downes, Wanganui.
[Bead before the Wanganui Philosophical Society, 17th December. 1917; received by
Editors. 31st December, 1017 ; issued separately, 24th June. 19ls.\
Plates XXI II- XXXIV.
Introduction.
In commenting on the annual report of the Wellington Acclimatization
Society the London Field says, ' Various things in the report make it
clear that the big eels for which the country has always been famous
continue to trouble the fisheries. The New Zealand eel is a mysterious
creature, as to which one would like more information. He reaches an
immense weight, and has been credited with being dangerous even to human
beings when they are bathing. A monograph of his life-history and habits
would be very interesting."
I much regret that I have been unable to find any descriptive matter
in connection with our native eels, but in the new edition of Williams's
Maori Dictionanj (1917), under the heading " Tuna." the following note is
given : " This is the generic name for eel. Nearly a hundred distinctive
names are recorded,* many, of course, being synonyms for varieties of the
three species observed in New Zealand waters." Five species of fresh- water
eels (in addition to the marine conger) are listed by Hutton in his Index,f
but no varieties are there recorded. Certainly there appear to be a good
many.
On the west coast of the North Island, the only district in New Zealand
with which I am thoroughly familial', the eel, or tuna as it is called by the
Maori, has ever been conspicuous upon the native bill of fare. Indeed,
often for months at a time, owing to the fact that they could keep the fish
alive, and also as they were able to preserve it by sun-drying, it was their
only animal food ; consequently a, large part of the time of the people was
formerly spent in the manufacture oihinaki (eel-baskets), pa-tuna (eel-weirs),
and other implements used in connection with the fishery.
In olden days the pa-tuna was an elaborate as well as an exceedingly
strong piece of work, often adorned by carvings, and always made to stand
years of flood-timber buffeting ; occasionally it required repairing, but it
was never quite destroyed. To-day on several of the upper Whanganui
River rapids there are the remains of old pa-tuna, though the huts of the
adjoining villages have long since been obliterated by time.
I have heard that the Waikato River, with its tributaries, was the most
celebrated in New Zealand for its fa-tuna and the quantities of eels found
there, right away from the mouth up to the Huka Falls, near Lake Taupo,
above which none are found. The Manga-tawhiri, the Maramarua, the
* ! am informed by a correspondent that about 110 eel-names are on record, most
of which are to be found in the 5th edition of Williams's Maori Dictionary (1917).
f F. W. Hutton, Index Faunae Novae Zealandiae, London. 1904.
Downbs. — Eels <i ml Eel-weirs. 297
Whanga-marino, the Manga-wara, the Waipa, the Awaroa, the Opuatia,
and the two lakes Waikare and Whangape, all in middle Waikato, were
famed for their eels. Along all these streams (most of them navigable) the
Maoris in former times erected enormous eel-weirs, which have now been
destroyed by floods or removed to admit of navigation by launches and
barges. On the Maramarua there were most extensive pa-tuna, the main
posts of which were frequently 2 ft. in diameter, with roughly carved tops.
How the old Maoris, without mechanical means of driving, ever got these
heavy posts into position is not known, but it must have been a strenuous
work. (From notes by Mr. Percy Smith.)
A note from Mr. Best states that he was informed by natives at Huntly,
Waikato, that their elders did not construct eel-weirs in the Waikato River,
on account of its depth, &c, but set eel-pots in the open river, to which
eels were attracted by bait. Weirs of the V form were, however, erected
in the numerous tributary streams, more especially those running from the
numerous lakes to the river. Eel-pots were also set in the lakes without
any form of weir. Eel-weirs are termed pa rauiri by Waikato natives,
on account of the wattling process by means of which the fences are con-
structed.
Although the hinaki, or eel-pot. is a common object in most Maori villages
and in every museum, I do not remember ever having seen it described.
Even the late Mr. Hamilton in his fine work on Maori Art entirely omitted
it. Why this was done I do not know, for a well-made hinaki is a beautiful
object, fashioned with infinite care and artistic ability, and also made to
stand many years of hard use. There are, however, in Museum Bulletin
No. 2 some pictures of hinaki of a rather poor class, illustrating an article
entitled " Notes on Matters connected with the Sea, &c." In these modern
days the kareao, or supplejack, and even fine-meshed wire netting, often
take the place of the old-time kiekie root or akatea, but these work-saving
substitutes, though perhaps just as effective, are certainly not very artistic.
There is in Hochstetter's New Zealand a picture of a pa-tuna, but it is a
very rough and imaginative affair, and gives but a feeble idea of a weir
made for use and wear. Hence I include some photographs which will, I
think, illustrate this article better than I can explain by description.
Eels.
The eel enters very largely into Maori mythology,* into which I do not
intend to enter, but the earliest reference I have come across regarding
pa-tuna (eel-weirs) in local history wras in Rua-matatoa's time (seventeen
generations ago), when a man's leg was carried down the Whanganui River
till it was caught in a pa-tuna at Hiku-rangi (now Karatia) and afterwards
eaten, the result being a civil war.f
In the early volumes of the Transactions there will be found some dis-
cussion as to whether eels migrate annually to the sea or otherwise, it
being pointed out by some writers that they do so, and by others that
they are numerous in lagoons that have absolutely no connection with the
ocean. It seems, however, to be an accepted theory that eels migrate.
According to the natives, and they are keen observers of nature — or, rather,
they were — there are many varieties of eels, distinguished by different
* Elsdon Best, Food Products of Tuhoeland, Trans. K.Z. Inst., vo). ."5."), pp. 45-111
(see p. 65). 1903.
tSee T. W. Downes, Old Whanganui, p. 51, 1915.
298
Transactions.
names, but unfortunately, owing to these names varying in different locali-
ties, it is impossible to classify them at all thoroughly by Maori nomen-
clature. One point seems, however, to be established by them to my mind,
and that is that some of the species or varieties migrate and others do not.
The eels that travel to the ocean annually are classed under the general
name tuna-heke (see fig. 1), and the migration itself is known as whaturoa.
It is for these that the pa-tuna are built, and the natives know to within
a few days when the eels can be taken. They are never caught with bait,
Fig. 1. — Outline of head of tuna-heke (tuiia-ngahwru).
and seldom seen except when they are travelling down the river. The word
heke implies to migrate or descend. These eels are subdivided into two or
three (possibly more) varieties.
The eels that are caught with bait and that remain in one place through-
out the year are called tuna-toke (see fig. 2) — that is, the eel that takes the
worm as bait. This eel also embraces several varieties. It is often taken
Fig. 2. — Outline of head of tuna-toke (luna-pvharakeke).
with a baited hinaki, but even in streams where it abounds it is an excep-
tion to capture one in a pa-tuna. Occasionally they are washed down the
race, but very seldom. Among over eight hundred tuna-heke that I saw
taken from the Moumahaki pa-tuna last season there was only one tuna-toke
of the variety called puharakeke, although the stream was literally full of
them.
It seems to me that this name tuna-toke has long been known to the
Maori. Upwards of twenty generations ago there lived a certain Whanganui
ancestor (so says legend) who adzed out a famous canoe under the water.
He used to dive down to his work every day and remain under water till
the evening, when the eels, swimming about his legs, gave warning that
it was time to cease work. Owing to the exceptional feat performed by
this man he was called Tama-tuna, otherwise " The son of an eel." This
man's eldest daughter was named Tuna-toke, and sometimes Hine-toke —
" Daughter of the worm."
Downes. — Eels and Eel-weirs. 299
According to local natives, the first of the tuna-heke to go down the
rivers is tuna-ngahuru, an eel with a thick but soft greeny-brown skin
seemingly sprinkled with fine gold-dust. A special feature is the large eye,
which can be moved independently, with an outer ring of blue, an iris of
gold, and a black pupil. The word ngahuru sometimes means " ten," some-
times " fruitful " or " abundant," also " harvest-time " and " autumn " ;
and this name may be given because of the quantities in which this eel is
sometimes taken. There is a small pa-tuna built in the Moumahaki, about
a chain up from where it joins the Waitotara River (see Plate XXIII). This
stream is fed by a small lake-system, called Manga-whio, far up the valley,
and it is from this source that the eels apparently journey. It was finished
on the 1st April of this year (1917), and was just in time to catch the
annual heke, or migration. About a dozen eels were taken the first night,
and this number gradually rose to forty by the 12th, when the first fresh
took place. As soon as the water rose about 1 ft. the number imme-
diately increased till it reached over eight hundred for a twenty-four-houxs
catch. This lasted for only two or three days, when the numbers gradually
diminished, and by the 20th the migration of tuna-ngahuru was over.
The natives say that it is almost useless to set a hinaki on a moonlight
night, and also during the daytime ; but when the water is at all muddy
or discoloured the eels come down in hundreds during the season, day and
night alike, except that at night-time they are much more numerous and
swim nearer the 'surface of the water, as proved by the fact that in the
daytime the bottom net takes the most fish, and during the night the top
one ; for whenever the water is deep enough one net is set above another
at the mouth of an eel-weir, as will be explained later. When the eels are
making this mad dash for the ocean the baskets are examined every hour
or so, and, judging by varying success, it seems to me that the migration
begins shortly after twilight sets in, is at its height from about 10 p.m. till
2 a.m., and then gradually dwindles down towards dawn as the eels seek
hiding-places for another day. With the gathering darkness of the next
night they once again take up their swift glide down-stream, and so on till
the ocean is reached.
With tuna-ngahuru another eel is taken, called tuna-hau (Whanganui) or
tuna-hao (Waitotara), which can easily be distinguished by its silvery belly.
Other names for these silver-bellied or allied eels are puhi and pango.
I must confess that I can detect but little difference between the two eels
tuna-ngahuru and tuna-hau. I selected one of each from a large catch on
the 12th April : ngahuru was very dark-skinned, almost black, and hau
light-coloured and silvery ; yet on the following morning when both were
dead they were scarcely distinguishable, both having returned to the colours
as first described. The natives are aware of this peculiarity. One person
explained it to me by likening tuna-hau to a photographic proof that I had
given him a few days previous — light and bright at the time, but quite
black a few hours afterwards. Both these eels are very difficult to skin ;
indeed, the skin cannot be removed without tearing away a portion of the
flesh, which is somewhat pink.
Another of the tuna-heke, or migrating eels, is the tuna-riri (Whangaehu)
or tuna-rere (Whanganui), sometimes called putaiore — a blue-black eel with
large pectoral fins, rather small mouth and teeth, flat head, tail rather
broader than the usual type, and blue eyes resembling those of a sea-fish.
The skin is very hard, and absolutely refuses to be removed. This eel is
very lively when caught, and is said to be able to jump out of a canoe,
300 Transactions.
hence its name riri wild, angry. It is esteemed the finest of all the eel
family, the flesh somewhat resembling wild pork in flavour. The natives,
of course, do not attempt any skinning or cleaning, as doth the uneducated
European, but they say that if the fish is dipped in boiling water the slime
is at once removed. Those 1 saw taken at the Kauwae-roa Rapid, Whanga-
nui River, on the 19th April, 1916, were all about the same size, 2 ft. 9 in.
long and 8 in. in circumference. 1 have noticed this peculiarity in connec-
tion with other tuna-heke that I have seen caught, and it seems to me to
be conclusive evidence that only the fully developed (and probably female)
eels are seeking a spawning-bed in the ocean ; the small and immature fish
remain in the fresh water.
Although the tuna-riri is usually taken going down the river when the
water is discoloured by rain, yet some natives say that occasionally it climbs
the rapid, so the pa-tuna is constructed to intercept the fish whether it
travels up or down. Under ordinary water-level a heavy log, called huahua,
is placed in the weir, running parallel to the current, and held in position
by cross-stakes driven each side of it. This creates a backwater running
up the swiftest rapid, and as the eel swims up this channel he takes advan-
tage of the assistance so given to climb the rapid. As soon as he reaches
the top he follows round a smoothly dressed post placed right at the head
of the weir, leading to the inside, and he is immediately caught by the
strong current and thrown back into the net leading to the hinaki, or eel-
pot, at the foot of the weir. Pa tonga, my Waitotara informant, stated
that tuna-riri will not preserve by sun-drying, as does the ordinary tuua-
toke, but this is questioned by the Whanganui people. The catch lasts
only two or three days, and while it is being dealt with the eels are trans-
ferred to large baskets, called puwai and puhara, made for this purpose,
and also spare hinaki. and then put back into the water to be sorted out
at a more convenient time. When all available baskets are full the surplus
fish are put into holes, called parua, dug in the clay, and covered with
fern, where they will keep alive for a day or two.
The favourite way of cooking the smaller eels is to grill them. They
are taken out of the baskets and killed by a cut behind the head which
severs the bone. Without further treatment they are strung close together
by a thin stick being passed through the heads, and then placed on a grid
over a fire of embers — usually, in these degenerate days, on some fencing-
wire or wire netting. This method of cooking is called rara, and the eels
so treated are certainly very good if one could only get over the idea of
grilled entrails and slime (jxirafea). As a matter of fact, the entrails of all
the tuna-heke variety are very small, most of the inside of the fish being
filled with what appears to be fat or undeveloped roe. This part to the
Maori mind and taste constitutes a special delicacy.
Those I have examined have shown no traces of food, consequently I am
inclined to think that these eels, like the salmon, travel on empty stomachs.
Other eels caught in the pa-tuna are tuna-paranui, a black eel ; ruahine,
very large but short (one of this variety weighing 38 lb. was caught last
year on the upper Whanganui) ; arawaru, not so thick but longer than
ruahine ; mona-nui, a small variety ; tuna-keke, somewhat larger ; tuna-
kuia, the largest of all, and filled with roe, or probably fat, only seen and
caught for two or three days each year. Of the above the only eel that I
have had an opportunity of seeing was ruahine. On the 2nd May, 1917.
the large eels commenced to go down the Moumahaki, and fourteen of these
immense fish were taken on that date. The smallest probably weighed
Downes. — Eels and Eel-weirs. 301
12 lb., and the largest was, according to native measurement, 6 ft. 1 in. in
length and 20 in. in circumference. I went down to the Ngutu-wera settle-
ment immediately I heard of the capture, but found the large eel had been
taken to Waitotara. It was found dead in the poha (leading-net), where
it had been jammed by sticks and debris. The rest of the catch was
emptied out for my inspection, but as far as I could judge by match-light,
although they were called ruahine, they were very similar to tuna~ngdhuru
except in the matter of size.
Although the natives here affirm that tuna-ngahuru and tuna-riri are
different varieties, I am not at all sure that this is so. I have seen both
eels, but not in the same year, and, as far as I remember, they showed the
differences as described ; but different localities and conditions may have
caused the slight variation that is to be found. However, to the natives
they go under different names, and they readily detect the difference.
According to Te Whatahoro, a well-informed native of the East Coast
tribes who has contributed largely to our store of Maori information through
the Polynesian Society, the names of the tuna-heke and the order in which
they go down the East Coast rivers are as follows :—
' The first and smallest to be taken on the East Coast pa-tuna is tutuna,
called tuna-riki by the Waikato people. It goes down the river-; during
November, December, January, and February. It is the smallest of all
the eels.
' The next is tuna-hau, also a small eel, about 18 in. long and 1 in.
through. It is dark-skinned, with a fine head and large eye. It is of
exceptionally fine flavour, and is usually cooked by the rara method. It
is one of the best varieties to dry, and will keep in good condition all the
year. It is prepared for this process of preserving by the finger being-
inserted down the throat and the entrails dragged out through the mouth,
great care being taken not to injure the skin, as that would allow the flies
to enter. Soaking brings the fish back to the standard of fresh fish. This
eel is considered and reserved as a special food for chiefs and visitors.
" Next comes the mata-moe (sleeping-eye), about 2 ft. 6 in. long and the
thickness of one's wrist. It is taken from sandy or stony rivers, and is
very fat and good. It occasionally takes bait (mounu), but is one of the
fine-head and migrating varieties. There is a sort of film over the eyes
of this eel, giving it a blind appearance ; hence its name. It is taken from
November to May, but is not common.
'' Next conies tuna-reko. This eel has a silver belly and is of a light-
grey colour. It also is somewhat scarce, and goes down during February
and March.
" After tuna-reko comes kokopu-tuna and ruahine, which go down together.
They are both large (about 5 ft. long), but ruahine has a fine head and is
soft and fat, while kokopu-tuna is coarse and has a head resembling the
bull-dog type of the tuna-toke varieties. It has to be handled carefully,
as it will endeavour to bite, and when it does so the episode will long be
remembered. I once saw an old man named Horomona who had been
bitten on the shoulder as a child, when bathing in the Parapara-kino
River, South Island, by this eel. It must have been an ugly flesh-wound,
for even in old age there was a long deep scar. I disbelieved the story
at the time, but have since then heard of others who could speak from
experience in regard to an eel-bite. I myself was bitten as a youth when
trying to extract the hook by which a large eel had been caught, but it
was, I think, tuna-puharakeke that got hold of me on that occasion.
302 Transaction s .
" Kokopu-tuna is not really a luna-heke, for it is seldom taken in the
hinaki. It is usually speared lying in shelter of raupo (bulrush) or rubbish.
Ruahine goes down between the months of February and June.
' The kopakopako is a swamp-eel about 2 ft. 6 in. long and 2 in. in
diameter, having spiny fins and being very bony right from the back of
the neck to the tail. It is very poor food, and is dried and stored only in
case of famine.
" Another eel, called tuwerewere, has similar spines, and is also very poor
food. It is the last of the eels to go down-stream."
Two other eels mentioned but not described by Te Whatahoro were
hau-male (small) and karaerae (about 24 in.).
As before mentioned, none of the tuna-heke take bait, such as worms,
weka ^wood-hen), &c, the natives affirming that they live on water and
foam (kohuka). The great heke, or migration, seems to take place during
March, April, and May, but the natives have no record of the large eels
returning. The young fry go up the rivers in the spring in countless
numbers. I have taken them in a whitebait-net in October, but am told
by the natives that they continue travelling up-stream till well on into the
summer.
Of the tuna-toke, or "worm-eating" varieties, often called tarehe, usually
taken with a hinaki baited with native worms, pigeon, or wood-hen, the
principal eel caught is called tuna-pa in the Whanganui district. It is said
to be the favourite variety of tuna-toke, and is always roasted by the rara
method, being considered a delicacy when so treated. The baskets are
placed in a favourite locality in the late afternoon and raised the follow-
ing morning. Often the hinaki contains 1 cwt. or even more for one
setting. The most I ever saw taken with baited hinaki was at Kaiwhaiki,
Whanganui River, in 1907, when something over 3 cwt. was netted from
two large hinaki in a single night.
Tuna-iakaaka is another eel taken with tuna-pa. It is of a light-green
colour. It is considered inferior to tuna-pa, and requires a considerable
amount of boiling. It is never grilled.
Tuna-puharakeke, the large yellowish-brown-skinned eel with which most
of us are more or less familiar, is also taken in the hinaki, but usually by
the bob (tari) made of the large native worm strung on dressed flax (muka).
At a small creek called Manga-weka that runs into the Moumahaki near
Ngutu-wera I have seen the Waitotara natives drive this eel to a narrow
part of the creek where a trap had been prepared. When an eel is dis-
turbed it seems to invariably travel down-stream. The natives therefore
go into the water and make all the commotion they can, working down-
stream, while one man stands with a deep basket, called reherehe, at the
narrowest part and lifts the eels as they enter, one or two at a time, and
quickly transfers them to a sack. While I was watching the fishing at
this stream about a quarter of a potato-sack of large eels was taken in two
hours by three men. When fishing for this eel with a hook the natives
use lamprey (piharau) as bait if at all procurable, as the puharakeke is very
greedy for this food and will take it when it refuses everything else.
Tuna-puharakeke has a large head, small eyes with a black pupil, ring
of bright gold, and an outside ring of dull gold. The lower jaw protrudes
somewhat, giving the bull-dog appearance, and the teeth are sharp and
set very thickly, running back like a wedge on the roof of the mouth.
The under part of the head is whitish. This eel often grows to an immense
size. Some years ago I saw two extremely large ones taken out of a
hinaki near Upoko-ngaro. Their weights were respectively 46 lb. and 32 lb.
Downes. — Eels and Eel-weirs. 303
The natives were very much excited when they were caught. The large
eels of this variety are usually dried for winter use, although they can
be caught throughout the year. In sun-drying, the heads are taken off ;
they are skinned and split open, the bone being taken out, and they are
then dried for several days on stages, when they will keep for several
months. This eel is usually boiled or steamed with potatoes in an umu, or
steam-oven.
Another yellowish eel is tuna-kaingara, which is said to be poor and
lean. It has a large head, is readily caught with the bob, and does not go
to the sea with the April floods.
In the upper reaches of the Whanganui River there is a tributary
known as the Ohura, which, owing to its situation and formation, is a
most suitable place to capture the young eel-fry as they go up-stream.
This little eel, varying in size from 2 in. to 6 in. in length, is called tuna-
riki, and the Maori up till a generation ago used to journey down from
Taumarunui and up from Pipiriki to procure this delicacy. The fishing
commenced in the early summer, long after the tuna-heke migration was
over, and lasted for two and sometimes three months. The manner of
taking tuna-riki was as follows : At the mouth of the Ohura there is a
small waterfall, 4 ft. or 5 ft. high, at the foot of which is a very deep pool.
The little fish congregate here in countless numbers, probably waiting for
a flood to enable them to mount the obstacle and continue their course
up-stream. Loose bundles or balls were made by the native women, who
rolled fern, rushes, and manuka together until the mass reached about the
size of a football. These were then tied up with flax to hold them in
shape, and let down into the hole at the foot of the fall overnight, being
held to the shore by flax lines. It is said that these little fish are very
curious and attracted by anything new, and so crawl into the balls in great
numbers. I have an idea that they may be attracted by the fern-pollen,
but I may be wrong in this. These bundles are called koere, and the
Maoris say that two small balls are much more attractive to the fish than
one large one. When the koere are lifted in the morning they are shaken
over a kit, and the eels drop out. Captain Mair* has a note on this little
eel, in which he says that between 2 cwt. and 3 cwt. were taken in a single
night by hanging funnel-shaped bags on the Ohura Falls, up which these
little eels were making their way in thousands. I have not seen the natives
fishing in the manner described by Mair, but saw upwards of half a sack
taken by the koere method about twenty years ago.
At the Waitangi Falls, Bay of Islands, which are some 20 ft. in height,
composed of basaltic rock, the water falling vertically into a deep pool
subject to tidal flow, Mr. Percy Smith informed me that he had seen
thousands of young eels, from 2 in. to 6 in. long, wriggling up the rough
rocky surface, where a thin film of water descended. The Maoris came to
the falls in their canoes and scraped the young eels into baskets for food.f
There is an eel well known by repute to all the river natives of this
district. It is called tuna-tuhoro, and is described as a black eel about 3 ft.
long, with a very large head and small tail. Now and again it is hooked,
and occasionally it is found in the hinaki with other eels. It is a fish of
ill omen. When the natives were building a pa-tuna on the Au-tapu
Rapid, Whanganui River, four years ago, and had ten timbers driven into
* Notes on Fishes in Wanganui River, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 12, p. 316, 1880.
t Sir Ray Lankester notes, in* .From an Easy Chair, that in England young eels
are sometimes seen " wriggling in numbers up the face of a damp rock or wall ten or
fifteen feet high."
304 Transactions.
the stony bed, they saw a tuhoro swim past. They immediately gave up
their work and started again on Te Aute-mutu Rapid, lower down the
river. All the natives dread catching this fish, for should a Maori be sick
or any near relative be ill at the time when a tuna-tuhoro is caught death
always follows. There is no alternative : the patient simply must die.
Of course, this eel is never eaten. The effect is cpiite bad enough if it is
simply seen or caught. It seems to be scarce, for Patonga, the old Wai-
totara native from whom I obtained most of these notes, had never seen
one, though, of course, he knew of their dread power. I have been more
fortunate. During the summer of 1916 a fisherman dragging a net in the
lower Whanganui meshed a small one, about 18 in. in length. The natives
who were assisting immediately raised such a commotion that the man took
notice of it, and eventually brought it to the Whanganui Museum. I was
secretary of that institution at the time, but had not thought of writing
on eels, so took but little notice of it. It was, however, without slime, and
seemed capable of inflating the throat, thus causing the head to appear
larger than its natural size. This specimen was placed in spirits, so that
it can be examined if thought a new variety. It is said that it is a very
fast swimmer.
Mr. Percy Smith tells me that this eel is known to the Kaipara natives as
tuoro, and that it is looked upon in that place as being somewhat mythical
and harmful to man. It is said to be found in the lakes on the North
Head, and was described by the natives as being very large, almost as big
as a man's body, with a great lump on its tail. It was supposed to come
ashore and chase men, who could only escape by passing over ground where
the fern had been burnt. So much for Maori beliefs !
I was in the Upper Ohura district a short time ago, and when there
heard some bushmen speaking of an eel with hair or bristles on its back
that is to be found in some of the creeks near the Ohura Township. I was
unable to see any natives at that time, but shortly afterwards met an old
Maori at Taumarunui who recognized my description as tuna-piki, or the
feathered tuna. Further, as I had heard that Mr. W. K. Williams, of
Ohura, had seen the eel, I wrote to him and obtained the following reply :—
" Some years ago, when passing a Maori pa, I saw quite a number of
eels hung on poles in front of a Maori ivhare, and upon examination 1
noticed these eels had a sort of bristle upon their backs, starting about
4 in. behind the ears and terminating at the tail. Their ears were about
f in. long, shaped exactly like a pig's. The ears were slightly forward and
up, and gave the eel a most peculiar appearance. The eels varied in size
from 18 in. up to 5 ft. Their colour was dark — almost black — at fin, along-
back, and getting a little lighter towards the belly. The belly was of a
cream or pale yellow. ... I understand they are caught with both
hinaki and line at the headwaters of the Ohura, in a stream called Waikaka.
The Maoris stated they were plentiful."
The mud eel is called by the Maoris tuna-kohau, and the salt-water or
conger eel tuna-koiero, koiro, and ngoiro.
In some districts an eel called kaueri (?) is largely taken by spearing,
but the Whanganui River does not lend itself to this mode of fishing.
I remember as a boy seeing native women spearing in the Turakina River,
and I also remember finding a bundle of spears in a hollow cabbage-tree
near a large swamp at Turanga-waikanae, below the Bulls racecourse, some
forty years ago. The spears were made of several hardwood points lashed
to a handle, and were called matarau. Although this mode of taking fish
has fallen into disuse in the Whanganui lagoons, I am told it is still common
Downes. — Eels and Eel-weirs. 305
in the Manga-whero. The usual procedure was to probe among the water-
weeds and roots along the banks of a creek, lake, or swamp, and when an
eel was struck this was easily ascertained by the vibrating feel. The hand
and arm were next put down in the water, so that the eel was held to the
prongs while it was being lifted.
About the year 1880, when visiting the Kai-kokopu Lake, a large lagoon
in the Lower Rangitikei district reserved to the natives for eel-fishing, 1
saw some natives of the Ngati-Apa Tribe empty some small eels from a
hinaki into a fire they lit at the edge of the lake, from which the scorched
fish were allowed to crawl back into the water. On inquiring the reason
I was told it was an old custom, called tunutunu-ki-te-ahi (roasting at the
fire), and was supposed to make the eels that escaped large and fat.
In many low swampy districts near the sea there are extensive sand-
flats, and it was formerly a common practice for the natives to make a
cut or drain from the lagoons or swamps near by to well out on the sand-
flats. After heavy rain causing the swamp waters to rise a few inches the
eels endeavoured to get out along the cuts, and were soon left struggling
on the sand. I have seen upwards of 1 cwt. of fish so -gathered (one New
Year's Day) on the large sand-flat north of the Rangitikei River mouth.
In the Whanganui deed of purchase similar eel-cuts from the Kaitokc
Wiritoa, and other local lakes are mentioned as native reserves.
Yet another method is occasionally adopted in taking the tuna, and was
practised on the Okorewa, down which tons of eels annually migrate from
the Wairarapa Lake. If a man has no hinaki, or if the pa-tuna are con-
structed too close for him to get another in, a shallow drain is dug from
the river across the sand, terminating in a large hole. He watches the
eels swim past till he considers he has enough in the hole, blocking with
a stick any that seek to return. Then the drain, and later the hole, is
filled with sand, quickly smothering the imprisoned fish. Such a place is
called awa-one-huna.
The following is a list of the west-coast (North Island) eels given by an
old bedridden Waitotara man named Patonga :—
Tuna- pa.
Tuna-riri (sometimes called tuna- put aiore).
Tuna-taiaka. Described as an eel with a fine head and hard skin,
that will not boil tender.
Tuna-kaingara. Tuna-tangaroa.
Tuna-ngahuru. Tuna-tuhoro.
Tuna-hau. Tuna-puharakckc.
Tuna-opuha. Tuna-kaueri.
Tuna-ruahi ne. Tuna-am yarn.
Tuna-koptire. Tuna-riki.
T una-paranui . Tuna-monanui,
Tuna-keke. Tuna-kuia.
Tuna-koha u. Tuna-iahaaka.
As a rule, the prefixed generic term tuna is not employed. In regard to
the opuha and iakaaka it is possible that a missing h should be inserted.
The following are the names of eels as supplied to Mr. Percy Smith by
Aporo te Kumeroa, the late well-known chief of Wairarapa, and are all
said to be found in the Wairarapa Lake or the rivers flowing into it :—
Matamoe (also called hikumutu).
Hao (also called puhi). This eel has blue eyes, and is the best
eating of all.
306 Transactions.
Riko. The largest of all. Te Kumeroa said lie had seen them 6 ft.
long.
Kokopu-tuna. Very large. There are two kinds : paratawai, a short
one, and putake-harakeke, reddish in colour.
Haumate. Like the hao, but with short ears.
Karaerae.
Kopakopako. Silver-eel. The Ngai-Tahu people call this pakeha. a
name they used long before the advent of the Europeans.
Tarehe (called also tirehe and mairehe). A silver-eel ; is short, and
not the best eating.
Kongehe. Can be caught with the hand. Soft and flaccid.
Tatarakau. Same thickness head to tail ; black like riko.
PlHARAU.
The lamprey (piharau) is about 18 in. or 20 in. long, with a cartilaginous
skeleton. It is considered a great delicacy by the Maori, but is difficult to
preserve, as it cannot be dried or smoked. My informant stated that the
longest time it can be kept fresh is four days. It is therefore put into
holding-baskets (korotete) (see Plate XXVIII, fig. 3) and kept alive for
months. Other natives say that the piharau can be preserved by drying,
but the method is somewhat different to that employed for eels, as they are
partly sun-dried and then finished by a slow fire. It goes up the rivers in
considerable numbers during May, June, July, and sometimes August, and
returns to the sea in October and November, when the skin is very soft.
It is taken in the hinaki during flood-time only, at a weir built from the
shore at right angles into the river. This is called utu, and is exception-
ally strong. The piharau is taken as it goes up the river, climbing close
to the shore to avoid the current. Although it is seldom seen swimming
up-stream (I have only seen one, although often motor-launching on the
upper river), yet great numbers are sometimes taken. On the 2nd May,
1917, 1,434 were lifted from the hinaki at Kai-manuka, Waitotara River ;
and in the Waitara, for a single night's netting during a fresh in June,
three sacks were filled — probably between two and three thousand.
In some districts another method (called whakarau) of catching piharau
was adopted, but has now fallen into disuse. A large thick mat was manu-
factured of bracken laced together with flax. This was about 4 ft. wide,
and was pegged down in the river right up to the shore with parallel rOws
of pegs. This was laid down in a sheltered spot with either a natural or
artificial breakwater, and the piharau would shelter and hide in the pro-
vided cover. Two men would walk out into the river and roll the mat
up, working towards the shore, and, of course, taking the fish with them.
It is said that many were taken in this manner ; but nowadays, I am told,
a sheep-skin is used (I do not quite understand how) instead of the bracken
mat, and is almost as effective, and has the merit of being simpler.
The Taranaki natives say that in former times they used a certain
sand (brought from Hawaiki !), which was placed in a little stone
cup called punga-tai, and, having had charms said over it, this cup was
deposited in the river near the pa and attracted the piharau to it. Tau
mahi, a te Maori !
Other Fish taken in Eel-weirs.
The small fish taken in the pa-tuna at the same time and mixed with the
eels are kokopara and pangohengohe, probably the mountain-trout ; toitoi, a
Downes. — Eels and Eel-weirs. 307
small blue fish rather full of bones ; inanga, a fish about 5 in. long, almost
transparent, with white belly ; atutahi, a larger variety, or probably a larger
fish of the same family ; papanoko (sometimes papanuku) and panokonoko,
varieties of kokopu ; titihimi, the smelt (sometimes iigaure when young and
takeke when large) ; mawhitiwhiti, the shrimp ; and upokororo, sometimes
the grayling and sometimes the name given to a small fish about 6 in. in
length that is taken only during flood- time. The latter has red fins, and is
said to be rather delicate in flavour. All these fish are boiled whole, and, in
eating, the flesh is drawn off the bone by a sucking action of the mouth,
the head and bone being thrown behind over the shoulder. The water in
which they are boiled is used as soup.
It is said that the kokopu and other small fish are not as plentiful as
formerly, the introduced trout being responsible for the decrease. About
the year 1880 my father was engaged in a survey near Parikino, Whanganui
River, employing natives as linesmen, who one Sunday brought a full sack
of these little mixed fish to the camp. It was only one of three that had
been taken that day on the Parikino Rapid.
In Best's paper already referred to there will be found a great deal of
information dealing with these " small fry " ; also in Illustrations for White's
Ancient History of the Maori there are a few plates illustrating various ways
of catching and preserving inanga, piharau, and tuna, but the methods as
pictured are not practised in this district, so will not be touched upon in
this paper.
In Mr. Cowan's Story of Kimble Bent mention is made of the Taranaki
natives catching piharau by torch-light ; but this method also is unknown
here now. SI
Eel-weirs. jgj
Eel-weirs were in many cases assigned proper names in former times,
as also were sea-fishing grounds and rocks.
The pa-tuna, or eel- weir, is of two or three types, one for small streams
and others for rivers. I will endeavour to describe those I am familiar
with.
The Pa-tuna for a Small Stream.
The timber used in its construction is kopuka (white manuka), if procur-
able ; otherwise the ordinary manuka is used. It is carried as near the
site as possible, together with the rest of the required material, and then
each stake is carefully prepared by two men for driving, one holding and
turning, the other sharpening and trimming off the head so as to prevent
splitting in driving. The stakes are given a long tapering point, and as
soon as they are prepared they are carried to the canoes. In one I saw
built at Moumahaki a full day was spent by a company of eight men in
trimming these stakes, together with the horizontal logs, which are of totara,
and are carefully stripped of sap and have heads formed at the heavy end
of the timbers, which are placed down-stream. The lashings are all of split
supplejack (kareao), and each stick is securely tied by crossing and recross-
ing the vine in the form of the letter X. Driving the prepared stakes and
lashing on the horizontal timbers took the company another ten hours.
The Moumahaki Stream is between 30 ft. and 40 ft. wide at the chosen
site, a spot where the banks rise sheer out of the water, and the most con-
fined spot to be found. Fences are built out from both banks at opposite
points, running down-stream and gradually converging to a jDoint. These
fences are about 30 ft. long, and they close to within 18 in. or so of each
308
Transactions.
fig
other and then return at a sharp angle to the bank. The fences are
constructed of rows of stakes placed within 1 in. or 2 in. of each other,
which are held firnilv in position by horizontal beams lashed on. (See
3.)
While this work was progressing other natives were employed cutting
and sorting out manuka brush and bracken. The latter is carefully tied into
small bundles about 2 in. in diameter, and lashed to the stakes under the
water, stems up-stream. Other stakes are driven in to assist in holding the
bundles, which are forced down until they form a solid mass through which
even the water can scarcely find a passage. About 1 ft. above the ordinary
water-level manuka brush takes the place of the bracken, as it is stronger
and, being on top, can be more easily repaired than the bracken, though the
latter lasts much better than the manuka in the water. This manuka brush
is also closely wattled together and carried right to the top of the stakes.
The whole fence is then securely lashed from the heavy horizontal timber
(which in this small type of pa-tuna is on top) to the shore by heavy cross-
beams, especially strong sticks being carried from the angle of the pa-tuna
down-stream to the shore. Two heavy posts are next driven in about
1 ft. down-stream from the mouth of the weir, one opposite each angle, to
which thev are securely braced, and thev are also braced to each other.
Fie. 3. — V-shaped weir. The arrow shows the direction of the current.
1, braces ; 2, poha ; 3, hinaki.
