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TRANSACTIONS 


ANH 


PKOCEEDINGS 


OV   THE 


NEW  ZEALAND  INSTITUTE 


VOL.   LII 

(Nkw   Issuk) 


EDITED  AND  PUDLISHKD  UNDER  THE  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  mk^\) 
OF  GOVERNORS  OF  THE  INSTITUTE 


ISSUED    9th    august,    1 920 


Jgfttlliugtoii,  |.^. 

MAKCUS    F.    iMAKKS,    GOVBRNMENT    PKINTING    OB'FICK 

WiLJviAM    Wesley   and    Son,    28    Essex    Strekt,   Stband,    Lonpon    \\.C        j 


<• 


NEW  ZEALAND  INSTITUTE.  /QTo^^^  ^O  V 

uu ;  L  I  8  f?  A  R  Y  ^ 


NOTICE    TO    MEMBEBS.     X^  »"  k5  ' 


The  publications  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  consist  of — 

1.  Transactions,  a  yearly  volume  of  scientific  papers  read  before  the 

local  Institutes.      This  volume  is  of  royal-octavo  size. 

2.  Proceedings,    containing    reports    of    the    meetings    of    the    Board 

of  Governors  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  and  of  the  local 
Institutes,  abstracts  of  papers  read  before  them  and  of  papers 
dealing  with  New  Zealand  scientific  matters  and  published  else- 
where^ list  of  members,  &c.  The  Proceedings  are  of  the  same 
size  as  the  Transactions,  and  are  bound  up  with  the  yearly 
volume  of  Transactions  supplied  to  members. 

3.  Bulletins.      Under  this  title  papers  are  issued  from  time  to  time 

which    for    some    reason    it    is    not    possible    to    include    in    the 
yearly   volume    of   the    Transactions.      The   bulletins   are   of   the 
'  same  size  and  style  as  the  Transactions,  but  appear  at  irregular 

intervals,  and  each  bulletin  is  complete  in  itself  and  separately 
paged.  The  bulletins  are  not  issued  free  to  members,  but  may 
be  obtained  by  them  at  a  reduction  on  the  published  price. 

Library  Privileges  of  Members. — Upon  application  by  any  member 
to  the  Librarian  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  or  of  any  of  the  affiliated 
Societies  such  works  as  he  desires  to  consult  which  are  in  those  libraries 
will  be  forwarded  to  him,  subject  to  the  rules  under  which  they  are 
issued  by  the  Institute  or  the  Societies.  The  borrower  will  be  required  to 
pay  for  the  carriage  of  the  books.  For  a  list  of  the  serial  publications 
received  by  the  Library  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  during  1919  see 
p.  534. 

Addresses  op  Members.  —  Members  are  requested  to  notify  the 
Secretary  of  any  change  of  address,  so  that  the  same  may  be  noted 
in  the  List  of  Members. 


'/ 


MEMORANDUM  FOR  AUTHORS  0¥  PAPERS. 


1.  All  papers  must  be  typewritten,  unless  special  permission  to  send 
in  written  papers  has  been  granted  by  the  Editor  for  the  time  being. 

2.  The  author  should  read  over  and  correct  the  copy  before  sending 
it  to  the  Editor  of  the  Transactions. 

3.  A  badly  arranged  or  carelessly  composed  paper  will  be  sent  back 
to  the  author  for  amendment.  It  is  not  the  duty  of  an  editor  to  amend 
either  bad  arrangement  or  defective  composition. 

4.  In  regard  to  underlining  of  words,  it  is  advisable,  as  a  rule,  to 
underline  only  specific  and  generic  names,  titles  of  books  and  periodicals, 
and  foreign  words. 

5.  In  regard  to  specific  names,  the  International  Eules  of  Zoological 
Nomenclature  and  the  International  Eules  for  Botanical  Nomenclature 
must  be  adhered  to. 

6.  Titles  of  papers  should  give  a  clear  indication  of  the  scope  of  the 
paper,  and  such  indefinite  titles  as,  e.g.,  "Additions  to  the  New  Zealand 
Fauna  "  should  be  avoided. 

7.  Papers  should  be  as  concise  as  possible. 

8.  Photographs  intended  for  reproduction  should  be  the  best  pro- 
curable prints,  unmounted  and  sent  flat. 

9.  Lijie  Draioings. — Drawings  and  diagrams  may  be  executed  in  line 
or  wash.  If  drawn  in  line — i.e.,  with  pen  and  ink — the  best  results  are 
to  be  obtained  only  from  good,  firm,  black  lines,  using  such  an  ink 
as  Higgin's  liquid  India  ink,  or  a  freshly  mixed  Chinese  ink  of  good 
quality,  drawn  on  a  smooth  surface,  such  as  Bristol  board.  Thin, 
scratchy,  or  faint  lines  must  be  avoided.  Bold  work,  drawn  to  about 
twice  the  size  (linear)  of  the  plate,  will  give  the  best  results.  Tints  or 
washes  may  not  be  used  on  line  drawings,  the  object  being  to  get  the 
greatest  contrast  from  a  densely  black  line  drawn  on  a  smooth,  white 
surface. 

10.  Wash  Drawings. — If  drawing  in  wash  is  preferred,  the  washes 
should  be  made  in  such  water-colour  as  lamp-black,  ivory  black,  or 
India  ink.  These  reproduce  better  than  neutral  tint,  which  inclines  too 
much  to 'blue  in  its  light  tones.  High  lights  are  better  left  free  from 
colour,  although  they  may  be  stopped  out  with  Chinese  white.  As  in 
line  drawings,  a  fine  surface  should  be  used  (the  grain  of  most  drawing- 
papers  reproduces  in  the  print  with  bad  effect),  and  well-modelled 
contrasted  work  will  give  satisfactory  results. 

11.  Size  of  Drawings. — The  printed  plate  will  not  exceed  7^  in.  by 
4^  in.,  and  drawings  for  plates  may  be  to  this  size,  or  preferably  a  multiple 
thereof,  maintaining  the  same  proportion  of  height  to  width  of  plate. 
When  a  number  of  drawings  are  to  appear  on  one  plate  they  should  be 
neatly  arranged,  and  if  numbered  or  lettered  in  soft  pencil  the  printer 
will  mark  them  permanently  before  reproduction.     In  plates  of  wash 


iv  Memorandum  for  Authors  of  Papers. 

drawings,  all  the  subjects  comprising  one  plate  should  be  grouped  on  the 
same  sheet  of  paper  or  cardboard,  as  any  joiuing-up  shows  in  the  print. 
Text  figures  should  be  drawn  for  i-eduction  to  a  width  not  exceeding 
4^  in.  If  there  are  a  number  of  small  text  figures  they  should  be  drawn 
all  for  the  same  reduction,  so  that  they  may  be  arranged  in  groups. 

12.  Maps. — A  small  outline  map  of  New  Zealand  is  obtainable  at  a 
low  price  from  the  Lands  and  Survey  Department,  Wellington,  upon 
which  details  of  distribution,  &c.,  can  be  filled  in  according  to  the 
instructions  given  above  for  line  drawings. 

13.  Citation. — References  may  be  placed  in  a  list  at  the  end  of  an 
article  or  arranged  as  footnotes.  The,  former  method  is  preferable  in  long 
papers.  In  the  list  references  are  best  arranged  alphabetically,  reference 
in  the  text  being  made  by  writing  after  the  author's  name,  as  it  occurs, 
the  year  of  publication  of  the  work,  adding,  if  necessary,  a  page  number, 
and  enclosing  these  in  parentheses,  thus:  "'Benham  (1915,  p.  176)." 
Example  of  forms  of  citation  for  alphabetical  list : — 

Benham,  W.  B.,  1915.     Oligochaeta  from  the  Kermadec  Islands,  Trans,  N.Z.  Inst., 

vol.  47,  pp.  174-85. 
Park,  J.,  1910.     The    Oeology   of  Neiv  Zealand,  Christchurch,  Whitcombe  and 

Tombs. 

When  references  are  not  in  alphabetical  order  the  initials  of  the  author 
should  precede  the  surname,  and  the  year  of  publication  should  be  placed 
at  the  end. 

14.  In  accordance  with  a  resolution  of  the  Board  of  Governors, 
authors  are  warned  that  previous  publication  of  a  paper  may  militate 
against  its  acceptance  for  the  Transactions. 

15.  In  ordinary  cases  twenty-five  copies  of  each  paper  are  supplied 
gratis  to  the  author,  and  in  cases  approved  of  by  the  Publication  Com- 
mittee fifty  copies  may  be  supplied  without  charge.  Additional  copies 
may  be  obtained  at  cost  price. 


TRANSACTIONS 


AND 


PROCEEDINGS 


OP    THE 


NEW  ZEALAND  INSTITUTE 


VOL.    LII 

(New   Issue) 


EDITED  AND  PUBLISHED  UNDER  THE  AUTHOKITY  OE  THE  BOARD 
OF  GOVERNORS  OF  THE  INSTITUTE 


ISSUED    9th    august,     1 920 


MARCUS    F.   MAKKS,   GOVERNMENT    PRINTING  OFFICE 

William    Weslky    and    Son,   28    FIsskx    Street,    Strand,   London    W.C. 


CHARLES     WILLIAM     ADAMS. 


Face  p.  ru.l 


OBITUARY. 


CHARLES    WILLIAM    ADAMS,    1840-1918. 

Charles  William  Adams  was  born  at  Bucklands,  Tasmania,  on  the  7th  July, 
1840.  His  parents,  the  Eev.  Henry  Cay  Adams  and  his  wife  {nee  Maiden), 
were  early  settlers  in  Tasmania.  He  was  educated  at  the  CampbeUtown 
Grammar  School  under  Dr.  W.  Carr  Boyd,  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 

After  some  experience  in  land-surveying  in  Victoria  and  Tasmania  he 
came*  to  New  Zealand  in  "1862  and  entered  the  Provincial  Survev  Depart- 
ment of  Otago,  being  appointed  in  1865  to  the  Wellington  Provincial 
Survey  Department.  In  1867  he  returned  to  the  Otago  Survey  Depart- 
ment, and  on  the  abolition  of  the  provinces  in  1876  he  was  appointed 
Geodesical  Surveyor  in  the  General  Government. 

In  1877,  when  engaged  in  latitude  observations  on  the  west  coast  of 
the  South  Island,  Mr.  Adams  discovered  an  error  in  the  British  Admiralty 
Nautical  Almanac.  His  programme  included  observations  to  eight  stars — 
four  north  and  four  south  of  the  zenith — and  at  each  of  three  stations 
Alpha  Centauri  was  one  of  the  stars  observed  to  the  south  of  the  zenith. 
The  observations  were  made  in  April,  May,  and  June,  and  when  reduced 
the  observations  on  Alpha  Centauri  were  not  consistent  with  the  others. 
It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  observations  were  made  with  a  portable 
field  theodolite  with  8  in.  circles,  and  not  with  the  large  instruments  of  an 
observatory.  • 

The  difference  disclosed  was  of  the  order  of  12",  whilst  his  probable 
error  of  each  of  the  other  results  was  about  1".  Mr.  Adams  thereupon 
corresponded  with  the  Astronomer  Royal  (Sir  G.  B.  Airy),  Greenwich,  and 
the  Government  Astronomer  (Mr.  R.  L.  J.  Ellery),  Melbourne,  with  the 
result  that  the  error  was  admitted,  and  the  declination  of  Alpha  Centauri 
was  afterwards  corrected. 

It  should  be  stated  that  the  Nautical  Almanac  p&sition  of  Alpha 
Centauri  depended  on  Herschel's  observations  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
in  1834-38,  and  that  a  small  proper  motion  had  been  accumulating  for 
about  forty  years,  and,  not  being  taken  into  account,  the  position  in  1877 
was  some  11"  in  error. 

In  1882  a  temporary  observatory  was  built  at  Mount  Cook,  Wellington, 
to  prepare  for  the  observation  of  the  Transit  of  Venus  on  the  7th  December, 
1882.  -Previous  to  this  event,  and  in  preparation  for  it,  Mr.  Adams  under- 
took extensive  observations  for  time  and  azimuth,  and  exchanged  time 
signals  with  the  British  and  other  astronomers  who  observed  the  Transit 
of  Venus  in  New  Zealand. 

In  1883  Mr.  Adams  observed  over  one  hundred  pairs  of  stars  with 
the  zenith  telescope  for  latitude  at  Wellington.  In  September  he  visited 
the  observatories  at  Melbourne  and  Sydney  to  prepare  for  the  exchange  of 
time  signals  by  the  submarine  cable  between  Sydney  and  Wellington  for  the 
determination  of  the  difference  of  longitude.  The  astronomical  observations 
were  made  and  the  time  signals  exchanged  in  December,  1883.  Mr.  Adams 
was  the  astronomer  at  the  Wellington  Observatory,  whilst  Mr.  Russell, 
Government  Astronomer  of  New  South  Wales,  was  in  charge  at  Sydney. 


viii  Obifuary. 

» 
Twenty  years  later  another  determination  of  the  difference  of  longitude 
between  Sydney  and  Wellington  was  obtained  by  the  Canadian  Astronomer, 
Dr.  Otto  Klotz,  and  by  Mr.  Thomas  King,  the  New  Zealand  Astronomer, 
and  so  accurately  was  the  work  performed  by  all  the  astronomers  that 
the  two  determinations  differed  only  some  17  ft.  in  a  distance  of  over 
1,200  nautical  miles! 

Mr.  Adams  was  engaged  in  other  astronomical  work  mitil  1885,  and 
took  part  in  the  observations  of  the  total  solar  eclipse  on  the  8th  Septem- 
ber, 1885.  In  that  year  he  was  appointed  Chief  Surveyor  of  Otago  ;  in 
1896  he  was  transferred  to  Marlborough ;  and  he  retired  from  the  Public 
Service  in  May,  1904. 

His  scientific  activities  were  wide  and  varied.  For  twenty  years  he 
was  the  editor  of  the  New  Zealand  Surveyor,  and  almost  every  number  of 
that  periodical  contains  some  scientific  article  from  his  pen.  He  was  a 
life  member  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute,  and  was  a  past  President  of  the 
Otago  Institute. 

He  addressed  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society  on  "  Daylight-saving," 
a  device  to  which  he  strongly  objected  ;  but  he  was  an  energetic  advocate 
for  a  permanent  alteration  of  the  clock  of  half  an  hour,  so  as  to  make  New 
Zealand  standard  time  twelve  hours  in  advance  of  Greenwich  mean  time. 

He  was  connected  with  the  Hector  Observatory,  and  was  in  charge  of 
the  time  service  during  the  interval  when  the  Observatory  was  being  moved 
from  Bolton  Street  to  Kelburn.  It  was  during  this  period  that  he  developed 
the  almucantar  method  of  time  observation  with  a  12  in.  transit  theodolite. 
His  ripe  experience  in  astronomy  was  invaluable  to  the  Hector  Observa- 
tory, to  which  institution  he  acted  as  honorary  scientific  adviser.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  the  transit  instrument  and  astronomical  clock  used 
by  Mr.  Adams  in  1883  are  now  in  use  at  the  Observatory. 

The  alcove  details  of  Mr.  Adams's  scientific  activities  were  supplied 
by  his  son,  Dr.  C.  E.  Adams,  of  the  Hector  Observatory  ;  and  whilst  the 
writer,  during  his  twenty-five  years  in  the  Lands  and  Survey  Department, 
knew  Mr.  Adams  through  such  papers  as  those  dealing  with  the  sag  of 
steel  bands  and  calculations  in  connection  therewith,  and  other  like 
technical  papers,  it  was  not  until  comparatively  recently  that  he  came 
into  personal  contact  with  him,  and  then  it  was  in  an  entirely  different 
department  of  mental  activity,  the  department  of  poetry  and  literary 
criticism,  where  again  his  bent  of  original  thought  gave  value  to  such 
acute  observations  as  he  occasionally  made  :  this  side  of  his  nature  is 
well  represented  in  his  son  Arthur  H.  Adams. 

Those  who  knew  him  characterize  him  as  a  hard  and  conscientious 
worker,  methodical  and  orderly  ;  a  rugged  personality,  who  lived  intensely 
in  the  present.  His  life  and  work  taught  the  lesson — do  everything  in 
the  best  way  possible,  and  by' unremitting  labour  improve  upon  it  the  next 
time.  He  was  always  good  company,  his  tenacious  and  ready  memory 
supplying  him  with  a  fund  of  anecdotes,  so  that  he  was  always  able  to 
introduce  one  or  more,  quite  apropos,  whatever  the  subject  of  conversation. 
He  retained  his  scientific  activities  right  to  the  end,  and  less  than  a 
month  before  he  died  he  read  a  paper  on  a  novel  star  atlas  before  the 
Astronomical  Section  of  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society. 

Mr.  Adams  died  at  his  residence,  Bellevue  Road,  Lower  Hutt,  on 
Tuesday,  the  29th  October,  1918,  from  heart-failure,  his  widow  (sister  of 
the  late  E.  T.  Gillon)  and  a  family  of  six  (five  sons  and  one  daughter) 

g    mi.  Johannes  C.  Andersen. 


MAJOR     THOMAS     BROUN. 


face  p.  ta.J 


Obituary.  ix 


MAJOR   THOMAS    BROUN,    1838-1919. 

Major  Thomas  Broun,  a  member  of  an  old  titled  Scottish  family,  was 
born  in  Edinburgh  on  the  15th  July,  1838,  and  died  in  Auckland  on  the 
24:th  August,  1919.  Both  his  father  and  an  uncle  (Captain  Thomas  Broun) 
were  naturalists  of  considerable  repute  in  their  day,  and  no  doubt  it  was 
from  them  that  he  inherited  his  scientific  tastes. 

Intended  for  the  Army,  he  was  educated  by  a  private  tutor  in  Edin- 
burgh, and  leceived  his  first  commission  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  during  the 
Crimean  War.  After  the  close  of  that  war  he  accompanied  his  regiment 
(the  35th  Royal  Sussex  Infantry)  to  Buima.  Heie  the  large  size  and 
brilliant  colours  of  many  of  the  tiopical  insects  attracted  his  attention, 
arid  he  commenced  to  form  a  collection  for  the  British  Museum.  But  the 
outbreak  of  tlie  Indian  Mutiny  in  May,  1857,  put  an  end  to  this  project, 
and  his  legiment  was  despatched  to  Calcutta.  Immediately  on  arrival 
it  was  sent  to  succour  the  French  settlement  of  Chandernagore,  whose 
existence  was  then  threatened  bv  a  large  bodv  of  mutineers  ;  and  for 
.services  rendered  during  this  expedition  he  many  years  afterwards  received 
the  distinction  of  Knight  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  He  served  in  India 
during  tlie  whole  period  of  the  Mutiny.  He  was  present  at  the  assault 
and  capture  of  Delhi,  at  the  relief  of  Lucknow,  and  was  attached  to  Lord 
Clyde's  main  force  through  most  of  his  campaigns.  He  received  the  Indian 
Mutiny  medal  and  other  decorations.  Towards  the  close  of  1861  he  was 
struck  down  with  cholera,  and  narrowly  escaped  death.  He  was  invalided 
home  in  1862,  and  retired  from  the  Army  in  the  same  year. 

In  1863  he  married,  and  after  a  brief  stay  in  Scotland  emigrated  to 
New  Zealand.  He  brought  with  him  letters  of  introduction  from  the  Duke 
of  Ha;nilton  to  Sir  George  Grey,  who  at  once  offered  him  a  commission  as 
Captain  in  the  1st  Waikato  Regiment,  then  being  formed  for  service  during 
the  Maori  War.  He  served  through  the  whole  of  the  war,  partly  in 
the  Waikato  and  partly  on  the  East  Coast,  and  was  awarded  the  New 
Zealand  medal.  Shortly  afterwards  he  took  up  land  in  the  Opotiki  district, 
and  remained  there  for  some  years.  His  attempts  at  farming,  however, 
did  not  jirove  remunerative,  and  on  the  advice  of  the  Hon.  Colonel 
Haultain,  who,  as  Defence  Minister,  was  well  acquainted  with  him,  he  in 
1876  accepted  educational  work  under  the  Auckland  Board  of  Edrrcatiou, 
and  remained  in  the  service  of  the  Board  imtil  1888.  He  was  appointed 
Government  Entomologist  in  1890,  a  post  which  he  held  for  several  years. 

Major  Brouu's  active  work  in  New  Zealand  entomology  commenced 
immediately  after  the  close  of  the  Maori  War,  and  continued  to  within  a 
few  weeks  of  his  death.  Although  he  collected  a  considerable  number 
of  Hemiptera  and  Orthoptera  for  various  correspondents,  and  had  a  good 
working  knowledge  of  most  other  families,  his  chief  effoi-ts  were  always 
.devoted  to  the  Coleoptera.  When  the  writer  first  met  him,  in  1875,  he 
stated  his  desire  to  prepare  a  general  work  on  the  New  Zealand  species, 
and  described  the  preparations  he  had  already  nrade  iir  amassing  luaterial 
and  obtaining  works  of  reference.  A  few  years  later  he  applied  to  the 
Auckland  Institute  for  assistance  in  jjirblishing  his  work.  The  Institute, 
having  no  firnds  that  it  could  devote  to  such  a  purpose,  forwarded  ]iis 
application  to  Sir  James  Hector,  as  Director  of  the  Colonial  Museum  and 
Geological  Survey.     After  some  little  delay  the  publication  of  the  work 


X  Obituary. 

was  authoiized,  and  it  appeared  in  1880.  An  opinion  given  by  Captain 
Hutton  to  Sir  James  Hector  may  be  appropriately  quoted  here  :  "  I  regard 
this  as  a  most  excellent  work,  containing  1,140  species,  a  large  part  of  which 
are  described  for  the  first  time.  No  country  outside  Europe  and  the  United 
States  has  produced  such  a  catalogue."  Sir  James  Hector  refers  to  it  as 
"  a  monument  of  the  zeal  and  industry  of  an  aident  naturalist." 

The  pubhcation  of  the  Manual  not  only  spurred  the  author  to  renewed 
efforts,  but  brought  to  the  front  collectors  in  all  parts  of  the  Dominion. 
Five  supplementary  parts  were  issued  between  1881  and  1893.  Seven 
memoirs  of  considerable  length  appeared  in  volumes  41  to  45  of  the 
Transactions  of  the  New  Zealayid  Institute,  while  six  Bulletins  have  since 
been  separately  printed.  In  these  publications  the  authoi  has  incieased 
the  1,140  species  of  the  Manual  to  3,979  ;  and  it  is  understood  that  much 
additional  manuscript  remains  in  the  hands  of  the  Institute.  There  a^e 
few  countiies,  if  any,  where  a  single  individual  has  so  fuUy  and  completely 
described  a  branch  of  the  fauna  equivalent  in  numbers  to  that  of  the 
Coleoptera  of  New  Zealand. 

Major  Broun  devoted  himself  to  his  work  with  a  conscientious  single- 
mindedness,  and  with  inexhaustible  energy  ;  and  it  was  not  until  he  had 
long  passed  the  ordinary  span  of  life  that  he  knew  what  it  was  to  be  tired 
either  in  body  or  in  mind.  As  for  his  chaiacter,  he  was  mainly  distinguished 
by  being  thoroughly  honest  and  outspoken ;  and,  from  his  naturally  inde- 
pendent spirit  and  bearing,  he  was  sometimes  misunderstood.  He  had  a 
warm  and  feeling  heart,  and  to  his  friends  he  was  a  genial  companion,  full 
of  anecdotes,  which  he  often  related  with  much  felicity  of  expression. 

T.  F.  Cheeseman. 


GEORGE  HOGBEN. 


[•'ace  p.  xi.] 


Obituary.  xi 


GEORGE    HOGBEN,    1 853-1 920. 

George  Hogben,  whose  death  occurred  on  the  26th  April,  1920,  will  be 
remembered  for  two  things  :  as  being  one  of  the  most  eminent  educationists 
the  Dominion  has  produced,  and  as  being  the  outstanding  pioneer  of 
seismology  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere. 

Born  in  Islington,  London,  in  1853,  the  son  of  a  Congregational 
minister,  he  was  educated  at  the  Congregational  School,  Lewisham,  Kent 
(now  Caterham  School),  from  1864  till  1868,  and  at  the  University  School, 
Nottingham,  where  he  held  a  scholarship  from  1869  to  1871.  (In  the 
interval  he  was  a  pupil-teacher  in  a  private  school  for  boys.)  He  then 
entered  the  English  Civil  Service,  and  attained  the  high  position  of  junior 
auditor  in  the  Accountant  and  Controller-General's  Department.  He  left 
the  Service  to  enter  at  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated  B.A.  in  1877  and 
M.A.  in  1881,  after  fighting  the  battle  of  the  non-conformists  with  the 
sectarian  conservatism  of  the  old  university.  He  was  Mathematical  Scholar 
and  Prizeman  at  St.  Catherine's  College,  Cambridge,  with  the  added  dis- 
tinction of  Exliibitioner  of  the  Goldsmiths'  Company.  While  at  Cambridge 
he  rowed  on  the  Cam  three  years  for  his  college,  and  proved  himself  a  good 
exponent  at  cricket  and  football,  besides  achieving  the  distinction  of  being 
president  of  the  College  Debating  Society.  After  graduating  with  first-class 
mathematical  honours,  he  took  post-graduate  work  in  physics.  He  entered 
the  teaching  profession  as  mathematical  and  science  master  at  Oldenham 
Grammar  School,  to  which  appointment  he  went  immediately  after  leaving 
Cambridge. 

In  1881  he  was  selected  by  commissioners  in  England  as  mathematical 
and  science  master  in  the  Christchurch  Boys'  High  School.  ,  Five  years 
later  he  was  appointed  by  the  North  Canterbury  Education  Board  to  the 
position  of  Inspector  of  Schools,  and  he  held  this  post  till  1889,  when 
he  was  appointed  headmaster  of  the  Timaru  Boys'  High  School,  where  he 
remained  for  ten  years.  During  all  this  time  he  had  taken  a  keen  interest 
in  all  matters  pertaining  to  education^  being  for  three  years  president  of 
the  North  Canterbury  Educational  Institute,  and  in  1886  president  of  the 
New  Zealand  Educational  Institute. 

In  1899  he  was  appointed  to  the  position  of  Inspector-General  of 
Schools  under  the  New  Zealand  Education  Department,  and  he  held  this 
post  until  his  retirement  in  1915.  During  his  tenure  of  office  were  carried 
.out  very  many  important  educational  reforms,  for  most  of  which  he  was 
directly  responsible.  It  has  been  said  by  a  teacher  who  was  much 
associated  with  him,  especially  in  the  fixing  of  the  scale  of  salaries  of 
primary-school  teachers,  and  in  the  drawing-up  of  the  teachers'  super- 
annuation scheme,  "  No  other  man  who  has  ever  been  associated  with 
the  administration  of  the  education  system  of  this  Dominion  has  left  a 
deeper  and  more  permanent  impression  upon  it,  nor  can  any  other  man 
of  his  time  lay  claim  to  have  done  more  to  further  the  cause  of  educational 
progress  than  did  the  late  George  Hogben."  His  plans  were  all  most 
carefully  thought  out  and  most  thoroughly  presented  ;  he  would  justify 
and  defend  his  schemes  with  skill  and  vigour,  but  would  accept  his 
occasional  defeats  with  unfailing  good  spirit.  The  same  teacher  has  said 
of  him,  ■■'  He  was  a  'hard  fighter,  but  a  fair  fighter,  and  was  absolutely 
without  vindictiveness."  This  w^s,  indeed,  one  of  the  most  charming 
features  in  his  character. 


xii  '  Obituary. 

He  represented  New  Zealand  at  the  Empire  Bducational  Conference 
in  London  in  1907,  at  the  International  Conference  of  School  Hygiene,  the 
International  Conference  on  the  Teaching  of  the  Deaf,  and  the  International 
Conference  on  Moral  Education  —  all  in  the  same  year.  On  his  return 
his  valuable  report  on  "  Schools  and  other  Educational  Institutions  in 
Europe  and  America  "  was  published  as  a  parliamentary  paper. 

Upon  his  retirement  from  the  Public  Service  Mr.  Hogben  continued  to 
render  good  service  as  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Education.  He  was 
also  a  member  of  the  University  Senate  for  some  years,  and  was  always 
radical  in  his  idea  of  reforms.  He  was  largely  responsible  for  the  intro- 
duction of  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  in  Home  Science,  and  this  is 
one  of  th6  reforms  which  has  already  justified  itself.  His  public  services 
were  acknowledged  by  the  bestowal  of  the  C.M.G.  in  1915. 

His  activity  in  the  educational  sphere  did  not  prevent  his  indulging  an 
original  bent  in  mathematics  and  physical  science. 

His  first  contribution  to  the  New  Zealand  Institute  was  a  paper,  read 
before  the  Canterbury  Philosophical  Society  on  the  7th  October,  1886, 
entitled  "  Transcendental  Geometry  :  Remarks  suggested  by  Mr.  Frankland's 
paper  '  The  Non-Euclidian  Geometry  vindicated.'  "  His  last  paper  was-"  A 
Note  on  Eapt  Coast  Earthquakes,  1914-17,"  contributed  to  the  Wellington 
Philosophical  Society  on  the  12th  December,  1917.  Of  his  numerous  papers 
published  in  volumes  20 .  to  40  of  the  Transactions  of  the  New  Zealand 
Institute,  eighteen  dealt  with  earthquakes,  and  he  was  the  recognized 
authority  on  seismology  in  the  Dominion.  It  should  be  noted  that  the 
last  paper  from  his  pen  actually  published  appeared  in  the  New  Zealand 
Journal  of  Science  and  Technology  in  the  very  month  of  his  death — April, 
1920.  It  dealt  with  the  subject  he  had  made  peculiarly  his  own,  and  was 
entitled  "  The  Interpretation  of  a  Typical  Seismogram."  This  shows  that 
the  keenness  of  his  mental  faculties  was  unimpaired  to  the  last. 

He  was  President  of  the  Canterbury  Philosophical  Institute  in  1887. 
From  ]  891  he  was  Secretary  of  the  Seismological  Committee  of  the  Austral- 
asian Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science.  For  many  years  he  was 
correspondent  for  Australasia  of  the  American  journal  Science.  He  was  a 
Fellow  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London,  and  in  1919  was  elected  one  of 
the  original  Fellows  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute. 

He  was  a  strong  advocate  of  proportional  representation,  and  in 
September,  1913,  read  a  paper  before  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society 
on  "  Preferential  Voting  in  Single-member  Constituencies,  with  Special 
Reference  to  the  Counting  of  Votes."  When  some  time  later  the  Christ- 
church  City  Council  held  an  election  under  that  system  he  went  there  to 
conduct  the  election  for  the  authorities. 

During  the  war  he  wrote  a  valuable  little  paper,  which  was  printed  in 
November,  1916,  on  "  Night  Marching  by  the  Stars."  Two  methods  were 
given,  one  of  which  was  recommended  to  members  of  the  New  Zealand 
Expeditionary  Force,  who  were  provided  with  copies  of  star-maps  and  brief 
directions  how  to  use  them. 

In  1917,  when  the  question  of  the  relation  of  scientific  and  industrial 
research  to  national  efficiency  was  under  serious  consideration,  a  committee 
(the  New  Zealand  Institute's  Scientific  and  Industrial  Research  Committee) 
was  set  up,  and  Mr.  Hogben  was  appointed  chairman  by  a  unanimous  vote. 
He  was  a  joint  author  of  a  report  on  "  The  Organization  of  Scientific  and 
Industrial  Research,"  publislied  as  a  parliamentary  paper.  The  report  of 
the  committee,  which  owed  much  to   Mr.   Hogben's  care   and  fairness  to 


Obituary.  xiii 

all  views,  both  provincial  and  departmental,  was  adopted  by  the  Board 
of  Governors  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute,  and,  with  slight  amendment, 
by  the  National  Efficiency  Board,  and  was  forwarded  to  the  Government. 

Of  his  best-known  publications,  the  following  might  be  mentioned  :  A 
French  text-book,  Methode  naturelle ;  Four-figure  Logarithms ;  and  Notes  on 
the  Teaching  of  Mathematical  Geography.  Since  his  retirement  he  had  been 
revising  a  Table  of  Logarithms,  and  this  work  is  now  in  the  press. 

Mr.  Hogben  was  happy  in  his  marriage  with  a  daughter  of  the  late 
Mr.  Edward  Dobson,  C.E.,  of  Ghristchuroh,  who,  with  her  two  sons,  sur- 
vives him.  Six  sons  were  born  to  them,  two  of  whom  died  in  childhood. 
Of  the  four  remaining,  three  gave  their  services  and  two  gave  their  lives  to 
the  Empire  during  the  Great  War  ;  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  their  loss, 
borne  without  murmuring,  contributed  to  his  final  illness. 

George  Hogben  was  a  man  of  wide  reading  and  scholarship,  a  thorough 
and  indefatigable  worker.  He  was  a  true  and  warm  friend,  and,  through 
his  fairness  and  broadmindedness,  a  benefactor  to  his  fellow-men. 

G.  M.  Thomson. 


CONTENTS. 


Roll  of  Honour 
Presidential  Address 


PAGES 

xxi-xxiii 

XXV— XXX 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 

Art.    XII.  The  Southern  Maori,  and  Greenstone.     By  H.  Beattie 
XIII.  Nature-lore  of  the  Southern  Maori.     By  H.  Beattie 


45-52 
53-77 


BOTANY. 

Art.  II.  Contributions  to  a  Fuller  Knowledge  of  the  Flora  of  New- 
Zealand:  No.  7.  By  T.  F.  Cheeseman,  F.L.S.,  F.Z.S.. 
F.N. Z.Inst.,  Curator  of  the  Auckland  Museum         . .  .  .  9-16 

III.  Descriptions   of   New   Native    Flowering-plants.      By    D.    Petrie, 

M.A.,  Ph.D.,  F.N.Z.Inst.  . .  .  .  . .  . .         17-19 

XV.  Ranimculus  paucifoUus  T.  Kirk  :  its  Distribution  and  Ecology, 
and  the  Bearing  of  these  upon  certain  Geological  and  Phylo- 
genetic  Problems.  By  A.  Wall,  M.A.,  Professor  of  English, 
Canterbury  College         . .  . .  .  .  . .  .  .        90-105 

XVI.  Helichrysum    dimorphum    Cockayne — a    Hydrid  ?      By    A.    Wall, 

M.A.,  Professor  of  English,  Canterbury  College     . .  .  .      106-107 

XXVII.  Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  the  Genus  Lycopodium  : 
Part  IV — The  Structure  of  the  Prothallus  in  Five  Species. 
By  the  Rev.  J.  E.  Holloway,  D.Sc,  Hutton  Memorial 
Medallist  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .      193-239 

XXVIII.  Notes  on  the  Indigenous  Vegetation  of  the  North-eastern  Portion 
of  the  Hokonui  Hills,  with  a  List  of  Species.  By  D.  L. 
Poppelwell        . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .     239-247 

XXIX.  Notes  on  the  Indigenous  Vegetation  of  Ben  Lomond,  with  a  List 

of  Species.      By  D.  L.  Poppelwell  . .  . .  . .     248-252 

XXX.  Notes  from  the  Canterbury  College  Mountain  Biological  Station, 
Cass.  No.  7— The  Rosette  Plants  :  Part  I.  By  M.  Wini- 
fred Betts,  M.Sc.  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .     253-275 

XXXI.  Notes  on  the  Autecology  of  certain  Plants  of  the  Peridotite  Belt, 
Nelson  :  Part  I — Structure  of  some  of  the  Plants  (No.  3). 
By  M.  Winifred  Betts,  M.Sc.      . .  . .  . .  . .     276-314 

XXXII.  Pteridophytes   of   Banks   Peninsula   (Eastern   Portion).      By   W. 

Martija,  B.Sc.  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .     315-322 


Art. 


CHEMISTRY. 

V.  The  Distillation  of  Waikaia  Oil-shale, 
and  G.  C.  Burton 


By  W.  Donovan,  M.Sc, 


VL  Stmg-ray-liver  Oil.      By  W.  Donovan,  M.Sc. 

XXVI.  The  Lifluence  of  Salts  of  the  Alkali  and  Alkaline-earth  Metals 
on  the  Solubility  in  Water  of  Calcium  Carbonate  (a)  in  the 
Presence  of  Air  free  from  Carbon  Dioxide,  (b)  in  the  Presence 
of  Excess  of  Carbon  Dioxide.      By  E.  A.  Rowe,  M.Sc. 


27-29 
29 


192 


32780 


XVI 


Contents. 


GEOLOGY. 

Art.  XVII.   On  the  Occurrence  of  Striated  Boulders  in  a  Palaeozoic  Breccia        pages 
near   Taieri   Mouth,    Otago,    New   Zealand.      By   Professor 
James  Park,  F.G.S.     . .  . .  . .  .  .  . .      107-108 

XVIII.  The  Tawhiti  Series,  East  Cape  District.     By  P.  Marshall,  M.A., 

D.Sc,  F.G.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst.,  Hector  and  Hutton  Medallist    . .      109-110 

XIX.  The  Hampden  Beds  and  the  New  Zealand  Tertiary  Limestones. 
By  P.  Marshall,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.G.S.,  F.N.Z.'inst.,  Hector 
and  Hutton  Medallist..  ..  ..  ..  '..      111-114 

XX.  The  Tertiary  Rocks  near  Wanganui.  By  P.  Marshall,  M.A., 
D.Sc,  F.G.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst.,  Hector  and  Hutton  Medallist, 
and  R.  Murdoch  . .  . .  .  .  . .      115-128 

XXI.  Some  Tertiary  Mollusca,  with  Descriptions  of  New  Species. 
By  P.  Marshall,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.G.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst.,  Hector 
and  Hutton  Medallist,  and  R.  Murdoch  .  .  . .      128-136 

XXII.  Tertiary  Geology  of  the  Area  between  the  Otiake  River  (Kurow 
District)  and  Duntroon,  North  Otago.  By  G.  H.  Uttley, 
M.A.,  M.Sc,  F.G.S.,  Scots  College,  Wellington     .  .  .  .      137-153 

XXIII.  Tertiary    Geology    of    the    Area    between    Wharekuri    and    the 

Otiake  River,  North  Otago.     Bv  G.  H.  Uttley,  M.A.,  M.Sc, 

F.G.S.,  Scots  College,  Wellington  . .       '       .  .  . .      154-168 

XXIV.  Remarks  on  Bulletin  No.  20  (New  Series)  of  the  New  Zealand 

Geological  Survey.      By  G.  H.  Uttley,  M.A.,  M.Sc,  F.G.S., 

Scots  College,  Wellington  . .  . .  . .  . .      169-182 

XXV.  Examples  of  Readjustment  of  Drainage  on  the  Tararua  Western 

Foothills.     By  G.  Leslie  Adldn    "  ..  ..  . .      183-191 

XXXIII.  The  Notocene  Geology  of  the  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass 

District,  North  Canterbury,  New  Zealand.  By  Dr.  J.  Allan 
Thomson,  F.G.S.,  FN.Z.Inst.,  Director  of  the  Dominion 
Museum  . .  . .  . .  . .  ^  . .  . .     322-415 

XXXIV.  Additional  Facts  concerning  the   Distribution  of  Igneous  Rocks 

in  New  Zealand  :    No.' 2.      By  J.  A.  Bartrum,  M.Sc         ..     416-422 

XXXV.  The  Conglomerate  at  Albany,  Lucas  Creek,  Waitemata  Harbour. 

By  J.  A.  Bartrum,  M.Sc.  . .  . .  . .  . .     422-430 


ZOOLOGY. 


Art.  I.  Some  New  Zealand  Amphipoda :  No.  1.  By  Charles  Chilton,  M.  A., 
D.Sc,  LL.D.,  C.M.Z.S.,  Hon.  Member  Roy.  Soc  N.S.W., 
F.N.Z.Inst.,  Professor  of  Biology,  Canterbury  College,  N.Z.  1-8 

VII.  Descriptions    of    New    Zealand    Lepidoptera.      By    E.    Meyrick, 

B.A.,  F.R.S.  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .         30-32 

VIII.  Illustrated  Life-histories  of  New  Zealand  Insects  :    No.   1.      By 

G.  V.  Hudson,  F.E.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst.  . .  32-34 

IX.  New  Lepidoptera.     By  Charles  E.  Clarke     . .  . .  . .  35 

X.  Lepidoptera  of  Auckland  and  the  King-country.      By  Charles  E. 

Clarke  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..         36-41 

XI.  Notes    and    Descriptions    of    New    Zealand    Lepidoptera.       By 

Arthur  Philpott  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .         42^4 

XXXVI.  On  some  Examples  of  New  Zealand  Insects  illustrating  the 
Darwinian  Princij)le  of  Sexual  Selection.  By  G.  V.  Hudson, 
F.E.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst.      ..  ..  ..  ..  ..     431-438 

XXXVII.  Leaf-mining  Insects  of  New  Zealand.      By  M.  N.   Watt  ..     439-466 


Contents. 


xvn 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

Art.      IV.  The   Food  Values   of  New   Zealand   Fish  :    Part   1.      By   (Mrs.)  pages 

Dorothy  E.  Johnson,  B.Sc.  in  Home  Science         . .  . .  20-26 

XIV.  The   Mission  of  the   "  Britomart "   at  Akaroa  in   August,    1840. 

By  Johannes  C.  Andersen  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  78-89 


PROCEEDINGS. 


Annual  Meeting  of  the  Board  of  Governors 

Wellington  Philosophical  Society 

Auckland  Institute 

Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury 

Otago  Institute 

Manawatu  Philosophical  Society 


469-485 
485-488 
48^-493 
493-495 
49&^97 
497-498 


APPENDIX. 


New  Zealand  Institute  Act  and  Regulations 

Hutton  Memorial  Medal  and  Research  Fund 

Hector  Memorial  Research  Fund 

Regulations  for  administering  the  Government  Research  Grant 

Carter  Bequest 

New  Zealand  Institute — List  of  Officers,  &c.    ^  . . 

Roll  of  Members 

Serial  Publications  received  by  the  Library  of  the  Institute 

List  of  Institutions  to  which  the  Publications  of  the  Institute  are  presented 


501-506 
507-509 
509-510 
511-512 
512 
513-517 
518-533 
534-537 
538-543 


Index 


544 


LIST    OF    PLATES. 


Charles  William  Adams 
Major  Thomas  Brown 
George  Hogben 


FOLLOWS 
PAGE 

vi 
viii 


G.  V.  Hudson — 
Plate  I— 

Figs.  1-9.  Adult,  pupa,  and  larva  of  Limnophila  sinistra,  Melanostoma 

decessum,  and  Gnophomyia  rufa  . .  .  .  . .  . .        34 

A.  Wall— 

Plate  IL- — Ranunculus  paucifolius  in  sihi,  showing  five  leaves  and  root       . .       90 

Plate  III— 

Fig.  \.  R.  paucifolius,  showing  six  leaves   . .  . .  . .  .  .        90 

Fig.  2.  R.  paucifolius,  in  situ        . .  . .  . .  . .         ...        90 

Plate  IV. — liocality  where  R.  paucifolius  is  found  ;  from  south-east  . .       92 

Plate  V. — Same  locality,  from  north-east  . .  . .  . .  . .       92 

P.  Marshall  and  R.  Murdoch — 
Plate  VI— 

Figs.  1-10.  Tertiary  Mollusca        . .  . .  '  . .  . .  . .      128 

Plate  VII— 

Figs.  11-14.  Tertiary  MoUuscai     ..  ..  ...        ..  ..128 

Plate  VIII— 

Figs.  15-17.  Tertiary  Mollusca     . .  . .  . .  . .  . .      136 

Plate  IX— 

Figs.  18,  19,  21.  Tertiary  MoUusca  . .  . .  . .  . .     136 

Plate  X— 

Figs.  20,  22,  23.  Tertiary  Mollusca  . .  . .  . .  . .     136 

G.  L.  Adkin — 
Plate  XI— 

Fig.  1.   "  The  Heights  "  basin,  looking  north-east     . .  . .  . .      186 

Fig.  2.  The  valley  of  the  Waireka  Stream,  looking  east  . .  . .      186 

J.  E.  "Holloway — 

Plate    XII. — Lycopodium  ramulosum  ..  ..  ..  ..218 

Plate  XIII. — Lycopodium  ramulosum  . .  . .  . .  . .      218 

Plate   XIV. — Lycopodium  ramulosum  . .  . .  . .  . .     218 

Plate     XV. — Lycopodium  ramulosum  . .  . .  . .  . .     218 

J.  A.  Thomson — 

Plate.  XVI. — View  looking  down  the  Waipara  River  towards  the  limestone 

gorge  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .     344 

Plate  XVII— 

Fig.  1.  Looking  down  Birch  Hollow,  Middle  Waipara  . .  . .     344 

Fig.   2.  Grey    muddy   sandstones   with    saurian   concretions,    Waipara 

River  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .     344 


XX 


List  of  Plates. 


J.  A.  Thomson — continued. 
Plate  XVIII— 

Fig.  1.  Cliff  of  lower  (concretionary)  Waipara  greensands 
Fig.  2.  View  of  the  upper  part  of  the  Weka  Pass 

Plate  XIX— 

Fig.  1.  Cliff  of  Weka  Pass  stone,  overhanging  Amuri  limestone 
,  Fig.  2.   "  Fucoids  "  in  the  Weka  Pass  greensand       .  .  : . 

Plate    XX. — View  across  Waipara  River  below  hmestone  gorge    .  . 

Plate  XXI— 

Fig.  1.  SjTacline  in  the  main  Mount  Brown  limestone 
Fig.  2.  cuff  in  Weka  Pass  Stream,  below  railway-cutting 

Plate  XXII—   , 

Figs.  1-11.  Eleven  species  (nine  new)  of  Rhizothyris     . .  .^ 

Plate  XXIII— 

Figs.  1-11.  Eight  species  (seven  new)  of  Rhizothyris 

Plate  XXIV— 

Figs.  1-15.  SjDecies  of  Rhizothyris,  Pachymagas,  and  Terebratrilina 

Plate  XXV— 

Figs.  1-14.  Species  of  Neothyris  and  Pachymagas 

Plate    XXVI— 

Figs.  1-18.  Species  of  Pachymagas  and  Waiparia     . .        -     . . 

Plate  XXVII— 

Figs.  1-9.  Species  of  Pachymagas  and  Neothyris 

J.  A.  Bartrum — 
Plate  XXVIII— 

Fig.  1.  Quartz -norite,  Cleddau-Hollyford  Saddle 
Fig.  2.  Dolerite,  Silverdale,  Auckland 
Fig.  3.  Basalt,  Ti  Point,  Whangateau  . .  » 

Fig.  4.  Basalt,  Ohakune  ballast-pit 

Plate  XXIX— 

Fig.  1.  Granodiorite 

Fig.  2.  Banded  dioritic  gneiss 

Fig.  3.  Dolerite  showing  lath-like  form  of  feldspars 

Fig.  4.  Trachyte 

W.  N.  Watt— 
Plate  XXX— 

Figs.  1-10.  Species  of  Parectopa   . . 


rOLLOWB 
PAGE 

344 
344 


344 
344 

358 


358 
358 


368 
368 
368 
368 
380 
380 


416 
416 
416 
416 


424 

424 
424 
424 


440 


NEW   ZEALAND   INSTITUTE. 


ROLL    OF    HONOUR 


SHOWING    MEMBERS    OF   THE   INSTITUTE    WHO    WERE    ON   ACTIVE 

SERVICE   DURING  THE  WAR. 


Name. 


Available  Details  of  Service. 


E.  H.  Atkinson 
C.  M.  Begg 

Val.  Blake 

F.  K.  Broadgate 
P.  W.  Burbidge 
W.  H.  Carter 

L.  J.  Comrie 
V.  C.  Davies 

W.  Earnsliaw 
C.  J.  Freeman 

C.  Freyberg 

J.  G.  B.  Fulton 
H.  E.  Girdlestone 
H.  Hamilton 
^C.  G.  Johnston 

G.  W.  King 
E.  Marsden 

D.  McKenzie 
H.  M.  Millar 

W.  L.  Moore 

T.  D.  M.  Stout 
R.  M.  Sunley 
W.  M.  Thomson 
H.  S.  Tily 
H.  Vickerman 


C.  J.  Westland 


Wellington  Philosophical  Society. 

Lieutenant,  Royal  Naval  Volunteer  Reserve.    ' 
Colonel,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps 

Lieutenant,  Canterbury  Infantry 
Lieutenant,  N.Z.  Engineers 
Sergeant,  34th  Specialists. 
Canterbury  Infantrj'. 
Sergeant-Major,  36th  Reinforcements. 
Regimental    Sergeant-Major,    1st    N.Z.    Rifle 

Brigade 
Engineer  Lieut. -Commander,  R.N. 
N.Z.  Rifle  Brigade. 
Lieutenant,  West  York  (Prince  of  Wales's  Own) 

Regiment. 
Corporal,  10th  Reinforcements. 
Company  Sergeant-Major,  Wellington  Infantry 
Sub-Lieutenant,  Royal  Naval  Volunteer  Reserve 
Lieutenant,  1st  N.Z.  Rifle  Brigade   . . 
Lieutenant,  N.Z.  Tunnelling  Company. 
Major  (temp.),  N.Z.  Engineers  . . 

Trooper,  Wellington  Mounted  Rifles. 
Sergeant,.  N.Z.  Engineers'  Divisional  Signalling 

Company. 
Captain,  N.Z.  Field  Artillery 

Lieut. -Colonel,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps  . . 

Corporal,  Specialists. 

Captain,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 

Sergeant,  N.Z.  Field  Artillery. 

Major,  commanding  N.Z.  Tunnelling  Company 


Corporal,  N.Z.  Machine  Gun  Corps. 


C.B.,   C.M.G. 

Died  of  sickness. 
Killed  in  action. 
Killed  in  action. 


Killed  in  action. 

Ealled  in  action. 

M.C. ;  mentioned 
in  despatches. 


Mentioned  in  de- 
spatches. 
D.S.O. 


D.S.O.,  O.B.E.  ; 
mentioned  in 
despatches. 


F.  L.  Armitage 
S.  B.  Bowyer 
R.  Briffault 
P.     H.     Buck 
Rangihiroa) 
S.  Cory-Wright 


(Te 


W.  J.  Crompton   . . 

F.  N.  R.  Downard 

G.  Fenwick 


Auckland  Institute. 

Captain,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 
Gunner,  N.Z.  Field  Artillery. 
Captain,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 
Major,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps 

Captain,  N.Z.  Engineiers,  Divisional  Intelligence 

Officer 
1st  Battalion,  Otago  Regiment. 
Lieutenant,  N.Z.  Rifle  Brigade. 
Captain,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 


D.S.O. 

M.C. 


XXII 


Roll  of  Honour. 
Roll  of  Honour — continued. 


Name. 


Available  Details  of  Service. 


R.  H.  Gunson 
G.  H.  Hansard 

D.  Holderness 
R.  T.  Inglis 
C.  W.  Leys 
K.  Mackenzie 
H.  A.  E.  Milnes 
W.  R.  B.  Oliver 
G.  Owen 

A.  C.  Pnrchas 

E.  Robertson 
C.  B.  Rossiter 
T.  C.  Savage 
Rev.  D.  Scott 

H.  L.  Wade 

F.  Whittome 


Auckland  Institute — continued. 

Lieutenant,  Motor  Boat  Reserve. 

Sergeant -Major,  33rd  Machine  Gun  Corps. 

Lieutenant,  N.Z.  Engineers. 

Captain,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 

Lieutenant,  Royal  Naval  Volunteer  Reserve. 

Captain,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps.   . 

Lieutenant,  Auckland  Infantrj'  Regiment       . .' 

Corporal,  Canterbury  Infantry. 

Lieutenant,  N.Z.  Rifle  Brigade  and  N.Z.  Engi- 
neers. 

Major,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps.' 

Captain,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 

Captain,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 

Captain,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps 

Chaplains  Department,  N.Z.  Expeditionary 
Force. 

Captain,  Auckland  Mounted  Rifles. 

Corporal,  N.Z.  Rifle  Brigade. 


Killed  in  action. 


Died  of  sickness. 


H.  Acland 
G.  E.  Archey 
J.  W.  Bird 
F.  J.  Borrie 
F.  M.  Corlvill 
,  William  Deans 
A.  A.  Dorrien-Smi 
A.  Fairbairn 
H.  D.  Ferrar 
C.  E.  Foweraker 

F.  G.  Gibson 
J.  Guthrie 
W.  Irving 

L.  S.  Jennings 
H.Lang 

E.  Kidson 

G.  Maclndoe 
P.  S.  Nelson 

F.  S.  Oliver 
H.  V.  Rowe 

Sir  R.  H.  Rhodes 
A.  Tavlor 

G.  T.  Weston 
F.  S.  Wilding 
J.  P.  Whetter 
A.  M.  Wright 


th 


Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury. 

Colonel,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 

Captain,  N.Z.  Field  Artillery. 

Sergeant-Major,  Instructional  Staff. 

Captain,  N.Z.  Medical  Corj^s. 

Captain. 

Captain,  Canterbury  Mountecl  Rifles. 

Major.  '         "  ' 

Captain. 

Trooper,  N.Z.  Mounted  Rifles. 

Corporal,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 

Captain,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 

Cajitain,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 

Captain,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 

Captain,  Otago  Regiment  . . 

2nd  Lieutenant,  N.Z.  Rifle  Brigade 

Captain,  Royal  Engineers. 

Signaller,  Otago  Infantry  Brigade    . . 

Private,  Canterbury  Regiment 

Sergeant,  Headcpiarters  Instructional  Stalt". 

Sergeant-Major,    Headquarters     Instructional 

Staff. 
Colonel,  Red  Cross  Commissioner. 
Captain,  N.Z.  Veterinary  Corps. 
Lieutenant.  Canterbury  Regiment. 
Captain,  N.Z.  Field  Artillery. 
Captain,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 
Captain,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 


Killed  in  action. 
Killed  in  action. 

Killed  in  action. 
Killed  in  action. 


S.  C.  Allen 
R.  Buddie 

L.  E.  Barnctt 
F.  C.  Batchelor 
Rev.  D.  Uutton 
A.  Mackie 
E.  J.  O'Neill 


Otago  Institute. 

Captain,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 
Surseon,  H.M.  Ships  "Crescent,"   ' 

land,"  and  "  Warwick  " 
Lieut. -Colonel,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps 
Lieut.-Colonel,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 
Chai)lain,  N.Z.  Expeditionary  Force. 
Sergeant,  N.Z.  Expeditionary  Force 
Lieut.-Colonel,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps  . 


Cumber- 


Mentioned  in  de- 
spatches. 
C.M.G. 


M.M. 
C.M.G.,  D.S.O. 


Name. 


Roll  of  Honour. 
Roll  of  Honouk — continued. 


XX  111 


Available  Details  of  Service. 


T.  R.  Overton 
H.  P.  Pickerill 
R.  Price 

E.  F.  Roberts 
S.  G.  Sandle 

F.  H.  Statham 
W.  D.  Stewart 
W.  A.  Thomson 
R.  N.  Vanes 

#D.  B.  Waters 
H.  F.  H.  Whitcom 


be 


Otago  Institute — continued. 

Lieutenant,  N.Z.  Pioneers. 

Lieut. -Colonel,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps  . . 

Major,  Otago  Infantry 

Captain,  Royal  Engineers. 

Major,  N.Z.  Expeditionary'  Force. 

Major,  Otago  Infantry 

Lieutenant,  Otago  Infantry. 

N.Z.  Machine  Gun  Corps. 

Lieutenant,  N.Z.  Expeditionary  Force. 

Captain,  N.Z.  Tunnelling  Corps. 

Gunner,  N.Z.  Field  Artillery. 


O.B.E. 

Killed  in  action. 


Killed  in  action. 


E.  C.  Barnett 
D.  H.  B.  Bett 
A.  A.  Martin 
J.  Murray 
H.  D.  Skinner 
W.  R.  Stowe 


H.  F.  Bernau 
J.  P.  D.  Leahy 
E.  F.  Northcroft 
E.  G.  Wheeler 
G.  T.  Wilhams 


F.  A.  Bett 


Manawatu  Philosophical  Society. 

Captain,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 
Captain,  N.Z.  Medical  Coi-ps. 
Major,  N.Z.  Medical  Corjjs 
Lieutenant,  Auckland  Infantry. 
Private,  Otago  Infantry     . . 
Major,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 

Hawke's  Bay  Philosophic  A.  Institute. 

Captain,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 
Major,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 
Corporal,  41st  Reinforcements. 
Corporal,  Wellington  Regiment. 
Wellington  Mounted  Rifles 

Nelson  Institute. 
Captain,  N.Z.  Medical  Corps. 


Killed  in  action. 
D.C.M. 


Died  of  sickness. 


Note. — The  roll  is  as  complete  as  it  has   been  found  possible  to  make  it. 
Editor  would  be  glad  to  be  notified  of  any  omissions  or  necessary  amendments. 


The 


PRESIDENTIAL    ADDRESS. 


The  following  is  the  presidential  address  delivered  at  the  annual  meeting 
of  the  Board  of  Governors  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute,  at  Wellington,  on 
the  30th  January,  1920,  by  Dr.  L.  Cockayne,  F.R.S.  :— 

Gentlemen  op  the  Board  of  Governors  of  the  New  Zealand 
Institute, — First  of  all  it  is  my  sorrowful  duty  to  record  the  great  loss 
which  the  New  Zealand-  Institute  has  experienced  since  our  annual  meeting 
last  year  through  the  death  of  two  of  our  foremost  members — Major  T. 
Broun  and  Mr.  T.  W.  Adams.  A  full  account  of  Major  Broun's  scientific 
activity  will  appear  in  the  next  volume  of  our  Transactions  ;  here  I  need 
only  express  my  admiration  of  our  accomplished  member's  services  to 
science — services,  indeed,  that  have  laid  an  enduring  foundation  in  a 
domain  of  New  Zealand  zoology  virtually  unexplored  prior  to  his  investi- 
gations. Regarding  my  esteemed  friend  Mr.  T.  W.  Adams,  I  have  already 
recorded  in  the  last  volume  of  our  Transactions  my  high  appreciation  of 
his  pioneer  researches  in  New  Zealand  forestry  and  their  extraordinary 
economic  value.  The  influence  of  such  men  must  be  felt  for  many 
years  ;   their  place  in  our  scientific  circle  will  be  hard  to  fill. 

But  if  the  past  year  has  brought  its  sorrows,  as  must  all  years,  joy  has 
also  come  in  the  safe  return  after  the  hardships  and  perils  of  war  of  most 
of  our  members  who  so  willingly  set  forth  to  serve  their  King  and  country. 
To  those  who  fell,  and  whose  laurels  won  on  the  field  of  battle  are  entwined 
with  those  gained  in  the  peaceful  path  of  science,  has  gone  forth  long  ere 
this  both  our  deepest  grief  and  most  fervent  admiration.  You  will  see 
from  the  report  of  the  Standing  Committee  that  the  Roll  of  Honour  is  now 
completed,  and  wiU  be  printed  in  this  volume  of  the  Transactions. 

The  scientific  year  just  concluded  will,  I  feel  convinced,  be  looked  upon, 
in  time  to  come,  as  the  most  important  for  the  New  Zealand  Institute  since 
its  reconstruction  in  1903 — or,  indeed,  perhaps  since  its  foundation.  This 
wiU  be  for  the  reason  that  two  important  advances  have  been  made — 
the  holding  of  a  Science  Congress  and  the  founding  of  the  Fellowship.  So 
successful  was  this  Congress,  notwithstanding  the  many  unforeseen  diffi- 
culties which  stood  in  the  way,  that  it  was  proposed  to  make  it  a  biennial 
function.  There  is  no  need  for  me  to  give  any  details  regarding  the 
proceedings,  since  such  have  appeared  in  two  special  numbers  of  the 
Journal  of  Science  and  Technology/,  where  also  some  of  the  papers  read  at 
the  Congress  are  printed.  It  has  been  decided  to  hold  a  second  Congress 
at  the  beginning  of  next  year  in  Palmerston  North.  The  idea  of  the 
Congress  was  not  new,  since  such  meetings  were  provided  for  in  the  New 
Zealand  Institute  Act  of  1903,  but  for  its  successful  inauguration  full 
credit  must  be  given  to  that  very  active  body,  the  Philosophical  Institute 
of  Canterbury.  Without  doubt  these  gatherings  will  do  a  great  deal  to 
bring  the  Institute  into  touch  with  the  non-scientific  public,  and  in  this 
lies  no  inconsiderable  part  of  their  value* 


XX vi  Presidential  Address. 

Regarding  the  papers  read  at  the  Congress,  a  considerable  portion  were 
such  as  in  the  ordinary  course  of  events  would  have  come  before  the 
affiliated  branches.  This,  it  may  be  hoped,  wiU  be  remedied  in  the  future, 
and  that  the  papers  submitted  will  be  more  on  the  lines  of  those  of  the 
British  Association.  Nor  need  a  comparison  on  the  basis  of  population 
make  this  appear  a  vain  statement,  for  New  Zealand  possesses  far  more 
problems  purely  her  own  to  be  solved  than  does  Great  Britain  ;  indeed, 
for  many  years  to  come,  abundant  material  for  researches,  novel  in 
character,  will  be  at  the  disposal  of  our  scientific  men.  A  great  agricul- 
tural centre,  such  as  Palmerston  North,  is  a  fitting  place  indeed  for  the 
second  Congress.  At  the  Christchurch  Congxess  agriculture  was  a  great 
feature,  thanks  in  part  to  the  strong  support  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  and  in  part  to  a  gathering  of  the  agricultural  instructors  of 
the  Dominion  being  held  at  the  same  time.  No  time  should  be  lost  in 
making  preparations  for  the  event,  so  this  question  will  come  before  you 
to-day. 

The  matter  of  the  Fellowship  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  demands 
more  than  a  passing  word.  First,  it  must  be  pointed  out  that  the  election 
of  the  Original  Fellows  took  place  in  October  last,  the  election  being 
made  by  a  special  committee — consisting  of  the  Hon.  Gr.  M.  Thomson, 
Professors  Chilton  and  Easterfield,  and  myself  (the  convener) — which  was 
appointed  at  your  annual  meeting  last  year  "  with  power  to  act,  to 
determine  the  method  of  election  of  the  remaining  Original  Fellows,  and 
to  carry  out  the  election."  As  I  was  likely  to  be  away  from  Wellington 
at  the  time  of  the  election,  I  delegated  my  powers  to  Professor  Easter- 
field, and  obtained  Mr.  Ewen's  assent  to  his  acting  as  returning  officer. 
To  both  these  gentlemen  I  must  record  my  grateful  thanks.  As  soon  as 
the  election  was  concluded  Mr.  Ewen  sent  me  the  names  of  those  elected, 
and  I,  as  President  of  the  Institute,  informed  by  wire  each  successful 
candidate  of  his  election.  I  also  wrote  to  the  Secretary  of  each  of  the 
affiliated  societies  giving  the  result  of  the  election.  Later,  the  names  of 
all  the  Original  Fellows  were  published  in  the  Government  Gazette.  There 
are  now  twenty  Fellows  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute,  who  represent 
nearly  every  branch  of  science  pursued  in  the  Dominion.  As  to  the  merits 
of  the  election  it  is  not  for  me  to  express  an  opinion,  but  I  may  be  permitted 
to  say  that  as  an  ex  officio  Fellow  I  feel  it  a  great  honour  to  be  in  such 
distinguished  company. 

Although  the  election  was  carried  out  in  a  certain  manner  agreed  upon 
by  the  special  committee,  that  is  no  precedent  for  future  elections — the 
occasion  was  unique.  It  is  for  this  meeting  to  decide  in  what  manner 
the  voting,  &c.,  for  candidates  is  to  take  place  in  future  elections,  both 
by  the  Fellows,  in  the  first  instance,  who  select  eight  candidates  from 
the  nominees  of  the  affiliated  societies,  and,  in  the  next  place,  by  the 
Governors,  who  are  to  select  the  four  Fellows  from  the  eight  selected 
candidates.  Regarding  these  eight,  and  bearing  in  mind  the  number 
of  persons  qualified  for  the  Fellowship  at  the  present  time,  it  may  be 
confidently  expected  that  each  of  them  will  be  amply  qualified  for  the 
distinction,  and  that  as  years  go  on  the  status  for  such  qualification 
will  rise. 

And  now  a  few  words  as  to  the  history  of  "the  movement  which  led 
to  the  establishment  of  the  Fellowship.  The  first  suggestion  of  a  class 
of  members  other  than  the  ordinary  members,  whose  admission  to  the 
societies  is  a  matter  of  form,  was**  put  forward  by  Mr.  G.   V.  Hudson  a 


Presidential  Address.  g  xxvii 

considerable  uiimber  of  years  ago,  but  no  exceptional  qualifications  were 
to  be  demanded.  Nothing  more  was  said  on  the  subject  until  the  year 
1910,  when  I  talked  over  the  matter  with  many  of  my  scientific  friends, 
all  of  whom  agreed  that  the  suggested  Fellowship  should  be  difficult  of 
attainment  and  so  be  a  very  high  distinction  indeed.  My  reasons  for  the 
estabUshment  of  such  an  honour  were — (1)  that  in  other  countries  the 
universities  conferred  honorary  degrees  on  scientific  workers,  whereas  the 
University  of  New  Zealand  did  not  confer  such,  under  the  mistaken  notion 
that  they  would  detract  from  the  value  of  the  ordinary  degrees  ;  (2)  that 
there  were  certain  men  in  New  Zealand  whose  years  of  unremitting  labour 
in  science  would  apparently  never  receive  recognition ;  (3)  that  the 
establishment  of  a  Fellowship  worthy  of  being  won  would  lead  to  that 
competition  which  is  a  law  of  nature  and  brings  out  the  best  in  every 
sphere  of  life  ;  (4)  that  more  research  would  be  undertaken  and  the 
number  of  those  carrying  out  research  increase,  to  the  benefit  of  science. 
Agairtst  the  proposal  there  was  urged  by  some  that  there  were  the  Hutton 
and  the  Hector  Medals,  as  also  certain  Empire  distinctions  available  for 
our  best  men.  On  the  oth.er  hand,  the  above  medals  are  limited  in  their 
application — some  sciences  do  not  receive  recognition  ;  while,  as  to  Empire 
distinctions,  so  few  come  to  New  Zealand  that  they  are  almost  negligible. 
A.11  agrfeed  that,  in  order  to  make  the  Fellowship  sufficiently  difiicult  to 
acquire,  the  number  of  Fellows  must  be  limited  to  comparatively  few. 
The  proposition  was  not  taken  up,  and  no  more  was  said  on  the  matter 
until  Dr.  J.  Allan  Thomson  brought  out  in  January,  1917,  an  ambitious 
scheme  for  reform  of  the  Institute,  containing,  i^iter  alia,  a  proposal  for 
the  creation  of  Fellows.  Dr.  Thomson's  proposals  were  referred  to  the 
affiliated  societies  to  consider,  and  at  the  succeeding  meeting  in  January, 
1918,  their  replies  having  been  received,  a  committee  consisting  of 
Mr.  G.  Hogben,  Dr.  Thomson,  and  myself  was  set  up  to  draw  up  a  Fellow- 
ship scheme  and  refer  it  to  the  incorporated  societies.  We  accordingly 
considered  the  matter  carefully,  drew  up  a  scheme,  referred  it  to  the 
societies,  made  certain  changes  in  our  draft  in  conformity  with  their 
suggestions,  and  brought  our  amended  scheme  before  the  Board  of 
Governors  in  January,  1919.  Each  clause  was  carefully  discussed  by  the 
Board,  and,  with  a  few  alterations  and  additions,  the  scheme  which  we 
submitted  was  adopted.  The  only  point  of  importance  which  was  rejected 
was  the  proposal  that  a  certain  number  of  Fellows  should  be  elected 
"  for  eminent  service  to  the  nation  in  any  capacity,"  but  such  Fellows 
were  not  to  "  exceed  one-tenth  of  the  total  number  of  Fellows."  After 
considerable  discussion,  this  proposal  was  rejected  ;  but,  as  the  regulations 
stand,  the  Fellowship  can  be  given  for  research  or  distinction  in  science — 
i.e.,  it  is  possible  for  Fellows  to  be  elected  who  have  done  no  research 
whatever.  This  gives  a  wide-enough  door,  so  it  "is  unlikely  that  any  one 
really  deserving  the  honour  will  be  left  in  the  cold. 

As  for  research,  it  must  be  clearly  understood  by  the  affiliated  societies 
and  electors  that  this  does  not  refer  merely  to  research  accomplished  in 
New  Zealand.  All  research  carried  on  outside  New  Zealand,  even  if 
published  long  before  the  candidate  was  a  member  of  the  Institute,  must 
count  as  the  present  regvdations  stand. 

Before  leaving  this  question  of  the  Fellowship,  it  cannot  be  too  widely 
known  both  by  scientific  men  and  the  general  public  that  the  letters 
"  F.N. Z.Inst."  attached  to  a  person's  name  is  no  empty  title,  but  that  it 
means  far  more  than  does  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Science  of  any  University, 


xxviii         .,  Presidential  Address. 

for  it  is  a  guarantee  that  the  holder  is  a  scientist  of  exceptional  merit,  who 
has  prosecuted  research  of  a  high  class,  and  usually  for  a  long  period. 
This  degree,  if  I  may  so  call  it,  should  rank  in  professional  circles,  and  in 
the  Civil  Service,  equally  with  the  highest  University  distinctions,  which, 
as  I  have  already  explained,  it  far  outstrips.  As  time  goes  on  it  will  be 
as  difficult  to  obtain  as  the  Fellowships  or  Memberships,  as  the  case  may 
be,  of  British,  European,  or  American  academies. 

A  matter  which  comes  up  yearly  for  your  consideration  is  the  question 
of  finance.  Thanks  to  the  enlightened  policy  of  the  Hon.  G.  W.  Russell 
with  regard  to  science,  for  some  years  past  we  have  received  a  special  grant 
for  research — but  more  of  this  later — and  at  the  last  meeting  of  this  Board 
he  promised  us  £500  for  our  ordinary  expenditure  at  once,  and  that  he 
would  make  provision  for  yearly  adding  a  similar  sum  to  our  scanty  income. 
When  the  Hon.  Mr.  Russell  resigned,  his  successor,  the  Hon.  J.  B.  Hine, 
arranged  that  the  Institute  should  receive  the  additional  £500  to  its  income, 
and  was  most  sympathetic  regarding  this  becoming  a  permanency.  It  will 
lie  with  this  meeting  to  see  what  steps  it  is  now  necessary  to  take  in  order 
to  increase  our  income  permanently  from  £500  to  £1,000  per  annum,  and 
it  will  be  necessary  also  to  act  quic^fly.  Even  when  we  reach  the  latter 
scale  we  shall  be  by  no  means  well  off.  The'  publications  and  ordinary 
expenses  will  absorb,  at  a  low  estimate,  £700  yearly.  There  is  coming 
before  you  the  question  of  appointing  a  j3aid  official  to"  assist  the  honorary 
officers  of  the  Institute.  In  considering  such  an  appointment  it  is  clear 
that  our  other  financial  responsibilities  must  be  carefully  borne  in  mind. 
There  have  been  for  some  years  certain  important  bulletins  on  the  moss 
flora  by  Mr.  H.  N.  Dixon  awaiting  publication,  as  also  others  by  the  late 
Major  Broun,  while  others,  again,  too  lengthy  for  the  Transactions  are  also 
in  sight.  At  the  same  time,  the  Hon.  Secretary's  work  has  increased  greatly 
of  late,  but  possibly  an  assistant  at  £100  would  be  sufficient  for  this  branch 
of  our  work. 

A  matter  to  come  before  the  meeting  is  the  election  of  some  one  for 
the  important  post  of  Editor.  This  comes  about  through  the  resignation 
of  Dr.  C.  A.  Cotton.  No  one  can  regret  more  than  myself  this  resignation. 
During  his  long  editorship  Dr.  Cotton  has  improved  the  annual  volume  to 
no  small  degree,  given  sound  critical  consideration  to  the  papers,  and,  in 
short,  has  filled  the  difficult  position  most  admirably. 

One  of  the  phases  of  our  activity  concerns  the  research  grant.  It  is  this, 
in  part,  which  has  added  to  the  burdens  of  the  Hon.  Secretary.  It  has 
also  directly  added  to  our  financial  burden.  This  has  come  about  through 
our  inability  to  use  any  of  this  grant  for  purposes  of  publication,  which  falls 
upon  our  slender  income.  Time  and  again  has  the  Institute  published  the 
results  of  non-subsidized  economic  research,  but  in  the  case  of  that  which 
is  subsidized  the  subsidy  cannot  be  used  to  pay  for  publication.  Cases,  too, 
have  occurred  where  the  economic  aspect  of  the  subsidized  research  has 
been  nil,  but  some  purely  scientific  side-issue  has  emerged  and  been  pub- 
lished in  our  Transactions.  In  short,  except  for  its  stimulation  of  research, 
the  grant  is  a  dead  loss  to  the  Institute.  But  does  this  grant  really  stimu- 
late research  ?  I  doubt  it  greatly  ;  indeed,  I  am  not  sure  that  it  is  not 
a  hindrance.  For  the  research  must  have — nominally,  at  any  rate — an 
economic  bent.  Nor  is  this  all,  but  the  offer  conditionally  of  money  leads 
to  research  made  to  order  ;  whereas  the  subject  of  a  research  should  not 
be  sought,  it  should  come  unbidden,  it  should  be  an  inspiration.  Then 
there  is  drawn  that  vicious  distinction — I  can  call  it  by  no  lighter  word — 


Presidential  Address.  xxix 

between  pure  and  applied  science.  It  is  "  applied  "  science  to  add  by 
methods  of  plant-breeding  one  more  variety  to  the  hundreds  of  varieties 
of  turnips  which  are  in  horticulture  or  agriculture.  It  is  "  pure  "  science 
to  seek  by  experiment  with  the  vilest  weed,  it  may  be,  for  information  yet 
unknown,  which  may  advance  man's  knowledge  of  heredity — an  advance 
which  well  might  pave  the  way  towards  highly  benefiting  cvilization  as  a 
whole.  Yet  our  research  grant  in,  its  present  form  would  encourage  the 
turnip-breeder  but  not  the  worker  in  experimental  genetics.  Nay,  this 
last  term,  if  added  to  the  application  for  a  grant,  would  at  once  damn  the 
application,  for  the  final  word  rests  not  with  the  Institute  but  with  the 
Minister.  No,  if  we  are  to  have  a  research  grant  which  would  justify  the 
spending  of  public  money,  let  it  be  given  unconditionally.  Surely  a  body 
such  as  the  New  Zealand  Institute  is  to  be  trusted  ! 

Several  outside  matters  have  occurred  during  the  past  twelve  months 
which  are  of  interest  to  the  New  Zealand  Institute.  Not  the  least  of 
these  is  the  actual  launching  of  the  Cawthron  Institute,  in  the  first  place 
through  the  judgment  of  the  Supreme  Court  approving,  with  a  few  trifling 
exceptions,  the  scheme  drawn  up  for  the  Trustees  of  the  estate  by  the 
Cawthron  Commission  ;  and  in  the  second  place  through  the  appointment 
of  Professor  Easterfield  as  the  Director.  I  feel  assured,  gentlemen,  that 
you  will  applaud  the  appointment  of  a  colleague  of  such  long  standing, 
and  will  feel,  as  I  do,  that  the  success  of  the  Cawthron  Institute  is  assured. 
It  is  also  satisfactory  to  learn  that  the  Cawthron  Institute  has  acquired 
an  excellent  temporary  home  in  the  City  of  Nelson,  where  its  scientific 
operations  can  commence  and  where  they  can  be  carried  on  until  a  building 
worthy  of  the  high  aims  of  the  founder  be  erected  on  the  Annesbrook 
Estate. 

Several  important  scientific  publications  are  either  jiow  ready  for  the 
press  or  have  appeared.  There  is  the  Hon.  G.  M.  Thomson's  work — the 
labour  of  many  years — deaUng  with  acclimatization  in  New  Zealand  :  this 
is  completed,  and  has  been  sent  to  England.  Mr.  T.  F.  Cheeseman  has 
contributed  an  important  paper  on  the  vascular  flora  of  Macquarie  Island 
as  one  of  the  reports  of  the  Mawson  Antarctic  Expedition,  which  contains 
a  philosophical  essay  on  the  origin  of  the  isolated  band  of  plants  of  that 
island — a  worthy  supplement  to  his  scholarly  essay  in  The  Suhantarctic 
Islands  of  New  Zealand.  The  first  volume  of  the  Manuals  of  the  Board  of 
Science  and  Art  has  just  appeared,  and  other  volumes  are  in  contemplation 
by  the  Hon.  G.  M.  Thomson,  Dr.  C.  A.  Cotton,  and  Mr.  Elsdon  Best.  Such 
a  series  dealing  with  New  Zealand  natural  history  has  long  been  wanted. 

Returning  to  our  own  afiairs,  an  index  of  our  Transactions  from 
volume  40  onwards  is  urgently  needed.  If  the  hoped-for  additional 
income  is  assured,  this  should  be  taken  in  hand  without  delay.  Then 
there  is  the  perennial  question  of  the  library ;  but  little  can  de  done  under 
the  present  circumstances.  The  method  of  printing  your  President's 
address  each  year  may  seem  a  small  matter,  but  it  is  hardly  upholding  the 
dignity  of  the  Institute  to  tuck  it  away  in  small  print  in  the  Proceedings ; 
still  less  should  that  position  be  accorded  the  more  weighty  addresses 
delivered  at  the  Science  Congress.  Surely  these  presidential  addresses 
should  commence  the  annual  volume. 

Turning  now  to  the  widest  matter  of  all  which  confronts  us  as  a  scientific 
body  with  scientific  obligations,  that  matter  beyond  all  others  which  con- 
cerns our  country  in  common  with  all  ptirts  of  the  Empire — the  period  of 
reconstruction  now  commencing.     Soon  after  war  broke  out,  even  in  the 


XXX 


Presidential  Address. 


hour  of  victory,  and  not  least  at  the  present  time,  one  hears  preached  on 
all  sides  by  those  in  every  grade  of  society  the  crying  need  for  more  science, 
for  more  and  more  research.  This  word  "  science  "  is,  and  has  been,  in 
the  mouths  of  the  people  as  never  before.  But  if  one  converses  with  the 
non-scientific  it  quickly  comes  to  light  that  the  research  they  desire  is  not 
at  all  the  research  of  the  scientific  man — that  long  painful  groping  for  the 
truth  which  he  knows  but  too  well.  To  them  the  man  of  science — neglected 
for  so  long,  if  not  despised — is  now  a  wizard  who  with  but  a  touch  of  his 
magic  rod  (science,  the  .omnipotent,  ever  at  his  beck  and  call)  can,  in  the 
twinkling  of  an  eye,  solve  any  problem  that  is  put  before  him.  "  Ask  and 
thou  shalt  receive  "  might  be  the  motto.  On  every  side  are  the  triumphs 
of  science  ;  but  how  few  indeed  are  aware  that  all  date  back  for  long  years, 
the  crowning  glories  of  research  after  research — many  of  such  researches 
apparently  most  useless,  most  trivial.  Is  the  public  prepared  to  find  the 
wherewithal  to  pay  for  such  "  trivialities,"  or  is  the  scientific  man  only 
to  be  called  in  at  the  last  moment  to  find  some  economic  appHcation  of 
his  previously  unpaid  labours  ?  What  is  the  duty  of  the  New  Zealand 
Institute  ?  Is  it  not  to  get  into  closer  touch  with  the  people,  to  teach 
them  the  true  meaning  of  science  ?  The  scientific  man  in  the  past  has 
been  too  imbending,  too  little  concerned  with  those  not  his  colleagues. 
Science  can  surely  be  popularized  without  loss  of  dignity.  Prosperity, 
successful  reconstruction,  these  depend  in  no  minor  degree  on  the  intimate 
acquaintance  of  the  men  of  science  and  their  non-scientific  brethren. 


TRANSACTIONS. 


TRANSACTIONS 


OF   THE 


NEW  ZEALAND  INSTITUTE 


Art.  I. — Some  New  Zealand  Amphipoda :    No.  1. 

By  Charles  Chilton,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  LL.D.,  C.M.Z.S.,  Hon.  Member  Roy.  Soc. 
N.S.W.,  F. N.Z.Inst.  ;    Professor  of  Biology,  Canterbury  College,  N.Z. 

[Read  hefore  the.  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury,   1st  October,   1919  ;    received  hy 
Editor,  31st  December,  1919  ;   issued  separately,  4th  June,  1920.] 

During  recent  years  many  additional  facts  have  become  known  with 
regard  to  the  Amphipoda  of  New  Zealand  through  the  investigation 
of  collections  from  the  various  Antarctic  and  other  expeditions.  As 
circumstances  are  not  at  present  favourable  for  the  publication  of  a 
comprehensive  review  of  the  group,  it  is  proposed  to  issue,  under  the 
title  given  above,  a  series  of  notes  briefly  detailing  some  of  the  new  facts, 
and  giving  references  to  sources  where  additional  information  can  be 
obtained.  It  will  be  seen  that  frequent  use  has  been  jnade  of  the  MS. 
notes  and  drawings  and  of  the  specimens  placed  in  my  hands  by  the 
Hon.  G.  M.  Thomson  ;  in  several  cases  these  are  most  useful  for  elucidating 
points  in  connection  with  some  of  the  earlier  records  of  Amphipoda  from 
New  Zealand. 

The  names  of  authors  followed  by  a  date  in  parentheses  refer  to  the 
list  on  page  8. 

Leptamphopus  novae-zealandiae  (G.  M.  Thomson).     Figs.  1  to  5. 

Pherusa  novae-zealandiae  G.  M.  Thomson,  1879,  p.  239,  pi.  10  C, 
figs.  2,  2a-c.  Pherusa  neo-zelaniea  G.  M.  Thomson  and  Chilton, 
1886,  p.  148.  Panoploea  dehilis  G.  M.  Thomson,  1880,  p.  3,  pi.  1, 
fig.  3  ;  G.  M.  Thomson  and  Chilton,  1886,  p.  150.  Acanihozone 
longimana  (part)  Delia  Vaile,  1893,  pp.  604,  620.  Oradarea 
longimana  Walker,  1903,  p.  56,  pi.  10,  figs.  77-89  ;  Stebbing, 
1906,  p.  727;  Chevreux,  1906,  p.  54;  Walker,  190f,  p.  32. 
Leptamphopus  novae-zealandiae  Stebbing,  1906,  p.  294  ;  Chilton,^ 
1909,  p.  621  ;   Chilton,  1912,  p.  488  ;   Chevreux,  1913,  p.  143. 

There  has  been  considerable  confusion  in  connection  with  this  species, 
and  it  seems  desirable  to  support  the  synonymy  given  above  by  the 
following  historical  account. 

In  1879  Mr.  G.  M.  Thomson  published  his  first  paper  dealing  with 
New  Zealand  Crustacea.  In  it  he  described  several  new  species,  including 
Pherusa  novae-zealandiae  from  Dunedin,  of  which  he  gave  a  brief  descrip- 
tipn  and  figures  of  the  whole  animal,  of  the  gnathopoda,  and  of  the  telson 
(1879,  p.  239,  pi.  10  C,  fig.  2). 

The  only  work  of  reference  on  the  Amphipoda  available  to  Mr.  Thomson 
at  that  time  was  Spence  Bate's  Catalogue  of  the  Amphipoda  in  the  British 
Museum.  The  amount  of  dissection  and  minute  examination  that  is 
necessary  to  distinguish  between  allied  species  was  not  then  realized,  and 

1— Trans. 


2  Transactions. 

it  will  be  seen  from  what  is  recorded  below  that  Mr.  Thomson's  description 
was  a  composite  one  based  on  specimens  belonging  to  more  than  one  species. 

In  the  next  year  Mr.  Thomson  described  and  figured  another  new 
species  under  the  name  Panoploea  debilis,  also  from  Dunedin  Harbour, 
the  genus  Panoploea  being  new  and  including  P.  debilis  and  P.  spinosa, 
another  new  species  described  at  the  same  time  (1880,  p.  3). 

In  1882  I  had  identified  specimens  collected  at  Lyttelton  Harbour  as 
Panoploea  debilis  G.  M.  Thomson,  and  later  on  was  able  to  compare  them 
with  specimens  from  Dunedin  named  by  Mr.  Thomson  and  to  ascertain 
that  they  were  identical  with  his  species.  This  species  proved  to  be 
moderately  common  in  New  Zealand  seas,  and  was  long  known  to  New 
Zealand  workers  under  the  name  Panoploea  debilis  G.  M.  Thomson. 

In  1893  Delia  Valle  placed  the  species  in  the  genus  Acanthozone  as  a 
doubtful  synonym  of  Acanthozone  longifnana  (Boeck),  a  species  which  is 
now  placed  under  the  genus  Leptamphopus,  and  remarked  that  Pherusa 
novae-zealandiae  G.  M.  Thomson  seemed  to  coincide  with  Panoploea  debilis 
G.  M.  Thomson. 

In  his  account  of  the  Amphipoda  Gammaridea  in  Das  Tierreich, 
Stebbing  (1906,  p.  294)  includes  both  Pherusa  novae-zealandiae  and 
Panoploea  debilis  under  the  name  Leptamphopus  novae-zealandiae  (G.  M. 
Thomson),  but  without  making  any  reference  to  the  differences  in  the 
descriptions  of,  the  two  species  as  given  by  Thomson.  In  1903,  before 
Stebbing's  Das  Tierreich  Amphipoda  was  published,  Mr.  A.  0.  Walker, 
in  his  account  of  the  "  Southern  Cross  "  Antarctic  Expedition,  had 
described  and  figured  a  new  genus  and  species,  Oradarea  longimana  (1903, 
p.  56),  and  in  the  appendix  of  Das  Tierreich  Amphipoda  Stebbing  quotes 
this  species  and  says  of  it  "  strangely  like  Leptamphopus  novae-zealandiae  " 
(1906,  p.  727). 

In  1906  Chevreux  recorded  Oradarea  longimana  Walker  from  Flanders 
Bay  and  other  localities  in  Graham  Land  visited  by  the  French  Antarctic 
Expedition,  1903-5  (1906,  p.  54). 

In  his  account  of  the  Amphipoda  of  the  National  Antarctic  Expedition, 
Walker  in  1907  records  Oradarea  longimana  from  Coulman  Island  and  other 
localities  visited  by  the  expedition,  and  in  a  footnote  referring  to  Stebbing's 
remarks  points  out  that  his  species  differs  from  Thomson's  description  of 
Pherusa  novae-zealandiae  ''  in  having  only  the  first  two  pleon  segments 
dorsally  j)roduced  into  one  tooth,  instead  of  the  two  posterior  segments 
of  the  mesosome  and  two  anterior  of  the  pleon  produced  into  two  teeth  ; 
also  in  t^ie  upper  antennae  having  an  appendage  "  (1907,  p.  32). 

In  1909,  in  the  account  of  the  Crustacea  in  the  Snbantarctic  Lslands  of 
New  Zealand,  I  followed  Stebbing  in  considering  Panoploea  debilis  to 
be  the  same  as  Pherusa  novae-zealandiae,  and  recorded  the  species  under 
the  name  Leptamphopus  novae-zealandiae  (G.  M.  Thomson),  from  Carnley 
Harbour,  in  Lord  Auckland  Islands,  and  after  comparing  it  with  Walker's 
description  came  to  the  conclusion  that  Oradarea  longimana  Walker  was 
identical  with  Leptamphopus  novae-zealandiae  (G.  M.  Thomson),  as  Stebbing 
had  suggested,  the  differences  pointed  out  by  Walker  being  apparently  due 
to  individual  variation  or  to  errors  in  the  descriptions  (1909,  p.  621).  In 
his  account  of  the  Amphipoda  of  the  second  French  Antarctic  Expedition, 
1908-10,  Chevreux  adopted  this  view,  referred  specimens  from  Petermann 
Island  to  Leptamphopus  novae-zealandiae  (G.  M.  Thomson),  and  gave  a 
few  further  particulars  of  the  s])ecies.  This  species  was  collected  by  the 
Scottish  National  Antarctic  Expedition  at  South  Orkneys,  and  was  recorded 
by  me  in  the  account  of  the  Amphipoda  of  the  expedition  under  the  name 
Leptamphopus  novae-zealandiae  (G.  M.  Thomson)  (1912,  p.  488). 


Chilton. — Some  New  Zealand  Amphipoda.  3 

Though  I  have  all  along  been  convinced  that  Stebbing  was  right  in 

combining  Panoploea  debilis  G.  M.  Thomson  with  Pherusa  novae-zealandiae 

G.  M.  Thomson,  it  has  been  a  little  difficult  to  understand  the  differences 

,  in  the  descriptions  of  these  species,  and  how  it  was  that  Mr.  Thomson  came 

to  describe  the  same  form  as  two  different  species  in  two  successive  years. 

In  January,  1914,  in  the  collections  of  the  Dunedin  Museum,  I  found 
a  bottle  labelled  "  Pherusa  novae-zealandiae  G.  M.  Thomson,  Dunedin ; 
Type,"  in  the  handwriting  of  the  late  Captain  Hutton,  who  was  Curator 
of  the  Museum  at  the  time  when  the  species  was  first  described,  and 
through  the  kindness  of  Professor  Benham  I  have  been  able  to  make  an 
"  examination  of  its  contents.  The  bottle  contained  altogether  ten  speci- 
mens, all  more  or  less  imperfect  ;  seven  of  them  are  without  doubt  the 
species  common  in  New  Zealand  and  long  known  under  the  name  PanojjJoea 
debilis  G.  M.  Thomson.  All  of  these  specimens  ha.ve  lost  their  antennae 
except  the  peduncles,  but  the  character  of  the  gnathopoda,  of  the  pro- 
jection of  some  of  the  segments  into  dorsal  teeth,  and  of  the  uropoda 
and  telson,  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  the  identity  of  the  species.  Of  the 
other  three  specimens,  two,  one  of  them  imperfect,  are  small  examples 
of  Parad.exam.ine  pacifica  (G.  M.  Thomson),  which  have  apparently  been 
included  by  accident,  and  are  of  no  importance  in  the  present  discussion. 
The  remaining  specimen,  which  is  the  largest  of  the  lot,  and  of  which  the 
head  and  anterior  part  of  the  peraeon  are  missing,  is  a  specimen  of  a 
different  species  altogether,  Panoploea  spinosa  G.  M.  Thomson,  which  is 
no  longer  considered  congeneric  with  Panoploea  dehilis  and  is  placed  by 
Stebbing  in  a  different  family. 

It  seems  evident  that  these  specimens  had  been  grouped  together 
owing  to  the  fact  that  in  all  of  them  some  of  the  segments  are  produced 
posteriorly  into  dorsal  teeth  and  that  a  portion  of  the  original  description 
of  Pherusa  novae-zealandiae  had  been  ]3ased  on  the  specimen  of  Panoploea 
spinosa:  e.g.,  the  statement  that  "two  posterior  segments  of  the  pereion 
and  two  aifterior  segments  of  the  pleon  produced  dorsally  into  two  teeth," 
and  "  three  last  pairs  of  pereiopoda  much  longer  than  the  preceding  ;  their 
coxae  with  comb-like  teeth  on  their  posterior  margins";  also,  '"third  seg- 
ment of  pleon  with  the  sides  produced  posteriorly,  and  ending  abruptly  in  a 
serrated  margin."  The  characters  thus  quoted  agree  well  with  this  specimen 
of  Panoploea  spinosa,  and  some  of  them  are  indicated  in  the  figure  given 
by  Thomson  in  describing  Pherusa  novae-zealandiae.  These  points  do  not 
show  clearly  in  the  very  small  figures  accompanying  Mr.  Thomson's 
published  paper,  for  "  instead  of  lithographing  the  plates,  the  draughtsman 
traced  them  on  to  a  large  sheet,  from  whence  they  were  photo-lithographed  " 
(see  Stebbing,  1888,  p.  500),  and  in  the  process  they  were  so  much  reduced 
that  many  of  the  points  shown  clearly  in  th«  original  drawings  cannot  be 
made  out.  Mr.  Thomson  has,  however,  given  me  the  tracings  of  the 
originals,  and  in  the  tracing  of  the  figure  of  the  whole  animal  of  Pherusa 
novae-zealandiae  it  is  evident  that  the  dorsal  teeth,  the  basal  joints  of 
the  posterior  peraeopoda,  and  the  hind-margin  of  the  third  pleon  segment 
have  been  drawn  from  the  specimen  of  Panoploea  spinosa,  and  not  from 
the  genuine  Pherusa  novae-zealandiae.  "  The  other  characters  have  been 
based  on  the  specimens  really  belonging  to  Pherusa  novae-zealandiae,  and 
the  description  is  therefore  composite,  being  based  on  more  than  one 
specimen,  as  is  shown  by  the  statement  that  the  posterior  margin  of  the 
third  segment  of  the  pleon  "  is  almost  smooth  in  young  specimens,"  the 
"  young  specimens  "  being  the  genuine  Pherusa  novae-zealandiae,  and  quite 
different  from  the  Panoploea  spinosa  which  was  confused  with  them. 

1* 


4  Transactions. 

It  is  therefore  evident  that  Panoploea  debilis  (G.  M.  Thomson)  is  indeed 
the  same  as  Pherusa  novae-zealandiae  G.  M.  Thomson,  but  was  thought 
to  be  different  owing  to  the  errors  in  the  original  description  and  figures  ; 
and  that  the  differences  pointed  out  by ,  Walker  between  his  Orudarea 
longimana  and  the  description  of  Pherusa  novae-z^alandiae  are  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  original  description  was  based  on  the  examination  and 
confusion  of  two  different  species. 

The  history  of  this  species  has  perhaps  been  detailed  at  tedious  length, 
but  it  is  interesting  as  another  example  of  the  necessity  of  examining 
type  specimens,  whenever  they  are  available,  in  order  to  settle  disputed 
points,  instead  of  trusting  too  greatly  to  published  descriptions  and  figures 
and  relying  too  much  upon  their  accuracy. 

The  exact  generic  position  of  this  species  is  a  little  doubtful,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  in  the  group  to  which  it  belongs  there  are  so  many  genera 
much  alike  and  distinguished  by  characters  which  are  perhaps  not  all  of 
generic  importance.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  species  was  first  placed 
under  Pherusa,  then  under  Panoploea,  next  under  Acanthozone,  then  under 
Oradarea  (a  genus  specially  created  for  it),  and  finally  under  Leptamphopus. 
In  Das  Tierreich  Amphipoda  there  is  only  one  other  species,  L.  longimana 
(Boeck),  placed  in  this  genus,  and  that  was  originally  described  by  Boeck 
under  the  genus  Amphithopsis. 

If  we  compare  the  species  under  consideration  with  the  generic 
characters  of  Leptamphopus  as  given  by  Stebbing  (1906,  p.  293)  it  is 
found  to  agree  in  most  points.  The  first  point  mentioned,  however, 
"  Body  not  acutely  dentate,"  requires  some  modification,  for  in  this 
species  the  last  segment  of  the  peraeon  and  the  first  two  of  the  pleon 
are  dentate  ;  again,  in  the  generic  characters  it  is  stated  that  there  is 
no  accessory  flagellum,  though  Walker  describes  and  figures  one  in  the 
specimens  of  this  species  obtained  from  Cape  Adare,  and  his  observation 
is  confirmed  by  Chevreux,  and  there  is  certainly  a  minute  accessory 
flagellum  in  a  specimen  in  my  collection  collected  at  the  Softth  Orkneys 
by  the  "  Scotia  "  Expedition.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  none  in  the 
New  Zealand  specimens  nor  in  the  northern  species  L.  longimanus  (Boeck). 
In  the  mouth  parts  there  is  nothing  that  appears  to  me  specially  charac- 
teristic of  the  genus,  which  seems  best  recognized  by  the  long  slender 
gnathopoda  and  the  entire  telson.  Most  of  the  characters  of  Leptamphoptcs 
are  the  same  as  those  of  Djerboa  Chevreux,  but  in  that  genus  the  telson 
is  deepty  cleft. 

The  following  brief  description  will  be  sufficient  to  distinguish  L.  novae- 
zealandiae  from  the  northern  species,  L.  longimanus : — 

Back  rounded,  peraeon  segment  7  and  pleon  segments  1  and  2  each 
produced  postpriorly  into  a  dorsal  tooth.  Antennae  subequal,  slender, 
about  as  long  as  body.  Antenna  1  with  second  joint  of  peduncle  produced 
on  each  side  into  a  short  subacute  lobe,  a  minute  accessory  appendage 
present  in  Antarctic  specimens  but  not  in  those  from  New  Zealand. 
Gnathopod  1  with  carpus  and  propod  subequal,  narrow-oblong,  palm  short, 
oblicpie.  Gnathopod  2  much  longer  and  more  slender,  carpus  and  propod 
elongate,  linear,  with  small  tufts  of  setae  on  their  posterior  margins,  propod 
longer  than  the  carpus,  palm  short,  oblique.  IJropods  1  and  2  with  outer 
brancli  much  shorter  than  the  inner;  uropod  3  with  basal  joint  acutely 
produced  on  inner  side,  outer  branch  not  much  shorter  than  inner,  both 
lanceolate,  slightly  flattened  and  broader  than  in  uropods  1  and  2,  inner 
branch  with  an  elevation  or  ridge  on  its  upper  surface  near  the  inner 
margin.  Telson  tapering  slightly,  extremity  broadly  rounded  or  truncate, 
sometimes  a  little  irregular,  and  with  one  or  two  minute  setae. 


Chilton. — Some  New  Zealand  Am'phipoda . 


Length  of  New  Zealand  specimens,  about  9  mm. ;  Antarctic  specimens, 
up][to  12  mm.  or  more. 

Colour  greyish  or  light-brown,  made  up  of  dark  dots  or  stellate  markings. 

Distribution  :  New  Zealand  (Dunedin  Harbour,  Lyttelton,  Akaroa,  &c.)  ; 
Cape  Adare  ;  Coulman  Island  ;  McMurdo  Strait  ;  Petermann  Island ; 
Flanders  Bay  ;   Port  Charcot ;    Orkney  Islands  :   probably  circumaustral. 


Leptamphopiis  novae-zealayidiae.  'J 

Fig.  1. — Fir§t  gnathopod.  Fig.  3. — First  uropod. 

Fig.  2. — Second  gnathopod.  FiG.  4. — Second  uropod. 

Fig.  5. — Third  uropod  and  tekon,  showing  ridge  on  inner 
branch  of  the  third  uroi^od. 

This  species  very  closely  resembles  P.  longimanus  (Boeck),  a  species  found 
in  the  Arctic  and  North  Atlantic  Oceans,  the  chief  difference  being  that 
in  P.  longimana  no  segment  of  the  body  is  produced  into  teeth. 

The  Antarctic  specimens  appear  to  differ  constantly  from  those  occur- 
ring in  New  Zealand  in  the  presence  of  a  minute  accessory  appendage  on  the 
upper  antenna.  Both  Walker  and  Chrevreux  remark  on  the  variation  in 
the  dorsal  teeth  of  the  body-segments  in  Antarctic  specimens  of  different 
sizes ;  all  the  mature  New  Zealand  specimens  seem  to  agree  in  having  the 
last  peraeon  and  first  two  pleon  segments  produced  into  teeth. 


I 
6  Transactions. 

» 

As  I  have  previously  suggested  (1909,  p.  621),  the  small  side  lobes  at  the 
end  of  the  second  basal  joint  of  the  upper  antenna,  which  were  first  noticed 
bv  Walker,  appear  to  be  for  the  support  of  the  rest  of  the  antenna,  allowing 
it  to  move  freely  in  a  vertical  plane  but  not  from  side  to  side.  In  a 
similar  way  there  is  a  slight  hollow  or  depression  on  the  upper  surface 
of  the  inner  branch  of  uropod  3  formed  on  the  outer  side  of  the  ridge 
mentioned  above,  and  into  this  the  outer  branch  fits  closely  when  it  is 
not  in  use  (see  fig.  5).  Analogous  structures  will  probably  be  found  in  other 
Amphipoda  of  similar  habits. 

Ampelisca  eschrichtii  (Kroyer). 

Ampelisca  eschrichtii  Chilton,  1917,  p.  75. 

In  the  Index  Faunae  Zealandiae  two  species  of  Afupelisca  are  put 
down  as  found  in  New  Zealand,  A.  chiltoni  and  A.  acinaces,  both  described 
by  Stebbing  in  the  report  on  the  "  Challenger  "  Amphipoda.  In  the  paper 
quoted  above  I  attempt  to  show  that  these  are  only  forms,  of  the  species 
long  known  in  Arctic  seas  as  A.  eschrichtii  Kroyer,  and  that  A.  macrocephala 
Liljeborg  should  also  be'  considered  as  belonging  to  this  species.  The 
species  is  widely  distributed  both  in  Arctic  and  in  Antarctic  seas,  where 
it  may  attain  a  length  of  34  mm.  In  intermediate  seas  it  is  represented 
by  forms  of  smaller  size^  in  which  the  distinctive  characters  of  the  species 
are  less  evident. 

Urothoides  lachneessa  (Stebbing). 

Urothoe  lachneessa  Stebbing,  1888,  p.  825,  pi.  57.      Urothoides  lach- 
neessa Stebbing,  1906,  p.  132. 

This  species  was  described  from  specimens  obtained  from  Kerguelen 
Island  by  the  "Challenger  "'  Expedition.  I  have  a  specimen,  washed  on  to 
the  shore  of  Stewart  Island  and  sent  to  me  by  Mr.  Walter  Traill,  that  I 
feel  confident  belongs  to  the  same  species.  The  specimen  had  been  dried 
and  somewhat  shrivelled,  but  by  mounting  it  in  dissected  form  sufficient 
of  the  appendages  can  be  made  out  to  render  the  identification  pretty 
certain.  The  first  and  second  gnathopods,  agree  closely  with  Stebbing's 
figure  except  that  in  the  first  the  propod  is  narrower.  The  first,  second, 
and  third  peraeopods  are  also  closely  similar.  The  fourth  and  fifth  cannot 
be  distinctly  made  out,  but  appear  to  agree  except  in  having  fewer  setae. 
One  of  the  uropods  also  can  be  seen  to  agree  with  Stebbing's  figure. 

This  appears  to  be  the  first  specimen  that  has  been  seen  since  the 
original  ones  were  taken  by  the  "Challenger."' 

Parapherusa  crassipes  (Haswell). 

Harmonia  crassipes  Haswell,  1879,  ]).  330,  pi.  19,  fig.  3.     Parapherusa 

crassipes  Stebbing,  1906,  p.  383  ;   Chilton,  1916,  p.  199,  pis.  8-10. 

This  is  a  species  widely  distributed  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  and 

for  some  time  there  was  an  uncertainty  as  to  its  systematic  position.     It 

seems,  however,  rightly  placed  under  the  genus  Parapherusa  in  the  family 

Gammaridae,  to  which  it  was  assigned  by  Stebbing.     A  full  account  of  its 

external  structure  and  of  the  marked  sexual  dift'erences  is  given  in  the  last 

of  the  references  quoted  above. 

Eurystheus  haswelli  (G.  M.  Thomson). 

Maera  haswelli  G.   M.   Thomson,    1897,   p.   449,   pi.   10,   figs.   6-10. 

Wyvillea  haswelli  Stebbing,  1899,  p.  350,  and  1906,  p.  648. 

In    Mr.    Thomson's    collection    are    two    im])erfect    specimens    labelled 

"  Maera  haswelli  G.  M.  T.,  Bay  of  Islands,  8  fathoms,"  which  are  y^resum- 

ably  co-types  of  his  species.      These   are   identical   with   specimens  from 


Chilton. — Some  Neiv  Zealand  Amphijjoda.  7 

Akaroa  and  Lyttelton  obtained  years  ago,  and  provisionally  labelled  as  an 
undescribed  species  of  Eurystheus.  Stebbing  in  1899  placed  the  species 
under  Wyvillea,  a  genus  of  doubtful  validity,  and  retained  it  in  the  same 
position  in  1906.  The  species  is,  however,  quite  evidently  a  Eurystheus, 
and  comes  near  to  E.  dentifer  (Haswell)  ;  the  third  side  plate  in  the  male 
is  produced  anteriorly  below  that  of  the  second  gnathopod  in  the  same  way 
as  described  for  Paranaenia  typica  Chilton  (1884,  p.  259),  a  species  which 
Stebbing  considers  a  synonym  of  Eurystheus  dentifer  (Haswell). 

In  addition  to  the  Bay  of  Islands  specimens  I  have  others  of  E.  haswelli 
from  Lyttelton  ;  Akaroa  ;  Longbeach,  near  Otago  Harbour  ;  Stewart 
Island  ;  Chatham  Islands  ;  and  also  one  from  Port  Jackson,  New  South 
Wales,  sent  to  me  in  1918  by  Professor  W.  A.  Haswell. 

Eurystheus  crassipes  (Haswell). 

Maera  crassipes  Haswell,  1880,  p.  103,  pi.  7,  fig. '2.  Eurystheus 
crassipes  Stebbing,  1906,  p.  612. 
I  have  specimens  from  Wellington  and  Auckland  Harbours  that  evi- 
dently belong  to  this'  species,  which  was  described  from  Port  Jackson  and 
Jervis  Bay  in  Australia  by  Haswell ;  it  is  well  characterized  by  the  large 
size  and  breadth  of  the  fourth  peraeopod,  and  has  rightly  been  placed  in 
Eurystheus  b}^  Stebbing.  The  species  has  not  hitherto  been  recorded  from 
New  Zealand. 

Eurystheus  chiltoni  (G.  M.  Thomson). 

Maera  chiUoni  G.  M.  Thomson,  1897,  p.  447,  pi.  10,  figs.  1-5.     Eurys- 
theus  chiltoni    Stebbing,    1906,    p.    617.      Eurystheus    longicornis 
Walker,  1907,  p.  35,  pi.  12,  fig.  21. 
This  species  was  described  by  Mr.   Thomson  from  specimens  dredged 
in  the  Bay  of  Islands.      I  have  a   specimen  from  Mokohinou,   found   by 
Mx.  C.  R.  Gow  on  seaweed  at  a  depth  of  25  fathoms.      I  think  there  is  no 
doubt  that  E.  longicornis  (Walker)  is  the  same  species  ;    the  descriptions 
agree  generally,  and  the  drawing  given  by  Walker  of  the  second  gnathopod 
of  the  male  agrees  well  with  my  specimen  from  Mokohinou  and  also  with 
co-types  of  Mr.   Thomson's  species  which   I  have  been  able  to  examine. 
Walker's  specimens  were  collected  at  the  winter  cpiarters  of  the  "  Discovery  " 
in  McMurdo  Strait  during  the  National  Antarctic  Expedition,  1901-4. 

Eurystheus  dentatus  (Chevreux). 
Gammaropsis  dentata  Chevreux.  1900,  p.  93,  pi.   12,  fig.  1.     Eurys- 
theus afer  Chilton,  1912,  p.  510,  pi.  ii,  figs.  30-34. 
I  have  a  few  specimens  of  Eurystheus  that  I  have  had  some  dif&culty 
in  identifj'ing.     I  find,  however,  in  the  better -developed  specimens  that  the 
lower  margin  of  the  first  side  plate  is  distinctly  dentate,  as  described  and 
figured  by  Chevreux  for  the  species  named  above,  and  the  general  agree- 
ment in  other  characters  shows  that  they  must  be  referred  to  that  species. 
In  the  New   Zealand  specimens,   both  in  the  male  and  the  female,  the 
gnathopoda  are  more  elongated  and  slender  than  those  figured  by  Chev- 
reux, but  in  others  from  the  Kermadec  Islands  which  seem  to  be  otherwise 
the  same  the  gnathopoda  are  stoutei/  and  like  those  of  Chevreux'  speci- 
mens.    The  New  Zealand  specimens  are  certainly  the  same  as  those   from 
Gough  Island  collected  by  the  "  Scotia  "  Expedition  that  I  referred  with 
much  hesitation  to  E.  afer  Stebbing  in  1912,  and  in  two  the   merus  of  one 
or  more  of  the  last  three  pairs  of  peraeopoda  is  expanded  in  the  same  way 
■  as  it  is  in  one  of  the  Gough  Island  specimens,  though  not  c[uite  to  the  same 
extent. 


8  Transactions. 

The  terminal  segments  of  the  pleon  are  dentate  as  in  E.  thomsoni 
Stebbing,  to  which  I  was  at  first  inclined  to  refer  my  specimens,  and,  indeed, 
the  two  species  may  possibly  prove  to  be  identical ;  in  the  meantime, 
however,  I  have  not  been  able  to  satisfy  myself  on  this  point. 

Chevreux'  specimens  were  from  the  Azores.  It  should  be  remembered 
that  another,  quite  different,  species  from  Alaska  was  described  under  the 
same  name  b}^  Holmes  in  1908  ;  for  this  Stebbing  has  suggested  the  name 
alaskensis  (1910,  p.  613). 

The  specimens  that  I  refer  to  E.  dentatus  (Chevreux)  are  from  Cook 
Strait ;  off  Cape  Saunders  ;  Stewart  Island  ;  and  the  Kermadec  Islands. 
If  I  am  correct  in  my  identifications,  it  is  also  found  at  Gough  Island 
and  at  the  Azores. 

Paracorophium  excavatum  (G.   M.  Thomson). 
CorojjJiium  excavdtum  G.  M.  Thomson,  1884,  p.  236,  pi.  12,  figs.  1-8. 
Paracorophium  excavatum  Stebbing,  1906,  p.  664 ;    Chilton,  1906, 
p.  704. 

This  species  was  described  by  Mr.  Thomson  from  specimens  taken  in 
Brighton  Creek,  near  Dunedin.  Since  then  it  has  been  found  in  several 
localities  around  the  New  Zealand  coast  where  the  water  is  more  or  less 
brackish,  and  also  in  the  fresh-water  lake  Rotoiti,  in  Auckland.  In  1918 
some  amphipods  were  sent  me  from  brackish  water  in  Brisbane  River, 
Queensland,  where  they  had  been  collected,  along  with  the  destructive 
wood-boring  isopod  Sphaeroma  terebrans  Bate,  by  Dr.  T.  Harvey  Johnston, 
and  these  prove  to  belong  to  the  same  species.  The  males  are  distinguished 
from  the  females  by  a  lobe  on  the  end  of  the  penultimate  joint  of  the 
peduncle  of  the  lower  antenna,  and  by  a  differently  shaped  second 
gnathopod.  The  form  originally  figured  by  Thomson  is  an  immature  male. 
I  have  redescribed  the  species  and  given  an  account  of  the  development  of 
the  sexual  characters  in  a  paper  which  will  shortly  be  published  in  the 
Queensland  Museum  Memoirs,  vol.  vii. 

The  occurrence  of  the  species  in  brackish  waters  in  New  Zealand  and 
also  in  northern  Australia  is  of  considerable  interest. 

List  of  Authors  quoted. 

Chevreux,  E.,  1900.    Res.  Campagnes  scientifiques  par  Albert  i''''  de  Monaco,  Fasc.  16. 

1906.     Exped.  Antarr.t.  franraise,  1903-5,  Amphipodes- 

■  1913.     Deuxieme  Exped.  Antarct.  francaise,  Amphipodes. 

Chilton,  C,  1884.     Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.'  16,  p.  259. 

— -  1906.     P.Z.S.,  1906,  pp.  702-5. 

1909.     Subant.  Islands  N.Z.,  Crustacea,  pp.  601-71. 

1912.     AmphiiJ.  Scottish  Nat.  Antarct.  Exped.,  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Edin..  vol.  48, 

pp.  455-519. 
1916.     Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  8,  vol.   IS,  p.   199. 

1917.     Jour.  Zool.  Research,  vol.'  2,  p.  75. 

Dell  A  Valle,  A.,  189.'}.     Faxma  u.  Flora  Goljes  von  Neapel,  Monogr.  20,  Qammarinu 
Haswell,  W.  a.,  1879.     Rroc.  Linn.  Soc.  N.S.W.,  vol.  4,  pp.  319-50. 

1880.     Loc.  cit.,  vol.  5,  p.  103. 

Stebbing,  T.  R.  R.,   1888.     Rep.  "  Challenger "  Amphipoda. 
1899.     Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  7,  vol.  3,  ]).  350. 


--  1906.     Das  Tierreich  Antphipoda. 

1910.     "Thetis"  Amphipoda,  Mem.  Austral.   Mus.,  iv,  pp.  567-658. 


Thomson,  G.  M.,  1879.     Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  11,  pp.  231-48. 

1880.     Ann.  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.,  ser.  5,  vol.  6,  pp.  1-6. 

1897.     Loc.  cit.,  'ser.  6,  vol.  20,  pp.  446-51. 

Thomson,  G.  M.,  and  Chilton,  C,  1886.     Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  18,  pp.  141-59. 
Walker,  A.    O.,    1903.      "Southern   Cross"    Amphipoda,   Jo%ir,   Linn.    Soe.,    vol.   29, 

pp.  37-64. 
1907.     Amphipoda,  Nat.  Antarct.  Exped.,  1901-4.  vol.  3,  pp.  1-39. 


Chbeseman. — Contributions  to  Knowledge  of  Flora  of  N.Z. 


Art.    II. — Contributions  to  a   Fuller  Knowledge  oj  the  Flora  oj  New 

Zealand:  No.   7, 

By  T.  F.  Cheeseman,  F.L.S.,  F.Z:S.,  F.N.Z.Inst.,  Curator  of  the 

Auckland  Museum. 

{Read   before   the    Auckland   Institute,   22nd   December,  1919 ;    received   by    Editor,   31st 
December,  1919  ;    issued  separately,  4th  June,  1920-] 

Colobanthus  Muelleri  T.  Kirk. 

Dry  ground  near  the  verge  of  sea-cliffs,  Manaia,  Taranaki ;  Mrs.  F. 
Mason!  I  am  nbt  aware  of  a  more  northern  locality  on  the  western  side 
of  the  North  Island. 

Plagianthus  cymosus  T.  Kirk. 

Mr.  Phillips  Turner  informs  me  that  this  species  occurs  in  the  valley 
of  the  McLennan  River,  a  branch  of  the  Tahakopa  River,  which  flows  into 
the  sea  about  twenty  miles  south  of  Catlin's  River,  Otago.  The  locality 
is  not  far  from  the  sea,  and  it  would  be  interesting  to  ascertain  whether 
both  P.  betulinus  and  P.  divaricatus  are  to  be  found  in  the  vicinity.  In 
the  Illustrations  of  the  New  Zealand  Flora  (vol.  1,  pi.  21)  I  have  hinted 
at  the  probable  hybrid  origin  of  the  plant. 

Gunnera  arenaria  Cheesm. 

Moist  sandy  places  on  the  coast  near  Manaia,  Taranaki ;  /  Mrs.  F. 
Mason/  Not  previously  recorded  between  New  Plymouth  and  Patea, 
but  probably  always  to  be  found  in  damp  places  on  sand-dunes  of  any 
extent. 

Eugenia  maire  A.  Cunn, 

So  far  as  I  am  aware,  no  one  has  recorded  the  presence  of  pneumato- 
phores  in  Eugenia  maire.  They  were  first  brought  to  my  notice  by 
Mr.  Colin  Stewart,  late  of  Mangatai,  Mokau,  who  supposed  that  they  were 
connected  with  the  remarkable  floating  roots  of  Freycinetia  Banksii, 
mentioned  farther  on  in  this  paper.  The  mistake  is  a  very  natural  one 
to  make  in  a  wooded  swamp,  where  the  roots  of  both  species  are  almost 
inextricably  mixed.  As  Eugenia  is  plentiful  jn  swampy  gullies  at  Birk- 
dale,  near  Auckland,  I  induced  Mr.  F.  S.  Fisher,  a  resident  in  the  locality, 
to  make  a  careful  seaix'h,  which  resulted  in  proving  that  the  pneumato- 
phores  were  abundant  in  most  suitable  localities.  At  a  later  date  I 
visited  the  district  under  Mr.  Fisher's  guidance,  and  was  able  to  prepare 
the  following  notes. 

The  pneumatophores  of  Eugenia  maire  rise  from  the  ordinary  roots  of 
the  tree,  and  reach  a  height  of  9  in.  to  18  in.  above  the  level  of  the 
ground.  They  are  about  |-  in.  in  diameter  at  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
seldom  more,  and  are  rigidly  erect,  and  usually  fasciculately  branched. 
The  ultimate  shoots  are  ^— |  in.  in  diameter,  cylindric,  faintly  constricted 
here  and  there.      They  somewhat  resemble  the  branches  of  Salicornia  in 


10  Transactions. 

appearance,  but  are  not  jointed,  and  are  much  more  stiffly  erect.  Thev 
are  obtuse  and  frequently  swollen  at  the  tip,  spongy  or  corky,  but  are* 
always  furnished  witli  a  hard  woody  central  axis.  The  young  and 
growing  part  of  the  pneumatophore  is  usually  coloured  a  reddish  pink. 
When  old  and  apparently  ceasing  to  perform  its  duties  as  an  air-breather 
the  outside  layers  die, '  and  are  thrown  off  in  thin  whitish  flakes.  No 
pneumatophores  were  noticed  bearing  leaves  ;  but  many  of  them  give  off 
thin  slender  shoots  which  turn  downwards  at  an  acute  angle  and,  entering 
the  ground,  assume  the  appearance  of  true  roots.  The  contrast  between 
the  stiffly  erect  true  pneumatophores  and  the  thinner  branches  all  turning 
sharply  downwards  is  very  remarkable.  It  is  much  to  be  desired  that 
some  one  would  work  out  the  anatomical  peculiarities  of  these  curious 
structures. 

Aciphylla  Cuthbertiana  Petrie. 

I  have  to  thank  31  r.  James  Speden,  of  Gore,  for  an  excellent  suite  of 
specimens  of  this  distinct  species,  collected  on  The  Hump,  near  Lake 
Hauroko,  at  an  elevation  of  about  3,000  ft. 

Coxella  Dieffenbachii  Cheesem. 

Mr.  E.  R.  Chudleigh  informs  me  that  until  comparatively  recent  years 
Coxella.  was  fairly  abundant  on  the  north-east  to  north-west  slopes  of  Cape 
Young  (Mairangi),  on  the  north  side  of  Chatham  Island,  and  may  still  linger 
there.  Originally  the  plant  was  more  or  less  abundant  on  the  whole  of 
the  cliffs  of  the  northern  side,  but  has  been  destroyed  by  sheej)  in  all 
localities  to  which  they  can  gain  access. 

Angelica  rosaefolia  Hook. 

Sea-cliffs  near  Manaia,  Taranaki  ;  Mrs.  F.  Mason !  Not  previously 
recorded  anywhere  on  the  coast-line  south  of  New  Plymouth. 

Panax  Edgerleyi  Hook.  f.  ■  ' 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  \V .  Martin,  of  Christchurch,  for  a  specimen  of 
this,  gathered  in  forest  at  Akaroa.  It  is  not  mentioned  in  Mr.  Laing's 
valuable  paper  on  the  ''  Vegetation  of  Banks  Peninsula,"  nor  in  the  earlier 
lists  of  Raoul  and  Armstrong.  At  the  same  time,  considering  its  distri- 
bution elsewhere  in  New  Zealand,  it  is  precisely  one  of  those  species  that 
might  be  reasonably  expected  to  occur. 

Gnaphalium  Lyallii  Hook.  f. 

Damp  places  on  sea-cliffs  near  Manaia,  Taranaki  ;  Mrs.  F.  Mason! 
As  this  handsome  plant  has  been  gathered  northwards  at  Opunake  by  the 
late  Mr.  T.  Kirk,  and  to  the  south  at  Waingongor©  by  Dr.  Cockayne,  we 
may  assume  that  it  is  probably  abundant  on  the  Taranaki  sea-coast  to 
the  south  of  Cape  Egmont. 

Cotula  coronopifolia  Linn, 

Var.  integrifoUa  T.  Kirk  is  certainly  nothing  more  than  a  starved 
diminutive  form.  On  the  railway  reclamations  on  the  foreshore  of  Auck- 
land Harbour  it  has  appeared  in  immense  abundance  during  the  last  two 
or  three  years,  chiefly  in  places  where  water  has   stagnated  in  winter  or 


Cheesbmak.— Conf776w^?'ons  fo  Knoivhdge  of  Flora  of  N.Z.        11 

spring.  The  ordinary  f6rm  of  the  sj)ecies,  which  is  abundant  in  the  same 
Icoalit)^  when  growing  in  good  soil  and  plentifully  supplied  with  moisture 
has  numerous  branching  stems,  creeping  below  but  ascending  at  the  tips, 
and  has  an  average  height  of  from  5  in.  to  10  in.  From  that  it  passes 
imperceptibly  into  much  smaller  states,  in  which  the  stems  are  unbranched, 
the  leaves  linear  and  entire,  and  the  flower-heads  much  smaller  and  solitary, 
thus  constituting  the  so-called  variety.  When  seeds  are  abundantly  pro- 
duced, and  the  surrounding  area  is  unoccupied,  multitudes  of  seedlings 
appear,  so  closely  packed  and  so  reduced  in  size  as  to  resemble  patches 
of  moss  when  seen  from  a  little  distance.  The  individual  stems,  in  such 
cases,  are  often  not  more  than  |  in.  in  height,  bearing  2  or  3  minute  leaves, 
and  with  a  solitary  flower  1  mm.  in  diameter.  A  patch  of  these  seedlings, 
measuring  2  in.  by  IJin.,  contained  no  fewer  than  313  separate  plants,  the 
tallest  of  which  was  under  1  in.  in  height.  Another  piece,  cut  out  of  a 
patch  some  yards  in  extent,  and  measuring  1-|  in.  by  1  in.,  contained  213 
separate  plants.  A  yard  square,  if  covered  in  a  similar  manner — and 
several  such  instances  were  observed — would  contain  at  least  half  a 
million  plants. 

Dracophyllum  Townsoni  Cheesem, 

3Ir.  James  Sjjeden,  of  Gore,  sends  me  specimens  of  this,  gathered  at  an 
elevation  of  3,000  ft.  on  The  Hump,  near  Lake  Hauroko.  Mr.  Speden 
informs  me  that  he  frequently  observed  leaves  over  2  ft.  in  length,  thus 
equalling  those  of  D.  latifolium  and  D.  Traversii.  None  of  the  specimens 
of  D.  Townsoni  sent  to  me  by  its  discoverer  has  leaves  much  over  12  in., 
but  Mr.  Townson  informs  me  that  possibly  small  specimens  were  selected 
for  convenience  of  carriage.  Mr.  Speden's  plant  has  the  peculiar  decurved 
lateral  panicle  of  D.  Townsoni,  but  he  saw  no  branched  specimens. 

Solanum  aviculare  Forst.  var.  albiflora  Cheesem.  n.  var. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  although  this  species  ordinarily  produces 
purplish  flowers,  yet  occasionally  white-flowered  specimens  are  seen  ;  but 
no  one  seems  to  have  observed  that  in  such  cases  the  colour  of  the  stems 
and  of  the  veins  of  the  leaves  is  also  affected.  As  far  back  as  1880  I  noticed 
that  in  white-flowered  sjDecimens  observed  by  myself  at  Buckland  the 
aspect  of  the  plant  was  somewhat  different  from  that  of  the  purple-flowered 
variety ;  and  at  various  times  since  then  the  same  thought  has  occurred  to 
me,  but  I  failed  to  carry  the  inquiry  any  further.  Early  in  1915,  however, 
Mr.  W.  Townson  observed  that  the  white-flowered  variety  was  by  no  means 
rare  near  Pukekohe  (Auckland  District),  and  was  induced  to  pay  a  little 
attention  to  it.  He  ascertained  that  not  even  one  single  white  flower  is 
ever  produced  on  a  purple-flowered  plant.  He  also  established  the  fact 
that  on  a  white-flowered  plant  the  leaves  are  pale  green,  and  much 
thinner  and  more  delicate  in  texture,  so  that  the  whole  plant  has  a  more 
slender  and  graceful  appearance  ;  and  the  stems  and  veins  of  the  leaves 
are  pale-greenish  or  yellowish-green.  On  the  other  hand,  the  plants  with 
purple  flowers  have  coarser  leaves,  and  the  veins  of  the  leaves  and  the 
stems  are  purplish  or  brownish-purple. 

Mr.  James  Graham,  'of  Patumahoe,  has  also  investigated  the  matter. 
He  informs  me  that,  having  noticed  several  plants  Nyitli  white  flowers  on 
the  earthworks  of  the  Waiuku  railway,  he  collected  a  number  of  seeds  f.nd 
had  them  sown  in  the  Patumahoe  School  garden.      About  thirty  plants 


12  Transactions. 

were  raised,  all  of  which  have  the  thin  leaves  and  yellowish  veins  of  the 
white-flowered  variety.  All  the  plants  that  have  flowered  up  to  the  present 
time  have  borne  white  flowers.  The  facts  thus  collected  by  Mr.  Townson 
and  Mr.  Graham  may  be  taken  as  a  satisfactory  proof  that  the  white - 
flowered  plant  constitutes  a  stable  variety,  "coming  true"  from  seed,  and 
well  worth  distinguishing  by  a  varietal  name. 

Atriplex  Billardieri  Hook.  f. 

Sandy  shores  of  Matakana  Island,  between  Tauranga  and  Katikati ; 
a  few  plants  only  ;  T.  F.  C.  This  plant  is  singularly  rare,  and  is  seldom 
seen  in  any  quantity.  I  am  not  aware  that  it  has  been  gathered  in  any 
locality  on  the  western  side  of  either  the  North  or  the  South  Island. 

Pimelea  Gnidia  Willd. 

Mr.  W .  Townson  has  forwarded  specimens  gathered  on  the  summit  of  a 
lofty  hill  between  the  Kauaeranga  River  and  the  Hihi  Stream,  Thames. 
This  is  at  least  150  miles  from  the  nearest  part  of  the  Ruahine  Mountains, 
the  most  northerly  locality  previously  known. 

Tupeia  antarctica  Cham.  &  Schl. 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  B.  E.  Sixtus,  of  Umutai,  on  the  western  flanks 
of  the  Ruahine  Range,  for  specimens  of  this,  parasitic  on  Olea  Cunrmig- 
hamii,  which  is  quite  a  new  host  so  far  as  my  own  knowledge  is  concerned. 

Dactylanthus  Taylori  Hook.  f.  ' 

Mr.  W.  Townson,  so  well  known  from  his  fruitful  botanical  explora- 
tion of  the  Westport  district,  but  now  resident  at  the  Thames,  has  been 
fortunate  enough  to  discover  this  remarkable  plant  in  great  abundance 
in  the  elevated  forest  district  lying  north-east  from  the  town  of  Thames. 
So  far  as  I  can  judge,  this  is  a  continuation  of  the  locality  where  it  was 
observed  by  the  late  Mr.  T.  Kirk  in  April,  1869  (see  Trans.  N.Z.  hist.,  vol.  2, 
pp.  94-95).  Mr.  Townson  informs  me  that  it  can  be  observed  for  several 
miles  along  what  is  known  as  "  Crosby's  Track,"  and  that  he  is  acquainted 
with  at  least  six  separate  stations.  In  all  cases  the  host  was  Scheffiera 
digitata,  as  is  usual  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  Auckland  Provincial 
District.  The  rhizome  attains  a  considerable  size,  the  largest  seen  weighing 
over  6  lb.  As  the  result  of  the  examination  of  very  numerous  specimens 
Mr.  Townson  has  definitely  proved  that  the  mature  plant  is  monoecious, 
the  male  and  female  spadices  being  produced  on  the  same  rhizome,  and 
often  side  by  side.  The  male  spadices,  however,  are  the  more  numerous. 
All  observers  have  pronounced  the  flowers  to  be  highly  fragrant,  but  dis- 
agree as  to  the  nature  of  the  perfume.  Mr.  Townson  states  that  it  resembles 
that  of  a  "ripe  rock-melon,"  but  he  also  says  that  "like  many  perfumes, 
it  may  also  pass  into  a  bad  smell  wlien  too  concentrated."  He  also  remarks 
that  on  one  occasion  he  "  kept  a  large  rhizome  for  a  considerable  time  in 
a  back  room,  where  it  gradually  expanded  its  flowers.  The  scent  was  so 
attractive  to  flies  that  all  day  long  it  was  surrounded  by  a  little  crowd  of 
them."  No  doubt  this  points  to  the  fertilization  of  the  plant  through  insect 
agency.  The  flowering  season  appears  to  last,  at  the  Thames,  from  the 
middle  of  March  to  the  middle  of  April. 


Cheeseman. — Contributions  to  Knowledgt  of  Flora  of  N .Z .        13 

Urtica  ferox  Forst. 

Mr.  T.  H.  Trevor  has  discovered  another  locality  for  this  sjiecies  in  the 
Bay  of  Islands  County,  a  few  miles  distant  from  the  Ngamahanga  wahi-tapu 
mentioned  in  my  last  contribution  to  this  series  {Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  51, 
p.  89).  This  makes  it  probable  that  the  plant  may  be  observed  in  other 
stations  north  of  Auckland.  For  a  new  southern  locality  I  am  indebted  to 
Mr.  A.  Allison,  who  informs  me  that  it  is  not  uncommon  at  the  base  of  the 
Paeroa  Range,  between  Waiotapu  and  Orakei-korako. 


Freycinetia  Banksii  A.  Cunn. 

1  am  not  aware  that  any  one  has  recorded  the  presence  of  curious 
floating  roots  in  Freycinetia  Banksii.  My  first  acquaintance  with  them 
was  derived  from  a  fragment  forwarded  by  Mr.  B.  C.  Aston  last  February, 
which  was  collected  by  Mr.  Sidney  Fry  in  the  Totara  Creek,  a  small 
tributary  of  the  Mokau  River,  junctioning  with  it  about  eighteen  miles 
above  its  mouth.  This  fragment  presented  several  unusual  features, 
and  I  was  consequently  glad  to  avail  myself  of  the  kind  assistance  of 
Mr.  Colin  Stewart,  at  that  time  residing  in  the  locality,  for  obtaining  a 
copious  supply  of  specimens.  These  consisted  of  slender  roots,  often 
several  feet  in  length,  in  which  the  central  axis  is  firm  and  solid,  but 
the  cortical  tissue  very  loose  and  open.  These  roots  are  copiously 
branched,  the  ultimate  divisions  being  very  numerous  and  filiform.  The 
outstanding  peculiarity  of  the  roots,  however,  which  at  once  attracts 
attention,  is  that  they  are  regularly  girdled,  as  it  were,  with  conspicuous 
spongy  or  corky  whitish  rings.  These  give  the  roots  a  very  remarkable 
appearance,  so  that  Mr.  Fry,  their  original  discoverer,  describes  them  as 
"  wavina;  about  with  the  disturbing  currents  like  so  manv  worms,  their 
brown  segmented  forms,  with  the  whitish  sheaths  encircling  them  at 
intervals,  giving  them  the  appearance  of  ringed  worms." 

Mr.  Colin  Stewart,  in  endeavouring  to  find  the  origin  of  the  roots,  con- 
sidered that  he  had  traced  them  to  a  tree  \^hich  I  have  identified  as 
Eugenia  maire,  the  branches,  leaves,  and  pneumatophores  of  which  he  sent. 
But  this  I  believe  to  be  a  very  pardonable  mistake.  A  lengthened  search 
at  Birkdale,  in  a  swampy  district  where  both  Eugenia  and  Freycinetia  are 
abundant,  and  in  which  I  had  the  assistance  of  Mr.  F.  S.  Fisher  and 
]Mr.  John  Bishop,  resulted  in  showing  that  while  it  was  comparatively  easy 
to  connect  the  floating  roots  with  Freycinetia,  and  the  pneumatophores 
with  Eugenia,  all  attempts  to  trace  the  floating  roojs  to  Eugenia  failed. 

The  exact  use  of  these  "  floating  roots  "  in  Freycinetia  must  remain 
doubtful  until  their  anatomical  structure  has  been  investigated,  but  in  all 
probability  they  may  be  looked  upon  as  "  breathing-roots." 


Juncus  scheuchzerioides  Gaud. 

This  is  one  of  the  species  added  to  the  florula  of  Macquarie  Island  by 
Mr.  H.  Hamilton,  during  the  stay  of  a  portion  of  the  Australasian  Antarctic 
Expedition  on  that  island  during  the  years  1911-13.  It  is  a  true  circum- 
polar  plant,  having  been  recorded  from  the  Auckland  and  Campbell  Islands, 
Antipodes  Islands,  Fuegia,  Falkland  Islands,  South  Georgia,  the  Crozets>. 
and  Kerguelen  Islands. 


14  Transactions. 

Scirpus  aucklandicus  Boeck. 

This  also  has  been  collected  on  Macquarie  Island  for  the  first  time  b}' 
Mr.  H.  Hamilton.  Its  existence  thereon  might  have  been  safely  predicted, 
seeing  that  it  is  the  most  common  species  of  the  genus  on  the  islands  to 
the  south  of  New  Zealand.  It  has  also  been  recorded  from  Tasmania  and 
from  the  isolated  Amsterdam  Island,  but  both  these  localities  require  fuller 
confirmation. 

Carex  trifida  Cav. 

Fringing  swamp-holes  on  flats  at  West  Point,  Macquarie  Island  ; 
H.  Hamilton !  Apparently  not  common,  for  Mr.  Hamilton  remarks 
on  his  labels  that  it  was  seen  only  in  the  locality  quoted  above.  The 
geographical  distribution  of  the  species  is  given  in  the  Manual. 

Triodia  macquariensis  Cheesem. 

"  Apparently  perennial,  tufted,  often  forming  dense  patches,  smooth 
and  glabrous.  Culms  numerous,  erect  or  geniculate  at  the  base,  6-12  cm. 
long,  leafy  to  the  base  of  the  panicle.  Leaves  equalling  the  culms  or  longer 
than  them,  rather  narrow,  1-2  mm.  broad,  deeply  striate,  quite  glabrous, 
flat  or  involute,  margins  thickened,  tips  obtuse,  callous  ;  ligules  broad 
ovate,  thin  and  membranous  ;  sheaths  unusually  long,  much  broader  than 
the  blades,  sometimes  as  much  as  5  mm.  across,  smooth,  pale,  and  mem- 
branous. Panicle  narrow,  glabrous,  2-3  cm.  long  ;  branches  few,  short, 
erect.  Spikelets  6-15,  3-5-flowered,  6-7  mm.  long,  the  lowest  flower  sessile 
at  the  base  of  the  spikelet,  the  upper  usually  remote  from  one  another. 
Empty  glumes  unequal,  the  lower  half  to  two-thirds  the  length  of  the 
upper,  glabrous,  oblong,  obtuse,  3-nerved.  Flowering-glumes  ovate  or 
broadly  ovate-oblong,  rounded  at  the  back,  not  keeled,  5-nerved,  glabrous 
or  very  faintly  pubescent  on  the  nerves,  minutely  3-toothed  at  the  tip  or 
irregularly  erose.  Palea  broad,  2-keeled,  the  keels  ciliolate.  Lodicules  2, 
acute. 

"  Hah. — Macq.uarie  Island,  rocks  and  cliffs  near  the  coast ;  H.  Hamil- 
ton !  (1912-13). 

"  Mr.  Hamilton  remarks  that  this  is  a  common  coastal  grass,  found  in 
crevices  in  bare  rock  or  on  the  cliffs.  Some  of  his  specimens  are  plentifully 
mixed  with  Tillaea  moschata  or  Colobanthiis  muscoides,  both  plants  common 
in  littoral  situations.  Scraps  of  Callitriche  antarctica  are  also  present.  Its 
discovery  adds  another  species  to  the  list  of  those  endemic  in  Macquarie 
Island,  of  which  three  species  are  now  known — Deschampsia  penicillata,  Poa 
Hamiltoni,  and  Triodia  macquariensis.  I  have  found  it  a  puzzling  plant 
to  place.  It  differs  from  Poa  principally  in  the  flowering-glumes  being 
rounded  on  the  back,  and  minutely  3-toothed  (or  irregularly  erose)  at  the 
tip.  It  agrees  with  Atropis  in  the  flowering-glumes  being  rounded  on  the 
back,  but  differs  in  habit,  and  in  the  3-toothed  tip  of  the  flowering-glume. 
Although  not  a  typical  Triodia,  it  must  be  kept  in  the  vicinity  of  the  New 
Zealand  T.  australis." 

The  above  has  appeared  in  my  memoir  on  "  The  Vascular  Flora  of 
Macquarie  Island,"  published  in  the  Scientific  Rep)orts  of  the  Australasian 
Antarctic  Expedition.  I  reproduce  it  here  to  draw  fuller  attention  to  the 
species,  which  may  occur  in  the  islands  to  the  south  of  New  Zealand. 

Festuca  erecta  D'Urville. 

Macquarie  Island,  not  uncommon  on  rocks  near  the  sea  ;  Dr.  Scott, 
A.  Hamilton!  H.  Hamilton!      This  is  the  plant  described  as  a  new  specie^ 


Cheeseman. — Contributions  to  Knowledge  of  Flora  of  N.Z.        15 

by  Mr.  T.  Kirk,  under  the  name  of  F.  contracta  {Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  27, 
p.  353).  Kirk  had  only  two  very  indifferent  specimens  to  deal  with  ;  but, 
fortunately,  Mr.  H.  Hamilton  secured  a  fair  number  of  specimens.  An 
examination  of  these  proved  that  the  plant  was  either  very  closely  allied 
to  the  Fuegian  and  Kerguelen  Festuca  erecta  D'Urvillei  or  positively  iden- 
tical with  it.  There  being  no  authenticated  specimens  of  F.  erecta  in  New 
Zealand,  I  applied  to  Dr.  Stapf,  of  the  Kew  Herbarium,  with  the  view  of 
having  a  comparison  made.  This  he  has  kindly  done,  with  the  result  of 
proving  that  the  Macquarie  Island  plant  is  identical  with  F.  erecta.  This 
is  practically  a  circumpolar  species,  having  been  recorded  from  Fuegia, 
Falkland  Islands,  South  Georgia,  and  Kerguelen  Island. 

Cyathea  medullaris  Swartz. 

1  am  not  aware  that  any  actual  measurements  of  the  height  of  this 
species  have  been  published.  In  books  it  is  usually  given  as  "  from  10  ft. 
to  40  ft.  high,"  but  it  certainly  attains  a  much  greater  height.  With  the 
view  of  putting  some  definite  information  on  record,  I  induced  Mr.  E.  Le  Roy 
to  measure  the  height  of  two  fine  specimens  growing  in  a  ravine  on  his 
property  at  Birkenhead,  He  informs  me  that  the  smaller  of  the  two  is 
39  ft.  to  the  crown  ;  the  other  one  being  46  ft.  to  the  crown,  and  50  ft.  to 
the  top  of  the  fronds.  As  I  have  seen  taller  specimens,  we  can  safely 
conclude  that  it  occasionally  reaches  between  60  ft.  and  65  ft,  in  height. 

Dicksonia  squarrosa  Swartz. 

Mr.  Le  Roy  has  also  been  kind  enough  to  measure  the  height  of  two 
specimens  of  Dicksonia  squarrosa.  The  higher  one  measured  23  ft.  8  in.  to 
the  crown,  and  27  ft.  to  the  top  of  the  fronds  ;  the  other  proved  to  be 
19  ft.  6  in.  to  the  crown,  and  21  ft.  to  the  top  of  the  fronds. 

Nothochlaena  distans  R.  Br. 

The  late  Mr.  H  C.  Field,  in  his  book,  Ferns  of  New  Zealand  (p.  88, 
and  pi.  xxviii,  fig.  4),  alludes  to  a  supposed  new  Cheilanthes  collected 
by  Mr.  A.  C.  Purdie  near  Dunedin.  The  description  given  is  inconclusive, 
and  the  figure  does  not  show  sufficient  detail  to  enable  the  generic  position 
of -the  plant  to  be  made  out.  In  default  of  any  specimens  I  consequently 
did  not  allude  to  it  in  the  Manual. 

Rather  more  than  a  year  ago,  however.  Professor  A.  Wall  forwarded 
a  specimen  of  a  fern  collected  in  clefts  in  basaltic  rocks  at  Diamond 
Harbour,  a  bay  of  Port  Lyttelton,  suggesting  that  it  might  prove  to  be 
Mr.  Field's  plant.  In  this  view  I  concurred,  but  as  the  specimen  showed 
no  signs  of  sori  it  was  impossible  to  fix  its  systematic  position.  Professor 
Wall  has  now  forwarded  an  ample  series  of  specimens  in  all  stages, 
proving,  as  he  says,  that  the  plant  is  only  a  shade  form  of  Nothochlaena 
distans.  It  usually  occurred  in  deep  crevices  entirely  shaded  from  the 
sun,  and  is  consequently  not  so  rigid  nor  so  well  covered  with  linear  scales 
as  the  typical  state,  which  .is  frequently  seen  in  dry  situations  in  the 
Auckland  lava-fields.  In  the  ramification  of  the  frond,  and  in  the  position 
and  character  of  the  sori,  the  two  plants  are  practically  identical. 

Naturalized  Plants. 

Eschscholtzia  californica  Cham. 

This  plant,  which  is  sparingly  naturalized  as  a  garden  escape,  appears 
to  be  poisonous  to  stock,  judging  frojn  the  following  particulars  sup- 
plied to  me   by   Mr.   T.   H.   Trevor,  of   Pakaraka,  Bay  of   Islands.      He 


16  Transactions. 

removed  the  fence  from  an  abandoned  garden,  exposing  a  few  plants  of 
the  Eschscholtzia.  A  bull  running  in  the  paddock  ate  a  few  leaves  and  was 
seriously  affected,  but  ultimately  recovered.  The  plants  were  then  grubbed 
up  and  destroyed,  and  no  further  symptoms  were  noticed  among  the 
cattle.  Unfortunately,  it  was  not  observed  that  a  large  numbei  of 
seedlings  had  appeared  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  old  plants,  so  that 
when  a  number  of  lambs  were  placed  in  the  paddock  they  were  at  once 
affected,  half  a  dozen  dying  within  an  hour.  At  first  they  appeared  to 
be  silly,  then  lost  the  use  of  their  limbs,  and  died  frothing  at  the  mouth. 

Psoralea  pinnata  Linn. 

Mr.  R.  Waters  sends  me  specimens  of  this  from  the  neighbourhood  of 
Dargaville,  where  it  is  said  to  be  spreading  fast.  I  have  also  observed  it 
by  roadsides  at  Birkdale,  near  Auckland.  The  only  previous  record  is 
Waipvi  (see  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  46,  p.  8). 

Chrysanthemum  coronarium  Linn. 

This  well-known  garden-plant  has  appeared  as  an  escape  from  cultiva- 
tion in  several  localities  near  Auckland.  It  has  also  established  itself  on 
the  railway  reclamations  along  the  side  of  Auckland  Harbour.  It  is  a 
common  plant  in  the  Mediterranean  region,  extending  southwards  to  the 
Azores,  and  has  often  appeared  as  a  naturalized  plant  in  Britain.^ 

Senecio  spathulatus  A.  Rich. 

This  species,  which  is  allied  to  the  New  Zealand  S.  lautus  Forst.,  has 
appeared  in  great  quantities  on  the  Harbour  Board  and  railway  reclama- 
tions fringing  Auckland  Harbour,  and  is  fast  making  its  way  into  waste 
places  within  the  City  of  Auckland  itself.  It  has  probably  been  accident- 
ally introduced  from  Australia,  where  it  is  known  from  several  localities, 
and  particularly  from  "sandy  shores  in  Port  Jackson"  (Sydney  Harbour). 
I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  Maiden,  of  the  Sydney  Botanical  Gardens,  for  asking 
his  assistant,  Mr.  Cheel,  to  make  a  special  report  on  my  specimens  of  the 
plant,  with  which  I  have  been  somewhat  puzzled.  He  informs  me  that, 
although  it  comes  under  the  circumscription  of  *S.  spathulatus  as  defined 
by  Mr.  Bentham  in  the  Flora  Australiensis,  all  the  New  South  Wales 
specimens,  as  well  as  all  my  own,  have  pubescent  achenes  and  2-nerved 
involucral  bracts,  thus  agreeing  with  the  description  of  S.  anacampserotis 
DC,  and  differing  from  the  type  description  of  S.  spathulatus,  which  is 
said  to  have  the  fruit  "linearis  striatus' gkiber."  Mr.  Cheel  considers 
it  to  be  an  open  question  whether  S.  anacampserotis  should  not  be 
re-established  as  a  species. 

J  uncus  acutiflorus  Ehr. 

Moist  gullies  at  Pukeatua,  "West  Taupo  County ;  D.  Petrie !  I  am 
indebted  to  Mr.  Petrie  for  specimens  of  this  species,  which  has  not  been 
previously  noticed  as  introduced  into  New  Zealand.  I  understand  that 
the  specimens  were  identified  by  Dr.  Stapf,  of  the  Kew  Herbarium, 

Festuca  fallax  Thuill.  and  F.  dura  Host. 

I  have  also  to  thank  Mr.  Petrie  for  specimens  of  these  two  plants,  which 
have  been  identified  by  Dr.  Stapf  under  the  names  given  above — in  the 
case  of  the  second  one  with  some  little  doubt.  In  a  broad  sense  they 
would  doubtless  be  treated  as  forms  of  the  widespread  F.  rubra  Linn. 


Petrie. — Descriptions  of  New  Native  Flowering-plants.  17 

Art.  Ill — Descriptions  of  New  Native  Flotvering-plants. 

By  D.  Petrie,  M.A.,  Pli.D.,  F.N.Z.Inst. 

[Read   before   the    AncHand   Institute,    22nd   Decemher,    1919  ;    received   by   Editor,  31st 
December,  1919  ;  issued  separately,  4th  June,  1920.] 

Pittosporum  Matthewsii  sp.  nov. 

Planta  P.  virgatae  T.  Kirk  affinis  ;  differt  foliis  confertis,  maturis  lineari- 
oblongis  subacutis  glabris  a  marginibus  undulatis  ;  capsulis  longioribus 
subacute  obovatis,  ±  1-8  cm.  longis,  circa  1cm.  latis,  valvis  duabus  nee 
canaliculatis  nee  latere  depressis  atris  undique  lacunosis. 

A  small  compactly  branched  tree,  20-25  ft.  high,  with  black  bark. 

Juvenile  state  :  Branches  and  twigs  slender,  the  latter  closely  covered 
with  greyish-white  pubescence  ;  leaves  rather  closely  placed,  patent,  narrow- 
linear,  +  2  cm.  long,  i  2  mm.  wide,  subacute  entire  or  slightly  waved 
at  the  margins,  glabrous  or  nearly  so,  little  coriaceous,  somewhat  recurved 
at  the  edges  when  dried,  midrib  evident  below,  rather  obscure  above,  the 
upper  surface  dark  green  and  polished,  paler  below  ;  very  young  leaves 
brownish-green  and  more  or  less  closely  clothed  with  white  semipubescent 
hairs  ;   petioles  very  short  *and  slender. 

Mature  state  :  Twigs  more  or  less  closely  scarred  by  the  bases  of  the 
fallen  leaves  ;  leaves  rather  closely  placed,  linear-oblong  or  narrow  obovate- 
oblong,  +  4  cm.  long,  5-8  mm.  wide,  subacute,  glabrous  except  the  sub- 
floral  which  are  closely  covered  with  brownish-yellow  tomentum,  moderately 
coriaceous,  entire,  flat  or  more  or  less  wavy  at  the  margins  (rarely  obscurely 
sinuate-dentate  near  the  tips),  the  lower  surface  paler  with  conspicuous 
dark-red  midrib  and  veins,  above  more  or  less  polished  with  midrib  obscure 
and  veins  obsolete,  edges  slightly  recurved  when  dried ;  petioles  very 
short  and  slender. 

Flowers  terminal,  solitary  or  in  compact  umbels  of  6  or  fewer,  rather 
small,  +  7  mm.  long ;  peduncles  not  longer  than  the  flowers,  densely 
clothed,  as  are  also  the  sepals,  with  brownish-yellow  tomentum  ;  sepals 
linear-lanceolate,  acute  ;  petals  dark  red,  narrow-cuneate,  obtuse,  sharply 
recurved  over  the  tips  of  the  sepals  ;  pistil  as  long  as  the  flower,  pilosely 
pubescent  below  the  style.  Mature  capsules  subacutely  obovate  or  sub- 
pyriform,  +  1-8  cm.  long,  about  1cm.  broad  above  the  middle,  obtuse 
or  broadly  subacute,  shortly  apiculate,  glabrous,  2-valved,  the  valves 
nearly  semicircular  in  cross-section  and  neither  grooved  nor  ribbed,  black- 
pitted  all  over. 

Hah. — Kennedy  Bay,  Coromandel  Peninsula  :    H.  B.  Matthews  ! 

The  close  placing  of  the  leaves,  their  linear-oblong  outline,  and  the 
distinctive  size  and  shape  of  the  mature  capsule  clearly  distinguish  this 
species  from  P.  virgatum.  I  have  seen  nothing  to  indicate  any  variation 
in  the  form  of  the  juvenile  leaves,  but  as  I  have  not  seen  the  plants  growing 
I  cannot  be  certain  that  such  variation  does  not  occur. 

Uncinia  longifructus  (Kiik.)  Petrie  sp.  nov. 

U.  laxe  caespitosa  v.  +  diffusa  ;  culmi  12-20  cm.  longi  filiformes  teretes 
stricti  glabri  leviter  canaliculati.  Folia  peranguste  linearia  plana  v.  + 
complicata  tenuia  flaccida  longe  vaginantia  vix  canaliculata,  carina  subtus 
conspicua.     Spiculae  breves  pauciflorae    -t    1  cm.  longae    ±  5  mm.  latae  ; 


18  Transactions. 

pars  mascula  brevissima  ;  glumae  anguste  lanceolatae  acutae  tenues  pallide 
virides,  leviter  3-nerviae,  a  marginibus  late  scariosae,  mox  decidual. 
Utriculi  5-6  mm.  longiplano-convexi  peranguste  elliptici  aenei  politi,  nervis 
duobus  baud  conspicuis  distantibus  a  latere  convexo  percursi ;  rhacbeola 
utriculum  dimidio  superans  ;   nux  oblonga  triquetra  apice  leviter  annulata. 

Laxly  tufted  or  spreading  more  or  less  freely  by  slender  stolons. 
Culms  12-20  cm.  long,  filiform,  terete,  strict,  smooth,  slightly  grooved, 
clothed  for  one-third  their  length  by  the  sheathing  leaf -bases,  equalling  or 
exceeding  the  leaves.  Leaves  very  narrow  linear,  flat  or  slightly  folded, 
thin  and  flaccid,  smooth  (the  edges  towards  the  tips  only  slightly  scabrid), 
long-sheathing  hardly  grooved,  midrib  evident  below.  Spikelets  short  and 
few-flowered,  +  1  cm.  long  including  the  bristles,  and  about  h^f  as  wide  ; 
female  flowers  3-4  (rarely  more)  ;  male  part  very  short,  of  2-3  flowers  ; 
stamens  3,  long.  Glumes  narrow-lanceolate,  acute,  thin,  pale  green,  rather 
faintly  3-nerved  along  the  middle  of  the  back,  with  broad  scarious  edges, 
the  lateral  nerves  vanishing  below  the  apex,  soon  falling  away  from  the 
broad  cupular  expansions  of  the  rhachis  on  which  they  are  seated.  Utricles 
5-6  mm.  long,  very  narrow  elliptic,  more  or  less  plano-convex,  greenish- 
brown,  polished,  with  two  rather  faint  distant  nerves  near  the  edges  of 
the  convex  face,  broadly  stipitate  below,  very  gradually  narrowed  above 
into  a  long  acute  beak  ;  bristle  1\  times  as  long  as  the  utricle.  Nut 
oblong,  triquetrous,  slightly  annulate  at  the  base  of  the  style. 

Hah. — Open  beech  forest,  Routeburn  Valley,  Lake  County,  at  2,300  ft. ; 
End  Peak,  Lake  Hauroto,  J.  Crosby  Smith  !  Clinton  Valley,  Lake  Te  Anau, 
in  open  bush. 

Kiikenthal  has  made  this  plant  a  variety  of  U.  feneUa  R.  Br.  It  is 
easily  distinguished  from  the  latter  by  the  following  characters  :^  the  thin 
flat  flaccid  long-sheathing  leaves,  the  much  longer  culms,  and  the  greatly 
longer  and  narrower  plano-convex  greenish-brown  polished  utricles.  The 
length  of  the  utricle  of  U.  tenella  is  given  as  li  lines  by  Bentham  and  as 
3  mm.  by  C.  B.  Clarke,  and  its  shape  is  altogether  different  from  that 
of  the  plant  here  described.  Kiikenthai  gives  the  length  of  the  utricles  of 
U.  tenella  as  3.^-  mm.,  and  those  of  his  variet}'  longifructus  as  6  mm. 
He  also  states  (incorrectly)  that  C.  B.  Clarke  always  found  only  two 
stamens  in  the  male  flowers  of  U.  tenella. 

Note  on  Uncinia  tenella  R.  Br. 

Specimens  of  an  Uncinia  collected  by  Dr.  Cockayne  and  myself  at 
an  elevation  of  about  4,000  ft.  on  Kelly's  Hill  (Taramakau  River), 
Westland,  belong,  so  far  as  I  can  judge,  to  this  species,  the  typical 
form  of  which  has  not  so  far  been  recorded  from  New  Zealand.  These 
closely  match  specimens  of  Brown's  plant  from  (1)  Southport  (Tasmania), 
(2)  Upper  Yarra  (Victoria),  and  (3)  the  Dandenong  Ranges  (Victoria), 
given  me  by  the  late-  Sir  Ferdinand  Mueller.  In  the  Kelly's  Hill  plant 
the  stamens  were  3  in  the  few  male  flowers  I  could  spare  for  dis- 
section. In  one  of  the  Southport  plants  there  were  2  stamens  in  three 
of  the  male  flowers,  and  3  in  two  other  flowers.  Bentham  found  only  2 
stamens  in  the  flowers  he  examined.  Mr.  C.  B.  Clarke  says  the  stamens 
in  the  specimens  seen  were  2,  at  least  most  frequently — "  saltern  saepissime." 
The  utricles  of  the  Kelly's  Hill  plant  difl'er  in  no  respect  from  those  of 
tvpical  U.  tenella.  Mr.  Cheeseman  {Manual,  p.  800)  considers  the  Kelly's 
Hill  plant  intermediate  between  U.  tenella  R.  Br.  and  U.  nervosa  Boott. 
What  U.  nervosa  may  be  no  one  knows  definitely.      Bentham  remarks  that 


Petrie. — Descriptions  of  New  Native  Flowering-plants.  19 

it  was  founded  on  a  single  specimen,  and  refers  it  to  U.  compacta  R.  Br. 
Mr.  C.  B.  Clarke  ranks  it  as  a  variety  of  the  latter.  The  U.  nervosa 
in  Cheeseman's  Manual  seems  to  me  in  no  way  closely  related  to  the 
Kelly's  Hill  plant.  The  figure  of  Boott's  species  in  Flora  Tasmanica  is  a 
poor  one,  and  affords  little  help'  in  identifying  it. 

Uncinia  caespitosa  Col.  var.  collina  var.  nov. 

Rhizoma  late  stolonifera  culmos  plurifoliosos  plerumque  diffusos  edens. 
Culmi  foliaque  quam  in  typo  breviores.  Folia  culmis  breviora  vel  eos 
aequantia,  10-20  cm.  alta  4-6  mm.  lata,  plana  suberecta  coriacea,  in 
apices  incrassatos  longe  productos  abeuntia.  Spiculae  4—8  cm.  longae 
+  8  mm.'  latae,  subclavatae,  supra  densiflorae,  infra  floribus  laxioribus  ; 
glumae  femineae  utriculis  nonnihil  longiores  ;  nux  elliptico-oblonga. 

Hab. — Mount  Hikurangi  (East  Coast),  at  4,800  ft.  ;  Ruahine  Mountains, 
at  3,500  ft.  :  B.  C.  Aston  !     Tararua  Mountains  (Mount  Holdsworth),  3,200  ft. 

This  is  a  very  distinct-looking  form,  and  has  considerable  claim  to 
specific  rank.  It  forms  •  large  open  somewhat  sward-like  patches,  and 
never  grow^s  in  distinct  tufts,  as  the  typical  form  usually  does. 

Carex  secta  Bootb  var.  tenuiculmis  var.  nov. 

Var.  C.  virgatae  Sol.  habitu  subsimilis  ;  a  planta  t5^pica  differt  culmis 
gracillimis  baud  raro  filiformibus,  foliis  tenuibus  perangustis  flaccidis 
complanatis  vel  apicem  versus  concavis  (costa  media  parum  conspicua) 
40-60  cm.  longis  culmos  aequantibus  vel  excedentibus  ;  inflorescentia 
6-15  cm.  longa  simplici  +  pendula  spiculis  plerumque  remotis  parvis  pauci; 
floris  sessilibus  praedita  vel  a  parte  inferiore  breviter  ramosa  (ramis  paucis 
brevibus  indivisis)  ;  rhachide  pergracili  vel  filiform! ;  utriculis  breviter 
stipitatis  vel  paene  astipitatis.         • 

Hab. — Damp  localities  in  eastern  and  southern  Otago  :  D.  P.  Damp 
localities  in  the  Hanmer  and  Castle  Hill  districts.  North  Canterbury. :  Arnold 
Wall  !  Damp  localities  in  Chatham  Islands  :  L.  Cockayne  !  W.  R.  B. 
Oliver  ! 

I  am  indebted  to  Professor  Wall  for  drawing  my  attention  to  this 
interesting  plant,  which  I  had  unwittingly  placed  in  the  same  species-wrajDper 
as  C.  virgata.  From  this  it  differs  entirely  in  the  structure  of  the  utricles. 
A*hand-and-eye  examination  will  hardly  disclose  its  true  position.  The 
Chatham  Island  specimens  show  only  immature  utricles,  but  I  think  their 
identity  with  the  mainland  plant  cannot  be  doubted.  They  also  show 
remarkably  long  leaves  that  greatly  exceed  the  culms. 

Poa  novae-zelandiae  Hackel  var.  Wallii  var.  nov. 

A  forma  typica  differt  foliis  coriaceis  ±  complanatis  et  a  marginibus 
mvolutis  incrassatisque  muticis  ;  panicula  breviore  folia  baud  vel  vix 
excedente,  a  parte  inferiore  foliis  ±  abscondita  ;  spiculis  majoribus  hand 
compressis  ;  glumis  florigeris  latioribus  trinerviis  acutis  hand  incurvatis 
subcoriaceis  ;   palea  breviore  ac  latiore. 

Hab. — Mount  Miromiro  (Amuri  County)  :  A.  Wall !  Top  of  Mount 
Kyeburn  (Maniototo  County)  :  H.  J.  Matthews  !  Mount  Pisa  (Vincent 
County). 

The  present  plant  appears  to  be  confined  to  wet  shingly  stations,  and 
ranges  in  altitude  from  about  3,500  ft.  to  5,000  ft.  or  6,000  ft.  At  the 
higher  altitudes  the  plants  are  very  dwarf. 


20  Trarisactions. 

'Art.  IV. — The  Food   Values  of  New  Zealand  Fish:    Part  I. 
By  (Mrs.)  Dorothy  E.  Johnson,  B.Sc.  in  Home  Science. 
Communicated  by  Professor  J.  Malcolm. 

[Eead  before  the  Olago  Institute,  9th.  December,  1019  ;    received  by  Editor,  31st  December, 

1919  ;    issued  separatehj,  4th  June,  1920.] 

In  all  countries  where  procurable,  fish  should  be  made  an  easily  accessible 
article  of  diet — i.e.,  it  should  be  both  plentiful  in  quantity  and  reasonable 
in  cost ;  but,  so  far,  the  greatest  possible  use  has  not  been  made  of  the 
bountiful  supply  in  New  Zealand  waters.  Beyond  the  investigation  of 
the  composition  of  frost-fish  and  oysters  by  Malcolm*  no  attempt  has  been 
made  to  estimate  the  food  values  of  New  Zealand  fish. 

Recognizing  the  necessity  for  the  prosecution  of  research  in  the 
Dominion,  the  New  Zealand  Government  placed  funds  at  the  disposal  of 
the  New  Zealand  Institute,  which  enabled  that  body  to  make  a  grant  to 
Professor  J.  Malcolm  for  the  investigation  of  the  chemistry  and  food  values 
of  the  New  Zealand  fish.  This  paper  outlines  the  work  done  in  that 
connection.      The  aim  has  been  to  ascertain — 

(a.)  The    percentage    composition    of    the    edible    portion    of    the    fish 

investigated. 
(6.)  The  caloric  value  of  the  fish  (by  calculation), 
(c.)  The  percentage  of  waste  in  the  fish  as  bought. 
(d.)  From  the  point  of  view  of  cost,  to  arrive  at  some  conclusion  as 

to  the  comparative  values  of  the  fish  as  an  article  of  diet. 

Methods. 

The  fish  were  obtained  from  Dunedin  retail  fish-dealers,  with  the 
exception  of  one  "  baby  "  groper,  which  was  sent  from  the  Portobello 
I'ish-hatcheries,  and  a  sample  each  of  mullet  and  snapper,  which  were 
sent  from  Auckland  by  boat.  With  the  larger  fish,  from  ^  lb.  to  1  lb.  was 
purchased,  as  would  be  done  for  home  consumption.  Wherever  possible 
three  samples,  bought  at  difl'erent  times,  were  analysed,  but  this  was  not 
always  possible. 

In  a  few  instances  there  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  exact  variety  of  fish 
bearing  a  commonly  known  name  :  e.g.,  "  sea-bream  "  is  applied  to  two 
or  three  different  varieties  of  fish,f  and  exact  identification  would  have 
been  difficult  owing  to  the  fish  being  for  the  most  part  obtained  in  slices. 
It  is  likely,  however,  that  in  such  instances  the  dift'erences  in  composition 
would  not  be  very  marked — probably  less  than  the  difference  between 
individuals  of  the  same  variety. 

(I.)  Percentage  of  Edible  Material  and  Percentage  of  Waste. 

Skin,  bones,  &c.,  were  separated  from  the  muscle,  and  the  two  portions, 
edible   and  non-edible,   weighed.      The  flesh  was  finely  minced  and  well 

*  Trans.  N.Z.  hid.,  vol.  44,  pp.  265-69,   1912. 

f  Private  information  from  the  Hon.  Ct.  M.  Thomson. 


Johnson. — Food  Values  of  Neiv  Zealand  Fish.  21 

mixed.  Then,  after  a  portion  had  been  set  aside  for  the  estimation  of 
the  water  and  protein  percentage,  the  rest  was  spread  in  thin  layers  on 
glass  plates  and  dried,  either  over  a  low-temperature  water-bath  or  in  an 
oven  maintained  at  52°  C.  Some  oxidation  of  the  fat  was  unavoidable 
in  this  process.  The  dried  material  was  minced  again,  passed  through  a 
fine  sieve,  and  the  larger  pieces  ground  in  a  coffee-mill.  The  whole 
powder  was  carefully  sifted  and  stored  in  a  bottle.  In  the  case  of  tara- 
kihi  1  and  mullet  1  further  oxidation  of  the  fat  was  noticeable  in  that 
part  exposed  to  the  light. 

(II.)  Percentage  of  Water  and  Solids. 

This  was  carried  out  in  a  hot-air  oven  at  65°-70°  C,  the  average  of 
three  estimations  per  sample  being  taken. 

(III.)  Percentage  of  Protein. 

The  total  nitrogen  was  estimated  on  fresh  material  by  the  Kjeldahl 
method,  0*2  N  solutions  of  acid  and  alkali  being  used.  The  protein  was 
calculated  as  total  nitrogen  multiplied  by  6-25,  and  the  average  of  two 
estimations  per  sample  taken.* 

(ly.)  Percentage  of  Fat. 

The  dried  powder  from  (I)  was  extracted  with  sulphuric  ether  in  a 
Soxhlet  extractor.  After  twelve  hours'  extraction  the  solvent  was  evapo- 
rated somewhat,  the  mixture  filtered,  the  remainder  of  the  ether  carefully 
evaporated,  and  the  oil  finally  dried  for  three  hours  or  more  at  52°  C. 
The  figure  in  the  tables  is  the  average  of  two  estimations.  (The  water 
percentage  of  the  powder  was  estimated,  to  obtain  the  amount  of  fresh 
material  represented.) 

(V.)  Percentage  of  Ash. 

This  was  carried  out  in  the  usual  way  with  the  dried  material  from  (II) 
in  a  Davy's  crucible  furnace.  The  longer  method  of  extracting  the  chlo- 
rides with  distilled  water  after  the  first  charring,  and  adding  the  residue 
after  evaporation  to  the  ash,  was  used  at  first  but  discontinued,  as  the 
results  from  the  shorter  method  were  found  to  vary  but  little  from  those 
of  the  longer  method,  and  the  greater  accuracy  seemed  unnecessary,  as  the 
protein  and  fat  estimations  could  only  be  approximate. 

(VI.)  Calculations. 

■  From  these  results  the  following  figures  were  calculated  : — 
(1.)  Calories  per  cent.,  using  the  factors  4-1  large  calories  per  gramme 

of  protein  and  9-3  large  calories  per  gramme  of  fat.  . 
(2.)  The  cost  of  1,000  calories,  and  of  100  grammes  of  protein. 
(3.)  For  purposes  of  comparison  the   composition  of  milk,  meat,  and 

eggs  was  taken  as  given  in  Hutchison's  Food  and  Dietetics. 

Results. 
The  results  are  shown  in, the  following  tables  (I-VI). 

*  The  use  of  this  figure  (6-25)  is  not  quite  satisfactory,  as  the  proper  factor  to  use 
with  fish  proteins  requires  investigation. 


22 


Transactions. 


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Johnson. — Food  Values  of  New  Zealand  Fish. 

Table  II. 


23 


Name  of  Fish,  &c. 

Kind   of 
Sample. 

Price. 
(Pence.) 

Weight.    ' 
(Grammes.) 

Edible. 
(Percentage.) 

Waste. 
(Percentage.) 

Groper 

1 

Slice 

4 

322 

82-92 

17-08 

?j 

2 

?> 

6    ■ 

316 

94-62 

5-38 

99 

3 

99 

6 

271 

97-05 

2-95 

Baby  groper 

1 

?> 

9 

283-5 

87-32 

12-68 

?' 

2 

Whole      . 

.   . 

3,742 

3931 

60-69 

Sea-breaia 

1                '.'. 

Slice 

15 

553 

87-05 

1295 

Crayfish 

1 

Tail 

2 

228-5 

3320 

66-80 

99 

•1 

)> 

3 

83 

79-50 

20-50 

97 

3               '.'. 

Whole      . 

. 

6 

680 

31-18 

68-82 

Snapper 

1 

>> 

17-5 

1,544 

4437 

55-63 

99 

2 

>> 

30 

2,735 

3956 

60  44 

Mullet 

1 

>» 

18 

1,240   , 

6331 

36-69 

Tarakilii 

1 

9f 

30 

1,895 

51-44 

48-56 

5> 

v2         .^    •• 

9* 

9 

520 

53-46 

46-54 

Blue  cod 

'l 

Slice 

21 

744 

47-44 

52-56 

Kiugfish 

1 

>  J 

12 

498 

73-30 

26-70 

>j 

2 

?9 

15 

561 

78-25 

21  75 

Tnimpeter 

1                '.'. 

Whole      . 

18 

909 

50-82 

49-18 

Moki 

1 

99 

18 

1,159 

50  12 

49-88 

>J 

2 

Slice 

15 

572 

78-32 

21-68 

Egg    .. 

One 

1           2 

50 

88-00 

12-00 

Beef    .. 

Steak 

•   '         12 

454 

100-00 

Milk    .. 

■  • 

Pint 

3 

586 

100-00 

Table  III. 


1 

Name  of  Fish. 

Calories  per 

100  Grammes  of 

Undried  Edible 

Material. 

Cost  of  100 

Grammes  Protein. 

(Pence.) 

Cost  of 

1,000  Calories. 

(Pence.) 

Groper              1 

7-3 

2     . 

96-39 

105 

26-8 

:^    . 

11092 

11-8 

20  6 

Baby  groper     1 

10278 

19-8 

344 

0 

5?                                     *^             • 

102-56 

Sea  bream         1 

119-51 

160 

25-9 

Crayfish             1 

100-59 

115 

26  1 

9 

99                                             ^ 

85-96 

22-9 

52-9 

3     . 

10373 

127 

27-1 

Snapper             1*    . 

90-38 

12-4 

28-3 

81-51 

14-6 

23-8 

Mullet                1*    . 

172-89 

9-0 

133 

Tarakihi            1      . 

167-45 

15-6 

17-4 

99                                             -^             • 

11164 

160 

290 

Blue  cod            1 

85-40 

31-7 

69-7 

Kingfish            1      . 

116-93 

17-6 

28-1 

2     . 

11947 

17-2 

28-6 

Trumpeter        1 

110-20      ■ 

20-1 

353 

Moki                  1      . 

9356 

16-2 

33  1 

2     . 

104  96 

18-3 

319 

Eggs  at  2s.  per  dozen 

15833 

329 

29-5 

Beef  at  Is-  per  pound 

137  25 

12-6 

191 

Milk  at  3d.  per  pint 

7000 

146 

73 

*  Auckland  prices. 


24 

Transact 

ions. 

Tablb  IV.— Showing  Fish  in  Order 

OF  Fat  Content. 

Per 

Per 

Cent. 

Cent. 

Taiakihi 

1 

10  30 

Crayfish 

3 

130 

Mullet 

1 

10  09 

Moki 

163 

Kingfish 

1 

4  32 

Blue  cod 

.       0-90 

J» 

2 

4  10 

Crayfish 

.       0-72 

Sea-brcam 

1 

4  25 

Snapper 

.       0-60 

Groper 

3 

3-40 

Crayfish 

2 

.       0-52 

Trumpeter 

1 

3  31 

Snapper 

2 

.       0-42 

Moki 

2 

3-21 

Tarakihi 

o 

3  05 

Groper 

4 

2  93 

Egg 

•  •              .  • 

.     10-50 

Baby  groper 

2-32 

Meat  (beef) 

. . 

.       5-50 

Groper 

2 

1-90 

Milk 

• 

.       4-00 

Table  V. — Showing  Fish  in  Order  of  Caloric  Values. 
(Total  calories  per  100  grammes  fresh  material.) 


Per 

Per 

Cent. 

Cent. 

Mullet 

1 

..      172-89 

Crayfish 

1 

.      100-59 

Tarakihi 

1 

.      16745 

Gro2)er 

3 

9639 

Sea- bream 

1 

.      11951 

Moki 

1 

93-56 

Kingfish 

2 

.      119-47 

Snapper 

1 

.       90-38 

1 

.      116-93 

Crayfish 

2 

8596 

Tarakihi 

2 

.      111-64 

Snapper 

2 

.       81-51 

Groper 

3 

.      ]  10-92 

Blue  cod 

1           '.'.             '. 

.       85-40 

Trumpeter- 

1 

.      110  20 

Moki 

2 

.      10496 

Crayfish 

3 

.      103-73 

Egg 

. . 

.     158-33 

Groper 

4 

.      102-78 

Beef 

. . 

.      137  25 

Baby  groper 

.      102-56 

Milk 

. . 

70-00 

Table  VI. — Showing  Fish  in  Order  of  Cost  of  100  Grammes  Protein. 


Groper 

1 

Mullet 

1 

Groper 

2 

99 

3 

Crayfish 

1 

>? 

3 

Snapper 

1 

?5 

2 

Tarakihi 

1 

J  J 

Sea-bream 

1 

Moki 

1 

Pence. 

Pence. 

731 

Kingfish 

1 

17-22 

8-96 

>» 

2 

17-56 

1045 

Moki 

2 

. .        18-27 

11-80 

Groper 

4 

19-78 

11-49 

Trumpeter 

1 

2011 

12-66 

Crayfish 

2 

. .       22-98 

12-35 

Blue  cod 

1 

31-66 

14-64 

15-61 

15  95 

Beef 

•   •                            •  • 

. .       12-60 

15  99 

Milk 

•   *                            •  • 

. .       14  62 

1621 

Eggs 

. . 

32  94 

Discussion. 

The  following  points  are  noticeable  : — 

1.  The  percentage  of  water  and  of  solids  shows  much  the  same  varia- 
tion that  similar  analyses*  of  American  and  European  food  fishes  have 
shown.  Further,  the  analyses  exhibit  the  fact  that  a  high  fat  value  goes 
with  a  low  water  percentage,  the  protein  percentage  fluctuating  but  little 
from  the  mean  of  19-69.     In  the  process  of  fattening,  therefore,  the  water, 


*  R.  Hutchison,  Food  and  the  Principles  of  Dietetics ;    Clark  an*)  Almy,  Journal 
of  Biological  Chemistry,  vol.  33,  p.  483,  1918. 


Johnson. — Food  Values  of  New  Zealand  Fish. 


25 


not  the  protein,  is  replaced  by  fat.      In  a  fattv  fish  there  is  an  absolute 
gain  in  nutritive  value  though  a  decrease  in  digestibility.     For  example, — ■ 


.     Fisb. 

Water 

Fat 

Protein 

Percentage. 

Percentage. 

Percentage.' 

Blue  cod 

79-70 

0-90 

18-79 

Kingfish 

75-65 

4-32 

18-72 

Groper 

76-10 

3-40 

19-34 

Mullet  . . 

69-43 

10-09 

13-29 

Snapper          ^    . . 

69-23 

10-30 

19-71 

2.  Table  IV  shows  the  fish  in  order  of  fat  content,  which  is  the  usual 
order  oi  classification  for  dietetic  purposes.  There  is  considerable  variation 
from  tarakihi  (sample  1)  with  10"  30  per  cent,  to  snapper  (sample  2)  with 
0-42  per  cent.  One  noticeable  fact,  however,  is  the  difierence  between  two 
samples  of  the  same  variety  of  fish,  even  when  bought  at  short  intervals 
from  each  other.     For  example, — 


»        Fish. 

Date  of  Purchase. 

Fat 
Percentage. 

Tarakihi    1    . . 

2 

Moki          1    .. 

2 

13th  October,  1919 
22nd  November,  1919     . . 
28th  October,  1919 
10th  November,  1919     . . 

10-30 
3-05 
1-63 
3-21 

This  question  needs  to  be  investigated  further  before  definite  comparison 
can  be  made  of  the  fat  content  of  various  fish.  It  may  be  a  question,  say, 
of  metabolism  or  of  seasonal  variation. 

3.  Table  V  shows  the  caloric  values.  The  figures  represent  the  total 
calories  per  100  grammes  of  edible  material.  The  presence  to  any  great 
extent  of  fat  increases  the  caloric  value  considerably,  as  will  be  seen  by 
comparing  Tables  IV  and  V.  Mullet  1,  tarakihi  1,  kingfish  1  and  2,  sea- 
bream  1,  groper  3,  and  trumpeter  1  occupy  almost  the  same  positions  at 
the  head  of  each  table,  and  compare  quite  favourably  with  egg,  beef,  and 
milk. 

4.  The  cost  of  the  fish,  as  shown  in  Tables  II  and  VI,  is  the  price 
actually  paid  as  for  home  consumption.  For  comparative  purposes  the  cost 
of  100  grammes  of  protein  has  been  calculated.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
there  is  considerable  variation  in  price  for  the  same  variety  of  fish  ;  fish 
being  a  perishable  commodity,  and  the  supply  being  erratic  owing  to 
weather  conditions,  the  fluctuations  of  the  market  are  considerable. 


Fish. 

Date  of  Purchase. 

Price. 

Groper    . . 

5) 
J3 

16th  July,  1919 
30th  July,  1919 
28th  August,  1919    . . 

s.      d. 

0  8  per  pound 

1  0 
•16 

The  price,,  therefore,  is  not  necessarily  indicative  of  the  food  value.  This 
is  also  apparent'from  the  fact  that  100  grammes  of  protein  can  be  obtained 
from  groper  at  7|d.,  mullet  at  9d.,  kingfish  at  Is.  6d.,  but  from  blue  cod 
the  cost  is  2s.  8d,     Hence  the  popularity  of  the  last-named  fish  has  little 


26 


Transactions. 


to  do  with  its  food  value,,  but  probably  has  considerable  influence  on  its 
price.  Also,  a  chemical  analysis  does  not  take  into  account  such  qualities 
as  delicacy  of  flavour  and  texture,  which,  appealing  to  a  buyer,  exert  an 
influence  in  increasing  the  amount  he  is  willing  to  pay. 

5.  Table  II  also  points  out  that  in  dealing  with  fish  the  element  of 
waste  must  be  considered  in  comparing  the  cost.  When  bought  in  slices 
the  average  waste  is  one-sixth  of  the  total  weight,  but  with  whole  fish  as 
much  as  one-half  tends  to  be  lost.  There  is  also  a  further  loss  on  cooking, 
but  that  hds  not  been  dealt  with  in  this  investigation. 

6.  iThe  methods  used  in  ascertaining  the  percentage  of  protein  give  the 
maximum  figure,  since  part  of  the  total  nitrogen  will  b^  contained  in 
extractives  and  gelatin  substances.  As  a  source  of  protein,  therefore,  a 
fish  containing  19  per  cent,  protein  has  really  not  the  same  value  as  meat 
or  egg  with  19  per  cent,  protein.  But,  without  considering  this  factor, 
with  beef  at  Is.  per  pound  the  corresponding  prices  for  fish  should  not  be 
greater  than  the  following  : — - 


Per  lb. 

Per  lb. 

Groper 

.  .     8Jd.               instead  of  Is.  2d.    \ 

Kingfish 

. .    TM. 

Is.  Ud. 

Tarakihi 

. .     5id.  to  7id. 

7M. 

Average 

Blue  cod 

. .     3id. 

Is.  Od.     y    price 

Sea-bream 

. .     9d. 

Is.  3d. 

paid. 

Snapper 

. .     3d. 

5id. 

Mullet 

..   lOd. 

6d.     i 

These  figures  point  to  the  high  prices  prevailing  for  a  food  that  is 
naturally  plentiful,  and  seem  to  indicate  a  state  of  artificial  scarcity  in  the 
market.  Another  point  which  is  very  apparent  in  making  these  calcu- 
lations is  that  the  amount  of  waste  (from  a  food  point  of  view)  is  an 
important  determinant  in  comparing  prices  :  e.g.,  compare  groper  and  king- 
fish. From  the  analyses  (calories  per  cent.)  the  edible  portion  of  kingfish 
is  superior  to  that  of  groper  in  the  proportion  of  118  to  105  ;  but  the  waste 
is  24  per  cent,  with  kingfish,  and  only  7  per  cent,  with  groper  (slices). 
Therefore  (compared  with  beefsteak  at  Is.  per  pound)  the  housewife  can 
afiord  to  pay  8|d.  per  pound  for  groper,   but  only  7id.   per  pound  for 


kingfish. 

Name.               / 

!                       i       ■ 

Calories         '         Waste             Maximum  Price 
(Percentage).        (Percentage).          per  Pound. 

1 
Kingfish   ..             ..             ..              118 

Groper      . .             . .             . .   i           105 

24                    7id. 
7                    8id. 

It  is  necessary  to  point  out,  however,  that  these  deductions  are  based 
on  twenty  samples  (eleven  kinds),  and  more  complete  investigation  may 
make  modifications  necessary  ;  but  it  is  noticeable  that  in  many  salient 
features  the  results  concur  with  those  of  wider  investigations  carried  out 
in  other  countries. 

Besides  acknowledging,  with  thanks,  the  constant  help  I  have  received 
from  Professor  J.  Malcolm — to  whom,  indeed,  the  initiation  of  this  research 
is  due — I  have  also  to  thank  the  Council  of  the  University  of  Otago  for  the 
use  of  their  laboratories  and  apparatus. 

All  the  expenses  incurred  have  been  defrayed  by  a  grant  from  the  New 
Zealand  Government,  through  the  New  Zealand  Institute. 


Donovan.  —  Distillation  of  Waikaia  Oil-shale. 


27 


Art.  V. — The  Distillation  of  Waikaia  Oil-shale. 
By  W.  Donovan,  M.Sc,  and  G.  C.  Burton. 

[Read    before    the    WeUingtov.   Philosophical    Society,    3rd    Decemhey,    1919;    received   by 
Editor,  31st  December,  1919  ;    i-'isued  separately,  4th  June,  1920.] 

The  following  paper  embodies  the  results  of  an  investigation  of  the  pro- 
perties of  Waikaia  shale,  conducted  at  the  Dominion  Laboratory  during 
1918,  at  the  request  of  the  Director  of  the  Geological  Survey. 

.  Eight  representative  samples  were  received  from  various  bores  put 
down  by  the  Waikaia  Shale  Company.  Proximate  analyses  were  made, 
and  also  distillation  tests,  to  obtain  the  yields  of  oil  and  gas.  The  results 
were  : — 


No. 

Fixed 
Carbon. 

Volatile 
Hydro- 
carbons. 

Water  lost 
at  100°  C. 

Ash. 

Sulphur. 

Crude  Oil 

(Gallons 
per  Ton). 

Gas 

(Cubic  Feet 
per  Ton). 

1 

9-60 

3342 

7-78 

49-20 

2-30 

235 

2,000 

2 

17-20 

4374 

10-13 

28-93 

2-93 

37-0 

3,400 

3 

17  2.5 

42-67 

8-63 

31-45 

3-40 

Not  distilled. 

4 

20-80 

46-87 

9-83 

22-50 

3-40 

48-0 

4,000 

5 

20-75 

51-42 

10-78 

1705 

3-08 

460 

4,000 

6 

18-30 

46-65 

15-70 

19-35 

3-20 

38-0 

3,800 

7 

1765 

51-45 

1040 

20-50 

3-07 

35  0 

3,500 

8 

17-70 

47-35 

13  75 

21-20 

3-06 

42-0 

4,000 

Note. — There  was  not  sufficient  of  No.  3  for  a  distillation  test  to  be  made. 

A  composite  sample,  made  by  taking  equal  weights  of  the  above  eight 

and  mixing  thoroughly,  was  examined  in  greater  detail.      The  proximate 
analysis  was — 

Fixed  carbon                .  .  . .              .  .     17-10 

Volatile  hydrocarbons  . .              . .     43-03 

Water       "     .  .              .  .  . .              . .     10-42 

Ash               ...             ..  ..             ..     29-45 


100-00 

Total  sulphur  per  cent. 

. .       3-05 

An  ultimate  analvsis  yielded — 

Hydrogen 

. .       5-64 

Carbon 

. .     39-55 

Nitrogen 

. .       0-30 

Sulphur 

. .       3-05 

Oxygen 

. .     22-01 

Ash 

. .     29-45 

100-00 

On  distillation  there  was  obtained — Crude  oil  equivalent  to  38  gallons 
per  ton  of  shale  ;  ammonium  sulphate  equivalent  to  8  lb.  per  ton  of  shale  ; 
gas  equivalent  to  4,000  cubic  feet  per  ton  of  shale. 

The  sjjecific  gravity  of  the  crude  oil  was  0-96. 


28 


Transactions. 


The  oil  was  redistilled 
Below  200°  C. 
200°-250°  C. 
250°-300°  C. 
300°-350°  C. 
Above  350°  C. 
Residue    .  . 
Loss 


into  the  following  fractions  : — 

7-0    (naphtha). 
11-5  ) 


14-0 

18-0 

41-0 

6-0 

2-5 

100-0 


burning-oils, 
lubricating-oils. 


The  distillate  above  350°  C.  contained  14-2  per  cent,  of  paraffin  of 
melting-point  58-5°  C,  equivalent  to  22  lb.  paraffin  per  ton  of  shale. 

If  all  the  fractions  were  collected  in  the  same  vessel  they  would  give  once- 
once-run  shale-oil,  91-5  per  cent,  (equivalent  to  34-75  gallons  per  ton  of  shale). 

The  fuel  values  of  this  and  of  the  crude  oil  were  determined  in  the 
calorimeter,  together  with  a  crude  oil  from  the  Orepuki  Shale-works,  year 
1903,  and  crude  Taranaki  petroleum,  received  in  1906  (No.  562).  The 
sulphur  was  also  estimated  at  the  same  time.      The  results  were  : — 


Waikala  Shale. 

Crude 
Orepuki 
Shale-oil. 

Crude 
Taranaki 
Petroleum. 



Crude. 

Once  ruu. 

Calorides  per  gramme 

British  thermal  units  per  pound 

Evaporative  power  per  pound  in  pounds 

of  water  at  212°  F. 
Total  sulphur  per  cent. 

9,470 

17,046 

17-67 

1-80 

10,032 

18,058 
18-72 

1  76 

10,339 

18,610 

1929 

179 

10,713 

19,283 

1998 

021 

A  good  fuel-oil  should  not  contain  more  than  0-5  per  cent,  of  sulphur. 

The  yield  of  ammonium  sulphate,  8  lb.  per  ton  of  shale  distilled,  is 
low.  It  would  be  increased  if  the  distillation  were  conducted  in  the  pre- 
sence of  superheated  steam,  as  is  usual  in  working  practice  ;  but  even  if  all 
the  nitrogen  were  recovered  in  this  form  it  would  not  exceed  28-3  lb.  per  ton. 

The  gas  from  the  distillation  had  the  following  composition  : — 
Carbon  dioxide  . .  . .  . .     18-3 


Oxygen 

Carbon  monoxide 

Methane 

Hydrogen 

Nitrogen 


1-0 
14-3 

37-3 

22-3 

6-8 


100-0 
were    not   determined,    would    be    partly 


(Sulphur   compounds,    which 
included  in  the  carbon  dioxide.) 

When  purified  from  carbon  dioxide  the  composition  would  be  :— 

Oxygen           . .             . .  . .  . .  1-2 

Carbon  monoxide  (CO)  . .  . .  17-5 

Methane  (CH  J             . .  . .  . .  45-7 

Hydrogen       . .              . .  . .  . .  27-3 

Nitrogen          . .              . .  . .  . .  8-3 


100-0 


Donovan. — Distillation  of-  Waikaia   Oil-shale  29 

Calorific  value,  gross,  in  calories  per  cubic  foot     .  .  . .  . .  1529 

5,  net,  in  calories  per  cubic  foot        . .  . ,  . .  1375 

„  gross,  in  British  thermal  units  per  cubic  foot  . .  6111 

„  net,  in  British  thermal  units  per  cubic  foot  . .  5456 

(Gas  measured  at  15-5°  C.  and  762  mm.) 

There  would  be  about  3,250  cubic  feet  of  such  gas  per  ton  of  shale. 
The  calorific  value  is  approximately  the  same  as  that  of  good  coal-gas. 

Summary. 

Waikaia  shale  would  yield  on  distillation  the  following  products  per 
ton  :  38  gallons  crude  oil,  equivalent  to  34|  gallons  once-run  oil ;  ammonium 
sulphate,  8  lb.  ;   gas  free  from  carbon  dioxide,  3,250  cubic  feet. 

After  fractional  distillation  and  refining  the  oil  would  give  the  following 
products  per  ton,  allowing  10  per  cent,  for  impurities  and  loss  :  Light 
oil  (naphtha),  2-5  gallons  ;  burning-oil,  8-8  gallons  ;  light  lubricating-oil, 
6-2  gallons  ;   heavy  liibricating-oil,  12-0  gallons  ;   paraffin,  20  lb. 

(The  amount  of  light  oil  would  probably  be  increased  by  scrubbing 
the  gas  evolved  with  a  suitable  medium  oil,  to  dissolve  the  light  hydro- 
carbons that  escape  condensation.) 

The  shale  appears  to  be  very  similar  to  Orepuki  shale. 


^  Art.  VI. — Sting-ray-liver  Oil. 

By  W.  Donovan,  M.Sc 

[Read  before  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society,  3rd  Decewher,  1919 ;  received  by  Editor, 
31st  December,  1919  ;    issued  sejmrately,  4th  June,  1920.] 

Mr.  Hoyle,  of  Thames,  conducted  some  experiments  in  the  extraction  of 
oil  from  sting-ray  livers,  and  a  quantity  of  about  8  oz.,  which  he  obtained 
from  the  liver  of  a  single  fish,  was  examined  at  the  Dominion  Laboratory 
in  September,  1918.  The  sting-ray  was  probably  Dasyhatis  brevicaudatus 
(Hutton). 

The  oil  was  compared  with  cod-liver  oil,  with  the  following  results  : — ■ 

Cod-liver  Oil. 

0-923-0-930 

182-187 

137-167 

1-4800 

0-6-2-6 

42-9 

The  oil  was  free  from  rancidity,  and  quite  palatable.  It  contained 
some  "  stearine,"  which  made  it  cloudy  at  low  temperature,  and  which, 
in  the  case  of  cod-oil,  is  usually  removed  by  cooling  and  filtering. 

If  the  present  sample  were  similarly  treated  the  product  would  scarcely 
be  distinguishable  in  appearance  or  composition  from  good  cod-liver  oil. 


Sting -ray- 

liver  Oil. 

Specific  gravity  at  15-5°  C. 

.      0-927 

Saponification  value 

189 

Iodine  value 

.      156-5 

Refractive  index  at  15°  C. 

.     1-4796 

Unsaponifiable  matter  (per  cent.)     . 

3-7 

Hexabromides  (per  cent.)  . . 

45 

30  •        Transactions. 


Aet.  VII. — Descriptions  of  New  Zealand  Lepidoptera. 

By  E.  Meyrick,  B.A.,  F.R.S. 
Communicated  by  C  Y.  Hudson,  F.E.S.,  F.N. Z.Inst. 

[Read  before  the  Wellinyton  Philosophical  Society,  3rd  December,  1919  ;  received  by  Editor, 
31st  December,  1919  ;    issued  separately,  4th  June,  1920.] 

I  AM  again  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  my  esteemed:  correspondent 
Mt.  G.  V.  Hudson  for  the  material  on  which  the  following  descriptions 
are  based. 

.    Crambidae. 
Orocrambus  ventosus  n.  sp. 

$.  26-27  mm.  Head,  palpi,  and  thorax  blackish,  mixed  with  brown 
hairs.  Abdomen  dark  fuscous  irrorated  with  pale  greyish-ochreous.  Fore- 
wings  elongate,  posteriorly  dilated,  costa  hardly  arched,  apex  obtuse, 
termen  slightly  rounded,  little  oblique  ;  dark  fuscous,  suffusedly  mixed 
with  brown,  especially  on  posterior  half,  somewhat  lighter  on  post-median 
area,  veins  on  posterior  half  more  or  less  obscurely  indicated  with  whitish 
scales  ;  a  very  obscurely  indicated  angulated  darker  trai\sverse  line  towards 
termen  :  cilia  grey,  tips  white,  with  a  tendency  to  obscure  whitish  bars  on 
veins.  Hindwings  grey,  becoming  dark  grey  towards  termen  :  cilia  ochreous- 
grey-whitish,  with  grey  basal  line. 

Mount  Arthur,  4,200  ft.,  in  January  (Hudson)  ;   two  specimens. 

Pyraustidae. 
Scoparia  ciserodes  n.  sp. 

o.  17  mm.  Head  grey  sufltusedly  mixed  with  white.  Labial  palpi  2, 
dark  grey,  base  whitish,  apical  edge  mixed  with  whitish.  Maxillary  palpi 
white,  basal  half  dark  fuscous.  Thorax  grey  irrorated  with  white,  a  streak 
of  blackish  irro ration  on  each  side  of  back.  Abdomen  grey- whitish.  Fore- 
wings  elongate,  narrow  at  base,  posteriorly  dilated,  costa  anteriorly  straight, 
posteriorly  gently  arched,  apex  obtuse,  termen  rounded,  rather  oblique  : 
light  grey  irrorated  with  white,  with  some  scattered  blackish  scales  ;  a 
short  fine  blackish  median  longitudinal  line  rising  from  a  small  white  spot 
at  base  ;  lines  indistinct,  whitish,  first  slightly  curved,  direct  (rubbed), 
second  obtusely  angulated  in  middle  ;  small  cloudy  dark-grey  spots  on 
costa  beyond  middle  and  at  | ;  orbicular  and  claviform  indicated  by  some 
scattered  blackish  scales,  discal  spot  represented  by  a  slight  3-armed 
blackish  mark,  posterior  arm  edged  beneath  with  pale  ochreous  ;  two  or 
three  dashes  of  blackish  irroration  towards  upper  part  of  termen  :  cilia 
whitish,  with  subbasal  series  of  well-marked  grey  spots.  Hindwings  1^, 
grey-whitish  :    cilia  whitish,  with  very  faint  greyish  subbasal  line. 

Porirua,  Wellington,  in  January  (Hudson)  ;  one  specimen.  An  incon- 
spicuous insect,  yet  quite  distinct  from  anything  else. 

^       .         ,  _,  Tortricidae. 

Tortnx  sphenias  Meyr. 

Mr.  Hudson  has  pointed  out  to  me  that  this  species  (originally  referred 
by  me  to  Cnephasia),  of  which  he  has  sent  a  second  specimen  from  Dunedin, 
is  very  close  to  fer,vida,  and  suggested  that  the  two  are  identical.     This 


Meyhick. — Descriptions  of  New  Zealand  Lepidopfera.  '31 

second  specimen  has  veins  6' and  7  of  hindwings  separate  ;  in  the  original 
type  they  are  unmistakably  stalked,  but  it  now  appears  probable  that  this 
was  an  individual  abnormality,  and  the  presence  of  a  costal  fold  (a  dis- 
cordant character  in  Cnephasia)  and  the  specific  affinity  to  fervida  indicate 
that  the  species  should  be  removed  to  Tortrix.  After  careful  comparison 
with  my  seven  specimens  oi  fervida,  however,  I  entertain  no  doubt  that  the 
two  species  are  distinct  ;  apart  from  superficial  colouring,  in  which  there 
is  certainly  some  variability,  the  ciliations  of  antennae  in  ^  are  obviously 
longer  and  more  fasciculate  in  fervida,  and  the  terjnen  of  forewings  in  that 
species  is  distinctly  less  oblique  than  in  sphenias. 


Oecophoridae. 

Borkhausenia  compsogramma  n.  sp. 

(J.  13-15  mm.  Head,  thorax,  and  abdomen  dark  purplish-fuscous. 
Antennal  ciliations  1.  Palpi  grey,  second  joint  sometimes  partially  suffused 
with  whitish-yellowish.  Forewings  elongate,  costa  gently  arched,  apex 
obtuse,  termen  obliquely  rounded  ;  dark  violet-fuscous  ;  markings  ochreous- 
yellow  suffused  in  disc  with  fulvous-orange,  an^  with  some  scattered 
blackish  scales  on  their  edges  ;  an  oval  blotch  extending  over  basal  fourth 
of  dorsum  ;  a  narrow  irregular  rather  oblique  fascia  from  costa  before  ^,  not 
reaching  dorsum  ;  a  transverse  fasciate  blotch  from  costa  beyond  middle, 
and  another  inwardly  oblique  from  costa  at  f ,  both  directed  towards  but 
not  reaching  a  spot  on  dorsum  before  tornus  ;  a  streak  along  termen 
throughout :  cilia  fuscous,  base  scaled  with  ochreous-yellow  along  terminal 
streak.     Hindwings  and  cilia  dark  grey. 

BuUer  River,  in  December  (Hudson)  ;  two  specimens.  At  first  sight 
extremely  like  chrysogramma,  but  on  comparison  the  markings  are  seen  to 
be  quite  differently  arranged. 

Izatha  amorbas  Meyr. 

This  species  has  an  elongate  pale-yellow  blotch  extending  beneath 
median  third  of  costa  of  hindwings,  sometimes  nearly  obsolete,  and  not 
noticed  in  my  description,  but  in  an  example  now  sent  from  Dunedin  it  is 
conspicuous. 

Lyonetiadae. 
Hectacma  crypsimima  n.  sp. 

^.  10  mm.  Head  grey  mixed  with  whitish  and  blackish.  Palpi  dark 
fuscous.  Thorax  dark  fuscous  slightly  speckled  with  whitish.  Abdomen 
dark  fuscous.  Forewings  elongate,  rather  narrow,  costa  gently  arched, 
apex  tolerably  pointed,  termen  hardly  rounded,  extremely  oblique  ;  bronz}^- 
brown,  irregularly  speckled  with  whitish  except  in  posterior  part  of  disc, 
with  some  scattered  blackish  scales  ;  a  very  oblique  blackish  wedge-shaped 
streak  from  basal  parjb  of  costa  reaching  half  across  wing ;  oblique  blackish 
wedge-shaped  spots  from  costa  before  middle  and  towards  apex,  and  one 
from  middle  of  dorsum  ;  a  small  round  blackish  apical  spot :  cilia  grey, 
whitish-tinged  round  apex,  with  two  blackish  lines.  Hindwings  and  cilia 
dark  fuscous. 

Wellington,  in  February  (Hudson)  ;  one  specimen,  "  taken  on  black 
Fagus  trunks." 


32  Transactions. 

TiNEIDAE. 

Mallobathra  perisseuta  n.  sp. 

^.  15  mm.  Head,  palpi,  thorax,  and  abdomen  dark  fuscous.  Antennal 
ciliations  2|^.  Forewings  elongate,  posteriorly  slightly  dilated,  costa  gently 
arched,  apex  obtuse,  termen  obliquely  rounded  ;  6  present ;  fuscous,  anterior 
half  of  costa  suffused  with  darker  fuscous  ;  a  dark-fuscous  quadrate  spot 
on  middle  of  dorsum,  preceded  and  followed  by  suffused  whitish  blotches  : 
cilia  fuscous.    Hind  wings  with  6  present ;  rather  dark  fuscous  :  cilia  fuscouS; 

Dunedin,  in  October  (Clarke)  ;   one  specimen. 


Art.  VIII. — Illustrated  Life-histories  of  New  Zealand  Insects :  No.  J. 

By  G.  V.  Hudson,  F.E.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst. 

[Read  before  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society,  3rd  December,  1919  ;  received  by  Editor ,^ 
9th  December,  1919;  issued  separately,  4th  June,  1920.] 

Plate  I. 

The  present  article  is  the  first  of  a  series  I  hope  to  publish  from  time  to 
time  on  the  life-histories  of  New  Zealand  insects,  which  to  the  best  of  my 
belief  have  not  previously  been  recorded.  The  subjects  will  not  be  selected 
in  any  systematic  order,  but  the  life-histories  will  simply  appear  as  they  are 
worked  out  in  the  field.  Preference  will,  however,  be  given  to  those  orders 
of  insects  where  the  least  is  known  regarding  their  habits,  and  the  species 
dealt  with  will  therefore  mainly  belong  to  the  so-called  ''  neglected  orders." 
Hence  species  belonging  to  the  better-known  orders  of  Lepidoptera  and 
Coleoptera  will  be  excluded  from  the  scope  of  these  papers  at  present. 
Illustrations  will  be  given  with  each  paper,  which  it  is  hoped  will  enable 
any  naturalist  to  recognize  the  insects  in  all  their  stages.  Such  structural 
descriptions  as  may  be  given  will  be  extremely  brief,  as  it  will  necessarily 
devolve  on  specialists  in  each  order  to  give  fuller  details  when  the  study 
of  the  "neglected  orders"  is  taken  up  in  real  earnest.  In  the  meantime 
the  present  notes  and  illustrations  may  be  useful  in  arousing  interest  and 
in  presenting  the  subject  in  an  intelligible  form  to  the  general  student  of 
nature. 

Order  DIPTERA. 

Familv  Tipulidae. 

Gnophomyia  rufa.     (Plate  I,  fig.  7.     (S.) 

Tipula  rufa  Huds.,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  27,  p.  294.     Gnophomyia 
rufa  Hutton,  ih.,  vol.  32,  p.  39. 

This  large  and  very  handsome  species  of  crane-fly,  or  "  daddy-long-legs," 
may  be  found  occasionally  in  dense  forests  in  the  Wellington  and  Nelson 
districts.     It  is  very  possibly  a  generally  distributed  species,  but  precise 


Tbans.  N  Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LEL. 


Plate  I. 


G.  V.  n.  del 


Fig.   1. — Limnophila  sinistra.      s .     Nat.  size. 
Fia.  2. — Pupa  of  L.  sinistra.     Magnified. 
Fig.  3. — Larva  of  L.  sinistra.     Magnified. 
Fig.  4. — Larva  of  Mdanostoina  decessum.   Mag- 
nified. 

Facep  32. i 


Fig.  5. — Mdanostoina  decessum.    s  ■  Magnified. 

Fig.  6. — Pupa  of  M.  decessum.     Magnified. 

Fig.  7. — Gnopkomyia  rufa.      <r  .     Nat.  size. 

Fig.  8. — Larva  of  6?.  rufa.     Magnified. 

Fig.  9.— Pupa  of  G.  rufa.     Magnified. 


■■■^k- 


V'l^' 


Hudson. — Illustrated  Life-histories  of  New  Zealand  Insects.        33 

records  of  its  distribution  are  at  present  lacking.  The  larva  lives  and  feeds 
in  the  semi-liquid  vegetable  detritus  which  accumulates  in  large  quantities 
at  the  bases  of  the  leaves  of  the  well-known  Astelia  Solandri,  a  common 
and  very  copspicuous  epiphytic  plant  in  most  of  our  untouched  native 
forests.  The  length  of  the  full-grown  larva  (see  Plate  I,  fig.  8)  is  about 
1|  in.  It  is  subcylindrical,  considerably  flattened,  with  the  head  very 
minute,  and  eleven  visible  body-segments.  Special  oval  warts  armed  with 
minute  teeth  are  situated  on  the  upper  surface  of  body-segments  5  to  10 
inclusive,  similar  larger  warts  being  present  on  the  underside,  and  this  no 
doubt  facilitates  the  insect's  movements  between  the  leaves.  The  colour 
of  the  larva  is  very  dark  slaty-brown,  darker  towards  the  extremities  ;  the 
posterior  end  is  considerably  tapered. 

Apparently  only  ope  larva  inhabits  each  space  between  two  sheathing 
leaves,  and  only  those  full  of  the  thick  brown  cofiee-like  liquid  are  so 
inhabited. 

The  pupa  is  enclosed  in  a  rather  tough,  extremely  elongate  silken  tube 
situated  between  the  sheathing  leaves.  It  rests  in  an  upright  position 
in  the  midst  of  the  semi-liquid  mass,  breathing,  no  doubt,  being  effected 
by  means  of  the  remarkable  thoracic  process.  The  length  of  the  pupa  is 
about  H  in.  It  is  very  elongate,  with  the  bead  and  thorax  unusually  small ; 
there  is  a  large  double  breathing-process  on  the  top  of  the  thorax,  shaped 
somewhat  like  a  bivalve  shell.  Four  of .  the  abdominal  segments  are 
furnished  on  the  dorsal  surface  with  special  finely-toothed  warts  like  those 
of  the  larva,  the  ventral  surface  with  plain  ridges.  There  is  a  horny 
cremaster  with  two  recurved  hooks  and  several  other  smaller  processes. 
(See  Plate  I,  fig.  9.)  '  • 

The  perfect  crane-fly  appears  from  November  till  March.  It  is  probable 
that  the  larva  is  feeding  during  the  autumn  and  winter,  and  that  pupation 
usually  takes  place  in  the  spring,  although  the  pupa  which  was  actually 
reared  was  found  in  company  with  feeding  larvae  early  in  March. 


Limnophila  sinistra.     (Plate  I,  fig.  1.     (J.) 

Tipula  ohscuri'pennis  Huds.,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  27,  p.  294  ; 
not  Limnophila  obscuripennis  Skuse,  1890.  Limnophila  sinistra 
Hutton,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  32,  p.  40. 

■     This  very  distinct  species  of  crane-fly  is  fairly  common  in  most  dense 
forests  throughout  the  country. 

The  larva  (Plate  I,  fig.  3)  inhabits  fallen  tree-trunks  in  an  advanced 
state  of  decay,  forming  burrows  between  the  soft  decayed  portion  and  the 
harder  part  of  the  wood.  It  is  about  1  in.  in  length,  cylindrical,  tapering 
towards  the  head,  which  is  very  small  and  furnished  with  two  minute  jaws 
and  a  pair  of  very  short  antennae.  There  are  eleven  visible  body-segments. 
The  extremity  of  the  last  segment  is  truncate  and  deeply  excavated,  the 
concavity  being  protected  by  five  converging  spines,  which  can  be  spread 
out  or  drawn  inwards  at  the  will  of  the  insect.  The  orifices  of  the  air-tubes 
are  situated  in  this  concavity,  that  of  the  alimentary  canal  being  placed  on 
the  underside  of  the  final  segment,  quite  remote  from  the  breathing-apparatus. 
Pedal  warts  occur  on  the  undersides  of  all  the  segments,  excepting  the 
three  immediately  following  the  head  and  the  terminal  segment. 

2 — Trans. 


34  Transactions. 

The  pupa  (Plate  I,  fig.  2)  is  about  |  in.  in  length,  rather  stout ;  the 
thoracic  breathing-appendages  are  about  one-third  the  length  of  the  wing- 
cases  ;  moderately  stout  and  strongly  recurved.  There  are  two  dorsal 
rows  of  hooks  on  each  exposed  abdominal  segment,  and  one  ventral  row 
near  the  terminal  extremity.  The  cremaster  is  bifid,  strongly  recurved,  and 
very  stout.  The  head  and  thorax  are  dark  blackish-brown  and  highly 
polished  ;  the  abdomen  greyish-ochreous,  darker  in  the  middle.  The 
cremaster  and  extremities  of  the  hind-leg  cases  are  reddish.  The  pupa 
rests  in  a  burrow  made  by  the  larva  near  the  surface  of  the  log. 

The  perfect  crane-fly  appears  from  November  till  March.  It  is  practi- 
cally invisible  when  at  rest  on  an  old  fallen  tree-trunk,  and  it  is  evident 
that  the  rather  unusual  colouring  of  both  the  wings  and  body  has  been 
specially  adapted  to  harmonize  with  the  insect's  natural  surroundings. 

Family  Syrphidae. 

Melanostoma  decessum.     (Plate  I,  fig.  5.     6*.) 

Melanostoma  decessum,  Hutton,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  33,  p.  43. 

The  larva  of  this  fly  (Plate  I,  fig.  4),'  which  is  one  of  the  so-called 
*'  rat-tailed  maggots,"  feeds  during  the  early  spring  in  the  liquid  decay  which 
occasionally  involves  certain  portions  of  the  inner  bark  of  the  cabbage-tree 
{Cordyline  australis),  and  very  possibly  inhabits  liquid  decaying  vegetable 
matter  generally.  When  full  grown  it  is  about  ^  in.  long,  of  the  usual 
maggot  type,  with  a  long  breathing-tail  and  two  short  air-tubes  near  the 
head.  Although  apparently  very  fragile  and  gelatinous,  it  is  really  extremely 
tough.  Its  body  is  semi-transparent,  and  the  internal  organs  are  clearly 
visible.  The  head  is  retracted  within  the  second  segment ;  there  are  two 
dark  patches  on  each  side  of  the  head  which  may  be  rudimentary  eyes. 
A  row  of  booklets  extends  along  the  outer  edge  of  the  second  segment, 
which  assists  the  larva  in  progression.  It  is  active  in  habit,  being  almost 
constantly  on  the  move. 

The  pupa  (Plate  I,  fig.  6)  is  about  ^in.  in  length,  immobile,  pear-shaped, 
flattened  beneath  ;  the  segmental  divisions  are  very  indistinctly  indicated. 
There  are  several  obscure  tubercles  on  the  anterior  portion,  and  two  rows,  of 
about  six  in  each,  on  the  flattened  ventral  portion.  The  posterior  segments 
are  strongly  curved,  and  bear  at  their  extremity  the  breathing-tube  proper. 
The  pupa  rests  partially  embedded  in  the  dried  portion  of  the  decayed 
bark  of  the  cabbage-tree. 

The  fly  appears  in  November. ' 


Clarke.  —  'New  Lepidoptera.  35 

* 

Art.  IX. — New  Lepidoptera. 

By  Charles  E.  Clarke. 

[Read  before  the  Otago  histitute,  9th  December,  1919  ;   received  by  Editor,  31st  December, 

1919  ;    issued  separately,  4th  June,  1920.] 

Hydriomenidae. 

Tatosoma  monoviridisata  n.  sp. 

cJ  ?.  31-32  mm.  Head  and  thorax  olive-green.  Antennae  :  proximal 
third  olive-green,  tips  brownish.  Palpi  nearly  3  mm.  Abdomen  varying 
green  above,  irrorated  with  dark-brown  scales  with  lateral  dorsal  tufts  of 
brown-grey  hairs  at  each  segment,  especially  noticeable  on  fourth,  fifth, 
sixth,  and  terminal  segments.  Forewings  oUve-green,  elongate,  costa 
rounded,  hind-margin  obliquely  rounded  ;  several  transverse  wavy  dentate 
darker  -  greenish  stripes,  convex  externally  near  middle,  the  most  con- 
spicuous being  at  ^,  before  f ,  and  at  f  ;  a  series  of  double  dots  around 
termen.  Hindwings  in  $  small,  elongate,  grey,  tinged  with  greenish  termin- 
ally ;  an  indistinct  greenish  band  at  f  ;  lobe  of  hindwings  in  cJ  3  mm. 
long  ;   all  ciha  light  green. 

The  palpi  of  this  species  are  shorter  than  in  T.  tipulata,  but  the  lobe  of 
the  hindwing  is  as  small  as  in  tipulata. 

Twelve  specimens  were  beaten  from  Coriaria  on  the  Waitati  Water 
Reserve  in  October  and  November,  1918,  and  three  in  1919. 


MiCROPTERYGIDAB. 

Sabatinca  lucilia  n.  sp. 

12  mm.  Head,  face,  and  palpi  covered  with  long  bronze-brown  hair. 
Antennae  purplish  tending  to  brown  at  tips.  Thorax  brown,  densely 
covered  with  long  brown  hair.  Abdomen  grey-blackish  along  sides.  Legs 
ochreous  tinged  with  grey-blackish.  Forewings  ovate-lanceolate,  costa  bent 
abruptly  near  base,  arched,  apex  less  acute  than  in  incongruella  ;  basal  area 
to  nearly  \  ochreous  suffused  with  ruby  banded  by  abrupt  black  trans- 
verse line  ;  an  ochreous-grey  band  slightly  suffused  with  ruby  reaching  to 
nearly  ^,  widening  on  dorsum;  a  dark  fascia  bordered  blackish-grey,  con- 
stricted both  sides  at  middle  and  narrowed  on  anal  margin  ;  at  f  another 
light-grey  band'  slightly  tinged  with  orange  but  broken  in  centre  by  longi- 
tudinal blackish  stripe  ;  a  transverse  blackish  -  bordered  ochreous  band, 
beyond  which  to  apex  light  grey  slightly  tinged  with  orange ;  cilia  ochreous 
with  dark-greyish -brown  bars  in  continuation  of  the  dark  markings  on  the 
wings.  Hindwings  dark  grey  suffused  with  violet,  brighter  towards  apex  ; 
ciha  dark  grey  with  a  few  orange  hairs. 

My  first  specimen,  rather  worn,  I  took  at  the  electric  light  at  Waitomo 
Hotel  on  the  25th  December,  1916.  During  the  second  week  of  January, 
1919,  I  took  six  specimens  in  good  condition  on  a  sunny  moss-covered  clay 
bank  at  Kauri  Gully,  Auckland.  The  season  was  an  exceptionally  late  one, 
and  normally  the  species  would  probably  be  at  its  best  quit6  a  month  earlier. 


2* 


36  Transactions. 


Art.   X. — Lepidoptera  oj  Auckland  and  the  King-country. 
By  Charles  E.  Clarke. 

{Read  before  the  Otago  Inditute,  9th  December,  1919  ;   received  by  Editor.  314  December, 

1919  :    issued  separately,  ItJi  June,  1920.] 

During  tlie  month  of  January,  1919,  I  made  a  collecting  tour  along  the 
Main  Trunk  Railway  from  Wellington  to  Auckland,  returning  via  Rotorua, 
Tokaanu,  and  Waimarino.  I  collected  at  various  other  localities  en  route — 
Swanson,  Wairakei,  Waitonio,  Raurimu,  Erua,  Ohakune,  Waiouru,  the  Hot 
Lakes  district,  and  the  lower  slopes  of  Mount  Ruapehu  from  Rangataua, 
all  being  included.  I  had  originally  intended  climbing  to  the  subalpine 
of  Mount  Ruapehu,  but  was  deterred  by  stormy  weather,  which  decided 
me  to  proceed  to  the  Auckland  District  for  a  few  days  in  search  of  a  better 
climate.  I  there  experienced  good  weather  and  collected  at  Kauri  Gully 
and  in  the  Auckland  Domain,  and  also  ascended  the  Waitakere  Ranges 
from  Henderson  and  Swanson.  The  best  collecting  of  the  trip,  however, 
was  made  on  my  return  journey  while  camping  at  Waimarino  and  Erua 
at  an  altitude  of  about  2,600  ft.  From  Erua  I  ascended  Mount  Hauhaunga- 
tahi  by  the  track,  but  owing  to  the  cloud-banks  enveloping  the  higher 
country  I  was  able  to  collect  during  my  visit  only  to  a  height  of  about 
3,500  ft. 

The  following  Ust  contains  only  such  species  as  I  actually  took  in  good 
condition  on_my  somewhat  hurried  journey  : — 

Vanessa  gonerilla  Fabr.    A  few  at  Kauri  Gully. 

Lijcaena  oxleyi  Murray.     Very  common  at  Auckland  and  at  the  foot  of  the 

Waitakere  Ranges. 
Chrysojjhanus  holdenarum  White.    Very  common  on  the  Waimarino  Plateau. 
Nyctemera  ammlata  Boisd.     Generally  common. 
Heliothis  armigera  Hiibn.     Plentiful  in  Auckland  Domain  ;    also  netted  at 

Rotorua. 
Euxoa  adwirationis  Guen.     Several  at  Rotorua  on  Veronica  blossom. 
Agrotis  ypsilon  Rott.    At  sugar,  Waimarino. 

Graphiphora  compta  Walk.    Three  netted  in  the  Auckland  Domain. 
Leucania  sulcana  Fer.    Several  at  Waitakere. 
— ■ —  semivittata  Walk.     Two  specimens  at  Rangataua. 

phaula  Meyr.     A  few   at   sugar  on  the  Mangaehuehu  Stream,  near 

Rangataua. 
Aletia  moderata  Walk.     One  at  Waitomo. 
— —  unipuncta  Hew.    Several  in  the  Auckland  Domain. 
Dipaustica  epiastra  Meyr.     One  at  Waimarino  and  one  at  Rangataua. 
Persectania  disjungens  Walk.    Some  fine  specimens  were  taken  at  Waimarino. 

sleropastis  Meyr.     Two  at  sugar  on  the  Mangaehuehu  Stream. 

' — —  composita  Guen.      Several  at  Auckland. 

atristriga  Walk.    Common  at  Auckland  and  Rotorua. 

Erana  graminosa  Walk.    Two  only  at  Waimarino. 

Melanchra  exquisita  Philp.     One  v^ry  fine  specimen  taken  at  the  electric 
light  of  Waitomo  Hotel. 

plena  Walk.    A  few  at  Waimarino. 


ClaiUvK. — Leiiidoptera  of  Auckland  and  the  King-country.         37 

MelancJira  may  a  Ruds,.]  A  few  of  each  of  these*  at  sugar  on   the   Manga- 
-.  diameta  Walk.        f     ehuehu  Stream. 


These  four  species  were  generally  common  - 


mutans  Walk. 

ustistriga  Walk. 

insignis  Huds. 

■ morosa  Butl. 

rubescensBntl  \  ^  ^^^  ^^  ^^^j^  ^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^^^  ^^  ^  ^^  ^^^ 

l^maasMejT.  Mangaehuehu  Stream. 

dotata  Walk.        )  ^ 

Ariathisa  comma  Walk.    An  exceptionally  dark  form  was  common  at  Rotorua. 

Cosmodes  elegans  Don.     Two  fine  specimens  were  taken  at  the  electric  light 

at  Waitonio. 
Hypenodes  anticlina  Meyr.    Common  at  Waimarino  and  Erua,  but  in  rather 

worn  condition. 
Plusia  chalcites  Esp.    Several  fine  specimens  taken  in  the  Auckland  Domain. 
Rhapsa  scotosialis  Walk.    Common  in  most  localities. 
Tatosoma  topia  Philp.    At  Waimarino  some  very  fine  specimens  were  netted. 

timora  MejT?.     Common  at  Waimarino. 

Elvia  glaucata  Walk.     Waimarino  ;   faiily  common. 

Venusia  verriculata  Feld.     Common  at  Auckland  and  Waitakere. 

undosato.  Feld.     Common  at  Waimarino. 

Selidosema  pelurgata  Walk.     A  few  at  Waitakere  and  Waimarino. 

monacha  Huds.     Some  fine  specimens  of  both  sexes  netted  at  Wai- 

marino. 

fenerata  Feld.     A  few  at  Kauri  Gully. 

— : —  aridarcJia  Meyr.     Two  only  at  Waitakere. 

prodtictata  Walk.  ]  Both  these  species  common  at  Auckland  and  Wai- 

dejectaria  Walk.   )      mariuo. 

Chloroclystis  semialhata  Walk.     Common  at  Waitakere. 
— —  lichenodes  Purd.     A  few  at  Raurima  and  Waimarino. 

nereis  Meyr.     A  few  at  Rangataua  and  Waimarino. 

n.  sp.     A  very  fine  unknown  species  was  taken  at  Waimarino. 

Eucymatoge  gohiata  Feld.     Common  at  Auckland  and  Waimarino. 

angidigera  Butl.     Very  common  at  Kauri  Gully. 

Hydriomena  deltoidata  Walk.     Some  very  fine  varieties  obtained  at  Raurimu. 

rixata  Feld.     Ohakune  and  Waimarino  ;   common. 

hemizona  Meyr.     Very  common  at  Waimarino. 

— ^ —  similafa  Walk.     Waimarino  and  Erua. 

callichlora  Butl.     A  few  worn  specimens  at  Waimarino. 

purpurifera  Fer.     Common  at  Waimarino,  but  rather  worn. 

subochraria  Doubl.     Common  at  Waitomo  and  Ohakune. 

Asthena  schistaria  Walk.    Waitakere,  Rotorua,  Wairakei ;    common. 

pulehraria  Doubl.     Common  at  Kauri  Gully. 

Euchoeca  ruhropunctaria  Doubl.     C!ommon  at  Auckland  and  Waimarino. 
Leptomeris  ruhraria  Doubl.     Very  common  at  Auckland^ and  Waitakere  on 

the  roadsides. 
Asaphodes  megaspilata  Walk.     Common  at  Waimarino. 
Xanthorhoe  clarata  Walk.     A  few  at  Waimarino. 

oharata  Feld.     Common  at  Waimarino  and  Erua. 

■ chorica  Meyr.    A  few  very  fine  specimens  taken  at  Waimarino. 

limonodes  Meyr.     A  few  at  Waimarino  and  Erua. 

praefectata   Walk.      Some    beautiful    pure-white    specimens   taken    at 

Waimarino. 


38  Transactions. 

Xanthorlioe  aegrota  Butl.     One  at  Kauri  Gully. 

lucidata  Walk.     Not  uncommon  in  the  Auckland  Domain. 

chlami/dota  MejT.     Tokaanu;  one  fine  specimen. 

semisignata  Walk.     Common  at  Swanson,  Waimarino,  and  Erua. 

cinerearia  Doubl.     Common  at  Auckland,  Waimarino,  and  Tokaanu. 

semifissata  Walk.     A  few  at  Waimarino. 

N otoreas  mrornata'W a,\k.]-rf  .-,  ■  ,,     -|,t  •        •       t)i  - 

,'     .     Tyif  ^Botn  species  common  on  the  Wamiarmo  riateau. 

vulcamca  Meyr.        I  -^     ■ 

Samana  falcatella  Walk.    Four  specimens  netted  at  Henderson  and  Swanson, 

at  the  foot  of  the  Waitakere  Ranges. 
Adeixis  inostentata  Walk.     This  species  was  very  common  at  Waimarino 

and  on  the  Mangaehuehu  Stream. 
Epirranthis  hemipferaria  Guen.  ]  These    two    species    occurred    sparingly    at 

alectorana  Walk.  f      Kauri  Gully  and  Waimarino. 

Gargaphmiia  muriferata  Walk.    Common  at  Waitakere  and  Ohakune. 
Sestra  Jlexafa  Walk.     A  few  at  Waimarino. 

humeraria  Walk.     Common  at  Kauri  Gully. 

Azelina  ophiopa  Meyr.     Common  at  Waitakere  and  Raurimu. 
fortinata  Guen.     Very  common  at  Waimarino  and  Erua. 

nelsonaria  Feld.     Common  at  Waimarino  and  Wairakei. 

Declana  atronivea  Walk.     Common  at  Waitomo  and  Waimarino. 

floccosa  Walk.    Conamon  at  Auckland,  Waimarino,  and  Ohakune. 

Eurythecta  eremana  Meyr.     Common  at  Tokaanu. 

loxias  Meyr.     Four  fine  specimens  were  taken  at  Waimarino. 

Catamacta  gavisana  Walk.     Common  at  Auckland  and  Waitomo. 
Capua  semiferana  Walk.    Common  at  Auckland  and  Wairekei. 
plinthogli/pta  Meyr.     Two  only  at  Ohakune. 

plagiatana  Walk.     Common  at   Wairakei,   Auckland,   Waitomo,   and 

Tokaanu. 
Tortrix  leucaniana  Walk.     A  few  at  Ohakune. 

charactana  Meyr.     Common  at  Rangataua  and  Ohakune. 

tigris  Philp.     One  fine  specimen  at  Swanson. 

: molybditis  Meyr.     Several  at  Waimarino. 

jiostvittana  Walk.     This  species  was  very  common  in  the  Auckland 

Domain. 

torogramma  Meyr.     One  only  at  Kauri  Gully. 

excessana  Walk.     Common  at  Auckland. 

orthocopa  Meyr.    A  few  of  this  fine  species  at  Waimarino  and  Swanson. 

Epalxiphora  aocenana  Meyr.     Common  at  Auckland,   Ohakune,   Wairakei ; 

several  varieties  taken. 
Ctenopseustis  obliquana  Walk.    Very  common  in  various  localities. 
Cnephasia  j aetata na  Walk.     Common  at  Auckland  and  Rangataua. 
— —  incessana  Walk..   Common  at  Kauri  Gully,  Waimarino,  and  Raurimu. 

imhriferana  Meyr.     Common  at  Kauri  Gully. 

Spilonota  zopherana  Meyr. )  Both   these   species    common   at   Auckland   aiid 

ejectana  Walk.  )    .  Wairakei  among  manuka  scrub. 

Eucosma  querula  Meyr.     Very  common  in  the  Auckland  Domain. 
Bactra  noteraula  Wals.    Some  very  large  examples  were  taken  atTaupo. 
Isonomeutis  amauropa  Meyr.    A  few  at  Waimarino  and  Erua. 
Laspeyresia  pomonella  Linn.    One  taken  on  a  fruit-shop  window  in  Rotorua. 
Crocydopora  cinigerella  Walk.     A  good  series  of  this  species  was  taken  on 

the  shingly  beach  of  Lake  Taupo. 
Argyria    strophaea    Meyr.     Common    at    the    side    of    the    railway-line    at 
Raurimu ;   also  taken  at  Whakarewarewa. 


Clarke. — Lepidoptera  of  Auckland  and  the  King-country .         39 

Gadira  acerella  Walk.     Kauri  Gully  and  Tokaanu. 
DiptycJwphora  metalUfera  Butl.     Several  at  Waimarino. 

harmonica  Meyr.     Common  at  Kauri  Gully  and  Waimarino.   . 

chrysochijta  Meyr.     Common  at  Kauri  Gully. 

elaina  Meyr.     Very  common  at  Ohakune  and  Waimarino. 

auriscript'ella  Walk.    Common  at  Kauri  Gully,  Oliakune,  and  Waimarino. 

epiphaea  Meyr.     Two  only  at  Waimarino. 

selenaea  Meyr.     Common  at  Kauri  Gully  and  Oliakune. 

pyrsophanes  Meyr.     Waimarino  ;   a  few  specimens  larger  than  usual. 

leucoxantha  Meyr.     Very  common  at  Waimarino  and  Erua. 

Crambus  vitellus  Doubl.     Common  at  Rangataua  and  Swanson. 

ramosellus  Doubl.     A  few  at  Raurimu. 

keliotes  Meyr.     Very  common  at  Waimarino. 

apicellus  Zell.     Common  at  Waimarino. 

siriellus  Meyr.     Common  at  Waimarino  and  Rangataua. 

Scoparia  minusculalis  Walk.     Common  at  Auckland  and  Waimarino.  • 

minualis  Walk.     Common  at  Waimarino. 

dinodes  Meyr.     A  few  at  Raurimu. 

— —  pongalis  Feld.     Several  in  the  Auckland  Domain. 
^  thyridias  Meyr.     Very  common  at  Waimarino. 

epicomia  Meyr.     A  few  at  the  Mangaehuehu  Stream. 

leucogramma  Meyr.     Two  at  Waimarino.  • 

submarginalis  Walk.     Commonest  at  Ohakune. 

asterisca  Mevr.     One  at  Raurimu. 

feredayi  Knaggs.     A  few  at  Waimarmo. 

— ■ —  choristis  Meyr.     Two  at  Waimarino. 

iwlistinctalis  Walk.     Common  at  Tokaanu  and  Wairakei. 

illota  Philp.     Two  at  Waimarino. 

trivirgata  Feld.     A  few  at  Waimarino. 

aspidota  Me\T:.     Fairly  common  at  Raurimu  and  Waimarino. 

— '- —  hemiplaca  Meyr.     Two  at  Waimarino  and  two  at  Raurimu. 

petrina  Meyr.     A  few  at  Ohakune  and  Waitakere. 

harpalea  Meyr.     A  few  at  Ohakmie  and  Waimarino. 

philerga  Meyr.     Common  at  Auckland. 

periphanes  MejT.  .  Waitakere,  Auckland,  and  Waimarino  ;   common. 

Besides  the  above   species   of  Scoparia  an   unknown  species 

was  taken  at  Auckland  Domain  and  another  at  Tokaanu. 
Mecyna  flavidalis  Doubl.     A  very  dark  variety  was  common  at  Tokaanu 

and  Waimarino. 

daiclealis  Wa,lk.     One  at  Waimarino  and  one  at  Waitakere. 

Proternia  philocapna  Meyr.     Common  in  Auckland  Domain. 
Sceliodes  cordalis  Doubl.     Common  at  electric  light,  Waitomo. 
Clepsicosma  iridia  Meyr.     Common  at  Waitakere  and  Waimarino. 
Pyralis  farinalis  Linn.     One  only  in  a  Rotorua  store. 

Diasemia  grammalis  Doubl.     Several  at  Okere  Falls,  Taupo,  and  Waimarino. 
Platyptilia  aeolodes  Meyr..    Common   at  Auckland,   Taupo,   Swanson,  and 

Waimarino. 
— —  monospilalis  Walk.     Common  in  Auckland  Domain. 
Aristotelia  paradesma  Meyr.     A  few  at  Kauri  Gully  and  Auckland. 
Gelechia  monophragma  Meyr.     Common  at  Waimarino  and  E)rua. 
Hieroxestis  omoscopa  Meyr.     Common  in  Auckland  Domain. 

hapsimacha  Me}T.     Common  at  Kauri  Gully  and  Waimarino,  attached 

t-o  Cordyline  indivisa. 


40  Transactions. 

I 

Pyroderces  apparitella  Walk.     Common  in  Auckland  Domain. 
Schiffermuelleria  orthopanes  Meyr.     Several  at  Waimarino. 
Compsistis  bifaciella  Walk.     Common  at  Kauri  Gully,  Raurimu,  and  Wai- 
marino. 
Elachista  gerasmia  Meyr.     A  few  in  Auckland  Domain. 

arcliaeonoma  Meyr.     Common  at  Waimarino,  Auckland,  and  Waitakere. 

Stathmopoda  caminora  Meyr.     A  few  at  Auckland. 

skeUoni  Butl.     Common  at  Auckland  and  Waimarino. 

Endrosis  lacteela  SchifE.     Common  everywhere  in  the  neighbourhood  of  houses. 
Izatha  epiphanes  Me}T.     Two  only,  at  light,  Waitomo. 
— —  austera  Meyr.     Common  at  Kauri  Gully. 

attactella  Walk.     One   found  drowoied  in   a   water-butt  on   Ohakune 

Ra  ilway-station . 

peroneanella  Walk.     Auckland,  Wairakei,  and  Waimarino.     The  Wai- 

rakei  specimens   taken   among   the  hot   springs   had   faded   to   a 
»    blackish-brown  shade  by  the  action  of  the  sulphurous  vapours. 

picarella  Walk.     A  few  at  Waitakere. 

huttoni  Butl.     One  only  at  Raurimu. 

halanophora  Meyr.     One  at  Waitomo. 

copiosella  Walk.     Several  at   Waimarino  and  Raurimu  ;    one   parti- 

cularly large  specimen  has  a  wing-expanse  of  40  mm. 
Gymnobathra  hyetodes  Meyr.     A  fine  specimen  at  Swanson. 

tholodeUa  Meyr.     A  few  at  Raurimu  and  Waimarino. 

■ flavideUa  Walk.     Common  at  Kauri  Gully  and  Okere  Falls. 

omphalofa  Meyr.     Common  at  Ohakune  and  Rangataua. 

thetodes  Meyr.     Two  only,  at  light.  AVaitomo. 

Borkhausenia  crotala  Meyr.^j 

armigerella  Walk.         }- Common  at  Auckland  and  Waimarino. 

innotella  Walk.  ) 

chrysogramma  Meyr.     Several  taken  at  Waimarino.     Much  more  bright 

than 'Southern  specimens. 
— —  hoplodesma  Meyr.     Kauri  Gully  ;  one  onh' . 
— —  baseUa  Walk.     Several  at  Rangataua. 

pseiidosprelella  Staint.     Common  at  Auckland,  Waimarino,  Tokaanu, 

and  Ohakime. 

Several  midetermmed  species  were  also  taken. 
Trackypepla  leucoplanetis  Meyr.     A  fine  series  at  Waimarino'.' 

— lathriopa  Meyr.     Common  at  Waimarino  and  Raurimu. 

galaxias  Meyr.     A  few  at  Raurimu  and  Waimarino. 

protochlora  Meyr.     Several  at  Waimarino. 

aspidephora  Meyr.     Several  at  Kauri  Gully. 

euryleucota  Meyr.     One  large  specimen  at  Raurimu. 

contritella  Walk.     Common  at  Waimarino. 

anastrella  Meyr.     A  few  at  Raurimu. 

Barea  dinocosma  Meyr.     Two  at  Raurimu. 
Proteodes  profunda  Meyr.     A  few  at  Raurimu. 

Cryptolechia  liochroa  Meyr.     Some  fine  specimens  at  Waimarino  and  Erua. 
Eutorna  caryochroa  Meyr.     A  few  at  Waimarino. 
Vanicela  disjunctella  Walk.     Two  only  at  Kauri  Gully. 
Thylacosceles  acridomima  Meyr.     Common  at  Kauri  Gully. 
Glyphipteryx  oxymachaera  Meyr.     Common  at  Waimarino. 

erastis  Me}'T.     A  few  at  Waimarino. 

leptosema  Meyr.     A  few  at  Waimarino. 


Clarke. — Lepidoptera  of  Aucldand  and  the  King-country.         41 

Glijpkiptenjx  zelota  Meyr.     A  good  series  at  Kauri  Gully. 

transverseUa  Walk.     Very  common  at  Waimarino. 

acMyoessa  Meyr.     Common  at  Waimarino. 

asteronota  Meyr.     A  few  at  Kauri  Gully. 

Pantosperma  holochalca  Meyr.     A  few  on  rushes  at  Tokaanu. 
Coridomorpha  stella  Meyr.     One  at  Raurimu. 

Simaethis  comhinatana  Walk.     One  at  Waimarino  and  one  at  Ohakvme. 

microlitha  Meyr.     One  only  at  W^aitakere. 

Acrocercops  cyanospila  Meyr.     Two  only  at  Taupo. 
Batrachedra  psithrya  Meyr.     A  few  at  Kauri  Gully. 

Parectopa  aellomacha  Meyr.     A  few  at  Kauri  Gully  and  the  Auckland  Domain. 
Gracilaria  chalcodelta  Meyr.     Fairly  common  at  Waimarino  and  Raurimu. 

chrysitis  Feld.     Three  specimens  of  this  beautiful  moth  at  Kauri  Gully. 

linearis  Butl.     Common,  especially  at  Waimarino. 

Dolichernis  cMoroleuca  Meyr.     Common  at  Raurimu  and  Waimarino. 
Profosynaema  steropucha  Me}rr.     One  only  at  Rangitoto  Island,  Auckland 

Harbour. 
Orfhenches  p)orphyritis  Meyr.     Kauri  Gully  and  Waimarino  ;   common. 

drosochalca  Me}T.     One  only  at  Kauri  Gully. 

chlorocoma  Meyr.     A  few  in  Auckland  Domain. 

glyptarcha  Meyr.     One  only  of  this  fine  species  at  Waimarino. 

Circoxena  ditrocha  Meyr.     Two  of  this  moth  at  Kauri  Gully. 
Eschatotypa  melichrysa  Meyr.     Auckland  and  Waimarino  ;    common. 
Erechthias  exospila  Me}T^.     Two  only  at  Kauri  Gully. 

hemiclistra    Meyr.     Common    at    Waimarino,    attached    to    Cordyline 

indivisa. 
Hedacma  chasmatias  Meyr.     Two  taken  in  Auckland  Domain. 

stilbella  Newm.     Common  in  Auckland  Domain. 

Crypsitricha  mesotypa  Meyr.     Common  at  Kauri  Gulh'  and  Waimarino. 

roseata  IVIeyr.     A  few  at  Waimarino. 

HabropJiila  compseuta  Meyr.     A  few  at  Kauri  Gully. 

Endophthom  omogramma  Me}T.     Common  in  Auckland  Domain. 

Thallostoma  eurygrapka  Meyr.     One  only  at  Raurimu. 

Sagephora  exsanguis  PhUp.     One  or  two  in  Auckland  Domain. 

Lysiphragma  epixyla  Me}T.     A  few  at  Waimarino. 

Mallobathra  crataea  Meyr.     Common  at  Waimarino. 

Prothinodes  grammocosma  Meyr.    ■  Common  at  Kauri  Gull}^  and  Waimarino, 

attached  to  Cordyline  indivisa.  • 
Porina  umbraculata  Gn.     Common  at  Ohakmie. 

enysii  Butl.     Three  fine  specimens  at  Waimarino. 

Mnesarchaea  loxoscia  Meyr.     Common  at  Raurimu. 

Sabatinca  calliarcha  Meyr.     One  only  at  Kauri  Gully. 

incongruella  Walk.     Very  common  at  Ohakune,  Erua,  and  W^aimarino. 

doroxena  Meyr.     Several  at  Waimarino. 

lucilia  n.  sp.     A  few  at  Kauri  Gully  and  one  at  Waitomo. 

Hepialis  virescens  Doubl.     A  few  in  Auckland  Domain  and  one  at  Wai- 
marino. 


42  Transactions. 

Art.  XI. — Notes  and  Descriptions  of  New  Zealand  Lepidoptera. 

By  Alfred  Philpott. 

[Read  before  the  Otago  Institute,  9th  December,  1919  ;   received  by  Editor,  31st  December 

1919  ;    issued  separately,  4th  June,  1920.] 

Caradrinidae. 
Agrotis  spina  Guen.,  Nod.,  vol.  1,  p.  269;  Hamps.,  Cat.  Lep.  Phal,  vol.  4, 
p.  367. 

This  well-known  Australian  moth  should  be  added  to  the  list  of  New 
Zealand  Lepidoptera.  Dr.  A.  Jefieris  Turner,  of  Brisbane,  has  kindly 
supplied  me  with  examples,  and  these  show  that  spitia  has  been  hitherto 
overlooked  by  New  Zealand  lepidopterists,  having  been  treated  as  a  form  of 
A.  ypsilon.  The  males  of  the  Australian  examples  which  I  have  are  more 
ochreous  than  New  Zealand  specimens,  but  the  females  are  of  almost 
exEtctly  the  same  tint.  The  .chief  difference  between  the  species  is  to 
be  found  in  the  form  of  the  subterminal  line  :  in  ypsiloyi  this  is  strongly 
dentate,  whilst  iii  spina  it  is  only  slightly  irregular.  In  spina  also  the 
orbicular  and  reniform  are  connected  by  a  prominent  blackish  bar,  this 
being  absent  in  ypsilon.  These  distinctions,  however,  apply  best  to  the 
males,  the  females  of  the  species  being  very  difficult  to  separate. 

From  Dr.  Turner  I  learn  that  Agrotis  spina  is  found  throughout 
Australia,  and  is  in  some  seasons  extraordinarily  .abundant. 

Aletia  panda  n.  sp. 

S,  33  mm.  ;  ?,  36  mm.  Head  and  palpi  grey,  in  S  tinged  with  ochreous. 
Antennae  in  S  strongly  hipectinated.  Thorax  grey,  with  dark  bar  on 
collar,  crests  absent.  Abdomen  greyish-ochreous.  Legs  greyish-ochreous, 
anterior  tarsi  blackish  annulated  with  ochreous.  Forewings,  costa  almost 
straight,  apex  rounded,  termen  oblique,  evenly  rounded  ;  bluish-gxey, 
tinged  with  ochreous,  in  ?  mixed  with  blackish-fuscous  ;  a  black  dot  on 
cpsta  at  base,  margined  broadly  with  whitish  ;  first  line  faintly  indicated, 
irregiilarly  dentate,  fuscous,  margined  anteriorly  with  whitish  ;  second 
line  from  |  costa  to  f-  dorsum,  deeply  and  widely  indented  on  upper 
half,  irregularly  dentate  on  lower  half,  blackish  ;  a  thin  dentate  fuscous  pre- 
subterminal  line,  curving  beneath  reniform  and  closely  approaching  second 
line,  thence  running  parallel  with  it  to  dorsum,  apex  of  teeth  margined 
with  white  ;  subterminal  line  obscure,  margined  anteriorly,  in  ^  narrowly, 
in  $  broadly,  with  fuscous  ;  a  series  of  fuscous  dots  round  termen  ;  orbicular 
circular,  pale,  interruptedly  margined  with  fuscous  ;  claviform  directly  beneath 
orbicular,  circular,  half  as  large  as,  and  similar  in  colouring  to,  orbicidar ; 
reniform  pale,  faintly  fuscous-margined  :  cilia  ochreous  with  basal  and 
post-median  fuscous  lines.  Hind  wings  in  (^  ochreous-fuscous,  in  $  fuscous  : 
cilia  ochreous,  in  $  with  obscure  fuscous  line. 

Very  close  to  A.  cuneata  Philp.  in  appearance,  but  differing  in  the 
pectinated  antennae  and  the,  pale-centred  stigmata.  In  the  structure  of 
the  antennae  and  palpi  the  new  form  comes  nearer  to  A.  temenaula  Meyr. 
I  have  placed  the  species  in  Aletia  owing  to  its  obvious  relationship  to  the 
cuneata-temenaula  group,  but  the  arrangement  of  species  at  present  adopted 
for  our  New  Zealand  forms  in  this  genus  and  Leucania  seems  to  me  to  stand 
in  need  of  revision. 

A  single  pair  is  all  the  material  at  present  available.  The  male  was 
taken  by  Mr.  G.  V.  Hudson  on  Mount  Earnslaw  in  January,  1914,  and  the 
female  was  captured  by  myself  at  Routeburn  in  December,  1918.  The 
types  remain  in  the  collections  of  their  respective  discoverers. 


Philpott. — IS'otes  and  Descriptions  of  N .Z.  Lepidoptera.  43 

Melanchra  inchoata  n.  sp. 

^  ?.  33  mm.  Head,  palpi,  and  thorax  greyish-oclireous  sprinkled  with 
fuscous.  Thorax  in  both  sexes  with  rather  prominent  anterior  crest. 
Antennae  in  S  ciliated,  cilia tions  4.  Abdomen  in  both  sexes  with  the  first 
four  or  five  segments  prominently  crested.  Legs  ochreous,  tarsi  annulated 
with  fuscous.  Forewings,  costa  almost  straight,  apex  subacute,  termeu 
crenate,  oblique  below  middle  ;  ochreous  clouded  with  fuscous,  in  $  darker ; 
a  small  pale  apical  patch  ;  a  series  of  four  or  five  paired  fuscous  dots  on 
costa  ;  all  lines  except  subterminal  very  obscure  ;  basal  evenly  curved, 
serrate,  fuscous  ;  first  and  second  almost  obsolete,  apparently  double, 
fuscous ;  a  presubterminal  thin  serrate  dark  line  faintly  indicated ;  sub- 
terminal  conspicuous,  unindented,  equidistoMt  with  termen,  white ;  terminal 
crenations  edged  with  black  ;  stigmata  unusually  closely  grouped  ;  orbicular 
rounded,  whitish,  dark-centred  ;  claviform  small,  dark  fuscous  ;  reniform 
dark  fuscous,  obscurely  white-iinged  :  cilia  ochreous,  basally  mixed  with 
fuscous.  Hindwings  dark  fuscous  :  cilia  ochreous  with  dark-fuscous  sub- 
basal  line.  Underwings  ochreous  thickly  irrorated  with  fuscous,  clear 
ochreous  along  costa  and  round  termen  of  forewings  ;  lunules  and  second 
lines  of  both  wings  fuscous. 

Belongs  to  the  coeleno-levis  group,  but  is  easily  distinguished  by  the 
form  of  the  subte±minal  line. 

Stephen  Island.  Collected  by  Mr.  H.  Hamilton  on  the  9th  September, 
1916.  I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  J.  A.  Thomson,  Director  of  the  Dominion 
Museum,  for  the  opportunity  of  describing  this  interesting  species.  Types, 
(J  and  $,  in  coll.  Dominion  Museum. 

^,  ,    .     T  ■  Sphingidae. 

Choerocampa  celerio  Linn. 

In  the  Transactions  of  the  New  Zealatul  Institute,  vol.  37,  p.  369,  Hudson 
records  the  first  captures  of  this  species  in  New  Zealand,  four  examples 
having  been  taken  in  the  summer  of  1903-4.  To  this  record  I  am  able 
to  add  that  of  a  specimen  taken  at  Te  Tua,  near  the  southern  coast  of  the 
South  Island.  The  moth  was  taken  by  a  resident  of  the  district  and 
forwarded  to  the  Southland  Museum,  in  the  collection  of  which  institution 
it  remains.  It  is  in  fine  condition,  so  fresh  as  to  cast  considerable  doubt 
on  the  possibility  of  its  having  been  wind-driven  across  a  wide  expanse  of 
ocean. 

Pyraustidae. 
bcoparia  pascoella  n.  sp. 

S  ?•  15-18  mm.  Head  and  palpi  ferruginous-brown,  palpi  ochreous 
beneath.  Antennal  ciliations  \.  Thorax  ferruginous-brown  mixed  with 
white.  Abdomen  fuscous-grey.  Legs  ochreous-grey  mixed  with  fuscous, 
tarsi  obscurely  banded  with  fuscous.  Forewings  moderate,  triangular, 
costa  almost  straight,  apex  round-pointed,  termen  hardly  rounded,  oblique  ; 
ferruginous-brown  mingled  with  some  fuscous  and  much  suffused  with 
white ;  first  line  hardly  curved,  unindented,  white,  broadly  margined 
with  ferruginous  posteriorly  ;  orbicular  and  claviform  dot^like,  blackish, 
partially  obscured  by  ferruginous  suffusion  ;  reniform  X-shaped,  blackish, 
frequently  obscure  ;  secofid  line  irregularly  bent  but  not  deeply  indented 
narrow,  parallel  to  termen,  white,  narrowly  margined  with  ferrugiiious 
anteriorly  ;  subterminal  line  obscure,  interrupted  at  middle,  widely  remote 
from  second  line,  white:  cilia  ochreous-grey.  Hindwings  grey-fuscous 
paler  anteriorly  :   cilia  ochreous-grey  with  fuscous  basal  line. 


4:4  Transactions. 

Near  S.  organaea  Meyr.,  but  the  forewings  are  much  narrower  at  the 
base  and  the  costa  is  straighter  ;  the  second  line  of  the  two  forms  is  quite 
different  both  in  colour  and  form.  In  some  examples  the  white  suffusion 
is  very  pronounced  and  the  markings  are  more  or  less  obsolete. 

I  took  a  good  series  on  Tooth  Peaks,  Wakatipu,  at  an  elevation  of 
about  3,000  ft.,  in  December.  The  species  was  abundant  on  the  moist 
ground  near  a  little  stream.  The  specific  name  is  intended  as  a  tribute 
to  the  memory  of  the  late  Quartermaster  Merlin  Owen  Pascoe,  who  fell 
at  La  Newaille,  France,  a  few  months  before  the  conclusion  of  the  war. 
Quartermaster  Pascoe  did  a  great  deal  of  entomological  work  in  the 
Wakatipu  district,  and  was  the  first  entomologist  to  collect  on  Tooth  Peaks. 

Pyralididae. 
Endotricha  pyrosalis  Guen.,  Lep.,  vol.  8,  p.  219. 

Among  some  moths  sent  to  me  several  years  ago  by  Mr.  H.  Hamilton 
was  a  single  example  of  this  species,  labelled  "  Mt.  Dennan  (Tararua 
Mountains),  February,  1911."  I  was  not  at  the  time  able  to  identify  the 
specimen,  and  as  it  was  not  in  very  good  condition  it  was  set  aside  in  the 
hope  of  obtaining  further  ^material.  Having  now,  through  the  kindness 
of  Dr.  Jefferis  Turner,  procured  good  examples  of  fyrosalis  from  Australia, 
I  am  able  to  make  the  above  record.  The  species  has  a  wing-expanse  of 
about  20  mm.  The  forewings  are  rather  bright  yellow,  densely  sprinkled 
with  pink,  especially  on  the  apical  f.  The  hindwings  are  also  bright  yellow, 
and  have  the  termen  broadly  margined  with  pink.  The  patagial  tufts  are 
much  elongated,  reaching  more  than  half-way  to  the  tornus  of  the  hindwing. 

I  learn  from  Mr.  H.  Hamilton  that  this  interesting  captiire  could  not 
have  been  made  by  him,  as  he  did  not  visit  Mount  Dennan  on  the  date 
recorded.  He  suggests  that  the  moth  was  probably  taken  by  his  father, 
the  late  Augustus  Hamilton. 

Plutellidae. 
Orthenches  virgata  n.  sp. 

$.  10  mm.  Head,  palpi,  and  thorax  ochreous.  Antennae  ochreous 
on  basal  fifth,  annulated  with  white  and  black  on  remaining  portion. 
Abdomen  greyish-white.  Legs,  anterior  pairs  fuscous,  tarsi  obscurely  annu- 
lated with  ochreous,  posterior  pair  ochreous-whitish.  Forewings  moderate, 
costa  strongly  arched,  apex  round-pointed,  termen  moderately  oblique  ; 
bright  ochreous  with  violet  and  purplish  reflections  ;  a  brownish  fascia  from 
beneath  costa  near  base  to  dorsum  at  ^j  ;  a  well-defined  fascia  from  costa 
at  \  to  dorsum  at  |,  slightly  irregular,  brownish  mixed  with  black  ;  a  similar 
fascia  from  costa  at  |,  strongly  angled  above  middle  towards  termen, 
thence  to  dorsum  at  §,  where  it  coalesces  with  inwardly-oblique  fascia  from 
costa  at  I,  both  these  fasciae  having  black  patches  at  middle ;  a  white  patch 
margining  last  fascia  at  middle  ;  a  few  black  scales  on  central  portion 
of  dorsum  :  cilia  ochreous,  becoming  fuscous  round  apex.  Hindwings  and 
cilia  shining  white. 

A  well-marked  species,  having  little  affinity  with  any  other  membe^'  of 
the  genus. 

The  type  of  this  interesting  species  was  taken  at  Auckland  on  the 
2nd  October,  1918,  by  Dr.  A.  Jeft'eris  Turner,  of  Queensland,  to  whose 
generosity  I  am  indebted  for  the  specimen.  Mr.  Charles  E.  Clarke  was 
fortunate  enough  to  secure  a  second  example  at  Waitati,  Otago,  in 
February,  1919,  so  that  the  species,  though  apparently  rare,  must  be  widely 
distributed. 


Beattib. — The  Southern  Maori,  and  Greenstone.  45 

Art.  XII. — The  Southern  Maori,  and  Greenstone. 

By  H.   Beattie. 
Communicated  by  H.  D.  Skimaer. 

[Read  before  the  Otago  Institute,  9th  Deceynber,  1919  ;  received  by  Editor,  31st  December, 

1919  ;    issued  separately,  4th  June,  1920.] 

While  I  was  gathering  place-names  from  the  southern  Maori  they  gave 
me  a  little  information  about  greenstone  which  may  be  worth  recording 
in  print.  Although  greenstone  is  not  the  technical  name  of  this  stone, 
it  is  the  popular  one,  and  I  shall  adhere  to  it. 

In  his  admirable  paper  in  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  24,  pp.  479-539, 
Mr.  Justice  Chapman  states  that  nowhere  did  the  Maori  get  greenstone  in 
an  inland  locality,  and  thus  he  considers  Shortland's  statement  that  it  was 
procured  at  "Lake  Wakatipua  " "is  erroneous.  The  southern  Maori  assure 
me  that  Shortland's  information  was  correct,  and  that  you  can  still  see 
the  place  where  the  pounamu  was  got  at  Te  Koroka,  a  mountain  up  the 
Dart  River.  One  old  man  said,  "Pounamu  of  the  inaka  kind  was  found 
at  Te  Koroka,  at  the  head  of  Whakatipu.  It  was  the  only  place  where  it 
was  got  inland.  Takiwai  greenstone  was  found  at  ]VIilford  and  elsewhere." 
Another  said,  "  Te  Koroka,  where  they  got  the  greenstone,  is  north  of 
Wakatipu.  Taumaro  is  the  name  of  the  mountains  between  Wakatipu- 
wai-tai  and  Wakatipu-wai-maori,  and  Te  Koroka' is  one  of  those  heights." 

Some  of  the  Maori  say  "  Wakatipu  "  and  others  "  Whakatipu."  It 
was  explained  to  me  that  the  word  occurs  in  five  place-names.  The 
mountains  west  of  the  lake  are  called  Whakatipu,  aud  the  lake  is  known 
as  Whakatipu-wai-maori  (Fresh-water  Whakatipu).  The  Dart  River  is 
Te-awa-Whakatipu,  the  Hollyford .  River  is  Whakatipu-katuku,  and  Lake 
McKerrow  is  Whakatipu-wai-tai  (Salt-water  Whakatipu).  These  last  three 
are  all  on  the  track  by  which  the  Maori  went  from  the  head  of  Lake 
Wakatipu  to  Martin's  Bay,  on  the  west  coast. 

One  old  Maori  said,  "  Under  Te  Koroka  is  a  place  now  called  Maori 
Hill,  I  believe,  but  known  of  old  as  Puketai,  after  a  chief  of  note  who  died 
there.  'Near  this  spot  stood  a  kaika  called  Puia,  and  there  the  Maori  lived 
when  getting  the  greenstone.  The  general  name  of  the  whole  district 
north  of  Lake  Wakatipu  was  Te-wahi-pounamu."  This  last  statement  con- 
flicts with  Mr.  Justice  Chapman's  conclusion  (p.  522)  that  Te-wai-pounamu 
is  the  correct  form  of  the  name,  although  there  is  nothing  to  prevent 
^the  latter  form  having  been  applied  to  the  rivers  on  the  west  coast. 
A  chapter  could  be  written  on  the  elision  or  addition  of  "  h  "  in  the 
southern  dialectal  usages  ;  and  in  any  case — ^again  to  differ  from  the  con- 
clusions of  Mr.  Justice  Chapman — the  pronunciations  of  "wai"  and  "waki" 
by  a  southern  MaOri  are  often  so  aUke  as  to  be  indistinguishable  save  to  an 
acute  or  trained  ear. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  greenstone  in  the  Wakatipu  district 
I  may  add  that  Mr.  James  Cowan  kindly  lent  me  some  notes  he  had 
gathered  from  the  southern  Maori  in  1905,  and  among  them  are  the 
following  items  of  information  :  "  Beyond  the  head  of  Whakatipu  on  the 
road  to  Martin's  Bay,  somewhere  near  Lake  Harris  Saddle,  is  the  place 
where  the  Maori  used  to  get  koko-tangiivai."  "  Te  Koroka  is  a  bold  peak 
at  the  head  of  Lake  Whakatipu,  and  the  Maori  got  a  sort  of  coarse  green- 
stone there." 


46  Transactions. 

An  old  Maori  said  to  me,  "  Pekerakitahi  is  a  mountain  standing  by 
itself  at  the  head  of  Wakatipu "'  (Mount  Earnslaw).  ''  There  is  greenstone 
in  it,  because  Te  Ariki,  who  lived  seven  generations  ago,  took  some 
pounamu  from  Te  Koroka  and  hid  it  in  Pekerakitahi,  where  it  went  like 
the  skin  of  a  tuatara.  If  you  break  the  rock 'you  will  find  the  greenstone 
inside.  A  mountain  and  creek  both  called  Pekerakitahi  are  at  the  head 
of  Lake  Wanaka,  but  it  is  the  Wakatipu  mountain  I  mean." 

In  regard  to  how  long  the  Maori  have  known  greenstone,  I  was  told 
that  Kahue  (Ngahue),  who  visited  New  Zealand  thirty-nine  generations 
ago,  took  some  back  to  Hawaiki  with  him.  One  piece  Kahue  split  into 
three  axe-heads — one  for  himself,  called  Kapakitua  ;  one  for  Kupe,  named 
Tauira-a-pa  ;  and  one  for  Rata,  called  Te-papa-ariari.  Rata  sharpened 
his  axe-head,  attached  a  handle,  and  named  it  Aumapu.  With  this  axe 
he  cut  down  the  famous  tree  which  the  "  little  folk  "  of  the  forest  erected 
again,  as  in  the  oft-repeated  story. 

Another  story  has  it  that  Tamatea-pokai-whenua,  twenty-two  genera- 
tions ago,  sailed  round  the  South  Island  in  search  of  his  missing  wives. 
Unaware  that  they  had  been  wrecked  off  the  Arahura  River  and  turned 
into  greenstone,  Tamatea  landed  there,  and  his  slave  in  cooking  some 
JcoJca  birds  burnt  his  fingers,  which  he  licked.  This  was  a  violation  of 
tapu,  and  the  slave,  Tumuaki,  was  turned  into  the  mountain  since  known 
by  his  name,  whilst  Tamatea  never  found  his  wives,  their  petrified  bodies 
furnishing  the  greenstone,  some  of  which  has  a  flaw  known  as  tufae-koka, 
or  the  dung  of  the  birds  Tumuaki  was  cooking  wh«n  he  committed  his 
thoughtless  act.  Mr.  Justice  Chapman  says  (p.  518),  "  I  am  unable  to  obtain 
a  satisfactory  meaning  for  koka.  Mr.  Tregear  suggests  koko  (the  tui), 
which  seems  probable."  The  l^ird  was  the  orange-wattled  crow  {Glaucopis 
cinerea),  whose  name  throughout  the  South  is  koka,  although  its  confrere 
in  the  North  Island  {Glaucopis  wilsoni)  is  there  called  kokako. 

An  old  Maori,  usually  well  informed,  gave  me  a  peculiar  version  of  this 
tradition.  He  said,  "  I  think  that  story  about  Tamatea  and  his  three 
runaway  wives  is  false.  Tama-taku-ariki,  often  called  Tama,  went  to 
Arahura  in  search  of  greenstone,  which  was  then  in  human  shape.  He 
killed  one,  and  was  cooking  it  in  an  umu,  when  his  companion  burnt  his 
finger  and  put  in  in  his  mouth.  In  consequence  of  this  act  the  greenstone 
disappeared  and  they  came  away  disappointed."  • 

Mr.  James  Cowan  writes,  "  The  wives  of  Tama-ki-te-Rangi  (captain  of 
the  Tairea  canoe)  deserted  him,  and  he  searched  for  them  from  Cook  Strait 
to  Piopiotahi  (Milford  Sound).  The  flax-like  kiekie  {Freycinetia  Banksii), 
which  fringes  the  fiord  for  miles,  sprang,  according  to  legend,  from  the 
shreds  of  Tama's  shoulder-mat,  torn  off  in  his  forest  travels.  Here  he 
found  one  of  his  wives,  but  she  had  turned  into  greenstone,  and  as  Tama 
wept  over  her  his  tears  penetrated  the  very  rock.  This  is  why  the  nephrite 
found  on  the  slopes  of  Mitre  Peak,  close  to  Anita  Bay,  is  called  tangi-wai 
(the  water  of  weeping,  or  tear-water).  If  you  take  a  clear  piece  of  this 
stone  and  hold  it  up  to  the  light  you  will  sometimes  see  marks  like 
water-drops  in  it.  This  is  the, true  tangi-wai,  for  these  are  the  tears  of 
Tama-ki-te-Rangi. ' ' 

Whoever  the  chief  was  who  pursued  his  fugitive  wives,  it  is  fairly  certain 
it  was  not  the  captain  of  the  Takitimu  canoe,  who  bore  at  various  times 
in  his  own  proper  person  the  names  Tamatea-ariki-nui,  Tamatea-mai- 
Tawhiti,  Tamatea-ure-kotia,  Tamatea-muriwhenua,  and  Tamatea-pokai- 
whenua,      This  illustrious  chief  resided  for  some   time  in  southern   New 


Beattie. — The  Southern  Maorj,,  and  Greenstone.  47 

Zealand,  and  at  least  three  places  near  Dusky  Sound  perpetuate  the 
memory  of  his  voyage  of  exploration  in  that  vicinity,  but  his  name  and 
fame  have  never,  that  I  know  of,  been  associated  with  greenstone. 

Mr.  Cowan  has  given  a  tradition  accounting  for  the  name  tangi-wai, 
but  the  Memoirs  of  the  Polynesian  Society,  vol.  4,  page  138,  say  the  name 
was  bestowed  on  one  kind  of  jadeite  because  of  the  tears  of  Hine-ahu  over 
the  death  of  Tuhua,  whom  her  jealous  husband,  Tama-ahua,  killed. 
Tama-ahua,  twenty-nine  generations  ago,  led  a  party  to  get  poimamu  at 
Arahura,  and  not  only  was  tangi-vjai  named  then,  but  two  other  kinds  of 
jadeite  were  named  also — kahurangi  and  hawakawa  ;  while  through  a  fire 
that  occurred  the  kahotea  kind  of  pounamu  was  burnt,  which  accounts  for 
its  peculiar  marking. 

The  same  authority  states  that  Kupe,  thirty-nine  generations  ago, 
was  the  first  ,to  discover  the  jadeite,  or  pounamu.  The  locality  was  the 
Arahura  River.  The  river  at  the  time  was  swarming  with  whitebait 
(inariga),  which  the  party  proceeded  to  catch.  Kupe's  daughter  picked  a 
stone  out  of  the  river  to  act  as  a  sinker  to  the  net,  and  the  one  she  seized 
was  different  from  any  they  had  seen  before,  and  so  it  was  called  inanga, 
this  remaining  to  the  present  day  the  name  of  this  valued  kind  of  pounamu. 

I  have  a  note  as  follows  :  "  Piopiotahi  was  a  canoe  which  came  from 
Hawaiki.  Kahotea  was  the  captain  and  Tangiwai  one  of  the  crew,  and 
two  kinds  of  greenstone  now  bear  these  names." 

The  conflicting  evidence  regarding  the  discovery  and  naming  of  the 
various  kinds  of  pounamu  occurs  because  the  accounts  are  gleaned  from 
different  tribes,  who  each  have  an  explanation  based  on  ancestral  lore, 
although  it  must  be  admitted  that  all  the  traditions  are  not  of  equal 
probability  and  merit. 

The  first  settlement  of  people  of  Maori  blood  in  the  South  Island  of 
which  we  possess  reliable  information  is  that  under  Rakaihautu,  a  chief 
who  flourished  forty-two  generations  ago.  His  people  were  called  Waitaha, 
»and  their  descendants  were  numerous  in  the  South  Island  when  the  last 
and  principal  influx  of  Maoris  occurred,  twenty-two  generations  ago.  This 
Waitaha  people  used  weapons  of  bone  and  wood,  and  the  late  Tare-te- 
Maiharoa  said  of  them,  "  They  did  not  know  gretenstone,  but  used  a  glassy 
stone  known  as  takiwai."  Takiwai  is  the  southern  pronunciation  of  tangi- 
wai, said  to  be  the  most  transparent  variety  of  jade  and  to  come  from 
Milford  Sound,  so  that  apparently  my  informant  did  not  class  it  as  a 
proper  greenstone,  which,  of  course,  is  scientifically  correct. 

Pounamu  was  classed  with  fish,  according  to  Dr.  Shortland,  and  there 
are  numerous  legends  in  this  connection  outside  the  scope  of  this  paper, 
but  the  only  reference  I  have  to  the  Rapuwai  people  knowing  any  form 
of  greenstone  has  a  distinctly  piscatorial  aspect.  A  sub-tribe  of  Rapuwai 
known  as  Kati-Koko,  said  my  informant,  went  round  to  Milford  Sound, 
and,  finding  a  huge  piece  of  greenstone  in  the  sea,  set  out  to  drive  it  round 
to  Foveaux  Strait.  Three  canoes  followed  it — one  on  each  side  and  one 
behind,  and  yet  it  nearly  escaped  several  times.  They  almost  got  it 
ashore  at  Oraka  (near  Riverton),  but  it  dodged  on  till  it  settled  where 
it  is,  and  it  now  forms  Motupiu  (Dog  Island,  near  Blufi).  My  informant 
added  that  if  you  went  down  into  the  interior  of  that  island  you  would 
find  it  hollow  and  supported  on  three  legs,  or  columns,  of  greenstone. 

When  the  Kati-Mamoe  Tribe  were  pushed  out  of  the  North  Island  some 
time  after  the  arrival  of  the  six  canoes,  twenty-two  generations  ago,  they 
spread  southward  and  intermarried  with  the  Waitaha  and  Rapuwai  Tribes 


48  Transactions. 

One  of  my  informants,  a  descendant  of  these  tribes,  said  to  me,  "  There 
are  four  kinds  of  greenstone,  but  the  Kati-Mamoe  never  used  them.  The 
North  Island  people  did  not  make  trips  for  greenstone  as  early  as  they 
say,  for  the  first  expedition  to  get  it  went  from  Kaiapohia  and  fought  the 
Patea  people  in  Westland.  The  people  of  Eaumano  who  settled  on  the 
West  Coast  had  greenstone  before  either  the  Kati-Mamoe  or  Kai-Tahu  Tribes 
came  to  this  island." 

A  Maori  of  Kati-Mamoe  descent  says,  "  The  Kati-Mamoe  remained 
on  the  east  and  south  sides  of  the  South  Island,  and  had  no  greenstone 
weapons  until  the  Kai-Tahu  brought  these  among  them.  In  some  of  the 
old  encampments  at  Kawhakaputaputa  and  elsewhere  in  Murihiku  you 
can  find  the  uri,  ox  slatestone  axes,  and  parahi,  or  flint  knives,  of  the  old 
people  of  the  Kati-Mamoe  before  they  used  greenstone." 

Greenstone  was  brought  under  the  notice  of  the  Kai-Tahu  Tribe  in 
Canterbury  by  a  woman  named  Raureka,  who,  accompanied  by  her  dog, 
found  a  way  through  the  dividing  range  between  Westland  and  Canterbury. 
Both  Stack  and  Wohlers  call  her  a  mad  woman,  but  I  should '  scarcely  like 
to  infer  that  she  was,  seeing  she  is  an  ancestress  of  an  esteemed  old  friend 
of  mine.  She  married  a  man  called  Puhou,  and  by  the  genealogy  furnished 
me  I  note  she  flourished  ten  generations  ago.  The  Kai-Tahu  invasion  of 
the  South  Island  took  place  in  the  year  1650  approximately,  and  ten 
generations  back  from  1900  places  the  birth  of  Raureka  as  about  1650  also  ; 
so  if  we  allow  she  was  twenty  when  she  made  her  exploring  trip,  we  can 
put  down  A.D.  1670  as  somewhere  near  the  time  when  Kai-Tahvi  became 
interested  in  procuring  greenstone. 

I  was  told  that  two  West  Coast  Maori,  named  Pakiha  and  Taka-ahi, 
came  over  to  Canterbury  and  were  acting  as  brigands,  pouncing  on  solitary 
wayfarers,  whom  they  killed  and  ate.  Rakitamau  killed  them,  but  before 
doing  so  elicited  information  as  to  the  route  to  the  West  Coast.  He  and 
his  sons  (Weka  and  Marama)  followed  the  directions  and  arrived  at  a  lake 
where  was  a  store  of  greenstone,  guarded  just  then  by  oilly  an  old  man 
and  woman.  They  killed  the  old  couple  and  used  them  as  provisions  on- 
the  way  back  to  Kaiapohia,  which  they  entered  in  triumph,  carrying  as 
much  greenstone  as  they  could  bring.  The  time  of  this  occurrence  is  not 
stated,  but  I  take  it  to  be  before  the  war  expedition  led  by  Rakitamau  at 
the  time  when  he  killed  Uekanuka. 

The  possession  of  greenstone  weapons  was  an  advantage  to  Kai-Tahu 
in  their  conflicts  with  Kati-Mamoe,  but  the  latter  gradually  acquired  the 
valued  pounamu.  It  is  faid  that  one  of  the  weapons  of  Marakai,  one  of 
the  most  valiant  Kati-Mamoe  chiefs,  was  a  jw^mamu  toki.  For  a  long  time 
the  Kati-Mamoe,  a  tangata-whenua  people,  were  inferior  to  Kai-Tahu,  who 
belonged  to  the  conquering  strain,  whose  achievements  in  Maoriland  were 
analogous  to  the  Norman  Conquest  in  England.  They  were  inferior  both 
in  weapons  and  prowess,  but  as  they  were  pushed  back  from  Canterbury 
into  Otago  and  Southland  they  roused  themselves,  and,  to  quote  one  of 
my  informants,  they  "  fought  like  tigers,"  with  a  result  that  the  two  tribes 
amalgamated  and  were  so  found  by  the  white  people. 

That  the  Kati-Mamoe  possessed  greenstone  is  evident  from  the  tradi- 
tions concerning  the  Otaupiri  pa,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Hokanui  Hills. 
After  Tu-te-Makohu  killed  Kaweriii  at  the  fight  of  Waitaramea  (also  known 
as  Tarahaukapiti)  he  lived  at  Otaupiri.  Of  the  presence  of  greenstone  in 
this  pa  I  have  been  told  no  fewer  than  eight  times.  "  There  is,  or  was, 
a-. spring  close  to  the  pa,''  said  the  first  man  who  told  me  of  this  famous 
piece  of  pounamu,  "  and  it  is,  or  was,  covered  over  with  a  greenstone  slab, 


Beattie. — The  Southern  Maori,  and  Greenstone.  49 

which  has  never  been  found  yet."  Another  said,  "  There  was  a  well  in  the 
fa  of  Tu-te-Makohu,  and  its  top  was  covered  by  a  celebrated  slab  of  green- 
stone "  ;  and  another  added  these  details  :  "  I  will  let  you  into  a  secret. 
In  a  creek  near  Taupiri  eight  valuable  mere  are  buried  under  a  ^ab  of  green- 
stone which  was  concealed  in  the  creek-bed.  There  is  also  in  that  hidden 
'  store  a  beautiful  greenstone  taialia,  which  is  said  to  be  3  ft.  long.  I  have 
never  heard  of  any  one  making  a  proper  search  for  that  buried  treasure 
placed  there  by  our  ancestors." 

In  regard  to  the  last  remark,  one  old  man  said  to  me,  "  Several  people, 
including  the  late  Tame  Parata,  once  went  up  to  try  and  get  Tu-te-Makohu's 
greenstone  at  Otaupiri,  but  the  search  was  without  result.  Tu-te-Makohu 
died  at  that  jm  and  was  buried  on  a  hilltop  which  can  be  seen  for  miles 
round.     His  maipi  was  put  upright  in  the  ground  to  mark  his  burial-place." 

One  old  man  gave  some  information  which  may  refer  to  the  foregoing, 
or  it  may  be  a  different  incident  altogether  :  "  In  a  creek  up  about  the 
head  of  the  Waimumu  Stream,  in  the  Hokanui  Hills,  is  a  big  hole  that  wa« 
used  in  old  times  to  get  water  from,  Somewhere  near  it  a  noted  green- 
stone mere  was  buried  in  the  creek-bed.  This  mere  is  said  to  have  once 
belonged  to  a  great  woman,  and  it  was  secreted  to  preserve  it  from  falling 
into  strange  hands.  It  was  buried  by  a  woman  who  was  the  only  one  of 
her  family  left  at  that  place,  and  she  hid  it  secretly  so  the  rest  of  the  people 
would  not  know,  and  it  has  never  been  found  to  this  day  as  far  as  is  known." 

The  hiding  of  valued  pieces  of  greenstone  was  quite  common.  Rawiri- 
te-Awha  had  once  lived  at  Lakes  Manapouri  and  Te  Anau,  and  he  buried 
some  greenstone  there.  One  of  my  informants  was  up  there  with  Rawiri 
and  some  other  Maori  in  1872,  and  one  night  a  companion  and  he  went 
to  the  site  of  Rawiri's  old  whare  and  dug  up  the  greenstone  and  had  a  look 
at  it.  They  carefully  replaced  it,  and  as  the  party  came  away  without  it 
my  informant  considered  it  would  be  there  still,  although  he  has  never 
been  back  in  the  locality  to  ascertain  the  changes  made  by  the  white  man's 
occupation. 

At  one  point  near  Port  Molyneux,  tradition  says,  a  whare  stood  many 
generations  ago,  and  that  when  the  chief  called  Makatu  was  killed  on  the 
headland  above  his  heart  was  brought  down  and  roasted  before  this  ancient 
dwelling.  My  informant  had  dug  down  at  the  spot  and  found  traces  of 
habitation,  coming  on  an  old  bone  mere,  beautifully  carved,  but  unfortunately 
half  burnt.  He  also  found  a  greenstone  weapon  of  unusual  design,  and 
this  he  gave  to  Captain  Bollons,  of  the  s.^.  "  Hinemoa."  The  hill  behind 
the  old  pilot  station  at  Port  Molyneux  is  called  Kaoriori,  after  a  block 
of  greenstone  of  this  name  which  had  been  brought  there  and  broken  up 
to  manufacture.  A  rivulet  running  from  the  hills  near  Kaitangata  is  called 
Te  Waihoaka  because  in  it,  according  to  a  correspondent  of  mine,  "  were 
found  large  quantities  of  a  hard  stone  (lioaka)  much  sought  after  by  the 
Maori  for  grinding  greenstone  and  other  stones  and  fashioning  them  into 
ornaments,  as  well  as  for  making  tools  and  other  implements,  an  art  in 
which  the  Maori  attained  truly  marvellous  skill." 

It  was  natural,  of  course,  that  greenstone  should  be  used  as  a  medium 
of  exchange,  and  two  of  these  barters  were  mentioned  to  me.  The  first 
was  that  some  valuable  pieces  of  greenstone  changed  hands  for  the  right 
to  squat  {noho)  on  certain  lands  in  Otago  at  the  time  Rauparaha  was  raiding 
the  people  of  North  Canterbury.  The  other  recorded  that  a  fast  canoe, 
named  Kura-matakitaki,  was  made  at  Matainaka  (near  Waikouaiti)  by 
Rimurapa  and  Horuwai  some  time  before  the  whalers  came.  '  Pahi  was 
anxious  to  secure  it,  and  tlii"  be  did  by  giving  greenstone  in  exchange.     He 


50  Transactions. 

took  it  round  south  with  him  to  Foveaux  Strait.  The  whalers  subsequently 
named  a  place  (Pahi's,  near  Orepuki)  after  this  chief. 

Te  Horo  is  the  name  of  the  place  in  Milford  Sound  where  the  takiwai 
{tangiwai)  greenstone  is  got.  It  is  a  clifi-face  behind  Anita  Bay.  Piopio- 
tahi,  as  I  understand  it,  was  originally  the  name  of  the  C'leddau  Jiiver, 
but  is  now  applied  to  the  whole  soimd.  The  Maori  went  round  in  canoes 
from  Murihiku  (Southland)  to  Piopiotahi  to  get  takiwai  up  to  about  fifty 
or  sixty  years  ago.  It  is  said  by  the  southern  Maori  that,  although  the 
greenstone  at  Milford  was  inferior,  good  pounamu  could  be  got  at  Barn 
Bay,  some  distance  farther  north. 

