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TRANSACTIONS

OF T H £

ROrAL SOCIETr OF EDINBURGH.

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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETT OF EDINBURGH.

V O L. Um

EBINBURCH:

FRXMTED 70R T. CAD£LL, IN THE STRAND, LONDON;

AlTD
J. DICKSON, ROTAL EXCHANGE, EDINBURGH.

Mjx;c.xc,

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•

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ON T E .N

OF THE

SECOND VOLUME.

PART I. *

HISrORr of the SOCIETr.

Dr James Hutton on Written haAguage^ - Page $•

Letter relative to the Krdken^ - . - 16..

Letter from the T^ejboo Lama to Mr Haftings, - 19.

Letter from the Prefident Virly, on the ufe of Caufiie Alkali in
the Cure of Gravely . . - 22.

Report and Judgment relative to Ck>unt de Windifchgratz^s
Problem^ - - 25.

Mr H^ofcaUy W^ tbeDyilllation of Spirits from Carrots^ 28*

APPENDIX.

List of Members d?r Fellows of the Royal Society of

Edinburgh^ continued from the firjl Volume y - 3^»

O0ce'bearers of the Society, - - 34,

Membbrs deceased^ - -- 3^*

L Bio^

^^,B*'Takt L comprehending the^Hlstont, iSiCoatained under one fet of pages } and
Pakt II. comprehending the Papehs, is contained under two lets, v/z. Papers of the
PftmcAi. Class under the one; and Papers of the Literary Class under the other.

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CONTENTS.

I. Biojrapbical Jccount of the Right Hon. Robert Dundas

ofArniJlon, Lord Prejtdent of the Court ofSefton, Page 37.

II. Biographical Account of Sir Alexander Dick of Prefton-

field, Bart. M. D. - . ^y

III. Biographical Account of the Right Hon. Sir Thomas Miller

of Glenlee, Bart. Lord Prefident of the Court of Sejfion, ^^.
List 2^ Donations, continued from the firj Volume, 77.

PART II.
PAPERS READ BEFORE THE SQCJETr.

Papers of the Phtsicax, Claii.

I. Of certmn Natural Appearances of the Ground on the Hill

of Arthur's Seat. By Dr James Hutton, - 3.

II. An Account of the Method of making the Otter of Rofes,

as it is prepared in the Eajl Indies. By Dr Dcmald
Monro, - - 12.

III. Defcription of aMereurial Level. j5^ Mr Alexander Keith, 14.

IV. Pathological Obfervations on the Brain. By Mr Thomas

Anderfon, - - '7'

V. Experiments on the Expanfive Force of Freezing Water y

made by Major Williams at ^ebec, in the years 1784
imd 1785. Communicated by Dr Charles Hufxon, 23.

VJ, Ahjlrad of Experiments made to determine the true Rejijl-
ance of the Air to the Surfaces of Bodies , of various Fi- .
guresy and moved through it with different degrees of
velocity. By Dr Charles Hutton, - 29.

VII. Ob^

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CONTENTS. vii

VII. Ohjervations mt the Placet of the Georgium Plauet^ timie

at Edinburgh with an Equatoreal Jnfirumttif, By
Mr John Robifon, ^ 37.

VIII. At^wers t» the Obje&iimt ojf M, de Luc, -mitb Regard

to the Theory of Rain* By Dr Jamea Hutton, 39.

IX. Account of a Difiempert by the eomoM People h England

vulgarly called the Mumps. 5y Dr Robert Hamilton, 59.

X. A Botanical and MedietU Account of the ^uaffia Simt^nda,

or Tree which praiiues the Cortcic Simarub^t By
Dr WilUam Wright, - 73-

XI. On the Motion of Light, as ctffeBed fy refraOing and re-

fleSling Subjlances, which are alfo in Motion. By
Mr John Robifon, - 83.

XII. Demonftrations offome of Dr Matthew Stewart's Gene-

ral Theorems* By the Reverend Dr Robert Small, 112.

Xin. Remarks on the AJlronon^ of the Brahmins. By Mr John

Playfair, - - I35*

XIV. On the Refobition of Indeterminate Problems. By Mr

John LeOie, - . - 193*

XV. A Dijfertation on the Climate of Ruffia. By Dr Mat-
thew Guthrie : With two Letters from M. ^pinus, 213.

II.
Papers of the Literary Cla&s.

I. An Account offome extraordinary StruStures on the Tops

of Hills in the Highlands s with Remarks on the Pro-
grefs of the Arts among the ancient inhahitnnts of Scot-
land. By Mr Alexander Frafer Tytler, 3*

II. Remarks on fome Paffages of the ftxth Book of the Eneid,

By Dr James Beattie, - S3*

III. An

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viii CONTENTS.

III. An Effay on Rythmical Meafures. By the Reverend Mr

Walter Young, - - ^^.

IV. On certain Analogies obferved by the Greeks in the ufe of

their Letters; and particularly of the Letter ^lyfMt.
My Mr* Andrew Dalzel, - 1 1 1.

V. Account of the German "theatre. By Mr Henry Mac-

kenzie, - - 154.

VI. Theory of the Moods of Verbs. By Dr James Gregory, 193.

VII. An Effay on the CbaraBer of Hamlet, in Shafcefpeare's

Tragedy of Hamlet. By the Reverend Mr Thomas
Robertfon, • - 251.

•I . J-

TRANS.

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T RANSACTIONS

or THE

ROYAL SOCIETT OF EDINBURGH.

VOL. II. PART I.

HISTORT OF THE SOCIETT,

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HIS TO R r

O F

THE SOCIETY.

TITERART Clafs. Mr Dalzel read a Philological Dif- icf;

fertation on certain Analogies obferved by the Greeks in J^e gJS^x/*"
the ufe of their Letters ; and particularly of the Letter 2 j which
is printed in this volume. [No. IV. Lit. CIJ]

Pbyfical Clafs. The Secretary read a Letter to the Society,
from the Reverend Dr Robertson, inclofing one from Mr
Phaser, Under-fecretary of State, and one from M. Anisson
of Paris, with a Memoir on the fubjed of Printing.

X786,

Jan. a.

Memoir on
printing.

Lit. CL Dr Gregory read a continuation of his EflTay on
the general Notion of the Relation of Caufe and Effedl. [See
Vol. I. Hift. Nov. 15, 1784. and March 21. 1785.]

(A 2) A

Jan. 16.
Dr Gregory on
caufe and effcA.

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1786.

Jan. 13.

General Meet-
ing.

4 HISrtORT (^ the SOCIETK

A GENERAL Meeting of the Royal Society was held for the
ele(5lion of Members. [See VoL I. Appendix to the Hiftory of
the Society.]

Feb. 7.
Dr Heme on
Amaurofit.

Dr Smairs de-
monftntions of
Dr Stewart's
theorems.

Pbjf. CI. Dr Erancis Home read a paper on Amaurofts.

The Reverend Dr Small read the Heads of a paper con-
taining Demonftrations of twenty-eight of the Theorems pu-
blifhed in 1746, by the late Reverend Dr Matthew Stewart,
Profeflbr of Mathematics in the Univerfity of Edinburgh. The
Demonftrations are printed in this volume. [No. XII. Phyf. CL\

Feb. ^o.
Prof. Young on
the Greek mid-
die yoira.

Lit. CI. Mr Dalzel, one of the Secretaries, read part of
an Eflay on the Middle Voice of the Greek Verb, written by
Profeflbr John Young, of the Univerfity of Glafgow. On
account of fome additions intended to be made by the Author,
the publication of this Eflay is poftponed to a fubfequent volume
of the TranfaiSlions.

March 6.
Mr Robifon on
the Georgium
Sidus.

Fhyf. CL Mr Profeflbr Robison read a paper on the Orbit
and Motion of the new Planet, the Georgium Sidus ; which is
printed in the firft volume of the Tranfadions of this Society.
[Vol. I. No. XI. Pbyf. CI.]

March 20. Lit. CL The Revcrcud Dr Macfarlan read a Diflertation

?n tKnd" refpeaing an equal Afleflment of the Land-tax.

tax.

Prof. Young on Mr Dalzel read a continuation of Mr Profeflbr Young's
die voice. ' Eflay on the Middle Voice of the Greek Verb. [See /upra,
Feb. 20.]

,, «r!?; ^^Ji/- ^^- T'he Reverend Mr Profeflbr Playpair read an

Mr Playfair's -^^

life of Dr Mat- Accouut of the Life and Writings of the late Reverend Dr Mat-

thew Stewart. ^

thew Stewart, Profeflbr of Mathematics in the Univerfity

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HisroRr of the sociErr.

of Edinburgh. This Account is publiflied in the firft volume
of the Tranfadions of diis Society. [Hiftory pf the Society,
Appendix.]

Dr James Anderson read an Effay, containing Obfervations
and Experiments on the Culture of Potatoes. He did not chufe
that any abftradl of this Effay fliould be publiflied.

The Secretary prefented to the Society two books, one in
Latin, De Herpete, and the other in French, Sur la Petite Verole^
written by M. Roussel, Royal Profeffor of Medicine in the
Univerfity of Caen in Normandy, fent by him to the Royal So-
ciety of Edinburgh.

Lit. CL Mr Dalzel read the remainder of Mr Profeffor
Young's Effay on the Greek Middle Voice. [See fupra^
March 20.]

Dr HuTTON read part of a Differtation on Written Language
as a Sign of Speech.

It is the purpofe of this paper to fliow, in what manner we
arrive at the knowledge of fimple founds, by the analytical ex-
amination of our fpeech, or the refolution of it into its princi*
pies. Thefe fimple founds maybe reprefented to the fight,
by means of certain figures, appropriated to thofe founds.
Such figures then become the principles, frjiy of the writing of
our fpeech, and, 2dly^ of the reading of our written language.

There being no lefs than four different methods of -analyfihg
fpeech for the purpofe of typifying language, thefe are ex-
amined with a view^to underftand the advantages and difad-
vantages that may attend each of thofe particular methods, ac-
cording to the following order : Jirjly The analyfing of fpeech
into parts, each of which is the fign of a diftind thought j
zdfyy into words, the conftituent parts of our expreffed thoughts j

3#*

1786.

April 3.

Dr Anderfon
on the culture
of potatoes*

Books prefent*
ed tu the Soci-
ety.

April 17.

Prof. Yonng on
the Greek mid*
die voice.

June 19.

DrHutton on
written lan-
guage.

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6 HISTORr of the SOCIETT.

^dly^ into fyllablcs, or articulate founds, the conftituent parts
of words ; and, lajily^ into letters, or inarticulate founds, the
conftituent parts of fjrllables.

There are only two of thofe pradlicable methods of typi-
fying fpeech, that have any peculiar advantage to recommend
their ufe. Thefe are the verbal methdd, on the one hand, and
the elemental, oft the other. Each of thefe having their pecu-
liar advantages, are now to be mentioned.

The advantages of the verbal method confift in this, that
different nations, by this means, might communicate their de-
fires by writing, without the knowledge of each other's fpeech*
But the neceflary dif^dvantage of this method is more than fuf-
ficient to counterbalance its great benefit ; becaufe, while there
would not be fufiicieiit accuracy for thus exprefiing every
thought in writing, it would require to make it the bufinefs of
a man's life to read and write. Whereas the advantage of the
elemental method will appear from this, that while the com-
mutation of our figures and our fimple founds* is' perfedl, our
fpeech, which is compofed of thofe fimple founds, may be
written with facility, and our written language read with abfo-
lute perfeftion. The benefit of this method, therefore, far more
than compenfates for its lofs, in not ferving as a mean of cor-
refpondence between foreign nations.

Music and fpeech are next confidered, in order to fee their
neceffary cooneftion and the difference of their principles.

The formation of articulate expreffion, by means of vocal
founds and confonants, is then illuftrated, in fhewing the na-
ture of our fpeech, as the foundation of our art of writing.

Thus, an alphabet is reprefented as being the work of inge-
nuity and wifdom, and as being, with good reafon, the boafl
of fcience. The corruption, therefore, of this alphabetical
method of charadlerifing fpeechj is reprobated as an error pre-
judicial to fcience, and difgraceful to a nation that is wife and
learned.

Orthography

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HISrORr of the SOCIETK 7

Orthography being thus a mod fcientific art, it is of much
impbrtancis^ for the educating of a people, in this art, to con-
form the pradlice ftridly to the rules of fcience, and to have
the rules of that fdence comprifed in the knowledge of the
alphabet. The alphabet is therefore now made the fubjedl of
a fcientifical difcu0ion. ^

An alphabet being nothing but the figured elements of
fpeech, and fpeech confiding of articulated founds, we are to
examine thofe diftind founds which man has it in his power to
form for the purpofe of his fpeech, and alfo all the pradicable
articulations proper for modifying his vocal founds.

The vocal power of man is, from experience, found to be
divided into ieven diftindl notes, and this power is reprefented
by a line divided into fix equal parts, which forms feven equal
diftinftions of his perfed founds.

The letter i is here a£Bxed to the mod acute or highed of
thofe notes of vocal found, and u is the written fign affixed to
die lowed, or the note which is naturally mod grave. In a
middle place between thofe two extremes, in this vocal capacity
of man, is placed the found, which is confidered as correfpond-
Ifig to the letter a.

Thus, we have the radical alphabet, of the perfedl vocal
found in the letters i, a^ u. All the other founds are then ne-
ceflarily comprehended between that middle vowel and the two
extremes. This determined fpace of vocal found is then fub-
divided, the upper half, or highed fpace, into the vowels e and
ly, the lower, again, into thofe of 0 and v..

Thus we complete the feven perfedl notes of human voice
or vocal founds > and thefe are all defined or didinguiihed, in
defcribing the gradual change or regular modification of the
organ, which is necefiary in founding each.

But befides the feven perfedl vowels which compofe what
may be termed the radical alphabet of human fpeech, there are
two femitones, placed fomewhere between the middle note,

and

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8 HisroRr of the so CI Err.

and thofe on each extreme. This is exemplified in the ufe of
fpeech ; although hitherto no letter has been contrived for
thofe two di(lin(5lions of our voice, which are found in the words
this and thus.

The vocal powers of man being thus determined by nature,
and defined in fcience, it is neceflTary, in order to complete the
alphabet, to have the various articulators of the vocal found ex-
amined, with a view to fee how far all the organical powers of
man have been pradlifed for the purpofe of his fpeech, and
alfo to underftand the nature of thoft improper articulators
which may be occafionally employed.

As the diftindlions in the vocal found of man are fo limited,
and as the ideas to be exprefled in his fpeech ar« fo multifarious,
it is necefifary to compound thofe diflindt founds by means of
articulations, which are either prefixed or fubjoined to the ex-
preffion of vocal found.

Consonants are thus formed ; and thefc may be diftio-
guifhed in two different refpedls ; firjl^ by the pofition of the
organ in which they are formed j and, idly^ by the operation
of the breath which is employed to make them audible. It is
only in thus analyfing the fubjedl, that thofe confonants, or tl^e
articulating powers, may be underftood.

There are five pofitions of the organ by which the vocal
fbtmd is to be articulated ; and thefe muft be underftood, be-
fore the operation of the founding organ in forming confonants,
can be explained. Thefe pofitions, with their refpeiSlive modi-
ficattions, therefore, are now to be defcribed.

The firjl pofition is formed by the clofe jundlion of the
lips, fo as no breath is fuffered to tranfpire ; and this is the
firft modification of this pofition, when the paflage of the
breath or found, by the nofe, is (topped, and may be termed
the oral modification. In this manner ^re formed the letters
p and h.

The

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niSfORr of the SOCIETr. ^

The Jecond modification of this firft pofition, tvhich may bi
termed the nafal modification, is formed by opening the com-
munication or exit by the nofe, and fuffering the found oi^
breath to pafs that way. In this cafe the letter m is founded.

The fecond pofition is forpied by the application of thd
under lip to the fore teeth of the upper jaw, which does not
form an abfolute interruption to the breath, but fuffers it to
pafs in an audible manner, by means of the reftraint with
which it is ip/ide to pafs. In this manner are produced the
letters / and ti.

The third pofition is formed by a fimilar application of the
tongue to the fore teeth, and a fimilar exprefllon of the breath ;
thus producing the two confonants 6 and th.

The fourth pofition is formed by the application of the point
or fore part of the tongue, to the root of the fame teeth, or fore
part of the palate. This forms a pofition that may be varioully
modified, by means of the great volubility of this member
which is thus applied.

In the firjl of thefe modifications, the tongue is applied
clofely to the palate, fo as to fofm an abfolute interruption of
the breath, in a fimilar manner to that of the firft pofition. It
may be therefore terthed the mute modification of this pofition.
In this mute modification are formed the confonants / and d.

In the fecond modification, the tongue is not kept clofe fixed
to the palate, but fufiTers the breath to be expreffed in an audi-
ble manner, fimilar to thofe of the fecond and third pofitions.
This, then, may be termed the fibilating modification, by which
are expreffed the / and 2.

In the third modification, the paffage of the breath between
the point of the tongue and the palate is opened, and that by
turns, in a quick or tremulous vibration. It may therefore be
termed the vibratory modification, by which the letter r is
formed.

Vol. 11. (B) . In

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io HIS TORT of the SOCIETK

In the fourth modification, the paflage of the breath or found
is not interrupted in any degree, but is made to pafs in a very
peculiar manner through the mouth. For this purpofe the
tongue is clofely, applied to the fore part of the palate, but it is
retraced on each fide, fo as to leave an open fpace. A free paf-
fage is thus preferved for the breath which goes under the
tongue and out of the mouth. This may be termed the liquid
modification, in which is formed the fonorous letter /.

The fftb and Iq^ modification is formed by (hutting thofe
lateral paflTages for the breath which were opened in the laft mo-
dification, and at the fame time fuffering the found to pafs by
the nafal pafFage, in the fame manner as in the fecond modifi-
cation of the firft pofition. Thus we produce the letter «, in
what may be termed the nafal modification,

The fftb pofition is formed in all refpeds like the fourth,
but only by a different part of the tongue and palate. There
are therefore the fame number of modifications in this pofition
as in the former; and thefe, correfponding in their nature,
may be denominated in the fame manner.

We have thus the letters k and ^ formed in the mute modifi.
cation ; the Jh and j in the fibilating modification j the gut-
tural or Northumbrian r in the vibrator^ modification ; the
Spanifti //, or the French / mouilUe^ in the liquid modification ;
and the guttural «, or Englifh ng^ in the nafkl modification.

The feveral pofitions of the organ, with , their different mo-
difications, being thus underftood, the formation of the confo-
nants, and articulations, of voice, by the aAion of the breath
and found, may 6e now explained.

In all the pofitions of the articulating organ, there is either
employed the fimple afpiration of the breath, or a found pro-
duced in the windpipe, and modified in the articulating organ.
Thus, in all the pofitions, and in feveral of their modifications,
there are produced two diftindl articulators, according either as
found is emitted along with the articulation, or only the breath

employed

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HtSrORr of the SOCIETr. It

employed without any other found. Hence the diftindlion of
mutes and confbnants among the articulators of voice.

But in each of thefe diftindlions of mutes and confonants,
there is to be made a fub-diftin<5lion, according as the articula-
tor is either perfedl or imperfedl, whether as a mute or as a
confonant. Each of thefe will now require fome explanation.

The perfeft mute can only take place in thofe portions, in
which the breath is abfolutely interrupted by the clofe or im-
pervious organ ; and this does not happen in the fecond and
third pplitions, and only in fome of the modifications of the
fourth and fifth.

This mute articulator is formed, either by interrupting the
vocal found with the clofe pofition, in which cafe it is a final •
articulator j or by beginning to exprefs the vocal found in this
clofe pofition, when it forms, upon opening the paflage^ an ini^
tial articulator.

There are juft three articulators of this kind, correfpond-
ing to the three pofitions in which the organ may be abfolutely
clofed, in relation to the exit of the breath. Thefe are p in
the firft pofition, t in the fourth pofition, and k in the fifth po«
fition.

The imperfedl mute is formed by emitting a guttural found,
or that of the windpipe, in thofe three pofitions of the mute
arnculator. The found here is extremely limited j for it is ne-
ceflarily rcftrided to that quanti^ of breath which may be ex-
pelled through the founding windpipe, in comprefilng the air,
or diftending the cavity of the clofe organ. Thefe fliort founded
articulators may therefore be termed imperfedl mutes.

Thb^, //and^, are the three imperfedl mutes, correfpond-
ing to the three ablblute mutes, py t^ k, of the tfrft, fourth and
fifth pofitions.

In the fibilating articulators of the fecond and third pofitions,
and of the fecond modification of the fourth and fifth pofitions,
the breath may be continually emitted, either, with thfe fimple

(B 2) expiration^

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12 HisroRr of tbi sociErr.

expiration, or attended with the guttural found. This then
forms two cafes of articulation, differing from each x)ther,
and alfo from the other two cafes of mute articulation ; feeing
that in the prefent cafe, whether the confonant be formed with
a guttural found, or only an audible afpiration, it is a conti-
nued thing, and is not neceflarily terminated, as in the mutes,
by the clofe pofition of the organ. Now, as in the cafe of
mutes, we have the diftindlion of perfedl and impcrfedl, with
regard to that fpecies of letter, fo, in the cafe of confonants,
we have a fpecies which is perfect, and one which is imperfed*
The imperfcdl fpecies of confonant-articulators, is formed
in the four iibilating poiitiotis and modifications juft now men-
^tioned, viz* the / in the fecond pofition, the 6 in the third po-
fition, the / in the fibilating modification of the fourth, and
the Jb iq that of the fifth pofition.

To perfe<fl thofe four confonants, we have but to add the
guttural found to the continued expiration ; and we then pro-
duce of the / the v^ of the 6 the th^ of the / the z, and of the
Jh the J.

W£ have now only remaining the nafal modification of the
firft pofition, which gives the confonant m j the vibratory mo-
dification of the fourth and fifth pofitions, which give two fpe-
cies, of the letter r j the liquid modifications, which give two
fpecies of the letter /; and the nafal modifications of thofe two
lad pofitions, which give two fpecies of the letter n. In none
of all thefe, is there formed a diftiniSl articulator,, by means of
the fimple afpiration ; confequently all thefe are perfe^fl confo-
nants.

The alphabet is thus completed, in* comprehending every
pofilble vowel and articulator which are proper for diftindt
fpeech, except the audible afpiration of the letter b ; and this
is a general articulator, which is formed in many different pofi-
tiona of the vocal orgao.

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HISrORr of the SOCIETr. . i^

As the pcrfedl ^wels may be either prolonged with tl:^ ex-
pirated breath, or cut (hort by a change in the modifying br-
gan, we have the means of adding quantity to the fpecifying
founds of fpeech, whereby another diftincflion is formed of our
vocal founds^

We have alfo the power of compounding vocal founds fdr
the increafe of the radical alphabet of vowels, which is fo li-
mited.

Diphthongs and confoqant-vowelsi or rather articulating
vowels^ are formed in the following manner : ^The diphthong,
by founding both vowels equally in the time of one ; the con-
fonant- vowel again, by an unequal divifion of this time, or by
Aiding quickly from the .pofition of the two extreme vowels i
and 2r, to the vocal found which is to be thus articulated.

Having thus (hown that there is in nature a perfedt alpha-
bet as the principles of fpeech, at leaft that there is an alphabet
which is perfectly definable in fcience, it is propofed to adhere
firi&lj to this alphabet as the principles of writing, with a
view to perfe<a fpeech, in having diftindl founds ; and to per-
fed writing, in having fteady principles for the commutation
of found and figure*

To give fomc ideapf this ; there are juft two pradicable
ways of writing 4>eech with any manner of advantage. Thefe
are either by figuring fimple founds, which is the alphabetical
method, or by figuring compound founds, which is the verbal
method.

The £ngli(h method, which {hould be alphabetical, is not
truly fo, feeing it has departed egregioufly from its principles,
in fo far adopting the other method ; thiB is that of typifying
words by means of figns, which are not expreflivc of the found,
but of the fenfe ; whereas it fhould employ only thofe figns
which have afSixed to them an unalterable expreflion, not of
the fenfe, but of the found. We write a word by a combina-
tion of letters, not properly expreflivc of the fpeech which we

pronounce,

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14 HISfORr of the SOCIETr.

pronounce, but conventionally Ipecifying the word which we
then render into fpeech.

The advantages arifing from a ftridl adherence to the fcien-
tific method of the alphabet, are of two kinds ; one relating
imnoLediately to the people who would thus acquire great facility
in learning to read and write ; the other relating immediately
to the language, which would thus become uniform and fteady,
and would avoid corruption.

If a perfon has learned to write every vocal found, and every
articulation which his organs form for the ufe of fpeech, all
which are coihprifed within the compafs of the alphabet^ he
has it in his power to write any fpeech which he is able to pro-
nounce* He would alfo write that fpeech precifely in the man-
ner that every other perfon, who has learned the alphabet, muft
render it again in reading.

Now, if a language fhould be thus perfedlly reprefented in
the writing, the perfedlion of our fpeech might be, in this man-
ner, communicated among^the learned of the nation^ and the
improvements of our fpeech would be difperfed with our wri-
tings, by means of the improvement of our fcience*

But if, in writing our language, any other method is pur-
fued, which is different from the fciontific analyfis of our
fpeech, and elemental charadlerifing of our vocal founds, there
will then be no fixed relation between our writing and the pro-
nunciation of our language ; and, in that cafe, no literary per-
fedlion in our education, will have any tendency to improve the
language of the nation.

With regard to a reformation of our prefent method, if, on
the one hand, the orthographical pradice of this nation has
only deviated from the truth of fcience in a fmall degree, itr
may be eafily corrected by the exertion of literary men, when
they confider the danger of fuch a growing evil.

Now, that there is truly danger in the cafe, muft appear
by confidering how little apprehenfion there is in general of this

error

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BISrORr of the SOCIETr.

error in our practice, notwithftanding the length to which it is
arrived.

If, on the other hand, our writing has departed much from
the rules of juft orthography, in that cafe, however well dif-
pofed for a reformation, it is not in the power of a few indi-
viduals, to make fo great a change in the literary fyftem of the
country, as this reformation would require.

But if there is to be acknowledged any advantage in the al-
phabetical method, the very difficulty of undertaking fuch a
reformation, aflTords the flrongeil argument for the expediency
of the meafure.

This will appear by confidering, that in departing from the
alphabetical rule, we lofe the literary advantage of the elemental
method ; at the fame time, we do not derive from the verbal
method, then fo far purfued, that benefit which the Chinefe
have, in compenfation for their want of alphabetical ortho-
graphy.

The corruption of the Chinefe orthography may naturally
lead to the introdudlion of the alphabetical method. But the
corruption of the alphabetical method, while it introduces a
real difficulty and confufion into our orthography, is attended
with no advantage, except perhaps the ideal pleafure of fome
fpeculative men, when in purfuit of the derivation of the lan-
guage.

Pbyf. CI. Dr Walker, Profeflbr of Natural Hiftory, read
a paper on Petrifadlion, by Everardus Joannes ThoMassen
a Theussi NCK, of Zwoll in Holland.

1 786,

July 3.
Thomaflen on
petrificttton. .

Lit. CI. Dr HuTTON read a continuation of his Differta-
tion on Written Language as a Sign of Speech. [See fupra,
June 19.]

July 17^
Dr Mutton on
written Ian-
guage.

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1)86.

Nov. 6.

Major Will tarns*
experiments oa
congelation.

HtsrORT of the SOCIEfK

iKov. 10.

t>t Hutton on
written lan-
guage.

Nov. a7#

General Meet-
ing.

Dec. 4*
Dr Home on
the comparative
ftrength of dif-
ferent tonics in •
djfpepfia.

Letter relative
to the kraken.

Pbyf. CI. Mr Robison read a Letter from Dr Charles
Hutton, Profeffor of Mathematics in the Military Academy of
Woolwich, coAtaining an Account of fome Experiments on the
Force of Congelation, made at Quebec in 1 784 and 1 785, by
Major Edward Williams of the Royal Artillery, This let-
ter and account are printed in this volume. [No. V. Pbyf. CL]

Lit. CL Dr Hutton read the remainder of his Diflcrta-
•tion on Written Language as a Sign of Speech. [See fupra,
June 19.]

A GEKERAL Meeting of the Society was held for the annual
eledtion of the OfBce-bearers of the Society. [Sec Vol. L Ap-
pendix to the Hiftory of the Society.]

Pbyf. CL Dr Francis Home read an Account of fbme Ex-
periments on the comparative Strength of different Tonics in
Dyfpepfia.

At the fame Meeting, a Letter was read from John Ramsay
L'amy, lEfq; one of the Juftices of Peace for the county of
Forfar, and Mr John Guild, one of the Magiftrates of Dun-
dee, inclofing an affidavit made before them, of Jens Ander-
son, mafter, and Mads Jenson, mate of a Norwegian Ihip,
relating to the appearance of a fuppofed kraken or fea-worm,
on Sunday, Auguft 5. 1786. about 15 leagues to the eaftward
of the coaft of Scotland, in north latitude 56.16. The appear-
ance was that of three low iflands or fand-banks of a grayifh
colour, within lefs than a mile's diilance from the (hip, and ex-
tending about three miles from the one extremity to the other.
It remained in fight about fifty minutes, and upon the fpring-
ing up of a breeze, gradually funk into the waiter. The ac-
count contains no further particulars worthy of notice, and is
perfe<5Wy confident with the idea of this being nothing more

than

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HisroRr of the socizrr.

than a fog-bank, of which the appearances are familiar to ma*
riners. . .

Lit. CL Mr John Robison, General Secretary, read part of
a Diflertation by the Reverend Mr Walter Young, Minifter
of Erfkine, on Mufic and Poetry, The Diflertation is printed
in this volume. [No, III. Lit. CI.} •

Pbyf. CI. The Secretary read an Account by Dr Charles
HuTTON of Woolwich, of fome Experiments made by him to
determine the Refiftance of the Air to Bodies moved through
it. This Accoimt is publifhed in this volume. [No. VI.
Pfyf. a]

I786.

Dec. z8.
Mr Young on
mafic aad poe-
tor.

1787.

Jan. I.
Dr Qh. Hutton
on the refinance
of the air.

Lit. CI. Mr RoBisoN read a continuation of the Reverend
Mr Young's DifTertation on Mufic and Poetry, printed in this
volume. [No. III. Lit. C/.]

A GENERAL Meeting of the Royal Society was held for the
eleAion of Members. [See Lift in the Appendix to Vol. I.
Part L]

Jan. 15.
Mr Young on
mufic and poe-
try.

Jan. 11.

General Meet*

ing.

Dr Walker exhibited to the Meeting feveral fpecimens of
natural produdions and artificial rarities which had been pre*
fented to the Society in the courfe of the lafl year. Thefe lyere
ordered to be repofited in a proper place of the Mufseum of the
Univerfity, and a lifl was diredled to be made out, and printed
in the Appendix to the hiflorical part of this volume. [See
Appendix.]

At the fame Meeting, the Secretary prefented to th^ Society
the following, works : Traits Analytique des Mouvemens apparens
des Corps CHefieSy par M. biONis de Sejour ; and EJJai fur la
Fluide EleSrique, par feu M. le Comte de Treflan^ the former

Vol. II. (C) fcAt

Donations to
the SocietjT*

Donations to
the Society.

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HISrORr of the SOCIETK

1787.

fent to the Society by the author, the latter by M. l'Abbe
Tress AN, the authorVfon. The Secretary alfo prefented from
Dr Blane his Obfervations on the Difeafes oif Seamen. Thefe
books are in the lift of donations printed in Vol. I. of the So-
ciety's Tranfaiflions.

Feb. J. Pb^. CI. Mr Profeflbr Robison read a Comparifon of the

tu Gwrg^oT Theory of the Motion of the New Planet, read by him laft
year,, with fome additional obfervations made by him fince.
[See Vol. I. No. XI. Pbyf. CI.]

Volcanic erup-
tions in Iceland.

At the fame Meeting, Dr Walker read an Extradl from an
Acpount of the Volcanic Eruptions in Iceland during the year

1783-

Feb. i^,
Mr Young on
mafic and poe-
try.

March $,
Ezperimenti by
Dr Home.

Lit. CI. Mr Robison read the remaining part of the Re-
verend Mr Walter Young's Diflertation on Mufic and Poe-
try i which is printed in this volume. [No. IIL Lit. Cl.^

Piyf. CI. Dr Francis Home read an Account of fome
Medical Experiments made by him upon the Digitalis.

March X9.
Dr Beattie on
the fixth bcoK*
of the £neid.

Lit. CI. Mr Dalzel read a Diflertation by Dr James
Beattie, Profeflbr of Philofophy in the Marifchal College of
Aberdeen, entitled, Remarks on fome Paflages of the fixth Book
of the Eneid. This Diflertation is printed in this volume*
[No. 11. Lit.Cl.2

April 1.
Mr Wallace on
the eaft wind.

Pbyf. CI. Geqrge Wallace, Efq; Advocate, read a part of
a Diflertation on the Caufes of the Difagreeableaefs and Cold-
nefs of the Eaft Wind. The author did not incline that any^
abflxa^fliould be given of this Diflertatioa.

Lit^

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MrHaftugs.

HisroRr of the sociErr. 19

1787.

Lit. CL MrMAcoNOCHiE communicated from Robert Bogle April i6.
of Daldowie, Efq; a copy of a letter, written in 1773, by the T>ihooLim«to
Teihoo Lama of Thibet, to Warren Hastings, Elq; Governor-
general of Bengal, while a brother of Mr Bogle's was refiding
at the Lama's court, as envoy from Mr Hastings. R^ Maco-
NocHiB remarked, that the turn of thought and expreffion ren-.
dered the letter a very great curiofity ; but that it was ftill
more interefting on two accounts : firfij That it eflablifhed be-
yond all queflion, that the Teihoo Lama, though a Pontiff of
inferior rank to the Dalai Lama, is underflood to poiOTefs the
foul of faints, or divine perfonages that flourifhed in former
times, and to retain the remembrance of what happened to
them in thofe pad periods of esiftence. ^dly. That the fame
places which are regarded in Bengal as peculiarly facred^ are
likewise regarded by the religion of Fo as holy j that the Teflioo
Lama, in fome of his former dates of exidence, is fuppofed to
have reiided in thofe places ; that the Ganges, fo revered among
the Brahmins, is alfo revered by the worfliippers of Fo ; and
that the reference by the followers of that religion in Japan, tQ
£)me region in India, as the origin and holy land of their
faith, is here afcertained to belong to Bengal. Thefe circum-
dances, he thought, fuggeded very important reflexions with
regard to the hidory of the religions of Eadern Afia.

The letter is as follows :

From Teshoo Lama to the Governor.

Received the 22d July 1775.

" Mr Bogle, whom, out of your kindnefs, you Were pleafed
to fend into this quarter, having (thank Got>) arrived here in
perfedl health, I had, at an aufpicious hour, the pleafure of an
interview with him, and was rendered fo completely happy on
the occafion, that it might in reality have been thought an in-

(G a) ' '* tccview

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20 HISrORr of tie SOCIETK

'* terview with yourfelf. The letter which you addre0ed to me,
" and the prefents you fent by Mr Boole, I have likewife re-
" ceived fafe. May your happinefs and profperity daily in..
" creafe. All the particulars which' Mr Bogle verbally* repre-
** fented to me, 1 perfedlly underftand.. You were pkafed to
" write me, that you had ferit orders for eftablifhing peace with
*' the Debe Doria, agreeable to my requeft. True ; the pleafure
*' thefe particulars gave liie, it is impoffible to exprefs. When
*' you, out of pure friendfliip, are induced thus readily to com-
'* ply with a requeft of mine, what return can I make you for
" it, but offer you my prayers ? You have laid me under an'ob-
*' ligation to you for ever ; and I hope that you will every where
" prove vidlorious and fuccefsfuL What can I fay to you of my
*• own fituation ? In former ages, I repeatedjy received my ex-
" iftcnce froiti Allahabad, Benares, Patoa, Purnea, and other
^' places in Bengal and Oriila ; and having ever enjoyed much
" happinefs from thofc places, I have imbibed a partiality for
'' them ; and a fincere love and a&(5lion fbr their inhabitants
" arc ftrongly impreffed on my heart. The well known place of
'^ Outragund gave ine my laft exiftence; and thanks be to Gob,
'' the inhabitants of this quarter are all content andfatisfied with
" me. Where my fpiritual effence will tranfmigrate to next, will
" hereafter be feen. At prefent, here I fit in this icy country,
" in obedience and fubjedlion to the Emperor of China. I have
*' long had a defire of feeing you, and the dominions and people
** over whom you rule; but hitherto many caufes have occurred
" to prevent me,whattver may happen in future. My travelling fo
" far as your country, to obtain a perfonal interview with you,
" muft, however, be attended with many unfurmountable diffi-
*^ culties, and Providehce has decreed that we fhould be at this
*' neceff^ry diftance from each other. From this confideration,
** I am induced to requeft that you will grant me a piece of
^' ground near the fea-iide, that I may build z houfe of wor-
** ihip thereupon 3 and for the expences of building it^ I have

"fent

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HISrORr of the SOClETr, %x

" feot an hundred pieces of gold by Mr Bogle^ together with
'* fome carpets, cloths, and other neceflaries, which he will (hew
" you, for the decoration of it ; and I requeft that you will do
" me the favour to let the houfe be immediately built, and the
^* \^ngs put up ; and as foon as the cold feafon fets in, I will
" certainly difpatch to jovl fome of my own people, if not fomc
*' of the family of the Lama, who is patron of the Emperor of
'^ China. I hope that you will receive them with kindnefs, and
" fend fome of your own fcrvants with them, to vifit every place
'* of worlhip at Allahabad, Benares^ l^c. for the difcharge of their
" religious duties* As this country is under the abfplute fove-
'' reignty of the Emperor of China, who niaintains an aiflive and
'^ unrelaxed contrcd over all its affairs i and as the forming of any
" conne6lion or friendfhip with foreign powers is contrary to his
" pleafure, it will frequently be out of my power to difpatch any
" mellengers to you. However, it will be impoflible to efface the
** remembrance of you out of my mind; and I fhall always pray
" for the increaie of your happinefs and profperity, and, in re-
** turn, I hope you will frequently favour me with accounts of
•* your health. To avoid troubling you, and intruding longer
" upon your time with my incorredt Ityle, I fhall conclude this,
'^ but beg you will favour me with an anfwer ; and I fhall take
*' an opportunity of addrefling you by every perfon who goes
" firom hence into your part of the world. I have reprefcnted all
*' particulars to Mr Bogle) who will communicate them to you^
'^ and I hope you will confent to them.

[On afeparate paper^J

" Having, in compliance with my requefl, put an end to
" hofUlities with the Debe Raja, and eflablifhed ^ peace with
" him, you have thereby conferred upon me theg;reateft pblrga-
" tion. As a teftimony whereof, I fend you a prefent of a few
'^ things p and; although not worth ac;t:eptance, I beg you will ac*

" cept

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HISrORT of the SOCIETK

«787« " cept of them, merely upon this confidcration, that a green leaf
^ is a prefent from a hermit«

tf(

Li/l of Trefents.

^ 8 pieces of China fatin.
** I filver talent of China.
I Pelong handkerchief.

"I CAN make no fuitable return for your friendfliip from this
'* part of the world, and I hope you will excufe it^ Poorun
" Ker Cushoo will have the honour of paying his refpedls to
" you ; and I hope you will grant him your favour and protec-
*' tion in the bufinefs with which he is entrufted."

Jane 18. Lit. CI. Dr Gregory read a Philological Differtation, en-

the^?S7rf titled, Theory of the Moods of Verbs; which is publifhed in
verb.?'' this volume. [No. IV. L it. CI.'}

Jaly a.

Mr Wallace on
llie eaft wind.

Letter from the
Frefident de
Virly.

On die ufe of
bailie alkali in

the cure of j
Telifli difoj

Toers.

Pbjf. CI. Mr George Wallace read the continuation of
his Diflertation on the Caufes of the Difagreeablenefs and Gold*
nefs of the'Eaft Wind. [See fupra, April 2.]

At the fame Meeting, the following Letter from the Prefident
de Virly, at Dijon, was reac^

j4 Paris ce lomeMars 1787.

" II fera pent 6tre agreable a la Society d'apprendre (Jue Ton
*' a appliqu6 a Dijon, avec fucces un remede que Ton doit a
" un medecin de votre ifle : Talkali cauftique pris int6rieure-
*' ment pour le calcul ou la pierre. M. Durande, medecin
" de cette ville a eu un malade qui avoit rendu beaucoup de
" gravier par les urines, et avoit de grandes douleurs. Le ma-
^^ lade, en mdme tems, ne vouloit pas entendre parler de fe

•' faire

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HISTORr of the SOCIZtY,

(ft

<(.

€(

«(

€1

€i

€t

faire fonder. M. Durande'IuI a admini(lr6 Palkali caufti-
que dans nn bouillon de veau^ qui contenoit ^ peu pres une
livre d'eau. II a commence par dix gouttes, et a fini, en
augmentant la dofe, par radminiflrer jufqu'a quarante
gouttes. Au bout de fix femaines, les accidens avoient telle*
ment cefle que le malade a dit n'avoir plus befoin de rien.
II y a dix moisi et il fe trouve tres bien.
•* Un autre malade a commence le meme remede. Un verre
de fon urine le cinquieme jour de traitement, terns auquel
il prenoit douze gouttes d'alkali cauflique, a €x,€ eflaye. Le
papier de Fernambouc s'eft tres legerement alt^r^. L'eau
charg6e d'air fixe a trouble un verre de cette urine, et y a oc-
cafion£ un tres leger d6pot. On fait que Teau gafeufe re-
prend Talkali a la matiere du calcuL

" On s'etoit aflure par le papier teint a^ec le jus de mauve
que le bqjaillon ne d6naturoit point Talkali cauftique. II faut
avoir foin que Palkali foit bien caullique, et n'aye pas perdu
fa vertu par le contact de Tair.

" Il s'eft prefente a moi un fait en Angleterre, qui, je croia,
n'a pas et6 encore obferv^, C'eft une 6fpece de bafalte artifi*
ciel. £n examinant, aupres de Sheffield, des' mat^riaux pour
r6parer la route, je caffai plufieurs de ces morce^x de terrc
cuite dont on fe fert dans plufieurs endroits de TAngleterre
pour r6parer les chemins. Ces morceaux fe cafToient en
prifmes hexagones tres r^guliers, tels que ceux des bafaltes.
Les differentes perfonnes a qui je les ai montres, notamment
M. Watt, ne les connoifFoient pas. Je n'en avois jamais vu
non plus. Je vous ferai oblige Monfieur, de communiquer
ce fait a.Monf. le Dr Hutton, qui a fait beaucoup d'obfer-
vations, dont on verra furementla publicite avec grand plai*
fir. J'ai Phonneur d'etre,*' i^c.

ijSj.

Of tn artificial:
bafaltes.

Lit. a. Dr Gregory read the continuation of his Theory of
die Moods of Verbs, publifhcd in this volume. [No. IV. Litl CL]

Jtily i6j
Dr Gregory on
the raoodf of
verbs.

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1787.

Auguft 6.
New fpecies of
cochineal.

HisTORr of the socizrr.

Pbyf.Cl. Dr James Anderson laid before the Society a
fpecimen of a new fpecies of cochineal, lately difcovered on the
coaft of Coromandel by James Anderson, M. D. Phyfician-
general at Madrafs.

Count do Win-

difchgratz*s

probUm.

Kov. 5.
Mr Lochead on
the nat. hift. of
Madeira*

Nov. 19.
Mr Dalzel on
the Gi:^ek 1.

Nov. a 6.

General Meet-
ing.

Dec. 3*

Dr Hatton'fl
anfwers to M
de Luc.

At the fame Meeting, Mr Commiffioner Smith acquaint-
ed the Society, that the Count de Windischgratz had
tranfmitted to him three Diflertations, offered as folutions of
his Problem, [See Tranfadlions, Vol. I. Hift. of the Soc. p. 37.
& 45.] and had delired the judgment of the Society upon their
merits. The Society referred the confideration of thefe papers
to Mr Smith, Mr Henry Mackenzie of the Exchequer, and
Mr William Craig, Advocate, as a Committee to perufe and
confider them, and to report* their opinion to the Society at a
fubfequent Meetings

Pbyf. CI. Dr Walker, Profeffot of Natural Hiftory, read
part of a Diflertation, written by Mr Loghead, on the Natural
Hiftory of Madeira,

/
Lit. CI. Mr Dalzel read the continuation of his Dif-
fertation on certain Analogies obferved by the Greeks in the
ufe of their Letters j and particularly of the Letter 2, [See
fupra^ Dec. 19. 1785.]

A general Meeting of the Royal Society was held for the
eleiSlion of Genial OfEccrbearers for the enfuing year ; when
all thofe of the preceding year were re-eledled.

Pbyf. CI. Dr James Huttok read Anfwers by him to the
Objeftions of M. de Luc, with regard to his Theory of Rain,
(publifhed in Tranfadions, Vol. I. No. II. Pbyf. CI.) Thefe
Anfwers are printed in this volume, [No. Villi Pbyf CI.}

Lit.

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HIS TORT of the SOCIETr.

»i

Lit. CI. Mr Dalzbl read an Eflay on the Standard of
Tafte, and on the Nature and Hiftory of Criticifm. . He did
not inclme that tjib Eflay, or any abftradt of it, fliould be
printed in this volume.

He alfo read a fhort Eflay by the Reverend Mr Robertson,
Minifter of Dahneny, on the Subjundivc Mode in Englifli Verbs,
and on Jball^and will. The author did not 'incline that any
account of this Eflay fliould be given in this volume.

Pbyf. CI. Dr Walker read a continuation of Mr Lochead*8
paper on the Natural Hiftory of Madeira, [SeeyZ(^r^i,Nov. 5. 1787.]