These carry the poha, or leading-net, which is shaped something like a huge
phonograph-trumpet, with diamond-shaped meshes, which appear to the
uninitiated to be too large ; but apparently the eels, in the full force of
the strong current, which converging to such a narrow point is exceedingly
swift — indeed, it is quite a miniature waterfall — are unable to detect this
way of escape. The small end of this net is securely sewn to the mouth of
the hinaki with green flax (harakeke), and four cross-pieces of manuka about
5 ft. long, notched where they intersect, are then fastened to the large end
of the leading-net, which is held open by a large hoop made of akatea vine,
and this is slipped behind the two posts at the mouth of the weir and held
in position by them, and all is ready. (See fig. 3.)
The post inserted away from the end of the fence in order to hold the
poha in many cases had its upper part carved into the form of a human
head. The last such seen in this district was in a weir on the Matahiwi
Rapid of the Whanganui River in 1878.
Quantities of manuka branches are pegged down between the fences and
the shore until the whole creek is forced into the newly made channel. The
first night the hinaki were set after the completion of the Moumahaki
pa-tuna twelve eels were taken ; a few nights later forty was about the
average, except when the moon was bright (the eels apparently do not travel
on a moonlight night), until the first fresh took place, when the numbers
Downbs. — Eels and Eel-weirs. 309
immediately increased to hundreds. When the fish are going down-river
freely the hinaki is visited and changed every two hours. The poha and
hinaki attached are lifted into a canoe, and the eels transferred to a puwai
(holding-basket) or another hinaki, and while this is being done other men
drop a new leading-net and hinaki behind the posts, working from the
pa-tuna itself, and pushing them to the bottom with the feet.
The men are quite naked, and it seems to me to be cold and somewhat
dangerous work. When a fresh is in evidence the men are often immersed
nearly up to their necks when pushing the under-net into position, and it
takes all the power of two strong men to hold the operator from being
swept away by the fierce current ; add to this the darkness, and I am
convinced that few Europeans would care to take up the work. The
nets are lifted by means of a supplejack rope, which is attached to both
leading-net and pa-tuna. The hinaki is allowed to swing with the current.
Occasionally it breaks away, usually during a flood, when driftwood cuts
the poha net to pieces. I myself have at various times found three, two
containing eels and one lampreys, that had so broken away. In flood-time,
when the water is deep enough, two hinaki and poha are set, one above the
other. In a high flood the pa-tuna cannot be operated upon, and in this
way the natives often miss the season's catch.
By the arrangement of this type of pa-tuna eels are taken going down-
stream and lampreys going up. The eels are carried down-stream by the
full force of the current, without chance of escape, and the lampreys going
up-stream attempt to enter the current between the posts that hold the
leading-net and the angle of the pa-tuna, the only possible way, and are
immediately swept back into the poha net by the force of water.
The first night the hinaki were placed at the Moumahaki pa-tuna twelve
eels were taken, as before stated. The following morning a tohunga (priestlv
adept) very carefully opened the basket just a little, and the first eel that
crawled through into the canoe was killed and taken away by him to a
secret place unknown to the rest of the Nga-Rauru people. Thereafter the
rest of the eels were noa — that is, suitable for common food.
Formerly the first catch from a new pa-tuna was divided into three
parts ; in the case of a large weir which accommodated several baskets
the outside basket — that is, the side away from which the fishers resided—
was taken and so divided. The first division or third was for the gods only,
and was cooked in a separate umu (oven), placed in flax baskets called kono,
into which the eels were coiled without breaking, and deposited in some
sacred place. The second division was for the women, and was eaten by
them while the last division was being prepared. The food-baskets in which
it was placed were called tapura or tapora ; those for the last third, for the
men, being designated rourou.
The names of the various parts of this pa-tuna are as follows : The
upright stakes are called vtatia, but usually pou ; the heavy horizontal
beam, huahua ; the braces, tapapa ; the two strong posts to hold poha,
pou-rerenga ; the water-race, ia ; the bundles of fern matted into walls,
pakipaki ; the manuka bundles pegged down, tapapa; the mouth of the
pa-tuna, ngutu ; the fern-matted fences, karapi ; the maul for driving
stakes, ta.
In rivers of some width this V-shaped weir may be repeated two or
three times, as VVV, thus providing two or more outlets, or ivaha, at each
of which a head-net and eel-pot would be placed. Such a weir was seen in
the Waikare-taheke River about twenty years ago.
310
Transactio?is.
The Poha (Waitotara) or Powha (Whanganui). — The poha, or guiding-net,
is constructed of green flax split into about fin. strips and woven into
about a 2 in. mesh. The knot is the same as that used in the construction
of ordinary fishing-nets. The poha is always made by men, the women
being engaged in making baskets for holding inanga and kokopu. The mesh
is regulated by the first two fingers of the left hand. The net is commenced
at the small end, and as soon as possible it is suspended and worked down-
ward (Plate XXIV), gradually being enlarged to 4 ft. 6 in. or 5 ft. by adding
meshes (see fig. 4). The small end is about 9 in. or 10 in. in diameter,
according to the size of the hinaki for which it is being made, and the
length 6 ft. or more. The poha, when finished, is fastened to a hoop made
of a strong akatea vine (in modern days more often to a few strands of
fencing- wire), which is in turn fastened to a square of manuka poles lashed
together, with projecting ends to catch behind the two posts in front of
the pa-tuna (see fig. 5). When a fresh is in evidence the poha lasts only
about two nights, as it is quickly torn to pieces by the strong current and
odds and ends of timber forced against it. The small end is securely sewn
to the hinaki with green flax.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 4. — Method of enlarging poha (whaJcatepa).
Fig. 5. — Poha hoop (kaututu) attached to frame (tekateka) for holding in pa-tuna.
The names of the poha parts are as follows : The vine hoop, kotuku
(Waitotara), kaututu (Whanganui) ; the manuka square to which the above
is lashed, tekateka ; the mesh, mala ; adding extra mesh, whakatepa ; the
small end, pihanga ; the large end, waharau ; the complete net before hoop
is put on, purangi.
The Pa-tuna for a Large River.
This pa-tuna is always built with the top end on the crest of a swift
rapid, and consists of l^wo parallel fences with cross-returns of a single post
facing each other at the foot to hold the hinaki. They are exceedingly
well built, and very strong considering they are erected in the middle of
swift waters from canoes that have to be held in position by poles, and
also where the river-bed is composed of boulders and large stones. I am
informed by the natives that the fence on the western side is always the
shorter, but no reason is obtainable why this is so. Reference to the
illustrations will enable the reader to see that this form of weir, com-
posed of two straightened parallel fences, differs widely from the V-shaped
weir employed in many rivers, and also from the lamprey-weir, which
extends from the civer-bank outwards at a right angle to the current.
(See Plate XXV, figs. 1 and 2.)
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate XXIII.
Small pa-tuna of the V type at Ngutuwera, Moumahaki River
Face p 310.]
Trans. X.Z. Inst.. Vol. L.
Plate XXIV.
HV
^ '^ "'
;^J$ZSr> • ^^s»f*
>.
^9
Making a po/ia, Waitotara.
Trans. X.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate XXV
'%»wj%m
Fig. 1. — Pa-tuna, or eel-weir, at Kauwae-roa, Whanganui River, looking
down-stream.
£ .^JEMJ
£~ -. «__ , : .' i_.,L * f f A.
l^-AuMito^^fi
Fig. 2. — Pa-tuna at Kauwae-roa, Whanganui River, looking up-stream.
The right-angle return posts, or wings, have been carried away.
Trans. X.Z. Inst.. Vol. L.
Plate XXVI.
a
eg
03
erf
as
H
c
a.
Downbs. — Eels and Eel-wetrs.
311
After getting all the poles, timbers, and lashings together, it takes from
four to six men at least seven days' hard work to construct the simplest
form of this pa-tuna. The hardwood stakes of kopuka* are, as a rule, about
4 in. in diameter, and they are driven into the heavy shingle from 2 ft. to
2ft. Gin. with a sort of wooden maul, called a ta.
The weir is. as a rule, from 50 ft. to 60 ft. long and about 20 ft. wide,
and the work is commenced at the crest of the rapid and continued down-
stream. After a number of poles have been driven in, two horizontal
timbers are lashed on, one below the other, after which more stakes are
driven, it being easier to keep in line with
guiding-timbers on top. A long and very
heavy totara log, from 12 in. to 18 in. in dia-
meter, is then lashed to the stakes at about
low-water level, and further held in position
by another row of stakes driven at an angle,
the top of the stake finishing flush with the
inside of the fence (fig. 6). The last post
down-stream is clear of the heavy log, and
only held by the top horizontal timber, so as
not to interfere with the poha sliding up
and down. This will be seen in the picture
of the fa-tuna on Te Aute-mutu Rapid (see
Plate XXVI).
Considerable judgment was required in
setting the fences at the proper angle against
the current, and because of care in this
matter, combined with good workmanship and position, some pa-tuna
took more fish than others. The angle of fences was of the utmost
importance, and alwaj^s they ran into the current to a greater or less
degree according to the arrangement of the stakes. If parallel with the
current, or nearly so, few fish were intercepted, and if at too great an
angle the eels escaped through the fence.
In a close arrangement of stakes, as the pa-tuna at Kauwae-roa
(Plate XXV, figs. 1 and 2) a greater angle' is given than in the pa at
Te Aute-mutu (Plate XXVI), where the stakes are wider apart. The
double fence was only for the purpose of intercepting more fish.
A bad architect superintending the construction of a pa-tuna was the
object of much derision, and his failure was known throughout the district.
An unsuccessful pa was always pulled down.
It is said that when eels travel up-stream they usually take the deepest
and darkest water, taking advantage of every help, while lampreys keep
close to the edge, especially in swift water. The log with its double row
of stakes causes a sort of backwater right up the full length of the weir,
and provides an easy passage for the wily tuna, which he is not slow to
take advantage of. At the top of the p Auna a sloping rounded log, care-
fully smoothed, is fixed so as to turn the eels and cause them to be thrown
back by the current, which carries them down into the poha before they
regain shelter. At the foot of the weir two posts are driven in about 5 ft.
away from the fences, one on either side, facing each other, and strongly
braced to the main structure, their object being to hold the poha frame.
Fig. 6. — Section of large
pa -tuna.
* I believe the name kopuka is peculiar to the Whangamii River natives, the names
kanuka and maru being used for the wood (Leptospermum ericoules) in other places.
312
Transactions .
Usually there are sliding logs that work between these posts and the fences,
held by the force of water, and also a rope that lifts or lowers them,
together with the poha frame of the inverted Y pattern (see later), which
is fixed to the hinaki in the manner before described (see fig. 7). These
angles, being right across the current, are soon broken by driftwood, and.
as a rule, have to be renewed or repaired annually. All the lashings used
in the construction of the pa are of aha or kareao vines : no pegs or nails
are ever used even in modern times. Usually the fences are lowest at the
top of a rapid, gradually rising as they go down-stream.
FlG. 7. — Attachment of the poha. 1, angle brace ; 2. sliding timber used
to raise and lower the poha- : 3, hinaki ; 4. ropes of twisted kareao.
The names of the parts of the pa-tuna are as follows : The stakes are
called pou ; the top horizontal timber, uaua, sometimes (I think, correctly)
huahua ; the second horizontal timber, haiwai ; the heavy bottom totara
log, huahua-kaiwai ; the angle stakes holding same, noko ; the angle log
at head of weir, noko-panawai ; the return angle or wing at foot, hoi : the
side posts holding same, pou-riri (sometimes turn) ; the sliding timber,
rango ; the same timber when fastened down, huapae ; the water between
the fences, ihonui ; water outside of fences, auroa.
When a fresh is in evidence two baskets are placed in position on each
side, one above the other, as in the case of the small pa-tuna. Of course,
in this particular style of weir a great many eels must pass without being
caught ; but it would be quite impossible to net a large river in this manner
thoroughly, owing to the logs and debris coming down. No doubt if the
fences were to converge gradually they would be more effective in fishing,
but they would be more liable to be destroyed, as the drift timbers would
be caught and the weight of waters would soon be irresistible. However,
a very large number of fish are taken, usually in April. The only time I
saw this pa-tuna being worked upwards of half a ton of fish was taken out
within twenty-four hours. This was during the tuna-heke migration.
A very large pa-tuna capable of holding eight or more hinaki is called
pa-tuna waharoa. There is also another built on a zigzag principle, but
neither of these have I seen, nor have I been able to obtain any description
of them.
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate XXVII.
Fig. 1. — Utu, or lamprey-weir, at Parikino, Whanganui River.
looking down-stream.
Fig. 2. — Utu, or lamprey-weir, at Parikino, Whanganui River,
looking up-stream.
Face p. 312.]
Trans. N.Z. Inst... Vol. L.
Plate XXVIII.
Figs. 1, 2.—Hindh% herehere of different patterns.
Fig. 3.— Koroteie lying under whata tapu {tapu storehouse) at Tawhata.
Whanganui River.
Trans. X.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
4\fV > t W^
Plate XXIX.
■ |
lT K-
SMhXm
X\3\f\ jv* $%l
Hinaki pattern (ripeka).
Traxs. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. L.
Plate XXX.
Vt
*
tMftfflll
' 4
■ , ■
ill
M
'-*. *>fvk
'"'itti
Hinaki pattern, showing arrangement of ribs.
Downes. — Eels and Eel-weirs. 313
The Utu. a Weir for taking Piharau [Lampreys).
This is built at right angles from the shore, and is built on dry ground by
the side of a rapid, being only operated during flood-time (sec Plate XXVII.
figs. 1 and 2). It is like the pa-tuna, a fence built with closely driven stakes
and horizontal cross-timbers, heavily matted or thatched on the up-river
side, and strongly braced on both up- and down-stream sides. As the utu
has to stand the full force of flood-waters, the bracing is exceptionally
strong, upper and lower rows being thrown out at an .ingle from both
horizontal stays on each side. Strong as they are, they seldom last more
than a season. The photographs in Plate XXVTI were taken at Parikino,
Whanganui River, about five years ago. but of the original not a vestige
now remains.
The fence is constructed so that the water is blocked at regular spacings,
usually about 5 ft. wide, and can escape at alternate spaces of about 2 ft.
The up-stream braces are fixed so as to lead the water towards the open
parts, as is shown by the illustration. The matting is of bracken and
manuka brush— principally bracken. Posts are usually fixed below the
fence each side of the water-channel to hold the poha, the circular vine of
which for this style of weir is generally attached to a forked piece of wood
resembling an inverted Y, or to two pieces of straight wood spliced and
tied together as an inverted V (see fig. 8). On the down-stream side a sort
Fig. 8. — Poha frames for large pu-hnui or utu.
of floor is laid of manuka or fern, pressed down with thin manuka poles,
which are held in position by pegs driven across them both ways.
The piharau congregate in the slack water immediately behind the wall
part of the fence, but directly they attempt to go through the weir-opening
they meet the full force of the swollen current and are thrown back into
the nets.
Names of the utu parts are as follows : The stakes are called pou ; the
top horizontal pole, huahua ; the second horizontal pole, ngakau ; the
braces, noko ; the blocked part of fence, pawai : the opening, ngutu : the
floor, whariki ; the poles holding down the floor, tapatu : the crossed pegs
holding down the poles, tarapi.
Hinaki.
Eel-baskets, or hinaki. as they are called, are of several shapes, sizes,
and patterns. They are hard or flexible, regular in construction, and as a
rule cone-shaped. They are small at each end, bulging out in the middle,
314
Transactions .
and are usually from 5 ft. to 6 ft. long and 18 in. to 2 ft. 6 in. in diameter
at the widest part. One end is secured tight by a lid ; the other
returns inwards by a neat curve as a funnel, and finishes with an opening
3 in. or so in diameter about 1 ft. or 18 in. down the net. Hinaki were
formerly chiefly constructed of aerial roots of kiekie (Freycinetia Banksii)
steeped in water till pliable, and were light, strong, and flexible ; but I
am informed that the akatea vine (Metros id eras albiflora) and aka tororaro
gave the best results both as regards strength and lasting qualities. The
pohue vine (Calystegia sepium) was also used in the construction of the
hinaki, but was called aka korewa when so used. Another vine, growing on
stony plains, was also used for fine work and flexible springy baskets, but
my informant was unable to remember the name. The kiekie, probably
the most common, being the easiest to procure, was also the poorest, as
Fig. 9. — Types of hinaki : a, hinaki herehere ; b, hinaki tatairangi ;
C, hinaki waharoa or hinaki aranvi.
even with care it only lasted from five to seven years. Sometimes in a
pattern called pakipaki thin manuka was used for the long strips which
were laced on to kareao hoops with small vines, but I have never seen a
basket made in that manner, although 1 understand they were common.
In these modern days kareao and sometimes even wire netting are easily
obtained substitutes, and it seems to me that the days of the old-time
hinaki are numbered. Indeed, as European ideas and methods are gradu-
ally growing into favour and practice with the Maori, the old systems of
obtaining food are gradually falling into disuse. Twenty-five years ago
pa-tuna were common enough in almost every river and stream on the
west coast of the North Island ; now there are only two in the Whanganui,
practically the home of the pa-tuna, and 1 do not think that farther south
even one will he found.
Trans. X.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate XXXI.
Face p. 314.]
Hinaki pattern (elongated ripeka)
Trans. X.Z. Inst.. Vol. L.
Plate XXX IT.
Hinaki pattern (pakipaki or aurara).
Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. L.
Plate XXX I II.
Maw
BHBBnL
-* -^ ^ .^ -f - ^ ^i ».
Hinaki pattern (pliable).
Trans. X.Z. Ikst., Vol. L.
Plate XXXIV.
s
Downes. — Eels and Eel-weirs. 315
For the hinaki that was used for setting at pa-tuna the trap, or return
part, was woven separately and laced on the hinaki afterwards, giving a
continuation of the poha lead. Otherwise it was made in one piece. Some-
times for the bait-setting traps loose ends of vine ran together at the inner
end of the net funnel, through which the eels could easily push their way
but which securely blocked egress. The common shape was called titika.
It was used entirely for catching tuna-toke with bait. In this as in the
other shapes all the enlarging or reducing was done by adding or drop-
ping strands. Hinaki herehere (fig. 9, a) was another style of trap used
for baiting only. The bottle shape with parallel sides bulging at one
end was called pae, sometimes tatairangi (fig. 9, b, and Plate XXVIII,
figs. 1 and 2), and the large-mouthed hinaki for placing in the pa-tuna,
was called whakapuwaii and by some waharoa and aranui (fig. 9, c). This
hinaki had usually a lid for both ends to hold eels if used as a storing-
basket.
Puhara and yuwai were baskets made without a trap end, used for
keeping eels alive in the water.
A similar basket for holding live lamprey was called korotete. Occasion-
ally these baskets were protected by vine rings tied on outside. A very
fine specimen photographed by the writer, lying under a whata tapu (tapu
storehouse) at Tawhata, about 120 miles up the Whanganui River, is manu-
factured in this manner (Plate XXVIII, fig. 3).
Hinaki-pitau, a very small trap of the hinaki pattern used for catching
whitebait, was very closely woven of a thin vine called kaii* Another net
for catching whitebait was called hauwai. It was in shape something like
a huge scoop without the handle, and is now obsolete. As a boy I saw one
of these used by a woman in the Rangitikei River, but that is the only one
I have ever seen. It was made of a rush which I regret to say I have lost
the name of. In the Whanganui district the whitebait is called karohe when
the shoals first go up-stream in the spring.
Hinaki and Korotete Patterns.
There are at least three patterns, with their modifications and variations,
used in weaving hinaki and korotete, one of the finest being called ripeka.
It is rather complicated, but very strong (see Plate XXIX). The ribs run
the whole length of the hinaki in a continuous spiral, and are placed about
1 in. apart. It will be seen from the accompanying photograph that the
diagonal vines from left bottom corner to right top corner pass round the
ribs at each intersection, passing under the two-ply twist that holds all
together at the same time.
Plate XXX shows a modification of the same pattern, the twist round
the rib taking place at intervals of between 2 in. and 3 in. Part of tie
basket-work was cut away in the original of this illustration in order to
show the arrangement of the ribs, which gradually grow stronger towards
the middle of the net.
Plate XXXI shows an elongated variation of the same pattern, and
Plate XXXII the common oblong pattern called pakipaki and also heau-
rara (? aurara). In the illustration the ribs are shown close together, and
* The long, slender, and flexuous branches of the young plants of matai (Podo-
carpus spicatus), which young trees are called kai and mai by natives, were used in the
manufacture of eel-pots. Possibly this is the material alluded to.
316 Transact io
ns.
tied at irregular intervals by the long vines passing round them, but in
many hinaki of a somewhat similar pattern they are arranged at intervals
of about 6 in.
In Plate XXXIII is shown a flexible basket of a somewhat similar pattern
to above, made of the kaii* vine. The ribs are two-ply twist of the same
material, but somewhat thicker, and are placed four or five close together
within the spate of 3 in. or 4 in., a similar distance being spaced without
ribs. A basket constructed of this material is very fine, light, springy, and
pliable, and must have taken a long time to manufacture.
Plate XXXIV shows the common basketware pattern made with split
kareao. I have been unable to obtain a name for this basket except
hinaki kareao. The Whanganui natives call this vine karewau. It is said
that it usually takes an expert about a week to weave an ordinary hinaki
about 5 ft. long of the heaurara pattern, which is certainly the simplest.
The parts of the hinaki are as follows : The ribs are called potaka : the
ribs when continuing in a spiral, whenu : the lid, taupoki : the net or funnel-
shaped entrance for pa-tuna hinaki. akura (also kuao and te ure) ; twisted
vine handle at top, popoia ; manuka handle at side, kaharoa : eye for
securing lid, popoki ; pin for same purpose, taheke (and also kopiha) ; the
two-ply twist following round the ribs, whatu : the vine hinge, toroaka :
outside protecting vines, porowhita popoki.
Tan n ing ( Whakawah i ) .
Any one who has looked at hinaki closely will have noticed that some
of the oldest types are sometimes black in colour. This is due to a tanning
process that was formerly employed in order to lengthen the life of all
hinaki, but which is now entirely omitted in the manufacture, and has not
been used for many years.
Quantities of maire and whinau (hi nan) bark were gathered, parcelled
up, wrapped in leaves, and placed in an umu for prolonged steaming.
A special trough, called patua, made of the inner bark taken from a large
totara tree was provided. This bark was taken off in one sheet, first cut at
both ends with a stone adze at the required length, and then prized off with
a maire or akeake lever made especially for the purpose with a fire-hardened
point. When a piece of bark was removed in this manner without split or
flaw the ends were gradually softened by steam in an umu until they were
quite pliable and could be bunched and tied.
This bark receptacle was used because it did not absorb the tannin as
did a canoe or trough cut out of wood.
The softened pieces of maire bark were rubbed and worked by the hands
until they crumbled away, and the whinau, which would not crumble, was
broken as small as possible, and the mass was left in the patua just covered
with water until the juices thoroughly impregnated the water. The bundles
of vines intended for hinaki wine placed in the dye and left for one or two
nights, according to the thickness and texture of the bundles so treated.
The process was called irhakaira/ii.
* Some natives give tliis vine as the Mi, and say it is found near the sea ; but I am
unable to give its botanical name.
Hogg. — On certain Tripolar Relations. 317
Art. XXXII. — On certain Tripolar Relations: Part 111.
By B. G. Hogg, M.A., F.E.A.S., Christ's College, Christchurch.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 1st November, 1916 ; received
by Editors, 22nd December, 1917 ; issued separately, 24th June, 191S.]
The equation of the circle of radius p having its centre at the point 0,
whose trilinear co-ordinates are (a0, fi0, yD), is
U ee aa0X + b/30Y + c7oZ - 2ES0 - 2 a p2 = o (i)
Let d be the distance of O from H, the centre of the circle ABC. If
U pass through H, then
R2 (aa0 + b(i0 + cy0) - 2ES0 - 2 a d2 = o ;
i.e., 2ES0= 2 a (E2 - d2) :
hence U may be written
aaQX + b/3QY + cy0Z == 2a (R2 + p2 - d*) (h)
If the circle U cut the circle ABC at the angle 0, then R2 4 p2 — d*
= 2Ep cos 0, whence
U = <xa0X 4 b/3(Y -f- cy0Z — abc p cos b — o (iii)
The equations of the circles of radius p and centre (a0/?0y0) touching
the circle ABC internally and externally are respectively
</aX 4- b(30Y + cy0Zi — abc p = o
aa X + bfi0Y + cy0Z 4- abc p = o,
the trilinear co-ordinates of the point of contact being
td~7T \ao ± P cos A> A> ± P cos B> Vo ± p cos C ,
the negative sign being taken for internal contact.
If U reduce to a point-circle, (ii) then takes the form
««0X + bp0Y 4- c7oZ = (aa0 + b(3a + c7o) (R2 - d?) ;
i.e., aaG (X 4- & - R2) + bf30 (Y + d" -■ R4) 4- Cy0 (Z + & - R2) = o.
Let X = p,2, Y = p22, Z = p32, and let the radii HA, HB, HC subtend
at O the angles A., p., v respectively ; we then have
aacp! cos A. + b/3,p2 cos p 4- cynp:. cos v = o (iv)
318 Transactions.
The following particular cases of (iv) are of interest. For the ortho-
centre, in-centre, centroid, and symmedian point respectively
sin A cos A + siu B cos p + sin C cos v = o
A ^ B C
COS -- COS A + COS — COS p + COS .— COS v — 0
A A A
mr COS A + IU.2 COS p + ^h COS V = o
am,! cos A + bin., cos p + cm?, cos v — o,
where m1( mz, and m3 are the medians of the triangle ABC.
If 0 be either of the two points whose pedal triangles are equiangular,
then, since for these points ap1 = bp.2 = cpA,
aQ COS A + (S0 COS p + y0 COS v = 0.
If 0 be the focus of a conic inscribed in the triangle ABC, then the
equation of the conic is
a
\/X0a0a + b VTof3of3 + c v Zo7o7 = o.
Comparing this with the equation of the maximum inscribed ellipse,
v aa + Vb(3 4 v ' cy = o, we have aX0a0 = bY0/30 ■-= cZ0y0, whence
cos A cos p, cos v
AO~ + ~B0~ + "CO" = °'
For the Brocard ellipse this gives
COS A COS fi. cos v
BC . AO ' CA . BO ' AB . CO
Let U1 be the result of substituting in U the co-ordinates (X1, Y1, Z1)
for (X, Y, Z). Suppose a circle of radius p1 concentric with U to pass
through the point (X^Z1), then
U1 = aaQXl + 6&Y1 + cy.Z1 - 2ES0 - 2a P2
0 = aaQXl + 6/3QY' + cy^1 - 2BS0 - 2 a p1 2
.-. U1 = 2 a (p1 a - p~) = 2 a t1 2,
where t1 is the length of the tangent from (X^Z1) to the circle U = O.
Let tlt t.,, and ts be the lengths of the tangents to the circle U from
A, B, C respectively : then
2 a t? = b/30c2 + cyjb1 - 2 a (B2 - cV- + p2) ;
2 a (tf + B2 - d.2 + p2) = 6y80c2 + cy0b\
We have X0 = t£ + p'2, whence, if OH subtend at A, B, and C the
angles 0, <j>, </, respectively,
abc pj cos 6 = bfi0c- + cy06'2
abc p<, cos <£ = aaQc2 + cy0a2
abc p:i cos i/' = aajf -f- 6/?0a.2
2 a - aa0 + ty30 + Cy.
= o,
Hogg. — On certain Tripolar Relations. 319
Eliminating aa0, b(30, cy0 we have
2RPl cos 0 o c- b2
2Rp.2 cos <p c2 o a2
2Rp3 cos if/ b2 d1 o
1 111
which reduces to the relation
apy cos A cos 0 + bp2 cos B cos <f> + cp. cos C cos f =2a.
From the equations
aPl cos 6 /50 y0 bp2 cos 0 _ y0 aQ cP3 cos i/r _ a /30
r — -j- i > 1 > 7 — 1 — r>
be b c ca o a ab a b
we see that if O lie on the trilinear polar of the symmedian point
BC2 AO cos $ + CA2 BO cos 0 + AB2 CO cos ^ = o.
Solving for a0, /30, y0 from the above equations, and substituting in
he equation of the circle ABC, we obtain the relation
BC v'OA cos 0 + CA \/OB cos <£ + AB \/OC cos~^ = o
for any point O on the circle.
If tQ be the length of the tangent to any circle from the middle point
of BC. then
2 A ti = aa0c2 + c7oa2 - 2 (RS0 + A P2)
2 a t2 = aa0b2 + bft0d2 - 2 (RS0 + a p2)
2 a t2 = aa0m> + f (&& + cy0) - 2 (RS0 + a p2)
where w, is the median drawn through A.
Hence 2 A (ti + t2 - 2tQ2)
= aa0 (b2 + c2 - 2m?) + ~ {bft0 + cyj
Zi
a2 _
»•«•. 41 + «»! = 2t0a+^-',
A
an extension of the Theorem of Apollonius.
If U be the polar circle of the triangle ABC, then
U = tan AX + tan BY + tan CZ - 2 a = o
.-. 2 a t2 = k (c2 tan A + a2 tan C - 2 a),
where K = 4R2 cos A cos B cos C,
which reduces to t22 = ca cos B. Also t2 = ab cos C, hence £22 + tJ = tr.
If in the triangle ABC the angle A be obtuse, then the sum of the
squares of the tangents to the polar circle from B and C is BC2.
If U = o pass through the point (XjYjZi), then the locus of O
(«oA>Yo) is the circle
V = aaX1 + b/SY, + cyZj - 2RS - 2 a p2 = o.
'320 Transactions.
If tlt U, t8 be the lengths of the tangents to the circle V from A, B, C
respectively, then Xx = tx2 + p2, Y1 = U2 -f p'2, Z = tr 4- p'2, and the
equation of the circle takes the form
V= (t2aa + t.?b(3 + ts2cy) (aa + bfi + cy) - abc S = o.
If V touch the circle ABC, then expressing that the radical axis of the
two circles is a tangent to S we have
at, + bt2 + ct, = o,
from which we obtain Ptolemy's theorem if we suppose V to reduce
to a point-circle.
This extension of Ptolemy's theorem may be proved geometrically as
follows : —
Suppose the circle V to touch the circle ABC' at the point O on
the arc BC, and let AO, BO, CO meet V in the points D, E, F respec-
OP OR
tively ; then Uj == BO . BE and t2 == CO . CF. Also ~ = ^, and
O r O C
"D"tl AT)
therefore — = — , hence t2 : t2 = OB'2 : OC2 ;
CF OC
i.e., tx : t., : ts = OA : OB : OC.
By Ptolemy's theorem BC . OA = AC . OB + AB . OC ;
i.e., at-i = bt^ + ctA.
If t be the length of the tangent to the circle V = o from any point P
("cft,yo). then
2 a t2 = aa0t2 + b/3Qt2 + cy0t? - 2RS,,.
For the circle BPC, t = t, = ts = o.
Consider now the circles BPC, CPA, APB. We have
aaJS = b{3JS = cyjy = 2ES0.
Hence """ + 6& + c7o __ 1 , 1 . 1
HenCe ^RS^ t* + tf + t2
111 1
l-e> n + ri + 7i
t2 t£ ' t,2 R'2 - a1'2
where a7 is the distance of P from the circum-centre of the triangle ABC.
If P be the symmedian point of the triangle ABC. then atx = bt2 = cts :
if G be the centroid of the triangle L2 = t? — t2 — ^ 2 (a2).
If the circle V reduce to a point Pj whose tripolar co-ordinates are
(XjYjZi) we have
X,«a + Y,bf3 + Z,cy = 2RS.
For a point-circle at P.2 (X2Y.2Z2)
X./ia + Ya6/8 + Z,cy = 2KS.
Hence the radical axis of the pair of circles is
(X, - X,) aa + (T, - Y,) b/3 + (Zj - Z,) cy = o.
Hogg. — On certain Tripolar Relations. 321
X Y 7
If P1} P2 be inverse points determined by the equations - — -: = — ,
(■ 11 1 n
1 1 X.i — X2 Yj — Y0 Zj — Z.2 . , ,
then — = = r = - = kj — k.,, where kx and k2 are the
Z wi //
roots of the equation *2 [2 (aH2) — 2 2 (6c cos Aww]
- 2k a&c [2 (a cos A/)] + a26V2 = o.
Hence the equation of the line bisecting perpendicularly the above pair
of inverse points is
laa + mbfi + ncy = o.
The two points whose pedal triangles are equilateral are determined by
the equations a2X = Z>2Y = c2Z. Hence these points are equidistant from
the line — I- r + — = o, which is therefore perpendicular to the Brocard
a b c
diameter 2 [a2 (b2 — c2) X] = o, on which the points lie.
The two points whose distances from A, B, C are proportional respec-
X Y 7
tively to a, b, c are given by the equations — ==- = —: they therefore
(At (J C
lie on Euler's line, 2[(&2 — c2) X] = o, and are equidistant from the line
a?a + bsfi + c3y = o.
Let two pairs of inverse points be determined by the equations
— =-- = - and — = -- = — ; the centre of the circle through them
will be determined by the equations
lxaa + mib/3 + nxcy = o
Uaa + mjbfi + n.2cy = o,
whence fla : 6/3 : cy = m^ — ra.yH, : w^ — n2l\ : Z^ — Z2mx,
and the equation of, the circle will be
(to!»2 — m2n1) X + (^1^2 — n-A) Y" + (^m2 - Z2??i]) Z — o.
The two pairs of points will lie respectively on the diameters
(m, — iij) X -f (wj — Zj) Y + (Zx — m:) Z = o
(ra2 - ?i2) X -f (n.2 — L) Y + (Z2 — ra2) Z = o.
We now proceed to find the equation in tripolar co-ordinates of the
inverse of the circle U = o with respect to S, the circum-circle of the
triangle ABC.
U = ZX + mY + nZ - h2 = o
S = a cos AX + b cos BY + c cos CZ — abc = o.
Let P be any point on U and Q its inverse. Let (X, Y, Z), (X1, Y1, Z1)
be the tripolar co-ordinates of P and Q respectively, then
X Y^ Z HP2
XI = Y1 == Z1 = ~W'
where H is the circum-centre.
Hence HP2 (ZX1 + mY1 + nZ1) = /i2E2.
11— Trans.
322 Transactions.
The equation of the circle of radius HP concentric with the circum-
circle is
a cos AX + b cos BY + c cos CZ - 2 A E = 4EHP2 sin A sin B sin C.
H ftficft
HP2 (a cos AX1 + b cos BY1 + c cos CZ1 - 2 a E) = 2 aB\
Eliminating HP2, the equation of the inverse of U becomes
a cos AX + b cos BY + c cos CZ - 2 a E _ 2 A E
IX + mY + ?iZ ~P~
or h* (S + 2 a E) = 2 a E (ft2 + U) ;
i.e., /rS - 2 a EU = o.
The equation of the circle which is the inverse of the line ZX + mY
+ nZi — h? = o takes the same form as the above, subject to the condition
I + m -+■ n = o.
The equation of the circle which is the inverse with respect to, the
circle ABC of the line pa + qfi + ry = o is
aX {p cos 2A + q cos (A — B) + r cos (C — A)}
+ bY {p cos (A -- B) + q cos 2B + r cos (B - C)}
+ cZi {p cos (C - A) + q cos (B - C) + r cos 2C}
= abc (p cos A -\- q cos B + r cos C).
The equation of the circle which is the inverse with respect to the
circle ABC of the line — (- ^- -f 5- = o is
a o c
a cos (A — w) X + b cos (B — a>) Y +• c cos (C - w) Z — abc cos oo,
where w is the Brocard angle of the triangle ABC.
PROCEEDINGS.
11s
PEOCBEDINGS
OP THE
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE,
1917.
FIFTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING.
Wellington, 29th and 30th January, 1918.
The annual meeting of the New Zealand Institute Board of Governors was
held in the Dominion Museum Library on Tuesday, the 29th January, 1918,
at 10 a.m.
Present : Professor Benham, President (in the chair) ; Professors Kirk.
Marshall, Segar, and A. P. W. Thomas ; Drs. Cockayne, Hilgendorf, and
Allan Thomson ; Messrs. Aston, Birks, Eliott, Ewen, Hill, Hogben, Parr,
and G. M. Thomson.
The Secretary called the roll, and the President apologized for the
absence of Professor Chilton, who was laid aside by illness.
Presidential Address.- — -The President then delivered his presidential
address (see p. 338).
A hearty vote of thanks to the President for his address was moved by
Mr. Hill, seconded by Professor Marshall, and carried. A Committee con-
sisting of the President and Dr. Hilgendorf was, on the motion of Pro-
fessor Kirk, seconded by Professor Thomas, appointed to consider and report
on points in the President's address which call for action, to report to this
meeting.
The Incorporated Societies' Annual Reports and Balance-sheets for their
last financial years were laid on the table. Received.
The Report of the Standing Committee was considered clause by clause
and adopted (Appendices A, B, C to be discussed later).
Report or the Standing Committee fob the Year ending 31st December, 1917.