One  old  man  said  to  me,  "  In  1841  Anglem,  Gilroy,  Stirling,  and  others 
started  trading  with  Sydney  in  flax,  and  they  also  opened  up  greenstone- 
quarries  about  Milford.  The  flax  was  properly  dressed  (tvhitau).  They 
had  natives  getting  greenstone  at  Piopiotahi,  and  they  took  this  greenstone 
to  the  North  Island  and  exchanged  it  for  plenty  of  flax,  which  they  could 
sell  at  Sydney  for  £70  or  £80  a  ton.  While  getting  the  pounamu  at  IMilford 
a  boat,  overloaded  with  the  stone,  capsized  and  sank  between  two  rocks." 

Some  years  ago  I  had  a  chat  with  Mrs.  Gilroy,  who  was  a  daughter  of 
Captain  Anglem,  and  was  born  on  the  west  coast,  near  Puysegur  Point, 
about  the  year  1832.  She  narrated  :  "  After  taking  flax  to  Sydney  my 
father  came  back  and  took  one  lot  of  greenstone  to  "China.  The  stone  was 
got  at  Piopiotahi,  or  Milford,  and  neither  Stirling  nor  Gilroy  had  anything 
to  do  with  it.  My  father  was  living  at  the  Bluff  then.  Captain  Waybone  (?), 
of  the  schooner  '  Success,'  was  washed  overboard  one  stormy  night  off  the 
Bluff,  and  the  vessel  came  in  and  lay  here  five  or  six  weeks.  Johnny  Jones, 
who  was  part-owner,  got  my  father  to  take  the  schooner  back  to  Sydney. 
My  father  came  back  in  a  brig,' 'The  Eoyal  Mail,'  and,  picking  up  all 
the  old  natives  here,  he  took  them  round  to  Milford  to  get  greenstone. 
I  was  a  girl  at  the  time.  The  owner  of  '  The  Royal  Mail '  came  over  in 
the  '  Anita  '  and  sailed  round  to  Milford,  and  after  they  got  a  cargo  of  green- 
stone both  vessels  proceeded  to  China."  Here  the  narrative  unfortunately 
ends.  I  was  gathering  Maori  place-names — Mrs.  Gilroy  gave  me  a  long 
and  valuable  list — and  did  not  pursue  the  subject  of  greenstone  further. 

One  thing  that  has  always  struck  me  is  the  great  number  of  greenstone 
tools,  weapons,  and  ornaments  that  has  been  found  in  Otago,  and  also 
the  very  wide  extent  over  which  the  finds  range.  Either  the  population 
was  much  larger  at  one  time,  or  the  limited  number  of  inhabitants  worked 
unceasingly  to  produce  such  a  quantity  of  manufactured  stone.  Then, 
again,  the  Maori  must  have  been  very  happy-go-lucky  or  indifferent  in 
their  care  of  possessions  so  valuable  to  a  people  in  the  Stone  Age. 
Although  much  may  have  been  buried  with  the  dead  or  hidden  in  the 
earth  for  safety  and  left  there  through  the  owners  dying,  yet  a  large 
quantity  has  been  found  lying  on  the  ground  as  if  carelessly  thrown  down 
by  travelling  parties  and  left  unretrieved  and  forgotten.  As  already 
inferred,  these  greenstone  articles  ("  curios,"  the  pakeha  calls  them)'  have 
been  found  in  most  parts  of  Otago.  Among  other  localities  where  such 
have  been  found,  I  see  I  have  a  note  that  an  axe-head  was  picked  up  on 
the  top  of  the  Old  Man  Range,  near  the  Kawarau  end.  Many  farmhouses 
throughout  Otago  possess  greenstone  curios  picked  uj)  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, and  if  the  whole  could  be  gathered  in  one  place,  together  with 
museum  collections  and  private  collectors'  hoards,  it  would,  I  am  sure, 
make  an  array  of  astonishing  extent.  Several  days  ago,  too,  at  a  place 
near  where  I  am  writing  in  Gore,  a  big  adze-head  was  dug  up,  and  much 
more  mav  still  be  found. 


Beattie. — The  Southern  Maori,  and  Greenstone.  51 

Addenda. 

The  testimony  of  the  southern  Maori  that  greenstone  was  got  at  the 
head  of  Lake  Wakatipu  raises  the  query,  What  is  the  correct  form  of 
the  name  Wakatipu  ?  Shortland  gives  the  name  as  "  Wakatipua  "  in  the 
two  maps  in  his  book.  The  Southern  Districts  of  New  Zealand,  and  at 
page  205  also  spells  the  name  with  a  final  "  a,"  but  at  page  35  he  refers 
to  the  lake  as  "  Wakatipu." 

Its  correct  form  is  one  of  the  conundrums  in  Maori  nomenclature. 
The  difficulty  is  threefold  :  Should  there  be  an  '"  h^"  in  the  name,  or  a 
final  "'a,"  or  both  ?  I  referred  the  anatter  to  the  best-informed  of  the 
southern  Maori,  and  have  nine  opinions  regarding  it,  but  cannot  say  I 
am  much  further  ahead. 

Two  of  the  old  men  said  the  name  was  Wakatipu,  and  meant  ''  growing 
canoe  "  ;  but  w^hy  it  was  growing  they  knew  not,  except  it  was  a  sort  of 
magic  canoe.  Another  also  said  the  first  part  of  the  name  w^as  ivaka,  not 
whaka.  He  had  never  heard  the  reason  for  the  name,  but  considered  it 
was  a  canoe  to  cross  the  lake.  An  old  woman  said  she  had  heard  no  tradi- 
tions to  account  for  the  name,  but  the  old  people  she  had  known  usually 
called  the  lake  by  the  name  of  Whakatipu-wai-maori.  An  old  man  said, 
"  Whakatipu  means  '  to  grow,'  '  to  nourish,'  and  the  reason  the  name 
was  given  was  because  the  Waitaha  and  Kati-Mamoe  tribes  when  beaten 
in  war  retired  there  to  rear  families."  But  against  this  one  of  the  best 
authorities  on  southern  history  says  it  is  a  Waitaha  name  given  long 
before  the  Kati-Mamoe  appeared  in  the  south.  The  Waitaha,  h^  says, 
were  descended  from  Toi,  Eauru,  and  Rakaihautu,  and  why  they  named 
the  lake  "  Whakatipu  "  is  not  known,  but,  as  far  as  he  knew,  it  was  not 
after  any  chief  or  ancestor.  The  late  Tare-te-Maiharoa  said  he  did  not 
know  who  named  Wakatipu,  nor  why.  It  was  a  Waitaha  name,  and  its 
origin  had  been  lost  in  antiquit}'.  Another  usually  well-informed  man 
said  he  had  never  heard  the  origin  of  the  name,  nor  did  he  even  know  the 
correct  form  of  the  word.  The  last  opinion  I  got  was  from  a  man  who  gave 
me  numerous  place-names  of  the  lake  vicinity,  and  he  said  the  Waitaha 
bestowed  the  name  Whakatipu.  The  word  whaka  (or,  as  the  North- 
Islanders  would  say,  whanga)  meant  "  a  bay,"  and  tijpu  meant  ''  growing," 
but  he  had  never  heard  why  the  Waitaha  applied  the  name. 

In  regard  to  information  derived  by  Europeans  from  Maori  sources, 
Mr.  Henry  P.  Young,  who  got  his  information  at  Colac  Bay,  wTote  in 
1903,  "■  Wakatipu  should  be  Wakatipua,  the  waka  or  hollow  of  the  tijma 
or  demon  from  the  w^ell-known  legend."  Mr.  Henry  E.  Nickless,  waiting 
in  1898,  said  that  Hoani  Matewai  Poko,  a  son  of  Te  Waewae,  told 
him  the  proper  name  of  the  lake  was  Whakatipu  and  not  W^hakatipua. 
Mr.  H.  M.  Stow^ell  (Hare  Hongi),  in  1898 — the  year  the  stamp  was  printed 
with  "  Wakitipu  "  on  it — wrote  that  the  name  should  be  Whakatipu ;  and 
he  was  followed  by  Mr.  S.  Percy  Smith,  who  wrote,  "  Mr.  Stowell  may  be 
right  about  Whakatipu,  although  Tare  Wetere  assures  me  that  it  should 
be  Whakatipua,  and  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  name  should  be 
Wakatipua."  Halswell  in  his  1841  map  spelt  the  name  "  Wakatopa." 
James  F.  Healey,  writing  in  1898,  said  that  the  Waitaki  Maori  in  1856 
gave  him  the  name  as  Whakatipu,  and  said  it  was  a  mighty  lake  that 
existed  near  a  greenstone  river.  A  white  settler  told  me  that  the  Maori 
had  told  him  the  name  was  Waka-tipua  because  a  phantom  canoe  used 
to  drift  on  the  lake.  In  Mr.  Cowan's  notes  was  one — '"  Whakatipu  (?) 
was  the  name  of  a  canoe  in  which  the  Maoris  went  to  fetch  the  koko- 


52  Transactions. 

tangiwai  from  across  Lake  Whakatipu."     Mr.  Cowan  says  in  his  Maoris 
of  New  Zealand  the  full  name  of  the  lake  is  Te-roto-whakatipu-whenua. 

The  late  Mr.  W.  S.  Young,  of  Otakeho,  writing  to  me  regarding  his 
surtey  trips  in  1857-59,  said  a  very  intelligent  old  Maori,  Kawana  by 
name,  told  them  he  used  "  to  live  at  a  large  lake  called  Wakatapu,  the 
only  place  where  greenstone  could  be  obtained.  Opposite  their  settlement 
on  the  shore  of  the  lake  was  a  great  cliff,  which  occasionally  broke  away, 
when  the  chief  would  launch  his  sacred  canoe,  Wakatapu — hence  the  name 
given  to  the  lake — and,  paddling  across,  obtain  pieces  of  greenstone  and 
distribute  them  among  the  tribe.  Ultimately  the  northern  Maori  came 
after  greenstone  and  destroyed  the  lake  tribe.  .  .  .  When  or  how 
the  name  first  degenerated  from  Wakatapu  to  Wakatipu  is  more  than  I 
can  tell.  Had  we  lived  in  southern  Otago  I  think  the  lake  would  have 
been  called  Wakatapu  (sacred  canoe)."  Mi.  Young  saw  the  lake  and  a 
slip  in  a  cliff  from  the  top  of  the  Shotover  Mountains  ;  but  as  he  soon 
after  removed  to  the  North  Island  he  never  saw  at  close  quarters  the  Roto 
Wakatapu  and  the  Pari  Pounamu  (greenstone  clifi)  described  by  old  Kawana. 

In  a  letter  to  me  Mr.  S.  Percy  Smith  says  he  is  inclined  to  think  the 
name  should  be  Whaka-tipua,  and  that  is  also  my  conclusion.  An  old 
legend  says  the  lake-bed  was  formed  by  a  giant  ogre  or  tipua,  called 
Kopu-wai,  being  burnt  there.  Shortland  wrote  wakapapa  instead  of 
whakapapa,  so  he  may  also  have  written  "  Wakatipua  "  for  "  Whakatipua." 
The  tradition  of  a  canoe  crossing  the  lake  for  greenstone  will  probably  be 
true,  but  it  has  become  grafted  into  or  intermixed  with  the  older  story 
that  the  great  hollow  in  which  the  lake  lies  was  formed  by  the  ashes  of 
the  giant.  Hence  we  find  the  conflicting  opinions  already  recorded.  The 
matter  cannot  be  regarded  as  settled  yet,  but  it  is  hoped  that  the  foregoing 
information  may  help  towards  a  solution. 

The  question  as  to  whether  the  name  is  rightly  Wai-pounamu  or  Wahi- 
pounamu  is  an  interesting  one.  The  southern  Maori  was  almost  as  bad  as 
the  cockney  for  deleting  and  adding  the  aspirate.  -  Dozens  of  examples 
could  be  given,  but  one  will  suffice  here.  There  is  an  island  east  of 
Stewart  Island,  and  its  name  is  Wahi-taua,  but  it  is  usually  called  Wai- 
taua.  Even  in  Mr.  Justice  Chapman's  paper  there  are  two  illustrations  of 
this  trait.  One  kind  of  greenstone  is  called  aukunga  on  page  513,  and 
on  page  515-.it  is  called  hauhunga.  On  page  509  an  ear-pendant  is  termed 
kapehu  and  also  kapeu.  One  of  my  informants  found  a  kapen.  on  Pigeon 
Island  (Wawahi-waka),  Lake '  Wakatipu,  in  the  year  1864.  It  must  be 
very  old,  as  it  was  worn  white".  As  far  as  I  know,  he  has  it  still  in  his 
possession.  To  revert  to  Wai-pounamu  and  Wahi-pounamu,  I  think  it 
is  probable  both  forms  were  used — the  former  for  the  rivers  of  Westland, 
where  pounamu  was  got  in  the  water,  and  the  latter  for  perhaps  Piopiotahi 
and  Te  Koroka,  where  it  was  procured  from  clifis  or  mountain-sides. 

Mr.  Cowan  gives  the  kind  of  greenstone  that  was  found  at  the  head 
of  Lake  Wakatipu  as  koko-tangiivai,  but  I  was  told  it  Avas  inaka  (or  inanga). 
I  heard  recently  that  a  European  resident  in  that  locality  had  come 
across  what  he  considered  to  be  an  old  greenstone-quarry.  If  that  be  so, 
we  should  be  able  to  ascertain  something  more  than  we  know  at  present 
about  this  traditional  pounamu  hunting-ground. 


Beattie. — Nature-lore  of  the  Southern  Maori.  53 


Art.   XIII. — Nature-lore  of  the-  Southern  Maori. 

By  H.  Beattie. 
Communicated  by  H.  D.  Skinner. 

[Read  before  the  Otago  Institute,  9th  December,  1910  ;   received  by  Editor,  31st  December, 

1919  ;    issued  separately,  4th  June,  1920.] 

In  collecting  the  traditions  and  place-names  of  the  Maori  of  Otago  and 
Southland  I  have  gathered  a  great  mass  of  information,  some  of  which 
has  recently  been  published  elsewhere.  There  remains,  however,  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  material  which  has  never  been  printed,  and  some  of 
this  relating  to  nature  may  be  of  interest.  It  must  be  understood  that 
I  am  not  trying  to  deal  exhaustively  with  the  various  phases  of  this 
extensive  subject,  but  simply  to  record  what  the  southern  Maori  have 
occasionally  said  to  me  about  it.  The  Maori  gave  me  some  nine  hundred 
place-names  hitherto  unrecorded  by  the  pakeha,  and  it  was  while  giving 
these  names  that  they  mentioned  tjie  following  facts.  Where  the  terms 
"  North  "  and  "  South  "  are  used,  reference  is  made  to  the  districts  north  or 
south  of  Timaru,  Canterbury. 

The  Kanakana,  or  Lamprey. 

The  general  name  for  the  lamprey  is  piharau  in  the  North  and  kayia- 
kana  in  the  South.  One  of  my  informants  said  that  there  are  at  least 
four  different  kinds  of  kanakana,  or,  if  counted  as  all  one  species,  the 
Maori  had  names  for  them  at  four  separate  stages  or  at  different  sizes. 
These  names  are — (1)  Te-ika-tiikituki-wai ;  (2)  te-ika-totoe-ivai  ;  (3)  matua- 
iwi-papaho ;  (4)  te  ru.  Some  rivers  might  have  all  four  kinds,  and  other 
rivers  fewer.  They  went  up  certain  rivers  only,  and  they  shunned  others 
,for  no  apparent  reason  ;  but  evidently  something  in  the  water,  either  in 
taste  or  in  plant  or  animal  life,  or  in  .the  situation  of  rocks,  &c.,  attracted 
or  repelled  them.  My  informant  added  that  the  kanakana  'would  not 
come  up  the  Karoro  Creek,  but  swarmed  up  the  Molyneux  River,  whose 
mouth  is  about  two  miles  distant.  They  proceed  up  the  rivers  until 
they  find  their  passage  barred  by  rocks,  and  to  these  rocks  they  cling  with 
their  sucker-like  mouths  and  are  easily  caught.  One  of  my  informants 
combated  the  statement  that  the  kanakana  lived  on  whitebait,  saying  that 
its  food  was  the  kohuwai,  a  green  mossy  growth  which  adheres  to  the  rocks. 

The  most  famous  of  the  spots  where  the  Maori  assembled  every  October 
and  November  to  catch  the  lampreys  was  Te  Au-nui  (Mataura  Falls). 
Only  certain  hapti  (families)  had  the  right  to  fish  there,  and  each  familv 
had  a  strictly  defined  pa  (fishing  spot),  the  right  to  which  had  been  handed 
down  from  their  ancestors.  The  names  of  some  of  these  pa  were  (1)  Wai- 
kana,  (2)  0-te-hakihaki,  (3)  Rerepari,  (4)  Mataniho-o-Hukou,  (5)  Mupuke- 
a-Rahui   (6)  Otautari.      The  names  of  the  others  are  forgotten. 

The  falls  on  the  Pomahaka  River  named  Opurere  were  also  a  celebrated 
kanakana  fi.shery.  An  old  man  tells  me  that  the  people  used  to  go  there 
every  October  and  November,  and  after  catching  all  they  could  they 
would  return  to  their  homes  to  plant  potatoes.  There  were  six  pa 
(fishing-allotments)  at  Opurere,  and,  beginning  from  the  south  side,  the 
names  were  (1)  Mataniho-o-Muka,  (2)  Tu-kutu-tahi,  (3)  Te-awa-inaka, 
(4)  Patu-moana  (this  is  a  small  island),  (5)  Rau-tawhiri,  (6)  Te  Rerewa. 


54  Transactions. 

Other  places  at  which  kanakana  might  be  caught  were  Te  Rere-o-Kaihiku 
(Kaihiku  Falls),  Hehetu  a  small  fall  where  the  Orawia  runs  into  the 
Waiau,  Waipapa-o-Karetai,  on  the  Silverstream,  and  elsewhere. 

It  must  not  be  thought  that  persons  entitled  to  take  the  lampreys  from 
a  certain  section  of  rock  could  proceed  to  do  so  at  haphazard.  It  was  a 
matter  that  had  to  be  gone  about  with  karakia  (incantations)  and  due 
observance  of  time-honoured  customs.  Each  of  the  falls  was  protected 
bv  a  guardian  taepo*  (spectre),  and  if  a  person  offended  against- tradition, 
woe  betide  him.  The  taepo  of  the  Mataura  Falls  was  a  magic  dog.  It  was 
explained  to  me  as  a  rock  which  stuck  out  of  the  water  about  where  the 
Mataura  Freezing- works  are,  and,  although  it  looked  like  a  rock  at  ordinary- 
times,  to  one  who  was  guilty  of  desecration  it  would  miraculously  change, 
and  appear  as  an  ogre  possessing  a  dog's  head,  paws,  and  body,  but  with 
a  fish's  tail.  The  luckless  wight  who  saw  it  thus  was  doomed  to  disaster 
unless  he  could  invoke  powerful  charms  to  ward  off  the  evil. 

The  taepo  of  the  Pomahaka  Falls  was  also  an  uncanny  thing  to  provoke. 
It  frequented  the  tiny  island  known  as  Patu-moana,  and  took  the  shape 
of  a  giant  eel.  These  spectres  did  not  trouble  those  who  proceeded  to 
take  the  kanakana  in  the  correct  manner  as  prescribed  by  ancestral  usage. 

To  supplement  what  the  Maori  told  me  about  the  kanakana,  I  may  add 
that  the  late  Mr.  N.  Chalmers,  of  Fiji,  wi'iting  to  me  in  1910,  said,  ""  I 
reached  Tuturau  in  September,  1853.  This  was  in  the  kanakana  season, 
and  I  was  much  interested  in  the  way  in  which  the  Natives  caught  the 
lampreys.  On  the  top  of  the  falls  there  are — or  were  at  that  time — three 
large  potholes  about  6  ft.  deep,  and  full  of  stones.  These  were  cleared 
out  and  strong  stakes  put  in  each  ;  then  as  the  kanakana  came  crawling 
up  and  .clinging  to  the  rocky  wall  of  the  falls  the  Maori,  leaning  on  the 
stakes,  reached  out  their  hands  and,  grasping  the  fish,  put  them  in  the 
korari  eel-pots  handy.  It  took  them  only  about  ten  minutes  to  fill  one 
pot,  when  another  took  its  place.  The  superstition  of  the  Maori  is  very 
marked,  for  Reko  told  me  that  if  an  enemy  or  any  one  threw  a  firestick 
into  the  falls,  then  the  kanakana  would  desert  the  locality  ;  so,  needless  to 
say,  I  was  very  careful  to  avoid  hurting  their  feelings.  .  ,  .  When 
I  was  at  Hokanui  in  1858  I  had  a  stockman  called  George,  a  Sussex  man, 
who  came  to  the  house  one  afternoon  with  a  face  as  white  as  a  sheet  and 
swearing  he  had  seen  an  eel  at  least  a  mule  long  at  the  Longford  (now  Gore). 
I.  got  on  my  horse  and  went  with  him,  and  when  I  saw  the  phenomenon  I 
was  not  surprised  at  his  statement ;  for  I  saw  a  colunan  of  kanakana  more 
than  a  mile  long,  swimming  in  a  round  mass  exactly  like  a  large  eel,  so 
beautifully  were  they  keeping  a  circular  shape."  Mr.  F.  L.  Mieville,  who 
stayed  at  Tuturau  in  1854,  writes,  "  The  natives  were  very  good  to  us 
and  supplied  us  with  potatoes,  also  kanakanas  much  resembling  leather 
with  a  strong  flavour  of  train-oil — they  were  dried  and  very  hard." 

The  Maori  Dog. 
The  question  of  who  introduced  the  Maori  -dog  to  New  Zealand  has 
aroused  discussion  at  various  times.  Maori  tradition  says  that  some  of 
the  canoes  which  came  here  from  Hawaiki  a.d.  1350  brought  dogs ;  but 
some  people  consider  that  the  inhabitants  of  New  Zealand  before  that 
time  had  dogs.  Thus  in  the  story  of  Kopuwai  (one  of  the  oldest  legends 
in  the  South    Island    annals — it    must    be   much    over   a  thousand  years 


*  V 


taijM.     Williams  says  taepo  is  not  used  by  the  Maori. — Ed. 


Beattie. — Nature-lore  of  the  Southern  Maori.  55 

old)  we  are  tx)ld  he  had  a  pack  of  ten  two-headed  dogs.  Be  that  as  it  may, 
we  know  that  when  the  pakeha  came  to  New  Zealand  they  found  Maori 
dogs  extant.  In  Otago  and  Southland  these  dogs  roamed  the  interior, 
living  on  the  countless  flocks  of  native  birds  that  thronged  everywhere. 
The  animals  made  inroads  into  the  runholders'  flocks  and  were  hunted 
down  and  exterminated.  Some  white  men  considered  that  these  dogs 
were  descendants  of  ones  liberated  by  Captain  Cook  or  of  those  that  had 
got  away  fronq.  the  whalers,  but  there  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  they  were 
genuine  Maori  dogs.  They  had  woolly  hair,  sharp-pointed  noses,  pointed 
ears,  and  never  barked,  the  noise  they  made  being  a  long,  melancholy  howl. 
According  to  European  observers,  some  of  these  dogs  were  pure  white,  others 
black-and-white,  arid  others  fawn.  The  Maori  called  them  kuri,  and  several 
places  in  Otago  and  on  Stewart  Island  bear  names  reminiscent  of  these 
animals.  Asked  concerning  these  dogs,  two  of  the  old  Maori  said  the 
huri  was  usually  of  a  black-and-white  colour,  and  another  old  man  said 
they  were  often  reddish -tan.  One  said,  "  It  had  long  hair,  a  bushy  tail, 
a  short,  sharp  nose,  and  a  small  head.  They  were  very  wary,  but  could 
be  caught  by  tying  up  a  bitch  (uha)  and  leaving  it,  when  the  wild  ones 
would  come  round  it.  These  dogs  were  in  New  Zealand  long  before 
Captain  Cook  came,  as  our  traditions  show ;  but  when  they  began  to  run 
wild  I  cannot  say." 

Another  said,  "  The  kuri  was  the  Maori  dog.  The  reason  why  one  lot 
of  Maori  came  to  New  Zealand  was  because  some  of  them  who  were  not 
high-class  people  stole  a  dog  and  dte  it.  Through  this  they  were  forced 
to  leave  Hawaiki.  Before  the  pakeha  came  our  people  used  to  sometimes 
castrate  (ivhakapoka)  these  dogs  and  then  fatten  and  eat  them.  They 
had  long  hair,  and  their  skins  made  fine  mats  called  tr>pu7ii,  and  rugs.     When 

1  was  a  boy  I  remember  a  fine  kuri  belonging  to  a  native  called  Koati  in 
Westland.  It  had  a  big  body  and  short  legs  A  man  named  McDonald 
bought  it  as  a  curio  for  £2 ;  but  he  tied  it  up  and  it  jumped  the  fence  and 
was  strangled." 

Another  said,  "  I  never  heard  how  the  kuri  came  to  New  Zealand. 
The  skins  were  cut  into  strips  and  made  into  rugs.  I  once  saw  a  kakahu 
(garment)  made  of  them — it  was  a  taniko  cloak.  Its  colour  was  white 
and  black,  and  some  of  the  hair  had  been  stained  red  with  dye  from  a 
tree  like  the  miro  but  whose  name  I  forget." 

A  shepherd  speaking  of  wild  dogs  on  Knapdale  Run  in  1858  said, 
"  A  family  of  red  ones  seemed  to  frequent  the  lower  flat,  while  those  on  the 
upper  flat  were  yellow." 

The  question  of  the  kuri,  or  Maori  dog,. still  requires  much  investigation. 

Lizards  and  Tuatara. 

Having  read  that  the  Maori  had  a  superstitious  awe  of  lizards,  I  asked 
about  them,  but  got  little  satisfaction.  One  old  man  said,  "  I  know  three 
kinds  of  lizards.  The  one  which  lives  in  the  cracks  in  rocks  is  karara- 
papani,  the  greenish  one  is  called  kakariki,  and  the  common  one  is  karara- 
toro-pakihi.  I  know  nothing  of  the  tuatara."  Another  said,  "  The  kind 
of  lizard  known  as  mokakdriki  was  perhaps  so  called  because  its  colour  was 
like  the  plumage  of  a  parrakeet.  The  general  name  was  karara.  I  have 
never  seen  or  heard  of  tuatara  down  here,  but  I  have  seen  a  lizard  about 

2  ft.  long.  It  was  on  top  of  one  of  the  Hokanui  Hills  and,  because  I  had 
had  a  bad  dream  the  night  before,  I  killed  the  karara  with  a  big  stone,  lit 
a  fire,  and  burnt  it.      It  was  the  biggest  lizard  I  ever  saw.      A  wise  old 


56  Transactions. 

man  told  me  afterwards  that  it  was  a  good  job  I  had  killed  and  burnt  the 
lizard  and  so  stopped  any  evil  coming  to  me  because  of  my  dream.  Some 
of  the  old  Maori  used  to  eat  lizards.  You  could  tame  them  for  pets  so 
that  they  would  come  when  their  names  were  called,  and  thev  would  lie 
and  sleep  alongside  you.  One  such  pet,  Te  Horo-mokai  by  name,  was 
kept  at  Motu-kai-puhuka  (village  near  ICaitangata),  but  it  was  lost,  and 
although  it  was  seen  later  eating  tutti  it  was  never  caught  again." 
Another  said,  "  Tuafara  were  down  on  Auckland  Island,  an^  Mrs.  Cameron, 
of  Riverton,  got  two  from  there.  They  had  fins  on  their  heads  and  backs. 
I  reckon  the  Maori  had  been  down  there  before  the  Europeans  came, 
and  had  a  look  round  but  thought  it  no  good  and  never  settled  there." 
My  last  informant  on  this  subject  stated  that  legend  averred  that  at 
Mason's  Bay,  Stewart  Island,  some  people  saw  tnatara  eggs  and  broke 
them  ;  the  tuatara  came  after  them  and  they  killed  it.  The  names  of  two 
small  islets  in  Lake  Wanaka  commemorate  lizards — viz.,  Taki-karara  and 
Te  Pae-karara.  "  Only  the  big  kind  of  lizard  was  called  karara  "  (see 
Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  7,  p.  295). 

# 

The  Maori  Rat. 

Some  people  have  expressed  abhorrence  of  the  idea  of  eating  rats,  but 
my  Maori  friends  were  careful  to  explain  that  the  Maori  rat  was  an 
altogether  different  creature  from  the  filth-eating  European  rat.  The 
Maori  rat  was  a  fruit-'^ater  and  a  cleanly  animal.  One  old  Maori  told  me 
that  once  a  party  of  white  whalers  was  wrecked  in  the  West  Coast  Sounds 
and  walked  overland.  They  were  glad  to  eat  the  Maori  rats,  which  were  then 
feeding  on  the  fruit  of  the  kowhai,  and  were  big  and  fat.  "  Long  Harry," 
one  of  the  party,  told  my  informant  that  the  rats  were  "  very  good."  My 
informant  added  that  some  of  these  rats  had  hair  like  the'  opossum,  and 
that  the  general  name  for  the  rats  was  kiore,  but  one  kind  was  called 
pouhawaiki.  Another  old  man  said  the  Maori  rat  was  not  found  on 
Stewart  Island,  although  it  was  plentiful  on  the  mainland.  It  was  a 
fruit-eater,  and  was  snared.  An  old  song  mentioned  that  Tawera,  near 
Oxford,  in  Canterbury,  was  the  best  place  to  go  if  one  wanted  a  feast 
of  More  (rats).  A  well-informed  kaumatua  (elder)  said  that  the  Maori  rat 
was  called  kiore-tawai,  and  was  once  very  plentiful.  It  was  grey,  but  not 
like  the  colour  of  our  present  rodents.  It  would  not  eat  flesh,  but  only 
fruit  and  berries.  Pouhawaiki,  he  said,,  was  the  name  of  the  introduced, 
or  European,  rat. 

Near  the  mouth  of  the  Molyneux  is  a  bank  called  Te  Rua-koi,  which 
I  was  told  meant  "  a  hole  made  by  the  rats."  When  they  were  fat  the 
Maori  would  go  and.  dig  them  out.  My  informant  was  certain  that  was 
the  correct  name  of  the  locality,  and  that  the  getting  of  the  rats  out  of 
their  lairs  was  why  it  was  so  named.  Anothc^r  Maori,  well  versed  in 
nature-lore,  said  he  had  never  seen  the  Maori  rat  [kiore  maori  he  called  it), 
although  a  very  old  white  settler  had  told  him  of  seeing  it  many  years 
ago  in  that  district.  According  to  what  he  had  heard,  this  rat  liked  to  live 
in  mossy  places  in  swampy  ground.  It  made  holes  in  the  moss,  and  the 
nest  was  known  as  rua  kiore.  That  this  creature  existed  before  the  pakeha 
canae  he  knew  from  tradition  ;  also  the  ancient  name  of  a  creek  near 
Otaraia  was  Tapiri-kiore,  which  meant  "  two  rats  walking  together."  In 
fact,  there  were  two  creeks  with  this  name.  Leaving  Poupoutmioa 
(Clinton)  and  going  through  the  Kuriwao  Gorge  you  come  to  Tapiri-kiore- 
tuatahi  {tuatdhi  =  first),  and  then  to  Ta])iri-kiore-rahi  {raid  =  big).  Then 
you  cross  Te  Kauaka-o-Waipahi  (the  ford  of  the  Waipahi),  and  go  on  to 
Te  Au-nui  (Mataura  Falls). 


Beattie. — Kature-lore  of  tjie  Southern  Maori.  57 

The  pioneer  rimholders  on  the  Waimea  Plain  found  ''  futtahs  "  [ivhata 
=  storehouse)  k^ft  by  former  Maori  inhabitants.  These  whata  were  erected 
on  the  top  of  two  stout,  high  posts,  each  of  which  had  a  nick  round  it  about 
18  in.  from  the  ground  to  prevent  the  rats  from  getting  up  to  the  provisions, 
so  evidently  the  Maori  rat  had  some  sort  of  predilection  for  Maori  food, 
notwithstanding  it  was  reputedly  frugivorous. 

Settlers  of  the  late  "  fifties  "  speak  of  the  plague  of  rats  that  overran 
Otago,  but  I  presume  these  were  European  rats.  On  the  subject  of  the 
h'ore,  or  Maori  rat,  like  that  of  the  kuri,  or  Maori  dog,  we  could  do  with 
much  more  information. 

The  Mutton-birds. 

The  titi  (mutton-bird)  is  a  favourite  item  of  food  with  Maori  and  pakelia 
alike.  The  edible  qualities  of  this  bird  were,  I  was  told,  unknown  to 
the  Waitaha  and  Kati-Mamoe  Tribes.  It  was  the  first  two  Kai-Tahu 
visitors  to  Ruapuke  who  discovered  that  the  pi-titi  (young  mutton-birds) 
were  good  eating.  Ruapuke  was  then  uninhabited,  and  these  two  chiefs, 
Potoma  and  Rerewhakaupoko  (two  of  the  titi  islands  are  named  after 
them),  visited  it,  and  on  the  small  adjacent  island  of  Papatea  saw  rua  (holes) 
and  inserted  their  hands  and  pulled  out  the  plump  young  titi.  It  is  said 
that  they  preserved  the  mutton-birds  and  some  human  flesh  in  alternate 
layers  in  a  poha  (bag)  made  of  rimu  (kelp),  and  that  those  to  whom  it"  was 
given  as, a  kaihaukai  (gift  of  food)  relished  it  exceedingly.  This  was,  as 
far  as  can  be  ascertained,  about  two  hundred  years  ago,  and  since  then 
he  poha-titi  (a  kelp  bag)  has  always  been  the  receptacle  to  hold  these  birds, 
fat  being  poured  over  the  contents  and  acting  as  an  efficient  preservative 

A  very  old, Maori  said  to  me,  "March  is  the  season  for  mutton-birds, 
and  I  went  after  them  many  years  ago  although  I  have  never  been  inland 
after  weka.  Titi  was  the  general  name  for  mutton  -  birds,  but  a  small 
kind  was  called  koruri,  and  there  were  other  kinds  whose  names  I  cannot 
recall." 

Another  said,  "  There  are  three  principal  kinds  of  mutton-birds.  The 
chief  one  is  a  black  bird,  and  is  simply  called  titi  ;  another  kind  is  black- 
and-white,  and  is  called  titi-wainui ;  and  another  kind  is  titi-ariki.  This 
is  a  grey  bird,  and  is  very  scarce." 

Still  another  remarked,  "  I  know  no  legends  about  the  titi  and  .its 
catching,  killing,  or  preserving.  A  small  kind  is  called  korure,  and  the  kind 
known  as  ivainui  is  rather  rare."  This  informant  went  on  to  say  that  some 
of  the  .larger  titi  islands  were  divided  into  manu,  or  bird-preserves,  for 
different  families.  For  instance,  on  Herekopare  Island  there  were  five 
manu — viz.,  Te  Tihi,  Kuri,  Te  Upoko-o-Tamairaki,  Hotunui,  and  Te  Ahi- 
o-Pere. 

There  was  evidently  some  etiquette  observed  about  taking  the  titi,  as 
an  old  and  respected  Maori  of  the  South  received  his  name  from  the 
following  circumstance.  It  was  the  rule  that  one  party  arriving  on  an 
island  before  the  other  parties  entitled  to  do  so  should  wait  until  the 
arrival  of  all  before  starting  operations.  In  this  case  the  first  party 
caught  some  birds  at  once  and  were  roasting  them  when  another  party 
came.  High  words  led  to  blows,  and  my  informant's  mother  joined  in  the 
melee  with  a  kohikii  (a  skewer  or  stick  used  to  roast  birds  before  a  fire), 
and  in  consequence  when  he  was  born  a  few  months  later  he  was  called 
Kohiku  Titi. 

I  was  told  that  the  general  name  for  the  islands  round  Stewart  Island 
was  Mai-ko-kai,  meaning  that  they  were  places  to  come  to  for  food. 
(Perhaps  this  name  should  be  Mahika-kai.) 


58  •  Transactions. 

Eels  (Tuna). 

An  old  Maori  said  to  me  that  there  were  three  kinds  of  eels  that  he 
knew.  The  horepara  is  a  light  green,  with  white  belly  and  white  underjaw, 
and  is  good  for  eating.  The  arokehe  is  a  black  eel,  with  big  head,  strong 
jaw,  thick  skin,  and  does  not  taste  very  good^  Owing  to  the  thickness 
of  its  skin  another  name  for  it  is  kirirua  ("  two  skins  "  or  "  double  skin  "). 
The  tunwpou  is  still  bigger  in  the  head  than  the  arokehe  and  tapers  to  a  very 
small  tail.  It  has  the  same  kind  of  skin  as  the  kirirua,  and  is  not  eaten  by 
the  Maori  but  thrown  away  when  caught. 

All  or  nearly  all  fish  spawn  in  salt  water,  my  informant  thought,  but 
he  was  not  so  sure  of  eels.  Lots  of  eels  are  cast  up  on  the  bars  at  the 
mouths  of  rivers,  and  the  old  Maori  would  say  these  were  aged  breeding- 
eels,  which  were  done.  It  was  only  breeding-eels  which  came  down  to 
the  sea  and  then  went  back  up  the  river.  When  they  came  down  to 
spawn  you  would  not  see  them  unless  they  were  cast  up  on  the  beach. 
This  was  about  June.  You  could  catch  them  in  the  rivers  from  August 
to  May,  but  not  many  in  the  latter  month,  as  it  was  too  cold  for  them. 
In  the  town  of  Wyndham  there  is  a  lagoon  called  Pipi-a-Manawa,  and  it 
is  fed  by  a  spring  called  Matatiki,  and  he  remembered  old  Tangatahuruhuru 
telling  him  this  spring  was  a  winter  retreat  of  the  tuna  (eels).  You  could 
see  the  hole  in  the  ground  from  which  the  spring  came,  and' it  was  almost 
blocked  with  eels  in  winter,  the  reason  being  that  spring  water  is  warmer 
than  river  water.  In  the  Otu  Creek  just  before  it  enters  the  Mataura 
River  there  is  a  >  hole  which  is  another  winter  resort  of  the  eels.  They 
used  to  congregate  thickly  in  that  spot,  and  if  you  threw  in  a  stone  they 
would  swarm  out  in  great  agitation.  There  was  a  season  for  catching 
everything,  continued  the  old  man,  but  eels  could  be  caught  the  whole 
year  round  in  some  places,  although  from  a  food  view  the  best  time  to 
catch  them  was  from  Christmas-time  to  Febn;ary,  as  the  flies  were  not  so 
bad  then,  and  the  eels  could  be  dried  {tauraki).  Hang  them  up  for  three 
weeks,  then  put  in  an  umu  (earth-oven),  cook,  and  put  into  a  poha  (kelp 
bag),  which  can  be  bound  with  totara  bark  and  flax,  and  there  you  have 
your  delicious  eel-flesh  preserved  for  an  indefinite  period. ' 

Eels  from  the  rivers,  continued  my  informant,  are  not  so  good  as 
those  from  the  lakes,  as  the  flesh  is  not  so  firm.  The  eels  in  the  lagoons 
were  all  right  if  one  just  wanted  a  few  eels  for  daily  use,  but  there  were 
not  enough  eels  in  the  lagoons,  as  a  rule,  to  make  it  worth  while  to  fish 
for  them  for  preserving  purposes.  The  lakes  known  to  the  Maori  as 
Roto-nui-o-Whatu  and  Kaitiria — but  now  called  by  the  white  settlers  Lake 
Tuakitoto  and  Lake  Kaitangata — ^were  great  eeling-places,  but  to  be  truly 
successful  one  had  to  be  careful  to  say  the  right  karakia  (invocations) 
before  starting  operations.  The  eels  were  usually  caught  in  eel-pots  {rohe- 
waimn),  the  basket  or  cage  part  of  which  was  called  hinnki.  A  smaller 
kind  of  eel-pot,,  called  hinaki-kanakana,  was  used  for  catching  kanakana 
(lampreys) ;  and,  strange  to  say,  eels  will  not  go  into  this,  and,  vice  versa, 
kanakana  will  not  go  into  the  ordinary  eel-pots.  There  was  one  kind  of 
net  to  catch  one  size  of  eel,  as  a  rule,  but  there  was  another  mesh  which 
could  be  used  to  catch  all  sizes.  Eel-pots  were  sometimes  made  of  flax 
in  the  South,  as  it  took  a  lot  of  work  and  manipulation  to  make  them  of 
the  toraro  vine. 

All  the  foregoing  information  was  from  one  man,  but  I  have  still  three 
further  notes.  One  man  said,  "  At  Manawapore  (Upper  Mavora  Lake) 
there  is  a  stone  eel-trap.     Old  Rawiri  told  us,  if  we  went  there,  to  block 


Bbattib. — Nature-lore  of  the  Southern  Maori.  59 

the  end,  to  lift  the  stone  and  take  out  the  eels,  then  go  up  forward  and 
lift  the  next  stone  door  and  take  out  more  eels.  It  is  a  very  old  trap,  and 
is  partly  natural  and  partly  made." 

Mr.  James  Cowan  collected  the  following  note  from  southern  sources  : 
"At  Little  Mavora  (Hikuraki)  there  is  an  artificial  stone  hinaki  with. a 
door  for  eels  to  get  in.  It  was  built  by  the  old  Ngati-Mamoe  people — 
they  put  a  stone  cover  on."  The  two  notes  evidently  refer  to  the  same 
"■  stone  eel-pot,"  but  its  discovery  has  never  been  repotted  by  white  men. 

Another  old  man  speaking  about  eeling  said,  "  A  fine  place  to  get  eels 
is  at  Miki-oe,  near  Dr.  Menzies'  old  run,  near  the  Mokoruta  River,  now 
miscalled  Mokoreta.  It  is  a  spring  and  creek  where  the  eels  go  in  the 
winter-time  because  the  water  is  warm." 

A  large  number  of  place-names  in  Otago  and  Southland  perpetuate 
the  ancient  Maori  Hove  for  the  toothsome  tuna.  There  are  a  number  of 
places  called  Kaituna  and  Waituna  (eel-stream),  one  of  the  latter  being' 
in  the  West  Coast  Sounds  region.  A  lagoon  near  Gore  is  called  after  a 
man,  Tunarere ;  and  Taieri  Lake,  in  Central  Otago,  was  named  after  a  chief, 
Tuna-heketaka.  Of  nomenclature  which  does  not  bear  its  significance  on 
its  face  two  names  occur  to  me.  A  tributary  of  the  Waiau  is  Kaipurua 
Creek,  and  I  was  informed  the  name  meant  a  pair  of  eels  eating  at  one  bait 
or  "  two  eels  on  one  bob."  Murikauhaka  was  an  anc'ent  village  at  the 
old  mouth  of  the  Mata-au  (Molyneux),  and  I  was  told  the  name  means — ■ 
muri,  "  the  end  "  ;  hauhaha,  "  a  hole  in  a  bank  where  an  eel  has  its 
quarters." 

The  figurative  name  for  the  Canterbury  seaboard  is  Ka  Poupou  a  Te 
Rakihouia,  because  that  chief,  over  a  thousand  years  ago,  erected  posts 
and  built  pa-tuna  (eel-weirs)^  at  the  mouths  of  the  rivers.  These  weirs 
were  continued  until  comparatively  recently,  but  I  have  no  description 
of  them  as  yet.  ,. 

Mr.  F.  L.  Mieville,  wi'iting  of  his  experiences  with  the  Maori  in  Otago 
in  1853  and  1854,  says,  "  The  Maoris  have  a  very  good  way  of  cooking 
an  eel.  They  clean  it,  but  do  not  skin  it.  Like  them,  I  now  think  it  is 
a  great  mistake  to  skin  an  eel.  Next  they  impale  it  with  a  stick  pointed 
at  both  ends,  running  it  through  from  the  tail  to  the  head.  The  stick  is 
then  stuck  slantingly  into  the  ground  close  to  a  good  fire,  and  when  one 
side  is  cooked  the  other  is  turned.  The  eel  is  then  served  up — i.e..  the  stick 
is  placed  upright  in  the  earth  amidst  seven  or  eight  Maoris,  and  each  one 
pulls  off  a  bit  with  his  fingers." 

The  Small  Fry. 

The  season  for  whitebait  (paraki)  was  October  and  November,  said  an 
old  Maori  wise  in  these  matters.  The  patete  was  another  kind  of  whitebait, 
and  was  good  to  eat  after  it  leaves  the  sea,  but  as  it  proceeds  up  the  rivers 
inland  it  picks  up  stones  and  gets  rubbish  inside  and  is  then  no  good  for 
food'.  Waharoa  (long  mouth)  was  a  big  kind  of  whitebait.  You  could 
catch  it  with  a  hook  baited  jvith  a  worm.  It  had  bones  and  its  flesh  was 
coarse.  Mata  was  the  very  small  whitebait,  and  it  was  caught  with  Maori 
nets  (kaka)  which  were  sometimes  a  chain  long.  Inaka  is  the  name  of 
the  little  minnows — they  are  black,  with  white  bellies.  My  informant 
reckoned  they  came  down  to  the  sea  to  spawn,  as  Wai-whakarara,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Molyneux,  was  a  great  place  to  catch  them.  If  not  caught 
before  spawning  they  were  no  good,  and  would  go  up  the  river  again 
in  long   columns,  leaving  the  water  white   with  spawn  at  the  mouth  of 


60  Transactions. 

the  river.  The  name  of  the  crabs  in  inland  creeks  is  papaka,  and  of  the 
crayfish  Jcoura.  "  The  native  trout,  known  to  the  settlers  as  cockabully, 
is  called  kokopu,  and  the  mountain-trout  is  called  kokopara,"  said  my 
informant,  adding,  "  both  these  fish  are  various-coloured,  but  they  are  of 
different  shapes." 

Another  of  the  old  men  said,  "  The  correct  name  of  the  cockabuUies 
is  kokopara.  They  are  still  to  be  found  in  the  creeks  at  Stewart  Island." 
In  the  early  days  of  Otago  settlement  the  name  of  this  fish  was  spelt 
"  kokobula,"  or  sometimes  "  cockabulla."  I  have  a  note,  "  Mata-inaka 
was  a  lagoon  near  Waikouaiti  where  the  Maori  got  very  small  whitebait  ; 
hence  its  name."  A  fish  called  puaihakarua,  which  was  cavight  in  some 
streams,  I  have  no  particulars  of,  nor  of  a  small  fish  called  ikamaru. 

Sea-fish. 

An  old  Maori  said  to  me,  "  Our  name  for  the  barracouta  is  maka,  and 
the  proper  name  of  the  place  the  white  men  call  Titri  is  Kaimaka  (to  eat 
barracouta).  We  caught  these  fish  with  a  rod  {matere),  using  a  jigger  {pa) 
worked  with  string  {tau).  When  the  flesh  of  the  maka  was  preserved  by 
drying  it  was  called  moe.  The  jigger  was  made  of  wood,  and  whenever 
possible  of  towai  wood.  One  of  the  best  places  in  Otago  to  get  this  kind 
of  wood  was  at  a  bush  called  Oreheke,  north-west  of  the  Tapuaenuku  Range 
— now  called  Tapanui — ^and  near  the  head  of  the  Pomahaka  River.  This 
bush  was  full  of  towai  timber.  On  days  when  you  cannot  see  a  barracouta, 
and  you  are  getting  no  bites,  use  a  towai  jigger  and  you  will  get  plenty  of 
fish.  The  reason  for  this  is  because  a  particular  bird  once  settled  on  this 
tree  ;    but  I  do  not  know  which  bird  it  was,  nor  the  story  about  it." 

Another  old  Maori,  in  speaking  of  sea-fish,  said,  "  We  called  the  blue 
cod,  rawaru  ;  rock-cod,  moeanu ;  red  cod,  hoka  ;  ling,  rari  ;  soles,  whose 
jaws  are  more  bent  than  flounders,  horihori  ;  butterfish,  takakaha  ;  white- 
fish,  tarakihi.  The  name  of  the  falls  in  the  Owaka  River  near  the 
township  is  Taheke-aua  (Mullet  Falls).  The  reason  of  the  name  is  that 
the  mullet  (aua)  ran  up  the  river  from  the  sea  until  stopped  by  the  falls, 
and  that  was  a  great  place  for  catching  them."  A  stream  near  Taieri 
Lake  was  Te  Awa-kai-aua  (eat  mullet),  but  I  do  not  know  why  it  was  so 
named. 

I  have  a  note,  "  At  Moeraki  the  fish  principally  caught  are  hapuku  (groper), 
rawaru  (blue  cod),  and  mangaa  (North  Island  name  of  barracouta),"  but  I 
am  sorry  I  omitted  to  get  details  of  ancient  fishing  methods  or  of  the  huge 
flax  nets  of  pre-Buropean  days. 

Seals  and  Sea-lions. 

In  regard  to  the  larger  denizens  of  the  sea,  the  southern  Maori  name 
for  seals  generally  was  pakake  ;  the  fur-seal  was  kekeno  ;  the  porpoise, 
terehu  ;  the  sea-leopard,  rapoka  ;  and  the  sea-lion,  tvhakahau.  A  number 
of  place-names  in  the  South  reveals  the  Maori  interest  in  these  mammals, 
such  as  Whakawai-pakake  (to  entice  seals),  Tangi-pakake  (when  the  mother 
seals  were  killed  the  yo,ung  ones  would  tangi  and  shed  tears),  Ara-kaki  (the 
path  of  a  female  seal),  &c.  One  old  man  said,  "  The  two  hind  flippers 
of  a  seal  are  called  ka-kautaua,  and  two  rocks  near  Ruapuke  are  called 
this  name  because  of  their  shape."  Another  said,  "  The  bight  below 
Lord's  River,  Stewart  Island,  is  called  Pupuri-kautaua  (Hold  .on  to  the 
flipper)  because  here  a  chief  named  Kahu  surprised  a  whakakau  (sea-lion) 
and  caught  hold  of  its  flipper  and  held  on  till  his  men  could  kill  it.      He 


Beattie. — Nature-lore  of  the  Southern  Maori.  61 

was  a  big,  powerful  man,  but  it  must  have  been  a  young  whakahau  or  he 
could  not  have  held  it."  Another  narrates  that  when  a  boy  he  copied 
some  white  boys  and  made  bow  and  arrows,  and  he  got  into  sad  trouble 
for  shooting  an  arrow  into  a  poha  of  kekeno  flesh  suspended  to  the  roof. 
The  poha  was '  opened,  and  he  says  the  seal-flesh  made  good  eating, 
although  fat.  The  Maori  method  of  killing  the  seals,  &c.,  is  said  to  have 
been  by  clubbing,  but  more  particulars  would  be  welcome. 

Whales  in  the  South  were  called  kewa,  and  the  traditions  frequently 
mention  them,  chiefly  as  miracle-workers  ;  but  the  Maori  would  occasionally 
find  stranded  whales,  when  they  would  enjoy  a  course  of  whale-flesh. 

Bird-hunting. 

So  much  has  been  written  about  the  snaring  and  catching  of  birds  by 
the  Maori  that  the  collector  will  not  say  much  on  the  subject  except  to 
add  a  remark  or  two  made  by  the  old  people. 

The  southern  Maori  trained  their  kuri  to  catch  birds  such  as  weka, 
kakapo,  and  tokoeka.  The  last-named  bird  I  was  told  had  big  "  paws  " 
(toes)  and  was  able  to  kick  the  dogs,  so  there  was  a  certain  knack  in 
catching  them.  In  catching  woodhens  {weka),  the  art,  as  I  understand  it, 
was  for  the  huntsman  to  entice  the  woodhen  near  enough  for  the  dog  to 
seize  without  letting  the  bird  whakakeokeo  or  alarm  the  rest.  Keokeo  is 
the  short  sharp  cry  of  the  weka  when  alarmed,  and  to  prevent  it  the 
hunter  would  turutu,  or  imitate  the  cry  of  the  bird,  and  so  coax  it  quite 
close,  when  the  dog  would  spring  at  it ;  but  not  many  of  the  present  Maori 
have  been  weka-catching.      Weka  were  also  captured  with  a  noose. 

Wild  ducks  were  snared  in  the  creeks  with  a  flax  net  or  snare,  called 
the  kaha.  I  was  also  told  that  a  Maori  who  was  a  fast  swimmer  could 
catch  moulting  ducks,  which  in  common  with  unfledged  young  are  called 
maunu.  An  old  and  respected  white  settler  tells  me  that  in  1859  he  was 
invited  by  the  Maori  at  Hdnley  to  take  part  in  a  "  duck  drive  "  on  Lake 
Waihola.  They  started  out  at  daybreak  in  canoes  and  dug-outs,  and 
rounded  up  great  numbers  of  young  and  moulting  paradise  ducks  unable 
to  fly.  They  ran  these  maunu  into  a  corner  and  slew  them  with  waddies. 
They  returned  in  triumph  to  the  "  kaik "  with  six  or  seven  hundred 
birds,  cleaned  them,  and  hung  them  up  in  rows,  to  be  subsequently  stored 
in  the  whata  (food -storehouses).  '  My  informant  added  that  one  of  the  best 
feeds  he  ever  had  was  an  eel  taken  out  of  the  whata  one  day  he  chanced 
to  call. 

Ducks,  said  one  of  my  informants,  were  caught  in  long  nets,  into  which 
they  swam,  and  the  more  they  struggled  to  withdraw  their  heads  the 
tighter  the  mesh  became  on  their  necks.  He  had  never  heard  of  the  , 
Maori  swimming  under  the  birds  and  pulling  them  down  by  the  legs,  as 
was  done  in  some  parts  of  the  world.  There  was  no  need  to  do  so,  as  they 
were  so  plentiful,  and  they  were  very  tame  and  would  come  close  to  you. 
There  were  no  guns  to  scare  and  make  them  afraid  and  wild,  and  all  the 
killing  of  them  done  by  the  Maori  was  done  quietly  and  orderly. 

Another  said  that  the  place-name  Pomahaka  should  be  Pou-mahaka, 
meaning  posts  to  which  the  snares  for  catching  ducks  were  attached. 

The  season  to  catch  weka,  said  one  old  man,  was  from  April  to  July, 
when  they  were  fattest ;  after  July  the  birds  became  thin.  Sometimes 
the  Maori  would  go  out  at  night  and  blow  (or  whakataki)  on  flax  held 
between  the  lips.  If  two  weka  had  been  answering  each  other  this  call 
would  bring  them.      Two  birds  calling  each  other  were  called  ptihuka,  or 


62  Transactions. 

♦ 

weha-puhuJca.  The  ca'l  of  the  male  bird  was  slow — tUre,  tore — but  when 
the  call  was  quick  and  agitated — tore,  tore — that  was  the  female  bird. 
The  former  was  called  toa  (a  toa-tautahi  was  a  fat  male  weka)  and  the 
female  bird  was  called  uwha. 

I  have  a  further  note  to  the  effect  that  there  is  a  kind  of  woodhen  on 
the  islands  round  Stewart  Island  known  as  miuweka. 

One  of  my  aged  friends  said  he  could  go  into  the  bush  and  get  kaka 
by  the  drinking-trough  method,  or  the  rush -hut  and  decoy-bird  method, 
or  by  the  aid  of  ordinary  manuka  spears.  He  could  get  tui,  pigeons,  parra- 
keets,  &c.,  in  the  same  manner  ;  there  w^s  no  fuss,  and  no  one  need  starve 
if  he  knew  the  bush-lore.  I  neglected  to  get  fuller  details  from  him,  but 
hope  to  do  so  later  on. 

Experiences  of  Weka-hunters. 

Winter  being  the  best  season  to  catch  the  weka,  the  parties  who  went 
inland  then  sometimes  had  rough  experiences.  I  was  told  of  one  tragedy 
of  the  long-ago  through  this  cause.  A  man  named  Weka,  his  wife  Nuku, 
and  their  two  children  set  out  from  Tuturau  up-country  on  a  weka- 
hunting  expedition.  They  camped  on  the  hill  on  which  East  Gore  is  now 
built,  and  here  the  woman  busied  herself  gathering  taramea  (spear-grass) 
from  which  to  extract  scent  (kakara).  Resuming  their  journey,  they  went 
to  Nokomai,  but  much  to  their  disappointment  the  weka  were  scarce, 
so,  under  the  shadow  of  the  mountain  called  Karu-a-hine,  Weka  made  a 
pahuri  (shelter)  for  his  wife  and  family  while  he  went  on  to  Kimiakau  (Arrow 
River)  and  Kamuriwai.  (My  informant  said,  "  Kamuri-whenua  is  the 
pakihi  (plain)  from  Oamaru  to  the  Waitaki  but  not  across  that  river,  while 
Kamuri-wai  is  the  pakihi  near  Foxe's  (Arrowtown)  on  the  Arrow.")  This 
was  a  noted  weka  ground,  and  he  had  fair  success  and  started  to  return,  but 
was  delayed  several  days  by  a  violent  snowstorm.  He  crossed  the  Kawarau 
on  a  moki  and  struggled  through  the  deep  snow  to  Nokomai.  There  was 
no  trace  of  his  wife  and  children,  but  when  the  snow  melted  a  bit  he  found 
their  dead  bodies.  With  some  difficulty  he  buried  them  and  sadly  came 
down-country.  Camping  on  the  hill  between  the  Mataura  and  Waikakahi 
(Waikaka)  Rivers,  memories  of  his  wife  gathering  the  taramea  came  over 
him  and  he  composed  a  song,  which  is  still  preserved.  From  this  circum- 
stance the  hill  is  called  Onuku  in  memory  of  her.  Weka  continued  his 
journey  to  Tuturau,  where,  it  is  sajd,  he  died  of  grief  shortly  after. 

Another  aged  Maori  told  me  of  a  party,  among  whom  was  Rakitapu, 
his  informant,  who  went  w;eA;a-hunting,  their  objective  being  Okopiri,  a 
wooded  gully  north  of  Heriot,  I  was  told.  There  were  no  runholders  there 
then.  The  party  were  on  the  Otuparaoa  Mountains  one  fine  moonlit  night, 
when  all  of  a  sudden  snow  came  on.  It  proved  to  be  an  exceptionally 
heavy  fall,  and  the  weka-hnntera  had  a  rough  time.  That  snowfall  is  now 
known  traditionally  as  Kaipahau,  a  name  which  implies  that  the  party, 
or  such  of  them  as  sported  whiskers,  ate  the  sriow  off  their  beards.  It 
was  in  July,  the  month  that  the  weka  are  fattest,  that  this  great  snowstorm 
occurred. 

A  noted  place  for  getting  weka  was  Mikioe,  up  the  Otamatea  (now 
called  Otamita,  or  Otamete)  in  the  Hokanui  Hills.  Here  there  was  a 
clump  of  mikimiki  shrub,  of  the  berries  of  which  the  weka  are  fond. 
I  was  told  that  mihi  meant  the  shrub  and  that  oe  denoted  the  shedding  of 
its  berries  or  leaves.  My  informant  once  saw  some  weka  so  eager  to  get 
the  berries  that  they  had  clambered  on  to  a  matted  mass  of  mikimiki  and 
were  perhaps  2  ft.  off  the  ground.      The  sight  interested  and  amused  him. 


Beattie. — Nature-lore  of  the  Southern  Maori.  63 

It  is  said  the  Maori  named  the  woodhen  from  its  cry,  "  tve-ha,  we-ka  "  ; 
but  a  European  who  is  well  acquainted  with  the  birds  renders  this  cry  as 
"  ka-week,  ka-week."  This  is  just  another  illustration  of  the  difference 
between  Maori  and  pakeha  ideas  in  regard  to  onomatopoeia. 

The 'Weather. 

The  foregoing  accounts  of  the  rough  weather  sometimes  experienced 
by  the  Maori  in  winter  afford  an  appropriate  opportunity  of  giving  some 
stray  remarks  made  to  me  by  the  old  men.  One  said,  "  Our  word  for 
spring  is  kana ;  summer,  raumati ;  autumn,  kahuru,  a  word  meaning 
'  ten,'  or  '  plenty  '  ;  and  winter,  makariri,  which  means  cold.  The  old 
people  did  not  like  the  winter.  If  snowfiakes  came  they  would  shiver 
and  say  '  Kai  te  oka  te  huka  '  (The  snow  is  falling).  We  used  the  word 
huka  for  snow  generally,  huka-wai  for  snow  and  rain  or  sleet,  huka-taratara 
for  hail,  huka-nehunehu  for  fine  dry  snow,  huka-kapu  for  flakes  of  snow, 
kopaka  for  ice,  ua  or  awha  for  rain,  and  the  name  for  frost  I  cannot 
recollect." 

Another  said,  '"  The  mountains  north  of  Gore  are  called  Te  Rau,  and 
when  the  natives  of  Murihiku  heard  thunder  from  the  north  or  north-west 
they  said  that  was  Te  Rau  praying  for  snow,  and  if  the  thunder  was  from 
the  south-west  they  said  that  was  Hautere  (Solander  Island)  praving  for 
snow."  My  mformant  added  that  he  had  heard  the  green  tui  or  koparaparu 
chattering  that  morning,  and  that  this  was  not  a  good  weather  sign.  The 
koparapara  is  the  bell-bird  {korimako,  or  makomako,  in  the  North).  The 
Maori  also  foretell  the  seasons  by  observing  trees  and  plants,  but  I  have 
no  particulars  of  this. 

Maori  traditions  tell  of  great  floods  in  the  Aparima,  Mataura,  and  Clutha 
Rivers,  and  debris  was  found  by'  early  white  settlers  at  a  height  which 
has  never  been  approached  since.  A  vast  flood  in  the  Clutha  is  known  as 
Wai-mau-pakura  ("  Water  which  carried  the  swamp-hen  " — so  called  because 
it  swept  many  nesting-birds  eut  to  sea),  and  at  the  recent  Rivers  Com- 
mission the  date  was  surmised  to  be  1800.  The  question  arises,  Was  the 
climate  wetter  before  European  settlement  ? 

r 

Birds. 

My  Maori  friends  did  not  have  very  much  to  say  about  the  avifauna. 
One  remarked,  "  In  days  gone  by  the  bush  swarmed  with  native  birds ; 
now  we  see  scarcely  any.  We  had  the  kakaruai  (robin),  miromiro  (tom- 
tit), titakataka  (fantail),  tatariki  (canary),  a  very  small  bird  without  a  tail 
called  titiripounamu  (rifleman),  kakariki  (parrakeet).  We  had  a  black 
bird  with  red  wattles,  koka  (native  crow),  and  a  bird  with  a  yellow  mark 
over  its  back,  tieke  (saddleback).  Both  these  birds  had  beautiful  notes — 
'  they  could  whistle  like  a  man.  Then  we  had  two  birds  which  came  only 
in  the  summer,  the  pipiwharauroa  (shining  cuckoo)  and  the  koekoea  (long- 
tailed  cuckoo)."  * 

Another  said,  "  Our  name  for  the  tui  was  koko.  Away  behind  Seacliff 
Asylum  there  is  a  bush  called  Potae-rua,  and  a  creek  there  is  Waikoko 
(Tui  Stream).  Our  trees  fruit  about  six  weeks  later  than  the  North  Island, 
and  the  tui  are  fat  in  April  and  May.  A  man  could  hit  them  with  stones 
[sic]  and  fill  his  basket ;  hence  the  name  of  that  place.  A  ridge  between 
Waikaro  and  Te  Akaroa,  near  Measly  Beach,  is  Paekoko,  which  means 
'  the  tms  resting-place.'  " 


64  Transactions. 

One  of  my  old  Maori  friends  went  to  the  Wakatipu  diggings  in  1862. 
He  says,  "  When  in  Moonlight  Gully  my  dog  caught  some  big  moreporks 
in  the  rocks  there,  and  we  called  the  place  ,Kohaka-ruru  (nest  of  more- 
porks).  These  birds  were  not  the  small  bush-owls  known  as  ruru,  but 
the  bigger  open-country  ones  known  as  ruru-whenua.  They  were  big  and 
fat,  and  when  cooked  the  whole  party  ate  them,  and  they  tasted  so  good 
that  even  the  white  men  smacked  their  lips  over  them."  I  have  never 
heard  of  the  Maori  eating  owls  except  this  instance,  it  being  generally 
supposed  they  regarded  the  bird  with  a  good  deal  of  awe.  A  place  near 
Colac  Bay  is  Ruru-koukou  ("  the  cry  of  the  morepork  " — rum  being  the 
bird  and  koukou  its  call). 

In  securing  Maori  nomenclature  I  ascertained  that  many  place-names 
in  the  South  are  reminiscent  of  birds.  The  native  lark  is  pioioi,  and  the 
name  of  Dunback  Hill  is  Te  Av.-apioioi  ;  the  native  quail  was  called 
koreke,  and  a  range  of  hills  between  Milton  and  the  sea  is  Whatu-koreke  ; 
the  kingfisher  is  kotare,  and  a  hill  near  Nuggets  Point  is  Taumata-kotare  ; 
the  teal  duck  is  patake,  and  a  creek  near  Invercargill  is  Te  Awapatake  ; 
the  seagull  is  karoro,  and  an  island  in  the  Mataura  River  above  Gore  is 
Pokai-karoro  ;  the  parrakeet  is  kakariki,  and  a  place  near  Charlton  was 
known  as  Pokai-kakariki,  while  a  beach  near  Fortrose  is  Kakariki-taunoa  ; 
and  so  on. 

One  of  the  aged  men  said  to  me,  "  There  used  to  be  a  small  bird  at 
Roto-nui-a-Whatu  (now  called  by  the  white  people  Lake  Tuakitoto).  It 
was  about  the  size  of  a  redbill  (forea),  and  had  a  white  breast  and  a  black 
back.     We  called  it  pouakakai,  but  its  European  name  I  do  not  know." 

The  common  name  of  the  swamp-turkey  in  the  South  was  pakura,  and 
a  swamp  near  Balfour  was  called  Kai-pakura  (to  eat  swamp-hens).  The 
bird  was  also  called  pukaki  because  of  a  habit  it  has  of  stretching  up  its 
neck  when  alarmed  and  so  bulging  its  throat.  The  North  Island  name 
of  this  bird  is  pukeko,  and  how  often  has  one  heard  it  said,  "  Look  at  those 
awful  Southerners  massacring  the  beautiful  Maori  language  !  Fancy  them 
corrupting  the  word  pukeko  into  pukaki !  "  This  is  not  so  ;  it  is  only  one  of 
the  numerous  instances  where  northern  and  southern  names  differ. 

The  native  pigeon  is  a  celebrated  bird  in  southern  estimation.  My 
Maori  friends  laid  great  stress  on  its  connection  with  the  story  of  Maui. 
It  is  commonly  called  kereru,  but  is  also  known  as  kukupa.  When  Maui 
was  a  boy  he  went  down  into  the  underworld  to  find  his  father,  and  he 
painted  his  mouth  and  legs  red  and  put  on  a  white  maro,  or  kilt,  and 
transformed  himself  into  a  pigeon.  One  of  my  informants  said,  "  The 
white  on  the  breast  of  the  kereru  is  the  napkin,  or  maro,  Maui  was  wrapped 
in  as  a  babe."  Maui  in  the  shape  of  a  pigeon  flew  on  to  the  handle  of 
the  ko  (spade)  of  his  .father,  who  spoke  to  the  bird  ;  but  all  it  could  do 
was  to  nod  its  head  and  answer,  "  Ku,  ku.''  Any  one  familiar  with  the  bird 
knows  the  way  it  wags  and  nods  its  head — this  is  in  memory  of  Maui — 
and  all  it  can  say  is  what  Maui  answered  his  father,  "  Ku,  ku.'^ 

•  Speaking  of  Maui  reminds  me  that  legend  says  it  was  the  mirth  of 
the  titakatahi  (fantail)  which  caused  his  death.  ()n(>  of  the  old  men  said 
the  word  titakatahi  meant  "  flitting  about,"  and  the  bird  was  so  named 
because  of  its  restless  disposition.  ,The  correct  name  of  Akatore,  in  Otago, 
is  Aka  -  torea,  and  it  means  "  the  harbour  of  the  redbills  (or  oyster- 
catchers)."  The  North  Island  form  of  the  name  would  be  Whanga-torea. 
The  southern  Maori  used  the  ordinary  manuka  to  make  bird-spears,  and  I 
have  a  note  that  the  clump  of  manuka  called  Pokai-kakariki,  near  Charlton, 
was  celebrated  in  this  connection. 


Bbattie. — Nature-lo7-e  of  the  Southern  Maori.  65 

The  Moa. 

As  a  rule,  my  informants  frankly  admitted  they  knew  nothing  about 
the  moa.  One  man,  however,  said  the  last  moa  was  killed  on  the  Waimea 
Plains  about  five  generations  ago,  and  gave  some  very  plausible  details. 
There  is  just  a  possibility  that  one  of  the  smaller  kinds  of  moa  may  have 
smwived  long  after  the  big  birds  became  extinct,  or  that  a  very  large 
hiivi  was 'killed,  but  I  do  not  place  absolute  reliance  on  the  tradition. 

One  man  said,  "  Just  a  few  chains  below  the  Mataura  Falls  is  Te- 
kohaka-a-moa  ^(the  nest  of  the  moa).  It  is  a  round  depression  on  a  flat 
rock,  and  the  old  people  thought  it  resembled  a  moa's  nest.  They  also 
found  moa  bones  about  it.  Near  Clinton  is  the  hill  Te-kohaka-a-p'ouakai 
(the  nest  of  the  pouakai).  The  pouakai  was  one  of  the  kinds  of  moa  that 
lived  in  this  land.  A  small  sea-bird  is  now  called  pouakakai:  but  do  not 
mix  the  name.  The  imuakai  has  not  been  seen  for  many  generations  ; 
the  pouakakai  is  quite  common  yet."  From  this  it  appears  that  the 
southern  Maori  recognized  that  there  were  different  species  of  Dinornis. 

The  late  Tare-te-Maiharoa,  than  whom  there  was  no  greater  authority 
in  recent  years,  was  positive  the  moa  was  extinct  when  the  Maori  came, 
A.D.  1350.  They  were  killed  out  in  the  South  Island  by  the  Waitaha,  who 
called  the  birds  pouakai.  The  name  moa  Avas  given  by  the  latest  comers 
who  saw  the  bones  lying  about.  "The  Moriori  of  the  Chatham  Islands," 
said  Tare,  "  were  related  to  the  Kati-Mamoe,  but  left  New  Zealand  very 
long  ago." 

This  accounts  for  the  poua  bird  of  Moriori  traditions.  It  is  simply  the 
moa  of  New  Zealand,  which  was  probably  on  the  point  of  extinction  or 
already  extinct  when  that  people  left  this  country.  The  last  Maori  note 
I  have  on  the  moa  runs,  "  I  have  heard  a  song  which  says  the  moa  was 
killed  out  by  karakia  (tau-whaka-moe-tia)  because  it  was  a  dangerous  bird^ 
but  how  long  ago  I  cannot  say." 

Insects.' 

I  understand  that  the  question  has  recently  been  raised  whether  •  the 
flea  was  brought  into  New  Zealand  by  European  ships.  I  did  not  know 
of  this  inquiry  in  time  to  ask  my  Maori  friends  what  they  knew  of  the 
matter,  but  may  say  that  on  Kuapuke  Island  there  is  a  place  known  as 
Te  Awatuiau  (Flea  Channel).  Shortland  in  1843  said  tuiau  was  the 
southern  name  for  the  flea,  the  northern  name  being  puruhi.  One  old  man 
noticed  a  statement  that  the  Maori  name  of  the  mosquito  was  ivaeroa.  and 
said  to  me,  "  Its  name  in  the  North  might  be  waeroa,  but  in  the  South  it 
was  always  known  as  keroa.'"  Noticing  some  insects  as  I  was  conversing 
with  an  old  Maori,  he  supplied  me  with  the  following  names  :  "  Our  name 
for  the  bluebottle-fly  was  rako,  and  for  its  eggs  and  maggots  iro.  Spiders 
were  pukau-werewere,  and  grasshoppers  tukarakau.  The  daddy-long-legs' 
name  was  te  tatau-o-te-whare-o-Maui  (the  door  of  the  house  of  Maui), 
but  I  do  not  know  how  it  got  this  name.  A  green  kind  of  butterfly,  a 
sort  of  cricket,  was  called  kikiwaru,  while  the  black  and  spotted  butterflies 
are  mokarakara.  [He  pronounced  this  mokalakala.]  Then  we  used  to 
have  pekapeka  (bats)  in  plenty,  but  I  have  not  seen  any  of  them  for  a 
long  time."  The  sandfly  was  called  namu,  and  there  is  a  place*  near  Waiau 
mouth  called  Kai-namu  (eat  sandflies)  because  these  pests  were  so  numerous 
as  to  get  into  the  mouth  with  the  food  that  was  being  eaten.  I  have  a 
further  note  that  in  the  South  the  name  of  the  ant  was  upokorua. 
3— Trans. 


66  Transactions. 


Mushrooms. 


One  of  my  informants  said,  "  One  of  the  raids  made  by  the  southern 
Maori  northward  is  called  Kai-whareatua.  It  is  not  the  name  of  a  fight 
but  of  a  war  expedition,  and  Tare  Wetere  te  Kahu  was  in  it.  The 
Southerners  had  gone  up  to  fight  the  North-Islanders  and  were  returning, 
when  they  ran  ashore,  and  were  wrecked  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rakitata 
River.  In  the  capsize  all  the  food  was  lost,  and  the  party  found  mush- 
rooms and  ate  them.  Hence  the  origin  of  the  name  Kai-whareatua  (eat 
mushrooms).  The  word  ivhareatua  means  a  'devil  house'  and  that  is  the 
old  Maori  name  of  the  mushroom."  Another  old  man  remarked,  "  Tare 
Wetere  was  in  the  Taua-iti  raid  on  Te  Rauparaha,  but  I  do  not  think  he  was 
at  the  Kai-whareatua  raid,  as,  according  to  my  information,  it  was  before 
his  time."  This  opens  up  the  interesting  question.  Were  mushrooms  indi- 
genous or  introduced  ?  I  consulted  a  lot  of  New  Zealand  works  without 
result,  and  I  asked  old  settlers.  One  says  that  probably  mushrooms  were 
native,  as  they  were  to  be  found  in  the  early  days  among  the  tussocks  in 
the  backblocks,  but  others  consider  that  they  will  not  grow  without  horse- 
manure.  This  beUef  Chambers's  Encyclo'paedia  classes  as  unreliable,  and 
says  that  mushrooms  were  found  growing  over  nearly  all  the  world,  a  very 
fine  edible  variety  being  native  to  Victoria,  Australia.  If  this  be  so,  why 
not  in'  New  Zealand  ?  It  is  said  that  although  the  North  Island  Maori 
have  plenty  of  names  for  fungi  growing  on  trees  they  have  none  for  field 
fungi — at  least,  so  I  understand.  I  therefore  interrogated  my  aged  Maori 
friends  in  the  South,  with  the  following  results  : — 

"  Yes,  there  were  mushrooms,  but  I  forget  their  names." 

"  The  name  of  the  mushroom  was  whareahca,  but  I  cannot  say  if  they 
were  here  before  the  pakeha  came." 

"  Mushrooms  were  not  here  all  the'  time.  You  could  see  them  only 
in  their  season.      Their  Maori  name  was  wliareatua." 

"  There  were  three  kinds  of  mushrooms.  One  was  very  small  and  thin 
in  the  bush  and  was  called  harore,  and  the  others  were  called  whareatua 
and  were  aU  sizes  up  to  almost  as  big  as  a  hat.  One  of  these  kinds  was 
good  to  eat.  Another  thing  like  mushrooms  was  called  weho,  and  was 
also  good  to  eat.  They  all  belonged  to  the  ground.  The  Waitaha  people 
brought  fern-trees  and  fern-roots  to  eat,  but  no  one  brought  the  mushrooms. 
Another  thing  to  eat  came  out  of  the  ground  after  thunderstorms.  It 
was  called  poketara.  You  would  come  out  in  the  morning  and  see  it. 
It  was  a  round-like  ball,  and  sometimes  almost  as  big  as  a  small  football. 
It  was  wonderful  how  it  grew  so  quickly.  It  had  to  be  eaten  at  once — 
after  a  day  it  was  no  good.  It  could  be  cooked  on  the  fire  and  tasted  like 
a  nmshroom." 

"  The  whareatua  was  a  nmshroom  on  a  long  stalk  and  with  a  deep  body. 
I  am  not  sure  if  it  was  here  before  the  white  people.  The  poketara  was 
a  big,  round  thing,  a  sort  of  mushroom,  but  it  had  no  opening  ;  it  was  all 
covered.  It  lasted  only  a  short  time,  and  then  it  would  go  into  dust. 
I  do  not  know  the  history  of  the  raid  known  as  Kai-whareatua." 

"  Whareatua  was  the  name  of  the  mushroom.  I  do  not  know  who 
brought  them  to  New  Zealand,  but  they  were  all  over  the  country*  They  • 
were  like  an  umbrella  in  shape,  but  in  late  years  I  have  seen  what  is  a' new 
sort  to  me,  with  thick  stems  and  bunched  tops,  and  for  which  I  know  no 
name.  It  is  said  the  poketara  comes  down  in  thunderstorms.  It  has 
no  opening  at  all,  and  is  white  and  round.  When  it  becomes  old  the  stuff 
inside  turns  into  a  powder  and  blows  away.      It  sometimes  grows  as  big 


Beattie. — Nature-lore  of  the  Sotifhern  Maori.  67 

as  your  two  fists  together,  but  some  remain  quite  small.  There  was  also 
a  small;  round  thing  about  the  size  of  your  thumb,  white  or  somewhat 
darker.  An  old  fellow  said  it  was  good  to  eat,  but  I  cannot  think  of  its 
name.  I  once  tried  it.  I  placed  it  in  a  whena  (roll)  of  bush  flax  and 
cooked  it  in  an  umu  (oven).  It  had  no  taste,  and  was  soft  like  a  jujube." 
This  represents  the  information  I  gleaned  about  fungi.  The  poketara 
is  possibly  our  "  puffball,"  but  that,  and  other  queries,  is  now  presented 
for  discussion. 

Fern-trees  and  Fern-root. 

Mention  of  the  southern  Maori  eating  mushrooms  leads  me  on  to  the 
question  of  how  they  wrested  an  existence  from  Nature,  whose  moods  are 
sterner  down  here  than  in  the  more  enervating  North.  They  say  the 
kumara  did  not  flourish  farther  south  than  Banks  Peninsula,  but  a  northern 
opinion  that  they  must  have  subsisted  mainly  on  fern-root  and  fish  did 
not  meet  with  the  approval  of  one  old  Maori,  who  told  me  that  by  the 
system  of  kaihaukai  they  could  exchange  titi  (mutton-birds)  and  other 
things  for  kumara  from  Canterbury,  and  even  get  taro  and  hue  from  the 
North  Island.  In  regard  to  the  natural  products  of  Otago  he  said, 
"  We  had  different  kinds  of  fern-trees.  The  mamaku  was  not  in  this 
district,  although  it  was  over  on  Stewart  Island;  but  we  had  the  poka, 
wheki,  and  katote.  The  leaves  of  the  poka  are  white  underneath,  the 
katote  leaves  are  green  on  both  sides  and  softer,  while  the  leaves  of  the 
wheki  are  very  rough  and  its  stem  very  black.  The  iho  (heart)  of  the 
katote  is  good  to  eat,  but  that  of  the  others  is  bitter.  I  remember  that 
three  of  us  had  a  good  feed  of  the  heart  of  a  katote  at  Opiriao  (Sandy  Bay, 
near  Catlin's).  Perhaps  katote  heart  might  make  good  jam — it  had  a  sweet 
taste. 

"  Our  name  for  fern-root  was  aruhe,  and  the  leaves  of  the  fern  were 
called  rau-aruhe.  I  remember  once,  at  the  south  end  of  the  Koau  on  Inch- 
Clutha,  at  a  place  called  Pekeihupuku — the  ihupuku  was  a  big  kind  of  seal 
and  peke  means  its  shoulder — eating  fern -root.  It  was  during  the  big 
flood  of  1868,  and  we  went  back  to  the  reserve  and  got  fern-root  and  beat 
it  on  a  big  stone  with  a  piece  of  iron.  In  the  old  days  it  was  beaten  with 
sticks  and  wooden  clubs.  When  it  was  mashed  we  picked  out  the  fibres 
and  ate  the  rest,  and  it  tasted  good.  It  used  to  be  mixed  with  whitebait, 
these  tiny  fish  being  beaten  into  it ;  the  name  of  the  resulting  mash  was 
kohere-aruhe.  Mr.  Hay,  an  early  settler,  used  to  eat  fern-root  occasionally, 
both  when  he  was  among  the  Maori  and  at  his  own  home." 

Relative  to  eating  tree-ferns,  one  of  my  informants  related,  "  In  the 
whaling  days  the  brig  '  New  Hampden  '  was  wrecked  at  the  Bluff".  She 
was  known  to  the  Maori  as  '  Kai-mamaku '  (to  eat  fern-trees)  because  once 
she  ran  into  Te  Ana-hawea  (Bligh  Sound)  for  shelter,  and,  food  becoming 
short,  the  crew  went  ashore  and  cut  some  mamaku,  which  they  ate." 

Some  localities  were  renowned  for  the  excellence  of  the  fern-root  gTOwing 
there,  one  such  place,  I  was  told,  being  Pau-upoko,  near  Port  Molyneux. 

Various  Foods  and  Drinks. 

The  old  Maori  who  spoke  to  me  about  fern-trees  and  fern-root  continued, 
"  But  we  had  another  vegetable  food  too,  and  that  was  the  kauru,  the 
cooked  root  of  the  ti  (cabbage-tree).  Sometimes  these  trees  had  a  side 
shoot,  and  that  was  the  proper  kauru;  when  it  was  taken  the  tree  did  not 
die,  as  it  did  if  its  root  {mor^-ti)  was  taken.     If  the  kauru  you  were  eating 

3* 


68  Transactions. 

was  called  more-ti  you  would  know  it  was  from  tlial;  root  only.  Sometimes 
the  people  would  leave  a  bit  of  the  root  in  the  ground  and  in  a  few  years 
another  tree  would  grow  in  its  place.  The  root  could  be  cooked  at  an  open 
fire  or  in  an  umu  (oven).  In  the  old  days  the  umu  in  whiph  the  kauru 
was  baked  was  often  called  a  puna-ti,  puna  meaning  a  hole  and  ti  being 
the  cabbage-tree.  It  would  cook  quicker  at  an  open  fire,  and  its  rough 
skin  prevented  it  from  charring,  but  it  did  not  taste  its  best  unless  placed 
in  an  ipu  (basin)  and  soaked  in  flax-honey  [wai-horari).  Or  the  kauru 
could  be  taken  and, laid  fiat,  and  the  flax-honey  dripped  on  it,  when  it  would 
absorb  it.  Then  if  you  were  travelling  and  were  thirsty  you  could  up-end 
your  kauru  root  and  let  the  moisture  trickle  down  your  throat.  This 
was  called  unu-wai-korari,  and  it  was  a  good  sweet  drink. 

"  Another  food  of  the  ancient  times  was  prepared  like  this  :  Secure  some 
kelp  {rimu),  the  same  as  that  dried  for  the  poha-titi,  and  take  it  up-country 
to  a  place  where  tutu  is  ^plentiful.  Gather  tutu  berries  and  put  them  in 
a  putoro,  a  small  flax  bag  very  closely  woven  so  that  the  seeds  of  the 
tutu  cannot  get  through.  Squeeze  the  bag,  and  the  juice  comes  through 
and  forms  a  good  drink,  called  waitutu.  Take  an  ipu,  or  wooden  trough, 
pu'b  the  kelp  and  tutu  juice  in  it  and  boil  by  putting  hot  stones  in.  You 
can  tell  that  the  kelp  is  boiled  enough  by  poking  a  stick  into  it  and  it  falls 
to  bits.  Leave  it  till  it  is  cold,  and  the  result  is  a  black-coloured  jelly, 
called  rehia,  which  was  often  eaten  by  the  aid  of  an  akapipi  (mussel-shell). 

"  Waitutu  was  a  good  refreshing  drink,  although  sweet.  I  remember 
once  at  Tuturau  another  Maori  and  I  had  a  good  drink  of  it.  We  held  the^ 
ptitoro  over  our  heads  and  wrung  them  and  let  the  juice  drop  into  our 
mouths.  I  never  heard  of  any  other  drinks  among  the  old  people  except 
waikorari,  ivaitutu,  and  water.  Besides  the  foods  I  have  described  we 
had  berries  of  various  kinds,  such  as  the  hua-kotukutuku  (fuchsia),  which 
were  eaten  raw,  and  mako  berries,  which  came  in  their  season.  I  also 
remember  long  ago  eating  snowberries  in  the  Hokanui  Hills.  I  think  our 
name  for  them  was  tapuku." 

Near  Colac  Bay  is  a  small  lagoon  called  Okoura,  and  I  was  told  it  was 
named  after  a  man  who  was  killed  there.  Bulrushes  grew  in  the  lagoon, 
and  their  roots  were  gathered  and  eaten  with  the  flesh  of  Koura.  Bulrush- 
roots  were  called  ko-areare ;  they  were  mashed  and  formed  an  article  of 
diet  with  the  old-time  Maori. 

An  old  Maori  said  to  me,  "  In  the  North  Island  the  fuchsia-berry  was 
called  konini,  but  down  here  both  tree  and  fruit  bore  the  same  name — 
kotukutuku." 

I  have  a  further  note  that  a  berry  which  grows  in  swamps  is  called 
te  rerewa,  but  I  cannot  say  if  it  is  edible. 

The  Tuturau  Eeserve. 

Recently  I  was  at  the  Tuturau  Maori  Reserve  to  see  my  old  friend 
Mrs.  Gourlay  (Toki  Reko)  laid  to  rest  in  the  burial-ground  there.  That 
evening  Mr.  Gourlay,  a  European,  a  keen  observer  of  nature,  told  ip.e 
some  of  the  methods  he  had  seen  the  Maori  at  Tuturau  adopt  in  getting 
food.  He  has  been  fifty  years  in  the  district,  the  last  forty-five  of  them 
in  his  present  location,  and  following  is  a  summary  of  his  information. 

In  rain  or  high  winds  the  pigeons  kept  low  in  the  bush,  and  the  Maori 
speared  them  with  bird-spears  made  of  manuka  or  horoeka  (lance wood). 
The  end  of  the  spear  was  sharp-pointed  and  burnt  hard,  and  seemed  to 
go  right  through  the  birds  if  skilfully  thrust.  There  was  nothing  attached 
to  the  spear. 


Beattib. — Nature-lore  of  th,e  Southern  Maori.  69 

Ducks  were  snared  by  placing  nets  across  streams  at  the  height  to 
intercept  the  birds'  heads  as  they  swam  along.  One  morning  Mr.  Gourlay 
saw  a  duck  and  all  its  brood  caught  in  one.  Some  years  ago  he  got  his 
wife  to  make  him  an  old-fashioned  net  for  snaring  ducks,  and  it  was  quite 
efficacious.  There  was  no  fuss  nor  worry  with  the  snare — the  gun  was 
simply  not  in  it  with  the  noiseless  net. 

The  Maori  used  to  go  down  to  the  swamp  at  Menzies  Ferry  and  catch 
matuku.  (bittern)  by  laying  snares  for  the  birds'  feet  on  the  paths  they 
had  made  through  the  rushes.  The  bitterns  made  a  booming  noise  at 
times,  and  the  Maori  said  the  birds  did  this  when  catching  eels.  The 
Maori  caught  pukaki  (swamp-hens)  in  the  same  manner. 

He  had  never  seen,  or  heard  of,  the  Maori  catching  kotuku  (white 
heron),  as  that  bird  was  so  rare,  but  it  could  no  doubt  be  caught  in  the 
same  way  as  the  bittern. 

Snares  were  also  laid  on  the  feeding-flats  of  the  paradise  ducks  at 
certain  times.  When  the  birds  were  moulting  and  could  not  flv  the 
Maori  would  get  into  the  swamps  after  them  and  run  them  down. 

He  had  seen  the  Maori  catch  tui  by  covering  a  pool  with  branches, 
leaving  an  open  space  for  the  birds  to  drink.  Snares  were  set  round  this 
open  place  and  tui  a-plenty  were  bagged  in  a  good  season. 

To  catch  kaka,  a  sq-uare,  8  ft.  by  10  ft.,  say,  was  thatched  over,  the 
fowlers  waiting  underneath  with  a  decoy  kaka.  The  cries  of  this'  bird 
brought  many  others,  and  as  they  settled  on  the  corner  posts  the  snares 
affixed  thereto  made  them  captives.  These  were  not  killed  at  once,  but 
added  to  the  collection  below.  The  bird  could  gnaw  through  green  flax, 
so  their  legs  were  fastened  with  dry  flax  amid  an  appalling  din.  When 
enough  were  caught  the  birds  were  killed  and  preserved  in  kelp  bags.  To 
save  the  fat  for  this  purpose  the  birds  were  cooked  in  a  wooden  trough 
with  hot  stones.     Weka  were  often  cooked  in  the  same  way. 

• 

Various  Birds  and  Fishes. 

Weka  (woodhens)  were  caught  by  the  familiar  red  rag  and  snare 
method.  The  snarer  sat  still,  and  as  he  caught  each  bird  he  bit  the  back 
of  its  neck  to  kill  it  and  threw  it  behind  him.  This  saved  him  wringing 
its  neck,  and  was  not  only  quicker,  but  it  did  not  alarm  or  disturb  the 
other  birds. 

The  Maori  also  killed  the  titi  (mutton-birds)  by  biting  the  neck.  There 
was  a  knack  in  catching  them.  He  had  heard  that  these  birds  would  tear 
your  hands  to  pieces  with  their  beaks  and  feet  if  you  tried  to  Wring  their 
necks. 

Kiwi  were  never  at  Tuturau,  although  they  had  frequented  the  Hokanui 
Hills.  He  had  heard  it  said  that  the  Maori  would  wait  behind  trees,  and 
as  the  bird  came  pecking  along  he  would  hit  it  on  the  head  with  a  stick. 

By  the  Mataura  River,  in  the  South  Wyndham  Bush,  there  used  to  be  a 
shaggery,  and  he  had  seen  a  Maori  bring  away  about  two  or  three  hundred 
young  shags  caught  just  before  they  were  ready  to  fly.  The  big  birds 
were  too  rank  to  eat.  The  Maori  would  not  touch  hawks — they  were 
probably  too  rank  also. 

In  regard  to  fish,  the  Maori  caught  kanakana  (lampreys)  in  the  river 
at  Tuturau.  They  built  a  wing-dam  of  logs,  stakes,  branches,  and  scrub 
across  the  river,  except  for  a  few  feet  where  the  "  pot  "  was.  The  dam 
was  anchored  with  big  stones  and  the  material  woven  with  flax  ^o  as 
to  stand  big  floods  in  the  river.     He  had  seen  a  "  pot  "  8  ft.  wide  by  3  ft. 


70  Transactions, 

or  4  ft.  deep,  and  when  full  of  lampreys  it  liad  taken  as  many  as  six 
people  to  haul  it  out.  It  was  made  of  fine  flax,  with  vines  as  bows  to 
strengthen  it.  This  dam  was  quite  close  to  the  kaika,  and  during  many 
years  the  people  did  not  go  to  the  falls  at  all,  as  they  could  get  all  the 
kanakana  they  wanted  so  handy. 

He  had  seen  a  Maori  put  an  eel-pot  in  the  Upoko-papaii  Creek  and  get 
as  many  eels  as  his  horse  could  carry — probably  2  cwt.  of  eels.  The 
Maori  also  caught  eels  with  bobs  (mounu).  These  were  made  by  sticking 
strips  of  flax  through  rushes  (wiwi)  and  threading  worms  (noke)  on.  Eels 
cannot  wriggle  fast  on  dry  grass,  so  this  was  spread  by  the  fisher,  and  as 
the  eels  took  the  bob  they  were  hauled  on  to  the  spread  grass,  where  they 
were  seized  and  threaded  through  the  gills  on  to  a  flax  line  ready  to  be 
carried  away.  He  had  seen  old  Pi  catch  eels  by  hand.  The  spring  was 
blocked  with  tussock  {pat it i),  and  the  water  was  to  her  hips,  but  she  caught 
the  eels  round  the  gills  and  handed  them  out  one  by  one.  The  eels  the 
Maori  ate  were  not  the  silver-bellies,  which  they  thought  too  poor,  but 
the  big  black  fellows. 

The  Maori  did  not  like  the  kokopura,  as  it  had  too  many  bones.  Koura, 
or  crayfish,  were  caught  by  turning  over  the  stones  in  creeks,  and  they 
were  roasted  on  the  embers.  Kakahi,  or  fresh- water  mussels,  were  found  in 
some  streams. 

In  the  Mataura  River  at  certain  seasons  the  Maori  would  net  patiki 
(flounders)  on  the  beaches.  Mata  (whitebait)  were  caught  in  baskets  of 
flax  very  finely  woven.  Inaka  (minnows)  were  caught  at  the  falls,  and 
were  spread  on  flax  mats  and  sun-dried.  When  properly  done  they  would 
last  a  long  time. 

The  kiore,  or  native  rat,  was  nearly  cream  in  colour,  and  was  caught 
with  a  bent  stick  and  loop.  The  rat  would  chew  a  string  to  get  at  a  bait, 
and  this  released  the  stick  and  the  loop  caught  them.  They  were  rolled  in 
mud  and  baked  in  the  fire,  the  mud  bringing  the  skin  off.  Most  Maori 
would  n<j»t  touch  the  pouhawaiki,  or  European  rat. 

Tuturau  was  a  very  rich  kaika  in  the  old  days.  The  bush  swarmed  with 
birds  and  the  creeks  with  fish ;  but,  strange  to  say,  the  proper  fern-root  did 
not  grow  here,  being  brought  from  Otama  and  Tokanui.  It  was  dug  with 
the  Maori  spade.  This  was  of  wood,  about  5  ft.  long,  and  had  a  sort 
of  scoop  at  the  business  end  and  a  stick  stuck  out  on  one  side  for  the 
foot  of  the  digger  to  press.  They  were  square  at  the  end,  and  dug  fairly 
well,  being  very  vigorously  Used  ;  in  fact,  Mr.  Gourlay  thought  that  many 
an  English  spade  would  break  if  the  same  energy  was  used  on  it. 

When  he  came  to  the  reserve  half  a  dozen  trees  were  held  to  be  sacred. 
These  were  all  matai  (black-pine),  and  it  was  perhaps  because  of  the 
edible  berries  on  them  that  they  had  been  originally  "  tapu-ed."  You 
could  shoot  or  spear  pigeon^  on  them,  but  you  must  not  put  an  axe  near 
them.  Pikiraki  was  the  name  of  the  red  mistletoe  on  the  tawai  (beech), 
but  the  white  mistletoe  on  the  rata  was  called  puawai.  The  Maori  at 
Tuturau  got  mud  from  a  swamp  at  Waimumu,  and  this  made  an  excellent 
fast  black  dye. 

When  eels  were  put  out  to  dry  and  rain  threatened,  a  shelter  of  tussock 
or  ti  leaves  was  thatched  over  them.  This  shelter  was  called  an  uhi.  One 
kind  of  whata  (storehouse)  was  built  up  high,  and  you  went  up  an  arawhata 
(ladder)  to  reach  it. 

He  would  eat  Maori  preserved  food  even  if  it  had  mildew  on  it,  as  it 
woiUd  cause  no  harm  ;    but  food  preserved  by  Europeans  was  aj)t  to  go 


Beattib. — Nature-lore  of  the  Southern  Maori.  71 

bad  quickly  and  might  poison  any  one  not  careful.  The  Maori  food  was 
naturally  cured,  kept  well,  and  tasted  sweet  and  good. 

The  above  is  the  essence  of  Mr.  Gourlay's  information  ;  but  a  grand- 
daughter added  that  she  had  recently  visited  the  Bay  of  Plenty  and 
noticed  the  following  differences  between  the  names  of  shell-fish  there  and 
in  Southland.  What  is  called  the  pij)!  in  the  South  is  there  called  hukxi, 
and  what  thev  call  j)Wi  is  like  a  cockle,  only  with  an  oval  shell  and  flatter, 
and  they  dig  in  the  sand  for  it  as  the  tide  goes  out.  This  shell-fish  is  called 
toheroa  in  the  South.  There  is  also  a  big,  heavy  shell  like  a  very  large 
cockle,  which  is  called  hiakua  in  the  North  Island,  but  down  round  Foveaux 
Strait  is  known  as  whahai-a-fama. 

A  jxtkeka  who  was  brought  up  at  Eiverton  writes,  ''  Eels  were  taken 
with  a  spear.  The  fishermen  waded  and  sought  for  the  fish  by  poking 
about  in  the  silt  with  their  bare  feet.  When  an  eel  was  located  by  the 
Maori's  toe  it  was  immediately  secured  with  the  spear,  which  was  unerring 
in  Maori  hands.  The  Maori  also  used  eel-pots  in  capturing  their  winter's 
food-supply.  These  traps  were  made  of  mamika  sticks,  bound  together 
with  whitau  (scraped  flax),  and  made  in  cylindrical  form,  about  5  ft.  long  ; 
a  netting  of  prepared  flax,  with  an  opening  in  the  centre,  was  placed  at  each 
end  of  the  cvlinder.  The  two  nets  were  attached  to  each  other  by  means 
of  a  flax  cord  passing  down  the  centre  of  the  eel-trap.  The  fish,  attracted 
by  a  bait  of  worms,  pork,  flesh,  or  fish  of  any  kind,  suspended  midway  in 
the  eel-pot,  were  led  by  the  sloping  net  to  the  entrance,  passing  in  and 
becoming  prisoners.  The  eels,  after  capture,  were  cleaned  and  dried  in 
the  sun,  and  then  stored  away  for  future  use." 

Plant-life. 

Strolling  through  the  bush  and  clearings  one  day  with  a  venerable 
Maori,  he  gave  me  the  names  of  a  few  of  the  plants.  The  shrub  known 
to  the  white  people  as  the  pepper-tree  is  called  ramarama  ;  that  known 
to  the  northern  Maoris  as  koromiko  is  known  in  the  South  as  kokomuka, 
while  the  bush-lawyer  is  named  tataraihika,  and  a  kind  of  bramble  is 
tataramoa.  The  cutty-grass  of  the  settlers  was  to  the  southern  Maori 
known  as  matoreha,  the  biddy-bid  as  piripiri,  and  the  nettle  as  okaoka  (the 
island  Pukeokaoka,  near  Stewart  Island,  simply  means  "  Nettle  Hill." 
The  common  native  grass,  he  said,  was  called  ma-uku-uku,  the  native 
mountain-grass  potcaka,  and  the  ordinary  swamp-rushes  iviwi. 

The  southern  Maori  say  that  the  patiti,  ake-rautaki,  and  other  vegeta- 
tion growing  on  the  Takitimu  Mountains  have  a  peculiar  scent  of  their 
own.  A  visitor  took  some  to  an  old  Riverton  chief,  who  sniffed  at  it  and 
said  "  Ah  !  'tis  Takitimu."  A  legendary  account  says  that  the  celebrated 
chief  Tama  tea  brought  these  plants  from  Hawaiki  in  his  canoe,  Takitimu, 
tw^enty-two  generations  ago,  and  that  he  planted  them  on  this  mountain- 
range. 

Kohuwai,  also  known  as  kohuai,  said  one  of  my  informants,  is  a  green 
sort  of  weed  or  moss  in  the  bottoms  of  streams,  and  a  small  creek  between 
Waikawa  and  Chasland's  is  called  Wai-kohuwai  because  of  its  bed  being 
so  covered  with  this  moss. 

After  the  Europeans  introduced  smoking  the  Maori  would  smoke  a 
weed  called  kopata.  They  would,  said  an  old  man,  make  a  bowl  for  a  pipe 
out  of  wood,  insert  as  a  stem  a  reed  of  pukakaho,  and  puff  away.  This 
kind  of  smoking  was  called  tiniko.  Over  at  Stewart  Island  there  is  a 
plant  called  punui  with  a  leaf  like  a  pumpkin.      A  boy  dried  and  smoked 


72  Transactions. 

this  leaf,  and,  gravely  added  the  narrator,  his  mouth  was  turned  inside 
out.  These  leaves  deceived  another  lad,  too.  He  came  from  the  North, 
and  when  he  saw  the  leaves  thought  he  was  going  to  feast  on  pumpkins, 
but  he  was  disappointed. 

Haiimata  was  the  name  of  what  are  now  called  Maori-heads,  said  one 
old  man,  and  upoko-takata  was  the  name  of  a  plant,  possibly  the  snow-grass 
of  the  early  settlers.  Papaii  was  a  kind  of  spear-grass,  and  the  name  is 
perpetuated  in  Upoko-papaii  ("  Sam's  Grief,"  near  Tuturau).  Pukio  was 
the  Maori  name  of  "  niggerheads,"  and  there  is  a  stream  beyond  the 
Waiau  known  as  Wai-pukio.  The  grass-tree  was  called  nei  in  the  South, 
and  Mantell,  writing  in  1852,  says  they  formed  so  constant  a  part  of  the 
"  mosses  "  or  vegetation  in  swampy  valleys — comprising  mosses,  lichens, 
sundews,  grasses,  shrubs — that  the  Maori  called  these  mosses  nei  also. 

Legend  says  that  the  pikiraki  was  the  last  plant  remaining  in  the  kit 
of  Tane,  the  forest  god,  when  he  sowed  the  forest.      He  looked  at  it  tenderly  ■ 
and  said,  "  I  cannot  let  my  last  child  lie  on  the  ground,"  and  that  is  why 
it  is  a  parasitic  plant  perched  high  up  on  the  big  trees,  a  kind  of  mistletoe 
with  red  flowers. 

The  common  bush  fern  is  turokio  ;  another  kind  of  fern  is  the  piupiu, 
and  it  is  said  the  kakapo  (ground-parrot)  will  bite  it  off  at  the  base  and 
hold  the  frond  over  its  head  to  shield  itself  from  observation.  And  this 
leads  us  to  an  interesting  bit  of  folk-lore. 

A  Folk-tale. 

The  kakapo  and  the  toroa  (albatross),  said  my  informant,  had  a  dispute 
as  to  who  was  to  be  "  boss  "  of  the  land,  and  finally  they  agreed  to  decide 
the  question  by  a  test.  They  were  to  take  turn  about  at  hiding,  to  see 
which  had  the  greater  success  at  finding  the  other.  A  piece  of  open  land 
with  very  little  cover  was  selected,  and  the  toroa  hid  first,  but  his  white 
plumage  was  too  conspicuous  and  he  was  found  almost  at  once.  "  I  will 
hide  again,"  he  cried,  "  and  this  time  you  won't  find  me."  But  alas  for 
his  hopes  !  his  opponent  found  him  with  very  little  trouble.  Then  the 
kakapo  took  his  turn  at  hiding,  and  lay  down  on  a  bare  place  with  a  piupiu 
fern  over  his  head.  Search  as  he  might,  the  toroa  could  not  find  his  wily 
rival  until  the  latter  laughed  aloud,  the  sound  disclosing  his  whereabouts. 
''  I  will  hide  again,"  he  said,  "  on  that  bare  patch  over  there,  and  this 
time  you  won't  find  me."  The  cunning  bird  again  used  piupiu  to  avoid 
detection,  and  again  the  toroa,  search  as  he  might,  failed  to  discover  his 
rival.  He  flew  backwards  and  forwards  over  the  place  as  low  as  possible, 
but  all  to  no  purpose — his  quest  was  in  vain.  Having  been  so  unsuccessful, 
the  other  birds  decided  that  the  toroa  was  not  a  fit  and  proper  bird  to 
dwell  on  land,  so  in  deep  disgrace  he  was  banished  to  the  wide  oceans  and 
there  he  is  now  to  be  found. 

Potatoes  and  Introduced  Plants. 

Potatoes,  introduced  by  Europeans,  were  early  grown  in  the  South,  for 
in  the  late  R.  McNab's  Murihiku  we  read  that  in  1813  there  was  "  a  field 
of  considerably  more  than  100  acres  which  presented  one  well-cultivated 
bed,  filled  with  rising  crops  of  various  ages,  some  ready  for  digging,  while 
others  had  been  but  newly  planted."  This  was  inland  from  Bluff  Harbour, 
and  it  was  also  recorded  that  "  a  spike  nail  would  buy  a  hundredweight 
of    potatoes "    from    the    Maori.      One    of    my    old    Maori    friends    said. 


Beattie. — Nature-lore  of  the  Southern  Maori.  73 

"  Horeta  was  the  name  of  the  old  variety  of  potatoes  which  the  whalers 
brought.  A  black  variety  was  called,  I  believe,  mnngumangu  in  the  North, 
but  we  called  it  tatairaJco  in  the  South.  A  potato  which  was  veined 
inside  Avas  named  ropi,  while  our  name  for  the  Derwent  was  pikaukene.'" 
I  was  also  told  about  Te  Puoho's  raiders  reaching  Tuturau  in  1836 — "  It 
must  have  been  about  Christmas,  for  the  early  potatoes  were  just  ripe 
enough  to  eat  and  the  invaders  had  a  fine  feed' after  their  starvation  trip." 

The  early  settlers  in  Otago  found  "  Maori  cabbage  "  growing  wild.  The 
Maori  gave  me  the  name  of  this  as  pora,  and  further  said  that  a  kind  of 
turnip  had  grown  wild  in  Central  Otago,  their  name»for  it  being  kawakaiva. 

One  old  Maori  said,  "  In  1869  I  was  eeling  at  Longford  (now  Gore)  and 
was  engaged  to  help  harvest  30  acres  of  oats.  Among  it  I  saw  a  jaggy 
plant  and  I  wondered  what  it  was.  It  was  the  first  time  I  had  ever  seen 
thistles." 

An  old  settler  tells  me  the  "  Maori  cabbage  "  was  simply  a  degenerate 
swede  turnip.  The  leaves  were  turnip-leaves  ;  the  body  was  a  thin  wiry 
root  and  uneatable — it  was  the  leaves  which  were  eaten.  From  the 
description  of  the  kawakawa  it  is  surmised  to  have  been  kohlrabi  growing 
wild  but  not  yet  degenerated. 

Shell-fish. 

I  did  not  get  very  much  information  about  shell-fish,  although  we  know 
that,  judging  by  the  middens  left  by  the  Maori,  such  were  eaten  with 
avidity.  The  correct  name  of  the  Waikaka  River,  I  was  told,  was  Waikakahi, 
so  called  because  of  the  number  of  kakahi,  or  fresh-water  shell-fish,  in  its 
waters.  The  names  of  salt-water  shell-fish  are  perpetuated  in  the  place- 
names  Hakapupu  (in  northern  dialect  Whanga-pupu — "  Periwinkle  Har- 
bour ")  and  Kaipipi  ("  eat  shell-fish  " — the  kind  usually  called  the  cockle). 
Hakapupu  is  the  Maori  name  of  Pleasant  River,  near  Waikouaiti,  and 
Kaipipi  is  at  Stewart  Island.  A  kind  of  mussel  {kutai)  is  mentioned  in  one 
tradition  as  furnishing  the  relish  (kinaki)  for  a  cannibal  feast.  The  eating 
of  the  j)'^'^'^  or  paua  (mutton-fish — a  univalve)  is  also  mentioned  in  the 
history.  One  of  my  informants  said  there  was  a  thread  in  the  limpet 
(kaki),  and  this  was  said  to  represent  the  line  which  Maui  was  using  when 
he  fished  the  North  Island  out  of  the  deep. 

One  old  Maori  mentioned  oysters,  and  he  thought  they  had  been 
brought  by  Captain  Howell  to  Port  William,  and  from  there  had  spread 
to  Foveaux  Strait.  The  story  runs  that  about  1839  Howell  brought  over 
some  sacks  of  oysters  from  Australia  as  a  treat  to  his  men  at  Riverton, 
but  adverse  weather  compelled  him  to  toss  the  sacks  overboard  off  Bluff, 
and  that  this  was  the  nucleus  of  the  extensive  bed  there  now."  I  should 
like  to  know  if  oysters  propagate  sufficiently  fast  to  render  this  account 
feasible. 

Paints  and  Dyes. 

Looking  through  my  notebooks,  I  see  casual  references  to  paints  and 
dyes,  but  really  so  little  it  is  scarcely  worth  mentioning.  One  of  the  old 
Maori  said  that  some  of  the  people  who  came  on  the  Arai-te-Uru  canoe, 
about  twenty-seven  generations  ago,  were  skilled  Avorkmen — at  cultivating 
the  kumara,  at  carving,  &.c.  One  in  particular  brought  red  paint  with 
him,  but  in  exploring  the  land  he  dropped  it  in  the  hills  east  of  Lake 
Kaitangata,  and  hence  those  hills  are  famous  to  this  day  for  yielding  the 
haematite  stone  from  which  the  Maori  got  their  red  paint.      It  is  said  that 


74  Transactions. 

one  of  these  hills  bears  quite  a  big  hole  made  by  generations  of  Maori  in 
search  of  maukoroa  (also  known  as  lioru — red  paint).  One  old  man  said, 
"  The  Kati-Mamoe  used  to  put  red  paint  on  their  faces.  They  knew  only 
two  paints — maukoroa  (red)  and  a  blue  paint  whose  name  I  forget.  The 
red  paint  and  the  hoaka  (stone  used  as  a  grindstone)  were  brought  to  this 
land  from  Hawaiki."  I  am  sorry  I  did  not  get  a  description  of  how  the 
paint  was  made.  I  was  also  told,  "  Maraki  is  a  red-yellow  clay  found  at 
Waikouaiti  and  used  for  seaming  canoes." 

An  old  woman  said,  "  Kiakia  is  the  name  of  a  creek  at  Woodside,  near 
Outram,  and  it  runs  into  Lee  Creek.  It  is  so  called  because  of  the  kiakia 
which  grew  there.  The  kiakia  is  a  small  bush-like  spear-grass  or  grass- 
tree,  and  the  Maori  went  there  to  get  it.  They  soaked  it  with  the  bark 
of  the  fokaka  tree  and  a  dye  resulted." 

"  There  is  a  swamp  near  Paterson's  store  at  Port  Molyneux  called 
Tukoroua,"  said  another  of  my  informants,  "  and  that  little  spot  is  famous 
for  the  dye  it  produces.  The  Tukoroua  Swamp  is  the  only  place  in  South 
Otago  where  the  proper  kind  of  paruparu,  or  black  mud,  for  dyeing  whitau 
(prepared  flax-fibre)  can  be  found.  The  mud  found  elsewhere  would  turn 
the  whitau  red  or  rusty  looking,  but  the  Tukoroua  mud  made  it  a  beautiful 
black.  You  could  wash  it  with  the  best  soap  and  you  would  never  get 
that  black  out.  Such  a  reputation  had  this  place  that  people  would  come 
down  from  the  North  to  get  their  mats  treated  with  the  dye  from  this 
swamp." 

A  creek  in  Southland  is  called  Opani  because  on  its  banks  the  Maori 
got  earth  suitable  for  making  red  paint  (pani),  and  the  name  of  the  hill 
north  of  Kaitangata  where  the  red  ochre  was  procured  is  Te-horo-maukoroa. 
I  was  told  that  a  tree  called  makatoatoa  was  no  good  for  timber  and  that 
the  Maori  extracted  the  sap  from  its  bark  for  dye,  but  I  do  not  know  what 
its  European  name  is. 

Introduced  Animals. 

One  or  two  of  my  Maori  friends  casually  mentioned  some  of  the  animals 
introduced  into  this  land.  It  is  well  known  that  the  southern  Maori  call 
the  mouse  hinereta  (henrietta)  because  a  vessel  of  this  name  ("  Elizabeth 
Henrietta  " — 1823)  introduced  these  little  creatures  to  their  notice,  but 
why  they  call  a  cat  naki  I  could  not  ascertain. 

Some  of  the  old  people  are  not  pleased  with  the  introduction  of  vermin 
to  Maoriland.  They  blame  the  ferrets,  weasels,  and  stoats  for  largelv 
helping  to  kill  out  the  native  birds,  and  the  fact  remains  that  although 
Stewart  Island  has  been  settled  by  white  men,  with  their  dogs  roaming 
about  too,  for  many  years,  bird-life  is  still  fairly  plentiful.  Thus  in  1918 
in  Oban,  the  principal  settlement,  I  saw  the  kereru,  or  native  pigeon,  and 
heard  the  weka,  or  woodhen,  calling.  One  old  man  said  that  if  any  one 
attempted  to  take  vermin  to  Stewart  Island  he  hoped  he  would  be  caught ; 
and  he  further  expressed  the  bloodthirsty  wish  that  the  delinquent  would 
be  slowly  done  to  death  in  boiling  oil. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  Captain  Cook  introduced  the  pig  to  New 
Zealand,  but  the  late  Tare-te-Maiharoa  told  me  they  knew  the  animal 
traditionally,  and  they  called  it  poaka.  He  said  it  was  mentioned  in  the 
history  very  far  back.  I  have  read  that  poaka  is  a  corruption  of  the 
English  word  "  porker,"  but  against  this  we  must  remember  that  those 
Polynesians  who  had  pigs  when  Cook  visited  the  South  Sea  islands  called 


Beattie. — Nature-lore  of  the  Southern  Maori.  75 

the  animals  jmaka.  A  European  who  went  pig-hunting  with  the  Maori 
in  the  "  fifties  "  says  their  custom  was  to  get  astride  the  pig  and  stick  it 
upwards. 

Detached  Information. 

I  find  I  have  a  collection  of  stray  notes  which  I  do  not  seem  able 
to  incorporate  with  the  other  sections  of  this  paj^er,  so  will  include  them 
here. 

Koura. — The  crayfish  found  in  inland  streams  and  in  the  sea  were  both 
called  Jcoiira,  as  far  as  I  know.  A  stream  north  of  Gore  is  Kai-koura  (to 
eat  crayfish)  and  Wai-koura  is  quite  a  common  place-name.  The  Maori 
had  a  peculiar  method  of  treating  crayfish.  They  would  place  them  across 
a  stream  of  fresh  running  water  as  tight  as  they  could  pack  them,  having 
them  so  fastened  they  could  not  escape.  After  they  were  dead  some  time 
the  crayfish  were,  I  understand,  taken  out  and  dried.  A  small  creek  in  the 
gorge  of  the  Taieri  Elver  near  its  mouth  was  described  to  me  as  a  place 
where  crayfish  had  been  thus  treated  in  the  old  days.  A  place  near 
Tautuku  is  called  Hiri-koura,  and  I  was  told  it  meant  the  place  where 
crayfish  were  fastened.  The  usual  meaning  of  hiri  (or  whiri)  is  to  plait 
or  twist. 

Kaio  (or,  as  called  by  the  northern  Maori,  ngaio)  is  'a  well-known 
curiosity — half  plant,  half  animal — that  was  eaten  by  the  Maori.  Whare- 
kaio  is  the  name  of  a  beach  and  landing-place  near  where  the  "  Tararua  " 
was  wrecked,  near  Fortrose.  My  informant  said,  "  The  kaio  fastens  one 
end  of  itself  to  the  rocks  and  the  other  end  is  like  a  spud.  You  take  this 
knob  and  soak  it  all  night  and  eat  it."  A  European  who  has  boiled  and 
eaten  them  says,  "  They  taste  like  a  boiled  egg  flavoured  with  oil,  and 
have  a  very  good  flavour.      The  taste  must,  however,  be  acquired." 

Nets. — Although  I  have  very  little  information  about  nets,  I  append 
the  few  items  gleaned.  Lo veil's  Creek  was  known  to  the  Maori  as 
Tuakitata,  after  a  kind  of  fishing-net.  This  style  of  net  (tata)  was  made 
in  the  shape  of  the  cockle-shell  called  tuaki.  Other  kinds  of  nets  were 
called  kaka  and  houka,  whilst  two  kinds  of  snares  for  netting  birds  were 
called  mahaka  and  here. 

Primitive  Appliances. — When  the  southern  Maori  finally  abandoned 
their  old  methods  and  adopted  European  ones  I  cannot  exactly  say,  but 
here  are  some  notes  concerning  the  Maori  at  Tuturau  in  the  "  fifties." 
In  1852  old  Reko  was  working  at  a  pine  log,  25  ft.  long,  with  a  stone  adze, 
trying  to  hollow  out  a  canoe.  Then  he  got  an  old  chisel  from  some  white 
man,  but  was  not  making  much  progress,  and  finally  two  Europeans 
completed  the  dug-out  for  him.  In  1853  Mr.  Chalmers  left  Tuturau  with 
Reko  and  Kaikoura  on  an  exploring  trip,  the  white  man  carrying  a  gun, 
and  the  two  Maori  had  eel-spears  and  a  stick  about  6  ft.  long  with^  a  big 
fish-hook  tied  to  one  end.  They  carried  no  provisions,  but  lived  on  the 
country  they  traversed.  The  three  walked  the  whole  trip  in  paraerae 
(sandals)  made  of  flax  and  cabbage-tree  leaves,  the  latter  far  and  away 
the  more  durable.  In  1854  old  Reko  would  go  eeling  with  a  large  hook 
tied  to  his  wrist  and  lying  on  the  palm  of  his  hand  so  when  his  hand  felt 
an  eel  he  had  only  to  pull  it  forward  to  have  the  eel  hooked.  Writing 
in  1854,  Mr.  Mieville  says,  "Old  Reko  scorned  matches,  and  had  a  light 
from  his  firesticks  nearly  as  quickly  as  I  did.  He  rubbed  a  pointed  stick 
in  a  groove  in  another  stick.      I  never  could  get  fire,  but  the  Maori  does 


so  at  once." 


76  Transactions. 

Maori  Cooking. — One  of  my  informants  said  he  greatly  preferred  food 
cooked  by  the  old  Maori  methods  to  those  introduced  by  the  pakeha.^ 
although  he  had  not  enjoyed  the  former  for  years  now.  European  cooking, 
he  said,  took  the  strength  o^it  of  flesh  or  fish,  whereas  the  umu,  or  earth 
oven,  preserved  all  the  natural  virtue  and  flavour.  What  better  than  to 
wrap  the  food  in  nice  green  flax-leaves  and  let  it  steam  in  an  umu  ?  He 
considered  even  the  method  of  toasting  food  before  a  fire  on  a  kohiku  or 
stick  was  preferable  to  frying  in  a  pan  or  roasting  in  a  stove.  Some  of 
the  superstitions  connected  with  cooking  co*ntinued  after  the  white  people 
came,  and  the  operation  would  be  done  outside,  the  women  who  had  been 
cooking  changing  their  dress  before  coming  in  and  eating. 

Preserving  Food. — The  same  Maori  went  on  to  draw  my  attention  to 
the  excellence  of  Maori  methods  of  preserving  food.  Anything  cooked 
was  called  jjaka,  and  you  could  get  j9aA;a-U'e^a,  paka-titi,  and  so  on. 
These  birds  have  been  cooked  and  then  preserved  in  their  own  fat.  The 
great  receptacle  for  these  preserved  foods  was  kelp  which  had  been  made 
into  the  familiar  poka.  My  informant  considered  that  kelp  possessed 
some  special  quality  in  preserving  the  taste  of  what  it  held,  and  said  he 
had  heard  there  was  a  proposal  to  send  butter  away  in  kelp  bags.  He 
thought  if  such  Was  done  the  butter  would  keep  its  taste  and  quality  better 
in  hot  weather  than  under  the  present  system. 

Not  all  food  was  preserved  in  the  foregoing  manner,  some  being  dried 
uncooked.  The  hapuku,  or  groper,  was  sometimes  cut  into  -strips  and 
treated  this  way,  the  flesh  being  then  called  maraki.  One  old  man  gave 
me  some  maraki  to  chew,  but  my  tastes  were  not  sufficiently  educated 
in  what  pleases  the  Maori  palate  for  me  to  ask  for  a  second  helping. 

The  Maori  Quail. — One  of  my  informants  mentioned  the  koreke,  or  Maori 
quail,  but  unfortunately  I  omitted  to  ask  how  the  Maori  caught  them. 
These  birds  were  teeming  in  Otago  when  European  settlement  began,  and 
it  is  hard  to  realize  the  countless  numbers  of  them  that  existed  ;  yet  when 
the  diggings  broke  ,out  this  beautiful  bird  vanished  as  if  it  had  never 
been.  An  old  settler  who  has  eaten  dozens  of  them  says  he  never  foimd 
berries  inside  them  ;  they  had  no  gizzards,  and  apparently  lived  on  beetles 
and  insects.  ' 

Bob  Fishing. — One  of  the  old  Maoris  mentioned  catching  eels  with 
a  bob.  Some  frayed  strips  of  flax  were  attached  to  a  stick,  and  large  worms 
were  threa,ded  on  the  flax  strands,  which  were  looped  up,  and  then  the 
baited  mass  was  dangled  in  the  water.  If  a  tug  is  felt  the  fisherman  flicks 
out  the  eel  before  it  can  disentangle  its  teeth  from  the  bob.  I  have  not 
learned  whether  the  Europeans  copied  this  from  the  Maori,  or  vice  versa, 
but  somebody  may  be  able  to  supply  the  information. 

Medicinal. 

An  old  Maori  said  to  me,  "  A  good  remedy  for  colds  and  sore  throats 
is  to  steep  goai  (kowhai)  bark  in  boiling  water  and  drink  the  infusion.  It 
has  to  be  taken  fresh,  as  it  will  not  keep,  although  perhaps  spirits  would 
act  as  a  preservative.  The  bark  is  taken  only  from  the  sunny  side  of  the 
tree,  and  its  removal  does  not  kill  the  tree.  My  neighbours  and  I  all  keep 
a  stock  of  the  bark  handy."  A  well-known  Maori  remedy  for  diarrhoea 
is  the  leaves  of  the  kokomuka,  or  New  Zealand  veronica,  and  it  is  used  by 
both  races  now.  It  is  said  that  in  the  old  days  the  Maori  who  suffered 
from  toothache — a  rare  complaint  among  them — stufied  the  gum  out  of 


Beattie. — Nature-lore  of  the  Southern  Maori.  77 

the  flax  into  tlie  holes  in  the  offending  molars  as  a  palliative.  According 
to  a  southern  Maori,  a  water-plant  called  the  runa  was  applied  to  the  skin 
of  sufferers  from  ringworm.  It  is  said  to  be  a  sort  of  water-lily,  and  the 
Wairuna  Stream  derived  its  name  from  it. 

The  ancient  people  of  the  South  Island,  said  one  Maori,  were  skilled  in 
the  use  of  shrubs  and  herbs.  They  had  known  a  cure  for  consumption, 
but  now  it  is  so  much  needed  the  shrub  cannot  be  found — the  white  man's 
fires  and  cultivation  seem  to  have  destroyed  it.  This  shrub  is  said  to 
have  grown  on  the  Canterbury  Plains. 

I  was  reading  lately  of  a  herb,  called  "  dortza,"  which  the  American 
Indians  asserted  would  cure  influenza,  pneuinonia,  and  incipient  consumption. 
Tests  by  medical  men  were  to  the  effect  that  it  had  done  remarkable  work 
in  many  cases. 

The  claim  by  southern  Maori  that  they  had  once  known  such  a  herb 
seemed  to  me  a  noteworthy  one,  and  the  fact  was  told  to  me  years  before 
the  fame  of  dortza  got  spread  by  the  Press. 

"         The  Old  Order  Changes. 

A  thoughtful  old  full-blooded  Maori,  in  saying  adieu  to  me  last  time 
I  visited  him,  remarked,  "  The  Maori  knew  how  to  gather  his  food  from 
of  old,  and  it  suited  him,  and  he  raised  a  vigorous  race.  Look  at  him 
now  !  There  are  few  middle-aged  and  few  young  people  !  Why  ?  It 
is  largely  ignorance  of  food-values.  It  takes  a  lot  of  food  to  maintain 
a  Maori  in  health.  In  the  old  days  he  could  eat  as  many  fish  and  birds 
as  he  wanted,  and  all  beautifully  cooked  in  the  earth-ovens.  Using 
European  foods,  he  does  not  know  how  much  to  use,  or  how  to  cook  it 
properly.  He  eats  it  half-pre]?ared  or  in  insufficient  quantities,  and  by 
not  keeping  his  strength  up  throws  the  way  open  to  consumption  and 
wasting  diseases.  The  hope  of  the  Maori  is  education.  The  old  people 
had  not  learned  through  generation  after  generation  to  be  farmers  or 
roadmakers  and  they  could  not  settle  to  work  as  the  young  can. 
I  always  urge  the  young  to  learn  to  read  and  write  and  get  knowledge. 
A  young  woman  in  the  '  kaik  '  had  a  little  bo}-  ill  and  gave  him  castor- 
oil  ;  and  this  not  working  quickly  enough,  she  gave  him  Epsom  salts. 
The  boy  became  worse,  and  a  friend  raised  the  money  to  take  the  boy  to  a 
doctor,  who  said  the  two  medicines  combined  formed  a  poison,  and  that 
if  the  boy  had  not  been  brought  "then  he  would  soon  have  died.  The 
doctor  gave  a  corrective  remedy  and  the  boy  recovered.  In  the  same 
way  I  reckon  want  of  knowledge  is  causing  many  Maori  to  eat  wrong  food 
or  to  prepare  it  wrongly  and  so  to  slowly  poison  themselves,  or,  at  any  rate, 
to  imdermine  their  constitutions.  I  have  often  told  the  people  this,  but 
my  words  have  received  little  attention.  It  is  impossible  to  go  back  to 
native  foods,  as  these  have  been  mostly  destroyed  by  civilization,  so  the 
people  must  read  the  proper  books  to  learn  how  to  thrive  on  the  proper 
European  food.  The  Maori  girls  should  all  be  taught  housekeeping,  the 
proper  value  of  food  and  how  to  cook  it,  as  I  am  convinced  this  is  the  only 
way  to  save  our  race." 


78  Transactions. 


Art.  XIV. — The  Mission  of  the  "  Britomart"   at  Akaroa,  in  August, 

1840. 

By  Johannes  C.  Andersen. 

[Read  before  the  Historical  Section  of  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society,  20th  May, 
1919  ;    received  by  Editor,  19th  June,  1919  ;    issued  separately,  10th  June,  1920.] 

The  British  Government,  though  constantly  urged  by  the  New  Zealand 
Company,  had  persistently  refused  to  recognize  New  Zealand  as  a  British 
colony,  or  even  as  a  possession  of  the  Kingdom.  The  company,  therefore, 
in  order  to  force  the  hand  of  the  Government,  despatched  the  "Tory" 
for  Port  Nicholson  (afterwards  named  Wellington)  on  the  12th  May,  1839, 
for  the  purpose  of  purchasing  land  from  the  natives  and  forming  a 
settlement,  the  first  colonists  to  follow  almost  at  once.  This  forced  the 
Government  into  unwilling  action,  and  an  Imperial  Proclamation  was 
issued  on  the  15th  June,  1839,  extending  the  boundaries  of  New  South 
Wales  so  as  to  include  portions  of  New  Zealand  ;  and  on  the  13th  July 
of  the  same  year  Captain  Hobson  was  appointed  Lieutenant-Governor 
"  of  any  territory  which  is  or  may  be  acquired  in  sovereignty  by  Her 
Majesty  in  New  Zealand."  Among  other  instructions  issued  to  Captain 
Hobson  by  Lord  Normanby  was  one  to  the  effect  that  he  should  endeavour 
to  persuade  the  chiefs  of  New  Zealand  to  unite  themselves  to  Great 
Britain  ;  he  was  also  to  establish  a  settled  form  of  civil  government,  with 
the  free  and  intelligent  consent  of  the  natives  expressed  according  to  their 
established  usages  ;  to  treat  for  the  recognition  of  the  sovereignty  of  Her 
Majesty  over  the  whole  or  any  part  of  thS  Islands  ;  to  induce  the  chiefs 
to  contract  that  no  lands  should  in  future  be  sold  except  to  the  Crown  ; 
to  announce  by  Proclamation  that  no  valid  title  to  land  acquired  from 
the  natives  would  thereafter  be  recognized  unless  confirmed  by  a  Crown 
grant ;  to  arrange  a  commission  of  inquiry  as  to  what  lands  had  been 
lawfully  acquired  by  British  subjects  and  others  ;  to  select  and  appoint  a 
Protector  of  Aborigines. 

Captain  Hobson  left  in  the  "  Druid  "  for  Port  Jackson,  where  he 
arrived  on  the  24:th  December,  1839.  On  the  14th  January,  1840,  Sir 
George  Gipps,  Governor  of  New  South  Wales,  administered  the  oaths  to 
Captain  Hobson,  making  him  Lieutenant-Governor  of  New  Zealand.  He 
also,  in  accordance  with  the  instructions  of  Lord  Normanby,  issued  three 
Proclamations — the  first  extending  the  boundaries  of  New  South  Wales 
to  include  any  territory  which  then  was,  or  might  thereafter  be,  acquired 
in  sovereignty  by  Her  Majesty  in  New  Zealand  ;  the  second  appointing 
Captain  Hobson  Lieutenant-Governor  ;  the  third  declaring  that' all  purchases 
of  land  from  the  natives  thereafter  would  be  invalid  unless  supported  by  a 
Crown  grant. 

The  new  Lieutenant-Governor  arrived  in  the  Bay  of  Islands  on  the 
29th  January,  1840,  where  he  next  day  read  his  commissions  before  the 
people  assembled.  As  a  first  step  towards  establishing  the  sovereignty  of 
Her  Majesty  he  called  together  the  natives,  and  on  the  5th  February,  1840, 
were  commenced  the  negotiations  which,  on  the  following  day,  resulted  in 
the  Treaty  of  Waitangi  being  signed  by  forty-six  principal  chiefs.  Others 
signed  it,  or  authorized  copies  of  it,  in  various  parts  of  the  Islands  at 
later  dates,  the  aggregate  number  of  signatures  obtained  being  512.     Being 


Andersen. — Mission  of  the  "  Britoniart  "  at  Akaroa.  79 

attacked  by  paralysis,  the  Lieutenant-Governor  was  disabled  from  travelling 
to  obtain  the  signatures  personally,  and  he  deputed  Major  Bunbury  to 
visit  parts  of  the  North  Island,  and  also  the  Middle  and  Stewart  Islands, 
for  that  purpose.  Major  Bunbury  sailed  in  H.M.S.  "  Herald,"  with 
instructions,  dated  25th  April,  1840,  to  obtain  signatures  at  all  places 
possible,  and  to  visit  such  places  as  he  might  deem  most  desirable  for 
establishing  Her  Majesty's  authority. 

In  reporting  the  results  of  his  mission  Major  Bunbury  stated  that  he 
had,  on  the  5th  June,  1840,  proclaimed  the  Queen's  authority,  by  right  of 
discovery — no  natives  being  there  met  with — at  Southern  Port  (Stewart 
Island)  ;  and  at  Cloudy  Bay  (Middle  Island)  on  the  17th  June,  the 
sovereignty  at  this  place  having  been  ceded  by  the  principal  chiefs  signing 
the  treaty. 

Writing  on  the  25th  May,  1840,  to  the  Secretary  of  State  for  the 
Colonies,  Lieutenant-Governor  Hobson  concluded  his  despatch  by  saying 
that  without  waiting  for  Major  Bunbury's  report  he  had,  on  the  21st  May, 
1840,  proclaimed  the  sovereignty  of  Her  Majesty,  owing  to  affairs  at  Port 
Nicholson  pressing  him  so  to  do,  over  the  North  Island  in  accordance 
with  the  consents  given  by  the  natives  in  the  treaty,  and  over  the  southern 
islands  bv  right  of  discovery.  This  despatch  was  acknowledged  and 
approved  by  Lord  John  Russell,  and  the  Proclamations  making  the  islands 
subject  to  Her  Majesty  were  inserted  in  the  London  Gazette.  New 
Zealand  was  at  the  time  promised  a  charter  -of  separate  government, 
which  charter  was  sent  on  the  9th  December,  1840.  Lest,  however,  the 
proclamation  of  sovereignty  over  the  Middle  Island  "  by  virtue  of 
discovery  "  should  be  considered  either  insufficient  or  illegal,  the  Queen's 
authority  was  again  proclaimed  over  it  by  Major  Bunbury  on  the  17th 
June,  1840,  by  virtue  of  the  Treaty  of  Waitangi.  This  same  proclamation 
was  also  made  at  Cloudy  Bay,  and  Captain  Nias,  of  H.M.S.  "  Herald," 
landed  with  a  party  of  marines  to  honour  the  occasion,  twenty-one  guns 
being  fired  from  the  ship. 

Sir  George  Gipps,  writing  to  Lord  John  Russell  on  the  24th  July,  1840, 
reported  that  Major  Bunbury  appeared  to  have  carried  out  his  instructions 
very  satisfactorily.  He  says,  inter  alia,  ""  One  of  the  places  visited  by 
the  '  Herald  '  was  Banks  Peninsula,  the  spot  at  which  it  has  been  said 
that  a  settlement  is  about  to  be  made  by  a  company  formed  in  France. 
Of  this  company,  however,  and  of  its  proceedings  I  know  nothing,  save 
what  I  have  derived  from  English  newspapers."  The  French  discovery- 
ships  "  Astrolabe  "  and  "  Zelee  "  were  at  Banks  Peninsula  in  April,  1840  : 
they  knew  of  no  project  for  forming  a  settlement  there,  and,  indeed, 
thought  the  locality  a  disadvantageous  and  undesirable  one  for  such  a 
purpose. 

Strong  feeling  had  been  excited  in  France  by  the  publication  in  London 
of  the  instructions  to  Captain  Hobson  when  he  was  sent  out  as  Lieutenant- 
Governor  to  New  Zealand.  The  French  Press  teemed  with  calls  on  their 
Government  to  take  steps  similar  to  those  the  British  Government  pro- 
posed to  adopt,  and  to  take  a  share  in  the  colonizing  of  New  Zealand, 
as  a  country  open  to  all  nations.  Mr.  E.  Gibbon  Wakefield,  giving 
evidence  on  the  17th  July,  1840,  before  the  Select  Committee  on  New 
Zealand  afiairs,  stated  that  he  had  received  as  many  as  forty  different 
French  newspapers  containing  comments  on  Captain  Hobson's  instructions. 
The  French  Chamber  of  Commerce  also  petitioned  the  Government,  and 
from   all  this  excitement   sprang   a   project   for   sending   French   colonists 


80  Transactions. 

and  establisliing  a  French  colony  in  New  Zealand.  Matters  connected 
with  this  project  were  conducted  by  a  company  calling  itself  the  Nanto- 
Bordelaise  Company.  A  certain  Captain  Langlois  had,  on  the  2nd  August, 
1838,  made  a  provisional  purchase  from  Tuaanau  and  other  natives,  of 
the  greater  part  of  Banks  Peninsula,  paying  a  deposit  in  commodities 
valued  at  £6,  further  commodities  to  the  value  of  £234  to  be  paid  at  a 
later  period.  They  were  so  paid,  but  not  until  the  arrival  of  the  French 
colonists  in  August,  1840.  Consequently,  owing  to  the  Proclamation  of 
Governor  Gipps  above  referred  to,  the  purchase  was,  strictly  speaking, 
illegal,  and  need  not  have  been  recognized  by  the  Crown  at  all.  Captain 
Langlois  sold  part  of  his  interest  to  the  Nanto-Bordelaise  Company,  and 
on  the  9th  March,  1840,  sixty-three  emigrants  left  Rochefort  in  the 
"  Comte  de  Paris,"  an  old  man-of-war  given  by  the  French  Government 
for  the  purpose. 

Another  man-of-war,  the  "  Aube,"  under  Captain  Lavaud,  was  sent 
as  escort,  and  also  to  take  possession  for  the  French  Government  and 
protect  the  colonists  on  their  arrival.  The  captain,  in  order  to  consult 
the  Roman  Catholic  bishop  resident  there, '  sailed  for  the  Bay  of  Islands, 
arriving  on  the  11th  July,  1840.  Certain  proceedings  took  place  subse- 
quently to  her  arrival,  which  have  given  rise  to  the  romantic  account  of 
the  "  taking  possession  "  at  Akaroa.  It  is  said  that  the  captain  in  an 
unguarded  moment  revealed  the  object  of  his  presence  in  New  Zealand 
waters,  whereupon  the  "  Britomart  "  was  secretly  despatched  to  forestall 
the  French  by  taking  possession  of  the  South  Island  at  Akaroa.  Lavaud 
was  obliged  to  make  some  mention  of  his  mission  in  order  to  explain  his 
presence  in  the  bay,  and  was  placed  in  an  extremely  awkward  position 
when  he  was  told  that  the  whole  of  New  Zealand,  including  the  South 
Island,  had  been  proclaimed  a  possession  of  the  British  Crown.  At  the 
time  he  left  France  New  Zealand  was  stiU  a  No  Man's  Land  ;  and  he  had 
had  two  separate  instructions — one  to  protect  the  French  whaling  industry 
in  the  southern  waters,  the  other  to  prepare  Akaroa  for  the  reception  of 
the  emigrants  by  the  "  ComtJe  de  Paris,"  part  of  such  preparation  being 
the  annexation  of  Banks  Peninsula  or  further  territories  on  behalf  of 
France.  He  knew  nothing  even  of  the  appointment  of  Hobson  as 
Lieutenant-Governor,  and  he  was  at  first  disposed  to  refuse  recognition  of 
his  authority. 

Hobson   appreciated   his   difl&culty ;  and   in   order  partly  to   safeguard 

such  British  interest  in  the  peninsula  as  had  been  established,  partly  to 

convince    the    French    that    the    territory   was   undoubtedly   regarded    as 

British,  he  despatched  Captain  Stanley  with  two  Magistrates  to  hold  Courts 

at  Akaroa  and  other  places  on  the  peninsula.      The  following  is  a  copy 

of   the   instructions   to    Stanley  :     they   are   printed   in   part   in   Rusden's 

History  of  New  Zealand,  though  not  in  the  printed  collections  of  official 

documents  : — 

Government  House,  Russell. 
Sir,—  Bay  of  Islands,  22nd  July,  1840. 

It  being  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  authority  of  Her  Majesty  should  be 
most  imequivocally  exercised  throughout  the  remote  parts  of  this  colony,  and  more 
particularly  in  the  Southern  and  Middle  Islands,  where,  I  understand,  foreign  influence 
and  even  interference  is  to  be  apprehended,  I  have  the  honour  to  request  you  to  pro- 
ceed immediately  in  H.M.  sloop,  under  your  command,  to  those  islands. 

On  the  subject  of  this  commission  I  have  to  request  the  most  inviolable  secrecy 
from  all  except  your  immediate  superior  officers,  to  whom  it  may  be  your  duty  to  report 
your  proceedings. 

The  ostensible  purpose  of  your  cruise  may  appear  to  be  the  conveyance  of  two 
magistrates  to  Port  Nicholson,  to  whom  I  will  elsewhere  more  particularly  refer.     The 


Andersen. — Mission  of  the  "  Britomart  "  at  Akaroa.  81 

real  object  to  wiiich  I  wish  particularly  to  call  your  attention  is  to  defeat  the  move- 
ments of  any  foreign  ship  of  war  that  may  be  engaged  in  establishing  a  settlement  in 
any  part  of  the  coast  of  New  Zealand. 

There  are  various  rumours  current  that  Captain  Lavaud,  of  the  French  corvette 
"  L'Aube,"  now  at  anchor  in  this  port,  is  employed  in  the  furtherance  of  designs  such 
as  I  have  before  mentioned.  From  some  observations  that  fell  from  him,  I  discovered 
that  his,  intention  was  to  proceed  to  the  southern  islands,  being  under  the  impression 
that  the  land  about  Akaroa  and  Banks  Peninsula,  in  the  Middle  Island,  is  the  property 
of  a  French  subject.  These  circumstances,  combined  with  the  tone  in  which  Captain 
Lavaud  alluded  to  Akaroa  and  Banks  Peninsula,  excited,  in  my  mind',  a  strong  pre- 
sumption tha,t  he  is  charged  with  some  mission  in  that  quarter  incompatible  with  the 
Sovereign  rights  of  Her  Britannic  Majesty,  and  wMch,  as  I  have  before  observed,  it  will 
be  your  study  by  every  means  to  frustrate. 

If  my  suspicions  prove  correct,  "  L'Aube "  will  no  doubt  proceed  direct  to 
Akaroa  and  Banks  Peninsula,  for  which  place  I  have  earnestly  to  request  that  you  will 
at  once  depart  with  the  utmost  expedition,  as  it  would  be  a  point  of  the  utmost  con- 
sideration that,  on  his  arrival  at  that  port,  he  may  find  you  in  occupation,  so  that  it 
wiU  be  out  of  his  power  to  dislodge  you  without  committing  some  direct  act  of  hostility. 

Captain  Lavaud  may,  however,  anticipate  you  at  Akaroa,  or  (should  he-  be 
defeated  in  his  movements)  may  endeavour  to  estabUsh  himseK  at  some  other  point. 
In  the  event  of  either  contingency  occurring,  I  have  to  request  you  will  remonstrate 
and  protest  in  the  most  decided  manner  against  such  proceeding,  and  impress  upon 
him  that  such  interference  must  be  considered  as  an  act  of  decided  hostile  invasion. 

You  will  perceive  by  the  enclosed  copy  of  Major  Bunbury's  declaration  that 
independent  of  the  assumption  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  Middle  and  Southern  Islands, 
as  announced  by  my  proclamation  of  the  21st  May  last  (a  copy  of  which  is  also 
enclosed),  the  principal  chiefs  have  ceded  their  rights  to  Her  Majesty  through  that 
officer,  who  was  fully  authorised  to  treat  with  them  for  that  purpose  ;  it  will  not, 
therefore,  be  necessary  for  you  to  adopt  any  further  proceedings.  It  will,  however, 
be  advisable  that  some  act  of  civil  authority  should  be  exercised  on  the  islands,  and 
for  that  purpose  the  magistrates  who  accompany  you  will  be  instructed  to  hold  a 
court  on  their  arrival  at  each  port,  and  to  have  a  record  of  their  proceedings  registered 
and  transmitted  to  me. 

You  will  by  every  opportunity  which  may  offer  forward  intelligence  of  the  French 
squadron's  movements,  and  should  you  deem  it  necessary,  to  the  Secretary  of  State 
for  the  Colonies  through  the  Admiralty  and  to  His  Excellency  Sir  George  Gipps, 
Governor  of  New  South  Wales. 

Mr.  Murphy  and  Mr.  Robinson,  the  magistrates  who  accompany  you,  will  receive 
a  memorandum  of  instructions'  for  their  future  guidance,  which  you  will  be  pleased 
to  hand  to  them  when  you  arrive  at  your  destination. 

As  your  presence  in  these  islands  will  be  of  the  utmost  importance  to  keep  in  check 
any  aggression  on  the  part  of  foreign  Powers,  I  have  earnestly  to  request  that,  should 
vou  require  any  further  supply  of  provisions  the  same  may  be  procured,  if  possible, 
at  Port  Nicholson,  or  at  any  of  the  ports  on  the  coast,  without  returning  to  Sydney. 

I  have  the  honour  to  be.  Sir, 

Your  most  obedient  servant, 

W.    HOBSON. 

The  instructions  to  the  Magistrates  are  not  copied  by  Rusden  ;  they 
and  the  above  were,  however,  discovered  in  the  Public  Records  Office  in 
London  by  Mr.  Guy  H.  Scholefield,  London  correspondent  of  the  Press. 
The  instructions  were  addressed  to  Mr.  Murphy,  whose  name  appears  first 
in  Stanley's  instructions,  he,  not  Robinson,  being  apparently  the  senior 
officer.     They  were  as  follows  : — 

Memo,  of  Instructions  to  be  .attended  to  by  Mr.  Murphy.  P.M. 

You  will,  at  every  port  that  H.M.  sloop  "  Britomart "  touches  at,  act  in  your 
magisterial  capacity,  and,  as  it  is  requisite  that  the  civil  authority  should  be  strictly 
exercised,  should  no  case  be  brought  under  your  notice,  you  \vill  adjourn  from  day  to 
day,  and  a  careful  record  of  your  proceedings  be  registered,  a  copy  of  which  you  will 
transmit  to  me. 

Under  any  circumstances  that  Captain  Stanley  may  call  upon  you  for  assistance 
you  will,  of  course,  render  it,  and  co-operate  generally  vnth.  him  in  the  advancement  of 
any  measures  he  mav  think  it  expedient  to  adopt. 

Dated  at  Russell,  21st  July,  1S40. 


82  Transactions. 

The    following    is    a    copy    of    Captain    Stanley's    report,    dated    17tli 
September,  1840  : — 

I  have  the  honour  to  inform  your  Excellency  that  I  proceeded  in  Her  Majesty's 
sloop  under  my  command  to  the  port  of  Akaroa,  in  Banks  Peninsula,  where  I  arrived 
on  August  10th  after  a  very  stormy  passage,  during  which  the  stern'  boat  was  washed 
away  and  one  of  the  quarter- boats  stove.  The  French  frigate  "  L'Aube  "  had  not 
arrived  when  I  anchored,  nor  had  any  French  emigrants  been  landed.  August  11th 
I  landed,  accomjmnied  by  Messrs.  Murphy  and  Robinson,  police  magistrates,  and  visited 
the  only  two  parts  of  the  bay  where  there  were  houses  ;  at  both  places  a  flag  was 
hoisted,  and  a  court,  of  which  notice  had  been  given  the  day  before,  held  by  the 
magistrates.  Having  received  information  that  there  were  three  whaling-stations  on 
the  southern  side  of  tlie  peninsula,  the  exposed  positions  of  wliich  afforded  no  anchorage 
for  the  "  Britomart,"  1  sent  Messrs.  jMurphj^  and  Robinson  to  visit  them  in  a  whale- 
boat.  At  each  station  the  flag  was  hoisted  and  a  court  held.  On  August  15th  the 
French  frigate  "  L'Aube  "  arrived,  having  been  four  days  off  the  point.  On  August 
16th  the  French  whaler  "  Gomte  de  Paris,"  having  on  board  fifty-seven  French 
emigrants,  arrived.  With  the  exception  of  M.  Belligni,  from  the  Jardin  des  Plantes, 
who  is  sent  to  look  after  the  emigrants,  and  who  is  a  good  botanist  and  mineralogist, 
the  emigrants  are  all  of  the  lower  order,  and  include  carpenters,  'gardeners,  stone- 
masons, labourers,  a  baker,  a  miner — m  all  thirty  men,  eleven  women,  and  the  rest 
children.  Cajtain  Lavaud,  on  the  arrival  of  the  French  emigrants,  assured  me  on  his 
word  of  honour  that  he  would  observe  strict  neutrality  between  the  English  residents 
and  the  emigrants,  and  should  any  dift'erence  arise  he  would  settle  matters  impar- 
tially. Captain  Lavaud  also  informed  me  that,  as  the  "  Comte  de  Paris  "  has  to  proceed 
to  sea,  whaHng,  he  would  cause  the  emigrants  to  be  landed  on  some  unoccupied  part 
of  the  bay,  where  he  pledged  himself  thej'  would  do  nothing  which  would  be  con- 
sidered hostile  to  the  Government,  and  that  until  fresh  instructions  were  received  from 
our  respective  Governments  the  emigrants  would  merely  build  themselves  houses  for 
shelter  and  clear  away  what  little  land  they  might  require  for  gardens.  Upon  visiting 
the  "  Comte  de  Paris  "  I  found  she  had  on  board,  besides  agricultural  tools  for  the 
settlers,  six  long  24-pounders.  mounted  on  field  carriages.  I  immediately  called  on 
Captain  Lavaud  to  protest  against  the  gims  being  landed.  Captain  Lavaud  effesured 
me  that  he  had  been  much  surprised  at  finding  guns  had  been  sent  out  in  the  "  Comte 
de  Paris,"  but  that  he  had  already  given  the  most  positive  orders  that  they  should 
not  be  landed.  On  August  19th,  the  French  emigrants  having  been  landed  in  a 
sheltered  well-chosen  part  of  the  bay,  where  they  could  not  interfere  ^\'ith  anyone, 
I  handed  over  to  Messrs.  Murphj^  and  Robinson  the  instructions  entrusted  to  me  by 
your  Excellency  to  meet  such  a  contingency.  Mr.  Robinson,  finding  that  he  could 
engage  three  or  four  Englishmen  as  constables,  and  having  been  enabled,  through  the 
kindness  of  Captain  Lavaud,  to  purchase  a  boat  from  the  French  whaler,  decided 
upon  remaining.  Captain  Lavaud  expressed  much  satisfaction  when  I  informed  him 
Mr.  Robinson  was  to  remain,  and  immediately  offered  him  the  use  of  his  cabin  and  table 
so  long  as  the  "  Aube  "  remained  at  Akaroa.  Mr.  Robinson  acceioted  Captain  Lavaud's 
offer  until  he  could  establish  himself  on  shore.  On  August  27th  I  sailed  from  Akaroa 
to  Pigeon  Ba}',  where,  finding  no  inhabitants,  I  merely  remained  long  enough  to  survey 
the  harbour,  which,  though  narrow  and  exposed  to  the  westward,  is  well  sheltered 
from  every  other  wind;  and  is  much  frequented  liy  whalers,  who  procure  a  great 
number  of  pigeons.  From  Pigeon  Bay  I  went  to  Port  CoojDcr,  where  Mr.  Murphy  held 
a  court.  Several  chiefs  were  joresent  and  seemed  to  understand  and  appreciate 
Mr.  Murphy's  proceedings  in  one  or  two  cases  that  came  before  him.  Between  Port 
Coojier  and  Cloudy  Bay  I  could  hear  of  no  anchorage  whatever  from  the  whalers  who 
frequented  the  coast.  I  arrived  at  Port  Nicholson  on  SejDtember  2nd,  embarked  Messrs. 
Shortland  and  Smart,  and  sailed  for  the  Bay  of  Islands  on  September  16th.  I  have  the 
honour  to  enclose  hercMdth  such  information  as  I  was  enabled  to  procure  during  my 
stay  at  Banks  Peninsula,  and  also  plans  of  the  harbours. 

One  enclosure  is  an  interesting  table  of  ports  and  whaling-stations  in 
the  peninsula  visited  by  Captain  Stanley,  but  as  it  does  not  bear  on  the 
subject  it  is  not  copied  ;  from  it  is  gathered,  however,  that  the  European 
population  at  the  time  of  Captain  Stanley's  visit  numbered  over  eighty. 

It  will  be  observed  that  no  note  whatever  is  made  of  "  taking  posses- 
sion." The  log  of  the  "  Britomart  "  is  equally  reticent.  A  copy  of  the 
log  was  obtained  by  Mr.  Guy  H.  Scholefield  in  London,  and  from  it  the 
following  particulars  are  gathered.     The  sloop-of-war  "  Britomart,"'  Captain 


Andersen. — Mission  of  the  "  Britomart  "  at  Akaroa.  83 

Stanley,  left  Sydney  on  the  17th  Jime,  1840,  and  came  to  anchor  at  Koro- 
rareka,  or  Bay  of  Islands,  on  the  afternoon  of  the  2nd  July,  H.M.S.  ''  Herald" 
having  worked  into  the  bay  just  ahead  of  her.     She  lay  in  the  bay  for  nine 
days,  "cutting  brooms,"  watering,  &c.,  imtil  on  Saturday,  the  11th  July, 
"  arrived  the  French  ship  of  war  '  L'Aube,'  and  revenue  cutter  '  Ranger,' 
with  the  Governor.     Saluted  the  French  flag  with  21  guns."     Routine  work 
went  on  as  before,  but  on  the  22nd  the  company  of  the  "  Britomart  "  was 
employed   making   preparations   for   sea.     The   log   of   the   following   day, 
commencing  at  midnight   on  the  22nd,  is  interesting  :    "  2  a.m.  received 
on    board    per    order    of    his    Excellency    Lieutenant-Governor    Hobson, 
Mr.  Murphy    and   Mr.   Robinson,   magistrates ;    8,   loosed   sail,   short'd   in 
cable  ;   11  weighed  and  made  sail.      Working  out  of  Kororareka  Harbour  ; 
tacked  occasionally."     The  vessel  was  busy  all  the  afternoon  working  out  of 
the  Bay  of  Islands,  and  at  daylight  on  the  24th  Cape  Brett  lay  on  the  lee 
bow  distant  ten  or  twelve  miles.     The  passage  to  Akaroa  was  a' thoroughly 
bad  one,  and  the  ship  suffered  considerably  from  the  knocking-about  she 
received.     At  midday  on  the  25th,  the  first  day  out,  the  vessel  was  off  the 
Great  Barrier.     The  following  morning  the  foretopmast  was  found  to  be 
chafed  through,  and  in  the  afternoon  the  foretopsail  was  split.     On  the 
27th  much  time  was  occupied  in  bending  new  sails  ;    in  the  afternoon  two 
ports  were  stove  in  by  the  heavy  sea.     Cape  Wareka  [?  Wharekahika]  was 
218  miles  distant  at  noon  on  the  28th.     On  the  29th  and  30th  there  was  a 
heavy  head  swell,  which  made  the  120  miles  to  East  Cape  a  good  deal  more. 
However,   the   wind  veered  round,   and  the   "  Britomart  "   rounded  East 
Cape  before  midnight  on  the  31st.     In  the  afternoon  the  hold  had  14  in. 
of  water,  and  thereafter  the  pumps  were  going  almost  continuously.     On 
the  2nd  August  "  Akoroa  "  was  306  miles  distant,  and  there  were  17  in. 
and  18  in.  of  water  in  the  hold  through  the  afternoon.     At  2  o'clock  on  the 
morning  of  the  3rd  a  sea  was  shipped  which  stove  in  the  lee  quarter  boat 
and  washed  away  a  port.     The  ship  was  twelve  miles  farther  from  her 
destination,  at  noon  on  the  4th  than  on  the  previous  day.     Again,  in  the 
early  morning  of  the  5th,. a  sea  stove  in  a  weather  port.     Land  was  seen  on 
the  port  bow  at  10  a.m.  on  the  6th  ;    it  was  somewhere  near  Flat  Point, 
or  Te  Awaite,  in  the  North  Island.      In  the  afternoon  the  sea  split  the 
foretopm'ast-staysail.     Next  day  the  weather  moderated,  and  sea-water  was 
pumped  into  the  empty  tanks.     Land  showed  on  the  lee  bow  at  7  in  the 
evening,  and  next  n^orning,  the  8th,  Cape  Palliser  was  four  or  five  leagues 
distant.     On  the  morning  of  the  9th,  Sunday,  the  crew  was  mustered  and 
the  Articles  of  War  were  read.     This  was  a  proceeding  of  quite  a  routine 
nature.     There  was  land  on  the  beam,  and  a  run  of  eighty-three  miles  to 
Akaroa.     This  is  the  narrative  of  the  10th  :    "  4  a.m.  bore  up  for  the  land  ; 
12.30  calm,  with  a  heavy  swell  ;   out  sweeps  and  swept  ship  ;   1.30  a  breeze 
from  the  nor'ward  ;   in  sweeps,  trimmed  and  swept  into  the  harbour  ;   4.30 
shortened  sail  and  came  to  with  S.B.  in  6|  fathoms  ;    furled  sails,  &c." 
At  daylight  on  the  11th  the  boats  were  out  and  the  ship  was  made  snug. 
There  is  no  reference  to  any, incident  outside  the  ordinary  routine  of  the 
ship.     On  the  12th  the  boats  were  sent  out  to  survey  and  cut  wood,  and 
they  were  so  employed  for  the  next  few  days,  completing  on  Friday,  14th. 
On  the  following  day,  15th  August:    "  5  p.m.,  sent  boats  to  assist  towing 
the  French  ship-of-war  'L'Aube  '  ;    8,  anchored  do."     Sunday  was  marked 
with  the  usual  Divine  service.     On  Monday,  17th  :    "  —  p.m.,  arrived  the 
French  ship  (merchant)  '  Count  de  Paris,'  witli>  emigrants.     Lent  the  cutter 
with  a  party  to  haul  the  seine."     There  is  nothing  but  routine  entries  until 
the  22nd,  when  the  company  was  employed  making  preparations  for  sea. 


84  Transactions. 

The  "  Britomart  "  ran  down  the  harbour  on  the  26th  and  came  near  the 
entrance,  when  she  spoke  the  British  merchant  ship  "  Speculator,"  just 
arrived.  Sails  were  loosed  on  the  27th,  and  further  preparations  made  for 
sea.  At  8  a.m.  Captain  Stanley  "  discharged  Mr.  C.  B.  Robinson,  police 
magistrate,"  and  at  9  made  sail  down  the  harbour,  coming  to  at  the 
anchorage.  Putting  to  sea  the  following  day,  the  "  Britomart  "  spoke  the 
schooner  "  Success,"  of  Sydney,  from  Port  Cooper,  and  another  sail.  On 
the  29th  she  shaped  her  course  for  Pigeon  Bay,  where  she  came  to  and  sent 
a  boat  to  survey  and  get  water.  On  the  30th  she  sailed  for  Port  Cooper 
(now  Lyttelton  Harbour)  and  anchored  there.  On  the  1st  September  the 
"  Britomart  "  was  again  under  sail,  and  a  cable  was  passed  to  the  merchant 
ship  "  Africane,"  but  in  getting  under  way  in  the  squally  wind  the  hawser 
parted,  and  the  "  Britomart "  touched  bottom.  She  made  a  good  passage  to 
Cape  Palliser,  which  was  in  sight  at  daylight  on  the  2nd,  and  in  the  after- 
noon she  was  working  up  to  Port  Nicholson,  where  she  anchored  at  5  p.m. 

Lieutenant-Governor  Hobson  sent  a  copy  of  Captain  Stanley's  report 
to  Governor  Sir  George  Gipps,  saying,  "  I  transmit  a  copy  of  Captain 
Stanley's  report  of  his  proceedings  while  at  Akaroa.  The  measures  he 
adopted  with  the  French  emigrants  are,  I  think,  extremely  judicious,  and 
the  whole  of  his  conduct  evinces  a  degree  of  zeal  and  intelligence  which, 
I  trust,  you  will  consider  worthy  of  the  notice  of  Her  Majesty's  Govern- 
ment." There  is  no  note  of  "  forestalling  "  the  French  ;  and  the  first 
apparent  note  of  anything  that  might  be  construed  into  pleasure  at  such 
forestalling  is  found  in  Governor  Gipps's  despatch  to  Lord  John  Russell  : 
"  I  have  already  transmitted  to  your  Lordship  copies  of  the  instructions 
which  have  been  given  to  Captain  Stanley,  of  H.M.S.  "  Britomart,"  by 
the  Lieutenant-Governor  of  New  Zealand.  ...  I  have  now  the  satis- 
faction to  inform  your  Lordship  that  Captain  Stanley  preceded  the 
French     .     .     ." 

Even  in  the  French  Chamber  of  Deputies  the  position  seemed  to  have 
been  clearly  perceived  ;  for  later,  on  the  29th  JMay,  1844,  the  following 
remarks  were  made  in  that  chamber  by  M.  Guizot,  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs  :  "  There  are  two  Proclamations,  one  on  the  21st  May,  the  other 
on  the  17th  June.  Both  are  anterior  to  the  arrival  of  Captain  Lavaud, 
of  the  '  Aube.'  Of  these  I  have  carefully  read  only  that  of  June  17th,  rela- 
tive to  the  taking  possession  of  the  southern  island.  Here  is  the  English 
text — I  translate  literally  :  '  Taken  possession,  in  the  name  of  Her  Most 
Gracious  Majesty  the  Queen  of  the  United  Kingdoms  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  of  the  southern  island  of  New  Zealand.  This  island,  situated  in 
[here  follows  latitude  and  longitude],  with  all  its  woods,  rivers,  ports,  and 
territory,  having  been  ceded  in  sovereignty  by  different  independent  chiefs 
to  Her  Most  "Gracious  Majesty,  we  have  taken  solemn  possession  of  it,  &c.'  " 

There  was  a  diary  in  existence,  and  may  still  be,  though  its  whereabouts 
is  not  known — the  diary  of  C.  B.  Robinson,  one  of  the  Magistrates  sent 
with  Stanley.  Thanks  to  the  foresight  of  the  late  Mr.  S.  C.  Farr,  of  Christ- 
church,  important  extracts  from  it  are  printed  in  Canterbury  Old  and  New, 
as  follows  : — 

August  3rd,  1840.  Appointed  by  Captain  William  Hobson,  Lieutenant-Governor 
of  New  Zealand,  with  all  necessary  instructions  and  a  proclamation  signed  "  William 
Hobson,"  and  dated  August  3rd,  1840,  at  Government  House,  Russell,  Bay  of  Islands. 
Also  signed  by  Willoughby  Shortland,  Colonial  Secretary.  Instructions  were  :  "  To 
proceed  with  all  despatch  in  H.M.S.  (brig)  '  Britomart,'  Captain  Owen  Stanley  R.N., 
Commander,  to  Akaroa,  Banks  Peninsula,  and  hoist  the  Union  Jack,  which  ^^ill  be  given 
to  you,  on  a  spur  jutting  out  a  little  more  than  half-way  up  the  harbour,  on  the  east 
side,  and  marked  in  red  on  the  map  you  take  with  you." 


Andersen. — Mission  of  the  "  Britomart  "  at  Akaroa.  85 

Here  followed  the  Proclamation,  whicli  was  not  copied.  The  diary 
continued  : — 

"  We  sailed  that  evening  with  a  fair,  strong  wind  ;  a  good  passage  was  made,  and 
we  anchored  in  Akaroa  Bay  on  the  morning  of  August  11th.  We  at  once  proceeded 
to  make  preparations  for  the  formal  ceremony.  A  log  of  wood,  old  and  dry.  was  pro- 
cured from  the  bush  by  some  of  the  crew,  and  was  hewn  by  the  carpenter  eigh^  inches 
square.  A  hole  was  dug  in  the  ground  at  the  spot  selected,  the  post  put  in,  and  the 
earth  well  rammed  down  round  it.  A  spar  had  been  brought  from  the  vessel,  rigged 
with  pulley  and  halyard  for  hoisting  the  flag  ;  this  was  lashed  to  the  post,  and  every- 
thing made  ready  by  5  p.m.  on  August  15th.  The  next  morning,  at  12  o'clock  noon, 
I  Charles  Barrington  Robinson,  deputed  by  the  Acting-Governor,  hoisted  the  Union 
Jack  in  the  name  of  Her  Majesty  the  Queen  Victoria,  and  in  the  jDresence  of  Captain 
Stanley,  his  officers,  some  of  the  crew,  about  a  dozen  natives  (Maoris),  and  the  only 
Englishman  then  in  the  bay;  Mr.  Cfreen,  Avith  his  family.  There  was  no  demonstration 
other  than  my  reading  the  proclamation,  three  cheers  for  Her  Majesty,  and  the 
National  Anthem. 

The  next  note  made  was  :  "  August  18th.  The  French  man-of-war 
'  Aube,'  Captain  Lavaud,  arrived  in  the  bay." 

Now  compare  these  statements  with  the  log  of  the  "  Britomart."  The 
Proclamation  signed  "  William  Hobson  '"  was,  it  is  said,  dated  3rd  August. 
On  that  date  the  "  Britomart  "  was  actually  being  buffeted  at  sea,  south 
of  East  Cape,  and  somewhat  over  three  hundred  miles  from  Akaroa! 
Mr.  Eobinson  says,  "  We  sailed  that  evening  [August  3rd]  ...  a  good 
passage  was  made  .  .  .  and  we  anchored  on  the  morning  of  August 
11th."  The  log  shows  they  sailed  on  the  morning  of  the  22nd  July,  and 
made  anything  but  a  good  passage,  anchoring  in  Akaroa  at  4.30  p.m.  on 
the  10th  August.  Mr.  Robinson  says  he  hoisted  the  flag  at  noon  on  the 
16th,  and  the  "  Aube  "  appeared  on  the  18tli  August ;  the  log  shows  that 
the  "  Aube  "  came  to  anchor  on  Saturday,  15th  August.  Again,  the  report 
of  Captain  Stanley  shows  that  the  flag  was  hoisted  and  a  Court  held  at 
two  places  in  the  bay  on  the  11th  August,  and  at  three  other  bays  where 
there  were  whaling-stations  during  the  succeeding  days,  so  that  during  the 
time  ]\Ir.  Robinson  says  they  were  busy  preparing  the  pole,  &c.,  the  report 
shows  that  he  and  Mr.  Murphy  were  visiting  the  whaling-stations  in  a 
whaleboat. 

These  discrepancies  are  extraordinary,  and  cannot  but  give  colour  to 
a  suggestion  already  made  in  the  voluminous  newspaper  correspondence 
on  this  subject — that  the  diary  was  not  begvm  until  some  time  after  the 
event,  and  then  written  up  from  memory,  or  from  faulty  notes. 

On  the  late  Dr.  R.  McNab  visiting  England  towards  the  end  of  1909  the 
writer  of  this  paper  wrote  to  him,  in  December  of  that  year,  urging  him 
to  secure,  if  possible,  logs  of  the  "  Aube  "  and  "  Comte  de  Paris,"  also  the 
instructions  to  Captain  Lavaud,  and  Lavaud's  despatches  to  his  Govern- 
ment. The  writer  had  already  sent  him  a  precis  of  what  had  been  gathered 
by  him  up  till  that  date,  and  Dr.  McNab  was  successful  in  obtaining  copies 
of  a  great  deal  of  matter — so  much  that  he  intended  making  it  the  subject 
of  a  book.     This  his  lamented  death  unfortunately  prevented. 

The  following  are  translated  extracts  from  a  letter  written  by  Lavaud 
to  the  Minister  of  Marine,  at  the  Bay  of  Islands,  on  the  19th  June,  1840  : — 

On  the  29th  of  June  I  sailed  round  Van  Diemen's  Land  ;  at  that  time  there  was 
a  S.E.  wind  shifting  to  the  east,  a  fine  breeze  but  contrary  to  the  course  to  be  travelled 
to  get  to  the  south  of  New  Zealand  :  I  decided  to  sail  into  the  Bay  of  Islands,  where 
I  hoped  to  see  the  Bishop  of  Maronae.  .  .  .  Your  Excellencj^  was  kind  enough 
to  allow  me  the  latitude  to  change  this  part  of  my  course,  and  I  sailed  to  the  north, 
directing  the  "  Aube  "   to  the  Three  Kings  Islands,  the  first  land  I  caught  sight  of 


86  '   Transactions. 

since  the  25th  of  March,  and  it  was  on  the  8th  of  this  month  at  1  o'clock  in  tiie  morning. 
On  the  9th  I  recognized  the  Cape  Maria  van  Diemen.  I  left  the  North  Cape  the  same 
day  at  night,  and  on  the  10th,  in  the  morning,  I  was  at  the  entrance  of  the  Bay  of 
Islands,  which  I  could  only  reach  in  the  night  on  account  of  the  calm  and  the  strong 
land  breezes  which  did  not  permit  me  to  go  ahead.  I  met  the  vessel  H.B.M.  "  Britomart." 
The  Captain  came  to  see  me  as  soon  as  I  had  cast  anchor.  We  exchanged  the  usual 
salutes  of  politeness  and  remained  very  good  friends.  I  immediately  visited  the 
Bishop.     .     . 

On  my  arrival  I  heard  of  the  taking  possession,  in  the  name  of  the  Queen  of 
the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  of  the  three  islands  composing  the 
group  known  under  the  name  of  New  Zealand.  The  British  flag  flies  two  miles  from  the 
anchorage  of  Kororareka,  on  the  River  Karra-karra,  on  the  site  of  Fort  Russell-To\vn, 
the  name  of  the  town  to  be  built  there.  A  Lieutenant-Governor,  Mr.  Hobson,  is  esta- 
bhshed  there  with  a  large  administrative  staff  and  a  garrison  of  130  men,  commanded 
by  a'' field  officer  of  the  land  forces,  who  has  three  other  officers  under  his  command. 
Three  warships  seem  to  be  attached  to  the  British  colony.  The  corvette  "'  Herald," 
which  belongs  to  them,  recently  made  a  voyage  round  all  the  islands  where  English- 
men are  established,  visiting  the  principal  places.  .  .  .  Akaroa  is  at  present  also 
occupied  by  an  Englishman,  whose  cattle  graze  there.  The  corvette  "  Herald  "  went 
there,  and  I  heard  that  about  two  months  ago,  there,  as  well  as  everywhere  where  she 
found  no  Europeans,  the  declaration  of  British  sovereignty  had  been  written  on  a 
pajjer,  enclosed  in  a  bottle,  and  hidden  in  the  earth.     .     .     . 

The  property  of  Banks  Peninsula  has  been  constituted  by  a  Mr.  Clayton,  who 
lives  in  the  Bay  of  Islands  and  who  has  heard  from  tl;e  whalers  long  ago  that 
Mr.  Langlois  had  acquired  it ;  but  as  I  thought,  in  such  a  state  of  afi^airs,  I  ought  at 
present  to  conceal  the  mission  I  was  charged  with,  this  statement  flid  not  come  to 
me  in  an  official  way. 

The  position  has  greatly  changed  since  my  departure  from  France ;  British 
jealousy  has  made  great  steps  forward  and  is  running  fast.  J  shall  avoid  to  compro- 
mise the  Government  of  the  King ;  I  will  act  with  great  caution  ;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  so  far  away  from  Your  Excellency,  and  ignoring  what  has  happened  between  the 
two  Governments,  after  France  has  been  notified  that  the  full  sovereign  power  lies  in 
the  hands  of  "  Her  Majestj^  Queen  Victoria,  her  heir's  and  successors,"  as  stated  in  the 
Proclamation  dated  the  21st  of  May — I  repeat,  so  far  away,  I  cannot  deviate  from 
the  orders  I  carry,  and,  having  above  all  to  preserve  the  honour  of  my  flag,  I  shall 
declare  officiallj^  to  the  representative  of  Her  Britannic  Majesty  on  the  island.  Captain 
Hobson,  that  for  the  present  I  protest  against  any  measure,  coming  from  the  British 
GJovernment,  which  might  result  in  infringing  the  French  property  duly  acquired  from 
the  free  and  independent  natives,  till  the  moment  in  which  the  Government  of  the 
King  will  be  pleased  to  recognize  British  sovereignty  over  these  islands. 

I  fear  that  the  "  Comte  de  Paris,"  which,  according  to  what  Jier  captain  wrote  to 
me  before  I  left  France,  has  put  into  port  at  Senegal,  at  the  Cape,  at  Hobart  Town, 
and  at  the  Bay  of  Islands,  before  returning  to  Akaroa,  mil  keep  us  \faiting  for  some 
time,  which  will  be  very  regrettable.  There  ought  to  be  more  than  one  warship  here, 
for  I  sliall  not  be  able  to  leave  Akaroa  when  I  get  there,  and  yet  I  Avill  entirely  ignore 
there  what  is  happening  around  me.  We  must  not  conceal  from  ourselves  that  everj^- 
body  here  will  try  and  hinder  us,  and  I  will  be  all  the  more  luiprepared  to  avoid  the 
pitfalls  of  our  neighbours  because  I  will  have  no  information  from  the  outside. 
I  hope  that  the  official  news  recer\'ed  in  France  the  last  few  months  will  appear  to 
Your  Excellency  to  be  of  such  a  nature  that  fresh  instructions  will  be  sent  me,  and 
that  perhaps  also  the  sea  forces  will  be  increased.     . 

I  add  my  letter  to  Captain  Hobson  .  .  .  who,  as  Your  Excellency  will  see, 
refused  to  enter  into  explanations  with  me  if  I  did  not  previously  recognize  his  title 
as  Governor  of  the  Islands  of  New  Zealand.  ...  I  tried  to  make  him  under- 
stand that  I  could  not  see  why  he  should  keep  silent  about  the  object  of  my  letter 
[concerning  properties  acquired  by  the  French  in  various  parts  of  the  Islands],  having 
only  as  a  reason  that  I  did  not  recognize  him  as  Governor  of  the  Islands  of  New 
Zealand.  I  also  pointed  out  to  him  that  large  French  properties  existed  in  the  Islands, 
especially  in  the  ]\Iiddle  Island,  which  we  call  in  France  the  South  Island,  and  that  I 
could  not  admit  the  rights  of  sovereignty  of  a  foreign  Government  over  this  property  ; 
but  he  very  well  explained  to  me  that  there  Avas  a  distinction  to  be  made  here — that 
he  did  not  contest  the  property  of  the  French  on  the  Islands ;  that  the  chiefs  when 
selling  had  only  sold  the  land,  but  not  their  authority,  which  they  abdicated  in  favour 
of  Britain  ;  that  only  after  this  abdication  the  British  sovereignty  had  been  declared. 
Then  I  handed  him  a  letter  telling  him  that  the  contents  would  make  him  understand 
my  last  word.     He  read  it  with  great  attention,  and  told  me  that  in  my  place  he  would 


ANDERSE^^ — Mission  of  the  "  Britomart  "  at  Akaroa.  87 

have  acted  as  I  had  done,  and  that  he  thought  it  was  the  surest  way  to  avoid  a  conflict 
which  might  have  had  very  unpleasant  consequences  for  both  Governments,  in  breaking 
out  so  far  away.  I  insisted  upon  knowing  if  the  contents  of  my  letter  had  been  well 
understood.  He  told  me.  Yes,  that  he  understood  the  whole  sense,  and  the  whole 
situation ;  that  he  would  send  a  copy  to  the  Governor-General  at  Sydney,  who  would 
take  his  orders  from  the  Government  of  the  Queen  ;  and  that  in  the  meantime  he 
would  use  his  whole  persuasive  influence  with  this  same  Governor-General,  so  that 
the  Committee  should  not  be  obliged  to  inquire  about  the  validity  of  the  French  title- 
deeds  until  the  two  Governments  had  come  to  some  arrangement.  After  that  I  added 
that  I  was  going  to  the  South  ;  that  several  landowners  and  colonists  were  already 
established  there,  and  others  would  go  there  to  estabUsh  themselves  ;  that  the  measures 
I  claimed  were  to  be  extended  to  them  also,  and  that  there,  too,  they  were  to  feel  the 
protection  of  their  Government,  and  consequently  should  be  able  to  occupy  the  land, 
work  on  it,  sow  and  reap  without  being  worried.  Mr.  Langlois  will  take  possession 
of  Banks  Peninsula  and  will  give  over  to  me  the  land  which  he  is  to  transfer  to  the 
French  Government,  which  will  not  appear  ui  the  matter,  unless  it  were  to  judge  that 
it  ought  not  to  give  its  adhesion  to  the  sovereigntj'  of  Queen  Victoria  over  the  Islands 
of  New  Zealand  of  which  Banks  Peninsula  is  a  part ;  and  in  case  that  I  were  to  receive 
orders  to  declare  that  this  sovereignty  was  not  recognized  I  should  proclaim  that  of 
France  ov^r  the  peninsula.  I  say  only  Banks  Peninsula  because  all  the  rest  is  invaded 
and  occupied  by  the  British.  There  is  even  a  Magistrate  at  Cloudy  Bay.  Well, 
Minister,  things  are  so  advanced  that  it  is  too  late  to  stop  them,  and  being  persuaded 
of  this  I  wish  to  let  the  King's  Government  act  freely  without  urging  or  compromising 
it  in  anything.  The  same  motives  have  made  me  avoid  placing  myself  in  the  position 
to  be  obliged  to  fire  the  first  cannon-shot,  the  signal  of  war,  knowing  that  if.  on  my 
departure  from  France,  Your  Excellency  could  have  seen  the  position  in  which  I  find 
myself  at  present  you  would  have  sent  me  off  with  different  instructions  from  those 
I  have  ;  you  would  not  have  let  the  "  Comte  de  Paris  "  sail,  and  would  not  have  left 
me  the  choice  of  war  or  jjeace. 

Later,  in  July,  Lavaud  received  information  of  other  claims  than  that 
of  Langlois  to  land  on  Banks  Peninsula  ;   and  he  writes  to  his  Minister — 

.  .  .  Your  Excellency  will  see  that,  as  I  had  already  heard,  the  ownership  of 
Banks  Peninsula  has  been  partially  or  totalty  claimed  by. several  people,  who  every 
one  of  them  pretend  to  be  the  legitimate  owners  and  to  possess  title-deeds.  I  have  had 
the  honour  of  mentioning  to  you,  among  rothers,  Mr.  Clayton,  who  lays  claim  only  to 
a  part.  Further  I  may  name  to  you  the  firm  of  Cooper  and  Levy,  of  Sydney,  who,  as 
well  as  Monsieur  Langlois,  claim  the  whole  peninsula ;  they  have  already  brought 
timber  to  close  the  isthmus  of  this  peninsula,  and  the  herd  of  oxen  which  is  in  the  bay 
of  Akaroa  belongs  to  this  firm. 

I  shall  concert  with  Monsieur  Langlois  to  see  what  can  be  done  ;  perhaps  it  would 
be  suitable  to  come  to  some  arrangement  with  the  claimants,  of  whom  at  least  two, 
Messrs.  Clayton  and  Cooper,  bought  prior  to  him. 

In  any  case,  we  shall  settle  at  Akaroa,  awaiting  your  orders. 

The  Middle  Island  (Tawai-Ponamoo)  is  to-day,  as  I  had  the  honour  of  telling  you, 
nearly  entirely  in  the  possession  of  foreigners.  We  can  no  more  think  of  acquiring  from 
the  natives,  who  possess  only  the  land  reserved  for  their  habitations  and  plantations  ; 
we  could  only  buy  from  the  British,  but  they  are  so  numerous  that  I  regard  it  as  very 
difficult  to  proclaim  the  sovereignty  of  France  there,  as  the  companj'^,  according  to  all 
appearances,  can  actually  only  claim  a  part  of  this  jjeninsula.  Through  negotiations, 
I  believe  it  to  be  quite  possible  to  make  the  Britannic  Cabinet  disown  Governor 
Hobson's  first  Proclamation,  as  he,  in  declaring  the  Queen's  sovereignty,  relies  on  a  right 
of  discovery  which  cannot  be  acknowledged  by  the  nations. 

It  seems  to  me  that  it  is  impossible  that  this  pretended  right  can  be  invoked 
to-day,  so  long  after  the  discovery  of  these  islands  by  Captam  Cook ;  besides,  the  right 
of  discover}^  can  only  be  exercised  in  uninhabited  countries,  but  not  in  those  where  the 
land  is  trodden  by  those  to  whom  it  naturally  belongs  and  ought  to  belong.  The  inde- 
pendence of  the  Jliddle  Island,  under  the  protectorate  of  France,  would  be,  I  believe, 
what  would  henceforth  suit  you  the  best.  The  freedom  of  the  ports  of  this  Island 
would  lead  to  great  commercial  movement,  which  would  strike  a  big  blow  at  the 
colony  of  the  North  Island,  soon  to  be  subjected  to  Customs  duties.  Your  Excellency 
will  appreciate,  from  all  that  I  have  had  the  honour  of  communicating  to  you,  the 
obstacles  I  have  had  to  encounter  and  the  delicate  position  in  which  I  find  myself. 
Nevertheless,  in  a  conversation  I  had  yesterday  with  Mr.  Hobson,  I  thought  fit  to  tell 
him  that   French  colonists,  landowners  m  the  Middle  Island,   had  just  arrived,  and 


88  Transactions. 

that  I  was  going  there  to  protect  them  when  they  would  take  possession  of  their  lands. 
,  His  letter  of  the  23rd  will  perhaps  lead  me,  if  I  find  difficulties  in  Akaroa,  to  return  to 
Sydney,  when  I  have  settled  Monsieur  Langlois,  for  I  see  that  Mr.  Hobson  can  or  will 
not  settle  the  question.  In  this  state  of  affairs,  if  the  Britannic  Government  has  not 
got  the  signatures  of  the  chiefs  of  Banks  Peninsula — that  is  to  say,  their  consent  to 
recognize  its  sovereignty — I  will  make  every  possible  effort  to  convince  the  chiefs 
that  they  must  not  abandon  their  land  to  any  nation,  but  preserve  it  for  themselves 
and  their  descendants  by  accepting  the  patronage  of  France  and  its  Government. 
It  is  also  in  the  direction  of  independence,  I  believe,  that  we  ought  to  act  with 
Britain. 

But,  sir,  there  is  no  time  to  be  lost  to  enter  into  an  explanation  with  the  Britannic 
Cabinet :  everything  goes  very  quickly  in  this  colony,  and  the  powers  given  by  Lord 
Normanby  to  the  Government  of  Sydney  give  him  all  the  more  latitude,  because  what 
he  will  decide  to  do  concerning  these  islands  has  been  applauded  in  advance.     .     .     . 

A  later  letter  is  dated  Akaroa,  19tli  August,  1840.  In  it  lie  informs 
his  Minister  what  he  found  at  Akaroa  : — 

I  have  the  honour  to  announce  to  you  the  arrival  of  the  "  Aube  "  in  the  Bay  of 
Akaroa  on  the  loth  instant. 

I  found  several  British  established  there,  and  the  Proclamation  placarded  by  the 
corvette  "  Herald  "  last  May  posted  on  the  house  of  an  Englishmah  placed  in  charge 
of  these  Proclamations.     .     .     . 

The  brig  "  Britomart  "  is  sailing  along  the  coast  and  visiting  the  different  ports 
with  two  Magistrates,  having  to  go  everywhere  where  any  offence  has  to  be  investigated 
and  punished.  I  suj^jpose  that  my  presence  is  somewhat  the  reason  of  these  cruises. 
A  boat  from  this  brig,  which  was  lying  outside  the  bay  on  the  17th  instant,  came 
alongside  the  "  Comte  de  Paris,"  which,  on  entering,  had  fired  guns  ;  in  this  boat  were 
officers  and  the  two  Magistrates  I  just  mentioned.  Believing  that  this  gun-fire  was  to 
call  their  boat,  these  gentlemen  came  on  board.  They  noticed  carriages  for  coast-guns 
which  were  on  deck ;  they  seemed  astonished,  but,  however,  did  not  say  anything 
about  it.  Various  remarks  thoughtlessly  made  by  Captain  Langlois  also  made  them 
feel  uneasy,  and  have  been  the  subject  of  an  explanation  between  the  British  captain 
and  myself.  I  promised  to  follow  the  line  of  conduct  that  I  had  traced  for  myself  in 
the  Bay  of  Islands,  and  to  maintain  what  I  had  written,  until  the  British  and  French 
Cabinets  had  decided  the  question  of  occupancy  in  one  way  or  another. 

As  I  have  had  the  honour  of  informing  Your  Excellency,  I  had  officially  announced 
to  Captain  Hobson  that  I  was  returning  to  Akaroa,  where  the  surrounding  land,  as  well 
as  the  whole  of  Banks  Peninsula,  belonged  to  French  jiroprietors,  who  had  sent  out 
cultivators  from  France  to  clear  the  land  and  make  it  productive.  .  .  .  My  sur- 
prise was  great  when,  on  the  arrival  of  the  "  Comte  de  Paris,"  I  heard,  in  the  most 
l^ositive  way,  that  Monsieur  Langlois  had  never  negotiated  with  the  chiefs  of  this  part, 
that  he  possessed  nothing  there,  and  that  we  had,  in  fact,  no  right  of  ownership  we 
could  put  forward.  The  chiefs  gathered  around  me  declared  to  me,  through  the  voice 
of  M.  Comte,  a  missionary  jiriest  of  Monseignor  Pompallier,  who  sjieaks  the  language 
of  the  natives,  that  Monsieur  Langlois  had  negotiated  for  a  part  of  the  land  of  Port 
Cooper,  Tokolabo  Bay,  for  which  he  had  paid  one  part,  but  that  there  never  had  been 
any  question  of  the  port  of  Akaroa,  in  which  they  had  sold  to  a  Mr.  Rhodes  a  certain 
part  for  grazing  or  cultivating,  and  that  in  the  same  way  they  had  sold  the  bay  of 
Pyreka  and  other  bays  forming  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula  ;  and,  finally,  that 
that  they  had  never  signed  a  contract  of  sale,  drawn  up  between  Monsieur  Langlois  and 
the  tribes,  of  the  north-west  and  west  of  the  peninsula. 

In  such  a  state  of  things,  how  am  I  to  execute  the  orders  of  the  King  ?  How  to 
take  possession  .  .  .  even  tacitly,  in  case  of  an  arrangement  between  the  Govern- 
ments of  France  and  of  Britain,  of  a  land  that  does  not  belong  to  the  company  ?  In 
one  word,  how  to  execute  the  treaty  of  the  11th  October,  1839,  made  in  Paris  between 
the  Government  and  the  Nanto-Bordelaise  Company  ?  Realty,  sir,  I  am  travelling 
on  such  a  winding  and  dark  road  that  I  only  walk  by  groping  my  way.  ...  If 
Monsieur  Langlois  had  not  heard  of  my  presence  he  would  have  treated  the  acts  and 
the  official  doings  of  Britain  as  a  joke  ;  he  would  have  hoisted  the  tricolour  flag,  would 
have  saluted  it  with  101  guns,  and  he  would  have  taken  possession  in  the  name  of 
the  King  of  the  French  ;  while  I,  for  my  part,  have  tried  every  day  in  my  conduct 
to  avoid  binding  my  Government,  and  esjiecially  not  to  compromise  the  dignity  of 
Royalty.  Fortunately,  the  whaler  "  Pauline,"  which  I  met  at  sea,  by  making  my 
presence  here  known  at  Port  Cooper,  prevented  a  demonstration  of  this  kind,  for  the 
ceremony  of  which  several  officers  and  masters  of  whalers  had  already  been  convoked. 


Andersen. — Mission  of  the  '"  Brifomart  "  at  Akaroa.  89 

From  to-day  [21st  August]  a  British  Magistrate  has  been  appomted  to  reside  at 
Akaroa  and  will  establish  himself  there.  I  suppose  it  is  the  arrival  and  the  landing  of 
our  colonists  that  has  called  forth  this  measure.  I  had  a  conference  on  this  matter 
with  him.  and  I  could  sec  a  certain  fear  concerning  my  intentions  ;  nevertheless,  I  am 
pleased  at  liis  presence,  because,  together  with  mine,  it  might  avoid  misiHnderstandings 
between  the  established  British  and  our  colonists.     .     .     . 

In  ending  this  despatch  I  must  repeat  to  Your  Excellency  my  whole  idea  :  No 
colonization  possible'  in  these  seas  if  we  do  not  obtain  the  withdrawal  of  these  Procla- 
mations and  declarations  as  to  the  island  of  Tawai  Poenamou  (Middle  Island)  ;  and 
then,  apart  from  the  inconvenience  of'  the  neighbourhood,  one  would  have  to  make  a 
better  choice  of  emigrants  than  those  brought  out  by  the  "  Comte  de  Paris." 

There  is  a  voluminous  essay  written  by  Lavaud,  entitled  "  Voyage  and 
Attempted  Colonization  of  the  South  Island  of  New  Zealand,  undertaken 
by  the  Corvette  '  Aube,'  commanded  by  Commander  Lavaud,"  which 
gives  more  detail  than  the  official  papers,  but  is  hardly  more  to  the 
point. 

It  will  be  admitted  that  Lavaud  was  placed  in  a  very  difficult  position 
through  the  change  of  circumstances  that  had  taken  place  since  he  left 
France  ;  that  he,  as  representative  of  that  country,  bore  himself  in  a 
courteous  if  independent  manner,  and  that  both  he  and  Hobson  acted  with 
admirable  mutual  forbearance  ;  that  there  was  no  race,  the  French  objects 
having  been  defeated  whilst  Lavaud  was  still  at  sea  and  in  ignorance  of 
events  ;  and  that  Lavaud,  whilst  accepting  the  defeat  with  difficulty,  did 
so  with  dignity  ;  that  his  action  was  the  best  he  could  have  taken,  both 
for  the  continued  amity  of  the  two  nations  and  for  the  comfort  of  the 
emigrants. 

In  conclusion,  it  is  a  pleasure  to  be  able  to  express  this  respect  for  one 
who  represented  a  nation  with  whom  we  have  often  been  at  variance,  but 
between  whom  and  ourselves  a  bitter  war  against  a  common  foe  has,  we 
trust,  consummated  an  enduring  friendship.  The  French  did  not  prosecute 
their  claim  ;  upon  inquiry,  the  New  Zealand  Government,  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  a  large  number  of  emigrants  had  been  sent  out  in  good  faith,  at 
a  cost  of  £15,125,  made  the  company  a  grant  of  30,000  acres,  and  the 
company  finally  ceded  all  its  rights  on  the  peninsula  to  the  New  Zealand 
Company  for  the  sum  of  £4,500. 

Many  contemporary  versions  have  appeared  of  what  was  supposed  to 
have  taken  place  at  Akaroa  in  August,  1840  ;  and  it  was  the  great  dis- 
crepancies among  these,  and  the  reading  of  Stanley's  report,  that  awoke 
in  the  writer  a  suspicion  that  the  ceremony  performed  was  not  one  of  taking 
possession,  but  merely  one  of  exercising  civil  authority  in  virtue  of  posses- 
sion already  taken  ;  and  that  more  facts  were  to  be  gleaned  from  the  dark 
fields  of  the  past. 

-It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  whole  of  the  official  correspondence,  both 
English  and  French,  may  be  made  generally  available  by  publication. 


90 


Transactions. 


Art.  XV. — Ranunculus  paucifolius  T.  Kirk  :  its  Distribution  and 
Ecology,  and  the  Bearing  oj  these  upon  certain  Geological  and 
Phylogenetic  Problems. 

By  A.  Wall,  M.A.,  Professor  of  English,  Canterbury  College. 

[Bead  before  the  New  Zealavd  Institute,  at  Chrislchurch,  4th-8th  February,  1919  ;   received 
by  Editor,  24th  June,  1919  ;    issued  separately,  10th  June,  1920.] 

Plates  II-V. 


Contents., 

Historical  . .  . .  .,.  . .  . .    ' 

Comparison  of  Ranunculus  chordorhizos  and  R.  paucifolius 
Habitat  and  Distribution — 

General 

Details  of  Distribution 
Associations  of  the  Area     . . 
Ecological :  Main  Problems  involved — • 

General 

Relation  to  Geological  Problems 

Origin  of  the  Group  to  which  it  belonged 
Conclusions 
References 
Postscript 


90 
90 

92 
93 
94 

96 

97 

99 

103 

104 

105 


Historical. 

Ranunculus  'paucifolius  was  "  raised  to  specific  rank "  by  Kirk  (1899, 
p.  11),  who  separated  it  from  R.  chordorhizos  Hook.  f. 

The  notable  points  in  his  description  are  :  "  Leaves  1  or  2  "  ;  "  Scape 
equalling  the  petioles  "'  ;  "  Achenes  few,  turgid,  with  a  straight  subulate 
beak  "  ;  "  flowering  season,  December." 

Under  R.  paucifolius,  Cheeseman  (1906,  p.  16)  says,  "  Much  more  com- 
plete material  is  required  before  a  good  description  can  be  given  of  this 
curious  little  plant.  It  is  very  close  to  the  preceding  species,  but  seems 
sufficiently  distinct  in  the  less  fleshy  and  more  coriaceous  habit ;  fewer 
leaves,  which  are  broader,  and  much  less  divided  ;  longer  scape,  and 
broader  petals.      Only  one  flowering  specimen  has  been  obtained." 

From  Hooker's  account  of  R.  chordorhizos  it  is  evident  that  Ranun- 
culus paucifolius  was  first  collected  by  Haast  before  the  publication  of  the 
Handbook  (1867),  though  its  discovery  is  accredited  by  Cheeseman  to  Enys 
(1906,  p.  xxxiii),  where  it  is  stated  that  Enys's  work  in  New  Zealand  began 
in  1874. 


Comparison  op  Ranunculus  chordorhizos  and  R.  paucifolius, 

R.  chordorhizos. 

In  1918  I  obtained  flowers  of  R.  chordorhizos  from  two  plants  in  my 
garden  at  Christchurch  brought  from  Mount  Hutt  (at  c.  4,000  ft.)  in  1917. 
One  of  those  also  flowered  in  1919.  The  flowering-date  in  Christchurch 
(sea-level)  was  September.  The  flower  is  from  1  in.  to  1^  in.  in  diameter. 
The  petals  are  from  5  to  8,  and  even  more. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LII. 


Plate  II. 


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%, 


^-•:/^^- 


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Photograph  of  Ranunculus  paucijoliv^  in  situ  showing  five  leaves  and  root. 


Face  p.  90.] 


Trans.  X.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LI  I 


Plate  III. 


_  y     ji_     -> 

Fig.   [. — Photograph  of  Ranunculus  paucifolius  showmg  six  leaves. 


Fig.  2. — -Photograpli  of  Ranunculus  paucifolius  in  situ. 


Wall. — Ranunculus  paucifolius  T .  Kirk.  91 

The  most  striking  feature  of  the  flower  (hitherto  undescribed)  is  the 
form  of  the  sepals,  which  are  lobed  like  the  radical  leaves,  and  one  of 
them  in  each  flower  is  much  larger  than  the  rest,  lobed  and  appearing  like 
the  cauline  leaves  which  form  a  sort  of  involucre  in  R.  Haastii,  but  attached 
so  much  higher  that  it  should  rather  be  termed  a  bract.  The  edges  of 
the  petals  are  also  lobed  shallowly.  The  colour  of  the  sepals  is  dark  like 
the  leaves.  I  obtained  one  head  of  ripe  achenes  from  my  plants.  .  The 
description  of  the  achene  in  Kirk  and  Cheeseman  seems  to  be  quite  exact. 

Specimens  of  the  plants  here  used  were  sent  to  Kew  for  identification  ; 
there  are  no  flowering  specimens  there,  but  my  plants  were  identified  as 
R.  chordorhizos.  The  locality  (Moimt  Hutt)  is  not  far  from  Mount  Somers 
(the  original  locality),  and  the  plant  has  been  collected  by  Laing  at  Mount 
Winterslow,  between  Mount  Somers  and  Mount  Hutt. 

R.  paucifolius. 

I  visited  Castle  Hill  on  the  8th  November,  1919,  and  obtained  specimens. 
There  had  been  a  heavy  fall  of  snow  on  the  1st  and  2nd  November,  and 
most  of  the  flowers  were  much  damaged.  Between  twenty  and  thirty 
blooms  were  observed.  The  flowering-date  is  late  October  and  November, 
not  December  (Kirk,  Cheeseman).  I  was  able  to  get  about  a  dozen 
specimens  which  had  flowered  after  the  disappearance  of  the  snow.  No 
buds  were  coming  on,  and  the  season  was  rather  backward  than  otherwise. 

The  flower  is  large  and  showy,  averaging  about  H  in.  in  diameter  when 
fully  expanded.      I  measured  one  exactly  2  in.  in  diameter. 

The  number  of  petals  'is  from  5  to  8  or  even  more  ;  the  most  usual 
number  seemed  to  be  6.  The  sepals  are  5.  Most  of  the  plants  bear  one 
flower  only,  but  several  were  observed  with  two.  The  scape  is  very  short, 
not  more  than  1  in.  in  any  of  my  specimens.  There  are  no  cauline  leaves 
as  in  R.  Haastii ;  the  sepals  are  pale  yellow  and  have  nothing  of  the 
peculiar  character  of  those  of  •  R.  chordorhizos.  The  edges  of  the  petals, 
unlike  those  of  R.  chordorhizos,  are  entire  or  very  nearly  so,  the  margin 
being  very  slightly  wavy. 

I  obtained  ripe  achenes  at  Castle  Hill  in  December,  1918.  The 
description  in  Kirk  is  inexact,  and  the  achene  is  not  distinguishable  from 
that  of  R.  chordorhizos. 

I  may  add  that  I  have  in  cultivation  seven  plants  brought  from  Castle 
Hill  in  1918.      All  are  thriving,  but  none  flowered  in  1919. 

The  two  species  having  been  grown  close  together,  the  following  points 
of  comparison  may  be  noted.  The  general  coloration  of  the  two  is  very 
similar  and  very  curious  ;  R.  chordorhizos  is,  however,  a  little  darker  than 
R.  paucifolius.  The  leaf  of  R.  chordorhizos  has  the  segments  distinctly 
recurved  ;  those  of  R.  paucifolius  are  nearly  flat.  R.  paucifolitis  is  a  good 
deal  the  larger  plant  in  every  way.  The  leaf  of  R.  paucifolius  is  pitted, 
but  not  so  deeply  as  that  of  R.  chordorhizos.  The  leaves  of  both  species 
are  pitted  when  fresh,  not  only  "  when  dry  "  (Kirk,  Cheeseman). 

To  summarize  the  new  facts  resulting  from  these  observations  : — 
(1.)  R.  chordorhizos  has  recurved  leaves,  pitted  while  fresh. 
(2.)  R.  chordorhizos  has  a  flower  about  H  in.  in  diameter  (not  "  1  in."). 
(3.)  The  sepals  of  R.  chordorhizos  are  lobed,  and  have  something  of  the 

character  of  a  cauline  leaf  or  bract. 
(4.)  The  number  of  petals  of  R.  chordorhizos  is  from  5  to  8  or  more. 
(5.)  The  edge  of  the  petals  of  R.  chordorhizos  is  lobed  or  crenate. 


92  Transactions. 

(6.)  The  leaves  of  R.  paucifolius,  instead  of  being  only  2-3  (Kirk),  are 

as  many  as  8.     One   of   my   plants   in   cultivation   has   9   now. 

Six  is  quite  usual.     The  name  paucifolius  is  a  misnomer. 
(7.)  The  scape  of  R.  paucifolius  is  not  always  solitary. 
(8.)  The  number  of  petals  of  R.  paucifolius  is  5-8.  ,    . 

(9.)  The  flower  of  R.  paucifolius  is  larger  than  described  hitherto,  being 

from  1^  in.  to  2  in. 
(10.)  The  flowering-date  of  R.  paucifolius  is  late  October  and  November, 

not  December. 
(11.)  The  achene  of  R.  paucifolius  is  exactly  like  that  of  R.  chordorhizos  ; 

the  style  is  curved,  not  straight. 

Conclusion  from  these  Facts. 

I  have  been  tempted  to  think  that  R.  paucifolius  hardly  deserves  specific 
status,  and  that  it  should  be  reduced  to  the  rank  of  a  variety  of  R.  chordo- 
rhizos ;  but  in  the  light  of  the  above  observations  I  am  compelled  to 
decide  that  it  should  be  uj^held  as  a  distinct  species.  While  the  differences 
in  the  cutting  and  the  colour  of  the  leaf,  the  size  of  the  plant  and  of  the 
flower,  the  edging  of  the  petals,  the  pitting  of  the  leaf,  might  be  considered 
trivial,  yet  the  character  of  the  sepals  of  R.  chordorhizos,  constituting  a 
distinct  link  with  R.  Haastii,  would  seem  to  be  important  enough,  taken 
in  conjunction  with  the  other  differences,  to  warrant  the  retention  of  the 
species.  UiJtil  flowering  specimens  of  R.  crithmifolius  have  been  studied 
it  is  not  possible  to  tell  how  the  group  may  ultimately  be  treated. 

Habitat  and  Distribution. 

General. 

The  only  known  locality  for  Ranunculus  paucifolius  is  a  rock-bound 
hollow  behind  the  farm  buildings  at  Castle  Hill,  in  the  Trelissick  Basin, 
about  a  mile  and  a  half  from  the  homestead  of  the  late  J.  D.  Enys,  upon 
whose  property  the  farm  was  situated. 

A  full  account  of  the  general  geological  features  of  the  district  is  given 
by  Speight  (1917),  with  a  map  showing  the  Castle  Hill  itself  (p.  323),  and 
plates,  of  which  plate  xxi,  fig.  1,  gives  a  view  of  the  small  hollow  from 
above. 

The  locality  of  the  species  is  a  small  synclinal  basin  forming  a  kind  of 
amphitheatre.  Its  main  direction  is  north-east  ^and  south-west,  the  north- 
east end  being  the  higher.  It  is  bounded  on  the  south  and  west  by 
the  steep  grassy  slopes  of  Castle  Hill,  with  frequent  outcrops  of  lime- 
stone (seen  in  Plate  IV),  and  on  the  north  and  east  by  piles  of  limestone 
rocks  from  80  ft.  to  100  ft.  high,  which  are  weathered  into  the  usual 
fantastic  shapes.  It  is  entered  from  the  eastern  side  by  a  gap  in 
the  limestone  barrier  about  100  yards  broad ;  a  small  but  constant 
stream  rises  on  the  south-west  side  of  the  basin,  and  flows  through 
this  gap  on  to  the  flat  cultivated  plains  of  the  Castle  Hill  farm,  which 
are  overlooked  by  the  steep  limestone  rocks.  Except  at  this  point  the 
basin  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  limestone  rocks  or  steep  slopes  of  grass 
upon  a  limestone  soil.  The  weathering  of  the  rocks  by  frost  and  wind 
produces  a  great  amount  of  debris,  which  is  blown  far  and  wide  by  the 
strong  winds  of  the  Southern  Alps,  and  this  debris  collects  in  the  basin 
owing  to  its  enclosed  character.  Within  the  basin  a  small  dune-system  is 
produced  by  the  action  of  the  wind,  so  that  its  floor  is  diversified  by  small 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LI  I. 


Plate  IV. 


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Pace  p.  92. 


Trans.   N.Z.   Inst.,  Vol.  LII. 


Plate  V. 


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Wall. — Ranunculus  paucifolius  T.  Kirk.  93 

lidges  and  shallow  hollows  of  dune  type.  The  south-west  half  of  the  basin  is 
clothed  with  tussock  grassland,  and  does  not  concern  us.  The  north-east 
half,  at  the  south-west  end,  shows  first  (moving  from  south-west  to  north-east) 
a  small  area,  about  120  yards  by  100  yards,  of  open  debris  formation  which 
does  not  harbour  this  Ranunculus.  The  upper  (or  north-eastern)  portion 
consists  of  a  larger  area  of  limestone  debris,  about  350  yards  by  100  to  150 
yards,  of  which  some  parts  are  clothed  with  a  half-closed  tussock  formation, 
others  with  an  open  formation,  including  the  Ranunculus  paucifolius,  while 
some  considerable  portions  are  entirely  barren.  The  bottom  of  this  part  of 
the  basin  is  occupied  chiefly  by  a  belt  of  half-closed  tussock  formation  ;  the 
eastern  side  has  rapid  slopes  of  coarse  debris  below  the  limestone  rocks  ;  the 
western  side  (shown  in  Plate  IV)  has  a  gentler  gradient,  and  the  grass-covered 
slopes  of  Castle  Hill  here  ease  off  gradually  into  the  central  basin.  Tongues 
of  half-closed  tussock  formation,  on  this  side,  occupying  higher  ground  or 
ridges,  separate  roughly  circular  or  semicircular  areas  of  the  open  formation 
well  seen  in  Plate  V,  within  which  most  of  the  plants  of  Ranunculus 
paucifolius  occur. 

The  debris  itself  is  of  a  flaky  character,  but  is  reduced,  over  most  of 
the  area,  to  a  fine  uniform  powder.  The  colour  of  the  bare  patches  is  thus 
a  pale  yelloM%  deepening  to  brown  in  certain  places,  owing  apparently  to 
the  volcanic  element  present  in  the  limestone  itself  in  varying  quantity. 
The  debris  on  the  steep  eastern  slopes  is  much  of  it  very  coarse  and  rough, 
and  very  large  flakes  of  the  stone  lie  thickly  here. 

At  the  extreme  north-east  corner  a  dune  formation  is  being  broken  up. 
Here  are  semicircular  breaches  of  the  higher  dune,  whence  masses  of  very 
loose  debris  come  down.  At  the  top  the  slope  is  steep  and  the  material 
deep  and  soft ;  hardly  any  vegetation  can  grow,  and  the  line  separating 
the  tussock  grassland  from  the  perfectly  barren  space  is  sharp  and  clear. 

Possibly  all  parts  of  the  basin  have  at  one  time  or  another  been  thus 
closely  covered,  the  covering  being  subsequently  stripped  away  or  buried, 
while  a  certain  area  must  always  have  remained  sufficiently  open  some- 
where in  the  area  for  the  calciphile  community  to  exist. 

Digging  at  a  spot  where  several  plants  of  Ranunculus  paucifolius  grew 
close  together  showed  that  the  limestone  debris  was  here  exactly  18  in. 
deep.  At  that  depth  a  more  consolidated  subsoil  was  reached.  Down 
to  this  depth  the  material  was  perfectly  uniform,  fine  and  incoherent,  and 
the  roots  of  the  Ranunculus,  about  10  in.  or  12  in.  long,  do  not  reach  beyond 
this  layer,  which  seemed  fairly  damp  throughout  at  the  end  of  a  period 
of  about  a  fortnight's  fine  weather.  In  a  really  dry  season  this  material 
must,  of  course,  become  extremely  dry. 

Details  of  Distribution. 

The  following  are  the  main  results  of  the  careful  search  of  the  whole, 
or  nearly  the  whole,  of  the  area,  in  which  I  had  the  assistance  of  Messrs. 
R.  Speight,  A.  E.  Flower,  and  Dr.  W.  P.  Evans. 

(1.)  Most  of  the  plants  grow  on  the  more  gently  sloping  north-west 
side  of  the  basin,  and  are  most  thickly  congregated  on  two  areas,  each 
about  60  yards  by  40  yards.  The  whole  area  within  which  all  the  plants 
(except  three  or  four)  were  found  is  about  300  yards  by  about  60  yards — 
roughly,  between  3^  and  4  acres. 

(2.)  Nearly  ail  the  plants  were  found  on  ground  sloping  at  an  angle 
of  from  6°  to  8°.  Few  were  found  on  quite  level  spots,  and  none  at  all 
on  very  steep  places. 


94  Transactions  ' 

(3.)  Where  several  plants  occur  in  a  line,  from  2  ft.  to  4  ft.  apart,  as 
sometimes  happens,  this  line  takes  no  constant  direction. 

(4.)  The  plants  occur,  roughly,  in  groups,  but  seldom  close  to  one 
another  and  not  often  very  near  any  other  plants.  Only  in  one  small 
area  were  they  found  among  tussocks  (about  a  dozen  altogether),  and 
here  the  tussock  formation  is  peculiarly  scanty. 

(5.)  The  whole  number  of  plants  I  counted  was  seventy.  Allowing  for 
possible  errors  and  oversights,  and  portions  not  quite  so  minutely  examined, 
it  is  safe  to  say,  I  think,  that  the  area  does  not  contain  more  than  from 
one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two  hundred  individuals,  and  I  should  think  it 
probable  that  there  are  not  more  than  one  hundred. 

(6.)  In  one  space  which  was  most  carefully  examined,  and  in  which 
the  plants  were  as  frequent  as  anywhere,  the  nearest  neighbours  of  a  par- 
ticular plant  of  Ranunculus  paucifoUus  were  :  Poa  acicularifolia,  Lepidmm 
sisymbrioides,  Wahlenbergia  albomargmata,  Myosotis  decora,  Carmichaelia 
Monroi  var.,  and  the  introduced  Arenaria  serpyllifolia  and  Cerastium 
glonieratum.  The  plants  in  the  vicinity  were  on  an  average  about  6  in. 
from  one  another,  and  spaces  about  12  in.  square  were  frequently  quite 
barren.     This  would  be  a  typical  "  open  formation." 

In  another  case,  not  at  all  exceptional,  at  the  other  end  of  the  area 
examined,  a  plant  of  Ranuncidus  paucifoUus  was  seen  te  have  no  other 
plant  nearer  to  it  than  3  ft.  ;  at  this  distance  was  a  small  patch  of  Poa 
acicularifolia  ;  a  little  farther  away  was  one  plant  of  Oreomyrrhis  andicola 
var.  rigida,  and  at  about  the  same  distance  one  of  Lepidium  sisymbrioides  ; 
and  10  ft.  away  was  one  plant  of  Notothlaspi  rosulatum.  The  rest  of  the 
10  ft.  circle  was  perfectly  bare. 

To  complete  the  account  of  the  surface  of  the  hollow  it  may  be  added 
that  areas  of  12  yards  by  6  yards  were  measured  which  supported  no  living 
plant  of  any  kind.  These  completely  barren  spots  form  a  fairly  large  part 
of  the  small  available  space. 

Associations  of  the  Area. 

The  small  basin  here  described  supports  a  limited  community  of  calci- 
phile  xerophytes,  of  which  Ranunculus  paucifoUus  is  a  typical  member. 
It  supports  also  a  good  number  of  mesophytes,  representing  the  usual  flora 
of  the  district,  and  a  fairly  large  group  of  introduced  plants. 

{a.)  On  the  barest  portions  of  the  area,  where  the  debris  is  deepest, 
loosest,  and,  in  dry  seasons,  presumably  driest,  the  only  plants  are  Lepidium 
sisymbrioides,  Oreomyrrhis  andicola  var.,  Oreomyrrhis  andicola  var.  rigida, 
the  introduced  Arenaria  serpyllifolia,  and  occasionally  MyosoUs  decora. 

(b.)  The  usual  open  formation  of  the  gentler  slopes  includes,  besides 
the  plant  under  consideration,  all  the  above-named,  and  in  addition  Pimelea 
prostrata  var.,  Notothlaspi  rosulatum,  Poa  acicularifolia,  Anisotome  Enysii, 
Cardamine  heterophylla  var.,  Carmichaelia  Monroi  or  nana,  Wahlenbergia 
albomarginata,  Anisotome  aromatica ;  and,  more  occasionally,  Ranu'iiculus 
Monroi  var.  dentatus,  Senecio  Haastii,  Crepis  novae-zelandiae,  Raoulia 
australis,  that  variety  of  Epilobium  novae-zelandiae  which  is  distinguished  by 
its  generally  reddish  colouring  and  pink  flower,  and  Myosotis  cinerascens  Petrie. 

All  these  plants  are  perennial,  and  all  are  very  low  in  stature. 

These  two — {a)  and  (b) — might  be  said  to  form  a  Lepidium  sisymbrioides 
association.  This  association  presents  a  most  singular  and  characteristic 
facies.  The  general  background  is  a  glaring  yellow,  shading  into  pale 
brown    in    certain    patches.     Upon    this    ground    the    scattered    plants    of 


Wall. — Ranunculus  paucifdlius  T.   Kirk.  95 

Lepidium  sisymhrioides  make  spots  ot  very  dull  cliocolate,  which  are  con- 
fused in  the  general  scheme  with  the  paler  browns,  dull  greenish-yellows,  and 
greys,  of  Oreomyrrhis  andicola,  Myosotis  decora,  Anisotome  Enysii,  &c.  The 
sparsely  scattered  plants  of  Ranunculus  paucifolius  become  almost  invisible 
in  this  environment,  and  play  no  leading  part  in  determining  the  appearance 
of  the  whole  unit.  The  whole  effect  is  most  peculiar  ;  the  calciphile  flora 
gives  the  impression  that  it  belongs  elsewhere — to  another  age,  another 
climate  and  country.  Much  the  same  effect  is  produced,  in  my  experience, 
by  the  isolated  patches  of  ancient  fen  vegetation  which  survive  at  such  spots 
as  Wicken  and  Cottenham,  set  like  savage  aliens  of  some  older  and  vanishing 
race  in  the  midst  of  the  green  crops  and  pastures  of  modern  Cambridgeshire. 

(c.)  As  the  formation  becomes  more  nearly  closed,  on  the  borders  of 
the  grassy  closed  areas,  Plantago  spathulata  appears  in  great  quantities, 
and  the'  closed  formation  of  the  immediate  neighbourhood  includes  Festuca 
7iovae-zelandiae,  two  or  three  others  of  the  usual  grasses  of  the  district, 
Raoulia  subsericea,  Hydrocotyle  novae-zelandiae  var.  montana,  Vittadinia 
nustralis,  and  a  fair  amount  of  moss.  Here  occasional  plants  of  Lepidium 
sisymhrioides  appear,  but  not  far  from  the  pure  limestone  patches. 

((?.)  The  chief  introduced  plants  which  occur  in  the  basin  are  Arenaria 
serpyllifolia.  (extremely  abundant  everywhere^more  so  than  any  native 
plant),  Cerastium  glomeratum,  Hypochaeris  radicata,  the  large  ox-eye  daisy 
(which  completely  covers  the  slopes  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  rocks  out- 
side the  basin),  and  Verhascum  Thapsus.  It  is  not  without  significance, 
as  showing  the  very  special  and  peculiar  character  of  the  locality,  that 
Hypochaeris  radicata,  elsewhere  so  exceedingly  abundaiit  in  New  Zealand, 
is  here  comparatively  rare. 

It  must-be  added  that  the  rocks  above  the  basin  and  the  steepest  slopes 
around  them  also  harbour  Epilohium  gracilipes  (which  never  occurs  on  the 
flat),  Senecio  Haastii  (which  is  comparatively  seldom  seen  below),  Senecio 
lautus  var.  montanus,  and  a  good  number  of  such  shrubs  as  Coprosma 
propinqua,  Discaria  toumatou,  and  Aristotelia  fruticosa.  Upon  these  shrubs 
the  peculiar  parasite  Korthalsella  clavata  is  found  ;  this  also  grows  upon 
shrubs  in  other  limestone  rocks  {e.g.,  those  at  the  junction  of  the  Porter  and 
Broken  Rivers),  but  apparently  is  found  only  in  the  Castle  Hill  district. 

A  certain  number  of  these  plants  are  definitely  calciphiles,  and  occur 
in  no  other  situations  ;  others  seem  to  grow  by  preference  on  limestone, 
but  are  not  confined  strictly  to  it  (in  this  district,  at  any  rate)  ;  and  the 
rest  are  of  general  distribution. 

In  the  first  class  are  Ranunculus  paucifolius,  Poa  acicularifolia,  Korthal- 
sella clavata,  Epilohium  gracilipes,  Myosotis  decora,  Anisotome  Enysii.  In 
the  second  are  Oreomyrrhis  andicola  var.  rigida  and  Crepis  novae-zelandiae. 

Several  of  them  exhibit  marked  xerophytic  characters,  as  described  by 
Cockayne  and  Laing  (Speight,  Cockayne,  and  Laing,  1911,  p.  358),  and 
among  these  Ranunculus  paucifolius  is  conspicuous.  It  has  the  pale  ashen- 
purple  colouring  which  distinguishes  the  shingle-slip  plants  generally,  such 
as  its  relations  Ranunculus  chordorhizos,  R.  crithmifolius,  and  R.  Haastii. 
Lepidium  sisymhrioides  has  special  adaptations,  of  which  the  disproportion- 
ately long  root  is  most  remarkable  (Cheeseman,  p.  42).  Anisotome  Enysii 
shows  a  colouring  very  similar  to  that  of  Ranunculus  paucifolius.  There  is 
here  a  marked  degree  of  epharmonic  convergence. 

These  plants  make  up  a  community  of  intense  interest,  and  the  problem 
of  their  existence  is  bound  up  with  that  of  Ranunculus  paucifolius,  whose 
limited  distribution  and  feeble  powers  of  reproduction  help  to  put  that 
problem  in  a  clearer  and  more  striking  light. 


96  Transactions. 

Ecological  :  Main*  Problems  involved. 
General. 

These  problems  may  be  thus  stated  :  How  are  we  to  account  for  the 
survival,  in  an  exceedingly  limited  area,  of  a  very  special  and  peculiar 
formation,  and  in  very  limited  numbers,  of  a  plant,  which  is  obviously 
adapted  to  a  climate  very  different  from  that  of  the  present  time,  which 
reproduces  itself  only  by  seed,  not  vegetatively,  and  that  only  in  a  very 
sparing  manner,  and  which  apparently  can  exist  only  upon  a  kind  of 
soil  occurring  only  in  limited  areas  separated  from  one  another  by^  great 
distances  ? 

Apart  from  geological  history  several  considerations  may  here  be  given 
as  bearing  upon  the  main  problems. 

Reproduction  and  Distribution  of  Seed. — The  achene,  on  dropping  off, 
no  doubt  falls  into  the  soil  and  is  moved  by  the  wind,  as  the  surface  of  the 
debris  is  quite  unstable,  most  of  the  plants  being  actually  buried  in  it  above 
the  rootstock.  It  is  remarkable  that  none  of  the  plants  of  this  association 
is  a  "  traveller."  The  seed  of  all  is  presumably  distributed  in  the  same 
way — by  the  action  of  the  wind  in  shifting  the  soil  ;  none  of  them  is  provided 
with  a  pappus  or  coma  ;  no  composite  plant  except  Raoulia  australis  enters 
into  the  unit.  Epilohitim  gracilipes  and  Senecio  Monroi  var.  deniatus, 
which  occur  on  the  steep  slopes  and  rocks  above  the  basin  and  have 
seeds  specially  adapted  for  carriage  to  a  distance  by  the  wind,  are  absent 
altogether  from  the  flatter  portions  of  the  area. 

Instability  of  Soil. — The  wind  is  always  bringing  fresh  debris  into  the 
basin,  and  is  always  stirring  and  shifting  all  that  part  of  the  surface  which 
is  entirely  or  nearly  bare.  As  .the  rocks  are  now  always  rapidly  crumbling, 
and  no  doubt  have  been  in  the  same  state  for  a  very  long  period  of  time, 
it  follows  that  they  must  formerly  have  been  much  larger  than  they  are 
now  ;  therefore  they  must  formerly  have  set  free  annually  a  much  larger 
amount  of  material,  and  therefore  the  superficial  area  of  unstable  debris  must 
formerly  have  been  much  greater.  But  in  recent  times  the  area  of  bare 
debris  could  never  have  been  really  extensive,  as  the  accumulation  of  it 
would  hardly  be  possible  under  present  conditions  except  within  the  enclosed 
space  of  the  basin.  However,  in  some  much  older  age  it  may  be  imagined 
that  a  much  greater  area  lying  eastward  of  the  small  basin  might  during 
a  period  of  steppe  climate  or  drought  become  a  semi-desert,  mainly  of  this 
debris,  supporting  a  calciphile  and  xerophytic  flora,  in  open  formation,  of 
such  individuals  and  in  such  disposition  as  we  now  see  within  the  enclosed 
and  protected  area  only. 

Struggle  for  Life. — ^As  Warming  (1909,  p.  256)  observes  of  fell-field  in 
general,  the  typical  xeroph}i;ic  plants  are  so  thinly  distributed  that  they 
do  not  interfere  with  one  another  nor  compete  with  one  another.  It  is 
so  here,  and  it  is  so  upon  the  steep  shingle-slopes  of  the  dry  eastern 
mountains  of  the  neighbourhood.  Ranunculus  Haastii,  for  instance,  is 
exactly  like  R.  paucifolius  in  this  respect.  Only  a  certain  small  number 
of  plants  grow  within  a  given  space,  when,  so  far  as  one  can  see,  an 
infinitely  greater  number  might  grow  there  without  in  the  least  incon- 
veniencing their  neighbours. 

Thus  Ranunculus  paucifolius  has  not  been  threatened  with  extinction 
in  this  manner.  It  seems,  however,  to  have  had  to  face  two  other  dangers 
in  recent  times.  On  the  one  hand,  if  the  surface  upon  which  it  grows 
were  for  any  cause  to  become  still  more  unstable,  and  the  wind  to  act 


Wall. — ^Ranunculus  paucifolius  T .  Kirh.  97 

more  violently  and  continuously  upon  it,  the  plants  might  all  be  buried, 
as  some  of  them  no  doubt  have  been.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  supply 
of  material  deliverjed  into  the  basin  should  diminish  and  finally  cease 
altogether,  no  doubt  the  closed  tussock  formation  which  now  covers  the 
south-west  portion  of  it  would  gradually  invade  the  whole,  and  Ranun- 
ciilus  paucifolius  would  die  out.  This,  it  would  seem,  must  ultimately 
happen. 

The  area  has  for  many  years  been  open  to  stock  and  rabbits,  but  they 
evidently  do  not  care  for  the  plant,  otherwise  it  would  have  perished  long 
ago.  There  are  plenty  of  rabbits  now  in  and  about  the  basin.  The 
openness  of  the  formation  has  no  doubt  protected  the  plant  from  destruction 
by  fire,  a  great  and  very  real  danger  in  New  Zealand. 

Influence  of  Slopes. — The  fact  that  it  is  confined  to  the  easier  slopes — 
almost  to  level  ground — is  also  of  very  great  significance.  Among  its 
associates,  for  instance,  Lepidium  sisymbrioides  and  Myosotis  decora  easily 
maintain  themselves  upon  very  steep  slopes,  and  consequently  these  plants 
are  quite  widely  distributed,  occurring,  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood, 
upon  the  limestone  slopes  at  and  near  the  junction  of  the  Porter  and  Broken 
Rivers,  and  upon  those  of  the  Whitewater  River  and  of  the  Upper  Porter 
or  Coleridge  Creek,  whereas  Ranunculus  paucifolius,  by  reason  of  its 
apparent  inability  to  grow  except  upon  easy  gradients,  is  debarred  from 
these  areas,  where  every  condition  which  it  requires  is  to  be  had  except 
this  one,  and  can  maintain  itself  only  within  the  very  limited  basin  where 
it  is  presumably  doomed  ultimately  to  perish. 

Limestone  Soil. — When  it  is  said  that  the  plant  can  exist  only  in  lime- 
stone soil,  it  is  not  denied  that  it  might  live,  if  transplanted  or  sown,  in 
some  other  soil ;  but  the  assumption  is  that  in  any  other  soil,  if  if  can 
live  at  all,  it  cannot  compete  with  the  ordinary  vegetation  of  that  soil : 
it  could  live,  that  is,  only  under  artificial  conditions  and  when  protected. 

Relation  to  Geological  Problems. 

We  may  now  consider  what  conditions  are  indicated  as  most  probable 
in  the  remote  past  of  this  community  in  general  and  of  R.  paucifolius  in 
particular. 

It  seems  inconceivable  that  the  plant  should  have  "  originated," 
established  itself,  and  subsequently  maintained  itself  for  countless  ages, 
all  within  the  narrow  limits  of  its  present  distribution,  and  the  first 
condition  requisite  for  its  establishment  would  be  the  existence  of  a  very 
much  larger  area  of  continuous  Tertiary  limestone  strata  than  is  now 
to  be  found  anywhere  in  New  Zealand. 

This  area  need  not  have  been — and,  indeed,  could  not  have  been — one 
continuous  sheet  of  limestone  beds  covering  the  whole  of  the  district  within 
which  the  isolated  fragmentai;y  remnants  now  exist.  But  the  inference 
here  drawn  from  the  existence  of  this  whole  calciphile  unit,  and  of  Ranun- 
culus jmucifolius  in  particular,  is  that  these  beds  must  once  have  been  more 
extensive  arid  more  nearly  continuous  than  they  are  now.  The  ancestral 
Ranunculus  may  well  have  existed  upon  soils  of  pre-Tertiary  origin  and 
developed  there  its  xerophytic  characters,  while  one  form  of  it  established 
itself  especially  upon  the  limestone,  developed  characters  accordingly,  and 
ultimately  become  virtually  incapable  of  maintaining  itself  elsewhere. 
This  is,  at  any  rate,  one' hypothesis  which  seems  to  fit  the  facts.  But  the 
exact  sequence  of  events  can  here,  in  the  nature  of  things,  be  only  a  matter 
of  conjecture. 

4 — Trans. 


98  Transactions. 

This  comparatively  wide  area  must  Lave  liad,  at  some  remote  period, 
a  steppe  or  semi-desert  climate,  under  whose  influences  a  xerophytic  and 
partly  calciphile  flora  developed  and  flourished,  and  it  is  likely  that  what 
we  now  have  represents  only  a  portion  of  this  flora,  many  species  having 
probably  died  out  altogether. 

This  area  must  have  been  partly  a  peneplain  (upon  which  alone 
R.  paucifolius,  it  would  seem,  could  "  originate  "  and  flourish),  and  would 
probably  be  conterminous  with  a  range  or  ranges  of  hills  with  limestone 
rocks  exposed  and  weathering  into  dust  exactly  as  they  now  do  on  the 
small  area  here  under  observation.  But  such  peneplain  need  not  have 
consisted  entirely  of  Tertiary  limestone  beds. 

The  area  would  be  in  the  nature  of  a  strip  or  belt,  -of  no  very  great 
width  and  probably  much  interrupted,  corresponding  roughly  to  the  shore- 
line or  lines  of  the  hypothetic  Tertiary  sea  or  seas.  It  would  be  con- 
terminous with  and  more  or  less  alternated  with  an  area  or  areas  of 
pre-Tertiary  formation,  probably  lying  to  the  -north  and  east,  as  posited, 
e.g.,  by  Cockayne  (1911,  pp.  343-44),  by  way  of  which  probably  the 
mesophytic  flora  would  return  when  a  more  humid  climate  should  prevail 
in  this  area.  Upon  this  pre-Tertiary  area  the  related  species,  R.  chordo- 
rhizos,  &c.,  would  have  originated  and  flourished,  or  that  single  species  or 
form  from  which  they  and  R.  pancifoliics  trace  their  common  descent. 

The  greater  part  of  these  limestone  beds"  was  destroyed  by  erosion  of 
various  kinds  in  subsequent  ages,  leaving  only  the  present  small  isolated 
remnants,  of  which  the  Trelissick  Basin  is  one  of  the  largest. 

It  is  impossible  that  by  the  elevation  of  the  land  3,000  ft.  or  4,000  ft. 
(Haast,  Hutton,  Park),  and  the  consequent  refrigeration  and  glaciation, 
the  whole  flora  of  the  district  (as  has  been  thought)  was  driven  to  another 
tract,  now  non-existent,  and  returned  with  the  subsidence  of  the  land  and 
consequent  change  of  climate.  "  Return  "  of  a  calciphile  flora  over  areas 
upon  which  the  Tertiary  beds  had  been  destroyed  would  be  impossible, 
especially  since,  as  we  have  seen,  this  flora  as  a  unit  is  not  a  "traveller"; 
and  we  cannot  escape  the  conclusion  that  this  plant  community  has  been 
represented  within  the  area  of  the  small  basin,  since  it  first  established 
itself  or  "  originated  "  in  that  neighbourhood. 

Glaciation  bears  upon  the  question  in  two  ways  : — 

(1.)  Hutton  (1900,  p.  176),  followed  by  Cockayne,  correlated  the  sup- 
posed drought  epoch,  of  which  our  flora  shows  signs,  with  the  glacial  epoch, 
which  he  placed  in  the  older  Pliocene  period.  This  view  was  adopted  by 
Cocka}Tie  (1901,  pp.  280  et  seq.)  ;  but  that  authority  believed  that  at  the 
height  of  the  glaciation  the  eastern  mountains  (within  which  this  area  is 
included)  might  still  support  a  xerophyte  flora  like  that  of  the  shingle-slips 
of  the  present  day  (Cockayne,  1911,  pp.  348  et  seq.). 

The  view  of  Speight  (1911)  and  others  is  that- the  last  glacial  epoch  is 
much  more  recent,  that  the  drought  period  was  correlated  with  it  (Cockayne, 
1911,  p.  344),  that  the  Tertiary  deposits  were  continuous  over  a  much 
larger  area  than  is  the  case  now  (Speight,  1915,  p.  354),  that  the  Castle  HiU 
area  probably  escaped  glaciation  altogether  (Speight,  1917,  pp.  323  et  seq.), 
and  that  the  Trelissick  Basin  at  the  height  of  glaciation  was  "  probably 
a  snowfield  "  (Speight,  1917,  p.  323). 

It  would  seem  certain  that  a  steppe  climate  or  period  of  drought  must 
have  obtained  here  over  a  large  area  at  least  once  (probably  more  than  once) 
since  Tertiary  times,  but  to  the  present  writer  it  seems  quite  uncertain 
whether  this  was  coeval  with  and  resultant  from  the  glacial  epoch  or  not 


Wall. — Ranunculus  paucifolius  T.   Kirk.  99 

and  the  analogy  of  other  lands  would  seem  to  show  that  such  a  climate 
may  have  existed  in  New  Zealand  independently  of  any  glacial  epoch, 
whether  that  epoch  be  (with  Hutton)  older  Pliocene  or  (with  Speight  and 
others)  Pleistocene.  The  question  whether  the  "  drought  "  be  Pliocene  or 
Pleistocene  is  here  dwelt  upon  because,  whatever  conditions  obtained  and 
whatever  balance  was  established  at  the  end  of  the  "  drought,"  if  that 
''drought"  were  Pliocene  that  balance  must  in  all  probability  have  been 
disturbed  and  a  new  set  of  conditions  reached  when  the  later  Pleistocene 
glacial  period  came.  The  problem  is,  then,  to  discover  what  were  the  con- 
ditions during  and  after  some  more  recent  period,  rather  than  during  and 
after  the  exceedingly  remote  period  of  any  possible  Pliocene  glaciation  and 
concomitant  steppe  climate. 

(2.)  Glaciation  also  has  been  supposed  to  have  been  the  chief,  though 
not  the  sole,  eroding  agency  by  which  the  great  area  of  Tertiary  beds  was 
destroyed  (Hutton,  1885,  p.  92  ;  Speight,  1915,  p.  337).  The  question 
of  the  agency  by  which,  and  the  probable  period  during  which,  these  beds 
have  been  destroyed  is,  however,  one  of  secondary  import  in  this  connection. 
It  is  enough,  for  the  botanical  problem,  if  it  is  decided  that  they  once 
existed,  have  been  in  one  way  or  another  largely  destroyed  (being  now  repre- 
sented by  the  small  isolated  fragmentary  areas  which  remain  to  us),  and 
that  the  Trelissick  Basin  (including  the  small  area  here  studied)  escaped 
glaciation  and  any  great  degree  of  refrigeration  during  any  glacial  epoch. 
We  may  then  imagine  the  ancient  birthplace  and  hajjitat  of  Ranunculus 
'paucifolius  and  its  associates  to  have  been  a  semi-desert  area  of  flat  or 
flattish  plains  diversified  with  ridges  and  islets  of  higher  ground,  and  neigh- 
boured closely  by  a  range  of  limestone  hiUs  or  even  mountains.  The  whole 
landscape  would  have  a  yellow  hue  ;  upon  the  surface  large  areas  of  unstable 
shifting  debris  would  possibly  alternate  with  ridges  of  more  grassy  and 
closed  formation.  Strong  winds  would  be  frequent  and  dust-storms  violent. 
The  vegetation  would  be  sparse  and  harsh,  including  the  species  here 
described,  and  no  doubt  many  others  which  have  perished  ;  a  pale-purple, 
greyish,  and  brown  colour  scheme  would  predominate.  The  land  would 
be  occupied  by  no  animals  save  lizards  and  birds,  its  whole  appearance 
being  monotonous,  parched,  and  glaring  ;  while  the  dreariness  of  the 
scene  would  be  enhanced  by  the  setting  of  pallid  limestone  rocks  pf 
gTotesque  and  fantastic  form — chessmen,  collar-studs,  sea-lions,  and  gorilla 
torsos.  The  general  appearance  of  the  limestone  desert  might  be  much 
like  parts  of  the  Sahara — e.g.,  as  figured  in  plate  345  of  Schimper's  Plant- 
geogra'pJiy ,  p.  614. 

If  Speight's  (1911)  hypol^esis  of  a  pluvial  climate  in  post-glacial  times 
be  accepted — and  certainly  the  evidence  collected  by  him  seems  to  be 
conclusive — this  community  and  others  Like  it  must  have  passed  through 
and  survived  such  a  period,  unless  the  districts  in  which  they  exist  have 
been  specially  favoured.  There  is  little  or  no  reason  to  suppose  that  this 
was  so,  for;  although  Cockayne  (1900)  mentions  that  the  Trelissick  Basin 
is  now  very  dry  climatically,  old  residents  do  not  support  this  view  ;  and, 
in  any  case,  the  fact,  if  established,  that  it  is  now  dry  does  not  prove  that 
it  was  always  so  in  the  remote  past. 

Origin  of  the  Group  to  which  it  belonged. 

With  regard  to  the  historical  development  of  this  group  of  Ranunculi, 
if  the  neo-Lamarckian  view  of  the  origin  of  species  be  adopted — the  theory 


100  Transactions. 

of  direct  adaptation  or  self-adaptation,  as  understood  by  Warming  (1909) 
— it  would  seem  probable  that  a  single  ancestral  form  of  Ranunculus  deve- 
loped under  conditions  of  extreme  drought  into  a  typical  xerophyte,  and 
that,  after  the  conditions  to  which  it  had  adapted  itself  Ikd  been  modified 
or  completely  changed,  this  plant  maintained  itself  against  the  compe- 
tition of  a  mesophyte  flora  in  certain  localities — i.e.,  shingle-slips — in  which 
it  had  an  advantage,  and  in  course  of  a  long  period  of  time,  existing  only 
in  isolated  areas  completely  separated  from  one  another  (one  of  which  is 
the  limestone  area  here  described),  it  developed  those  comparatively  trivial 
distinctive  characters  (especially  in  the  cutting  of  the  leaf)  which  now 
distinguish  the  "  species  "  from  one  another. 

According  to  De  Vries  (1912),  however,  such  speculations  and  conjec- 
tures as  to  the  conditions  under  which  a  species  originated  are  idle,  and 
can  achieve  no  result.  Speaking  of  "  beautiful  adaptations  "  to  local 
conditions,  he  says  :  "  In  no  case  is  it  possible  to  tell  whether  the  species 
have  acquired  these  during  their  migration  or  during  their  stay  in  the  new 
environment,  or  perhaps  previous  to  their  being  subjected  to  the  influence 
in  question "  (p.  592).  Again  :  "  Adaptations  to  new  conditions  [which 
are  conceded]  depend  upon  characters  which  were  inherent  in  the  species 
before  it  arrived  in  the  new  environment.  The  characters  themselves 
are  not  the  effect  of  the  external  influences  considered  "  (p.  579).  Such 
characters,  it  is  contended,  cannot  be  good  specific  marks  ;  they  fall  within 
the  range  of  "  fluctuations  "  (as  distinguished  from  mutations)  and  "  cannot 
lead  to  constant  races  "  (p.  540).  The  species  thus  modified  or  adapted 
remains  essentially  the  same,  and  will,  if  replaced  in  the  favourable  con- 
ditions, resume  its  older  form  (as  in  the  classic  experiments  of  Cockayne 
upon  seedling  forms,  and  those  of  Bonnier  upon  alpine  plants).  The  sole 
condition  required  in  the  plant  is  therefore  "  high  plasticity."  We  must 
not  say  that  a  species  originated  under  the  stimulus  of  its  environ- 
ment, or  that  it  acquired  new  characters  in  response  to  changed  con- 
ditions :  that  would  be  confusing  cause  and  effect.  "  Fitness  for  present 
life-conditions  .  .  .  can  hardly  be  considered  as  a  result  of  adapta- 
tion, and  we  have  to  recur  to  previous  hypothetical  environments  to 
explain  the  much-admired  adjustments.  All  speculations,  of  this  kind 
are  merely  reduced  to  more  or  less  plausible  and  more  or  less  poetical* 
considerations "  (p.  574).  It  is  concluded  that  "  geological  changes  of 
climate  may  have  been  accompanied  by  the  production  of  new  forms,  but 
there  is  no  evidence  that  this  has  occurred  in  such  a  way  as  to  provoke 
directly  useful  changes";  that  "the  characters  of  local  and  endemic  types 
do  not  betray  any  definite  relation  to  their  special  environment  "  ;  and, 
finally,  that  "  the  facts  which  are  at  present  available  plead  against  the 
hypothesis  of  a  direct  adjusting  influence  of  environment  upon  plants,  and 
comply  with  the  proposition  of  changes  brought  about  by  other  causes  and 
afterward  subjected  to  natural  selection  "  (p.  595).  The  author  then  restates 
his  personal  belief  "that  the  species-making  changes  occur  by  leaps  and 
bounds,  however  small." 

If  these  conclusions  be  accepted,  the  case  of  Ranunculus  paucifolius 
and  its  associates  may  be  thus  considered  in  their  light.  It  is  generally 
accepted  that  a  period  of  more  or  less  severe  drought  or  "  steppe  climate  " 
has  been  passed  through  by  a  great  part  at  least  of  the  flora  of  New 


*  The  writer  explains  in  a  footnote  that  this  epithet  is  not  intended  to  convey  any 
reproach. 


Wall. — Ranunculus  paucifolius  T .   Kirh.  101 

Zealand.  The  particular  community  here  studied  shows  this  with  especial 
clearness,  consisting  as  it  does  of  a  small  association  of  plants  all  of  which 
show  very  definite  xerophytic  adaptations,  while  some  of  them  can  exist 
only  under  certain  very  special  and  peculiar  edaphic  conditions  such  as 
may  have  obtained  more  widely  in  the  past.  The  conditions  governing 
plant-life  before  and  during  this  period  of  drought  may  be  supposed  to  have 
been  much  the  same  as  those  of  the  Sahara  at  the  present  time,  thus 
described  by  De  Vries  (after  Battandier)  :  "  Originally  this  region  must 
have  had  an  ordinary  degree  of  rainfall  and  moisture  .  .  .  Then  .  . 
the  rainfall  must  have  slowly  diminished,  taking  centuries  ...  to 
reach  the  conditions  which  now  prevail.  The  consequent  changes  in  this 
flora  must  have  been  correspondingly  slow,  and  must  have  consisted  mainly 
in  the  disappearing  of  the  larger  part  of  the  species  ;  first  of  those  which 
were  dependent  on  the  higher  degree  of  moisture  ;  then  of  others  ;  until 
at  the  present  time  only  the  most  drought-resisting  forms  are  spared  " 
(pp.  589-90).  He  proceeds  to  show  that  no  specific  changes,  probably, 
were  brought  about  by  this  process  ;  that  a  large  number  of  the  species 
of  this  arid  region  are  monotypic  genera,  each  genus  consisting  of  a  single 
species  ;  whereas,  "  if  there  had  been  any  degree  of  adaptation  during  this 
whole  period  of  increasing  dryness,  new  species  would  have  been  produced 
— from  those  forms  which  by  their  own  inherent  capacities  wovild  be  the 
very  last  to  be  threatened  with  extermination.  These  genera  would  there- 
fore have  produced  quite  a  number  of  smaller  or  even  of  larger  species, 
adapting  themselves  more  and  more  to  the  changing  conditions  and  stock- 
ing the  desert,  in  the  same  way  as  other  deserts  have  been  stocked,  from 
adjoining  countries!  "  As  this  has  not  happened,  it  is  concluded  "  that  the 
single  species  .  .  .  have  not  undergone  any  change  in  the  direction 
of  drought-resistance,  but  have  simply  been  those  which  happened  to  be  . 
the  best  fitted  for  the  life  in  the  desert.  A  thick  epidermis,  a  small  display 
of  leaves,  long  and  deep  roots,  were  the  main  qualifications  for  this 
choice  "  (p.  590). 

Theh,  in  our  case,  we  assume  tliat  the  moister  climate  re-established 
itself  ;  the  mesophyte  flora  which  had  been  destroyed  here,  but  had  main- 
tained itself  in  some  adjoining  land  where  the  conditions  remained  favour- 
able, returned  and  gradually  repeopled  the  desert  or  semi-desert,  while 
the  xerophytes  retreated  before  it  to  those  places,  such  as  shingle-slips 
and  areas  like  the  small  hollow  at  Castle  Hill,  where  they  had  an  advantage 
and  have  subsequently  maintained  themselves.  But,  in  contradistinction 
to  what  has  been  said  above,  we  must  accept  the  following  propositions 
as  to  this  community  of  plants  :'- — 

(1.)  The  species  here  studied — e.g.,  Ranunculus  paucifolius,  Lepidiuni 
sisymbrioides,  Oreomyrrhis  andicola  var.  rigida,  and  Poa  acicularifolia — 
all  existed  and  held  their  own  among  the  pre-drought  mesophyte  flora, 
but  no.t  perhaps  exactly  in  their  present  form,  since  "  adaptations  "  are 
not  denied  except  as  dift'erential  marks  of  new  species.  The  only  alter- 
native is  that  they  have  originated,  some  or  all  of  them,  since  the  period 
of  "  drought." 

(2.)  All  these  species  must  have  had  a  high  degree  of  plasticity,  and 
thus  they  are  able  gradually  to  accommodate  themselves  to  the  mcreasingly 
severe  drought ;  but  all  must  have  had  already,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
period,  a  definitely  drought-resisting  structure,  and  this  was  not  at  any 
time  acquired  by  any  of  them  in  response  to  any  external  stress,  and  it 
wovild  be  at  first  quite  useless  to  them. 


102  Transactions. 

(3.)  Each  of  these  species  originated  by  a  mutation  or  sudden  change 
involving  the  introduction  -  of  at  least  one  quite  new  unit-character,*  and 
this  must  have  happened  at  some  period  anterior  to  that  of  the  drought, 
not  as  a  result  of  any  such  condition.  Like  other  differential  characters 
in  general,  those  induced  by  this  mutation  would  be  at  first  perfectly 
useless  (De  Vries,  1912,  p.  534),  and  the  changed  form  would  get  its 
advantage  only  by  the  chance  of  the  occurrence  of  the  drought.  The 
new  character  or  characters  then  became  useful ;  but  we  must  resist  the 
temptation  to  regard  the  useful  character  {e.g.,  the  excessively  thick  and 
coriaceous  leaf  or  long  thick  roots  of  the  xerophytic  Ranunculi)  as  an 
adaptation  to  the  needs  of  the  new  external  condition. 

(4.)  As  "  adaptations  "  can  in  this  case  not  be  denied,  it  follows  that 
all  the  changes  which  are  truly  '•'  adaptations  "  in  these  species  are  of  the 
nature  of  "  fluctuations,"  and  if  any  of  them  be  cultivated  under  more 
favourable  conditions  the  "  adaptations  "  will  disappear  ;  the  plant  will 
then  retain  only  so  much  of  its  xerophytic  character  as  it  had  at  the 
beginning  of  the  drought,  which  gave  it  its  initial  advantage  over  others, 
and  which  was  the  result  of  some  previous  mutation.  Until  each  plant 
of  the  community,  therefore,  has  been  so  transplanted  and  tested  it  is 
impossible  for  us  to  tell  which  of  its  characters  ought,  and  which  ought 
not,  to  be  regarded  as  differential  specific  characters  ;  and  it  follows  that 
the  status  of  each  is  doubtful  except  where  the  plant  has  no  near  relatives 
at  all  among  existing  plants. 

(5.)  It  is  very  improbable  that  the  species  of  this  community  were  all 
produced  in  the  early  stages  of  the  drought  by  mutation.  It  is  assumed 
"  that  the  origin  of  new  forms  is  not  due  to  a  hard  struggle,  but  is  promoted 
by  a  luxuriant  environment  and  by  easy  conditions  of  development " 
(De  Vries,  1912,  p.  520).  It  is  shown  that  a  species  (or  genus)  which  is  in 
a  "  state  of  mutability  "  may  produce  whole  groups  of  new  forms,  even 
"  swarms  "  (as  in  the  case  of  Draha  or  Viola  in  Europe),  though  some- 
times apparently  such  changes  are  only  sporadic  (p.  549).  In  this  case  it 
must  be  supposed  that  at  some  more  or  less  remote  period  before  the 
drought  each  of  the  genera  Ranunculus,  Lepidium,  Oreomyrrhis,  Myosotis, 
and  Poa  passed  through  a  "  mutation  period  "  and  threw  off  numbers  of 
new  species,  some  of  which  would  immediately  perish,  while  others  would 
maintain  themselves  for  shorter  or  longer  periods  under  the  stress  of 
natural  selection,  and  finally  the  species  here  perpetuated  would  alone 
survive  under  the  fierce  stress  of  the  drought  until  rejoined  by  their 
relatives  under  the  new  climatic  conditions: 

(6.)  Narrowing  down  the  proposition  to  the  particular  genus  and  species 
here  studied,  we  must  believe  that  there  existed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
period  of  drought  a  species  (or  possibly  more  than  one)  of  Ranunculus 
which  had  originated  by  mutation  at  some  period  (as  to  which  it  is  useless 
to  speculate)  having  peculiarly  thick  leaves,  long  roots,  and  other  characters 
which  gave  it  an  advantage  when  the  drought  began  to  be  severe.  These 
characters,  however,  had  been  acquired  by  it  owing  to  causes  which  are 
completely  dark  to  us,  not  in  response  to  any  external  stimulus  or  stress 
of  environment.  Fortunate  in  possessing  these  characters,  it  continued 
to  live  when  other  less-favoured  Ranunculi  perished,  and  it  may  or  may 
not  have  changed  under  the  new  conditions,  adapting  itself  thereto.  But 
if  it  did  so  change  it  acquired  no  new  unit- character  ;  and  all  its  modifica- 
tion remained  mere  "  fluctuations,"  and  under  more  favourable  conditions 


*  One  is  enough  (De  Vries,  1912,  p.  562,  in  re  Oenothera  gigas). 


Wall. — Ranunculus  paucifolius  T.  Kirk.  103 

would  disappear  and  leave  it  as  it  liad  been  when  the  drought  began.  The 
five  species  here  treated  as  a  collective  group  would  represent  varying 
degrees  of  "  adaptation  "  of  this  kind,  and  none  of  them  is  a  true  species, 
or  even  a  naicrospecies,  unless  it  already  possessed  its  distinguishing  specific 
characters  at  the  beginning  of  the  period.  In  this  respect  Ranunculus  pauci- 
folius is  like  any  of  the  others  of  the  group,  and  it  is  impossible  for  us  to 
tell  whether  it  originated  from  the  same  ancestral  form  with  them  or  was 
already  a  true  species  when  the  stress  of  drought  came  upon  it.  Its 
"  adaptation  "  to  a  limestone  soil  is  thus  most  probably  not  a  specific 
character,  but  an  adaptation  of  the  unstable  kind  which  may  disappear  as 
soon  as  the  need  for  it  is  withdrawn.  The  test  of  cultivation  can  alone 
decide  this  point. 

It  would  be  beyond  the  scope  of  this  paper  to  discuss  all  the  difficulties 
which  stand  in  the  way  of  a  full  acceptance  of  these  propositions.  But 
it  may  be  said  that  the  words  "  however  small  "  ("  Species-making  changes 
occur  by  leaps  and  bounds,  however  small  ")  seem  to  imply  a  very  great 
concession.  Changes  of  the  nature  of  "  adaptations  "  to  new  conditions 
are  not  denied  (De  Vries,  1912,  p..  579).  "  It  is  clear  that  we  may  call  all 
these  changes  adaptations  to  new  conditions.  But  then  we  must  concede 
that  these  adaptations  depend  upon  characters  which  were  inherent  in  the 
species  before  it  arrived  in  the  new  environment."  And,  as  very  small 
changes  may  be  due  to  true  mutations,  there  seems  to  be  no  very  great 
difierence  between  the  opposing  views.  It  is  admitted  that  imder  new 
conditions  a  species  may  change  very  greatly  and  appear  to  become  quite 
a  different  species,  and  it  is  admitted  that  under  new  (as  under  any  other) 
conditions  a  species  may  acquire  very  small  new  characters  by  mutation 
and  so  become  a  new  species.  Is  it  not  possible  that  the  "  state  of 
mutability,"  whose  causes  have  hitherto  remained  obscure,  may  be  induced 
by  the  impact  of  new  conditions  and  the  demands  of  a  new  stress  ?  No 
very  great  adjustment  seems  necessary  to  reconcile  this  view  with  that  of 
De  Vries.  He  says  that  plants  may  change  and  adapt  themselves  gradually 
to  new  conditions,  but  no  new  species  can  originate  in  that  way  ;  changes 
so  induced  are  not  "  mutations."  It  may  be  suggested,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  possibly  new  characters,  due  to  "  mutations,"  may  be  acquired  by  the 
plant  as  a  direct  response  to  Nature's  ultimatum,  "  Change  or  die  !  " 

Conclusions. 

1.  The  original  description  of  the  species  by  Kirk  is  not  quite  accurate. 
The  number  of  the  leaves  is  not  abnormally  small,  being  frequently  5  and 
may  be  as  many  as  9.  The  style,  when  the  achene  is  ripe,  is  curved, 
not  straight.  The  flowering-period  is  late  October  and  November,  not 
December.     The  petals  number  5  to  8. 

2.  It  is  one  member  of  a  xerophytic  plant  community,  or  association, 
of  very  ancient  origin,  and  is  specially  adapted,  like  some  others  of  that 
community,  to  live  upon  a  limestone  soil,  or,  rather,  debris  formation. 

3.  Though  its  habitat  is  now,  so  far  as  is  known,  extremely  restricted, 
it  must  formerly,  with  its  associates,  have  been  distributed  over  a  far  more 
extensive  area  of  Tertiary  limestone  beds.  This  conclusion  supports  that 
reached  by  Speight  (1915,  p.  345)  upon  quite  dift'erent  evidence. 

4.  It  is  the  product  of  a  period  of  drought  or  steppe  climate,  which 
directly  caused  the  development  of  its  xerophytic  characters  ;  and  in  this  it 
resembles  the  other  members  of  the  community  to  which  it  belongs,  one 
which  was  fornaerly,  in  all  probability,  far  richer  in  species,  and  perhaps 
even  in  genera,  than  it  is  now. 


104  Transactions. 

5.  It  is  adapted  only  for  life  under  very  special  and  peculiar  conditions — 
e.g.,  its  confinement  to  gentle  gradients  and  to  a  limestone  soil — which 
conditions  have  been  provided  and  preserved  for  it,  by  a  series  of  fortunate 
chances,  in  one  small  locality  only  (so  far  as  is  known  at  present). 

6.  Its  life-history  may  be  thus  summed  up  conjecturally  :  Originating  in 
the  very  remote  past  during  a  period  of  drought  (which  was  probably  very 
long)  somewhere  within  or  not  far  from  an  extensive  area  of  Tertiary  lime- 
stone, this  plant  acquired  marked  xerophytic  characters  and  flourished, 
maintaining  itself  with  ease,  and  as  the  area  upon  which  it  grew  was 
slowly  and  gradually  eroded  (or  perhaps,  in  parts,  more  rapidly  by  glacia- 
tion)  it  was  restricted  to  areas  continually  diminishing  in  size  and  farther 
and  farther  separated  from  one  another,  until  it  remained  in  only  one  very 
limited  area  peculiarly  situated  and  adapted  to  its  needs.  Here,  as  in 
its  original  state,  it  had  little  or  no  severe  competition  to  meet  and  over- 
come, and  for  countless  ages  it  has  continued  to  exist  there,  surviving  at 
least  one  great  period  of  glaciation,  which  its  habitat  escaped  ;  at  least  one 
pluvial  epoch,  which  could  not  be  favourable  to  it ;  and  finally  the  various 
dangers  resultant  upon  human  occupation '^- depredations  of  stock  and 
of  hares  and  rabbits,  pests  and  blights,  and  agricultural  necessities  and 
accidents,  such  as  the  plough  and  the  wax  match.  Thus  within  its  own 
narrow  nook,  secure  from  the  competition  of  rivals,  this  strange  plant, 
relic  of  an  earlier  day  and  clime,  is  passing  slowly  and,  it  may  be  permitted 
to  fancy,  unreluctantly  away  before  our  eyes  in  an  age-long  euthanasia. 

I  desire  to  express  my  great  obligation  of  Mr.  E.  Speight,  who  with 
infinite  trouble  and  pains  took  photographs  of  the  plant  in  situ  and  of  the 
locality  ;  to  Dr.  W.  P.  Evans,  who  also  photographed  and  sketched  the 
locality  and  took  the  necessary  observations  of  heights  and  levels  and  the 
measurements  of  the  area  ;  to  Mr.  A.  E.  Flower,  who,  with  Dr.  Evans, 
assisted  me  in  the  task  of  counting  the  plants  ;  and  to  Dr.  L.  Cockayne, 
who  has  most  kindly  read  over  the  whole  of  the  paper  and  given  me  the 
benefit  of  his  invaluable  suggestions  and  criticisms. 

References. 

Cheeseman,  T.  F.,  1906.     Manual  of  the  New  Zealand  Flora. 

Cockayne,   L.,   1900.       A  Sketch  of  the  Plant  Geography  of  the   Waimakariii   River 

Basin,  considered  chieflv  from  an  CEcological  Point  of  View,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst., 

vol.  32,  pp.  95-136. 
_ —  1901.     An  Inquiry  into  the  Seedling  Forms?  of  New  Zealand  Phanerogams  and 

their  Development,  Trans.  N.Z:  Inst.,  vol.  33,  pp.  265-98. 
De  Vries,  H.,  1912.     Rice  Institute  Book  of  the  Opening  Lectures  on  Mutations  in  Heredity 

and  Oeographical  Botany. 
Hooker,  J.  D.,   1867.     Handbook  of  the  New  Zealand  Flora. 
Htttton,  F.   W.,   1885.     Fauna  and  Flora  of  New  Zealand,  Ann.   Nat.   Hist.,  vol.  15, 

pp.  77-107. 
1900.      The   Geological    History   of    New    Zealand,    Tra7is.    N.Z.    Inst.,    vol.    32, 

pp.  159-83. 
Kirk,  T.,   1899.     Students'  Flora  of  New  Zealand  and  the  Outlying  Islands. 
Speight,    R.,    1911.      The    Post-glacial    Climate    of    Canterbury,    Trans.    N.Z.    Inst., 

vol.  43,  pp.  408-20. 
•  1915.      The    Intermontane    Basins    of    Canterbury,    Trans.    N.Z.    Inst.,    vol.    47, 

pp.  336-53. 
.  1917.     The  Stratigraphy  of  the  Tertiary  Beds  of  the  Trelissick  or  Castle  Hill 

Basin,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  49,  pp.  321-56. 
Speight,  R.,  Cockayne,  L.,  and  Laing,  R.  M.,  1911.     The  IMount  Arrowsmith  District : 

a   Study   in   Physiography  and    Plant    Ecology,    Trans.   N.Z.    Inst.,    vol.   43, 

pp.  315-78. 
Warming  E.,  1909.     Oecology  of  Plants. 


Wall. — Ranunculus  paucifolius  T.   Kirk.  105 

Postscript. 

This  paper  has  been  submitted  to  Professor  Hugo  de  Vries,  and  he  has 
sent  me  this  comment : — 

"  It  is,  of  course,  interesting  for  me  to  read  a  statement  of  my  views 
from  a  neo-Lamarckian  standpoint,  and  the  concession  that  the  facts 
described  by  you  do  not  contain  any  argument  for  a  decision  between 
the  two  contrasting  theories.  i 

"  For  me  your  article  shows  that  R.  'paucifolius,  R.  chordorhizos,  R. 
crithmifolius,  and  R.  Haastii  must  have  had  a  common  ancestor,  which 
was  already  a  xerophyte,  and  that  they  must  have  inherited  this  character 
from  it.  This  ancestor  may  have  had  the  same  geographical  distribution 
which  is  now  shown  by  the  aggregate  of  its  descendants.  Perhaps  one 
of  them  is  identical  with  it ;  perhaps  it  has  wholly  disappeared.  Under 
what  conditions  it  lived  we  can,  of  course,  not  know,  nor  where  and  when 
it  acquired  its  xerophytic  properties.  To  conclude  that  it  must  have 
acquired  them  in  a  period  of  drought  would  be  a  circulus  vitiosus,  since  it 
would  simply  be  applying  the  theory  to  a  special  case  and  then  considering 
the  case  as  a  proof  of  the  theory. 

"  You  say  that  possibly  new  characters  may  be  acquired  by  a  plant 
as  a  direct  response  to  Nature's  ultimatum,  '  Change  or  die.'  This  is  the 
old  view,  but  not  mine.  The  article  you  quote  from  was  just  intended 
to  show  that,  as  far  as  we  know,  the  response  has,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
always  been,  '  I  cannot  change  at  your  will  and  so  I  must  die.' 

"  You  assume  that  your  plants  have  passed  through  periods  of  moisture, 
but  have  retained  their  xerophytic  character  nevertheless.  It  seems  to  me 
that  this  is  conceding  that  external  conditions  do  not,  as  a  rule,  provoke 
corresponding  useful  changes.  They  may  do  so,  or  seem  to  do  so,  or  they 
may  not.  My  view,  that  mutations,  although,  of  course,  caused  by  external 
conditions,  are  not  necessarily  responses  to  the  '  demands  of  a  new  stress,' 
seems  quite  adequate  to  interpret  your  facts.  I  gladly  concede  that  the 
causes  of  mutations  are  still  dark  to  us,  but  then  I  say  that  responses  such 
as  Warming  and  other  neo-Lamarckians  suppose  are  far  darker.  Especially 
if  you  take  into  consideration  what  is  now  known  concerning  the  structure 
of  chromosomes  and  the  distribution  of  the  hereditary  characters  in  them, 
it  seems  impossible  to  imagine  the  nature  of  such  a  supposed  response.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  we  do  not  know  the  cause's  of  mutation,  the  fact  of 
their  occurrence  has  been  proved  in  so  numerous  individual  cases  that  it 
can  no  longer  be  doubted,  even  by  those  who  want  to  exclude  the  Oenotheras 
from  the  discussion. 

"  I  shall  be  very  glad  to  learn  the  results  of  your  garden  cultures. 
I  should  not  wonder  if  your  plants  would  behave  just  like  the  creosot- 
bush  of  Tucson,  and  prefer  better  conditions  to  those  which  they  enjoy  (?) 
just  now.  To  me  it  seems  that  plants  are  found  in  those  localities  where 
they  can  better  endure  the  circumstances  than  their  competitors.  But 
whether  they  really  enjoy  them,  or  would  prefer  more  moisture  and  more 
fertile  soils,  and  so  on,  is  another  question." 


106  Transaction  s . 


Art.   XVI.  —  Helichrysum  dimorphum  Cockayne  — a  Hybrid? 

By  A.  Wall,  M.A.,  Professor  of  English,  Canterbury  College. 

[Read  before  the  Canterbury  Philosophical  Institute,  1st  October,  1919  ;   received  by  Editor, 
3rd  October,  1919  ;    issued  separately,  10th  J\ine,  1920.] 

Helichrysum  dimorphum  was  discovered  by  Cockayne  near  the  confluence 
of  the  Poulter  and  Waimakariri  Rivers  and  described  by  him  in  1915. 
Another  plant  was  found  by  the  same  authority  at  Pufier's  Creek,  which 
runs  into  the  Broken  River  not  far  from  its  junction  with  the  Waimakariri. 
The  two  localities  are  about  ten  miles  apart.  The  species  has  not  been 
found  again. 

I  visited  the  Puffer's  Creek  locality  in  February,  1919,  and  took  speci- 
mens. The  object  of  this  paper  is  to  suggest  that  Helichrysum  dimorphum 
is  a  hybrid  between  H.  filicaule  and  H.  depressum,  just  as  H.  Purdiei  seems 
to  be  certainly  a  cross  between  H.  glomeratum  and  H.  bellidioides. 

Helichrysum  dimorphum  is  a  strong  climber.  The  plant  has  a  lusty, 
thriving  appearance,  and  the  branches  grow  in  very  great  profusion  and  are 
most  thickly  massed  together.  Climbing  upon  a  plant  of  Coprosm.a  pro- 
pinqua  it  shows  leafless  branches  in  the  open,  and  leafy  branches  wherever 
it  is  at  all  shaded.  The  flowers,  which  are  not  fully  open  in  my  specimens, 
are  borne  upon  the  leafless  branches.  H.  depressum  occurs  close  to  it  in 
the  bed  of  the  creek,  and  H.  filicaule  is,  as  usual  in  such  localities,  abundant 
all  round  it.  The  plant  grows  about  8  ft.  or  10  ft.  above  the  bed  of  the 
creek. 

Helichrysum  filicaule  shows  a  distinctly  scandent  or  semi-scandent  habit 
whenever  it  grows  among  tall  plants,  such  as  Discaria  or  Leptospermum. 
I  have  collected  specimens  over  2  ft.  in  length  at  Akaroa  and  elsewhere, 
one  of  these  being  found  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  Pufier's 
Creek  plant  when  I  was  unsuccessfully  searching  for  it  in  1917.  H.  depressum, 
on  the  other  hand,  has  been  observed  growing  in  actual  contact  with  plants 
of  Discaria  without  showing  any  tendency  to  climb. 

My  suggestion  is  that  H.  dimorphum  is  a  cross  between  the  two, 
deriving  its  scandent  habit  from  H.  filicaule,  and  its  strength  and  solidity 
of  form,  which  enable  it  to  become  a  true  climber,  from  -  H.  depressum. 
As  regards  the  inflorescence,  H.  dimorphum  appears  to  be  more  closely 
related  to  H.  depressum  than  to  H.  filicaule.  The  flowers  in  my  specimens 
are  just  sufficiently  advanced  to  make  this  quite  clear.  The  resemblance 
to  the  flower  and  involucre  of  H.  depressum  is  very  close  indeed.  The 
flower  is  sessile  at  the  tips  of  the  branches,  as  in  H.  depressum,  not  terminal 
on  a  long  filiform  peduncle,  as  in  H.  fidicaule ;  and  the  involucral  bracts  in 
their  number  and  arrangement  are  exactly  like  those  of  H.  depressum, 
the  involucre  being  rather  cylindrical  than  hemispherical. 

In  support  of  the^  theory  I  should  adduce  the  following  considerations  : — 

(1.)  In  both  its  localities  both  H.  filicaule  and  H.  depressum  are  present 
at  no  great  distance.  In  the  Poulter  locality  the  plant  grows  on  the  top 
of  a  high  terrace  (perhaps  60  ft.  to  80  ft.)  above  the  river,  in  whose  bed 
H.  depressum  is  abundant,  while  H.  filicaule  is  present  everywhere  about  it. 


Wall. — Helichr3'sum  dimorphum  Cockayne.  107 

(2.)  The  leafy  parts  strongly  resemble  H.  filieaule,  and  the  leafless  parts 
H.  depressutn. 

(3.)  The  plant  is  of  extreme  rarity,  and  this  would  be  accounted  for, 
in  part,  if  H.  dimorphum  were  a  hybrid  between  the  two  plants  named. 


Postscript. 

Since  the  above  was  written  T  have  observed  the  plant  in  great 
quantities  on  the  Lower  Poulter,  on  the  Esk  River  near  its  confluence 
with  the  Waimakariri,  and  along  the  Waimakariri  itself  between  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Poulter  and  that  of  the  Esk  with  that  river.  The  Esk 
mouth  is  not  much  more  than  five  miles  from  the  Pufier's  Creek  locality. 


Art.  XVII. — On  tJie  Occurrence  of  Striated  Boulders   in  a  Palaeozoic 
Breccia  near  Taieri  Mouth,  Otago,  New  Zealand. 

By  Professor  James  Park,  F.G.S. 

[Read  before  the  Otago  Institute,  9th  December,  1919  ;    received  by  Editor,  31st  December, 

1919  ;  issued  separately,  10th,  June  1920.1 

In  a  small  cove  close  to  Rocky  Point,  which  is  the  first  headland  on  the 
south  side  of  Taieri  Mouth,  and  about  a  mile  and  a  half  from  the  Taieri 
jetty,  there  is  a  conspicuous  bed  of  coarse  red  and  green  breccia.  It  is 
underlain  by  bluish-grey  micaceous  phyllites,  and  overlain  by  altered 
flaggy  greywacke.  The  strike  of  the  breccia  and  associated  rocks  is  about 
N.N.E.-S.S.W.,  and  the  dip  S.S.E.  at  angles  ranging  from  5°  to  30°. 
Generally  the  inclination. of  the  lowermost  beds  is  flatter  than  that  of  the 
uppermost  beds.  At  Taieri  Mouth  the  dip  of  the  grey '  micaceous  slaty 
rocks  ranges  from  5°  to  15°,  and  that  of  the  greywacke  south  of  Rocky 
Point  from  15°  to  30°. 

The  breccia  is  well  exposed  in  the  sea-cliffs  near  Rocky  Point,  and  can 
be  traced  northward  along  the  line  of  strike  one -third  of  the  distance  to 
Taieri  Island  as  a  line  of  submerged  reef  that  is  in  places  awash  at  low 
water.      It  is  not  present  on  Taieri  Island. 

To  the  southward  of  Rocky  Point  the  breccia -ought  to  crop  out  on  the 
ridge  between  that  place  and  Akatore  Inlet,  but  I  failed  to  find  it  there. 
It  is  a  rock  not  easily  overlooked,  and  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  it 
peters  out  before  it  reaches  the  crest  of  the  ridge.  It  is  probably  a  lens- 
shaped  mass  with  a  maximum  thickness  of  some  120  ft. 

At  Rocky  Point  the  breccia  resembles  a  consolidated  rock-rubble,  being 
mainly  composed  of  a  confused  pile  of  angular  and  subangular  fragments 
and  blocks  of  red  and  green  siliceous  slaty  shale.  It  also  contains  numerous 
masses  of  an  excessively  hard  jasperoid  and  aphanitic  breccia  that  appear 
to  have  been  torn  from  some  pre-existing  breccia.  The  constituent  frag- 
ments range  in  size  from  small  grains  to  masses  many  feet  in  diameter. 


108  Transactions. 

The  largest  block  in  the  breccia  occurs  in  place,  at  the  foot  of  the 
sea-cliff  in  the  first  sandy  cove  south  of  Rocky  Point.  It  is  an  included 
breccia-boulder,  partially  rounded  at  the  corners  and  sides,  compact,-  and 
intensely  hard.  It  measures  some  7-5  ft.  by  5-3  ft.  by  4-5  ft.  Its  upper 
surface  is  fairly  flat,  and  covered  with  distinct  striae  that,  as  a  rule,  run 
parallel  with  the  longer  axis  of  the  block.  The  area  of  the  striated  surface 
is  about  10  square  feet.  Several  of  the  smaller  included  blocks  on  the 
south  side  of  the  cove  are  similarly  striated. 

This  remarkable  rock  resembles  the  typical  Te  Anau  breccia  of  Sir 
James  Hector.  It  is  underlain,  apparently  conformably,  by  the  semi- 
metamorphic  Kakanuian  rocks  of  Hector,  which  everywhere  in  Otago 
overlie  the  mica-schists  of  Central  Otago.  There  is  no  internal  evidence 
to  fix  the  age  of  the  Kakanuian  rocks.  All  that  can  be  said  is  that  they 
underlie  the  Mount  St.  Mary  series,  which  is  Triassic,  and  overlie  the 
mica-schists  of  the  interior.  The  Te  Anau  series  of  Hector,  as  identified 
by  him  in  Nelson,  conformably  underlies  the  Maitai  series,  which  is  now 
known  to  be  Upper  Carboniferous  or  Permo-Carboniferous.  I  have  always 
found  it  difficult  to  separate  the  Te  Anau  rocks  from  the  Maitaian,  and  in 
1910  grouped  them  as  belonging  to  the  same  formation.  Hector  ascribed 
the  Te  Anau  series  to  the  Devonian  period,  the  only  evidence  in  favour 
of  this  being  its  inferior  and  conformable  relationship  to  the  Maitaian, 
which  he  placed  in  the  Carboniferous. 

In  Nelson  and  Marlborough,  the  rocks  identified  by  Hector  and  McKay 
as  belonging  to  the  Te  Anau  series  are  underlain  by  semi-metamorphic 
rocks  of  supposed  Kakanuian  age. 

The  Taieri  Mouth  breccia  and  overlying  greywackes  may  very  well 
belong  to  the  Te  Anau  series  of  Hector,  and  the  underlying  grey  silky 
micaceous  phyllites  to  the  Kakanuian.  If  this  position  can  be  established, 
the  Taieri  Mouth  breccia  may  be  placed  in  the  Upper  Carboniferous  or 
Permo-Carboniferous.  ' 

This  is  the  first  discovery  of  striated  boulders  in  the  Palaeozoic 
formations  of  New  Zealand,  and  the  origin  of  the  striae  is  certain  to  give 
rise  to  some  diversity  of  opinion. 

The  stria tion  may  be  glacial  or  dynamical.  If  the  striated  boulders 
occurred  along  the  fracture  of  a  shear-plane  I  should  ascribe  the  striation 
to  shearing.  Though  crushed  and  broken,  the  breccia  shows  no  evidence 
of  shearing  along  defined  planes,  and  for  this  reason  I  am  inclined  to 
favour  the  glacial  hypothesis. 

If  the  glacial  view  be  sustained  we  are  at  once  confronted  with  the 
questions — (a.)  What  relationship,  if  any,  does  the  Taieri  Mouth  breccia 
bear  to  the  glacial  deposits  reported  in  the  Upper  Palaeozoic  formations 
of  India,*  Australia, f  South  Africa, J  and  Brazil§  ?  (6.)  Was  the  glaciation 
al^pine  or  secular  ?  (c.)  Did  the  ancient  Gondwana  continent  extend  south- 
ward to  the  New  Zealand  area  ? 

*  H.  B.  Medlicott  and  W.  T.  Blanford,  Manual  of  the  Geology  of  India,  pt.  i, 
p.  110,  1879;  and  R.  D.  Oldham,  Quart.  Jour.  Geol.  Soc,  p.  469,  1894. 

t  T.  W.  Edgeworth  David,  Geology  of  the  Hunter  River  Coal-measures,  Mem. 
Geol.  Stirv.  N.S.W.  No.  4,  p.  124,  1907. 

J  E.  T.  Mellor,  Study  of  the  Glacial  Conglomerate  in  the  Transvaal,  Quart.  Jour. 
Geol.  Soc,  vol.  61,  p.  682,  1905;  W.  M.  Davis,  Bull.  Geo.  Soc.  Am.,  vol.  17,  p.  413, 
1906 ;  and  others. 

§  David  White,  Permo-Carboniferous  CUmatic  Changes  in  South  America,  Am. 
Jour.  Geol,  vol.  15,  p.  618,  1907. 


Marshall. — The  Tawhiti  Series,   East  Cape  District.  109 


Art.  XVIII. — The  Tawhiti  Series,  East  Cape  District. 

By  P.  Marshall,   M.A.,   D.Sc,  F.G.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst.,   Hector  and  Hutton 

Medallist. 

[Read   before   the    Wanganui   Philosophical   Society,    3rd   December,    1919 ;    received  by 
Editor,  31st  December,  1919  ;    issued  separately,  10th  June,  1920.] 

The  true  geological  position  of  the  strata  that  are  exposed  on  the  coast- 
line between  Tokomaru  Bay  and  the  East ,  Cape  has  never  been  definitely 
ascertained,  for  we  have  had  to  rely  on  rather  incomplete  statements  of 
McKay.  Fossils  of  a  true  Cretaceous  nature  were  reported  as  occurring 
in  some  abundance  near  Awanui.  I  visited  the  district  in  January,  1919, 
in  company  with  Mr.  J.  A.  Bartrum,  with  the  primary  object  of  making 
collections  of  fossils  from  the  localities  that  were  mentioned  by  McKay, 
in  the  hope  that  study  of  them  would  be  of  assistance  in  unravelling  some 
of  the  debated  points  in  regard  to  the  relationship  of  the  Cretaceous  rocks 
to  those  of  Tertiary  age  in  New  Zealand. 

We  spent  two  days  on  the  coast  near  Awanui,  but  failed  to  find  any 
of  the  ammonites  and  other  fossils  that  were  mentioned  by  McKay.* 
The  only  fossil  remains  that  we  found  were  some  fragments  of  Inoceramus 
near  the  wharf  at  Awanui  and  a  number  of  small  worm-tubes  a  little  to 
the  north  of  that  place.  Inoceramus  was  very  abundant  in  the  con- 
cretionary boulders  on  the  north  side  of  Tuparoa  Bay,  and  there  were  also 
fossils  in  the  marls  on  the  south  side  of  the  bay.  These,  however,  were 
badly  preserved,  and  seemed  to  be  of  a  distinctly  Tertiary  nature.  The 
stratigraphy  is  extremely  involved,  and  the  strata  have  slipped  so  much, 
while  the  sections  are  so  discontinuous,  that  in  the  limited  time  at  our 
disposal  we  were  quite  unable  to  come  to  any  detailed  conclusions  on  the 
question  of  the  relationship  of  the  strata. 

At  Tawhiti  Point,  on  the  north  side  of  Tokomaru  Bay,  fossils  are 
quite  numerous,  and  they  are  also  abundant  in  the  shell  conglomerate 
which  occurs  on  Tawhiti  itself  at  an  elevation  of  500  ft.  or  more.  From 
■the  former  of  these  localities  over  a  distance  of  about  a  mile  along  the  coast 
from  Kotunui  Point  a  representative  collection  of  fossils  was  made.  McKay 
collected  from  these  beds  in  1872,  and  he  made  a  further  reference  to  them 
in  1886,  when  he  classed  them  of  Upper  Miocene  age.| 

Hutton,J  in  his  paper  on  the  geology  of  New  Zealand,  places  the  Tawhiti 
beds  in  the  Pareora  system,  which  is  regarded  by  him  as  the  equivalent 
of  the  Miocene  of  Europe. 