Lit. CI. MrMACOKOCHiE read a paper containing Obferva-
tiona refpedting the Country, Religion, Political Inftitutions,
and Sciences of the Hindoos.

1787.

Dec. 17*
MrDalzel on
the ftandard of
tafte.

Mr Robertfim

on the fabjunc-
tive mode in
EngUih verbSb

178S.

Jin. 7.
Mr Lochead os
the nut. hift. of
Madeira.

Jan. av.
MrMaconocUe
•o the Hiodooii

At the fame Meeting-, Mr Commiffioner Smith reported the Rnwi and

, , * * jttdcoient rela^

opinion of the Committee appointed to examine the three Dif- tive to the
fertations offered as Solutions of the Count de Windisch- difchgrats*s

^ probleiiii

GRATz's Problem, [See fupra, Aug. 6. 1787.]; which was^
That none of the three DiflTertations amounted, either to a folu-
tion, or to an approximation towards a folution of that pro-
blem. The Committee, however, intimated their opinion, that
one of thefe DifTertations, fuperfcribed with the following fen-
tence. Si quid novijli reBius ijlisy &c. though neither a folution
of the problem nor an approximation to it, was a work of great
merit« The Royal Society, hereupon, pronounced their judg-
ment in terms of the faid report; and they requelledMr Fraser
Tytler to tranfmit this judgment, and the opinion of the
Committee^ by a letter to the Count de Windischoratz..

A GENERAL Meeting of the Royal Society was* held for the jhn.29.
eledtion of Members. [See Lift in the Appendix to the Hiftory 9^ ^^
of the Society.]

Vol. IL (D) Fbyf.

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Feb. 4.
SirTaitiet Hall
on LiiTOtfief'i
theory of che-
miftiy.

msronr ©/ tu socrtrr.

Pbyf.CL Sir jAiiEV HAm.^ BaroiMti read part of a ^aper
^jltidcdr A View of M. tAVOisii^R^s new Theory of Chcimftrjr.
He did not incline that vhii paper, or any a^ftrad of it, fhould
be printed in this volume.

Feb. iS.
Dr Hill on fjr-
tionymoiu
words.

March 5.
Sir Umet Hall
on I^TOifier's
chemiftrj.

Lit. Cl. Dr John Hill read part of an Eflay on Synony*
mous Words. As this EfFay forms part of a larger wolrk. Which
is not yet completed, the aiithor did not chvrfe thaf any abftraA
of it (honld be given in this volume.

Phyf. CL Sir James Hall t-eiad a fecond part of his paper
on M. Lavoisier's new Theory of Chemiftry. \Sttfupra^
Feb. 4.]

Splriu billed
Irom ctrrots.

At the fame Meeting, the Secretary read a communication
from Dr Hunter and Mr HornAy of Yoric, refpefting the
Diftillation of Ardent Spirits from Carrots. A fpecimen of the
Spirits' had likewife been fenttothe Royal Society. The So-
cifety appointed Dr Black, Dr Hutton, and Mr Jambs Rus^
sell, furgeon, to examine thiis account, together with the fpe-
cimen of the fpirits,'and to report upon the fame.

March 17.
Biographical
account of the
Lord Prefident
Duodai.

Mr Ramfay on
the funeral rites
of the High-
landers.

April 7.
Mr Robifon on
the motion of
light

Lit. Cl. Mr Eraser TVTLEft read a Blographicil Account
of the late Lord Prefident Dundas ; which is publiflied in this
volume. [Appendix to the Hiftory of the Society.]

Mr trofeflbrFlNLAVSON read a Diflbrtation by John Ram-
say, Efq; of Auchtertyre, on the Funeral Rites of the High*
landers.

Pbyf. Cl. Mr Playfair i^ead ti paper by Mr John Robison,
Profeflbr of Natural Philofophy, on the Motion of Light, as
affefted by RefraiSHng and Rdfletfling Subftances, which arc
alfo in motion. This paper is pubHihtd in this volume. INo. XI.
Pb^f. CL]

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HISTORY of the SOCIETY, %f

At ditt'&me Meeting', Sir Jamib Hall read die concluding g. ^'^
part of his View of M. LAVorsiE«*8 Theory of ' Cliemiftiy. o^jffw*
[See fuftra, Feb. 4. and March 3. 1788.]

IM» Ck' Mr Henry Ma<:k£«zfe> read an* Account' of the Kgnui.
German Theatre, with Remains up(»i Dramatic Performances «tbeOcnaw
in genend. This paper is printed in this volume. [No. V.
Liu CL

ihubci.

Pby/, CI, Dr Hutton read a paper on Phlogifton, in an- Mays-
fwer to th^ Obfbrvations of Sir Jam£8 Hall, in Kis Account phiogiftoo.
of M. Lavoi»br'8 Ghemiftpy. -

Pbyf. Ch THSiSeciety mat Aib day extra ordinem. Dr Hi^T- ftfty m.
TQiN r^ad foous tother Obfervationa <m Phlogifton ; and Sir sitj^iSk
Jajibs Hali^ read u paper in reply to DrHuTTON'a former ^"p"^*^^'*-

Obfenrationron tkat fubjedt*

•

A QBKZBjiL Mec^Bg of the^Royal Sociecy was keld for the jnneas;
deaioa of Me^bers^ [See/ Lift ia the Appendix to the Hiftory ^^ ^^^
of the Society^}

Pbyf^ CL A&' Account was read by Dr James Anderson, jtiiy 7-
of thirteen letters from Jamm Andbrsom, M.D. Phyfician-at anewf^des^tS*
Madrafs, to Sir Joseph Ban Ks^ F. R.& Lond* refpeding the ^•*^*°"*-
Difcovery of a new fpeciea of CochineaL [See fupra^ Aug. 6.
1787-]

UuGl. Mr Dalzbl read a Piflertatien by Mr THaMAs I^^^*'-

t> nif.n ^-n.^ -^ ^% r\ rf» Mr Robertfon

RoiulRTsow, Mmilter of Dalmeny, on the Character of onAc^hw^i«
SHAKMBEAiiE-'s Hamlet* This paper is printed in this to^

(i) 2) Phyf.

of Hamlet.

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Ncrr.3.

Mr SmaU •!!
veatilatioD.

HISTORr 4 tb€ SQCIETr.

Pbyf. Ck Mr Dalzel read an Eflay on Ventilation^ by
Alexander Small, Efquirc.

fromViSii^^ At the fame Meeting, a Report was prefented from Dr
Black, Dr Hutton, and Mr Russjell, on Dr Hunter and
Mr Hornby's procefs for producing an ardent fpirit* from
jcarrots. [See fupra^ March 3, 1788.] The report is as follows :

We have examined the fample of fpirits, which was fent by
Dr Hunter of York to the Royal Society, and we have read
the account of the experiment on the fermentation and diftilla-
tion of carrots by which the faid fpirit was produced. The
experiment was made by Mr Thomas Hornby, dniggift in
York, with one ton and eight (lone of carrots, which, after
being expofed to the air a few days to dry, weighed 160 ftone,
and meafured 42 bufhels ; they were wafhed, topped and tailed,
by which they loft in weight 1 1 ftone, and in meafure feven bu-
fhels 5 being then cut, they were boiled with the proportion of
24 gallons of water to one third of the above quantity of car-
rots, until the whole was reduced to a tender pulp, which was
done in three hours boiling. From this pulp, the juice was
eafily extradted by means of a prefs, and 200 gallons of juice
were produced from the whole. This juice was boiled again
with one pound of hops five hours, and then cooled to 66 of
Fahrenheit, and fix quarts of yeaft being added, it was fet
to ferment. The ftrong fermentation lafted 48 hours, during
which time the heat abated to 58 of Fahrenheit ; 12 gallons
of unfermented juice, which had been referved, were then
heated and added to the liquor, the heat of which was thus
raifed again to 66^ and the fermentation was renewed for 24
hours more, the air of the brewhoufe being all this time at
. 46 and 44. The liquor was now turned, and continued to
work three days from the bung ; and, laftly, it was diftilled,
and the firft diftillation was re^ified next day without any ad-
dition.

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HISrORr of the SOCIEtr. »9

dition* The produce was twdve* gallons, of the fame quality '788.

i?eith the fample. •

In our examination of this fample, we found it refembled a
corn fpirit in flavour, but was equal to a com fpirit of the bed
kind, and it was a proof fpirit.

Thb refufe .of the carrots weighed 48 (lone, which, added to
the tops and tails,, made provifion for hogs, befide the walh from
the dill, which meafured 114 gallons.

From this experiment, Dr Hunter draws the followiag
comparifbn between the diftillation of caiTots and that of grain :

20 tons of carrots, which will make 200 gallons of proof
ipirits, may be bought for L. 16.

8 quarters of malt, or ratkier the materials for diftillation,
coniifting of malt, wheat and rye, may be bought for L« 16,
and will alfo make 200 gallons of proof fpirit.

•The refufe from the carrots will be 960 (lone, which, at i d.
per done,' will fell for L. 4.

The refufe or grains from the malt, l^c. will be 64 bufliels,
each buQiel weighing about 3 ftone, which, at i d. per ftone,
will fell for 1 6 s.

The Dodor, however, fuppofes,^that the manufadluring of
the fpirit from carrots may be attended with more expence than
the manufa<5luring of it from malt ; but imagines that the greater
value of the refufe may compenfate for that expence, and that
the faving of corn for other purpofes^ is an object worthy of
attention and of encouragement.

(Signed) Joseph Black.

i^tb May 1788. James Russell.

Jambs Hutton.

Pbyf. CI. ,Dr William Wright, F. R. S. Lorid. read a Bo- i>ec:x.
tanical and Medical Account of the Quaffia Simaruba ; which ^^^^l^
is printed in this volume. [No. X. Pbyf. CL] ^^

At .

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3«

jii^roRT of the so.crzm

1788.

Dec» I.

At the iame MeetiAg^ Sir Jambs: Haxl. read*, a i^tper on the
p!^ft«Mie.^'' Formation of Pumice Stone.

MrieOie on MtPlatfair read a papers b7 Mr Johw Leslis^^ on tht'

^^"^d^ Solution of certain indeterminate Prd»Iema in Madiematiea.
probieai. j^^ ^^^^ j^ printed iu this volume. [No. XIV. Fbxf. CI.^

Dee. 15.
DrHiUon^.

wordsL

LiV. ^/. Dr John Hill read a continuadonr of his Eflay on
Synonymous Words. [See fupra^ Feb* 18. 17W.]

APPEN-

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APPENDIX.

January 1. 1790.

LIST of Members or Fellows qf tbe Royal Society of
EtUnburgb, continued from January x.. 1788. wben tbe JSr/l Vo'
lime was pubUJbed,

Omitted by miftake ini^e former List.

* Robert Hamilton, M. D. Fellow of die^^Royal College of 'I4iyfi-
dansi and Phyfician at Lynn Regisy tnNorf<^ i*. ^

The £>llowing were eleiSted at the General Meedng, Jan. 28. McAben cIm.

1788. I7W.

I. llBSIDBNt.

Mr Robert Ker, Surgeon in Edinburgh. P,

2. Non-resident.

miliamHamiiton,MjiA. ?dlow of >Trimty College, Dublin. L,
Robert Adam^ Efq; Architedt to King George IIL and QueeA

Charlotte, F. R. S. -& S. A. Land. &c. L,
Caleb Wbiteford, Efq; Lond. £. •
Major-general Wi//w«»'i?a)',' Fl R.S.' Lond. P,
George Dempjer, Efq; of Thinnichen. Z.
Cbaries Thomas Hope, M. D. Profe0br of Medicine .in ttie Univer-

fity of Glafgow. P.

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3« HISTORr of the SOCI^TK

Mr yobn Rennie, Engineer, London. P.
Lieutenant Robfrt ArbutbnoU L.

3. Foreign.
M. L'Abb^ Raynal,

MtaAmAo. The following wcrc deded at the General Meeting, June 23.
i7«t. 1788.

I. Resident.
TTromas Spens, M. D. Edinburgh. P.
Lewis Alexander Grants Efq; of Grant, Advocate. L»
David Sniyt^,'Eic{} of Mdthveh. £.
(Starles Hope^'ESq;, AA^ocztt* L^.
John Wilde f Efq; Advocate. . L.

The Reverend Mr William ffU^die) Minifter of St Andrew's
Church, Edinburgh. L»

2. NON-RESIMNT* '

Robert Clegborny M. D. Glafgow. P. ' '

Robert Bogle, Efq; of Daldowie, £..
William UJler^ M. D% Load..

Memben eho- Thb followuig wcpe clcdled at thc General Meetine, Tan. 26.

fen, Jin. %S. ^o o' J

171^. 1789.

I. Non-resident.

Bartbolamew Parr^ M. D. of Exeter. P.
John Drummondy M. D. of Jamaica. P.
Jobn Ogilvy^ D. D. Minifter at Midmar. JU
General Robert Melvil. L.

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APPENDIX. 33

2. Foreign.
M. Guyotf of Paris.

Mr Jefferfon, Minifter Plenipotentiary from the States of Ame-
rica, at Parjs. ,

The following were eledled at the General Meeting, June 29. MembeMcko-
1789. *-fi9-

1. Non-resident.

John Thomas Stanley , Efq; of Alderley in Chefhire, F. A. S. Lond.

2,* Foreign.

Henry Engelbart^ M. D. Profeflbr of the Pradice of Phyfic in

the Univerfity of Lunden.
Joachim Ramm^ M. D. of Riga.

Vot. IL ^ ^E) Of FICR-

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HISTORV of tbc SQCIETK

Office-Bearers of the Society.

^erti office. Office-Bearers cleded for the enfuing year, at the General
Meeting held for that purpofe, Nov. 30. 1789.

Prefident.
His Grace the Duke of Buccleugh.

Vice-Prefidents.
Right Hon. Henry Dundas. j Lord Dunjinnan.

Secretary.
Mr John Rabiforip

Treafurer.
Mr Alex. Keitb.

Clounfellors.

Dr James Hutton.
Mr Geo. Twgujfon.
Mr Benjamin B'ell.
Mr Dugald Stewart.
Dr Daniel Rutherford.
Dr James Gregory.^

Lord I^liock.

Major-Gen. Fletcber^Campbell.

Mr Commiffioner Edgar.

Sir William Miller^ Bart.

Dr Adam Fergufon.

Lord Dregborn.

Office*

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oftbecUfiei.

. A P P END T X, 35

Opfice-Bbareks of the two Classes. SKSf*

Physical Class.

Preiidents.

Dr William Cullen. \ Dr Alexander Monre.

TiT Francis Home. \ T>t Jofepb Black.

Secretaries.
Dv John Walker. \ Uv John Playf air "^ .

Literary Class.

Prefidents.

Mr Baron Gordon. I Df William Robert/on.

Mr Commiflioner Smith. \ Dr Hugh Blair.

H © Secretaries.

Mr Alex. Frafer tytler. \ Mr Andrew Dalzel.

• Who had alfo been elcacd at the General Meeting, Jnine 29, i7«9, om Ac refignateon
of Dr Gregorj.

(E 2) List

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36 HISraRr-oftbe SOOIETr.

List of M£Ji»£!i« deoeafed, contmued from the firft volume.

Hary SpenSj D. D. Profeflbr of Divinity in the Univerfity of

St Andrew's. November 27. 1787.
The Right Hon. Robert Dundas of Arnifton, Lord Prefident of

the Court of Seffion. December 13. 1787.
John Dry/dale^ D. D. one of 'the Minifters of Edinburgh, Deaii

of the Chapel Royal, and Principal Clerk to the .Church of

Scotland. June 16. 1788. '
John Macfarlan^ D. D. Minifter of Canongate, and Almoner to

his MajeflTy. December 24. 1788.
The Reverend Mr John Logan^ formerly one of the Minifters

of Leith. December 28. 1788.
The Right Hon. Sir Thomas Miller^ of Glenlee, Baronet, Lord

Prefident of .the Court of Seffion, September 27. 1789.

• . ...

FomiGN Members deceafed*

M. le Comte de Buffon. April 16. 1788.
Petrus Camper^ M. D. Holland. 1789-0

Since the publication of the preceding volume, the follow-
ing BioGRAPHicAx. Accounts have been read at different
Meetings of the Claffes.

L Ac-

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APPENDIX. 57

I. AccouKT cf the Right BoHMriible Robert DvwDAi of
Arnifion, Urd Preftdent of the Court of Sejfion in Scotland^
F.ILS. Edik. fcf^.

[Read fy Alex. Frjser Tztler, E/qj Advocate, March 17. 1788.]

ROBERT DUNDAS of Arniftott, late Lord Ptefidcnt of
the Court of Seffion, was the descendant of a family to
which the hiftorian and genealogifl have afiigned an origin of
high antiquity and fplendor *, but which has been ftiH more
remarkable for producing a feries of men, eminently diftin-
guiflied ix)r their public iervices in the higheft civil offices of
this country. If the pride of anceftry is ever allowable, it is
where thofe anceftors have adorned, the ftations which they
fiUedy by that genuine merit which, mdependently of rank,
muft have entitled them to the refpe^Sl and edeem of their fel-
low-citizens. Such were the progenitors of the late Lord Pre-
fident, whofe family has produced a filcceflion of men, who,
for four generations, have difcharged the higheft offices of the
law in this country with equal abilities and integrity.*
• As the merits of fome of thefe eminent perfons entitle them
to more than -general eulogy, and as^here are fome circum-
ftances of their lives and chs^a^rs too honourable, and indeed
too exemplary to be pafled over in iilence, I fhall here mention

* Sir jAitKi D1111DA89 firll Btron of Anuftoa^ Gptvernor of fierwicki and kmghted
by King Jamis VL was tke thifd foo of GEoaox Dondas of Dundas, (by CATHXRiNiy
daughter of Laurxmcb Lord Oliphant) the fixteenth in defcentfrom the Dunbars £arl^
of March, who, accordipg to Sir Ja. DalkymplSj CrawfurOi NubjbTi &€. derive
ihctr origin from tlie Saxon Kings of England.

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38 HISrORr of the SOCIETr.

u^tt^^txA ^ ^^^ anecdotes refpedling them, as introdudlory to the account
Duodas. q£ jj^^ j|£g^ ^^ whom I mean more particularly to enlarge.

Sir James Dunda& of Amifton, eldefl Ton of Sir James
DuNDAs, Governor of Berwick, by Mary, the daughter of
George Home of Wedderburn, had the honour ofknighthood
conferred on him fey Charles I. In the earlier part of his
life, and in the courfe of a very liberal education, he had
fpent a confiderable time abroad, and vifited the politefl of the
foreign C!!)urts. • On his return to his native country, he was
chofen Reprefenmtive of ,the county of Edinburgh in -the Scot-
tifh Parliament ; and, in the mod diflScult of times, when pu-
blic virtue was put to the fevered trials, uniformly maintained
the charader of a fteady and fincere patriot. He difapprovcd,
as did many of the beft friends of their King and Country,* of
thofe violent meafures by which Charles, mifguided by Laud,
endeavoured to force this kingdom to fubmit to the Epifcopal
hierarchy. The ecclefiaftical and the civil liberties of the king-
dom were jufUy regarded as mod intimately conneded with
each other. The Chufch of Scotland, in all periods of its hL-
ftory, whatever had been its form of government . ajid difci-
pline, had uniformly rejedled the idea of dependence on the
Metropolitan fees of England * ; and at this time, even thofe
among the Scots who approved of the Epifcopal forms, could
not brootthat rules of difcipliae fhould. be prefcribed to them
by Englifli ecclefiadics. They were judly indignant at thofo,
meafures which they coiHidered as a tyrannical endeavour to
bring the National Church, hitherto independent, under a
, difhonour^ble fubjedion to that of England ; and they regarded

the attempt to introduce an Englifh liturgy, as preparatory to
the introdudlion of Englifh laws. This was the idea which
prevailed with many virtuous men to fign the National Covenant^

which,^

* The conteft for the independency of the National CHurch of Scotland had begu^i
ts early as tlie reign of Alexander L .

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A PP i: N D I X. 39

which, by prefeHting k deliberate and a powerful oppofition to Account of
that attack agaiq^ their religious and civil liberties, bad fair Dundas.
to prevail with the Sovereign to abandon thofe unconftitutional
attempts, and thus might have been the means of prefcrving
the peace of the kingdom. In this idea, Sir James Dundas,
with many other fihcere and virtuous patriots, figned the Co-
venant ; though they faw afterwards, with regret, that the
fame aflbciation, which, with the well difpofed, might have
been an inftrument of peace, was converted into an engine of
tumjilt and fedition*

On the extinilioh of the monarchical government, the fu-
preme court of judicature in Scotland, the Court of Seffion,
was converted by Oliver Cromwell into a Commijfion for the
adminijlration of jujlke^ and partly fupplied by Englifti Judges.
Upon the Reftoration, that Court refumed its ancient form ;
and among the nev^ Judges appointed by t^ie Sovereign, was Sir
James Dundas of Arnifton, whofe high chara.dler, in point of
probity and natural abilities, was fuch as to balance the want
of an education to the law as a profeffion. He was appointed
a Judge of the Court of Seffion in 1 662.

In the end of the fame year, Charles II. apprehenfive of
that fpirit of difafFe4Slion to the government, which very generally
prevailed in this country, found it neceflary, with the advice of
Parliament, to require all perfons holding offices in Scotland,
to fubfcribe a Declaration^ importing that they held it unlawful
to enter into Leagues and Covenants on pretence of reformation,
or to take up arms againft the king ; and, in particular, ab- «
juring thofe bonds entitled the National and the Solemn League
and Covenant as illegal ^and feditious aflbciations. #

This meafure was complied with by fome from principle,
ai^i by others from policy. The Chancellor of Scotland being
dire<5ted to requir^the Judges of the Court of Seffion to fubfcribe
the Declaration^ under the penalty of lofing their offices; moft
of thefe, — ^it is to be prefumed, from Confcience, — ^manifefted

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40 HISTORT of tbe SOCIETr.

Lo7d p"refiLi ^^ ^^^y co>»pliance. Others, however, from the fame honoBr-
Dunaas. able motive, refufed to renounce thofe oblig|fiona, of which^

though they regretted the abufe, they approved of the ps*incU
pie. Among that number was Sir Jamjbs Dukdas, who re-
fufed to fign the Teft-declaration, unlefs with a fubjoined clauie,
importing his abjuration of the Coyenantj '* in fo far as it had
" led to deeds of adual rebellion." This qualified compliance
was rejedled by the Sovereign, and the recufant Judges were
deprived of their oflBces. Their feats, however, were kept vacant
for fome time, in expedlation, either that their fcruples might
be. relaxed by the fenfe of their fubftantial lofles, or that fome
medium of accommodation might be devifed for adjufting the
fubjedl of difierence. One expedient was propofed, which, it
is probable, originated from the Sovereign himfelf, as it favours
remarkably of his code, of eafy morality. This was, that fucb
of the Judges as fcrupled to give an unlimited deAaratio%
fhould, for the fake of example, fubfcribe fimply^ as the law re-
quired, but fhould be allowed, in a private converfation with
die King, to explain the fenfe iia which they underftood thofe
oaths.^

On thefe fingular terms, fome of the deprived Judges were

willing to redeem their offices. They repaired to London, had

a private audience of his Majefly, and returned with new com-

miflions in their pockets ^. But that conciliatory meafure was

propofed in vain to Lord Arniston. He adhered refolutely

and inflexibly to thofe principles which he efleemed right. Ta

• the folicitation of a friend, who earneftly intreated him, for hia

^ own fake, for that of his family and of the public, to be fatis-

• fied

♦ TflRtlicauldjttdify cheif condddby the prudent reiJoning which Cicero uled^ta
Lbntulus. *' Nam neque pugoandum contra tantas opes, neque delendum^ rtiam fi kt
** fieri poflct, fuinmorum civium principatum^ neque permaiftndum in una, (cntentia,.
*' convcrTis rebus, ac bonorum voluntatibus ixntniitatts 5 Ted ttinporibus aflentiendum/''
Cxc. Epift. ad fam. L u rp^g^

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APPENDIX. 41

fied with the propofed expedient, he returned this memorable tt^^^lfidLot
anfwer : " I have repeatedly told you that in this affair I have Pandas.
" a^ted from confcience. I will never fubfcrib^ that declara-
" tion, unlefs I am allowed to qualify it; and if mj fubfcription is
'^ to ht public y I cannot be fatisfiied that xh^falvo fhould be latent.'^
His feat in the Court of Seifion was not filled up for three
years ; during all which time, he was affailed in vain by the
foUcitations both of his brethren on the Bench, and of the
Ring^s Minifters. Happy in the approbation of his own mind, ,
and honoured with the efteem of all men of worth, he retired
to his family-feat of Amiflon ; and there, in the tranquil en«^
joyments of the country, in the gratification of a tafle for po*
lite literature, and in the fociety of his friends, he pafTed the
remainder of his days.

Sir James DpNDAs died in the year 1679. Robbrt, his
eldeft fon, by Marion, daughter of Robert Lord Boyd, was
bred to the profeflion of the law. He reprefented the county
of Edinburgh for many years in the Parliament of Scotland ;
and was appointed a Judge of the Court of Seflion by King
William in 1689. He filled that ftation, during the period
of thiity-feven years, with great honour and integrity ; and be«
fore his death in 1727, had the fatisfadlion of feeing his eldeft
fbn ^ fucceflively difcharging the mofl important offices in the
law, and though a very young man, far advanced in that
fplendid career in which he was deftined to arrive at the fum-
mit of his profeffion.

This was Robert Dundas of Amiflon, afterwards Lord
Prefident of the Court of Seffion, the Father of him who is the
proper fubjedt of this Memoir. Though in no period of his
life diflinguifhed for laborious application to ftudy, he had, in

Vol. II. (F) his

^ Born 9th December 1685. ^^ mdther wai Maegaut, daughter of Sir Robji&t
SiMGLAxn of Stevenibn.

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42 HISrORr of the SOCIEfr.

wrpr^efidcnt ^^^ earlier years, ipiprov«d his mind by an acquaintance with
Dundas. general literature ; and he gained by pra^ice, aided by uncom-

mon acutenefft of talents, a profpund knowledge of the law.

He had been but eight years at the bar, when his reputation
pointed him out as the fitted perfon to hold the office of Soli-
citor-general, to which he was appointed.by King Gcorgb I. in
17 17. The (late of the country, recently the fcene of rebel-
lion, and ftill fecretly fermenting with the rancour of party-
contentions, wa$ fuch, a$ to require, on the part of the law-offi-
cers of the Crown, the utmoft extent of. political prudence ; a
zeal firm and fervent in its aim, but cautious in its exertions,
and a humane moderation in the exercife of authority, which
has ever been found more efficacious than feverity, in extin-
guifhing difaffecSion to government.

The office of Solicitor- general was preparatory to that of
Lord Advocate for Scotland, to which Mr Dukdas was ap-
pointed in 1720. In 1722, he was cle<Sled Member of Parlia-
ment for the county of Edinburgh ; and, in that fituation, he
diflinguifhed himfelf by a moft vigilant attention to all public
meafur«s, in which the intereft of his country was concerned,
and by a fteady and patriotic regard for its interefli.

On the change of Miniftry, which took place in 1725, when
Sir Robert Wai^po^b and the Argylc party came into power,
Mr Do NO A 8 wa» removed from hia office of King's Advocate,
^nd r^fumed hia ftation without the bar, diftinguilhed only by
the honourable title of Dean of the Faculty of Advocates, till
he was raifed to the Bench in 1737. For nine years, he filled
the feat of an ordinary Judge of the Court of Seffion, till the
year 1748, when, on the death of Mr Duncan Forbbs of
Culloden, he was appointed to fucceed him in the honourable
and important office of Prefident of the Court.

While a barrifter, he ihone equally as a powerful pleader
and an ingenious reafoner. To the quickeft apprehenfion, he
joined an uncommon folidity of judgment ; and embracing in

his

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APPENDIX. 45

his mind all the poflible argumente which were applicable to his LoTdTreWcnt
caufe^ be could^ even in his unpreitieditated pleadings^ difcover Dundas.
at once, and inftantly attach himfelf to fom€ ftrong principle
of law on which h^ built the whole of hi» reafoning. His
eloquence^ though as varians as the nature of the caufe re-
qnired, was conftantlf fubfervient to his judgment ; ind though
mafter of all die powers of cxpr^on, he rarely indulged him-
felf in what is propi^ly termed declamation. A fine fpecimen
of his argumentative powers is to be found in the defence for
Cakn£OI£ of Finhaven^ Oii his indi<ftment for the murdef of
the Earl of Scrathmore. la chac memorable t^ia), he. had not
only the merit of favrng the life of the prifoher^ bat of efta-
blifhtflg a points of tire ntmoft confeqirence to the feeurity of
life and liberty^ the power of a jtiry, at that time queflioned in
this conniry, of retmrning a Qeneral Verdi€t on the guilt or in-
nocence of the per£)n accn(ed«

In Scotland, chough Qfneral Verdi&s appear to hate been au-
thorifed by the moft anciCTt pradice of the ctim^nal couf ty it
had long been cuftocnary to confider jufymen as tied down to
determine fimply^ whether t^ fa^ m the Bbel were proved or
not pr(y»ed. . This change froitt the ancient pradlice is fuppofed,
with miArh reafbn, to have been introduced into this country in
the latter part of the reign of Cff aki^bs IL ; at a tiime when we
find the King's Advocaite ftrenuoufly contending, in his Sj(/lem
of Criminal Law, for the entire abolition of jufies *. The latter
wastdo ftrdng a meafmrei and woald have been found of difl^
cult accomplifhmec^ ; the forvner was of eafier attainment, and
anfwered nearly the fame end. The accufed perfon, to fatisfy
appearances, and for the (hew of juftice, was ftill to be tried by
his peers ; but his guilt or innocence was rarely within - their
cognifance : that was decided by the laws^ or by their interpret-
ers, the Judges ; and the jtiry, tied down to determine folely on
the proof of fadls, was compelled to furrender into the hands

Fa . of

* Macuinzib Crim. Law of Scotland, tit* 23.

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44 HISTORY of the SOCIETK

uT^)JLnit ^^ *^^^ Judges, and thus often to facrifice the life of a fcllow-
Doftdu. citizen, though convinced of his innocence, and earnefUy defi-

rous of his acquittal.

Thus matters flood till the celebrated trial of Carnegie of
Finhaven, who, had the powers of a Scottifh jury remained thus
circumfcribed, muft have fufiered the puniihment due to the
fouled malefadtor, for an adt^Da which it is fcarcely poffible to
a£Bx a taint of blame ^. The Court had found the fafts in the
indidlment relevant to infer the pains of law. The proof of thole
fads was as clear as noon-day« There remained no hope for
the prifoner, unlefs the jury ihould be roufed to affert a right
which they had long relinquifhed, and vindicate the privilege
of deciding on the guilt or innocence of the accufed. And tUs
great point was gained by the powerful eloquence of the pri-
fbner*s counfel. The jury found the prifoner Not Guilty. From
that time, the right of a Scottifh jury to return a General Verdidt^
is acknowledged to be of the very eflence of that inftitution. —
And God forbid ! a period fhould ever arrive, when that mpfl
valuable of rights fhall again be called in queflion.

As a Judge, Lord Arniston diftinguiiObed himfelf no lefs
by the vigour of his talents, and his knowledge of the laws,
than by his ftridl principles of honour and inflexible integrity.
His own idea of the charader, both of a Lawyer and of a
Judge, remains, penned by himfelf, in that admirable eulo-
gium on Lord Newh all, which flands upon the records of.
the Faculty of Advocates ; and thofe who yet remembdf the
man of whom we now fpeak, know that many of thofe van*

ous

* Jambs Ca&nboxx of Finhaven, was tried before the Court of Jafticiary in Scotland, .
for the murder of Chaklis Earl of Strathmore, in 1728. At a meeting in the country,
where the company had drank to intoxication, CAaNBois of Finhaven having received the
moft abttiive language, and iuftained a peribnal outrage of the grofled nature, from Lton
of Bridgetoo, drew his fword, and daggering forward to make a pafs at Bridgeton,
killed the Earl of Strathmore, a perfbn for whom he had the highefi regard and efteera,
and who unfortunately came between him and his antagonift, apparently in the view of
fepftrating them.

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APPENDIX. 45

oos talents and accompliihments which he there applied to ano- ^,^^5
ther, were in a peculiar manner his own. DundM,

This eminent and truly refpe(^able man, after a life devoted
to the public good, died in the 68th year of his age, on the
a6th day of Auguft 1753.

He left by his firft wife, Elizabeth, the daughter of Ro« '
BERT Watson, Efq; of Muirhoufe, a fon, Robert, the late
Prefident of the Court of Seflion, and two daughters. By his
fecond wife, Anne, the daughter of Sir Robert Gordon of •
Invergordon, Baronet^ he left five fons and a daughter. Of
this laft marriage, is the Right Hon. Henry Dunoas of Mel-
ville, Treafurer of the Navy ; whofe various and fplendid abi-
lides, directed at firft to the profeifion of the law, and emi-
nently diiplayed while he held the offices of Solicitor-general
and Lord Advocate for Scotland, are now equally diftingui(hed
in the Legiflative Aflembly, and in the Cguncils of his So-
vereign.

Robert Dundas of Amifton, late Lord Prefident of the
Court of Seflion, was born on the i8th of July 17 13. He re-
ceived the earlier parts of his education under a domeftic tutor^
and afterwards purfued the ufual courfe of academical ftudies
in the Univerfity of Edinburgh. In the end of the year 1733,
he went to Utrecht, where the ledures on the Roman. Law
were at that time in confiderable reputation. He remained
abroad for four years ; and, during the recefs of ftudy at the
Univerfity, he fpent a confiderable time at Paris, and in vifiting
feveral of the principal towns of France and the Low Countries.

Returning to Scotland in 1737, he was called to the bar in
the beginning of the following year ; and, in his earlteft pu-
blic appearances, gave ample proof of his inheriting, in their
Qtmoft extent, the abilities and genius of his family. His elo*-
quence was copious and animated ^ in argument, he difplayed
a wonderful fertility of invention^ tempered by adifcriminating

judgment^

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46 klSrORT of the SOCIETr.

Lo7d Prefid Ht Judgment, wbich gave, even to his unpremeditated harangues,
Dandas. a methodical arrangement ; in confultation, he pofleflTed a quick-

nefs of apprebenfion beyond all example ; and his memory,
which was moft fingularly tenacious, enabled him to trealurc
up, and to produce inftantaneoufly, every cafe or precedent
which was applicable to the matter before him.

Thus liberally endowed by nature with every requifite to
eminence in his profeffion, he had the honour of being ap-
pointed Solicitor-general for Scotlandin September 1742, at the
early age of twenty-nine. This important office he held only
— for four years. He had obtained it through the favour of the

Carteret adminiftration, which was then in power ; but, on the
change of Mini ftry, which took place in 1746', when the Pbl-
ham party regained its infhience in the Cabinet, he, together with
the other friends ofthe former Miniftry, refigncd their offices.

But the high confideration in which he then flood with his
brethren at the bar, was not diminifhed by the lofs of an office
dependent on minifterial favour. In the fame year, 1746, he
was eledled Dean of the Faculty of Advocates, and continued to
prefide over that refpedabJe body till his elevation to the Bench
in 1760.

In the beginning of the year 1754, Mr Dundas was eleded
Member of Parliament for the county of Edinburgh ; and, in
the following fummer, he was appointed his MajeftyV Advo-*
cate for Scotland.

In Parliament, the fhare which Mr Dunoas took rn public
bufineis, and his appearances on many interefting^ fubjdSfe - of
difcuffion, which occurred in that important period during
which he fat m the Houfe of Commons, were fuch as fully to
juftify the chara^cr he had already attained for talents and
ability. Su-ch was the complexion of the times, and fo high
th« tide of party, that it was perhaps impoffible for human
wifdom ta have pointed out a line of political condu(S which

could

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APPENDIX. 47

could entirely exempt from cenfure, The Lord Advocate Account of
fhared with the reft of his party in the cenfure of thofe who Dmfaa!..
followed an oppofite plan of politics ; but of him it may cer-
tainly with truth be affirmed, that in no inftance was he ever
known to fwerve from his principles, or to adl a part in which
he had not the countenance of many of the firmeft friends to
the intereft of their country.

The oppofition which the Lord Advocate gave to the efta-
blilhment of a Militia in Scotland, afforded a topic of blame to
a great party in this country who warmly fupported that mea-
fure. But when the queftion is difpaffionately viewed, it will
appear to be one of thofe doubtful points, on which the wifeft
men and the beft patriots may entertain oppofite opinions.

The apprehenfion of an invafion from France, which, from
the commencement of the war in 1756, had been repeatedly
threatened upon the fouthern coafts of the ifland, occafioned
the paffing of various aiSls of the Legiflature, for the eftablifh-
ment and regulation of the militia forces through the feveral
counties of England. In the beginning of the year 1760, the
fame apprehenfion had extended to Scotland. The fmall arma-
ment undq^THUROT committing adls of depredation on the
weftern coafts with perfe<5l impunity, began to -excite a very
alarming fenfe of the defencelefs fituation of the country. Meet-
ings were held in many of the counties, and refolutions pafled
for applying fO Parliament to procure the eftablilhment of a
militia in Scotland, upon a fimilar plan with that which now
iubiifted in England- The political emergency appeared the
iame through the whole kingdom. The Scots were alike fenfi-
ble to the danger of their lives and properties aa their neighs
hours of the fouth. They juftly confidered themfelves a$ •
ftanding, by the Treaty of Union ^ on an equal footing with the
Englifh, with regard to all the privileges of Britifh fubjedls ; and
while the inhabitants, of one part of the ifland were furniftied

with.

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48 HISrORr of the SOCIETK

Account of ^ith arms for their own defence, it Teemed but iuftice to allow

Lord Prefident i /•

Dundu. the other the fame means of fccurity and protection.

These arguments, which are of a general nature, or at beft
applicable only to a temporary emergency, and to an apprehen-
fion rather of eventual than of immediate danger, were an-
fwered by re^fons drawn from the ftate of th^ country, from
the chara<5ler of the people, and from a view of thofe confc-
quences which mufl have been the certain refult of the propofed
eftablifhment. Scotland, it was argued, is far' behind her fifter-
kingdom in the oeconomical arts of induftry. The genius of
the people, particularly in the northern parts, is averfe to la*
bour and to all the arts of peace. But the Scots are warlike
from conftitution, and the military charadler of the nation has
been high in all ages. The artificial habits of difcipline and
regular exercife, are little neceflary in a country, where men
are by nature foldiers, attached with enthufiafm to their native
land, and prompt to defend themfelves with fpirit upon the
ilighteft alarm of danger. But they need excitement to the
arts of induftry. Agriculture is, in many diftridts, fhamefully.
negledled. Manufadures, through the whole country, are yet
in their infancy. The employment of our labourers can nei-^
ther be fpared from their fields, nor of our mechanics from
their looms, their forges, or their anvils. To ofier to thofe who
are naturally little difpofed to induftry, fuch allurements to
idlenefs as. a national militia would prefent, wolild be, in the
higheft degree, impolitic and ruinous to the coimtry.

Thus, it appears, that the fcheme for the eftablifhment of a
militia in Scotland, admits of very oppofite views ; and men of
candour, equally endowed with good fenfe, and equally patrio-
tic, may be fuppofed, as was certainly the cafe, to have formed
different opinions on the fubjedt. What part the Lord Advo-
cate of Scotland, who, by his office, is one of the*chief guarr
dians of the ftate, and bound by duty to a watchful attention
in all matters which regard the intereft of his country^ ought

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APPENDIX. 49

to have taken in that meafure, it would be prefumption in any t^^rjl^t
man to pronounce with confidence, while he mufl admit, that J^undai.
opinions, equally weighty and refpedlable, are found on either
fide of the queftion.

It is not to be denied, that arguments of a very illiberal na-
ture were urged in Parliament by a few Members, who, with
a mean and narrow fpirit, reproached this country with difaf-
feftion to Government, and inculcated the danger of allowing
the ufe of arms to thofe who had recently employed them in re-
bellion. It was no wonder that afperfions of this nature called
forth the moft animated, noble and fpirited defence of their
country's honour from feveral of the Scottifti Members, who
perhaps contended the more keenly in behalf of that meafure,
that they faw it oppofi^ from fuch unworthy motives. But
the queftion, viewed without prejudice, remains ftill difputa-
ble ; and the arguments of the Lord Advocate againft the efta-
blifhment of a militia in Scotland, were founded on the great
principles of national expediency, and a regard for what appeared
to him the real and fubftantial interefts of the country.

On the 14th of June 1760, Mr Dundas was appointed Pre-
fident of the Court of Seffion. This was the aera of the fplen-
dour of his public character. Inverted with one of the moft
important trufts that can be committed to a fubjecft, the fuper-
intendence and regulation of the higheft judicature of his
country, he acquitted himfelf of that truft, during the twenty-
feven years in which he held it, with fuch confummate ability,
wifdom and rectitude, as muft found a reputation as durable
as the national annals, and tranfmit his memory with honour
to all future times.

At his firft entry upon office, the public, though well aflured
of his abilities, was doubtful whether he pofTefled that power
of application and meafure of affiduity, which is the firft duty

(G) of

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so HISrORT of the SOCJElT.

Account of of the ftation that he now filled. Fond of focial intercouHe,

Lord PreUdent ^ ^ '

Dundai. and of latc engaged in a fphere of life where natural talents arc

the chief requifite to eminence, he had hitherto fubmitted but
relu(Slantly to the habits of profeffional induftry. But it was
foon feen, that accidental circumflances alone had prevented
the development of one great feature of his charadler, a capa^
city of profound application to bufinefa. He had no fooner ,
taken his feat as Prefident of the Seljiony than he devoted him-
felf to the duties of his office, with an ardour of which that
Court, even under the ableft of his predecefibrs, had feen no
example, and a perfeverance of attention which fuflered ik) re-
miffion to the lateft hour of his life.

Of all the grievances to which a free people can be fiibjeAed,
one of the heavieft and moft k^trt is the tedionfnefs of judicial
procedure, that delay of juftice. which makes often oppreffion
itfelf more tolerable than the means to be purfued for obtaining
its redrefs. Scnfible of this truth, and determined to remedy
(in as far as material juflice would permit) fo great an evil, the
Prefideilt applied himfelf immediately to the determination of
a long arrear of law-fuits, which, though in their laft ftage,
and ripe for judgment, had hung upon the rolls of the Court
during the period of five preceding fefBons* Tfaefe, in the
courfe of the fummer-feffion 176a, and in the firft month of
the next feflion, were all decided,, while thie current bofinefs of
the term was likewife difpatched ; and thus a load, which had
been accumulating during two years and a hfalf, was cleared
arway in the fpaee of three months. The Long RoU^ which had
never been purged fince the inftitution of the Courrt, and of
which the very name w& of evil augury„ was thuu annihilated
at onc^ nor was it ever revived while Mr Don das lat in the-
Prefident^s chair.

The primary cauie of this great xefi^rm iiv the dii^tch of
bufinefs,^ is certainly to be £bund in the uncommoa power of

his

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APPENDIX. $t

his own mental abilities. Amidft that multiplicity of fuitft wTprefideot
with which the Ciourt of SefTion is at times overwhehned, no ^""^^'•
party was ever heard to complain that the Prefident had treated
his cauie fuperficially, or with an imperfedl intelligence of the
arguments which fupported it. But th« truth was, he often
drew his knowledge of thofe arguments, lefs from the informa-
tion of the counfel than from the ftorehoufe of his own mind j
for it was peculiar to him, that he could make himfelf tho-
roughly mailer of a caufe, and form the foundeft judgment of
its oierits^ from the iknpk perufal of the (late of fa<5ls. Hit
memory enabling him to retain thefe faifts with the utmofl ^aie,
he coukl, in the courfe of a v-ery few hours, dedicated to the
perufal of the cales, prepare himfelf upon the daily bufmefs of
the Court. Stimulated by his example, the other Judges ex*
etted all their powers of application j and thus the machine of
juftice moved with a conftant and equal celerity, while his re*
gulating influence operated on all its parrs.

ftoT if the ai&duity and diligence of Judges in ftudying the
caufes that come before them, is the firft requiiite towards the
difpatch of bufinefs, the next eflential concern is, that thefe
caufes (hall be decided with brevity, and that the time which is
appropriated to giving judgment be not confumed in fuperflu-
0U6 reafonings, or that fpecies of wavering debate, which equally
retards procedure, and diminifhes the refpedt and dignity of
the Court. There is no doubt that the reafoning of Judges
upon the Bench, is of excellent effetSl, when feafoned by that
difcretion which is fitted to imprefs an audience with reverence
for the wifdom and folemnity of the tribunal* And of this we
have daily examples in the Supreme Court of this country.
The arguments of the Judges are often replete with inilru^lion
to the bar. In many cales, to which, from their circuraftan-
tiate nature, neither the written nor the confuetudinary law is
diredlly applicable, thefe are the Re/pon/a Prudentum which fup-

G 2 ply

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52 HIStORr of the SOCIETi:

Account of ply that Unavoidable deficiency. They are, moreover, a cri-

Lord Prefideot * '. . i t- i i /• ^

Donda$. tenon to the public, both of the abilities of Judges, and of

their attention to the duties of their office. But ftill, it mufl
be admitted, that there is much danger in allowing too great
latitude to judicial reafonings. Befides the delay of bufinefs,
there is a hazard that that warmth of argument, againft which
even the wifeft and mod difpafTionate of men cannot at all
times guard themfelves, (hould diminifh the reverence due to
the Court, and even the authority of its decifions ; for thofe
judgments Ckn afluredly have but little weight which are known
to*be the refult of a war of contradiftory ideas. In a tribunal
compofed of many Judges, there muft of courfe be a frequent
diverfity of opinion ; but it is not always defirable that the
grounds of thofe different opinions fhould be publicly canvaf-
fed. It is with the wifdom of a Court, as it is with perfbnal
beauty, (the obfervation of one of the ableft judges of human
nature *) the form upon the whole, when furveyed at its proper
diftance, may be confummately graceful ; but it is not expedient
to examine it by too near an approach, or to analyfe too mi*
nutely its particular features.