Five meetings of the Committee have been held during the year, the attendance
being as follows: Dr. Cockayne, 2; Professor Easterfield, 5; Professor Kirk, 5;
Dr. Thomson, 5 ; and Mr. Aston, 5.
Hector Memorial Fund Award. — No details of the presentation to Sir E. Rutherford
have yet been received, although medal and prize were sent to England over a year
ago through the Department of Internal Affairs and the Public Trustee respectively.
The 1917 medal was publicly presented to Dr. C. Chilton at a meeting of the Philosophical
Institute of Canterbury held on the 1st August, 1917. The Public Trustee has been
nstructed to forward a cheque for the amount of the prize to Di. Chilton.
326 Proceedings.
Hution Memorial Medal for 1917. — The medal was publicly presented to Dr. P.
Marshall by His Excellency the Governor- General when on a visit to Wanganui in
September, but no details have yet been received.
Jubilee of the Institute. — This year the New Zealand Institute completes its fiftieth
year of activity. The Standing Committee recommends that, owing to the war, any
recognition of the Jubilee be postponed until a more convenient season.
War Roll of Honour. — -The Hon. Secretary has collected data from the incorporated
societies for the preparation of a Roll of Honour to be published at some future date.
Volume 48, Transactions and Proceedings, N.Z. Institute. — This was issued in bulk
to the incorporated societies in October, 1916, but Parliament having adjourned, a
copy was not laid on the table of the House of Representatives until the 3rd July,
1917, and on that of the Legislative Council on the 5th July, 1917.
Distribution of Transactions. — The Standing Committee regrets that it was not
found possible to distribute the Transactions volume 49 to each member by post from
Wellington.
Distribution of Excess of Back Numbers of Transactions. — -A few applications from
libraries have been received for partial sets, and the following should be added to the
list of those who have received them : —
Department of Agriculture Library, Wellington.
Technical College, Wanganui.
Fiji Museum, Suva.
Kuaotunu Public Library, Kuaotunu.
Mailing-list. — The following has been added to the mailing-list, and will in future
receive the Transactions as published : —
American Journal of Science (Editors), Yale University, New Haven, Con-
necticut, U.S.A."
Resolutions of the Standing Committee — Banking Account : It was resolved that
only the following be authorized to operate on the histitute's banking accounts : viz.,
the Hon. Treasurer, the Hon. Secretary, and Professor Easterfield. This to coirtinue
in force until revoked in writing.
Major Brourts Bulletin. — -It was resolved that 400 copies of Major Broirn's bulletin
be printed.
National Efficiency and Research. — A most important feature in the history of the
New Zealand Institute was the appeal from the Government National Efficiency Board
for advice on the relation of scientific and industrial research to national efficiency.
On the 7th June, 1917, a letter from the Chairman of the National Efficiency Board
(Mr. William Ferguson) was received by the Standing Committee, asking its advice,
and suggesting that the Committee should hold a special meeting to consider the
following resolution forwarded by the National Efficiency Board : — " Scientific and
Industrial Research : Resolved, That the Standing Committee of the New Zealand
Institute be asked to advise the Chairman on the matter, with power to consult other
scientific men technologists in the Dominion, and the Committee be requested to hold
its first meeting on a date when, if possible, the Senate of the University will be in
Wellington, so that those members of that body who are members of the Committee
can attend its deliberations/'
The Standing Committee referred the matter to the President of the Institute
(Professor Benham, Dunedin), asking for authority to resolve itself into a committee
with power to co-opt members outside those already on the Board of Governors, to
receive suggestions from the incorporated societies and other bodies and persons
interested in any scheme of organization of research and industry, to collect these
suggestions received, and to prepare a scheme for submission to the full Board of
Governors.
A confidential repoit on the organization of scientific and industrial research, by Dr.
J. Allan Thomson, dated the 20th July, 1916, to the Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs,
was used as a basis of discussion, with the consent of the Hon. the Minister, who sup-
plied a limited number of typed copies for private circulation. At a further meeting on
the 5th July the Standing Committee received a letter from the President empowering
the Committee to proceed in the direction desired. The Committee therefore co-opted
the following: Dr. C. E. Adams, Mr. D. C. Bates, Dr. C. A. Cotton, Mr. William
Ferguson, Dr. Frengley, Mr. F. W. Furkcrt. Mr. W. H. Holmes, Mr. H. H. Jackson,
Mr. J. C. Lewis. Dr. J. S. Maclaurin, Mr. W. B. Montgomery, Mr. P. G. Morgan,
Mr. W. H. Morton, Mr. Evan Parry, Dr. C. J. Reakes, and Mr. E. Phillips Turner.
Certain bodies were also asked to select someone to represent them on the Com-
mittee', and the following were so elected : The Industrial Corporation of New Zealand
appointed its president, Mr. F. J. Evans ; the Workers' Education Association of
Fifteenth Annual Meeting. 327
Wellington appointed Professor T. Hunter ; and the Council of Education appointed
Mr. George Hogben to represent it on the Committee.
The name of this Committee adopted was the New Zealand Institute's Scientific
and Industrial Research Committee. Mr. George Hogben, C.M.G., was unanimously
appointed permanent Chairman, and seven meetings were held in September, October,
November, and December, the attendance being as follows: Mr. George Hogben, 7 ;
Dr.. Adams, 6; Mr. Aston, t> ; Mr. Bates, 4; Dr. Cockayne, 0 ; Dr. Cotton, 6; Pro-
fessor Easterfield, 4 ; Mr. Evans, 7 ; Dr. Frengley, 5 ; Mr. Furkert, 4 ; Mr. Ferguson,
4 ; Professor Hunter, 6 ; Mr. Holmes, 6 ; Mr. Lewis. 6 ; Dr. Maclaurin, 6 ; Mr. Mont-
gomery, 4 ; Mr. Morgan. 7 ; Mr. Morton, 1 ; Mr. Parry, 2 ; Dr. Reakes, 4 ; Dr.
Thomson, (i ; Mr. Turner, 5 ; Mr-. H. Hill, 1.
The Honorary Secretary of the New Zealand Institute was elected Honorary Secre-
tary of this Committee. A sub- committee, consisting of Mr. George Hogben and Dr.
Thomson, was set up to prepare a synopsis of the various schemes at present adopted
by other countries for advancing science and industry. This was drawn up as a report
by the sub-committee, submitted to the Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs on the 2nd
October, 1917, and at once published as a parliamentary paper, H.-47, 1917, Organiza-
tion of Scientific and Industrial Research, and laid before Parliament, then sitting.
The Committee resolved that it was necessary that a research scheme should be
prepared. A sub-committee was set up to draw up a list of suitable bodies and
persons to circularize throughout the Dominion asking for any suggestions which they
had to offer. The replies which were received were summarized by the Chairman.
The Committee took the scheme of the Wellington Philosophical Society (see Par-
liamentary Paper H.-47, 1917) as a basis for formulating a new scheme, and duly
considering (a) the replies which had been received in answer to the Committee's
circular, (b) the opinion of certain prominent scientific research workers who happened
to be in Wellington at the Board of Studies meeting of the New Zealand University.
Certain recommendations were drawn up advising the setting-up of a Board of Science
and Industry, and prescribing the method of election or of appointment, and also the
functions of the members of this proposed Board. The President of the New Zealand
Institute having given his permission for this Committee to send their report in to the
Government without consulting the Board of Governors as a whole (who nevertheless
were kept informed by circular of the progress of the scheme), the report was sent in
to the Chairman of the National Efficiency Board on the 9th November, 1917.
At the request of the Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs, the Committee waited
upon him on the 12th December, 1917, to hear his views and to give any advice desired
as to the advancement of science and industry. The Minister promised to support the
scheme drawn up by the Committee.
Mr. Ferguson informed the Hon. the Minister that the recommendations of the Com-
mittee would receive consideration at the meeting of the National Efficiency Board to
be held on the 8th January, 1918, and were then to be sent on to the Government.
(Your Committee is informed that this has now been done.)
At an early stage of the Committee's deliberations a motion was carried urging the
Government to place on the supplementary estimates £2,000 for the purpose of promot-
ing scientific research. This motion was forwarded through the National Efficiency
Board to the Government.
The Prime Minister has informed the Board that the following sums have been
placed on the estimates under the Department of Internal Affairs : — £
(1.) Dominion Laboratory — Scientific research .. .. 500
(2.) Miscellaneous Services — Grant to the New Zealand Insti-
tute for research work . . . . . . . . 500
(:{.) Dominion Museum — Scientific and industrial research .. 250
£1.250
As requested, the Standing Committee has extended the powers of the Scientific
and Industrial Research Committee so that it may undertake the preliminary work of
collecting data concerning New Zealand's industries and research workers, and facilities
for carrying out the work. The Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs having informed
the Committee that he was prepared to take steps at an early date to inaugurate a
Dominion scheme of scientific and industrial research by making a preliminary census
of past research, actual problems of industry awaiting solution, and of available labora-
tories and research workers, and that there was a vote of £250 on the Museum estimates
available for the purpose, the Committee advises that the Director of the Dominion
Museum should undertake such census, and that a Committee of the New Zealand
Institute shoidd co-operate with him.
328
Proceedings .
Annual Reports and Balance-sheets of the following incorporated societies have teen
received and are now laid on the table. No reports have been received from the
Wanganui or the Nelson Societies.
Auckland Institute, to 22nd February, 1917.
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, to 31st October, 1917.
Otago Institute, to 30th November, 1917.
Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, to 1st December, 1917.
Manawatu Philosophical Society, to 30th November. 1917.
Wellington Philosophical Society, to 30th September, 1917.
Auckland Institute Jubilee. — An illustrated pamphlet entitled The First Fifty Years
of the Auckland Institute and Museum, and its Future Aims, a Jubilee Sketch, was pub-
lished by the Auckland Institute in September, 1917. A copy is now laid on the table.
Public Meeting of the New Zealand Institute. — The desirability of holding a public
meeting of the New Zealand Institute to arouse some public interest in scientific affairs,
more especially in relation to industry, was discussed by the Committee, and Dr. Hector,
Dr. Allan Thomson, Mr. Ewen, and the Hon. Secretary were appointed a sub-committee
to' make arrangements to hold it on the 30th January, 1917, the night of the last annual
meeting, and the Town Hall was engaged for the purpose. It was not found possible,
however, to obtain the necessary support at the time, and the matter was allowed to
drop.
Honorary Treasurer s Reports.— The financial statements of the Hono-
rary Treasurer, Mr. C. A. Ewen, comprising (a) Receipts and expenditure,
(b) assets and liabilities, (c) the Carter Bequest, the Hutton Memorial Fund,
and the Hector Memorial Fund, all of which were duly audited and certi-
fied by the Auditor-General, were adopted on the motion of Mr. Ewen,
seconded by Mr. Birks.
The Public Trustee's reports on his administration of the Carter Bequest,
the Hutton and the Hector Funds for the year ending 31st December, 1917,
were adopted on the motion of Mr. Hill, seconded by Mr. Ewen.
Statement of Receipts and Expenditure for the Year ending 31st December,
1917.
Receipts.
Balance at 31st December,
1916 ..
Post Office Savings-bank in-
terest to 31st December,
1917 ..
Government grant (30th June)
Publications sold
City Corporation, refund rent
hall not used
Wanganui Philosophical So-
ciety levy for year ending
31st December, 1916
Hawke's Bay Philosophical
Society levy for year 1916
Nelson Institute levy for 1916
Grant for research refunded
by Mr. D. Petrie
Grant from Treasury (1st
February)
Grant from Treasury (28th
March)
£
s.
d.
Expenditure.
Hire Concert Chamber, Town
£
s.
d.
561
11
10
Hall, for 30th January . .
McKay, custodian, preparing
2
2
0
room and packing
3
0
0
15*
6
1
Miss Bates, typing
4
10
0
500
0
0
Government Printer, Vol. 48,
47
19
5
authors' copies and printing
599
17
0
Governors' travelling-expenses
35
10
6
2
2
0
Grant for research to Philo-
sophical Institute of Canter-
bury
110
0
0
6
17
6
Grant for research to Welling-
ton Philosophical Society
75
0
0
6
0
6
Grant for research to Hawke's
3
10
0
Bay Philosophical Institute
Grant for research to D.
20
0
0
20
0
0
Petrie
Fire-insurance premium, £1,500
20
0
0
120
0
0
on library
5
0
0
Hon. Editor, petty expenses
4
0
0
20
0
0
Hon. Secretary, petty ex-
penses
5
0
0
Bank charge
0
10
0
Balance in —
P.O. Savings- £ s. d.
bank .. 333 14 7
Bank of N.Z. 85 3 3
418
17
10
£1,303
7
4
£1
.303
7
4
Fifteenth Annual Meeting.
329
Statement of Liabilities and Assets at 31st December, 1917.
By Balance in Bank of New Zealand
Balance in Post Office Savings-bank
Hector Memorial Fund and per contra
Hutton Memorial Fund and per contra
Carter Bequest and per contra
Institute levies for year 1917 (per list)
Authors' copies and books sold
To Special grants for research purposes
Government Printer's account, authors' copies, &c
Cost 1917 volume. No. 49
New Zealand Express Company
By Balance
To Balance
Liabilities.
A ssets.
£ s.
d.
£ s.
85 3
333 14
d.
3
7
.. 1,106 13
9
1
,106 13
9
787 11
5
787 11
5
.. 4,138 5
11
4
, 138 5
124 7
7 6
II
6
1
45 0
0
88 13
0
577 0
0
m t
3 13
6
163 15
1
£6,746 17
7
£6
,746 17
7
£163 15 1
Against this debit balance the Institute has a large stock of Transactions for sale,
and possesses a very valuable library.
Hector Memorial Fund. — Statement of Receipts and Expenditure for the
Year ending 31st December, 1917.
Dr. Cr.
£ s. d. £ s. d.
By Balance brought forward .. .. .. .. 1,093 18 0
Public Trust Office— £ s. d.
Interest, 31st December, 1916, to 31st
December, 1917 . . 48 1 4
Bonus for year ending 31st December,
1917 .. .. .. 4 15 11
To New Zealand Institute —
Hector Prize, awarded Professor Sir E. Rutherford.
Postages
Balance in hands of Public Trustee
By Balance
40 0 0
0 1 6
1,106 13 9
52 17 3
£1,146 15 3 £1,146 15 3
£1,106 13 9
Hutton Memorial Fund. — Statement of Receipts and Expenditure for the
Year ending 31st December, 1917.
Dr.
By Balance brought forward
Public Trust Office— £ s. d.
Interest, 31st December, 1916, to 31st
December, 1917 . . . . 33 14 S
Bonus for year ending 31st March.
1917 .. .. .. 3 6 4
To Balance in hands of Public Trustee
£ s. d.
787 11 5
£787 11 5
Cr.
£ s. d.
750 10 5
1 0
£787 11 5
By Balance
£787 11 5
Dr.
Cr
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
3,944 3 5
177 5 10
17 1 11
0 5 3
4,138 5 11
£4,138 11 2
£4,138 11 2
.'l.')H Proceedings.
Carter Bequest.— Statement of Receipts and Expenditure for the Year ending
31st December, 1917.
Bv Balance brought forward
Public Trust Office-
Interest from 31st December, 1916, to 31st
December, 1917
Bonus interest from 31st December, 1916, to
31st December, 1917
To Public Trustee-
Commission
Balance in hands of Public Trustee
By Balance .. .. .. .. .. .. £4,138 5 11
Financial Position. — After a general discussion on the financial position
of the Institute it was resolved, on the motion of Mr. Ewen, seconded by
Dr. Cockayne, That for every copy of Volume 50 of the Transactions re-
ceived by the incorporated societies a contribution of 2s. 6d. towards the
cost of printing shall be made during the current year by such society.
On the motion of Professor Thomas, seconded by Mr. Hill, it was resolved,
That strong representations be made to the Government by the New
Zealand Institute with the view of obtaining an increased grant of £750
for this year for the publication of the Transactions and other scientific
work.
Hutton Grant for Research. — Mr. G-. M. Thomson, Chairman of the Porto-
bello Fish-hatchery, read a further report of the work carried out during
1917, which had been assisted by a grant from the Hutton Fund in Januarv,
1916.
Hector Award for 1918. — -The recommendations of the Committee of
Award — Professor Chilton, Dr. Cockayne (convener), Professor Easter-
field, and Professor P. Marshall — was received in a sealed envelope by the
President, and the recommendation awarding the medal and prize to Mr.
T. F. Cheeseman, of Auckland, was adopted on the motion of Professor
Thomas, seconded by Mr. G. M. Thomson.
Report of the Hector Memorial Award Committee.
The members of the Hector Memorial Award Committee for 1918 — Professor C.
Chilton, Dr. L. Cockayne, Professor T. H. Easterfield, and Dr. P. Marshall — having
carefully considered the claims of all botanists who, in their opinion, might be entitled
to receive the Hector Memorial Medal and Prize, have unanimously decided to recom-
mend Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S., as the recipient of the award.
This they do on the grounds not only of the great excellence of Mr. Cheeseman' s
published researches on New Zealand systematic botany, phytogeography, and floral
biology, winch have been carried on without a break since the early " seventies" of the
last century, but also because of the supreme influence of his work, especially of his
admirable Manual of the New Zealand Flora, upon botanical investigation throughout
the Dominion. Leonard Cockayne,
Convener of the Committee.
Publication Committee's Report. — On the motion of Dr. Cockayne, the
Publication Committee's report was adopted. On the motion of Dr. Hil-
gendorf, seconded by Professor Segar, it was resolved, That the question
of inserting the date of receipt of papers by the Honorary Editors be left
to the Publication Committee.
Fifteenth Annual Meeting. 331
Report of the Publication Committee.
Sixty papers were offered for publication, and of these fifty were accepted by
the Committee for publication in Volume 49 of the Transactions. It' was decided to
deposit the manuscript of another paper in the library of the New Zealand Institute
and to publish the title, so that this might be indexed and give information to other
workers as to the availability of the work. It is proposed to treat similarly other papers
so deposited in the future. The remainder of the papers were withdrawn, held over,
or declined.
Volume 49 of the Transactions and Proceedings of the Neiv Zealand Institute was
issued on the 20th December, 1917. It contained xvi + 618 pages (of which 88 are
devoted to the Proceedings), 37 plates, and many text-figures.
The late publication of the volume must be accepted as a direct consequence of the
war, which has depleted the staff of the Government Printing Office and supplied it
with a large amount of extra work of an urgent nature. It must be remembered that
the publication of scientific matter is undertaken by the Government Printing Office
only in the slack season. When the pressure of urgent work for Government Depart-
ments increases, the time available for work on the Institute's publications is reduced.
The Committee is of the opinion that the Institute is deeply indebted to the Government
Printing Office for maintaining the high standard of typographical work in the
Transactions in these trying times, and, while regretting the lateness of the publication
of Volume 49, realizes that the lateness resulted from uncontrollable circumstances.
An innovation that has given much satisfaction is the issuing of authors' copies
of articles in Volume 49 in advance of publication of the volume. This was authorized
by a resolution of the Board of Governors, and has resulted in giving early publication
to those papers in particular which appear in the early pages of the Transactions. Each
paper bears the date of issue, and, in accordance with the resolution of the Board of
Governors, the date of receipt of the manuscript by the Editors. The latter, however,
is at present meaningless, since the manuscripts are generally retained by the Secretaries
of the incorporated societies until the last week of December. Moreover, the only
apparent reason for recording the date of receipt is to insure page priority in the volume,
and no resolution to this effect has been passed. If this is the intention of the Board
of Governors, it necessitates a revision of the method of transmission of manuscripts
from the authors to the Editors, and also involves a departure from the present
method of arrangement of papers in the volume according to subjects and authors.
If this is not the intention, the insertion of the date of receipt of the manuscript seems
useless.
The Committee recommends that the Secretaries of the incorporated societies be
requested to send the manuscripts of papers to the Editors as soon as possible after they
have been read. If this is done, much earlier publication of the authors' copies than
has been usual may be expected. Early receipt of the manuscripts will also allow these
to be returned to the authors when extensive alterations are required, and, in some
cases, will obviate the necessity of holding over such papers for a year.
Bulletin No. 1, Part V, on the New Zealand Coleoptera, by Major T. Broun, was
published on the 26th June, 1917, and contains 128 pages of text. Publication of the
other three bulletins mentioned in the 1917 report is still delayed owing to shortage
of funds.
The Committee wishes to draw attention to the fact that the majority of manu-
scripts as received are not well prepared for publication either as regards text or
illustrations. The " Memorandum for Authors of Papers " published annually in the
Transactions is evidently seldom consulted.
For the Committee.
L. Cockayne, ) „ v ,.,
,, . ~ ' Hon. Editors.
0. A. Cotton, j
The Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs, Mr. G. W. Kussell, was at
this stage welcomed by the President.
The President thanked the Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs for
addressing the meeting, and for his promise of further assistance to the
Institute.
Report of the Library Committee. — The Hon. Librarian's report was
adopted on the motion of Dr. Thomson, seconded by Mr. Hill.
Report of Library Committee.
The incoming exchanges have been received, registered, and placed upon the
shelves. As the Institute has not been able to devote any funds to bookbinding
332 Proceedings.
since 1904, the task of keeping the library in an efficient state yearly becomes more
difficult. In the opinion of the Committee the time has come when the Institute should
make a strong "appeal to the Government for additional funds specifically allotted to
the binding of the Institute's library, which has already been offered, under conditions
not yet fixed, to the Board of Science and Art.
The compilation of the index cards for 1915 for the International Catalogue of
Scientific Literature was referred to the Library Committee, and the cards for many of
the subjects have been prepared, but have been withheld until the Board of Governors
reconsidered the whole subject.
The only New Zealand journals recognized by the International Catalogue are
the Transactions, Proceedings, and Bulletins of the New Zealand Institute, the Journal
of Agriculture, the Polynesian Journal, and the Journal of the British Medical Associa-
tion (N.Z. Branch). The following important serials are omitted from the list : the
Bulletins and Palaeontological Bulletins of the New Zealand Geological Survey, the
Bulletins of the Dominion Museum, and the Appendices to the Journals of the House of
Representatives, which last contain the annual reports of Departments and occasional
scientific papers of importance.
It is the duty of the New Zealand Institute, acting as the Regional Bureau for
New Zealand, to make representations to the International Council as to what New
Zealand journals should be indexed, and your Committee felt that it was inadvisable
to send forward the cards already prepared for 1915 until the Board of Governors had
considered the whole matter. We are further of opinion that the International Council
should be asked to forward their annual report each year, so that affairs of the Inter-
national Catalogue may come up automatically before the Board of Governors.
J. Allan Thomson,
Hon. Librarian.
Binding of Books. — On the motion of Mr. Hill, seconded by Mr. G-. M.
Thomson, it was resolved, That application be made to the Minister of
Internal Affairs for a grant, as soon as circumstances permit, sufficient to
provide for binding the large number of unbound publications now in the
library of the Institute.
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature.— On the motion of Dr.
Thomson, seconded by Mr. Parr, it was resolved, That the following be
added to the list of serials to be indexed for the International Catalogue
cf Scientific Literature, and sent to the International Council : —
(1.) Bulletins and Palaeontological Bulletins of the New Zealand
Geological Survey.
(2.) Bulletins of the Dominion Museum.
(3.) Bulletins of the Board of Science and Art.
(4.) The New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology.
(5.) Appendices to the Journals of the House of Representatives.
(6.) Public Health Reports.
It was resolved, on the motion of Dr. Thomson, seconded by Professor
Segar, That the International Council be informed that the New Zealand
Institute considered it important that Government publications should be
indexed in the International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, and that the
Library Committee be instructed to draft a letter explaining the position.
On the motion of Dr. Thomson, seconded by Professor Thomas, it was
resolved, That Professor Dendy be appointed to represent the New Zealand
Institute on the International Council of the International Catalogue of
Scientific Literature.
Bulletins. — The matter of publishing future bulletins was left in the
hands of the Publication Committee to deal with at their discretion.
Library Catalogue. — -Dr. Thomson explained the system of multiple
card-indexing museum exhibits, and suggested that it might be made to
apply to a library catalogue.
Fifteenth Annual Meeting. 333
The Report of the Research Grant Committee was read, and, on the motion
of Mr. Aston, seconded by Dr. Thomson, was adopted. On the motion of
Dr. Hilgendorf, seconded by Professor Segar, it was resolved, That the
grants already voted but not expended be renewed to the original appli-
cants for the coming year.
On the motion of Dr. Hilgendorf, seconded by Mr. Hogben, it was
resolved, That all applications for research grants be made through
incorporated societies.
Report of the Research Grant Committee.
(Professor Easterfield, Dr. Allan Thomson, and Mr. B. C. Aston.)
The grantees for 1916-17 (see Trans, and Proc, N.Z. Inst, vol. 49, p. 580) have
reported as follows : —
Mr. L. Symes (Canterbury Philosophical Institute) reports (15/12/17) that no
portion of the grant has been expended, owing to the difficulty of obtaining the necessary
assistance. Some preliminary work has been done, but little progress can be reported.
The grantee asks that the grant be renewed for the coming year. A committee of the
Canterbury Philosophical Institute, consisting of Messrs. Hilgendorf, Page, Wild, Martin,
and the grantee, has been appointed to carry on the work during the coming season.
Mr. L. Birks (Canterbury Philosophical Institute) reports (28/1/18) that the grant
has not been touched, but asks that the same sum be voted for this year.
Messrs. Speight and Wild (Canterbury Philosophical Institute) report (1/12/17)
having visited various localities in the South Island and having expended out of the
grant of £50 the sum of £21 10s. 9d. in travelling-expenses. The work done they regard
as preliminary to the attack on the problem from the commercial standpoint.
Mr. H. Hill (Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute) furnishes (20/11/17) a narrative
of his journey across the Taupo Plains, with complete statements of expenditure, showing
that the grant has been fully expended.
Professor Kirk (23/12/17) supplies an interim report, with a statement of £12 2s.
expended out of £25 voted, and asks that the unexpended balance be allowed to stand
over for another year.
Messrs. La Trobe and Adams report (24/1/18) that £64 Is. 6d. has been spent in
the construction of apparatus, and make application for a further grant of £75.
Professor Jack (Otago Institute) has not been able to do anything towards the
research for which £25 was voted but not paid, and asks (15/1/18) that the grant be
renewed for 1918.
Mr. D. Petrie (Auckland Institute), being unable to take up the research for which
£20 was granted, has surrendered his grant, and the money has been paid to the Institute.
Hamilton Memorial. — The report of the Hamilton Memorial Committee
of the Wellington Philosophical Society, showing photographs of the stone
selected and specifications and inscriptions in Maori and English, was read
and received.
On the motion of Mr. Birks, it was resolved to thank the Hamilton
Memorial Committee for their action.
On the motion of Mr. Hogben, seconded by Mr. Birks, it was resolved,
That the Standing Committee be authorized to co-operate with the Wel-
lington Philosophical Society in arranging the terms on which the balance
of the Hamilton Memorial Fund should be handed over in trust to the New
Zealand Institute.
Report of the Hamilton Memorial Committee of the Wellington Philosophical
Society.
The Committee has to report that in response to a circular asking for subscriptions
for a memorial to the late Mr. Augustus Hamilton, the sum of £122 2s. lOd. was received.
After consultation with the family of the late Mr. Hamilton, the Committee decided
to have a suitable monolith erected over the grave at Russell, Bay of Islands.
A number of designs were considered, and the one prepared by the Government
Architect, Mr. J. Campbell, F.R.I.B.A., was adopted. Working drawings and speci-
fications were prepared by Mr. Campbell, and steps were then taken to obtain a suitable
334 Proceedings.
block of stone. Inquiries were made at a number of quarries, and finally a block of
Kairuru marble was selected by the Committee and approved by Mr. H. Hamilton. The
block stands on a concrete base faced by four pieces of the same kind of marble, covering
an area of 4 ft. 6 in. by 3 ft. 7 in. A bronze tablet is mounted on the main block, and
has the following inscription in raised letters : —
AUGUSTUS HAMILTON
1853-1913
Director of the Dominion Museum
Wellington
an eminent student of maori lore
a lover of nature
an earnest seeker after truth
A bronze tablet is mounted in the marble base, and has the following inscription
in raised letters : —
KO TENEI PAKEHA KO HAMUTANA HE HOA TUTURU
NO TE IWI MAORI, A HE TANGATA MANAAKI
HOKI I NGA RAWA O MUA O TE MAORI, ME NGA
KAUWHAU O NEHE. KoiA I TAPAIA AI TONA INGOA
ko TUPAI TE AHORANGI ; te whatu o te whare
WANANGA, ME TE KAI TIAKI O TE KETE ARONUI.
This may be translated as —
" This European Hamilton was a firm friend of the Maori people, a person who
treasured their old-time works and ancient lore. Hence he was named Tupai te Ahorangi
— the Core of the House of Learning, the Preserver of Occult Knowledge."
The thanks of the Committee are tendered to Mr. R. W. Holmes, Engineer-in-
Chief, and Mr. John Wood, District Engineer, Public Works Department ; to Mr. Elsdon
Best ; to Mr. J. Campbell, Government Architect ; to Mr. G. Allport, Secretary for
Marine ; and to Captain Bo lions, of the Government steamer " Hinemoa," for valuable
services rendered.
Through the actions of these gentlemen in saving expenses the Committee is enabled
to hand over with this report an unexpended balance of £38 2s. 3d. The Committee
recommends that this sum be invested by the New Zealand Institute, and that each
year one half of the interest be added to the principal, and that the other half of the
interest be devoted to a prize to be called the Hamilton Prize. The prize should be
awarded from time to time by the New Zealand Institute to the author whose first
scientific writings which shall be deemed worthy of the honour of the prize shall have
appeared in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute or other similar publication
in New Zealand. The intention of the Committee is that the prize be restricted for
competition among beginners in scientific research. The Committee has to report that
this proposal is approved by the Hamilton family.
Specifications, working drawings, and photographs of the monument are forwarded
herewith.
C. Monro Hector, Chairman.
T. H. Easterfield.
Wellington, 24th October, 1917. C. E. Adams, Secretary.
New Zealand Mean Time.— A letter (20/12/17) from the Wellington
Philosophical Society enclosing a printed report of a Committee of t?he
Council of the Wellington Philosophical Society entitled " New Zealand
Standard Time " was received. On the motion of Mr. Birks, seconded by
Dr. J. Allan Thomson, it was resolved by nine votes to five, That the New
Zealand Institute endorse the resolution of the Wellington Philosophical
Society regarding the alteration of New Zealand mean time.
Bird-protection.- — -A letter from the Royal Zoological and Acclimatisation
Society of Victoria, Melbourne (15/10/17), was read and received. On the
motion of Professor Kirk, seconded by Professor Thomas, it was resolved,
That the Institute is in sympathy with all movements for the protection of
Fifteenth Annual Meeting. 335
harmless birds, and is prepared to co-operate with the Forest and Bird
Protection Society in this direction.
Kapiti Island Sanctuary. — On the motion of Dr. Thomson, it was resolved,
That Professor Kirk and Mr. Eliott, be a committee to visit and report on
Kapiti Island at the next meeting, and that their expenses be reimbursed
by the Institute.
Other Correspondence.— Letters (d), (e), (/), (g), (h), (i), from the Internal
Affairs Department, were read and received :■ —
(d.) Protection of fur seals. (2/3/17.)
(e.) Besolutions of the last meeting. (14/6/17.)
(/.) Catalogue of New Zealand fishes. (14/3/17.)
(g.) Housing library. (1/3/17.)
(h.) Increase in grant to New Zealand Institute. (2/2/17.)
(i.) Museum library. (1/2/17.)
Dominion Museum.' — It was resolved, on the motion of Professor Kirk,
to again draw the attention of the Government to the following resolution
passed at last year's annual meeting: "That the attention of the Govern-
ment be again called to the fact that the Dominion Museum collection,
including many valuable records and objects that could by no possibility
be replaced, are still housed in an old and highly combustible wooden
building."
Sounds National Park. — On the motion of Mr. Birks, seconded by Mr.
Eliott, it was resolved, That the New Zealand Institute respectfully urges
that the protection of seals in the Sounds National Park and Cascade Point
be not delayed until the end of the war, but be dealt with by a clause in the
Legislative Amendment Bill.
Louvain University.- — A letter was received from M. P. Delannoy,
Librarian of the University of Louvain, intimating that until a public depot
for the reception of gift books for the University library restoration has
been arranged for it will be better to keep any gifts from New Zealand in
this country.
Science Worthies.- — Letters were read from Mr. Henry Suter (8/2/17)
and Major Thomas Broun (12/1/8) thanking the Institute for the congratu-
latory letters (see p. 542, vol. 49). Dr. Thomson announced that he had
visited the late Mr. Alexander McKay, who received the letter of the
Institute during his last illness, and it was evident that the resolution of the
Board had given him sincere pleasure.
Societe d' 'Etudes Oceaniennes. — The Honorary Librarian mentioned that
he had received publications of this society, and on his motion, seconded
by Mr. G. M. Thomson, it was resolved, That the congratulations of the
New Zealand Institute be accorded to the Societe d'Etudes Oceaniennes
on its foundation, and on the publication of its bulletin.
Deaths of Honorary Members. — The Honorary Librarian read a post-
card announcing the death of Dr. S. Berggren, at Lund, which, in 'addition
to the three mentioned in the President's address — viz., Bev. 0. Pickard-
Cambridge, Bichard Lydekker, and George Massee — makes four vacancies
in the roll of honorary members to be filled.
336 Proceedings.
Amendment of Regulation. — On the motion of Professor Kirk, seconded
by Dr. Cockayne, it was resolved, That regulation 5 (a) (1) be amended to
read as follows : —
:{ (a.) The publications of the Institute shall consist of' — (1) Such current
abstract of the proceedings of the societies for the time being incorporated
with the Institute as the Board of Governors deems desirable."
New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology.' — Dr. Thomson laid on
the table the first number of this Journal. He promised to communicate
with the Secretaries of societies regarding the printing in the Journal of
matter suitable suitable for the Journal and not for the Transactions of
the Institute.
Proposed Department of Scientific Affairs. — Mr. G. M. Thomson with-
drew his motion regarding the establishment of a Department of Scientific
Affairs (see Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 49, p. 542).
Election of Officers. — The following officers for the ensuing year were
elected : President, Dr. L. Cockayne, F.R.S. ; Hon. Editors, Drs. L.
Cockayne and C. A. Cotton ; Hon. Treasurer, Mr. C. A. Ewen ; Hon.
Secretary, Mr. B. C. Aston, F.I.C. ; Hon. Librarian, Dr. J. Allan Thomson.
Publication Committee. — Professor Kirk, Drs. Cockayne, Cotton, and
Thomson, Messrs. Aston and Hogben.
Library Committee.- — Drs. Cockayne and Cotton and the Hon. Librarian.
Research Grant Committee.- — Professor Easterfield, Messrs. Hogben and
Aston.
Hector Award Committee—Professor Easterfield (convener), Drs. Chilton,
Cockayne, and Marshall.
Date and Place of the next Annual Meeting. ■ — It was resolved, That the
next annual meeting be held at Wellington on the 17th January, 1919.
Travelling-expenses. — It was resolved, on the motion of Dr. Thomson,
That the travelling-expenses of members of the Board to this meeting be
paid by the Institute.
Votes of Thanks to the retiring President for the able manner in which
he had carried out the duties of his office for the past two years, and to the
other officers, were unanimously carried. The Honorary Librarian desired
to specially acknowledge the assistance he had received from Mr. McDonald
in the library during the year.
The meeting adjourned until the following day.
The meeting resumed its sitting on Wednesday, the 30th January, 1918,
at 9 a.m.
Present : Professors Benham, President (in the chair), Thomas, Segar,
Kirk, Drs. Cockayne, Hilgendorf, Thomson, Messrs. Aston, Birks, Ewen,
Eliott, Hill, Hogben, Parr, and G. M. Thomson.
President's Address.' — The following motions arising out of the sug-
gestions contained in the President's address were brought forward by
Dr. Hilgendorf : —
Compliance of Incorporated Societies with Regulations. —On the motion
of Dr. Hilgendorf, seconded by Professor Segar, it was resolved, That in
Fifteenth Annual Meeting. 337
accordance with the President's suggestion the Treasurer be asked to examine
the balance-sheets of the incorporated societies, and to report annually as
to the compliance of incorporated societies with Regulation No. 3.
Publication of the Minutes of the Annual Meeting.— On the motion of
Dr. Hilgendorf, seconded by Mr. G. M. Thomson, it was resolved, That it
be suggested to the Publication Committee that the report of the annual
meeting of the Institute be printed and circulated to the affiliated Institutes
as soon as possible after the meeting, as well as being incorporated in the
Transactions in due course.
f
Establishment of an Endowment Fund. — Dr. Thomson, who previously at
the meeting had given notice of his intention, now moved that an Endow-
ment Fund be set up, the interest of which may be spent in any year for
any purposes of the Institute, but the principal may not be spent. The
motion was seconded by Professor Kirk, and carried.