No  list  of  fossils  that  were  found  in  these-  rocks  has  yet  been  published. 
The  rocks  are  described  by  McKay  as  soft  brown  sandstones.  We  found 
that  in  their  unweathered  state  they  are  of  a  grey  colour  and  fine-grained. 
They  are  formed  partly  of  small  grains  of  quartz,  with  a  good  deal  of 
partly-weathered  feldspar,  and  black  grains  which  seem  to  be  volcanic 
glass.  It  is  almost  certain  that  the  sand  is  of  volcanic  origin.  The 
strata  are  considerably  inclined,  and  strike  41°  and  dip  37°  north-west. 
The  thickness  of  the  strata  of  which  Tawhiti  is  composed  is  very  consider- 
able.     Tawhiti  itself  rises  to  a  height  of  1,670  ft.,  and  if  the  strike  and 

*  A.  McKay, '^ep.  Geol.  Explor.  dur.  1873-74,  1877,  p.  124  ;  1886-87,  1887,  p.  214. 
t  A.  McKay,  Rep.  Geol.  Explor.  dnr.  1873-74,  1877,  p.  147  ;  1886-87,  1887,  p.  210. 
X  F.  W.  Hutton,  Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc,  1885,  p.  209. 


110 


Transactions. 


dip  remain  the  same  throughout  as  at  Kotunui  Point  there  cannot  be 
less  than  3,000  ft.  of  rocks.  Our  ^collections  were  made  from  practically 
the  lowest  rocks  that  are  exposed  near  Tawhiti.  The  rocks  vary  a  good 
deal  in  coarseness  and  are  concretionary  in  many  of  the  strata,  but  the 
fossils  did  not  appear  to  vary  much,  and  we  have  made  no  attempt  to 
distinguish  between  the  faunas  of  any  of  the  different  strata.  Actually  the 
thickness  of  the  strata  from  which  we  collected  was  quite  small. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  fossils  that  were  collected  by  Mr.  Bartrum 
and  myself.  In  identifying  the  species  I  have  had  the  invaluable  aid  of 
Mr.  R.  Murdoch. 


Anomia  huttoni  (Sut.) 

Astraea  heliotropium  (Mart.) 
*Atrina  sp. 
*Calliostoma  sp. 

Calyptraea  sp. 
*Gonus  sp. 
*Gorbula  canaliculata  (Hutt.) 

Corbula  macilenta  (Hutt.) 
*Cucullaea  worthingtoni  (Hutt.) 
*Cylichnella  enysi  (Hutt.) 
*Dentaliu'm  mantelli  (Zittel) 

Dentalium  nanum  (Hutt.) 
*Dentalium  solidum  (Hutt.) 
*Diploclonta  ampla  (Hutt.) 
*Divaricella  sp. 

Dosmia  greyi  (Zittel) 

Dosinia  lambata  (Gould) 
*Drillia  a£E.  novae-zelandiae  (Reeve) 
*Galeodea  senex  (Hutt.) 
*Galeodea  sulcata  (Hutt.) 

Glycymeris  laticos.tata  (Q.  &  Q.)  (thick 

form) 
*Macrocallista  assimilis  (Hutt.) 

Macrocallista  multistriata  (Sow.) 

Mactra  ordinaria  (Smith) 

Mactra  scalpellum  (Reeve) 

Malletia  australis  (Q.  &  G-.) 

Extinct  species  are  distinguished  by  an  asterisk.  Several  of  the  species 
that  are  unnamed  are  certainly  extinct,  but  are  not  in  a  sufficiently  good 
condition  of  preservation  to  allow  of  a  satisfactory  description  being  written. 

This  list  contains  fifty-two  species,  of  which  twenty-six  are  extinct — 
a  percentage  of  50.  If  this  percentage  of  extinct  species  of  mollusca  is 
taken  as  a  criterion  for  the  correlation  of  the  strata,  the  Tawhiti  series 
must  be  almost  exactly  midway  between  the  Target  Gully  series,  where 
there  are  35  per  cent,  of  Recent  species,  and  the  Waipipi  series,  in  which 
the  percentage  is  63.  This  position  of  the  strata  is  suggested  also  by  the 
very  nature  of  the  fauna.  On  the  one  hand  Olivella  neozelanica  still  persists, 
as  well  as  Diplodonta  ampla;  while  on  the  other  hand  a  large  number  of 
species  of  Miocene  occurrence  appear,  such  as  Cucullaea  worthingtoni, 
Siphonalia  conoidea,  S.  costata,  Galeodea  senex,  &c.  It  is  noticeable  that 
there  is  no  species  of  Limopsis  in  this  collection,  and  that  this  genus  is 
absent  from  those  that  have  been  made  on  the  coast-line  near  Wanganui. 


Myodora  subrostrata  (E.  A.  Smith) 

Natica  australis  (Hutt.) 
*Natica  callosa  (Hutt.) 
*Natica  ovata  (Hutt.) 

Nucula  nitidida  (A.  Ad.) 

Nuculana  jastidiosa  (A.  Ad.) 
*Olivella  neozelanica  (Hutt.) 

Ostrea  angasi  (Sow.) 

Ostrea  corrugata  (Hutt.) 
*Panope  worthingtoni  (Hutt.) 

Pecten  convexus  (Q,  &  G.) 
*Pecten  sectus  (Hutt.) 

Pecten  zelandiae  (Gray) 

Protocardia  pulchella  (Gray) 
*Sinum  carinatum  (Hutt.) 

*  Siphonalia  conoidea  (Zittel) 
*Siphonalia  costata  (Hutt.) 

*  Siphonalia  excelsa  (Sut.) 

*  Siphonalia  nodosa  actuicostata  (Sut.) 
*Struthiolaria  cincta  (Hutt.) 

Tellina  eugonia  (Sut.) 
Tellina  liliana  (Iredale) 
Turritella  symmetrica  (Hutt.) 
Venericardia  corbis  (Phil.) 
Venericardia  purpurata  (Desh.) 
*Voluta  corrugata  (Hutt.) 


Marshall. — The  Hampden  Beds  and  N.Z.  Tertiary,  Limestones.     Ill 


AUT.    XIX.  —  The    Ha))ipden    Beds    and    the    New    Zealand    Tertiary 

Limestones. 

By  P.  Marshall,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.G.S.,  F.N.Z.lnst.,  Hector  and 

Hutton  Medallist. 

[Read   before   tJie    Wanganui   Philosophical   Society,    3rd   December,    1919 ;    received   by 
Editor,  31st  December,  1919  ;    issued  separately,  10th  June,  1920.] 

The  facts  that  have  recently  come  to  light  in  regard  to  the  palaeontology 
of  the  Hampden  Keds  may  be  of  some  use  in  determining  the  relative  ages 
of  the  Amuri  and  Oamaru  limestones.  The  number  of  fossils  that  have 
been  found  actually  in  the  Amuri  limestone  up  to  the  present  time  is  small, 
but  such  as  have  been  recorded  suggest  a  Tertiary  rather  than  a  Cretaceous 
age.  Within  recent  years,  however,  Thomson  (1916,  p.  51)  and  Speight 
(1917,  p.  344)  have  found  a  fauna  in  tufE-beds  interstratified  with  the  upper 
portion  of  the  Amuri  limestone  in  the  Trelissick  Basin,  in  Canterbury. 

The  moUusca  of  this  tufi-bed,  so  far  as  they  have  been  collected  up  to 
the  present  time,  number  thirty-seven  species,  of  which  19  per  cent,  are 
Recent.  This  is  clearly  a  much  later  fauna  than  that  of  Hampden,  for 
there  the  Recent  species  are  no  more  than  10  per  cent,  of  the  total  of  eighty. 
If  attention  is  focused  more  on  the  nature  of  the  fauna  than  on  the  per- 
centage the  same  conclusion  will  be  reached,  for  the  genera  Dicroloma, 
Trigonia',' Gilhertia,  and  even  Exilia,  of  the  Hampden  fauna,  have  no  repre- 
sentatives, or  even  counterpart,  in  the  collections  that  have  been  made  in 
the  tuff-bed  of  the  Trelissick  Basin,  the  horizon  of  which  is  10  ft.  below 
the  upper  surface  of  the  Amuri  limestone  as  developed  in  that  locality. 
It  follows,  if  the  palaeontological  evidence  is  to  be  relied  on,  that  the  Hamp- 
den beds  are  considerably  older  than  the  upper  portion  of  the  Amuri  lime- 
stone. If  Thomson's  statement  is  correct,  that  the  Amuri  limestone  is 
Cretaceous  at  the  base  and  Tertiary  in  its  upper,  portion  (loc.  cit.,  p.  51), 
the  Hampden  beds  must  represent  some  horizon  in  the  middle  or  upper  part 
of  the  Amuri  limestone.  Thomson's  statement,  however,  is  based  rather  on 
surmise  than  on  actual  fact,  for  up  to  the  present  time  no  fauna  has  been 
found  in  the  deposits  immediately  at  the  base  of  the  Amuri  limestone, 
though  at  Amuri  Bluff  itself  it  is  true  that  only  some  200  ft.  of  strata 
separate  the  beds  with  Cretaceous  saurian  remains  from  the  base  of  the 
Amuri  limestone. 

Irrespective  altogether  of  the  accuracy  of  Thomson's  statement,  there 
is  reason  to  believe  that* the  Hampden  beds  are  equivalent  to  some  horizon 
of  the  Amuri  limestone,  or  possibly  to  an  horizon  actually  below  the 
Amuri  limestone.  At  Hampden  itself  there  is  no  limestone,  for  on  the 
fossil-bearing  beds,  which  are  mainly  formed  of  greensand,  there  is  a 
great  thickness  of  submarine  tuff,  scoria,  and  other  volcanic  matter.  The 
eruption  of  this  apparently  affected  the  sea-floor  so  much,  and  for  such  a 
long  time,  that  all  deposition  of  limestone  was  prevented.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  first  occurrence  of  limestone  in  this  neighbourhood  is  at  All 
Day  Bay,  fifteen  miles  farther  north ;  and  even  there  the  limestone 
stratum  is  thin,  and  rests  directly  on  submarine  volcanic  scoria.  Since 
the  regular  succession  of  the  Oamaru  system  in  its  upper  members  cannot 
be  found  at  Hampden,  some  other  neighbouring  locality  must  be  found 
where  it  is  more  complete,  and  where  there  are  strata  recognizable  by 
their  fossil  contents  as  being  of  somewhat  similar  age  to  those  of  Hampden. 


112  Transactions. 

Such  a  succession  can  be  found  near  the  Waihao  Forks.  Here  the  green- 
sand  strata  that  are  exposed  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  between 
the  Forks  and  McCuUoch's  bridge,  are  similar  lithologically  to  the  Hamp- 
den beds,  and  there  is  a  clear  stratigraphical  succession  to  the  local 
representative  of  the  Oamaru  limestone  above,  as  has  been  clearly  shown 
by  McKay,  Park,  Marshall,  and  all  others  except  Hutton,  who  gave  a 
most  surprising  account  of  the  stratigraphy.  Not  only  are  the  Waihao 
greensands  similar  lithologically  to  the  Hampden  beds,  but  there  is  also  a 
close  palaeontological  similarity,  for  the  following  fossils  which  have  not 
yet  been  found  in  any  higher  or,  indeed,  any  other  strata  occur  in  both 
of  them — Polinices  waihaoensis,  Exilia  waihaoensis,  Turris  regius,  Turns 
complicatus,  Surcula  serotina,  Fusinus  solidus,  and  Eiithriofusus  spinosus — 
though  up  to  the  present  time  only  very  small  collections  have  been  made 
in  the  Waihao  beds.  The  Hampden  beds  may  therefore  be  considered  as  of 
much  the  same  age  as,  though  perhaps  a  little  older  than,  those  at  Waihao. 
In  this  locality,  however,  the  stratigraphy  is  not  complicated  by  the  occur- 
rence of  any  strata  of  volcanic  origin,  and  the  greensands  pass  up  without 
any  break,  and  within  a  thickness  of  100  ft.  of  strata,  into  a  limestone 
which  is  thought  by  all  observers  except  Park  to  be  the  local  representative 
of  the  Oamaru  limestone.  No  collection  of  fossils  has  yet  been  made  from 
the  limestone  at  the  Waihao,  but  at  Otiake,  twenty  miles  distant,  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Waitaki  River,  there  is  a  similar  limestone,  which  is  con- 
sidered by  all  geologists  who  have  examined  this  area  to  be  of  the  same 
age,  and  in  effect  a  continuation  of  the  limestone  stratum  of  the  Waihao. 
At  Otiake  a  collection  of  fossils  was  made  by  Marshall  and  others,  who 
found  sixty-one  species,  of  which  24  per  cent,  were  determined  as  Recent 
species. 

The  facts  so  far  mentioned  may  be  summarized  as  follows  :  At  Cole- 
ridge Creek,  in  the  Trelissick  Basin,  there  is  a  fossiliferous  horizon  con- 
taining 19  per  cent,  of  Recent  species.  This  horizon  is  below  the  limestone 
(Speight,  1917,  pp.  328  and  344),  or  10  ft.  below  the  upper  surface  of  the 
Amuri  limestone  (Thomson,  1916,  p.  51).  In  the  greensands  at  Hampden 
there  are  10  per  cent,  of  Recent  species.  Lithologically  and  palaeonto- 
logically  the  Hampden  beds  are  closely  similar  to  those  at  the  Waihao 
Forks,  which  pass  up  conformably  into  the  arenaceous  limestone.  This 
limestone  is  always  correlated  with  that  at  Otiake,  which  in  its  upper 
portion  of  2  ft.  or  3  ft.  contains  24  per  cent,  of  Recent  species. 

Such  palaeontological  evidence  as  we  have  at  present  therefore  clearly 
points  to  the  probability  that  the  age  of  the  Amuri  limestone  as  developed 
in  the  Trelissick  Basin  is  practically  the  same  as  the  age  of  the  Otiake  lime- 
stone, which  is  admitted  by  all  geologists  except  Park  to  be  the  same  horizon 
as  that  of  the  Oamaru  or  Ototara  limestone. 

This  consideration  also  shows  that  too  much  importance  should  not  be 
attached  to  the  absence  of  the  Amuri  limestone  in  Otago.  This  material 
is  a  Globigerina  ooze,  which  was  probably  deposited  on  the  floor  of  a  deep, 
clear- water,  oceanic  area.  The  Oamaru  or  Ototara  limestone  was  deposited 
in  far  shallower  water,  where  Polyzoa  abounded,  but  still  outside  the  area  to 
which  sediment  was  carried.  The  Waihao  and  Otiake  limestones,  however, 
were  deposited  nearer  to  the  shore,  in  an  area  to  which  terrigenous  sediment 
was  carried,  and  where  tidal  scour  disturbed  the  sea-floor. 

It  seems  unnecessary  to  call  in  the  aid  of  local  diastrophes  to  explain 
the  difierences  between  the  Canterbury  and  Otago  succession  of  Tertiapy 
rocks,  for,  as  I  have  often  maintained,  the  differences  that  exist  can  easily 
be  explained  on  general  considerations.     The  Canterbury  area  was  evidently 


Marshall. — The  Hampden  Beds  and  N .Z.  Tertiary  Limestones.     113 


more  deeply  depressed  during  this  middle  Tertiary  period  tlian  Otago,  a 
fact  that  is  clearly  evidenced  by  the  very  nature  of  the  Amuri  limestone, 
which  is  often  wholly  composed  of  Globigerina,  but  in  some  cases  of  other 
pelagic  organisms  as  well.  In  Otago,  on  the  other  hand,  the  limestones, 
whilst  still  free  from  all  terrestrial  sediment,  consist  mainly  of  organisms 
that  live  on  the  floor  of  moderately  deep  water  only.  While  this  is  the 
case,  however,  it  must  still  be  remembered  that  at  Oamaru  the  limestone 
rests  on  a  deposit  that  is  composed  of  diatoms,  Radiolaria,  and  sponge- 
spicules.  Park  (1918,  p.  50)  has  lately  maintained  that  this  is  really  a 
slaallow-water  deposit,  an  opinion  that  is  based  partly  on  the  general 
geology  of  the  district  and  partly  on  the  nature  of  the  moUusca  and 
brachiopods  that  are  found  in  the  deposit.  The  fossil  species  to  which  he 
refers  are  not  named.  In  a  collection  made  by  me  in  June,  1915,  the 
following  mollusca  were  obtained  :  Amusium  zitteli  (Hutton),  Nuculana 
[Leda)  sp.,  Lima  sp.  (small),  and  Terebratulina  suessi  (Zittel).  These  are 
all  genera  that  have  a  wide  occurrence  in  deep  water,  and  until  a  list  is 
published  which  contains  the  names  of  other  molhisca  that  have  a  shallow- 
water  habitat  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  moUuscan  remains 
in  these  diatomaceous  deposits  are  incompatible  with  the  accumulation 
of  the  material  on  a  deep  oceanic  floor.  There  is  no  reason  to  suppose 
that  the  water  was  of  the  same  depth  over  all  that  portion  of  New  Zealand 
that  was  then  covered  by  the  ocean.  In  Canterbury  the  area  in  which 
the  Amuri  limestone  occurs  was  covered  by  deeper  water  than  that  portion 
of  Otago  where  the  Oamaru  or  Ototara  limestone  is  found.  It  may  there- 
fore fairly  be  said  that  all  the  palaeontological  evidence  that  is  known  at 
the  present  time  supports  the  belief  that  the  Oamaru  limestone  represents 
an  horizon  of  the  Amuri  limestone,  and  that  there  are  no  stratigraphical 
or  structural  facts  known  that  oppose  this  conclusion. 

In  the  north  of  Auckland  the  so-called  hydraulic  limestone  covers  a  large 
area.  This  limestone  is  also  composed  mainly  of  Globigerina  ooze,  and, 
like  the  Anuiri  limestone,  it  is  often  highly  siliceous,  and  in  places  the  siliceous 
organisms  are  calcified,  though  at  others  diatoms,  Radiolaria,  and  sponge- 
spicules  are  in  a  perfectly  fresh  condition  and  can  be  obtained  in  large 
numbers.  This  limestone  has  generally  been  correlated  with  the  Amuri 
limestone  of  Canterbury,  and  Thomson's  objection  to  this  has  already  been 
refuted  (Marshall,  1919,  p.  248,  footnote).  In  addition,  however,  to  the 
general  stratigraphical  position  of  this  limestone,  there  is  palaeontological 
evidence  of  considerable  importance.  At  Pahi,  on  the  Arapaoa  arm  of  the 
Kaipara  Harbour,  there  is  on  the  foreshore  a  little  to  the  west  of  Pahi 
Township  a  bed  of  greensand  lying  between  two  beds  of  the  hydraulic 
limestone.  This  greensand  contains  a  considerable  number  of  fossils,  as  first 
noted  by  Park.  The  fossils,  however,  are  in  a  bad  state  of  preservation, 
and  only  a  few  of  them  can  be  identified  specifically.  The  following  were 
collected  in  1916  : — 


yAtrina  sp. 

Calliostoma  sp. 

Cassidea  n.  sp. 

Corbida  canaliculata  (Hutt.) 

Cucullaea  alia  (Sow.) 

Cythere'a  sp. 

Deiitalium  solidum  (Hutt.) 

Divaricella  afi.  cumingi  (Ad.  &  Ang.) 

Limopsis  zitteli  (Iher.) 

Nucula  sp. 


Nuculana  aff.  hellula  (A.  Ad.) 

Ostrea  aff.  corrugata  (Hutt.) 

Panope  worthingtoni  (Hutt.) 

Polinices  gihhosus  (Hutt.) 

Psammobia  sp. 

Struthiolaria  sp. 

Stircula  n.  sp. 

Tellina  sp. 

Turritella  ambidacrum  (Sow.) 

Venericardia  aff.  australis  (Lamk.) 


114  Transactions. 

Although  this  list  is  short  and  many  species  are  not  identified,  it  can 
be  asserted  that  not  more  thaij  two  are  Kecent  species,  and  even  these 
are  doubtful.  The  new  species  of  Surcula  is  of  considerable  interest,  for  it 
belongs  to  the  group  that  contains  ;S.  hamiltoni,  S.  gravida,  and  S.  torti- 
costata,  all  of  which  are  restricted  to  the  strata  that  lie  beneath  the  lime- 
stone near  Oamaru.  The  horizon  is  probably  a  little  higher  than  the 
Hampden  series,  but  also  lower  than  the  lower  fossiliferous  bed  in  the 
Trelissick  Basin,  to  which  reference  has  previously  been  made. 

The  hydraulic  limestone  of  the  Kaipara  Harbour  is  thus,  from  a  con- 
sideration of  such  palaeontological  evidence  as  is  available,  seen  to  be  of 
approximately  the  same  age  as  the  Amuri  limestone  of  the  Trelissick  Basin. 

The  following  changes  and  additions  must  be  made  to  the  list  of  the  Hamji- 
den  moUuscan  fauna  given  in  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  51,  p.  235,  1919 : — 

Siphonalia  nodosa  Martyn  to  be  Siphonalia  nodosa  acuticostata  (Suter). 
Volutoderma  zelandica  Marshall  to  be  Borsonia  zelandica  (Marshall). 

The  list  of  additions  that  is  given  below  includes  the  species  mentioned 
in  the  footnote  on  the  page  cited  above  : — 

Admete  anomala  (Marshall  and  Murdoch) 

Epitonium  aff.  gracillimum  (Sut.) 

Epitonium  parvicostatum  (Marshall) 

Euthriofusus  spinosus  (Sut.) 

Fusinus  sp.  (fragments  only) 

Fusinus  aff.  morgani  (Sut.) 

Leptoconus  armoricus  pseudoarmoricus  (Marshall  and  Murdoch) 

Limopsis  aurita  (Brocchi) 

Limopsis  catenata  (Sut.) 

Nucida  n.  sp. 

Nuculana  semiteres  (Hutt.) 

Pecten  aff.  fischeri  (Zittel) 

Phos  sp.  (fragments  only) 

Protocardia  pulchella  (Gray) 

Rissoina  ohliquecostata  (Marshall  and  Murdoch) 

Seila  attenuissima  (Marshall  and  Murdoch) 

Sinum  carinatum  (Hutt.) 

Siphonalia  senilis  (Marshall  and  Murdoch) 

Soletellina  n.  sp. 

Surcula  hampdenensis  (Marshall  and  Murdoch) 

Trifora  aoteaensis  (Marshall  and  Murdoch) 

Turris  curialis  (Marshall  and  Murdoch) 

This  list  raises  the  total  to  ninety-three  species,  of  which  some  thirty- 
nine  have  not  been  found  elsewhere.  SijjJionalia  nodosa  is  now  taken  out  • 
of  the  list,  and  Protocardia  pulchella  and  Limopsis  aurita  are  added  to 
the  number  of  Recent  species,  which  now  number  eight,  a  percentage  of 
only  8'7.  Cossman  has  pointed  out  that  the  identification  of  Limopsis 
aurita  in  New  Zealand  is  an  error,  and  that  the  species  should  be  called 
L.  zelandica  Hutton.  It  is  placed  here  under  L.  aurita  because  in  other 
lists  of  Oamaru  strata  this  identification  has  been  made. 

List  of  Papers  cited. 

Marshall,  P.,  1919.     Fauna  of  the  Hampden  Beds  and  Classification  of  the  Oamaru 

System,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  51,  pp.  226-50. 
Pakk,  J.,  1918.     N.Z.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  No.  20. 
Speight,  R.,  1917.     The  Stratigraphy  of  the  Tertiary  Beds  of  the  Trelissick  or  Castle 

Hill  Basin,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst,  vol.  49,  pp.  321-56. 
Thomson,   J.    A.,    1916.     The    Flint-beds    associated    with    the    Amuri   Limestone    of 

Marlborough,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  voh  48,  pp.  48-58. 


Marshall  and  Murdoch. — Tertiary  Socks  near  Wanganui.        115 


Art.  XX. — The  Tertiary  Rocks  near  Wanganui. 

By  P.  Marshall,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.G.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst.,  Hector  and  Hutton 

Medallist,  and  R.  Murdoch. 

[Read   before   the    Wanganui   Philosojjhical   Society,    3rd   December,    1919  ;    received   by 
Editor,  31st  December,  1919  ;    issued  separately,  10th  June,  1920.] 

The  marine  strata  that  occur  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Wanganui  have 
long  been  the  subject  of  geological  inquiry  and  research.  As  developed 
along  the  coast-line  they  are  richly  fossiliferous  almost  throughout  their 
extent,  and  the  fossils  that  they  contain  are  so  closely  related 'to  the  Recent 
molluscan  fauna  that  the  rocks  have  always  been  referred  to  the  higher 
divisions  of  the  Tertiary  era.  A  resume  of  the  earlier  work  that  had  been 
published  on  these  sediments  was  given  by  Hutton  (1886,  p.  338),  and  it 
is  in  general  unnecessary  to  refer  to  it  here.  In  that  paper  also  Hutton 
gave  for  the  first  time  a  fairly  complete  list  of  the  mollusca  that  had  been 
collected  from  the  Wanganui  system  up  to  that  date.  The  list,  however, 
contains  also  a  number  of  species  that  had  been  found  in  the  strata  at 
Matapiro  and  Petane,  in  Hawke's  Bay,  which  were  considered  by  Hutton 
to  be  of  equivalent  geological  age. 

In  his  Wanganui  system  Hutton  included  the  blue  clays  at  Castleclif? 
and  the  blue  clays  at  Patea,  but  he  makes  no  reference  to  the  rocks  that 
outcrop  on  the  coast  between  those  places — the  mouth  of  the  Wanganui 
River  and  that  of  the  Patea  River. 

A  fuller"  list,  but  based  upon  the  same  principles  and  containing 
descriptions  of  a  number  of  additional  species,  was  published  by  Hutton 
subsequently  (1893,  }}.  35  et  seq.). 

In  these  papers  Hutton  rarely  makes  any  statement  as  to  the  actual 
Wanganui  locality  at  which  the  various  species  were  found.  For  that 
reason  none  of  his  lists  can  be  utilized  in  any  statement  of  the  species  that 
occur  in  the  beds  at  Castlecliff  and  elsewhere  along  the  coast.  This  is  the 
more  regrettable  because  many  of  the  new  species  that  were  described  in 
the  Madeaif  Memorial  Volume  were  found  by  Drew  in  the  marine  cliffs 
somewhere  to  the  north  of  Castlecliff. 

Hutton  (1886,  p.  337)  took  this  course  deliberately,  for  he  says,  "  In 
*  order  to  save  space  I  have  not  thought  it  necessary  to  give  separate  lists 
of  the  fossils  from  each  locality,  but  have  contented  myself  with  one  list  of 
all  the  species  that  have  been  found  in  the  Wanganui  system,"  but  the 
work  that  has  been  done  "  will  enable  local  geologists  to  fill  in  the  details." 
This  additional  work  has  hot  been  done  up  to  the  present  time,  and  the 
details  that  have  to  be  filled  in  are  so  numerous  that  much  time  must 
elapse  before  anything  approaching  a  complete  result  is  achieved. 

Park  (1887)  examined  all  the  Wanganui  and  west-coast  district  for 
the  Geological  Survey,  and  in  his  report  there  are  lists  of  fossils  that  he 
collected  from  the  various  strata  that  crop  out  on  the  coast-line  and  on 
the  banks  of  the  Wanganui  River,  as  well  as  a  number  of  other  adjacent 
localities.  The  lists  that  he  gives  are,  however,  far  from  complete, 
though  they  reveal  the  occurrence  of  a  large  number  of  extinct  species, 
such  as  Pecten  triphooki,  Pecten  semiplicatus,  Ostrea  ingens,  Cardimn 
spatiosum,  and  Perna  sp.,  several  of  which  were  regarded  by  Hutton  as 
characteristic  of  his  Pareora  system,  of  Upper  Miocene  age. 


116  Transactions. 

In  1916  Thomson  proposed  to  divide  the  rocks  exposed  on  the  Wanganui 
coast-line  into  the  Castlecliffian  and  Waitotaran  series.  This  proposal, 
however,  was  not  based  on  any  further  work,  but  merely  on  a  consideration 
of  Park's  work  and  of  the  lists  of  fossils  that  he  had  recorded. 

Murdoch   (1900,    p.   216)   described   further  species  that  had  been  col 
lected  by  himself  and  others  from  the  blue  clays  in  the  Castlecliff  area. 

All  of  the  strata  on  the  coast-line  north  of  Wanganui,  as  far  at  least 
as  Patea,  were  placed  by  Hutton  (1885,  p.  211)  in  the  Pliocene  system. 
Hecter  (1886,  p.  48)  placed  the  strata  partly  in  the  Upper  Miocene. 
Park  (1887,  p.  57)  placed  the  beds  near  Wanganui  in  the  Upper  Pliocene, 
those  at  Nukumaru  in  the  Lower  Pliocene,  and  those  between  Waitotara 
and  Patea  in  the  Upper  Miocene. 

The  present  work  was  undertaken  partly  to  discover  the  thickness  of 
the  strata  exposed  on  the  coast-line,  and  partly  to  find  out  as  accurately 
as  possible  the  extent  to  which  the  fauna  changed  as  the  depth  in  the 
strata,  and  therefore  the  geological  age,  increased.  At  first  the  intention 
was  to  collect  the  fossils  in  every  stratum  in  which  they  could  be  found, 
and  to  make  a  separate  list  of  the  fauna  in  every  case.  The  great  number 
of  fossil-bearing  strata  soon  showed  that  such  a  project  was  impracticable, 
and  that  for  the  present  purpose  it  was  also  undesirable,  for  each  single 
stratum  contains  a  small  fauna  only.  If  the  fauna  of  each  stratum  were 
taken  separately  there  would  result  a  very  large  number  of  lists,  and  the 
comparison  of  these  would  lead  to  much  confusion.  For  these  reasons 
four  different  collecting  localities  have  been  chosen,  and  in  each  instance 
a  thickness  of  about  500  ft.  of  sediment  has  been  searched  carefully, .  and 
as  complete  a  collection  as  possible  has  been  made  from  it.  The  lists  that 
have  been  made  cannot  in  general  be  regarded  as  in  any  way  exhaustive, 
but  in  nearly  every  instance  several  visits  have  been  made  by  two  collectors 
in  company.  The  Castlecliff  locality  has  probably  been  almost  completely 
collected,  for  much  time  has  been  spent  in  the  study  of  the  strata  there, 
because  it  is  most  accessible.  The  late  S.  H.  Drew  obtained  a  large 
number  of  fossils  there,  and  one  of  us  has  collected  in  these  strata  fox 
a  number  of  years,  and  of  late  times  it  is  only  rarely  that  any  additions 
have  been  made  to  previous  lists. 

The  localities  that  have  been  chosen  as  suitable  for  the  comparison  of 
faunas  are  as  follows  : — 

{!.)  Castlecliff. — A  thickness  of  about  500  ft.  of  strata,  commencing  at 
the  southernmost  end  of  the  sea-cliff's  and  ending  about  a  mile  and  a  half 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Wanganui  River.  Nearly  every  stratum  in  this 
thickness  *is  fossil-bearing.  Almost  all  of  the  strata  consist  of  a  fine  but 
hard  blue  clay — the  so-called  "  papa."  The  fineness  and  general  nature  of 
this  material,  as  well  as  the  mollusca  that  it  contains,  give  the  impression 
that  the  material  was  deposited  on  the  floor  of  a  sea  that  was  not  less  than 
50  fathoms  in  depth  in  this  locality.  As  the  strata  are  followed  to  the 
north  and  rise  in  the  cliffs  the  material  becomes  a  little  coarser,  and  often 
changes  to  a  micaceous  sand  before  it  works  out  at  the  top  of  the  cliff. 
This  apparently  indicates  that  the  water  became  shallower  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  district.  This  conclusion  is  supported  by  the  nature  of  the 
fossil  mollusca  which  have  been  found  in  the  sandy  facies  of  the  strata. 

(2.)  Kai  Iwi. — This  locality  is  five  miles  to  the  north  of  the  previous 
one.  The  rocks  which  extend  about  a  mile  to  the  south  of  the  Kai  Iwi 
Stream  form  the  source  of  the  collections  classified  under  this  name. 
The  material  is  almost  entirely  blue  clay  of  a  fine  unctuous  nature.  The 
collection  that  has  been  made  is  less  complete  than  those  made  in  the  other 
localities. 


Marshall  and  Murdoch. — Tertiary  Eocks  near  Wanganui.        117 

(3.)  Nukumaru  Beach. — This  locality  is  six  miles  to  the  north  of  Kai 
Iwi,  and  extends  over  a  distance  of  one  mile  to  the  south  of  the  boat- 
landing.  The  strata  here  are  of  a  much  coarser  grain  and  are  highly 
micaceous.  In  some  of  the  strata  there  are  pebbly  bands.  The  pebbles 
are  formed  of  extremely  hard  submetamorphic  sandstones,  or  greywackes, 
often  penetrated  by  quartz  veins.  Many  of  them  are  of  a  green  tint. 
Much  of  the  fossiliferous  material  in  this  locality  is  of  a  concretionary  nature. 

(4.)  Waipipi  Beach. — This  is  nine  miles  north  of  Nukumaru.  The 
strata  here  consist  of  a  stiff  and  fine  blue  clay,  with  occasional  bands 
of  fine  micaceous  sandy  matter.  It  is  mainly  in  these  bands  that  the 
fossils  are  found.  The  best  localities  are  directly  north  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Waipipi  Stream  and  on  a  projecting  headland  three-quarters  of  a  mile 
farther  to  the  north.  Sometimes  as  the  sand  drifts  with  changing  winds 
and  tides  very  fine  fossils  are  exposed  above  low-tide  level  between  these 
two  localities. 

It  may  be  said  definitely  that  lithologically  the  strata  are  of  the  same 
general  nature  throughout.  A  bluish-grey  fine-grained  sediment  is  the 
ordinary  material.  This  in  places  becomes  sandy,  especially  between 
Kai  Iwi  and  Nukumaru,  where  there  is  much  false  bedding,  due  appa- 
rently to  rough-weather  and  tidal  scouring,  for  there  does  not  appear  to 
be  any  actual  beach  formation.  Sometimes  the  fossiliferous  bands  have 
an  extremely  marked  concretionary  nature,  and  then  the  rock  becomes  a 
hard  arenaceous  limestone ;  but  this  is  always  a  shoal-water  rock,  and  it 
generally  contains  a  number  of  small  pebbles.  This  is  the  nature  of  the 
Nukumaru  limestone,  which  is  really  a  shell  conglomerate.  This  hard 
rock  fronts  the  coast  for  a  distance  of  some  three  miles  north  of  Nukumaru 
Beach. 

The  strata  always  strike  to  the  east  of  north.  The  most  northerly 
strike  is  N.  27°  E.,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Waipipi  Stream,  and  the  most 
easterly  N.  85°  E.,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Kai  Iwi  Stream.  The  average 
throughout  the  whole  distance  is  considered  to  be  N.  70°  E.  The  dip  is 
always  to  the  south-east,  and  its  amount  is  small  throughout — never  more 
than  6°  and  never  less  than  2|°.  The  average  is  considered  to  be  a  little 
over  4°. 

No  dislocations  of  any  importance  have  been  seen  in  the  strata,  though 
the  sea-cliffs,  which  are  continuous  from  Castlecliff  to  three  miles  north 
of  Nukumaru,  have  been  closely  inspected  throughout  the  whole  distance. 
There  are  some  small  faults,  but  they  always  have  a  slight  throw  only. 
Nothing  of  the  nature  of  an  important  unconformity  can  be  seen.  Three 
miles  to  the  north  of  Kai  Iwi  an  old  land-surface  can  be  seen  distinctly 
in  the  stratification.  The  evidence  of  this  is  found  in  a  stratum  of  beach- 
worn  pebbles,  a  carbonaceous  stratum  with  roots  penetrating  the  blue 
clay  beneath,  and  a  number  of  molluscan  bores  penetrating  it.  There  is, 
however,  no  discordance  in  the  stratification,  and  no  species  of  moUusca 
were  found  in  the  strata  lying  just  above  the  old  land-surface  different 
from  those  that  were  found  beneath  it.  It  is,  however,  noticeable  that 
Crepidida  gregaria  was  far  more  abundant  in  the  rocks  below  than  in 
those  above  this  old  surface.  The  structure  is  certainly  due  to  a  purely 
temporary  emergence  of  what  was  probably  a  small  portion  of  the  area 
of  deposition. 

There  is  another  instance  of  interbedded  carbonaceous  matter  and 
of  penetrating  roots  near  the  south  end  of  the  Nukumaru  Beach,  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  to  the  south  of  the  place  where  the  fossil  moa-bones  were 
found.      This  is  a  far  less  marked  instance  than  the  former  one.      These 


118  Transactions. 

two  instances  emphasize  the  shallow-water  nature  of  the  strata  in  the 
Nukiimaru  -  Kai  Iwi  section,  and  they  show  also  that  there  were  tempo- 
rary oscillations  in  the  level  of  the  land  whilst  the  deposition  of  fhese  rocks 
was  in  progress. 

The  continuity  of  the  stratigraphical  succession  is,  however,  well  shown 
by  the  nature  of  the  fossil  mollusca  which  are  contained  in  the  rocks,  for 
they  display  a  nearly,  uniform  gradual  change  as  one  proceeds  northward 
along  the  coast-line,  and  therefore  into  lower  strata.  It  has  already  been 
suggested  that  the  small  pebbles  in  some  of  the  strata  came  from  the  north- 
west of  Nelson,  but  no  suggestion  has  yet  been  made  as  to  the  source  of  the 
great  mass  of  the  blue  clay,  which  constitutes  by  far  the  greater  part  of 
these  younger  Tertiary  sediments.  One  of  the  most  notable  features  of  the 
mineralogical  composition  of  this  blue  clay  is  its  highly  micaceous  nature. 
The  mica  is  muscovite,  and  whenever  a  coarser  stratum  than  usual  occurs 
the  mica  flakes  in  particular  are  of  such  a  large  size  that  the  only  origin 
that  can  reasonably  be  assigned  to  them  is  a  granitic  rock.  There  is  at 
the  present  time  no  such  rock  known  to  occur  in  the  North  Island,  and 
unless  some  large  pre-existing  mass  has  been  submerged,  or  covered  up 
by  sediments,  we  must  look  to  the  South  Island  for  the  rock-mass  from 
which  all  this  sediment  was  derived.  There  is  no  reason  to  think  that  any 
previously  existing  granite  mass  in  the  North  Island  is  now  concealed  from 
view,  and  it  is  to  the  South  Island  that  our  attention  is  at  once  directed. 

In  the  north-west  of  Nelson  there  is  now  a  large  area  of  country  which 
is  composed  of  a  granite.  It  is  suggested  that  it  is  from  this  rock  that 
the  younger  Tertiary  sediments  of  the  Wanganui  district  were  derived. 
It  is  true  that  so  far  as  that  granite  is  known  there  is  not  a  great  deal  of 
muscovite  in  its  composition ;  but  up  to  the  present  time  little  petro- 
graphical  work  has  been  done  on  the  rock,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  a 
portion  of  the  granite,  which  crops  out  over  an  area  of  some  800  square 
miles,  is  more  micaceous  than  the  few  specimens  that  have  been  closely 
examined.  It  is  true  also  that  on  its  seaward  margin  the  granite  has  a 
superficial  covering  of  Tertiary  rocks  of  a  greater  age  than  the  Wanganui 
series  of  sediments.  The  granite  mountains  rise,  however,  to  a  height  of 
6;000  ft.,  and  no  Tertiarj^  sediments  are  exposed  at  a  greater  height  than 
2,000  ft.  It  is  a  fact  also  that  no  granite  pebbles  have  been  found  in  the 
coarser  strata  that  often  occur  in  the  Wanganui  sediments.  This  objection, 
however,  is  not  a  strong  one,  because  the  granite  is  notoriously  friable,  and 
no  pebbles  are  found  on  the  long  beach  of  Farewell  Spit,  which  is  mainly 
composed  of  detritus  from  the  granite. 

At  the  present  time  there  is  no  material  on  the  beaches  of  the  Wanganui 
coast  that  could  have  a  granite  origin  assigned  to  it,  and  the  depth  of  the 
north-west  entrance  of  Cook  Strait  is  too  great  to  allow  of  the  drift  of  any 
such  material  from  the  South  Island,  especially  when  the  strong  inflow  and 
outflow  of  tides  through  the  strait  is  considered.  •  If  the  origin  of  the  sedi- 
ment is  to  be  traced  to  the  Karamea  granite,  as  is  here  suggested.  Cook 
Strait  must  at  that  time  have  been  closed,  and  a  continuous  beach  must 
have  extended  from  Kahurangi  Point  to  the  Wanganui  area. 

The  thickness  of  the  sediments  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  in  the 
subject  of  this  paper.  The  direction  of  the  strike  is,  on  the  whole,  so 
constant,  and  makes  such  a  considerable  angle  with  the  coast-line,  that 
it  is  at  once  evident  that  in  a  distance  of  twenty  miles  along  the  coast  a 
great  thickness  of  sediment  must  be  passed  through.  Taking  the  average 
of  the  dip  and  strike  mentioned  above  (strike  70°  and  dip  4|^°),  it  is  found 
that  the  thickness  of  rocks  between  Castlecliff  and  Kai  Iwi  is  950  ft.,  the 


Marshall  and  Murdoch. — Tertiary  Rocks  near  Wanganui.        119 

thickness  between  Kai  Iwi  and  Nukumaru  is  1,050  ft.,  and  that  between 
Nukumaru  and  Waipipi  is  1,450  ft.  If  the  rate  at  which  these  sediments 
were  deposited  can  be  approximately  estimated,  it  should  be  possible  to 
calculate  the  time  at  which  various  species  of  mollusca  made  their  last 
appearance.  It  is  generally  estimated  that  the  average  rate  of  deposition  of 
sediment  amounts  to  about  1  ft.  in  100  years  (Sollas,  1905,  p.  24).  This 
estimate,  of  course,  cannot  have  a  precise  application  in  all  actual  cases,  if 
in  any  one,  because  in  every  case  the  true  rate  must  depend  upon  the  size 
of  the  country  that  is  being  denuded  and  is  supplying  the  sediment,  upon 
the  hardness  of  the  rock  of  which  this  country  is  mainly  composed,  and, 
of  course,  upon  the  distance  from  the  coast-line  of  the  area  in  which  deposi- 
tion is  taking  place. 

In  the  present  instance  the  area  of  land  which  was  undergoing  denu- 
dation was  probably  small,  and  therefore  supplied  sediment  at  a  slow  rate. 
Whether  the  land  was  composed  of  granite  rock  or  was  in  part  formed  of 
sediments  that  had  been  derived  from  granite  and  raised  above  the  sea- 
level  a  little  while  earlier  and  again  submitted  to  denudation  is  by  no 
means  certain.  On  the  one  hand,  the  fact  that  from  Karioi  to  Waiouru, 
sixty  miles  inland,  rocks  of  this  very  young  Tertiary  age  were  being 
deposited  points  to  the  conclusion  that  there  was  at  this  time  a  wide  extent 
of  shallow  sea  in  the  Wanganui  district.  On  the  other  hand,  the  inter- 
bedded  land-surface  near  the  mouth  of  the  Okehu  Stream  supports  the 
idea  that  a  part  at  least  of  the  huge  Tertiary  area  to  the  north  was  above 
the  sea-level  for  a  portion  at  least  of  the  period  of  deposition.  If  that  was 
the  case  sediment  would  have  been  supplied  at  a  relatively  rapid  rate. 
Until  the  country  to  the  north  has  been  more  fully  examined  with  the  object 
of  ascertaining  how  large  an  area  is  bare  of  a  covering  of  these .  youngest 
Tertiary  rocks  it  is  not  safe  to  offer  any  opinion  on  this  matter.  Much  of 
the  sediment  was  deposited  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  coast-line, 
and  in  water  of  considerable  depth.  This  is  proved  both  by  the  fine- 
grained texture  of  the  sediment  and  by  the  nature  of  the  fossil  mollusca 
embedded  in  it.  The  sediment '  is  generally  of  an  extremely  fine  grain 
and  contains  a  large  proportion  of  smaU  mica  plates,  two  features  which 
point  to  deposition  in  an  area  which  was  reached  by  the  finest  and 
lightest  sediment  only. 

The  fossil  mollusca  found  over  the  first  five  miles  north  of  CastleclifE 
are  of  a  nature  which  indicates  that  the  sea-floor  was  at  a  depth  of  between 
50  and  100  fathoms.  At  Kai  Iwi  the  depth  of  the  water  was  probably 
nearer  the  former  than  the  latter  figure.  If  this  were  the  case  the  rate 
of  deposition  must  have  been  a  very  slow  one.  Thus  the  following 
considerations  point  to  the  probability  of  slow  deposition  :  (1)  The  small 
size  of  the  land  area  from  which  the  sediment  was  derived  ;  (2)  the  hard 
nature  of  the  rocks  that  were  undergoing  denudation  ;  (3)  the  distance 
of  the  area  of  deposition  from  the  area,  of  denudation  ;  (4)  the  depth  of 
water  in  which  the  deposition  took  place.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  possible 
that-^(l)  some  of  the  material  was  derived  from  older  Tertiary  rocks  only 
lately  deposited  (if  that  were  the  case  the  deposition  area  may  have  been 
quite  close  to  that  of  denudation)  ;  (2)  some  of  the  strata  were  deposited 
under  shallow-water  conditions  and  close  to  the  shore-line.  A  balancing 
of  these  considerations  inclines  us  to  the  opinion  that  the  material  was 
possibly  deposited  at  the  rate  of  1  ft.  of  sediment  in  200  years.  If  this  rate 
of  accumulation  is  applied  generally  to  the  thicknesses  of  sediment  that 
have  been  already  mentioned,  we  find  that  the  Waipipi  beds  are  690,000 
years  older,  those  at  Nukumaru  400,000  years  older,  and  those  at  Kai  Iwi 
190,000  years  older  than  the  CastleclifE  beds. 


120 


Transactions. 


Fossils  from  Gastlecliff. 

The  collections  in  this  locality  were  made  in  the  marine  clifEs  over  a 
distance  of  two  miles  from  the  Gastlecliff  end.  The  rocks  are  everywhere 
blue  clay,  or  "  papa,"  which,  however,  has  a  tendency  to  become  more 
sandy  as  the  strata  rise  in  the  face  of  the  cliff  when  they  are  followed  to  the 
northward.  This  probably  indicates  that  the  water  became  rather  more 
shallow  in  this  direction — a  conclusion  which  is  supported  by  the  very 
nature  of  the  mollusca  that  are  found  in  them  as  they  are  followed 
northwards. 

In  the  following  lists  extinct  species  are  marked  with  an  asterisk. 


Acanthochites  zelandicus  (Q.  &  G.) 

Acmaea  daedala  (Sut.) 
*Acteon  sulcatus  (Hutt.) 

Alcira  inconstans  (Sut.) 

AmpJddesma  gaymardi  (Desh.) 

Amphidesma  ventricosa  (Gray) 

Ancilla  australis  (Sow.) 

Ancilla  australis  pyramidalis  (Reeve) 

Ancilla  depressa  (Sow.) 

Ancilla  mucronata  (Sow.) 

Ancilla  ■novae-zelandiae  (Sow.) 

Area  novae-zelandiae  (E.  A.  Smith) 
[=  decussata  Sut.,  not  Sow.] 

Argohuccinum  australasia  (Perry) 

Astraea  heliotropium  (Mart.) 

Atrina  zelandica  (Gray) 

Barnea  similis  (Gray) 

Bathytoma  albula  (Hutt.) 

Bathytoma  nodilirata  (Murd.  &  Sut.) 

Bathytoma  zealandica  (E.  A.  Smith) 
[=  cJieesemani  (Hutt.)] 
*Bezanconia  huttoni  (Coss.) 

Caecum  digitulum  (Hedley) 
*Calliostoma  hodgei  (Hutt.) 

Calliostoma  pellucidum  (Val.) 
*Calliostoma  ponderosum  (Hutt.) 

Calliostoma  punctulatum  (Mart.) 

Calliostorha  selectum  (Ghemn.) 

Calyptraea  alta  (Hutt.) 

Calyptraea   novae-zelandiae  Lesson 
[=  maculata  (Q.  &  G.)] 

Calyptraea  tenuis  (Gray) 

Cantharidus  sanguineus  (Gray) 

Cardita  calyculata  (L.) 

Chione  mesodesma  (Q.  &  G.) 

Chione  spissa  (Desh.) 

Chione  stutchhuryi  (Gray) 

Chione  yatei  (Gray) 

Cominella  lurida  (Phil.) 

Cominella  virgata  (A.  Ad.) 

Corhula  macilenta  (Hutt.) 

Corbula  zelandica  (Q.  &  G.) 
*Couthouyia  exilis  (Murdoch) 


Crepidula  costata  (Sow.) 
Crepidula  monoxyla  (Less.) 
Cylichnella  striata  (Hutt.) 
Cymatium  spengleri  (Ghemn.) 
Cytherea  oblonga  (Hanley) 
Daphnella  cancellata  (Hutt.) 
Daphnella  lacunosa  (Hutt.) 
Daphnella  striata  (Hutt.) 
Dentalium  ecosfatum  (T.  W.  Kirk) 
Dentalium  huttoni  (T.  W.  Kirk) 
Dentalium  zelandicum  (Sow.) 
Diplodonta  zelandica  (Gray) 
Divaricella  cumingi  (Ad.  &  Ang.) 
Dosinia  anus  (Phil.) 
Dosinia  greyi  (Zittel) 
Dosinia  suhrosea  (Gray) 

*Drillia  huchanani  (Hutt.) 
Drillia  laevis  (Hutt.) 
Drillia  novae-zelandiae  (Reeve) 

*  Drillia  wanganuiensis  (Hutt.) 
Emarginula  striatida  (Q.  &  G.) 
Epitonium  zelebori  (Dunker) 
Erycina  parva  (Desh.) 
Ethalia  zelandica  (H.  &  J.) 
Euthria  linea  (Mart.) 
Euthria  linea  tr  aver  si  (Hutt.) 
Euthria  littorinoides  (Reeve) 
Euthria  striata  (Kvitt.) 
Fissuridea  monilifera  (Hutt.) 
Fusinus  spiralis  (A.  Ad.) 
Glycymeris  laticostata  (Q.  &  G.) 
Glycymeris  modesta  (Angas) 

*Hipponix  radiatus  (Hutt.) 
Kellia  suhorhicularis  (Mont.) 
Leptomya  perconfusa  (Iredale) 
Leptothyra  fluctuata  (Hutt.) 
Lima  angulata  (Sow.) 
Lima  bullata  (Born) 
Lima  lima  (L.) 
Liotia  benhami  (Sut.) 
Lissospira  corulum  (Hutt.) 
Lucinida  concinna  (Hutt.) 
Macoma  edgari  (Iredale) 


Marshall  and  Murdoch. — Tertiary  Bocks  near  Wanganui.        121 


Macrocallista  ■multistriata  (Sow.) 

Mactra  discors  (Gray) 

Mactra  elongata  (Q.  &  G.) 

Mactra  ovata  (Gray) 

Mactra  scalpellum  (Reeve)    . 

Malletia  australis  (Q.  &  G.) 

Mangilia  amoena  (E.  A.  Smith) 

MangiUa  sinclairi  (E.  A.  Smith) 

Mitrella  choava  (Reeve) 

Modiolus  australis  (Gray) 

Murex  angasi  (Crosse) 

Murex  octogonus  (Q.  &  G.) 

Murex    octogonus    umbilicatus    (T.- 
Woods) 

Murex  zelandicus  (Q.  &  G.) 

Musculus  impactus  (Herm.) 

Myodora  antipodum  (E.  A.  Smith) 

Myodora  striata  (Q.  &  G.) 

Myodora  subrostrata  (E.  A.  Smith) 

Myfilus  canaliculus  (Mart.) 

Mytilus  edulis  (L.) 

Mytilus  mam-ianus  (Iredale) 

Natica  australis  (Hutt.) 

Natica  zelandica  (Q.  &  G.) 

Nucula  hartvigiana  (Pfr.) 

Nucula  nitidula  (A.  Ad.) 

Nuculana  bellida  (A.  Ad.) 

Nucidana  fastidiosa  (A.  Ad.) 

Odostomia  bembix  (Sut.) 

Odostomia  huttoni  (Sut.) 

Odostomia  rugata  (Hutt.) 

Ostrea  angasi  (Sow.) 

Ostrea  corrugata  (Hutt.) 

Panope  zelandica  (Q.  &  G.) 

Paphia  intermedia  (Q.  &  G.) 

Pecten  convexus  (Q.  &  G.) 

Pecten  mediiis  (Lamk.)  , 

Pecten  radiatus  (Hutt.) 

Pecten  zelaruliae  (Gray) 

Phalium  ackatinum  pyrum  (Lamk.) 
*Philobrya  irigonopsis  (Hutt.) 

Protocardia  pulchella  (Gray) 

Psammobia  lineolata  (Gray) 

Psammobia  stangeri  (Gray) 

Psammobia  zelandica  (Desh.) 

P^ipa  affinis  (A,  Ad.) 

PujM  alba  (Hutt.) 
*Rissoa  semisulcata   (Hutt.)  ['' Liro- 
noba  "] 

Rissoina  chathamensis  (Hutt.)  [=  R. 
rugulosa  (Hutt.)] 

Rissoina  emdrginata  (Hutt.)  ["  No- 
zeba  "] 


Rissoina  olivacea  (Hutt.)  ["  Darda- 

nula  "] 
Rochefortia  reniformis  (Sut.) 
Saxicava  arctica  (L.) 
Seila  terebelloides  (Mts.) 
SinuW'  und'ulatum  (Hutt.) 
Siphonalia  caudata  (Q.  &  G.) 
Siphonalia  dilataia  (Q.  &  G.) 
Siphonalia  mandarina  (Duclos) 
Siphonalia  nodosa  (Mart.) 
Siphonalia  valedicta  (Wats.) 
Solariella  egena  (Goukl) 
Soletellina  nitida  (Gray) 
Spisula  equilateralis  (Desh.) 
Spisula  ordinaria  (E.  A.  Smith) 
Struthiolaria  papulosa  (Mart.) 
Struthiolaria  vermis  (Mart.) 
*Surcula  castlecliffensis  (Marshall  and 

Murdoch) 
Tellina  eugonia  (Sut.) 
Tellina  huttoni  sterrha  (Sut.) 
Tellina  liliana  (Iredale) 
Tellina  spenceri  (Sut.) 
Terebra  tristis  (Desh.) 
^Thracia    vegrandis    (Marshall    and 

Murdoch) 
Thracia  vitrea  (Hutt.) 
Tornatina  pachys  (Wats.) 
Trichotropis  clathrata  (Sow.) 
*Trochus  conicus  (Hutt.) 
Trochus  tiaratus  (Q.  &  G.) 
Trochus  viridis  (Gmel.) 
Trophon  ambiguus  (Phil.) 
Trophon  cheesemani  (Hutt.) 
Trophon  pumil'a  Sut.  [=  T.  bonneti 

Cossm.] 
Tugalia  intermedia  (Reeve) 
Turbo  granosus  (Mart.) 
Turbo  smaragdus  (Mart.) 
Turbonilla  zealandica  (Hutt.) 
Turritella  carlottae  (Wats.) 
Turritella  rosea  (Q.  &  G.) 
Turritella  symmetrica  (Hutt.) 
Venericardia  lutea  (Hutt.) 
Venericardia  purpurata  (Desh.) 
Venericardia  unidentata  (Basterot) 
Vexillum  marginatum  (Hutt.) 
Vexillum  rubiginosum  (Hutt.) 
Valuta  arabica  (Mart.) 
Voluta  arabica  elongata  (Swains.) 
Voluta  gracilis  (Swains.) 
Xymene  plebejus  (Hutt.) 
Zenatia  acinaces  (Q.  &  G.) 


The  total  number,  of  species  is  181,  of  which  92-8  per  cent,  are  Recent. 


122 


Transactions. 


Fossils  from  Kai  Iwi. 

In  this  locality  collections  were  made  for  a  distance  of  three-quarters 
of  a  mile  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Kai  Iwi  Stream.  The  collection  was 
made  by  one  of  us  (Marshall)  in  a  single  day's  excursion,  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  list  will  have  a  large  number  of  additions  made  to  it  in  the 
future. 


Acteon  sulcatus  (Hutt.) 
Alcira  inconstans  (Sut.) 
Ancilla  australis  (Sow.) 
Area  reticulata  (Gmel.) 
Atritia  zelandiae  (Gray) 
Barnea  similis  (Gray) 

*Bezanconia  huttoni  (Cossm.) 

*Calliostoma  hodgei  (Hutt.) 
Calliostoma  punetulatum  (Mart.) 
Calliostoma  seleetum  (Chemn.) 
Calyptraea  novae-zelandiae  (Lesson) 
Calyptraea  tenuis  (Gray) 
Cantharidus  sanguineus  (Gray) 
Cardita  calyculata  (L.) 
Chione  mesodesma  (Q.  &  G.) 
Cominella  virgata  (A.  Ad.) 
Corbula  macilenta  (Hutt.) 
Cytherea  oblonga  (Hanley) 
Daphnella  cancellata  (Hutt.) 
Dentalium  ecostatum  (T.  W.  Kirk) 
Dentalium  nanum.  (Hutt.) 
Di varicella  cumingi  (Ad.  &  Ang.) 

*Drillia  buchanani  (Hutt.) 
Drillia  novae-zelandiae  (Reeve) 

*Drillia  wanganuiensis  (Hutt.) 
Emarginula  striatula  (Q.  &  G.) 
Epitonium  zelehori  (Dkr.) 
Erycina  parva  (Desh.) 
Euthria  littorinoides  (Reeve) 
Glycymeris  modesta  (Angas) 
Leptomyia  perconfusa  (Iredale) 
Lucinida  concinna  (Hutt.) 
Macoma  edgari  (Iredale) 
Macrocallista  multistriata  (Sow.) 
Mactra  scalpellum  (Reeve) 
Malletia  australis  (Q.  &  G.) 
Mangilia  amoena  (E.  A.  Smith) 
Murex  angasi  (Crosse) 
Murex  zelandicus  (Q.  &  G.) 
Myodora  antipodum  (E.  A.  Smith) 
Natica  australis  (Hutt.) 
Natica  zelandica  (Q.  &.  G.) 


Nucula  nitidula  (A.  Ad.) 
Nuculana  bellula  (A.  Ad.) 
Odostomia  bemhix  (Sut.) 
Ostrea  cor  nt  gat  a  (Hutt.) 
Panope  zelandica  (Q.  &  G.) 
Pecten  zelandiae  (Gray) 

*Philobrya  trigonopsis  (Hutt.) 
Poroleda  lanceolata  (Hutt.) 
Protocardia  pulchella  (Gray) 
Psammobia  lineolata  (Gray) 
Saxicava  arctica  (L.) 
Serpulorbis  sipho  (Lamk.) 
Sinum  undulatum  (Hutt.) 
Siphonalia  caudata  (Q.  &  G.)- 
Siphonalia  mandarina  (Duclos) 
Siphonalia  nodosa  (Mart.) 
Spisula  ordinaria  (E.  A.  Smith) 
Struthiolaria  papulosa  (Mart.) 
Struthiolaria  vermis  (Mart.) 

*Surcula  castlecliffensis  (Marshall  and 
Murdoch) 
Tellina  eugonia  (Sut.) 
Terehra  tristis  (Desh.) 
Trichotropis  clathrata  (Sow.) 

*Trochus  conicus  (Hutt.) 
Trochus  tiaratus  (Q.  &.  G.) 
Trophon  ambiguus  (Phil.) 
TropJion  cheesemani  (Hutt.) 
TropJwn  corticatus  (Hutt.) 
Trophon  pumila  i^Sut.) 
Tugalia  intermedia  (Reeve) 
Turritella  rosea  (Q.  &  G.) 
Turritella  symmetrica  (Hutt.) 
Venericardia  lutea  (Hutt.) 
Venericardia  purpurata  (Desh.) 
Venericardia  unidentata  (Bast.) 
Vexillum  planatum  (Hutt.) 
Vexillum  rubiginosum  (Hutt.) 
Voluta  gracilis  (Swains.) 

*Xymene  expansus  (Hutt.) 
Xymene  plebejus  (Hutt.) 


This  list  contains  eighty-two  species,  of  which  eight  are  extinct, 
percentage  of  Recent  species  is  therefore  90-25. 


The 


Marshall  and  Murdoch. — Tertiary  Bocks  near  Wangunui.        123 


Fossils  from  Nukumaru. 

Collections  were  made  over  a  distance  of  one  mile  south  from  the  Nuku- 
maru  boat-landing.      One  of  us  (Marshall)  spent  four  daiys  in  collectinsf 
in  this  locality,  and  the  other  (Murdoch)  spent  two  days.     These  are 
Rotella  beds  of  Park  (1887,  p.  63). 


t5 

the 


Acanthochites  zelandicvs  (Q.  &  G.) 

Alcira  inconstans  (Sut.) 
*Amphidesma  crassifonnis  n.  sp. 

Amphidesma  gaymardi  (Desh.) 
*Anachis  pisaniopsis  (Hutt.) 

Ancilla  australis  (Sow.) 

Ancilla  depressa  (Sow.) 

Ancilla  novae-zelandiae  (Sow.) 

Anomia  huttoni  (Sut.) 
*Afaxocerithiu'm  perplexum  (Marshall 
and  Murdoch) 

Barnea  similis  (Gray) 
*Calliostoma  hodgei  (Hutt.) 

Calliostoma  pellucidum  (Val.) 

Calliostoma  punctidatum  (Mart.) 

Calyptraea  alia  (Hutt.)  . 

Calyptraea  tenuis  (Gray) 

Cantharidus  sanguineus  (Gray) 

Cardita  calyculata  (L.) 

Chione  mesodesma  (Q.  &  G.) 

Chione  spissa  (Desh.) 

Chione  yatei  (Gray) 

Cochlodesma  angasi  (C.  &  F.) 

Cominella  lurida  (Phil.) 

Cominella  virgata  (A.  Ad.) 

Crepulula  crepidula  (L.) 
^Crepidula  gregaria  (Sow.) 

Cylichnella  striata  (Hutt.) 

Cytherea  ohlonga  (Hanley) 
*Diplodonta  atnpla  (Hutt.) 

Diplodonta  zelandica  (Gray) 

Dosinia  anus  (Phil.) 

Dosinia  sid>rosea  (Gray) 

Epitonium,  zelehori  (Dkr.) 

Ethalia  zelandica  (H.  &  J.) 
-^Eulimella  media  (Hutt.) 

Euthria  striata  (Hutt.) 

Fissuridea  monilifera  (Hutt.) 

Glycymeris  modest  a  (An  gas) 

Leptomya  perconfiisa  (Iredale) 
^Liicinida   levijoliata   (Marshall   and 

Murdoch) 
^Lutraria  solida  (Hutt.) 

Macoma  edgari  (Iredale) 

Mactra  ordinaria  (E.  A.  Smith) 

There  are  eighty-four  species  in  this  list,  of  which  76*2   per  cent,  are 
Recent. 


Mactra  rudis  (Hutt.) 
■Mactra  scalpellum  (Reeve) 
Mangilia  amoena  (E.  A.  Smith) 

*Melina  zealandica  (Sut.) 
My  odor  a  antipodium  (E.  A.  Smith) 
My  odor  a  suhrostrafa  (E.  A.  Smith) 
Mytilus  maorianus  (Iredale) 

*Neolepton  sp. 
Nucula  nitidula  (A.  Ad.) 
Odostomia  huttoni  (Sut.) 
Ostrea  angasi  (Sow.) 

*Ostrea  ingens  (Zittel) 

*Paphia  curta  (Hutt.) 
Paphia  intermedia  (Q.  &  G.) 
Pecten  zelandiae  (Gray) 

*Philohrya  trigonopsis  (Hutt.) 
Rissoina  olivacea  (Hutt.)  ['' Darda- 
mda  "] 

*Rissoa   semisulcata  (Hutt.)  ["  Liro- 
noba  "] 
Seila  chathamensis  (Sut.) 
Sinum  undidatum  (Hutt.) 
Siphonalia  caudata  (Q.  &  G.) 
Siphonalia  dilatata  (Q.  &  G.) 
Siphonalia  mandarina  (Duclos) 
Soletellina  nitida  (Gray) 

*Struthiolaria  frazeri  (Hutt. ) 
Struthiolaria  vermis  (Mart.) 
Terebra  tristis  (Desh.) 

^Trochis  conicus  (Hutt.) 
Trochus  tiaratus  (Q.  &  G.) 
Trophon  ambiguus  (Phil.) 
Trophon  cheesemani  (Hutt.) 
Turhonilla  zealandica  (Hutt.) 
Turritella  rosea  (Q.  &  G.) 
Turritella  symmetrica  (Hutt.) 
Venericardia  difficilis  (Desh.) 
Venericardia  lutea  (Hutt.) 
Venericardia  purpurata  (Desh.) 

*Voluta  turrita  (Sut.) 

*Vohita  turrita  nukumaruensis  (Mar- 
shall and  Murdoch) 

*Xymene  expansus  (Hutt.) 
Xymene  plebejus  (Hutt.) 


124 


Transactions. 


One  of  the  main  features  of  the  fauna  in  this  locality  is  the  large  size 
of  many  of  the  extinct  species  that  are  found.  Not  only  this,  but  the  large 
species  are  represented  by  a  great  number  of  individuals,  and  at  -the  first 
glance  it  is  apparent  that  the  fauna  is  essentially  different  from  that  of 
Kai  Iwi  and  of  Castlecliff.  In  addition  to  this,  several  of  the  species  that 
occur  in  the  strata  at  Castlecliff  and  are  also  of  Eecent  occurrence  have 
unusual  dimensions  at  Nukumaru.  Of  these,  Chione  yatei,  Cytherea  oblonga, 
and  Paphia  intermedia  are  noticeable.  Of  the  extinct  species,  Melina 
zealandica,  Cytherea  enysi,  Lutraria  solida,  Lucinida  levifoliata,  Stnithiolaria 
frazeri,  and  AmjMdesma  crassiformis  are  all  of  large  size.  This  large  size 
of  the  shells  in  itself  suggests  that  climatic  conditions  at  the  time  that 
these  strata  were  deposited  were  more  genial  than  tliose  that  now  prevail, 
and  this  suggestion,  due  to  the  mere  size  of  the  shells,  is  strengthened  by 
the  occurrence  of  such  a  genus  as  Melina,  which  is  now,  of  course,  extinct 
in  New  Zealand  waters. 

The  bone  of  Dinornis  robusta  which  was  described  in  a  previous  paper 
came  from  the  stratum  that  lies  immediately  below  the  bed  in  which  the 
occurrence  of  the  large  shells  is  first  especially  conspicuous.  Another  moa- 
bone  has  since  been  found,  and  it  is  identified  by  Professor  Benham  as 
part  of  the  right  tibia  of  Mesopteryx  casuarina  Owen.  The  medullary 
cavity  of  this  bone  is  partly  filled  with  pyrite,  a  sufficient  proof  that  the 
bone  has  been  preserved  in  strata  that  lie  beneath  the  level  to  which 
oxidizing  waters  can  percolate. 

Fossils  from  Waipipi. 

This  locality  is  about  five  miles  north  of  Nukumaru  along  the  coast- 
line. The  collection  was  made  from  the  outcrops  of  the  cliffs  over  a 
distance  of  one  mile  to  the  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Waipipi  Stream  and 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  to  the  south  of  it.  The  rocks  are  for  the  main  part 
tough  blue  papa,  or  blue  clay,  with  a  few  distinctly  sandy  or  micaceous 
strata.      It  is  in  the  latter  that  the  majority  of  the  fossils  were  found. 


Ancilla  australis  (Sow.) 

Ancilla  novae-zelandiae  (Sow.) 
*  Ancilla  pseud-australis  (Tate) 

Astraea  heliotropium  (Mart.) 

Atrina  zelandica  (Gray) 

Bathytoma  albida  (Hutt.) 

Bathytoma  zealandica  (E.  A.  Smith) 

Calliostoma  pellucidum  (Val.) 

Calyptraea  alta  (Hutt.) 

Calyptraea  tennis  (Gray) 
*Cardium  spatiosum  (Hutt.) 

Chione  mesodesma  {Q.  &  G.) 

Chione  spissa  (Desh.) 

Chione  yatei  (Gray) 

Corbula  macilenta  (Hutt.) 
*Crassatellites  obesus  (A.  Ad.) 

Crepidula  crepidula  (L.) 
*Crepidula  gregaria  (Sow.) 
*Cymbiola      [Miomelon)       corrugata 

(Hutt.) 
*Cytherea  enysi  (Hutt.) 


Cytherea  oblonga  (Hanley) 
*Dentaliiim  solidum  (Hutt.) 
^Diplodonta  ampla  (Hutt.) 

Divaricella  cumingi  (Ad.  &  Ang.) 

Dosinia  lambata  (Gould) 
'^Dosinia  magna  (Hutt.) 

Dosinia  subrosea  (Gray) 
*Erycina  cf.  bifurca  (Webster) 

Glycymeris  laticostata  (Q.  &  G.) 
*Glycymeris  subglobosa  (Sut.) 

Lima  angulata  (Sow.) 

Lima  bullata  (Born.) 
*Lima    waipipiensis    (Marshall 

Murdoch) 
^Lucinida    levifoliata   (Marshall 

Murdoch) 
*  Lutraria  solida  (Hutt.) 

Macoma  edgari  (Iredale) 

Macrocallista  multistriata  (Sow.) 

Mactra  scalpellum  (Reeve) 

Marginella  pygmaea  (Sow.)  (?) 


and 


and 


Makshall  and  Murdoch. — -Tertiary  Rocks  necn-  Wangamii.        125 


*Melina  zealandica  (Sut.) 
Musculus  impacta  (Herm.) 
Mi/tilus  maorianus  (Iredale) 
Natica  australis  (Hutt.) 

*Natica  ovata  (Hutt.) 

*  Natica  sagena  (Sut.) 
Natica  zelandica  (Q.  &  G.) 
Nicculana  fastidiosa  (A.  Ad.) 
Odostomia  aff.  hemhix  (Sut.) 

*Olivella  neozelanica  (Hutt.) 
Ostrea  angasi  (Sow.) 

*Ostrea  ingens  (Zittel) 
Panope  zelandica  (Q.  &  G.) 

*Paphia  curta  (Hutt.) 
Pecten  convexus  (Q.  &  G.) 

*Pecten  semiplicatus  (Hutt.) 

*Pecten  triphooki  (Zittel) 
Pecten  zelandiae  (Gray) 


^PJialium    fibratum     (Marshall    and 
Murdoch) 
Profocardia  pidchella  (Gray) 
Psammobia  lineolata  (Gray) 
Siphonalia  mandarina  (Duclos) 

*Sip)honalia  subnodosa  (Hutt.) 
Soletellina  nitida  (Gray) 

*Struthiolaria  canaliculata  (Zittel) 

*Stri(tJiiolaria  zelandica  (Marshall  and 
Murdoch) 
Turritella  rosea  (Q.  &  G.) 
Turritella  symnpetrica  (Hutt.) 
Venericardia  difficilis  (Desh.) 
Venericardia  lutea  (Hutt.) 

*Voluta  turrita  (Sut.) 

*  Valuta  morgani  (Marshall  and  Mur- 
doch) 
Zenatia  acinaces  (Q.  &  G.) 


This  list  contains  seventy-two  species,  of  which  61  per  cent,  are  Recent. 

The  remarks  that  have  been  made  about  the  occurrence  of  large  shells 
in  the  strata  at  Nukumaru  apply  with  even  greater  force  to  these  beds, 
for  there  are  these  additional  extinct  species  of  large  dimensions  :  Cardium 
spatiosum,  Paphia  curta,  Ostrea  ingens,  Pecten  triphooki,  Dentalium  soliduni, 
Natica  sagena,  Natica  ovata,  and  Crassatellites  obesus.  The  appearance  of 
the  large  Phalium  fibratum  adds  to  the  effect.  It  is  hard  to  resist  the 
opinion  that  either  the  climate  of  the  country  as  a  whole  was  more  genial 
or  that  the  region  was  a  sea-floor  that  was  washed  by  a  warmer  current 
when  the  sediment  was  deposited.  The  latter  alternative,  however,  is  an 
improbable  ■  explanation,  because  the  nature  of  the  sediment  is  essentially 
the  same  at  Waipipi  as  it  is  in  the  highest  of  the  Castlecliff  beds.  It  thus 
becomes  probable  that  there  was  a  reduction  in  the  temperature  of  the 
New  Zealand  area  which  extended  over  a  considerable  interval  of  time. 
This  gradual  cooling  of  the  climate  continued  throughout  the  lapse  of  time 
between  the  deposition  of  the  Waipipi  beds  and  of  the  upper  beds  at 
Nukumaru.  In  an  earlier  portion  of  this  paper  this  interval  of  time  is 
stated  as  possibly  as  much  as  300,000  years. 

The  general  results  of  this  examination  of  the  fossils  on  the  coast-line 
between  Castlecliff  and  Waipipi  thus  show  clearly  that  as  lower  and 
lower  strata  are  inspected  the  percentage  of  extinct  species  of  mollusca 
becomes  greater  and  greater.  This  increase  of  extinct  species  could  be 
due  mainly  to  three  different  conditions. 

(1.)  The  mere  increase  in  age  as  the  lower  beds  are  reached  might  in 
itself  account  for  it,  because  as  time  proceeds  various  species  become 
outclassed  in  the  struggle  for  existence  that  is  always  in  progress.  The 
many  slight  changes  in  food-supply,  ocean  currents,  and  accompanying 
variations  of  temperature  may  be  as  potent  in  this  direction  as  the  mere 
lapse  of  time  and  the  consequent  change  of  vital  energy  of  the  different 
species. 

(2.)  The  migration  of  additional  species  to  the  district  or  to  the  region 
would,  of  course,  have  a  similar  effect;  but  in  our  opinion  our  collections 
of  the  mollusca  afford  no  evidence  of  this.  On  the  contrary,  as  one  of  us 
(Marshall)  has  frequently  pointed  out  before,  the  present  moUuscan  fauna 
of  New  Zealand  seems  rather  to  be  a  remnant  of  a  more  extensive  fauna 


12G  Transactions. 

of  early  or  Middle  Tertiary  alge.  There  is  certainly  a  striking  poverty  of 
moUusca  in  the  Wanganui  beds  when  they  are  compared  with  that  of  the 
very  small  exposure  of  fossiliferous  strata  at  Target  Gully,  near  Oamaru,  and 
elsewhere  in  the  Middle  Tertiary  strata.  This  relative  poverty  in  species  is 
certainly  not  due  to  less  careful  collecting  at  Wanganui,  for  a  greater  amount 
of  time  has  been  spent  in  the  latter  locahty  and  a  much  greater  variety 
of  strata  has  been  scrutinized  than  at  Oamaru.  There  are  no  additional 
genera  of  any  importance  in  the  Castleclifi  strata,  and  there  is  no  sudden 
inrush  of  new  species,  so  far  as  our  investigations  go,  at  any  horizon  of 
the  beds  exposed  on  the  coast-line  between  Wangatiui  and  Waipipi. 

(3.)  A  considerable  and  general  change  of  climate  must  naturally  have 
a  great  effect  upon  the  molluscan  life  on  the  coast-line.  It  is,  of  course, 
well  established  that  towards  the  close  of  Tertiary  time  in  Europe  and  in 
America  and  elsewhere  there  was  a  great  change  in  climate,  especially 
during  the  Pliocene  period.  The  high  percentage  of  Recent  species  of 
mollusca  in  all  the  strata  with  which  this  paper  deals  shows  clearly  enough 
that  they  are  of  Upper  Tertiary  age.  Those  at  Waipipi  perhaps  correspond 
to  the  early  Pliocene  of  Europe,  or  perhaps  to  the  later  Miocene,  while  the 
CastleclifE  beds  probably  represent  the  highest  Pliocene.  The  change  in 
molluscan  fauna  may  therefore  be  mainly  due  to  the  gradual  reduction 
■  of  temperature  that  was  a  feature  of  all  climates  during  the  Pliocene 
period.  The  faunal  change  in  this  district  seems  to  have  been  much  less 
rapid  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  strata  examined  than  in  the  lower  ones. 
In  the  960  ft.  of  strata  between  Castleclifi  and  Kai  Iwi  only  2-5  per  cent, 
of  extinct  species  appear,  while  in  the  1,050  ft.  between  Kai  Iwi  and 
Nukumaru  an  additional  14  per  cent,  appear,  and  between  Nukumaru 
and  Waipipi,  in  a  thickness  of  1,450  ft.  of  sediment,  15  per  cent,  more  of 
extinct  species  are  found.  In  other  words,  between  Waipipi  and  Nuku- 
^maru  1  per  cent,  of  the  species  becomes  extinct  in  every  97  ft.  of  sediment. 
Between  Nukumaru  and  Kai  Iwi  the  rate  is  1  per  cent,  of  extinction  for 
every  75  ft.  of  sediment,  and  between  Kai  Iwi  and  Castleclifi"  the  rate  is 
much  slower  and  amounts  to  no  more  than  1  per  cent,  in  a  thickness  of 
384  ft.  of  sediment.  The  general  average  of  extinction  for  a  total  thickness 
of  3,560  ft.  is  almost  exactly  1  per  cent,  of  the  species  in  every  100  ft. 
If,  as  suggested  before,  this  sediment  has  been  deposited  at  an  average  rate 
of  1  ft.  in  200  years,  it  follows  that  on  the  average  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  Pliocene  period  in  New  Zealand  1  per  cent  of  the  species  of  marine 
mollusca  has  become  extinct  in  every  20,000  years.  It  is  not  intended 
to  assert  any  accuracy  for  this  result,  though  it  is  thought  that  it  is  of  the 
same  order  of  magnitude  as  the  actual  result  would  be  if  all  the  various 
factors  could  be  ascertained  with  certainty. 

It  has  been  stated  earlier  that,  as  far  as  the  stratigraphy  can  be  seen  in 
the  marine  clifi's,  there  is  certainly  no  sign  of  any  unconformity.  The 
clifis  give  an  actually  continuous  section  from  Castleclifi  to  Nukumaru.  To 
the  north  of  Nukumaru  the  continuity  is  interrupted  for  a  considerable 
distance,  but  the  close'  resemblance  of  the  fauna  of  the  Waipipi  beds  to 
that  of  Nukumaru  in  itself  points  to  the  conclusion  that  deposition  was 
continuous.  This  idea  is  strongly  supported  by  the  fauna  which  is  found 
at  Wilkie's  Bluft",  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Waitotara  River,  two  miles 
and  a  half  below  the  railway-bridge,  a  locality  intermediate  between 
Nukumaru  and  Waipipi.  Here  there  is  a  great  abundance  of  Ostrea 
ingens,  with  Pecten  triphooki  and  some  Cardium  spatiosum  and  Ltitraria 
solida.     Palaeontologically    as    well    as    in    geographical    position  the   bluff 


Marshall  and  Murdoch. — Tertiary  Socks  near  W anganui .       127 

forms  a  connecting-link  between- Waipipi  and  Nukumaru.  The  la,rge  number 
of  species  that  is  found  throughout  this  thick  series  of  strata  is  in  itself 
sufficient  proof  that  the  series  is  continuous,  and  it  is  interesting  to  find 
that  so  many  well-known  species  of  Miocene  occurrence  rise  so  high  into 
the  Wanganui  Tertiaries.  In  this  Wanganui  area  at  least  it  is  possible  to 
determine  the  upper  limits  of  their  occurrence.  So  far  as  our  collections  have 
given  us  information  the  following  are  the  levels  at  which  the  specified  well- 
known  Miocene  species  finally  disappear.  At  present  it  is  most  convenient 
to  define  their  position  as  so-many  feet  below  the  highest  beds  at  Castleclift". 


Crepidula    gregaria,      uncommon 

above  1,200  ft. 
Lutraria  solicla,  2,000  ft. 
Cytherea  enysi,  2,100  ft. 
Melind  zelandica,  2,100  ft. 
Struthiolaria  frazeri,  2,100  ft. 
Ostrea  ingens,  2,100  ft. 
Cardium  spatiosum,  2,700  ft. 
Pecten  triphooki,  2,700  it'. 


Pecten  semiplicatus,  3,000  ft. 
Denialium  solidum,  3,500  ft. 
Paphia  curta,  3,500  ft. 
Natica  ovata,  3,500  ft. 
Natica  sagena,  3,-500  ft. 
Crassatellites,  3,500  ft. 
Struthiolaria  canaliculata,  3,500  ft. 
Olivella  neozelardca,  3,500  ft. 
Dosinia  tnagna,  3,800  ft. 


The  highest  beds  at  CastleclifE,  the  horizon  to  which  these  occurrences 
are  referred,  are  covered  unconformably  by  sands  and  gravels  of  volcanic 
material,  which  usually  have  a  good  deal  of  included  timber,  and  are  referred 
to  the  Pleistocene.  Thomson  has  lately  called  this  formation  generally  the 
Hawera  series. 

It  is  noticeable  that  many  species  which  have  a  Recent  occurrence  and 
which  are  common  at  Castlecliff  are  quite  absent  from  our  collections  at 
Nukumaru  and  at  Waipipi,  though  from  a  lithological  standpoint  there  is 
little  change  in  the  rock,  and  the  conditions  of  deposition  seem  to  have 
been  substantially  the  same  at  Waipipi  as  at  Castlecliff . 

Struthiolaria  papulosa  was  last  found  one  mile  north  of  Kai  Iwi,  about 
1,200  ft.  below  the  highest  beds  at  Castlecliff.  Struthiolaria  vermis  was 
last  found  at  Nukamaru,  2,100  ft.  down,  and  it  is  very  scarce  there. 

Pecten  medius  has  not  been  found  below  500  ft.,  though  a  shell-fragment 
probably  belonging  to  this  species  was  found  at  the  mouth  of  the  Okchu 
Stream,"^  1,700  ft.  down. 

Murex  zelandicus  has  not  been  found  at  Nukumaru  or  at  Waipipi,  though 
it  has  frequently  been  found  in  rocks  of  Miocene  age  in  the  Oamaru  district, 
and  at  Pakaurangi  Point  in  the  Kaipara  Harbour.  Murex  angasi  and  Murex 
octogonus  also  have  not  been  found  north  of  Kai  Iwi,  though  they  too  occur 
in  Middle  Tertiary  rocks  in  various  parts  of  New  Zealand. 

It  does  not  seem  to  be  the  case  that  any 'importance  is  to  be  attached 
to  the  absence  of  these  species  as  an  indication  of  climatic  changes  on 
the  New  Zealand  coast-line.  The  absence  of  species  of  Murex  and  of  the 
Recent  species  of  Struthiolaria  might  at  first  suggest  a  colder  climate  for 
the  Nukumaru  and  Waipipi  beds,  but  this  idea  is  at  once  offset  by  the 
fact  that  Pecten  medius  and  Struthiolaria  papulosa  both  occur  at  the  present 
day  in  the  most  southern  of  New  Zealand  waters.  As  more  extensive 
collections  are  made  and  additional  localities  of  this  district  are  examined 
it  may  well  happen  that  such  small  peculiarities  will  be  explained.  It 
is  also  possible  that  by  careful  collecting  the  development  of  some  of  the 
species  that  have  most  recently  appeared,  such  as  Pecten  medius  and 
Struthiolaria  papulosa,  may  be  most  definitely  traced.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  may  possibly  be  found  that  a  few  of  these  species  reached  these  shores 
from  other  faunal  regions. 


128  Transactions. 

One  point  often  crops  up  in  the  examination  of  various  fossil  localities 
in  the  Tertiary  rocks  of  New  Zealand.  In  some  strata  there  is  a  great 
predominance  of  gasteropodsj  while  in  others  the  lamellibranchs  are  far 
more  numerous.  So  far  as  observations  have  gone  up  to  the  present  time, 
this  striking  difference  does  not  appear  to  be  due  to  the  depth  of  the  water 
or  to  any  other  of  the  ordinary  conditions  that  control  the  deposition  of 
sediment. 

List  of  Papers  cited. 

Hector,  J.,  1886.     Outline  of  the  Geology  of  New  Zealand. 
HuTTON,  F.  W.,   1885.     Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc,  vol.  41. 

1886.     Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  18,  pp.  336-67. 

1893.     Macleay  Memorial  Volume,  Linn.  Soc.  N.S.  W. 

Murdoch,  R.,  1900.     Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  32,  pp.  216-21. 
Park,  J.,  1887.     Rep.  Qeol.  Explor.  dur.  18S6-S7,  pp.  24-73,  &c. 
SoLLAS,  W.  J.,  1905.     Age  of  the  Earth. 


Art.  XXI. — Some  Tertiary  Mollusca,  with  Descriptions  of  New  Species. 

By  P.  Marshall,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.G.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst.,  Hector  and  Hutton 

Medallist,  and  R.  Murdoch. 

[Read   before   the    Wanganui   Philosophical   Society,    3rd   December,    1919 ;    received   by 
Editor,  31st  December,  1919  ;   issued  separately,  10th  June,  1920.] 

Plates  VI-X. 

Additional  collections  made  at  Waipipi  and  Nukumaru  have  produced 
several  new  species,  and  have  also  brought  to  light  others  not  previously 
recorded  from  these  horizons.  These  localities  are  not  so  accessible  as 
the  Castlecliff  series,  and  have  not  been  so  carefully  collected.  Further, 
the  Waipipi  beds  are  not  fossiliferous  throughout,  but  fossils  are  restricted 
to  short  sections.  One  of  the  finest  of  these  is  rather  below  half -tide  level 
and  only  available  after  certain  weather  conditions.  Duiyng  one  visit  it 
was  sea-swept  clean,  and  there  was  a  most  striking  display  of  Pectens, 
Cardiums,  Limas,  and  other  large  forms.  Almost  without  exception  the 
collections  hitherto  made  have  not  been  assigned  to  any  definite  locality,' 
with  the  result  that  Shakespeare  Cliff,  which  was  regarded  as  the  equiva- 
lent of  all  the  sands  and  blue  clays  of  the  district,  is  credited  with  species 
which  do  not  occur  therein.  The  coastal  cliff  from  Castlecliff  to  Kai  Iwi 
and  thence  to  Nukumaru  and  Waipipi  presents  a  perfectly  unbroken  series 
of  beds  older  than  those  of  Shakespeare  Cliff.  The  faunal  change,  as 
might  be  expected,  is  very  gradual,  and  it  is  only  when  horizons  fairly 
distant  are  compared  that  a  marked  distinction  is  evidenced.  Faunal 
lists  from  several  horizons  are  recorded  on  pages  120-25  of  this  volume. 
Hampden  was  visited  by  Dr.  Marshall,  who  secured  a  number  of 
undescribed  species,  several  of  which  are  too  fragmentary  to  deal  with, 
and  it  is  abundantly  evident  that  much  collecting  has  yet  to  be  done  in 
that  series  of  beds  Ijefore  a  full  knowledge  of  the  fauna  is  obtained. 

Risssoina  obliquecostata  n.  sp.  (Plate  VI,  fig.  1.) 
Shell  small,  ovato-elongate,  deeply  impressed  sutures  and  oblique  axial 
riblets.  Whorls  six  (the  protoconch  missing),  rounded  and  narrowly  shoul- 
dered, the  last  slightly  produced  at  the  anterior  end.  Sculpture  consists 
of  about  twenty-nine  narrow  axial  riblets,  in  width  about  half  that  of  the 
interspaces,  on  the  sutural  shelf  they  are  rather  less  pronounced,  form  a 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LII. 


Plate  VI. 


#fca% 


,-   \ 


Iff.'  ■\ 


■S*J". 


•^t 


\ 


7 


8 


jipf' 


5a 


10 


«»f 


/ 


/3A       9 


r- 


/ 


Ftg.   I. — Rissoina  obliquecosfata  n.  sp. 
Fig.  2. — *S'eiZa  attenuissima  n.  sp. 
Fig.  3. — Triphora  aoteaensis  n.  sp. 
Fig.  4. — Siphonalia  -senilis  n.  sp. 
Figs.  5,  oa. — Aduiete  suteri  n.  sp. 
Fig.  6. — Admete  anomala  n   sp. 

Face  p.  128.] 


#'    ■■ 


Fig.  7. — Simula  hampdenensis  n.  sp. 
Fig.  8. — Borsonia  zelandica  Marshall 
Fig.  9. — Conns  annoriciis  Suter  (proto- 

conch). 
Fig.   10. — Conus  armoricus  var.  pseudo- 

annoncus  n.  var. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LII. 


Plate  VII. 


il 


,.  ii^-S?J 


Figs.   11,  11a. — Struthiolaria  zelandiae  n.  sp. 
Figs.   12,  12a,  126. — Fulguraria  morgani  n.  sp 
Fig.   13. — Dicroloma  zelandica  Marshall. 
Fig.   14. — Turris  curialis  n.  3p. 


Marshall  and  Murdoch. — Tertiary  Mollusca.  129 

row  ol  small  nodules  on  the  angle,  thence  take  a  backward  sweep,  and 
vanish  a  little  above  the  suture,  on  the  anterior  end  of  the  last  irregular 
and  here  and  there  in  the  form  of  strong  growth-striae  ;  spiral  striae  are 
preserved  in  places  only  and  difficult  to  detect.  There  is  a  narrow  sub- 
perforation  at  the  side  of  the  columella,  bounded  by  a  small  funicular  ridge 
which  curves  around  to  the  basal  lip.  Aperture  oval,  narrow  above,  basal 
lip  slightly  produced  and  with  a  lightly  impressed  gutter  at  its  junction 
with  the  columella,  inner  lip  with  a  thin  narrow  callus,  columella  slightly 
curved  and  a  little  reflexed  anteriorly. 

Length,  6'25  mm. ;  width,  3-5  mm.  ;  length  of  aperture,  2*5  mm. 

Locality,  Hampden.     Collected  by  Dr.  Marshall. 

Type  to  be  presented  to  the  Wanganui  Museum. 

There  is  a  single  example  only.  It  is  very  different  from  any  other  of 
our  Recent  or  fossil  Rissoids,  and  it  is  with  hesitation  we  refer  it  to  the 
genus.  More  material  may  be  brought  to  light,  possibly  allied  forms  which 
would  lead  to  a  more  confident  classification. 

Sella  attenuissima  n.  sp.     (Plate  VI,  fig.  2.) 

Shell  partly  embedded  in  the  matrix,  very  small,  gradually  tapering, 
and  exceedingly  slender  ;  whorls  about  seventeen,  the  protoconch  of  two 
and  a  half  whorls,  smooth,  apex  minute  oblique  to  the  axis,  the  two 
succeeding  whorls  well  rounded  and  somewhat  swollen,  thence,  flattened 
and  with  three  sharply-raised  spiral  cords,  equal  to  or  slightly  narrower 
than  the  grooves,  the  lower  cord  perhaps  slightly  the  stronger ;  the 
spacing  of  the  sculpture,  including  the  sutural  groove,  is  exceedingly  uni- 
form ;  within  the  grooves  and  preserved  in  places  only  are  microscopic 
sharply-raised  growth-striae  ;  the  last  whorl  apparently  with  four  or  more 
spirals,  the  anterior  end  obscured  by  the  matrix. 

Length,  7  mm.  ;  width,  0'9  mm. 

Locality,  Hampden.     Collected  by  Dr.  Marshall. 

Type  to  be  presented  to  the  Wanganui  Museum. 

There  is  a  single  example  only,  characterized  by  its  exceedingly  attenu- 
ated form.    The  protoconch  in  some  respects  approaches  S.  hulhosa  Suter. 

Triphora  aoteaensis  n.  sp.     (Plate  VI,  fig.  3.) 

Shell  small,  slender,  of  twelve  flattened  whorls,  excluding  the  apex,  which 
is  missing.  Sculpture  :  There  are  three  rows  of  gemmules  on  each  whorl, 
a  small  undulating  smooth  threadlet  at  the  suture  above  and  occasionally 
a  very  minute  thread  on  the  margin  below,  both  absent  on  the  earlier 
whorls  ;  on  the  last  at  the  basal  angle  is  a'  fourth  smooth  sharply -raised 
narrow  riblet,  below  this  a  more  slender  cord,  and  between  the  latter  and 
beak  two  or  three  ill-defined  lines ;  of  the  gemmules  there  are  about 
sixteen  in  a  row,  separated  rather  less  than  their  own  width  and  linked 
within  the  rows,  axial  buttresses  low  and  broad,  forming  oblique  vertical 
rows  but  not  always  continuous  ;  the  lower  row  of  gemmules  is  the  most 
strongly  developed,  the  second  distinctly  smaller,  equal  to  their  own  width 
apart,  the  third  separated  by  a  narrow  groove  and  much  more  feeble  ;  the 
gemmules  are  somewhat  oval  in  form,  the  anterior  sides  rounded,  the 
posterior  rising  rather  abruptly,  giving  to  them  a  subtruncated  and  slightly 
ridged  appearance.  Base  sloping,  flattened  ;  distinct  growth-striae  form 
small  irregular  riblets.  Aperture  small,  subquadrate,  outer  lip  imperfect, 
columella  short,  nearly  straight,  sharply  bent  and  twisted  at  the  anterior 
extremity. 

5 — Trans. 


130  Transactions. 

Length,  9-5  mm.  ;  widtli,  3  mm. 

Locality,  Hampden.     Collected  by  Dr.  Marshall. 

Type  to  be  presented  to  the  Wanganui  Museum. 

Described  from  a  single  specimen  ;  the  only  other  species  of  the  genus 
recorded  in  our  Tertiary  fauna  is  T.  lutea  Sut.  A  casual  examination 
of  the  Hampden  shell  might  easily  lead  to  its  being  referred  to  that 
species,  and  probably  it  is  akin  to  it ;  the  protoconch  is  missing,  and  not 
infrequently  it  possesses  important  specific  characters. 

Dicroloma  zelandica  Marshall.     (Plate  VII,  fig.  13.) 
Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  yoI.  51,  pp.  228-29,  pi.  xv,  fig..  16,  1919. 

The  example  here  described  is  partly  embedded  in  the  matrix,  and  the 
sculpture  is  much  eroded,  but  the  general  form  is  well  preserved.  Shell 
small,  fusiform,  of  six  whorls,  the  last  rounded,  abruptly  contracted  at  the 
base,  with  a  narrow  and  moderately  long  anterior  canal,  which  is  slightly 
inclined  or  bent  to  the  left ;  spire-whorls  convex,  the  apex  missing  ;  sutures 
not  impressed,  the  removal  of  the  outer  shelly  layer  gives  to  them  a  some- 
what deep  appearance.  Sculpture  :  On  the  last  whorl,  a  little  below  the 
periphery,  is  a  strong  spiral  rib,  a  second  below  this  margining  the  base, 
and  beneath  these  two  or  three  more  slender  cords,  the  first-mention£d 
ribs  about  twice  their  own  width  apart.  Aperture  oblique,  rather  narrow, 
the  outer  lip  expanded,  thickened,  and  with  two  prominent  lobes,  while 
from  each  lobe  proceeds  a  long  stout  digitation  (the  extremities  broken  off)  ; 
the  posterior  digit  is  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  shell  and 
proceeds  from  near  to  the  sutural  margin  ;  above  its  junction  is  a  fairly 
strong  callus  which  spreads  to  the  suture  above  ;  the  median  lobe  and 
digit  are  somewhat  larger  than  the  above,  and  the  space  between  and  the 
angle  formed  are  smaller  than  between  the  median  and  the  anterior  canal. 
Each  digit  has  a  pronoimced  smooth  furrow  ;  the  groove  of  the  anterior 
canal  is  little  more  marked  than  that  of  the  digits. 

Length,  23  mm.  ;  width  (excluding  digit),  13  mm. 

Locality,  Hampden.     Collected  by  Dr.  Marshall. 

Struthiolaria  zelandiae  n.  sp.  (Plate  VII,  figs.  11,  11a.) 
Shell  ovate,  oblong,  spire  turreted,  whorls  spirally  ribbed,  rather  flat- 
tened, shouldered  at  the  sutures,  which  are  deeply  excavated,  the  last 
more  or  less  angled  at  the  base.  Whorls  six  or  more,  apex  lost.  Sculpture  : 
On  the  last  whorl  a  broad  usually  strong  spiral  rib  on  the  sutural  shoulder, 
followed  by  six  or  seven  narrow  cords,  thence  two  stronger  cords,  the  first 
of  which  is  the  more  prominent  and  forms  the  basal  angle,  anterior  to 
this  contracted  and  with  five  or  six  cords  which  are  usually  smaller  and 
more  widely  spaced  as  they  approach  the  anterior  end  ;  the  grooves  deep 
except  immediately  below  the  shoulder  where  they  vary  considerably,  in 
some  examples  feeble  ill-defined  corrugations,  in  others  narrow  incised 
lines,  or  clean-cut,  deep,  and  slightly  narrower  than  the  riblets.  The  first 
of  tlie  remaining  spire-whorls  with  a  few  spiral  threadlets,  on  the  following 
whorls  increasing  td  seven  or  eight,  variable  as  on  the  last,  usually  distinct 
in  the  deeply  excavated  sutural  area.  A  secondary  sculpture  of  fine  thread- 
lets  adorns  both  ribs  and  grooves.  Aperture  ovate,  oblique  ;  outer  lip 
sinuous,  strong,  and  reflexed  ;  inner  lip  with  a  broad  fairly  heavy  callus  ; 
columella  curved,  a  distinct  notch  at  the  anterior  end. 

Length,  36  mm.  ;  width,  27  mm.  Another  example  :  Length,  35  mm.  ; 
width,  24  mm. 


Mabshall  and  Murdoch. — Tertiary  Mollusca.  131 

Locality,  Waipipi,  near  Waverley,  in  blue  sandy  clay. 
Type  to  be  presented  to  the  Wanganui  Museum. 

The  sculpture,  together  with  the  exceedingly  deeply  excavated  sutures, 
readily  distinguishes  it  from  other  Tertiary  forms.      '  < 

Phalium  fibratum  n.  sp.     (Plate  VIII,  figs.  16,  17.) 

Shell  large,  ovato -globose,  with  prominent  spiral  sculpture.  Whorls 
about  seven,  lightly  angular  ;  apex  minute  ;  spire  short,  less  than  one- 
quarter  the  length  of  the  aperture  ;  the  last  very  large  ;  on  the  angle  a 
rather- prominent  row  of  nodules,  on  the  spire  above  the  angle  four  or  five 
spiral  cords,  and  below  the  angle  two  or  three,  on  the  last  about  twenty- 
three  flat  spirals  more  than  twice  the  width  of  the  grooves,  the  latter 
becoming  deeper  on  approaching  the  anterior  end,  in  places  there  is  a  small 
groove  on  the  rib  and  here  and  there  a  small  threadlet  in  the  groove  ;  the 
axials  consist  of  strong  irregular  growth-striae  which  haye  a  fibrous  sub- 
granular  appearance.  Sutures  lightly  impressed,  the  marginal  rib  below 
rather  pronounced.  Aperture  slightly  oblique  and  narrow  above,  outer  lip 
uniformly  curved,  thickened  and  refiexed  ;  columella  short,  excavate  and 
twisted,  several  small  denticles  above  and  two  or  three  oblique  plaits  at  the 
antetior  end  ;  body-whorl  and  columella  with  a  wide,  spreading  callus  pro- 
duced anteriorly  as  a  broad  flat  plait  limited  to  the  width  of  the  columella. 

Length,  75  mm.  ;  width,  60  mm. 

Locality,  Waipipi. 

Type  to  be  presented  to  the  Wanganui  Museum. 

Of  this  form  there  is  a  single  almost  perfect  specimen.  It  is  allied  to 
P.  labiatum  var.  pyrum  Lamk.,  which  is  subject  to  considerable  variation  in 
size  and  sculpture.  We  have  a  good  series  of  the  latter  for  comparison, 
and  in  our  opinion  the  Waipipi  shell  is  sufficiently  different  to  warrant 
specific  distinction. 

Siphonalia  senilis  n.  sp.     (Plate  VI,  fig.  4.) 

Shell  rather  small ;  canal  moderately  long  ;  body-whorl  comparatively 
large.  Whorls  six  or  seven,  rounded,  lightly  subangled  above  the  middle  ; 
protoconch  of  about  three  and  a  half  turns,  smooth  ;  thence  spirally  and 
axially  sculptured  ;  axials  nineteen  to  twenty  on  the  last,  feebly  raised, 
more  pronounced  on  the  spire  ;  growth-striae  >  rather  strong  ;  the  spirals 
in  the  form  of  undulating  cords,  delicately  beaded,  usually  one  or  two 
larger  beads  on  the  axials,  in  places  an  alternate  larger  and  smaller  cord, 
wider- than  the  grooves  except  towards  the  anterior  end  ;  on  the  pen- 
ultimate there  are  eleven  to  thirteen  spirals,  the  cord  at  the  suture  rather 
pronounced  and  followed  by  two  or  three  much  smaller.  Sutures  not  deeply 
impressed.  Aperture  imperfect.  Columella  curved,  tapering,  lightly  twisted 
anteriorly,  and  thinly  callused. 

Length,  approximately  17  mm.  ;   width,  10  mm. 

Locality,  Hampden.     Collected  by  Dr.  Marshall. 

Type  to  be  presented  to  the  Wanganui  Museum. 

There  are  three  examples,  somewhat  distorted  and  in  rather  poor  pre- 
servation. The  species  may  readily  be  distinguished  by  the  undulating 
finely  beaded  cords. 

Admete  (Bonellitia)  ovalis  Marshall. 
Borsonia    {Corderia)    ovalis    Marshall,    Trans.    N.Z.    Inst.,    vol.   50, 
p.  269,  pi.  18,  figs.  10-lOa,  1918. 
A  further  examination  of  the  type  proves  that  it  is  a  member  of  the 
Cancellariidae  nearly  allied  to  Bonellita  as  defined  by  M.  Cossmann. 

5*  * 


132  Transactions. 

Admete  suteri  n.  sp,     (Plate  VI,  figs.  5,  5a.) 

Shell  small,  shortly  fusiform  ;  spire  short  turreted.  Whorls  five,  the 
last  comparatively  large,  strongly  angled ;  protoconch  of  two  smooth 
rounded  whorls,  the  apex  obliquely  disposed,  thence  rapidly  increasing  ; 
axially  and  spirally  cancellated,  the  latter  more  pronounced  and  forming 
small  tubercules  at  the  points  of  intersection  ;  above  the  aperture  and  on 
the  spire-whorls  are  two  small  spiral  cords,  on  the  last  eight  narrower  than 
the  interspaces,  at  the  anterior  extremity  finer  and  closer  ;  axials  seventeen 
to  twenty-one  on  the  last,  irregularly  developed  anteriorly,  on  the  area 
between  suture  and  angle  sharply  inclined  forward,  this  area  without  spiral 
sculpture  ;  sutural  line  undulating,  not  channelled.  Aperture  somewhat 
oblique,  outer  lip  angled  above,  margin  lightly  crenulated,  grooved  within 
corresponding  with  the  spiral  sculpture  ;  columella  short,  slightly  curved, 
narrowed  and  twisted  at  the  extremity,  lightly  callused,  with  two  well- 
developed  rounded  plaits  on  the  middle  area  and  a  third  more  slender  on 
the  anterior  twist  of  the  columella. 

Length,  8  mm.  ;   width,  5-25  mm. 

Locality,  Target  Gully.     Collected  by  Dr.  Marshall. 

Type  to  be  presented  to  the  Wanganui  Museum. 

Material  consists  of  four  examples  in  a  good  state  of  preservation.  We 
name  this  pretty  little  shell  in  memory  of  our  old  friend  Henry  Suter. 

Admete  anomala  n.  sp.     (Plate  VI,  fig.  6.) 

Shell  small,  elongate  ;  spire  exceeds  the  aperture  in  length.  Whorls 
five  or  six,  convex  and  lightly  angled  above  the  middle  ;  apex  blunt,  and 
sculpture  (if  any)  obscure,  succeeding  whorls  spirally  and  axially  ribbed, 
nodular  at  the  crossings  ;  axials  broad,  equal  to  the  interspaces,  nine  or 
ten  on  a  whorl,  directed  slightly  forward,  feeble  above  the  angle  and  on 
approaching  the  lip  ;  growth-striae  in  places  well  marked  v^ith  here  and 
there  old  lip-margins  ;  spirals  narrower  than  the  interspaces,  twelve  on 
the  last,  five  on  the  spire-whorls,  one  of  which  is  above  the  angle  ;  the  first 
threadlet  below  the  angle  is  much  more  slender  than  the  others  ;  a  small 
area  at  the  anterior  end  smooth.  Sutures  impressed,  slightly  undulating. 
Aperture  oval,  outer  lip  uniformly  curved,  sharp,  within  the  margin  a 
number  of  smaU  elongated  denticles  ;  columella  short,  curved  and  obliquely 
truncated,  the  extremity  slightly  twisted  to  the  left,  thinly  callused  and 
with  lAvo  small  plaits  ;  the  anterior  lip  produced  and  on  uniting  with  the 
columella  forms  a  short  wide  canal. 

Length,  8  mm.  ;   width,  3-75  mm. 

Locality,  Hampden.     Collected  by  Dr.  Marshall. 

Type  to  be  presented  to  the  Wanganui  Museum. 

The  material  consists  of  a  single  example.  The  two  denticles  only  on 
the  columella  and  the  peculiar  wide  shallow  anterior  canal  are  not  quite  in 
accord  with  Admete  ;   probably  it  may  be  allied  to  Babylonella  of  Cossmann. 

Fulguraria  (Alcithoe)  turrita  Suter. 
F.  {Alcithoe)  arabica  var.  turrita  Sut.,    N.Z.   Geol.   Surv.  Pal.  Bull. 
No.  5,  p.  39,  pi.  5,  fig.  4,  1917. 
Examples  of  this  species,  of  which  we  have  a  fairly  good  series  from 
Nukumaru  and  Waipipi,  agree  perfectly  with  Suter's  description  and  figure. 
The  produced  spire  and  narrow  form  are  constant  characters,  and  some 
examples  have  the  penultimate  and  last  whorl  adorned  with  small  incon- 
spicuous spiral  lines.     The  general  contour  is,  however,  so  different  from 
arabica  and  its  var.  elongata  as  to  warrant  full  specific  distinction.      It  is 


Marshall  and  Murdoch. — Tertiary  Mollusca.  133 

not  uncommon  in  the  beds  above  mentioned,  where  we  have  failed  to  find 
examples  of  the  Recent  species. 

Length,  125  mm. ;  width,  47  mm. 

The  series  of  specimens  here  noted  to  be  lodged  in  the  Wanganui 
Museum. 

Fulguraria  (Alcithoe)  turrita  var.  nukumaruensis  n.  var.     (Plate  IX, 

figs.  18,  19.) 
Distinguished  from  the  species  by  its  more  slender  form,  the  absence  of 
prominent  nodules,  the  axial  riblets   being   feeble   and   almost   absent  on 
the  last,  the  body  having  the  same  fiat  slope  as  the  whorls  above. 
Length,  102  mm.  ;   width,  34  mm.  ;  length  of  aperture,  57  mm. 
Locality,  Nukumaru. 

Type  to  be  presented  to  the  Wanganui  Museum. 
There  are  several  specimens,  of  which  only  one  is  perfect. 

Fulguraria  morgani  n.  sp.     (Plate  VII,  figs.  12,  12a,  126.) 

Shell  rather  small,  narrow,  axially  costate,  spire  turreted.  Whorls  six 
or  seven,  lightly  shouldered  above  the  middle,  excavated  or  flattened  above 
the  shoulder,  below  slightly  convex,  the  last  whorl  slightly  tapering  to  the 
anterior  end  ;  the  protoconch  consists  of  ai)out  two  and  a  half  smooth 
whorls,  somewhat  rounded,  apex  blunt,  the  first  half-turn  somewhat  laterally 
disposed  by  a  comparatively  wide  and  deep  sutural  excavation.  Axial 
riblets  sixteen  to  nineteen,  rounded,  rather  narrower  than  the  interspaces, 
usually  less  pronounced  above  the  shoulders  and  on  approaching  the 
anterior  end  of  the  last  whorl,  on  the  latter  towards  the  lip  somewhat 
variable.  Sutures  undulating,  not  deep.  Aperture  slightly  oblique,  narrow, 
almost  canaliculate  above  ;  outer  lip  with  sharp  margin,  slightly  curved  to 
the  anterior  end,  the  latter  rather  broad  and  deeply  notched  ;  columella 
almost  straight,  lightly  twisted  at  the  anterior  extremity,  thinly  callused 
and  with  four  plaits,  the  lowermost  occasionally  feeble. 

Length,  47  mm.  ;   width,  17  mm.  ;   length  of  aperture,  28  mm. 

Locality,  Waipipi,  in  blue  sandy  clay.        ^ 

Type  to  be  presented  to  the  Wanganui  Museum. 

Originally  an  example  of  this  species  was  submitted  to  Captain  Hutton, 
who  pronounced  it  Voluta  corrugata,  Miocene.  It  was  said  to  occur  in 
the  Patea  or  Waverley  district,  but  the  exact  locality  was  unknown.  On 
comparing  it  with  the  description  and  figures  given  by  Suter  {N.Z.  Geol. 
Surv.  Pal.  Bull.  No.  2)  it  was'  apparently  quite  different  from  Hutton's 
species  ;  we  therefore  submitted  examples  to  Mr.  P.  G.  Morgan,  Director 
of  the  Geological  Survey,  for  comparison  with  the  types,  and  his  report 
coincides  with  the  opinion  we  had  formed.  Its  nearest  kin  is  perhaps 
F.  gracilis  Swains.  We  convey  to  Mr.  Morgan  the  compliment  of  associat- 
ing his  name  with  the  species. 

Turris  curialis  n.  sp.  (Plate  VII,  fig.  14.) 
Shell  narrowly  fusiform ;  spire  turreted ;  whorls  with  sloping  flat 
shoulders  bounded  by  a  prominent  nodular  ridge  ;  thence  to  the  suture 
below  excavated ;  the  concavity  below  the  ridge  continues  across  the 
body-whorl  immediately  above  the  aperture  and  appears  again  on  the 
lip  strongly  marked  (shell  partly  embedded  in  the  matrix),  anterior  to 
this  slightly  convex,  thence  gradually  contracted  to  the  canal.  Whorls 
probably  eight  or  more.  Sculpture  :  Several  small  spiral  threadlets  between 
the  suture  and  keel,  and  two  somewhat  stronger  between  the  latter  and 


134  Transactions. 

suture  below,  on  the  last  numerous,  exceeding  twenty,  and  narrower  than 
the  grooves  ;  axials  consist  of  growth-striae  only.  Sutural  line  not  deep, 
in  places  obscured  by  the  spirals  above  and  below.  Aperture  imperfect, 
rather  narrow,  the  posterior  sinus  as  indicated  by  the  lines  of  growth 
situated  at  the  nodular  angle  ;  columella  almost  straight,  thinly  callused, 
the  anterior  end  missing. 

Length,  26mm.  ;  width,  10mm. 

Locality,  Hampden.     Collected  b}^  Dr.  Marshall. 

Type  to  be  presented  to  the  Wanganui  Museum. 

The  material  consists  of  a  single  specimen  of  five  whorls,  including 
the  last  except  its  anterior  extremity.  The  distinctive  characters  are  the 
marked  corrugation  on  the  last  whorl,  which  is  a  continuation  of  the 
peculiar  excavate  sutural  area,  the  long  sloping  shoulder,  and  the  prominent 
nodular  angle. 

Surcula  torticostata  Marshall.     (Plate  VIII,  fig.  15.) 

S.  torticostata  Marshall,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  51,  p.  232,  pi.  12, 
fig.  7,  1919. 

This  species  was  described  from  very  imperfect  material,  consisting 
of  upper  spire-whorls  only.  An  almost  perfect  specimen  is  now  available, 
and  we  offer  the  following  amended  description. 

Shell  fairly  large,  narrowly  fusiform,  the  aperture  and  canal  apparently 
rather  less  than  the  spire  in  length  (the  anterior  end  of  the  canal  missing). 
Sutures  not  deep,  margined  below  by  a  flat  rather  prominent  rib.  Whorls 
nine  or  ten,  flat  or  slightly  concave  below  the  sutural  rib,  thence  lightly 
convex,  the  last  gradually  tapering  to  the  canal.  Axial  sculpture  varying 
as  the  shell  progresses  ;  apical  whorls  apparently  smooth  ;  then  follow 
twisted,  prominently  backward-sloping  narrow  riblets,  which  arise  a  little 
below  the  sutural  rib,  and  are  suppressed  a  little  above  the  lower  suture, 
and  on  the  later  whorls,  especially  the  penultimate  and  last,  reduced  to 
slight  undulations  and  in  places  absent  ;  growth-striae  well  marked, 
prominent  on  the  last  ;  the  spirals  consist  of  numerous  fine  feebly-raised 
threadlets  wider  than  the  grooves  and  forming  irregular  minute  granules 
on  crossing  the  growth-striae.  Aperture  narrow,  deeply  channelled  above  ; 
outer  lip  sharp,  curving  forward  rather  abruptly  from  the  posterior  sinus, 
which  is  situated  immediately  below  the  sutural  rib  ;  columella  and  body- 
wall  thinly  callused,  the  callus  on  the  latter  margined  by  a  rather  pronounced 
double  groove. 

Length,  59  mm.  ;   width,  14  mm.';  length  from  aperture  to  apex,  34  mm. ' 

Locality,  Hampden.     Collected  by  Dr.  Marshall. 

This  specimen  to  be  lodged  in  the  Wanganui  Museum. 

Surcula  hampdenensis  n.  sp.  (Plate  VI,  fig.  7.) 
Shell  narrowly  fusiform  ;  whorls  obtusely  angled  ;  spirally  Urate  ;  short 
oblique  axials  at  the  shoulder  and  the  sutures  margined  below.  Whorls 
eight,  the  apex  minute,  thence  gradually  increasing,  the  last  viewed  dorsally 
exceeding  the  spire  in  length.  Almost  flat  below  the  angle,  then  gradually 
sloping  to  the  long  anterior  canal,  the  extremity  of  which  is  missing.  On- 
the  spire-whorls  the  angle  is  slightly  above  the  middle,  the  area  above  and 
below  very  slightly  convex.  Sculpture  :  Excluding  the  apex,  the  first  four 
whorls  with  irregular  ill-defined  axials  extending  across  the  whorls  ;  follow- 
ing these  the  angle  well  defined  and  on  it  developed  fourteen  or  fifteen 
backward-sloping  axials,  narrower  than  the  interspaces  and  not  extending 
to  the  sutures  below  ;  growth-striae,  especially  on  the  last,  strongly  marked  ; 


Marshall  and  Murdoch. — Tertiary  Mollusca.  135 

spiral  threadlets  adorn  the  lower  whorls  throughout,  that  margining  the 
suture  comparatively  large  and  with  a  sharply  defined  lower  margin,  a  few 
minute  threads  on  its  flattened  surface,  on  the  last  about  fifty,  those  above 
the  angle  very  slender,  below  with  here  and  there  an  alternate  larger  and 
smaller  threadlet,  about  equal  to  the  grooves  in  Avidth.  Aperture  :  Outer 
lip  imperfect ;  posterior  sinus  extending  from  the  angle  to  the  sutural 
cord  ;  columella  almost  straight ;  callus  thin,  not  obscuring  the  spiral 
sculpture. 

Length,  22  mm.  ;   width,  7  mm. 

Locality,  Hampden.     Collected  by  Dr.  Marshall. 

Type  to  be  presented  to  the  Wanganui  Museum. 

Of  this  form  there  is  only  one  example.  It  nearest  kin  are  perhaps 
8.  sertula,  S.  obliquecostata,  and  S.  mordax.    - 

Borsonia  (Corderia)  zelandica  Marshall.     (Plate  VI,  fig.  8.) 

.Volutoclerina  zelandica  Marshall,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  51,  p.  230, 
p.  17,  figs.  4  and  5,  1919. 
The  material  from  which  this  species  was  described  consists  of  two 
rather  badly  preserved  specimens  collected  by  Dr.  Marshall  at  Hampden. 
The  sculpture  can  be  followed  fairly  well,  and  the  position  and  form  of  the 
posterior  sinus  is  clearly  indicated  by  the  well-marked  growth-striae.  The 
outer  lip  being  broken  away  gives  a  somewhat  marked  prominence  to  the 
two  small  plaits  on  the  columella,  and  this  may  in  a  measure  have  influenced 
the  late  Mr.  Suter  when  he  recommended  its  inclusion  in  Volutoderma.  We 
offer  a  figure  of  the  aperture  restored  as  indicated  by  the  lines  of  growth. 

Conus  (Leptoconus)  armoricus  Suter.     (Plate  VI,  fig.  9.) 
N.Z.  Geol  Surv.  Pal.  Bull.  No.  5,  p.  61,  pi.  12,  fig.  25,  1917. 

As  no  description  of  the  protoconch  is  recorded,  we  offer  the  following  : 
The  specimen  has  a  total  of  nine  and  a  half  whorls,  three  and  a  half  of  which 
comprise  the  smooth  protoconch,  which  is  sharply  conical  and  slightly 
oblique  ;  whorls  convex,  with  somewhat  impressed  sutures,  the  initial  half- 
turn  minute  and  somewhat  laterally  disposed,  the  third  comparatively  high, 
the  last  half  narrowing  and  merging  into  the  post-embryonic  form. 

length,  21  mm.  ;   width,  11  mm.  (dimensions  of  specimen). 

Locality,  Pakaurangi  Point,  Kaipara  Harbour.  Collected  by  Dr. 
Marshall. 

Conus  (Leptoconus)  armoricus  var.  pseudoarmoricus  n.  var.     (Plate  VI,*' 

fig.  10.) 

Shell  small,  spire  low,  gradated,  the  body  elongated  and  sharply  tapering. 
Whorls  six,  excluding  the  protoconch,  which  is  missing  ;  each  whorl  with 
a  pronounced  rim-like  ridge,  which  overhangs  and  partly  conceals  the  suture, 
giving  to  the  volution  a  distinctly  concave  appearance  ;  the  last  whorl 
immediately  below  the  ridged  shoulder  slightly  contracted.  Sculpture  : 
On  the  spire-whorls  four  or  five  small  spiral  threadlets,  on  the  anterior  area 
of  the  last  about  twelve  well  marked  and  obliquely  ascending  ;  above  these 
a  few  ill-defined  lines  which  probably  are  continued  to  the  crown  ;  axial 
growth-striae  irregular,  on  the  spire  distinctly  curved,  indicating  a  fairly 
deep  sinus  Aperture  narrow  ;  the  margins  almost  parallel ;  outer  lip 
imperfect. 

Length,  18  mm.  ;   width,  10  mm. 

Locality,  Hampden.     Collected  by  Dr.  Marshall. 

Type  to  be  presented  to  the  Wanganui  Museum. 


136  Transactions. 

Difiers  from  C.  armoricus  by  the  spiral  tlireadlets  on  the  spire,  the  rim- 
like ridge  which  overhangs  the  sutures,  and  the  accompanying  concavity 
of  the  whorls.  The  material  consists  of  a  single  example.  C.  armoricus  is 
recorded  from  Komiti  Point,*  Kaipara  Harbour,  and  it  is  interesting  to 
find  a  form  so  nearly  akin  in  the  Hampden  beds. 

Melina  zealandica  Suter.     (Plate  X,  fig.  20;    Plate  IX,  fig.  21.) 
For  all  references  see  N.Z.  Geol.  Surv.  Pal.  Bull.  No.  5. 

A  description  derived  from  very  fragmentary  materials  is  given  in  the 
above-mentioned  publication,  pages  68,  69.  Pla*te  viii,  fig.  4,  is  a  part  of 
the  hinge  ;  plate  xiii,  fig.  1,  is  the  large  fragment  from  Shrimpton's,  and 
not  Ostrea  mackayi,  and  fig.  2  is  the  latter  species. 

The  species  is  not  uncommon  in  the  Nukumaru  and  Waipipi  beds  ; 
numerous  large  fragments,  including  an  almost  complete  hinge  of  a  right 
valve,  were  obtained.  Another  example  of  hinge  partly  embedded  in  rock 
has  both  valves  locked  in  natural  position.  Attached  to  a  mass  of  rock 
a  complete  valve  was  noted,  which  was  much  eroded,  but  presented  an 
approximate  indication  of  the  general  outline.  From  this,  aided  by  large 
fragments,  we  derive  the  figure  of  the  restored  shell. 

The  shell  is  apparently  subquadrate,  somewhat  swollen,  the  umbo  near 
to  the  anterior  end,  the  anterior  ear  small  with  the  margin  immediately 
below  prominently  inflexed.  The  ventral  margin  and  posterior  end  may 
to  some  extent  have  been  completely  eroded,  as  the  lamellar  structure 
would  lend  itself  to  this,  but  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  prominently 
winged.  The  hinge  is  massive  and  wide,  with  four  or  five  conspicuous 
resilifers.  The  length  of  the  hinge  exceeds  140  mm.,  and  several  measure- 
ments indicate  that  the  united  valves  are  not  less  than  90  mm.  in  diameter. 

Amphidesma  (Taria)  crassiformis  n.  sp.     (Plate  X,  figs.  22,  23.) 

Shell  of  medium  size,  massive,  triangular  ;  beaks  almost  at  the  posterior 
end  which  is  abruptly  truncated,  strongly  and  acutely  angled  ;  the  anterior 
dorsal  margin  long,  downward  sloping  and  almost  straight,  the  anterior  end 
narrow  and  rounded,  ventral  margin  slightly  curved  ;  the  posterior  trunca- 
tion is  slightly  concave  as  it  approaches  the  lip-margin,  and  on  the  end 
there  are  two,  usually  three,  feebly-raised  curved  ridges.  The  median  area 
of  the  valves  and  towards  the  ventral  margin  sometimes  has  a  slightly 
concave  appearance.  Sculpture  is  irregular  shallow  concentric  corruga- 
tions with  fine  striae,  the  latter  on  the  posterior  end  pronounced.  Hinge 
conspicuously  massive  ;  right  valve  with  deeply  excavate  sockets  above 
the  laterals,  the  posterior  much  the  shorter  ;  in  the  left  valve  the  anterior 
lateral  elongated  and  with  a  double  tubercle  on  its  crest,  the  right  short 
high  and  triangular  ;  cardinals  in  both  lamellar  and  oblique.  Adductor- 
scars,  pallial  line,  and  sinus  deeply  impressed,  the  sinus  short  and  with  a 
broadly  rounded  apex.     Lip-margins  smooth. 

Length,  80  mm.  ;   height,  60  mm. 

Locality,  Nukumaru,  in  blue  sandy  clay. 

Type  to  be  presented  to  the  Wanganui  Museum. 

Material  consists  of  three  valves,  a  right  and  left  of  which  are  almost 
perfect.  Readily  distinguished  by  its  massiveness  and  the  abrupt  heavy 
truncation. 

*  C.  armoricus  occurs  at  Pakaurangi  Point,  not  Komiti  Point,  which  is  some  two 
miles  distant. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LII. 


Plate  VIII. 


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iRANS.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LIl. 


Plate  IX. 


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Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LI  I. 


Plate  X. 


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Uttley. — Tertiary  Geology,   Otiake  River  to  Duntroon.  137 

Art.   XXII. — Tertiary  Geology   of  the  Area  between  the  Otiake   River 
(Kurow  District)  and  Duntroon,  North  Otago. 

By  G.  H.  Uttley,  M.A.,  M.Sc,  F.G.S.,  Scots  College,  Wellington. 

[Read  before   the    Wellington   Philosophical  Society,   18th   September,   1918 ;    received  by 
Editor,  31st  December,  1919  ;    issiied  separately,  15th  June,  1920.] 

Contents. 

I.  Introduction. 

II.  General  Description  of  the  Area. 

III.  Historical  Summary. 

IV.  Description  of  the  Tertiary  Beds. 

(1.)  Trigonometrical  Station  Z,  Otiake  River. 
(2.)  Otekaike  Special  School. 
(3.)  White  Rocks  and  Duntroon  Area. 
(4.)  Maruwenua*  River. 
(5.)  Station  Peak. 
V.  Structure  of  the  Area. 
VI.  Conclusion. 

I.  Introduction. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  accompanying  geological  map  (fig.  1),  the  area 
described  in  this  paper  extends  from  the  Otiake  River,  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  Kurow  Survey  District,  to  near  Duntroon,  on  the  Otago 
side  of  the  Waitaki  River.  The  district  north-west  of  the  Otiake  River  is 
dealt  with  in  a  later  paper  in  this  volume,  but  to  save  unnecessary  repeti- 
tion a  full  historical  summary  of  the  work  of  previous  observers  in  that 
area,  as  well  as  in  the  present  area,  is  given  below. 

In  the  geological  map  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  map  the  various 
types  of  gravels,  as  the  delimitation  of  their  boundary-lines  and  their  dif- 
ferential characteristics  will  demand  a  great  deal  of  detailed  work.  The 
gravel  lands  are  now  covered  with  vegetation  and  soil,  and  this  fact 
renders  their  distinction  difficult.  The  Wharekuri-Otekaike  fault,  which 
bounds  the  Kurow  tilted  block,  follows  an  almost  straight  line,  but 
between  the  Otekaike  basin  and  the  Otiake  basin,  a  spur  of  the  undermass, 
dipping  easterly  at  6°  beneath  the  Tertiary  rocks,  apparently  breaks  the 
continuity  of  the  main  fault-line.  It  would  appear  that  in  this  locality 
the  low-lying  block  had  failed  to  break  away,  as  the  stripped  surface  of 
the  spur  is  certainly  continuous  with  that  of  the  uplifted  block  for  some 
distance  to  the  west  of  the  main  line  of  faulting.  No  convincing  evidence 
was  obtained  to  show  whether  the  boundary  scarps  of  this  protruding 
spur  were  fault-scarps  or  fold-scarps,  except  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Newsome's  Creek,  where  the  quartz-grits  were  found  lying  directly  on  the 
sloping  surface  of  the  undermass  on  the  southern  side  of  the  spur,  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  east  of  Trig.  Station  D.  The  surface  and  overlying 
quartz-grits  at  this  point  dip  southerly  at  30°,  indicating  that,  in  this 
locality  at  least,  the  scarp  is  a  fold-surface. 

McKay  was  the  only  geologist  who  investigated  the  area  in  any  detail, 
and  the  sequence  of  rocks  as  recorded  by  him  was  characteristically 
accurate.  His  classification  of  the  sediments  was  based  almost  entirely 
upon  lithological  characters,  but  he  made  large  collections  of  fossils  from 
several  parts  of  the  Waitaki  Valley,  and  these  were  determined  by  the  late 
Mi.  Henry  Suter  two  or  three  years  ago,  but  the  lists  have  not  yet  been 
published.     McKay's  account  of  the  geology  is  rendered  somewhat  difiicult 

*  Spelt  also  "  Maerewhenua  "  and  "  Maraewhenua." 


138 


Transactions. 


Sc<i.le 


free  ^nh  ffiYerX 
Craves. 

POST^AWAMOAN 

H^OMy  C/xjifm/s  ondS'lt'j. 


OTOTARAN 
WAiA^EHAN 

Basa/h'c  Sifl. 

HUTCHfNSpNIAN- 
AWAMOAN. 

7/ecfreous  mL^Jsfbnt^  C/aucon///c  c^hase.^ 

ncaParam 

Quartx.   Mario's  aneJ 
c/ays. 

iYAlARCKAN 


',      ^  fau/A  l/nes  marf-eeJ  thuj,  r~ 


Fig.  1. — Geological  majD  of  the  Waitaki  Valley  between  the  Otiake  River  and  Duntroon. 
In  the  legend  the  order  of  superposition  is  indicated  by  the  numbers. 


Uttley. — Tertiary  Geology,   Otiake  River  to  Duntroon.  139 

to  follow  owing  to  the  necessity  he  was  under  of  finding  in  the  series  an 
unconformity  marking  the  line  of  division  between  the  Cretaceo-Tertiary 
and  Tertiary  systems  of  the  old  Geological  Survey  under  Sir  James  Hector. 

The  relationship  of  the  various  rocks  present  in  the  area  is  obscured 
by  the  thick  deposit  of  post-Tertiary  gravels,  and  exposures  are  revealed  ' 
only  when  the  streams  of  the  area  have  entrenched  themselves  in  the 
gravels  and  cut  through  the  Tertiary  rocks.  The  outcrops  of  Tertiary 
rocks  along  the  fault-lines  have  been  mapped  only  where  they  were 
observed.      They  are  probably  continuous  beneath  the  gravels. 

The  writer  wishes  to  thank  Mr.  P.  G.  Morgan  for  kindly  allowing  him 
to  examine  the  lists  of  fossils  determined  by  the  late  Mr.  Henry  Suter 
from  the  collections  made  by  McKay  forty  years  ago.  To  Dr.  J.  Allan 
Thomson  the  writer  is  much  indebted  for  assistance  in  determining  the 
brachiopods,  and  for  permission  to  incorporate  his  list  of  molluscan  fossils 
from  the  upper  beds  a,t  Otiake  in  the  lists  detailed  below.  Mr.  H.  Suter 
named  many  forms  from  the  same  beds  for  the  writer  some  years  ago,  and 
his  determinations  are  included  in  these  lists. 

The  paper  furnishes  geological  evidence  for  the  existence  of  two  strong 
faults,  which  are  shown  to  be  intimately  connected  with  the  great  fault- 
system  of  Central  Otago,  so  ably  described  by  Cotton  (1917a,  p.  272). 
The  elongated  relatively  depressed  area  of  the  Waitaki  Valley,  between 
the  mountains  of  South  Canterbury  and  North  Otago,  occupied  by  Tertiary 
beds,  is  shown  to  be  a  tectonic  depression  which  is  partly  a  graben  and 
partly  a  fault-angle  depression.  McKay's  statement  that  the  Hutchinson 
Quarry  beds  lie  above  the  Otekaike  limestone  is  shown  to  be  supported 
by  the  evidence.  It  is  further  shown  that  McKay's  "  two-limestone 
theory  "  is  radically  different  from  Park's  "  two-limestone  theory,"  and 
that  the  latter's  statement  (1918,  p.  110)  that  Hutton,  Hector,  and  McKay 
considered  the  limestone  of  the  Waitaki  Valley  to  be  of  Hutchinsonian 
age  is  not  warranted.  On  the  evidence  of  the  brachiopod  fauna  this  lime- 
stone is  shown  to  be  Ototaran. 

-•  .   '  A 

II.  General  Description  op  the  Area. 

Between  the  Otiake  and  the  Otekaike  Rivers,  flowing  in  a  north- 
easterly direction  to  join  the  Waitaki  River,  the  surface  rock  is  a  thick 
deposit  of  coarse  water-worn  boulders  and  silt.  The  initial  gravel  table- 
land has  been  rather  deeply  trenched  by  the  streams,  and  the  Otiake  and 
the  Otekaike  now  flow  in  braided  courses  to  join  the  trunk  stream. 
Remnants  of  high-level  terraces  are  to  be  seen  near  the  school  at  Otekaike, 
indicating  recent  elevation.  Before  debouching  from  the  mountains  on 
to  the  gravel-covered  plain  these  rivers  flow  in  steep-sided  gorges,  and 
narrow  terraces  are  noticeable  on  the  sides  of  the  streams.  The  moun- 
tainous country  that  flanks  this  part  of  the  area  on  the  south-west  rises 
fairly  rapidly  to  a  height  of  over  6,000  ft.  in  the  Kurow  Mountains,  or  at 
least  5,000  ft.  above  the  general  level  of  the  gravel  tableland. 

From  Ben  Lomond  to  Black  Hill  an  even-topped  gently  sloping  ridge 
extends  almost  to  the  main  road,  and  the  rise  from  the  Otekaike  basin 
to  this  ridge  is  abrupt.  The  quartz-grits  that  crop  out  in  the  basin  of 
the  Waikaura  Creek  have  been  deeply  dissected  and  eroded,  and  in  places 
the  greywacke  imdermass  crops  to  the  surface,  particularly  in  the  higher 
country  towards  Ben  Lomond.  T|ie  country  to  the  east  is  an  elevated 
tableland,  deeply  dissected  by  the  streams  that  traverse  it.  The  surface 
rock  is  formed  of  heavy  river-gravels  and  silts,  and  limestone  is  revealed 


140  T7-ansactions. 

in  many  of  the  creeks,  and  forms  prominent  escarpments  on  the  banks 
of  many  of  the  larger  streams.  The  Maruwenua  River,  a  north-easterly- 
flowing  tributary  of  the  Waitaki,  rising  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Dansey's 
Pass,  where  a  distant  sag  is  noticeable  in  the  main  Kakanui-Kurow  Range, 
is  flanked  by  the  rather  steeply  sloping  back  of  a  tilted  block,  the  stripped 
surface  of  which  dips  beneath  the  Tertiaries  exposed  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  river. 

The  Waitaki  River  flows  in  an  east-south-east  direction  near  the  base 
of  the  well-preserved  fault-scarp  of  the  South  Canterbury  block  mountains. 

The  Tertiary  rocks  in  the  Waitaki  Valley  occur '  in  an  elongated 
depression  between  the  mountain-ranges  of  North  Otago  and  South  Canter- 
bury, and  the  origin  of  this  depression  has  been  referred  to  various'  causes. 
Haast  had  no  difficulty  in  imagining  that  a  glacier  was  the  agent  of 
erosion  ;  Hutton  and  Park  invoked  the  aid  of  a  pre-Tertiary  river,  the 
valley  of  which,  after  general  subsidence  of  the  land,  was  drowned  by  the 
encroachment  of  the  sea,  and  the  sedimentary  deposits  laid  down.  Marshall 
detected  signs  of  tectonic  movement  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Wharekuri, 
and  Cotton  later  elaborated  the  idea  in  his  work  on  the  block  mountains 
of  Otago,  and  described  the  dej^ression  as  a  somewhat  complex  graben 
between  the  uplifted  block  mountains  of  North  Otago  and  Canterbury. 

The  Tertiary  rocks  consist  of  quartz  conglomerates  and  sands,  and 
sometimes  fireclays,  with  seams  of  inferior  brown  coal.  These  rocks  rest 
on  the  eroded  surface  of  the  older  greywacke  rock,  and  are  followed  by 
greensands,  often  pebbly,  sandy,  and  micaceous,  and  containing  marine 
fossils  20  ft.  above  the  coal.  These  greensands  pass  up  into  more 
calcareous  greensands,  containing  much  less  quaitz  and  mica,  but  glau- 
conitic  casts  of  Foraminifera  are  abundant.  The  limestone  which  overlies 
these  greensands  sometimes  has  at  its  immediate  base  a  band  of  calcareous 
greensand  containing  brachiopods  in  abundance  ;  in  other  cases  the 
transition  from  a  calcareous  glauconitic  sand  to  a  slightly  glauconitic 
limestone  is  almost  insensible.  The  glauconitic  limestone  passes  up  into 
a  much  harder  limestone  free  from  giauconite,  and  the  latter  rock  is  capped 
by  very  fossiliferous  concretionary  hardened  bands,  covered  in  turn  by 
more  sandy  beds,  which  appear  to  be  unfossiliferous  in  their  upper  part. 
Overlying  these  rocks  unconformably  is  a  heavy  deposit  of  river-gravel 
and  silts. 

III.  Historical  Summary. 

That  the  historical  summary  of  the  views  of  previous  workers  may  be 
more  easily  followed,  the  classification  as  finally  adopted  by  McKay  for  the 
Waitaki  Valley  is  tabulated. 


Age. 

Formation. 

Recent  to.  Pleistocene 

Alluvial  and  glacier  deposits. 

Lower  Miocene 

. .     Pareora  formation. 

(a.)  Gravels  and  sands,  with  lignite-beds 

{h.)  Pareora  clays. 

Upper  Eocene 

. .     (a.)  Hutchinson  Quarry  beds. 

(6.)  Otekaike  limestone. 

(c.)  Kekenodon  beds  (greensands). 

Cretaceo-Tertiary   . . 

. .     (a.)  ''  Grey  marls." 

{b.)  Maruwenua  limestone. 

(c.)  Wharekuri  greensands. 

{d.)  Island  sandstone. 

(e.)  Coal-beds.  . 

Uttlet. — Tertiary  Geology,   Otiake  River  to  Duntroon.  141 

Hector,  in  1865,  classified  the  Waitaki  arenaceous  rocks  as  Lower 
IMiocene,  and  the  Oamaru  rocks  as  Upper  Miccene.  In  1870  he  considered 
the  Oamaru  rocks  to  be  Older  Tertiary,  and  those  of  the  Waitaki  Valley 
Middle  Tertiary.  In  1877  he  placed  the  coal-grits,  sandstones,  and  over- 
lying limestones  at  Maruwenua  in  his  Cretaceo-Tertiary  system.  In  1882 
he  considered  the  Otekaike  limestone  to  be  of  Tertiary  age,  and  at  a  higher 
horizon  than  the  Maruwenua  limestone  (Cretaceo-Tertiary). 

Hutton  (1875,  p.  46),  after  examining  a  collection  of  fossils  from 
Otekaike,  classed  them  as  Upper  Miocene  (Pareoran  or  Awamoan),  and 
(1875,  p.  89)  considered  that  the  Tertiary  rocks  at  Wharekuri  occupied  a 
depression  "hollowed  out  by  an  Eocene  glacier."  The  brown  coal  at 
Wharekuri  was  said  to  be  Eocene.  McKay  (1877)  reported  on  the  geology 
of  the  Oamaru  and  Waitaki  districts,  and  referred  the  Maruwenua  lime- 
stone and  the  overl3dng  fossiliferous  horizon  ("  Phorus  beds  ")  to  the 
Cretaceo  -  Tertiary  system,  and  stated  that  the  "  equivalent  beds  of 
Hutchinson's  Quarry,  Oamaru,  and  even  higher  beds,  assume  the  character 
of  a  calcareous  sa^^Jstone  at  Otekaike,  and  at  Big  Gully  (Wharekuri)  of 
a  tufaceous  greensand."  In  the  same  report  (1877,  p.  58)  he  declared 
the  impossibility  of  separating  the  Awamoan,  either  stratigraphically  or 
otherwise,  from  the  Hutchinsonian.  In  a  later  report  (1882a)  he  described 
the  Waitaki  Valley  more  fully,  and  stated  that  the  Tertiary  rocks, 
comprising  limestones  and  calcareous  greensands  of  Upper  Eocene  age, 
rest  indifferently  on  various  members  of  the  Cretaceo  -  Tertiary  series. 
Certain  sandstone  gravels,  often  steeply  tilted,  were  classed  as  Upper 
Pareoran  (Awamoan),  and  the  coal  at  Wharekuri  was  referred  to  this 
horizon.  The  Hutchinson  Quarry  beds  at  Wharekuri  were  said  to  rest 
conformably  on  the  Otekaike  limestone,  which  was  classed  as  a  Tertiary 
rock,  quite  distinct  from  the  Maruwenua  limestone  of  Cretaceo-Tertiary 
age.  The  "  sandy  beds  with  cement  concretions  "  {"Phorus  beds  ")  above 
the  limestone  at  Maruwenua  were  referred  to  the  horizon  of  the  "  grey 
marls  "  of  Cretaceo-Tertiary  age,  although  the  fossils  "  resemble  those 
from  Hutchinson's  Quarry  and  the  Otekaike  limestone  more  than  those 
of  the  '  grey  marls.'  "  The  Wharekuri  greensands  were  said  to  be  overlain 
unconformably  by  the  "  Kekenodon  greensands  "  (a  Tertiary  rock),  and 
to  belong  to  the  Cretaceo-Tertiary  system.  The  fossiliferous  beds  that 
overlie  the  coal-rocks  at  Black  Point  were  said  to  be  at  the  same  horizon 
as  the  island  sandstone.  The  heavy  angular  gravels,  containing  boulders 
with  Triassic  and  Permian  fossils,  were  considered  to  be  of  glacial  origin, 
the  glaciers  having  taken  their  rise  in  the  surrounding  mountains.  McKay 
collected  fossils  from  Station  Peak,  opposite  Otekaike,  and  stated  that 
in  the  section  exposed  there  "  the  Hutchinson's  Quarry  beds  do  not 
present  their  usual  characters,  and  must  be  considered  as  merged  in  the 
Otekaike  limestone."  Again,  referring  to  the  same  section,  he  affirmed 
that  "  the  oldest  beds  seen  are  limestones  as  pure  as,  though  less  fossiliferous 
than,  the  higher  part."  In  this  locality  and  at  Otekaike  McKay  considered 
that  the  limestone  rests  directly  on  the  subschistose  rocks. 

In  a  later  report  (1882b)  McKay  still  maintained  that  the  coal-beds 
were  of  Pareora  age,  but  that  quartz  sands  and  fireclays  of  Eocene  age, 
similar  to  the  rocks  usually  associated  with  the  coal-seams,  lay  beneath 
the  "  Kekenodon  greensands,"  of  Eocene  age.  The  Maruwenua  limestone 
was  now  considered  to  consist  of  three  distinct  rocks.  The  upper  part 
(the  "  Phorifs  beds,"  of  Upper  Cretaceo-Tertiary  age  of  his  former  reports) 
was  referred   to  the   Hutchinson   Quarry  horizon,    the    middle    part    was 


14:2  Transactions,  i 

correlated  with  the  Otekaike  limestone,  both  being  referred  to  the  Tertiary  ; 
while  the  basal  part  of  the  Maruwenua  limestone  was  stated  to  be  of  the 
same  age  as  the  Ototara  limestone  (Cretaceo-Tertiary).  McKay  asserted 
that,  although  these  three  rocks  are  quite  conformable  at  Maruwenua, 
unconformity  was  deemed  to  be  present,  as  the  Otekaike  limestone  rested 
directly  on  the  subschistose  rocks  at  Otekaike  and  Station  Peak.  He 
gave  a  section  _(1882b,  p.  104)  showing  the  relationship  between  the  two 
limestones,  and  the  Hutchinson  Quarry  beds  were  shown  above  the  lime- 
stone at  Otekaike. 

Hutton  (1885,  p.  547)  described  a  section  on  the  Rakaia  River,  Canter- 
bury, at  a  locality  called  "  The  Curiosity  Shop."  The  aim  of  the  paper 
was  to  show  that  the  division  of  the  rocks  in  this  locality  into  a  Cretaceo- 
Tertiary  and  a  Tertiary  series  was  quite  'unjustifiable  on  either  strati- 
graphical  or  palaeontological  grounds.  In  the  course  of  the  paper  he 
discussed  the  rocks  and  fossils  of  the  Waitaki  Valley,  criticized  adversely 
McKay's  arguments  in  favour  of  an  unconformity  anywhere  in  the  series, 
and  showed  clearly  that  the  sequence  at  Wharekuri  from  the  Hutchinson 
Quarry  beds  down  to  the  greensands  forms  a  single  series.  In  a  later  paper 
(1887,  p.  429)  he  again  contended  that  the  Otekaike  limestone  and  the 
Maruwenua  limestone  belonged  to  the  same  series.  i 

Park  (1887,  p.  139)  traced  the  Ototaran  stone  almost  continuously  from 
Oamaru  to  Ngapara,  where  it  rests  conformably  on  greensands,  the  upper 
part  of  the  greensands  being  represented  at  Oamaru  by  the  Waiarekan 
tuffs.  The  limestone  (at  Ngapara)  was  said  to  have  lost  all  the  character- 
istics of  the  fine  Oamaru  building-stone,  yet  "  standing  on  the  high  hills 
surrounding  Ngapara  it  is  quite  obvious  that  the  Ototara  stone  at  one 
time  formed  a  continuous  bed  "  {Iboc.  cit.,  p.  140).  Park  (1904a,  p.  416) 
determined  the  succession  of  the  younger  Tertiaries  in  South  Canterbury  and 
Otago  to  be,  in  descending  order,  (a)  Oamaru  stone,  (&)  marly  and  sandy 
clays,  (c)  marly  greensands,  often  with  calcareous  concretions,  (d)  quartz- 
grits,  fireclays,  and  coal  ;  and  he  stated  that  "  the  sandy  Kekenodon 
beds  and  underlying  greensands,  &c.,  form  the  base  of  the  Tertiary  beds 
in  the  old  Waitaki  Fiord,  and,  proceeding  westward,  they ^  pass  under  a 
yellowish-brown  limestone,  which  McKay  calls  the  Otekaike  limestone. 
I  think  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  limestone  is  the  horizontal  equiva- 
lent of  the  Ngapara  (Oamaru)  limestone.  But,  without  laying  any  stress 
upon  the  exact  correlation  of  the  limestones,  we  have  in  the  Wharekuri 
basin  a  section  of  the  Oamaru  series  exactly  parallel  with  that  at  the  Waihao 
River ;  and  there  is  little  to  wonder  at  in  this  parallelism  if  these  beds, 
as  seems  to  me  likely,  were  deposited  on  the  floor  of  the  same  continuous 
sea.  The  position  of  the  sandy  beds  [the  greensands],  containing,  as  we 
find,  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  forms  hitherto  supposed  to  be  typical  of  the 
Pareora  [Awamoan]  series,  at  once  raises  a  question  as  to  the  relations  of 
the  Awamoa  and  other  supposed  Pareoras  in  North  Otago  to  the  Oamaru 
stone."  In  a  note  (1904,  p.  418)  Park  stated  that  he  had  since  obtained 
evidence  in  North  Otago  and  South  Canterbury  which  confirmed  his  con- 
clusion l^hat  the  Pareora  beds  (Awamoan)  underlie  the  Oamaru  (Waitaki) 
stone. 

Hamilton  (1904,  p.  465)  described  some  vertical"  faults  striking  north- 
north-west  at  Wharekuri,  and  his  section  showed  the  Wharekuri  green- 
sands in  contact  with  the  quartz-grits  along  a  line  of  faulting.  Park  (1905) 
elaborated  his  position  in  regard  to  the  position  of  the  Pareora  (Awamoan) 
fauna  beneath  the  Waitaki  stone,  and  contended  that  there  wete  really 


Uttlet. — Tertiary  Geology,   Otiake  Biver  to  Duntroon.  143 

two  limestone  horizons  in  North  Otago,  separated  by  the  Hutchinson 
Quarry  and  Awamoan  beds  The  lower  limestone  he  called  the  Oamaru 
stone,  and  the  upper  limestone  the  Waitaki  stone,  as  it  was  strongly 
developed  in  the  Waitaki  Valley.  The  Maruwenua  limestone  and  the 
Otekaike  limestone  at  Wharekuri  were  considered  to  be  at  the  same 
horizon  above  the  Awamoan,  which,  it  may  be  remarked,  is  an  altogether 
difierent  view  from  that  which  McKay  held  in  regard  to  the  relationship 
of  the  Ototara  (Maruwenua)  limestone  and  the  Otekaike  limestone.  McKay 
certainly  considered  the  two  limestones  distinct  rocks ;  but  the  require- 
ments of  the  Cretaceo-Tertiary  theory  demanded  this,  as  a  break  had  to 
occur  somewhere  in  the  series.  Never  did  McKay  dream  of  placing  the 
Waitaki  limestone  above  the  Hutchinsonian  and  Awamoan  horizons,  for 
he  always  maintained  the  infra-position  of  the  limestone  in  North  Otago 
and  South  Canterbury  (1882a,  p.  65,  and  1882b,  p.  103).  Park  correlated 
the  greensands  at  Wharekuri  with  the  Hutchinson  Quarry  beds  at  Kakanui 
(1905,  p.  523),  but  McKay  had  always  maintained  that  the  beds  above  the 
limestone  in  the  Wharekuri  area  were  undoubtedly  the  representatives 
of  the  Hutchinson  Quarry  beds  at  Oamaru.  Park  placed  the  coal-beds  at 
Wharekuri  at  the  base  of  the  Tertiary  series. 

Marshall,  Speight,  and  Cotton  (1911,  p.  405)  stated  that  there  was  no 
evidence'  that  the  greensands  lying  beneath  the  Maruwenua  limestone  are 
the  equivalent  of  the  Hutchinson  Quarry  beds  at  Oamaru,  but  agreed  with 
Park  in  his  contention  that  the  series  is  conformable.  ■ 

Marshall  (1915,  p.  383)  gave  a  list  of  fossils  from  the  fossiliferous  beds 
at  Otiake,  and  referred  them  to  the  horizon  of  the  Oamaru  limestone 
(Ototaran). 

Cotton  (1917a,  p.  285,  and  1917b,  p.  432)  showed  that  the  Waitaki 
River  followed  a  complex  graben  along  the  northern  boundary  of  the 
block-complex  which  forms  the  mountains  of  Otago,  and  he  described  several 
interesting  examples  of  tectonic  forms. 

IV.  Description  op  the  Tertiary  Beds. 

» 

(1.)  Trig.  Station  Z,  Otiake  River. 
The  exposure  of  fossiliferous  beds  in  this  locality  is  seen  on  the  face  of 
a  rather  prominent  clifE,  near  the  Trig.  Station  Z,  close  to  the  Otiake  River, 
and  about  a  mile  above  the  railway  bridge.     The  beds  dip  7°  in  a  direction 
N.  20°  W.     The  section  exposed  here  is  illustrated  in  fig.  2. 


Fig.  2. — -Section  at  Trig.  Station  Z,  Otialce  River,  (a)  Otekaike  limestone ;  (6)  glau- 
conitic  calcareous  bands ;  (c)  less  glauconitic  calcareous  sandstonesj  with 
glauconitic  bands  passing  up  into  {d) ;    {d)  softer  calcareous  mudstone. 

The  lowest  bed  (a)  is  a  compact  light-yellowish-brown  limestone  (Otekaike 
limestone)  containing  abundant  tests  of.  Foraminifera,  a  small  quantity  of 
clear  subangular  minute  grains  of  quartz,  and  some  glauconitic  casts  of 
Foraminifera.  Microscopic  fossils  are  scattered  through  the  mass  of  the 
rock.  Pachymagas  huttoni  Thomson,  Pecten  huttoni  (Park),  Limopsis  aurita 
(Brocchi),  Dentalium  solidum.  Hutt.,  Cucullaea  sp.  were  found  in  the  lime- 
stone.    The  overlying  bed  (b)  is  distinctly  marked  out  from  the  underlying 


lU 


Transactions. 


limestone  by  its  glauconitic  nature  and  by  the  abundance  of  fossils  it  con- 
tains. Though  occurring  in  (c)  as  weU,  the  fossils  are  most  abimdant  in  the 
glauconitic  bands.  The  bed  (b)  is  hardened  and  concretionary,  and  is  3  ft. 
in  thickness.  Bed  (c)  is  a  calcareous,  less  glauconitic  bed,  showing  a  thick- 
ness of  20  ft.,  and  containing  occasional  thin  bands  of  glauconite  with 
fossils.  It  appears  to  pass  up  into  less  fossiliferous,  more  sandy  beds  {d). 
The  fossils  collected  from  beds  (b)  and  (c)  are  given  below,  and  include  the 
species  collected  by  Dr.  Thomson,  Dr.  Marshall,  and  the  writer.  The 
collector's  name  in  each  case  is  denoted  by  the  initial  letter  of  his  name. 
For  purposes  of  easy  reference  and  comparison  the  list  is  arranged 
alphabetically.     Recent  species  are  marked  with  an  asterisk. 


Ampullina  suturalis  (Hiitt.) 

Ancilla  hebera  (Hutt.) 

* mucronata  (Sow.) 

* novae-zelandiae  (Sow.) 

papillata  (Tate) 

Anomia  trigonopsis  Hutt. 

Bathytom'a  sulcata  excavata  Sut 

Borsonia  rudis  (Hutt.) 
*Calyptraea  alta  (Hutt.) 
* macidata  (Q.  &  G.) 

Cominella  pulchra  Sut. 

Corbula  canaliculata  Hutt. 

humerosa  Hutt. 

kaiparaensis  Sut. 

*Crassatellites  obesus  (A.  Ad.) 

Crepidida  gregaria  Sow. 

striata  (Hutt.)    . . 

Cucullaea  attenuala  Hutt. 

Cymatium  minimum  (Hutt.) 

Cymbiola  corrugata  (Hutt.) 

Cytherea  chariessa  Sut. 
* oblongata  (Hanley) 

Dentalium  mantelli  Zitt. 

pareorense  P.  &  S. 

solidum  Hutt.    . . 


*Divaricella  cumingi  (Ad.  &  An 
*Dosinia  greyi  Zitt. 

Drillia  callimorpha  Sut. 

Epitoniifm  lyratum  (Zitt.) 

Exilia  dalli  Sut. 

Ficus  parvus  Sut. 
*Fulgoraria  gracilis  (Swains.) 

Leucosyrinx  alta  (Harris) 

alta  transenna  (Sut.) 

Lima  color ata  Hutt.   . . 
*Limopsis  aurita  (Brocchi) 

catenata  Sut. 

*Loripes  concinna  Hutt. 

Macrocallista  assimilis  (Hutt.) 


g 


M,  T,  U. 
M. 

M,  U. 

T,  U. 

T. 

M,  T,  U. 

M,  U. 

T. 

M,  T,  U. 

M. 

M,  T,  ur 

M.  U. 
M,  U. 
M,  U. 
M. 

M,  U. 
M,  U. 
U. 

M,  ,T, 
U. 

M,  T, 
M,  U. 
T. 

M,  U. 
M,  T,  U. 
M,  T,  U. 
M. 

M,  U. 
M. 
T. 

M,  T. 
M,  U. 
M. 

M,  T. 
M,  T, 
U. 
U. 
M,  U. 


U. 


U. 


U. 


Uttlet. — Tertiary  Geology, 

Oiiake  1 

River  to 

Duntroon. 

f 

• 

*Macrocallista  nmltistriata  (Sow.)  ,           .  .              . .     M,  T,  U 

Mangilia  blandiata  Sut. 

.     U. 

Marginella  harrisi  Cossm. 

.     M,  U. 

Mitra  armor ica  Sut.  . . 

.     T,  U. 

Modiolaria  elongata  (Hutt.) 

.     U. 

^Modiolus  australis  (Gray) 

.     M. 

*Murex  zelandicus  Q.  &  G. 

.     M,  T,  U 

*Natica  zelandica  Q.  &  G. 

.     M,  T,  U 

Nucula  saggitata  Sut. 

.     U. 

*Ostrea  tatei  Sut. 

.     T. 

Pecten  beethami  Hutt. 

.     T. 

chathamensis  Hutt. 

.     T. 

* zelandiae  Gray 

.     M. 

Polinices  gihhosus  (Hutt.) 

.     M,  T,  U 

huttoni  Iher. 

.     M,  T,  U. 

*Psammohia  Uneolata  Gray 

.     T. 

Ptychatractus  tenuiliratus  Sut. 

.     U. 

Sinum  cinctum  (Hutt.)              y 

.     M. 

Siphonalia  conoidea  (Zitt.) 

.     M. 

* nodosa  (Mart.)   .  . 

- 

s" 

.     M,  T. 

turrita  Sut.         .  ; 

.     T,  U. 

*Struthiolaria  vermis  (Mart.) 

.     M. 

*Tellina  glahrella  Desk. 

.     T. 

Terebra  or y eta  Sut.     . . 

.     M. 

Teredo  heajjhyi  Zitt.  . . 

.     M,  T,  U 

*Trichotropis  clathrata  Sow. 

.     M. 

*Turbonilla  zealandica  (Hutt.)  . 

.     T. 

Turris  uttleyi  Sut. 

.     M,  T,  U 

TurriteUa  ambtdacrum  Sow. 

.     T. 

* carlottae  Wats.  . . 

.     M. 

caver shamensis  Harris 

.     M,  T,  U. 

semicoyicava  Sut. 

.     M,  T. 

Tijiihis  maccoyi  T. -Woods 

.     M,  U. 

*Venericardia  difficilis  (Desh.)    . 

.     M. 

pseutes  Sut. 

.     T,  U. 

purpurata  (Desh.) 

.     T. 

*Zenatia  acinaces  (Q.  &  G.) 

.     M. 

145 


Out  of  this  list  of  seventy-six  species  twenty-six  are  Recent,  giving  a 
percentage  of  34. 

In  addition  to  the  molluscs,  Pachymagas  huttoni  Thomson  is  abvmdant 
in  the  glauconitic  bands.  Two  new  species  of  Surcula  were  found  in  the 
writer's  collection,  and  Dr.  Thomson  obtained  a  new  species  of  Vexillum. 

Every  one  of  the  above  species  occurs  in  the  Awamoan  beds  elsewhere, 
and  thirty -nine  species  have  never  been  foimd  below  the  "  Pachymagas 
parki "  greensand  band  (the  upper  limit  of  the  Hutch insonian)  in  the 
Oamaru  district,  ('orals  also  occur  in  these  beds.  (Note. — To  avoid 
circumlocution  the  writer  will  refer  to  these  upper  fossiliferous  beds  as  the 
"  Otiake  beds.") 

Dr.  Marshall  has  published  a  list  of  fossils  from  this  locality,  and  they 
are  stated  to  have  come  from  the  limestone   (1915,   p.   383).     All  fossils 


146  Transactions. 

collected  by  the  present  writer  have  been  gathered  from  the  glauconitic 
band  (&)  and  over-lying  bed,  and  at  least  50  ft.  of  limestone  is  exposed  below 
this  bed.  This  limestone  is  poorly  fossiliferous.  Corals  occur  in  the 
glauconitic  bands  above  the  limestone,  as  well  as  PacJiymagas  hntfoni 
Thomson  (possibly  Marshall's  Magellania  sp.),  but  the  writer  did  not  find 
Isis  daciyla.  Nor  was  he  more  successful  in  finding  a  glauconitic  band  of 
greensand  helow  the  limestone  in  which  the  corals  and  brachiopods  were 
said  to  occur. 

Park  (1918,  p.  83,  footnote)  says,  "Mr.  Uttley  states  {fide  Dr.  J.  A. 
Thomson)  that  the  beds  from  which  the  collection  was  made  lie  above  the 
Waitaki  stone,  and  are  undoubtedly  Awamoan  "  ;  and  on  the  next  page 
of  his  report  (1918,  p.  84)  he  writes,  "  On  the  palaeontological  evidence  the 
so-called  Waitaki  stone  at  Otiake  should  be  referred  to  the  Awamoan 
instead  of  the  Upper  Hutchinsonian." 

These  statements,  together  with  Marshall's  view  that  the  fossils  came 
from  the  limestone,  need  some  comment.  The  fossils  were  collected  from 
the  top  of  the  section,  with  a  considerable  thickness  of  limestone  below 
them.  The  fossils  are  almost  certainly  Awamoan,  but  the  writer  considers 
the  limestone  to  be  of  Ototaran  age.  In  the  Waitaki  Valley  there  is 
a  lack  of  brachiopods  that  characterize  the  Hutchinsonian  greensands  of 
the  Oamaru  coastal  district,  particularly  the  brachiopod  Pachymagas  jmrki 
(Hutt.),  which,  though  not  restricted  to  the  Hutchinsonian,  occurs  abundantly 
in  a  well-marked  indurated  glauconitic  band,  and  marks  the  upper  limit 
of  the  Hutchinsonian.  In  the  absence  of  a  brachiopod  fauna  it  would 
scarcely  be  possible  to  differentiate  this  horizon,  except  perhaps,  litho- 
logically,  even  in  the  Oamaru  district,  and  the  Hutchinsonian  and  Awamoan 
would,  as  far  as  the  moUuscan  faima  is  concerned,  have  to  be  considered 
as  part  and  parcel  of  the  same  series.  (See  McKay,  1877,  p.  58  ;  Hutton, 
1887,  p.  416).  The  writer  believes  that  this  is  the  case  in  the  Waitaki 
Valley,  and  that  these  fossiliferous  beds  at  Otiake  represent  the  Hutchin- 
sonian and  Awamoan  hori"^ons  of  the  coastal  district.  McKay  (1882a, 
p.  65)  recognized  the  beds  above  the  limestone  at  Wharekuri  as  Hutchin- 
sonian, and  these  are  at  the  same  horizon  as  the  Otiake  beds.  There  is  no 
evidence  to  show  that  the  Otekaike  limestone  is  other  than  Ototaran  in 
age.  The  beds  beneath  the  limestone  are  not  seen,  but  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Otiake  River,  where  the  limestone  again  crops  out,  greyish-green 
foraminiferal  sands,  underlain  by  intensely  dark  greensands,  crop  out 
farther  up  the  river,  dipping  in  the  same  direction  as  the  limestone  ;  and 
a  short  distance  from  the  outcrop  of  greensands  the  quartz-grits  also  dip  in 
the  same  direction. 

(2.)  Otekaike  Special  School. 

This  is  the  locality  (Geological  Survey  locality  No.  481)  where  McKay 
collected  fossils  in  1881.  His  collection,  he  states,  was  made  from  the 
Otekaike  limestone,  which  crops  out  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Otekaike 
River,  two -miles  and  half  from  the  main  road.  Where  exposed  it  contains 
a  few  fossils,  Cucullaea  worthingtoni  Hutt.  (?)  and  Pachymagas  huttoni 
Thomson  being  the  forms  collected  by  the  writer.  McKay  records  ten 
forms,  eight  of  which. occur  in  the  upper  beds  at  Otiake.  Traill's  collection 
(Geol.  Surv.  loc.  259)  is  also  said  to  have  come  from  the  limestone.  Seven 
species  were  determined,  and  six  occur  in  the  upper  beds  at  Otiake. 

These  geologists  evidently  failed  to  find  a  highly  fossiliferous  horizon 
in  this  localitv.  On  the  sloping  right  bank  of  the  creek,  immediately 
behind  the  school,  the  writer  discovered,  at  the  top  of  the  limestone,  two 
glauconitic  beds  crowded  with  fossils,  which  are  undoubtedly  at  the  same 


Uttley. — Tertiary  Geology,   Otiake  River  to  Duntroon.  147 


horizon  as  the  Otiake  beds.  Fully  40  ft.  of  limestone  underlies,  and  its 
base  is  not  seen.  The  fossils  collected  from  the  Otiake  beds  in  this 
locality  were — 


*Lim.opsis  aiirifa  (Brocchi) 
*Loripes  concinna  Hutt. 

Mangilia  jjraecophinodes  (?)  Sut. 

Marginella  harrisi  Cossm. 
*Natica  zelandica  Q.  &  G. 

Nucida  saggitata  Sut. 

Pecten  chat hanien sis  Hutt. 
* zelandiae  Gray 

Polinices  gibbosus  (Hutt.) 

huttoni  Iher. 

Siphonalia  turrit  a  Sut. 
■^Tellina  glabrella  Desh. 

Terebra  org  eta  Sut. 

Teredo  heaphyi  Zitt. 
*Turbonilla  zealandica  (Hutt.) 

Turritella  ambulacrum  Sow. 

caver shamensis  Harris 

semiconcava  Sut. 

Venericardia  pseutes  Sut. 
* purjmrata  (Desh.) 


Ampullina  suturalis  (Hutt.) 
Ancilla  papillata  (Tate) 
Anomia  trigonopsis  Hutt. 
Bathytoma  sulcata  excavata  Sut. 
*Calyptraea  alt  a  (Hutt.) 

* maculata  (Q.  &  G.) 

Cominella  pidchra  (?)  Sut. 
Corbula  canaliculata  Hutt. 

humerosa  Hutt. 

kai^Kiraensis  Sut. 

*Crassatellites  obesus  (A.  Ad.) 
Crepidida  gregaria  Sow. 
Cucidlaea  attenuata  Hutt. 
Cy'mbiola  corrugata  (Hutt.) 
Cytherea  chariessa  Sut. 
Dentalimn  pareorense  P.  &  S. 

solidum  Hutt. 

*Divaricella  cumingi  (Ad.  &  Ang.) 
Epitonium  lyratum  (Zitt.) 
Leucosyrinx  alta  (Harris) 
Lima  color ata  Hutt. 

Out  of  this  list  of  forty-one  species,  two  were  doubtfully  identified. 
Eleven  species  are  Recent,  giving  a  percentage  of  27.  This  collection  was 
obtained  after  two  or  three  hours'  work,  and  there  is  not  the  slightest 
doubt  that  many  additional  forms  may  be  obtained  from  this  locality. 

The  brachiopod  Pachymagas  huttoni  Thomson  is  again  very  abundant, 
•  and  corals  are  also  foimd  similar  to  those  fomid  at  Trig.  Station  Z.  McKay 
(1882a,  p.  66)  states  that  in  this  locality  the  Otekaike  limestone  rests  directly 
on  the  Palaeozoic  rocks,  and  he  gives  a  section  (1882b,  p.  104)  illustrating 
his  views.  It  is  true  that  a  short  distance  from  the  present  locality  the  old 
rock  crops  out,  but  McKay  observed  no  junction,  as  the  country  between 
is  obscured  by  heavy  gravel  deposits.  The  writer  followed  up  the  various 
small  creeks  that  have  cut  deeply  into  the  gravels,  and  found  the  quartz- 
grits  dipping  towards  the  limestone  a  short  distance  away  close  up  to  the 
mountain-front,  so  that  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  limestone  does  not  lie 
on  the  old  rock  at  Otekaike.  The  section  given  by  McKay  (1882b,  p.  104) 
was  intended  to  illustrate  his  views  of  the  relationship  between  the  Otekaike 
limestone  and  the  Maruwenua  limestone,  which  he  considered  to  belong 
to  difierent  systems.  In  his  first  report  on  the  locality  he  gave  a  section 
(1882a,  p.  75)  showing  the  Otekaike  limestone  at  a  higher  horizon  than 
the  Maruwenua  limestone  in  its  entirety  ;  but  in  a  later  report  during  the 
same  year  he  gave  another  section  (1882b,  p.  104),  in  which  he  modified 
his  views  considerably.  He  divided  the  Maruwenua  limestone  into  three 
distinct  rocks,  and  correlated  •  the  Otekaike  limestone  with  the  middle 
portion  of  the  Maruwenua  limestone,  and  the  Hutchinson  Quarry  beds 
with  the  fossiliferous  horizon  {"  Phorus  beds")  that  lies  at  the  top  of  the 
Maruwenua  limestone.  He  had  previously  referred  these  fossiliferous 
beds  to  the  top  of  the  Cretaceo-Tertiary.  His  section  shows  clearly  the 
Hutchinson  Quarry  beds  lying  above  the  Otekaike  limestone  at  Otekaike  _ 
(the  present  locality),  although  he  makes  no  reference  to  them  in  his 
report.      He  frequently  refers,  however,   to   the   Hutchinson  Quarry  beds 


148  Transactions. 

lying  above  the  Otekaike  limestone  at  Wharekuri.  The  writer  has  no 
doubt  that  if  McKay  had  discovered  the  glauconitic  fossiliferous  beds 
above  the  limestone  at  Otekaike  he  would  have  referred  them  to  the 
Hutchinson  Quarry  horizon,  for  his  description  of  the  latter  beds  at 
Wharekuri  would  apply  equally  well  to  the  Otiake  beds  at  Otiake  and 
Otekaike.  Although  McKay  made  the  break  between  the  Cretaceo-Tertiary 
and  Tertiary  systems  at  the  top  of  the  lower  third  of  the  limestone  at 
Maruwenua,  yet  he  states  that  there  is  stratigraphical  conformity  throughout 
the  section  ;  but  that  unconformity  is  proved,  as  the  Otekaike  limestone 
rests  on  the  old  "  subschistose  "  rocks  at  Otekaike.  As  there  is  no  evidence 
forthcoming  to  show  that  this  is  so,  and  as  the  basal  quartz-grits  of  the 
series  are  present,  as  shown  above,  unconformity  has  not  been  proved. 
McKay  was  perhaps  justified  on  lithological  grounds  in  dividing  the 
limestone  at  Maruwenua  into  three  portions.  The  "  Phorus  beds "  at 
Maruwenua,  as  will  be  shown  below,  are  similar  to  the  Otiake  beds,  and 
therefore  probably  Hutchinsonian-Awamoan.  The  less  glauconitic  lime- 
stone below  these  at  this  locality  has  all  the  lithological  characters  of  the 
limestone  at  Otekaike,  while  the  more  glauconitic  basal  portion  of  the 
limestone  at  Maruwenua  represents  the  basal  part  of  the  Otekaike  limestone, 
which  is  not  visible  in  the  preseiat  locality,  as  it  is  obscured  by  gravels. 

The  quartz-grits  crop  out  again  at  the  point  where  the  Otekaike  River 
leaves  its  gorge  and  debouches  on  to  the  gravel-covered  plain.  They  lie 
near  the  foot  of  a  steep  escarpment  of  greywacke  rock  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  stream,  and  mark  the  point  of  intersection  of  two  strong  faults,  the 
one  extending  from  Wharekuri  to  this  point,  and  another  trending  in  a 
north-easterly  direction.  The  small  exposure  of  the  quartz-grits  mentioned 
in  the  description  of  the  beds  at  Otekaike  lies  on  the  line  of  the  Wharekuri- 
Otekaike  fault,  and  it  will  be  shown  in  another  paper  in  this  volume  that  there 
aie  other  outcrops  of  Tertiary  rocks  lying  near  the  base  of  the  mountain- 
front  in  the  Kurow  district.  This  fault  has  a  north-westerly  trend.  The 
escarpment  referred  to  above  extends  in  a  north-easterly  direction  towards 
the  main  road,  and  the  crest  of  the  evenly  sloping  ridge  drops  500  ft.  in 
a  distance  of  three  miles.  Patches  of  quartz-grits  and  limestone  crop 
out  at  various  places  at  the  foot  of  the  scarp,  and  define  the  direction  of 
this  fault,  which  bounds  the  north-east  portion  of  the  great  Kakanui  tilted 
block  (Cotton,  1917a,  p.  279).  The  back  slope  of  this  portion  of  the 
block  is  stripped  of  its  cover  in  the  higher  country  towards  Ben  Lomond, 
but  the  covering  strata  (quartz-grits,  greensands,  limestone,  &c.)  are  still 
preserved  in  the  country  extending  north  and  south  from  Black  Hill  to 
Livingstone. 

(3.)  White  Rocks  and  Duntroon  Area. 

In  the  Waikaura  Creek,  quartz-grits  crop  out  to  the  east  of  Black 
Hill,  and  a  prominent  limestone  mesa  rises  steeply  from  the  bed  of  the 
creek.  The  slopes  are  buried  in  talus,  and  the  intervening  rocks  are  not 
exposed.  The  limestone  resembles  the  Otekaike  limestone  in  containing 
little  glauconite.  Its  dip  is  westerly.  From  this  point  the  Maruwenua 
tableland  stretches  to  the  south-east,  covered  by  heavy  gravels  and  silts, 
but  the  limestone  is  exposed  in  many  places  where  the  creeks  have  cut 
through  the  gravels. 

At  White  Rocks,  where  the  limestone  crops  out  on  the  main  road  two 
miles  above  Duntroon,  the  highest  rocks  are  the  high-level  river-gravels, 
overlying  a  limestone  showing  in  places  a  thickness  of  70  ft.  The  under- 
lying rocks  are  not  exposed,  but  the  quartz-grits  crop  out  about  three- 
quarters  of  a  miles  up  the  valley,  dipping  in  the  same  direction.     The  dip 


Uttlet. — Tertiary  Geology,   Otiake  River  to  Duntroon.  149 

of  the  limestone  is  easterly,  at  an  angle  of  6°.  The  lower  part  of  the  lime- 
stone is  very  glauconitic,  and  contains  abundant  Foraminifera  and  small 
echinoderms.  Brachiopods  also  occur,  being  particularly  abundant  in  one 
narrow  band  about  4  ft.  wide.  The  limestone  gradually  gets  less  glauconitic 
and  more  indurated,  and  at  the  top  it  resembles  the  harder  portions  of  the 
Otekaike  limestone. 

Pachymagas  huttoni  Thomson,  Epitonium  lyratum  (Zitt.),  Graphularia  sp., 
and  Lima  sp.  were  found  in  this  upper  part. 

The  lower  glauconitic  limestone  in  its  upper  portion  furnished  the 
following  fossils  : — 


Aetheia  gauUeri  (Morris) 
Liothyrella  landonensis  Thomson 
Neothyris  tajnrina  (Hutt.) 
Rhdzothyris  rhizoida  (Hutt.) 
Pachymagas  huttoni  Thomson 


Pachymagas  elUpticus  Thomson 
Terebratella  totaraensis  (?)  Thomson 
Terebratulina  suessi  (Hutt.) 
Epitonium  lyratiim  (Zitt.) 
Pecten  huttoni  (Park) 

Foraminifera  and  echinoderms  are  plentiful  in  this  bed. 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  Duntroon,  and  in  other  places  in  the  Maru- 
wenua  district,  prominent  salients  in  the  shape  of  well-rounded  hills  and 
ridges  are  prominent  above  the  surface  of  the  tableland.  They  are  capped 
with  silts  or  gravels,  and  their  flanks  are  usually  covered  with  soil  and 
grass,  but  where  cuttings  have  been  made  through  them  fossiliferous  beds 
are  exposed  which  correspond  with  the  horizon  above  the  limestone  (the 
Otiake  beds).  McKay  clearly  recognized  that  the  form  and  position  o 
these  salients  were  an  index  of  their  nature,,  for,  after  describing  them  as 
capped  with  gravels,  which  are  miderlain  by  brown  or  light-coloured  sands, 
in  the  lower  part  of  which  lenticular  masses  and  beds  of  hard  sandstone 
occur  full  of  fossils,  he  says  that  "  the  fossiliferous  beds  underlying  [the 
gravels]  will  probably  be  found  in  the  isolated  hills  behind  McMaster's 
Station  "  (1877,  p.  57). 

The  Trig.  Station  A  is  situated  on  one  of  these  prominent  ridges,  and 
on  the  road  from  Duntroon  to  the  "  Earthquake,"  which  cuts  through 
this  ridge  about  one  mile  and  a  half  from  the  railway-line,  these  upper 
fossiliferous  beds  crop  out.  In  some  places  the  fossils  occurred  in  con- 
cretionary masses,  but  usually  as  casts.  The  looser  portions  of  the  rock 
are  glauconitic  and  calcareous,  but  the  fossils  in  these  are  very  friable. 
From  the  hardened  bed  were  obtained  Pachymagas  huttoni  Thomson,  and 
casts  of  Turritella  sp.,  Dentalium  sp.,  Venericardia  sp.  In  the  looser 
deposits  lying  immediately  above,  the  following  forms  were  obtained  : — 


Anomia  trigonopsis  Hutt.  (?) 
Cardium  sp. 

Corbiila,  canaliculata  Hutt. 
*Crassatellites  obesus  (A.  Ad.) 


Cytherea  chariessa  Sut. 
*Limopsis  aurita  (Brocchi) 
Modiolus  sp. 
Venericardia  pseutes  Sut. 


These  beds  are  the  "  Phorus  beds  "  of  McKay,  and  this  appears  to  be 
the  locality  from  which  he  collected  (Geol.  Surv.  loc.  No.  178).  These 
beds,  as  pointed  out  above,  in  his  earlier  reports  he  referred  to  the  top 
of  the  Cretaceo-Tertiary,  but  subsequently  he  correlated  them  with  the 
Hutchii^son  Quarry  horizon,  considering  the  imderlying  white  limestone 
as  the  equivalent  of  the  Otekaike  limestone,  while  the  basal  portion  of, the 
limestone  (usually  very  glauconitic)  he  referred  to  his  Cretaceo-Tertiary 
system.  The  writer  is  in  agreement  with  McKay  in  placing  the  "  Phorus 
beds"  in  the  Hutchinsonian,  and  believes  they  are  the  equivalent  of  the 
Otiake  beds  at  Otekaike  and  Otiake. 

At  the  "  Earthquake  "  the  limestone  at  the  top  of  the  cliffs  is  of  the 
harder  whitish  variety,  but  lower' down  it  gradually  gets  more  glauconitic, 
and  in  the  lower  10  ft.  it  contains  an  abundance  of  brachiopods. 


/150  Transactions. 

The  fossils  collected  from  the  lower  part  of  the  limestone  were — 
Aetheia  gaulteri  (Morris)  '     |       Pachymagas  huttoni  Thomson 

Liothyrella  landonensis  (?)  Thomson  j       Rhizothyris  rhizoida  (Hutt.) 
Neothyris  tapirina  (Hutt.)  Terehratidina  suessi  (Hutt.) 

Pachymagas  ellipticus  Thomson  |       Epitonium  lyratum  (Zitt.) 

Foraminifera  are  also  abundant. 

Below  this  fossiliferous  portion  2  ft.  or  3  ft.  of  greyish-green  glauconitic 
marly  sands  are  exposed,  and  in  the  basin  of  Waipati  Creek  the  quartz- 
grits  are  exposed  dipping  towards  the  limestone. 

(4.)  Maruwenua  Rirer. 

The  quartz-grits  and  overlying  greensands  can  be  seen  at  many  places 
between  Duntroon  and  Livingstone.  At  the  latter  place  the  grits  are 
worked  for  gold,  and  are  immediately  overlain  by  a  bed  of  fossiliferous 
greensand  in  which  shark's  teeth  are  abundant.  This  in  turn  is  followed 
by  concretionary  greyish  sands  full  of  fossils  (McKay,  1882b,  p.  105). 
McKay,  however,  gave  no  list  of  fossils. 

On  the  Eight  bank  of  the  Maruwenua  River,  at  a  point  about  a  mile 
south-west  of  Trig.  Station  S  (Maruwenua  Survey  District),  a  calcareous 
concretionary  band  full  of  fossils  occurs  in  quartzose  micaceous  greensands, 
not  far  above  the  basal  quartz  sands.  Twenty  feet  above  this  band  occurs 
a  sill  of  basalt,  followed  by  another  sill  higher  in  the  section,  the  two  sills 
being  separated  by  20  ft.  of  greensands.  The  beds  dip  easterly  at  10°.  The 
calcareous  concretionary  band  is  full  of  fossils,  but  they  are  very  difficult 
to  extract.  The  late  Mr.  Henry  Suter  determined  the  following  forms 
from  a  large  quantity  of  material  gathered  by  the  writer.  The  work  of 
identification  was  rendered  difficult,  as  most  of  the  fossils  were  casts. 


*Nucula  strangei  A.  Ad. 
*Polinices  amphialus  (Wats.) 

Sinum  n.  sp. 

Surcula  n.  sp. 
*Titrritella  carlottae  Wats. 
*Venericardia  difficilis  (Desh.) 


*Ancilla  novae-zelandiae  (Sow.)  . 
*Capulus  australis  (Lamk.) 
•  Cardium  waitakiense  Sut. 

Cardium  n.  sp. 

Corbida  humerosa  Hutt. 

Cylichnella  enysi  (Hutt.) 

Mangilia  n.  sp. 

Out  of  this  small  list  four  species  are  new.  Mr.  Suter  has  published 
the  description  of  only  one  of  these  species — Sinum  fornicahim  Suter. 

Some  distance  to  the  north-east  a  steep  escarpment  of  the  limestone 
occurs,  the  lower  portion   being  glauconitic  ;    the  dip   is  easterly,   at   7°. 
A  few  fossils  were  obtained  from  the  lower  part  of  the  limestone  : — 
Aetheia  gaulteri  (Morris) 
Epitonium  lyratum  (Zitt.) 
Terebratulina  suessi  (Hutt.) 

At  four  places  in  the  road-cuttings  in  Blocks  2  and  3,  Maruwenua 
Survey  District,  the  writer  foimd  a  hardened  calcareous  concretionary 
band  lying  above  the  limestone.  The  fossils  were  in  the  form  of  casts, 
but  the  position  of  the  beds  above  the  limestone  indicates  that  the  Otiake 
beds  are  widely  spread  throughout  this  part  of  the  district. 

(5.)  Station  Peak. 
Although  this  locality  is  beyond  the  scope  of  tlie  present  paper,  a 
brief  reference  should  be  made  to  it.  On  the  Canterbury  side  of  the 
Waitaki,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Otekaike  River,  there  is  an  outcrop 
of  fossiliferous  Tertiary  rocks  lying  near  the  base  of  a  well-marked  fault- 
scarp.      The  beds  dip  40°  to  the  west.      This  scarp,   which  bounds  the 


Uttley. — Tertiary  Geology,   Otiake  River  to  Duntroon.  151 

block  mountains  of  South  Canterbury,  and  close  to  the  base  of  which  the 
Waitaki  River  is  now  flowing,  was  diagnosed  by  Cotton  on  geomorpho- 
logical  evidence  as  a  fault-scarp.  The  occurrence  of  these  steeply  dipping 
Tertiary  beds  at  the  base  of  the  scarp  confirms  Cotton's  view.  This 
isolated  patch  of  Tertiaries  evidently  rests  on  the  toe  of  the  splinter 
described  by  Cotton  (1917b,  p.  432).  The  surface  of  this  splinter  is  a 
"  fossil  plain,''  and  shows  few  signs  of  erosion.  Although  the  Tertiary 
rocks  that  formerly  covered  it  have  been  almost  completely  stripped,  a 
small  remnant  has  been  preserved  at  Station  Peak,  close  up  to  the  fault- 
scarp  at  the  back  of  the  splinter.  McKay  collected  fossils  from  these 
beds,  and  states  that  "  in  this  section  the  Hutchinson's  Quarry  beds  do  not 
present  their  usual  characters,  and  must  be  considered  as  merged  in  the 
Otekaike  limestone  "  (1882a,  p.  65).  He  further  adds  that  "  the  lowest 
beds  seen  are  limestones  as  pure  as,  though  less  fossiliferous  than,  the  higher 
part.  Upwards  these  beds  pass  into  clay-marls  resembhng  the  fossihferous 
Pareora  beds."  There  is  no  doubt  that  McKay  collected  his  fossils  from 
the  upper  portions  of  the  calcareous  rocks  at  Station  Peak,  and  that  these 
fossiliferous  rocks  are  underlain  by  a  much  less  fossihferous  limestone.  As 
has  been  shown  above,  the  limestone  at  Otiake  and  Otekaike  is  also 
capped  by  a  development  of  very  fossiliferous  beds,  and  it  has  been  pointed 
out  that  these  beds  are  probably  widely  extended  beneath  the  gravel 
deposits  of  the  Maruwenua  tableland.  McKay's  collection  from  the  beds 
at  Station  Peak  were  determined  by  the  late  Mr.  Henry  Suter.  Of  the 
thirty-one  species  specifically  determined,  nineteen  occur  in  the  Otiake  beds 
at  Otiake  (Trig.  Station  Z).  Of  the  remainder,  ten  species  are  common 
Awamoan  fossils,  Lima  lima  (L.)  is  Recent,  and  Ancilla  subgradata  (Tate) 
is  apparently  not  found  elsewhere.  Further,  ten  of  the  species  have  never 
been  found  below  the  Hutchinsonian-Awamoan  horizon  of  North  Otago. 
These  fossiliferous  beds  are  almost  certainly  at  the  horizon  of  the  Otiake 
beds  (Hutchinsonian-Awamoan),  lying  above  the  main  body  of  limestone 
of  the  Waitaki  Valley. 

V.  Structure  of  the  Area. 
A  fuller  description  of  the  structure  will  be  given  in  a  later  paper  after 
the  area  north-west  of  the  Otiake  River  has  been  discussed.  A  fault 
(Wharekuri-Otekaike  fault)  is  clearly  defined  by  the  outcrops  of  the  basal 
quartz-grits,  lying  close  to  the  base  of  the  mountain-front,  as  shown  on 
the  map  ;  whilst  another  fault,  trending  north-easterly,  runs  north-west 
of  the  conspicuous  ridge  extending  from  Black  Hill  as  far  as  Ben  Lomond. 
The  geological  evidence  for  the  latter  fault  is  clearly  indicated  by  the 
outcrop  of  tilted  quartz-grits  and  limestone  at  intervals  at  the  foot  of  the 
scarp,  ant  b)^  the  occurrence  of  the  same  beds  on  the  back  slope  of  the 
tilted  block  to  the  south-east.  The  majority  of  the  streams  draining  this 
portion  of  the  back  slope  flow  in  an  easterly  direction  and  are  consequent 
on  the  deformation.  These  streams  have  stripped  the  Tertiary  beds  from 
the  higher  country  in  the  vicinity  of  Ben  Lomond,  and  the  surface  here 
exhibits  the  characteristic  features  of  a  tilted  "  fossil  plain."  Towards 
the  Maruwenua  River  the  plain  disappears  beneath  the  Tertiary  basal 
grits  and  overlying  beds  in  the  basin  of  the  stream.  From  Black  Hill  to 
Black  Point  the  structure  of  the  Tertiary  Rocks  is  synclinal,  indicating  that 
the  great  Kakanui  tilted  block  (Cotton,  1917a,  p.  279)  has  in  this  locality 
been  warped  or  folded.  The  Wharekuri-Otekaike  fault  forms  the  north- 
easterly boundary  of  the  elevated  block  known  as  the  Kurow  Mountains. 
The    south-easterly    boundary    of    this    block    is    a    well-marked    narrow 


152  Transactions. 

depression,  which  follows  the  line  of  the  Black  Hill -Ben  Lomond  fault  as 
far  as  Dansey's  Pass,  near  the  watershed  between  the  Kyeburn  River  and 
the  Otiake  and  Maruwenua  Rivers  ;  but  there  are  indications  that  this 
relatively  depressed  area  beyond  Ben  Lomond  is  complex  in  structure, 
and  not  due  to  simple  differential  elevation  along  a  single  fault-line. 
Beyond  the  pass  occurs  the  re-entrant  forming  the  north-east  corner  of  the 
great  Maniototo  depression  {loc.  cit.,  p.  278).  The  Kurow  block  is  bounded 
on  the  south-west  by  a  conspicuous  fault-scarp,  which  rises  abruptly  from 
the  fault-angle  of  the  Hawkdun  tilted  block  (loc.  cit.,]).  278).  \ 

From  the  description  given  it  will  be  seeii  that  the  tilted  block  is  bounded 
on  the  north-west  by  a  tectonic  depression,  which  in  the  lower  course  of  the 
Otekaike  River  is  a  graben,  and  towards  Dansey's  Pass  appears  to  be  a 
narrow  somewhat  complex  fault-angle  or  synclinal  depression.  This  depres- 
sion connects  the  Waitaki  Valley  tectonic  depression  with  the  Central  Otago 
chain  of  tectonic  depressions  {loc.  cit.,  p.  268).  The  Kurow  mountain- 
chain  is  an  uplifted  elongated  block,  bounded  by  faults  on  the  north-east 
and  south-west,  and  separated  from  the  Kakanui  block  by  a  narrow 
probably  complex  tectonic  depression.  To  the  north-west  the  crest  of 
the  range  is  remarkably  even  when  viewed  from  the  Waitaki  Valley,  and 
it  slopes  gently  towards  the  north-west.-  The  Waitaki  Valley,  north-west 
of  the  Otekaike  River,  is  a  graben  ;  south-east  of  this  line  the  river  flows 
for  some  distance  in  a  fault-angle  depression,  the  depression  being  bounded 
on  the  Canterbury  side  by  the  splintered  fault-scarp  of  the  South  Canter- 
bury block  mountains. 

VI.     CONCLUSTON. 

The  brachiopods  listed  above  from  the  limestone  at  White  Rocks  all 
occur  in  the  glauconitic  base  of  the  limestone  at  Maruwenua  (Park,  1918, 
p,  83),  with  the  exception  of  Terebratella  totaraensis  Thomson,  which  is 
doubtfully  identified.  Murravia  catinuliformis  (Tate)  occurs  in  the  lime- 
stone at  the  "  Earthquake,"  in  addition  to  the  brachiopods  collected  by 
Park  {loc.  cit.)  at  Maruwenua.  These  brachiopods,  with  the  exception 
Pachymagas  huttoni  Thomson,  have  not  been  found  in  rocks  below  the 
limestone  in  North  Otago.      Eight  brachiopods — 

Aetheia  gaulteri  (Morris)                    \     Pachymagas  ellipticus  Thomson 
Liothyrella  landonensis  Thomson huttoni  Thomson 


Murravia  catinuliformis  (Tate) 
Neothyris  tapirina  (Hutt.) 


Rhizothyris  rhizoida  (Hutt.) 
Terebratulina  suessi  (Hutt.) 


can  now  be  recorded  from  the  body  of  the  limestone  in  the  Waitaki  Valley. 
None  of  these  fossils  occurs  in  Park's  so-called  Upper  Hutchinsonian  of 
the  Oamaru  coastal  district.  None  of  them  except  Rhizothyris  rhizoida 
(Hutt.)  occurs  in  the  "  Pachymagas  parki  "  band  (Uttle}^  1916,  p.  20)  of  the 
coastal  district?,  which  Park  would  call  Lower  Hutchinsonian.  "fhe  writer 
has  found  Pachymagas  parki  (Hutt.),  Aetheia  gaulteri  (Morris),  Terebratulina 
suessi  (Hutt.),  and  Rhizothyris  rhizoida  (Hutt.)  in  the  greensands  between 
the  nodular  top  of  the  limestone  and  the  "  jmrki  "  band.  Pachymagas 
ellipticus  Thomson,  Neothyris  tapirina  (Hutt.),  Liothyrella  landonensis  Thom- 
son, and  Murravia  catinuliformis  (Tate)  have  not  been  found  by  the  writer 
above  the  limestone  in  the  Landon'  Creek  area.  Of  these,  Neothyris 
tapirina  (Hutt.)  and  Liothyrella  landonensis  Thomson  are  undoubted  Oto- 
taran  fossils,  and  never  occur  above  the  Ototaran  in  the  typical  Oamaru 
district.  The  Hutchinsonian  of  the  Oamaru  district  has  as  its  highest 
member  a  hard  glauconitic  band  crowded  with  Pachymagas  parki  (Hvitt.), 
and  usually  accompanied  with  Rhizothyris  rhizoida  (Hutt.),  which  Park  calls 


Uttley. — Tertiary  Geology,   Otiahe  River  to  Duntroon.  153 

Lower  Hutchinsonian  (1918,  p.  109).  He  would,  however,  j)lace  the  lime- 
stone in  the  present  locality  in  the  Upper  Hutchinsonian  ;  but  the  evidence 
is  strongly  against  it,  as  the  brachiopods  mentioned  above  occur  below 
the  "  parhi  "  band  in  the  Oamaru  district.  The  Otiake  beds,  which  lie 
above  the  limestone,  contain  an  Awamoan  molluscan  fauna,  and  in  the 
absence  of  the  typical  brachiopod  of  the  Hutchinsonian,  Pachymagas  farki 
(Hutt.),  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  differentiate  the  Hutchinsonian  horizon 
in  the  Waitaki  Valley.  McKay  and  Hutton  both  considered  the  Awamoa 
^eds  to  be  part  and  parcel  of  the  same  series,  and  this  may  be  true  when 
the  molluscan  fauna  alone  is  taken  into  account,  although  the  Awamoan 
beds  are  far  more  fossiliferous  than  the  Hutchinsonian.  The  Otiake  beds 
at  their  base  are  lithologically  similar  to  the  Hutchinson  Quarry  beds, 
and  all  the  evidence  available  tends  to  show  that  the  Otiake  beds  are  the 
equivalent  of  the  Hutchinsonian-Awamoan  horizon  of  the  typical  Oamaru 
district.  The  Otekaike  limestone  has  been  shown  to  be  underlain  by  the 
basal  rocks  of  the  Tertiary  series,  and  not  by  the  "  subschistose  "  rocks 

■  of  McKay,  and  this  fact  invalidates  the  only  evidence  produced  by  McKay 
to  prove  an  unconformity  between  the  lower  part  of  the  Maruwenua 
limestone  and  the  middle  portion  of  that  rock  (his  Otekaike  limestone). 
It  has  been  shown  that  McKay  considered  the  Hutchinsonian  ("  Phorus 
beds  ")  to  lie  above  the  limestone,  and  not  below  it  as  Park  believes.     The 

•  Waitaki  Valley  in  the  present  locality  is  a  tectonic  depression,  being  partly 
a  graben  and  partly  a  fault-angle  depression.  Extensive  faulting  has  been 
proved  by  geological  evidence. 

Bibliography.       ' 

Cotton,  C.  A.,  1917a.     Block  Mountains  in  New  Zealand,  Am.  Journ.  ScL,  vol.  44, 
pp.  249-93. 

1917b.     The  Fossil  Plains  of  North  Otago,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  49,  pp.  429-32. 

Hamilton,  A.,  1904.     Notes  on  a  Small  Collection  of  Fossils  from  Wharekuri,  Trans. 

N.Z.  Inst,  vol..  36,  pp.  465-67. 
Hector,  J.,  1865.     Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc,  vol.  21. 
•  1887.     Oamaru   and   Waitaki   Districts,    N.Z.    Geol.    Surv.    Prog.    Rep.,   1876-77, 

pp.  9-10. 
Hutton,  F.  W.,  1875.     Report  on  the  Geology  and  Goldfields  of  Otago. 

1885.     On  the  Correlations  of  the   "Curiosity  Shop  Bed"  in  Canterbury,  N.Z., 

Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc,  vol.  41,  pp.  547-64. 

1887.     On  the  Geology  of  the  Country  between  Oamaru  and  Moeraki,  Trans.  N.Z. 

Inst.,  vol.  19,  pp.  415-30. 
Marshall,    P.,    1915.      Cainozoic   Fossils   from   Oamaru,    Trans.    N.Z.    Inst.,  vol.  47, 

pp.  377-87. 
Marshall,  P.,  Speight,  R.,  and  Cotton,  C.  A.,  1911.     The  Younger  Rock  Series  of 

New  Zealand,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  43,  pp.  378-407. 
McKay,  A.,  1877.     On  the  Oamaru  and  Waitaki  Districts,  Rep.  Geol.  Explor.  during 

1876-77,  pp.  41-66. 

1882a.      On  the  Geology  of  the  Waitaki  Valley  and  Parts  of  Vincent  and  Lake' 

Counties,  Rep.  Geol.  Explor.  during  1881,  j^p.  56-83. 

1882b.     On  the  Younger  Deposits  of  the  Wharekuri  Basin  and  the  Lower  Waitaki 

Valley,  Rep.  Geol.  Explor.  during  1881,  pp.  98-105. 
Park,  J.,  1887.     On  the  Age  of  the  Waireka  Tuffs,  Quartz-grits,  and  Coal  at  Teane- 
raki  and  Ngapara,  Oamaru,  Rep.  Geol.  Explor.  during  1886-87,  pp.  138-41. 

1904a.     On  the  Age  and  Relations  of  the  New  Zealand  Coalfields,  Trans.  N.Z. 

Inst.,  vol.  36,  pp.  405-18. 

1904b.     On  the  Discovery  of  Permo-carboniferous  Rocks  at  Mount  Mary,  North 

Otago,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  36,  pp.  447-53. 

1905.     On  the  Marine  Tertiaries  of  Otago  and  Canterbury,   Trans.   N.Z.   Inst., 

vol.  37,  pp.  489-551. 
1918.     The  Geology  of  the  Oamaru  District,  North  Otago,  N.Z.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull. 

No.  20  (n.s.),  pp.  1-124. 
Uttley,  G.  H.,  1916.      The  Geologv  of  the  Neighbourhood  of  Kakanui,  Trans.  N.Z. 

hist.,  vol.  48,  pp.  19-27. 


154  Transactions. 


Art.   XXIII. —  Tertiary  Geology  of  the  Area  between  Wharekuri  and  the 

Otiake  River,  North  Otago. 

By  G.  H.  Uttley,  M.A.,  M.Sc,  F.G.S.,  Scots  College,  Wellington. 

[Bead  before  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society,  10th  December,  1919  ;  received  by  Editor, 
Slat  December,  1919  :   issued  separately,  15th  June,  1920. 

Contents. 

I.  Introduction. 
II.  General  Description  of  the  Area. 

III.  Geology  of  the  Area.  ^ 

(1.)  Wharekuri  Basin. 

(2.)  Awahokomo  Basin. 

(3.)  Awakino  Basin. 

(4.)  Kurow  River  to  Otiake  River. 

IV.  General  Succession  and  Palaeontological  Notes  on  the  Tertiary  Rocks. 
V.  General  Remarks  on  the  Physiography. 

(1.)  Kurow  Block. 
(2.)  Awakino  and  Trig.  G  Blocks. 
VI.  The  Gravels. 
VII.  Conclusion. 

I.   Introduction 

The  area  described  in  this  paper  covers  a  narrow  strip  of  country  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Waitaki  River,  extending  from  Wharekuri  Creek  to  the 
Otiake  River.  The  adjacent  strip  of  country  south  of  the  Otiake  River 
has  already  been  described  in  another  paper  in  this  volume.  Although 
the  exposures  of  Tertiary  rocks  are  few  and  widely  distant,  being  obscured 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  area  by  heavy  gravel  deposits,  the  general 
sequence  of  the  beds" is  clear.  McKay  has  dealt  with  the  country  in  som,e 
detail,  but  various  modifications  of  his  interpretation  of  the  succession 
are  necessary.  The  writer's  thanks  are  due  to  Mr.  P.  G.  Morgan,  Director 
of  the  New  Zealand  Geological  Survey,  for  permission  to  examine  the  lists 
of  fossils  collected  by  McKay,  and  determined  by  the  late  Mr.  Henry  Suter. 
An  examination  of  these  lists  serves  to  emphasize  the  truth  of  the  writer's 
contention  (refer  to  Thomson,  1915,  p.  123)  that  the  molluscan  fauna  below 
the  limestone  is  similar  to  that  above  the  limestone.  The  upper  beds, 
however,  contain  a  much  greater  number  of  species. 

A  full  historical  account  of  previous  geological  work  in  the  Waitaki 
Valley  has  already  been  given  in  another  paper  in  this  volume  (pp.  140-143), 
and  only  a  brief  critical  summary  of  the  views  of  other  writers  is  necessary 
here. 

McKay's  opinion  that  there  is  an  unconformity  in  the  Tertiary  rocks 
at  Wharekuri,  and  that  the  coal  occurs  at  the  top  of  the  sequence,  is 
untenable.  McKay  was  right  in  his  view  that  an  horizon  of  fossiliferous 
beds  occurs  above  the  limestone  at  Wharekuri,  and  that  they  are  at  the 
Hutchinson  Quarry  horizon.  These  beds  are  the  equivalent  of  the  writer's 
Otiake  beds  (Hutchinsonian-Awamoan)  at  Otiake,  Otekaike,  and  Duntroon. 
As  the  base  of  the  limestone  is  not  exposed  at  Wharekuri,  Otiake,  or 
Otekaike,  McKa}'  was  right  in  not  correlating  the  limestone  exposed  in 
these  places  with  the  basal  part  of  the  Maruwenvia  limestone,  but  with 
a  higher  part  of  that  rock.  The  "  Pareoran  "  characteristics  of  the  fauna 
below  the  limestone  at  Wharekuri  caused  Park  (1905,  p.  527)  to  correlate 


Uttley. — Tertiarij  Geology,  Wharekuri  to  Ofiake  River.         155 


4o'jo2o  10  a 


SceJe  ofChains 


POST-AWAMOAN 


HUTCHINSONIA  N-  A  WA  MOAN 

C/aucon//'/c  a/ hase. 


OrOTARAN 
WAIAREHAN 

Groe  n.sands, 

NCAPARAN 

C^uar/z    sands  and 
fireclays  h-vz/'h  coa/J. 


rau/^    i/nes   mcsrhetJ  rnus,     i     — 


Fig.  1. — Geological  map  of  the  Waitaki  Valley  between  Wharekuri  and  Otiake  River, 


North  Otago. 


156  Transactions. 

the  greensands  helow  tlie  limestone  in  that  locality  with  the  Hutchinsonian- 
Awamoan  horizon  at  Oamaru,  instead  of  correlating  the  fossiliferous  beds 
above  the  limestone  at  Wharekuri  with  that-  horizon,  as  McKay  had  done 
(1882b,  p.  103).  A  similar  error  was  made  by  Hutton  in  correlating  the 
greensands  below  the  limestone  at  Waihoa  with  the  Pareora  (Awamoan) 
horizon.  Park's  correlation  lent  support  to  his  view  that  the  Ototara 
limestone  and  the  Waitaki  Valley  limestone  were  at  different  horizons. 
The  latter  in  g,  later  work  (1918,  p.  110)  still  maintained  that  the  Wharekuri 
greensands  are  Hutchinsonian  in  age,  but  the  writer  is  in  agreement  with 
Marshall  (1915,  p.  386)  that  the  greensands  are  pre-Ototaran. 

The  geological  evidence  clearly  shows  that  the  Waitaki  Valley  is  a 
tectonic  depression  of  post-Awamoan  age,  as  affirmed  by  Cotton  on  geo- 
morphological  evidence,  in  opposition  to  the  view  of  Park  (1905,  p.  523) 
that  the  depression  was  in  existence  before  the  deposition  of  the  Tertiary 
sediments. 

II.   General  Description  op  the  Area. 

From  the  vicinity  of  the  Wharekuri-Otekaike  fault,  which  bounds  the 
present  area  on  the  south-west  to  within  half  a  mile  of  the  Waitaki  River, 
prominent  ridges  and  hills,  possibly  composed  almost  entirely  of  heavy 
gravels  and  silts,  form  prominent  features  of  the  landscape  between  the 
lower  middle  course  of  the  Awahokomo  Creek  and  the  Kurow  River.  These 
gravel  uplands  are  in  many  places  800  ft.  above  the  Waitaki  valley-plain. 
From  the  Kurow  River  to  the  Otiake  River  a  gravel-covered  tableland 
sloping  gently  towards  the  Waitaki  River  forms  a  rather  strong  contrast 
to  the  pyramidal  hills  and  ridges  just  mentioned.  Several  prominent  salients 
stand  above  the  general  surface  of  this  evenly  sloping  plain,  and,  where 
their  flanks  have  been  cut  into,  fossiliferous  beds  are  exposed. 

The  south-western  portion  of  the  area  is  bounded  by  the  steeply  rising 
foothills  of  the  Kurow  Mountains.  Within  a  short  distance  of  the  fault- 
line  the  country  rises  rapidly  to  a  height  of  3,000  ft.,  or  over  2,000  ft. 
above  the  valley-plain  of  the  Waitaki  River.  To  the  north-east  the  area 
is  flanked  by  the  block  mountains  of  South  Canterbury,  reaching  to  heights 
of  3,000  ft.  not  far  from  the  Waitaki  River,  which  now  flows  close  to  the 
almost  undissected  front  of  these  mountains. 

The  average  height  of  the  Waitaki  valley-plain  is  650  ft.  above  sea-level. 
Kurow  Hill  (1,947  ft.),  composed  of  Maitai  sediments  (greywacke),  rises 
abruptly  from  the  general  level  of  the  plain,  and  farther  to  the  north-west 
the  hill  on  which  Trig.  Station  G  is  situated  reaches  a  height  of  nearly 
1,300  ft.,  these  two  prominences  being  separated  by  the  depression  known 
as  the  Little  Awakino  Valley. 

The  district  is  thus  a  relatively  depressed  area  lying  between  the  block 
mountains  of  North  Otago  and  South  Canterbury,  drained  by  the  Waitaki 
River,  which  is  fed,  from  the  Otago  side,  by  a  number  of  small  streams 
flowing  in  a  north-easterly  direction  from  the  Kurow  Mountains. 

III.   Geology  of  the  Area. 
(1.)  Wharekuri  Basin. 

On  both  banks  of  the  Waitaki  River,  a  mile  below  the  point  where 
the  Wharekuri  Creek  joins  the  main  stream,  there  is  an  exposure  of 
glauconitic  greensands  extending  for  two  miles  down  the  river.  A  list 
of  fossils  collected  on  the  Canterbury  side  of  the  river  has  been  published 


Uttlby. — Tertiary  Geology,   Wharekuri  to  Otiahe  River.         157 


by  Marshall  (1915,  p.  382).     The  following  forms  were  collected  by  the  writer 
and  determined  by  Mr.  Suter.     Recent  species  are  indicated  by  an  asterisk. 


Limopsis  zitteli  Iher.  ^ 

*MacrocalUsta  multistriata  (Sow.) 
*MaUetia  australis  (Q.  &  G.) 

Miomelon  corriigata  (Hutt.) 
*Ostrea  tatei  Sut. 

Polinices  gibbosus  (Hutt.) 

huttoni  Iher. 

*Psammobia  lineolata  Gray 

Sinum  cinctum  (Hutt.) 

Teredo  heapkyi  Zitt. 

Turritella  ambulacrum  Sow. 
* carlottae  Wats. 

concava  Hutt. 

* symmetrica  Hutt. 

Venericardia  pseutes  Sut. 


Ampullina  suturalis  (Hutt.) 

Ancilia  papillata  (Tate) 
*Anomia  trigonopsis  Hutt. 

Bathytoma  sulcata  excavata  Sut. 

Borsonia  rudis  (Hutt.) 
*Calyptraea  maculata  (Q.  &  G.) 

Chione  meridionalis  (Sow.) 

Corbula  humerosa  Hutt. 
*Crassatellites  obesus  (A.  Ad.) 

Gucullaea  attenuata  Hutt. 

Dentalium  mantelli  Zitt. 

solid um  Hutt. 

*Dosinia  greyi  Zitt. 

Epitonium  lyratum  (Zitt.) 

Glycymeris  cor  data  (?)  Hutt. 
*Limopsis  aurita  (Brocchi) 

In  addition  to  the  above,  five  new  species  have  been  described  from  the 
same  locality  by  Mr.  Suter.     These  are — 
Borsonia  mitromorphoides  Sut.  :     Niso  neozelanica  Sut. 

Epitonium  gracillimum  Sut.      '  Vexillum  ligatum  Sut. 

Euthria  callimorplia  Sut. 

The  greensands  from  which  these  fossils  were  collected  are  greyish-green 
in  colour  and  very  glauconitic,  the  glauconite  occurring  as  foraminiferal 
casts.  There  is  also  a  considerable  quantity  of  microscopic,  subangular, 
clear  quartz.  On  the  Canterbury  side  of  the  river  these  beds  form  a  flat 
syncline,  both  limbs  showing  a  dip  of  3°,  the  axis  of  folding  running 
north  by  east.  Quartz-grits  crop  out  on  the  bank  of  the  river  dipping 
below  the  greensands,  and  farther  to  the  north  coal  occurs  associated 
with  the  quartz-grits  in  a  shallow  depression  on  the  Canterbury  side  of 
the  river,  this  depression  being  hemmed  in  by  the  steep  fronts  of  elevated 
blocks.  On  the  Otago  side  of  the  river  the  greensands  again  prove  fossil- 
iferous.  The  following  species  were  collected  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river,  near  Trig.  Station  H : — 


Ampullina  suturalis  (Hutt.) 

*  Ancilia  australis  (Sow.) 
papillata  (Tate.) 

*Anomia  trigonopsis  Hutt. 

,  Bathytoma  sidcata  excavata  Sut. 

Chione  meridionalis  (Sow.) 

Cominella  exsculpta  Sut. 

pidchra  Sut. 

*Crassatellites  obesus  (A.  Ad.) 

Cucullaea  attenuata  Hutt. 

australis  (Hutt.) 

*Cytherea  oblonga  (Hanley) 

Dentalium  mantelli  Zitt. 

■ solidum  Hutt. 

Epitonium  gracillimum  Sut. 

lyratum  (Zitt.) 

*  Limopsis  aurita  (Brocchi) 

zitteli  Iher. 

*Macrocallista  inultisjtriata  (Sow.) 


*Malletia  australis  (Q.  &  G.) 
Miomelon  corrugata  (Hutt.) 
Nucula  sp. 
Panope  orbita  Hutt. 
Pecten  chathamensis  Hutt. 

huttoni  (Park) 

yahliensis  T. -Woods 

Polinices  gibbosus  (Hutt.) 

huttoni  Iher. 

*Psammobia  lineolata  Gray 

Sinum  elegans  Sut. 
*Siphonalia  nodosa  (Mart.) 

Teredo  heapkyi  Zitt. 

Turbo  approximatus  Sut. 

Turritella  ambulacrum  Sow. 
* carlottae  Wats. 

cavershamensis  Harris 

concava  Hutt. 


158 


Transactions. 


Out  of  the  thirty-seven  species  of  Mollusca  enumerated  above,  ten  are 
Recent,  giving  a  percentage  of  27. 

McKay's  collections  from  the  "  Kekenodon  beds  "  (Geol.  Surv.  loc. 
No.  476)  and  from  the  Wharekuri  greensands  (Geol.  Surv.  loc.  No.  486) 
contain  in  all  thirty-one  definitely  determined  species.  If  McKay's  col- 
lections and  the  list  given  above  are  combined  the  percentage  is  still  27. 

Corals  are  abundant  in  the  greensands  at  this  locality.  The  genera 
represented  are  Flabellum  and  Trochocyathus.  Aturia  ziczac  var.  australis 
Hamilton  and  Kekenodon  onomata  Hector  were  also  obtained  here  by 
McKay  and  Hamilton.  Pachymagas  huttoni  Thomson  also  occurred.  These 
greensands,  which  are  similar  to  the  greensands  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
the  river,  contain  in  their  lower  portions  small  quartz  pebbles,  well  rounded  ; 
and  occasional  pieces  of  wood  up  to  18  in.  in  length,  and  completely  car- 
bonized, also  occur.  The  lower  part  of  the  beds  is  very  concretionary,  and 
the  fossils  are  difficult  to  remove.  The  oxide  of  iron  which  forms  the  con- 
cretionary masses  has  been  derived  from  the  decomposition  of  the  glauconite. 

At  the  Wharekuri  Bridge  greensands  again  crop  out,  but  the  fossils 
are  not  abundant.     The  following  forms  were  recognized  : — 


Corbula  canalicidata  Hutt. 
'^Crassatellites^obesus  (A.  Ad.) 
Cucullaea  attennata  Hutt. 
Dentalium  mantelli  Zitt. 


Dentalium  solidum  Hutt. 
*Limopsis  aurita  (Brocchi) 
Pecten  huttoni  (Park) 
Pblinices  huttoni  Iher. 


Similar  corals  to  those  so  abundant  in  the  greensands  on  the  banks  of 
the  Waitaki  River  also  occur  here. 

McKay  (1882a,  p.  73)  always  considered  that  the  greensands  (Cretaceo- 
Tertiary)  near  the  Wharekuri  bridge  lay  unconformably  below  the 
"  Kekenodon  greensands  "  on  the  banks  of  the  Waitaki  River,  but  he 
saw  no  unconformable  junction  between  these  two  beds.  Hutton  (1885, 
pp.  563-64)  and  Park  (1905,  p.  523)  have  shown  clearly  that  McKay's 
unconformity  had  no  justification,  and  was  merely  a  deduction  in  the 
light  of  a  pre-conceived  theory  (Cretaceo-Tertiary  theory).  The  writer  is 
satisfied  that  the  greensands  form  one  series  of  rocks  lying  immediately 
on  the  quartzose  rocks  of  the  coal  series.  As  shown  above,  the  greensands 
contain  pebbles  of  quartz  in  their  lower  portions. 

The  coal-rocks  crop  out  at  Wharekuri  a  short  distance  above  the  bridge, 
where  they  are  lying  in  close  contact  with  the  greensands.  The  line  of 
junction  is  vertical,  and  is  undoubtedly  a  faulted  one,  as  Hamilton  (1904, 
p.  465)  has  shown.  This  vertical  fault  strikes  N.  20°  \W.  The  coal-rocks 
dip  26°  to  the  west — that  is,  towards  the  mountains — which  a  short  dis- 
tance away  rise  abruptly  from  the  bed  of  the  creek.  McKay  considered 
that  the  quartz-grits  and  sandstones  associated  with  the  coal  in  this 
locality  were  of  Pareora  (Awamoan)  age,  but  in  other  places  in  the  area, 
as  shown  above,  they  dip  beneath  the  greensands,  and  are  undoubtedly  at 
the  base  of  the  series.  Beyond  the  coal-mine  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
creek  the  following  section  is  exposed  : — 


c>  ^  ^  ^^  ^  zTS^ 


o  o  c>  o  0  o  />l  I  lo  o  0  a  ff  o 
^  o  0  0  (?  ffi  I  /o  0  0  0  0  (^  ^  0 

f-^  0  o  0  0        lo  ^  0  Q  0  0  e  0 
t^  0  °  ^  I  /  /  c  ^  ^  ^  ^  0  o  0, 


0  (■'  0   00  f  J   /  ^  o  O  6  DO  Oof  I  I  i  I  I  //nr^ 


C^) 


Ccl) 


Cc; 


(<t) 


Fig.  2. — Section,  right  bank  of  Wharekuri  Creek,      (a),  (c),  (e),  gravels  and 
sands;  (d),  fine  micaceous  sandy  bed;  (6)  and  (/),  greenish-grey  clay. 


Uttley. — Tertiary  Geology,   Wharekuri  to  Otiahe  River.         159 

The  beds  dip  70°  in  a  direction  N.  10°  E.  Beds  (a),  (c),  and  (e)  are 
gravel  deposits,  composed  of  pebbles  up  to  the  size  of  a  cricket-ball,  inter- 
mingled with  fine  sands.  The  pebbles  consists  of  greywacke,  sandstone, 
and  quartz,  all  well  water-worn.  Bed  (c)  contained  a  piece  of  lignitized 
wood.  Beds  (6)  and  (_/)  are  light-coloured  greenish-grey  unctuous  clays. 
Bed  {d)  is  a  fine  micaceous  sandy  bed.  On  the  opposite  side  of  Wharekuri 
Creek,  not  20  yards  away,  a  steep  face  of  the  Maitai  rocks  rises  abruptly 
from  the  bed  of  the  creek.  Slickensided  surfaces  were  noted,  and  much 
crush-breccia  ;  and  extensive  faulting  is  everywhere  indicated.  The  steeply 
dipping  beds  just  described  show  no  contact  with  the  other  Tertiary  rocks 
in  the  area. 

McKay's  section  (1882b,  p.  101)  certainly  indicates  the  order  in  which 
the  various  rocks  crop  out,  as  the  Wharekuri  Creek  is  followed  from  its 
junction  with  the  Waitaki  River  to  the  point  past  the  coal-mine,  where  the 
tilted  beds  occur,  except  that  the  limestone  does  not  occur  in  the  section 
exposed  in  the  creek.  The  tilted  beds  just  described  were  said  by  McKay 
to  be  of  Upper  Pareora  (Awamoan)  age,  and  to  contain  the  coal  deposits 
that  are  worked  at  Wharekuri.  He  observed  no  junction  of  these  tilted 
beds,  and  the  quartz,  sandstone,  and  clays  in  which  the  coal-seam  occurs 
are  separated  from  them  by  slope  deposits  and  heavy  river-gravels.  The 
composition  of  the  beds  is  also  quite  different  from  the  beds  associated 
with  the  coal  at  Wharekuri. Coal-mine.  Park  (1905,  p.  524)  stated  that 
there  was  no  evidence  to  show  that  the  coal-rocks  lie  at  the  top  of  the 
sequence.  The  tilted  beds,  however,  may  lie  conformably  at  the  top'  of 
the  Tertiary  series,  although  this  cannot  be  definitely  affirmed,  as  no 
junction  was  observed.  They  have  certainly  been  involved  along  with  the 
Tertiaries  in  the  tectonic  movements  of  the  district,  the  evidence  for  which 
is  seen  at  many  points  in  the  Waitaki  Valley.  These  tilted  gravels  appear 
to  be  widespread  in  the  Upper  Waitaki  Valley  and  in  the  Waihao  district, 
fdr  McKay  described  another  section  in  the  former  locality  as  follows  : 
"  In  this  section  [Quail  Burn]  the  lowest  beds  seen  are  soft  sandstones, 
divided  into  thick  bands  by  beds  of  greenish  greasy  clay.  These  beds  dip 
north-west  at  an  angle  of  45°.  ...  At  two  or  three  places  along  the 
south-east  slopes  of  these  hills  pieces  of  lignite  have  been  found  and  .  .  . 
having,  as  I  consider,  proved  that  the  Wharekuri  coal-seam  farther  down 
the  Waitaki  occurs  in  beds  of  this  age,  there  is  more  than  a  possibility  of 
coal  being  found  near  the  mouth  of  the  Quail  Burn."  No  other  geologist 
would  agree  with  McKay  in  the  inference  drawn  in  the  last  part  of  this 
quotation,  but  the  description  of  these  gravel-beds  indicates  that  they  are 
similar  to  the  tilted  beds  at  Wharekuri. 

In  the  Waihao  district  the  gravels  are  also  often  tilted,  and  Hector 
refers  to  these  in  the  following  words :  "  With  the  Waitaki  Valley  as  it  now 
IS  these  beds  have  no  direct  connection,  since  they  abundantly  show  that 
movements  of  the  land  involving  a  considerable  alteration  of  its  surface 
configuration  have  taken  place  since  their  deposition  ;  the  beds  being 
frequently  tilted  at  high  angles,  especially  in  districts  distant  from  the 
coast-line  "  (1882,  p.  xxv).  These  tilted  gravels  in  the  Wharekuri  locality 
are  overlain  unconformably  by  the  high  -  level  terrace  -  gravels  (McKay 
1882b,  p.  102). 

(2.)  AwahoJcomo  Basin. 

McKay  (1882a,  p.  66)  states  that  the  Otekaike  limestone  at  Wharekuri 
"  is  traceable  as  a  continuous  line  for  three  miles."  The  exposure,  how- 
ever, has  nothing  like  the  extent  ascribed  to  it  by  McKay  ;    it  crops  out 


160  Transactions. 

on  the  footliills  flanking  the  Awahokomo  Creek  on  its  northern  bank.  In 
its  upper  portion,  which  is  almost  inaccessible,  as  the  cliffs  are  precipitous, 
two  shell-bands  were  noticed,  and,  judging  by  talus  strewing  the  slopes  at 
the  base  of  the  cliff,  they  are  glauconitic.  The  writer  examined  the  lime- 
stone, and  its  main  body  appeared  to  be  poorly  fossiliferous.  McKay  (1882a, 
p.  67)  states  that  in  the  limestone  "  fossil  shells  are  most  abundant  .  .  . 
covering  the  whole  ground  with  shells  in  a  more  or  less  perfect  state  of 
preservation."  As  he  comments  on  the  fact  that  the  limestone  forms 
vertical  cliffs  not  less  than  50  ft.  in  height,  it  is  possible  that  the  fossils 
were  collected  from  the  slopes  and  had  come  from  the  shell-bands  higher 
in  the  section. 

Suter  determined  seven  forms  said  by  McKay  to  have  come  from  the 
Otekaike  limestone,  and  five  of  these  occur  in  the  Otiake  beds  at  Otiake, 
which  lie  above  the  main  body  of  limestone,  while  the  two  remaining  fossils 
are  found  in  the  Awamoan.  McKay  recognized  the  Hutchinson  Quarry 
beds  at  Wharekuri,  and  he  described  them  as  "  loose  dirty  greensands  full 
of  shells,  followed  by  grey  sands,  and  they  follow  the  Otekaike  limestone 
conformably."  In  the  list  of  fossils  determined  by  Suter  from  these  beds, 
ten  occur  in  the  Otiake  beds  at  Otaike,  three  occur  in  the  Awamoan  at 
Oamaru,  and  one  has  not  been  reported  elsewhere.  The  following  note 
was  appended  to  the  manuscript  list  of  fossils,  evidently  written  by  one 
of  the  staff  of  the  Geological  Survey:  "According  to  McKay's  MS.,  the 
beds  collected  from  form  the  higher  part  of  the  ridge  south  of  the  coal- 
mine at  Wharekuri."  This  means  that  the  collection  came  from  beds 
lying  immediately  above  the  limestone,  and  these  beds  are  undoubtedly  at 
the  same  horizon  as  the  fossiliferous  beds  that  occur  at  the  top  of  the 
section  at  Otiake,  at  Otekaike,  and  in  bands  at  the  top  of  the  limestone 
near  the  Awahokomo  Creek.  Although  only  fourteen  species  were  deter- 
mined by  Suter,  Hector  stated  that  "  altogether,  about  a  hundred  species 
were  collected  from  this  horizon  in  the  Wharekuri  section  "  (1882,  p.  xxvii). 
McKay  himself  reported  the  following  forms  [nom.  mut.)  : — 

Gucullaea  alta  (?)  Sow.  •  I     Polinices  huttoni  Iher. 

Dentalium  solidum  Hutt.  j  *Venericardia  difficilis  (Desh.) 

Limo'psis  zitteli  Iher.  j     Waldheimia  triangulare  Hutt. 

Pecten  hochsteUeri  Zitt.  ' 

The  brachiopod  is  evidently  Pachymagas  huttoni  Thomson,  and  is  said 
by  McKay  to  be  very  abundant,  as  it  always  is  at  the  horizon  of  the  Otiake 
beds.  At  one  locality  on  the  ridge  extending  from  Wharekuri  to  the  Awa- 
hokomo the  writer  found  an  outcrop  of  ferruginous  micaceous  quartz  sands 
at  a  higher  elevation  than  the  limestone.  McKay  writes  that  "  in  this 
locality  the  Otekaike  limestone  passes  upwards  into  the  Hutchinson  Quarry 
greensands,  which  are  here  overlain  by  rusty  quartzose  gravels  .  .  .  not 
unlike  the  rocks  met  with  at  the  base  of  the  Cretaceo-Tertiary  series  .  .  . 
these  quartzose  gravels  are  followed  by  sandstones."  The  beds  observed 
by  the  writer  appear  to  be  conformable  to  the  limestone,  as  the  dip  was 
the  same,  but  no  junction  was  seen.  It  is  in  these  beds  that  McKay 
thought  the  Wharekuri  coal  occurred,  and  he  correlates  them  with  the 
tilted  beds  there.  The  limestone  of  the  ridge  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Awahokomo  dips  10°  in  a  direction  N.  30°  W.  towards  the  Kurow  Mountains. 

The  quartz-grits  and  sandstones  at  the  base  of  the  series  crop  out  on 
both  banks  of  the  Awahokomo  south  of  the  limestone  exposure,  and 
farther  up  the  stream  the  greensands  are  seen  dipping  30°  westerly  towards 


Uttley. — Tertiary  Geology,   Wharekuri  to  Otiahe  River.         161 

the  Maitai  rocks,  which  at  this  point  rise  very  steeply.  From  the  green- 
sands  the  following  forms  were  obtained  : — 

Corbula  canaliculata  Hutt.  Polinices  gibbosus  (Hutt.) 

Cucullaea  sp.  Ostrea  sp. 

*Limopsis  aurita  (Brocchi)  Turritella  caver shamensis  Harris 

Panope  orbita  Hutt. 

Corals  similar  to  the  genera  collected  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Waitaki 
River  also  occur  here.  -  - 

.  Marshall  (1915,  p.  381)  obtained  several  species  from  these  greensands  at 
an  horizon  lying  20.ft.  above  the  quartz-grits.  This  writer  recognized  the 
fault  in  this  locality,  and  traced  the  fault-breccia  towards  Wharekuri,  and 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  fault  is  a  continuation  of  that  described 
above  at  Wharekuri. 

(3.)  Awakino  Basin. 

Traces  of  the  quartz-grits  are  seen  in  many  places  in  the  basins  of  the 
Awahokomo  and  Little  Awakino  Streams.     In  the  basin  of  the  latter,  about 
a  mile  and  a  half  from  the  main  road,  these  rocks  are  exposed  on  the  right 
and  left  banks,  and  to  the  south-west  the  eroded  surface  of  the  Maitai  rocks 
rises  from  beneath  them,  and  slopes  gently  upwards  towards  the  crest  of 
Kurow  Hill.      The  quartz-grits  evidently  formerly  covered  the  whole  of  this 
"  fossil  plain,"  which  has  now  been  partially  stripped  of  its  former  cover. 
The  plain  forms  the  back  slope  of  the  tilted  block  figured  by  Cotton  (1917b, 
p.  432).      This  block  will  be  referred  to  later  as  the  Awakino  tilted  block. 
Quartz-grits  and  greensands  occur  as  mapped  in  several  places  in  a  south- 
westerly direction  towards  the  Big  Awakino  River,  and  in  many  places  close 
to  the  line  of  the  Wharekuri-Otekaike  fault,  where  the  Maitai  rocks  rise  very 
abruptly.     A  mile  west  of  the  trigonometrical  station  on  Kurow  Hill  there 
is  a  small  coal-mine,  which  supplies  an  inferior  type  of  coal.     It  is  being 
worked  at  present  close  up  to  the  face  of  a  steeply  rising  greywacke  scarp. 
The  coal-rocks  dip  away  from  the  scarp  at  45°  in  a  direction  S.  28°  W. 
The  scarp,  which  is  almost  undissected  in  this  locality,  extends  in  a  north- 
westerly direction,  gradually  diminishing  in  height,  and  reaching  the  road- 
level  about  half  a  mile  north-west  of  the  point  where  the  west  branch  of 
the  Little  Awakino  crosses  the  road  on  the  south-west  side  of  Kurow  Hill. 
The  scarp  is  evidently  a  fault-scarp,  determined  by  a  fault  of  diminishing 
throw,  which  trends  N.  60°  W.  to  meet  the  main  Wharekuri-Otekaike  fault. 
The  fault  botmds  the  Awakino  tilted  block  on  the  south-west.      In  the  angle 
defined  by  these  two  faults  the  gravel  deposits  are  of  great  thickness,  but 
the  basal  quartz-grits  and  overlying  greensands  (McKay,  1882b,  p.  102)  crop 
out  occasionally.     The  Tertiary  rocks  have  evidently  been  extensively  eroded, 
and  their  remnants  are  buried  by  the  gravel  deposits,  which  now  form  hiUs 
2,000  ft.  in  height  [loc.  cit.,  p.  99).     Cuttings  show  that  the  gravels  are  of  at 
least  two   t}'p»es — heavy  greywacke   and   sandstone   boulder  deposits,   and 
deposits  composed  of  well-rormded  sandstone  pebbles  and  sands.     At  one 
place  on  the  road  between  the  basin  of  the  Little  Awakino  and  the  Big 
Awakino  the  soft  unctuous  bluish  clay  similar  to  that  described  at  Wharekuri 
was  observed  in  a  cutting.      McKay  states  that  the  latter  (the  so-called 
"  Pareora  gravels  ")  are  highly  tilted  in  the  present  locality,  and  he  refers 
the  coal  deposits  of  the  neighbourhood  to  the  horizon  of  these  rocks  (1882b, 
p.   102).     The  gravels  extend  to  the   Kurow  River,  forming  even-topped 
elongated  ridges  and  pyramidal  hills,  which  have  been  blocked  out  by  the 
action  of  the  numerous  intermittent  streams  that  drain  the  area.     Across 

6— Trans. 


162 


Transactions. 


this  gravel-masS  the  Big  Awakino  flows,  entrenched  bel6w  the  general  surface 
of  its  former  valley-plain,  which  in  this  portion  of  its  coiirse,  over  the  area 
lying  between  the  two  faults  referred  to  above,  is  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
wide.  At  the  coal-mine  the  stream  enters  a  narrow  gorge,  which  it  has 
cut  through  the  Awakino  tilted  block  on  its  way  to  join  the  Waitaki  River. 
The  Big  Awakino  pursues  a  remarkably  straight  course  from  its  source, 
near  the  crest-line  of  the  Kurow  Moimtains,  to  its  mouth,  and  this  course 
is  evidently  consequent  on  the  initial  deformation ;  but,  as  the  movements 
were  probably  not  simultaneous  over  the  whole  of  northern  Otago,  the  uplift 
of  the  Awakino  block  may  have  commenced  later.  The  course  of  the  Big 
Awakino  across  the  Awakino  block  in  a  narrow  gorge-like  channel  must 
be  considered  as  antecedent  to  the  uplift  of  this  block.  Its  lower  course 
is  therefore  what  Cotton  (1917a,  p.  253)  has  termed  "  anteconsequent." 

(4.)  Kurow  River  to  Otiake  River. 

On  the  left  bank  of  the  Kurow  River,  four  miles  above  its  junction  with 
the  Waitaki  River,  an  outcrop  of  fossiliferous  Tertiary  rocks  occurs.  There 
is  only  a  small  exposure,  extending  along  the  bank  for  about  30  yards.  The 
rocks  dip  at  an  angle  of  46°  towards  the  south-west,  and  the  Maitai  rocks 
rise  steeply  a  short  distance  from  these  beds.  The  junction  is  again  obscured 
by  the  gravel  deposits,  but  it  is  imdoubtedly  a  faulted  one.  The  Tertiary 
exposure  here  consists  of  a  hardened  calcareous  greensand  containing 
Foraminifera,  mainly  in  the  form  of  glauconitic  casts.  Minute  subangular 
grains  of  quartz  also  occur.  The  larger  fossils  are  poorly  preserved,  and 
specific  identifications  could  not  be'  made.  The  following  genera  were 
found  :  Cucullaea,  Malletia,  Panope,  Pecten.  This  outcrop  is  on  the  line 
of  the  Wharekuri-Otekaike  fault. 

The  outcrops  of  Tertiary  rocks  are  few  and  scattered  between  the  Kurow 
River  and  the  Otiake  River.  About  three-quarters  of  a  mile  to  the  south- 
east of  the  last  locality  quartz-grits  occur  in  places,  and  farther  on  there  is 
a  small  exposure  of  a  glauconitic  calcareous  rock.  The  only  forms  obtained 
were  Dentalium  solidum  Hutt.  and  Limopsis  aurita  (Brocchi) .  Near  the  source 
of  the  most  southerly  tributary  of  Malcolm's  Creek  the  quartz-grits  again 
crop  out,  flanked  to  the  south-west  by  the  steeply  rising  foothills  of  the 
ranges.  Traces  of  greyish-green  glauconitic  sandstones  were  foimd  near 
Trig.  Station  N.  In  a  cutting  on  the  road  that  leads  from  Malcolm's  Creek 
to  the  basin  of  the  Otiake  River  there  is  a  small  outcrop  of  calcareous 
rock,  from  which  the  following  fossils  were  obtained  : — 
Corhula  canaliculata  Hutt.  *Malletia  australis  (Q.  &  G.) 

Cytherea  chariessa  Sut.  Nucula  saggitata  Sut. 

Dentalium  solidum  Hutt.  Panope  sp. 

*  Limopsis  aurita  (Brocchi)  Pecten  huttoni  (Park) 

Traces  of  brachiopods  were  also  found. 

A  mile  from  the  railway-line  the  following  section  (fig.  3)  is  exposed  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Otiake  River  : — 


«y  (^    (c)     Ch)  (a,; 

Fig.  3. — Section,  right  bank  of  Otiake  River,  (a),  Limestone  (Otekaike  limestone); 
(6),  glauconitic  calcareous  shell-bed ;  (c),  calcareous  sandy  mudstone ; 
{d),  hardened  calcareous  glauconitic  bed  ;    (e),  calcareous  sandy  mudstone. 


Ut'Ti.ey .—Tertiary  Geology,   Wharekuri  to  Otiakt  River.         163 

The  limestone  (a)  becomes  glauconitic  in  its  upper  8  ft.,  and  is  then 
capped  by  (6),  a  glauconitic  calcareous  shell-bed  18  in.  in  thickness  and 
crowded  with  fossils.  The  band  is  concretionary  in  places,  and  similar  to 
the  beds  at  the  top  of  the  Otiake  beds  at  Trig.  Station  Z,  which  is  only  a 
short  distance  from  this  exposure.  From  this  band  the  following  species 
were  obtained  : — 


Ancilla  papillata  (Tate) 
Bathytoma  sulcata  excavata  Sut. 
Corbula  canaliculata  Hutt. 

kaiparaensis  Sut. 

*Crassatellites  obesus  (A.  Ad.) . 

Cucullaea  australis  (Hutt.) 
Cytherea  chariessa  Sut. 
Dentalium  mantelli  Zitt. 

solidum  Hutt. 

*Divaricella  cuniingi  (Ad.  &  Ang.) 

Lima  colorata  Hutt. 
Niicula  saggitata  Sut. 

The  coral  Balanophyllia  hectori  T. -Woods  and  Pachymagas  hnttoni 
Thomson  were  also  identified.  The  overlying  bed  (c)  is  less  glauconitic, 
but  is  capped  by  another  glauconitic  hardened  bed  (d),  and  above  this  the 
rock  passes  up  into  a  poorly  fossiliferous  calcareous  mudstone  (e).  From 
bed  (c)  were  obtained  many  of  the  forms  detailed  above  from  bed  (b).  The 
following  additional  species  occurred : — 


Pecten  beethami  Hutt. 

chathamensis  Hutt. 

huttoni  (Park) 

Placunanomia  incisura  Hutt. 
Polinices  huttoni  Iher. 
Siphonalia  turrita  Sut. 

*Tellina  glabrella  Desh. 
Teredo  heaphyi  Zitt. 
Turritella  ambulacrum  Sow. 

cavershamensis  Harris 

semicoficava  Sut. 

Venericardia  pseutes  Sut. 


Corbula  humerosa  Hutt. 
Cucullaea  attenuata  Hutt. 


Leucosyrinx  alta  (Harris) 
*Limopsis  aurita  (Brocchi). 


River-gravels  and  silts  lie  unconformably  at  the  top  of  the  section. 

These  fossiliferous  beds  lie  above  a  limestone,  of  which  about  40  ft.  is 
exposed,  and  are  certainly  the  equivalent  of  the  Otiake  beds  at  Trig 
Station  Z  and  at  Otekaike  School.  The  beds  dip  8°  in  a  direction  N.  30°  W. 
Greensands  crop  out  on  the  right  bank  of  the  stream  about  12  chains 
farther  up  the  river,  dipping  in  such  a  way  that  they  would  pass  beneath 
the  limestone.  They  are  similar  to  the  greensands  described  at  Whare- 
kuri, containing  in  places  ferruginous  nodules.  Traces  of  lamellibranchs 
were  seen,  but  none  could  be  identified.  The  rock  is  calcareous,  and  the 
glauconite  in  it  occurs  as  foraminiferal  casts.  Still  farther  up  the  stream, 
at  the  point  where  the  road  crosses  the  river,  intensely  dark  greensands 
crop  out.  These  greensands  are  threaded  with  ferruginous  veins.  Farther 
up  the  stream  the  qu.artz-grits  occur  dipping  towards  the  higher  beds. 


IV.   General  Succession  and  PaLaeontological  Notes. 

The  Tertiary  rocks  in  the  Waitaki  Valley  form  a  conformable  sequence. 
The  general  succession  is  similar  to  that  in  the  Waihao  district  of  South 
Canterbury.  Quartz-grits,  often  containing  coal,  are  followed  by  micaceous 
quartzose  greensands  with  interbedded  concretionary  bands,  usually  fossil- 
iferous ;  these  are  followed  by  calcareous  glauconitic  greensands  (containing 
a  little  microscopic  quartz  and  mica),  which  are  often  fossiliferous.  In 
the  basin  of  the  Maruwenua  River  and  at  Black  Point  a  few  fossils  have 
been  determined,  and  these  undoubtedly  represent  an  horizon  near  the 
base  of  the  greensands — Park's  Bortonian.  The  looser  glauconitic  green- 
sands  lying   above   the   Bortonian   have   not   proved   fossiliferous   in   the 

6* 


164  Transactions. 

r 

Duntroon  or  Kurow  districts,  except  at  Wharekuri,  where  the  fossils  are 
abundant.  No  junction  has  been  observed  between  the  greensands  and 
the  underlying  Ngaparan  coal-rocks  except  at  Black  Point.  There  appears 
to  be  a  very  gradual  transition  from  the  quartz  conglomerates  and  fine 
micaceous  quartz  sands  into  the  overlying  greensands,  the  glauconite  of 
the  latter  becoming  very  abundant,  and  the  quartz  and  mica  gradually 
diminishing.  In  the  Maruwenua  cliffs  near  Duntroon  the  limestone  over- 
lying the  greensands  is  very  glauconitic,  and  at  White  Rocks  and  the 
"  Earthquake  "  this  glauconitic  lower  portion  of  the  limestone  increases 
greatly  in  thickness.  In  the  Landon  Creek  area  also  this  glauconitic 
portion  of  the  limestone  shows  a  thickness  of  50  ft.  below  the  Hutchinsonian 
horizon  (refer  to  Park,  1918,  p.  46).  It  is  noticeable  that  where  the  lime- 
stone is  very  glauconitic  the  brachiopods  are  abundant.  From  the  glauconitic 
portion  of  the  limestone  near  Duntroon,  as  well  as  from  a  higher  horizon 
in  the  limestone  at  White  Rocks  and  the  "  Earthquake  "  in  the  Waitaki 
Valley,  a  brachiopod  fauna '  similar  to  that  occurring  in  the  glauconitic 
portions  of  the  limestone  at  Landon  Creek,  in  the  Oamaru  district,  has 
been  found  ;  and  the  evidence  available  strongly  favours  the  view  that 
both  rocks  are  Ototaran.  There  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  the  lime- 
stone of  the  Waitaki  Valley  is  Hutchinsonian.  The  .base  of  the  Otekaike 
limestone  at  Wharekuri,  Otiake,  and  Otekaike  is  not  seen  in  any  of  the 
sections  exposed.  It  is  probable  that  if  the  base  of  the  limestone  were  not 
hidden  by  the  gravel  deposits  we  should  find  the  same  brachiopod  fauna 
that  characterizes  the  base  of  the  limestone  at  Maruwenua.  The  fossil- 
iferous  beds  overlying  the  limestone  at  Wharekuri,  at  Otiake,  at  Otekaike, 
at  Duntroon,  and  at  Station  Peak  are  at  the  same  horizon,  and  represent 
the  Hutchinsonian-Awamoan  horizon  of  the  Oamaru  district.  These  rocks 
pass  up  into  poorly  fossiliferous  calcareous  mudstones. 

In  the  Oamaru  district  the  Ngaparan  rocks  are  overlain  by  fossiliferous 
glauconitic  calcareous  greensands,  which  in  turn  are  overlain  by  the 
Waiarekan  tuffs,  followed  by  interbedded  tachylite  tuffs  and  diatomaceous 
deposits,  which  are  overlain  by  the  Ototaran  limestone,  followed  .by  the 
Hutchinsonian  and  Awamoan  beds.  In  the  Papakaio  district  the  succession 
is  similar,  although  the  Awamoan  beds  have  been  denuded,  except  at 
Pukeuri,  where  all  observers  agree  that  they  follow  the  Hutchinsonian. 
In  the  Waitaki  Valley  the  succession  is  not  complicated  by  the  presence 
of  volcanic  rocks,  nor  are  there  diatomaceous  beds  ;  but  all  the  evidence 
available  goes  to  prove  that  the  greensands  below  the  limestone  are  of 
Waiarekan  age,  and  that  the  limestone  is  Ototaran.  The  beds  above  the 
limestone  contain  a  distinctly  Awamoan  fauna,  and,  as  both  Hutton  and 
McKay  believed  that  the  Hutchinsonian  and  Awamoan  were  part  and 
parcel  of  the  same  series  (and  the  evidence  of  the  molluscan  fauna  in  the. 
Oamaru  district  supports  this  view),  these  fossiliferous  beds  (Otiake  beds) 
have  been  classed  as  Hutchinsonian-Awamoan.  In  the  Oamaru  district, 
however,  the  occurrence  of  a  brachiopod  fauna  fully  justifies  the  separation 
of  the  post-Ototaran  rocks  into  two  stages. 

The  greensands  between  the  Ngaparan  coal-rocks  and  the  limestone 
in  North  Otago  and  South  Canterbury  will  probably  admit  of  subdivision 
in  the  future.  The  fossils  have  hitherto  been  "  lumped,"  but,  judging 
from  McKay's  report  on  the  Waihao  district,  several  lithological  divisions 
can  be  recognized  ;  and,  as  the  rocks  are  very  fossiliferous,  careful  col- 
lecting and  accurate  determinations  of  fossils  from  each  horizon  would 
probably  enable  a  subdivision  of  the  Waiarekan  to  be  made,  as  has  been 


Uttlby. — Tertiary  Geology,   Wharekuri  to  Otiake  River.         165 

done  by  Park  in  his  latest  work  (1918,  p.  26).  Many  of  the  species  con- 
tained in  these  lower  greensands  occur  also  in  the  Awamoan,  but  the 
latter  horizon  contains  a  much  greater  variety  of  species,  and  a  large 
number  of  these  appear  to  be  restricted  to"  this  horizon.  In  the  Oamaru 
district  the  brachiopods  have  proved  serviceable  in  differentiating  several 
horizons,  but  some  of  these  brachiopods  are  apparently  restricted  to  this 
area,  and  detaijed  correlation  with  beds  in  the  Waitaki  Valley  is  not  yet 
possible.  This  brachiopod  fauna  has  been  discussed  in  another  paper  in 
this  volume  (pp.  152-53).  Corals,  Echinoderms,  and  Foraminifera  occur 
abundantly  in  the  Oamaruian  of  North  Otago,  but  our  knowledge  of 
them  is  very  incomplete,  and  useless  for  detailed  stratigraphical  work. 
A  revision  of  all  these  groups  is  urgently  needed. 

Of  the  ninety-four  species  of  Mollusca  determined  from  the  beds  above 
the  limestone  in  the  Waitaki  Valley  (Otiake  beds),  seventy-three  species 
occur  in  the  typical  Awamoan  at  Oamaru,  four  occur  in  the  Hutchinsonian 
(of  Thomson),  twelve  forms  have  apparently  not  been  recorded  elsewhere 
in  North  Otago,  whilst  only  five  species  have  not  been  previously  recorded 
from  post-Ototaran  beds.  Five  of  these  not  recorded  elsewhere  are  new 
species,  seventy-nine  species  have  now  been  listed  from  the  greensands 
below  the  limestone  in  the  Waitaki  Valley,  and  fifty-six  of  these  occur  in 
the  Awamoan  beds  at  Oamaru.  Nearly  three  hundred  species  have  been 
recorded  from  the  Awamoan  beds  at  Oamaru  ;  but  in  the  case  of  the  beds 
of  the  Waitaki  Valley  the  collections  are  few,  and  previously  unrecorded 
species  are  continually  turning  up.  The  figures  quoted  above,  in  the 
absence  of  fairly  exhaustive  collections,  do  not  give  much  ground  for 
definite  conclusions,  but  they  do  show  that  the  Otiake  beds  contain  a 
moUuscan  fauna  of  which  78  per  cent,  occurs  in  the  typical  Awamoan 
beds  of  Oamaru.  Tl^e  faunk  of  the  greensands  below  the  limestone  con- 
tains 70  per  cent,  of  the  fossils  recorded  from  the  Awamoan  at  Oamaru, 
showing  that  in  the  Waitaki  Valley  the  fauna  above  and  below  the 
limestone  has  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  typical  Awamoan  fauna  (Hutton's 
Pareora). 

V.   Physiography  of  the  Area. 

« 

(1.)  Kurow  Block. 

From  what  has  already  been  said  it  will  be  evident  that  Cotton's 
statement  (1917a,  p.  285)  that  the  Waitaki  River  "  follows  a  complex 
graben  along  the  northern  block-complex  .  .  .  which  forms  the 
northern  highland  of  Otago  "  is  amply  justified  by  the  geological  evidence. 
This  graben  is  bounded  on  the  south-west .  by  the  elevated  block  called 
the  Kurow  -  Mount  Mary  Range  (Kurow  block)  ;  on  the  north-east  it  is 
flanked  by  the  block  mountains  of  South  Canterbury  ;  .on  the  south-east 
by  a  portion  of  the  Kakanui  block  {loc.  cit.,  p.  272).  Towards  the  north- 
west the  fault  on  the  Canterbury  side  of  the  river  and  the  Wharekuri- 
Otekaike  fault  approach  each  other,  and  probably  coalesce  farther  up  the 
Waitaki  Valley  ;   but  this  area  lies  beyond  the  scope  of  the  present  paper. 

The  Kurow  -  Mount  Mary  Range  is  an  elevated  tilted  block  of  probably 
complex  structure  ;  it  is  elongated  in  a  north-westerly  direction.  It  is 
bounded  towards  the  west  by  a  conspicuous  fault-scarp  (loc.  cit.,  p.  278), 
and  its  rather  steeply  dipping  back  slope  descends  towards  the  Waitaki 
River,  and  is  then  intersected  by  the  Wharekuri-Otekaike  fault.  A  line 
of  dislocation  runs  from  the  Otekaike  River  to  Dansey's  Pass  to  meet  the 
great  re-entrant  occupied   by  part  of  the  Maniototo  depression  (loc.  cit., 


166  '  Transactions. 

p.  278).  It  has  been  shown  in  a  former  paper  that  a  well-marked  fault 
occurs  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Otekaike  River,  and  it  probably  extends 
in  a  south-westerly  direction  for  some  distance.  The  district  maps  show 
a  marked  depression  beyond  Ben  Lomond,  and  it  is  probable  that  sharp 
folding  or  faulting  has  taken  place  on  the  same  line.  The  back  sloi^e  of 
the  Kurow  block  is  not  simple,  and  signs  of  warping  are  not  wanting  ;  the 
general  slope,  however,  is  north-westerly,  and  the  majority  of  the  streams 
are  consequent.  As  already  pointed  out,  the  Big  Awakino  in  the  lower 
part  of  its  course  is  anteconsequent. 

(2.)  Awakino  and  Trig.  G  Blocks. 

Kurow  Hill  is  a  tilted  block,  as  shown  by  Cotton  (1917b,  p.  432),  and, 
as  the  Big  Awakino  and  the  Little  Awakino  flow  across  it,  it  has  been  called 
the  Awakino  block.  The  geological  evidence  for  the  boundary  faults  has 
been  already  presented.  It  has  been  shown  that  the  coal-rocks  crop  out 
on  the  south-west  side  of  the  block,  near  the  base  of  a  steep  fault-scarp 
almost  entirely  undissected,  and  traceable  for  a  distance  of  four  miles. 
This  north-westerly-trending  fault  meets,  the  main  Wharekuri-Otekaike 
fault  in  the  basin  of  the  Little  Awakino  Creek,  where  the  scarp  dies  out 
and  the  stripped  surface  of  the  Awakino  block  is  seen  to  dip  below  the 
Tertiary  rocks.  In  the  basin  of  the  Little  Awakino,  about  a  mile  from 
the  main  rpad,  quartz-grits  are  exposed  on  both  sides  of  the  creek,  con- 
cealing the  erosion-surface  of  the  Awakino  block,  which  has  been  stripped/ 
of  its  covering  strata  towards  the  south-east  in  the  higher  parts  of  Kurow 
Hill.  These  grits  on  the  left  bank  of  the  creek  crop  out  near  the  base  of 
a  prominent  scarp  which  rises  200  ft.  or  300  ft.  above  the  quartz-grits,  the 
attitude  of  the  rocks  clearly  indicating  faulting.  From  the  top  of  the  scarp 
the  surface  slopes  towards  the  north,  and  the  quartz-grits  crop  out  in 
several  places,  but  the  surface  has  been  almost  completely  stripped.  The 
back  slope  of  this  small  tilted  block,  on  which  the  Trig.  Station  G  is 
situated,  descends  towards  the  Waitaki  River,  where  the  Tertiary  rocks 
are  exposed  on  both  banks.  The  fault-scarp  of  this  block  diminishes  in 
height  as  the  Little  Awakino  Creek  is  ascended,  and  the  fault  dies  out 
towards  the  west,  the  erosion-surfaces  of  the  Awakino  block  and  this  small 
one  evidently  coalescing,  and  dipping  beneath  the  Tertiary  rocks  in  the 
Awahokomo  basin.  These  two  blocks  are  flanked  on  the  east  by  the 
Waitaki  River,  which  in  this  part  of  its  course  flows  close  to  the  steep  scarp 
of  the  more  elevated  Canterbury  mountains.  The  valley-plain  of  the  Wai- 
taki River  from  near  Trig.  Station  G  to  Kurow  is  narrow  and  rock-bound, 
and  the  stream  is  now  flowing  close  to  the  main  fault-line  on  the  southern 
side  of  these  mountains. 

VI.    The  Gravels  (excluding  Recent  Deposits). 

The  terraces  and  gravels  of  the  Waitaki  Valley  are  well  worthy  of 
a  detailed  study,  but  good  topographical  maps  are  a  prime  necessity. 
Some  remarks,  however,  should  be  made  on  the  gravel  deposits.  McKay 
clearly  recognized  that  the  gravels  were  not  all  of  the  same  origin.  His 
descriptions  are  somewhat  difficult  to  follow.  He  distinguishes  three 
types  of  these  deposits — (1)  angular  gravels,  (2)  well-rounded  coarse  gravels, 
(3)  gravels  and  sands  with  lignite  deposits.  He  notes  that  (1)  and  (2)  con- 
tain fossiliferous  Triassic  and  Permian  boulders,  and  that  (3)  are  often  highly 
tilted.      These  three  types  can  undoubtedly  be  recognized,  but  it  will  be 


Uttlet. — Tertiary  Geology,   Wharekuri  to  Otiake  River.         167 

a  difficult  matter  to  trace  their  boundaries,  and  this  has  not  been  attempted 
in  the  present  paper.  The  angular  gravels  are  ascribed  by  McKay  to  the 
action  of  glaciers — that  is,  they  are  glacier-deposits  that  owe  their  origin 
to  former  glaciers  from  the  neighbouring  Kurow  and  Hakataramea  Moun- 
tains. Not  having  discovered  these  Triassic  and  Permian  fossiliferons  rocks 
in  the  Kurow  Mountains,  McKay  concluded  that  glaciers  brought  them 
from  the  Canterbury  mountains  which  were  known  to  contain  these  older 
fossiliferons  rocks.  There  is,  however,  a  total  absence  of  the  character- 
istics of  glacial  deposits,  glacial  striations  being  'quite  lacking.  It  is  true 
that  large  masses  of  rock  and  fine  silts  and  clays  are  mixed  confusedly 
together  in  the  deposits  near  Wharekuri.  Marshall  explained  these  angular 
deposits  differently,  and  (1915,  p.  381)  stated  that  the  Maitai  rocks  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  fault  (Wharekuri-Otekaike  fault)  have  been  much 
shattered  ;  that  weathering  has  developed  their  shattered  nature,  and 
they  break  down  into  "  a  clayey  material  which  still  contains  angular 
fragments  of  rock."  Park  (1904,  p.  448)  traced  the  fossiliferons  boulders 
to  their  source  near  the  summit  of  Mount  Mary.  The  rocks  were  found, 
in  situ  at  a  height  of  5,160  ft.,  at  a  point  distant  about  three  miles  and 
a  half  from  the  Wharekuri-Otekaike  fault-line.  These  deposits  which 
occur  close  to  this  hne  were  probably  derived  from  the  dissection  of  the 
fault-scarp  as  it  rose,  for  deep  aggradation  would  take  place  as  the  deform- 
ation proceeded.  The  sloping  surface  of  the  tilted  block,  to  the  west  of 
the  fault-line,  would  also  undergo  degradation  by  the  numerous  consequent 
streams,  and  the  waste  would  be  spread  out  on  the  floor  of  the  depression, 
forming  an  alluvial  gravel-plain.  This  plain  appears  to  have  been  built 
up  after  the  reduction  of  the  valley  lowland  to  somewhat  low  relief.  The 
extensive  aggradation  would  therefore  imply  a  great  increase  in  the  supply 
of  waste  due  to  the  increasing  differential  elevation.  As  the  streams 
that  deposited  these  gravels  are  now  well  entrenched,  regional  uplift  has 
probably  been  the  most  recent  movement.  McKay  believed  that  the 
tilted  sandstone  gravels  at  Wharekuri  lay  conformably  above  the  higher 
fossiliferons  beds.  They  may  do  so,  but  the  writer  was  unable  to  satisfy 
himself  on  that  point.  Theie  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  they  have  been 
involved  in  the  differential  movements,  and  may  possibly  represent  the 
period  of  emergence  of  the  land. 

VII.     SUMMAEY   AND   CONCLUSION. 

(1.)  The  Maruwenua  limestone  is  overlain  directly  by  the  Otiake  beds 
(Hutchinsonian-Awamoan). 

(2.)  McKay's  unconformity  between  the  lower  and  upper  parts  of  the 
limestone  is  non-existent,  and  all  other  observers  agree  that  the  rock  is  a 
unit. 

(3.)  McKay  correlated  the  base  of  the  limestone  with  the  Ototaran 
limestone  ;  the  upper  part  (his  Otekaike  limestone)  must  therefore  be 
Upper  Ototaran,  and  the  overlying  beds  (McKay's  Hutchinson's  Quarry 
beds)  are  the  equivalent  of  the  Hutchinsonian-Awamoan  of  the  coastal 
district.  ^ 

(4.)  The  upper  part  of  the  limestone  at  Landon  Creek  contains  a  number 
of  brachiopods  that  are  similar  to  the  brachiopods  from  the  lower  portions 
of  the  Maruwenua  limestone  (so-called  Waitaki  stone).  Some  of  these 
brachiopods  do  not  rise  above  the  Ototaran  of  the  typical  Oamaru  district. 
The  evidence  points  to  the  limestone  of  the  Waitaki  Valley  being  Ototaran. 


168  Transactions. 

(5.)  The  greensands  at  Wharekuri  probably  represent  a  slightly  higher 
horizon  than  the  Bortonian  of  Park,  and  from  the  evidence  at  present 
available  they  are  probably  the  equivalents  of  the  Waiarekan  tufis,  yet 
the  latter  are  practically  unfossiliferous. 

(6.)  Vofcanic  rocks,  as  shown  in  a  previous  paper  {Trans.  N.Z.  Inst., 
vol.  50,  pp.  106-17,  1918),  occur  in  the  Maruwenua  district :  they  may  be 
either  lava-flows  or  sills — the  evidence  in  the  small  exposure  observed  was 
neutral.  These  volcanic  rocks,  however,  extend  towards  Tokarahi,  and 
are  interbedded  with  the  greensands.  If  they  are  Waiarekan  it  would  fix 
the  age  of  the  greensands  overlying  Park's  Bortonian. 

(7.)  The  Tertiary  rocks  of  the  Waitaki  Valley  above  Duntroon  occupy 
a  tectonic  depression.  McKay  has  recorded  Tertiary  rocks  from  the  Haka- 
taramea  Valley,  which  is  also  undoubtedly  a  tectonic  depression.  As 
post-Awamoan  gravels  have  been  involved  in  the  differential  movements 
in  many  localities  in  the  Waitaki  and  Waihao  Valleys,  these  "  fiord -like 
depressions  "  manifestly  did  not  exist  in  Tertiary  or  pre-Tertiary  times, 
and  the  evidence  to  be  gathered  in  noi"th-east  Otago  points  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  Tertiary  rocks  once  formed  a  continuous  cover  on  the 
denuded  surface  of  the  pre-Notocene  oldermass.  The  mountain-building 
period  of  central  and  north-east  Otago  was  post-Awamoan.       < 

Bibliography. 

Cotton,  C.  A.,  1917a.  Block  Mountains  in  New  Zealand,  Am.  Journ.  Sci.,  vol.  44, 
pp.  249-93. 

1917b.     The  Fossil  Plains  of  North  Otago,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  49,  pp.  429-32. 

Hamilton,  A.,  1904.     Notes  on  a  Small  Collection  of  Fossils  from  Wharekuri,  Trans. 

N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  36,  pp.  465-67. 

Hkctor,  J.,  1882.  Waitaki  Valley  and  Alps  of  North  Otago,  N.Z.  Geol.  Surv.  Prog. 
Rep.,  1881,  pp.  xxi-xxxii. 

Htjtton,  F.  W.,  1885  On  the  Correlations  of  the  "Curiosity  Shop  Bed"  in  Canter- 
bury, N.Z.,  Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc,  vol.  41,  pp.  547-64. 

McKay,  A.,  1882a.  On  the  Waitaki  Valley  and  Parts  of  Vincent  and  Lake  Counties, 
Bep.  Geol.  Explor.  during  1881,  pp.  56-92. 

1882b.     On  the  Younger  Deposits  of  the  Wharekuri  Basin  and  the  Lower  Waitaki 

Valley,  Rep.  Geol.  Explor.  during  1881,  pp.  98-105. 
Marshall,   P.,    1915.      Cainozoic   Fossils   from    Oamaru,   Trans.  N.Z.   Inst.,  vol.   47, 

pp.  377-87. 
Park,   J.,    1904.     On  the   Discovery  of  Permo-Carboniferous  Rocks  at  Mount  Mary, 

North  Otago,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  36,  pp.  447-53. 
1905.     On  the  Marine  Tertiaries  of  Otago  and  South  Canterbury,   Trans.   N.Z. 

Inst.,  vol.  37,  pp.  489-551. 

1918.     The  Geology  of  the  Oamaru  District,  North  Otago,  N.Z.  Geol.  Surv.   Bull. 

No.  20  (n.s.),  pp.  1-124. 
Thomson,  J.  A.,  1915.     Classification  and  Correlation  of  the  Tertiary  Rocks,  8th  Ann. 
Bep.  N.Z.  Geol  Surv.,  pp.  123-24. 


Uttlet. — Remarks  on  BuUefin  No.   20.  169 


Art.  XXIV. — Remarks  on  Bulletin  No.  20  (New  Series)   of  the  New 

Zealand  Geological  Survey. 

By  G.  H.  Uttley,  M.A.,  M.Sc,  F.G.S.,  Scots  College,  Wellington. 

[Read  before  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society,  6th  December,  1919  ;  received  by  Editor, 
31st  December,  1919  ;    issued  separately,  15th  June,  1920.] 

■  Contents. 
I.  Introduction. 
II.  The  "Two-limestone"  Theory. 

III.  Description   of   the    Hutchinsonian  and  Awamoan  Stages  as 

interpreted  by  Park. 
(1.)  Awamoan  Beds. 
(2.)  Hutchinsonian  Beds. 

IV.  Hutchinsonian  and  Awamoan  Localities. 

(1.)  All  Day  Bay.  ' 

(2.)  Deborah. 

(3.)  Coast  North  of  Kakanui  Quarry. 
(4.)  Oamaru  Rifle  Butts. 
(.5.)  Hutchinson's  Quarry. 
(6.)  Target  GuUy. 
(7.)  Upper  Target  Gully. 
(8.)  Ardgowan  Shell-bed. 
(9.)  Devil's  Bridge. 
(10.)  Landon  Creek  and  Flume  Creek. 
V.  Bortonian  and  Waiarekan  Locahties. 
(1.)  Bortonian. 
(2.)  Upper  Waiarekan. 

(a.)  Kakanui  South. 

(6.)  Boatman's  Harbour. 

(c.)  Shirley  Creek. 

(d.)  Awamoa  Creek,  near  Deborah. 

(e.)  Grant's  Creek. 
VI.  Summary  and  Conclusion. 

I.    Introduction. 

In  Bulletin  No.  20  (New  Series)  of  the  Geological  Survey  Branch  of  the 
Mines  Department  Professor  Park  has  described  the  geology  of  the  Oamaru 
district  of  North  Otago.  The  present  writer  has  examined  this  area  in 
some  detail,  and  his  observations  have  been  recorded  in  several  papers 
read  before  this  society.  In  several  important  matters  he  finds  him- 
self at  variance  with  Professor  Park,  and  some  notes  on  the  latter's 
recent  work  are  given  in  the  following  pages.  The  paper  deals  with  the 
"  two-limestone "  theory  of  Professor  Park,  with  his  classification  of  the 
fossibferous  tufaceous  beds,  and  with  his  subdivision  and  correlation  of 
the  beds  of  north-eastern  Otago.  The  evidence  on  which  the  present 
writer's  conclusions  are  based  has  been  detailed  in  former  papers. 

Park  first  formulated  his  "  two-limestone  "  theory  in  an  attempt  to 
reconcile  the  differences  of  opinion  that  had  long  existed  between  Captain 
Hutton  and  other  geologists  as  to  the  position  of  the  so-called  "  Pareora 
fauna "  The  present  writer  (1916,  p.  25)  showed  that  the  "  two- 
1  mestone  "  theory  was  not  tenable  in  the  Oamaru  coastal  district,  and 
that  the  Awamoan  (Pareora)  beds  lie  above  the  limestone  and  Hutchinson 
Quarry  beds.  In  Bulletin  No.  20  Park  has  accepted  this  interpretation 
in  part,  for  he  places  the  Awamoan  (Pareora)  beds  at  the  top  of  the  series ; 
but  the  so-called  Waitaki  stone  is  now  placed  in  the  Upper  Hutchinsonian, 


170  ^  Transactions. 

immediately  below  the  Awamoan  beds.  The  classifications  adoj)ted  by 
Park  (1905,  p.  492)  and  later  in  Bulletin  No.  20  indicate  the  change  in  his 
views. 

1905.  1918. 

Waitaki  stone     . .  . .     — 

Awamoan  . .     Awamoan  beds  . .  . .     Awamoan  beds. 

Hutchinsonian    . .      Hutchinson  Quarry  beds  . .      (a.)  Upper  Hutchinsonian  =  Waitaki 

stone. 
(b.)  Lower  Hutchinsonian. 
Ototaran  . .     Ototara  limestone  . .      Ototara  limestone. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  Hutchinson  Quarry  beds  (Hutchinsonian)  have 
been  subdivided,  the  Lower  Hutchinsonian  being  the  well-known  Hutchinson 
Quarry  greensands,  which  are  said  to  lie  beneath  the  so-called  Waitaki  stone 
(Upper  Hutchinsonian). 

That  Park's  latest  view  has  not  gained  general  acceptance  is  clearly 
indicated  by  the  following  quotation  from  the  letter  of  transmittal  to  the 
Minister  of  Mines  which  prefaces  Bulletin  No.  20.  Mr.  P.  G.  Morgan, 
Director  of  the  Geological  Survey,  writes  :  "  Although  quite  agreeing  with 
most  of  the  conclusions  reached,  I  cannot  follow  Professor  Park  in  all, 
respects,  more  particularly  in  his  views  regarding  the  relative  ages  of  the 
Oamaru  and  Waitaki  stones."  The  present  writer  has  also  found  con- 
siderable difficulty  in  following  Professor  Park  in  his  arguments  for 
the  difierentiation  of  two-limestone  horizons.  In  discussing  the  "  two- 
limestone  "  theory,  as  formulated  in  Bulletin  No.  20,  it  will  be  contended 
(1)  that  Park's  Upper  Hutchinsonian  in  the  area  between  Kakanui  and 
Target  Gully,  Oamaru,  is  really  the  base  of  the  Awamoan  ;  (2)  that  his 
Upper  Hutchinsonian  of  the  Landon  Creek  area  is  the  eqiiivalent  of  his 
Lower  Hutchinsonian  in  the  district  between  Kakanui  and  Target  Gully  ; 
(3)  that  no  evidence  is  brought  forward  to  show  that  the  Upper  Hutchin- ' 
sonian  is  present  in  the  Flume  Creek  area  ;  (4)  that  the  correlation  of  the 
rocks  called  "  Upper  Hutchinsonian  "  in  the  Oamaru  and  Papakaio  districts 
with  the  limestone  of  the  Waitaki  Valley  (Waitaki  stone)  is  not  justified 
by  the  evidence  brought  forward  in  Bulletin  No.  20.  The  discussion  on 
the  Bortonian  and  Upper  Waiarekan  of  Park  aims  at  showing  that  Usts 
of  fossils  ascribed  to  these  stages  must  be  considerably  reduced,  as  the 
horizons  are  very  doubtful.  References  to  Bulletin  No.  20  will  be  made 
by  quoting  merely  the  pages  of  that  publication. 

II.    The  "  Two-LiMESTONE  "  Theory. 

Park's  "  two-limestone  "  theory,  as  stated  above,  was  an  attempt  to 
solve  the  problem  of  the  "  Pareora  fauna."  This  problem  first  presented 
itself  to  the  New  Zealand  geologists  when  Haast  submitted  four  collections 
of  fossils  from  different  localities  to  Hutton  (1887,  p.  430)  for  identification. 
The  latter  referred  all  the  shells  to  the  Pareora  (Awamoan)  horizon  above 
the  limestone.  Haast  himself  was  convinced  that  one  of  the  collections 
had  been  obtained  from  beds  which  lay  below  the  limestone.  Other 
collections  of  fossils  examined  by  Hutton  were  determined  by  him  as 
"  Pareora,"  and  in  all  cases  he  referred  the  beds  to  an  horizon  above  the 
limestone.  Haast  and  the  officers  of  the  old  Geological  Survey  agreed 
with  Hutton  that  some  of  his  "  Pareora  "  faunas  came  from  above  the 
limestone,  but  the  field  evidence  convinced  them  that  other  collections 
of  fossils  determined  by  Hutton  as  "  Pareora  "  came  from  below  the  lime- 
stone.     Park  (1905,  p.  491)  clearly  recognized  the  difi&culties,  and  attempted 


Uttlby. — Remarks  on   Bulletin  No.   20.  171 

a  solution  by  his  theory  that  there  were  two  limestone  horizons,  separated 
by  the  Hutchinson  Quarry  and  Awamoan  beds  (Pareora)  ;  or,  in  other 
words,  that  there  was  but  one  "  Pareora  fauna,"  lying  between  two  lime- 
stones, the  lower  being  called  the  Ototaran  stone  and  the  uppei"  the 
Waitaki  stone. 

The  present  writer  (refer  to  Thomson,  1915,  p.  123),  after  an  excursion 
to  the  Waihao  district  of  South  Canterbury,  was  convinced  that,  where 
the  full  series  was  developed,  there  was  but  one  limestone  present.  An 
examination  of  the  fauna  beneath  the  limestone  showed  that  it  bore  a 
remarkable  resemblance  to  the  fauna  above  the  limestone  in  the  Waihao 
district,  where  the -beds  occur  in  the  same  section.  This  view  was  sup- 
ported by  Thomson  (1915,  p.  123),  who  subsequently  visited  the  Waihao 
district.  Park,  however  (1905,  p.  510),  had  given  a  section  at  Kakanui 
in  which  his  two  limestones  were  shown  separated  by  the  fossiliferous  beds. 
The  present  writer  (1916,  pp.  22-25)  sought  to  prove  that  this  section  had 
been  misinterpreted,  and  that  only  one  limestone  was  present,  with  the 
fossiliferous  beds  lying  above  it.  Park  in  his  latest  work  has  evidently 
accepted  this  interpretation  of  the  section,  for  the  Awamoan  beds  are  now 
placed  at  the  top  of  the  sequence  in  the  Oamaru  and  Kakanui  districts. 
As  pointed  out  above,  however,  he  still  maintains  that  the  limestone  of  the 
Waitaki  Valley  is  distinct  from  the  limestone  of  the  Oamaru  district. 

III.    Description    op  'the    Hutchinsonian   and   Awamoan    Stages    as 

INTERPRETED    BY   PaRK. 

Before  discussing  the  sections  described  in  Bulletin  No.  20  it  will  be 
necessary  to  form  a  clear  conception  of  Park's  various  subdivisions  of  the 
beds  above  the  Ototaran.  Correlation  of  beds  is  possible  on  palaeonto- 
logical  or  lithological  evidence,  or  by  direct  stratigraphical  connection, 
and  it  seems  to  the  writer  that  Park  has  relied  mainly  on  the  lithological 
evidence  in  establishing  his  Upper  Hutchinsonian  horizon.  The  following 
quotations  will  indicate  his  conception  of  the  post-Ototaran  beds. 

'  '  (1.)  Avjamoan  Beds. 

"  The  Awamoan  strata  consist  of  blue  or  bluish-green  marine  sandy 
clays  that  in  some  places  pass  into  bluish-green  sea-muds,  in  other  places 
into  very  soft  sandstones.  In  most  places  they  are  interbedded  at  distant 
intervals  with  hard  calcareous  bands  that  are  sometimes  sandy,  in  others 
argillaceous  and  crowded  with  shells.  In  some  places  the  hard  bands 
are  replaced  by  calcareous  nodular  concretionary  masses  and  flaggy  lenses, 
occurring  in  more  or  less  well-defined  horizons." 

It  will  be  shown  that  these  hard  calcareous  bands  in  the  Awamoan  are 
referred  by  Park  to  the  Upper  Hutchinsonian  in  the  Target  Gully  locality. 

(2.)  Hutchinsonian  Beds. 

The  Hutchinsonian  is  subdivided  lithologically,  in  descending  order, 
into — (a)  Glauconitic  sandstone  (Upper  Hutchinsonian) ;  (b)  Glauconitic 
greensands  (Lower  Hutchinsonian) ;    (c)  Conglomerate,  mainly  basaltic. 

The  glauconitic  sandstone  (a)  is  said  to  represent  the  Waitaki  stone  of 
Upper  Hutchinsonian  age.  He  describes  this  horizon  as  follows  :  "  The 
glauconitic  sandstone  follows  the  greensands  conformably  ...  it  con- 
sists of  soft  glauconitic  sandstone  interbedded  with  hard  yellowish  -  brown 
sandstone    bands     .     .     .     it  is    a    compact    yellowish-brown    calcareous 


172  Transactions. 

glauconitic  sandstone."  The  glauconitic  greensands  (Lower  Hutchinsonian) 
are  described  in  the  following  extracts :  "  The  glauconitic  sandy  beds 
at  All  Day  Bay,  Kakanui,  Hutchinson's  Quarry,  and  Grant's  Creek  are 
loose  and  incoherent,  but  at  the  upper  end  of  Target  Gully,  at  Landon 
Creek,  and  in  the  Waitaki  area  they  form  fairly  compact  glauconitic 
sandstones "  (p.  78).  Further,  it  is  stated  that  "  the  fauna  of  this 
horizon  [Lower  Hutchinsonian]  is  distinguished  by  the  abundance  of 
the  brachiopod  Pachymagas  parki  (Hutt.),  by  the  presence  of  the  corals 
Isis  dactyla  Ten. -Woods  and  Mopsea  hamiltoni  (Thomson),  and  of  the 
cup-shaped  bryozoan  Celleporaria  nummularia  Busk.  Besides  these  there 
occur  many  pectens  and  other  molluscs.  Pachymagas  parki  (Hutt.)  is 
present  almost  everywhere,  but  the  other  fossils  mentioned  may  be  abundant 
at  one  place  and  absent  at  another"  (p.  78).  "  Pachymagas  parki  (Hutt.) 
occurs  in  great  abundance  in  the  Lower  Hutchinsonian,  usually  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  other  brachiopods  except  Rhizothyris  rhizoida  (Hutt.), 
which  is  nearly  always  present  with  it"  (p.  109).  "The  Lower  Hutchin- 
sonian is  the  most  distinctive  and  persistent  horizon  of  the  Oamaruian 
system  ;  it  always  overlies  the  Oamaru  stone.  In  the  Oamaru  area  it 
consists  of  calcareous  glauconitic  greensands  that  at  Landon  Creek  and  the 
lower  Waitaki  Valley  are  partly  or  wholly  replaced  by  calcareous  glau- 
conitic sandstone.  But  whether  greensands  or  glauconitic  sandstone,  the 
characteristic  brachiopod  Pachymagas  ])arki  (Hutt.)  and  the  peculiar 
corals  Isis  dactyla  Ten. -Woods  and  Mopsea  hamiltoni  (Thomson)  are 
always  present.  The  Waitaki  stone  is  underlain  by  the  greensands " 
(p.  110). 

It  will  be  shown  that  these  sandstone  bands  in  the  Landon  Creek  area 
are  referred  to  the  Upper  Hutchinsonian,  although  from  Park's  description 
of  the  characteristic  fossils  they  should  belong  to  his  Lower  Hutchinsonian 
(Hutchinsonian  of  Thomson). 

As  pointed  out  by  the  present  writer  (1916,  pp.  20-21),  the  fossil 
Pachymagas  parki  (Hutt.)  occurs  in  abundance  in  a  well-defined  band  of 
hard  glauconitic  sandstone.  In  the  present  paper  this  band  is  called  the 
"  parki  "  band.  It  is  ofter  accompanied  by  Rhizothyris  rhizoida  (Hutt.), 
to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  brachiopods.  This  hardened  band  is  underlain 
in  many  places  in  the  district  by  looser  greensands,  also  "glauconitic,  but 
characterized  also  by  a  constant  assemblage  of  fossils — Aetheia  gaulteri 
(Morris),  Terehratulina  siiessi  (Hutt.),  Isis  dactyla  Ten. -Woods,  and  Mopsea 
hamiltoni  (Thomson),  which  are  all  very  abundant.  This  bed  usually  con- 
tains many  specimens  of  Pachymagas  parki  (Hutt.),  but  in  these  looser 
greensands  the  individuals  of  this  species  are  on  the  average  distinctly 
smaller  than  in  the  upper  "  parki  "  band,  and  their  external  characters 
are  far  more  constant.  In  the  hardened  upper  band,  where  it  is  usually 
accompanied  by  Rhizothyris  rhizoida  (Hutt.),  the  specimens  assigned  to 
the  "  parki "  species  are  extremely  variable  in  external  shape.  As 
pointed  out  by  Park  in  the  extracts  quoted  above,  this  greensand  horizon 
is  a  most  distinctive  one  ;  it  is  the  typical  Hutchinsonian  of  the  Oamaru 
system,  and  always  lies  above  a  nodular  band  (Park's  conglomerate).  Park, 
however,  would  term  these  " /sis  " -greensands,  and  the  '^ parki"  green- 
sands Lower  Hutchinsonian  ;  and  states  that  they  are  separated  from 
the  Awamoan  by  the  Upper  Hutchinsonian  (Waitaki  stone).  The  writer 
contends  that  the  "  Isis  "  greensands  and  the  overlying  "  parki  "  green- 
sands constitute  the  Hutchinsonian,  and  are  followed  directly  by  the 
Awamoan  beds. 