Such were known to be the fentiments of that great Judge,
whofe charadler we are now attempting to delineate ; and cor-
refponding to thefe fentiments was his own condu<5l upon the
Bench. He very rarely entered into a laboured argument on
the whole grounds of a caufe ; much lefs into an examination
or confutation of the opinions delivered by his brethren. He
limited himfelf to a (hort and folemn enunciation of his own
opinion, which he generally fupported by a very few reafcms,
on which he apprehended the deciiion ought to reft. His man-
ner of fpeaking was firm and authoritative ; his language for-
cible, though unadorned in its ftrudure ; and, feeking not to
pleafe, but to convince^ he difregarded thofe graces of elocu-
tion

* CXiAIUINDOII«

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AFPENDIX. 53

tion which the orator may frequently find of ufe to palliate Account of
error, but which the Judge needs feldom to employ, who is de- oundas.
firous only of inculcating truth.

He maintained, with great ftridlnefs, all the forms of the
Court in the condu(S of bufinefs. Thefe he wifely confidered
as eflfential, both to the equal adminiftration of judice, and as
the outworks which guard the law againfl thofe too common,
but moft unworthy artifices which are employed to proftitute
and abufe it.

To the bar, he condudled himfelf with uniform attention
and refpedl. He liftened with patience to the reafonings of
the Counfel. He never anticipated the arguments of the pleader,
nor interrupted him with queftions to fhew his own acutenefs ;
but left ev?ry man to ftate his caufe in his own way : nor did
he ever interfere, unlefs to reflrain what was either manifeftly
foreign to the fubjefl, or what wounded, in his apprehenfion,
the dignity of the Caurt. In this lad refpedt he was moft lau-
dably pundilious. He never fuffered an improper word to efcape,
either from the tongue or pen of a counfel, without the fevereft
animadverfion ; and fo acute was that feeling which he waa
known to poffefs of the refpedt that was due to the Bench, that
there were but few occafions when it became neceflary for him
to exprefs it.

There were indeed other 6ccafions, on which his feelings
were moft keenly awakened, and on which he gave vent to a
becoming fpirit of indignation. He treated with the greateft
fcverity every inftance, either of malverfation in the officers
of the law, or of chicanery in the inferior pradlitioners of the
Ck>urt. No calumnious or iniquitous profecution, no attempt
to pervert the forms of law to the purpofes of opprefiion, ever
eluded his penetration, or efcaped his juft refentment.

Thus, perpetually watchful, and earneftly folicitous to main-^
tain both the dignity and the reditude of that Supreme Tribunal

over

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54. HIS TORT of the SOCIETT.

Lo^rfPrefidcnt ^^^^ whicK hc pTcfid^d, the influence of thefe endeavours cx-
Dunda.. tended itfelf to every inferior court of judicature ; as the mo-

tion of the heart is felt in the remoteft artery. In reviewing
the fentences of inferior judges, he conftantly exprefled his de-
fire of fupporting the juft authority of every rank and order of
Magiftrates ; but thefe were taught, at the fame time, to walk
with circumfpeAion, to guard their condu<^ with the mod
fcrupulous exa<5lnefs, and to dread the flighted deviation from
the narrow path of their duty.

With thefe endowments of mind, and high fenfe of the
duties of his office, it is not furprifing, that amidd all the dif-
ferences of fentimcnt which the jarring intereds of individu-
als, or the more powerful influence of political fadtion, give
rife to, there ftjould be but one opinion of the charader of this
eminent man, which is. That from the period of the inditution
of that Court over which he prcfided, however confpicuous in
particular departments might have been the merit of fome of his
prcdeceflbrs, no man ever occupied the Prefident's chair, wKo
combined in himfdf fo many of the edential requifites for the
difcharge of that important office.

But it is not the intention of the writer of this account to
prefent a faultlefs'pidture. Nothing, in fa<51, isof fo little value
as indifcriminate panegyric ; nothing fo empty and infignificant
fts bis praife who fhews that he is blind to imperfe<flions. If
we allow the merits of this great man, in podeiling, in their
utmod extent, the mod effential requifites for the dation which
he filled, it is but a fmall derogation from the confefled emi-
nence of his charaiSler, when wc acknowledge a deficiency in
(bme fubordinate qualities.

Of thefe, what was chiefly to be regretted, and wais aloiiie
wanting to the perfeflion of his mental accomplifliments, was,
that lie appeared to give too little weight or value to thofe ftu-

dies

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APPENDIX. 55

dies which are properly termed literary. This was the more ^';;j p^^g'^j^^j.
remarkable ia him, that, in the early period of his life, he had' J5""<**«-
profecuted himfelf thofc ftudies with advantage and fuccefs.
In his youth, he had made great proficiency in claflical learn-
ing ; and his memory retaining faithfully whatever he had
once acquired, it was not unufual with him, even in his fpeechcs
on the Bench, to cite, and to apply with much projwiety
the mod (biking pafTages of the ancient authors. But for
thefe (Indies, though qualified to fucceed in them, it does not
appear that he ever po(re(red a (Irong bent or inclination. If he
ever felt it, the weightier duties of adlive life, which he was
early called to ezercife, precluded the opportunity of frequently
indulging it ; and perhaps even a knowledge of the fafcinating
power of thofe purfuits, in alienating the mind from the feverer,
but more nece(rary occupations, might have inclined him at
laft to dif]:eli(h from habit, what it had taught him at firft to«
refift from principle.

That this principle was erroneous, it is unnece(Iary to c<h»-
fume time in proving. It is fufficient to fay, that as jurifpru*
dence can never hope for any material advaiicement as a fcience,,
if feparated from the fpirit of philofophy, fo that fpirit cannot
cxift, independent of the cultivation of literature.

That the (ludies of poli^ literature, and an acquaintance
with the principles of general erudition, while they improve the
fcUncCy add luftre and dignity to the profejjion of the law, cannot
be denied. So thought all the greateft lawyers of antiquity.
So thought, among the moderns, that able Jud|;e and moft ac-
complillied nun^ of whofe charadier we have traced ibme im-
pevfeA features. Lord Arnifton, the Father of the late Lord Pre-
fident ; of which his inaugural oration, as it (lands upon the-
records of the Faculty of Advocates, bears ample teftinKwiy *.

His;

• " From his firft entry into the Faculty, he could fay he knew^ and obferved it with*
'' pleaiuriC} as it tended greatly to their honour, that there was no fcience, or part of po-

" lite

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56 HISrORr of the SOCIEtr.

Lor7p«fidcnt ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^ txv^Q^ afFordcd a ftrong proof, that the force of

Dundas. natural talents alone may condu(5l to eminence and celebrity.

He was rich in native genius, and therefore felt not the want of
acquired endowments. But in this he left an example to be ad-
mired, not imitated. Few inherit from nature equal powers
with his ; and even of himfelf it muft be allowed, that if he
wjs a Great Man without the aids of general literature, or of
cultivated tafle, he muft have been ftill a greater, had he avail-
ed himfelf of thofe lights which they furniih, and that im-
provement which they beftow.

This moft ufeful and valuable life was terminated on the
13th of December 1787. His laft illnefs, which, though of
fliort continuance, was violent in its nature, he bore with the
greateft magnanimity. He died in the 75th year of his age,
in the perfedl enjoyment of all his faculties ; at a time, when
his long fervices might have juftly entitled him to eafe and
repofe, but which the ftrong fenfe of his duty would not per-
mit him to feek while his power of ufefulnefs continued ; at that
period, in ftiort, when a wife man would wifti to finifh his
courfe ; too foon indeed for the public good, but not too late
for his own reputation.

He left by his firft wife, Henrietta Baillie, the daughter
of Sir James Carmichael-Baillie of Lamington, four

daughters.

" lite and ufeful learning, for the knowledge of which fome in the Faculty were not di-
" ftinguilhed, perhaps ' equally with thofe who made the feveral parts of thofe (ciences
" their principal and particular profeilion. And he hoped he would be excufed for rc-
'' commending to them, and to all young gentlemen that might afterwards enter among
" them, to be at pains to maintain and preferve that charader and reputation they had
" long held, and ftill poflefled, not only for the knowledge of the Civil or Roman and
** Municipal Laws, and the conftitution of their country, but of the other valuable '
" branches of learning, that arc requifite to accomplish and adorn the chara^er of gen-
" tlemen,.and were indeed neceffary to render them completely qualified for the cxcrcife
•' of their profeflion." Records of the Fac. of Adv. Nov. 3. 1748.

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APPENDIX. 57

daughters. By his fecond wife, Jane, the daughter of Wil- ^^"'^"•^^^^^
LiAM Grant, Efq; of Preftongrange, one of the Senators of the Dundw.
College of Juftice, he left four fons and two daughters. Of thefe,
the eldeft fon is Robert Dundas, Efq; now of Amifton, his
Majefty's Solicitor-general for Scotland*; whom his country fees
with pleafure the heir of the abilities of his family, already
high in the efleem of all his cotemporaries, and purfuing with
ardour the honourable path which is marked by the footfleps of

his ancellors.

•

* Since the date of this Memoir, Mr Dundas of Arnifton has been appointed his Ma-
jeilj's Advocate for Scotland, O^ober 311 1789. The late Lord Frefident Dondas was
facceeded in that office by Sir Thomas Miller of Glenlee, who, to the eminent lofi
of the public, and the (incare regret of all who knew him, died on the 27th day of Sep*
tember 1789. Upon that event, Ilat Campbell, £(q} then Lord Advocate, was pro.
moted to the Prefidency of the Court of Seffion, and was fucceeded in the office of Lord
Advocate by Mr Dundas.

Vol. II. (H) IL Ac-

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58 HISrORT of the SOCIETY

11. Account of Sir Alexander Dick, Bart, of Prefionfield^
late Pre/ident cftbe Royal College of Pbyftcians of Edinburgh ,
and F. R. S. Edin.

\^Read by Dr DvNCAN, now ProfeJJhr of the Theory of Medicine in
the Univerjity qf Edinburgh f March i6. 1789.]

•

SIr Alexander Dick of Prcftonficld, was born on the
23d of Odlober 1703. He was the third fon of Sir Wil-
liam Cunningham of Caprington, by Dame Janet Dick,
the only child and heirefs of Sir James Dick of Pre(lonfield«
While his two elder brothers (ucceeded to ample fortunes, the
one as heir to his father, the other to his mother, the provifion
made for a yomiger fon was not fufficient to enable him to live
in a manner agreeable to his wiQies, without the aid of his own
exertions. His inclination led him to make choice of the pro-
fefTion of Medicine ; and after being inftruiSled in the prelimi*
nary branches of education at Edinburgh, he began his aca*
demical ftudies in the fcience of Phyfic, at the Univerfity of
Leyden, under the celebrated Boer ha aye, at that time the
moft eminent Medical Profeflbr in Europe, After having com-
pleted the ufual academical courfe under Boerhaavs and his
colleagues, he obtained the degree of Dodlor of Medicine from
the Univerfity of Leyden, on the 3111 of Auguft 1725 ; and,
upon that occafion, he publifhed an inaugural difTertation De
Epilepjia, which did him much credit. Not long after this,
he returned to his native country, and had the honour of re-
ceiving a fecond diploma for the degree of Dodlor of Medicine,
which was conferred upon him by the Univerfity of St. An-
drews, on the a3d of January 1727 j and on the 7th of No-
vember

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A P P E N D T X. 59

vember of the fame year, he was admitted a Fellow of the fiJ Auiofck,
Royal College of Phyficians of Edinburgh.

But after Dr Cunningham (for at that time he bore the
name of his father) had received thefe diilinguifhing marks of
attention at home, he was dill anxious to obtain farther know-
ledge of his profeffion by the profecution of his (Indies abroad.
With this intention, he made the tour of Europe ; and although
medicine was uniformly his firft and principal objeft, yet other
arts and fciences were not negledled. During this tour, he re-
fided for a confiderable time in Italy ; and there an elegant
claflical tafte, and extenfive knowledge of the hiftory and anti-
quities of the country, could not fail to afibrd him a very high
degree of gratification.

Upon his return to Britain, Mr Hooke, a gentleman with
whom he had formed an intimate friendfliip, and who poffef-
fed a large fortune in Pembrokeftiire, perfuaded him to fettle as
a Phyfician in that country. For feveral years he praftifed me-
dicine there with great reputation and fucceft, and was much
refpeded and admired, both as a Phyfician and a Man. But
his immediate elder brother Sir William Dick, dying without
ifiue, he fucceeded to the family-eftate and title, affuming, from
that time, in terms of the patent and entail of that eftate, the
name and arms of Dick. Very foon after the death of his
brother, he left Pembrokefliire, and fixed his refidence at the
family-feat of Preftonfield in Mid Lothian, little more than a
mile from the city of Edinburgh.

Although he now refolved to relinquifh medicine as a lu-
crative profefiton, yet, from inclination, he ftill continued to
cultivate it as an ufeful fcience. With this view, he fbpported ^

a friendly and intimate correfpondence with the Phyficians of
Edinburgh ; and he fbon diftinguiftied himfelf, by paying par-
ticular attention to the bufinefs of the Royal College, among
the lift of whofe members his name had been inrolled at a very
early period of his life. In the year 1756, he was unani-

(H 2) moufly

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6o HISTORr of the SOCIETK

Sir Akx. Dick, ^noufly chofen Prefident of the College ; and as his fellow-
members were fully convinced of his zeal, as well as of his
abilities, they afterwards eledled him to that office for feven
years fucceffively. It was their earned wifh that he ihould have
continued ftill longer as their head ; but this he pofitively de-
clined, as he thoijght that he ihould thus deprive other gentle-
men of a dignity, to which, from their merit, they were well
entitled. But after his refignation of the office of Prefident,
his attachment to the College, and his eameft endeavours to
promote its intereft, continued unabated. He not only contri-
buted liberally towards the building of a hall for their accom-
modation, but ftrenuoufly exerted himfelf in promoting every
undertaking in which he thought that the honour or intereft
of the College was concerned. As a teftimony of the fenfe
which his fellow-members entertained of his fervices, a portrait
of him was, by their unanimous fuffi-ages, hung in their hall ;
a mark of diftindion which has never been beftowed, either
before or fince that time, upon any other member.

But the College of Phyficians were not the only fet of men
who were benefited by his exertions. He was long diftinguifhed
as a zealous and adive member of the Philofophical Society of
Edinburgh. And when they refolved to join their influence as
a body, in feconding an application to the Crown from the Uni-
verfity, for the eftablifliment of a new Society under Royal
patronage, and on a more extended plan, having for its objedl
the cultivation of every branch of fcience, erudition and
tafte, he had an adlive hand in procuring the eftablifhment
of this inftitution. And accordingly, when his Majefty was
gracioufly pleafed to grant a charter for incorporating the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, the name of Sir Alexander Dick
(lands inroUed as one of the firft in the lift. For m^ny years,
he difcharged the duties of a faithful and vigilant Manager of
the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh. It was his conftant endea-
vour to render that eftablilhment at once fubfervient to the re-
lief

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APPENDIX. 6i

lief of the diftrefled, and to the advancement of medical edu- ^iTliK. Dick.
cation. And wh^e he fliewed himfelf a fincere friend to the
poor, he was alfo remarkable for the countenance and encou-
ragement which he gave to modeft merit, particularly among
the (Indents of medicine. Indeed, poflefling a high degree of
public fpirit, he took an adlive Ihare in promoting every un-
dertaking which he thought would be beneficial, either to his
country in general, or to the city of Edinburgh in particular.
To him, its inhabitants are much indebted for many excellent
high roads in the neighbourhood ; and hardly one internal im-
provement was fuggefted or executed, during his refidence at
Preftonfield, which he was not inftrumental in promoting, with
an adlivity which did him the higheft honour.

When the feeds of the true rhubarb were firft introduced
into Britain by the late Dr Mounsey of Peterfburg, he not
only bellowed great a^ention on the culture of the plant, but
alfo on the drying of the root, and preparing it for the market.
The fuccefs in thefe particulars was fo great, that the Society in
London for the encouragement of arts and commerce, prefented
him, in the year 1774, with a gold medal, which is infcribed
to Sir Alexander Dick, Bart, for the bed fpecimen of Bri-
tifh rhubarb.

, Sir Alexander was twice married, and has left children by
both marriages. In April 1736, he married his coufin Mifs
Janet Dick, the daughter of Alexander Dick, Efq; mer-
chant in Edinburgh, and reprefentative of the family of Sir
William Dick of Braid. By her he had five children, but of
thefe two daughters only furvived him. In March 1762, he
married Mifs Mary Butler, the daughter of David Butler,
Efq; of Pembrokeftiire. By this lady, who furvived him, he
had feven children, of whom three fons and three daughters
are dill alive.

It would be a difiicult matter to fum up his character in a few*
words. But it may with juftice be faid, that while he was

fteady

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62 HISrORr of the SO'CIETr.

sJf^SxDick. ft^ady in the purfuit of every obje<a which engaged his atten-
tion, his condudt in every tranfadlion through life, was marked
with the ftrifteft honour and integrity. This difpofition, and
this condu<5t, not only led him to be conftant and* warm in his
friendfhip to thofe with whom he lived in habits of intimacy,
'but alfo procured him the love and elleem of all who really
knew him. Notwithftanding the keennefs and adlivity of his
temper, yet its ftriking features were mildnefs and fweemefs.
He was naturally difpofed to put the moil favourable conftruc*-
tion on the condudl and adlbions of others. This was both pro-
dudliveof much happinefs to himfelf, and of general benevolence
to mankind. And that fercnity and cheerfulnefs which accom*
panied his condudl through life, were the attendants even of hi&
laft moments; for, on the loth of November 1785, he died
with a fmik upon his countenance. Although he had already
palTed the Bad year of his age, a period#at which the faculties
both of mind and body have in general fo far failed, that death
is rather to be wi(hed for than otherwife, yet not only his judg-
ment, but his fpirit for exertion, ftill remained unimpaired. Hi&
death, therefore, even at that advanced age, was a great lofs to
ibciety.

III. Aqr

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A PPEl^ D I X. 63

III. Plccov^t of the Right Honourable Sir Thomas Miller
of Glenlee^ Bart. Lord Preftdent of the Court of SeJJion^ and
V. R. S..ED1N.

[Read hj DAVID HuME, Efq; Advocate, F.R. S. Euiif.and Pro^
feffor of Scots Law in the Univerfity of Edinburgh ^ Dec. 21. 1789,]

IT has often occurred to me, as a hard clrcumftance in the
lot of thofe who follow the active employments of life, that
however great their eminence, however ufeful their labours,
nay, however rare and excellentrtheir talents » the remembrance
of them dies among their countrymen at large, almoft as fooA
ss they themfelves are gone ; and even with thofe of their own
profeflions fcarcely furvives for more than a fingle generation*
The records of the Royal Society arc therefore in this refpcdl
valuable, that they afford the means of refcuing from ob-
livion, thofe of our Members who, by their profeffional emi-
» nence and fervices, have merited the gratitude and remembrance
of their country, though their line of life did not permit them
to attain di(lin<Slion of another kind, by any literary work or
difcovcry in fcience.

I THOUGHT it would be univerfally felt and allowed, that
the late Sir Thomas Miller, (at one time a Vice-Prefident of
this Society), rooft juftly fell under the above defcription of a
. Angularly ufeful man, and fit to be commemorated. And in
this perfuafion, I have prepared a ihort account of him, now to
be fubmttted to your confideration.^

Sir

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Acconnt of
Lord Preiidcnt
Miller.

64 HISTORr of the SOCIETr.

Sir Thomas Miller of Glenlee, late Lord Prefident of the
Court of Seffion, was the fecond fon of William Miller,
writer to the Signet, who was himfelf the fecond fon of Mat-
thew Miller of Glenlee, and fuccceded to that eftate, along
with the lands of Barfkimming, on the death of his elder
brother.

Sir Thomas was born on the 3d of November 17 17. He
received the firft rudiments of his education at Glafgow, and
afterwards went through the ufual courfe of academical (hidies
in the Univerfity of that place ; where he acquired a relifti of
the purfuits of literature and {cience, that never forfook him,
and efpecially a fondnefs for the Greek and Roman claffics,
which, even in the bufieft periods of his life, he occaiioDally
found opportunities to indulge. Horace was almoft his con-
(lant companion ; and even in his laft years, after his promo*
tion to the mod laborious offic*. in the law, Homer, during a
vacation, was often on his table.

Another branch of knowledge for which he there imbibed
an early prediledion, was that of Ethics^ or Moral Philofophy.
This he had the advantage of ftudying under the celebrated
Dr Hutcheson, of whom he was a favourite pupiL The
\7armth of eloquence with which this Philofbpher poured forth
his le(5tures, attached to him extremely all thofe of his hearers^
who had any liking to the fubjedt he treated, or were fufcepti*
ble of being moved ; and Mr Miller, in particular, contradled
not only a high admiration of his talents, but fuch love to
him as a man, that long after Jiis death, and when he himfelf
had grown old, he could not mention his name but in terms
of gratitude and veneration, equal to thofe in which the difci-
pies of Socrates fpoke of their mailer. Like Socrates too,
Dr Hutcheson taught his difciples to value Ethics beyond all
other fciences ; and with Mr Miller this preference was fo
flrong, that he ufed habitually in converfation, when diftin-
guifhing it from the reft| to give it the appellation of Pbilofopby.

Having

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APPENDIX. Gs

Having thus, by the improvement of his tafte, and the ac- Ln7d plcfiLt
quiiition of a philofophic fpirit, made the beft preparation for ^^^^'*'-
eminence in any liberal employment, he decided for the Bar,
the profeilion to which thofe accompliihments lend the mod;
diftinguifhed luftre of any, and where they mod materially
contribute to the advancement of the perfon poflefled of them.
For fome time he had hefitated between this profeflion and his
father's ; and it is faid to have been in a great meafure owing
to the (late of his health, that he gave up thoughts of the
latter.

When he had refolved on going to the Bar, he fixed his re-
fidence at Edinburgh, and devoted himfelf to the ftudy of the
law, with that zeal and earneftnefs with which, during his
whole life, he was remarkable for following every objed that
had once determined his choice *. Yet with all his diligence in
this neceflary occupation, as the turn of his mind led him to no
bafe or trifling purfuits, he was able to find time, and negledled
not to employ it, for cultivating the humaner and more liberal
(Indies. Even at this time, he continued to read the cla(fics ex-
tenfively, particularly the better Greek authors, having for his
afliftant the late Mr George MuiRHEAD, afterwards ProfeflTor
of Humanity at GlafgoW, whofe reputation as a claflical fcholar
is well known. ^

In the month of July 1 742, he was called to the Bar. Where
he had not long continued, before the moft favourable opinion
came to be entertained, among the perfons beft entitled to judge,
of the proficiency he had made in the knowledge of the law,
and of his excellent qualifications, both for counfel and debate.
His elocution was copiotlls and eafy ; his feleAion of argument
judicious, and his mode of prefenting it, in the highed degree
perfpicuous and plain ; and he accompanied it with a manner
of delivery fo weighty and fervent, as carried home to the

Vol. II. (I) hearer

* His ufual hour of going to bed at this period was four of the xnoroing.

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66 HISrORr of the SOCIETr.

wTrefilcnt l^earer the impreffion of his own belief in the dodlrines he
Miller. maintained. Men there might perhaps be in the profeflion,

more eminent for invention of topics in a defperate caufe, or
who fhowed more verfatility of genius in placing the fame bu-
finefs in different lights, or turning it into all variety of fhapes ;
but there was none who better underftood the ftrength of a good
or a tenable caufe, or took his ground in one of that defcrip-
tion with more judgment and difcretion, or ufed its advantages
to better purpofe. Having found the founded or moft favour-
able part of his client's plea, that he attached himfelf to, and
on it exerted all his ftrength ; throwing afide, with juft and
proper confidence, all the more doubtful points and weaker
confiderations in the caufe. Captious and quibbling argu-
ment indeed, and all pei;verfion of an adverfary's words or
meaning, he held to be as foreign to the lawyer's duty, as they
are derogatory to the honour of the Court where they are
heard ; nor could he, on any occafion, be prevailed on to
attempt the aiding of his caufe, in a manner fo inconfiftent
i with his own feelings of what ^was right and proper.

* : . No wonder then, that thus qualified, and regulated by fen-

' .• timents fo refpe<flable, he quickly rofe to a high degree of em-

ployment in his profeflion, though he had' among his cotempo-
raries, for rivals in the public favour, men of the greateft
acutenefs and fplendour of parts.

Hence alfo he, at an early period of life, entered the career
of public offices and honour in th€ department of the law.

In the year 1748, on the new arrangement of the office of
SheriflT, (which has been attended with fo many falutary confe-
quencea) he was pitched upon as a fit perfon for one of thofe
appointments. The county which Government had ^eftined
for him, was that of Invernefs, in thofe times of recent diforder
and rebellion, accounted the moft important of any, and what
required the fteadieft and moft able fuperintendence. But this
appointment, though more advantageous, he declined ^ becaufe

his

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Lord Pi^fidcTit
Millcn

APPENDIX.' 67

his friend the Earl of Selkirk had recommended him to Go- ^."Tlfil
vernment for the fte#artry of Kirkcudbright, and it had been
underftood between him and the Earl that he was to accept it^

The duties of this office he performed with great pundluality,
and to the entire fatisfa<5lion of the diftridl entrufted to his
charge ; and he continued to hold it till the year 1755, when he
refigned, and was named Solicitor of Excife — an office in thofe
days generally held by a lawyer.

In the year 1759, on the promotion of Mr Pringm (after-
wards Lord Alemore) to the Bench, he reaped the fruit of
the public favour, in being appointed his Majefty's Solicitor-
General for Scotland.

In the year 1760, he fucceeded the late Prefident Dundas as
his Majefty's Advocate for Scotland ; and in the following year,
he was chofen to ferve in Parliament for the burgh of Dum*
fries.

While in thefe ftations, Mr Miller, whofe modefty and
difcretion were equal to his ability, did not think it fo much in-
cumbent on him to take an adlive ihare in the debates of the
Ailembly, as to regulate his voice according to his opinion of
the public good. The iingle occafion that called him up as a
fpeaker, was indeed of a very interefting kind, and became a
fignal proof of the independence of his fpirit, and fincere con-
cern in the grandeur and profperity of the Britifli empire. This'
was the repeal of the American ftamp a£l ; a meafure in which
Mr Miller's fagacity forefaw the miferable train of confe*
quences that have fince enfued from it, and which, though
fupported by all the influence of the then Miniftry, he accord*
ingly both voted againft, and gave his reafons to the Houfe for
oppofing : — ^A moft refpedtable and truly patriotic piece of con-
duft, and of which he reaped a juft, but unlookcd for reward,
in the friendfkip and eileem of the Marquis of Rockingham }
who, however loath to have an opponent in the principal fcr-
vant of die Crown for Scotland, yet, fatisfied that he had taken

• (I 2) this

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68 HISrORr of the socinTr.

w Prefidcnt ^^^s ^i^^ f^o^ t^e pureft and moll difinterefted motives, conti-
^**^" nued him in his public ftation, and ever ^fter honoured him

with his particular attention. '

In the year 1766, on the death of Lord Minto, he was ap-
pointed Lord Justice Clerk; which office both bellows the
Prelidency of the highell Criminal Tribunal, and a feat as an
ordinary Judge in the fupreme Civil Court.

In thefe high ftations, he fully jullified the choice that had
been made of him; and foon, by his fcrupulous attendance on
the Court, and alTiduous labour in the difpatch of bufinefs,
gained a high place in the elleem and confidence of the public,
as a man deeply imprefled with the importance of his duties,
and actuated by a warm and Heady zeal confcientioufly to dif-
charge them. And this talk he accomplilhed, in the civil de-
partment, in fuch a manner, as both added credit to the Court*
of which he was a member, and was of the moll elTential fer-
vice to the interells of law and julFice. For belides the learn-
ing and experience, acquired by long lludy and extenfive prac-
tice, he was poflefled of many other more material qualifica-
tions, which added much to the power of thofe attainments,
and peculiarly fitted him for the important charge of deciding
on the rights of his fellow-citizeixg.

He was happy in a great natural temperance of difpofition
and foundnefs of judgment. Whence, though he was well
able to purfue an intricate and fubtile argument, and could, on
proper occafions, fuccefsfully pufli an abftra(5l principle into all
its confequences, and was ever difpofed to bellow the due Ihare
of praife on this fort of acutcnefs in others, yet few were fo
little apt to be dazzled by new or fplendid notions, or left fub-
je<5l to the impofition of falfe refinement. His natural good
underllanding, joined to his knowledge of bufinefs, readily
pointed out to him the real fources and objeds of our culloms
and llatutes, and the confequences to be dreaded, if thefe were
at any time forgotten ; and thus, occupying on all occafions a

ilrong[

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APPENDIX. 69

ftrong and fure ground, he was not eafily tempted to abandon L,7d p?cf?dent

Miller.
It.

To the fame conftitutioii of mind, he was indebted for his
particular eminence in that article, wherein perhaps lies the
main difiiculty of the Judge's tafk, — ^the difcovering the pre-
cife application, or the inapplicability, of the general pre-
cepts of law to the particular cafe in hand. He was nowife
apt to haften to a fentence, but patiently fufpended his opinion
till the due inveftigations had fully ripened the cafe for judg-
ment ; which neceffary preparation once made, he then earneft-
ly applied himfelf to underftand, and get pofTeffion of, the pe-
^culiar circumftances and proper complexion of that cafe.
Whence it came, that in the courfe of the many years he fat
upon the Bench, the number of his judgments as an Ordinary,
that were altered on review of the whole Court, was almoft
incredibly fmall, and that, in a great proportion of the caufes
brought before him, the unfuccefsful party acquiefced in his
opinion, and carried the fuit no farther.

Hence alfo, in the deliberations of the whole Court, it often
happened, (as many who now hear me remember), that, by
detailing the caufe to the Bench, (which he did with great
force and perfpicuity), and fixing upon fpecial circumftances
which others had overlooked, or lefs attentively coniidered, he
was. able to turn the tide of argument, and win his brethren
over to his opinion.

Yet, though this was perhaps his peculiar excellence, he was
the very reverfe of a minute or unfteady lawyer. He had, on
the contrary, the firmeft hold of the principles and fpirit of
the law in every department, and on all occafions that gave
fcope for general reafoning, ever drew his opinion, not from'
thife authority of books and precedents, (which hardly any Judge
ever dealt lefs in quoting), but from the fource and * fountain-
head of the law, — the fl;rain of our ftatutes, and the reafon and
fubftance of the thing.

But

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70 HIS TORT of the SOCIETK

LoVd PreGdent BuT ill rcciting his qualifications as a Judge, we muft not

Miller. forget one^ which was in him amongft the mod eminent of any,

and on no occafion forfook or mifled him, — the natural recti-
tude and pure honour of his own mind, — which, in the nu-
merous clafs of caufes that depend on the judgment to be
formed of the chara<5ler and conduifl of men, diredled him
with certainty to whatever was faulty in either, and enabled
him to fhow (which he did with much energy and feeling)
what the conduct of a truly honeft man would there have been.
Indeed, upon fuch occafions, where the intereft of morality,
or the purity of judicial proceedings, was concerned, he was
fometimes led to expatiate at a length which juft taCle might
perhaps have been difpofed to blame, had it been a lefs warm
and pleafing proof of his native integrity and cordial attach-
ment to the caufe of virtue.

With all thefe powerful affillances, which fo well qualified
him to judge with firmnefs and decifion for himfelf, he pof-
fefled the ftill more Vare, and in a Judge ineftimable endow-
ment, of the moft perfe<5l candour, in liftening to and weigh-
ing the fentimfents of others } which virtue was in him fo con-
fpicuous, that it might with truth be faid of him, that he had
no predileiStion for any opinion, merely becaufe it had once
been his own : So ready was he to reconfider his judgment, the
moment he faw any caufe to doubt it, and with fuch perfedi
opennefs and indifference did he abandon it, however firm his
former perfuafion, upon being (from whatever quarter) con-
vinced of an error. «

These were his acknowledged merits as a Civil Judge. And
his zeal for the public fervice as Prefident of the Judiciary, was
no lefs confpicuous and fuccefsful, as appears from more than
one reformation, which the forms and pra<5lice of the Court un-
derwent, during the period of his fitting at the head of it. Of
thefe, the moft remarkable was the fuller eftablifhment of the
diftindlion in our law between culpable homicide and murder ;

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A P T E N D IX. 71

a diftinaion which fecms to reft upon the ftrongeft grounds in ^^'^dTrlnLnt
reafonand humanity, and even to be fupported by the Ian- ^^""
guage of our books and ftatutes, but which, neverthelefs, the
older pra^ice of the Court could fcarcely. be faid to have tho-
roughly recognifed, and which now, in a great meafure, owed
its reception into libels and verdidls to the weight of Mr Mil-
ler's opinion, who loft no proper opportunity to countenance
and incukate fo juft a dodlrine.

We may alfo mention among the improvements by him fug-
gefted, the late ftatutory difpenfation with the tedious, and
ofteh unneceffary procefs, of reducing the teftimony of the wit-
^eflfes into writing.

Nor muft we pafs over his attention to the exterior decorum
of this tribunal, fo important to the maintenance of its au-
Aority, and which he, in diflPerent ways, materially contri-
buted to fupport ; having aboliftied certain old, but unfeemly
pradices, and introduced various becoming obfervances, not
before hist time required j and, above all, having perfonally
added to the refpedl and gravity of the Bench, by his rare and*
happy talent of fuitable, and earneft, and eloquent exhortation
to the unfortunate convi^s, which impreffed upon the byftand-
ers, and rendered falutary t» them, the examples of juftice
which hk duty cpnftrained him to make.

Mr Miller continued, thus honourably to himfelf, and
profitably to the public, to difcharge the duties of thefe fta-
tions, widiout interruption, till the year 178 1 j at which time,
his health being fomewbat impaired by Co long a courfe of
conftant application to bufinefs, it was judged advifable for
him to difcontinue it, and make a .(hort trial of a warmer
climate. He accordingly fpent fome months in vlfiting diffe-
rent parts of France ; and having thence pafled into Italy, he
had there the fatisfadtion of contemplating the magnificent re-
mains of the grandeur of the people, for whofe language and
genius he entertained fo high an admiration, and of furveying

with

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^^ HISTORr of the SOCIEtr.

t^rT?uiLt with his own eyes many of the pifturefque fcenes which had {o
Miller. ^£^^j^ delighted him in the defcfiptions of their poets. He re-

turned in perfedl health, after being abfent for about a year,
and refumed his former occupations with his wonted vigour
and adivity.

In the month of January 1788, on the death of Prefident
DuNDAS, he was, to the entire fatisfadlion of his country and
the Bar, called to prefide in the Civil Court. His Majefty, at
the fame time, thought proper to requite his long fervices, by
beftowing on him the title of a Baronet of Great Britain.

It was a very difficult tafk for any man, the youngeft and
mod vigorous, to enter on the extenfive labours of this office,
after the Lord Prefident Dundas ; whofe fing^ular powers for
the rapid difpatch of bufinefs will always be remembered with
regret, whoever the perfon be that fills his chair. Yet of his
fucceflbr, during the fliort time he held it, we may with truth
fay, that he gained an acceffion of reputation, by his manner
of condu(fting himfelf in this new (lation, though advanced to
the age of Seventy before he attained it. And if he fbmetimes
confulted with his brethren upon matters which he might have
fettled without fuch deliberation, this was almod unavoidable
upon the firft entry into office; at leaft in a perfon like Sir Tho-
mas Miller, who, with the beft pretenfiong to lead and di-
re<fl, was free from all defire to exert his influence. This mild-
nefs of difpofition fecured to him, in an uncommon degree,
the refpeiSt and affe<S\ion of the Gentlemen at the Bar ; whom
he always heard with fuch patience, and treated with fuch at-
tention and good breeding, as ihould, more effedlually than
the fliarpeft animadverfion, reprefs all petulance and indecorum.
Having thus then gained the fummit of his honeft ambi-
tion, in rifing fucceffively, by his own talents and ufeful la-
bours, to all the great offices of the law ; — having obtained
them all v^ithout blame or envy* and held them with credit and
diflin^ion ; — ^happy in retaining, at an advanced age, the full

pofleffion

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APPENDIX. 77

DONATIONS prefented to the Royal Society of I^xnimrgb^
continued from the preceding Volume, •

By yobn Macgowan^ Efq; Edinburgh.
Anacardinm Occidentale. Lin. The Fruit of the Caflien Tree,

preferved in fpirits. No. 722.
Caflor Fiber. Lin. The Beaver, from Hudfon's Bay. No. 723.
Felis Lynx. Lin. The Hudfbn's Bay Lynx. No. 724.
Canis Lagopus. Lin. The Ardlic Fox, from Hudfon's Bay.

No. 725.
Crotalus Miliarius. Lin. The fmalt Rattlefnake. No. 726.
Coluber Alternus. No. 727.

By the Right Honourable Lord Da^r.

A number of articles, colledled in the South Seas by Captain

Bligh.
Two parcels of fine New Zealand Hemp. No. 728.
A Mufical Inftrument made of Reeds. No. 729.
An Arrow-head, formed of a hard black Schiflus. No. 730.
Fifh-hooks of Mother of Pearl, and Lines, from the Friendly

Iflands. No. 731. — 733.
Fifli-hooks, and Lines, formed of the Sinews of an Animal

from the coaft of America, in Lat. 49^ N. No. 734. — 736.
Capnias Auftralis, \

Smedis Auftralis, Ifrom the South Sea Iflands. No. 737. — 739.
Catochites Auftralis,J • ^

By Jobrr David/an, Efq; o^ Ravelrig.
A Lion^s Skin, with the Headj Teeth and Qaws, from the Cape
of Good Hope. No. 740.
Vol. 11. L , Two

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y6 HISTORY of the SOCIETr.

lift of Don*, j^^ Sea- weeds, taken out of the Atlantic, at a great diftance
from any land. No. 741. 742.
Six Arrows from Bengal. No. 743.
A Malay Poinard. No. 744.
Lapi? Judaicus, from the Eaft Indies. No. 745.

By yobn Learmontb^ Efq; Merchant in Edinburgh.
Scolopendra Gigantea, Lin. above fourteen inches long, from
the Weft Indies, preferved in fpirits. No. 746.

By ProfeflbrD^i/z^/.

A Sceptre of Ivory, mounted with filver, given by the King of
Dachomy, in Africa, to Archibald Dalzel^ Efq; formerly
Governor of Whydah, as a teftimony of friendfhip.
No. 747.

The Horn of an Antelope, from Africa. No. 748*

By ^ames Bofwell^ Efq; of Auchinleck.

Some large Nodules of Flint, from Italy ; each having cryftalli-
fations in a large central cavity, fent from Leghorn by
Sir John Dick. No. 749.

By Captain LiddeL
A white Greenland Bear. No. 750.

By Francis Kinlocbj Efq; of Gilmerton.
Colymbus Ardicus, LiK. (hot on the fhore of Eaft Lothian.
No. 751.

By the Honourable Lord Haites.
Trichechus Rofmarus. Lin. The Morfe or Sea Horfe; the
Skeleton of the Head entire^ with the Tuiks. No, 752.

\ By

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J4PPENDIX. 79

By Mr John Macaulay, Town-clerk of Dumbarton. ^^J^^ ^*°*

The Horn of a Stag, of a fingular form, dug out of a ftratum
of Clay ii^^jPumbartonfhire. No. 753.

By the Right Hon. the Lord Chief Baron Montgomery.

An Indian Canoe/ of fine workmanfhip, from the Ifland of St
John. No. 754.

By Dr Gregory.

A large Lizard, from the Weft Indies, preferved in fpirits.
No. 755.

By William Henry Charters^ Efq; of Burntifland.
Lava Garnets, found in the Lava, which overwhelmed Pom*

peii. No. 756.
Two Copper Coins. No. 757. 758.
A Silver Coin of Henry VI. ftruck at Calais, and found in thq

river Jed. No. 759.

By Dr Roxburgh at Madrafs.
A Cheft of Plants from Bengal and the Peninfula of India, con-
taining feveral hundred Plants, in fine condition, and ar-
ranged according to the Linnean fyftem.

By The American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, to
the end of the year 1783, Vol. I. 4to. Bofton, 1785*

By The Royal Irifh Academy,

The Traafa^ion« of the Royal iriih Academy. 4to. Dublin,
1787.

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Lift of Dootr
tioni.

to HISTORr of the SOCIETK

By jidair Crawfordj M. D.
Experiments and Obfervations on Animal Heat, and the In-
flammation of Combuftible Bodies, \^c. The f^pnd edition.
8vo. London, 1788. /T

By Dr Carlyle. / '

The Hufbandry of the Ancients, by ^dam Dick/on^ A. M. late
Minifler of Whittingham. 2 Vols. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1788.

By E. Peart, M. D.

The Generation of Animal Heat iuveftigatcd, &c. 8vo. Gainf-
borough, 1788.

By Af. Lavoijier*
"Trmti UUmentairt dc Cbime. 2 Vol. 8vo. a Parig^ 178SK

By Thomas Percivat, M* D.
Eflays Nodical, Philofophical and Experimental,. Vol. IL Sto^
4th edition, revifed and enlarged. Warrington, 1789.

By the Reverend Archibald AUJon^ A. B.
Eilays on the Nature and Principles of Tafle. 4to. Edinburg^h^
i7pa

T R A N S-^

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APPENDIX. 73

pofleffion of health and of his faculties, and fortunate in his wTAfident
family and all his domeftic concerns ;•:— he had little elfe to pray ***^**'^-
for, ((idee Heaven had ordered that he ihould now be called
from the fociKty of perfons fo dear to him) but an cafy diflb*
lution of his mortal (late. And this Divine Providence thought
fit to grant him.

He died upon the 27th of September 1789, after an illnefs
of two days, at his feat of Barfkimming in Ayrfliire, in the
72d year of his age, — leaving no good man his enemy, and at-
tended with that fincere and extenfive regret, which only thofe
can hope forf who have occupied the like important flations,
and acquitted themfelves as well.

We have fpoken of him in his public capacity, and noticed
his great temperance and folidity of judgment. Now, thefe
qualities were in him the more to be praifcd, that they did not
proceed from any coldnefs or tardinefs of nature, but were, on
the contrary, united to a vdry warm and feeling heart j whict
was manifeft in his whole life and manners.

No man w^ perhaps a better citizen, of i!tiore genuine pa-
triot, than the late Prefident ; if we are to cfteem him fuch,
who not only takes an intereft in the internal welfare and pro-
Iperity of his country, but feels an honeft pride and warm
concern in its glory and confequence as a ftate, and in the
fpleijdour of the peoples fame. Of all thefe, the Prefident had,
and continued to have, even in his lateft years, a moft lively
fenfe ; which was, at one period of his life, the fource of much
joy and fatisfaclion, and at a later period, of fincere mortifica-
tion and regret, and caufed him often to lament to the rifir% ge-
neration, during the misfortunes of the late war, that they had
only feen a glimpfe of the glory of their country. That part
too of the Britifh dominions which gave him birth, he was at-
tached to with all the partiality which a good man naturally
feels ; nor was there any fubjedl on which he dwelt more fre-

VoL. II. (K) quently,

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74 HISrORr of the SO'CIETr.

tJrTpfefident q^cDitly, OY With morc plcafurc, than its growing ftate of im-

Muier. provement in his own time.

He was, in like manner, a very focial and hofpitable man ^
to his family, and conne(5tions, and indeed to all about him,
full of gentlenefs, and kindnefs, and cordiality : and this uni-
formly and without exertion ; infomuch that no perfbn whom
he had reafon to efteem or think well of, could ever fay of him,
that he received him coldly, or treated him with referve*.
Good breeding indeed, (meaning by the term that kind and
open manner which fets a ftranger or inferior at eafe) was in
a manner natural to him ; and he had it to all rlhks and con-
ditions of men ; fo that in a humane vifit to the houfe of a
fervant or dependant, he equally pleafed, and was as furely di^
' reeled to the very things that were fit and acceptable to be faid,
as in his intercourfe with thofe of his own rank. Among
whom too, and indeed in all fituations, he was diftinguifhed
for a rare fimplicity of manners and opennefs of fpeech ; which
igpwed from a purity of thought and intentions, fo perfeifl that
it was not to be furpafled.

He retained through life the higheft relifh of the beauties of
nature, and every year fpent a confiderable part of the reccfa
of bufinefs, in the enjoyment and improvement of the roman*

tic

♦ Herb we muft obferve, that however remarkable this gentlenefs and difpoCtion to
oblige, they were yet always confined to their proper fphere, and in no inftance fufFered
to interfere with what he efteemed his duty. This appeared, among other examples
that might be given, in his fpirited behaviour as Lord Advocate, on occafion of a que-
ftion that arofe touching the pre-eminence of his office* The late Mr Charles Yorkb
had been honoured with a patent of precedence over his brethren at the Bar, with ex-
ceptioiA>nly of the Attorney* General ; and happening to be engaged as Counfel in the
Houfe of Lords, on the fame fide with Mr Millbr, he, under this privilege, claimed
right to be heard before him. Mr Miller, though in habits of intimacy with Mr
YoRKB, and perlbnally very indifferent about any fuch dlftindion, felt himfelf here in
duty called upon to refift his friend's pretentions $ and accordingly maintained (nor
could be prevailed on to recede from it) that he, as his Majefiy's Advocate, was Attor*
ney-General for Scotland, and within the exception of the patent. The point was in the
end referred to the opinion of Lord Mansfield, which was given in favour of Mr Miller*

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APPENDIX. 75

tic fcenes at his place of Barfkimming. It ^as not, however, to ^o'^i^dTrlfiLt
the objedl of beauty alone, that his attention at thofe feafons ^"^*'*
was diredled, but alfo to the better management and fubflantial
melioration of his eftate. And this purfuit engaged him in very
numerous and extenfive operations, all of which he himfelf both
planned, and fuperintended the execution of, and fuccefsfully
condu(9:ed ; though in the hands of mod other men, having the
fame avocations of bufinefs, without the fame adlivity, conftancy
and love of qrder, they were more likely to have proved abor-
tive, or even ruinous.