Reform, of the Institute. — The replies from the incorporated societies
which had been received in answer to Dr. Thomson's proposals were laid
on the table. On the motion of Dr. Cockayne, seconded by Mr. Hill, it
was resolved, That a Committee be set up to report at next meeting on
the matter of Fellowship of the Institute ; and on the motion of Mr. Parr,
seconded by Mr. Eliott, it was resolved, That Mr. Hogben, Dr. Thomson,
and Dr. Cockayne (convener) be appointed a Committee to draw up a
scheme and refer it to the incorporated societies. On the motion of Mr.
Birks, seconded by Mr. Hill, it was resolved, That this Board express its
appreciation to Dr. J. Allan Thomson of his action in bringing forward
the proposals dealing with the constitution of the Institute. ^jflj
Public Meeting of the Institute. — On the motion of Dr. J. Allan Thom-
son, seconded by Mr. G. M. Thomson, it was resolved, That the Institute
accept the invitation of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury to hold
a week of meetings in Christ-church in the autumn of 1919.
Co-ordination of Science and Industry. — Further reports were received
from the incorporated societies, and were laid on the table.
Board of Science and Industry. — On the motion of Professor Kirk, seconded
by Mr. Birks, it was resolved, That this meeting of the Board of Governors
of the New Zealand Institute considers it an essential part of the scheme
for scientific and industrial research that the Board should be a trust to
administer public and other funds given for the purpose for which it is
constituted, and that for the first five years its finance should not be sub-
jected to any amendment by Parliament, although duly audited ; and that
Mr. Hogben and Dr. Thomson be a committee to transmit this resolution
to the Government, after consultation with the National Efficiency Board.
Vote of Thanks to the New Zealand Institute's Scientific and Industrial
Research Committee. — It was resolved, on the motion of Professor Thomas,
seconded by Dr. Hilgendorf, That this meeting expresses its appreciation
of the work of the New Zealand Institute's Scientific and Industrial Re-
search Committee, under the chairmanship of Mr. George Hogben, and is
indebted to it for its successful efforts to embody the opinion of the
Committees in the respective centres of New Zealand.
Census of Industries. — On the motion of Mr. Hogben, seconded by Mr.
G. M. Thomson, it was resolved, That a Committee be set up to co-operate
338 Proceedings .
with the Director of the Dominion Museum in making a preliminary census
of matters connected with scientific and industrial research. It was resolved
that the following be the Committee, with the power to add to their number :
Dr. Cockayne, Messrs. Hogben, Aston, Kirk, and Parry. It was resolved to
leave the arrangements for carrying on propaganda in connection with
science and industry to the same Committee.
Confirmation of Minutes. — It was left to the Publication Committee, on
Friday, the 1st February, 1918, to confirm the minutes of the annual
meeting and to decide whether it was desirable to publish Appendices A, B,
and C to the annual report.
ADDRESS OF 1HE PRESIDENT.
The following is the presidential address delivered at the annual meeting
of the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute, at Wellington, on
the 29th January, 1918, by Professor W. B. Benham, F.R.S. :—
Gentlemen, — My thanks are due to you for doing me the honour of re-electing me
to the Presidency of the Institute for a second year — a year that has been marked
by the great activity of the Standing Committee in relation to the important work of
endeavouring to draw up a scheme for the correlation of science and industry, to which
I will refer later.
Too little attention, 1 think, has been paid in past times to those of our own men
of science who have passed away. Recently my attention was called to the fact that
no memoir, no obituary notice even, is to be found in our Transactions of some who
have done good service, especially to natural science, in New Zealand. Thus the work
of Colenso and of Parker, to mention but two, is not recorded in our volumes. I think
this should be rectified in the future, and that one of our officers, or some one else, should,
while it is yet time, get together the salient facts of the life-history of those who are
at present working, so that their contributions to the progress of science in New Zea-
land may receive due recognition.
It would be a very laborious task to write a history of the gradual building-up of
science in New Zealand at the present time, and I am glad to see that Mr. G. M.
Thomson is at present engaged in writing a series of articles on our naturalists in the
Olago Witness. These will form a very valuable contribution to our history. It is, I
think, a wise thing to recall to our minds from time to time the gradual steps by which
each of our sciences has been built up, and the names of the men who have thus helped
us : we are too much interested in the present-day problems to consider their history,
and yet much of our present work is merely adding a brick or two to the edifice whose
foundations have been laid in the past. Let us not think too greatly of the importance
of that single brick, but rather think humbly of our own small contributions.
I had intended to refer to some of the distinguished men of science who have passed
away during the year, but 1 find my address already too long. Two of our honorary
members are included in this list, while Lydekker, who died in 1916, should have been
referred to in my last address.
The Rev. Octavius Pkkard-Cambridge, F.R.S. , who was for fifty years vicar of
Bloxworth, in Dorset, died in March, 1917, at the age of eighty-eight, and was one of
the world's authorities on trap-door spiders, on which he contributed two papers to
our Transactions describing some of our native species. Few naturalists of equal
calibre are less revealed by their published work. He was a systematist, a describer
and identifier of species, and though in this line of work no particularly brilliant dis-
coveries are associated with his name, it is work requiring rather special gifts of careful
observation, an absolutely necessary work on which biologists can build.
George Massee, F.L.S., was aged sixty-seven when he died, in 1917. For twenty
years he was head of the Crypytogamic Department at Kew, where he specialized on
fungi. He published several systematic works on the group, and later turned his atten-
tion to those which produce disease in plants, on which he published several descriptive
works, useful alike to the botanist and the agriculturist. He contributed two papers
to our Transactions on the fungus flora of New Zealand. He combined the skill of the
artisl with the accuracy of observation of the scientist, many of his drawings which
illustrate his work's being of great beauty.
Fifteenth Annual Meeting. 339
It seems that the death of these two honorary members has been overlooked, as
the affiliated societies were not notified of any vacancies in the list, of which there are
now three.*
It is unfortunate that the New Zealand Institute as a seientific body has no funds
from which a contribution can be made to the memorial to the late Sir William Ramsay,
F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry, and that we have to leave this and similar matters to
the affiliated societies. It would certainly bring kudos to the Institute if its name
figured amongst the subscribers to such a memorial as this.
There will be presented to you a summary of the steps taken by the Standing
Committee, with which was associated a number of gentlemen interested in industrial
matters, to elaborate a scheme for the co-ordination of scientific and industrial research ;
so that I need do little more than allude to it. There has been issued by the Govern-
ment a report, signed by Mr. Hogben and Dr. Thomson, of the steps that have been
taken in other parts of the Empire, and of certain schemes proposed by various bodies
in New Zealand, with this object in view. Moreover, the final report of the above
Committee has, 1 believe, been circulated.
I trust that this important matter will not be allowed to rest, but that steps will be
taken to persuade the Government of the very serious need for encouraging in every
way, and especially by generous financial support, the prosecution of scientific research —
not merely of research as applied to industry, but also, and primarily, of research in pure
science, which, as we all know, is the foundation of the former. It has taken the
scientific men of Britain over forty years to convince the British Government of the
value of scientific research, for as long ago as 1870 a Royal Commission recommended
the establishment of a State Council of Science presided over by a Minister of Science.
As Professor Pope pointed out in an address delivered in October last, " If suitable
provision had been made by the State for the pursuit of scientific research even twenty
years ago, we should have been spared the horrors of the present conflict." It is only
now, as the result of the urgent appeals of scientific men in Britain since the com-
mencement of the war, that the British Government have estabbshed a Department of
Scientific and Industrial Research, with an endowment of £1,000,000. Since the war
began the public have awakened to the fact that all our present needs and comforts in
orchnary fife are the outcome of discoveries made by scientific men in their laboratories,
and several books (such as Gregory's Discovery : The Spirit and Service of Science, and,
under Seward's editorship, the series of articles by Cambridge men of science issued
under the title Science and the Nation) have been published putting the facts plainly
before us, and impressing upon the public that' much of our backwardness in the British
Empire is due to inadequate recognition, financial and social, of scientific research.
We may hope that the British Government, at least, may thus become acquainted with
the value of scientific discovery.
Here in New Zealand there is need for a constant reminder of these facts : the
Councils of our University colleges must be urged again and again to make proper pro-
vision for carrying on researches in pure science, for no one can foresee what use may
ultimately be made of some apparently trivial discovery in the laboratory ; and the
more intimate association of industrialists with scientific men is needed so that they
may be kept in touch with the progress of science. It is not enough, however, to draw
up a scheme for the purpose of bringing this about : provision must be made for obtain-
ing men to do research. At the recent meeting of the University Senate a letter was
received from one of the Professors of Chemistry pointing out that it is better to provide
adequate trained assistance to a professor, who would thus be relieved of some of the
routine work of his chair and might then be able to devote time to research, than to
award scholarships to graduates. This is certainly true ; and it is also necessary that
greater encouragement should be given to our graduates to continue their studies in the
University colleges, and to learn how to carry out research work. At present the only
inducement held out to them is a National Research Scholarship, one of which is avail-
able each year at each of the four colleges. But the Professorial Boards have repeatedly
pointed out to the Education Department that the sum of £100 annually for two years
is not sufficient to attract students unless they have independent means, for after
spending four or five years in taking their Honours degree they naturally wish to begin
earning a livelihood, and are therefore more readily attracted to the teaching profession,
where a capable man or woman may obtain a salary of £150 to £180 as a teacher of
science in a high school. These Research Scholarships should be made more valuable
and increased in number ; and other inducements should be held out to our graduates,
so that we may encourage those of our students who are capable of research to con-
* The death of Dr. Berggren was also announced at the annual meeting.
340 Proceedings.
tinue with us. If the colleges had the funds wherewith to provide adequate payment
to trained assistants and demonstrators so that they would remain more than a year or
two at the college and be teamed in research as well as in teaching, this would relieve
the professors, and the college would be able to provide men and women capable of
aiding our industrialists in solving their problems.
But without a supply of such men any scheme for scientific and industrial research
loses much of its point and value. And in the present scheme, although reference is
made to increasing the number and value of these Research Scholarships, it does not
seem to me that the Committee have sufficiently considered the mode of supply of
requisite students. This is precisely what is being felt in Britain, where unfortunately
many of the younger men of science have suffered death in this war instead of having
been retained for the vastly important work of the future peace.
Moreover, one reason why so many capable research students enter the teaching
profession in Britain, as here, is that manufacturers have not seen fit. in most cases,
to offer to trained researchers sufficient remuneration.
Unless the professors are relieved of much of their routine work, and until it is
recognized that the first duty of a professor is the promotion of research rather than,
teaching, the award of scholarships will be in vain, and the introduction of graduates
into industry will not lead to the developments necessary to carry out the ideal set out
in the scheme for improving our industrial position in the world.
In the covering letter signed by Mr. Hogben, Chairman of Committee, to the
Chairman of the National Efficiency Board I notice an important proposal — viz., that
some system of propaganda should be started. This is necessary, as the industrialists
are no doubt in ignorance of what has been taking place, what steps are proposed, and,
indeed, of the importance of the whole scheme. Almost too much stress seems to be
laid in this report on research, and too little on the utilization of the scientific knowledge
which has been accumulated by investigators in other countries. Hence the great
importance of the propaganda hinted at by Mr. Hogben. What is so pre-eminently
needed here, as in Britain, is a campaign to disseminate the scientific spirit throughout
the community ; for unless we educate the entire people as to the value of the scientific
method the object of this scheme will, I fear, be but temporarily and partially attained,
and the movement so carefully elaborated by the Committee will soon collapse owing
to the absence of any firm foundation in education.
I do not know whether I ought to criticize the report of the Committee, but it
seems to me that the method of election of the four members the Board is very
elaborate, and the constitution of the local Advisory Boards too large, and there is no
indication of where researches are to be conducted.
That it does not require a great amount of organization to produce useful reseaich
in regard to industry is seen by what has been done in South Australia. The South
Australian Government Department of Chemistry, under Dr. Hargreaves, has issued
nine bulletins dealing with possible new industries, and with industrial research on
such matters as — Bonedust, its adulteration with phosphate rock ; alcohol as a source
of power ; foaming of boiler waters ; grass-trees (Xanlhorrhoca), their economic pro-
ducts ; potash, its economic sources ; wool-fat, its recovery and purification ; cream
of tartar, its manufacture ; marine fibre, attempts to utilize.
Another matter that will come before us is a report as to the proposed reform of the
New Zealand Institute, which originated with Dr. J. Allan Thomson and the Wellington
Philosophical Society. The proposals have been criticized by the affiliated societies
chiefly in regard to the proposed new kind of membership and the change in name of
the existing members to that of " associates." All the societies seem in favour of the
establishment of Fellows, but if this be carried out we must guard the privilege of fellow-
ship very jealously and put a definite limit on the number of Fellows to be elected annually,
for there are not very many workers in science who are doing or have done work of such
a high-class character as to entitle them to this distinction, and the number will soon
become exhausted, so that unless a limit is placed on the number of Fellows it will become
almost a matter of course that any worker would be nominated and the title would
soon cease to have any honour attached to it. But the proposals have another aim,
that of increasing the funds of the Institute, and I do not see that in this respect much
is to be hoped for from the reform proposed.
In my address at the last annual meeting of the Governors I referred to the Cawthron
Institute. The report of the Commission appointed by the Trustees to draw up a scheme
for the proper working of this Institute of research has now been presented to the
Trustees, who are acting on the lines therein recommended. As the matter is one of
very great importance for the future development of scientific work, it may be desirable
to put the gist of the report on record here. The Institute will be erected, when the war
Fifteenth Annual Meeting. 341
is ended, close to the city of Nelson. The work will be scientific research into the pro-
blems of agriculture, particularly as affecting the growing of fruit, as this is the leading
feature of the provincial district. It is hoped that agricultural problems of all kinds
will in the future be studied — diseases of trees, improvement in culture, the chemistry and
physics of the soil, the development of forest land, &c. ; and in time the work may be
extended in other directions. Hitherto, as we are aware, no institution in New Zealand
has been wholly or even mainly given up to scientific research, but theCawthron Institute
will be equipped, financed, and organized for this purpose alone. The sum of money
at the disposal of the Trustees is about £200,000, and the Trustees, who are for the most
part business men, are determined that the annual expenses shall not exceed the income
from the principal. Interest is accumulating, and from this it is proposed to erect the
necessary buildings after the Director has been appointed and in consultation with him.
The site has already been purchased and surveyed ; a caretaker has been appointed
and is now looking after the orchard on the property. The Institute will be governed,
under the Trustees, by an Advisory Board acting with the Director. On the Advisory
Board the following bodies will be represented: the Cawthron Trustees, the Board of
Agriculture, the Nelson Institute, the Board of Studies of the New Zealand University,
and the Governors of the New Zealand Institute. Whether any formal intimation* to
this effect has been received by our Secretary I do not know, but according to the report
of the Commission we ought to nominate our representatives at this meeting. As a
Director it is hoped to obtain a first-class chemist from England who has had experience
of agricultural problems, but is not likely that he will be appointed until the war is over.
When fully staffed it is intended that plant -physiology and plant- pathology, economic
zoology and geology will be represented — but that will be in the future ; at the outset
the Director will be assisted by a plant-pathologist and an orchardist, to whom adequate
salaries will be paid.
Provision will be made for the award of scholarships as follows : (a) A Nelson
Scholarship to allow boys and girls to equip themselves at a University college to become
students of the Institute ; (b) a Cawthron Scholarship to encourage brilhant scientific
graduates to continue their work at the Institute ; (c) a Cawthron Fellowship of suffi-
cient value to retain the services of such scholars and other students ; (d) an Industrial
Fellowship which may be established by any body of industrialists who desires any
special researches undertaken and who will pay the salary of this Fellow ; (e) an annual
Cawthron Lectureship, the first holder of which is Professor Easterfield, who has already
given the lecture. Of these scholarships it was suggested that the first should be awarded
at once, but no proposal reached the Senate at its recent meeting ; the others not till the
Institute is in full working -order. Every encouragement will be given to students pro-
perly qualified to pursue research in agricultural matters, and it is hoped that in the
future a constant stream of graduates who have received training in the fundamental
sciences will be attracted by these scholarships and fellowships, and that from them
will eventually be supplied expert teachers in agricultural subjects. It is important
to notice that the Institute is quite independent of Government control.
Some time during the year I noted a suggestion, made either in Parliament or in
the Press, that all topographical features that have at present Austrian or German names
should have these names changed. To me, and I suppose to most other scientific men
and intelligent men generally, this appears to be not only a ridiculous proposal but one
that is highly undesirable. The names of many mountains in the Alps and those of
some of the glaciers would thus be altered, and, if this were done, books of travel in New
Zealand, of mountain-climbing, maps, and other documents, would in the future be
unintelligible. The Franz -Josef Glacier, for instance, is mentioned in books on geography
and geology for certain peculiar features, and to alter its name on the ground that at
present we are at war with Austria would render all such references meaningless. If
there is any proposal of the kind on foot I think that this Institute should enter a strong
protest against it, and obtain the support not only of the affiliated societies, but of
associations of all kinds, such as the University colleges, professors, the Alpine Club,
tourists, &c.
In my last address I referred to the need of taking steps to protect the interesting
rock shelters in Otago and Canterbury on the walls of which are paintings executed
by the early inhabitants of New Zealand. I suggested that a committee should be set
up, but I do not know that anything further was done. I understand that the matter
is to be brought forward at the meeting of the Board of Science and Art ; but it seems
to me distinctly the province of this Institute to persuade the Government to take
some action to protect these interesting records.
* Note by Hon. Secretary. — -No intimation has been received.
342 Proceedings.
There remain one or two suggestions that have occurred to me in regard to the
annual volume. One is that the report of our annual meeting should be published as
soon as possible after it has been held. In the case of the affiliated societies the report
of their annual meeting is issued to members very shortly after that meeting, but in
the case of the meeting of the Governors it is, as you are aware, delayed till the volume
of Transactions is issued, and it happened that this year I did not see the volume till
early in January. I do not see why the report should not be published (with a separate
paging, if necessary in roman numerals) within a month of our meeting, and circulated
to every member of the Institute. I believe more interest would be taken in this meeting
if this were done. At present the pagination of this report is continuous with that of
the scientific transactions, but if roman numerals were used for this report and all that
succeeds it in the volume there would be no difficulty in binding up this report with the
rest of the volume.
Why should the proceedings of the various societies be printed in the volume at
all ? Nowadays they consist almost wholly of a list of the new members elected at each
meeting, with the title of the addresses delivered or papers read. Formerly some
epitome was given of what took place at these meetings, and that had its interest; but
the present bare record can have no interest for any one. It is true that an abstract of
the annual report is given, and this is the only part of the Proceedings that has any
interest whatever to members of the Institute at large.
Professor Kirk at the last meeting gave a notice of motion allowing the Board of
Governors some discretion in this direction, and I hope he will move this motion to-day.
I would suggest that the Publication Committee consider these two matters.
A third matter has occurred to me — viz., whether the Treasurer of the New
Zealand Institute examines the balance-sheets of the affiliated societies and ascertains
whether they comply with the regulations under the Act of 1903 — as to the number of
members, and the subscription annually paid towards the promotion of art, science,
or other branch of knowledge ; and as to the expenditure in support of a library or
museum.
At our last meeting it was resolved to urge the Government to take immediate
steps to form a scientific and technological library. Has anything been done in this
direction ? No mention of the need of such a library occurs in the report of the Com-
mittee on scientific and industrial research, yet surely before any work of value can be
carried out it is necessary that the researchers should have access to what has already
been done.
By "library " I do not mean a building ; but there ought to be undertaken the
making and printing of a catalogue of all books on science and technology — and the
latter should perhaps be listed first — which are in the various Government Depart-
ments, in the General Assembly library, in all University colleges, the Institutes, and
Museums. No such comprehensive catalogue exists here as there is, for instance, in
Victoria. Though it is true that a printed catalogue soon gets out of date, yet it does
serve a very useful purpose, and additional leaflets could be added annually. For we
must not overlook the fact that many, perhaps most, of the problems that may present
themselves to the manufacturers in the Dominion, such as the utilization of by-products,
the improvement in methods of manufacture, and so forth, have already been met in
other parts of the world as a result of research : there is a store of scientific knowledge
which is no doubt unknown to most of our industrialists, but which would be of great
service to them, for it is only in a few cases that the problems are of such a peculiar
character in New Zealand that special research is needed.
I trust, therefore, that the Institute will take steps to carry into effect that resolution
at an early date.
It seems to me that at our annual meeting many resolutions are proposed and
carried which are mere pious resolutions, such as are supposed to be made on New Year's
Day, and nothing comes of them.
Wellington Philosophical Society. 343
WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Eight general meetings of the society (including the annual meeting) were
held during the year 1917, at which the following papers and addresses
were read :■ — (25th April) " Fly and Mosquito Larvicides," by Professor
H. B. Kirk ; tw Perpetual Calendars." by Professor D. M. Y. Sommerville :
(23rd May) "'Proportional Representation — a New Zealand Experience,"
by the President, Mr. G. Hogben : (27th June) " The Development of
Hydro-electric Power in Canterbury," by Mr. L. Birks : (25th July) " The
Outline of New Zealand.'" by Dr. C. A. Cotton ; " An Experiment in the
Teaching of Fundamental Ideas in Geometry," by Miss P. Myers : (22nd
August) " Hydro-electric Development of Power in Tasmania," by Mr.
H. D. Cook : (26th September) " Crystal Analysis by means of X Rays,"
by Professor H. Clark : (24th October) " Further Notes on New Zealand
Bird-song," by Mr. J. C. Andersen ; " The Botanical Districts of New Zea-
land." by Dr. L. Cockayne : " Notes on New Zealand Floristic Botany,"
by Dr. L. Cockavne : (12th December) " Descriptions of New Zealand
Lepidoptera," by Mr. E. Meyrick (communicated by Mr. G. V. Hudson) ;
"* Is Earth-rotation the Cause of the Ocean Currents," by Mr. A. W.
Burrell (communicated by Dr. C. E. Adams) ; '' A Note on the Young
of Astraea heliotropium (Martyn)," by Miss M. K. Mestayer (communicated
by Mr. R. L. Mestayer) ; " The Star Test for Telescopic Mirrors/' by Mr.
T. Allison (communicated by Dr. C. E. Adams) ; " Comparisons between
the Tidal Predictions and Actuality at the Ports of Auckland and Welling-
ton," by Dr. C. E. Adams ; " Harmonic Analysis of Tidal Observations,"
by Dr. C. E. Adams ; " Prediction of Tides," by Dr. C. E. Adams ; " Notes
on East Coast Earthquakes, 1914-1917," by Mr. G. Hogben ; " Physio-
graphy and Agriculture of the Coastal District of Western Wellington," by
Mr. A. H. Cockayne and Dr. C. A. Cotton : " Evidence of Warping on the
Eastern Side of the Port Nicholson Depression," by Dr. C. A. Cotton ;
" The Physiography of Rough Ridge, Otago," by Dr. C. A. Cotton.
At the annual general meeting (24th October) the annual report and
balance-sheet were adopted.
Abstract of Annual Report.
New Zealand Standard or Mean Time. — The Council forwarded to the Government
a report drawn up by a committee giving reasons why New Zealand mean time should
be altered so as to be exactly twelve hours in advance of Greenwich civil mean time.
The Government replied that on account of the war it could not see its way to take
any action at present. Printed copies of the report have been distributed to the other
affiliated societies and to other bodies interested, and the matter will not be lost
sight of.
The proposal originated in a resolution passed by the ( louncil on the 30th November.
IDlli, following the reading of a paper on " Daylight-saving " before the society by
.Mr. C. W. Adams. The reform was also supported by the National Efficiency Board.
(leant for Research. — Advice was received from the New Zealand Institute that
a portion of the £2"><> voted by Parliament for research had no! been applied for. and
applications for grants therefrom were invited. < >n the recommendation of the Council,
grants in aid of out-of-pocket expenses were made in the following cases : (1) £50 to
Messrs. W. S. La Trobe and C. E. Adams for a tide-predicting machine, and (2) £25 to
Professor H. B. Kirk for an investigation of methods of killing mosquitoes and larvae.
Science and Industry Committee. — On the 26th July, L916, a committee was appointed
by the society to report on the organization of scientific and industrial research and the
study of science within New Zealand.
344 Proceedings.
The committee held twelve meetings, and its final report was adopted by the society
at its September meeting, and was forwarded to the New Zealand Institute for con-
sideration. The report will be printed at the end of a parliamentary paper dealing with
the question of the relation between science and industry throughout the Empire.
Tide-gauges at Outlying Islands of New Zealand.— The Council urged on the Govern-
ment the importance of establishing tide-gauges at the outlying islands of New Zealand,
in order that further investigations of the tides of the Pacific might be made. The
Government has deferred consideration of the matter until after the war.
Proposed R<j<>nii < if the New Zealand Institute. — The New Zealand Institute having
forwarded Dr. Thomson's proposals for the reform of the Institute, a report by the
Council on these proposals was sent to the other incorporated societies, and replies
fully discussing it have been received from the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury,
the Otago Institute, the Auckland Institute, and the Manawatu Philosophical Society.
Technical Library. — The Council endorsed a resolution of the Science and Industry
Committee urging the importance of a technical library, and forwarded the resolution
to the New Zealand Institute for transmission to the Government for its favourable
consideration and action.
Journal of Science. — -A proposal made by the Minister of Internal Affairs for the
establishment of a Journal of Science was considered, and the following resolution was
adopted and endorsed by the Council : " The Technological Section of the Wellington
Philosophical Society is of opinion that the publication of a Dominion Journal of Science,
open to contributions from all sources, is a necessity and satisfies a long-felt want, and
hereby offers its heartiest congratulations to the Minister of Internal Affairs upon his
action in founding and establishing the Journal, but respectfully suggests that the
title be altered to read, ' The New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology,' thereby
extending the scope of the Journal." The Minister has agreed to the change of title.
Hamilton Memorial. — The report of the Hamilton Memorial Committee has been
received (see pp. 333-34).
Jubilee of the Society. — The 13th November, 1017, is the fiftieth anniversary of the
foundation of the society. The Council considers that owing to the present state of
war it is not desirable to take any steps to celebrate the jubilee this year.
Membership. — Since the annual meeting of 1916 twelve members have been elected,
one member has become a life member under Rule 26, one life member (Mr. R. Coupland
Harding) and one ordinary member have died, while one member has been killed in
action. Six members have resigned their membership. The roll now stands at nine
life member's, twenty-three members on active service or in camp in New Zealand,
and 146 ordinary members, making a total of 178 members.
The following officers and Council were elected for the year 1918 :
President - G. Hogben, C.M.G., M.A., F.G.S. Vice-Presidents — R. W.
Holmes, M.Inst.C.E. ; C. E. Adams, D.Sc, F.R.A.S. Council — C. A.
Cotton, D.Sc, F.G.S. ; T. H. Easterfield, M.A., Ph.D. ; F. W. Furkert,
A.M.Inst.C.E. ; C. Monro Hector, M.D., B.Sc, F.R.A.S. ; J. Henderson,
M.A., D.Sc, B.Sc (Eng.) ; S. H. Jenkinson ; H. B. Kirk, M.A. ; W. S.
La Trobe, M.A. ; E. Parry, B.Sc, M.I.E.E., A.M.Inst.C.E. ; D. M. Y.
Sommerville, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E. Secretary and Treasurer — J. Allan
Thomson, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S. Auditor --E. R. Dymock, F.I.A.N.Z.
Representatives on the New Zealand Institute — G. Hogben, C.M.G., M.A.,
F.G.S. ; H. B. Kirk, M.A.
ASTRONOMICAL SECTION.
The following papers have been read before the section during the year 1917: —
(4th October) " Long-period Variables," by C. E. Adams, D.Sc. : (1st November) " The
Hartness Turret Telescope," by C. E. Adams, D.Sc; "An Easy Method of Night
Marching by the Stars," by G. Hogben, F.G.S. : (6th June) Presidential Address, " The
Importance of Pure Science," by W. S. La Trobe, M.A. ; " Description of a Planisphere,"
by D. M. Y. Sommerville,. M.A. ; "Comet a 1917 Mellish," by C. E. Adams, "D.Sc. :
(4th July) " An Appreciation of the Early Astronomers," by the Rev. B. Dudley,
F.R.A.S. ; " A Homogram for Transit Star Factors," by C. E. Adams, D.Sc. : (4th
August) " The Principle of Relativity," by D. M. Y. Sommerville, M.A. : (5th Sep-
tember) " The Nebulae," by A. C. Gifford, M.A., F.R.A.S.
Wellington Philosophical Society. 345
Committet and Officers for IMS. — Chairman. — D. M. V. Sommerville, M.A., D.Se.
Vice-Chairmen — W. S. La Trobe, M.A. ; E. Parry, B.Sc, M.I.E.E., A.M. Inst. C.E.
Committee— C. P. Powles; H. Clark, M.S.. Ph.D.; A. C. Gifford, M.A., F.R.A.S. :
C. Monro Hector, M.D., B.Sc, F.R.A.S. ; G. S. Hooper. Director and Curator of
Instruments- C. E. Adams, D.Se., F.R.A.S. Hon. Treasurer C. I'. Powles. U<>n.
Secretary ('. G. < >. Berry.
TECHNOLOGICAL SECTION.
The following papers have been read during 1917 : — (9th May) " Irrigation in New
Zealand," by F. W. Furkert, A.M.Inst.C.E. : (13th June) "Smelting of [ronsand at
Onehunga," by J. M. Chambers (communicated by E. Parry) ; '" Experiments on the
Smelting of Ironsand," by J. E. L. Cull, B.Sc. : (11th July) ''Losses through Evapora-
tion and Percolation from Irrigation-works," by F. W. Furkert, A.M.Inst.C.E. ; "Dia-
grams collating Tables of Safe Loads on Stanchions," by W. S. La Trobe, M.A. ;
" Friction of Water in Pipes," by E. Parry, B.Sc. : (8th August) " Convenient Diagrams
for the Design of Remforced-concrete Beams," by W. S. La Trobe, M.A. : (12th Sep-
tember) " Datum Levels," by Dr. C. E. Adams ; " Economic Aspects of the Greensands
of New Zealand," by Dr. J. A. Thomson : (10th October) " Corrosion by Mine-water,"
by Professor Easterfield ; " Crystal Analysis by means of X Rays," by Professor H.
Clark: '" Failure of High-tension Insulators," by E. Parry, B.Sc; "Some Toi'que
Diagrams." by S. H. Jenkinson.
The officers for the year 191S were elected as follows : Chairman — S. H. Jenkinson.
Vice-Chair turn — E. Parry, B.Sc. ; W. S. La Trobe, M.A. Committee — R. W. Holmes,
M.Inst. C.E. ; Dr. Maclaurin ; H. Sladden, Member of Board of Surveyors ; Professor
H. Clark; F. W. Furkert, A.M.Inst.C.E. Secretary— A. J. Patterson.
GEOLOGICAL SECTION.
The following papers have been read during 1917 : C. A. Cotton. "' Across America
by the Santa Fe Route," and " The Age and Correlation of the Covering Strata in
Central and Eastern Otago " ; J. A. Thomson, " The So-called Drift Formation of
Hawera," " The Relative Age of the North Otago and South Canterbury Limestones,"
and " The Geology of the Clarence Valley between the Bluff and the Herring River " ;
P. G. Morgan, " Potash in New Zealand " ; J. Henderson, " The Physiography of that
Part of the Waikato Valley near Maungatautari," and " The Geology of the Waitomo
Caves " ; J. A. Bartrum, " Some Concretions in Recent Sediments in Auckland Har-
bour " ; W. Donovan, " Some Analysis of New Zealand Coals " ; E. K. Lomas, " The
Teaching of Geography."
The section is indebted to these members for their work, and for thus maintaining
the interest in the Geological Section.
At the conclusion of Mr. Lomas's paper on " The Teaching of Geography " the
following motion was carried : ' That the Council be requested to urge upon the
Government the importance botli from the educational and economic standpoint of
the more extensive publication of the meteorological observations for a larger number
of stations in New Zealand."
Officers and Committee for 1918. — Chairman — J. Henderson, M.A., D.Se. Vice-
Chairman—E. K. Lomas, M.A., M.Sc. Committee— Q. Hogben, C.M.G., M.A., F.G.S. ;
R. W. Holmes, M.Inst.C.E. ; P. G. Morgan, M.A., F.G.S. ; J. A. Thomson, M.A., D.Se,
F.G.S. ; G. Uttlev. M.A., M.Sc.. F.G.S. Hon. Secretary— C. A. Cotton. D.Se.. F.G.S.
346 Proceedings.
AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.
Seven meetings were held during the year 1917, at which the following
lectures and papers were read: — (11th June) 'Berlin, Bagdad, and the
Balkans — Germany's Eastern Ambitions," by Professor J. P. Grossmann :
(9th July) "The Kermadec Islands, their Plant and Bird Life,'* by Mr.
W. R. B. Oliver : (6th August) " Some Present Aspects of the War,*' by the
Rev. W. G. Monckton : (3rd September) '" Natural Sources of Power, their
Importance to New Zealand," by Mr. F. E. Powell. C.E. : (1st October)
" Heredity," by Professor A. P. W. Thomas, F.L.S. : (19th November)
" The Civic Spirit of Roman Architecture," by Mr. T. G. Price : (11th
December) "A New Species of Hy pole-pis," by Mr. H. Carse ; "The Extra-
ordinary Rainfall of 1915-1916," by Mr. EL B. Devereux ; "On the Dis-
tribution of the Pentatonic Scale in Britain," by Professor J. C. Johnson ;
" On the Sporophyte of Rhipogonum scandens," by Miss A. C. Tizard (com-
municated by Professor J. C. Johnson) ; ' Descriptions of New Native
Flowering-plants," by Mr. D. Petrie.
At the annual meeting (25th February, 1918) the annual report and
audited financial statement was read to the meeting, and ordered to be
printed and distributed among the members.
Abstract.
The report which the Council now presents to the members marks the completion
of the fiftieth year of the existence of the society. At the conclusion of such a period
it is natural that the governing bod}', while paying full attention to the requirements
of the present, should also concern itself with the demands of the future ; or, in other
winds, take into consideration the subsequent aims and development of the Institute
and Museum. The first part of the report will therefore contain the customary account
of the activities of the society during the past year, while in the second will be given a
brief statement of those views regarding future development that have been discussed
at various meetings of the Council, and also (lie final conclusions that have been
arrived at.
Members. — Mainly through a special canvass undertaken by the Hon. E. Mitchelson
and another member of the Council, no less than eighty-eight new members have been
elected during the year. On the other hand, twenty-nine names have been withdrawn—
fourteen from death, ten from resignation, and five from non-payment of subscription
for more than two consecutive years. The net gain is thus fifty-nine, the number on
the roll at the present time being 450.
Finance. — Full information respecting the financial position of the society is given
in the balance-sheets appended to the report ; hut the following brief synopsis may be
useful. The total revenue of the Working Account, after deducting the balance in hand
at the beginning of the year, has been £1,827 16s. 7d. This compares favourably with
the amount for the previous year, which was £1,741 12s. (id., showing an increase of
£86 4s. Id. Examining the various items, it will be seen that the members' subscrip-
tions have yielded £420, being an advance of t46 4s. on last year's figures. The receipts
from the .Museum Endowment, consisting of rents and interest, have amounted to
£713 12s. lid., evidencing a slight decrease. On the other hand, the receipts from the
invested funds of the Costley Bequest, which have yielded £453 18s. Id., are slightly
larger than last year's amount. The remaining items call for no special remark. The
expenditure has amounted to £1,763 lis. 4<l.
Proposals suggesting a reform of the New Zealand Institute were submitted for
the consideration of the Council by the Wellington Philosophical Society. The most
important of these involved changes in the membership of the Institute which, if carried
out in their original shape, would have injuriously affected most of the incorporated
societies. The proposals were considered at the recent meeting of the Hoard of
Governors in Wellington, and it is now regarded as probable that most of the objection-
able features will be eliminated.
Auckland Institute. 347
The committee appointed l>y the Council bo '(insider the co-ordination of science
and industry, whose lirst report appeared last year, lias continued its labours during
the present session, and has prepared a second communication. This, together with
reports from other committees set up by the various branches of the New Zealand
Institute, has been placed before a general committee of the Institute sitting in Wel-
lington, which, it is understood, will shortly forward a full statement of its views to
the Government.
Museum. With the exception of a short period necessarily devoted to cleaning
and rearrangement, the Museum has been open to the public daily throughout the
year. The attendance has been excellent, although not quite equal to that of the three
years I !t 1 4 to 1916, the total number of visitors being 87,350.