Uttley. — Remarl's  on   Bulletin  No.   20.   ■  173 

In  the  localities  discussed  below  an  attempt  is  made  to  show  that  where 
the  Awamoan  beds  are  present,  as  in  the  Oamaru  area,  the  hard  calcareous 
bands  at  their  base  are  called  Upper  Hutchinsonian  ;  where  the  Awamoan 
beds  are  not  present,  as  at  Landon  Creek  (west  branch),  the  "  fairly  com- 
pact glauconitic  sandstone  "  (the  "  jmrki  "  band)  is  called  Upper  Hutchin- 
sonian ;  where  the  "  parki "  band  is  absent,  as  in  Landon  Creek 
(Papakaio  district),  the  upper  glauconitic  portion  of  the  limestone  is  called 
Upper  Hutchinsonian  (p.  64).  The  various  localities  in  which  the  post- 
Ototaran  beds  occur  will  now  be  discussed. 

IV.  Hutchinsonian  and  Awamoan  Localities. 

(1.)  All  Day  Bay  (j).  56). 

The  section  in  this  locality  has  been  described  by  the  writer  (1916,  p.  20), 
and  by  Park  in  Bulletin  No.  20.  Both  agree  that  the  "  darker  and  tougher 
greensands  "  (the  "  parki  "  band)  are  followed  directly  by  the  Awamoan 
beds.  The  section  in  this  locality  is  most  important,  as  it  illustrates  the 
typical  character  of  the  beds  above  the  limestone.  Here  we  have  in  one 
section,  as  shown  by  Park,  the  limestone  much  hardened  towards  its  upper 
surface,  which  is  corroded  (nodular).  This  surface  is  immediately  followed 
by  the  "  Isis  "  greensands,  capped  by  the  hard  "  parki  "  band,  which  is 
directly  overlain  by  the  Awamoan  beds.  In  this  locality  there  is  no  Upper 
Hutchinsonian  horizon,  and  Park's  so-called  Lower  Hutchinsonian  is  con- 
formably overlain  by  the  Awamoan,  which  contains  "  hard  sandstone  layers." 
Park  does  not  recognize  an  Upper  Hutchinsonian  m  this  locality. 

(2.)  Deborah  (p.  59). 

In  this  section  the  highest  bed  exposed  is  the  "  parki  "  band,  which  is 
underlain  by  "  6  ft.  of  greensands  [which]  contain  many  molluscs  and 
brachiopods."  The  brachiopods  present  in  these  underlying  greeensands 
are  Terehratulina  suessi  (Hutt.)  and  Aetheia  gaulteri  (Morris),  which  are 
again  accompanied  by  the  same  species  of  Isis  and  Mopsea.  At  the  base 
of  these  greensands  lies  the  nodular  surface  of  the  hard  limestone  which 
closed  the  Ototaran  at  All  Day  Bay.  No  Upper  Hutchinsonian  is  present 
at  Deborah. 

(3.)  Coast  North  of  Kakanui  Quarry  (p.  70). 

In  this  section  Park  shows  the  sequence  of  beds  closed  by  a  "  hard  semi- 
crystalline  limestone.*'  The  present  writer  has  figured  the  complete  section 
along  the  coast  (1916,  p.  23,  fig.  2).  The  beds  form  a  syncline,  and  to  the 
north-east  this  hard  limestone  is  nodular  at  the  surface,  and  followed  by 
the  "  Isis  "  greensands,  but  the  hard  "  piarki  "  band  has  been  denuded. 
The  sequence  is  exactly  similar  to  that  at  All  Day  Bay  and  Deborah. 
The  surface  of  the  hard  limestone  is  nodular,  and  pieces  of  rolled  volcanic 
rock  occur  at  the  base  of  the  "  Isis  "  beds  and  represent  Park's  con- 
glomerate at  the  base  of  the  Hutchinsonian.  In  this  coastal  section  the 
Upper  Hutchinsonian  is  not  stated  to  be  present,  though  the  limestone 
in  this  locality  was  formerly  (1905,  p.  510)  called  Waitaki  stone  (Upper 
Hutchinsonian). 

(4.)  Oamaru  Rifle  Butts. 

In  his  discussion  on  the  Hutchinsonian  stage  (chapter  vii,  p.  77)  Park 
makes  no  reference  to  the  Hutchinsonian  beds  at  the  Rifle  Butts,  but  he 


174  Transactions. 

gives  a  section  (pi.  ii,  fig.  A)  in  which  are  shown  "  the  greensands  with 
Pachymagas  parki  "  followed  by  a  glauconitic  shell-bed  (bed  i),  a  hard  brown 
limonitic  sandstone  (bed  h),  and  soft  glauconitic  sands  (bed  g),  and  all  these 
beds  are  classed  as  Hutchinsonian.  These  beds  ab-ove  the  "  parki  "  green- 
sands  are  Park's  Upper  Hutchinsonian.  The  Awanioan  beds  are  said  to 
lie  above  this  so-called  Upper  Hutchinsonian.  Now,  the  glauconitic  sandy 
shell-bed  (bed  *)  is  crowded  with  moUuscan  casts  and  extremely  fragile  shells, 
and  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  similar  to  the  shell-beds  at  Target  Gully  and 
Ardgowan,  which  all  geologists  recognize  as  Awanioan,  and  its  position 
immediately  above  the  "  parki  "  band  confirms  this  (compare  Park's  section 
at  All  Day  Bay,  p.  56).  These  beds  {g,  h,  i,  of  pi.  ii,  fig.  A)  are  undoubtedly 
Awamoan,  and  there  is,  therefore,  no  Upper  Hutchinsonian  at  the  Rifle 
Butts. 

(5.)  Hutchinson's  Quarry  (pp.  60-61). 

In  this  locality  the  junction  of  the  greensands  with  the  limestone  is  not 
clear,  although  they  undoubtedly  overlie  it.  As  the  Upper  Hutchinsonian 
is  not  stated  to  be  present,  it  is  unnecessary  to  discuss  the  section  further. 

(6.)  Target  Gully  (pp.  79-80). 

In  this  locality  the  Awamoan  and  Upper  Hutchinsonian  are  said  to  be 
present  in  the  sam^  section.  From  the  description  given  it  is  difficult  to 
judge  exactly  which  beds  are  referred  to  the  Upper  Hutchinsonian.  The 
following  statement  occurs  on  page  79  :  "  The  glauconitic  sandstone  [Upper 
Hutchinsonian]  follows  the  greensands  conformably  at  the  shell-bed  (Target 
Gully)."  These  greensands  are  Lower  Hutchinsonian  (p.  78).  On  the  same 
page  it  is  stated  that  "  at  the  shell-bed.  Target  Gully,  it  [the  glauconitic 
sandstone]  consists  of  soft  glauconitic  sandstone  interbedded  with  hard 
yellowish-brown  sandstone  bands."  In  the  section  given  on  page  80  the 
horizons  of  the  beds  are  not  indicated  ;  the  fossiliferous  greensands  (bed  c), 
which  are  the  lowest  greensands  exposed  in  the  section,  must,  according  to 
Park's  first  statement  quoted  above,  belong  to  his  Lower  Hutchinsonian, 
leaving  a  hard  yellowish-brown  glauconitic  sandstone  (2  ft.  to  4  ft.  thick)  to 
represent  the  Waitaki  stone  (Upper  Hutchinsonian).  The  fossils  in  this 
sandstone  are  in  the  form  of  casts,  and  no  palaeontological  or  other  evidence 
is  offered  to  support  the  contention  that  the  bed  is  at  the  horizon  of  the 
limestone  in  the  Waitaki  Valley  (the  so-called  Upper  Hutchinsonian).  If 
Park  refers  all  the  greensands  to  his  Upper  Hutchinsonian,  as  would  appear 
from  the  second  statement  quoted  above,  there  is  still  no  evidence  to  support 
this  view.  Of  the  seventy-two  species  of  MoUusca  listed  from  bed  c,  sixty- 
seven  species  occur  in  Park's  list  of  Awamoan  fossils  (pp.  97-105),  three 
forms  are  Recent,  and  the  other  two  are  not' characteristic.  The  percentage 
of  Recent  species  is  said  to  be  40-3  ;  and,  as  the  percentage  of  Recent 
species  in  the  Awamoan  of  the  Oamaru  district  is  stated  by  Park  to  be  32-9, 
there  would  seem  to  be  no  justification  for  separating  these  beds  from  the 
Awamoan  horizon.  Pachymagas  parki  (Hutt.),  however,  is  said  to  occur  in 
the  form  of  casts  in  bed  d,  and  as  the  same  fossil  is  recorded  from  bed  c,  and 
this  is  the  characteristic  fossil  of  Park's  Lower  Hutchinsonian,  the  beds 
might  equally  well  be  referred  to  his  Lower  Hutchinsonian.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  in  the  absence  of  a  brachiopod  fauna  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  dis- 
tinguish the  Hutchinsonian  from  the  Awamoan.  As  Park  says  (p.  53),  "  the 
relationship  existing  between  the  Hutchinsonian  and  Awamoan  is  generally 
so  close  that  it  is  difficult  to  define  where  the  one  ends  and  the  other  begins." 


Uttley. — Remarks  on   Bulletin   No.   20.  175 

If,  however,  in  addition  to  a  molluscan  fauna  the  brachiopods  are  present, 
the  line  of  demarcation  is  a  sharp  one  in  the  Oamaru  and  Papakaio  districts, 
the  close  of  the  Hutchinsonian  being  marked  by  a  giauconitic  band  crowded 
with  Pachymagas  parki  (Hutt).,  which  is  often  accompanied  by  Rhizothyris 
rhizoida  (Hutt.).  The  writer  believes  that  the  "  parki  "  beds  in  the  present 
locality  are  followed  directly  by  the  Awamoan,  and,  as  the  former  beds  are 
Park's  Lower  Hutchinsonian,  it  follows  that  there  is  no  Upper  Hutchin- 
sonian in  the  Target  Gully  locality.  Yet  Park  states  (p.  25)  that  "  on 
palaeontological  grounds  the  Hutchinsonian  might  be  divided  into  two 
sub-stages  —  the  lower  or  true  Hutchinsonian  including  the  giauconitic 
greensands,  the  upper  comprising  the  giauconitic  calcareous  sandstone 
that  forms  the  Waitaki  stone  or  Waitakian."  The  writer  has  been  unable 
to  find  in  Park's  latest  work  these  palaeontological  grounds. 

When  the  writer  examined  the  Target  Gully  section  the  junctions  of  the 
various  beds  were  obscured  by  slope  deposits,  in  which  were  collected  fossils 
from  the  shell-bed  (Awamoan),  specimens  of  Pachymagas  parki  (Hutt.),  and 
Rhizothyris  rhizoida  (Hutt.),  and  this  would  indicate  that  the  true  Hutchin- 
sonian (Park's  Lower  Hutchinsonian)  is  present  below  the  shell-bed.  Putting 
aside  this  obscurity  of  the  section,  however,  it  is  contended  that  no  evidence 
has  been  adduced  to  justify  any  bed  in  the  section  being  differentiated 
as  a  separate  Upper  Hutchinsonian  horizon.  The  fossils  from  bed  c  are 
Awamoan,  and  the  hard  giauconitic  sandstone  is  exactly  similar  to  the 
bands  that  occur  in  Park's  Awamoan  at  All  Day  Ba}^ 

(7.)  Upper  Target  Gully  (p.  82). 

Two  sections  are  exposed  in  this  locality.  In  fig.  37  a  "  rusty-brown 
giauconitic  sandstone;  9ft.  exposed;  contains  Pachymagas  parki  (Hutt)." 
In  fig.  38  a  giauconitic  sandstone  is  shown.  It  is  said  to  be  crowded  with 
Pachymagas  parki  (Hutt).  According  to  Park's  definition  of  the  beds, 
neither  the  Awamoan  nor  the  so-called  Upper  Hutchinsonian  is  present. 

(8.)  Ardgowan  Shell-hed  (p.  81). 

The  section  in  this  locality  (fig.  36)  shows  the  Ardgowan  shell-beds 
resting  directly  on  a  "  soft  brown  sandstone,"  from  which  twelve  fossils 
were  collected,  eleven  of  which  are  found  in  typical  Awamoan  localities. 
ThQ  other  fossil,  Li^na  suteri  Dall,  is  apparently  not  found  elsewhere  in 
the  Oamaru  district.  Park's  Lower  Hutchinsonian  is  not  present  in  the 
section,  and  no  reason  is  assigned  for  separating  this  "  sUghtly  giauconitic 
sandstone  "  from  the  Awamoan.  As  pointed  out  above,  these  sandstone 
bands  are  characteristic  of  the  Awamoan,  and  there  is  no  evidence  to  show- 
why  they  should  be  placed  at  an  Upper  Hutchinsonian  horizon. 

(9.)  DeviVs  Bridge  (pp.  62,  82). 

The  section  at  the  outlet  end  of  Devil's  Basin  shows  "  a  soft  friable 
giauconitic  sandstone,  12  ft.  thick,  crowded  with  Pachymagas  parki  (Hutt.)," 
and  accompanied  by  Rhizothyris  rhizoida  (Hutt.),  overlain  directly  by  a  brown 
calcareous  giauconitic  sandstone,  30  ft.  thick,  from  which  seventeen  forms 
were  obtained,  thirteen  of  which  occur  in  the  Awamoan,  one  is  not  found 
elsewhere,  two  are  recorded  from  the  "  Lower  Hutchinsonian  "  elsewhere 
(that  is,  from  the  ''^ parki''  greensands),  while  Emargimda  wamwnensis  Harris 
occurs  in  the  Ototaran.  This  so-called  Upper  Hutchinsonian  cannot  ,be 
separated  from  the  Awamoan,  particularly  as  it  rests  hard  upon  the  "  parki  " 


176  Transactions. 

greensands,  its  normal  position  as  shown  by  Park  in  his  section  at  All  Day 
Bay  (p.  56).  The  writer  (1918b,  p.  121)  described  this  locality,  and  showed 
that  the  "  jparki  "  band  lay  some  distance  above  the  limestone,  which  was 
nodular  at  its  surface,  and  according  to  Park  the  upper  part  of  the  limestone 
is  "  a  hard  semi-crystalUne  limestone  from  2  ft.  to  4  ft.  thick."  The  sequence 
is  similar  to  that  at  All  Day  Bay,  although  the  small  exposure  of  looser 
greensands  between  the  nodular  surface  of  the  limestone  and  the  "  farTci  " 
band  has  not  yet  proved  fossihferous.  The  sands  above  the  ''  parki"  band 
are  glauconitic,  and  in  this  respect  are  similar  to  the  Awamoan  at  All  Day 
Bay.  In  the  present  locality  no  reasons  have  been  adduced  to  show  that 
the  Upper  Hutchinsonian  is  present. 

All  the  localities  in  the  Oamaru  district  where  Park  has  described  the 
Hutchinsonian  have  now  been  discussed,  and  the  writer  has  attempted  to 
show  that  the  band  of  glauconitic  sandstone  (the  so-called  Upper  Hutchin- 
sonian of  Park)  is  part  of  the  Awamoan.  The  description  in  Bulletin  No.  20 
of  the  Awamoan  beds  shows  that  they  may  assume  the  character  of  an  indu-  . 
rated  sandstone.  In  the^  absence  of  palaeontological  evidence,  the  placing 
of  a  thin  band  of  sandstone  in  an  Upper  Hutchinsonian  is  unwarranted. 
The  fossils  that  have  been  recorded  by  Park  are  Awamoan,  as  shown 
above.  In  his  classification  of  the  beds  of  north-east  Otago,  Thomson  (1916, 
p.  35)  defined  the  Hutchinsonian  as  the  beds  lying  between  the  Ototara 
imestone  and  the  shell-bed  at  Target  Gully.  This  shell-bed  undoubtedly 
forms  the  base  of  the  Awamoan  at  the  Rifle  Butts,  but  from  its  very  nature 
t  is  not  likely  to  be  a  widely  extended  horizon  (it  is  known  to  occur  at  only 
three  places— Rifle  Butts,  Target.  Gully,  and  Ardgowan).  These  shell-beds 
appear  to  be  the  remains  of  shell-banks  of  the  Awamoan  seas,  and,  although 
confined  to  the  lower  part  of  the  Awamoan,  they  may  not  always  represent 
the  basal  bed.  At  All  Day  Bay  the  basal  bed  of  the  Awamoan,  which  lies 
directly  on  the  "  parki  "  band  (Hutchinsonian),  contains  similar  fossils  to 
the  shell-bed,  but  no  shell-bed  occurs  in  the  locality.  As  pointed  out  above, 
the  "  parki  "  band  marks  a  definite  horizon,  the  close  of  the  Hutchinsonian, 
and  it  seems  preferable  to  make  this  band  the  upward  limit  of  this  stage. 
This  would  mean  that  Park's  Waitaki  stone  (Upper  Hutchinsonian)  would 
be  driven  into  the  Awamoan,  but  it  would  not  in  any  way  lower  the  value 
of  the  evidence  he  has  brought  forward  to  prove  that  this  limestone  is  at  a 
different  horizon  from  the  Ototaran  stone. 

(10.)  Landon  Creek  and  Flume  Creek. 

The  Awamoan  beds  are  not  present  in  these  localities,  but  certain  hard 
glauconitic  bands  are  present  in  the  upper  beds.  Some  of  these  are  referred 
to  the  Upper  Hutchinsonian  horizon.  The  present  writer  contends  that 
these  so-called  Upper  Hutchinsonian  bands  represent  the  "  parki  "  band, 
in  other  cases  lower  beds,  and  are  therefore,  according  to  Park's  definition, 
his  Lower  Hutchinsonian.  As  the  "'parki''  band  is  the  highest  horizon  in 
the  Landon  Creek  and  Flume  Creek  areas,  the  so-called  Upper  Hutchin- 
sonian cannot  be  present. 

In  fig.  25  (p.  63)  a  section  is  given  showing  "rusty-brown  glauconitic 
greensands  crowded  with  Pachijmagas  parki  (Hutt.)  "  at  the  top  of  the 
sequence.  According  to  Park's  definition,  this  is  his  Lower  Hutchinsonian 
horizon,  and  the  Upper  Hutchinsonian  cannot  be  present.  We  must  note, 
however,  that  a  "  brown  calcareous  glauconitic  sandstone  "  6  ft.  thick  is 
said  to  lie  4|  ft.  helow  the  "  parki  "  bed.  This  band  of  sandstone  is  again 
shown  in  fig'  26,  where  the  ''parki"  band  is  not  shown.     In  both  figures 


Uttley. — Reynarlis  on   Bulletin  No.   20.  177 

this  glaiiconitic  sandstone  lies  directly  on  the  Oamaru  stone  (Ototaran),  and 
in  fig.  25  is  separated  from  the  "■  jmrhi  "  band  by  nodular  greensands.  In 
fig.  27  (p.  64)  the  '' parki"  band  is  not  present,  but  24  ft.  of  glauconitic 
sandstone  is  shown  lying  above  the  limestone  and  classified  as  Hutchin- 
sonian,  but  whether  Upper  or  Lower  is  not  stated.  In  figs.  26  and  27, 
then,  this  glauconitic  sandstone  cannot  represent  the  Upper  Hutchinsonian. 

In  fig.  15  a  section  is  given  in  Landon  Creek  showing  at  the  top  of  the 
Hutchinsonian  a  "  hard  brown  calcareous  sandstone,  thickness  of  6  ft. 
exposed,"  from  which  were  obtained  the  brachiopods  Pachymagas  'parhi 
(Hutt.)  and  Rhizothyris  rhizoida  (Hutt.).  This  is  Park's  Lower  Hutchin- 
sonian, and  the  Upper  Hutchinsonian  is  therefore  absent.  Fig.  15  is 
important,  as  it  enables  us  to  correlate  the  beds  in  the  Landon  Creek 
area  with  those  in  the  Oamaru  area.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  upper  part 
of  the  Oamaru  stone  is  a  bed  of  "  hard  semi-crystalline  limestone,"  which 
is  overlain  by  looser  greensands  containing  Isis  dactyla  Ten. -Woods,  and 
these  are  capped  by  "a  hard  brown  calcareous  sandstone  containing 
■Pachymagas  parki  (Hutt.)  and  Rhizothyris  rhizoida  (Hutt.).'"  The  sequence 
is  the  same  as  at  All  Day  Bay,  only  in  the  present  locality  the  nodular 
surface  of  the  hard  limestone  is  not  so  evident. 

On  page  46  Park  gives  a  classification  of  the  beds  in  Landon  Creek, 
and  shows  that  the  limestone  beneath  the  "  hard  semi-crystalline  limestone  " 
is  glauconitic.  This  is  the  c^se  in  the  whole  of  the  Landon  Creek  area, 
and  it  is  extremely  probable  that  bed  b  of  fig.  25,  bed  h  of  fig.  26  (both 
of  which  underlie  nodular  greensands),  and  bed  b  of  fig.  27  represent 
this  upper  glauconitic  portion  of  the  limestone.  The  nodular  greensands 
("  Isis  "  beds)  just  referred  to  contain  Isis  dactijla  Ten. -Woods,  Aetheia 
gaulteri  (Morris),  and  TerebratuUna  suessi  (Hutt.),  and  they  lie  immediately 
beneath  the  "  farki "  band.  The  fossils  collected  by  the  writer  from 
these  beds  have  already  been  published  (1918b,  pp.  122,  123),  and,  although 
these  lists  are  incomplete,  they  indicate  that  the  sequence  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  Kakanui  district.  In  the  Landon  Creek  area,  then,  the  highest  beds 
present  are  the  "  parki  "  beds  (Park's  Lower  Hutchinsonian  of  the  Oamaru- 
Kakanui  areas  discussed  above),  and  his  Upper  Hutchinsonian  is  non- 
existent. 

The  writer  has  attempted  to  show  that  in  the  coastal  district,  where 
the  Awamoan  beds  occur  above  the  greensands,  the  base  of  the  Awamoan 
is  termed  Upper  Hutchinsonian  ;  that  in  the  Landon  Creek  area,  where 
the  "  -parki "  band  is  the  highest  horizon  present,  either  this  bed-  or 
underlying  beds  are  termed  Upper  Hutchinsonian.  In  other  words,  the 
Hutchinsonian  greensands  with  Pachymagas  parki  are  overlain  directly  by 
the  Awamoan  beds,  and  the  "  Upper  Hutchinsonian "  of  Park  is  applied 
to  different  horizons  in  different  parts  of  the  district,  and  is  therefore 
inadmissible  in  classification. 

On  page  48  a  section  is  given  in  which  the  Oamaru  stone  is  shown 
capped  by  a  bed  of  hard  semi-crystalline  limestone,  which  represents  the 
upward  limit  of  the  Ototaran.  The  sequence  is  similar  to  that  at  All  Day 
Bay  (p.  56),  west  branch  of  Landon  Creek  (p.  46),  Deborah  (p.  59),  Kakanui 
(p.  70).  In  the  present  locality  and  in  the  locahties  just  mentioned  the 
overlying  greensands  contain  Isis  dactyla  Ten. -Woods,  Mopsea  hamiltoni 
(Thomson),  Aetheia  gaulteri  (Morris),  TerebratuUna  suessi  (Hutt.),  and  there 
is  no  doubt  that  these  greensands  are  all  at  the  same  horizon — the  base  of 
the  Hutchinsonian.  Now,  these  greensands  (bed  m  of  fig.  17)  are  said  to  be 
the  same  as  bed  g  of  fig.  28,  and  the  latter  bed  is  said  to  be  Upper  Hutchin- 
sonian (Waitaki  stone),  which  is  impossible,  as  the  fossils  are  the  fossils  of 


178  Transactions. 

Park's  Lower  Hutchinsonian  of  the  coastal  area  (see  p.  78).  Further,  from 
Park's  description  of  the  beds  at  Big  Flume  Creek  on  page  48  and  page  65, 
bed  m  of  fig.  17  should  be  correlated  with  bed  /  of  fig.  28,  not  bed  g,  as 
both  lie  hard  on  the  "  band  of  semi-crystalline  limestone  "  and  represent 
the  "  I  sis  "  greensands,  and  the  fossils  of  the  latter  horizon  also  occur  in 
the  lower  portion  of  bed  g.  The  writer  was  unable  to  find  the  glauconitic 
sandstone  overlying ' these  ''  Isis''  beds,  and  after  visiting  the  Big  Flume 
Greek  during  the  present  year  was  only  confirmed  in  his  own  interpretation 
of  the  section  as  given  in  a  former  paper  (1918,  p.  123).  As  indicated 
there,  the  section  is  a  discontinuous  one,  and  the  beds  are  probably  faulted. 
The  highest  beds  exposed  in  the  section,  which  crop  out  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  creek  between  the  water-race  and  the  Oamaru-Kurow  main  road, 
are  the  '^  Isis''  greensands  capping  the  "hard  semi-crystalline  limestone," 
and  the  writer  found  no  beds  above  them. 

In  regard  to  this  section  Park  (p.  65)  says,  "  This  section  is"  important, 
as  it  shows  not  only  the  relationship  of  the  Oamaru  stone  to  the  Hutchin- 
sonian,  but  also — what  is  of  greater  significance — the  relationship  of  the 
Oamaru  stone  to  the  Waitaki  stone."  Even  if  the  glauconitic  sandstone 
(bed  g  of  fig.  28)  does  occur  as  shown  in  section  above  the  "  Isis  "  beds  (the 
present  writer  was  unable  to  find  it),  no  evidence  has  been  presented  to 
show  that  it  is  the  equivalent  of  the  limestone  of  the  Waitaki  Valley  near 
Duntroon.  A  section  is  given  on  page  83  of  the  rocks  near  Duntroon,  where 
Park's  typical  Waitaki  stone  i&  shown  overlying  a  fossiliferous  glauconitic 
greensand.  From  the  description  of  this  stone  in  the  legend  it  would 
appear  that  the  rock  is  a  very  impure  limestone,  but  it  is  as  pure  in  many 
parts  as  the  typical  Ototaran  limestone  ;  it  is  certainly  arenaceous  and 
glauconitic  in  places,  but  it  is  undoubtedly  a  limestone.  The  analyses 
given  on  page  115  (especially  analysis  No.  4)  confirm  this. 

Park  gives  a  list  of  brachiopods  from  the  glauconitic  sandstone  at  the 
base  of  the  Waitaki  stone  (p.  83).  These  brachiopods  have  also  been 
collected  from  the  upper  part  of  the  glauconitic  limestone  of  Landon  Creek. 
Wherever  the  limestone  becomes  very  glauconitic  the  brachiopods  appear. 
The  upper  glauconitic  part  of  the  limestone  in  the  Landon  Creek  area  and 
in  the  Flume  Creek  area  increases  considerably  in  thickness,  and  it  is  this 
portion  that  yields  fossils  similar  to  those  at  the  base  of  the  limestone  near 
Duntroon.  As  pointed  out  in  a  former  paper,  these  fossils  are  not  restricted 
to  this  base.  At  White  Rocks  and  at  Duntroon  the  lower  glauconitic  part 
of  the  limestone  increases  considerably  in-  thickness,  and  these  brachio- 
pods are  found  a  considerable  distance  above  the  base  of  the  limestone. 
Detailed  correlation  is  not  possible  until  we  know  the  downward  range  of 
this  brachiopod  fauna  in  the  Oamaru  limestone,  and  its  upper  range  in  the 
rocks  of  the  Waitaki  Valley.  At  present  all  we  can  state  is  that  the 
brachiopod  fauna  of  the  limestone  in  the  Waitaki  Valley  and  in  the  lime- 
stone of  the  Landon  Creek  area  is  undoubtedly  Ototaran. 

V.    BORTONIAN   AND   WaIAREKAN   LOCALITIES. 

(1.)  Bortonian. 
In  his  table  of  the  Oamaruian  Mollusca  (p.  97)  Park  states  that  sixty- 
four  species  were  obtained  from  the  Bortonian  and  sixty-four  speci-es  from 
the  Upper  Waiarekan  (Waiareka  tuffs).  This  subdivision  of  the  Waiarekan 
of  Thomson  into  a  Lower  Waiarekan  (Bortonian)  and  an  Upper  Waiarekan 
has  much  to  recommend  it.  In  many  places  in  North  Otago  the  coal- 
grits  are  overlain  by  fine  micaceous  quartzose  greensands,  and  near  their 
base  hardened  calcareous  concretionary  bands  occur  in  which  fossils  are 


Uttley. — Remarks  on   Bulletin  No.   20.  179 

very  abundant,  but  unfortunately  mainly  in  the  form  of  casts.  From  this 
horizon  at  Black  Point,  McKay  and  Park  made  extensive  collections,  and 
forty-three  species  were  determined  by  the  late  Mr.  Henry  Suter,  and 
referred  by  Park  to  his  Bortonian.  In  another  paper  in  this  volume  the 
writer  has  given  a  list  of  fossils,  also  determined  by  Suter,  which  were 
collected  from  an  horizon  about  30  ft.  above  the  coal-grits,  and  almost 
certainly  represent  the  Bortonian  horizon.  At  Ngapara  a  similar  fossil- 
iferous  bed  is  found  lying  a  short  distance  above  the  Coal-rocks.  In  the 
bed  of  the  Kakanui  River,  near  Gemmel's  crossing,  this  fossiliferous 
horizon  occurs  beneath  glauconitic  greensands,  which  dip  beneath  the 
Waiarekan  tuffs  of  the  Oamaru  district.  The  introduction  of  a  Bortonian 
horizon  should  be  favourably  received  by  geologists.  Park  has  stated 
that  "  for  a  classification  to  be  a  trustworthy  standard  of  reference  it  is 
an  essential  requirement  that  the  subdivision  shall  be  made  in  a  district 
where  the  component  subdivisions  are  in  such  intimate  association  that 
their  relationship  to  one  another  can  never  be  in  doubt."  All  will  accord 
hearty  approval  to  this  dictum;  but  we  may  also  add  that,  if  an  attempt 
is  being  made  to  work  out  a  distinctive  fauna  for  each  of  these  component 
subdivisions,  it  is  also  an  essential  requirement  that  the  fossils  shall  be 
definitely  ascertained  to  have  come  from  a  definite  horizon.  This  does 
not  mean  that  fossil  lists  should  be  discarded  merely  because  their  horizon 
is  doubtful,  but  it  does  mean  that  these  doubtful  fossils  should  be  rejected, 
temporarily  probably,  when  lists  typical  of  the  various  stages  of  a  system 
arp  being  compiled.  The  species  listed  by  Park  as  Bortonian  and  Upper 
Waiarekan  call  for  some  comment  in  the  light  of  the  principles  just, 
enunciated.  The  fossils  from  the  beds  at  Black  Point  number  forty-three 
species  (p.  34),  and  were  gathered  from  Park's  typical  Bortonian  locality, 
and  the  horizon  is  undoubted.  On  page  35  a  list  of  thirteen  species  of 
Mollusca  is  given  from  brown  sandstones  which  lie  "  about  80  ft.  above 
the  lignitic  quartzose  beds  of  the  Ngaparan  stage,  and  may  represent  a 
somewhat  higher  horizon  than  the  Bortonian."  On  the  same  page  is  given 
a  list  of  fossils  gathered  from  fossiliferous  blocks,  but  "  these  masses  could 
not  be  traced  to  their  source."  As  the  horizon  of  the  first  collection  is 
doubtful,  and  as  the  second  was  derived  from  rocks  that  were  not  in  situ, 
these  fossils  cannot  be  included  in  the  typical  Bortonian.  The  list  of  sixty- 
four  species  must  therefore  be  reduced  to  forty-three  species. 

(2.)   Upper  Waiarekan. 

The  writer  (1918a,  p.  107)  attempted  to  define  the  horizons  of  the 
volcanic  rocks  in  the  Oamaru  district,  and  concluded  that  there  was  a  period 
of  volcanic  activity  prior  to  the  deposition  of  the  Ototaran  limestone,  repre- 
sented by  the  Waiareka  tuffs  (Upper  Waiarekan  of  Park),  and  that  there 
was  a  later  period — perhaps  two  later  periods — of  activity  represented  by 
the  volcanic  rocks  that  occur  interbedded  with  the  Ototaran  limestone 
near  Oamaru.  Park  recognizes  three  periods,  the  second  and  third  being 
Ototaran,  while  the  first  period  is  Upper  Waiarekan.  These  volcanic 
rocks  form  fragmental  tufaceous  beds  for  the  most  part,  and  were  probably 
all  accumulations  from  submarine  eruptions  ;  they  are  often  fossiliferous, 
Fossils  gathered  from  tufaceous  rocks  may  therefore  be  either  Ototaran  or 
Waiarekan,  and  before  the  fossils  are  assigned  to  either  of  these^  horizons 
the  position  of  the  bed  must  be  indisputable.  The  fossils  listed  as  Upper 
.  Waiarekan  by  Park  have  in  nearly  all  cases  been  gathered  from  beds  inter- 
bedded with  limestone,  and  the  writer  believes  that  they  belong  to  the 
limestone  period — that  is,  they  are  of  Ototaran  age.     Park  himself  indicates 


180  Transactions. 

that  his  Waiarekan  tuffs  at  Cape  Wanbrow  may  be  partially  Ototaran, 
for  he  states  that  in  this  locality  the  Waiarekan  tuffs  are  "  over  600  ft. 
thick — though  it  is  possible  that  a  portion  of  the  latter  may  belong  to  the 
Ototaran."  The  writer  is  in  accord  with  this  statement,  and  would  assign 
to  the  Ototaran  the  interbedded  tuffs  and  limestone  bands  in  the  Shirley 
Creek  section  near  the  Rifle  Butts,  which  form  the  top  of  Park's  Upper 
Waiarekan.  The  beds  immediately  below  the  lower  pillow-lava  near 
Boatman's  Harbour  should  also  be  Ototaran.  The  various  localities  where 
the  Waiarekan  tuffs  are  said  to  occur  will  now  be  discussed. 

(a.)  Kakanvi  South. — In  Bulletin  No.  20,  section  19,  page  52,  shows  the 
tuffs  lying  beneath  the  Ototaran  limestone,  and  they  are  doubtfully  referred 
to  the  Waiarekan.  Above  them  lie  71  ft.  of  limestone,  24  ft.  of  marly  clays, 
and  tufaceous  matter  is  plentiful  throughout  the  section.  The  limestone 
(bed  a)  is  evidently  at  or  near  the  base  of  the  Ototaran.  If  so,  the  under- 
lying tuffs  are  probably  Waiarekan,  but  they  have  yielded  no  fossils. 

(b.)  Boatman's  Harbour,  Cape  Wanhrow.- — Park  in  a  measured  section 
(pi.  ii,  sec.  B)  shows  the  beds  in  excellent  detail.  A  well-marked  break  is 
shown  below  bed  h'^.  Discussing  this  unconformity.  Park  says  that  it  is 
''  apparently  due  to  contemporaneous  erosion."  He  further  states  that  the 
Oamaru  building-stone  "  is  absent,  and,  if  not  wholly,  is  partly  represented 
by  the  fossiliferous  tuffs  and  limestones  at  Boatman's  Harbour  [i.e.,  by  the 
beds  above  the  lower  pillow-lava].  The  brachiopods  from  the  upper  of  the 
two  limestone  bands  at  that  cove  are  mostly  those  of  the  Kakanui  limestone 
horizon  of  the  Ototaran  [i.e..  Upper  Ototaran],  as  also  are  the  brachiopods 
from  the  lower  of  the  two  limestone  bands  underlying  the  pillow-lava."  The 
beds  referred  to  are  shown  in  plate  ii,  section  B,  but  in  the  legend  these  lower 
limestone  bands  and  interbedded  volcanic  rocks  are  not  referred  to  any 
horizon,  although  from  the  title  of  the  section  they  are  probably  to  be  placed 
in  the  Waiarekan  ;  yet  the  description  of  the  beds  does  not  indicate  where 
the  upper  limit  of  the  Waiarekan  should,  be  placed.  From  the  quotation 
given  above  it  is  clear  that  the  lowest  fossiliferous  band  in  the  section  con- 
tains characteristic  Ototaran  brachiopods,  and  underlying  this  band  uncon- 
formably  is  a  great  thickness  of  volcanic  tuffs  which  have  not  yielded  any 
fossils.     The  fauna  from  this  locality  cannot  be  referred  to  the  Waiarekan. 

(c.)  Shirley  Creek  (see  pi.  ii,  fig.  A). — Park  states  that  "  at  Shirley  Creek 
the  Waiarekan  tuffs  are  overlain  unconformably  by  the  Oamaru  stone  and 
associated  beds.  .  .  .  The  unconformity  cannot  be  regarded  as  other 
than  intra-formational."  When  the  writer  examined  this  section  he  formed 
the  opinion  that  the  beds"  above  and  below  this  so-called  unconformity  had 
the  same  dip  (1918a,  p.  110,  fig.  2).  It  is  true  that  the  upper  bed  (pi.  ii, 
fig.  A,  bed  c)  is  a  limestone  band  containing  masses  of  volcanic  rocks,  as 
shown  by  the  writer  in  the  paper  just  referred  to ;  but  this  is  a  common 
feature  in  the  limestone  bands  interbedded  with  tuffs,  as  shown  by  Park 
on  page  37,  where  he  writes  in  reference  to  the  two  bands  below  the  pillow- 
lava  that  "  these  limestone  beds  are  brecciated  with  angular  blocks  of 
vesicular  basalt."  The  beds  referred  to  the  Waiarekan  at  Shirley  Creek 
are  calcareous  tuffs  interstratified  with  polyzoan  limestone  bands,  and  they 
contain  the  typical  Ototaran  brachiopod  LiotJiyrella  oamarutica  (Boehm), 
and  there  would  appear  to  be  no  reason  for  separating  the  beds  between 
bed  q  and  bed  w  from  the  Ototaran.  At  the  top  of  bed  w  there  is  an 
undoubted  physical  unconformity,  which  probably  represents  the  break 
at  Boatman's  Harbour  below  bed  h^  of  plate  ii,  fig.  B,  as  the  beds  that  lie 
beneath  these  unconformities  are  unfossiliferous  tuffs  of  similar  composition. 


Uttley. — Remarhs  on  Bulletin  No.   20.  181 

(d.)  Awamoa  Creek,  near  Dehorah  (p.  41). — The  base  of  the  section 
(fig.  5)  is  a  basalt  showing  pillow-structure  similar  to  the  lower  pillow- 
lava  at  Boatman's  Harbour.  The  two  rocks  have  been  described  by  the 
writer  (1918a,  p.  113),  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  they  are  at  the  same 
horizon.  The  rock  at  Boatman's  Harbour  has  been  shown  to  be  almost 
certainly  Ototaran,  and  the  pillow-lava  in  the  present  locality  must  be 
referred  to  the  same  stage.  The  highest  bed  of  the  section  is  a  brecciated 
pillow-lava  exactly  similar  to  the  highest  bed  in  the  section  at  Boatman's 
Harbour,  while  the  intermediate  beds  are  calcareous  fossiliferous  tuffs 
and  limestones.  The  fossils  recorded  from  the  tufaceous  beds  above  the 
lower  pillow-lava  in  the  present  locality  are  in  rather  poor  condition,  and 
the  percentage  of  Eecent  species  as  determined  by  Suter  is  37-5.  The 
evidence  is  scarcely  sufficient  to  warrant  these  rocks  being  classed  as 
Waiarekan. 

(e.)  Grant's-  Creek  (p.  45). — In  fig.  14  a  section  is  given  on  the  east 
bank  of  Grant's  Creek,  near  Oamaru.  It  shows  the  Oamaru  stone  with 
interbedded  bands  of  basaltic  conglomerate,  and  the  soft  friable  greenish 
glauconitic  calcareous  tuffs  underlying  are  called  Waiarekan.  These  beds 
are  horizontal,  and  it  is  stated  that  "  less  than  50  yards  higher  up  the 
stream,  and  on  the  same  side,  the  Oamaru  stone  is  followed  by  the  Hutchin- 
sonian  greensands  crowded  with  Pachijmagas  parki  (Hutt.)."  The  n^aximum 
thickness  of  the  rocks  above  the  tuft's  is  21  ft.,  and,  as  the  rocks  are  hori- 
zontal, and  the  Hutchinsonian  beds  occur  a  short  distance  away  capping 
the  limestone,  these  tufaceous  beds  are  certainly  not  Waiarekan.  The 
development  in  the  present  section  is  very  similar  to  the  section  exposed 
lower  down  the  stream  and  described  by  the  writer  (1918b,  p.  121,  fig.  3). 
In  that  section  20  ft.  of  limestone  separates  the  volcanic  rocks  of  Oamaru 
,  Creek  froni  the  Hutchinsonian  greensands,  and  Park  rightly  considers 
these  volcanic  rocks  as  Upper  Ototaran  (see  geological  map,  Bulletin  20). 
The  tufaceous  beds  in  the  present  locality  are  therefore  Ototaran.  These 
beds  mapped  by  him  in  the  basin  of  Grant's  Creek  as  Waiarekan  are  similar 
to  those  developed  at  Upper  Target  Gully  which  he  has  mapped  as 
Upper  Ototaran.  A  comparison  of  the  sections  shown  on  page  82  at  Upper 
Target  Gully  (figs.  37  and  38)  will  indicate  the  similarity  of  the  rocks  in 
the  basin  of  Grant's  Stream  to  those  at  Upper  Target  Gully.  Similar 
sections  occur  at  Hutchinson's  Quarry  (1918a,  p.  Ill),  Lower  Target  Gully 
(Bulletin  20,  p.  80),  and  Eden  Street,  Oamaru  (Bulletin  20,  p.  60).  The 
present  writer,  in  his  description  of  the  Hutchinson  Quarry  and  neigh- 
bourhood (1918a,  p.  112),  showed  that  the  fossiliferous  beds  at  Boatman's 
Harbour  which  He  beneath  the  brecciated  pillow-lava  are  certainly  not 
Hutchinsonian,  as  contended  by  former  geologists,  and  Park  in  his  latest 
work  has  reached  the  same  conclusion,  as  his  geological  map  clearly  shows. 
The  writer's  argument  was  based  solely  on  the  correlation  of  the  upper 
volcanic  rocks  at  Boatman's  Harbour  and  Oamaru  Creek  near  the  junction 
of  Grant's  Stream,  and  as  Park  also  correlates  these  volcanic  horizons  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  volcanic  horizon  in  the  present  section  is  not 
Waiarekan  but  Ototaran  (Upper  Ototaran). 

In  the  localities  that  have  been  discussed,  if  these  so-called  Waiarekan 
tuffs  are  Ototaran  tuffs,  then  Park's  fauna  of  the  Upper  Waiarekan  is 
reduced  from  sixty-four  species  to  the  seventeen  species  detailed  on  pages  43 
and  44  of  Bulletin  No.  20.  The  brachiopods  quoted  there  are  character- 
istic Ototaran  fossils,  four  of  the  Mollusca  are  new  species,  Clio  anmdata 
(Tate)  is  not  found  elsewhere  in  New  Zealand,  Amusium  zitteli  (Hutt.)  is 
not  recorded  from  any  other  locality  in  North  Otago,  and  the  remaining 


182  Transactions. 

fossils  are  either  found  in  higher  beds  or  are  Recent.  The  horizon  of  these 
tuffs  is  doubtful,  but  the  association  of  these  calcareous  tuffs  with  chalky- 
clays  and  marls  is  similar  to  the  beds  near  the  base  of  the  Ototaran  in  the 
section  exposed  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Kakanui  River  (p.  57,  fig.  19). 
The  writer  has  also  observed  these  marly  beds  and  tuSs  near  the  base  of 
the  limestone  in  the  old  quarry  at  Fortification  Hill,  near  the  village  of 
Alma. 

VI.  Summary  and  Conclusion. 

It  has  been  contended  that  the  sequence  and  subdivision  of  the 
Tertiary  beds  of  North  Otago  as  detailed  in  Bulletin  No.  20  requires 
certain  modifications,  and  the  following  conclusions  have  been  reached 
by  the  writer  : — 

(1.)  Park's  Lower  Hutchinsonian  is  the  true  Hutchinsonian  of  Thomson, 
and  is  characterized  by  the  fossils  Pachymagas  parki  (Hutt.),  Aetheia  gauUeri 
(Morris),  Terebratulina  suessi  (Hutt.),  Isis  dactyla  Ten. -Woods,  and  Mopsea 
hamiltoni  (Thomson). 

(2.)  No  evidence  has  been  brought  forward  in  the  bulletin  for  the 
establishment  of  an  Upper  Hutchinsonian  horizon  in  the  area  lying  between 
All  Day  Bay  and  Upper  Target  Gully.  The  beds  referred  to  this  horizon 
are  Awamoan,  and  lie  immediately  on  the  "  parki  "  greensands. 

(3.)  The  highest  beds  present  in  the  Landon  Creek  area  are  the  "  parki  " 
greensands,  and  in  the  Flume  Creek  area  the  ''''Isis''  greensands,  which 
constitute  Park's  Lower  Hutchinsonian  ;  there  cannot,  therefore,  be  an 
Upper  Hutchinsonian  horizon  in  these  localities. 

(4.)  No  evidence  is  presented  in  Bulletin  No.  20  to  show  that  the 
Ototaran  limestone  in  the  Oamaru  and  Papakaio  districts  correlates  with 
the  beds  below  the  limestone  in  the  Waitaki  Valley.  Both  limestones 
contain  several  brachiopods  which  are  restricted  to  the  Ototaran  of  the 
typical  Oamaru  district,  and  must  be  classed  as  Ototaran. 

(5.)  The  nature  of  the  limestone  (polyzoan  limestone)  interbedded  with 
the  tuffs  beneath  the  lower  pillow-lava  at  Boatman's  Harbour  and  Shirley 
Creek,  and  the  brachiopods  obtained  from  these  bands,  strongly  suggest 
that  their  age  is  Ototaran,  not  Waiarekan. 

(6.)  The  occurrence  of  Awamoan  fossils  in  the  beds  (Otiake  beds)  above 
the  limestone  of  the  Waitaki  Valley,  and  the  fact  that  the  Awamoan  and 
Hutchinsonian  are  "  part  and  parcel  of  the  same  series,"  as  Hutton, 
McKay,  and  Park  have  asserted,  further  strengthens  the  argument  that 
this  limestone  is  Ototaran. 

(7.)  Nevertheless,  the  brachiopod  faima  of  the  greensands  in  the  Oamaru 
coastal  district  enables  a  clear  line  of  demarcation  to  be  drawn  in  that 
area  between  the  Hutchinsonian  and  Awamoan. 

Bibliography. 

Hutton,  F.  W.,  1887.     Note  on  the  Geology  of  the  VaUey  of  the  Waihao,  in  South 

Canterbury,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst,  vol.  19,  pp.  430-33. 
Pap.k,  J.,   1905.     On  the  Marine  Tertiaries  of  Otago  and  South  Canterbury,  Trans. 

N.Z.  Inst,  vol.  37,  pp.  489-551. 
Thomson,  J.  A.,  1915.      Classification  and  Correlation  of  the  Tertiary  Rocks,  8th  Ann. 

Rep.  N.Z.  Geol.  Surv.,  pp.   123-24. 

1916.     On  Stage  Names  applicable  to  the  Divisions  of  the  Tertiary  in  New  Zea- 

land, Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  48,  pp.  28-40. 
Uttley,  G.  H.,  1916.     Geology  of  the  Neighbourhood  of  Kakanui,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst., 
vol.  48,  pp.  19-27. 

1918a.  The  Volcanic  Rocks  of  Oamaru,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  50,  pp.  106-17. 

1918b.     Geology  of  the    Oamaru-Papakaio  District,   Trans.   N.Z.   Inst.,  vol.   50, 

pp.  118-24. 


Adkin. — Readjustment   of  Drainage   on   the   Tararuas.  183 


Art.   XXV. — Examples  of  Readjustment  oj  Drainage  on  the  Tararua 

Western  Foothills. 

By  G.  Leslie  Adkin. 

[Read  before  the  Wellington  PhilosojMcal  Society,  8th  October,  1919  ;  received  by  Editor, 
31st  December,  1919  ;  issued  separately,  15th  June,  1920.] 

Plate  XL 
Contents. 

Introductory. 

The  Major  Physiographic  Features  of  the  Tararua  Range. 

Topography  of  the  Arapaepae  Ridge  and  of  "  The  Heights  "  Basin. 

Changes  of  Drainage  in  "  The  Heights  "  Basin. 

Changes  of  Drainage  on  the  Poruriri  Ridge. 

1.  Introductory. 
In  tte  long  -  settled  and  more  -  closely  -  studied  countries  of  the  Northern 
Hemisphere  the  processes  and  events  of  physiographic  history  genetically 
connected  with  the  present  geographical  regime  have  been  more  or  less 
thoroughly  worked  out,  but  in  New  Zealand  the  subject  has  been  dealt 
with  in  detail  in  only  a  comparatively  few  isolated  areas.  During  the 
last  few  years,  however,  New  Zealand  physiography  has  attracted  ever- 
increasing  notice,  and  has  come  to  be  regarded  here  as  elsewhere  as  being 
of  considerable  importance  in-  the  deciphering  of  the  detailed  geologic 
history  of  a  country.  I  have  therefore  been  led  to  contribute  the  follow- 
ing notes  on  the  physiography  of  an  area  which  has  hitherto  received 
but  scant  attention?  While  it  is  not  claimed  that  the  course  of  events 
outlined  in  section  4  is  in  any  way  unique,  the  constricted  area  in  which 
the  diverse  changes  took  place  may  be  deemed  somewhat  remarkable, 
comparable  to  some  slight  extent  with  the  classical  instance  of  drainage- 
readjustment  in  the  district  round  Chur,  in  Switzerland  (Heim). 

2.  The  Major  Physiographic  Features  of  the  Tararua  Range. 

The  Tararua  Range  is  that  portion  of  the  structural  axis  of  the  North 
Island  extending  from  the  headwaters  of  the  Hutt  River  to  the  Manawatu 
Gorge,  a  distance  of  fifty-seven  miles.  The  range  consists  of  a  series  of 
parallel  and  subparallel  longitudinal  ridges,  so  disposed  that  they  collectively 
form  an  obtuse  angle  or  wide  arc  convex  to  the  west ;  thus  it  is  that 
from  south  to  north  their  trend  changes  from  north-north-east  to  north-east 
by  north.  In  addition  to  the  longitudinal  ridges  there  is  a  subsidiary  series 
of  transverse  ridges  which  link  the  former  together. 

Another  feature  of  the  Tararua  Range  is  its  asymmetry.  The  highest 
ridge — that  bearing  the  peaks  of  The  Mitre  and  Mount  Holdsworth^lies 
well  to  the  eastern  side  of  the  range,  and  on  that  side  the  altitudes  of 
the  foothill  ridges  decrease  more  abruptly  towards  the  subjacent  lowlands 
than  on  the  west.  In  general,  both  towards  east  and  west,  the  longi- 
tudinal ridges  decrease  in  height  in  succession  as  the  respective  piedmont 
lowland  areas  are  approached,  the  outermost  foothill  ridge  on  either  side 
being  usually  the  lowest  of  the  respective  series.  The  whole  is  suggestive 
of  a  high-standing  tilted  earth-block,  having  a  steep  eastward-facing  .scarp 
and  a  back-slope  declining  towards  the  west.  The  initial  intense  com- 
pression and  crumpling  of  the  Trias-Jurassic  (Marshall,  1912,  pp.  127-29, 
208)  strata  (the  post-Hokonui  deformation)  was  probably  succeeded  by 
peneplanation  (Cotton,  1916,  p.  246  ;    Thomson,  1917,  pp.  399-400),  and 


184  Transactions. 

this  was  followed  by  secondary  folding  (the  Kaikoura  deformation)  accom- 
panied by  block-faulting  on  a  large  scale,  and  also  by  the  deep  dissection 
of  the  penultimate  erosion-cycle.  The  secondary  folding  corrugated  the 
Tararua  earth-block  into  broad  anticlinal  and  synclinal  forms,  and  these 
appear  to  have  determined  the  trend  of  the  principal  drainage-lines,  and 
to  have  guided  the  agents  of  erosion  in  the  production  of  the  high  reUef 
of  the  present  topography.  The  initial  drainage-pattern  is  thus  considered 
to  be  mainly  consequent  gn  the  secondary  deformation,  and  only  to  a  very 
slight  extent  due  to  adjustment  to  the  original  structure. 

With  reference  to  the  hills  near  Wellington  City,  which  may  be 
regarded  as  a  south-western  extension  of  the  Tararua  Range,  and  perhaps 
also  to  the  main  range  itself,  the  longitudinal  ridges  have  been  explained 
(Cotton,  1918,  pp.  213-14)  as  being  bands  of  resistant  rock  reinforced  by  a 
network  of  secondary  mineral  matter  sealing  the  joints  ;  and  the  valleys 
between  the  longitudinal  ridges  as  belts  of  shattered  rock- — shattered  by 
the  ancient  folding  of  the  strata — along  which  the  erosional  action  of  the 
streams  has  been  more  efiective. 

While  this  hypothesis  of  resistant  reiniorced  bands  of  rock  is  accepted 
as  a  probable  contributory  cause  of  the  development  of  the  longitudinal 
ridges,*  it  appears  to  be  inadequate  when  confronted  by  the  notable  linear 
persistence  of  the  longitudinal  ridges  of  the  Tararua  Range,  and  also  by 
the  associated  physiographic  features  thereof — viz.,  the  subsidiary  trans- 
verse ridges,t  and  certain  arresting  characteristics  of  the  hydrography. 
The  present  writer's  explanation  of  the  genesis  of  these  land-forms  may  be 
presented  in  detail  later,  and  it  will  suffice  to  state  here  that  there  are 
numerous  and  seemingly  sound  reasons  for  the  belief  that  orogenic  folding 
and  uplift,  synchronizing  with  the  production  of  the  existing  stream- 
sculptured  relief,  is  the  most  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  origin  of  the 
longitudinal  and  transverse  ridges,  and  also  of  the  notable  peculiarities 
of  the  present  hydrographical  regime.  Under  this  explanation  the  principal 
rivers  must  be  classed  as  anteconsequent  and  in  part  antecedent. 

3.    Topography  of  the   Arapaepae   Ridge   and   of    "  The.  Heights  " 

'  Basin. 

On  the  western  side  of  the  Tararua  Range  the  outermost  foothill  ridge 
is  divided  into  sections  by  the  vents  of  the  rivers  that  issue  from  the  moun- 
tains on  to  the  plain.  Locally  the  ridge-sections  bear  names  usually  corre- 
sponding to  the  trigonometrical  stations  situated  on  their  highest  points. 
The  Arapaepae  Ridge,  on  which  is  situated  the  more  striking  of  the  two 
examples  of  drainage-readjustment  that  form  the  subject  of  these  notes, 
lies  between  the  vents  of  the  Ohau  and  Mangaore  Streams,  which  cross 
the  plain  near  Levin  and  at  Shannon  respectively. 

Towards  its  northern  end  the  Arapaepae  Ridge  is  markedly  asymmetrical. 
On  its  western  side  the  spurs  are  deeply  truncated,  the  hillside  presenting 
a  steep  face  composed  of  short  blunted  salients.  These  features  mark 
the  position  of  a  former  coast-line,  they  being  ancient  sea-cliffs  (Adkin, 
1911,  p.  509  ;   1919,  p.  109).      On  the  eastern  side  of  the  ridge  a  different 

*  The  topographic  details  as  etched  out  by  erosion  are  undoubtedly  due  to  the 
presence  of  bands  and  patches  of  rock  of  varying  resistance. 

t  Tlie  transverse  ridges  are  not  mere  erosional  features  occurring  at  haphazard 
intervals.  In  some  cases  they  extend  from  lowland  to  lov/land  right  across  the 
mountain-system,  and  therefore  must  be  attributed  to  a  more  profound  causation.  Nor 
can  it  be  due  to  mere  chance  that  the  principal  transverse  ridge  of  the  Tararuas,  if 
produced  eastward  across  the  Wairarapa  lowland,  there  coincides  with  the  water- 
parting  from  which  the  drainage  of  the  lowland  and  adjacent  mountains  is  directed 
north  and  south  respectively. 


Adkin. — Readyustment   of  Drainage   on   the   Tararuas. 


185 


186  Transactions. 

set  of  land-forms  occur:  long  fully-developed  lateral  spurs  run  out  from 
the  main  divide  like  great  buttresses  for  a  mile  or  more,  and  between 
them  lie  broad,  open  stream-valleys,  all  diversified  by  a  dendritic  drainage- 
pattern.  One  of  these  broad  valleys,  locally  known  as  "  The  Heights  " 
basin,  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Arapaepae  Ridge  with  the  trans- 
verse ridge  that  connects  it  with  the  inner  ridges  of  the  range.  By  virtue  of 
its  situation,  this  basin  possesses  such  change-favouring  features  as  superior 
altitude  and  shallowness  to  a  greater  degree  than  the  adjacent  eastward- 
facing  lateral  valleys  of  the  Arapaepae  Ridge. 

"  The  Heights  "  basin,  in  which  the  changes  of  drainage  took  place,  lies 
near  the  crest  of  the  Arapaepae  Ridge,  its  flat  alluvial  bottom  (Plate  XI, 
fig.  1)  having  an  average  altitude  of  1,015  ft.  —  only  200  ft.  below  the 
trigonometrical  station,  Arapaepae  No.  3,  1,210  ft.,  located  at  its  north- 
western corner.  The  basin  is  roughly  rectangular  in  shape,  and  about 
a  mile  and  a  half  across  from  north  to  south.  Forming  its  rim  are  hilly 
ridges,  varying  in  height  from  a  few  feet  to  more  than  400  ft.  above  the 
alluvial  flat:  on  the  west  the  Arapaepae  Ridge,  on  north  and  south  two 
lateral  buttressing  spurs  of  the  same,  and  on  the  east  the  western  end  of 
the  transverse  connecting-ridge.  To  the  north  lies  the  catchment  area  of  the 
Mangaore  Stream  ;  to  the  south  and  south-east  that  of  the  Makahika,  a 
tributary  of  the  Ohau  River  ;  and  to  the  west  that  of  the  Koputaroa. 
Formerly  "  The  Heights  "  basin  had  only  one  outlet ;  now  there  are  no 
less  than  three. 

4.  Changes  of  Drainage  in  "  The  Heights  "  Basin. 

Originally  the  whole  of  the  drainage  of  "  The  Heights "  basin  was 
discharged  through  a  comparatively  narrow  outlet  situated  at  its  south-east 
confer,  by  a  single  stream,  tributary  to  the  Makahika  River.  The  origin 
of  the  basin  is,  in  the  present  state  of  knowledge,  somewhat  problematical ; 
but  a  tentative  hypothesis  is  that  it  was  formed  by  the  denudation,  first 
by  the  subaerial  agencies  in  general  and  afterwards  principally  by  stream 
erosion,  of  the  crest  of  a  broad  anticlinal  structure  of  crumpled  strata  pos- 
sessing but  little  primary  variation  in  hardness.  Under  this  conception 
the  weakened  crest  of  the  anticline  was  widely  opened,  while  the  limbs 
retained  a  sufficient  degree  of  compactness  to  restrict  erosion  to  narrower 
limits.  This  hypothesis  conforms  to  the  conception  of  the  orogenesis  of 
the  Tararua  Range  briefly  outlined  in  section  2  ;  the  general  topography 
of  the  Arapaepae  and  adjacent  ridges  is  also  favourable  to  its  adoption. 

An  identical  origin  must  be  ascribed  to  the  neighbouring  eastward-facing 
lateral  valleys  of  the  Arapaepae  Ridge  (fig.  1)— the  Waireka  (Plate  XI, 
fig.  2),  Wainui,  &c.  All  these  valleys  are  of  the  basin-like,  bottle-neck 
type,  being  gorge-like  and  narrow  at  their  outlets,  and  broad  and  open 
above.  Valleys  of  similar  form  occur  in  the  Blue  Mountains*  due  west  of 
Sydney  (Taylor,  1919,  p.  177). 

It  may  be  suggested  that  in  the  case  of  the  Tararua  foothills  the  broad 
arching  of  the  secondary  folding  would  be  quantitatively  insufficient  to 
produce  so  sharp  a  distinction  in  the  resistance  to  erosion  of  the  crest  and 
limbs  of  a  fold  as  to  determine  the  ultimate  form  of  the  bottle-necked 
valleys.      For  the  present  this  may  remain  an  open  question,  though  the 

*  Professor  David's  and  Griffith  Taylor's  explanation  of  the  Blue  Mountain  bottle- 
neck valleys  appears  to  be  applicable  to  those  of  the  Tararua  foothill  ridge,  though  in 
the  former  locality  this  particular  type  of  land-form  was  produced  by  a  single  rock 
stratum  in  the  limb  of  a  large  anticlinal  fold,  and  in  the  latter  by  the  compacted  and 
stronger  strata  of  the  anticlinal  limb  itself  as  compared  with  the  weaker  crest. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LII. 


Plate  XI. 


Fig.  1. — "  The  Heights  "  basin,  looking  north-east,  showing  topograjihy  and  present 
distribution  of  drainage.  Remnant  of  original  stream  in  foreground  (centre 
to  right) ;  outlet  of  same  on  right  bej'ond  margin  of  view.  Spill-over  outlet 
on  left.  Gorge  and  trenches  of  ]:)irate  stream  in  distance  (right  to  centre). 
Trig,  station,  Arapaepae  No.  3,  1,210  ft.,  in  distance  on  left. 


Fifi.  2. — The  valley  of  the  Waireka  Stream,  looking  east  towards  its  narrow  outlet.     The 
old  alluvial  flat  is  now  trenched  by  the  slight  rejuvenation  of  the  stream. 


Face  p.  186.] 


Adkix. — Feadjnstment   of  Drainage   on   the   Tararuas. 


187 


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188  Transactions. 

available  evidence  appears  to  indicate  that  it  was  sufficient.  There  was, 
however,  a  contributory  cause.  The  rejuvenated  Makahika  River  has  cut 
its  present  trench-like  channel  at  the  foot  of  the  long  eastward-trending 
lateral  spurs  of  the  Arapaepae  Ridge,  truncating  them  ;  and  to  maintain 
accordant  junctions  the  Wainui  and  Waireka  Streams  were  thereby  forced 
to  cut  shorter,  deeper  gorges  than  they  would  have  done  had  the  Makahika 
River  cut  its  present  trench  in  the  middle  or  on  the  opposite  side  of  its 
former  widely-opened  valley.  Of  itself  the  action  of  the  Makahika  was 
quite  insufficient  to  produce  the  bottle-neck,  basin-like  valleys  of  the 
tributary  streams  referred  to,  but,  in  conjunction  with  the  broad  arching  of 
the  secondary  deformation,  conditions  came  into  existence  that  were  favour- 
able to  the  production  of  the  tributary  valleys  in  their  present  form. 

When  "  The  Heights  "  basin  had  been  opened  to  nearly  its  present 
extent  a  period  of  alluviation  followed.  This  alluviation  covered  the  former 
valley-bottom  to  a  considerable  depth,  and  ultimately  formed  a  wide  alluvial 
flat  (Plate  XI,  fig.  1)  having  a  very  gentle  surface  slope  to  the  south-east. 
The  alluvium  consists  of  stifi  cream-coloured  and  yellow  clays  resting 
on  a  thick  mass  of  fine  gravel.  Towards  the  close  of  the  deposition  of 
alluvium  many  of  the  exposed  ends  of  the  half-buried  spurs  round  the  rim 
of  the  basin  were  levelled  ofi  by  lateral  corrasion,  and  the  flat  was  thus 
further  enlarged.  The  current  of  "  The  Heights "  stream  was  at  this 
time  extremely  sluggish,  flowing  in  meanders  of  small  radius,  and  the 
surface  of  the  flat  must  have  been  diversified  by  cut-ofi  ox-bows  and 
deserted  swampy  channels  (fig.  2).  On  the  whole,  the  topographic  form 
of  the  basin  at  this  stage  was  one  of  late  maturity  or  even  old  age. 

Alluviation  of  a  somewhat  similar  character  took  place  also  in  the 
Waireka,  Wainui,  and  other  adjacent  bottle-necked  valleys.  Thick  masses 
of  clay  containing  scattered  angular  fragments  of  rock,  often  of  large  size, 
were  laid  down,  the  master  streams  became  sluggish  and  winding,  and 
the  topography  reached  an  advanced  stage  of  maturity.*  The  alluviation 
of  these  tributary  valleys  took  place  in  harmony  with  the  alluviation  of 
their  trunk  valley,  that  of  the  Makahika  :  this  is  proved  by  the  corre- 
sponding accordant  levels  of  the  surfaces  of  the  valley-fill  in  the  several 
parts  of  the  valley-system.  The  alluviation  of  the  large  river-valleys  of  the 
Tararua  Range  was  caused  by  the  failure  of  the  rivers  to  transport  the 
excessive  amount  of  waste  derived  from  the  then  more  extensive  alpine 
and  subalpine  areas  in  which  these  rivers  took  their  rise  during  the 
"  glacier  period,"  the  snow-line  (and  consequently  the  timber-line)  being 
at  that  time,  by  reason,  in  part,  of  the  greater  elevation  of  the  country, 
relatively  very  much  lower  than  now.f  In  my  previous  papers  (Adkin, 
1911,  pp.  497-98,  520  ;  1919,  p.  112)  it  was  shown  that  the  building  of  the 
valley-plain  of  the  Makahika  and  Ohau  Valleys,  and  also  the  construction 
of  the  Ohau  fan,  took  place  during  that  period  of  great  elevation  of  .the 
North  Island — viz.,  in  the  early  Pleistocene  (Park,  1910,  pp.  156-57,  250  ; 
Marshall,  1912,  p.  210^  The  initial  opening -out  by  rosion  of  "The 
Heights  "  basin  and  the  other  adjacent  bottle-necked  valleys  is  therefore 
of  some  antiquity — -certainly  of  not  later  date  than  middle  or  perhaps  late 
Tertiary  times. 

The  alluviation  of  "  The  Heights "  basin  was  followed  by  further 
changes.     The  s(^urces  of  a  tributary  of  the  Mangaore  Stream,  situated  on 

*  The  last  physiographic  event  in  each  of  these  valleys  except  that  of  "  The  Heights  " 
was  rejuvenation,  by  which  their  alluvial  bottoms  were  trenched  to  depths  up  to  100  ft. 

t  For  fuller  reference  to  this  subject  see  "  The  Discovery  and  Extent  of  Former 
Glaciation  in  the  Tararua  Ranges,  North  Island,  New  Zealand,"  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst., 
vol.  44,  p.  315,  1912. 


Adkin! — Readjustment   of  Drainage   on   the  Tararuas.  189 

the  northern  side  of  "  The  Heights  "  basin,  were  actively  extending  their 
sources  headward  into  the  outer  slopes  of  its  rim.  One  of  these  streams 
finally  cut  back  completely  through  the  rim,  and  tapped  a  portion  of  "  The 
Heights  "  stream.  Invigorated  by  this  success,  it  still  further  extended 
its  course  witliin  the  confines  of  the  basin,  ultimately  capturing  half  of  the 
drainage-lines  therein.  Proof  of  this  act  of  piracy  and  the  consequent 
reversal  of  drainage  is  furnished  by  the  fact  that  the  stream  now  flows  in  a 
direction  contrary  to  the  slope  of  the  area  it  drains,  as  shown  in  fig.  1,  (Note 
altitudes — corrected  aneroid  readings — of  the  surface  of  the  old  alluvial  flat.) 

Simultaneously,  or  approximately  so,  a  further  change  took  place,  this 
time  in  the  south-west  part  of  "  The  Heights  "  basin.  There,  one  of  the 
aggrading  streams  so  far  raised  its  bed  that  it  at  last  overtopped  a  low 
place  in  the  main  Arapaepae  divide,  and  a  spill-over  course  resulted,  by 
which  its  waters  were  diverted  westward  into  the  catchment  area  of  the 
Koputaroa  Stream.  This  type  of  stream-diversion  has  been  described  by 
Gilbert  as  "'  diversion  by  alluviation."  The  alternative  possibility,  that  the 
spill-over  course  at  "  The  Heights,"  and  also  that  on  the  Poruriri  Ridge 
(described  in  section  5),  were  cau.sed  through  capture  by  the  headwater 
erosion  of  streams  rising  outside  the  basins  of  the  diverted  streams,  is 
rejected  on  the  following  grounds:  (1.)  Both  the  Arapaepae  and  Poruriri 
Ridges  have  fairly  even,  unnotched  crest-lines,  and  headwater  erosion  of 
the  streams  draining  their  western  slopes  does  not  now,  or  at  any  pre- 
vious period,  appear  to  have  caused,  or  even  tended  to  cause,  diversion 
by  piracy.  (2  )  The  original  surfaces  of  the  alluvial  flats  in  the  basins 
of  the  two  diverted  streams  referred  to  above  still  overtop  the  former  low 
parts  of  the  Arapaepae  and  Poruriri  ridge-crests  respectively.  In  each 
case  the  notch  cut  by  the  spill-over  course  can  be  differentiated  from  the 
low  part  of  the  ridge-crest. 

In  this  manner  the  former  coalescent  drainage  of  "  The  Heights  "  basin 
became  divided  into  three  distinct  parts,  each  of  which  possesses  either 
inherited  or  newly-acquired  topographic  characteristics.  The  remaining 
undiverted  portion  of  the  original  drainage  bears,  all  the  signs  of  advanced 
age,  and  still  pursues  a  meandering  course  on  the  surface  of  the  alluvial 
flat  before  flowing  south-east  to  join  the  Makahika  River.  The  streams 
captured  by  the  pirate  stream  flow  in  narrow  youthful  trenches  at  a  depth 
of  from  15  ft.  to  100  ft.  below  the  old  alluvial  surface,  and  then  plunge 
into  the  deep  and  narrow  gorge  that  forms  the  breach  in  the  northern  rim 
of  the  basin,  and  join  the  Mangaore.  In  one  place  part  of  this  entrenched 
drainage  lies  only  about  7  chains  from  the  old  meandering  stream,  and 
further  captures  are  thus  imminent.  The  stream  diverted  by  alluviation 
has  also  entrenched  itself  to  a  slight  extent  into  the  alluvial  flat,  and  then 
cascades  down  the  steep  western  face  of  the  Arapaepae  Ridge  to  augment 
the  waters  of  the  Koputaroa.  The  changes  described  bear  the  marks  of 
extreme  youth,  and  further  adjustments  must  eventuate  before  even  a 
moderate  state  of  stability  is  attained. 

5.  Changes  of  Drainage  on  the  Poruriri  Ridge. 
The  Poruriri  Ridge  is  another  section  of  the  outermost  western  foothills, 
lying  between  the  vents  of  the  Mangaore  and  Tokomaru  Rivers  ;  and  linearly 
it  is  the  northward  continuation  of  the  Arapaepae  Ridge.  The  diversion 
of  drainage  which  took  place  on  the  Poruriri  Ridge  was  similar  to  but  less 
complex  than  that  at  ''  The  Heights,"  since  in  the  former  locaUty  the  act 
of  piracy  was  not  committed.  In  the  former  locality  the  change  was  due 
to  diversion  by  alluviation  causing  a  spill-over  course  (now  known  as  the 


190 


Transactions. 


TAR-A  E.U  A. 


R.A1M  G  E 


©  PORURIRT    TR1G..ST/C 


KAIHINU    V-V      , 


MAKUP.ER.UA  S-WA.i^P 


/9/9 


Fig.  3. — The  topography  of  the  present  and  former  catchment  areas  of  the  Manga- 
I  harakeke  Stream,  near  Tokomaru. 


Adkin. — Readjustment   of  Drainage   on   the   Tararuas.  191 

Mangaharakeke  Stream  :  fig.  3)  which  produced  the  highest  waterfall* 
yet  recorded  in  the  Tararua  Range,  and  a  ravine  exhibiting  all  the  criteria 
of  extreme  youth  —  precipitous,  crumbling  rocky  sides,  and  a  narrow 
ungraded  stair-like  bottom  down  which  the  stream  plunges  in  a  series  of 
falls  and  cascades.  The  main  fall  is  situated  at  the  head  of  the  ravine,  and 
descends  the  300  ft.  of  its  height  in  three  leaps,  separated  by  narrow  rock 
ledges. 

The  northern  end  of  the  Poruriri  Ridge  is  even  more  asymmetrical  than 
the  Arapaepae  Ridge,  its  spurs  being  so  deeply  truncated  on  its  western 
side  as  to  present  an  almost  unbroken  face,  the  exceptions  being  the  gash- 
like Mangaharakeke  ravine  and  some  minor  gullies.  Like  the  Arapaepae 
Ridge  in  the  vicinity  of  "  The  Heights,"  the  Poruriri  has  long  branching 
lateral  spurs  on  its  eastern  side,  and  physiographically  the  two  ridges  have 
much  in  common. 

Considered  as  a  single  feature,  the  former  and  present  catchment  areas 
of  the  Mangaharakeke  Stream  have  a  topographic  form  intermediate 
between  that  of  the  Waireka  Stream  (Plate  XI,  fig.  2)  and  that  at  "  The 
Heights  "  (Plate  XI,  fig.  1).  Some  of  the  topographic  details  of  this  dis- 
membered catchment  area  are  of  considerable  interest,  but  only  one  which 
has  a  direct  bearing  on  my  argument  can  be  touched  on  here.  The  sudden 
spilling-over  of  a  fair-sized  stream  like  the  Mangaharakeke  liberated  an 
enormous  amount  of  erosive  power,  with  the  result  that  the  spurs  on  either 
side  of  the  ravine  were  shorn  away  longitudinally,  leaving  them  as-  half- 
spurs — i.e.,  having  a  concave  precipice  on  the  one  side  and  the  normal  form 
on  the  other.  None  of  the  spurs  enclosing  any  of  the  neighbouring  minor 
gullies  possesses  a  similar  configuration,  a  fact  emphasizing  the  special  origin 
of  the  ravine. 

Formerly,  the  Mangaharakeke  Stream  took  its  rise  on  the  northern  side 
of  the  Poruriri  Trigonometrical  Station,  and  flowed  north  and  north-east 
into  the  upper  valley  of  the  Tokomaru  River.  By  the  excessive  alluviation 
of  the  upper  part  of  its  course  a  state  of  great  instabihty  ensued,  and  while 
swinging  to  and  fro  on  its  alluvial  flat  the  stream  found  a  low  place  in  the 
main  Poruriri  ridge-crest  and  flowed  down  the  western  slope,  there  pro- 
ducing the  ravine  and  falls  described  above.  A  sluggish  shrunken  remnant 
of  its  former  trunk,  tributary  to  the  Tokomaru,  still  drains  the  eastern  part 
of  the  deserted  alluvial  flat. 

List  of  Papers  cited. 

Adkin,  G.  L.,  1911.  The  Post-Tertiary  Geological  History  of  the  Ohau  River  and  of 
the  Adjacent  Coastal  Plain,  Horowhenua  County,  North  Island,  Trans.  N.Z. 
Inst.,  vol.  43,  pp.  496-520. 

1919.      Further   Notes   on   the   Horowhenua   Coastal   Plain   and   the   Associated 

Physiographic  Features,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  51,  pp.  108-18. 
Cotton,  C.  A.,  1916.     The  Structure  and  Later  Geological  History  of  New  Zealand, 
Geol.  Mag.,  dec.  6,  vol.  3,  p.  246. 

1918.     The  Geomorphology  of  the  Coastal  District  of  South-western  Wellington, 

Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  50,  pp.  212-22. 
Heim,  a.      Quoted  by  Lord  Avebury,  1902,  in  The  Beauties  of  Nature,  pp.  159-62  and 

maps. 
Marshall,  P.,  1912.     Geology  of  New  Zealand. 
Park,  J.,  1910.     The  Geology  of  Neiv  Zealand. 
Taylor,  Griffith,  1919.     The  Physiographic  Control  of  Australian  Exploration,  Geog. 

■Journ.,  vol.  53,  p.  177. 
Thomson,   J.    A.,    1917.      Diastrophic   and   other  Considerations   in  Classification   and 

Correlation,  &c.,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  49,  pp.  397-413. 

*  From  the  WeUington-Manawatu  Railway  line  just  south  of  Tokomaru  this  fall  is 
a  conspicuous  and  striking  object. 


192  Transactions. 

Art.  XXVI. — The  Influence  of  Salts  of  the  Alkali  and  Alkaline-earth 
Metals  on  the  Solubility  in  Water  of  Calcium  Carbonate  (a)  in 
the  Presence  of  Air  free  from  Carbon  Dioxide,  (b)  in  the  Presence 
of  Excess  of  Carbon  Dioxide. 

By  E.  A.  EowE,  M.Sc. 

[Abstract  communicated  by  W.  P.  Evans,  31. A.,  Ph.D.,  to  the  Philosophical  Institute  of 
Canterbury,  6th  August,  1919  ;  received  by  Editor,  31st  December,  1919  ;  issued 
separately,  15th  June,  1920.] 

The  series  of  experiments  herein  described  was  carried  out  in  order  to 
determine  how  the  solubility  in  water  of  calcium  carbonate  was  affected 
by  the  presence  of  small  quantities  of  the  salts  of  the  alkali  and  alkaline- 
earth  metals,  the  temperature  and  pressure  being  approximately  constant. 
The  quantities  added  varied  from  0"0005  to  0-1  mole  per  litre,  while 
the  temperature  lay  between  11°  and  12°  C. 

Apparatus. 

The  apparatus  employed  in  the  first  series  of  experiments  consisted  of 
a  number  of  wash-bottles  connected  in  series.  The  air  was  sucked  through 
these  at  a  constant  rate  by  means  of  a  water-pump  working  under  a 
constant  head,  the  flow  being  adjusted  by  a  micrometer-screw  in  parallel 
with  a  pressure-gauge. 

The  air  was  freed  from  carbon  dioxide  by  means  of  soda-lime  followed 
by  a  solution  of  caustic  potassium  hydroxide. 

In  the  second  series  of  experiments  carbon  dioxide  was  passed  through 
the  wash-bottles  direct  from  a  cylinder  the  needle-valve  of  which  replaced 
the  screw-tap  of  the  previous  apparatus. 

Conclusions. 

1.  The  solubility  of  calcium  carbonate  in  water  increases  regularly 
with  the  addition  of  increasing  small  amounts  of  (a)  ammonium,  sodium, 
potassium,  and  magnesium  sulphates ;  (b)  ammonium  and  sodium  nitrates  ; 

(c)  ammonium  and  magnesium  chlorides. 

2.  The  solubility  of  calcium  carbonate  in  water  decreases  regularly  with 
the  addition  of  increasing  small  amounts  of  (a)  ammonium,  sodium,  and 
potassium    carbonates  ;     (b)  potassium    nitrate  ;     (c)  potassium    chloride  ; 

(d)  disodium  hydrogen  phosphate. 

3.  The  solubility  in  water  of  calcium  carbonate  exhibits  irregularities 
in  the  presence  of  small  quantities  of  sodium  chloride. 

4.  The  solubility  in  water  of  calcium  bicarbonate  increases  regularly 
with  the  addition  of  increasing  small  quantities  of  (a)  ammonium,  sodium, 
potassium,  and  magnesium  sulphates  ;  (6)  ammonium,  sodium,  and  potas- 
sium nitrates  ;   (c)  ammonium,  sodium,  potassium,  and  magnesium  chlorides. 

5.  The  solubility  in  water  of  calcium  bicarbonate  decreases  regularly 
with  the  addition  of  increasing  smaU  quantities  of  (a)  ammonium,  sodium, 
and  potassium  bicarbonates  ;  (6)  calcium  chloride  ;  (c)  disodium  hydrogen 
phosphate. 

6.  As  regards  the  alkalies,  calcium  carbonate  appears  to  be  most  soluble 
in  the  ammonium  salt  of  a  given  acid  and  in  the  sulphate  of  a  given  base. 


HoLLOWAT. — Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodium.     193 


Art.  XXVII. — Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  the  Genus  Lyco- 
podium :  Part  IV — The  Structure  of  the  Prothallus  in  Five  Species. 

By  the  Rev.  J.  E.  Holloway,  D.Sc,  Hutton  Memorial  Medallist. 

[Read  before  the  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury,   3rd  December,  1919  ;    received 
by  Editor,  31st  December,  1919  ;  issued  separately,  23rd  June,  .1920.] 

Plates  XII-XV. 

Introductory. 

In  three  previous  papers  (6,  7,  9)  I  have  given  general  descriptions  of 
the  form  and  the  manner  of  occurrence  of  the  prothalli  of  eight  New  Zealand 
species  of  Lycopodium.  In  the  last  of  these  papers  I  also  noted,  without 
figures,  certain  details  in  the  structure  of  the  prothalli  which  bore  upon 
the  general  subject  of  the  great  variability  of  the  New  Zealand  species  of 
Li/copodiicm.  The  eight  species  whose  prothalli  were  described  are  L.  Bil- 
lardieri  Spring,  L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile  T.  Kirk,  L.  varium  R.  Br.  Prodr., 
L.  cernuum  Linn.,  L.  laterale  R.  Br.  Prodr.,  L.  ramulosum  T.  Kirk,  L.  voluhile 
Forst.,  L.  fastigiatum  R.  Br.  Prodr.,  and  L.  scariosum  Forst.  These  prothalli 
are  representative  of  four  out  of  the  five  known  types.  It  is  a  striking 
fact  that  these  eight  species  introduce  no  new  types  of  prothallus  beyond 
those  which  have  become  known  through  the  researches  especially  of  Treub 
and  Bruchmann,  but  they  present  some  very  interesting  variations  from 
those  types.  ■  The  prothallus  of  L.  cernuum  has  been,  of  course,  known  to 
science  since  Treub's  papers  on  several  tropical  species  studied  by  him 
in  Java  were  published,  but  the  other  seven  mentioned  above  have  only 
recently  become  known.  Two  other  workers  have  published  the  results  of 
their  investigations  on  the  prothalli  of  several  of  the  New  Zealand  species — 
namely,  Miss  Edgerley  (4)  and  Professor  C.  J.  Chamberlain  (3) — the  former's 
paper  dealing  with  L.  voluhile,  L.  scariosum,  and  L.  Billardieri,  and  the 
latter's  with  L.  voluhile,  L.  scariosum,  and  L.  laterale. 

The  present  paper  is  on  the  structure  of  the  prothallus  of  the  five  species 
L.  Billardieri,  L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile,  L.  varium,  L.  cernuum,  L.  laterale, 
and  L.  ramulosurn.  I  hope  to  publish  a  similar  account  with  regard  to 
L.  voluhile,  L.  fastigiatum,  and  L.  scariosum  in  a  fifth  part. 

The  literature  dealing  with  the  various  other  species — European,  Tropical, 
and  American — which  have  been  described  is  enumerated  below  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sections  to  which  they  respectively  belong.  Several  of  these 
papers  I  have  not  had  access  to,  but  have  had  to  depend  for  my  know- 
ledge of 'them  on  brief .  summaries  and  figures  copied  from  them  in  various 
standard  books  of  reference.  This  is,  of  course,  unfortunate,  as  it  has  made 
less  possible  for  the  purpose  of  this  paper  a  full  comparative  study  of  the 
different  types  of  Lycopodium  prothalli. 

I  am  glad  to  record  my  thanks  to  Dr.  Charles  Chilton,  Professor  of 
Biology,  at  Canterbury  College,  for  the  interest  he  has  always  shown  in 
my  work,  and  for  his  kind  permission  to  use  the  biological  laboratory  of 
Canterbury  College  from  time  to  time.  I  desire  also  here  to  recall  and 
acknowledge  the  guidance  of  Professor-  A.  P.  W.  Thomas,  who  first 
suggested  to  me,  when  working  under  him  in  the  biological  laboratory 
at  Auckland  University  College,  the  study  of  the  New  Zealand  species  of 
Lycopodium. 

7— Trans. 


194  Transactions. 

Section  Phlegmaria. 

L.  Billardieri  Spring ;  L.  Billanlien  var.  gracile  T.  Kirk ;   L.  varium  R.  Br. 

Prodr. 

Literature. 

The  first  papers  published  on  the  prothalli  of  this  section  were  those 
of  Treub  (14,  15)  dealing  with  the  four  tropical  species  L.  Phlegmaria 
Linn.,  L.  carinatum  Desv.,  L.  H ippuris  .Desv.,  and*  L.  nummularifolium 
Blume.  In  a  paper  on  the  stem-anatomy  of  certain  New  Zealand  species 
of  Lycopodium  I  gave  a  very  brief  description  of  the  prothallus  of  L.  Bil- 
lardieri, stating  that  it  corresponded  to  the  Phlegmaria  type  (6),  and  Miss 
Edgerley  a  few  years  later  (4)  described  it  more  fully,  with  figures.  In  two 
papers  of  the  present  series  (7,  9)  I  have  given  certain  details  concerning 
the  external  form  and  the  structure  of  this  same  prothallus  and  of  the  two 
allied  forms  L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile  and  L.  varium.  Literature  dealing 
with  two  species  of  prothallus  belonging  to  the  closely  related  Selago  section 
must  also  be  mentioned — viz.,  Bruchmann's  two  accounts  (1,  2)  of  the 
prothallus  of  L.  Selago  Linn.,  and  a  very  brief  description,  with  one  figure, 
of  that  of  L.  lucididum  Michx.  by  Spessard  (11). 

General  Form  of  the  Prothallus. 

The  complete  mature  prothallus  of  all  these  three  New  Zealand  forms, 
similarly  to  those  of  the  four  tropical  epiphytic  species  described  by  Treub, 
consists  essentially  of  a  central  body  of  tissue,  which  may  be  either  bulky 
or  more  or  less  elongated,  and  a  number  of  branches  which  arise  adventi- 
tiously from  this  central  body.  In  fig.  1  is  shown  such  a  complete  hiature 
prothallus  of  L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile  in  external  view,  the  natural  size' 
being  also  indicated  in  the  illustration.  The  central  body  of  the  prothallus 
as  here  shown  is  somewhat  slender  and  elongated,  a  condition  which  I  have 
found  generally  to  be  the  rule  in  this  variety.  It  possesses  two  complete, 
and  also  two  broken,  thin  vegetative  branches ;  a  young,  stouter  branch ; 
and  also,  nearer  the  forward  end,  a  short  club-shaped  "  resting  "  process. 
The  two  complete  branches  on  the  left  side  of  the  figure  have  begun  to  put 
forth  secondary  branches,  while  otie  has  also  commenced  to  expand  at  its 
growing  end  preparatory  to  there  bearing  sexual  organs.  The  oldest  end 
of  the  prothallus  is  intact,  and  shows  clearly  the  original  cone  form  with 
which  the  prothallus  of  the  epiphytic  type  always  begins.  At  the  apex  of 
the  cone  the  cell  first  formed  from  the  spore  still  persists.  The  main  pro- 
thallial  body  shows  the  presence  of  fungus  in  its  internal  tissues,  this  fungal 
inhabitant  occupying  the  whole  of  the  tissues  in  the  dark  basal  cone-like 
region,  but  being  more  irregularly  distributed  farther  forward.  The  fungus 
is  also  present  in  the  vegetative  branches,  being  there  also  somewhat  irre- 
gularly distributed,  and  the  single  club-shaped  resting  process  is  very  dark 
with  it.  The  ends  of  the  branches  are  all  quite  free  of  fungus  and  are 
translucent  in  appearance.  The  forward  end  of  the  main  prothallial  body  is 
sHghtly  more  bulky  than  the  rest,  and  is  quite  clear  of  the  fungus.  This  is 
the  main  generative  region  of  the  prothallus,  and  bears  paraphyses,  archegonia, 
and  also  a  young  plant.  The  whole  prothallus  is  covered  with  long  rhizoids 
inclining  forward  towards  the  growing  apices,  except  on  the  terminal  bulky 
region,  which  is  wholly  devoid  of  jbhem,  and  on  the  basal  cone-Hke  region, 
from  which  they  have  decayed  away,  leaving  only  short,  stubby  pro- 
jections.    The    description    of    this    particular    prothallus    in   its   external 


HoLLOWAY. — Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodium.     195 

appearance  will  suffice  to  illustrate  the  general  features  of  the  three  New 
Zealand  epiphj^ic  species  here  dealt  with. 

L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile  grows  abundantly  throughout  Westland  on 
stems  of  the  tree-fern  Dicksonia  squarrosa,  and  it  has  also  been  reported 
from  various  other  parts  of   New  Zealand   in   the   same  situation.      The 


Fig.  1. — L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile.  Comijlete  mature  prothallus  in  general 
view,  showing  basal  cone  intact,  lateral  branches,  and  plantlet. 
X  13.  The  small  figure  "represents  this  prothallus  at  f  natural 
size. 


prothalli  and  young  plants  occur  more  especially  on  the  younger  stems  of 
the  Dicksonia  in  between  the  bases  of  the  stipites,  which  in  this  tree-fern 
run  down  the  stem  a  considerable  length  before  they  begin  to  be  overgrown 
by  the  mass  of  hard  brittle  aerial  rootlets.     It  is  in  this  more  open  part 

7* 


196 


Transactions. 


o. 


Figs.  2-5. — L.  Billardieri.  Central  body  of  mature  prothalli  in  general  view, 
complete  except  for  basal  cone,  with  old  and  also  yomig  branches, 
bearing  sexual  organs  and  paraphyses.  Figs.  2,  3,  and  5,  X  25  ; 
fig.  4,  X  10. 

Fig.  3a. — L.   Billardieri.     Old  antheridium  in  surface  view. 


HoLLOWAY. — Studies  in  the  Neiv  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodium.     197 

of  the  tree-fern  stem-surface  that  the  prothalli  and  plantlets  of  both  L.  Bil- 
lardieri  var.  gracile  and  of  Tmesipteris  occur.  As  the  tree-fern  grows  in 
height  the  covering  of  aerial  rootlets  spreads  up  the  stem,  and  so  plantlets 
of  increasing  age  have  to  be  carefully  dissected  out  from  the  mass  of  the 
brittle  rootlets.  The  prothalli  of  this  species  of  Lycopodium  are  often  to 
be  found  adhering  closely  to  the  hard  black  surfaces  of  the  stipites,  and 
are  there  readily  found  by  tearing  away  the  humus  and  the  debris  of  old 
tomentum  which  collects  between  the  bases  of  the  stipites.  Their  rather 
delicate,  attenuated  form  is  probably  the  result  of  this  particular  position 
of  growth. 


Fig.  6. — L-  varium.      Prothallus   in   general   view,    showing   central   body   and 

branches,  and  a  young  plant,      x  10. 
Fig.  7. — L.  varium.     Prothallus  in  general  view,  showing  basal  end,  and  young 

embryo  in  the  generative  region.      X  10. 
Fig.  8. —  L.  varium.     A  branched  "  resting  "  process  in  general  view.     X  10. 


The  prothalli  of  L.  Billardieri,  on  the  other  hand,  occur  for  the  most 
part  in  masses  of  humus  on  elevated  positions  in  the  forks  of  the  forest 
trees  and  of  their  main  branches.  The  central  prothallial^body  is  generally 
more  bulky  than  that  of  L.  Billiardieri  var.  gracile,  but  otherwise  the 
prothallus  is  identical  both  in  appearance  and  in  structure.  With  regard 
to  the  tropical  forms  studied  by  him,  Treub  states  that  the  prothalli  of 
L.  Hippuris  are  much  larger  and  thicker  than  those  of  L.  Phlegmaria,  while 
those  of  L.  nummidarifolium  are  exceedingly  thin.  These  epiphytic  pro- 
thalli have  very  much  the  appearance  of  a  mass  of  root-ends,  but  a  little 


198  Transactions. 

experience  in  dissecting  soon  leads  one  to  detect  the  presence  of  a  central 
region  and  so  distinguish  the  prothalli  from  rootlets.  Moreover,  the 
root-ends  and  vegetable  fibres  so  commonly  to  be  met  with  in  the  humus 
are  more  dead-white  or  yellowish  in  appearance,  the  prothalli  in  their 
fungus-free  regions  being  somewhat  translucent.  Figs.  2-5  show  the  central 
bulky  region  of  four  prothalli  of  L.  Billardieri,  from  all  of  which  the  oldest 
basal  region  is  absent.  The  distribution  of  the  fungus  is  indicated  in  these 
figures  by  dark  shading.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  forward  region  of  the 
central  prothallial  body  is  the  most  bulky,  and  is  wholly  free  from  fungus. 
It  is  also  quite  devoid  of  rhizoids.  It  bears  on  one  surface — the  upper — 
paraphyses  in  large  numbers,  and  also  sexual  organs.  The  archegonia  and 
antheridia  are  not  intermingled,  but  occur  in  clearly  defined  zpnes  arising 
immediately  behind  the  growing  apex  of  the;  prothallus.  The  surface 
appearance  of  an  old  antheridium  is  shown^  in  fig.  3a,  the  triangular 
opercular  cell  being  a  very  distinct  feature.  The  imder-surface  of  the 
generative  portion  of  the  prothallus  is  always  quite  naked  and  smooth. 

Lycopoditim  variiim  is  closely  allied  to  L.  Billardieri,  but  grows  terres- 
trially and  has  a  somewhat  different  habit  of  growth.  Its  prothalli  are 
in  every  respect  identical  with  those  of  L.  Billardieri.  Three  prothalli 
are  shown  in  figs.  6-8.  That  in  fig.  6  bears  a  yoimg  plant :  its  basal  end 
is  not  seen.  That  in  fig.  7  shows  the  basal  end  dark  and  withered,  and  a 
very  young  embryo  can  be  seen  through  the  tissues  of  the  forward  generative 
region.  In  fig.  8  is  shown  a  branched  "resting"  process.  In  none  of 
these  figures  is  the  distribution  of  the  fungus  indicated. 

Position  in  the  Soil. 

The  prothalli  belonging  to  these  three  forms  have  apparently  no  regular 
position  relative  to  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  which  they  grow.  The 
branches  of  the  prothallus  extend  in  any  direction.  Frequently  they  are 
inclined  forward  in  the  same  direction  as  that  of  the  growth  of  the  main 
body,  but  this  is  not  always  the  case.  Bruchmann  has  shown  that  in  the 
case  of  L.  Selago  the  more  deeply  growing,  elongated,  cylindrical  forms  of 
prothallus  extend  in  a  vertical  direction  towards  the  surface.  This  is  not 
thfe  case  with  the  prothalli  of  the  terrestrially-growing  L.  varium,  which  are 
quite  similar  both  in  their  form  and  in  their  indefinite  position  of  growth 
to  those  of  the  ordinary  epiphytic  species.  The  prothalli  of  L.  Billardieri 
and  of  the  two  other  allied  New  Zealand  forms  are,  however,  quite  markedly 
dorsi ventral  in  structure.  The  paraphyses  and  sexual  organs  are  to  be 
found  only  along  the  uppermost  side  of  the  prothallus,  whether  they  occur 
on  the  central  region  or  on  the  lateral  branches. 

Early  Stages  in  the  Development. 

The  youngest  prothallus  found  by  me  belonged  to  the  form  L.  Billardieri 
var.  gracile,  and  is  shown  in  fig.  9.  This  prothallus  consisted  of  the.  fijst- 
formed,  conical  region,  which  was  entirely  infested  with  the  fungus  and 
was  covered  with  the  old  bases  of  broken-off  rhizoids,  and  a  forward  trans- 
lucent region  showing  several  young  paraphyses  and  an  antheridium  im- 
mediately behind  the  apex.  This  yoimger  portion  of  the  prothallus  also 
bore  the  usual  long  rhizoids.  The  fungus  entirely  occupied  the  main  portion 
of  the  prothallus  except  in  its  epidermal  cells.  It  also  bore  a  young  lateral 
process,  on  which  rhizoids  were  beginning  to  arise  by  the  outward  growth 


HoLLOWAT. — Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodium.    199 

of  epidermal  cells.  This  lateral  process  was  free  of  the  fungus,  except  in 
certain  isolated  subepidermal  cells  which  lay  at  the  bases  of  the  young 
rhizoids.  From  this  latter  fact  it  is  apparent  that,  at  ^ny  rate  when  the 
extension  in  length  of  a  branch  is  rapid,  infection  may  take  place  from 
without  through  the  rhizoids,  and  that  the  distribution  of  fungus  throughout 
the  prothallus  does  not  take  place  simply  through  its  forward  extension 
from  the  older  regions.      The  original  apex  of  the  oldest  conical  region 


Fig.  9. — L.   Billardieri  var.   gracile.     A  young  prothallus  complete,  in  general  view. 

X  60. 
Fig.  10. — L.   Billardieri  var.   gracile.     Longitudinal  section  of  the   basal  cone  of  the 

prothallus  illustrated  in  fig.  1,  sho^ving  remains  of  spore  on  the  first-formed 

cell.      X  170. 
Fig.   11. — L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile.     Longitudinal  section  of  central  body  of  mature 

prothallus,  showing  general  arrangement  of  tissues,  and  also  foot  of  young 

plant.      X  47. 


was  intact,  and  the  first-formed  cells  were  clearly  to  be  traced.  Most  of 
the  mature  prothalli  of  these  epiphytic  species  which  I  found  were  incom- 
plete in  their  basal  region,  probably  on  account  of  the  decaying-away  of 
these  oldest  tissues  through  age  ;  but  I  also  found  several  mature  prothalli 
both  of  L.  Billardieri  and  of  the  variety  gracile  in  which  the  original 
end  was  intact.      This  was  the  case  with  that  shown  in  fig.  1,      A  highly 


200 


TransactiorifS. 


magnified  view  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  conical  region  of  this  particular 
prothallus  is  given  in  fig.  10,  in  which  the  remains  of  the  original  spore  can 
be  seen  still  attached  to  the  basal  cell  of  the  cone.  Whether  or  not  a 
filament  ever  is  formed  from  the  germinating  spore,  as  is  known  to  occur 
in  the  prothallus  of  Tmesipteris,  cannot  be  here  stated.  The  presence 
of  the  fungus  in  these  basal  cells  serves  to  keep  the  latter  from  collapsing 
for  a  considerable  period,  and  if  a  filament  is  ever  formed  in  the  epiphytic 
Lycopodium  prothalli  one  would  expect  that,  as  in  the  case  of  Tmesipteris, 
it  would  not  easily  be  lost.  It  is  clear,  at  any  rate,  from  fig.  10  that  in  some 
cases  at  least  the  germinating  spore  gives  rise  immediately  to  the  cone- 
shaped  tissue  body.  "In  his  description  of  the  prothalli  of  L.  Selago  and 
L.  complanatum  Bruchmann  figures  a  single  cell  at  the  basal  point  of  the 
prothallus. 

Main  Body  of  the  ProtJiallus. 

The  main  body  of  the  prothallus  consists  essentially  of  two  regions, 
the  hinder  vegetative  and  the  forward  generative  region.  There  is  no 
such  differentiation  in  structure  in  the  fungus-bearing  tissues  of  the  central 


Fig.  12. — L.  Billardien  var.  gracile.  Transverse  section  of  basal  cone  of  mature 
prothallus,  snowing  fimgus  throughout,  also  first  branch  in  longitudinal 
section  .    x  108. 

Fig.  13. — L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile.  Transverse  section  of  mature  prothallus  above 
basal  cone,  showdng  initial  development  of  the  central  strand.      X  108. 


body  of  this  prothallus  as  is  found  in  those  of  the  clavatum  and  complanatum 
types.  In  these  latter  prothalli  the  fungal  tissues  are  clearly  marked 
off  into  cortical  and  palisade  zones,  and  in  the  case  of  the  New  Zealand 
species  L.  voluhile  and  L.fastigiatum  there  is  also  a  wide  and  very  character- 
istic zone  in  which  the  fungal  hyphae  are  also  intercellular.  The  particular 
type  of  structure  found  in  these  deeply-growing  terrestrial  types  can  be 
put  in  connection  with  the  general  habit  of  growth  of  the  prothallus. 
This  is  the  opinion  expressed  by  Bruchmann  in  his  description  of  the 
prothalli  of  L.  clavatum,  L.  annotinum,  and  L.  complanatum  (1,  pp.  18,  58). 
As  will  be  seen  below,  even  the  prothalli  of  the  Cernua  section  have  attained 
to  a  certain  degree  of  differentiation  in  their  fungus-bearing  regions.  The 
fungus-infested  cells  in  the  main  prothallfal  body  of  the  three  New 
Zealand  species  which  belong  to  the  Phlegmaria  type  are  all  practically 
similar  to  one  another  in  their  form  and  contents.  In  longitudinal  section 
it  is  apparent  that  transverse  divisions  have  taken  place  in  them  so  that 


Hollow  AY. — St  tidies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodium.     201 

they  are  more  equidimensional  than  are  the  adjacent  cells  (fig.  11).  It  is 
rather  the  centrally-placed,  fungus-free  cells  which  have  become  changed 
in  form.  They  are  always  considerably  elongated,  and  are  somewhat 
narrower  than  the  cells  of  the  fungal  zones  (fig.  11).  This  is,  of  course, 
quite  in  accordance  with  the  function  of  translocation  which  they  are 
called  upon  to  perform  in  these  elongated  prothalli.  Certain  of  the 
epidermal  cells  grow  out  as  rhizoids,  a  transverse  wall  separating  the 
rhizoid  proper  from  its  parent  cell.  The  width  of  the  fungal  zone  in  the 
main  prothallus  body  varies  in  different  parts,  but,  generally  speaking, 
it  diminishes  towards  the  growing  region.  However,  if  lateral  branches 
are  borne  well  forward  on  the  prothallus  the  fungus  will  be  foimd  well 
forward  also.  The  fungus  is  always  massed  around  the  base  of  a  branch, 
but  in  those  portions  of  the  main  body  which  lie  in  between  the  branches 


[vsntTal] 


Fig.   14. — L.  Billardieri.     Transverse  section  of  the  prothallus  shown  in  fig.  3,  at  the 

point  c.      X  60. 
Fig.   15. — L.  Billardieri.     Transverse  section  of  the  prothallus  shown  in  fig.  5,  at  the 

point  a.     Compare  also  fig.  2,  c.      x  60. 
Fig.   16. — L.  Billardieri.     Transverse  section  of  the  prothallus  shown  in  fig.  3,  at  the 

point  a.     X  135. 


the  fungal  zone  may  be  no  more  than  one  or  two  cells  in  width.  In  the 
basal  cone-like  region  the  cells,  which  are  all  equidimensional,  are  all 
infested  with  the  fungus,  there  being  here  no  centrally-placed  conducting 
strand.  At  the  actual  base  of  the  prothallus  even  the  epidermal  cells  show 
the  presence  of  the  fungus  (fig.  10).  Fig.  12  is  a  transverse  section  of  the 
basal  cone,  showing  the  first-formed  lateral  branch  in  longitudinal  section. 
It  will  be  seen  that  in  the  central  region  in  this  figure  the  fungus  is  inter- 
cellular as  well  as  within  the  cell-cavities,  and  the  cells  here  consequently 
appear  roundish  in  shape.  Farther  forward  still  the  centrally-placed  cells 
are  free  from  fungus  and  represent  the  beginning  of  the  conducting-strand 
(fig.  13).  Fig.  14  is  a  transverse  section  of  the  prothallus  which  is  shown  in 
fig.  3  taken  at  the  point  marked  c.  In  this  region  of  the  main  body  the 
fungus  has  extended  forward  so  that  it  underlies  the  old  antheridia.  The 
rhizoids  are  here  ventrally  borne,  and  the  fungus  is  aggregated  along  the 
ventral  side  so  that  the  prothallus  shows  a  dorsiventral  structure.     Fig.  15 


202 


Transactions. 


is  a  transverse  section  of  the  prothallus  shown  in  fig.  5  at  aa,  and  represents 
the  most  forward  position  occupied  by  the  fungus  in  this  prothallus.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  fungus  in  the  lateral  branch  which  is  also  included 
in  this  figure  is  not  in  connection  with  that  in  the  main  body.  The  same 
figure  would  also  represent  in  transverse  section  the  appearance  of  the 
prothallus  shown  in  fig.  2  at  cc. 

The  generative  portion  of  the  central  prothallial  body  is  always  the  most 
bulky,  and  shows  no  di&rentiation  of  its  tissues  whatever.  Immediately 
behind  the  growing  apex  of  the  prothalli  shown  in  figs.  2,  3,  and  ■  5 
yoimg   antheridia   are   being   produced.      Fig.    16    represents   a  transverse 


Fig.  17. — L.  Billardieri.     Transverse  section  of  the  prothallus  shown  in  fig.  3  at  the 

point  b.      X    135. 
Fig.  18. — L.  Billardieri.     Transverse  section  of  the  dorsal  side  of  the  prothallus  shown 

in  fig.  2  at  the  point  b.      X  135. 
Fig.   19. — L.  Billardieri.     Oblique  section  through  the  prothallus  shown  in  fig.    2  at 

the  point  a.     X  135. 


suction  of  the  prothallus  shown  in  fig.  3  at  a.  Fig.  17  is  a  transverse 
section  through  an  older  antheridial  zone  of  the  same  prothallus  at  h,  while 
fig.  18  shows  the  grouping  of  the  archegonia  in  amongst  the  paraphyses 
on  the  prothallus  illustrated  in  fig.  2  at  hb.  The  sexual  organs  occur  in 
large  numbers  in  distinct  zones.  The  close  grouping  of  the  antheridia, 
for  example,  is  shown  in  fig.  19,  which  is  an  oblique  section  taken  through 
the  point  of  the  prothallus  illustrated  in  fig.  2  at  aa.  The  generative  region 
in  transverse  section  bears  evidence  of  repeated  cell-divisions,  and  the  cell 
nuclei  and  contents  are  very  prominent,  as  if  there  had  been  extensive 
translocation  of  food  material  to  this  region  of  the  prothallus.  A  longitudinal 
section  of  the  generative  region  shows  that  the  extensive  development  of 
sexual  organs  and  paraphyses  along  the  dorsal  surface  brings  it  about  that 


HoLLOWAT. — Studies  in  the  Nexv  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodium.     203 

the  actual  apical  merist^m  is  somewhat  ventrally  placed.  Fig.  20  shows 
this  forward  region  of  a  prothallus  in  longitudinal  section,  but  the  older 
vegetative  region  is  not  included,  as  the  prothallus  was  curved  in  shape. 
The  generative  region  in  longitudinal  section  is  also  shown  in  figs.  11 
and  34,  both  of  which  prothalli  bear  a  young,  developing  plant. 


Fig.  20. — L.  Billardieri.  Central  body  of  the  prothallus,  showing 
generative  region  in  longitudinal  section,  and  also  a 
lateral  branch.  Basal  cone  of  prothallus  not  included. 
X  70. 


The  Lateral  Branches. 

The  lateral  branches  or  vegetative  processes  arise  from  the  main  central 
body  when  the  vegetative  region  of  the  latter  is  ceasing  to  cope  with  its 
main  function  of  nourishing  the  growing  generative  region.  The  examina- 
tion of  such  prothalli  as  those  given  in  figs.  1,9,  and  10  shows  both  that  the 
rhizoids  on  the  older  portion  of  the  main  body  have  decayed  away  and 
that  the  fungal  coils  in  the  cells  of  this  older  region  have  given  place  to  the 
fungal  "  spores."  The  cells  are  full  of  these  spores,  which  in  all  the  old 
prothalli  that  I  have  examined  do  not  seem  to  disintegrate  further.  The 
lateral  branches  are  thickly  covered  with  rhizoids,  and  show  the  presence 
of  a  fungus  distributed  in  the  cells  more  or  less  along  their  entire  length. 

The  tissues  of  the  branch  are  similar  to  those  in  the  vegetative  region 
of  the  main  body,  except,  of  course,  that  in  accordance  with  the  smaller 
girth  of  the  branch  both  the  fungal  zone  and  the  centrally-placed  con- 
ducting-strand  are  there  correspondingly  less  in  width.  Fig.  21  shows  a 
well-developed  branch  in  transverse  section,  and  fig.  22  in  longitudinal 
section.  In  transverse  section  there  is  seen  to  be  a  central  group  of  six 
fungus-free   cells,   surrounded   by   a   single   layer   of  larger  fungus-bearing 


204  ~  Transactions. 

cells,  some  of  which  have  divided.  Outside  this  again  is  another  single 
layer  of  somewhat  smaller  cells  which  may  or  may  not  contain  the  fungus, 
boimded  peripherally  by  the  epidermal  layer,  whose  external  walls  are 
cuticularized.  These  same  layers  can  also  be  distinguished  in  fig.  22  in 
longitudinal  section.  Thinner  branches  show  less  cell-multiplication  in  the 
fungal  zone.  In  longitudinal  section  it  is  apparent  that  the  fungus- 
containing  cells  have  divided  transversely,  so  that  they  are  more  nearly 
equidimensional  than  those  either  of  the  central  strand  or  of  the  epidermis. 
The  fungus  ii  present  in  the  form  of  hyphal  coils  or  clusters  of  oval  dark- 
staining  "  spores."  The  fimgus  also  extends  between  the  cells,  so  that  the 
latter  are  frequently  roundish  in  shape. 

Sooner  or  later  a  branch  will  show  a  thickening  of  its  tissues  at  the  apex, 
and  on  this  swollen  region  paraphyses  and  sexual  organs  will  arise  (figs.  6, 
23,  24)_.  Such  a  swollen  region  will  be  free  from  the  fungus,  but  the  hyphal 
coils  are  often  aggregated  very  thickly  in  that  portion  of  the  branch'  which 
lies  immediately  behind  it  (fig.  24).  It  is  always  antheridia  which  are  first 
formed  in  such  branches,  the  archegonia  occurring  only  on  the  main  central 
region  of  a  prothallus.  However,  a  branch  may  thicken  and  develop  to 
such  an  extent  that  it  practically  becomes  a  new  prothallus.  Probably  not 
a  few  mature  prothalli  have  arisen  not  from  the  germination  of  a  spore, 
but  by  a  branch  having  become  detached  from  an  older  prothallus  and 
having  gone  on  growing  in  thickness.  Such  a  branch  will  put  forth  lateral 
branches,  and  will  eventually  bear  archegonia  as  well  as  antheridia  on  its 
main  body.  This  will  account  for  the  fact  that  most  of  the  mature  pro- 
thalli found  by  me  did  not  show  the  typical  cone-like  basal  region.  They 
are  in  fact  prothalli  which  have  arisen  adventitiously.  Fig.  27  shows  in 
external  view  the  terminal  region  of  a  stoutish  branch  of  L.  Billardieri  var. 
gracile  which  has  begun  to  develop  antheridia  and  paraphyses.  Some  of 
the  detached  branches  which  are  dissected  out  of  the  humus  are  imperfect 
at  both  extremities,  a  fact  which  indicates  that  they  may  persist  in  the 
humus  and  remain  self -nourishing  for  a  considerable  time. 

In  dissecting  out  prothalli  of  these  species  of  Lycopodium  from  the  sub- 
stratum in  which  they  lie,  one  frequently  comes  across  detached  prothallial 
branches  which  have  probably  arisen  by  the  decaying-away  of  the  parent 
prothallus.  Three  such  branches  of  L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile  are  shown  in 
figs.  28-30.  In  this  particular  species  these  branches  are  frequently  very 
long  and  thin,  and  they  may  show  the  presence  of  paraphyses  along 
extended  portions  of  their  length.  Lateral  branches  frequently 'bear  short 
club-shaped  processes,  sometimes  in  great  numbers  (fig.  30),  which  are 
quite  dark  with  the  fungal  inhabitant.  These  processes  are  to  be  regarded 
as  "  resting  "  processes,  and  they  may  occur  also  on  mature  prothalli  of 
the  ordinary  kind  (figs.  1,  11).  They  are  frequently  met  with  detached  in 
the  humus,  and  are  either  of  a  simple  nature  or  are  branched  (figs.  8,  25). 
The  actual  apex  of  the  resting  process  is  white  and  clear  of  fungus,  but  the 
rest  is  very  dark,  being  thickly  infested  with  it.  Fig.  31  represents  such 
a  resting  process  in  transverse  section,  from  which  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
central  cells  contain  the  fungus  as  well  as  those  more  medianly  situated, 
and  that  the  fungus  is  intercellular  as  well  as  intracellular.  The  apex  of 
one  of  the  branches  of  the  stout 'resting  process  shown  in  fig.  25  is  given 
in  longitudinal  section  in  fig.  32.  Immediately  behind  the  apex  the  fungus 
is  hyphal  only  and  does  not  penetrate  between  the  cells.  Farther  back, 
however,  the  hyphal  coils  have  to  a  large  extent  been  replaced  by  the 
"  spores,"  and  the  fungus  is  also  intercellular.     Instances  may  be  met  with 


HoLLOWAY. — Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodium.    205 


Fig.  21. — L.  Billardieri.     Transverse  section  of  lateral  vegetative  branch.      X  170 
Fig.  22. — L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile.     Longitudinal  section  of  a  lateral  vegetative 

branch,      x  170. 
Figs.  23,  24. — L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile.      Swollen  ends  of  lateral  branches,  bearing 

antheridia  and  paraphyses,  in  general  view.      X  22. 
Fig.    25. — L.    Billardieri  var.  gracile.      Branched  detached   "  resting "  process,  in 

general  view,      x  22. 
Fig.  26. — L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile.     Detached  "  resting  "  process  in  general  view, 

showing  initiation  of  renewed  growth.       x  22. 


206 


Transactions. 


Fig.  27. — L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile.  Growing  end  of  lateral  branch 
in  general  view,  showing  apical  meristem,  young  antheridia, 
and  paraphyses.      X  80. 

Figs.  28-30.  —  L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile.  Detached  branches  ia 
general  view,  bearing  paraphyses  and  club-shaped  "  resting  " 
processes,  and  showing  disposition  of  fungus.      X  7 


HoLLOWAT. — Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodium.     207 

in  which  a  resting  process  is  resuming  its  extension  in  length.  Generally 
it  proceeds  immediately  to  form  paraphyses  and  antheridia  (fig.  26),  and 
probably  develops  ultimately  into  a  large  prothallus.  Thus  these  species  are 
able  to  propagate  themselves  vegetatively.  In  this  connection  it  will  be 
remembered  that  Treub  has  described  a  rather  different  mode  of  vegetative 
propagation  in  the  prothallus  of  L.  Phlegmaria. 


Fig.  31. — L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile.     Transverse  section  of  a  "  resting  "  process.     X  135. 
Fig.  32. — L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile.     Longitudinal  section  of  one  of  the  apices  of  the 

"  resting  "  process  shown  in  fig.  25.      X  13.5. 
Fig.  33. — L.  Billardieri.     Longitudinal  section  of  a  very  young  lateral  branch,     x  135. , 
Fig.  34. — L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile.     Longitudinal  section  of  the  generative  region  of 

the  main  prothallial  body,  showing  suspensor,  foot,  and  first  root  of  plantlet 

in  longitudinal  section,      x  42. 

Position  of  the  Meristem. 

In  the  young  prothallus  of  L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile  shown  in  fig.  9  it 
:  s  apparent  that  the  meristem  is  confined  to  the  actual  apex,  and  that  more 
than  one  of  the  apical  cells  are  meristematic.  This  position  and  form  of 
the  meristem  holds  throughout  the  life  of  the  prothallus  of  this  particular 
type.  In  fig.  27  are  shown  the  growing  tips  of  lateral  prothallial  branches. 
However  irregular  in  shape  the  central  body  of  the  prothallus  may  be,  there 
is  always  a  forward  growing  end  to  be  found  where  the  meristem  is  localized. 
In  the  prothalli  shown  in  figs.  2-5  the  growing  apex  is  easily  to  be  distin- 
guished, but  it  is  not  always  so  apparent.  As  I  have  mentioned  above,  the 
rapid  formation  of  sexual  organs  behind  the  growing  apex  generally  brings 
it  about  that  the  meristematic  cells  are  somewhat  displaced  from  the  actual 
apex  of  the  prothallus  and  lie  slightly  towards  the  underside,  this  being 
apparent  in  the  longitudinal  section  shown  in  fig.  20.     Again,  I  must  add 


208 


Transactions. 


that  in  this  particular  figure  the  hinder  region  of  the  prothallus  is  not  cut 
longitudinally,  so  that  although  the  fungal  tissue  in  the  figure  seems  to  bear 
some  relation  to  the  meristem  this  is  really  not  the  case.  In  the  branches 
in  which  the  fungus  is  found  almost  throughout  the  entire  length  it  is  absent 
from  the  whole  of  the  tip  of  the  branch,  even  in  the  case  of  the  "  resting  " 
processes  which  are  so  packed  with  fungus  (fig.  32).  Thus  the  growing  tips 
always  appear  clear  and  translucent.  A  lateral  branch  arises  adventitiously 
on  the  central  prothallial  body  by  one  or  more  of  the  externally-placed 
cells  of  the  latter  setting  up  a  local  meristem.  This  can  be  seen  from 
fig.  33,  which  shows  in  longitudinal  section  a  very  young  lateral  branch 
being  formed  alongside  some  old  paraphyses.  At  first  the  process  extends 
in  length  by  the  activity  of  a  single  triangular  apical  cell  (fig.  33),  but 
probably  very  early  the  apex  broadens  and  more  than  one  cell  becomes 
meristematic.  ,  Miss  Edgerley  states  that  at  the  tips  of  the  branches  she 
found  two  initials  (4,  p.  105). 

Relation  of  the  Young  Plant  to  the  Prothallus. 

In  the  epiphytic  species,  whereas  the  antheridia  are  frequently  borne  on 
certain  parts  of  the  lateral  branches  as  well  as  on  the  central  body  of  the 
prothallus,  the  archegonia  are  borne  on  the  latter  only.  At  the  same  time, 
it  will  be  remembered  that  this  central  body  may  not  have  grown  directly 
from  the  germinating  spore,  but  may  have  originated  by  the  development 
of  a  detached  branch.  This  central  body  of  the  prothallus,  as  has  been 
described,  consists  of  a  hinder  vegetative  region  and  a  forward  more  bulky 
generative  region,  and  it  is  to  the  latter  that  the  young  plant  is  attached 
(figs.  1,  6,  7,  11,  34,  36,  37).  Not  infrequently  more  than  one  developing 
plantlet  is  attached  to  the  same  prothallus  (fig.  37). 


V 


35 


Figs.  35-37. — L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile.      Prothalli  bearing  one  or  more 
young  plants,  in  general  view.     Fig.  35,  x  3  ;    figs.  36  and  37,  X  6. 

The  prothallus,  being  placed  well  below  the  surface  of  the  humus,  is 
called  upon  to  nourish  the  young  plant  altogether  until  the  latter  can  reach 
the  surface  and  produce  its  first  leaves.  The  naked  stems  of  the  developing 
plantlets  are  sometimes  as  much  as  |  in.  long  before  they  reach  the  light. 
In  accordance  with  this  considerable  degree  of  dependence  of  the  young 
plant  upon  its  parent  prothallus,  that  part  of  the  base  of  the  plant  which 
is  in  contact  with  the  prothallial  tissues  functions  as  an  absorbing  "  foot." 
This  foot  is  a  well-marked  feature  m  the  plantlets  of  the  epiphytic  species, 
although  it  does  not  there  assume  so  large  a  size  as  it  does  in  the  plantlets 


HoLLOWAY. — Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodjum.     209 

which  are  borne  on  the  clavatum  and  complanatum  types  of  prothallus.  In 
these  latter  species  the  prothallus  is  stil)  more  deeply  buried,  and  the  leaves 
on  the  young  stem  are  also  no  more  than  scales,  so  that  the  prothallus 
functions  as  the  source  of  food-supply  for  a  lengthy  period.  "  The  size  of  the 
foot  in  the  New  Zealand  epiphytic  species  can  be  seen  from  figs.  11  and  34, 
the  foot  being  in  transverse  section  in  the  former  figure  and  in  longitudinal 
section  in  the  latter.  There  is  a  well-defined  epithelial  cell-layer  around 
the  periphery  of  the  foot  where  the  latter  is  in  contact  with  the  prothallus, 
and  the  outer  walls  of  these  epithelial  cells  are  strongly  defined,  staining 
darkly.  The  adjoining  prothallial  tissue  is  small-celled  and  contains  abundant 
protoplasm  and  darkly-staining  nuclei^  extensive  cell-division  having  taken 
place  here  contemporaneously  with  the  development  of  the  plant.  The 
central  cells  in  the  foot  are  large,  with  their  long  axes  directed  towards  the 
stem-apex.  All  of  these  features,  of  course,  point  to  the  fact  that  there- 
is  a  well-established  translocation  of  food  material  from  the  prothallus 
into  the  developing  plantlet,  and  that  the  epithelial  layer  functions  as  an 
absorbing  tissue. 

The  first  root  develops  comparatively  late.  It  may  be  recognized  as  a 
conical  outgrowth  at  the  base  of  the  stem  on  the  side  which  lies  away  from 
the  prothallus  even  before  the  stem-apex  has  reached  the  surface  of  the 
soil,  but  it  never  seems  to  develop  farther  until  the  first  leaves  are  being 
produced.  Fig.  34  shows  the  first  root  in  longitudinal  section,  it  being 
apparent  from  this  figure  that  the  main  vascular  tissues  of  the  stem  lead 
down  bodily  into  the  root,  while  just  a  few  narrow  conducting-elements 
connect  the  former  with  the  central  tissue  of  the  foot.  Fig.  34,  which  is 
a  drawing  of  the  young  plant  of  L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile,  is  strikingly 
similar  to  the  figure  which  Bruchmann  gives  of  the  young  plant  of  L.  Selago 
(1,  pi.  7,  fig.  43).  I  have  observed  a  number  of  ypung  plants  of  the  New 
Zealand  epiphytic  species  in  this  condition,  so  that  it  may  be  taken  as 
representing  characteristically  this  stage  in  the  development  of  the  young 
plant  and  its  mode  of  dependence  upon  the  prothallus  in  both  the  Selago 
and  Phlegmaria  sections. 

Treub  stated  that  in  the  young  plant  of  L.  Phlegmaria  he  had  found  an 
indication  of  a  swelling  which  he  regarded  as  a  rudimentary  protocorm. 
Bower,  however,  has  questioned  this,  and  Treub's  statement  has  never  been 
established.  I  have  found  no  indication  of  a  protocorm  in  any  of  the  three 
New  Zealand  species  which  belong  to  this  section  of  the  genus.  In  his 
Origin  of  a  Land  Flora  Bower  says  that  he  regards  the  Selago  and  Phlegmaria 
type  of  embryo  plant  as  being  the  primitive  type  for  the  genus,  as  it 
certainly  is  the  most  simple.  The  clavatum  and  complanatum  type  of 
embryo,  he  says,  is  not  very  dissimilar  to  it,  but  has  become  more  modi- 
fied through  the  large  development  of  the  foot  consequent  on  the  deeply 
subterranean  habit  of  the  prothallus.  The  cernuum-inundatum  type  of 
embryo  stands  rather  by  itself.  The  intraprothallial  swelling  called  the 
"  foot  "  is  here  practically  absent,  but  instead  there  is  the  extra-prothallial 
swelling  which  Treub  called  the  "  protocorm."  Bower  and  others  hold 
stroijgly  that  the  protocorm  is  not  a  primitive  character,  as  Treub  "had 
supposed,  but  merely  a  physiological  modification. 

Details  of  the  Fungal  Symbiont. 
A  symbiotic  fungus  occurs  very  commonly  throughout  the  Pteridophyta 
in  the  subterranean  forms  of  prothallus,  and  it  has  been  carefully  studied 
in  most  of  those  species  of  Li/copodium  of  which  the  prothalli  are  known. 


210  Transactions. 

In  the  three  New  Zealand  species  dealt  with  above  it  is  present  at  the  actual 
base  of  the  prothallus,  having  entered  probably  very  early  in  its  develop- 
ment. It  occupies  the  whole  of  the  tissues  in  the  basal  cone  except  at 
the  meristematic  apex,  being  found  even  in  the  epidermal  cells  at  the  basal 
point  (figs.  1,  9).  At  first  the  fungus  is  in  the  form  of  hyphal  coils  which 
are  in  actual  connection  with  the  mycelium  in  the  outside  soil  by  means  of 
hyphae  which  are  to  be  found  running  through  the  rhizoids.  As  these 
rhizoids  die  off  from  the  older  parts  of  the  prothallus,  each  being  cut  off 
at  its  base  by  a  strongly  thickened  transverse  wall,  the  fungus  in  these 
older  regions  becomes  isolated  from  that  in  the  soil,  and  probably  ceases 
to  function.  The  fungal  coils  soon  disappear  in  many  ,of  the  cells,  their 
place  being  taken  by  clusters  of  darkly-staining  oval  "  spores  "  (fig.  10). 
I  do  not  know  whether  or  not  the  fungus  is  at  all  used  up  by  the  growing 
prothallus,  but  I  should  say  not,  as  in  even  mature  prothalli  the  cells  in 
the  basal  cone  are  still  occupied  either  by  the  coils  or  by  the  "  spores." 

A  little  forward  from  the  basal  cone  the  fungus  has  begun  to  penetrate 
between  the  cells  as  well  as  occupying  their  cavities,  so  that  the  cells  appear 
loundish  in  section.  It  is  especially  jiresent  in  this  intercellular  position 
at  the  centre  of  the  prothallus,  and  produces  its  spores  there  also  (fig.  12). 
A  little  higher  up  the  prothallial  body  the  fungus  becomes  more  localized, 
avoiding  the  centra!"  core  of  cells  which  has  begun  to  function  in  the 
translocation  of  food  material.  The  cells  of  this  fungal  zone  throughout 
the  vegetative  portion  of  the  main  prothallial  body  preserve  their  ordinary 
form  and  are  in  no  way  altered  by  the  presence  of  the  fungus.  Their  nuclei 
also  appear  large  and  healthy,  showing  that  the  fungus  has  exercised  no 
harmful  effect.  I  have  not  been  able  to  distinguish  in  these  prothalli  the 
multinucleate  vesicles  which  have  been  described  as  occurring  in  the  fungal 
zone  in  the  prothalli  of  the  clavatum  and  complanatum  types.  All  that  are 
here  apparent  are  the  dense  hyphal  coils  and  the  clusters  of  spores.  As 
the  prothallus  grows,  the  fungus  pushes  forward,  always  occupying  its 
particular  zone,  except  that  at  length  when  'the  sexual  organs  and  para- 
physes  are  initiated  it  is  confined  to  the  ventral  side  of  the  prothallus 
body  (fig.  14).  In  the  forward,  bulky,  generative  region  the  fungus  is 
altogether  absent.  Its  most  forward  position  is  shown  in  (fig.  15),  and  it 
wiU  be  observed  that  even  here  the  coils  have  begun  to  be  transformed 
into  the  spores. 

The  fungus  is  also  present  in  the  lateral  branches,  being  confined  there 
also  to  a  particular  zone,  avoiding  the  centrally-placed  conducting-cells 
and  the  epidermis.  Here,  too,  it  is  intercellular  as  well  as  intracellular, 
and  the  clusters  of  spores  are  a  well-marked  feature  (figs.  20-22).  The 
distribution  of  the  fungus  in  some  of  the  long  thin  branches  is  discontinuous 
(fig.  1),  from  which  it  would  appear  that  fresh  infection  can  take  place 
from  without  through  the  rhizoids  (see  also  fig.  9).  In  those  stouter 
branches  which  have  begun  to  form  sexual  organs  and  paraphyses  the 
fungus  is  only  present  along  the  opposite  side  of  the  branch  (figs.  28-30), 
the  branches  thus  being  bilateral.  Sometimes  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  when 
a  branch  is  beginning  to  swell  at  the  apex  preparatory  to  the  formati^fn  of 
antheridia  the  fungus  is  thickly  aggregated  immediately  behind  this  point, 
there  occupying  the  whole  of  the  tissues  of  the  branch  (fig.  24).  The 
"  resting  "  club-shaped  branches  are  always  very  densely  infected,  there 
being  no  long  narrow  central  conducting-cells  (figs.  1,  25,  26,  30).  The 
actual  apex  of  the  resting  process  is,  of  course,  clear  of  the  fungus,  but 
the  latter  reaches  right  up  behind  the  apex,  being  found  there   as  dense 


HoLLOWAY. — Studies  in  the  jSew  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodium.     211 

fungal  coils  (figs.  31,  32).  Throughout  the  greater  portion  of  these  resting 
processes  the  coils  have  given  place  to  the  clusters  of  spores,  as  takes  place 
also  in  the  other  parts  of  the  prothallus. 

I  have  not  been  able  to  trace  how  the  spores  are  formed,  or  even 
what  is  their  exact  nature.  It  seems  unlikely  that  they  are  used  up  by 
the  developing  prothallus  as  food,  for  they  are  more  thickly,  present  in  the 
oldest  parts  of  the  prothallus  than  elsewhere.  Nor  have  I  observed  the 
presence  of  oil  globules  in  the  fungal  tissues,  which  is  so  well  known  a 
feature  in  the  prothalli  of  the  clavatum  and  complanatum  types.  Probably 
the  prothallus  benefits  from  the  fungus  only  when  the  latter  is  in  the  form 
of  hyphal  coils,  these  coils  being  in  direct  connection  with  the  external 
mycelium.  The  rapid  growth  in  length  of  the  prothallus  and  its  branches 
accounts  for  there  being  no  storing-up  of  food  material  in  any  of  its 
vegetative  parts.  Even  in  the  bulky  generative  region  I  have  not  been 
able  to  discover  the  presence  of  starch,  although  it  is  possible  that  it  may 
there  be  present  at  certain  stages  in  the  development  of  the  sexual  organs 
or  young  plant,  but  there  is  abundant  protoplasm  and  the  nuclei  are  very 
large  in  the  cells  around  the  growing  apex.  The  younger  regions  of  the 
lateral  branches  are  probably  self-nourishing,  in  this  matter  being  quite 
independent  of  the  older  parts  of  the  prothallus.  In  fact,  isolated  branches 
or  portion  of  branches  are  capable  of  continued  growth,  this  being  a  very 
common  method  of  propagation  in  these  epiphytic  species.  The  central 
conducting-strand  in  the  branches  functions  in  the  translocation  of  food 
material  from  the  younger  regions  of  the  branches  down  into  the  main 
prothallial  body,  the  food  being  there  needed  in  the  forward  generative 
region. 

Miss  Edgerley  figures  the  clusters  of  spore-like  bodies,  stating  that  she 
found  them  very  commonly  in  L.  Billardieri,  but  that  she  observed  no 
nucleated  vesicles  (4,  p.  109). 

Comparison  oj  L.  Selago  and  L.  Billardieri  (cfec). 

In  his  description  of  the  prothalli  of  L.  Selago,  Bruchmann  (1,  pp.  87 
et  seq.)  shows  that  the  more  compact  surface-growing  forms  which  are 
found  in  this  species  possess  a  ring-like  marginal  meristem.  This  bears  a 
close  resemblance  to  that  which  is  found  in  the  prothallus  of  the  clavatum 
and  complanatum.  types.  The  elongated  prothalli  of  L.  Selago  are  found 
in  deeper  soil,  and  possess,  according  to  Bruchmann,  an  erect  position 
of  growth,  as  if  striving  to  reach  the  surface.  Bruchmann  derives  the 
peculiar  growth  of  the  latter  from  the  ring-like  marginal  growth  of  the 
former,  stating  that  the  apparently  apical  meristem  of  the  elongated  forms 
represents  a  part  of  the  margin  which  has  grown  forward.  It  will  be 
necessary  to  compare  this  manner  of  elongated  growth  with  that  which 
takes  place  in  the  prothalli  belonging  to  the  Phlegmaria  section. 

The  prothallus  of  both  L.  Selago  and  L.  Billardieri  (&c.)  starts  with  the 
cone  form,  the  cone  being  from  the  first  richly  occupied  by  the  fungus. 
Judging  from  the  arrangement  of  cells  at  the  lowest  part  of  the  .cone, 
growth  at  first  takes  place  from  a  single  apical  cell,  but  this  probably 
soon  gives  place  to  a  group  of  apical  meristematic  cells.  The  girth  of 
the  cone  is  also  probably  increased  by  cell-divisions  taking  place  in  all  the 
body-cells  stimulated  by  the  presence  of  the  fungus.  From  this  point- 
onwards  the  further  growth  of  the  protl  alius  could  either  result  in  the 
extension  of  the  cone  form  or  the  prothallus  could  pass  out  of  the  cone  form 
into  an  elongated,  cylindrical  form.     The  first  of  these  methods  seems  to 


212  Transactions. 

be  the  normal  rule  in  L.  Selago — at  any  rate,  in  its  surface -growing  forms — 
and  the  latter  in  the  prothallus  of  the  Phlegmaria  section.  It  is  signifi- 
cant to  note  that  both  these  methods  of  growth  are  represented  in  those 
New  Zealand  species  which  belong  to  the  Cernua  section,  and  which  are 
described  later  in  this  paper,  although  in  these  species  they  are  not  so 
clearly  differentiated  as  in  the  former.  The  prothalli  of  the  Phlegmaria 
section  represent  the  extreme  attained  within  the  genus  by  the  elongated, 
cylindrical  type  of  growth,  and  the  prothalli  of  the  clavatum  and  com- 
planatum  sections  represent,  on  the  other  hand,  the  extreme  attained  by 
the  continued  cone-like  manner  of  growth.  The  prothalli  of  L.  Selago,  as 
Lang  has  pointed  ojit  (10,  p.  305),  show  that  these  two  main  types  are 
not  fundamentally  dissimilar,  for  they  both  here  occur  in  the  same  species. 
In  saying  this,  however,  it  must  clearly  be  remembered  that,  according 
to  Bruchmann's  account,  the  elongated,  cylindrical  forms  of  the  L.  Selago 
prothallus  do  not  altogether  correspond  to  the '  elongated  prothalli  of  the 
Phlegmaria  section,  for  growth  in  them  is  not  truly  apical,  but  is  rather 
a  one-sided  marginal  extension  from  the  cone.  The  elongated  prothallus 
of  L.  ramvlosum,  as  will  be  shown,  is  really  more  comparable  to  the 
prothallus  of  L.  Phlegmaria,  &c.,  although,  even  here,  the  comparison  is 
not  an  exact  one.  The  elongated  bilateral  extensions  from  the  basal  cone 
in  L.  Selago  are  better  compared  with  the  flattened  extension  from  the 
margin  which  Bruchmann  described  and  figured  in  L.  annotinum  (1),  being 
of  the  same  nature  but  much  more  pronounced. 

The  more  compact  surface-growing  form  of  the  L.  Selago  prothallus  is 
nearer  to  a  self-nourishing,  chlorophyllous  type  of  prothallus,  which  must ' 
certainly  be  regarded  as  more  primitive  than  a  wholly  saprophytic  one. 
The  very  young  prothallus,  as  has  been  said,  begins  with  the  cone  form, 
and  next  has  to  set  apart  a  central  conducting-core  which  reaches  up 
behind  the  actual  growing  apex.  The  apex,  of  course,  will  be  more  or  less 
conical  in  shape,  and  at  this  stage  is  certainly  not  brosid.  If  the  pro- 
thallus does  not  proceed  to  elongate  rapidly,  the  stimulation  to  increase 
in  size  will  be  largely  confined  to  increasing  its  girth,  and  this  will  take 
place  not  only  by  a  broadening  of  the  apical  mersitem,  but  also  by  divi- 
sions taking  place  in  the  body-cells  generally.  At  the  same  time  the 
fungus-free  central  core  will  extend  in  width  as  the  apex  broadens  and 
the  prothallus  slowly  extends  in  length,  until  it  assumes  above  the  form  of 
a  cushion  of  tissue.  If  chloropyhll  is  developed  in  it,  this  upper  cushion 
will  contain  a  general  distribution  of  starch.  In  proceeding  to  explain 
how  the  original  apical  meristem  could  become  transposed  to  a  marginal 
ring  it  seems  not  unnatural  to  suppose  that  as  the  upper  fungus-free 
tissue  becomes  more  bulky,  and  so  loses  the  tendency  to  a  localized 
concentration  of  food  material,  the  stimulation  exerted  by  the  supply  of 
food  is  felt  more  in  those  parts  of  the  prothallus  where  the  fungus  is 
youngest  and  therefore  in  its  fullest  functioning  power.  This  will  naturally 
be  along  the  upper  margin  of  the  enveloping  fungal  zone  which  extends 
as  a  ring  around  the  prothallus.  Here,  then,  the  meristematic  activity 
of  the  prothallus  will  be  localized.  As  the  prothallus  still  continues  slowly 
to  increase  in  size  the  fungus  will  push  forward  bit  by  bit  into  the  more 
newly  formed  cells,  the  prothallus  still  retaining  the  original  cone  form. 
I  .  In  the  surface-growing  prothallus  of  L.  Selago  this  is  what  happens, 
and  the  sexual  stage  is  fairly  early  initiated,  the  antheridia  and  later  the 
archegonia  arising  from  the  meristem.  A  comparative  study  of  the  pro- 
thalli of  the  different  species  of  Lycopodium  shows  that  the  cone  type  of 


HoLLOWAY. — Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodium.    213 

structure  exhibits  modifications  in  the  different  sections  of  the  genus  which 
are  quite  in  accord  with  the  conditions  under  which  the  prothalli  of  those 
sections    live.      There    is    no    need    for    the    surface-growing    prothalli    of 
L.  Selago  to  increase  in  length,   for  they  soon  reach  the  light.      Nor  is 
there  any  great  storing-up  of  food  in  their  tissues,  for  the  young  plant 
when  formed  can  quickly  attain  independance.      Again,  it  is  probably  the 
inherited  tendency  towards  the  chlorophyllous,   self-nourishing  condition, 
which  is  strong  in  the  prothallus  of  this  species,  which  causes  the  more 
deeply  buried  individuals  to  adopt  the  peculiar  and  extensive  prolongation 
of  the  upper  margin  of  the  cone  into  the  cylindrical,  bilateral,  erect  branches 
in  the  effort  to  reach  the  light.     In  the  altogether  subterranean  humus- 
loving  prothalli  of  the   Phlegmaria  section  the   chlorophyllous  habit  has 
been  completely  lost,  and  the  direction  of  growth  of  the  prothallus  bears 
no  relation  to  the  surface  of  the  soil.     These  prothalli  are  greatly  elongated 
and  branched,  and  the  extensive  development  of  long  rhizoids,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  humus-growing  prothalli  of  Tmesipteris  .and  Psilotum,  shows  that  it 
is  necessary  for  the  fungus  in  the  prothallus  to  be  brought  into  intimate 
contact  with  as  large  an  area  as  possible  of  the  humus  for  its  nourishment. 
The  method  of  elongation  is  here  altogether  different  from  that  adopted  by 
the  underground  prothalli  of  L.  Selago.     Starting  from  the  cone  form,  the  pro- 
thallus quickly  passes  into  the  cylindrical  form  without  increasing  its  girth, 
the  meristem  continuing  in  the  original  apical  position  throughout  the  life 
of  the  prothallus.      In  this  way  the  main  prothallus  body  is  formed,  that  of 
L.  Billardieri  var.  gracile  being  more  elongated  than  that  of  the  other-species 
examined.     The  somewhat  liulky  nature  of  the  forward  generative  portion 
of  this  body  of  tissue  goes  hand  in  hand  with  the  need  for  the  prothallus 
to  support  the  young  plant  for  a  longer  period  than  in  the  case  of  the 
prothallus  of  L.  Selago,  owing  to  the  correspondingly  greater  depth  at  which 
the  former  is  buried.     The  lateral  branches  arise  adventitiously  from  any 
part  of  the   main   prothallial   body   and   grow  from  an   apical   meristem. 
They  are   primarily  vegetative,   the   sexual  organs  being  borne  normally 
on    the    central   body.      The   latter   in   its  generative   region   possesses   a 
bilateral  structure  which  is  always  dorsiventral,  the  sexual  organs  being 
borne  only  on  the  upper  side.      Here  again  this  is  not  strictly  comparable 
with  the  bilateral  structure  of  the  processes  of  the  L.  Selago  prothallus, 
for  in  the  latter  it  is,  according  to  Bruchmann,  simply  carried  over  from 
the  margin  of  the  original  basal  cone  and  always  bears  evidence  of  this. 
Thus  the  modification  of  the  original  cone  form  in  the  epiphytic  prothalli, 
as  in  those  of  L.  Selago,  is  best  explained  in  the  light  of  the  conditions 
under  which  the  prothalli  live. 

The  structure  of  the  prothallus  in  the  New  Zealand  species  belonging 
to  the  Cernua  section,  and  the  modifications  which  there  occur,  will  be 
considered  in  the  next  section  of  this  paper,  and  a  general  comparative 
survey,  including  also  the  structure  of  the  prothallus  of  the  clavatum  and 
complanatum  types,  will  be  instituted  in  the  concluding  remarks. 

Section  Cernua. 
L.  cernuum  Linn.  ;   L.  laterale  R.  Br.  Prodr.  ;    L.  ramulosum  T.  Kirk. 

Literature. 

In  1884  Treub  (13)  published  his  account  of  the  prothallus  of  L.  cernuum. 
Goebel's  (5)  account  of  the  prothallus  of  L.  inundatum  followed  next  in  1887, 
and  in  the  following  year  Treub  (15)  described  his  laboratory  cultures  of 


214 


Transactions. 


the  prothallus  of  L.  salakense.  In  1902  Thomas  (12)  published  a  pre- 
liminary account  of  the  prothallus  of  Phylloglossum.  In  1910  (6)  I  noted 
the  fact  that  I  had  found  the  prothalli  of  both  L.  cernuum  and  L.  laterale 
in)  New  Zealand,  and  stated  that  the  latter  was  of  the  cernuum  type.  In 
Part  I  of  the  present  series  of  papers  (7)  I  described  and  figured  the 
external  form  of  the  prothalli  and  the  structure  of  the  young  plant  of 


Fig.  38. — L.  cernuum.     Prothallus  showing  in  general  view  lower  part  of  shaft  with 

two  fungal  regions,      x  32. 
Fig.  39. — L.  cernuum.     Longitudinal  section  of  prothallus  shown  in  fig.  38.      X  32. 
Fig.  40. — L.  cernuum.     Longitudinal  section  of  prothallus,  showing  double  basal  tubercle 

and  thick,  short  shaft.      X  50. 
Fig.  4L — L.  cernuum.     Longitudinal  section  of  upper  fungal  region  of  a  prothallus,  with 

lateral  group  of  lobes.      X  50. 

both  these  species,  and  also  of  L.  ramulosum.,  noting  especially  the  variations 
in  form  to  be  found  in  the  prothallus  of  the  latter.  In  1917  Chamberlain  (3) 
gave  a  brief  description,  with  figures,  of  the  prothallus  and  young  plant  of 
L.  laterale  from  material  which  he  had  obtained  in  New  Zealand.  Lastly, 
in  a  third  Part  (9)  I  have  enumerated  the  main  results  of  my  study  of  the 
three  New  Zealand  species  which  belong  to  the  Cernua  section  in  connection 
with  the  plasticity  to  be  observed  in  the  genus  as  a  whole. 


HoLLOWAT. — Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodium.     215 


General  Form  of  the  Prothallus. 

L.  cernuum. — The  typical  prothallus  of  L.  cernuum  consists,  according 
to  Treub,  of  a  basal  "  primary  tubercle,''  a  longer  or  shorter  shaft,  and 
a  crown  of  lobes,  immediately  beneath  which  lies  the  meristem  and  the 
sexual  organs.  The  prothallus  is  radial  in  build,  erect  in  growth,  and 
situated  at  the  surface  of  the  soil,  being  gTeen  in  its  lobes  and  in  the  upper 
portion  of  the  shaft.  It  is  the  most  delicate  and  the  smallest  of  all  the 
types  of  Lycopodium  prothalli,  the  allied  L,  salakense  possessing  a  still  more 

43 


Fig.  42. — L.  cernuum.  Longitudinal  section  of  prothallus  of  intermediate  length,  x  50. 
Fig.  43. — L.    cernuum.     Longitudinal    section    of    basal    fungal    region    of    prothallus, 

showing  lateral  extension,      x  50. 
Fig.  44. — L.  cernuum.     Longitudinal  section  of  prothallus  of  thick,  short  form,     x  32. 
Fig.  45. — L.  cernuum.     Longitudinal  section  of  meristematic  region  of  prothallus,  with 

a  fertilized  archegonium.      x  50. 

filamentous  prothallus.  Some  of  the  prothalli  of  this  species  which  I  have 
found  are  comparatively  long  (7,  fig.  17,  and  fig.  38  in  the  present  paper). 
That  shown  in  the  latter  of  these  two  illustrations  was  broken  at  its  upper 
extremity,  so  that  I  do  not  know  its  complete  length.  In  others,  again,  the 
shaft  is  short  and  thick,  and  the  general  appearance  of  the  prothallus  more 
massive  (7,  fig.  20,  and  figs.  40  and  44  in  the  present  paper).  Forms  of  inter- 
mediate length  are  shown  in  a  previous  paper  (7,  figs.  18,  19,  and  21)  and 
in  fig.  42  of  the  present  paper.  I  have  also  found  a  considerable  amount 
of  variation  in  the  distribution  of  the  fungus,  and,  since  the  fungal  regions 
are  always  more  or  less  swollen,  there  is  a  corresponding  variation  in  the 


216  Transactions. 

general  form  of  the  prothallus.  There  is  sometimes  a  single  basal  tubercle 
of  rounded  form  (7,  figs.  17-20)  ;  or  this  basal  fungal  region  may  be 
extended  laterally  for  a  distance  up  one  side  of  the  shaft,  thus  giving  to 
the  prothallus  a  feomewhat  lop-sided  appearance  (7,  fig.  21,  and  figs.  42-44 
in  the  present  paper).  Again,  there  may  be  a  second  fungal  region  quite 
unconnected  with  the  first  and  situated  higher  up  the  shaft  (figs.'  38,  39, 
41).  Lastly,  there  may  be  two  distinct  fungal  regions  situated  side  by 
side,  the  two  constituting  the  basal  portion  of  the  prothallus  and  giving 
it  a  markedly  thickset  appearance  (fig.  40)  I  have  sectioned  several 
prothalli  which  showed  this  latter  form.  Rhizoids  are  borne  on  both 
fungal  swellings  in  those  cases  in  which  two  are  present.  The  lobes 
which  are  borne  at  the  crown  of  the  prothallus  are  flattened  extensions 
(7,  figs.  17-21),  being  generally  not  more  than  one  to  three  cells  thick  in- 
transverse  section  (figs.  40-42).  In  one  or  two  instances  1  noticed  from  my 
serial  sections  that  there  was  a  group  of  lobes  situated  laterally  on  the  shaft, 
of  the  prothallus.  In  fig.  41,  this  is  seen  to  be  associated  with  the  uppermost 
fungal  region,  as  if  the  formation  of  this  second  fungal  zone  had  initiated 
a  meristematic  activity  in  the  adjoining  regions  of  the  shaft.  The  thickest 
part  of  the  prothallus  is  always  that  situated  at  the  base  of  the  crown  of 
lobes.  Here  is  the  meristem  (figs.  42,  45)  from  which  the  lobes  have 
arisen,  and  by  whose  continued  activity  the  shaft  of  the  prothallus  can  be 
extended  in  length  and  its  upper  region  in  width.  Here,  too,  the  sexual 
organs  are  to  be  found  and  the  young  plantlets  (figs.  40,  44,  45).  I  have 
never  found  the  chlorophyll  extending  much  more  than  half-way  down 
the  shaft.  Sometimes  the  lobes  are  bright  green,  or  they  may  show  a  very 
slight  tinge  of  colour  or  be  quite  colourless,  this  variation  possibly  depending 
simply  upon  the  age  of  the  prothallus. 

L.  laterale. — The  prothallus  of  this  species  corresponds  very  closely  with 
that  of  L.  cernuum.  I  have  not  found  that  there  is  such  a  marked 
variation  in  the  length  of  the  shaft  as  is  to  be  found  in  the  latter  species, 
the  majority  of  the  prothalli  of  L.  laterale  being  more  of  the  intermediate 
length  (7,  figs.  13-16,  and  pi.  17,  fig.  3).  The  longest  prothallus  I  have 
found  is  that  shown  in  fig.  46.  One  prothallus  of  a  very  large  size  is 
shown  in  fig.  48.  It  was  exceedingly  massive  in  form,  and  of  irregular 
growth.  Its  greatest  length  was  in  a  horizontal  direction,  and  it  possessed 
a  crown  of  irregular  short  lobes  all  along  the  top.  It  was  almost  colourless, 
though  perhaps  this  was  the  result  of  its  age.  It  bore  a  young  plant  which 
was  of  a  bright-green  colour,  the  foot  of  the  plant  also  being  bright  green 
and  showing  very  conspicuously  through  the  prothallial  tissues.  Chamber- 
lain (3,  p.  57)  states  that  in  the  prothalli  of  this  species  examined  by  him 
he  found  no  sharply  differentiated  primary  tubercle  like  that  described 
by  Treub  in  L.  cernuum.  From  his  figures  it  would  appear  that  this  was 
because  his  prothalli  are  rather  of  the  short,  thickset  form.  The  basal 
tubercle  is  always  more  distinct  when  the  shaft  is  well  developed.  I  have 
found  that,  as  in  L.  cernuum,  the  basal,  fungal  region  may  extend  la,terally 
for  a  short  distance  up  one  side  of  the  shaft,  thus  giving  a  lop-sided 
appearance  to  the  prothallus  as  a  whole  (7,  fig.  13).  Also,  as  in  the  other 
species,  there  is  sometimes  a  second  fungal  region  higher  up  the  shaft  and 
quite  distinct  from  the  basal  tubercle  (fig.  47).  The  leafy  expansions  on 
the  crown  of  the  prothallus  of  L.  laterale  are  more  filamentous  and  less 
lobe-like  than  those  of  L.  cernuum  (7,  figs.  13-16,  and  pi.  17,  fig.  3,  and 
figs.  46  and  47  in  the  present  paper).  This  appears  also  from  Chamber- 
lain's figures.      A  large  proportion  of  the  prothalli  examined  by  me  showed 


Hollo  WAY. — Sfnch'es  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  Lj^copodium.     217 


«« 


Fig.  46. — L.  laterale.     Longitudinal  section  of  prothallus  and  young  plant.     X  42. 
Fig.  47. — L.   laterale.       Longitudinal   section  of  '  iirothallus,   showing   lobes   and 

shaft,  with  an  upper  fungal  region,      x  42. 
Fig.  48. — L.  laterale.      Large   massive   prothallus   with  young   plant  in   general 

view.     Also  a  very  young  iirothallus  entangled  in  the  rhizoids  of  the 

former,      x  16. 
Fig.  49. — L.  laterale.     The  very  j'oung  iwothallus  shown  in  fig.  48.      x  70. 


218 


Transactions. 


a  lateral  group  of  lobes  borne  on  the  shaft.  I  previously  thought  that 
this  was  a  distinguishing  feature  between  the  two  species  L.  cernuum  and 
L.  laterale,  but  have  since  found  it  also  in  the  prothalli  of  the  former.  In 
one  of  the  figures  given  in  Part  I  of  this  series  of  papers  (7,  fig.  16)  I  showed 
that  a  long,  thin,  club-shaped  process  is  sometimes  to  be  found  attached 

to  the  basal  tubercle  of  the  pro- 
thallus  of  L.  laterale,  and  I  there 
expressed  the  opinion  that  this 
was  the  first-formed  part  of  the 
prothallus,  as  it  so  often  is  also  in 
the  prothallus  of  L.  ramulosum. 
My  serial  sections  of  this  prothallus 
unfortunately  do  not  make  this 
satisfactorily  clear,  but  none  the 
less  I  feel  confident  that  this  is 
the  right  interpretation.  The  base 
of  this  first -formed  process  (7, 
fig.  16)  shows  the  presence  of  the 
fungus,  and  it  may  be  compared 
with  the  corresponding  parts  of 
L.  ramulosum  illustrated  in  the 
present  paper  in  figs.  52-54.  As 
in  L.  ^  cernuum,  the  prothallus  of 
L.  laterale  is  normally  short-lived, 
having  decayed  away  by  the  time 
that  its  plantlet  has  developed  two 
or  three  protophylls.  Probably 
the,  large  size  of  the  prothallus  in 
fig.  48  was  due  to  the  fact  that  for 
a  considerable  time  no  embryo  wa 
formed  on  it.  Moreover,  in  this 
case,  on  account  of  its  large  size,  the 
prothallus  would  persist  attached  to 
the  young  plant  for  a  much  longer 
time  than  usual. 

L.  ramulosum. — The  prothalli  of 
this  species  vary  very  remarkably, 
both  in  form  and  structure.  I 
have  discovered  these  prothalli  in 
several  different  localities  and  in 
considerable  numbers,  and  so  am 
able  to  give  a  fairly  complete  ac- 
count of  their  typical  form  and  of 
the  variations  of  it.  The  prothalli, 
as  in  the  other  species  belonging 
to  the  cernuum  type,  are  more  or 
less  green  in  their  upper  regions, 
being  situated  at  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  Some  of  the  prothalli  of  this  species  are  very  similar  to  those 
of  L.  cernuum,  while  others  show  on  the  one  hand  the  elongated  arid  on 
the  other  hand  the  compact,  massive  habit  which  I  have  described  as 
occurring  both  in  L.  cernuum  and  in  L.  laterale,  but  here  to  a  much  more 
marked   extent.      Figs.   50-55   illustrate  prothalli   of  the   elongated   form 


Fig.  50. — L.  ramulosum.  Complete  mature 
prothallus  of  elongated  form  in  general 
view,  showing  several  swollen  fungal 
regions,     x  30. 


Tbans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LI  I 


Plate  XII. 


iHli&A>' 


Jjycopodium   ramulosum. 
Complete  prothaUus  of  elongated  form,  in  general  view,      x  33. 


Face  p.  218 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LII. 


Plate  XIII. 


■S^/. 


■"'••^•ii, 


"     •    /' 


,?) 


\k:: 


Lycopodium  ramulosum. 
Complete  prothallus  of  elongated  form,  in  general  view.      X  33. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LII. 


Plate  XIV. 


Lycopodium  ramulosum. 
Prothallus  of  elongated  form  (incomplete  at  basal  end),  in  general  view.     X  33. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst  .  Vol.  LII. 


Plate  XV. 


:^'  ..pit} 


"^^1  'rm  ;m.-j  _    , 


/;*•   3^    ^1 


.1 


3? 


4i? 


LycojMflium  ramulosum. 
Longitudinal  section  of  prothallus  of  massive  form  and  young  jjlant.      X  46. 


HoLLOWAY. — Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodijum.     219 


and  figs.  56-60  prothalli  of  the  compact,  massive  build.  Some  of  these 
figures  were  given  in  Part  I  of  the  present  series  of  papers,  but  are  here 
reproduced  in  greater  detail.  Photos  of  three  elongated  prothalli  of  this 
species  in  general  view  are  also  given  in  Plates  XII,  XIII,  and  XIV,  and 


Fig.  51. — L.  ramulosum.  Complete  mature  prothaUus  of  elongated 
form  in  general  view,  showing  several  fimgal  regions^and 
a  young  plantlet.     x  30. 

a  photo  of  a  more  massive  prothaUus  with  its  young  plantlet  is  given  in 
longitudinal  section  in  Plate  XV.  The  prothaUus  shown  in  Plate  XII  is  the 
same  as  that  given  in  fig.  50. 

In  the  elongated  forms  the  fungal  regions  may  be  swollen  so  as  to 
present  the  form  of  rounded  tubercles,  or,  again,  they  may  be  scarcely 
swollen  at  all.  Each  fungal  region  invariably  bears  a  group  of  rhizoids. 
In  the  massive  forms  the  prothaUus  may  be  compact  and  show  a  certain 


220  Transactions. 

similarity  in  general  appearance  to  the  surface  -  growing  forms  of  the 
L.  Selago  prothallus,  or  they  may  be  so  irregularly  extended  in  length  that 
their  build  is  difficult  to  distinguish.  In  the  elongated  forms,  along  with 
the  development  of  a  number  of  fungal  areas,  there  goes  a  corresponding 
development  of  several  distinct  generative  regions  bearing  sexual  organs 
and  filamentous  or  lobe-like  processes.  Frequently,  in  this  latter  form 
of  prothallus,  the  first-formed  generative  regions  are  brown  and  withered, 
suggesting  that  the  prothallus  had  resuni^d  growth  on  one  or  more  occa- 
sions at  the  close  of  a  dry  period  or  on  account  of  there  being  no  embryo 
developed.  I  have  always  found  that  a  young  plant  when  present  was 
borne  on  the  last-formed  region  of  the  prothallus,  so  that  growth  in  length 
is  apparently  not  continued  after  the  development  of  a  young  plant.  The 
prothalli  sometimes  persist  attached  to  the  developing  plant  for  a  much 
longer  time  than  in  L.  cernuum.  I  have  found  several  instances  of  a  healthy 
prothallus  still  attached  to  a  plantlet  which  showed  as  many  as  seven  or 
eight  protophylls  along  an  extended  protocorm.  The  lateral  processes  are 
sometimes  filamentous,  and  at  others  short  and  lobe-like.  Owing  to  the 
fact  that  the  prothallus  of  L.  ramulosum  is  so  variable  in  form,  it  is 
impossible  to  give  many  details  in  a  general  description  of  it.  I  will  now 
proceed  to  enter  more  into  detail  in  connection  with  the  particular 
individuals  figured  in  this  paper. 

The  prothallus  shown  in  fig.  50  and  in  Plate  XII  possessed  five  fimgal 
areas,  quite  distinct  from  one  another,  each  being  swollen  and  rounded  in 
form  and  bearing  a  group  of  rhizoids.  There  are  two  generative  regions 
showing  the  presence  of  archegonia  and  bearing  filamentous  processes.  The 
basal  fungal  swelling  bore  no  evidence  of  any  original  filamentous  stage,  and 
was  probably  formed  immediately  on  germination  of  the  spore.  As  wiU 
be  described  later,  a  first-formed  filamentous  stage  is  frequently  to  be 
observed  in  the  prothalli  of  this  species.  The  uppermost  fungal  region  is, 
of  course,  the  youngest.  It  occurs  at  the  base  of  the  meristematic  apex 
of  the  prothallus,  and  it  is  evident  that  both  this  growing  apex  and  its 
fungal  region  have  just  begun  to  form.  Both  from  the  figure  and  from 
the  photo  it  wiU  be  seen  that  here,  curiously  enough,  the  fungus  lies 
internally  to  the  epidermal  cells.  There  is  no  special  apical  cell  or  group 
of  cells,  the  whole  apical  region  of  the  prothallus  being  meristematic.  The 
succession  of  five  swollen  fungal  regions  shows  very  clearly  that  it  is  the 
fungus  which  causes  the  swelling  in  the  tissue  of  the  prothallus,  and  that, 
at  any  rate  in  this  prothallus,  the  primary  tubercle  is  in  no  wise  different 
from  any  of  the  later-formed  tubercles. 

The  prothallus  shown  in  fig.  51  illustrates  some  interesting  points  in 
comparison  with  that  just  described.  There  are  six  distinct  fungal  areas, 
and  the  four  lowest  are  closely  approximated  and  are  scarcely,  if  at  all, 
swollen.  There  is  a  well-developed  filament  at  the  base  of  the  prothallus, 
and  the  prothallus  as  a  whole  increases  quite  gradually  in  girth  from  this 
upwards.  Even  the  first-formed  fungal  region  is  practically  unswollen. 
I  should  judge  that  the  extension  in  length  of  the  prothallus  in  these 
early  stages  had  been  comparatively  rapid,  there  being  no  cessation  in 
growth  in  length  consequent  on  the  formation  of  a  first  generative  region 
or  of  the  storing  of  food  material.  This  state  of  things  can  bear  close  com- 
parison with  what  takes  place  normally  in  the  cylindrical  much-elongated 
epiphytic  prothalli,  in  which  growth  is  continuous  and  rapid  and  there  is 
an  entire  absence  of  swellings  in  the  fungal  regions.  The  adoption,  or 
rather, the  preservation,  of  the  definite  apical  meristem  in  the  epiphytic 
type  is  probably  only  the  result  of  this  habit  of  growth.     The  prothallus 


HoLLOWAY. — Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodium.    221 


of  L.  ramulosum  shown  in  fig.  51  may  best  be  described  in  its  entirety 
as  a  gradually  widening  filament.  The  young  plantlet  borne  at  its  upper 
extremity  was   peculiarly  diminutive  in  size.     There  were  no   antheridia 

-     r 


Figs.  52-54. — L.  ramulosum.  Complete  mature  prothalli  of  elongated  form  in  general 
view,  a  is  the  basal  fungal  region  ;  a'  and  a",  secondary  fungal  regions  ; 
b'  and  b"  are  generative  regions  bearing  lobe-like  outgrowths.  In  fig.  52 
there  is  a  lateral  outgrowth  (6)  associated  with  the  basal  fungal  region.  The 
shading  on  6'  and  b"  represents  browning  due  to  withering.      X  20. 

Fig.  55. — L.  ra?nulosmn.  Complete  mature  prothallus  of  elongated  form  in  general 
view,  showing  branching  above  the  second  fungal  region.      X  20. 

either  on  this  prothallus  or  on  that  in  fig.  50.  The  photo  of  the  prothallus 
given  in  Plate  XIII  also  illustrates  the  nature  of  the  elongated  manner 
of  growth  with  the  formation  of  several  fungal  regions. 


222  Transactions. 

The  four  protlialli  outlined  in  figs.  52-55  show  at  their  base  a  distinct 
fungal  tubercle,  that  in  fig.  53  bearing  evidence  of  an  original  filament.  The 
prothallus  in  Plate  XIV  shows  a  lower  fungal  region,  which  was,  however, 
not  the  first-formed  portion.  The  shaft  is  long,  and  bears  a  lateral  process 
and  also  a  terminal  broad  generative  region  which  is  associated  with  a 
second  fungal  area.  In  figs.  52  and  54  there  is  a  fungal  swelling  located 
behind  the  growing  end,  it  being  evident  also  that  in  both  tkese  prothalli 
the  apex  is  at  the  point  of  renewing  its  growth.  A  large  number  of  prothalli 
of  this  species  which  I  found  were  of  the  peculiar  step-like  form  shown  in 
figs.  52-54.  Here  the  generative  regions  are  sometimes  of  considerable, 
extent,  and,  relatively  to  the  long  axis  of  the  prothallus,  lie  horizontally. 
The  position  of  these  elongated  prothalli  in  the  soil  is  always  vertical.  The 
older  generative  regions  are  frequently  brown  and  withered,  either  as  the 
result  of  a  dry  spell  in  the  weather  or  because  they  have  ceased  to  be 
supplied  with  food  and  have  begun  to  decay.  These  generative  regions 
are  frequently  fairly  bulky.  It  is  probable  that  the  irregularly,  massive 
forms  of  prothallus  described  next  have  acquired  their  form  through  an 
exceptionally  bulky  development  of  one  or  more  of  these  successive 
generative  regions,  the  intermediate  shaft-like  ^stages  of  growth  having 
been  suppressed.  Sometimes  these  massive  prothalli  show  the  remains 
of  the  lowest  shaft  and  first-formed  tubercle  still  attached  to  them. 
Those  prothalli  of  L.  laterale  which  bear  club-like  processes  attached  to  the 
primary  tubercle,  as  described  in  a  previous  paper  (7,  fig.  16),  probably 
come  under  this  category.  Fig.  55  shows  a  prothallus  which  has  branched 
in  its  middle  region,  tlie  two  branches  being  borne  on  a  particularly  large 
fungal  swelling.  These  two  branches  are  clearly  not  to  be  regarded  as 
processes  of  the  kind  usually  borne  on  the  generative  regions.  One  of 
them  showed  a  fungal  region  with  rhizoids  near  its  apex.  Both  are  browned 
at  the  tip.  It  is  certainly  interesting  to  find  that  along  with  its  power  of 
cylindrical  elongation  the  prothallus  of  this  species  is  able  also  to  branch, 
these  variations  suggesting  that  the  Lycopodium  prothallus  is  very  plastic 
in  character  and  that  the  several  main  types  are  by  no  means  so  fixed  as 
has  been  supposed. 

'I  pass  now  to  the  description  of  the  massive  and  compact  prothalli. 
Some  of  these  show  a  very  regular  build  (figs.  56,  57,  60,  and  Plate  XV), 
being  comparable  with  the  surfp,ce-growing  forms  of  L.  Selago  (see  1,  pi.  6, 
fig.  37).  They  do  not,  however,  show  the  same  internal  structure  as  the 
latter.  The  prothallus  illustrated  in  fig.  56  possesses  one  fungal  region  only, 
which  occupies  the  whole  of  the  base.  This  leads  up  into  a  short,  massive 
shaft  and  a  wide,  upper,  generative  region.  The  whole  of  the  uppermost 
region  is  meristematic,  there  being  no  localized  marginal,  ring-like  meristem 
as  is  the  case  in  the  compact  prothallus  of  L.  Selago.  At  the  base  of  this 
prothallus  there  is  a  filament  consisting  of  one  long  cell  bent  in  the  middle 
(fig.  56a)  which  does  not  show  the  presence  of  fungus.  It  leads  up  into  a 
swollen  region  which  can  be  described  as  the  basal  tubercle,  this  latter 
passing  gradually  again  into  a  higher  and  more  swollen  region.  The  pro- 
thalli shown  in  figs.  57  and  60  and  Plate  XV  are  also  of  this  same  form,  there 
being  but  one  large  basal  fvmgal  region.  That  in  Plate  XV  is  in  longitudinal 
section,  but  the  section  does  not  pass  medianly  through  either  the  base 
or  the  shaft,  nor  does  it  show  the  full  width  of  the  prothallus.  This 
massive  form  of  the  prothallus  of  L.  ramulosum  is  similar  to  that  sometimes 
adopted  by  the  prothallus  of  L.  cernuum  and  L.  laterale,  howbeit  in  a  more 
marked  degree. 


HoLLOWAY. — Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Sj^ecies  of  Lycopodium.     223 


Fig.    56. — L.   rmnulosum.     Complete  mature  prothallus  of  compact,   massive  form   in 

general  view,  bearing  young  plant.      X  27. 
Fig.  56a. — L.  ramulosum.     Original  end  of  ijrothallus  shown  in  fig.  56  in  general  view. 

X  73. 
Fig.  57. — L.  ramulosum.     Complete  half-grown  prothallus  of  massive  form,  in  general 

view.      X  35. 
Figs.    58-60. — L.    ramulosum.     Mature    prothalU    of    massive    form,    in    general    view. 

Those  shown  in  figs.  58  and  59  have  grown  irregularly,      x  14. 


224  Transactions. 

Another  type  of  massive  prothallus  is  that  shown  in  figs.  58  and  59, 
where  the  continued  bulky  growth  has  resulted  in  a  very  irregular  form. 
The  oldest  part  of  the  prothallus  can  be  recognized  in  both  these  figures, 
although  whether  or  not  this  part  represents  the  actual  original  basal  end  of 
the  prothallus  cannot  be  said.  In  fig.  58  there  are  two  distinct  generative 
regions,  the  uppermost  of  which  is  divided  by  a  deep  constriction.  The 
foot  of  a  young  plant  has  been  torn  from  one  portion  of  this  upper  region. 
This  particular  prothallus  is  similar  in  its  continued  growth  to  those  shown 
in  figs.  52-54,  except  that  the  great  bulkiness  has  rather  obscured  the 
typical  cylindrical  radial  build.  In  fig.  59  the  prothallus  has  grown  still 
more  irregularly,  and  there  are  apparently  two  growing  regions,  one  of 
which  is  broken.  The  sexual  organs  are  distributed  along  the  whole  of  the 
top  of  the  prothallus,  and  are  in  this  case  archegonia  only.  This  particular 
prothallus  is  best  compared  with  the  basal  portion  and  first  generative 
region  only  of  those  shown  in  figs.  53  and  54.  These  massive,  irregularly- 
grown  prothalli  usually  show  abundant  chlorophyll. 

Position  in  the  Soil. 

All  the  prothalli  in  these  three  species  are  situated  at  the  surface  of  the 
soil  and  possess  more  or  less  chlorophyll.  Their  position  in  the  soil  is  always 
erect.  The  chlorophyll  is  never  present  in  the  basal  regions,  but  always 
in  the  lobes,  and  generally  also  in  the  upper  part  of  the  shaft.  Consequent 
on  this  vertical  position  of  growth,  the  prothalli  never  show  such  an 
elongated  habit  as  do  those  of  the  epiphytic,  subterranean  type,  but  certain 
individuals,  especially  in  L.  ramulosum,  show  a  marked  tendency  in  this 
direction.  I  cannot  say  whether  or  not  the  more  elongated  forms  in  this 
species  are  more  deeply  buried  in  their  basal  part  than  the  massive  forms. 
They  were  all  dissected  out  of  humus  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  a 
decaying  short  moss.  In  any  case,  the  total  length  of  even  the  most 
elongated  forms  is  too  small  to  have  much  significance  in  this  respect. 
Probably  the  function  of  continued  apical  growth  is  due  simply  to  the 
postponement  of  the  formation  of  the  embryo,  the  food-supply  being 
maintained  by  the  fungus  through  the  infection  of  newer  regions  of  the 
prothallus.  The  typical  radial  build  is  maintained  by  all  these  three  species, 
although  in  some  prothalli,  more  particularly  in  L.  ramulosum,  this  is  almost 
obscured  by  the  adoption  of  a  secondary,  irregular  manner  of  growth. 

Early  Stages  in  the  Development. 

I  have  been  fortunate  to  secure  several  very  young  prothalli  of  the  two 
species  L.  laterale  and  L.  ramulosum.  No  doubt  the  only  perfectly  satis- 
factory way  of  obtaining  the  youngest  stages  of  growth  in  any  prothallus 
is  by  the  experimental  germination  of  the  spores  in  the  laboratory  under 
close  observation.  Even  this  method,  however,  is  not  above  suspicion, 
for  one  can  never  be  sure  to  what  extent  the  artificial  conditions  influence 
the  form  of  the  young  prothallus.  Very  young  prothalli  dissected  out  of 
soil  collected  in  the  field  are  open  to  the  criticism  that  they  may  belong 
to  some  plant  other  than  the  one  under  consideration.  I  can  only  say 
that  with  regard  to  the  young  prothalli  now  to  be  described  I  am  quite  satis- 
fied that  they  belong  to  the  particular  species  of  Lycopodium  to  which  I 
have  ascribed  them,  and  the  reasons  will  be  stated. 

In  the  case  of  L.  cernuum,  I  have  found  no  young  stages.  Treub  has, 
however,  described  the  germination  of  the  spore  in  this  species,  having 
successfully  carried  this  out  in  the  laboratory.     His  figures,  which  I  have 


HoLLOWAY.— .S7wc?*es  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodium.     225 

seen  only  in  certain  standard  books  of  reference,  show  that  a  tubercle  is 
at  once  initiated,  which  is  apparently  at  first  devoid  of  fungus.  This 
tubercle  was  called  by  Treub  the  "  primary  tubercle,"  and  he  supposed 
that  it  was  a  characteristic  feature  of  the  Lycopodium  prothallus.  He  was 
also  successful  in  experimentally  cultivating  the  prothalli  of  L.  salakense. 
This  also  begins  with  a  globular  body,  the  "  primary  tubercle,"  from  which 
several  thin  filamentous  branches  arise,  one  of  the  latter  eventually  thicken- 
ing and  producing  the  sexual  organs.  This  prothallus  remains  altogether 
free  from  a  symbiotic  fungus.  Treub  also  germinated  the  spores  of  L.  curva- 
tum  Sw.,  from  which  he  obtained  "  primary  tubercles,"  but  he  was  unable 
to  induce  them  to  develop  farther.  All  the  mature  prothalli  of  L.  cernuum 
which  I  have  found  show  the  rounded  basal  tubercle,  although  in  some 
instances  this  is  somewhat  pointed  below  (see  7,  figs.  17-21,  and  figs.  38-44: 
in  the  present  paper). 

I  have  dissected  out  a  number  of  young  prothalli  of  the  species  L.  ramu- 
losum  along  with  the  more  mature  forms,  and  some  of  these  are  shown 
in  figs.  61-65.     I  judge  these  to  belong  to  this  species  since  they  are  of  the 
typical  Lycopodium  form  and  no  other  species  of  Lycopodium  were  present 
in  the  two  localities  from  which  they  came.     No  other  kind  of  prothallus 
was  ever  found  by  me  in  the  turves  from  which  I  dissected  out  those  of 
L.  ramulosum,  nor  was  any  species  of  fern  present  in  the  near  neighbourhood, 
except   Gleichenia  dicarpa.     Finally,  the  individuals  which  are  shown  in 
figs.   61-65  form  a  series   which  leads  on  to  the   more  mature  prothalli 
which  undoubtedly  belong  to  L.  ramulosum.     The  youngest  prothallus  was 
that  shown  in  fig.  61.    In  it  there  was  no  basal  swelling,  nor  was  there  any 
indication  of  the  presence  of  a  fungus.    The  lower  half  consisted  of  a  single 
linear  row  of  cells,  whilst  in  the  .upper  half  there  was  a  gradual  increase 
in  the  number  of  cells  and  in  the  girth  of  the  filament  towards  the  apex. 
This  upper  half  was  not  a  flat  expansion  of  cells  as  in  the  usual  fern  pro- 
thallus, but  was  radial  in  build.     The  cells  at  the  apex  were  smaller  than 
those  farther  back,  and  evidently  functioned  as  the  meristem.     The  whole 
filament   contained   chlorophyll   corpuscles.      The    original   spore-case    w:as 
still  attached  to  the  basal  cell.    In  fig.  62  is  shown  a  j^rothallus  in  which  the 
fijst-formed  filamentous  stage  was  very  short,  passing  almost  immediately 
and   suddenly  into   a   globular  mass   of   cells   which   could   be   called  the 
"  primary  tubercle."     This  prothallus  also  was  quite  free  of  fungus,  being 
green  througTiout.     The  apical  region  consisted  of  small-celled  tissue,  and 
a  young  sexual  organ  was  developing  near  by.     A  group  of  rhizoids  was 
borne  on   the  basal  tubercle.      In  the  formation  of  a  fungusless  primary 
tubercle   this   young    prothallus    corresponds   very   closely  to    those   early 
stages  in  L.  cernuum,  L.  salakense,  and  L.  curvatum  described  by  Treub. 
With  regard  to  the  mature  prothallus  of  L.  ramulosum,  the  conclusion  I 
arrived  at  was  that  any  swelling  In  the  fungal  regions  was  primarily  due  to 
the  localized  presence  of  the  fungus.    From  these  other  three  species,  how- 
ever, it  is  apparent  that  there  may  be  at  first  a  primary  tubercle  quite 
apart  from  the  presence  of  the  fungus,  and  this  also  appears  in  such  a  young 
prothallus  of  L.  ramulosum  as  that  shown  in  fig.  62.     However,  this  is  not 
always  the  case,  as  in  the  particular  prothallus  shown  in  fig.  61.    The  three 
young  prothalli  shown  in  figs.  63-65  all  possessed  a  primary  tubercle,  which 
was  infested  by  fungus. 

Are  we  to  consider  that  a  primary  tubercle  is  a  fundamental  feature 
in  the  structure  plan  of  the  Lycopodium  prothallus,  or  is  it  to  be  regarded 
as  an  added  feature  ?     Possibly  we  are  to  regard  the  radially-built  filament 
8— Trans. 


226 


Transactions 


as  being  the  original  typical  condition,  this  filament  being  drawn  out,  or 
short  and  bulky,  according  to  whether  growth  has  taken  place  rapidly  or 
slowly.  The  basal  tubercle  of  the  mature  prothallus  when  present  would, 
according  to  this  view,  be  the   result   largely   of   secondary  cell-divisions 


Fig.    61.^L.   rmnulosum.     Very   j'ouiig   prothallus,   in   general   view,   with   spore   still 

attached,      x  75. 
Fig.   62. — L.  ramulosum.     Young  prothallus,  in  general  view,   showing  basal  tubercle 

with  no  fungus.      X  45. 
Figs.  63,  64. — L.  ramulosum.     Young  prothalli,  in  general  view,  showing  basal  tubercle 

with  fungus.      X  30. 
Fig.    65. — L.    ramulosum.     Young    prothallus,    in   general    view,    showing   first-formed 

lobes  and  the  initiation  of  a  second  fungal  region,      x  45. 

which  had  taken  place  in  the  first-formed  basal  cells  owing  to  the  stimulus 
excited  by  the  storing  of  food  material.  Prothalli  cultivated  under  arti- 
ficial conditions  seem  generally  to  develop  slowly,  and  this  may  explain 
why  it  is  that  none  of  Treub's  prothalli  showed  a  first-formed  filamentous 


HoLLOWAY. — Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodium.    227 

stage.  There  can'  be  no  doubt  that  the  symbiotic  association  of  a  fungus 
with  the  Lycopodiiim  prothallus  is  a  further  added  feature,  the  mature  form 
of  the  Lycopodium  prothalli  being  determined  mainly  by  the  nature  of  this 
association. 

I  found  one  very  young  prothallus  of  L.  later  ale  which  was  entangled 
in  the  rhizoids  and  lobes  of  the  large  prothallus  shown  in  fig.  48.  This 
yoimg  prothallus  is  shown  in  fig.  49.  It  consists  of  a  filament  of  cells  which 
is  green  throughout,  the  filament  being  one  cell  in  width  in  its  lower  half 
and  two  cells  in  width  in  its  upper.  At' the  apex  there  is  a  single  small 
cell  which  is  clearly  functioning  as  the  apical  cell.  In  this  species  also, 
as  in  L.  ramidosum,  the  primary  tubercle  is  thus  not  invariably  present. 

Main  Body  of  the  Prothallus. 

L.  cernimm. — The  main  body  of  the  prothallus  of  this  species  consists, 
as  has  been  described  above,  of  one  or  more  basal  fungal  regions,  a  longer 
or  shorter  shaft,  and  a  crown  of  lobes,  at  the  base  of  which  lies  the  meristem 
and  the  generative  region.  Sometimes  there  is  present  also  a  lateral  group 
of  lobes.  As  I  have  not  seen  Treub's  original  papers,  I  do  not  know  whether 
or  not  he  has  given  in  his  description  any  indication  of  a  differentiation  of 
structure  in  the  fungus-bearing  tissue,  but,  judging  from  the  short  siun- 
maries  of  his  results  in  various  standard  books  of  reference,  this  does  not 
seem  to  be  the  case.  In  the  prothallus  of  this  species  as  it  occurs  in 
New  Zealand  I  have  observed  that  there  is  in  this  tissue  a  well-marked 
differentiation.  The  fungal  coils  are  invariably  confined,  so  far  as  their 
intracellular  position  is  concerned,  to  the  epidermal  cells  in  the  fungal  area, 
but  the  fungus  always  extends  also  in  between  the  cells  of  the.  adjoining 
tissue.  This  will  be  apparent  from  figs.  39-44,  which  show  the  fungal 
area  in  longitudinal  section,  and  from  figs.  66  and  67,  which  represent  the 
basal  tubercle  in  transverse  section.  Moreover,  this  layer  of  cells  which 
shows  the  presence  of  the  fungus  in  an  intercellular  position  is  always 
modified  in  structure,  the  cells  being  very  narrow,  with  their  long  axes 
arranged  at  right  angles  to  the  peripheral  fungal  layer.  A  portion  of  the 
fimgal  region  shown  in  fig.  41  is  given  in  greater  magnification  in  fig.  68. 
In  describing  the  "  palisade  "  fungal  zone  in  the  prothalli  of  L.  clnvatum 
and  L.  annotinum,  Bruchmann  (1,  p.  18)  suggests  that  its  main  function 
is  to  serve  as  a  brace  to  the  prothallus.  This  would  seem  to  be  the  case 
also  in  L.  cernuum.  In  this  latter  species  its  peculiar  structure  is  more  par- 
ticularly developed  in  those  fimgal  regions  which  extend  up  the  shaft,  and 
where  the  need  of  a  strengthening-tissue  is  felt.  In  those  prothalli  in  which 
a  weU-formed,  rounded  primary  tubercle  is  present  the  whole  of  the  internal 
tissue  of  the  tubercle  shows  the  intercellular  fungus,  but  its  cells  are  not 
so  markedly  differentiated  (figs.  38,  39).  In  the  elongated  prothalli  of 
L.  ramidosum,  in  those  cases  in  which  the  fungal  areas  are  not  much 
swollen,  the  tissue  in  which  the  fungus  is  intercellular  does  not  show  much 
modification  in  form.  The  fungus  is  chiefly  apparent  at  the  angles  between 
the  cells,  but  it  also  seems  to  enwrap  the  cells  generally  (figs.  66-68). 
I  have  not  observed  the  presence  of  starch,  as  a  rule,  in  the  palisade  cells, 
but  it  is  frequently  thickly  accumulated  in  the  adjoining  part  of  the  shaft. 
In  the  primary  tubercle  the  cells  are  small  and  numerous  (figs.  38,  39), 
and  the  roimded  form  of  the  tubercle  is  probably  due  mainly  to  the 
extensive  cell-divisions,  induced  by  the  fungus,  which  there  have  taken 
place.  In  this  species  the  intercellular  fimgus  never  spreads  up  the  shaft 
to  any  great  extent.     As  has  been  described  above,  in  this  species  there 


228 


Transactions. 


is  sometimes  a  second  fmigal  region  quite  distinct  from  tlie  first,  which 
may  be  situated  either  higher  up  the  shaft  or  at  the  base  alongside  the 
primary  tubercle.  The  characteristic  difierence  in  structure  between  the 
basal  tubercle  and  an  upper  fungal  area  is  clearly  shown  in  fig.  39.  The 
details  in  the  basal  structure  of  the  other  form  are  illustrated  in  fig.  40, 
the  right-hand  tubercle  here  being  cut  not  quite  medianly. 

The  shaft  is  built  up  of  large  cells  whose  long  axes  are  directed  towards 
the  growing  apex.  In  some  prothalli  this  shaft  is  long  and  thin  (figs.  38,  42), 
but  in  others  it  is  short  and  thick  (figs.  40,  44).  An  instance  in  which  a 
lateral  group  of  lobes  is  borne  on  the  shaft  is  given  in  fig.  41,  these  lobes 


Figs.   66,  67. — L.  cermmm.     Transverse  sections  of  the  basal  tubercle  of  prothallus, 

showing  distribution  of  fungus.      X  42. 
Fig.  68.^ — L.  cernuum.     Longitudinal  section  of  portion  of  fungal  area  shown  in  fig.  41. 

X  135. 
Fig.    69. — L.    ramulosum.     Me'dian   longitudinal   section   of   basal   tubercle   of   massive 

prothallus  shown  in  Plate  XV.      X  42. 
Fig.   70. — L.   ramulosum.      a  and    b,   longitudinal  section   of   an   elongated   prothallus 

with   three   fungal  regions,    the   basai   tubercle   being   shown   at   b.      x  48. 

c,  longitudinal  section  of   apical  head  of  the  prothallus  shown  in  fig.  70a. 

X  75. 
Fig.   71. — L.   ramulosum.     Longitudinal  section  of  two  adjoining  fungal  regions  in  a 

large  elongated  prothallus.      X  42. 

here  being  in  conjunction  with  a  second  fungal  zone.  At  the  top  of  the 
shaft  is  the  crown  of  lobes,  these  being  in  transverse  section  from  two  to 
four  cells  in  thickness  (figs.  40-42,  44).  In  amongst  the  bases  of  these 
lobes  are  situated  the  sexual  organs  (figs.  40,  44).  Some  of  the  prothalli 
bear  organs  of  one  kind  only,  that  shown  in  fig.  40  bearing  numerous 
antheridia  but  no  archegonia.  Others,  again,  bear  both,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  massive  prothallus  shown  in  fig.  44. 

L.  laterale. — The  structure  of  this  prothallus  corresponds  more  or  less 
closely  with  that  of  L.  cernuum.  In  the  fungal  regions,  whether  at  the  base 
of  the  prothallus  or  higher  up  the  shaft,  the  hyphal  coils  are  confined  to 
the  epidermal  cells,  and  the  hyphae  penetrate  the  adjoining  tissues  in  an 


HoLLOWAY. — Studies  in  the  Neiv  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodium.     229 

intercelhilar  position  (figs.  46,  47).  In  this  species  the  cells  wliicli  immedi- 
ately adjoin  the  epidermal  layer  are  not  so  clearly  differentiated  as  a 
"  palisade  "  layer  as  they  are  in  the  prothalli  of  L.  cernuum.  In  the  pro- 
thallus  illustrated  in  fig.  47  the  intercellular  fungus  which  belonged  to  the 
upper  fungal  zone  occupied  a  considerable  extent  of  the  tissues  of  the 
shaft  and  had  spread  well  up  towards  the  meristem.  I  have  not  observed 
anything  approaching  this  condition  in  any  of  the  prothalli  of  L.  cernuum. 
The  terminal  processes  are  filamentous  rather  than  lobe-like,  and  are  to 
be  seen  in  longitudinal  section  in  figs.  46  and  47.  Their  characteristic 
appearance,  however,  is  best  seen  in  general  view  (7,  figs.  13-16,  and  pi.  17, 
fig.  3).  A  group  of  lateral  lobes  is  shown  in  fig.  46,  there  being  an 
archegonium  present  at  their  base. 

L.  ramulosum. — The  internal  structure  here  shows  nothing  differing  at 
all  markedly  from  that  of  the  other  two  species  described  above,  except 
that,  as  in  L.  laterale,  the  "  palisade  "  tissue  is  not  so  well  developed  as  in 
L.  cernuum,.  A  prothallus  of  the  massive  type  is  shown  in  longitudinal  sec- 
tion in  Plate  XV.  A  true  median  longitudinal  section  of  the  basal  tubercle^f 
this  same  prothallus  is  given  in  fig.  69.  It  will  be  apparent  that  this  figure 
corresponds  very  closely  to  fig.  39,  which  shows  the  basal  tubercle  in 
L.  cernuum  in  longitudinal  section.  The  rest  of  the  prothallus  is  free  from 
fungus,  and  consists  mainly  of  compact  small-celled  tissue.  The  crown 
of  filaments  in  this  prothallus  is  poorly  developed.  The  structure  of  the 
elongated  prothallus  is  shown  in  fig.  70,  a  and  b.  The  cell-layer  in  which 
the  fungus  is  in  an  intercellular  position  is  here  very  limited  in  extent,  and  is 
also  little  differentiated  as  a  tissue.  The  lateral  generative  region  is  brown, 
and  the  filaments  are  here  missing.  The  apical  head  of  the  prothallus 
bears  numerous  antheridia  (fig.  70,  c).  Fig.  71  shows  in  longitudinal  section 
two  adjoining  fungal  areas  in  an  elongated  prothallus  of  much  larger  build 
than  the  one  last  mentioned,  and  here  it  will  be  seen  that  the  intercellular 
fungus  spreads  through  a  correspondingly  greater  extent  of  tissue,  in  which 
the  cells  are  certainly  arranged  more  palisade-like.  The  shaft  portion  of 
these  elongated  prothalli  consists  of  large,  elongated  cells,  but  the  various 
generative  regions  are  of  small-celled  tissue.  This  is  clearly  seen  in  the 
prothallus  shown  in  fig.  70,  this  prothallus  bearing  antheridia  only. 

Position  of  the  Meristem. 

In  the  cernuum  type  of  prothallus  the  meristem  is  of  a  more  indefinite, 
unlocalized  nature  than  in  either  the  epiphytic,  cylindrical  type  or  the 
subterranean,  cone-like  type.  In  his  figures  of  very  young  stages  in  the 
development  of  the  prothalli  of  L.  cernuum,  Treub  shows  that,  in  his 
laboratory  specimens,  immediately  on  germination  of  the  spore,  a  triangular 
apical  cell  is  set  apart,  by  whose  all-round  segmentation  a  globular  mass  of 
cells  is  formed — the  "  primary  tubercle."  However,  this  method  of  growth 
immediately  gives  place  to  a  filamentous  stage  in  whicli  the  filament  is 
only  one  cell  wide,  new  segments  being  formed  by  transverse  walls  appear- 
ing in  the  terminal  cells  of  the  filament.  The  filament  next  thickens  by 
longitudinal  walls  appearing  in  all  its  cells.  This  also  is  what  happens  in 
L.  salal-ense;  but  there  several  such  filaments  are  formed  from  the  primary 
tubercle,  although  only  one  proceeds  to  thicken. 

From  my  material  of  the  three  New  Zealand  species  which  belong  to 
this  type  of  prothallus  I  have  certainly  found  instances  in  which  the  spore 
seems  to  have  given  rise  at  once  to  a  globular  mass  of  cells,  but  others  also 
in  which  there  is  an  original  filamentous  stage.     This  filament  extends  at 


230  Transactions. 

first  by  transverse  walls  arising  in  the  terminal  cell  (fig.  61),  but  later  it 
would  seem  from  fig.  49  that  oblique  walls  in  the  terminal  cell  cut  off  seg- 
ments alternately  on  one  side  and  on  the  other,  so  that  the  filament  becomes 
two  cells  in  width.  All  indications  that  I  have  noticed  point  to  the  fact 
that  this  first-formed  part  of  the  filament  does  not  subsequently  thicken. 
It  is  to  be  found  in  this  thin  form  still  attached  at  the  base  of  older  prothalli 
(figs.  51,  53,  56),  so  that  it  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  "  shaft  "  of  the  pro- 
thallus.  Presumably  the  tubercle  is  formed  by  the  activity  of  a  .single  tri- 
angular apical  cell  as  in  Treub's  material,  though,  of  course,  my  material  is 
not  young  enough  to  show  this.  The  young  prothalli  of  L.  ramulosum  given 
in  figs.  63-65  have  grown  on  from  the  primary  tubercle  not  in  a  filament 
one  cell  wide,  but  in  a  shaft  of  the  same  width  as  the  tubercle.  This  shaft 
becomes  progressively  wider  as  it  grows  on.  If  a  tubercle  shows  subse- 
quently a  distinct  roimded  form  it  must  have  been  due  to  secondary  cell- 
multiplication,  having  taken  place  in  it  owing  to  the  presence  of  the  fungus. 
In  the  prothalli  of  L.  ramulosum  shown  in  figs.  62,  63,  and  64  the  whole 
of  the  small-celled  terminal  portion  is  clearly  meristematic,  so  that  here, 
possibly  after  a  period  of  rest,  the  whole  of  the  forward  end  of  the  tubercle 
has  become  meristematic.  In  the  prothallus  shown  in  fig.  61  the  original 
filament  gradually  thickens  as  it  grows  on,  apparently  by  longitudinal 
walls  appearing  in  the  various  cells,  and  the  whole  of  the  apex  has  taken  on 
the  function  of  growth. 

In  L.  cernuum  the  apex  of  the  shaft  grows  on  and  eventually  gives  rise 
to  a  crown  of  lobes.  Some  of  Treub's  figures  seem  to  indicate  that  the  lobes 
are  initiated  when  the  prothallus  is  not  more  than  of  middle  age.  The 
meristematic  zone  is  then  largely  localized  at  the  base  of  the  lobes,  and  by 
its  continued  activity  the  lobes  are  extended  in  length,  and  also  the  length 
of  the  shaft  is  added  to.  At  the  same  time  the  shaft  can  increase  slowly 
in  width  by  the  division  of  its  cells  in  a  longitudinal  direction.  Under 
certain  conditions,  perhaps  inducing  quickness  of  growth,  the  shaft  becomes 
somewhat  elongated,  and  the  lobes  also  are  well  developed  (fig.  42).  The 
opposite  conditions  bring  about  a  thickening  of  the  shaft  unaccompanied 
by  any  great  increase  in  its  length  (fig.  44).  Thus  in  the  prothallus  practi- 
cally the  whole  of  the  main  body  is  more  or  less  meristematic,  and  the 
localization  of  this  function  at  the  growing  apex  is  not  so  definite  as 
in  the  prothalli  of  the  epiphytic  or  of  the  terrestrial  subterranean  types. 
Meristematic  activity  at  the  base  of  the  lobes  becomes  most  pronoimced 
when  the  sexual  organs  are  being  formed,  so  that  they  are  embedded  in  a 
small-celled  tissue  (figs.  40,  45). 

In  L.  ramulosum  the  prothallus  is  capable  of  much  more  extensive 
growth,  probably  on  account  of  its  continued  infection  by  the  fungus.  At 
a  fairly  early  stage  the  apex  gives  rise  to  the  lobe-like  outgrowths,  the 
initiation  of  which  is  shown  in  figs.  63  and  64.  In  the  young  prothallus 
in  fig.  65  two  outgrowths  are  well  formed  and  a  sexual  organ  is  developing 
at  their  base.  The  lobes  are  browned  and  slightly  withered,  as  if  they 
had  been  touched  by  a  dry  spell  in  the  weather.  At  the  same  time  the 
shaft  of  the  prothallus  is  proceeding  to  extend  on  past  the  lobes  so  that 
these  latter  will  eventually  come  to  occupy  a  lateral  position.  Immediately 
behind  the  developing  shaft-apex  three  of  the  epidermal  cells  have  become 
infected  with  the  fungus  and  one  epidermal  cell  has  grown  out  as  a 
rhizoid.  It  certainly  seems  as  if  this  fresh  infection  by  the  fungus  had 
been  the  cause  of  the  renewed  activity  of  the  prothallus.  The  study  of  the 
prothallus  given  in  fig.  50  suggests  that  the  apical  meristem  has  alternately 


HoLLOWAY. — Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodium.     231 

functioned  in  the  extension  in  length  of  the  prothallus  and  in  the  production 
of  sexual  organs  and  processes,  the  growth  in  length  of  the  prothallus  being 
renewed  after  the  formation  of  each  generative  area.  If  an  archegonium 
had  been  fertilized  and  an  embryo  formed,  all  the  food-supply  of  the 
prothallus  would  have  been  concentrated  around  the  growing  embryo,  and 
hence  the  prothallus  would  have  ceased  to  elongate.  In  the  prothaUus 
shown  in  fig.  51  there  has  probably  been  no  intermission  in  the  functioning 
of  the  apical  meristem,  with  the  result  that  this  prothallus  approximates 
more  to  the  cylindrical  form  of  the  epiphytic  type.  In  the  prothalli  shown 
in  .figs.  52-54  there  has  been  an  exceptionally  extensive  development  of 
generative  tissue,  giving  to  these  prothalli  the  curious  step-like  form. 
From  these  elongated  prothalli  and  from  the  irregularly-grown,  more 
massive  forms  shown  in  figs.  58  and  59  it  would  appear  that  the  repeated 
fresh  infection  of  the  prothallus  by  the  fungus  has  enabled  it  to  grow  on 
far  beyond  its  original  cermmm-lik.e  form.  In  such  a  prothallus  as  that 
shown  in  fig.  51  the  position  and  appearance  of  the  meristem  are  similar 
to  the  ordinary  cernuum  type,  although  it  has  been  able  to  function  for  a 
much  longer  period  than  in  L.  cernuum.  In  the  other  elongated  prothalli 
shown  in  figs.  50  and  52-54  the  position  and  form  of  the  meristem  is 
somewhat  modified  on  account  of  the  repeated  development  of  the  genera- 
tive tissue,  so  that  the  actual  growing  apex  is  small  and  somewhat  displaced. 
There  is  never  a  definite  group  of  apical  meristematic  cells  present,  the 
whole  of  the  growing  head  functioning  in  this  respect  as  in  L.  cernuum. 
The  very  compact  cone-like  prothallus  given  in  fig.  56  also  shows  the  same 
type  of  meristem,  there  being  no  tendency  to  a  localized,  marginal,  ring- 
like meristem  as  there  is  in  the  compact  surface-growing  forms  of  L.  Selago. 
Thus,  although  the  prothalkis  of  L.  ramulosum  in  its  two  forms  may  be  com- 
pared on  the  one  hand  with  the  compact  cone-like  forms  of  L.  Selago  (and 
so  also  of  L.  clavatum  and  L.  complanatum),  and  on  the  other  hand  with 
the  elongated  cylindrical  form  of  L.  Phlegmaria,  &c.,  this  comparison  is 
by  no  means  a  close  one,  for  the  position  of  the  meristem  shows  that 
L.  ramulosum  belongs  always  to  the  cernuum  type.  It  is  significant  to 
note  that  these  main  types  of  Lycopodium  prothalli  are  in  a  plastic  con- 
dition, and  the  variations  which  they  show  make  it  quite  permissible  to 
conjecture  how  the  different  methods  of  growth  could  have  originated. 

The  mature  prothallus  of  L.  laterale  also  conforms  to  the  cernuum  type 
in  the  position  of  its  meristem,  although  here  too  the  normal  form  of  the 
main  prothallial  body  is  sometimes  considerably  modified  by  its  continued 
growth. 

Relation '  of  the  Young  Plant  to  the  Prothallus. 

Since  the  prothallus  of  these  species  is  always  situated  at  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  the  young  plant  possesses  chlorophyll  from  a  very  early 
stage.  As  soon  as  it  emerges  from  the  tissues  of  the  prothallus  it  proceeds 
to  form  the  characteristic  tubercle  which  Treub  called  the  "  protocorm," 
on  which  abundant  rhizoids  are  produ^ced.  At  the  same  time  the  first 
"  protophyll  "  arises  on  the  tubercle,  showing  numerous  stomata.  Thus 
the  developing  plantlet  early  becomes  independent  of  the  prothallus  in 
the  matter  of  food-supply.  A  protocorm  is  formed  in  the  young  plant 
of  all  three  New  Zealand  species  which  belong  to  the  Cernua  section. 
Young  plants  attached  to  their  parent  prothalli  are  shown  in  fig.  72 
{L.  cernuum),  in  figs.  46  and  48  {L.  laterale),  and  in  figs.  51,  56,  58,  60, 
and  Plate  XV  {L.  ramulosum).  Other  figures  are  also  given  in  Part  I  of 
this  series  of  papers. 


232 


Transactions. 


The  development  of  an  embryo  seems  to  bring  all  further  growth  of 
the  prothallus  to  an  end.  The  prothallus  of  this  species  is  generally  small 
and  delicate,  and  does  not  long  persist  attached  to  its  young  plant.  It 
has  in  most  cases  decayed  away  by  the  time  that  the  plant  has  developed 
two  or  three  protophylls.  However,  I  have  several  times  found  prothalli 
of  L.  mmulosum  still  persisting,  in  one  case  healthily  green  in  colour, 
attached  to  plantlets  of  seven  or  eight  protophylls. 

The  intraprothallial  portion  of  the  embryo  plant  is  developed  as  an 
absorbing-organ,  but  only  to  a  slight  extent  as  compared  with  the  same 
organ  in  the  young  plant  of  the  Selago  and  Phlegmaria  types.  Still  less 
is  it  comparable  in  importance  with  the  large  "  foot  "  of  the  clavatum  and 
complanatum  types.  This  progressive  importance  of  the  foot  in  the  dif- 
ferent types,  taken  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  mentioned,  goes  hand 


Fig.   72. — L.  cernuum.     Longitudinal  section  of  prothallus  and  young  plant  showing 

foot.     X  30. 
Fig.    73. — L.    cernuum.     Transverse    section    of    suspensor   and   foot   of   young  ^ plant. 

X  42. 
Fig.  74. — L.  cernuum.     Longitudinal  section  of  foot  and  part  of  protocorm  of  young 

plant.  -  X  42. 
Fig.   75. — L.  ramulosum.      Oblique  section  of  portion  of  basal  fungal  region  showing 

three  large  "  spore  "  capsules  of  undetermined  nature,     x  250. 

in  hand  with  the  increase  in  the  size  of  the  prothalli  and  of  the  extent  of 
the  dependence  of  the  young  plant  upon  its  parent  prothallus.  From  the 
figures  mentioned  above  it  will  be  seen  that  the  surface  cells  of  the  foot 
in  the  three  species  of  the  cernuum  type  are  only  slightly  developed  as  an 
epithelial  layer.  They  are  best  iliustrated  in  fig.  73,  which  is  a  transverse 
section  of  the  foot  and  suspensor  of  the  young  plant  of  L.  cernuum,  and 
fig.  74,  which  shows  the  foot  in  longitudinal  section. 

In  Part  II  of  these  papers  (8,  p.  92)  I  stated  that  I  had  never  observed 
the  presence  of  fungal  hyphae  in  any  of  the  protocorms  which  I  had  examined. 
This  statement  I  must  correct.     Th^  fungus  is  certainly  never  present  as 


HoLLOWAT. — Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodiuiii.     233 

intracellular  hyphal  coils,  as  it  is  in  the  prothalli,  but  it  seems  to  be  always 
present  in  an  intercellular  position  in  the  central  tissues  of  the  protocorm. 
These  centrally-placed  cells,  which  show  abundant  protoplasmic  contents, 
are  always  roundish  in  form  and  are  separated  from  one  another,  the  inter- 
cellular spaces  staining  darkly  with  haematoxylin.  The  appearance  of 
the  fungus  in  the  protocorm  is  thus  in  marked  contrast  to  the  definite 
epidermal  fungal  tissue  of  the  prothallus,  in  which  it  occurs  in  hyphal  coils. 
The  hyphae  can  clearly  be  traced  entering  the  protocorm  through  the 
rhizoids.  They  seem  to  cross  the  outer  layers  of  cells  mainly,  if  not  entirely, 
through  spaces  between  the  cells  and  more  especially  at  their  angles,  and 
they  are  not  at  all  apparent  in  this  zone.  But  when  once  one  has  learned 
to  look  for  them,  both  the  hyphae  and  also  their  "  spores  "  can  be  seen 
in  the  spaces  between  the  cells  throughout  the  whole  of  the  central  region 
of  the  protocorm  (figs.  46,  74,  and  Plate  XV  ;  see  also  7,  fig.  61,  and  pi.  17, 
fig.  2,  and  pi.  18,  figs.  1,  2).  The  fungal  hyphae  can  best  be  studied  outside 
'  the  protocorm,  around  the  base  of  which  they  form  an  open  mat.  They 
are  branched  and  unseptate.  Here,  too,  the  spores  are  abundant,  and  it 
can  be  frequently  and  clearly  seen  that  they  originate  by  a  length  of 
hyphal  thread  dividing  up  into  a  number  of  the  spores.  This  also  can 
be  seen  in  the  intercellular  spaces  at  the  centre  of  the  protocorm.  It  is 
certainly  a  striking  fact  that  the  fungus  never  occupies  the  cell-cavities 
in  the  protocorm.  The  fungus  undoubtedly  assists  the  young  plant  to 
become  self-nourishing. 

Treub  and  others  have  supposed  the  protocorm  to  be  an  organ  of 
high  phylogenetic  importance.  Bower,  however,  believed  it  to  be  a 
physiological  modification,  just  as  is  the  intraprothallial  swelling  called 
the  "  foot."  My  study  of  this  organ  as  it  occurs  in  the  three  New 
Zealand  species  certainly  inclines  me  to  accept  Bower's  suggestion.  The 
Lycopodium  plant  in  all  its  organs  is  in  such  a  plastic  condition  that  it  is 
unlikely  that  any  highly  primitive  structures  should  have  been  retained — 
at  any  rate,  in  its  vegetative  parts.*  The  different  sections  into  which 
the  modern  genus  is  classified  are  strikingly  in  accord  with  its  biological 
divisions,  as  Lang,  with  regard  to  the  prothallus,  has  pointed  out.  It 
might  be  added  that  this  holds  also  for  the  other  main  organs  of  the 
Lycopodium.  plant.  Each  type  of  prothallus  is  correlated  with  a  certain 
type  of  embryo  plant.  The  protocorm  is  always  associated  with  the 
cernuum  type  of  prothallus,  and  apparently  with  no  other.  The  compara- 
tive study  of  the  difterent  types  of  prothallial  structure  certainly  leads 
one  to  the  conclusion  that  the  cernuum  type  is  the  least  modified  of  all, 
and  its  chlorophyllous  habit  especially  points  to  this  ;  but  it  does  not 
necessarily  follow  that  the  cernuum  embryo  is  also  the  least  modified. 
The  presence  of  the  symbiotic  fungus  teems  to  have  been  the  dominant 
factor  in  determining  the  form  of  the  different  Lycopodium  prothalli,  and 
it  is  a  significant  fact  that  the  protocorm  is  also  infested  with  it. 

*  There  has  quite  recently  been  described  by  Kidston  and  Lang  (Trans.  Roy.  Soc. 
Edin.,  vol.  52,  pt.  3,  pji.  603-27,  1920)  a  small  plant  from  the  Devonian  of  Scotland, 
which  the  authors  have  named  Hornia  Lignieri,  whose  basal  portion  consists  of  a  proto- 
cormous  rhizome.  This  plant  the  authors  compare  with  the  young  plants  of  Lycopodium 
cernuum,  L.  laterale,  and  L.  ramulosum.  and  with  Phylloglossum.  As  they  suggest,  the 
demonstrated  presence  of  the  "  protocorm  "  in  archaic  vascular  cryptogams  introduces 
quite  a  new  argument  into  the  discussion  concerning  the  nature  and  origin  of  this  peculiar 
organ.  However,  they  also  briefly  point  out  {ibid.,  note  at  boltf)m  of  p.  612)  that  fungal 
hyphae  occur  in  an  intercellular  position  in  the  tissues  of  the  rhizome  of  Hornea. 


234  Transactions. 

Details  of  the  Fungus. 

There  is  not  very  much  to  say  here  with  regard  to  the  details  of  the 
symbiotic  fungus  in  these  three  species  of  prothalli.  The  hyphal  coils  are 
present  only  in  the  epidermal  cells  of  the  fungal  region,  although  the  hyphae 
penetrate  farther  into  the  adjoining  tissue  in  an  intercellular  position. 
I  have  seen  no  formation  of  clusters  of  "spores"  as  occurs  in  the  epiphytic 
prothalli.  Spores  occur,  however,  in  the  interior  tissue  of  the  protocorm  of 
the  young  plant  along  with  hyphae  in  between  the  cells. 

One  prothallus  of  L.  ramulosum  showed  in  its  lower  basal  tubercle  a 
number  of  large,  spherical,  dark-staining  bodies,  three  of  which  are  illus- 
trated in  fig.  75.  These  bodies  possessed  thick  walls,  and  in  section  were 
seen  to  be  full  of  numerous  very  small  oval  lightly-staining  "  spores."  My 
serial  transverse  sections  of  this  tubercle  showed  that  there  were  no  fewer 
than  twelve  of  these  large  bodies  present.  They  lie  within  the  cell-cavities 
in  the  region  in  which  the  fungus  is  intercellular.  Each  is  large  enough 
to  completely  fill  a  cell  and  bulge  out  its  walls.  In  each  of  two  other 
prothalli  of  this  species  I  observed  a  single  spore  body  of  this  nature. 
I  was  not  able  to  determine  their  nature,  but  jiidge  that  they  bear  some 
relation  to  the  symbiotic  fungus. 

General  Remarks. 

A  special  interest  attaches  itself  to  the  study  of  the  prothalli  of  the 
different  species  of  Lycopodium,  arising  mainly  from  the  fact  that  several 
types  of  prothallial  structure  are  represented  in  the  genus,  and  also  that 
each  of  these  types  goes  hand  in  hand  with  certain  characteristic  features 
in  other  organs  of  the  plant.  So  different  are  these  types  of  prothalli  one 
from  another  that  both  Treub  and  Bruchmann  have  expressed  the  opinion 
that  these  differences  date  from  a  very  ancient  period.  Treub  states  his 
belief  that  they  can  be  explained  in  a  small  degree  only  by  the  different 
conditions  under  which  the  prothalli  live.  Bruchmann  would  divide  the 
genus  into  as  many  new  genera  as  there  are  distinct  prothallial  types.  As 
opposed  to  this  view,  Lang  has  suggested  that  the  different  prothalli  show 
a  similarity  in  ground  plan,  and  that  they  are  all  more  or  less  profound 
modifications  of  an  original  cermium-like  form.  As  further  species  of 
prothalli  are  found  this  interest  is  deepened,  for  it  becomes  clear  that 
although  the  main  types  are  all  now  probably  known  to  us,  yet  there  are 
many  significant  modifications  of  them,  and  also  that  further  study  of  the 
genus  will  probably  reveal  more  such.  Instead  of  assuming  that  the 
different  prothallial  types  are  practically  unrelated,  it  will  probably  be 
more  productive  of  results  to  try  to  discover  from  the  development  of  the 
individual  prothalli  and  from  their  variations  whether  there  is  a  funda- 
mental plan  of  structure,  and  what  has  been  the  reason  for  its  modification. 
Such  a  study  will,  at  all  events,  help  us  to  recognize  which  characters  are 
of  most  importance. 

The  complete  mature  prothallus  of  all  the  sections  of  the  genus  except 
the  Inundata  and  Cernua  shows  consistently  at  its  basal,  original  end  the 
form  of  an  inverted  cone,  the  apex  of  the  cone  being  occupied  by  a  single 
cell,  to  which  the  remains  of  the  spore  can  sometimes  be  seen  attached.  It 
is,  of  course,  possible  that  in  some  cases  a  brief  filamentous  stage  may  arise 
first  from  the  spore  before  the  cone  form  is  attained,  and  that  this  drops 
away  later  and  so  becomes  lost,  but  apparently  it  seems  that  the  cone  form 
is  at  once  initiated.  In  the  much-branched  prothalli  of  the  Phlegmaria 
type,  which  are  radial  in  build  but  not  upright  in  growth,  the  cone  quickly 


HoLLOWAT. — Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodium.    235 

passes  over  into  the  elongated  cylindrical  main  body  which  bears  sexual 
organs  on  the  dorsal  side,  so  becoming  bilateral.  The  prothalli  of  L.  Selago 
grow  upright  in  the  soil.  They  either  preserve  the  cone  form  throughout 
their  life — being,  however,  much  smaller  than  the  prothalli  of  the  clavatum 
or  complanatmn  tj^es- — or  they  give  rise  to  elongated  bilateral  extensions 
of  portions  of  the  upper  margin  of  the  cone.  In  the  upright  prothalli  of  the 
clavatum  and  complanatum  types  there  is  practically  no  disposition  towards 
elongation,  the  cone  form  being  preserved  throughout  the  life  of  the 
comparatively  massive  prothallus,  any  extra  meristematic  activity  showing 
itself  merely  in  irregular  lobing  of  the  upper  margin  or  in  adventitious 
budding.  The  angle  of  divergence  of  the  cone  from  its  apex  upwards  is 
different  in  these  two  t}'pes,  being  greater  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter, 
so  that  the  mature  forms  of  the  two  prothalli  are  somewhat  different.  The 
prothalli  of  the  species  which  belong  to  the  Cernua  and  Inundata  sections 
are  also  upright  in  growth,  and  have  a  radial  build,  so  that  in  transverse 
section  the  main  body  is  circula^r  in  outhne,  but  the  cone  form  is  not  always 
present,  Treub's  description  of  the  prothalli  of  L.  cernuum  suggested  that 
a  short  cone-like  stage  always  followed  immediately  upon  the  germination 
of  the  spore,  and  the  "  primary  tubercle,"  as  it  was  called  by  him,  was  thus 
looked  upon  as  a  characteristic  feature  in  this  type  of  prothallus.  In  all 
the  species  of  this  type  whose  prothalli  are  known  a  primary  tubercle  is, 
indeed,  often  present,  but  not  invariably  so,  as  appears,  for  example,  in 
the  prothalli,  both  young  and  old,  of  L.  ramulosum. 

The  cone  form  adopted  by  the  Lycopodium  prothallus  must  be  con- 
sidered along  with  the  presence  in  its  tissues  of  the  symbiotic  fungus.  It 
is,  of  course,  well  known  that  this  fungus  is  one  of  its  most  characteristic 
features,  just  as  it  is  also  of  other  subterranean  pteridophytic  prothalli. 
Treub  states  that  the  prothallus  of  L.  salakense  shows  no  fungus,  and  it  is 
quite  possible  that  other  species  belonging  to  either  the  Cernua  or  Inundata 
sections  may  prove  to  be  without  it.  From  what  we  know  of  the  young 
prothallus  of  L.  laterale  and  L.  ramidosum  it  would  seem  that  in  the 
sections  Cernua  and  Inundata  the  infection  may  be  jjostponed  considerably, 
for  the  fungus  is  frequently  absent  altogether  from  young  prothaUi  of  quite 
fair  size,  and  also  not  infrequently  mature  prothalli  show  signs  of  the  same 
initial  fungusless  region  at  their  base. 

In  the  prothallus  of  Tmesipteris  the  fungus  is  found  even  in  the  basal 
filament,  when  that  is  present ;  but  whether  the  infection  is  initiated  from 
the  very  first  or  subsequently  spreads  back  into  the  extreme  lower  parts 
of  the  prothallus  is  not  known.  I  have  found  many  prothalli  of  Tmesipteris, 
both  yoimg  and  also  mature,  which  showed  a  short  filament  of  cells  at 
their  base,  and  also,  on  the  other  hand,  complete  prothalli  in  which  no 
filament  was  present,  in  the  latter  case  the  remains  of  the  original  spore 
being  sometimes  clearly  apparent  on  the  cell  at  the  actual  apex  of  the 
basal  cone.  Sometimes  the  Tmesipteris  prothallus  takes  the  form  of  a 
steadily  tapering  cone,  and  at  others  in  its  lowest  regions  it  increases  in 
girth  by  a  progressive  series  of  gentle  swellings.  One  cannot  avoid  the 
suggestion  that  the  dominating  factor  in  the  Tmesipteris  prothallus  is  the 
presence  of  the  fungus,  the  nature  of  the  swelling  being  due  to  the  con- 
sistency or  intermittency,  as  the  case  may  be,  of  its  activity,  and  the 
omission  of  a  filamentous  stage  being  due  to  its  very  early  entry  into  the 
germinating  spore.  When  we  turn  to  the  prothalli  of  the  Lycopodiaceae 
the  same  conclusion  seems  to  be  forced  upon  us.  Large  mature  prothalli  of 
L.  rarmdosum  may  show  no  primary  tubercle  at  all,  and  the  cone  form  may 
be  altogether  absent,  so  that  the  general  form  of  this  prothallus  can  then 


236  Transactions. 

best  be  described  as  a  radially-built  filament.  The  immediate  effect  of  the 
presence  of  the  fungus  also  can  be  clearly  seen  in  the  prothalli  of  this  species. 
It  almost  invariably  causes  a  swelling  of  the  tissues  of  the  prothallus  at 
the  infection  spot,  this  swelling  being  due  to  the  greater  or  less  develop- 
ment of  the  intertial  fungal  tissue  in  which  the  hyphae  are  intercellular. 
Sometimes  the  fungus  is  restricted  to  one  place  "in  the  prothallus,  this 
being  towards  or  at  its  base,  so  that  there  is  present  a  basal  swelling.  But 
in  all  three  New  Zealand  species  which  belong  to  the  cernuum  type,  and 
more  especially  in  L.  ramulosum,  more  than  one  distinct  fungal  area  is 
frequently  formed.  Another  form  sometimes  adopted  by  the  prothallus 
of  L.  ramulosum,  and  to  be  seen  also  in  those  of  L.  laterale  and  L.  cernuum, 
is  that  in  which  the  usual  shaft  is  practically,  absent,  the  crown  of  lobes 
immediately  surmounting  the  basal  fungal  region.  The  latter  is  then 
more  bulky  than  usual,  the  whole  mature  prothallus  bearing  more  truly 
the  cone  form  than  is  normally  the  case  in  the  prothalli  of  these  sections. 
That  this  particular  massive  form  is  not  a  fixed  character  appears  from 
the  fact  that  only  infrequently  are  these  bulky  prothalli  of  regular  shape 
and  growth.  However,  just  as  the  long-drawn-out,  more  filamentous 
form  may  bear  some  comparison  with  the  epiphytic,  elongated  type,  so 
may  the  massive  form  be  compared  with  the  deep-growing  clavatum  and 
complmiatum  types,  and  the  prothallus  of  L.  ramulosum  is  thus  seen  to 
possess  as  great  significance  as  that  of  L.  Selago  in  bearing  witness  to  the 
plasticity  of  the  Lycopodium  prothallus. 

When  we  turn  to  the  epiphytic  type  of  prothallus  we  find  that  there 
also  the  form  of  the  prothallus  must  be  considered  along  with  the  nature 
of  the  fungus-distribution  in  its  tissues.  The  whole  of  the  basal  cone  con- 
stitutes, as  it  were,  a  primary  turbercle  which  contains  the  fungal  element 
throughout  its  tissues,  being  comparable  to  the  first-formed  tubercle  in 
L.  cernuum,  when  that  is  there  present.  The  elongated,  cylindrical  regions 
of  the  epiphytic  prothalli,  have  completely  passed  out  of  the  cone  form, 
nor  do  they  show  any  localized  swellings  induced  by  the  presence  of 
the  fungus.  The  fungus  is  distributed  throughout  the  branches  and  the 
vegetative  region  of  the  central  body,  and  the  absence  of  swelling  is 
pro'bably  due  to  the  rapid  elongation  of  the  prothallus  in  all  its  parts. 
Even  the  discontinuous  infection  which  is  to  be  seen  often  in  the  branches 
does  not  result  in  any  swelling  of  the  tissues  as  it  does  in  L.  ramulosum. 
Thus,  although  the  elongated  prothalli  of  L.  ramulosum  may  be  compared 
with  the  epiphytic  type,  yet  they  never  attain  to  the  characteristic  form 
or  structure  of  the  latter.  It  will  suffice  here  to  allude  quite  briefly  to 
the  statement  made  by  certain  other  writers,  notably  Lang,  that  this 
difference  is  probably  merely  the  expression  of  the  fact  that  in  the  Cernua 
and  Inundata  types  fungal  assimilation  has  not  assumed  the  same  degree 
of  importance  in  the  life  of  the  prothallus  as  it  has  in  the  epiphytic  types, 
for  the  prothallus  is  surface-growing  and  never  gives  up  its  chlorophyllous, 
self-nourishing  habit.  The  epiphytic  prothalli,  however,  live  in  soil  of  a 
different  nature,  and  have  adopted  a  wholly  subterranean  mode  of  life,  in 
which  they  depend  altogether  upon  the  activities  of  the  fungus  for  their 
nourishment.  This  has  been  the  immediate  cause  of  their  extensive 
ramifications  and  their  character  of  continuous  cylindrical  growth.  In  this 
respect,  therefore,  they  are  to  be  regarded  as  more  specialized  than  the 
chlorophyllous  type. 

Althoiigh  I  have  not  in  the  present  paper  given  any  description  of  the 
prothalli  of  the  species  L.  volubile,  L.  fastigiatum,  and  L.  scariosum,  which 
belong  to  the  clavatum  and  complanatum  types,  yet  it  is  appropriate  here 
to  compare  briefly  their  form  and  structure  with  that  of  the  other  New 


B.oi.J.ovf  AY .— Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  Lycopodium.    237 

Zealand  species  already  dealt  witli.     In  these  two  types  the  cone  form  is 
at  once  initiated  and  is  continued  throughout  the  life  of  the  prothallus. 
There  is  no  extension  in  length  comparable  even  to  that  of  the  Cernua  and 
Inundata  types,  although,  as  I  mentioned  in  a  former  paper  (7,  p.  273)  and 
hope  to  describe  more  fully  in  a  later  one,  the  young  prothallus  of  L.  fasti- 
g latum  branches  after  it  has  passed  through  the  initial  cone  stage.     It  assumes 
the  shape  of  the  letter  "  Y,"  the  arms  of  the  prothallus  being  true  branches, 
as  indicated  by  the  fact  that  in  each  of  them  there  is  a  central  core  of  fungus- 
free  cells  completely  surrounded  by  the  fungal  zone,  the  meristem  being 
located  near,  bub  not  actually  at,  the  apex  of  each  arm.     Although  the 
•  mature  prothallus  in  this  species  has  the  saucer  form,  yet  it  frequently 
bears  evidence  of  this  early  branching.     The  prothalli  of  these  two  types 
have  departed  altogether  from  the  self -nourishing,   chlorophyllous  habit, 
and  have  become  wholly  dependent  upon  the  symbiotic  fungus,  although 
the  prothallus  of  L.  volubile  is  able  to  develop  chlorophyll  if  it  happens  to 
grow  at  the  surface  of  the  ground.     We  find  that  the  external  tissues  in  the 
whole  of  the  vegetative  portion  of  the  prothallus  have  been  given  over  to 
the  fungal  inhabitant,  so  that  in  form  this  vegetative  region  is  one  large 
regularly-shaped  cone.      The  prothalli  of  the  clavatum  and  com.'planatum 
types,  owing  to  their  terrestrial  habit,  occur  in  soil  of  a  nature  different 
from  that  of  the  humus-growing,  epiphytic  prothalli.     There  seems  to  be  no 
need  for  the  prothallus  to  elongate  or  branch  in  order  to  come  in  contact 
with  a  sufficient  supply  of  food,  although,  judging  from  the  branching  by 
which  the  young  prothallus  of  L.  fastigiatum  assumes  the  saucer  form,  it 
could  do  so  if  necessary.     The  fact  that  these  types  of  prothalli  are  so 
much  larger  in  size  than  the  surface-growing  form  of  L.  Selago  is  obviously 
due  to  the  much  greater  degree  of  dependence  upon  them  of  the  young 
plant  than  in  the  latter  species.     They  function  largely  as  storehouses, 
the  large  quantities  of  starch  and  oil  which  they  contain  having  been  noted 
by  all  who  have  described  them. 

The  compact,  massive  form  of  the  prothallus  in  L.  ramulosum,  L.  laterale, 
and  L.  cernuum  must  not  be  compared  too  closely  with  that  of  L.  Selago 
or  of  the  terrestrial  subterranean  types,  for  the  position  of  the  meristem 
in  the  latter  is  altogether  different  from  that  in  the  former.  Nor  can 
the  elongated  form  of  L.  ramulosum  be  compared  exactly  with  that  of 
L.  Billardieri.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  the  difference  between  the 
marginal  meristem  of  the  Selago  prothallus  and  the  apical  meristem  of 
the  epiphytic  types  is  not  so  great.  The  prothalli  of  Jboth  these  types 
invariably  begin  with  the  cone  form,  and  the  subsequent  manner  of  growth 
of  each,  and  the  form  which  the  meristem  takes,  can  be  explained  quite 
naturally  (as  I  have  attempted  to  do  earlier  in  this  paper)  as  resulting 
simply  from  the  position  of  the  prothallus  in  the  soil.  That  there  is  a 
somewhat  close  relationship  between  these  two  types  appears  also  from 
the  fact  of  their  similarity  in  the  embryo  plant  and  in  the  presence  of  para- 
physes.  The  clavatum  and  complanatum  types  of  prothallus  also  seem 
to  be  allied  to  that  of  the  Selago  tjrpe,  possessing  the  same  kind  of  marginal 
meristem,  although  they  lack  paraphyses.  Moreover,  the  embryo  plant  of 
these  deeply  subterranean  forms  differs  from  that  of  L.  Selago  only  in  the 
abnormal  development  of  the  "  foot,"  a  character  which  has  quite  obviously 
resulted  from  their  position  in  the  soil. 

The  prothalli  of  the  Cernua  and  Inundata  sections  seem  to  stand  rather 
apart  from  the  rest  of  the  genus.  The  meristem  is  of  a  quite  different 
nature,  the  fungal  habit  has  not  been  adopted  to  the  same  extent,  the 
filamentous  manner  of   growth   is   largely  present,   and   the   form   of  the 


238  Transactions. 

young  plant  is  very  peculiar.  Any  similarities  in  detailed  structure  between 
this  type  and  any  of  the  others  are  perhaps  best  regarded  as  instances  of 
parallel  development,  such  as  the  fungal  "  palisade  "  tissue  in  the  prothallus 
of  L.  cernuum  and  of  L.  clavatum  and  L.  cotnplanatum,  and  also  the  elongated 
manner  of  growth  in  L.  ramulosum  and  L.  Billardieri.  The  varieties  in 
form  and  structure  which  occur  in  the  prothalli  of  the  cernmim  type  are 
chiefly  interesting  as  evidences  of  the  great  plasticity  of  the  Lycopodium 
gametophyte.  It  is  in  the  Cernua  and  Inundata  sections  that  we  meet 
with  the  least  evidence  of  a  permanently  fixed  type  of  prothallus.  These 
prothalli  have  also  proceeded  the  least  of  all  to  a  saprophytic  mode  of 
life,  and  generally  show  the  least  extent  of  specialization.  The  epiphytic 
prothalli  have  become  thoroughly  specialized  to  the  epiphytic  habit,  and 
the  clavatum  and  complanatum  types,  to  the  subterranean  terrestrial  habit. 
We  are  justified,  therefore,  in  regarding  the  Cernua  and  Inundata  types 
as  showing  more  nearly  the  original  structure  plan  of  the  Lycopodium 
prothallus  than  the  others. 

Thus  we  may  ^conclude  from  a  comparative  study  of  the  general  form 
and  structure  of  the  different  Lycopodium  prothalli  that  they  are  all  more 
or  less  modified  from  some  primitive  type  of  structure,  and  that  the  chief 
factor  in  this  modification  has  been  the  presence  in  them  of  the  symbiotic 
fungus.  This,  primitive  type  of  structure  was  probably  a  more  or  less 
bulky  filament  of  radial  build,  situated  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and 
possessing  chlorophyll.  The  adoption  of  a  fungal  habit  opened  the  door 
to  possibilities  of  modification  of  this  simple  type  of  structure,  and  gave 
to  the  Lycopodium  prothallus  its  quality  of  plasticity.  It  was  able  to 
establish  itself  in  new  positions  and  soils,  the  different  types  of  habitat 
resulting  in  different  types  of  modification  of  the  original  structure.  When 
the  fungal  habit  was  thoroughly  adopted  the  early  filamentous  stage  became 
lost,  but  in  all  its  forms  the  Lycopodium  prothallus  has  never  departed 
from  the  radial  build. 

It  seems  clear  from  a  comparative  survey  of  all  the  main  characters 
of  the  Lycopodium  sporophyte  and  gametophyte  that  the  different  sections' 
of  the  genus  are  natural  ones,  and  that  their  characters  are  all  inter- 
dependent. It  is  possible  that  the  varied  aspect  of  the  genus  as  it  exists 
to-day  has  been  due  largely  to  the  phenomenon  of  symbiotic  association 
with  a  fungus  exhibited  by  its  gametophyte  generation,  the  varied  structure 
of  the  sporophyte  as  regards  the  form  adopted  by  the  mature  plant,  the 
form  of  its  spore-bearing  regions,  and  its  stem-anatomy  following  as  a 
natural  consequence  from  the  spread  of  the  gametophyte  to  different  stations 
and  soils. 

Literature  cited,  ' 

1.  Bbuchmann,  H.,   Jlber  die  Prothallien  und  die  Keimpflanzen   mehrerer  europdischer 

Lycopodien,  pp.  1-119,  pi.  1-8,  Gotha,  1898. 

2.  Die  Keimung  der  Si3oren  und  die  Entwickelung  der  Prothallien  von  Lyco- 
podium clavatum,  L.  annotinum,  und  L.  Selago,  Flora,  vol.  101,  pp.  220-67 
(35  figs.),  1910. 

3.  Chamberlain,  C.  J.,  Prothallia  and  Sporelings  of  Three  New  Zealand  Species  of 

Lycopodium,  Bot.  Gaz.,  vol.  63,  pp.  51-64,  pi.  2  and  3,  1917. 

4.  Edgerley,  Miss  K.   V.,  The   Prothallia  of  Three  New  Zealand  Lycopods,  Trans. 

N.Z.  /rw<.,  vol.  47,  pp.  94-111  (37  figs.),  1915. 

5.  GoEBEL,    K.,    ijber    Prothallien    und    Keimpflanzen    von    Lycopodium   Inundatum, 

Bot.  Zeit.,  vol.  45,  pp.   161-68,  pi.  2,  1887. 

6.  Hollow  AY,  J.    E.,   A  Comparative  Study  of  the  Anatomy  of  Six  New  Zealand 

Species  of  Lycopodium,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  42,  pp.  356-70,  pi.  31-34,  1910. 

7.  Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  the  Genus  Lycopodium,  Part  I,  Trans. 

N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  48,  pp.  253-303  (102  figs.,  pi.  17,  18),  1916. 


HoLLOWAT. — Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  Ljcopodium.     239 

8.  Hollo  WAY,  J.  E.,  Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  the  Genus  Lycopodium  : 

Part   II,    Methods   of   Vegetative    Projjagation,    Trans.    N.Z.    Inst.,    vol    4fl 
pp.  80-93  (24  figs.,  pi.  8,  9),  1917. 

9.  — —  Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  the  Genus  Lycopodium  :   Part  III,  The 

Plasticity  of  the  Species,   Trans.   N.Z.   Inst.,  vol.   51,  pp.    161-216  (16  figs., 
ph  9-14),  1919. 

10.  Lang,   W.    H.,   The  Prothallus   of   Lycopodium  clavatum,   Ann.   of  Bat.,   vol.    13, 

pp.  279-317,  pi.  16,  17,  1899. 

11.  Spessaed,  E.  a.,  Prothalha  of  Lycopodium  in  America,  Bot.  Gaz.,  vol.  63,  pp.  66-76 

(19  figs.),  1917. 

12.  Thomas,    A.    P.    W.,   Preliminary   Account   of   the   Prothallium   of   Phylloglossum, 

Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Land.,  vol.  69,  pp.  285-91,  1902. 

13.  Treub,  M.,  l*]tudes  sur  les  Lycopodiacees  :  I,  Le  prothalle  du  Lycopodium  cernuum  L., 

Ann.  Jard.  Buitenzorg.,  vol.  4,  pp.  107-35,  pi.  9-17,  1884. 

14.  Etudes  sur  les  Lycopodiacees  :   II,  Le  piothalle  du  Lycopodium  Phlegmaria  L., 

ibid.,  vol.  5,  pp.  87-115,  pi.  11-22,  1S86  ;   III,  Le  developpement  de  I'embryon 
chez  L.  Phlegmaria,  ibid.,  pp.  115-39,  pl.  23-31,  1886. 

15.  Etudes  sur  les  Lycopodiacees  :    IV,   Le   Prothalle   du   Lycopodium  salakense, 

ibid.,  vol.  7,  pp.    141-46,  pl.   16-18,  1888  ;    V,  Les  Prothalle  des  Lycopodium 
carinatum,  L.  nunimulariaejolium,  et  L.  Hipjniris,  ibid.,  pp.  146-49,  pl.  19,  1888.- 

16.  Etudes  sur  les  Lycopodiacees  :    VI,  L'Embryon  et  la  plantule  du  Lycopodi^im 

cernuum   L.,   ibid.,   vol.    8,   pp.    1-15,    pl.     1-5,    1890 ;     VIII,   Considerations 
theoretiques,  ibid.,  pp.  23-37,  1890. 


Art.  XXVIII. — Notes  on  the  Indigenous  Vegetation  oj  the  North-eastern 
Portion  oj  the  Hokonui  Hills,  with   a  List  of  Species. 

By    D.    L.    POPPELWELL. 

[Bead  before  the  Otago  Institute,   14th  October,   1919  ;    received  by  Editor,  24th  October, 
1919  ;    issiied  separately,  23rd  June,  1920.] 

The  Hokonui  Hills  consist  of  the  high  country  which  lies  within  the 
triangle  formed  by  the  Gore-Invercargill  section  of  the  Main  Trunk  Rail- 
v/ay,  the  Invercargill-Lumsden  section  of  the  Invercargill-Kingston  line, 
and  the  Waimea  Railway.  They  are  roughly  triangular  in  form,  Gore, 
Lumsden,  and  Winton  being  the  corners.  Each  side  of  the  triangle  is  about 
thirty  miles  long,  the  total  area  being  therefore  about  300,000  acres.  The 
highest  point  (Bare  Hill)  is  2,260  ft.  above  sea-level.  The  most  southerly 
point  is  not  more  than  a  few  miles  from  the  sea,  whilst  the  northern  end 
extends  about  thirty  miles  inland.  The  Hokonui  Hills  are  isolated  from 
the  surrounding  chains,  being  bounded  by  the  valley  of  the  Oreti  on  one 
side,  the  Mataura  valley  on  another,  and  the  Southland  Seaward  Plains  on 
the  third  side.  It  is  palpable  that  the  different  parts  of  a  stretch  of  country 
such  as  this  must  show  considerable  difference  in  their  plant  covering,  as 
they  extend  from  near  the  sea  to  quite  beyond  what  is  usually  accepted 
as  the  littoral  belt.  This  block  contains  several  thousaM  acres  of  bush, 
but  most  of  it  consists  of  uplands  divided  by  several  more  or  less  open 
valleys  with  constant  streams.  Every  class  of  soil  and  situation  is  there- 
fore presented,  and  consequently  the  plant-life  is  of  a  very  varied  kind. 
To  attempt  to  give  a  complete  report  would  be  a  task  quite  beyond  the 
time  at  my  disposal  at  present,  hence  I  will  confine  my  remarks  to  that 
poTtion  of  the  Hokonuis  nearest  Gore,  locally  known  as  Croydon  Bush, 
and  the  uplands  in  the  vicinity.  I  have  also  to  point  out  that  these  notes 
do  not  profess  to  be  exhaustive.  Numerous  introduced  plants  are  also 
found,  but  are  not  further  mentioned.  The  highest  point  in  the  area  dealt 
with  is  East  Peak  (2,000  ft.)  and  an  unnamed  peak  to  the  westward  thereof, 
which  is  slightly  higher  than  the  former. 


240  Transactions. 

From  the  list  of  species  the  curious  fact  will  be  noticed  that  Nothofagus 
is  completely  absent  from  the  area  dealt  with,  and,  so  far  as  my  observations 
go,  from  the  whole  Hokonuis.  This  is  difficult  to  account  for,  especially 
as  this  genus  is  common  on  all  the  surrounding  hill-groups. 

In  time  to  come,  when  the  botanical  districts  of  New  Zealand  are 
divided  into  subdistricts,  the  absence  of  Nothofagus  alone  will  almost  justify 
th'e  setting-apart  of  the  Hokonuis  as  a  subdistrict  of  the  South  Otago 
Botanical  District. 

In  the  meantime  I   do  not  propose  to  describe  the  plant  formations, 
but  merely  append  a  list  of  species  observed  during  many  visits  to   the 
north-eastern   portion   of    the  Hokonuis.      The  list   contains  285   species 
comprising  146  genera,  and  spread  over  57  families. 


LIST    OF    INDIGENOUS    PLANTS. 

PTERIDOPHYTA. 

Hymenophyllaceae. 

Hymenophyllum  sanguinolentum  (Forst.  f.)  Sw.      Common  in  forest. 

dilatatum  (Forst.  f.)  Sw.      Common  in  forest. 

flabellatum  Lab.      Common  in  forest. 

demissum  (Forst.  f.)  Sw.      Common  in  forest. 

Cyatheaceae. 

Dicksonia  squarrosa  (Forst.  f.)  Sw.      Fairly  common  in  forest. 

fibrosa  Col.      Common. 

Hemitelia  Smithii  (Hook,  f.)  Hook.     Not  uncommon. 
Alsophila  Colensoi  Hook.  f.      Not  imcommon. 

POLYPODIACEAE. 

Polystichum  vestitum  (Forst.  f.)  Presl.      Common. 

Richardi  Diels.      Fairly  common. 

Lindsay  a  linearis  Sw.      Tussock  meadow. 
Asplenium  hulhiferum  Forst.  f.      Abundant  in  forest. 
fiaccidum  Forst.  f .      Abundant  in  forest. 

— —  flahellifolium  Cav.      Not  uncommon,  but  local 

Hookerianum  Col.      Rocky  places  in  open  bush. 

— -  var.  Colensoi  Moore.      Rocky  places  in  open  bush. 

Blechnum  Patersoni  (R.  Br.)  Mett.      Common  in  damp  gullies. 

discolor  (Forst.  f.)  Keys.      Abundant  in  dry  places. 

■ lanceolatum  (R.  Br.)  Sturm.      Moist  gullies. 

capense  (L.)  Schlecht.      Fairly  common. 

penna  marinum  (Poir.)  Kuhn.      Abundant. 

— ■ —  fluviatile  (R.  Br.)  Lowe. 

Hypolepis  teniiifoUa  (Forst.  f.)  Bernh.      Fairly  common, 
Histiopteris  incisa  (Thunb.)  J.  Sm.      Abundant 
Pteridium  esculentum  (Forst.  f.)  Cockayne.      Plentiful. 
Polypodium  Billardieri  (Willd.)  C.  Chr.      Tree-trunks,  &c.,  in  forest. 

diversifolium  Willd.      Plentiful  in  forest. 

grammitidis  R.  Br.      Rare  on  tree-trunks,  &c. 

punctatum  Thunb.      Common. 

Botrychium  ternatum  Swartz.      Rare. 


PopPELWELL.^ — Indigenous  Vegetation  of  Holoniii  Hills.  241 

Gleicheniaceae. 
Gleichenia  Cunninghamii  Hew.      In  patches  ;   local. 

OSMUNDACEAE. 

Leptopteris  hymenophylloides  (A.  Rich.)  PresJ.      Damp  gullies  in  forest. 

superba  (Col.)  Presl.      Damp  gullies  in  forest. 

Ophioglossaceae. 
Ophioglossum  lusitanicum  L.      Tussock  meadow. 

Lycopodiaceae. 

Lycopodium  Billardieri  Spring.      Not  uncommon. 
fastigiatum  R.  Br.      Plentiful. 

scariosum  Forst.  f.      Not  plentiful. 

■ volubile  Forst.  f.      Not  plentiful. 

Tmesipteris  tannensis  Bernh.      On  logs,  &c. 

SPERMOPHYTA. 
Taxaceae. 

Podocarpus  Hallii  T.  Kirk.      Common  in  forest. 

totara  D.  Don.      Rare  ;   in  forest. 

■ ferrugineus  D.  Don.      Fairly  abundant. 

spicatus  R.  Br.      Fairly  abundant. 

dacrydioides  A.  Rich.      Plentiful. 


Dacrydium  cupressinum  Sol.      Plentiful. 

Potamogetonaceae. 
Potamogeton  Cheesernanii  A.  Benn.      In  pools. 

Gramineae. 

Microlaena  avenacea  (Raoul)  Hook.  f.      Common  in  forests. 
Hierochloe  redolens  (Forst.  f.)  R.  Br.      Fairly  common.   • 
Agrostis  parva  Petrie.      Bush  tracks. 

Dichelachne  crinita  (Forst.  f.)  Hook.  f.      Mountain  meadow. 
Danthonia  Cunninghamii  Hook.  f.      Common  in  uplands. 

Raotdii  Stead.      Abundant. 

flavescens  Hook.  f.     Steppe.      Not  so  common  as  D.  Raoulii. 

pilosa  R.  Br.      Not  uncommon  in  meadow. 

semiannularis  R.  Br.     Not  uncommon  in  meadow. 

Arundo  coispicua  Forst.  f .      Common. 

Poa  ca-espitosa  Forst.  f.      Common  on  hills. 
• imhecilla  Forst.  f.      Not  uncommon. 

Colensoi  Hook.  f.      Fairly  plentiful  in  meadow. 

var.  intermedia  Cheesem.      Fairly  plentiful  in  ineadow. 

Festuca  rubra  L.      Lower  steppe.      Common. 

Agropyron  scabrum  (R.  Br.)  Beauv.      In  upper  meadow. 

Cyperaceae. 

Scirpus  aucklandicus  (Hook,  f.)  Boeck.      Swamps. 

Carpha  alpina  R.  Br.      In  swamps. 

Cladium  Vauthiera  C.  B.  Clarke.      Wet  places. 

Gahnia  procera  Forst.  f .      In  forest ;    common. 

Oreobolus  pectinatus  Hook.  f.      In  boggy  places  ;   not  common. 


242  Transactions 

Uncinia  coinpacta  R.  Br.      Mountain  meadow. 
— —  uncinata  (L.  f.)  Kiiken.      In  forest. 
Carex  secta  Boott.      Lowland  swamps. 

ternaria  Forst.  f.      Damp  lowland  swamps. 

dissita  Sol.      Forest. 

• lucida  Boott.      Swampy  places. 

pseudo-cyperus  Linn.      Dafnp  places  in  bush. 

Typhaceae. 
Typlia  angustifolia  L.      Lagoon  on  north  side.   , 

Restiaceae. 
Hypolaena  lateriflora  Benth.      Lowland  swamps.      ' 

JUNCACEAE. 

Juncus  polyanthemos  Buchen.      Damp  places  ;    common. 
— ■ —  bufonius  L.     Damp  places  ;    common. 

planifolws  E..  Br.      Damp  places  ;    common. 


Luzula  campestris  DC.     Several  varieties  ;    common. 

LiLIACEAE. 

Enargea  parviflora  Kunth.      Rare  ;  only  one  plant  noted,  in  manuka  heath. 
Cordyline  australis  (Forst.  f.)  Hook.      Not  plentiful. 
Astelia  linearis  Hook.  f.      Boggy  places,  lowland  meadow. 

nervosa  Banks  &  Sol.      Common  in  forest. 

montana  (T.  Kirk)  Cockayne.      Not  uncommon  in  swamps. 

Phormium  tenax  Forst.      Common  on  foothills. 

Gookianum  Le  Jolis.      Abundant  on  uplands. 

Chrysohactron  Hookeri  Col.      Common  in  damp  situations. 
Herpolirion  novae-zelandiae  Hook.  f.      Common  in  meadows. 

Iridaceae. 

Lihertia  ixioides  Spreng.      Not  uncommon. 

■  — —  var.  with  creeping  stolons.  This  variety  is  common  in  low- 
land tussock  meadow.  It  differs  in  having  stolons.  The  leaves  are 
wider  and  more  striate,  the  peduncles  much  shorter  than  the  leaves,  and 
the  flowers  larger.      Perhaps  it  should  be  accorded  specific  rank. 

Orchid  ace  AE. 

Earina  mucronata  Lindl.      Not  plentiful. 

Thelymitra  longifolia  Forst.      Common. 

— —  uniflora  Hook.  f.      Common  on  banks,  &c. 

Microtis  uniflora  (Forst.  f.)  Rochb.      Common  in  steppe  meadow. 

Prasophyllum  Colensoi  Hook.  f.      Common  in  steppe  meadow. 

Pterostylis  Banksii  R.  Br.      Not  common. 

australis  Hook.  f.      Fairly  abundant  in  damp  meadow. 

Caladenia  hifolia  Hook.  f.      In  manuka  heath. 

Lyallii  Hook.  f.      In  manuka  heath  at  1,000  ft. 

Corysanthes  rotundifolia  Hook.  f.      Common  on  creek-banks. 

macrantha  Hook.  f.      Damp  places  in  forest. 

priloba  Hook.  f.      Damp  places  in  forest. 


POPPELWELL. — Indigenous  Vegetation  of  Hokoniii  Hills.  243 

Urticaceae. 

Urtica  incisa  Poir.      Common  on  bush  tracks. 

— ^  ferox  Forst.     Rare  ;    in  northern  part  of  forest. 

Paratrophis  micropkylla  Blume.      Rare  in  forest. 

LORANTHACEAE. 

Loranthus  micranthus  Hook.  f.      Plentiful  in  forest. 
Tupeia  antarctica  Cham.  &  Schl.      Abundant. 
Korthalsella  Lindsayi  (Engl.J  Van  Tiegh.      Common. 
clavata  (Cheesem.)  Van  Tiegh.      Not  common. 

Polygon ACE AE. 

Runiex  flexuosus  Sol.      Not  plentiful ;  north  side  chiefly. 
Muehlenbeckia  australis  (Forst.  f .)  Meissn.      Abundant ;  forest-margin. 

complexa  (A.  Cunn.)  Meissn.      Abundant ;   forest-margin. 

axillaris  Walp.      Dry  situations  in  meadow. 

Caryophyllaceae.  . 

Colobanthus  acicularis  Hook.  f.     In  boggy  ground. 
Stellaria  parviflora  Banks  &  Sol.     In  open  places  in  forest. 
Scleranthus  biflorus  (Forst.)  Hook.  f.     Dry  meadow  ;  common. 

R  ANUNCULACE  AE . 

Clematis  indivisa  Willd.     Plentiful. 

hexasepala  DC.     Not  uncommon. 

foetida  Raoul.     Common  on  forest-margin. 

Ranunculus  hirtus  Banks  &  Sol.     Fairly  common. 

rivularis  Banks  &  Sol.     Common  in  damp  places. 

lappaceus  Sm.     Plentiful. 

midtiscapus  Cockayne.     Common. 

foliosus  T.  Kirk.     Not  common. 

Magnoliaceae. 
Drimys  colorata  Raoul,     Plentiful. 

Cruciperae 
Cardamine  heterophylla  (Forst  f.)  0.  E.  Schultz.     Plentiful. 

depressa  Hook.  f.     Not  uncommon. 

» 
Saxifragaceae. 

Carpodetus  serratus  Forst.     Very  abundant  in  forest. 

PiTTOSPORACEAE. 

Pittbsporum  tenuifolium  Banks  &  Sol.     Abundant. 

Colensoi  Hook.  f.     Common. 

eugenioides  A.  Cunn.     Common. 

CUNONIACEAE. 

Weitimannia  racemosa  L.  f.     Not  uncommon  in  southern  forest. 

ROSACEAE. 

Rubus  australis  Forst.  f.     Abundant. 

■ suhpauperatus  Cockayne.     Common. 

• schmidelioides  A.  Cunn.     Not  plentiful. 


244        •  Transactions. 

Ruhus  cissoides  A.  Cunn.     Not  plentiful. 

Potentilla  anserina  L.  var.  anserinoides  (Eaoul)  T.  Kirk.     Not  plentiful. 

Acaena  novae-zelandiae  T.  Kirk.     Not  uncommon. 

Sanguisorhae  Vahl.     Common  throughout. 

var.  pilosa  T.  Eark.     Hilltops. 

microphylla  Hook.  f.     Hilltops  only. 

Geraniaceae. 

Geranium  microphyllum  Hook.  f.     Common  in  tussock  meadow. 

sessiliflorum.  Cav.  var.  glabrum  Kunth.     Common  in  steppe. 

Oxalis  magellanica  Forst.     Rare.     On  bank  of  Otamete  Stream  at  1,000  ft. 

corniculata  L.     Aljundant. 

EUTACEAE. 

Melicope  simplex  A.  Cunn.     Plentiful  in  forest. 

Olacinaceae. 
Pennantia  corymbosa  Forst. 

Callitrichaceae. 
Callitriche  verna  L.     In  pools,  &c. 

Coriariaceae. 

Coriaria  ruscifolia  L.     Plentiful. 

■ thymifolia  Humb.  &  Bonpl.     Common. 

Leguminosae. 

Sophora  tetraptera  J.  Mull.  var.  microphylla  Hook.  f.     Fairly  abundant. 
Carmichaelia  subulata  T.  Kirk.     Creek-banks. 

Elaeocarpaceae. 

Aristotelia  racemosa  (A.  Cunn.)  Hook.  f.  var.  with  red  berries.      Plentiful  in 
forest. 

Colensoi  Hook.  f.     Creek-banks. 

■ fruticosa  Hook.  f.     On  creek-banks  above  1,000  ft. 

var.  with  white  flowers.     On  creek-bank ;  rare. 

Eleaocarpus  HooJcerianus  Raoul.     Fairly  abundant. 

.  Rhamnaceae. 
Discaria  toumatou  Raoul.     Common  on  stony  faces. 

Malvaceae. 

Plagianthus  hetulinus  A.  Cunn.     Plentiful ;  forest-margins. 
Hoheria  populnea  A.  Cunn.  var.  vulgaris  Hook.  f.     Forest-margins. 
var.  angustifolia  Hook,  f. 

ViOLACEAE. 

Viola  Cunninghamii  Hook.  f.     Plentiful  in  steppe. 
- — —  filicaulis  Hook.  f.     Plentiful  in  steppe. 
Melicytus  lanceolatus  Hook.  f.     Fairly  common  but  local. 
Hymenanthera  dentata  R.  Br.     Forest-margin. 
var.  alpina  T.  Kirk.     Hilltops. 


PopPELWELL. — Indigenous  Vegetation  of  Hokonui  Hills.  245 

Thymelaeaceae. 

Pimelea  prosfrata  Willd.,  one  or  more  varieties.     Plentiful. 

sericeo-villosa  Hook.  f.     Not  plentiful. 

Drapetes  Dieffenbachii  Hook.  f.     In  elevated  boggy  places. 

Lyallii  Hook.  f.     In  elevated  boggy  places. 

Myrtaceae. 

Leptospermum  scoparium  Forst.     Plentiful. 

Myrtus  pedunculata  Hook.  f.     Plentiful  in  lowland  forest. 

Metrosideros  lucida  (Forst.  f.)  A.  Rich.     Plentiful  in  forest. 

hypericijoiia  A.  Cunn.      Plentiful  but  local  in  forest. 

Onagraceae. 

t 

Epilohium  chionanthum  Haussk.     Boggy  places 

pictuw,  Petrie.     Plentiful. 

Hectori  Haussk.     Common. 

confertifolium  Hook.  f.     Common. 

alsinoides  A.  Cunn.     Common. 

Billardierianum  Ser.     Common.. 

junceum  Sol.  var.  hirtigermn  A.  Cunn.     Not  uncommon. 

puhens  A.  Rich.     Plentiful. 

nummularifolium  R.  Cunn.     Bush  tracks. 

Imniaeoides  Hook.  f.     Bush  tracks. 

• insulare  Haussk.     Common. 

Fuchsia  excortihata  L.  f.     Plentiful. 
Colensoi  Hook.  f.     Common. 

Halorrhagaceae.* 

Halorrhagis  depressa  Walp.     Fairly  abundant. 

micrantha  (Thunb.)  R.  Br.     Meadow^. 

Myriophyllum  elatinoides  Gaud.     Pools. 
Gunnera  flavida  Col.     Swamps. 

prorepens  Hook.  f.     Swamps. 

Araliaceae. 

Notkopanax  simplex  (Forst)  Seem.     Abundant  in  forest. 

Edgerleyi  (Hook,  f.)  Harms.     Not  uncommon. 

' Colensoi  (Hook,  f.)  Seem.     Abundant. 

Pseudopanax  crassifolium  (Sol.)  C.  Koch.     Common  in  forest. 

ferox  T.  Kirk.     Dry  situations  in  forest. 

Shefflera  digitata  Forst.     Not  uncommon  in  damp  gullies. 

Umbelliferae. 

Hydrocotyle  novae-zecdandiae  DC.     Abundant  in  damp  places. 

asiatica  L.     Plentiful. 

Apium  filiforme  (A.  Rich.)  Hook.     Tolerably  rare. 
Aciphylla  Colensoi  Hook.  f.     Rare ;  only  two  plants  noted. 

■ squarrosa  Forst.     Fairly  common. 

Angelica  Gingidium  Hook.  f.     Abundant  on  banks,  &c. 

Cornaceae. 

Griselinia  litto7-alis  Raoul.     Plentiful. 

Corokia  Cotoneaster  Raoul.     Abundant  near  lower  edge  of  forest. 


246  Transactions. 

Ericaceae. 

GanUheria  antipoda  Forst.  f.     Fairly  common  in  heath. 
erecta  (Cheesem.)  Cockayne.     On  creek-banks  ;  rare. 

depressa  Hook.  f.     Abundant  from  1,500  ft.  upwards. 

perplexa  R.  Br.     Plentiful. 

Epacridaceae. 

Pentachondra  pumila  (Forst.)  R.  Br.     Mountain-heaths. 
Styphelia  Fraseri  (A.  Cunn.)  F.  Muell.     Throughout  heath. 
Cyathodes  empetrifolia  Hook.  f.     Sphagnum  bogs  with  Hypolaena. 
Dracophyllum  longifolium  (Forst.  f.)  R.  Br.     Mountain-heath 

Urvilleanum  A.  Rich.     Not  very  common. 

Myrsinaceae. 

Rapanea  Urvillei  (A.  DC.)  Mez.     Plentiful  in  forest. 
Suttonia  divaricata  (A.  Cunn.)  Hook.-  f.     Fairly  abundant. 

Gentianaceae. 
Gentiana  Grisebachii  Hook.  f.     Not  uncommon  on  upland  heath. 

Apocynaceae. 

Parsonsia  heterophylla  A.  Cunn.     Abundant. 

capsidaris  R.  Br.     Fairly  common. 

Con VOLVULACE AE . 

Calystegia  tuguriorum  Forst.  f.     Forest-margins  ;  rare  and  local. 

Labiatae. 
Mentha  Cunninghamii  Benth.     Creek-banks,  &g. 

Scrophulariaceae. 

Yeronica  salicifoUa  Forst.  f.     Lowland  forest ;  abundant. 
Mazus  radicans  Cheesem.     Abundant  in  damp  meadow. 
Euphrasia  Dyeri  Wettst.     Damp  meadow. 

Plantaginaceae 
Plantago  Raoulii  Decne.     Not  plentiful. 

RUBIACEAE. 

Coprosma  rotundifolia  A.  Cunn.     Plentiful  near  creeks  in  forest. 

areolata  Cheesem.     Not  uncommon. 

• parviflora  Hook.  f.     Plentiful ;  creek-banks. 

cras'sifolia  Col.     Fairly  common. 

■ rigida  Cheesem.     Fairly  common. 

foetidissima  Forst.     Abundant. 

rhamnoides  A.  Cunn.     Not  plentiful. 

Colensoi  Hook.  f.     Rare.  v 

■ acerosa  A.  Cunn.     Dry  banks,  &c. 

hrunnea  (T.  Kirk)  Cockayne.     Creek-banks 

propinqua  A.  Cunn.     Creek-banks. 

lucida  Forst.  f.     Not  abundant. 

linariifolia  Hook,  f .     Plentiful ;  dry  hills  in  forest. 

ramidosa  Petrie.     Common. 


PoppELWELL. — Indigenous  Vegetation  of  Hokonui  Hills.  247 

Nertera  depressa  Banks  &  Sol.     Common  on  damp  logs. 

dichondraefolia  (A.  Cunn.)  Hook.     Not  plentiful. 

setidosa  Hook.  f.  (?).     In  damp  bog. 

Galium  umhrosum  Sol.     In  meadow  ;  not  uncommon. 
Asperula  perpusilla  Hook.  f.     Lowland  meadow. 

Campanulaceae. 

Pratia  angidata  (Forst.  f.)  Hook.  f.     Abundant. 
Wahlenhergia  albomarginata  Hook.     Abundant. 
gracilis  (Forst.  f.)  A.  DC.     Not  uncommon. 

var.  with  very  short  stems  and  small  flowers.     Lowland  heath. 

Stylidaceae. 
Forstera  tenella  Hook.  f.     Fairly  plentiful  above  1,800  ft. 

COMPOSITAE. 

Lagenophora  pumila  (Forst.  f.)  Cheesem.     Dry  banks. 

petiolata  Hook.  f.     Common  in  meadows. 

Brachycome  Sinclairii  Hook.  f.     Plentiful  in  upper  meadows. 

Olearia  virgata  Hook.  f.     Fairly  common  ;  creek-banks,  &c.  ' 

var.  lineata  T.'Kirk.     Fairly  common. 

ilicifolia  Hook.  f.     In  subalpine  scrub  in  southern  jmrts. 

arhorescens  (Forst.  f.)  Cockayne  and  Laing.     Common  on  heath,  &c. 

odorata  Petrie.     On  margin  of  forest. 

Hectori  Hook.  f.     On  marghi  of  forest. 

fragrantissima  Petrie.     Stony  faces  in  north.  ^ 

Celmisia  longifolia  Cass.     Abundant. 

var.  alpina  T.  Kirk.     Swampy  places. 


— —  coriaceae  Hook.  f.  (?).     Rare  ;  only  one  plant  noted,  on  rocks. 
Gnaphalium  liiteo-album  L.     Abvmdant. 

• trinerve  Forst.  f.     Common  on  clay  banks,  &c. 

Traversii  Hook.  f.     Wet,  sour  ground. 

Raoulia  australis  Hook.  f.     Not  abundant. 
glabra  Hook.  f.     Plentiful. 

subsericea  Hook.  f.     Mountain  meadows. 

Helichrysum  bellidiodes  (Forst.)  Willd.     Abundant. 
filicaide  Hook.  f.     Plentiful  in  meadows. 

— —  glomeratum  Benth.  &  Hook.     Rocky  faces,  &c. 
Cassinia  Vauvilliersii  Hook.  f.     Abundant. 

yar.  rubra  T.  Kirk.     Not  uncommon. 

Craspedia  uniflora  Forst.  f.     Plentiful  in  meadow. 
Cotula  australis  Hook.  f.     Damp  places. 

dioica  Hook.  f.     Damp  meadows. 

maniototo  Petrie.     Damp  tracks,  &c.  ;  plentiful. 

Senecio  bellidioides  Hook.  f.     Common  throughout. 

soiithlandicus  Cockayne.     Abundant. 

Erechtites  prenanthoides  (A.  Rich.)  DC.     Plentiful  in  forest  tracks. 
Taraxacum  magellanicum  Comm.     Not  uncommon. 
Microseris  Forsteri  Hook.  f.     Not  uncommon  in  steppe. 
Sonchus  asper  Hill.     Fairly  common. 


248  Transactions. 

Art.    XXIX. — Notes    on    the   Indigenous    Vegetation    of   Ben   Lomond, 

with  a  List  of  Species. 

By    D.    L.    POPPELWELL. 

[Read  before  the  Otago  histitute,   14th  October,   1919  ;    received  by  Editor,  24th  October 

1919  ;  issued  separately,  23rd  June,  1920.] 

Ben  Lomond  is  so  well  known  as  one  of  the  side  trips  from  Queenstown 
as  not  to  require  any  further  definition.  It  has,  naturally,  been  visited  by 
many  botanists,  but  so  far  no  list  of  its  species  has  been  published. 
I  therefore  propose  to  publish  such  a  list,  which  is  of  interest  both  from 
the  point  of  view  of  plant-geography  and  on  account  of  the  district 
being  so  frequently  visited  by  tourists.  The  attached  list  has  been  com- 
piled from  notes  taken  on  many  visits  to  the  locality.  While  it  does 
not  profess  to  be  exhaustive,  it  contains,  I  think,  most  of  the  plants,  and 
should  form  the  basis  of  a  list  which  can  be  completed  by  additions  in  the 
future.  The  list  contains  164  species,  spread  over  92  genera,  and  belonging 
to  49  families. 

LIST    OF    INDIGENOUS    SPECIES. 
PTERIDOPHYTA. 
Hymenophyllaceae. 
Hymenophyllum  tunhridgense  (L.)  Sm.  (?).     Rocky  faces  over  creeks. 

Polypodiaceae. 

Dryopteris  punctata  (Thunb.)  C.  Ch.      Not  common. 

Polystichum  vestitum  (Forst.  f.)  Presl.      Not  plentiful. 

Asplenium  hulbiferum  Forst.  f.      Rare.  ' 

flahelli folium  Cav.      In  shade  of  rock,  1  mile. 

Richardi  Hook.  f.  (?).     Very  rare. 

flaccidum  Forst.  f .      On  tyees,  &c. 

Hookerianum  Col.      In  rocky  situation  ;    not  common. 

trichomanes  L.     Rare ;  base  of  hill. 

Blechnum  penna  marinum  (Poir.)  Kuhn.      Not  uncommon. 
— —  capense  (L.)  Schlecht.      Dry  banks  of  creeks. 
— —  fluviatile  (R.  Br.)  Lowe.      Reservoir  creek. 

lanceolatum  (R.  Br.)  Sturm.      Creek-banks. 

vulcanicum  Christ.      Rocky  faces,  in  shade. 

Adiantum  diaphanum  Blume.      Shaded  rock-faces,  2  miles. 
Hypolepis  tenuifolia  (Forst.  f.)  Bernh.      Open  faces  near  forest. 
Pteridium  esculentum  (Forst.  f.)      Common  throughout. 
Paesia  scaberula  (A.  Rich.)  Kuhn.      On  mountain-side. 
Polypodium  Billardieri  (Willd.)  C.  Chr.      Tree-trunks  in  forest. 

diver sifolium  Willd.      Common  in  forest. 

Cystopteris  fragilis  Bernh.      Rocky  crevices,  &c. 

Pellaea  rotundifolia  Hook.      Base  of  hill  near  Queenstown. 

Lycopodiaceae. 

Lycopodium  Billardieri  Spring.      At  1  mile. 

fastigiatum'R.  Bv.      Dry  heath. 

ramulosum  T.  Kirk.      Heath,  &c. 


PoppELWELL. — Indigenous  Vegetation   of  Ben  Lomond.  249 

SPERMOPHYTA. 

Taxaceae.  . 

Phyllocladtis  alpinus  Hook.  f.      On  forest-margin  at  2,400  ft. 
Dacrydium  Bidwillii  Hook.  f.      Creek-bank  at  4,400  ft. 
Podocarpus  nivalis  Hook.      Mountain-side  at  2,500  ft. 

Gramineae. 

Danthonia flavescens  Hook.  i.      Steppe;   common. 

Raoulii  Steud.      Steppe  ;    common. 

crassiuscula  T.  Kirk.      Steppe  ;    common. 

Poa  caespitosa  Forst.  f.      Not  common  in  steppe. 
■ Colensoi  Hook.  f.      Not  common  in  steppe. 

intermedia  (Hook,  f.)  Cheesem.      Not  common  in  steppe. 

Festuca  rubra  L.      Not  common  in  steppe. 

Cyperaceae. 

Carex  lucida  Boott.      About  2,700  ft. 
• ternaria  Forst.  f.     About  2,700  ft. 


JUNCACEAE. 

Juncus  polyanthemos  Bucben.      Damp  places. 
Luzula  campestris  DC.      Mountain  meadow,  2,400  ft. 

LiLIACEAE. 

Cordyline  australis  (Forst.  f.)  Hook.      Not  plentiful. 
Astelia  nervosa.  Banks  &  Sol.      Not  abundant. 

Montana  (T,  Kirk)  Cockayne.      At  2,750  ft.  ;    not  abundant. 

Phormium  Cookianum  Le  Jobs.      3,400  ft.,  at  edge  of  forest. 

Orchidaceae. 

Corysanthes  macrantha  Hook.  f.      Creek-banks. 
Gastrodia  Cunninghami,  Hook.  f.      Rare. 

Fagaceae. 

Nothofagus  fusca  Oerst.      Common  at  low  levels. 
■ Menziesii  Oerst.      Not  very  plentiful. 

Solanderi  Oerst.      Abundant. 

cliffortioides  Oerst.      Abundant. 

Blairii  (Oerst.)  T.  Kirk.      Near  lake-side. 

apiculata  Col.      Near  1  mile. 

Urticaceae. 
Urtica  incisa  Poir.      In  forest. 

Loranthaceae. 
Loranthus  micranthus  Hook.  f.      On  Coprosma. 

Polygonaceae. 

Rumex  flexuosus  Sol.      Not  common. 

Muehlenbeckia  complexa  (A.  Cunn.)  Meissn.      Forest-margin. 

— —  axillaris  Walp.      Gravelly  creek-banks,  &.c. 

PoRTULAC ACE AE . 

Claytonia  australasica  Hook.  f.      Not  uncommon. 


250  Transactions. 

C AR YOPH YLLACE AE . 

Stellaria  parviflora  Banks  &  Sol.      Not  uncommon. 
Hectorella  caespitosa  Hook.  f.      Mountain-side. 

Ranunculaceae. 

Ranunculus  hirtus  Banks  &  Sol.      Damp  places. 

lappaceus  Sm.      Common. 

multiscapus  Cockayne.      Fairly  common. 

Cruciferae. 
Cardamine  heterophylla  (Forst.  f.)  0.  E.  Schultz.      Creek-banks. 

Saxifragaceae. 
Carpodetus  serratus  Forst.      Fairly  common. 

PiTTOSPORACEAE. 

Pittosporum  tenuifolium  Banks  &  Sol.      Lake-side. 

ROSACEAE. 

Ruhus  a^istralis  Forst.  f.      Common. 

suhpauperatus  Cockayne.      Dry  places. 

Geum  parviflorum  Sm.      Tolerably  common. 

leiospermum  Petrie.      Not  uncommon. 

pusillum  Petrie.      Not  uncommon. 

Acaena  Sanguisorbae  Vahl.      Common. 
var.  pilosa  T.  Kirk.      Common. 

novae-zelandiae  T.  Kirk.      Common. 

microphylla  Hook.  f.      Abundant. 


Geraniaceae. 

Geranium  sessiliflorum  Cav.      Common  in  meadow. 

microphyllum  Hook.  f.      Common. 

Coriariaceae. 

Coriaria  ruscifolia  L.      Common  on  lake-side,  &c. 

angustissima  Hook.  f.      At  2,500  ft. 

Leguminosae. 
Sophora  microphylla  J.  Mull.      Lake-side. 

Elaeocarpaceae. 

Aristotelia  racemosa  (A.  Cunn.)  Hook.  f.      Near  lake-side. 

— —  var.  with  red  berries.      Rare. 

Rhamnaceae. 
Discaria  toumatou  Raoul.      Dry  places  near  lake. 

Malvaceae. 
Gaya  Lyallii  J.  E.  Baker.      In  reservoir  creek. 

Violaceae. 

Viola  Cunninghamii  Hook.  f.      Common  in  damp  places. 
filicaulis  Hook,  f.      Not  uncommon. 


PoppBLWELL. — Indigenous  Vegetation   of  Ben  Lomond.  251 

Thymeleaceae. 

Pimelea  prostrata  Willd.      Fairly  common. 
Drapetes  Dieffenbachii  Hook.  f.      Common. 

Lyallii  Hook.  f.      More  rare  than  D.  Diffenbachii. 

Myrtaceae. 

Leptospermum  scoparium  Forst.      Common. 

Metrosideros  lucida  (Forst.  f.)  A.  Ricti.      Rare  on  lake-side. 

Onagraceae. 

Epilobium  Hectori  Haussk.      Common  on  tracks,  &c. 

linnaeoides  Hook.  f.      Damp  places. 

■ pictum  Petrie.      Common. 

Fuchsia  excorticata  L.  f.      Damp  forest. 
Colensoi  Hook.  f.      Not  uncommon. 

Araliaceae. 

Nothopanax  Colensoi  (Hook,  f.)  Seem.      In  damp  forest.    • 
Pseudopanax  crassifoUum  (Sol.)  C.  Koch.      Not  plentiful. 

Umbelliferae. 
Hydrocotyle  novae-zealandiae  DC.      Damp  places. 
Aciphylla  Colensoi  Hook.  f.      Above  3,000  ft. 

pinnatifida  Petrie.     Rare ;  in  boggy  places  at  4,400  ft. 

Angelica  decipiens  Hook.  f.      In  alpine  meadow. 
Anisotome  imbricatum  Hook.  f.      High  elevation  only. 

CORNACEAE. 

Griselinia  littoralis  (Raoul).     Lake-side. 
Corohia  Cotoneaster  Raoul.      Forest-margin. 

Ericaceae. 
Gaultheria  antipoda  Forst.  f.  var.  erecta  Cheesem.      Dry  banks. 

depressa  Hook.  f.      Abundant. 

rupestris  R.  Br.      Common. 

Epacridaceae. 

Pentachondra  pumila  (Forst.  f.)  R.  Br.      Not  abundant. 
Styphelia  Fraseri  (A.  Cunn.)  F.  Muell.     x\bundant. 

acerosa  Sol.      Plentiful  near  lake. 

Dracophyllum  rosemarimfolium  R.  Br.      Abundant. 

prostratwn  T.  Kirk.      Common  near  summit. 

— —  muscoides  Hook.      Not  uncommon. 

Myrsinaceae. 
Rapanea  Urvillei  (A.  DC.)  Mez.      Rare  in  forest. 

Gentianaceae. 

•  Gentiana  corymbifera  T.  Kirk.      Common. 

bellidifolia  Hook.  f.      Not  uncommon. 

BORAGINACEAE. 

Myosotis  Goyeni  Petrie.      Rocks  near  Queenstown. 

Labiatae. 
Mentha  Cunninghamii  Benth.      Creek-banks,  &c. 


252  Transactions. 

SCROPHULARIACEAE. 

Veronica  salicifolia  Forst.  f.      Lake-side  and  creek-banks. 

Bidwillii  Hook.     Dry  creek-banks  ;   plentiful. 

Lyallii  Hook,  f .      Near  creek ;  common. 

buxifolia  Benth.      At  2,400  ft. 

■ Hectori  Hook.  f.      At  4,350  ft. 

Ourisia  caespitosa  Hook.  f.      Damp  creek-bank. 
Euphrasia  zelandica  Wettst.      Wet  places  near  creek. 

RUBIACEAE. 

Coprosma  linariifolia  Hook.  f.      Not  common. 

propinqua  A.  Cunn.      Creek-banks. 

lucida  Forst.      Reservoir  creek. 

rigida  Cheesem.      Ben  Lomond  Gully. 

crassifolia  Col.      Creek-bank,  &c. 

repens  Hook.  f.      Alpine  meadow. 

Nertera  depressa  Banks  &  Sol.      Damp  places  at  4,400  ft. 
Galium  umbrosum  Sol.      Alpine  meadow. 

Campanulaceae. 
Pratia  angulata  (Forst.  f.)  Hook.  f.      Tolerably  common. 
Wahlenbergia  albomarginata  Hook.      Abundant. 
— —  gracilis  (Forst.  f.)  A.  DC.      Comparatively  rare. 
Lobelia  linnaeoides  Petrie.      Somewhat  rare. 

Stylidaceae. 
Phyllachne  Colensoi  (Hook,  f.)  Berggr.      In  bogs  ;    rare. 
Forstera  sedifolia  L.  f.      Tolerably  plentiful. 

Bidwillii  Hook.  f.      At  2,500 

Compositae. 
Lagenophora  petiolata  Hook.  f.      Not  very  common. 
Brachycome  Sinclairii  Hook.  f.      In  subalpine  meadow. 
Olearia  arborescens  (Forst.  f.)  Cockayne  and  Laing.      Common  in  forest. 

avicenniaefolia  Hook,  f .      Near  lake-side. 

moschata  Hook.  f.      At  2,750  ft. 

Haastii  Hook.  f.      Near  creek  at  4,000  ft.  elevation. 

Celmisia  Lyallii  Hook.  f.      From  4,300  ft.  upwards. 

discolor  Hook.  f.      Rocky  cliff  protected  from  stock. 

laricifolia  Hook.  f.      Damp  ground  above  4,000  ft. 

Walkeri  T.  Kirk.      Above  4,000  ft. 

Gnaplialium  trinerve  Forst.  f.      Not  common. 

Traversii  Hook.  f.      Damp  places. 

Raoulia  australis  Hook.  f.      Common. 

glabra  Hook.  f.      Common. 

Parhii  Buch.      Comparatively  rare. 

Helichrysum  bellidioides  (Forst.)  Willd.      Common. 
filicaule  Hook.  f.      Fairly  abundant. 

glomeratum  Benth.  &  Hook.      Dry  places  near  lake. 

Cassinia  Vauvilliersii  Hook.  f.      Fairly  abundant. 
Craspedia  uniflora  Forst.  f .      Not  plentiful. 

Senecio  Lyallii  Hook.  f.      Creek-banks. 
•  bellidioides  Hook.  f.      Creek-banks. 

souihlandicus  Cockayne  (?).     Not  plentiful. 

revolutus  T.  Kirk.      Common. 


Betts. — Rosette  Plants  at  Ca 


ss. 


253 


Art.     XXX. — Notes    from    Canterbury    College    Mountain    Biological 

Station,  Cass. 

No.  T.^The  Rosette  Plants  :    Part  I, 
By  M.  Winifred  Betts,  M.Sc. 

[fiearf  before  the  Otago  Institute,  9th  December,  1919  ;    received  by  Editor,  Slat  December, 
1919  ;    issued  separately,  30th  June,  1920.] 

At  the  end  of  1918  the  author  was  able,  through  the  kindness  of  Dr.  Chilton, 
of  Canterbury  College,  to  pass  a  short  time  at  the  Canterbury  College 
Mountain  Biological  Station,  at  Cass.  During  this  visit  material  was  col- 
lected for  an  account  of  all  the  rosette  plants  of  the  district,  but  the  author 
has  been  able  to  study  only  a  few  of  the  plants  ;  hence  in  the  present  paper 
the  anatomy  only  is  dealt  with.  The  author  hopes,  in  a  subsequent  paper, 
to  work  out  the  anatomy  of  the  rest  of  the  rosette  plants,  and  to  consider 
the  conclusions  drawn  from  such  anatomical  study. 