Sir Thomas Miller was twice married. By his firft wife,
Margarbt Murdoch, daughter of John Murdoch, mer-
chant in Glafgow, he left iflue ; one daughter, and one fon,
now Sir William Miller, who follows the fame profeffion in
which his father rofe to fuch diftinguilhed honours. His fe-
cond marriage (of which there is no iflue) was to Anne
LocKHART, daughter of Mr Lockhart of Caftlehill, who has
the misfortune to furvive him. His eldeft brother John had
deceafed fome years before him, and he fucceeded, on that
event, to the family eftate of Glenlee, which, along with the
eftate of Barfkimming, has now devolved to his fon.

END OF THE HISTORT^

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TRANS AC T I O N S

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH.

V O L. II. P A R T IL
PAPERS READ BEFORE THE SOCIETT.

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L
PAPERS OF THE PHYSICAL CLASS.

I. Of certain Natural Appearances of the Ground on
the Hill of Arthur's Seat. By jAMES HvrTOh\ M. D.
F. R. S, Edin. and Member of the Royal Academy of Agri*
culture at Paris*.

IN lummer 1776, Profeflbr Ferguson obferved a parti-
cular appearance on the hill of Arthur's Seat, near the fum-
mit, which drew his attention, and which he could not under-
(land. He then carried Dr Black and me to the place, where
we found fomething which, at a diflance, refembled the wi-
thered grafs of a foot-path, but which traverfed a (houlder of
the hill, in fuch a diredtion as correfponded to neither iheep-
track nor foot-path. Upon a near infpe(5lioh, it appeared to be
a narrow ftripe of the grafs quite dead and withered. The
breadth of this ftripe was about nine, or, in ibme places, twelve
inches ; the fides of this track were perfedlly defined^ without
any gradation from green to withered grafs, all the plants in
the track being killed, without the contiguous part having fuf-
fered in the lealt. The length of this track was confiderabk, a
hundred yards or two, extending frqm the fouth-eafl fide of

a % the

♦ This Paper was read before the Philofophical Society of Edinburgh in June 1778.
It is now printed by order of tke Committee for publication of the TranfaAions of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh.

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4 NATURAL APPEARANCES

the fouthmoft hill through a hollow, and afcending obliquely
the (houlder of the fummit of Arthur's Seat on the fouth-eaft
fide.

At firft thunder fuggefted itfelf as having been the caufe of
this remarkable appearance ; but the more we enquired into
the particulars of this phenomenon, the greater difficulties oc-
curred with regard to the proper correfpondence of that con-
jedlured caufe, as well as for afligning any other with the leaft
degree of probability. It is with a view to make this appear,
that the following hiftory is made of the particulars which were
at that time, and have been fince obferved.

Observation i. The appearance now defcribed was not
the only one of the kind ; for, upon examination, I found fimi-
lar tracks, though of various extent, in all the difierent afpedls
and fituations, from the fouth fide of the fummit to the north
fide of the hill half way down to the plain ; but none at the
bottom.

Obs. 2. These appearances, though recent, or of that year's
produdlion, had not been the firft thing of that kind which had
appeared on the hill ; for, parallel to each of thofe tracks of
withered grafs, there was another perfectly fimilar, which then
appeared to us as if it had been made the year before, and was
then black, the grafs having rotted. The diftance of this old
track from the new, was, in general, only a few inches, fometimes
exceeding near, but rarely or never contiguous.

Obs. 3. The tracks, now tinder confideration, have been
confidered as a thing continuous in its length ; but this it is
only in general, or in certain portions where it is fo fometimes
for a confiderable extent. In other places, again, it is compofed
of feveral portions of various lengths, the grafs being unaflPedl-
ed betwixt thofe portions which make up the track ; fo that, in
fbme places, the track is made as it were by fpots ; and thefe
fpots, although in general longer in the direction of the track,
are not always fb, there being in fome places, generally at the

extremity

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On the HiU of ARTHUR'S SEAT. g

extremity of the track, fpots whofe length do not exceed their
breadth.

Obs. 4. The regularity with which thofe two tracks run pa-
rallel and near to each other, is not more wonderful than is the
correfpondency that is in general to be obferved with regard to
the conftrudion of Ihefe, as confiding either of a continuous
track or of feparate pieces ; and to fo great a degree is carried
this rcfemblance of the two tracks, that, where it is by fpots
the tracks are made, there the fimilarity, even of the fpots,
were fometimes remarked, fo that it feemed as if the one had
been a copy of the other.

Obs. 5, Besides the brown colour of thofe new made tracks,
which might be feen at a confiderable diflance, (two or three
hundred feet), there was another ftripe of a dark green, which
might be feen at a ftill greater diftance. Upon more cloie exa-
mination, this laft appearance was found to take its origin in
fome grafs of a very dark green, which, in fome places here
and there of the laft year's track, began to grow in the black
ground and among the rotten grafs ; but the greatefl part of this
deep green was behind the lail year's track, and was evidently
owing to a fimilar growth of grades in places which had been
formerly killed or withered, and were now almofl covered with
new plants, which gave a deeper fhade of green than the reft of
the hill.

This laft obfervation led to another ; for here a queftion na*
turally occurred. That, fince this fucce£tion of things had cer-
tainly taken place at leaft three years, how many fucceffivc
tracks might be dete(5led from the examination of thofe appear-
ances? With this view I confidered attentively fome places
where the marks were moft diftindl, and could plainly count
five or fix fucceflions ; the number cannot be accurately afcer-
tained, becaufe thofe which have been made above three or four
years are much efl&ced, although the colour, and fome other
marks, evidently prove^ that there had been feveral more.

Obs.

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& NATURAL APPEARANCES

Ofis. 6. The tracks which have been now defcribed, are not
ftraight lines, but have all more or left of a regular circular na*
ture in them ; that is to fay, they are fegments of circular fi-
gures, and only approach to the appearance of right lines, ia
proportion as the figure of which they are the fegments is
large, or the fegment fmall ^ and in thofe refpecAs there appears
to be great variety. There is, however, one appearance which^
at firtt fight, might impofe upon an obfervator, and deftroy the
generality of this obfervation. It is an inilance or two that oc-
cur of a continued line in thofe tracks ; but, in this cafe, the
line appears to be made up of feveral f^^ments, each of which
ought to be confidered by itfclf ; confequently, here will be ac^
knowledged the operation of the fame general principle by
which, in thofe appearances, a regular figure is produced, and
that this figure is in its nature circular.

Obs. 7. The produflion of thofe tracks being fucccffive in
its nature, or operating in different places at difiSsrent periods of
time, fuggefts another fubje(5l of enquiry, viz. How far any re-
gularity, or a certain order, may be obferved alfo with regard
to this operation, as well as with regard to that by which the
figure is produced ? And this, from obfervation, I think, is de-
termined in the affirmative, fo far as, from all the obfervations
I have made, this progrefs feems always to have proceeded in
the diredlion of a line, drawn from the centre, bifecfling the
fegment ; that is to fay, thofe portions of concentric circles
are never infcribed, but always circumfcribed ; and, for this
reafon, it will appear, that thofe circles, of which figments arc
exhibited to our obfervation, mufl be increafing, and not di-
minifhing, in their diameter.

Having thus given an account of what was concluded from
the firft feafon of thofe obfervations, before proceeding to give
the continuation of their hiftory, it may be proper to obferve,
that an unfuccefsful attempt was once made to invefligate the

caufe^

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On tbi mU of ARTHUR'S SEAT. 7

cauic, by the iafpe^ion of the turf cut up, and compared with
that immediatdy contiguous to the track ; for, on that occaiion^
nothing was found tliat could give any light into the nature of
die operation.

FnoM the narration of aj^arances already made, the hiftory
of what has happened fince that fiommer, 1776, will be extreme-
ly fliort, and may be comprehended in two or three words.

In the fummer 177^9 there was prognoflicated a fucceflion
of appearances fimilar to thoie which, fiom the obfervations
then mad«, had been concluded as having already coQie to pafs,
and been tranfa(5led with a certain regularity in a former period
of time. The event has fully juftified the judgment which
was formed at that time, refpedting the order and regularity of
the appearances, and has alfo left us in the fame ftate of uncer^-
tainty, or rather ignorance, with regard to the cauie.

In the fpring, about the month of Aprils the grafs begins
gradually to wither and decay* It is per£cdlly dead in a little
time, that it, in a week or two, and then appears white or wi-
thered. Thus, ev^ry plant being killed in the new track,
thofe vegetable bodies, expofed to heat and moiflure, gradually
decay, fo as next year to exhibit a dark or black, inflead of a
light or white track, which it had been the year before \ but
during the fecond year, the dead plants are flill obferved in the
turf, which, as it begins to get new plants, lofes gradually the
appearance of the old ones, until at laft little more can be ob-
served, than a broad (hade of a much deeper green, which,
on the one (ide, is compared with the natural verdure into
which it fbmetimes feems gradually to terminate ; whereas, on
the other £kle, the deep green colour of the ground formerly
tracked, is contrafled with the yellow or hght colour of the wi-
thered- grafs.

From the infpedion of the ground, and the hiftory of what
has been obferved to happen, nothing is more evident than that
this regular fuccefhve operation has been now repeated^ at leaft

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8 NjrURAL APPEARANCES

in fome parts of the hill, for eight or nine years. Here, there^
fore, is a piece of natural hiftory worth recording, and for
which a theory is wanted.

The appearances which have been here defcribed arc, fo far as
I know, lingular and jinconnedled with all others refulting from
known caufes. I know that fimilar circles have been obferved
by naturalifls, and by them afcribed to thunder ; as we fhould
certainly have done in this cafe, were it not for the regidar an-
nual progreflion, which, if the effedl of thunder, muft follow
rules not yet inveftigated, either in eledlricity, vegetation or the
mineral fyftem j for,

How comesat, that the ekdlrical operation takea place regu-
larly in the fpring only, and that without any appearance of
thunder ?

2dly^ How comes it, that the ftripe of grafs deftroyed by one
operation, is always regularly progreflive in one particular di-
redlion, in relation to the firft eledlrical operation ?

3^/y, If this progreffive appearance fhall be confidered as an
eledrical operation, and every fucceflive repetition as diredled
by the one ^immediately pfecediag it ; then, how was the iirCk
produced ; when was it y and when will be the laft I

The next conje<5lural raufe that fuggefls itfelf as an explana-
tion of thofe appearances, is the operation of infedls. But
there feems to be no lefs difficulty in reconciling any known
animal-OEConomy with the appearances under coniideration, a&
the only cau{e of thofe appearances ; for,

How fhould thofe animals have been diflributed m thofe fe-
parated tribes upon the hill, and difpofed in the continuous
tracks, fo as to exhibit Hnes of long extent, traverfing ground
and foil of various quality, as well as in tracks of very little
extent ; but, whether great or fmall, formed upon the fame
principle, every part having a fimilar relation to a whole ?

Are thefe large tracks to be confidered as the extenfion of
colonies which once had been fmall ? or. Are thefe colonies

dropped

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On tbe Hill of ARTHUR'S SEAT. 9

dropped from the atmofphere upon the difierent parts of the
hill, in the fhape and extent in which we find thofe ftripes of
withered grafs \ This lafl hypothefis is not fupported by any
appearance that I know of in this country ; and the other is not
confiftent with the natural appearances to which it muft be-
long ; for the fblitary or infulated fpots, which often form part
of a ftripe, feem to be reproduced, in nearly equal quantity,
each fucceeding year, without any gradual extenfion in the
fhipe, which aUb feems to preferve its former extent, as well as
breadth and form.

Therefore, when we confider the various fituations and
extent of thofe narrow ftripes of withered grafs, the regularity
to be obferved in their fhape and progreflion, and the conflan-,
cy which feems to take place with regard to their fuccefCon, wq
muft, at the fame time, be perfuaded, that there is a natural
caufe which may be invefligated for the explanatioA of tho£b
appearances, and rejeift the mere fuppofition of caufes which do
not feem, of themfelves, adequate to the efiedt perceived*

Great attention would be required in making obfervations
with a view to difcover the caufe of thofe appearances ; and
the difficulty of this tafk is niuch increafed by an ambiguity
which occurs on certain occafions, where the breeding of in-
feds in confequence of the death of plants^ may be miftaken
for the death of plants in confequence of infers ; but, on the
other hand, in the preient cafe, great advantage, for an en-
quiry of this fort, may be derived from the opportunity that
there is of examining, not only what had been killed the pre-
ceding, but alfo that part ^vdiich is, perhaps, to be killed the
enfuing feaibn ; and where experiment may be made by cut-
ting off die communication betwixt thofe two parts as deep as
the £>H may admit.

Thb apparent produdion, or rather the multiplication of
fame fpedes of animals, in confequence of a certain deftrudion

Vol. II. b of

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lo NATURAL APPEARANCES

of the vegetable turf, is a thing eafily to be conceived, like what:
happens in thofe ftripes the fecond year, when I have feen an
abundant crop of a certain fpecies of mufhrooms in the track..
Had animals of a particular fpecies been found there, in the exa«-
mination of the foil in thofe withered tracks, a rafll conclufioa:
might have been formed, in erroneoufly attributing as a caufe
for the appearance, what was truly an effeiSb or confequenee of
the thing in queilion^.

It is always making a ftep towards the difcoverihg the caufe of
a phenomenon, when caufes which, with fome degree of pro-
bability, have been afcribed to an event, are found to be uncon-
nedted with, or to have no affinity to it ; for this is the natural'
method of invefligation, by examining the affinities or rela-
tions of tilings, and rejeding thofe as properly related^ where
there is found a difcrepancy. Thus, as there is no effedl with-
out its proper caufe ; fo, in proportion as a greater number of
events are found to be unconnedled with an appearance, fome
kind of approach is made towards that by which the natural
appearance is to be explained; but in cafes where events are-
multiplied or numberlefs, every approach of this kind is only
negative ; and fuch a method of inveftigation, while it may be
the means of discovering the thing in queftion, only (hows
that what we want is not attained. This, however, if made:
with full convidtion, is no contemptible ftep in^ natural philo-
fophy, where, next to the inveftigation of the proper order in
events, it is of the higheft importance to avoid, or to corre<5l,
the improper conneflion of them.

The explanation of the phenomena-, in the pre&nt piece of
natural hiftory, either by thunder or the operation of infedls,
without having obferved the adual conne<5lion of thofe diffe-
rent events, is merely conjeAural, as would be equally the re-
fufing to admit for explanation a known caufe, which, though
aot adlually oblenred as connected. with the event in. queftion,

had,.

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On the mi of ARTHUR'S SEAT., u

had, in odier refpeds, the requifltes for producing a fimilar
enedl*

But all that is known at prefent of eledricity, or the ope-
ration of infers, is far from being fufficient to be confidered as
the explanation of the appearances in queftion ; for.

Though the growing plants, or the vegetation of a portion
of the living turf, may be killed either by means of eledricity
or infe(5ls, thefe are not the only means by which that tSt&.
may be brought about ; at the fame time that this is the only
circumftance, in the natural appearance, explainable by the fup-
pofed caufe : Therefore, as every circumflance in an appearance
muft be properly related to a caufe, by which it is to be ex-
plained, fo the many circumftances here found, without any af-
finity to, if not inconfiftent with the conjedured caufe, will
leave no room for admitting fuch an explanation, according to
the preient view which has been given of the fubje<5t.

> 2 IL

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11. -^11 Account of the Method of making the OTTER of
R OSES9 ^^ it i^ prepared in the Eqfi Indies. Communicated
in a Letter from DoNJLD MoNRO, M D. of London, to
Mr John Robison, Profeffor of Natural Fbilofopby in the
Univerfity of Eoinburoh *.

SIR, London, yermjn Street, yufy 10. 1 jS$.

I Had the following receipt for making the Otter ofRofet, as
it is prepared in the Eaft Indies, from Major Mackenzie
of CouUj in the county of Rois, who told me he got the ac*
count from an olBicer of his corps, who was up in the country
where it is prepared, and aflifted in making it himiel£

Take a very large glazed earthen or (lone jar, or a large
clean wooden caflc ; fill it with the leaves of the flowers of rofes,
very well picked, and freed from all feeds and (talks ; pour on
them as much pure fpring ^y^ater as will cover them, and fet the
velTel in the (un in the morning at funrife, and let it (land till
the evening, when take it into the houfe for the night ; expo(e
it in this manner for fix or feven fucceflive days, and, at the
end of the third or fourth day, a number of particles, of a
fine yellow oily matter, will float on the furface, which, in two
or three days more, will gather into a fcum, which is the Otter
of Roies. This is taken up by fbme cotton, tied to the end of
a piece of dick, and fqueezed with the finger and thumb into
a fmall phial, which is immediately well (lopped \ and this is

repeated

* Read in the ^Philofophical Societj of Edinburgh in 1783 \ and publiflied by order
of the Committee for publication of the Tranfadions of the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh.

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Of making the OTTER of ROSES. 13

repeated for foixie fucceifiye eyeaing3» or while any of this fine
eflfential oil rifes to the furface of the water.

N. B. I HAVB been informed that fome few drops of thi9 ef-
fential oil have been more than once coUedled by diftillatipn, in
the fame manner as the efTential oils of other plants here in
London. I am,

SIR,

Your moft obedient humble fervant,

D. Monro.

IIL

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HI. Description tf a Mercurial Level, invented bj

jiLEXANDER JCeITH, E/qj F.R.S.&A. S. EdiN.*.

FIGURE I. is a fedlion of the mftrument formed of maho-
gany or boxwood.. A A are two oblong fquare cavities
^connecSled together by a narrow clofe channel, running from
the bottom of -the one to the other. B B are two grooves hol-
lowed out of the wood, in order to contain the lights, Wr,
They are fhut up by a lid, which turns upon a fcrew-nail at the
xentre C, as may be feen more diflindtly from fig. 4.

Fig. 2. D D are the two fights, the one with a finall hole^
the other with a crofs-hair. Thefe fights are erefted upon two
pieces of ivory or hard wood, which are fhaped nearly of the
dimenfions of the cavities A A, :but fo much fmaller as to enter
.without touching or rubbing on the fides. Mercury is poured
into the two holes A A till they are about half full; the two
pieces of ivory which fupport the fights, are put into the cavi-
:ties, and float on the furface of die mercury.

Fig. 3. is a perfpedlive view of the inftrument when the
fights are floating upon the mercury ; and fig. 4. is another
view of it, when the fights are taken out and the Kd is open.

As the two cavities communicate with each other, the fur-
face of mercury in both are always upon the fame line of level;
and confequently, if the two fights are once accurately adjufted,
.they will ever after point out the true level, without requiring
any after. adjuftment.

When this inftnmient is to be ufed, it may be laid on any
horizontal furface, and the fights will immediately become an

exacSt

* This Paper was read before the Philofophical Society of Edinburgh in December
1778 'j and is npw printed by order of the Committee for publication of the Tranfadioos
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh*

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Dejcriptionof a MERCURIAL LEVEL. 15

cxaA level. It may alfo be fixed on a tripod as the fpirit-level ;
or it will anfwer equally well, if it is affixed to the top of a
fingle (lake, which is fharpened at the point fo as to be puftied
into the ground. If it i» to be ufed as a pocket-inftrument, it
may be made of feven inches length, being about double the
dimenfions of the annexed draught. A common walking cane
forms a very convenient fupport. It is affixed tathe cane by
means of a brafs pin* £, which pailes through the hole G, and
through the eye or hole of the walking ftick ; and a brafs nut
F, fcrewing to the male-fcrew of the brafs pin, keeps them firm
together. The two grooves B B, contain the two fights and'
brafs pin, when^ not in ufe. Two corks, covered with thin lea-
ther, fitted into the holes A A, confiine the mercury, when the
iiiflrument is to be tranfported ; or, in cafe the mercury is
fi>und to efcape^ it may be poured into a finall cafe, made of
lignum vitae, like a tooth^pick. caie > and thi« may be (lopped
with a cork, and made to fit into one of the grooves.

The advantages of this inftrument over the fpirit-level are:-
vftj It requires no adjuilment^ con(cquently two obfervers,
though, otherwife not equally accurate, mud make the fame ob-
fervation. 2dly^ With this, the level of twenty different places
may be taken during the time required to adjufl the fpirit-level^
for one obfervation; ^dly^ The nicety of the fpirit-level depends
upon the fmall curve of the glafs-tube, in the choice of which
no rule^can be laid down ; neither is any thing gained, in point
of exadlnefs, by lengthening the fpirit-tube above three or four
inches. But every inftrument of this kind is of one flandard;
and the further the two fights are removed from one another,
die more any error is diminifhed. ^tbly^ This inftrument can
be made perfedly juft, without taking any obfervation, or com^?
paring it with another level. In order to do this, let the floats •
on which the fights reft, be of the fame dimenfion and weight,.,
and let the crofs-hair and eye-hole be of one height, and, with-
out, farther adjuftment, they will point out the true level.

T«E.

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i6 Defcription of a MERCURIAL LEVEL.

The following is a proof of the exadnefs of this method. John
Miller, the mathematical inftrument*maker, has a line drawn
upon the oppofite fide of the Parliament- fquare, fronting his (hop,
by which he has been in ufe to adjuft his fpirit-levels. We placed
the mercurial level upon the fpot known to be upon an exadt
level with the line« Both he and I looked through the fights ;
but could not perceive the line* We fufpedled there was fome
fault in the fights i but, on making them vibrate, we found that
the hair had covered the line ; fo fbon as they fettled, the line
was again covered by the hair.

When there is a flrong wind, the fights vibrate too much.
In order to remedy this, there is a cafe of tin'd plate or pafte-
board made to inclofe the inflrument when not in ufe. Vid. &^. 5.
When ufed, the cafe covers only about one half of it, leaving
room for the fights to float within the cafe* There are two oval
holes at each end of the cafe through which the obfervations
are made.

IV.

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ITo/bU out, fmng page i6. Phjf. C/.2

oj^c^, i

je^^i

X^et^^ Scufn.

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IV, Pathological Observations en the Brain.
By Mr Thomas Anderson^ F.R.S. Edin. Surgeon at
Leitb^ and Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons *.

THE following obfervations may (crve to illuflrate and
confirm the opinion now very generally adopted by Ana-
tomifts and Phyficians, That an affedlion of one hemifphere of
the brain, whether from internal difeafe or external accident,
produces its morbid fymptoms on the oppofite fide of the body.

Case i. A lady about forty, whom I attended along with
Dr Monro, was for many years affedled with violent headachs j
flic complained of the pain being moft violent in the crown of
her head, which at laft brought on convulfive. tremors of the left
arm and leg; thefe often continued half an hour, and would
return three or four times a-day j the fits grew more fevere and
firequent, and the right fide became affedled, and frequently
Ihe was comatofe for twenty-four hours^ till, quite worn out,
£he died in November 1 770.

On opening her head, when the dura mater was taken ofi^,
on the right hemifphere of the brain, there was a lofs of fub-
ilance, for about two iiiches and a half in length, one and a.
half in breadth, and about the middle near an inch deep, the
length of which was- in the diredlion of the falx : In the middle
cf this, immediately under the coronal future, and on the fide
neareft to the fialz, within an inch of it,, there wasfomefoft

Vol, II. c brownifh:

^ Read before the Fhilofophical Society of Edinbargh in 178 1 > and now printed
by order of the Committee foe- publication of the TraofaAions of the Royal Society, of
Edinbtu^b-

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i8 PATHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

brownifh matter in the bottom, on touching of which with the
knife, I difcovered flony concretions, which were taken out and
wafhed. Several of them broke into fand on the flighted
touch J but four or five of them, each about the fixth of an
inch in length and breadth, and a little thicker than the fliell
of an egg, I laved, and afterwards gave to Dr MoNROi who was
not then prefent.

CAsfi" 2. William C. about forty-five, of a corpulent ha-
bit, was, for feveral years, fubjedl to epileptic fits, which com-
monly returned every three or four weeks, and any irregularity
in eating or drinking would immediately bring them on ; but
when cautious, living fparingly, and taking fome laxative, he
was often free from them for four or five months.

The fits always came on with convulfive motions in the right
arm and leg, which, in a few minutes, were fuCceeded by ftu-
por, in which he continued above half an hour. In November
1775, he received a ftroke on his head, which brought him to
the ground ; was inftantly feized with one of the fits j and, in
twenty-four hours, had ten or twelve of them, in all of which
the only parts convulfed were the right arm and leg ; the fits
became more frequent, a total ftupor came on, and lie died
fourteen days after.

On opening his head, on the left hemifphere, immediately
under the coronal future, and an inch from the falx, the dura
mater adhered to the brain, for about the fize of a {hilling, and
was fo much thickened and hardened as to be in a cartilaginous
ftate ; the brain, for the fize of a large walnut, was much
hardened, and the under part of it adhered flightly to the falx ;
on the outer fide of this hardnefs, on that fide furtheft from' the
falx, and in the middle of the fubftance of the cerebrum, there
was about an ounce and a half of extravafated blood, which
was foft, and of a black colour.

Case

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On the B RJ I N. rg

Casb 3« RoBSHT H» a failor, about forty, when on board
(^•(hip^ (looping down, received a violent ftroke on the back
port of the parietal bones by the falling of a boom ; there ve'as
no wound, but the parts were much bruiired. Some months
after, he complained of a pain immediately under the part on
which he received the ftroke, which gradually grew worfe, and
in a year and half the pain was moft excruciating, and brought
on violent convuUions ia both upper and lower extremities of
both (ides, the violence of which, in fome months, put an end
to hie life.

On opening the head, the pofterior part of both hemifpheres of
the brain was found greatly inflamed and much hardened ; and
adhered (irmly to the dura mater and the falx ; the left fide was
more difea&d than the right, and the dura mater, in fome
places where it adhered firmly, waa much thickened, and almoft
cartilaginous.

Case 4. Mr L. by a fall down a fbur, fradhired the left pa^
rietal bone. I faw hini in half an hour, when he was in a (hi-
^got. He^ was immediately bled very plentifully, and then^
carried home. The fradlure extended, from the middle of the
bone «down wards, and backwards, and was traced near to. the
maftoid procefs ; but I could not carry the inci(ion any further*
A piece of the bone was taken out by the trepan ; a con(idera-
ble quantity of extra va(ated ferum and blood was found pref-
fing on the dura^ mater, which was got out ; the wound was
drefled^ and he was bled very plentifully a fecond time ; a£-
ter which he became (eniible, and anfwered diftinflly whea
fpoken to,, and, after fleeping fome hours, was greatly relieved,
but a£ times the right leg and arm were attacked with convulf-
fii^ tremors,, which continued for three days, and, on- the
fourth day, every (ymptom appeared very favourable, and he
(kad the appearance of doing well ; but he frequently complain-
ed of a psdn in his head. On the twentieth day, he was feized

c 2 with

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20 PATHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

with rigor, wliich was fucceeded by a feverifh paroxyfm, that
frequently returned for three days ; his pidfe became cpnftantly
quick, and he died the twenty-^^ighth day. His friends would
not confent to his head being opened.

Case 5. Alexander H. a lad of eighteen, fell into the hold of
a (hip about fifteen feet down, and was carried home in a ftupor.
A tumefadlion was obferved on the top of the right parietal
bone. After a plentiful bleeding, he recovered of the ftupor ;
a laxative was given, and he was bled again in the evening.
On the third day, the ftupor returned ; and, on the evening of
that day, I was called in, when there was every fymptom of
compreflion of the brain, and next morning Dr Monro and
Dr Austin were fent for. It was then judged proper to exa-
mine the ftate of the right parietal bone, where the tumefaction
vras at firft obferved. No fradure could be found ; but a piece
of the bone was taken out by the trepan. Nothing was feen that
could occafion any preffure. The ftupor, Cffr. continued, and
he died the thirteenth day. Eighteen hours after his death, I
went to open his head j but fuch a degree of putrefaction was
come on, that a great part of the brain had come out of the
hole in the bone, quite diflblved and putrid. The teguments were
taken off, but no fraClure was found in any part of the head.

Case 6. A failor boy of fourteen fell into the hold of a (hip.
He was carried afhore in a ftupor. There was a fwelling on
the middle of the right parietal bone, without any wound.
He was bled, and put to bed ; and, in half an hour, was fo
much recovered, that it was thought unneceflary to infpedt the
ilate of the bone. He was ordered a laxative to take in the
night y but next morning it had not operated. It was then re-
peated ; and in the evening he appeared very well ; but there
ieemed to be a degree of torpor in the inteftinal canal, from the

laxatives

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On the BRAIN. 21

laxatives not operating. A clyfter was given, and the laxative
again repeated. Next morning, his left: arm and leg were quite
pai^alytic, the pupil of the left eye was dilated, and did not
contradt when a lighted candle was brought near it, nor was he
fenfible of its being there ; but he could read diftindtly with
the other eye, and the right leg and arm were very well. In
the afternoon, juft forty-eight hours from the time that he met
with the accident, the bone was laid bare, and in the middle of the
right parietal bone, a piece was found to be broken oflF more than
an inch fquare. The upper fide had pierced the dura mater, and
gone into the fubftance of the cerebrum. The broken piece
was eafily taken out, and the wound dreffed. Immediately af-
ter, the pupil of the left eye contraded, and he could diftin-
guiih large objedls with that eye, and the leg and arm were
lefs affeifted. He had a good night, and next morning could
read when the right eye was fhut. On the third day after the
operation, when the wound in the dura mater inflamed, and a
confiderable tumefadlion came on, his left eye, leg and arm be-
came again paralytic, with frequent convulfions in the left leg
and arm, but without the fmalleft complaint in the other fide.
In this ftate, he continued for feveral days ; a fuppuration came
on ; the fwelling went oflF; after which he continued well, and
the woimd healed up in eight weeks.

From thefe cafes, I fhould infer :

1. That when one hemifphere of the brain is affedled, it
generally produces its morbid fymptoms on the oppofite fide of
the body.

2. That when both hemifpheres are affeded, the whole bo-
dy fuflfers.

3. That though one hemifphere only is afieded, when the
injury is great, the whole body wjll fufier.

4. That

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22 PArnOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, &c.

4* That though the cerebrum alone is hurt, it produces
morbid fymptoms in all mufcles of voluntary motion, whe-
ther their nerves take their rife immediately from the cere-
brum, from the cerebellum, or from the medulla oblongata.

5. That, in cafes of external accident, where one fide i%
affected, it is more favouraUe than when both fides fufl^r.^

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V, ExFERiMEVTS on the expansive forcer/* freez-
ing WATER, made by Major Edward Williams of
the Royal ArtiUery^ at ^ebcc in Canada^ in the years 1 784
and 1785, Communicated in a Letter from CharLES
Hu TTON, LL. D. F. R. SS. Lond. & Edin. and Profefor
of Mathematics in the Royal Military Academy of Woolwich^
to Profejfor JohnRobisoNj General Secretary of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh.

[ReadbyMf ROBISON^ Nov. 6. 1786.]

SIR,

TH £ following is an extra6^ of a letter to me from Major
Edward Williams, of the Royal Artillery, a learned
man, and of great profeffional merit. Being at Quebec in fome
very cold winters, among various other ingenious experiments,
it occurred to him to try the force of congelation in Ibme of
the iron bomb-fliells, which are ufiially fired out of mortars in
the practice of artillery ; by filling the cavity of the fliell with
water, and then, having plugged up the fuze-hole, expofing it
to the cold to freeze the water, in order to find whether the ex-
panfion of the ice would be capable of burfting the ihell.
The dimenfions of the 13 inch fhell are as follow:

Inches.

Outer diameter of the (hell, - 12.8

Inner, or diameter of the cavity, - p.r

Thickneis of metal at the fuze^hole, 1.5

Dkto at the bottom or oppofite part, 2.2

Diameter of the fuze-hole, * 1.7

And the dimenfions are fimilar in the other fhells. The fuze-
hole is conical, the oppofite fides of which, when produced,

meet

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«4

On the EXPANSIVE FORCE

meet at the extremity of the diameter^ which pafTes through
the middle of the hole.

He found, that the iron plug could hardly ever be driven fo
firmly into the fiize-hole as to refill the force of tfie expanfion
of the ice, which pufhed it out with great velocity, and a bolt
or cylinder of ice, of a confiderable length, immediately fhot
up from the hole. But when the plug was fixed in with Iprings,
which laid hold of the infide of the cavity, fp that the plug^
could not poflibly be pufhed out, the force of expanfion then
fplit the {hell, and a fin or plate of ice {hot out quite around*

E X T R A C T /row iliij^r Willi am's £tf//tfr*

These experiments were made on iron-lhells, from the
1 3 inch-fhell to the coehorn, of 4.4 inches diameter, by filling
the {hell nearly with water, and driving in an iron plug with a^
{ledge hammer.

Time.

Elev.of

W«of

1784.

Hour.

Barom.

Ther.

Wind.

the fuze
90

plug.oz

Difiance.

Dec. 21.

12 night.

29.66

— 10

Wefterly.

Unknown.

22.

10 A. M.

29.^9

— 3

Eafterly.

37-^5

22 feet.

23*

9. P. M.

29.80

— 16

34-5

Unknown.

24.

II A. M.

29.25

— 6

39-25

31-

II A. M.

29.60

— 18

39-»5

387

1785-

Jan. 2.

5 A.M.

29.96

— »9

41-75

4»5

7 A.M.

29.46

— 12

Burft.

9. 1 9 A. M.

29-35

— 4I W.

40.5

325

REMARKS.

Dec. 21. — ^Thb fuze-axis of the {hell lay nearly perpendicu-
lar to the horizon. On examining the efiPed, about 9 o'clock
the following day, I obferved the plug gone, and a cylinder of
ice, of 4! inches high, rifing perpendicularly from the fiizc-
hole, and of equal diameter. I fearched carefully for the plug,

but

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Of FREEZ INO WATER. ts

but could not find it, as tl^ere wa$ about ^^ ftet of fnow on the
ground.

22. — I WATCHED thia Ihcll about an hour, when, being
called out on bufincfs, I found, on my return, three hours af-
ter, the plug gone, and the icy cylinder 2^ inches high. Plug
loft-

23. — I HAD a plug made, and jagged or notched along the
fides, to prevent its being forced out fo eafily ; and watched
this ihell for upwards of three hours, going mto the houfe at
intervals to warm myfelf. The laft time I went in was about
half an hour after twelve, when,- after a few minutes, I heard
a fort of hiifing found, upon which running out, the plug was
gone, and a. cylinder of ice (hot up, exceeding any of the for-
mer, being 6^ inches high. Plug loft. -

24. — A SIMILA& plug to the laft. T watched this with more
fuccefs ; for although abfent at intervals ^ yet at half paft four
in the afternoon, (th^ma. at 6'') I faw the plug^ fuddenly foi^ced
out ,by the. column of ice, accompacnied by the hiffing noii^ ;
and, obferving.its fall, I found, it at 62 feet from the (hell.
The icy cylinder was 4 inches high, and the fuse-ans of the
fliell I found lay nearly at an angle of 80^ with the horizon.

31. — CoNCLO^DiNG from the foregoing experiments; that no
plug could be fo fixed, as to render the refiftance at the fuze-
hole greater than at the weakeft part of the fhell, in which cafe
I fuppofed it would burft, (which was the primary object in
thefe experiments) I thought it might be worth while to obferve
how far the force of congelation would projedl a plug of a given
weight and figure, and forced in with the fame number of
ftrokes of the fiedge hammer. For this purpofe, I placed the
fiize-axis of the fhell at an angle of 45 ** with the horizon, and
on the 31ft of December 1784, being the coldeft day of this
year, the plug was projedled whilft I was abfent, a cylinder was
(hot out, in the dire(5lion of the axis, of 7^ inches, and not in*
Vol. IL d dining

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26 On the EXPANSirE FORCE

clining in the leaft from that direcSlion to the horizon. The
plug was loft.

Jan. 2. 1785. — Being colder than 31ft December, in order
to haften the effecSt, I put a mixture of common fait and fal
ammoniac to the water, and tied a long pack-thread, with a
piece of red rag at its end, to the fuze, in order tq find where
it fell in the fnow. This plug made its efcape, like the reft ;
for at half paft fix it was flown, and a cylinder of 8y inches of
ice ftanding over the fuze-hole. The plug was loft ; for the
red rag appeared no where on the furface of the fnow.

4. — ^Tried a plug made with fprings, in the manner of a
fearcher, only very ftiort and ftrong. Added the freezing mix-
ture. The ftiell gave a fudden crack at a quarter after nincj
and inftantly ftiot from its furface two thin plates of ice, re-
fembling fins, about 2 inches in the higheft parts. On exa^
Qiining the fliell I found it burft:, and the plug forced up about
half an inch ; and, on breaking the fliell, the fprings were con-
fiderably bent, fo as not to have recovered their firftfituation.

9. — Repeated the laft experiment, with a fimilar plug and
the freezing mixture. It was thrown out, as before, and the
projedling icy cylinder was 3^ inches high.

Similar experiments were afterwards made with all the lefler
fliells ; yet, though one or more of each fort were aAually
burft, more plugs were projedled than produced that effedt.
As foon as the fnow began to difappear from the furface, I
fearched carefully for the plugs, and found fix of them ; which,
being all marked with notches a/i^r the firft experiment, I eafily
formed from them the following table.

Plug.

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Of FREEZ ING WATER, 27

Plug, No. I.

Dec. 22.

22 feet.

3^ to the right of the
line of diredion.

24. -

5 left.

3»-

387

ai right.

Jan. 2.

415

3t right.

Shell burft.

^^S

4i left.

Such was the rcfult of thefe experiments,' from which I leave
it to you to draw conclufions. I intend to purfue them again
this winter ; and, if you can fuggeft any ideas on the fubjedl
that can reach Canada before March 17 86, I fhall be glad to
avail myfelf of them.

Ed. Williams.

REMARKS on the preceding ExtraS by Cha. Hutton, LL. D.

From thefe ingeilious experiments, we may draw feveral
conclufions. As, •

Firft^ We hence obferve the amazing force of the expanfion
of the ice, or the water, in the adt of freezing ; which is fuffi-
cient to overcome perhaps any reiiflance whatever; and the con-
fequence feems to be, either that the water will freeze, and, by
expanding, burft the containing body, be it ever fo thick and
. ftrong ; or elfe, if the refiftance of the containing body exceed
the expanfive force of the ice, or of water in the adl of freez-
ing, then, by preventing the expanfion, it will prevent the
freezing, and the water will remain fluid, whatever the degree
of cold may be.

The amazing force of congelation is alfo obvious from the
diftance to which the iron plugs were projedled. For, if we
coniider the very fmall time that the force of expanfion a6ls on
the plug in pufhing it out, and that the plug, of 2| lb. weight,
was projected with a velocity of more than 20. feet in a fecond

d 2 of

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28 On the EXPANSIVE FORCE, &c.

of time, and thrown to the diftance of 415 feet by this force ;
fo afling, the intenfity of the force will appear to be truly afto-
ni(hing.

^dly, Wb may hence form an eflimate of the quantity which
the water expands by freezing. For the longeft cylinder of ice
was observed to be 8 1 inches without the hole ; to this add i^,
the thicknefs of the metal, or lengths of the hole, and the
fum, or 10 inches, is the whole length of the cylinder of ice,
the diameter of which is 1/7 inches;, and hence its folid con-
tent is i»7:^?^iox.7854 cubi<; inches. _ . .^ :i »

But the diameter of the fpherical cavity, filled with water,
is 9t!o inches; and therefore 9*i^XyX.7854 is the content of
the water in cubic inches.

Hbnce then the content of the water is to the increafe by
expanfion, as | of 9. i^ to 10 times i«7*, or as 502.4 to 28.9»
or as 174 to 10. So that the water, in this inflance, expanded
in freezing, by a quantity which is between the 17th and i8th
part of itfelf.

an-

VI.

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VI. Abstract <f experiments made to determine the

TRUE- RESISTANCE of the AIR to the SURFACES

^BODIES, of various ^guresy and moved through it with
different degrees of velocity. By CHARLES HUTTON,LL.D.
Profeffor of Mathematics in the Royal Military Academy ^
Woolwich^ and F. R. S. LiOND. Sl Edin.

\Readhy Mr RoBlsoNy Jan. i. 1787,]

I". 'Tn HE experiments from wKich the following arc extradl-
X * edy make part of a courfe, inftituted at the Royal Mili-
tary Academy, for determining the refiiftance of the air to a fur-
face of any* form whatever, either plane or curved, moved
dirongh it with any degfee of velocity. I was induced to un-
dertake thefe* experiments, both for the improvement of my^
ftudents in die Academy, and with a view to apply the conclu-
fions' derived' from them' towards perfedting the theory and
practice of military projefliles, as well as other branches of na-
tural philofbphy, in which the prefTure or refiftance of fluids
is concerned : Girctunftances, concerning the laws of which,
authors't>n the theory have widely differed ; fome making the
preilure or reiiftaiice equa:l to the weight of a column, whofe
ahitade is equal to the whole height due to the velocity, while
odiers make the attitude very different, either the half or the
double of that/ This altitude, however, it is evident, will be va-
rious,'^accordii^ to the nature of the fluid, whether elaftic or
nont-daftic, l^c. or ^according to its different degrees of com-
preflioQ. I have, therefore, confined thefe experiments to the
j^reffure and reflftance of the air only, being that which afiedls

the

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30 dn the RESISTANCE of the AIR

the accuracy x)f the branch, for the improvement of which I
am more particularly folicitous at this time ; and therefore the
laws here deduced are not meant to be extended to other fluids
of a different nature.

2. The machine with which thefe experiments were per-
formed, was made after the pattern of, and by the fame work-
man as that which is defcribed by the late excellent Mr Ro-
bins, in the firft volume of his works, as publifhed by Dr
Wilson, and of which a view is inferted in that volume, at
lead of the principal parts of it. Suffice it, therefore, in this
place, juft to obferve, that it confifts of a fmall vertical axis,
with a long horizontal arm connedled with it. A body of any
form is fixed on the extremity of the arm ; then a fine, but
ftrong filken thread, or cord, is wound about the axis, with a
given fmall weight at the end, which . is pafled over a vertical
puUy, and left to defcend by its weight, and fo turning the axis,
gives motion to the arm and body at the end of it. Hence it is
evident, that a flow motion of the axis, or of the adluating
weight, will give a very quick motion to the refilling body at the
end of the arm; this latter being to the former indeed, as the
length of the arm, meafured to the centre of the body, is to
the radius of the axis, which, in thefe experiments, was as
5if to I.

3. The adluating weight would defcend continually with an
accelerated velocity, were it not for the fridlion of the axis, and
the refinance of the air to the arm and the body placed at the
end of it. But this refiftance always increafing with the velo-
city, and indeed as the fquare of it, it muft needs happen,
that, by the refiftance conftantly gaining on the velocity, this
will foon arrive at its maximum, and after that proceed with
a uniform motion, the refiftance neither gaining on the ve-
locity, nor the velocity on the refiftance, but each mutually
balancing the other. As foon as this happens, then the ac-
tuating

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To the SURFACES of BODIES. ji

mating weight is the meafure of the refiftance of the air on the
body and the arm, and of the fridlion of the axis.

4. Next, to find what part of the retardation is owing to
the fri<5lion on the axis, and the refiftance of the air againft the
arm, both the adluating weight and the refitting body were ta-
ken oflT, and, inftead of the latter, a very thin bit of lead of
the fame weight was put on ; then various fmaller afluating
weights were employed, till at laft fuch a one was found as
gave to the machine the very fame degree of uniform motion
as it had before, when the refitting body and the larger adluating
weight were employed. Then, the degree of velocity being the
fame in both cafes, the fmaller adluating weight will be the
meafure of the fridlion on the axis, and the refittance of the
air to the arm ; both of which, however, were reduced to as
fmall a quantity as pofiible, the former by means of fridlion-
wheels, and the latter by being made thin and feather-edged.

5. Subtracting now the lefs weight from the greater, the
remainder is the meafure of the refittance of the air againtt the
body alone ; that is, when reduced for the different lengths of
lever, namely, by diminifhing the remaining weight in the ra-
tio pf the length of the arm to the radius of the axis, meafured
to the middle of the thread. Thus, then, we obtain a weight
which, is the meafure of the refittance of the air againft a given
iurface, moving with a given velocity ; that isi a weight which
is equal to the preflure of the air againft the furface, or which,
if it were Isud upon and uniformly diffiifed over the furface
when it is a plane, would prefs the furface juft as much as
the air does.

6. Then, laftly, finding what altitude a column of air muft
have, which is of the weight of the aforefaid remaining weight
reduced, and whofe bafe is the plane of the refitting furface ;
it will be the altitude of the column of the fluid whofe weight
or preflure is equal to the refittance, and which preflure would
confequently generate the fame velocity in the fluid.