Considerable progress has been made in the Museum during the year. The
numerous recent additions to the Maori collections have rendered it necessary to
rearrange a large part of the contents of the .Maori Hall. The work is not yet com-
pleted, but sufficient has been done to make the collections much more intelligible to
visitors, and more readily inspected. A plate-glass show-case has been provided for
the fine series of taiahas, battle-axes, &c, in the possession of the Museum. These
are now much more worthily exhibited, and the space they formerly occupied has
supplied accommodation for other articles.
As detailed in last year's report, the completion of the new mineral-room, .and the
transfer to it of many specimens formerly exhibited in the gallery of the main hall,
will provide some additional space for the representation of the New Zealand fauna.
It is intended to utilize the table-cases on the south side of the gallery for the reception
of the New Zealand shells, and a considerable amount of preliminary work has been done.
such as the cleaning and repainting of the cases, the preparation bf the trays and tablets
for the specimens, cataloguing, soiling. &c. It is hoped to commence the actual
arrangement in a short time. In the taxidermist's department Mr. Griffin has nearly
completed a very realistic group illustrating the breeding-habits of the black-fronted
tern, one of the most graceful of New Zealand birds. The group, which has cost a large
amount of patient work and preparation, is of an entirely different character to those
already exhibited, and will be generally admired.
The additions and donations received during the year have been numerous and
valuable, as will be seen from the list appended to the report, but only the more
important can be mentioned here. In the ethnographical department special reference
should 1).' made to three historical bone meres, purchased and presented to the Museum
by the Hon. A. M. Myers, Mr. Henry Brett, and Mr. R. H. Abbott. Two of these were
formerly the property of the celebrated chieftain Rewi Maniapoto, whose name will
always be remembered in connection with the Maori War and the defence of < hakau
against our troops. The third belonged to the well-known Urewera warrior Hauwai.
Mr. H. E. Partridge has donated ten plaster bas-reliefs of the busts of Maoris and
Hawaiians, modelled from life by the well-known sculptor Allan Hutchinson. These
will be most useful to the Museum when attempts are made to prepare modelled groups
of Maoris engaged in their old-time avocations.
Another valuable addition consists of ten limestone slabs bearing pre-Maori rock-
paintings or pictographs, obtained by Dr. Elmore, an American scientist, from certain
rock shelters in North Otago. The cost of excavating the slabs, together with others
intended for the Otago Museum, was borne by the Otago and Auckland Institutes.
Although these pictographs, together with others in Canterbury, have been known
for many years, they have not attracted the notice that they certainly deserve.
Single articles of note consist of a remarkably tine and delicately carved charm,
or mauri, presented by Mr. F. R. Hutchinson : a large and beautifully polished stone
adze, contributed by Mr. R. W. Duder ; and one of the rare neck-ornaments carved
from the teeth of the sperm-whale, donated by Mr. Percy Monk.
In last year's report the Council stated that arrangements had been made with the
Gizeh Museum. Cairo, for a first instalment of Egyptian antiquities. The collection
has since arrived, and has- been placed in a special show -case. It contains about a
hundred examples, the most interesting being a series of vases, bowls, libation-vessels, &c,
discovered by Dr. Quibell in an 11th dynasty tomb at Sakkarah, near Memphis. The
collection forms a very welcome acquisition, arid it is hoped that arrangements may be
made for other consignments.
Mr. Henry Shaw, whose previous gifts of Japanese porcelain, bronzes, ivories, &c,
are still fresh in the memory of the Institute, has made an additional presentation of
Satsuma and Kioto porcelain, comprising more than fifty articles, together with a few
temporarily lent. A special case has been provided, in which the specimens are now
exhibited. The thanks of the Museum have been voted to Mr. Shaw for this renewed
instance of libera lit v.
348 Proceedings.
Dr. C. J. Wood, Bishop of Melanesia, has presented a remarkably good outrigger
canoe, 29 ft. in length, from the Island of Tikopia, in the eastern part of the Solomon
Group. Dr. Wood had previously contributed two tine canoes of different types to the
Museum, and his present gift is valuable as a help towards forming a comparative
scries.
In the natural-history department, although a considerable number of small additions
have been received, no collections of any size have been added, apart from those
obtained by the staff of the Museum. It is quite evident that in the future, so far as
many classes of specimens are concerned, the .Museum must rely on the activities of
its own officers, or on trained collectors engaged by it.
Library. — The undoubted risk of loss through submarines, and the greatly increased
charges for freight, insurance, &c, have compelled the Council to suspend the purchase
of books for the present. It has been decided, however, to keep up the subscriptions
to all 2iiagazincs and serial publications at present on the society's list.
The Council has pleasure in acknowledging the donation by Mr. K. Logan of a
copy of Rothschild's costly and magnificent work on "' Extinct Birds."
Development of flu Museum and the Need for a New Site. — The summary just given
of the work performed by the Institute during the year affords many evidences of
progress and many proofs of the increasing Interest taken by the citizens in both the
Museum. and library. But regularly increasing donations and additions, however gratify-
ing they may be as proofs of public confidence and support, arc every year increasing
the difficulty is housing the collections and exhibiting them to the public. They
accentuate the one main fact hindering the development of the .Museum and the efforts
of its guardians to place it on a higher level — want of room. And this want is not
confined to one branch of the Museum, but exists in every department. In addition,
it effectually prevents any expansion of the present aims of the institution. There are
many activities usually associated with a well-ordered and progressive Museum that
are excluded from the Auckland Museum through want of room.
Much consideration has been given to the matter by the Council, and several
meetings have been held. It soon became obvious that the question for decision was
simply this: Can sufficient accommodation, with (\ue regard to future needs, be obtained
on the present site : and, if not, what site is best adapted for the purpose ? Investiga-
tion soon proved that the unbuilt-upon portion of the existing site, with its almost
precipitous slope, was likely to j^rove both inconvenient and expensive, while it was
not large enough for present requirements, to say nothing of future needs.
Having arrived at the conclusion that the removal of the Museum from its present
position was inevitable, it became necessary for the Council to search for a new locality.
In doing this, it was recognized that the new Museum should occupy a central position,
and should possess the fundamental advantages of room for future expansion, decreased
risk of fire, and freedom from dust and smoke. Further, it was admitted that, as no
public Museum in Australia or New Zealand has had to provide its own site, there was
no reason why the Auckland Museum should be treated in a different manner.
After an examination of those sites — by no means numerous — that complied with
the conditions mentioned above, a meeting of the Council .was held to decide which
was the most suitable. After full discussion, and after the reasons in favour of changing
the site had again been reviewed, the following resolution was moved by the Hon. E.
Mitchelson, seconded by Mr. C. J. Parr, M.P., and unanimously adopted: "That this
Council is of opinion that the most suitable site upon which to erect a permanent Museum
is that part of the Auckland Domain known as Observatory Hill : and that the Auck-
land City Council be requested to assent to this proposition, with the view of asking
Parliament for authority and power to carry out the project."
This expression of the views of the Institute was placed before the City Council
at a meeting held on the 7th February. It was supported by the Mayor and Deputy
Mayor, who respectively proposed and seconded the following resolution, which was
unanimously adopted: ■"That the request of the Council of the Auckland Institute
and Museum for the permission of the Auckland City Council -to place a Museum building
upon Observatory Hill, in the Auckland Domain, be granted, subject to the Council
of the Institute promoting the necessary validating legislation. Further, the Council
of the Institute to make provision for the City Council being represented on their body
as follows: Mayor of Auckland ex officio member of the Council of the Institute, and
two others to be nominated by the Auckland City Council." It is a satisfaction to
the Council of the Institute to receive such a sympathetic assurance of co-operation
from the City Council, and it is hoped that such friendly relations may long exist.
The Council of the Institute has apjjroved of the terms prescribed by the City
Council, and is taking steps to promote the necessary legislation as soon as practicable
in order to enable the proposed new building to be erected within the Auckland Domain.
Auckland Institute. 349
Election of Officers for 1918, -President— Mr. J. II. Gunson, Mayor of
Auckland. Vice-Presidents Hon. E. Mitchelson ; Mr. C. J. Parr, C.M.G.,
M.P. Council -Professor C. W. Egerton, Mr. J. Kenderdine, Mr. T. W.
Leys, Mr. E. V. Miller, Mr. T. Peacock, Mr. D. Petrie, Professor H. W.
Segar. Professor A. P. W. Thomas, Mr. J. H. Upton, Mr. H. E. Vaile,
Professor F. P. Worley. Trustees— Mr. T. Peacock, Mr. J. Reid, Professor
A. P. W. Thomas, Mr. J. H. Upton, Mr. H. E. Vaile. Secretary and
Curator — Mr. T. F. Cheeseman. Auditor- Mr. S. Gray.
PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY.
During the year 1917 nine meetings were held (including the annual
general meeting, 5th December), and the following addresses and papers
were presented : — (2nd May) " Some Questions of Efficiency," presidential
address, by Mr. L. Birks (discussed, 6th June) : (1st August) " The Fly
Nuisance and its Control," by Professor H. B. Kirk : (5th September)
" Notes on the Susceptibility of New Zealand Timbers to the Attacks of
the Borer,'" by Mr. R. Speight : :' On the Conformity of the Amuri and
Weka Pass Limestones," by Messrs. R. Speight and L. J. Wild ; :' A Fossil
Isopod belonging to the Fresh- water Genus Phreatoicus," by Dr. Charles
Chilton ; ' A Collection of Insects from Cass," by Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf :
(3rd October) " Science and Economics," by Dr. J. Hight : (7th November)
" Note on a Record of an Earth epiake obtained from an Artesian Well,"
by Mr. L. P. Symes ; ' The Course of Land-values in Canterbury," by Mr.
F. R. Callaghan : (21st November) " Some Poison Gases," by Dr. W. P.
Evans : (5th December) " Some Glacial and Structural Features of the
Hurunui Valley," by Mr. R. Speight ; " Revision of the New Zealand
Cirripedia," by the late Captain L. S. Jennings ; " Studies in the New
Zealand Species of the Genus Lycopodium : Part III, the Structure of the
Prothallus and the Embryo," by the Rev. Dr. J. E. Holloway ; " Testing-
High-tension Insulators," by Mr. L. Birks ; " On the Distribution of Senecio
saxifragoides Hook. f. and its Relation to Senecio lagopus Raoul," by Pro-
fessor A. Wall (communicated by Mr. R. Speight) ; " Further Observations
on Soil-adsorption," by Mr. L. J. Wild.
At the annual meeting the following officers were elected for 1918 :
President- -Mr. W. H. Skinner. Vice-Presidents — Mr. L. Birks and Dr.
C. C. Farr. Secretary — Mr. L. P. Symes. Treasurer Dr. Charles Chilton.
Librarian— Mi. S. Page. Council — Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf, Dr. W. H. Symes,
Mr. L. J. Wild, Mr. A. D. Dobson, Mr. W. G. Aldridge, and Mr. W. Martin.
Representatives on the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute — Dr.
F. W. Hilgendorf and Mr. L. Birks. Auditor— Mr. G. E. Way.
Abstract of Annual Report.
Members on Active Service. — The Council desires to record that the following
members are now serving in the Empire's Forces: Drs. H. Acland and F. J. Borrie,
Messrs. G. E. Arehey, J. W. Bird, F. M. Corkill, E. Kidson, ('. E. Foweraker, A. Fair-
bairn, H. T. Ferrar, A. Taylor, G. T. Weston, F. S. Wilding, A. M. Wright, H. Rands,
E. F. Stead.
Obituary. — With great regret the Council records the death of Mr. H. P. Murray -
Aynsley, a member for very many years ; and that Mr. P. 8. Nelson, M.Sc, and Mr. G.
Maclndoe, B.E., were killed in action.
350 Proceedings.
Co-ordination of Science and Industry. — This matter has received the constan
attention of the Council.
In April, by request of the local Commissioner of the National Efficiency Board,
members of the Council waited on him and discussed various matters relative to national
efficiency. A number of suggestions were made to the Commissioner, and several
matters were referred to members of the Institute for report.
Another matter which has engaged the attention of your Council is the proposal
made by the Scientific and Industrial Research Committee of the New Zealand
Institute, to recommend the establishment of a national Board of Science and Industry.
The Council has criticized some features of the scheme and made suggestions with a
view to its improvement. Your < louncil earnestly trusts that this proposal will materialize
and that an institution of great national value will result.
Government Research (Irani. — The sum of tl l(t allotted by the New Zealand Institute
to members of this Institute was received in .March, and part has been paid over to
grantees.
Considerable progress has been made in the investigation of the phosphate rocks
of Canterbury by Messrs. R, Speight and L. J. Wild. A paper on some of the results
of their observations has been read before the Institute.
Certain preliminary work has been done on the other investigations — viz., the
deterioration of apples in cold storage, and the electrical prevention of frosting in orchards.
Proposed Reform of the New Zealand Institute. — The Council has given very serious
attention to certain proposals which have been received for the remodelling of the New
Zealand Institute. The Council, while anxious that the position of the New Zealand
Institute, both financial and otherwise, should be strengthened, has deprecated any
action which it considers would injure the local societies or destroy the present repre-
sentative nature of the governing body.
OTAC40 INSTITUTE.
During the year eight ordinary meetings of the Institute were held, at
which there were read or received eleven papers embodying the results of
original research. The titles of these papers, with the names of the authors,
are as follows: — (12th June) 'On a Partially White Form of Puffinus
griseus," by Mr. D. L. Poppelwell : ;t Notes on a Botanical Visit to Holly-
ford Valley and Martin's Bay." by Messrs. D. L. Poppelwell and W. A.
Thomson ; " Notes on a Botanical Excursion to Bunker's Island," by Mr.
D. L. Poppelwell; "Notes on a Botanical Visit to Coll or Bench Island,"
by Mr. D. L. Poppelwell : (9th October) " On the Age of the Alpine Chain
of Western Otago," by Professor J. Park, F.G.S. ; " On the Miocene
(Oamaru Stone) Coral Reef," by Professor J. Park, F.G.S. ; "Descriptions
of New Species of Lepidoptera," by Mr. Alfred Philpott (communicated) ;
" On the Structure of Amphibola crenata,'n by Miss W. Farnie, M.A. (com-
municated) ; ;' Notes on a Trematode from Amphibola crenata," by Miss
W. Farnie, M.A. (communicated) ; ;' Notes on the Autecology of certain
Plants of the Mineral Belt, Nelson," by Miss M. W. Betts, ~M.Sc. (com-
municated) ; " The Origin of Serpentine," by Dr. W. N. Benson, F.G.S.
The following addresses have also been delivered during the past ses-
sion : ' The Position of Science in our Educational System " (presidential
address), by Dr. J. K. II. Inglis ; " The Coming of the Earthworm to New
Zealand," by Dr. W. B. Benham ; "The Rainbow Top," by Mr. T. B.
Hamilton; "William James and Pragmatism," by Dr. F. W. Dunlop ;
' The Gyroscope and its Applications," by Dr. R. Jack ; " The Occurrence
and Oeiiesis of Ore Deposits," by Professor J. Park ; and " A Chapter in
Evolution," by Dr. W. P. Gowland.
Otago I itst it tile. 351
At the annual meeting (4th December) the annual report was adopted,
and the following officers were elected for 1918 : President — Professor R.
Jack. Vice-Presidents Professor J. K. H. Inglis and Mr. G. M. Thomson.
Hon. Secretary — Mr. E. J. Parr. Hon. Treasurer Mr. H. Brasch. Hon.
Auditor Mr. J. W. Milnes. Council — Professors W. B. Benham, W. N.
Benson, J. Park, and D. B. Waters, Dr. R. V. Fulton, Messrs. G. W. Howes
and H. Mandeno. Representatives oh the Hoard of Governors of the New
Zealand Institute Messrs. G. M. Thomson and E. J. Parr.
Abstract of Annual Report.
The attention of the Council during the year has been very largely centred upon
the consideration of a proposal for the reform of the New Zealand Institute. The
proposed scheme of reform, which originated in the first instance with the Director of
the Dominion Museum, has been submitted by the New Zealand Institute to each of
the affiliated societies for its careful consideration. At the present time it appears
that when the scheme comes up for final consideration by the New Zealand Institute
at its annual meeting in January it will be considerably restricted in its scope before
its final adoption. As regards some of the more important features of the scheme,
your Council has expressed itself as being in favour of the proposed appointment or
election of Fellows of the Institute as a mark of distinction in recognition of scientific
research work, and also of the jtroposal to hold public meetings of the New Zealand
Institute in various centres in rotation, and is strongly of the opinion that an increased
Government grant is urgently needed by the Institute in order that it may carry on
its work. " It does not, however, see any necessity for altering the constitution of the
Board of Governors of the Institute, nor for the establishment of an associate membership.
At the request of the New Zealand Institute your Council has also eo-operated
with the other affiliated societies in drawing up recommendations and suggestions to
assist the Efficiency Board in drafting a scheme for the co-ordination of science and
industry.
Support was also given to the Wellington Philosophical Society in its endeavour
to have New Zealand mean time made exactly twelve hours in advance of Greenwich
mean time, instead of eleven hours and a half as at present.
A sum of five guineas has been donated to the Sir William Ramsay Memorial
Fund, which is to be used for improvements in the training of chemists for industrial
work.
e
TECHNOLOGICAL BRAN( H .
Five meetings were held during 1917, and the following papers and addresses
were read: (22nd May) "Steam Generators," by Mr. R. A. McLintoek ; (19th June)
" Fuels for Internal-combustion Engines," by Mr. J. B. Mason; (17th July) " Bridge-
design on the New Zealand Railways," by Mr. F. J. Jones ; (21st August) " The Fir
Hazard of Electrical Installations," by Mr. F. R, Shepherd; (Kith October) " Hydro-
electrical- Power," by Mr. M. C. Henderson.
At the meeting of the 16th October the annual report of the branch was read and
adopted, and the following officers for 1918 were elected : Chairman, — Mr. J. B. Mason.
Vice-Chairmen — Professors J. Park and D. B. Waters, and Mr. B. B. Hooper. Hon.
Secretary — Mr. H. Brasch. Committee — Messrs. M. C. Henderson. F. J. .Jones, H.
Mandeno, G. Simpson, and R. N. Vanes.
ASTRONOMICAL BRANCH.
Only one meeting was held during the year — that of the 23rd October; a paper
on '" Astronomy in War-time " was read by .Mr. J. W. Milnes.
The following officers for 1918 were elected at the same meeting : Chairman-
Mr. R. Gilkison. Vice-Chairmen — Professors R. Jack, J. Park, and D. R. White.
Hon. Secretary — Mr. J. W. Milnes. Committer — Dr. P. D. Cameron, and Messrs. H.
Brasch, C. Frys, W. T. Neill, E. J. Parr, and W. S. Wilson.
352 Proceedings.
HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE.
Eight meetings were held during 1917. and the following papers were
read : (18th May) Cv Old Hawke's Bay— the Provincial Days," by W. Din-
widdie ; (18th June) " The Marvels of Luminiferous Ether,"' by J- W.
Poynton, S.M. ; (27th July) " The Development of Thought and Language,
chiefly in regard to the Lower Animals," by T. Hyde ; (17th August)
'• Bacon and" Shakespeare," by H. Hill, B.A.", F.G.S. ; (28th September)
" Popular Bacteriology," by J. W. Poynton, S.M. ; (2nd November) " His-
tory and Development of the Water-supply of the Taupo Plains," by H.
Hill, B.A., F.G.S. ; (13th December) L' Milk as a Food," by E. G. Loten.
At the annual meeting (13th December) the annual report was read and
adopted, and the following officers for 1918 were elected : President—
T. Hyde. Vice-President— W . A. Armour, M.A., M.Sc. Council— W. Din-
widdle ; H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S. ; F. Hutchinson, jun. : W. Kerr, M.A. ;
E. G. Loten ; T. C. Moore, M.D. Hon. Secretary and Treasurer — D. A.
Strachan, M.A. Hon. Auditor — H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S. Hon. Lanternist—
E. G. Loten. Representative— K. Hill, B.A., F.G S.
MANAWATU PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY
During the year eight general meetings were held, at which the following
papers were read : ' The Frozen-meat Industry," by M. A. Eliott : " Pair-
ing Relations of Matter in Animal and Vegetable Life," by D. Sinclair,
C.E. ; ' Time, how it is found and kept," by C. T. Salmon, Assoc, in
Eng., Canterbury College ; ' Bird-life in the Southern Islets . of New
Zealand," by G. Thomas ; " Antarctic Exploration," by H. Hill, B.A.,
F.G.S. ; ' Economic Plants that should be imported into New Zealand,"
by J. W. Poynton, S.M. ; " Some Unconsidered Aspects of the War," by
j'. W. Poynton, S.M. ; " Hydro-electricity," by A. J. Colquhoun, M.Sc.
At the animal meeting the annual report and balance-sheet was adopted.
Abstract of Annual Re^prt.
During the year several matters not merely of local but of great general importance
have occupied the attention of the Council. At their request the Government has agreed
to extend the measures for the preservation of native birds to the outlying islets of
Stewart Island, and has referred the matter to Dr. Thomson and Mr. Phillips Turner
for suggestions as to the measures necessary to be taken, and' these gentlemen have
issued a full report on the bird-life of the Dominion, a copy of which has been made
for our library and is accessible to any member of the society. The Council has also
given its warm support to the endeavour of Foxton to secure the preservation of the
only piece of native bush remaining in its neighbourhood. We have been officially
advised that this object has been attained.
Manawatu Philosophical Society. 853
Besides the above, three questions of great importance have been before the
Council, and been considered in detail by sub-committees and reported on to the
different bodies more immediately concerned: —
(1.) The alteration of the New Zealand mean time from eleven and a half to
exactly twelve hours in advance of Greenwich, which would result in a
daily saving of half an hour's sunlight, and bring the Dominion into line
with the international agreement. This alteration was suggested by the
Wellington Philosophical Society, and its consideration lias been postponed
by the Government on account of the war. v
(2.) A scheme for the better co-ordination of scientific work in the Dominion,
brought forward by Mr. W. Ferguson, the Chairman of the Efficiency Board,
and Dr. Thomson ; together with the comments thereon made by the
different branches of the Institute in Auckland, Wellington, Canterbury,
and Otago. A lengthy and detailed report on these proposals was made
by the Council and forwarded to the Secretary of the New Zealand Institute
for consideration at the annual meeting in January.
(."!.) Proposals for the reorganization of the New Zealand Institute, initiated by
Dr. Thomson, with a view to making it as a whole, apart from its branches,
an active and efficient scientific body. These also were considered in detail
with the comments of the various branches, and suggestions forwarded to
the Secretary.
In connection with bird-preservation the Council desires gratefully to acknowledge
the aid given by Mr. W. H. Field, M.P., who took the keenest interest in the matter,
and personally interviewed the Premier on the subject.
During the year valuable additions to the Museum and the library have been
received, including among other items a collection of fifty butterflies and moths from
the Dominion Museum, contributed by Dr. Thomson ; a collection of minerals from
the volcanic region of Rotorua, by Mr. D. Sinclair ; and valuable books of reference,
by the Ven. Archdeacon Comins (late of Melanesia).
For the first time this year the society has been called upon to contribute £6 15s 6d.
towards the general expenses of the New Zealand Institute. As the chief item in these
expenses is the publication of the Transactions, your Council has included in its sug-
gestions for the reorganization of the New Zealand Institute the proposal that the
Transactions should be issued gratuitously only to those members who make a written
application for the same.
At the annual meeting the following officers for 1918 were elected :
President — A. J. Colquhoun, M.Sc. Vice-Presidents — C. T. Salmon, Assoc,
in Eng. ; D. Sinclair, C.E. Officer in Charge of the Observatory — A. J.
Colquhoun. Council — Miss Ironside, M.A. ; Messrs. H. Akers, J. L. Barni-
coat, C. N. Clausen, M. A. Eliott, R. Gardner, A. Hannay, W. Park,
J. Bainforth, J. E. Vernon, M.A. ; Dr. W. R. Stowe. Secretary and Trea-
surer—^. Wilson, M.A. Auditor— W. E. Bendall, F.P.A.N.Z.
WANGANUI PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
Eight meetings were held during the session 1917, and various papers
and exhibits submitted. The following were the principal papers con-
tributed : " The Tropical Islands of the Eastern Pacific," by Dr. P. Marshall ;
" Nebulae and Star Clusters," by Mr. J. T. Ward ; " History as a Factor in
Education," by Mr. H. E. Sturge, M.A. ; " The Discovery of America," by
Mr. Thomas Allison ; " New Zealand Provincialisms in the Use of English,"
Mr. J. A. Neame, M.A. ; " Records of Observations of Mr. A. W. Burrell, of
Stratford, suggesting Comparatively Recent Volcanic Activity of Mount
Egmont," contributed through Mr. J. T. Ward ; " Mendelism," by Dr.
12— Trans.
354- Wanganui Philosophical Society.
F. W. Hilgeudorf ; "Tuna and Pa-tuna — Eels and Eel-weirs," by Mr.
T. W. Downes. The last mentioned, and two technical geological papers
by Dr. Marshall, were taken as read.
An interesting event of the session was the presentation to Dr. P.
Marshall, the President of the Society, of the Hutton Memorial Medal for
the year 1917. The medal was awarded for researches in New Zealand
geology. The presentation was made by His Excellency the Governor-
General, at a public meeting on the 20th September, 1917, on the occasion
of his visit to Wanganui to lay the foundation-stone of the Sargeant Art
Gallery.
Officers of the Society. — President— Dr. P. Marshall, F.R.G.S. Vice-
Presidents — Mr. J. A. Neame, M.A., and Mr. J. T. Ward. Council (including
Mr. H. Drew, ex officio as Hon. Curator of the Museum) — Messrs. T. Allison ;
C. Palmer Brown, M.A., LL.B. ; R. Murdoch ; T. W. Downes ; H. E.
Sturge, M.A. ; H. R. Hatherly, M.R.C.S. Hon. Treasurer— Mr. F. P.
Talboys. Hon. Secretary — Mr. J. P. Williamson. Representative — Dr.
Marshall.
APPENDIX
357
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1908.
For the New Zealand Institute Act, 1908, and Regulations thereunder
see vol. 49, 1917, pp. 570-74.
THE HUTTON MEMORIAL MEDAL AND RESEARCH FUND.
Declaration of Trust.
This deed, made the fifteenth day of February, one thousand nine hundred
and nine (1909), between the New Zealand Institute of the one part, and
the Public Trustee of the other part : Whereas the New Zealand Institute
is possessed of a fund consisting now of the sum of five hundred and fifty-
five pounds one shilling (£555 Is.), held for the purposes of the Hutton
Memorial Medal and Research Fund on the terms of the rules and regu-
lations made by the Governors of the said Institute, a copy whereof is
hereto annexed : And whereas the said money has been transferred to the
Public Trustee for the purposes of investment, and the Public Trustee
now holds the same for such purposes, and it is expedient to declare the
trusts upon which the same is held by the Public Trustee :
Now this deed witnesseth that the Public Trustee shall hold the said
moneys and all other moneys which shall be handed to him by the said
Governors for the same purposes upon trust from time to time to invest
the same upon such securities as are lawful for the Public Trustee to
invest on, and to hold the principal and income thereof for the purposes
set out in the said rules hereto attached.
And it is hereby declared that it shall be lawful for the Public Trustee
to pay all or any of the said moneys, both principal and interest, to the
Treasurer of the said New Zealand Institute upon being directed so to do
by a resolution of the Governors of the said Institute, and a letter signed
by the Secretary of the said Institute enclosing a copy of such resolution
certified by him and by the President as correct shall be sufficient
evidence to the Public Trustee of the due passing of such resolution :
And upon receipt of such letter and copy the receipt of the Treasurer for
the time being of the said Institute shall be a sufficient discharge to the
Public Trustee : And in no case shall the Public Trustee be concerned to
inquire into the administration of the said moneys by the Governors of
the said Institute.
As witness the seals of the said parties hereto, the day and year
hereinbefore written.
Resolutions of Board of Governors.
Resolved by the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute
that —
1. The funds placed in the hands of the Board by the committee of
subscribers to the Hutton Memorial Fund be called "The Hutton
Memorial Research Fund," in memory of the late Captain Frederick
358 Appendix.
Wollaston Hutton, F.K.S. Such fund shall consist of the moneys sub-
scribed and granted for the purpose of the Hutton Memorial, and all
other funds which may be given or granted for the same purpose.
2. The funds shall be vested in the Institute. The Board of
Governors of the Institute shall have the control of the said moneys,
and may invest the same upon any securities proper for trust-moneys.
3. A sum not exceeding £100 shall be expended in procuring a bronze
medal to be known as " The Hutton Memorial Medal."
4. The fund, or such part thereof as shall not be used as aforesaid,
shall be invested in such securities as aforesaid as may be approved of by
the Board of Governors, and the interest arising from such investment
shall be used for the furtherance of the objects of the fund.
5. The Hutton Memorial Medal shall be awarded from time to time
by the Board of Governors, in accordance with these regulations, to
persons who have made some noticeable contribution in connection with
the zoology, botany, or geology of New Zealand.
6. The Board shall make regulations setting out the manner in which
the funds shall be administered. Such regulations shall conform to the
terms of the trust.
7. The Board of Governors may, in the manner prescribed in the
regulations, make grants from time to time from the accrued interest to
persons or committees who require assistance in prosecuting researches
in the zoology, botany, or geology of New Zealand.
8. There shall be published annually in the "Transactions of the
New Zealand Institute" the regulations adopted by the Board as afore-
said, a list of the recipients of the Hutton Memorial Medal, a list of the
persons to whom grants have been made during the previous year, and
also, where possible, an abstract of researches made by them.
Regulations under which the Hutton Memorial Medal shall be
awarded and the research fund administered.
1. Unless in exceptional circumstances, the Hutton Memorial Medal
shall be awarded not oftener than once in every three years ; and in no
case shall any medal be awarded unless, in the opinion of the Board,
some contribution really deserving of the honour has been made.
2. The medal shall not be awarded for any research published previous
to the 31st December, 1906.
3. The research for which the medal is awarded must have a distinct
bearing on New Zealand zoology, botany, or geology.
4. The medal shall be awarded only to those who have received the
greater part of their education in New Zealand or who have resided in
New Zealand for not less than ten years.
5. Whenever possible, the medal shall be presented in some public
manner.
6. The Board of Governors may, at an annual meeting, make grants
from the accrued interest of the fund to auy person, society, or commit-
tee for the encouragement of research in New Zealand zoology, botany,
or geology.
7. Applications for such grants shall be made to the Board before the
30th September.
8. In making such grants the Board of Governors shall give preference
to such persons as are defined in regulation 4.
Hutton Memorial Fund. 359
9. The recipients of such grants shall report to the Board before the
31st December in the year following, showing in a general way how the
grant has been expended and what progress has been made with the
research.
10. The results of researches aided by grants from fcbie mud shall,
where possible, be published in New Zealand.
11. The Board of Governors may from time to time amend or alter
the regulations, such amendments or alterations being in all cases in con-
formity with resolutions 1 to 4.
Award of the Hutton Memorial Medal.
1911. Professor W. B. Benham, D.Sc.. F.R.S., University of Otago-
For researches in New Zealand zoology.
1914. Dr. L. Cockayne, F.L.S., F.R.S. — For researches on the
ecology of New Zealand plants.
1917. Professor P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc. — For researches in New
Zealand geology.
HECTOR MEMORIAL RESEARCH FUND.
Declaration of Trust.
This deed, made the thirty-first day of July, one thousand nine hundred
and fourteen, between the New Zealand Institute, a body corporate
duly incorporated by the New Zealand Institute Act, 1908, of the one
part, and the Public Trustee of the other part : Whereas by a declara-
tion of trust dated the twenty-seventh day of January, one thousand
nine hundred and twelve, after reciting that the New Zealand Institute
was possessed of a fund consisting of the sum of £1,045 10s. 2d., held
for the purposes of the Hector Memorial Research Fund on the terms of
the rules and regulations therein mentioned, which said moneys had been
handed to the Public Trustee for investment, it was declared {inter aha)
that the Public Trustee should hold the said moneys and all other moneys
which should be handed to him by the said Governors of the Institute
for the same purpose upon trust from time to time, to invest the same
in the common fund of the Public Trust Office, and to hold the principal
and income thereof for the purposes set out in the said rules and regula-
tions in the said deed set forth : And whereas the said rules and regu-
lations have been amended by the Governors of the New Zealand Institute,
and as amended are hereinafter set forth : And whereas it is expedient
to declare that the said moneys are held by the Public Trustee upon the
trusts declared by the said deed of trust and for the purposes set forth
in the said rules and regulations as amended as aforesaid :
Now this deed witnesseth and it is hereby declared that the Public
Trustee shall hold the said moneys and all other moneys which shall be
360 Appendix.
handed to him by the said Governors for the same purpose upon trust
from time to time to invest the same in the common fund of the Public
Trust Office, and to hold the principal and income thereof for the pur-
poses set out in the said rules and regulations hereinafter set forth :
And it is hereby declared that it shall be lawful for the Public
Trustee to pay, and he shall pay, all or any of the said moneys, both
principal and interest, to the Treasurer of the said New Zealand Insti-
tute upon being directed to do so by a resolution of the Governors of
the said Institute, and a letter signed by the Secretary of the said Insti-
tute enclosing a copy of such resolution certified by him and by the
President as correct shall be sufficient evidence to the Public Trustee
of the due passing of such resolution : And upon receipt of such letter
and copy the receipt of the Treasurer for the time being of the said
Institute shall be a sufficient discharge to the Public Trustee : And in
no case shall the Public Trustee be concerned to inquire into the adminis-
tration of the said moneys by the Governors of the said Institute.
As witness the seals of the said parties hereto, the day and year first
hereinbefore written.
Rules and Regulations made by the Governors of the New Zealand
Institute in relation to the Hector Memorial Research Fund.
1. The funds placed in the hands of the Board by the Wellington
Hector Memorial Committee be called " The Hector Memorial Research
Fund," in memory of the late Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
Ihe object of such fund shall be the encouragement of scientific research
in New Zealand, and such fund shall consist of the moneys subscribed
and granted for the purpose of the memorial and all other funds which
may be given or granted for the same purpose.
2. The funds shall be vested in the Institute. The Board of Go-
vernors of the Institute shall have the control of the said moneys, and
may invest the same upon any securities proper for trust-moneys.
3. A sum not exceeding one hundred pounds (£100) shall be expended
in procuring a bronze medal, to be known as the Hector Memorial Medal.
4. The fund, or such part thereof as shall not be used as aforesaid,
shall be invested in such securities as may be approved by the Board
of Governors, and the interest arising from such investment shall be
used for the furtherance of the objects of the fund by providing thereout
a prize for the encouragement of such scientific research in New Zealand
of such amount as the Board of Governors shall from time to time
determine.
5. The Hector Memorial Medal and Prize shall be awarded annually
by the Board of Governors.
6. The prize and medal shall be awarded by rotation for the follow-
ing subjects, namely — (1) Botany, (2) chemistry, (3) ethnology, (4) geo-
logy, (5) physics (including mathematics and astronomy), (6) zoology
(inchiding animal physiology).
In each year the medal and prize shall be awarded to that investi-
gator who, working within the Dominion of New Zealand, shall in the
opinion of the Board of Governors have done most towards the advance-
ment of that branch of science to which the medal and prize are in such
year allotted.
7. Whenever possible the medal shall be presented in some public
manner.
Hector Memorial Research Fund. 361
Award of the Hector Memorial Research Fund.
1912. L. Cockayne, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.S. — For researches in New-
Zealand botany.
1913. T. H. Easterfield, M.A., Ph.D. — For researches in chemistry.
1914. Elsdon Best- — For researches in New Zealand ethnology.
1915. P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S. — For researches in New
Zealand geology.
1916. Sir Ernest Rutherford, F.R.S. — For researches in physics.
1917. Charles Chilton, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., C.M.Z.S. - - For
researches in zoology.
1918. T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S.— For researches in New
Zealand systematic botany.
REGULATIONS FOR ADMINISTERING THE GOVERNMENT
RESEARCH GRANT.
All grants shall be subject to the following conditions, and each grantee
shall be duly informed of these conditions : —
1. All instruments, specimens, objects, or materials of permanent value,
whether purchased or obtained out of or by means of the grant, or supplied
from among those at the disposal of the Institute, are to be regarded, unless
the Research Grants Committee decide otherwise, as the property of the
Institute, and are to be returned by the grantee, for disposal according to
the orders of the committee, at the conclusion of his research, or at such
other time as the committee may determine.
2. Every one receiving a grant shall furnish to the Research Grants
Committee, on or before the 1st January following upon the allotment of
the grant, a report (or, if the object of the grant be not attained, an in-
terim report, to be renewed at the same date in each subsequent year until
a final report can be furnished or the committee dispense with further
reports) containing (a) a brief statement showing the results arrived at
or the stage which the inquiry has reached ; (6) a general statement of the
expenditure incurred, accompanied, as far as is possible, with vouchers :
(c) a list of the instruments, specimens, objects, or materials purchased or
obtained out of the grant, or supplied by the committee, which are at
present in his possession ; and (d) references to any transactions, journals,
or other publications in which results of the research have been printed.