The  following  list  gives  the  names  of  all  the  indigenous  rosette  plants 
to  be  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  station.  This  list  is  taken  from  the  list 
of  species  compiled  by  Cockayne  and  Foweraker.* 


R  ANUNCUL  ACE  AE , 

Ranunculus  multiscapus  Hook.  f. 
depressus  T.  Kirk  var. 

Cruciferae. 

Cardamine   heterophylla    (Forst.    f.) 
0.  E.  Schulz  var. 

ROSACEAE. 

Geum  parviflorum  Sm. 

Geraniaceae. 

Geranium    sessiliflorum    Cav.    var. 
glabrum  Kunth. 

ViOLACEAE. 

Viola  Cunninghamii  Hook.  f. 

Umbelliperae. 

Anisotome filifolia  (Hook.f.)  Cockayne 
and  Laing. 

aromatica  Hook.  f.  var. 


Angelica  montana  (Forst.)  Cockayne. 


Gentianaceae. 
Gentiana  corymhifera  T.  I^irk  var. 

BORAGINACEAE. 

Myosotis  australis  R.  Br.  var. 

PlANTAGINACE  AE . 

Plantago  spathulata  Hook.  f. 

triandra  Berggr. 

C  AMPANUL  ACEAE . 

Wahlenbergia  alhomarginata  Hook. 

Compositae. 

Brachycome  Sinclairii  Hook.  f. 
Celmisia  spectabilis  Hook,  f . 

Lyallii  Hook.  f. 

Gnaphalium  Traversii  Hook.  f. 
Senecio   bellidioides    Hook.    f.    var. 

glabratus  T.  Kirk. 

Lyallii  Hook.  f. 

lautus  Forst.  f.  var.  montanus 

Cheesem. 

Microseris  scapigera  Sch.  Bip. 
Taraxacum  magellanicum  Comm. 


*  L.  Cockayne  and  C.  E.  Foweraker,  Notes  from  the  Canterburj'  College  Mountain 
Biological  Station :  No.  4 — The  Principal  Plant  Associations  in  the  Immediate  Vicinity 
of  the  Station.  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  48.  pp.  166-86,  1916. 


254 


Transactions. 


1.  Geum  parviflorum  Sm. 

This  plant  is  found  in  rocky  situations.  The  appearance  of  the  plant 
is  shown  in  figs.  1  and  2,  fig.  1  being  that  of  a  plant  growing  in  a  shaded, 
damp  station,  fig.  2  of  a  plant  growing  in  a  more  exposed  position.  The 
leaves  are  l|-6  in.  long,  either  erect  or  more  or  less  prostrate  ;  they  are 
imparipinnate,  the  leaflet  at  the  end  being  a  large,  crenate  leaf,  while  the 


Fig.  1. — Geum  parviflorum.     Plant  from  sheltered  position  (half  natural  size). 

lateral  leaflets  are  small,  most  of  them  being  quite  minute.  The  leaves 
are  hirsute  on  both  surfaces,  and  also  on  the  petiole  ;  while  on  the  petiole, 
especially  near  the  base,  there  are  long, 'brown,  silky  hairs.  The  root- 
system  is  well  developed,  and  consists  of  a  mass  of  tough,  wiry,  fibrous 
roots,  which  bear  many  branches. 


Betts. — Rosette  Plants  at  Cass. 


255 


Anatomy. 

Leaf  (figs.  3-lOa). — In  the  leaf  all  the  large  veins,  especially  the  midrib, 
are  prominent  on  the  under-surface.  The  upper  epidermis  (figs.  4  and  5) 
consists  of  fairly  large  cells,  more  or  less  oval  in  transverse  section,  which 
have  thickened  walls,  the  outer  wails  being  the  more  thickened.  In  surface 
view  these  cells  are  irregular  in  outline.     Stomata  are  numerous,  there  being 


Fig.  2. — Geum  parviflorum.    Plant  from  exposed  position  (half  natural  size). 

about  75  per  square  millimetre  on  the  upper  surface.  The  lower  epidermis 
is  similar  to  the  upper,  except  that  the  cells  are  somewhat  flatter  as  seen  in 
transverse  section,  and  as  seen  in  surface  view  they  are  more  irregular  in 
shape,  the  cell-walls  having  a  wavy  outline.  On  the  lower  siirface  stomata 
are  more  numerous,  there  being  about  230  per  square  millimetre.  The 
stomata  are  at  the  same  level  as  the  epidermal  cells,  and  the  guard-cells 
have  thick  walls.     On  both  surfaces  of  the  leaf  there  are  hairs,  which  are 


256 


Transactions. 


Fia.   3.- 


Fig. 

4.- 

Fig. 

.5.- 

Fig. 

6.- 

Fig. 

7.— 

Fig. 

8.— 

Fig. 

9.- 

Fig. 

10a 

-Geum  jparviflormn.  Transverse  section  of  leaf  ( X  36).  a,  upper  epidermis ; 
b,  palisade  tissue  ;  c,  spongy  tissue ;  d,  xylem ;  e,  phloem ;  /,  aqueous 
tissue  ;    g,  long  unicellular  hair ;    h,  short  unicellular  hair. 

-Geum  parviflorum.  Transverse  section  of  leaf  (X  175).  a,  upper  epidermis  ; 
6,  stoma  ;   c,  palisade  tissue  ;   d,  spongy  tissue. 

-Geum  parviflorum.  Upper  epidermis  of  leaf  (X  175).  a,  cells  round  base  of 
hair  ;   b,  base  of  hair. 

-Geum  parviflorum,.  Lower  epidermis  of  leaf  ( X  36).  a,  club-shaped  hair ; 
b,  long  unicellular  hair  ;    c,  cells  above  vascular  bimdles.    , 

Oeum  parviflorum.     Club-shaped  hair  ( X  175). 

■Geum  j)arviflorum.  Base  of  long  unicellular  hair  (x  175).  a,  hair;  b,  cushion 
round  base. 

-Geum  parviflorum.  Transverse  section  of  petiole  ( X  36).  a,  aqueous  tissue  ; 
b,  bundle-sheath  ;    c,  xylem  ;    d,  phloem. 

— Geum  parviflorum.  Transverse  section  of  base  of  petiole  ( X  24).  a,  tannin- 
containing  cells  ;    b,  bundle-sheath  ;    c,  xylem  ;    d,  phloem  ;    e,  sclerenchyma. 


Betts. — Rosette  Plants  at  Cass.  257 

of  several  kinds  (figs.  5-8).  There  are  on  both  surfaces  of  the  leaf  long, 
stifi,  bristly,  unicellular  hairs,  which  are  prolongations  of  epidermal  cells 
and  which  have  thick  walls.  Hairs  of  this  type  are  scattered  over  the  upper 
surface  of  the  leaf,  also  on  the  petiole,  and  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaf 
they  arise  from  the  epidermal  cells  in  the  vicinity  of  the  vascular  bundles 
(fig.  6).  The  epidermal  cells  round  many  of  these  are  somewhat  larger 
than  the  others,  forming  a  kind  of  cushion  round  the  base  of  the  hair 
(figs.  5  and  8).  In  addition  to  the  above-described  unicellular  hairs,  there 
are  much  shorter,  thinner  unicellular  hairs,  both  on  the  leaf  (especially 
the  lower  surface)  and  the  petiole  (figs.  3,  6,  10).  Hairs  of  a  third  kind 
(figs.  6  and  7)  are  found  near  the  vascular  bundles  on  the  lower  surface  of 
the  leaf  :  these  are  club-shaped,  multicellular,  glandular  hairs  ;  they  consist 
of  3  or  4  cells,  of  which  the  basal  cell  is  thick-walled  and  contains  only  a 
small  amount  of  .protoplasm  ;  the  other  2-3  are  thin-walled  and  filled  with 
granular  protoplasm.     The  end  cell  is  much  larger  than  the  others. 

The  chlorenchyma  (figs.  3  and  4)  is  differentiated  into  palisade  and 
spongy  tissue.  The  former  consists  of  two  layers  of  cells  which  are  fairly 
compactly  arranged  ;  the  spongy  tissue  is  nearly  twice  as  wide  as^  the 
palisade,  and  is  compbsed  of  rounded  or  irregular  cells  with  larger  air-spaces 
between  them.  In  both  the  cell- walls  are  slightly  thickened,  and  there  are 
numerous  large  oval  chloroplasts. 

In  the  midrib  (fig.  3)  there  are  usually  three  vascular  bundles,  of  which 
the  central  one  is  the  largest.  Each  vascular  bundle  is  surrounded  by  a 
small  amount  (a  layer  about  3  cells  deep)  of  colourless  parenchyma. 
Practically  the  whole  of  the  midrib  is  filled  with  an  aqueous  tissue  consisting 
of  large  cells  with  slightly  thickened  walls  ;  these  cells  are  circular  in  trans- 
verse section  and  are  closely  arranged.  Just  above  the  vascular  bundle 
some  of  these  cells  contain  a  few  chloroplasts.  In  the  midrib,  the  lower 
epidermis  consists  of  cells  which  are  small,  thick-walled,  and,  in  transverse 
section,  circular.  The  cuticle  here  is  somewhat  thicker.  The  layer  of  cells 
next  to  this  epidermis  has  thicker  walls  than  the  rest  of  the  aqueous  tissue, 
and  the  cells  themselves  are  smaller.  The  xylem  consists  of  vessels  which 
are  circular  in  section,  of  small  diameter,  and  with  thick  walls  ;  with  the 
vessels  there  is  xylem  parenchyma  ;  the  phloem  is  composed  of  sieve- 
tubes,  companion  cells,  and  a  little  parenchyma.  Below  the  phloem  there 
is  a  small  mass  of  sclerenchyma. 

Petiole  (fig.  9). — This  diagram  is  of  half  the  petiole.  The  epidermis 
consists  of  very  small  cells  in  which  all  the  walls  are  thickened,  especially 
the  internal  and  external  walls  ;  a  cuticle  somewhat  thicker  than  that  in 
the  leaf  is  present.  Stomata  are  found  on  both  surfaces.  Some  of  the 
epidermal  cells  are  produced  into  the  two  kinds  of  hairs  described  in 
connection  with  the  leaf.  The  short  hairs  are  much  more  numerous  than 
the  long  ones.  Practically  the  whole  of  the  ground-tissue  forms  an  aqueous 
tissue  in  which  the  cells  are  large,  rounded  or  polygonal,  with  slightly 
thickened  cellulose  walls,  and  are  closely  arranged  so  that  there  are  only 
minute  air-spaces  between  the  cells.  The  three  layers  of  cells  just  inside 
the  epidermis  are  smaller,  and  have  thicker  walls  ;  in  these  cells  there  are 
a  few  chloroplasts. 

The  vascular  bundles  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  ^the  largest 
being  at  the  centre.  Each  vascular  bundle  is  surrounded  by  a  sheath  of 
cells,  which  is  clearly  distinguished  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  cells  contain 
tannin.  Round  the  sheath  the  cells  of  the  ground-tissue  are  much  smaller. 
The  vascular  bundles  are  the  same  as  in  the  leaf,  except  that  wood-vessels 
9— Trans. 


258 


Transactions. 


are  more  numerous,  of  larger  diameter,  and  more  irregular  in  section. 
Surrounding  the  xylem  and  phloem  (between  these  and  the  sheath)  is 
small-celled  tissue — above  the  xylem  parenchyma,  and  below  the  phloem 
sclerenchyma. 

|i>  '%Base  of  Petiole  (fig.  10a). — The  epidermis  of  the  upper  surface  consists 
of£small  cells,  usually  oval  in  transverse  section,  with  thin  lateral  walls 

but  thicker  internal  and  external 
ones.  A  thin  cuticle  is  present,  and 
there  are  no  stomata.  The  cells  of 
the  lower  epidermis  are  smaller  than 
those  of  the  upper,  and  have  thicker 
walls.  In  the  upper  surface  the  cells 
of  the  layer  adjacent  to  the  epi- 
dermis are  large,  oval  or  irregular 
in  shape,  with  slightly  thickened 
walls.  The  rest  of  the  ground-tissue 
consists  of  large,  more  or  less  circular, 
closely  packed  cells,  many  of  which 
contain  tannin.  Near  the  lower  epi- 
dermis there  is  a  layer  of  smaller 
cells  with  thickened  walls,  also  con- 
taining tannin  ;  the  lower  epidermal 
cells  contain  tannin.  The  vascular 
bundles,  of  which  there  are  three, 
all  large,  are  of  the  same  structure 
as  in  the  upper  part  of  the  petiole. 
In  this  part,  however,  the  cells 
of  the  bundle-sheath  are  suberized. 
The  parenchymatous  elements  of 
both  xylem  and  phloem  contain 
tannin. 

Root  (fig.  106). — This  is  a  diagram 
of  a  section  of  one  of  the  older  roots. 
On  the  outside  are  the  remains  of 
the  old  cortical  cells.  Then  comes 
a  layer  of  cork-cells,  all  of  which 
contain  tannin,  and  have  thick  walls, 
which  are,  however,  only  slightly 
suberized.  Internal  to  the  phellogen  is  cortex,  consisting  of  irregular  cells 
which  have  thick  cellulose  walls,  and  most  of  which  contain  tannin.  The 
pith  consists  of  closely  arranged  rounded  or  polygonal  cells  which  have 
thick  walls,  and  many  of  which  contain  tannin.  Some  of  the  cells  also 
contain  starch,  in  the  form  of  large  rounded  grains.  The  xylem  and 
phloem  form  a  continuous  cylinder,  the  amount  of  phloem  being  small. 
In  the  xylem  the  number  of  vessels  is  few  ;  these  are  oval  or  circular  in 
section,  and  thick-walled.  The  rest  of  the  xylem  consists  of  wood-fibres, 
which  are  thick-walled  and  polygonal  in  shape,  almost  free  from  tannin, 
but  containing  a  large  amount  of  starch. 

'      •* 
2.  Cardamine  heterophylla  (Forst.  f.)  0.  E.  Schulz  var. 

This  plant  is  a  slender,  almost  glabrous  herb.  Practically  all  the  leaves 
are  radical  ;  these  aie  1-4  in.  long,  and  are  imparipinnate,  the  terminal 
leaflet  being  much  larger  than  the  others,  of  which  there  are  usually   two 


Fig.  106. — Geum  parvijlorum.  Transverse 
section  of  root  ( X  230).  a,  dead  cor- 
tex ;  b,  old  cork  cells  ;  c,  young  cork 
cells ;  d,  cortex ;  c,  phloem ;  /,  xylem  ; 
g,  starch-containing  cells  ;   h,  pith. 


Betts. — Rosette  Plants  at  Cass. 


259 


9* 


Fig.  U. — Cardamine  heterophylla.    Entire  plant  (two-tliirds  natural  size). 


260 


Transactions. 


pairs.  The  leaflets  are  rounded  or  irregularly  lobed,  with  entire  margin. 
A  few  of  the  leaves,  the  shorter  ones,  have  only  one  leaflet.  The  flowering- 
stems  are  1-5  in.  high,  and  usually  bear  a  few  small  leaves,  which  have 
usually  only  1-3  leaflets  (fig.  11).  The  root-system  is  well  developed, 
consisting  of  a  main  tap-root,  which  gives  rise  to  numerous  branches. 


Fig.   12. — Cardamine  heteropkylla.    Transverse  section  of  portion  of  leaf  (  x  175). 

guard-cell  of   stoma ;    b,    hair ;    c,  palisade  tissue ;  d,    xylem ;    e, 

/,  spongjr  parenchyma  ;    g,  large  epidermal  cell. 
Fig.  13. — Cardamine  heterophylla.    Upj^er  epidermis  in  surface  view  (x  175). 
Fig.  14. — Cardamine  heterophylla.     Lower  epidermis  in  surface  view  ( x  175). 


a,  small 
];^iloem  ; 


Anatomy. 

Leaf  (figs.  12-14). — Both  the  upper  and  the  lower  epidermis  consist  of 
cells  which  vary  considerably  in  size,  both  in  section  and  in  surface  view  ; 
some  of  the  cells  are  small,  others  very  large,  and  slightly  convex  on  the 
outer  surface,  so  that  they  project  somewhat  beyond  the  level  of  the  other 


Bbtts. — Eosette  Plants  at  Cass. 


261 


cells.  The  cell-wdlls  are  thin  in  both  upper  and  lower  surfaces,  especially 
the  latter,  and  here  the  cells,  as  seen  in  surface  view,  are  even  more  irre- 
gular in  outline  than  those  of  the  upper  (figs.  13  and  14).  Stomata,  in 
which  the  guard-cells  are  very  small,  are  found  on  both  surfaces,  but  are 
more  numerous  on  the  lower  ;  on  the  upper  surface  there  are  about  65 
per  square  millimetre,  and  on  the  lower  about  105.  A  few  of  the  cells  of  the 
upper  epidermis  (fig.  12)  are  produced  into  long,  unicellular,  thick-waUed 
hairs,  the  walls  of  which  are  covered  with  small  excrescences  of  calcium 
oxalate.     On  both  surfaces  is  a  thin  cuticle. 

The  chlorenchyma  is  differentiated,  although  in  parts  not  too  clearly. 
The  palisade  parenchyma  consists  of  large,  thin-walled,  more  or  less  oval 
cells  which  vary  in  size  and  which  contain  numerous  small  oval  chloro- 
plasts.  This  layer  is  usually  only  one  cell  deep.  The  spongy  tissue,  which 
occupies  the  greater  part  of  the  leaf,  consists  of  oval  or  irregular  cells  which 
are  loosely  arranged,  so  that  there  are  large  intercellular  air-spaces.  This 
tissue  also  contains  numerous  chloroplasts. 

The  vascular  bundles  are  small,  and  each  is  surrounded  by  a  little 
thin-waUed  colourless  parenchyma.  The  xylem  consists  of  vessels  which, 
in  section,  are  small,  circular,  and  thick-walled  ;  associated"  with  the  xylem 
s  a  small  amount  of  xylem  parenchyma.    The  phloem  is  of  the  usual  form. 

The  leaf  is  thickened  at  the  midrib,  where  there  is  an  aqueous  tissue, 
consisting  of  large,  roundish  or  irregular  thin-walled  cells,  in  which  there 
are  a  very  few  chloroplasts. 


Fig.   15. — Cardamine  heterophylla.     Transverse  section  of  petiole  ( X  72). 
a,  furrow  of  upper  surface  ;    b,  chlorenchyma ;    c,  aqueous  tissue. 


Petiole  (fig.  15). — The  petiole  is  convex  on  the  lower  surface,  and  on  the 
upper  is  more  or  less  flattened,  with  a  groove  running  down  each  side  of  the 
midrib.  The  epidermis  is  the  same  as  in  the  leaf,  consisting  of  small  cells, 
together  with  much  larger,  somewhat  projecting  cells.     Stomata  are  found 


262 


Transactions. 


on  both  surfaces.  There  are  three  vascular  bundles — a  small  one  near  each 
margin,  and  a  larger  one,  which  is  surrounded  by  a  well-marked  endo- 
dermis,  occupying  the  centre  of  the  petiole.  Some  of  the  cells  of  this 
endodermis  are  slightly  suberized.  The  structure  of  the  vascular  bundle 
is  the  same  as  in  the  leaf. 

The  mesophyll  consists  of  large,  thin-walled,  more  or  less  circular  cells 
which  are  closely  packed  together.  At  the  margin — that  is,  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  small  vascular  bundles — the  cells  are  smaller,  and  they  contain 
abundant  chloroplasts.  In  the  other  part  of  the  ground-tissue,  especially 
near  the  epidermis,  there  are  a  few  chloroplasts,  but  most  of  this  tissue 
is  the  colourless  aqueous  tissue. 


Fig.  16. — Cardamine  heterophylla.  Transverse  section  of  flower- bearing 
stem  ( X  230).  a,  chlorenchymatous  cortex  ;  b,  endodermis  ; 
c,  pericycle;  rf,  phloem;    e,  xylem- vessel;  /,  wood-fibre;   gr,  pith. 

Flowerhtg-stem  (fig.  16). — The  epidermis  consists  of  small  oval  or  rect- 
angular cells  in  which  all  the  cell-walls,  but  especially  the  inner  and  outer, 
are  thickened  ;  there  is  a  thin  cuticle.  Stomata  are  present,  the  guard-cells 
being  somewhat  larger  than  in  the  leaf  ;  they  are  protected  by  small 
guard-cell  ridges.  The  whole  of  the  cortex,  with  the  exception  of  the  endo- 
dermis, is  chlorenchymatous.  It  consists  of  oval,  thin-waUed  cells  which 
vary  in  size  and  which  contain  numerous  small  chloroplasts. 


Betts. — Rosette  Plants  at  Cass. 


263 


The  endodermis  is  a  single  layer  of  cells  ;  opposite  the  vascular  bundles 
the  cell-walls  in  this  layer  are  suberized,  but  not  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  medullary  rays.  The  pericycle  consists  of  small,  thin-walled,  paren- 
chymatous cells. 

There  are  five  vascular  bundles,  arranged  in  a  circle.  The  xylem  con- 
sists of  vessels  of  fairly  large  diameter,  together  with  small  wood-fibres. 


Fig.  17. — Cardamine  heterophylla.  Transverse  section  of  root  ( x  175). 
a,  suberized  ceils ;  b,  cortex  with  starch  ;  c,  phloem  ;  d,  xylem- 
vessel ;  e,  xylem  parenchyma. 

The  phloem  group  is  nearly  as  wide  as  the  xylem.  Between  the  bundles  the 
medullary  rays  are  lignified,  consisting  of  small,  rounded,  thick-waUed  cells ; 
the  xylem  and  these  lignified  elements  together  form  an  undulating  band. 
The  pith  is  not  lignified,  and  consists  of  large,  thin-walled,  circular  cells. 

Root  (fig.  17). — Diagram  is  from  a  section  of  the  tap-root.    On  the  out- 
side are  a  couple  of  layers  of  small,  irregular,  thin-walled,  dead  cells  which 


264 


Transactions. 


have  their  walls  suberized.  The  cortex  consists  of  cells  in  which  the 
cell-walls,  composed  of  cellulose,  are  very  much  thickened  ;  the  tissue  is 
compact,  with  only  small  intercellular  air-spaces.  The  cortical  cells  vary 
considerably  in  size  :  in  the  outer  part  of  the  cortex  they  are  large,  and 
irregular  in  shape  ;  in  the  inner  part  they  are  much  smaller,  and  more  or 
less  oval  in  section.     A  large  amount  of  starch  is  stored  up  in  the  cortex. 

The  endodermis  and  the  pericycle  are  not  clearly  defined.  The  xylera 
occupies  the  whole  of  the  centre  of  the  root,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  con- 
tinuous zone  of  phloem.  The  vessels  of  the  xylem  are  scattered  ;  they  are 
of  large  diameter  and  have  thick  walls.  Accompanying  the  vessels  there 
is  a  large  amount  of  xylem  parenchyma  which  consists  of  rectangular  or 

irregular  thick- walled  cells. 

« 

3.  Plantago  triandra  Berggr. 

This  plant  is  illustrated  in  fig.  18.  It  is  a  small  plant,  with  a  short,  thick 
rootstock  bearing  numerous  radical  leaves.  These  leaves  are  |— 2  in.  long, 
with  irregularly  and  remotely  serrate  margins,  and  sparingly  pilose  on  the 


Fig.   18. — Plantago  triandra.     Entire  jilant  (natural  size). 

upper  surface  with  short  hairs,  the  lower  surface  being  glabrous.  The  root- 
system  is  short,  and  consists  of  a  mass  of  fibrous  roots  which  do  not  branch 
very  much. 

Anatomy. 

Leaf  (figs.  19-22). — The  upper  epideimis  is  sparingly  pilose,  the  hairs 
being  long,  jointed  ones,  consisting  of  about  6  cells  (fig.  21).  The  basal  cell 
is  very  large  and  is  more  or  less  circular  ;  its  diameter  is  2-4  times  that  of 
the  other  epidermal  cells.  This  basal  cell  is  thin- walled  at  the  bottom, 
but  at  the  outside  the  wall  is  much  thickened.     The  rest  of  the  cells  of  the 


Betts. — Rosette  Plants  at  Cass. 


265 


hair  are  large,  about  twice  as  long  as  broad,  and  the  apical  cell  is  wedge- 
shaped  ;  these  cells  are  thick-walled  throughout,  but  are  not  cuticularized  ; 
they  contain  protoplasm  in  the  form  of  primordial  utricle  and  protoplasmic 
strands,  and  the  nucleus  is  large  and  oval.  The  average  length  of  hair  is 
0-5  mm.  The  upper  epidermal  cells  are  large,  with  slightly  thickened 
walls,  and  somewhat  irregular  in  outline  (fig.  20).  Stomata  are  numerous 
(about  155  per  square  millimetre) ;  the  guard-cells  have  thickened  walls, 
are  protected  by  fairly  prominent  guard-cell  ridges,  and  are  at  the  same 
level  as  the  epidermis. 


Fig.  19. — Plantago  triandra.  Transverse  section  of  leaf  ( x  230).  a,  hair  ; 
b,  basal  cell  of  hair ;  c,  stoma ;  d,'  palisade  parenchyma ; 
e,  spongy  parenchyma  ;  /,  hydathode. 

The  lower  epidermis  is  similar  to  the  upper,  except  that  the  cells  are 
a  little  longer,  but  are  smaller  in  section,  and  stomata  are  more  numerous 
(about  200  per  square  millimetre).  A  very  thin  cuticle  is  present  on  both 
surfaces.  In  addition  to  the  hairs  described  for  the  upper  surface  there 
are  hydathodes — sparingly  developed  on    the    upper  but  more  numerous 


266 


Transactions. 


on  the  lower  surface.  They  are  of  the  capitate  form  (Haberlandt*).  They 
consist  of  two  parts — (1)  the  basal  portion  or  foot;  (2)  the  head,  of  about 
2  cells.  The  cells  of  this  latter  portion  have  thickened,  non-cuticularized 
walls  (fig.  19). 

The  chlorenchyma  is  differentiated.  The  palisade  tissue  consists  of  1-3 
rows  of  cells— large,  broad  cells,  the  outer  layer  being  composed  of  cells 
about  twice  as  deep  as  broad,  the  inner  layer  or  layers  of  cells  about  as 
broad'  as  deep.  The  cells  are  thin- walled,  fairly  closely  arranged,  and 
contain  numerous  small  ellipsoidal  chloroplasts.  The  spongy  tissue  also 
consists  of  large,  thin-walled,  oval  or  somewhat  irregular  cells,  containing 
a  smaller  number  of  chloroplasts.  The  chloroplasts  in  the  palisade  tissue 
are  slightly  larger  than  in  the  spongy  tissue.  Beneath  each  stoma  there 
is  a  fair-sized  air-space. 

The  vascular  bundles  are  not  numerous  and  are  very  small.  In  the 
midrib  there  is,  between  the  vascular  bundle  and  the  lower  surface,  a 
small   amount   of   aqueous    tissue,    consisting   of   rounded  cells  which  are 


Fig.  20. — Plantago  triandra.    Upper  epidermis  of  leaf  ( x  230). 

a,  guard- cells  ;    b,  base  of  hair. 
Fig.  21. — Plantago  triandra.     Jointed  hair(x  48). 

either  colourless  or  contain  a  few  chloroplasts.  The  mesophyll  above  the 
vascular  bundle  is  not  differentiated,  and  consists  of  very  large  cells  which 
contain  chloroplasts.  Below  the  midrib  the  cells  of  the  lower  epidermis 
are  much  smaller,  are  circular  in  transverse  section,  and  have  all  their 
walls  thickened.  Above  the  lower  epidermis,  in  the  midrib,  is  a  single 
layer  of  colourless  collenchyma. 

The  vascular  bundle  of  the  midrib  is  small,  and  is  surrounded  by  a 
bundle-sheath  of  fairly  large,  thin-walled  cells,  in  a  few  of  which  there  is 
a  small  number  of  chloroplasts.  The  xylem  consists  of  vessels  of  small 
diameter,  together  with  xylem  parenchyma.  There  is  also  parenchyma  with 
the  phloem.  Above  the  xylem  and  below  the  phloem  there  is  a  small  amount 
of  sclerenchyma,  consisting  of  small  irregular  cells  with  thick  walls. 


*  HABERLA.NDT,  Physiologicul  Plant  Anatomy  (English  translation),  p.  491  ;  London, 
1914. 


Betts. — Roiiette  Flanis  at  Cass. 


267 


Leaf -base  (fig.  22). — The  leaf-base  is  elongated  and  sheathing,  colour- 
less, and  thickened  considerably  near  the  centre,  but  thin  and  membranous 


Fig.  22. — Plantago  triandra.     Transverse  section  of  petiole  ( x  48). 
a,  aqueous  tissue  ;  b,  xylem  ;   c,  phloem  ;   d,  bundle-sheath. 

atjthe  margins.  The  upper  epidermis  consists  of  large,fthin-walled,  colour- 
less cells,  without  any  stomata.  The  outer  walls  are  slightly  thicker  than 
the  others.  The  lower  epidermis  is  composed  of  smaller  cells  than  the 
upper,  and  the  walls  are  somewhat  thicker. 

The  ground-tissue  consists  of  large,  rounded,  thin-walled  cells  in  which 
the  protoplasm  is  reduced  to  a  very  thin  layer  lining  the  walls  ;  this  tissue 
is  for  water-storage.  The  vascular  bundles  are  small,  and  of  the  same 
structure  as  in  the  leaf. 


Fig.  23. — Plantago  triandra.  Transverse  section  of  root  (x  175) 
a,  suberized  cells ;  6,  cortex  ;  c,  endodermis  ;  d,  peri- 
cycle  ;    e,  phloem  ;  /,  xylem. 

'Root  (fig.  23). — The  vascular  cylinder  is  small,  consisting  of  a  central 
mass  of  xylem,  composed  of  elements  of  smaU  diameter,  and  with  thickened, 
pitted  walls  ;  surrounding  the  xylem  is  a  narrow  band  of  phloem.  The 
pericycle  is  a  single  layer  of  thin-walled  cells.  The  endodermis  is  well 
marked,  and  consists  of  cells  somewhat  larger  than  the  cells  of  the  peri- 
cycle and  with  thicker,  slightly  suberized  walls. 


268 


Transactions. 


The  cortex  consists  of  fairly  large,  thin -walled  cells  ;  in  an  old  root,  as 
illustrated,  the  hairs  of  the  piliferous  layer  have  disappeared,  and  the  sub- 
dermal  layer  of  cortical  cells  have  their  walls  slightly  suberized. 

4.  Brachycome  Sinclairii  Hook.  f. 

The  appearance  of  a  single  rosette  is  given  in  fig.  24.  The  plant  is  more 
or  less  succulent,  1-3  in.  high,  and  practically  glabrous.  The  plant  has  a 
short,  thick,  branching  rhizome,  and  it  is  by  this  means  that  the  plant  is 


Fig.  24. — Brachycome  Sinclairii.     Entire  plant  (x  IJ). 

able  to  form  mats.  The  leaves  are  J-2  in.  long,  broad  and  rounded  at  the 
tip,  and  gradually  narrowed  into  the  flat  petiole  ;  they  are  deeply  toothed, 
and  in  some  cases  appear  even  pinnatifid. 

Anatomy. 

Leaf  (figs.  25-27). — In  transverse  section  the  cells  of  the  upper  epidermis 
are  seen  to  be  large  and  somewhat  squarish,  with  all  their  walls  thickened, 
the  outer  ones  considerably,  the  thickening  being  equal  to  about  half  the 
depth  of  the  cell-cavity.  The  stomata,  which  are  numerous,  are  raised 
above  the  cavity  of  the  epidermal  cells,  but  are  at  the  same  level  as  the 
thickened  external  walls.  The  guard-cells  have  thickened  walls  and  guard - 
cell  ridges.  In  surface  view  (fig.  26)  the  cells  of  the  upper  epidermis  are 
seen  to  be  large  and  irregular  or  polygonal.  A  thin,  unevenly  but  not 
deeply  ridged  cuticle  is  present.  On  the  upper  surface  there  are  about 
220  stomata  per  square  millimetre. 

The  cells  of  the  lower  epidermis  (fig.  27)  are  similar  to  those  of  the 
upper,  except  that  the  cell-walls  are  not  so  much  thickened  ;  in  surface 
view  these  cells  are  more  irregular  in  outline  than  the  cells  of  the  upper 
epidermis.  Stomata  are  not  as  abundant  as  on  the  upper  surface  ;  there 
are  150  per  square  millimetre.  The  guard-cells  of  the  stomata  of  the  lower 
surface  are  a  little  smaller  than  in  the  upper  surface. 

The  chlorenchyma  is  difierentiated  ;  the  palisade  tissue  occupies  about 
one-third  and  the  spongy  parenchyma  two-thirds  of  the  mesophyll.  In 
both  the  cell-walls  are  very  thin.  The  palisadic  cells  are  oval  or  oblong 
in  transverse  section,  about  twice  as  deep  as  wide,  fairly  compactly  arranged, 
and  containing  numerous  small  rounded  chloroplasts.  The  spongy  tissue 
consists  of  large,  more  or  less  rounded  cells,  with  small  air-spaces  between 
the  cells  ;  they  contain  a  much  smaller  number  of  chloroplasts  than  the 
palisade-cells,  and  form  an  aqueous  tissue. 


Bbtts. — Rosette  Plants  at  Cass. 


269 


The  vascular  bundles  are  small,  and  are  surrounded  by  a  sheath  of  thin- 
walled,  colourless  cells.  The  xylem  consists  of  vessels  round  in  section, 
with  thick  walls,  and  of  xylem  parenchyma.  The  amount  of  phloem  is 
small.  The  leaf  is  much  thicker  in  the  midrib,  where  the  vascular  bundle 
is  accompanied  by  a  mass  of  large,  rounded,  thin-walled,  colourless  cells. 
There  is  a  smaller  amount  of  this  colourless  tissue  with  the  other  bundles. 

Petiole  (fig.  28). — The  petiole  is  thick  and  fleshy,  being  used  for  water- 
storage.  The  upper  epidermis  consists  of  large  cells  in  which  the  lateral 
walls  are  thin,  and  the  inner  and  outer  thickened,  but  not  so  much  as  in  the 
leaf -lamina.     A  cuticle  as  in  the  leaf  is  present.     Many  of  the  epidermal 


CL    t 


Fig.  25. — Brachycome  Sinclairii.  Transverse  section  of  leaf  ( X  230).  a,  ridged 
cuticle  ;  b,  thick  epidermal  wall ;  c,  palisade  tissue  ;  d,  spongy  tissue  ; 
e,  guard-cell  ridge. 

Fig.  26. — Brachycome  Sinclairii.     Upper  epidermis  of  leaf  (x  230). 

Fig.  27. — Brachycome  Sinclairii.     Lower  epidermis  of  leaf  (x  230). 


cells  contain  chloroplasts,  and  near  the  centre  of  the  petiole,  above  the 
midrib,  a  few  of  them  are  produced  into  long,  unicellular  hairs  which 
contain  protoplasm.  At  the  margin  of  the  petiole  are  found  a  few  capitate 
glandular  hairs.  The  lower  epidermis  is  similar  to  the  upper,  except 
that  it  does  not  produce  any  hairs,  and  the  cells  are  smaller  and  contain 
more  chloroplasts.  There  are  stomata  on  the  upper  but  not  on  the  lower 
surface. 

There  are  five  vascular  bundles— a  large  one  at  the  centre,  and  four  very 
small  ones.  The  bundle-sheath  is  not  clearly  marked  off  from  the  small- 
celled  parenchyma  surrounding  the  bundle.  The  structure  of  the  bundles 
is  the  same  as  in  the  leaf. 


270 


Transactions. 


The  ground-tissue  consists  of  large,  rounded,  thin-walled,  closely  arranged 
cells.  The  1-2  layers  of  these  cells  adjacent  to  the  epidermis  are  chloren- 
chymatous,  as  also  in  the  tissue  in  the  margin  of  the  petiole.  The  main 
bulk  of  the  ground-tissue  is,  however,  colourless,  forming  an  aqueous  tissue. 

Rhizome  (fig.  29). — The  epidermis  consists  of  cells  which  are  oval  or 
rounded  in  transverse  section,  and  which  have  all  their  walls  slightly 
thickened,  the  external  being  the  most  thickened.  A  very  thin,  uneven, 
ridged  cuticle  is  present.  The  cortex  consists  of  large,  rounded,  colourless 
cells  which  have  their  walls  slightly  thickened  and  which  form  a  water- 
storage  tissue.  In  the  inner  part  of  the  cortex  there  are,  at  intervals,  a  few 
secretion-canals  which  are  lined  with  a  layer  of  thin-walled  epithelial  cells. 


Fig.  28. — Brachycome  Sindairii.  Transverse  section  of  petiole  (x  72). 
a,  unicellular  hair ;  b,  chlorenchyma ;  c,  aqueous  tissue ; 
d,  xylem ;  e,  phloem. 

The  endodermis  is  well  marked,  consisting  of  a  layer  of  irregular  cells 
with  thin  suberized  walls.  There  is  no  continuous  pericycle,  but  this  layer 
is  represented  by  a  number  of  groups  of  pericycle  fibres,  in  which  the  cells 
have  thick,  lignified  walls  and  small  lumen.  The  phloem  forms  a  fairly 
wide  band  and  is  continuous  round  the  xylem  ;  it  consists  of  sieve-tubes, 
companion  cells,  and  a  fairly  large  amount  of  phloem  parenchyma.  The 
xylem  joins  a  practically  continuous  band  of  vessels  and  of  wood-fibres 
with  fairly  thick  walls.  It  is  interrupted  by  a  few  uniseriate  medullary 
rays,  also  with  thickened,  lignified  walls.  The  pith  is  solid,  and  consists 
of  thin-walled,  large,  round  cells. 

In  an  older  part  of  the  rhizome  the  epidermis  has  disappeared,  and  the 
outer  layer  of  the  cortex  is  suberized. 


Betts. — Rosette  Plants  at  Cass. 


271 


Root  (fig.  30). — The  central  cylinder  is  small,  and  is  surrounded  by  a 
clearly  marked  endodermis,  which,  as  in  the  rhizome,  consists  of  irregular, 
thin-walled,  suberized  cells.  The  pericycle  consists  of  a  single  layer  of 
cells  about  the  same  size  as  the  endodermal  cells,  and  with  thin  cellulose 


Fig.    29. — Brachycome    Sinclairii.      Transverse    section    of    rhizome    (x  175). 

a,  cortex ;  b,  canal ;   c,  epithelial  layer ;   d,  endodermis ;   e,  pericycle 

fibres  ;  /,  phloem  ;  g,  xylem  ;   h,  medullary  ray. 
Fig.     30. — Brachycome    Sinclairii.       Transverse     section     of     root     (x  175). 

a,     suberized    cells ;     b,    cortex ;     c,    endodermis ;     d,    pericycle ; 

e,  phloem  ;  /,  xylem. 

walls.  The  xylem  forms  a  compact  triangular-shaped  mass,  and  its  elements 
have  thick  walls.  The  phloem  forms  three  large  masses,  and  consists  of 
sieve-tubes,  companion  cells,  and  phloem  parenchyma,  all  of  which  have 
their  elements  of  small  diameter. 


272  Transactitms'. 

The  cortex  is  a  wide  band  of  tissue,  consisting  of  large,  more  or  less 
circular  cells,  compactly  arranged,  and  with  slightly  thickened  walls. 

5.  Gnaphalium  Traversii  Hook.  f. 

The  plant  is  a  small  perennial  herb  \-\\  in.  high.  The  plant  produces 
a  large  number  of  runners  (figs.  31  and-  32),  which  give  rise  to  new  plants 
at  a  short  distance  from  the  parent  plant,  so  that  fairly  compact  mats  are 
formed  by  the  runners  going  in  all  directions.    The  leaves  are  ^-H  in.  long, 


Fig.  31. — Gnaphalium  Traversii.     Plant  (half  natural  size)  to  show  root-system. 
Fig.  32. — Gnaphalium  Traversii.     Plant  (half  natural  size)  to  show  runners. 

spathulate  in  shape,  and  clothed  on  both  surfaces,  also  on  the  petiole  and 
runner,  with  a  silvery  tomentum.  The  root-system  is  a  mass  of  tough, 
fibrous  roots. 

Anatomy. 

Leaf  (fig.  33). — From  the  transverse  section  it  is  seen  that  the  leaf  is 
very  much  thickened  at  the  midrib,  where  there  is  a  large  amount  of 
aqueous  tissue.  The  upper  epidermis  consists  of  large  cells,  in  which  the 
lateral  and  inner  walls  are  thin,  but  the  outer  are  thickened.  There  is  a 
thin  cuticle  on  both  surfaces.  The  cells  of  the  lower  epidermis  are  much 
smaller  than  those  of  the  upper.  On  both  surfaces  many  of  the  epidermal 
cells  are  produced  into  long,  two-celled  hairs,  the  outer  cell  being  much 
longer  than  the  basal  cell.  Stomata  are  confined  to  the  lower  surface, 
where  they  are  raised  above  the  epidermal  cells.  The  guard-cells  are  small 
and  have  thick  walls.  Owing  to  the  dense  mass  of  tomentum  it  is  impossible 
to  find  the  number  of  stomata  per  square  millimetre. 

The  mesophyll  consists  of  palisade  and  spongy  tissue.  The  palisade 
tissue  consists  of  a  single  layer  of  oval  cells  in  which  are  numerous  elongated 
chloroplasts.  The  spongy  parenchyma,  which  is  compactly  arranged,  is 
composed  of  rounded  or  oval  cells,  also  containing  chloroplasts.  All  the 
mesophyll  cells  are  thin- walled. 

The  aqueous  tissue  in  the  midrib  consists  of  large,  thin-walled,  rounded 
cells,  with  small  air-spaces  between  them.  Above  the  lower  epidermis  in 
the  midrib  a  single  layer  of  these  cells  contain  chloroplasts. 

In  addition  to  the  hairs  described  above,  there  are  club-shaped,  glandular 
hairs,  which  consist  of  about  5  cells. 


Betts. — Rosette  'Plants  at  Cass. 


273 


Petiole. — -The  petiole  is  very  much  thickened  at  the  midrib,  but  is 
thin  at  the  margin.  The  upper  epidermis  consists  of  fairly  large  cells,  in 
which  the  lateral  walls  are  thin,  the  inner  and  outer  somewhat  thickened. 
Many  of  these  cells  are  produced  into  hairs  as  in  the  leaf.  Stomata  are 
confined  to  the  lower  surface. 

The  mesophyll  consists  for  the  most  part  of  large,  thin-walled,  rounded 
or  polygonal,  closely  arranged  cells.  This  tissue  is  for  water-storage.  Near 
the  flattened  margins  of  the  petiole  the  cells  are  smaller  and  contain  a  few 
flattened  chloroplasts. 


Fig.  33. — Gnaphalium  Traversii.  Transverse  section  of  leaf,  passing  through  midrib 
(X  175).  a,  palisade  tissue;  6,  spongy  tissue;  c,  two-celled  hair;  d,  stoma; 
e,  glandular  hair  ;   /,  xylem ;  r/,  phloem  ;    h,  aqueous  tissue. 

There  are  three  vascular  bundles,  the  one  in  the  midrib  being  large, 
the  others  smaller.  Each  is  surrounded  by  a  small  amount  of  thin-walled, 
colourless  parenchyma  ;    the  bundle  has  the  same  structure  as  in  the  leaf. 

Runner  (fig.  34).  —  This  is  cylindrical  in  transverse  section.  The 
epidermis. consists  of  small  cells,  much  smaller  than  in  the  petiole,  which 
have  all  their  walls  slightly  thickened.  Some  of  these  cells  are  produced 
into  hairs  like  those  in  the  leaf,  except  that,  while  in  the  leaf  they  are 
usually  two-celled,  in  this  case  they  are  three-celled. 


274 


Transactions. 


There  are  a  few  stomata,  the  guard-cells  of  which  are  level  with  the 
other  epidermal  cells  and  have  thickened  walls. 

The  cortex  consists  of  large,  thin-walled,  rounded  or  somewhat  irregular 
cells  which  have  small  air-spaces  between  them  and  which  form  a  water- 
storage  tissue.  In  the  outermost  layers  there  are  a  few  chloroplasts,  which 
are  smaller  than  those  in  the  leaf. 


Fig.  34. — Gnaphalium  Traversii.  Transverse  section  of  runner  (x  230). 
a,  cells  with  chloroplasts  ;  b,  colourless  cortex  ;  c,  endodermis ; 
d,  pericycle  ;  e,  phloem ;  /,  xylem  ;   g,  pith. 


The  central  cylinder  is  fairly  small,  occupying  less  than  half  the  dia- 
meter of  the  stem.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  well-marked  endodermis  in 
which  all  the  cells  are  large  and  have  suberized  walls. 


Bbtts. — Eosette  Plants  at  Cass.  275 

The  pericycle  is  a  single  layer  of  small  thin -walled  parenchymatous 
cells.  The  phloem  and  xylem  form  a  continuous  cylinder  round  the  pith, 
which  consists  of  large,  rounded  cells  with  somewhat  thickened  walls. 
In  the  xylem  the  vessels  and  fibres  are  polygonal  in  section  and  are  thick- 
walled. 

Root  (fig.  35). — The  diagram  is  of  an  old  root,  in  which  the  piliferous 
layer  has  been  worn  off,  exposing  the  cortex  ;    the  outermost  layer  is  of 


Fig.  35. — Gnaphaliuni  Traversii.  Transverse  section  of  root 
( X  230).  a,  suberized  cortex  ;  6,  cortex  ;  c,  endo- 
dermis  ;    d,  phloem  ;    e,  xylem. 

small  cells^with  the  walls,  which  are  thin,  slightly  suberized.  The  rest 
of  the  cortex  consists  of  oval  or  irregular  cells  with  thicker  walls,  and  small 
air-spaces  between  the  cells. 

The  endodermis  is  a  single  layer  of  small  oval  cells  with  thin  suberized 
walls.  The  xylem  forms  a  compact  central  mass,  in  which  the  elements 
are  polygonal  in  transverse  section  and  have  thickened  walls.  The  phloem 
forms  a  narrow  band  surrounding  the  xylem. 


276  Transactions. 


Art.  XXXI. — Notes  on  the  Autecology  of  certain  Plants  of  the  Peridotite 
Belt,  Nelson:  Part  I — Structure  of  some  of  the  Plants  (No.  3).* 

By  M.  Winifred  Betts,  M.Sc. 

[Read  before  the  Otago  Institute,  10th  December,  1919  ;   received  by  Editor,  S^lst  December, 

1919  ;  issued  separately,  30th  Jime,  1920.] 

25.  Cyathodes  acerosa  R.  Br. 

Habit.  —  This  plant .  is  an  erect,  branching  shrub,  1-2  ft.  high  ;  the 
branches  are  woody  and  spreading,  and  the  bark  is  black.  The  leaves 
are  spreading,  ^^  in.  long,  acerose,  linear,  rigid,  pungent-pointed,  glaucous 
beneath,  with  3  to  7  parallel  veins. 

Anatomy. 

Leaf. — The  upper  epidermis  is  composed  of  very  regular  rectangular 
cells  which  have  the  longer  sides  at  right  angles  to  the  surface  of  the 
leaf.  These  cells  have  very  thick  mucilaginous  cell-walls,  and  their  cavities 
are  very  small  and  contain  tannin.      There  is  a  thick  cuticle. 

The  lower  epidermis  consists  of  small  cells  which  have  thick  walls  (but 
not  nearly  as  thick  as  in  the  upper  epidermis).'  There  is  a  thick  cuticle 
on  this  surface  also.  Most  of  the  cells  of  the  lower  epidermis  are  produced 
into  short  papillae  with  very  thick,  cutinized  walls.  Stomata  are  confined 
to  the  lower  epidermis  ;  the  guard-cells  are  small,  and  are  at  the  same, 
level  as  the  other  epidermal  cells. 

The  chlorenchyma  is  differentiated  into  palisade  and  spongy  tissue. 
The  palisade  tissue  consists  of  3  or  4  rows  of  narrow,  elongated  cells.  The 
outermost  layer  has  all  the  cells  full  of  tannin  ;  the  others  contain  small 
chloroplasts.  The  outer  layer  is  very  compact,  but  there  are  small  inter- 
cellular air-spaces  in  the  inner  layers. 

The  spongy  tissue  occupies  about  a  quarter  of  the  width  of  the  leaf. 
It  is  composed  of  sriiall,  irregular,  thin- walled  cells,  many  of  which  contain 
tannin.      There  are  small  intercellular  air-spaces  in  this  tissue. 

The  number  of  vascular  bundles  varies  from  3  to  7.  The  xylem  and 
the  phloem  are  both  small  in  amount,  and  in  the  parenchymatous  elements 
there  is  tannin.  Below  the  phloem  there  is  a  mass  of  stereome,  consisting 
of  small  cells  with  their  walls  so  much  thickened  that  their  cavities  are 
almost  obliterated.  Above  the  upper  part  of  the  bundle  there  is  a  sheath 
of  small  cells  with  unlignified  walls. 

Stem. — The  cork  forms  a  narrow  band  ;  it  is  composed  of  very  small, 
thick-walled  cells  which  are  very  closely  arranged. 

The  cortex  consists  of  oval,  thin-walled  cells,  which  contain  tannin, 
and  which  form  a  compact  tissue  with  very  small  intercellular  air-spaces. 

The  phloem  is  composed  of  small  elements  ;  the  medullary  rays  passing 
through  it  contain  tannin. 

The  xylem  is  composed  of  a  moderate  number  of  vessels  which  have 
thick  walls.  The  rest  of  the  xylem  consists  of  wood-fibres  which  have 
very  thick  cell-walls  and  small  lumen. 

*For  Nos.  1  and  2  see  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  50,  pp.  230-43,  1918,  and  vol.  51, 
pp.  136-56,  1919. 


Betts. — Autecology  of  Plants  of  Peridotite  Belt,  Nelson.        211 

The  medullary  rays  are  uniseriate,  frequent,  and  have  thickened, 
lignified  walls,  and  contain  tannin. 

The  pith  is  solid,  and  is  composed  of  large  polygonal  cells  with  thick, 
lignified,  and  pitted  walls.      The  cells  contain  tannin. 

26.   Gentiana  corymbifera  T.  Kirk. 

Habit. — The  plant  is  a  perennial  herb.  The  root  is  stout,  long,  and 
tapering.  The  stems  are  simple  and  rarely  branched  from  the  base, 
stout,  erect,  terete,  6-20  in.  high.  The  leaves  are  both  radical  and 
cauline.  The  radical  leaves  are  numerous,  rosulate,  \-2\  in.  long,  |— ^  in. 
broad,  narrowed  into  a  short  petiole.  The  blade  is  coriaceous,  and  rather 
thick  and  fleshy.  The  cauline  leaves  are  few  in  number,  f-lj  in.  long, 
linear-lanceolate,  and  sessile. 

Anatomy. 

Leaf. — The  upper  epidermis  is  composed  of  large  cells  which  in  trans- 
verse section  are  oval.  They  have  all  their  walls,  and  especially  the 
external  ones,  thickened.  These  cells  contain  drops  of  oil.  There  is  a 
thin,  rough  cuticle. 

The  lower  epidermis  is  the  same  as  the  upper,  except  that  the  cells  are 
somewhat  smaller.  There  is  a  thin  cuticle  on  this  surface  also.  Stomata 
are  found  on  both  surfaces,  but  are  much  more  numerous  on  the  lower. 
The  guard-cells  are  small,  and  have  very  thick  walls.  The  stoma  is 
protected  by  guard-cell  ridges  which  are  rathqr  large. 

The  chlorenchyma  is  differentiated  into  palisade  and  spongy  tissue. 
The  palisade  tissue  consists  of  5  rows  of  large  cells  with  slightly  thickened 
walls.  These  cells  contain  ver)''  numerous  small  chloroplasts,  and  there 
are  small  air-spaces  between  the  cells. 

The  spongy  tissue  is  composed  of  large,  irregular  cells,  the  walls  of  which 
are  only  slightly  thickened.  There  are  quite  large  intercellular  air-spaces 
in  this  tissue.  These  cells  contain  a  thin  layer  of  protoplasm  in  which 
are  embedded  small  chloroplasts,  which  are  not  nearly  as  numerous  as  in 
the  palisade  tissue  ;  these  cells  serve  as  water-storage  cells. 

The  vascular  bundles  are  small  and  numerous  ;  associated  with  both 
the  phloem  and  the  xylem  there  is  parenchyma.  The  bundle  is  surrounded 
by  a  sheath  of  thin-walled  parenchymatous  cells  which  contain  a  few 
chloroplasts.  Below  the  main  bundle  there  is  a  small  amount  of  collen- 
ohyma. 

Stem. — The  epidermis  is  composed  of  cells  which  are  large  and  rounded' 
in  transverse  section.      They  have  all  their  walls  very  much  thickened, 
and  there  is  also  a  moderately  thick,  rough  cuticle.      Some  of  the  epidermal 
cells  contain  drops  of  oil. 

Below  the  epidermis  there  is  a  well-marked  hypoderma.  This  consists 
of  cells  which  are  the  same  as  the  epidermal  cells,  and  they  also  have  their 
external  walls  cuticularized.  The  hypoderma  is  in  places  separated  from 
the  epidermis  by  a  large  air-space. 

The  cortex  is  a  wide  band  ;  it  is  composed  of  large,  more  or  less  oval 
cells  which  have  their  walls  somewhat  thickened.  There  are  very  small 
intercellular  air-spaces  in  this  tissue.  In  the  outer  part  of  the  cortex  the 
cells  contain  a  few  small  chloroplasts.  All  the  cortical  cells  form  an 
aqueous  tissue.  The  endodermis  is  well  marked  ;  it  is  a  layer  of  large 
cells  with  thin  suberized  walls. 


278 


Transactions. 


The  phloem  is  a  fairly  wide  band  of  tissue  ;  the  sieve-tubes  are  of 
small  diameter,  and  there  is  a  large  amount  of  phloem  parenchyma.  There 
are  also  small  groups  of  sieve-tubes  on  the  inside  of  the  xylem. 

The  xylem  is  a  wide  band  ;  it  is  formed  for  the  greater  part  of  very 
regular  rows  of  wood-fibres  with  slightly  thickened  walls.  There  are  no 
medullary  rays.  On  the  inside  of  the  band  of  fibres  there  are  a  few  small 
vessels. 

The  pith  is  composed  of  large  thin-walled  cells  which  have  small  inter- 
cellular air-spaces  between  them. 

27.    Myosotis  Monroi  Cheesem.  i 

Habit. — This  plant  is  a  small  perennial  herb  which  is  more  or  less 
hispid  with  short,  stiff,  white  hairs.  The  radial  leaves  are  numerous, 
|— 2  in.  long,  narrow  obovate-spathulate,  narrowed  into  a  rather  long  slender 
petiole,  hispid  with  short,  -stiff,  white  hairs  on  the  upper  surface,  more 
sparingly  so  beneath,  and  sometimes  glabrous  except  the  midrib.  The 
cauline  leaves  are  smaller  and  narrower. 


Anatomy. 

Leaf  (fig.  1). — The  upper  epidermis  consists  of  large  roundish  or  squarish 
cells  with  thin  walls,  except  the  external,  which  are  slightly  thickened. 


--C 


1^-d 


Fig.  1. — Myosotis  Monroi.  Transverse  section  of  leaf  (x  175).  a,  uni- 
cellular hair ;  b,  stoma ;  c,  palisade  parenchyma ;  d,  spongy 
parenchyma  ;    e,  xylem  ;  J,  phloem. 

A  very  thin  cuticle  is  present.  Numerous  epidermal  cells  are  produced 
into  long,  stiff  hairs  with  small  protuberances  on  their  outside  walls. 
Stomata  are  found  on  both  surfaces  of  the  leaf  ;    the  guard-cells  are  small 


Betts. — Aut ecology  of  Plants  of  Peridotite  Belt,  Nelson.        279 


and  have  thickened  walls,  and  are  level  with  the  surface  of  the  leaf  ;   there 
are  guard-cell  ridges.  :T^  -^ 

The  lower  epidermis  is  the  same  as  the  upper,  except  that  the  cells  are 
somewhat  smaller.  There  is  a  thin  cuticle  on  this  surface  also,  i  The 
hairs  are  not  nearly  as  numerous  as  on  the  upper  surface. 


Fio.  2. — Myosotis  Monroi.  Transverse  section  of  stem(x  175). 
a,  unicellular  hair ;  6,  chlorenchyma ;  c,  aqueous  tissue  ; 
d,  phloem  ;    e,  xylem  ;  /,  pith. 

The  chlorenchyma  is  differentiated  into  paHsade  and  spongy  tissue. 
The  palisade  tissue  consists  of  4  rows  of  cells — the  3  outer  layers  are  of 
oval  cells,  while  the  4th  consists  of  cells  which  are  more  or  less  rounded 
in  transverse  section.  These  cells  contain  numerous  large  chloroplasts, 
and  there  are  air-spaces  between  the  cells. 


280  Transactions. 

The  spongy  tissue  consists  of  very  large,  irregular,  thin-walled  cells 
which  are  loosely  arranged,  so  that  there  are  large  air-spaces.  These 
cells  also  contain  numerous  chloroplasts,  which  are,  however,  smaller  than 
in  the  palisade  tissue.  Just  above  the  lower  epidermis  there  is  a  single 
layer  of  more  closely  arranged  roundish  cells  with  abundant  large  chloro- 
plasts like  those  in  the  palisade  tissue. 

Surrounding  the  vascular  bundle  there  is  a  sheath  of  small,  irregular, 
thin-walled,  colourless,  parenchymatous  cells.  Between  the  sheath  around 
the  midrib  and  the  lower  epidermis  the  cells  are  smaller,  compactly 
arranged,  and  contain  fewer  chloroplasts.  The  vascular  bundle  contains 
only  a  small  amount  of  lignified  tissue. 

Stem,  (fig.  2). — The  epidermal  cells  are  small  and  roundish,  and  have 
their  external  walls  somewhat  thickened.  There  is  a  very  thin  cuticle. 
Some  of  the  epidermal  cells  are  produced  into  hairs  like  those  on  the  leaf. 
The  stomata  are  level  with  the  surface  ;  the  guard-cells  have  thickened 
walls. 

Below  the  epidermis  there  is  a  layer  of  small  round  cells  which  have 
thin  walls  and  which  contain  numerous  chloroplasts.  Between  this  layer 
of  cells  and  the  rest  of  the  cortex  there  is  in  most  parts  a  large  air-space.. 
Below  the  air-space  the  cortical  cells  vary  considerably  in  size.  The 
fiist  layer  consists  of  roundish  cells  with  fairly  numerous  chloroplasts  ; 
then  the  cells  become  much  larger.  They  are  more  or  less  polygonal  and 
fairly  compactly  arranged,  so  that  there  are  only  small  intercellular  air- 
spaces. These  cells  contain  a  few  small  chloroplasts  ;  these  are  found 
near  the  corners  where  three  cells  meet.  Just  above  the  phloem  the  cells 
are  smaller.      All  the  cortical  cells  have  thin  walls. 

The  amount  of  phloem  is  small  ;  the  sieve-tubes  and  the  phloem- 
parenchyma  cells  are  of  small  diameter. 

The  xylem  forms  a  continuous  band  ;  it  consists  chiefly  of  wood-fibres 
with  somewhat  thickened  walls,  and  also  of  a  few  vessels  ol  small  diameter. 

The  pith  is  wide  and  is  solid  ;  just  below  the  xylem  the  cells  are 
smaller,  but  as  we  pass  inwards  the  cells  get  very  large  ;  they  have  thin 
walls,  and  are  arranged  so  that  there  are  small  intercellular  air-spaces. 

28.    Euphrasia  Monroi  Hook.  f. 

^Hahit. — The  plant  is  a  small  perennial  herb  with  stems  erect  or 
decumbent  below,  3-8  in.  high,  leafy  above  and  sparingly  branched.  The 
leaves  are  rather  close-set,  spreading,  ^-^  in.  long,  obovate  or  obovate- 
spathulate,  obtuse,  narrowed  to  the  base  but  not  evidently  petiolate, 
coriaceous,  glabrous,  and  having  one  short  obtuse  tooth  on  each  side. 

Anatomy. 

Leaf  (figs.  3-6). — On  examining  the  leaf  one  observes  on  both  surfaces 
some  well-marked  grooves.  These  are  shown  in  figs.  3  and  4.  These 
grooves  are  dark  brown  in  colour,  and  are  much  more  numerous  on  the 
lower  than  on  the  upper  surface.  On  the  upper  surface  there  are  only 
two  ;  these  pass  from  the  midrib  to  the  single  tooth  on  each  margin  of 
the  leaf.  On  the  undei  surface  there  is  a  groove  running  almost  round 
the  leaf  close  to  the  margin.  This  groove  is  somewhat  irregular  in  outline  ; 
from  it  numerous  other  grooves  branch  off.  Cheeseman  (  Manual  of  the 
N.Z.  Flora,  1906,  p.  554)  in  describing  this  plant  does  not  mention  these 
grooves.  When  transverse  sections  are,  taken  of  the  leaf  it  is  seen  that 
the  grooves  are  lined  with  cells  which  are  water-absorbing  cells. 


Bbtts. — Autecology  of  Plants  of  I'eridofife  Belt,  Nelson.       281 

Figs.  5  and  6  show  schematically  a  section  through  the  upper  part 
and  the  middle  of  the  lamina  respectively.  From  these  diagrams  it  will 
be  seen  that  small  vascular  bundles  go  to  the  ventral  grooves  and  end 
ju^t  under  the  cells  lining  them.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  these 
cells  are  for  the  purpose  of  absorbing  water  and  not  exuding  it. 

Fig.  7  gives  the  structure  of  the  leaf  in  more  detail. 

Both  the  upper  and  the  lower  epidermis  consist  of  large,  regular  cells, 
those  of  the  upper  surface  being  larger  than  those  of  the  lower.  These 
cells  have  their  external  walls  slightly  thickened,  and  there  is  a  thin 
cuticle.  Stoma ta  are  found  on  both  surfaces  ;  the  guard-cells  are  small, 
have  thickened  walls,  and  are  level  with  the  surface.  There  are  small 
guard-cell  ridges. 


Fig.  3. — Euphrasia  Monroi.     Uppor  surface  of  leaf  ( x  4).     a,  groove. 
Fig.  4. — Euphra~sia  Monroi.     Lower  surface  of  leaf  ( X  4).     a,  groove. 
Figs.  5,  6. — Euphrasia  Monroi.     Transverse  sections  through  leaf  (x  30). 
a,  vascular  bundles  ;    h,  cells  in  grooves. 


The  chlorenchyma  is  differentiated,  but  only  to  a  small  extent.  Practi- 
cally the  whole  width  of  the  leaf  is  occupied  by  spongy  tissue  ;  the  cells 
just  above  the  lower  epidermis  are  more  like  spongy  tissue,  but  the 
transition  between  the  two  types  of  tissue  is  not  very  marked.  The  3 
layers  of  cells  just  below  the  upper  epidermis  consist  of  smaller  cells  which 
are  more  or  less  rounded  and  have  their  walls  slightly  thicker  than  do 
the  rest  of  the  mesophyll  cells.  The  next  5  or  6  layers  of  cells  are  very 
large,  long  cells.  Just  above  the  lower  epidermis  the  cells  are  more  irregular. 
All  the  mesophyll  cells  contain  numerous  oval  chloroplasts. 

In  the  furrows  there  are  numerous  projections  for  water-absorption. 
These   are   formed   of  2   cells  which   have   their  walls   slightly   thickened. 


282 


Transactions. 


Fig.  7. — Euphrasia  Monroi.      Transverse  section  of  leaf  (x  175).      a,  stoma; 

b,  upper  epidermis  ;    c,  mesophyll ;    d,  vascular  bundle  ;    e,  cell  of  groove. 
Fig.  8. — Euphrasia  Monroi.     Transverse  section  of  upper  epidermis  just  above 

the  midrib,     a,  excretory  hair. 
Fig.  9. — Euphrasia  Monroi.     Surface  view  of  upper  epidermis  above  midrib. 

a,  water- absorbing  cell ;   b,  stoma  ;   c,  excretory  hair. 


Betts. — Autecology  of  Plants  of  Peridotite  Belt,  Nelson.        283 


Fig.   10. — Euphrasia  Monroi.     Transverse  section  of  stem  ( x  [230).     a,  epidermis  ; 
b,  dead  cortex ;    c,  phloem  ;    d,  xylem  ;    e,  medullary  ray  ;   /,  pith. 


284  Transactions. 

Below  these  cells  there  is  a  basal  cell  which  is  small  and  has  its  wall 
cutinized. 

Adjacent  to  these  water-absorbing  cells  there  are  several  layers  of 
small,  thin-walled  cells  which  do  not  contain  any  chlorophyll. 

Small  vascular  bundles  end  blindly  in  the  small-celled  tissue  adjacent 
to  the  water-absorbing  cells.  The  vascular  bundles  are  numerous  ;  both 
the  xylem  and  the  phloem  contain  parenchyma,  and  the  bundle  is  surrounded 
by  a  sheath  of  thin-walled,  colourless,  parenchymatous  cells. 

On  the  upper  surface,  and  especially  above  the  midrib,  there  are  a  few 
excretory  hairs  which  are  covered  with  minute  excrescences  of  calcium 
oxalate.  These  hairs  are  seen  in  surface  view  in  fig.  9  and  in  transverse 
section  in  fig.  8. 

Stem  (fig.  10). — On  the  outside  there  is  a  bark  formed  of  the  dead 
epidermal  and  cortical  cells.  The  cells  of  the  cortex  and  of  the  epidermis 
have  thickened  walls,  and  the  epidermal  cells  have  their  external  walls 
cuticularized.  A  few  of  the  epidermal  cells  are  produced  into  short,  stiff 
hairs  with  thick  walls  and  a  thin  cuticle. 

Bounding  the  bark  there  is  a  single  layer  of  large  cells  with  thin 
suberized  walls  :  this  is  the  endodermis.  Inside  this  there  is  a  pericycle  : 
this  is  composed  of  1-3  layers  of  small  cells  with  thickened,  lignified  walls. 

The  phloem  forms  a  wide  band  ;  the  sieve-tubes  are  of  small  diameter  ; 
with  the  phloem  there  is  a  fair  amount  of  parenchyma. 

The  xylem  forms  a  wide  ring  ;  it  is  composed  of  wood-fibres  and  a  few 
narrow  vessels-  which  have  thickened  walls  and  are  very  regularly  arranged 
in  rows. 

The  medullary  rays  are  not  very  close  together  ;  they  are  uniseriate, 
and  are  composed  of  small  cells  with  thickened  lignified  walls. 

The  pith  is  also  lignified  ;  the  cells  are  rounded  or  polygonal,  and  have 
thin  walls. 

29.  Wahlenbergia  albomarginata  Hook. 

Habit. — The  plant  is  a  small  perennial  herb,  2-4  in.  high,  with  a 
branched  rootstock  j)utting  up  a  few  short,  erect  stems.  The  leaves  are 
rosulate  or  crowded  on  the  short  stems  ;  they  are  |— fin.  long,  oblanceolate, 
obtuse,  narrowed  into  a  short  petiole,  entire,  thick,  and  coriaceous  ;  the 
margins  are  white  and  cartilaginous.  The  peduncles  are  leafless,  one- 
flowered,  and  about  6  in.  high. 

Anatomy. 

Leaf  (fig.  11). — The  upper  epidermis  consists  of  very  large  cells  with 
thickened  walls,  especially  the  external  ones.  In  addition  there  is  a  thin, 
rough  cuticle.  Some  of  the  cells  are  produced  into  long,  stiff  hairs,  the 
walls  of  which  are  very  slightly  cuticularized. 

The  lower  epidermis  is  formed  of  small  cells  which  have  their  external 
walls  very  much  thickened.  A  cuticle  is  also  present.  Stomata  are  con- 
fined to  the  lower  surface  ;  the  guard-cells  are  small,  and  are  raised  above 
the  other  epidermal  cells.     There  are  very  small  guard-cell  ridges. 

The  chlorenchyma  is  differentiated  into  palisade  and  spongy  tissue. 
The  palisade  tissue  consists  of  3  rows  of  large,  thin-walled  cells  which 
contain  numerous  fairly  large  chloroplasts.  The  two  outer  layers  are 
closely  packed,  but  there  are  small  air-spaces  between  the  cells  in  the 
third  layer. 


Bbtts. — Autecolo^y  of  Plants  of  Peridotite  Belt,  Nelson. 


285 


The  spongy  tissue  is  composed  of  large,  irregular,  thin-wal  ed  cells  which 
contain  numerous  chloroplasts ;  there  are  moderately  large  air-spaces 
between  the  cells. 

In  the  margins  of  the  leaf  the  epidermal  cells  are  smaller,  and  their 
walls  are  very  much  thickened,  and  Some  of  them  are  produced  into  small 
papillae.  Inside  this  layer  there  is  a  group  of  small  cells  which  have 
very  thick  mucilaginous  walls  and  very  small  cell-cavities. 

The  vascular  bundles  are  small  and  contain  only  a  small  amount  of 
lignified  tissue.  There  is  no  stereome.  The  bundle  is  surrounded  by  a 
sheath  of  thin-walled  colourless  cells.  Below  the  midrib  there  are  some 
small,  round,  thin-walled  cells  which  do  not  contain  chlorophyll:  they  are 
for  water-storage. 

Peduncle. — The  epidermis  is  composed  of  small  cells  which  have  all 
their  walls,  especially  the  lateral  ones,  very  much  thickened.  The  cavities 
are  small.  In  addition  there  is  a  fairly  thick  rough  cuticle.  Stomata 
are  of  the  same  type  as  in  the  leaf. 


Fig.  11. — Wahlenbergia  albomarginata.    Transverse  section  of  leaf  (X  48).    a,  unicellular 
hair ;    b,  large  cells  of  upper  epidermis  ;    c,  cuticle  ;    d,  stereome  in  leaf- 


The  cortex  consists  of  3-4  layers  of  oval  cells  with  slightly  thickened 
walls.  These  cells  are  closely  arranged  so  that  there  are  only  very  small 
air-spaces  ;  the  cells  contain  numerous  chloroplasts.  The  endoderinis  is 
well  marked,  and  consists  of  one  layer  of  cells  with  thin  suberized  walls. 

The  phloem  forms  a  narrow  band.  The  sieve-tubes  are  of  small  diameter, 
and  there  is  a  good  deal  of  parenchyma. 

The  amount  of  xylem  is  small.  There  are  small  groups  of  vessels 
surrounded  by  wood-fibres  which  have  very  thick  walls  and  small  cavities. 
The  pith-cells  are  large  and  round  ;  most  of  them  are  lignified,  but  there 
are  a  few  cells  in  the  centre  which  have  unlignified  walls. 

Stem  (fig.  12). — The  epidermis  is  composed  of  somewhat  larger  cells 
than  the  epidermis  of  the  peduncle  ;  in  transverse  section  the  cells  are 
squarish  ;    their  lateral  walls  are  only  slightly  thickened,  but  the  external 


286 


Transactions. 


and  internal  ones  are  much  more  so.  There  is  a  thick,  rough  cuticle. 
Some  of  the  epidermal  cells  are  produced  into  hairs  like  those  on  the 
leaf. 

The  cortex  is  a  wider  band  than  in  the  peduncle.  The  cells  of  the 
outermost  layer  have  their  walls  slightly  thickened,  but  the  rest  of  the 
cortical  cells  have  thin  walls.  There  are  only  very  small  intercellular  air- 
spaces. The  cells  contain  a  very  few  small  chloroplasts  in  a  peripheral 
layer  of  protoplasm.     The  cortex  forms  a  water-storage  tissue. 

The  endodermis  and  the  phloem  are  the  same  as  in  the  peduncle, 
except  that  the  phloem  is  a  wider  zone  of  tissue.  The  cambium  is  easily 
seen. 


Fig.  12. — Wahlenbergia  albomarginata.     Transverse  section  of  stem  (x  48). 
a,  unicellular  hair ;  b,  endodermis ;  c,  phloem ;  d,  cambium ;  e,  xylem. 

The  xylem  consists  of  vessels  of  small  diameter ;  there  is  a  large 
amount  of  xylem  parenchyma.  The  pith  is  formed  of  large  thin- walled 
cells  which  are  closely  packed  together  and  are  not  lignified. 


30.   Celmisia  longifolia  Cass.  var.  gracilenta  T.  Kirk. 

Hahit.— This  plant  is  a  small,  tufted,  perennial  herb.  The  leaves'  are 
all  radical,  simple,  and  erect ;  they  are  3-7  in.  long,  iV~F  ^^-  broad,  and 
the  margins  are  re  volute.  The  whole  leaf  is  covered  with  silvery -white 
tomentum,  and  is  produced  into  a  broad  sheathing  base,  which  is  also 
covered  with  tomentum.  The  sheathing  leaf-bases  are  persistent,  and  are 
used  to  store  water  {cf.  with  "  tunic  "  grasses — e.g.,  Poa  Colensoi). 


Betts. — Aut ecology  of  Plants,  of  Peridofife  Belt,   Nelson.        287 

Anatomy. 

Leaf  (figs.  13-17). — The  general  shape  of  the  leaf  in  transverse  section 
is  shown  in  fig.  13.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  midrib  is  very 
prominent,  that  the  tomentum  is  thick,  and  that  the  leaves  are  revolute 
almost  to  the  margin. 

Fig.  14  illustrates  a  section  'passing  through  the  midrib.  Both  the  lower 
and  the  upper  epidermis  consist  of  regular  squarish  cells  which  do  not 
contain  chlorophyll  and  which  have  their  cell-walls  very  much  thickened. 
There  are  no  stomata  in  this  region.  From  the  epidermal  layers  very 
numerous  fine  hairs  are  produced,  which  form  a  silvery  tomentum  below 
the  midrib  and  over  the  whole  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf.  There  is 
a  thin  cuticle  on  both  surfaces  of  the  leaf. 

The  vascular  system  in  the  midrib  consists  of  one  large  bundle  and 
two  much  smaller  ones.  The  vessels  of  the  xylem  are  arranged  in  very 
regular  rows  separated  by  xylem  parenchyma.  There  is  also  a  fairly  large 
amount  of  parenchyma  in  the  phloem.  Above  the  phloem  and  below  the 
xylem  there  is  a  mass  of  stereome,  consisting  of  cells  with  very  thick 
walls  and  small  cavities.  The  cells  above  the  xylem  are  larger  than  those 
below  the  phloem. 


Fig.    13. — Celmisia  lonqifolia  var.   gracilenta.     Transverse  section  of  leaf  (x  36). 

a,  tomentum  ;   b,  vascular  bundle. 


Just  above  the  lower  epidermis  there  are  2  rows  of  chlorenchymatous 
cells.  These  cells  are  roundish,  and  have  their  walls  slightly  thickened, 
and  contain  numerous  chloroplasts.  Just  below  the  main  bundle  these 
cells  have  their  walls  much  thicker  and  contain  a  much  smaller  number 
of  chloroplasts. 

All  the  space  between  the  upper  epidermis  and  the  chlorenchyma  of 
the  lower  surface  (except  that  occupied  by  the  vascular  bundles)  is  filled 
by  a  tissue  consisting  of  very  large  cells  with  fairly  thin  walls.  These  cells 
are  arranged  very  closely  together,  so  that  there  are  only  minute  intercellular 
air-spaces  where  three  cells  meet.     All  these  cells  form  an  aqueous  tissue. 

Section  of  the  Leaf  through  the  Lamina  (fig.  15). — The  upper  epidermis 
consists  of  regular  more  or  less  squarish  cells  which  are  larger  than  the 
epidermal  cells  above  the  midrib.  They  have  their  walls  considerably 
thickened,   the   external  walls  being  thickened  the  most,  and  there  is  a 


288 


Transactions. 


rather,  thin,  rough  cuticle.  From  the  upper  surface  there  is  produced  a 
tomentum  which  is  composed  of  very  fine  hairs.  These  hairs  are  3-4-celled  ; 
the  lowest  cell  has  a  cutinized  wall. 


Fig.  14. — Gelmisia  longifolia  var.  grocilenta.  Transverse  section  of  leaf  passing 
through  midrib  ( X  175).  a,  upper  epidermis ;  b,  oil-drops  ;  c,  xylem  ; 
d,  phloem  ;  e,  long  multicellular  hairs  ;  /,  shorter,  more  slender  hairs  ; 
g,  aqueous  tissue. 

The  chlorenchyma  is  differentiated  into  palisade  and  spongy  tissue. 
The  palisade  tissue  consists  of  one  layer  of  large,  thin-walled  cells,  which 
contain  numerous  chloroplasts  and  also  some  large  oil-globules.  There  are 
small  intercellular  air-spaces  in  this  tissue. 


Betts. — Aut ecology  of  Plants  of  Peridotite  Belt,  Nelson.       289 


Fig.  15. — Gelmisia  longifolia  var.  gmcilenta.  Transverse  section  of  lamina 
of  leaf,  a,  upper  epidermis  ;  b,  palisade  parenchyma  ;  c,  oil-drops  ; 
d,  spongy  tissue  ;   e,  stoma  ;  /,  multicellular  hair. 

Fig.  16. — Gelmisia  longifolia  var.  gracilenta.  Transverse  section  of  sheathing 
leaf-base  ( x  36).     a,  tomentum  ;    b,  vascular  bundle. 

10— Trans. 


290 


Transactions. 


The  spongy  tissue  is  composed  of  about  6  rows  of  cells.  In  the  upper 
part  of  the  leaf  these  cells  are  about  the  same  length  as  breadth,  but 
just  above  the  lower  epidermis  they  are  narrower  and  are  elongated  in  a 
direction  parallel  with  the  surface  of  the  leaf.  These  cells  also  have  thin 
walls  and  contain  oil,  -which  is  more  abundant  nearer  the  upper  than  near 
the  lower  surface  of  the  leaf. 

The  lower  epidermis  consists  of  cells  which  are  oval  in  transverse 
section.  Many  of  them  are  produced  into  long,  stout,  several-celled  hairs 
which  have  thin  walls.     The  lowest  ceU  has  a  thin  cuticle.     These  hairs 


Fig.  17. — Celmisia  longifolia  var.  gracilenta.  Transverse  section  of 
sheathing  leaf-base  ( X  175).  a,  upper  epidermis  ;  6,  hyj^o- 
derma  ;  c,  mesophyll ;  d,  stereome  ;  e,  xylem  ;  /,  phloem  ; 
g,  multicellular  hair. 

are  much  longer  and  thicker  than  those  of  the  upper  surface  (and  those 
beneath  the  midrib),  and  they  do  not  form  such  a  dense  mass,  so  that 
their  form  can  be  seen  more  easily. 

Stomata  are  confined  to  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaf,  where  they  are 
numerous.  As  is  often  the  case  with  leaves  which  have  a  dense  tomentum, 
the  stomata  are  raised  above  the  epidermal  cells.  The  guard-cells  have 
very  thick  walls,  and  there  are  guard-cell  ridges. 

Sheathing  Leaf-hase  (figs.  16  and  17). — Fig.  16  gives  a  schematic  view  of 
this  ;   fig.  17  shows  the  structure  in  detail. 


Betts. — Autecology  of  Plants  of  Peridotite  Belt,  Nelson. 


291 


Both  the  upper  and  the  lower  epidermis  consist  of  very  regular  cells, 
the  walls  of  which  are  only  slightly  thickened.  On  both  surfaces  there  is  a 
thin  cuticle,  and  on  the  lower  (the  outer)  surface  there  are  a  number  of 
hairs  like  those  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaf. 

Beneath  the  upper  epidermis  there  is  a  hypoderma  which  is  composed 
of  a  single  layer  of  small  sclerized  cells  in  which  the  walls  are  very  thick 
and  the  lumen  very  small. 


Fig.  18. — Celmisia  longifolia  var.  gracilenta.  Transverse  section  of  peduncle 
(X  230).  a,  multicellular  hairs;  b,  ridged  cuticle';  c,  unlignified 
cortex  ;  d,  lignified  cortex  ;   e,  xylem  ;  /,  phloem. 


The  vascular  bundles  are  of  the  same  type  as  that  described  for  the 
leaves,  but  the  stereome  above  the  xylem  and  below  the  phloem  is  formed 
of  much  smaller  cells  than  in  the  leaf.  All  the  mesophyll  consists  of. 
aqueous  tissue,  which  is  composed  of  thin-walled,  colourless  cells.  Near 
the  lower   surface   there   are   2   rows   of   these   cells,   which   are   regularly 

10* 


292  Transactions. 

arranged,  the  inner  layer  consisting  of  mucli  larger  cells  than  the  outer. 
These  cells  are  roundish  or  squarish  in  section,  but  the  rest  of  the  cells  of 
the  aqueous  tissue  are  very  irregular  in  outline.  They  lie  close  together, 
so  that  the  intercellular  air-spaces  are  minute. 

Peduncle  (fig.  18). — The  epidermis  consists  of  somewhat  irregular  cells 
which  have  very  thick  walls,  especially  the  external  ones.  From  some  of 
the  epidermal  cells  there  are  produced  long  multicellular  hairs  like  those 
on  the  under-surface  of  the  leaf.  A  thin  cuticle  is  present ;  its  surface 
presents  numerous  very  fine  ridges. 

Below  the  epidermis  there  is  a  zone  of  dead  cortex,  consisting  of  very 
irregular,  thick-walled  cells  with  brown  contents.  The  rest  of  the  ground- 
tissue  of  the  stem  consists  of  lignified  tissue.  This  can  be  divided  into 
two  regions — 

(1.)  An  outer  region  where  the  vascular  bundles  are  found.  The' cells 
in  this  region  are  rather  small  and  have  thick  walls. 

(2.)  An  inner  pith  in  which  the  cells  have  thin  but  lignified  walls. 
These  cells  are  large  and  roundish.  Small  intercellular  air- 
spaces are  found  in  this  tissue.     The  stem  is  hollow. 

The  vasculai  bundles  are  small  and  quite  separate  from  one  another. 
There  is  parenchyma  in  both  the  phloem  and  the  xylem.  The  scleren- 
chymatous  cells  around  the  bundles  are  small. 

31.  Olearia  virgata  Hook.  f. 

Hahit.  —  This  plant  is  an  erect,  much-branched  shrub,  2-5  ft.  high. 
The  branches  are  spreading,  tetragonous  when  young,  almost  terete  in  the 
older  parts.  The  young  branches  are  pubescent.  The  bark  is  dark  red- 
brown.  The  leaves  are  opposite,  obtuse,  narrowed  into  a  very  short  petiole, 
glabrous  above  and  clothed  with  white  tomentum  beneath. 

Anatomy. 

Leaf  (fig.  19). — The  upper  epidermis  consists  of  medium-sized  oblong 
cells  ;  these  have  thin  lateral  and  internal  walls,  but  the  external  walls  are 
thickened,  and  in  addition  there  is  a  cuticle,  which  is,  however,  only  a  thin 
one.     There  are  no  stomata  on  the  upjDer  surface. 

The  lower  epidermis  is  like  the  upper,  but  the  external  walls  are  not 
thickened,  and  many  of  the  epidermal  cells  are  produced  into  large 
T-shaped  hairs,  which  are  closely  appressed  to  the  surface. 

The  stomata  are  confined  to  the  lower  epidermis,  and  they  are  raised 
above  the  epidermal  cells.  The  guard-cells  are  small  and  have  thickened 
walls. 

The  chlorenchyma  is  differentiated.  The  palisade  tissue  consists  of  2 
rows  of  closely  packed  cells,  the  depth  of  which  is  only  about  one  and  a 
half  times  the  breadth.  The  cells  are  thin- walled  and  contain  numerous 
large  chloroplasts. 

The  spongy  tissue  consists  of  4  or  5  layers  of  irregular  thin-walled  cells 
with  large  air-spaces  between  them.  These  cells  contain  numerous  chloro- 
plasts, which  are  slightly  smaller  than  those  in  the  palisade  tissue.  The 
cells  of  the  layer  just  above  the  lower  epidermis  are  smaller  and  are  more 
closely  arranged. 

The  vascular  bundle  is  small,  and  like  that  in  Celmisia  longifolia  var. 
gracilenta  except  that  there  is  no  stereome.  The  vascular  bundle  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  sheath  of  small,  thin-walled,  parenchymatous  cells  which 
contain  a  few  chloroplasts  arranged  along  their  outside  walls. 


Betts. — Autecology  of  Plants  of  Peridofite  Belt,  Nelson. 


293 


Fig.    19. — Olearia  virgata.     a,   upper  epidermis  ;     b,   palisade  parenchyma ;    c,   spongy 

parenchyma  ;   d,  xylem  ;   e,  phloem  ;  /,  T-shaped  hairs. 
Fig.  20. — Olearia  virgata.     Transverse  section  of  stem  ( X  36). 
Fig.    21. — Olearia   virgata.      Transverse    section    of    stem   (X  175).     a,   sclerenchyma ; 

b,  corky  cells  ;    c,  chlorenchyma  ;    d,  pericycle  fibres  ;  e,  phloem  ;  /,  xylem  ; 

g,  lignified  pith. 


294  Transactions. 

Stem  (figs.  20  and  21). — The  general  arrangement  of  the  tissues  is  shown 
diagrammatically  in  fig.  20.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  stem  is 
tetragonous  and  that  in  each  of  the  corners  there  is  a  small  mass  o^  scleren- 
chyma.     The  structure  of  the  stem  is  shown  in  detail  in  fig.  21. 

On  the  outside  there  are  dead  epidermal  cells  with  a  thin  cuticle,  and 
below  this  there  are  a  few  dead  cortical  cells.  Beneath  this  layer  there  are 
2-4  layers  of  large,  squarish  cells  which  have  their  cell-walls  both  suberized 
and  lignified.  The  portion  of  the  cell-wall  adjacent  to  the  cell-cavity  is 
suberized,  and  nearer  the  middle  lamella  it  is  lignified. 

Inside  this  corky  layer  there  is  a  zone  of  cortex.  The  cells  of  this  tissue 
are  more  or  less  oval  in  transverse  section,  and  are  closely  packed  together 
so  that  the  intercellular  air-spaces  are  very  small.  These  cells  contain  a 
small  number  of  chloroplasts.  At  intervals  there  are  groups  of  pericycle 
fibres.  These  are  of  small  diameter  and  have  thick  walls.  In  the  four 
corners  of  the  stem  there  is  a  mass  of  sclerenchyma,  which  is  composed  of 
slightly  larger  cells  than  the  pericycle  fibres. 

The  phloem  forms  a  continuous  band  with  its  elements  rather  regularly 
arranged.  The  xylem  is  composed  for  the  greater  part  of  wood-fibres 
which  have  thickened  walls. 

The  medullary  rays  are  not  numerous  ;  they  are  multiseriate  (3  cells 
wide),  and  their  cells  have  thickened,  lignified  walls. 

The  pith  is  composed  of  large  round  or  polygonal  cells,  which  have 
lignified,  somewhat  thickened,  cell-walls. 

32.   Helichfysum  bellidioides  Hook.  f. 

Habit. — -This  plant  is  an  herb.  The  stems  are  prostrate,  slender,  much 
branched,  almost  woody  at  the  base,  6-12  in.  long  ;  the  branches  are 
numerous,  erect,  and  leafy.  The  leaves  are  loosely  imbricating,  spreading, 
^\  in.  long,  obovate-spathulate,  apiculate,  flat,  one-nerved,  with  the  upper 
surface  glabrous  and  the  lower  clothed  with  cottony  tomentum. 

Anatomy. 

Leaf. — The  upper  epidermis  consists  of  regular,  large  cells,  which  have 
their  inner  and  lateral  walls  thin  and  the  external  ones  slightly  thickened. 
There  is  a  thin  cuticle.     A  few  of  the  cells  are  produced  into  hairs. 

The  lower  epidermis  consists  of  cells  that  are  smaller  than  those  of  the 
upper  epidermis.  Their  walls  are  thin,  and  there  is  a  very  thin  cuticle. 
Many  of  these  cells  are  produced  into  fine  2-  or  3-celled  hairs,  which  form 
a  dense  tomentum  on  the  under-surface. 

The   chlorenchyma   is   differentiated   into   palisade   and  spongy   tissue.  ■ 
The  palisade  tissue  consists  of  2  rows  of  cells  with  thin  walls  and  numerous 
large  chloroplasts  ;    there  are  air-spaces  between  the  cells. 

The  spongy  tissue  is  composed  of  large,  irregular,  thin-walled  cells, 
which  contain  abundant  large  chloroplasts.  These  cells  form  a  rather 
loose  tissue  with  large  intercellular  air-spaces. 

Stomata  are  confined  to  the  lower  epidermis,  and  the  guard-ceUs 
are  raised  (as  in  Celmisia  longifolia  var.  gracilenta,  Olearia  virgata,  and 
0.  arborescens).     The  guard-cells  are  small. 

The  vascular  bundle  is  small,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  sheath  of  thin- 
walled  cells  which  contain  a  very  few  chloroplasts.  Just  above  the  xylem 
there  is  a  small  group  of  8  or  10  sclerized  cells.  The  amount  of  lignified 
tissue  in  the  xylem  is  small ;    both  xylem  and  phloem  contain  parenchyma. 


Bbtts. — Autecolorjy  of  Plants  of  Peridotite  Belt,  Nelson.        295 

Between  the  Isundle-sheatli  and  the  lower  epidermis  there  are  some 
thin-walled  colourless  cells  which  store  water. 

Stem. — The  epidermis  consists  of  squarish  cells  with  their  walls  slightly 
thickened  and  with  a  thin  cuticle.  These  cells  contain  tannin.  Some  of 
the  epidermal  cells  are  produced  into  hairs  like  those  on  the  leaf. 

The  cortex  consists  of  small  regular  cells  ;  in  the  outer  part  of  the 
cortex  these  cells  have  their  walls  lignified  and  also  suberized.  The  inner 
layers  of  cortical  tissue  consist  of  thin-walled  cells.  All  the  cortical  cells 
are  closely  packed  together,  so  that  there  are  only  very  small  intercellular 
air-spaces.  There  is  a  well-marked  endodermis,  which  consists  of  large 
cells  with  suberized  walls. 

The  phloem  forms  a  wide,  continuous  band  ;  it  contains  a  large  amoimt 
of  parenchyma. 

The  xylem  forms  a  band  about  the  same  width  as  the  phloem  ;  it  con- 
sists of  vessels  of  rather  small  diameter  and  of  wood-fibres. 

The  pith  is  solid,  and  consists  of  large,  thin-walled  polygonal  cells  which 
are  closely  arranged  together.  The  pith-cells  adjacent  to  the  xylem  are 
somewhat  smaller  and  have  their  walls  lignified. 

33.  Cassinia  Vauvilliersii  Hook.  f.  var.  rubra  Buch. 

Habit. — This  plant  is  an  erect,  closely  branching  shrub,.  2-4  ft.  high  ; 
the  branches  are  stout,  erect,  and  often  glutinous.  The  leaves  are  nume- 
rous, close-set,  erect  or  spreading,  J-^  in.  long,  linear-obovate,  narrowed 
into  a  short  broad  petiole,  very  coriaceous,  clothed  with  hairs  on  both 
surfaces  ;  the  margins  are  slightly  recurved. 

Anatomy. 

Leaf. — The  upper  epidermis  consists  of  rather  small  cells  which  have 
slightly  thickened  walls.  These  cells  contain  a  few  small  chloroplasts. 
There  is  a  thick  cuticle.  Some  of  the  epidermal  cells  are  produced  into 
long  3-  or  4-celled  hairs — ^2  or  3  small  hairs  at  the  base  and  a  long  cell  at 
the  end.     There  are  no  stoma ta  on  the  upper  surface. 

The  lower  epidermal  cells  are  smaller  than  the  upper,  and,  like  the 
latter,  contain  chloroplasts.  Many  of  the  cells  are  produced  into  hairs 
like  those  on  the  upper  surface.  The  lower  epidermal  cells  have  slightly 
thickened  walls,  and  there  is  also  a  thick  cuticle. 

The  chlorenchyma  is  differentiated.  The  palisade  tissue  consists  of  4 
rows  of  large  cells  with  slightly  thickened  walls  and  large  chloroplasts. 
There  are  very  small  air-spaces  between  the  cells. 

The  spongy  parenchyma  is  composed  of  rather  small,  irregular  cells 
which  contain  large  chloroplasts.  The  walls  are  slightly  thickened,  and 
there  are  fairly  large  air-spaces  between  the  cells. 

Stomata  are  confined  to  the  lower  surface  ;  they  are  of  the  same  type 
as  in  Celmisia  longifolia  var.  gracilenta. 

The  vascular  bundles  are  small,  and  contain  only  a  small  amount  of 
lignified  tissue.  They  are  surroujided  by  a  sheath  of  thin- walled  paren- 
chymatous cells  which  contain  only  a  small  number  of  chloroplasts. 

Stem. — The  epidermis  is  composed  of  small  cells  which  have  thickened 
walls  and  also  a  fairly  thick  cuticle.  Many  of  the  cells  are  produced  into 
hairs  like  those  on  the  leaf. 

Then  there  come  some  dead  cortical  cells  ;  these  have  thick  brown 
walls.  Inside  this  layer  there  is  suberized  tissue,  from  1  to  4  cells  deep. 
The  cells  are  large,  thin-walled,  and  irregular. 


296  Transactions. 

Below  this  tissue  there  are  large  groups  of  pericycle  fibres  ;  these  have 
a  small  diameter,  and  their  walls  are  thickened. 

The  phloem  forms  a  wide*  band,  with  the  sieve-tubes  of  small  diameter  ; 
there  is  a  fairly  large  amount  of  phloem  parenchyma.  The  cambium  is 
very  easily  seen. 

The  xylem  contains  vessels  of  fairly  large  diameter  and  wood-fibres 
which  have  very  thick  walls.     There  are  no  medullary  rays. 

The  pith  is  solid  ;    it  consists  of  large  roimdish  cells  with  thin  walls. 

34.   Senecio  bellidioides  Hook.  f. 

Habit. — This  is  a  small  rosette  plant.  The  leaves  are  all  radical  and 
spreading  ;  the  blades  f-2J  in.  long,  broadly  oblong,  obtuse,  rounded  or 
slightly  cordate  at  the  base,  membranous,  with  entire  margins  ;  the  upper 
surface  is  more  or  less  covered  Avith  stiff  glandular  hairs,  and  the  lower 
is  sparingly  covered  with  tomeutum.  The  petioles  are  about  |  in.  long, 
and  are  covered  with  hairs.  The  scapes  are  1-12  in.  high,  branched,  and 
pubescent. 

Anatomy. 

Leaf  (figs.  22-26). — Fig.  22  gives  a  diagrammatic  view  of  the  transverse 
section  of  the  leaf.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that- the  number  of  vascular 
bundles  is  small ;  the  relative  frequency  of  the  different  types  is  also  seen 
in  this  diagram.  Fig.  24  shows  the  structure  of  the  midrib,  and  fig.  23  of 
the  blade  of  the  leaf. 

The  upper  epidermis  consists  of  rather  small  cells,  the  outer  walls  of 
which  are  slightly  thickened.  There  is  a  thin  cuticle  present.  Stomata 
are  found  on  both  surfaces  ;  the  guard-cells  are  level  with  the  surface, 
and  have  thickened  walls  and  small  guard-cell  ridges.  Some  of  the  upper 
epidermal  cells  are  produced  into  hairs  of  two  kinds — 

(1.)  Capitate   glandular   hairs  :     These   are   very  long,   and   are   m\ilti- 

cellular,  and  have  a  roimded  head. 
(2.)  There  are  also  other  multicellular  hairs  formed  of  about  9  cells. 
At  the  base  there  are  about  7  small  rectangular  cells  which  are 
closely    packed    together    and    have    their    outer    walls    slightly 
cuticularized.      Above   these   cells   there   is   a   large,   wide,    and 
shallow  cell  which  has  a  thick  but  uncutinized  wall.      Beyond 
this    cell    there    is    an    elongated    one,    also    with    a    thickened, 
imcutinized  wall. 
The  lower  epidermis  also  consists  of  cells  which  are  more  or  less  oval 
in  transverse  section.      They  have  thin  walls,  except  for  the  external  ones, 
which    are    slightly   thickened.      There    is    a    thin    cuticle.      Stomata    are 
present  on  this  surface  also.      The  epidermal  cells  contain  a  few  chloro- 
plasts.      Some  of  the  epidermal  cells  give  rise  to  hairs  of  two  kinds — 
(1.)  There  are  a  few  glandular  hairs  as  on  the  upper  surface. 
(2.)  Most  of  the  hairs  are  like  those  on  the  upper  surface,  except  that 
there  are  usually  only  4  of  the  small  cells  and  there  are  2  long 
cells  instead  of  1. 
The  chlorenchvma  is  only  slightly  differentiated.     The  palisade  tissue 
consists  of  2  rows  of  cells,  which  have  thin  walls  and  contain  numerous 
chloroplasts.      These  cells  are  wide  and  do  not  have  the  typical  palisade 
form  ;    they  are  fairly  loosely  arranged,  so  that  there  are  large  air-spaces 
between  the  cells. 


BETTS^—Autecologij  of  Plants  of  Peridotite  Belt,  Nelson.        297 


Fig.  22. — Senecio  bellidioide-s.      Transverse  section  of  leaf  ( x  24).     a,  glandular 

hair  ;  b,  multicellular  hair  ;   c,  vascular  bundle. 
Fig.  23. — Senecio  bellidioides.     Transverse  section  of  leaf  ( X  110).     a,  glandular 

hair  ;  6.  multicellular  hair ;   c,  stoma  ;   d,  mesophyll. 


298 


Transactions. 


The  spongy  tissue  consists  of  about  5  rows  of  large,-  irregular  cells  which 
have  thin  walls.  There  are  fairly  large  air-spaces  between  the  cells.  The 
cells  of  the  layer  jvist  above  the  lower  epidermis  are  much  smaller. 

The  Midrib. — -There  are  three  vascular  bundles  in  the  midrib.  The 
lignified  elements  of  the  xylem  are  arranged  regularly  in  rows  which  are 


Fig.  24. — Senecio  bellidioides.  Transverse  section  through  midrib  of  leaf. 'Pa,  multi- 
cellular hair ;  b,  aqueous  tissue ;  c,  xylem  ;  d,  phloem  ;  e,  canal  lined  by 
epithelial  layer  ;  /,  chlorenchyma  ;   g,  glandular  hair. 


separated  by  xylem  parenchyma.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  parenchyma 
with  the  phloem.  Beneath  the  phloem  of  each  bundle  there  are  1  or  2 
large  canals,  which  are  lined  by  epithelial  cells. 


Betts. — Autecology  of  Plants  of  Peridotite  Belt,  Nelson. 


299 


Under  the  upper  epidermis  there  are  a  few  cells  which  have  thickened 
walls,  and  above  the  lower  epidermis  there  are  2  rows  of  roundish  cells 
which  contain  chloroplasts  and  which  have  their  walls  slightly  thickened. 


Fig.  25. — Senecio  bellidioides.  Ui^per  epidermis  of  leaf  ( X  36). 
Fig.  26. — Senecio  bellidioides.  Lower  epidermis  of  leaf  ( x  36). 
Fig.  27. — Senecio  bellidioides.    Transverse  section  of  scape  ( X  36). 

The  rest  of  the  midrib  is  occupied  by  a  mass  of  large,  closely  packed, 
thin-walled,  more  or  less  polygonal  cells.  These  cells  form  a  water-storage 
tissue. 


300 


Transactions. 


'  Figs.  25  and  26  show  tlie  surface  view  of  the  upper  and  lower  faces  of 
the  leaf.  From  these  it  will  be  seen  (1)  that  the  glandular  hairs  are  much 
more  frequent  on  the  upper  surface,  and  (2)  that  most  of  the  multicellular 
hairs  of  the  lower  epidermis  are  situated  over  the  vascular  bundles.  This 
would  suggest  that  they  are  for  water-absorption. 


Fig.  28. — Senecio  bellidioicles.  Transverse  section  of  scape  (x  175).  a,  multicellular 
hair  ;  b,  glandular  hair ;  c,  chlorenchyma  ;  d,  lignified  tissue  ;  e,  vascular 
bundle  ;  /,  pith. 

Scape  (figs.  27  and  28). — The  structure  of  the  scape  is  shown  schematic- 
ally in  fig.  27  and  in  detail  in  fig.  28. 

The  epidermis  consists  of  fairly  large  cells  which  have  thickened  walls. 
A  thin,  ridged  cuticle  is  present.  Stomata  are  present,  but  they  are  not 
numerous.  They  are  of  the  same  type  as  those  in  the  leaf.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  hairs — (1)  glandular  ;  (2)  hairs  like  those  described  for  the 
upper  epidermis,  but  the  large  cell  at  the  base  of  the  elongated  cell  is  not 
present. 


Betts. — Autecology  of  Plants  of  Peridotiie  Belt,  Nelson. 


301 


The  chlorencliyma  consists  of  about  5  rows  of  large,  roundish  cells  which 
have  thin  walls  and  numerous  chloroplasts.  There  are  moderately  large 
air-spaces  in  this  tissue. 

Then  there  comes  a  band  of  smaller,  roundish  cells  which  hate  thickened, 
lignified  walls.  Below  this  there  is  the  phloem,  which  is  a  narrow  band 
of  tissue.      The  xylem  contains  parenchymatous  cells. 

35.   Gahnia  procera  Forst. 

Habit. — This  is  a  perennial  tufted  herb.  The  stems  are  about  2  ft. 
high,  and  are  stout.  The  leaves  are  as  long  as  or  slightly  longer  than  the 
stems,  and  are  narrowed  into  long  filiform  points  ;  the  margins  are  involute, 
smooth  above  and  scabrid  below  ;  the  sheaths  are  dark  brown  or  almost 
black. 

Anatomy. 

Leaf  (figs.  29-32). — The  transverse  section  of  this  is  shown  diagram- 
matically  in  fig.  29.  This  shows  that  the  leaf  is  involute  and  furrowed,  and 
that  under  each  ridge  there  is  a  vascular  bundle,  accompanied  by  an 
extensive  development  of  sclerenchynia.  The  margin  of  the  leaf  is  occu- 
pied by  a  mass  of  sclerenchyma.  Figs.  30-32  show  the  structure  of  the 
leaf  in  more  detail. 


Fig.    29. — Gahnia   procera.      Transverse    section    of    leaf    (x  36). 

b,  sclerenchyma  ;   c,  vascular  bundles.. 
Fig.    33. — Gahnia    procera.      Transverse    section    of   stem    ( X  24). 

b,  vascular  bundles. 


a,    chlorenchyma  ; 
a,    sclerenchyma  ; 


The  upper  epidermis  consists  of  small  cells,  which  taper  slightly  towards 
the  outside  of  the  leaf.  The  walls  of  these  cells  are  thickened,  especially 
the  external  walls,  which  produce  small  papillae.      There  is  no  cuticle. 

The  lower  epidermis  consists  of  very  regular  oval  cells,  which  have  their 
cell-walls,  especially  the  external  ones,  thickened.  There  is  a  thin  cuticle 
on  the  lower  surface. 


302 


Transactions. 


30 


Fig.  30. — Oahnia  procera.     Transverse  section  of  leaf  ( X  230).     a,  upper 

epidermis  ;      b,    hypoderma ;      c.    mesophyll ;      d,    pulvinus ; 

e,  xylem  ;  /,  phloem  ;  g,  sclerenchyma. 
Fig.  31. — Gahnia  procera.      Lower  epidermis  of  leaf,  at  margin  (x  230). 

a,  stiff,  unicellular  hair. 
Fig.  32. — Gahnia  procera.      Transverse  section  of  margin  of  leaf  (x  230). 

a,  hair;  b,  sclerenchyma. 


Betts. — Autecology  of  Plants  of  Peridofite  Belt,  Nelson.       303 

I. 

Stomata  are  confined  to  the  upper  surface,  where  they  are  found  only 
in  the  furrows.  They  are  sunken  below  the  level  of  the  epidermal  cells, 
and  the  guard-cells  are  small  and  have  very  thick  cell-walls.  The  epi- 
dermal cells  in  the  furrow  are  somewhat  pear-shaped,  and  their  walls  are 
irregularly  thickened,  the  result  being  a  number  of  short  papillae  which 
serve  to  protect  the  stomata. 

At  the  base  of  each  furrow  there  are  3-5  large  cells,  which  form  a 
pidvinus.  The  cells  of  the  pulvinus  have  a  very  thin  cuticle,  but  the  other 
ejiidermal  cells  are  not  cuticularized. 

The  chlorenchyma  is  not  differentiated  into  palisade  and  spongy  tissue. 
The  cells  of  this  tissue  are  small,  more  or  less  polygonal,  and  very  closely 
packed  together.  They  contain  a  small  number  of  fairly  large  chloroplasts. 
Some  of  the  cells  of  this  tissue  contain  tannin. 

Below  the  upper  epidermis,  in  the  ridges,  there  is  a  hypoderma  of  very 
small  lignified  cells,  in  which  the  walls  are  very  thick,  so  that  the  lumen 
is  very  small.  In  the  middle  of  the  ridge  these  sclerenchymatous  cells 
are  contiijued  downwards,  forming  a  band  several  cells  wide,  and  then 
forming  a  sheath  above  the  upper  part  of  the  vascular  bundle. 

The  vascular  bundle  is  surrounded  by  a  sheath  of  oval  lignified  cells 
the  inner  cell-walls  of  which  are  thicker  than  the  outer.  The  vascular 
bimdle  is  of  the  usual  monocotyledonous  type,  and  has  all  the  xylem 
parenchyma  lignified.  . 

Below  the  vascular  bundle  there  is  another  zone  of  sclerenchyma,  this 
being  continued  as  a  layer  from  1  to  5  cells  thick  above  the  lower  epidermis 
and  below  the  chlorenchyma.  These  cells  are  small  and  have  very  small 
cell-cavities. 

On  the  upper  portion  of  the  leaf  there  are  small,  stiff  hairs  on  the  lower 
surface  and  on  the  margins  of  the  leaf.  These  are  shown  in  figs.  31  and  32. 
They  are  very  stiff,  unicellular  hairs  with  very  thick  stratified  cell-waUs, 
and  are  formed  from  the  epidermal  cells. 

Peduncle. — This  is  shown  diagrammatically  in  figure  33  (p.  301).  The 
stem  is  hollow,  and  all  the  tissues  except  the  epidermis  and  the  phloem  are 
lignified.  This  diagram  shows  the  irregular  arrangement  of  the  vascular 
bundles,  each  of  which  is  surrounded  by  sclereuchjmaa. 

Fig.  34  gives  a  more  detailed  view  of  part  of  the  stem. 

The  epidermis  consists  of  small  pear-shaped  cells  with  thickened  cell- 
walls.      A  fairly  thick  cuticle  is  present. 

Beneath  the  epidermis  there  is  a  more  or  less  regular  circle  of  vascular 
bundles,  each  of  which  is  surrounded  by  a  large  mass  of  sclerenchyma, 
.  consisting  of  small  cells  with  very  thick  cell- walls. 

As  we  pass  inwards  the  bundles  become  larger,  and  the  amount  of 
s'clerenchyma  around  them  is  not  so  great.  The  cells  of  the  sclerenchyma 
are  somewhat  larger  and  have  larger  cell-cavities. 

The  ground-tissue  consists  of  fairly  large,  more  or  less  regular  cells,  the 
walls  of  which  are  only  slightly  thickened  and  are  lignified.  These  cells  are 
closely  arranged,  so  that  there  are  only  very  small  intercellular  air-spaces. 
The  cortical  cells  near  the  middle  of  the  stem  are  somewhat  larger,  and 
the  cell-walls  are  thinner. 

Bounding  the  ground-tissue  there  is  a  zone  of  cells  which  are  very 
irregular  both  in  shape  and  in  size.  These  cells  are  empty  and  their  walls 
are  suberized. 


304 


Transactions. 


Fig.  34. — Gahnia  procera.    Transverse  section  of  stem  (X  150). 
a,  cuticle ;    b,  sclerenchyraa ;   c,  xylera  ;   d,  phloem. 


Betts. — Autecology  of  Plants  of  Peridotife  Belt,  Nelson. 


305 


36.    Astelia  montana  (T.   Kirk)  Cockayne. 

Hahit. — This  is  a  stout,  densely  tufted,  perennial  herb.  The  leaves 
are  numerous,  spreading,  1-2  ft.  long  and  |— f  in.  broad,  linear -lanceolate 
and  acuminate.  The  leaves  are  very  tough  and  leathery,  and  are  many- 
veined  ;  one  nerve  on  each  side  is  more  prominent  than  the  rest,  and  the 
margins  and  midrib  are  often  coloured  a  yellow-red.  Both  the  upper  and 
the  lower  faces  of  the  leaf  are  clothed  with  white  tomentum.  The  base  6i 
the  leaf  is  sheathing,  and  is  densely  covered  with  long  silky  hairs. 

Anatomy. 

LeaJ. — Fig.  35  gives  diagrammatically  a  view  of  a  transverse  section  of 
half  the  leaf.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  there  are  two  veins  much 
more  prominent  than  the  others,  and  also  more  prominent  than  the  midrib. 
Fig.  36  shows  a  transverse  section  through  the  midrib,  and  fig.  37  through 
one  of  the  prominent  veins. 


Fig.  35. — Astelia  montana.      Transverse  section  of  leaf  ( X  9).      a,  tomentum ; 
b,  aqueous  tissue  ;    c,  stereome  ;    d,  vascular  bundle  ;    e,  chlorenchyma. 

Section  through  Midrib. — Both  the  upper  and  the  lower  epidermis  con- 
sist of  large  cells  somewhat  elongated  in  a  direction  at  right  angles  to  the 
surface  of  the  leaf.  Above  and  below  the  veins  the  epidermal  cells  are 
more  or  less  squarish.  The  epidermal  cells  have  their  walls,  especially  the 
external  ones,  thickened,  and  there  is  a  cuticle  present  on  both  surfaces. 

At  intervals  on  both  surfaces  the  epidermis  is  interrupted  by  groups 
of  peculiarly  modified  cells  forming  a  kind  of  scale.  The  scale  consists  of 
a  short  stalk  of  thin-walled  cells,  and  above  this  the  cells  are  larger  and 
have  thickened,  cutinized  walls.  The  cuticle  of  the  uppermost  tier  of  cells 
is  frayed  out  into  a  kind  of  tomentum  which  more  or  less  covers  the  surface 
of  the  leaf.  The  whole  apparatus  appears  to  be  a  modification  for  water- 
absorjjtion. 

Below  the  upper  epidermis  there  is  a  zone  of  aqueous  tissue,  consisting 
of  about  4  rows  of  very  large,  regularly  arranged,  closely  packed,  rectangular 
cells,  which  do  not  contain  chloroplasts,  and  which  have  thickened, 
mucilaginous  cell-walls. 


306 


Transactions. 


The  clilorenchyma  is  not  differentiated  into  spongy  and  palisade  tissue. 
It  consists  of  closely  packed  polygonal  or  roundish  cells  which  contain 
numerous  chloroplasts.     There  are  no  intercellular  air-spaces. 

Stomata  are  found  on  the  lower  surface  only.  The  guard-cells  are 
sunken  below  the  surface  of  the  epidermis,  and  the  stomata  are  further 
protected  by  small  guard-cell  ridges  over  the  opening.  Subsidiary  cells 
are  present. 


Fig.  36. — Astelia  montana.  Transverse  section  through  midrib  ( x  175).  a,  tomentum  ; 
b,  upper  epidermis ;  c,  aqueous  tissue ;  d,  mesophyll ;  e,  stoma  ;  /,  hair ; 
g,  stereome. 

The  vascular  bundle  is  surrounded  by  a  large  mass  of  sclerenchyma  : 
these  cells  are  irregular  and  very  closely  packed,  and  have  fairly  thick  cell- 
walls.  The  xylem  and  the  phloem  have  the  cell-walls  of  all  the  paren- 
chymatous cells  lignified.  The  layer  of  mesophyll  cells  adjacent  to  the 
sclerenchyma  is  devoid  of  chloroplasts. 


Betts. — Autecology  of  Plants  of  Peridotiie  Belt,  Nelson.       307 

Section  through  the  Lamina  in  the  Region  of  a  Prominent  Vein  (fig.  37). — 
Jn  these  veins  there  is  a  large,  more  or  less  T-shaped  mass  of  sclerenchyma 
surrounding  the  vascular  bundle.  As  in  the  niidrih,  these  cells  are  smaller 
on  the  under  side  than  on  the  upper  side,  but  here  those  on  the  upper 
surface  are  much  larger  than  those  above  the  midrib. 


Fig.  37. — Astdia  montana.  Section  through  one  of  large  veins  (X  175).  a,  tomentum  • 
b,  upper  epidermis  ;  c,  aqueous  tissue  ;  d,  mesophyll ;  e,  stoma  ;  /,  hair ; 
g,  stereome. 

Between  the  sclerenchyma  and  the  upper  epidermis  there  is  a  hypoderma 
of  aqueous  tissue  consisting  of  more  or  less  oval  cells.  Between  the 
sclerenchyma  and  the  lower  epidermis  this  layer  is  only  one  cell  thick. 


308 


Transactions. 


As  we  pass  away  from  the  midrib  the  aqueous' tissue  consists  of  rounded 
or  polygonal  cells  which  are  not  arranged  in  the  definite  rows  found  near 
the  midrib. 

37.   Dianella  intermedia  End!. 

Habit. — This  plant  is  a  perennial  herb,  bearing  namerous  leaves,  which 
are  crowded  at  the  base  of  the  stem.  ^The  leaves  are  linear,  1-1|  ft.  long, 
%  in.  wide,  and  are  arranged  in  two  vertical  rows  (distichous)  ;  the  bases 
of  the  leaves  are  sheathing.  The  margins  and  the  midrib  are  coloured 
orange-red. 


Fig.  38. — Dianella  intermedia.  Transverse  section  of  leaf  ( X  24).  a,  cuticle ;  h,  stereome  ; 
c,  vascular  bundle  ;    d,  aqueous  tissue. 

Fig.  39. — Dianella  intermedia.  Transverse  section  through  midrib  of  leaf  (x  175). 
a,  cuticle  of  upper  surface  ;  b,  aqueous  tissue  ;  c,  chlorenchyma  ;  d,  cuticle 
of  lower  surface  ;    e,  stoma  ;  /,  stereome  ;    g,  xylem  ;    h,  phloem. 

Anatomij. 

Leaf  (figs.  38-43).  —  Fig.  38  shows  the  general  arrangement  of  the 
tissues  in  a  transverse  section  of  the  leaf.  The  vascular  bundles  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  large  band  of  sclerenchyma,  which  traverses  the  whole  width 
of  the  leaf.  Under  the  upper  epidermis  are  some  lignified  cells,  and  in  the 
centre  of  each  mass  of  chlorenchyma  there  is  some  aqueous  tissue.  Fig.  39 
shows  in  more  detail  the  structure  at  the  midrib. 


Betts. — Autecology  of  Plants  of  Peridotite  Belt,  Nelson. 


309 


The  upper  epidermis  consists  of  rather  irregular  cells  with  thickened 
cell-walls.     A  thick  cuticle  is  also  present. 

Below  the  epidermis  there  are  2  rows  of  large  cells  with  thickened,  some- 
what mucilaginous  cell-walls.  These  do  not  contain  chloroplasts,  and  they 
form  an  aqueous  tissue. 

The  chlorenchyma  is  not  differentiated  into  palisade  and  spongy  paren- 
chyma. It  consists  of  rounded  or  polygonal  cells  which  contain  numerous 
chloroplasts. 


Fig.  40. — Dianella  intermedia.  .  Transverse,  section  through  lamina  of  leaf 
(X  175).  a,  cuticle;  b,  hypoderma ;  c,  stereome;  d,  lignified 
sheath ;  e,  chlorenchyma ;  /,  aqueous  tissue ;  fj,  xylem ;  h,  phloem. 

T^he  lower  epidermis  is  formed  of  roundish  or  oval  cells.  There  is  a  thick 
cuticle  on  this  surface  also. 

The  stomata  are  confined  to  the  lower  surface,  and  are  found  in  the 
slight  grooves.  The  guard-cells  are  small,  and  are  deeply  sunken  below 
the  surface,  and  the  opening  is  protected  by  projections  of  the  cuticle. 
All  the  epidermal  cells  in  the  grooves  have  curious  peg-like  cuticular  pro- 
jections, so  that  a  surface  view  presents  a  peculiar  appearance.  These 
are  shown  in  surface  view  in  fig.  42,  and  in  transverse  section  in  fig.  43. 

Fig.  40  gives  a  transverse  section  through  the  lamina,  not  passing 
through  the  midrib.  The  cuticle  is  much  thicker  than  above  the  midrib: 
The  upper  epidermis  consists  of  regular  oblong  cells,  which  are  a  little 
larger  above  the  sclerenehyma. 


310 


Transactions. 


Below  this  there  is  a  hypoderma,  from  1  to  4  cells  deep,  which  consists 
of  regular  cells  with  lignified  walls.  Above  the  sclerenchyma  bands  this 
layer  is  only  1  cell  thick,  but  above  the  chlorenchyma  2-3. 


Fig.  41. — Dianella  intermedia.    Transverse  section  of  margin  of  leaf  ( X  260).    a,  cuticle  ; 

b,  sclerenchyma. 
Fig.   42. — Dianella  intermedia.     Surface   view  of  epidermis  of  lower  surface  (x  260). 

a,  opening  above  stomata. 
Fig.  43. — Dianella  intermedia,    a,  guard-cells  :   b,  cuticle. 

The  sclerenchyma  consists  of  irregular  cells  with  small  cavities.  Near 
the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf  these  cells  are  much  larger  than  they  are  near 
the  lower  surface. 

The  band  of  lignified  cells  beneath  the  upper  epidermis  is  continued 
down  beside  each  band  of  sclererchyma.  Here  it  is  2  cells  wide,  and  con- 
sists of  oval  cells. 


Betts. — Autecology  of  Plants  of  Peridotite  Belt,  Nelso?i.        311 

The  chlorencliyma  forms  a  compact  mass,  and  in  the  centre  of  it  there 
is  some  aqueous  tissue  which  consists  of  very  large  roundish  cells  with  very 
thin  cell- walls. 

Fig.  41  shows  a  transverse  section  of  the  margin  of  the  leaf.  The  cuticle 
is  very  thick.  The  cells  of  the  upper  epidermis  are  slightly  elongated  at 
right  angles  to  the  surface  of  the  leaf,  and  have  thickened  walls,  and  the 
cells  of  the  lower  epidermis  are  smaller  and  are  squarish.  Beneath  the 
epidermis  there  is  a  hypoderma  composed  of  1  or  2  layers  of  cells  with 
thickened,  lignified  cell-walls.  The  rest  of  the  margin  is  occupied  by  a 
large  mass  of  sclerenchyma,  the  cells  of  which  have  their  lumen  almost 
obliterated. 

•    38.    Libertia  ixioides  Spreng. 

Habit. — A  perennial  herb  with  a  short  creeping  rhizome  and  long  fibrous 

roots.     The  leaves  are  numerous,  densely  crowded,  linear,  flat,  rigid,  and 

arranged  in  two  vertical  series  (distichous).     The  margins  are  cartilaginous 

and  smooth.  . 

^  Anatomy. 

Leaf  (figs.  44-47). — Fig.  44  shows  diagrammatically  a  view  of  half  the 
transverse  section  of  the  leaf.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  vascular 
bundles  are  arranged  in  two  series,  one  along  each  face  of  the  leaf  ;  that 
the  bundles  are  opposite,  and  that  each  is  surrounded  by  a  mass  of 
sclerenchyma. 

Figs.  45  and  46  show  in  more  detail  the  structure  in  transverse  section. 

The  epidermis  is  composed  of  small,  squarish  cells,  all  the  walls  of  which 
are  thickened,  and  there  is'  also  a  thick  cuticle. 

Stomata  are  found  on  both  surfaces,  and  they  are  fairly  frequent. 
The  guard-cells  are  sunken  right  below  the  epidermis,  and  they  have 
thickened  cell- walls.     The  stoma  is  therefore  at  the  bottom  of  a  pit. 

The  chlorenchyma  consists  of  large,  roundish  cells  with  somewhat 
thickened  cell-walls  and  containing  numerous  chloroplasts.  This  tissue 
is  fairly  compact,  so  that  there  are  only  small  intercellular  air-spaces. 
Beneath  each  stoma,  however,  there  is  a  fair-sized  air-space. 

The  vascular  bundles  are  of  the  usual  monocotyledonous  type,  and  all 
the  xylem  elements  are  lignified.  Surroimding  each  vascular  bundle  there 
is  a  mass  of  sclerenchyma  ;  this  is  composed  of  small  roundish  cells  with 
thick  cell- walls. 

The  central  part  of  the  leaf  is  occupied  by  a  colourless  tissue  formed  of 
large  cells  with  slightly  thickened  cell-walls,  and  with  small  air-spaces 
between  the  cells.  This  tissue  forms  an  aqueous  tissue.  In  some  parts 
the  cells  lying  between  the  two  opposite  masses  of  sclerenchyma  have 
lignified  cell- walls. 

Fig.  46  shows  a  transverse  section  through  the  margin  of  the  leaf,  which 
is  thickened.  The  cuticle  here  is  thicker,  and  the  epidermal  cells  are  some- 
"what  larger,  and  their  external  cell- walls  are  thicker  than  near  the  centre 
of  the  leaf.  Under  the  epidermis  there  is  a  single  layer  of  cells  which  con- 
tain a  few  chloroplasts.  The  rest  of  the  space  is  occupied  by  a  large  mass 
of  sclerenchyma,  composed  of  cells  with  a  very  small  lumen.  In  the  centre 
of  this  mass  there  is  a  small  vascular  bundle. 

Peduncle  (fig.  48). — The  epidermis  is  composed  of  small  cells  with  all 
their  walls,  and  especially  the  lateral  walls,  very  much  thickened.  A  cuticle 
is  present,  but  it  is  not  so  thick  as  in  the  leaf. 

Stomata  are  not  frequent ;  £he  guard-cells  have  thickened  cell-walls 
and  are  but  slightly  sunken,  so  that  they  are  not  at  the  bottom  of  a  pit  as 
in  the  leaf. 


312 


Transactions. 


44 


47 


Fig.    44. — Libertia    ixioi/les.      Transverse    section    of    leaf    ( X  54).      a,    sclerenchyma ; 

b,  chlorenchyma ;    c,  vascular  bundle  ;    d,  aqueous  tissue. 
Fig.  46. — Libertia  ixioides.     Transverse  section  "of  margin  of  leaf  (x  230).     a,  cuticle; 

b,  sclerenchyma  ;   c,  vascular  bundle. 
Fig.    47. — Libertia  ixioides.      Surface    view    of   epidermis  (x  2.30).      a,   oldening  above 

stoma. 


Betts. — Autecology  of  Plants  of  Peridotite  Belt,  Nelson.        313 


Beneath  the  epidermis  there  is  some  chlorenchyma — a  band  2-4  cells 
deep,  composed  of  spherical  cells  very  closely  arranged  together,  so  that 
there  are  only  minute  air-spaces. 

There  are  4  more  or  less  regular  concentric  rings  of  vascular  bundles, 
the  outer  ones  of  which  are  composed  of  small  bundles.  The  vascular 
bundles  are  of  the  usual  monocotyledonous  type,  and  each  is  surrounded 
by  a  small  amount  of  sclerenchyma. 


Fig.  45. — Libertia  izioides.      Transverse  section  of  leaf  ( x  230).     a,  cuticle  ;    b,  stoma ; 
c,  sclerenchyma  ;   d,  phloem  ;   e,  xylem  ;  /,  aqueous  tissue ;  g,  chlorenchyma. 

All  the  cells  of  the  ground-tissue  except  the  chlorophyll-containing  cells 
have  pitted  lignified  walls.  The  cells  nearest  the  chlorenchyma  are  small, 
have  thick  walls,  and  are  closely  arranged,  so  that  there  are  no  intercellular 
air-spaces.  As  we  pass  towards  the  centre  of  the  stem  the  cells  become 
larger  and  rounder,  and  their  walls  are  thinner,  and  there  are  larger 
intercellular  air-spaces. 


314 


Transactions. 


Fig.  48. — Libcrtia^ixioides.  Transverse  section  of  peduncle  (x  230). 
a,  cuticle  ;  b,  stoma ;  c,  chlorenchyma ;  d,  sclerenchyma ; 
e,  phloem  ;    /,  xj^l^ia ;    g,  pitted  walls. 


Martin. — Pteridophytes  of  Banks  Peninsula.  315 

/ 
Art.   XXXll.—Pterido'phytes  of  Banks  Peninsula   (Eastern  Portion). 

By  W.  Martin,  B.Sc. 

[Read  before  the  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury,  3rd  December,  1919  ;   received  by 
Editor,  31st  December,  1919  ;  issued  separately,  30th  June,  1920.] 

Owing  to  its  isolated  geographical  position,  Banks  Peninsula  affords  special 
opportunity  for  ecological  investigation,  yet  few  botanists  have  given  it 
the  attention  it  invites.  Our  present  knowledge  of  the  florula  and  of  the 
distribution  of  the  species  has  been  admirably  summed  up  in  a  recent  paper 
by  Laing  (1919). 

In  his  list  of  indigenous  plants  Laing  refers  to  a  large  number  of 
species  of  the  former  existence  of  which  there  can  be  little  doubt,  but  whose 
presence  is  not  now  known  with  certainty.  Such  plants  are  recorded  as 
"  species  inquirendae."  Reference  is  also  made  to  a  number  of  species 
recorded  by  previous  investigators,  regarding  the  identification  -of  which 
some  doubt  is  expressed.  Laing  describes  these  as  "  species  excludendne." 
It  therefore  seems  desirable  that  an  intensive  study  of  the  plants  of  this 
district  should  be  conducted  before  further  denudation  of  the  primitive 
vegetation  takes  place. 

Laing  in  his  paper  expresses  the  hope  that  "  before  the  remnants 
of  the  primitive  flora  disappear  every  opportunity  will  be  taken  by  local 
students  to  complete  the  work  here  outlined."  The  scope  of  the  present 
paper  is  limited  to  an  investigation  of  the  past  and  present  distribution  of 
the  pteridopyhtes  of  the  Akaroa  caldera  and  its  immediate  neighbourhood. 
The  district  examined  consists  of  that  portion  of  Banks  Peninsula  lying 
to  the  east  of  a  line  joining  Peraki  and  Pigeon  Bay.  Practically  every 
remnant  of  the  ancient  forest  within  the  caldera  itself  has  been  visited 
since  December,  1916,  as  well  as  the  majority  of  similar  areas  that  flank 
the  outer  walls.  Most  of  the  accessible  cliffs  within  the  harbour  have 
also  been  examined,  but  the  whole  of  the  slopes  facing  the  open  sea  require 
further  and  closer  examination  than  I  have  been  able  to  give  to  them. 

The  earliest  existing  records  of  distribution  are  contained  in  the  writings 
of  Raoul  (1846),  Armstrong  (1880  and  1882),  and  Potts  (1882)  ;  but  for 
much  additional  information  I  am  specially  indebted  to  Mr.  D.  G.  Riches, 
of  Akaroa,  who  since  about  1880,  while  engaged  on  survey  work  that  took 
him  to  everv  corner  of  the  area  under  discussion,  has  been  a  close  student 
of  the  ferns  of  Banks  Peninsula  and  has  made  copious  collections  exclusively 
from  this  area.  Many  of  the  localities  cited  by  Riches  have  been  corro- 
borated by  Mr.  Louis  J.  Vangioni,  of  Akaroa,'  and  Mr.  George  Penlington, 
of  Christchurch,  to  both  of  whom  I  am  indebted  for  valuable  information. 
In  several  instances  I  have  been  able,  from  information  thus  obtained, 
to  locate  ferns  included  by  Laing  in  his  list  of  doubtful  inhabitants. 
Species  recorded  in  this  paper  are  represented  by  specimens  from  the 
localities  named,  and  now  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Riches  or  myself. 

Probable  Causes  op  Diminution  or  Extinction  of  Species. 

Before  the  days  of  colonization  the  hills  about  Akaroa  were  clad  with 
forest  right  to  the  water's  edge,  and  it  seems  safe  to  assume  that  the 
atmosphere  was  more  humid   than  it  now  is  ;    but  even   if  the   annual 


316  ■       Transactions. 

rainfall  had  changed  but  little,  there  is  to-day  an  almost  entire  lack  of 
those  taller  and  denser  timber  areas  which  were  the  home  of  the  majority 
of  the  more  delicate  species  of  Hymenophjllum  and  Trwhomanes,  and  I 
venture  to  suggest  that  the  humidity  within  those  areas  that  remain  is 
also  lower  than  it  formerly  was.  For  instance,  in  December,  1916,  the 
stream  that  usually  flowed  through  Le  Bon's  Bush,  though  never  of  large 
dimensions,  had  actually  dried  up,  and  the  forest-floor  could  scarcely  have 
been  described  as  damp  ;  yet  there  are  evidences  that  this  piece  of  forest 
was  particularly  rich  both  in  wealth  of  fern-growth  and  in  number  of 
species. 

To  the  wholesale  destruction  of  the  bush  that  accompanied  the  cutting- 
out  of  the  timber  and  the  conversion  of  these  areas  into  pasture  the 
disappearance  or  partial  disappearance  of  many  ferns  is  undoubtedly  due, 
as,  e.g.,  Gleichenia  Cunninghamii  and  Pteris  tremula,  both  of  which  appear 
to  have  been  abundant.  Then,  again,  where  cattle  have  had  access  to 
the  bush  the  undergrowth,  with  its  wealth  of  terrestrial  ferns,  has  dis- 
appeared save  for  a  few  hardy  species  that,  seem  able  to  accommodate 
themselves  verv  rapidly  to  new  and  harsher  conditions,  as,  e.g.,  Asplenmm 
bulbiferum,  Pellaea  rotundifolia,  Polystichum  Richardi,  P.  vestitum,  Blechnum 
lanceolatum,  B.  fluviatUe,  B.  discolor. 

Most  of  the  larger  Hymenophylla  seem  to  have  disappeared  entirely, 
though  the  smaller  species  may  still  be  found.  The  reason  for  this  I  am 
unable  to  state.  It  has  to  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  favourite 
haunts  for  these  ferns  were  the  valleys  between  Le  Bon's  Bay  and  Damon's 
Bay,  and  that  the  bush  has  been  practically  cleared  away  from  these  areas. 
Further,  it  seems  more  than  probable  that  these  ferns  cannot  endure  wind, 
which  now  blows  freely  through  bush  where  formerly  the  air  was  perpetually 
still. 

On  the  coastal  rocks  the  following  ferns  are  much  less  common  than 
they  apparently  were  formerly  :  viz.,  Gymnogramme  leptophylla,  G.  nitae- 
folia,  Blechnum.  Banksii,  Asplenium  Richardi.  In  fact,  no  trace  of  either 
Gymnogramme  was  seen  by  me.  Other  ferns  commonly  met  with  on  banks 
and  slopes  immediately  above  high-water  mark  seem  to  hold  their  own 
against  such  aggressive  exotics  as  Dactylis  glomerata,  Agrostis  stolonifera,  &c., 
while  the  pastures  have  been  invaded  by  Blechnum  penna  marimmi.  This 
fern  must,  in  the  district  under  consideration,  have  descended  from  its 
former  subalpine  station  right  down  to  sea-level,  where  it  is  now. common 
in  places  from  which  in  the  past  it  seems  to  have  been  absent.  The 
two  species"  of  Gymnogramfne  formerly  grew  on  steep  banks  of  partially 
decomposed  rock,  where  introduced  grasses  havei  now  obtained  a  footing, 

and  this  may,  wholly  or  partially,  explain  their  disappearance. 

» 

Summary  of  the  Results  op  the  Investigation. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  following  lists  that  at  least  seven  (possibly 
eight)  of  the  twenty  species  inquiretulae  mentioned  by  Laing  are  still  grow- 
ing in  the  district  investigated,  while  Riches  has  shown  that  fourteen  at 
least  were  former  inhabitants.  Of  the  sixteen  species  excludendae  four 
were  present — viz.,  Hymenophyllum  scahrum,  Hymenophyllum  ferrugineum,, 
Trichomanes  humile,  Trichomanes  Colensoi. 

Riches  informs  me  that  a  considerable  patch  of  a  small-leafed  umbrella- 
fern  {Gleichenia  dicarpa  1)  formerly  grew  near  the  summit  of  the  hills  at 
the  head  of  O'Kain's,  while  he  has  specimens  of  Lindsaya  linearis  Swartz 
and  Lindsaya  cuneata  Forst.  var.  Lessonii  Hook.  f.  collected  somewhere  in 


Martin. — Pteridophytes  of  Banhs  Peninsula.  317 

this  neighbourhood  and  sent  to  him  by  a  Mr.  Craig  about  1880.  Athyriinn 
umhrosum.  and  Adpleniuni  Hookerianum  var.  Colensoi  were  both  collected  by 
Riches  and  are  now  recorded  for  the  first  time. 

In  the  accompanying  list  of  existing  species  I  give  unrecorded  habitats 
for  at  least  thirty  ferns  and  lycopods.  There  is  ample  evidence  that  some 
species  now  comparatively  rare  were  once  common — e.g.,  Leptolepia  novae- 
zelandiae  and  Polystichum  adiantiforme.  The  former  I  have  noted  in 
nine  separate  localities,  and  the  latter  in  four,  though  no  other  recent 
investigator  has  recorded  them  at  all.  Adiayitum  ajffirie  was  once  common 
over  the  whole  area  and  is  still  widely  distributed,  but  is  plentiful  only 
in  a  few  localities,  such  as  at  Waterfall  Gully  on  Mount  Bossu,  Nikau-palm 
Gully,  and  the  cliffs  near  Mat.  Wight's  Bay.  Polystichum  adiantiforme  has 
apparently  not  been  recorded  since  Raoul  first  mentioned  Akaroa  as  a 
habitat,  though  Mr.  Louis  J.  Vangioni  has  it  growing  in  his  fernery  on 
a  fern-trunk  from  Grehan  Valley,  where  I  find  it  still  fairly  common. 
Laing  regards  Raoul's  record  as  ''  probably  an  erroneous  identification," 
but  this  species  still  exists  in  all  the  main  Akaroa  valleys,  and  near 
McDonald's,  half-way  up  the  Jubilee  Road,  at  Wainui. , 

Referring  to  Dicksonia  fibrosa,  which  he  records  from  Wainui,  Laing 
says,  "  As  I  have  no  specimens,  I  am  somewhat  doubtful  of  the  identifi- 
cation." This  fern  is  common  in  the  Le  Bon's  Reserve,  and  has  been 
obtained  near  the  head  of  Barry's  Bay  by  Mr.  E.  F.  Stead.  Azolla  rubra 
is  a  new  record  on  my  own  observation. 

Abbreviations  used  in  this  Paper. 
D.  G.  R.         . .  . .         D.  G.  Riches. 


R.  M.  L. 
L.  J.  V. 
G.  P. 
W.  M. 


R.  M.  Laing. 
L.  J.  Vangioni. 
Geo^^e  Penlington. 
William  Martin. 


Existing  Species  not  recorded  since  1882.  , 

Alsophila  Colensoi  Hook.  f.     Head  of  Stony  Bay,*  W.  Mi 
Hypolepis  distans  Hook.     Near  Ferris's,  Akaroa,  W.  M. 
Pteris  tremula  R.  Br.     Little  Tika^  Bay,  L.  J.  V.  and  W.  M. 
Blechnum  vidcanicimi  Kuhn.     Grehan  Valley,  D.  G.  R.,  G.  P.,  W.  M. 
Polystichum  adiantiforme  (Forst.)  J.  Sm.     Akaroa  and  Wainui,  L.  J.  V.  and 

W.  M. 
Dryopteris  velutina  0.  Ktz.     Neighbourhood  of  Akaroa,  W.  M. 
Lycopodium.  scariosum  Forst.     Head  of  Long  Bay  and  Stony  Bay,  W.  M. 
Lycopodium  Billardieri  Spring  (?).     Le  Bon's  Bay  and  Stony  Bay,  W.  M. 

Former  Habitats  of  Species  not  recently  noted  on  Banks  Peninsula. 

Hymenophjllum  dilatatum,  Swartz.    Hickory  and  Armstrong's  Bush,  D.  G.  R. 
Hymenophyllum  Malingii  Mett.     Long  Bay  and  Stony  Bay,  D.  G.  R. 
Hymenophyllum  yninimum  A.  Rich.     Long  Bay  and  Stony  Bay,  D.  G.  R. 
Hymenophylhim  tunbridgense  Sm.     Long  Bay  and  Flea  Bay,  D.  G.  R. 
Hymenophyllvm  multifidum  Swartz.     Long  Bay  and  Stony  Bay. 
Hymenophjllum  bivalve  Swartz.     Armstrong's  Bush,  D.  G.  R. 
Hymenophyllum  scabrum  A.  Rich.     Long  Bay  and  Hickory  Bay,  D.  G.  R. 


*  The  Stony  Bay  referred  to  in  this  paper,  unless  otherwise  stated,  is  the  bay  over 
the  saddle  from  Balgueri  Valley,  Akaroa. 


\ 


318  Transactions.  > 

Hijmenoj)hyllumferrugineum  Colla  (==  H.  subtilissimum  Kunze).     Stony  Bay, 

D.  G.  R. 

Tribhomanes  Colensoi  Hook.  f.     Seaward  side  of  Akaroa  Ridge. 
Trichomanes  Tiumile  Forst.     Seaward  side  of  Akaroa  Ridge,  D.  G.  R. 
Adiantum  aethiopicmn  Linn.     Akaroa,  Raoul.     Mr.  Riches  has  a  specimen 

of  this  maidenhair,  but  does  not  recollect  where  he  obtained  it. 
Blechnum  durum  C.  Chr.      There  is  little  doubt  that  this  fern  is  correctly 

reported  from  Banks  Peninsula  by  J.  B.  Armstrong.      Riches  has  it 

from  the  foot  of  the  beech  bush.   Stony  Bay,  where  he   says  it  was 

common.     This  was  its  northernmost  limit.     Apparently  it  grew  close 

to,  but  not  on,  the  actual  coast-line. 
Adiantum  fulvum  Raoul.     Grehan  Valley,  D.  G.  R. 
Athyrium  umbrosum  Presl.     A  small  clump  formerly  grew  at  Three  Point 

Rock,  Wainui,  D.  G.  R.      This  is  therefore  the  southernmost  record  for 

this  species. 
Dryoj)teris  decomposita  0.  Kze.     Children's  Bay,  Akaroa,  D.  G.  R. 
Polypodimn  dictyopteris  C.  Chr.      Akaroa,   Raoul ;    Stony  Bay,  D.  G.  R. 

I  have  not  seen  specimens  of  this  fern. 
Arthropteris  tenella  J.  Sm      Exact  locality  forgotten,  D.  G.  R. 
Gleichenia  dicarpa  R.  Br.  (?).     Near  head  of  O'Kain's,  D.  G.  R. 
Gleichenia  Cunninghamii  Hew.      Five    years    ago  Mr.    G.  Penlington  and 

I  came  on  this  fern  near  a  small  stream  near  the  head  of  Le  Bon's 

(Martin,  1918),  whence,  it  has  now  totally  disappeared.      It  was  at  one 

time  very  commonly  distributed.     Long  Bay  and  Hickory,  G.  P.  and 

D.  G.  R.  ;    Flea  Bay  and  Le  Bon's,  L.  J.  V. 
Nothoclaena  distans  R.  Br.    Mat.  Wight's  Bay,  on  spurs  of  the  hills,  D.  G.  R. 
Gymnogramme  leptopliylla  Desv.     Rocks  near  creek   at  lighthouse  and  on 

Adam's  Point,  D.  G.  R.    ■ 
Gymnogramme  rutaefolia  Hook.  &  Grev.     Adam's  Point,  D.  G.  R. 

List  of  Species  still  growing  in  the  Region  investigated. 

The  species  named  in  the  following  Hst  are  still  growing  in  the  locaUties 
recorded  by  Laing  or  myself.  Records  by  Riches  were  made  prior  to  1900. 
Other  records  are  not  given  unless  the  exact  habitat  is  mentioned. 

Hymenophjllum  rarum  R.  Br.  Waikerikikeri  (Hickory),  R.  M.  L.  ;  Le  Bon's, 
W.  M.,  D.  G.  R.  This  species  was  once  common,  but  is  now  difficult  to 
find. 

Hymenophyllum  sanguinolentum  Hook.  f.  Le  Bon's  Reserve.  This  fern 
may  most  easily  be  found  by  following  up  the  stream-bed  till  it  reaches 
the  waterfall,  where  it  is  growing  on  the  rock  and  on  neighbouring  tree- 
trunks. 

Htjmenophyllum  flahellatum  Ldi\).  Peraki  Reserve,  R.  M.  L.,  W.  M.  This 
fern  is  easily  found  on  the  caudices  of  Dicksonia  sqiiarrosa  at  Wainui, 
Akaroa,  Takamatua,  and  Le  Bon's. 

Hymenophyllum  peltatum  Bearne  (=  H.  unilaterale  Willd.).  Long  Bay, 
D.  G.  R.  and  R.  M.  L. 

Trichomanes  venosum  R.  Br.  Extremely  c®mmon  on  the  stems  of  tree- 
ferns  in  almost  every  valley,  W.  M.  ;    Balgueri  Valley,  R.  M.  L. 

Cyathea  dealbata  Swartz.  Everywhere  common,  but  less  so  from  year  to 
year. 

Cyathea  medullaris  Swartz.  Mr.  Hooker'  and  others  at  Wainui  inform  me 
that  some  half-dozen  specimens  exist  about  a  mile  towards  the  Heads 
from  Wainui,  but  I  have  not  seen  them. 


Martin. — Pteridoplj^ytes  of  Banks  Peninsula.  319 

Hemitelia  Smithii  Hook,  f .  Akaroa  and  Wainui,  E.  M.  L.,  W.  M.  Commonly 
met  with  all  round  the  harbour. 

Dicksonia  squarrosa    Swartz.     Everywhere  common. 

Dicksonia  fibrosa  Col.  Wainm,  R.  M.  L. ;  Le  Bon's,  W.  M.  ;  Barry's  Bay, 
E.  F.  Stead. 

Alsophila  Colensoi  Hook.  f.  Common  in  bush  above  the  Summit  Eoad  at 
the  head  of  Stony  Bay,  near  Akaroa.  I  have  a  doubtful  record  from 
Le  Bon's. 

Leptolepia  novae-zelandiae  (Col.)  Kuhn.  This  and  the  last  species  do  not 
appear  to  have  been  collected  in  the  last  thirty  years.  I  have  noted 
this  fern  at  Peraki  Reserve,  Wainui,  Grehan  Valley,  French  Farm, 
Le  Bon's,  and  head  of  Robinson's  Bay  in  the  little  tongue  of  bush 
that  Hes  between  the  road  and  the  summit,  where  it  may  easily  be 
obtained. 

Adiantum  ajffine  Willd.  Nikau-palm  Gully,  R.  M.  L.  All  valleys  round 
Mount  Bossu.  Wainui,  French  Farm,  Rowe's  Bush  Waterfall,  Akaroa, 
and  especially  on  the  coastal  cliffs  north  of  Mat.  Wight's  Bay.  This 
fern  must  formerly  have  been  widely  distributed. 

Eypolepis  tenuijolia  Bernh.     Top  of  ridge,  Akaroa  to  O'Kain's,  W.  M. 

Hypolepis  distans  Hook.     Neighbourhood  of  Akaroa,  D.  G.  R.,  W.  M. 

Cheilanthes  Sieberi  Kunze.  Spurs  on  Lucas  Bay,  D.  G.  R.  Evidently  less 
common  than  formerlv. 

Pellaea  rotundifolia  Hook.  Everywhere  abundant  both  in  the  bush  and  in 
the  open. 

Pteridium  esculentum  Cockayne.  Common  near  the  margin  of  the  bush  ; 
covering  many  acres  of  valuable  land  on  the  spurs  above  Wainui  and 
Akaroa,  and  increasing  rapidly. 

Paesia  scaberula  Kuhn.  Mount  Bossu,  Wainui ;  R.  M.  L.,  W.  M.;  head  of 
Balgueri  Valley,  W.  M.  and  G.  P. 

Histiopteris  incisa  J.  Sm.  Stony  Bay  near  O'Kain's,  R.  M.  L. ;  Le  Bon's, 
Stony  Bay  near  Akaroa,  and  Long  Bay,  W.  M. 

Pteris  tremula  R.  Br.  Potts  records  this  fern  from  "  Tikao  Bay,"  which  is 
probably  intended  for  Little  Tikao  Bay,  where  it  is  still  growing,  L.  J.  V., 
W.  M.  ;  foot  of  Peraki  Reserve,  W.  M.  ;  near  top  of  range  at  Hickory 
and  Stony  Bay,  D.  G.  R.     ' 

Blechnum  Patersoni  Mett.  Peraki,  Le  Bon's,  Balgueri.  and  Grehan  A^alleys, 
Akaroa,  Wainui ;    always  at  the  higher  levels  and  in  damp  bush. 

Blechnum  discolor  Keys.     Common  in  bush  above  1,000  ft. 

Blechnum  lanceolatum  Sturm.     Common  in  bush. 

Blechnum  penna  marinum  Kuhn.  To  be  met  with  at  all  levels  from  sea- 
level,  as  at  Maori  Kaik,  to  the  summit.  This  is  a  most  abundant  fern 
on  open  hillsides ;  300  ft.  is  given  as  the  lowest  level  by  Laing,  but  I 
have  seen  it  almost  on  the  sea-shore  at  Maori  Kaik  and  at  Wainui. 

Blechnum  Banksii  Mett.  Squally  Bay  and  Stony  Bay,  D.  G.  R. ;  light- 
house, Akaroa,  L.  Cockayne  ;    Stony  Bay,  W.  M. 

Blechnum  capense  Schlecht.  Common,  especially  in  bush  above  1,000  ft. 
level. 

Blechnum  fluviatile  Lowe.     Common  near  bush-streams. 

Blechnum  membranaceum  Mett.  Brough's  Bay,  D.'G.  R.,  G.  P.  I  have  not 
visited  this  locality,  but  have  reason  to  believe  it  still  exists  there. 

Blechnum  vulcanicum  Kuhn.  This  fern  has  eluded  collectors  and  investi- 
gators for  many  years.  It  is  growing  freely  on  some  rocks  in  a  piece 
of  bush  bordering  a  small  tributary  of  the  main  stream  in  Grehan 
Valley.     Elsewhere  on  the  peninsula  it  occurs  in  Kaituna  Bush. 


320  TrarmactKMtis. 

Asplemumflabellifolium,  Cav.  A  cosmopolitan  fern  in  the  district  examined. 
Aspleniiim  ohtusatum.  Forst.  f.  On  coastal  cliffs.  Within  the  harbour  this 
fern  presents  all  manner  of  intermediate  gradations  between  A.  ohtusatum 
and  A.  lucidum.  Wall  (see  Laing,  1919,  p.  376)  considers  the  coastal 
fern  of  Lyttelton  Harbour  to  be  a  form  of  A.  lucidum  rather  than  of 
A.  ohtusatum.  I  hold  the  same  view  in  respect  to  the  Asplenium  of 
Akaroa  Harbour. 

Asplenium  lucidum  Forst.  f.  Wainui,  French  Farm,  Barry's  Bay,  Pigeon 
Bay,  Akaroa,  Little  Tikao  Bay.  The  typical  form  is  met  with 
flanking  the  streams  for  a  few  chains  from  their  entry  into  the  harbour 
wherever  these  are  shaded  by  bush.  Fronds  5  ft.  6  in.  long  were 
recently  exhibited  by  me  in  Christchurch  from  Barry's  Bay.  On 
Adam's  Point  a  gradual  transition  towards  A.  ohtusatum  may  be  noted, 
the  pinnae  becoming  more  and  more  oblique  and  erect,  more  coriaceous, 
and  shorter,  and  the  fronds  more  dwarf  and  compact.  An  examination 
of  these  localities  leads  me  to  think  that  the  most  potent  factors  in 
causing  this  transition  are  the  degree  of  exposure  and  the  degree  of 
salinity  at  the  roots.  The  degree  of  shade  and  moisture  are  also  factors 
of  importance. 

Asplenium  Lyallii  (Moore)  Cockayne.  I  obtained  two  specimens  of  this 
fern  within  a  chain  of  typical  A  lucidum  and  the  fern  here  called 
A.  ohtusatum  on  Adam's  Point.      Head  of  Duvauchelles,  W.  M. 

Asplenium  Hookerianum  Col.  Three  very  distinct  forms  of  this  composite 
species  exist  in  the  locality.  The  typical  form  is  abundant  in  Akaroa 
itself,  at  Maori  Kaik,  and  at  Wainui  ;  it  is  well  distributed  generally. 
Superficially,  a  second  form,  found  in  Balgueri  Valley,  almost  exactly 
matches  the  plate  given  by  Field  for  A.  umhrosum  var.  parvifolium. 
Var.  Colensoi  is  found  at  Tikao  Bay,  D.  G.  R. 

Asplenium  hulhiferum  Forst.  f.  The  commonest  bush-fern,  but,  Uke  a 
number  of  others,  it  may  often  be  seen  growing  in  a  crevice  in  a  rock 
exposed  to  the  full  effects  of  sun  and  wind,  in  which  situation  it 
becomes  extremely  coriaceou; . 

Asplenium.  Richardi  Hook  f.  Waikerikikeri,  R.  M..L. ;  coastal  cUffs  on  the 
seaward  side,  D.  G.  R. 

Asplenium  flaccidum  Forst.  f.     This  fern  is  everywhere  abundant. 

Polysfichum  vestitum  Presl.  Very  common  in  the  upper  regions  of  the 
bush— ie.,  above  1,000  ft.  Where  the  bush  has  been  cleared  this  fern 
oiten  continues  to  thrive  in  the  open. 

Polystichum  Richardi  J.  Sm.  A  very  hardy  cosmopolitan  type,  thriving 
equally  well  on  the  coastal  cliffs,  open  pasture,  and  dense  bush.  It 
thrives  at  all  levels.  The  Aspidium  oculatum  of  the  Handhooh  (Hooker) 
does  not  seem  to  be  a  fixed  type,  as  considerable  variation  in  the  disc 
of  the  involucre  and  in  the  margin  of  the  scales  occurs  sometimes  in 
a  single  clump  of  P.  Richardi. 

Polystichum  hispidum  J.  Sm.  Maori  Kaik,  Newton's  Valley,  Balgueri 
Valley,  Le  Bon's,  W.  M.     Nowhere  common. 

Polystichum  adiantiforme  (Forst.)  J.  Sm.  Regarded  by  Laing  as  "pro- 
bably an  erroneous  identification,"  but  undoubted  specimens  may  easily 
be  obtained  on  the  caudices  of  Dickonsia  squarrosa  about  a  mile  up 
Grehan  Valley.  I  have  obtained  it  in  Newton's  Valley,  and  also  in  the 
valley  below  the  Jubilee  Road,  a  quarter  of  a  mile  above  McDonald's, 
at  Wainui,  where  it  was  growing  luxuriantly,  though  only  two  specimens 
were  seen. 


Martin. — Pferidophyfes  of  Banlcs  Peninsula .  321 

Dryopteris  glabella  C.  Chr.  Balgueri  Valley,  R.  M.  L.,  W.  M.  ;  Maori  Kaik, 
Newton's  Vallev,  Grehan  Vallev,  and  Rowe's  Bush  on  Adam's  Point, 
W.  M. 

Dryopteris  punctata  C.  Cr.     Common  on  the  margins  of  the  bush. 

Dryopteris  pennigera  C.  Chr.     Common  in  shaded  stream-beds  below  1,000  ft. 

Dryopteris  velutina  0.  Ktz.  This  handsome  fern  still  grows  where  it  was 
discovered  by  Raoul.      Akaroa,  Rowe's  Bush,  Maori  Kaik,  W.  M. 

Polypodium  BiUardieri  (Willd.)  C.  Chr.  {^=  P.  australe  Mett.).  Common  on 
rocks  and  tree-trunks  all  round  the  summit. 

Polypodium  pustulatum  Forst.  f.     Long  Bay,  D.  G.  R.  ;   Stony  Bay,  W.  M. 

Polypodium  grammitidis  R.  Br.  Common  on  tree-trunks  and  on  rock  near 
the  summit  from  Stony  Bay  to  Wainui.  Specimens  from  Le  Bon's 
measured  12  in.  in  length. 

Polypodium  diversifolium  Willd.     Everywhere  abundant. 

Cyclophorus  serpens  C.  Chr.     Akaroa,  Peraki,  Island  Bay,  W.  M. 

Leptopteris  hymenophylloides  Presl.  Abundant  in  the  denser  areas  of  bush, 
as  at  Peraki,  Le  Bon's,  Stony  Bay,  &c.  It  also  grows  in  the  beech 
forest  at  the  head  of  Balgueri  Valley,  facing  full  to  the  sun. 

Ophioglossum  coriaceum  A.  Cunn.  Hills  behind  Wainui,  ridge  between 
Le  Bon's  and  Hickory,  R.  M.  L. 

Botrychium  australe  R.  Br.  Grehan  Valley.  Mr.  G.  Penlington  conducted 
me  to  a  spot  where  it  formerly  grew  abundantly,  and  we  were  fortunate 
enough  to  find  a  specimen  about  400  ft.  above  sea-level.  Brasenose 
(lower  levels),  G.  P.,  D.  G.  R. 

Lycopodium  varium  R.  Br.  Waikerikikeri,  R.  L.  M.  ;  head  of  Le  Bon's  and 
Barry's  Bays,  W.  M.  Specimens  superficially  resembling  L.  BiUardieri 
Spring  were  obtained  by  me  growing  as  epiphytes  both  at  Stony  Bay 
and  at  Le  Bon's.  At  first  I  could  find  no  fertile  fronds ;  and,  referring  to 
barren  fronds  sent  to  him,  Dr.  J.  E.  Holloway  wrote  me,  "Almost  cer- 
tainly L.  BiUardieri.''  Writing  later,  after  I  had  secured  fertile  fronds, 
he  says,  "  T  agree  with  you  that  the  fertile  plants  you  send  are  more  of 
the  form  of  L.  varium  than  of  L.  BiUardieri.  These  two  species  grade 
into  one  another, so  that  it  is  quite  possible  to  speak  of  an  intermediate 
form  as  being  a  variation  of  the  one  as  much  as  of  the  other.  Seeing  that 
they  are  recognized  as  two  distinct  species  .  .  .  and  judging  from 
the  fertile  specimens  they  deserve  the  name  L.  varium.'''  The  barren 
fronds  were  obtained  from  Griselinia  littoralis  and  Podocarpus  totara, 
while  the  fertile  plants  were  epiphytic  on  Dicksonia  fibrosa.  All  had 
V  a  tendency  to  upward  or  erect  growth,  but  the  longer  fronds  drooped 
by  reason  of  their  weight. 

Lycopodium  BiUardieri  Spring  (?).     See  proceeding  note. 

Lycopodium  scariosum  Forst.  Head  of  Long  Bay  and  Stony  Bay,  D.  G.  R., 
W.  M. 

Lycopodimn  volubile  Forst.  f.  Wainui  hilltops,  above  Le  Bon's  Bay,  near 
Hilltop  Hotel,  R.  M.  L.,  W.  M. 

Tmesipteris  tannensis  Bernh.  This  pteridophyte  grows  plentifully  in  the 
stream-valleys  at  Akaroa,  and  more  sparingly  at  Le  Bon's  and  Peraki. 
Plants  over  1  ft.  in  length  are  not  uncommon  on  the  tree-fern  stems 
'  in  Newton's  Valley  at  Akaroa. 

Azolla  rubra  R.  Br.  Pigeon  Bay,  W.  M.  This  little  floating  water-fern 
frequents  the  surface  of  fairly  stationary  water,  which  is  seldom  pro- 
vided in  the  Akaroa  area,  hence  the  probable  reason  for  its  not  having 
been  reported  previouslv. 

U— Trans. 


322 


Transactions. 


Literature  consulted  or  referred  to. 

Armstrong,  J.  B.,  1880.  A  Short  Sketch  of  the  Flora  of  the  Province  of  Canterbury, 
with  Catalogue  of  Species,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst,  vol.  12,  pp.  325-53. 

1882.     New  Zealand  Ferns  (a  series  of  fifteen  chapters  in  the  Canterbury  Times). 

Cheeseman,  T.  F.,  1906.     Manual  of  the  Neiv  Zealand  Flora. 

Cockayne,  L.,  1907.  Some  Hitherto-unrecorded  Plant-habitats,  Trans.  N.Z.  hist, 
vol.  39,  pp.  361-78. 

Field,  H.  C,  1891.     Ferns  of  New  Zealand. 

Hooker,  Sir  J.  D.,  1864.     Handbook  of  the  New  Zealand  Flora. 

Laing,  R.  M.,  1919.  Vegetation  of  Banks  Peninsvda,  Tran^.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  51, 
pp.  355-498. 

Martin,  W.,  1918.     Ferns  of  the  Port  Hills,  Lyttelton  Times,  17th  August,  1918. 

Potts,  T.  H.,  1882.     Out  in  the  Open. 

Raoul,  a.,  1846.     Choix  de  plantes  de  la  Nouvelle-Zelande. 


Art.    XXXIII. — The   Notocene    Geology  of   the   Middle   Waipara    and 
Weka  Pass  District,  North  Canterbury,  New  Zealand. 

By  Dr.  J.  Allan  Thomson,  F.G.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst.,  Director  of  the  Dominion 

Museum. 

[Bead  before  the   Wellington  Philosophical  Society.  22nd  October,  1919 ;   received  by 
Editor,  31st  December,  1919 ;   issued  separately,  16th  July,  1920.] 

Plates  XVI-XXVII. 


Contents. 


Introduction    . . 

322 

Part  II. — Palaeontology 

367 

Part  I. — Descriptive  Geology— 

Tertiary  Mollusca 

367 

Geological  Exploration  of  the  Dis- 

Bra chiopoda — 

trict 

324 

Rhynchonellidae         . . 

368 

General  Account  of   the   Geology 

Terebratulidae 

369 

and  Physiography 

335 

Terebratellidae 

3t>9 

Structure 

336 

Part  III. — Correlation  and  the 

Physiography 

338 

Classification  of  the  Noto- 

Detailed Stratigraphy — 

cene — 
Clarentian 

383 

Piripauan — 

Coal-measures  and  Ostrea  Bed 
"  Saurian  Beds  "  and  Waipara 
Greensands 

341 
343 

Piripauan 

Kaitangatan-Amuri  Limestone    . . 

Oamaruian 

384 
385 
386 

Wanganuian    . . 

397 

Kaitangatan — 

Diastrophic  Provinces  in  New  Zea- 

Amuri  Limestone    . . 

348 

land           . .              . .        ^      .  . 

398 

Oamaruian — 

The  Cretaceo  -  Tertiary  Forma- 

Weka   Pass    Greensand    and 

tion  of  Hector 

400 

Weka  Pass  Stone 

352 

Hutton's  Classification   and   its 

"  Grey    Marls "     and    Mount 

Successors 

405 

Brown  Beds 

356 

Marshall's  Classification 

407 

Wanganuian — 

Diastrophic   History  of   the  East 

Greta  Beds 

363 

•  Coast  of  the  South  Island 

410 

Kowhai  Beds 

366 

Bibliography    . . 

412 

INTKODUCTION. 

The  younger  rocks  of  New  Zealand,  embracing  all  marine  strata  from 
Albian  to  Pliocene,  consist  in  nearly  all  localities  of  accordant  rock-series, 
and  form,  broadly  speaking,  a  structural  and  physiographical  unit.  The 
rocks  composing  them — viz.,  conglomerates,  sandstones,  greensands,  mud- 
stones,  and  limestones — are  much  less  indurated  than  the  unconformably 
underlying  greywackes,  argillites,  phylUtes,  schists,  or  granites,  and  physio- 
graphically  form  a  weak  cover  to  a  resistant  undermass.     Unlike  the  latter, 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Welri  Pass  District.    323 


they  are  rarely  strongly  folded,  except  in  the  neighbourhood  of  strong 
faults,  and  in  general  exhibit  only  a  tilting  or  warping  which  they  share 
equally  with  the  undermass  as  a  consequence  of  block-faulting.  Owing  to 
their  softer  nature  they  rarely  occur  far  up  the  slopes  of  the  tilted  blocks, 
but  are  confined  to  the  lower  levels  near  the  fault-angles. 

The  ages  of  the  lower  and  upper  members  of  these  younger  rocks  vary 
greatly  in  different  districts  in  New  Zealand,  and  there  is  no  locality  where 
a  complete  series  is  found  in  superposition.  Consequently  it  has  seemed 
desirable  to  give  them  in  their  totality  a  descriptive  name  —  viz.,  the 
Notocene  —  and  to  define  it  by  diastrophic  considerations  as  embracing  all 
the  beds  deposited  between  the  post-Hokonui  and  Kaikoura  deformations 
(Thomson,  1917,  p.  408). 

The  Notocene  may  be  divided  into  the  following  divisions  : — 


Table  I. — Divisions  of  the 

Notocene. 

Groups. 

Stages. 

Probable  Correlation. 

Wanganuian 

f  Castlecliffian 
\  Waitotaran 

Upper  Pliocene. 
Lower  Pliocene. 

Oamaruian 


Awamoan 

Hutchinsonian 
■  Ototaran 

Waiarekan 
\Ngaparan 

Paparoan 


Kaitangatan 


Upper  Miocene. 
Lower  Miocene. 
Oligocene. 

Danian  to  Eocene. 


Piripauan 


Senonian. 


Turonian-Cenomania  n. 


Clarentian 


Albian. 


In  1919  I  gave  a  description  of  the  Notocene  sequence  in  the  Clarence 
Valley,  Marlborough,  which  ranges  from  Clarentian  to  Awamoan,  and  pos- 
sibly to  Waitotaran.  The  North  Canterbury  Notocene  sequence  described 
in  the  present  paper  includes  marine  rocks  ranging  from  the  Piripauan  to 
the  Waitotaran,  with  an  overlying  terrestrial  series  of  possibly  Castleclifl&an 
age.  These  rocks  form  a  tilted  strip  running  from  the  neighbourhood  of 
Mount  Grey  north-east  across  the  Waipara  River  in  its  middle  reaches, 
and  across  its  tributary  the  Weka  Creek,  occupying  the  whole  of  the 
Weka  Pass,  and  thence  continuing  nearly  east  for  eight  miles  or  more  a 
little  to  the  south  of  the  Waikare  River.  This  strip  is  bounded  on  the 
north-western  side  by  the  pre-Notocene  rocks  of  Mount  Grey,  the  Doctor's 
Range,  and  the  hills  south  of  the  Waikare  River,  except  for  a  short  distance 
near  the  township  of  Waikare,  where  its  lower  members  abut  against  the 
recent  alluvium  of  the  Waikare  River.  On  the  south-east  the  upper  mem- 
bers dip  under  the  continuous  gravel-plain  of  the  Kowhai  and  Waipara 
Rivers  and  their  tributaries.  The  area  covered  by  these  Notocene  rocks 
may  conveniently  be  known  as  the  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  district, 
in  distinction  to  the  Upper  Waipara  district,  near  Heathstock,   and  the 

11* 


324  »  Transactions. 

Lower  Waipara  district,*  between  the  township  of  Waipara  and  the  sea, 
in  both  of  which  localities  similar  developments  of  Notocene  rocks  occur. 
These  locality  distinctions  have  already  been  made  by  McKay.  The  Middle 
Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  areas  form  a  continuous  district,  but  as  they  have 
separate  access  by  road,  and  as  there  is  no  road  traversing  and  connecting 
them,  they  are  often  treated  of  as  separate  districts.  It  should  be  noted 
that  in  the  earlier  literature  the  term  "  Waipara  "  was  generally  used  for 
the  Middle  Waipara  area  alone,  but  that  the  term  is  now  generally  used 
colloquially  by  geologists  for  the  whole  of  the  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka 
Pass  district.  In  old  reports  the  part  of  the  Middle  Waipara  district 
between  Boby's  Creek  and  the  Waipara  River  is  sometimes  termed  "  the 
Ram  Paddock,"  a  self-explanatory  name  referring  to  its  use  when  part  of 
the  Glenmark  Station. 

In  the  history  of  Notocene  geology  the  district  of  the  Middle  Waipara 
and  Weka  Pass  has  attracted  more  attention  than  any  other  in  New  Zea- 
land, and  the  Notocene  sequence  there  displayed  was  made  by  Hector, 
Hutton,  and  von  Haast  the  basis  of  their  various  schemes  of  classification 
of  the  Notocene  ;  but,  although  the  district  is  perhaps  the  most  often 
quoted  in  our  geological  literature,  no  comprehensive  account  of  the  whole 
Notocene  stratigraphy  has  been  attempted  since  that  of  Park  in  1888. 
Since  that  date  many  new  observations  have  been  made,  a  great  deal  more 
is  known  of  the  fossils  from  the  various  beds,  and,  moreover,  new  view- 
points have  been  found,  so  that  a  new  account  has  become  desirable.  In 
attempting  it  I  can  lay  no  claim  to  exhaustive  treatment,  as  there  are  many 
outcrops  which  I  have  not  traversed,  and  every  fresh  visit  to  the  district 
brings  to  light  new  fossil  forms  from  the  old  localities,  and  new  fossil- 
localities.  There  is  abundant  scope  for  further  exploration,  and  the  detailed 
survey  of  parts  of  the  area  may  be  suggested  as  useful  theses  for  students. 
Still,  the  major  outlines  both  of  stratigraphy  and  of  palaeontology  can  now 
be  stated,  and  their  bearing  on  the  systems  of  classification  of  the  younger 
rocks  of  New  Zealand  needs  pointing  out  at  the  present  time. 

The  map  accompanying  this  paper  (fig.  1)  does  not  claim  to  be  more 
than  a  sketch-map,  and  is  in  large  part  based  on  previous  maps^ 

Although  the  attached  bibliography  includes  a  very  large  number  of 
papers,  a  minority  contain  descriptive  matter  relating  directly  to  the  strati- 
graphy or  palaeontology  of  the  district,  and  the  majority  deal  mainly  with 
the  correlation  of  the  various  beds  and  their  place  in  general  classifications 
of  the  younger  rocks  of  New  Zealand.  These  latter  papers  are  concerned 
mainly  with  the  validity  or  otherwise  of  the  Cretaceo-Tertiary  formation  of 
Hector,  a  formation  based,  first,  on  the  conformity  of  the  Amuri  limestone, 
Weka  Pass  stone,  and  "  grey  marls  "  within  the  district,  and,  secondly, 
on  certain  correlations  believed  to  exist  between  the  various  rocks  of  the 
sequence  and  those  of  the  Oamaru  and  West  Coast  areas.  It  will  make 
for^clearness  if  these  matters  are  treated  in  separate  sections  of  this  paper. 

PART  I.— DESCRIPTIVE  GEOLOGY.. 
GEOLOGICAL  EXPLORATION   OF  THE  DISTRICT. 

The  subjoined  table,  showing  the  dates  of  the  principal  visits  of  geologists 
who  have  written  on  the  district,  will  give  some  idea  of  the  interest  it  has 
created  amongst  New  Zealand  geologists.  The  list  does  not  include  many 
other  visits  by  those  who  have  not  published  their  observations. 

*  Also  known  as  "  Double  Corner." 


Tho:\ison. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Welm  Pass  Disfrirf.    325 


Fig.   1.— Geological  map  of  the  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  district.     Scale.  Jin. 

to  one  mile.     The  sides  of  the  map  are  N.  71°  E.     1,  Pre-Notocene.     2,  Piri- 

'  pauan.     3,  Amuri  limestone  and  Weka  Pass  stone.     4,  "  Grey  marls "  and 

sands  interbedded  with  5,  Mount  Brown  hmestones.     6,  Greta  and  Kowhai 

beds.     7,  Notopleistocene  (alluvial  plains). 


326  Transactions. 

Table  II. — Dates  of  the  Principal  Visits  of  Geologists  to  the  District. 


Date  of  Visit. 


Date  of  Publication  (see 
Bibliography). 


C.  Forbes— 1849 

1855. 

T.  H.  Cockburn  Hood— 1859 

■                            •   • 

Owen,  1861. 

1868 

. 

1870  ;   Haast,  1870a 

Sir  J.  von  Haast— 1864,  1866,  1867 

(three  visits) 

1869. 

1869     . . 

. .              . 

1870;   1871. 

1875      . . 

■          ■    .  •              • 

1879. 

Sir  J.  Hector— 1867 

•              •  >              * 

1869. 

1873-74     . . 

• . 

1877a. 

1886 

•              >  •              • 

1887a. 

( 

A.  McKay — 1872  (as  collector  for  C 

anterbury  Museum  ^ 

1874 

. . 

1877  A,  E. 

1876 

•  •              • 

1877c. 

1886 

>              >  ■              ■ 

1887.\. 

1891 

•  •              • 

1892. 

F.  W.  Hutton— 1873 

> 

1877. 

?1884 

•              •  •      "^        > 

1885b. 

1886 

•              •  > 

1888. 

J.  Park— 1887     . . 

• 

1888. 

1904     . . 

. . 

1905. 

1912     .. 

: 

1912. 

P.  Marshall,  R.  Sj^eipht,  and  C.  A. 

Cotton— 1910 

1911  ;  Cotton,  1912. 

J.  A.  Thomson— 1912 

.   . 

1912  A,  B. 

'            1913 

.   . 

1913. 

1914,  1917,  1919. 

P.  G.  Morgan— 1915 

.   . 

1915;   1916  a,  b,  c; 

1919. 

R.  Speight  and  L.  J.  Wild— 1917 

.    . 

1918;    1919. 

R.  Speight— 1918 

• 

1919. 

The  earliest  notice  of  the  district  is  that  of  C.  Forbes  (1855),  who  was 
assistant  surgeon  to  H.M.S.  "  Acheron."'  He  describes  a  journey  up  the 
bed  of  the  Kowhai  River  to  the  foot  of  Mount  Grey  and  a  descent  by  the 
Karetu  River,  a  tributary  of  the  Okuku.  The  area  he  traversed  thus 
probably  lies  just  outside  that  treated  in  this  paper,  but  he  deals  with  the 
upper  Notocene  rocks  of  the  same  strip.  He  mentions  the  tilted  gravels, 
since  assigned  by  Speight  (1919)  to  the  Kowhai  series,,  and  a  stratum  of 
hard  blue  clay  dipping  south-east  at  an  angle  of  35°  and  containing  an 
immense  number  of  marine  shells,  the  genera  of  which  are  specified.  The 
blue  clay  underlies  sandstone,  and  higher  up  the  river  similar  beds  are 
represented  by  dense,  hard,  blue  limestone.  These  sandstones  and  blue 
clays  belong  doubtless  to  the  Greta  series  (Waitotaran),  and  are  obviously 
Tertiary,  although  Forbes  expresses  no  opinion  on  this  point. 

In  1859  T.  H.  Cockburn  Hood  discovered  and  collected  saurian  remains 
in  the  bed  of  the  Waipara  River  and  forwarded  them  to  the  British  Museum. 
These  fossils  were  described  by  R.  Owen  (1861),  under  the  name  of  Plesio- 
saurus  australis,  and  referred  to  the  Jurassic  period.  This  find  stimulated 
great  interest  among  geologists,  although  the  earlv  visits  of  von  Haast  and 
Hector  were  fruitless  so  far  as  further  specimens  were  concerned.  In  his 
first  visit,  in  1864,  von  Haast  apparently  mistook  the  cup-shaped  Polyzoa  from 
the  lower  Movint  Brown  beds  for  saurian  vertebrae,  and  in  consequence 
considered  the  saurians  as  survivors  into  the  Tertiary.  In  1870  he  acknow- 
ledged his  mistake  and  credited  the  discovery  of  the  true  position  of  the 
"  saurian  beds  "  to  Hector.  The  next  considerable  collection  of  saurian 
remains  was  again  made  by  Cockburn  Hood,  in  1868,  but  on  their  way  to 
England  the  specimens  were  unfortunately  lost  through  the  wreck  of  the  ship 
'■  Matoaka."'  Von  Haast  had  fortunately  made  drawings  and  taken  measure- 
ments of  the  more  important  bones,  on  which  he  published  a  note  in  1870. 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District .     327 

Cockburn  Hood  in  1870  gave  a  description  of  the  locality  and  the  rocks 
from  which  he  obtained  his  collection. 

Following  Cockburn  Hood"s  successful  search,  Hector  in  1868  sent  R.  L. 
Holmes  to  collect  for  the  Colonial  Museum,  and  he  obtained  a  "  fine  series 
of  specimens,"  principally  from  a  tributary  of  Boby's  Creek  (c/.  Hector, 
1869,  p.  xi).  Drawings  of  these,  forwarded  by  Hector  to  Owen,  enabled 
the  latter  in  1870  to  add  two  further  species  to  the  fauna — viz.,  Plesiosaurvs 
crassicostatus  and  P.  hoodii.  Hector  in  1874  described  other  species  from 
Holmes's  collection,  and  mentions  also  a  specimen  collected  at  Boby"s  Creek 
by  W.  T.  L.  Travers. 

In  1872  von  Haast  employed  A.  McKay  to  collect  for  the  Canterbury 
Museum,  and  it  was  his  success  in  this  task  that  later  led  to  his  employ- 
ment in  the  Colonial  Museum  and  Geological  Survey.  McKay  subsequently 
collected  further  saurians  for  the  Colonial  Museum  in  1874,  but  in  1877  he 
reported  that  all  the  more  accessible  specimens  had  been  secured  and 
further  collections  could  only  be  made  at  considerable  labour  and  expense. 
Nevertheless,  in  1891  he  was  successful  in  recovering  a  specimen  which  he 
had  first  seen  in  1874,  but  which  had  been  for  some  years  covered  up  by 
river-shingle.  McKay's  experience,  as  stated  in  1892,  was  that  ''  nearly  all 
the  boulders  [concretions]  that  contain  bones  split  in  falling  from  the  cUifs, 
or  in  being  shifted  along  the  river-bed,  and  it  is  never  worth  while  to  open 
a  boulder  so  situated  that  does  not  show  the  presence  of  bones." 

In  1876  or  1877  Hector  exchanged  "  250  specimens,  fossil  Reptilia  of 
New  Zealand  "  with  the  Trustees  of  the  British  Museum,  and  descriptions 
of  these  were  included  by  Lydekker  in  the  Catalogue  of  Fossil  Rejytilia  and 
Amphihia  in  1888  and  1889.  Hutton  in  1894  described  one  of  the  speci- 
mens collected  by  McKay  for  the  Canterbury  Museum  in  1872.  Since  1892 
no  fresh  collections  of  saurians  from  the  district  have  been  made,  but  the 
interest  of  geok)gists  has  been  sustained  for  another  reason—  namely,  the 
apparent  conformity  of  the  beds  containing  the  saurians  with  others  con- 
taining a  purely  Tertiary  fauna. 

The  first  general  account  of  the  geology  was  given  by  Hector  in  1869, 
who  noted  that  the  saurian  beds  were  intimately  associated  with,  but 
probably  underlay,  blue  and  grey  marly  sandstone,  sometimes  passing  into 
chalk,  and  were  in  turn  underlain  by  white  and  brown  sandstones  containing 
coal-seams,  and  correlated  with  the  Wealden.  These  three  formations  were 
covered  unconformablv  bv  Miof'ene  white  and  yellowish  calcareous  sand- 
stone, in  parts  composed  altogether  of  cup-shaped  Polyzoa,  and  by  reddish 
limestone,  composed  of  comminuted  shells.  On  these  Miocene  rocks  rests 
Pliocene  blue  clay  with  beds  of  sand  and  gravel  containing  many  existing 
species  of  marine  siiells.  Hector  gave  no  account  of  the  structure,  but 
stated  his  belief  that  the  underlying  "  Triassic  "  rocks  had  been  denuded 
into  hills  and  valleys  long  prior  to  the  Tertiary  period.  As  Hutton  pointed 
out  in  1885,  Hector  did  not  distinguish  between  the  "  grey  marl,"  the  Weka 
Pass  stone,  and  the  Amuri  limestone,  but  considered  them  all  as  a  ''  blue- 
grey  marly  sandstone  sometimes  passing  into  chalk."  The  unconformity 
here  postulated  Hector  always  adhered  to,  the  lower  group  becoming  later 
his  Cretaceo-Tertiary  formation,  and  the  middle  (Miocene)  his  Mount  Brown 
beds,  or  Upper  Eocene. 

The  next  account  of  the  district,  by  von  Haast  (1871),  was  based  on  a 
detailed  survey  of  the  Middle  Waipara  part  of  the  district,  carried  out  under 
Hector's  direction  for  the  Colonial  Geological  Survey,  and  was  accompanied 
by  a  map.  Von  Haast  gave  a  detailed  account  of  the  beds  in  the  Waipara 
River  and  in  Boby's  Creek,  the  most  detailed  account  yet  given  so  far  as 
the  beds  below  the  Amuri  limestone  are  concerned  ;    but,  like  Hector,  he 


f^28  Transactions. 

did  not  distinguish  between  the  latter  rock  and  the  Weka  Pass  stone.  The 
succeeding  "  grey  marls  "  he  considered  as  strongly  vmconformable  to  the 
underlying  groups,  and  so  showed  them  on  his  map  ;  but,  as  Hutton  pointed 
out  in  1877,  he  failed  to  recognize  the  strong  fault  crossing  Boby's  Creek, 
which  brings  the  niiddle  Notocene  against  the  older  Notocene.  Von  Haast's 
map  shows  three  inliers  of  the  pre-Notocene  within  the  Notocene  of  the 
Boby's  Creek  watershed,  and  these  he  considered  as  islands  in  a  large  pre- 
Notocene  bay,  along  the  shores  and  round  the  small  islands  of  which  the 
lower  strata  were  first  deposited  in  shallow  water.  His  map  also  shows  in 
approximately  correct  position  a  small  detached  outcrop  of  calcareous  sands 
(Amuri  limestone)  in  the  upper  part  of  Boby's  Creek,  which  has  escaped 
notice  by  all  subsequent  observers.  In  his  next  account  of  the  district. 
in  1879,  von  Haast  still  adhered  to  an  unconformity  between  the  lower 
Waipara  (Cretaceo-Tertiary)  formation  and  the  "grey  marls"  forming  the 
base  of  the  Oamaru  (Upper  Eocene)  formation.  ^ 

Hutton  in  1877  referred  to  the  district  in  a  general  account  of  the 
geology  of  the  north-east  part  of  the  South  Island,  and,  as  in  his  later 
writings,  dealt  summarily  with  the  beds  below  the  Amuri  limestone,  but 
emphasized  the  importance  of  the  contact*  between  the  Amuri  limestone 
and  Weka  Pass  stone,  which  in  his  opinion  unconformably  separated  a 
lower — Waipara  (Upper  Cretaceous) — formation  from>  an  upper — Oamaru 
(Eocene) — formation.  He  first  introduced  the  term  "  Amuri  limestone,"  and 
considered  that  this  rock  was  consolidated,  jointed,  and  water-worn  before 
the  Weka  Pass  stone  was  deposited  upon  it.  As  already  mentioned,  Hutton 
correctly  interpreted  the  fault  in  Boby's  Creek,  and  described  another  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  Weka  Pass.  Like  Hector  and  von  Haast,  he  con- 
sidered that  the  Notocene  rocks  were  deposited  in  valleys  formed  in  the 
pre-Notocene  ("  Lower  Cretaceous  "). 

McKay  in  1877  (1877a)  was  successful  in  finding  a  saurian  in  the  green- 
sands  between  the  "  saurian  beds  "  and  the  Amuri  limestone.  As  regards 
the  unconformities  believed  by  Hutton  and  von  Haast  to  exist,  he  stated 
that  stratigraphically  he  could  find  no  conclusive  evidence  of  unconformity 
between  the  Weka  Pass  calcareous  greensands  (base  of  the  Weka  Pass 
stone)  and  the  Ami|ri  limestone  ;  and  "  if  the  Weka  Pass  calcareous  green- ' 
sands  belong  to  the  lower  Waipara  beds,  no  unconformity  can  be  conceded 
as  far  as  the  uppermost  beds  of  the  Mount  Brown  series."  McKay  at  this 
date  was  therefore  in  substantial  agreement  with  the  position  taken  later 
by  Park  in  1888,  and  by  Marshall,  Speight,  and  Cotton  in  1911. 

In  the  same  year  (1877b)  McKay  gave  a  detailed  account  of  the 
"  reptilian  "  beds  of  Amuri  Bluff  and  the  Middle  Waipara,  and  discussed 
the  question  of  the  pre-Notocene  physiography.  He  concluded  that  it  was 
improbable  that  the  outlines  of  the  present  configuration  of  the  area  within 
which  the  Notocene  remnants  are  found  was  determined  in  the  pre-Notocene, 
or  that  the  Notocene  was  deposited  in  a  large  bay,  with  inlets  penetrating 
the  mountain-ranges,  but  that  the  evidence  pointed  to  the  subsidence  of  a 
very  wide  area  until  deep-sea  deposits  were  formed,  and  a  subsequent 
upheaval  of  mountain-chains,  between  which,  and  in  the  folds  of  which, 
the  younger  rocks  have  been  preserved  to  the  present  day.  The  views 
thus  early  put  forward  by  McKay,  though  receiving  little  attention  at  the 


*  It  is  customary  to  term  this  contact  the  "  junction  "  between  these  two  rocks ; 
but  a  junction  is  that  which  unites,  whereas  in  the  belief  of  many  writers  this  surface 
of  contact  or  touching  is  rather  a  surface  of  separation.  The  term  "  junction  "  has 
probably  been  adopted  because  there  is  practically  a  passage-zone  and  not  a  surface 
of  separation,  the  zone  consisting  partly  of  Amuri  limestone  with  intercalations  of 
greensand  and  often  with,  borings  filled  with  greensand,  and  partly  of  greensand  con- 
taining small  pieces  of  Amuri  limestone.  v 


Tho-MSO-V. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District.     329 

time,  were  elaborated  by  him  in  later  papers  on  other  districts,  and,  thanks 
mainl}^  to  the  physiographical  evidence  in  support  brought  forward  in  recent 
years  by  Cotton,  are  now  generally  accepted  by  New  Zealand  geologists. 

In  1885  Hutton  once  more  called  attention  to  the  contact  between  the 
Amuri  limestone  and  the  Weka  Pass  stohe  throughout  North  Canterbury, 
and  its  importance  in  respect  to  the  classification  and  correlation  of  the 
Notocene  sequence.  Within  the  district  he  examined  the  contact  at  only 
one  point — viz.,  in  a  small  gorge  of  the  Weka  Pass  Stream  just  above  the 
railway -viaduct — and  stated  that  he  believed  this  to  be  the  only  section 
in  the  neighbourhood  where  it  could  be  studied.  Although  the  contact  is 
carefully  described,  the  latter  statement  is  quite  incorrect,  and  is  of  interest 
as  typifying  Hutton's  general  neglect  of  detailed  field-work.  Not  only  may 
the  contact  be  observed  in  numerous  places  within  the  Weka  Pass,  as 
McKay  in  1887  pointed  out,  but  it  is  exposed  at  short  intervals  throughout 
the  whole  length  of  the  district.  Hutton  noted  the  common  dip  of  the 
two  rocks,  but  again  stated  his  conviction  that  the  water- worn  surface  of 
the  Amuri  limestone,  and  the  presence  of  pebbles  in  the  lower  6  ft.  of  the 
Weka  Pass  stone,  were  conclusive  proof  of  unconformity.  In  addition,  an 
overlap  of  the  Weka  Pass  stone  on  to  the  slate  rocks  of  Mount  Alexander 
at  Hurunui  was  adduced  as  further  proof  of  unconformity.  Hutton  also 
gave  lists  of  fossils  from  the  Weka  Pass  stone  and  the  "  grey  marls," 
showing  that  these  two  rocks,  along  with  the  Mount  Brown  beds, 
belonged  to  the  Oamaru  system,  and  pointed  out  that  the  Amuri  limestone 
contained  no  characteristic  fossils,  but  was  always  associated  with  under- 
lying rocks  containing  remains  of  marine  saurians  and  Cretaceous  MoUusca. 
Consequently  he  claimed  that  the  palaeontological  break  must  be  between 
the  Amuri  limestone  and  the  Weka  Pass  stone,  exactly  where  the  strati- 
graphical  evidence  placed  it.  "  If  the  line  between  the  Waipara  and 
Oamaru  systems  be  taken  immediately  above  the  Amuri  limestone,  hardly 
any  species  of  Mollusca,  perhaps  not  a  single  one,  will  be  found  on  both 
sides  of  it ;  whereas  if  it  be  drawn  anywhere  above  the  Weka  Pass  stone 
there  must  always  be  a  large  number  of  species  found  on  both  sides  of  it." 

The  attack  thus  made  by  Hutton  on  the  classification  adopted  by  Hector 
and  the  officers  of  the  Geological  Survey  opened  a  period  of  very  keen 
controversy,  mainly  between  McKay  and  Hutton.     McKay  (1887a)  reaffirmed 
the  conformity  of  the  Amuri  limestone  and  Weka  Pass  stone  on  the  grounds 
of  the  strict  parallelism  of  the  two  rocks,  and  attempted  to  explain  away 
the  appearances  of  unconformity.     The  so-called  shattering  of  the  Amuri 
limestone  he  attributed  to  the  eft'ects  of  jointing  combined  with  a  downward 
working  of  the  greensand  into  the  joints,  and  he  published  analyses  of  the 
Amuri  limestone  and  the  supposed  pebbles  of  the  same  rock  in  the  green- 
sand  to  prove  that  the  latter  were  concretionary  phosphatic  nodules.     The 
Colonial  Analyst  called  the  insoluble  residue   from  the  Amuri   limestone 
(42-74  per  cent.)  "  almost  pure  sand  (fine-grained),"  and  McKay  suggested 
that,  as  the  limestone  was  less  than  50  ft.  thick  in  the  Weka  Pass,  "  should 
the  percentage  of  sand  be  much  increased,  the  equivalent  beds  three  or  four . 
miles  distant  might  very  well  be  mistaken  for  other  than  they  are,  or  be 
absent,"  and  hence  overlap  of  the  Weka  Pass  stone  was  no  necessary  proof 
of  unconformity.     He  further  cited  a  number  of  species  of  fossils  from  the 
Amuri  limestone  or  lower  beds  which  were  also  found  in  higher  beds,  the 
majority  of  his  list,  however,   being  from  localities   outside  the  district. 
Hector  (1887a),  in  commenting  on  McKay's  paper,  accepted  the  "  definite 
chemical  proof  that  the  supposed  fragmental  layer  at  the  base  of  the  Weka 
Pass  stone  is  truly  concretionary,"  and  published  a  map  and  section  of 
the  Weka  Pass  showing  an  unconformity  between  the  "  grey  marls  '"  and 
the  overlying  Mount  Brown  beds. 


330  Transactions. 

In  1887  Hutton  (1888)  examined  the  sections  made  in  the  construction 
of  the  railway  through  Weka  Pass,  and  distinguished  five  series  of  beds — 
viz.,  (1)  the  Amuri  limestone  and  underlying  greensandstones,  (2)  the  Weka 
Pass  stone  and  the  overlying  "grey  marls  "  and  sandstones,  (3)  the  Mount 
Brown  beds,  (4)  the  Greta  beds,  (5)  horizontal  silts  and  gravels.  Besides 
the  unconformity  between  the  Amuri  limestone  and  Weka  Pass  stone,  he 
admitted  another  between  the  Mount  Brown  beds  and  the  "  grey  marls." 
Lists  of  fossils  of  the  Mount  Brown  and  the  Greta  beds  were  given,  the 
latter  being  placed  in  the  Pareora  system. 

Park  (1888)  records  a  visit  of  nine  days  to  the  district,  and  gives  an 
excellent  general  summary  of  the  geology,  accompanied  by  a  map  and 
section.  His  conclusion  as  to  the  presence  of  unconformities  is  stated  as 
follows  :  "  As  a  result  of  the  examination  of  many  of  the  magnificent 
sections  between  the  Weka  Pass  and  Waipara,  I  am  strongly  of  the  opinion 
that  a  complete  sequence  of  beds  exists  from  the  base  of  the  Cretaceo- 
Tertiary  to  the  close  of  the  Pareora  formation,  although  the  varying 
character  of  the  deposits  and  their  fossil  remains  show  that  the  sea-bottom 
on  which  they  were  deposited  was  subject  to  frequent  oscillations."  He 
accepted  the  concretionary  nature  of  the  pebbles  at  the  base  of  the  Weka 
Pass  stone,  but  apparently  admitted  that  the  surface  of  the  Amuri  lime- 
stone was  water-worn,  due  to  "  a  sudden  arrestment  of  the  downward  move- 
ment and  a  return  to  shallow-water  conditions."  The  "  grey  marls  "  were 
considered  to  pass  insensibly  into  the  Mount  Brown  beds:  "indeed,  it 
would  be  difficult  to  accurately  fix  or  define  their  boundaries." 

Hector  (1888)  was  obviously  embarrassed  by  this  conclusion  of  an  officer 
of  his  survey  as  to  the  conformity  between  the  "grey  marls"  and  the 
Mount  Brown  beds,  but  contented  himself  with  recording  anew  his  belief 
in  a  marked  discordance,  with  great  denudation  of  the  "  grey  marls." 

McKay  (1892)  re-examined  sections  in  the  Weka  Creek,  and  more  particu- 
larly in  the  Middle  Waipara,  paying  particular  attention  to  the  "  saurian 
beds."  Concerning  the  contact  between  the  Amuri  limestone  and  the 
Weka  Pass  stone,  he  noted  that  in  the  Waipara  limestone  gorge  the  green- 
sand  conglomerate  and  parting-beds  of  greensand  with  phosphatic  nodules 
were  absent,  and  that  there  was  no  sign  of  unconformity.  He  also  recorded 
a  stratigraphical  unconformity  between  the  "  grey  marls  "  and  the  Mount 
Brown  beds  near  the  mouth"  of  Boby's  Creek,  evidently  the  same  as  that 
later  recorded  by  Thomson  in  1912  (i912B). 

For  a  period  of  about  twelve  years  no  further  examination  of  the  district 
appears  to  have  been  made,  and  Hector  and  McKay  on  the  one  hand,  and 
Hutton  on  the  other,  to  the  end  adhered  to  the  positions  they  had  taken  up. 
In  1905  Park  abandoned  the  Cretaceo-Tertiary  classification  and  accepted 
a  modification  of  that  of  Hutton,  in  reality  reverting  practically  to  the 
position  always  taken  by  von  Haast.  He  supposed  that  the  Tertiary 
(Oamaruian)  fossils  reported  from  the  Weka  Pass  stone  were  in  reality 
obtained  from  tumbled  masses  of  the  Mount  Brown  limestones,  and  that 
the  Weka  Pass  stone  itself  was  unfossiUferous  ;  consequently  he  included  it 
in  the  AVaipara  (Upper  Cretaceous)  series.  The  "  grey  marls,"  he  included 
with  the  Mount  Brown  beds  in  the  Oamaru  (Miocene)  series,  which  rested 
unconformably  on  the  Waipara  system,  "  the  Weka  Pass  stone  and  the 
Amuri  limestone  being  thrown  into  folds  in  which  the  Tertiaries  take  no 
part  whatever."  The  Tertiary  beds  were  described  in  detail,  and  fresh 
lists  of  fossils  were  given,  including  a  new  fossil-locality  for  the  Mount 
Brown  beds  near  Mount  Donald.  Somewhat  anomalously.  Park  rejected 
Hutton 's  name  of  "Greta  beds"  for  the  uppermost  marine  series,  and 
accepted  that  of  "  Motunau  beds  "  instead,  although  Greta  is  much  nearer 
to  the  district  than  Motunau.     These  beds  had  latterly  been  accepted  as 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middh  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District.    331 

belonging  to  the  Pareora  system  (Upper  Miocene),  but  Park  suppressed 
that  system  throughout  New  Zealand,  and  correlated  the  Motunau  beds 
with  the  Te  Aute  or  Waitotara  series,  of  older  Pliocene  age,  thus  returning 
to  the  original  correlation  of  Hector  (1869)  and  von  Haast  (1871).  He 
described  an  unconformable  contact  between  the  Motunau  beds  and  the 
underlying  Mount  Brown  beds. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  Park  also  accepted  the  earlier  views  of 
Hector,  Hutton,  and  von  Haast  as  to  the  pre-Notocene  physiography.  He 
considered  that  the  main  mountain  features  of  New  Zealand  were  alreadv 
determined  in  the  Eocene,  and  that  the  present  intermont  basins  were  old- 
Tertiary  fiords  and  inland  basins  which  before  the  Miocene  submergence 
were  merely  deep  valleys  of  erosion. 

The  modern  revival  of  interest  in  the  district  commenced  with  the  paper 
o'n  the  younger  rock-series  of  New  Zealand  by  Marshall,  Speight,  and 
Cotton,  in  1911.  They  restricted  themselves  to  a  critical  examination  of 
those  localities  where  unconformities  had  been  Reported  by  earlier  observers, 
and  recorded  their  conviction  that  there  was  no  unconformity  in  the  Wai- 
para and  Weka  Pass'district.  A  map  and  block-diagrams  of  the  Weka  Pass 
were  given  to  explain  the  erroneous  view  of  Park  that  the  Weka  Pass  stone 
and  Amuri  limestone  were  thrown  into  folds  in  which  the  Tertiaries  take  no 
part.  The  north-western  part  of  the  Notocene  strip,  from  which  the  upper 
beds  had  been  denuded,  was  thrown  into  folds  whose  pitch  did  not  carry 
them  beneath  the  south-eastern  part,  where  the  Upper  Tertiaries  are  pre- 
served. The  pecTuliar  characters  of  the  contact  between  the  Amuri  lime- 
stone and  Weka  Pass  stone  are  attributed  to  a  change  of  conditions  of 
deposition.  "  The  change  from  pure  (Amuri)  to  glauconitic  (Weka  Pass) 
limestone  does  not  take  place  throughout  the  mass  of  the  rock,  but  inter- 
laminations  of  glauconitic  matter  arise  and  separate  pieces  of  limestone.  As 
the  conditions  that  control  the  depositions  become  more  changed  the  inter- 
laminations  of  glauconitic  matter  become  larger,  and  the  pure  limestone  is 
reduced  to  nodules  which  appear  like  rolled  pebbles."  The  contact  relied 
on  by  Hutton  for  an  unconformity  between  the  "  grey  marls  "  and  Mount 
Brown  beds  was  considered  a  fault-contact  within  the  Mount  Brown  beds. 
The  section  on  which  Park  relied  for  an  unconformity  between  the  Mount 
Brown  and  Greta  beds  was  described  as  showing  complete  conformity. 
The  authors  did  not  express  clearly  their  views  as  to  the  pre-Notocene 
physiography,  but  apparently  agreed  with  the  view,  accepted  by  all  others 
than  McKay,  of  a  diversified  surface  admitting  of  considerable  overlap 
within  a  very  short  distance. 

A  period  of  coiitroversy  between  Park  and  Marshall  then  ensued  as  to 
the  conformable  or  unconformable  nature  of  the  Lower  Tertiaries  and  Upper 
Cretaceous  of  New  Zealand.  Park's  first  reply  (1911)  did  not  deal  with 
the  internal  geology  of  the  Weka  Pass  and  Waipara  district,  but  disputed 
the  correlations  made  with  rocks  of  the  Oamaru  district,  and  reaffirmed 
unconformity  between  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  on  palaeontological  grounds. 
Thomson  (1912  A  and  b)'  recorded  a  fresh  discovery  of  Oamaruian  fossils  in 
the  Weka  Pass  stone,  -and  noted  an  unconformity  within  the  sandy  beds 
between  the  Weka  Pass  stone  and  the  lower  calcareous  horizon  of  the 
Mount  Brown  beds,  in  a  cliff  of  the  Waipara  River  gorge,  just  above  the 
junction  with  Boby's  Creek.  "  It  appears,  however,  to  be  a  purely  local 
accident  of  bedding.  With  this  exception,  there  is  apparent  conformity  in 
section  throughout  the  Waipara  district."  Marshall  in  1912  quoted  the 
fossils  from  the  Weka  Pass  stone,  which  Park  had  admitted  as  conformable 
to  the  Amuri  limestone,  as  proving  Park's  adhesion  to  the  conformity  of 
the  Upper  Cretaceous  and  Lower  Tertiary.  Park  (1912,  1913)  inspected 
the  new  fossil-locality,  accepted  the  Weka  Pass  stone  as  Oamaruian,  but 


33'2  Transactions. 

reaffirmed  his  belief  in  a  necessary  unconformity  on  palaeontological  grounds, 
which  he  therefore  placed,  with  Hutton,  between  the  Amuri  limestone  and 
Weka  Pass  stone,  and  cited  unconformities  on  the  same  horizon  in  other 
districts,  and  the  controversy  shifted  to  these. 

Thomson  (1913)  described  new  fossil-localities  in  the  Weka  Pass  stone 
at  Onepunga  and  in  the  Mount  Brown  beds  near  the  junction  of  the  Weka 
Creek  and  the  Weka  Pass  Stream.  He  expressed  the  opinion  that  "  although 
a  classic  locality  for  the  determination  of  the  relationships  of  the  Cretaceous 
and  Tertiary  beds,  the  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  district  is  not  well 
suited,  owing  to  its  poverty  in  molluscs,  to  become  the  standard  of  reference 
for  the  Tertiaries  of  New  Zealand." 

Morgan  (1915)  described  the  section  exposed  in  the  gorge  of  the  Weka 
Pass  Stream  near  the  railway-viaduct  and  in  its  upper  valley,  agreeing  with 
the  explanation  of  the  structure  put  forward  by  Marshall,  Speight,  and 
Cotton,  and  devoted  special  attention  to  the  contact  of  the  Amuri  lime- 
stone and  the  Weka  Pass  stone.  The  conclusion,  stated  to  be  tentative, 
was  that  the  facts  appeared  to  be  clear  proof  of  at  least  local  unconformity. 
The  same  writer  in  1916  (1916b)  described  the  contact  in  the  country  between 
the  Weka  Creek  and  the  Waipara  River,  recording  the  occurrence  of  small, 
extremely  black,  phosphatic  pebbles  in  the  glauconitic  sandstone  to  a  height 
of  4  ft.  above  the  Amuri  limestone  surface,  also  one  or  two  quartz  pebbles 
and  a  pebble  of  flint,  and  also  worm-borings  now  filled  with  glauconitic 
matter  in  the  Amuri  limestone.  He  noted  that  in  the  gorge  of  the  Waipara 
River  there  was  no  sign  of  visible  unconformity,  but  considered  that  it  was 
still  possible  to  accept  the  Amuri  limestone  and  Weka  Pass  stone  contact 
as  representing  a  stratigraphical  break.  He  cited  a  contact  visible  in  a 
small  gorge  of  Weka  Creek  as  very  satisfactory  proof  of  the  unconformity 
maintained  by  Hector  and  McKay  as  present  between  the  "  grey  marls  "" 
and  Mount  Brown  beds.  Sections  were  also  given  showing  the  Quaternary 
age  of  some  of  the  faults  of  the  district. 

Speight  in  1915  discussed  the  geology  of  the  intermont  basins  of 
Canterbury  with  a  view  to  arriving  at  a  proper  conclusion  as  to  the  pre- 
Notocene  physiography,  and  whether  or  not  the  present  Notocehe  beds 
were  originally  laid  in  discontinuous  deposits  or  are  the  remains  of  a  widely 
distributed  cover  which  once  masked  the  greater  part  of  the  surface  of  the 
country.  He  concluded  in  favour  of  the  latter  view,  with  the  restriction 
that  they  did  not  form  a  complete  veneer  over  the  whole  surface,  but  that 
elevations  that  survived  the  prior  period  of  erosion  projected  like  islands 
through/  the  Tertiarv  sea,  and  mav  in  some  cases  have  been  sufficientlv 
high  to  form  sanctuaries  for  the  Antarctic  element  in  the  New  Zealand  flora. 

Marshall  in  1916  described  the  minute  structure  of  the  younger  lime- 
stones of  New  Zealand,  including  specimens  of  the  Amuri  limestone  and  the 
Weka  Pass  stone  from  the  Weka  Pass.  He  found  the  Amuri  limestone  to 
consist  mainly  of  very  finely  grained  calcite,  with  fairly  numerous,  isolated 
chambers  of  Glohigerina.  Near  the  contact  it  contained  a  considerable 
number  of  grains  of  quartz  sand  and  some  glauconite,  as  well  as  some  brown 
mica,  together  with  different  and  larger  species  of  Foraminifera,  including 
CristeUaria  and  Rotalia.  These  characters,  emphasized  to  a  greater  extent, 
were  the  features  that  distinguished  the  overlying  Weka  Pass  stone  from 
normal  Amuri  limestone.  Tl\e  microscopic  structure  and  relations  of  these 
limestones  served  to  indicate  a  strong  resemblance  between  these  stones 
near  their  contact,  and  such  differences  as  there  were  would  be  a  natural 
result  of  the  shallowing  of  the  water  and  of  an  increase  in  the  velocity  of 
the  ocean  currents.  The  depth  of  deposit  of  the  Amuri  limestone,  a  pure 
Glohigerina  ooze,  was  estimated  at  from  600  to  2,500  fathoms.  Its  age  was 
considered  to  be  Miocene. 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and.  Weka  Pass  District.    333 

Thomson  (1916)  discussed  the  age  and  mode  of  origin  of  the  Amuri 
limestone  throughout  North  Canterbury  and  Marlborough,  quoting  fossils 
from  it  at  Amuri  Bluff  and  the  Trelissick  Basin  (discovered  by  Speight  and 
Thomson)  which  proved  the  fossil-horizons  to  be  Tertiary.  As  these  occurred 
near  the  top  of  the  limestone,  which  was  always  underlain  by  Cretaceous 
rocks,  lie  concluded  that  it  was  in  itself  a  Cretaceo-Tertiary  rock — Cretaceous 
at  the  base  and  Tertiary  at  the*  top.  He  pointed  out  that  the  appearances 
of  unconformity  between  the  Amuri  limestone  and  Weka  Pass  stone  were 
not  present  where  the  base  of  the  latter  rock  was  not  glauconitic,  and 
concluded,  therefore,  that  it  was  a  purely  local  phenomenon,  and  not 
indicative  of  a  non-sequence  of  any  extent.  He  suggested  that  the  Amuri 
limestone  was  in  large  part  a  chemical  deposit,  its  silica  content  and  its 
poverty  in  fossils  becoming  then  easily  explicable. 

In  1917  Woods  described  the  Cretaceous  fossils  of  North  Canterbury 
and  east  Marlborovigh  in  the  collections  of  the  Geological  Survey.  He 
found  that  rocks  of  two  ages  were  represented,  those  of  east  Marlborough, 
north  of  Amuri  Bluff,  developed  especially  in  the  Clar.nce  Valley  (c/. 
Thomson,  1919)  and  the  Awatere  Valley,  being  of  Lower  Utatur  (approxi- 
mately Albian)  age,  and  those  of  Amuri  Bluff,  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass, 
and  the  Malvern  Hills  being  Upper  Senonian.  In  the  Middle  Waipara  and 
Weka  Pass  district  ail  the  fossils  came  from  the  Ostrea  bed  and  the  ''  saurian 
beds,"  and  in  most  cases  were  poorly  preserved. 

Thomson  (1917)  proposed  the  Ideal  terms  "  Clarentian  "  and  "  Piri- 
pauan  ""  for  the  two  groups  of  Cretaceous  rocks  correlated  by  Woods  as 
"  Albian  "  and  "  Upper  Senonian  "  respectively,  basing  them  on  the  rock- 
sequences  below  the  Amuri  limestone  of  the  Clarence  Valley  and  Amuri 
Bluff'.  He  criticized  the  grouping  of  all  the  younger  rocks  of  New  Zealand 
by  Marshall  as  a  strictly  conformable  series  deposited  during  a  single  cycle 
of  depression  and  elevation,  the  period  of  maximum  depression  being  every- 
where contemporaneous,  on  the  grounds  that  the  Amuri  and  Oamaru  lime- 
stones were  of  different  ages  and  that  unconformities  are  present  in  some 
districts.  He  rejected  also  Marshall's  use  of  the  name  "  Oamaru  "  for  a 
system  to  include  all  the  younger  rocks,  both  on  grounds  of  priority  and 
because  only  a  small  part  of  them  were  developed  at  Oamaru,  but  admitted 
the  necessity  of  an  inclusive  name  for  them  in  view  of  their  diastrophic 
unity  as  more  or  less  accordant  rocks,  deposited  in  a  period  of  relative 
diastrophic  inactivity  between  two  periods  of  major  diastrophic  activity, 
and  proposed  the  name  "  Notocene."  The  references  to  the  Waipara  and 
Weka  Pass  district  were  mostly  to  questions  of  correlation,  but  a  summary 
of  the  succession  from  the  coal-beds  at  the  base  to  the  Weka  Pass  stone 
was  given  with  a  view  to  showing  the  thinness  of  the  beds  between  the 
highest  known  Piripauan  and  the  base  of  the  Amuri  limestone.  The  tilted 
gravels  unconformably  overlying  the  marine  succession  in  the  Kowhai  River 
were  also  briefly  discussed. 

Park  (1917)  suggested  that  not  only  was  the  tuff-bed  recorded  by 
Thomson  and  Speight  in  the  Amuri  limestone  of  the  Trelissick  Basin 
Oamaruian,  but  the  whole  of  the  Aiiiuri  limestone  throughout  New  Zealand 
should  be  placed  in  the  Tertiary,  and  an  unconformity  looked  for  below 
it,  probably  between  the  "  saurian  beds  "  i  nd  the  overlying  greensands,  in 
which  latter  Haast  had  recorded  a  Recent  brach'opod  in  the  Middle  Waipara. 

In  1917,  also,  Trechmann  described  Cretaceous  Gasteropoda  from  New 
Zealand,  mostly  from  the  Selwyn  Rapids,  but  one  species  from  the  Oalrea 
bed  of  the  Waipara  Gorge  was  included. 

Speight  and  Wild  (1918)  gave  a  careful  and  very  detailed  description  of 
the  contact  between  the  Amuri  limestone  and  the  Weka  Pass  stone,  not 


334  Transactions. 

only  ia  the  Middle  Waipara  and  the  Weka  Pass,  but  also  in  numerous  other 
localities  in  the  region  between  Mount  Grey  and  the  Puhipuhi  Valley. 
They  distinguished  between  the  two  rocks  a  transitional  layer,  generally 
termed  the  "  nodular  "  band  or  layer,  which  was  uniformly  about  1  ft. 
thick  over  an  area  of  100  miles  by  15  miles,  and  was  composed  of  phosphatic 
concretions  and  nodular  masses  of  phosphatized  Amuri  limestone  in  a 
matrix  of  greensand  or  marl,  with  very  6ccasionally  some  well-rounded 
pebbles  of  quartz  and  greywacke.  The  remarkable  uniformity  in  the  thick- 
ness of  this  layer  over  such  an  area  was  inconsistent  with  its  being  a 
shore-line  deposit,  and  the  character  of  the  phosphatic  pebbles  pointed  to 
their  formation  in  a  depth  of  over  100  fathoms.  The  upper  surface  of 
the  Amuri  limestone  was  not,  they  considered,  an  erosion  surface,  but  one 
honeycombed  by  the  borings  and  burrowings  of  marine  organisms  operat- 
ing on.  the  sea-floor  at  a  considerable  depth,  with  possibly  some  solution 
of  calcareous  matter  by  the  solvent  action  of  sea-water  during  a  period  of 
halt  in  the  deposition.  The  borings  were  filled  with  the  materials  of  the 
overlying  bed  and  not  by  beach  deposits.  The  rigorous  parallelism  of  the 
Amuri  limestone,  the  nodular  layer,  and  the  Weka  Pass  stone  over  such 
an  area  were  inconsistent  with  a  theory  of  unconformity  by  emergence  and 
erosion.  They  therefore  concluded  that  there  was  no  unconformity,  but 
that  some  alteration  in  depth  or  in  the  conditions  of  deposition  no  doubt 
occurred,  which  was  of  no  greater  amount  than  that  which  takes  place 
when  a  bed  of  different  lithological  character  is  laid  down  in  a  perfectly 
conformable  sequence. _^  In  describing  the  Middle  Waipara  occurrences  the 
authors  indicated  the  existence  of  a  well-defined  fault-scarp  along  the  east 
face  of  Mount  Grey,  limiting  the  extension  of  the  Notocene  beds  in  this 
direction.  In  1919  the  same  authors  discussed  the  nodular  layer  as  a 
commercial  source  of  phosphate. 

Thomson  (1919)  discussed  once  more  the  age  and  origin  of  the  Amuri 
limestone  in  Marlborough  and  Canterbury,  arguing  that  it  was  in  large  part 
a  chemical  deposit  on  the  outer  slopes  of  the  continental  shelf.  He  accepted 
the  view  of  Speight  and  Wild  as  to  the  conformity  of  the  Amuri  limestone 
and  Weka  Pass  stone,  and  considered  the  contact  as  a  plane  of  non-deposi- 
tion, which  he  suggested  might  be  due  to  a  change  of  conditions  putting 
a  stop  to  chemical  deposition,  while  the  formation  of  purely  organic  ooze 
might  be  so  slow  as  to  allow  time  for  the^  boring  of  the  last-formed  bed  and 
the  phosphatization  of  its  upper  surface  before  the  deposition  of  the  foreset 
greensand  began.  Dealing  with  Park's  suggestion  for  an  unconformity 
between  the  ''  saurian  beds  "  and  the  Waipara  greensands,  he  reaffirmed 
the  Senonian  age  of  the  latter  beds,  rejecting  Haast's  determination  of  the 
brachiopod  as  Recent,  and  considered  that  if  any  disconformily  existed  it 
should  be  looked  for  above  the  Waipara  greensands  in  the  dark  carbonaceous 
mudstone  down  into  which  the  Amuri  limestone  passes. 

Speight  in  1919  gave  a  description  of  the  tilted  gravels  of  the  Kowhai, 
Grey,  and  lower  Waipara  Rivers,  and  proposed  for  them  the  name  of 
Kowhai*  series.     He  concluded  that  the  age  was  most  probably  Pleistocene. 

Morgan  (1919)  gave  a  general  description  of  the  limestones  of  the  area, 
summarizing  previous  knowledge.  He  reaffirmed  his  belief  that  there  is  a 
true  disconformity  between  the  Amuri  limestone  and  Weka  Pass  stone,  and 
that  it  denotes  a  considerable  time-interval. 

*  Speight  spells  the  name  "  Kowai."  The  Lands  Department  maps  give  "  Kowhai  " 
for  the  river  draining  from  Mount  Grey  and  Mount  BroMii,  and  "  Kowai  "  for  the 
tributary  of  the  Waimakariri  River,  and  the  distinction  appears  a  convenient  one.  If 
J^laori  orthography  is  to  be  strictly  followed,  "  Kowhai  "  should  be  used  in  both  cases. 


Tnoiisox. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District.    335 

GENERAL  ACCOUNT  OF  THE  GEOLOGY  AND  PHYSIOGRAPHY. 

As  in  all  districts  where  any  development  of  the  Notocene  is  present, 
there  are  three  main  classes  of  rocks,  viz.  :— 

(1.)  Pre-Notocene :     in    this    case    greywackes    and    argiUites,    strongly 

folded,   indurated,    and   jointed,    and   truncated   by   an    erosion 

surface,  on  which  rests  unconformably — 
(2.)  Notocene  (as  in  Table  III  below)  :    the  rocks  are  only  moderately 

indurated,  and  then  well  jointed,  but  are  not  in  all  cases  cemented  ; 

they  are  for  the  most  part  strongly  tilted,  only  locally  folded, 

and  are  often  faulted. 
(3.)  Notopleistocene  :     horizontal,    for   the   most   part   unconsolidated, 

terrace  and  river  silts  and  gravels. 
The  main  subdivisions  of  the  Notocene  are  shown  in  Table  III. 

Table  III. — General  Classification  of  the  Notocene  Rocks  of  the  District. 


Age. 

Local  Name. 

Nature  of  Eocks. 

( 

Kowhai  beds     . .              . .      Terrestrial  gravels. 

Wanganuiau     j 

Greta  (or  Motunau)  beds 

Marine  gravels,  silts,  and  blue  calcareous 
mudstones  with  gravelly  sheU-beds. 

Oamaruian 


Mount  Brown  beds 


Rubbly  impure  Mmestones  and<  calcareous 
sandstones,  interbedded  with  sands. 


Grev  marls  " . 


Grey    calcareous    and    sandy    mudstones, 
sandstones,  and  sands. 


Weka  Pass  stone  and  Weka 
Pass  greensand 


Limestone  and  calcareous  sandstone,  pass- 
ing dowTi  into  a  calcareous  greensand 
with  phosphatic  nodules.       ♦ 


Kaitangatan 

Amuri  limestone 

Chalky  limestone,  passing  down  mto  marls 
and  glauconitic  mudstones. 

• 

Waipara  greensands 

Glauconitic  sands  with  hard,  thin  beds  of 
greensandstone. 

"  Saurian  beds  " 

Purple  glauconitic  mudstones  passing  do^vn 
into  sands,  both  with  yellow  efilorescence. 

Piripauan     . .  < 

Ostrea  bed 

Sandstone  cemented  by  poecilitic  crystals 
of  calcite,  resting  on  a  shell-bed  mainly 
composed  of  oyster-shells. 

1 

Coal-measures  . . 

Carbonaceous  shales,  Umonitic  sandstones, 
and  sands  with  tliin  seams  of  coal. 

336  Transactions. 


Structure. 


The  general  geological  structure  of  that  part  of  North  Canterbury  within 
which  the  district  lies  consists  of  elevated  folded  or  tilted  blocks  with  a 
general  north-east  and  south-west  trend,  separating  lowland  areas  which 
in  the  interior  are  interniont  depressions.  Broadly  speaking,  the  elevated 
blocks  may  be  regarded  as  anticlines  and  the  depressions  as  svnclines, 
though  they  are  in  many  places  bounded  by  faults  on  one  or  other  side. 
The  folding  and  faulting  has  been  of  geologically  young  age,  after  the  close 
of  the  Notocene  deposition,  and  is  doubtless  due  to  the  same  (Kaikoura) 
orogenic  movements  as  caused  the  elevation  of  the  Kaikoura  Mountains. 
Since  these  movements  erosion  has  largely  stripped  the  Notocene  cover 
from  the  higher  parts  of  the  anticlines  or  tilted  blocks,  so  that  it  is  now 
found  only  on  the  lower  slopes,  and  the  resulting  deposition  has  partiallv 
filled  the  synclines  or  fault-angles  with  horizontal  Notopleistocene  alluvium. 

One  such  lowland  area  is  the  Amberley-Waipara  Plain,  which  is  a  northern 
continuation  of  the  Canterbury  Plain,  from  which  it  is  nearly  cut  off  by 
the  Moeraki  Downs,  consisting  of  tilted  late  Notocene  gravels.  This  plain, 
135  ft.  above  sea-level  at  the  township  of  Amberley,  and  231  ft.  at  the 
township  of  Waipara,  slopes  down  south-east  of  the  former  place  to  low 
cliffs  near  the  sea,  but  farther  to  the  north-east  it  leaves  the  coast  and  enters 
an  elliptical  basin,  crossing  the  Waipara  Eiver  and  extending  some  distance 
up  the  ^tributary  Omihi  Valley,  being  separated  from  the  sea  by  the  anti- 
clinal elevation  of  Mount  Cass.  The  lowland  area  extends  farther  to  the 
north-east  than  the  actual  alluvial  plain,  and  passes  by  way  of  the  Greta 
Valley  into  the  lower  Hurunui  Valley. 

A  second  lowland  area,  farther  inland  and  roughly  parallel  to  the  first, 
is  the  Hurunui-Waiau  intermont  basin,  567  ft.  above  sea-level  at  Culverden, 
which  is  drained  by  the  Hurunui  and  Waiau  Rivers.  The  south-western 
extension  of  this  basin  reaches  the  upper  Waipara  River  near  Heathstock,- 
while  a  small  lateral  extension  on  the  south-east  side  reaches  the  head- 
waters of  the  Waikare  River  near  the  township  of  Waikare,  733  ft.  above 
.sea-level. 

The  elevated  belt  separating  these  two  lowland  areas  is  divided  by 
transverse  depressions  into  three  main  blocks — viz.,  Mount  Alexander 
(2,448  ft.)  to  the  north-east,  the  Doctor's  Range  (2,568  ft.)  in  the  middle, 
and  Mount  Grrey  (3,055  ft.)  to  the  south-west.  The  north-easterly  part  is 
again  divided  obliquely  by  a  nearly  east-west  fault,  which  runs  from  the 
neighbourhood  of  Waikare  along  the  south  side  of  the  Waikare  River,  and 
separates  a  subsidiary  low  block,  Moore's  Hills,  on  the  south  from  the 
higher  Mount  Alexander  block  to  the  north.  The  lowland  area  between 
these  two  blocks  is  occupied  by  the  Waikare  Valley,  and  is  continuous 
at  its  head  with  the  lateral  extension  of  the  Hurunui-Waiau  intermont 
depression,  forming  the  northerly  of  the  two  transverse  depressions  in  the 
elevated  belt.  The  southerly  transverse  depression  is  the  fault-angle  of  a 
nearly  north-south  fault  on  the  eastern  side  of  Mount  Grey,  which  lies  on 
the  upthrown  side  of  this  fault. 

The  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  district  here  described  forms  the 
lower  south-easterly  parts  of  this  discontinuous  elevated  belt  between  the 
two  main  lowlands.  The  Notocene  strip  of  which  it  is  composed  is  bounded 
on  its  inland  side  by  a  fault  near  Mount  Grey,  rests  unconformably  on  the 
pre-Notocene  of  the  Doctor's  Range,  is  thrown  into  a  series  of  folds  between 
the  Weka  Creek  and  Waikare,  and  at  this  point  has  not  been  completely 
stripped  from  the  anticline  of  old  rocks,  and  is  again  bounded  by  a  fault 


THOMSOJSf. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District.    337 


south  of  the  Waikare  River  except  for  a  few  miles  where  it  has  again  been 
stripped  from  the  pre-Notocene  on  the  summit  of  the  Moore's  Hills  block. 
On  its  seaward  side  the  Notocene  strip  everywhere  dips  under  the  Noto- 
pleistocene  gravels  of  the  Amberley-Waipara  Plain.  The  Notocene  beds 
are,  with  the  exception  of  the  Kowhai  gravels,  an  accordant  series,  and 
behave  as  a  structural  unit  in  regard  to  folding  and  faulting.  The  general 
type  of  structure  is  shown  diagramniatically  in  fig.  2. 


Prs-Notooene.  Piripauan-    'Amupi  limestone  and'    '"Gray  maris  "  and"  Greta   beds.' 

Weka  Pass  store.         Mojnt  Brown  beds.  Kowhai  t>ed3. 

Fig.  2. — A  diagrammatic  section  from  north-west  to  south-east  across  the  district. 


The  disposition  of  the  Notocene  rocks  as  a  simply  tilted  series  with 
dips  to  the  south-east  is  modified  at  various  places  both  by  faults  and 
folds.  The  more  important  of  these  are  the  Mount  Grey  fault,  bounding  the 
Notocene  to  the  south-west ;  the  Boby's  Creek  fault,  cutting  the  Noto- 
cene strip  obliquely  and  separating  the  Mount  Brown  area  from  the 
remainder  of  the  strip  ;  and  a  series  of  folds  transverse  to  the  strip  on 
the  north-western  side  of  the  Weka  Pass. 


Doctop's  Ranse. 


Waipara  River.  Boby's  Creek.       Mount  Brown 


^y//A'/////A 

// ■    Pre-Notocene.V  '^'</ 

0'///y//^ ////// 

//  ///////  /  //  /  /  /  / 


Fig.  3. — Section  across  the  Bobv's  Creek  fault. 


The  displacement  along  the  Mount  Grey  fault  is  very  great^ — probably 
over  2,000  ft. — but  cannot  be  accurately  estimated,  as  the  Notocene  rocks 
do  not  occur  along  the  upthrown  side.  There  must  have  been  considerable 
drag  accompanying  the  formation  of  this  fault,  for  the  limestones  of  the 
Notocene,  which  half  a  mile  north-east  of  the  fault-line  strike  north-east 
with  a  moderate  dip  to  the  south-east,  become  practically  vertical  near 
the  fault-line  and  curve  round  to  strike  north-north-west. 

The  Boby's  Creek  fault  runs  west  from  the  Waipara  River  north-east  of 
Mount  Brown,  across  the  lower  part  and  into  the  upper  part  of  Boby's  Creek, 
ending  against  the  Mount  Grey  fault.  The  dow)ithrow  is  on  the  north  and 
east  side,  and  amounts  to  about  1,300  ft.  near  the  middle,  where  the  "  grey 


338  Transactions. 

marls  "'  liave  been  brought  opposite  the  coal-beds.  On  the  south  side  of 
the  fault  some  anticlinal  folding  is  seen  ;  the  coal-measures  occupy  a  middle 
position  along  the  fault-line,  and  thence  to  the  west  a  complete  sequence 
up  to  the  Amuri  limestone  may  be  traced,  while  to  the  east  a  similar 
sequence  up  to  the  Waipara  greensands  may  be  seen  in  Boby's  Creek.  On 
the  north  side  of  the  fault,  gentle  anticlinal  folding  is  shown  by  the  "  grey 
marls  "  in  Boby's  Creek  below  the  road-bridge,  and  synclinal  folding  in 
the  Main  Mount  Brown  limestone  both  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Waipara 
River  (see  Plate  XXI,  fig.  1)  and  alongside  the  road  in  the  angle  between 
the  fault,  the  Waipara  River,  and  Boby's  Creek. 

Near  Waikare,  where  there  is  a  low  transverse  depression  in  the  main 
elevated  ridge  separating  the  two  lowland  areas,  the  Notocene  rocks  have 
not  been  stripped  from  the  pre-Notoceneon  the  axis  of  the  elevation,  but 
continue  across  the  saddle,  and  extend  into  the  Hawarden  area.  There  is 
thus  anticlinal  folding  parallel  to  the  elongation  of  the  Notocene  strip,  but 
the  structure  is  complicated  by  the  presence  south  of  Waikare  of  a  syncline 
and  anticline  transverse  to  the  elongation  of  the  strip.  As  these  folds, 
exhibited  only  in  the  lower  Notocene  beds,  do  not  continue  to  the  south- 
eastern side  of  the  Weka  Pass,  where  the  upper  Notocene  beds  outcrop,  it 
was  at  one  time  considered  that  they  were  a  proof  of  unconformity  ;  but 
the  structure  was  satisfactorily  explained  by  Marshall,  Speight,  and  Cotton 
(1911),  whose  diagrams  are  here  reproduced  (fig.  4).  Without  doubt  the 
Mo-unt  Brown  beds  formerly  extended  north-west  across  the  pass,  and  shared 
the  same  folding,  but  have  since  been  removed  by  erosion. 

Besides  the  above  more  important  structural  features  there  are  a  number 
of  minor  faults,  with  throws  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet,  one  of  which, 
in  the  railway-cutting  -ISf  miles  from  Christchurch,  was  mistaken  by  Hutton 
for  an  unconformity. 

Physiography. 

The  main  elements  of  the  relief  of  the  area  under  consideration  and  the 
surrounding  areas  were  doubtless  determined  by  the  Kaikoura  orogenic 
movements,  which  caused  the  uplifts  of  the  high-standing  blocks — ^viz., 
Mount  Grey,  the  Doctor's  Range,  Moore's  Hills,  and  the  Mount  Alexander 
Range — and  the  (relative)  downthrow  of  the  intermont  areas  of  the  Heath- 
stock,  the  Waikare  Valley,  and  the  Omihi  Valley.  The  drainage-pattern, 
however,  was  probably  established  in  its  major  outlines  during  the  earlier 
uplifts  of  which  the  Kowhai  gravels  serve  as  a  record.  The  Waikare  flats 
and  the  Heathstock  lowland  are  stated  by  Speight  (1915)  to  be  part  of 
the  Hurunui-Waiau  intermont  depression,  whit-h  is  drained  by  the  Waiau, 
Hurunui,  Waikare,  and  Waipara  Streams,  each  with  its  separate  gorge 
through  the  seaward-lying  enclosing  ranges.  The  lowest  gap  in  these  ranges, 
the  saddle  of  the  Weka  Pass,  is  not  used  by  any  stream,  a  proof  that  the 
above  rivers  occupied  their  present  courses  before  the  uplift  of  these  ranges 
took  place.  They  are,  therefore,  antecedent  streams,  or  anteconsequents 
if  the  earlier  uplifts  are  admitted  as  only  earlier  stages  of  the  main  uplift. 

Following  the  main  later  uplifts  fresh  consequent  streams  would  come 
into  being,  the  chief  of  those  which  traverse  our  district  being  the  Kowhai 
River  in  its  main  branches,  the  Weka  Creek,  and  Omihi  Creek.  These 
streams,  it  will  be  noticed,  are  widely  spaced. 

In  the  period  following  the  later  uplifts  an  early  mature  topography 
developed.  The  presence  of  hard  bands  in  the  Notocene  sequence — viz., 
the  Amuri  limestone  and  Weka  Pass  stone,  the  various  Mount  Brown  lime- 
stones, and  the  harder  sandstones  of  the  Greta  series — led  to  the  development 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District.     339 


Fig.  4. 


340  Transactions. 

of  prominent  cuestas,  of  which  that  of  the  main  Mount  Brown  limestone 
(c/.  fig.  2)  is  the  highest  and  most  persistent  in  the  middle  part  of  the  strip, 
iDeing  breached  only  by  the  Waipara  River  and  the  Weka  Creek.  In  the 
south-western  part  of  the  district  the  most  prominent  cuesta  is  that  of  the 
lower  Mount  Brown  limestone,  while  east  of  Mount  Donald  the  Weka  Pass 
stone  cuesta  rises  to  equal  prominence  with  that  of  the  main  Mount  Brown 
limestone.  Although  subsequent  depressions  between  the  main  cuestas  were 
well  developed,  these  were  mostly  occupied  by  small  tributaries  of  various 
consequent  or  insequent  streams,  and  there  are  few  subsequent  streams  of 
any  importance.  The  soft  Piripauan  beds  and  "  grey  marls  "  were  for  the 
most  part  reduced  to  low  rehef,  and  on  them  the  Waipara  River  and  Boby's 
Creek,  and  to  a  less  ext6nt  the  Weka  Creek,  developed  broad  flood-plains 
and  meandering  courses.  The  texture  of  dissection  of  the  more  porous 
Notocene  was  much  coarser  than  that  of  the  higher-standing  pre-Notocene. 
which  was  characterized  by  numerous  insequents  with  many  rocky  ledges. 

North-east  of  Mount  Donald  the  pre-Notocene  rocks  of  Moore's  Hills 
preserve  fairly  perfectly  a  fossil  peneplain  similar  to  those  described  by 
Cotton  from  Oamaru,  Central  Otago,  the  Gouland  Downs,  &c.,  including 
the  presence  on  it  of  a  small  outlier  of  Weka  Pass  stone.  No  similar  fossil 
peneplain  appears  to  exist  on  the  Doctor's  Range,  although  the  even  slope 
from  the  height  of  the  range  to  the  saddle  north  of  the  Deans  seems,  when 
seen  in  profile,  to  suggest  the  presence  of  such  a  stripped  surface.  The 
reason  for  its  absence  near  the  Doctor's  Gorge  may  possibly  be  the  steepness 
to  which  the  base  of  the  Notocene  has  been  tilted  at  this  point,  rendering 
it  more  liable  to  erosion  ;  but,  as  the  stratigraphy  shows  the  existence 
of  an  overlap  during  the  deposition  of  the  Piripauan  and  Kaitangatan,  it 
appears  more  probable  that  the  surface  on  which  the  Piripauan  rests  was 
not  peneplained,  though  peneplanation  had  become  practically  perfect  on 
the  adjacent  land  before  deposition  of  the  Weka  Pass  stone. 

The  mature  topography  above  described  has  been  modified  by  a  later 
revival  of  erosion  due  to  regional  uplift,  which  has  allowed  the  Waipara 
River,  the  Weka  Creek,  and  their  main  tributaries  to  incise  themselves  more 
than  100  ft.  in  the  old  flood-plains  in  narrow  steep-walled  gorges.  The 
revival  extends  in  the  main  streams  right  through  the  Notocene  strip  and 
into  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  pre-Notocene  rocks,  but  in  the  smaller,  ste'ep, 
and  mostly  dry  tributaries  draining  the  back  of  the  cuestas  of  the  Mount 
Brown  and  Greta  beds  has  not  passed,  on  the  average,  more  than  half  their 
lengths,  and  the  lower  gorges  through  the  Kowhai  gravels  and  upper  part 
of  the  Greta  beds  end  abruptly  in  sand  or  gravel  chffs.  Incised  meanders 
are  a  marked  feature  of  the  rejuvenated  topography,-  and  are  well  displayed 
in  the  Waipara  River  both  above  and  below  the  limestone  gorge,  and  in 
Boby's  Creek,  while  a  beautiful  example,  superimposed  on  the  pre-Notocene, 
is  shown  in  the  upper  of  the  two  inliers  of  those  rocks  in  Bell's  Creek.  In 
the  Waipara  River  the  revived  valley  is  graded  right  through  the  Notocene 
strip,  but  in  Boby's  Creek  and  Weka  Creek  the  grading  is  not  so  perfect, 
and  in  the  former  the  Ostrea  beds  cause  a  waterfall  of  about  20  ft. 

The  uplift  which  led  to  this  revival  is  doubtless  the  same  as-  caused  the 
raised  beaches  of  150  ft.  and  2.50  ft.,  described  by  Speight  (1912),  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Waipara  River.  Its  discontinuous  nature  is  shown  by  a 
flight  of  terraces  in  the  Waipara  River  above  the  linfestone  gorge,  as 
figured  by  Cotton  (1919)  and  shown  in  Plate  XVI.  Witness  to  its  recent 
origin  is  also  borne  by  numerous  cut-off  meanders  at  various  heights  in 
Boby's  Creek. 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Fuss  District .     341 

A  still  more  recent  revival  of  erosion  is  shown  by  the  existence  of  small 
channels,  a  foot  or  two  in  breadth  and  depth,  within  the  rejuvenated  por- 
tions of  the  small  streams  draining  from  the  back  of  the  cuestas  of  the 
Mount  Brown  and  Mount  Donald  beds.  This  revival,  in  the  opinion  of 
Cotton,*  may  be  due  to  the  quicker  run-off  of  storm- water  owing  to  the 
eating-down  of  the  original  plant-covering  by  stock  and  rabbits,  or  to 
reduction  of  the  plant-covering  by  slight  desiccation  of  climate. 

Caves  and  underground  courses  in  the  limestones  are  not  a  prominent 
feature  of  the  area.  Shelters  caused  by  overhanging  bluffs  of  Weka  Pass 
stone  are  common,  and  are  also  developed  in  places  in  the  Mount  Brown 
limestones.  The  back  slopes  of  the  Weka  Pass  stone  cuestas  are  marked 
by  narrow  fissures,  generally  parallel  to  the  strike,  which  are  mostly  choked 
with' clay  and  debris  to  a  depth  of  8-10  ft.  They  are  well  displayed  on  the 
cuesta  west  of  the  Waipara  River  limestone  gorge,  and  on  the  adjoining 
"  grey  marls  "  there  are  three  large  sink-holes  occupied  by  lagoons.  Sink- 
holes are  also  present  in  a  similar  position  in  the  angle  between  the  Weka 
Creek  and  the  Weka  Pass  Stream.  A  persistent  series  of  caves,  said  to  be 
of  considerable  depth  and  extent,  occurs  at  the  foot  of  the  Amuri  limestone 
cuesta  near  Onepunga,  just  in  front  of  the  outcrop  of  the  Weka  Pass  stone. 
The  only  underground  course  I  have  observed  is  in  the  Omihi  Creek,  north- 
east of  Mount  Donald,  where  the  stream  flows  for  a  short  distance  under- 
ground in  the  Weka  Pass  stone.  Springs  and  marsh}-  areas  are  well  dis- 
played in  many  places  and  at  various  horizons  where  loose  sands  rest  on 
more  impervious  rocks — e.g.,  on  the  hillside  below  Trounce "s  quarry,  near 
Waikai«e,  where  sands  below  the  Amuri  limestone  and  giauconitic  mudstone 
rest  upon  the  Waipara  greensands. 


DETAILED  STRATIGRAPHY. 
PiRIPAUAN. 

The  Piripauan  rocks  of  the  district  include  all  those  Notocene  rocks 
below  the  Amuri  limestone  and  the  marls,  mudstones,  or  sandstones  down 
into  which  it  passes.  All  the  fossils  obtained  from  this  group  have  been 
determined  as  Upper  Senonian,  including  the  Reptilia  of  the  "  saurian 
t)eds,"  and  the  presence  of  Reptilia  in  the  overlying  Waipara  greensands 
justifies  their  inclusion  also  in  the  Piripauan.  The  rocks  are  nearly  800  ft. 
thick  in  the  Middle  Waipara  district,  but  they  are  not  moTe  than  150  ft.  a 
few  miles  east  of  the  Weka  Pass.  The  thinning- out  is  due  to  overlap, 
since  in  the  eastern  end  of  the  district  the  sequence  commences  with  the 
uppermost  division,  the  Waipara  greensands.  Within  the  Piripauan  no 
unconformity  has  been  detected  by  any  observer.  The  beds  in  most  cases 
pass  gradually  into  one  another,  and  the  divisions  recognized  are  only  for 
convenience  of  description. 

Coal-measures  anU  Ostrea  Beds. 

In  the  western  part  of  the  district  a  bed  formed  mainly  of  black  oyster- 
shells  is  very  persistent,  but  as  coal-seams  lie  sometimes  above  and  some- 
times below  it  it  is,  conveniently  included  with  the  coal-measures.  The 
clearest  sections  are  those  of  the  Doctor's  Gorge,  Waipara  River,  and  in  the 
various  tributaries  of  Boby's  Creek. 

r 

*  Personal  communication. 


342  Transactions. 

9 

Doctor's  Gorge,  Waipara  River. — According  to  von  Haast's  account 
(1871),  the  coal-beds  are  150  ft.  thick,  and  consist  of  rusty-coloured  loose 
sands,  with  some  harder  bands  of  limonitic  sandstone,  followed  by  white 
quartz  sands,  and  enclosing  several  seams  of  very  inferior  lignite  and  shales, 
the  former  from  9  in.  to  2^  ft.  thick.  These  in  turn  are  followed  by  angular, 
loose,  quartzose  sands,  covered  frequently  with  an  efflorescence  of  sulphur, 
and  not  showing  any  stratification.  They  strike  north  and  south,  Avith 
an  easterly  dip  of  33°,  and  rest  on  pre-Notocene  rocks,  which  dip  about 
70°  north-north-east.  It  appears  that  von  Haast  must  have  based  the 
above  description  on  beds  some  distance  each  side  of  the  gorge,  for  on  the 
river-banks  the  total  thickness  under  the  Ostrea  bed  does  not  exceed  40  ft. 
Park's  account  (1888)  closely  follows  von  Haast's,  but  in  addition  he 
records  the  presence  of  distinct  plant-impressions  from  the  shales — viz., 
Fagus  Ninnisiana,  Phyllites  eucalyptoides ,  Griselinia  myrtifolium,  and  a 
fragment  of  Coriaria  {Cinnamomum  ?). 

The  succeeding  Ostrea  bed  is  about  20  ft.  thick,  and  really  consists  of 
two  or  three  shell-beds  with  sandy  layers  between.  In  places  it  consists 
chiefly  of  shells  of  Ostrea,  in  others  of  Pugnellus,  and  in  others  again  of 
both  of  these,  while  there  are  a  lesser  number  of  other  species  of  pelecypod. 
The  upper  part  of  the  upper  shell-bed  is  locally  cemented  by  a  calcareous 
cement  in  the  shape  of  large  poecilitic  plates  of  calcite,  and  contains  a  few 
grains  of  glauconite  and  feldspar,  in  addition  to  the  quartz  of  which  it 
mainly  consists.  This  is  presumably  the  rock  referred  to  by  McKay  (1877b) 
as  "  glance  sandstone."  The  moUusca  collected  at  this  locality  bv  McKay 
(1891)  were  determined  by  Woods  (1917)  as  Trigonia  hanetiana  d'Orbigny, 
Ostrea  sp.  cf.  dichotoma  Bayle,  and  Pecten  {Camptonectes)  hectori  Woods. 
In  addition  a  species  of  Cardiuni  is  common,  but  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  forwarded  to  Mr.  Woods.  Trechmann  (1917)  collected  and  described 
Pugnellus  waiparensis. 

Bobijs  Creek. — In  Boby's  Creek  and  its  tributaries  there  are  numerous 
sections  of  these  beds,  as  they  wrap  round  several  inliers  of  the  pre-Notocene. 
rocks.  I  have  not  explored  the  area  fully,  and  remain  undecided  whether 
or  not  there  are  two  Ostrea  beds  represented.  Where  first  seen,  on  going 
up  Boby's  Creek,  the  Ostrea  bed  is  only  about  2  ft.  thick,  anjl  dips  down- 
stream. It  rapidly  thickens,  as  it  rises  on  the  sides  of  the  cliffs  up-stream, 
to  about  6  ft.,  and  is  underlain  by  grey  sands  with  a  few  carbonaceous  streaks 
and  many  ironstone  partings,  and  with  occasional  yellow  efflorescence. 
After  about  100  ft.  these  sands  pass  down  into  a  lignitic  series  of  interbedded 
carbonaceous  shales  and  grey  sands,  also  of  considerable  thickness.  The 
section  then  becomes  obscure  for  some  distance.  An  Ostrea  bed  again 
reappears  at  the  waterfall,  but  the  beds  below  it  have  not  been  studied.  In 
Bell's  Creek,  between  the  two  gorges  of  pre-Notocene  rocks,  there  is  a  lignite- 
seam  which  has  been  worked  by  former  occupants  of  Onepunga  Farm. 

Von  Haast  (1871)  describes  the  beds  in  Boby's  Creek  as  rusty-coloured 
loose  sands,  similar  to  those  in  the  Waipara  River,  followed  by  several 
seams  of  lignite  and  shale,  about  10  ft.  in  thickness,  some  of  them  of  better 
quality  than  those  of  the  Waipara  River.  These- in  turn  are  followed  by 
angular  white  quartzose  sands,  succeeded  by  the  Ostrea  bed.  At  the  water- 
fall this  consists  mostly  of  complete  specimens  of  the  large  Ostrea,  but  in 
other  places-  the  shells  are  more  fragmentary,  and  in  places  the  bed  is 
replaced  by  calcareous  sands. 

The  fossils  determined  by  Woods  from  the  Ostrea  bed  of  Boby's  Creek 
were  "  Area  "  hectori  Woods,  Trigonia  hanetiana  d'Orb.,  and  Ostrea  sp.  cf. 
dichotoma  Bayle.  In  addition  I  obtained  Cuadlaea  sp.,  Cardiuni  sp.,  and 
Pugnellus  waiparensis  Trechmann  (?). 


Thomson.^ — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District.    34:3 

A  peculiar  feature  of  the  Ostrea  beds,  perhaps  most  marked  in  Boby's 
Creek,  is  the  strong  smell  of  petroleum  given  out  when  the  oyster-shells 
are  freshly  broken.  I  submitted  specimens  to  the  Dominion  Analyst,  but 
he  reported  that  only  a  trace  of  petroleum  could  be  determined  analytically. 
The  black  colour  of  the  oyster-shells  and  the  odour  of  petroleum  appear 
in  New  Zealand  to  be  practically  confined  to  the  Piripauan  Ostrea  beds  of 
North  Canterbury. 

McKay's  Creek. — McKay  collected  in  1874  from  the  Ostrea  beds  of 
McKay's  Creek,  which  is  presumably  one  of  the  creeks  entering  the 
Waipara  River  from  the  north,  above  the  limestone  gorge,  but  he  gave 
no  detailed  account  of  the  beds  in  this  locality.  Woods  determined  from 
his  collections  the  following  species  :  Nemodon  sp.  and  Pecten  {Camptonectes) 
hector i  Woods. 

Birch  Hollow  (Plate  XVII,  fig.  1). — The  beds  below  the  Ostrea  bed  are 
much  thicker  to  the  north  of  the  Waipara  River,  and  are  well  exposed  in 
Birch  Hollow,  at  the  upper  end  of  the  high  terraces,  where  they  form  two 
large  bluffs.  They  consist  of  a  lower  series  of  rotted  conglomerates,  50  ft. 
thick  ;  a  middle  lignite  series  of  grey  sands  and  carbonaceous  shales,  in 
places  passing  into  lignite-seams,  together  about  100  ft.  thick ;  and  a 
higher  series  of  yellow  sands  with  ironstone  partings,  about  150  ft.  thick. 
The  Ostrea  beds  consist  of  a  lower  oyster-bed,  15  ft.  thick,  separated  from 
a  high  similar  bed,  1  ft.  thick,  by  20  ft.  of  sandstone.  They  contain  Ostrea 
sp.  cf.  dichotoma  Bayle  and  Pecten  hectori  Woods.  The  beds  here  are  flatter 
than  in  the  Waipara  River,  and  strike  north-north-east,  with  a  dip  of  15° 
east-south-east. 

Weka  Creek. — The  Ostrea  beds  are  well  displayed  in  the  Weka  Creek, 
where  they  are  about  40  ft.  thick.  At  this  locality  I  collected  the  speci- 
mens of  Ostrea  sp.  cf.  dichotoma  Bayle  figured  by  Woods,  and  he  determined 
also  Pecten  {Camptonectes)  hectori  Woods  from  McKay's  earlier  collection. 
There  are  few  other  molluscs,  but  a  fragment  of  a  rhynchonellid  was 
observed.  The  underlying  rocks  consist  of  loose  white  sands,  40  ft.  thick, 
resting  on  5  ft.  of  coal-shale,  which  here  lies  hard  on  the  rotted  argillite, 
and  laterally  dovetails  into  the  sands. 

The  Ostrea  bed  is  again  seen  as  a  thin  band  in  the  northern  tributary 

of  Weka  Creek  rising  near  V/aikare,  and  may  extend  some  distance  to  the 

north-west  m   the   Waikare-Hawarden  district.      East  of  the  Weka  Pass 

these  lower  beds  have  not  been  observed,  and  they  are  certainly  absent  at 

'the  eastern  end  of  the  district. 

"  Saurian  Beds  "  and  Waipara  Greensands. 

Waipara  River. — An  almost  complete  section  of  the  beds  between  the 
Ostrea  bed  and  the  base  of  the  Amuri  limestone  is  exposed  in  the  banks  of 
the  Waipara  River  between  the  Doctor's  Crorge  and  the  limestone  gorge 
(Plate  XVI).  They  consist  of  sands,  mudstones,  and  greensands,  and  may 
bCj  conveniently  termed  the  '*  sulphur  sands  "  and  "  sulphur  mudstones," 
together  constituting  the  "  saurian  beds,"  and  the  "  Waipara  greensands." 
The  sulphur  sands  and  mudstones  are  so  termed  from  the  presence  of  a  yellow 
efilorescence  on  the  rocks,  formed  of  sulphur  compounds,  combined  with  a 
distinct  smell  of  sulphurous  gases  in  the  near  vicinity  of  the  cliffs  and  talus, 
particularly-  where  these  rocks  are  cut  through  by  narrow  gorges.  The 
yellow  efflorescence  has  not  been  chemically  examined  in  the  Waipara  dis- 
trict, but  a  similar  efflorescence  on  Clarentian  mudstones  in  the  Nidd  Valley, 
near  Coverham,  has  been  reported  on  by  the  Dominion  Analyst,  who  states, 


344  Transactions. 

"  The  encrustation  contains  a  small  quantity  of  free  sulpliur.  The  water 
extract  showed  the  presence  of  ferrous  sulphate  and  small  quantities  of 
calcium  and  magnesium  salts."  The  efflorescence  or  encrustation  is  presum- 
ably due  to  the  oxidation  of  sulphide  of  iron,  present  mostly  in  a  state  of 
fine  division  in  the  rocks,  but  partly  in  well-defined  small  nodular  con- 
cretions. The  name  of  "  saurian  beds  "  is  given  because  of  the  presence 
of  large  concretions  containing  saurian  bones  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
sulphur  sands  and  the  lower  part  of  the  sulphur  mudstones.  This  is  the 
horizon  from  which  most  of  the  Piripauan  saurians  have  been  obtained 
both  in  this  district  and  at  Arauri  Bluff ;  but  it  should  be  noted  that  speci- 
mens have  also  been  obtained  both  in  the  underlying  coal-measures  and  in 
the  overlying  Waipara  greensands.  The  latter  rocks  have  usually  been 
termed  the  concretionary  greensands  ;  but  this  name  is  unsatisfactory- — first, 
because  the  concretionary  beds  compose  only  the  lower  part  of  the  green- 
sands, and,  second,  because  there  is  a  higher  greensand  horizon  with  true 
concretions  to  which  the  name  might  equally  refer. 

The  Ostrea  bed  in  the  Waipara  River  is  followed  by  clean  white  sands, 
containing  a  few  carbonaceous  shaly  partings  near  their  base.  After  about 
100  ft.  they  become  much  more  argillaceous,  and  pass  finally  into  streaky 
rocks,  forming  grey  cliffs,  and  consist,  when  freshly  broken,  of  a  dark  mud- 
stone  matrix  containing  lighter-coloured  streaks  of  glauconite  and  quartz 
sand  in  a  calcareous  base.  At  about  -300  ft.  above  the  Ostrea  bed  there 
is  a  thin  band,  about  6  ft.  thick,  consisting  mainly  of  quartz  sand  and 
glauconite.  This  is  succeeded  by  purple  micaceous  nmdstones  with  a 
shaly  parting,  which  are  perhaps  200  ft.  thick.  The  sulphur  efflorescence 
commences  after  the  first  50  ft.  of  sands,  and  continues  in  greater  or  less 
intensity  throughout.  Well-defined,  nearly  circular  concretions,  mostly  from 
4  ft.  to  9  ft.  in  diameter,  commence  about  100  ft.  above  the  Ostrea  bed,  and 
continue  along  certain  planes  for  a'bout  200  ft.  (Plate  XVII,  fig.  2).  Further 
similar  concretions  reappear  in  the  middle  and  upper  part  of  the  purple 
mudstones.  The  concretions  are  formed  of  hard  calcareous  sandstone,  and 
consist  of  grains  of  quartz  with  subordinate  feldspar,  glauconite,  magnetite, 
and  muscovite,  set  in  a  calcareous  cement  which  is  occasionally  poecihtic, 
the  individual  calcite  crystals  being  sometimes  as  much  as  an  inch  in 
diameter. 

Fossils  are  not  common  in  these  concretions,  but,  owing  to  the  keen 
search  that  has  been  made  for  saurian  bones,  a  large  number  has  been 
collected.  McKay  (1892)  noted  that  out  of  a  total  of  some  250  "  boulders  " 
examined  only  six  or  eight  proved  shell-bearing,  and  three  were  rich  in 
shells.  Usually  in  the  shell-bearing  concretion  there  is  a  mixture  of 
nionocotyledonous  and  dicotyledonous  plant-remains.-  The  pelecypods  col- 
lected by  McKay  from  this  locaUty  were  determined  by  Woods  (1917)  as 
follows :  Malletia  (Neilo)  cymbula  Woods,  Trigonia  waiparensis  Woods,  and 
Thracia  sp.  In  addition  imperfect  specimens  of  Belemnites  were  included, 
and  gasteropods,  which  were  sent  to-  Professor  Wilckens,  of  Jena,  before 
the  war,  and  have  not  yet  been  described.  The  Reptilia  collected  from  the 
"  saurian  beds  "  in  this  vicinity  by  Hood,  Holmes,  von  Haast,  and  McKay, 
as  determined  by  Owen,  von  Haast,  Hector,  and  Lydekker,  were  :  Leiodon 
haumuriensis  Hector,  Cimoliosaurus  australis  (Owen),  C.  hoodi  (Owen), 
C.  Jwlmesi  (Hector),  and  C.  haasti  (Hector).  Hood  collected  other  speci- 
mens, which  were  lost  in  the  s.s.  "  Matoaka,"  including  bones  which  he 
judged  to  belong  to  Teleosaurus,  but  Hector  (1874)  considered  it  probable 
that  the  specimens  should  be  referred  to  Leiodon. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LII. 


Plate  XVI. 


O 

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Pare  p.  34J.'] 


.Tbans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LI  I. 


Plate  XVII. 


iS!:^ 


Fig.  1. — Looking  down  Birch  Hollow,  Middle  Waipaia.  The  lower  cliff  on  the  left 
shows  the  lignitic  series,  and  the  upper  cliff  the  yellow  sands  of  the 
Piripauan  below  the  Ostrea  bed. 


Fig.  2. — Grey  muddy  sandstones  with  saurian  concretions,  Waipara  River. 


Tkans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LII. 


Plate  XVIII. 


Fig.  1. — Cliff  of  lower  (concretionary)  Waijjara  greensands,  Waipara   River. 
ha  c  d     b 


Fig.  2. — View  of  the  upjjer  part  of  the  Weka  Pass,     a,  pre-Notocene  rocks  of  the  Moore's 
Hills  block  ;   b,  Waipara  greensands  ;   c,  Weka  Pass  stone  surmounting  Aniuri 
'    '  "      limestone  ;  (/,  Mount  Brown  beds  in  Mount  Donald. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LII. 


Plate  XIX. 


Fig.   1. — ClifiE  of  Weka  Pass  stone  overhanging  Amuii  limestone,  Waipara  River,  near 

limestone  gorge. 


Fig. 


"  Fucoids  "'   iii  the   Weka   i'ass   gieensand,   clitis   overlooking  Waipara   River 


above  limestone  gorge. 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipani  and  IVe/.-a  Pass  Distriet .      345 

The  question  was  raised  by  Holmes  (c/.  Hector.  1869)  whether  the 
saurian  "  boulders  "  were  not  derived,  or  at  least  ''  deposited  in  the  bed  as 
rolled  masses,"  since  in  some  of  them  the  saurian  bones  reach  to  the 
exterior,  and  appear  there  to  be  water- worn'.  Von  Haast  (1871)  confirmed 
this  observation,  but  concluded  that  the  concretions  were  in  situ.  McKay 
(1892,  p.  99)  was  therefore  led  to  describe  the  boulders  in  great  detail  to 
explain  this  phenomenon  :  "  They  are  often  encased  in  5  in.  to  6  in.  of 
impure  cone-in-cone  limestone,  or  by  an  envelope  of  similar  thickness  com- 
posed of  sandy  calcareous  matter,  preserving  fucoid  stems  so  abundantly 
that  these  must  have  formed  a  perfect  envelope  round  the  nucleus  and 
greater  mass  of  the  concretion.  Interior  to  this  cone-in-cone  or  fucoidal 
covering  the  concretion  is  a  hard  greyish-blue  limestone  rock,  and  the 
remains  of  various  species  of  saurians  when  present  for  the  most  part 
appear  near  the  centre  ;  but  in  cases  in  which  considerable  and  connected 
portions  of  a  saurian  skeleton  occur  the  bones  are  sometimes  found  through 
the  whole  diameter  of  the  concretion  proper,  and  into  the  cone-in-cone 
limestone  or  fucoidal  envelope  that  surrounds  the  harder  central  portion. 
From  the  high  cliff  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  below  the  junction  of  Pirau 
Burn,  concretions  often  fall  into  the  channel  of  the  river  at  its  base,  and  in 
several-  cases,  as  at  present  can  be  seen,  they  l^ave  embedded  in  the  marly 
greensands  one-half  or  less  of  the  cone-in-cone,  more  rarely  of  the  fucoidal, 
envelope  ;  also  boulders  may  be  seen  in  situ  from  which  one-half  of  the 
cone-in-cone  envelope  has  been  loosened  and  fallen  off,  leaving  the  con- 
cretion beneath  perfectly  round  and  smooth.  When  the  calcareous  matter 
accreting  to  form  the  boulder  has  from  an}'  cause  been  insufficient  to 
include  the  whole  of  the  remains  within  the  concretion  proper,  some  of  the 
bones  are  fractured  or  jointed  along  the  line  joining  the  boulder  and  itS' 
envelope,  and  the  bones  thus  appearing  at  the  surface  are  polished  as 
though  the  boulder  had  been  formed  mechanically,  and  transported  to  the 
position  it  liow  or  lately  occupied  by  the  action  of  running  wat^r." 

In  the  creek  called  by  McKay  the  Pirau  Burn  the  sands  immediately 
above  the  Ostrea  bed  are  well  bedded  by  the  interposition  of  numerous 
carbonaceous  shaly  partings,  and  present  a  great  similarity  to  the  sands 
under  the  Ostrea  bed  farther  to  the  north-east. 

The  sulphur  mudstones  forming  the  upper  part  of  the  "  saurian  beds  " 
are  followed  by  the  Waipara  greensand,  which  may  here  be  divided  into  a 
lower  and  an  upper  group.  The  lower  group  consists  of  75  ft.  of  alternat- 
ing hard  and  soft  greensandstopes,  the  hard  bauds  being  1  ft.  to  2  ft.  in 
thickness  and  an  average  of  7  ft.  apart.  The  hard  parts  are  not  continuous, 
but  have  a  concretionary  appearance  (Plate  XVIII,  fig.  1).  They  have 
generally  been  described  as  calcareous,  but  show  little  eft'ervescence  with 
acid,  and  in  thin  section  are  found  to  consist  of  rounded  grains  of  quartz 
and  glauconite,  accompanied  by  small  pyritized  fragments  of  organisms 
(probably  radiolarian),  set  in  a  fine-grained  granular  matrix  which  is  not 
birefringent.  In  hand-specimens  the  rock  is  mottled  green  and  purple- 
grey.  TJie  upper  group,  110  ft.  thick,  consists  of  softer,  very  dark  green- 
sands  with  a  good  deal  of  argillaceous  matter  and  frequently  with  a  shaly 
parting.  In  the  clift'  on  the  south  side  at  the  upper  end  of  the  large 
river-meander  these  pass  quite  gradually  into  the  succeeding  glauconitic 
mudstones,  but  in  the  cliff  on  the  north  side  at  the  junction  with  Birch 
Hollow  there  are  a  few  bands  of  hard  greensandstone  at  the  top,  similar 
to  those  of  the  lower  series.  These  u]:)per  greensands  contain  many  pyrite 
concretions  and  have  a  marked  yellow  efflorescence. 


346  Transactions. 

Fossils  are  very  scarce  in  the  Waipara  greensands,  the  most  common 
being  an  obscure  form  from  the  lower  group  which  has  defied  recognition. 
They  consist  of  calcareous  tubes,  |  in.  to  1  in.  in  diameter  and  a  few  inches 
in  length,  the  interior  being  filled  with  matrix.  Von  Haast  (1871b)  recorded 
the  presence  of  "  some  shells  which  appear  to  be  allied  to  Radiolites,"' 
and  the  specimens  he  collected  are  preserved  in  the  Geological  Survey  col- 
lections. They  resemble  the  calcareous  tubes  collected  b}^  me,  but  are 
distinguished  by  the  presence  of  nodal-like  marks  at  intervals,  giving  the 
specimens  an  external  resemblance  to  an  equisete  stem.  Dr.  Marie  Stopes, 
who  kindly  examined  the  series  of  specimens,  writes  that  they  are  certainlv 
not  Equisetinean  or  structures  of  any  higher  plant,  and  that  Professor 
Garwood,  who  also  carefully  examined  them,'  concluded  that  they  were  not 
algal ;  she  showed  them  also  to  specialists  working  on  lowly  animals,  but 
none  of  them  would  claim  them,  and  the  consensus  of  opinion  was  that 
they  were  inorganic.  Von  Haast  (1871a)  recorded  also  from  the  lower 
group  _■'  Waldheimia  leutmilaris  and  some  pieces  of  a  Pecten  too  small  for 
recognition,"  and  from  the  upper  group  two  small  Pectens,  Waldheimia 
lenticularis  and  Scalaria  hrowni  (?).  Park  (1888)  recorded  a  Waldheimia  and 
a  Pecten.  from  the  lower  group.  Unfortunately,  none  of  the  above  fossils 
are  preserved  in  the  Geological  Survey  collections.  McKay  (1877a)  col- 
lected bones  of  Cimoliosaurus  australis  in  a  detached  mass  of  greensand  near 
the  junction  of  Birch  Hollow  with  the  Waipara  River,  and  in  1913  I 
obtained  part  of  a  saurian  jaw  with  teeth  in  a  hard  band  near  the  top  of 
the  upper  group  at  the  same  locality.  These  two  saurian  occurrences  serve 
to  unite  the  Waipara  greensands  with  the  saurian  beds  in  the  Piripauan. 
There  is  every  appearance  of  conformity,  however,  with  the  succeeding 
group. 

Birch  Hollow. — The  sequence  of  the  "'  saurian  beds  "  and  Waipara 
greensands  in  Birch  Hollow  is  essentially  similar  to  ttiat  in  the  Waipara 
River,  but  owing  to  the  flatter  dips,  and  the  slipping  of  the  sides  of  the 
narrow  gorge,  the  thickness  of  the  beds  cannot  be  easily  estimated.  The 
creek  is  nearly  choked  below  the  Ostrea  bed  by  the  abundance  of  saurian 
concretions  coming  from  the  grey  sandy  mudstones.  Many  of  these  show 
saurian  bones  and  a  few  are  crowded  with  gasteropods,  but  are  too  hard 
to  break  with  an  ordinary  hammer.  A  good  collection  of  saurian  remains 
could  be  made  from  this  gorge  if  the  difficulties  of  transport  could  be  solved, 
but  they  are  very  considerable,  as  the  sides  form  sandy  cliffs  nearly  200  ft. 
in  height,  while  the  bottom  is  choked  for  over  a  mile  with  fallen  beech-trees 
and  large  boulders.  The  greensand  bed  separating  the  grey,  streaky,  sandy, 
concretionar)'  mudstones  below  from  the  purple  sulphur  mudstones  above 
is  about  6  ft.  thick,  and  is  characterized  by  an  abundance  of  small  quartz 
pebbles  of  about  ^  in.  diameter.  The  purple  micaceous  mudstones  are 
well  exposed  in  the  main  northerly  tributary,  which  I  did  not  explore,  and 
appear  to  be  upwards  of  200  ft.  thick..  They  do  not  appear  here  to  bear 
any  saurian  concretions,  and  I  noticed  only  one  small  concretion,  of  4  in. 
diameter.  The  banded  concretionary  greensands  do  not  appear  to  be  more 
than  50  ft.  thick,  while  the  succeeding  upper  greensands  at  the  mouth  of 
the  creek  are  perhaps  thicker  than  in  the  Waipara  River,  and  contain  an 
abundance  of  pyrite  nodules  up  to  3  in.  or  4  in.  in  diameter.  They  are 
very  dark,  richly  glauconitic,  soft  sandstones,  with  occasionally  a  tendency 
to  assume  a  shalv  parting,  and  in  places  have  a  very  strongly  marked 
sulphur  efflorescence.  From  them  I  obtained  a  minute  shark's  tooth,  con- 
sidered by  Mr.  P.  G.  Morgan  to  be  Odontaspis  sp.,  and  similar  to  0.  attenvata 
(Davis). 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District.    347 

Bohy's  Creek. — The  "  saurian  beds  "  and  Waipara  greensands  of  the 
Boby's  Creek  watershed  closely  resemble  those  in  the  Waipara  River.  The 
Ostrea  bed  is  followed  down-stream  by  sandstones  forming  grey  to  light- 
yellow  cliffs,  and  becoming  more  argillaceous  when  traced  upwards,  finally 
passing  into  grey  sandy  mudstones  with  marked  yellow  efflorescence.  Saurian 
concretions  commence  a  very  short  distance  above  the  oyster-bed,  but 
rarely  exceed  4  ft.  in  diameter.  Near  the  top  these  grey  mudstones  are 
notably  streaky  and  inclining  to  be  purple,  and  they  are  succeeded  by  a 
bed  of  loose  sand  about  20  ft.  thick,  which  in  turn  is  followed  by  similar 
streaky  mudstones  rapidly  passing  up  into  purple  micaceous  mudstones, 
which  here  abut  against  the  fault.  The  higher  beds  appear  on  the  high 
terrace  on  the  south  bank  and  up  the  most  easterly  tributary  on  this  side, 
and  consist  of  the  concretionary  greensands,  the  still  higher  laeds  not  being 
exposed.  The  thicknesses  of  the  above  beds  cannot  be  accurately  esti- 
mated, as  the  bedding-planes  are  not  well  expressed,  and  the  creek  runs 
obliquely  to  the  strike.  In  the  upper  part  of  Bell's  Creek,  besides  the 
above  rocks  a  small  exposure  of  the  upper  Waipara  greensands  occurs. 
The  whole  series  should  be  exposed  in  Boby's  Creek  above  the  waterfall, 
but  I  have  not  studied  it  there. 

The  following  species  of  saurians,  collected  by  Holmes,  Travers,  McKay, 
and  von  Haast,  have  been  determined  from  the  "  saurian  beds  "  of  Boby's 
Creek  :  Cimoliosaurus  australis  (Owen),  C.  haasti  (Hector),  and  C.  caudalis 
Hutt..  From  Hector's  collection  of  1867,  Chapman  (1918)  identified  the 
following  ^fish-remains  :  Teeth  of  Scapanorhynchus  suhulatus  (Ag.)  and  of 
Odontaspis  incurva  (Davis),  and  vertebrae  of  Lamna  (?).  Presumably  these 
are  from  the  "  saurian  beds." 

Weha  Creek. — The  Ostrea  beds  are  followed  by  loose  sands  of  consider- 
able thickness,  which  become  more  sulphurous  and  argillaceous  in  their 
upper  part.  The  succeeding  mudstones  are  harder  than  in  the  Waipara 
River,  and  in  places  are  almost, flinty  and  contain  impure  flint  nodules 
a  few  inches  in  diameter.  They  are  slightly  micaceous,  and  are  pale 
lilac  on  Aveathered  surfaces,  with  rusty  joint- planes  and  an  occasional  yellow 
efflorescence.  These  flinty  mudstones  present  a  great  resemblance  to 
Clarentian  flinty  mudstones  in  the  Kekerangu  and  Benmore  areas  both 
in  texture  and  colour.  In  their  upper  part  they  become  less  hard,  and 
greyer  in  colour.  No  saurian  concretions  are  seen  either  in  situ  or  in  the 
stream-gravels  lower,  down,  and  are  probably  absent  in  this  locality.  The 
succeeding  beds  (Waipara  greensands)  are  not  here  exposed,  owing  to  a  slip 
of  Aniuri  limestone  covering  them. 

In  the  northern  tributary  of  Weka  Creek  rising  near  Waikare  the  hard 
bands  of  the  Waipara  greensands  crop  out  at  a  number  of  points  or  form 
sheadings  on  the  lower  hills  below  the  high  cuesta  of  Amuri  limestone  and 
Weka  Pass  stone,  and  cross  over  into  the  Waikare  watershed  at  the  western 
end  of  Waikare  Township.  Thence  the  Waipara  greensands  extend  as  a 
narrow  strip  to  the  east  between  the  township  and  the  hills,  but  are  partly 
covered  by  surface  deposits  of  soft  limestone  and  sands.  Loose  greensands 
are  exposed  in  the  excavations  for  the  Waikare  hospital  site. 

Weka  Pass-  Waikare  Saddle. — Between  the  Waikare  flat^  and  the  upper 
])art  of  the  Weka  Pass  the  upper  Piripauan  beds  are  disposed  in  a  flatly- 
dipping  anticline  around  the  western  end  of  the  ridge  of  pre-Nptocene  rocks 
which  lies  to  the  south  of  the  Waikare  Stream,  and  are  exposed  in  the 
railway-cutting  on  the  saddle  near  the  47 -mile  peg  from  Chrktchurch.  The 
sides  of  this  cutting  are  now  considerably  slipped  and  Mavily  grassed. 
Hutton  (1885),  who  had  an  opportunity  of  examining  this  section  soon  after 


34:8  Transactions. 

the  cutting  was  made,  describes  the  beds,  from  below  upwards,  as  bright- 
green  argillaceous  sands,  calcareous  green  sandstone  with  shark's  teeth, 
dark-grey  micaceous  sandy  clay,  and  dark  greensands.  The  dark-grey 
sandy  clay  passes  in  places  into  hard  pale-lilac  flinty  mudstones  similar  to 
those  observed  in  the  Weka  Creek. 

East  Side  of  Weka  Pass. — In  the  valley  entering  the  Weka  Pass  Stream 
from  the  east  a  little  above  the  viaduct  the  hard  bands  of  the'  Waipara 
greensands  form  a  well-marked  cuesta  in  the  upper  half  of  the  valley,  which 
continues  over  the  saddle  down  to  the  upper  part  of  Chasm  Creek.  The 
hard  bands  appear  to  be  about  100  ft.  above  the  pre-Notocene  rocks,  and 
about  300  ft.  below  the  Amuri  limestone  and  Weka  Pass  stone  contact. 

Chasm  Creek  and  Omihi  Valley. — In  the  lower  part  of  Chasm  Creek 
and  the  more  easterly  tributaries  of  the  Omihi  Valley  the  Waipara  greensands 
are  not  exposed,  owing  to  an  overlap  first  of  the  Amuri  limestone  and 
underlying  sands,  and  finally  of  the  Weka  Pass  stone  on  to  the  pre-Notocene. 

Waikare  Valley. — About  eight  miles  east  of  Waikare,  Notocene  rocks 
appear  on  the  south  .side  of  the  Waikare  Valley  and  extend  for  some  miles 
to  the  eastward.  A  continuous  section  of  the  beds  below  the  Weka  Pass 
stone  is  not  exposed,  but  I  observed  in  a  small  road  entering  the  hills 
near  what  was  Mr.  Davy's  farm  that  hard  banded  greensandstones,  exactly 
similar  to  the  lower  group  of  the  Waipara  greensands,  here  form  the  base  of 
the  sequence,  and  rest  directly  on  the  pre-Notocene  rocks.  Higher  up  some 
loose  sands  were  observed,  but  no  typical  Amuri  limestone  was  seen,  and 
the  total  thickness  of  the  beds  below  the  Weka  Pass  stone  does  not  appear 
to  exceed  100  ft. 

Kaitangatan. 

Amuri  Limestone. 
■  The  upper  part  of  the  Amuri  limestone  throughout  the  district  is  a 
glistening-white,  hard,  very  fine-grained  limestone,  which  is  generally  at 
the  surface  closely  jointed  into  small  cuboidal  blocks.  The  lower  part  is 
more  argillaceous  and  greyer  in  colour,  and  has  a  much 'coarser  fracture. 
It  passes  down  by  imperceptible  stages  into  a  grey  mudstone,  and  this  in 
turn  becomes  a  glauconitic  mudstone  with  nests  of  glauconite  distributed 
in  an  apparently  capricious  manner.  This  latter  rock  in  the  Waipara  River 
rests  with  apparent  conformity  on  the  Waipara  greensands,  and  much 
resembles  the  uppermost  saurian  mudstone  immediately  underlying  the 
concretionary  greensands.  In  the  eastern  end  of  the  district,  however, 
the  glauconitic  mudstones  under  the  Amuri  limestone  rest  on  loose  sands, 
which  appear  to  be  interposed  between  them  and  the  Waipara  greensands. 
For  this  reason,  and  because  no  distinctively  Piripauan  fossils  have  been 
found  in  them,  they  have  been  included  with  the  Amuri  limestone. 

The  microscopical  characters  of  the  Amuri  limestone  of  Weka  Pass 
have  been  briefly  described  by  Marshall  (1916a),  who  describes  it  as  a 
pure  Glohigerina  oo^e  :  "  The  chambers  of  Globigerina,  which  are  generally 
isolated,  are  fairly  numerous.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  rock  consists 
of  very  finely  grained  calcite."  Near  the  contact  of  the  Weka  Pass  green- 
sand  it  "  contains  a  considerable  number  of  grains  of  quartz  sand  and  some 
glauconite,  as  well  as  some  brown  mica." 

A  number  of  analyses  of  Amuri  limestone  from  the  Weka  Pass  have 
been  published  with  a  view  to  the  comparison  of  its  composition  with  that 
of  pebbles  in  the  Weka  Pass  greensand,  or  with  that  of  the  Weka  Pass  stone. 
These  are  collected  in  the  following  table,  along  with  analyses  of  the  latter 
rocks,  and  have  been  in  part  recalculated. 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  We7va  Pass  District.    349 


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350  Transactions. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  hard  white  limestone  at  the  top  consists  of 
80  to  88  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  14  to  6  per  cent,  of  silica.  The 
grey  limestone  50  ft.  to  80  ft.  below  the  upper  surface  contains  only  66  per 
cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime. 

The  Amuri  limestone  contains  few  microscopic  fossils  either  within 
the  district  or  elsewhere.  In  the  small  gorge  above  the  viaduct  in  the 
Weka  Pass  I  observed  a  small  fragment  of  a  Pecten  about  25  ft.  below  the 
upper  surface.  Foraminifera  constitute  a  fair  proportion  of  the  rock,  and 
from  a  collection  which  I  made  from  the  uppermost  3  ft.  in  the  above 
locality  Mr.  F.  Chapman  determined  the  following  forms  :  Guembelina 
globulosa  (Ehr.),  Bulimina  obtusa  d'Orb.,  Bulimina  sp.  nov.,  Globigerina 
cretacea  d'Orb.,  Anomalina  ammonoides  (Eeuss),  and  Pulvinulina  elegans 
(d'Orb.).  From  the  same  locality,  25  ft.  to  30ft.  below  the  upper  surface, 
he  determined  Nodosaria  annulata  Reuss,  Globigerina  bulloides  d'Orb.,  ^ 
Anomalina  ammonoides  (Reuss),  and  Pulvinulina  elegans  (d'Orb.).  These 
forms,  he  considers,  establish  the  Danian  age  of  the  rock. 

The  underlying  glauconitic  mudstones  yield  Foraminifera,  Ostracoda, 
fish -scales  and  vertebrae,  and  fragments  of  molluscs  and  brachiopods. 
The  fossiliferous  nature  of  this  horizon  has  only  recently  been  established, 
and  the  specimens,  excepting  the  brachiopods,  have  not  been  examined 
by  specialists.  The  brachiopods  include  a  species  of  Aetheia  hardly  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  Oamaruian  A.  gaidteri.  The  remainder  bear  no 
resemblance  to  Oamaruian  species,  and  include  a  new  genus  of  Terebratellid. 
I  hope  to  describe  these  and  other  Cretaceous  brachiopods  in  the  near  future. 

Waipara  River. — The  best  section  through  the  Amuri  limestone  is  that 
afforded  by  the  banks  of  the  Waipara  River  at  the  Limestone  Gorge  and 
on  the  south  bank  for  some  distance  above  it.     The  following  beds  are 
exposed  : — - 

Hard,  white  (chalky),  closely-jointed  limestone,  including    Feet. 
a  few  marly  bands  near  the  base  .  .  . .     100- 

Softer,  grey,  argillaceous  (marly)  limestone  with  'Coarser 

bedding  and  jointing       . .  .  .  . .  .  .       60 

Grey  mudstone,  passing  down  into  dark  blue-grey  streaky 
mudstone,  with  nests  and  streaks  of  glauconite       . .     300 

The  upper  white  hmestone  is  thin-bedded  and  closely  jointed  in  all  directions. 
It  forms  nearly  vertical  cliffs,  passing  below  into  grassy  talus-slopes.  The 
grev  limestone  is  thicker-bedded  and  less  jointed,  and  has  a  spheroidal 
weathering  like  a  mudstone.  It  is  sometimes  known  as  the  "  fucoidal 
limestone,""  from  the  presence  of  a  peculiar  fossil  (?)  known  as  the  Amuri 
''  fucoid,""  shown  in  fig.  5.  This  consists  of  rudely  conical  masses  of  limestone, 
with  the  apex  of  the  cone  directed  upwards,  the  diameter  of  the  base  ranging 
from  a  few  inches  up  to  3  ft.  From  the  apex  of  the  cone  coarse  flutings 
radiate  to  the  exterior,  the  flutings  being  rounded  on  the  bottom,  and  the 
intervening  ridges  rounded  or  angular  according  to  the  shape  of  the  flutings. 
The  surfaces  on  which  the  latter  are  developed  are  not  strictly  conical, 
but  sometimes  almost  spiral,  as  in  the  figure.  Occasionally  the  flutings 
bifucate.  The  "  fucoids "'  occur  chiefly  in  the  main  mass  of  the  grey  marly 
limestone,  but  are  best  displayed  in  a  marly  band,  about  18  in.  thick,  10  ft. 
above  the  base  of  the  white  limestone.  Besides  the  "  fucoids  "  the  grey 
limestone  contains  numerous  Foraminifera  and  many  small  chitinous  flakes. 
It  was  to  a  small  fragment  of  the  Amuri  "  fucoid,"  labelled  "  Culverden," 
but  more  probably  from  the  Waipara  or  Amuri  Bluff,  that  Hutton  gave 
the  name  of  Pinna  jolicata. 