7. Th»

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32 On the RESISTANCE of the AIR

7. The body iifed to affix to the end of the arnii in the fol-
lowing abftraiEl, was a hemifphere of pafteboard, the hollow
part being covered with a flat circle of the fame, that either
the round or the flat fide might be made to go foremoil againk
the air. The diameter of the hemifphere was 6| inchf s ; and
confequently the area of its great circle, or flat fide, was 32
fquare inches or | of a fquare foot, and it weighed 4 oz« 3. dr.
avoirdupois. The hemifphere being fixed on the end of the
arm, with either fide foremoil, by a medium of feveral times,
and different ways of meafuring, it was found, that the radius
of the axis, including half the thicknefs of the thread, was
1.043 inches, and the lengdi of the arm, meafured to the centre
of the hemifphere, was 53*34 inches ; fp that the two radii,
namely of the path of the body and of the axis, are to each
other as 53.34 to 1.043, or as 51.14 to i : And therefore every
experimented aduating weight mufl be divided by 5 1 • 14 or 5 1 4,
to reduce it to the equivalent weight adting at the centre of the
hemifphere.

8. The times of revolutions of the arm were counted by a
peculiar pendulum clock, beating feconds, which was made for
the purpofe. The method was thus : The clock being placed
clofe by the machine, and the hemifphere and aduating weight
fixed in their places, an afllftant held the hemifphere in a parti-
cular fituation by his hand, while a fecond afllftant audibly
coimted the beats of the clock, beginning at 50 feconds, and
counting on from I to 10, which confequently would end at
60 or o; and the inftant he pronounced 10, the firft affiflant
let the hemifphere go. The confequence was, it began at firft
to move very flowly, and gradually increafe for a fhort tame,
and then to move uniformly. The firft afllflant, keeping his
ftation, called out at every time the body pafled him, in its re-
volution, and the other afllftant called out the correQ)OQdiiig
number of feconds and half feconds beat by the clock, which
I inftantly wrote down with a pencil on a paper held in. my

hand,

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to the SURF JOES if BODIES. ^3

hand, previoufly ruled for that purpofe. And thus we could
with eafe mark the precife time of every revolution. The num-
ber of revolutions was tifuaHy continued to about 35 j and as
the motion, with the hemifphere commonly became uniform
after two or three revolutions, and with the lead only, after
about 20 revolutions, I fubtraded the time of the firll 25 revo-
lutions fronv that of 35, and the remainder was the mean time
of 10 revolutions ; and, corifequently, dividing by 10 ga(ve me
the mean time of one revolution very correctly ; and thence,
from the fpace of one circle or revolution, ^hich is 27.93 feet,
the velocity of the hemifphere fier fecond of time.

9* In this manner, then, by varying the adluating weight,
by I dr. or 2 dr. l^c. at a time, I obtained a long feries of cor-
refponding times and velocities, both with the round and flat
fide of the hemifphere foremofl, and with the equivalent lead
only. After which I fubtradted the numbers of this latter from
the correfponding ones of the two former, and the remainders,
when divided by 51. 14, gave the mic meafure of the preflure of
the air at the centre of the hemifphere.

In the following table are feledled only the velocities in
whole numbers of feet, namely, of 3 feet per fecond, of 4 feet,
of 5 feet, and fb on to that of 20 feet per fecond of time, with
the correfponding adtuating weights in all the three cafes, name-
ly the flat fide foremofl, the round fide foremoft, and without
the hemifphere, with the lead only ; namely, fuch actuating
weights as were really experimented, and before dividing them
by 5i.i4y to reduce them to the centre of the body.

Vol. XL c A B S-

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On the RESISTANCE of the AIR

ABSTRACT of Velocities and Actuating Weights.

Velocity,
ferttc

Weights ^i

tii

DiiF. or troe
refiftances.

Ratios.

Flat
fide.

Round
fide.

Lead
only.

oz.

Flat.

Round.

feet.

oz.

3.8

2.2

1.2

2.6

1.0

2.60

6.2

3-4

1.4

4.8

2.0

2.40

9.2

4.9

1.7

7-S

3-a

a-35

12.8

6.7

2.0

10.8

4.7

2.30

17.0

8.7

2.3

14.7

6.4

2.30

21.9

II.O

2.8

19. 1

8.2

a^33

27.6

13-5

3-3

24.3

10.2

2.38

340

16.2

3.8

30.2

12.4

2.44

41.0

19.2

4.4

36.6

14.8

2.47

48.7

22.6

5-1

43.6

17-5

2.49

57-1

264

5.8

513

20.6

2uf9

66.2

30.6

6.5

58-Z

24. T

2.48

76.0

35-1

7.2

68.8

27.9

2.47

86.6

40.0

7.9

78.7

32.1

2.46

98.2

45-3

8.7

89.5

36.6

2-45

m.o.

51.0

9-5

101.5

41-5

1-45

125.0

57-*

10.3

1 14.7

46.9

*-45

140.0

64.0

1 1.0

129.0

53'0

2.44

Here the firft column contains tEe velocity per fecond; the
fecond column contains the experimented actuating weighty,
with the flat fide foremoft ; the third column that for the round
fide foremoil ; and the fourth column that for the lead only :
Then the fifth column contains the difference between the fe^
cond and fourth, or adluating weights for the flat fide and lead;
and the fixth column the difference between the third and
fourth, or adhiating weights, for the round fide and lead only ;
fo that the fifth and fixth columns, when divided by jif, will
be the true meafure of the refiftance of the air to each fide of

the

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to the SURFACES of BODIES. 35

the hemifphere, moving with the correfponding velocity on the
fame line of the firft column ; and in the laft column are con-
tained the ratios of thefe two refiftances, or how often each
refiftance of the round fide is contained in that on the flat fide
of the hemifphere.

ID. From a flight contemplation of the laft three columns of
this table, we may eafily draw feveral important confequences*
As, firfi^ From the fifth and fixth columns, it appears, that the
refiflance to either furface, with different velocities, is always as
the fquare of the velocity, as near as fuch experiments can be
ezpedled to (how.

Thus, in the fifth column, taking the refiflances correfpond-
ing to the velocities of 4 feet and 8 feet, whicli are as i to 2,
and their fquares as i to 4; the refiflances 4.8 to 19.1 are as
I to 4 very nearly ; and the refiflances in the fixth column,
namely, 2 to 8.2, are alfo nearly in the fame ratio. And fo of
others.

II. adly^ From the lafl column, it appears, that the refiflance
to the flat fide is to that on the round fide, on an average,
nearly as 2.45 to i, or 2^ to i nearly, if a medium be taken
among all the numbers in the laft column. But, by the theory
of the refiflance of fluids, we are led to exped, that this ratio
would have been only that of 2 to i, inftead of 24 to i, as by
the experiment. Now, what this diflerence is owing to, may
be at prefent difficult to determine with precifion. The greater
part of it may probably arife from die air differing in its na-
ture from the perfedl fluid which the theory contemplates j but
fome fmall part of it may arife from the different figure of the
hinder parts of the hemifphere, though I hardly fufpedl that
this may caufe any fenfible difference. I intend, however, foon
to try whether it be fenfible to experiments ; in which I intend
to employ a cylinder, to compare with the flat fide foremoft of
the hemifphere, and a whole fphere, each of the fame diameter,
to compare with the round fide foremoft of the hemifphere. I

e 2 propofe

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S6 On the RESIStANGE of the AIR, &c.

propofe aUb^ at the £une time, to try the refiftance of fome other
figures.

12. %dlyy From any of the numbers in the fixtK cohimn, it
appears, that the altitude of a column of air, whoie preflure ia
equal to the refiftance on the round fide of the J^emifphere, is
half the altitude due to the velocity of the figure ; that is, half
the altiitude from which a body muft freely fall by gravity to
acquire that velpcity \ and, in this infiance, agreeing with the
theory. - Thus, if we take the velocity of lo feet per fecond,.
whofe refiftance in the fixth column is 12.4, we ihall have as
32^ : 10^ :: 16:-/:^= i'56 feet, which is the altitude due to
to the velocity 10, and the half altitude is .78 ; but the weight
is 12.4 ounces, which being divided by 51.14,' to reduce it
from the axis to the centre of the body, gives .2411 oz. for the
true refiftance to the convex fide. Now, a cubic foot of air
weighs i^ oz. > therefore, as \\ : .241 1 : : 1 :\ 1929^ which is the
bulk of the colimin of air whofe weight is equal to the refiftance,
which being divided by $ of a foot, the area of the bafe, we have
.86 feet for the altitude of that column, and which, therefore,,
is nearly equal to the half altitude above found for the velocity,,
exceeding it only by about the 13th or 14th paft..

13. 4/i&/y, But, from the fifth column, it appears, that the
altitude of the column of air, whofe preflure is equal to the re-
fiftance on the fiat fide of the hemifphere, is to the altitude due
to the velocity of the body, as 2^ to 2, inftead of being equals
as required by the theory.

VIL

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VII. Observations of the Places of the Georgian
Planet, made at Edinburgh with an Equatoreal Injlrument.
By John RoBlsoN^h^M. T.K.S.Edii^. and Profefor
ff Natural Pbilofophy in the Univerftty of Edinburgh.

IRead by the Author^ March 7. 1787. J

M. T. Edin.

Apt. Lon. Plan.

Er. theor.

Apt. Ut. N.-

Compar.

d. b. ' "

/. 0 ' "

0 ' "

1787. Jan. 13.06.39.24

3- *3- 35- ''7

—.32. 20

15.06.05. II

3. 23. 27. 44

—7

—.32. 20

12.06. 13. 16

3. 23. 22. 17

—.32. 19

18.06. 05. 33

3. 23. 19. 42

^.32. 21

20. 06. 23. 04

3. 23. 14. 24

—•S*- 17

HsNes it may be deduced, (by following the method de-
fcribed in a paper formerly read to thia Society*) that the planet
was in oppofition January 13'. 04*. 56' M. T. Greenwich, in
longitude, 3'. 23**. 32'. 24" from the mean equinox, with
— **. 30'. 38" north heliocentric latitude.

The error of the theory ia longitude is nearly +5'', and in
latitude nearly — 18'^

I ATTRIBUTE this error in latitude to the different manner
in which I obferved the declinations. I formerly obferved the
difib'ence of declination between the planet and fixed ftar by
means of a common micrometer. But I was obliged to fubfti-
tute Dr Bradley's rhombus for my micrometer, which had re-
ceived an injury which I could not get repaired in time. If
this be allowed, the error in longitude will be diminifhed
nearly 2*^*

My telefcope has an achromatic obje^ glafs of 44 inches focal
^Lftance, magnifies 19^^ times, and takes in a diftin^t field of

92.\

^ Tranfaaions of the Royal Society of Edin. Vol. L N*' XL Fhy £ CL

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38 OBSERVATIONS of tbc Places, &c.

92'. The planet was always compared with at lead two ftars,
which pafTed through the field without altering the pofition of
the inftrument. The interval between the tranfits of the fixed
liars, compared with their difierence in right afcenfion in the
tables, (hows the error of the pofition of the horary wire ; and
the planef s difference in declination fliows what portion of this
error is to be applied to the time of its tranfit. When the pofi*
tion of the horary wire was very oblique to the horizon, and
the altitudes fmall, a corredlion was made for the difference in
rcfraftion.

Both ends of the polar axis were firmly fupported in a

flone wall. The telefcope turned round on a pin within two

inches of the upper pivot of the axis, and clofe by the objedl

glafs. The other end of the telefcope was fupported (at the

place of the wires) by^a ftiff* rod, which turned round a pin

within two inches of the lower end of the polar axis 5 fo that

the telefcope, axis and this rod, formed a triangle. Another

ftiff rod was fattened to the telefcope at the place of the wires,

with a double joint, and its other end paffed through a focket,

firmly fixed on the fide of the window, where it was held faft

by a fcrew-pin. The rod was in a plane, nearly parallel to the

equator. It is eafy to fee that, by this conflrudtion, each part

of the inftrument was expofed to a longitudinal drain alone,

and all effedts of the tremor of its parts were avoided It was

fo completely free from any inconvenience of this kind, that,

even in very boifterous winds, the image of the ftar was per-

feAly fteady, and free from every kind of quivering. I never

found any two comparifons of the planet with the fame pair of

dars differ above half a fecond in time. As the indrument was

fo exadt, and did not (exclufive of the telefcope) cod above

three pounds, I thought that this diort account of it would b^

acceptable to fuch as are not provided w^ith thofe expenfive in-

Ilruments which are thought effentially neceflary for making

good and ufeful obfervations.

VIJL

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VIII. Ans WE KS to the Objeetions of M. DE LVC with regard
to tbeTuEOKYofKAm^. By ^jmes HuTTON,M.D.
F. R. S. EDrN. and Member of the Royal Academy of Agri-
culture at Paris.

[Read by the Author^ Dec. 3. 1787. J

MDe Luc, in his Idhs fur la .MitSorologie^ has made
• fome objciftions to the Theory of Rain * which I had
the honour to lay before this Society. I fhall now endeavour
to anfwer thefe objedtions j and hope the Society will forgive
me for taking up a little of their time and attention with this
fubjed. The reputation of M. de Luc is fo well eftablifhed in
the repubUc of letters , that I mud not negle(3: remarks which
have the fandlion of fuch authority ; although, in the prefent
cafe, they appear to me to have come from a judge who was too>
much preoccupied with a different fyftenr.

The queftion between ub, according to*M. de Luc's own*
ftatement, is this> Whether or not, when two mafTes of air of
different temperatures are mixed together, the humidity of the
new mafs is greater than the mean between the humidities
which the two maffes had feparately ? This I maintain to be a
phyfical tnith, and M. de Luc refufes to admit it as a rule in.
nature.

I HAD eilabliihed this propofition, That, upon the fuppofition-
of the evaporating power increafing with heat, but increafing
at a greater rate, the mixture of two portions of air, of different
temperatures and fufficiently faturated with humidity, would-
produce a condenfation of water which might then become vi-

fible^.

• TMHifaaions of the Royal Society of Edin. Vol.L N^ II. Phyf. CL

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4# jiNSWERS to the OBJECTIONS

fiblc. I then fay, That this cafe properly applies to the pheno-
mena of breath and ftean^, which give a Tiitbie condenfirtion in
mixing with the colder atmolphere ; and it explains the various
• appearances that may occur in mixing together fevwal portions
of air more or lefs iaturated with humidity, and in different
temperatures of heat and cold. For,

It is not every mixture of the atmofpheric fluids in different
temperatures, that fhould, according to the theory, form a vifi-
ble condenfation ; this effetfl requiring, in that atmofphere, a
fufficient degree of faturation with humidity. Neither is it nc-
ceffary for this effedl, that the two pprtions to be mixed (hould
each be faturated with humidity up to the cemperaturte in
which jt then is found;; it is fufBcient; that the difierence in xht
temperatures of thofe portions to be mixed fhould mere, than
compenfate the dieffetft iii point of faturatbn^ but if a mixture
fhall be made of two portions of the atmofphere,* both fully fa^
turated with humidity, dien, however fmait may be the diflfer-
ence c^ their temperatures, there is reafon to believe, that a
condenfation proportionate to this difference will take place.

Hbr£ it is to be obferved, that I have made the rule abfo-
lute, or generalized the proportion to every iiippofable cafe j
while, at the fame time, I appealed to fiaimiliar examples in two
<:afes, that is, of humid atmofphere and of pure fteam, in gi«
ving the breath of animals in the one cafe, and the fleam of a
boiling ketrie in the other.

Thb propofition being thus made perfedly general, and con-
cluded from experience to be a law of nature, M. de Luc has
endeavoured to refute this phylical principle, by attempting to
explain, in another manner, the natural appearances upon
which it has been founded. It fhall now be my bufinefs to
fhow, that this explanation which M. de Luc has endeavoured
to give of the fubjedt, is founded upon nothing but inadverten-
cy of mifapprehenfion*

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Of M. DE LUC. 41

He fays, (parag. 585.) " Je ne fuis point furpiis que le
** Dr HuTTON att €t€ frapp6 cle cc que la refpiration des ani-
" maux produit un brouillard dans Tair, lorfqu'il eft humide ou
" froid ; j'en ai €t€ frapp6 aufli, comme d*un ph6nomene qui
" ne s'explique pas par les loix ordinaires de T^vaporation :
^' mais il m*a paru, en meme terns, qu'il £toit d'une toute autre
*' clafle ; qu*il n'appartenoit pas a Thygrologie, mais a la phy-
" iiologie ; en un mot, que les vapeurs qui s*y manifeftent, ne
" procident pas de I'^vaporation d'une eau contenue dans les
'' poumons. Ceci etant li6 a quelques id6es fur la nature des
" caufes de la pluie, j'en renvoie le developement a une autre
" liieu, parce qu'il formeroit ici une trop longue digreflion, et
" que d'ailleurs, fi j'examine les faits rapport^s par le Dr Hut-
** TON, ce n'eft que relativement a Thypoth^fe fondamentale
'^ elle mdme, et non k fes conf^quences dans la Th^orie de la
'* Pluie } puifqu'on a vu, que cette hypoth^fe pourroit etre ad-
*' mife, fans que la pluie pftt en dtre la confequence, vu I'^tat
" ordinaire de Tair."

As in this paragraph is contained all the objedlion that M. db
Luc, fo far as I can perceive, is able to make againft the Theory
of Rain, it will be proper to examine it particularly, and di«
vide it into the two different proportions which it contains.
Thefe are, frft^ a denial of die general principle, with regard
to the condenfation of humidity in the atmofphere, as not be-
ing a true principle, or properly fo\mded ; and, zdly^ a refufal
of the application of that general principle, fuppofing it true,
to the theory of rain. Of thefe, then, in their order.

With regard to ttitjlr/l^ M. de Luc admits all that I could
poffibly propofe to draw from this example, viz. That moift
air, breathed from the lungs of an animal into the colder at-
mofphere, produces a condenfation of water, in proportion to
the faturation of the atmofphere with htunidity, and alfb to its
degree of cold below the heat of the breath ; for he acknow-

VoL- II. / ledges,

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42 ANSWERS to the OBJECTIONS

ledges, that he had alfo been ftruck with that appearance, which
he thought inexplicable by the ordinary laws of evaporation and
condenfation. But, fays he, it is not to be admitted as a fadl
to prove the fuppofed propofition. Why ? Becaufe it does not
belong to hygrology, but to phyfiology.

^ I SHOULD have been at a lofs what to have replied to this ob-
jedlion, had not M. de Luc, in fome meafure, explained him-
felf in the next feiitence; where he fays, that the vapours
which are manifefted in this cafe, do not proceed from the eva-
poration of water contained in the lungs. Here, then, it is
evident, that M. i>e Luc leaves the fubjedl in hand, the conden-
fation of the breath, to enquire after the caufe of its humi-
dity. But whatever be the caufe of this aqueous vapour in the
breath, there is certainly no queftion about its effe^fl ; that is^
the humidity of the warm expired air, which is to be mixed
with the atmofphere, and there to produce mift. I do not, there-
fore, fee how any argument can be founded upon this fuppofed
operation of the lungs, whatever it be, any more than upon
that of the heart, the liver or the kidneys. In our meteorolo-
gical enquiry, we furely are no ways concerned about the com-
pofition or decompofition of water ; a fubjedl of chemical en-
quiry : We only want to explain the condenfation of that hu-
midity which is on all hands allowed to be in the breath.

The queftion which, in this cafe, fhould, according to the
rules of fcience, have been either acknowledged or denied, was
this. Does tHe moift air, expired in breathings form a condenfa-
tion of water, in being mixed with cooler air fufficiently fatu-
rated with humidity ? M. be Luc has evaded making any di-
re<5i anfwer to that queftion, in propoling to develope the fub-
je<fl upon fome other occafion. This may have fuited the con-
veniency of our author, who was bufy in forming a meteoro-
logical theory very drflPerent from that which 1 had propofed ;
but he had undertaken to difprove my propofition, with regard
to the condenfation of vapour ; and this vifible condenfation of

the

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Of M. DE LUC. 43

the breath is the natural phenomenon which is to be explained,
or the fcientific experiment by which the theory which M. de
Luc refufes, is approved.

It may be proper here to obferve, that I only confider the
diflblving power of air with refpeA to water, in order to con-
trail it with the precipitation of the diflblved fubftance, when
the a€lion or e£fed| of heat has been diminilhed according to
the theory. It no ways concerns my proportion, whether it is
upon the principle of diffolution or fimple expaniion by heat,
that the aqueous vapour is retained in the air, or preferved in
a tranfparent (late. The expreflion of diffolution beft anfwer-
ed my purpofe, where the faturation of the atmofphere with
humidity was to be expreffed ; therefore I retained it, although
I had declared in this Society, when my firft paper was read
and converfed upon, that I did not mean in the lead to enter
into that queftion which Profeflfor Robison then put. In like
manner, it is abfolutely indifferent to the theory, whether the
infpired air or breath acquires its humidity by evaporation, dif-
folution, or chemical refolution and compofition : Therefore,
if this negation, with regard to the origin of water, be intended
by M. DE Luc as an objection to my propofition, which I
think has no relation with that fubjedt, it would be proper he
ihould Ihow in what refpeA that argument of his afFedls the
condenfation of the water contained in the breath, when that
breath is mixed with another portion of air.

I NOW proceed to the ftcond propofition of M. de Luc,
which is, That, fuppofing my hypothefis admitted, it does not
follow that rain happens in confequence of this caufe ; the or-
dinary ftate of the atmofphere being, as he alleges, too dry to
admit of this efiedl. Now, this may be a very good reafbn
why it Ihould not always rain, or fhould not rain in that parti-
cular ftate of the atmofphere which is moft ordinary j but I
believe it will be difficult to perfiiade thofe who admit of the
hypothecs, that they fhould not apply this principle in the cafe

/a of

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44 JtNSWERS to the OBJECTIOITS

of rain, which furely does not happen in the moft ordinary
date of the atmofphere, at lead not in moft countries, thoie
particularly in which M. d£ Luc has made his meteorological
obfervations.

Haying thus difcufled the ca(e of humid air or natural vsb-
pour, M. DB Luc next proceeds to confider the cafe of fteam»
or pure vapour, as he calls it. Here he fays^ that the mift
formed above water boiling in the open air, may be explained
upon another principle than that of the hypothefis from whence
I had concluded that it ihould be fb. It will be proper to give
his reafoning upon the fiibjedt :

" La vapeur de Teau bouillante {^eam) eft pure, parce
^^ qu'au degr6 de chaleur de cette eau, les vapeurs font toujours
" capable de fupporter feules la predion de I'atmofphere. De»
" vapeurs prefque pures, forment les buUes qui traverfent fan*
" cede Teau bouillante ; et ces bouffies de flliide ^laflique trant
" parent, deplacent Tair en fe d(6gageant de Teau. Si ces va*
^^ peurs fe r^pandent dam^s un ^fpace qui n'att qu'une petite
** iffxxe a Toppodte de leur entree, en amenant cet efpaee a leur
" temperature, elles en chaflfent tout Tair, et y demeurent tranf^
** parentes ; mais des qu^elles Tont d^pade, et qu'elles fe repan-
" dent dans I'air extcrieur, leur courant s'y d6compofe bient6t :
" car des la premiere perte fenfible qu*elles ^prouvent dans le
" degr6 de chaleur auquel eft attache leur exiftence, ne pou-
" vant plus fupporter la predion de Tatmofphere, elles fe tranf^
" forment en un brouillard, qui fe m^le a Pair environnant."

Here M. de Luc condders the tranfparent fteam, when co-
ming in contadl with the colder atmofphere, as cooled by the
air, without noticing, that it proportionably heats that air by
which it is cooled. This overfight in another perfbn but M. de
Luc, might have been natural -, it might even in M. de Luc
Idmfelf have been more excufable, had he been lefs converfant
with the important theory of latent heat which Dr Black dif-

covered

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Of M. DE LU C. 45

covered long ago. But firft to confine our attention to the
cooling of the fleam, and then to explain the appearance of
condenfation from this cooling alone, is a fpecies of reafbning
that one would not have expedled from the author of the Mo-
difications of the Atmofphere.

The queflion is not, if a body of fleam, in the 21 2th de-
gree of heat, mixed with a body of air, in the ordinary tempe-
rature of the atmofphere, fhould prefcrve its degree of heat,
that is to fay, fhould be cooled or not ; the queflion is. If the
mean heat of this mixed mafs be fiifficient to preferve all the
humidity in a tranfparent flate ; or, If there fhall be formed a
condenfation of vifible mifl, in this cafe as well as in the other,
where moifl and warm air was mixed with the atmofphere ?
Had no condeniEation in diis experiment been formed, the prin-
ciple of condenfation, confequently of evaporation, could nor
have been extended to the cafe of fleam, or the rule of evapo-
ration would not have been abfolute, as comprehending both
the cafe of the atmofphere and that of water by itfeJf j but the
condenfation adhially taking place in the experiment, genera-
lizes this law of nat\u*e with refpedl to every pofCble combina-
don of water, air and heat. This condenfation does not hap^
pen in confequence of the fleam being expofed to any preflure
which it had not fuflained before, but becaufe the heat of the
mixed mafs, which is the medium between the heats of the twa
malTes, is not fiifficient to preferve all the water in the flate of
vapour ; and this is precifely what, according to the theory^
the experiment is meant to prove.

But M. de Lug, though he has had recourfe to the cooling
of the fleam alone, to account for the mifl which inflantly ap-
pears upon the mixing of the fleam and air, does not lofe fight
of the heat which he knows is not lofl ; but he brings it into*
adlion again, for the evaporation of that mifl which has ap-
peared. It is neceflary to give his reafoning in relation to that
fiibjedl. ^^ Gependant ces vapeurs. decompof^es ont augment^

" la

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46 ANSWERS to the OBJECTIONS

^' la chaleur de Tair, et bient&t par-la elles y fubiflent une
** nouvelle Evaporation, qui les fait difparo!tre de nouveau.
" Ainfi ce ph6noinene rentre dans Ic cas g^n^ral, d*nne prcci-
" pitation momentanee, fuivie d'unc nouvelle Evaporation,
quand des vapeurs, ou pures, ou melEes a Tair, viennent a
.dEpaflfer leur maximum^ par Tadlion d'un air moins chaud
qu^elles ; fi du moins leur production n*eft pas alTez rapide,
'* pour furmonter la caufe de nouvelle Evaporation qui nait en
meme terns de la nouvelle chaleur acquife par cet air/'
The fubjcdl at prefent under confideration is the evaporation
of that vifible mift v^hich is formed by the mixture of the
fleam and air ; and it is to be obferved, that the general law of
evaporation which M. de Luc attacks, has been inveftigated
by means of the vifible condenfation of water which had been
evaporated. M. de Luc would make it appear, that, upon
this occafion of fleam mixed with air, the vifible condenfation
in the atmofphere was not formed according to the rule which
here is generalized ; becaufe, fays he, that water is again eva-
porated by means of the heat which the fleam had communi-
cated to the air*

But this explanation which M. de Luc has offered to ac-
count for the evaporation again of the vifible mifl, appears to
be inconfiflent with his theory refpedling the condenfation of
the fleam. For, if the condenfation of the fleam be the efifedl
of its being cooled by the air, while the air is neceflarily heated
by it, How could the former flate of things be reflored without
an affignable reafon, or any known caufe ? that is to fay, How
could the air reflore to the water that heat which it had re-
ceived by communicating with the fleam ? or, How could the
condenfed fleam receive from the air any heat, or rob it of that
portion of heat which it had before imparted, and which is now
neceffarily required for its evaporation ? Here, furely, would be
^n effecSl without a caufe, or a caufe producing two oppofite
.^ffeds.

But

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Of M. D E LU C. 47

But though not in confequence of his theory, M. de Luc
feems to adduce that explanation in confirmation of it. Now,
if this explanation fhould be admitted, it might tend to confirm
his fuppofition, that the fleam had been condenfed, not by the
medium temperature of the mixed air and vapour, as I con-
tend, but by the air abflradling the heat of the fleam, without
mixing with that fleam. It is, therefore, necefTary, that I
fhould anfwer that fiippofition with regard to the evaporation
of the mifl. But it requires flri(5l attention to many circum-
fiances, in order to fee, in a jufl light, that atmofpheric opera-
tion, which had led a natural philofopher to make a fuppofition
of that kind.

Steam, before it can be condenfed into water, mufl communi-
cate or transfer its latent heat (equal to 900** more than the heat of
boiling water) to the body by which it is cooled or condenfed ;
confequently, if the difTolving or evaporating power of heat
proceeded uniformly with its diflending power or fenfible heat,
the mixed mafs of air and fleam fhould flill remain tranfparent;
without producing mifl or condenfation. For the fleam lofes
no heat but what the air gains ; it is in the contadl of thofe
two fluids that this cooling happens ; and it is in this place pre^
cifely that the condenfation is produced. But there would be
no condenfation, if water could be retained tranfparent, elaflic
or difTolved, in the medium heat which is produced at the con-
tac5l of thofe two bodies. Therefore, the condenfation, which
a<5lually happens, proves this phyfical truth, that when a mafs
of fleam is mixed with a particular mafs of the atmofphere, or
with a certain portion of the atmofpheric fluid, the humidity
of the new mafs is greater than the mean between the humidi-
ties which the two united maffes had feparately*

I MIGHT now content my felf with this obfervation, That it
is only with the produdlion of mifl or vifible vapour that my
propofition is concerned, and not with the diffolution of that
mifl again, when it comes to be mixed widi another portion of

the

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48 ANSWERS to the OBJECTIONS

the atmofphere which is not faturated with humidity. But I
have to fhow, that M. D£ Luc has not reafoned accurately in
explaining the reaffumption of the vifible mift into the tranfpa^
rent atmofphere. For, though this fadl has no immediate coa^
nedion with the queftion in difpute, the condenfation of va-
pour ; y^t it might be brought in to aflTedl that queilion, by a fort
of reafoning, which, though not fcientific, would be fpecious.

The mill or vifible vapour, according to that reafoning of our
author, is evaporated by the heated air : Therefore, that vapour
ought not to have beencondenfed ; but it was condenied j therefore
it mufl have been condenfed up(5n fome other principle than that
which I have alleged is general to all evaporation and conden-
fation of humidity. Thus, M. ds Luc would, in effedt,
though not in terms, make this condenfation to be no conden-
fation, or not the condenfation in queftion, becaufe it is not
permanent. It is evident, however, that this precipitation of
the evaporated water is permanent, (b long as the conditions
of its condenfation are continued or remain. But in this cafe
of fteam emitted into the open air, thofe conditions of conden*
fation cannot continue ; they muft be changed, and the con«
denfed vapour mud be again evaporated, fo foon as it meets
with a fufficient quantity of air under-faturated with humidity.
Therefore, NL de Luc has endeavoured to explain the evapora-
tion of the vifible mift in this cafe, upon a falfe principle, by
not taking into confideration the quantity of under-faturated
air, which the afcending vapour meets with in the atmo-
^[phere.

Thus, whether we confider the explanation which NL de
Luc has endeavoured to give, of the condenfation of miil in
the cafe of fteam mixed with a body of air, or of the evapo-
ration of that mift again when rifing in the atmofphere, there
appears to be no folid reafbn for his objedlion to the theory j
land I muft be' allowed to maintain, that here alfo, in the cafe
of pure vapour, or fteam mixed with a portion of the atmo-
fphere,

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Of M. DE LUC. 49

fphere, the rule is abfolute^ or the ailumed principle with regard
to the particular modification of the law of heat, is perfedtly
confirmed, at the fame time that it is generalized, in being ap-
plied to every fpecies of vapour and atmofpheric mixture.

I CONSIDERED the two examples of breath and fteam as fuf-
ficient to confirm the principle with regard to aqueous conden*
iation and evaporation, feeing that they comprehended every pof-
fible cafe^ fo far at le^ft as the theory was concerned. But, in
thofe examples^ the appearance was only that of mid, or vifible
condenfed vapour, which correfponded to cloud, and not im-
mediately to rain, I therefore thought it neceflary, in order to
overcome the ordinary prejudices of mankind, to give an ex-
ample feemingly more in point, although perhaps fuperfiuous,
as it follows fo plainly from the principle. There is, however,
fomething fb convincing in the appearance, when a ihower of
rain is formed artificially in a chamber of experiment, that
even a philofopher finds himfelf better fatisfied, after feeing
the fad, than by many arguments, by which, all the fteps of
the operation might be explained, and every effe<5t foretold. I
therefore gave two examples of this fort, which had come to
my knowledge. It is concaning thefe that we are now to exa-
mine what M. D£ Luc has faid, (parag. 587.)

^^ Le feul des phenomSnes cit^s par le Dr Hutton, qui ait
'' im rapport immediat avec fa th£orie, eft la precipitation nei-
*^ geufe des vapeurs r6pandues dans Fair chaud d'une chambre,
'' lorfque cet air vient a communiquer a un air exterieur trds-
^' froid. Mais la preuve qui femble en r6fulter en faveur de
^' cette th^orie, n^eft qu'apparente ; car il n^ a pas lieu de pr6-
'' fumer, que les vapeurs fuOTent a leur maximum dans Pair ex-
*^ terieur, ni a Tomea, ni a Peterfburg : circonftance qui nean-
'' moins ieroit n^ceflaire pour produire une precipitation d'eau
^' d^apres Thypothdfe ; a moins qu'on ne fupposat encore, que
*' quoique les vapeurs ne foient pas a leur maximum dans deux
^' airs qui fe m61ent^ elles peuvent le d^pailer ienfiblement dans

Vol. II. g " le

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50 ANSWERS to the OBJECTIONS

" h melange j cc qui exigeroit toujour^ plus d^s experiences di-
'* reaes/'

We have already feen how M. de Luc has endeavoured ta
explain the phenomenon/ or rather to elude the queftion, when
the breath which is expired into the atmofphere is vifibly con-
denied ; but furely that was a phenomenon which had an inv
mediate relation to the theory. Therefore M. de Luc is by
no means warranted in faying, that this pn^, which he is now
examining, is the only phenomenon of thofe cited by me
which has an immediate relation to the theory ; for, as the
experiment of the breath exhibits the formation of cloud, and
as cloud is generally confidered as the inunediate cau(e of rain,
the formation of cloud without rain, in our experiments, is at^
immediately related to the theory, as the formation of rain
without cloud. We are now to fee how M. be Luc has endea*
voured to elude the force of this example of the formation of
rain.

The reafon here given by our author, why the proof, refulr-
ing from thefe exampFes of a<5lual rain, is not real, but only
apparent, is this, Becaufe, fays he^ there ia reafon to prefume^
that the external air ia thofe two cafes was not fully faturated
with humidity or vapour. Now, for that very reafon, I fay,
circumftances were juft fo much the more unfavourable for
condenfation ; confequejitly, if condenfation adtually takes
place in this unfavourable cafe, a fortiori it mud be allowed ia
others where circumftances may be more favourable for that
operation. It is therefore evide^itly my intereft, fo far to al-
low M. DE Luc his fuppofition with regard to the flate of the
external air. But how that ihould require more proo^ or more
diredt proof, on my part, I am at a lo(s to conceive ; as 1 chink
that 1 have, on that very account, good reafon to demand of
M. de Luc better arguments, or more direA proof, againft the
theory. M. de Luc, indeed, gives a reafon for this demand
of his, in the next fe&tetice { bvt ic is a very different one from

diat

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Of M. DE L UC. 5t

that which he had already given. It is this, ^^ Car d'ailleurs,
** les ph^nom^nes dont il s'agit peuvent s'expliquer faiw avoir
" recours a cette hypothefc." Here, indeed, is a very good
reafon for obje<£ting to the application of thofe experimental
cafes ; and now we are to examine this explanation which M.
I>£ Luc is to give of the phenomenon.

He fays, " La mafle (comparativement fort petite) de Tair de
'^ la chambre, perdoit tres-promptement une quantity fenfible
•' de fa chaleur par Touverture qu'on y faifoit, fans que Pair
" ext^rieure fe r^chauffat fenfiblement a cette ouverture, aupres
** de laquelle Tair qui commen^oit a s'echauflfer, faifoit bient6t
" place a de Tair froid, en s'^levant. Les vapeurs chaudes de-
'* voient done fe pr^cipiter en brouillard dans la chambre j par-
" ceque Fair exterieur n*en reccvoit prefque point."

The explanation which M. ds Luc has here attempted,
either is not conceived with that di(tin<f^nefs of idea which is
required for inveftigating the laws of nature, or is not expref-
fed in fuch precife terms as might make it eafy to bring hit
propofition to a fcientific iflue, in applying principles. Let us^
however, endeavour to follow the argument of our author
dirough the obfcurity in which it is involved.

M. DE Luc fays, that the air of the chamber would quickly
lofe a fenfible quantity of its heat, without the external air being
feniibly heated at this opening. Does he mean, that the air of
the chamber would fuffer any \o£s of its heat upon this occa*
fion, befides what happened by the interchanging of the ex*
temal and internal air ? Such a fuppofition as that might truly
form die foundation of an argument; but this, it is found,
will not conform to the laws of hydroftatics. He, therefore,
mud be obliged to fufller fome of the heated air to efcape, and
its place to be fupplied with the cold air which comes in«
Things being in this (late, our author fays, that the warm va«>
pours ought to precipitate, in forming mift in the chamber, be*
cauie the external air receives icarce any.of them. This evi«

g 2 dently

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52 ANSWERS to the OBJECTIONS

dently is to have again recourfe to the fallacious argument, at*
ready difcufled, of a cold body cooling a warm body, without
being warmed ; and it is to fuppofe a (hower of fnow produced
in the warm air of the chamber, by the introduction of cold
air, without that cold air mixing with the warm. But how is
one body of air fuddenly to cool another body of air, without
their mixing together ? At lead, it is as natural for thofe two
bodies to be mixed together as to form a medium temperature ;
and if M. de Luc is to found an argument upon any of thofe
events not happening in that manner, he fhould point out
fome o^er reafon for his fuppofing that they do not mix, dian
that of their forming a condenfation of humidity ; an event
which fhould happen , according to the principle we have en-
deavoured to eftablifh ; a principle which M. db Luc would
perfuade us to believe to be without foundation.

Our author then forms the fuppofition of another flate of
the cafe, in order, no doubt, to put things in a clearer light ;
but, without more accurately attending to the circumdances of
the cafe than he has done, it has no other efiedl, in nvy opinion,
than to perplex the fubjeCt more and more. He fays, ^' Si au
^' lieu d'une fimple ouverture a la chambre, fes parois euflent
^^ €x,€ enlev^s, et que la mafTe de fon air edt €t€ ainfi en contadt
" tout le tour avec Tair exterieur, il s'y feroit aufE form6 un
" nuage ; mais alors il auroit bient6t difparu en s'^vaporant,.
'* comme celui de I'eau bouillante difparoit dans Tair qui I'eni^

4.1 • 99

" vironne.

Here M. de Luc does not f^em to be fenfible that he is onljr
defcribing what fhould a<%ually happen according to the theory*
But he had juft now given us to underfland, that he was to ex-
plain the formation of fnow or r^n, in this cafe, upon fome
other principle than that of the propofiuon which has been
now fo fully confidered. How far he has performed that un*
dertaldng, I would willingly leave to be decided by thofe who
may be more impartial judges in this cafe. But left it fhould

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Of M. DE LUC. 53

be thought diat I omit to anfwer any thing which M. 1>e Luc
may propofe in relation to this fubjed, I flxall now examine
this laft ftatement which he has given of the cafe, and endea-
vour to fhow, that every thing which he fuppofes to appear,
(hould truly happen according to the propofition which he has
been pleaied to queftion or deny*

In fuppofing the cafe of a body of warm and humid air en-
vironed by the cold atmofphere, M, de Luc does not here
mention what degree of faturation or humidity he fuppofes in
the external air. Now, upon this will very much depend the
confequences of mixing the (xnall portion of humid air with
an indefinite portion of the furrounding atmofphere. If we
fuppofe, aS| from other parts of his writing, M. de Luc in-
clines to do^ that the atmofphere is not fully faturated, then all
die appearances muft follow which he has fuppofed; that is to
lay, that there is firft to be a vifible condenfation in the mix-
ture of the two airs } but as this compound mais, or warmed-
air, mixes with the colder, by rifing and difperiing in the at<^
mofphere, the condenfed humidity is at laft to be totally evapo^
rated or diilblved ia the quantity of air which is not (at^rated^
with vapour*

LxT us now again fuppofe the furrounding atmofphere to be
fully faturated or impregnated with humidity, then, in mixing
with it the warm humid air of the chamber, there is reafon to
conclude, that the condenfation of humidity would remain
permanent, although it might not remain vifible, if in fmall
quantity and greatly difperfed ia the atmofphere* But this will
require fbme explanation.

According to the principle aflumed ia my propofition, it
is equal portions of the unequally heated airs, that, upon mix*
tore, (hould produce the greatefl condenfation* of humidity y
and that, in proportion as a very fmall quantity of one or other
is employed, that is to fiiy, in proportion to the inequality of
the mixed bodies, the fmaller quantity of condenfation will

be:

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54 ANSWERS to the OBJECTIONS

be produced. Now, die mixture, whether of fteam or moid
air, with the open atmofphere, in uniting with fb much air, muft
ibon be brought to the mod extreme cafe of this kind, that is,
to the greateft inequality of the mixed bodies, and to the fmal-
left quantity of condenfed vapour, Neverthelefs, according to
the rigour of the rule, no portion of warm faturated air can
be mixed with cold air in the fame faturated ftate, without
there being produced a certain quantity of condenfation, which
"will then remain permanent, fo long as the proper conditions
are preferved. In like manner, as two faturated folutions of a
ialine fubftance, e. g. of nitre, in different temperatures with
regard to heat, when mixed and preferved in the fame tempera-
!ture, precipitate a quantity of fait, which is never reaffumed
•by the water, unlefs the heat of that fluid be inereafed above
the medium temperature which the mixture had produced.
This laft is a definite and a pra<flicable experiment ; the other,
with the atmofphere, is an indefinite experiment which cannot
be made. And I am furprifed that M. OB Luc fhould not
have feen the (ubje<5l in the proper light.

In this cafe of warm and humid air mixing with the colder
atmofphere, as for example, the vapours coming out from the
vent of a tnalt-kiln, it is evident to obfervation, that the mift
which is delivered into the air difappears only in proportion as
it is difperfed in the atmofphere, that is to fay, as it meets with
unfaturated air by which it may be diffolved. Now, this diflb-
lution is proved by fome othir obfcrvations, which it is ex-
tremely eafy to make. Thefe are,/r^, that, caUris paribus^ it re-
quires very little difperfion of the mift or vifible vapours in the
atmofphere, in order that they may be diflblved when the air
is dry ; and that, on the contrary, when it is moift, the vapour
continues vifible long after it is fo difperfed. ^dly^ That it rc-
uires a lefs difference in the temperatures of the two mixed
airs to produce a vifible mift, when the atmofphere is moift
than when it is more dry. So far, dierefbre, as this experiment

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Of M. DE L UC. SS

u pra^cable, I diink we may be allowed to £17 that natural
appearances confirm our theory.

Long befinre writing the Theory of Rain which is now in
queftion, 1 had afcertained the diffolution of nitre in water, to^
proceed, not uniformly with the heat, but in a rate that was
increafifig. I had alfo accurately measured feveral of the ordi*
nates of the curve which this prc^refs formed^ by carefully
evaporating fblutions Saturated in different degrees of heat;
and I had once fome thoughts of corroborating the propoiition^
wich regard to the rule of vapour by the meafured ciu^ve, with
regard to the fblution of nitre. But as fuch analogical reafon-
mg in phyfics is only proper to lead to conjecture ; and as, in
die cafe of vapour, we find the mod direct proof that the rule
is to increaie at a growing rate with the heat, I gave nothing in
my paper but what was neceflary to afcertain the principle fo
fer inveftigated. M. de Ldc has indeed difputed it ; but any^
perfon who has read his jiater publications, will hardly expert,
diat, with his meteorological ideas, our author (hould, on this
nccafion, be altogether free of psutiality*

HAViKa thus anfwered every objedlion which M. be Luc
has made, it may be proper farther to obferve, that it was
not for want of other examples to eflabliih the principle of
heat and evaporation, that I confined myfelf to thofe which'
M. DE Luc has now difputed. I eonfidered them as all un-
exceptionable, and as perfecSlly in point. I therefore thought
diem fufiicient to eftablifh the truth of the propofition which
had been afTumed. T might have referred to the mift formed*
in a funmier evening upon meadows heated by the fun during
the day, and evaporating humidity when the air grows cool ;
as alfo, to the vifible finoak, in the winter feafon, from the
furface of water, a degree or two only above the freezing
point, when the atmofphere upon that furface is about 15*'^
colder. In like manner, I might have cited the experiments

wherein

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56 jiNSWERS to the OBJECTIONS

wherein condenfation of vapour is formedi by mising the at-
mofpheric air with that which had been rarefied^ or by emitting
into the atmofphere aix which had been condenied. In all
diofe tefes, there is the mixture of two portions of the atmo-
fphere, in fufficiently different temperatures, to produce con-
denfation of humidity^ which adtually happens. Thus, all
thofe appearances are properly explained by the theory, or, as
experiments, they confirm the aflumed propofition.