In the event of the grantee failing to send in within three months of
the said 1st January a report satisfactory to the committee he may be
required, on resolution of the Board of Governors, to return the whole of
the sum allotted to him.
3. Where a grant is made to two or more persons acting as a committee
for the purpose of carrying out some research, one member of the said
committee shall assume the responsibility of furnishing the report and
receiving and disbursing the money.
4. Papers in which results are published that have been obtained
through and furnished by the Government grant should contain an acknow-
ledgment of that fact.
13— Trans.
362 Appendix.
5. Every grantee shall, before any of the grant is paid to him, be
required to sign an engagement that he is prepared to carry out the general
conditions applicable to all grants, as well as any conditions which may
be attached to his particular grant.
6. In cases where specimens or preparations of permanent value are
obtained through a grant the committee shall, as far as possible, direct that
such specimens shall be deposited in a museum or University college within
the province where the specimens or material were obtained, or in which
the grantee has worked. The acknowledgment of the receipt of the speci-
mens by such institution shall fully satisfy the claims of the Institute.
7. In cases where, after completion of a research, the committee directs
that any instrument or apparatus obtained by means of the grant shall be
deposited in an institution of higher learning, such deposit shall be subject
to an annual report from the institution in question as to the condition of
the instrument or apparatus, and as to the use that has been made of it.
Research Grants from Vote (£500) to 31st March, 1918.
Through the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury : —
Professor W. P. Evans, £200 for the investigation of New Zealand brown
coals; granted 11th March, 1918.
Professor Charles Chilton. £50 for the investigation of New Zealand flax
(phormium) ; granted 11th March, 1918.
Through the Otago Institute : —
Professor John Malcolm. £30 for the investigation of New Zealand
plant pharmacology; granted 11th March, 1918.
Through the Wellington Philosophical Society:—
Professor T. H. Easterfield, £50 for investigation of the wax content of
New Zealand brown coals ; granted 11th March, 1918.
THE CARTER BEQUEST.
For extracts from the will of Charles Rooking Carter see vol. 48, 1916,
pp. 565-66.
363
NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
ESTABLISHED UNDER AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND
INTITULED THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1867; RECONSTITUTED BY
AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND UNDER THE NEW
ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1908, AND CONTINUED BY THE NEW ZEALAND
INSTITUTE ACT, 1908.
BOARD OF GOVERNORS.
EX OFFICIO.
His Excellency the Governor-General.
•j
The Hon. the Minister of Internal Affairs.
NOMINATED BY THE GOVERNMENT.
Mr. Charles A. Ewen (reappointed December, 1916) ; Dr. J. Allan Thom-
son, P.G.S. (reappointed December, 1917) ; Mr. B. C. Aston, F.I.C.,
F.C.S. (reappointed December, 1917) ; Dr. Charles Chilton, F.L.S.,
C.M.Z.S. (reappointed December, 1916).
ELECTED BY AFFILIATED SOCIETIES (DECEMBER, 1917).
(Professor H. B. Kirk, M.A.
■(Mr. George Hogben, M.A.,
( C.M.G.
(Professor H. W. Segar, M.A.
-j Professor A. P. W. Thomas,
I M.A.
(Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf, M.A.
I Mr. L. Birks, B.Sc.
(Mr. G. M. Thomson, F.C.S.,
F.L.S.
(Mr. E. J. Parr, M.A. , B.Sc.
Mr. H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S.
Dr. L. Cockavne, F.L. S. , F.B.S.
Mr. M. A. Eliott.
Dr. P. Marshall, F.G.S.
Wellington Philosophical Society
Auckland Institute
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury
Otago Institute
Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute ..
Nelson Institute
Manawatu Philosophical Society
Wanganui Philosophical Society
OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1918.
President : Dr. L. Cockayne, F.E.S.
Hon. Treasurer: Mr. C. A. Ewen.
Hon. Editors : Dr. L. Cockayne, F.R.S. ; Dr. C. A. Cotton, F.G.S.
Hon. Librarian : Dr. J. Allan Thomson, F.G.S.
Hon. Secretary: Mr. B. C. Aston, F.I.C., F.C.S.
(Box 40, Post-office, Wellington).
AFFILIATED SOCIETIES.
Name of Society.
Secretary's Name and Address.
Date of Affiliation.
Wellington Philosophical
J. Allan Thomson, Dominion
10th June, 1868.
Society
Museum, Wellington
Auckland Institute
T. F. Cheeseman, Museum, Auck-
land
L. P. Symes, 22 Mays Road,
10th June, 1868.
Philosophical Institute of
22nd October, 1868.
Canterbury
Christchurch
Otago Institute
E. J. Parr, Boys' High School,
Dunedin
18th October, 1869.
Hawke's Bay Philosophical
C. F. H. Pollook, P.O. Box 166,
31st March, 1875.
Institute
Napier
Nelson Institute
E. L. Morley, Waimea Streei,,
Nelson
20th December, 1883.
Manawatu Philosophical
K. Wilson, 92 Rangitikei Street,
6th January, 1905.
Society
Palmerston North
Wanganui Philosophical
J. P. Williamson, Box 171, Wa-
2nd December, 1911.
Society
nganui
13"
364
Appendix.
FORMER HONORARY MEMBERS.
1870.
Agassiz, Professor Louis.
Drury, Captain Byron, R.N.
Finsoh, Professor Otto, Ph.D.
Flower, Professor W. H., F.R.S.
Hochstetter. Dr. Ferdinand von.
Darwin, Charles. M.A., F.R.S.
Gray, J. E., Ph.D., F.R.S.
Hooker, Sir J. D., G. C.S.I. , C.B., M.D ,
F.R.S., O.M.
Mueller, Ferdinand von, M.D., F.R.S.
C.M.G.
Owen, Professor Richard, F.R.S.
Richards, Rear-Admiral G. H.
1871.
Lindsay, W. Lauder, M.D., F.R.S.E.
Grey, Sir George, K.C.B.
Huxley, Thomas H., LL.D., F.R.S.
1872.
I Stokes, Vice- Admiral J. L.
1873.
Bowen, Sir George Ferguson, G. C.M.G.
Giinther, A.. M.D., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.
Lyell, Sir Charles, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Pickard-Cambridge, Rev. O., M.A., F.R.S.,
C.M.Z.S.
McLachlan, Robert, F.L.S.
Newton, Alfred, F.R.S.
1874.
Thomson, Professor Wyville, F.R.S.
Filhol, Dr. H.
Rolleston, Professor G., M.D., F.R.S.
1875.
Sclater, P. L., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.
Berggren, Dr. S.
Clarke. Rev. W. B., M.A., F.R.S.
Baird, Professor Spencer F.
1876.
Etheridge, Professor R., F.R.S.
1877.
I Weld, Frederick A., C.M.G.
Garrod, Professor A. H., F.R.S.
Miiller, Professor Max, F.R.S.
1878.
Tenison- Woods, Rev. J. E., F.L.S.
1880.
The Most Noble the Marquis of Normanby, G.C.M.G.
Carpenter, Dr. W. B., C.B., F.R.S.
Ellery, Robert L. J., F.R.S.
1883.
Thomson, Sir William, F.R.S.
Gray, Professor Asa.
Sharp, Richard Bowdler, M.A., F.R.S.
1885.
Wallace, A. R., F.R.S., O.M.
1888.
Beneden, Professor J. P. van.
Ettingshausen, Baron von.
McCoy, Professor F., D.Sc, C.M.G.,
F.R.S.
Former Honorary Members.
1890.
Riley, Professor C. V.
1891.
Davis, J. W., F.G.S., F.L.S.
1895.
Mitten, William, F.R.S.
365
Langley, S. P.
Agardh, Dr. J. G.
Avebury, Lord, P.C., F.R.S.
Eve, H. W., M.A.
1896.
| Lydekker, Richard, F.R.S.
1900.
Massee, George, F.L.S., F.R.M.S.
1901.
I Howes, G. B., LL.D., F.R.S.
1906.
Milne, J., F.R.S.
1909.
Darwin, Sir George, F.R.S.
FORMER MANAGER AND EDITOR.
[Under the New Zealand Institute Act, 1867.]
1867-1903.
Hector, Sir James, M.D., K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
PAST PRESIDENTS.
1903-4.
Hutton, Captain Frederick Wollaston, F.R.S.
1905-6.
Hector, Sir James, M.D., K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
1907-8.
Thomson, George Malcolm, F.L.S., F.C.S.
1909-10.
Hamilton, A.
1911-12.
Cheeseman, T. F., F.L.S. , F.Z.S.
1913-14.
Chilton, C, M.A., D.Sc, LL.D., F.L.S., C.M./.S.
1915.
Petrie, D., M.A., Pb.D.
1916-17.
Benham, W. B., M.A., D.Sc.,, F.Z.S., F.R.S.
366 Appendix.
HONOBABY MEMBBES.
1877.
Sharp, Dr. D., University Museum, Cambridge.
1890.
Liversidge, Professor A., M.A., P.R.S., ! Nordstedt, Professor Otto, Ph.D., Uui-
Pieldhead, Coombe Warren, Kingston versity of Lund, Sweden.
Hill, England. !
1891.
Goodale, Professor G. L., M.D., LL.D., Harvard University, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
1894.
Codrington, Rev. P. H., D.D., Wadhurst Thiselton - Dyer. Sir W. T.. K.C.M.G.,
Rectorv, Sussex, England.
CLE., LL.D., M.A., P.R.S., Witcombe,
Gloucester, England.
1901.
Goebel, Professor Dr. Carl von, University of Munich.
1902.
Sars, Professor G. 0., University of Christiania, Norway.
1903.
Klotz, Professor Otto J., 437 Albert Street, Ottawa, Canada.
1904.
Rutherford, Professor Sir E., D.Sc, | David, Professor T. Edgeworth, P.R.S.,
P.R.S., Nobel Laureate, University of I C.M.G., Sydney University, N.S.W.
Manchester.
1906.
Beddard, P. E., D.Sc, F.R.S., Zoological
Society, London.
Brady, G. S., D.Sc, F.R.S., University of
Durham, England.
1907,
Dendy, Dr. A., P.R.S., King's College,
University of London, England.
Diels, Professor L., Ph.D., University of
Marburg.
Meyrick, E., B.A., P.R.S., Marlborough
College, England.
Stebbing, Rev. T. R. R., P.R.S., Tun-
bridge Wells, England.
1910.
Bruce, Dr. W. S., Edinburgh.
1913.
Davis, Professor W. Morris, Harvard | Hemsley, Dr. W. Botting, P.R.S., Straw-
University. ' berry Hill, London, England.
1914.
Arber, Dr. E. Newell, Cambridge,
England.
Balfour, Professor I. Bayley, P.R.S.,
Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh.
Haswell, Professor W. A., P.R.S, Uni-
versity, Sydney.
1915.
Bateson, Professor W., P.R.S., Merton, Surrey, England.
1916.
Massaut, Professor Jean, University of Brussels, Belgium.
Roll of Members.
367
ORDIN AR Y MEMBK H S .
WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
[* Life members t On active service.]
Ackland. E. W., P.O. Box 928, Wellington.
Adams, C. E., D.Sc., A. LA. (London),
F.R.A.S., Hector Observatory, Wellington.
Adams. ('. W., Bellevue Road, Lower Hutt.*
Adamson, Professor J., M.A., LL.B., Victoria
University College. Wellington.
Adkin, G. L., Queen Street. Levin.
Andersen, Johannes C, General Assembly
library, Wellington.
Anderson, W. J., M.A., LL.D.. Education
Department . Wellington.
Andrew, K. L., Dominion Laboratory. Wel-
lington.
Aston. B.C., F.I.C., F.C.S., P.O. Box 40,
Wellington.
Atkins, A.. F.R.I.B.A., A.M.Inst.C.E.. 9 Grey
Street. Wellington.
Atkinson. E. H., Agricultural Department,
Wellington. t
Bagley, G., care of Young's Chemical Coin
pany, 14 Egrnont Street, Wellington.
Baillie. H, Public Library, Wellington.
Bakewell, F. H., M.A., Education Board.
Mercer Street, Wellington.
Baldwin. E. S.. 215 Lambton Quay, Wel-
lington.
Beetham. W. H., Masterton.
Begg, Dr. C. M., 1 04 Willis Street, Wellington.t
Bell. E. D.. Panama Street, Wellington.
Bell. Hon. Sir Francis H. D., K.C., M.L.C..
Panama Street. Wellington.
Berry, C. G. G., 35 Bolton Street, Wellington.
Blair, David K.. MJ.Mech.E., 9 Grey Street.
Wellington.
Brandon, A. de B., B.A., Featherston Street,
Wellington.
Bretherton, A. C, Public Trust Office, Wel-
lington.
Bridges, G. G. 2 Wesley Road, Wellington.
Broadgate. F. L. K., M.Sc., Dominion
Museum. Wellington.t
Brodrick, T. N., Under-Secretary, Lands and
Survey Department, Wellington.
Brown, J., Experimental Farm, Weraroa.
Browne, M. H., Education Department, Wel-
lington.
Burbidge. P. W.. M.Sc, Victoria University
College, Wellington.f
Burnett, J., M.Inst. C.E., care of M. Burnett,
of Richardson, McCabe. and Co., 11 Grey
Street, Wellington.
Burton, Richard F., Longner Hall. Salop,
Shrewsbury, England.*
Cameron, Dr. R. A., 148 Willis Street, Wel-
lington.
Campbell, J., F.R.I.B.A., Government Archi-
tect, Public Works Department, Welling-
ton.
Carter, W. H., care of Dr. Henry, The Terrace,
Wellington.t
Chamberlin, T. Chamberlin, Crescent Road,
Khandallah.
Chapman, Martin, K.C., Brandon Street,
Wellington.
Chudleigh, E. R., Orongomairoa. Waihou.
Clark, Professor H., Victoria University Col-
lege, Wellington.
Clarke, J. T., care of Messrs. Searle, Joy. and
Co., 61 Victoria Street, Wellington.
Cockayne. L., Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.S., Ngaio,
Wellington.
Connie, L. J., M.A., Wapiti Avenue, Epsom,
Auckland.
Cotton, C. A., D.Sc, F.G.S., Victoria Univer-
sity College, Wellington.
Crawford, A. D., Box 120, G.P.O., Wellington.
Cull. J. E. L., B.Sc. in Eng. (Mech.), Public
Works Department. Wellington.
Curtis, H. F.. 19 .May Street, Wellington.
Darling, J., Kelburn.
Davies, V. C, Devon Street, New Plymouth.t
Donovan. W., M.Sc, Dominion Laboratory,
Wellington.
Dore, A. B., Bacteriological Laboratory,
Wellington.
Dougall, Archibald, 9 Claremont Grove. Wel-
lington .
Dymock, E. R., F.I.A.N.Z., A.I.A.V., Wood-
ward Street, Wellington.
Earnshaw, W., 4 Watson Street, Wellington.t
Easterfield, Professor T. H., M.A., Ph.D.,
Victoria University College, Wellington.
Ewen, Charles A., Heretaunga, Upper Hutt.
Ferguson, William. M.A., M. Inst.C. E.,
M.I.Mech.E.. 131 Coromandel Street, Wel-
lington.
Findlay. Sir John G., K.C., LL.D., 197
Lambton Quay. Wellington.
FitzGerald, Gerald, A.M.Inst.C.E., P.O. Box
401 , Wellington.
Fletcher, RevT H. J., The Manse, Taupo.
Fortune, Alfred, Huia Road, Hataitai.
Fox, Thomas 0.. Borough Engineer, Miramar,
Wellington.
Freeman, C. J., 95 Webb Street, Wellington.*
Freyberg, C, Macdonald Crescent, Welling-
ton.t
Fulton, J.. 14 North Terrace, Kelburn. t
Furkert, F. W.. A.M.Inst.C.E., Public Works
Department, Wellington.
368
Appendix.
Garrow, Professor J. M. E., B.A., LL.B.,
Victoria University College, Wellington.*
Gavin, W. H., Public Works Department,
Wellington.
Gibbs, Dr. H. E., 240 Willis Street, Welling-
ton.
Gilford, A. C, M.A., F.R.A.S., G Shannon
Street, Wellington.*
Girdlestone, H. E., F.R.G.S., Lands and
Survey Department. Wellington.
Goudie, H. A., Whakarewarewa.
Gray, W., Mauriceville.
Hamilton. H., A.O.S.M., 58 Bowen Street,
Wellington.t
Hanify, H. P., 18 Panama Street, Wellington.
Hansford, George D., Parliamentary Build-
ings, Wellington.
Hastie, Miss J. A., care of Street and Co.,
30 Cornhill, London E.C. *
Hector, C. Monro, M.D., B.Sc, F.R.A.S.,
Lower Hutt.
Helyer, Miss E., 13 Tonks Grove, Wellington.
Henderson, J., M.A., D.Sc, B.Sc. in Eng.
(Metall.). Geological Survey Department,
Wellington.
Hislop, J., Internal Affairs Department, Wel-
lington.
Hodson, W. H., 40 Pirie Street, Wellington.
Hogben, G., C.M.G., M.A., F.G.S., 32 Crescent
Road, Khandallah.
Holmes, R. L., F.R.Met.Soe.. " Kia Ora,"
Fern Street, Randwick, Sydney.*
Holmes, R. W., M.Inst.GE., Engineer-in-
Chief, Public Works Department, Welling-
ton.
Hooper, Captain G. S., Grant Road, North
Wellington.
Hudson, G. V., F.E.S., Inspector's Office,
G.P.O., Wellington.
Jack, J. W., 170 Featherston Street, Wel-
lington.
James, L. G., P.O. Box 94. (Hunter Street),
Wellington.
Jenkinson, S. H., Railway Department, Wel-
lington.
Johnston, Hon. G. Randall, care of Martin
Chapman, K.C., Wellington.*
Jones, E. G, B.A., 33 Ellice Avenue, Wel-
lington, f
Joseph, Joseph, P.O. Box 443, Wellington.
Kempthorne, Mrs. H. E., Bellevue Road,
Lower Hutt.
Kennedy, Rev. Dr. D., F.R.A.S., St. Patrick's
College, Wellington.
King, G. W., B,E., care of A. H. King, P.O.
Box 116, Christchurch.t
Kirk, Professor H. B., M.A., Victoria Univer-
sity College, Wellington.
La Trobe, W. S., M.A., Technical College,
Wellington.
Lawton, H. W., Education Board, Welling-
ton.
Levi, P., M.A., care of Wilford and Levi, 15
Stout Street. Wellington.
Lomas, E. K., M.A., M.Sc, Training College,
Wellington.
Li.niax, Major H. A.. Araruhe, Aram oho,
Wanganui.
Luke, John P., C.M.G., M.P., Hiropi Street,
Wellington.
McCabe. Ultan F., cue of Richardson and
McCahe, 11 Grey Street. Wellington.
McDonald, J., Dominion Museum, Wellington.
McKenzie, Donald, care of Mrs. Elizabeth
McKenzie, Mart on. f
MacJaurin, J. S., D.Sc, F.C.S., Dominion
Laboratory, Wellington.
MacLean, F. W., M.Inst. C.E., Chief Engineer,
Head Office, Railway Department, Wel-
lington.
Marchbanks, J., M.Inst.C.E., Harbour Board,
Wellington.
Marsden. Professor E., D.Sc, Victoria Uni-
versity College, Wellington.t
Mason, J. Malcolm, M.D., F.C.S., D.P.H.,
Lower Hutt.
Maxwell, J. P., M.Inst.C.E., 145 Dixon Street,
Wellington.
Mestayer, R. L., M.Inst.C.E., 139 Sydney
Street, Wellington.
Millar, H. M., Public Works Department,
Wellington.!
Mills, Leonard, New Parliamentary Buildings,
Wellington.
Moore, G, Eparaima. via Masterton.
Moore, W. Lancelot, care of H. D. Cook,
Bank Chambers, Lambton Quay, Welling-
ton.t
Moorhouse, W. H. Sefton, 134 Dixon Street,
Wellington.
Morgan, P. G, M.A., F.G.S., Director of Geo-
logical Survey, Routh's Buildings, Welling-
ton.
Morice, J. M., B.Sc, Town Hall, Wellington.
Morison, C. B., Stout Street, Wellington.
Morrison, J. C, P.O. Box 8, Eltham.
Morton, W. H., M.Inst.C.E., City Engineer,
Wellington.
Myers, Miss P., B.A., 26 Fitzherbert Terrace,
Wellington.
Newman, A. K., M.B., M.R.C.P., M.P., 56
Hobson Street, Wellington.
Nicol, John, 57 Cuba Street, Wellington.
Norris, E. T., M.A., Registrar, University of
Xew Zealand, Wellington.
Ongley, M., M.A., Geological Survey Depart-
ment, Wellington.t
Orchiston. J., M.I.E.E., 16 Rimu Road, Kel-
burn.
Orr, Robert, Heke Street, Lower Hutt, Wel-
lington.
Parry, Evan, B.Sc, M.I.E.E., A.M.Inst.C.E.,
Electrical Engineer, Public Works Depart-
ment, Wellington.
Paterson, A. J., City Engineer's Office, Town
Hall, Wellington.
Patterson, Hugh, Assistant Engineer, Public
Works Office, Ngatapa.
Pearce, Arthur E., care of Levin and Co.
(Limited), Wellington-
Phillips, Coleman. Carterton.*
Roll of Members.
369
Phillipps, W. J., Dominion Museum, Welling-
ton.
Phipson, P. B., F.C.S., care of J. Staples and
Co. (Limited), Wellington.
Pierard, A. C, Bacteriological Laboratory,
Wellington.
Pigott, Miss Ellen, M.A., Victoria University
College. Wellington.
Pomare, Hon. Dr. M., M.P., Wellington.
Porteous, J. S.. 9 Brandon Street, Wellington.
Porter. Colonel T. W., 12 Austin Street. Wel-
lington.
Powles. C. P.. 219 Lambton Quay, Wellington.
Reakes, C. J., D.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S., Agricul-
tural Department, Wellington.
Reid, W. S., 189 The Terrace, Wellington.
Richardson, C. E., P.O. Box 863 (11 Grey
Street), Wellington.
Roy, R. B., Taita. Wellington.*
Salmond, J. W., K.C., M.A., L.L.B., Crown
Law Office, Wellington.
Short, W. S., Under-Secretary, Public Works
Department, Wellington.
Shrimpton, E. A.. Telegraph Department,
Wellington.
Sladden, H., Lower Hutt, Wellington.
Smith, M. Crompton, Lands and Survey De-
partment, Wellington.
Sommerville. Professor D. M. Y., M.A., D.Sc,
F.R.S.E., Victoria University College, Wel-
lington.
Spencer, W. E., M.A , M.Sc, Education De-
partment. Wellington.
Stout, T. Duncan M.. M.B., M.S., F.R.C.S.,
16-1 Willis Street. Wellington^
Sunley, R. M., View Road, Karori.
Tennant, J. S., M.A., B.Sc, Training College,
Wellington.
Thomas, J., South Wellington School.
Thompson, R. D., M.A., Victoria University
College, Wellington.
Thomson, J. Allan, M.A.. D.Sc, F.G.S.,
Dominion Museum, Wellington.
Thomson, John, B.E., M.Inst.C.E., 17 Dork-
ing Road, Brooklyn, Wellington.
Thomson, W. M., M.A., M.B.. Ch.B., Hawera.
Tily, H. S., B.Sc, H.M. Customs. Wellington.!
Tolley, H. R„ 34 Wright Street, Wellington.
Tombs, H. H., Burnell Avenue. Wellington.
Treadwell, C. H.. 4 Panama Street. Wellington.
Turnbull, Alex. H., Bowen Street. Wellington.
Turner, E. Phillips, F.R.G.S., Lands and Sur-
vey Department. Wellington.
Uttley, <;.. M.A.. M.Sc, F.G.S., Scots College,
Wellington.
Vickerman, H., M.Sc, A.M.Inst.C.E., Public
Works Department, Wellington. t
W'ardrop, J. H. W.. Lands Department, Wel-
lington.
Welch, J. S., 52 Wright Street. Wellington.
Westland, C. J., F.R.A.S., Hector Observa-
tory, Wellington. f
Widdop, F. G, District Railway Engineer,
Thorndon Office, Wellington.
Wilmot, E. H., Surveyor-General, Wellington.
Wilson, Sir James G., Bull's.
Wynne, H. J., Railway Department, Welling-
ton.
AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.
[* Honorary and life members.]
Abbott, R. H., Elliott Street, Auckland.
Abel, R. S., care of Abel, Dykes, and Co.,
Shortland Street, Auckland.
Adams, L., 23 Brown Street, Ponsonby.
Adlington, Miss, Aratonga Avenue, Epsom.
Aickin, G., Queen Street, Auckland.
Alexander. J., Shortland Street, Auckland.
Alexander, L. W., " Beauvoir," Hurstmere
Road, Takapuna.
Alison, A., Devonport Ferry Company, Auck-
land.
Alison. E. W., Devonport Ferry Company,
Auckland.
Alison. E. W., jun., Bank of New Zealand
Chambers, Swanson Street, Auckland.
Alison. Ernest, Bank of New Zealand Cham-
bers, Swanson Street. Auckland.
Allen, John, Cheltenham Avenue, Devonport.
Allum, John. National Electricaland Engineer-
ing Company, Wellesley Street, Auckland.
Am bury, S. J.. <'i-eenwood's Corner, One-
hunga.
Anderson, E., Fort Street, Auckland.
Ardern, P. S., Remuera.
Ai-ey, W. E., Victoria Arcade, Auckland.
Armitage, F. L.. New Zealand Expeditionary
Forces.
Arnold, C, Swanson Street, Auckland.
Arnoldson, L., Quay Street, Auckland.
Arthur, T. B., Elliott Street, Auckland.
Atkinson, H., Grafton Road, Auckland.
Bagnall, H. N., Mason's Avenue, Ponsonby.
Baker, G. H., Commerce Street, Auckland.
Ball, W. T., Sylvan Avenue, Mount Eden.
Bamford, H. D., LL.D., Bank of New Zealand
Buildings, Auckland.
Bankart, A. S., Strand Arcade, Queen Street,
Auckland.
Bankart, F. J., Shortland Street. Auckland.
Barr, J., Public Library, Wellesley Street,
Auckland.
Barr, J. M , Auckland Savings-bank, Auckland.
Barry, S., Queen Street, Auckland.
Bart left, W. H.. Queen Street, Auckland.
Bartrum, J. A., M.Sc, University College,
Auckland.
Bates, T. L., '■ Brookfield," Alfred Street,
Waratah, Newcastle, New South Wales.*
Batger, J., Mount Eden Road, Auckland.
Beattie, Dr. R. M., Mental Hospital, Avondale.
:i7<>
Apjtendix.
Bell, T., Union Soap and Candle Company,
Albert Street, Auckland.
Benjamin, Lionel. P. Hayman and Co.,
Customs Street. Auckland.
'Binney, E. H., G. W. Binney and Sons, Fort
Street. Auckland.
Biss. N. L. H.. Shortland Street, Auckland.
Blair, J. M., Market Road, Epsom.
Blomfield, E. C, Parr and Blomfield, Short-
land Street, Auckland.
Blomfield, W., Observer Office, Wyndham
Street. Auckland.
Bloomfield, G. R., "The Pines," Epsom.*
Bloomfield, H. R., St. Stephen's Avenue,
Parnell.*
Bloomfield, J. L. N. R., St. Stephen's Avenue,
Parnell.
Bowyer, S. B., New Zealand Expeditionary
Forces, France.
Bradley, Samuel, Onehunga.
Bradney, H., Queen Street Wharf, Auckland.
Brett, H., Star Office, Shortland Street,
Auckland.
Briffault, R., M.D., New Zealand Expedition-
ary Forces.
Brooke-Smith, E.. Manukau Road, Parnell.
Broun, Major T., F.E.S., Chevalier of the
Legion of Honour, Mount Albert.
Brown, E. A., Cleave's Buildings. High Street,
Auckland.
Brown, John, Beresford Street, Bayswater.
Bruce, W. W., Williamson Chambers, Short -
land Street.
Buchanan, A., Vulcan Lane, Auckland.*
Buckleton, H., Bank of New Zealand, Auck-
land.
Buddie, C, Wyndham Street, Auckland.
Buddie, T., Wyndham Street, Auckland.
Burnett, H. B., Harbour Board Offices,
Auckland.
Burns, R., Customs Street, Auckland.
Burt, A., A. T. Burt and Co., Customs Street,
Auckland.
Bush, W. E., City Engineer. Auckland.
Butler, J., Kauri Timber Company, Customs
Street, Auckland.
Butler, Miss, Girls' Grammar School, Auckland.
Buttle, G. A., Hobson Buildings, Shortland
Street, Auckland.
Buttle, J., New Zealand Insurance Company,
Queen Street, Auckland.
Cadman, F. P., Hoiland, Gillett, and Co.,
Customs Street, Auckland.
Caldwell, D. R., Macky, Logan, and Co.,
Elliott Street, Auckland.
Campbell, J. P., Russell, Campbell, and
McVeagh, High Street, Auckland.
Carlaw, J., 226 Symonds Street, Auckland.
( 'arpenter, J. M., Newmarket.
Carr, E. J., Williamson Avenue, Grey Lynn.
Carse, H., Kaiaka, Mangonui.
Carter. M., Smeet on's Buildings, Queen Street,
Auckland.
Casey, Maurice. Hamilton Road, Ponsonby.
Casey, Victor P., New Street, Ponsonby.
Casey, W., Hamilton Road, Ponsonby.
Caughey, A. ('.. Smith and Caughey (Limited),
Queen Street. Auckland.
Caughey, J. Marsden, Smith and Caughey
(Limited). Queen. Street, Auckland.
Chambers. S. C. 106 Victoria Arcade, Queen
Street, Auckland.
Chatfield, Dr. H. A., Victoria Street East,
Auckland.
Cheat, P. E., Upper Queen Street. Auckland.
Cheeseman, T. F., F.L.S., F.Z.S., Museum,
Auckland.
Choyce. H. G, Remuera Road, Auckland.
Clark, A., Wellesley Street, Auckland.
Clark. H. ('., Wellesley Street, Auckland.
Clark, M., Wellesley Street, Auckland.
Clark. R. (i., Robertson Bros., Quay Street,
Auckland.
Clay, T. B., S. Vaile and Sons. Queen Street,
Auckland.
Clayton. C. Z., Ellerslie.
Clayton, D. L.. Kauri Timber Company,
Customs Street. Auckland.
Coates, T., Orakei.
Coe, James, Mount Eden Road, Auckland
Colbeck, W. B., Fort Street, Auckland.
Cole, Rev. R. H., Walford, Gladstone Road,
Parnell.
Cole, W.. Mount Eden Road, Auckland.
Coleman, J. W., Lower Queen Street, Auck-
land.
Combes, F. H.,' Victoria Avenue. Remuera.
Cooper, G, Bourne Street, Mount Eden.
Cooper, Mr. Justice. Supreme Court, Auckland.
Copeland, M., 97 College Hill, Auckland.
Cory-Wright, S., B.Sc. New Zealand Expedi-
tionary Forces, France.
Court, G.. Karangahape Road, Auckland.
Court. J., Ponsonby, Auckland.
Court, J. W., J. Court (Limited), Queen
Street, Auckland.
Cousins, H. G, Normal School. Wellesley
Street, Auckland.
Craig, E. A., J. J. Craig (Limited), Queen
Street, Auckland.
Crompton, W. J., New Zealand Expeditionary
Forces, France.
Crook, John, 1 0 Prospect Terrace, Mount Eden.
Cuff, J. C, Emerald Hill, Epsom.
Culling, T. S., Ferry Buildings, Queen Street,
Auckland.
Culpan, W., Hesketh and Richmond, Wynd-
ham Street, Auckland.
Currie, J. C, 202 Queen Street, Auckland.
Davis, Elliot R., Hancock and Co., Customs
Street, Auckland.
Davis, Ernest, Hancock and Co., Customs
Street, Auckland.
Dearsly, H., P.O. Box 466, Auckland.
Dempsey, J., Newmarket.
Dennin, John, care of Hon. E. Mitchelson,
Waimauku.
Dettmann, Professor H. S., University College,
Auckland.
Devereux, H. B., Waikumete.
Donald, A. B., Queen Street, Auckland.
Roll of Members.
371
Downard, P. N. R.. New Zealand Expedition-
ary Forces, France.
Duder, R. W., Devonport.
Duncan, A., Railway Offices, Auckland.
Duthie, D. W., National Bank of New Zealand,
Wellington.
Earl, F.. K.C., Swanson Street, Auckland.
Edgerley, Miss K., Girls' Grammar School,
Auckland.
Edmiston, H. J.. Champtaloup and Edmiston.
Queen Street. Auckland.
Edson, J.. Waimarama, Tudor Street, Devon-
port .
Egerton, Professor ('. W.. M.A., University
College, Auckland.
Ellingham, W. R., Customs Street, Auckland.
Elliot, G., Bank of New Zealand Buildings,
Swanson Street, Auckland.
Elliot. W., Bank of New Zealand Buildings,
Swanson Street, Auckland.
Ellis, A. F., Argyle Street, Ponsonby.
Ellis, J. W., Hamilton, Waikato.
Ellison, T.. Ellison's Buildings, Queen Street,
Auckland.
Endean. J.. Star Hotel, Albert Street, Auck-
land.
Endean, J., jun., Waitemata Hotel, Auckland.
Entrican, A. J., Customs Street, Auckland.
Entrican. J. C, Customs Street, Auckland
Ewen, J. F. A., Sargood, Son, and Ewen
(Limited). Victoria Street West, Auckland.
Ewington, F. G., Durham Street, Auckland.
Fairclough, Dr. W. A., Imperial Buildings,
Queen Street, Auckland.
Fallon, W., Union Buildings, Custoins Street.
Auckland.
Farrell. R.. Anglesea Street, Auckland.
Fenwick, Dr. G.. New Zealand Expeditionary
Forces.
Fenwick, R., T. and S. Motrin, Auckland.
Ferguson, A. M., John Burns and Co. (Li-
mited), Customs Street, Auckland.
Fleming, J., 1 42 Grafton Road, Auckland.
Florance, R. S., Stipendiary Magistrate, Gis-
borne.
Fowlds, Hon. G., Queen Street, Auckland.*
Frater, J. W., Stock Exchange, Auckland.
Frater, Captain W., Manukau Road, Parnell.
Garlick, G. C., Tonson Garlick (Limited),
Queen Street, Auckland.
Garrard, C. W., M.A., Education Offices, Auck-
land.
George, G.. Technical College, Wellesley
Street, Auckland.
George, Hon. S. T., St. Stephen's Avenue,
Parnell.
Gerard, E., Union Buildings, Customs Street,
Auckland.
Gilfillan, H., St. Stephen's Avenue, Parnell.
Gillett, J., Hoiland and Gillett, Customs
Street, Auckland.
Gillies, A. W., Glenalvon, Waterloo Quadrant,
Auckland.
Girdler, Dr.. Khyber Pass Road, Auckland.
Gleeson. J. C, Selwyn Lodge, Manukau Road,
Parnell.
Goldie. A.. Wallace Si reet, Ponsonby.
Goldie, D., Breakwater Road, Auckland.
Goldie, H., Breakwater Road, Auckland.
Gorrie, H. T., A. Buckland and Sons, Albert
Street, Auckland.
Graham, A. G., Briscoe and Co., Customs
Street, Auckland.
Graham, G., Tudor Street, Devonport.
Grant. .Miss .]., M.A., Devonport,
Gray, A., Smeeton's Buildings, Queen Street,
Auckland.*
Gray, S., Mount Eden Borough Council
Offices, Mount Eden.
Gribbin, G., Nicholson and Gribbin, Imperial
Buildings, Queen Street, Auckland.
Griffin, L. T., Museum, Auckland.
Grossmann, Professor J. P., M.A., University
College, Auckland.
Gimson. J. H., Mayor of Auckland, Church
Road, Epsom.
Gunson, R, W., New Zealand Expeditionary
Forces.
Haddow, J. G.. Wyndham Street, Auckland.
Haines, H., F.R.C.S., Shortland Street, Auck-
land.
Hall, Edwin, Seacliff Road, Onehunga.
Hallwright, Dr. G., Medical Chambers, Queen
Street, Auckland.
Halstead, E. D., Jervois Road, Ponsonby.
Hamer, W. H., C.E., Harbour Board Offices,
Auckland.
Hansard, G. A., New Zealand Expeditionary
Forces, France.
Harbutt, S. J.. Selwyn Road, Epsom.
Hardie, J. C, Hardie Bros., Queen Street,
Auckland.
Hardie y, J. W., Customs Street, Auckland.
Harris, Louis, Huntly.