Thomson.- — Geology  .of  Middle,  Waipara  and  Weka  Fetss  District .     351 

The  mudstones  down  into  whicli  the  grey  limestone  passes  are  variable 
rocks,  being  in  places  ordinary  dark-grey  mudstones,  in  others  very  glauco- 
nitic  mudstones,  but  for  the  most  part  consisting  of  a  mudstone  matrix, 
blue  when  freshly  broken,  white  when  weathered,  containing  small  and  large 
nests  of  glauconite  in  large  grains.  They  thus  resemble  considerably  the 
saurian  sandy  mudstones,  but  are  more  argillaceous  and  glauconitic.  There 
appear  to  be  about  300  ft.  of  these  beds  above  the  large  river-meander  on 
the  south  bank,  and  probably  a  greater  thickness  between  the  mouth  of 
Birch  Hollow  and  the  limestone  gorge  on  the  south  side.  Foraminifera  are 
abundant  throughout,  but  are  mostly  rotted.  Shell-fragments  are  present 
in  a  few  places,  while  fish-scales  and  vertebrae  and  obscure  plant-remains 
are  fairly  frequent.  In  the  cliffs  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river  below  Birch 
Hollow  crushed  tubes  of  Teredo  are  not  infrequent,  but  no  other  shells  were 
obtained.  From  a  cliff"  on  the  east  side  of  the  small  creek  on  the  right  bank 
I  obtained  a  number  of  fragments  of  brachiopods.  It  is  eriiinently  desirable 
that  as  complete  a  collection  as  possible  should  be  made  from  this  horizon. 


Fig.  5. — The  Amuri  "fucoid." 

BelVs  Creek,  Bohifs  Creek. — In  the  upper  part  of  Bell's  Creek,  and  in 
a  small  tributary  which  has  cut  a  gorge  through  the  Amuri  limestone, 
the  lower,  grey  limestone  and  the  underlying  glauconitic  mudstones  are 
exposed  in  a  number  of  small  cliffs,  not  furnishing  a  connected  section.  The 
glauconitic  mudstones  resemble  those  in  the  Waipara  River,  and  contain 
large  and  small  Foraminifera*  fish-scales,  and  various  spines  and  spicules, 
but  no  shells  were  obtained  except  a  single  fragment  of  a  brachiopod.  Near 
the  base  these  rocks  contain  numerous  rounded  white  and  green  quartz 
pebbles  up  to  J  in.  diameter,  and  small  rounded  pieces  of  retinite  up  to 
I  in.  diameter. 

Weka  Creek. — The  Waipara  greensands  are  not  exposed  in  the  main 
branch  of  Weka  Creek,  owing  to  a  slip  of  limestone  overlying  them,  and 
the  succeeding  glauconitic  mudstones  are  also  mostly  obscured.  The  upper 
12  ft.  of  the  latter  bed  is  exposed  in  the  cliffs  of  a  small  creek  entering 
from  the  west  just  above  the  limestone  gorge,  and  consist  of  dark  mudstones 
with  nests  of  glauconite  similar  to  that  below  the  Amuri  limestone  in  the 
Waipara  River.  They  are  directly  succeeded  by  the  marly  limestone,  of 
which  about  30  ft.  is  exposed.  The  same  mudstones  occur  in  the  bed 
of  the  Weka  Creek  at  the  junction  of  this  tributary,  and  yield  fish-scales 
and  vertebrae  and  Foraminifera. 


352  Transactions. 

Weka  Pass. — The  exposures  of  the  lower  part  of  tlie  Amuri  limestone 
are  not  very  good  in  the  Weka  Pass.  Morgan, (1915)  has  noted  the  following 
sequence  : — 

(1.)  Amuri  limestone,  fairly  pure,  40  ft.  or  less  in  thickness.     This 

is  much  jointed  and  even  shattered  in  places. 
(2.)  Amuri   limestone,    argillaceous,    about   40  ft.    thick.     This   rock 
where  exposed  to  weathering  breaks  into  small   cuboidal  or 
irregularly-shaped  fragments. 
(3.)  Calcareous    light-grey    claystone,    probably   between   40  ft.    and 
50  ft.   thick.     Exposed  surfaces  break  into   very  small  frag- 
ments. 
(4.)  Uncemented  sand,  with  lumps  of  clay. 

Waikare. — An  important  exposure  has  recently  been  made  by  the  excava- 
tion for  soft  (surface)  limestone  in  Trounce's  pit,  a  mile  west  of  Waikare. 
This  pit  lies  on  the  grassy  slopes  below  the  outcrop  of  the  outlier  of  Amuri 
limestone,  and  has  passed  through  the  surface  deposit  of  soft  limestone  into 
a  tough  glauconitic  mudstone,  which  exactly  resembles  those  below  the 
Amuri  limestone  at  Weka  Creek  and  the  Waipara  River.  Mr.  B.  C.  Aston 
has  determined  the  carbonate  of  lime  as  10  per  cent.  It  contains  numerous 
Foramanifera  and  rare  sharks'  teeth  and  brachiopods,  including  Aetheia 
sp.  cf.  gaulteri. 

From  borings  made  in  the  grassy  slopes  below  the  pit,  and  from  the 
presence  of  springs  farther  down,  it  appears  that  the  above  mudstone  rests 
on  glauconitic  sands,  which  in  turn  rest  on  some  impermeable  bed,  along 
the  top  of  which  a  series  of  springs  appears. 

Omihi  Creek. — North-north-east  of  Mount  Donald  the  Amuri  limestone 
and  underlying  rocks  are  exposed  in  a  small  dry  gorge  tributary  to  the 
main  tributary  of  the  Omihi  Creek.  The  lowest  beds  exposed  are  about 
60  ft.  of  yellow  sands,  mostly  fine-grained  but  with  a  fair  proportion  of 
large  well-rounded  quartz  grains  and  much  white  mica.  These  become 
glauconitic  and  harder  3  ft.  from  the  top,  and  are  succeeded  by  15  ft.  of 
glauconitic  mudstone,  which  passes  up  into  5  ft.  of  fucoidal  argillaceous 
limestone  with  a  good  deal  of  glauconite.  This  is  succeeded  by  the  con- 
cretionary band  of  the  Weka  Pass  stone,  here  about  6  ft.  thick,  which  in 
turn  is  followed  by  40  ft.  to  50  ft.  of  typical  Weka  Pass  stone. 

The  sands  at  the  base  are  well  exposed  farther  up  the  main  tributary 
of  the  Omihi  Creek,  and  rest  upon  the  Waipara  greensands. 

Farther  east,  although  there  are  no  clear  exposures,  the  beds  between 
the  Weka  Pass  stone  and  the  pre-Notocene  rocks  greatly  diminish  in  thick- 
ness, and  it  is  probable  that  no  Amuri  limestone  exists.  East  of  Moore's 
Hill  South  the  beds  below  the  Weka  Pass  stone  again  increase  in  thickness, 
and  near  Davy's  farm  sands  similar  to  those  described  above  are  seen 
between  the  Waipara  greensands  and  the  Weka  -Pass  stone. 

# 

Oamaruian. 
Weka  Pass  Greensand  and  Weka  Pass  Stone. 

The  "  Weka  Pass  stone  "  is  an  old  quarryman's  name  for  the  building- 
stone  of  the  Weka  Pass,  and  was  introduced  into  geological  literature  by 
Hutton  (1877),  who  included  imder  it  not  only  the  limestone,  formerly 
used  as  a  building-stone,  but  also  the  calcareous  greensandstone  down  into 
which  the  limestone  passes.  McKay  referred  to  the  latter  rock  as  the 
"  greensand  conglomerate,"  while  Speight  and  Wild  termed  it  the  "  nodular 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and.  Weha  Pass  Disfricf .     353 

band  "  or  ""  layer."  Since  it  is  not  always  nodular  within  the  district, 
but  is  always  more  glauconitic  than  the  overlying  limestone,  it  is  admissible 
to  name  it  the  "  Weka  Pass  greensand,"  and  to  confine  the  name  of  "  Weka 
Pass  stone  "  to  the  overlying  limestone.  There  are  thus  two  greensand 
horizons  both  in  the  Weka  Pass  and  the  Middle  Waipara — viz.,  the  Waipara 
greensand  below  the  Amuri  limestone,  and  the  Weka  Pass  greensand  resting 
on  the  Amuri  limestone.  There. is  a  third  greensand  horizon  in  the  Waipara 
River — viz.,  a  facies  of  the  "grey  marls"  resting  on  the  Weka  Pass  stone. 

The  Weka  Pass  stone  is  an  arenaceous,  slightly  glauconitic  limestone, 
50  ft.  to  100  ft.  thick,  the  calcareous  part  of  which  is  composed  of  the 
tests  of  Foraminifera  and  a  fine-grained  base  similar  to  that  of  the  Amuri 
limestone.  In  some  parts,  where  the  terrigenous  elements  are  feebly 
developed,  the  rock  becomes  almost  indistinguishable  from  the  Amuri 
limestone,  and,  like  it,  is  then  thin-bedded  and  closely  jointed,  but  for  the 
most  part  it  is  coarser  in  texture,  is  cream-coloured  instead  of  white,  and 
is  thick-bedded  and  not  closely  jointed.  Consequently  it  presents,  as  Morgan 
(1915)  pointed  out,  a  more  massive  appearance  in  natural  exposures  than 
the  Amuri  limestone.  Its  chemical  composition  is  shown  in  Table  IV,  con- 
sisting mainly  of  67  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  22  per  cent,  of  silica, 
whereas  the  Weka  Pass  greensand  contains  only  47  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of 
lime  and  35  per  cent,  of  silica.  The  Weka  Pass  greensand,  being  a  softer 
rock  than  the  two  limestones  it  separates,,  is  generally  hollowed  out,  and 
the  Weka  Pass  stone  overhangs  the  hollow  in  a  massive  rounded  ledge 
(Plate  XIX,  fig.  1).  Where  the  Amuri  limestone  below  is  also  cliffed  the 
hollow  of  the  greensand  makes  a  marked  break  in  the  cliff,  which  is  often 
occupied  by  a  sheep-walk.  Along  certain  parts  of  the  outcrop  the  Weka  Pass 
stone  is  apparently  weaker  towards  erosion  than  the  Amuri  limestone,  and 
instead  of  overhanging  it  in  a  cliff,  as  is  usually  the  case,  forms  a  small  cuesta 
at  the  foot  of  the  dip-slope  of  the  more  prominent  Amuri  limestone  cuesta. 
This  is  the  case  between  Onepunga  Farm  (to  the  south  of  Boby's  Creek) 
and  Mount  Grey,  and  for  a  short  distance  north-east  of  the  North  Dean. 
At  Onepunga  the  Weka  Pass  stone  is  rather  more  glauconitic  than  usual, 
and  Speight  and  Wild  have  suggested  that  this  and  the  greater  abundance 
of  phosphatic  nodules  are  evidence  that  the  old  shore-line  is  being  approached. 
More  direct  evidence  would  be  an  increase  in  the  percentage  and  ^rain- 
size  oi  the  terrigenous  material ;  and,  as  this  is  wanting,  the  suggestion 
lacks  weight,  more  especially  as  the  confirmatory  evidence  of  overlap  of 
the  lower  beds  is  absent  in  this  locality. 

The  Weka  Pass  greensand  presents  two  facies.  In  a  few  localities  it  is  a 
simple  slightlv  glauconitic  calcareous  sandstone  presenting  no  peculiarities. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  in  the  middle  part  of  the  limestone  clifis  south  of 
the  Waipara  River,  between  the  road  leading  down  from  the  Ram  Paddock 
to  the  river  and  the  limestone  gorge.  Lenticular  masses  of  glauconitic 
material  appear  in  the  upper  part  of  the  Amuri  limestone,  and  these 
gradually  increase  in  number  and  size  until  the  whole  mass  becomes 
glauconitic,  and  after  a  few  feet  passes  insensibly  into  the  Weka  pass  stone. 
At  this  locality  "  fucoids  "  are  abundant  in  the  upper  part  of  the  greensand 
(Plate  XIX,  fig.  2),  including  a  peculiar  type  with  curved  transverse  divisions 
like  the  septa  of  an  Orthoceras,  but  unsymmetrical. 

Elsewhere  the  Weka  Pass  greensand  presents  a  very  peculiar  contact 
towards  the  Amuri  limestone,  a  contact  which  has  been  repeatedh'  claimed 
as  unconformable  and  with  which  a  very  considerable  proportion  of  the 
literature  on  the  district  has  been  concerned.  \  Little  can  be  added  to  the 

12— Trans. 


354  Transactions. 

detailed  descriptions  by  Morgan  (1915,  1916)  and  tlie  exhaustive  discussion 
by  Speight  and  Wild  (1918).  The  upper  beds  of  the  Amuri  limestone  are 
not  compact,  but  consist  of  small  separated  blocks  of  white  limestone,  a  few 
inches  in  diameter,  in  the  interstices  of  which  there  occurs  a  filling  of 
calcareous  greensand  of  the  same  nature  as  the  overlying  bed  of  greensand. 
The  upper  1  ft.  or  2  ft.  are  most  affected,  but  the  penetration  of  the  lime- 
stone by  the  greensand  occasionally  reaches  a  depth  of  6  ft.  The  blocks  of 
limestone  are  mostly  irregular  in  outline,  and  similar  in  shape  to  the  cuboidal 
blocks  isolated  by  jointing  throughout  the  limestone.  Morgan  describes 
the  fissures  between  the  blocks  as  irregular  cavities,  following  joint- 
planes  to  a  great  extent,  but  evidently  enlarged  by  chemical  erosion  or 
solution,  and  mentions  the  existence  of  small  peninsulas  of  limestone,  some 
of  which  are  joined  only  by  a  narrow  neck  to  the  main  mass,  extending 
several  inches  upward  into  the  glauconitic  sandstone.  Speight  and  Wild 
describe  the  Amuri  limestone  as  "  jointed  into  flaky  quadrangular  blocks, 
the  upper  2  ft.  or  more  being  bored  by  marine  worms  and  the  casts  filled 
with  glauconitic  sandstone.  The  amount  of  boring  increases  progressive!}'- 
upwards  until  what  may  be  called  the  transitional  layer  is  reached."  When 
I  first  examined  the  contact,  in  1912,  I  noted  occasional  borings  with 
round  sections  in  the  limestone,  filled  with  glauconitic  calcareous  sandstone, 
but  I  formed  the  impression  that  the  greater  part  of  the  penetration  of  the 
limestone  by  the  greensand  had  taken  place  along  joint-planes  enlarged 
by  solution,  and  after  re-examining  the  contact  with  Speight  and  Wild's 
explanation  in  mind  I  am  still  of  the  same  opinion,  and  agree  with  Morgan. 
I  noted  also  in  the  gorge  of  the  Weka  Pass  Stream  above  the  viaduct  that 
5  ft.  below  the  contact,  where  the  limestone  is  practically  undisturbed,  there 
are  occasionally  bedded  lenticular  masses  of  glauconitic  calcareous  sandstone 
within  the  limestone.  Speight  and  Wild  observed  a  similar  phenomenon  in 
the  Weka  Cireek,  where  they  describe  the  limestone  as  breaking  into  quad- 
rangular blocks,  with  interstitial  calcareous  greensand  in  layers  parallel  to 
the  bedding  in  its  upper  portions,  very  occasional  burrows  extending  to  6  ft. 
below  the  actual  junction. 

The  uppermost  part  of  the  Amuri  limestone,  termed  by  Speight  and  Wild 
the  "  transitional  layer,"  they  describe  as  follows  :  "  This  consists  in  its 
lower  part  of  Amuri  limestone  material  thoroughly  bored,  with  the  interstices 
filled  with  glauconitic  limestone.  The  result  of  the  boring  increases  progres 
sively,  and  the  quantity  of  glauconitic  material  increases  ^mr*  passu.  The 
upper  6  in.  is  completely  bored,  so  that  peninsulas  of  Amuri  liinestone 
project  at  times  into  the  overlying  glauconitic  layer,  and  at  times  become 
detached  and  resemble  subangular  pebbles  in  appearance.  They  are  more 
phosphatic  than  the  underlying  limestones,  and  the  included  glauconitic 
limestone  is  more  phosphatic  than  the  overlying  glauconitic  layer.  Included 
in  this  band  are  small  angular  nodules,  green  or  black  in  colour,  which 
are  strongly  phosphatic.  Very  occasionally  small  well-rounded  pebbles  of 
quartz,  about  ^  in.  in  diameter,  are  met  with." 

The  lowest  layer  of  the  greensand,  described  in  the  last  part  of  the  above 
extract,  is  termed  by  Speight  and  Wild  the  ''  nodular  layer."  The  great 
majority  of  the  inclusions  are  vSubangular  pieces  of  Amuri  limestone,  slightly 
phosphatized,  and  the  true  phosphatic  concretions  are  relatively  scarce  and 
quite  small.  The  limestone  inclusions  are  most  abundant  in  the  lower  12  in. 
of  the  greensand,  but  occur  sporadically  up  to  2  ft.  from  the  base,  and  are 
then,  according  to  Morgan,  mostly  rounded.  In  addition  to  the  quartz 
pebbles  noted  in  the  Weka  Pass,  Speight  and  Wild  record  a  well-rounded 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  Districf.    355 

pebble  of  greywacke  near  Boby's  Creek,  while  Morgan  records  one  or  two 
very  small  pebbles  of  greywacke,  together  with  a  small  rounded  phosphatic 
lump,  probably  a  fragment  of  bone.  I  have  obtained  from  various  localities 
rounded  quartz  pebbles  up  to  |  in.  diameter,  a  subangular  pebble  of  quartz - 
schist  1  in.  long,  and  flattened  pebbles  of  schistose  greywacke  over  1  in.  in 
diameter.  The  upper  part  of  the  greensand  passes  by  an  increase  of  its 
calcareous  content  quite  gradually  into  the  Weka  Pass  stone. 

The  Weka  Pass  stone  and  greensand  contain  fossils  only  sparingly,  the 
chief  horizon  being  at  the  transition  bed  of  the  two  rocks,  on  the  underside 
of  the  overhanging  blufis  so  commonly  developed.  The  richest  locality  for 
fossils  is  at  Onepunga. 

Cetacean  bones  occur  fairly  commonly,  but  are  rarely  perfect.  I  obtained 
an  ear-bone  of  a  whale  from  Onepunga.  Sharks'  teeth  are  fairly  widespread, 
and  I  collected  the  following  :  From  Onepunga,  Isurus  desori  and  Lamna 
apiculata  ;  north-west  of  Mount  Brown,  Odontaspis  elegans  ;  cliffs  overlook- 
ing Waipara  River,  Isurus  retroplexus,  I.  desori  (identified  by  Mr.  P.  Gr. 
Morgan).  In  addition  Chapman  identified  the  following  species,  believed  to 
come  from  the  Weka  Pass  stone,  though  the  exact  locality  is  uncertain  : 
Odontaspis  incurva,  Odontaspis  sp.,  Isurus  desori,  Carcharodon  megalodon,  and 
Scomhrochqoea  cf.  macrophthalma  (Heckel).  The  specimen  of  Carcharodon 
megalodon  was  labelled  "  Boby's  Creek,"  and  Chapman  states  that  he 
examined  the  matrix,  and  had  no  hesitation  in  stating  that  it  came  from 
the  -Weka  Pass  stone.  There  is,  however,  no  outcrop  of  this  rock  in  the 
main  branches  of  Boby's  Creek,  though  the  specimen  may  have  come  from 
the  slopes  of  Mount  Brown. 

Of  molluscs,  Pecten  huttoni  and  Epitonium  lyratum  are  the  most  abimdant, 
and  occur  in  the  cliffs  overlooking  the  Waipara  River,  north-west  of  Mount 
Brown,  at  Onepunga,  in  the  Weka  Pass,  and  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
Weka  Pass  Stream.  At  Onepunga  T  obtained  in  addition  Struthiolaria 
spinosa,  Euthria  media  (Hutt.)  ?,  Voluta  sp.  cf.  protorhysa  Tate,  Turris  alius, 
Dentaliuni  solidum,  Limopsis  aurita,  Teredo  heaphyi,  and  indeterminable 
species  of  Atiiria,  Polinices,  Architectonica,  Pleurotomaria,  Trochus,  and 
Ostrea.  From  the  cuesta  between  the  Deans  and  the  Waipawa  River  I 
obtained  the  holotype  of  Lima  imitata  Sut.,  and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
river  observed  casts  of  ribbed  Pectens  on  the  back  slope  of  the  cuesta. 

Of  brachiopods,  Aetlieia  gaulteri  is  most  widespread,  being  found  at 
Onepunga,  between  the  Deans  and  the  Weka  Creek,  and  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  Weka  Pass  Stream.  Pachymagas  cottoni  n.  sp.  has  been  obtained 
from  Onepunga  and  the  clifis  overlooking  the  W^aipara  River.  P.  huttoni 
has  been  collected  at  Onepunga. 

Foraminifera  are  fairly  abundant  as  isolated  large  examples  at  many 
localities,  while  smaller  species  occur  throughout  the  rock.  From  a  col- 
lection made  in  the  small  gorge  above  the  viaduct  in  the  Weka  Pass 
Mr.  F.  Chapman  has  identified  {inter  alia)  Clavulina  antipodum  Stache, 
Polymorphina  lingulata  Stache,  and  TruncatuUna  thiasa  (Stache).  From 
an  examination  of  these  and  other  Foraminifera  and  the  sharks'  teeth  he 
considers  that  the  rock  is  probably  Eocene. 

Echinoid  fragments  and  spines  "are  common  at  many  localities,  and 
Graphidaria  sp.  and  casts  of  other  corals  are  found  at  Onepunga. 

Hutton  (1885  b,  c)  recorded  a  large  number  of  fossils  from  the  Weka  Pass 
stone,  including  many  of  those  mentioned  above.  The  additional  species  (in 
modern  nomenclature)  are  :  Scaphella  elongata,  Volida  attenuata  (cf.  F.  sp. 
cf.  protorhysa,  above),  Epitonium  rotundum,  Galeodea  senex,  Pleurotomaria 

12* 


356  Transactions. 

tertiaria,  Aturia  ziczac  var.  australis,  Lima  laevigata,  Peden  wilUamsoni, 
P.  fischeri,  P.  heethami  var.  B  ;  beside  brachiopods,  ecliinoids,  corals,  and 
sharks'  teetb,  in  which  Hutton's  identifications  cannot  be  so  safely  accepted. 
Unfortmiately,  many  of  the  older  collections  in  the  Canterbury  Museum  are 
labelled  simply  "  Weka  Pass,"  without  reference  to  the  exact  horizon.  It  is 
possible  that  the  species  he  identified  as  Lima  laevigata  should  be  L.  imitafa, 
which  resembles  it  in  size. 

The  Weka  Pass  stone  presents  little  variation  in  composition  and  thick- 
ness throughout  the  district.  Morgan  estimates  it  at  100  ft.  thick  in  the 
Weka  Pass  Stream.  Usually  it  is  not  so  thick,  the  average  being  perhaps 
60  ft.  It  succeeds  the  Amuri  limestone  everywhere  this  is  developed, 
but  in  the  tributaries  of  the  Omihi  Creek  east  of  Mount  Donald  it  overlaps 
the  Amuri  limestone  and  rests  directly  on  the  greywackes  of  the  Moore's 
Hills  block.  No  actual  exposure  of  the  junction  can  be  seen,  but  there 
is  a  small,  flat-lying  outlier  lying  off  the  second  V  outcrop  uphill  east  of 
Moimt  Donald,  and  near  the  top  of  a  road  leading  from  the  Waikare  Valley, 
■which  approaches  within  20  yards  of  an  outcrop  of  greywackes,  with  only 
a  few  feet  difference  in  level,  so  that  not  more  than  20  ft.  of  beds  can 
separate  the  two  rocks.  The  neighbouring  greywacke  surface  has  all  the 
characters  of  a  recently  stripped  fossil  peneplain.  The  Weka  Pass  stone 
in  this  neighbourhood  is  more  glauconitic  than  usual,  with  fairly  numerous 
dark  phosphatic  concretions,  and  has  a  peculiar  pencil-like  or  thumb-like 
fracture. 

The  "  Grey  Marls  "  and  Mount  Brown  Beds. 

The  beds  following  the  Weka  Pass  stone  have  long  been  known  as  the 
■'  grey  marls  "  and  the  Mount  Brown  beds,  and  the  conformity  or  uncon- 
formity of  these  two  sets  of  beds  has  been  much  canvassed,  but  there 
has  been  no  close  definition  of  what  is  to  be  included  in  these  two  series. 
"  Grey  marls  "  by  common  consent  include  any  mudstone  between  the 
Weka  Pass  stone  and  the  overlying  limestones,  which  also  by  common 
consent  are  included  in  the  Momit  Brown  beds  ;  but  between  these  two 
limits  there  is  also  a  considerable  thickness  of  sands  and  sandstones  ;  and, 
moreover  the  upper  limit-— viz.,  the  lowest  Limestone  of  the  Mount  Brown 
series — is  not  a  persistent  lithological  horizon  in  the  district.  It  will  there- 
fore be  convenient  to  describe  these  two  "  series  "  together. 

Five  limestones  must  be  distinguished  in  the  Mount  Brown  series,  and 
may  be  conveniently  indicated  by  the  letters  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E.  The 
lowest.  A,  forms  a  cuesta  on  the  Ram  Paddock,  and  also  on  the  watershed 
between  Boby's  Creek  and  the  Kowhai  River,  towards  Mount  Grey.  It 
is  a  white  polyzoan  impure  limestone  containing  in  places  an  abundance  of 
large  cup-shaped  Polyzoa,  and  is  the  "  white  and  yellowish  calcareous  sand- 
stone "  of  Hector  (1869),  and  the  "  Bryozoa  beds  "  of  Haast  (1871).  The 
succeeding  limestones,  except  the  last,  are  mostly  reddish-brown  rubbly 
arenaceous  limestones,  the  calcareous  matter  being  largely  comminuted 
shells  of  various  marine  organisms.  Polyzoa,  barnacles,  or  brachiopods  in 
places  constitute  the  greater  part  of  the  limestones,  and  there  are  also 
molluscan  shell-beds.  The  second,  B,  forms  the  lower  of  the  two  limestone 
cuestas  on  the  south-east  side  of  the  ^eka  Pass,  and  contains  few  fossils 
except  small  cup-shaped  Polyzoa  and  barnacles.  It  may  possibly  be  the 
same  as  the  third,  C,  which  forms  the  lower 'band  on  the  cliffs  overlooking 
the  Waipara  River  below  the  limestone  gorge,  and  is  characterized  by 
the  presence  of  the  brachiopod  Magadina  waiparensis  Thomson.  The 
fourth,   D,   is   the    main    band    throughout    the    district,    occupying  the 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weha  Pass  Districf.     357 

top  of  the  ridge  overlooking  the  Weka  Pass,  the  greater  part  of  the  sky- 
line between  the  Weka  Creek  and  the  Waipara  River,  and  the  summit 
of  Moimt  Brown.  It  contains  a  rich  brachiopod  fauna,  the  commonest 
species  being  Magadina  hrowni  Thomson,  Pachymagas  jJCirH  (Hutton),  and 
species  of  Rhizothyris.  The  uppermost  limestone,  E,  forms  the  cuesta. south- 
east of  the  main  band,  D,  at  the  approach  to  the  Weka  Pass,  and  is 
characterized  by  the  brachiopods  Neothyris  novara  (von  Ihering)  and 
Stethothyris  sxiffiata  (Tate). 

Middle  Waipara,  South  of  Boby's  Creek  Faidt. — Starting  at  the  westerji 
end  of  the  district,  in  the  tributary  of  Boby's  Creek  rising  near  Mount  Grey, 
the  Weka  Pass  stone  passes  up  gradually  into  grey  mudstones,  the  typical 
"grey  marls,"  which  are  here  apparently  200ft.  to  300ft.  thick.  They 
yielded  Verconella  costata,  Malletia  australis,  Limojisis  aurita,  Pecten  hnttoni, 
and  Diplodon  zelandica  (Gray)  ?.  Above  these  the  seetion  is  not  clear,  but 
there  are  sands  containing  Turritella  and  Malletia.  The  watershed  between 
Boby's  Creek  and  the  Kowhai  River  is  here  occupied  by  a  cuesta  of  the 
lowest  Mount  Brown  limestone,  A,  which  is  a  white  polyzoan  limestone, 
about  50  ft.  thick.  It  yielded  Pecten  hnttoni,  fragments  of, a  ribbed  Pecten, 
and  Pachymagas  clarkei  n.  sp.  The  higher  Mount  Brown  limestones  were 
not  here  studied. 

In  Mount  Brown  two  bands  of  reddish-brown  limestone  may  be  dis- 
tinguished. The  lower,  B,  is  not  richly  fossiliferous,  but  has  yielded 
Anomia  trigonopsis  and  Pecten  jjaZmi^es.  Bed  C  has  not  been  identified, 
but  the  upper  band,  D,  forming  the  summit,  is  thicker  than  usual.  Fossils 
are  scarce  near  the  summit  on  either  side,  but  in  the  cliffs  overlooking  the 
Waipara  River,  where  over  100  ft.  of  limestone  is  exposed,  there  is  a  very 
persistent  band,  formed  mainly  of  Magadina  hrowni,  near  the  top.  From 
some  holes  at  the  base  of  the  cliff  I  obtained  an  abundance  of  Bouchardia 
minima  Thomson,  besides  Magadina  hrowni,  Pachymagas  McKayi  n.  sp., 
Anomia  trigonopsis,  Pecten  williamsoni  Zittel(?),  P.  zelandiae,  and  Lima 
colorata. 

Middle  Waipara,  North  and  North-east  of  Bohy's  Creek  Fault.  —  On  the 
northern  side  of  the  Boby's  Creek  fault,  in  the  north  branch  of  Boby's  Creek, 
the  Weka  Pass  stone  passes  up  gradually  into  grey  mudstones,  about  60  ft. 
thick.  These  are  followed  bv  a  considerable  thickness  of  soft  sandstones, 
separated  into  uppsr  and  lower  divisions  by  a  thin  bed  of  mudstone  con- 
taining Mopsea  sp.  and  Foraminifera.  The  upper  sands  are  cut  off  bv 
the  fault. 

The  most  complete  section  is  that  afforded  by.  the  banks  of  the  Waipara 
River  below  the  limestone  gorge,  and  partially  repeated  in  the  lower  part 
of  Boby's  Creek  owing  to  folding.  The  section  is  continued  in  the  higher 
slopes  to  the  east  up  to  the  horizon  of  the  main  Mount  Brown  limestone, 
and  includes  the  following  beds  : —  „ 

Main  Mount  Brown  limestone  (D)     . .              . .              . .  60 

Loose  yellow-brown  sands  . .              . .              .  .              . .  80 

Third  Mount  Brown  limestone  (C)     .  .              . .              .  .  30 

Bluish  muddy  sandstones  with  concretions,  passing  down 

into  polyzoan  shelly  beds  and  a  grit  at  the  base        . .  200 

Mudstones  with  thin  sandstone  intercalations                 . .  200 

Whitish  sandstones  with  thin  mudstone  intercalations . .  200 

Glauconitic  mudstone          . .             . .             . .             . .  25 

795 


358  '  Transactions. 

The  Weka  Pass  stone  becomes  glauconitic  at  its  top,  and  passes  quite 
gradually  into  glauconitic  mudstones.  The  succeeding  sandstones  are  in 
beds  of  4  ft.  to  10  ft.,  separated  by  mudstones  6  in.  to  2  ft.  thick.  Some 
of  the  sandstones  contain  small  rounded  pebbles  of  foraminiferal  calcareous 
sandstone,  suggesting  derivation  by  erosion  from  the  Weka  Pass  stone. 
In  the  higher  beds  the  sandstones  are  in  thinner  layers  and  ,the  mud- 
stones thicker.  Fossils  are  scarce  throughout,  and  so  tender  as  to  be  very 
difficult  of  collection.  E'pitonium  zelebori  was  obtained  low  down  in  the 
sandstones.  Two  shelly  beds  were  noted  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river, 
below  the  grit,  both  containing  Pecten  huttoni,  the  higher  being  similar  to 
the  polyzoan  beds  above  the  grit.  The  latter  rock  contains  small  pebbles 
of  greywacke.  It  is  succeeded  by  alternations  of  thin  polyzoan  limestones 
and  bluish  sandstones,  and  the  latter  beds  continue  to  the  base  of  the  third 
Moimt  Brown  limestone  (C),  and  contain  poorly  defined  concretions  with 
shells  and  plant-remains  (Plate  XX).  Just  above  the  polyzoan  beds  I 
obtained  Paphia  curta  and  a  fine  specimen  of  Pecten  heethami  var.  B  Hutt. 

Part  of  the  above  sequence  is  repeated  in  the  lower  part  of  Boby's  Creek, 
north-east  of  the  fault,  and  in  the  banks  of  the  Waipara  River  above  and 
below  the  junction  of  Boby's  Creek.  The  cuesta  of  the  lowest  Mount  Brown 
limestone  (A)  on  the  Ram  Paddock  is  composed  of  a  whitish  polyzoan 
calcareous  sandstone,  consisting  chiefly  of  larger  cup-shaped  and  smaller 
Polyzoa,-  and  yielding  fairly  numerous  but  poor  specimens  of  Pachjmagas 
clarJcei  n.  sp.,  with  rare  pectens  and  echinoids.  The  limestone  thins  out 
rapidly  along  its  strike  in  both  directions,  and  obviously  formed  a  polyzoan 
reef  or  shoal  in  the  Oamaruian  sea.  To  the  west-south-west  it  crosses 
the  Natural  Bridge  Creek,  greatly  diminished  in  thickness,  just  above  the 
natural  bridge,  but  does  not  continue  to  the  east-north-east  as  far  as  the 
banks  of  the  Waipara  River.  It  apparently  thins  out  also  in  the  direction 
of  its  dip  (south-south-east),  but  is  presumably  represented  by  the  polyzoan 
beds  near  the  bottom  of  Boby's  Creek  and  those  above  described  in  the 
Waipara  River. 

In  the  Natural  Bridge  Creek,  and  in  Boby's  Creek  below  it,  there  is  some 
gentle  folding,  so  that  a  continuous  section  is  difficult  to  trace.  The 
polyzoan  beds  appear  to  be  the  lowest  horizon  exposed,  and  are  succeeded 
by  bluish  muddy  sandstones  yielding  Anomia  trigonopsis,  Pecten  heethami, 
Pecten  huttoni,  and  Nucula  sagittata  Sut.,  the  latter  species  being  first 
described  from  this  locality.  These  are  succeeded  by  current-bedded  sands, 
on  which  a  cream-coloured  sandstone  rests  unconformably. 

At  the  time  of  my  first  visit,  in  1912,  a  recent  slip  had  exposed  a  very 
clear  unconformity  on  the  side  of  the  bluff  facing  the  Waip^,ra  River  at  the 
upper  corner  of  the  junction  between  Boby's  Creek  and  the  river  (fig.  6). 
The  rocks  below  and  above  the  surface  of  the  contact  were  of  similar  nature — 
viz.,  bluish  muddy  sandstone — but  those  below  were  not  so  clearly  bedded. 
The  upper  beds  contained  pebbles  and  boulders  of  the  same  nature,  and 
also  of  grey  mudstones  and  of  greywacke,  as  well  as  broken  shells.  This 
section  had  become  obscure  at  the  time  of  my  visit  in  1913.  A  short 
distance  up  the  Waipara  River,  on  the  same  bank,  I  observed  some  shell- 
beds,  which  must  lie  above  the  unconformity,  containing  casts  of  Cucullaea, 
ribbed  Pectens,  a  large  Dentalium,  and  many  gasteropods. 

The  lower  part  of  the  "  grey  marls  "  is  exposed  on  the  back  of  the  cuesta 
of  Weka  Pass  stone  between  the  limestone  gorge  of  the  Waipara  River 
and  the  saddle  north-west  of  the  North  Dean.  Here  50  ft.  of  grey  mud- 
stone  follows  the   Weka  Pass  stone   with  every  appearance   of  complete 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LII. 


Plate  XX. 


View  across  Waipara  River  below  limestone  gorge.  1,  bluish-grey  sandstones  ;  2,  lower 
Mount  Brown  limestone  (C)  ;  3,  yellow-brown  sands  ;  4,  main  Mount  Brown  lime- 
stone (I)). 


Face  p.  358.] 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LII. 


Plate  XXI. 


Fig.  1. — Syncliue  in  tlie  main  Mount  Brown  limestone  (B),  Waipara  River,  north-east 

side  below  Boby's  Creek. 


Fig,  2. — Cliff  in  Weka  Pass  Stream,  below  railway-cutting,  43J  miles  from  Christcliurch. 
A  fault  with  downthrow  to  the  left  intersects  the  clitf.      1,  grey  sandstone 
(top    of    "  grey    marls ")  ;     2,    hard    calcareous    conglomerate    with    shells ; 
.  ..  .       3,,  lower  Mount  Brown  limestone  (B). 


Thomson.- — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District.    359 

conformity.  Fossils  are  fairly  plentiful,  including  corals  and  Foraminifera, 
but  the  molluscs  are  mostly  in  the  condition  of  casts.  They  include 
Turritella  carlottae  Watson  and  Gorhula  canaliculata  Hutt.  The  succeeding 
beds  are  not  exposed,  but  highev  up  the  slope  loose  sands  are  seen. 

The  Middle  and  North  Dean  are  composed  of  a  yellow  calcareous 
sandstone  with  many  comminuted  shells  in  certain  bands,  and  frequent 
inclusions  of  a  yellow-brown  sandstone,  which  also  forms  separate  bands. 
This  is  probably  the  second  Mount  Brown  limestone  (B).  The  main  band 
(D)  does  not  here  form  the  crest  of  the  range,  but  appears  in  rounded  hills 
about  half  a  mile  to  the  south-east.  Between  B  and  D  there  are  sands 
and  further  yellowish -white  calcareous  sandstones  containing  "  fucoids," 
barnacles,  Polyzoa,  and  echinoids. 

The  third  Mount  Brown  limestone  (C)  is  a  yellow  calcareous  sand- 
stone, about  30  ft.  thick,  containing  in  places  an  abundance  of  Magadina 
waiparensis.  It  may  be  traced  from  near  the  South  Dean  to  the  cliffs 
opposite  the  meander  in  the  Waipara  River  below  the  gorge,  but  appears 
to  pass  into  a  sandstone  before  the  river  is  reached. 


Fig.  6. — Unconformity  at  junction  of  Boby's  Creek  and  tlie  Waipara  River. 


The  Main  Mount  Brown  limestone  (D)  forms  the  crest  of  the  cuesta 
on  the  cliffs  near  the  Waipara  River,  but  higher  up  the  hill,  towards  the 
Deans,  it  falls  back  behind  the  crest.  It  is  divided  into  tjvo  parts  by  a 
persistent  band  of  sand,  5  ft.  thick,  which  contains  occasional  specimens 
of  Ostrea,  Anemia,  and  barnacles.  The  lower  part  is  harder  and  not  so 
rubbly  as  the  upper,  and  contains  few  fossils  but  barnacles.  The  base 
of  the  upper  part  consists  of  a  persistent  shell-bed,  2  ft.  thicks  containing 
Pectem  beethami,  P.  hurnefti,  Lima  colorata,  Anomia  trigonopsis,  and  casts 
of  many  other  species,  including  Turritella.  The  remainder  is  the  usual 
red-brown  rubbly  impure  limestone,  containing  an  abundance  of  Magadina 
browni.  The  main  band  is  bent  into  a  syncline  where  it  reaches  the 
Waipara  River  (Plate  XXI,  fig.  1)  ;  the  lower  part  consists  of  alternating 
sands  and  calcareous  sandstone,  containing  Pecten  huttoni,  while  the  under- 
lying sands  contain  Placxmanomia  sp.  and  Pachymagas  not  sufficiently  well 
preserved  for  specific  identification'. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  the  Main  Mount  Brown  limestone 
(D)  is  exposed  in  a  small  syncline,  truncated  by  the  Boby's  Creek  fault. 
It  is  of  the  usual  rubbly  character,  and  yielded  Pecten  burnetti,  Ostrea  sp., 
Magadina  browni,  Rhizothgris  rhizoida,  and  Pachymagas  of  the  joarki  series. 
Cup-shaped  Polyzoa  are  fairly  abundant. 


360  Transactions. 

Weka  Creek. — In  the  Weka  Creek  the  contact  of  the  Weka  Pass  stone 
and  "  grey  marls  "  is  well  exposed.  Speight  and  Wild  (1918)  have  noted 
that  the  agreement  in  dip  is  absolute,  and  the  contact  does  not  show  any 
signs  of  unconformity,  hut  the  Weka  Pass  stone  exhibits  on  its  upper 
surface  a  narrow  bored  zone  similar  to  that  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
Amuri  limestone.  "  This  is  succeeded  by  1  ft.  of  slightly  glauconitic  sandy 
marl,  then  by  12  ft.  of  slightly  glauconitic  sandstone,  passing  up  into 
sandy  marl  and  becoming  more  argillaceous  higher  up  but  still  preserving 
'something  of  its  arenaceous  nature." 

The  thickness  of  the  sandy  mudstones  is  difficult  to  estimate,  as  the 
creek  here  runs  obliquely  to  the  strike,  but  is  about  70  ft.  Near  the  top 
Amusium  zitteli  is  fairly  common,  and  there  are  also  casts  of  other  bivalves 
and  gasteropods,  at  least  two  species  of  coral,  fish -scales,  and  Foraminifera. 
Such  shells  as  exist  are  mostly  too  fragile  to  collect.  The  mudstone  is 
succeeded  by  a  sandstone,  and  then  there  are  alternations  of  sandstone 
and  mudstone  up  to  the  horizon  of  the  second  Mount  Brown  limestone  (B). 

Weka  Pass. — In  the  middle  part  of  the  Weka  Pass  Stream  from  the 
road-bridge  over  the  stream  downwards,  and  in  the  railway-cuttings  oppo- 
site, there  are  several  isolated  exposures  of  the  "  grey  marls,"  but  no 
continuous  section.  The  lowest  beds,  at  the  bridge,  are  typical  sandy 
mudstones  resting  directly  on  the  Weka  Pass  stone.  The  actual  junction 
cannot  be  observed,  but  only  about  3  ft.  of  beds  is  not  exposed,  and  each 
rock  appears  to  be  approacheng  the  other  in  composition.  From  these 
sandy  mudstones,-  which  appear  to  be  about  50  ft.  thick,  I  collected  casts 
of  Verconella,  Crassateliies,  Loripes,  Nucula,  and  Nticulana. 

Lower  down  the  stream  there  are  two  large  cliffs  of  well-bedded  soft 
grey  sandstone,  and  similar  beds  are  exposed  in  the  railway-cuttings  above. 
The  thiclcness  of  these  sand.stones  does  not  probably  exceed  200  ft.  They 
are  again  succeeded  by  a  sandy  mudstone  of  unknown  thickness,  exposed 
at  the  first  bend  of  the  stream  above  the  cliff  of  the  lower  Mount  Brown 
limestone  described  below:  These  are  succeeded  by  loose  sands,  passing 
into  a  grey  mudd}^  sandstone,  together  about  50  ft.  thick. 

In  the  upper  part  of  the  Weka  Pass  Stream  only  the  lower  part  of  the 
"  grey  marls  "  is  exposed,  as  a  typical  sandy  mudstone  near  the  viaduct. 
From  this  rock  I  collected  Limoj^sis  aurita  Brocchi  (?)  and  Foraminifera, 
and  McKay's  earlier  collection  included  Ampidlina  niiocaenica  Suter.  A 
selection  of  the  Foraminifera  supplied  by  Mr.  F.  Chapman  was  as  follows  : 
Clavulina  communis  d'Orb.,  Bulimina  inflaf.a  Seguenza,  Ehrenbergina  serrata 
Reuss,  Nodosaria  vertebralis  Pteuss,  N.  prismatica  Reuss,  N.  consohrina  d'Orb., 
N.  longiscata  d'Orb.,  Lingidina  costata  d'Orb.,  Cristellaria  vortex  d'Orb., 
C.  gyroscalprum  Stache,  Glohigerina  triloba  Reuss,  Truncatulina  tliiara  (Stache), 
Anomalina  ammonoides  (Reuss),  Pidvinulina  karsteni  Reuss,  and  Rotalia 
soldanii  d'Orb.  These  indicate,  according  to  Mr.  Chapman,  that  the  horizon 
is  probably  Eocene. 

Ther.e  are  two  prominent  calcareous  horizons  in  the  Mount  Brown  beds 
on  the  south-east  side  of  the  Weka  Pass,  lying  about  400  ft.  and  800  ft. 
respectively  above  the  Weka  Pass  stone.  The  upper  horizon  (D)  forms 
an  escarpment  on  the  crest  of  the  ridge,  and  the  lower  (B)  presents  a  less 
prominent  escarpment  as  a  salient  half-way  down  the  slope,  but  in  the  angle 
between  'the  W^eka  Pass  Stream  and  the  Weka  Creek  it  forms  a  separate 
lower  cuesta  in  front  of  the  cuesta  of  the  main  band  (D),  and  it  assumes 
the  same  physiographic  prominence  between  the  Weka  Creek  and  the  North 
Dean,  where,  as  alreadv  noted,  it  forms  the  summit  of  the  range. 


Thomso:\'. — Gf^oJoyy  of  Middle  Wai/umi  and  Weka  Fuss  Districf .     361 

The  lower  horizon  (B)  consists,  in  the  railway-cutting  43f  miles  from 
Christchurch,  of  upper  and  lower  hard  bands,  25  ft,  and  20  ft.  thick, 
separated  by  about  35  ft.  of  sands.  Both  bands  consist  of  hard  brown 
arenaceous  limestone,  with  sandstone  intercalations,  forming  cavernous 
cliffs  owing  to  the  weathering-out  of  included  fragments  of  derived  sand- 
stone. This  phenomenon  is  well  displayed  in  the  cuesta  between  the 
Weka  Creek  and  the  Weka  Pass  Stream,  where  the  derived  fragments 
offer  show  clear  bedding  oblique  to  that  of  the  enclosing  rock.  Fossils 
are  scarce  and  consist  chiefly  of  small  cup-shaped  Polyzoa  and  barnacles, 
but  Anomia  sp.  and  partial  valves  of  Magadina  were  observed.  The 
lower  bands  are  exposed  on  a  clifi  below  the  railway-cutting,  between  it 
and  the  Weka  Pass  Stream,  where  they  are  intersected  by  a  small  fault 
with  downthrow  to  the  north  (Plate  XXI,  fig.  2).  The  base  of  the  lime- 
.stone  on  the  northern  (downthrown)  side  consists  of  a  lenticular  hard 
calcareous  conglomerate  enclosing  specimens  of  CucuUaea,  Struthiolaria 
tuherculata  and  many  other  gasteropods,  and  numerous  barnacle  {Balanns) 
fragments.  Unfortunately  the  matrix  is  too  hard  to  enable  satisfactory 
specimens  to  be  collected.  The  conglomerate  rests  upon  soft  grey  sand- 
stones, of  which  the  few  feet  exposed  show  no  bedding,  so  that  the  pre- 
sence of  an  unconformity  cannot  be  definitely  asserted,  but  the  presence  of 
the  derived  fragments  of  sandstone  in  the  overlying  limestone  makes  it 
probable. 

In  the  Weka  Creek  the  lower  limestone  (B)  flattens  out  just  before 
reaching  the  creek-banks  and  is  not  exposed  on  the  banks.  It  seems 
probable  that  it  is  cut  off  by  a  fault  with  dowmthrow  to  the  south-east. 

The  third  Mount  Brown  limestone  (C)  does  not  appear  to  be  developed 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  Weka  Pass  or  in  the  Weka  Creek,  but  is  again 
found  not  far  below  the  main  band  (D)  on  the  north-west  face  of  Mount 
Donald,  and  for  some  distance  to  the  south-west,  where  in  a  col  in  the 
cuesta  it  reaches  the  summit.  It  forms  at  the  last  pomt  about  40  ft. 
of  hard  calcai;eous  sandstone,  in  bands  of  1  ft.  to  3  ft.  thick  separated  by 
shelly  sands  containing  Magadina  waiparensis,  Anomia  trigonojjsis,  and 
Pccten  burnetti.  A  little  nearer  Mount  Donald  the  bands  coalesce  to  form 
a  shelly  limestone  containing  an  exceptionally  large  number  of  derived 
sandstone  inclusions,  which  weather  out  and  give  it  a  very  cavernous 
appearance.  It  contains  Polyzoa,  barnacles,  and  shelly  fragments,  including 
Magadina  waiparensis  and  Anomia  trigonopsis.  On  the  north-western  "face 
of  Mount  Donald  the  base  contains  a  shell-bed  with  many  casts  of  large 
gasteropods.      It  is  here  underlain  by  sands  containing  concretions. 

The  main  Mount  Brown  limestone  (D)  forms,  as  already  mentioned, 
the  crest  of  the  watershed  south-east  of  the  Weka  Pass.  It  is  divided  by 
a  persistent  bed  of  sand,  which  outcrops  just  below  the  crest  on  the  Weka 
Pass  side,  and  yielded  Pachymagas  cottoni  n.  sp.  and  Waiparia  abnormis. 
This  limestone  crosses  the  railway-line  in  the  cutting  43  miles  21  chains  from 
Christchurch.  At  the  northern  end  of  the  cutting  there  is  about  35  ft.  of 
sands  exposed  below  the  lowest  bed  of  limestone.  These  sands  contain 
occasional  shells,  including  Ancilla  pseudaustralis,  Pecten  huttoni,  and  very 
fragile  shells  of  Crepidula  sp.  Immediately  below  the  lowest  limestone 
bed  is  a  thm  bed  of  broken  shells,  including  Anomia  trigonopsis  and 
Glycymeris  sp.  The  lowest  limestone  bed  is  5  ft.  thick.  It  is  succeeded 
unconformably  by  25  ft.  of  sands,  containing  many  small  derived  pieces  of 
sandstone,  and  yielding  Anomia  trigonopsis.  Then  follows  3  ft.  of  lime- 
stone, succeeded  by  another  25  ft.  of  sands.      These  are  succeeded  by  the 


362  Transactions. 

main  mass  of  the  limestone,  25  ft.  thick,  containing  at  the  top  a  shelly  band 
with  Pecten  huttoni,  P.  beethami,  P.  hurnetti,  and  Lima  colorata.  The 
limestone  also  contains  many  brachiopods,  including  species  of  Rhizothyris 
and  Pachymagas,  Magadina  hrowni,  and  Terebratulina  suessi.  It  is  followed 
by  6  ft.  of  sands,  and  a  further  16  ft.  of  nodular  limestone,  which  con- 
tains Bouchardia  minima,  Magadina  hrowni,  a.nd  Pachymagas  sp.  This  is 
followed  by  3  ft.  of  creamy  calcareous  sandstone,  which,  as  will  be  seen 
later,  is  best  regarded  as  forming  the  base  of  the  next  horizon. 

Fossils  are  abundant  in  places  on  the  dip-slopes  of  the  main  band  (D), 
especially  near  the  top  of  the  small  valley  entering  the  Weka  Pass  Stream 
between  the  43  m.  21  ch.  and  43  m.  3ch.  cuttings,  and  over  the  saddle 
at  the  head  of  this  valley  down  to  the  first  valley  trending  to  the  Omihi 
Creek.  Here  the  uppermost  rubbly  band  seen  in  the  railway-cutting  is 
well  exposed  near  the  foot  of  the  main  dip-slope,  and  yields  a  rich  brachio- 
pod  fauna,  besides  Pecten  hurnetti,  P.  heethami,  Pecten  sp.  nov.,  Li^na 
colorata,  L.  'paucisulcata,  L.  lima,  Ostrea  angasi,  0.  gudexi  Suter  (?),  Anomia 
huttoni,  A.  furcata,  Isurus  desori  (Ag.),  I.  hastalis  (Ag.),  small  echinoids  and 
fragments  of  larger  species,  and  numerous  cup-shaped  and  bottle-shaped 
Polyzoa.  The  brachiopods  identified  are  Terehratulina  suessi,  Bouchardia 
minima,  Magadina  hrowni,  Rhizothyris  scutum  n.  sp.,  R.  rhizoida,  R.  elongata 
n.  sp.,  R.  curta  n.  sp.,  R.  crassa  n.  sp.,  R.  elliptica  n.  sp.,  R.  fortis  n.  sp., 
R.  ohesa  n.  sp.,  R.  joirum  n.  sp.,  R.  ovata  n.  sp.,  R.  amygdala  n.  sp.,  Pachy- 
magas hartrumi  n.  sp.,  P.  speighti  n.  sp.,  P.  haasti  n.  sp.,  P.  hectori  n.  sp., 
P.  parki,  P.  McKayi  n.  sp.,  P.  morgani  n.  sp.,  and  P.  coxi  n.  sp. 

The  uppermost  Mount  Brown  limestone  (E)  forms  a  prominent  cuesta 
behind  the  dip-slope  of  the  main  band,  and  thence  crosses  the  railway  in 
the  cutting  43  miles  2-3  chains  from  Christchurch,  and  descends  into  the 
Weka  Pass  Stream  and  Weka  Creek  a  few  yards  above  their  junctions. 
The  succession  from  the  main  band  upwards  may  be  followed  without  a 
break  in  the  Weka  Pass  Stream  and  the  Weka  Creek,  while  parts  of  the  beds 
are  exposed  on  the  escarpment  of  the  cuesta  to  the  east.  The  total  thick- 
ness is  about  100  ft.,  the  last  35  ft.  being  formed  by  the  uppermost  lime- 
stone, which  in  the  railway-cutting  is  a  reddish-brown  to  yellow  arenaceous 
limestone  with  numerous  small  pockets  containing  small  pebbles,  up  to 
5  in.  in  diameter,  of  greywackes  and  jaspers.  It  contains  many  polyzoan 
and  echinoid  fragments. 

Immediately  succeeding  the  main  limestone  (D)  is  a  creamy  calcareous 
sandstone  a  few  feet  thick,  well  exposed  jUst  above  the  foot  of  the  dip-slope 
of  the  main  band,  where  it  yields  Stethothyris  suffiata  and  Neothyris  anceps 
n.  sp.  When  followed  over  the  first  saddle  into  the  most  easterly  tributary 
of  the  Omihi  Stream  it  forms  a  sharp  V  down-stream,  and  on  the  far  side 
is  3  ft.  thick  and  yields  Pachymagas  andrewi  n.  sp.  It  is  here  followed  by 
a  hard  band  2  ft.  thick,  in  turn  succeeded  by  more  soft  creamy  limestone, 
3  ft.  thick,  yielding  Lima  colorata  and  Pachymagas  cottoni  n.  sp.  This  is 
again  followed  by  another  hard  band  1  ft.  6  in.  thick,  and  the  exposed 
section  here  ends  with  soft  calcareous  sandstone  containing  Lima  colorata 
and  Cucullaea  alta  var.  B.  The  above  limestone  bands  are  included  with 
the  uppermost  limestone  (E)  because  of  the  occurrence  in  them  of  Stetho- 
thyris suffiata. 

In  the  gorge  of  the  Weka  Pass  Stream  the  above  calcareous  sands  are 
succeeded  by  blue  muddy  sands,  about  50  ft.  thick,  which  contain  fossils 
sparingly  throughout,  and  include  two  shell-beds.  The  lower  20  ft.  contains 
Cucullaea  alta  var.  B.  and  Lima  colorata  fairly  commonly,  and  also  yielded 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District.    363 

Turritella  concava,  Natica  australis,  Ampullina  sufuralis,  Verconella  costata, 
Ancilla  pseudaustralis,  Surcida  fusiformis,  Limopsis  zitteli,  Pecten  ivilliam- 
soni,  P.  huttoni,  TeUina  eufjonia,  and  Dosinia  greyi.  The  lower  shell-bed 
lies  about  30  ft.  below  the  limestone,  and  is  exposed  in  the  Weka  Pass 
Stream  at  and  below  the  suspension  bridge,  and  also  in  the  Weka  Creek. 
It  yielded  Magadina  browni,  Neothyris  novara,  Rhizothyris  curiosa,  Crepidula 
monoxijla,  C.  gregaria,  C.  striata,  PoUnices  gibhosus,  Galeodea  sidcata, 
Sigapatella  novae-zelandiae,  Latirus  brevirostris,  Verconella  costata,  V.  dilatata, 
Voluta  arabica,  Voluta  sp.  cf.  protorhysa  Tate,  Ancilla  novae-zelandiae, 
Dentalium  solidum,  Placunanomia  incisura,  Limopsis  zitteli,  Pecten  crawfordi, 
P.  burnetti,  P.  huttoni,  Crassatellites  attenuatus  (fragments),  Venericardia 
-purpurata,  Cytherea  sidcata,  Protocardia  alata,  and  Thracia  n.  sp.  The 
upper,  or  Hinnites,  shell-bed  occurs  at  or  near  the  base  of  .the  limestone,  and 
is  exposed  in  the  railway-cutting,  in  the  Weka  Pass  Stream  and  its  tributary 
crossing  the  railway-lme  above  the  cutting,  and  in  the  Weka  Creek.  It 
yielded  Neothyris  novara,  Stethothyris  sufflata,  Hemithjris  nigricans  mut., 
Dentalium  solidum,  Pecten  crawfordi,  P.  burnetti,  Hinnites  Irailli,  Lima 
paucisulcata,  Ostrea  angasi,  Cytherea  sulcata,  Chione  stutchburyi,  Cochlodesma 
angasi,  and  Protocardia  alata. 

The  limestone  (E)  closing  the  sequence  of  the  Mount  Brown  beds 
contains  a  fair  number  of  brachiopods  and  a  few  molluscs  in  the  Weka 
Creek,  the  railway-cutting,  and  the  cuesta  leading  to  the  Omihi  watershed, 
and  yielded  the  following  species  from  these  localities  :  Crepidula  gregaria, 
Galeodea  senex,  Ancilla  pseudaustralis,  Anomia  trigonop)sis,  Antigojta  sidcata, 
Pecten  hurnetti,  P.  beethami,  P.  triphoohi  Zitt.  (?),  P.  hochsteiteri,  Lima 
paleata,  Terebratulina  sp.  cf.  cancellata  Koch,  Stethothyris-  sufflata,  Neothyris 
novara,  N.  iheringi  n.  sp.,  Rhizothyris  curiosa,  R.  media  n.  sp.,  R.  scidum. 
n.  sp.,  R.  curta  n.  sp.,  R.  eUiptica  n.  sp.,  R  fortis  n.  sp.,  R.  obesa  n.  sp., 
and  Pachymagas  hectori  n.  sp. 

As  the  limestone  cuesta.  is  traced  from  the  Weka  Creek  past  the  first 
tributary  of  the  Omihi  Creek  towards  the  second  it  exhibits  no  longer  the 
characteristic  brachiopods  and  becomes  more  of  a  hard  shell-bed,  the  shells 
being  mostly  casts  at  the  outcrop.  It  appears  to  be  continuous  past  the 
back  of  Mount  Donald  towards  the  Waikare  Valley,  but  has  not  been 
examined  in  this  direction. 

The  summit  of  Moimt  Donald  forms  an  outlier  of  beds  resting  on  the 
main  limestone  band  (D).  These  appear  to  be  the  lower  beds  of  the 
Stethothyris  sufflata  zone.  Park  (1905)  stated  that  some  mile  and  a  half 
north  of  the  pass,  near  the  highest  part  of  Mount  Donald,  the  beds  were 
richly  fossiliferous,  and  gave  a  list  of  forty-eight  species  of  cetacea,  fish, 
molluscs,  brachiopods,  cirripedes,  and  echinoids.  I  have  been  unable  to 
rediscover  this  locality. 

Behind  the  cuesta  of  the  main  limestone  (D),  rimning  from  the  Weka 
Creek  towards  the  Deans,  the  first  cuesta  is  that  of  a  shelly  calcareous 
sandstone  containing  fine  pebbles,  which  lies  about  120  ft.  above  the  main 
band  (D).  This  is  presumably  the  uppermost  band  (E).  It  has  not  been 
recognized  in  the  Waipara  end  of  the  district. 

Wanganuian. 

Greta  B§ds. 

The  Greta,   or  Motunau,  beds  of   the  district  are  a  variable  series  of 

littoral  beds,  consisting  largely  of  gravels  and  gravelly  shell-beds,  oyster-beds, 

coarse  sands,  and  blue  calcareous  or  sandy  mudstones,  with  rare  lignite-seams. 


364  Transactions. 

The  constituents  of  the  gravels  consist  predominatingly  of  the  harder 
elements  of  the  pre-Notocene  of  the  North  Canterbury  mountains — viz., 
greywackes,  grits,  quartzites,  and  jaspers  ;  but  there  are  also  pebbles  of 
basalts  and  lamprophyre-like  igneous  rocks.  No  pebbles  of  the  underlying 
Notocene  beds  have  been  observed,  nor  has  any  clear  unconformity  with  the 
Mount  Brown  beds  been  detected,  but  the  faunal  break  is  such  that  one  may 
well  be  suspected,  and  it  is  more  than  probable  that  outside  the  area  an 
overlap  of  these  beds  on  to  the  pre-Notocene  will  be  discovered. 

Those  bands  with  a  harder  cement,  mostly  calcareous,  stand  up  as 
cuestas  on  the  back  slopes  of  Mount  Brown,  the  Deans,  and  the  hills  near 
Glenmark,  but  they  are  not  well  exposed  in  the  small  creeks  draining  these 
slopes,  and  the  best  sections  are  those  of  the  Kowhai  River  in  its  main 
branches,  the  Waipara  River,  and  the  Weka  Creek.  An  intermittent  section 
is  also  yielded  b}-  the  railway-cuttings  between  V/aipara  and  the  Weka  Pass. 

Kowhai  River  and  Mount  Brown. — Only  a  part  of  the  north  branch  of 
the  Kowhai  River  was  explored,  and  a  discontinuous  section  of  the  Motunau 
beds  observed  in  the  creeks  draining  from  Mount  Brown.  In  a  cliff  facing- 
Mount  Brown,  the  base  of  which  is  about  200  ft.  above  the  top  of  the  main 
limestone  (D),  there  is  an  oyster-conglomerate  about  50  ft.  thick,  yielding 
Ostrea  arenicola,  succeeded  by  50  ft.  of  hard  calcareous  conglomerate,  and 
resting  on  sands  with  a  bed  of  fragile  shell's. 

In  a  tributary  notching  the  cuesta  of  the  Mount  Brown  beds,  west  of 
Mount  Brown,  lower  beds  are  exposed.  Above  the  main  limestone  (D),  with 
Magadina  browni,  there  is  a  gap  of  about  20  ft.  in  the  succession,  and  then 
there  is  a  further  10  ft.  of  brown  calcareous  polyzoan  sandstone  with  much 
quartz,  perhaps  still  in  the  Mount  Brown  series.  This  is  followed  by 
brownisli-green  sands  and  1  ft.  of  calcareous  sandstone.  The  succeeding 
beds  are  40  ft.  sands,  10  ft.  fine  conglomerate  with  pebbles  of  jaspers,  grey- 
wackes, and  dark  porphyritic  rocks,  50  ft.  brown  sands,  and  10  ft.  fine  con- 
glomerate oyster-beds  with  8  in.  boulders  of  a  white  calcareous  sandstone 
containing  friable  fossils  at  the  base,  the  same  horizon  being  represented 
TOO  yards  down-stream  by  four  separate  oyster-beds  separated  by  sands. 
After  a  gap  of  50  ft.  some  15  ft.  of  coarse  conglomerate  is  exposed.  The 
oyster-beds  yielded  Anomia  huttoni,  Ostrea  arujasi,  and  0.  nelsoniana. 

On  the  road  from  Onepunga  to  the  Kowhai  Valley  the  first  beds  exposed 
are  oyster-beds  and  hard  Coarse  conglomerates,  lying  about  200  ft.  above  the 
main  Mount  Brown  limestone  (D).  In  the  first  large  cliff  in  the  north 
branch  of  the  Kowhai  River  below  there  are  fine  conglomerates  and  sands, 
with  many  oyster-beds.  The  next  prominent  bed  upwards  in  the  sequence 
is  again  an  oyster-conglomerate  with  a  hard  white  calcareous  cement. 
About  a  Cj[uarter  of  a  mile  down-stream  the  first  mudstone  is  exposed,  and 
is  a  very  green  rock  without  fossils.  It  lies  about  300  ft.  above  the  main 
Mount  Brown  limestone  (D). 

The  upper  part  of  the  Greta  beds  is  exposed  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
north  branch  of  the  Kowhai  River  and  its  numerous  tributaries.  The 
rocks  are  fine  conglomerates,  gravelly  shell-beds,  oyster-beds,  sandstones 
and  loose  sands,  blue  mudstones  and  sandy  mudstones,  and  thin  lignite- 
seams.  Continuous  exposures  are  not  found,  and,  judging  from  neighbouring- 
cliffs,  the  conglomerates  and  sandstones  are  lenticular  and  not  persistent. 
Fossils  are  fairly  abundant,  but  are  in  many  cases  very  fragile.  The  oysters 
belong  to  the  species  Ostrea  angasiy  0.  arenicola,  and  0.  corrugata.  An 
exhaustive  collection  of  the  other  species  was  not  made,  but  the  following 
H-ere  noted  :  Chione  meridionalis,  Gari  Uneolata,  Modiolus  australis,  Proto- 
cardia  -pulchella,  and  SigajMtella  novae-zelandiae.     , 


Thomsox. — Geology  of  Middle  WaijJara  and  Weka  Pass  District.     365 

The  heds  are  covered  unconformably  by  the  Kowhai  gravels,  the 
junction  being'  clearly  seen  in  a  tributary  draining  from  Mount  Brown. 
Mr.  R.  Speight  informs  me  that  a  very  good  fossil-locality  for  the  Greta 
beds  has  been  discovered  recently  in  the  north  branch  of  the  Kowhai  Eiver. 

The  first  cuesta  behind  that  of  the  main  Mount  Brown  limestone  (D) 
on  the  Mount  Brown  road  consists  of  a  fine  conglomerate  containing  sparse 
pebbles  of  quartz,  greywacke,  and  jaspers  in  a  white  calcareous  cement, 
and  lies  about  100  ft.  above  the  main  limestone.  Whether  this  represents 
the  uppermost  Mount  Brown  limestone  (E),  or,  as  seems  more  probable, 
the  base  of  the  Greta  series,  remains  uncertain.  A  series  of  alternating 
sands  and  shelly  gravels  ca]>ped  by  a  hard  coarse  conglomerate  forms  the 
next  cuesta,  lying  at  least  100  ft.  above  the  former.  The  sliells  represented 
are  chiefly  Glycymeris  laticostata,  Crepidula  gregaria,  and  C.  monoxyla ;  but 
I  collected  also  Antigona  zelandica,  Chione  stutchburyi,  Dentalium  solidum, 
Dosinia  greiji,  D.  suhrosea,  Ostrea  nelsoninna,  Spisufa  aequilateralis,  and 
Verconella  mandarina. 

Waipam  River — For  some  distance  below  the  outcrop  of  the  main 
Mount  Brown  limestone  no  Notocene  beds  are  exposed  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Waipara  River,  and  the  base  of  the  Greta  series  does  not  outcrop 
at  this  point.  The  lowest  beds  seen  lie  on  the  south  bank,  at  the  bend  of 
the  river  opj)Osite  the  end  of  the  cuesta  running  down  from  Mount  Brown 
(but  on  the  oj^posite  side  of  the  Boby's  Creek  fault),  and  consist  of  sand- 
stones with  concretions,  followed  by  mudstone,  on  which  rests  20  ft.  of 
fine  gravelly  and  sandy  shell-beds  containing  Cerifhidea  bicarinata,  Tellina 
deUoidalis,  Verconella  dilatata,  Venericardia  difficilis,  and  other  species  too 
fragile  to  collect.  This  is  followed  by  soft  greenish  mudstones  yielding 
Ancilla  mucronata,  Cerifhidea  bicarinata,  Chione  yatei,  Cominella  adspersa, 
C.  quoyana,  Crepidula  gregaria,  Mactra  discors{'\),  Ostrea  angasi,  Struthio- 
laria  papulosa,  and  Tellina  deltoidalis.  Above  this  occur  shelly  conglome- 
rates 6ft.  thick,  containing  Ancilla  australis,  A.  pyramidalis,  Barnea  similis, 
■  Sigapatella  novae-zelandiae,  Cerithidea  bicarinata,  Chione  chiloensis,  C.  yatei, 
Ischnochiton  maorianus,  Cominella  quoyana,  C.  adspersa,  Crepidula  costata, 
C.  striata,  C.  monoxyla,  Diplodon  zelandica,  Dosinia  greyi,  Lapparia  corric- 
gata  (?),  Lutraria  solida,  Mangilia  sinclairi.  Modiolus  australis,  Musculus 
impactus^  Ostrea  angasi,  Rissoina  vana,  Seila  chathamensis  var.,  Verconella 
dilatata,  V.  mandarina,  Terebra  fristis,  Trocmis  tiaratus,  Trophon  corticatus, 
Venericardia .  purptirata,  Vohita  arabica,  Volutospina  huttoni  psewlorari- 
spina  {\).  To  these  about  20  ft.  of  mudstone  succeed,  containing  fossils 
similar  to  the  lower  mudstones  ;  then  a  further  10  ft.  of  sandy  and  gravelly 
shell-beds  (mostly  Ostrea  and  Venericardia  with  Anomia  huttoni),  about 
25  ft.  of  nmdstone,  another  Ostrea  aiid  Venericardia  shell-bed,  12  ft.  of 
muddy  sands,  10  ft.  of  yellow  sands,  and  10  ft.  of  gravels',  after  which  the 
section  ends. 

About  a  quarter  of  a  mile  down-stream  on  the  north  bank  there  is  an 
exposure  of  mudstones  with  fossil  wood  resting  on  sandstones  and  shelly 
conglomerates.  The  mudstones  yielded  Arcopagia  discidus,  Cerithidea 
bicarinata,  Chione  ohiloensis,  Crepidula  monoxyla,  Dosinia  greyi,  D.  sub- 
rosea,  Modiolus  australis,  Ostrea  angasi,  and  Tellina  deltoidalis.  These  are 
succeeded  by  a  muddy  sandstone.  After  a  gap  in  the  succession  further 
sandstones  and  shelly  conglomerates  appear. 

A  boulder  obtained  from  the  river-bed  farther  down  by  a  settler  con- 
contained  Ostrea  ingens.  The  matrix  was  a  pebbly  calcareous  sandstone, 
quite  similar  to  some  of  the  hard  bands  of  the  Greta  beds  forming  small 
cuestas  on  the  slopes  towards  the  Deans. 


366  Transactions. 

Weka  Creek.  —  The  lowest  beds  of  the  Motunau  series  appearing  in 
the  Weka  Creek  are  shelly  conglomerates,  which  are  followed  on  the  right 
bank  by  greenish  mudstones,  20  ft.  thick,  crowded  with  Chione  stutchhuryi. 
The  next  beds  to  outcrop  are  a  series  of  shell-beds  yielding  Ancilla  novae- 
zelandiae,  Anomia  huttoni,  Barnea  tiara  Tate,  Calyptraea  maculata,  C.  tenuis, 
Gari  lineolata,  Glycymeris  laticostata,  Mactra  dubia,  Mytilus  canaliculus,  Ostrea 
fatei,  Spisula  aequilateralis,  Trochus  conicus,  and  Verconella  dilatata. 
Farther  down-stream,  in  a  high  cliff  near  the  road,  there  is  a  hard  oyster- 
bed  about  6  ft.  thick,  from  which  Ostrea  arenicola  was  identified. 

In  ^  the  railway-cutting  43  miles  2-3  chains  from  Christchurch  the 
uppermost  Mount  Brown  limestone  (E)  is  followed,  apparently  quite  con- 
formably, by  a  thin  bed  of  white  sand,  showing  on  the  south-west  (creek) 
side  of  the  cutting,  succeeded  by  about  12  ft.  of  shelly  conglomerate.  This 
is  followed  by  a  yellow-brown  polyzoan  calcareous  sandstone,  greatly 
resembling  the  underlying  limestone  (E),  of -which  12ft.  is  exposed.  On 
the  north-east  side  of  the  cutting,  where  the  section  is  clearer,  the  shell- 
bed  is  divided  in  two  by  a  mudstone  intercalation,  and  there  are  loose  brown 
sands,  making  a  total  of  about  35  ft.  of  beds  before  the  calcarous  sandstone 
is  reached.  Park  (1905)  interpreted  the  upper  calcareous  sandstone  as 
a  portion  of  the  Mount  Brown  beds,  and  considered  that  it  was  covered 
unconformably  by  the  shell-beds  which  really  underlie  it.  The  constituents 
of  the  conglomerates  are  mostly  coarse,  hard  greywackes  and  jaspers,  but 
basalts  and  rotted  lamprophyre-like  igneous  rocks  are  represented.  The 
majority  of  the  pebbles  are  1  in.  to  2  in.  long,  but  a  few  up  to  Sin.  were 
observed,  all  well  rounded.  The  shells  collected  were  Amphidesma  australe, 
Ancilla  novae-zelandiae,  A.  hebera,  A.  mucronata,  Anomia  huttoni,  Cerithiella 
n.  sp.,  Chione  chiloensis,  Crepidula  gregaria,  Dentalium  solidum,  Dosinia 
subrosea,  D.  greyi,  Glycymeris  globosa,  G.  laticostata,  Ostrea  angasi,  0.  manu- 
briata,  0."  tatei,  Polinices  ovatus,  Sigapatella  novae-zelandiae,  and  Spisula 
aequilateralis. 

Kowhai  Series. 

The  Kowhai  series  consists  of  tilted  terrestrial  gravels,  resting  uncon- 
formably on  the  Greta  series,  and  containing  boulders  of  all  the  under- 
lying Notocene  beds  as  well  as  the  greywackes  of  which  they  are  mainly 
composed.  The  beds  form  the  lower  hills  adjoining  the  Amberley-Waipara 
Plain,  and  have  a  larger  development  in  the  Moeraki  Downs  to  the  south- 
west of  the  district,  and  in  the  hills  between  Amberley  and  the  lower  gorge 
of  the  Waipara  River.  The  best  exposures  are  in  the  Kowhai  River, 
but  the  beds  are  also  seen  in  the  creeks  draining  from  the  Deans  and  in 
the  tributaries  of  the  Omibi  Creek. 

Kowhai  River. — In  the  high  cliffs  of  the  north  branch  of  the  Kowhai 
River  north-east  of  Tobin's  Road  there  are  from  100  ft.  to  200  ft.  of 
brownish  gravels  dipping  at  a  low  angle  to  the  north-east.  The  gravels 
are  poorly  sorted  and  poorly  stratified,  and  consist  mainly  of  greywackes, 
grits,  and  jaspers  from  the  pre-Notocene  rocks,  with  rare  basalts.  The 
boulders  and  pebbles  vary  from  1  ft.  in  diameter  down  to  the  smallest  quartz 
grains,  and  there  is  a  good  deal  of  clay  in  the  cement.  In  general  shape 
they  are  angular,  but  the  edges  are  always  rounded.  These  gravels  rest 
on  a  clay-bed  about  18  in.  thick,  dipping  12°  south-east,  which  has  a  sharp 
surface  towards  the  gravels  above,  but  passes  down  quite  gradually  to  a 
series  of  grey  gravels.  These  consist  mostly  of  pebbles  of  the  pre-Notocene, 
but  contain  also  pieces  of  greensand,  Amuri  limestone,  Mount  Brown  lime- 
stone with  Magadina  browni,  and  red  and  white  sandstones. 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  JVaipara  and  Weka  Pass  District .    367 

In  a  tributary  draining  from  Mount  Brown  unconformable  contacts  of 
these  gravels  with  the  underlying  Greta  beds  are  clearly  exposed.  In 
some  cases  the  lowest  bed  of  the  Kowhai  series  rests  on  a  surface  obliquely 
truncating  several  beds  of  the  Greta,  series.  In  other  cases  the  surface  of 
contact  is  with  a  single  bed,  but  shows  clear  evidence  of  erosion  in  its 
irregular  contours. 


PAET    II.— DESCRIPTIVE    PALAEONTOLOGY. 

Considerable,  collections  of  fossils  were  made  by  McKay  and  other 
member*  of  the  Geological  Survey,  but  came  chiefly  from  the  Piripauan. 
In  1912  and  1913  I  spent  several  weeks  in  the  district  supplementing 
these  collections,  especially  from  Tertiary  horizons,  as  a  result  of  which  I 
announced  in  1913  that  "  although  a  classic  locality  for  the  determination 
of  the  relationships  of  the  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  beds,  the  Middle  Waipara 
and  Weka  Pass  district  is  not  well  suited,  owing  to  its  poverty  in  molluscs, 
to  become  the  standard  of  reference  for  the  Tertiaries  of  New  Zealand." 

The  description  of  the  saurians  by  Owen,  Haast,  Hector,  Lydekker, 
and  Hutton  has  already  been  mentioned  in  the  account  of  the  exploration 
of  tlie  district.  The  Piripauan  Pelecypoda  were  described  in  a  palaeonto- 
logical  bulletin  by  Woods  (1917),  while  the  Gasteropoda  were  forwarded 
before  the  war  to  Professor  Wilckens,  of  Jena,  now  of  Bonn,  and  their 
description  has  been  delayed.  The  Tertiary  Mollusca  were  determined  by 
Mr.  H.  Suter,  who  described  the  new  species  in  1917.  The  fish-remains, 
both  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary,  were  described  by  Chapman  in  1918.  More 
recent  collections,  in  1915  and  1919,  have  been  determined  by  Mr.  P.  G. 
Morgan.  The  Foraminifera  were  also  forwarded  to  Mr.  Chapman,  and 
he  is  preparing  a  palaeontological  bulletin  on  this  group.  A  few  of  the 
Brachiopoda  have  been  noticed  in  my  earlier  papers  on  this  group,  and  to 
render  this  account  more  complete  a  reference  to  these  is  given  below, 
together  with  descriptions  of  the  new  species.  The  echinoids,  cirripedes, 
and  Polyzoa  have  not  yet  been  determined,  but  there  is  little  good  material 
in  these  groups. 

TERTIARY  MOLLUSCA. 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  use  the  most  recent  nomenclature,  and 
many  of  the  names  employed  by  Suter  have  been  rejected  on  account  of 
the  criticisms  by  Iredale,  Smith,  and  Hedley.  From  a  geological  j)oint  of 
view  these  frequent  changes  in  the  names  of  common  species  are  deplorable, 
but  are  a  sign  of  the  renewed  activity  in  the  study  of  the  group.  From 
a  scientific  standpoint  there  is  no  justification  for  neglecting  any  proposed 
change  which  bears  on  the  face  of  it  evidence  of  its  correctness,  and  one 
can  only  hope  that  finality  will  soon  be  attained.  In  such  a  case  as  the 
species  of  the  Volutidae,  where  the  changes  of  generic  appellation  have  been 
numerous,  and  authorities  still  difier,  1  have  deemed  it  best  to  retain  the 
original  name  Valuta.     A  few  notes  on  individual  species  are  appended. 

Sella  chathamensis  Sut.  var. 

A  specimen  was  obtained  from  the  Greta  beds  of  the  Waipara  River, 
on  which  Mr.  Suter  remarked  in  1913  that  it  was  more  cylindrical  than 
Recent  examples.  He  added  that  this  was  the  first  record  of  this  species 
fossil. 


368  .  Transactions. 

Anomia  furcata  Sut. 

This  finely  radially  costate  Recent  species  occurs  abimdantly  in  dredge- 
spoils  from  Wellington  Harbour,  where  it  shows  considerable  variety  of 
form  and  outline.  A  single  specimen  was  obtained  in  1919  from  the  main 
Mount  Brown  limestone  (D),  near  the  Weka  Pass,  and  can  be  almost 
exactly  ■  matched,  both  as  regards  form  and  ornament,  with  a  Recent 
specimen.      This  is  the  first  record  of  this  species  fossil. 

Anomia  trigonopsis  Hutt. 

All  the  specimens  recorded  under  this  name  were  determined  by 
Mr.  Suter  in  1913  as  A.  walteri  Hector.  On  seeing  four  specimens  from 
the  White  Rock  River,  in  South  Canterbury,  which  I  collected  in  1917, 
Mr.  Suter  then  expressed  his  conviction  that  Anomia  walteri  was  a  syno- 
nym of  A.  trigonopsis  Hutt.,  and  that  the  latter  name  should  be  used  for 
the  Recent  species. 

Ostrea  angasi  Sow. 

Concerning  specimens  from  the  oyster-beds  in  the  tributary  of  the 
Kowhai  River  notching  the  cuesta  of  the  Mount  Brown  beds  west  of 
Mount  Brown,  Mr.  Suter  remarked  that  the  left  valve  is  strongly  ribbed, 
but  nevertheless  they  are  not  0.  corrugata  Hutt. 

Musculus  impactus  (Herrman). 

This  Recent  species  is  Modiolaria  impacta  of  the  Manual.  Mr.  Suter 
remarked  on  a  specimen  from  the  Greta  beds  of  the  Waipara  River  that 
it  is  a  much  elongated  form,  but  not  M.  elongata  (Hutt.). 

Mactra  dubia  (Hutt.). 

1873.     Corbida  dubia  Hutt.,  Cat.  Tert.  Moll,  p.  18. 
1911.     Mactra  chrydaea  Sut.,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  43,  p.  596.  - 
1914.     Mactra  chrydaea  Sut.,  Pal.  Bull.  N.Z.  Geol.  Surv.  No.  2,  p.  49. 
When  Suter  discovered,  on  revising  the  type  of  Hutton's  Corbida  dubia, 
that  it  corresponded  exactly  with  his  own  Mactra  chrydaea,  he  rejected  the 
earlier  name  on  the  ground  that  it  was  not  figured  by  Hutton.     This  is 
against  the  International  Rules,  and  Hutton's  name  must  stand,  unless  it 
has  been  preoccuj)ied  under  Mactra,  which  is,  of  course,  quite  possible. 

BRACHIOPODA. 

Rhynchonellidae. 

Very  few  specimens  of  rhynchonellids  have  been  obtained,  and  the 
absence  of  species  of  this  family  and  of  the  Terebratulidae,  although  they 
are  so  common  in  correlative  rocks  in  the  Trelissick  Basin  and  at  Oamaru, 
makes  the  group,  unfortunately,  less  valuable  than  it  otherwise  might  be 
for  purposes  of  correlation.     The  species  represented  are  as  follows  : — 

Aetheia  gaulteri  (Morris). 

.     Cf.  Thomson,  Geol.  Mag.,  dec.  6,  vol.  2,  1915,  p.  389,  fig.  1,  a,  b.  ' 

A  few  specimens  have  been  obtained  from  the  Weka  Pass  greensand' 
from  various  localities,  and  are  of  the  broad  type  described  as  Terebratella 
sinuata  by  Hutton. 


Tkans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LIl. 


PL.A.TE   XXII. 


j:6»nimisassm» 


Fig.  1. — Ehizothyris  eUiptica  n.  sjj.  Fro. 

Fig.  2. — Rhizothyris  amygdala  n.  sp.  Fig. 

Fig.  3. — Rhizothyris  curiosa  Thomson.  FiG. 

Fig.  4. — Rhizothyris  media  n.  sp.  Fig. 

Fig.  5. — Rhiznthyris-ntrta  n.  sp.  Fig. 
Fig.  6. — Rhizothyris  rhizoida  (Hutt.). 

(All  slightly  reduced.) 
Face  p.  368.] 


7. — Rhizothyris  orata  n.  sp. 

8. — Rhizothyris  lateralis  n.  sp. 

9. — Ehizdihyris  pirum  n.  s]j. 
10. — Rhizothyris  srniiim  n.  sp. 
11. — Rhizothyris  elongata  n.  sp. 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LII. 


Plate  XXV. 


•    •0^:V^„^J& 


-«¥v 


It--' 


^^" 


14 


Figs.  1,  2,  ^.—Neothyris  iherivgi  n.  sp.  Figs.  8.  9,  10,  ll.-P«c%/N«5ra.s2;«rAi{Hutt.). 

Figs.  4,  5,  G.  1  .-Pachymagas  Madi  n.  sp.  Figs.  12,  13,  U.-Pachymagas  speighti  n.  sp. 

(All  slightly  reduced.) 


Thomson. — (jreology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weha  Pass  Dist7-ict .     369 

Hemithyris  nigricans  (Sow,). 

A  mutation  of  this  well-known  Recent  species  is  found  in  the  uppermost 
Mount  Brown  limestone  (E).  It  differs  from  Recent  specimens  only  in  its 
slightly  smaller  size  and  slightly  more  imbricated  growth-lines.  A  similar 
mutation  is  found  in  Park's  upper  Hutchinsonian  of  Target  Gully,  Oamaru 
district,  the  lowest  horizon  from  which  any  specimens  referable  to  this 
species  have  been  found. 

Terebratulidae. 

Terebratulina  suessi  (Hutt.). 

Three  specimens  only  of  this  species  have  been  fovmd,  in  the  top  of  the 
main  Mount  Brown  limestone  (D).  They  agree  well  with  the  type  from 
the  Curiosity  Shop. 

Terebratulina  sp.  cf.  cancellata  Koch.     (Plate  XXIV,  figs.  14,  15.) 

A  single,  not  very  well  preserved  specimen  from  the  uppermost  Mount 
Brown  limestone  (E)  seems  referable  to  the  Terebratulidae  from  its  epithyrid 
beak  characters  and  labiate  foramen,  while  a  fine  dichotomous  striation 
suggests  Terebratuliyia.  These  characters  are  combined  only  in  the  Recent 
Australian  species  Terebrahdina  cancellata  Koch,  which,  however,  on  account 
of  its  beak  characters,  will  doubtless  be  made  the  type  of  a  new  genus. 
The  specimen  under  consideration  is  larger  than  the  average  specimen 
of  T.  cancellata,  but  does  not  show  the  dorsal  bipli6ation  characteristic  of 
adults  of  that  species.  Its  dimensions  are  :  Length,  38  mm.  ;  breadth, 
30  mm.  ;    thickness,  21  mm. 

No  terebratulids  other  than  the  above  have  been  obtaiijed,  and  the 
absence  of  Liothyrella  is  worthy  of  remark. 

TeREBR  ATELLIDA  E . 

Bouchardia  minima  Thomson. 

Geol.  Mag.,  dec.  6,  vol.  5,  1918,  pp.  260-61,  fig.  ],  a,  h,  c. 

This  species  occurs  locally  in  abundance  in  the  main  Mount  Brown 
limestone  (D). 

Magadina  browni  Thomson. 
Magadina  waiparensis  Thomson. 

Trans.  N.Z.  InsL,  vol.  47, 1915,  pp,  399,  400, 402, 403,  figs.  7,  a-d,  8,  a,  b. 

M.  waiparensis  has  been  found  only  in  the  third  Mount  Brown  lime- 
stone (C)  in  the  cliffs  overlooking  the  Waipara  River,  and  near  Mount 
Donald.  M.  browni  is  extraordinarily  abundant  in  places  in  the  main 
limestone  (D),  and  can  be  found  in  most  exposures.  It  occurs  rarely  in 
the  sandstones  imder  the  uppermost  limestone  (E),  It  is  strange  that 
Magadina  should  be  so  abundant  in  the  Waipara  district  and  be  absent  or 
very  rare  from  the  Oamaru  district.  There  are  two  specimens  in  the 
Geological  Survey  collection  from  locality  308,  Oamaru  formation,  Oamaru, 
Hector,  1876.  One  is  a  specimen  of  M.  browni,  and  the  other  a  new  species 
of  Magadina.  The  locality  record  gives  little  information,  and  must  be 
accepted  with  caution  in  view  of  the  absence  of  similar  specimens  in  the 
extensive  collections  made  by  Uttley,  Park,  and  myself. 


370  Transactions.  * 

Genus  Rhizothyris  Thomson. 

Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  47,  1915,  p.  399,  figs.  5,  a-d,  6,  a,  h. 

Specimens  of  Rhizothyris  are  extremely  abmidant  in  the  main  Mount 
Brown  limestone  (D),  and  less  so  in  the  uppermost  limestone  (E).  Tliey 
present  a  great  variety  of  form,  the  extremes  being  so  different  that  it  is 
impossible  to  imagine  that  they  had  not  been  differentiated  into  separate 
true-breeding  races,  although  there  are  so  many  intermediates  that  it  is 
obvious  that  the  evolution  either  had  taken  place  only  a  short  time 
previously  or  was  still  in  progress.  Similar  polymorphism  is  displayed  by 
the  specimens  from  Hutchinson's  Quarry,  Oamaru,  the  Maerewhenua  green- 
sands,  and  the  Curiosity  Shop.  As  the  forms  are  not  exactly  the  same  in 
these  localities,,  and  as  a  stratigraphical  value  may  be  found -to  attach  itself 
to  certain  forms,  it  is  desirable  to  create  species  for  all  the  distinptive 
types.  To  show  the  interrelationships  of  these  it  will  be  necessary  to 
describe  here  a  few  shells  from  the  other  districts.  The  bearing  of  the 
results  on  correlation  is  discussed  in  Part  III  of  this  paper. 

The  ancestral  type  from  which  all  the  species  appear  to  have  developed 
has  not  yet  been  found  adult,  but  is  represented  by  the  half-grown  shell 
of  R.  curiosa  Thomson.  This  is  shown  by  the  growth-lines  to  have  been 
a  suborbicular  shell  with  a  broad,  uncurved  hinge-line,  and  without  any 
folding.  From  it  development  in  outline  apj^ears  to  have  proceeded  along 
three  main  lines. 

The  first  series  is  characterized  by  a  retention  of  the  broad,  uncurved 
hinge-line,  but  there  is  an  increasing  elongation  of  the  shell,  combuied  with 
an  increasing  narrowing  of  the  front.  To  this  series  belong  R.  curiosa 
Thomson,  R.  media  n.  sp.,  R.  scutum  n.  sp.,  R.  rhizoida  Hutt.,  and 
R.  elongata  n.  sp. 

The  second  series  is  also  characterized  by  the  retention  of  a  broad, 
little-curved  hiage-line,  and  by  increasing  elongation,  but  this  is  not  accom- 
panied by  a  taperiag  of  the  front,  and  the  shells  retain  an  elliptical  shape. 
Here  belong  R.  curta  n.  sp.  and  R.  elliptica  n.  sp. 

The  third  series  is  characterized  by  an  increasing  narrowing  and  curva- 
ture of  the  hinge-line,  and  elongation  is  accompanied  by  a  narrowing  of 
the  front,  so  that  the  shape  passes  from  subcircular  through  broadly  ovate, 
ovate,  to  narrowly  ovate.  Here  belong  R.  lateralis  n.  sp.,  R  'pirum  n.  sp., 
R.  ovate  n.  sp.,  and  R.  amygdala  n.  sp. 

There  has  also  been  development  in  the  amount  of  folding,  and  at  each 
stage  in  the  development  in  outline  folding  may  take  place  preventing 
further  development  of  outline  in  quite  the  same  manner  as  would  be 
possible  to  an  imfolded  shell.  The  folding  is  in  all  cases  simple  ventral 
uniplication  (sulcate  or  concavi-convex  of  Buckman).  In  general  the 
effect  of  folding  on  outline  is  to  produce  a  sudden  truncation  of  the 
front.  The  folded  shells  are  also  generally  more  convex  than  the  un- 
folded. Where  necessary,  species  have  been  set  up  for  the  reception  of 
the  strongly  folded  and  convex  forms — viz.,  R.  crassa  n.  sp.,  R.  obesa  n.  sp., 
and  R.  fortis  n.  sp. 

Mr.  S.  S.  Buckman  has  also  pointed  out  to  me  that  a  further  discrimina- 
tion may  be  made  according  to  the  stage  of  foraminal  developm^t.  All 
the  species  are  permesothyrid,  and  almost  epithyrid,  but  in  some  there  has 
been  remigration  of  the  foramen  with  the  production  of- pseudbtela.  I  am 
not  yet  clear  as  to  the  specific  value  of  this  criterion,  and  have  not  applied 
it  in  the  present  analysis. 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waiparaand  Weka  Pass  District.    371 

Rhizothryis  curiosa  Thomson.     (Plate  XXII,  fig.  3 ;  Plate  XXIV,  fig.  5.) 
Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  47,  1915,  p.  399,  fig.  6,  a,  h. 
Three  specimens  referable  to  this  primitive  species  have  been  found  in 
the  uppermost  limestone  (E).      It  occurs  also  in  the  Curiosity  Shop  green- 
sand,  the  Ngapara  limestone,  and  the  Clarendon  limestone. 

Rhizothyris  media  n.  sp.      (Plate  XXII,  fig.  4 ;  Plate  XXIV,  fig.  3.) 

Similar  to  R.  curiosa  in  shape  and  size,  but  slightly  more  elongate. 
The  growth-lines  repeat  the  outline  of  R.  curiosa  at  about  three-quarters 
the  length  of  the  dorsal  valve,  and  the  subsequent  development  is  in  the 
direction  of^a  narrowing  front,  making  the  outline  shield-shaped  instead  of 
suborbicular.  The  sides  curve  outwards  only  very  slightly  from  the  broad, 
nearly  straight  hinge-line.  The  convexity,  folding,  and  beak  characters 
are  essentially  similar  to  those  of  R.  curiosa.  Length  of  holotype,  38*5  mm. ; 
breadth,  35  mm. ;    thickness,  18  mm. 

Type  locality :  Curiosity  Shop,  Rakaia  River,  Canterbury.  Besides 
the  type  locality,  this  species  occurs  in  the  limestone  of  Fossil  Point, 
Ashburton  River  (Haast  coll.).  One  specimen  from  the  lower  shell-bed 
of  the  Weka  Pass  Stream  and  several  from  the  uppermost  Mount  Brown 
limestone  (E)  are  referable  ^here. 

Rhizothyris  scutum  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXII,  fig.  10 ;  Plate  XXIV,  fig.  2.) 

Shell  in  outline  resembling  a  long  herg,ldic  shield.  The  hinge-line  is 
nearly  the  breadth  of  the  shell,  and  only  slightly  curved.  The  growth- 
lines  repeat  the  outline  of  R.  scutum  at  about  three-quarters  the  length 
of  the  dorsal  valve.  The  shell  is  very  little  folded,  and  both  valves  are 
rather  depressed,  as  in  R.  curiosa  and  R.  scutum.  '  Length  of  holotype, 
43  mm.  ;   breadth,  34  mm.  ;    thickness,  19*5  mm. 

Type  locality :  Greensands,  Hutchinson's  Quarry,  Oamaru.  Besides 
the  .type  locality,  this  species  occurs  also  in  limestone  near  Clifden,  Waiau, 
Southland  (G.  M.  Thomson  coll.),  in  the  Curiosity  Shop  greensands,  Rakaia 
River,  and  in  the  main  Mount  Brown  limestone  (D)  and  the  uppermost 
limestone  (E)  of  the  Weka  Pass. 

Rhizothyris  rhizoida  (Hutt.).     (Plate  XXII,  fig.  6 ;  Plate  XXIII,  fig.  7.) 

1905.     Bouchardia  rhizoida  Hutt.,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  37.  p.  480, 

pi.  xlvi,  fig.  7. 
1907.     Magellania    rhizoida    Iher.,   Ann.   Mus.    Nac.    Buenos   Aires, 

ser.  3,  tom.  7,  p.  473. 
1915.     Rhizothyris   rhizoida    Thomson,    Trans.   N.Z.   Inst.,   vol.   47, 
pp.  397-99,  fig.  5,  a. 
•    The  holotype,  which  comes  from  the  Weka  Pass,  is  a  shell  with  worn 
beak,  which  led  Buckman  from  an  examination  of  the  figure  to  state  that 
the  foramen  was  mesothyrid,  but  it  is  really  perinesoth}Tid.     Shells  exactly 
matching  the  holotype  in  shape  are  not  common,  but  the  species  may  be 
allowed  to  include  those  shells  intermediate  in  elongation  between  R.  scutum 
and  R.  elongata  which  are  moderately  elongate,  with  a  slightly  curved  hinge- 
line  nearly  the  breadth  of  the  shell,  and  a  marked  taper.     These  shells  are 
moderately  to  strongly  convex,  and  always  show  some  folding. 

The  species  is  common  in  the  main  Mount  Brown  limestone  (D),  from 
which  the  holotype  was  doubtless  derived,  but  does  not  appear  to  extend 
into  the  uppermost  limestone.      It  is  also  common  at  Hutchinson's  Quarry. 


372  Transactions. 

Rhlzothyris  elongata  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXII,  fig.  11  ;  Plate  XXIII,  fig.  11.) 

1905.     Bouchardia  elongata  Park,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  37,  p.  541 

{nomen  nudum,  ascribed  to  Hutton). 

Three  specimens  only,  of  extremely  elongate  tapering  form,  have  been 
collected — two  by  McKay  from  Hutchinson's  Quarry,  and  one  by  myself 
from  the  dip-slope  of  the  main  Mount  Brown  limestone,  Weka  Pass.  All 
three  are  imperfect,  and  I  have  selected  the  least-damaged  specimen  from 
Hutchinson's  Quarry  as  the  holotype.  The  hinge -line  is  broad  and  little 
curved,  and  is  nearly  the  breadth  of  the  shell.  The  sides  taper  gradually 
to  a  narrow  front.      The  convexity  and  folding  is  moderate  in  all  three 

specimens,  and  the  beak  little  incurved. 

Dimensions  in  Millimetres. 
Length.     Breadth.     Thickness. 
Holotype  ..  ..  ..55  37  27 

Paratvpe,  Hutchinson's  Quarry      . .     34+         23-5  10 

Paratype,  Weka  Pass        . .      "        .  .     47  30  19+ 

Rhizothyris  curta  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXII,  fig.  5  ;  Plate  XXIV,  fig.  1.) 

Shell  broadly  elliptical,  with  a  broad,  little-curved  hinge-line  almost  as 
broad  as  the  shell;  sides  gently  convex  and  regularly  rounded,  meeting 
the  nearly  straight  front  in  obtuse  angles.  Valves  moderately  and  nearly 
equally  convex  ;  anterior  commissure  nearly  straight,  with  only  a  very 
slight,  broad,  rounded  ventral  sinuation.  Length  of  holotype,  37  mm.  ; 
breadth,  33  mm.;    thickness,  20  mm. 

Type  locality  :  Foot  of  dip-slope,  main  Mount  Brown  limestone,  Weka 
Pass.  The  species  occurs  rarely  in  the  type  locality  and  in  the  uppermost 
Mount  Brown  limestone,  and  one  specimen  has  been  obtained  from  the 
concretionary  bed,  Deborah  Cutting,  Oamaru.  It  also  occurs  in  a  dwarfed 
form,  up  to  26  mm.  long,  in  the  Maerewhenua  greensands. 

Rhizothyris  crassa  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXIII,  figs.  8,  9J 

Shell  in  outline  resembling  R.  curta.  Valves  strongly  convex,  anterior 
commissure  with  a  broad,  fairly  deep,  ventral  sinuation.  Beak  erect. 
Length  of  holotype,  41mm.;   breadth,  37-5  mm.  ;  thickness,  27  mm. 

Type  locality  :  Foot  of  dip-slope,  main  Mount  Brown  limestone,  Weka 
Pass.      The  'species  in  common  in  the  type  locality. 

Rhizothyris  elliptica  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXII,  fig.  1  ;  Plate  XXIII,  fig.  3.) 

1915.     Rhizothyris    rhizoida    (Hutt.)    Thomson,    Trans.    N.Z.    Inst., 
vol.  47,  p.  398,  fig.  5,  d  (not  of  Hutton). 

Shell  elongate-elliptical,  hinge-line  broad  and  little  curved,  sides  lightly 
convex  and  regularly  rounded,  front  rounded.  Valves  moderately  convex, 
anterior  commissure  with  a  slight  rounded  ventral  smuation.  Length  of 
holotype,  47  mm.  ;    breadth,  36  mm.  ;    thickness,  22  mm. 

Type  locality  :  Foot  of  dip-slope,  main  Mount  Brown  limestone,  Weka 
Pass.  The  species  is  rare  both  in  the  type  locality  and  in  the  uppermost 
Mount  Brown  limestone,  and  is  also  found  in  the  Hutchinson's  Quarry 
greensands.  Dwarfed  forms  from  25  mm.  to  32  mm.  in  length  are  common- 
in  the  Maerewhenua  greensands. 


Tno'siiiO'S .—Geplogy  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  Districf .    373 

Rhizothyris  fortis  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXIII,  figs.  1,  2.) 

Shell  elongate-elliptical,  hinge-line  fairly  bread  and  little  curved,  sides 
lightly  convex,  rounded,  front  narrowly  truncate  and  nearly  straight. 
Valves  strongly  convex,  anterior  commissure  with  a  broad  ventral  sinu- 
ation.  Beak  nearly  erect.  Length  of  holotype,  60  mm. ;  breadth,  44*5  mm. ; 
thickness,  36  mm. 

Tvpe  locality  :  Foot  of  dip-slope,  main  Mount  Brown  limestone,  Weka 
Pass.  Two  specimens  only  referable  to  this  species  have  been  found  in 
the  type  locality,  and  two  in  the  uppermost  Mount  Brown  limestone. 

Rhizothyris  obesa  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXIII,  figs.  6,  10.) 

The  outline  resembles  that  of  R.  scutum,  but  the  hinge-line  is  slightly 
more  curved,  and  there  is  a  greater  approach  to  an  elliptical  shape.  The 
valves  are  markedly  convex,  a  character  which  differentiates  the  species 
from  both  R.  scutum  and  R.  elliptica,  and  the  shell  is  also  more  folded  and 
the  beak  more  incurved  than  in  these  species.  Apparently  corresponding 
to  the  incurvature  of  the  beak,  the  foramen  is  slightly  remigrant  with 
an  indication  of  pseudotela.  Length  of  holotype,  48-5  mm.  ;  breadth, 
39  mm.;  thickness,  28-5  mm. 

Type  locality  :  Foot  of  dip-slope,  main  Mount  Brown  limestone  (D), 
Weka  Pass.  A  single  specimen  was  obtained  from  the  uppermost  Mount 
Brown  beds,  in  the  Neothyris  shell-bed  of  Weka  Pass  Stream. 

Rhizothyris  lateralis  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXII,  fig.  8;  Plate  XXIV,  fig.  4.) 

Shell  subcircular,  hinge-line  broad  but  slightly  curved,  sides  convex 
and  rounded,  beak-margins  nearly  straight,  front  rounded.  Valves 
moderately  convex  ;  there  is  a  broad  rounded  sinuation  in  the  anterior 
commissure.  Length  of  holotype,  38  mm.  ;  breadth,  37  mm.  ;  thickness, 
20  mm. 

Type  locality  :  Mount  Brown  beds,  Weka  Pass.  It  is  uncertain  whether 
the  specimen  came  from  the  main  limestone  or  the  uppermost  limestone. 
No  examples  are  known  from  other  localities. 

Rhizothyris  pirum  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXII,  fig.  9;  Plate  XXIII,  fig.  5.) 

Shell  broadly  ovate  or  pear-shaped,  with  a  moderately  broad  and  curved 
hinge-line,  sides  convex  and  rounded,  front  truncated  and  gently  rounded. 
Valves  moderately  convex,  anterior  sinuation  slight.  Length  of  holotype, 
34  mm.;    breadth,  28  mm.;    thickness,  18  mm. 

Type  locality  :  Foot  of  dip-slope,  main  Mount  Brown  limestone,  Weka 
Pass.  There  is  only  one  other  specimen  referable  to  the  species,  from 
the  escarpment  of  the  same  beds,  overlooking  the  Weka  Pass. 

Rhizothyris  ovata  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXII,  fig.  7 ;  Plate  XXIV,  fig.  6.) 

Shell  ov^ate,  with  a  moderately  broad,  curved  hinge-line,  sides  lightly 
convex  and  rounded,  front  truncate  and  gently  rounded.  The  valves  are 
moderately  convex,  anterior  sinuation  slight.  Length  of  holotype,  36  mm.  ; 
breadth,  28  mm.  ;    thickness,  18  mm. 

Type  locality  :  Foot  of  dip-slope,  main  Mount  Brown  limestone,  Weka 
Pass.  The  species  is  also  known  from  the  greensands  of  Target  Gully 
and  Hutchinson's  Quarry,  Oamaru,  and  by  a  single  specimen  from  the 
Maerewhenua  greensands.  The  majority  of  the  specimens  from  the  latter 
locality  belong  to  a  similar  ovate  species,  but  with  a  shorter  beak. 


374  Transactions. 

Rhizothyris  amygdala  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXII,  fig.  2;  Plate  XXIII,  fig.  4.) 

Shell  narrowly  ovate  or  almond-shaped,  beak  rather  short,  hinge-line 
short  and  curved,  sides  convex  and  rounded,  front  narrowly  truncated 
and  gently  rounded.  Valves  moderately  convex,  sinuation  of  the  anterior 
iuargin  broad  and  shallow.  Length  of  holotype,  29'5  mm.  ;  breadth,  21  mm.  ; 
thickness,  14  mm. 

Type  locality :  Greensands  of  Hutchinson's  Quarry,  Oamaru.  No 
other  specimens  than  the  holotype  are  known.  Two  anteriorly  imperfect 
specimens  from  the  main  Mount  Brown  limestone  agree  closely  in  shape, 
except  that  the  beak  is  longer. 

Genus  Pachymagas  Iher. 

As  in  the  case  of  Rhizothyris,  specimens  of  Pachymagas  are  abundant 
in  the  main  Mount  Brown  limestone  (D),  and  they  present  an  even  greater, 
variety  of  characters.  Similar  .series  occur  in  the  Hutchinsonian  green- 
sands  of  Hutchinson's  Quarry,  Deborah,  Kakanui,  and  other  localities 
near  Oamaru,  while  there  is  a  different  but  even  more  varied  assemblage 
in  the  Curiosity  Shop  greensands.  The  complexity  of  the  problem, 
combined  with  the  large  amount  of  material,  has  delayed  the  com- 
pletion of  my  memoir  on  the  Tertiary  Brachiepods  of  New  Zealand  ; 
in  the  present  paper  I  have  restricted  myself  to  the  description  of  the 
majority  of  the  species  that  can  be  recognized  in  the  Waipara  area,  leaving 
a  few  till  more  satisfactory  material  can  be  obtained. 

Among  the  already-described  species  in  the  Oamaruian  three  series  may 
be  recognized.  The  first  includes  P.  parki  (Hutt.),  P.  marshalU  (Andrew), 
and  P.  trelissickensis  Thomson,  and  probably  also  the  Patagonian  forms 
P.  tehuelcha  Iher.  (the  genotype)  and  P.  gigantea  Ortmann,  and  the 
Antarctic  form  P.  antarctica  Buckman.  The  shells  are  large,  with  a 
prominent  mesothyrid  foramen  and  beaks  which  are  suberect  to  erect  and 
not  markedly  carinatQ.  The  second  series  includes  P.  triangularis  (Hutt.), 
P.  huttoni  Thomson,  and  the  Patagonian  form  P.  venter  Iher.  The  shells 
are  also  large,  with  large  mesothyrid  foramens,  with  erect  to  incurved  beaks 
which  are  carinate,  and  with  flattened  and  broadly  sinuated  dorsal  valves. 
The  third  series,  perhaps  generically  distinct,  includes  P.  ellipticus  Thomson, 
a  smaller  shell  with  a  small  foramen  which  is  submesothyrid,  almost 
mesothyrid.*  The  majority  of  the  specimens  from  the  district  belong  to 
the  P.  parki  series,  while  there  is  a  fourth  series  represented  by  a  new 
species,  P.  andrewi,  with  a  large  shell  and  a  small  foramen. 

In  Neothyris,  which  is  a  descendant  of  Pachymagas,  the  tendency  is  to 
increasing  convexity,  a  restriction  of  the  foramen,  and  the  production  and 
incurving  of  the  beak  with  old  age,  so  that  one  may  conclude  that  in 
Pachymagas  also  the  evolutionary  process  is  from  depressed  to  convex, 
from  large  to  small  foramen,  and  from  suberect  to  erect  and  produced 
beak.  Other  characters  which  may  be  treated  on  evolutionary  lines  are 
the  shape,  the  folding,  dnd  the  cardinalia.  The  last,  unfortunately,  are 
rarely  av&,ilable  in  specimens  from  the  district,  owing  to  the  hardness  of 
the  matrix. 

Pachymagas  parki  Series. 

The  species  may  be  arranged  according  to  shape  in  a  series  from  sub- 
orbicular  to  narrowly  ovate,  but  do'  not  all  form  a  strictly  phylogenetic 
series,  owing  to  variations  in  the  amount  of  folding. 

*  Cf.  p.  380. 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District.    375 


Pachymagas  marshalli  (Andrew).     (Fig.  7.) 

1906.     Magellania   marshalli  Andrew,    Trans.    N.Z.    Inst.,    vol.    38, 
p.  456,  pi.  iv,  fig.  3,  a,  h. 

The  holotype  is  a  poorly  preserved,  crushed,  and  somewhat  distorted 
specimen,  from  which  one  may  nevertheless  conclude  that  it  was  originally 
a  nearly  suborbicular  shell  with  short 
beak,  broad,  slightly  curved  hinge-line, 
rounded  convex  sides,  and  probably 
a  rounded  front.  The  convexity  is 
slight,  and  the  folding  apparently 
almost  negligible,  but  in  the  direction 
of  incipient  ventral  uniplication.  The 
beak  is  erect,  little  produced  above 
the  hinge-line,  and  possesses  a  mode- 
rate mesothyrid  foramen  with  well- 
marked  beak-ridges;  Length  of  holo- 
type, 49  mm.  ;   breadth.  48  mm. 

The  dorsal  valve  was  partially 
ground  down  by  Dr.  Andrew  to  ex-* 
pose  the  septum.  The  holotype  is  in 
the  Otago  Museum. 

Type  locaHty :  Clarendon  limestone,  Fig.  1.—Pac7iymagas  marshalli.  Holotype. 
Milbnrn    Quarry,   Otago.      No    speci-  Natural  size, 

mens   are   known   from   the  Waipara 
district. 

Smaller  shells,  up  to  35  mm.  in  length,  which  agree  closely  in  shape, 
occur  in  the  Moilnt  Somers  limestone,  and  the  greensands  of  Curiosity 
Shop,  Kakanui,  All  Day  Bay,  and  Three  Roads. 


Pachymagas  cottoni  n.  sp.     (Fig.  8.) 

1908.     Magellania  sinuata  Thomson,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  40,  p.  101, 
pi.  xiv,  fig.  3  (not  of  Hutton). 

Shell  broadly  elliptical,  with  a  beak  of  moderate  length,  a  broad,  slightly 
curved  hinge-line,  nearly  straight  sides,  and  a  rounded  front.      Convexity 


Fig.  8. — Pachymagas  cottoni.     Holotype.     Natural  size. 

moderate,   anterior  commissure   with   a   broad   shallow   ventral   sinuation, 
flattened  along  the  bottom.      Beak  erect,  foramen  moderate,  mesothyrid, 


376  Transactions. 

attrite  ;  the  beak-ridges  are  sharp.  Length  of  holotype,  48  mm.  ;  breadth, 
43  mm.  ;  thickness,  23  mm.  The  species  differs  from  P.  marshaUi  only  in 
slightly  greater  elongation. 

Type  locality  :  Sands  below  main  Mount  Brown  limestone  (D),  ciiesta 
overlooking  the  Weka  Pass. 

Smaller  specimens  referable  to  this  species  occur  in  the  second  creamy 
calcareous  sandstone  overling  the  main  Mount  Brown  limestone,  in  the 
Weka  Pass  stone  at  Onepunga,  in  the  Oamaru  district  in  the  greensands 
of  Landon  Creek,  Three  Roads,  Kakanui,  All  Day  Bay,  and  Hutchinson's 
Quarry,  and  in  the  Caversham  sandstone  (A.  McKay,  loc.  309). 

Pachymagas  bartrumi  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXIV,  figs.  7  9.) 

Shell  elongate,  beak  fairly  short,  obtuse,  hinge-line  nearly  as  broad  as 
the  shell,  little  curved,  sides  very  gently  convex,  front  slightly  narrowed, 
rounded.  Valves  moderately  convex,  ventral  valve  bluntly  carinate 
longitudinally,  anterior  commissure  with  a  broad,  shallow,  flat-bottomed 
ventral  sinuation.  Beak  nearly  erect,  foramen  large,  mesothyrid,  attrite. 
Length  of  holotype,  48  mm.  ;  breadth,  38  mm.  ;  thickness,  25  mm. 

This  species  represents  a  further  stage,  and,  so  far  as  is  known,  the 
extreme  stage,  of  elongation  of  the  series  P.  marshaUi,  P.  cottoni,  but  has 
an  even  broader  hinge-line  relative  to  the  breadth  of  the  shell. 

Type  locality  :  $oot  of  dip-slope,  main  Mount  Brown  limestone,  Weka 
Pass.     The  species  is  rare  in  the  type  locality,  and  is  not  known  elsewhere. 

Pachymagas  speighti  n,  sp.     (Plate  XXV,  figs.  12-14.) 

Shell  shield-shaped,  with  a  rather  short  obtuse  beak  and  a  broad  nearly 
straight  hinge-line,  whence  the  sides  at  first  curve  gently  outwards  to  the 
middle  of  the  shell  and  then  taper  quickly  to  a  narrow  produced  front. 
Dorsal  valve  rather  flat,  reflected  anteriorly,  ventral  valve  moderately 
convex,  bluntly  carinate  longitudinally,  anterior  commissure  with  a  narrow, 
fairly  deep,  flat-bottomed  sinuation.  Beak  nearly  erect,  little  produced 
beyond  the  hinge-line,  foramen  moderately  large,  mesothyrid,  attrite.  Length 
of  holotype,  41  mm.  ;  breadth,  37  mm.  ;  thickness,  21  mm. 

This  species,  which  agrees  with  the  above  three  in  the  possession  of  a 
broad,  straight  hinge-line,  differs  from  them  in  the  narrowing  of  the  front 
and  the  more  pronounced  folding.  All  the  succeeding  species  possess 
narrower,   and  in   general  more  curved,   hinge-lines. 

Type  locality  :  Foot  of  dip-slope,  main  Mount  Brown  limestone.  The 
species  is  rare  in  the  type  locality.  A  well-preserved  cast,  collected  by 
Professor  Park  from  the  Deborah  limestone,  agrees  closely  in  outline,  but 
evidently  belonged  to  a  more  convex  shell. 

Pachymagas  clarkei  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXVI,  figs.  3-6.) 

Shell  broadly  elliptical,  with  a  short,  obtuse  beak,  a  hinge-line  of 
moderate  breadth  but  nearly  straight,  gently  curving  sides  and  a  shghtly 
produced  front.  Dorsal  valve  flattened,  and  sharply  bent  anteriorly  to 
fit  the  notch  in  the  moderately  convex,  bluntly  carinate  ventral  valve, 
anterior  commissure  with  a  deep  flat-bottomed  sinuation  of  moderate 
breadth.  Beak  erect,  little  produced  beyond  the  dorsal  valve,  with  a  larg6 
mesothyrid,  attrite  foramen.  Cardinal  process  short,  narrow,  sharp,  little 
more  than  half  the  height  of  the  hinge-trough.  The  species  is  shorter 
and  broader  than  P.  farki,  but  otherwise  resembles  it  in  shape,  convexity, 


Tno^isoy .—Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District.     371 

folding,  and  beak  characters.  It  has,  however,  a  much  less  advanced 
cardinal  process.  Length  of  holotype,  35  mm.  ;  breadth,  31  mm.  ;  thick- 
ness, 18-5  mm. 

Type  locahty  :  Lower  Mount  Brown  limestone  (A),  cuesta  near  Onepunga, 
where  it  is  the  commonest  species. 

Pachymagas  haasti  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXV,  figs.  4-7.) 

Shell  elliptical,  beak  short,  obtuse,  hinge-line  rather  narrow,  slightly 
.curved,  sides  moderately  convex,  front  slightly  produced  and  gently  rounded. 
Valves  moderately  convex,  the  ventral  with  a  broad  rounded  longitudinal 
fold  flattened  anteriorly,  anterior  commissure  with  a  moderatelv  broad, 
shallow,  flat-bottomed,  ventral  sinuation.  Beak  nearly  erect,  little  pro- 
duced beyond  the  hinge-line,  foramen  moderately  large,  mesothyrid,  attrite. 
Cardinal  process  not  more,  than  one-third  the  length  of  the  hinge-line, 
considerably  less  in  height  than  the  socket-ridges,  rounded  on  the  upper 
front  surface,  Length  of  holotype,  37-5  mm.  ;  breadth,  30  mm.  ;  thick- 
ness, 20  mm. 

This  species  resembles  the  elliptical  forms  of  P.  parhi  in  shape  and 
elongation  and  in  beak  characters,  but  is  less  strongly  folded  and  possesses 
a  less  advanced  cardinal  process.  It  may  be  regarded  as  ancestral  to 
P.  parki. 

Type  locality:  Grreensands,  Deborah,  near  Oamaru.  The  species  is 
common  in  most  of  the  Hutchinsonian  localities  near  Oamaru — viz.,  Devil's 
Bridge,  All  Day  Bay,  Three  Roads — but  is  rare  in  Hutchinson's  Quarry. 
It  also  occurs  in  the  Clarendon  limestone,  the  Ngapara  limestone,  and  the 
Maerewhenua  limestone.      It  is  rare  in  the  main  Mount  Brown  limestone. 

Pachymagas  hectori  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXIV,  figs.  10-13.) 

Shell  broadly  ovate,  beak  fairly  short,  hinge-line  rather  narrow  and 
curved,  sides  regularly  rounded,  front  slightly  produced,  rounded.  Valves 
moderately  convex,  ventral  valve  with  a  broad  rounded  fold,  flattened 
anteriorly,  dorsal  valve  with  a  broad,  shallow,  anterior  sinus,  anterior 
commissure  with  a  broad,  shallow,  flat-bottomed  anterior  sinuation.  Beak 
suberect,  nearly  erect,  not  produced  far  beyond  the  hinge-line,  foramen 
fairly  large,  mesothyrid,  attrite.  Cardinal  process  short,  low,  comparable  to 
that  of  P.  haasti.  Length  of  holotype,  39  mm. ;  breadth,  33  mm. ;  thickness, 
21-5  mm. 

This  species  differs  from  P.  haasti  in  the  ovate  outline,  and  from 
P.  2)arl:i  in  the  less  advanced  folding  and  cardinal  process. 

Type  locality :  Greensands  of  Landon  Creek,  near  Oamaru.  The 
species  is  common  in  most  of  the  Hutchinsonian  localities  near  Oamaru — 
e.g.  Rifle  Butts,.  Three  Roads,  Kakanui,  All  Day  Bay,  and  Deborah — but 
is  rare  at  Hutchinson's  Quarry.  It  also  occurs  in  the  Ngapara  limestone, 
and  one  specimen  is  known  from  the  Maerewhenua  greensands  (loc.  179, 
A.  McKay).  It  occurs  fairly  commonly  in  the  main  Mount  Brown  lime- 
stone, while  a  single  specimen  has  been  obtained  from  the  uppermost  Mount 
Brown  limestone. 

There  is  a  further  species  from  the  main  limestone  which  differs  from 
P.  hectori  chiefly  in  being  narrowly  and  not  broadly  ovate.  Unfortunately 
none  of  the  dozen  specimens  which  I  have  collected  are  sufficiently  well 
preserved  to  serve  as  a  type. 


378  Transactions. 

Pachymagas  parki  (Hutt.).     (Fig.  9;  Plate  XXV,  figs.  8-11.) 

1905.     Magellania  parJci  Hutt.,   Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  37,  p.  476, 
pi.  xlv,  fig.  4. 

1915.  Pachymagas  parki  Thomson,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  47, 
•  pp.  394-95,  fig.  2,  b  (but  not  fig.  2,  a). 
The  holotype  (fig.  9)  is  a  distinctly  ovate  form,  but  the  majority  of 
specimens  from  the  type  locality  have  a  similar  broad  but  less  curved 
hinge-line,  and  the  sides  are  less  convex.  The  front  is  produced  as  a 
narrow  tongue.  The  beak  is  short  and  obtuse.  The  valves  are  moderately 
convex,  the  ventral  with  a  longitudinal  fold  which  is  rounded  and  obscurely 
limited  posteriorly,  but  anteriorly  is  more  pronounced,  flattened  on  top^ 
and  sharply  limited  laterally  ;  the  dorsal  valve  is  sulcate  anteriorly  and 
sharply  reflected  to  fit  into  the  notch  in  the  ventral  valve  ;  the  anterior 
commissure  shows  a  fairly  narrow,  deep,  flat-bottomed  sinuation.  A 
single  specimen  is  known  in  which  incipient  ventral  biplication  is  shown, 
the  anterior  commissure  presenting  the  form  of  a  W  with  rounded  angles. 
The  beak  is  erect^  not  produced  much  beyond  the  hinge-line,  with  a 
moderately  large,  mesothyrid,  attrite  foramen. 


Fig.  9.— Pachymagas  parki  (Kntt.).     Holotype.     Natural  size. 

The  cardinalia  were  described  and  figured  by  me  in  1915.  Attention 
may  be  drawn  to  the  prominent  cardinal  process,  which  is  about  half  the 
length  of  the  hinge-trough,  higher  than  the  socket-ridges,  and  somewhat 
swollen  in  front.  Length  of  holotype,  37  mm.  ;  breadth,  29  mm.  ;  thick- 
ness, 17  mm. 

Type  locality  :  Greensands,  Hutchinson's  Quarry,  Oamaru.  Restricted 
as  above  to  strongly  folded  forms,  the  species  is  known  only  from  the  type 
locality  (where  it  is  common),  the  tuffs  of  Whitewater  Creek,  Trelissick 
Basin  (a  single  specimen  collected  by  McKay),  and  the  main  Mount  Brown 
limestone  (where  it  is  not  very  common).  Two  closely  related  species 
have  been  differentiated — viz.,  P.   McKayi  and  P.  morgani. 

Pachymagas  McKayi*  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXVII,  figs.  1-3.) 

Shell  ovate,  beak  fairly  long,  hinge-line  moderately  broad,  strongly 
curved,  sides  convex  and  regularly  rounded,  front  somewhat  produced. 
Valves  strongly  convex,  especially  the  ventral  ;   folding  similar  to  P.  parki, 

*  Named  after  the  late  Mr.  A.  McKay.  The  International  Rules  demand  that,  for  a 
genitive,  to  the  exact  and  complete  name  of  a  male  an  "i"  should  be  added.  The  New 
Zealand  Geological  Survey,  following  Hutton,  have  generally  adopted  the  permissible 
practice  of  commencing  such  names  with  a  small  initial  letter,  but  this  case  shows  the 
disadvantage  of  this  procedure. 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  Disfricf .     379 

but  hardly  so  pronounced.  Beak  produced  well  beyond  the  hinge -line, 
erect,  foramen  large,  mesothyrid.  attrite.  Length  of  holotype,  44  mm.  ; 
breadth,  34mra.  ;    thickness,  25-5  mm. 

This  species,  though  somewhat  less  folded  than  P.  parki,  is  more  convex, 
and  has  a  more  prorhinent  beak  both  as  regards  length  and  production 
dorsally  of  the  hirige-line^ 

Type  locality  :  Foot  of  dip-slope,  main  Mount  Brown  limestone,  Weka 
Pass.     The  species  is  common  in  this  limestone,  and  is  unknown  elsewhere. 

Imperfect  specimens,  believed  to  belong  to  this  species,  from  the  main 
limestone  between  Mount  Brown  and  the  road,  have  a  cardinal  process 
more  prominent  even  than  that  of  P.  parki  and  comparable  to  that  of 
Neothyris  ovalis. 

Pachymagas  morgani  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXVII,  figs.  4-6.) 

Shell  broadly  ovate,  beak  moderately  short,  hinge-line  narrow,  not  much 
curved,  sides  convex  and  rounded,  tapering  to  a  rather  narrow  produced 
front.  Valves  moderately  convex,  the  dorsal  with  a  narrow,  shallow, 
median  sulcus  from  about  the  middle,  ventral  with  a  broad  rounded 
longitudinal  fold  a'nd  flattened  sides,  anterior  commissure  sloping  on  each 
side  to  a  moderately  deep,  rather  narrow,  flat-bottomed  sinuation.  Beak 
suberect,  not  much  produced  dorsally  of  the  ventral  valve,  foramen  fairly 
large,  mesothyrid,  attrite.  Length  of  holotype,  47  mm.  ;  breadth,  41  mm. ; 
thickness,  24  mm. 

This  species  is  less  strongly  folded  than  P.  parki,  and  has  a  narrower 
hinge-line  and  more  convex  sides.  It  difiers  from  P.  hectori  in  its  narrower 
and  more  produced  front,  due  to'  narrower  folding.  The  cardinalia  are 
imknown. 

Type  locality  :  Foot  of  dip-slope,  main  Mount  Brown  limestone,  Weka 
Pass,  where  it  is  moderately  abundant.  It  is  unknown  outside  the  Waipara 
district. 

Pachymagas  coxi  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXVI,  figs.  10-12.) 

Shell  roundly  ovate,  beak  of  moderate  length,  hinge-line  moderately 
broad  and  curved,  sides  convex  and  regularly  rounded,  front  rounded. 
Valves  moderately  convex,  anterior  commissure  with  a  broad,  shallow,  flat- 
bottomed  sinuation.  Beak  suberect,  hardly  produced  dorsally  of  the  hinge- 
line,  foramen  large  rela,tively  to  the  size  of  the  shell,  mesothyrid,  attrite. 
Interior  unknown.  Length  of  holotype,  33  mm.;  breadth,  29*5  mm.  ; 
thickness,  17  mm. 

This  species,  though  smaller,  agrees  nearly  in  proportions  of  length 
and  breadth  with  P.  morgani,  but  has  a  more  rounded  front  and  broader 
folding.  In  these  characters  it  agrees  more  nearly  with  P.  hectori,  but  is 
broader,  attains  its  greatest  breadth  nearer  to  the  hinge-line,  and  is  less 
convex. 

Type  locality  :  Foot  of  dip-slope,  main  Mount  Brown  limestone,  Weka 
Pass.  The  species  is  fairly  rare  in  the  Mount  Brown  limestone,  and  has 
not  been  identified  outside  the  district. 

'  Pachymagas  huttoni  Series. 

Pachymagas  huttoni  Thomson.     (Plate  XXVI,  figs.  7-9.) 

Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  47,a915,  pp.  395,  403,  fig.  2,  c. 
This  species  has  already  been  described,  but  the  holotype  has  not  been 
figured,  an  omission  I  now  rectify. 


380  Transactions. 

A  single  specimen  from  the  WeJca  Pass  stone  at  Onepmiga,  though  only 
22  mm.  in  length,  agrees  closely  in  all  external  characters  with  the  holotype, 
and^  moreover,  possesses  the  same  fine  texture  of  shell  and  the  pale  purplish- 
brown  colour  which  seems  to  be  characteristic  of  this  species.  In  the  orginal 
description  the  shell  was  described  as  suborbicular,  but  it  is  slightly  more 
elongate  than  this,  and  perhaps  more  correctly  described  as  broadly  ovate. 

P.  huttoni  occurs  commonly  in  the  Waitaki  limestone  at  Maerewhenua 
and  Ngapara,  and  is  also  known  from  the  greensands  at  the  base  of  the 
Maerewhenua  limestone  and  the  greensands  overlying  the  Wharekuri  lime- 
stone. 

Pachymagqs  andrewi  Series. 

Pachymagas  andrewi  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXVI,  figs.  1,  2.) 

Shell  broadly  ovate,  beak  short,  acute,  hinge-line  narrow,  acute,  sides 
convex  and  rounded,  front  slightly  produced,  rounded.  Valves  moderately 
convex,  ventral  valve  with  a  broad  rounded  fold  and  slightly  flattened 
sides,  dorsal  valve  reflected  anteriorly,  anterior  commissure  with  a  broad, 
fairly  deep  ventral  sinuation,  not  completely  flattened  along  the  bottom. 
Beak  erect,  slightly  produced  dorsally  of  the  hinge-line,  foramen  small, 
mesothyrid,  attrite.  Cardinal  process  large  and  swollen,  comparable  to 
that  of  Neothyris  ovalis.  Length  of  holotype,  46  mm.  ;  breadth,  44  mm.  ; 
thickness,  21  mm.  (estimated).  The  ventral  valve  of  the  holotype  is  damaged, 
but  the  folding  of  this  valve  is  well  shown  on  a  paratype. 

This  species  differs  from  all  the  preceding  in  the  smallness  of  the  fora- 
men. It  may  conceivably  belong  to  Neothyris  and  not  Pachymagas.  It 
differs  from  P.  huttoni  in  the  absence  of  the  carination  of  the  beak.  In  its 
small  foramen  it  agrees  with  Terebratella  lahillei  Ihering,  a  species  com- 
pared by  its  author  with  Pachymagas  venter,  and  perhaps  a  member  of 
that  series,  but  it  is  more  elongate  and  broadly  oval  instead  of  suborbicular. 

Type  locality  :  Creamy  calcareous  sandstone  immediately  succeeding 
the  main  Mount  Brown  limestone,  foot  of  dip-slope  of  the  latter,  Weka  Pass. 
The  species  is  rare  in  the  type  locality,  and  not  recognized  elsewhere. 

Genus  Waiparia  n.  gen. 
Genotype,  Pachymagas  abnormis  Thomson. 

A  genus  of  the  Terebratellidae  with  a  septum  showing  the  remains  of 
transverse  bands,  and  therefore  presumably  with  a  loop  of  the  Terebratelli- 
form  pattern.  Rostrum  subapicate,  foramen  submesothyrid,  having  just 
left  the  hypothyrid  position,  deltidial  plates  conjunct — i.e.,  united  between 
the  foramen  and  the  dorsal  umbo.  In  these  characters  the  genus  differs 
from  Pachymagas  and  Terebratella,  in  which  the  rostrum  is  trmicate  and 
the  foramen  mesothyrid.  Cardinalia  simil^'r  to  those  of  young  specimens 
and  primitive  species  of  Pachymagas,  with  strong  socket-ridges  but  a  slender 
septum,  a  hinge-trough  with  flatly  inclined  walls  and  a  small  cardinal  process 
confined  to  the  umbo.  The  bifurcations  of  the  septum  forming  the  anterior 
walls  of  the  hinge-trough  overhang  slightly  outwards,  and  are  thus  more 
excavate  than  is  usual  in  Pachymagas,  but  much  less  so  than  the  hinge- 
plates  of  Terebratella.  The  teeth  of  the  ventral  valve  rise  from  swollen 
bases  as  in  Pachymagas. 

This  genus  may  be  considered  as  springing  from  the  same  stock  as  Pachy- 
magas, but  lagging  behind  in  foraminal  evolution.  It  possibly  gave  rise 
directly  to  Pachymagas  of  the  type  of  P.  ellipticus,  which  possesses  a  fora- 
men which  is  submesothyrid  but  almost  mesothryid. 


Tkans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LII. 


Plate  XXVI. 


Figs.  1,  2. — Pachymagas  anchewi  n.  sp.  Fms.  10,  11,  12. — Pachymmjns  coxi  n.  sp. 

Figs.  3,  4,  5,  6. — Pacln/niaga.t  clarkei  n.  sp.         Figs.  13,  14,  IJ. —  Waiparia  intermedia  n.  sp 
Figs.  7,  S,  9. — Pachymagas  huttoni  Thomson.       Figs.  16,  17,  18. —  Waiparia  nbnonnis  n.  sji. 

(All  slightly  reduced. ) 

Face  p.  380.] 


Trans.  N.Z.  Tnst.,  Vol.  LTI. 


Plate  XXVII. 


^: 


"^"^^^s^^. 


8 


Figs    I    2.  3.  -Pachymagas  McKayi  n.  sp.         Figs.  4,  5,  d.—Pachymagas  morgani  n.  sp. 

Figs.  7,  8,  9.~Neothyris  anrejis  n.  sp. 
(All  slightly  reduced  ) 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and.  Weka  Pass  District.    381 

Waiparia  abnormis  (Thomson).     (Plate  XXVI,  figs.  16-18.) 

1917.    Pachymagas  abnormis  Thomson,   Trans.   N.Z.  Inst.,   vol.   49, 
p.  412. 
This  species,  which  I  described  in  1915,  is  characterized  by  its  broad 
hinge-line  and  form  only  slightly  more  elongate  than  suborbicular. 

Type  locality  :    Sands  interbedded  with  main  Mount  Brown  limestone, 

cuesta  overlooking  the  Weka  Pass.     It  is  also  found  in  the  top  layers  of 

the  same  limestone  at  the  foot  of 'the  dip-slope,  attaining  here  a  length  of 

32  mm.  with  a  breadth  of  31mm.     It  also  occurs  at  Whatatutu  (E.  de  C. 

^Clarke  coll.),  and  in  the  Awamoan  mudstones  of  All  Day  Bay. 

Waiparia  intermedia  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXVI,  figs.  13-15.) 

Shell  broadly  ovate,  beak  of  moderate  length,  acute,  hinge-line  mode- 
rately broad,  somewhat  curved,  sides  convex  and  regularly  rounded,  front 
slightly  produced.  Valves  moderately  convex,  the  ventral  longitudinally 
carinate,  the  carina  flattened  anteriorly,  dorsal  valve  anteriorly  reflected 
and  with  a  slight  anterior  sulcus.  Beak  erect,  slightly  produced  dorsally 
of  the  hinge-line,  foramen  moderately  large,  submesothyrid,  deltidial  plates 
conjunct.  Length  of  holotype,  31-5  mm.  ;  breadth,  28-5  mm.  ;  thickness, 
16  mm. 

This  species  is  more  elongate  than  the  former,  the  two  being  about 
equally  folded. 

Type  locality  :  Foot  of  dip-slope,  main  Mount  Brown  limestone,  Weka 
Pass.  The  species  is  fairly  common  in  this  locality,  some  of  the  shells  being 
rather  more  convex  and  more  strongly  folded  than  the  holotype.  It  also 
occurs  in  flattened  specimens  in  the  Awamoan  mudstones. of  All  Day  Bay, 
the  Waikouaiti  sandstone,  and  the  Wharekuri  greensand  (McKay).  There 
are  forms  still  more  elongate  found  in  the  greensand  and  mudstones  of 
All  Day  Bay,  and  in  mudstones  at  the  junction  of  the  Brown  River  with 
the  Aorere  River,  Nelson.     For  these  a  further  species  must  be  set  up. 

Genus  Neothyris  Douville. 

Neothyris  campbellica  (Filhol). 

1885.     Waldheimia   campbellica  Filhol,   Mission    de    Visle   Campbell, 
pp.  173-74,  fig.  7,  Nos.  1,  2. 

This  species  was  distinguished  by  its  author  from  N.  lenticidaris  on 
account  of  its  narrower  shell  and  more  detached  beak.  The  shell  is  oval 
with  a  strongly  curved  hinge-line,  the  beak  passing  into  the  sides  without 
an  angle.  The  beak  is  considerably  produced  dorsally  of  the  hinge-line, 
but  is  erect  and  not  incurved  towards  the  dorsal  valve. 

As  thus  defined  from  topotypes,  the  species  is  common  in  the 
Wanganuian.  There  is  one  specimen  from  the  uppermost  Mount  Brown 
limestone  which  must  be  referred  here. 

Neothyris  ovalis  (Hutt.). 

1873.     Waldheimia   lenticidaris   Hutt.,  Cat.   Terf.  Moll.  Eeh.,   p.  3^ 

(not  of  Deshayes). 
1886.,    Waldheimia  ovalis  Hutt.,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  18,  p.  335. 
1905.     Magellania  lenticularis  ovalis  Hutt.,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  37, 

p.  475,  pi.  xlv,  fig.  2. 
1915.     Neothyris  ovalis  Thomson,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst,  vol.  47,  p.  395, 

fig.  2,  d,  e. 


382  Transactions. 

This  species  was  distinguished  by  its  author  from  A^.  lenticularis  for 
much  the  same  reason  as  in  the  case  of  N.  camphellica — viz.,  the  narrower 
shell — but  it  may  be  distinguished  from  the  latter  by  its  broader  and  less 
curved  hinge -line,  the  sides  making  an  obtuse  angle  with  the  beak.  The 
beak  is  less  produced  dorsally  of  the  hinge-line  and  is  erect,  with  a  foramen 
rather  larger  than  that  of  N.  campbellica  and  iV.  lenticularis. 

As  thus  defined  the  species  is  common  in  the  Wanganuian,  and  there 
are  several  specimens  from  the  uppermost  Mount  Brown  limestone  which 
may  be  referred  here. 

St 
Neothyris  novara  Iher.  - 

1864.     Waldheimia    lenticularis    Suess,    Reise    der    "  Novara,"    Geol. 
Th.,  bd.  1,  abth.  2,  p.  56,  taf.  x,  figs.  3a,  ia,  46  (not  of 
Deshayes). 
1903.     Magellania    novara    Iher.,    Ann.    Mus.    Nac.    Buenos    Aires, 

ser.  3a,  t.  2,  p.  326. 
1905.     Magellania  novara  Hutton,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  37,  p.  475, 

pi.  xlv,  fig.  3. 
1907.     Magellania  Amegkinoi  Iher.,  Ann.  Mas.  Nac.  Buenos  Aires, 
ser.  3a,  t.  7.,  p.  472  (not  of  Ihering,  1903). 
As  Ihering  appears  to  have  had  before  him  at  the^  time  of  naming  this 
only  the  description  and  figures  of  Suess,  the  specimens  treated  by  Suess 
must  be  regarded  as  the  syn types.  -   Of  these  I  select  the  specimen  from 
Motupipi  (fig.  4a,  4&)  as  the  lectotype.      This  agrees  with  Button's  inter- 
pretation  of   the   species.      Ihering   in    1907   united   the   species   with  his 
Magellania  Ameghinoi,  but  since,  the  thickness  of  the  latter  is  stated  never 
to  exceed  half  the  length,  whereas  in  N.  novara  it  is  always  more  than  half, 
the  two  may  be  easily  distinguished. 

The  species  is  broadly  oval  like  N.  lenticularis,  but  has  a  much  straighter 
hinge-line.  In  the  lectotype,  and  in  a  few  specimens  from  the  Weka  Pass, 
the  sides  make  no  angle  with  the  beak;  but  in  the  majority  of  the  specimens 
from  the  Weka  Pass,  and  also  in  others  from  the  Takaka  limestone,  the 
sides  are  less  convex  and  make  an  obtuse  angle  with  the  beak.  The 
species  is  common  in  the  uppermost  Mount  Brown  limestone. 

Neothyris  iheringi  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXV,  figs.  1-3.) 

Shell  broadly  oval,  beak  fairly  long,  acute,  hinge-line  long  and  sharply 
curved,  sides  convex,  meetmg  the  beak  and  the  rounded  front  without  an 
angle.  Shell  moderately  convex,  folding  slight.  Beak  considerably  pro- 
duced dorsally  of  the  hinge-line,  erect  and  well  detached  from  the  hinge- 
line,  foramen  small,  mesothyrid,  attrite.  Length  of  holotype,  49-5  mm.  ; 
breadth,  44  mm.;    thickness,  28-5  mm. 

This  species  differs  from  N.  novara  and  agrees  with  N.  lenticularis  in 
the  strong  curvature  of  the  hinge-line.  It  is  distinguished  by  the  detach- 
ment of  the  beak  from  the  latter,  in  which  the  beak  is  incurved  towards 
the  dorsal  valve. 

Type  locality  :  Uppermost  Mount  Brown  limestone  (E),  Weka  Pass. 
The  species  is  fairly  abundant  ia  this  locality,  and  is  unknown  elsewhere. 

Neothyris  anceps  n.  sp.     (Plate  XXVII,  figs.  7-9.) 

Shell  ovate,  beak  large,  obtuse,  hinge-line  rather  narrow,  strongly  curved, 
sides  convex  and  rounded,  greatest  breadth  anterior  to  the  middle,  front 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District,    383 

slightly  produced.  Valves  moderately  and  regularly  convex,  folding  very 
slight.  Beak  suberect,  not  produced  dorsally  of  the  hinge-line,  foramen 
very  large,  mesothyrid,  attrite,  deltidial  plates  striate  parallel  to  the  hinge- 
line.  The  septum  shows  no  sign  of  transverse  bands,  so  that  the  loop  is 
presumably  Magellaniform.  The  cardinal  process  is  of  a  primitive  type, 
confined  to  the  posterior  part  of  the  hinge-trough.  Length  of  holotype, 
53  mm.  ;  breadth,  42  mm.  ;  thickness,  27  mm. 

The  species  is  easily  distinguished  from  other  Neothyris  by  the  size  of 
the  foramen. 

Type  locality  :  Creamy  calcareous  sandstone  immediately  following  the 
main  Mount  Brown  limestone,  Weka  Pass,  where  it  is  common. 

Genus  Stethothyris  Thomson. 

Stethothyris  sufflata  (Tate). 

1880.  Waldheimia  (?)  sufflata  Tate,  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  S.  Austral., 
vol.  3,  pp.  157-58,  pi.  vii,  fig.  3;   pi.  viii,  fig.  4. 

1885.  Magellania  sufflata  Hutt.,  Quart.  Journ.  Geol.  Soc,  vol.  41, 
p.  558. 

1889.  Magellania  sufflata  Tate,  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  S.  Austral.,  vol.  23, 
p.  253. 

1905.     Magellania  siifflata  Hutt.,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  37,  pp.  476-77. 

Specimens  from  the  uppermost  Momit  Brown  limestone  (E),  thoiigh 
showing  considerable  variation,  agree  ciosely  enough  externally  with  the 
Australian  species  in  shape,  convexity,  and  folding,  and  in  the  incurvature 
of  the  beak.  In  the  last  character  senile  individuals  often  show  a  beak 
touching  the  dorsal  valve,  so  that  the  pedicle  must  have  atrophied.*  The 
cardinalia  are  characterized  especially  by  the  flattening  of  the  ventral  surface 
of  the  socket-ridges  anteriorly,  the  production  of  the  crural  bases  into  the 
hinge-trough  (seen  in  young  specimens),  and  the  swollen  nature  anteriorly  of 
the  cardinal  process,  which,  though  large,  is  not  very  high. 

The  characters  of  the  beak  and  cardinal  process  suggest  derivation  from 
a  stock  of  considerable  antiquity,  and  forbid  its  ascription  to  Neothyris, 
which  only  appeared  at  this  stage  and  did  not  attain  similar  characters 
until  a  much  later  period  in  Neothyris  lenticularis.  The  characters  of  the 
cardinalia  are  not  inconsistent  with  derivation  from  those  of  Stethothyris 
uttleyi,  and  the  shell  shows  the  early  sulcation  of  the  dorsal  valve  exhibited 
by  ;S.  pectoralis,  so  that  the  species  seems  best  placed  in  Stethothyris. 

The  species  is  common  from  the  creamy  calcareous  sandstone  following 
the  main  Mount  Brown  limestone  at  the  Weka  Pass  to  the  top  of  the 
uppermost  limestone,  and  is  unknown  elsewhere  in  New  Zealand. 


PAET  III.— CORRELATIONS  AND   THE  CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE 

NOTOCENE. 

CLARENTIAN.    * 

No  beds  belonging  to  this  .division  of  the  Notocene  have  been  fomid  in 
the  district,  nor  in  the  North  Canterbury  area.  In  this  it  differs  from  east 
Marlborough,  where  the  Amuri  limestone  is  underlain  by  a  great  thickness 
of  Clarentian  beds  (c/.  Thomson,  1919a). 

*  Cf.  BucKMAN,  Pal.  Ind.,  n.s.,  vol.  3,  mem.  2,  p.  17,  1917. 


384  Transactions. 


PIRIPAUAN. 


The  complete  fauna  recorded  from  the  Ostrea  beds  is  as  follows : 
Nemodon  (?)  sp.,  "Area"  hectori  Woods,  Cucullaea  sp.,  Trigonia  hanetiana 
d'Orb,  Ostrea  sp.  cf.  dichotoma  Bayle,  Pecteyi  (Camptonectes)  hectori  Woods, 
Cardium  sp.,  Pugnellus  waiparensis  Trechmann,  and  a  rhynchonellid.  Of 
these,  Trigonia  hanetiana  and  Pecten  hectori  are  found  also  in  the  calcareous 
conglomerate  and  black  grit  respectively  of  Amuri  Blufi  and  in  the  Ostrea 
bed  of  the  Malvern  Hills,  and  Ostrea  sp.  cf.  dichotoma  occurs  also  in  the 
Ostrea  bed  of  the  Malvern  Hills.  Woods  considers  that  the  Trigonia  and 
Pecten  indicate  that  the  Ostrea  bed  belongs  to  the  horizon  of  the  Amuri  series 
of  Amuri  Bluff,  and  is  equivalent  to  the  Ostrea  bed  of  the  Malvern  Hills. 

The  Ostrea  bed  of  the  Trelissick  Basin  contains  Ostrea  sp.  and  Inoceramus 
sp.,  which  have  not  yet  been  obtained  in  specifically  determinable  specimens, 
and  also  a  small  rhynchonellid,  as  yet  undescribed,  which  is  specifically 
identical  with  one  found  in  the  Ostrea  bed  of  the  Malvern  Hills.  It  may, 
therefore,  be  also  correlated  with  the  Ostrea  bed  of  the  Waipara. 

Ostrea  beds  of  similar  stratigraphical  position  and  presumably  of  the 
same  age  are  known  from  the  upper  Motunau  Kiver  (McKay,  1881),  from 
the  Mount  Cass  Range,*  and  from  the  Harper  River  (Speight,  1917b). 
There  must  be  other  correlative  beds  in  the  area  between  Motunau  and 
Amuri  Bluft',  but  they  have  not  been  described  in  such  a  way  that  they 
can  be  identified  and  correlated. 

Woods  (1917)  states  that  the  fossils  of  the  Amuri  group  of  Amuri  Bluff 
include  only  a  few  forms  identical  with  species  found  in  other  parts  of  the 
world,  but-  these  and  the  affinities  of  the  other  species  show  that  the  fauna 
is  of  the  Indo-Pacific  type,  and  is  of  Upper  Senonian  age.  Of  the  Waipara 
species,  Trigonia  hanetiana  is  one  of  the  characteristic  species  of  the  Quiri- 
quina  beds  of  Chile,  while  the  Ostrea  is  similar  to  a  species  found  in  the 
Senonian  of  other  regions. 

The  complete  saurian  fauna  from  the  "  saurian  beds "  and  Waipara 
greensands  of  the  Waipara  is  as  follows  :  Platecarpus  oweni  (Hector), 
Cimoliosanrus  australis  (Owen),  C.  hoodi  (Owen),  C.  holmesi  (Hector),  C.  haasti 
(Hector),  C.  caudalis  Hutt.,  and  Leiodon  haumuriensis  Hector.  The  "  saurian 
beds  "  of  Amuri  Bluff  contain  an  almost  identical  assernblage,  concerning 
which  Dr.  C.  W.  Andrews  has  stated,  according  to  Woods  (1917),  that  it 
indicates  an  horizon  near  the  top  of  the  Cretaceous,  and  that  it  is  very 
similar  to  the  reptilian  fauna  of  the  Niobrara  chalk  of  the  United  States, 
which  is  of  Senonian  age. 

The  fish-remaims  from  the  "  saurian  beds "  comprise  Scapanorhyuhcus 
suhulatus  (Ag.),  a  species  ranging  from  Albian  to  Danian ;  Odontaspis 
incurva  (Davis),  found  also  in  the  Tertiary  of  New  Zealand  and  Australia ; 
and  vertebrae  of  Lamna  (?). 

The  Mollusca  of  the  "saurian  beds"  include  Malletia  (Neilo)  cymhida, 
which  resembles  M.  pencana  (Philippi)  from  the  Quiriquina  beds ;  Trigonia 
waiparensis  Woods,  comparable  in  ornament  with  T.  parva  Briiggen  from  the 
Senonian  of  north  Peru,  and  with  T.  crenifera  Stoliczka  from  the  Ariyaliir 
group,  of  southern  India ;  and  Thracia  sp.  None  of  these  species  has  been 
found  at  Amuri  Bluff  or  the  Malvern  Hills.  The  gasteropods  from  the 
Waipara  have  not  yet  been  described. 

The  "  saurian  beds  "  and  Waipara  greensands  are  without  doubt  correla- 
tive with  the  similar  beds  of  Amuri  Bluff.     Saurians  are  also  known  from  the 


*  IJ.  Speight,  personal  communication. 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District.    385 

iieighbourliood  of  Greenhills,  Gore  Bay,  the  Jed  River,  and  the  upper 
Motunau,  and  a  single  bone  has  been  obtained  from  the  Malvern  Hills  in 
the  concretionary  beds  above  the  Selwyn  Rapids  beds. 

All  the  aboye  beds  which  are  correlatives  of  the  Piripauan  of  the  Waipara 
occur  in  the  area  between  the  Rakaia  River  and  Kaikoura  Peninsula,  and 
in  all  these  localities,  except  in  the  Malvern  Hills,  the  Amuri  limestone  is 
found  above  the  Piripauan.  The  only  other  beds  of  the  same  age  in  the 
South  Island  are  those  of  Shag  Point,  doubtfully  referred  here.  The  fossils 
are  poorly  preserved,  but  they  appear  to  include  a  Trigonia  allied  to 
T.  pseudocundata,  Hector  and  Pugnellus  marslialli  Trechmann. 

In  the  North  Island,  Piripauan  beds  may  occur  in  the  east  coast  of 
Wellington  Province  and  in  the  Gisborne  district,  but  further  exploration  is 
wanted  in  these  regions.  In  the  North  Auckland  district  there  is  a  limestone 
somewhat  similar  to  the  Amuri  limestone — viz.,  the  hydraulic  limestone — 
and  it  is  imderlain  in  the  Kaipara  district  by  mudstones,  greensands, 
and  brown  sandstones,  yielding  ammonites  and  other  molluscs,  and  a 
saurian  bone.  Marshall  (1917b)  described  two  species  of  ammonites  as 
Kossmaticeras  with  Senonian  affinities,  a  third  as  Lytoceras  sp.  with  Utatur 
affinities,  an  Oamaruian  mollusc  {Panope  worthingtoni  Hutt.)  identified  by 
Suter,  and  a  cast  of  Phacoides  (Here)  sp.,  a  genus  which  did  not  live  before 
the  Eocene  according  to  Cossman  ;  and,  moreover,  he  considered  that  the 
beds  containing  this  fauna  rest  upon  a  Miocene  limestone.  Comment  seems 
almost  unnecessary.  Woods  has  made  it  clear  that  the  Clarentian  and  Piri- 
pauan faunas  of  Marlborough  and  Canterbury  are  typical  Cretaceous  faunas 
without  any  intermixture  of  Tertiary  species.  The  probabilities  seem  to 
be  that  Piripauan  beds  are  present  in  the  Kaipara  district,  and  that  the 
Oamaruian  Gibraltar  limestone  is  faulted  down,  and  does  not  really  underlie 
the  Piripauan.  Panope  worthingtoni  Hutton  is  one  of  the  species  of  which 
the  type  was  missing  when  Suter  redefined  the  Tertiary  Mollusca,  but 
Marshall's  figure  agrees  very  closely  with  Woods's  figure  of  Panojoe  clausa 
Wilckens  from  Amuri  Blufi.  The  affinities  of  the  specimens  classed  as 
Lytoceras  sp.  and  Phacoides  {Here)  sp.  may  be  neglected  until  better  speci- 
mens are  available,  since  neither  retained  the  external  ornament. 

The  hydraulic  limestone  also  occurs  in  the  Whangarei  district,  and 
Piripauan  beds  are  also  to  be  expected  here,  but  no  distinctive  fossils  have 
yet  been  found. 

KAITANGATAN-AMURI  LIMESTONE.  , 

The  reasons  for  which  I  have  correlated  the  Amuri  limestone  with  the 
Kaitangatan  are  that  the  Wangaloa  beds  of  the  Kaitangatan  contain  a  fauna 
intermediate  between  those  of  the  Piripauan  and  the  Oamaruian,  while  the 
Amuri  limestone  occupies  a  stratigTaphical  position  between  Piripauan  and 
Oamaruian.  No  common  species  have  yet  been  described.  Trechmann 
(1917)  considers,  on  the  evidence  of  the  Mollusca,  that  the  Wangaloa  beds 
"should  apparently  be  of  Maestrichtian  age."  Chapman,  on  the  evidence 
of  the  fish-remains  and  Foraminifera,  considers  the  Amuri  limestone  of 
Danian  age. 

In  1916^  I  stated  my  conviction  that  the  Amuri  limestone  is  in  itself  a 
Cretaceo-Tertiary  rock,  Cretaceous  at  the  base  and  Tertiary  at  the  top,  the 
reason  for  the  latter  statement  being  the  occurrence  in  the  Amuri  limestone 
of  the  Trelissick  Basin  of  an  Oamaruian  fauna  in  a  tuS  band  10  ft.  from 
the  top  of  the  limestone.  The  rock  I  termed  the  Amuri  limestone  in  the 
Trelissick  Basin  has  the  same  stratigraphical  position — i.e.,  it  lies  above 
rocks  with  a  Senonian  fauna,  and  underlies  rocks  with  an  Oamaruian  fauna — 

13— Trans. 


386  Transactions 

and,  althougli  it  is  usually  more  marly  than  the  Amuri  limestone  of  the 
coastal  district,  it  is  in  places  quite  indistinguishable  lithologically  from  it. 
Speight  (1917a)  has  accepted  this  correlation.  Now,  however,  from  an 
examination  of  Foraminifera  from  two  localities,  Mr.  Chapman  considers  that 
it  is  "probably  Eocene."  If  this  view  is  confirmed,  it  certainly  demands 
an  unconformity  between  this  rock  and  the  underlying  Piripauan  beds — an 
unconformity  of  which  Speight  was  unable  to  find  any  trace.  Nevertheless, 
in  view  of  Chapman's  correlation,  it  is  unsafe  to  take  into  accoimt  the 
molluscan  fauna  referred  to  above  in  attempting  to  correlate  the  Amuri 
limestone  of  the  Waipara  or  Amuri  Bluff. 

Chapman's  identifications  of  the  Foraminifera  make  it  quite  clear,  how- 
ever, that  Marshall's  correlation  of  the  Amuri  limestone  with  the  Ototara 
limestone  is  mistaken.  On  the  basis  of  the  Foraminifera  Chapman  declares 
the  Amuri  limestone  Danian,  and  the  Weka  Pass  stone  and  "  grey  marls  " 
Eocene.  On  the  same  basis  Marshall  declares  the  Ototara  limestone  Miocene. 
The  correlative  of  the  Ototara  limestone  in  the  Waipara  section  must,  then, 
lie  above  the  "  grey  marls,"  and  this  accords  well  enough  with  the  evidence, 
to  be  discussed  later,  from  the  molluscs  and  brachiopods. 

Outside  the  area  north  of  the  Rakaia  River  there  is  no  limestone  in  the 
South  Island  that  can  be  correlated  with  the  Amuri  limestone.  It  appears, 
however,  to  be  present  in  east  Wellington,  and  to  be  represented  in  North 
Auckland  by  the  hydraulic  limestone  of  the  Kaipara  and  Whangarei  dis- 
tricts. Marshall  (1919)  has  remarked  that  I  have  objected  to  this  correla- 
tion ;  but  what  I  objected  to  in  1917  was  his  correlation  of  the  Whangarei 
polyzoan  limestone  with  the  Amuri  limestone  by  first  correlating  the  Wha- 
ngarei polyzoan  and  hydraulic  limestone.  I  merely  pointed  out— and  it  is 
still  true — that  no  palaeontological  or  stratigraphical  evidence  has  been 
presented  for  the  correlation  of  the  Anauri  limestone  and  the  hydraulic 
limestone  of  the  Whangarei  district.  Marshall  the  same  year  supplied  the 
evidence  so  far  as  the  hydraulic  limestone  of  the  Kaipara  was  concerned, 
and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  hydraulic  limestone  of  the  two 
regions  is  the  same.  I  do  not  agree,  however,  that  the  Whangarei  poly- 
zoan limestone  is  of  the  same  age  or  older,  any  more  than  is  the  limestone 
of  Gibraltar  Rocks,  in  the  Kaipara  district.  I  have  observed  Oamaruian 
mollusca  below  the  polyzoan  limestone  of  Horahora,  and  have  little  doubt 
that  both  it  and  the  Gibraltar  Rocks  limestone  are  Oamaruian.  The 
geological  survey  of  this  district,  however,  which  is  at  present  in  progress, 
will  doubtless  settle  this  point. 

OAMARUIAN. 

The  age  of  the  Oamaruian  has  been  commonly  accepted  as  Miocene  for 
some  years,  very  largely  on  accoimt  of  Chapnlan's  determination  of  the 
Foraminifera  of  Waikouaiti  Head,  and  his  demonstration  of  the  Miocene 
age  of  the  older  Tertiaries  of  Australia.  Having  never  been  willing  to 
admit  that  the  contact  of  the  Amuri  limestone  and  the  Weka  Pass  stone, 
though  doubtless  a  disconformity,  could  bridge  the  gap  between  Cretaceous 
and  Miocene,  I  formed  the  opinion  -either  that  the  Amuri  limestone  must 
include  the  Eocene  or  that  the  Oamaruian  ranged  down  from  Miocene  to 
,  Eocene  ;  and  a  large  part  of  my  explorations  for  several  years  past  have 
been  directed  to  obtaining  direct  evidence  of  the  age  of  the  Amuri  lime- 
stone, and  to  ascertaining  the  faima  of  the  lower  members  of  the  Oamaruian. 
In  1915  I  endeavoured  to  show  that  the  beds  at  Waikouaiti  from  which  the 
Foraminifera  described  by  Chapman  as  Miocene  were  obtained  were  upper 
Oamaruian.     There  can  be  no  doubt  from  the  lists  of  fossils  I  have  quoted 


THO-Also^■. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  WeJca  Pa.is  Dififn'rf.    387 

earlier  in  this  paper  that  the  Weka  Pass  stone  and  "  grey  marls,"  as  well  as 
the  Mount  Brown  beds,  are  Oamaruian  ;  and,  as  Chapman  refers  the  Weka 
Pass  stone  and  "  grey  marls  "  to  the  Eocene,  it  follows  that  the  Oamaruian 
ranges  from  Eocene  to  Miocene.  The  contact  between  the  Amuri  limestone 
and  Weka  Pass  stone  is  a  disconformity,  but  bridges  only  the  gap  between 
Danian  and  Eocene. 

Former  geologists,  notably  Huttdn  and  Park,  have  correlated  the  Weka 
Pass  stone  with  the  Ototara  limestone,  believing  the  lower  Oamaruian  beds 
to  be  missing.  Marshall,  on  the  other  hand,  has  correlated  it  with  the 
Hutchinsonian.  The  evidence  of  the  Foraminifera  suggests  that  it  cor- 
relates rather  with  the  Ngaparan  and  Waiarekan.  The  evidence  of  the 
molluscs  is  indecisive  ;  that  of  the  brachiopods,  on  the  other  hand,  is  prac- 
tical proof  that  the  main  Mount  Brown  limestone  (D)  is  Hutchinsonian 
and  the  uppermost  MouJit  Brown  limestone  (E)  Awamoan,  leaving  all  the 
800  ft.  of  lower  beds,  down  to  the  Weka  Pass  greensand,  for  the  Ototaran 
and  Waiarekan. 

Some  remarks  on  the  relative  value  of  the  Mollusca  and  Brachiopoda 
in  correlation  seem  desirable  in  view  of  the  recently  expressed  opinion 
of  Marshall  (1919)  that  the  latter  are  far  less  satisfactory  for  purposes  of 
correlation,  the  reasons  being  that  they  occur  sporadically  and  in  a  small 
number  of  species  as  compared  with  the  Mollusca,  and  that  the  species  are 
hard  to  identify  with  certainty.  The  first  is  a  valid  objection,  and  is  well 
illustrated  in  the  Mount  Brown  beds,  which  are  rich  in  Brachiopoda  and 
yet  have  yielded  only  four  specimens  of  Terebrahdma  and  none  of.  Lio- 
thyrella,  genera  which  are  abundant  in  the  Trelissick  Basin  and  at  Oamaru. 
Nevertheless,  the  Brachiopoda  are  sufficiently  widespread  to  enable  their 
range  to  be  established  with  a  considerable  degree  of  certainty,  and  it  is 
illogical  to  neglect  them  if  they  are  present  in  any  rock  and  can  be  used. 
The  small  number  of  species  is  an  advantage  in  one  respect :  it  enables  a 
single  man  to  know  the  whole  fauna  intimately,  and  to  apply  to  the  whole 
of  it  every  known  method  of  study.  This-  is  not  the  case  with  the  moUuscan 
fauna,  of  six  hmidred  or  eight  hundred  species  ;  and  we  can  never  expect 
entirely  satisfactory  results  until  we  have  students  confining  themselves  to 
a  few  families,  and  studying  these  not  from  the  point  of  view  of  New  Zea- 
land Tertiary  species5  alone,  but  making  themselves  familiar  with  all  the 
species,  both  living  and  fossil,  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

One  marked  difference  between  the  Oamaruian  brachiopod  and  mol- 
luscan  faunas  is  that  the  former  is  practically  an  extinct  fauna,  not  sur- 
viving the  Oamaruian,  except  for  a  very  small  percentage,  whereas  the 
latter  shows  a  very  much  greater  percentage  of  living  species.  The  brachio- 
pods, therefore,  would  be  expected  to  be  of  the  greater  value  in  correlation. 

The  chief  disadvantages  of  the  Tertiary  moUuscan  fauna  are  the  great 
range  of  the  majority  of  the  species  and  the  different  facies  of  the  fauna 
according  to  station,  which  makes  it  a  matter  of  gTeat  difficulty  to  ascer- 
tain accurately  the  range  of  any  given  species.  Until  this  is  known  it  is, 
of  course,  obvious  that  the  occurrence  of  a  species  in  a  list  gives  little  help. 
Marshall  (1919)  has  given  a  list  of  characteristic  species  from  his  different 
series,  1)ut  many  of  these  species  range  widely  in  higher  or  lower  series. 
Thus,  of  the  Nukumaru  series,  Suter  has  determined  Melina  zelandica  from 
the  Waiarekan  of  the  Oamaru  district,  and  Marshall  himself  has  recorded 
Struthiolaria  Jrazeri  from  the  Wangaloa  beds.  Of  the  Waipipi  series,  Car- 
dium  spatiosum  is  known  from  the  Awamoan  of  Oamaru  and  the  Trelissick 
Basin.  Of  the  Target  Gully  series,  Venericardia  j^seutes  and  Terehra  orycfa 
range  from  Waiarekan  to  Awamoan,  while  Chama   htittoni  occurs   in   the 

1.3* 


388  Transactions. 

Wanganuian  of  Castle  Point.  Of  the  Ototara  series,  Ostrea  nelsoniana  ranges 
from  Waiarekan  to  Waitotaran,  and  Lima  laevigata  from  Waiarekan  to 
Hutchinsonian.  Of  tlie  Wliarekuri  series,  Exilia  dalli  has  one  record  from 
the  Waiarekan  and  three  from  the  Awamoan,  while  PoUnices  huttoni  has 
three  from  the  Waiarekan  and  seven  from  the  Awamoan.  The  above  ranges 
are  from  my  analysis  of  the  Oamaruian  fauna  of  Oamaru  and  South  Canter- 
bury described  below. 

In  reply  to  the  charge  of  neglecting  the  large  amoimt  of  palaeontological 
knowledge  we  already  have,  I  can  but  point  to  the  above  statements,  which 
show  that  it  is  very  dangerous  to  generalize  on  our  existing  knowledge,  and 
which  justify  my  caution.  It  seems  to  me  that  two  lines  of  advance  are 
open.  One  is  the  more  detailed  study  of  the  species  on  evolutionary  lines 
(such  as  I  have  been  attempting  in  the  brachiopods  and  limpets)  with  a 
view  to  defining  valid  species  of  limited  range,  and  to  arrangmg  the  species 
in  an  evolutionary  order.  Cossman's  and  Murdoch's  criticisms  of  Suter's 
identifications  illustrate  the  possibilities,  but  the  best  results  can  be  expected 
only  from  an  evolutionary  study.  The  othei:  is  a  careful,  and  detailed 
analysis  of  the  available  lists  with  a  view  to  discovering  the  range  of  the 
species  as  at  present  defined. 

The  procedure  which  promises  the  best  results  depends  on  the  delimita- 
tion in  New  Zealand  of  stratigraphical  or  diastrophic  provinces  within 
the  bounds  of  each  of  which  the  various  rocks  of  given  age  are  strati- 
graphically  similar  and  can  be  correlated  without  further  demur.  One  such 
district,  in  which  none  but  Oamaruian  marine  rocks  are  develop«l,  ranges  from 
Oamaru  to  Mount  Somers.  The  sequence  is  everywhere — coal-beds,  sands, 
greensands,  limestones,  mudstones,  and  sands — except  for  some  differences 
at  Oamaru  and  Mount  Somers  due  to  the  development  of  volcanic  rocks. 

Marshall  has  stated  that  endless  confusion  would  be  caused  by  attempts 
to  place  the  various  beds  near  Oamaru  in  the  stages  as  defined  by  me.  If 
this  is  the  case  in  a  district  so  simple  as  Oamaru,  a  district  "  midisturbed 
by  any  minor  stratigraphic  movements,"  and  one  on  which  Marshall  is 
prepared  to  base  the  whole  classification  of  the  Notocene,  then  we  may  as 
well  give  up  all  detailed  stratigraphy  in  New  Zealand.  Neither  Park  nor 
Uttley  has  encountered  this  endless  confusion,  but  both  have  greatly 
increased  our  knowledge  of  the  district  by  attempts  to  place  the  beds  in 
the  various  stages.  While  it  is  not  denied  that  there  are  difficulties,  these 
are  difficulties  that  exist  in  the  nature  of  things,  and  not  because  of  the 
adoption  of  certain  stages,  although  the  use  of  the  latter  has  called  attention 
to  them,  and  will  probably  hasten  their  solution. 

Taking  the  limestones  as  Ototaran  [pace  Park),  we  have  the  under- 
lying rocks  Waiarekan*  and  the  overlying  rocks  Awamoan,  the  Hutchin- 
sonian being  mostly  difficult  of  recognition,  and  perhaps  included  in  the 
upper  of  the  two  limestones  that  are  usually  to  be  distinguished  outside 
Oamaru.  Within  this  province  there  are.  numerous  localities  from  which 
lists  of  fossils  have  been  published,  and  in  addition  Mr.  Suter  determined 
all  the  old  Geological  Survey  collections  and  also  further  collections  made  by 
me.  These  lists  are  as  yet  unpublished,  but  the  Director  of  the  Geological 
Survey  has  kindly  given  me  access  to  them.  I  have  divided  the  province 
into  the  geographical  districts  of  Oamaru,  Waitaki  Valley,  Waihao,  Pareora, 
and  Kakahu,  and  have  plotted  each  occurrence  in  such  a  way  that  for  each 
stage  I  have  retained  a  record  of  how  many  districts  and  how  many  localities 

*  I  have  not  taken  into  account  Park's  Bortonian,  because  in  the  type  locahty 
for  this  stage  the  fossils  are  practically  all  casts. 


o 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District.    389 

within  eacli  district  a  given  species  has  been  collected  from.  Part  of  this 
analysis,  applying  to  the  species  from  the  Waipara  -  Weka  Pass  district,  is 
given  below  in  Table  V. 

One  immediate  advantage  of  such  a  list  is  that  it  shows  clearly  which 
species  are  based  on  single  or  few  records,  suggesting,  in  such  cases  as  that, 
for  example,  where  a  Recent  species  is  recorded  from  the  Waiarekan  and 
no  higher  stage,  that  the  specimens  are  in  need  of  critical  re-examination 
before  this  evidence  for  the  range  of  the  species  can  be  fully  admitted. 

A  striking  feature  of  the  lists  is  the  number  of  species  which  range 
throughout  the  Oamaruian,  and  the  comparatively  few,  except  in  the  case 
of  the  Awamoan,  which  are  confined  to  a  single  stage.  The  reason  for  the 
latter  is  that  the  majority  of  the  good  fossil-localities  are  Awamoan — viz., 
Awamoa,  Target  Grully,  Ardgowan,  Otiake,  Pukeuri,  Mount  Harris,  Blue- 
cliffs,  Pareora  River,  White  Rock  River,  Holme  Station,  Sutherland's,  and 
Kakahu  River.  The  only  large  lists  from  the  Waiarekan  are  from  Black 
Point  (where  the  fossils  are  nearly  all  casts),  Wharekuri,  Waihao  greensands, 
and  Kakahu  coal-beds.  I  directed  most  of  my  collecting  to  Waiarekan 
localities,  in  order  to  redress  the  balance ;  but  the  results  are  still  scanty 
compared  with  the  Awamoan,  and  as  a  result  the  use  of  the  analysis  for 
comparison  of  fresh  lists  will  tend  to  favour  correlation  with  the  Awamoan, 
as  will  be  seen  below. 

The  percentages  of  Recent  species  in  the  total  faunas  of  the  province 
may  be  estimated  in  two  ways — viz.,  by  actual  records,  or  by  implication  : 
i.e.,  if  a  species  in  the  Waiarekan  is  also  known  from  the  Awamoan  or 
Recent  it  may  be  credited  to  the  mtermediate  rocks.  The  numbers  of 
species  and  percentages  of  Recent  species  are  as  follows  :  By  actual  records 
— Waiarekan,  221  (Recent,  56  =  25  per  cent.)  ;  Ototaran,  90  (Recent,  28 
=  31  per  cent.) ;  Hutchinsonian,  97  (Recent,  36  =  37  per  cent.) ;  Awamoan, 
336  (Recent,  113  =  34  per  cent.) :  by  implication — Ototaran,  178  (Recent, 
69  =  39  per  cent.) ;  Hutchinsonian,  207  (Recent,  82  =  40  per  cent.) ; 
Awamoan,  347  (Receilt,  137  =  39  per  cent.).  It  is  to  be  expected  that 
when  the  collections  from  the  lower  stages  are  as  exhaustive  as  those  from 
the  Awamoan  the  percentages  obtained  by  the  two  methods  will  approach 
one  another  more  nearly,  and  also  that  there  will  be  a  regular  increase 
from  the  Waiarekan  to  the  Awamoan.  It  would  be  premature  to  assume 
that  there  had  been  a  sudden  introduction  of  new  forms  in  the  Awamoan, 
although  that  is  the  actual  suggestion  of  the  lists. 

To  ascertain  the  evidence  presented  by  a  fresh  list  from  any  locality, 
the  best  method  appears  to  be  to  calculate  the  percentages  of  records  in 
each  stage  of  the  species  in  the  new  list.  A  somewhat  similar  method  was 
used  by  Marshall  in  1919.  If  the  analysed  list  is  extended  to  include  the 
stages  older  and  yoimger  than  the  Oamaruian,  then  for  any  given  fresh 
list  a  series  of  percentages  for  each  stage  may  be  calculated  which  will  rise 
to  a  maximum  for  the  stage  to  which  the  list  belongs.  The  nearer  this 
maximum  approaches  100  per  cent,  the  higher  the  probability  will  become 
that  the  correlation  is  correct.  The  percentage  of  Recent  species  will  fall 
into  its  place  as  only  one  of  a  series  of  percentages.  At  present,  how- 
ever, owing  to  the  fact  that  the  faunas  of  the  various  stages  are  so  incom- 
pletely known,  and  that  the  fuller  knowledge  of  the  Awamoan  faima  gives 
proportionately  higher  percentages  for  that  stage,  greater  weight  than  will 
later  be  necessary  must  be  attached  meanwhile  to  the  percentage  of  Recent 
species. 

Applying  the  above  method  to  the  Wangaloa  and  Hampden  faunas, 
we  get  the  following  percentages  (using  the  method  of  implication)  : — ■ 


Wangaloa 

Hampden 

Beds. 

Beds. 

.      51 

42 

.     39 

39 

.     35 

32 

.     35 

30 

.     35 

32 

.       8 

9 

390  Transactions. 


Precinctive  species 

Waiarekan 

Ototaran 

Hutchinsonian 

Awamoan 

Recent  species 

The  percentage  of  precinctive  species  in  each  of  these  faunas  exceeds 
that  of  those  ranging  upwards  into  the  Waiarekan  or  higher  beds,  and 
justifies  Marshall's  conclusion  that  they  are  both  older  than  Oamaruian.  a 
point  upon  which  I  had  previously  expressed  doubt  so  far  as  the  Hampden 
beds  were  concerned.  The  table  also  favours  the  correlation  of  the  two 
faunas,  although  it  should  be  noted  that  only  six  species  are  common  to 
both,  and  these  six  species  are  all  also  Waiarekan.*  We  may  therefore 
add  the  Wangaloa  and  Hampden  lists  as  a  fresh  column  to  the  analysed 
Oamaruian  lists. 

For  stages  later  than  the  Oamaruian  good  lists  are  not  available,  and 
we  must  await  Murdoch  and  Marshall's  account  of  the  Wanganui  beds. 
For  the  purposes  of  this  paper  I  have  used  the  lists  given  by  Hutton 
(1886)  for  Wanganui  and  Petane,  supplementing  them  by  unpublished 
determinations  by  the  late  Mr.  H.  Suter.  These  give  a  total  of  219  species 
from  Wanganui,  with  80  per  cent.  Recent,  and  of  194  from  Petane,  with 
79  per  cent.  Recent,  and  aire  therefore  grouped  together  and  treated  as 
Castlecliffian,  though  they  may  contain  a  few  forms  from  a  lower  horizon. 
For  the  Waitotaran  I  have  taken  such  published  and  unpublished  records 
as  were  available  from  Waitotara  and  Patea,  the  Wairarapa  limestone, 
the  Awatere  beds,  and  the  Greta  beds,  omitting  the  two  latter,  however, 
when  the  correlation  of  the  Greta  beds  themselves  is  being  discussed  below. 
Finally,  I  have  admitted  as  intermediate  between  the  Waitotaran  and 
Awamoan  the  Kawa  beds  described  by  Bartrum  (1919),  together  with  the 
basal  beds  of  the  Palliser  Bay  section.  The  reasons  for  this  will  be  given 
more  fully  below  in  discussing  the  Greta  beds. 

With  this  basis  we  may  now  attack  the  correlation  of  the  beds  of  other 
localities  in  other  diastrophic  provinces.  The  logical  procedure  in  such  a 
province  as  that  in  which  the  Waipara  district  lies  would  be  first  to  com- 
pile a  similar  analysis  of  the  range  of  each  species  recorded  from  the  Weka 
Pass  stone,  the  "  grey  marls,"  the  Mount  Brown  beds,  and  the  Greta  beds 
in  the  area  within  which  these  rocks  can  be  recognized,  and -then  to  com- 
pare the  lists  so  obtained  with  the  former  list  from  Oamaru  and  South 
t'anterbury.  If  the  correlations  can  be  made  without-  reasonable  doubt, 
a  combined  list  will  extend  further  our  knowledge  of  the  range  of  the  various 
species,  ai^d  so  on  with  the  other  provinces.  This  programme  involves  a  great 
deal  of  further  stratigraphical  work  and  collecting  throughout  New  Zealand, 
and  it  will  be  many  years  before  it  can  be  completely  carried  out.  In  the 
meantime  I  will  show  the  method  as  applied  to  the  species  known  from 
the  district  at  present  under  discussion. 

Table  V  gives  the  lists  of  species  from  the  various  rocks  of  the  district, 
the  Greta  beds  being  also  included  for  convenience.  In  these  columns  T 
signifies  that  the  species  was  collected  by  myself,  P  that  it  is  an  additional 
species  from  Park's  lists  of  1905,  and  H  from  Hutton's  lists  of  1885  (b  and  c) 
and  1888.  For  comparison  the  records  in  the  various  stages,  compiled  as 
explained  above,  are  also  included,  S  signifying  a  single  record,  R  that  the 
species  is  rare  (with  only  two  or  three  records),  C  that  it  is  common  (with  four 
or  five  records),  A  that  it  is  abundant,  and  +  and  X  one  or  more  records. 


They  include  Gilbertia  paucisulcata  (Marshall),  which  Mr.   Suter  determined  in 


my  collections  from  the  Waihao  greensands. 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weha  Pass  District .    391 


Table  V. — Range  of  Tertiary  Molluscs 

FROM 

THE  District. 

1 

1 

2 

3    '   4    ' 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

1 

11 

12 

13  14 

15 

*Am,]phidesma  australe  (Gmel.) 

T 

S 

X 

X 

* ventricosum  (Gray) 

H 

.  . 

.  . 

X 

Ampullina  miocaenica  Sut. 

i' 

S 

R 

,  , 

.  . 

suturalis  (Hiitt.) 

,  , 

T 

.  . 

+ 

c 

R 

s 

A 

X 

,  . 

Amusiurn  zitteli  (Hutt.) 

T 

.  . 

.   . 

.  . 

s 

S 

s 

,  , 

,  , 

*Ancilla  australis  (Sow.) 

.  . 

,   , 

T 

s 

A 

X 

X 

hebera  (Hutt.)      .. 

P 

.   . 

T 

R 

A 

X 

X 

.  . 

* mucronata  (Sow.) 

,  , 

,   , 

T 

s 

R 

X 

X 

* novae-zelandiae  (Sow.) 

.  . 

T 

T 

+ 

A 

A 

X 

X 

.  . 

jmpillata  (Tate)  . . 

T 

T 

R 

R 

A 

.  . 

* pyramidalis  (Reeve) 

T 

s 

X 

X 

*Anomia  furcata  Sut.    . . 

T 

.   . 

.   . 

. . 

,  , 

,  , 

* huttoni  Sut. 

T 

,   , 

T 

R 

s 

c 

X 

X 

* trigonojisis  Hutt.                 .... 

T 

T 

T 

R 

c 

X 

,  , 

Antigona  sulcata  (Hutt.)              ...    . . 

T 

S 

R 

.  . 

X 

* zelandica  (Gray) 

T 

. . 

A 

X 

X 

X 

*Arcopagia  discidus  (Dash.) 

T 

X 

X 

Athleta  huttoni  pseudorarispina  Sut. 

T  ? 

. . 

.  . 

.  . 

Aturia  australis  McCoy 

H 

P 

"  • 

R 

S 

,  , 

^ 

,  , 

^Barnea  similis  (Gray)  . . 

T 

,  , 

X 

X 

X 

— ■ —  tiara  Tate 

T 

.  , 

X 

,   , 

*Calliostoma  punctulatum  (Mart.) 

P 

.   . 

,  , 

X 

X 

*Cantharidus  tenebrosus  A.  Ad.    . . 

H 

,   . 

s 

S 

,  , 

X 

*C'erithidea  bicarinata  (Gray) 

T 

X 

X 

Cerithiella  n.  sjj. 

T 

.   . 

.  . 

.  , 

,  , 

Chione  chiloensis  (Phil.) 

T 

.  . 

R 

X 

X 

meridionalis  (Sow.) 

P 

T 

A 

JR 

c 

A 

X 

X 

X 

* stutckburyi  (Gray) 

T 

T 

R 

X 

X 

* yatei  (Gray) 

T 

S 

X 

X 

*CocModesma  angasi  (C.  &  F.)      . . 

'  • 

i' 

S 

X 

*Cominelta  adspersa  (Brug.) 

T 

.  . 

X 

X 

X 

* quoyana  (A.  Ad.) 

T 

R 

X 

X 

Corbi/la  canaliculata  Hutt. 

T 

,   , 

A 

A 

.  , 

,  . 

Crassatellites  attetvuatus  (Hutt.).. 

T 

,   , 

,   , 

C 

X 

X 

X 

* obesus  (A.  Ad.)    . . 

P 

,   , 

A 

c 

A 

,   , 

,  , 

*Crepidula  costata  (Sow.) 

T 

,  • 

C 

X 

X 

gregaria  Sow. 

T 

T 

S 

s 

A 

X 

X 

X 

* monoxyla  (luess.) . . 

P 

T 

T 

.  . 

S 

s 

A 

X 

X 

X 

striata  Hutt.         . .              . .  , 

T 

T 

,  , 

s 

,   , 

A 

X 

X 

Cucidlaea  alta  Sow. 

P 

,   , 

H? 

X 

_1- 

R 

s 

R 

A 

_    , 

var.  B 

T 

,   , 

S 

,  , 

,  , 

S 

,    , 

,  . 

*Cymatium  spengleri  (Chemn.)     . . 

P 

.  . 

.  . 

X 

X 

Dentalium  mantelli  Zitt. 

P 

.   , 

X 

+ 

0 

A 

s 

A 

,  , 

X 

• solidum  Hutt. 

T 

T 

T 

A 

c 

c 

A 

X 

X 

X 

*Diplodon  zelandica  (Gray) 

T 

T 

R 

s 

.  . 

X 

X 

X 

*Dosinia  anus  Phil. 

P 

.  . 

.   . 

,  , 

,  . 

X 

X 

X 

* greyi  Zitt. 

P 

T 

T 

X 

A 

,   , 

,  , 

A 

,  , 

X 

X 

* lambata  (Gould)  . . 

H 

.  . 

.   . 

.  , 

R 

.  . 

X 

X 

magna  Hutt. 

P 

.   . 

S 

.   . 

,  . 

R 

X 

X 

•  • 

* subrosea  (Gray)   . . 

T 

.  . 

.   . 

.  , 

R 

X 

X 

X 

Drillia  wangawuiensis  Hutt. 

H 

.  . 

.   , 

,  , 

S 

,  , 

X 

X 

Ejyitonium  lyratum  (Zitt.) 

T 

P 

+ 

c 

C 

c 

A 

.  . 

rotundum.  Hutt.  . . 

H 

.   , 

.  . 

,  , 

.  . 

.  , 

.  . 

.  . 

.  . 

Euthria  media  (Hutt.) . . 

T  ? 

.   . 

,  , 

s 

,  . 

S 

.  . 

,  . 

*Evarne  linea  (Mart.)     . . 

.  , 

P 

.  , 

,  , 

,  , 

,  , 

X 

X 

*Fusinus  spiralis  (A.  Ad.) 

.  , 

H 

.  . 

.  . 

.  • 

A 

.  . 

X 

X 

Galeodea  senex  (Hutt.) 

H 

P 

T 

,   , 

+ 

s 

s 

s 

A 

X 

X 

,  , 

sulcata  (Hutt.)    . . 

, . 

T 

,  , 

,  , 

,  , 

,  , 

,  , 

,   , 

X 

,  , 

*Gari  lineolata  Gray 

, , 

P 

. . 

T 

A 

s 

s 

A 

X 

X 

X 

Glycymeris  cordata  (Hutt.) 

, , 

H 

s 

.  . 

s 

R 

.  . 

X 

.  , 

■ globosa  (Rntt.)    ..              .. 

. . 

P 

. . 

T 

s 

.  . 

.  . 

0 

X 

X 

.  , 

* laticostata  (Q.  &  G.) 

T 

R 

s 

s 

c 

X 

X 

392 


Transactions. 


Table  V. — Range  of  Tertiary  Molluscs  from 

THE 

District.— 

continued. 

\ 

1    1   2 

I 

3 

4 

5 

6      7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

"i 

13 

14 

15 

^frltjrtjyii.pTif'i  w,oflpst(i  ^Anfiras^         .  . 

P 

■ 

t 

1 

Y 

Hinnites  trailli  Hutt.  . . 

T 

S 

. .  i 

..1 

*Ischnochiton  maorianus  Iredale  . . 

,    , 

.. 

,    , 

,  , 

T 

,   , 

1 
.  .  1 

,    , 

•  •  1 

,   , 

..  ..' 

*Li)iia  bullata  (Born.)    . . 

p 

R 

S 

S 

X 

coloratn  Hutt. 

T 

T 

s 

c 

A 

X 

imitata  Sut. 

T 

.. 

,    , 

■  laevigata  Hutt.    . . 

H 

.   , 

,    . 

P 

.   . 

. , 

,   , 

s 

S 

s 

.   . 

.    • 

* •  limn  (1j.) 

1 

T 

S 

Y 

paleata  Hutt. 

.. 

V 

,    , 

P 

T 

, , 

,   , 

R 

R 

c 

,   , 

.. 

paucisulcata  Hutt. 

T 

T 

s 

R 

*Limopsis  aurita  (Brocchi) 

T 

T 

,    , 

,   , 

,   , 

, , 

X 

A 

S 

s 

A 

insolita  fSow.^ 

P 

zitteli  Tlier 

T 

t" 

+ 

s 

c 

A 

X 

L'litraria  solida  Hutt.  . . 

.. 

.. 

x" 

Macrocallista  assimilis  (Hutt.)  . . 

,   , 

,  , 

,    , 

,   , 

,   , 

P 

,    , 

R 

,  , 

R 

C 

,    , 

X 

X 

* muUistriata  (Sow.) 

',   , 

,  , 

,    , 

,   , 

.   , 

P 

S 

.  , 

s 

A 

,    , 

X 

X 

*Mactra  discors  Gray     . . 

,   , 

,  , 

.    , 

,  , 

,   , 

P 

.  .1 

,  , 

,  , 

,  , 

R 

X 

X 

X 

dubia  (Hutt.) 

,   , 

,  . 

.    , 

.   . 

T 

,  . 

,  , 

.  . 

R 

.  . 

X 

,  , 

*  Mallet  ia  australis  (Q.  &  G.) 

,   , 

T 

.    . 

,   , 

,   . 

.   , 

s 

,  , 

R 

A 

,  , 

,  , 

X 

*M.angilia  anioena  (Smith) 

P 

R, 

Y 

* sinclairi  (E.  A.  Smith) 

.. 

^    , 

T 

J , 

.. 

.. 

,   , 

S 

,. 

X 

X 

*Modiolus  australis  (Gray) 

,   , 

,   , 

.    , 

,   , 

,    , 

T 

.  . 

,  . 

,  , 

R 

c 

X 

X 

*Musculus  imjMctus  (Herm.) 

,   , 

.   . 

.    . 

,   , 

.   . 

T 

. . 

,  . 

.  . 

.   . 

.  , 

.  . 

X 

X 

*Mytilus  canaliculus  Mart. 

,   , 

,    , 

,   , 

T 

'  • 

X   X 

* rtiagellanicus  Lamk. 

,   , 

,   , 

P? 

,    , 

.   , 

,  , 

,  . 

,    . 

....,x 

*Natica  australis  (Hutt.)               . . 

T 

H 

X 

..  s 

" 

G 

X 

X 
X 

Y 

* zelandica  Q.  &  G. 

.. 

.. 

.. 

+ 

R 

S  (A 

X 

*NeotJiais  succincta  (Mart.) 

,   . 

.    , 

.   , 

,   . 

P 

.  . 

,  , 

.... 

.  , 

X 

,  , 

Nucula  sagittata  Sut.    .  . 

, , 

,   , 

T 

.   . 

.   . 

X 

S 

S  '  S  1  R 

.  . 

,  . 

.  . 

Olivella  neozelanica  (Hutt.) 

,   ^ 

,   , 

,   , 

,   , 

ii 

,  , 

.  . 

.  , 

..i  S 

X 

X 

,  , 

*Ostrea  anqasi  Sow. 

T 

T 

T 

.  . 

..    R 

X 

X 

arenicola  Tate 

.. 

,   , 

T 

,   , 

,  , 

,  , 

,  , 

,   , 

X 

X 

* corrugata  Hutt.   .  . 

,   , 

,   , 

,   , 

,  , 

,  , 

T 

,  , 

c 

,  , 

S 

,  , 

X 

X 

gudexi  Sut. 

,   , 

.   , 

.   . 

T  ? 

.  , 

,   , 

,  , 

R 

,  , 

,  , 

.  . 

X 

ingens  Zitt. 

,   , 

,   . 

,   , 

.  . 

T 

.  . 

.  , 

.  . 

.  . 

.   . 

.  . 

X 

manubriata  Tate 

,   , 

,   , 

,   , 

,   , 

,  . 

T 

,  , 

,  , 

,   , 

,  , 

X 

nelsoniana  Zitt.  . . 

,   , 

^   , 

,  , 

T 

,  , 

S 

s 

s 

S 

,  , 

X 

* tatei  Sut. 

,   , 

T 

,   , 

s- 

,   , 

,   , 

s 

,   , 

X 

wuellerstorfi  Zitt 

P 

+ 

V 

Panope  orbila  (Hutt.)  . . 

1 

F 

P 

V 

R, 

s 

G 

A 

Y 

Paphia  curta  (Hutt.)    . . 

.. 

1 

T 

_  , 

R 

A 

X 

X 

* intermedia  (Q.  &  G.) 

,   , 

,   , 

,   , 

,  , 

.  . 

P 

,  , 

,  , 

,  , 

.   , 

,   , 

X 

X 

Pecten  beethami  Hutt.  .  . 

,   , 

_   , 

T 

T 

,  , 

,   , 

.  , 

S 

,  , 

A 

S 

,  , 

,  , 

— —  var.  B 

H 

T 

,  , 

,   , 

,  , 

,  , 

,   , 

,  , 

,  , 

burnetti  Zitt. 

T 

T 
T 

H 

s 

S 

s 

X 
X 

crawfordi  Hutt. 

difluxus  Hutt.     . . 

.. 

fischeri  Zitt. 

H 

,  , 

■,   , 

,   , 

,   , 

,   , 

,  , 

,  , 

.  . 

,  , 

R 

hochstetteri  Zitt    . . 

T 
T 

•   ' 

•  ■ 

+" 

s 

s 

A 

c 

a' 

A 

S 
S 
A 

•  hutchinsoni  Hutt. 

P 
T 

huttoni  (Park)      . .         ... 

T 

T 

T 

palmipes  Tate     .  . 

,   . 

T 

.   , 

,   , 

,   . 

,  , 

,  , 

.   . 

.  . 

* •  radiatus  Hutt.     .  . 

, , 

,   , 

P 

1 

,   , 

R 

S 

.  , 

X 

X 

trijjhooki  Zitt. 

,   , 

,   , 

, , 

,   , 

T  ? 

,   , 

,  . 

R 

,   . 

X 

X 

williamsoni  Zitt. 

H 

P 

T 

^   , 

,  , 

,  , 

.   , 

X 

,  , 

,  , 

* zelandiae  Gra'^'    .  . 

T 
T 

P 

s 

X 

X 

n.  sp.     . . 

' 

Phos  incisus  (Hutt.)     .  . 

.. 

.. 

P 

.. 

,   , 

.. 

X 

,  , 

Placunanomia  incisura  Hutt. 

(      *   • 

,   , 

T 

,   , 

,  , 

s 

S 

A 

;  ,  . 

.-. 

,  . 

Pleurotomaria  tertiaria  McCoy    . . 

H 

1 

,   , 

,  , 

,   , 

,  , 

i  ^ 

s 

.  . 

.  . 

,  , 

.  . 

Polinices  gibbosus  (Hutt.) 

.   .  1      .   . 

.   . 

P 

T 

P 

IX 

I  A 

s 

R 

A 

X 

X 

Thomson.— G-'eo/o^y  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District .     393 


Table  V. — Range  of  Tertiary  Molluscs 

FROM    THE 

District— 

-continved. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5        6 

7 

8 

9    1  10     11  j  12  jl3,14(15 

1        1         1         1      '       ' 

PoUnices  ovatm  (Hutt.) 

T 

R    R 

R 

A 

X 

X 

X 

Protocardia  alata  Sut. 

T 

•   ■  1       •   • 

,   , 

1 

* pulchella  (Gray) 

T 

X 

R     S 

R 

R 

.  .\.. 

Rissoina  vana  (Hutt.) 

T 

.  . 

S 

XI.. 

*Seila  chathamensis  Sut.  var. 

,  , 

T 

. .  1    . . 

,  , 

xl.. 

*Sigapatella  novae-zelandiae  (Less.) 

P 

T 

T 

R  t  R 

R 

A 

X 

X    X 

* tenuis  (Gray) 

T 

. . 

.   . 

C 

X   X 

*Spisula  aequilateralis  (Desh.)      . . 

T 

•  •  ^  ' ' 

*    .   . 

.    . 

X 

Xj.. 

Struthiolaria  cincfa  Hutt. 

,  , 

H 

A     S 

,   , 

A 

X   .. 

* papulosa  (Mart.) 

.   . 

T 

S      .. 

.    . 

C 

XX 

spinosa  Hect.    ' . . 

'i 

,   , 

,   . 

1 

,    , 

S 

. .  . . 

tuhercidata  Hutt. 

T 

,   , 

,  , 

R 

,   , 

R 

A 

.  J. . 

Surcula  fusifonnis  Hutt. 

T 

.   . 

X 

A 

s 

S 

A 

X   .  . 

Tar  on  brevirostris  (Hutt.) 

. .i  . . 

T 

,   , 

,   . 

.  , 

,   , 

A 

•   •     •   • 

*Tellina  deltoidalis  Hutt. 

,   , 

T 

.   , 

,  , 

XiX 

* eugonia  Sut. 

P 

T 

R 

,  , 

.   . 

..'X 

*-Terebra  tristis  Desh.     . . 

T 

R 

,  , 

..    R 

X    X 

Teredo  heaphyi  Zitt.     . . 

T 

,  . 

X 

A 

c 

C     A 

Thracia  n.  sp. 

T 

,  . 

•    . 

•   •     ■   ■ 

Trochus  conious  (Hutt.) 

T 

s 

.    . 

X    X 

* tiaratus  Q.  &  G.  .  . 

T 

,  , 

.   . 

C 

X    X 

*Trophon  corticatus  (Hutt.) 

•   • 

T 

" 

.  . 

.   . 

.. 

X!X 

Turris  alius  (Harris)    . . 

T 

.   . 

,  , 

.   . 

A 

.... 

*Turr)tella  carlottae  Wats. 

T 

,   , 

A 

R 

.    . 

A 

X    X 

cavershamensis  Harris 

P 

.   . 

A 

,   . 

A 

concava  Hutt. 

T 

R 

,  , 

R 

A 

* rosea  Q.  &  G. 

P 

,   . 

.  , 

•   • 

X    X 

* symmetrica  Hutt. 

H 

X 

+ 

R 

s 

C 

X 

XX 

*Vmbonium.  zelandicum  (H.  &  J.) 

P 

,  , 

,  , 

,   , 

.    . 

,   , 

X    X 

*Venericardia  difficilis  (Desh.) 

T 

A 

R 

s 

A 

X 

X    X 

* purpurata  (Desh.) 

T 

T 

R 

S 

c 

A 

X 

X    X 

*Verconella  caudata  (Q.  &  G.) 

.   , 

H 

,  , 

S 

,   , 

XjX 

costata  (Hutt.)     .. 

T 

T 

r;  s 

A 

X 

. .  . . 

* dilatata  (Q.  &  G.) 

T 

T 

s 

..i  R 

A 

*  ■ 

XX 

* mandarina  (Duclos) 

.   . 

T 

R 

. .     . . 

S 

X;X 

* nodosa  (Mart.)     . . 

P 

,   , 

,   , 

+ 

0 

s 

,  . 

A^ 

.  .   X 

orbita  (Hutt.) 

.   . 

P 

.   . 

.  . 

X    .  . 

* attenuata  Hutt.    . . 

H 

,   . 

,   , 

.   . 

.   . 

•   >     *   • 

Valuta  arabica  Mart. 

T 

T 

■ 

R 

.   . 

A 

X    X 

corrugata  Hutt.   . . 

P 

,   , 

T 

+ 

R 

R    R 

A 

X    .. 

* elongata  Swains. . . 

P 

.   . 

.   . 

.    , 

•    ■         ■   ■ 

A 

.  .    X 

sp.  cf.  protorhysa  Tate 

T 

.  . 

T 

.. 

.   . 

.... 

. .  .-. 

*Zenatia  acinaces  (Q.  &  G.) 

•• 

P 

S 

S     S  ■  A 

X    X 

Total  number  of  species,  166 

19 

9 

8 

45 

43 

95 

Number  of  Recent  species    . . 

1 

3 

1 

18 

15 

64 

' 

Percentage  of  Recent  species 

5 

33 

m 

40 

34 

67 

Column. 

1.  Weka  Pass  stohe. 

2.  "Grey  marls." 

3.  Lower   Mount   Brown    beds    (below 

hmestone  D). 

4.  Main  Mount  Brown  limestone  (D). 

5.  Uppermost  Mount  Brown  beds  (E). 

6.  Greta  beds. 

7.  Wangaloa      fauna     from      Marshall 

(1917c). 

S.  Hampden  beds  from  Marshall  (1919). 


Column. 

9.  Waiarekan  stage  of  Oamaru  and  South 
Canterbury. 

10.  Ototaran  stage  of  Oamaru  and  South 

Canterbury. 

11.  Hutchinsonian  stage  of  Oamaru  and 

South  Canterbury. 

12.  Awamoan  staee  of  Oamaru  and  South 

Canterbury. 

13.  Kawa    Creek    beds    from    Bartrum 

(1919)  and  PalHser  Bay  basal  beds. 

14.  Waitotaran  stage. 

15.  Castlecliffian  stage. 


394 


Transactions. 


If  we  now  calculate  the  percentage  of  records  in  the  various  stages, 
using  the  method  of  implication,  we  obtain  the  following  results : — 


Table  VI. 


1  2  3  4  5     16 


Percentage  recorde.d  from  Wangaloa  and  Hampden 

beds 
Percentage 
Percentage 
Percentage 
Percentage 
Percentage 
Percentage 
Percentage 
Percentage 


recorded  from  Waiarekan 
recorded  from  Ototaran 
recorded  from  Hutcliinsonian 
recorded  from  Awamoan 
recorded  from  Kawa  Creek  beds 
recorded  from  Waitotaran 
I'ecorded  from  Castlecliffian    . . 
of  Recent  species 


en 

26 

19 

22 

12 

20 

26 

42 

50 

88 

62 

66 

60 

52 

58 

100 

62 

75 

69 

42 

54 

100 

75 

73 

69 

52 

61 

100 

75 

80 

83 

10 

23 

44 

25 

58 

53 

5 

19 

44 

25 

49 

49 

5 

15 

33 

13 

40 

37 

5 

15 

33 

13 

4Q 

34 

11 

38 

42 

46 

69 

70 

69* 

77 

67 


*  In  calculating    this  percentage  the  records  from  the    Greta  and    Awatere    beds  were   excluded 
and  only  those  from  the  North  Island  localities,  or  records  by  implication,  were  used. 


1.  Weka  Pass  stone. 

2.  Weka  Pass  stone  and 

combined. 

3.  "Grev  marls." 


grey  marls  " 


4.  Lower  Mount  Brown  beds. 

5.  Main  Moimt  Brown  limestone. 

6.  Uppermost  Mount  Brown  limestone. 

7.  Greta  beds. 


It  svill  be  seen  that  the  analysis  favours  the  correlation  of  all  the  beds 
up  to  the  top  of  the  Mount  Brown  limestone  with  the  upper  Oamaruian, 
and,  if  we  group  together  the  Weka  Pass  stone  and  "  grey  marls,"  of  all 
with  the  Awamoan.  Against  this  we  have  the  positive  evidence  of  the 
Foraminifera  that  the  Weka  Pass  stone  and  "  grey  marls  "  are  lower  than 
Ototaran,  and  of  the  brachiopods  that  the  main  Mount  Brown  limestone  is 
Hutchinsouian.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  range  of  the  MoUusca 
is  not  yet  sufficiently  known  to  give  confidence  in  its  use  in  correlation, 
which  tends  unduly  to  favour  correlation  with  the  Awamoan. 

If  we  examine  in  detail  the  list  of  species  from  the  Weka  Pass  stone, 
we  find  that  the  species  which  are  responsible  for  the  relatively  high  value 
of  the  Awamoan  records  are  only  three- — viz.,  Strutliiolaria  spinosa,  Turris 
altus,  and  Pecten  fischeri — all  recorded  from  the  Awamoan  only.  The 
finding  of  any  two  of  these,  or  of  the  species  without  any  record — -viz., 
Epitonium  rotundum,  Lima  imitata,  Pecten  beethami  var.  B,  Pecten  wilhmn- 
soni,  Voluta  attenuata,  and  Voluta  sp.  of.  protorhysa  Tate — -in  the  Waiarekan 
or  lower  beds  would  bring  the  percentage  of  Waiarekan  species  up  to  that 
of  the  Awamoan. 

The  collections  are  scarcely  large  enough  to  use  the  percentage  of  Recent 
species  with«  confidence.  This  method  would  place  the  Weka  Pass  stone 
with  the  Wangaloa  and  Hampden  beds,  the  "  grey  marls  "  with  the 
Ototaran,  the  middle  Mount  Brown  beds  again  with  the  Wangaloa  and 
Hampden  beds,  the  main  Mount  Brown  limestone  and  the  uppermost  Mount 
Brown  limestone  in  the  Hutchinsonian  or  Ototaran.  A  curious  coincidence 
in  the  percentages  is  that  the  uppermost  limestone  shows  a  lower  percentage 
than  the  main  Mount  Brown  limestone,  just  as  do  the  Target  Gully  beds 
compared  to  the  upper  Hutchinsonian  in  Target  Gully,  and  the  total 
Awamoan  fauna  compared  to  the  total  Hutchinsonian  fauna  of  Oamaru 
and  South  Canterbury.  In  the  present  case  little  stress  can  be  laid  upon 
this  point,  as  the  list  from  the  main  Mount  Bro'mi  limestone  contains  so 
many  species  collected  by  Park  in  1905  from  an  horizon  not  quite  definitely 
determined. 

There  is  still  another  way  in  which  the  moUuscaii  evidence  can  be 
looked  at — viz.,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  range  of  the-  species  within 
the  district.      Thus  Pecten  huttoni  and  Dentalium  solidum  range  through 


THO:\rsoN, — Geology  of  Middle  Waipqra  and  Wela  Pass  District.     395 


the  900  or  more  feet  of  strata  from  the  Weka  Pass  stone  to  the  uppermost 
Momit  Brown  beds,  and  in  Oamaru  range  through  a  similar  thickness  of 
beds  wliich  probably  formed  at  much  the  same  rate.  This  suggests  that 
the  whole  of  the  Oamaruian  is  represented  in  the  Waipara  sequence,  and 
that  the  Weka  Pass  stone  correlates  with  the  Ngaparan  and  Waiarekan, 
and  the  uppermost  Mount  Brown  beds  with  the  Awamoan. 

The  general  conclusion  to  be  derived  from  the  evidence  of  the 
MoUusca  is,  then,  that  taken  by  itself  it  is  not  conclusive  as  to  exact  cor- 
relation with  Oamaruian  stages,  and  does "  not  stand  in  the  way  of  the 
positive  correlations  demanded  by  the  brachiopods  and  Foraminifera. 

The  range  of  the  brachiopods  occurring  in  the  district  is  shown  in  the 
following  table  : — 

Table  VII. — Range  of  Tertiary  Brachiopods  from  the  District. 


2     I     3         4  5  6  7 


10 


Aetheia  gaidteri  (Morris) 
Hemithyris  nigricans  (Sow.) 
Terebratulina  suessi  (Hutt.) 
Terebratulina  of.  cancellata  Koch 
Bouchardia  mininm  Thomson 
Magadina  waiparensis  Thomson 

browni  Thomson 

Rhizotkyris  curlosa  Thomson 

media  Thomson 

scutum.  Thomson 

rhizoidn  (Hutt.) 

elongata  Thomson 

curta  Thomson 

crassa  Thomson 

— —  elliptica  Thomson 
fortis  Thomson  . . 

obesa  Tliomson 

-  lateralis  Thomson 

pirum  Thomson 

ovata  Thomson 

amygdala 

Pachymagas  cottoni  Thomson 

bartrumi  Thomson 

clarkei  Thomson 

haasti  Thomson 

hectori  Thomson 

parki  (Hutt.) 

McKayi  Thomson 

morgani 

coxi  Thomson 

huttoni  Thomson 

andrewi  Thomson 

Waiparia  abnormis  (Thomson) 

intermedia  Thomson  . . 

Neothyris  campbcllica  (Filhol) 

ovnlis  (Hutt.) 

novara  (Iher.) 

•  iheringi  Thomson 

— —  anceps  Thomson 
Stethothyris  sufflata  (Tate)  . . 


X 


+ 


+ 


X 


+ 
+ 

+ 


+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 
? 

+ 
cf. 

+ 

+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 
+ 


+ 
+ 


X 


X 
X 
X 
X 


X 

X 
X 
X 


X 


X 


X 


X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 


w 
w 


0 

b 
b 

b 
b 

b 
b 

b 


0 
0 


o 


H 
H 
H 


H 
H 
H 
H 

ii 


H 
H 
H 


H 
H 
H 


H 


A 
A 


A 
A 


W 


w 
w 


Column. 

1.  Weka  Pass  stone. 

2    Lowest  Mount  Brown  limestone  (C). 

.?.  Second  Mount  Brown  limestone. 

4.  Main  Mount  Brown  Limestone  (D). 

5.  Uppermost  Mount  Brown  beds. 


Column. 

6.  Waiarekan. 

7.  Ototaran. 

8.  Hiitchin^onian. 

9.  Awamoan. 
10.  Wan<?anuian. 


The  letters  in  columns  6-10  are  the  initials  of  the  stage-names,  which  help  to  o-uide 
the  eye  better  than  an  asterisk. 


396 


Transactions. 


Owing  to  the  fact  that  so  few  brachiopods  are  recorded  from  the 
Waiarekan  and  the  Awamoan  elsewhere,  the  percentage  of  records  of  the 
Waipara  species  from  the  various  Oamaruian  stages,  though  favouring  the 
correlation  of  the  main  Mount  Brown  limestone  with  the  Hutchinsonian, 
is  little  more  conclusive  than  in  the  case  of  the  molluscs.  It  is  shown  in 
the  following  table  : — 

Table  VIII. 


1 

2 

Percentage  of  species  recorded  from  Waiarekan           . . 
Percentage  of  species  recorded  from  Ototaran 
Percentage  of  species  recorded  from  Hutciiinsonian    . . 
Percentage  of  species  recorded  from  Awamoan 
Percentage  of  species  recorded  from  Wanganuian 
Percentage  of  species  not  recorded  elsewhere 

4 
32 

48 
8 
0 

40 

0 

.     28 

33 

6 
16 
44 

1.  Main  Mount  Brown  limestone  (D). 

2.  Uppermost  Mount  Brown  beds. 

When  the  affinities  of  the  species  not  recorded  elsewhere  are  taken  into 
consideration,  the  case  for  the  correlation  of  the  main  Mount  Brown  lime- 
stone with  the  Hutchinsonian,  and  for  the  uppermost  Mount  Brown  beds 
with  the  Awamoan,  becomes  much  stronger.  The  fauna  of  the  former 
horizon  consists  entirely  of  species  closely  related  to  Hutchinsonian  forms, 
with  the  exception  only  of  Bouchardia  minima,  known  elsewhere  Only  from 
the  Ototaran,  and  Magadina  hrowni,  not  known  in  the  southern  Oamaruian 
localities.  The  fauna  of  the  uppermost  Mount  Brown  beds  contains 
characteristic  large  species,  not  easily  overlooked,  which  are  absent  from 
the  southern  Oamaruian  localities- — viz.,  Stethothyris  suffiata,  Neothyris  novara, 
N.  iheringi,  and  N.  anceps — suggesting  that  either  this  horizon  is  unrepre- 
sented at  Oamaru,  or  that  it  does  not  there  yield  brachiopods,  which  is 
the  case  with  the  Awamoan,  while  the  Hutchinsonian  affinities  of  part  of 
the  remainder,  mainly  Rhizothyris,  are  offset  by  the  Wanganuian  affinities 
of  another  part,  Hemithyris  and  Neothyris. 

The  species  of  Rhizothyris  and  Pachymagas  which  range  from  the  main 
Momit  Brown  limestone  into  the  overlying  beds  consist  for  the  most  part 
of-  species  not  so  advanced  as  regards  elongation  and  folding  as  those 
confined  to  the  main  limestone.  The  explanation  seems  to  be  that  the 
more  primitive  stocks  had  a  longer  range,  while  the  more  highly  evolved 
forms,  possessing  no  further  potentialities  of  evolution,  were  narrowly 
restricted  in  time.  The  occurrence  of  the  two  species  Rhizothyris  elongata 
and  Pachymagas  ;;:)arA;^  only  in  the  Hutchinson  Qiiarry  greensand  and  in 
the  main  Mount  Brown  limestone  would  of  itself  favour  the  correlation 
of  these  two  beds,  but  when  the  advanced  nature  of  their  evolution  is 
taken  into  account  it  enormously  strengthens  the  case  for  the  correlation. 
Combining  all  three  points  of  view,  we  may  conclude  that  the  evidence  is 
sufficiently  strong  to  sujjport  definitely  the  correlation  of  the  main  Mount 
Brown  limestone  with  the  Hutchinsonian  and  of  the  uppermost  beds  with 
the  Awamoan.  The  evidence  of  the  brachiopods  as  to  the  correlation  of 
the  beds  below  the  main  limestone  is  inconclusive. 

Combining  all  lines  of  evidence,  we  find  the  following  correlations 
indicated  : — 

Uppermost  Mount  Brown  beds — Awamoan. 

Main  Mount  Brown  limestone — Hutchinsonian. 

Lower  Momit  Brown  beds — Ototaran. 

"  Grey  marls  "  and  Weka  Pass  stone — Waiarekan. 


Thomsox. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District.     397 

WANGANUIAN. 

The  Greta  beds  have  a  wide  distribution  in  the  neighbouring  Lowei 
Waipara,  Upper  Waipara,  Greta,  .and  Motunau  districts,  where  the  nature 
of  the  beds  and  of  the  fossils  are  generally  similar  to  those  of  the  Middle 
Waipara  and  Weka  Pass.  They  are  also  known  to  occur  in  the  Oaro  Valley, 
near  Amuri  Bluff.  No  considerable  collections  of  any  extent  or  receiitly 
named  are  available  from  any  of  these  localities.  In  1913  I  collected 
carefully  from  the  Greta  beds  of  the  Lower  Waipara,  but  obtained  onl}?- 
twenty-seven  species,  of  which  twenty,  or  74  per  cent.,  are  Recent  species. 
The  extinct  species  were  CalUostoma  waiparense,  Crepidula  gregaria,  Lutraria 
solida,  Pecten  tripJiooki,  P.  craiofordi,  Ostrea  arenicola,  and  0.  nelsoniana  (?). 

Owing  to  the  absence  of  a  comprehensive  list  of  Waitotaran  fossils 
from  the  typical  locality,  the  percentages  of  records  of  the  various  stages 
shown  in  Table  VI  favours  correlation  of  the  Greta  beds  rather  with  the 
Castlecliffian  than  with  the  Waitotaran,  but  the  presence  of  such  forms 
as  Ostrea  ingens  suggests  that  the  true  correlation  is  with  the  Waitotaran. 
With  this  the  percentage  of  Recent  species,  67  per  cent.,  is  also  more  in 
accord.  Marshall  gives  60-70  per  cent,  for  the  Waipipi  series,  which 
apparently  includes  the  Waitotaran,  and  80-90  per  cent,  for  the  Castlecliff 
series.  Final  decision  as  to  correlation  of  the  Greta  beds  must  be  post- 
poned until  lists  from  the  Wanganui-Patea  districts  are  available. 

Only  :a  small  number  of  species  are  common  to  the  Greta  and  Awatere 
beds,  although  the  latter  have  usually  been  correlated  with  the  former 
Park  (1905)  obtained  forty-two  species  from  the  Starborough  Creek  beds, 
of  which  71  per  cent.-  were  Recent ;  from  the  same  beds  I  obtained  fifty- 
seven  species,  of  which  only  51  per  cent,  were  Recent.  The  two  lists 
combined  give  seventy-seven  species,  of  which  60  per  cent,  are  Recent. 

Marshall  (1919)  has  suggested  that  the  Greta  and  Awatere  beds  may 
occupy  a  position  intermediate  between  the  Target  Gully  series  (Awamoan, 
with  30-40  per  cent,  of  Recent  species)  and  the  Waipipi  series  (Waitotaran, 
with  60-70  per  cent,  of  Recent  species).  The  list  of  species  from  the  Greta 
-beds,  numbering  ninety-five,  with  67  per  cent.,  of  Recent  species,  is  now 
sufficient! v  extensive  to  make  it  very  improbable  that  the  suggestion  is 
correct.  In  the  Middle  Waipara  district  the  Greta  beds  follow  directly 
upon  the  uppermost  Mount  Brown  beds,  with  only  34  per  cent,  of  Recent 
species,  and  the  sudden  doubling  of  this  percentage  gives  a  strong  presump- 
tion of  unconformity.  If  beds  bridging  the  palaeontological  gap  can  be 
found  in  any  other  part  of  New  Zealand  the  evidence  Jor  unconformity  will 
be  conclusive. 

In  1913  I  pointed  out  that  the  Starborough  Creek  beds  of  the  Awatere 
Valley  were  underlain  by  a  great  thickness  of  beds,  in  the  lower  parts  of 
which  Miocene  {i.e.,  Oamaruian)  types  such  as  CucvUaea  and  Limopsis 
occurred.  The  collection  from  Tatchell's  Creek  was  not  in  very  satisfactory 
condition,  but  yielded  Ancilla  sp.,  Gardium  spafiosium  Hutt.  ?,  C.  maorinum 
Sut.  L  CJiione  meridionalis  (Sow.)  ?,  Cominella  lurida  (Phil.),  Dentalimn  soli- 
dum  Hutt.,  Leda  semiteres  Hutt.  ?,  Limopsis  aurita  (Brocchi),  L.  catenata  Sut., 
Macidopteplum  elegantissimum  (Siit.)  ?,  Mytilus  striatus  Hutt.,  Ostrea  angasi 
Sow.  ?,  Panope  orbita  (Hutt.),  Pecten  Imttoni  (Park),  Struthiolaria  cincta 
Hutt.  ?,  S.  tubercidata  Hutt.,  Turritella  symmetrica  Hutt.  ?,  Verconella 
dilatata  (Q.  &  G.)  ?,  and  Voluta  corrugata  Hutt.  This  fauna  appears  to  be 
characteristically  Oamaruian,  so  that  if  the  beds  containing  it  underlie  the 
Awatere  series  conformably  an  intermediate  fauna  should  be  found. 


398  Transactions. 

In  1919  I  pointed  out  that  the  blue  mudstones  of  the  Palliser  Bay  dis- 
trict, which  in  their  upper  part  contain  a  Waitotaran  and  probably  above 
that  also  a  Castlecliffian  fauna,  also  contain  Oamaruian  species  near  the 
base.  Those  collected  were  Antigona  zelandica  (Gray),  Cominella  adspersa 
(Brug.),  C.  purchasi^nt.,  Dosinia  anus  (Phil.),  D.  subrosea  {Gxslj),  DentaUum 
solidum  Hutt.,  Galeodea  senex  (Hutt.j,  Paphia  curta  (Hutt.),  Polinices  gib- 
bosus  (Hutt.)  ?,  Stnithiolaria  tuherculata  var.,  *S.  papidosa  var.  While  the 
Oamaruian  afi&nities  of  this  fauna  are  apparent,  three  species  —  viz., 
Cominella  adspersa,  C.  purchasi,  and  Dosinia  anus — are  not  known  from  the 
Oamaruian  of  Otago  and  South  Canterbury.  It  seems  quite  possible  that 
this  fauna  will  prove  to  be  intermediate  between  the  Awamoan  and  the 
Waitotaran. 

In  1919  Bartrum  also  described  a  series  of  beds  at  Kawa  Creek  which 
overlie  Oamaruian  beds  unconformably,  but  contain  a  fauna  with  strong 
Oamaruian  affinities,  although  the  percentage  of  Recent  species  is  62  in  a 
collection  of  74  species.  The  percentage  of  records  in  the  various  stages  is 
as  follows  :  Wangaloa  and  Hampden  beds,  8  ;  Waiarekan,  42  ;  Ototaran, 
50  ;  Hutchinsonian,  54  ;  Awamoan,  64  ;  Waitotaran,  62  ;  Castlecliffian,  68. 
Probably  when  a  fuller  list  of  Waitotaran  species  is  available  for  comparison 
Bartrum's  conclusion  that  the  famia  is  intermediate  between  Awamoan  and 
Wanganuian  will  be  substantiated. 

DIASTROPHIC  PROVINCES   IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 

In  1917  I  discussed  the  application  of  diastrophic  criteria  to  the  corre- 
lation and  classification  of  the  younger  rocks  of  New  Zealand,  and  while 
agreeing  with  Marshall,  Speight,  and  Cotton  (1911)  and  later  expressed 
views  by  Marshall  on  a  certain  diastrophic  unity  of  all  these  younger  rocks, 
necessitating  the  use  of  an  inclusive  name,  for  which  I  proposed  "Notoceiie," 
I  gave  briefly  the  evidence  for  the  existence  of  minor  diastrophic  districts 
during  the  general  relative  crustal  inactivity  between  the  great  post-Hokonui 
and  Kaikoura  deformations.  This  evidence  consisted  of  the  differences  in 
age  of  the  oldest  and  youngest  marine  Notocene  rocks  of  different  districts, 
proving  differences  in  the  dates  of  sea-advance  and  sea-retreat  in  these 
districts,  and  also  differences  in  age  of  the  main  limestone  member  of  the 
sequence  in  different  districts — viz.,  the  Amuri,  Ototara,  and  Takaka  lime- 
stones— proving  that  the  period  of  maximum  sea-advance  was  not  every- 
where contemporaneous.  To  avoid  confusion  between  geographical  and 
diastrophic  districts,  I  propose  now  to  call  the  latter  "  provinces." 

Marshall  (1919),  who  appears  to  have  misunderstood  the  argument,  states, 
"I  can  reasonably  hold  that  no  proof  has  been  given  of  these  supposed  ' 
local  diastrophic  movements  in  New  Zealand,  and  I  can  quote  the  Oamaru 
district,  at  least,  as  one  in  which  the  Tertiary  strata  are  continuous  over  a 
large  district  without  any  indication  of  being  affected  by  local  diastrophic 
action."  It  is  evident  that  I  stated  the  argument  too  briefly  by  omitting  to 
define  more  explicitly  the  diastrophic  provinces.  This  omission  I  remedied 
last  year  (1919,  p.  310),  when  I  defined  the  provinces  of  the  east-coast  of  the 
South  Island.  The  Oamaru  geographical  district,  which  is  understood  as 
comprising  the  coastal  area  between  the  Kakanui  and  Waitaki  Rivers,  but 
excludes  Shag  Point,  forms,  with  the  adjacent  Waitaki,  Waihao,  Pareora, 
Kakahu,  and  Mount  Somers  districts,  a  diastrophic  province  extending  from 
the  Kakanui  to  the  Rakaia  Rivers,  and  I  quite  agree  with  Marshall  that 
within  it  there  is  no  diversity  of  diastrophism  exclusive  of  local  volcanic 
phenomena.  Excluding  the  variations  due  to  the  development  of  volcanic 
rocks,  foimd  chiefly  in  the  Oamaru  and  Mount  Somers  districts,  the  strati- 
graphical  sequence  and  fossils  of  these  districts  are  almost  identical.     The 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Jl'eka  Pass  District.    399 

diastropliic  history  of  the  whole  of  this  province  appears  to  have  been  as 
follows  :  Emergence  of  the  pre-Notocene  rocks  during  Clarentian,  Piri- 
pauan,  and  Kaitangatan,  ending  with  peneplanation  :  submergence  with 
sedimentation  in  the  Ngaparan  or  Waiarekan,  attaining  its  maximum  in 
the  Ototaran  ;  a  cessation  of  sedimentation  before  the  deposition  of  the 
Hutchinsonian,  perhaps  due  to  standstill  of  land  and  sea,  during  which  a 
phosphatization  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  Ototara  limestone  took  place  ; 
gradually  shallowing  of  the  sea  during  the  Hutchinsonian  and  Awamoan, 
followed  by  emergence  at  the  end  of  the  Awamoan  ;  deposition  of  terres- 
trial gravels  during  the  Wanganuian  ;  block-faulting,  with  tilting  of  the 
Oamaruian  and  Wanganuian  beds  about  the  close  of  the  Wanganuian. 

The  jMiddle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  district,  on  the  other  hand,  forms 
part  of  a  diastropliic  province  extending  from  the  Rakaia  River  to  Kai- 
koura  Peninsula.  The  stratigraphical  sequence  is  not  so  constant  as  in  the 
southern  province,  owing  to  aii  overlap  traceable  in  the  older  beds,  and 
there  are  still  large  parts  of  the  province  that  have  not  been  described  in 
detail.  The  diastrophic  history  appears  to  have  been  as  follows  :  Emer- 
gence of  the  pre-Notocene  rocks  during  the  Clarentian,  without  complete 
attainment  of  peneplanation  ;  partial  submergence  and  sedimentation 
during  the  Piripauan  and  Kaitangatan,  with  progressive  overlap  on  the 
diversified  surface  ;  a  cessation  of  sedimentation  before  the  deposition  of 
the  Oamaruian,  probably  due  to  a  standstill  of  land  and  sea,  during  which' 
a  phosphatization-  of  the  Amuri  limestone  took  place  ;  renewed  depression 
of  the  Amuri  limestone  and  the  old  land,  leading  to  an  overlap  of  the  Weka 
Pass  stone  over  the  Piripauan  and  Kaitangatan  on  to  the  now  peneplaned 
pre-Notocene  (lower  Oamaruian)  ;  shallowing  of  the  Oamaruian  sea  with 
oscillations  of  movement  during  which  the  "  grey  marls  "  and  Mount  Brown 
limestones  were  deposited,  with  interformational  unconformities  (upper, 
Oamaruian)  ;  uplifts,  perhaps  of  the  nature  of  block  movements,  exposing 
fresh  areas  of  pre-Notocene  rocks  to  rapid  erosion,  with  deposition  of  the 
Greta  beds  (early  Wanganuian)  ;  uplifts,  with  folding  or  tilting  and  erosion 
of  the  whole  marine  Notocene,  'and  deposition  of  the  terrestrial  Kowhai  beds 
(late  Wanganuian)  ;  block-faulting  about  the  close  of  the  Wanganuian,  with 
renewed  folding  or  tilting  of  both  the  marine  and  terrestrial  Notocene  series. 

The  diastrophic  histories  of  these  two  areas  are  thus  seen  to  be  markedly 
dissimilar.  In  the  northern  province  marine  beds,  both  older  and  younger, 
are  developed  which  have  no  counterpart  in  the  southern  ;  the  nature  of 
the  beds  of  correlative  age  (Oamaruian)  is  different  in  the  two  areas  ;  and 
the  relationship  of  certain  beds  is  different.  The  greatest  difficulty  in  the 
geology  of  each  area  is  the  nature  of  the  conditions  which  permitted  phos- 
phatization of  the  upper  surfaces  of  certain  limestones.  Whatever  these 
conditions  were,  they  happened  at  different  times  in  the  two  provinces. 
The  stratigraphical  unity  within  the  boundaries  of  each  province,  and  the 
diversity  between  the  two,  are  salient  facts  that  demand  recognition. 

Two  of  the  classifications  proposed  for  the  younger  rocks  of  New  Zea- 
land have  failed  to  recognize  the  existence  of  the  diversity  of  stratigraphical 
and  diastrophic  history  in  the  above  and  other  provinces  —  viz.,  the 
Cretaceo-Tertiary  classification  of  Hector  and  the  single  rock-series  classifi- 
cation of  Marshall.  In  each  of  these  a  supposed  uniformity  of  stratigraphy 
has  been  assumed  by  the  mistaken  correlation  of  the  Amuri  and  Ototara 
limestone^.  The  majority  of  the  other  classifications — those  of  Hutton,  von 
Haast,  Park.  Morgan,  and  Woods — recognize  the  distinctness  of  these  lime- 
stones, and  therefore  part  at  least  of  the  diversity  of  the  above  provinces, 
but  explain  the  facts  by  postulating  important  earth-movements  between 


400  Transactions. 

different  members  of  the  series,  causing  unconformities  of  regional  classi- 
ficatory  value.  They  fail,  however,  to  recognize  the  grander  fact  that  all 
the  younger  rocks  were  deposited  in  a  period  of  relative  crustal  inactivity 
between  the  epochs  of  major  diastrophism,  and  on  this  account  should  be 
grouped  into  one  grand  system.  This  is  recognized  in  the  classifications 
of  Marshall  and  Thomson.  Each  of  the  above  types  of  classification  will 
now  be  examined  in  detail  with  regard  to  its  applicability  to  the  palaeonto- 
logical  and  stratigraphical  facts  brought  out  in  this  paper,  and  in  relation 
to  the  explanation  it  offers  for  the  diversities  exhibited  in  the  three  main 
diastrophic  provinces  of  the  east  coast  of  the  South  Island. 

The  Cretaceo-Teetiary  Formation  of  Hector. 

It  has  been  stated  by  Park  that  the  theory  of  a  conformable  succession 
bridging  the  gap  between  the  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  in  New  Zealand 
was  first  proposed  by  Hutton,  but  later  abandoned  by  him,  and  was  after- 
wards taken  up  by  Hector.  I  have  failed  to  discover  the  evidence  for  this 
statement  in  any  of  the  published  writings  of  Hutton,  though  Hector  (1892) 
states  that  when  he  used  the  term  "  Cretaceo-Tertiary  "  in  1877  it  was  a 
revival  of  a  term  which  had  been  in  abeyance  for  some  years.  Hector's 
adoption  of  the  formation  in  1877  appears  to  be  a  direct  outcome  of  the 
views  he  always  held  as  to  the  Mesozoic  age  of  all  the  coalfields  in  New 
Zealand.  Thus  when  Provincial  Geologist  of  Otago  he  classed  the  marine 
rocks  of  Oamaru,  Hampden,  Caversham,  &c.,  under  a  "Tertiary  Oamaru 
series,  but  the  coal-measures  of  Kaitangata,  Clutha,  Shag  Point,  &c.,  under 
a  Carbonaceous  series,  and  considered  it  as  possibly  upper  Mesozoic. 

In  1870,  after  he  had  visited  the  Waipara  district,  the  North  Canterbury 
rocks  now  included  in  the  Notocene  were  grouped  by  Hector  in  the  Cata- 
logue of  the  Colonial  Museum  as  follows  : — 

/  B.  Upper  or  Struthiolaria  series      . .  . .     Motunau,  Lower  Gorge  of  the 

Waipara  River. 

C.  Middle  or  Cue itZZaea  series  .,  ...     Waikari,     Lyngdon,     Hurunui 
Tertiary  J^  ^  Mound,  Upper  Trelissick. 

D.  Older  or  Ototara  series  . .  . .     Deans,    Weka   Pass,   Curiosity 

Shop,  Selwyn  River,  Lower 
\  •  Trelissick. 

i  E.  L(da  marls  or  Aotea  series        . .  . .  >  Conway  River,  AVaiau-ua. 

Mesozoic  \  F.  Chalk  and  chalk  marls  . .  . .     (Amuri  Bluff). 

(G.  Ferruginous  sandstones  or  Waipara  series       Boby's  Creek,  Culverden. 

In  this  grouping  of  the  LeHa  marls  (which  subsequently  were  termed  the 
"  grey  marls  ")  with  the  Chalk  or  Amuri  limestone  and  the  Waipara  series  in 
the  Secondary  as  opposed  to  the  Mount  Brown  beds  of  the  Deans  in  the 
Older  Tertiary,  the  Cretaceo-Tertiary  formation  was  clearly  foreshadowed. 
In  1877  Hutton  included  the  "  grey  marls  "  in  his  Oamaru  system,  and  the 
Amuri  limestone  and  underlying  beds  in  his  Waipara  system.  Hector 
(1877a),  in  commenting  on  Hutton 's  paper,  rejected  Hutton 's  classification, 
and  in  a  table  of  beds  of  Amuri  Bluff  included  the  "  grey  marls  "  and  fucoidal 
limestone  (Weka  Pass  stone)  with  the  Amuri  limestone  in  a  Chalk  group, 
recognizing  also  two  lower  groups,  which  he  named  the  Greensand  group 
and  the  Amuri  group.  In  the  following  volume  of  Reports  of  Geological 
Explorations  (1877b)  he  used  the  name  of  Cretaceo-Tertiary  formation 
for  a  part  of  the,  sequence  in  the  Kaipara  district,  and  in  the  following 
volume  again  (1877c)  it  appeared  for  the  first  time  in  a  general  table  of 
New  Zealand  formations,  though  not  in  its  final  form.  The  following  table 
shows  the  various  names  applied  to  the  divisions  or  series  of  the  formation. 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District.    401 


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402  Transactions.  ' 

The  beds  below  the  black  grit  of  Amuri  Bluff  were  placed  in  a  distinct 
Lower  Greensand  formation,  and  the  horizon  of  the  black  grit  was  corre- 
lated with  the  coal-beds  of  the  Waipara  and  all  the  other  chief  coal- 
measures  of  the  country.  This  had  the  effect  of  removing  from  the  Cretaceo- 
Tertiary  formation  the  ammonites,  belemnites,  Trigoniae,  &c.  fomid  so  ^ 
abundantly  in  the  calcareous  conglomerate  of  Amuri  Bluff.  In  1892  Hector 
admitted  that  the  Lower  Greensand  formation  could  not  be  maintained  as  a 
distinct  formation,  and  considered  it  a  local  expansion  of  the  Ostrea  bed  of  the 
Waipara  district,  a  view  later  demonstrated  to  be  correct  by  Woods  (1917). 

Hector's  Cretaceo-Tertiary  theory  rested  on  two  claims  :  first,  that  all 
the  rocks  of  the  Waipara  district  from  the  coal-measures  up  to  and  in- 
cluding the  "  grey  marls  "  formed  a  single  conformable  "  formation  "  and 
palaeontological  unit,  and  were  separated  from  the  overlying  Mount  Brown 
beds  by  an  unconformity  ;  and,  secondly,  that  all  the  important  coal- 
measures  in  New  Zealand,  together  with  the  conformably  associated  rocks, 
belonged  to  the  same  "  formation." 

As  regards  the  first  claim,  Hector  appears  never  to  have  studied  the 
contact  of  the  Amuri  limestone  and  Weka  Pass  stone  carefully.  In  his 
first  account  of  the  district  he  did  not  discriminate  between  the  two  rocks, 
and  after  Hutton  had  made  the  distinction,  and  had  claimed  the  contact  as 
an  unconformity,  emphasizmg  its  palaeontological  importance  as  a  plane 
above  which  no  Cretaceous  fossils  ranged,  and  below  which  no  Tertiary 
fossils  occurred,  Hector  apparently  made  no  special  study  of  the  contact, 
and  was  content  to  rely  on  McKay's  attempts  to  combat  Hutton's  criticisms. 
He  insisted  strongly,  however,  on  the  existence  of  an  unconformity  between 
the  "  grey  marls  "  and  the  Mount  Brown  beds,  publishing  a  map  of  the 
Weka  .Pass  in  support  of  his  contention.  The  map  was,  however,  little 
more  than  a  diagram,  and  does  not  appear  to  have  been  based  on  a  detailed 
survey.  Hector  was  either  miaware  of,  or  ignored,  the  range  of  Tertiary 
Mollusca  above  and  below  the  miconformity,  and  made  no  attempt  to 
analyse  their  range,  contenting  himself  with  a  statement  of  characteristic 
species  from  the  Cretaceo-Tertiary  and  higher  formations,  species  which 
are  now  known  to  have  a  considerable  range  above  or  below  the  rocks  he 
included  in  each  formation. 

McKay  (1887a)  made  a  more  serious  attempt  to  meet  Hutton's  criti- 
cisms. He  reaffirmed  the  conformity  of  the  two  rocks  on  the  ground  of 
their  parellelism  of  dip  and  strike,  and  attributed  the  so-called  shattering 
of  the  Amuri  limestone  to  jointing  and  a  subsequent  working-down  of  the 
loose  greensand  into  the  joint-planes.  He  endeavoured  to  refute  Hutton's 
statement  that  pebbles  of  Amuri  limestone  were  enclosed  in  the  Weka 
Pass  greensand  by  publishing  an  analysis  of  a  phosphatic  nodule  as  a  proof 
that  all  the  supposed  pebbles  were  concretions,  and  he  made  a  very  strained 
comparison  of  the  pebbles  with  concretions  in  the  Waipara  greensands. 
From  later  analyses  it  is  now  clear  that  the  analysis  quoted  by  McKay 
referred  to  one  of  the  phosphatic  concretions  found  rarely  near  the  contact, 
and  not  to  the  majority  of  the  supposed  pebbles,  which  are  only  slightly 
phosphatized,  and  are  undoubtedly  fragm^ents  of  Amuri  limestone.  McKay 
also  published  an  analysis  of  Amuri  limestone  which  showed  a  high  per- 
centage of  insoluble  residue  described  as  sand,  and  argued  from  this  that 
Hutton's  statement  that  the  Weka  Pass  stone  overlapped  the  Amuri  limestone 
on  to  the  old  rocks  on  the  neighbouring  Mount  Alexander  Range  had  no 
significance,  as  a  sandy  limestone  might  easily  pass  in  a  few  miles  into  a 
sandstone.  Here  again  McKay's  analysis  has  been  shown  by  later  chemical 
study  not  to  be  typical  of  the  Amuri  limestone.     In  answer  to  Hutton's 


Thomson  .—Geology  of  Middle  Waipura  and  Wtka  Pass  District.     403 

contention  that  no  Tertiary  species  were  found  below  the  contact  McKay 
published  a  list  of  Tertiary  species  found  below  the  Amuri  limestone  in 
North  Canterbury  and  Marlborough.  As  no  descriptions  or  figures  of 
these  species  were  supplied,  and  as  the  statement  rested  solely  on  McKay's 
identifications,  it  did  not  gain  acceptance,  and  Woods's  later  study  of  the 
Cretaceous  Pelecypoda  does  not  bear  it  out.  It  should  be  noted,  however, 
that  Henderson  (1918)  collected  a  shell  from  beds  below  the  Amuri  lime- 
stone of  the  Cheviot  district  which  was  determined  by  Suter  as  Malletia 
australis  (Q.  &  G.).  The  existence  of  a  few  of  the  wide-ranging  Oamaruian 
Mollusca  below  the  Amuri  limestone  would  not  excite  surprise,  and,  though 
invalidating  the  absolute  truth  of  Hutton's  contention,  would  not  destroy 
the  truth  of  the  claim  that  the  faunas  known  from  the  rocks  above  and 
below  the  contact  are  characteristically  distinct.  Hector's  first  claim,  that 
the  Cretaceo-Tertiary  formation  is  a  satisfactory  unit  in  the  classification 
of  the  Waipara  sequence,  has  been  destroyed  by  Hutton's  criticisms,  rein- 
forced by  later  studies. 

It  should  be  noted  that  von  Haast  adopted  a  grouping  of  the  rocks 
different  from  those  of  both  Hector  and  Hutton,  and  included  all  the  beds 
from  the  coal-measures  to  the  top  of  the  Weka  Pass  stone  in  a  Waipara 
system  of  Cretaceo-Tertiary  age.  The  correlations  he  claimed  for  this 
system  were  those  of  Hutton's  Waipara  system  and  not  those  of  Hector's 
Cretaceo-Tertiary  formation.  Park  also  in  1905  adopted  the  same  grouping 
as  von  Haast  for  his  Cretaceous  Waipara  system,  in  the  mistaken  belief  that 
the  Weka  Pass  stone  contained  no  Tertiary  fossils.  Hutton's  criticisms, 
reinforced  as  above,  are  eqiially  valid  against  these  groupings  of  the  Wai- 
para rocks. 

Hector's  second  claim  for  the  correlation  in  the  Cretaceo-Tertiary  for- 
mation of  all  the  important  coal-measures  rested  on  the  following  general 
argument : — 

"  In  northern  Canterbury,  as  far  south  as  the  Rakaia  River,  the  coal 
rocks  are  overlaid  by  fossiliferous  strata,  which,  besides  the  Plesiosauroid 
reptiles  for  which  the  Waipara  district  is  famous,  contain  a  few  secondary 
genera,  such  as  Belemnites,  Aporrhais,  Inoceramus,  and  Trigonia  ;  but  the 
great  mass  of  the  associated  moUuscan  fauna  agrees  with  that  of  the  coal 
rocks  in  other  parts  of  New  Zealand,  while  the  specially  Cretaceous  forms 
are  rare  or  absent  from  the  fossiliferous  horizons  immediately  overlying  the 
coal-seams.  If,  therefore,  after  eliminating  the  comparatively  few  fossils 
which  form  the  peculiarities  df  two  localities,  the  bulk  of  those  remaining 
are  fomid  to  be  the  same,  there  need  be  no  hesitation  in  consideiing  strata 
showing  the  same  succession  of  like  characters  in  its  different  divisions  as 
belonging  to  the  same  series  ;  and,  if  in  any  one  of  these  localities  there  is 
evidence  that  the  beds  are  of  Cretace'ous  age,  the  other  must  be  regarded 
as  of  that  age  also.  But  if,  in  addition  to  this,  there  be,  in  those  localities 
where  the  lower  beds  lack  fossils  proving  their  Cretaceous  age,  a  presence 
of  Cretaceous  forms  in  the  higher  beds  of  the  same  series,  the  correct- 
ness of  the  correlation  will  in  this  way  be  corroborated.  It  is  partly  by 
evidence  of  this  kind  that  the  Cretaceous  age  of  several  of  our  coal-bearing 
areas  is  sought  to  be  established. 

"  In  South  Canterbury,  on  the  east  coast  of  Otago,  and  on  the  west 
coast  of  the  South  Island  markedly.  Cretaceous  fossils  are  found  in  the 
calcareous  members  of  the  higher  part  of  the  coal-bearing  series.  The 
Cretaceous  character  of  the  Echinodermata  found  in  the  Cobden  limestone, 
also  present  in  the  Ototara  stone,  warrants  the  reference  of  these  beds  to 
a  period  anterior  to  that  of  any  Tertiary  deposit  in  the  Islands,  the  oldest 


404  Transactions. 

of  which  is  at  least  Middle  Eocene,  and  separated  by  an  unconformity 
from  the  underlying  beds.  To  distinguish  this  latter  the  term  '  Cretaceo- 
Tertiary  '  has  been  made  use  of,  as  it  is  believed  that  the  series  bridges 
over  the  gap  which  separates  the  Lower  Eocene  from  the  Cretaceous  rocks 
of  Europe."     (Hector,  1882,  pp.'xxii-xxiii.)  i 

Park  (1888a)  in  commenting  on  the  stratigraphical  and  palaeontological 
difficulties  in  the  correlation  of  two  distinct  groups  of  beds,  "  the  one 
characterized  by  a  fauna  and  flora  with '  a  distinctly  Tertiary  facies,  the 
other  by  forms  of  an  equally  pronounced  Secondary  type,"  put  forward 
another  argument  as  accepted  by  the  supporters  of  the  correlation,  although 
Hector  himself  does  not  seem  to  have  used  it  in  his  writings  :  "  The  rela- 
tion existing  between  these  two  groups  has  not  been  very  satisfactorily 
■^  determined,  but  they  are  at  present  supposed  by  the  Survey  to  be  in  a 
manner  horizontal  equivalents- — that  is,  the  result  of  contemporaneous 
deposition,  the  Tertiary  strata  being  taken  to  represent  the  shallow- water, 
and  the  Secondary  strata  the  deep-water,  conditions  of  the  same  period." 

It  appears  probable  also  that  the  fossils  of  the  Selwyn  Rapids  beds  in 
the  Malvern  Hills  greatly  strengthened  McKay  and  Hector  in  their  belief 
in  the  correctness  of  the  correlation  of  the  "  saurian  beds  "  and  Waipara 
greensands  with  the  greensands  underlying  the  Ototara  limestone  in  South 
Canterbury  and  Otago.  The  Selwyn  Rapids  beds  lie  a  little  distance  above 
an  Ostrea  bed  extremely  similar  to  that  in  the  Waipara  district,  and  the 
nature  of  the  rocks  is  similar  to  that  of  the  "saurian  beds."  No  one  has 
ever  questioned  that  the  Selwyn  Rapids  beds  belong  to  a  horizon  below  the 
Amuri  limestone.  .The  majority  of  the  fossil  Pelecypoda,  however,  belong 
to  or  closely  resemble  genera  which  are  common  in  the  Tertiary,  and 
von  Haast  originally  believed  the  fauna  to  be  a  Tertiary  one.  As  these 
beds  lie  geographically  between  the  North  and  South  Canterbury  localities, 
they  seemed  to  offer  themselves  as  a  stepping-stone  in  correlation.  The 
Cretaceo-Tertiary  formation  was  supposed  for  some  geographical  reason  to 
contain  fewer  distinctively  Cretaceous  forms  as  it  was  traced  south. 

The  flaw  in*  Hector's  argument,  by  which  it  falls  to  the  ground,  is  the 
incorrectness  of  his  premise  that  the  great  mass  of  the  molluscan  famia 
associated  with  the  saurians  in  northern  Canterbury  agrees  with  that  of 
the  coal  rocks  in  other  parts  of  New  Zealand.  Woods's  examination  of 
the  Pelecypod  fauna  associated  with  the  saurians  failed  to  bring  to  light 
a  single  species  known  from  the  rocks  of  the  Oamaru  and  South  Canterbury 
or  the  West  Coast  coalfields,  and  there  is  little  reason  to  suppose  that  the 
case  will  be  any  better  when  the  gasteropods  are  described.  * 

Hutton  (1885  b,  c)  perceived  clearly  the  flaws  in  Hector's  arguments, 
but  his  criticisms  were  weakened  by  two  circumstances.  The  first  was  that 
the  Upper  Cretaceous  faunas  were  not  described,  and  the  only  satisfactory 
collections  were  those  of  the  Geological  Survey,  which  were  inaccessible  to 
him.  The  second  was  his  own  mistake  in  regard  to  the  Pareora  system. 
In  this  he  included  the  Awamoan  beds  and  all  the  Otago  and  South  Canter- 
bury localities  now  correlated  in  the  Awamoan  ;  but  he  also  included  in  it 
the  Waiareka  greensands,  the  Enfield  beds,  and  the  Hampden  beds,  which 
are  clearly  below  the  Ototara  limestone.  He  pointed  out  the  distinctively 
Tertiary  facies  of  the  faimas  of  these  beds,  as  opposed  to  the  Cretaceous 
facies  of  the  beds  below  the  Amuri  limestone  ;  but  in  claiming  that  these 
beds  lay  above  the  Ototara  limestone  he  gave  McKay  (1887b)  a  handle 
for  upsetting  a  part  of  his  criticism,  although  a  part  that  was  not  really 
essential  to  the  problem.  Consequently  Hutton's  criticism  of  the  corre- 
lations assumed  by  the  Cretaceo-Tertiary  theory  failed  to  carry  conviction 
to  Hector  and  McKay,  or  to  gain  general  acceptance. 


Thomson. — -Geology  of  Middle  Wnipara  and  Weka  Pass  Districf .    405 

Park's  revision  of  the  marine  Tertiaries  (1905)  helped  to  emphasize  the 
purely  Tertiary  nature  of  the  supposed  Cretaceo-Tertiary  rocks  of  South 
Canterbury  and  Otago.  The  recognition  by'  Uttley  and  Thomson  (1914) 
of  the  infra-position  of  the  Waihao  greensands  in  respect  to  the  Ototara 
limestone,  together  by  the  demonstration  by  Woods  (1917)  of  the  purely 
Cretaceous  nature,  of  the  beds  below  the  Amuri  limestone  in  North 
Canterbury,  removed  the  weaknesses  of  Button's  position.  His  criticism  thus 
reinforced  is  absolutely  destructive  of  the  correlations  assumed  by  Hector. 

The  Cretaceo-Tertiary  theory  thus  failed  both  in  its  classification  of 
the  rocks  of  the  northern  province  (Rakaia  River  to  Kaikoura  Peninsula), 
and  in  its  correlation  of  the  rocks  of  the  southern  province  (Kakanui  River 
to  Rakaia  River).  By  falsely  correlating  Piripauan  with  Waiarekan  rocks 
it  failed  to  recognize  the  diversity  between  these  two  provinces.  It 
failed  also,  owing  to  false  correlation  of  the  Piripauan  and  Clarentian  rocks, 
to  recognize  the  diversity  between  the  northern  of  these  two  provinces 
and  that  extending  from  the  Hapuku  River  to  Cape  Campbell.  The 
Cretaceo-Tertiary  theory  of  Hector  must  be  absolutely  discarded.  Until 
we  have  new  accormts  of  all  Notocene  localities,  however,  it  will  be  necessary 
for  the  student  to  have  a  clear  understanding  of  Hector's  classification 
and  its  fallacies,  because  for  many  localities  McKay's  accounts  of  the 
stratigraphy  are  stiU  the  only  or  the  best  accounts  available,  and  they  are 
all  couched  in  terms  of  this  classification. 

Hutton's  Classification  and  its  Successors. 

Button's  final  classification  (1900)  of  the  younger  rocks  of  New  Zealand 
differed  little  from  that  he  proposed  in  1872,  and  was  as  follows  : — 

Cainozoic  system — 

Wanganui  series        . .  . .  . .     Newer  Pliocene. 


Older  Pliocene. 
Miocene. 
Oligocene . 
Upper  Cretaceous. 


Glacier  epoch 
Pareora  series 
Oamaru  series 
Waipara  system 

His  views  of  the  diastrophic  history  during  these  periods  are  contained 
in  the  following  extracts :  "  About  the  middle  of  the  Jurassic  period 
folding  of  the  rocks  [of  the  Hokonui  system]  occurred  along  the  same 
north-east  and  south-west  axis  ;  the  Alps  were  formed,  and  the  present 
land  of  New  Zealand  may  be  said  to  have  been  born,  for  since  then  it  has 
never  been  submerged.  ...  In  the  Upper  Cretaceous  the  land  sub- 
sided, and  New  Zealand  was  reduced  to  comparatively  small  limits.  .  .  . 
A  little  before  the  commencement  of  the  Tertiary  era  the  rocks  were  folded 
once  more,  the  land  rose  again.  .  .  .  This  was  the  last  folding  of  rocks 
in  New  Zealand  on  an,  extensive  scale,  for  all  the  younger  rocks  usually 
lie  in  the  same  position  in  which  they  were  originally  deposited,  and  circle 
round  the  bases  of  the  hills  formed  by  older  rocks.  Not  only  was  the  last 
touch  given  in  the  Eocene  period  to  the  internal  structure  of  the  mountains, 
but  the  chief  valleys  were  also  deeply  scoured  out,  so  that  when  the  land 
sank  again  in  the  Oligocene  period  these  valleys  were  filled  up  with  marine 
limestones  and  other  rocks.  The  Oligocene  and  Miocene  were  periods  of 
depression  separated  by  a  slight  upheaval  which  lasted  only  for  a  short 
time.  ...  In  the  older  Pliocene  came  the  last  great  upheaval.  All 
the  islands  were  joined  together,  and  the  land  stretched  away  to  the  east 
and  south.  ...  On  the  mountains  of  the  South  Island  large  glaciers 
were  formed,  and  the  torrential  rivers  rmining  from  them  tore  into  discon- 
nected fragments  the  Miocene  marine  rocks  which  obstructed  their  vallevs. 


406  •  Transactions. 

.  .  .  Subsidence  seems  to  have  commenced  first  in  the  southern  portion 
of  the  North  Island.  ...  At  a  later  date  sinking  began  in  the  South 
Island  also.  .  .  .  This  sinking  has  again  been  followed  by  an  elevation 
of  all  parts  of  New  Zealand,  the  centre  of  the  North  Island  rising  as  a  large 
flat  dome,  on  the  summit  of  which  stand  Ruapehu  and  Tongariro  ;  while 
the  South  Island  has  also  been  elevated  several  hundred  feet.  And  this 
elevation  appears  to  be  still  going  on." 

Hutton  excluded  the  Greta  beds  from  his  Wanganui  series,  and  thus 
did  not  recognize  one  of  the  factors  distinguishing  the  North  Canterbury 
from  the  South  Canterbury  and  North  Otago  diastrophic  province.  The 
explanation  his  classification  gives  for  the  other  differences  between  the 
two  provinces  depends  on  extensive  folding  between  the  periods  of  deposition 
of  the  Waipara  system  and  the  Oamaru  series. 

Speight  and  Wild  (1918)  have  amply  demonstrated  that  there  was  no 
extensive  folding  between  the  deposition  of  the  Amuri  limestone  and  the 
Weka  Pass  stone,  and  the  palaeontological  evidence  shows  that  the  gap 
between,  the  two  rocks  is  not  nearly  so  extensive  as  Hutton  supposed.  Park 
(1905)  claimed  that  the  Pareora  series  was  an  integral  part  of  the  Oamaru 
series,  and  Uttley  and  Thomson  (1914)  and  Gudex  (1918)  have  demonstrated 
that  it  forms  the  upper  part ;  Hutton's  slight  upheaval  between  the  two 
series  (Oamaru  and  Pareora)  was  postulated'  owing  to  a  misreadmg  of  the 
stratigraphy  of  the  Waihao  district,  and  has  no  existence  in  the  sense-  in 
which  he  claimed  it,  though  there  is  probably  a  disconformity  below  not 
the  Awamoan  but  the  Hutchinsonian. 

The  great  flaw  in  Hutton's  scheme  of  classification  was,  however,  his 
failure  to  recognize  the  magnitude  of  the  post-Wanganui  movements,  the 
Kaikoura  orogenic  movements,  the  demonstration  of  which  we  owe  to 
Cotton  (1916).  Owing  to  his  exclusion  of  the  Greta  and  Awatere  beds 
from  his  Wanganui  series  and  their  correlation  in  his  Paeroa  series,  Hutton 
postulated  a  great  upheaval  after  the  latter,  followed  by  a  glacial  epoch, 
and  a  subsidence  during  which  the  Wanganui  beds  were  deposited.  With 
a  later  elevation.  We  now  laiow  that  the  great  upheaval  culminated 
after  the  deposition  of  the  Wanganui  beds,  and  that  to  it  are  due  many 
of  the  effects  which  Hutton  referred  to  the  post-Hokonui  folding.  Hutton, 
therefore,  failed  to  recognize  the  necessity  of  grouping  his  Waipara  and 
Cainozoic  systems  into  one  grand  one,  sharply  distinct  from  all  others  in 
New  Zealand,  and,  while  there  are  great  elements  of  value  in  his  classification 
and  correlations,  his  scheme  must  be  profoundly  modified. 

Park  (1905)  corrected  two  errors  in  Hutton's  work  —  v^z.,  the  un- 
necessary separation  of  the  Pareora  and  Oamaru  series,  and  the  mistaken 
correlation  of  the  Greta  and  Awatere  beds  in  the  Pareora  series  ;  but  he 
retained  the  major  faults  of  Hutton's  scheme — viz.,  the  erroneous  con- 
clusion as  to  extensive  folding  between  the  Waipara  and  Oamaru  systems, 
and  the  failure  to  recognize  the  bearing  of  the  Kaikoura  orogenic  movements. 
Morgan  (1916c)  proposed  a  general  classification  of  the  younger  rocks 
as  follows  : —  '  • 

Pliocene. 

Local  imconformities. 

Upper  Miocene. 

Probable  local  unconformities. 

Middle  and  Lower  Miocene. 

Unconformity. 

Eocene. 

Unconformity  (?). 

Cretaceous  (with  possibly  some  early  Tertiary  strata). 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  WeJca  Pass  District.     407 

He  considered  that  from  the  Middle  Miocene  to  the  Pleistocene  differen- 
tial movements  in  some  part  or  another  of  New  Zealand  were  almost 
constantly  in  progress,  and  consequently  that  a  series  of  local  strati 
graphical  breaks  exists,  no  two  of  which  are  exactly  synchronous,  but  that 
in  all  parts  of  New  Zealand  there  is  a  decided  unconformity  at  the  base  of 
Hutton's  Oamaru  system,  or  series.  So  far  as  the  facts  under  discussion  are 
concerned  no  serious  criticism  of  this  scheme  can  be  made,  except  that  the 
rocks  he  terms  "  Lower  Miocene,"  which  include  the  base  of  the  Oamaruian, 
are  probable  Eocene. 

Woods  (1917)  has  not  proposed  any  general  classification  of  the  yoxmger 
rocks  other  than  Cretaceous,  but  speaks  of  the  "  Cenomanian  overlap  "  in 
the  Clarentian,  and  the  Senonian  transgression  in  the  Piripauan,  correlating 
these  two  periods  of  local  sea-advance  in  New  Zealand  with  world-wide 
transgressions.  If  these  transgressions  were  considered  to  result  solely  from 
difEerential  movements  of  sea-level  their  localization  in  parts  of  the  New 
Zealand  area  would  have  to  be  ascribed  to  original  differences  in  relief.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  Woods  also  admits  differential  movements  of  the  land- 
surface,  for  he  postulates  an  uplift  in  east  Marlborough  after  the  Lower 
Utatiir  (Clarentian)  period,  since  the  Middle  Utatur  beds  are  not  known  to 
be  represented  there.  Woods  considers  the  Amuri  limestone  as  probably 
Eocene  and  unconformable  to  the  Cretaceous,  and  therefore  presumably  the 
result  of  a  third  transgression.  There  is,  however,  no  stratigraphical  evidence 
for  unconformity  below  the  Amuri  limestone  either  in  the  Waipara  or  at 
Coverham,  and  the  much  greater  thickness  of  this  rock  at  Coverham  receives 
no  explanation. 

Marshall's  Classification. 

Marshall  has  successfully  demonstrated  the  general  fact  that  the  younger 
rocks  in  most  localities  form  an  accordant  series,  without  important  angular 
unconformities  between  the  various  beds,  and,  further,  that  the  beds  in  any 
one  locality  are  those  of  a  sedimentary  cycle  with  progressive  characters  of 
depth  of  deposition  towardsthe  middle  limestone  members.  He  claims  for 
these  that  they  are  not  merely  general  facts  but  universal  facts  for  the  New 
Zealand  area  ;  that  there  were  no  differential  land-movements  during  the 
deposition  of  the  beds  ;  that  the  lack  of  angular  unconformities  proves  the 
absence  of  palaeontological  disconformities  ;  that  there  is  only  one  main 
limestone  in  the  series  in  any  one  locality  ;  that  it  was  deposited  at  the 
period  of  maximum  submergence,  and  consequently  that  the  limestones  are 
correlative  in  all  areas  ;  and  that  the  localization  of  the  various  beds,  or,  in 
other  words,  the  differences  between  the  provinces  I  have  defined  above,  can 
be  explained  solely  by  overlap  on  a^surfjace  of  high  relief.  All  this  is  claimed 
in  support  of  his  classification  of  all  the  yoimger  rocks  as  a  completely 
conformable  ensemble  in  the  Oamaru  system,  ranging  in  age  from  Senonian 
to  Pliocene. 

Most  of  these  claims  are  open  to  serious  criticism!  Angular  unconformities 
are  rarely  seen,  but  are  nevertheless  not  absent ;  while  palaeontological 
disconformities  are  also  present.  For  instance,  in  the  Kaiwhata  River, 
east  Wellington,  there  is  a  conglomerate  containing  boulders  of  Cretaceous 
sandstones,  greensands,  and  basalts,  similar  to  those  outcropping  near  by, 
and  also  boulders  of  shell-rock,  apparently  derived,  containing  Oamaruian 
fossils,  including  Pecten  huttoni.  The  conglomerate  has  a  mudstone  matrix 
and  passes  up  into  mudstones.  There  is  obviously  an  unconformity  here 
between  two  members  of  the  younger  rock-series.  Morgan  and  Henderson 
have  described  unconformities  in  numerous  places,  and  it  cannot  reasonably 


108  Transactions. 

be  doubted  that  they  occur.  Disconformities,  or  planes  representing  periods 
of  standstill  and  non-deposition,  are  also  known — e.g.,  that  between  the 
Weka  Pass  stone  and  Amuri  limestone,  and  that  between  the  Hutchinson 
Quarry  beds  and  Ototara  liinestone.  The  probability  of  a  palaeontological 
disconformity  between  the  Greta  beds  and  the  Mount  Brown  beds  has  been 
discussed  above.  Important  differential  earth-movements  were  certainly 
operative  in  the  production  of  the  great  Marlborough  conglomerate.  There 
is  more  than  one  limestone  in  North  Canterbury  and  in  North  Auckland — 
e.g.,  in  the  Waipara  there  are  the  Amur-i  limestone,  the  Weka  Pass  stone, 
and  the  Mount  Brown  limestones.  The  main  limestones  are  of  different  ages 
in  various  localities,  and  there  are  at  least  three  distinct  calcareous  horizons 
in  the  younger  rocks — viz.,  those  of  the  Amuri  limestone,  the  Ototara  lime- 
stone, and  the  Wairarapa  limestone — with  possibly  a  fourth  in  the  Takaka 
limestone,  each  of  these  rocks  representing  in  their  respective  localities  the 
period  of  maximum  submergence.  The  claims  made  by  Marshall  for  his 
Oamaru  system  are  not  justified  on  the  facts. 

Marshall  has  not  elaborated  the  possibilities  of  simple  overlap,  combined 
with  subsequent  (Kaikoura)  differential  movements,  in  explanation  of  the 
localization  of  various  beds,  and  it  will  be  instructive  to  do  so.  I  am 
indebted  to  Dr.  J.  Henderson  for  this  suggestion.  According  to  this  hypo- 
thesis, if  the  sea-bottom  seaward  of  the  Oamaru  district  were  to  be  uplifted^ 
and  dissected  it  would  reveal  in  the  seaward  part  a  sequence  like  that  of  the 
Clarence  Valley,  followed  inland  by  one  like  that  of  the  Waipara,  with 
finally  the  Oamaruian  sequence  farthest  inland.  The  Oamaru  district  differs 
from  the  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  district,  and  that  in  turn- from  the  Clarence 
Valley,  in  that  it  has  not  been  so  much  uplifted  by  the  Kaikoura  movements. 
The  Waipara  district  should  be  succeeded  inland  by  an  area  similar  to  the 
Oamaru  district,  if  erosion  has  not  destroyed  it.  This  is  probably  the  case, 
for  the  Piripauan  and  the  Amuri  limestone  are  unknown  on  the  Culverden 
side  of  the  Hurmiui-Waiau  depression  where  Oamaruian  beds  are  found. 
As  the  sea  commenced  to  withdraw  again  after  the  maximum  overlap  in 
the  Oamaruian,  the  lower  Wanganuian  beds  should  not  be  found  so  far 
inland  as  the  Oamaruian  ;  and  this  too  is  the  case,  for  the  Greta  beds  are  not,, 
so  far  as  I  know,  found  inland  of  the  Amuri  limestone.  Similarly,  in,-  east 
Marlborough,  the  Clarence  and  Awatere  Valleys  with  their  Clarentian  beds 
should  be  followed  inland  by  an  area  like  the  Waipara  with  Senonian  beds 
and  Amuri  limestone,  and  this  in  turn  by  an  area  like  Oamaru.  The  latter 
may  be  represented  by  the  Picton  area,  but  the  Senonian  intermediate  area 
is  missing.  Towards  the  upper  Clarence  any  such  beds  might  have  been 
destroyed  by  uplift  and  erosion,  but  in  the  upper  Wairau  they  slioidd  surely 
have  been  preserved.  Again,  the  Clarence  Valley  area  should  preserve  not 
only  the  lower  Wanganuian  as  well  as  the  Oamaruian,  but  also  the  upper 
Wanganuian,  which  is  not  the  case.  - 

The  arrangement  of  the  three  provinces  along  the  coast-line,  with  the- 
Waipara  type  between  the  Oamaru  and  Clarence  Valley  types,  is  again  in 
accord  with  the  hypothesis ;  but  this  demands  a  progressively  greater  eleva- 
tion of  the  two  northern  areas  either  by  warping  or  by  block-faulting.  This 
is  found  in  east  Marlborough,  but  there  is  little  evidence  of  it  in  North 
Canterbury. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  this  hypothesis  that  simple  overlap'  with  sub- 
sequent differential  elevation  is  the  cause  of  the  present  localization  of  the 
various  types  of  stratigraphical  sequence  is  in  accord  with  many  of  the  facts, 
but  by  itself  cannot  satisfactorily  explain  them  all.  It  does  not  explain, 
for  instance,   why  the  lower  Wanganuian    beds    are   confined  within  the 


Thomsox. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District.    409 

boundaries  of  the  Oamaruian  overlap  in  North  Canterbury,  but  transgress 
these  bounds  in  the  lower  Awatere  Valley.  Difierential  earth-movements 
during  the  Notocene  must  also  be  invoked  to  explain  the  facts  of  distribution 
as  well  as  those  of  the  relationships  of  some  of  the  superposed  series  of  rocks. 

Marshall  (1919)  has  combated  my  criticisms  of  his  use  of  the  term 
"  Oamaru  "  for  his  system,  and,  as  the  nomenclature  of  the  younger  rock- 
series  as  a  totality  is  a  matter  of  considerable  importance,  it  seems  advisable 
to  critize  further  his  reasons  for  wishing  to  retain  the  term. 

"  1.  Historical :  (a.)  The  locality  is  the  one  from  which  the  first  col- 
lections of  fossils  in  New  Zealand  was  made."  Actually  the  first  fossils 
mentioned  in  geological  literature  were  those  collected  by  Dieffenbach  in 
the  Chatham  Islands,  and  at  East  Cape,  Parengarenga,  Kawhai,  and 
Whangaroa.  These  were  determined  generically  by  Gray,  as  mentioned 
in  Diefienbach's  Travels.  Mantell  also  observed  fossils  in  the  Wanganui 
district  before  he  visited  Oamaru. 

"  (b.)  Hutton's  Oamaru  sj'^stem  included  nearly  all  the  strata  in  the 
district,  and  his  Oamaru  system  includes  the  majority  of  the  rocks  classed 
in  the  Oamaru  system  by  me.  The  retention  of  the  name  will  serve  to  keep 
alive  the  memory  of  the  man  who  did  so  inuch  spade-work  in  the  palaeonto- 
logy and  stratigraphy  of  New  Zealand."  It  is  true  that  Hutton  included 
nearly  all  the  rocks  of  the  Oamaru  district  in  his  system,  but  he  excluded 
the  Awamoa  beds.  His  system  did  not  include  the  Shag  Point  beds  or  the 
Amuri  limestone  and  underlying  beds,  which  are  included  by  Marshall. 
If  the  Clarentian  is  also  included  by  Marshall — and  I  fail  to  see  how  any 
.consistent  grounds  can  be  found  for  excluding  it — then  in  the  Clarence 
Valley  area  his  Oamaru  system  will  embrace  more  than  seven  times  the 
thickness  of  the  beds  which  in  that  area  correlate  with  Hutton's  Oamaru 
system.*  Hutton's  name  Avill  live  for  his  spade-work  in  palaeontology  and 
his  clear  reasoning  in  stratigraphy  without  the  retention  of  the  Oamaru 
system,  and  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  an  extension  of  his  system  to  embrace 
the  Waipara  system  can  be  considered  otherwise  than  as  a  desire  to  forget 
his  memory,  ^gince  he  spent  nearly  thirty  years  of  his  life  in  endeavouring  to 
secure  recognition  for  his  separation  of  the  two  systems. 

"3.  In  the  Oamaru  district  there  is  a  fuller  development  of  the  various 
strata  of  a  fossil-bearing  nature  than  elsewhere."  To  establish  this  Marshall 
includes  in  the  Oamaru  district  the  whole  area  between  Shag  Point  and  the 
Waihao  River,  although  it  has  hitherto  included  only  the  area  between  the 
Kakanui  and  Waitaki  Rivers.  But,  granting  this,  he  quotes  the  Wharekuri, 
Waihao  greensands,  and  Bortonian  as  separate  horizons,  although  it  is  more 
than  probable  that  they  are  about  the  same.  The  Oamaru  district,  thus 
conceived,  includes  only  Piri]3auan,  Kaitangatan  and  Oamaruian  rocks, 
whereas  the  Waipara  district  includes  all  these  together  with  the  overhang 
fossiliferous  Greta  beds  (Waitotaran)  and  imfossiliferous  Kowhai  beds 
(perhaps  Castleclifiian),  whUe  the  Clarence  Valley  possesses  a  still  fuller 
sequence.  No  single  locality,  however,  has  the  complete  sequence  of  the 
younger  rocks. 

Marshall  has  comitered  by  suggesting  that  "  Notocene  "  should  mean 
either  that  this  is  the  farthest  southern  point  where  such  rocks  have  been 
found  or  that  the  formation  is  common  to  southern  latitudes.  In  science 
a  term  takes  the  meaning  its  author  gives  to  it,  and  my  definition  of 
"  Notocene  "  is  perfectly  explicit. 

*  This  is  admitting  the  Clarentian  as  3,000  ft.,  the  Amuri  limestone  as  2,000  ft. 
(both  low  estimates),  and  the  Weka  Pass  stone  and  "  grey  marls  "  as  700  ft.  (a  liigh 
estimate). 


410  Transactions. 

DIASTROPHIC   HISTORY   OF   THE   EAST   COAST   OF   THE   SOUTH   ISLAND. 

Althougli  my  proposal  of  the  term  *'  Notocene  "  was  made  before  all 
the  facts  brought  out  in  this  paper  were  known  to  me,  the  reasons  which 
I  advanced  for  this  grouping  of,  the  yomiger  rocks  were  stated  in  terms 
sufficiently  general  to  admit  of  considerable  latitude  in  detail,  and  the  new 
facts  do  not  in  any  way  invalidate  the  usefulness  of  the  grouping.  All 
the  Notocene  rocks  in  the  three  provinces  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  South 
Island  Vere  deposited  between  the  two  eras  of  major  (mountain-building) 
diastrophism,  the  post-Hokonui  (early  Cretaceous)  and  Kaikoura  (late 
Pliocene  or  pleistocene)  orogenic  movements.  That  the  intervening  period, 
during  which  the  Notocene  rocks  were  deposited,  was  one  of  relative 
crustal  stability  is  proved  by  the  general  accordance  of  the  Notocene  rocks 
and  the  absence  of  planes  of  acute  angular  unconformity.  Not  only  was  it 
not  claimed  that  there  were  no  unconformities  or  disconformities,  or  that 
there  were  not  minor  diastrophic  movements  during  this  period  of  relative 
stability,  but  the  existence  of  the  latter,  in  combination  with  differential 
movements  of  sea-level,  was  postulated  to  explain  the  stratigraphical 
diversity  of  the  various  provinces.  • 

An  attempt  may  now  be  made  to  analyse  more  closely  the  succession 
of  events  which  gave  rise  to  the  main  elements  of  the  stratigraphy  of 
the  three  provinces.  That  there  were  world-wide  transgressions  and 
regressions  of  the  sea  during  the  period  from  middle  Cretaceous  to  the 
present  day  cannot  be  doubted,  and  these  must  have  left  their  trace  in 
New  Zealand.  The  areas  affected  by  these  eustatic  movements;  however, 
are .  not  the  same  for  each  movement,  consequently  there  must  have  been 
also  differential  movements  of  the  lithosphere  in  the  Notocene.  Moreover, 
there  seems  to  have  been  a  tendency,  up  to  the  close  of  the  Oamaruian 
at  least,  for  the  sea  to  keep,  possession  of  the  area  it  gained  from  the  land, 
suggesting  that  the  area  was  prepared  for  the  transgression  by  a  down- 
warping  movement  which  continued  in  the  same  area  from  one  transgression 
to  another. 

The  first  transgression,  the  "  Cenomanian  overlap,"  covered'  only  a  part 
of  east  Marlborough,  now  occupied  by  Clarentian  rocks.  A  subsequent 
regression  is  perhaps  indicated  by  the  thinning-out  of  the  Amuri  limestone 
towards  the  old  shore-line  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Bluff  Kiver  and 
Herring  River,  but  in  the  Coverham  area  deposition  appears  to  have  gone 
on  uninterruptedly  ruitil  the  upper  Oamaruian.  I  formerly  suggested 
that  the  Clarentian  sea  gradually  enlarged  its  borders  and  that  the  basal 
Notocene  beds  in  the  Puhipuhi  Mountains  would  prove  to  be  intermediate 
between  Clarentian  and  Piripauan.  This  hypothesis  has  not  yet  been 
tested.  The  next  transgression,  the  Piripauan  (Senonian),  affected  a  large 
area  between  Kaikoura  Peninsula  and  the  Rakaia  River,  attaining  its 
greatest  penetration  of  the  present  land  in  the  latter  neighbourhood. 
That  the  surface  at  this  time  was  still  fairly  diversified  seems  to  be  proved 
by  the  overlap  of  the  various  Piripauan  beds  in  the  Waipara  district. 
The  Piripauan  sea  still  covered  the  area  of  the  Clarentian  transgression, 
there  depositing  the  basal  beds  of  the  Amuri  limestone,  but  the^  fresh  area 
gained  from  the  land  was  considerable. 

The  Piripauan  rocks  are  succeeded,  apparently  without  any  strati- 
graphical  break,  by  the  Amuri  limestone,  the  deposition  of  which  demands 
a  clear  sea  of  considerable  depth.  The  area  occupied  by  this  limestone  is, 
however,  closely  restricted  within  that  occupied  by  the  Piripauan  beds, 
and  there  is  no  overlap  over  the  Piripauan  recorded  except  for  the  very 
slight  one  I  have  described  east  of  the  Weka  Pass.      Indeed,  the  Amuri 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District.     411 

limestone  is  absent  from  part  of  the  Piripaiian  area — viz.,  the  Malvern 
Hills — and.  according  to  Chapman's  determination  of  the  age  of  the 
supposed  Amuri  limestone  of  the  Trelissick  Basin,  from  that  area  also. 
Whether  this  absence  is  due  simply  to  the  replacement  of  calcareous  by 
clastic  deposits  on  approaching  the  shore-line,  or  to  local  uplifts,  remains 
uncertain.  If  the  former  were  the  case  a  littoral  fauna  of  different  age 
from  the  Piripauan  should  be  found.  What  remains  certain  is  that  the 
Amuri  limestone  sea  did  not  appreciably  widen  its  borders  over  the  Piri- 
pauan sea,  though  it  was  probably  deeper,  and  consequently  we  cannot 
speak  of  a  Kaitangatan  transgression  in  North  Canterbury,  but  must 
suppose  that  the  Piripauan  sea  was  deepened,  without  being  extended, 
by  local  downwarping  or  block-faulting. 

The  succeeding  Oamaruian  rocks,  which  can  hardly  demand  as  deep 
a  sea  as  the  Amuri  limestone,  transgress  widely  over  the  latter  formation 
to  the,  west  and  south,  and  the  extension  of  the  sea-margin  thus  indicated 
was  not  a  gradual  one  but  a  sudden  one.  The  surface  of  the  land  before 
this  transgression  is  known  to  have  been  of  very  low  relief — i.e.,  a  peneplain 
■ — and  the  attainment  of  such  a  surface  demands  a  period  of  standstill  of 
the  strand-line.*  This  is  in  accord  with  the  contact  between  the  Weka 
Pass  stone  and  the  Amuri  limestone,  which  represents  a  period  during 
which  deposition  practically  ceased,  perhaps  b}^  a  shallowing  due  to 
regressions,  and  boring  and  solution  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  Amuri 
limestone  took  place.  The  general  lithological  similarity  of  the  Oamaruian 
beds  of  South  Canterbury  with  the  Piripauan  beds  of  North  Canterbury 
suggests  similar  conditions  of  coastal  relief,  so  that,  although  there  is  direct 
evidence  for  a  sufficiently  diversified  surface  during  the  Piripauan  to  admit 
of  overlap,  the  relief  must  have  been  small.  Consequently  the  period  of 
time  recjuired  for  peneplanation  during  standstill  of  the  strand  was  probably 
not  great.  The  significance  attached  to  the  contact  between  the  Amuri 
limestone  and  Weka  Pass  stone  by  Hutton  and  Park,  as  representing  a 
period  of  uplift  and  great  erosion,  was  a  mistaken  one,  and  the  time  interval 
between  the  two  rocks  was  very  much  less  than  they  supposed.  Never- 
theless the  contact  was  a  correct  one  to  choose  for  classification,  and. 
Hutton's  Waipara  and  Oamaru  systems  are  two  well-defined  natural 
divisions  of  the  rocks  in  North  Canterbviry,  whereas  Hector's  Cretaceo- 
Tertiary  formation  was  an  unnatural  one. 