But if thus every particular example is a proof, and if each
example is unexceptionable in its kind, what degree of evidence
muft arife from the united teftimony of every poffible experi-
ment almofl which can be adduced in relation to the fubjedb ?
It is to be prefumed that M. be Luc, with all his extenfive
knowledge of nature, could not adduce one fhadow of a fadi
by which the alleged propofition could be called in queftion or
difproved,

M. D£ Luc concludes in the following manner, (parag. 588/)
'^ Je ne vois done rien dans ces faits, qui contribue a ^claircir
la -queftion de la pluie; et par consequent elle me paroit
refter au point ou je Tavois amen6 avant que d'entrer dans
ce nouvel examen. Je tire m^e du memoire du Dr Hut-
ton, ces deux confequences, qui juftifient le travail que j*ai
" enterpris. Quoiqu'il paroifle s'etre beaucoup occup6 dcs
^^ phinom^nes de la pluie, aucune th^orie a leur egard ne Tavoit
^* fatisfait ; et d'apres ce qui lui etoit connu des loix de I'hygro-
'^ logic, il avoit conclu, que la precipitation de Teau (imple-
^* ment evapor^e, ne pouvoit etre produite que par refroidifle-
^' menu Or, ce font, entre autres, ces deux motifs qui m*ont
^^ conduit dans mes recherches/'

M. DE Luc had no occafion to juftify his undertaking by
any opinions of mine. His writings will always contain
matter fufficient to intereft the public ; and his ideas of hygro-
logy muft be fupported upon their own bottom. . I therefore
wiQx he had nojc given as my ideas expreifions which, however,

4i
cc

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Of M. DE LU C. 57

in foine refpe^s, fufficiently juft, may bear perhaps another in-
terpretation. That the precipitation of water fimply evapo-
rated cannot be produced except by cooling, is an expreflion
which, though not contrary to my idea, does not contain pre-
cifely my opinion. Water is not precipitated from the atmo-
iphere in time of rain by the cooling of the air, in the ordinary
fenfe of that expreflion, that is, by the abftradion of a certain
quantity of its heat, which is then communicated to fome other
body ; but it is becaufe the air is not able to contain fo great a
quantity of water, in proportion to its heat, when it is in a
lower temperature. The compound mafs of air, which in the
formation of rain precipitates water, is not cooled, fo far as I
know, below the mean temperature of the different mafles of
unequally heated air which have concurred to form it ; but this
mean temperature does not fuffice to evaporate all the water
which had been contained in thefe mafles feparately. This,
however, is only by the by ; and I now proceed to the material
part of his concluflon, where he thus continues :

" Quant a I'hypothefe que je viens d'examiner, elle 6toit
" tres naturelle dans T^tat des faits connus ; puifqu'il n'^toit
" pas poflible de concevoir d'aucune autre maniere, que des
** m&langes d'airs a diflerentes temperatures, puflent produire
'^ des pluies abondantes : et la vraifemblance de cette hypothefe
" ne pouvoit etre detruite, que par un genre d'experienccs et
" d'obfervations, qui ne fait que de naitre en phyfique avec
" rhygrometre."

In anfwer to this, I have but to obferve, that, had M. de
Luc contented himfelf with faying, as he here has done, that
the probability of this hypothefls could not be overturned, but
by a fort of phyfical experiments and obfervations which have
juft taken their birth with the hygrometer, I fliould have waited
patiently until thofe expeciments and obfervations had arrived
at that maturity which might enable them to confute my
theory. But M. dibl Luc ha$ undertaken to confute it upon

Vol. II. b other

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58 ANSWERS to the 0 B yECTlONS, 8cc.

other principles, which do not reqxdre any profound knowledge
of that inftrument. It is only to thefe that I have anfwered ;
and I beg it to be underftood, that the theory which I have en-
deavoured to eftablifli, is juft now as open to the experiment9
of the hygrometer, whether for being fupported by them or
overthrown^ as if nothing had been written upon the fub-

jea.

IX.

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IX. An Account of a Distemper, hy the common Peo-
ple in England vulgarly called the MUMPS. By
Robert HAMILTONj M. D. Fellow of the Royal College
of Pbyficians, F. R. S. Edin. and Pbyfieian at Lynn Reikis,
in Norfolk*.

TH £ mumps, or what I beg leave to call angina maxillaris,
is an epidemic difeafe of a very fingular nature. It has
appeared fometimes to be pretty general ; but this has not been
the cafe for many years in this place. It feems to be analogous
to, if not the fame diftemper with that called the branks, by
the common people in Scotland. In the general account of epi-
demics, in the firft volume of the Medical Eflays of Edinburgh,
a diforder is mentioned which feems to have been a flight de-
gree of that which is the fubje^ of the following paper. I
have had much praiflice in this difeafe. and indeed was once
reduced to the utmoft danger by it myfelf.

In the following paper, I fhall not pretend to give a fy Hema-
tic treatife on the mumps. I (hall relate what was the refult of
obfervation, both in regard to the hiftory and cure of this dif-
eafe ; and as I fhall faithfully detail what I adtually faw, I
flatter myfelf, that this account will not be unworthy of the
perufal of future obfervers.

b 2 The

• This paper wa« read before the Philofophical Society of Edinburgh, Auguft 5. 1773.
It ii sow primed by order of the Committee for pablication of the Tranfaaioos of the
Royal Society of £dinbargh.

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6o ACCOUNT of a DISTEMPER

Th e hiftory of the mumps is as follows :

A LASSITUDE, a heavinefs, a general reftlefs uneafinefs, not
cafily defcribed, are perceived feveral days before the fwelling
which charadlcrifes the difeafe, begins to appear. Thefc difa-
greeable feelings are attended with gentle rigors, and fome
degree of fever, which, being flight, is commonly difregarded.
Then a flifFnefs, with obtufe pain, is felt in one or both fides of
the articulation of the lower jaw, impeding its motion and of
courfe maftication ; which fymptoms increafing, a fwelling
appears upon the parts the following day, and quickly extends
to the parotid glands, the neighbouring fkin, and cellular mem-
brane. Here, in fome, it flops without difcolouring the fkin ;
and, by keeping the parts moderately warm, and cautioufly
avoiding the cold external air, the patient is foon freed from it,
without any medical afliflance. But, when this is not the cafe,
the parts affecfled generally redden the next day, the tumor be-
comes more diffufed, and fometimes increafes fo fuddenly in
fize, that, on the third day from its firfl appearance, it occupies
the falivary glands and furrounding cellular membrane on that
fide • and, if both fides are afFeded, the parts are fo much
fwelled, and the tumor defcends fo low, that the countenance is
rendered of a frightful enormous magnitude ; and now deglu-
tition becomes more or lefs impeded. All this is frequently
without much pain j but mofl commonly there is now a great
deal, and a confiderable degree of fever. When this happens^
the countenance appears florid, and a duiky eryfipelatous in*
iiammation covers the tumor, which is deepefl in colour where
there is the greatefl hardnefs, viz. on the parotid and maxillary
glands. In many fubjedls here it ends. And it feems proba-
ble from the natural refolution of the difeafe, which now im-
mediately follows^ that the tumor has attained its greatefl mag-

nitude^

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Vulgarly called the MUMPS. 6i

nitude, and the diftemper its acm6 ; for, about the morning of
the fourth day from the firft appearance of the fwelling, a dif-
charge begins from the emundlories behind the ears ; a dew-
Uke fweat, frequently in large drops, iffues from every pore of
the extended furface of the tumor ; a gentle diaphorefis covers
the body, if in bed ; the inflammation abates, the fwelling
gradually lefTens, and, with thefe favourable circumftances, the
fever goes off, and the diftemper totally difappears about the
fixth day, if nature is not interrupted in her bufinefs. But,
if the tumor fubfides fuddenly about the fourth day, and
one or both tefticles begin to fwell, fometimes vrith much
pain, heat, inflammation, new rigors, and a freih exacerba-
tion of fever, much is to be apprehended from this new mor-
bid appearance, and much circumfpedlion is required in the
treatment of it. For the means employed by nature to promote
the refolution of the tumified teftes, are exa<5lly (imilar to thofe
which take place in the termination of the tumors below the
ears ; a fpontaneous difcharge iflues from the fldn of the parts
aflfedted, and, if this is copious and continued, and accompanied
with a free perfpiration from the furface of the whole body in
bed, the difeafe ends happily without farther trouble ; but if
it is fcanty, partial, or interrupted by accidental cold or impru-
dent treatment, the tumors of the tefticles fubfide fuddenly,
the patient becomes reftlefs, a frefh exacerbation of fever en-
fues, the head is affeded, delirium follows, with convuliions
and other dreadful fymptoms, and fometimes death clofes the
fcene.

It may be aflced. Whence does this train of fymptoms
arife ? Is it from a tumefadlion of the brain taking place in the
inftant of the fudden diminution of the tumors of the teftes ;.
as we have before feen happen to the tefticles, when the faliva-
ry glands fuddenly fubflded ?,

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62 ACCOUNT of a DISTEMPER

An extraordinary circumftance took place in two cafes which
came under my notice. One tefticle in each perfon was found
to be wafted away after the difeafe had ended ; fome particulars
of which (hall be mentioned in the fequel.

The pathognomic figns of the mumps may be readily ga-
thered from the foregoing hiftory, and are the fame with little
variation. The charadleriftic tumor under one or both ears,
involving the falivary glands^ with more or lefs of a concomi-
tant fever, is the firft. If the difeafe is mild, it foon ends by
a fpontaneous fweating from the furface of the tumor. If not,
that tumor (or tumors, if on both (ides) fubiides fuddenly,
accompanied with a frefli exacerbation of fever, and the tefti-
cles fwell. And here it alfo fometimes goes no further, but
terminates by a difcharge from the (kin covering thofe parts. But
if the teftes fuddenly fubfide, and a frelh exacerbation of fever
appear at the fame time, the brain is immediately affedled, at-
tended by a train of terrible fymptoms, and death fometimes
ends the confiid.

The mumps, fo far as my obfervations extended, appeared
generally confined to young men, from the age of puberty up-
wards to thirty years. Not many between thirty and forty
fell under my care. I never knew above one man of forty at-
tacked by this difeafe, and he fufFered feverely. Very few boys
were afiedled, and thofe had the diftemper mildly.

I NEVER faw any of the female fex above ten years old fubjedl
to this illnefs j and thofe who fell under my care were not nu-
merous, and generally had the difeafe mildly. I do not remem-
ber one inftance of the mammae being affedled. I have, how-
ever, heard of this circumftance ; but cannot fpeak as to the
authenticity of my intelligence. But from what happens in
men, it is, from analogy, moft natural to fuppofe, that the
ovaria are more likely to be afl^dled than the mammae ; al-
though there is undoubtedly a wonderful fympathy be-
tween

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Vulgarly called the MUMPS. 6j

• tween the uterus, and we fuppofe its appendages, and the
mammae. On this matter, however, 1 Ihall not pretend to
decide.

The mumps made its appearance in an epidemic form at
Lynn in 1758, and remained feveral years afterwards. It was
chiefly confined to the fpring months. In the year 1 761, it pre-
vailed very much. Two companies of the Norfolk regiment of
militia were quartered here, and put under my care. It raged

, more among thefe foldiers, in proportion to their number, than
amongil the inhabitants of the town. 1 was very feldom with-
out {even or eight of thefe men upon my lift, ill of the mumps.
After 1 76 1, it began to decline. It, however, made its appear-
ance in fpring and autumn, more or le(3 as an epidemic, for
feveral years afterwards ; but the number affli<5led with it
became gradually lefs : And fome fporadic cafes were to be
met with many years after the epidemical appearance of it had
ceafed.

It muft be ingenuouflyconfefled, that on the firft appearance
of this (to me) new difeafe, I was much at a lofs how to treat
it. In vain I fearched in many authors for its hiftory and cure.
That ihort account given by Mr Gooch, in his Cafes and Re-
marks in Surgery, publiihed firft about this time, was the only
one I could find ; and that was too defe<5live to form from it
any general method of cure of a difeafe much more formidable
in its appearance here, than that mild fpecies of it which feem-
ed to have fallen under his care, and gave way fb readily to the
antiphlogiftic method of cure. Obfervation foon taught me
that this plan was not only infufficient, but hurtful ; and that
large evacuations, with a view to reduce the tumors and pro-
mote their difcuflion, did oftener harm than good ; the changes >
which take place in a bad kind of this difeafe, from the falivary
glands to the teftes, and from thefe to the brain, appearing to»
be more frequent and dangerous, when evacuations were freely

and:

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64 ACCOUNT of a DISTEMPER

and copioufly employed, than when they were fparingly ufcd,
or not at all. Thus difappointed by following the only method
»of cure 1 had feen, I determined to ftudy the difeafe with at-
tention, and endeavour to imitate nature's operations in re-
moving it } and had the fatisfa(5lion to fee all my patients re-
cover. As the antiphlogiftic method had not been attended
with fuccefs, I avoided bleeding, unlefs it was indicated by an
uncommonly hard and full pulfe, attended with great inflam-
mation and pain ; and even then I bled but fparingly. Indeed, as
highly inflammatory fymptoms but rarely occurred, there was
feldom occafion for this evacuation. The bowels were kept
open by clyllers ; and fometimes a gentle eccoprotic was necef-
fary for this purpofe, but the ftronger cathartics were never
ufed. As the difcharge behind the ears, and the fweating from
the furface of the tumor, feemed to point out nature's princi-
pal refources in terminating this difeafe, thefe were carefully
encouraged, by wrapping the parts in flannel ; and, if thefe
difcharges happened to flop, or even to leflen, with an increafe
of feverifti fymptoms, blifters were applied behind the ears,
fufficiently large to defcend from thence over the whole furface
of the tumors, which, by opening a difcharge from the parts
immediately afiedled, imitated, in fome degree, that evacua-
tion from them which nature eflabliflics to relieve herfelf ; and
by the influence of their irritation, the difeafe feemed to refume
afrefli its feat in the falivary glands, when it had in part left
them, and taken pofle^on of the teftes. It was curious to ob-
ferve this fa6l. Sometimes, after the fubflding of the tumid
falivary glands, they have become fwelled and painful again.
When this occurred, the tumors of the tefticles became lefs
painful, more relaxed, and leflened in fize, whilft the brain, at
the fame time, remained perfectly free from diforder. And
this happened more than once in the fame perfbn. It was
fometimes obferved^ that, after the afiedion of the brain had

taken

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Vulgarly called the MUMPS. 65

taken place upon thb fudden diminution of the tefticles, that
the latter &ave again become tumid and painful, and that the
brain, on this appearance of the di£:afe in diein, has been im«
mediately reHeyed. Of this curious circmnftance, I ha^e feen
feverahinftances ; but one was remarkably ftriking in a parti*
cular friend/ ^o whom it occurred twice. He^ however, did
well; but one- tefticle wafted away. Refledlibg, fixm after
this paper was fiprft written^ (which was iereral years after my
obfervadons^were begun) on the extraordinary aptitude of this
difeafe to fluAuate in dixs manner^ I iionteiTed that it would be
an object of the firft confequence, to fix the diftemper, if pofli*
ble, in its firil fituatii», the falivary glands, until it was per*
fedtly ended, and preyent this dangerous difpofition of it, to ihift
its abode. An early irritation ofi* tiie parts, and difcliarge from
the furface, appeared, from what had been ob&rved of the difV
eafe, and its mode of terioination, naturally to be the moft
fikely means of efieding this ; and blifters, from i^at already
had been experienced, ieexned to be beft calculated ior this pur-
pofe. There could be no hazard in the trial. Widr this view,
blifters of a fize fufficient to cover the Xkin of tiie tumors, iup^
pofing they flioidd afterwards attain any confiderable magnl*
tude, were applied over the falivary glands, before the fwellings^
had arrived at their height, or %ny fpomaneous difcharge had
appeared ; and fb far was the eitperiment attended with fuccefs,
that I do not remember a fingle inftance df a fwelling of the
tefticks taking pHce, where this mode of attempting to k^p up
the tumefadlion ctf the falivary glands, and anticipating the na*
tural dtfchtfge, was put iti mcecntion. ' Wherefore, it * became
my conftant pradlice literwar^ds, to apply large blifters cm die
tumors ae foon as they were fufficiehtlyfomiid to charadlerife*
die difeaie ; and I had great fktisfadlioh' in xMkrvmg dieir uti-
Kty. From analogy, we may prefume^ . thir a: fimilar modis oF
praflice would be attended with the'mdl )>eneficial effedts, in^
Vcu.. IL. h ^ cafea

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66 ACCOUNT of a DISTEMPER

cafes where the tumefadions of the tefticles fuddenly fubiide,
and the brain becomes affedled. I never had occafion to try
this ; but I am fo convinced, that, in cafes of this kind, (where
there is generally danger), it would be of the greateft advan*
tage, diat I ffaould not hefitate a moment in covering the whole
fcFotnm with a blifter, or rather a bliftering cataplaim^ as foon
as the leaft fymptom of the head's becoming difordered appear-
ed, with a view to recal (if I may ufe the expreifion) the dif*
<eafe from the brain to the tefticles, whilft^ to relieve the latter,
cpifpaftics fhould, at the fame time, be fully employed over the
tumefied falivary glands.

As the patients were generally relieved by a fpontaneous
fweating in bed, diaphoretics of fpiritus mindereri, ^c. with
warm drinks, aflifted to keep up the difcharge fojr a day or two,
and the diftemper was foon at an end. If, about the third
day, the tefticles began to (well, without any remarkable in-
creafe of fever, the fame method relieved them. But, if this
was accompanied with a low running quick pulfe, and relllefs*
nefs or anxiety, more epifpaftics were applied, and the vis vitae
kept up by neurotic cordials, befide fudorifics, with a neceffary
proportion of the beft of all cordials, wine, and a plentiful
fweating was encouraged. The medicines employed were va-
rious, according to circumftances ; and were compofed of cam-
phire, volatile alcali, fp. mindereri, vin. antimonial. decoct, fer-
f>entar. ^c. with a requifite proportion of opium to abate the
Teftlefsneis. The tumefied tefticles were fufpended in a bag^
trufs i the colon was emptied by clyfters, if the patients were
icoftive; and, with this treatmeitt, the patients generally got
well about die fizth, feventh or eighth day.

It is requifite here to obferve, that although the parts afied-
^ were kept warm, and the body covered fb as to encourage a
ilifcharge from the (kin, it was neceflary that the lungs (hould
liave a frequent iiipply €£ cool frefh air; for which purpofe,

the

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Vulgarly called the M UMPS. 67

the curtains of the bed were kept open, and a free ventilation
occaiionally admitted by the door and windows of the cham-
bers of the fick, which had very beneficial effedts.

In the fpring of the year 1758, a gentleman of about twenty-
two years of age, (of this town), of a plethoric habit, was feized
with the mmnps. The tumors of the parotid and maxillary
glands were large, hard and inflamed, and accompanied witk
much fever. He was bled copioufly, and took a brifk cathar«
tic, which produced veryirequent and large evacuations. The
tumors fuddenly fubfided, and his teftides as fuddenly fuelled*
to an enormous fize. attended with great pain and much fever;
Unfortunately, the laft tumefadion was fufpeded to arife from
a venereal caufe. The event fatall^r proved the contrary, to
confequence of the opinion of its being venereal, plentiftil eva-
cuations vrere deemed neceflfary ; and accordingly bleeding and
brifk purging were again repeated. The cataftrophe was dread*
ful : For the iWelled tefficles fubfided fuddenly the next day,
die patient was feized with a mod frantic delirium, the nervous^
fyftem was ihattered with ftrong convulfions, and he died
raving mad the third day after. My afiTairs calling me abroad
prevemed my being prefent on this occafion ; but, on my re-
turn, at the end of die fame year, I received this account from
a late learned and worthy phyfician^, who>attended the patient
die three lad days of his difeafe.

I HAn not many inilances where the brain was a£fe6led»
One, however, of a gentleman, in April 1762, was marked
with a circumftance fo extraordinary, that I beg leave to give
fbme account of it. This perfbn was' about forty years of age,
of a full habit, and had been bled-fome days before any fymp-
tom of the mumps appeared. He was obliged to travel a jour*
ney in a chaife, the fecond day after the parotid glkndis began to
fprelL On the day following this, the tumors of the falivary

i 2. - glandl^

* Dr Jotb Tavuuu

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SB ACCOUNT of a DISTEMPER

glands had greatly increafed, were inflamed, and the patient
had mucii fever. On the morning of the fourth day, the
fwellings were very much enlarged, and the tefticks began to
be affe<5led with pain ; on the evening of that day, the right
^ne fWelled. On the fifth day, both tefticles were much tume-
^edj but the right one was by far the mod fo, andToon became
twice tk< fize of the other ; and the falivary glands were found to
be very coniiderably diminifhed. On the day following this, the
teflides were found leflened in fize, and the patient was become
feftlefs, delirious, with much fever, and had palled a very bad
night ; yet the tefticles did not fpeedily, nor altogether, fubfide
after the delirium began. Large blifters, nervous, &fr. medi-
cinesi with ftridt confinement in bed, agreeable to the mode of
cure before mentioned, foon relieved this patient ; the tefticles
fwelled again, the delirium left him, the fever went off, and
the difeafe gradually ceafed. The moft remarkable circum-
ftance attending this cafe was, that the right teflicle, which
was twice the magnitude of the pther, and was the firft attack-
ed, was found, after the tumors in both had fubfided, and the
difeafe was at an end, to be. reduced to almoft half its natural di-
menfions, and kept gradually wafting, till at length a mere
empty bag> confifting of the coats, only remained. The glan-
dular body of the tefticle has been long gone ; neither is the
epididymis at this time (April 1789) to be felt j the empty tu-
liics are moftly flaccid, but fometimes they contrad into a
flattened body of an oblong fliape, fomewhat like an almond.
This body is very tender, and ;gives pain when inadvertently
pre0ed, or touched with roughnefs 3 which pain ftrikes in the
inftant up the ipermatic chord to the loins, and is exquifite for
a few feconds. This, however, feldom^happejis, as he is particu-
larly careftil to defend this very fenfible and irritable part from
injury; the fpermatic chord is contracted and feels hard to the
touch i but this alfo is extremely fenfible. From all which

circumftances.

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Vmlgarfy calkd the MUMPS. 69

drcmnflancesy it may be prefumed, that the v^efTels are much
lellened in diameter, and perhaps the fpermatic artery is be*
come impervious ; but the nerves have acquired more feniibi-
lity and ^irritability. After his recovery, he found no other
inconvenience from this extraordinary change than what we
have named j has had two children iince, one born in 1769,
and the other in 1772, who have both healthy conflitutions s
and he now enjoys as good health as moft men at his time of
life. ^

Another cafe of a wafted tefticle in confequence of the
mumps, came afterwards under my infpedion.

A YOUNG man, of twenty-five years of age, of a healthy
conftitution, was, in the end of the year 1769, attacked by this
diftemper. Upon the tumid falivary glands fiibfiding fudden^
ly, the tefticles became afiedled. One of them was much more
fwelled than the other, and was found, when the fwelling was
reduced, to be diminifhed more than one half of its natural
iize, at which it remained in Auguft I77i«

Of the great number that fell under my care, there was but
one cafe which terimnated in fuppuration. This was a young
militia foldier, of about nineteen years of age, in the year i76i.
The tumor was on the left fide, of an enormous magnitude^
reaching from about an inch above the maftoid procefs to the
fhoulder. It was opened by incifion, and about two pints of
matter were difcharged. The feat of it was entirely in the cel-
lular membrane, no fuppuration having taken place in the fa-
livary glands themfelves. There were large Houghs of the
morbid cellular membrane feparated ftom the vaft cavity of this
abfcefi ; the loofe integuments united after this very foon to the
parts beneath, and the man got well in a ihort time.

About the end of the year 1762, the learned and ingenious
Dr Russel's (Economia Naturas in Morbis Glandulanun, fell
into my hands. There I was pleafed to find an account of the

mumps,

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70 account: of a BIStEMPER

mumps, and glad to fee my obfervations fomewLat corrobo*^
rated by fuch an authority. He thinks it contagious, — " An*
" gina haec ex epidemicis una eft, et contagiofa, et per totas
^* domos graflari folet, nifi antea fortafTe juvenes eodem morba
" laboraverint." The laft part of this fentence implies an opi-
nion that people are not liable to have this difeafe more dian
once. I do not remember an inftance of a perfbn^s having it a
fecond time. I have feen it go through a family of feveral
children, which inclined me to think it contagious ; but when
I had the difeafe, not any one elfe in my family, which con*
fifted of four children and fix adults, was attacked by it, al-
&ough my cafe was a very bad one. About twelve months
after my recovery, one of my daughters, about fix years old,
had the difeafe, and all the reft efcaped. And what is ftill
more remarkable, I do not remember an inftance, in the fa-
milies where the militia fbldiers ill of this diftemper were quar*
tered, of a fingle perfbn's being infedted by them.

Dr Russ£L, p. II 6. relates a cafe of a patient deftroyed by
the mumps I nearly fimilar to that given in this paper.

Hippocrates, fe£t. i. book i. of his Epidemics, appears to
have deferibed the mumps. I (hall take the. liberty to tranfcribe
the paflage from Dr FttEiND*)s tranflation.

'* MuLTis vero aurium tumores fubnafcebantur, qui in al-
^ teram partem vergebant, plerifque etiam in utramque, iifque
'' febre vacuis et in ere<5tum ftantibus nee decumbentibus^ etfi
^ nonoullis paulifper incalefeerent ; omnibus srbfque noxa ex-
'* tindti funt, neque cuiquam, vehit ii, qui alias ftii ortus cau^
^ las habent, iuppurationem fecerunt. Horum autem ea fuit
" natura« uK moHes et laxi eflent, magni, diffufi aut fparfi, fine
^' inflammatione et dolore. Omnibufque fen&n et fine ulla
^ fignificatione evanefcerent. Fiebant ifta quidem adelefcenti-
^ bus, juvenibus, aetate florentibw, atque horum plurimis qui^
^ in pabsftrat et gymnafiis exercebantor s. mulieribus vero pai>-

" m

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Vulgarly called the MUMPS. 7«

'^ CIS condngebant. Multis tufles aridx et inanes, quibus cam
^^ tufli nihil educebatur, nee ita multo poft voces raucefcebant.
" Quibufdam vero ex temporis intervallo inflammadones cum
^^ dolore in alteram teftem erumpebant, quibufdam edam in
" utrofque. Alii quidem febribus conipiebantur, nonnulli
" vero fine febre perfiflebant. Atque adco haec ipfa plurimis
^^ gravia et molefta fuere. De reliquo autem quod ad ea
*' atdnet, quae ad chirurgiam fpedlant, in las inculpate babe*
" bant.*'

' The fpring of the year 1761 was very cold and wet ; and
thofe young milida foldiers, who were mod liable to this dif-
eafe, were out early and late in the low damp grounds adjoin*
ing this town^ to learn their manual exercife ; which correfponds
with this paflage, '' Fiebant ifta quidem adolefcendbus, juve*
'' nibusy state florendbus, atque horum plurimis, qui in pa-
" laefbra, et gymnafiis exercebantur/'

T1SSOT9 in his Avis au Peuple, when treating of dif*
eafes of the throat, mendons a diftemper which is common
in Switzerland, called by the French Les Oreillons, ou Lea
Ouxles. This is a fwelling of the falivary glands, particularly
the parodds and maxillaries, and appears to be a mild fpecies of
the mumps. The tumor is (bmedmes fb large as to caufe a
difficulty in {wallowing, and alfo to prevent the mouth from
opening without pain. Children are more liable to it than
adults y but as it is feldom attended with fever, no medicines
are required. All that is neceflary is, to proted the parts from
the air, apply a foft pouldce, to live abflemioufly, efpecially in
refpeft to animal food and wine, to drink a weak warm beve-
rage, and promote perfpiradon. He fays he cured himfelf in
four days, with balm tea, one fourth of milk and a litde bread
in it. He does not mendon any fwelling of the tefticles ; there-
fore this probably did not happen in Switzerland, as it never
does in very flight cafes of this difeafe.

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i% ACCOUNT of a DISTEMPER, &c-

I BEG leave to conclude this paper with the fdUoving^ word»
of Celsus : /

^' SjBPB vero etiam nova incidere genera morbomm in qui-
^' bus nihil adhuc ufus oftenderit. Ut ideo neceflarium fit ani-
^' madvertere, unde ea ceperint ; ceu fine quo nemo ntortalium
^* reperire poi&t| cur hoc, quam illo potius i^tatur/*

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X. A Botanical and Medical Account of the
^ AS SI A SIMARUBAy or Tree which produces
the Cortex Simaruba. By WILLIAM WRIGHT, M. D.
F. R. S. LoND. & Edin. and Fbyftcian-general in Ja-
maica ^«

An ETtftoricaJ Account of the SjmarubA Bahk.

TH £ firft knowledge we had of the cortex £maruba was
in the year 17 13. Some of it was fent to France to
M. LE CoMPTE DE PoKCHARTRAiN, the Secretary of State,
as the bark of a tree, called by the natives Simarouba, which
they employed .with good fuccefs in dyfentery.

In 1741, M. Geoffroy, in fpeaking of this bark, fays,
^* £il cortex radicis arboris ignotae, in Gniana nafcentis, et ab
'^ incolis fimarouba nuncupate : colons eft ex albo flavefcentis,
^' nullo odore prxditus^ faporis fubamari, lentifcentibus fibris
^ conftans, candido, leviilimo, infipidoque, radicum, ftipitum,
*' tnmciqne ligno haerens, a quo facile feparatur/'

I^ 1753 ^^d 1760, LiNN^us makes the fimaruba to be a
fpecies of piftacia, or the terebinthinus major, betulas cortice,
frudu triangulari of Sloan. Jam. 289. t. 99.

In 1756, Dr Patrick Browne publilhed his Civil and
Natural Hiftory of Jamaica. At page 345. he defcribes the
terebinthinus, or birch and turpentine tree. The bark of

Vol. II. k the

* This paper was read before the Philofophical Society of Ediobfirgh, Auguft 6.
1778. It is now printed by order of the Committee for publication of the Trvifaftions
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh*

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74 MEDICAL ACCOUNT of

the roots, (fays he)^ is thought to be the fimarouba of the
ihops.

hx 1^763^ LrNisr^m mafaes the fimaruba xxx be die burfeca.
gummifera, and refers to the piftacia of former editions of the
Species Plantarum ; and to Sloan and Browne, as above
cited. In the appendix, a reference is made to the terebinthi-
nus Americana polyphylla. Commelin. Hort. i. p. 149. and to
Catesby's gum elemi tree.

M. Jacquin vifited all' the Weft India iilands, and
made many difcoveries of new plants. He examined the roots
of the burfera gummifera^ and found their bark very diflferent
from the fimaruba bark.

In 1772, I employed all my fpare hours in examining the
plants of Jamaica. In this delightful walk of fcience, I difco-
vered and afcertained' many hundreds of new plknts which had
efcaped the diligence of former botanifts. Amongft others, the
tree which produces the fimaruba bark.

In 1 773^ fpecimens of the fru<Slification were fent in fpirits,
accompanied with a botanical account of the tree, to my late
worthy friend Dr Hope, Frofeflbr of Bbtany in the Univerfity
of Edinburgh ; alfo fome dried bark from the roots. The fol-
lowing year, fpecimens, with fimilar defcription, were tranA
mitted to my late learned and valuablle friend Dr John Fother-
GiLL of London ; who fent them to the celebrated Linnjeus at
Upfal, as appears by Profeflbr Murray's Apparatus Medica-
minum, vol. iii. p. 458. *, article Simaruba. Dr Fotberoill
caufed elegant drawings to be made of this plant ; and thefe
drawings I now have the honour of prefenting to the Royal So-
ciety of Edinburgh.

** QuALis vera ejuiHein arbor iir, jamjam aubletii indagioe cognofcimus, ut tamen et
mihi monere incumbat. b« Linnaam equitexn, litteris jam anno 1776, ineuntc mihi da«
tis* antiqpam aubletii elegant iffiaium opus ilit innotefceret. fignifioaflci Sdmanibam
Quaffias fpeoies a fo haberi. Hie autem fimarubsB: cortex quo G. Wright,, arborem
in Jamaica, vulgarem veditam efle innuit ^ pariter in alvi pn^flaviis efficaci, &c.

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The QUASSIA SIM A RUB A. 75

It is here proper to remark, that this paper was read before
the Philofophical Society of this place, and committed for pub-
lication in 1778. At the time when that Society obtained the
•Royal Charter, I chanced to be abroad. On my return to Edin-
burgh, I withdrew the communication to corredl and add to
my account of this important article of Materia Medica.

Defcription of the Tree.

The tree now to be defcribed is common in all the wood-
lands in Jamaica. It grows to a great height and confiderable
thicknefs. The trunks of the old trees arc blacl: and a little
furrowed. Thofe of the young trees fmooth and gray, with
here and there a broad yellow ipot.

The iniide bark of the trunk and branches is white, fibrous
and tough. It taftes (lightly bitter. On cutting or ilripping
off this bark, no milky juice i'flues, as has been mentioned by
various authors.

The wood is hard, and ufeful for buildings. It fplits freely,
and makes excellent (laves for fugar hog(heads. It has no (en-
fible bitter tafte.

The branches are alternate and spreading.

The leaves are numerous and alternate. On the upper (ide,
they are fmooth, fhining and of a deep green colour; on the
under fide, they are white.

The flowers appear about the beginning of April. They
are of a yellow colour, and placed on fpikes beautifully
branched.

The fruit is of that kind called a drupa, and is ripe towards
the end of May. It is of an oval ihape, is black, finooth and
fhining. The pulp is fle(hy and foft^ the tafte a naufeous
fweet. The nut is flattened, and on one fide winged. The ker-
nel is £mall, flat, and taftes fweet.

k 2 The

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ye MEDICAL ACCOUNT of

The natural number of thefe drupx is five on each commonr
receptacle ; but, for the mod part, there are only two or
three ; the reft abort by various accidents.

The roots are tbick^ and run fuperficially under the furface
of the ground to a confiderable diftance^ The bark is rough,
fcaly and warted. The in£de when frefh is a full yellow, but
when dry paler. It has but little fmell. The tafte is bitter,
but not very difagreeable. This is the true Cortex Simaruba of
the fhops.

This tree is known in Jamaica by the names of Mountain
Damfon, Bitter Damfon and Stave*wood. The fhops are fup-
plied with this bark from Guiana j but now we may have it
from our own iflands at a moderate expence.

On examining the frudification, I found this tree to be a
fpecies of Quaflia. Under that na^me, I fent it to Europe, and
LiNNiBUS adopted it into his fyflem.

There are male flowers on one tree, and female flowers ooi
another ; and this is invariably the cafe in Jamaica*

Senjibic ^alitics of Cortex SimaruBa.

I CAN difcover no aftringency in the cortex flmarubse, either
by the tafte, or by the various tefls to which I fubjefted it*
Nor is there any mucilaginous quality to be perceived in the
recent bark, or in the decodlioa of that which has been dried*

Its Medical Virtues in general.

Most authors who have written on the fimaruba, agree^,
that in fluxes it reftores the loft tone of the inteftines, allays
their fpafmodic motions, . promotes the fecretions by urine and
perfpiration, removes that lownefs of fpirits attending dyfente-
ries, and difpofes the patient to fleep ; the gripes and tenefinuGi
are takeaofl^ and the ftools are changed to their natural folour

and

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rbe QUASSIA SIMARUBA. 77

and confiftence. In a moderate doze^ it occafions na difturb-
ance or uneaiinefs ; but in large dozes it produces ficknefs at
ftomach, and vomiting. Negroes are lels afiedled by it thaa
white people*

Preparation of Simaruba Bark.

The fimaruba bark yields its qualities to water, either in cold
infufion or in deco^lion. I prefer the latter* Phyficians have
prefcribed the bark in different quantities ; but it feems now
agreed that the following proportion is the beft :

Two drams fimaruba bark, boiled from twenty-four
ounces of water to twelve ounces, then drained.

This is divided inta three equal parts, and the whole takea
in twenty-four hours.

When the ftomach is reconciled to it, three drams may be
boiled in the fame quantity of water, and taken as above men-
tioned. Some Join aromatics to the decodtion of this bark ;
others give a few drops of laudanum with each doze. The de«»
codion is to be drank daily till the diforder is cured, which
fometimes. happens in a few days, and at other times it may rc:-
quire weeks to perfe(5l a cure.

Of the Effeffs of SimaruBa in particular Bifeafes.

Having thus treated of the fimaruba in general, I am now
to mention its ufe and efifedls more particularly in different di^
eafes, and firft in the Dyfentery. In the years 17 18 and 1723,
an epidemic flux prevailed in France, and fwept off a great
number of people of all ages and of both fexes. This diforder
not only refilled all the medicines given, but was aggravated by
finall dozes of ipecacuanha, the mildeft purgatives, and alt
aftringems. The diforder was happily cured by the fima^
ruba.

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78 MEJyjCAL ACCOUNr of

M. Jussi£U ufed this bark for £fteen years in obftinatc
dy ferneries with great fuccefs ; and continued its exhibition,
although the catamenia in women, or hasmorrhage from piles in
men, occurred during the cure.

Modern phyfici^ns have found from experience, that this
medicine is only fuccefsful in the third ftage of dyfentery , where
there is no fever, where too the (lomach is no way hurt, and
where the gripes and teneimus are only continued by a weak-
nefs of the bowels. In fuch cafes, Dr D. Monro gave two or
three ounces of the decodion every five or fix horn's, with four
or five drops of laudanum:; and found it a very ufeful remedy.

The late Sir John Pringlb, Dr Huck SAirNJ>£Ra, and ma-
ny others, prefcribed the cortex fimaruba in old and obftinate
dyfenteries and diarrhoeas, efpecially thofe brought from warm
climates. Fluxes of this fort, which were brought -liome from
the fieges of Martinico and the Havannah, were completely and
ipeedily cured by this bark. The urine which, in chofe cafes,
•had been high xolaured and fcanty, was now voided in great
al>undance9 and peripiration reftored. Dr James Likd at
Haflar Hofpital, fays. That the fimaruba produced thefe efiedts
fooner, and more certainly, when given in fuch quantity as to
naufeate the ftomach. Dr Huck Saunders remarks. That if
the fimaruba did not give relief in three days, he expedled little
benefit from its farther ufe ; but others have found it efficaci-
ous in fluxes, after a continued ufe for feveral weeks. Authors
have cautioned lis ^ainft the ufe of this bark vAxNt, the in*
teftines are ulcerated and di^o&d to cancer after fluxes.

In diarrhoeas, i&om abfbrption of pus, th^ fimaruba has .given
relief; the fisrmtf difcharge fiom fuch ulcers was reftored, and
the pus meliorated.

LiENTERiA itfelf, and even hepatic fiuxes, have been cured
by the fimaruba, after other medicines were tried without fuc-
cefs. Vide A£t Natur. curiof. tom. ii. p. 80, — 82.

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ne QUASSIA SIM A RUB A. 79

In putrid fevers, (as we are told) attended with coldnefs of
the extremities, colliquative fweats and ftools, and great dejec-
tion of fpirits, this bark performed wonders, and many reco-
vered by its ufe. Vide Roups de Morbis Navigantium, p. 311.

Habitual colics, with bloody ftoolsj attended with fever
and delirium^ have beea radically cured by the fimaruba bark*

Immoderate fluxes of the menfes and from, piles, have been
happily flopped, by this medicine ; and in would appear from
fome late. tnak,. that fluor albiis has beea cenifidied by the fame
bark.

De Hasn found die flmaruba to be aa excellent vermifuge ;
and u&d it with fucceia in difeafes depending on worms, parti-
cularly fluzest

My own experience, and that of many living ftienda^ are
convincing proofs to me of the efficacy of this medicine ; and.
I hope the 'fimaruba back will fbon be iamore general ufe»

QJTASS^IA.

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8o MEDICAL ACCOUNT if

QV ASSIA SIMARUBA.

Flos Masculus.

Cal. Perianthium monophyllam, parvum^ quinqutfidum^ denti*

culis ovatis, ereftis.
Cor. Petala quinque, fef&lia, ^qnalia^ lanceolata, fubrevoluta,

calyce triplo longiora, calyci inferta. NeSlarium ex fquamis

decern, ovatis, villofis^ bafi £lamentorum interioii inferds.
Stam. Filamenta decern, filiformia, aequalia> longitudine corollas*

Antbera oblongas, incumbentes ; in centro floris corpus camo-

fum, orbiculatum, decem-{ulcatuin«
Pifiillum nullum*

Flos Fe m iuett ».

Calyx et Corolla^ lit in flore mafculo.

Pijiillum. Germina quinque fubrotunda, introrfum coalita.

Stylus cylindraceus, eredlus, quinque-partitus, longitudine

corollas. Stigmata fubulau, recurvata, periiftentia.
Pericarpium. Drupas quinque laterales, diftantes, receptaculo

orbiculato, camofo infertae.
Semina. Nux x>blongo-ovata^ acuminata, unilocularis. Nucleus

comprefTus.

I N F L O K £ S C E K T I A«

Panicula compofita. Pedicellis fubjicitur ftipula lanceolata, pe-
tiolata. Folia ailtemato-pinnata. Foliola oblonga, obtufa, ^
nitida^ integra; ba£i attenuata, fubfeflilia^ coftis lateralibus
nervofis*

E X-

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7bc QUASSIA SIMARUBA. 8i

EXPLANATION op the PLATES.

PLATE I.

Quassia Simaruba Mas.

1. A flower of its natural fize.

2. The fame magnified.

3. The calix of the natural fize.^
4* The fame magnified.

5. The corolla.

6. The ten (lamina.

7. Two ftamina, the infide of one^ the outfide of another, pre*

fented to view.

8. The flefhy mafs in the centre of the flower.

9* The fame magnified, to fhew in what manner the ten ila-
mina and fquamae are placed.

PLA r E U.

Quassia Simaruba Fbminea.

'• 2» 3, 4. The fame as in the male flowers.^
J- Xhe piftillum.
<^- The ftyle,

7* The ten imbricated fquamat.
'• One pericarpimn or drupa.
5* The horizontal fedion of the fame;
^^ The nut.

^^* A perpendicular fedion of the fame.
^^- The nucleus or kernel

VoL.IL t ' XI.

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XI. On the Motion o^ Light, as affcEled by refra&ing and
reflcSing Subjiancts, which are alfo in Motion. By JOHN
RoBl^ON^ M. A. F. R. & Edin. and Proftjfor of Natural
Pbilofophyin the Univerjity of E^Rnburgh.

[Read by Mr Flatfair, April 7. 1788.]

F£ W of the mathematicians and philofophers of the pre-
fent age have acquired a greater or better founded repu*
tation: than the celebrated Abb6 Boscovich ; and there is none
from whofe writings 1 have received fuch variety of inftrudUon
and entertainment* His Theory of Natural Philofophy will
ever be confidered by impartial judges, not only as one of the
boldeft, but alfo as one of the moft ingenious refearches^ into
the fecrets of nature. There is hardly a branch of phyiiCQ-
mathematieal philofophy which he has not cultivated with ftic-
cefs ; and in this cultivation he has exhibited the moft acute pe-
netration and the greateft addrefs. In all his invefligations too
he has given the moft beautiful fpecimens of geometrical in*
vention and elegance^ and greatly heightens the pleafure of his
readers, by marking out diftindly ^the progrefs of hia own-
mind in his refearches.

Mr Boscovich has lately obliged the public with a coUedion
of feveral of his fmaller works in five volumes quarto, publifh-
ed at BafTanqin 1785. In the fecond and fourth volumes of
diis colle<^ion, are two very curious papers, on what is called
die aberration of light, or the effe^ wthich is produced on the
apparent place of vilible objedts by tihe motion of the obferver.

/ X There

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84 On'^the MOTION of LIGHT.

There i$ one dedu Aion which he makes from his premifes, ex-
tremely curious in itfelf, and having the mod furprifing confe-
quences. It is this : If a telefcope be conflru^ted^ having its
tube filled with water, and be directed to a terreftrial objed
properly fituated, it will be found to deviate from thatobjedt by
a certain determined quantity ev^ry day. It will follow from
this, that a perfon (hut up in a mine or dungeon^ 'OXSlj^ without
feeing the fun or heavens, difcover the motion of the earth
round the centre of the folar fyftem, and alfo whether this cen-
tre be in motion, and the velocity and diredion of this mo*
tion.

The contrivance of a telefcope filled with water, has been
long familiar to my thoughts, (as a means of difcovering whe-
ther light be accelerated when refradled towards th^ perpendi-
cular) in confequence of the fpeculations of my ingenious
friend Profeflbr Wilson of Glafgow. But all my attempts to
conftru6t fuch a telefcope have hitherto proved abortive, for
want of a fubftance fufficiently tranfparent to admit of the
neceflary magnifying power. I faw that this rendered ufelefs
the beautiful theory of their conftrudlion which is contained in
this paper of Mr BoscovicH. But, at the fame time, I faw
that this aberration of terreftrial objedls would enable us to de-
cide the fame queftion by means of a compound microfcope of
a very eafy conftrudlion. If a cylindrical piece of glafs be
ground fpherical at one end, and plane at the other, and if the
plane furface be fituated a fmall diftance beyond the principal
£3cus of the fpherical furface, and a fcratch be made on the
plane furface, and confidered as a vifible objedl, an image of
this fcratch will be formed in the conjugate focus of the fphe-
rical furface, which image may be viewed by means of a deep
eye-glafs, as in the ordinary compound microfcope. If this
image be formed on a frame of wires, like the wires of an aftro-
nomical telefcope, there muft be obferved the fame diurnal de-
viation that Mr Boscovich announces with reipeA to his tele-
fcope,

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On the MOTION 0f LIGHT. 85

fcope, but in the oppofite direAion j as in the microfcope, there
would be no want of light, we fhould have the moft fatisfado-
ry decifion of this important queftion in optics, and alfo the
opportunity of dete6ling any hitherto unknown motions of the
globe which we inhabit. It may alfo be Ihown, that, if any
of thefe motions be very confiderable, we fhall determine ano-
ther very important queftion in optics, vi%. Whether the mo-
tion of Ught be affeiSled by the motion of the luminous body.