Hawkins, Rev. Archdeacon H. A., Remuera.
Hay, D. A., Montpellier Nursery, Remuera.
Hay, Douglas. Stock Exchange, Queen Street,
Auckland.
Hayr, H. H., Union Bank Buildings, Queen
Street, Auckland.
Hazard, W. H., Queen Street, Auckland.
Heather, H. D., Fort Street, Auckland.
Herbert, T., Shortland Street, Auckland.
Hemes, Hon. W. H., M.P., Wellington.
Hesketh, H. R., Hesketh and Richmond,
Wyndham Street, Auckland
Hesketh S., Hesketh and Richmond, Wynd-
ham Street, Auckland.
Higgins, E., Market Entrance, off Queen
Street, Auckland.
Holderness, D., New Zealand Expeditionar}-
Forces, France.
Holland, J. J., City Road, Auckland.
Herald Office. Queen Street,
Horton, E.,
Auckland.
Horton, H.,
Auckland.
Houghton. (
Herald Office, Queen Street,
\r.. New Zealand Shipping
Company, Quay Street, Auckland.
Howey- Walker, A.. Queen Street. Auckland.
Hudson, C, Mount Eden Road, Auckland.
372
Appendix.
Hunter, Ashley, C.E., Swanson Street, Auck-
land.
Hutchinson, F. R., St. Heliers.
Hutchison, W. E., Nelson Street, Auckland.
Ick-Hewins, Dr. T. J., Manaia, Taranaki.
tnghs, Dr. R. T., New Zealand Expeditionary
Forces.
Isaacs, R. C; St. George's Bay Road, Parnell.
Jackson. J. H., Customs Street, Auckland.
Jackson, Thornton, Jackson and Russell,
Shortland Street, Auckland.
Johnson, H. Dunbar, 151 Newton Road.
Johnson, Professor J. C, M.Sc, Litt.D., Uni-
versity College, Auckland.*
Johnston, Hallyburton, Morrinsville.
Johnston, J. B., Stewart and Johnston. Wynd-
ham Street, Auckland.
Jones, J. D., P.O. Box 822, Auckland.
Kenderdine, J., Sale Street, Auckland.
Kent, B., Lower Symonds Street, Auckland.
Kent, G. S., St. Stephen's Avenue, Parnell.
Kissling. H. P., St. Stephen's Avenue, Par-
nell.
Kneebone, F., Mountain Road, Epsom.
Knight, G., Asquith Avenue, Momit Albert.
Laidlaw, R. A., Wyndham Street, Auckland.
Lamb, J. A., Arney Road. Remuera.
Lamb, S. E., B.Sc, University College, Auck-
land.
Lancaster, T. L., University College, Auck-
land.
Lang, Sir F. W., M.P., Hillsborough, One-
hunga.
Larkin, H., Harbour Board Offices. Auck-
land.
Lamer, V. J., Swanson Street, Auckland.
Laurie, W. S., B.A., Laurie and Co., Customs
Street, Auckland.
Lawson, H. W., National Bank of New Zea-
land, Queen Street, Auckland.
Leighton, F. W., High Street, Auckland.
Le Roy, E., 18 Waterview Road, Devonport.
Leyland, W. B., Customs Street West, Auck-
land.
Leys, Cecil, New Zealand Expeditionary
Forces.
Leys, T. W., Star Office, Shortland Street,
Auckland.
Logan, R., jun., Government Insurance Build-
ings. Queen Street, Auckland.
Long, D., Farmers' Freezing Company, Break-
water Road, Auckland.
Long, W. H., Woodford Road, Mount Eden.
Longuet, A. A., Palmerston Buildings, Queen
Street, Auckland.
Lowe, Dr. De Clive, Lower Symonds Street,
Auckland.
Lunn, A. G., Collins Bros., Wyndham Street,
Auckland.
McCullough, Hon. W., Thames.
McDowell, Dr. W. C, Remuera.
Macfarlane, J. B., Fort Street, Auckland.
McFarlane, T., C.E., 301 Victoria Arcade,
Auckland.
Mcllraith, Dr. J. W., High School, Whangarei.
Mcintosh, D. T., Railway Offices, Auckland.
Mackay, G. J., Queen Street, Auckland.
Mackay, J. G. H., Ellison Chambers, Queen
Street, Auckland.
Mackay. P. M., Wellesley Street, Auckland.
Mackellar, Dr. E. H., Manukau Road, Par-
nell.
McKenzie, Captain G., Devonport.
Mackenzie, Dr. Kenneth, O'Rorke Street,
Auckland.
McLaughlin, T. M., Hobson Buildings, Short-
land Street, Auckland.
Macklow, W. C, Mountain Road, Remuera.
Macmillian, C. C, Remuera Road. Remuera.*
MacMurray, Archdeacon G., St. Mary's Vicar-
age, Parnell.
McVeagh, R., Campbell and McVeagh, High
Street, Auckland.
Mahoney, T., Swanson Street, Auckland.
Mains, W., Tram Terminus, Remuera.
Mair, Captain G., Whakatane.
Mair, S. A. R., Hunterville, Wellington.
Major, C. T., King's College, Remuera.
Makgill, Dr. R. H., Health Department, Wel-
lington.
Mander, F., M.P., Ponsonby.
Marriner, H. A., New Zealand Insurance Com-
pany, Queen Street, Auckland.
Marsack, Dr., New Zealand Expeditionary
Forces.
Marshall, J., Te Atakua Road, Remuera.
Mason, Mrs. F., Westoun, New Plymouth.
Massey, Right Hon. W. F., M.P., Wellington.
Matthews, H. B., Clonbern Road, Remuera.
Mennie, J. M., Albert Street, Auckland.
Metcalfe, H. H., C.E., Palmerston Buildings,
Queen Street, Auckland.
Miller, E. V., Chelsea, Auckland.
Miller, E. W., Albert Street, Thames.
Milne, J., John Chambers and Son, Fort
Street, Auckland.
Milne,. Miss M. J., Milne and Choyce, Queen
Street, Auckland.
Milne, Stewart, Milne and Choyce, Queen
Street, Auckland.
Milroy, S., Kauri Timber Company, Customs
Street West, Auckland.
Milsom, Dr. E. H. B., 18 Waterloo Quadrant,
Auckland.
Mitchelson, Hon. E., Waitaramoa, Remuera.
Mitchelson, E. P., Motutara, Waimauku.
Mitchelson, R., Dargaville.
Morrison, A. R., Palmerston Buildings, Queen
Street, Auckland.
Morrison, W. B., Brunswick Buildings, Queen
Street, Auckland.
Morton, E., Customs Street, Auckland.
Morton, H. B., One Tree Hill, Epsom.
Mulgan, A. E., Star Office, Auckland.
Mulgan, E. K, M.A., Education Offices, Auck-
land.
Murray, G. T., C.E., Public Works Office,
Auckland.
Murray, G. W., Omahu Road, Remuera.
Myers, Hon. A. M., M.P., Campbell and
Ehrenfried Company, Queen Street, Auck-
land.
Roll of Members.
373
Myers, B., Symonds Street, Auckland.
Napier, W. J.; A.M.P. Buildings,, Queen
Street, Auckland.
Nathan, D. L., L. D. Nathan and Co., Short-
land Street, Auckland.
Nathan, N. A., L. D. Nathan and Co., Short-
land Street, Auckland.*
Neve, B., M.A., B.Sc, LL.B., Technical Col-
lege, Wellesley Street, Auckland.
Newton, G. M., Herald Buildings, Queen
Street, Auckland.
Niccol, G., Customs Street West, Auckland.
Nicholson, O., Imperial Buildings, Queen
Street, Auckland.
Nolan, H. O., St. Stephen's Avenue, Parnell.
Oliphant, P., 24 Symonds Street, Auckland.
Oliver, W. R. B.,F.L.S., New Zealand Expedi-
tionary Forces.*
Osmond, G. B., Royal Insurance Buildings,
Queen Street, Auckland.
Ostler, H. H., Jackson and Russell, Shortland
Street, Auckland
Owen, Professor G., D.Sc, New Zealand
Expeditionary Forces, France.
Pacey, H. E., Hamilton Road, Ponsonby.
Parr, C. J., C.M.G., M.P., Shortland Street,
Auckland.
Partridge, H. E., Albert Street, Auckland.
Patterson, D. B., Ellison Chambers, Queen
Street, Auckland.
Patterson, Colonel G. W. S., Shortland Street,
Auckland.
Peacock, T., Queen Street, Auckland.
Petrie, D., M.A., "Rosmead," Ranfurly Road,
Epsom.
Philcox, T., Philcox and Sons. Strand Arcade,
Auckland.
Philson, W. W., Colonial Sugar Company,
Quay Street, Auckland.
Pond, J. A., F.C.S., Queen Street, Auckland.
Poole, G. S., Harbour Board Offices, Auckland.
Porter, A. E., Porter and Co., Queen Street,
Auckland.
Potter, E. H., Tanfield, Potter, and Co., Queen
Street, Auckland.
Pountney, W. H., Fort Street, Auckland.
Powell, F. E., C.E., Ferry Buildings, Queen
Street Auckland.
Price, E. A., Buchanan and Price, Albert
Street, Auckland.
Price, T. G., 109 Queen Street, Auckland.
Pryor, S. H., 26 Pencarrow Avenue, Mount
Eden.
Pulling, Miss, Diocesan School, Epsom.
Purchas, Dr. A. C, New Zealand Expedi-
tionary Forces.
Pycroft, A. T., Railway Offices, Auckland.
Ralph, E. V., Arthur Street, Ponsonby.
Ralph, W. J., Princes Street, Auckland.
Rangihiroa, Dr., New Zealand Expeditionary
Forces.
Rawnsley, S., Quay Street, Auckland.
Rawson, G. A., 31 Ferry Buildings, Queen
Street, Auckland.
Rayner, Dr. F. J., Queen Street, Auckland.
Reed, J. R., K.C., Cleave's Buildings, High
Street, Auckland.
Reid, J., 43 Fort Street, Auckland.
Renshaw, F., Sharland and Co., Lome Street,
Auckland.
Rhodes, C, " Ronaki," Remuera.
Richmond, H. P., Arney Road, Remuera.
Ridings, J. P., Collector of Customs, Customs
Street, Auckland.
Robb, J., Victoria Avenue, Mount Eden.
Roberton, A. B., Heather, Roberton, and Co.,
Fort Street, Auckland.
Roberton, Dr. E., New Zealand Expeditionary
Forces.
Robertson, Dr. Carrick, Alfred Street, Auck-
land.
Robertson, James, Market Road, Remuera.
Roche, H., Horahora, near Cambridge, Wai-
kato.
Rolfe, W., Sharland and Co., Lome Street,
Auckland.
Rollett, F. C. Herald Offices, Queen Street,
Auckland.
Rowe, J., Onehunga.
Russell, E. N. A., Russell, Campbell, and
McVeagh, High Street, Auckland.
Saxton, A. C, Pyrmont, Sydney.
Scott, Rev. D., New Zealand Expeditionary
Forces.
Seegner, C, St. Stephen's Avenue, Parnell.
Segar, Professor H. W., M.A., Manukau Road,
Parnell.
Shakespear, Mrs. R. H., Whangaparaoa.
Shaw, F., Vermont Street, Ponsonby.
Shaw, H., St. Arvans, Carlton Gore Road,
Auckland.
Simmonds, Rev. J. H., Wesley Training Col-
lege, Epsom.
Simson, T., Mount St. John Avenue, Epsom.
Sinclair, A., Kuranui, Symonds Street, Auck-
land.
Sinclair, G., care of Pilkington and Co.,
Queen Street, Auckland.
Skeet, H. M., Pencarrow Avenue, Mount
Eden.
Smeeton, H. M., Binswood, View Road,
Mount Eden.
Smith, Captain James, Franklin Road, Pon-
sonby.
Smith, H. G. Seth, Russell, Bay of Isalands.
Smith, S. Percy, F.R.G.S., New Plymouth.*
Smith, W. Todd, Brooklands, Alfred Street,
Auckland.
Somers, W. C, Russell and Somers, Customs
Street, Auckland.
Somerville, Dr. J., Alfred Street, Auckland.
Somerville, J. M., Chelsea, Auckland.
Spedding, J. G, Market Road, Remuera.
Speight, W. J., Diocesan Office, Shortland
Street, Auckland.
Stanton, J., Fort Street, Auckland.
Stewart, D. F., care of R. S. Lamb and Co.,
32 Jamieson Street, Sydney.
Stewart, J. W., Wyndham Street, Auckland.
Stewart, John A., Kainga-tonu, Ranfurly
Road, Epsom.
Stewart, R. Leslie, Brown and Stewart,
Swanson Street, Auckland.
Streeter, S. G, Enfield Street, Mount Eden.
374
Appendix.
Strevens, J. L.. New Zealand Expeditionary
Forces.
Suter, A., Lontis, Clonbern Road, Remuera.
Swan, H. ('.. Henderson.
Swanson, W., Queen Street, Auckland.
Talbot, Dr. A. G., A.M.P. Buildings. Queen
Street, Auckland.
Taylor, W., Kempthorne, Prosser, and Co.,
Albert Street, Auckland.
Thomas, Professor A. P. W., M.A.. F.L.S..
Mountain Road, Epsom.
Thompson, Hon. T., Mount Eden.
Thornes, J., Queen Street, Auckland.
Tibbs, J. W., M.A., Grammar School, Auck-
land.
Tinne, H., Union Club, Trafalgar Square,
London.*
Tole, Hon. J. A., Queen Street, Auckland.
Trounson, J., Northcote.
Tudehope, R., Wellesley Street West, Auck-
land.
Tunks, C. J., Jackson and Russell, Shortland
Street, Auckland.
Upton, J. H., Bank of New Zealand Buildings,
Swanson Street, Auckland.
Upton, P., South British Insurance Company,
Queen Street, Auckland.
Upton, P. T., P.O. Box 878, Auckland.
Upton, Selwyn, Star Office, Auckland.
Vaile, E. E., Broadlands, Waiotapu.
Vaile, H. E., Queen Street, Auckland.
Virtue, P., Roller Mills, Quay Street, Auck-
land.
Wade, Lieut. H. L., New Zealand Expedi-
tionary Forces, Palestine.
Wake, F. W., Cleave's Buildings, High Street,
Auckland.
Walker, Professor Maxwell, University Col-
lege, Auckland.
Walklate, J. J., Electric Tramway Company,
Auckland.
AVallace, T. F., Waihi Gold-mining Company,
Shortland Street, Auckland.
Walters, J. R., Onslow Road. Kingsland,
Auckland.
Ware, W., Portland Road, Remuera.
Warnock, J. A., 2 King Street, Grey Lynn.
Watson, J., " Claengart," Remuera.
Wells, T. U., Westbourne Road, Remuera.
Westervelt, W. D., Honolulu.
White, R, W., Wellington Street, Auckland.
Whitley, \V. S.. Albert Street, Auckland.
Whitney, C. A., Colonial Ammunition Com-
pany, Auckland.
Whittome, F., Carlton Road, Newmarket.
Williamson, G, 81 Queen Street, Auckland.
Williamson, J. G, Chief Postmaster. Auck-
land.
Williamson. J. D., Rukuhia, Hamilton.*
Wilson, Andrew. District Surveyor, Hangatiki.
Wilson, A. P., Victoria Arcade, Auckland.
Wilson, C. A., Hume's Buildings, Shortland
Street, Auckland.
Wilson, F. W., Her <th\ Buildings, Queen
Street, Auckland.
Wilson, G. A., Wilson and Canham. Ferry
Buildings. Auckland.
Wilson, John, Portland Cement Company,
Shortland Street, Auckland.
Wilson, J. M., Portland Road, Remuera.
Wilson, Liston, Mountain Road, Remuera.
Wilson, Martyn, Roselle, Lower Remuera.
Wilson, R. M., Russell Road, Remuera.
Wilson, W. R., Herald Office, Queen Street,
Auckland.
Wing, S., Hellabys Limited, Shortland Street,
Auckland.
Winkelmann, H., Victoria Arcade, Auckland.
Winstone, F. A., Claude Road, Epsom.*
Winstone, G., Customs Street East, Auck-
land.
Wiseman, F., Queen Street, Auckland.
Wiseman, J. W., Albert Street, Auckland.
Withy, E., care of Auckland Institute, Auck-
land.*
Woledge, E. H., New Zealand Loan and
Mercantile (Limited), Albert Street, Auck-
land.
Wood, Right Rev. C. J., D.D., Bishop of
Melanesia, Norfolk Island.*
Woodward, W. E., Union Bank of Australia,
Queen Street, Auckland.
Woollams, W. H., Queen Street, Auckland.
Worley, Professor F. P., D.Sc., University
College, Auckland.
Wright, R., A. B. Wright and Sons, Com-
merce Street, Auckland.
Wyllie, A., C.E., Electrical Power Office,
Breakwater, Auckland.
Yates, E., Albert Street, Auckland.
Young, J. L., Henderson and Macfarlane,
Fort Street, Auckland.
PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY.
[* Life members.]
Acland, Dr. H. T. D., care of Hon. Secretary,
Christchurch.
Acland, H. D., 42 Park Terrace, Christchurch.
Adams, T. W., Greendale.
Aldridge, W. G., M.A., Technical College, 13
Barbadoes Street, Christchurch.
Alexander, R. E., Canterbury Agricultural
College, Lincoln.
Allison, H., care of Harman and Stevens,
Christchurch.
Anderson, Gilbert, care of Bank of New
Zealand, 1 Queen Victoria Street, London.*
Anderson, J. G., Boys' High School, Inver-
cargill.
Archey, G. E., M.A., Canterbury Museum,
Christchurch.
Baughan, Miss B. E., Sumner.
Beaven, A. W., care of Andrews and Beaven,
Moorhouse Avenue, Christchurch.
Berry, R. E., 185 Manchester Street, Christ-
church.
Bevan-Brown, C. E., M.A., Boys' High School,
Christchurch.
Bird, J. W., M.A., Nelson College, Nelson.
Roll of Members.
375
Birks, L., B.Sc, care of Public Works De-
partment, Ohristchurch.
Bishop, F. C. B., 10 Cranmer Square, Christ-
church.
Bishop, R. C, Gas Office, 77 Worcester
Street, Christchurcli.
Bissett, J. W., Kaiapoi Woollen Company,
Christchurch.
Blanch, G. E., M.A., Christ's College, Christ-
church.
Boag, T. D., Webb's Road, Bryndwyr.
Booth, G. T., Cashmere Hills.
Borrie, Dr. F. J., 236 Hereford Street, Christ-
church.
Bradley, Orton, Charteris Bay.
Brent, H. O, " Aberdare House," Christ-
church.
Brittin, Guy, 51 Gresford Street, St. Albans,
Christchurch.
Broadhead, H. D., 20 Eversleigh Street, St.
Albans, Christchurch.
Brock, W., M.A., Education Office, Christ-
church.
Brown, Professor Macmillan, M.A., LL.D.,
" Holmbank," Cashmere Hills.*
Burnett, T. D., Mount Cook, Fairlie.
Callaghan, F. R., 39 Totara Street, Riccarton.
Campbell, J. W., Chancery Lane, Christchurch.
Chilton, Professor C, D.Sc, M.A., LL.D.,
M.B., F.L.S., Canterbury College.*
( 'hristensen, C. E., Hanmer Springs.
Clark, W. H, 100 Bealey Avenue, Christ-
church.
Cocks, Rev. P. J., B.A., St. John's Vicarage,
Christchurch.
Cocks, Miss, Colombo Road South, Christ-
church.
Colee, W. C, M.A., Schoolhouse, Opawa.
Coles, W. R., 256 Wilson's Road, Christchurch.
Corkill, F. M., B.Sc, Canterbury College.
Dash, Charles, 233 Norwood Street, Becken-
ham, Christchurch.
Deans, J., Kirkstyle, Coalgate.
Denniston, Sir John, Cashmere Hills, Christ-
church.
Dixon, M. J., " Eyrewell," West Eyreton.
Dobson, A. Dudley, M.Inst.C.E., City Coun-
cil Office, Christchurch.
Dorrien-Smith, Major A. A., D.S.O., Tresco
Abbey, Scilly, England.
Drummond, James, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Lyttelton
Times, Christchurch.
English, R., F.C.S., M.I.M.E., Gas Office,
77 Worcester Street, Christchurch.
Evans, Professor W. P., M.A., Ph.D., Canter-
bury College, Christchurch.
Fairbairn, A., 53 Fendalton Road, Christ-
church.
Farr, Professor C. Coleridge, D.Sc, F.P.S.L.,
Canterbury College, Christchurch.
Fere, Dr. Maud, 296 Hereford Street, Christ-
church.
Ferrar, Miss, 450 Armagh Street, Christ-
church.
Ferrar, H. T., M.A., F.G.S., care of Andrew
Anderson, St. Martin's, Christchurch.
Finlayson, Miss M. A., West Christchurch
School, Lincoln Road, Christchurch.
Flower, A. E., M.A., M.Sc, Christ's College,
Christchurch.
Foster, Dr. A., 135 Hereford Street, Christ-
church.
Foster, T. S., M.A., 19 Cashel Street, Christ-
church.
Foweraker, C. E., M.A., Canterbury College,
Christchurch.
Gabbatt, Professor J. P., M.A., M.Sc, Canter-
bury College.
Garton, John W., 61 Richardson Street,
Woolston, Christchurch.
Garton, W. W., M.A., Akaroa.
Gibson, Dr. F. Goulburn, 121 Papanui Road.
Gilling, W. O. R., B.A., Waitaki High School,
Oamaru.
Godby, M. H., Hereford Street, Christchurch.
Goss, W., Rossal Street, Fendalton.
Gray, G., F.C.S., Lincoln.
Grigg, J. C. N., Longbeach.
Gudex, M. C, M.A., M.Sc, Boys' High School,
Christchurch.
Hall, Miss, Gloucester Street West, Christ-
church.
Hamilton, W. M., 365 Papanui Road, St.
Albans.
Haynes, E. J., Canterbury Museum, Christ-
church.
Henry, G., care of J. Chambers and Son, 200
St. Asaph Street, Christchurch.
Herring, E., 46 Paparoa Street, Papanui.
Hight, Professor J., M.A., Litt.D., Canter-
bury College, Christchurch.
Hilgendorf, F. W., M.A., D.Sc, Canterbury
Agricultural College, Lincoln.*
Hill, Mrs. Carey, 84 Papanui Road, Christ-
church.
Hitchings, F., 69, Durham Street, Sydenham.
Hodgson, T. V., F.L.S., Science and Art
Museum, Plymouth, England.
Hogg, E. G., M.A., F.R.A.S., Christ's College,
Christchurch.
Hogg, H. R., M.A., F.Z.S., 13 St. Helen's
Place, London E.C.
Holf ord, George, care of New Zealand Farmers'
Co-operative Association, P.O. Box 921,
Christchurch.
Holland, H., 108 St. Asaph Street, Christ-
church.
Holloway, Rev. J. E., D.Sc, Hokitika.
Humphreys, G., Fendalton Road, Fendalton.
Ingram, John, 39 Mansfield Avenue, St.
Albans, Christchurch.
Irving, Dr. W., 56 Armagh Street, Christ-
church.
Jameson, J. O., Hereford Street, Christchurch.
Jennings, Mrs. L. S., M.A., care of Captain
Cross, Karaka Bay, Wellington.
Kaye, A., 429 Durham Street, Christchurch.
Keir, James, care of P. and D. Duncan,
Christchurch.
Kidson, E. R., M.Sc, care of H. T. Kidson,
Van Dieman Street, Nelson.*
Kirkpatrick, W. D., Redcliffs, Sumner.
376
Appendix.
Kitchingman, Miss, Hackthorne Road, Cash-
mere.
Knight, H. A., Racecourse Hill.
Laing, R. M., M.A., B.Sc, Boys' High School,
Christchurch.
Laurenson, J. B., Crown Iron Works, Christ-
church.
Lester, Dr. G., 2 Cranmer Square, Christ-
church.
Louisson, Hon. C, M.L.C., 71 Gloucester
Street, Christchurch.
Macbeth, N. L., Canterbury Frozen Meat
Company, Hereford Street, Christchurch.
McBride. T. J., 15 St. Albans Street, Christ-
church.
MacGibbon, Dr. T. A., Royal Exchange Build-
ings, Christchurch.
Macleod, D. • B., M.A., B.Sc, Canterbury
College, Christchurch.
Marsh, H. E., Cashmere.
Marshall, Mrs., New Brighton.
Martin, Wilham, Education Office, Christ-
church.
Meares, H. O. D., Fendalton.
Mills, Miss C. B., M.A., B.Sc, Technical Col-
lege, Christchurch.
Morris, C. Barham, F.R.M.S., 78 Andover
Street, Christchurch.
Morrison, W. G., Hanmer.
Mountford, A. V., Woolston Tanneries,
Woolston, Christchurch.
Murray, W., " Balgownie," Opawa, Christ-
church.
Nairn, R., Lincoln Road, Spreydon.
Newburgh, W. S., care of Newburgh, Best,
and Co., Cathedral Square, Christchurch.
Oliver, F. S., care of A. E., Craddock, Man-
chester Street, Christchurch.
Olliver, Miss F. M., M.A., M.Sc, Waimate.
Owen, H., care of Cook and Ross, Colombo
Street, Christchurch.
Page, S., B.Sc, Canterbury College, Christ-
church.
Pairman, Dr. J. C, Dominion Buildings,
Christchurch.
Pairman, Dr. T. W., Governor's Bay.
Pannett, J. A., Cashmere Hills.
Paterson, A. D., 140a Hereford Street, Christ-
church.
Powell, P. H., M.Sc, Canterbury College,
Christchurch.
Purchas, Rev. A. C, M.A., Geraldine.
Purnell, C. W., Ashburton.
Rands, Henry, M.A., care of Hon. Secretary.
Raymond, S. G., K.C., Heaton Street, St.
Albans.
Reece, W., Colombo Street, Christchurch.
Relph, E. W., " Cliilcombe," Fendalton Road,
Christchurch.
Rhodes, A. E. G., B.A., Fendalton.
Rhodes, Hon. R. Heaton, M.P., Tai Tapu.
Robinson, W. F., F.R.G.S., Canterbury Col-
lege.
Ross, R. G. (address unknown).
Rowe, H. V., M.A., Canterbury College,
Christchurch.
Ryder. A. R., Boys' High School, New Ply-
mouth
Schneider, P., 164 Durham Street, Christ-
church.
Scott, G., Manchester Street, Christchurch.
Scott, Professor R. J., M.Inst.C.E., F.A.I.E.E.,
Canterbury College, Christchurch.
Seager, S. Hurst, F.R.I.B.A., Cathedral
Square, Christchurch.
Seth-Smith, B., 25 Stratford Street, Fendal-
ton.
Sheard, Miss F., M.A., B.Sc,- Girls' High
School, Christchurch.
Simpson, Dr. W., Latimer Square, Christ-
church.*
Sims, A., M.A., care of Sims, Cooper, and
Co., Hereford Street, Christchurch.
Skey, H. F., B.Sc, Magnetic Observatory,
Christchurch.
Skinner, W. H., 66 Carlton Street, Christ-
church.
Snow, Colonel, Holmwood Road, Christchurch.
Speight, R., M.A., M.Sc, F.G.S., Canterbury
College, Christchurch.
Stark, E. E., B.Sc, P.O. Box 526, Christ-
church.
Stead, E. F., Ham, Riccarton.
Stevenson, Dr. J., Fendalton.
Stevenson, James, Flaxton.
St. John, Charles E., 745 Colombo Street,
Christchurch.
Stone, T., Lyttdton Times Office, Christchurch.
Suter, Henry, 559 Hereford Street, Linwood.
Syrnes, Dr. W. H., 63 Worcester Street, Christ-
church. *
Symes, Langford P., 22 May's Road, St.
Albans.
Tabart, Miss Rose, 97 Papanui Road, Christ-
church.
Taylor, A., M.A., M.R.C.V.S., Canterbury
Agricultural College, Lincoln.
Taylor, G. J., 440 Madras Street, St. Albans.
Templin, J. R., 10 Wroxton Terrace, Fendalton.
Thacker, Dr. H. T. J., M.P., 25 Latimer
Square, Christchurch.
Thomas, Dr. W., 252 Papanui Road, St.
Albans, Christchurch.*
Thompson, Rev. A. T., M.A., B.D., St.
Andrew's Manse, Christchurch.
Tosswill, R. T., 143 Hereford Street, Christ-
church.
Tripp, C. H, M.A., Timaru.*
Waddell, John, 157 Tuam Street, Christchurch.
Waller, F. D., B.A., West Christchurch Dis-
trict High School.
Waymouth, Mrs., care of Mrs. R. M. Hughes,
St. Buryan, S.O., Cornwall, England.
Weston, G. T., B.A., LL.B., 152 Manchester
Street, Christchurch.
Whetter, Dr. J. P., 211 Gloucester Street,
Christchurch.
Wliitaker, C. Godfrey, care of Booth, Mac-
donald. and Co., Carlyle Street, Christchurch.
Whitehead, L. G., B.A., Boys' High School,
Christchurch.
Roll of Members.
377
Wigram, Hon. F., M.L.C., 1 Armagh Street,
Christchurch.
Wild, L. J., M.A., B.Sc, F.G.S., Canterbury
Agricultural College, Lincoln.
Wilding, Frank S., Hereford Street, Christ-
church.
Wilkins. ('.. B.A., Public School, Waddington.
Williams, C. .).. M.List.C.E., Knowles Street,
St. Albans.
Wright, A. M., V.C.X., P.O. Box 617, Christ-
church.
OTAGO INSTITUTE.
[* Life members.]
Allen, Dr. W., Mosgiel.
Allen, Hon. Sir James, M.P., Clyde Street.
Allen, Dr. S. C, 220 High Street.
Anscombe, E., 171 Princes Street,
Balk. ()., Driver Street, Maori Hill.
Barnett, Dr. L. E., Stafford Street.
Barr, Peter, 3 Montpelier Street.
Bathgate, Alex., Neidpath Road, Mornington.*
Beal, L. O., Stock Exchange Buildings.
Begg, J. C, Fifield Street, Roslyn.
Bell, A. Dillon, Shag Valley.*
Benham, Professor W. B., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.,
Museum.
Benson, Professor W. N., B.A., D.Sc, F.G.S.,
University.
Black, Alexander, 82 Clyde Street.*
Black, James, care of Cossens and Black.
Bowie, Dr. J. T., 1 Elder Street.
Boys-Smith, Professor, University.
Brasch, H., 55 London Street.
Brent, D., M.A., 19 New Street, Musselburgh.*
Brown, W., 99 Clyde Street.
Browne, Robert, Technical School, Hawera.
Buchanan, N. L., 44 Bronte Street, Nelson.*
Buckland, Mrs., Waikouaiti.
Buddie, Dr. Roger, care of Buddie and Button,
Wyndham Street, Auckland.
Cameron, Dr. P. D., 145 Leith Street.
Chamberlain, C. W., 6 Regent Road.
Chapman, C. R., 135 Town Belt, Roslyn.
Church, Dr. R., High Street.
Clarke, C. E., 51 King Edward Road.
Clarke, E. S., Woodhaugh.
Colquhoun, Dr. D., High Street.
Coombs, L. D., A.R.I.B.A., Stuart Street
and Octagon.
Crawford, W. J., 179 Walker Street.
Dalrymple, Rev. A. M., M.A., 65 District
Road, Mornington.
Davidson, R. E., Hawthorne Road, Morning-
ton.
Davies, 0. V., 109 Princes Street.
Davis, A., Test-room, Cumberland Street.
De Beer, I. S., London Street.
Duncan, P., " Tolcarne," Maori Hill.
Dunlop, Professor F. W., M.A., Ph.D., Uni-
versity.
Dutton, Rev. D., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Cavers-
ham.
Edgar, G. C, Market Street.
Edgar, James, 144 York Place.
Fels, W., 84 London Street.*
Fenwick, Cuthbert, Stock Exchange.
Fenwick, G., Otago Daily Times.
Ferguson, Dr. H. L., 434 High Street.
Fisher, T. R., Alexandra Street, St. Clair.
Fitchett, Dr. F. W. B., Pitt Street.
Frye, Charles, Gasworks, Caversham.
Fulton, H. V., Agricultural and Pastoral
Society, Crawford Street.
Fulton, Dr. R. V., Pitt Street.
Garrow, Professor J. M. E., LL.B., Victoria
College, Wellington.*
Gibbs, A., Telegraph Department, Auckland.
Gibson, G. W., Silverton, Anderson's Bay.
Gilkison, R., 14 Main Road, North-east
Valley.*
Gowland, Professor W. P., M.D., University.
Goyen, P., F.L.S., 136 Highgate, Roslyn.
Gray, J. A., 762 Cumberland Street.
Green, E. S., Education Office.
Guthrie, H. J., 426 Moray Place East.
Hall, Dr. A. J., 36 Stuart Street.
Hamilton, T. B., M.A., B.Sc, University.
Hanlon, A. C, Pitt Street.
Hart, H. E., Royal Terrace.
Henderson, M. C, Electrical Engineer's Office,
Market Street.
Henton, J. W., 140 York Place.
Hercus, G. R., 20 Albert Street.
Hooper, B. B., A.R.I.B.A., A.M.P. Buildings.
Howes, Miss Edith, School, Gore.*
Howes, W. G., F.E.S., 432 George Street.
Hungerford, J. T., Gasworks.
Inglis, Professor J. K. H., M.A., D.Sc, F.I.C.,
University.
Jack, Professor R., D.Sc, University.
Jeffery, J., Anderson's Bay.
Joachim, G., Randall Street, Mornington.*
Johnson, J. T., 46 Little bourne Road, Roslyn.
Johnstone, J. A., Driver Street, Maori Hill.
Jones, F. J., Railway Engineer's Office.
King, Dr. F. Truby, Seacliff.
Laing, John, 86 Queen Street.
Lee, Robert, P.O. Box 363.
Loudon, John, 43 Crawford Street.
Lough, F. J., 12 Queen's Drive, Musselburgh.
Lowry, J. M., Public Works Department.
Lusk, T. H., Black's Road, Opoho.
McCurdie, W. D. R., Town Hall.*
Macdougall, W. P., jun., 642 George Street.
McEnnis, J. E., Public Works Office, Christ-
church.
McGeorge, J. C, Eglinton Road, Mornington.
McKellar, Dr. T. G., Pitt Street.
McKenzie, C. J., Public Works Office.
378
Appendix.
McKerrow, James, F.R.A.S., 142 Ghuznee
Street, Wellington.
Mackie, A., Test-room, Cumberland Street.
IMcLintock, R. A., 90 Princes Street.
McNair, J., Railway Engineer's Office.
McRae. H., 120 London Street.
Malcolm. Professor J., M.D., University.
Mandeno. H., New Zealand Express Com-
pany's Buildings.
Marshall. Angus, B.A., Technical School.
Mason. J. B., National Bank Buildings.
Melland, E.. Arthog Road, Hale, Cheshire
England.*
Milnes, J. VV., 39 Lees Street.*
Morrell, W. J., M.A., Boys' High School.
Napier, 0. J. W., M.A., University.
Neill, W. T., Survey Office.
Nevill. Right Rev.'S. T., D.D., Bishopsgrove.
Newlands. Dr. W., 12 London Street.
O'Neill, Dr. E. J., 219 High Street.
Overton, T. R., Test-room, Cumberland Street.
Park, Professor J., F.G.S., University.
Parr. E. J., M.A., B.Sc., Boys' High School.
Payne, F. W., 90 Princes Street.
Petrie. D., M.A., F.L.S.. Education Office,
Auckland.*
Pickerill, Professor H. P., M.D., B.D.S.,
University.
Poppelwell, D. L., Gore.
Price, W. H., 55 Stuart Street.*
Procter, T. R., care of Turnbull and Jones.
Reid, Donald, jun., Dowling Street.
Riley. Dr. F. R.,-Pitt Street.
Ritchie, Dr. Russell, 400 George Street.
Roberts, E. F., 128 Highgate, Roslyn.
Roberts, John, C.M.G., Littlebourne.
Ross, H. I. M., Willis Street.
Ross, T. C, care of Ross and Glendining
(Limited).
Rutherford, R.W., Playfair Street, Caversham.
Salmond, J. L., National Bank Buildings.
Sandle, Major S. G., R.N.Z.A. Barracks, Wel-
lington.
Sargood, Percy, " Marinoto," Newington.
Scott, J. H., Converter Station, Cumberland
Street.
Shaeklock, J. B., Bayfield, Anderson's Bay.
Shennan, Watson, 3(57 High Street.
Shepherd, F. R., P.O. Box 361.
Shortt, F. M., care of John Chambers and
Sons.
Sim, Mr. Justice, Musselburgh.
Simpson, F. A., care of John Chambers and
Sons.
Simpson, George, 98 Russell Street.