The  Oamaruian  transgression  and  regression  were  not  perfectly  regular 
eustatic  movements  with  the  Ototara  limestone  as  the  middle  member 
representing  the  period  of  maximum  depression  of  the  land.  The  contact 
between  the  Ototara  limestone  and  the  Hutchinson  Quarry  greensand  is 
very  similar  to  that  between  the  Amuri  limestone  and  Weka  Pass  stone, 
and  was  probably  due  to  a  similar  cause — viz.,  a  sudden  shallowing  of 
the  sea,  followed  by  a  period  of  standstill,  There  is  a  similar  contact  in 
South  Canterbur}'  between  a  lower  foraminiferal  limestone  and  an  upper 
polyzoan  limestone  or  calcareous  sandstone  exhibited  both  at  Waihao 
and  on  Mount  Craigmore,  in  the  Pareora  district.  No  palaeontological 
evidence  is  forthcoming,  however,  for  the  correlation  of  these  two  phos- 
phatic  horizons,  and  in  the  Totara  Valley,  near  Pleasant  Point,  there  is 
another  phosphatic  horizon  at  the  top  of  the  upper  limestone.  Similarly,  in 
the  Waipara  district,  the  presence  of  bored  contact  between  the  'Weka  Pass 
stone  and  the  "grey  mayls,"  and  the  unconformities  in  the  latter  rocks  and 
between  them  and  the  lower  Mount  Brown  limestone  in  the  Weka  Pass,  are 
suggestive  of  considerable  oscillation  of  movement  during  the  Oamaruian. 

*  I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  Cotton  for  calling  my  attention  to  this  important  conclusion. 


412  Transactions. 

Tlie  absence  of  marine  rocks  above  tlie  Awamoan  in  South  Canterbury 
and  North  Otago,  and  the  probable  unconformity  between  the  Mount  Brown 
beds  and  the  Greta  beds,  suggests  a  marked  regression  at  the  close  of  the 
Oamaruian.  The  succeeding  transgression  of  the  Greta  and  Awatere  beds 
affected  an  area  quite  different  from  that  affected  by  the  Oamaruian  trans- 
gression, these  beds  being  entirely  absent  from  Otago  and  South  Canterbury, 
and  in  North  Canterbury,  so ,  far  as  is  at  present  known,  being  confined 
within  the  area  of  the  Piripauan  beds.  In  the  Awatere  district,  however, 
they  overlapped  the  undeilying  Notocene  rocks  on  to  the  pre-Notocene. 
This  distribution  can  hardly  be  explained  as  the  result  simply  of  a  shallower 
transgression,  though  no  doubt  it  was  shallower  than  that  of  the  Oamaruian, 
but  demands  differential  crustal  movements  for  its  explanation  — viz., 
uplift  in  the  south  preventing  transgression  of  the  sea  ;  uplifts  to  the  west 
in  North  Canterbury  restricting  the  area  of  the  transgression  and  exposing 
a  surface  of  pre-Notocene  rocks  of  marked  relief  to  erosion  resulting  in  the 
gravels  of  the  Greta  beds  ;  and  subsidence  in  the  Awatere  area.  Differential 
crustal  movements  at  about  the  same  or  a  slightly  earlier  period  are  also 
demanded  in  east  Marlborough  by  the  presence  of  the  great  Marlborough 
conglomerate.  Park's  separation  of  the  Greta  beds  mider  the  Wanganui 
system  in  1905  was  a  correct  classification. 

The  Greta  transgression  was  brought  to  an  end  by  earth-movements 
which  caused  tilting  of  the  marine  Notocene  rocks  in  North  Canterbury,  and 
during  the  subsequent  erosion  the  terrestrial  Kowhai  beds  were  deposited. 
Finally  came  the  major  block-faulting  of  the  Kaikoura  orogenic  movements, 
by  which  all  ih.Q  Notocene  beds  wer^  warped  or  tilted  and  the  Southern 
Alps  and  Kaikoura  Mountains  came  into  existence  as  high  ranges.  The 
subsequent  history  comes  into  the  Notopleistocene,  and  does  not  fall  within 
the  scope  of  this  paper. 

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Ann.  Rep.  (n.s.)  N.Z.  Geol.  Surv.,  Pari.  Paper  C.-2b,  pp.  17-29. 

1916c.     Records  of  Unconformities  from  Late  Cretaceous  to  Early  Miocene  in 

New  Zealand,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  48,  pp.  1-18. 

1919.     The    Limestone   and    Phosphate   Resources   of   New   Zealand   (considered 

principally  in  relation  to  Agriculture),   Part  I,   Limestone,   Bull.   N.Z.   Geol. 
Surv.  (n.s.).  No.  22.  316  pp.,  maps,  &c.  (ref.  to  pp.  217-24,  236-37). 
Owen,  R.,  1861.     On  the  Remains  of  a  Plesiosaurian  Reptile  (Plesiosaurus  australis) 
from  the  Oolitic  Formation  in  the  Middle  Island  of  New  Zealand,  Rep.  Brit. 
Assoc.  Trans.,  pp.  122-23. 

1870.      Notice   of   some   Saurian    Fossils   discovered   by  J.    H.    Hood,    Esq.,   at 

•  Waipara,  Middle   Island,  New  Zealand,   Geol.  Mag.,  vol.  7,  pp.  49-53,  pi.  3, 
figs.  1-5. 
Park,    J.,    1888a.      On    the    Probable    Discovery    of    Oil    and    Coal    in    Wairarapa 
North  County,   Rep.    Geol.   Explor.   during  1887-88,   No.    19,   pp.   20-24  (ref. 
to  p.  23). 

1888b.     On  the  Geology  of  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  Districts,  Rep.  Geol.  Explor. 

during  1887-88,  No.  19,  pp.  25-35,  with  map. 

1905.     On  the  Marine  Tertiaries  of  Otago  and  Canterbury,  with  Special  Reference 

to  the  Relations   existing  between  the  Pareora:  and   Oamaru  Series,    Trans. 
N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  37,  pp.  489-551. 

1911.      The   Unconformable    Relationship    of   the    Lower   Tertiaries   and   Upper 

Cretaceous  of  New  Zealand,  Geol.  Mag.,  dec.  5,  vol.  8,  pp.  538-49. 

1912.     Tertiary  Fossils  in  the  Weka  Pass  Stone,  Geol.  Mag.,  dec.  5,  vol.  9,  p.  336. 

1913.     Classification  of  the  Younger  Stratified  Formations  of  New  Zealand, '^'eoi- 

Mag.,  dec.  5,  vol.  10,  pp.  438-40. 
"" —  1917.     The  Relationship  of  the  Upper  Cretaceous  and  Lower  Cainozoic  Formations 
of  New  Zealand,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  49,  pp.  392-94. 


Thomson. — Geology  of  Middle  Waipara  and  Weka  Pass  District .     415 

Speight,  R.,  1912.     A  Preliminary  Account  of  the  Lower  Waipara  Gforge,  Trans.  N.Z. 
Inst.,  vol.  44,  i^p.  221-33. 

1915.     The    Intermontane    Basins    of    Canterbury,    Trans.    N.Z.    Inst.,    vol.    47, 

pp.  33&-53. 

1917a.     The  Stratigraphy  of  the  Tertiary  Beds  of  the  Trelissick  or  Castle  Hill 

Ba^sin,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst,  vol.  49,  pp.  321-56. 

1917b.     An  Unrecorded  Tertiary  Outlier  in  the  Basin  of  the  Eakaia,  Trans.  N.Z. 

Inst.,  vol.  49,  pp.  356-60. 

1919.     The  Older   Gravels    of    North    Canterbury,    Trans.    N.Z.    Inst.,    vol.    51, 

pp.  269-81. 
Speight,  R.,  and  Wild,  L.  J.,  1918.     The  Stratigraphical  Relationship  of  the  Weka 

Pass  Stone  and  the  Amuri  Limestone,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  50,  pp.  65-93 

{see  also  Wild  and  Speight). 
SuTER,  H.,  1917.     Descriptions  of  New  Tertiary  Mollusca  occurring  in  New  Zealand, 

accompanied  bv  a  Few  Notes  on  Necessary  Changes  in  Nomenclature,  Part  I, 

Pal.  Bull.  N.Z^  Geol.  Stirv.  No.  5,  pp.  x,  93,  13  pi. 
Thomson,  J.  Allan,  1912a.      On  a  Discovery  of  Fossils  in  the  Weka  Pass  Stone,  New 

Zealand,  Geol.  Mag.,  dec.  5,  vol.  9,  pp.  335-36. 
— 1912b.     Field-work  in  East  Marlborough  and  North  Canterbury,  6th  Ann.  Rep. 

(«..s.)  N.Z.  Geol.  Surv.,  Pari.  Paper  C.-9,  pp.  7-9. 
1913.      Results  of  Field-work,  7th  Ann.  Rep.  [n.s.]  N.Z.  Geol.  Siirv.,  Pari.  Paper 

C.-2,  pp.  122-23. 

1914.      Classification  and  Correlation  of  the  Tertiary  Rocks,  8th  Ann.  Rep.  (n.s.) 

N.Z.  Geol.  Surv.,  Pari.  Paper  C.-2,  pp.  123-24. 

1916.     The   Flint-beds  Associated  with   the  Amuri  Limestone   of  Marlborough, 

Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  48,  pp.  48-58. 
1917.     Diastrophio   and   other   Considerations   in   Classification   and   Correlation, 

and  the  Existence  of  Minor  Diastrophic  Districts  in  the  Notocene,   Trans. 

N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  49,  pp.  397-413. 
— —  1918.     On  the  Age  of  the  Waikouaiti  Sandstone,  Otago,  New  Zealand,  Trans.  N.Z. 

hist.,  vol.  50,  pp.  196-97. 
■ 1919a.     The  Geology  of  the  Middle  Clarence  and  Ure  Valleys,  East  Marlborough, 

New  Zealand,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  51,  pp.  289-349. 
• 1919b.     Range  of  Tertiary  Mollusca  in  the  Oamaruian  of  North  Otago  and  South 

Canterbury  (abstract),  N.Z.  Journ.  Sci.  Tech.,  vol.  2,  p.  286. 
■ 1919c.     Geological  and  Palaeontological  Notes  on  the  Palliser  Bay  District,  N.Z. 

Journ.  Sci.  Tech.,  vol.  2,  pp.  281-82. 
Trechmann,  C.  T.,  1917.     Cretaceous  Mollusca  from  New  Zealand,  Geol.  Mag.,  dec.  6, 

vol.  4,  pp.  294-305,  337-42. 
Wild,  L.  J.,  and  Speight,  R.,  1919.     The  Limestones  of  Canterburj^  considered  as  a 

Possible  Source  of  Phosphate,  N.Z.  Journ.  Sci.  Tech.,  vol.  2,  pp.  180-92. 
Woods,   H.,    1917.     The  Cretaceous  Faunas  of  the  North-eastern  Part  of  the  South 

Island  of  New  Zealand,  Pal.  Bull.  N.Z.  Geol.  Surv.  No.  4,  jip.  vi,  42,  and  20  pi. 


416  Transactions. 


Art.  XXXIV. — Additional  Facts  concerning  the  Distribution  of  Igneous 

Rocks  in  Neiv  Zealand :    No.  2. 

By  J.  A.  Bartrum,  Auckland  University  College. 

[Read   before   the   Auckland   Institute,    22nd   December,    1919  ;    received   by   Editor,   31st 
December,  1919  ;  issued  separately,  16th  .July,  1920.] 

Plate  XXVIII. 

In  these  notes  I  wish,  to  record  a  few  identifications  of  rocks  from  various 
places,  some  possessing  considerable  interest ;  others  are  quite  ordinary 
types,  but  none  the  less  it  may  be  useful  to  have  their  occurrences  placed 
upon  record. 

QUARTZ-NORITE, 

Cleddau-Hollyford  Saddle,  South-west   Otago. 

This  rock  was  gathered,  with  others,  by  Mr.  R.  W.  Holmes,  Engineer- 
in-Chief.  New  Zealand  Public  Works  Department,  from  the  Cleddau- 
Hollyford  Saddle  in  1890.  In  section  it  appeared  to  contain  an  unusual 
pyroxene,  and  after  some  study  was  sent  to  Dr.  J.  A.  Thomson,  Director 
of  the  Dominion  Museum,  who  was  so  good  as  to  give  the  rock  consider- 
able attention,  and  who  very  kindly  has  handed  over  to  me  the  results  of 
his  work.  His  observations  corroborated  and  considerably  amplified  my 
own,  but  unfortunately  sufficient  information  for  exact  determination  is 
not  available  from  the  section,  and  Mr.  Holmes  was  unable  to  find  the 
remainder  of  the  rock  from  which  the  chip  for  sectioning  was  originally  taken. 
I  am  also  greatly  indebted  to  Dr.  Thomson  for  other  help,  particularly 
for  pointing  out  that  a  mineral  in  this  same  rock,  carelessly  identified  by 
me  without  full  investigation  as  apatite,  is  probably  zoisite,  a  fact  made 
almost  certain  by  its  high  index  of  refraction,  straight  extinction,  low 
polarization  tints,  distinct  biaxial  character  with  high  optic  axial  angle, 
and,  so  far  as  I  can  judge  from  rather  unsatisfactory  tests,  positive  optical 
character. 

The  rock  itself  is  a  fairly  coarse-grained  dioritic  type  showing  no  out- 
standing characteristics  in  hand-specimen.  Under  the  microscope  it  is 
seen  to  be  a  moderately  typical  norite  but  for  two  considerations :  first, 
the  plagioclase,  which  slightly  exceeds  the  ferro-magnesian  minerals  in 
amount  and  with  these  latter  comprises  practically  the  whole  of  the  rock, 
is  somewhat  acid,  being  in  the  main  andesine-labradorite  ;  secondly,  there 
is  distinct  acidity,  signalized  by  the  presence  of  a  little  interstitial  quartz. 
The  chemical  analysis  given  below,  for  which  I  am  indebted  to  the  Dominion 
Analyst,  through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  P.  G.  Morgan,  Director  of  the  New 
Zealand  Geological  Survey,  fully  exempUfies  these  characteristics,  and 
shows  that  chemically  the  rock  is  an  intermediate  type.  Mineralogically, 
however,  it  is  very  closely  allied  to  the  norites,  and  for  this  reason  I  have 
classed  it  with  them. 

The  structure  is  coarse  and  even-grained,  the  ferro-magnesians  occasion- 
ally being  recognizably  ophitic  to  the  plagioclase.  Of  the  former  group  of 
minerals,  one  that  would  ordinarily  be  identified  unhesitatingly  as  hyper- 
sthene  is  probably  the  most  prominent,  whilst  pale-green  augite  and  deep 


Tfans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LI  I. 


Plate  XXVIIT. 


Fia.   1. 


Fio 


Fig.  1. — Quartz-norite,  Cleddau-Hollyford  Saddle,  illustrating  the  structure  and  the 
mineral  relationshijjs.  The  field  of  the  photograph  coincides  with  a  portion 
of  the  diagrammatic  sketch  of  the  text-figure,  and  the  identification  of  the 
minerals  is  possible  from  the  labelling  of  that  sketch.  The  enclosure  of 
hypersthene  by  augite  is  evident  at  the  left-hand  end  of  the  horizontal 
diameter,  whilst  the  jienetration  of  the  same  augite  crystal  by  zoisite  (dark) 
is  also  recognizable.  The  interstitial  quartz  is  very  obvious.  In  the  lower 
right-hand  quadrant  it  is  just  possible  to  recognize  some  fine  lamellae  of 
augite  intergrown  with  a  crystal  of  hypersthene-like  pjTOxene  (dark).  Crossed 
nicols.     Magnification,  35  diameters. 

Fig.  2. — Dolerite,  Silverdale,  Auckland.  The  general  ophitic  structure  can  readily  be 
recognized,  as  also  the  bar-like  growths  of  iron-ore.  Crossed  nicols.  Magni- 
fication, 20  diameters.! 


'V  ft*,*  ^-  • 


-1    ''>    '• 


\1  .•  #:.  M 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  3. — Basalt,  near  old  wharf,  Ti  Point,  Whangateau  Harbour.  A  typical  olivine 
phenocryst.  fringed  by  a  rim  of  oxidation,  set  in  a  groundmass  in  which 
augite  plays  an  important  part.     Ordinary  light.    Magnification,  35  diameters. 

Fig.  4. — Basalt,  Ohakune  ballast-pit.  A  central  crj'stal  of  olivine  (dark)  with  wide 
celyphitic  rim  of  augite  (mainly  white).  Some  feldspar  laths  show  up  in  the 
groundmass,  but  the  olivine  laths  are  here  inconspicuous  owing  to  clouding 
by  haematite,  whilst  abundant  vesicles  also  render  the  slide  dark.  Crossed 
nicols.     Magnification,  21  diameters. 


Face  p.  416.] 


Bartrum. — The  Distribution  of  Igneous  Bocks  in  Neiv  Zealand.  417 


reddish-brown  biotite  are  also  very  common.  Reasons  will  be  given  later 
for  the  belief  that  probably  a  third  pyroxene  is  also  present.  The  hyper- 
sthene  is  in  fairly  idiomorphic  crystals,  and  preceded  the  augite,  whilst  the 
biotite  is  later,  for  its  large  fresh  crystals  poecilitically  enclose  pyroxene, 
iron-ore,  and  even  quartz  grains.  The  pyroxenes  all  show  imperfect  schiller 
structure  ;  they  are  occasionally  fringed  by  a  Httle  bright  grass-green 
hornblende,  which  from  its  association  appears  largely  resOrption-prodUct, 
though  perhaps  in  part  outgrowth.  Ilmenite  is  fairly  abundant  in  coarse 
irregular  masses,  but  magnetite  also  is  common. 


Diagrammatic  Sketch  (x    45)   illustrating   Rel.\tions    of  Zolsite  to  OTnER 

Minerals,  and  General  Structure.      (See  Plate  XXVIII,  fig.  1.) 
All.  =  augite  ;    Hy.  =  hypersthene  ;    PI.  =  plagioclase  ;    Q.  =  quartz ;    Z.  =  zoisite. 

Amongst  the  primary  minerals  I  must  finally  mention  the  mineral 
identified  at  first  by  me  as  apatite,  but  recognized  by  Dr.  Thomson  as 
zoisite.  It  is  in  occasional  rather  allotriomorphic  crystals  up  to  0-6  mm. 
in  diameter,  and  one  crystal  is  encased  in  a  zone  of  iron-ore.  In  the 
instance  portrayed  by  the  figure  above  and  the  photomicrograph  of 
Plate  XXVIII,  fig.  1,  and  in  one  other,  the  zoisite  is  enwrapped  (by  augite 
in  the  text-figure)  in  a  manner  that  makes  it  certain  that  it  was  formed 
before  the  later  stages  of  crystallization  of  the  rock,  and  therefore  is 
primary.     The  plagioclase  includes  occasional  rutile  needles. 

An  Undetermined  Pyroxene. 

A  number  of  crystals  of  a  pyroxene  were  observed  in  this  rock,  which 
in  many  respects  greatly  resembles  hypersthene,  but  from  other  consider- 
ations I  am  inclined  to  believe  must  be  referred  to  a  closely  allied  mono- 
clinic  pyroxene  of  a  series  either  identical  with  or  analogous  to  that  of 
which  the  now  well-known  enstatite-augite  is  a  member.  These  pyroxenes 
show  a  microscopic  twinning  lamination  parallel  to  their  elongation,  and 
in  addition  are  frequently  intergrown  with  minute  plates  of  obvious  mono- 
clinic  pyroxene  approaching  diopside,  besides  containing  irregular  inclu- 
sions of  this  latter  mineral.     The  pleochroism  distinctive  of  hypersthene 

14 — Trans. 


418  Transactions. 

is  general,  the  optical  character  is  negative,  and  the  elongation  positive, 
whilst  the  optic  axial  angle  is  small.  Most  important  of  all,  however,  the 
extinction,  whilst  often  nearly  straight,  reaches  generally  as  high  as  5° 
with  the  composition-planes  of  the  lamellae,  and  in  one  or  two  crystals 
angles  of  over  15°  are  got  with  the  cleavage.  Were  it  that  only  one  or 
two  crystals  showed  the  obliquity  of  extinction  one  might  suspect  some 
inaccuracy  of  observation,  but  at  least  eight  in  the  slide  show  it.  Further, 
even  greater  obliquity  of  extinction,  with  similar  very  finely  microscopic 
twinning,  is  shown  by  nearly  a  dozen  crystals  of  apparently  identical 
hypersthene-like  pyroxene  in  a  noritic  rock  discovered  at  Milford,  and 
described  later  in  this  paper  (see  p.  420). 

In  some  instances  the  lamellae  are  here  much  broader  than  in  others, 
whilst  the  extinction  angles  generally  range  up  to  15°,  but  in  one  case  up 
to  as  much  as  42°.  As  a  rule,  the  lamellae  extinguish  together  in  the  one 
direction,  but  this  is  by  no  means  invariably  the  case.  In  the  Milford, 
as  in  the  Cleddau-HoUyford  rock,  there  is  parallel  intetgrowth  with  fine 
lamellae  of  augite.  It  may  be  thought  that  the  crystal  in  which  the 
extinction  angles  of  the  lamellae  reached  42°  exemplifies  a  similar  parallel 
intergrowth  with  augite,  but  this  is  not  so,  for  the  lamellae  are  very  dis- 
tinct and  comprise  the  whole  mineral,  which  certainly  is  not  an  ordinary 
monoclinic  pyroxene,  for  it  is  optically  negative  and  has  the  distinct 
hypersthene-hke  pleochroism  already  noted.  There  is,  however,  one  pecuh- 
arity  of  this  crystal  that  may  have  a  bearing  upon  the  matter — namely, 
the  optic  axial  angle  appears  to  be  large. 

Only  one  further  observational  fact  now  remains  to  be  mentioned  in 
connection  with  this  pyroxene,  but  it  is  of  importance  :  the  plane  of  the 
optic  axes  coincides  with  the  composition-plane  of  the  lamellar  twin.  Since 
the  extinction  is  oblique,  this  plane  must  be  at  right  angles  to  the  plane 
of  symmetry — that  is,  to  the  100  plane — as  in  normal  hypersthene.  The 
lamellar  twin  appears  not  to  follow  the  plane  110  frequent  in  the  inter- 
growths  of  rhombic  and  monoclinic  pyroxenes,  for  all  the  sections  showing 
the  lamination  distinctly  are  approximately  at  right  angles  to  the  optic 
axial  plane  ;  nor  is  it  the  common  010  plane.*  It  is  much  more  reasonably 
the  100  plane  observed  by  Bowen  in  artificial  cUno-enstatite.t  On  this 
supposition,  however,  it  is  difficult  to  understand  why  the  lamellae  often 
appear  all  to  extinguish  in  the  same  direction. 

Enough  data  are  available  to  show  that  a  monoclinic  pyroxene  of 
unusual  type  is  exhibited  in  the  sections  from  the  Cleddau-Hollyford  and 
the  Milford  rocks.  It  approaches  hypersthene,  but  differs  from  it  in  its 
obhque  extinction,  and  it  seems  probable  that  it  is  a  monocHnic  member 
of  a  series  embracing  this  latter.  It  is  obvious  that  much  of  the  mineral 
in  the  sections  that  is  apparently  hypersthene  may  really  be  this  mono- 
clinic pyroxene  viewed  in  sections  lying  near  the  orthopinacoid. 

Chemical  Classification. 

An  analysis  of  the  Cleddau-Hollyford  quartz-norite  by  the  Dominion 
Analyst  gave  the  results  tabulated  in  column  A  below.  In  columns  B 
and  C  the  analyses  of  somewhat  similar  rocks  are  quoted  from  Iddings.J 

*  See  H.  RosENBUscH,  Mikroskopische  Physiographie  der  Mineralien  und  Gesteine, 
vol.  1,  pt.  2,  p.  149,  1905. 

t  N.  L.  Bowen,  The  Ternary  System  Diopside-Forsterite-Silica,  Am.  Journ.  Sci.  (4), 
vol.  38,  pp.  207-64,  1914. 

J  J.  P.  Iddings,  Igneous  Rocks,  vol.  2,  p.  218,  1913. 


Bartrum. — The  Distribution  of  Igneous  Bocks  in  New  Zealand.    419 


The   norms   and    classifications 
method  are  also  appended. 

BiOg 
AI2O3 

FeO 
MgO 
CaO 
■NaaO 
K2O 
H2O 
TiOg 
GO2 

P2O5 
MnO 


ited    by 

• 

the   CLP. 

W.    quantitative 

A. 

B. 

C. 

5246 

53-50 

52-8 

18-58 

22-20 

17-8 

4-76 

3-60 

1-2 

4-03 

2-64 

4-8 

4-72 

2-00 

4-8 

8-56 

9-45 

12-9 

3-86 

4-26 

3-0 

1-14 

0-61 

0-5 

0-57 

1-50 

1-2 

0-60 

0-45 

0-5 

0-51 

;; 

;; 

0-14 

0-35 

99-93 


100-56 


99-5 


Norms  and  Classification. 


Quartz 

Orthoclase 

Albite   .. 

Anorthite 

Diopside 

Hypersthene 

Magnetite 

Ilnienite 

Apatite 

(Water) 


A. 

B. 

C. 

2-64 

4-2 

2-2 

6-67 

3-3 

2-8 

32-49 

36-2 

25-2 

30-02 

39-8 

33-6 

7-07 

5-8 

24-8 

11-08 

3-4 

7-0 

6-96 

5-1 

1-6 

1-22 

0-9 

0-9 

1-24 

,  , 

,   , 

(0-57) 

(1-5) 

(1-2 

99-96 


100-2 


99-3 


Classification   ..  II.5.3(4).4    'II.5.'4.'5      ir.5.4.'5 

(Andose.) 

A.  Quartz-norite,  Cleddau-HoUyford  Saddle,  New  Zealand.     (Dominion 

Analyst.) 

B.  Quartz-gabbro,  Carrok  Fell,  England. 

C.  Gabbro,  Druim  an  Eidhne,  Isle  of  Skye. 

The  norm  agrees  well  with  the  observed  mineral  composition,  although 
it  is  difiicult  to  account  for  the  apatite  shown  by  the  norm  and  indicated 
by  the  chemical  analysis  :  apatite  appears  to  be  practically  absent  from 
the  section  examined. 

Another  more  typical  coarse  norite  was  amongst  the  material  collected 
by  Mr.  Holmes  from  the  Cleddau-Hollyford  Saddle.  The  plagioclase 
(labradorite)  and  ferro-magnesian  minerals  are  subequal ;  of  the  ferro- 
magnesians,  hypersthene  and  augite  are  both  plentiful,  the  former  the  more 
so ;  it  is  often  finely  lamellar  ag  in  the  quartz-norite,  but  the  extinction 
appears  here  to  be  straight.  A  brownish-green  hornblende  clouded  by 
dust-like  iron-ore  occurs  in  large  crystals  which  poecilitically  enclose  the 
pyroxenes  and  some  feldspar.  Some  of  the  augite  is  intergrown  with  the 
amphibole  ;  it  is  occasionally  lamellar,  passing  to  diallage.  The  hypersthene 
14* 


420  Transactions. 

is  largely  converted  to  a  finely  fibrous,  tufted,  alnnost  colourless  aggregate 
bordered  by  green  ;  it  is  referred  with  some  diffidence  to  tremolite  and 
actinolite. 

NORITE, 
Wairau  Creek,  Milford,  Auckland. 

I  found  a  very-well-rounded  boulder  about  5  in.  in  diameter  included 
in  the  sandstones  of  the  Waitemata  beds  at  the  mouth  of  Wairau  Creek, 
a  little  north  of  Lake  Takapuna,  and  quite  unaccompanied  by  other 
boulders  or  pebbles.  It  is  a  very  coarse  norite  with  plagioclase  (medium 
labradorite)  a  little  more  plentiful  than  the  ferro-magnesian  minerals,  which 
are  hypersthene  (including  an  alhed  pyroxene  dealt  with  on  p.  417)  and 
less  abundant  diallage.  The  hypersthene  is  being  converted  into  talc,  and 
particularly  adjacent  to  cracks  there  is  chloritization  and  the  entrance  of 
fine  pyrite. 

DOLEEITE, 
Swinging-basin,  Silverdale,  Auckland. 

This  occurs  as  coarse  angular  blocks  several  feet  in  diameter,  unearthed 
during  excavation  for  the  swinging-basin  at  the  Silverdale  (Wade)  wharf 
on  the  Welti  Stream,  which  flows  to  the  east  coast  about  twenty  miles  north 
of  Auckland.  Though  apparently  the  actual  outcrop  is  not  laid  bare,  yet 
this  cannot  be  far  distant,  unless — a  suggestion  their  comparative  freedom 
from  weathering  would  negative — the  blocks  come  from  the  formerly  over- 
lying Waitemata  beds  now  removed  by  erosion  froTto  the  stratigraphically 
lower  hydraulic  limestone  of  this  area,  but  which  contain  large  blocks  of 
andesite  and  perhaps  other  igneous  types  not  far  distant  on  Whangaparaoa 
Peninsula.  The  site  of  discovery  of  the  dolerite  is  immediately  adjacent 
to  where  McKay  maps  one  of  his  serpentine  dykes*  (which,  however,  I 
was  unable  to  locate  during  my  brief  visit),  and  the  idea  suggested  itself 
that  there  might  be  some  connection  between  the  intrusion  of  the  two 
rocks.  Professor  W.  N.  Benson  remarks  anent  this  point,  after  examination 
of  the  dolerite  section,  "  It  ,does  not  contain  albite,  and  is  more  like  the 
post-peridotitic  than  the  pre-peridotitic  of  my  New  South  Wales  dolerite 

dykes."t 

Macroscopically  the  rock  is  a  very  dark  finely  holocrystalUne  type  with 
inconspicuous  glistening  lath-like  feldspars  and  prominent  chloritized  ferro- 
magnesian  mineral.  In  section  the  most  striking  feature  is  the  ophitic 
structure  ;  the  mass  consists  largely  of  large  labradorite  laths,  between 
which  is  faintly  pleochroic  partially  chloritized  pink  augite  in  somewhat 
columnar  crystals,  and  a  profusion  of  irregular  iron-ore  growths  and  skeleton 
crystals  enwrapped  by  the  pyroxene  (see  photomicrograph,  Plate  XXVIII, 
fig.  2).  The  feldspars  are  fairly  fresh,  but  a  Uttle  secondary  calcite  and 
a  very  great  deal  of  chlorite  developed  from  the  augite  are  present. 

BASALT, 

"  SuGARLOAF,"  Matakana-Leigh  Road,  Rodney  County. 

The  "  Sugarloaf  "  is  a  conical  knob  a  little  west  of  the  main  road  from 
Matakana  to  the  Omaha,  and  about  two  miles  from  Matakana.  It  is  mapped 
as  igneous  by  Cox  in  his  report  on  the  geology  of  the  Rodney  and  Marsden 

*  A.  McKay,  On  the  Occurrence  of  Serpentine  Dykes  in  Cretaceo-Tertiary  Strata 
near  the  Wade,  Auckland,  Rep.  Geol.  Explor.  during  1883-84,  pp.  99-101,  1884. 
t  Letter  dated  13th  September,  1918. 


Bartrhm.— TAe  Distribution  of  Igneous  Rocks  in  New  Zealand.  421 

Counties,*  and  is  in  fact  a  basalt  neck  breaking  tbrougb  the  massive  con- 
cretionary greensands  of  the  Waitemata  series,  which  are  well  exposed 
near  by.  The  basalt  is  a  fairly  typical  holocrystalline  t5^pe,  rich  in  coarse 
idiomorphic  phenocrysts  of  oUvine  and  pale-greenish  augite,  with  numerous 
smaller  intermediate  crystals  of  plagioclase  showing  good  fluxional  arrange- 
ment. The  groundmass  is  largely  of  small  feldspar  laths  enclosing  a 
moderate  number  of  pyroxene  grains  and  small  magnetite  crystals. 

BASALT, 

Ti  Point,  Whangateau  Harbour,  Kodney  County. 

This  occurrence  is  referred  to  as  a  dyke  and  also  mapped  by  Cox  in  the 
paper  just  quoted.  Several  sections  were  cut  from  various  parts  of  the 
mass  forming  the  small  peninsula  of  Ti  Point.  There  is  often  good  fluxional 
banding  shown  in  the  field,  but  the  differences  in  section  are  unimportant, 
except  that  flow  structure  is  better  shown  in  some  sections  than  others. 
There  are  resemblances  to  the  x\uckland  basalts,  but  the  chief  differences 
lie  in  the  more  sharply  idiomorphic  nature  of  the  large  very  abundant 
olivine  phenocrysts,  and  the  greater  proportion  of  augite  in  the  finely 
holocrystalline  groundmass  (see  photomicrograph,  Plate  XXVIII,  fig.  3). 
Feldspar  scarcely  occurs  in  the  first  generation,  and  augite  is  unimportant. 
The  olivine  is  almost  invariably  oxidized  on  its  margins,  and  stained  thereby 
a  deep  reddish.  This  phase  of  oxidation  accompanying  extrusion  is  even 
better  exemplified  by  a  basalt  from  Ohakune,  next  to  be  described. 

Mr.  H.  G.  Cousins,  Director  of  the  Teacherb'  Training  College,  Auckland, 
closely  studied  this  rock  some  years  ago,  and  very  kindly  has  allowed  me 
to  read  his  unpublished  thesis  thereon.  He  shows  that  the  eruption  has 
burst  through  the  Waitemata  beds,  and  concludes,  mainly  from  consider- 
ations of  denudation,  that  the  period  of  extrusion  was  probably  Upper 
Miocene.  I  entirely  agree  with  him  that  it  was  probably  not  contempo- 
raneous with  that  of  the  basalts  of  Auckland,  but  much  earlier. 

BASALT, 
Public  Works  Department  Ballast-pit,  Ohakune. 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  F.  E.  Mason,  of  the  Seddon  Memorial  Technical 
College,  for  specimens  of  this  rock.  My  sections  are  decidedly  interesting, 
and  deserve  comment.  Much  of  the  material  is  highly  scoriaceous,  and 
stained  a  deep  chocolate-red  through  oxidation. 

The  phenocrysts  are  coarse  glomeroporphyritic  groups  of  colourless 
augite  and  a  few  olivine  crystals.  In  the  groundmass  are  but  a  few  augite 
crystals,  with  subequal  parts  of  plagioclase  laths  and  another  mineral 
comprising  the  main  portion.  This  other  mineral  is  also  lath-like,  is  greatly 
stained  by  haematite  as  a  result  of  oxidation  of  contained  ferrous  compounds 
during  the  final  phases  of  the  eru^ption,  and  seems  certainly  to  be  olivine, 
for  it  has  straight  extinction,  very  high  refraction  and  birefringence,  and 
a  high  optic  axial  angle.  The  optical  character  was  not  satisfactorily  deter- 
mined. Fine  iron-ore  is  moderately  abundant.  Occasionally,  as  the  photo- 
micrograph (Plate  XXVIII.  fig.  4)  depicts,  the  olivine  phenocrysts  are 
enwrapped  more  or  less  celyphitically  by  a  rim  of  augite. 

' ^^__ \ 

*  S.  H.  Cox,  Geology  of  the  Rodney  and  Marsden  Counties,  Rep,  Geol.  Explor. 
during  1879-80,  pp.  13-39,  1881. 


422  Transactions. 

HYPEESTHENE-ANDESITE, 

South-east  Flank  op  Mount  Hikurangi,  Whangarei  District. 

A  greyish  porphyritic  rock  with  idiomorphic  phenocrysts  of  hypersthene, 
coarse  plagioclase  from  the  acid  end  of  the  series,  and  rare  brownish-green 
hornblende.  There  are  in  addition  numerous  smaller  lath-like  feldspars, 
arranged  with  noticeable  parallelism,  and  some  fairly  large  sporadic  iron- 
ore  crystals,  enclosed  with  the  major  phenocrysts  in  a  somewhat  lithoidal 
irresolvable  matrix  in  which  magnetite  specks  furnish  the  only  recognizable 
mineral,  and  which  appears  to  be  densely  cryptocrystalline.  The  hyper- 
sthene is  not  plentiful,  and  is  only  in  small  crystals  in  the  two  sections  cut, 
though  occasional  crystals  reaching  as  much  as  1 J  in.  in  length  can  be 
gathered  in  the  field. 


Art.  XXXV. — The  Conglomerate  at  Albany,  Lucas  Creek,   Waitemata 

Harbour. 

By  J.  A.  Bartrum,  Auckland  University  College. 

[Read  before  the   Auckland  Institute,   22nd  December,   1919  ;   received  by  Editor,   31st 

^  December,  1919  ;  issued  separately,  16th  July,  1920.} 

I 

Plate  XXIX. 

About  200  yards  up-stream  from  the  lower  wharf  at  Albany  (see  locality 
map),  conglomerate  bands  outcrop  which  have  given  rise  to  abundant  cobbles 
strewing  the  banks  of  Lucas  Creek  in  the  vicinity.  They  are  without 
doubt  members  of  the  local  Tertiary  sequence  known  as  the  Waitemata 
beds,  but  their  horizon  therein  is  doubtful,  for  folding  and  faulting  are 
common  in  the  sandstones  on  the  shores  of  the  upper  Waitemata  Harbour 
(into  which  Lucas  Creek  flows)  and  obscure  the  sequence.  The  writer  is 
inclined  to  place  the  conglomerate  bands  amongst  the  lowest  of  the  Waite- 
mata beds  in  the  near  vicinity  of  Auckland,  but  there  is  at  present  no 
means  of  fixing  their  absolute  horizon,  and,  as  the  purpose  of  this  paper 
lies  rather  in  the  direction  of  describing  the  interesting  assortment  of  rock- 
varieties  in  the  bands  than  in  discussing  their  stratigraphy,  this  aspect  will 
not  receive  further  attention  herein. 

The  main  band  of  conglomerate  near  Albany  is  about  12  ft.  thick,  and 
has  a  strike  that  is  approximately  north-east  by  east  and  south-west  by 
west,  and  a  dip  of  45°  up-stream  to  the  north-west  by  north.  About  20  ft. 
beneath  it  is  a  similar  band  of  smaller  cobbles  2  ft.  in  thickness.  Not  many 
yards  down-stream  the  direction  of  dip  is  reversed,  the  sandstones  dipping 
gently  in  an  approximately  south-east  direction.  The  actual  reason  for  the 
reversal  is  obscure  :  it  may  be  anticlinal  structure,  for  there  is  evidence  at 
Riverhead  favouring  this  explanation,  although  the  conglomerate  was  not 
found  to  reoccur  in  the  down-stream  section.* 

*  A  much-weathered  coarse  conglomerate  is  exposed  at  Cut  Hill,  about  two  miles 
south-south-east  of  the  Albany  outcrop,  but  it  appears  that  this  band  is  not  the  same 
as  the  Albany  one. 


Baetrum. — The  Conglomerate  at  Albany. 


423 


424  Transactions. 

The  material  of  the  bands  consists  of  very-well-rounded  pebbles  and 
boulders  usually  a  few  inches  in  diameter,  but  reaching  as  much  as  \\  ft., 
set  in  fine  mortar  ;  they  appear  typical  sea-beach  drift,  a  conclusion  borne 
out  by  the  discovery  of  shell-fragments  in  a  somewhat  calcareous  fine  grit- 
conglomerate  about  20  ft.  to  25  ft.  in  depth  overlying  the  upper  conglome- 
rate band,  and  outcropping,  therefore,  up-stream  from  it.  In  facies  these 
boulders  consist  mainly  (perhaps  90  ^  per  cent.)  of  rocks  of  holocrystalline 
igneous  character,  many  distinctly  gneissic  in  structure,  along  with  grey- 
wackes,  andesites,  and  occasional  trachytes  and  cherts. 

No  attempt  was  made  to  trace  these  conglomerate  bands  across  the 
low  hills,  rising  to  about  400  ft.  above  sea-level,  immediately  west  of 
Lucas  Creek,  because  of  the  heaw  overburden  of  residual  clav  general 
upon  the  hills  of  the  district  ;  they  were  looked  for  and  picked  up 
again  in  the  low-lying  wide  basin  adjoining  the  Rangitopuni  and  Mahoenu 
Streams  (see  locality  map),  into  which  the  roads  from  Albany  to  Riverhead 
descend,  and  where  one  can  find  not  only  distinctive  shoading  but  also 
several  outcrops  adjacent  to  the  main  road  to  Riverhead.  About  two 
miles  east  of  this  latter  place,  just  above  the  conglomerate  is  a  quartz-rich 
grit  which  passes  into  a  fine  grit-breccia  about  1  ft.  in  depth,  containing 
fragments  of  wood,  pumice,  and  a  very  dense  felsitic  mica-rhyolite  in 
fragments  ranging  up  to  |in.  in  diameter  The  dip  is  about  80°  to  the 
south-south-west.  In  the  main  conglomerate  band  of  this  outcrop  jasperoid 
argillite,  greywacke,  and  a  good  deal  of  andesite,  some  of  it  very  coarsely 
porphyritic  and  very  strongly  oxidized,  are  frequent,  in  addition  to  the 
dioritic  types  common  at  Albany.  Towards  Riverhead  the  band  of  grit- 
breccia  characterized  by  the  pumice  and  other  rhyolite  thickens  consider- 
ably, and  the  material  also  is  coarser,  forming  a  very  curious  firmly 
cemented  breccia  where  it  is  exposed  in  the  tideway  near  the  paper-mills 
at  Riverhead.  It  is  not  far  above  the  main  conglomerate  band — here  of 
much  smaller  pebbles  than  elsewhere  ;  below  this  latter  also  are  several 
distinct  bands,  each  about  2  ft.  in  depth,  of  fairly  coarse  conglomerate. 
The  tide  was  unsuitable  for  close  investigation  of  these  bands  during  the 
writer's  visit,  but  they  did  not  appear  to  be  of  special  interest. 

Petrography  op  the  Conglomerate  Bands. 

In  a  recent  volume  of  these  Transactions  the  writer  (Bartrum,  1917) 
described  gneissic  diorites  discovered  in  loose  boulders  at  Albany,  and 
suggested  that  they  had  come  from  a  boulder-bed  known  to  outcrop 
near  by  in  the  Waitemata  beds.  Upon  visiting  the  locality  he  soon  found 
that  his  surmise  was  correct,  and  recognized  several  other  rock-types  in 
addition  to  the  two  represented  in  the  specimens  first  given  to  him.  There 
are  several  plutonic  types,  which  nearly  all  show  the  effects  of  considerable 
pressure'  notably  granulation  in  various  stages  of  intensity.  The  complete 
list  is  as  follows  : — 

(a.)  Rocks  of  sedimentary  facies. 

1.  Greywackes  (fairly  common). 

2.  Jasperoid  argillite  (rare). 

3.  Chert  (rare). 

No  particular  attention  was  accorded  the  pebbles  of  sedimentary  facies, 
as  the  writer's  interest  lay  chiefly  with  the  igneous  types,  so  that  the  above 
list  may  be  very  incomplete.  The  greywackes  and  argillite  are  obviously 
derived  from  the  "  Maitai "  rocks,  which  form  the  basement  of  the 
Waitemata  beds.     The  chert  resembles  rocks  of  similar  appearance  which 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LII. 


Plate  XXIX. 


Fig    1. 


Fig. 


Fig.  I. 


Fig. 


-Granodiorite.  The  lower  half  of  the  photomicrograph  illustrates  a  large  crystal 
of  amphibole  ophitically  enclosing  plagioclase.  Above  this,  granulation  and 
shadow  extinction  are  just  detectable  in  the  quartz.  Crossed  nicols.  Magni- 
fication, 20  diameters. 

-Banded  dioritic  gneiss.  The  granulitic  structure  is  well  exhibited.  Crossed 
nicols.     Magnification,  21  diameters. 


liG.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  3. — Dolerite  showing  the  lath-like  foi-m  of  the  feldspars,  which  are  ophitically 
enwrapped  by  amphibole.     Crossed  nicols.     Magnification,  21  diameters. 

Fig.  4. — Trachyte.  The  upper  portion  of  the  coarse  white  mineral  is  plagioclase,  the 
lower  sanidine,  the  intervening  dark  area  being  a  gap  in  the  section.  Crossed 
nicols.     Magnification,  21  diameters. 


Face  p.  i2/.l 


Bartrum. — The  Conglomerate  at  Albany.  425 

are  common  in  the  liydraulic  limestone  member  of  the  Oamaru  system 
of  Marshall  (1911,  pp.  22  et  seq.)  ;  such  an  origin  would  raise  no  fresh 
difficulty,  for  Hector  (Cox,  1881,  p.  29)  and  Henderson  (1914,  p.  157)  have 
observed  pebbles  of  the  hydraulic  limestone  itself  in  Tertiary  conglomerates 
in  various  places  in  the  Warkworth-Mahurangi  district  and  elsewhere, 
from  which  Henderson  has  deduced  the  discontinuity  of  sequenc^e  of  the 
rocks  of  the  Oamaru  system  in  that  district,  which  is  not  far  distant  from 
Albany.  ' 

(b.)  Rocks  of  igneous  origin. 

1.  Granodiorite  (granulated). 

2.  Quartz-diorite  (granulated). 
.3.  Banded  dioritic  gneiss. 

4.  Diorite  (granulated)". 

5.  Anorthosite. 

6.  Dolerites. 

7.  Andesites  of  varied  type. 

8.  Trachytes. 

9.  Rhyolite  (not  in  the  main  boulder-band  itself). 

The  granulated  ^iorites  preponderate  amongst  the  igneous  types,  and 
must  constitute  80  per  cent,  of  the  pebbles  in  the  outcrop  of  the  con- 
glomerate at  Albany. 

Description  of  Types. 

1.  Granodiorite  (granulated). 
A  fairly  common  type.  A  fresh  coarse-grained  rock,  outwardly  dioritic 
and  rich  in  hornblende.  In  section  notably  and  coarsely  ophitic  (see 
Plate  XXIX,  fig.  1).  The  light-coloured  minerals  comprise  nearly  two-thirds 
of  the  rock  :  basic  andesine  is  the  most  abundant  of  them,  and  next  in 
order  come  orthoclase  and  quartz,  this  last  interstitial  and  abundant. 
The  darker  minerals  consist  of  a  very  little  coarse  iron-ore  and  large 
hornblende  crystals  enclosing  smaller  ones  of  andesine  in  perfect  ophitic 
manner.  A  little  apatite  furnishes  the  only  accessory  besides  the  iron- 
ore.  The  efiects  of  severe  pressure  are  very  obvious — shadow  extinction 
and  'granulation  of  quartz  and  sometimes  orthoclase,  and  bending  of  the 
twinning  lamellae  of  the  plagioclase. 

2.   Quartz-diorite  (granulated). 

This  type  was  described  in  an  earlier  paper  by  the  writer  (Bartrum, 
1917,  p.  423)  ;  it  approaches  the  granodiorite  mineralogically,  but  differs 
from  it  structurally. 

3.  Bamled  Dioritic  Gneiss. 

The  banded  structure  is  quite  obvious  in  hand-specimen.  In  section 
it  is  somewhat  lost  sight  of  owing  to  the  mosaic-like  structure  resulting 
from  complete  granulation  (see  Plate  XXIX,  fig.  2).  In  composition  it  is 
practically  the  same  as  the  general  granulated  diorite  next  to  be  described, 
and  there  is  no  need  to  supplement  the  brief  description  of  this  type 
published  in  the  earlier  paper  just  referred  to. 

4.  Diorite  (granulated). 

Judging  by  macroscopic  examination,  the  vast  majority  of  the  pebbles 

and  boulders  of  the  conglomerate  belong  to  this  type — a  moderately  fine 

even-grained  dioritic  rock,  showing  numerous  glistening  feldspars  and  darker 

amphiboles.     Usually  under  the  microscope  there  is  sufficient  granulation 


426  Transactions. 

of  the  borders  of  the  crystals  to  give  an  appearance  approaching  that  of 
a  mosaic,  owing  to  the  rather  equidimensional  rounded  crystals  of  green 
amphibole  and  plagioclase  in  approximately  equal  proportions.  A  little 
iron-ore  is  present,  and  usually  sphene,  the  latter  sometimes  quite  plentiful. 
Pyrite  is  a  common  secondary  adjunct.  Much  of  the  amphibole  is  fibrous, 
and  in  cases  is  developed  as  uralite  from  central  kernels  of  unchanged  augite. 
In  one  or  two  sections  the  feldspars  have  a  distinct  broad  lath-like  form. 

5.  Anorthosite. 

A  boulder  of  this  roek  about  18  in.  in  diameter  was  found  in  the 
debris  of  an  outcrop  of  conglomerate  alongside  the  Albany-Riverhead  Road. 
Macroscopically  it  is  a  greyish  or  bluish-white  crystalline  rock  resembhng 
marble,  and  weathering  to  a  white  kaolinitic  product.  It  has  small  patches 
of  green  chlorite,  and  others  of  a  reddish-brown  mineral  which  apparently  is 
a  chloritized  mica  aUied  to  biotite,  and  which  shows  distinct  pearly  cleavage- 
faces. 

Seen  in  section,  almost  the  whole  of  the  rock  appears  as  a  highly 
refractive  colourless  mineral.  Its  allotriomorphic  equidimensional  crystals 
are  very  strongly  cleaved,  are  fractured,  and  are  separated  by  zones  of  a 
weakly  refractive  substance  which  also  penetrates  the  fractures  in  the  main 
mineral  and  has  every  appearance  of  being  a  derivative  from  it.  A  Uttle 
chlorite  (perhaps  derived  from  biotite)  and  zoisite  are  also  present. 

The  mineral  constituting  the  mass  of  the  rock  shows  some  perthitic  inter- 
growths,  much  irregular  twin-lamination,  and  occasional  definite  twin- 
lamellae  giving  extinction  angles  of  45°  on  either  side*  of  the  composition 
plane.  It  was  tentatively  identified  by  the  writer  as  a  basic  plagioclase,  and 
Dr.  J.  Allan  Thomson  has  been  kind  enough  to  confirm  this  identification. 
The  residuum  of  feebly  refractive  mineral  was  regarded  by  the  writer  as  a 
zeolite,  but  Dr.  Thomson  suggests  that  it  is  largely  a  more  acid  feldspar. 

No  exact  quantitative  chemical  analysis  of  the  rock  was  made,  but 
Mr.  A.  H.  Bowell,  of  Auckland  University  College,  performed  tests  which 
showed  that  it  is  essentially  a  silicate  rich  in  alumina  and  lime,  with  only 
traces  of  iron  and  potassium,  and  very  little  magnesia.  No  attempt  was 
made  to  ascertain  the  sodium  content. 

The  writer  is  convinced  that  this  rock  is  a  plu tonic  type,  for  he  considers 
that  the  finely  crystalline  material  is  secondary  in  origin  ;  he  therefore 
classes  it  as  an  anorthosite,  a  rock  of  somewhat  rare  occurrence. 

6.  Dolerites. 

Three  specimens  of  dolerites  were  collected  showing  slight  differences  in 
the  hand-specimen,  and  only  with  difficulty  separable  from  the  diorites.  In 
mineralogical  character  they  are  very  similar  to  the  diorites,  for  they  consist 
of  amphibole  and  basic  andesine,  the  former  slightly  in  excess  of  the  latter. 
Coarse  irregular  ilmenite  is  general,  and  is  sometimes  associated  with  sphene. 
There  is  usually  a  little  secondary  pyrite  and  epidote.  There  are  two 
important  differences  from  the  diorites  :  (a)  absence  of  granulation  or  other 
signs  of  intense  pressure,  (b)  structure.  It  is  on  the  basis  of  the  structure 
that  they  are  here  classed  as  dolerites  ;  the  texture  is  coarse  and  even- 
grained,  and  the  amphibole  has  markedly  ophitic  relations  to  the  long 
irregular  laths  of  feldspar,  as  Plate  XXIX,  fig.  3,  well  shows. 

Some  of  the  greenish  amphibole  is  fibrous  uralite  obviously  derived  from 
augite,  as  in  the  diorites,  for  cores  of  unreplaced  earlier  mineral  survive. 
Generally  the  amphibole  is  a  coarse  green  hornblende,  but  often  it  is  a  finely 
bladed,  or  even  granular,  apparently  secondary  variety. 


Bartrum. — The  Conglomerate  at  Albany.  421 

7.  Andesites. 

In  general  the  amdesitic  material  is  much  weathered  and  altered,  the 
ferro-magnesian  minerals  in  particular  having  been  afiected.  It  was  not  to 
be  expected,  considering  the  wealth  of  variety  of  our  Auckland  andesites, 
that  any  new  types  would  be  revealed.  Several  varieties,  however,  were 
discovered,  some  with  plagioclase  as  the  chief  phenocryst,  others  with  some 
or  other  ferro-magnesian  mineral  more  prominent  in  the  first  generation  ; 
but  as  a  rule  chlorite  and  other  secondary  aggregates  greatly  mask  the 
original  nature  of  the  rocks.  Mention  may  be  made  of  the  following 
varieties  : — 

Hypersthene-andesite.  —  Macroscopically  a  particularly  coarsely  porphy- 
ritic  type  with  coarse  phenocrysts  of  pyroxene  and  feldspar.  The  hyper- 
sthene  is  accompanied  by  some  augite  and  is  largely  replaced  by  calcite. 
Some  small  serpentine  pseudomorphs  suggest  olivine.  The  groundmass  is 
hyalopilitic. 

Pyroxene-andesite. — Another  very  coarsely  porphyritic  andesite,  rather 
light  grey  in  colour.  In  section  phenocrysts  of  colourless  hypersthene  are 
both  abundant  and  coarse,  along  with  large  equally  colourless  augite  crystals. 
Most  of  the  rest  of  the  rock  is  composed  of  much  smaller  phenocrysts  and 
intermediate  lath-hke  crystals  of  plagioclase,  there  being  quite  a  minor 
amount  of  the  microcrystalline  residuum  of  feldspar,  pyroxene,  and  a  little 
magnetite.     There  is  some  coarse  totally  resorbed  hornblende. 

Another  interesting  andesite,  in  which  plagioclase  is  the  only  important 
phenocryst,  shows  an  abundance  of  branching  growths  of  iron-ore  in  the 
groundmass.  The  ferro-magnesian  phenocrysts  are  small,  infrequent,  and 
greatly  altered.  There  are  common  inclusions  of  aggregated  quartz  grains, 
often  with  epidote  and  chlorite,  around  which  the  iron-ore  growths  form  a 
conspicuously  dense  halo-like  border.     Coarse  secondary  epidote  is  frequent. 

8.  Trachytes. 

These  are  rare  ;  only  two  types  were  found,  both  typical  trachytes,  so 
far  as  macroscopical  examination  is  concerned,  but  one  characterized  by  a 
little  biotite  and  the  other  by  a  little  hornblende.*  In  section  both  types 
show  many  idiomorphic  plagioclase  phenocrysts,  with  more  numerous  but 
smaller  sanidine  ones. 

In  the  hornblende-bearing  type  the  amphibole  is  the  green  variety, 
and  is  in  scattered  idiomorphic  crystals.  The  groundmass  is  almost  entirely 
feldspathic  :  a  few  plagioclase  laths  are  clear-cut  and  determinable,  but  the 
main  mass  is  of  small  ill-defined  crystals  lacking  the  albite  lamination,  and 
presumably  alkali-feldspar.  Plate  XXIX,  fig.  4,  shows  the  general  structure 
fairly  well. 

Though  the  biotite  of  the  biotite  variety  is  apparent  in  the  hand- 
specimen,  the  only  section  cut  shows  no  phenocr5^sts  of  that  mineral,  but 
numerous  small  shreds  of  it  in  a  groundmass  built  up  almost  wholly  of 
narrow  laths  of  feldspar  which  lack  the  albite  twinning  and  often  show 
good  fluxional  arrangement. f 

9.  Rhyolites. 

Fragments  of  a  curious  white  porcellanous  felsitic  rhyolite  are  frequent, 
along  with   pumice  and   other  material,   in   a   thin   band   of   grit-breccia 

*  A  third  variety  has  been  found  since  the  above  was  written ;  it  is  a  silky  rock 
with  phenocrysts  of  conspicuous  greenish- brown  hornblende. 

t  A  third  type  has  been  found  recently ;  it  has  fairly  conspicuous  phenocrysts  of 
brown  anaphibole. 


4:28  Transactions. 

already  described  as  exposed  about  two  miles  from  Riverhead  alongside 
the  Albany-Riverhead  Road,  and  again  near  the  paper-mills  at  Riverhead 
itself,  where  the  fragments  are  much  coarser.  The  finer  portions  of  the 
grit-breccia  are  largely  angular  quartz  grains  with  flakes  of  biotite,  small 
grains  of  the  whitish  rhyolite,  and  some  of  fine  argillite. 

The  rhyolite  exhibits  a  few  corroded  quartz  phenocrysts  of  moderate  size, 
and  plentiful  small  rather  rod-like  flakes  of  brown  biotite  in  a  dense  ground- 
mass  of  minute  microlites  of  feldspar,  which  are  arranged  more  or  less  in 
parallelism  with  the  biotite  flakes,  and  are  enwrapped  by  a  small  amount 
of  irresolvable  base  from  which  they  have  only  imperfectly  separated. 

Significance  of  the  Material  of  the  Albany  Conglomerate. 

The  probable  origin  of  the  sedimentary  material  included  in  the  con- 
glomerate has  already  been  sufficiently  considered  (see  p.  424),'  for  it  raises 
no  point  of  especial  interest.  The  igneous  constituents,  however,  present 
a  very  different  case. 

There  is  very  general  agreement  amongst  New  Zealand  geologists 
(Fraser  and  Adams,  1907,  table'  facing  p.  22)  that  the  eruptions  of 
andesite  which  have  contributed  so  largely  to  the  building  of  Coromandel 
Peninsula  and  other  northern  parts  of  Auckland  Province  probably  began 
before  the  Miocene,  and  thus  before  the  period  of  formation  of  the 
Waitemata  beds,  which  are  commonly  regarded  as  Upper  Miocene  in  age. 
Andesitic  eruptions  have  evidently  been  common  since  pre-Jurassic  times, 
for  andesitic  pebbles  are  found  in  JuraSsic  rocks  in  the  Cape  Colville 
Peninsula  (Fraser  and  Adams,  1907,  p.  52j,  at  Port  Waikato  (Bartrum, 
1917,  p.  422),  and  elsewhere.  The  writer  has  observed  andesitic  debris 
capping  hills  adjacent  to  the  hill  route  between  Riverhead  and  Helensville, 
not  many  miles  from  Riverhead,  which  may  represent  an  extrusion  of 
pre- Waitemata  time. 

Rhyolites  are  first  known  in  the  Auckland  Province  from  the  sup- 
posedly pre-Jurassic  sediments  (Tokatea  Hill  series)  of  Coromandel  Pen- 
insula (Fraser  and  Adams,  1907,  p.  43),  and  have  considerable  importance 
from  early  in  the  Tertiary  (Fraser  and  Adams,  1907.  table  facing  p.  22). 
Their  only  special  interest  as  concerns  this  paper  is  that  they  have  not  been 
recorded  previously  from  any  of  the  other  conglomerate  or  grit  bands  in 
the  Waitematas.* 

The  presence  in  abundance  of  gneissic  rocks  in  the  Albany  conglomerate 
raises  an  interesting  question  regarding  the  earlier  geological  history  of 
the  North  Island  of  New  Zealand,  but  so  large  a  one  that  it  is  inadvisable 
to  deal  with  it  at  all  fully  in  a  paper  such  as  this,  devoted  mainly  to 
petrographic  description.     Briefly,  the  facts  are  these  : — 

1.  Gneissic  plutonic  rocks  occur  in  the  North  Island  of  New  Zealand 
in  conglomerates  at  Alexandra,  in  the  King-country  (Park,  1893)  ;  at  the 
gorge  of  the  Waipaoa  River,  Poverty  Bay  (Sollas  and  McKay,  1906,  pp.  175 
et  seq.)  ;  in  Cretaceous  or  early  Tertiary  beds  in  the  Whangaroa  district 
(Bell  and  Clarke,  1909,  p.  50)  ;  in  "  Maitai "  conglomerates  in  the 
Hautotara  Mountains  of  south-east  Wellington  (Sollas  and  McKay,  1906, 
p.  185)  ;   and,  as  now  recorded,  at  Albany. 

*  This  statement  requires  some  modification:  C.  E.  Fox  (1902,  p.  462)  records 
fragments  of  pumice.  Their  presence  is,  however,  no  necessary  indication  of  the  vicinity 
of  a  rhyolitic  terrain,  for  pumice  can  be  naturally  transported  immense  distances  by 
water.  An  interesting  example  of  this  fact  is  furnished  by  the  presence  of  abundant 
pumice  in  sub-recent  shore-deposits  at  the  Big  Omaha,  south  of  Cape  Rodney,  which 
has  probably  been  carried  by  the  coastal  drift  around  Cape  Colville  from  the  east  coast. 


Bartrum. — The  Conglomerate  at  Albany.  429 

2.  The  basement  rocks*  of  the  North  Island  consist  of  shales  and 
greywackes  which  are  largely  unfossiliferous  and  therefore  of  uncertain 
age,  though  in  part  mid-Mesozoic  (Marshall,  1911,  p.  20).  These  rocks 
were  subjected  to  compression  in  the  later  Mesozoic  which  locally  was 
moderately  intense,  but  caused  no  noteworthy  metamorphism  in  the  North 
Island  area.  In  the  Whangaroa  district,  it  is  true,  schistosity  is  locally 
developed  in  altered  igneous  rocks  associated  with  the  basement  strata  of 
that  district  (Bell  and  Clarke,  1909,  p.  44),  though  it  is  still  by  no  means 
certain  that  folding  movements  earlier  than  the  late  Mesozoic  may  not 
have  affected  them.  In  the  South  Island  metamorphism  is  very  general 
in  the  members  of  the  oldermass  associated  with  rocks  lithologically  similar 
to  those  of  the  basement  rocks  of  the  north,  but  it  is  probable  that  this 
metamorphism  long  antedated  the  late  Mesozoic  orogenic  movements 
(Morgan  and  Bartrum,  1915,  pp.  67-71).t 

Plutonic  intrusions  are  r&re  in  the  North  Island,  but  such  as  there  are 
perhaps  synchronize  with  the  vastly  greater  ones  of  the  west  coast  of  the 
South  Island.  Fraser  and  Adams  (1907)  assign  a  pre-Jurassic  age  to  the 
Moehau  intrusion  of  Coromandel  Peninsula,  whilst  Marshall  inclines  to 
the  belief  that  the  olivine-norite  at  Ahipara,  in  North  Auckland,  underlies 
the  Mesozoic  ("  Maitai  ")  beds  of  that  district — an  important  conclusion— 
and  considers  the  schillerization  of  the  augite  of  the  norite  evidence  of 
intense  pressure.  It  is  necessary  to  add  that  it  is  obvious  from  his  paper 
that  Marshall  (1908)  believes  that  this  pressure  was  associated  with  the 
late  Mesozoic  orogenic  movements.  In  the  South  Island  some  at  least 
of  the  granite  and  other  batholithic  intrusions,  if  not  Palaeozoic,  wefe 
certainly  very  early  Mesozoic  in  age,  for  pebbles  of  granite  and  other 
plutonic  types  are  found  in  a  conglomerate  near  Nelson  (Marshall,  1904). 

Having  regard,  then,  to  the  probable  early  date  of  the  plutonic  intru- 
sions of  the  North  Island,  and  to  the  lack  of  noteworthy  metamorphism 
throughout  the  sediments  of  the  oldermass,  there  is  surely  justification 
for  more  than  a  suspicion  that  the  gneissic  constituents  of  the  con- 
glomerates already  mentioned  are  vestiges  of  a  land  area  which  antedated 
the  period  of  deposition  of  the  Mesozoic  ("  Maitai  ")  sediments,  and  which 
suffered  in  turn  folding  and  severe  erosion  so  that  intrusive  batholiths 
were  uncovered  and  caused  to  protrude.  Support  is  afforded  this  idea 
by  the  presence  of  dioritic  material  in  Jurassic  shales  in  Coromandel 
Peninsula  (Fraser  and  Adams,  1907),  of  granitic  pebbles  in  Jurassic  sand- 
stones at  Kawhia  (McKay,  1884),  and  of  a  foliated  granite  in  a  con- 
glomerate in  the  "  Maitai  "  rocks  of  the  Hautotara  Mountains  of  south- 
east Wellington  (Sollas  and  McKay,  1906,  p.  185)  ;  but  it  must  be  admitted 
that  these  plutonic  rocks  have  not  been  found  in  the  lowest  rocks  of  the 
sequence  either  at  Coromandel  or  Kawhia,  whilst  they  are  absent  from 
many  other  known  conglomerate  bands  in  the  basement  rocks.  Much 
can  be  argued  both  for  and  against  this  view  that  the  writer  is  inclined 
to  favour  with  regard  to  the  significance  of  the  gneissic  boulders,  but  one 
cannot  ignore  the  possibility  that  these  rocks  disclose  a  glimpse  of  the 
early  geological  history  of  the  North  Island  of  which  we  are  ignorant. 
In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  it  is  impossible  to  come  to  any 
conclusions  as  to  the  exact  date  of  the  abysmal  injections,  beyond  that 

*  The  "oldermass"  of  Cotton  (Cotton,  1916). 

t  Mr.  Morgan  favours  an  Aorere  age  (Ordovician)  for  several  great  rock-iinits  in 
Westland  and  south-west  Nelson  usually  grouped  in  the  Maitai  system  of  early  to  mid- 
Mesozoic  age. 


430  Transactions. 

it  was  pre- Jurassic,  but  the  conviction  grows  upon  the  writer  that  Pro- 
fessor Park's  (Park,  1893,  pp.  358-59)  early  view  of  the  great  scientific 
importance  of  the  discovery  made  nearly  thirty  years  ago  of  gneissic  rocks 
in  the  King-country  was  not  an  exaggerated  one.* 

Summary  and  Conclusion. 

In  the  Albany-Riverhead  district  conglomerate  bands  occur  in  the 
Waitemata  (probably  Upper  Miocene)  beds,  two  of  which  are  particularly 
well  exposed  near  Albany,  and  contain  material  of  very  varied  petrographic 
nature.  The  various  igneous  types  are  described  above,  and  it  is  pointed 
out  that  the  gneissic  rocks  there  and  in  other  conglomerates  elsewhere  in 
the  North  Island  perhaps  furnish  evidence  of  a  terrain  injected  by  batho- 
lithic  intrusions,  subjected  to  compressional  stresses  and  eroded  before  the 
deposition  of  the  main  mid-Mesozoic  sequence  of  the  North  Island. 

The  occurrence  of  anorthosite  is  particularly  interesting  in  view  of  the 
limited  distribution  of  this  type  of  rock. 

In  conclusion,  the  author  would  like  to  thank  Mr.  A.  H.  Bowell, 
of  Auckland  University  College,  for  performing  chemical  tests  upon  the 
anorthosite,  and  Dr.  J.  A.  Thomson,  Director  of  the  Dominion  Museum, 
for  most  valuable  help  in  the  determination  of  this  same  rock. 

List  of  Papers  cited. 

Bartrum,  J.  A.,  1917.     Additional  Facts  concerning  the  Distribution  of  Igneous  Rocks 

in  New  Zealand,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  49,  pp.  418-24. 
Bell,  J.  M.,  and  Clarke,  E.  de  C,  1909.     The  Geology  of  the  Whangaroa  Subdivision, 

Hokianga  Division,  N.Z.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  No.  8  {n.s.). 
Cotton,  C.  A.,  1916.     The  Structure  and  Later  Geological  History  of  New  Zealand, 

Geol.  Mag.  {n.s.),  dec.  6,  vol.  3,  pp.  243-49  and  314-20. 
Cox,  S.  H.,  1881.     Geology  of  the  Rodney  and  Marsden  Counties,  Bep.  Geol.  Ezplor. 

during  1879-80,  pp.  13-39. 
Fox,  C.  E.,   1902.      The  Volcanic  Beds  of  the  Waitemata  Series,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst., 

vol.  34,  pp.  452-93. 
Fraser,  C,  and  Adams,  J.  H.,  1907.     The  Geology  of  the  Coromandel  Subdivision, 

Hauraki,  Auckland,  N.Z.  Geol.  Bull.  No.  4  {n.s.). 
Henderson,  J.,  1914.     Coal  Possibilities  of  the  Warkworth  District,  8th  Ann.  Bep.  {n.s.) 

N.Z.  Geol.  Surv. 
McKay,  A.,  1884.     On  the  Geology  of  the  Kawhia  District,  Bep.  Geol.  Ezplor.  during 

1883-84,  pp.  140-48. 
Marshall,  P.,  1904.     Boulders  in  a  Triassic  Conglomerate,  Nelson,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst., 

vol.  36,  pp.  467-71. 

1908.     Geology  of  Centre  and  North  of  North  Island,  TraTis.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  40, 

pp.  79-98. 

1911.      New  Zealand   and   Adjacent   Islands,  Handbuch  der  regionalen  Geologie, 

pp.  20  et  seq. 
Morgan,  P.  G.,  and  Bartrtjm,  J.  A.,  1915.     The  Geology  and  Mineral  Resources  of  the 

BuUer-Mokihinui  Subdivision,  West  port  Division,  N.Z.  Geol.  Surv.  Bull.  No.  17 

(n.s.). 
Park,  J.,  1893.     On  the  Occurrence  of  Granite  and  Gneissic  Rocks  in  the  King-country, 

Trans.  N.Z.  Iiut.,  vol.  25,  pp.  353-62. 
SoLLAS,  W.  J.,  and  McKay,  A.,  1906.     The  Bocks  of  Cape  Colville  Peninsula,  vol.  2. 

f 

*  The  writer  would  add  that  since  writing  the  above  he  has  been  fortunate  enough 
to  find  several  bands  of  conglomerate  in  the  "  Maitai "  rocks  outcropping  in  the  north 
of  Great  Barrier  Island,  and  that  in  these  bands  there  are  abimdant  granite  boulders 
and  occasional  garnet-granulites,  if  macroscopic  appearances  are  not  deceptive. 


I 


Hudson. — N .Z.  Insects  illustrating  Principle  of  Sexual  Selection.     431 


Art.  XXXVI. — On  some  Examples  of  New  Zealand  Insects  illustrating 
the  Darwinian  Principle  of  Sexual  Selection. 

By  G.  V.  ituDSON,  F.E.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst. 

[Read  before  the   Wellington  Philosophical  Society,  24th  September,  1919 ;    received  by 
Editor,  31st  December,   1919 ;    issued  separately,  16th  July,  1920.] 

Notwithstanding  constant  attempts  to  refute  or  profoundly  modify 
Darwin's  theory  of  natural  selection,  or  the  "  survival  of  the  fittest,"  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  this  theory  remains  to  this  day  the  only  satisfactory 
explanation  of  the  innumerable  instances  of  adaptation  to  conditions  which 
are  manifest  to  the  most  casual  observer  of  plants  and  animals.  It  is 
not,  however,  my  intention  this  evening  to  give  instances  of  the  operation 
of  natural  selection  amongst  our  New  Zealand  insects,  although  practi- 
cally every  species  might  be  utilized  in  corroboration  of  Darwin's  great 
theory.  My  object  on  this  occasion  is  to  direct  attention  to  Darwin's 
subsidiary  theory  of  sexual  selection,  which  some  of  his  immediate  fol- 
lowers were  convinced  had  been  a  most  potent  factor  in  the  evolution 
of  the  more  advanced  attributes  of  the  higher  animals,  but  which  has 
unaccountably  been  allowed  to  drop  into  the  background  by  many  present- 
day  biologists.  Some  may  perhaps  urge  that  the  theory  of  sexual  selection, 
as  propomided  by  Darwin  in  his  Descent  oj  Man,  is  an  out-of-date  doctrine, 
superseded  by  more  precise  modem  researches  into  the  minute  structure  of 
organisms.  Before,  however,  any  such  general  statement  can  be  accepted 
a  more  complete  explanation  than  that  afforded  by  sexual  selection  must 
be  given  of  the  actual  facts  existing  in  nature,  and  this  I  think  I  can 
safely  say  has  not  yet  been  done.  Without  further  preliminaries  I  will 
now  direct  attention  to  a  few  of  the  facts  referred  to,  and  will  use  our 
New  Zealand  insects  in  illustration  of  my  remarks. 

1.  Order  Hemiptera.     Suborder  Homoptera. 

The  suborder  Homoptera  includes  the  cicadas,  lantern-flies,  and  their 
allies,  as  well  as  the  aphides,  scale  insects,  &c. 

The  family  Cicadidae,  often  popularly  known  as  "  locusts  "  or  "  singers," 
the  first  name  being  most  misleading,  is  one  of  the  best-known  families 
of  New  Zealand  insects.  We  have  upwards  of  a  dozen  species,  of 
which  the  largest,  Melamjnalta  cingulata  is  often  extremely  abundant  in 
the  late  summer.  At  this  season  the  singing  of  the  males,  as  they  rest  on 
the  branches  of  trees  and  shrubs,  is  sometimes  almost  deafening,  and  the 
noise  may  be  best  likened  to  that  produced  by  a  number  of  frying-pans 
simultaneously  in  operation  on  a  very  hot  fire.  This  sound  is  produced 
by  two  complicated  organs  connected  with  the  respiratory  system  of  the 
male,  and  situated  on  the  underside  of  the  base  of  the  abdomen.  It  is 
solely  confined  to  that  sex.  The  singing  is  undoubtedly  attractive  to 
the  female,  and  close  observation  of  the  insects  in  their  natural  haunts 
often  discloses  the  fact  that  the  keenest  rivalry  exists  belrween  two  or  more 
males  to .  captivate  a  female  by  means  of  their  music.  It  is  impossible 
to  assign  any  other  use  to  these  complicated  organs,  and  the  instmct  to 
use  them,  than  that  here  indicated.  The  sound  emitted  certainly  does 
not  intimidate  the  enemies  of  the  cicada,  as  they  are  all  much  preyed 


432  Transactions. 

upon  by  birds  ;  and  even  if  it  did  repel  certain  potential  enemies,  such 
special  means  of  protection  would  be  far  more  necessary  for  tbe  preser- 
vation of  the  female  whilst  depositing  her  eggs  than  it  would  be  for  the 
male. 

2.  Order  Orthoptera. 

In  the  small  order  Orthoptera,  which  includes  the  wetas,  grasshoppers, 
crickets,  walking-sticks,  and  allied  insects,  we  have  several  striking  instances 
of  the  operation  of  sexual  selection. 

The  Stenapelmatidae,  or  wetas,  were  long  supposed  to  be  destitute  of 
sound-producing  organs,  although  possessing  an  auditory  organ  on  each 
of  the  tibiae  of  the  anterior  pair  of  legs.  A  careful  examination  of  the 
side  of  the  second  abdominal  segment  of  both  sexes,  however,  reveals  the 
presence  of  about  six  minute  file-like  organs,  which  are  operated  upon  by 
the  inner  edge  of  the  base  of  the  femur  of  the  hind  legs,  these  legs  being 
raised  above  the  insect's  back  when  it  is  stridulating.  By  this  means  the 
weta  can  produce  a  harsh  grating  sound,  which  is  employed  to  intimidate 
enemies  and  also  possibly  as  a  call  or  lure  to  the  female.  This  stridulation 
of  the  weta  may  often  be  heard  in  the  bush  at  night. 

In  the  males  of  the  true  grasshoppers  with  short  antennae  (Acridiidae) 
a  long  file-like  structure  is  situated  on  the  inner  side  of  the  thigh  of  the 
hind  leg,  and  the  sound  produced  is  used  to  attract  the  female. 

In  addition  to  the  stridulating-apparatus,  the  male  of  our  commonest 
weta  (Deinacnda  megacephala)  has  a  huge  head  and  jaws,  the  corresponding 
parts  in  the  female  being  of  the  ordinary  size.  These  males  are  sometimes 
found  in  holes  in  trees  and  similar  situations,  and  are  often  accompanied  by 
several  females,  the  proportion  of  the  sexes  in  this  particular  species  being 
about  one  male  to  three  females.  As  wetas  come  abroad  only  at  night, 
it  is  difficult  to  obtain  much  precise  information  regarding  their  habits ; 
but  I  think  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  a  very  keen  rivalry  must  exist 
between  thQ  males,  and  the  great  head  and  formidable  jaws  have  been 
acquired  as  the  result  of  this  rivalry,  the  most  ferocious,  powerful,  and 
*  well-equipped  males  having  alone  succeeded  in  leaving  descendants.  Apart 
from  theoretical  considerations,  the  preponderance  in  the  number  of 
females,  the  reverse  proportion  to  that  usually  subsisting  amongst  insects, 
is  strong  presumptive  evidence  that  a  large  proportion  of  males  must 
perish,  and  the  only  conceivable  means  by  which  this  unusual  disparity 
in  the  numbers  of  the  sexes  could  be  brought  about  is  through  the 
destruction  of  the  weaker  individual  males  during  their  contests  to  possess 
the  females. 

In  the  Locustidae,  or  long-horned  grasshoppers,  a  vein  on  one  of  the 
wing-cases  of  the  male  is  furnished  with  minute  ridges,  and  the  sound  is 
produced  by  the  insect  rubbing  this  against  a  raised  vein  on  the  other 
wing-case.  Coedicia  oUvacea,  a  beautiful  leaf-like  insect  occurring  in 
Australia,  which  to  my  knowledge  has  been  common  round  Nelson  for 
thirty-five  years,  is  an  excellent  example  of  this  family.  In  the  autumn 
evenings  its  chirj)ing  may  often  be  heard  in  all  directions. 

In.  the  true  crickets  (Gryllidae)  both  wing-cases  bear  file-like  organs 
which  are  rasped  together  by  the  insect  and  thus  produce  the  well-known 
chirping.  Our  example  of  /this  family  is  the  black  Australian  cricket 
(Gryllus  servillei),  which  is  also  Yerj  abundant  in  the  Nelson  Province,  and 
its  stridulation  is  a  most  familiar  sound  on  fine  summer  evenings. 

Referring  to  the  diversity  of  these  special  soimd-producing  organs  in 
the  males  of  the  Orthoptera  (crickets  and  grasshoppers)  and  the  Hemiptera- 


Hudson. — N .Z.  Insects  illustrating  Principle  of  Sexual  Selection.     433 

Homoptera  (cicadas),  Darwin  remarks  that  "  throughout  the  animal  king- 
dom we  often  find  the  same  object  gained  by  the  most  diversified  means  ; 
this  seems  due  to  the  whole  organization  having  undergone  multifarious 
changes  in  the  course  of  ages,  and  as  part  after  jjart  varied  different 
variations  were  taken  advantage  of  for  the  same  general  purpose.  The 
diversity  of  means  for  producing  sovmd  in  the  three  families  of  Orthoptera 
and  in  the  Homoptera  impresses  the  mind  with  the  high  importance  of 
these  structures  to  the  males,  for  the  sake  of  calling  or  alluring  the 
females.  We  need  feel  no  surprise  at  the  amount  of  modification  which 
the  Orthoptera  have  undergone  in  this  respect,  as  we  now  know,  from 
Dr.  Scudder's  remarkable  discovery,  that  there  has  been  more  than  ample 
time.  This  naturalist  has  lately  found  a  fossil  insect  in  the  Devonian 
formation  of  New  Brunswick,  which  is  furnished  with  '  the  well-known 
tympanum  or  stridulating-apparatus  of  the  male  Locustidae.'  The  insect, 
though  in  most  respects  related  to  the  Neuroptera,  appears,  as  is  so  often 
the  case  with  very  ancient  forms,  to  connect  the  two  related  Orders  of  the 
Neuroptera  and  Orthoptera."* 

The  males  of  the  walking-stick  insects,  or  Phasmidae,  are  extremely 
attenuated  creatures,  whilst  the  females  are  much  stouter  and  larger,  and 
exhibit  such  great  structural  difierences  that,  in  the  absence  of  exact 
knowledge  to  the  contrary,  they  might  easily  be  referred  to  a  different 
species,  or  even  genus.  In  both  sexes  the  appearance  of  the  insect  is  most 
perfectly  adapted  for  concealment  amongst  vegetation,  and  the  extra- 
ordinary disparity  between  the  sexes  in  this  case  is  very  difficult  to  explain. 

3.  Order  Neuroptera. 

In  the  order  Neuroptera,  which  includes  the  termites,  stone-flies,  may- 
flies, dragon-flies,  caddis-flies,  &c.,  there  is  little  direct  evidence  of  the 
operation  of  sexual  selection.  In  one  of  our  largest  may-flies,  Ichtkyhotus 
hudsoni,  the  male  has  two  caudal  setae  which  are  very  much  longer  than 
the  three  possessed  by  the  female.  It  is  difficult  to  say,  however,  which 
sex  is  the  more  ornamented.  Of  much  greater  interest  for  the  purposes  of 
this  paper  are  the  nuptial  dances  in  which  the  may-flies  engage,  and  which 
must  often  arrest  the  attention  of  those  who  are  not  entomologists.  This 
flight  takes  place  shortly  before  sunset,  and  during  its  performance  the 
may-flies  rise  and  fall  in  the  air  almost  in  perpendicular  lines,  and  it  is  at 
this  time  that  pairing  takes  place.  Of  these  remarkable  dances  Dr.  Sharp 
remarks  that  to  the  may-flies  themselves  the  movements  may,  by  the 
number  of  the  separate  eyes,  by  their  curved  surfaces,  and  by  the  innumer- 
able facets  composing  them,  be  multiplied  and  correlated  in  a  manner  of 
which  our  own  sense  of  sight  allows  us  to  form  no  conception.  We  can 
see  on  a  summer's  evening  how  beautifully  and  gracefully  a  crowd  of  may- 
flies dance,  and  ye  may  well  believe  that  to  the  marvellous  ocular  organs 
of  the  flies  themselves  these  movements  form  a  veritable  ballet-dance. 

Amongst  our  small  slender-bodied  dragon-flies  (Agrionina),  often  known 
as  "  demoiselles,"  the  males  of  Xanthagrion  zealandicum  have  crimson 
bodies,  the  females  being  dull  bronze  ;  and  in  Lestes  colensonis  the  body  of 
the  male  is  marked  with  much  more  vivid  blue  than  that  of  the  female. 
In  the  tribe  Cordulina  it  is  noteworthy  that  the  male  of  Somatochlora 
smithii  has  a  brilliant  metallic-green  head,  legs,  and  thorax,  the  same  parts 
in  the  female  being  much  duller. 

*  Descent  of  Man,  2nd  ed.,  pp.  288-89,  1890. 


434  Transactions 

A.  Order  Diptera. 

In  the  great  order  Diptera,  which  includes  all  the  two-winged  flies,  there 
is  usually  very  little  difference  in  colour  between  the  sexes,  and  the  only 
striking  difierences  noticeable,  so  far  as  our  New  Zealand  species  are 
concerned,  occur  amongst  the  Tipulidae,  or  "  daddy-long-legs,"  in  which 
the  males  of  some  of  the  species  either  have  very  long  antennae,  or 
antennae  furnished  with  long  plumes  or  branches.  The  supposed  use  of 
these  elaborate  antennae  to  the  male  will  be  explained  when  we  consider 
the  secondary  sexual  characters  of  the  Lepidoptera.  The  male  of  one  of 
our  handsomest  Tipulidae,  Cerozodia  plumosa,  has  magnificently  branched 
antennae.  The  female  is  at  present  unknown,  and  is  possibly  semiapterous. 
'  This  at  least  would  explain  why  collectors  have  not  yet  succeeded  in 
finding  her. 

5.  Order  Lepidoptera. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  ornamental  colouring  is  more  in  evidence 
in  the  great  order  Lepidoptera,  comprising  the  varied  tribes  of  the  butter- 
flies and  moths,  than  in  any  other  order  of  insects,  instances  of  the  direct 
operation  of  sexual  selection  are  perhaps  not  quite  so  numerous  or  so 
striking  as  might  have  been  anticipated.  It  is  true  that  in  the  case  of  many 
species,  especially  amongst  tropical  butterflies,  the  males  are  more  brilliantly 
and  beautifully  coloured  than  the  females  ;  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are 
many  thousands  of  species  where  both  sexes  are  equally  ornamental.  In 
such  cases  Darwin  assumes  that  the  highly  ornamental  colours  and  patterns 
were  first  acquired  by  the  males*  through  sexual  selection  and  afterwards 
equally  inherited  by  both  sexes.  He  points  out  that  in  considering  the 
effects  of  sexual  selection  in  the  Lepidoptera  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  courtship  of  butterflies  is  a  prolonged  affair.  The  males  sometimes 
fight  together  in  rivalry  ;  and  many  may  be  seen  pursuing  or  crowding 
round  the  same  female.  Unless,  then,  the  females  prefer  one  male  to 
another,  pairing  must  be  left  to  mere  chance,  and  this  does  not  appear 
probable.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  females  habitually,  or  even  occasion- 
ally, prefer  the  more  beautiful  males,  the  colours  of  the  latter  will  have 
been  rendered  brighter  by  degrees,  and  will  have  been  transmitted  to  both 
sexes  or  to  one  sex,  according  to  the  law  of  inheritance  which  has  prevailed. 
The  process  of  sexual  selection  will  have  been  much  facilitated  if  the  con- 
clusion can  be  trusted,  arrived  at  from  various  kinds  of  evidence,  that  the 
males  of  many  Lepidoptera,  at  least  in  the  imago  state,  greatly  exceed 
the  females  in  number.* 

So  far  as  New  "Zealand  is  concerned,  there  is  not  a  great  number  of 
Lepidoptera  where  the  males  are  more  strikingly  ornamental  than  the 
females.  The  tropical-looking  Hypolimnas  holina,  a  wide-ranging  species,' 
found  through  the  Pacific  islands  and  Australia,  and  casually  in  New 
Zealand,  has  the  male  blue-black,  with  a  large  white  blotch  in  the  middle 
of  each  wing  surrounded  by  a  wide  ring  of  iridescent  blue.  The  female 
is  rather  variable,  black,  with  white  and  orange-brown  markings  ;  and, 
although  highly  ornamental,  almost  entirely  lacks  the  brilliant  glistening 
blue  which  is  so  characteristic  of  the  male. 

The  females  of  our  common  tussock-butterfly,  Argyro-phenga  antipodum, 
are  usually  much  lighter  coloured  than  the  males,  and  the  same  applies 
in  a  more  marked  degree  to  the  female  of  our  small  mountain-butterfly 

*  Descent  of  Man,  2nd  ed.,  p.  317,  1890. 


Hudson. — N .Z.  Insects  illustrating  Principle  of  Sexual  Selection      435 

Erehia  hutleri.  In  this  respect  these  Satyrid  butterflies  show  a  striking 
resemblance  to  many  of  their  European  relatives  which  have  the  females 
lighter  coloured  than  the  males,  but  it  is  perhaps  questionable  whether 
they  can  be  called  more  brilliant. 

A  much  more  striking  instance  of  the  direct  operation  of  sexual  selection 
is  afforded  by  our  very  interesting  endemic  little  butterfly  Chrysojihanus 
holdenarum.  In  this  species  the  male  is  of  a  most  refulgent  metallic  purple, 
the  female  being  dull  yellowish-brown  with  a  row  of  blue  spots  around  the 
margin  of  each  wing.  This  butterfly  frequents  stony  places  in  river-beds, 
where  the  males  may  constantly  be  observed  displaying  their  brilliant 
colours  to  the  rather  dingy-looking  females,  which  generally  appear  to  regard 
their  attentions  in  an  unconcerned  manner.  Again,  the  male  of  our  small 
blue  butterfly  Lycaena  labradus  is,  in  common  with  the  males  of  most 
members  of  the  genus  throughout  the  world,  a  glistening  blue,  whilst  the 
female  is  drab-grey. 

Probably  of  greater  interest  than  colour  and  wing-markings  are  the 
special  scent-producing  organs  which  exist  in  certain  male  butterflies  and 
other  Lepidoptera  for  the  purpose  of  attracting  the  female,  and  of  which 
no  trace  can  be  found  in  that  sex.  Attention  was  first  directed  to  these 
organs  by  Fritz  Mliller  in  1877,  who  at  the  same  time  emphasized  their 
significance  in  connection  with  Darwin's  theories,  which  were  then  steadily 
gaining  ground  in  the  scientific  world.* 

We  have  in  New  Zealand  several  good  examples  of  special  scent- 
producing  organs  in  male  Lepidoptera.  In  the  male  of  that  strong-flying, 
very  wide-ranging  butterfly  Danaida  plexippus  there  is  a  pocket-like  struc- 
ture situated  on  the  hindwing,  close  to  vein  2,  which  is  absent  in  the  female, 
and  is  undoubtedly  a  scent-producing  organ.  Amongst  moths  the  male  of 
our  beautiful  moss-green  Noctuid  Erana  graminosa  has  a  large  fold  in  the 
costal  edge  of  the  forewings  which  conceals  ^.n  extensible  tuft  of  long  pink 
hairs.  These  hairs  when  stirred  with  a  pin  emit  a  most  agreeable  vanilla- 
like perfume.  A  similar  structure  exists  in  the  male  of  Rhapsa  scotosialis. 
The  remarkable  lobe  in  the  much-contracted  hindwing  of  the  males  of  our 
curious  genus  Tatosoma  is  a  pocket-like  organ,  which  in  the  absence  of  any 
evidence  to  the  contrary  must  also  be  regarded  as  scent-producing.  The 
male  of  Declana  leptomera  has  large  tufts  of  hair  on  the  tibiae  of  the  hind- 
legs,  similar  tufts  being  found  amongst  some  of  ou'r  smaller  Lepidoptera, 
and  it  is  almost  certain  that  these  structures  are  for  the  purpose  of  emitting 
perfumes  agreeable  to  the  female. 

A  very  great  many  observations  have  been  made  during  recent  years 
by  Drs.  Dixey  and  Longstafi  on  the  scent-organs  and  scents  emitted  by 
tropical  butterflies  ;  and  the  use  of  these  special  structures  by  the  males, 
for  the  purpose  of  attracting  the  females,  has  been  placed  practically 
beyond  a  doubt.  At  the  same  time  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  certain 
species  of  butterflies  emit  odours  of  a  disagreeable  nature  which  serve  to 
protect  them  from  the  attacks  of  birds  and  other  enemies  ;  but  in  these 
instances  the  scent-producing  power  is  not  confined  to  the  male  sex. 

In  regard  to  our  moths,  a  fair  number  exhibit  considerable  differences 
in  the  colouring  and  markings  of  the  sexes,  but  except  in  the  case  of 
one  or  two  day-flying  species  the  males  are  not  more  brilliant  or  more 
beautiful   than    the    females.     The    sexes    of    Xanthorhoe    semijissata   and 

*  For    translation    of    Fritz    Miiller's    papers    on    this    subject    see    appendix    to 
Dr.  LongstafE's  work,  Butterfly -hunting  in  many  Lands.  * 


436  Transactions. 

X.  orophyla  are  almost  identical  in  colour,  but  have  very  different  markings. 
Selidosema  fenerata  differs  strikingly  in  both  wing-outline  and  colour,  the 
forewings  of  the  male  being  pale  yellowish-brown,  those  of  the  female  pale 
grey.  The  sexes  of  our  beautiful  forest-dwelling  moths  Azelina  gallaria 
and  A.  ofhio'pa  differ  in  size,  colour,  and  wing-outline.  Declana  glacialis, 
a  brilliant  day-flying  mountain  species,  which  almost  certainly  mimics  the 
distasteful  species  belonging  to  the  genus  Metacrias,  has  the  male  much 
more  brilliantly  coloured  than  the  female,  and  this  is  almost  certainly  due 
to  the  operation  of  sexual  selection. 

In  the  family  Tortricidae  remarkable  sexual  disparities  exist  in  certain 
species  belonging  to  the  genus  Harmologa,  which  are  found  high  up  on  our 
southern  mountains,  and  fly  rapidly  in  the  hottest  sunshine.  Of  these 
probably  the  largest  and  handsomest  species  is  Harmologa  trisulca,  recently 
discovered  at  Arthur's  Pass.  The  male  is  a  very  rich  reddish-brown  with 
a  vivid  orange-yellow  longitudinal  stripe  on  the  forewings,  the  hindwings 
being  dark  greyish-brown.  In  the  female  the  forewings  are  dull  ochreous 
and  the  hindwings  pale  straw-colour.  The  other  mountain  species  of  the 
genus  exhibit  a  similar  class  of  colouring,  but  in  the  lowland  species,  which 
fly  at  dusk  or  by  night,  the  difference  between  the  sexes  is  unimportant, 
and  the  males  are  not  more  brilliantly  coloured  than  the  females. 

Our  largest  native  lepidopteron,  the  well-known  Hepialus  virescens, 
exhibits  most  striking  sexual  differences  in  wing-outline,  colouring,  and 
markings.  AH, these  characters  are,  in  the  female,  more  concordant  with 
the  usual  type  of  the  genus  than  in  the  male,  and  it  is  a  fair  inference  that 
the  peculiarities  of  the  male  have  been  more  recently  acquired.  The  general 
colouring  of  both  sexes  of  Hepialus  virescens  is  equally  protective  when  the 
insect  is  resting  amongst  foliage  ;  but  probably  that  of  the  male  is  more 
beautiful,  and  certainly  brighter,  than  that  of  the  female,  and  hence  may 
have  arisen  t;hrough  sexual  selection.  In  connection  with  our  insect,  it 
may  perhaps  be  of  interest  to  mention  that  in  its  close  British  ally 
the  Ghost-moth  {Hepialus  humuli)  all  the  wings  of  the  male  are  snow- 
white,  the  forewings  of  the  female  being  dull-yellowish  and  the  hindwings 
grey.  Of  this  species  Mr.  Richard  South  tells  us  that  the  males  may  be 
seen  in  the  evening,  sometimes  in  numbers,  in  grassy  places,  swaying 
themselves  to  and  fro  without  making  progress,  and  appearing  as  though 
they  dangled  from  the  end  of  an  invisible  thread ;  the  female  flies 
straight,  and,  as  a  rule,  in  the  direction  of  one  or  other  of  the  pendulous 
males.*  In  this  case  it  would  appear  that  the  unusual  disparity  in  colour 
between  the  sexes  has  been  beneficial  to  the  species  in  enabling  the  female 
to  discover  the  male,  a  reverse  arrangement  to  that  usually  subsisting. 
In  the  Shetland  Islands  the  white  male  of  the  Ghost-moth  is  usually 
replaced  by  a  variety  {thulensis)  in  which  the  male  is  coloured  very 
similarly  to  the  female,  and  this  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  in  that 
northern  latitude  the  summer  nights  are  never  dark,  and  the  conspicuous 
white  colouring  of  the  male  is  not  necessary. 

In  many  species  of  moths,  especially  those  having  females  of  obscure 
or  retiring  habits,  the  antennae  of  the  males  are  heavily  branched  on  each 
side,  or,  as  it  is  technically  termed,  bipectinated,  those  of  the  female  being 
slightly  branched  or  simple.  In  these  species  the  males  have  the  power 
of  discovering  a  female  even  when  situated  at  a  considerable  distance. 
Collectors  habitually  turn  this  fact  to  good  account,  for  if  they  happen  to 

*  R.  SotfTH,  The  Moths  of  the  British  Islands,  ser.  3,  p.  361. 


Hudson. — N .Z.  Insects  illustrating  Principle  of  Sexual  Selection.     437 

breed  a  female  tliey  can,  by  enclosing  the  same  in  a  gauze-covered  box 
and  placing  it  at  an  open  window,  attract  quite  a  large  number  of  males. 
Experiments  have  been  made  to  ascertain  the  means  by  which  the  males 
are  enabled  to  find  the  female  when  situated  at  such  remote  distances,  and 
the  mode  of  tracking  by  scent  does  not  afiord  a  satisfactory  explanation. 
In  fact,  there  appears  to  be  little  doubt  that  the  mysterious  faculty  is 
located  in  the  heavily  branched  antennae,  and  that  some  sort  of  communi- 
cation is  set  up  of  the  nature  of  wireless  telegraphy. 

6.  Order  Hymenoptera. 

In  this  important  order,  which  includes  the  ants,  bees,  wasps,  ichneumon 
flies,  and  their  allien,  the  principal  differences  between  the  sexes  relate  to 
special  structures,  such  as  the  pollen-bearing  apparatus  of  the  hive-bee, 
useful  to  the  female  in  tending  the  young.  They  do  not,  therefore,  concern 
us  in  connection  with  the  subject  of  this  paper.  A  few  of  the  Hymenoptera 
are  brilliantly  coloured  in  both  sexes,  and  in  those  instances  where  warning 
colours  are  not  indicated  this  may  be  due  to  the  efiects  of  sexual  selection. 

7.  Order  Coleoptera. 

The  order  Coleoptera,  comprising  the  beetles,  is  the  highest  order  of 
insects,  and  also  contains  the  greatest  number  of  species,  of  which  about 
150,000  are  known  to  science.  Commencing  with  that  division  known  as 
the  Lamellicorns,  on  account  of  the  structure  of  their  antennae,  we  find 
that  a  striking  disparity  between  the  sexes  exists  in  our  native  stag-beetles. 
The  males  of  the  genus  Lissotes  have  a  large  head  and  jaws  and  a  very  large 
prothorax,  these  salient  features  being  strikingly  absent  in  the  females. 
Amongst  allied  genera  in  the  tropics  the  most  bizarre  forms  exist,  many 
of  the  males  having  huge  horny  processes  on  the  crown  of  the  head  and  on 
the  back  of  the  prothorax  ;  and  unless  these  extraordinary  structures  are 
useful  in  making  ah  impression  on  the  female  sex  it  seems  impossible  to 
assign  any  reason  for  their  presence  in  the  male  sex  alone. 

The  male  of  our  interesting,  though  dull-coloured  beetle,  Rhipistena 
luguhris,  has  the  joints  of  the  antennae  furnished  with  long  lateral  processes, 
the  whole  organ  forming  a  conspicuous  fan.  This  remarkable  structure  is 
also  present  in  the  female,  but  in  a  very  reduced  form.  In  the  male  of  our 
most  beautiful  Longicorn  beetle,  Coptomma  variegata,  the  antennae  are 
nearly  twice  as  long  as  in  the  female,  and  in  a  variable  degree  this  disparity 
prevails  amongst  the  numerous  Longicorns  we  have  in  New  Zealand.  The 
male  in  the  curious  genus  Exilis,  a  genus  belonging  to  the  Anthribidae, 
a  family  of  weevils,  also  possesses  enormously  long  antennae,  those  of 
the  female  being  often  less  than  half  the  length.  The  male  of  Psepholax 
coronatus,  a  short  stumpy -looking  weevil,  has  a  conspicuous  coronet  pf  spines 
on  the  back  of  each  of  its  elytra.  This  structure  is  entirely  absent  in  the 
female  and  in  all  the  other  members  of  that  extensive  genus  of  weevils. 
Very  striking  sexual  differences  are  also  present  in  Paranomocerus  sjnculus, 
the  male  of  this  fine  weevil  being  fully  twice  the  size  of  the  female,  and 
furnished  with  a  long  rostrum  and  very  long  elbowed  antennae. 

All  the  sexual  disparities  amongst  our  native  beetles  are,  however, 
completely  overshadowed  by  those  present  in  the  huge  Brenthid  Lasio- 
rhjnchus  harbicornis,  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most  striking  and  interesting 
insects  we  have  in  New  Zealand.  The  male,  which  is  usually  about  twice 
the  length  of  the  female,   has  an  enormous  rostrum,  with  the  antennae 


438    ■  Transactions. 

arising  from  its  extremity.  The  rostrum  of  the  female  is  of  a  totally 
difierent  structure,  with  the  antennae  arising  from  its  middle.  Many 
years  ago  Dr.  Sharp,  one  of  our  greatest  authorities  on  the  Coleoptera, 
was  so  impressed  by  the  extraordinary  sexual  disparities  exhibited  by  this 
beetle  that  he  wrote  to  the  late  Mr.  Helms,  at  Greymouth,  requesting  him 
to  endeavour  to  find  out  something  about  the  insect's  habits.  Mr.  Helms, 
who  was  then  one  of  our  keenest  entomologists,  replied  that  the  female 
Lasiorhynchus  harbicornis  is  indefatigable  in'  her  boring  efforts,  but  that 
the  huge  male  stands  by  as  a  witness,  apparently  of  the  most  apathetic 
kind.  I  am  not  aware  that  later  observers  have  elicited  any  further 
information  on  this  interesting  subject. 

In  addition  to  the  above  special  examples  it  should  perhaps  be  added 
that  some  beetles  are  brilliantly  coloured  and  have  beautiful  markings, 
and  nearly  all  are  ornamented  with  elaborate  sculpture.  From  a  strictly 
utilitarian  standpoint  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  such  endowments  are  of 
any  direct  benefit  to  the  possessor  in  the  ordinary  struggle  for  existence  ; 
but  if  the  principle  of  sexual  selection  be  admitted  the  presence  of  such 
elaborate  adornments  is  quite  intelligible. 

This  completes  the  examples  specially  selected  for  the  purpose  of  this 
paper.  It  should  perhaps  be  explained  that  other  instances  of  the 
operation  of  sexual  selection  could  have  been  found,  even  amongst  our 
native  insects,  but  it  has  not  been  deemed  desirable  to  extend  the  paper 
to  an  undue  length.  To  those  who  have  studied  Part  II  in  Darwin's 
Descent  of  Man  it  will  be  iinnecessary  to  state  that  even  more  convincing 
examples  can  be  found  amongst  other  classes  of  animals  (notably  birds), 
and  also  in  other  lands.  It  may  be  safely  said  tliat  sexual  selection  has 
been  a  most  powerful  factor  in  organic  evolution,  operating  in  countless 
instances  wherever  its  progress  has  not  been  stopped  by  the  more  rigorous 
principle  of  natural  selection.  Darwin  clearly  demonstrated  that  sexual 
selection  has  taken  a  very  prominent  part  in  the  evolution  of  man,  and 
there  is  no  reason  why  its  efiects  should  not  continue  in  the  future.  That 
a  principle  of  such  profound  importance  should  receive  so  little  practical 
attention  is  indeed  surprising.  We  constantly  hear  of  the  paramount 
importance  of  education,  and  latterly  we  have  heard  a  great  deal  about 
the  benefits  of  discipline  and  of  physical  training.  Every  naturalist  knows, 
however,  that  the  effects  of  the  most  vigorous  and  successful  training  are 
not  inherited  by  the  offspring  of  those  who  are  trained  :  each  generation 
has  to  start  to  learn  afresh.  Not  so,  however,  in  the  case  of  selection, 
the  effect  of  which  is  permanent.  It  is  a  fact  of  the  highest  certainty  that 
individuals  possessing  certain  special  attributes,  if  selected  for  breeding 
purposes,  will  transmit  those  attributes  to  their  offspring.  Hence  we  can 
see  why  the  effects  of  sexual  selection  are  so  manifold  throughout  the 
whole  animal  kingdom. 


Watt. — Leaf-mining  Insects  of  New  Zealand.  ■     439 

Art.  XXXVII. — The  Leaf-mining  Insects  of  New  Zealand. 
By  Morris  N.  Watt,  F.E.S. 

{Read  before,  the  Wanganui  Philosophical  Society,  3rd  December,  1919  ;  received  by  Editor, 
31st  December,  1919  ;    issued  separately,  16th  July,  1920.] 

■     "  Plate  XXX. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Perhaps  no  other  class  of  insects  is  so  fascinating  to  study  as  the  leaf- 
miners.  Inconspicuous  and  retiring  in  their  habits,  these  tiny  atoms  easily 
escape  notice  ;  this  and  their  microscopic  size  have  kept  these  insects  among 
the  least  known  in  any  country.  But  actually  their  study  is  comparatively 
easy.  Their  life-cycle  is  so  short,  especially  the  active  or  larval  part  of  it, 
that  there  is  little  worry  about  procuring  fresh  food.  Infected  leaves  can 
be  kept  fresh  sufficiently  long  if  placed  in  a  damp  atmosphere  and  the  air 
not  allowed  to  stagnate.  I  have  found  glass  Petrie  dishes  invaluable 
for  this  purpose  ;  a  piece  of  damp  blotting-paper  in  the  bottom  of  the 
dish  keeps  the  interior  sufficiently  moist,  and  if  the  lids  be  lifted  fairly 
frequently,  so  as  to  change  the  air,  a  plentiful  crop  of  moulds  is  prevented. 
Leaves  can  be  kept  sufficiently  fresh  in  this  way  for  several  weeks — quite 
long  enough  to  allow  the  larvae  to  pupate.  In  other  cases  branchlets  bearing 
the  infected  leaves  may  be  kept  in  water  in  vases  ;  and  where  the  larval 
stage  is  long,  or  the  observer  wishes  to  watch  the  insects  tmder  natural 
conditions,  the  entire  food-plant,  if  not  too  large,  may  be  carefully  trans- 
planted. Occasionally  it  has  been  necessary  to  transfer  a  larva  from  a 
withered  leaf  to  a  fresh  one,  a  small  artificial  gallery  being  first  constructed 
under  the  cuticle  of  the  fresh  leaf  and  the  larva  coaxed  into  it.  In  the  case 
of  one  minute  weevil-larva  eight  such  transfers  had  to  be  made  during 
the  three  months  of  larval  life.  Some  larvae  do  not  confine  themselves  to 
one  leaf,  and  destroy  several  or  many  in  their  lifetime.  The  ^embers  of 
another  class  of  larvae  are  pseudo-miners  ;  they  act  the  part  of  miners 
for  a  part  only  of  their  larval  existence.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  observe  these 
insects  in  a  state  of  captivity  ;  it  is  essential  to  observe  them  in  the  field. 
Rearing  them  is  the  only  way  in  which  the  collector  can  obtain  perfect 
specimens  (otherwise  unprocurable)  in  plenty  for  his  collection.  There 
are  no  slack  months  in  the  j-ear  for  the  investigator  of  leaf-mining  insects  ; 
they  are  almost  as  plentiful  in  winter  as  in  spring,  and  undoubtedly  winter 
is  the  time  to  look  for  new  species. 

Of  the  seventy  species  that  I  have  at  present  under  observation  the 
.  great  majority  are  either  new  or  only  recently  described.  There  are 
indications  that  New  Zealand  possesses  a  large  number  of  leaf-mining 
insects.  I  have  never  yet  failed  to  come  home  from  an  expedition  with 
several  species  new  to  me.  It  has  therefore  become  necessary  to  divide 
the  paper  into  a  number  of  parts,  and  for  the  sake  of  order  and  complete- 
ness each  part  will  deal  separately  with  a  single  genus  or  group  in  so 
far  as  they  are  kno\\Ti.  Odd  species  will  be  published  in  separate  parts. 
The  parts  at  present  in  hand  are  :  The  genus  BedeUia ;  the  Nepticulids  ; 
several  species  belonging  to  the  ginus  Glyphteryx  ;  the  Elachistidae  ;  the 
genus  Gelecia  (all  belonging  to  the  Lepidoptera)  ;  new  species  of  the  genus 
Phijtomyza  (leaf -mining  Diptera)  ;  the  leaf -mining  weevils.  There  is  also 
in  preparation  a  monograph  on  the  New  Zealand  gall-producing  insects. 


440  Transactions. 

PART  I.— THE  GENUS  PARECTOPA  (LEPIDOPTERA). 

This  part  comprises  the  life-histories  of— (1)  Parectopa  citharoda  Meyr., 
(2)  P.  zorionella  Hudson,  (3)  P.  panacitorsens  n.  sp.,  (4)  P.  panaci- 
vermiforma  n.  sp.,  (5)  P.  panacicorticis  n.  sp.,  (6)  P.  panacifinens  n.  sp., 
(7)  P.  aellomacha  Meyr.,  (8)  P.  panacivagans  n.  sp. 

Of  the  remainder  of  the  genus,  P,  aethalota  Meyr.  {Trans.  N.Z.  Inst., 
vol.  21,  1889,  p.  185),  P.  leucocijma  Meyr.  {Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  21,  1889, 
p.  184),  and  P.  miniella  Feld.  (see  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  21,  1889,  p.  185) 
have  not  yet  been  observed.  These  complete  the  genus  in  New  Zealand 
as  at  present  known. 

Those  studied  are  all  miners  of  the  long-gallery  type,  and  all  except 
P.  citharoda  make  their  coc6on  and  pupate  in  the  tei;minal  part  of  the  mine. 
P.  citharoda  offers  other  interesting  details  distinct  from  the  rest  of  the 
genus.  At  present  the  only  ova  found  and  described  belong  to  P.  citharoda. 
Owing  to  lack  of  time  and  material  I  have  had  to  omit  the  descriptions 
of  the  larvae  of  this  genus,  but  a  complete  account  will  be  given  later  in 
a  supplementary  part,  which  it  is  hoped  will  also  include  the  species  not 
given  in  the  present  paper.  From  what  little  I  have  seen  of  the  larvae, 
there  will  be  some  extremely  interesting  points  to  bring  to  light.  In  my 
early  paper  on  P.  citharoda  I  gave  a  short  sketch  of  the  setal  plan,  but  in 
light  of  more  recent  work  this  needs  revision,  and  Fracker's  nomenclature 
("  The  Classification  of  Lepidopterous  Larvae,"  Illinois  Biological  Mono- 
graphs, vol.  2,  No.  1,  1915)  should  be  adopted.  The  head-capsule  and  head- 
setae  need  investigation. 

The  Chief  Characteristics  oj  the  Parectopa  Pupa. 

In  shape  long  and  slender,  more  or  less  blimtly  rounded  at  the  head 
(except  for  the  pointed  cephalic  plate),  and  gradually  attenuated  towards 
the  other  extremity.  Length  averaging  from  5  mm.  to  8  mm.  Attached 
to  the  front  in  its  uppermost  part  is  a  heavily  chitinized  cutting-plate 
(the  cephalic  plate)  directed  upwards  and  forwards  ;  on  either  side  of  this, 
and  about  midway  between  it  and  the  base  of  the  antenna,  is  usually  a  short 
stout  incurved  cornu  ;  while  in  front  of  the  cephalic  plate  is  a  pair  of  promi- 
nent tubercles  bearing  each  a  long  slender  seta.  The  antennae  cover 
a  portion  of  the  outer  lateral  part  of  the  pigmented  eye,  and  extend  usually 
the  whole  length  of  the  body  ;  they  are  segmented  and  free  in  their  lower 
part.  Mandibles  are  present,  one  on  either  side  of  the  labrum,  but  are 
small.  The  maxillary  palpi  are  very  distinct  in  P.  citharoda,  adjoining 
the  margin  of  the  antennae  externally  and  occupying  the  lower  border 
of  the  eye,  between  it  and  the  first  legs  and  maxillae  ;  in  the  other  species, 
however,  they  are  obscure  and  doubtful.  The  labial  palpi  are  long  and 
slender,  and  about  one-sixth  of  the  body-length.  The  maxillae  are  long 
and  slender,  and  usually  reach  to  about  midway  between  the  ends  of 
the  first  and  second  legs  ;  usually  a  portion  of  the  lateral  margin  of  the 
upper  fifth  of  the  maxilla  is  encroached  upon  by  the  femur  of  the  first  leg. 
The  third  legs  appear  from  below  the  second,  and  extend  generally  as  far 
as  the  seventh  abdominal  segment.  Forewings  long  and  narrow,  with 
pointed  incurved  extremities,  and  occupying  about  one-half  the  body-length. 
The  ventral  appendages,  with  the  exception  of  the  wing-tips,  third  legs, 
and  antennae  at  their  caudal  extremities,  are  not  free.  The  prothorax  is 
much  narrower  in  the  mid-dorsal  region  than  laterally.  Mesothorax  is  the 
longest  segment  of  the  body,  and  is  extended  caudally.  Metathorax  about 
as  long  as  the  abdominal  segments,  and  the  wings  occupy  a  narrow  strip 


Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  Vol.  LII. 


Plate  XXX. 


i^^^^<^ 
^^^^> 


10 


Face  p-  440.] 


(For  names  see  next  page.) 


Fig.  1. — Parecfopa  citharoda.  Fig.    6. — P.  panarifinens. 

Fig.  2. — P.  zorionella.  Fig.    7. — P.  panacitorsevi  (North  Island  variety). 

Fig.  3. — P.  panacitorsens.  Fig.    8. — P.  uellomacha. 

Fig.  4. — P.  panacivermiforma..  Fig.    9. — P. panacivermiforma {Southlslsindiorm). 

Fig.  5. — P.  panacicorticis.  Fig.  10. — P.  panncivagans. 

(All  magnified  about  5  diameter.?.) 


Watt. — Leaf-mining  Insects  of  Nexv  Zealand.  441 

as  far  as  the  second  segment.  Abdominal  segments  of  about  equal  length, 
except  for  the  terminal  three  ;  dorsum  thickly  covered  with  very  fine  spines  ; 
movement  can  take  place  between  4-5,  5-6,  6-7  ;  spiracles  small,  circidar, 
slightly  elevated,  covered  by  the  wings  in  the  first  abdominal  segment, 
obsolete  in  the  eighth,  absent  in  the  ninth  and  tenth.  Cremaster  absent, 
the  terminal  segment  being  bluntly  rounded  or  produced  into  two  finger- 
like processes,  each  bearing  a  minute  apical  hook.  Setae  present,  slender  ; 
a  dorsal  pair  on  meso-  and  meta-thorax  and  abdominal  segments  except 
the  last ;  a  dorso-lateral  pair  and  a  lateral  pair  on  most  of  the  abdominal 
segments,  details  of  which  are  given  under  the  difierent  species. 

The  pupa  is  extruded  from  the  cocoon  as  far  as  about  the  first  legs,  and 
always  with  its  dorsal  surface  next  the  surface  of  the  leaf  on  or  in  which 
the  cocoon  is  constructed.  The  appendages  are  therefore  outermost.  As 
soon  as  the  imago  has  become  freed  it  retreats  to  the  underside  of  the  leaf, 
where  it  shelters  quietly  while  the  wings  expand  and  dry. 

Meyrick  ("  Kevision  of  the  New  Zealand  Tineina,"  Trans.  N .Z.  Inst., 
vol.  47,  1915,  p.  227)  gives  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  Gracilariadae  as: 
"  Head  with  appressed  scales.  Antennae  1  or  over  1.  Labial  palpi  slender, 
ascending,  tolerably  pointed.  Maxillary  palpi  moderate,  filiform,  por- 
rected.  Fore  wings  with  7  and  8  stalked  or  separate.  Hind  wings  lanceolate 
or  linear."     And  he  then  divides  the  three  genera  as  follows  : — 

Middle  tibiae  not  thickened — 

{a.)  Posterior  tibiae  with  bristly  projecting  scales  above  :  Acrocercops. 
(&.)  Posterior  tibae  without  bristly  scales  :   Paredopa. 

Middle  tibiae  thickened  with  dense  scales  ;  posterior  tibiae  without  bristly 
scales  :   Gracilaria. 

Hence  the  absence  of  the  thickening  of  scales  on  the  middle  and 
posterior  tibiae  is  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  Parectopa. 

(1.)  Parectopa  citharoda  Meyr.  (The  Wattle  ParectQpa).    (Plate  XXX,  fig.  1.) 

Paredopa  citharoda  Meyr.,  Trans.  N .Z.  Inst.,  vol.  48,  1916,  p.  418  ; 
W^att,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  407-13. 

For  th^  sake  of  completeness  I  recapitulate  below  the  chief  points 
from  my  earlier  paper  on  this  species,  together  with  a  little  new  material 
that  I  have  noted  since  publishing  the  paper  referred  to. 

Meyrick' s  Original  Description. 

"  $.  10  mm.  Head  probably  white  (injured).  Palpi  white.  Thorax 
white,  patagia  dark  fuscous.  Abdomen  dark  grey,  sides  obliquely  striped 
with  white,  ventral  surface  white.  Forewings  very  narrow,  moderately 
pointed  ;  dark  bronzy-fuscous,  towards  apex  lighter  and  more  bronzy ; 
five  .slender  white  blackish-edged  streaks  from  costa,  first  three  very  oblique, 
first  from  J,  reaching  half  across  wing,  second  from  middle,  reaching  more 
than  half  across  wing,  its  apex  closely  followed  by  a  short  fine  dash,  third 
shorter,  fourth  fine,  direct,  reaching  termen,  dilated  on  costa,  fifth  just 
before  apex,  fine,  inwardly  oblique,  cutting  through  a  small  round  blackish 
spot ;  a  white  dorsal  streak  from  base  to  middle,  terminated  by  an  oblique 
projecting  streak  reaching  nearly  half  across  wing  ;  a  white  triangular 
spot  on  dorsum  beneath  apex  of  second  costal  streak  ;  a  short  outwardly- 
oblique  white  streak  from  tornus  :  cilia  greyish,  with  white  bars  on  costal 
markings,  and  dark-fuscous  median  and  apical  lines  above  apex  separated 
with  whitish.     Hind  wings  dark  slaty-grey  :   cilia  fuscous." 


442 


Transactions. 


In  ^11  perfect  specimens  the  liead  is  white. 

This  pretty  little  moth  may  be  found  basking  in  the  sun  on  the  leaves 
of  its  food-plant,  or  flying  about  the  shrub.  Few  were  seen  to  fly  far  from 
the  bush  even  when  beaten  out.  It  is  not  very  shy,  and  can  be  knocked 
straight  into  the  kiUing-bottle  without  using  the  net.  Its  attitude  of  rest 
is  peculiar,  the  body  being  held  at  an  acute  angle  to  the  surface  of  the  leaf, 
with  the  head  lowermost,  almost  touching  the  leaf  ;  the  hind  legs  are  kept 
close  to  the  body,  and  elevate  the  hinder  part  in  the  air,  while  the  first  and 
second  legs  are  held  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  body,  close  together,  and 
slightly  forwards.  The  Panax  moths  rest  with  the  head  end  elevated. 
There  are  several  broods  during  the  summer,  larvae  being  found  at  any 
time  between  the  months  from  July  to  March.  Most  possibly  the  larva 
hibernates  in  the  cocoon. 

Distribution.  . 

Wanganui.  During  the  last  few  years  this  moth  has  become  very 
plentiful  wherever  its  food-plants  happen  to  be  growing.  In  December  of 
1919  the  young  leaves  of  the  wattles  in  the  Virginia  Lake  Eeserve  were 
badly  infected.  I  also  came  across  new  and  old  mines  in  the  Botanical 
Gardens  in  Wellington  in  September. 

'  Food-plants. 

The  Australian  broad-  and  narrow-leaved  wattles  {Acacia  pycnantha, 
Acacia  saligna).  Indigenous  food-plants  still  unknown.  It  would  seem 
as  though  this  moth  had  been  introduced  from  Australia. 

Egg-laying. 
The  eggs  are  laid  on  either  side  of  the  young  tender  leaves  in  no 
specially  favoured  part.  They  are  also  to  be  found  on  the  young  stems 
and  seed-pods.  The  egg  is  flat,  wafer-like,  slightly  rounded  above,  with  a 
narrow  irregular  margin  or  rim  round  the  circumference.  Average  dimen- 
sions 0-65  mm.  by  0-45  mm.  No  marked  sculpture  except  very  minute 
white  elevations  arranged  in  a  somewhat  hexagonal  pattern.  Shiny ; 
colour  a  pale  transparent  white  ;  strongly  cemented  to  the  leaf  ;  period  of 
incubation  about  fourteen  days. 

The  Mine. 

The  mine  may  be  on  either  side  of  the  leaf  ;    is  a  long,  narrow,  slightly 

expanding  gallery,  more  or  less  tortuous  in  direction,  and  generally  up  and 

down  the  long  axis  of  the  leaf.     Total  length  from  7  in.  to  8  in.     Colour  of 

early  part  of  mine  white,  with  a  thin  brown  or  black  central  line  of  f  rass ; 


Fig.  1. — Mine  of  P.  citharoda  in  Acacia  saligna.     (Natural  size.) 

later  a  somewhat  lighter  green  than  the  rest  of  the  leaf-surface  ;  this  portion 
of  the  mine  loosely  packed  with  fine  frass  granules.  The  cuticle  over  old 
mines  rapidly  dies  and  becomes  brown.  Badly  infected  leaves  wither  and 
fall  from  the  tree.  The  final  inch  or  so  of  the  mine  is  often  expanded 
into  a  somewhat  irregular,  narrow,  elongated  blotch. 


Watt. — Leaf-mining  Insects  of  Neiv  Zealand.  443 

The  Larva. 

In  the  first  stadium  the  minute  larva  is  light  green  in  colour,  head  light 
brown  ;  it  bears  no  setae.  These  do  not  appear  till  the  third  and  last 
stadium,  in  which  the  general  colour  is  light  greenish-yellow  with  a  faint 
white  spiracular  line.  Length  6-7  mm.  ;  spiracles  minute,  circular  ;  pro- 
legs  on  segments  3,  4,  and  5,  each  armed  with  a  single  short  transverse 
bar  of  about  seven  booklets.  Body  covered  with  minute  hairs.  Eevised 
details  of  the  chaetotaxy  will  be  given  in  a  future  paper,  together  with 
details  of  the  head-sclerites,  &c.,  when  a  comparison  of  all  the  Parectopa 
larvae  will  be  given.  Number  of  larval  stadiums  three,  the  first  and  second 
about  ten  days  each,  the  third  about  twenty  days.  When  full-grown  the 
larva  leaves  the  mine  and  descends  to  the  vegetation  round  the  foot  of  the 
tree,  amongst  the  dry  fallen  leaves  of  which  it  constructs  its  cocoon. 

The  Cocoon. 

This  is  an  extremely  pretty  little  -structure  of  white  silk  ;  usually  con- 
structed in  some  concavity ;  its  upper  and  outer  surface  slightly  rounded, 
and  covered  with  minute  white  fleecy  globules,  the  majority  of  which  may 
be  removed  by  blowing  upon  them.  These  globules  are  excreted  by  the 
larva  during  the  construction  of  the  cocoon,  and  are  ejected  from  the 
interior  through  rents  torn  in  the  covering  of  the  cocoon  by  the  larva  itself, 
eighty  to  a  hundred  or  more  being  so  ejected.  The  construction  of  the 
cocoon  occupies  about  two  days. 

The  Pupa. 

Colour  white,  to  light  yellow,  to  black  with  obscure  white  markings 
(see  description  of  a  typical  Parectopa  pupa  above).  The  following  are  the 
chief  characteristics  :  Head  bluntly  rounded  ;  cephalic  plate  small,  having 
a  comparatively  broad,  transverse,  semicircular,  serrated  cutting-edge  ;  the 
plate  is  quadrilateral,  being  continued  dorsally,  and  is  depressed  just  behind 
the  cutting-edge  ;  the  antennae  extend  some  distance  past  the  terminal 
abdominal  segments  ;  clypeus  somewhat  j^rominent,  and  bears  a  small 
tubercle  and  seta  on  either  side  just  above  the  labrum  ;  no  lateral  cornua 
or  frontal  tubercles  ;  maxillary  palpi  quite  distinct,  fairly  broad,  sculptured 
with  fine  transverse  rugae  ;  labrum  and  mandibles  a  little  distance  above 
the  lower  margin  of  the  eyes  ;  maxillae  narrow  in  their  entire  length,  and 
about  one-fifth  of  the  body-length  ;  first  legs  extend  beyond  the  termina- 
tion of  the  maxillae  and  meet  in  the  mid-line,  about  one-quarter  the  body- 
length,  their  femora  occupying  a  long  narrow  strip  along  the  outer  lateral 
margin  of  the  maxillae  ;  second  and  third  legs  as  in  type  ;  prothorax 
quadrilateral,  occupying  a  narrow  strip  between  the  antennae,  only  slightly 
narrower  in  the  mid-dorsal  region  ;  setae  present  but  extremely  minute, 
only  the  dorsal  pair  being  present  in  the  meso-  and  meta-thorax  and  first 
abdominal  segment ;  in  segments  2  to  6  inclusive  the  same  three  pairs 
of  setae  as  in  type  ;  in  segment  7  the  dorsal  pair  only,  and  no  setae  were 
discovered  in  segments  8,  9,  and  10 ;  no  cremaster,  terminal  segment  bluntly 
rounded  and  bare  ;  movement  takes  place  between  4-5,  5-6,  6-7,  but  the 
pupa  is  not  active  ;  no  sign  of  any  lateral  flanges  on  the  abdominal  seg- 
ments ;  average  length  of  pupa  4-5  mm.  A  table  of  the  chief  measurements 
was  given  in  the  earlier  paper,  which  "the  above  notes  are  not  intended  to 
replace.  Duration  of  the  pupal  stage,  eleven  days  to  a  month  or  longer, 
according  to  climatic  conditions. 


444  Transactio7is. 

Dehiscence. 

The  front,  with  its  cephalic  plate,  clypeus,  labrum,  eyes,  labial  palpi, 
and  maxillae,  becomes  separated  in  one  piece,  but  remains  attached  at  the 
lower  extremity  of  the  maxillae  by  loose  slips.  There  is  a  slight  splitting 
along  the  dorsal  margin  of  the  antennae,  but  no  violent  rupture  takes  place, 
and  the  antennae  and  first  and  second  legs  retain  their  connection  and 
position  in  one  piece  on  either  side.  The  vetex  remains  attached  to  the 
prothorax,  but  is  cleft  down  its  vsrtical  suture  ;  this  cleft,  continuing  and 
dividing  the  prothorax,  extends  about  half-way  down  the  mid -dorsal  region 
of  the  mesothorax. 

(2.)  Parectopa  zorionella  Hudson  (The  Coprosnia  Parectopa).     (Plate  XXX, 

fig.  2.) 

Parectopa  zorionella  Hudson,  Ent.  Mo.  Mag.,  3rd  ser.,  vol.  4,  p.  62, 
1918. 

The  Imago. 

Since  Mr.  Hudson's  desciiption  of  this  little  moth  is  not  readily  acces- 
sible to  all  entomologists  in  New  Zealand,  I  take  the  liberty  to  reprint  it 
here  :  "  The  expansion  of  the  wings  is  |  in.  The  forewings  are  elongate- 
oblong  Avith  the  costa  strongly  arched  ;  very  dark  brownish  black  with 
very  vivid  steely -blue  reflections  ;  there  is  a  large  semicircular  silvery-white 
spot  on  the  costa  a  little  beyond  the  middle ;  an  oblique  silvery-white  bar 
beyond  f,  and  two  much  smaller  bars  just  before  the  apex  ;  there  are  three 
minute  silvery  spots  on  the  dorsum.  The  hindwings  are  dull  steely-grey. 
The  cilia  of  the  forewings  are  black  ;  of  the  hindwings  dark  grey  tinged 
with  bronze  towards  the  body." 

The  adult  moth  is  not  by  any  means  common  in  the  field,  possibly 
owing  to  the  widespread  destruction  of  the  Jarvae  and  pupae  by  hymen- 
opterous  parasites ;  the  great  majority  of  mines  tUmt  I  have  examined  were 
so  infested.  Mr.  Hudson  says  the  imago  may  be  found  among  light  scrub 
in  November.  I  myself  have  not  seen  the  moth  outside  my  breeding- 
dishes.  As  soon  as  it  has  emerged  from  the  cocoon  it  retreats  to  the 
shelter  of  the  underside  of  the  leaf,  where  it  rests  in  its  peculiar  attitude 
of  head  elevated,  while  its  wings  spread  and  dry. 

Distribution. 
The  mines  of  this  moth  are  common  on  Mount  Egmont  to  an  altitude 
of  nearly  4,000  ft.  I  have  found  them  there  during  the  last  three  years, 
and  take  the  following  extracts  from  my  notebook  :  "  10/1/17,  only  old 
vacated  mines  found  ;  22/4/17,  old  mines,  fresh  mines,  and  larvae  plentiful, 
no  pupae  ;  23/12/17,  mines  and  pupae."  Of  those  obtained  22/4/17  the 
imagos  emerged  about  the  middle  of  Aiigust  following.  Mr.  Hudson  records 
the  perfect  insect  in  November  in  the  Botanical  Gardens,  Wellington,  where 
I  have  found  the  mines  quite  plentiful  in  February,  but  chiefly  parasited. 
I  was  in  Wellington  again  in  June  and  found  many  mines,  but  all  empty  ; 
in  September  I  found  no  mines  ;  in  December  a  number  of  pupae  were 
obtained;  and  from  these  the  imagos  emerged  about  the  end  of  the  same 
month.  Pupae  obtained  on  Egmont  in  the  beginning  of  January  all 
emerged  during  the  month.  A  few  mines  have  been  found  in  Wanganui, 
but  so  far  none  in  the  South  Island.  I  am  able  to  note  that  since  the 
preparation  of  this  paper  Mr.  George  Howes  found  pupae  at  Waitomo 
about  the  end  of  March,  1920.  It  would  appear  as  though  there  were  two, 
if  not  three,  broods  in  the  year. 


Watt. — Leaf-mining  Insects  of  New  Zealand. 


445 


•  Food-plants. 

Coprosma  grandifolia  (kanono,  raurakau),  C.  tenuifolia  (karamu),  C.  liicida 
(karamu),  C  rohnsta  (karamu),  C.  retusa  (taupata). 

It  was  chiefly  in  the  young  plants  of  these  shrubs  that  the  mines  were 
found,  and  within  a  foot  or  so  of  the  ground.  No  doubt  other  species  of 
Coprosma  are  also  attacked. 

Egg-layimj. 

The  ovum  has  not  yet  been  observed.  It  is  laid,  however,  invariably 
on  the  under-surface  of  the  leaf,  and  as  a  rule  near  the  midrib,  and  in  the 
lower  (basal)  half  of  the  leaf.  Laid  singly,  and  rarely  more  than  two  on 
any  one  leaf.  '  . 

The  Mine. 

The  larva  mines  directly  into  the  leaf  through  the  bottom  of  the  egg. 
The  mine  is  at  first  a  long,  slender,  slightly  tortuous,  gradually  widening 
gallery ;  the  first  centimetre  or  so  being  on  the  under-surface  of  the 
leaf,  close  against  the  cuticle,  showing  up  white  and  silvery  by  reflected 


Fig.  2.-^Mine  of  P.  zorionella  in  Coprosma.  (Two-thirds  natural  size.) 
(X — X,  point  where  the  mine  leaves  the  under-surface  of 
the  leaf  and  comes  close  under  the  ujiper  cuticle.) 

light.  The  remainder  of  the  mine,  however,  is  on  the  upper  surface.  In 
the  last  stage  the  gallery  expands,  more  or  less  abruptly,  into  a  large 
irregular    blotch.      The   gallery   at    first   is   about   0-5  mm.    in    width,    its 


Fig.  3. — Trace  of  mine  of  P.  zorionella  in  Coprosma.  (Two-thirds 
natural  size.)  (X — X,  point  where  mine  changed  from 
lower  to  upper  portion  of  the  leaf.) 

margins  regular  ;  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf,  however,  the  margins 
become  irregular  and  slightly  serrated,  the  margin  of  the  blotch  being  very 
irregular  as  a  rule,  but  the  dentations  are  comparatively  large  and  rounded. 
The  gallery  may  attain  a  length  of  from  4  in.  to  6  in.,  according  to  the 


446  Transactions. 

limits  of  the  leaf  in  which  it  is  contained  ;  in  small  leaveti  it  becomes 
incorporated  in  and  obliterated  by  the  blotch — so  much  so  that  no  sign 
of  any  gallery  can  be  found.  It  usually  follows  the  midrib  or  margin  of 
the  leaf  along  its  greater  extent,  sometimes  being  deflected  by  the  coarser 
veins  ;  in  this  manner  its  course  may  be  slightly  tortuous,  but  rarely  - 
markedly  so.  The  midrib  forms  an  impassable  barrier  except  at  its  upper  end. 
The  irregular  blotch  may  cover  an  expanse  of  about  1|  square  inches.  Colour 
of  the  mine  conspicuously'  white  or  light  green,  sometimes  discoloured  a 
bright  reddish-brown,  but  patchy  in  character.  That  part  of  the  leaf 
covering  the  blotch  is,  in  fleshy  leaves,  more  or  less  mottled  in  shades  of 
green  according  to  the  closeness  of  the  mine  to  the  outer  cuticle.  Frass 
exceedingly  scanty,  black,  finely  granular,  occupies  a  thin  line  near  one 
side  of  the  gallery,  sometimes  abruptly  changing  from  one  side  to  the  other. 
After  the  first  moult  the  granules  are- irregularly  scattered  over  the  floor 
of  the  mine.  Leaves  are  seldom  found  containing  more  than  two  mines. 
The  blotch  is  almost  invariably  boimded  on  the  outside  by  the  margin  of 
the  leaf. 

The  Larva. 

The  first  moult  occurs  about  6  cm.  or  7  cm.  from  the  commencement 
of  the  gallery.  Structural  details  of  the  larva  are  reserved  for  a  future 
paper. 

The  Cocoon. 

The  cocoon  is  a  delicate  structure  of  white  sUk  within  the  blotch  part 
of  the  mine.  It  is  oval  in  outline,  and  compressed  above  and  below. 
Average  .size  10  mm.  by  4  mm.  The  head  end  may  be  slightly  broader 
than  the  other.  It  is  not  conspicuous  from  the  exterior,  a  very  slight 
puckering  of  the  leaf  aroimd  its  circumference,  and  a  small  degree  of 
fuUness  in  that  part,  alone  betraying  its  presence.  On  holding  the  leaf 
up  against  the  light  the  pupa  may  be  distinguished  by  its  shadow,  and 
its  health  determined  by  the  vigour  of  its  movements  when  so  disturbed. 
There  is  no  evidence  on  the  exterior  of  any  prepared  place  for  exit. 

The  Pupa. 

As  seen  from  the  side  the  pupal  outline  is  rounded  at  the  head  (except 
for  the  cephalic  plate),  and  more  prominent  dorsally.  There  is  a  slight 
stricture  in  the  dorsal  outline  at  the  pro  thorax,  otherwise  the  dorsal 
outline  is  abiiost  straight.  Ventrally  there  is  a  fairly  deep  stricture 
between  the  eye  and  the  first  leg,  occupied  by  the  maxillae.  Ventral 
profile  somewhat  rounded,  the  body  becoming  slightly  attenuated  towards 
the  caudal  extremity.  A  ventral  view  of  the  pupa  shows  the  cephalic 
plate  occupying  about  one-third  of  the  width  of  the  head  between  the 
antennae  ;  the  outline  from  its  base  to  the  antenna  is  almost  straight ; 
the  greater  diameter  is  opposite  the  caudal  extremity  of  the  labial  palpi, 
the  body  from  here  becoming  gradually  attenuated  caudally. 

The  head  :  Cephalic  plate  well  developed  into  a  long,  slender  spear- 
point,  about  one  and  a  half  times  the  length  of  the  eye,  twice  as  long  as 
its  ventro-dorsal  diameter  at  its  base,  projected  forward  at  an  angle  of 
about  45°  to  the  long  axis  of  the  pupa  ;  the  pair  of  frontal  tubercles 
bear  long  and  slender  setae,  slightly  longer  than  the  cephalic  plate  ;  no 
trace  of  lateral  cornua.  Eyes  large,  prominent,  only  slightly  covered  by 
base  of  antenna.  Labrum  situated  between  eyes  at  about  their  middle. 
Mandibles  small  but  encroaching  caudally  upon  the  labrum.      Labial  palpi 


Watt. — Leaf -mining  Insects  of  New  Zealand. 


Ul 


long  and  slender,  slightly  expanded  in  their  middle  third.  Maxillae 
broad  above,  narrowed  between  first  legs,  but  slightly  expanded  at  their 
tips,   which   are   situated   about   midway   between   first  and   second   legs. 


Ms 


nh 


I     \ 


J      \ 


I    \ 

71' 


\!  V, 


Fig.  4. — Pupa  of  P.  zorionella,  ventral  view. 
Fig.  5. — Lateral  view  of  head. 
Fig.  6. — Dorsal  view. 

cp,  cephalic  plate  ;  A,  antenna  ;  F,  front ;  LP,  labial  palpi ;  Max,  maxillae  ; 
Li,  L2,  L^,  first,  second,  and  third  legs ;  Wi,  forewing ;  V,  vertex ;  E,  eye ; 
P,  prothorax  ;  mp,  maxillary  palp  ;  Ms,  mesothorax ;  Mt,  metathorax  ; 
Wo,  hindwing.  (All  figures  of  pupae  are  carefully  drawn  to  scale,  but  all 
are  not  necessarily  to  the  same  scale. ) 

Maxillary  palpi  obscure.  Antennae  segmented,  parallel  in  their  lower 
three-fifths,  but  separated  by  the  second  and  third  legs,  extended  whole 
length  of  body. 


448 


Transactions. 


Thoracic  appendages  :  Legs  as  described  in  type  ;  first  legs  about  twice 
as  long  as  labial  palpi ;  second  legs  constricted  in  their  middle  one-third 
by  the  first  legs  and  maxillae,  about  one-third  as  long  again  as  the  first, 
and  terminate  just  above  tips  of  fore  wings  ;  second  legs  terminate  just 
below  the  junction  of  segments  6  and  7,  about  half-way  between  the  ends 
of  second  legs  and  antennae.  Fore  wings  reaching  about  the  middle  of 
the  fifth  segment,  pointed,  and  slightly  incurved.  Prothorax  constricted 
mid-dorsally.  Mesothdrax  as  in  type.  Metathorax  as  in  type,  wings 
not  extending  beyond  first  segment.  Abdominal  segments,  spiracles,  and 
setae  as  in  type,  also  the  thoracic  setae.  The  first  abdominal  segment 
bears  only  the  dorsal  pair  of  setae.  All  the  setae  are  directed  caudallv. 
There  is  a  slight  lateral  ridge  on  segments  2-8  inclusive.  The  dorso-lateral 
seta  is  situated  just  dorsal  to  the  ridge,  below  the  level  of  the  spiracle,  is 
shorter  than  the  lateral  seta,  which  is  situated  close  against  the  dorsal 
margin  of  the  wing  in  segments  2-5,  and  caudal  to  the  spiracle.  On 
segments  5-8  inclusive  there  is  a  second  rather  more  prominent  lateral 
ridge,  ventro-lateral  and  parallel  to  the  other  ;  the  lateral  seta  and  spiracle 
are  situated  between  these  two  ridges. 

The  pupa  is  very  active  if  disturbed,  twirling  its  abdomen  in  great  haste  ; 
movement  occurring  between  segments  4-5,  5-6,  6-7.  Segment  9  bears 
only  the  dorsal  pair  of  setae,  while  10  bears  no  setae  at  all,  but  has  a  short 
pair  of  fleshy  tubercles  ventrally,  each  armed  with  a  minute  hook  ;  there 
is  a  pair  of  minute  tubercles  dorsally,  while  caudally  the  segment  is  pro- 
longed into  two  fairly  stout  finger-like  protuberances,  each  armed  with  a 
minute  hook  at  the  tip. 

Colour  of  pupa  before  dehisence  :  Head  black,  eyes  dark  red,  ventral 
appendages  black  with  white  markings,  mesothorax  black,  metathorax  and 
abdominal  segments  light  grey. 

Chief  Measurements  of  Pupa. 


Measurement  at 

Length  from  Tip 

Transverse 

Ventro-dorsal 

of  Cephalic  Plate. 

Diameter. 

Diameter. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Base  of  eyes 

0-88 

0-82 

0-71 

End  of  labial  palpi 

1-65 

I -00 

0-88 

End  of  first  legs     . . 

2-59 

0-94 

0-94 

End  of  maxillae     . . 

300 

0-94 

0-94 

End  of  second  legs 

3-76 

0-82 

0-88 

End  of  forew  ings   . . 

4-00 

0-76 

0-82 

End  of  third  legs   . . 

4-76 

0-58 

0-59 

End  of  antennae    . . 

5-88 

0-28 

0-29 

Extreme  length 

5-SS 

Dehiscence. 

The  pupa  is  extruded  through  the  upper  cuticle  of  the  leaf  as  far  as 
the  third  or  fourth  abdominal  segment.  The  legs  become  separated  in 
one  piece  on  either  side,  but  remain  attached  at  their  lower  extremites  by 
small  slips.  The  front,  with  cephalic  plate,  eyes,  labial  palpi,  maxillae, 
and  antennae,  remains  in  one  piece,  but  is  not  lost.  Dorsally  there  is  a 
rupture  across  the  epicranial  suture,  thus  freeing  the  front  and  its  append- 
ages, and  down  the  mid-dorsal  arm  of  this  suture,  extending  through  the 
prothorax  and  upper  two-thirds  of  the  mesothorax. 


Watt. — Leaf-mining  Insects  of  Netv  Zealand.'  449 

(3.)   Parectopa    panacitorsens   n.    sp.    (The   Panax   Underside   Moth). 

(Plate  XXX,  fig.  3.) 

The  Imago. 

9  mm.  Head  and  thorax  white  ;  antennae  grey-whitish  ;  palpi  white 
with  indistinct  ring  of  black  at  apex  of  second  joint,  and  a  distinct  sub- 
apical  ring  of  black  on  terminal  joint  ;  abdomen  grey-whitish  ;  legs  white, 
ringed  with  black,  posterior  tibiae  white.  Forewings  light  fuscous,  mark- 
ings white,  interrupted  with  ochreous  ;  a  narrow  dark-ochreous  streak 
along  costa  at  base  to  ^,  a  small  mdistinct  white  area  at  \,  a  slightly 
larger  and  more  distinct  one  at  -|,  a  square  white  patch  at  \,  a  narrow 
outwardly-oblique  white  streak  at  f  reaching  nearly  two-thirds  across  wing, 
a  small  transverse  white  bar  near  apex,  a  broad  white  streak  along  dorsum 
from  base  to  |,  interrupted  at  \  and  \  by  an  outwardly-oblique  wedge- 
shaped  spot  of  ochreous,  that  at  \  being  very  dark  ;  cilia  dark  grey  with 
two  black  lines.      Hindwings  and  cilia  dark  grey. 

There  is  also  a  North  Island  variety,  which  attacks  Nothojxinax 
Sinclairii.     (Plate  XXX,  fig.  7.) 

8  mm.  Head  light  grey-whitish  ;  palpi  white  with  two  black  rings  ; 
antennae  grey-whitish.  Thorax  grey-white  with  narrow  central  streak  of 
fuscous  dividing  caudally  into  a  small  V-marking.  Abdomen  dark  grey  ; 
legs  white  with  black  rings.  Forewings  golden  brown  irro rated  with  black ; 
markings  white,  tending  to  be  indistinct  ;  cilia  hght  brown  with  a  distinct 
black  line,  blackish  externally.  Hindwings  dark  grey ;  cilia  dark  grey  on 
costa,  lighter  bronze-gre)^  on  dorsum. 

Distribution. 

Several  mines  were  found  at  Aberfeldy,  in  the  Wanganui  district,  in 
I\Iay  of  1918,  but  all  were  old.  Several  mines  with  pupae  were  obtained 
in  the  Bush  Keserve,  Flagstaff,  Dunedin,  early  in  November,  1919,  and 
these  emerged  during  the  first  week  of  December. 

The  North  Island  variety  is  a  fairly  common  little  moth  in  season  on 
Mount  Egmont  at  3,000  ft.  Numbers  of  mines  were  found  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  North  Egmont  House  and  Dawson's  Falls,  and  beside  the  track  on  the 
way  up  the  mountain.  Pupa  were  obtained  fairly  plentifully  in  December 
and  early  January,  and  these  emerged  during  January  and  February.  First 
found  in  December,  1916.  No-  larvae  or  fresh  mines  were  found  during  a 
short  trip  taken  to  the  mountain  in  April  of  1917. 

F'ood-plant. 

Nothopanax  arhoreum  (whauwhaupaku). 

The  North  Island  variety  was  found  only  in  very  young  plants  of 
NotJiopanax  Sinclairii,  generally  within  a  foot  or  so  of  the  ground. 

The  Mine. 

The  egg  is  laid  on  the  under-surface  of  the  leaf,  but  otherAvise  in  no 
more  favoured  position.  The  mine  is  entirely  on  the' under-surface  of  the 
leaf  ;  no  signs  whatever  of  it  on  the  upper  surface.  Throughout  its  whole 
course  it  is  a  simple  gallery,  and  very  tortuous  in  its  direction.  Commenc- 
ing with  a  width  of  a  little  under  1  mm.,  it  has  a  width  of  3--4  mm.  in  its 
later  parts.  The  chief  direction  is  in  the  long  axis  of  the  leaf,  and  the  outer 
portions  of  the  leaf  are  more  mined  than  the  centre — in  fact,  nearly  three- 
quarters  of  the  entire  margin  of  the  leaf  forms  the  external  margin  of  the 

15 — Trans. 


450 


Transactions. 


mine.  The  gallery  twists  and  turns,  and  in  its  course  follows  so  close  against 
the  earlier  portions  that  the  partition  between  them  is  broken  down,  and 
finall}^  the  entire  mine  appears  to  form  a  huge  blotch  occupying  about  one- 
half  the  leaf-surface.  Though  thus  closely  following  its  former  track,  it 
rarely  crosses  it  except  under  direct  need.  The  midrib  forms  a  barrier, 
except  in  its  upper  and  thinner  part,  where  it  is  invariably  crossed.'  The 
final  length  of  the  mine  may  average  as  much  as  26  in.  Colour  in  the 
early  stages  white  with  a  fine  brown  central  line  occupied  by  the  frass  ; 


Fig.  7. 


-Mine  of  P.  panactitorsens  in  a  leaf  of  Nothopanax  arboreum.  The  dotted 
line  shows  the  course  taken  by  the  larva  ;  the  heavily  dotted  line  is  the 
earliest  part  of  the  mine.     (Two-thirds  natural  size.) 


the  remainder  of  the  mine,  however,  is  only  a  shade  paler  green  than  the 
.rest  of  the  leaf,  and  so  is  most  inconspicuous.  The  track  can  be  made 
out  by  the  fine  black  frass  granules  strewn  in  close  convex  lines  across  the 
gallery  ;  these  are  quite  j)lain  on  the  under-surface  of  the  leaf  if  looked 
for,  thus  demonstrating  the  extreme  thinness  of  the  covering  cuticle.  There 
is  a  narrow  portion  of  the  gallery  on  either  side  not  occupied  by  frass,  so 
this  outer  margin  is  somewhat  lighter  in  colour.  The  margins  of  the  gallery 
are  regular  and  even. 


Fig.  8. — Part  of  track  of  P.  panacitorsens  on  underside  of  leaf  of  Nothopanax  Sindairii. 
Fig.  9.— The  same  leaf  showmg  part  of  mine  visible  on  upper  surface.     (Natural  size.) 

In  the  case  of  Nothopanax  Sindairii  the  whole  leaf  is  so  mined  that 
the  entire  under-cuticle  can  be  lifted  off.  The  mine  is  not  conspicuous, 
but  a  trained  eye  can   detect   the   paler  colour   of  the  under-cuticle,  its 


Watt. — Leaf-mining  Insects  of  New  Zealand. 


451 


freedom  from  attachment  to  the  surface  of  the  leaf,  and  faint  frass 
lines.  The  only  evidence  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf  is  an  unusual 
crinkled  appearance,  and  sometimes  short  lengths  of  the  later  stages 
of  the  mine  where  the  larva  has  eaten  deeper  into  the  substance  of 
the  leaf  and  reached  the  upper  cuticle  ;  the  pale-green  portion  of  the  mine 
so  exposed  is  readily  noticed.  Frass  is  finely  granular,  very  scanty,  and 
offers  no  characteristic  features.  Very  rarely,  and  then  only  in  the  larger 
leaves,  were  two  larvae  found  working  in  the  same  leaf. 

The  Cocoon. 

The  cocoon  is  constructed  within  the  terminal  part  of  the  gallery,  and 
invariably  close  against  the  outer  margin  of  the  leaf,  and  usually  on  that 
side  opposite  the  one  in  which  the  mine  commenced.  Shape  ovoid,  slightly 
broader  at  head  end,  7  mm.  by  3  mm.  ;  its  long  axis  parallel  to  the  leaf- 
margin.  It  consists  only  of  a  very  thin  covering  of  white  silk.  Its  presence 
is  quite  conspicuous,  due  to  the  infolding  and  puckering-up  of  the  leaf 
round  about  it,  and  the  small  area  of  white  transparent  cuticle  at  the  head 
end  prepared  for  the  pupal  dehiscence.  The  pupa  thrusts  the  fore  part 
of  its  body  through  this  window  (vv^hich  is,  of  course,  on  the  under-surface 
of  the  leaf)  at  dehiscence. 

In  the  North  Island  variety  the  cocoon  is  a  small,  flattened,  oval  structure 
of  white  silk  within  the  mine,  generally  found  near  the  base  of  the  leaf.  It 
can  best  be  detected  by  holding  the  leaf  up  against  the  light,  when  the 
pupa  may  be  seen  within.  Externally  its  presence  may  be  detected  on  the 
upper  surface  by  a  slightly  elevated  portion  of  the  leaf.  Size,  6  mm.  by 
2*5  mm.     There  appears  to  be  no  prepared  outlet  for  the  pupa. 

The  Pupa. 

The  head  as  seen  from  the  side  is  somewhat  pointed,  but  rounded  as 
seen  ventrally,  with  a  slight  incision  at  base  of  antennae.  Cephalic  plate 
long  and  slender,  three-bladed,  sharply  pointed,  twice   as  long  as  broad 


II 

Fig.  10. — Ventral  view  of  head  of  pupa  of  P.  panacitorsens. 
Fig.  11. — Lateral  view. 


at  its  base,  slightly  longer  than  length  of  eye.  Lateral  cornua  well  deve- 
loped, incurved,  in  length  about  three-quarters  that  of  the  plate.  Frontal 
tubercules  and  setae  long  and  slender,  situated  just  caudally  to  the  base 
of  the  cephalic  plate  ;    bottom  of  labrum  about  the  same  level  as  base  of 


IS"" 


452 


Transactions. 


eyes  ;  maxillary  palpi  obscure.  Head,  thoracic,  and  abdominal  append- 
ages as  in  type.  Only  a  very  narrow  slip  of  the  first  femur  is  seen  between 
the  maxillae  and  first  legs.  Antennae  slightly  longer  than  body.  There 
is  a  small  dorso-lateral  ridge  on  all  abdominal  segments.  The  meso-  and 
meta-thoracic  dorsal  setae  are  long  and  slender,  and  directed  upwards 
and  outwards  ;  only  the  dorsal  setae  found  on  segments  1  and  2  ;  they 
exist  on  all  the  other  abdominal  segments  except  the  last,  and  are 
directed  caudally  ;  the  dorso-lateral  setae  in  segments  3,  4,  and  5  are 
characteristic,  being  extremely  long  and  slender,  those  on  segment  3  being 
the  longest  and  as  long  as  the  width  of  the  body  at  this  part  ;  they  are 
all  mounted  on  prominent  tubercules  at  the  cephalic  end  of  the  lateral 
ridges,  and  project  upwards  and  outwards.  The  dorso-lateral  setae  on 
segments  6,  7,  and  8  have  a  similar  position,  but  are  small  and  directed 
caudally  ;  there  is  a  minute  lateral  seta  ventral  to  and  below  the  spiracle 
close  against  the  outer  or  dorsal  margins'  of  the  wing,  and  is  found  in 
segments  3-7  inclusive.     All  other  particulars  as  in  type.     Tenth  abdominal 

segment  bi-digitate. 

Chief  Measurements  of  Pupa. 


Measurement  at 

Length  from  Tip 
of  Cephalic  Plate. 

Transverse 
Diameter. 

Ventro-dorsal 
Diameter. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Base  of  eyes 

0-76 

0-76 

0-55 

End  of  labial  palpi 

1-55 

0-83 

0-79 

End  of 'first  legs     . . 

2-48 

0-72  . 

0-79 

End  of  maxillae 

3-10 

0-62 

0-76 

End  of  second  legs 

3-38 

0-5.5 

0-72 

End  of  forewmgs   . . 

3-79 

0-45 

0-62 

End  of  third  legs   .  . 

4-62 

0-24 

0-27 

End  of  tenth  segment 

5-10 

End  of  antennae    . . 

5-38 

•  • 

Dehiscence. 

A  transverse  split  along  the  epicranial  suture  frees  the  frontal  head- 
piece, with  its  cephalic  plate,  antennae,  labial  palpi,  and  maxillae,  all  in 
one  piece,  and  this  is  forced  forward,  but  retained  in  its  lower  extremity 
by  loose  slips  ;  the  first  and  second  legs  form  a  separate  piece  on  either 
side,  but  are  retained  more  or  less  in  position  ;  a  mid-dorsal  splitting  cleaves 
the  vertex,  prothorax,  and  upper  two-thirds  of  the  mesothorax. 


(4.)  Parectopa   panacivermiforma   n.   sp.   (The    Panax  Vermiform  Moth). 

(Plate  XXX,  figs.  4  and  9.) 

The  Imago. 

10  mm.  Head  white  ;  palpi  white,  with  a  few  black  scales  on  outer  side 
of  apex  of  second  joint  and  a  distinct  black  subapical  ring  on  terminal  joint ; 
antennae  grey-whitish.  Thorax  white,  with  a  narrow  central  line  of  light 
iuscous  branching  caudally  into  a  small  V-shaped  marking  around  meta- 
thorax  ;  legs  white  with  black  rings.  Abdomen  grey-whitish.  Forewings 
light  bronze-brown,  suffusely  irrorated  with  black  ;  markings  white  ;  base 
of  wing  to  about  ^  white  with  a  fine  streak  of  dark  fuscous  along,  costa, 
and  a  small  outwardly-oblique  spot  of  dark  fuscous  about  the  middle  ; 
three  short  outwardly-oblique  white  markings  on  costa  in  middle  |,  the 


Watt. — Leaf-mining  Ir^sects  of  ]\^ew  Zealand. 


453 


outermost  being  the  smallest,  the  interspaces  densely  irrorated  with  black  ; 
three  rather  obscure  lines  of  white  in  outer  J  ;  cilia  whitish  with  distinct 
band  of  black  internally  and  a  second  indistinct  one  externally  ;  a  small 
triangular  spot  of  white  on  dorsum  at  about  \  ;  two  rather  less  distinct 
white  spots  at  |.  Hindwings  dark-grey  ;  cilia  grey  on  costa,  grey  with 
bronzy  reflections  on  dorsum. 

Distribution. 
Found  pleiitifully  on  Mount  Egniont  in  the  vicinity  of  North  Egmont 
House  and  Dawson's  Falls  (3,000  ft.).  Many  larvae  were  found  here  in 
April  of  1917.  The  pupae  may  be  obtained  about  the  end  of  December, 
and  emerge  during  January  and  February.  Also  found  at  Dimedin,  on 
Flagstaff  Hill,  chiefly  aroimd  the  margin  of  the  bush.  The  pupae  are  to 
be  obtained  in  November  ;  larvae  are  plentiful  in  the  early  part  of  the 
month.     The  first  imagos  emerged  on  the  16th  December. 

Food-plant. 

Nothopanax  Sinclairii;  Nothopcmax  simplex  (haumakoroa),  in  South 
Island. 

Egg-laying. 

The  egg  itself  has  not  yet  been  found,  but  the  following  few  particulars 
have  been  gleaned  from  observations  on  young  mines.  The  eggs  are  laid 
singl}",  rarely  more  than  one  or  two  on  any  one  leaf,  upon  the  upper 
surface,  and  near  but  rarely  touching  the  midrib,  and  generally  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  leaf  towards  the  stem. 


The  Mine. 
The  mme  is  a  vgry  characteristic  one.  .  It  is  a  simple  gallery  throughout, 
and  vermiform  in  character,  the  loops  being  very  closely  applied  to  one 
another,  never  anastomosing  or  crossing.      As  a  rule  the  gallery  at  first 


Figs.  12,  13. — Mines  of  P.  panacivermiforma  in  Nothopanax  Sinclairii. 

(Natural  size.) 

winds"  backwards  and  forwards  in  slightly  increasing  distances,  closely 
applied  to  itself,  and  in  a  direction  more  or  less  parallel  to  the  long  axis 
of  the  leaf  ;    then  with  an  almost  remarkable  abruptness  it  changes  its 


454 


Transactions. 


direction  for  one  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  earlier  one,  now  crossing 
the  leaf  in  curved  sweeps  from  edge  to  midrib,  this  latter  forming  a  certain 
obstacle  to  trespass  on  the  other  half  of  the  leaf.  The  spot  where  the 
general  change  of  direction  takes  place  no  doubt  marks  the  situation  where 
the  larva  underwent  its  first  moult.  On  reaching  the  upper  region  of  the 
leaf  the  mine  becomes  less  vermiform  in  character  and  becomes  rather  tor- 
tuous in  its  direction,  crossing  the  midrib  in  its  upper  and  thinner  part,  and 
continuing  down  the  other  half  of  the  leaf  in  more  or  less  close  proximity  to 
the  midrib  or  outer  margin.  This  latter  portion  of  the  mine  is  often  deeper 
in  the  leaf  than  the  earlier  vermiform  part,  and  consequently  is  more  difficult 
to  detect.  In  this  final  part  the  width  of  the  gallery  is  about  /^  in.  The 
entire  mine  is  in  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf,  and  no  trace  of  it  can  be  seen 
beneath.  Colour  of  mine  a  paler  green  than  other  portions  of  the  leaf, 
but  even  so  the  mine  is  not  a  very  conspicuous  object  ^t  a  little  distance. 
The  terminal  portion  of  the  gallery  may  be  slightly  enlarged,  and  within 
it  the  cocoon  is  constructed,  a  small  area  of  the  upper  cuticle  of  the  leaf 
at  the  extreme  end  of  the  mine  being  first  prepared  to  a  transparent 
thinness  for  the  exit  of  the  pupa  later.  The  frass  is  finely  granular,  pale 
in  colour,  not  very  abundant,  and  occupies  a  rather  broad  band  in  the 
central  third  of  the  gallery. 

The  South  Island  type  differs  from  the  above.  In  the  earlier  part  the 
mine  is  a  simple  vermiform  gallery  very  similar  to  that  of  P.  -panax- 
vermiformella  both  in  size  and  character ;  later,  however,  instead  of 
ending  in  a  somewhat  tortuous  and   widened  gallery,   it  expands  into  a 


Figs.   14,   15. — INIines   of  P.  panacivermiforma  (South  Island)  in  leaves  of 
Nothopanax  simplex.     (Natural  size.) 


relatively  large  blotch,  which^may  occupy  the  entire  leaf  in  small  ones, 
or  all  or  the  greater  part  of  one  half  of  the  leaf  in  larger  ones.  The  entire 
mine  is  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf,  and  is  pale  green  in  coloiu,  and 
not  very  conspicuous  at  a  distance       The  final  blotch  may  occupy  about 


Watt. — Leaf -mining  Insects  of  New  Zealand. 


455 


1  square  inch  ;  it  is  generally  more  closely  applied  to  the  outer  margin 
of  the  leaf,  where  there  is  plenty  of  room.  The  midrib  forms  a  barrier  in 
its  basal  two-thirds.  The  blotch  is  irregular  in  shape,  but  all  irregularities 
are  rounded.  Frass  is  finely  granular,  black,  scanty.  Old  mines  soon 
become  white  and  conspicuous. 

I  have  not  yet  been  able  to  study  the  larva. 

The  Cocoon. 

This  is  a  small  oval  structure  of  thin  white  silk  within  the  terminal 
part  of  the  mine.  The  roof  of  cuticle  protecting  it  above  is  slightly  thicker 
than  elsewhere  in  the  mine.  The  position  of  the  cocoon  is  not  a  constant 
one,  but  is  generally  alongside  the  midrib  or  outer  margin  of  the  leaf  ; 
sometimes,  however,  it  occupies  a  position  between  these,  lying  more  or 
less  at  right  angles  to  their  general  direction.  It  is  most  generally  found 
about  the  middle  third  of  the  leaf.  Dimensions,  7  mm.  by  3' mm.  Quite 
frequently  the  cocoon  causes  a  slight  infolding  of  the  leaf  in  its  immediate 
vicinity,  but  this  is  not  so  constant  as  in  some  of  the  other  Panax  moths  ; 
n>ost  generally  a  small  hump  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf  is  all  that 
reveals  its  existence. 

In  the  South  Island  form  the  cocoon  is  constructed  in  a  small  narrow 
extension  of  the  terminal  part  of  the  blotch,  close  to  the  upper  cuticle  of 
the  leaf.  It  is  usually  near  the  outer  margin  of  the  'eaf,  about  its  middle 
or  in  its  upper  half.  The  white  silken  lining  is  very  thin  and  frail,  and 
causes  a  slight  local  puckering  of  the  leaf.  The  small  white  window  at 
the  end  of  the  cocoon  is  similar  to  that  of  P.  imnacifinens  and  others.  Size, 
6  mm.  by  2  mm. 

The  Puva. 

All  the  essential  characteristics  are  the  same  as  in  the  other  Panax 
moths.  The  cephalic  plate  is  about  as  long  as  wide  at  its  base,  and  the 
lateral  cornua  are  short  and  of  about  half  the  length  of  the  plate  ;  the 
labrum  is  slightly  above  the  lower  margin  of  the  eyes  ;  mandibles  promi- 
nent.    Prothorax  wide  laterally  against  the  antenna,  but  almost  obliterated 


16 

Fig.  16. — Head  of  pupa  of  P.  panacivermiforma,  ventral  view. 
Fig.  17.— Lateral  view. 


in  the  mid-dorsal  region.  Antennae  reach  to  the  eighth  abdominal  segment. 
Regarding  the  setae,  these  are  the  same  as  in  P.  panacitorsens ;  in  the 
tenth  segment  the  dorsal  setae  are  replaced  by  a  pair  of  short  pointed 
tubercles ;  segment  8  bears  all  three  pairs  of  setae  ;  segment  9  bears  the 
dorsal  pair  only.      The  two  caudal  appendages  are  well  developed.     The 


456 


Transactions. 


pupa  is  very  active  if  disturbed,  twirling  its  abdomen  vigorously  ;  two 
distinct  movements  are  made,  a  circular  twirling  and  a  side-to-side 
movement.  Movement  takes  place  between  segments  4-5,  5-6,  6-7,  also 
very  slightly  between  2-3,  3-4.  Colour  at  first  pure  crystal-white,  later 
changing  to  light  yellow.  Just  prior  to  emergence  the  wings  and  frontal 
parts  become  speckled  grey,  eyes  black,  upper  half  of  antennae  and  legs 
speckled  grey,  lower  half  light  yellow  except  for  the  tips.  Headpiece 
and  abdominal  segments  light  yellow,  except  dorsally,  where  they  are  darker 
in  colour. 

Chief  Measurements  of  Pupa. 


Length  from  Tip 

Transverse 

Ventro-dorsal 

of  Cephalic  Plate. 

Diameter. 

Diameter. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Base  of  eyes 

0-23 

0-52 

0-42 

End  of  labial  palpi 

0-86 

0-69 

0-65 

End  of  first  legs     . . 

1-55 

0-65 

0-62 

End  of  maxillae 

1-89 

0-62 

0-59 

End  of  second  legs 

2-24 

0-52 

0-59 

End  of  forewings   . . 

2-52 

0-45 

0-55 

End  of  third  legs   . . 

3-08 

0-31 

0-31 

End  of  antennae    . . 

3-28 

0-24 

0-21 

Extreme  length 

3-45 

In  the  South  Island  form  the  antennae  are  as  long  as  the  body.     The 
setal  plan  is  identical  with  that  of  P.  panacitorsens.     Colour  at  first  pearly 


Fig.  18. — Pupa  of  P.  panacivermiforma  (South  Island  form),  ventral  view. 
Fig.  19. — Dorsal  view. 


white  with  a  faint  tinge  of  green ;  later  the  eyes  become  black,  and  the 
appendages  mottled  grey  and  white."  The  abdominal  segments  3-6  inclusive 
become  black  dorsally,  and  this  pigmentation  remains  in  the  cast  skin. 


Watt. — Leaf-mining  Insects  of  'New  Zealand. 


457 


Chief  Measurements  of  Pupa. 


Length  from  Tip 

Transverse 

Ventro-dorsal 

Measurement  at 

of  Cephalic  Plate. 

Diameter. 

Diameter. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Base  of  eyes 

0-51 

0-65 

0-48 

End  of  labial  palpi 

1-21 

0-76 

0-72 

End  of  first  legs     . . 

2-06 

0-69 

0-69 

End  of  maxillae 

2-76 

0-62 

0-69 

End  of  second  legs 

2-83 

0-55 

0-65 

End  of  forewings   . . 

3  17 

0-48 

0-62 

End  of  third  legs   . . 

3-90 

0-27 

0-27 

End  of  antennae    . . 

4-27 

,  • 

.   , 

Extreme  length 

4-30 

■    Dehiscence. 

The  pupa  pierces  the  prepared  window  at  the  head  of  the  cocoon  on  the 
upper  surface  of  the  leaf.  All  details  as  to  splitting  are  identical  with 
those  of  P.  panacitorsens,  and  so  need  not  be  repeated. 


(5.)  Parectopa  panacicorticis  n.  sp.  (The  Panax  Bark  Moth).    (Plate  XXX, 

fig.  5.) 

The  Imago. 

?.  7.-8  mm.  Head  and  thorax  dark  grey  irrorated  with  white  ;  palpi 
white  with  apex  of  second  joint  and  subapical  ring  of  terminal  joint  black  ; 
antennae  grey-blackish,  whitish  towards  apex  ;  abdomen  dark  grey  above, 
white  beneath  ;  legs  white  with  black  rings.  Forewings  dark  grey  to  black, 
densely  irrorated  with  white  ;  a  series  of  short,  outwardly-oblique  white 
marks  on  costa,  three  before  | ;  at  |,  f ,  and  f  a  larger  wedge-shaped  spot 
of  white  with  a  smaller  one  on  its  outer  side  ;  a  narrow  line  of  black 
separates  the  white  apical  spot  from  an  indistinct  band  of  white  on  its 
inner  side  :  a  small  conspicuous  white  triangular  area  on  dorsum  at  |, 
a  small  white  spot  at  f  and  another  at  | ;  cilia  white  at  apex,  elsewhere 
grey.     Hindwings  and  cilia  dark  grey. 

In  male  the  wing-expanse  is  shorter,  about  6  mm.  ;  the  white  markings 
are  more  conspicuous,  those  on  costa  at  |  and  f  especially  so  ;  the  ventral 
surface  of  the  abdomen  is  whitish  tinged  with  grey. 

This  species  approaches  P.  aethalota  Meyr.  very  closely.  I  have  never 
seen  it  on  the  wing,  all  my  specimens  being  reared  from  pupae. 

Distribution. 

It  is  quite  common  on  Mount  Egmont  at  an  altitude  of  3,000  ft.,  and 
is  plentiful  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Mountain  House  and  down  the  mountain 
track.  I  have  also  found  it  at  Dunedin  in  the  bush  behind  the  Botanical 
Gardens,  and  more  plentifully  in  the  Bush  Reserve  on  Flagstaff  Hill. 
Several  old  mines  have  been  found  at  Aberfeldy,  in  the  Wanganui  district. 
The  following  dates  give  some  idea  as  to  the  time  of  its  appearance,  &c.  : 
Egmont— 10/1/17,  pupae  found  ;  21/4/17,  young  larva  ;  23/12/17,  many 
pupae  obtained.      Dunedin — 20/17/19,   a   few  young  larvae  found   (these 


4:58  Transactions. 

pupated  about  the  middle  of  November)  ;    2/12/17,  many  pupae   found 
(these  all  emerged  during  January). 

This  little  moth  is  attacked  a  great  deal  by  a  hymenopterous  parasite 
at  present  unidentified. 

Food-plant. 

Nothopanax  arhoreum  (whauwhaupaku). 

Egg-laying. 

The  eggs  are  laid  singly  on  the  bark  of  the  young  stems  of  the  food- 
plant.  There  appears  to  be  no  especially  favoured  position,  except  that  it 
has  been  noticed  that  the  region  about  the  expanded  bases  of  the  leaves 
is  rarely  chosen,  some  more  or  less  exposed  position  on  the  internode 
being  utilized.  A  description  of  the  ovum  must  wait  until  fresh  unhatched 
ova  can  be  obtained.  They  should  be  looked  for  during  the  months  of 
January  and  February. 

The  Mine.      | 

The  mine  is  a  simple  gallery  throughout.  At  first  about  0'5  mm.  in 
width,  it  increases  gradually  to  about  3  mm.  The  general  direction  is 
along  the  young  stem  in  the  internodes  in  its  long  axis.  •  On  reaching 
a  node  where  the  large  expanded  base  of  the  leaf-stalk  closely  embraces 
the  greater  part  of  the  stem  the  mine  follows  the  obstruction  a  varying 
distance,  eventually  turning  down  into  the  next  internode  or  retracing 
its  way  back  in  its  old  internode,  turning  again  in  a  similar  manner  on 
reaching  the  other  extremity.  In  this  way  the  internodes  become  more  or 
less  occupied  by  long  galleries,  while  at  the  nodes  the  mine  may  enlarge 
and    quite    envelop   the   stem.      Blind   branches   are   rarely   found.      The 


Fig.  20. — Mine  of  P.  panacicorticis  in  stem  of  Nothopanax  arhoreum. 
(Two-thirds  natural  size.) 

mine  may  at  times  become  somewhat  tortuous,  and  in  places  more  or  less 
expanded  oMang  to  several  parts  intercommunicating.  As  a  general  rule 
but  one  internode  will  be  occupied  by  any  one  mine,  though  sometimes  a 
mine  may  extend -into  two.  Where  two  mines  are  occupying  the  rather 
small  area  offered  by  a  single  internode,  their  galleries  may  intermingle 
indiscriminately  without  any  attempt  at  mutual  avoidance.  Such  crowding 
is  rarely  found.  The  colour  of  the  mine  at  first  is  white,  and  later 
white  or  a  very  pale  brown  ;  it  is  most  conspicuous.  The  frass  is  scanty, 
and  in  the  earlier  portions  of  the  mine  occupies  a  narrow  central  line  in  the 
gallery.     Details  of  the  larva  are  reserved  for  a  future  monograph. 

The  Cocoon. 

This  structure  is  built  in  the  terminal  portion  of  the  mine  somewhere 
in  the  internode,  very  rarely  against  the  base  of  the  leaf -stalk.  It  is 
constructed  of  white  silk,   but  is  very  thin,   almost  transparent,   and   is 


Watt. — Leaf -mining  Insects  of  New  Zealand. 


459 


covered  externally  by  the  thin  outer  cuticle  of  the  stem.  It  is  somewhat 
cylindrical  in  shape,  with  roimded  ends  ;  average  size  about  10  mm.  by 
2-5  mm.  It  forms  quite  a  conspicuous  little  bulge  on  the  side  of  the  stem, 
its  long  axis  parallel  to  that  of  the  stem. 

The  Pupa. 
Of  the  head-parts,  the  cephalic  plate  is  about  twice  as  long  as  broad 
at  its  base  ;  the  lateral  cornua  are  represented  by  two  extremely  small 
tubercles,  only  slightly  elevated  ;  labrum  slightly  above  lower  margin  of 
the  eyes.  All  the  chief  characteristics  are  the  same  as  in  P.  panacitorsens. 
Individual  characteristics  in  the  Panax  moths  are  hard  to  find.  The 
forewings  normally  extend  to  the  lower  border  of  the  fifth  abdominal 
segment,  while  the  third  legs  reach  to  the  lower  border  of  the  seventh, 
and  the  antennae  to  that  of  the  eighth  or  ninth.      Regarding  the  setae, 


21  '  22 

Fig.  21. — Head  of  pupa  of  P.  panacicorticia,  ventral  view. 
Fig.  22. — Lateral  view. 

these  are  the  same  as  P.  panacitorsens,  with  the  exception  that  the  dorso- 
lateral seta  was  present  in  the  second  segment ;  all  three  pairs  were  found 
in  8  and  9,  and  10  bore  a  small  dorsal  pair  and  a  larger  dorso-lateral 
seta  at  the  base  of  each  caudal  appendage.  The  lateral  ridges  are  very 
rudimentary.  The  dorso-lateral  setae  in  2-6  inclusive  are  directed  upwards 
and  outwards,  that  on  segment  3  being  the  longest,  and  in  length  about 
equal  to  two-thirds  the  width  of  the  body  at  that  point.  Colour  golden 
brown,  darker  on  dorsum  of  head  and  thorax  and  segments  3-6  inclusive. 

Chief  Measurements  of  Pupa. 


Measurement  at 

Length  from  Tip 

Transverse 

Ventro-Iateral 

of  Cephalic  Plate. 

Diameter. 

Diameter. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Base  of  eyes 

0-76 

0-69 

0-51 

End  of  labial  palpi 

, '            . 

1-41 

0-79 

0-72 

End  of  first  legs     . . 

,              , 

2-24 

0-79 

0-76 

End  of  maxillae 

,              , 

2-65 

0-76 

0-72 

End  of  second  legs 

, 

2-97 

0-69 

0-72 

End  of  forewings   . . 

•              • 

3-28 

0-66 

0-63 

End  of  third  legs   . . 

•              . 

3-97 

0-38 

0-48 

End  of  antennae    . .  • 

• 

4-41 

,   , 

•  ■ 

Extreme  length 

.. 

4-89 

•  • 

460  Transactions. 

Dehiscence. 

Exactly  the  same  as  in  P.  panacitorsens  and  all  the  other  Panax 
Parectopas.  There  is  here  no  external  evidence  of  any  prepared  exit  from 
the  cocoon,  but  the  pupa  always  emerges  at  the  uppermost  end,  and  here 
also  with  its  ventral  appendages  outermost. 

This  moth  is  a  favourite  prey  to  parasites,  two  species  having  been 
reared  but  not  yet  identified — in  fact,  quite  90  per  cent,  of  all  the  Panax 
Parectopas  are  destroyed  by  these  parasitic  Hymenoptera.  Usually  there 
is  but  a  single  parasite  to  each  post ;  this  parasite  constructs  its  small 
cylindrical  cocoon  within  that  of  its  host,  and  later  emerges  through  a 
circular  outlet  gnawed  in  the  upper  end  of  the  latter  structure. 

(6.)    Parectopa    panacifinens    n.    sp.    (The    Panax   Marginal    and    Central 

Moth).     (Plate  XXX,  fig.  6.) 

The  Imago. 

2,  TO  mm. ;    ^,  8  mm.     Head  whitish  with  a  dorsal  streak  of  fuscous  ; 
palpi  whitish,  with  apex  of  second  joint  and  a  well-defined  subap'cal  ring 
on  terminal  joint  black  ;    antennae  fuscous.     Thorax  light  fuscous  with  a 
fairly  broad  central  line  of  darker  fuscous,  and  on  either  side  a  narrow 
rather  obscure  dorso-lateral  line  of  dark  fuscous.      Abdomen  grey-black 
legs  whitish  ringed  with  black.     Fore  wings  brown  ifrorated  with  black 
markings   white,   the   black   irrorations   being   somewhat  denser   on   their 
margins  ;    a  narrow  slightly  wavy  streak  of  white  along  dorsum  from  near 
base  to  f ,  interrupted  by  a  small  patch  of  brown  about  |  (this  white  streak 
is  more  pronounced  in  the  male)  ;    three  distinct  short  outwardly-oblique 
white  lines  from  costa  at  -J-,  ^,  §.  the  outermost  one  being  the  narrowest 
and  longest,  the  centre  one  the  most  conspicuous  and  almost  square  ;    a 
narrow  outwardly-concave   transverse   bar   of   white   near   apex,    broadest 
against  the  costa  ;    cilia  fuscous  with  a  distinct  black  line.     Hindwings  and 
cilia  fuscous. 

Distribution. 

Numerous  on  Mount  Egmont  at  3,000  ft.  Pupae  are  to  be  obtained 
during  November  and  December,  the  imagos  appearing  in  January.  Also 
found  in  the  Bush  Reserve  on  Flagstaff  Hill,  Dunedin,  in  November,  the 
imagos  emerging  early  in  December. 

Food- plant. 
Nothopanax  arhoreum  (whauwhaupaku) . 

The  Mine. 

The  egg  is  laid  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf,  generally  near  the  midrib. 
The  mine  is  a  simple  gallery,  white  in  colour,  on  the  upper  surface  of  the 
leaf  ;  increases  in  width  very  gradually  to  about  2  mm.  ;  its  total  length  is 
about  16  in.  ;  its  character  is  very  constant,  and  altogether  it  is  a  most 
conspicuous  object.  The  larva  on  hatching  burrows  immediately  into  the 
leaf,  and  heads  in  in  more  or  less  of  a  straight  line  till  the  margin  or  midrib 
of  the  leaf  is  encountered,  after  which  this  obstacle  is  closely  followed. 
Out  of  several  hundred  examined,  no  cases  showfd  any  tendency  on  the 
part  of  the  newly  hatched  larva  to  mine  in  a  spiral,  as  in  the  case  of 
P.  aellomacha.  Its  course  invariably  takes  it  close  around  the  greater 
portion  or  entire  margin  of  the  leaf,   closely  follo'WT.ng  the  digitations  and 


Watt. — Leaf -mining  Insects  of  New  Zealand. 


461 


any  incursions  made  by  other  insects,  and  also  along  one  or  both  of  the 
sides  of  the  midrib,  this  forming  a  barrier  only  in  its  basal  three-quarters. 
The  gallery  then  follows  a  more  or  less  tortuous  course  within  these 
boundaries  ;  if  the  leaf  be  large  it  will  rarely  cross  earlier  jiarts  of  its  own 
track,  and  will  wander  in  a  vermiform  manner  along  one  half  of  the  leaf, 
generally  that  half  opposite  the  one  on  which  the  egg  was  laid  ;  in  smaller 
leaves  almost  the  entire  upper  surface  will  be  mined  in  a  very  compli- 
cated manner,  but  there  is  never  any  tendency  to  blotch  formation  as  in 
P.  'panacitorsens.  Loops  may  be  thrown  out  from  the  straight  central 
portion  of  the  gallery  against  the  midrib,  but  never  blind  branches  :  this 
is  characteristic.  The  way  in  which  the  gallery  closely  follows  the  margin 
of  the  leaf  nearly  all  the  way  roimd  was  very  characteristic  of  the  Eo-mont 


Figs.  23,  24,  25. — Typical  mines  of  P.  pa7iacifinens  in  leaves  of  Nothopanax 
arboreum.     (Two-thirds  natural  size.) 

mines,  but  was  not  so  constant  in  the  Dunedin  ones.  Perhaps  the  chief 
characteristic  of  the  mine  is  the  absence  of  blind  branches.  Frass  is  almost 
negligible,  black,  very  finely  granular,  and  is  irregularly  distributed.  As 
a  rule  it  is  deposited  at  the  margins  of  the  mine,  alternately  on  either  side 
m  the  early  parts,  but  later  is  arranged  in  close  curved  lines,  convex 
forwards,  transversely  across  the  gallery.  In  the  final  stages  it  tends  to 
become  somewhat  fluid  in  character. 


The  Cocoon. 
The  cocoon  is  constructed  in  the  slightly  expanded  terminal  part  of  the 
mine,  somewhat  deeper  in  the  leaf  than  the  rest  of  the  gallery.  Its  position 
may  be  alongside  the  midrib,  the  outer  margin,  or  one  of  the  coarser  veins 
of  the  leaf.  The  small  cylindrical  structure  of  white  silk  pulls  in  the  cuticle 
of  the  leaf  in  its  vicinity  and  causes  the  leaf  here  to  become  slightly 
elevated,  puckered,  and  infolded,  affording  it  greater  protection.  A  small, 
thin,  almost  transparent  white  window  is  constructed  in  the  upper  surface 
of  the  leaf  at  the  end  of  the  cocoon  by  the  larva  just  prior  to  pupatioii. 
Size,  about  8  mm.  by  3  mm. 


462 


Transactions. 


^  The  Pupa. 

The  pupa  differs  hardly  at  all  from  the  other  Panax  moths. 
cephaHc  plate  is  rather  short, 
and  about  as  long  as  wide  at 
its  base  ;  the  lateral  cornua  are 
well  developed,  and  are  about 
equal  in  length  to  that  of  the 
plate  ;  in  some  of  the  Dunedin 
specimens,  however,  they  were 
not  free,  but  soldered  down  to 
the  headpiece  around  the  front 
of  the  base  of  the  cephalic  plate. 
There  is  a  strongly  marked  mid- 
dorsal  ridge  on  vertex,  meso- 
and  meta-thorax,  and  extending 
slightly  on  to  the  first  abdo- 
minal segment.  The  prothorax 
is  narrow.  Antennae  variable 
in  length,  sometimes  slightly 
longer  than  the  body.     Setae  exactly  as  in  P.  'panacivermiforma 


The 


Fig.  26. — Head  of  pupa  of  P.  panacifinens, 

ventral  view. 
Fig.  27. — Lateral  view. 


Chief  Measurements  of  Pupa. 


Measurement  at 

Length  from  Tip 

Transverse 

Ventro-dorsal 

of  Cephalic  Plate. 

Diameter. 

Diameter. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Base  of  eyes 

0-72 

0-79 

0-55 

End  of  labial  palpi 

1-51 

0-96 

0-90 

End  of  first  legs     . . 

2-58 

0-90 

0-86 

End  of  maxillae     . .          ,     . 

2-86 

0-86 

0-86 

End  of  second  legs 

' 

3-51 

0-72 

0-86 

End  of  forewings   . . 

3-90 

0-69 

0-83 

End  of  third  legs   . . 

4-89 

0-48 

0-51 

End  of  antennae    . . 

5-45 

^  ^ 

Extreme  length 

.5-65 

Dehiscence. 
Exactly  as  in  P.  panacivermiforma. 


(1.)   Parectopa    aellomacha    Meyr.    (The    Panax    Branching    Moth). 

(Plate  XXX,  fig.  8.) 

Gracilaria  aellomacha  Meyr.,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  21,  p.  184,  1889. 
Parectopa  aellomacha  Meyr.,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  47,  p.  228,  1915. 

Mey rick's  Original  Description. 

*'  c?  ?.  T-9  mm.  Head  and  palpi  snow-white,  palpi  with  apex  of  second 
joint  and  a  subapical  ring  of  terminal  joint  black.  Thorax  snow-white, 
with  a  small  black  spot  on  shoulder.  Forewings  snow-white  ;  markings 
fuscous,  irrorated  with  dark  fuscous  ;  a  cloudy  central  longitudinal  streak 
from  near  base  to  disc  above  anal  angle,  more  or  less  obsolete  towards 
base,  connecting  obscurely  with  about  seven  oblique  costal  and  about  four 


Watt. — Leaf-mining'  Insects  of  New  Zealand. 


463 


oblique  dorsal  streaks  (these  vary  somewhat)  ;  costal  streaks  usually  alter- 
nately slender  and  thick  ;  a  fuscous  apical  spot  :  cilia  grey,  round  apex 
white,  with  two  dark  fuscous  lines  and  a  black  apical  hook.     Hindwings 

fuscous-grey,  cilia  paler." 

Distribution. 

I  liave  so  far  found  this  species  only  on  Mount  Egmont,  about  3,000- 
4,000  ft.,  where  it  is  quite  plentiful.  Pupae  were  obtained  during  December 
and  January,  emerging  in  February.  Young  larvae  were  found  in  April 
of  1917.  Meyrick  records  it  from  "Wellington  and  Christchurch,  in 
September,  January,  and  February  ;  four  specimens. 

'  Food-plant. 

Nothopanax  arhoreum  (whauwhaupaku). 

The  Mine. 

The  mine  is  a  most  characteristic  one.  It  is  rare  to  find  more  than  one 
mine  in  a  leaf.  The  egg  is  invariably  laid  upon  the  upper  surface  near 
the  midrib,  and  generally  in  the  basal  portion  of  the  leaf.  The  larva  on 
hatching  at  once  mines  into  the  leaf  through  the  shell  of  the  egg,  and  as  a 
general  rule  takes  several  spiral  turns  before  mining  in  any  definite  direc- 
tion. This  spiral  nature  of  the  earliest  portion  of  the  mine  is  characteristic. 
The  mine  throughout  is  a  very  gradually  widening  gallery,  never  becoming 
blotched,  and  rarely  do  portions  cross  each  other  except  in  the  smaller 
leaves.     The  final  width  is  about  2  mm.     Its  direction  invariably  takes  it 


Figs.  28,  29. — Mines  of  P.  aellomacha  in  leaves  of  Nothopanax  arhoreum. 

(Two-thirds  natural  size.) 

along  both  sides  of  the  midrib,  this  obstacle  being  crossed  in  its  upper  and 
thinner  part ;  from  these  long  straight  portions  a  varying  number  of  blind 
arms  or  branches  of  varying  lengths,  mostly  straight  but  sometimes  slightly 
curved,  sprout  out  into  the  leaf.  As  a  rule  the  greater  number  will  be 
confined  to  one  half  of  the  leaf.  These  blind  branches  sometimes  follow 
the  course  of  the  veins  of  the  leaf,  but  most  often  do  not,  generally  treating 
these  as  no  obstacle  ;  they  do  not  often  reach  as  far  as  the  outer  margin  of 
the  leaf,  but  may  do  so,  and  may  follow  it  a  short  distance  ;  the  result  is, 
however,  always  the  same — a  single  blind-ended  branch,  never  loops  as  in  the 
case  of  P.  panacifinens  ;  and  rarely  is  any  of  the  margin  of  the  leaf  so  mined. 
The  branches  are  all  more  or  less  parallel  to  one  another,  and  rarely 
cross  ;  they  are  all  more  or  less  equal  in  width,  about  2  mm.  The  mine 
is  found  only  in  the  younger  leaves,  and  is  pale  green  in  colour,  the  tips  of 
the  branches  often  being  white,  showing  where  the  larva  came  close  against 
the  upper  cuticle.  No  evidence  of  the  mine  is  to  be  found  on  the  underside 
of  the  leaf,  and  in  its  natural  state  the  mine  is  not  a  very  conspicuous 


464 


Transactions. 


object,  though  so  very  striking  when  seen  in  picked  leaves.  Old  mines 
become  white,  but  otherwise  do  not  discolour  the  leaf  ;  they  are  con- 
sequently far  more  conspicuous  objects  than  the  fresh  ones.  The  mine  is 
slightly  deeper  in  the  leaf  than  that  of  P.  panacifinens.  The  total  length 
of  the   mine  may  reach  to  12  in.  or  16  in.     Frass  is  very  finely  granular; 

^'^^^^^^'-     -  The  Cocoon. 

The  cocoon  is  a  somewhat  cylindrical  structure  of  thin  white  silk,  with 

all  the  characteristics  of  P.  panacifinens.     It  is  within  the  mine  in  the 

upper  part  of  the  leaf,  and  is  protected  by  a  somewhat  thicker  covering 

than  the  rest  of  the  mine.     It  is  slightly  elevated,  and  as  a  rule  causes  a 

local  pinching  of  the  leaf.     It  is  invariably  foimd  alongside  the  midrib  in 

the  basal  third  of  the  leaf.     Size,  7  mm.  by  2  mm.     Its  small  white  window 

is  quite  conspicuous  at  the  head  end  of  the  structure ;  it  is  fan-shaped,  with 

its  broadest  part  upon  the  surface  of  the  leaf.     Old  cocoons  soon  become 

discoloured  brown.  ^7     t. 

Ihe  Pupa. 

The  pupa  of  this  moth  is  practically  identical  with  that  of  P.  panaci- 
finens ;  on  the  average  it  may  be  slightly  smaller ;  its  lateral  cornua 
are  relatively  more  developed,  and  are  about  one-half  the  length  of  the 
cephalic  plate.  The  arrangement  of  the  setae  is  the  same  in  both,  but  in 
aellomacha  the  dorsal  setae  are  short  and  fine,  the  dorso-lateral  ones  rather 
stout  and  long.     The  following  measurements  were  taken  from  a  typical 

specimen  : — - 

Chief  Measurements  of  Pupa. 


TVTpncnrpTnpTit".  nf" 

Length  from  Tip 

Transverse 

Ventro-dorsal 

iU.caaUXciiiciiL'  tX\j 

of  Cephalic  Plate. 

Diameter. 

Diameter. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Mm. 

Base  of  eyes 

. 

0-69 

0-76 

0-63 

End  of  labial  palpi 

, 

1-44 

0-86 

0-79 

End  of  first  legs     . , 

2-76 

0-79 

0-76 

End  of  maxillae     . . 

303 

0-69 

0-76 

End  of  second  legs 

3-28 

0-63 

0-69 

End  of  forewings   . . 

3-65 

0-51 

0-60 

End  of  third  legs   . . 

4-55 

0-38 

0-35 

End  of  antennae    . . 

5-03 

,   , 

,   , 

Extreme  length 

5-59 

Dehiscence. 
This  takes  place  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf,  and  is  identical  with 
that  of  P.  panacifinens. 


(8.)    Parectopa    panacivagans   n.   sp.    (The    Lancewood    Parectopa). 

(Plate  XXX,  fig.  10.) 

The  Imago. 

8  mm.  Head  white  at  the  sides,  black  above  and  against  thorax  ;  palpi 
white  with  two  black  rings  ;  antennae  black  suffused  with  white  below 
and  towards  base.  Thorax  white,  black  against  tlie  head,  and  caudally 
a  small  black  V-shaped  mark  ;  legs  white  with  black  rings.  Abdomen 
blackish  grey,  Forewings  black,  slightly  irrorated  with  white  ;  markings 
white  ;  from  base  to  ^  white  with  a  small  central  spot  of  black  ;  a  short 
narrow  outwardly-oblique  line  of  white  on  costa  at  ^,  another  slightly 
larger  and  triangular  spot  a  little  beyond  |  reaching  half  across  wing  ;  a 
short  narrow  oblique  line  of  white  at  | ;    an   indistinct   inwardly-curved 


Watt. — Leaf-mining  Insects  of  yew  Zealand. 


465 


transverse  line  of  white  near  apex  ;  a  small  white  apical  spot ;  a  broad 
outwardly-oblique  line  of  white  on  dorsum  at  ^,  and  a  small  white  spot 
at  I  ;   cilia  grey-black.     Hindwings  dark  grey  ;   ciha  grey-black. 

Distribution. 

This  appears  to  be  a  rather  rare  moth.  It  was  found  first  at  Aberfeldy, 
in  the  Wanganui  district,  in  1917.  The  larvae  are  to  be  found  in  December, 
the  pupae  in  January,  and  the  imagos  emerge  in  February.  Old  mines 
were  found  in  Dunedin  in  May  and  July. 

Food-jplant. 

Found  mining  in  the  long  tough  leaves  of  the  young  lancewood,  Pseud-o- 
panax  crassifolium  (horoeka),  but  more  commonly  in  the  young  succulent 
leaves  of  the  mature  tree. 

Egg-lmjing. 

The  egg  is  laid  singly  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf,  generally  close 
to  the  midrib. 

The  Mine. 

The  mine  throughout  is  a  simple  gallery,  more  or  less  straight  in  its 
direction.  It  is  made  entirely  in  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf,  and  there 
is  no  trace  of  it  to  be  seen  below.  The  mine  starts  in  a  more  or  less 
oblique  direction  till  it  reaches  the  midrib  or  margin  of  the  leaf  ;  this  it 
follows  till  it  reaches  the  end  of  the  leaf,  and  it  then  either  turns  back 
alongside  its  former  track  or  continues  back  along  the  barrier  on  the  other 
half  of  the  leaf.  It  never  crosses  the  midrib  except  in  its  upper  part. 
On  the  margin  of  the  leaf  the  mine  closely  follows  all  the  irregulari- 
ties of  outline,  and  extends  into  the  bases  of  the  serrations  of  the  leaf. 
Portions   of  the   earlier    mine    may   be    enveloped    by   the  later  broader 


Fig.  30.— Mine  of  P.  panacivagans  in  the  lancewood -leaf.     (Tvi^o-thirds  natural  size.) 

gallery.  The  average  length  may  be  about  10  in.  ;  commencing  with  a 
width  of  0'5  mm.,  the  terminal  part  of  the  gallery  measures  about  4  mm. 
across.  Colour  light  green  in  fresh  mines.  There  is  no  tendency  to  branch. 
Margins  of  the  mine  fairly  regular  and  white.  Mines  are  not  very  con- 
spicuous at  a  short  distance.  Frass  is  almost  fluid  in  nature,  and  occupies 
a  fairly  broad  brown  band  in  the  centre  of  the  early  gallery,  but  in  the 
wider  part  is  dark  green  or  black,  and  often  forms  an  unbroken  line  on  one 
side  of  the  gallery  ;  it  is  sometimes  deposited  in  short  curved  transverse 
lines  with  the  concavity  directed  forwards.  It  appears  to  be  deposited 
chiefly  on  the  upper  cuticle  of  the  leaf. 

The  Larva. 

Flattened,  moniliform  ;  colour  yellowish  with  broad  green  dorsal  stripe. 
About  6  mm.  in  length.  A  detailed  description  is  kept  for  a  future  paper 
on  the  Parectopa  larvae. 


466 


Transactions. 


The  Cocoon. 

The  cocoon  is  constructed  within  the  terminal  part  of  the  niine,  either 
close  alongside  the  midrib  or  on  the  outer  margin  of  the  leaf.  It  is  slightly 
deeper  in  the  substance  of  the  •  leaf  than  the  rest  of  the  mine.  It  is 
cylindrical  in  shape  and  slightly  curved.  The  scanty  silken  lining  causes 
a  local  pinching  and  puckering  of  the  leaf,  and  raises  the  cuticle  above  the 
surface  of  the  leaf.  It  bears  a  small  white  almost  transparent  window 
at  one  end,  prepared  for  the  pupal  emergence.  Its  position  is  generally  in 
the  basal  half  of  the  leaf.     Size,  12  mm.  by  3  mm. 


The  Pwpa. 

Closely  resembles  the  pupa  of  the  Panax  moths  in  all  particulars, 
cephalic   plate    is    moderate    in   length,    but    fairly 


massive 


The 
the   lateral 


3!  oz 

Fig.  31. — Pupa  of  P.  panacivagans,  ventral  view. 
Fig.  32. — Dorsal  view. 
Fig.  33. — Lateral  view. 

cornua  are  about  equal  in  length  to  the  plate.  Prothorax  broad  against 
the  antennae,  but  is  lost  in  the  mid-dorsal  region.  Setae  exactly  as  in 
P.  panacitorsens  ;  the  lateral  setae  are  relatively  long. 

Chief  Measurements  of  Pupa. 


Measurement  at 

Length  from  Tip 
of  Cephalic  Plate. 

Transverse 
Diameter. 

Ventro-dorsal 
Diameter. 

Base  of  eyes 
End  of  labial  palpi 
End  of  first  legs     . . 
End  of  maxillae     . . 
End  of  second  legs 
End  of  forewings   . . 
End  of  third  legs   . . 
End  of  antennae    . . 
Extreme  length 

Mm. 

0-53 
1-29 
212 
2-65 

2-82 
3-18 
3-88 
4-65 
4-6.". 

Mm. 
0-70 
0-82 
0-76 
0-70 
0-70 
0-65 
0-41 

Mm". 
0-53 
0-76 
0-76 
0-76 
0-76 
0-53 
0-35 

Dehiscence. 

This  takes  place  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf  and  is  identical  in  all 
respects  with  that  of  the  Panax  moths. 


PEOCEEDING:S 


469 


-       PROCEEDINGS 

OF   THE 

NEW   ZEALAND   INSTITUTE. 


MINUTES    OF    THE    ANNUAL    MEETING    OF    THE 
BOARD    OF    GOVERNORS. 

Wellington,    30th    January,    192  0. 

The  annual  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Governors  was  held  in  the  Dominion 
Museum  Library  on  Friday,  the  30th  January,  1920,  at  10  a.m. 

Present : ,  Dr.  L.  Cockayne,  President  (in  the  chair) ;  Mr.  B.  C.  Aston, 
Professor  Charles  Chilton,  Professor  T.  H.  Easterfield,  Mr.  C.  A.  Ewen, 
Dr.  F.  W.  Hilgendorf,  Mr.  H.  Hill,  Professor  H.  B.  Kirk,  Professor 
J.  Malcolm,  Dr.  P.  Marshall,  Professor  H.  W.  Segar,  Professor  A.  P.  W. 
Thomas,  Hon.  G.  M.  Thomson,  Dr.  J.  Allan  Thomson,  and  Mr.  A.  M.  Wright. 

Mr.  Park  attended  as  delegate  from  the  Manawatu  Philosophical  Society, 
and  apologized  for  the  unavoidable  absence  through  illness  of  Mr..  M.  A. 
Eliott. 

The  Hon.  Secretary  called  the  roll. 

Apology  for  non-attendance  was  received  from  the  Hon.  Sir  F.  H.  D 
Bell,  Minister  of  Internal  Affairs. 

The  President  welcomed  the  new  members  of  the  Board  of  Governors — 
Mr.  A.  M.  Wright  and  Professor  J.  Malcolm.  He  also  stated  that  the 
Board  was  glad  to  receive  Mr.  Park  (with  power  to  address  the  meeting, 
but  not  to  vote)  as  delegate  from  the  Manawatu  Society,  especially  as  the 
important  matter  of  the  1921  Science  Congress  at  Palmerston  North  was 
to  be  considered. 

Presidential  Address. — Dr.  L.  Cockayne  then  delivered  his  presidential 
address  (see  page  xxv). 

On  the  motion  of  Professor  Easterfield,  it  was  resolved,  That  the 
President  be  thanked  for  his  address,  and  be  asked  to  allow  it  to  be 
published  in  the  Transactions. 

Incorporated  Societies'  Reports  and  Balance-sheets  were  received  and  laid 
on  the  table.  No  reports  were  received  from  the  Wanganui  Philosophical 
Society  or  from  the  Poverty  Bay  Institute. 

'Standing  Committee's  Report. — The  annual  report  of  the  Standing  Com- 
mittee was  read,  and  adopted  with  a  slight  amendment. 

Report  of  the  Standing  Committee  for  Year  ending  31st  December,  1919. 

Meetings. — Ten  meetings  of  the  Standing  Committee  were  hfeld  during  the  year, 
the  attendance  being  as  follows  :  Dr.  Cockayne  (President),  4  ;  Professor  Kirk,  9  ; 
Professor  Easterfield,  8 ;  Hon.  G.  M.  Thomson,  2 ;  Professor  Segar,  1  ;  Professor 
A.  P.  W.  Thomas,  1  ;  Mr.  C.  A.  Ewen,  4 ;  Dr.  J.  Allan  Thomson,  7  ;  Mr.  Birks,  3 ; 
Mr.  Parr,  4  ;   and  Mr.  Aston,  10. 


470  Proceedings. 

Hector  Memorial  Award. — The  1919  medal  and  prize,  which  was  awarded  to  Dr. 
P.  W.  Robertson,  was  handed  to  the  Department  of  Internal  Affairs  on  the  25th  March, 
1919,  for  remitting  to  the  High  Commissioner's  Office  for  presentation  to  Dr.  Robertson. 
A  cable  was  published  in  the  daily  papers  of  the  12th  December,  1919,  announcing 
that  the  High  Commissioner,  Sir  Thomas  Mackenzie,  had  publicly  presented  the  medal 
to  Dr.  Robertson  in  London. 

War  Boll  of  Honour. — This  has  been  brought  up  to  date,  and  will  be  sent  to  the 
Hon.  Editor  for  publication  in  volume  52  of  the  Transactions  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute. 

Transactions  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute,  volume  51,  was  issued  to  the  societies 
in  bulk  in  September,  1919.  The  Proceedings  of  the  annual  meeting  in  January,  1919, 
were  published  in  pamphlet  form,  and  distributed  to  societies  on  the  26th  March,  1919, 
as  well  as  being  printed  in  the  Transactions. 

Publications. — The  followmg  have  been  placed  on  the  mailing  list  by  the  Standing 
Committee,  and  will  in  future  receive  the  Transactions  as  published  : — 
Museo  Civico  Storia  Naturale  di  Genova. 
Anales  del  Museo  Nacional  de  B.  Aires. 

Adviser  of  Fisheries,  Norway,  Fiskeridirektren,  Postboks,  226,  Bergen. 
Commonwealth  Institute  of  Science  and  Industry. 

International  Institute  of  Agriculture,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Canada. 
Tumbull  Library,  Wellington,  N.Z. 
American  Chemical  Society.  Ohio  State  University,  Columbus,  Ohio,  U.S.A. 

Resolutions  of  the  Standing  Committee  not  otherwise  mentioned  in  this  report  are — 

It  was  resolved  to  present  a  bound  copy  of  Maori  Art  to  Mr.  Evan  Parry,  to  mark 
the  New  Zealand  Institute's  appreciation  of  his  work  in  New  Zealand. 

It  was  resolved  to  publish  the  minutes  of  the  annual  meeting  as  sopn  as  possible, 
and  that  the  Publication  Committee  be  instructed  accordingly. 

It  was  resolved  to  grant  power  to  the  Hon.  Librarian  to  formulate  certain  rules 
to  be  observed  by  those  using  the  Institute  library,  and  issue  certain  circulars  regarding 
library  matters. 

It  was  resolved,  That  the  members  of  the  Standing  Committee  of  the  New  Zealand 
Institute  desire  to  express  their  sympathy  with  Mrs.  Broun  and  her  daughters  in  the 
great  loss  which  they  have  sustained  by  the  death  of  Major  Broun. 

It  was  resolved.  That  Professor  Easterfield,  Dr.  Thomson,  Mr.  Ewen,  and  the  Hon. 
Secretary  be  a  committee  to  formulate  resolutions  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  which 
have  the  force  of  regulations,  in  order  that,  where  advisable,  they  might  be  gazetted. 

Financial  Position  of  the  Institute. — A  deputation  from  the  Standing  Committee 
waited  upon  the  Hon.  the  Minister  of  Internal  Affairs,  Major  Hine,  in  September,  with 
reference  to  the  financial  position  of  the  Institute  and  the  necessity  for  an  increased 
grant  for  general  expenses.  As  a  result  the  sum  of  £500  was  placed  on  the  supplementary 
estimates  ior  the  year's  expenses,  and  a  promise  was  given  that  the  question  of  making 
a- permanent  increase  to  the  Institute's  statutory  grant  of  £500  per  annum  would  be 
faArourably  considered. 

It  is  desirable  that  some  more  simple  method  of  dealing  with  interest  which 
accrues  at  the  Savings-bank  from  time  to  time  shall  be  devised.  If  some  resolution 
were  passed  to  the  effect  that  all  interest  earned  at  the  Savings-bank  would  be  credited 
to  some  definite  purpose  it  would  simplify  book-keeping  considerably.  The  suggestion 
is  made  that  all  such  interest  should  be  credited  to  the  Endowment  Fund. 

A  sum  of  £250  voted  by  the  Department  of  Internal  Affairs  for  binding  the  books 
of  the  Institute  library  was  paid  into  the  Institute's  account  on  the  28th  March,  1919. 

National  Efficiency  Board's  Report :  Census  of  Industries.  (This  was  a  report  to  the 
Government,  which  included  the  New  Zealand  Institute's  Scientific  and  Industrial 
Research  Committee's  report:  see  pp.  .326-27,  vol.  50.)  It  was  resolved  at  a  meeting  of 
the  Standing  Committee  held  on  the  17th  January,  1919,  to  remind  the  Hon.  the  Minister 
of  Internal  Affairs  (Hon.  G.  W.  Russell)  of  his  promise  to  communicate  further  on  the 
making  of  a  census  of  industries.  At  a  meeting  of  the  Standing  Committee  on  the  11th 
March,  1919,  Dr.  .J.  Allan  Thomson  reported  that  Professor  Easterfield  and  he  had 
interviewed  the  Hon.  the  Minister  (Hon.  G.  W.  Russell)  with  reference  to  compiling  a 
census  of  industries.  The  Minister  considered  it  was  a  matter  more  for  the  Science 
and  Art  Board. 

The  Science  and  Art  Board  had  considered  the  matter,  and  passed  the  following 
resolutions  : — 

"  (1.)  That  this  meeting  urges  upon  the  Government  that  the  time  has  come  when 
the  establishment  of  a  Board  to  superintend  and  organize  scientific  research  and  the 
advancement  of  industrial  efficiency  should  no  longer  be  delayed. 


Annual  Meeting.  471 

"  (2.)  That  the  scheme  adopted  by  the  Efficiency  Board,  being  the  well-considered 
opinion  of  the  scientific  bodies  of  New  Zealand,  has  the  foremost  claim  on  the  attention 
of  the  Government. 

"  (3.)  Pending  the  establishment  of  such  a  Board,  that  a  joint  committee  of  the 
New  Zealand  Institute  and  the  Science  and  Art  Board  be  authorized  to  undertake  a 
preliminary  investigation  into  the  following  matters  :  (a)  Industrial  problems  requiring 
scientific  research  ;  (6)  facilities  for  research  in  New  Zealand  laboratories  ;  (c)  the 
number  and  status  of  scientific  men  available  for  research  ;  {d)  register  of  research  work 
in  progress  ;  (e)  existing  facilities  for  the  training  of  research  students  ;  (/)  existing 
facilities  for  technical  education  in  the  training  of  artisans  ;  {g)  existing  facilities  for 
the  training  of  agricultural  students  ;  (/i)  that  the  sum  of  £250  be  granted  to  the  above 
committee  for  secretarial  assistance." 

On  the  3rd  April,  1919,  a  letter,  dated  14th  March,  1919,  was  received  from  the 
Hon.  the  Minister  of  Internal  Affairs  (Hon.  G.  W.  Russell),  informing  the  Institute  that 
the  Government  could  not  at  present  see  its  way  to  adopt  the  report  of  the  National 
Efficiency  Board,  but  has  given  instructions  for  the  compilation  of  an  annual  census 
of  industries  for  the  future. 

The  President  (Dr.  Cockayne),  Professor  Easterfield,  and  Dr.  J.  Allan  Thomson 
gave  evidence  before  the  Parliamentary  Committee  on  Industries,  and  reported  that 
the  Committee  was  distinctly  favourable  to  the  proposals  of  the  Institute's  Scientific 
and  Industrial  Research  Committee  forwarded  to  the  Government  through-  the  National 
Efficiency  Board. 

Annual  Re-ports  and  Balance-sheets. — The  annual  reports  and  balance-sheets  of  the 
following  incorporated  societies  had  been  received,  and  were  laid  on  the  table  : — 
Wellington  Philosophical  Society,  up  to  30th  September,  1919. 
Auckland  Institute,  up  to  20th  February,  1919. 
Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury,  up  to  31st  October,  1919. 
Otago  Institute,  up  to  30th  November,  1919. 
Manawatu  Philosophical  Society,  up  to  31st  October,  1919. 
Nelson  Institute,  up  to  31st  December,  1918. 
Hawke's  Bay  Philosophical  Institute,  up  to  31st  December,  1918. 
No  reports  had  been  received  from  the  Poverty  Bay  and  Wanganui  societies. 

,  Clerical  Work  of  the  Iv^stitute. — It  will  be  necessary  to  appoint  a  permanent  paid 
official  to  assist  the  honorary  officers  of  the  Institute.  The  administration  of  the  vote 
for  research  grants  has  thrown  much  additional  work  on  the  Hon.  Secretary  and  Hon. 
Treasurer.  The  present  practice  of  burdening  the  honorary  officers  with  a  mass  of 
routine  work,  which  a  junior  office  assistant  could  well  do,  is  very  irksome,  and  will 
result  in  losing  the  services  of  experienced  honorary  officers.  What  is  suggested  is 
that  a  pa,id  official  shall  be  appointed  to — 

(a.)  Act  as  Assistant  Secretary,  Assistant  Treasurer,  Assistant  Editor,  and  Assistant 

Librarian. 
(6.)  Compile  indexes  of  the  Transactions  from  year  to  year,  and  compUe  a  decen- 
nial index  for  publication  of  the  41st  to  the  50th  volume, 
(c.)  Compile  catalogue  cards  for  the  International  Catalogue  of  Scientific  Literature, 
(d.)  Do  such  other  clerical  work  for  the  Institute  as  is  from  time  to  time  necessary. 

Fellowship. — The  regulations  passed  at  the  last  annual  meeting  have  been  duly 
gazetted,  and  the  election  of  the  original  Fellows  has  been  held,  Mr.  C.  A.  Ewen,  the 
Honorary  Treasurer,  acting  as  returning  officer.  It  was  found  impossible  to  arrange 
for  the  election  of  four  ordinary  members  at  the  annual  meeting  in  January,  as  By  the 
time  the  election  of  the  Original  Fellows  had  been  completed  Regulation  7  (c) — which 
provides  that  six  months'  notice  of  the  names  of  nominees  should  be  given  to  the 
Fellows  selecting-^could  not  be  complied  with.  It  was  decided  that  the  institution  of 
the  Fellowship  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  should  be  explained  to  the  scientific  world 
by  articles  to  be  written  for  Nature  and  Science. 

Kapiti  Island. — A  deputation  from  the  Standing  Committee —Dr.  Cockayne  (Pre- 
sident), Professor  Kirk,  Dr.  Cotton,  Dr.  J.  Allan  Thomson,  and  Mr.  Aston — waited  on 
the  Hon.  the  Minister  of  Lands  (Hon.  D.  H  Guthrie)  with  regard  to  Kapiti  Island  in 
particular,  and  in  general  asking  for  recognition  of  the  Institute  as  an  advisory  body 
to  the  Government  on  all  matters  dealing  with  sanctuaries.  The  following  is  a  precis 
of  the  shorthand  notes  of  the  Minister's  Private  Secretary  : — 

"  Deputation  to  the  Hon.  D.  H.  Guthrie,  Minister  of  Lands,  WeUington. — 9th  Julv, 
1919.— Introduced  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Field,  M.P. 

"  Professor  Kark  stated  that  he  would  like  to  see  the  sheep  difficulty  dealt  with. 
Although  the  Government  had  done  a  large  amount  of  good  work  on  Kapiti  Island, 


472  Proceedings. 

it  was  being  nullified  by  the  effects  of  the  sheep.  One  course  was  to  clear  out  the  sheep 
altogether  and  extinguish  the  Native  titles,  and  another  would  be  to  stock  only  that 
part  of  the  island  which  has  been  cleared.  The  general  request  which  the  Institute 
wished  to  make  was  that  it  should  be  recognized  by  the  Government  in  all  matters 
dealing  with  sanctuaries. 

"The  Hon.  Mr.  Guthrie  said  that,  so  far  as  his  Department  was  concerned,  the 
assistance  of  the  Institute  would  have  the  fullest  consideration.  AjDj^arently  it  was 
feared  that  the  sheep  would  interfere  with  the  native  fauna.  If  at  any  time  it  were 
decided  to  use  the  whole  of  the  island  as  a  sanctuary,  it  would  be  easy  to  remove  the 
sheep.  He  thought,  however,  that  the  matter  was  more  in  the  province  of  the  Hon 
the  Minister  of  Internal  Affairs. 

"  Dr.  Allan  Thomson  jDointed  out  that  the  only  legislation  dealing  with  the  matter 
was  embodied  in  the  Scenery  Preservation  Act,  which  was  administered  by  the  Lands 
Department.  The  bird-life  of  the  Dominion  had  been  suffering  through  divided  control, 
and,  as  a  result  of  a  conference  held  a  few  years  ago,  Mr.  Phillips  Turner  and  himself 
■nere  appointed  to  act  as  a  committee  to  advise  their  separate  Departments. 

"  Professor  Kirk  asked  if  the  Minister  would  agree  to  api:)oint  a  representative  of 
the  Institute  to  the  committee  with  Dr.  Thomson  and  Mr.  Turner. 

"  Hon.  Mr.  Guthrie  said  that  he  would  have  to  consult  the  Minister  of  Internal 
Affairs.  He  thanked  the  deputation  for  coming  to  see  him  on  the  matter,  and  added 
that  if  at  any  time  the  Institute  should  desire  to  make  definite  recommendations  on 
any  points  connected  with  the  sanctuaries  he  would  be  pleased  to  receive  them." 

The  Hon.  the  Minister  of  Lands  (Mr.  Guthrie),  under  date  of  23rd  December,  1919, 
has  written  asking  the  Institute  to  nominate  a  representative  to  act  on  the  committee 
which  he  projioses  to  set  up  to  advise  the  Government  on  Kapiti  Island. 

Donation  of  Partial  Set  of  "  Transactions.'" — In  addition  to  those  institutions  to 
which  the  Standing  Committee  has  donated  sets  of  Transactions,  a  partial  set  has  this 
year  been  donated  to  the  Tauranga  High  School.  , 

Resohdions  of  the  Institute. — Recognizing  the  desirability  of  arranging  and  publish- 
ing the  regulations  and  resolutions  of  the  Institute  in  such  a  manner  that  they  can  be 
referred  to  easily,  the  Standing  Committee  has  ajjpointed  a  sub-committee  to  deal  with 
the  matter.  It  is  desirable  that  the  regulations  should  be  brought  up  to  date,  and  any 
resolutions  which  have  the  force  of  regulations  should  be  gazetted.  It  will  be  necessary 
to  amend  the  research -grant  regulations  to  accord  with  the  conditions  laid  down  by  the 
Hon.  the  Minister  on  page  536,  volume  49.  The  amendments  to  the  regulations  passed 
in  recent  years  should  be  incorporated  in  the  general  regulations  and  reprinted  in 
volume  52. 

The  Library  is  still  in  an  unsatisfactory  state,  and  the  Hon.  Librarian  has  been 
authorized  to  formulate  and  enforce  certain  rules  to  be  followed  by  those  using  the 
library. 

Catalogue  of  Fishes. — A  matter  which  has  been  before  the  Institute  year  after  year 
is  the  compilation  of  a  catalogue  of  the  fishes  of  New  Zealand.  The  Government  has 
now  requested  the  Institute  to  submit  an  estimate  of  the  cost,  and  the  Standing  Com- 
mittee has  appointed  the  Hon.  G.  M.  Thomson  and  Dr.  J.  Allan  Thomson  a  sub-committee 
to  compile  the  estimate. 

Protection  of  the  Fauna. — With  regard  to  the  protection  of  native  birds,  it  was 
resolved  to  ask  the  Hon.  the  Minister  of  Internal  Affairs  for  an  opportunity  of  seeing 
the  proposals  of  the  Government,  with  a  view  to  rendering  the  fullest  assistance  in  the 
matter  before  the  jDroposals  are  laid  before  Pa^hament.  The  Department  of  Internal 
Affairs,  in  reply  (11th  March,  1919),  promised  to  submit  a  copy  of  the  Animals  Protection 
Bill  to  the  New  Zealand  Institute  for  any  remarks  that  the  Board  might  wish  to  make. 
The  resolutions  passed  at  the  last  annual  meeting  regarding  the  fauna  of  Macquarie 
Island  have  been  sent  to  the  Royal  Society  of  Tasmania  and  to  the  Premier  of  that  State. 

The  New  Zealand  Institute  has  now  received  a  letter,  dated  29th  November,  1919, 
from  the  Secretary  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Tasmania,  stating  that  at  a  recent  con- 
ference in  Brisbane  a  resolution  was  passed  asking  the  Government  to  declare  the 
island  a  sanctuary.  The  letter  also  stated  that  there  was  now  a  movement  afoot  to 
obtain  a  renewal  of  Mr.  Hatch's  lease,  which  had  been  cancelled  by  the  Tasmanian 
Government.  It  was  suggested  that  New  Zealand  societies  might  write  to  the  Premier 
of  Tasmania  supporting  the  jjroposal  for  a  sanctuary  at  Macquarie  Island. 

The  incorporated  societies  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  have  been  circularized 
with  regard  to  the  Tasmanian  society's  request,  in  order  that  they  may  contribute 
support  to  the  movement. 


Annual  Meeting.  473 

International  Research  Council. — It  was  resolved  to  expend  up  to  £25  in  payment 
of  the  expenses  of  a  delegate  from  England  to  a  meeting  of  the  above  in  Brussels. 
Dr.  Dendy  was  chosen  by  the  Standing  Committee  to  represent  the  New  Zealand  Institute 
at  the  meeting,  and  his  rejjort  has  recently  been  received.  He  stated  that  the  confer- 
ence was  most  interesting,  and  that,  although  no  question  arose  of  special  interest  to 
New  Zealand,  he  hoped  that  the  Dominion  might  benefit  by  the  organization  of  scientific 
research  which  the  Conference  was  endeavouring  to  establish. 

Resolutions  passed  at  the  Canterbury  Philosophical  Institute's  Science  Congress,  held 
in  February  last,  were  received  from  the  Hon.  Secretary,  Canterbury  Philosophical 
Institute.  The  Hon.  Secretarj;^,  New  Zealand  Institute,  was  authorized  to  remit  them 
to  the  Departments  concerned.     The  following  is  a  synopsis  of  the  replies  : — 

(1.)  The  Hon.  the  Minister  of  Agriculture  stated  that  he  was  largely  in  agreement 
with  the  resolutions.  A  Pure  Seeds  Bill  had  already  been  drafted,  and  the  preparation 
of  legislation  to  provide  for  the  purity  and  standardization  of  spraying-compounds  was 
under  way.  The  importance  of  the  soil  survey  was  also  recognized.  Hitherto  the 
difficulty  had  been  one  of  staff  ;   but  it  was  hoped  to  arrange  this  in  the  near  future. 

(2.)  The  Hon.  the  Minister  of  Mines  replied  that  an  endeavour  was  being  made 
to  secure  the  services  of  a  suitable  officer  for  the  position  of  Palaeontologist  to  the 
Geological  Survey. 

(3.)  The  Hon.  the  Minister  of  Marine  stated  that  the  investigation  into  climatic 
winds  would  be  considered  as  soon  as  Mr.  Bates  returned  to  the  Dominion. 

(4.)  The  Hon.  the  Minister  of  Internal  Affairs  replied  (a)  that  the  provision  of  a 
Milne-Shaw  seismograph  had  been  approved,  and  that  an  order  for  its  purchase  was 
being  forwarded  to  the  High  Commissioner  ;  (6)  that  the  establishment  of  an  herbarium 
would  receive  careful  consideration  when  the  necessary  accommodation  was  available. 

Collection  of  New  Zealand  Coleoptera. — The  Standing  Committee  have  approved  of 
certain  steps  which  the  Director  of  the  Dominion  Museum  proposed  to  take  with  the 
object  of  having  a  collection  of  New  Zealand  Coleoptera  retained  in  the  Dominion. 

■  Lord  Jellicoe's  Visit. — The  President  (Dr.  Cockayne)  and  Professor  Easterfield 
waited  on  Admiral  Jellicoe  on  H.M.S.  "  New  Zealand "  as  a  deputation  from  the 
New  Zealand  Institute  to  tender  any  information  regarding  the  best  body  in  New- 
Zealand  qualified  to  give  scientific  advice.  The  Admiral  thanked  the  members  of  the 
deputation  for  their  attendance  and  advice. 

The  following  is  the  portion  of  Lord  Jellicoe's  report  to  the  New  Zealand  Governor- 
General  which  deals  with  the  organization  of  scientific  research  in  the  Navy  : — 

"  It  is  very  necessary  that  the  fullest  use  should  be  made  by  naval  officers  of  the 
advances  of  science.  .  .  .  It  is  recommended  that  the  Admiralty  should  be  asked 
to  keep  the  New  Zealand  Naval  Board  advised  as  to  the  progress  made  by  the  Scientific 
Research  and  Experiment  Department.  It  is  also  recommended  that  an  organization 
on  similar  lines  should  be  provided  in  New  Zealand  when  practicable. 

"  From  the  existing  New  Zealand  Institute,  wliich  has  technological  sections,  and 
which  can  undertake  investigation  in  general  j^hysical  and  chemical  problems,  a  nucleus 
of  a  Naval  Scientific  and  Research  Department  could  be  formed. 

"  A  number  of  the  best  scientists  should  be  selected  to  form  the  Department  under 
the  Presidency  of  the  C.N.S.,  New  Zealand  Naval  Board.  A  scientist  of  -wide  experience 
should  be  appointed  as  Vice-President. 

"  In  the  first  instance  the  work  of  the  scientists  of  the  proposed  Sciei^tific  Research 
and  Experiment  Department  .  .  .  might  be  carried  out  at  Victoria  University 
College,  Wellington." 

Publication  of  Congress  Papers. — The  publication  of  the  proceedings,  papers,  and 
addresses  which  constituted  the  first  Science  Congress  held  under  the  auspices  of  the 
New  Zealand  Institute  was  arranged  as  follows  : — 

(1.)  -The  Christchurch  daily  papers,  in  the  first  place,  gave  very  full,  prominent,  and 
accurate  reports  of  the  work  of  the  Congress  day  by  day. 

(2.)  Later,  the  Journal  of  Science  and.  Technology  devoted  two  special  numbers, 
issued  together  (No.  4  and  No.  5  of  volume  2,  issued  July,  1919),  to  the  publication  of 
those  features  of  the  Congress  which  were  suitable  for  publication  in  the  Journal  and 
which  were  not  reserved  for  publication  in  the  Transactions  of  the  New  Zealand  Insti- 
tute. This  is  really  the  best  official  record  of  the  work  of  the  Congress,  being  a 
connected  narrative  of  the  proceedings,  the  title  of  every  paper  being  given  and  (where 
not  required  for  the  Transacliorhs)  some  account  of  each  paper.  A  number  of  the 
shorter  papers  were  printed  in  full ;  and,  in  addition,  photos  of  some  of  the  cliief 
dignitaries  of  the  Congress. 


474 


Proceedings. 


(3.)  Finally,  volume  51  of  the  Transactions  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute,  published  in 
September,  1919,  has  proved  a  fitting  medium  for  publishing  several  papers  by  well- 
known  authorities  who  desired  that  course. 

It  is  satisfactory  to  know  that  the  Hon.  G.  W.  Russell,  the  late  Minister  of  Internal 
Affairs,  has  expressed  to  the  President  (Dr.  Cockayne)  his  great  apiDreciation  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  proceedings  of  the  Science  Congress  have  been  printed  and 
published. 

Interest  on  Savings-bank  Deposits. — On  the  motion  of  Mr.  C.  A.  Ewen, 
seconded  by  tlie  Hon.  G.  M.  Tliomson,  it  was  resolved,  That  the  accrued 
i^nterest  from  deposits  in  the  Savings-bank  be  allotted  to  the  N.Z.  Institute 
Endowment  Fund  from  time  to  time. 

Hon.  Treasurer's  Reports. — The  Hon.  Treasurer  moved,  and  Dr.  Allan 
Thomson  seconded,  That  the  Hon.  Treasurer's  reports — (1)  Statement  of 
Receipts  and  Expenditure  for  Year  ending  31st  December,  1919,  (2)  State- 
ment of  Liabilities  and  Assets  as  at  31st  December,  1919,  (3)  Statement 
of  Research  Grant  Fund  for  Year  ending  31st  December,  1919,  all  duly- 
audited  by  the  Auditor-Geperal — be  adopted.     Carried. 

Receipts   and   Expenditure   for   the 
December,  1919. 

Expenditure.  £      s.   d. 

Government  Printer — 
Printing   vol.    50,    £547 ; 
and  papers,  £19  6s. 


New   Zealand   Institute.- 

—Statement   of 

Yeab 

ENDING 

31ST 

Beceipts. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

Balance  at  31st  December, 

1918.. 

372 

16 

4 

Savings-bank     interest     to 

31st  December,  1919      . . 

14 

6 

8 

Government  statutory  grant 

500 

0 

0 

Government    special    grant 

for  binding 

250 

0 

0 

Government  extra  grant  for 

1919-20 

500 

0 

0 

Publications  sold 

67 

12 

3 

Affiliated     societies'     levy. 

1919..             ..              ".. 

131 

12 

0 

Government  grants  for  re- 

search work     . . 

1 

,790 

0 

0 

Refund  by  Canterbury 

Philosophical      Institute, 

part     grant     made     6th 

March,  1917     . . 

60 

0 

0 

Refund  from  Public  Trustee 

— Customs  duty  on  Hec- 

tor Memorial  Medals 

2 

18 

4 

£3 

,689 

5 

7 

Printing  vol.  51,  £730, 
and  papers,  £61  lis.  6d. 

Governors'  travelling  -  ex- 
penses 

Lawson,  Sydney— Prints  for 
vol.  51 

Secretary's  expenses — post- 
age, stationery,  and 
clerical  work    . . 

Fire-insurance  premiums  on 
library 

Legal  expenses    . . 

Bank  charge,  5s.  and  5s.   . . 

Transactions  purchased 

Expenses  Professor  Kirk  to 
Kapiti  Island  . . 

Research  grants,  as  per  list 


566  6  0 


791  11  6 


32  0  2 


12  15  0 


34  5  3 


5 
5 
0 
3 

5 
415 


0 

5 

10 

0 

1 

7 


By  balance,  as  under. 


0 
0 
0 
0 

0 
0 


1,871     0  11 
1,818     4     8 

£3,689     5     7 


Balance  in — 

Bank  of  New  Zealand     . . 
Post  Office  Savings-bank 


Made  up  as  follows  : — 
Endowment  Fund 

Balance  Government  grants  for  research     . 
Institute's  general  purposes  balance 
Accrued  interest.  Post  Office  Savings-bank 


Approved  by  Auditor-General. 


£  s.  d. 

762  0  0 

1,056  4  8 

£1,818  4  8 

£  s.  d. 

4  18  1 

1,509  13  0 

252  7  0 

51  6  7 

£1,818  4  8 


Annual  Meeting. 


475 


New  Zealand  Institttte. 


-Statement  of  Liabilities  and  Assets  at  31st  December, 
1919. 


Liabilities.              £       s.    d. 

Assets 

£ 

s. 

d. 

To  Hecto 

r  Memorial  Fund        1,057     3  11 

By  Balances  in  hands  Pub- 

Hutto 

n  Memorial  Fund          856  14     5 

lic  Trustee- 

— 

Carter 

Bequest              ..     4,505  11     6 

Hector      Memorial 

Balance    Government 

Fund 

1,057 

3 

11 

grants     for     research 

H  u  1 1  0  n    Memorial 

purposes     ..              ..      1,509  13     0 

Fund 

. , 

,   , 

856 

14 

5 

Balance     Endowment 

Carter  Bequest 

4,505 

11 

6 

Fund   in   Post   Office 

Outstanding  accounts . . 

14 

5 

3 

Savings-bank             . .              4  18     i 

,     Balance  in 

Bank  of  New 

Balance          ..              ,.         317  18  10 

Zealand 

762 

0 

0 

Balance    in  Pos 

t  Office 

' 

Savings- 
By  Balance 

bank 

•   • 

1,056 

4 

8 

£8,251  19     9 

£8,251 

19 

9 

£317 

18 

10 

1 

New  Zealand  Institute.' — Government  Research  Grants. 

Dr. 

Or. 

1919. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

£ 

s. 

d. 

Jan.      1. 

By  Balance  on  hand 

75 

0 

0 

April    3. 

Government  grant 

55 

0 

0 

June  26. 

Government  grant 

1,500 

0 

0 

Nov.  21. 

Government  grant 

185 

0 

0 

Oct.   22. 

Government  grant 

50 

0 

0 

Feb.     6. 

To  Grant  to  L,  J.  Wild     . . 

30 

6 

0 

Feb.  28. 

Grant  to  Professor  Jack 

25 

0 

0 

May     5. 

Grant  to  Dr.  C.  E.  Adams 

55 

0 

0 

Aug.  11. 

Grant  to  Professor  John  Malcolm 

25 

0 

0 

Sept.  11. 

Grant  to  Professor  T.  H.  Easterfield 

15 

0 

0 

Sept.  20. 

Grant  to  Professor  John  Malcolm 

25 

0 

0 

Oct.    29. 

Grant  to  R.  Speight     . . 

50 

0 

0 

Nov.  14. 

Grant  to  W.  G.  Morrison 

30 

0 

0 

Nov.  20. 

Grant  to  G.  Brittin 

20 

0 

0 

Nov.  20. 

Grant  to  Professor  John  Malcolm 

35 

0 

0 

Nov.  25. 

Grant  to  Professor  T.  H.  Easterfield 

15 

0 

0 

Nov.  28. 

Grant  to  G.  Howes 

30 

0 

0 

Dec.     5. 

Grant  to  Professor  John  Malcolm 

35 

0 

0 

Oct.    15. 

By  Refund  by  Canterbury  Philosophical  Inst 

1- 

tute,  part  grant  made  9th  March,  1919 

60 

0 

0 

Dec.   19. 

To  Grants  to  Dr.  J.  Allan  Thomson 

• 

25 

7 

0 

415 

7 

0 

Balance  on  hand 

.        1 

,509 

13 

0 

£1 

,925 

0 

0 

£1,925 

0 

0 

Clerical  Work  of  the  Institute. — The  Board  went  into  Committee  to 
consider  the  proposal  to  appoint  a  permanent  paid  official  to  assist  the 
honorary  officers  of  the  Institute.  After  some  discussion  it  was  resolved, 
on  the  motion  of  the  Hon.  Secretary,  seconded  by  Dr.  J.  Allan  Thomson, 
That  authority  be  given  to  the  Standing  Committee  to  engage  a  paid 
whole-time  official  to  assist  the  honorary  officers  of  the  Institute,  at  a 
salary  not  exceeding  £200  per  annum. 

Fellowship :  Method  of  Election. — On  the  motion  of  Professor  Chilton, 
seconded  by  Mr.  Hill,  it  was  resolved,  That  a  committee  consisting  of  the 
President,  Professor  Segar,  Mr.  Ewen,  and  Mr.  Hogben  be  appointed  to 
draw  up  rules  for  the  election  of  Fellows  of  the  Institute,  and  to  report 
to  the  Standing  Committee. 

Catalogue  of  New  Zealand  Fishes. — The  Hon.  G.  M.  Thomson  stated  that 
he  had  gone  into  the  subject  of  producing  a  catalogue  of  New  Zealand 


476  Proceedings. 

fishes,  and  estimated  that  it  would  cost  at  least  £1,725.  On  his  motion, 
seconded  by  Professor  Kirk,  it  was  resolved.  That  this  meeting  of  the 
Board  of  Governors  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  re-urges  upon  the 
Government  the  necessity  of  preparing  and  publishing  an  illustrated 
catalogue  of  New  Zealand  fishes  as  a  work  of  national  importance,  and 
that  this  work  should  be  undertaken  at  as  early  a  date  as  possible. 

International  Research  Council. — The  action  of  the  Standing  Committee 
in  arranging  for  a  delegate  (Professor  Dendy)  to  represent  New  Zealand 
at  the  International  Research  Conference  at  Brussels  was  approved. 
Dr.  J  Allan  Thomson  summarized  the  published  reports  of  the  Conference. 
On  the  motion  of  Dr.  Thomson,  seconded  by  Professor  Chilton,  it  was 
resolved.  That  the  following  resolution  of  the  International  Research 
Council  be  referred  to  the  Government  for  favourable  consideration  : — 

"  Considerant  que  les  pertes  resultant  de  la  guerre  ne  pourront  etre 
pleinement  reparees  que  par  le  travail  dirige  de  plus  en  plus  dans  la  voie 
de  la  technique  fecondee  elle-meme  par  de  nouvelles  decouvertes  scientifiques  ; 
considerant  que  I'oeuvre  humanitaire  et  sociale  ainsi  devolue  a  la  science 
a  besoin  d'etre  largement  outillee  et  subventionee  :  La  Conference  emet 
le  voeu  de  voir  les  Gouvernements,  representes  dans  la  Societe  des  Nations, 
s'entendre  pour  constituer  un  budget  international  des  sciences  et  con- 
tribuer  ainsi  aux  travaux  des  Associations  Internationales. " 

Financial  Position  of  the  Institute.  —  The  financial  position  of  the 
Institute  was  discussed  at  length.  The  President  explained  that  a 
deputation  had  waited  upon  the  Hon.  J.  B.  Hine  recently,  and  had 
secured  an  additional  £500  towards  the  general  expenses  of  the  Institute. 
On  the  motion  of  Mr.  Ewen,  seconded  by  Mr.  Hill,  it  was  resolved. 
That  for  every  copy  of  volume  52  of  the  Transactions  received  by  the 
incorporated  societies  a  contribution  of  2s.  6d.  towards  the  cost  of  printing 
shall  be  made  during  the  current  year  by  such  society. 

On  the  motion  of  the  Hon.  G.  M.  Thomson,  seconded  by  Dr.  P.  Marshall, 
it  was  resolved.  That  this  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Governors  of  the  New 
Zealand  Institute  urges  on  the  Government  the  necessity  of  amending 
section  10  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  Act  by  deleting  the  words  "  five 
hundred  poiinds  "  and  substituting  the  words  "  one  thousand  pounds," 
in  accordance  with  a  definite  promise  made  by  a  Minister  of  Internal 
Affairs,  and  in  view  of  the  fact  that  a  supplementary  sum  of  £500  was 
paid  during  1919  pending  the  alteration  of  the  Act. 

The  Public  Trustee's  Reports  on  the  Carter  Bequest,  the  Hutton 
Memorial  Fund,  and  the  Hector  Memorial  Fund  for  the  year  ending  31st 
December,  1919,  were  adopted. 

Hutton  Memorial  Research  Fund. — Statement  of  Account  for  the  Year  ending 

31sT  December,  1919. 

By  Balance 

Public  Trust  Office- 
Interest   to   31st  December,    1919,   at 

4^  per  cent.         . .  . . 

Bonus  interest  to  31st  March,  1919    . . 

To  New  Zealand  Institute  Account — Grant 
to  Miss  Mestayer  for  research  work    . . 
Balance 


By  Balance 


£  s.  d. 

36  15  11 

3  11  7 

Dr. 

£  s.  d. 

10  0  0 
856  14  5 

Cr. 
£  s.  d. 
826  6  11 

40  7  6 

£866  14  5 

£866  14  5 

•  • 

£856  14  5 

Annual  Meeting.  477 

Hector  Memorial  Fund. — Statement   of  Account   for  the   Year  ending   31st 

December,  1919. 


By  Balance 

.   , 

. , 

Public  Trust  Office- 

Interest  to  31st  December, 

1919, 

at 

£. 

s. 

d. 

4i  per  cent. 

, , 

45 

14 

5 

Bonus  interest  to  31st  March, 

1919 

4 

11 

7 

Dr. 

Cr. 

s.   d. 

£        s.    d. 

. 

1,067  19     9 

To  New  Zealand  Institute  Account — 

Dr.  P.  W.  Robertson — Hector  Prize  for 

1919  ..  ..  ..  ..     45     0     0 

Allan  G.  Wyon — Twelve  bronze  Hector 


50     6     0 

« 


Medals     . . 
C.  A.  Ewen — Duty  on  medals . . 

13     2 
2  18 

6 
4 

1 

61 

0 

,057 

0  10 

1  0 
3  ll 

Public  Trust  Office  :     Petty  expenses — 

Exchange 
Balance 

« 

(1 

n 

,118 

5     9 

£1,118     5     9 

By  Balance       . .        •     . . 

«  • 

£1,057     3  11 

Carter  Bequest. — Statement  of  Accoitnt  for  the  Year  ending  31st  December, 

1919. 

Dr.  Cr: 

Residuary  Account.  £        s.    d.  £      s.    d. 

By  Balance       ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  4,342  5     4 

PubKc  Trust  Office- 
Interest  to  31st  December,   1919,   at     £      s.    d. 
4*  per  ceni,         . .  . .  . .    195     3     9 

Bonus  interest  to  31st  March,  1919    . .      18     2     5 

..  213     6     2 


To  Balance       . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  4 ,  555  11     6 


£4,555  11     6      £4,555  11     6 


By  Balance       ..  ...  ..  ..  ..  ..  •   £4,555  11     6 

Assets.  £       s.    d. 

Balance  as  per  account  . .  . .  ....  . .  4 ,  555  11     6 


Liabilities.  £     §.    d. 

Legacy — Museum  and  New  Zealand  Institute         . .  . .  50     0     0 

Balance  Public  Trustee's  commission  . .  . .  . .  At  scale  rates. 

Hiitton  Research  Grant  Fund. — A  report  from  Miss  Mestayer  regarding 
the  grant  of  £10  towards  work  on  the  New  Zealand  Mollusca  was  received. 
There  were  no  applications" for  further  grants. 

Hutton  Award  Committee.  —  The  President  then  opened  the  sealed 
recommendation  of  the  Hutton  Award  Committee,  which  proposed  that 
the  award  should  be  made  this  year  to  the  Rev.  J.  E.  Holloway,  D.Sc. 
Professor  Charles  Chilton  moved,  and  the  Hon.  G.  M.  Thomson  seconded, 
That  the  report  be  adopted.     Carried. 


478  Proceedings. 

Report  of  the  Hutton  Memorial  Award  Committee. 

The  Committee  of  Award  unanimously  recommend  that  the  medal  for  1920  be 
awarded  to  Rev.  John  E.  Holloway,  D.Sc. 

The  Committee  have  reviewed  the  claims  of  other  biologists  and  geologists,  but 
have  been  so  impressed  by  the  brilliant  work  of  Dr.  Holloway,  by  his  patience  and 
enthusiasm  in  his  search  for  material,  by  his  keenness  of  observation,  and  by  the 
highly  important  results  obtained  in  his  researches  on  the  life-histories  of  the  Lycopo- 
diaceae,  as  well  as  that  on  the  embyrology  of  Tmesipteris — botanical  studies  of  .out- 
standing merit  and  of  far-reaching  interest — that  they  place  his  work  on  a  higher  plane 
than  that  of  other  men  whose  publications  may  nevertheless  be  more  numerous. 

W.  B.  Benham,  Convener. 

Hector  Award  Committee. — ^The  President  also  opened  the  sealed 
recommendation  of  the  Hector  Award  Committee,  which  proposed  that  the 
award  should  be  made  this  year  to  Mr.  S.  Percy  Smith,  for  ethnology. 
Mr.  H.  Hill  moved,  and  Professor  Thomas  seconded,  the  adoption  of  the 
report.     Carrie.d- 

Report  of  Hector  Memorial  Award  Committee. 

All  members  of  the  Hector  Award  Committee — Messrs.  Spencer,  Cheeseman,  Thom- 
son, and  myself — agree  that  the  award  of  the  medal  for  ethnology  should  be  made  to 
Mr.  S.  Percy  Smith.  This  conclusion  is  based  on  his  remarkable  services  to  science, 
as  shown  in  his  voluminous  writings  and  his  conducting  of  the  Journal  of  the  Polynesian 
Society  since  1892.  .  •    Elsdon  Best. 

Publication  Committee's  Report.  —  The  report  of  the  Publication  Com- 
mittee was  adopted  on  the  motion  of  Dr.  Marshall,  seconded  by  Professor 
Chilton,  and  it  was  also  resolved,  That  the  Committee  be  recommended 
to  proceed  as  soon  as  possible  with  the  publication  of  Mr.  Dixon's  papers 
on  mosses. 

Report  of  Publication  Committee. 

Forty  papers  were  accepted  for  publication  in  volume  51  of  the  Transactions  of 
the  New  Zealand  Institute,  and  the  volume  was  issued  on  the  1st  September,  1919.  It 
is  of  average  size,  and  contains  xviii  plus  548  pages  (of  which  89  are  devoted  to  the 
Proceedings  and  Appendix),  33  plates  (one  coloured),  and  a  large  number  of  text-figures. 
No  date  appears  now  on  the  title-page  but  the  actual  date  of  publication  (1919  in  this 
case),  and  the  words  "  for  the  year  1918  "  appearing  at  one  place  on  the  cover  are  due 
to  an  oversight  in  proof-reading. 

No  bulletins  have  been  issued  during  the  year. 

For  the  Committee. 

C.  A.  Cotton,  Hon.  Editor. 

Hon.  Librarian's  Report. — ^The  Hon.  Librarian  read  his  report,  and 
moved,  That  the  report  be  adopted.  The  motion  was  seconded  by 
Mr.  Hill  and  carried. 

Report  of  the  Library  Committee. 

The  incoming  exchanges  have  been  received,  registered,  and  placed  upon  the 
shelves.  A  list  of  those  received  for  1918  was  prepared  by  a  member  of  the  committee 
and  printed  in  the  Appendix  of  the  Proceedings,  pp.  536-39.  Owing  to  the  suspension 
of  the  Smithsonian  International  Exchange,  a  number  of  important  American  publica- 
tions were  not  received  during  1918  and  1919,  but  these  are  now  beginning  to  come  to 
hand. 

A  few  sample  volumes  have  been  bound,  but  the  quotations  received  were  so 
discouraging  as  regards  price  that  no  further  action  has  been  taken  in  regard  to  the 
expenditure  of  the  £250  voted  for  this  purpose  by  the  Government. 

Information  has  recently  been  received  from  the  Director  of  the  International 
Catalogue  of  Scientific  Literature  that  the  publications  mentioned  in  the  report  of  this 
committee  for  1918  have  now  been  noted  for  inclusion  in  the  International  Catalogue. 
Before  this  letter  came  to  hand,  however,  a  letter  from  the  Secretary  of  the  Royal 
Society  was  received,  pointing  out  the  difficulties  in  carrying  out  the  further  pubhcation 
of  the  catalogue,  and  asking  for  the  consideration  of  the  position  by  the  New  Zealand 
Institute  as  the  Regional  Bureau  for  New  Zealand. 


Annual  Meeting.  479 

The  International  Catalogue  originated  at  a  conference  summoned  by  the  Roj'al 
Society  in  1896,  and  the  finance  of  the  undertaking  was  secured  by  a  loan  of  £7,500 
advanced  by  the  Royal  Society.  Germany  formally  mthdrew  from  the  convention 
in  1914,  and  the  Royal  Society  undertook  the  direct  control  during  the  crisis.  The 
aggregate  net  loss  for  the  first  eleven  years  of  issue  is  £2,556  2s.  Id.  A  sum  of  £8,500 
•was  raised  to  relieve  the  Royal  Society  from  the  heavy  liabilities  they  had  incurred 
down  to  the  14th  issue. 

It  seems  clear  that  the  catalogue,  in  its  present  form,  cannot  be  self-supporting. 
It  can  only  be  continued  with  the  assistance  of  a  permanent  endowment  or  of  external 
subscriptions  towards  the  expenses  of  the  Central  Bureau.  The  Royal  Society  Avill 
not  be  able  again  to  undertake  responsibility  for  the  whole  catalogue.  Faihng  this, 
it  is  recommended  that  the  form  of  the  catalogue  should  be  simplified  by  the  omission 
of  the  subject  indexes,  and  should  consist  simply  of  a  quinquennial  authors'  list  for 
each  science,  the  Central  Bureau  to  co-operate  with  any  organizations  dealing  with  a 
single  subject,  such  as  that  at  present  responsible  for  Science  Abstracts. 

In  the  opinion  of  your  committee  the  catalogue  could  have  little  value  iii  such  a 
form,  and  the  question  for  the  Board  of  Governors  to  decide  is  whether  the  Inter- 
national Catalogue  is  of  sufficient  value  to  warrant  an  annual  contribution  by  way  of 
endowment.  This  can  only  be  done,  under  present  conditions,  by  a  Government-  grant 
ad  hoc. 

J.  Allan  Thomson,  Hon.  Librarian. 

Research  Grant  Committee's  Report. — The  Hon.  Secretary  read  some 
additions  to  the  Research  Grant  Committee's  report  already  circulated, 
and  moved,  That  the  report  be  adopted.  The  motion  was  seconded  by 
Professor  Thomas,  and  carried. 

Report  of  Research  Grant  Committee. 

(Professor  Easterfield,  Mr.  F.  W.  Furkert,  and  Mr.  B.  C.  Aston.) 

(For  previous  reports  see  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  vol.  50,  p.  333,  and  vol.  51,  p.  462.) 

Mr.  L.  P.  Syriies,  who  was  in  1916  granted  £50  (through  the  Philosophical  Institute 
of  Canterbury)  for  investigating  the  decay  of  apples  and  other  fruits  in  cold  storage, 
reported  that  for  health  reasons,  as  well  as  pressure  of  business,  he  was  unable  to  take 
up  the  investigation.     On  the  11th  October,  1919,  he  therefore  refunded  the  sum  of  £50. 

Mr.  L.  BirJfs,  to  whom  £10  had  been  granted  in  1916  (through  the  Philosophical 
Institute  of  Canterbury)  for  investigating  the  electrical  prevention  of  frosts  in  orchards, 
was  by  reason  of  his  transfer  to  Wellington  unable  to  continue  the  experiments. 
Therefore,  on  the  11th  October,  1919,  he  refunded  the  grant  of  £10. 

3Iessrs.  R.  Speight  and  L.  J.  Wild,  to  whom  £50  was  granted  in  1916  (through  the 
Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury)  for  the  investigation  of  the  phosphatic  lime- 
stones of  Canterbury,  reported  on  the  19th  December,  1919,  that  in  the  beginning  of  the 
year  they  examined  the  limestone  country  at  Mount  Somers  and  in  the  Rangitata  Valley, 
and  also  the  chalk  at  Oxford,  with  the  object  of  finding  phosphate.  The  results 
obtained  were  almost  entirely  negative.  This  work  necessitated  the  expenditure  of 
about  £7,  leaving  a  balance  of  about  the  same  sum  of  the  original  grant.  Owing  to  the 
restrictions  on  travelhng  in  the  middle  of  the  year  (and  other  causes)  it  was  found 
impossible  to  carry  on  the  work ;  but  the  grantees  would  be  glad  to  receive  permission 
to  expend  the  balance  on  further  investigation,  especially  in  the  Mount  Somers  district. 

Professor  R.  .Jack,  to  whom  £25  was  granted  in  1917  (through  the  Otago  Institute) 
for  investigating  the  electrical  charge  on  rain,  reported  on  the  1st  January  that  owing 
to  pressure  of  University  work  he  had  been  unable  to  utilize  the  grant.  As  this  3'ear 
Professor  Jack  expects  to  have  further,  assistance,  and  a  graduate  prepared  to  undertake 
the  work  under  his  direction,  he  hopes  that  the  New  Zealand  Institute  will  grant  a 
further  extension  for  a  year. 

Professor  C.  Chilton,  to  whom  £50  was  granted  in  1918  (through  the  Philosophical 
Institute  of  Canterbury)  for  investigating  New  Zealand  flax  (phormium),  reported 
on  the  27th  December,  1919,  that  it  had  been  impossible  to  do  much  since  the  last 
reports  had  been  submitted.  Mrs.  Jennings  (now  Dr.  Bella  D.  MacCallum)  had  made 
the  preliminary  investigations  ;  but  early  in  1919  she  had  to  leave  for  England.  At 
Cambridge  University  Dr.  MacCallum  has  qualified  still  further  for  the  investigations 
necessary,  and  it  is  hoped  that  before  long  she  will  return  to  the  Dominion  and  resume 
work  on  the  New  Zealand  flax.  Out  of  the  grant  of  £50  a  balance  of  £39  is  still 
unexpended. 


480  Proceedings. 

Profenf^or  J.  Malcolm,  to  whom  £30  was  granted  in  1918  (through  the  Otago 
Institute)  for  research  in  New  Zealand  plant  poisons,  reported  on  the  17th  December, 
1919,  that  there  was  still  about  £14  13s.  of  the  grant  in  hand.  The  research  on 
pukateine  was  continued  during  the  vacation,  but  pressure  of  teaching- work  had 
prevented  the  completion  of  a  paper  begun  on  the  subject.  Professor  Malcolm  would 
like  to  have  the  final  report  postponed  until  December,  1920. 

Professor  W.  P.  Evayis,  to  whom  £200  was  granted  in  1918  (through  the  Philosophical 
Institute  of  Canterbury)  for  investigating  New  Zealand  brown  coals,  reported  on  the 
22nd  December,  1919,  that  the  fractionating  column — mentioned  in  his  previous 
report--had  at  last  come  to  hand.  As  it  was  more  likely  to  be  of  general  use  in  the 
laboratory  than  for  the  special  purpose  of  this  research,  it  had  been  paid  for  entirely 
out  of  laboratory  funds.  Analyses  and  experiments  had  been  made  in  connection 
with  (1)  Avoca  coal,  (2)  Homebush  coal,  (3)  Mount  Somers  coal,  (4)  Mossbank  coal. 
Of  the  £200  grant  a  balance  of  £10  Cs.  2d.  remains  unexpended.  Professor  Evans 
desires  a  further  grant  of  £200  to  continue  the  investigations  in  1920. 

Mr.  Guy  Brittin,  to  whom  £100  was  granted  in  1919  (through  the  Philosophical 
Institute  of  Canterbur}')  for  research  in  fruit-tree  diseases,  reported  on  the  16th  Decem- 
ber, 1919,  that  the  general  work  had  been  proceeding.  This  consisted  of  special 
pruning  and  spraying,  and  noting  the  effects.  The  microscopical  investigations  had 
been  delayed  by  the  difficulty  of  procuring  the  requisite  apparatus  ;  but  owing  to  the 
kindness  of  Professor  Kirk  he  had  obtained  the  loan  of  a  Cathcart  microtome,  which 
enabled  him  to  prepare  sections  of  some  of  the  later  stages  of  the  diseases  being  investi- 
gated.    At  the  time  of  reporting  only  £1  12$.  had  been  expended. 

Professor  C.  C.  Farr,  to  whom  £100  was  granted  in  1919  (through  the  Philosophical 
Institute  of  Canterbury)  for  experiments  on  the  porosity  of  insulators,  reported  on  the 
7th  January,  1920,  that  the  whole  of  this  grant  had  been  expended  in  the  construction 
of  a  testing- vessel,  which  cost  £95,  and  its  fittings.  Investigations  will  commence 
immediately  Professor  Farr  returns  from  Australia. 

Mr.  W.  G.  Morrison,  who  in  1919  was  granted  £70  to  £100  (through  the  Philosophical 
Institute  of  Canterbury)  for  research  in  the  natural  regeneration  of  exotic  and  indigenous 
forest-trees  in  connection  with  natural  afforestation  of  high  country,  reported  in 
December,  1919,  that  a  certain  amoimt  of  useful  data  had  been  collected,  and  many 
interesting  photographs  taken.  This  information  would  be  used  in  connection  with  a 
paper  to  be  read  before  the  Philosoijhical  Institute  of  Canterbury.  The  amount  so  far 
expended  was  £13  18s.  3d.     Mr.  Morrison  asks  for  a  continuance  of  the  grant. 

Mr.  G.  S.  Thomson  and  Hon.  G.  M.  Thomson,  who  in  1919  were  granted  £50 
(through  the  Otago  Institute)  for  a  research  into  the  economic  value  of  whale-feed, 
reported  on  the  3rd  December,  1919,  that  the  aj^paratus  ordered  from  England  had 
not  come  to  hand,  and,  owing  to  adverse  weather  conditions,  there  had  been  almost 
no  opportunities  for  collecting.  It  is  desired  that  the  grant  be  renewed  for  another 
year. 

Professor  J.  Malcolm,  to  whom  £250  was  granted  in  1919  (through  the  Otago 
Institute)  for  a  research  on  New  Zealand  fishes,  reported  on  the  17th  December,  1919, 
that  he  had  secured  the  services  of  a  research  worker  and  carried  out  the  anaylses  of 
several  of  the  common  food-fishes,  including  groper,  kingfish,  moki,  blue  cod,  &c. 
A  paper  entitled  "  Food  Value  of  New  Zealand  Fishes,  Part  I,"  had  been  forwarded  to 
the  Hon.  Editor.  £115  had  been  expended,  and  a  liability  to  the  extent  of  £25  had  been 
incurred  for  apparatus.  It  is  hoped  that  another  grant  will  be  made  to  enable  the  work 
to  be  continued. 

Mr.  R.  Speight,  to  whom  £225  was  granted  in  1919  (through  the  Philosophical 
Institute  of  Canterbury)  for  a  geological  survey  of  Malvern  Hills,  reported  on  the 
19th  December,  1919,  that  owing  to  the  lateness  of  receipt  of  the  money  no  expenditure 
had  yet  been  made.  Mx.  Speight  devoted  all  the  time  he  could  to  the  preparation  of  a 
report  on  the  coal-measures  at  Broken  River — an  investigation  which  has  some  bearing 
on  the  problems  to  be  considered  at  Malvern  -and  was  submittmg  a  paper  on  the 
geological  features  of  these  beds.  Work  on  the  research  for  which  the  grant  was 
specially  given  would,  however,  be  commenced  forthwith. 

Messrs.  Lancaster  and  Comes,  to  whom  £50  was  granted  in  October,  1919  (through 
the  Auckland  Institute),  for  forestry  research,  expect  to  commence  work  early  in  1920. 

Dr.  C.  E.  Adams,  to  whom  £35  was  granted  in  1919  (through  the  Wellington 
Philosophical  Society)  for  astronomical  research,  reported  on  the  5th  January,  1920, 
that  the  total  amount  of  the  grant  had  been  remitted  to  the  British  Astronomical 
Association,  London,  for  the  purchase  of  apparatus.  A  transit  micrometer  is  on  the 
way  to  Wellington,  and  as  soon  as  this  instrument  is  in  operation  a  further  report  will 
be  made.  ' 


Annual  Meeting.  481 

Dr.  C.  E.  Adams,  to  whom  £150  was  granted  (through  the  Wellington  Philosophical 
Society)    for   research   in   connection   with   astronomical   sites,   reported   on   the    14th 
January,  1920,  that  a  programme  of  test  observations  was  being  arranged,  and  would 
be  available  for  use  in  the  field  in  May,  1920,  when  it  was  proposed  to  begin  in  the  South' 
Island  at  about  45°  S.  latitude. 

Professor  H.  B.  Kirk,  to  whom  £25  was  granted  in  1917  (through  the  WeUington 
Philosophical  Society)  for  investigating  methods  of  killing  mosquitoes  and  larvae, 
reported  on  the  3rd  January,  1920,  that  the  whole  of  the  grant  had  been  expended. 
The  experiments  made  confirmed  the  view  expressed  in  the  previous  report  that  the 
cresoles  in  the  pure  state  are  not  very  effective,  and  that  neither  they  nor  the  phenols 
are  so  effective  as  a  mixture  of  all  together.  During  1919  he  obtained  no  positive  results 
of  equal  value  with  those  he  had  already  obtained — that  is,  that  he  had  found  no 
larvicide  of  equal  efficiency  with  hght  oil.  Experiments  had  also  been  made  with 
tangle-foot  mixtures. 

Professor  T.  H.  Easterfield,  to  whom  £250  was  granted  in  1919  (through  the 
Wellington  Philosophical  Society),  reported  that  the  investigation  on  mineral  oils,  waxes, 
and  resins  has  been  proceeding  steadily  since  July  last,  and  the  first  instalment  of  the 
investigation  will  be  ready  foi;  publication  by  May  next.  Of  the  sum  of  £250  granted 
for  the  research,  £98  19s.  has  been  expended  (almost  entirely  on  the  salaries  of 
assistants),  leaving  a  balance  of  £151  Is. 

Dr.  J.  Allan  Thomson,  to  whom  £100  was  granted  in  1919  (through  the  Wellington 
Philosophical  Society)  for  a  research  into  the  chemical  characters  of  igneous  rocks, 
reported  on  the  28th  January,  1920,  that  the  work  could  not  be  begun  until  November, 
1919,  owing  to  the  delay  in  arrival  of  the  necessary  literature  from  America.  Since  then 
Dr.  Allan  Thomson  has  had  University  students  at  work  tabulating  and  plotting 
rock-analyses.     So  far  (January,  1920)  £53  12s.  6d.  had  been  expended. 

Thomas  H.  Easterfield. 
f.  w.  furkert. 
B.  C.  Aston. 

Professor  Kirk  explained  that  the  item  of  expenditure,  "  Professor  Kirk, 
travelling-expenses  to  Kapiti  Island,  £5  Is.,"  referred  to  the  expenses  of 
Mr.  Bendall  as  well  as  his  own. 

Mr.  Hill  asked  whether  the  Colenso  botanical  collection  was  being  well 
cared  for,  and  the  President  assured  him  that  it  was. 

Correspondence :  Resolutions  oj  Science  Congress.  —  The  replies  from 
Government  Departments  to  the  resolutions  passed  at  the  Science  Congress, 
1919,  were  read  by  the  Hon.  Secretary.  On  the  motion  of  Professor  Kirk, 
it  was  resolved,  That  the  matter  be  referred  to  the  Standing  Committee  to 
take  whatever  action  may  be  necessary  in  following  up  these  resolutions. 

National  Efficiency  Board's  Report. — A  letter,  dated  14th  March,  1919, 
from  the  Hon.  the  Minister  of  Internal  Affairs  was  read.  The  letter  stated 
that  the  Government  could  not  at  that  time  see  its  way  to  adopt  the 
report  of  the  National  Efficiency  Board,  but  had  given  instructions  for 
the  compilation  of  an  annual  census  of  industries.  On  the  motion  of 
Professor  Easterfield,  seconded  by  Mr.  Hill,  it  was  resolved.  That  the 
Mnister  of  Internal  Affairs  be  approached  by  a  deputation  urging  that 
efiect  be  given  to  the  resolutions  of  the  National  Efficiency  Board. 

Proposed  Contour  Map. — A  letter  of  the  20th  August,  1919,  from  the 
Wellington  Philosophical  Society,  urging  the  preparation  of  a  contoured 
topographical  map,  was  read.  On  the  motion  of  Dr.  J.  Allan  Thomson, 
seconded  by  Mr.  Hill,  it  was  resolved,  That  in  the  opinion  of  the  New 
Zealand  Institute  the  preparation  of  a  contoured  topographical  map  of 
New  Zealand,  on  as  large  a  scale  as  practicable  (say,  1  :  25,000),  is  now  an 
imperative  necessity,  as  the  map  is  required  for  agricultural,  geological, 
and  geographical  purposes. 

16— Trans. 


482  Proceedings. 

Carter  Bequest. — Letters  of  the  17tli  March,  1919,  and  the  23rd  April, 
1919,  from  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society,  were  read.  On  the 
motion  of  Professor  Kirk,  seconded  by  Mr.  Wright,  it  was  resolved,  That 
the  New  Zealand  Institute  will  view  with  satisfaction  vigorous  steps  in 
the  direction  of  developing  the  Carter  Fund  to  the  point  at  which  the 
wishes  of  the  benefactor  can  be  carried  into  effect. 

Science  Congress,  1921.— -The  President  urged  the  importance  of  holding 
this  Congress,  and  the  suitability  of  Palmerston  North  for  the  meeting. 
He  also  invited  Mr.  Park  (delegate  from  Palmerston  North)  to  address  the 
Board  on  this  subject. 

Mr.  Park  stated  that  preliminary  steps  for  holding  the  Congress  had 
already  been  taken,  and  various  local  bodies  had  been  approached.  All 
were  taking  up  the  matter  enthusiastically,  and  a  number  of  the  best  men 
had  been  appointed  to  carry  out  the  project.  They  hoped  to  arrange  a 
few  local  tours  for  the  visitors  to  the  Congress. 

On  the  motion  of  Dr.  Cockayne,  seconded  by  Professor  Easterfield,  it 
was  resolved.  That  in  confirmation  of  the  action  of  the  Standing  Committee 
the  Board  of  Governors  accepts  the  invitation  of  the  Manawatu  Philo- 
sophical Society  to  hold  the  1921  Science  Congress  at  Palmerston  North. 

The  question  of  fixing  a  date  was  discussed,  and  Mr.  Park  pointed  out 
that  an  endeavour  was  being  made  to  avoid  clashing  with  the  fixtures  of 
the  Australian  societies. 

On  the  motion  of  Professor  Easterfield,  seconded  by  Professor  Thomas, 
it  was  resolved,  That  the  Standing  Committee  be  authorized  to  act  with 
the  Manawatu  Society  in  making  all  arrangements  in  connection  with  the 
Palmerston  meeting,  and  to  co-opt  such  additional  members  as  they  deem 
desirable. 

International  Catalogue  of  Scientific  Literature. — With  regard  to  the 
letter  of  the  25th  June,  1919,  from  the  Koyal  Society,  the  President  stated 
that  the  letter  had  already  been  circulated  among  the  Governors,  and  drew 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  catalogue  was  very  little  used.  After  some 
discussion  it  was  resolved,  on  the  motion  of  Dr.  J.  Allan  Thomson,  seconded 
by  Professor  Kirk,  That  a  letter  be  written  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Eoyal 
Society  expressing  the  view  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  that  the  Inter- 
national Catalogue  of  Scientific  Literature  would  be  of  little  value  without 
the  subject  index.  If  this  is  retained,  the  New  Zealand  Institute  will 
urge  on  the  Government  of  New  Zealand  to  subsidize  a  subscription  for  three 
further  copies  of  the  catalpgue  for  the  incorporated  societies  of  the  Institute. 

Resignation  of  Hon.  Editor. — The  President  read  a  letter  (dated  the 
5th  November,  1919)  from  Dr.  C.  A.  Cotton,  resigning  his  position  as 
Honorary  Editor,  and  expressed  his  appreciation  of  the  admirable  way  in 
which  Dr.  Cotton  had  performed  the  duties  of  Editor.  On  the  motion  of 
Professor  Chilton,  seconded  by  the  Hon.  G.  M.  Thomson,  it  was  resolved. 
That  Dr.  Cotton's  resignation  be  accepted  with  great  regret,  and  that  the 
thanks  of  the  Board  be  conveyed  to  him  for  the  excellent  services  he  had 
rendered  as  Hon.  Editor. 

Proposed  New  Regulations  of  the  Institute. — A  letter  of  the  28th  March, 
1919,  from  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society,  was  read,  bringing  before 
the  notice  of  the  Institute  a  suggestion  to  amend  clause  6  of  the  Fellowship 
Regulations  by  deleting  the  words  "  is  a  British  subject  and."  A  motion 
to  this  effect  was  moved  by  Professor  Kirk,  and  seconded  by  Professor 
Easterfield,  but  the  motion  was  lost. 


Annual  Meeting.  483 

Kapiti  Island. — A  letter  of  the  23rd  December,  1919,  from  the  Hon. 
the  Minister  of  Lands,  was  read,  stating  that  steps  were  being  taken  to  set 
up  a  committee  to  advise  the  Government  on  Kapiti  Island,  and  asking 
the  Institute  to  nominate  a  representative  to  act  on  the  committee.  It 
was  resolved,  on  the  motion  of  Dr.  Cockayne,  seconded  by  the  Hon.  Gr.  M. 
Thomson,  That  Professor  Kirk  be  appointed  the  Institute's  representative 
on  this  committee. 

On  the  motion  of  Professor  Kirk,  seconded  by  the  Hon.  G.  M.  Thomson, 
it  was  resolved.  That  the  Government  be  again  urged  to  take  prompt  action 
in  extinguishing  the  remaining  Native  titles  on  Kapiti  Island,  and  in  putting 
an  end  to  the  damage  being  done  by  sheep. 

Indexing  "  Transactions.'" — A  letter  of  the  20th  December,  1919,  from 
,the  Canterbury  Philosophical  Institute,  was  read.  The  letter  asked  what 
steps  had  been  taken  with  regard  to  indexing  volumes  41  to  50.  It  was 
decided  that  the  matter  be  left  to  the  Standing  Committee,  to  be  kept 
steadily  in  view  for  action  when  the  facilities  were  available. 

Samoan  Geophysical  Observatory.  —  The  Hon.  Secretary  read  a  letter 
from  Professor  Farr,  urging  the  importance  of  this  observatory,  and  the 
necessity  for  compensating  Dr.  Anghenheister  for  the  expense  of  maintain- 
ing it  during  the  war.  Dr.  Adams,  Government  Astronomer,  attended,  and 
gave  the  Board  first-hand  information  obtained  during  his  recent  visit  to 
Samoa. 

On  the  motion  of  Mr.  Wright,  seconded  by  Dr.  Marsjiall,  it  was  resolved, 
That,  in  view  of  the  great  importance  of  the  Samoan  geophysical  observa- 
tory, a  committee  consisting  of  the  President-elect,  Professor  Farr,  Pro- 
fessor Marsden,  Professor  Somerville,  and  Mr.  G.  Hogben  be  set  up  to  confer 
with  the.  Government  Astronomer  and  the  Minister  of  External  Affairs 
as  to  the  best  means  to  be  adopted  for  the  maintenance  of  the  Samoan 
Observatory. 

Macqiia/rie  Island. — A  report  dated  the  13th  January,  1919,  was  received 
from  Mr.  H.  Hamilton,  dealing  with  the  preservation  of  the  fauna  of  Mac- 
quarie  Island.  It  was  resolved.  That  Mr.  Hamilton  be  thanked  for  his 
kindness  in  preparing  the  report.  On  the  motion  of  Dr.  Marshall,  seconded 
by  Mr.  Aston,  it  was  further  resolved,  That  the  New  Zealand  Institute 
would  welcome  action  by  the  Tasmanian  Government  in  the  direction  of 
declaring  Macquarie  Island  a  sanctuary  for  animals  and  plants. 

Hamilton  Prize. — A  letter  of  the  17th  January,  1920,  from  the  Welling- 
ton Philosophical  Society,  was  read,  offering  to  hand  over  the  balance  of 
the  Hamilton  Fund  on  certain  conditions.  Professor  Easterfield  stated 
that  the  Wellington  Society  had  consulted  the  relatives  of  the  late  Mr. 
Hamilton,  and  that  they  were  in  sympathy  with  the  money  being  devoted 
to  a  prize  for  encouraging  beginners  in  scientific  research.  On  the  motion 
of  Dr.  Cockayne,  seconded  by  Dr.  Thomson,  it  was  resolved.  That  the  offer 
be  accepted,  and  the  matter  be  left  in  the  hands  of  the  Standing  Committee 
to  meet  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society  and  draw  up  rules  for  the 
Hamilton  Prize. 

New  Zealand  Flax. — On  the  motion  of  Professor  Kirk,  seconded  by 
Dr.  Cockayne,  it  was  resolved.  That  the  Government  be  urged  to  take 
effective  steps  to  investigate  the  cause  and  treatment  of  "  yellow-leaf  " 
and  accompanying   diseases  in  New  Zealand  flax,  and  advised  that  this 

16* 


484  Proceedings. 

can  best  be  done  by  sucb  liberal  treatment  of  the  Cawthron  Institute 
as  would  enable  it  to  bring  to  New  Zealand  the  best  available  plant- 
pathologist,  who  should  devote  his  time  to  this  subject  for  as  many 
years  as  might  be  necessary. 

Dominion  Museum. — It  was  moved  by  Professor  Easterfield,  seconded 
by  Dr.  Marshall,  and  carried,  That  the  attention  of  Cabinet  be  drawn  to 
the  urgency  of  the  need  of  a  new  and  fireproof  museum  to  accommodate 
the  valuable  scientific  collections  at  present  housed  in  the  old  wooden 
building  in  Museum  Street. 

Forestry  Matters. — On^  the  motion  of  Professor  Kirk,  seconded  by 
Professor  Chilton,  it  was  resolved.  That  the  Institute  convey  to  the 
Hon.  the  Minister  of  Internal  Affairs  its  congratulations  on  the  formulating 
of  a  definite  forest  policy. 

Sir  David  Hutchins. — It  was  resolved,  on  the  motion  of  the  President, 
seconded  by  the  Hon.  G.  M.  Thomson,  That  the  Board  of  Governors  of 
the  New  Zealand  Institute  extends  to  Sir  David  Hutchins  its  congratulations 

o 

on  the  honour  recently  conferred  on  him  by  His  Majesty  the  King. 

Election  of  Hon.  Members. — The  nominations  for  honorary  membership 
were  then  considered.  Professor  Easterfield  and  Professor  Segar  were 
appointed  scrutineers.  The  voting  resulted  in  the  election  of  Sir  J.  G. 
Frazer,  D.C.L.  ;  Professor  J.  W.  Gregory,  D.Sc,  F.R.S.  ;  Sir  A.  D.  Hall, 
M.A.,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.  ;  Sir  Douglas  Mawson,  B.E.,  D.Sc.  ;  Mr.  Henry  Woods, 
M.A.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S. 

Travelling-expenses. — It  was  moved  by  Professor  Kirk,  seconded  by 
Dr.  Marshall,  and  carried.  That  the  travelling-expenses  of  members  of  the 
Board  be  paid. 

Election  of  Officers. — The  officers  for  the  year  1920  were  unanimously 
elected  as  follows  :  President,  Professor  T.  H.  Easterfield  ;  Hon.  Editor, 
Mr.  Johannes  C.  Andersen  ;  Hon.  Treasurer,  Mr.  C.  A.  Ewen ;  Hon. 
Librarian,  Dr.  J.  Allan  Thomson  ;   Hon.  Secretary,  Mr.  B.  C.  Aston. 

Election  of  Committees.  —  Publication  Committee  :  Professor  Kirk, 
Dr.  Cotton,  xvir.  Johannes  C.  Andersen,  Dr.  J.  Allan  Thomson,  and  Mr.  Aston. 

Library  Committee  :  Professor  Somerville,  Dr.  J.  Allan  Thomson,  and 
Dr.  Cotton. 

Research  Grants  Committee  :  Dr.  J,  Allan  Thomson,  Mr.  Furkett,  and 
Mr.  Aston. 

Hector  Award  Committee  :  Dr.  Marshall  (convener),  Mr.  T.  F.  Cheese- 
man,  Dr.  Chilton,  Professor  Easterfield,  and  Dr.  Cockayne. 

Hutton  Award  Committee. — Dr.  Benham  (convener),  Dr.  Marshall, 
Rev.  Dr.  Holloway,  and  Dr.  Cockayne. 

Regulations  Committee  :  Mr.  Johannes  C.  Andersen,  Dr.  J.  Allan 'Thom- 
son, Mr.  Ewen,  and  Mr.  Aston. 

Date  and  Place  of  Next  Annual  Meeting. — It  was  moved  by  Dr.  Chilton, 
seconded  by  Mr.  Hill,  and  carried.  That  the  date  and  place  of  the  next 
annual  meeting  be  left  in  the  hands  of  the  Standing  Committee  to  arrange, 
in  conjunction  with  the  Manawatu  Philosophical  Society. 

Mr.  M.  A.  Eliott. — On  the  motion  of  Professor  Easterfield,  seconded 
by  Professor  Thomas,  it  was  resolved,  That  the  Board  of  Governors  hears 
with  regret  of  the  serious  illness  of  Mr.  M.  A.  Eliott,  and  trusts  that  he  will 
have  a  speedy  recovery. 


Annual  Meeting.  485 

Votes  of  Thanhs  were  accorded  to — (1)  The  Hon.  G.  W.  Russell,  for 
assistance  rendered  to  the  Institute  during  his  term  of  office  as  Minister  of 
Internal  Affairs  ;  (2)  the  honorary  officers  of  the  Institute,  for  their  services 
during  the  past  yef^r  ;  and  (3)  to  the«  Standing  Committee,  for  services 
rendered  during  the  year. 

Authority  to  confirm  the  minutes  of  the  annual  meeting  was  granted  to 
the  Standing  Committee. 

Resolutions  of  Sympathy. — That  the  most  hearty  sympathy  of  the  Board 
be  accorded  the  relatives  of  Professor  Maclaurin,  late  President  of  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 

That  the  most  hearty  sympathy  of  the  Board  be  accorded  the  relatives 
of  the  late  Dr.  Etheridge,  Director  of  the  Australian  Museum. 


WELLINGTON  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY. 


Since  the  30th  September,  1918,  eight  meetings  have  been  held — the  annual 
general  meeting,  one  special  and  six  ordinary  meetings — when  papers  were 
read  as  follow  : — 

18th  December,  1918  (annual  general  meeting)  :  W.  Donovan,  "  The 
Distillation  of  Waikaia  Shales  "  ;    P.  G.  Morgan,  "  New  Zealand  Clays." 

30th  April,  1919  :  S.  H.  Jenkinson,  "  Majority  and  Proportional  Repre- 
sentation." 

28th  May:  E.  K.  Lomas,  "Spiders";  R.  L.  Andrew,  "Seasonal 
Variations  in  the  Wellington  Milk-supply." 

25th  June  :    D.  Jenness,  "  Canadian  Arctic  Expedition,  1913-1918." 

23rd  July  :  R.  W.  Holmes  (President),  "  Notes  on  Decimal  Coinage  and 
the  Metric  System." 

6th  August  (special  meeting)  :  E.  Marsden,  "  Gun-location  on  the 
Western  Front." 

27th  August :  R.  L.  Andrew,  "  Some  Analyses  of  Human  Milk  with 
reference  to  Infant  Feeding  "  ;   G.  B.  Bradshaw,  "  The  Bomb  Calorimeter." 