On thefe, and many other accounts, I was eager to conftrudl
this microfcope, and fet about it accordingly. But I happened
at that time to be engaged in that part of my courfe of ledures
where I had occafion to confider the apparent motions of bo-
dies. I confider it as the fundamental proportion on this fub-
jeA, that " the apparent motion of a body is compounded of its real
•* motion^ and the oppofite to the real motion of the obferver.^^ The
confequence is, that, fince the motions of the terreftrial obje<a
and of the obferver are always nearly equal, there (hould be no
apparent motion in the obje£i,and therefore no apparent diurnal
change of place. This ftartled me, and caufed me to confider the
matter more minutely. Profeflbr Wilson, to whom I com-
municated my doubts, raifed other objections, founded on the
application of mechanical principles to that hypothefis, with re-
fpedl to light, which the Abb^ Boscovich profefTes to main-
tain. In my fubfequent fpeculations on this fubjedt, I found,
that the application of the above mentioned propofition was not
ftridtly juft with refpedl to the apparent place of the terreftrial
object ; but I was led by it to difcover the real ftate of the
matter, by applying it to the. determination of the apparent
motion of the light by which the objedt is feen. I thus dete<5t-
ed the circumftance which Mr Boscov!ch had overlooked, and
which unfortunately puts an end to the hopes which I had en-
tertained of many curious and important difcoveries. I flatter
myfelf that this Society will not think this fubjedt unworthy of
their noti(^e ; but am extremely forry that my infirm ftate of

health

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86 On the MOTION of LIGHT.

health does not at prefent permit me to give fuch an accotmt of
it as its importance deferves. I propofe, however, to undertake
it as foon as I am able« This I am incited to do, not merely
on account of the Angularity of this particular fubje^, but
more efpecially becaufe its difcuilion depends on a more gene-
ral, and hitherto unconfidered fubjedt in phyfico-mathematical
fcience, the motion of light m afftScd by bodies which art qIJo in mo-
tion. This I have confidered ibme years ago, as far as I thought
neceflfary for my elementary courfe of ledures, and I then in-
veftigated the fundamental propofition which I fliall include in
this difcourfe. Perhaps I (hould ofier fome apology for troubling
the Society with my thoughts on the fubjedl before I have put
them into a more perfedl form* I ihall frankly tell my reafona
for this condudl. This paper of Mr BoscovicH mud excite
the attention of philofophers. Other fpeculations alio which
have lately been made by ingenious men, will turn the atten-
tion to the fubjeiEl, and enquiries will be inftituted, and thenr
refults made public. I (hould not chufe to be thought indebted
to the refearches of others for the refults of my own enquiries
and therefore wifh to afcertain my claim to any thing which
may be valuable in my fpeculations, by this prefent imperfedt
account of them,

I- SHALL therefore lay before the Society a fhort account of
the experiment, as propoied and defcribed by Mr Boscovich^
and of the refult which he expeds from it, and fome of the
mod remarkable confequenees which he deduces from this re«-
fult. I (hall, in the nei^ place, point out the overfight which
he has made in annduiicing the refult, and .ftate what ought to
be the rdak, on the phyiiqal principles adopted by him ; prinr-
diples which will be overturned if diexefult of the eitperimene
(hould be what he cjxpedls, but eftabli&ed if it ihould be what
I aflTert. In the laft place, I (hall give the fundamental propo-
(ition for determining the sefle^on aqd refraAioii of light

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On the MOTION of LIGHT. 87

by moving furfaces, anid briefly mention £>me of the mod ufe-
fiil corollaries.

Let O, (fig. I.) be a tcnreftrial objedk, whofe pofition is to
be deterikiined by im obferyer placed at B', and furniflied with
a common furVeyot^s theod6Hte. He muft place the index of
his inftrtiimnt fo that the light coming from the object in the
diredion OB', may pais through the t^o holes A', B\ which
conflitute the plane fights of his theodolite ; that is, the three
points O, A', B', mnft be in a ftraight line. The inftrument is
fb ccm(tni6led that the ftraight line pafiing throagh the holes
K^^ B\ is piatallel to a line NS drawn along the ruler or index
upon which the fights are placed, and the divifion upon the
arch, which is cut by the line NS, indicates the pofition of the
object. -.

But now let us fiippofe that, by the motion of the earth, the
obferver is uniformly carried along the ftraight line B'jS perpen-*
dicular to B'O, while, in the mean time, the objeft is carried
with an equal motion along the line O^ parallel to B'/3. It is
now evident, that, if the inftrument, without altering its po*
firion, be carried along in the dire<5lion B'jB, the light which
enters the hole A\ in the direction OA', will not pafs through
the hole B ; for, when the light entered the hole A', the other
hole was at 6 ; but when the light arrives at B\ the hole F has
got to feme place R in the linie Bfi. Take the point B, fb that
the ftraight line OjS may be to Bfi as the velocity of light to
the velocity of the earth. Through A' draw die ftraight line
A^Aa, parallel to K)3, cutting the line 0/3 in the point A. Draw
DAB parallel to OA'B'. Now, let the theodolite move from the
fitnation A'B' to the new fituatioh AB, while the light moves
from O to A. It is evident that the light will enter the hole A,
and proceed in the diredion AjS. In the mean time, the hole
B will have moved from B to /3 ; for A/S is to B/3, as Ofi i* to
B/3, that is, as the velocity of light to the velocity of the theo-
dolite.

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88 On the MOTION of LIGHT.

dolite. Therefore an eye placed behind the hole B will receive
the light which pafTes through it when in the fituation /?, and
the obferver will fee the objeft through the fights of the inftru-
ment. He will fee it by means of light moving in the di*
redlion 0^8 ; but he will not imagine that the objefl lies from
him in the dire<£lion /SO ; for he eflimates the diredion of the
objedl by the pofition of the fiducial line of his inftrument,
which is always parallel to the line joining the centres of the
holes which are its fights. When he fees the objedt, thefe
holes are at /3 and a, and therefore the obferver ailigns to the
objedl the direction fitt. Let BA and /3» cut the line O^ in the
points D and ^; it is evident, that, when the object is at O, D
and \ the anterior fight of the theodolite, is at A\ A, and a, and
the other fight Is at BV B and /3 ; therefore, when the objed is^
feen through the inftrument, it is always feen in its real place,
and in its true direction, although not in the diredion of the
light by which it is feen ; confequently, if the index be di-
reded fo that the objed may be feen through it, that is, if the
index be pointed to the objed in theconmicm way. and the whole
inftram^ife be kept firm in its pofition, it will always point ta
the objed, although both the inftrument and objed are conti^
nually changing their places by the motion of the earth round
the iun and round its own axis.

But now let us fuppofe, with Mr Boscovich, that "the in-
terval between the two fights is filled with water contained in a
tube, and bounded by twa plates of glafs at A and B, perpen*
dicular ta the line AB, and covered externally with paper,
pierced with two fmall holes at A and B. Now, fays Mr Bos*
coviCH, the Ught which enteft at A will not be at B when the
hole B arrives there ; for, if the velocity of Hght in water be
to the velocity of light in' air, as the fine of incidence in air to*
the fine of refradion in water, then, while the hole B comes
to iS, the light will move from A to E, fo that AE is to A^S as
four ta three nearly ; confequently, when the light has come

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On the MOTION of LIGHr. %g

to i3, the hole B will have moved over B7, which is thi%e«
fourths of B/3 3 therefore an eye, placed behind the hole B,
will not fee the objedl through the fights of the inllrument, but
will fee an objedl lying to the right hand of it, having its angu-
lar diftance equal to yA^ j or, if the inftrument, inftead of ha-
ving a hole A for the anterior fight, has two fine wires crofling
each other in A, the objedl will appear on the oppofite fide of
their interfedlion from that towards which the earth is moving.

From this reafoning, Mr Boscovich concludes, that if this
inftrument be placed at the earth's equator on the day of the
winter's folftice, and the index be directed to the real place of
an object due fbuth of it, the objedt will not appear at the in-
terfedion of the crofs wires of the anterior fight, but, at noon,
will appear 5" to the eaft of that interfedion, at fix o'clock in
the evening, it will appear 5" above it j at midnight, it will
appear 5" to the weftward of it 5 and at fix o'clock next morning,
it will appear $" below it. The object will, therefore, appear tQ
defcribe a circle round the interfedlion of the crofs wires in
twenty-four hours, the diameter of which will fubtend an an-
gle of 10''. In other pofitions of the index, and other days of
the year, the apparent motion of the objedl will be different ;
but it will never appear in its true place, except in thofe in-
ftants that the fiducial line of the inftrument happens to be pa-
rallel to the line of the earth's motion at that time.

Mr Boscovich proceeds to ihow that, if the theodolite has
a common aftronomical telefcope, inftead of plane fights, the
appearances will be precifcly fimilar. If the index be diredted
to the real place of an objed, the objed will be feen at the in-
terfeflion of the crofs wires of the eye-piece ; and if the inftru-
ment be firmly fixed in its pofition, the objedl will always ap-
pear at this interfedlion, notwithftanding the motion of the
earth. But if the telefcope be filled with water, and be di-
rected to the real place of an objedl fituated as above mentioned,
on the noon of the winter's folftice, the objedl will appear $" to

Vol. II. m the

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90 On the MOTION of LIGHl'.

the well of this interfedlion, and, in twenty-four hours, will
defcribe round it a circle, whofe diameter fubtends an angle of
lo'', but in a diredlion oppofite to that defcribed round the in-
terfedion of the crofs wires of the plane fights. The intelli-
gent reader will eafily fee that thefe dedudlions are juftly made
from the premifes.

Mr BoscoviCH, in the laft place, (hows that if light be re-
tarded in its paflage from air into water, the appearances with
the water telefcope will be diametrically oppofite to thofe above
defcribed, and therefore earneftly propofes this experiment to
philofophers, as a mean of deciding that important queftion in
phyfics. I call it an important queftion ; becaufe the accelera-
tion of light in the inverfe proportion of the fines of incidence
and refraiflion affords an inconteftible proof that the forces
which refraft light towards the perpendicular are diredled perpen-
dicularly toward the refradling furface, and nearly demonftrates
that light confifts of corpufcles emitted by the fhining body.
The retardation of light, in the diredl proportion of the fines of
incidence and refraflion, is totally incompatible with this hy-
pothefis concerning the nature of light, and, in my opinion,
with the hypothefis of thofe who maintain that vifion is pro-
duced by the undulations of an elaftic fluid, although it has
generally been fuppofed to be a confequence of that hypo-
thefis.

I HAVE already faid that my repeated attempts to conftrudl
a water-telefcope of fufEcient magnifying power have hitherto
failed, in confequence of my not being able to find a fluid fuf-
ficiently tranfparent. Lime-water is the moft tranfparent fluid
that I know ; and I have filled with it a telefcope five feet long.
But, when I increafed its magnifying power to more than thirty
times, it was vaftly too dark, although the aperture was fo
great as to make it very indiftincSl. I anai therefore convinced,
that although I ftiould employ Mr Boscovich's moft beautiful
and ingenious conftrudlion to remove the indiftindlnefs, there

would

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On the MOTION of LIGHT. 91

would be a great deficiency ' of light ; for a telefcope of this
length, magnifying thirty times, would not render 10" fuffi-
ciently diftinguifhable.

But this aberration of terreftrial objedls, announced by Mr
BoscovicH, muft be obferved in a compound micrafcope filled
with water, or conftruiSled in the manner defcribed in the be-
ginning of this difcourfe. In fuch a microfcope, we can have
abundance of light by external illumination, and little will be
loft in its paflage through the ihort column of lime-water or
glafs.

The intelligent reader will eafily fee that this aberration of
an objedt placed before the microfcope muft be obferved even
at the bottom of a mine. He will alfo fee that, if the f\m,
with his attending planets, be carried along in any diredion,
with a velocity much greater than that of the earth in its orbit,
another aberration will be obferved, greater than the former,
and diftinguiftiable from it, although blended with it. Confe-^
quently, we ftiould be able to difcover, by means of this aber-
ration, fuch hitherto unknown motion of the folar fyftem. It
vnll readily be believed, therefore, that I engaged with eagcr-
nefs in preparations for this experiment, and in farther re-
fearches into its theory, and that I was greatly mortified when
I found my hopes of curious difcovery fruftrated by the detec-
tion of an overfight in Mr Boscovich's reafoning. This I
fliall now fubmit to the Society.

Mr BoscovicH fuppofes, that when the light, moving in the
diredion OA, enters the water tube at A, it moves on in the di-
redlion A/S, defcribing AE uniformly, while the hole A moves
from A to a. But Mr Boscovich, in the faime difcourfe, pro-
fefles to maintjun the opinion advanced by Sir Isaac Newton,
vl%. That light is accelerated in water by forces which aft per-
pendicularly to its furface. If this be the cafe, the light en-
tering the water at A, in the oblique diredion O A, will be re-
fracted towards the perpendicular, and will move in the direCr-

tn 2 tion

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92 On the MOTION of LIGHT.

tion Ai, cutting the line aj3 in the point «, fo fituated that A^
is to Afi as the velocity of light in air is to its velocity in waten
This line A« will cut the line BjS in fome point i. Now, fince
the light moves uniformly along Ae, while the hole B moves
uniformly along B/3, ic follows that they will meet in i, where
the light will pafs through the hole, and enter an eye placed
behind it. ^The obferver, therefore, will fee the objeft through
the water tube or water telefcope, having the fame poiition
with the plane fights or common telefcope 5 and if the water
telefcope be direifled to the real place of a terreftrial objed,
however fituated, and be firmly fixed in its pofitioh, the objedt
will always be feen on the interfedlion of the crofs wires, and
no aberration will be obferved in confequence of the earth's
motion.

I MAY here obferve, that this aberration of terreilrial objeds
occurred to Mr Boscovich but very lately, namely, while he
was writing for the prefs his DifTertation on the ufe of the
water telefcope, for deciding the queftion concerning the acce-
leration or retardation of light, by means of the aberration of
the fixed ftars. It appears that Mr ^Boscovich has long had
this ingenious thought; for M. de la Lanoe, in the fourth
volxime of his Affaronomy, mentions his having received a let*
ter to that purpofe from Mr Boscovich in the year 1769. Mr
BoscoviCH, in the firfl volume of his Opufcula, publifhed at
Baffanoin 1785, mentions his having heard that fome perfon
had publifhed a difTertation in the Philofophical Tranfa€tions of
London upon the fame fubje<5t, and feems difpofed to think,
that the author had been indebted to Mr de la La nob's in-
formation, which had been publifhed fome time before. This
alludea to a DifTertation by our worthy member Mr Wilson,
now profefTor of Affaronomy at Glafgow. But this gentleman's
ingenuity is. too eminent to make him need any information
which his candoiur would not difpofe him to avow in the mofl
public manner. In the prefent inftance^ he is fortunately pro-

tedlcd

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On^be MOTION of LIGHT. 93

tested againft every imputation of plagiarifm^ as 1 fhall pre-
fently make appear, by returning again to the confidera*
tion of the apparent place of objedls viewed dbrough a theo-
dolite.

Suppose that the objedl O is a fixed flar, and that, while a
ray of light proceeds from it in the diredion OA^S, with a uni-
form motion, the theodoUte moves uniformly from the fituation
A'B' to the fituation aj3. It is evident, that the light will enter
the anterior fight at A, and pafs through the pofterior fight at
j8. An obferver, therefore, will fee the ftar by looking through
the theolodite. But he will judge falfely of its place ; for he
will imagine that it lies in the direfkion fi^; while it is really in
the direfUon /SO. The angle 0(S^ is called the aberration of
the ftar, and the proportion of the velocity of light to the ve-
locity of the earth is inch that this angle is about 2o'\ Let us
now fuppofe that the water tube is ufed. Then, fays Mr Bos-
coviCH, if the water tube have the fame pofition with the
plane fights, the ftar will not be obferved through it ; becaufe,
when the hole B has come to /S, the light which entered at A
has got to £, and when this light has got to fi, the hole has got
only to y : Therefore, in order to fee the ftar, the water tube
muft have a different pofition, which he thus determines : —
Make B^ equal to ^, and draw Ap. This will be the proper
pofition of the tube. For, while the light which enters at A
moves from A to /3, the pofterior fight of the theodolite will
have moved from p to j8, where it will meet the light, and al-
low it to pafs through to the eye of the obferver. If the velocities
of light in air and water are as three to four, the angle BA^
wiU be about 5", in the opinion of Mr Boscovich, and the
aberration of the ftar will be about 15", namely, three-fourths
of the aberration difcovered by the plane fights. In like man-
ner, when the aberration of the ftar is obferved with a tele-
fcope filled with water, by bringing its image to the interfedion
of the crofs wires in the eye-piece of the telefcope, it wilt

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9+ On the MOTION of LIGHT.

be three-fourths of the aberration obferved in the fame manner
with the common telefcope. This account of the experiment
is precifely the fame with that given by Mr de la Lande, and
alfo with that given by Mr Boscovich in the Diifertation above
mentioned •

It is eafy to fee, that Mr Boscovich has made the fame
overfight here as in the cafe of terreftrial aberration. For, in
the Jirji place, if the tube has the pofition AB, the light which
enters at A, in the direction OA, will not proceed in the direc-
tion AE, but be refradled at A, and proceed in the direction Ai,
and will meet with tlie hole B in the point i. The liar will,
therefore, be feen through the water tube, having the fame po-
fition with the plane fights ; and if the aberration be obferved
with a common telefcope, and a telefcope filled with water, by
bringing the image of the ftar to the interfedtion of the crofs
wires, it will be the fame in both.; In the next place, if the
water tube have the pofition A(p, which Mr Boscovich propofes,
the light which enters at A will not pafs. through the pofterior
fight. For the angle BAj8 being 20'', and the angle BA^ being
5", the angle of incidence will be 15'', and the light will ftill
be refra<5led towards the perpendicular^ making with it an angle
fomewhat greater than 11".

Thus it appears, that the refult of this experiment, made in
the manner propofed by Mr Boscovich, will be diflPerent from
what he announces upon the phyfical principles aiFumed by
him. What I have here determined to be the refult of this
experiment, perfedlly agrees with Mr Wilson^s determination
in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, where it is propofed by him
as a proof that hght is accelerated hy reff adlion out of air into
water, in the inverfe proportion of the fines of incidence atid
refra<Slion. Thus, thefe gentlemen diflPer to widely in their
opinions, both with refpedl to the refult of the experiment, and
the conclufibns drawn from it, that the one cannot be fulpeifled
of having borrowed from the othen

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On the MOTION of LIGHT. ' 95

I SHALL juft add here, that if the aberration of the fixed
ftars, obferved in Dr Bradley's manner, as above defcribed,
be diflFerent with the two telefcopes, as Mr BoscovicH expeifls;
or if there be obferved that aberration of terreftrial objedls
which he defcribes, light // not accelerated^ while refraded to-
wards the perpendicular, in the inverfe proportion of the fines
of incidence and refradion. But if the two aberrations (hall be
found to be the fame, and if no terreftrial aberration Ihall be
obferved, we have a dire<fl proof of the acceleration of light in
the above mentioned proportion, and of its refradlion being
produced by forces adling perpendicularly to the refrading fur-
face, and almoft a demonftration that light confifts of corpuf-
cles emitted by the fhining body. There is indeed another
way of obferving the aberration of the fixed ftars, viz. by a
micrometer within the eye-piece of the telefcope. This pro-
mifes a different aberration with the two telefcopes. But my
thoughts on this fubjedl are not yet ready for the examination
of the Society.

I NOW proceed, in the laft place, to give the fundamental
propofitions refpedling the motion of light, as it is affedled by
refrading or refledting fubftances, which are alfo in motion j
propofitions which will afford an eafy and ready folution of eve-
ry queftion which may be propofed.

Theue are two ways of eftabliftiing the fundamental doc-
trines on this fubjed. The firft and beft method is to ftate the
leading fads, or to announce the general phyfical laws as mat-
ters of obfervation and experience, and then to give a theory
of all the fubordinate phaenomena, in the order of their gene-
rality, by fliowing in what manner they are comprehended un-
der the general laws already eftablilhed. But, in the prefent
cafe, this method cannot be followed. For, in the phaenomena.
which we obferve, the motion of light is blended with feveral
motions which we know to obtain in the refledling and refradl-
ing fubftances which affedl it, and perhaps with many other

motions

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96 On the MOTION of LIGHT.

motions of which we are entirely ignorant. For this reaibn^
we cannot fay what is the abfolute motion of ligbty nor afcertain
from faSl what changes it undergoes in its obferved refradions
and reflcflions. Since, therefore, we cannot fimplify the phe-
nomena which nature prefents to our view, we cannot eftablifli
thofe general laws which would be the foundation of a phyfical
theory.

The only other method which feems to remain, is to take
up fuch opinions concerning the nature of light, as feem moft
rationally deducible from the phenomena which we obferve,
and then to^ deduce, by the eftablifhed principles of mechanics,
fuch confequences as fhould arife from the adlion of refrading
and reflecting fubllances upon this hypothetical light. We
fhould then fele<5l fuch of thefe confequences as will admit of
a comparifon with obfervation. If thefe confequences (hall be
found inconiiflent with obfervation, the hypothefis concerning
the nature of light muft be rejedled, and trial mull be made of
a new one. But if they fhould be found to agree with obferva*
tion, and at the fame time be fufficiently various, we may
then admit the hypothecs to have a degree of probability pro-
portioned to the extent of the comparifon which we have made
of its confequences with obfervation ; we may then difcover
by this means parts of a hypothefis which muft be admitted as
true, although the hypothefis cannot be demonflrated in its full
extent.

L AM acquainted with two hypothefis only concerning the
mechanical nature of light, which, in the opinions of the
learned, feem rationally deduced from the phenomena. The
firft is that which is advanced by Sir Isaac Newton, in feve-
ral parts of his celebrated writings. He fays that light may
perhaps confifl of fmall particles emitted by the fhining body
with prodigious velocity, which are afterwards adled upon by
other bodies, with attradling or repelling forces like gravity,
which deflect them from their rectilineal courfes in refractions

and

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On the MO f ION nf LIGHT. 97

and reflexions. He fliows, if this be the cafe, that the com-
bined forces of aU the particles of a body which adl at once on
a particle of light, compofe a force whofe diredlion is perpen-
dicular to the furface of the body. When, therefore, thefe
forces tend toward the body, the light, at its approach to that
body, xi'acceleraied and is refradled toward the perpendicular
to its furface. But when thefe forces tend from the body, the
light is retarded^ ttitz&ed from the perpendicular, and fome-
times refle&ed with its former velocity, and in an angle equal to
the angle of incidence. When thefe confeqiiences are com-
pared with obfervation, the mod complete agreement is found
to obtain. Hence Sir Isaac Newton deduces, that when
light is obfervcd to be refrafted toward the perpendicular, it has
really been actuated by forces tending toward the refracfling bo*
dy, and that it' is 'Accelerated. But when the light is refradted
from the perpendicular, it has been aduated by forces tending
from the body, and is retarded. Alfo, when it is refledled on
its approach to a body at an angle equal to the angle of inci-
dence, it has been actuated by forces tending from the body,
and moves with its former velocity. When thefe conclufions
are combined with the former dedudlions from the hypothefis,
and the refult is compared with obfervation, the moft perfedl
agreement is ftill difcovered. For thefe reafons, this hypothefis
has acquired great credit, and deferves to be examined on the
prefent occafion.

The other hypothefis is that of Mr Huyghens and Dr Hooke*
Thefe gentlemen fuppofe that, as hearing is produced by
means of the tremulous motion of elaftic air, which affeds the
ear, fo vifion is produced by the tremulous motion of elaftic
light, which afFeifls the eye. This hypothefis was announced
and applied to the explanation of phaenomena in very general
terms, and did not, for a long while, much engage the atten-
tion of the learned. The celebrated mathematician Mr Euler
has lately brought it into credit, having made fome alterations

Vol. II. n in

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98 On the MOTION of LIGHT.

in it. He fuppofes, that vifion is produced by the tremulous
motion of an elaftic fluid which he calls aether, and which he
fuppofes to pervade all bodies. He attempts to fhow that the
propagation of this tremulous motion is analogous to the ap-
pearances in the refledlion and refradlion of light. I confefs
that I cannot admit his reaibnings on this fubjedi to be agreeable
to the principles of mechanics ; and I am decidedly of opinion,
chat the propagation of the tremulous motion of an elaftic fluid
is totally inconfiftent with thofe fadls in vifion where no refrac*
tion or reflecflion is obferved. But I ftiall rcfcrvc my objections
till another opportunity, when I propofe to fubmit to thi« So^
ciety a mechanical examination of this hypothefis, and I (hall
admit for the prefent that Mr Euler's explanation of refradlion
and refle(5lion is juft. It is an eflential propofition in this hy-
pothetical theory, that the velocities of the incident and re-
fradled light are proportional to the fines of incidence and re*
fraction, and therefore that light is retarded when, it is refraidted
toward the perpendicular. It feems a neceflary confequence
that, in this cafe, the particles of aether are a<ftuated by forces^
tending from the refradting body. I (hall, therefore, confider
what efle(5t8 muft refult from the combination of this retardate
tion with the motion of the refradting body. If time will
allow, I {hall confider what will; be the efiedts produced on the*
motion of light by the motion of the vifible objedt. Thefc are*
fo different in the two hypothefes, that it is very probable that
ibme natural appearance may be found which will give us an
opportunity of determining whether either of tiiefe hypothefes
is to be received as true. Dr Robert Blair, profeflbr of
Aftronomy in this Univerfityg haa pointed, out^ a cafe of this^
kind, in the rotation of the planet Jupiter round its aids, and<
has fuggefted a method of inveftigatioa, exceedingly ingenious,,
and which feems to promife fucce&. I think that another may
be obferved in the planet MercTiry, when in his greateft elonga-^
tions from the fun.

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On the MOTION of LIGHT:. 99

I NOW begin with an examination of the Newtonian hypothe-
fis. Bat I Ihall content liiyfelf with one confequence of it on-
ly, vi%. That in refra<5lions and reflexions, the light is a<5luated
by forces whofe diredlion is perpendicular to the Surface of the
refiraifling or refledling body. I (hall here confider the effeA of
fuch forces only as tend toward the body ; becaufe it will be
evident that the fame reafoning will apply, without any varia-
tion, to the efle<fls of forces tending from the medium.

Let XZY (fig. 2.) be a plane furface which feparates a re-
fradling medium, fuch as glafs, from a void, the medium be*
ing fuppofed to be below the plane XY. Let it be fuppofed that
ZA, perpendicular to ZY, is the greateftdiftanceat which a particle
of the medium adls upon light. Make ZB, on the other fide of
XY, equal ZA, and draw the planes AQj^ BS, parallel to XY.
While the light is between the planes AQ^and BS, it is aflfedled
by the refiracSing forces. For while it is between the planes
AQ^and XY, it is aded on by all the particles of the medium,
whofe diftance from it does not exceed ZA ; and while it is be-
tween the planes XY and DS, there are more particles below it
whofe diftance does not exceed ZA than there are above it. But
when the light is below BS, it is equally adled on in all direc-
tions, and its motion through the medium is not afleded by the
refradling forces.

Let us call the fpace contained between the planes AQ^ and
BS by the name of the refradling ftratum ; and let us fuppofe,
at firft, that the refradting forces adt uniformly through the
whole extent of the ftratum.

Let the light, moving in the direction HAF, enter the re-
fradling ftratum at A, while the medium is moving in the di-
redkion AI ; and let AF, AI, be the fpaces which they would
uniformly defcribe during the time that the refradling forces
would impel a particle of light, from a ftate of reft in A,
through AB. Let the velocity which the light would acquire
by this acceleration acrofs the refracting ftratum^ be called thei

n 2 fpecific

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loo On the MOTION of LIGHT.

fpecific velocity of the medium. It is known that, if it moved
uniformly with this velocity, it would defcribe AO, double of
AB, during the time of defcribing AB with the uniformly ac-
celerated motion. Tliercfore, (taking this for the unit of time)
AF, AI and AO, will exprefs the velocity of the incident light,
the progreflive veloirity of the medium, and the fpecific velocity.
It is alfo known, that the light, in paffing through the refraifl-
ing ftratum, will defcribe a parabola ACL, which AF touches
in A, and of which AB is a diameter, having BL, equal and
parallel to AF, for an ordinate.

Producb I a till Ai is equal to AI ; complete the parallelo-
gram AFf i, and draw the diagonal Af. The motion Af, com*
pounded of AF, the real motion of the incident light, and Ai^
the oppofite to the motion of the medium, is the relative mo-
tion of the incident light. This motion will be uniform, be-
caufe it is compounded of motions which are uniform. There*
fore Af will exprefs the relative velocity of the incident light.
Draw FL. It ia evidently equal and parallel to AB. Let CP
be drawn from any point C of the parabola, parallel to* AR,
cutting AF in P. Complete the parallelograms FLlf, flBA*
Draw Cc parallel to Ff, and make Ff : Ccrr AF: AP; 1 fay
that the point c is in a parabola Acl, of which AB is a diame-
ter, and Af a tangent, and which is the relative path of the
Eght, and that L and 1, C and c, are contemporaneous places of
the light in its real and relative paths. Draw Pp parallel to Ff,
cutting Af in p. Draw the ordinate CK, and draw pc, Kc.
Then Ff : Pp = AF : AP, = LI : Ce. But Ff is eqtial to LL
Therefore Pp is equal to Cc, and pc is equal and parallel to PC
and AK, and Kc is equal and parallel to Ap. Therefore
Kc» : BP = Ap» : Af *,— AP? : AF% = KC» : BL% = AK : AB.
Therefore the pcdnti A, c, 1, are in a parabola, of which AB
ss a diameter, Af a tangent, and Kc, Bl, are ordinate. Alfo^
becaufe LI : Cc, = Ff : Cc, = AF : AP, = T, AF : T, AP, (by
die fymbol T, AF, &4r. isisx^dTed the time df moving along

AF,

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On the MOTION of LIGHT. lor

AF, ts^r.) it is evident that Cc is equal and oppofite to the mo-
tion of the point A, while the light defcribes the parabolic arch
AC, and that LI is equal and oppofite to the motion of A, while
the light defcribes the arch ACL. Therefore L and 1, C and c,
are contemporaneous places of the real and relative paths of
the light, and thie parabola Acl is its relative path.

Wfi have feeh that Af is the relative motion of the incident
light during the time of defcribing AB by the impulfe of the
refradling forces a6ling on a particle of light at reft in A. Let
us now fuppofe that the medium is at reft, and that the light
enters the refradling ftratum at A , vnth the velocity and in the
diredlion Af. It muft defcribe a parabola, which Af touches in
A, and of which AB is a diameter and BI an ordinate j that is,
it muft defcribe the very parabola Acl, and it muft defcribe it
in the fame time that the light incident vnth the velocity, and
in the dlreAion AF, defcribes the parabola ACL. Its motion,
therefore, both before and after refra^flion, is the fame with the
relative motion of the light having the velocity and diredlion
AF, incident on the medium moving with the velocity and in
die diredlion AI.

Let c be the point of interfeftion of the parabola Acl and
the plane BS. Draw cC parallel to Ai, cutting the parabola
ACL in C. C muft be the point of that parabola, where the
refraflion by the moving medium is completed. For LI : Cc
= Af : Ap, = AF : AP, = T, AL : T, AC, = T, Al : T, cC.
Therefore, while the light moves from A to c, the point c movea
from^ic to C, where the light will pafs through it, and the re-
fraction be completed, the plane BS having now gotten into the
fituation bs, and the plane AQ^into the fituation aq.

Draw the ordinates AfiE, Ade, to the diameters PC, pc,
and draw mr, the diredrix of the parabola Acl; and join Dd.
It is knov^n that AF is to AE as the velocity in A to the velo-
city in C Now, AE : AD = AF : AP, = Af : Ap, = Ae : Ad,
Therefore^ Dd is parallel to Cc. Therefore the velocity Ae^

compounded

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102 On the MO TIO N of LIGHT.

Krorapounded of AE and Ee, which is equal and oppofite to AI,
is the relative velocity of the light in C, and Af, Ae, are the re*
lative velocities of the incident and refradled light. Now, Kc^
= AK X 4 Am and Ad' = cd X 4cr, = AK X 4cr. There-
fore, Ad^— Kc' = AK X 4x:r— 4Am, z= AK X 4AB. Now,
Ad^ : Ae^ = Ap' : Af % = Kc^ : Bl% = AK : AB. Therefore,
Ae^ — Af ^ = AB X 4AB, = A0^ That is, when the light
has pafled through, and emerges from the refradling ftratum,
the difference between the fquares of the initial and final rela-
tive velocities i« equal to the fquare of the fpecific velocity of
the medium.

Also, (becaufe Qe^ — QJ*^ = Ae* — Af*) the difference
between the fquares of the initial and final relative perpendicu-
lar velocities, is equal to the fquare of the fpecific velocity.

But it will not always happen that the light will emerge
from the refrading ftratum after paffing over it, and it may fre-
quently happen that it will not pafs over the whole extent of it.

Thus, fuppofe the light to be within the medium, moving
towards the refradling ftratum, while the medivun is moving
more flowly towards the fame quarter, or moving towards the
oppofite quarter ; and let the relative perpendicular velocity of.
the light be equal to the fpecific velocity. Suppofe that the
light pafles through the refrading ftratum at A (fig. 3.) mo-
ving in the diredlion and with the velocity AF. It would de-
scribe (by the a<5lion of the refra<Sling forces) the parabola ALC,
of which AB', equal to AB, is the abfciffa from a diameter, and
BX, equal and parallel to AF, is an ordinate. Draw In paral*
lei to AQj^ cutting FL in n. It is plain that d n is the perpen-
dicular velocity of the medium, dF the perpendicular velocity
of the incident light, and nF its relative perpendicular velo-
city. This is equal to twice AB by fuppofition. But FL is
equal to AB ; therefore Ln is alfo equal to AB, and An is an
ctf-dinate to FL. Alfo, LB, drawn from L to B, is a tangent at
L, and bLs is the fituation of the plane BS, when the light

which

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On the MOT 10 K of LIGHT. 103

which entered the refracSling ftratum at A is at L. BL is the
Telocity with which the light pafles through I>, and Bb iff its per-
pendicular velocity. This is evidently equal to dn, the perpen-
dicular velocity of the medium* Since, therefore, they have
the fame velocity in the diredion LF, it is plain, that the light
will not pafe through the plane bL ; and becaufe it is fubjedled
to the a^ftion of the refrading forces, it will be deflected towards
A(^ and will defcribe another arch LC of the parabola, and
will be met in C by the point c of the plane AQj^ which has
moved in the mean time through cC parallel to IL* The point
1 is the vertex, of the relative path Ale, and the abfcifTa Ig being
equal to BA, it is evident that f g, the relative perpendicular
velocity, is equal to twice BA, that is, to the fpecific velocity.

If, as in fig. 4. the relative perpendicular velocity of the
light be lefs than the fpecific velocity, it will not pafs through
the whole refradling ftratum : For draw I n parallel to AQt^
cutting FL in n. It is plain than dn is the perpendicular ve-
locity of the medium, and dF the perpendicular velocity of
the light, and nF the relative perpendicular velocity. Becaufe
diis i« fiippofed lefs than twice AB, Ln is lefs than FL, and An
is not an ordinate to FL. Let oVh, parallel to An, touch the
parabola in V, and draw h k perpendicular to AB. Then oK, or
n d, is the perpendicular velocity of the light. Therefore, fince the
perpendicular velocities of the light in V, and of the medium, are
equal, the light is then the neareft poflible to the plane BS^
which has now obtained the fitoation- bs^ It is therefore in
the vertex of the relative parabola, or, drawing Vv parallel to
F f, V will be the vertex of the relative path Avl ; therefore
the light, after paifing through V and L, will defcribe another
arch LC of its parabolic path, and it wilLbe met in C by the
point c of the plane AQ^ which has in the mean time moved
along cC. Fig. 5. exhibits the fame particulars in the cafe
when the light within the medium is moving yromthe refra<5t-
ihg ftratum, but i» overtaken by it.

Thus

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104 On the MOriON of LIGHT.

Thus we fee that when the light within the refradling medi*
xim either meets or overtakes the refiradling ilratum, or is.over^
taken by it, and the relative perpendicular velocity is not
greater than the fpecific velocity, the light does not emerge
from the medium, but is reflefled back into it.

It is farther to be obferved, that in thefe cafes, the ai^le of
relative refledion is equal to the angle of relative incidence,
and the relative velocity of the light after refledlion is the fame
as before reflet^ion. For the tangents At, tc, (fig. 3.4. 5.) are
equally inclined to the axis of the parabola Alc^ and equal
portions of them will be intercepted by the diameters AB, FL^
and thefe portions exprefs the . relative velocities of the light in
A and c. Alfo, the relative perpendicular velocity of the re*
fledled light is equal to the relative perpendicular velocity of the
incident light, but in the oppofite dire6lion.

Let us fuppofe, that the refradiing ilratum is divided into
feveral partial ftrata, by planes parallel to AQ^and BS, and that
the forces are different in each ftratum, but uniform through
its whole extentl .

The relative motion of the light, emerging from the pofterior
iurface of the firfl partial ftratum, is the relative motion of the
light immerging into the fecond ftratum. Therefore^' by the
preceding reafoning, the relative motion of the light emerging
from the pofterior furface of the fecond ftratum, is the fame as
if ' the medium had been at reft^ and the light had approached
it with the fame relative initial modon.^^ The fame muft be
afHrmed of all die partial. ftraJta in fucceflion, and -is therefore
true with refpedl to the final motion of the refiradled light.

Further, the whole change which is made on the fquare
of the relative velocity of the incident light, in thofe cafes
where it paffes through and emerges from the- refracfling ftra^
tum, is equal to the fquare of the velocity which k particle of
light would acquire if impelled by the variably refra6Ung
forces from a ftate of reft through the whole refraAing ftratum*

For

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On the MOTION of LIGHT. 105

For if the medium were at reft, and the light approached it
with the fame relative motion^ we have feen that the abfolute
velocity with which the light enters any one of the partis
ftrata, is the fame with the relative velocity with which it en-
ters it when the medium is in motion. Now, when the medi-
um is at reft, the change made in the fquare of the abfolute
velocity (whatever this velocity be) is equal to the fquare of
the fpecific velocity of that ftratum. Therefore, if the velocity
with which the light enters this ftratum be that which it would
have acquired if impelled by the refradling forces from a ftate
of reft at A, in the anterior furface of the firft ftratum, the
change made on the fquare of this velocity would have been
ftill the fame, and the whole velocity would be that acquired
by the varied impulfe from a ftate of reft in A. This is true
with refpeA to the laft ftratum ; and therefore if the light enter
the refradling ftratum of the quiefcent medium with any velo- .
city, and in any dire^on whatever^ the change made in the
fquare of its velocity, when it has pafled through all the partial
ftrata, and emerged from the laft of them, is equal to the fum
of the fquares of their refpedlive fpecific velocities, and this
frim is equal to the fquare of what may be called the fpecific
velocity of the whole refradting ftratum. Now, the abfolute
velocity with which the light emerges from the refradling ftra-
tum of the quiefcent medium is the fame with the relative ve-
locity with which it emerges from the refradting ftratum of the
medium in motion. Hierefore, the change made on the fquare
of the relative velocity of the incident light is equal to the
Iquare of the fpecific veldcity of the medium.

We need not employ any time to (how that this is alfo true
with refpedl to the relative perpendicular velocity. Nor will it
be neceilary to ftiow that when the light, moving within the
medium, meets with or overtakes the refradling ftratum, or is
overtaken by it, and the relative perpendicular velocity of the

Vol. IL o incident

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:c^ Om iht MOriOS / LIGHT.

\rjrsrjszx Ilglr u x^jc f^txa tlan Uuc fpccEac vcjodrj rf she mc-
C.:;:^::^ h will Dcc oncrge £ncxn tbe Rfr^ding ftntnm, bfct will
be ftfjtcitd back again in the Trif<r-:Tn ; c^sr id ihaw that the
2£^> of refirctioD is equal to the an^ cf irKiiimcr, and that
the rtladre Tekotj of the receded Hght is equal to that of the
lud^KJi llgbt^ aijd that the relatire perpendicular ^dodtj of
tLe re£e^^ light is equal to that of the incident light, but in
the oj^>£re dlrtSiion.

Lisjlfjf Ltr the number of the partial (bata be augmented,
uA their thicknefs diminilhed, ^rithout end. The foregoing
dtnv>fiflration will now be applicable to die mocioa of light
through rtfrading fobllances which are in motion, and which
a^ on it with forces, contiMuaUj Tarying aoooiding to any law of
the diftances ; and it may be receiTed as the fundamental pro*
portion on this fubjed, that.

If a ray of light ^ moving in any dtreBum and witb any vcbcity,

nuet wUb the furface rf a refroBing mtdmm^ vMcb is in motion^ its

final relative motion will be the fame as if the nuSaan bad been at

reft^ and the light bad approached it vsitb the fame initial' relative

motion.

It is eafy to fee that what has been faid about the motion of
Itght within a medium which a£U upon it with attractive
forces, will apply to the motion of light which is without a
medium that adU upon it with repelling forces. In fuch a cafe,
the light will not be refraded into the medium, unlefs its per*
pendicular relative velocity be greater than the fpecific velocity
of the medium, but will be reflected with an equal relative ve*
locity, and at an equal relative angle on the other fide of the
perpendiculan

It is alfo eafy to fee that the foregoing demonflration
Will apply to the motion of light through two contiguous
mediums. For there will be a refirading ftratum, where the
light will be affedled by the fum or the difierence of the

refrading

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On the MOtlON cf LIGHT. 167

ttftz&xag forces, according as they ad in die fiu&e or oppofite
directions *.

* It was about the bcgianing of 1784 that I inveftigated the foregoing demonftration,
which, as die reader will (ee^ is conduded after the method adopted by Sir Isaac Niw-
TOw, in his demonftratioD of the 94th propofition of the firft book of the Principia. I
applied to my much efteemed ooUeagae Mr Profeflbr PLATFAza, for his affiftance in a
cafe to wMch the foregoing demooftration may perhaps be thought not to extend, namely,
when the fliKion of the light, and that of the medium, are perpendicular to the refrading
furface. Before I had obtained a demonftration which pleaied me, he favoured me with
die fiollowing elegant analytical demonftration*

Lbt V be the velocity of a pardde of light when it has arrived at the diftance x with-
in the refrading meAum (» being counted from the point in which the particle began to
be aded on, and being le(s than the diflanoe iirom that p<nnt at which the motion of the
particle again becomes uniform.) Let / be the force acting on the pardcle at the di-
fbmce «• Let « be the velocity of the incident light, and c the velocity of the me^
dium in the oppofite diredion.

It is evident that the force / does not ad on the particle during its paflage through

the whole (pace x, but only daring its paflage through the part ■ x. Therefere«

•*=ii» + jfZlL, and at,i =si!L£i, or ai = j£L. TTuit is, atr i + irir*

2: a/i, and, taking die fluent, v* +ar«> = ^ffxArC^. But when ^fx so, we
have ^* +2r V S ii» +2JC, and therefore fr» + %cv S «* '^Tsc+iffx. Let
the fluent of 7fx (afliimed, fb that x Audi be the difiance at which the velocity of die
£|^t again becomes uniform) be fiippoied 1:^ g^. Then v* «f- icv = « * -f» 2jc-{-/*«
Add c* to both fides of the equadon. Then v* ^2vc^ c* = a^ ^2ae+c^ +g^ i

and therefore v^c tt a^c +/*. But # + c is the relative velocity of the
inddent light, and v + c is the reladve velocity of the refraded or accelerated light*
Therefore thefquareof the latter exceeds the fquare of die fbtaer by the conftant quan-
tity g^. Now, g^ = 2/fx \ and is dierefbre (by the celebrated yg/dx propofidon of the
firft book of the Principia) the (quare of the velocity which a particle of light would
acquire if impelled from a fiate of reft through the whole diftaoce at which die medium
aSa on light*

0 a SiRca

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io8 On the MOtlOK of LIGHf.

I NOW proceed to deduce fome of the moft ufeful eorollaries^
from the general proportion.

Corollary i. The relative velocities of the incident and re-
framed light are direftly as the co-fecants, or inverlely as the
fines of the relative angles of incidence and refradtion. For it
was demonllrated, that Af and Ae (fig. 2.) are in the proportion
of the velocities of the light in the points A and c of its relative
path. Now, if ef cuts the plane AQ^ia the point Qj^and AQ^
be confidered as the radius, Af and Ae are the co-fecants of the
angles BA f and BAe, which are the relative angles of incidence
and refradtion. Alfo, Af is to A e as the fine of the angle AeQ^
to the fine of the angle AfQ» that is, as the fine of the angle
BAe to the fine of the angle BAf, that is, as the fine of the
relative angle of refradion to the fine of the relative angle of
• incidence.

Cor. 2. If the relative velocity of the incident light be the
fame in all' the retative angles of incidence, the relative velocities
of the refraded light will alfo be equal in all the relative angles
of refradlion. For the fum or the difference of the fquare oF
the relative'velocity of the incident tight, (which is a conftant
quantity) and the fquare of the conflant fpecific velocity, con-
ttitute a furface which is alfo. conftant, and which is^ equal to*

the:

SiNcc the relative velocities, eftimated in a diredion parallel to the refradiog-
furface, are not changed by the adion of the refracting forces, it evidently fok
lows from this demon ftration that the difference between the (quaree of the illative v^
locities of the incident and refracted light, is equal to the fquare of the fpecific velocity,
of the medium, whatever maybe the direAions of the inciden^and refraded light, and
therefore, that the final relative motion of the refrafled light u the fame as if the medium
had been at reil, and the light had approached it with the fame relative motion. But;
although this demonftratioB would have been muoh more elegant, and more agreeable to
the manner in which I have been accuflomed to explain, the refraAion of light, T chofe
to retain the demonflration which I have given in the text, becaufe I think that it gives me
a better opportunity of exhibiting to the mind the whole motion of the light during its re«
Iradion or fefledion. At the fame time, I thought it my duty to communicatej witK,
Mr PLATrAia's pcrmiffion, his demonfiration to the pubUc

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0)i the MOTION of LIGHT. 109

the fquare of the relative velocity of the refradled light. This
is therefore a conftant quantity, or the relative velocity of the
refradled light is the fame in all the relative angles of re-
fraction.