Simpson, George, jun., 9 Gamma Street,
Roslyn.
Smith, C. S., Star Office.
Smith, J. G, 196 Tay Street, Invercargill.
Solomon, S., K.C., 114 Princes Street.
Somerville, W. G, 18 Leven Street, Roslyn.
Stark, James, care of Kempthorne, Prosser,
and Co.
Stewart, R. T., 21 Gamma Street, Roslvn.
Stewart, W. D., M.P., LL.B., 11 Heriot"Row.
Stout, Sir Robert, K.C.M.G., Wellington.
Tannock, D., Botanical Gardens.
Taylor, E. G., Te Whakuru, Chatham Islands.
Theomin, D., 42 Royal Terrace.
Thompson, Professor G. E., M.A., University.
Thomson, G. M., F.L.S., 209 Cargill Street.*
Thomson, W. A., A.M. P. Buildings.
Vanes, R. N, A.R.I.B.A., National Bank
Chambers.
Walden, E. W., 12 Dowling Street.
Wales, P. Y., 2 Crawford Street.
Walker, A., Lloyd's Surveyor, Wellington.
Waters, Professor D. B., A.O.S.M., University.
Whitcombe, H., care of Whitcombe and
Tombs.
White, Professor D. R., M.A., 83 St. David
Street.
Whitson, T. W., 584 George Street.
Williams, J., B.Sc, F.C.S., Technical College.
Wilson, W. S., 290 Princes Street.
Wingfield, J. E., 663 Castle Street.
Young, Dr. James, Don Street, Invercargill.
HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE.
[* Life members.]
Antill, H. W., Kumeroa.
Armour, W. A., M.A., M.Sc., Boys' High
School. Napier.
Armstrong, C. E., Gisborne.
Asher, Rev. J. A., Napier.
Bernau, Dr. H. F., Napier.
Bissell, E., Port Ahuriri.
Black, G. J., Gisborne.
Blake, V. I., Gisborne.
Bull, Harry, Gisborne.
Burnett, H., Woodville.
Chambers, Bernard, Te Mata.
Chambers, J., Mokopeka, Hastings.
Ohisholm, H. M., Napier.
Clark, Gilbert, Taradale.
Clark, Thomas, Eskdale.
Coe, J. W., Napier.
Cornford, Cecil, Napier.
Currie, A. E., Solicitor, Napier.
Daly, J. T., Westshore.
Dinwiddie, P., Napier.
Dinwiddie, W., Napier.
Duncan, Russell, Napier.
Edgar, Dr. J. J., Napier.
Edmundson, J. H., Napier.
Emeny, C. H., Hastings.
Fitzgerald, J., Napier.
Fossey, W., Napier.
Grant, M. R., Napier.
Guthrie-Smith, H., Tutira.
Roll of Members.
379
Harding, J. W., Mount Vernon, Waipukurau.
Henderson, E. H., Te Araroa.
Henley, Dr. E. A. W., Napier.
Hill, H., B.A., F.G.S., Napier.
Hislop, J., Napier.*
Hobbs. Rev. J., 27 Raffles Street, Napier
South.
Hoby, K. G., Dentist, Napier.
Holdsworth, J., Havelock North.
Humphrey, E. J., Pakipaki.
Hutchinson, F.; jun., Rissington.
Hyde, Thomas, Napier.
Jacobsen, N. R., Boys' High School, Napier.
Kennedy, 0. D., Napier.
Kerr, W., M.A., Napier Boys' High School.
Large, J. S., Napier.*
Large, Miss, Napier.
Leahy, Dr. J. P., Napier.
Loten, E. G., Napier.
Lowry, T. H., Okawa.
McLean, R. D. D., Napier.
Mayne, Rev. Canon, Napier.
Metcalfe, W. F., Kiritahi, Port Awanui.
Moore, Dr. T. C, Napier.
Morris, W., Hastings.
Murphy, W., Petane.
Niven, J., M.A., M.Sc, Napier.
Northcroft, E. F., Napier.
Oates, William, J. P., Tokomaru Bay.
Ormond, G., Mahia.
O'Ryan, W., Waipiro Bay.
Piper, G. M., Pakowhai.
Pollock, C. F. H., Napier.
Poole, P. Loftus, Tuparoa Bay, East Coast.
Sagar, Mrs., Napier.
Scott, William, Napier.
Sherwood, T. E., Waipiro Bay.
Smart, D. L., Napier.
Smith, J. H., Olrig.*
Smith, W., B.A., Waipawa.
Stevenson, A., Woodville.
Strachan, D. A., M.A., Napier.
Stubbs, G., Napier.
Tanner, T., Havelock North.
Thomson, J. P., Napier.
Tinen, G. W., Cambridge.
Townley, J., Gisborne.
Wheeler, E. G., Havelock North.
Whetter, R. G., Napier.
Whyte, D., Hastings.
Williams, F. W., Napier.
Williams, G. T., Mokoiwi, Tuparoa, East
Coast.
Williams, Rev. H., Gisborne.
Wills, W. H., B.A., Port Ahuriri.
NELSON INSTITUTE.
Bett, Dr. F. A., Trafalgar Square.
Boor, Dr. L., Alton Street.
Cooke, Miss M., Examiner Street.
Crawford, A. C, Scotland Street.
Curtis, W. S., Bronte Street.
Fell, C. R., Brougham Street.
Field, T. A. H., M.P., Ngatitama Street.
Gibbs, F. G., M.A., Collingwood Street.
Glasgow, J., Trafalgar Street.
Graham, Mrs. G, Bridge Street.
Harley, Charles J., Milton Street.
Healy F., Bridge Street.
Hornsby, J. P., Weka Street.
Jackson, R. B., Examiner Street.
Knapp, F. V., Alfred Street.
Lancaster, G. J., M.A., Nelson College.
Morley, E. L., Waimea Street.
Mules. Bishop, Trafalgar Square.
Redgrave, A. J., Hardy Street.
Short, William, Examiner Street.
Snodgrass, W. W., Hardy Street.
Strachan, J., care of Land Transfer Office,
Government Buildings.
Thompson, F. A., Commissioner of Crown
Lands, Government Buildings.
Ward, W. T., Chief Postmaster, Christchurch.
Washboum, H. P., Port Nelson.
Whitwell, F., Drumduan, Wakapuaka.
Wise, G. R., care of Pitt and Moore, Solicitors,
Nelson.
Worley, W. F., Trafalgar Street South.
MANAWATU PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
[* Life members.
Akers, H., Duke Street.
Barnicoat, J. L., Union Bank.
Barnnett, Dr. E. C, Fitzherbert Street.
Batchelar, J. 0., Willow Bank.
Bayly, Mrs., Patea.
Bendall, W. E., Dairy Union.
Bennett, G. A., The Square.
Bett, D. H. B., M.B., Ch.B., M.R.C
L.R.C.P., Broad Street.t
t Absent on active service.]
Blackbourne, Rev. H. G., M.A., Vicarage.
Buick, D., M.P., Cloverlea.
Clausen, C. N., Rangitikei Street.
Cohen, M., Broad Street.
Colquhoun, A. J., M.Sc, High School.
Doull, Rev. A., M.A., Church Street.
Edwards, R., Duke Street.
Eliott, M. A.. The Square.
Gardner, R., Terrace End.
:-;si i
Appendix.
Gerrand, J. B., The Square.
Graham, A. J., The Square.
Greer, S., Broad Street.
Hankin, F. M. S., Ferguson Street.
Hannay, A., care of Manson and Barr.
Hodder, T. R., Rangitikei Street.
Ironside. Miss, M.A., High School.
Johnston, J. Goring, Oakhurst.
Manson, T., Fitzherbert Street.
Mummery, W. R., F.I.C., care of J. Nathan
and Co.t
Munn, J., Bank of New South Wales.
Murray, J., M.A., High School.
Murray, W. L., care of J. Nathan and Co.
Newman, E., M.P., Marton.
Park. W., F.R.H.S., College Street.
Peach, C. W., M.B., CM., Broad Street.
Poynton, J. W., S.M., Featherston Street.
Rainforth, J., Batt Street.
Robertson, J., Rangitikei Street.
Salmon, C. T., Assoc, in Eng., Rangitikei
Street.
Scott, G. J., Victoria Street.
Seifert, G., Broad Street.
Seifert, H.
Sinclair, D., C.E., Terrace End.
Skinner, H. D., B.A., care of Secretary,
Manawatu Philosophical Society. f
Smith, W. J., Broad Street.
Smith, W. W., F.E.S., Public Reserve, New
Plymouth.
H., Church Street.
R., M.R.C.S., M.R.C.P., Linton
Stevens, J.
Stowe, W.
Street.
Sutherland
Thompson,
Vernon, J.
, A., Boundary Road.
A. W., Batt Street.
E., M.A., B.Sc, High School.
Waldegrave, C. E., Broad Street.
Welch, W., F.R.G.S., Mosman's Bay, N.S.W.*
Whitaker, A., Grey Street.
Wilson, K., M.A., Rangitikei Street.*
Wollerman, H., Fitzherbert Street.
Young, H. L., Cuba Street.
WANGANUI PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
[* Life member.]
Allison, Alexander, No. 1 Line, Wanganui.
Allison, Thomas, Ridgway Street, Wanganui.
Amess, A. H. R., M.A., Collegiate School,
Wanganui.
Atkinson, W. E., Hurworth, Wanganui.
Bassett, W. G, St. John's Hill, Wanganui.
Battle, T. H., Architect, Wanganui.
Bourne, F., F.I.A.N.Z., Ridgway Street, Wa-
nganui.
Brown, C. P., M.A., LL.B., College Street,
Wanganui.
Burnet, J. H., St. John's Hill, Wanganui.
Cave, Norman, Brunswick Line, Wanganui.
Cowper, A. E., Victoria Avenue, Wanganui.
Crow, E., Technical College, Wanganui.
( 'ruickshank, Miss, M.A., M.Sc, Girls' College,
Wanganui.
D'Arcy, W. A., 11 Campbell Street, Wanganui.
Downes, T. W., Victoria Avenue, Wanganui.
Drew, Harry, Victoria Avenue, Wanganui.
Duigan, Herbert, Ridgway Street, Wanganui.
Lunkley, R., F.I.A.N.Z., Wickstead Place,
Wanganui.
Dunn, Richmond, St. John's Hill, Wanganui.
Ford, C. R., F.R.G.S., College Street, Wanga-
nui.
Gibbons, Hope, Wanganui East.
Hatherly, Henry R., M.R.C.S., Gonville, Wa-
nganui.*
Hutton, C. C, M.A., St. John's Hill, Wanga-
nui.
Jack, J. B., Native Land Court, Wanganui.
Jackson, R. J., College Street, Wanganui.
Jones, Lloyd, Victoria Avenue, Wanganui.
Liffiton, E. N., J.P., Ridgway Street, Wanga-
nui.
McFarlane, D., Ridgway Street, Wanganui.
Mackay, C. E., Mayor of Wanganui.
Murdoch, R., Campbell Place. Wanganui.
Murray, J. B., St. John's Hill, Wanganui.
Neame, J. A., M.A., Collegiate School, Wa-
nganui.
Payne, H. M., 32 Bell Street, Wanganui.
Poison, D. G., St. John's Hill, Wanganui.
Say well, T. R., Public Trust Office, Wanganui.
Sturge, H. E., M.A., Collegiate School, Wanga-
nui.
Talboys, F. P., Tramways Manager, Wanga-
nui.
Ward, J. T., Victoria Avenue, Wanganui.
Watt, J. P., B.A., LL.B., Ridgway Street,
Wanganui.
Watt, M. N., St. John's Hill, Wanganui.
Williamson, J. P., College Street, Wanganui.
Wilson, Alexander, M.D., Wickstead Street,
Wanganui.
Serial Publications received by Library. 381
SEEIAL PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED BY THE LIBRARY OF
THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE, 1917.
New Zealand.
Geological Survey : Bulletins.
Houses of Parliament : Journals and Appendix.
New Zealand Official Year -book.
Polynesian Society : Journal.
Statistics of New Zealand.
Australia.
Australasian Institute of Mining Engineers : Proceedings.
Australian Antarctic Expedition, 1911-14 : Reports.
Commonwealth of Australia, Fisheries : Biological Results
Endeavour.
New South Wales.
Agricultural Department, N.S.W. : Agricultural Gazette; Science Bul-
letin.
Australian Museum, Sydney : Records ; Annual Report.
Botanic Gardens and Government Domains, N.S.W. : Report.
Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus.
Department of Mines, N.S.W. : Annual Report.
Geological Survey, N.S.W. : Mays.
Linnean Society of N.S.W. : Proceedings.
Northern Engineering Institute of N.S.W. : Papers.
Public Health Department, N.S.W. : Annual Report.
Royal Society of N.S.W. : Journal and Proceedings.
Sydney University : Calendar; Science Papers.
Queensland.
Department of Agriculture and Stock, Queensland : Botany Bulletin.
Geological Survey of Queensland : Publications.
Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, Queensland Branch : Journal.
Royal Society of Queensland : Proceedings.
South Australia.
Adelaide Chamber of Commerce : Annual Report.
Department of Chemistry, South Australia : Bulletins.
Mines Department and Geological Survey of South Australia : Mining
Operations ; G.S. Bulletins and Reports ; Metallurgical Reports.
Public Library, Museum, and Art Gallery of South Australia: Annual
Report.
Royal Society of South Australia : Transactions and Proceedings.
382 Appendix.
Tasmania.
Eoyal Society of Tasmania : Papers and Proceedings.
Victoria.
Advisory Committee : Report on Brown Coal.
Field Naturalists' Club of Victoria : Victorian Naturalist.
Mines Department and Geological Survey of Victoria : Annual Report;
Memoirs ; Bulletins.
Public Library, Museum, and National Art Gallery of Victoria: Annual
Report.
Royal Society of Victoria : Proceedings.
Western Australia.
Geological Survey of Western Australia : Annual Report ; Bulletins.
Museum and Art Gallery, Perth : Records.
United Kingdom.
Botanical Society of Edinburgh : Transactions and Proceedings.
British Association for the Advancement of Science : Report.
British Museum: Catalogues; Guides; Scientific Reports of British
Antarctic Expedition, 1010.
Cambridge Philosophical Society : Proceedings.
Cambridge University Library: Report.
Dove Marine Library : Annual Report.
Geological Society, London : Quarterly Journal ; List of Members.
Geological Survey of Great Britain : Summary of Progress.
Linnean Society : Journal (Botany) ; Proceedings.
Liverpool Biological Society : Proceedings.
Liverpool Geological Society : Proceedings.
Marine Biological Association : Journal.
Marlborough College Natural History Society : Report.
Mineralogical Society : Miner alogical Magazine.
Natural History Society of Glasgow : Glasgow Naturalist.
Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain : Journal.
Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh : Notes.
Royal Colonial Institute : United Empire.
Royal Geographical Society : Geographical Journal.
Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow : Proceedings.
Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh : Proceedings.
Royal Scottish Geographical Society : Scottish Geographical Magazine.
Royal Society of Edinburgh : Proceedings ; Transactions.
Royal Society, London : Proceedings (Series A, B) ; Phil. Trans. (Series
A, B) ; Year-book.
Royal Society of Literature: Transactions ; other publications.
Royal Statistical Society, London : Journal.
Victoria Institute, London : Journal of Transactions.
Denmark.
Dansk. Naturh. Foren., Kjobenhavn : Videnskabelige Meddelelser.
Kong. Dansk. Videnskab. Selskab. : Forhandlinger ; Skrifter.
Museum of the University, Copenhagen : Danish Ingolf Expedition.
Serial Publications received by Library. 383
France.
Le Prince Bonaparte : Publications.
Ministere de l'lnstruction publique : Le Science franqaisc .
Musee d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris : Bulletins.
Societe de Geographie : La geographic
Societe Zoologique de France : Bulletin.
Holland and Dutch East Indies.
Banka Tin : Jaaresverslag von de Winning.
Mijnwesen in Nederlandsch Oost-Indie : Jaarboek.
Nederlandsche Entomologische Vereeniging : Tydschrift voor Entomo-
logie ; Entomol. Berichten.
Rijks Ethnographisch Museum, Leiden: Verslag.
Italy.
R. Instituto di Studi Superiori, Firenze : Museo ed Erbario coloniale.
Reale Societa Geographica, Rorna : Bollettino.
Revista Geographica Italiana.
Societa Africana d'ltalia : Bollettino.
Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa : Processi verbali.
Norway.
Bergens Museum : Aarbok ; Crustacea of Norway ; Aarberetning .
Russia.
Societe Entomologique de Russie, Petrograd : Horae ; Revue.
Societe Imperiale des Naturalistes, Moscou : Nouveaux memoires.
Spain.
Junta de Ciences Naturals de Barcelona : Series botanica, zoologica,
biologico-oceanica .
Sweden.
Botaniska Notiser, Lund.
Kongl. Svensk. Vetensk. Akad. : Arsbok ; Handling ar ; Meddelanden ;
Meteor, iakttagelser ; Archiv for botanik ; Archiv for kemi, min., och
geol. ; Archiv for math., astron., och fysik ; Archiv for zoologi.
Sveriges Offentliga Bibliotek, Stockholm : Accessions-katalog .
Switzerland.
Naturforsch. Gesellschaft, Basel : Verhandlungen.
Soc. de Phys. et d'Hist. Nat. de Geneve : Memoires.
" India and Ceylon.
Agricultural Department, Calcutta : Report on Progress of Agriculture.
Agricultural Research Institute and College, Pusa : Report.
Asiatic Society of Bengal : Journal and Proceedings ; Memoirs.
Board of Scientific Advice for India : Annual Report.
Colombo Museum ; Spolia Zeylanica.
Geological Survey of India : Records ; Memoirs.
384 Appendix.
Japan.
Iconcs plantarum Formosanarum, Taihoku.
Imperial Earthquake Investigation Committee, Tokyo : Bulletin.
Imperial University of Tokyo : Journal of the College of Science.
Tohoku Imperial University, Sendai : Science Reports.
Malay States.
Malay States Government Gazette.
Africa.
South African Association for the Advancement of Science : South
African Journal of Science.
Transvaal Museum : Annals.
Canada.
Department of the Interior : Publications of the Dominion Observatory.
Department of Marine and Fisheries, Toronto: Reports of Meteorological
Service ; Monthly Record of Meteorological Observations.
Department of Naval Service : Annual Report ; Tide Tables.
Mines Department, Geological Survey Branch : Memoirs ; Summary
Report ; Museum Bulletin.
Mines Department, Mines Branch : Bulletins ; other publications.
Nova Scotian Institute of Science : Proceedings and Transactions.
Boyal Society of Canada : Proceedings and Transactions.
United States.
Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia : Proceedings.
American Geographical Society, New York : Geographical Review.
American Institute of Mining Engineers : Transactions.
American Journal of Philology.
American Philosophical Society : Proceedings.
Boston Society of Natural History : Proceedings ; Memoirs ; Occasional
Papers.
Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Science : Science Bulletin.
Buffalo Society of Natural History : Bulletin.
Californian Academy of Sciences : Proceedings.
Chicago University : Journal of Geology.
Connecticut Academy of Arts and Science: Transactions.
Department of Commerce : Serial.
Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago : Report Series ; Anthropo-
logical Series.
Franklin Institute : Journal.
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore : Studies ; Circular ; Journal of
Mathematics.
Leland Stanford Junior University : Publications.
Library of Congress, Washington : Report ; Publications Supply Lists.
Lloyd Library, Ohio : Bibliographical Contributions.
Minnesota University and Geological Survey : Geological Survey Bulle-
tins ; Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin : Current Problems ;
Studies in Languages and Literature.
Missouri Botanical Gardens : Annals.
Missouri University : Library Series.
Serial Publications received by Library. 385
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard : Bulletin ; Annual Report.
National Academy of Sciences : Proceedings.
New York Academy- of Sciences : Annals.
Ohio Journal of Science.
Ohio State University : Bulletin.
Smithsonian Institution and U.S. National Museum : Annual Report ;
Miscellaneous Collections; Contributions to Knowledge; Bulletins;
Proceedings ; Opinions International Committee Zoological Nomen-
clature; Contributions from U.S. National Herbarium.
Tufts College : Studies (Scientific Series).
U.S. Department of Agriculture: Year-book; Journal of Agricultural
Research.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Biological Survey : North
American Fauna ; Bulletins.
U.S. Geological Survey : Annual Report ; Professional Papers ; Mineral
Resottrces ; Bulletins ; Water-supply Papers.
U.S. Naval Observatory: Annual Report ; Publications.
University of California : Bulletin of Department of Geology.
Wagner Free Institute of Science : Transactions ; Annual Announcement.
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences: Transactions.
Argentine.
Academia Nacional de Ciencias : Boletin.
Brazil.
Museu Nacional, Bio de Janeiro : Archivos.
Museu Paulista, Sao Paulo : Revista.
Observatorio do Bio de Janeiro : Annuario.
Mexico.
Institute Geologico de Mexico : Parergones ; Bolletino ; Anales.
Peru.
Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas del Peru : Boletin.
Hawaii.
Bishop Museum : Memoirs : Occasional Papers.
Philippines.
Bureau of Science : Philippine Journal of Science.
otfii Appendix
LIST OF INSTITUTIONS
TO WHICH
THE PUBLICATIONS OP THE INSTITUTE ARE PRESENTED BY THE
GOVERNORS OP THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.
Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute.
New Zealand.
Cabinet, The Members of, Wellington.
Executive Library, Wellington.
Free Public Library, Auckland.
Christchurch.
„ Dunedin.
Wellington.
Government Printer and publishing staff (6 copies).
Library, Auckland Institute, Auckland.
;, Auckland Museum, Auckland.
Biological Laboratory, Canterbury College, Christchurch.
Biological Laboratory, University College, Auckland.
„ Biological Laboratory, University of Otago, Dunedin.
Biological Laboratory, Victoria University College, Wel-
lington.
„ Canterbury College, Christchurch.
Canterbury Museum, Christchurch.
Canterbury Public Library, Christchurch.
Dunedin Athenaeum.
General Assembly, Wellington (2 copies).
Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, Napier.
Manawatu Philosophical Society, Palmerston North.
Nelson College.
Nelson Institute, Nelson.
„ New Zealand Geological Survey.
New Zealand Institute of Surveyors.
New Zealand Institute, Wellington.
Otago Institute, Dunedin.
Otago Museum, Dunedin.
Otago School of Mines, Dunedin.
Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Christchurch.
Polynesian Society, New Plymouth.
Portobello Fish-hatchery, Dunedin.
Reefton School of Mines.
Southland Museum, Invercargill.
Thames School of Mines.
„ University College, Auckland.
„ University of Otago, Dunedin.
„ Victoria University College, Wellington.
Waihi School of Mines, Waihi.
Wanganui Museum.
Wellington Philosophical Society.
List of Free Copies. 387
Great Britain.
Bodleian Library, Oxford University.
British Association for the Advancement of Science, London.
British Museum Library, London.
„ Natural History Department, South Kensington.
London S.W.
Cambridge Philosophical Society, Cambridge University.
Colonial Office,- London.
Clifton College, Bristol, England.
Geological Magazine, London.
Geological Society, Synod Hall, Castle Terrace, Edinburgh.
„ London.
Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, London.
High Commissioner for New Zealand, London.
Imperial Institute, London.
Institution of Civil Engineers, London.
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, 34 Southampton
Street, Strand, London.
Leeds Geological Association, Sunnyside, Crossgate, Leeds.
Linnean Society, London.
Literary and Philosophical Society, Liverpool.
Liverpool Biological Society.
Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, Plymouth.
Natural History Society, Glasgow.
Nature, The Editor of, London.
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalist Society, Norwich.
North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne .
Patent Office Library, 25 Soutbampton Street, London W.C.
Philosophical Society of Glasgow.
Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland,
59 Great Russell Street, London W.C.
Royal Botanic Garden Library, Edinburgh.
Royal Colonial Institute, London.
Royal Geographical Society, Kensington Gore, London S.W.
Royal Institution, Liverpool.
Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.
Royal Physical Society, Edinburgh.
Royal Scottish Geographical Society, Synod Hall, Castle Terrace,
Edinburgh.
Royal Society, Dublin.
Edinburgh.
„ . London.
Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom, London.
Royal Statistical Society, London.
University Library, Cambridge, England.
„ Edinburgh.
Victoria University, Manchester.
Victoria Institute, London.
William Wesley and Son, London (Agents).
Zoological Society, London.
388 Appendix.
British North America.
Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada, Ottawa.
Hamilton Scientific Association, Hamilton, Canada.
Institute of Jamaica, Kingston, Jamaica.
Natural History Society of New Brunswick, St. John's.
Nova-Scotian Institute of Natural Science, Halifax.
Eoyal Canadian Institute, Toronto.
South Africa.
Free Public Library, Cape Town.
South African Association for the Advancement of Science, Cape Town.
South African Museum, Cape Town.
Rhodesia Museum, Bulawayo, South Africa.
India.
Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta.
Colombo Museum, Ceylon.
Geological Survey of India, Calcutta.
Natural History Society, Bombay.
Raffles Museum, Singapore.
Queensland.
Geological Survey Office, Brisbane.
Queensland Museum, Brisbane.
Royal Society of Queensland, Brisbane.
New South Wales.
Agricultural Department, Sydney.
Australasian x\ssociation for the Advancement of Science, Sydney.
Australian Museum Library, Sydney.
Department of Mines, Sydney.
Engineering Association of New South Wales, Sydney.
Engineering Institute of New South Wales, Watt Street, Newcastle.
Library, Botanic Gardens, Sydney.
Linnean Society of New South Wales, Sydney.
Public Library, Sydney.
Royal Society of New South Wales, Sydney.
University Library, Sydney. *
Victoria.
Australian Institute of Mining Engineers, Melbourne.
Field Naturalists' Club, Melbourne.
Geological Survey of Victoria, Melbourne.
Legislative Library, Melbourne.
Public Library, Melbourne.
Royal Society of Victoria, Melbourne.
University Library, Melbourne.
Tasmania.
Public Library of Tasmania, Hobart.
Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart.
List of Free Copies. 389
South Australia.
Public Museum and Art Gallery of South Australia. Adelaide.
Eoval Society of South Australia, Adelaide.
University Library, Adelaide.
Western Australia.
Government Geologist, Perth.
Russia.
Emperor Peter I Agricultural Institute, Woronesh.
Finskoie Uchonoie Obshchestvo (Finnish Scientific Society), Helsing-
fors.
Imper. Moskofskoie Obshchestvo Iestestvo - Ispytatelei (Imperial
Moscow Society of Naturalists).
Kiefskoie Obshchestvo Iestestvo-Ispytatelei (Kief Society of Natural-
ists).
Norivay.
Bergens Museum, Bergen.
University of Christiania.
Sweden.
Geological Survey of Sweden, Stockholm.
Royal Academy of Science, Stockholm.
Denmark.
Natural History Society of Copenhagen.
Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Literature of Copenhagen.
German y.
Botanischer Verein der Provinz Brandenburg, Berlin.
Konigliche Bibliothek, Berlin.
Konigliche Physikalisch-Oekonomische Gesellschaft, Kouigsberg, E.
Prussia.
Konigliches Zoologisches und Anthropologisch - Ethnographisches
Museum, Dresden.
Naturhistorischer Verein, Bonn.
Naturhistorischer Museum, Hamburg.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Bremen.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Frankfort-an-der-Oder.
Rautenstrauch-Joest-Museum (Stiidtisches Museum fur Volkerkunde)
Cologne.
Redaction des Biologischen Centralblatts, Erlangen.
Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Frankfort-am-Main.
Verein fiir Vaterlandische Naturkunde in Wurttemburg, Stuttgart.
Zoological Society, Berlin.
Austria.
K.K. Ceutral-Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und Erdmagnetismus, Vienna.
K.K. Geologische Reichsanstalt, Vienna.
390 Appendix.
Belgium and the Netherlands.
Academie Royal des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Beaux- Arts de
Belgique, Brussels.
La Societe Royale de Botanique de Belgique, Brussels.
Musee Teyler, Haarlem.
Netherlands Entomological Society, Hazepaterslaan 5, Haarlem.
Switzerland.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft (Societe des Sciences Naturelles), Bern.
France.
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
Musee d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris.
Societe Zoologique de France, Paris.
Italy.
Biblioteca ed Archivio Tecnico, Rome.
Museo di Zoologia e di Anatomia Comparata della R. Universita
Turin.
Orto e Museo Botanico (R. Instituto di Studi Superiori), Florence.
R. Accademia di Scienze, Lettre, ed Arti, Modena.
R. Accademia dei Lincei, Rome.
Stazione Zoologica di Napoli, Naples.
Societa Africana d' Italia, Naples.
Societa Geografica Italiana, Rome.
Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa.
Simin.
Junta de Ciencies Naturals, Barcelona, Apartado 593.
United States of America.
Academy of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, State of New York.
Davenport, Iowa.
Library, Philadelphia.
„ San Francisco.
American Engineering Societies' Library, 29 West 39th Street, New
York.
American Geographical Society, New York.
American Journal of Science (Editors), Yale University, New Haven,
Conn.
American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.
Boston Society of Natural History.
Connecticut Academy, New Haven.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia.
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.
Journal of Geology (Editors), University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.
Leland Stanford Junior University, California.
Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis, Mo.
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.
National Academy of Sciences, Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C.
National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C.
List of Free Copies. 391
New York Academy of Sciences.
Philippine Museum, Manila.
Rochester Academy of Sciences.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Tufts College, Massachusetts.
United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
University of Montana, Missoula.
Wagner Free Institute of Science of Philadelphia.
Brazil.
Escola de Minas, Rio de Janeiro.
Museu Paulista, Sao Paulo.
Argentine Republic.
Academia Nacional de Ciencias, Cordoba.
Sociedad Cientifica Argentina, Buenos Ayres.
Uruguay.
Museo Nacional, Monte Video.
Japan.
College of Science, Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo.
Hawaii.
Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu.
National Library, Honolulu.
Java.
Society of Natural Science, Batavia.
INDEX.
AUTHORS OF PAPERS. page
Andersen, J. C. — Further Notes on New Zealand Bird-song : Kapiti Island . . 282
Betts, M. W. — Notes on the Autecology of certain Plants of the Peridotite Belt,
Nelson : Part I — Structure of some of the Plants (No. 1) . . . . . . 230
Carse, H.— A New Species of Hypolepis . . . . . . . . 64
Chambers, J. M. — New Zealand Ironsands : an Historical Account of an Attempt
to Smelt Ironsands at Onehunga in 1883 . . . . . . . . 223
Cockayne, L. — Notes on New Zealand Floristic Botany, including Descriptions
of New Species, &c. (No. 3) . . . . ' . . . . . . 161
Cotton, C. A. — The Geomorphology of the Coastal District of South-western
Wellington .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..212
Downes, T. W. — Notes on Eels and Eel-weirs (Tuna and Pa-tuna) . . . . 296
Cudex, M. C. — The Succession of Tertiary Beds in the Pareora District, South
Canterbury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Hilgendorf, F. W. — Notes from Canterbury College Mountain Biological Station,
Cass : No. 6— The Insect-life . . '. . . . . . . . . . 135
Hogben, G.— A Note on East Coast Earthquakes (N.Z.), 1914-17 . . . . 280
Hogg, E. G. — On certain Tripolar Relations : Part III . . . . . . 317
Holloway, J. E. — The Prothallus and Young Plant of Tmesipteris . . . : 1
Jennings, L. S. — Revision of the Cirripedia of New Zealand . . . . 56
Kirk, H. B. — On Mosquito Larvicicles . . . . . . . . 193
Marshall, P. —
The Tertiary Molluscan Fauna of Pakaurangi Point, Kaipara Harbour . . 263
Notes on the Geology of the Tubuai Islands and of Pitcairn . . 278
Mestayer, M. K. — A Note on the Young Stages of Astraea heliotropium (Martyn) . . 191
Meyrick, E. — Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera . . . . . . 132
Park, J. — On the Age of the Alpine Chain of Western Otago . . . . . . 160
Parry, E. — The Resistance to the Flow of Water through Pipes . . . . 45
Petrie, D. — Descriptions of New Native Flowering-plants . . . . . . 207
Phtlpott, A. — Descriptions of New Species of Lepidoptera . . . . . . 125
Poppelwell, D. L. —
On a Partially White Form of Puffinuv griseus . . . . . . . . 144
Notes of a Botanical Visit to Bunker's Island (Stewart Island) . . . . 154
Notes of a Botanical Visit to Coll or Bench Island (Stewart Island) . . 158
Poppelwell, D. L., and Thomson, W. A. — Notes of a Botanical Visit to Hollyford
Valley and Martin's Bay, with a List of Indigenous Plants . . . . . . 146
Speight, R. — Structural and Glacial Features of the Hurunui Valley . . . . 95
Speight, R., and Wild, L. J. — The Stratigraphical Relationship of the Weka Pass
Stone and the Amuri Limestone . . . . . . . . 65
Thomson, J. A. — On the Age of the Waikouaiti Sandstone, Otago, New Zealand . . 196
Thomson, W. A., and Poppelwell, D. L. — Notes of a Botanical Visit to Hollyford
Valley and Martin's Bay, with a List of Indigenous Plants . . 146
Uttley, G. H. —
The Volcanic Rocks of Oamaru, with Special Reference to their Position in
the Stratigraphical Series . . . . . . . . . . 106
Geology of the Oamaru-Papakaio District . . . . . . ..118
Wall, A. — On the Distribution of Senecio saxifragbides Hook, f., and its Relation
to Senecio lagopus Raoul . . . . . . . . . . 198
Wild, L. J., and Speight, R.— The Stratigraphical Relationship of the Weka Pass
Stone and the Amuri Limestone . . . . . . . . 65
Marcus F. Marks, Government Printer, Wellington. — 1918.
PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.
TRANSACTIONS. Peice.
Complete sets and partial sets, together with the index to the forty £ s. d.
volumes of the first series, can be supplied to non-members at
special prices, which will be quoted on application. Vols. 1, 11,
12, 15 to 37 inclusive, 39, and 46 can be supplied at 5s. per volume
to non-members and at 2s. per volume to members.
Vol. 1, second editian .. .. .. .. .. ..liO
Vols. 2, 3. 4, and 8. (Out of print.)
The price for the other volumes will be given on application to the
Secretary. The price varies according to the number in stock.
INDEX TO TRANSACTIONS, VOLS. 1-40.
Part 1 — Authors and Titles of Papers; Part 2 — Subject-index.
Cloth, 5s. Quarter-bound, 3s. 6d. Paper cover .. ..020
MAORI ART.
A few sets of the five parts of this work are in hand. For set of five 4 4 0
Separate copies of the parts can be obtained. —
Part 1 (Canoes). (Out of print.)
Part 2 (Houses) — This is a double part, and contains coloured plates
of rafter-patterns .. .. .. .. .. ..076
Parts 3, 4, and 5 . . . . . . . . . . each 0 5 0
Specially designed covers for the full work in maroon cloth . . 0 5 0
MANGAREVA DICTIONARY. By E. Tregear. 1899 ..010
LIBRARY CATALOGUE of the Joint Libraries of the
Geological Survey, the Museum, New Zealand Institute,
and the Wellington Philosophical Society.
1st edition, 1890. (Out of print.)
2nd edition, 1900 . . . . . . . . ..010
CATALOGUE OF THE CARTER COLLECTION OP
NEW ZEALAND BOOKS.
Catalogue and three Supplements. (Out of print.)
MANUAL OF THE NEW ZEALAND COLEOPTERA.
By Major Broun.
Part 1, 1880; Part 2, 1881; Part 3, 1886; Part 4, 1886; Part 5,
1893 ; Part 6, 1893 ; Part 7, 1893 ... ( .. .. ..110
BULLETIN No. 1. New Genera and Species of Coleoptera.
By Major Broun.
Part I . . . , . • • • | To members
Part II
Part III
Part IV
Part V
To members
} To members
| To members
J
( To members
0 3 6
0 3 0
3
0
0
0
0 5
0 3
0
0
0
BULLETIN No. 2. Revision of the New Zealand I
Byrrhidae. By Major Broun. (To members
BULLETIN No. 3. Studies in the Bryology of New Zealand.
By H. N. Dixon, M.A., F.L.S.
Part I
Part II
i
[ To members
I To members
0
0
0
0
0 3 6
0 2 0
0 1 6
[The publications of the Institute may be obtained on application to the
Secretary, Wellington, N.Z., or from the London agents, Messrs. William Wesley
and Sou. 28 Essex Street, Strand, London W.C.I
PUBLISHED BY THE PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY.
INDEX FAUNAE NOVAE ZEALANDIAE. Edited by £ s. d.
Captain F. W. Hutton, 8vo .. .. .. . . 0 12 6
LUBANTARCTIC ISLANDS OF NEW ZEALAND. Edited
by Dr. Cms. Chilton, 2 vols., 4vo | To members'. '. 1 0 0
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11