24th  September  :  G.  V.  Hudson,  "  On  some  Examples  of  New  Zealand 
Insects  illustrating  the  Darwinian  Principle  of  Sexual  Selection  "  ;  R.  W. 
Holmes  and  A.  C.  Gifiord,  "  Mount  Tutoko  and  the  Darran  Mountains." 

The  average  attendance  has  been  forty. 

At  the  annual  general  meeting  the  annual  report  and  audited  balance- 
sheet  were  adopted. 

Abstract. 

Council  Meetings. — Eleven  meetings  of  the  Council  have  been  held,  when  consider- 
ation has  been  given  to  the  following  matters  :- — 

Research  Grants. — A  Government  grant  of  £2,000  was  made  available  through  the 
New  Zealand  Institute  in  January,  and  applications  were  invited  from  members.  The 
following  grants  have  since  been  made  :  Astronomical  Section,  £55  for  apparatus  for 
astronomical  research;  Professor  T.  H.  Easterfield,  £200,  "The  Mineral  Oils,  Waxes, 
and  Resins  of  New  Zealand  "  ;  Dr.  C.  E.  Adams,  £150,  "  Testing  of  Observatory-sites  "  ; 
Dr.  J.  Allan  Thomson,  £100,  "  The  Chemical  Characters  of  Igneous  Rocks." 

An  application  from  Dr.  C.  E.  Adams  for  a  grant  for  assistance  in  computing  a 
table  of  mathematical  functions  is  under  consideration. 


486  Proceedings. 

Honorary  Members  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute. — Owing  to  the  deaths  of  six 
honorary  members  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute,  the  Council  was  called  upon  to  submit 
six  names  for  election  to  the  honour.  At  the  annual  general  meeting  of  the  Institute 
Dr.  J.  W.  Mellor  was  elected,  the  five  remaining  vacancies  to  be  filled  at  a  later  meeting. 

Fellowship  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute. — In  conformity  with  the  regulations  of  the 
New  Zealand  Institute,  the  Council  nominated  the  following  for  election  to  this  honour  : 
C.  E.  Adams,  B.  C.  Aston,  T.  Broun,  C.  A.  Cotton,  W.  P.  Evans,  C.  C.  Farr,  A.  C.  Gifford, 
C.  Monro  Hector,  G.  Hogben,  R.  W.  Holmes,  G.  V.  Hudson,  H.  B.  Kirk,  J.  S.  Maclaurin, 
P.  G.  Morgan,  R.  J.  Scott,  H.  W.  Segar,  S.  Percy  Smith,  R.  Speight,  E.  E.  Stark,  A.  P.  W. 
Thomas,  J.  Allan  Thomson,  E.  Phillips  Turner. 

Lectures  in  Practical  Astronomy. — The  Astronomical  Section  submitted  a  syllabus 
of  lectures  in  practical  astronomy,  and  after  consideration  the  Council  referred  it  back 
to  the  Section  for  preparation  of  a  suitable  scheme. 

Topographical  Map  of  New  Zealand. — The  Geological  Section  referred  the  need  of  a 
topographical  map  of  New  Zealand  to  the  Council  for  its  recommendation,  and  the 
Council  found  on  forwarding  the  request  to  the  Government  that  a  maj)  of  this  kind 
would  shortly  be  put  in  hand. 

Roll  of  Honour. — Now  that  the  war  is  over,  a  complete  roll  of  honour  of  members 
who  have  served  overseas  is  being  jirei^ared. 

King  Telescope. — The  society's  telescope  presented  by  Miss  Jessie  King  is  now  in  use, 
and  a  plate  commemorating  the  gift  has  been  approved  by  the  Council  and  will  shortly 
be  attached  to  the  mounting. 

Standard  Time. — The  Council  forwarded  the  report  of  the  Committee  on  New 
Zealand  Standard  Time  to  Admiral  of  the  Fleet  Viscount  Jellicoe  for  his  consideration, 
asking  his  supjDort  to  the  scheme,  as  a  measure  of  economic  efficiency. 

Longitude-determination. — The  Council  approved  the  Astronomical  Section's  re- 
commendation that  New  Zealand  should  take  advantage  of  the  longitude-determination 
by  wireless  signals  to  be  carried  out  between  Australia  and  Greenwich  shortly,  and 
forwarded  the  letter  to  the  Department  of  Internal  Affairs,  the  reply  being  that  the 
Government  could  not  see  its  way  to  take  part  in  the  work.  , 

Membership. — The  roll  of  the  society  stands  at  181,  as  follows  :  Life  members,  9  ;  on 
active  service,  13  ;  ordinary  members,  159  During  the  year  one  fife  member  died ; 
four  orcUnary  members  died"  and  eight  resigned  ;  fort^^-two  new  members  were  elected, 
but  ten  of  these  did  not  become  members. 

Library. — One  meeting  of  the  Library  Committee  was  held  during  the  year.  The 
periodicals  hitherto  ordered  from  booksellers  are  now  being  ordered  from  the  publishers. 
Many  of  the  volumes  are  in  an  incomplete  state,  and  for  this  reason  no  binding  has  been 
done  this  year. 

The  sum  of  £59  7s.  6d.  was  allocated  to  the  library,  of  which  £36  8s.  lOd.  has  been 
expended,  leaving  a  balance  of  £22  18s.  8d.  This  amount  added  to  last  year's  balance 
makes  a  total  of  £112  Is.  9d.  to  be  expended. 

Committee  and  Officers  for  1920. — President,  —  R.  W.  Holmes,  I.S.O., 
M.Inst.C.E.  Vice-presidents-^.  E.  Adams,  D.Sc,  F.R.A.S. ;  A.  C.  Gifford, 
M.A.,  F.R.A.S.  Council— nsdon  Best,  F.N.Z.Inst. ;  T.  H.  Easterfield, 
M.A.,  Ph.D.,  F.N.Z.Inst. ;  G.  V.  Hudson,  F.E.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst.  ;  H.  B.  Kirk, 
M.A.,  F.N.Z.Inst.  ;  W.  S.  La  Trobe,  M.A. ;  E.  K.  Lomas,  M.A.,  M.Sc.  ; 
E.  Marsden,  D.Sc.  ;  P.  G.  Morgan,  M.A.,  F.G.S.  ;  J.  Allan  Thomson, 
M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.N.Z.Inst.  ;  G.  H.  Uttley,  M.A.,  M.Sc,  F.G.S.  Secretary  and 
Treasurer — C.  G.  G.  Berry.  Auditor — E.  R.  Dymock,  F. I.A.N. Z.  Repre- 
sentatives to  New  Zealand  Institute — H.  B.  Kirk.  M.A.,  F.N.Z.Inst.  ;  T.  H. 
Easterfield,  M.A.  Ph.D.,  F.N.Z.Inst. 


ASTRONOMICAL  SECTION. 

Four  meetings  were  held,  when  papers  were  read  as  follow  : — 

4th  June,  1919  :  A.  C.  Gifford,  "  Graphical  and  Numerical  Illustrations  of  Solar 
Attraction." 

2nd  July  :    D.  M.  Y.  Sommerville,  "  Pe;riodogram  Analysis." 

3rd  September  :  C.  J.  Westland,  "  Rapid  Method  of  calculating  Occultations  "  ; 
C.  E,  Adams,  "  Reform  of  the  Calendar." 


Wellington  Philosophical  Society.  487 

Owing  to  the  general  interest  of  the  paper,  the  mefeting  of  the  6th  Ai:^ust  was  made 
a  special  society  meeting. 

Committee. — Six  meetings  of  the  Committee  have  been  held,  and  the  following 
subjects  have  been  considered  :  Testing  of  sites  for  observatories  ;  Carter  Bequest ; 
Lectures  in  practical  astronomy ;  Determination  of  longitude ;  Research  at  the 
Observatory. 

Observatory, — During  the  early  part  of  the  year  the  Observatory  was  closed  OAving  to 
difficulty  in  having  repairs  carried  out ;  latterly  it  has  been  ojaen  on  the  second  and 
fourth  Tuesday  evenings,  and  good  average  attendances  have  resulted.  The  building 
and  instrument  are  in  good  repair ;  a  plate  to  commemorate  the  gift  of  the  King 
telescope  is  in  preparation  for  attaching  to  the  instrument.  Arrangements  have  been 
made  with  the  Kelburn  Tramway  Company'  for  a  combined  tram  and  Observatory 
ticKet ;  and  a  sign  notifying  that  the  Observatory  is  open  is  lighted  up  in  Tramway 
Avenue  on  Observatory  nights.  Dr.  C.  Monro  Hector  has  very  generously  presented 
to  the  Section  a  bookcase  and  a  cupboard  to  contain  accessories,  and  a  20  in,  celestial 
globe.     Professor  Sommerville  and  the  Honorarj^  Secretary  have  been  in  charge. 

Besearch. — A  Government  research  grant  of  £55  has  been  made  to  the  Section 
through  the  New  Zealand  Institute. 

Committee  and  Officers  for  1920. — Honorary  Member — Miss  Mary  Proctor.  Chair- 
man— A.  C.  Gifford,  M.A.,  F.R.  A.S.  V ice-Chairmen — D.  M.  Y.  Sommerville,  M.A.,  D.Sc; 
W.  S.  La  Trobe,  M.A.  Committee— E\a,n  Parry,  B.Sc,  it.I.E.E.  ;  C.  P.  Powles  ; 
H.  Clark,  M.Sc,  Ph.D.;  C.  Monro  Hector,  M.D.,  B.Sc,  F.R.A.S.  ;  G.  S.  Hooper; 
R.  D.  Thompson,  M.A.  Director  and  Curator  of  Instruments — C.  E.  Adams,  D.Sc, 
F.R.A.S.  Honorary  Treasurer — C.  E.  Adams,  D.Sc,  F.R.A.S.  Honorary  Secretary — 
C.  G.  G.  Berry. 

Two  members  of  the  Committee  having  left  the  Dominion — viz.,  Mr.  Evan  Parry 
and  Professor  H.  Clark — their  places  were  filled  by  Mr.  J.  Darling  and  Professor 
E.  Marsden,  D.Sc. 


TECHNOLOGICAL  SECTION. 

Six  meetings  were  held,  when  papers  were  read  as  follow  : — 

14th  Maj%  1919  :  S.  H.  Jenkinson,  inaugural  address,  "  The  Design  of  the  Modern 
Locomotive." 

11th  June:    P.  G.  Morgan,  "The  Clavs  of  New  Zealand." 

9th  July:    A.  J.  Paterson,  "Carburettors." 

13th  August:  R.  E.  Robertson,  •"  The  Progress  and  Development  of  Railway 
Brakes." 

17th  September :  A.  Seifert  and  T.  H.  Easterfield,  "  The  Past  and  Future  of  the 
Flax  Industry." 

loth  October  :  L.  Birks,  "  The  Mathematical  Basis  of  Hydro-electric-power  Rates." 

Date  of  Meetings. — From  September  the  date  of  meetings  of  the  Technological 
and  Geological  Sections  was  interchanged,  the  former  Section  now  meeting  on  the  third 
Wednesdaj'  in  the  month. 

Committee  and  Officers  for  1920. — Chairman — W.  S.  La  Trobe,  M.A.  Vice- 
Chairmen — J.  S.  Maclaurin,  D.Sc,  F.C.S.  ;  A.  J.  Paterson.  Committee — R.  W. 
Holmes,  I.S.O.,  M.Inst.C.E.  ;  F,  W.  Furkert,  AssocM.Inst.C.E.,  A.M.LM.E.  :  H. 
Sladden,  member  of  Board  of  Surveyors ;  E.  Marsden,  D.Sc.  ;  L.  Birks,  B.Sc,  M.I.E.E, 
Honorary  Secretary — A.  C,  Owen,  B.E.,  A. M.I.E.E. 


GEOLOGICAL  SECTION. 

Six  ordinarv  meetings  were  held,  when  pa'pers  were  read  as  follow  : — 

21st  August,  1918  :  G.  L.  Adkin,  "  The  Post-Tertiary  History  of  the  Ohau  River 
and  of  the  Adjacent  Coastal  Plain." 

18th  September,  1918  :  J.  Allan  Thomson,  "  The  Geology  of  the  Southern  Wai- 
rarapa  District";  G.  L.  Adkin,  "  Further  Notes  on  the  Horowhenua  Coastal  Plain  and 
the  Associated  Physiographic  Features." 

16th  October,  1918  :  G.  Uttley,  "  Tertiary  Geology  of  the  Waitaki  Valley  between 
Duntroon  and  Kurow";  W.  M.  Davis,  "The  Significant  Features  of  Reef-bordered 
Coasts." 

21st  May,  1919:  P.  G.  Morgan,  "The  Tertiary  Beds  of  Central  Otago";  P.  G. 
Morgan,  "  Glentunnel  Coalfield,  Malvern  Hills,  Canterburj^" 


488  Proceedings.. 

18th  June^  S.  A.  R.  Mair,  "  Roadmaking  Stones  of  Wellington  and  Taranaki." 

16th  July  :  J.  Allan  Thomson,  "  Brachiopod  Genera,"  and  "  Some  Conglomerates 
of  East  Marlborough." 

At  the  meeting  held  on  the  16th  July  it  was  resolved.  That,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
Section,  the  preparation  of  a  contoured  topographical  map  of  New  Zealand  on  as  large 
a  scale  as  practicable  (saj%  1  :  125,000)  is  now  an  imperative  necessity,  as  the  map  is 
required  for  agricultural,  geological,  geographical,  and  other  puri:)Oses. 

Committee  and  Officers  for  1920. — Chairman — G.  H.  Uttley,  M.A.,  M.Sc,  F.G.S.  Vice- 
Chairman — E.  K.  Lomas,  M.A.,'M.Sc.  Committee — R.  W.  Holmes,  I.S.O.,  M.Inst.C.E. ; 
J.  Henderson,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  B.Sc.  in  Eng.  (Metall.);  P.  G.  Morgan,  M.A.,  F.G.S. ; 
M.  Ongley,  M.A. ;  J.  A.  Thomson,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.G.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst.  Hon.  Secretary— 
C.  A.  Cotton,  D.Sc,  F.G.S. 


HISTORICAL    SECTION. 

The  annual  meeting  and  six  general  meetings  were  held,  when  papers  were  read  as 
follow  : — ■ 

15th  October,  1918  :  Elsdon  Best,  "  Native  Tradition  of  the  Death  of  Marion 
du  Fresne  at  Bay  of  Islands  in  1772,  First  Visit  of  Captain  Cook  and  De  SurviUe 
in  1769,  &c." ;  Johannes  C.  Andersen,  "  Place-names  in  New  Zealand,  with  Special 
Reference  to  Banks  Peninsula." 

17th  December  :    Colonel  Porter,  C.B.,  "  Lesser-known  Maori  Customs." 

20th  May,  1919  :  Elsdon  Best,  "  Bush  Settlers  of  the  Wellington  District "  ; 
Johannes  C.  Andersen,  "  The  Mission  of  the  '  Britomart '  at  Akaroa  in  1840." 

17th  June  :  Rev.  Father  Gilbert,  "  Survey  and  Plan  of  the  New  Zealand  Company's 
First  Settlement  "  ;  Dr.  C.  Prendergast  Knight,  "  An  Episode  in  the  Life  of  Sir  George 
Grey." 

15th  July  :  Dr.  J.  Allan  Thomson,  "  On  the  Preservation  of  Records  and  Manu- 
scripts, and  the  Inauguration  of  an  Historical  Journal"  ;  Colonel  Porter,  C.B.,  " Camp- 
fire  Anecdotes  of  Fields,  Battles,  and  Bivouacs "  ;  Johannes  C.  Andersen,"  Maori 
String  Games." 

19th  August :  H.  G.  Christie,  "  Old  Maori  Middens  at  Paremata,  Porirua  "  \  F.  P. 
Wilson,  "  The  Attitude  of  the  British  Government  towards  New  Zealand  before  1841." 

21st  October  :    H.  Baillie,  "  Our  First  Navy." 

Donations. — A  large  album  of  views  of  Wellington,  dated  1885,  was  presented  to  the 
Section  by  Mr.  R.  W.  Holmes,  and  nine  views  of  old  Otaki  and  Welhngton,  and  of  early 
gun-boats,  by  Mr.  H.  Baillie. 

Committee  and  Officers  for  1920. — Chairman — Elsdon  Best,  F.N.Z.Inst.  Vice-Chair- 
man — Colonel  T.  W.  Porter,  C.B.  Committee — Dr.  C.  Prendergast  Knight,  F.  P.  Wilson, 
H.  Baillie,  W\  A.  Edwards,  E.  N.  Hogben. 


AUCKLAND   INSTITUTE. 

At  the  annual  meeting  (23rd  February,  1920)  the  annual  report  of  the 
Council  was  read  and  adopted. 

Abstract. 

In  the  fifty-second  annual  report  of  the  Auckland  Institute  and  Museum,  which  the 
Council  now  submits  to  the  members,  an  endeavour  is  made  to  give  an  account  of  the 
financial  and  general  condition  of  the  Institute,  and  to  briefly  summarize  the  work  it  has 
performed  during  the  year. 

Members. — The  number  of  new  members  elected  since  the  last  annual  meeting  has 
been  seventeen.  On  the  other  hand,  twenty-four  names  have  been  removed  from  the 
roU — seven  by  death,  twelve  by  resignation  or  removal  from  the  provincial  district, 
and  five  for  non-payment  of  subscription  for  more  than  two  consecutive  years.  There 
is  thus  a  net  loss  of  seven,  the  number  on  the  roll  at  the  present  time  being  455. 

In  the  list  of  members  removed  by  death  will  be  found  the  name  of  Major  T.  Broun, 
the  well-known  authority  on  the  New  Zealand  Coleoptera.  Major  Broun's  connection 
with  the  Institute  commenced  in  1875,  and  from  thfen  to  almost  the  day  of  his  death  the 
greater  part  of  his  time  was  devoted  to  his  favourite  study.  The  results  of  his  work  have 
been  published  from  time  to  time  in  the  separate  parts  of  the  Manual  of  the  Neiv  Zealand 
Coleoptera,  in  the   Transactions  and  Bulletins  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute,  and  in 


Auckland  Institute.  489 

various  other  publications.  Through  his  continuous  energy  and  activity,  it  can  be  said 
that  no  other  family  of  New  Zealand  insects  has  been  so  carefully  investigated  as  the 
Coleoptera.  Major  Broun's  death  will  be  severely  felt  by  all  workers  in  New  Zealand 
entomology.  The  remaining  members  withdrawn  from  the  roll  through  death  are  : 
Mr.  J.  Batger,  who  served  .on  the  Council  for  several  years,  and  was  President  for 
1899-1900  ;  Mr.  F.  D.  Halstead,  Mr.  J.  M.  Blair,  Mr.  R.  Mitchelson,  Mr.  W.  J.  Speight, 
and  Mr.  E.  V.  Ralf)h. 

In  this  part  of  the  report  it  should  be  mentioned  that  under  Regulations  20  to  26 
of  the  New  Zealand  Institute,  gazetted  4th  September,  1919,  the  Fellowship  of  the  New 
Zealand  Institute  was  constituted,  the  object  being  to  mark  distinction  or  research  in 
science.  It  was  provided  that  the  first  Fellows  should  number  twenty,  ten  of  whom 
became  Fellows  automatically  on  account  of  possessing  certain  cjuahfications,  the 
remaining  ten  being  elected  in  a  manner  prescribed  by  the  regulations.  Out  of  the 
total  number  of  twenty  Fellows  appointed,  the  following  are  members  of  the  Auckland 
Institute  :  Air.  T.  F.  Cheeseman,  Mr.  D.  Petrie,  Professor  H.  W.  Segar,  and  Professor 
A.  P.  W.  Thomas. 

Finance. — The  total  revenue  of  the  Working  Account,  after  deducting  the  balance 
•in  hand  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  has  been  £1,886  }3s.  3d.,  being  an  advance  of  no  less 
than  £207  lis.  6d.  on  the  amount  for  the  previous  year,  which  was  rather  smaller  than 
usual.  Examining  the  various  items,  it  M'ill  be  seen  that  the  members'  subscriptions 
have  yielded  £407  8s.,  showing  a  slight  decrease.  The  receijDts  from  the  Museum 
Endowment,  consisting  of  rents  and  interest,  have  amounted  to  £816  Os.  8d.  being  an 
advance  of  £102  7s.  9d.  on  last  year's  income.  The  invested  funds  of  the  Costley 
Bequest  have  provided  £449  10s.,  almost  exactly  the  same  as  that  of  the  previous 
year.  The  remaining  items  call  for  no  special  remark.  The  total  expenditure  has  been 
£1,753  16s.,  and  the  cash  balance  in  hand  is  £259  16s.  9d. 

The  invested  funds  of  the  Institute  and  Museum,  now  amounting  to  £23,154  14s.  Id., 
have  been  increased  during  the  year  by  the  sum  of  £209  Os.  4d.,  mostly  derived  from  the 
sale  of  some  small  endowments. 

Meetings. — The  satisfactory  results  obtained  during  the  session  of  1918,  described  in 
last  year's  report,  induced  the  Council  to  still  further  increase  the  number  of  meetings, 
and  to  pay  greater  attention  to  the  proper  illustration  of  all  suitable  lectures.  Altogether 
ten  meetings  have  been  held,  at  which  the  following  lectures  were  delivered,  or  papers 
for  publication  contributed  :  Dr.  J.  W.  Mcllraith,  "  Some  Modern  Views  on  Education 
and  the  Social  Unrest";  Professor  H.  W.  Segar,  "The  Attenuated  Sovereign";  Dr. 
K.  Mackenzie,  "  Cancer  and  its  Relation  to  Public  Health  "  ;  Professor  G.  Owen,  "  The 
Discovery  and  Properties  of  Radium  "  ;  Professor  G.  Owen,  "  The  Lessons  of  Radium  "  ; 
J.  A.  Bartrum,  "  Some  Aspects  of  the  Geological  History  and  Cultural  Development  of 
Man  "  ;  W.  S.  Vernon,  Electricity  in  the  Home  "  ;  T.  L.  Lancaster,  "  Energy  and 
Living  Organisms  "  ;  F.  E.  Powell,  "  Ferro-concrete  Ships  "  ;  J.  A.  Bartrum,  "  The 
Conglomerate  Band  at  Albany,"  and  "  Additional  Facts  concering  the  Distribution  of 
Igneous  Rocks  in  New  Zealand"  ;  D.  Petrie,  "  Descriptions  of  New  Flowering-jDlants  "  ; 
T.  F.  Cheeseman,  "  Contributions  to  a  Fuller  Knowledge  of  the  Flora  of  New  Zealand." 
The  attendance  at  the  w  hole  of  the  meetings  was  remarkably  good ;  in  fact,  at  Professor 
Owen's  two  lectures  on  radium  the  hall,  although  seating  nearly  four  hundred,  proved 
quite  insufficient  to  accommodate  all  those  desiring  to  hear  the  lecturer.  The  papers 
written  for  the  purpose  of  publication  have  been  forwarded  to  the  Editor  of  the 
Transactions,  and  will  doubtless  appear  in  Volume  52,  now  being  sent  to  press.  It 
should  be  mentioned  that  Volume  51,  containing  the  papers  read  before  the  various 
branches  of  the  Institute  during  1918,  was  not  received  for  distribution  until  late  in  1919. 

Library. — The  annual  balance-sheet  shows  that  the  actual  expenditure  over  the 
Mbrary  has  been  £153  3s.  6cl.,  but  there  are  still  some  outstanding  accounts  to  be  provided 
for.  An  order  for  over  seventy  volumes,  despatched  some  time  before  the  last  annual 
meeting,  arrived  about  the  middle  of  March  ;  and  another  for  close  upon  ninety  volumes, 
forwarded  last  September,  was  received  shortly  after  the  beginning  of  this  year.  In 
addition  to  the  purchase  of  books,  the  magazines  and  other  serial  pubhcations  sub- 
scribed to  by  the  Institute  have  been  regularly  received,  and  made  available  for  the  use 
of  readers  in  the  library.  The  usual  expenditure  has  been  incurred  in  binding  the  pub- 
lications of  societies  and  scientific  journals,  about  fifty  volumes  having  been  added  from 
that  source  alone.  As  in  past  years,  various  presentations  and  exchanges  have  been 
received  from  British,  American,  and  colonial  societies,  together  with  several  donations 
from  private  individuals. 

In  previous  reports  the  Council  has  remarked  on  the  growing  scarcity  of  shelf-room 
in  the  library.  It  has  now  to  state  that  no  further  accommodation  is  available  therein. 
Under  such  circumstances,  the  Library  Committee  has  been  authorized  to  erect  a  tem- 
porary range  of  shelving  in  the  small  room  opposite  the  curator's  office.     When  this  is 


490  Proceedings. 

done  the  demand  for  space  will  be  slightly  mitigated  ;  but  even  then  it  is  difficult  to  see 
how  the  natural  growth  of  the  library  can  be  accommodated  for  more  than  a  very  few 
years  to  come.  In  the  library,  as  in  all  other  deijartments  of  the  work  of  the  Institute 
and  Museum,  the  call  for  more  space  is  loud  and  insistent. 

Museum. — With  the  exception  of  a  short  period  devoted  to  cleaning  and  rearrange- 
ment, the  Museum  has  been  open  to  the  public  throughout  the  year.  The  attendance 
of  visitors  has  been  satisfactory,  as  will  be  readily  admitted  when  the  following 
statistics  are  considered.  Taking  the  attendance  on  Sundays  first,  the  register  kept 
by  the  janitor  shows  that  25,839  jjeople  entered  the  building  on  that  day,  being  an 
average  of  496  for  each  Sunday.  The  greatest  attendance  on  any  one  day  was  854, 
on  the  1st  June  ;  the  lowest  28,  on  the  5th  October,  an  unusually  wet  day.  On  the 
nine  cliief  holidays  of  the  year  the  total  number  of  visitors  amounted  to  6,193,  or  an 
average  of  688  for  each  holiday.  The  largest  holiday  attendance  was  986  on '  Easter 
Monday,  closely  followed  by  934  on  King's  Birthday.  From  the  want  of  recording 
mechanism  it  is  not  possible  to  give  the  actual  attendance  on  ordinary  week-days  ;  but 
taking  occasional  counts  as  a  basis  for  calculation,  it  seems  evident  that  the  average 
daily  number  of  visitors  can  be  safely  taken  as  250,  which  would  give  a  total  of  75,750. 
Adding  to  this  number  the  figures  already  given  for  Sundays  and  holidays,  the  grand 
total  becomes  107,787.  This  is  the  first  time  the  number  of  visitors  has  exceeded 
100,000,  although  in  several  previous  years  a  close  approach  to  it  has  been  made. 

In  the  present  crowded  state  of  the  Museum  it  is  practically  impossible  to  make 
any  changes  of  importance  therein,  or  to  exhibit  more  than  a  small  proportion  of  the 
many  additions  that  are  being  regularly  received.  Under  existing  cu-cumstances  all 
that  can  be  done  is  to  keep  the  collections  in  good  order  and  condition,  and  to  be 
satisfied  with  those  minor  alterations  and  improvements  that  can  still  be  carried  out. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  rearrangement  of  the  collection  of  New  Zealand 
shells  ;  the  working  into  their  proper  places  of  some  additions  that  have  been  made 
to  the  mounted  series  of  New  Zealand  birds  ;  the  mounting  for  exhibition  of  a  con- 
siderable number  of  articles  presented  to  the  Maori  collection  :  and  several  changes  in 
the  Foreign  Ethnographical  Hall. 

By  far  the  m6st  important  donation  made  to  the  zoological  department  of  the 
Museum  is  a  series  of  four  skins  of  the  larger  North  American  mammals,  presented  by 
Mr.  James  Dunning,  of  Remuera,  who  obtained  them  during  a  recent  hunting  expedition 
to  the  Kenai  Peninsula,  Alaska.  There  is  a  fine  specimen  of  the  moose,  the  largest 
existing  member  of  the  deer  family  ;  an  unusually  fine  example  of  the  Alaskan  brown 
bear  (Ursiis  middendorfii),  the  largest  of  all  bears;  a  specimen  of  the  black  bear; 
and  one  of  the  remarkable  big-horn  sheep,  with  its  enormous  spiral  horns.  It  is 
much  to  be  regretted  that  there  is  not  room  in  the  Museum  for  the  exhibition  of 
four  such  large  and  attractive  animals.  As  it  is,  the  skins  have  been  properly 
treated,  and  will  be  packed  away  until  the  erection  of  a  new  Museum  makes  it  possible 
to  exhibit  them.  Among  other  additions  belonging  to  this  class,  attention  should  be 
directed  to  the  gift  made  by  Mrs.  L.  Moses  of  a  handsome  plate-glass  show-case, 
containing  300  species  of  foreign  shells  and  thirty-five  corals.  Thanks  are  also  due  to 
Mr.  G.  Henning  and  Mr.  Hallyburton  Johnstone  for  some  mteresting  specimens  of 
New  Zealand  birds. 

In  the  Maori  Department  special  interest  will  be  taken  in  the  discovery  by  Messrs. 
Hovell  and  Bell  of  an  ancient  Maori  workshop  near  Katikati  Harbour,  apparently  not 
very  far  distant  from  the  locality  visited  by  Captain  Gilbert  Mair,  and  described  by 
him  in  the  Transactions  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  (vol.  35,  p.  240).  <An  insiiection 
made  by  the  ciirator  under  the  guidance  of  Mr.  Hovell  proved  that  the  workshoji 
covers  quite  a  large  area.  The  explorations  made  have  resulted  in  the  formation  of 
a  large  collection  of  stone  adzes  and  other  implements  in  various  stages  of  manufacture, 
together  with  numerous  grindstones,  borers,  drill-points,  &c.  Mr.  Hovell  has  set 
aside  for  the  Museum  an  extensive  series  of  the  articles  obtained,  with  the  object  of 
supjilying  material  for  the  construction  of  a  special  group  illustrating  the  manufacture 
of  stone  weapons  by  the  Maoris.  A  portion  of  this  material  has  already  arrived  m 
Auckland,  and  the  remainder  will  gradually  follow.  An  illustrative  group  of  the 
character  mentioned  above,  prepared  according  to  modern  methods,  would  form  a 
most  interesting  exhibit  in  the  Maori  Court  of  the  new  Museum.  The  Council  have 
tendered  the  cordial  thanks  of  the  institution  to  Mr.  Hovell  for  his  liberal  action ;  also 
to  his  colleague,  Mr.  R.  W.  Bell,  who  has  deposited  his  valuable  Maori  collection  in 
the  Museum. 

Other  noteworthy  additions  to  the  Maori  Hall  comprise  an  ancient  historic  taiaha 
bearing  the  name  of  Rongotakitaki,  and  formerly  the  property  of  the  Ngapuhi  warrior 
Kawhiti,  presented  by  Mr.  George  Graham ;  a  fine  greenstone  tiki,  a  greenstone 
poria,  several  stone  adzes  and  fisTiing-weights,  donated  by  Mr.  D.  Shanks,  Mangatangi : 


Auckland  Institute.  491 

an  ancient  bone  comb,  presented  by  Mr.  F.  E.  Stewart,  per  Cajotain  Gilbert  Mair; 
a  remarkably  large  and  fine  greenstone  adze,  with  a  series  of  six  picked  ordinary  adzes, 
contributed  by  Mr.  C.  Ansell.  The  Council  have  also  to  acknowledge,  with  many 
thanks,  the  receipt  of  a  cheque  for  £25  from  Mr.  Guthrie  Smith,  which,  at  his  desire,  has 
been  expended  in  the  purchase  of  certain  interesting  Maori  cai'vings  from  Rotorua. 
A  valuable  and  instructive  addition  is  a  life-size  model  of  a  Gilbert-Islander,  wearing 
a  remarkable  armour  made  of  coconut  sinnet,  and  carrying  a  long  fighting-spear  armed 
with  sharks'  teeth.  Complete  sets  of  this  armour,  the  use  of  wliich  was  confined  to 
a  small  part  of  Polynesia,  are  now  rare  and  difficult  to  obtain.  The  Museum  is  thus 
greatly  indebted  to  Mr.  A.  J.  Ellis  for  presenting  the  admirable  specimen  now  in  the 
Museum.     The  model  of  the  warrior  was  prepared  in  the  Museum. 

In  foreign  ethnography  the  most  important  acquisition  is  a  collection  of  Indian 
swords,  armour,  art  treasures,  &c.,  comprising  no  less  than  eighty-nine  articles.  It 
was  originally  formed  between  the  years  1860  and  1890  by  the  late  Mr.  James  E.  Yates, 
who  at  that  time  occupied  an  important  position  in  the  Indian  Public  Service.  On 
his  retirement  he  emigrated  to  New  Zealand,  and  died  at  Gisborne  a  few  years  ago. 
The  collection,  which  has  considerable  intrinsic  value,  is  now  presented  to  the  Museum 
by  his  daughters,  in  memory  of  their  father.  The  importance  of  the  gift  has  been 
suitably  acknowledged  to  the  donors,  and  the  collection  has  been  placed  on  exhibition 
in  the  entrance  hall  of  the  Museum. 

There  has  been  received  from  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  South  Kensington, 
a  welcome  donation  of  eighteen  watches  and  movements  of  eighteenth-century  age. 
These  are  part  of  a  series  of  1,500  antique  watches  presented  to  South  Kensington  by 
the  well-known  collector  Mr.  Evan  Roberts,  with  the  stipulation  that  those  specimens 
not  required  for  the  national  collection  should  be  distributed  among  a  number  of  selected 
institutions.  It  is  gratifying  to  find  that  the  Auckland  Museum  has  been  chosen  as 
one  of  tlie  participants. 

The  thanks  of  the  Museum  are  due  to  Dr.  A.  C.  Purchas  for  an  interesting  collection 
of  sixteen*  Egyj^tian  antiquities,  obtained  by  him  while  serving  in  Egypt  with  the 
Medical  Branch  of  the  New  Zealand  Expeditionary  Force.  It  forms  an  appropriate 
supplement  to  the  collections  obtained  from  the  Cairo  Museum  some  two  or  three  years 
ago.  Some  valuable  suggestions  made  by  Dr.  Purchas  respecting  the  extension  of  the 
Egyptian  collections  in  the  Museum  will  be  gladly  acted  upon  when  circumstances 
permit. 

War  Collections. — The  Council  have  pleasure  in  announcing  the  receipt  of  a  valuable 
collection  of  between  twenty  and  thirty  guns,  revolvers,  pistols,  &c.,  formed  by  the 
late  Mr.  D.  Evitt,  for  many  years  in  business  in  Auckland  as  a  gunsmith.  It  is  now 
presented  to  the  Museum  by  his  family  as  the  "  David  Evitt  Collection."  The  articles 
date  between  the  years  1750  and  1860,  and  will  constitute  an  excellent  introduction 
to  the  war  collection  now  being  formed,  particularly  as  it  includes  examples  of  the 
well-known  "  Bro^\ii  Bess  "  flint-lock  gun  and  other  types,  which,  from  the  reign  of 
William  III  for  quite  one  hundred  years,  constituted  the  standard  weapons  of  the 
British  Army. 

A  considerable  number  of  small  collections  have  been  received  from  returned 
soldiers  and  others,  and  the  following  may  be  specially  mentioned  :  Private  J.  M. 
Griffen,  N.Z.M.C,  presents  numerous  articles  obtained  in  Egypt,  Salonica,  and  France  ; 
Major  G.  S.  Chceseman  contributes  a  varied  assortment  collected  in  Egyjjt,  the  Sinai 
Peninsula,  and  Palestine  ;  Mr.  J.  D.  Whitcombe  presents  the  house  flag  of  the  German 
trading-vessel  "  Elfrida."  the  last  to  navigate  the  South  Pacific  after  the  outbreak  of 
the  war ;  while  Captain  Boscawen  donates  several  interesting  articles  obtained  at 
Gallipoli  or  in  France, 

Since  the  last  annual  meeting  there  has  been  much  correspondence  with  the  Govern- 
ment relative  to  the  distribution  of  war  trophies  and  war  collections  generally ; 
and  a  deputation  representing  both  the  city  and  the  Museum  waited  upon  the 
Premier  on  his  return  from  Europe.  The  result  has  been  to  smooth  away  many 
difficulties,  and  especially  to  afford  more  information  as  to  the  intentions  of  the 
Government.  So  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  no  distribution  of  trophies  will  be  made 
until  the  whole  of  the  material  has  arrived  in  the  Dominion,  and  has  been  properly 
examined  and  catalogued.  This  having  been  done,  all  those  trophies  positively 
identified  as  having  been  captured  by  a  particular  unit  of  the  Expeditionary  Forces 
will  be  sent  to  the  nearest  headquarter  towTi  of  the  regiment  to  wliich  the  unit  belongs. 
The  remainder  of  the  material,  constituting  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  whole, 
will  be  subject  in  the  first  instance  to  the  selection  of  one  sample  of  each  kind  of 
trophy  for  the  National  Museum  at  Wellington.  The  remainder  will  be  divided  into 
four  parts,  to  be  distributed  mthin  the  four  chief  districts  of  the  Dominion  :  and  a 
cUstinct  promise  has  been  given  to  the  effect  that  the  ^vishes  of  the  local  Museums 
shall  receive  full  consideration.      In  addition,  it  is  stated  that  "  long  ago  instructions 


492  Proceedings. 

were  given  that,  where  possible,  four  samples  of  allotted  trophies  should  be  secured — 
one  to  go  to  the  National  Museum,  and  the  rest  to  the  three  other  Museuifis."  So 
the  matter  rests  at  present. 

The  Domain  Site  and  a  New  Museum. — In  last  year's  report  the  Council  dwelt 
at  considerable  length  on  the  drawbacks  and  deficiencies  of  the  present  Museum 
buildings,  and  showed  that  the  existing  site  was  not  large  enough  for  ^jresent 
requirements,  to  say  nothing  of  future  needs.  It  then  described  the  steps  that  had 
been  taken  to  obtain  a  site  in  the  Auckland  Domain,  and  the  sympathetic  readiness 
with  which  the  proposal  was  received  by  the  Aucldand  City  Council.  Finally,  it 
announced  that  the  passage  through  Parliament  of  the  Auckland  Institute  and 
Museum  Site  Empowering  Act  had  vahdated  the  action  of  both  the  City  Council  and 
the  Institute,  and  that  the  site — admittedly  one  of  the  finest  in  Auckland — was  now 
open  to  be  dealt  with  as  soon  as  the  necessary  funds  were  available.  It  is  now  the 
duty  of  the  Council  to  state  what  action  has  been  taken  since  tlie  last  annual  meeting. 
At  a  meeting  of  the  Council  held  in  Marcli  last  it  was  decided  that  the  best  chance 
of  successful  effort  was  to  be  found  in  securing  the  co-operation  of  the  City  Council, 
then  preparing  to  discuss  the  shape  that  the  war  memorial  for  the  Cit}'  of  Auckland 
should  take,  and  the  following  resolution  was  carried  :  "  That  this  Council  affirms  the 
suitability  of  a  modem  Museum  as  the  selected  form  of  war  memorial  for  the  Auckland 
District ;  such  Museum  to  be  erected  on  Observatory  Hill,  in  the  Auckland  Domain, 
and  to  have  special  reference  to  war-memorial  exhibits,  including  a  hall  devoted  to 
such.  It  is  further  suggested  that  the  special  committee  of  the  City  Council  appointed  to 
consider  the  question  be  earnestly  requested  to  favourably  consider  the  proposal,  and 
to  commend  it  to  the  citizens  as  the  most  suitable  project  to  commemorate  the  war, 
and  as  being  in  the  interests  of  the  citizens  generally."  The  above  resolution  was  duly 
forwarded  to  the  City  Council,  which  had  also  received  numerous  other  proposals  from 
various  sources.  All  these  were  carefully  considered  by  the  City  Council  and  its 
advisory  committee,  with  the  result  that  the  erection  of  a  modern  Museum  on  Observa- 
toiy  Hill  was  accepted  as  the  most  suitable  war  memorial  for  the  Auckland  District. 

The  erection  of  a  new  Museum  building  will  now  necessitate  some  organized  move- 
ment to  raise  funds.  There  seems  to  be  no  serious  rivalry  to  this  project ;  on  the  other 
hand,  there  is  every  indication  that  it  is  coming  more  and  more  into  favour,  even  on 
the  part  of  a  section  of  the  community  which  at  the  outset  hesitated  to  give  its  support, 
with  the  result  that  the  commimity  will  probably  now  be  imited  in  its  favour.  The 
building  will  combine  with  Museum  accommodation  suitable  halls  for  the  adequate 
display  of  war  trophies,  also  galleries  to  contain  photographs  of  those  members  of  the 
New  Zealand  Expeditionary  Forces  who  have  specially  distinguished  themselves.  The 
groimds  will  permit  the  suitable  displaj'  of  those  large  armaments  which  cannot  be 
provided  for  in  any  building. 

The  cost  of  building  on  the  Domain  site  will  doubtless  be  considerable,  and  will 
probabty  not  be  less  than  £100,000.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  first  instalment 
of  Museum  buildings  must  provide  not  only  for  immediate  needs  and  for  the  display 
of  the  exhibits  in  a  modern  manner,  but  must  also  be  sufficiently  extensive  to  accom- 
modate many  invaluable  collections  at  present  in  private  hands,  but  which,  if  they  can 
be  displayed  in  an  adequate  manner,  will  be  donated  to  the  citizens  of  Auckland,  thus 
forming  a  priceless  addition  to  the  Museum. 

The  Council  is  in  commmiication  with  the  Right  Hon.  the  Prime  IMinister  with  a 
view  to  securing  a  subsidy  from  the  Government  towards  the  erection  of  the  building. 
The  position  has  been  fully  set  out  to  the  Government  as  follows;  "The  Auckland 
Mu.seum  occupies  an  anonaalous  position  as  regards  State  assistance,  as  is  proved  by  the 
following  facts  respecting  the  four  chief  museums  of  the  Dominion.  In  Canterbury 
from  £18,000  to  £25,000  has  been  expended  in  erecting  the  Museum,  every  peimy  of 
which  came  from  public  funds.  In  Otago  the  original  buildurgs  cost  £12,500,  also  all 
derived  from  public  f\mds.  Half  the  cost  of  an  addition  made  some  ten  or  twelve  years 
years  ago  was  also  borne  by  the  Government.  Whatever  li^s  been  done  in  the  past 
in  Wellington  has  been  done  directly  by  the  Government,  and  in  the  immediate  future 
a  large  expenditure  is  contemplated  for  the  erection  of  an  entirely  new  Museum.  In 
Auckland  alone  has  the  governing  body  of  its  Museum  been  compelled  to  provide  almost 
the  whole  cost  of  erecting  buildings,  and,  while  the  bequests  and  the  monetary  contribu- 
tions made  to  the  Museum  amount  to  over  £20,000,  the  total  sum  given  by  the  Govern- 
ment barely  reaches  £3,500,  all  of  which  was  granted  many  years  ago.  Had  the  Museum 
Council  been  able  to  provide  intact  the  whole  of  the  benefactions  made  to  the  Museum, 
the  revenue  of  the  institution  would  have  been  much  greater,  but  it  has  been  necessary 
to  use  a  large  proportion  for  enlarging  the  site  of  the  Museum  and  erecting  buildings, 
an  exi^enditure  which  in  the  other  Museums  has  been  provided  for  out  of  public  funds. 
In  no  other  part  of  the  Dominion  have  such  large  benefactions  in  money  been  made 
to  Museums  as  in  Auckland  and  so  little  done  by  the  Government.     Surely  the  public 


Auckland  Institute.  493 

spirit  evidenced  by  the  citizens  of  Auckland  should  have  received  more  assistance  and 
more  appreciation  than  has  been  shown  by  past  Governments  of  the  Dominion.  The 
claims  of  Auckland  in  this  connection  are  such  that  the  proposal  for  a  subsidy  should 
commend  itself  favourably  to  the  consideration  of  the  Government.  This,  however, 
will  not  absolve  our  community  from  a  very  considerable  voluntary  effort.  If  this 
is  well  organized  and  the  claims  of  the  Museum  substantially  placed  before  the  citizens 
of  Auckland  there  need  be  little  fear  of  an  inadequate  response."  It  is  hoped  that  the 
Government  will  grant  a  pound-for-pound  subsidy — namely,  £50,000 — and  that  the 
balance  of  £50,000  be  then  raised  by  volmitary  subscriptions,  for  which  purpose  suitable 
action  will  be  duly  undertaken. 

Election  of  Officers  for  1920. — President — Mr.  J.  H.  Gunson,  Mayor  of 
Auckland.  Vice-Presidents — Hon.  B.  Mitchelson  ;  Mr.  C.  J.  Parr,  C.M.G., 
M.P.  Council— Vvoiessoi-  C.  W.  Egerton  ;  Mr.  J.  Kenderdiue  ;  Mr.  T.  W. 
Leys  ;  Mr.  E.  V.  Miller ;  Mr.  T.  Peacock ;  Mr.  D.  Petrie,  F.N.Z.Inst. ;  Pro- 
fessor H.  W.  Segar,  M.A.,  F.N.Z.Inst. ;  Professor  A.  P.  W.  Thomas,  F.L.S., 
F.N.Z.Inst.  ;  Mr.  J.  H.  Upton  ;  Mr.  H.  E.  Vaile ;  Professor  F.  P.  Worley, 
D.Sc.  Trustees— Mi.  T.  Peacock;  Mr.  J.  Reid;  Professor  A.  P.  W.  Thomas, 
M.A.,  F.N.Z.Inst. ;  Mr.  J.  H.  Upton ;  Mr.  H.  E.  Vaile.  Secretary  and  Curator 
—Mr,  T.  F.  Cheeseman,  F.L.S.,  F.Z.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst.     Auditor— "^t.  S.  Gray. 


PHILOSOPHICAL  INSTITUTE  OF  CANTEEBUBY. 


At  the  annual  meeting  (3rd  December,   1919)  the  annual  report  and 
audited  balance-sheet  were  adopted. 

Abstract. 

Council. — Twelve  meetings  of  the  Council  have  been  held  during  the  year.  Owing 
to  removal  or  temporary  absence  from  Canterbury  the  following  members  of  Council 
fomid  it  necessary  to  resign,  viz.  :  Messrs.  W.  H.  Skinner  (Vice-President),  W.  G. 
Aldridge  (Librarian),  L.  Birks,  and  M.  H.  Godby.  Mr.  A.  M.  Wright  was  elected  a 
Vice-President  in  place  of  Mr.  Skinner,  but  shortly  after  also  found  it  necessary  to 
resign,  and  Dr.  F.  W.  Hilgendorf  was  elected  in  his  place.  The  following  members  of 
the  Institute  were  elected  members  of  the  Council  to  fill  the  vacancies  caused  :  Miss 
M.  E.  Herriott  (Librarian),  and  Messrs.  H.  F.  Skey,  G.  Holford,  and  Dr.  F.  J.  Borrie. 

Meetings  of  the  Institute. — Eight  ordinary  meetings  and  one  additional  ordinary 
meeting  were  held  at  Christchurch.  At  the  opening  meeting  Dr.  C.  C.  Farr  delivered 
his  presidential  address,  on  "  Some  Physical  Discoveries  of  the  Last  Thirty  Years." 
Lectures  of  general  interest  were  delivered  by  the  Hon.  G.  M.  Thomson,  on  "  The 
Nat.ralization  of  Animals  in  New  Zealand";  by  Mr.  R.  G.  Robinson,  on  "Phases  of 
Practical  Forestry  "  ;  by  jMr.  H.  T.  Ferrar,  on  "  Aeroplane  Surveying  in  Palestine  "  ; 
and  bj-  Mr.  A.  V.  Mountford,  on  "  Leather."  Fifteen  technical  papers  were  read,  com- 
prising botanical  (five),  chemical  (four),  geological  (two),  historical  and  general  (two). 
Exhibits  of  scientific  interest  were  displayed  by  Messrs.  R.  G.  Robinson — ^Indian 
timbers;  S.  Page — variations  in  the  genus  Clematis;  R.  Nairn — Laburnum  Adami ; 
and  W.  Martin- — nme  sjiecies  of  eucalypt  attacked  Ijy  scale  (Ericoccus  coriaceum),  and 
a  beetle  (Paropsis  sp.)  causing  much  damage  to  the  leaves. 

In  accordance  with  a  recommendation  from  the  last  aimual  meeting,  two  meetings 
of  the  Institute  were  held  at  Timaru  and  one  at  Ashburton,  where  the  following 
addresses  were  delivered  :  Dr.  Charles  Chilton,  "  Aims  and  Asijirations  of  the  New 
Zealand  Institute  "  ;  Dr.  C.  C.  Farr,  "  The  Building-stones  of  the  Universe  "  :  Dr.  F.  W. 
Hilgendorf,  "  The  Present  Status  of  Darwmism  "  ;  Mr.  A.  M.  Wright,  "  Science  and 
Lidustry,  with  Special  Reference  to  the  Freezing  Industry."  These  meetings  were  both 
successful  and  well  attended,  and  it  is  hoped  the  Institute  will  see  its  way  to  hold  similar 
meetings  in  the  future. 

Membership. — The  membership  has  been  greatly  increased  during  the  year,  mainly 
as  a  result  of  the  Science  Congress  held  in  February.  From  177  in  1918  the  number 
has  risen  to  230  in  1919.  Fifty-eight  new  members  were  elected,  while  five  member- 
ships lapsed. 


494  Proceedings. 

Ohihiary. — Tt  is  with  regret  that  the  Council  has  to  record  the  deaths  of  Sir  Jolin 
Denniston,  Mr.  T.  W.  Adams,  and  Mr.  Gilbert  Anderson,  all  of  whom  were  members 
of  long  standing,  who  had  taken  a  keen  interest  in  the  activities  of  the  Institute.  The 
Council  further  takes  this  opportunity  of  recording  its  sense  of  the  loss  to  the  Institute 
and  to  the  cause  of  science  resulting  from  the  death  of  the  late  Major  Broun,  New 
Zealand's  foremost  coleopterist. 

Fellowship's  of  the  JSew  Zealand  Institute. — The  Council  has  pleasure  in  announcing 
that,  in  accordance  with  the  regulations,  the  first  election  of  Fellows  of  the  New 
Zealand  Institute  has  been  held,  and  that  three  of  our  members  are  now  original 
Fellows — viz..  Dr.  Charles  Chilton,  Dr.  C.  C.  Farr,  and  Mr.  R.  Speight.  The  congratula- 
tions of  the  Institute  are  extended  to  these  gentlemen  on  the  distinction  conferred 
upon  them. 

Government  Research  Grants. — The  Clovemment  this  year  voted  £2,000  to  the  New 
Zealand  Institute  for  the  purjaose  of  providing  research  grants.  On  the  application  of 
the  Council  the  following  grants  were  made  to  members  :  £225  to  Mr.  R.  Speight  for 
a  geological  survey  of  the  Malvern  Hills  ;  £100  to  I>r.  C.  C.  Farr  for  research  on  the 
porositA''  of  porcelain  used  for  making  insulators  ;  £100  to  Mr.  G.  Brittin  for  researches 
on  fruit-tree  diseases  ;  and  £70  to  £100  to  Mr.  W.  Morrison  for  research  on  afforestation 
on  the  Spencer  Ranges.  For  various  reasons,  the  researches  on  prevention  of  frosting 
in  orchards  and  causes  of  decay  in  fruit  in  cold  storage  have  had  to  be  discontinued, 
and  the  grants  have  been  returned. 

Co-ordination  of  Science  and  Industry. — -The  Council  has  continued  to  press  on  the 
responsible  authorities  the  necessity  for  some  means  of  makmg  known  to  manufacturers 
the  latest  scientific  discoveries  relating  to  their  various  industries.  The  Council  has 
urged  the  immediate  appointment  of  an  Industrial  Reader,  and  later  of  a  Department 
of  Scientific  Research,  and  in  this  connection  has  had  the  benefit  of  a  consultation  with 
Mr.  C.  M.  Ollivier  (Chairman  of  the  Christchurch  Bi-anch  of  the  Canterbury  Progress 
League).  Copies  of  a  report  on  the  same  topic  by  a  committee  of  the  Industrial 
Association  of  Canterbury  have  been  tabled.  A  donation  of  £10  has  again  been  made 
towards  the  equipment  of  the  Technological  Section  of  the  Public  Library,  which  the 
Institute  was  instrumental  in  having  established. 

General  Meetings  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute — Science  Congress,  1919. — At  the 
invitation  of  the  Pliilosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury  the  Board  of  Governors  of  the 
New  Zealand  Institute  decided,  at  the  annual  meeting  in  January,  1918,  to  hold  a  series 
of  public  meeting  of  the  members  of  the  Institute  at  Christchurch  early  in  the  year  1919. 
During  the  year  1918  preliminary  arrangements  for  the  programme  were  made  by  the 
Standing  Committee  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute,  while  the  local  arrangements  were 
attended  to  by  the  Philosojihical  Institute.  In  November,  1918,  owing  to  the  ilhiess  of 
some  members  of  the  sub-committee  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  that  was  dealing  with 
the  matter,  and  other  causes,  the  Standing  Committee  asked  the  Philosophical  Institute 
to  take  over  the  whole  control  of  the  preparation  for  the  meetings.  This  was  done, 
and,  although  unexpected  difficulties  arose  as  the  result  of  the  influenza  epidemic,  the 
series  of  meetings  was  successfully  held  from  4th  to  8th  February,  1919,  and  was  largely 
attended  both  by  visitors  from  other  parts  of  New  Zealand  and  hy  the  members  of  the 
local  pubUc.  His  Excellency  the  Governor-General  and  the  Mmister  of  Internal  Affairs 
were  present  at  the  opening  meeting,  at  which  the  President,  Dr.  L.  Cockayne,  delivered 
his  presidential  address.  The  scientific  papers  contributed  were  so  numerous  that  four 
Sections  had  to  be  arranged  to  meet  simultaneously — viz.,  (1)  Biology  and  Agriculture  ; 
(2)  Geology;  (3)  Chemistry,  Physics,  and  Engineering;  (4)  General — and  on  the  last  day 
of  the  Congress  ]the  first  Section  was  separated  into  two  subsections.  Biology  and  Agri- 
culture, in  order  to  deal  with  the  pajiers  contributed.  In  addition  to  the  meetings  of 
the  Sections,  three  evening  meetings,  besides  the  opening  ceremony,  were  devoted  to 
public  lectures  and  were  largely  attended,  while  general  excursions  were  made  to  Lake 
Coleridge,  the  Agricultural  College,  Riccarton  Bush,  Dyer's  Pass,  &c.,  and  sectional 
excursions  to  places  of  scientific  and  industrial  interest.  The  Institute  is  greatly 
indebted  to  the  Board  of  Governors  of  Canterbury  College  for  the  use  of  the  College 
buildings  for  the  meetings,  and  to  numerous  residents  of  Christchurch  for  the  hospitality 
extended  to  visiting  -members,  particularly  to  E.  F.  Stead,  Esq.,  at  whose  residence  a 
most  enjoyable  garden  party  was  held.  The  Council  feels  that  the  success  of  the 
meetings,  and  their  influence,  both  in  stimulating  the  scientfic  work  of  the  Institute  and 
of  bringing  its  results  prominently  before  the  public,  fully  compensate  for  the  labour 
involved,  and  it  trusts  that  similar  general  meetings  of  the  Institute  will  be  held  in  other 
parts  of  New  Zealand  at  suitable  intervals. 

The  Library. — The  accommodation  in  the  library  is  now  greatly  overtaxed,  and 
great  difficulty  is  experienced  in  finding  room  for  new  volumes.  It  has  therefore  been 
necessary  to  make  some  provision  for  increasing  the  accommodation,  and  representations 


Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury.  495 

have  been  made  to  the  Board  of  Governors  of  Canterbury  College  to  have  the  library 
housed  at  the  Pubhc  Library  in  any  contemplated  extension  of  that  building.  This 
request  has  been  most  generously  met  by  the  Board  of  Governors.  The  conditions 
arising  from  the  war  still  hinder  the  proper  development  of  the  library,  and  only  a  few 
books  in  addition  to  the  journals  have  been  purchased.  The  work  of  keeping  the  binding 
of  the  journals  up  to  date  is  still  hindered  by  the  non-arrival  of  certain  parts.  A  number 
of  completed  volumes  have  been  bound,  however,  and  are  now  on  the  shelves,  while 
others  are  still  at  the  binders'.  The  exchange  copies  of  publications  of  other  societies  are 
now  arriving  more  regularly,  and  the  Hon.  Librarian  has  acknowledged  during  the  year 
the  receipt  of  various  books  and  pamphlets  from  the  Queensland  Museum,  the  American 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Letters,  the  Department  of  Mines,  New  Zealand,  as  well  as  from 
Mr.  L.  P.  Symes  and  Mr.  H.  T.  Ferrar. 

Riccarton  Bush. — The  Institute's  representative  on  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the 
Riccarton  Bush  rejjorts  that  the  bush  has  been  carefully  attended  to  during  the  year, 
and  is  in  good  condition.  Improvements  have  been  made  to  the  paths,  additional  seats 
have  been  provided,  and  an  automatic  gas  heater  for,  boiling  water  has  been  provided, 
under  an  appropriate  shelter,  for  the  convenience  of  visitors.  Other  improvements  will 
be  made  as  soon  as  funds  permit,  but  in  the  meantime  these  are  only  barely  sufficient 
for  the  ranger's  salary  and  the  necessary  upkeep  of  the  bush.  The  bush  continues  to  be 
largely  used  by  the  general  public  and  by  botanical  students.  Dr.  C.  Chilton  has  again 
been  elected  the  Institute's  representative  on  the  Board  of  Trustees.       ' 

Preservation  of  Sinclair's  Grave  and  of  Butler's  House.- — The  Council  has  for  some 
time  been  negotiating  with  the  owner  of  "  Mesopotamia,"  on  the  upper  reaches  of  the 
Rangitata  River,  with  a  view  to  the  permanent  preservation  of  the  grave  of  Dr.  Sinclair, 
one  of  New  Zealand's  pioneer  botanists,  and  of  the  cottage  formerly  occupied  by  Samuel 
Butler,  the  celebrated  New  Zealand  author.     These  negotiations  promise  to  be  successful. 

Memorial  Tablet. — With  the  approval  of  the  Hon.  W.  Eraser,  Minister  of  Public 
Works,  the  Council  has  had  a  marble  slab  erected  at  the  Lake  Coleridge  power-house  to 
perpetuate  the  memory  of  Hans  Christian  Oersted,  the  Danish  scientist,  who  first  dis- 
covered the  magnetic  effect  of  an  electric  current,  and  thereby  made  possible  all  modem 
electrical  machinery.     This  year  marks  the  centenary  of  his  great  discovery. 

Tunnel  Research  Fund. — As  these  investigations  are  now  complete,  and  the 
Research  Fund  is  still  almost  intact,  the  Government  has  given  permission  to  the  Insti- 
tute to  retain  the  balance  for  research  work.  The  unspent  balance  of  £142  16s.  3d.  has 
accordingly  been  set  aside  as  the  basis  for  a  Research  Fund.  The  report  of  the  Tunnel 
Investigation  Committee  is  published  in  volume  51  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Neic 
Zealand  Institute. 

Samoan  Magnetic  Observatory. — Representations  have  been  made  by  the  Council  to 
the  Hon.  the  Minister  of  Marine  to  arrange  for  the  observations  of  the  Samoan  Magnetic 
Observatory  to  be  continued,  and  the  Minister  has  replied  stating  that  the  matter  will 
receive  his  attention. 

Finance. — The  balance-sheet  shows  the  total  receipts,  including  the  balances  from 
the  previous  year,  were  £523  16s.  3d.  This  includes  the  sum  of  £83  2s.  9d.,  special  con- 
tributions towards  the  expenses  of  the  Science  Congress.  Of  the  exjienditure,  £73  14s.  lid. 
has  been  expended  on  the  library,  including  the  sum  of  £10  contributed  to  the  Technical 
Library  and  £77  9s.  6d.  in  connection  with  the  Science  Congress.  The  Institute  levy  of 
£23  2s.  6d.  has  been  paid,  and  research  grants  amounting  to  £60  returned  to  the  New 
Zealand  Institute,  leaving  a  balance  of  £70  2s.  Id.  to  the  credit  of  the  Ordinary  Account. 
In  connection  with  the  Tunnel  Investigation  Account  £4  lis.  was  expended  on  the 
prejjaration  of  the  final  report,  and  the  balance  of  £142  16s.  3d.  has,  with  the  consent  of 
the  Minister  of  Internal  Affairs,  been  transferj-ed  to  a  Research  Fund  Account.  The 
Life  Members'  Subscription  Account  now  stands  at  £158  19s.  7d.,  deposited  with  the 
Permanent  Investment  and  Loan  Association  of  Canterbury. 

\_ 

Election  of  Officers  for  1920.  —  President — Mr.  L.  P.  Symes.  Vice- 
Presidents — Dr.  C.  Coleridge  Farr,  Mr.  A.  M.  Wright.  Hon.  Secretary — 
Mr.  W.  Martin,  51  Matai  Street,  Riccarton.  Hon.  Treasurer — Dr.  Charles 
Chilton.  Hon,.  Librarian — Miss  E.  M.  Herriott  Council — Captain  G.  E. 
Archey,  Mr.  J.  Drummond,  Mr.  G.  Holford,  Dr.  F.  W.  Hilgendorf,  Mr. 
M.  H.  Godby,  Mr.  L.  J.  Wild.  Representatives  on  the  Board  of  Governors 
of  the  New  Zealand  Institute~Dr.  F.  W.  Hilgendorf,  Mr.  A.  M.  Wright. 
Representative  on  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  the  Riccarton  Bush-^Bv.  Charles 
Chilton.     Hon.  Auditor — Mr.  J.  0.  Jameson. 


496  Proceedings. 

OTAGO  INSTITUTE. 


At  the  annual  meeting  (9th  December,  1919)  the  annual  report  and 
audited  balance-sheet  were  adopted. 

Abstract. 

Seven  meetings  of  the  Institute  were  held.  At  these  meetings  the  following 
papers  were  read,  and  have  since  been  forwarded  to  the  New  Zealand  Institute  for 
publication  in  the  Transactions :  D.  L.  PoppelweU,  "  Notes  on  the  Indigenous 
Vegetation  of  Ben  Lomond,  with  a  List  of  Species,"  and  "  Notes  on  the  Indigenous 
Vegetation  of  the  North-eastern  Portion  of  the  Hokonui  liills,  with  a  List  of 
Species  "  ;  Professor  J.  Park,  "  On  the  Occurrence  of  Striated  Boulders  in  a  Palaeozoic 
Breccia  near  Taieri  Mouth  "  ;  A.  Philpott,  "  Notes  and  Descriptions  of  New  Zealand 
Lepidoptera "  ;  Charles  E.  Clarke,  "  New  Lepidoptera,"  and  "  Lepidoptera  of 
Auckland  and  King-country  "  ;  H.  Beattie  (communicated  by  H.  D.  Skinner),  "  The 
Southern  Maoris  and  Greenstone,"  and  "  Native  Lore  of  the  Southern  Maoris "  ; 
Dorothy  Johnson,  B.Sc.  (communicated  by  J,  Malcolm),  "  Food  Value  of  New 
Zealand  Fish  "  ;  M.  Winifred  Betts,  M.Sc,  "  Notes  on  the  Autecology  of  certain  Plants 
of  the  Peridotite  Belt,  Nelson,  Part  1,  No.  3,"  and  "  The  Rosette  Plants  of  Cass." 

The  following  addresses  were  dehvered  during  the  session  :  "  Fifty  Years'  Science 
Progress  in  New  Zealand "  (presidential  address),  by  the  Hon.  G.  M.  Thomson ; 
"  Some  Recent  Theories  on  the  PeopUng  of  the  Pacific,"  by  Mr.  H.  D.  Skinner ; 
"Insect-collecting  in  Australia,"  by  Mr.  W.  G.  Howes;  "Revolutionary  Sociahsm," 
by  the  Ven.  Archdeacon  Woodthorpe ;  "Earthquakes,  and  their  Significance,"  by 
Professor  W.  N.  Benson  ;    "  The  Economics  of  Power,"  by  Professor  D.  B.  Waters. 

The  speakers  at  the  Jubilee  conversazione  were  the  President,  Mr.  Alex.  Bathgate, 
and  Sir  James  Allen. 

Librarian's  Report. — During  the  past  year  the  expenditure  on  the  purchase  of 
books  has  been  less  than  usual.  This  is  partly  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  University 
is  now  recognizing  the  need  of  adding  new  zoological  and  botanical  works  to  their 
library  which  is  housed  in  the  Museum  ;  while  the  estabhshment  of  a  lectureship  in 
ethnology  has  led  that  institution  to  build  up  a  library  in  this  subject.  As  these 
books  are  available  to  members  of  the  Institute,  there  is  the  less  need  of  buying  books 
of  a  purely  scientific  character  :  hence  more  money  will  be  available  for  binding  back 
numbers  of  periodicals,  &c.,  some  of  which,  for  one  reason  or  another,  have  been 
allowed  to  accumulate.  Thus  a  good  many  volumes  of  Nature  should  now  be  bound, 
and  so  relieve  much  shelf-room,  and  a  number  of  volumes  of  the  publications  of  the 
Indian  Geological  Survey,  and  other  works. 

The  subscription  to  Science  Progress  has  been  resumed ;  and  a  new  periodical, 
Botanical  Abstracts,  ha^s  been  added  to  our  list. 

The  Museum  has  received,  as  usual,  a  number  of  reports  of  various  Government 
Departments,  as  well  as  publications  of  museums  and  universities  in  various  countries. 
These  are  for  the  most  part  of  a  technical  character. 

The-  University  Council  has  agreed  to  provide  the  money  for  the  erection  of  a  new 
set  of  shelves  for  the  accommodation  of  the  rapidly-increasing  collection  of  ethno- 
graphical works.  It  is  hoped  that  during  the  coming  year  a  large  lecture-room  will  be 
erected  for  the  biology  class,  which  will  be  available  for  the  Institute  meetings,  so  that 
part  of  the  existing  lecture-room  may  be  utilized  for  a  needed  extension  of  the  library. 

Membership. — -During  the  year  three  members  have  died  and  eleven  have  resigned. 
Six  new  members  were  elected,  so  that  the  roll  now  stands  at  158,  as  compared  to  166 
at  the  end  of  last  year. 

Balance-sheet. — The  year's  transactions  show  a  debit  balance  of  £6  18s.  7d.  This 
is  due  to  some  extra  non-recurring  items  of  expenditure — viz.,  £10  to  University 
Council  for  installing  electric  light  in  the  biology  lecture-room  ;  £20  to  defray  part  of 
Dr.  Tillyard's  travelling-expenses  ;  and  the  additional  expenditure  due  to  the  Jubilee 
celebrations. 

Work  of  the  Council. 

Seven  rheetings  of  the  Council  were  held  during  1919.  In  addition  to  the  usual 
routine  work  of  managing  the  affairs  of  the  Institute  in  general,  the  following  items 
of  special  business  were  dealt  with  : — 

Fellowship  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute. — At  the  request  of  the  New  Zealand 
Institute,  the  Council  forwarded  a  list  of  eighteen  nominations  for  the  election  of  ten 
original  Fellows.      Of  the  eighteen,  eight  were  subsequently  elected. 


Otago  Institute.  497 

Research  Grants.^In  response  to  the  announcement  made  by  the  New  Zealand 
Institute  that  a  sum  of  £2,000  had  been  allocated  by  Government  for  research  purjjoses, 
three  applications  were  sent  in  from  the  Otago  members,  and  were  afterwards  approved 
of,  viz. — (1)  From  W.  G.  Howes,  F.E.S.,  for  £30  to  defray  expenses  connected  with 
his  work  on  entomology  to  be  carried  out  in  co-operation  with  Dr.  Tillyard,  of  Sydney  ; 
(2)  from  G.  S.  Thomson,  B.Sc,  for  £50  for  expenses  connected  with  the  study  of  the 
composition  of  "  whale-feed  "  ;  (3)  from  Professor  J.  Malcolm,  for  £250  for  a  research 
into  the  food  value  and  composition  of  New  Zealand  fishes. 

Dr.  Tillyard' s  Visit. — Towards  the  end  of  last  year  this  Institute,  at  the  suggestion 
of  the  Council,  invited  Dr.  Tillyard,  of  Sydney,  to  visit  this  part  of  New  Zealand  to 
investigate  some  of  the  local  entomology.  Owing  to  shipping  difficulties  the  visit 
had  to  be  postponed  till  this  year,  and  Dr.  Tillyard  is  now  in  the  Dominion.  The 
Council  has  set  aside  the  sum  of  £20  to  defray  part  of  the  cost  of  his  visit. 

Jubilee  of  the  Institute. — The  celebration  of  the  Jubilee  took  the  form  of  a  conver- 
sazione in  the  University.  Invitations  were  sent  to  the  other  afifihated  societies  and  to 
the  other'  scientific  bodies  in  New  Zealand  and  Australia,  as  well  as  to  prominent  men  in 
the  Dominion.  A  large  number  of  congratulatory  letters  were  received.  The  Council 
begs  to  express  its  thanks  to  the  University  Council  for  granting  the  use  of  their 
buildings  and  apparatus  on  this  occasion. 

Election  of  Officers  for  1920.  —  President  —  Dr.  R.  V.  Fulton.  Vice- 
Presidents— Hon.  G.  M.  Thomson,  F.L.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst.,  M.L.C.,  and  W.  G. 
Howes,  F.E.S.  Hon.  Secretary — Professor  W.  N.  Benson,  B.A.,  D.Sc,  F.G.S. 
Hon.  Treasurer — H.  Brasch.  Hon.  Librarian — Professor  W.  B.  Benham, 
M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.R.S.  Council—ProiesHov  W.  B.  Benham,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.R.S. ; 
Professor  R.  Jack,  D.Sc. ;  Professor  J.  Park,  F.G.S. ;  Professor  J.  Malcolm, 
M.D. ;  Messrs.  H.  Mandeno,  H.  D.  Skinner,  B.A.,  and  G.  S.  Thomson,  B.Sc. 


TECHNOLOGICAL    BRANCH. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  session  the  committee  of  this  Branch  decided  not 
to  attempt  a  syllabus. 

The  members  were  convened  for  the  annual  and  only  meeting  on  the  occasion  of 
a  lecture  by  the  Chairman  of  the  Branch  (Professor  Waters)  before  the  parent  Institute, 
on  the  14th  October,  1919.  The  annual  meeting  was  not  well  supported,  and  was 
adjourned  till  next  year. 


ASTRONOMICAL    BRANCH. 

The  annua]  meeting,  on  the  9th  December,  was  the  only  meeting  held,  Mr.  R. 
Gilkison,  Chairman  of  the  Branch,  in  the  chair.  The  Branch  is  looking  forward  to  a 
reawakening  of  interest  in  its  special  subject  now  that  the  war  is  over,  and  the 
following  office-bearers  for  1920  were  elected :  Chairman,  Mr.  R.  Gilkison ;  Vice- 
Chairmen — Professor  Jack,  Professor  Park,  and  Professor  White  ;  Committee — Rev. 
D.  Dutton,  F.R.A.S.,  Dr.  P.  D.  Cameron,  Messrs.  H.  Brasch  and  C.  Frye  ;  Hon. 
Secretary — Mr.  J.  C.  Begg. 


MANAWATU  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY. 


Ten  meetings  of  the  Council  and  nine  general  meetings  were  held,  at 
which  the  following  papers  were  read  :  Dr.  E.  C.  Barnett,  "  Medical 
Experiences  at  the  Front  "  ;  Mr.  Black,  Curator  of  Borough  Reserves, 
"  Noxious  Weeds  "  ;  J.  W.  Poynton,  S.M.,  "  Radium  "  ;  W.  R.  Mummery, 
F.I.C.,  "  The'  Action  of  CoUosols  in  relation  to  Bacteriology  "  ;  W.  E. 
Bendall,  "  Kapiti  as  a  Reserve  for  Native  Flora  and  Fauna  "  ;  Miss  Ironside, 


498  Proceedings. 

M.A.,  "  The  Evolution  of  the  Enghsh  Drama  "  ;  Professor  Easterfield, 
M.A.,  Ph.D.,  F.N.Z.Inst.,  "  Explosives  "  ;  Rev.  H.  G.  Blackburne,  M.A., 
"  English  Cathedrals  "  ;  R.  Edwards,  C.E.,  "  The  Land  we  live  in  "  ; 
R.  H.  F.  Grace,  "  Are  other  Worlds  than  ours  inhabited  ?  " 

At  the  annual  meeting  (21st  November,  1919)  the  annual  report  and 
audited  balance  sheet  were  adopted. 

Abstract. 

During  the  year  the  society  has  had  to  lament  the  loss  of  five  of  its  members  by 
death — Messrs.  J.  E.  Vernon,  M.A. ;  R.  Gardner;  D.  Buick,  M.P. ;  S.  Greer;  and 
J.  Robertson.  Three  members  have  left  the  district — Messrs  Barnicoat,  Sinclair,  and 
G.  Seifert — the  two  former,  however,  still  retaining  their  membership.  One  member, 
Dr.  Bett,  has  returned  from  active  service.  On  the  other  hand,  in  consequence  of 
a  convass  undertaken  by  the  President,  Secretary,  and  Messrs  H.  Seifert  and  Park, 
and  confined  as  yet  chiefly  to  the  Square  and  Rangitikei  Street,  nine  who  had  resigned 
have  renewed  their  membership,  and  thirty-five  new  members  have  been  elected. 
This  is  so  far  satisfactory  ;  but  it  is  not  enough.  If  the  society  is  adequately  to 
discharge  its  functions  the  members  must  not  be  content  with  jiajdng  their  subscriptions, 
but  must  take  an  active  interest  in  its  proceedings.  The  attendance  of  members  at 
the  general  meetings  continues  to  be  very  poor. 

The  Curator  reports  that  during  the  year  thirty  exhibits  have  been  added  to  the 
Museum,  and  sixteen  books,  together  with  a  number  of  pamphlets  and  journals,  to 
the  library  ;    and  that  the  average  daily  attendance  has  been  thirty-one. 

A  very  generous  offer  was  made  by  Mr.  Robert  to  lend  to  the  Museum  for  from 
seven  to  ten  years  the  whole  of  his  valuable  collection  of  animals,  birds,  weapons,  shells, 
coins,  books,  and  other  curios,  nearly  equalling  in  number  our  present  collection. 
This  offer  might  probabty  haj^e  resulted  in  a  permanent  transfer  to  the  Museum  ;  but 
your  Council  were  compelled  very  reluctantly  to  decline  the  offer  on  account  of  their 
total  inability  to  house  the  exhibits,  as  the  Borough  Council,  to  whom  the  matter  was 
referred,  had  regretfully  expressed  their  inability  at  present  to  provide  increased 
accommodation,  and  the  society  had  no  funds  for  the  purpose. 

Mr.  W.  E.  Bendall,  in  the  unavoidable  absence  of  the  President,  represented  the 
society  in  an  expedition  made  with  Professor  Kirk,  at  the  request  of  the  Institute, 
to  examine  the  capabilities  of  the  Island  of  Kapiti  as  a  reserve  for  the  preservation 
of  the  native  fauna  and  flora,  and  on  his  return  wrote  a  valuable  report,  which  was 
read  before  the  society. 

The  Council  was  also  represented  by  Mr.  Park  at  a  meeting  in  Wellington  of 
representatives  of  the  bodies  interested,  and  on  a  subsequent  deputation  to  the 
Minister  in  Charge  of  the  Tourist  Department  to  urge  upon  the  Government  the  need 
of  improving  the  Tongariro  National  Park  by  extending  its  boundaries,  by  making 
roads,  and  by  erecting  huts  for  the  accommodation  oi  visitors.  The  deputation 
was  very  sympathetically  received  by  the  Minister,  who  seemed  to  recognize  fully  the 
need  for  the  suggested  improvements,  and  promised  to  use  his  influence  to  have  them 
carried  out  as  far  as  the  funds  at  the  disposal  of  the  Government  would  allow.  It 
will  be  well  for  your  incoming  Council  to  keep  this  matter  in  view,  and,  if  necessary, 
to  bring  renewed  j^ressure  on  the  Government. 

The  decision  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  to  hold  a  biennial  meeting  for  the  reading 
and  discussion  of  papers,  a  plan  which  was  so  successfully  inaugurated  in  January 
last  at  Christchurch,  has  opened  a  prospect  of  greatly  extended  usefulness  for  the 
Institute  and  all  its  branches.  On  the  motion  of  your  President,  your  Council  sent 
a  formal  invitation  to  the  Institute  to  hold  its  next  meeting  at  Palmerston  North. 
The  invitation  was  accepted,  and  the  meeting  will  be  held  in  Palmerston  in  January 
or  February,  1921.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  every,  member  of  our  local' society  will 
consider  himself  personally  concerned  in  ensuring  the  triumphant  success  of  that 
meeting. 

Election  of  Officers  for  1920.  —  President  —  J.  Murray,  M.A.  Vice- 
Presidents — M.  A.  Eliott,  H.  Seifert.  Officer  in  Charge  of  the  Observatory — 
R.  H.  F.  Grace  Secretary  and  Treasurer — K.  Wilson,  M.A.  Council — 
Dr.  Bett,  M.B.,  Ch.B.,  M.R.C.S.,  M.R.C.P.  ;  C.  N.  Clausen  ;  J.  A.  Colquhoun, 
M.Sc.  ;  R.  Edwards.  C.E.  ;  J.  B.  Gerrand  ;  E.  Larcomb,  C  E.  ;  W.  R. 
Mummery,  F.I.C.  ;    W.  Park,  F.H.S.  ;    C.  T.  Salmpn  ;    A.  Whitaker. 


APPENDI 


501 


NEW  ZEALAND  INSTITUTE  ACT,  1908. 
1908,  No.  130. 

An    Act    to   consolidate  certain  Enactments   of  the    General    Assembly 
relating  to  the  New  Zealand  Institute. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  New  Zealand  in  Parliament 
assembled,  and  by  the  authority  of  the  same,  as  follows  : — 

1.  (1.)  The  Short  Title  of  this  Act  is  the  New  Zealand  Institute 
Act,  1908. 

(2.)  This  Act  is  a  consolidation  of  the  enactments  mentioned  in  the 
Schedule  hereto,  and  with  respect  to  those  enactments  the  following  pro- 
visions shall  apply  : — 

(a.)  The  Institute  and  Board  respectively  constituted  under  those 
enactments,  and  subsisting  on  the  coming  into  operation  of  this 
Act,  shall  be  deemed  to  be  the  same  Institute  and  Board  respec- 
tively constituted  under  this  Act  without  any  change  of  consti- 
tution or  corporate  entity  or  otherwise  ;  and  the  members 
thereof  in  office  on  the  coming  into  operation  of  this  Act  shall 
continue  in  office  until  their  successors  under  this  Act  come  into 
office. 

(b.)  All  Orders  in  Council,  regulations,  appointments,  societies  incor- 
porated with  the  Institute,  and  generally  all  acts  of  authority 
whi-ch  originated  under  the  said  enactments  or  any  enactment 
thereby  repealed,  and  are  subsisting  or  in  force  on  the  coming 
into  operation  of  this  Act,  shall  enure  for  the  purposes  of  this 
Act  as  fully  and  effectually  as  if  they  had  originated  under  the 
corresponding  provisions  of  this  Act,  and  accordingly  shaH-, 
where  necessary,  be  deemed  to  have  so  originated. 

(c.)  All  property  vested  in  the  Board  constituted  as  aforesaid  shall 
be  deemed  to  be  vested  in  the  Board  established  and  recognized 
by  this  Act. 

(rf.)  All  matters  and  proceedings  commenced  under  the. said  enact- 
ments, and  pending  or  in  progress  on  the  coming  into  opera- 
tion of  this  Act,  may  be  continued,  completed,  and  enforced 
under  this  Act. 

2.  (1.)  The  body  now  known  as  the  New  Zealand  Institute  (herein- 
after referred  to  as  "  the  Institute")  shall  consist  of  the  Auckland  Insti- 
tute, the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society,  the  Philosophical  Institute 
of  Canterbury,  the  Otago  Institute,  the  Hawke's  Bay  Philosophical 
Institute,  the  Nelson  Institute,  the  Westland  Institute,  the  Southland 
Institute,  and  such  others  as  heretofore  have  been  or  may  hereafter  be 
incorporated  therewith  in  accordance  with  regulations  heretofore  made 
or  hereafter  to  be  made  by  the  Board  of  Governors. 

(2.)  Members  of  the  above-named  incorporated  societies  shall  be  ipso 
facto  members  of  the  Institute. 

3.  The  control  and  management  of  the  Institute  shall  be  vested  in  a 
Board  of  Governors  (hereinafter  referred  to  as  "  the  Bjoard  "),  constituted 
as  follows  : — 

The  Governor : 

The  Minister  of  Internal  Affairs  : 

Four   members   to   be  appointed   by  the  Governor  in  Council,  of 

whom  two  shall  be  appointed  during  the  month  of  December 

in  every  year  : 


502  Ap'pendix. 

Two  members  to  be  appointed  by  each  of  the  incorporated  societies 
at  Auckland,  WelHngton,  Christchurch,  and  Dunedin  during 
the  month  of  December  in  each  alternate  year ;  and  the  next 
year  in  which  such  an  appointment  shall  be  made  is  the 
year  one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  nine  : 

One  member  to  be  appointed  by  each  of  the  other  incorporated 
societies  during  the  month  of  December  in  each  alternate 
year ;  and  the  next  year  in  which  such  an  appointment  shall 
be  made  is  the  year  one  thousand  nine  hundred  and  nine. 

4.  (1.)  Of  the  members  appointed  by  the  Governor  in  Council,  the 
two  rdembers  longest  in  office  without  reappointment  shall  retire  annually 
on  the  appointment  of  their  successors. 

(2.)  Subject  to  the  last  preceding  subsection,  the  appointed  members 
of  the  Board  shall  hold  office  until  the  appointment  of  their  successors. 

5.  The  Board  shall  be  a  body  corporate  by  the  name  of  the  "  New 
Zealand  Institute,"  and  by  that  name  shall  have  perpetual  succession 
and  a  common  seal,  and  may  sue  and  be  sued,  and  shall  have  power  and 
authority  to  take,  purchase,  and  hold  lands  for  the  purposes  hereinafter 
mentioned. 

6.  (1.)  The  Board  shall  have  power  to  appoint  a  fit  person,  to  be 
known  as  the  "  President,"  to  superintend  and  carry  out  all  necessary 
work  in  connection  with  the  affairs  of  the  Institute,  and  to  provide  him 
with  such  further  assistance  as  may  be  required. 

(2.)  The  Board  shall  also  appoint  the  President  or  some  other  fit 
person  to  be  editor  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Institute,  and  may  appoint 
a  committee  to  assist  him  in  the  work  of  editing  the  same. 

(3.)  The  Board  shall  have  power  from  time  to  time  to  make  regu- 
lations under  which  societies  may  become  incorporated  with  the 
Institute,  and  to  declare  that  any  incorporated  society  shall  cease  to  be 
incorporated  if  such  regulations  are  not  complied  with  ;  and  such  regu- 
lations on  being  published  in  the  Gazette  shall  have  the  force  of  law. 

(4.)  The  Board  may  receive  any  grants,  bequests,  or  gifts  of  books 
or  specimens  of  any  kind  whatsoever  for  the  use  of  the  Institute,  and 
dispose  of  them  as  it  thinks  fit. 

(5.)  The  Board  shall  have  control  of  the  property  from  time  to  time 
vested  in  it  or  acquired  by  it ;  and  shall  make  regulations  for  the 
management  of  the  same,  and  for  the  encouragement  of  researcli  by  the 
members  of  the  Institute  ;  and  in  all  matters,  specified  or  unspecified, 
shall  have  power  to  act  for  and  on, behalf  of  the  Institute. 

7.  (1.)  Any  casual  vacancy  in  the  Board,  howsoever  caused,  shall  be 
filled  within  three  months  by  the  society  or  authority  that  appointed 
the  member  whose  place  has  become  vacant,  and  if  not  filled  within  that 
time  the  vacancy  shall  be  filled  by  the  Board. 

(2.)  Any  person  appointed  to  fill  a  casual  vacancy  shall  only  hold 
office  for  such  period  as  his  predecessor  would  have  held  office  under 
this  Act. 

8.  (1.)  Annual  meetings  Df  the  Board  shall  be  lield  in  the  month  of 
January  in  each  year,  the  date  and  place  of  such  annual  meeting  to  be 
fixed  at  the  previous  annual  meeting. 

(2.)  The  Board  may  meet  during  the  year  at  such  other  times  and 
places  as  it  deems  necessary. 

(3.)  At  each  annual  meeting  the  President  shall  present  to  the 
meeting  a  report  of  the  work  of  the  Institute  for  the  year  preceding,  and 
a  balance-sheet,  duly  audited,  of  all  sums  received  and  paid  on  behalf 
of  the  Institute. 


Netv  Zealand  Institute  Act.  503 

9.  The  Board  may  from  .time  to  time,  as  it  sees  fit,  make  arrange- 
ments for  the  holding  of  general  meetings  of  members  of  the  Institute, 
at  times  and  places  to  be  arranged,  for  the  reading  of  scientific  papers, 
the  delivery  of  lectures,  and  for  the  general  promotion  of  science  in  New 
Zealand  by  any  means  that  may  appear  desirable. 

10.  The  Minister  of  Finance  shall  from  time  to  time,  without  further 
appropriation  than  this  Act,  pay  to  the  Board  the  sum  of  five  hundred 
pounds  in  each  financial  year,  to  be  applied  in  or  towards  payment  of  the 
general  current  expenses  of  the  Institute. 

11.  Forthwith  upon  the  making  of  any  regulations  or  the  publica- 
tion of  aiay  Transactions,  the  Board  shall  transmit  a  copy  thereof  to  the 
Minister  of  Internal  Afian-s,  who  shall  lay  the  same  before  Parliament  if 
sitting,  or  if  not,  then  v?ithin  twenty  days  after  the  commencement  of  the 
next  ensuing  session  thereof. 

Schedule. 

Enactments  consolidated. 
1903,  No.  48.— The  New  Zealand  Institute  Act,  1903. 


REGULATIONS. 

The  following  are  the  regulations  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  under 
the  Act  of  1903  :—'•■ 

The  word  "Institute"  used  in  the  following  regulations  means  the 
New  Zealand  Institute  as  constituted  by  the  New  Zealand  Institute 
Act,  1903. 

Incoeporation  of  Societies. 

1.  No  society  shall  be  incorporated  with  the  Institute  under  the  pro- 
visions of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  Act,  1903,  unless  such  society  shall 
consist  of  not  less  than  twenty-five  members,  subscribing  in  the  aggregate 
a  sum  of  not  less  than  £25  sterling  annually  for  the  promotion  of  art, 
science,  or  such  other  branch  of  knowledge  for  which  it  is  associated,  to 
be  from  time  to  time  certified  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Board  of  Governors 
of  the  Institute  by  the  President  for  the  time  being  of  the  society. 

2.  Any  society  incorporated  as  aforesaid  shall  cease  to  be  incorporated 
with  the  Institute  in  case  the  number  of  the  members  of  the  said  society 
shall  at  any  time  become  less  than  twenty-five,  or  the  amount  of  money 
annually  subscribed  by  such  members  shall  at  any  time  be  less 
than  £25. 

3.  The  by-laws  of  every  society  to  be  incorporated  as  aforesaid  shall 
provide  for  the  expenditure  of  not  less  than  one -third  of  the  annual 
revenue  in  or  towards  the  formation  or  support  of  some  local  public 
museum  or  library,  or  otherwise  shall  provide  for  the  contribution  of  not 
less  than  one-sixth  of  its  said  revenue  towards  the  extension  and  main- 
tenance of  the  New  Zealand  Institute. 

4.  Any  society  incorporated  as  aforesaid  which  shall  in  any  one  year 
fail  to  expend  the  proportion  of  revenue  specified  in  Regulation  No.  3 
aforesaid  in  manner  provided  shall  from  henceforth  cease  to  be  incor- 
porated with  the  Institute. 

« 

*  New  Zealand  Gazette,  14th  July,  1904. 


504  ♦       Appendix. 

Publications. 

5.  All  papers  read  before  any  society  for  the  time  being  incorporated 
with  the  Institute  shall  be  deemed  to  be  communications  to  the  Insti- 
tute, and  then  may  be  published  as  Proceedings  or  Transactions  of  the 
Institute,  subject  to  the  following  regulations  of  the  Board  of  the  Institute 
regarding  publications  : — 

(a.)  The  publications  of  the  Institute  shall  consist  of — 

(1.)  A  current  abstract  of  the  proceedings  of  the  societies 
for  the  time  being  incorporated  with  the  Institute,  to  be 
intituled  "  Proceedings  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  "  ; 

(2.)  And  of  transactions  comprising  papers  read  before  the 
incorporated  societies  (subject,  however,  to  selection  as  herein- 
after mentioned),  and  of  such  other  matter  as  the  Board  of 
Governors  shall  from  time  to  time  determine  to  publish,  to 
be  intituled  "  Transactions  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute." 

{b.)  The  Board  of  Governors  shall  determine  what  papers  are  to  be 
published. 

(c.)  Papers  not  recommended  for  publication  may  be  returned  to  their 
authors  if  so  desired. 

{d.)  All  papers  sent  in  for  publication  must  be  legibly  written,  type- 
written, or  printed.   > 

(e.)  A  proportional  contribution  may  be  required  from  each  society 
towards  the  cost  of  publishing  Proceedings  and  Transactions 
of  the  Institute. 

(/.)  Each  incorporated  society  will  be  entitled  to  receive  a  propor- 
tional number  of  copies  of  the  Transactions  and  Proceedings 
of  the  New  Zealand  Institute,  to  be  from  time  to  time  fixed 
by  the  Board  of  Governors. 

Management  of  the  Pkoperty  of  the  Institute. 

6.  All  property  accumulated  by  or  with  funds  derived  from  incor- 
porated societies,  and  placed  in  charge  of  the  Institute,  shall  be  vested 
in  the  Institute,  and  be  used  and  applied  at  the  discretion  of  the  Board  of 
Governors  for  public  advantage,  in  like  manner  with  any  otlier  of  the 
property  of  the  Institute. 

7.  All  donations  by  societies,  public  Departments,  or  private  indi- 
viduals to  the  Institute  shall  be  acknowledged  by  a  printed  form  of 
receipt  and  shall  be  entered  in  the  books  of  the  Institute  provided  for 
that  purpose,  and  shall  then  be  dealt  with  as  the  Board  of  Governors  may 
direct. 

Honorary  Members. 

8.  The  Board  of  Governors  shall  have  power  to  elect  honorary 
members  (being  persons  not  residing  in  the  Colony  of  New  Zealand),  pro- 
vided that  the  total  number  of  honorary  members  shall  not  exceed 
thirty. 

9.  In  case  of  a  vacancy  in  the  list  of.  honorary  members,  each  incor- 
porated society,  after  intimation  from  the  Secretary  of  the  Institute,  may 
nominate  for  election  as  honorary  member  one  person. 

10.  The  names,  descriptions,  and  addresses  of  persons  so  nominated, 
together  with  the  grounds  on  which  their  election  as  honorary  members 
is  recommended,  shall  be  forthwith  forwarded  to  the  President  of  the 
New  Zealand  Institute,  and  shall  by  him  \ie  submitted  to  the  Governors 
at  the  next  succeeding  meeting. 


Begulations .  505 

Geneeal  Eegulations. 

11.  Subject  to  the  New  Zealand  Institute  Act,  1908,  and  to  the 
foregoing  rules,  all  societies  incorporated  with  the  Institute  shall  be 
entitled  to  retain  or  alter  their  own  form  of  constitution  and  the  by-laws 
for  their  own  management,  and  shall  conduct  their  own  affairs. 

12.  Upon  application  signed  by  the  President  and  countersigned  by  the 
Secretary  of  any  society,  accompanied  by  the  certificate  required  under 
Eegulation  No.  1,  a  certificate  of  incorporation  will  be  granted  under 
the  seal  of  the  Institute,  and  will  remain  in  force  as  long  as  the  fore- 
going regulations  of  the  Institute  are  complied  with  by  the  society. 

13.  In  voting  on  any  subject  the  President  is  to  have  a  deliberate  as 
well  as  a  casting  vote.' 

14.  The  President  may  at  any  time  call  ^i  meeting  of  the  Board,  and 
shall  do  so  on  the  requisition  in  writing  of  four  Governors. 

15.  Twenty-one  days'  notice  of  every  meeting  of  the  Board  shall  be 
given  by  posting  the  same  to  each  Governor  at  an  address  furnished  by 
him  to  the  Secretary. 

16.  In  case  of  a  vacancy  in  the  office  of  President,  a  meeting  of 
the  Board  shall  be  called  by  the  Secretary  within  twenty-one  days  to 
elect  a  new  President. 

17.  The  Governors  for  the  time  being  resident  or  present  in  Wellington 
shall  be  a  Standing  Committee  for  the  purpose  of  transacting  urgent 
business  and  assisting  the  officers. 

18.  The  Standing  Committee  may  appoint  persons  to  perform  the 
duties  of  any  other  office  which  may  become  vacant.  Any  such  appoint- 
ment shall  hold  good  until  the  next  meeting  of  the  Board,  when  the 
vacancy  shall  be  filled. 

19.  The  foregoing  regulations  may  be  altered  or  amended  at  any 
annual  meeting,  provided  that  notice  be  given  in  writing  to  the  Secretary 
of  the  Institute  not  later  than  the  30th  November. 

The  following  additional  regulations,  and  amendment  to  regulations, 
were  adopted  at  a  general  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Governors  of  the  New 
Zealand  Institute,  held  at  Wellington  on  the  30th  January,  1918,  and  at 
Christchurch  on  the  3rd  February,  1919.  (See  Netv  Zealand  Gazette, 
No.  110,  4th  September,  1919.) 

Eegulations  governing  the  Fellowship  of  the  Institute. 

20.  The  Fellowship  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute  shall  be  an  honorary 
distinction  for  the  life  of  the  holder. 

21.  The  Original  Fellows  shall  be  twenty  in  number,  and  shall  include 
the  past  Presidents  and  the  Hutton  and  Hector  Medallists  who  have  held 
their  distinctions  and  positions  prior  to  3rd  February,  1919,  and  who  at 
that  date  are  members  of  the  Institute.  The  remaining  Original  Fellows 
shall  be  nominated  as  provided  for  in  Eegulation  26  (a),  and  shall  be 
elected  by  the  said  past  Presidents  and  Hector  and  Hutton  Medallists. 

22.  The  total  number  of  Fellows  at  any  time  shall  not  be  more  than 
forty. 

23.  After  the  appointment  and  election  of  the  Original  Fellows,  as  pro- 
vided in  Eegulation  21,  not  more  than  four  Fellows  shall  be  elected  in  any 
one  year. 

24.  The  Fellowship  shall  be  given  for  research  or  distinction  in  science. 


506  Appendix. 

25.  No  person  shall  be  elected  as  Fellow  unless  he  is  a  British  subject 
and  has  been  a  member  of  one  of  the  incorporated  societies  for  three  years 
immediately  preceding  his  election. 

26.  After  the  appointment  and  election  of  the  Original  Fellows  as  pro- 
vided in  Regidation  21  there  shall  be  held  an  annual  election  of  Fellows 
at  such  time  as  the  Board  of  Governors  shall  appoint.  Such  election  shall 
be  determined  as  follows  :— 

(a.)  Each  of  the  incorporated  societies  at  Auckland,  Wellington,  Christ- 
church,  and  Dunedin  may  nominate  not  more  than  twice  as 
many  persons  as  there  are  vacancies,  and  each  of  the  other 
incorporated  societies  may  nominate  as  many  persons  as  there 
are  vacancies.  Each  nomination  must  be  accompanied  by  a 
statement  of  the  qualifications  of  the  candidate  for  Fellowship. 

(6.)  Out  of  the  persons  so  nominated  the  Fellows  resident  in  New  Zea- 
land shall  select  twice  as  many  persons  as  there  are  vacancies,  if 
so  many  be  nominated. 

(c.)  The  names  of  the  nominees  shall  be  submitted  to  the  Fellows  at 
least  six  months,  and  the  names  selected  by  them  submitted 
to  the  Governors  at  least  three  months,  before  the  date  fixed 
for  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Governors  at  which  the 
election  is  to  take  place. 

{(l.)  The  election  shall  be  made  by  the  Board  of  Governors  at  the  annual 
meeting  from  the  persons  selected  by  the  Fellows. 

(e.)  The  methods  of  selection  in  subclause  (b)  and  of  election  in  sub- 
clause (d)  shall  be  determined  by  the  Board  of  Governors. 

(/.)  The  official  abbreviation  of  the  title  "  Fellow  of  the  New  Zealand 
Institute  "  shall  be  "  F.N.Z.Inst." 

Amendment  to  Regulations. 

Regulation  5  (a)  of  the  regulations  published  in  the  New  Zealand  Gazette 
of  the  14th  July,  1904,  is  hereby  amended  to  read  : — 

"  (a.)  The  publications  of  the  Institute  shall  consist  of — 

"  (1.)  Such  current  abstract  of  the  proceedings  of  the  societies 
for  the  time  being  incorporated  with  the  Institute  as  the  Board 
of  Governors  deems  desirable  ; 

"  (2.)  And  of  transactions  comprising  papers  read  before  the 
incorporated  societies  or  any  general  meeting  of  the  New  Zealand 
Institute  (subject,  however,  to  selection  as  hereinafter  mentioned), 
and  of  such  other  matter  as  the  Board  of  Governors  shall  from 
time  to  time  for  special  reasons  in  each  case  determine  to  publish, 
to  be  intituled  Transactions  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute." 


Hutton  Memorial  Fund.  >         507 


THE  HUTTON  MEMORIAL  MEDAL  AND  RESEARCH  FUND. 

Declaration    of   Trust. 

This  deed,  made  the  fifteenth  day  of  February,  one  thousand  nine  hundred 
and  nine  (1909),  between  the  New  Zealand  Institute  of  the  one  part,  and. 
the  Pubhc  Trustee  of  the  other  part  :  Whereas  the  New  Zealand  Institute 
is  possessed  of  a  fund  consisting  now  of  the  sum  of  five  hundred  and  fifty- 
five  pounds  one  shilling  (£555  Is.),  held  for  the  purposes  of  the  Hutton 
Memorial  Medal  and  Research  Fund  on  the  terms  of  the  rules  and  regu- 
lations made  by  the  Governors  of  the  said  Institute,  a  copy  whereof  is 
hereto  annexed  :  And  whereas  the  said  money  has  been  transferred  to  the 
Public  Trustee  for  the  purposes  of  investment,  and  the  Public  Trustee 
now  holds  the  same  for  such  purposes,  and  it  is  expedient  to  declare  the 
trusts  upon  which  the  same  is  held  by  the  Public  Trustee  : 

Now  this  deed  witnesseth  that  the  Public  Trustee  shall  hold  the  said 
moneys  and  all  other  moneys  which  shall  be  handed  to  him  by  the  said 
Governors  for  the  same  purposes  upon  trust  from  time  to  time  to  invest 
the  same  upon  such  securities  as  are  lawful  for  the  Public  Trustee  to 
invest  on,  and  to  hold  the  principal  and  income  thereof  for  the  purposes 
set  out  in  the  said  rules  hereto  attached. 

And  it  is  hereby  declared  that  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  Public  Trustee 
to  pay  all  or  any  of  the  said  moneys,  both  principal  and  interest,  to  the 
Treasurer  of  the  said  New  Zealand  Institute  upon  being  directed  so  to  do 
by  a  resolution  of  the  Governors  of  the  said  Institute,  and  a  letter  signed 
by  the  Secretary  of  the  said  Institute  enclosing  a  copy  of  such  resolution 
certified  by  him  and  by  the  President  as  correct  shall  be  sufficient 
evidence  to  the  Public  Trustee  of  the  due  passing  of  such  resolution  : 
And  upon  receipt  of  such  letter  and  copy  the  receipt  of  the  Treasurer  for 
the  time  being  of  the  said  Institute  shall  be  a  sufficient  discharge  to  the 
Public  Trustee  :  And  in  no  case  shall  the  Public  Trustee  be  concerned  to 
inquire  into  the  administration  of  the  said  moneys  by  the  Governors  of 
the  said  Institute. 

As  witness  the  seals  of  the  said  parties  hereto,  the  day  and  year 
hereinbefore  written. 

Resolutions  of  Board  of  Governors. 

Resolved  by  the  Board  of    Governors  of  the  New    Zealand   Institute 
that — 

1.  The  funds  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Board  by  the  committee  of 
subscribers  to  the  Hutton  Memorial  Fund  be  called  "  The  Hutton 
Memorial  Research  Fund,"  in  memory  of  the  late  Captain  Frederick 
Wollaston  Hutton,  F.R.S.  Such  fund  shall  consist  of  the  moneys  sub- 
scribed and  granted  for  the  purpose  of  the  Hutton  Memorial,  and  all 
other  funds  which  may  be  given  or  granted  for  the  same  purpose. 

2.  The  funds  shall  be  vested  in  the  Institute.  The  Board  of 
Governors  of  the  Institute  shall  have  the  control  of  the  said  moneys, 
and  may  invest  the  same  upon  any  securities  proper  for  trust-moneys. 

3.  A  sum  not  exceeding  £100  shall  be  expended  in  procuring  a  bronze 
medal  to  be  known  as  "  The  Hutton  Memorial  Medal." 


508  Appendix. 

4.  The  fund,  or  sucli  part  thereof  as  shall  not  be  used  as  aforesaid, 
shall  be  invested  in  such  securities  as  aforesaid  as  may  be  approved  of  by 
the  Board  of  Governors,  and  the  interest  arising  from  such  investment 
shall  be  used  for  the  furtherance  of  the  objects  of  the  fund. 

5.  The  Hutton  Memorial  Medal  shall  be  awarded  from  time  to  time 
by  the  Board  of  Governors,  in  accordance  vpith  these  regulations,  to 
persons  who  have  made  some  noticeable  contribution  in  connection  with 
the  zoology,  botany,  or  geology  of  New  Zealand. 

6.  The  Board  shall  make  regulations  setting  out  the  manner  in  which 
the  funds  shall  be  administered.  Such  regulations  shall  conform  to  the 
terms  of  the  trust. 

7.  The  Board  of  Governors  may,  in  the  manner  prescribed  in  the 
regulations,  make  grants  from  cime  to  time  from  the  accrued  interest  to 
persons  or  committees  who  require  assistance  in  prosecuting  researches 
in  the  zoology,  botany,  or  geology  of  New  Zealand. 

8.  There  shall  be  published  annually  in  the  "Transactions  of  the 
New  Zealand  Institute"  the  regulations  adopted  by  the  Board  as  afore- 
said, a  list  of  the  recipients  of  the  Hutton  Memorial  Medal,  a  list  of  the 
persons  to  whom  grants  have  been  made  during  the  previous  year,  and 
also,  where  possible,  an  abstract  of  researches  made  by  them. 


Eegulations  undee  which  the  Hutton   Memoeial  Medal  shall  be 

AWAEDED    AND    THE    EeSEAECH    PuND    ADMINISTEEED. 

1.  Unless  in  exceptional  circumstances,  the  Hutton  Memorial  Medal 
shall  be  awarded  not  oftener  than  once  in  every  three  years  ;  and  in  no 
case  shall  any  medal  be  awarded  unless,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Board, 
some  contribution  really  deserving  of  the  honour  has  been  made. 

2.  The  medal  shall  not  be  awarded  for  any  research  published  previous 
to  the  31st  December,  1906. 

3.  The  research  for  which  the  medal  is  awarded  must  have  a  distinct 
bearing  on  New  Zealand  zoology,  botany,  or  geology. 

4.  The  medal  shall  be  awarded  only  to  those  who  have  received  the 
greater  part  of  their  education  in  New  Zealand  or  who  have  resided  in 
New  Zealand  for  not  less  than  ten  years. 

5.  Whenever  possible,  the<  medal  shall  be  presented  in  son«e  public 
manner. 

6.  The  Board  of  Governors  may,  at  an  annual  meeting,  make  grants 
from  the  accrued  interest  of  the  fund  to  any  person,  society,  or  commit- 
tee for  the  encouragement  of  research  in  New  Zealand  zoology,  botany, 
or  geology. 

7.  Applications  for  such  grants  shall  be  made  to  the  Board  before  the 
30th  September. 

8.  In  making  such  grants  the  Board  of  Governors  shall  give  preference 
to  such  persons  as  are  defined  in  regulation  4. 

9.  The  recipients  of  such  grants  shall  report  to  the  Board  before  the 
31st  December  in  the  year  following,  showing  in  a  general  way  how  the 
grant  has  been  expended  and  what  progress  has  been  made  with  the 
research. 

10.  The  results  of  researches  aided  by  grants  from  the  fund  shall, 
where  possible,  be  published  in  New  Zealand. 

11.  The  Board  of  Governors  mav  from  time  to  time  amend  or  alter 
the  regulations,  such  amendments  or  alterations  being  in  all  cases  in  con- 
formity with  resolutions  1  to  4. 


Hutton  Memorial  Fund.  509 

Award  of  the  Hutton  Memorial  Medal. 

1911.  Professor  W.  B.  Benham,  D.Sc,  F.K.S.,  University  of  Otago— 
For  researches  in  New  Zealand  zoology. 

1914.  Dr.  L.  Cockayne,  F.L.S.,  F.E.S.  —  For  researches  on  the 
ecology  of  New  Zealand  plants. 

1917.  Professor  P.  Marshall,  M.A.,  D.Sc. — For  researches  in  New 
Zealand  geology. 

1920.  Eev.  John  E.  Holloway,  D.Sc. — For  researches  in  New  Zealand 
pteridophytic  botany. 

Grant  from  the  Hutton  Memorial  Eesearch  Fund. 

1919.  Miss  M.  K.  Mestayer— £10,  for  work  on  the  New  Zealand 
Mollusca. 


HECTOR  MEMORIAL  RESEARCH  FUND. 

Declaration  of  Trust. 

This  deed,  made  the  thirty-first  day  of  July,  one  thousand  nine  hundred 
and  fourteen,  between  the  New  Zealand  Institute,  a  body  corporate 
duly  incorporated  by  the  New  Zealand  Institute  Act,  1908,  of  the  one 
part,  and  the  Public  Trustee  of  the  other  part :  Whereas  by  a  declara- 
tion of  trust  dated  the  twenty-seventh  day  of  January,  one  thousand 
nine  hundred  and  twelve,  after  reciting  that  the  New  Zealand  Institute 
was  possessed  of  a  fund  consisting  of  the  sum  of  £1,045  10s.  2d.,  held 
for  the  purposes  of  the  Hector  Memorial  Research  Fund  on  the  terms  of 
the  rules  and  regulations  therein  mentioned,  which  said  moneys  had  been 
handed  to  the  Public  Trustee  for  investment,  it  was  declared  (intier  alia) 
that  the  Public  Trustee  should  hold  the  said  moneys  and  all  other  moneys 
which  should  be  handed  to  him  by  the  said  Governors  of  the  Institute 
for  the  same  purpose  upon  trust  from  time  to  time,  to  invest  the  same 
in  the  comn:4on  fund  of  the  Public  Trust  Office,  and  to  hold  the  principal 
and  income  thereof  for  the  purposes  set  out  in  the  said  rules  and  regula- 
tions in  the  said  deed  set  forth  :  And  whereas  the  said  rules  and  regu- 
lations have  been  amended  by  the  Governors  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute, 
and  as  amended  are  hereinafter  set  forth  :  And  whereas  it  is  expedient 
to  declare  that  the  said  moneys  are  held  by  the  Public  Trustee  upon  the 
trusts  declared  by  the  said  deed  of  trust  and  for  the  purposes  set  forth 
in  the  said  rules  and  regulations  as  amended  as  aforesaid  : 

And  it  is  hereby  declared  that  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  Public 
Trustee  shall  hold  the  said  moneys  and  all  other  moneys  which  shall  be 
handed  to  him  by  the  said  Governors  for  the  same  purpose  upon  trust 
from  time  to  time  to  invest  the  same  in  the  common  fund  of  the  Public 
Tru-st  Office,  and  to  hold  the  principal  and  income  thereof  for  the  pur- 
poses set  out  in  the  said  rules  and  regulations  hereinafter  set  forth  : 

And  it  is  hereby  declared  that  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  Public 
Trustee  to  pay,  and  he  shall  pay,  all  or  any  of  the  said  moneys,  both 
principal  and  interest,  to  the  Treasurer  of  the  said  New  Zealand  Insti- 
tute upon  being  directed  to  do  so  by  a  resolution  of  the  Governors  of 
the  said  Institute,  and  a  letter  signed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  said  Insti- 
tute enclosing  a  copy  of  such  resolution  certified  by  him  and  by  the 
President  as  correct  shall  be  sufficient  evidence  to  the  Public  Trustee 
of  the  due  passing  or  such  resolution  :  And  upon  receipt  of  such  letter 
and  copy  the  receipt  of  the  Treasurer  for  the  time  being  of  the  said 


,510  Appendix. 

Institute  shall  be  a  sufficient  discharge  to  the  Public  Trustee  :  And  in 
no  case  shall  the  Public  Trustee  be  concerned  to  inquire  into  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  said  moneys  by  the  Governors  of  the  said  Institute. 

As  witness  the  seals  of  the  said  parties  hereto,  the  day  and  year  first 
hereinbefore  written, 

ICules   and   Regulations   made   by   the   Governors   of  the   New  Zealand 
Institute  in  relation  to  the  Hector  Memorial  Research  Fund. 

1.  The  funds  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Board  by  the  Wellington 
Hector  Memorial  Committee  be  called  "  The  Hector  Memorial  Reseaich 
Fund,"  in  memory  of  the  late  Sir  James  Hector,  K.C.M.G.,  F.R.S. 
ITie  object  of  such  fund  shall  be  the  encouragement  of  scientific  research 
in  New  Zealand,  and  such  fund  shall  consist  of  the  moneys  subscribed 
and  granted  for  the  purpose  of  the  memorial  and  all  other  funds  which 
may  be  given  or  granted  for  the  same  purpose. 

2.  The  funds  shall  be  vested  in  the  Institute.  The  Board  of  Go- 
vernors of  the  Institute  shall  have  the  control  of  the  said  moneys,  and 
may  invest  the  same  upon  any  securities  proper  for  trust-moneys. 

3.  A  sum  not  exceeding  one  hundred  pounds  (£100)  shall  be  expended 
in  procuring  a  bronze  medal,  to  be  known  as  the  Hector  Memorial  Medal. 

'  4.  The  fund,  or  such  jDart  thereof  as  shall  not  be  used  as  aforesaid, 
shall  be  invested  in  such  securities  as  may  be  approved  by  the  Board 
of  Governors,  and  the  interest  arising  from  such  investment  shall  be 
used  for  the  furtherance  of  the  objects  of  the  fund  by  providing  thereout 
a  j)rize  for  the  encouragement  of  such  scientific  research  in  New  Zealand 
of  such  amount  as  the  Board  of  Governors  shall  from  time  to  time 
determine. 

5.  The  Hector  Memorial  Medal  and  Prize  shall  be  awarded  annually 
by  the  Board  of  Governors. 

6.  The  prize  and  medal  shall  be  awarded  by  rotation  for  the  follow- 
ing subjects,  namely: — (1)  Botany,  (2)  chemistry,  (3)  ethnology,  (4)  geo- 
logy, (5)  physics  (including  mathematics  and  astronomy),  (6)  zoology 
(including  animal  physiology).  .  ♦ 

In  each  year  the  medal  and  prize  shall  be  awarded  to  that  investi- 
gator who,  working  within  the  Dominion  of  New  Zealand,  shall  in  the 
opinion  of  the  Board  of  Governors  have  done  most  towards  the  advance- 
ment of  that  branch  of  science  to  which  the  medal  and  prize  are  in  such 
year  allotted. 

7.  Whenever  possible  the  medal  shall  be  presented  in  some  public 
manner. 

Award  of  the  Hector  Memorial  Research  Fund. 

1912.  L.  Cockayne,  Ph.D.,  F.L.S.,  F.R.S.— For  researches  in  New 

Zealand  botanv. 

1913.  T.  H.  Easterfield,  M.A.,  Ph.D. — For  researches  in  chemistry. 

1914.  Elsdon  Best — For  researches  in  New  Zealand  ethnology. 

1915.  P.   Marshall,    M.A.,   D.Sc,   F.G.S.— For   researches   in   New 

Zealand  geology. 

1916.  Sir  Ernest  Rutherford,  F.R.S. — For  researches  in  physics. 

1917.  Charles  Chilton,  M. A. ,D.Sc.,F.L.S.,C.M.Z.S.— For  researches 

in  zoology. 

1918.  T.   F.   Cheeseman,   F.L.S.,    F.Z.S.— For   researches   in    New 

Zealand  systematic  botany. 

1919.  P.  W.  Robertson — For  reseai-ches  in  chemistry. 

1920.  S.  Percy  Smith — For  researches  in  New  Zealand  ethnology. 


Regulations  for  Government  Research  Grant.  511 

REGULATIONS   FOR   ADMINISTERING   THE    GOVERNMENT 

RESEARCH  GRANT.  ^ 

All  grants  shall  be  subject  to  the  following  conditions,  and  each  grantee 
shall  be  duly  informed  of  these  conditions  ; — 

1.  All  instruments,  specimens,  objects,  or  materials  of  permanent  value, 
whether  purchased  or  obtained  out  of  or  by  means  of  the  grant,. or  supplied 
from  among  those  at  the  disposal  of  the  Institute,  are  to  be  regarded,  unless 
the  Research  Gi'ants  Committee  decide  otherwise,  as  the  property  of  the 
Institute,  and  are  to  be  returned  by  the  grantee,  for  disposal  according  to 
the  orders  of  the  committee,  at  the  conclusion  of  his  research,  or  at  such 
other  time  as  the  committee  may  determine. 

2.  Everv  one  receiving  a  grant  shall  furnish  to  the  Research  Grants 
Committee,  on  or  before  the  1st  January  following  upon  the  allotment  of 
the  grant,  a  report  (or,  if  the  object  of  the  grant  be  not  attained,  an  in- 
terim report,  to  be  renewed  at  the  same  date  in  each  subsequent  year  until 
a  final  report  can  be  furnished  or  the  committee  dispense  with  further 
reports)  containing  (a)  a  brief  statement  showing  the  results  arrived  at 
or  the  stage  which  the  inquiry  has  reached  ;  [h)  a  general  statement  of  the 
expenditure  incurred,  accompanied,  as  far  as  is  possible,  with  vouchers  ; 
(c)  a  list  of  the  instruments,  specimens,  objects,  or  materials  purchased  or 
obtained  out  of  the  grant,  or  supplied  by  the  committee,  which  are  at 
present  in  his  possession  ;  and  {d)  references  to  any  transactions,  journals, 
or  other  publications  in  which  results  of  the  research  have  been  printed. 
In  the  event  of  the  grantee  failing  to  send  in  within  three  months  of 
the  said  1st  January  a  report  satisfactory  to  the  committee  he  may  be 
required,  on  resolution  of  the  Board  of  Governors,  to  return  the  whole  of 
the  sum  allotted  to  him. 

3.  Where  a  grant  is  made  to  two  or  more  persons  acting  as  a  committee 
for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  some  research,  one  member  of  the  said 
committee  shall  assume  the  responsibility  of  furnishing  the  report  and 
receiving  and  disbursing  the  money. 

4.  Papers  in  which  results  are  published  that  have  been  obtained 
through  aid  furnished  by  the  Government  grant  should  contain  an  acknow- 
ledgment of  that  fact. 

5.  Every  grantee  shall,  before  any  of  the  grant  is  paid  to  him,  be 
required  to  sign  an  engagement  that  he  is  prepared  to  carry  out  the  general 
conditions  applicable  to  all  grants,  as  well  as  any  conditions  which  may 
be  attached  to  his  particular  grant. 

6.  In  cases  where  specimens  or  preparations  of  permanent  value  are 
obtained  through  a  grant  the  committee  shall,  as  far  as  possible,  direct  that 
such  specimens  shall  be  deposited  in  a  museum  or  University  college  within 
the  province  where  the  specimens  or  material  were  obtained,  or  in  which 
the  grantee  has  worked.  The  acknowledgment  of  the  receipt  of  the  speci- 
mens by  such  institution  shall  fully  satisfy  the  claims  of  the  Institute. 

7.  In  cases  where,  after  completion  of  a  research,  the  committee  directs 
that  any  instrument  or  apparatus  obtained  by  means  of  the  grant  shall  be 
deposited  in  an  institution  of  higher  learning,  such  deposit  shall  be  subject 
to  an  annual  report  from  the  institution  in  question  as  to  the  condition  of 
the  instrument  or  apparatus,  and  as  to  the  use  that  has  been  made  of  it, 

*  In  addition  to  these  regulations  the  Standing  Committee  is  also  bound  by  certain 
resolutions  which  appear  on  page  536  of  volume  49,  Trans.  N.Z.  Inst.,  and  which  grantees 
are  also  bound  to  observe. 


512  Appendix. 

Research  Grants  from  Vote  (£2,000)  during  Year  ending  31st  March, 

1920. 

Through  the  Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury  : — 

Mr.  Guy  Brittin,  £100  for  research  in  fruit-tree  diseases. 

Professor  C.  Coleridge  Farr,    £100    and   £30   for    experiments    on   the 

porosity  of  insulators. 
Mr.  W.  G.  Morrison,  £70  to  £100  for  research  in  the  natural  regeneration 

of   exotic   and   indigenous   forest-trees   in   connection   with   natural 

afforestation  of  high  country. 
Mr.  R.  Speight,  £225  for  a  geological  survey  of  Malvern  Hills. 
Professor  W.  P.  Evans,  £200  for  research  on  New  Zealand  brown  coals. 

Through  the  OtagQ  Institute  : — ■ 

Professor  J.  Malcolm,  £250  and  £25  for  a  research  on  New  Zealand  fishes. 
Mr.  G.  S.  Thomson  and  the  Hon.  G.  M.  Thomson,  £50  for  a  research 

into  the  economic  value  of  whale-feed. 
Mr.  W.  G.  Howes,  £30  for  research  work  on  Neuroptera. 

Through  the  Auckland  Institute  : — 

Messrs.  Lancaster  and  Cornes,  £50  for  forestry  research. 

Through  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society ": — 
Dr.  C.  E.  Adams,  £35  for  astronomical  research. 
Dr.  C.  E.  Adams,  £150  for  research   in  connection  with  astronomical 

sites. 
Professor  T.  H.  Easterfield,  £250  for  investigation  on  mineral  oils,  waxes, 

and  resins. 
Dr.  J.  Allan  Thomson,  £100  for  a  research  into  the  chemical  characters 

of  igneous  rocks. 
Professor  E.  Marsden,  £125  for  research  on  the  disintegration  efiect  of 

a  particles  on  matter,  and  £60  for  research  on  gas  and  electricity 

for  domestic  purposes. 


THE  CARTER  BEQUEST. 


For  extracts  from  the  wiU  of  Charles  Rooking  Carter  see  vol.  48,  1916, 
pp.  565-66. 


513 


NEW  ZE   Land  institute 


,A" 


ESTABLISHED  UNDEB  AN  ACT  OF  THE  GENERAL  ASSEMBLY  OP  NEW  ZEALAND 
INTITULED  THE  NEW  ZEALAND  INSTITUTE  ACT,  1867;  RECONSTITUTED  BY 
AN  ACT  OF  THE  GENERAL  ASSEMBLY  OF  NEW  ZEALAND  UNDEB  THE  NEW 
ZEALAND  INSTITUTE  ACT,  1903,  AND  CONTINUED  BY  THE  NEW  ZEALAND 
INSTITUTE   ACT,   1908. 


Auckland  Institute 


BOARD    OF   GOVERNORS. 
EX  OFFICIO. 

His  Excellency  the  Governor-General. 
The  Hon.  the  Minister  of  Internal  Affairs. 

NOMINATED   BY   THE   GOVERNMENT. 

Mr.  Charles  A.  Ewen  (reappointed  December,  1918) ;  Dr.  J.  Allan  Thom- 
son, F.G.S.,  F.N. Z.Inst,  (reappointed  December,  1919);  Mr.  B.  C. 
Aston,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S.,  F.N. Z.Inst,  (reappointed  December,  1919)  ; 
Dr.  Charles  Chilton,  F.L.S'.,  C.M.Z.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst.  (reappointed 
December,  1918). 

N  ELECTED  BY  AFFILIATED   SOCIETIES   (DECEMBER,   1919). 

^Professor  H.    B.    Kirk,    M.A.-, 

Wellington  Philosophical  Institute       ...   jp^ofe^gsor^T'  H.    Easterfield, 

I     M.A.,  Ph.D.,  F.N.Z.Inst. 
^Professor  H.  W.  Segar,  M.A., 

Ph.D.,  F.N.Z.Inst. 
Professor   A.    P.   W.    Thomas, 

M.A.,  F.N.Z.Inst. 

■DUM         u-     1  T     ^-i  ^      t  n     i.    -u  (Dr.  F.  W.  Hilgendorf,  M.A. 

Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury...    |^^._  ^   ^^   Wright,  F.C.S. 

(Hon.  G.  M.  Thomson,  F.C.S. , 
Otago  Institute        ..'.  ...  ...    \     F.L.S. ,  F.N.Z.Inst.,  M.L.C. 

(Professor  J.  Malcolm,  M.D. 
Hawke's  Bay  Philosophical  Institute  ...     Mr.  H.  Hill,  B.A.,  F.G.S. 
Nelson  Institute       ...  ...  ...     Dr.L. Cockayne, F.L.S., F.E.S., 

F.N.Z.Inst. 
Manawatu  Philosophical  Society  ...     Mr.  M.  A.  Eliott. 

Wanganui  Philosophical  Society  ...     Dr.  P.  Marshall,  M.A.,  F.G.S. , 

F.N.Z.Inst. 
Poverty  Bay  Institute  ...  ...     Ven.      Archdeacon      H.      W. 

WilHams,  M.A. 

OFFICERS  FOR  THE   YEAR  1920. 

President:  Professor  T.  H.  Easterfield,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  F.N.Z.Inst. 

Hon.  Treasurer:  Mr.  C.  A.  Ewen. 

Hon.  Editor  :  Mr.  Johannes  C.  Andersen. 

Hon.  Librarian  :  Dr.  J.  Allan  Thomson,  F.G.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst. 

Hon.  Secretary:   Mr.  B.  C.  Aston,  F.I.C,  F.C.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst. 
(Box  40,  Post-of&ce,  Wellington). 

17— Trans. 


514 


Appendix. 

AFFILIATED  SOCIETIES. 


Name  of  Society. 


Secretary's  Name  a-    ^  Vddress. 

^rbu 


Date  of  Affiliation. 


Wellington   Philosophical 

Society 
Auckland  Institute 

Philosophical    Institute     of 

Canterbury 
Otago  Institute 

Hawke's   Bay   Philosophical 

Institute 
Nelson  Institute    . . 

Manawatu     Philosophical 

Society 
Wang  an  ui      Philosophical 

Society 
Poverty  Bay  Institute. . 


C.  G.  G.  Berry,  Railway  Build- 
ings, Wellington 

T.  P.  Cheeseman,  Museum,  Auck- 
land 

William  Martin,  51  Matai  Street, 
Riccarton,  Christchurch 

Professor  W.  N.  Benson,  Univer- 
sity, Dunedin 

C.  F.  H.  Pollock,  P.O.  Box  166, 
Napier 

E.  L.  Morley,  Waimea  Street, 
Nelson 

K.  Wilson,  92  Rangitikei  Street, 
Palmerston  North 

C.  R.  Ford,  College  Street,  Wa- 
nganui 

John  Mouat,  Adams  Chambers, 
Gladstone  Road,  Gisborne 


10th  June,  1868. 
10th  June,  1868. 
22nd  October,  1868. 
18th  October,  1869. 
31st  March,  1875. 
20th  December,  1883. 
6th  January,  1905. 
2nd  December,  1911. 
1st  February,  1919. 


FOEMEE  HONOEAEY  MEMBEES. 


Agassiz,  Professor  Louis. 
Drury,  Captain  Byron,  R.N. 
Finsoh,  Professor  Otto,  Ph.D. 
Flower,  Professor  W.  H.,  P.R.S. 
Hochstetter,  Dr.  Ferdinand  von. 


Darwin,  Charles,  M.A,,  F.R.S. 
Gray,  J.  E.,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S. 


Grey,  Sir  George,  K.C.B. 

Huxley,  Thomas  H.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 


1870. 

Hooker,  Sir  J.  D.,  G.C.S.I.,   C.B.,   M.D., 

F.R.S.,  O.M. 
Mueller,    Ferdinand    von,   M.D.,    F.R.S., 

C.M.G. 
Owen,  Professor  Richard,  F.R.S. 
Richards,  Rear-Admiral  G.  H. 

1871. 

Lindsay,  W.  Lauder,  M.D.,  F.R.S.E. 

1872. 

I  Stokes,  Vice-Admiral  J.  L. 


1873. 


Bowen,  Sir  George  Ferguson,  G.C.M.G. 
Giinther,  A.,  M.D.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S. 
Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  Bart.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S. 


Pickard-Cambridge,  Rev.  0.,  M.  A.,  F.R.S., 
C.M.Z.S.      - 


McLachlan,  Robert,  F.L.S. 
Newton,  Alfred,  F.R.S. 


Pilhol,  Dr.  H. 

RoUeston,  Professor  G.,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 


Berggren,  Dr.  S. 

Clarke,  Rev.  W.  B.,  M.A.,  P.R.S. 


1874. 

Thomson,  Professor  Wyville,  F.R.S. 

1875. 

I  Sclater,  P.  L.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S. 

1876. 

I  Etheridge,  Professor  R.,  F.R.S. 


Former  Honorary  Members.  515 

1877. 
Baird,  Professor  Spencer  P.  |  Weld,  Frederick  A.,  C.M.G. 

1878. 

Garrod,  Professor  A.  H.,  F.R.S.  I  Tenison-Woods,  Rev.  J.  E.,  F.L.S. 

Miiller,  Professor  Max,  F.R.S.  | 

1880. 
The  Most  Noble  the  Marquis  of  Normanby,  G. C.M.G. 


Carpenter,  Dr.  W.  B.,  C.B.,  F.R.S. 
Ellery,  Robert  L.  J.,  F.R.S. 


Gray,  Professor  Asa. 

Sharp,  Richard  Bowdler,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 


Beneden,  Professor  J.  P.  van. 
Ettingshausen,  Baron  von. 


1883. 

Thomson,  Sir  William,  F.R.S. 

1885. 

Wallace,  Sir  A.  R.,  F.R.S.,  O.M. 


1888. 


McCoy,  Professor  Sir  F.,  K.O.M.G.,  D.Sc, 
F.R.S. 


1890. 
Riley,  Professor  C.  V.  ^  i  p  >«^ 

1891.  /CS^nO"*  ^'o^^\ 

Davis,  J.  W.,  F.G.S.,  F.L.S.  /->>  ^  '^•-«b>  ^-(\  <^^ 

/^;  ■   \Oi 

1895.  Lj    LIBRARY  130 

Mitten,  William,  F.R.S.  \^\      "^•'^      /      7 

•       1896.  '^^>^«^^>< 

Langley,  S.  P.  |  Lydekker,  Richard,  F.R.S.      \^    |f^     )v^ 

1900. 

Agardh,  Dr.  J.  G.  I  Massee,  George,  F.L.S.,  F.R.M.S.' 

Avebury,  Lord,  P.O.,  F.R.S.  | 

1901. 
*   Eve,  H.  W.,  M.A.  .  |  HoWes,  G.  B.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 

1906. 
Milne,  J.,  F.R.S. 

1909. 
Darwin,  Sir  George,  F.R.S.   . 

.1914. 
Arber,  E.  A.  NeweU,  M.A.,  Sc.D.,  F.G.S.,  F.L.S. 


FORMEE  MANAGER  AND  EDITOR. 

[Under   the    New    Zealand   Institute    Act,  1867.] 

1867-1903. 
Hector,  Sir  James,  M.D.,  K.C.M.G.,  F.R.S. 

17* 


516  Appendix. 


PAST  PEESIDENTS. 

1903-4. 
Hutton,  Captain  Frederick  Wollaston,  F.R.S. 

1905-6. 
Hector,  Sir  James,  M.D.,  K.C.M.G.,  F.R.S. 

1907-8. 
Thomson,  George  Malcolm,  F.L.S.,  F.C.S. 

1909-10. 
Hamilton,  A. 

1911-12. 
Cheeseman,  T.  F.,  F.L.S.,  F.Z.S. 

1913-14. 
Chilton,  C,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  LL.D.,  F.L.S.,  C.M.Z.S 

1915. 
Petrie,  D.,  M.A,,  Ph.D. 

1916-17. 
Benham,  W.  B.,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.Z.S. ,  F.R.S. 

1918-19. 
Cockayne,  L.,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.L.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst. 


HONOEAEY  MEMBEES. 

1877. 
Sharp,  Dr.  D.,  University  Museum,  Cambridge. 


1890. 


LiVEESiDGE,  Professor  A.,  M.A.,  F.R.S., 
Fieldhead,  Coombe  Warren,  Kingston 
Hill,  England. 


NoRDSTEDT,  Professor  Otto,  Ph.D.,  Uni- 
versity  of  Lund,  Sweden, 


1891.  ^ 

GooDALE,  Professor  G.  L.,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


1894. 


CoDEiNGTON,  Rev.  R.  H.,  D.D.,  Wadhurst 
Rectory,  Sussex,  England. 


Thiselton  -  Dyer,  Sir  W.  T.,  K.C.M.G., 
C.I.E.,  LL.D.,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Witcombe, 
Gloucester,  England. 


1901. 
GoEBEL,  Professor  Dr.  Carl  von,  University  of  Munich. 

1902. 
Sars,  Professor  G.  0.,  University  of  Christiania,  Norway. 

1903. 
Klotz,  Professor  Otto  J.,  437  Albert  Street,  Ottawa,  Canada. 

1904. 


Rutherford,  Professor  Sir  E.,  D.Sc, 
F.R.S.  F.N.Z.Inst.,  Nobel  Laureate, 
Cambridge,  England. 


David,  Professor  T.  Edgeworth,  F.R.S., 
C.M.G.,  Sydney  University,  N.S.W. 


Honorary  Members.  517 


1906. 


Beddard,  F.E.,  D.So.,  P.E.S.,  Zoological 
Society,  London. 


Beady,  G.  S.,  D.Sc,  F.R.S.,  University  of 
Durham,  England. 


1907. 
Dendy,   Dr.    A.,   F.R.S.,   King's   College,     Meyrick,  E.,  E.A.,  F.R.S.,  Marlborough 


University  of  London,  England. 
DiELS,  Professor  L.,  Ph.    .,  University  of 
Marburg. 


College,  England. 
Stebbing,  Rev.  T.    R.   R.,  F.R.S.,  Tun- 
bridge  Wells,  England. 

1910. 
Bruce,  Dr.  W.  S.,  Edinburgh. 


1913. 


Davis,     Professor    W.    Morris,    Harvard 
University,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


Hemsley,  Dr.  W.  Botting,  F.R.S.,  Kew 
Lodge,  St.  Peter's  Road,  Broadstairs, 
Kent,  England. 


1914. 


Balfour,    Professor    I.    Bayley,    F.R.S., 
Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Ediiiburgh. 


Hasvtell,  Professor  W.  A.,  P.R.S,  Mimi" 
hau,  WooUahra  Point,  Sydney. 


1915. 

Bateson,  Professor  W.,  F.R.S.,  Merton,  Surrey,  England. 

1916. 

Massart,  Professor  Jean,  University  of  Brussels,  Belgium. 

1919. 

Mellor,  Joseph  William,  D.Sc.  (N.Z.),  Sandon  House,  Regent  Street,  Stoke-on-Trent, 

England. 


1920. 


Fraser,  Sir  J.  G.,  D.C.L.,  No.  1  Brick 
Court,  Temple,  London.  E.C.  4. 

Gregory,  Professor  J.  W.,  D.Sc,  F.R.S., 
F.G.S.,  University,  Glasgow. 


Hall,    Sir   A.    D.,    M.A.,    K.C.B.,    F.R.S., 

Ministry  of  Agriculture,  London. 
Mawson,'  Sir   Douglas,   B.E.,   D.Sc,   The 
University,  Box  498,  G.P.O.,  Adelaide. 


Woods,  Henry,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  University,  Cambridge. 


OEIGINAL  FELLOWS  OF  THE  NEW  ZEALAND  INSTITUTE. 

(See  New  Zealand  Gazette,  20th  November,  1919.) 
Aston,  Bernard  Cracroft,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S. 
*|Benham,  Professor  WiiUam  Blaxland,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.R.S.,  F.Z.S. 

fBest,  Elsdon. 
*tCheeseman,  Thomas  Frederick,  F.L.S.,  F.Z.S. 

*tChilton,  Professor  Charles,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  LL.D.,  M.B.,  CM.,  F.L.S.,  C.M.Z.S. 
*tiCockayne,  Leonard,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.L.S. 

tEasterfield,  Professor  Thomas  Hill.  M.A.,  Ph.D..  F.I.C.,  F.C.S. 
Farr,  Professor  Clinton  Coleridae,  D.Sc,  F.P.S.L.,  AssocM.Inst.C.E. 
Hogben,  George,  C.M.G.,  M.A.," F.G.S. 

Hudson,  George  Vernon,  F.E.S.  ■» 

Kirk,  Professor  Harry  Borrer,  M.A. 
ttMarshall,  Patrick,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.G.S.,  F.R.G.S.,  F.E.S. 
*Petrie,  Donald,  M.A.,  Ph.D. 

tRutherford,  Sir  Ernest,  Kt.,  F.R.S.,  D.Sc,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 
Segar,  Professor  Hugh  William.  ]\I.A. 
Smith,  Stephenson  Percy,  F.R.G.S. 
Speight,  Robert,  M.A.,  M.Sc,  F.G.S. 

Thomas,  Professor  Algernon  Phillips  Withiel,  M.A.,  F.L.S. 
*Thomson,  Hon.  George  Malcolm,  F.L.S.,  M.L.C. 
Thomson,  James  Allan,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  A.O.S.M.,  F.G.S. 

*  Past  President.  t  Hector  Medallist.  %  Hutton  Medallist. 


518 


Appendix. 


ORDINARY    MEMBERS. 


WELLINGTON  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY. 

[*  Life  members.] 


Ackland,  E.  W.,  P.O.  Box  928,  Wellington. 

Adams,  C.  E.,  D.Sc,  A.I.A.  (London), 
F.R.A.S.,  Hector  Observatory,  Wellington. 

Adkin,  G.  L.,  Queen  Street,  Levin. 

Andersen,  Johannes  C,  Turnbull  Library, 
Bowen  Street,  Wellington. 

Anderson,  W.  J.  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Education 
Department,  Wellington. 

Andrew,  R.  L.,  Dominion  Laboratory,  Wel- 
lington. 

Anson,  Miss  J.  C,  Victoria  College. 

Aston,  B.  C.  F.I.C.,  F.C.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst., 
P.O.  Box  40,  Wellington. 

Atkinson,  E.  H.,  Agricultural  Department, 
Wellington. 

Bagley,  G.,  care  of  Young's  Chemical  Com- 
pany, 14  Egmont  Street,  WeUington. 

BaiUie,  H.,  Public  Library,  W^ellington. 

Bakewell,  F.  H.,  M.A.,  Education  Board, 
Mercer  Street,  Wellington. 

Baldwin,  E.  S.,  215  Lambton  Quay,  Wel- 
lington. 

Bell,  E.  D..  Panama  Street,  WelUngton. 

Bell,  Hon.  Sir  Francis  H.  D.,  K.C.,  M.L.C., 
Panama  Street,  WelUngton. 

Berry,  C.  G.  G.,  35  Bolton  Street,  Wellington. 

Best,  Elsdon,  F.N.Z.Inst.,  Dominion  Museum, 
Wellington. 

Blair,  David  K.,  MJ.Mech.E.,  9  Grey  Street, 
Wellington. 

Brandon,  A.  de  B.,  B.A.,  Featherston  Street, 
WeUington. 

Bretherton,  A.  C,  PubUc  Trust  Office,  Wel- 
lington. 

Bridges,  G.  G.,  2  Wesley  Road,  Wellington. 

Brodrick,  T.  N.,  Under-Secretary,  Lands  and 
Survey  Department,  Wellington. 

Brown,  J.,  Experimental  Farm,  Weraroa. 

Burbidge,  P.  W.,  M.Sc,  Victoria  University 
College,  Wellington. 

Burnett,  J.,  M.Inst.C.E.,  care  of  M.  Burnett, 
of  Richardson,  McCabe.  and  Co.,  11  Grey 
Street,  Welhngton. 

Burton,  Richard  F.,  Longner  Hall,  Salop, 
Shrewsbiiry,  England.  * 

Cameron,  Dr.  R.  A.,  148  Willis  Street,  Wel- 
lington. 

Campbell,  J.,  F.R.I.B.A.,  Government  Archi- 
tect, Public  Works  Department,  Welling- 
ton. 

Carter,  W.  H.,  care  of  Dr.  Henry,  The  Terrace, 
Wellington. 

Chamberlin,  T.  Chamberlin,  Crescent  Road, 
Khandallah. 

Chapman,  Martin,  K.C.,  Brandon  Street, 
Wellinston. 


Chudleigh,  E.  R.,  Orongomairoa.  Waihou. 

Clark,  Professor  H.,  Victoria  University  Col- 
lege, WeUington. 

Clarke,  J.  T.,  care  of  Messrs.  Searle,  Joy,  and 
Co.,  61  Victoria  Street,  WelUngton. 

Cockayne,  L.,  Ph.D.,  F.  L.S.,  F.  R.  S., 
F.N.Z.Inst.,  Ngaio,  WeUington. 

Comrie,  L.  J.,  M.A.,  Wapiti  Avenue,  Epsom, 
Auckland. 

Cotton,  C.  A.,  D.Sc,  F.G.S.,  Victoria  Univer- 
sity College,  Wellington. 

Cowan,  J.,  Department  of  Internal  Affairs, 
Wellington. 

Crawford,  A.  D.,  Box  126,  G.P.O.,  WeUington. 

Crawford,  Miss,  Girls'  CoUea;e,  WeUington. 

CuU,  J.  E.  L.,  B.Sc.  in  Eng.  (Mech.),  PubUc 
Works  Department,  WelUngton. 

Curtis,  H.  F.,  19  May  Street,  Wellington. 

Darling,  J.,  Kelburn. 

Davies,  V.  C,  Devon  Street,  New  Plymouth. 

Donovan,  W.,  M.Sc,  Dominion  Laboratory, 
WeUington. 

Dore,    A.     B.,     Bacteriological     Laboratory, 
Wellington. 
"  Dougall,  Archibald,  9  Claremont  Grove,  Wel- 
lington. 

Dymock,  E.  R.,  F.I.A.N.Z.,  A.I.A. V.,  Wood- 
ward Street,  WelUngton. 

Eamshaw.  W.,  4  Watson  Street,  WeUington. 

Easterfield,  Professor  T. .  H.,  M.A.,  Ph.D., 
F.N.Z.Inst.,  Victoria  University  College, 
WelUngton. 

Edwards,  W.  A.,  The  Grange.  307  WUlis 
Street,  Wellington. 

Ewen,  Charles  A.,  Heretaunga,  Upper  Hutt. 

Farquhar,  Alfred  S.,  M.A.,  Scots  College,  Wel- 
lington. 

Ferguson,  WilUam,  M.A.,  M.Inst.C.E., 
M.LMech.E.,  131  Coromandel  Street,  Wel- 
lington. 

Findiay,  Sir  John  G.,  K.C.,  LL.D.,  197 
Lambton  Quay,  Wellington. 

FitzGerald,  Gerald,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  P.O.  Box 
461,  WeUington. 

Fletcher,  Rev.  H.  J.,  The  Manse,  Taupo. 

Fortune,  Alfred,  Hviia  Road,  Hataitai. 

Fox,  Thomas  0.,  Borough  Engineer,  Miramar, 
Wellington. 

Freeman,  C.  J.,  95  Webb  Street,  WelUngton.* 

Frengley,  Dr.,  Hatton  Street,  Karori. 

Freyberg,  C,  Macdonald  Crescent,  WelUng- 
ton. 

Fulton,  J..  14  North  Terrace,  Kelburn. 

Fulton,  W.  H.  J.,  14  North  Terrace,  Kelburn. 

Furkert,  F.  W.,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  PubUc  Works 
Department,  WelUngton. 


Roll  of  Members. 


519 


Garrow,  Professor  J.  M.  E.,  B.A.,  LL.B., 
Victoria  University  College,  Wellington.* 

Gavin,  W.  H.,  Public  Works  Department, 
Wellington. 

Gibbs,  Dr.  H.  E.,  240  WiUis  Street,  WelUng- 
ton. 

Gifford,  A.  C,  M.A.,  F.R.A.S.,  6  Shannon 
Street,  Wellington.* 

Gilbert,  Rev.  Father  T.  A.,  St.  Patrick's 
College,  Wellington. 

Goudie,  H.  A.,  WTiakarewarewa. 

Gray,  W.,  Maurice ville. 

Hamilton-,  H.,  A.O.S.M.,  58  Bowen  Street, 
Wellington. 

Hanify,  H.  P.,  18  Panama  Street,  Welling- 
ton. 

Hansford,  George  D.,  Parliamentary  Build- 
ings, Wellington. 

Hastie,  Miss  J.  A.,  care  of  Street  and  Co., 
30  Cornhill,  London  E.C.* 

Hector,    C.    Monro,    M.D.,    B.Sc,    F.R.A.S., 
*  200  Willis  Street,  Wellington. 

Heenan,  J.  W.,  Department  of  Internal 
Affairs,  Wellington, 

Helyer,  Miss  E.,  1 3  Tonks  Grove,  Wellington. 

Henderson,  J.,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  B.Sc.  in  Eng. 
(Metall.),  Geological  Survey  Department, 
Wellington. 

Hetherington,  Miss  J,,  Training  College, 
Wellington. 

Hicks,  P.  L.,  Bacteriological  Laboratory, 
Wellington. 

Hislop,  J.,  Internal  Affairs  Department,  Wel- 
lington. 

Hodson,  W.  H.,  40  Pirie  Street,  Wellington. 

Hogben,  E.  N.,  Boys'  High  School,  Palmerston 
North. 

Hogben,  G.,  C.M.G.,M.A.,  F.G.S.,F.N.Z.Inst., 
32  Crescent  Road,  KhandaUah. 

Holm,  Miss  A.,  31  Patanga  Crescent,  Welling- 
ton. 

Hoknes,  R.  W.,  M.Inst.C.E.,  Engineer-in- 
Chief,  PubUc  Works  Department,  Welling- 
ton. 

Hooper,  Captain  G.  S.,  Grant  Road,  North 
Wellington. 

Hooper,  R.  H.,  6  St.  John's  Street,  Wel- 
lington. 

Hudson,  G.  V.,  F.E.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst.,  View 
Road,  Karori. 

Jack,.  J.  W.,  170  Featherston  Street,  Wel- 
lington. 

Jenkinson,  S.  H.,  Railway  Department,  Wel- 
lington. 

Jobson,  Miss  Nancy,  M.A.,  Queen  Margaret 
College,  Wellington. 

Johnston,  Hon.  G.  Randall,  care  of  Martin 
Chapman,  Esq.,  K.C.,  Wellington. 

Joseph,  Josei^h,  P.O.  Box  443,  Wellington. 

Kennedy,  Rev.  Dr.  D.,  F.R.A.S.,  Green- 
meadows,  Hawke's  Bay. 

King,  G.  W.,  B.E.,  care  of  A.  H.  King,  P.O. 
Box  116,  Chi'istchurch. 

Kirk,  Professor  H.  B.,  M.A.,  F.N.Z.Inst., 
Victoria  Universitj^  College,  Wellington." 


Kissell,  P.  T.  M.,  Public  Works  Department, 
Wellington. 

Knight,  C.  Prendergast,  126  Bolton  Street, 
Wellington. 

La  Trobe,  W.  S.,  M.A.,  Technical  College, 
Wellington. 

Lawrence,  C.  A.,  53  Aurora  Terrace,  Wel- 
lington. V 

Levi,  P.,  M.A.,  care  of  Wilford  and  Levi,  15 
Stout  Street,  Wellington. 

Lomas,  E.  K.,  M.A.,  M.Sc,  Training  College, 
Wellington. 

Lomax,  Major  H.  A.,  Araruhe,  Aramoho, 
Wanganui. 

Longhurst,  W.  T.  A.,  Scots  College,  Welling- 
ton. 

Luke.  John  P.,  C.M.G.,  M.P,,  Hiropi  Street, 
Wellington. 
I    McArthur,  Captain  Charles,  KhandaUah. 

McCabe,  Ultan  F.,  care  of  Richardson  and 
McCabe,  11  Grey  Street,  Wellington. 

McDonald,  J.,  Dominion  Museum,  Welling- 
ton. 

McKenzie,  Donald,  care  of  Mrs.  Elizabeth 
McKenzie,  Marton. 

MacJaurin,  J.  S.,  D.Sc,  F.C.S.,  Dominion 
Laboratory,  Wellington. 

MacLean,  F.  W.,  M.Inst.C.E.,  Chief  Engineer, 
Head  Office,  Railway  Department,  Wel- 
lington. 

McSherry,  Harry,  Box  49,  Pahiatua. 

Marchbanks,  J.,  M.Inst.C.E.,  Harbour  Board, 
Wellington. 

Marsden,  Professor  E.,  D.Sc,  Victoria  Uni- 
versity College.  Wellington. 

Mason,  J.  Malcolm,  M.D.,  F.C.S.,  D.P.H., 
Lower  Hutt. 

Maxwell,  E.,  Marumarunui,  Opunakft. 

Maxwell,  J.  P.,  M.Inst.C.E.,  145  Dixon  Street, 
Wellington. 

Mestayer,  R.  L.,  M.Inst.C.E.,  139  Sydney 
Street,  Wellington. 

Millar,  H.  M.,  Public  Works  Department, 
Wellington. 

Mills,  Leonard,  New  Parliamentary  Buildings, 
Wellington. 

Moore,  G.,  Epa.raima,  via  Masterton. 

Moore,  W.  Lancelot,  care  of  H.  D.  Cook, 
Bank  Chambers,  Lambton  Quaj%  Welling- 
ton. 

MoorhousCj  W.  H.  Sefton,  134  Dixon  Street, 
WeUington. 

Morgan,  P.  G.,  M.A.,  F.G.S..  Director  of  Geo- 
logical Survey,  Routh's  Buildings,  Welling- 
ton. , 

Morice,  Dr.  C.  G.,  21 ,  Portland  Crescent, 
Wellington. 

Morice,  J.  M.,  B.Sc,  Town  Hall,  Welling- 
ton. 

Morison,  C.  B.,  Stout  Street,  Wellington. 

Morrison,  J.  C,  P.O.  Box  8,  Eltham. 

Morton,  W.  H.,  M.Inst.C.E.,  City  Engineer, 
Wellington. 

Murphy,  B.  E.,  M.  A.,  B.Com:,  LL.B.,  Victoria 
College,  Wellington. 


520 


Appendix. 


Myers,  Miss  P.,  B.A.,  26  Fitzherbert  Terrace, 
Wellington. 

Neill,  W.  T.,  Lands  and  Survey  Department, 
Government  Buildings,  Wellington. 

Newman,  A.   K.,  M.B.,  M.R.O.P.,  M.P.,   56 
Hobson  Street,  Wellington. 

Nicol,  John,  57  Cuba  Street,  Wellington. 

Norris,  E.  T.,  M.A.,  Registrar,  University  of 
Xew  Zealand,  Wellington. 

Ongley,  M.,  M.A.,  Geological  Survey  Depart- 
ment, Wellington. 

Orchiston,  J.,  M.I.E.E.,  16  Rimu  Road,  Kel- 
burn. 

Orr,  Robert,  Heke  Street,  Lower  Hutt,  Wel- 
lington. 

Owen,    A.    C,    Public    Works   Departmisnt, 
Wellington. 

Parr,    E.    J.,    Education    Department,    Wel- 
lington. 

Parry,  Evan,  B.Sc,  M.I.E.E.,  A.M.List.C.E., 
•  Electrical  Engineer,  Public  Works  Depart- 
ment, Wellington. 

Paterson,  A.  J.,  City  Engineer's  Office,  Town 
Hall,  Wellington. 

Patterson,  Hugh,  Assistant  Engineer,  Public 
Works  Office,  Ngatapa. 

Pearce,    Arthur    E.,    care   of  Levin  and   Co. 
(Limited),  Wellington. 

Pearson,  G.  A.,  New  Zealand  Railways,  Wel- 
lington. 

PhiUipps,  W.  J.,  Dominion  Museum,  Welling- 
ton. 

Philbps,  Coleman,  Carterton.* 

Phipson,  P.  B.,  F.C.S.,  care"  of  J.  Staples  and 
Co.  (Limited),  Wellington. 

Pierard,   A.   C,    Bacteriological    Laboratory, 
Wellington. 

Pigott,  Miss  Ellen,  M.A.,  Victoria  University 
College,  Wellington. 

Pomare,  Hon.  Dr.  M.,  M.P.,  Wellington. 

Porteous,  J.  S.,  9  Brandon  Street,  Wellington. 

Porter,  Colonel  T.  W.,  C.B.,  12  Austin  Street, 
Wellington. 

Powles,  C.  P.,  219  Lambton  Quay,  Wellington. 

Reakes,  C.  J.,  D.V.Sc,  M.R.C.V.S.,  Agricul- 
tural Department,  Wellington. 

Reid,  W.  S.,  189  The  Terrace,  Wellington. 

Richardson,  C.  E.,  P.O.  Box  863   (11   Grey 
Street),  Wellington. 

Rona^Tie,  R.  H.  P.,  50  Tinakori  Road,  Wel- 
lington. 

Roy,  R.  B.,  Taita,  Wellington.* 

Salmond,  J.  W.,  K.C.,  M.A.,  LL.B.,  Crown 
Law  Office.  Wellington.       ' 

Shields,  IMiss  C,  Girls'  College,  Wellington. 

Short,  W.  S.,  Under-Secretary,  Public  AVorks 
Department,  Wellington. 

Shrimpton,    E.    A.,    Telegraph    Department, 
Wellington. 


Sladden,  H.,  Lower  Hutt,  Wellington. 
Smith,  M.  Crompton,  Lands  and  Survey  De- 
partment, Wellington. 
Sommerville,  Professor  D.  M.  Y.,  M.A.,  D.Sc, 
F.R.S.E.,  Victoria  University  College,  Wel- 
lington. 
Spencer,  W.  E.,  M.A.,  M.Sc,  Education  De- 
partment, Wellington. 
Stout,  T.  Duncan  M.,  M.B.,  M.S.,  F.R.C.S., 

164  Willis  Street,  Wellington. 
Strachan,  J.  R.,  Land  Transfer  Office,  Wel- 
lington. 
Sunley,  R.  M.,  View  Road,  Karori. 
Tennant,  J.  S.,  M.A.,  B.Sc,  Training  College, 

Wellington. 
Thomas,  J.,  South  Wellington  School. 
Thompson,  R.  D.,  M.A.,  Victoria  University 

College,  Wellington. 
Thomson,    J.    AUan,    M.A.,    D.Sc,    F.G.S., 
F.N.Z.Inst.,  Dominion  Museum,  Wellington. 
Thomson,  John,  B.E.,  M.Inst.C.E.,  17  Dork- 
ing Road.  Brooklyn,  Wellington. 
Thomson,  R.  G.,  11  Austin  Street,  Wellington. 
Thomson,  R.  W.,  P.O.  Box  366,  Wellmgton. 
Thomson,  W.  M.,  M.A.,  M.B.,  Ch.B.,  Hawera. 
Tily,  H.  S.,  B.Sc,  H.M.  Customs,  Wellington. 
Tolley,  H.  R.,  34  Wright  Street,  Wellington. 
Tombs,  H.  H.,  Burnell  Avenue,  Wellington. 
Toogood,  H.  F.,  11  Grey  Street,  Wellington. 
Treadwell,  C.  H.,  4  Panama  Street,  Wellington. 
Turner,  E.  Phillips,  F.R.G.S.,  Lands  and  Sur- 
vey Department,  Wellington. 
Uttley,  G.,  M.A.,  M.Sc,  F.G.S.,  Scots  CoUege, 

Wellington. 
Vickerman,  H.,  M.Sc,  A.M.Inst.C.E.,  Public 

Works  Diepartment,  Wellington. 
Vosseller,  F.  W.,  Baker's  Buildings,  Feather- 

ston  Street,  Wellington. 
Waterworth,   A.,   286   Lambton   Quay,   Wel- 
lington. 
Westland,  C.  J.,  F.R.A.S.,  Hector  Observa- 
tory, Wellington. 
Widdop,   F.   C,   District  Railway  Engineer, 

Thorndon  Office,  Wellington. 
Wilmot,  E.  H..  Surveyor-General,  Wellington. 
Wilson,    Charles,    Parliament    Library,    Wel- 
lington. 
Wilson,  F.  P.,  M.A.,  Victoria  College,  WelUng- 

ton 
Wilson,  Sir  James  G.,  Bull's. 
Woodward,  Mathew  F.,  B.A.,  Scots  College, 

Wellington. 
Wyles,    G.    W.,    Assistant    Signal    Engineer, 

Railways,  Wellington. 
Wynne,  H.  J.,  Railway  Department,  Welling- 
ton. 
Young,  J.  S.,  Railways,  Wellington. 


Roll  of  Members. 


521 


AUCKLAND  INSTITUTE. 
[*  Honorary  and  life  members.] 


Abbott,  R.  H.,  City  Chambers,  Queen  Street, 

Auckland. 
Abel,  R.   S.,  care  of  Abel,  Dykes,  and  Co., 

Shortland  Street,  Auckland. 
Adlington,  Miss,  Aratonga  Avenue,  Epsom. 
Aickin,  G.,  Carlton  Gore  Road,  Auckland. 
Alexander,  J.,  Shortland  Street,  Aucklantl. 
Alexander,    L.    W.,    1a    Victoria    Buildings, 

Auckland. 
Algie,  R.  M.,  M.A.,  University  College,  Auck- 
land. 
Alison,  A.,  Devonport  Ferry  Company,  Auck- 
land. 
Alison,    Hon.     E.     W.,    M.L.C.,    Devonport 

Ferry  Company,  Auckland. 
Alison,"  E.  W.,  jun..  Bank  of  New  Zealand 

Chambers,  Swanson  Street,  Auckland. 
Alison,  Ernest,  Takapuna. 
Allen,  John,  Cheltenham  Avenue,  Devonpoit. 
AUum,  John,  National  Electrical  and  Engineer- 
ing Company,  Wellesley  Street,  Auckland. 
-  Ambury,    S.  «!.,    Greenwood's   Corner,    One- 
hunga. 
Anderson,  E.,  Rernuera  Road,  Remuera. 
Andrews,  F.  N.,  care  of  Andrews  and  Clark, 

Queen  Street,  Auckland.       ^ 
Ardern,  P.  S.,  M.A.,  Remuera. 
Arey,  W.  E.,  Victoria  Arcade,  Auckland. 
Arnutage,   F.   L.,   Gleeson's  Buildings,  High 

Street. 
Arnold,  C,  Swanson  Street,  Auckland. 
Arnoldson,  L.,  Quay  Street,  Auckland. 
Arthur,  T.  B.,  Elliott  Street,  Auckland. 
Atkinson,  H.,  Grafton  Road,  Auckland. 
Bagnall,  H.  N.,  Mason's  Avenue,  Ponsonby. 
Baker,  C  C,  Ewington  and  Baker,  Durham 

Street  East,  Auckland. 
Baker,  G.  H.,  Commerce  Street,  Auckland. 
Ball.  W.'T.,  Sylvan  Avenue.  Mount  Eden. 
Bamford,  H.  D.,  LL.D.,  New  Zealand  Insur- 
ance Buildings,  Auckland. 
Bankart,  A.  S.,  Strand  Arcade,  Queen  Street, 

Auckland. 
Bankart,  F.  J.,  Shortland  Street,  Auckland. 
Barr,    J.,    Public   Library,    Wellesley   Street, 

Auckland. 
Ban,  J.  M.,  Auckland  Savings-bank,  Auckland. 
Barry,  S.,  Queen  Street,  Auckland. 
Bartlett,  W.  H.,  Queen  Street,  Auckland. 
Bartrum,    J.    A.,   M.Sc,    University   College, 

Auckland. 
Bates,    T.   L.,  Alfred  Street,  Waratah,  New- 
castle, New  South  Wales.* 
Beattie,  Dr.  R.  M  ,  Mental  Hospital,  Avondale. 
Bell,  R.  W.,  Waihi. 

Bickworth,  J.  H.,  P.O.  Box  1018,  Auckland. 
Binney,  E.  H.,  care  of  Binney  and  Sous,  Furt 

Street,  Auckiaid. 
Birch,  F.  W.,  Highwic  Avenue,  Epsom. 
Biss,  N.  L.  H.,  Sliortland  Street,  Auckland. 
Blomfield,  E.  C.i,  Parr  and  Blomfield,  Short- 
land  Street,  Avickland. 


Bloomfield,  G.  R.,  "The  Pines,"  Epsom.* 
Bloomfield,    H.    R.,    St.    Stephen's   Avenue, 

Parnell.* 
Bloomfield,  J.  L.  N.  R.,  St.  Stephen's  Avenue, 

Parnell. 
Bodle,  F.,  N.Z.   Loan  and   Mercantile  Com- 
pany, Albert  Street,  Auckland. 
Bradley,  Samuel,  Onehunga. 
Braduey,  H.,  Queen  Street  Wharf,  Auckland. 
Brett,    H.,    Star    Office,    Shortland    Street, 

Auckland. 
Briffault,  R.,  M.D.,  New  Zealand  Expedition- 
ary Force. 
Brown,  Professor  F.  D.,  Remuera. 
Brown,  E.  A.,  Cleave's  Buildings,  High  Street, 

Auckland. 
Briice,  W.  W.,  Williamson  Chambers,  Short- 
land  Street,  Auckland. 
Buchanan,    A.,   Legal  Chambers,   Wyndham 

Street,  Auckland.* 
Buddie,  C,  Wyndham  Street,  Auckland. 
Buddie,  H.  D.,  Victoria  Avenue,  Remuera. 
Burns,  R... Customs  Street,  Auckland. 
Burt,  A.,  care  of  A.  T.  Burt  and  Co.,  Customs 

Street,  Auckland. 
Bush,  W.  E.,  City  Engineer,  Auckland. 
Butler,  J.,  Kauri  Timber  Company,  Customs 

Street,  Auckland. 
Butler,  Miss,  Girls'  Grammar  School,  Auckland. 
Buttle,     B.,     Kaiapoi     Woollen     Company, 

Elliott  Street,  Auckland. 
Buttle,  G.  A.,  Victoria  Arcade,  Auckland. 
Buttle,  J.,  New  Zealand  Insurance  Company, 

Queen  Street,  Auckland. 
Cadman,  F.  P.,  care  of  Holland,  GiUett,  and 

Co.,  Customs  Street,  Auckland. 
Caldwell,  D.  R.,  Cambridge. 
Campbell,  J.  P.,  care  of  Russell,  Campbell,  and 

McVeagh,  High  Street,  Auckland. 
Carlaw,  J.,  226  Symonds  Street,  Auckland. 
Carpenter,  J.  M.,  Newmarket. 
Carr,  E.  J.,  care  of  Carr  and  Haslam,  Gladstone 

Chambers,  Quay  Street,  Auckland. 
Carse,  H.,  Kaiaka,  Mangonui. 
Carter,  C.  M.,  Lake  Town,  Takapuna. 
Carter,  M.,  Smeeton's  Buildings,  Queen  Street, 

Auckland. 
Casey,  W.,  Hamilton  Road,  Ponsonby. 
Caughey,  A.  C,  care  of  Smith  and  Caughey, 

Queen  Street,  Auckland. 
Caughey,    J.    Marsden,    care    of    Smith    and 

Caughey,  Queen  Street,  Auckland. 
Chambers,  S.  G.,  106  Victoria  Arcade,  Queen 

Street,  Auckland. 
Chatfield,   Dr.   H.   A.,   Victoria   Street   East, 

Auckland. 
Cheal,  P.  E.,  Cameron  Road,  Remuera. 
Cheeseman,  T.  F.,  F.L.S.,  F.Z.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst., 

Museimi,  Auckland. 
Choyce,  H.  C,  Remuera  Road,  Remuera. 
Clark,  A.,  Wellesley  Street,  Auckland. 
Clark,  H.  C,  Wellesley  Street,  Auckland. 


522 


Appendix. 


Clark,  M.,  Wellesley  Street,  Auckland. 
Clark,  E.  G.,  care  of  Robertson  Bros.,  Quay 

Street.  Auckland. 
Clarke,  S.  I.,  Wynyard  Street,  Auckland. 
Clay,  T.  B.,  care  of  S.  Vaile  and  Sons,  Queen 
'      Street.  Auckland.  ' 

Clayton,' C.  Z.,  Ellerslie. 
Clayton,    D.    L.,    Kauri    Timber    Company, 

Customs  Street.  Auckland. 
Cleave,  A.,  High  Street,  Auckland. 
Clinch,  J.  A.,  Ph.D.,  Training  College,  Auck- 
land. 
Coates,  T.,  Orakei. 

Coe.  James.  Mount  Eden  Road,  Auckland. 
Colbeck,    W.    B.,    New    Zealand    Insurance 

Buildings,  Queen  Street,  Auckland. 
Cole,  Rev.  R.  H.,  Gladstone  Road,  Parnell. 
Cole,  W.,  Mount  Eden  Road,  Auckland. 
Coleman,  J.  W.,  Lower  Queen  Street,  Auck- 
land. 
Colwill,  J.  H.,  Swanson  Street,  Auckland. 
Coomljes,  F.  H.,  Victoria  Avenue,  Remuera. 
Cooper,  Mr.  Justice,  Supreme  Court,  Auckland. 
Cooper,  A.  N.,  care  of  Russell,  Campbell,  and 

McVeagh,  High  Street,  Auckland. 
Copeland.  M.,  97  College  Hill.  Auckland. 
Cory-Wright,  S.,  B.Sc,  New  Zealand  Expedi- 

tionarj^  Force. 
Court,  G.,  Karangahape  Road,  Aiickland. 
Court,  J.,  Hamilton  Road,  Auckland. 
Court,    J.    W.,  care  of   J.    Court    (Limited), 

Queen  Street,  Auckland. 
Cousins.    H.    G.,    Normal    School,    Wellesley 

Street,  Auckland. 
Craig,  J.  C,  care  of  J.  J.  Craig  (Limited), 

Queen  Street,  Auckland. 
Crompton,  W.  J.,  3  Mount  Pleasant  Road, 

Momit  Eden. 
Crook,  John,  10  Prospect  Terrace,  Mount  Eden. 
Cuff,  J.  C,  Emerald  Hill,  Epsom. 
Culling,  T.  S.,  Ferry  Buildings,  Queen  Street, 

Auckland. 
Culpan,  W.,  care  of  Hesketh  and  Richmond, 

Wyndham  Street,  Auckland. 
Davis,  Elliot  R.,  care  of   Hancock  and  Co., 

Customs  Street,  Auckland. 
Davis,    Ernest,    care    of    Hancock   and   Co., 

Custopis  Street,  Auckland. 
Dearsly,  H..  P.O.  Box  4B6.  Auckland. 
De    Guerrier,    F.    E.,    Tramway    Company, 

Auckland. 
Dempsey,  J.,  Newmarket., 
Dennin,  John,  care  of  Hon.  E.  Mitchelson, 

Waimaiiku. 
Dettmann,  Professor  H.  S..  University  College, 

Ai^okland. 
Devereux,  H.  B.,  Howick. 
Donald,  A.  W.,  care  of  A.  B.  Donald,  Queen 

Street,  Auckland. 
Donald,  J.  B.,  care  of  A.  B.  Donald,  Queen 

Street,  Auckland. 
Downard,  F.  N.   R.,   "The   Cadton,"   Cam- 
bridge. 
Duder,  R.  W.,  Devonport. 
Duncan.  A..  Railway  Office,  Auckland. 
Dunnmg,  James,  Lucerne  Road,  Remuera. 


Duthie,  D.  W.,  National  Bank  of  New  Zealand, 
Wellington. 

Eady,  A.,  Queen  Street,  Auckland. 

Earl,  F.,  K.C.,  Swanson  Street,  Auckland. 

Edgerley,  Miss  K.,   Girls'  Grammar   School, 
Auckland. 

Edmiston,  H.   J.,  care  of  Champtaloup  and 
Edmiston,  Queen  Street,  Auckland. 

Edson,  J.,  Waimarama,  Tudor  Street,  Devon- 
port. 

Egerton,  Professor  C.  W.,  University  College, 
Auckland. 

Ellingham,  W.  R.,  Customs  Street,  Auckland. 

Elliot,  G.,  Bank  of  New  Zealand  Buildings, 
Swanson  Street,  Auckland. 

Elliot,  W.,  Bank  of  New  Zealand  Buildings, 
Swanson  Street,  Auckland. 

Ellis,  A.  F.,  Argyle  Street,  Ponsonby. 

Ellison,  T.,  Ellison's  Buildings,  Queen  Street, 
Auckland. 

Endean,  J.,  jun.,  Waitemata  Hotel,  Auckland. 

Entrican,  A.  J.,  Customs  Street,  Auckland. 

Entrican,  A.  R.,  University  College,  Auckland. 

Entrican.  J.  C,  Customs  Street,  Auckland. 

Evans,  E.  W.,  care  of  Brown,  Barrett,   and 
Co.,  Customs  Street,  Auckland.  | 

Ewen,  J.  F.,  care  of  Sargood,  Son,  and  Ewen 
(Limited),  Victoria  Street  West,  Auckland. 

Fairclough,   Dr.   W.   A.,   Imperial  Buildings, 
Queen  Street,  Auckland.  - 

Fallon.  W..  Union  Buildings,  Customs  Street, 
Auckland. 

Farrell,  R.,  Anglesea  Street,  Auckland. 

Fenwick,  Dr.  G.,  New  Zealand  Expeditionary 
Force. 

Fenwick,  R.,  care  of  T.  and  S.  Morrin,  Auck- 
land. 

Ferguson,  A.  M.,  care  of  John  Burns  and  Co. 
(Limited),  Customs  Street,  Auckland. 

Fisher,  F.  S.,  Birkdale. 

Fleming,  G.  H.,  Remuera  Road,  Remuera. 

Fleming,  J.,  142  Grafton  Road,  Auckland. 

Florance,  R.  S.,  Stipendiary  Magistrate,  Gis- 
borne. 

Fowlds,  Hon.  G.,  Queen  Street,  Auckland.* 

Fowlds,  G.,  jun..  Queen  Street,  Auckland. 

Frater,  J.  W.,  Stock  Exchange,  Auckland. 

Frater,  Captain  W.,  Manukau  Road.  Parnell. 

Furness,  C.  H.,  Customs  Street  East,  Auck- 
land. 

Garhck,    G.    C,    Tonson    GarUck    (Limited), 
Queen  Street,  Auckland. 

Garrard,  C.  W.,  M.A.,  Education  Offices,  Auck- 
land. 

George,     G,,    Technical    College,     Wellesley 
Street,  Auckland. 

George,  Hon.   S.  T.,   St.   Stephen's  Avenue, 
Parnell.  ' 

Gerard,  E.,  Union  Buildings,  Customs  Street, 
Auckland. 

Gibson,  Noel,  Dilworth  Institute,  Remuera. 

GilfiUan,  H,,  St.  Stephen's  Avenue,  PameU. 

Gillett,    J.,    care    of    Holland    and     GiUett, 
Customs  Street,  Auckland. 

GilUes,  A.  W.,  Glenalvon,  Waterloo  Quadrant, 
Auckland. 


Roll  of  Members. 


523 


Girdler,  Dr.,  Khyber  Pass  Road,  Auckland. 

Gleeson,  J.  C,  High  Street,  Auckland. 

Goldie,  A.,  Wallace  Street,  Ponsonby. 

Goldie,  D.,  Imperial  Buildings,  Auckland. 

Goldie,  H.,  Imj^erial  Buildings,  Auckland. 

Gordon,  Dr.  F.  W.,  Hillsborough. 

Gorrie,  H.  T.,  care  of  Buckland  and  Sons, 
Albert  Street,  Auckland. 

Graliam,  A.  G.,  care  of  Briscoe  and  Co., 
Customs  Street,  Auckland. 

Graham,  G.,  P.O.  Box  166,  Auckland. 

Grant,  Miss  J.,  M.A.,  Devonport. 

Gray,  A.,  Smeeton's  Buildings,  Queen  Street, 
Auckland.* 

Gray,  S.,  Mount  Eden  Borough  Council 
Offices,  Mount  Eden. 

Gribbin,  G.,  Imperial  Buildings,  Queen  Street, 
Auckland. 

Griffin,  L.  T.,  Museum,  Auckland. 

Grossmann,  Professor  J.  P.,  University  College, 
Auckland. 

Gulliver,  T.  V.,  503  New  Zealand  Insurance 
Buildings,  Auckland. 

Gunson,  J.  H.,  Mayor  of  Auckland,  Church 
Road,  Epsom. 

Gmison,  R.  W.,  Clifton  Road,  Takapuna. 

Haddow,  J.  G.,  Wyndham  Street,  Auckland. 

Haines,  H.,  F.R.C.S.,  Shortland  Street,  Auck- 
land. 

Hall,  Edwin,  SeacUff  Road,  Onehunga. 

Hamer,  W.  H.,  C.E.,  Harbour  Board  Offices, 
Auckland. 

Hansard,  G.  H..  Sanford's  Buildings,  Customs 
Street,  Auckland. 

Harbutt,  S.  J.,  Selwyn  Road,  Epsom. 

Hardie,  J.  C,  care  of  Hardie  Bros.,  Queen 
Street,  Auckland. 

Harding,  E.,  Dargaville. 

Hardley,  J.  W.,  Customs  Street,  Auckland. 

Harris,  Louis,  Huntly. 

Harvey,  A.,  Lower  Albert  Street,  Auckland. 

Hay,  1).  A.,  MontpelHer  Nursery,  Remuera. 

Hay,  Douglas,  Stock  Exchange,  Auckland. 

Hayr,  H.  H.,  Union  Bank  Buildings,  Queen 
Street,  Auckland. 

Hazard,  W.  H.,  Customs  Street  West,  Auck- 
land. 

Heather,  H.  D.,  Fort  Street,  Auckland. 

Hemmingway,  W.  H.,  Union  Buildings,  Cus- 
toms Street,  Auckland. 

Herming,  G.,  Customs  Street,  Auckland. 

Herries,  Sir  W.  H.,  M.P.,  Welhngton. 

Hesketh,  H.  R.,  Hesketh  and  Riclmiond, 
Wyndham  Street,  Auckland. 

Hesketh,  S.,  Hesketh  and  Richmond,  Wynd- 
liam  Street,  Auckland. 

Hill,  J.  C,  care  of  Hill  and  Plummer,  Queen 
Street,  Auckland. 

Hills,  J.  M.,  Arney  Road,  Remuera. 

Holderness,  D.,  Harbour  Board  Offices,  Auck- 
land. 

Horton,  E.,  Herald  Office,  Queen  Street, 
Auckland. 

Horton,  H.,  Herald  Office,  Queen  Street, 
Auckland. 


Houghton,    C.    v..    New    Zealand    Shipping 
Company,  Quay  Street,  Auckland. 

Hovell,  S.  W.,  Waihi. 

Howey- Walker,  A.,  Queen  Street,  Auckland. 

Hudson,  C,  Mount  Eden  Road,  Auckland. 

Hunter,  Ashley,  C.E.,  Swanson  Street,  Auck- 
land. 

Hutcliinson,  F.  R.,  St.  Heliers. 

Ick-Hewins,  Dr.,  Howick. 

IngUs,  Dr.  R.  T.,  New  Zealand  Expeditionary 
Force. 

Isaacs,  R.  C,  St.  George's  Bay  Road,  Pamell 

Jackson,  J.  H.,  Customs  Street,  Auckland. 

Jackson,    Thornton,    Jackson    and    Russell, 
Auckland. 

Johnson,    H.    Dmibar,    151    Newton    Road, 
Auckland. 

Jolmson,  Professor  J.    C,   M.Sc,   University 
College,  Auckland.* 

Johnston,     Hallyburton,     Ngatea,     Hauraki 
Plains. 

Jolmston,  J.  B.,  Stewart  and  Johi^ston,  Wynd- 
ham Street,  Auckland. 

Joll,  L.,  Mount  Eden. 

Kalaugher,  J.   P.,   Education  Offices,   Auck- 
land, 

Kenderdine,  J.,  Sale  Street,  Auckland. 

Kent,  B.,  Lower  Symonds  Street,  Auckland. 

Kent,  G.  S.,  St.  Stephen's  Avenue,  Parnell. 

Kissling,  H.  P.,  St.  Stephen's  Avenue,  Par- 
nell. 

Knight,  G.,  Asquith  Avenue,  Momit  Albert. 

Laidlaw,  R.  A.,  Hobson  Street,  Auckland. 

Lamb,  J.  A.,  Arney  Road,  Remuera. 

Lamb,  S.  E.,  B.Sc,  University  College,  Auck- 
land. 

Lancaster,   T.   L.,   B.Sc,   University  College, 
Auckland. 

Lang,   Sir  F.   W.,   M.P.,   Queenstown   Road, 
Onehunga. 

Lamer,  V.  J.,  Swanson  Street,  Auckland. 

Laurie,  B.  A.,  care  of  W.  S.  Laurie  and  Co., 
Customs  Street,  Auckland. 

Lawson,  H.  W.,  National  Bank  of  New  Zea- 
land, Queen  Street,  Auckland. 

Leighton,  F.  W.,  High  Street,  Auckland. 

Le  Roy,  E.,  42  Queen  Street,  Auckland. 

Lewisham,  W.  C,  care  of  Robertson  Bros., 
Quay  Street,  Auckland. 

Leyland,  S.  H.,  care  of  Leyland  and  O'Brien, 
Customs  Street  West,  Auckland. 

Leyland,  W.  B.,  care  of  Leyland  and  O'Brien, 
Customs  Street  West,  Auckland. 

Leys,    Cecil,    Star    Office,    Shortland    Street, 
Auckland. 

Leys,  T.   W.,   Star  Office,   Shortland  Street, 
AucUand. 

Lintott,  G.  S.,  Customs  Street  East,  Auckland. 

Logan,  R.,  Government  Insurance  Buildings, 
Queen  Street,  Auckland. 

Long,  D.,  Farmers'  Freezing  Company,  Queen 
Street,  Auckland. 

Long,  W.  H.,  Woodford  Road,  Mount  Eden. 

Lowe,  Dr.  De  Clive,  Lower  Sjmionds  Street, 
Auckland: 


524 


Appendix. 


Lunn,  A.  G.,  care  of  Collins  Bros.,  Wyndham 
Street,  Auckland. 

McCullough,  Hon.  W.,  Thames. 

McDonald,  Rev.  W.,  Gardner  Road,  Epsom. 

Macfarlane,  J.  B.,  Fort  Street,  Auckland. 

McFarlane,  T.,  C.E.,  Coromandel. 

McGregor,  W.  R.,  University  College,  Auck- 
land. 

Mcllraith,  Dr.  J.  W.,  Commercial  Hotel, 
Whangarei. 

Mcintosh.  D.  T.,  Railway  Offices,  Auckland. 

Mackay,  G.  J.,  Queen  Street,  Auckland. 

Mackay,  J.  G.  H.,  Ellison  Chambers,  Queen 
Street,  Auckland. 

Mackay,  P.  M.,  Wellesley  Street,  Auckland. 

Mackellar,  Dr.  E.  D.,  Manukau  Road,  Par- 
nell. 

McKenzie,  Captain  G.,  Devonport. 

Mackenzie,  Dr.  Kenneth,  Princes  Street, 
Auckland. 

Macky,  T.  H.,  care  of  Macky,  Logan,  and  Co., 
Elliott  Street,  Auckland. 

McLaughlin,  T.  M.,  Phcenix  Chambers,  Queen 
Street,  Auckland. 

MacmiJlian.  C.  C,  care  of  Auckland  Institute, 
Auckland.*^ 

McVeagh,  R.,  Russell,  Campbell,  andMcVeagh, 
High  Street,  Auckland. 

Mahoney,  T..  Swanson  Street.  Auckland. 

Mains,  T.,  Tram  Terminus,  Remuera. 

Mains,  W.,  Tram  Terminuis,  Remuera. 

Mair,  Captain  G.,  Rotorua. 

Mair,  S.  A.  R.,  Hunterville,  Wellington/ 

Major,  C.  T.,  King's  College,  Remuera. 

Makgill,  Dr.  R.  H.,  Health  Department,  Wel- 
lington. * 

Mander,  F.,  M.P.,  Ranfurly  Road,  Epsom. 

Marriner,  H.  A.,  New  Zealand  Insurance  Com- 
pany, Queen  Street,  Auckland. 

Marsack,  Dr.,  New  Zealand  Expeditionary 
Force. 

Marshall,  J.,  Te  Ataahna.  Remuera  Road. 

Mason,  Mrs.  F.,  care  of  Bank  of  Australasia, 
Manaia. 

Massey,  Right  Hon.  W.  F.,  M.P.,  Wellington. 

Matthews,  H.  B.,  Clonberu  Road.  Remuera. 

Maxwell,  L.  S.,  Lower  Hobson  Street,  Auck- 
land. 

Mennie,  J.  M.,  Albert  Street,  Auckland. 

MiUer,  E.  V.,  Chelsea,  Auckland. 

Miller,  E.  N.,  Albert  Street,  Thames. 

Milne,  J.,  care  of  John  Chambers  and  Son, 
Port  Street.  Aucldand. 

Milne,  Miss  M.  J.,  Remuera. 

Milne,  Stewart,  care  of  Milne  and  Choyce, 
Queen  Street,  Auckland. 

Milroy,  S.,  Kauri  Timber  Company,  Customs 
Street  West,  Auckland. 

Milsom,  Dr.  E.  H.  B.,  18  Waterloo  Quadrant, 
Auckland. 

Mitchelson,  Hon.  E.,  Waitaramoa,  Remuera. 

Mitchelson,  E.  P.,  Motutara,  Waimauku. 

Morrison,  A.  R.,  Palmerston  Buildings,  Auck- 
land. 

Morton,  E.,  Customs  Street,  Auckland. 

Morton,  H.  B.,  Taumata,  Wapiti  Avenue, 
Epsom. 


Moses,  H.  C,  No  Deposit  Piano  Company, 

High  Street,  Auckland. 
Mulgan,  A.  E.,  Star  Office,  Auckland. 
Mulgan.  E.  K.,  Education  Offices,  Auckland. 
Mullins,  P.,  Shaddock  Street,  Mount  Eden. 
Murray,   G.    T.,   C.E.,   Public   Works    Office, 

Auckland. 
Myers,    Hon.    A.    M.,   M.P..    Campbell    and 

Ehrenfried  Company,  Auckland. 
Myers,  B.,  Symonds  Street.  Auckland. 
Napier,  W.  J.,  Napier,   Fitchett,   and   Rees, 

A.M. P.  Buildings.  Queen  Street,  Auckland. 
Nathan,  C.  J.,  care  of  A.  H.  Nathan  and  Co., 

Customs  Street,  Auckland. 
Nathan.  D.  L.,  care  of  L.  D.  Nathan  and  Co., 

Shortland  Street,  Auckland. 
Nathan,  N.  A.,  care  of  L.  D.  Nathan  and  Co., 

Shortland  Street,  Auckland.* 
Neve,  B.,  Technical  College,  Wellesley  Street, 

Auckland. 
Niccol,  G.,  Customs  Street  West,  Auckland. 
Nicholson,    O.,    Imperial    Buildings,    Queen 

Street,  Auckland. 
Nolan,  H.  0.,  St.  Stephen's  Avenue,  Parnell. 
Oliphant,  P.,  24  Symonds  Street,  Auckland. 
Oliver,  W.  R.  B.,F.L.S.,  H.M.  Customs,  Auck- 
land.* 
Osmond,  G.  B.,  Royal  Insurance  Buildings, 

Queen  Street,  Auckland. 
Ostler,  H.  H.,  care  of  Jackson,  Russell,  Tunks, 

and  Ostler,  Shortland  Street.  Auckland 
Owen,  Professor  G.,  D.Sc,  University  College, 

Auckland. 
Parr,   Hon.   C.   J.,   C.M.G.,   M.P.,   Shortland 

Street,  Auckland. 
Partridge,  H.  E.,  Albert  Street,  Auckland. 
Patterson,  D.   B.,   Ellison  Chambers,   Queen 

Street,  Auckland. 
Peacock,  T.,  Queen  Street,  Auckland. 
Perkins,   A.    W.,    care   of   Dalgety   and   Co., 

Customs  Street  West,  Auckland. 
Petiie.  D.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  F.N.Z.Inst.,  "  Rose- 

mead,"  Ranfurly  Road,  Epsom. 
Philcox,  T.,  11  Fairview  Road,  Momit  Eden. 
Philson,    W.    W.,    Coiomal    Sugar   Company, 

Quay  Street,  Auckland. 
Pond,  J.  A.,  F.C.S.,  Queen  Street,  Auckland. 
Porter,  A.,  care  of  E.  Porter  and  Co.,  Queen 

Street.  Auckland. 
Potter,  E.  H.,  P.O.  Box  230,  Auckland. 
Pountney,  W.  H.,  Fort  Street,  Auckland. 
Powell,  F.  E.,  C.E.,  Ferry  Buildings,  Queen 

Street   Auckland. 
Poynton,  J.  W.,  63  Epsom  Avenue,  Mount 

Eden. 
Price,  E.  A.,  Cambria  Park,  Papatoetoe. 
Price,  T.  G.,  109  Queen  Street,  Auckland. 
Pryor,  S.  H.,  26  Pencarrow  Avenue,  Mount. 

Eden. 
Pulling,  Miss,  Diocesan  School,  Epsom. 
Purchas,    Dr.    A.    C,    Carlton    Gore    Road, 

Auckland. 
Pycroft,  A.  T.,  Railway  Offices,  Auckland. 
Ralph,  AV.  J.,  Princes  Street,  Auckland. 
Rangihiroa,  Dr., -care  of  Public  Health  Depart- 
ment Auckland. 
Rawnsiey,  S.,  Federal  Street,  Auckland. 


Roll  of  Members. 


525 


Rayner,  Dr.  F.  J.,  Queen  St^et  Auckland. 
Reed,  J.  R.,  K.C..  "  Cargen,"  Eden  Crescent, 

Auckland. 
Raid,  J.,  Alten  Road,  Auckland. 
Renshaw,  F.,  Sharland  and  Co.,  Lome  Street, 

Auckland. 
Rhodes,  C,  "Ronaki,"  Remuera. 
Richmond,  H.  P.,  Arney  Road,  Reniuera. 
Robb,  J.,  Victoria  Avenue,  Mount  b.den. 
Roberton,  A.  B.,  Heather,  Roberton,  and  Co., 

Fort  Street,  Auckland. 
Roberton,  Dr.  E.,  Market  Road,  Remuera. 
Robertson,  Dr.  Carnck,  Alfred  Str.et,  Auck- 

Robertson,  James,  Market  Road,  Remuera 
Roche,  H.,  Horahora,  near  Cambridge,  Wai- 

RoHett,  F.  C,  Herald  Office,   Queen   Street, 

Auckland. 
Rowe,  J.,  Onehunga. 
Suiell     E.   N.    A.,   Russell,   Campbell,   and 

McVeagh.  High  Street.  Aucklaiid. 
Saunders;   W.   R.,   Commercial  Umon  Insur- 
ance Company,  Auckland. 
Saxton.  A.  C,  Fym  ont,  Sydney. 
Scott,  D.  D.,  Kempthome,  Prosser,  and  Co., 

Albert  Street,  Auckland. 
Scott,  Rev.  D.  D.,  The  Manse,  Onehunga 
Sppc^ner  C,  St.  Stephen's  Avenue.  Farneii. 
Igtr    Professor  H.    W     M.A.,   F.N.Z.Inst., 

Manukau  Road,  Parnell. 
Shakespear,  Mrs.  R.  H.,  Whangaparaoa. 
Shaw.  F.,  Vermont  Street,' Pons  on  by. 
Shaw,  H.,  Epsom.  .   .       ^  , 

Ifrnmunds,  Rev.  J.  H.,  Wesley  Trammg  Col- 
lege,  Epsom. 
"     Simson,  T.,  Mount  St.  John  Avenue,  Epsom 
Sinclair,  A.,  Kuranui,  Symonds  Street,  Auck- 

Sindair,  G.,  care  of  Pilkington  and  Co., 
Queen  Street,  Auckland.  ^  iri  „ 

Skeet  H.  M.,  Pencarrow  Avenue,  Mount  iiclen. 

Smeeton,  H.  M.,  Remuera. 

Smith,  E.,  New  Brighton.  Miranda.* 

Smith,  H.  G.  Seth,  88  Victoria  Avenue, 
Remuera.*  ,  ,.     ^      ,    „ 

Smith,  Captain  James,  Frankhn  Road,  Pon- 

Smith,Mrs.  W.  H.,  Princes  Street,  Auckland. 
Smith,  S.  Percy,  F.R.G.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst.,  New 

Si^tCw.  Todd,  Brooklands,  Alfred  Street, 

Auckland.  ,     .      i  i     j 

SomerviUe,  Dr.  J.,  Alfred  Street,  Auckland. 
SomerviUe,  J.  M.,  Chelsea,  Auckland. 
Spedding,  J.  C,  Market  Road,  Remuera. 
Stanton,  J.,  Fort  Street,  Auckland. 
Stewart,  D.  F.,  care  of  R.  S.  Lamb  and  Co., 
32  Jamieson  Street,  Sythiey.  .      ,  ,      , 

Stewart,  J.  W.,  Wyndham  Street,  Auckland 
Stewart,    John    A.,    Kainga-tonu,    Ranfurly 

Road,  Epsom. 
Stewart,  R.  Leshe,  care  of  Brown  and  Stewart, 

Swanson  Street,  Auckland.  ^  -n, , 

Streeter    S    C,  Enfield  Street,  Mount  Eden. 
Suter,  A.,  Loutis,  Clonbern  Road,  Remuera. 
Swan',  H.  C,  Henderson. 


Swanson,  W.,  Queen  Street,  Auckland 
Talbot,  Dr.  A.  G.,  A.M.P.  Bmldmgs,  Queen 

Street,  Auckland.  „,     ,,  .       -r,  t  c 

Thomas,  Professor  A.   P.  W.,  M.A.,    F.L.S., 

F  N  Z  Inst.,  Mountain  Road,  Epsom. 
Thornes,  J.,  Queen  Street,  Auckland 
Tibbs,  J.  W.,  M.A.,  Grammar  School,  Auck- 

TinnV  H.,    Union    Club,    Trafalgar    Square, 

London.*  »      1 1     j 

Tole,  Hon.  J.  A.,  Queen  Street,  Auckland. 
Townson,  W.,  Thames. 
Trounson,  J.,  Northcote.  »      ,,     j 

Tudehope,  R.,  WeUesley  Street,  Auckland. 
Tunks,  C.  J.,  Jackson,  RusseU,  Tunks,   and 

Ostler,  Shortland  Street,  Auckland. 
Turner,    E.    C,    care    of    Turner    and    Sons, 

Market  Square,  Auckland.  ,  ^   .,-.. 

Upton,  J.  H.,  Bank  of  New  Zealand  Bmldmgs, 

Swanson  Street,  Auckland. 
Upton,  P.,  South  British  Insurance  Company, 

Queen  Street,  Auckland.        .      ,  ,      , 
Upton,  P.  T.,  P.O.  Box  878,  Auckland. 
Upton,  Selwjm,  Star  Office,  Auckland. 
Vaile    E.  E.,  Broadlands,  Waiotapu. 
Vaile,  H.  E.,  Queen  Street,  Auckland 
Vernon,    W.    S.,    M.A.,    University    College, 

Auckland.  .  o,      ^     a     i 

Virtue,  P.,  Roller  MiUs,  Quay  Street,  Auck- 

WaTe,"  Captain,  H.  L.,  New  Zealand  ExpecU- 

tionary  Force. 
Wake,  F.  W.,  Cleave's  Buildings,  High  Street,     , 

Auckland.  .  , 

Walker,   Professor  MaxweU,   Umversity   Col- 
lege, Auckland. 
Walklate,  J.  J.,  Electric  Tramway  Company, 

Auckland.  .       ^ 

Wallace,  T.  F.,  Waihi  Gold-mmmg  Company, 

Shortland  Street,  Auckland. 
Ware    W.,  Portland  Road,  Remuera. 
Warn'ock,  J.  A.,  2  King  Street,  Grey  Lynn. 
Wells    T    U  ,  Westbourne  Road,  Remuera. 
White,   P.   C,   care  of  S.   White  and  Sons, 

Customs  Street  West,  Auckland. 
Wliite   R.  W.,  WeUington  Street,  Auckland. 
Whitley,  W.  S.,  Albert  Street,  Auckland. 
Wliitney,  C.  A.,  Colonial  Ammunition  Com- 
pany,- Auckland. 
Whittome,  F.,  Newmarket. 
Williams,  N.  T.,  National  Insurance  Company, 

Queen  Street,  Auckland.  ,  ^     ,    ^   .... 
WiUiamson,  C,  Commercial  Bank  Buildings, 
Auckland.  ,  ,      , 

WiUiamson,  J.  D.,  Northern  Club,  Auckland. 
Wilson,  Anch-ew,  District  Surveyor,  Hangatiki. 
Wilson,  C.  A.,  P.O.  Box  1081,  Auckland 
Wilson,    F.     W.,    Herald    Bmldmgs,     Queen 

Street,  Auckland.  ,    ^     ,  -^ 

Wilson,   G.   A.,   Wilson  and  Canham,   Ferry 

Buildings,  Auckland. 
Wilson,  H.  M.,  Town  Hall,  Auckland. 
Wilson,   J.   A.,   care  of  A.   Eady  and  Sons, 

Queen  Street,  Auckland. 
Wilson,  J.  M.,  Portland  Road,  Remuera. 
Wilson,  John,  New  Zealand  Insurance  Bmld- 
ings.  Queen  Street,  Auckland. 


526 


Appendix. 


Wilson,  Listen,  Upland  Road,  Remuera. 
Wilson,  Martyn,  Roselle,  Lower  Remuera. 
Wilson,  Mrs.  R.  M.,  RusseU  Road,  Remuera. 
Wilson,  W.  R.,  Herald  Office,  Queen  Street, 
Auckland. 

Wing,  S.,  HeUabys  Limited,  Shortland  Street, 
Auckland. 

Winkelmann,  H.,  Victoria  Arcade,  Auck- 
land. 

Winstone,  F.  M.,  Claude  Road,  Epsom.* 

Winstone,  G.,  Customs  Street  East,  Auck- 
land. 

Wiseman,  F.,  Queen  Street,  Auckland. 

Wiseman,  J.  W.,  Albert  Street,  Auckland. 


Withy,  E.,  care  of  Auckland  Listitute,  Auck- 
land.* 
Wood,   Right   Rev.   C.   J.,   D.D.,   Bishop  of 

Melanesia,  Norfolk  Island.* 
Woodward,  W.  E.,  Union  Bank  of  Australia, 

Queen  Street,  Auckland. 
WooUams,  W.  H.,  Queen  Street,  Auckland. 
Worley,    Professor   F.    P.,    D.Sc,    University 

College,  Auckland. 
Wright,  R.,  care  of  A.  B.  Wright  and  Sons, 

Commerce  Street,  Auckland. 
WyUie,   A.,   C.E.,  Electrical   Power  Station, 

Breakwater  Road,  Auckland. 
Yates,  E.,  Albert  Street,  Auckland. 
Young,    J.    L.,    Henderson   and   Macfarlane, 

Union  Buildings,  Customs  Street,  Auckland. 


PHILOSOPHICAL  INSTITUTE  OF  CANTERBURY. 
[*  Life  members.] 


Acland,  Dr.  H.   T.  D.,  381  Montreal  Street, 
Christchurch. 

Acland,  H.  D.,  42  Park  Terrace,  Christchurch. 

Aldridge,    W.    G.,    M.A.,    Technical    School, 
Invercargill. 

Alexander,    R.    E.,    Canterbury    Agricultural 
College,  Lincoln. 

Allan,  H.  H.,  M.A.,  F.L.S.,  High  Street,  Ash- 
burton. 

Alhson,    H.,   care   of   Harman   and   Stevens, 
Christchurch. 

Alpers,  O.  T.  J.,  69  Fendalton  Road. 

Anderson,    Mrs.,    Murchiston,   St.    Martin's, 
Christchurch. 

Anderson,  J.  G.,  M.Sc,  Boys'  High  School, 
Invercargill. 

Archey,   G.    E.,   M.A.,   Canterbury  Museum, 
Christchurch. 

Bates,  D.,  Sumner. 

Baughan,  Miss  B.  E.,  Sumner. 

Beaven,  A.  W.,  care  of  Andrews  and  Beaven, 
Moorhouse  Avenue,  Christchurch. 

Beere,  Miss  M.,  Bank  of  New  Zealand,  Christ- 
church. 

Belshaw,  Horace,  High  School,  Ashburton- 

Bell,  E.   J.,  care  of  Public  Library,  Christ- 
church. 

Berry,  R.  E.,  165  Manchester  Street,  Christ- 
church. 

Bevan-Brown,  C.  E.,  M.A.,  Boys'  High  School, 
Christchurch. 

Bingham,  S.  C,  31  Gracefield  Street,  Christ- 
church. 

Bird,  J.  W.,  M.A.,  Nelson  College,  Nelson. 

Birks,  L.,   B.Sc,  care  of  PubHc  Works  De- 
partment, Wellington. 

Bishop,  F.  C.  B.,  10  Cranmer  Square,  Christ- 
church. 

Bishop,    R.    C,    Gas    Office,    77    Worcester 
Street,  Christchiu-ch. 

JBissett,  J.    W.,    Kaiapoi  WooUen  Company, 
Christchurch. 


Blanch,  G.  E.,  M.A.,  Christ's  CoUege,  Christ- 
church. 

Booth,  G.  T.,  242  Papanui  Road,  Christchiirch. 

Borrie,  Dr.  F.  J.,  236  Hereford  Street,  Christ- 
church. 

Borrie,  Miss,  236  Hereford  Street,  Christ- 
church. 

Bradley,  Orton,  Charteris  Bay. 

Boag,  T.  D.,  Bryndwyr. 

Brittin,  Guy,  Riwaka,  Motueka,  Nelson. 

Broadhead,  H.  D.,  M.A.,  Canterbury  College, 
Christchurch. 

Brock,  W.,  M.A.,  Education  Office,  Christ- 
chiu-ch. 

Brockett,  A.  E.,  M.Aj,  B.Com.,  Technical 
CoUege,  Christchurch. 

Brown,  Professor  Macmillan,  M.A.,  LL.D., 
"  Holmbank,"  Cashmere  HiUs.* 

Burnett,  T.  D.,  Mount  Cook,  Fairhe. 

Callaghan,  F.  R.,  M.A.,  Education  Office, 
Auckland. 

Campbell,  J.  W.,  Chancery  Lane,  Christchurch. 

Chilton,  Professor  C,  D.Sc,  M.A.,  LL.D., 
F.N.Z.Inst.,  F.L.S.,  Canterbury  CoUege, 
Christchurch.* 

Christensen,  C.  E.,  Hanmer. 

Clark,  W.  H.,  100  Bealey  Avenue,  Christ- 
church. 

Cocks,  Rev.  P.  J.,  B.A.,  St.  John's  Vicarage, 
Clmstchurch. 

Cocks,  Miss,  Colombo  Road  South,  Christ- 
church. 

Colee,  W.  C,  M.A.,  Schoolhouse,  Opawa. 

Coles,  W.  R.,  256  Wilson's  Road,  Christchtu-ch. 

Collins,  J.  G.,  care  of  Collins  and  Harman, 
Christchurch.  ^ 

CorkiU,  F.  M.,  B.Sc,  Canterbury  College, 
Christchurch. 

Cowley,  S.  R.,  156  Antigua  Street,  Christ- 
church. 

Dash,  Charles,  233  Norwood  Street,  Becken- 
ham,  Christchurch. 


Roll  of  Members. 


527 


Day,  James  S.,  care  of  Dominion  Trust  Com- 
pany, 163  Hereford  Street,  Christchurch. 

Deans,  John,  Kirkstyle,  Coalgate. 

Deans,  William,  Sandown,  Waddington. 

Dickinson,  S.  R.,  M.A.,  St.  Andrew's,  Christ- 
church. 

Dobson,  A.  Dudley,  M.Inst.C.E.,  City  Coun- 
cil Office,  Christchurch. 

Dorrisn-Smith,  Major  A.  A.,  D.S.O.,  Tresco 
Abbey,  Scilly,  England. 

Drummond,  James,  F.L.S.,  F.Z.S.,  Lyttelton 
Times,  Christchurch. 

English,  R.,  P.C.S.,  M.I.M.E.,  Gas  Office, 
Christchurch. 

Evans,  Professor  W.  P.,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Canter- 
bury College,  Christchurch. 

Everist,  W.,  Dyer's  Pass  Road,  Christchurch. 

Fairbaim,  A.,  53  Pendalton  Road,  Christ- 
church. 

Farr,  Professor  C.  Coleridge,  D.Sc,  F.P.S.L., 
F.N.Z.Inst.,  Canterbury  College,  Christ- 
church. 

Ferrar,  Miss,  450  Armagh  Street,  Christ- 
church. 

Ferrar,  H.  T.,  M.A.,  F.G.S.,  Hackthorne 
Road,  Cashmere,  Christchurch. 

Flesher,  J.  A.,  169  Hereford  Street,  Christ- 
church. 

Flower,  A.  E.,  M.A.,  M.Sc,  Christ's  College, 
Christchurch. 

Foster,  Dr.  A.,  135  Hereford  Street,  Christ- 
church. 

Foweraker,  C.  E.,  M.A.,  Canterbury  College, 
Christchurch. 

Francis,  J.  W.  H.,  care  of  Rhodes,  Ross,  and 
Godby,  Hereford  Street,  Christchurch. 

Freeman,  Dr.  D.  L.,  N.D.A.,  Teclinical  Col- 
lege, Christchurch. 

Gabbatt,  Professor  J.  P.,  M.A.,  M.Sc,  Canter- 
bury College,  Christchurch. 

Garton,  John  W.,  Woolston  Tanneries  (Li- 
mited), Woolston,  Christclnxrch. 

Garton,  W.  W.,  M.A.,  Elmwood  School, 
Christchurch. 

Gibson,  Dr.  F.  Goulburn,  121  Papanui  Road. 

Gilling,  W.  0.  R.,  M.A.,  B.Sc?,  206  West- 
minster Street,  St.  Albans,  Christchurch. 

Godby,  M.  H.,  M.A.,  B.Sc,  Hereford  Street, 
Christchurch. 

Godby,  Mrs    M.  H.,  Fendalton,  Christchurch. 

Goss,  W.,  Peterborough  Street,  Christchurch. 

Gould,  George,  4  Fendalton  Road,  Christ- 
church. 

Gourlay,  E.  S.,  415  River  Road,  Christchurch. 

Gourlay,  H.,  519  Manchester  Street,  Christ- 
church. 

Graham,  Charles  H.  E.,  School,  Tai  Tapu. 

Gray,  G.,  F.C.S.,  Lincoln. 

Greenwood,  F.,  B.A.,  Education  Office,  Christ- 
church. 

Grigg,  J.  C.  N.,  Longbeach. 

Gudex,  M.  C,  M.A.,  M.Sc,  Boys'  High  School, 
Christchurch. 

Guthrie,  Dr.  John,  Armagh  Street,  Christ- 
church. 

Hall;  Miss,  42  Gloucester  Street  West,  Christ- 
church. 


Hamilton,  W.  M.,  365  Papanui  Road,  Christ- 
church. 

Hansen,  Dr.  D.  E.,  M.A.,  M.Sc,  Teclmical 
College,  Christchurch. 

Haszard,  H.  D.  M.,  F.R.G.S.,  Lands  Office, 
Christchurch. 

Hajaies,  E.  J.,  Canterbury  Museum,  Christ- 
church. 

HajTsvard,  J.  R.,  48  Peterborough  Street, 
Christchurch. 

Henry,  G.,  care  of  P.  Kennedy,  178  St.  Asaph 
Street,  Christchurch. 

Herring,  E.,  28  Paparoa  Street,  Papanui. 

Herriott,  Miss  E.  M.,  M.A.,  Canterbury  Col- 
lege, Christchurch. 

Hewitt,  S.  J.,  234  Selwyn  Street,  Christchurch. 

Hight,  Professor  J.,  M.A.,  Litt.D.,  Canter- 
bury College,  Christchurch. 

Hilgendorf,  F.  W.,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  Canterbury 
Agricultural  College,  Lincoln.* 

Hill,  Mrs.  Carev,  Clifton,  Sumner. 

Hitchings,  F.,  "F.R.A.S.,  69,  Durham  Street, 
Sydenham. 

Hodgson,  T.  V.,  F.L.S.,  Science  and  Art 
Museum,  Plymouth,  England. 

Hogg,  E.  G.,  M.A.,  F.R.A.S.,  Hackthorne 
Road,  Cashmere,  Christchurch. 

Hogg,  H.  R.,  M.A.,  F.Z.S.,  7  St.  Helen's 
Place,  London  E.C. 

Holford,  George,  B.Ag.,  care  of  P.O.  Box  921, 
Christchurch. 

Holland,  H.,  108  St.  Asaph  Street,  Christ- 
church. 

Hoiloway,  Rev.  J.  E.,  D.Sc,  Hokitika. 

Howard,  E.  J.,  care  of  Trades  Hall,  Christ- 
church. 

Humphreys,  G.,  Fendalton  Road,  Fendalton. 

Ingram,  John,  39  Mansfield  Avenue,  St. 
Albans. 

Irving,  Dr.  W.,  56  Armagh  Street,  Christ- 
church 

Jameson,  J.  O.,  Hereford  Street,  Christchurch. 

Jamieson,  A.  W.,  404  Hereford  Street,  Christ- 
church. 

Jamieson,  W.  G.,  Deans  Avenue,  Lower 
Riccarton. 

Jennings,  Bella  D.,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  care  of 
Captain  Cross,  49  Crescent  Road,  Welling- 
ton. 

Johnston,  A.  A.,  M.R.C.V.S.,  Papanui  Road, 
Christchurch. 

Kaye,  A.,  429  Durham  Street,  Christchurch. 

Keir,  James,  care  of  P.  and  D.  Dmioan 
(Limited),  Christchurch. 

Kidson,  Lieutenant  E.  R.,  M.Sc,  care  of 
H.  T.  Kidson,  Van  Dieman  Street,  Nelson.* 

Kirkpatrick,  W.  D.,  F.R.H.S.,  M.A.,  Red- 
cliffs,  Sumner. 

Kitchingman,  Miss,  Hackthorne  Road,  Cash- 
mere. 

Knight,  H.  A.,  Racecourse  Hill. 

Laing,  R.  M.,  M.A.,  B.Sc,  Boys'  High  School, 
Christchurch. 

Laurenson,  J.  B.,  Box  381.  Christchurch. 

Lester,  Dr.  G.  M.  L.,  2  Cranmer  Square, 
Christchurch. 


528 


Appendix. 


Longworth,  H.  E.,  Somerfield  Street,  Sprey- 

don. 
Louisson,  Dr.,  M.  G.,  136  Worcester  Street, 

Christchurch. 
Louisson,    Hon.    C,    M.L.C.,  care  of  Crown 

Brewery,  Christchurch. 
Macartney,  R.,  Tai  Tapu. 
Macbeth,    N.    L.,    Canterbury   Frozen    Meat 
Company,  Hereford  Street,  Christchurch. 

McBride,  T.  J.,  15  St.  Albans  Street,  Christ- 
church. 

MaoGibbon,  Dr.  T.  A.,  Royal  Exchange  Build- 
ings, Christchurch. 

Macleod,    D.    B.,    M.A.,    B.Sc,    Canterbury 
College,  Christchurch. 

Marriner,  H.  J.,  Sumner. 

Marsh,  H.  E.,  Cashmere. 

Marshall,  Mrs.,  148  Esplanade,  New  Brighton. 

Martin,    William,    B.Sc,    Education    Office, 
Christchurch. 

Meares,  H.  0.  D.,  Fendalton. 

Mills,  Miss  M.  M.,  M.A.,  Temuka. 

Morkane,   Dr.    C.    F.,    153   Hereford   Street, 
Christchurch. 

Montgomery,  John,  27  Garden  Road,  Christ- 
church. 

Morrison,  W.  G.,  Hanmer. 

Mountford,    A.    V.,    F.C.S.,    Woolston    Tan- 
neries (Limited),  Woolston,  Christchurch. 

Murray,    Miss    F.    B.,    Canterbury    College, 
Christchurch. 

Murray,  W.,  "  Balgownie,"  Opawa. 

Nairn,  R.,  Lincoln  Road,  Spreydon. 

Neal,  N.  P.,  Agricultural  College,  Lincoln. 

Newburgh,  W.   S.,  care  of  Newburgh,  Best, 
and  Co.,  Cathedral  Square,  Christchurch. 

Newton,  A.  Wells,  58  Brittan  Street,  Linwood. 

Oliver,  F.  S.,  care  of  C.  E.,  Salter,  Hereford 
Street,  Christchurch. 

OlUver,  Miss  F.  M.,  M.A.,  M.Sc,  Waimate. 

Ollivier,    C.    M.,    Lower    Riccarton,    Christ- 
church. 

Owen,   H.,    care  of  Cook  and  Ross,    Christ- 
church. 

Overton,   Miss,   24   Hereford   Street,  Christ- 
church. 

Page,  S.,  B.Sc,  Canterbury  College,  Christ- 
church. 

Pairman,  Dr.  J.  C,  21  Latipier  Square,  Christ- 
church, 

Pairman,  Dr.  T.  W.,  Governor's  Bay. 

Pannett,  J.  A.,  Cashmere  Hills. 

Paterson,  A.  D.,  care  of  H.  Hobday,  60  Here- 
ford Street,  Christchurch. 

Pearson,  Dr.  A.  B.,  Hospital,  Christchurch. 

Pemberton,  0.  B.,  care  of  A.  and  P.  Rooms, 
Manchester  Street,  Christchurch. 

Penlington,  G.,  F.N.Z.I.A.,  Warrington  Street, 
St.  Albans. 

Powell,    P.    H.,    M.Sc,    Canterbury   CoUege, 
Christchurch. 

Prudhoe,  J.  C,  20  Kidson  Terrace,  Cashmere. 

Purchas,  Rev.  A.  C,  M.A.,  Hokitika. 

Purdie,    William     C,    Agricultural    College, 
Lincoln. 

Pumell,  C.  W.,  Ashburton. 


Purnell,    George    P.,    106    Gloucester   Street, 

Christchurch. 
Rands,    Henry,    M.A.,    Canterbury    College, 

Christchurch. 
Raymond,   S.    G.,   K.C.,   Heaton  Street,  St. 

Albans. 
Reece,  W.,  Dyer's  Pass  Road,  Cashmere. 
Relph,  E.  W..  care  of  New  Zealand  Farmers' 

Co-operative. 
Rhodes,  A.  E.  G.,  B.A.,  Fendalton. 
Rhodes,  Miss  B.  R.  E.,  care  of  Canterbury 

CoUege,  Christchurch. 
Rhodes,  Hon.  R.  Heaton,  M.P.,  Tai  Tapu. 
Robinson,  R.  G.,  Darfield. 
Robinson,  W.  F.,  F.R.G.S.,  Canterbury  Col- 
lege, Christchurch. 
Ross,  R.  G.,  P.O.  Box  450,  Christchurch. 
Rowe,    H.    v.,    M.A.,    Canterbury    College, 

Christchurch. 
Ryder,  A.  R.,  Boys'  High  School,  New  Ply- 
mouth, " 
Sanders,  C.  J. ,  care  of  Dominion  Yeast  Com- 
pany, Christchurch. 
Sandston,  Dr.  A.  C,  Latimer  Square,  Christ- 
church. 
Schneider,    P.,    164  Durham    Street,   Christ- 
church. 
Scott,  G.,  Manchester  Street,  Christchurch. 
Scott,  Professor  R.  J.,  M.Inst.C.E.,  F.A.LE.E., 

Canterbury  CoUege,  Christchurch. 
Seager,     S.     Hurst,     F.R.I.B.A.,     Cathedral 

Square,  Christchurch. 
Seth-Smith,  B.,  25  Stratford  Street,  Fendal- 
ton. 
Sheard,   Miss   F.,    M.A.,    B.Sc,    Girls'    High 

School,  Christchurch. 
Simpson,   Dr.   W.,    Latimer  Square,    Christ- 
church. * 
Sims,  A.,  M.A.,   care  of  Sims,  Cooper,  and 

Co.,  Hereford  Street,  Christchurch. 
Skey,   H.   F.,   B.Sc,   Magnetic   Observatory, 

Christchurch. 
Skinner,  W.  H.,  New  Plymouth. 
Slater,  Dr.  F.,  Sumner. 
Slocombe,  C,  B.Sc,  Agricultural  Department, 

Nelson. 
Snow,  Colonel,  Holmwood  Road,  Christchurch. 
Speight,  R.,  M.A.,  M.Sc,  F.G.S.,  F.N.Z.Inst., 

Canterbury  Museum,  Christchurch. 
Stark,  E.   E.,   B.Sc,   P.O.   Box  526,  Christ- 
church. 
Stead,  E.  F.,  Ham,  Riccarton. 
Steele,  G.  P.,  care  of  Wilton  and  Co.,  Welling- 
ton. 
Stevens,  J.  E.,  Deaf-mute  Institute,  Sumner. 
Stevenson,  Dr.  J.,  Fendalton. 
Stevenson,  James,  Flaxton. 
St.   John,  Charles   E.,   745  Colombo   Street, 

Christchurch. 
Stone,  T.,  LyiteUon  Times  Office,  Christchurch. 
Struthers,  J.  B.,  129  Holly  Road,  Christchurch. 
SuUivan,  D.  G.,  Sun  Office,  Christchurch. 
Symes,  Dr.  W.  H.,  M.B.,  B.Sc,  63  Worcester 

Street,  Christchurch.* 
Symes,  Langford  P.,  20  May's  Road,  Papanui. 
Tabart,  Miss  Rose,  97  Papanui  Road,  Christ- 
church. 


Roll  of  Members. 


529 


Taylor,  A.,  M.A.,  M.R.C.V.S.,  Canterbury 
Agricultural  CoUege,  Lincoln. 

Taylor,  G.  J.,  440  Madras  Street,  St.  Albans. 

Templin,  J.  R.,  10  Wroxton  Terrace,  Fendal- 
ton. 

Thacker,  Dr.  H.  T.  J.,  M.P.,  25  Latimer 
Square,  Christchurch. 

Thomas,  Dr.  J.  R.,  29  Latimer  Square,  Christ- 
church. 

Tripp,  C.  H.,  M.A.,  Timaru.* 

Waddell,  John,  220  Armagh  Street,  Christ- 
church. 

Wall,  Professor  A.,  M.A.,  Canterbury  College, 
Christchurch. 

Waller,  F.  D.,  B.A.,  West  Christchurch  Dis- 
trict High  School. 

Warren,  F.  M.,  56  Clyde  Road,  Riccarton. 

Waymouth,  IVIrs.,  care  of  Mrs.  R.  M.  Hughes, 
St.  Buryan,  S.O.,  Cornwall,  England. 

Weston,  G.  T..  B.A.,  LL.B.,  152  Manchester 
Street,  Christchurch. 


Whetter,  Dr.  J.  P.,  211  Gloucester  Street, 
Christchurch. 

Whitaker,  C.  Godfrey,  care  of  Booth,  Mac- 
donald.  and  Co.,  Carlyle  Street,  Christ- 
church. 

Whitehead,  Rev.  Canon,  Selwyn  CoUege, 
Dunedin. 

Wigram,  Hon.  H,  F.,  M.L.C.,  1  Armagh  Street, 
Christchirrch. 

Wild,  L.  J.,  M.A.,  B.Sc,  F.G.S.,  Canterbury 
Agricultural  College,  Lincoln. 

Wilding,  Frank  S.,  Hereford  Street,  Christ- 
church. 

Wilkins,  T.  J.  C,  B.A.,  Somerfield  Street 
School,  Spreydon. 

WilUams,  C.  J.  R.,  M.Inst.C.E.,  21  Knowles 
Street,  St.  Albans. 

Wright,  A.  M.,  A.I.C,  F.C.S.,  482  Lincoln 
Road,  Christchurch. 

Valentine,  J.  A.,  Education  Office,  Hokitika. 


OTAGO    INSTITUTE. 
[•  Life  members.] 


Allan,  Dr.  W.,  Mosgiel. 

AUen,  Hon.  Sir  James,  M.P.,  90  Clyde  Street. 
AUen,  Dr.  S.  C,  220  High  Street. 
Anscombe,  E.,  171  Princes  Street, 
Balk,  0.,  13  Driver  Street,  Maori  Hill. 
Barnett,  Dr.  L.  E.,  Stafford  Street. 
Barr,  Peter,  3  MontpeUer  Street. 
Bathgate,  Alex.,  85  Glen  Avenue,  Morning- 
ton.* 
Beal,  L.  0.,  Stock  Exchange  Buildings. 
Begg,  J.  C,  Fifield  Street,  Roslyn. 
BeU,  A.  Dillon,  Shag  VaUev.* 
Benham,  Professor  W.  B.,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.R.S., 

F.N. Z. List.,  Museum. 
Benson,  Professor  W.  N.,  B.A.,  D.Sc,  F.G.S., 

University. 
Betts,  MissM.  W.,  M.Sc,  Museum. 
Black,  Alexander,  82  Clyde  Street.* 
Black,  James,  care  of  Cossens  and  Black,  164 

Crawford  Street. 
Bowie,  Dr.  J.  T.,  London  Street. 
Bowron,  G.  W.,  426  Moray  Place. 
Boys  -  Smith,    Professor    W.    L.,    Studholme 

House. 
Brasch,  H.,  99  London  Street. 
Brent,  D.,  M.A.,  19  New  Street,  Musselburgh.* 
Browne,  Robert,  care  of  Post  office,  Morrins- 

ville. 
Buchanan,  N.  L.,  44  Bronte  Street,  Nelson.* 
Buddie,  Dr.  Roger,  care  of  Buddie  and  Button, 

W,^Tidham  Street,  Auckland. 
Butchers,  A.  G.,  M.A.,  John  McGlashan  College, 

Maori  Hill. 
Cameron,  Dr.  P.  D.,  585  George  Street. 
Chamberlain,  C.  W.,  6  Regent  Road. 
Chapman,  C.  R.,  135  Town  Belt,  Roslyn. 
Church,  Dr.  R.,  257  High  Street. 


Clarke,  C.  E.,  51  King  Edward  Road. 
Clarke,  E.  S.,  Woodhaugb: 
Colquhoun,  Dr.  D.,  218  High  Street. 
Coombs,    L.    D.,    A.R.I.B.A.,    Stuart    Street 

and  Octagon. 
Crawford,  W.  J.,  179  CarroU  Street. 
Dalrymple,   Rev.   A.   M.,   M.A.,   65    District 

Road,  Mornington. 
Davidson,  R.  E.,  Hawthorne  Road,  Morning- 
ton. 
Davies,  0.  V.,  109  Princes  Street. 
Davis,  A.,  Test-room,  Cumberland  Street. 
De  Beer,  I.  S.,  75  London  Street. 
Duncan,  P.,  "  Tolcarne,"  Maori  Hill. 
Duniop,    Professor   F.    W.,    M.A.,    Ph.D.,   95 

Clyde  Street. 
Dutton,  Rev.  D.,  F.G.S.,  F.R.A.S.,  37  Marion 

Street,  Caversham. 
Edgar,  G.  C,  Market  Street. 
Edgar,  James,  286  York  Place. 
Farnie,  Miss  W.,  M.A.,  Museum. 
Fels,  W.,  84  London  Street.* 
Fenwick,  Cuthbert,  Stock  Exchange. 
Fenwick,  Sir  G.,  Otago  Daily  Times  Office. 
Fei^guson,  Dr.  H.  L.,  C.M.G.,  "Wychwood," 

Musselburgh  Rise. 
Fisher,  T.  R.,  29  Alexancb-a  Street,  St.  Clair. 
Fitchett,  Dr.  F.  W.  B.,  8  Pitt  Street. 
Fleming,    T.    R.,    M.A.,    LL.B.,    Education 

Office. 
Frye,  Charles,  Gasworks,  Caversham. 
Fulton,    H.    v.,    Agricultiu-al    and    Pastoral 

Society,  Crawford  Street. 
Fulton,  Dr.  R.  V.,  Pitt  Street. 
Garrow,  Professor  J.  M.   E.,  LL.B.,  Victoria 

College,  Welhngton.* 
Gibson,  G.  W.,  Silverton,  Anderson's  Bay. 


530 


Appendix. 


Gilkison,  E..,  14  Main  Road,  North  -  east 
Valley.* 

Gowland,  Professor  W.  P.,  M.D.,  University. 

Goyen,  P.,  F.L.S.,  136  Highgate,  Roslyn. 

Gray,  J.  A.,  762  Cumberland  Street. 

Green,  E.  S.,  Education  Office. 

Guthrie,  H.  J.,  426  Moray  Place  East. 

Hall,  Dr.  A.  J.,  36  Stuart  Street. 

Hamilton,  T.  B.,  M.A.,  B.Sc,  John  Mc- 
Glashan  College. 

Hanlon,  A.  C,  16  Pitt  Street. 

Henderson,  M.  C,  Electrical  Engineer's  Office, 
Market  Street. 

Hercus,  G.  R.,  20  Albert  Street. 

Hooper,  B.  B.,  A.R.I.B.A.,  A.M.P.  Buildings. 

Howes,  Miss  Edith,  Adelaide.* 

Howes,  W.  G.,  F.E.S.,  432  George  Street. 

Hungertord,  J.  T.,  Gasworks. 

IngHs,  Professor  J.  K.  H.,  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.I.C., 
University. 

Jack,  Professor  R.,  D.Sc,  University. 

Jeiiery,  J.,  Anderson's  Bay. 

Joachim,  G.,  Randall  Street,  Mornington.* 

Johnson,  A.  G.,  M.Sc,  King  Edward  Tech- 
nical College.  • 

Johnson,  J.  T.,  46  Littlebourne  Road,  Rosljni. 

Johnstone,  J.  A.,  Driver  Street,  Maori  Hill. 

Jones,  F.  J.,  Railway  Engineer's  Office. 

King,  Dr.  F.  Truby,  C.M.G.,  SeacUff. 

Laing,  John,  86  Queen  Street. 

Lee,  Robert,  P.O.  Box  363. 

Loudon,  John,  43  Crawford  Street. 

Lowry,  J.  M.,  Pubhc  Works  Department. 

McCurdie,  W.  D.  R.,  Town  Hall.* 

Macdougall,  W.  P.,  jun.,  642  George  Street. 

McEnnis,  J.  E.,  Pubhc  Works  Office,  Christ- 
church. 

McGeorge,  J.  C,  Eglinton  Road,  Mornington. 

McKellar,  Dr.  T.  G.,  Pitt  Street. 

Mackie,  A.,  Test-room,  Cumberland  Street. 

McNair,  J.,  Railway  Engineer's  Office. 

Malcolm,  Professor  J.,  M.D.,  University. 

Mandeno,  H.,  New  Zealand'  Express  Com- 
pany's Buildings. 

Marshall,  Angus,  B.A.,  Technical  College. 

Mason,  J.  B. 

Melland,  E.,  Arthog  Road,  Hale,  Cheshire, 
England.* 

Mihies,  J.  W.,  39  Lees  Street.* 

Milhgan,  Dr.  R.  R.  D.,  University. 

Morrell,  W.  J.,  M.A.,  Boys'  High  School. 

Nevill,  Right  Rev.  S.  T.,  D.D.,  Bishopsgrove. 

Newlands,  Dr.  W.,  12  London  Street. 

O'Neill,  Dr.  E.  J.,  219  High  Street. 

Overton,  T.  R.,  Test-room,  Cumberland  Street. 

Park,  Professor  J.,  F.G.S.,  University. 

Payne,  F.  W.,  90  Princes  Street. 

Petrie,  D.,  M.A.,  F.L.S.,F.N.Z.  List.,  Ranfurly 
Road,  Epsom,  Auckland.* 

Philpott,  A.,  Queen  Street,  Invercargill. 

Pickerill,  Professor  H.  P.,  M.D.,  B.D.S., 
University. 

Poppelwell,  D.  L.,  Gore. 


Price,  W.  H.,  55  Stuart  Street.* 

Rawson,  Miss  G.  H.,  Home  Science  Depart- 
ment, University. 

Reid,  Donald,  jun.,  9  DowUng  Street. 

RUey,  Dr.  F.  R.,  6  Pitt  Street. 

Ritchie,  Dx.  Russell,  400  George  Street. 

Roberts,  E.  F.,  128  Highgate,  Roslyn. 

Roberts,  John,  C.M.G.,  Littlebourne. 

Ross,  H.  I.  M.,  614  Castle  Street. 

Ross,    T.    C,    care    of    Ross   and    Glendining 
(Limited). 

Rouse,  Percy,  Burnside  Chemical  Works. 

Rutherford,  R.  W.,  36  Playfair  Street,  Cavers- 
ham. 

National  Bank  Buildings. 
G.,  R.N.Z.A.  Barracks,  Wel- 


Salmond,  J.  L. 
Sandle,  Major  S. 

lington. 
Sargood,  Percy, 


Marin oto,"  Newington. 


Scott,  J.  H.,  Converter  Station, .  Cumberland 

Street. 
Shacklock,  J.  B.,  Bayfield,  Anderson's  Bay, 
Shennan,  Watson,  367  High  Street. 
Shepherd,  F.  R.,  36  Cargill  Street. 
Shortt,   F.   M.,   care  of  John  Chambers  and 

Sons,  Stuart  Street. 
Sim,  Mr.  Justice,  Musselburgh  Rise. 
Simpson,  George,  98  Russell  Street. 
Simpson,    George,    jun.,    9    Gamma    Street, 

Roslyn. 
Skinner,  H.  D.,  B.A.,  Museum,  King  Street. 
Smith,  C.  S.,  Star  Office. 
Smith,  J.  C,  196  Tay  Street,  Livercargill. 
Solomon,  S.,  K.C.,  114  Princes  Street. 
Somerville,  W.  G.,  18  Leven  Street,  Roslyn. 
Stark,  James,  care  of  Kempthorne,   Prosser, 

and  Co. 
Stewart,  R.  T.,  21  Gamma  Street,  Roslvn. 
Stewart,  W.  Downie,  M.P.,  LL.B.,  11  Heriot 

Row. 
Stout,  Sir  Robert,  K.C.M.G.,  WeUington. 
Tannock,  D.,  Botanical  Gardens. 
Theomin,  D.  E.,  42  Royal  Terrace. 
Thompson,  Professor  G.  E.,  M.A.,  University. 
Thomson,  W.  A.,  A.M.P.  Buildings. 
Thomson,  Hon.  G.    M.,   F.L.S.,   F.N.Z.Inst., 

M.L.C,  99  Eghnton  Road,  Mornington.* 
Thomson,  G.   S.,  B.Sc,   99   Eglinton   Road,. 

Mornington. 
Vanes,    R.    N.,    A.R.I.B.A.,    National    Bank 

Buildings. 
Walden,  E.  W.,  12  DowUng  Street. 
Wales,  P.  Y.,  2  Crawford  Street. 
Walker,  A.,  Lloyd's  Surveyor,  Wellington. 
Waters,  Professor  D.  B.,  A.O.S.M.,  University. 
White,  Professor  D.  R.,  M.A.,  83  St.  David 

Street. 
Whitson,  T.  W.,  584  George  Street. 
Williams,  J.,  B.Sc,  F.C.S.,  Otago  Boys'  High 

School. 
Wingfield,  J.  E.,  663  Castle  Street. 
Woodthorpe,  Ven.  Archdeacon,  Selwyn  House, 

Cumberland  Street. 
Young,  Dr.  James,  Don  Street,  Invercargill. 


Roll  of  Members. 


531 


HAWKE'S  BAY  PHILOSOPHICAL  INSTITUTE. 
•»-  [*  Life  members.] 


Anderson,  Andrew,  Napier. 

Armour,   W.    A.,   M.A.,    M.Sc,   Boys'    High 

School,  Napier. 
Ashcroft,  Mrs.,  Napier. 
Ashcroft,  P.,  Napier. 
Asher,  Rev.  J.  A.,  Napier. 
Beattie,  A.  L.,  Napier. 
Bennett,  H.  M.,  Napier. 
Bernau,  Dr.  H.  F.,  Napier. 
Bissell,  E.,  Port  Ahuriri. 
Blake,  V.  I.,  Gisborne. 
Chadwick,  R.  M.,  Napier. 
Chambers,  Bernard,  Te  Mata. 
Chambers,  J*,  Mokopeka,  Hastings. 
Clark.  ^.  P.,  Eskdale. 
Cottrell,  H.,  Napier. 
Dinwiddle,  W.,  Napier. 
Duncan,  Russell,  Napier. 
Edgar,  Dr.  J.  J.,  Napier. 
Edmimdson,  J.  H.,  Napier. 
Foley,  M.,  Napier. 
Guthrie- Smith,  H.,  Tutira. 
Harding,  J.  W.,  Mount  Vernon,  Wa.ipukurau. 
Haslam,  Professor  F.  W.  C,  Napier. 
Henderson,  E.  H.,  Te  Araroa. 
Herrick,  E.  J.,  Hastings. 
HiU,  H.,  B.A.,  F.G.S.,  Napier. 
Hislop,  J.,  Napier.* 
Holdsworth,  J.,  Havelock  North. 
Humphrey,  E.  J.,  Pakipaki. 
Hutchinson,  F.,  jun.,  Rissington. 
Hyde,  Thomas,  Napier. 
Kennedy,  C.  D.,  Napier. 
Kerr,  W.,  M.A.,  Napier  Boys'  High  School. 
Large,  J.  S.,  Napier.* 


Large,  Miss  L.,  Napier. 

Leahy,  Dr.  J.  P.,  Napier. 

Loten,  E.  G.,  Napier. 

Lowry,  T.  H.,  Okawa. 

McLean,  R.  D.  D.,  Napier. 

Metcalfe,  W.  F.,  Kiritahi,  Port  Awanui. 

Moore,  Dr.  T.  C,  Napier. 

Morris,  W.,  Hastings. 

Newton,  I.  E.,  Napier. 

Northcroft,  E.  F.,  Napier.  ^ 

Oates,  William,  J. P.,  Tokomaru  Bay. 

Ormond,  G.,  Mahia. 

O'Ryan.  W.,  Waipiro  Bay. 

Ballot,  A.  G.,  Napier. 

Pollock,  C.  F.  H.,  Napier. 

Ringland,  T.  H.,  Napier. 

Russell,  H.  J.,  Napier. 

Sagar,  Mrs.  M.  J.,  Napier. 

Smart,  D.  L.,  Napier.  ^ 

Smith,  A.  E.  N.,  Napier. 

Smith,  J.  H.,  Olrig.* 

Strachan,  D.  A.,  M.A.,  Napier. 

Stubbs,  G.,  Napier. 

Thomson,  J.  P.,  Napier. 

Tiffen,  G.  W.,  Gisborne. 

Vautier,  T.  P.,  Napier. 

Wheeler,  E.  G.,  Havelock  North, 

Whetter,  R.  G.,  Napier. 

Williams,  F.  A.,  Napier. 

WilUams,  F.  W.,  Napier. 

WiUiams,  Ven.  Archdeacon  H.  W.,  Gisborne. 

Wilhamson,  J.  P.,  Napier. 

Wills,  W.  H.,  B.A.,  Port  Ahuriri. 

Wilton,  T,  J.,  Port  Ahuriri. 


NELSON  INSTITUTE. 


Bett,  Dr.  F.  A.,  Trafalgar  Square. 
.  Borlase,  W.,  96  Nile  Street. 
Field,  T.  A.  H.,  M.P.,  Ngatitama  Street. 
Gibbs,  F.  G.,  M.A.,  CoUingwood  Street. 
Graham,  Mrs.  C,  Bridge  Street. 
Knapp,  F.  V.,  Alfred  Street. 
Lancaster,  G.  J.,  M.A.,  Nelson  College. 


Morley,  E.  L.,  Waimea  Street. 

Mules,  Bishop,  Trafalgar  Square. 

Redgrave,  A.  J.,  Hardy  Street. 

Strachan,  J.,  care  of  Land   Transfer  Office, 

Government  Buildings. 
WhitweU,  F.,  Drumduan,  Wakapuaka. 
Worley,  W.  F.,  Trafalgar  Street  South. 


532 


Appendix. 


MANAWATU  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY. 
[*  Life  members.] 


Abraham,  R.  S.,  Fitzherbert  West. 

Akers,  H.,  Duke  Street. 

Bagnall,  H.  G.,  30  Te  Aweawe  Street.       • 

Barnicoat,  J.  L.,  Union  Bank. 

Barnett,  Dr.  E.  C,  M.R.C.S.,  M.R.O.P., 
Fitzherbert  Street. 

Batchelar,  J.  0.,  WiUow  Bank. 

Bayly,  Mrs.^  Patea. 

Bendall,  W.  E.,  Dairy  Union. 

Bennett,  G.  H.,  The  Square. 

Bett,  D.  H.  B.,  M.B.,  Ch.B.,  M.R.O.S., 
M.R.C.P.,  Broad  Street. 

Blackbourne,  Rev.  H.  G.,  M.A.,  Vicarage. 

Burges,  A.,  139  Featherston  Street. 

Callanan,  F. 

Cameron,  W.  B.,  24  Russell  Street. 

Canton,  H.  J. 

Clausen,  A.  E. 

Clausen,  C.  N.,  Rangitikei  Street. 

Cockayne,  A.  H. 

Cohen,  M.,  Broad  Street. 

Collins,  J.  M.,  care  of  J.  J.  Niven  and  Co. 

CoUinson,  L.  H. 

Colquhoun,  J.  A.,  M.Sc,  High  School. 

Connell,  F.  W. 

Cooper,  T. 

Crabb,  E.  H. 

Cunningham,  G.  H.,  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. 

Daly,  A.  J.,  George  Street. 

Edwards,  R.,  C.E.,  Duke  Street. 

Eliott,  M.  A..  The  Square. 

Fitzherbert,  W.  L. 

Gerrand,  J.  B.,  The  Square. 

Grace,  R.  H.  F. 

Graham,  A.  J.,  The  Square- 

Guy,  A. 

Hankin,  F.  M.  S.,  Ferguson  Street. 

Hanuay,  A.,  care  of  Manson  and  Barr. 

Hepworth,  H. 

Hodder,  T.  R.,  Rangitikei  Street. 

Holben,  E.  R.  B. 

Holbrook,  H.  W.  F. 

Hopwood,  A. 

Hughes,  J.  R.,  C.E. 

Hunter,  W. 

Hurley,  E.  0. 

Ironside,  Miss,  M.A.,  High  School. 


Johnston,  J.  Goring,  Oakhurst. 

Lambert,  W.  H. 

Larcomb,  E.,  C.E.,  Roy  Street. 

Larconib,  P. 

Mahon,  A. 

Manson,  T.,  "Fitzherbert  Street. 

Moore,  Miss. 

Mummery,  W.  R.,  F.LC,  care  of  J.  Nathan 

and  Co. 
Munro,  J.,  Bank  of  New  South  Wales. 
Murray,  J.,  M.A.,  High  School. 
Nash,  N.  H. 
Needham,  F. 

Newman,  E.,  M.P.,  Marton. 
Noedl,  A.  , 

Oram,  M.  H.,  M.A.,  LL.B.,  Rangitikei  Street. 
Park,  W.,  F.R.H.S.,  College  Street. 
Peach,  Dr.  C.  W.,  M.B.,  CM.,  Broad  Street. 
Pope,  Dr.  E.  H. 
Poynton,  J.  W.,  S.M.* 
Preece,  Captain  G.  A.,  N.Z.C. 
Salmon,   C.  T.,  Assoc,    in   Eng.,    Rangitikei 

Street. 
Seifert,  A.,  George  Street. 
Seifert,  H. 

Seifert,  L.,  George  Street. 
Sheppard,  F.  J. 
Sim,  E.  Grant. 

Sinclair,  D.,  C.E.,  Terrace  End. 
Sinclair,  N.  H. 
Smith,  W.  W.,  F.E.S.,  Public  Reserve,  New 

Plymouth. 
Stevens,  J.  H.,  Church  Street. 
Stowe,  Dr.  W.  R.,  M.R.C.S.,  M.R.C.P.,  Linton 

Street. 
Sutherland,  A.,  Boimdary  Road. 
Taylor,  C,  George  Street. 
Turner,  W. 

Waldegrave,  C.  E.,  Broad  Street. 
Welch,  W.,  F.R.G.S.,  Mosman's  Bay,  N.S.W.* 
West,  E.  V. 

Wliitaker,  A.,  Grey  Street. 
Wilson,  K.,  M.A.,  Rangitikei  Street.* 
Wollerman,  H.,  Fitzherbert  Street. 
Wood.  J.  R. 

Wright,  A.  H.  M.,  College  Street. 
Young,  H.  L.,  Cuba  Street. 


WANGANUI  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY. 
[*  Life  member.] 


Allison,  Alexander,  No.  1  Line,  Wanganui. 

AUison,  Thomas,  Ridgway  Street,  Wanganui. 

Amess,  A.  H.  R.,  M.A.,  CoUegiate  School, 
Wanganui. 

Atkinson,  W.  E.,  Hurworth,  Wanganui. 

Bassett,  W.  G.,  St.  John's  HiU,  Wanganui. 

Battle,  T.  H.,  Architect,  Wanganui. 

Bourne,  F.,  F.I.A.N'.Z.,  Ridgway  Street,  Wa- 
nganui . 


Brown,   C.   P.,  M.A.,   LL.B.,   CoUege  Street, 

Wanganui. 
Burnet,  J.  H.,  Sti  John's  Hill,  Wanganui. 
Cave,  Norman,  Brunswick  Line,  Wanganui. 
Cowper,  A.  E.,  Victoria  Avenue,  Wanganui. 
Crow,  E.,  Technical  College,  Wanganui. 
Cruickshank,  Miss,  M.A.,  M.Sc,  Girls'  College, 

Wanganui. 
D'Arcy,  W.  A.,  11  Campbell  Street,  Wanganui. 


Roll  of  Members. 


533 


Downes,  T.  W.,  Victoria  Avenue,  Wanganui. 

Drew,  Harry,  Victoria  Avenue,  Wanganui. 

Duigan,  Herbert,  Ridgway  Street,  Wanganui. 

Dunkley,  R.,  F.I.A.N.Z.,  Wickstead  Place, 
Wanganui. 

Dunn,  Richmond,  St.  John's  Hill,  Wanganui. 

Ford,  C.  R.,  F.R.G.S.,  CoUege  Street,  Wanga- 
nui, 

Gibbons,  Hope,  Wanganvii  East. 

Hatherly,  Henry  R.,  M.R.C.S.,  GonviUe,  Wa- 
nganui.* 

Hutton,  C.  C,  M.A.,  St.  John's  Hill,  Wanga- 
nui. 

Jack,  J.  B.,  Native  Land  Court,  Wanganui. 

Jones,  Lloyd,  Victoria  Avenue,  Wanganui. 

Liffiton,  E.  N.,  J. P.,  Ridgway  Street,  Wanga- 
nui. 

McFarlane,  D.,  Ridgway  Street,  Wanganui. 

Mackay,  C.  E.,  Mayor  of  Wanganui. 


Marshall  Professor  P..  M.A.,  D.Sc,  F.G.S., 
F.N. Z.Inst.,  Collegiate  School,  Wanganui. 

Murdoch,  R.,  Campbell  Place,  Wanganui. 

Murray,  J.  B.,  St.  John's  HiU,  Wanganui. 

Neame,  J.  A.,  M.A.,  CoUegiate  School,  Wa- 
nganui. 

Poison,  D.  G.,  St.  John's  HiU,  Wanganui. 

Sturge,  H.  E.,  M.A.,  Collegiate  School,  Wanga- 
nui. 

Talboys,  F.  P.,  Tramways  Manager,  Wanga- 
nui. 

Ward,  J.  T.,  Victoria  Avenue,  Wanganui.* 

Watt,  J.  P.,  B.A.,  LL.B.,  Ridgway  Street, 
Wanganui. 

Watt,  M.  N.,  St.  Jolin's  HiU,  Wanganui. 

WiUiamson,  J. -P.,  CoUege  Street,  Wanganui. 

Wilson,  Alexander,  M.D>,  Wickstead  Street, 
Wanganui. 


f 


POVERTY  BAY  INSTITUTE. 


Abbey,  Rev.  W.  H.  E.,  251  Palmerston  Road, 

Gis  borne. 
Aitkin,    Rev.    James,    St.    Andrew's    Manse, 

Gisborne. 
Beale,  A.  M.,  Waipiro  Bay. 
Beere,  Major  A.  G.,  CUfford  Street,  Gisborne. 
Black,  G.  J.^  Kaiti. 
Blair,  James,  Kaiti. 

Blake,  V.  I.,  Survey  Department,  Aucldand. 
BuU,  H.,  Gladstone  Road,  Gisborne. 
Burnard,  L.  T.,  Gladstone  Road,  Gisborne. 
BusweU,    W.    H.,    Borough    Council    Office, 

Gisborne, 
Cuthert,  A.,  Gladstone  Road,  Gisborne. 
Florance,  R.  S.,  Kaiti. 
Foote,  F.,  High  School,  Gisborne. 
Goffe,  W.  E.,  Ormond  Road,  Mangapapa. 
Gray,  Mrs.  Charles,  Waiohika,  Gisborne. 
Greer,  Miss  ]\J<,  Ormond  Road,  Gisborne. 
Hutchinson,  E.  M.,  Waihuka,  Gisborne. 
Kenway,  Howard,  Waiohika.  Gisborne. 
Kinder,  J.,  Gladstone  Road,  Gisborne. 
Lees,  E.  L.,  Childers  Road,  Gisborne. 
Lysnar,    W.    L.,  Stout   Street,  Whataupoko, 

Gisborne. 


Mander,  M.  B.,  Riverside  Road,  Gisborne. 

Mann,  E.  H.,  Lowe  Street,  Gisborne. 

Maunder,  G.  H.,  Stout  Street,  Gisborne. 

Mirfield,  T.,  Gladstone  Road,  Gisborne. 

Mouat,  John,  Gladstone  Road,  Gisborne. 

Muir,  A.  L.,  Fitzherbert  Street,  Gisborne. 

Oakley,  Mrs.,  Grey  Street,  Gisborne. 

O'Ryan,  WiUiam,  Waipiro  Bay. 

Parlane,  Rev.  James,  Stout  Street,  Gisborne. 

Poole,  M.  P.,  Puha. 

Rowley,  F.  J.,  Ormond  Road,  Gisborne^ 

Sheppard,  Mrs.  W.,  Whataiipoko,  Gisborne. 

Sievwright,  Miss  M.,  Whataujjoko,  Gisborne. 

Steele,  A.  H.,  Tahunga. 

Tiffen,  G.  W.,  Gisborne. 

Townley,  John,  Gladstone  Road,  Gisborne. 

Tucker,  H.  G.,  Makauri. 

Turner,  J.  C.  E.^  Wairoa. 

Wainwright,  Rev. 

Walker,  Mrs.,  Fox  Street,  Gisborne. 

Ward,  Rev.  E.,  Waerengaahika. 

WiUiams,  A.  B. 

Williams,   Ven.   Archdeacon  H.  W.,  Naurea, 

Patutahi. 
Wilson,  Rev.  G.  D.,  Te  Karaka. 


534  ^  Appendix. 


SEEIAL    PUBLICATIONS    EECEIVED   BY    THE    LIBRAEY    OF 
THE  NEW  ZEALAND  INSTITUTE,  1919. 


New  Zealand. 

Geological  Survey  :  Bulletins. 

Houses  of  Parliament :  Journals  and  Appendix. 

New  Zealand  Official  Year-book. 

Polynesian  Society  :  Journal. 

Statistics  of  Neiu  Zealand. 

Australia. 

Australasian  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers  :  Proceedings.    ■ 
Australian  Antarctic  Expedition,  1911-14  :  Reports. 
Commonwealth  of  Australia,  Fisheries :    Parliamentary  Report. 


New  South  Wales. 

Agricultural  Department,  N.S.W.  :    Agricultural  Gazette. 

Australian  Museum,  Sydney  :  Records ;  Annual  Report. 

Botanic  Gardens  and  Government  Domains,  N.S.W.  :  Report. 

Critical  Revision  of  the  Genus  Eucalyptus. 

Linnean  Society  of  N.S.W.  :    Proceedings. 

Northern  Engineering  Institute  of  N.S.W. :  Papers.  ^ 

Public  Health  Department,  N.S.W.  :  Annual  Report. 

Queensland.  '■   ' 

Geological  Survey  of  Queensland  :  Publications. 
Eoyal  Society  of  Queensland  :  Proceedings. 

South  Australia. 

Adelaide  Chamber  of  Commerce  :  Annual  Report. 

Department  of  Chemistry,  South  Australia  :  Bulletins. 

Mines  Department  and  Geological  Survey  of  South  Australia  :  Mining 

Operations;    G.S.    Bulletins    and   Reports;    Metallurgical  Reports; 

Synopsis  of  Mining  Laivs. 
Public  Library,  Museum,  and  Art  Gallery  of  South  Australia :    Annual 

Report. 
Eoyal  Society  of  South  Australia  :   Transactions  and  Proceedings. 

Tasmania. 
Eoyal  Society  of  Tasmania :  Papers  and  Proceedings, 


Serial  Publications  received  by  Library.  535 

Victoria. 

Advisory  Committee  :  Report  on  Broion  Coal. 

Department  of  Agriculture  :  Journal. 

Field  Naturalists'  Club  of  Victoria  :   Victorian  Naturalist. 

Mines  Department  and  Geological  Survey  of  Victoria  :  Annual  Report ; 

Bulletins  ;  Records. 
Public  Library,  Museum,  and  National  Art  Qallery  of  Victoria :  Annual 

Beport. 
Eoyal  Society  of  Victoria  :  Proceedings. 

Western  Australia. 
Geological  Survey  of  Western  Australia  :  B^dletins. 

United  Kingdom. 

British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  :  Beport. 

British   Museum :    Catalogues ;    Guides ;    Scientific   Beports   of  British 

Antarctic  Expedition,  1910. 
Cambridge  Philosophical  Society  :  Proceedings. 
Geological  Society,  London  :   Quarterly  Journal. 
Geological  Survey  of  Great  Britain  :  Summary  of  Progress. 
Linnean  Society  :  Journal  (Botany)  ;  Proceedings ;  List  of  Members. 
Liverpool  Biological  Society  :  Proceedings. 
Marine  Biological  Association  :   Journal. 
Mineralogicai  Society  :  Miner alogical  Magazine. 
North  of  England    Institute   of    Mining    and    Mechanical    Engineers : 

Transactions ;  Annual  Beport. 
Oxford  University :  Calendar. 

Eoyal  Anthropological  Institute  of  Great  Britain  :  Journal. 
Eoyal  Botanic  Gardens,  Edinburgh  :  Notes. 
Eoyal  Colonial  Institute  :    United  Empire. 
Eoyal  Geographical  Society  :  Geographical  Journal. 
Eoyal  Physical  Society  of  Edinburgh  :  Proceedings. 
Eoyal  Scottish  Geographical  Society  :  Scottish  Geographical  Magazine. 
Eoyal  Society  of  Edinburgh  :  Proceedings  ;   Transactions. 
Eoyal  Society,  London':    Proceedings  (Series  A,  B) ;  Phil.  Trans.  (Series 

A,  B) ;   Year-book. 
Eoyal  Society  of  Literature  :   Transactions. 
Eoyal  Statistical  Society,  London  :  Journal. 
Victoria  Institute,  London  :  Journal  of  Transactions. 

Belgium. 
Librairie  Nationale  d'Art  et  d'Histoire  :    Les  Cahiers  beiges. 

Denmark. 

Acad.   Eoy.   de  Sciences  et  de   Lettres  de  Denmark :    Fordhandlinger ; 

Memoir  es. 
Dansk.  Naturh.  Foren.,  Kjobenhavn :   Videnskabelige  Meddelelser. 
Kong.  Dansk.  Videnskab.  Selskab. :  F or  handling  er ;  Skrifter. 


536  '  Appendix. 

France. 

Societe  de  Chimie  Industrielle,  Paris  :    Chimie  et  industries. 
Musee  d'Histoire  Naturelle,  Paris  :  Bulletins. 
Societe  de  Geographic  :  La  Geographie. 
Soci6te  Zoologique  de  France  :  Bulletin. 

Holland  and  Dutch  East  Indies. 

Banka  Tin  :  Jaaresverslag  von  de  Winning. 
Eijks  Ethnographisch  Museum,  Leiden:   Verslag. 

Italy. 

Eeale  Societa  Geographica,  Eoma  :  Bollettino. 

Bevista  Geographica  Italiana. 

Societa  Africana  d'ltalia  :  Bollettino. 

Societa  Toscana  di  Scienze  Naturali,  Pisa  :  Processi  verbali. 

Norway. 
Bergens  Museum  :  Aarhok ;  Aarberetning . 

Spain. 
Junta  de  Ciences  Naturals  de  Barcelona :    Series  hotanica,  geologica. 

India  and  Ceylon. 

Agricultural  Department,  Calcutta  :    Report  on  Progress  Of  Agriculture. 
Agricultural  Eesearch  Institute  and  College,  Pusa :  Report. 
Colombo  Museum  ;  Spolia  Zeylanica. 

Japan. 

Imperial  Earthquake  Investigation  Committee,  Tokyo  :  Bulletin. 
Imperial  University  of  Tokyo  :  Journal  of  the  College  of  Science. 
Tohoku  Imperial  University,  Sendai :  Science  Reports. 

Malay  States. 
Malay  States  Government  Gazette. 

Africa. 

South   African    Association   for    the    Advancement   of    Science :    SoiUh 
African  Journal  of  Science. 

Canada. 

Department  of  Naval  Service  :  Annual  Report  ;   Tide  Tables. 

Mines    Department,    Geological    Survey   Branch:    Memoirs;     Summary 

Report ;  Museum  Bulletin. 
Mines  Department,    Mines  Branch :    Bulletins ;    Annual  Report ;  other 

publications. 


Serial  Publications  received  by  Library.  537 

United  States. 

Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia  :  Proceedings. 

American  Geographical  Society,  New  York  :  Geographical  Bevieiv. 

American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers  :   Transactions. 

American  Philosophical  Society  :  Proceedings. 

Caiifornian  Academy  of  Sciences  :   Proceeduigs. 

Chicago  University  :  Journal  of  Geology. 

Franklin  Institute  :   Journal. 

Library  of  Congress,  Washington  :  Report. 

Lloyd  Library,  Ohio  :  Index. 

Minnesota  University  and  Geological  Survey  :    Agricultural  Experiment 

Station  Bulletin.  -^ 

Missouri  Botanical  Gardens  :  Annals. 
Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  Harvard:    Bulletin;    Annual  Report; 

Memoirs. 
National  Academy  of  Sciences  :  Proceedings. 
New  York  Academy  of  Sciences  :  Annals. 
Ohio  Journal  of  Science. 
Ohio  State  University  :  Bulletin. 
Smithsonian  Institution  and  U.S.  National  Museum:   Annual  Report; 

Miscellaneous  Collections  ;    Contributions  to  Knowledge  ;    Bulletins  ; 

Contributions  fj'om  U.S.  National  Herbarium. 
Tufts  College  :  Studies  (Scientific  Series). 
U.S.    Department   of    Agriculture  :    Journal   of  Agricultural  Research; 

Monthly  List  of  Publications. 
U.S.   Department  of  Agriculture,   Bureau  of  Biological  Survey  :    North 

American  Fauna  ;- Bulletins. 
U.S.  Geological  Survey  :  Annual  Report ;   Professional  Papers  ;   Mineral 

Resources  ;  Btilletins  ;   Water-sup2)ly  Papers. 
University  of  California  :  Bulletin  of  Department  of  Geology. 
Wagner  Free  Institute  of  Science  :   Transactions. 

Argentine. 
Academia  Nacional  de  Ciencias  :  Boletin. 

Mexico. 
Institute  Geologic©  de  Mexico  :  Anales. 

Peru. 
Cuerpo  de  Ingenieros  de  Minas  del  Peru  :  Boletin. 

Hawaii. 
Bishop  Museum  :  Memoirs. 

Philippines. 
Bureau  of  Science  :  Philippine  Journal  of  Science. 

Tahiti. 
Societe  d'Etudes  Oceanniennes  :  Bulletin. 


638 


Appendix 


LIST   OF   INSTITUTIONS 

TO  WHICH 

THE    PUBLICATIONS    OP    THE    INSTITUTE   ARE    PRESENTED    BY    THE 
GOVERNORS    OF    THE    NEW    ZEALAND  INSTITUTE. 


Honorary  Members  of  the  New  Zealand  Institute. 


Neiv  Zealand. 

Cabinet,  The  Members  of,  Welhngton. 
Executive  Library,  WelHngton. 
Free  Pubhc  Library,  Auckland. 

„  Christchurch, 

„  Dunedin. 

„  Wellington. 

Turnbull  Library,  Bowen  Street,  Wellington. 
Government  Printer  and  publishing  staff  (6  copies). 
Library,  Auckland  Institute,  Auckland. 

Auckland  Museum,  Auckland. 

Biological  Laboratory,  Canterbury  College,  Christchurch. 

Biological  Laboratory,   University  College,  Auckland. 

Biological  Laboratory,  University  of  Otago,  Dunedin. 

Biological    Laboratory,    Victoria    University    College,    Wel- 
lington. 

Canterbury  College,  Christchurch. 

Canterbury  Museum,  Christchurch. 

Canterbury  Public  Library,  Christchurch. 

Cawthron  Institute,  Nelson. 

Department  of  Agriculture,  Wellington. 

Dunedin  Athenseum. 

General  Assembly,  Wellington  (2  copies). 

Hawke's  Bay  Philosophical  Institute,  Napier. 

Mana.watu  Philosophical  Society,  Palmerston  North. 

Nelson  College. 

Nelson  Institute,  Nelson. 

New  Zealand  Geological  Survey. 

New  Zealand  Institute  of  Surveyors. 

New  Zealand  Institute,  Wellington.  , 

Otago  Institute,  Dunedin. 

Otago  Museum,  Dunedin. 

Otago  School  of  Mines,  Dunedin. 
'    Philosophical  Institute  of  Canterbury,  Christchurch. 

Polynesian  Society,  New  Plymouth. 

Portobello  Fish-hatchery,  Dunedin. 

Eeefton  School  of  Mines. 

Southland  Museum,  Invercargill. 

Thames  School  of  Mines. 

University  College,  Auckland. 

University  of  Otago,  Dunedin. 

Victoria  University  College,  Wellington. 

Waihi  School  of  Mines,  Waihi. 

Wanganui  Museum. 

Wellington  Philosophical  Society. 


List  of  Free  Copies.  ,         539 


Great  Britain. 

Athenaeum    Subject    Index    to   Periodicals,    11    Bream's    Buildings, 

Chancery  Lane,  London  E.G. 
Bodleian  Library,  Oxford  University. 

British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  London. 
British  Museum  Library,  London. 

„  Natural    History    Department,    South    Kensington, 

London  S.W. 
Cambridge  Philosophical  Society,  Cambridge  University. 
Colonial  Office,  London. 
Clifton  College,  Bristol,  England. 
Geological  Magazine,  London. 
Geological  Society,  Synod  Hall,  Castle  Terrace,  Edinburgh. 

„  London. 

Geological  Survey  of  the  United  Kingdom,  London. 
High  Commissioner  for  New  Zealand,  London. 
Imperial  Institute,  London. 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  London. 
International   Catalogue   of    Scientific   Literature,    34    Southampton 

Street,  Strand,  London. 
Leeds  Geological  Association,  Sunnyside,  Crossgate,  Leeds. 
Linnean  Society,  London. 
Literary  and  Philosophical  Society,  Liverpool. 
Liverpool  Biological  Society.' 

Marine  Biological  Association  of  the  United  Kingdom,  Plymouth. 
Natural  History  Society,  Glasgow. 
Nature,  The  Editor  of,  London. 
Norfolk  and  Norwich  Naturalist  Society,  Norwich. 
North  of  England  Institute  of  Mining  and  Mechanical  Engmeers, 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Patent  Office  Library,  25  Southampton  Street,  London  W.C. 
Philosophical  Society  of  Glasgow. 
Eoyal    Anthropological    Institute    of    Great    Britain    and    Ireland, 

59  Great  Kussell  Street,  London  W.C. 
Eoyal  Botanic  Garden  Library,  Edinburgh. 
Eoyal  Colonial  Institute,  London. 

Eoyal  Geographical  Society,  Kensington  Gore,  London  S.W. 
Eoyal  Institution,  Liverpool. 
Eoyal  Irish  Academy,  Dublin. 
Eoyal  Physical  Society,  Edinburgh. 
Eoyal    Scottish  Geographical    Society,   Synod  Hall.  Castle  Terrace, 

Edinburgh.  *■  ^ 

Eoyal  Society,  Dublin. 

„  Edinburgh. 

„  London. 

Eoyal  Society  of  Literature  of  the  United  Kingdom,  London. 
Eoyal  Statistical  Society,  London. 
University  Library,  Cambridge,  England. 

„  Edinburgh. 

Victoria  University,  Manchester. 
Victoria  Institute,  London. 
William  Wesley  and  Son,  London  (Agents). 
Zoological  Society,  London. 


540  Appendix. 

British  North  America. 

Geological  and  Natural  History  Survey  of  Canada,  Ottawa. 

Hamilton  Scientific  Association,  Hamilton,  Canada. 

Institute  of  Jamaica,  Kingston,  Jamaica. 

International  Institute  of   Agriculture,   Department  of    Agriculture, 

Ottawa,  Canada. 
Natural  History  Society  of  New  Brunswick,  St.  John's. 
Nova-Scotian  Institute  of  Natural  Science,  Halifax. 
Eoyal  Canadian  Institute,  Toronto. 

South  'Africa. 

Free  Public  Library,  Cape  Town. 

South  African  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  Cape  Town 

South  African  Museum,  Cape  Town. 

Ehodesia  Museum,  Bulawayo,  South  Africa. 

India. 

Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  Calcutta. 
Colombo  Museum,  Ceylon. 
Geological  Survey  of  India,  Calcutta. 
Natural  History  Society,  Bombay. 
Eaffles  Museum,  Singapore. 

Qiieensland. 

Geological  Survey  Office,  Brisbane. 

Queensland  Museum,  Brisbane. 

Eoyal  Society  of  Queensland,  Brisbane. 

New  South  Wales. 
Agricultural  Department,  Sydney. 

Australasian  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  Sydney. 
Australian  Museum  Library,  Sydney. 
Department  of  Mines,  Sydney. 

Engineering  Association  of  New  South  Wales,  Sydney. 
Engineering  Institute  of  New  South  Wales,  Watt  Street,  Newcastle. 
Library,  Botanic  Gardens,  Sydney. 
Linnean  Society  of  New  South  Wales,  Sydney. 
Public  Library,  Sydney. 
Eoyal  Society  of  New  South  Wales,  Sydney. 
University  Library,  Sydney. 

Victoria. 

Australian  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  Melbourne. 
Commonwealth  Institute  of  Science  and  Industry,  Danks  Buildings, 

391  Bourke  Street,  Melbourne. 
Field  Naturalists'  Club,  Melbourne. 
Geological  Survey  of  Victoria,  Melbourne. 
Legislative  Library,  Melbourne. 
Public  Library,  Melbourne. 
Eoyal  Society  of  Victoria,  Melbourne. 
University  Library,  Melbourne. 
Advisory  Council  of  Science  and  Industry,  314    Albert  Street,  East 

Melbourne. 


List  of  Free  Copies.  541 

Tasmania. 

Public  Library  of  Tasmania,  Hobart. 
Royal  Society  of  Tasmania,  Hobart. 

South  Australia. 

Public  Museum  and  Art  Gallery  of  South  Australia,  Adelaide. 
Royal  Society  of  South  Australia,  Adelaide. 
University  Library,  Adelaide. 

Western  Australia. 
Government  Geologist,  Perth. 

Btcssia. 

Emperor  Peter  I  Agricultural  Institute,  Woronesh. 

Finskoie  Uchonoie  Obshchestvo  (Finnish  Scientific  Society),  Helsing- 
fors. 

Imper.  Moskofskoie  Obshchestvo  lestestvo  -  Ispytatelei  (Imperial 
Moscow  Society  of  Naturalists). 

Kiefskoie  Obshchestvo  lestestvo-Ispytatelei  (Kief  Society  of  Natural- 
ists). 

Norway. 

Adviser  of  Norwegian  Fisheries,  Bergen.     > 
Bergens  Museum,  Bergen. 
University  of  Christiania. 

Sweden. 

Geological  Survey  of  Sweden,  Stockholm. 
Royal  Academy  of  Science,  Stockholm. 

De7imark. 

Natural  History  Society  of  Copenhagen. 

Royal  Danish  Academy  of  Sciences  and  Literature  of  Copenhagen. 

Germany. 

Botanischer  Verein  der  Provinz  Brandenburg,  Berlin. 

Konigliche  Bibliothek,  Berlin. 

Konigliche  Physikalisch-Oekonomische  Gesellschaft,  Konigsberg,  E. 

Prussia. 
Konigliches     Zoologisches     und    x\nthropologisch  -  Ethnographisches 

Museum,  Dresden. 
Naturhistorischer  Verein,  Bonn. 
Naturhistorischer  Museum,  Hamburg. 
Naturwissenschaftlicher  Verein,  Bremen. 
Naturwissenschaftlicher  Verein,  Frankfort-an-der-Oder. 
Rautenstrauch-Joest-Museum  (Stadtisches  Museum  fiir  Volkerkunde) 

Cologne. 
Redaction  des  Biologischen  Centralblatts,  Erlangen. 
Senckenbergische  Naturforschende  Gesellschaft,  Frankfort-am-Main 
Verein  fiir  Vaterlandische  Naturkunde  in  Wiirttemburg,  Stuttgart. 
Zoological  Society,  Berlin 


542  Appendix. 

Austria. 

K.K.  Central-Anstalt  fiir  Meteorologie  und  Erdmagnetismus,  Vienna. 
K.K.  Geologische  Eeichsanstait,  Vienna. 

Belgitmi  and  the  Netherlands. 

Academie  Eoyal  des   Sciences,   des   Lettres,   et    des   Beaux-Arts   de 

Belgique,  Brussels. 
La  Societe  Royale  de  Botanique  de  Belgique,  Brussels. 
Mus^e  Teyler,  Haarlem. 
Netherlands  Entomological  Society,  Hazepaterslaan  5,  Haarlem. 

Sivitzerland.  ' 

Naturforschende  Gesellschaft  (Societe  des  Sciences  Naturelles),  Bern. 

France. 
Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris. 
Musee  d'Histoire  Naturelle,  Paris. 
Societe  Zoologique  de  France,  Paris. 
Societe  de  Chimie  Industrielle,  49  Rue  de  Mathurins,  Paris. 

Italy. 

Biblioteca  ed  Archivio  Tecnico,  Rome. 

Museo  Civice  di  Storia  Naturale,  Genova. 

Museo  di  Zoologia  e  di  Anatomia  Gomparata  della  R.   Universita, 

Turin. 
Orto  e  Museo  Botanico  (R.  Instituto  di  Studi  Superiori),  Florence. 
R.  Accademia  di  Scienze,  Lettre,  ed  Arti,  Modeha. 
R.  Accademia  dei  Lincei,  Rome. 
Stazione  Zoologica  di  Napoli,  Naples. 
Societa  Africana  d'ltalia,  Naples. 
Societa  Geografica  Italiana,  Rome.  ' 
Societa  Toscana  di  Scienze  Naturgbli,  Pisa. 

Spain. 
Junta  de  Ciencies  Naturals,  Barcelona,  Apartado  593. 

United  States  of  America. 

Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Buffalo,  State  of  New  York. 
„  Davenport,  Iowa. 

„  Library,  Philadelphia. 

San  Francisco. 
American  Engineering  Societies'  Library,  29  West  39th  Street,  New 

York. 
American  Geographical  Society,  New  York. 
American  Journal  of  Science  (Editors),  Yale  University,  New  Haven, 

Conn. 
American  Philosophical  Society,  Philadelphia. 
Boston  Society  of  Natural  History. 

Chemical  Abstracts,  Ohio  State  University,  Columbus,  Ohio. 
Connecticut  Academy,  New  Haven. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.C. 
Field  Museum  of  Natural  History,  Chicago. 


List  of  Free  Copies,  543 

Franklin  Institute,  Philadelphia. 

Johns  Hopkins  University,  Baltimore. 

Journal  of  Geology  (Editors),  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 

Leland  Stanford  Junior  University,  California. 

Lloyd  Library,  Cincinnati. 

Missouri  Botanical  Gardens,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

National  Academy  of  Sciences,  Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington, 

D.C. 
National  Geographic  Society,  Washington,  D.C. 
Nevs^  York  Academy  of  Sciences,  77th  Street  and  Central  Park  West, 

New  York. 
Philippine  Museum,  Manila. 
Rochester  Academy  of  Sciences. 
Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.C. 
Tufts  College,  Massachusetts. 

United  States  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.C. 
University  of  California,  Berkeley,  U.S.A. 
University  of  Minnesota,  Minneapolis. 
University  of  Montana,  Missoula. 
Wagner  Free  Institute  of  Science  of  Philadelphia. 

Brazil. 

Escola  de  Minas,  Rio  de  Janeiro. 
Museu  Paulista,  Sao  Paulo. 

Argentine  BepiMic.  ^ 

Academia  Nacional  de  Ciencias,  Cordoba. 
Sociedad  Cientifica  Argentina,  Buenos  Ayres. 

Uruguay.     , 
Museo  Nacional,  Monte  Video. 

Ja^an. 
College  of  Science,  Imperial  University  of  Japan,  Tokyo. 

Haivaii. 

Bernice  Pauahi  Bishop  Museum,  Honolulu. 
National  Library,  Honolulu. 

Java. 
Society  of  Natural  Science,  Batavia. 


INDEX. 


AUTHORS    OF    PAPERS. 

Adkin,    G.    L. — Examples    of    Readjustment    of    Drainage    on    the    Tararua        pages 

Western  Foothills  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .      183-191 

Andersen,  J.  C. — The  Mission  of  the  "  Britomart "  at  Akaroa  in  August, 

1840       . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .         78-89 

Bartrum,  J.  A. — 

Additional  Facts  concerning  the  Distribution  of  Igneous  Rocks  in  New 

Zealand  :   No.  2  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .     416-422 

The  Conglomerate  at  Albany,  Lucas  Creek,  Waitemata  Harbour  . .     422-430 

Beattie,  H. — 

The  Southern  Maori,  and  Greenstone  . . '  . .  . .  . .         45-52 

Nature-lore  of  the  Southern  Maori  . .  . .  . .  . .  53-77 

Betts,  M.  W. — 

Notes  from  the  Canterbury  College  Mountain  Biological  Station,  Cass. 

No.  7— The  Rosette  Plants  :   Part  I      . .  . .  . .  . .     253-275 

Notes  on  the  Autecology  of  certain  Plants  of  the  Peridotite  Belt,  Nelson  : 

Part  I— Structure  of  some  of  the  Plants  (No.  3)  . .  . .     276-314 

Cheeseman,   T.    F. — Contributions  to   a   Fuller  Knowledge  of  the   Flora  of 

New  Zealand :   No.  7         . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  9-16 

Chilton,  Charles. — Some  New  Zealand  Amphipoda  :    No.  1        . .  . .  1-8 

Clarke,  C.  E. — ■ 

New  Lepidoptera  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  35 

Lepidoptera  of  Auckland  and  the  King-country         . .  . .  . .         36-41 

Donovan,  W. — 5ting-ray-liver  Oil  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  29 

Donovan,  W.,  and  Burton,  G.  C— The  Distillation  of  Waikaia  Oil-shale  . .         27-29 
HOLLOWAY,  J.  E. — Studies  in  the  New  Zealand  Species  of  the  Genus  Lyco- 

podium  :    Part  IV — The  Structure  of  the  Prothallus  in  Five  Species     . .      193-239 
Hudson,  G.  V. — 

Illustrated  Life-histories  of  New  Zealand  Insects  :   No.  1         . .  . .         32-34 

On  some  Examples  of  New  Zealand  Insects  illustrating  the  Darwinian 

Principle  of  Sexual  Selection   . .  . .  . .  . .  . .     431-4:38 

Johnson  (Mrs.),  D.  E.— The  Food  Values  of  New  Zealand  Fish  :    Part  I    . .         20-26 
Marshall,  P. — 

The  Tawhiti  Series,  East  Cape  District        ..  ..  ..  ..     109-110 

The  Hampden  Beds  and  the  New  Zealand  Tertiary  Limestones  . .     111-114 

Marshall,  P.,  and  Murdoch,  R. — 

The  Tertiary  Rocks  near  Wanganui  . .  •  . .  . .  - .      115-128 

Some  Tertiarj^  Mollusca,  with  Descriptions  of  New  Species    . .  . .      128-136 

Martin,  W. — Pteridophytes  of  Banks  Peninsula  (Eastern  Portion)  . .     315-322 

Meyrick,  E. — Descriptions  of  New  Zealand  Lepidoptera . .  . .  . .  30-32 

Park,  J. — On  the  Occurrence  of  Striated  Boulders  in  a  Palaeozoic  Breccia 

near  Taieri  Mouth,  Otago,  New  Zealand      . .  . .  .  •  .  •      107-108 

Pbtrie,  D. — Descriptions  of  New  Native  Flowering-plants  . .  .  •  17-19 

Phelpott,  a. — Notes  and  Descriptions  of  New  Zealand  Lepidoptera  . .         42-44 

Poppelwell,  D.  L. — 

Notes  on  the   Indigenous   Vegetation   of  the   North-eastern   Portion  of 

the  Hokonui  Hills,  with  a  List  of  Species  . .  . .  •  •     239-247 

Notes  on  the  Indigenous  Vegetation  of  Ben  Lomond,   with  a  List  of 

Species  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ••     248-252 

RowE,  E.  A. — The  Influence  of  Salts  of  the  Alkali  and  Alkaline-earth  Metals  on 

the  Solubility  in  Water  of  Calcium  Carbonate  (a)  in  the  Presence  of  Air 

free  from  Carbon  Dioxide,  (b)  in  the  Presence  of  Excess  of  Carbon  Dioxide  192 

Thomson,  J.   Allan. — The  Notocene   Geology  of  the  Middle  Waipara  and 

Weka  Pass  District,  North  Canterbury,  New  Zealand  . .  . .     322^15 

Uttley,  G.  H. — 

Tertiary  Geology  of  the  Area  between  the  Otiake  River  (Kurow  District) 

and  Dimtroon,  North  Otago     . .  . .  . .  •  •  •  •     137-153 

Tertiary  Geology  of  the  Area  between  Wharekuri  and  the  Otiake  River, 

North  Otago  . .  . .  . .  . .  - •  • •     154-168 

Remarlis  on  Bulletin  No.  20  (New  Series)  of  the  New  Zealand  Geological 

Survey  ..  ..    -         ..  ..  ..  ••  ..     169-182 

Wall,  A. — 

Ranunculus  paucifolius  T.  Kirk :    its  Distribution  and  Ecology,  and  the 

Bearing  of  these  upon  certain  Geological  and  Phylogenetic  Problems       90-105 

Helichrysurn  dimorphum  Cockayne — a  Hybrid  ?  . .  •  •  •  •      106—107 

Watt,  M.  N.— The  Leaf-mining  Insects  of  New  Zealand     . .  . .  •  -     439-466 


Marcus  F.  Marks,  Government  Printer,  Wellington. — 1920. 


MBL/WHOI  LIBRARY 


iiiH  y 


R3    3 


PUBLiCATlONS  OF  THE  NEW  ZEALAND  INSTITUTE. 


TRANSACTIONS. 

Complete  sets  and  partial  sets,  loijether  with  tlie  index  to  the  forty 
volumes  of  the  first  series,  can  be  supplied  to  nou-members  at 
special  orices,  which  will  be  quoted  on  application.  Vols.  11. 
12,  15  to  37  inclusive,  and  39  can  be  supi'lied  at  .5s.  per  volume 
to  uon- members  and  at  2s.  per  volume  to  members. 

Vol.  1,  second  edition 

Vols.  2,  3,  4,  and  8.     (Out  of  pnnt.i 

The  price  for  the  other  volumes  will  be  given  on  application  lo  the 
Secretarv.     '^.  he  pi'ice  varies  according  to  the  number  in  stock. 

INDEX  TO  TRANSACTIONS,  VOLS.  1-40. 

Part  1— Authors  and  Titles  of  Papers  ;  Piirt  -I—  Subject-index 

MAORI    ART. 

A  few  sets  of  the  five  parh,  of  this  work  are  in  hand.  For  set  of  five 
Separate  copies  of  the  par's  can  be  obtained.— 

Part  1  (Canoes).     (Out  of  prin..i 

Part  2  (Houses) — This  is  a  double  piirt,  and  cuntains  coloured  plate' 
of  rafter-patterns   . . 

Parts  3,  4,  and  5  . .  . .  • .  ■  •  ■  •         each 

Specially  designed  covers  for  the  full  work  in  maroon  cloth 

MANGAREVA    DICTIONARY.     By  E.  Teegear.    1899 

LIBRARY  CATALOGUE  of  the  Joint  Libraries  of  the 
Geological  Survey,  the  Museum,  New  Zealand  Institute, 
and  the  Wellington  Philosophical  Society. 

1st  edition,  1890.     (Out  of  print.) 
2nd  edition,  1900 

CATALOGUE  OF  THE  CARTER  COLLECTION  OF 
NEW  ZEALAND  BOOKS. 

Catalogue  and  three  Supplements.     (Out  of  print.) 

MANUAL    OP    THE    NEW    ZEALAND    COLEOPTERA. 

By  Major  Broun. 

Part  1,  1880;   Part  2,  1881;   Part  3,  1886;   Part  4,   1886;    /art  5, 
1893  ;  Part  6,  1893  ;  Part  7,  1893  . . 

BULLETIN  No.  1.  New  Genera  and  Species  of  Coleopiera. 
By  Major  Broun. 

Part  I 


Part  II 
Part  III 
Part  IV 

Part  V 


( To  members 

I 

I  To  members 

I 

I  To  members 

To  members 


(To  members 

BULLETIN  No.  2.     Revision  of  the  New  Zealand  ( 

Byrrhidae.     By  Major  Broun.  (  To  members 

BULLETIN    No      3.      Studies    in    the    Brvologv    of    New    Zealand. 
By  H.  N.  Dixon,  M.A. 

Part  I 


Price. 

£    b.    d. 


1     i     0 


F.L.S. 


Part  II 


(To  members 
To  members 


0     2     0 


4     4     0 


u 

7     6 

0 

5     0 

0 

b     0 

0     1     u 


0     1     0 


1     1     0 


0 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

0 
0 

0 
0 


0 
0 
0 
0 


[The  publications  of  the  Institute  may  be  obtained  on  application  to  the 
Secretary,  Wellington,  N.Z.,  or  from  the  London  agents.  Messrs.  William  Wesley 
and  Son,  28  Essex  Street.  Strand,  London  W.C.I 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE   PHILOSOPHICAL  INSTITUTE   OF  CANTERBURY, 


INDEX     FAUNAE     NOVAE      ZEALANDIAE.      Edited  by    £    s.  a. 
Uaotain  F.  W.    Hutton,  'Svo  ..  ..  ..  . .      0  12     (i 


SUBANTARCTIC  ISLANDS  OF  NEW  ZEALAND.    Edited 


by  Dr.  Ghas.  Chilton,  2  vols.,  4vo 


To  membere. 


2     2     0 
1     0    0