Cor. 3. If the relative velocities of the incident light be the
feme in all angles of incidence, the fines of relative incidence
and refradion are in a conftant ratio, namely, the inverfe ratia
of the relative velocities of the incident and refraifled light.
This appears by combining the laft corollary with the firft.

Cor. 4. When light moving with the fame velocity in all di-
redions, is refraded by a medium at reft, the fines of incidence
and refraxflion are in the conftant ratio of the velocities of the
refrafted and incident light. This appears from the laft co-
rollary.

Cor. 5. If the Kght moving in a medium A be refracted by
a medium B, which is in motion, and emerge from it into the
medium A, it will regain the relative velocity which it formerly
had when in this medium. For the fquare of its relative velo*
city while in the medium B, diffbrs from the iquare of each of
its relative velocities in the medium A by the fame quantity,
VIZ. by the fquare of the fpecific velocity of the medium B.
k is evident that the fiime thing will happen when the light
pa(!es through feveral contiguous mediums in motion befbre it
emerges again into the medhim A.

Cor. 6. If the relative paths of the light before its entering
into the medium B, and after its emergence from it, be equally
inclined to the direction of the medium, the abfoltite velocities
of the incident and emergent light will be equal, but in' no
other cafe. This is eafily feen by refolving the relative motions
of the incident and emergent light. Hence we learn, that if the
plane fur&ce of a planp-convex lenfe be turned towards a fixed
ftar to wliich the earth is approaching, or from which it is re*
ceding, the abfolute velocity of the lateral emergent rays will
be increaied or diminiflied*

Cor,

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no On the MOTION of LIGHT.

Cor. 7. When the light is refleded, the relative angles of in- '
cidence and refledtion are equal| as alfo the relative velocities of
the incident and reile(5led light.

Cor. 8. But the abfolute angles of incidence and refieiElion,
and alfo the abfolute velocities of the incident and refledled
light, are unequal, except in the caie where the motion of the
refledling fubftance is in the dire<5tion of the refledUng plane.

If the plane be moving towards that fide from which the
light comes, the angle of refledion will be lefs than that of in-
cidence, and the perpendicular velocity of the refledled light
will exceed that of the incident light by twice the perpendicular
velocity of the refleding plane. The contrary will happen if
the plane be moving towards the oppofite fide.

The application of the foregoing propofition to Mr Bosco-
vich's experiment is extremely fimple. When the teleicope is
fo direded that the image of the objedt is formed upon the
interfedtion of the crofs wires in the eye^piece, the relative mo*
tion of. the light is performed along the axis of the telefcope >
or the axis of the telefcope is in the diredtion of the relative
motion of the light, and indicates the apparent pofition of the
objedl;. Now, when the water telefcope has the pofition AB,
(fig. I.) the relative motion of the light in the telefcope is the
fame as if the telefcope had been at rel^, and the light had ap-
proached it with the fame relative motion. Now^ the motioa
DA is evidently the relative motion of the incident light. For
it is compofed of OA, the real motion of the light, and DO,
the oppofite to the real motion of the telefiiope. Now, if the
telefcope had been at reft, and the light had entered it in the
diredlion and with the velocity DA, it would have proceeded
in the diredlion AB, and therefore tbe tekicope muft always be
direded to the real contemporaneous place of the terreftrial
objedl, and there will be none of diat diurnal deviation which
Mr BoscovicH aflerts.

Thus

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1.^

;

\ Fro. 4.

6
A

--/■

1
V

* : r

«4--4;--'-4V---

, *

// V'' i : '» / ^^ ' \

l/f A ' ''''\ \! \""*

n' '7 '-^

V i ■-'''' •'■> \

\ ^

/ ■ ' ' \

. B

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On the MOTION of LIGHT. ixi

Thus it appears that die water telefcope muft have the fame
poiition with the common telefcope, or that both of them mud
always be diredled to the real place of the terreflrial objeifl.

It will alfo eafily appear, that when the image of a fixed ftar
is formed upon the interiedlion of the crofs wires in the eye*
pieces of a common telefcope, and a telefcope filled with water,
the two telefcopes will have the fame pofition, and will indicate
the iame aberration of the fixed ftars. For, by the fame rea«
foning, it appears that the water telefcope at A mull have the
pofition AB, and the aberration OAD is the fame with that ob-
ferved with a common telefcope*

With this application of the general propofition I fhall con-
clude this paper, reierving a farther account of the fubjedt for
another opportunity, if die Society fhall think it worthy of
their attention*

XIL

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^IL D:emonstrations of fome of Dr Matthew Stew-
ARTs General Theorems. By Robert
^MALL, D.D. F. R. S. Edin.

iReadiy the Author^ Feb. J. 1785.]

TH A Y excellent Geometer the late Dr Matthew Stew-
ART, as long ago as the year 17461 publiihed his book
of General Theorems, all of them, except the firfl five, without
the demonftrations. As I do not find that any demonftration
of thein has ever be£n made public, I may perhaps flatter my-
felf that what I now communicate to this Society will not be
wholly unacceptable. The demonftrations given are of the
proportions relating to the fums of the fquares, and of the
fourth powers of lines drawn in a certain manner, and are
feledled from the reft, as moft connedled with one another. The
theorems that refpedl the cubes and other higher powers, may
aflPord materials for another paper, (hould this meet with the
approbation of the Society.

A FEW lemmas and corollaries have been introduced that are
not among Dr Stewart's Theorems, and which are therefore di-
ftinguifhed by afteriiks. The references are to the edition of
thofe Theorems publifhed at Edinburgh, 1746, and the propofi-
dons are numbered as in that edition, beginning with the fixth
Theorem.

THE-

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DEMONSTRATIONS of, &c. 113

THEOREM VI. Fig. I.

Let there be any number, m, of given points A, B^ C, &c. a point X
may be founds fucb, that if from A, B, C, &c. there be drawn
ftrmgbt tines to any point D, and to the point X found, and if DX
be joined,

AD*+BD*+CD* &c. = AX*+BX*+CX* &c. +wDX*-
Lbt i» be = 3.

Suppose the point X found, join DX, from the given pointa
A, B, C draw AE^ BF^ CG perpendicular to DX, and join AX,
BX, ex.

Since AD*+BD*+CD* = AX*+BX»+CX*rf3DX% and
AD» = AX*+DX»— 2DX. XE, and
BD* = BX»+DX*+ 2DX. XF, and
CD* = CX»+DX*+ aDX. XG, the point X in the line
DX mud be fo taken, that the part EX, intercepted between it
and AE the perpendicular from the point A, be equal to FX
and GX, the fum of the parts intercepted between it and the
perpendiculars BF and CG, from B and C ; and the parts FX,
GX muft be in the oppofite diredtion to EX.

This will be effedled by the following conftruflion :
Join AB, and bifeift it in H ; and join HC, and divide it in
X, fb that CX = 2HX ; X will be the point required.
From H draw to DX the perpendicular HK.
Since AH = BH, we fhall have EK = FK ; and fince
CX = 2HX, we fhall alio have GX = 2KX- Therefore fince
FX = FK— KX, and
GX = aRX

FX+GX = FK+KX = EKL+KX = EX, and

— 2DX. XE+2DX. XF+2DX. XG = o.

The point X thus found is the centre of gravity of the three

poinfeB A, B, C. This propc^tion, and that which follows, are

well known, and are given here only for the fake of order.

Vol. IL p Dr

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^14 DEMONSTRATIONS ff

Dr SiMSON, in his Reftorarion of the Loci Plani^ has deduced
them from a propofition of that book. Tid. Loc. Plan. lit. 2.
frop. 5. cor. I. & 3. The fecond and fourth of Dr Stewart's
Theorems are particular cafes of this proportion, and are es^y
derived from it.

THEOREM VII. Fio. II.

Let there be any number^ m, of given poinlt A, B^ G, &c. and let
a, by r, &c- be given magnitudes , as many in number as there are
given points^ a point X may be founds fuch^ that if from A, B, C, &c.
there be drawn Jlraight lines to any point D, and alfo to X the point
founds and if DX bejoined^
^. AE*+*.BD^+^.CD» &G. = tf.AX»+*.BX*+r,CX*+(tf+H-r)DX».

Let i» be = 3. Suppofe the point X found. Join DX^
from the given points A, B^ C draw AE, BF, CG perpendicular
to DX, and join AX, BX, CX.

SiNCBtf.AD»+*.BD*+r.CD»=tf.AX»+*.BX»+^.CX*+(fl+M-0
DX*5 and

tf. AD* = tf.AX*+ii.DX*— 2II.DX. XE, and
^.BD* = A.BX*+*.DX*+2*.DX. XF, and
r.CD* = r.CX*+^.DX*+2r.DX.XGi or
^i.AD*+^.BD*+r-CD» = tf.AX»+*.BX»+r.eX*+(^i+H-r)DX*+
2DX (— a.XE+A.XF+r.XG) ; a.XE mull be equal, and in the
oppofite diredlion to ^.XF+r.XG.

This will be efieded by the following conftrudion :
Join AB, and divide it in H, fo that ^.BH = a.AlU j that is,
make AH : BH = A : j, and join HC, aiid divide it in X, fb
that HX: CX =; r : a+b', or Ctf-K)HX = ^.CX. Then X wiU
be the point required.

From H draw to DX, the perpendicular HR.

Since

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Dr STEWARt's THEOREMS. 115

SiKCE fl.AH = 3.BH, we fhall have d.EK = ^.FK ; and
fince (a+^)HX = r.CX, we (hall alfo have (tf+*)KX = r.GX-
Therefore fince

*.XF = *.FK— *. KX, and

r.XG = {a+b) KX, we (hall have

^.XF+r.XG = *.FK+a.KX = tf-EK+^.KX = tf.XE, and

aDX (— ii-XE+^.XF-K.XG) = o ; therefore
tf.AD*+^.BI>+^.CD» = ii.AX*+3.BX*-K.GX*+(fl+*+0DX% or

AD^+^BD^+^^CD* = AX*+4^X*+"rC^*+(^~)^^'-

The point X is the centre of gravity of weights, proportional to
the magnitudes a^ b^ Cy &c. placed at the given points A, B, C^
&c.

Cor. I. Let any number, m, of circles be given by pofition>
(fig. j.) and about every circle let an equilateral figure be de-
fcribed, a point X may be found, fuch, diat if from any point
C there be drawn perpendiculars to. the fides of the figures, and!
a ftraight line to the point found, twice the fum of the fq\iares-
of the perpendiculars will be equal to the multiple of the fquare-
of the line drawn to the point found, by the number of the
fides of the figures, together with a given fpace.

Let i» be = 2 ; let tf be the number of the fides of the figure de-
fcribed about the circle whofe centre is A, b the number of the
fides of the figure defcribed about the circle whofe centre is B,
CD, CE, CF, the perpendiculars to the fides of the firft figure,
and GG» CH, CK^ GL, the perpendiculars to the fides of the
fecond.

Join the centres A, B, and divide AB in X, fo that AX : BX
zzbia^ X will be the point required.

2(CD»+CE*+CF*) = 2a.AM»+tf. AC^ (theor. 3.). In like manner,
2(CG*+CH*+CK*+GL*) = 2^.BN^+*.BC^ Therefore,
2(CD»+GE*+CF*-f GG»+CH^+CK'+CL*) = 2a.AM*+2^.BN*
+fl.AC^+^.BO. But,

f 2. a.AO

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ii5 DEMONSTRATIONS of

a.AO^b.^Q- = {a+6) AX,BX+ (a+b) CX» (prop, i.), and
2^. AM*+23.BN»-|- {a+b) AX.BX are given fpaces. Therefore
2(CD*+CE*+CF*+CGH-CH*+CK*+CL») = {a+b) CX*+A%
A* being a given fjpace.

Cor. 2. Let any number of feinicircles be given by pofition,
and let an equilateral figure be defcribed about every femicircle,
a point may be found, fuch, that if from any point there be
drawn perpendiculars to all the fides of the figures, and a fbraight
line to the point foundy^ twice the fum of the fquares of the
perpendiculars will be equal to the multiple of the fquare of the
line drawn to the point found, by the number of all the fides,
together with a given fpace.

Cor. 3. Let any number of circles and femicircles be given
by pofition, and about every circle and femicircle let an equila-
teral figure be defcribed, a point may be found, fuch, that if
from any point there be drawn perpendiculars to all the fides of
the figures, and a ftraight line to the point found, twice the fum
of the fquare6 of the perpendiculars will be equal to the multi*
pie of the line drawn to the point found, by the number of the
fides, together with a given fpace.

THEOREM VIII. Fig. IV. .

Let there be any number^ iw, of given points A, B, C, &c. two
points X, Y, may be founds f^cb^ fbat if from any point D ftraight
lines be drawn to A, B, C, &c. and to X, Y,

2(DA»+DB*+DG*) = w(DX*+DY*).

This propofition follows direAly from theor. 6. Let m = 3> and

let E be the centre of gravity of the three points A, B, C. The

fquares of EA, EB, EC, are given, and confequently a fquare =

i(EA*+EB^+EO) may be found, On E with the diftance EX

equal

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Dr STEWARr*s THEOREMS. 117

equal to the fide of this iquare, defcribe a circle. The extremi-
ties X, Y, of any diameter, will be two fuch points as are rc-
qmred. For

DA»+DB*+DC» = EA»+EB«+EC»+3.II)% (Theor. 6.).

But EAH-EB»+EC» = 3.EX% therefore

2(DA»-f-DB»+DO) = 6(EX*+ED») ^ 3(DX»+DY*)

(Prop. I.).

THEOREM IX. Fio. IV.

Ijet there be any number, m, of given pmnts A, B, G, &c. and let
a, b, c, &c. be given magnitudes, as many in number as there are
given points f two points X, Y, may be fiund, fuch, that if from any
point D there be drawn fireught lines to A, B, C, &c. and to X, Y,

DA«+-~DB«+-j-DC«&c. = (^~^)(DX»+DY').
This propofition follows, in the fame manner, from theor. 7.
Let m be =: 3. Let E be a point fuch that DA»+ — DB« +

-fDC« = EA»+-f^* + -rEC*+f^)ED». On E as a

centre, with the diftance EX = •^^^^A*+-~EB» + -^ ED)

de£cribe a circle. The extremities X, Y, of any diameter, will
be two filch points as are required. For

DA*+4^^*+T^^ = EA*+7EB*+-7EO+ ('■^)eD*,

and EA»+4eB«+~EC» = (^')eX«. Therefore,

a(DA«

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li8 DEMaNSTRATIONS cf

a(DA'+-f^B'+-^DCO=:a(^)(ED»+EX«) =
(fii±f)(DX'+DY»), (Prop. I.). Or,

THEOREM X. Fio. V.

Let there he any number ^nitof par oMelJiraight iinesAB,CDf EF^&c.

given by pofition^ a Jtraigbt tine XY may be found parallel to them,

fucby that If from any point G, perpendiculars GA, GC, GE, &c.

he drawn to AB, CD, £F, &c. and the line GX perpendicular ta

XY,

GA'+GC*+GE» &c =: «iGX»4-A% A« being a given ^ace.

This propofition is one of the fitnpleft cafes of theor. 6. A
line XY parallel to A6, drawn diroiigh X, the centre of gravity
of the points A, C, £, where a perpendicular from G meets
the parallels AB, CD, EF, will be the line required. For,

GA*+GC*4-GE« = XA'+XC'+XE»+30X* (Theor. 6.), and
XA*-(-XC»+XE» is a given fpace.

THEOREM XL Fio. VI;

Let there be any number, iw, offlraigbt Unes AB, AC, AD, &Ci
interfeaing in a point h, Jo at to make all the angles round it equal i
and from any point £, let perpendiculars EB, EC, ED, &<:. be drawn
to AB, AC, AD, &c. an^idhJL be joined,

2(EB'+EC*+ED« &c.) = «.EA'.

This

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Dr SfEWARt's THEOREMS. 119

This propofition follows dire^llyfrom the firft cafe of theor. 2.
Let wi be = 3. The points B, C, D, arc in a circle of which
£A is the diameter, and therefore (lemma 2.). the arches BQ CD,
DB, are equal. Therefore,

^(EB^+EC*+EDO = 4-3-R' = 3-EA' f.

Cor. 1. If AB, AC, AD, interfe<5l one another in a given point
^, and make all the angles round it equal ; and if from any
point E there be drawn perpendiculars to AB, AC, AD ; and if
tJic fum of the fquares of the perpendiculars be equal to a
^iven fpace, the point E will be in the circumference of a given
circle.

The double of the given fpace is m.AE*, therefore AE is
given in magnitude, and fince the point A is given, the point
E is in the circumference of a given circle.

* Cor. 2. If the circumference of a circle FGH, of which
the radius is R, be divided into m number of equal parts, by
the femidiameters AF, AG, AH, &c. making with any diameter
EN the angles FAE, CAN, HAE, &c. twice the fum of the
fquares of the fines, or coiines of thefe angles will be = mK^.

Let wi be = 3.

FK = EB ; GL = EC ; HM = ED. Therefore 2(FK* -f
GL»+HM^) = 3EA* = 3R*. In the fame manner, AK = AB;
AL = AC ; AM = AD. Therefore 2(AK^+AL»+AM0 =
3.EA* = 3R^

* LEMlViA III. FiG.VIL

Ltt there be a figure ABCD given in tpeeies inferthed in a circle^
ibefiraigbt line EH drawn from £, the centre of the circle^ to H,

the

t R is the radius of the circle ABC.

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120 DEMONSTRATIONS 6f

the centre of gravity of the figure^ will have a given ratio to the
femidiameter^ and will make given angles with the femidiameterr^
drawn to the angular points of the fgure.

The centre of gravity of the figure ABGD is found by bi-
fedling AB in F, by joining FC and dividing it in G, fo that
CG = 2GF, and by joining GD and dividing it in H, fo that
DH = 3HG. Hence^ and by joining BD and CA, the lemma
will be manifelL

For the triangle BFE is right-angled in F, and the angle BEF =r
ADB, is given. Therefore the ratio of BE^ or CE, to EF is
given.

Again, in the triangle CEF, the angle CEF = BEC+BEF =
2BDC-f ADB = a given angle \ and fince the ratio of CE to EF,^
and of CG to GF are given, the line EG will divide the triangle
GFE into two triangles given in fpecies. Therefore the angle
CEG, and the ratio of CE, or DE, to EG, are given.

Lastly, in the triangle DEG, the angle DEG1=; 2DAGf CEG^
is given; and fince the ratio of DE to EG, and of DH to HG^
are given, the line EH will divide the triangle DEG into twa
triangles given in fpecies. Therefore the angle DEH, and the
ratio of DE to EH Mrill be alfo given.

THEOREM Xn. Fm. VIII.

Let there he any number^ w, ofjlraigbt lines AB, AC,. AD, AE, &c.
given by pojition^ inlerfeSing one another in the point A, two Jlraighi
lines AX, AY, may he founds which will he given hy pofition^ fichy
that if from any point F there be drawn the perpendiculars FB, FQ
FD, FE, &c. to AB, AC, AD, AE, &c. and FX, FY, perptn&a^
lar to AX, AY,

2(FB*+FC^4-FD»+FE^ &c) = w(FX*+FY*).

Let

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Dr STEWART'S THEOREMS. 121

Let m be = 4. Let G be the centre of the circle which
pafTes through A, B, C, D, E, F, and H the centre of gravity
of the figure BCDE. Join GH, and through H draw XHY
perpendicular to GH, meeting the circumference in X, Y, and
joinGB, GC, GD, GE; HB, HC, HD, HE, HF; AX, AY,
FX, FY. Then, by Theor. 6. GB^+GC^+GD^+GE* =
4GB* = HB»-(-HO+HD*+HE^+4HG\
But 4GB» = 4GX* = 4(GH^+XH^). Therefore alfo,
HB*+HC*+HD*+HE»+4HG* = 4(HG*+HX0; or,
HB^+HO+HD +HE* = 4HX^ Again, by Theor. 6.
FB*+FO+FD^+FE» = HB^+HC*-(-HD*+HE^+4FHs and
therefore,

FB*+FO+FD*+FE* = 4(FH^+HX0. That is,
2(FB»+FC*+FD^+FE») z= 8(FH*+HX^) = 4(FX^+FY0,
(Prop. I.).

But becaufe the lines AB, AC, AD, AE, are given by pofi-
tion, the angles BAG, CAD, DAE, BAE, are given j therefore
the angles BGC, CGD, DGE, BGE, which are the doubles, of
them, are alfo given, and the ifofceles triangles BGC, CGD,
DGE, BGE, are given in fpecies. Confequently, the ratio of
the femidiameter GB to each of the lines BC, CD, DE, BE, is
given, and therefore the ratios of BC, CD, DE, BE, to one ano-
ther, are given ; and the angles of the figure BCDE are alio
given, therefore, the figure itfelf is given in fpecies. Therefore
(Lemma 3.) the ratio of GX to GH is given ; and fince the
angle GHX is a right angle, the triangle GHX is given in fpe-
cies. Therefore the angles XGH, YGH, are given. But BGH
is given, (Lemma 3.) ; therefore BGX, BGY, and their halves
BAX, BAY, are alfo given ; and fince B A is given by pofition,
and the point A, the lines AX, AY, are alfo given by pofi-
tion.

Vol. II. Q > But

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122 DEMONSTRATIONS of

But FX, FY, are perpendicular to AX, AY, and it has been
£hcwn that 2(FB»+FC*-fFD»+FE0 = 4(FX»+FY-). There-
fore AX, AY, are the two lines required to be found.

The con(lru6lion is obvious, by afiuming a point F, which,
for the greater fimplicity, may be in one of the given lines, and
by defcribing the figure as above.

* Cor. If from any point parallels be drawn to AB, AC, AD,
AE, and to AX, AY, cutting the perpendiculars FB, FC, FD,
FE, and FX, FY, in ^, r, ^, e^ and in oc^ jf,

2(F**+Ft:*+F./*+FfO = 4(F^'+F/).

* LEMMA IV. Fig. IX.

Ltt AB, AC, be twojiraigbt lines given by pajftion^ interfeSHng "one
another in the point A, and from any point D let DB, DC, be drawn
perpendicular to AB, AC j let CB be joined , and bifeEted in E, and
from E let EF be drawn parallel^ and equal to a given Jhaigbt line ;
through F lei GFH be drawn to meet DB and DC, fo as to be
bifeSed in F, and through G and H let GK, HK, be drawn parallel
to AB, AC : the lines GK, HK, will be given by portion.

Through F draw LM parallel to BC, and through B and C
draw BL and CM parallel to EF ; join GL, HM ; from A draw
AN parallel and equal to EF ; join LN, MN j through N draw
OP parallel to GL ; and join AG, AP.

Because GF = FH, and LF = FM, GL will be equal
and parallel to HM ; and becaufe AN is equal and parallel to
BL and to CM, the figures AM and AL are parallelograms.
Therefore NL is parallel to GK, and NM to HK. Therefore
NG and NH are parallelograms, and OG = NL = AB ; hence AG
is perpendicular to GK; and, in the fame manner, AP is perpen-
dicular

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t)r STEWART'S THEOREMS. 123

dicular to HK. Therefore NO = LG = HM = NP. But
the angle OAP is given, being the fupplement of OK? ; and
fince the point N is given, and NO = NP, the points O and P
are given ; and therefore AO and AP. Therefore the lines GK,
HK, are given by pofition.

THEOREM XIII. Fig. X. No* i.

Let there be any numbery i», of Jlraigbt lines AB, BC, CD,
DA, &c. given by pofition^ neither all parallel nor interfering in
one pointy two fraight lines X Y, XZ, may be found, which will be
given by pofition y fuchy that if from any point E, there be drawn per^
pendiculars EF, EG, EH, EK, &c. to AB, BC, CD, DA, &c- and
EY, EZ, perpendicular to XY, XZ,

2(EF»+EG*+EH*+EK* &c-) = iw(EY»+EZO+A%

A* being a given Jpace.

Let /» = 4, and from C, one of the points of inter*
fedion, draw Cf Ci, parallel to the lines given by pofition that
do not interfedl in C. Let two ftraight lines CL, CM be found,
fuch, that 2(E/'+EG*+EH^+E8*)=4(EL*+£M*), (Theor. 12.).
Let N be the centre of gravity of the four points F, G, H, K,
(Theor. 6.)* Through N draw YNZ to meet EL, EM in Y, Z,
and fo as to be bifedled in N. Through Y and Z draw YX,
ZX perpendicular to EL, EM, interfedHng each other in X.
From X draw XP, XQt^ XR, XS, perpendicular, and X^ , X^,
Xcy Xdy parallel to AB, BC, CD, DA ; let Xa^ X*, Xr, X//, meet
EF, EG, EH, EK, in ^, b, r, d^ join XF, XG, XH, XK ; NF,
NG, NH, NK, NX ; and let Q be the centre of gravity of the
four points f G, H, i, where the parallels from C, to the lines
given by pofition, meet the perpendiculars from E.

q 2 By

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124 DEMONSTRATIONS of

By theor. 6. 2(XF»+XG»+XH»+XK») = 2(NF«+NG»+NH»
+NK»)+8NX% But 2(XF»+XG»+XH*+XK') =
2(XF+XQ^+XR'+XS*)+2(Xfl»+X*'+Xir»+X:/»). Therefore
2(NP+NG*+NH'+NK0+8NX* = 2(XP-|-XQy-XR»+XS')-k
2(X<j»+XA*+Xf»+X//*). But fince,

2(E/'H-EG*H-EH*+Ei60 = 4(EL»+EM'), and from the point
X parallels to Cf, CG, CH, G§, and to CL, CM, are drawn,
cutting the perpendiculars from E, to thefe lines, in a, b, c, </, and
in Y, Z, therefore, by Cor. Theor. 12.
2(Ea»+E^»+E<:»+E^*) = 4(EY»+EZ*), and confequently
2(Xa^+X3*+Xf^+X./») = 4(XY»+XZ*) = 8(NY*+NX0,
(Prop. I.). Therefore,

2(NF*-fNG*+NH»+NK0 = 2(XP+XQ^+XR»+XS»)+
8NY». But by Theor. 6.

2(EF»+EG-+EH»+EK') = 2(NP+NG»+NH»+NK»)+
8NE\ Therefore,

2(EF»H-EG»+EH»+EK«) = 2(XP»+XQ^+XR»+XS0+
8(NY»+NE») ; or,

2(EF»+EG'+EH»4-EK«) = 2(XP'+XQ^+XR'+XS»)H-
4(EY*+EZ0, (Prop. i.).

It remains to demonflrate that X is a given point, and that
XY, XZ, are lines given in pofition.

The point O may be found, by bifedling (Pig. X. No. 2.)
GH in^, joining gk, and dividing it in >w, fo that^m = ^gk,
and joining fm and dividing it in O, fo that mO = ^mf^ and
in the fame manner the point N may be found by joining ^K,
and making gn = T<g'K., and joining «F, and making »N = i«F j
let mn be joined, through O draw Op, and through N draw N^,
both parallel to EF, and meeting mn in/, qi let EF meetm/i in
r, join ON, and through O draw O/ parallel to muy, meeting
N^ in /.

Then becaufe gm =: ^gk^ and gn == -f^K, the line mn is
parallel and equal to ^Ki. Becaufe alfo Nff = \Yn, N; = ^Fr^

and

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Dr STEWART'S THEOREMS. 125

and for the fame reafon OP = i/r. Therefore pq — Os -
imn = \YJk. But the angle O/N is given, for it is equal to
iEF; and fince O/ is given, and Nj = Ny — /y, NO is alfo
given. But (Fig. 10. No. i.) fince the lines CL, CM, inter-
feeding in the point C, are given by pofition, and from the
point E there are dravrn to them the perpendiculars EL, EM,
and LM is joined, and bifedted in O, and from O there is
drav^n a ftraight line ON given both by pofition and magni-
tude, and YNZ is drawn through N to meet EL, EM in Y, Z,
and fo as to be bifeaed in N, and from Y and Z, YX, ZX are
drawn parallel to CL, CM ; therefore, by Lemma 4. YX, ZX
are given by pofition j and confequently the point X, of their
interfedion is given, and therefore alfo XP, XQj^ XR, XS.

But EY, EZ, are perpendicular to XY, XZ ; and it has been
proved that 2(EF»+EG»+EH^+EK0 = 4(EY^+EZ^) +
2(XP»+XQ^+XR'+XS^), and thefe four laft fquares are
given. Therefore XY, XZ, are the two lines required to be
found, and 2(EF^+EG^+EH^+EK^) = 4(EY»+EZ")+AS

The point X, found in this propofition, is the centre of gra-
vity of the four points P, (^R, S, v^here perpendiculars, drawn
from it, meet the four lines given by pofition. It is alfo a
point, fuch, that the fum of the fquares of the perpendiculars^
drav^n from it, to the lines given by pofition, is a minimum.

Cor. If the ftraight lines (Fig. 11.) AB, BC, CA, be fo ff-
mated as to form an equilateral figure about a circle, or a femi-
circle ; or if the number of the lines given by pofition be even,
and every tvro and two interfedl each other at right angles, the
two lines XY, XZ, that may be found, will interfedk each other
at right angles.

Let the lines AB, BC, CA, that are given by pofition, form
an equilateral triangle. Let X be the point in that triangle,.
which is the centre of gravity of the three points K, L, M,.

wher^:

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126 DEMONSTRATIONS of

where perpendiculars drawn from it, meet the lines gircn by
pofition ; and from X let parallels be drawn to thefe lines,
meeting the perpendiculars from any point E in yj ^, b.

Since thefe parallels X/*, X^, X^, interfei^ one another in
the point X, ib as to make all the angles round it equal, they
will divide the circumference of the circle whicli pafles through
X and £, into three equal arches fg, gb, bf (Lemma a.)«
Therefore N, the centre of the circle, is the centre of gravity
of the three points fy g^ by and the line YZ, paffing through N,
and meeting the circumference, will be a diameter of the cir-
cle, and therefore YXZ is a right angle.

THEOREM XIV. Fro. XII. t^c.

Let any number ^ tn^ greater tban 3^ ofjiraigbt lines be given by
pofition^ three Jiraigbt lines may be founds wbicb will be giyen by
pojition, fucb^ that if from any point tbere be drawn perpendiculars
to the lines given by pofition, and to tbe three lines founds thrice the
fum of tbe fquares of tbe perpendiculars to the lines given by pofition,
will be equal to the fism of the fquares of the perpemUculars drawn
to three lines found, multiplied by the number m.

Let 191 be = 4«

Cafe I. When the lines (Fig. 12.) AF, BG, CH, DK,
given by pofition, are all parallel. Let a perpendicular from any
point E meet the parallels in the points A, B, C, D, and let L
be the centre of gravity of thefe points. Aflume in AL any
point X, and let Y and Z, on the oppofite fide of L, be fuch, that
LY+LZ = LX, and alfo LX^+LY*+LZ^ = |(LA*+LB^+
LC^+LD^) ; then if the afTumed point X be given, the points
Y and Z will alfo be given. Draw through the points X, Y, Z,
ftraight lines parallel to AF, and they will be the lines required.

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Dr STEWARTr THEOREMS. 127

It 18 plain that L ig the centre of gravity of the points
X, Y, Z, and becaufe it is alfo the centre of gravity of the
points A, B, C, D,

3(EA*+EB'+EC»-hED0 - 3(LA*+LB*+LC?+LD*)-h

3.4.EL*, (Thear. 6.); and, for the fame reafon,

4(EX*+EY«+EZ0 = 4(LX«+LY»+LZ?)+4.3.EL\

Bnt by conftrudion,

3(LA*+LB»+LO-f-LI>) = 4(LX^+LY»+LZ0. Therefore,

3(EA^+EB^+EC'+ED^) = 4(EX»-}-EYHEZ^).

Cafi 2. When the lines (Fig. 13.) AB, AC, AD, AE, given
by poiition, interfedl one another in the fame point A.

Lbt G be the centre of gravity of the four points B, C, D, E,
in the circumference, of the circle of which AF is the diameter,
(Theor. 6.)> and let AH, AK, be two lines, whofe pofition is
given, fuch, that 2(FB^+FC^+FD^+FE») = 4(FH»+FK^),
(Theor. i2.)» From any point X in the circumference draw,
dirough G, the line XGL, fa that XG = 2GL j and through.
L draw YLZ to meet the circumference in Y, Z, and fo as to^
be bifefted in L. Join AX, AY, AZ, and FX, FY, FZ-
3(FB*+FC*+FD»+FE*) =6(FH-+FK0, (Theor. 12.), and
4(FX^+FY*+FZ0 = 6(FH^+FK0 = 3(FB»+FC^+FD^
-f FE^). Therefore AX, AY, AZ, are the three lines required,
to be found.

Cafe 2^ Whbn the lines (Fig- 14. No. i.) AB, BC, CD,
DA, are not parallel, and do not interfeflone another in the
iame point.

Let X be a^ point fo related to the lines AB, BG, CD, DA, ,
that it fhall be the centre of gravity of the four points L, M,
N, O, where they are interfered by the perpendiculars XL,
XM, XN, XO, drawn to them from X, (Theor. 13.) ; and let
XP, XQ^XR, XS, be drawn from X parallel to AB, BG, CD, DA,
and let them meet the perpendiculars to tbeie lines, from £, in.

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128 DEMONSf^RATlONS of

P, Qj^R, S. Let X£7, X^, Xr, be three ftraight lines, fuch,
that 3(EP'+EQ^+ER^+ES0 = 4(E^»+E^^+EcO, (Cafe 2.
of this). Defcribe a triangle def (Fig. 14. No.^.) having the
angle defzz aX6, and the angle df^ = ^Xr. Let^ be a point in
that triangle, fuch, as to be the centre of gravity of the three
points b, i, /, where perpendiculars drawn from it meet the fides,
(Theon 13.). Defcribe a fquare = |(XL*+XM^+XN^+
HO ^ ), and divide it into three fquares whofe fides Xiw, Xn,
Xo, {hall have the mutual ratios of gb, gi, gl. Through X
draw Xiw, X/r, Xo, perpendicular to X^, X^, Xr, and through
tn^ n^ Of draw mf^ nq^ qp^ perpendicular to Xm, Xi^r, Xo, and
meeting E^, E^, Er, in ^, y^ z. We have, by Theor. 13.
3(EF*H-EG^+EH*+EK0 = 3(EP^+EQ^+ER*+ES^)+
3(XL'+XM^+XN*+XO0, and alfo

^{Fjc'+Ey'+Ez') = 4(Efl^+E*^+E<:^)+4(Xi»»+X/i*+Xo*).
But by conftrudlion,

3(£P^+EQ»+ER^+ES0 = 4(E^*+E*^+Er^), and by Cafe a.
of this, 3(XL^+XM^+X0^+XNO = ^{Xm'+Xn'+Xo^).
^ Therefore,

3(EF'+EG^+EH*+EK0 = AiEx*+Ey^+Ea^). Therefore
tnp, nq^ qp^ are the lines required to be found.

The three lines found in this Theorem are determined, in their
pofition, only relatively to one another, and not abfolutely j
becaufe, in the conftruclion of each of the cafes, an arbitrary
fuppofition is unavoidably introduced, and of confequence there
are innumerable fets of lines, within certain limits however,
that all equally anfwer the conditions required in the propofi-
tion. When one of thefe is afTumed as given in pofition^ the
other two are necelTarily determined.

The four propofitions which follow in Dr Stewart's book
are extenfions of four that have already been demonftrated
here, vi%. the loth, 12 th, 13th and 14th; and are related to
them juft as the 7th of the preceding is to the fixth, or the 9th
to the 8th. The purpofe of them is to apply what has been

demonflrated

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Dr srEWJRT's THEOREMS. 129

demonftrated of the fquares of the perpendiculars in Prop. lo,
&c. to any redtilineal figures whatever, each given in fpecies,
defcribed on thofe perpendiculars.

Their demonflrations are all derived In the fame manner
from thofe of their correfponding propofitions, and it will there-
fore be fufficient, at prefent, to give the demonftration of one of
them. I have made choice of the i6th, as the 15th is only the
(impleft cafe of the 7th, vi%. when all the points given, in that
Theorem, are in the fame flraight line.

THEOREM XVL Fio. VIII.

Ltt there be any number^ m, ofjlraight lines AB, AC, AD, AE,
&c. ^ven by pofition^ interfeSing one another in the point A, and
let a, bf r, //, &c. be given magnitudes^ as many in number as there
are lines given by pojition^ twojlraight lines AX, AY, may be found^
which will be given by pofition^ fich^ fbat if from any point F there
be drawn FB, FC, FD, FE, &c. perpendicular to AB, AC, AD,
AE, &c. and FX, FY, perpendicular to AX, AY,

FB*+ 4- ^*+ -f FI>'+ -f^E* &c. = "-^-'^^^'^'CFX^+FYO^

Let 191 = 4. Let G be the centre of the circle which pafTes
through the points A, B, C, D, £ and F ; and let H be the cen-
tre of gravity of weights proportional to the magnitudes a^ b,
r, d^ placed at the points B, C, D and E. Join GH ; and let
XY, at right angles to GH in H, meet the circumference of
the circle ABDF in X and Y : AX, AY, are the lines required
to be found.

For it may be ihown, juft as in Theor. 12. by means of a
lemma fimilar to the 3d, that AX and AY make given angles

Vol. IL r with

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13© DEMONSfR4riONS of

vtixh AB, and are therefore given in pofidon. But by Tbeor. 7.
GB'+4-GD+^D«+-f GE« = ^=^'gX- ==

_^— GX* = 2-^'(Gx«+GY*) =
— - — (GH*+HX»), by Prop. 1. Therefore^
HB*+-f HO+-f HD«+4-HE» = ^^^W.
Again, by Theor. 7. FB'+— FC» + — FD*+— FE* =

A O U

HB^+vHO+-fHD^+-^HE*+^:^ therefore.

(FX^+FY^).

Cor. If from any point, as F, ftraight lines be dra^y n in given
angles to the lin^ which are given by po&uon, and whiqh interfedt
in one point, two Araight lines may be fo^nd whi9h will be given
by pofition, fiich, that if perpendiculars from. F be drawn t<>
them, the fum of the fquares of the lines drawn ia given an-
gles, will be equal to the ipape to which the fum of thef^uares^
of th« p^rpeQdi^ular^ has a given iratio^

This

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Dr STEWARTS THEOREMS. 131

This corollaty is eridenti bccaufe the lines drawn from F,
making given smgles with AB, AG, &c« will have given ratios
to the perpendiculars FB, FC, &c.

The 17th Theorem is. That if a^ h^ r, &c, bt any magnitudes
as above^ and if the figure be conJiru3ed as in Tbeor. 13. (Fig. ic^t

EZ*)+A% A* being a given Jpace. This is demonftrated from
its relation to the 13th, in the fame manner with the preceding,
and fo alfois the 1 8th from the 14th. The 18th is, That if a^
hy Cp &c. be any givtH magnitudes^ ahd. if the fame things be fup^
pojed as in Tbeor. 14. (Fig. 14.) three firaight lines mp^ nq^ qpf

may be found, fuch, that EF»+ 7-EG»+ -f ^H»+ -f EK% &c. =

We proceed now to a proportion that relates to the fourth
powers of the perpendiculars.

THEOREM XXVII. Fig. XV.

Let there be any number , iw, of given points A, B, C, &c. two
firaigbt lines may he founds whiih will be' given by pofttion, and like-
wife a piAnt D, fuch\ thdt if from any point E, 'there be drawn EY,
EZ, perpendicular to the two lines foAnd^ and if EA, EB, EC, &c.
and ED be joined^ Jben^ {miskhtg A* .= a given Jpace^ andli^ =:
the fourth power of a given line ^)

AE*+B£^+CE-^ &c. = mDE-^+AHEYH-EZO+B\

r 2 Let

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132 DEMONSTRATIONS of

Let m be = 3. Let D be the centre of gravity of the three
points A, B, C; join AD, BD, CD ; from E draw EF, EG, EH
perpendicular to AD, BD, CD ; in AD take DK = ^AD, in
BD take DL = ^BD, and in DC take DM = ^DC Then,
AE» = DE*+AD»— 2AD.DF
BE' = DE«+BD«+2BD.DG
CE» = DE'+CD»— 2CD.DH. Therefore,
AE* = DE*+2AD\DE»— 4AD^DF+AD♦—4DE^AD.DF-^
4AD^DF».

BE-* = DE*+aBD».DE'+4BD».DG+BD*+4DE».BD.DG+
4BD*.DG».

CE* = DE*+2CD\DE»— 4CD'.DH+CD*— 4DE.CD.DH+
4CD^DH^ But becaufe D is the centre of gravity c^the three
points A, B, C, AD.DF+CD.DH = BD.DG. Therefore,
making AE*+BE*4-CE* = S*, we (hall have

fAD'.DE'V f— AD».DF] fAD*.DF»l fAD*l
S^=3DE*+2i BD'.DE' I+4I+ BD».DG >+4{bD\DG4+{ BD*k
lCD».DE«J I— CD».DHi [CD*.DH»J lCD*i

But DE» = EP+DF« =: EG»-i-DG» = EH»+DH*. There-
fore,

fAD».EF»| rAD».DF'T f— AD^DFT (ADM
S*=3DE*+3] BD'.EG* [+6{ BD*.DG» [+4^+ BD'.DG M BD* k

lCD».EH'J lCD».DH»J I— CD».DH> lCD*i

fAD«.EF»Y fAD»(6DF»— 4AD.DF+AD*)]
Or, S* = 3DE*+2iBD'.EG4+{BD'(6DG»+4BD.DG+BD«)f-
lCD'.EH»J lCD*(6DH»— 4CDJ>H+CD»>'

But 3DK = AD ; 3DL = BD, and 3DM = CD ; and conie-
quently 9DK* = AD\. pDL* = BD% and gDM* = CD*.
Therefore, S* = 3bE* +

rAD».EFn fAD»(6DF»— 12DK.DF+6DKO > f3DK\ADn

2^ BD*.EG« \+\ RD'(6DG«+i2DL.DG+6DL') f+^sDL'.BD* L

lCD».EH») lCD»C6DH*'-i2DM.DH+6DM')> IjDMSCD'J

Or,

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Dr STEWJRT's THEOREMS, 133

{AD».EF«i rAD».FKM fAD*l
BD».EG» I +6\ BD\LG» \-\-\\ BD* V.
CD«.EH»J ICD'.MH»J ICD* ]

Join EK, and on it as a diameter defcribe the circle KFPENQ.
draw the diameter FN and divide it in O, fo that FO = 3ON,
and through O draw PQ^ perpendicular to FN, meeting the
circumference in P, Qj and join KP, KQ^ EP, EQ^ In the
fame manner, join EL, and on it as a diameter defcribe the
circle GVLRTE, draw the diameter GR, and divide it in S,
fo that GS = 3SR ; through S draw TV perpendicular to GR,
meeting the circumference in T, V ; and join LT, LV, ET,
£V. In the fame manner alio join EM, and on it as a diame-
ter defcribe the circle HZEX^M, draw the diameter HX, and
divide it in Y, fo that HY = 3YX ; through Y draw Za per-
pendicular to HX, meeting the circumference in Z, <z ; and
join MZ. Mfl, EZ, E^. Then, FK = EN ; LG = ER ; and
MH = EX. Therefore,

fAD\EFM fAD».ENM fAD*)

Jbd«"'

lCD»

aEF »-f-6EN * =8FO.ON+8EO'=8(OB«+EO * )=4(EP »-|-EQ^),
In the fame manner, 2EG»+6ER» = 8GS.SR+8ES» =
8(TS'+^») = 4(ET»-fEV»). In the fame manner alfo,
aEH'+6EX» = 8HY.YX+8EY« = 8CZY»+EY») =
4(EZ * +E<i ' ). Therefore,

fAD*(EP»+EQl)]
S* = 3DE*4-4{BD«(ET«+EV»)f-H^<BD« \, Since then there
lCD»(EZ*+Efl')

are fix ftraight lines KP, KQj^ LT, LV, MZ, Ma, given by pofi-
tion, and given quantides 4 AD', 4AD*, 4BD*, 4BD% 4CD*,
4CD*, as many in number as there are lines given by pofition,
therefore, by Theor. 17. two ftraight lines, xy, xz, may be
found, which will be given by pofition, fuch, that if from the

point

, \EFm fAD».ENM rAD*|

S* = 3DE«+2J BD«.EG4+6JBD\ER* ^+^ BD* [. But
~».£H*J lCD«.EX*J lCD*J

tl)1 AD*
'*)+iBD* . Sii
') J lCD*J

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«34 DEMONSTRATIONS of, &c.

point E, the perpendiculars EP, EQ^ET, EV, EZ, Ej, be drawn

t6 KP, KQ^LT, LV, MZ, M^, and if the perpendiculars Ej^,

Ez, be drawn to xy, x%, 4AD^EP^+4AD^E(^+4BD^ET^^-

4BD^EN*+4CD^EZ^+4CD^Ed^ =

8( AD »+BD^+CD^ )(Ejp^+E» » )+^^- Therefore,

S* = 3DE^+A*(Ejr^+E2;0+fl*+T(AD^+BD^+(}D^). Or,

S* = 3DE♦+A^(Ey^-fE55^)+B^

Therefore xy, x%j are the lines, and D the point, required to be

found.

THEOREM XXVIII.

Let there be any number , «r, of given points A, B, C, 5ffr. and let
u, by r, tffr. be given magnitudes^ as many in number as there are given
points, twofraight lines, zy, x%, may be found, which will be given
by pofttion, and likewife a point D, fuch, that if from any point E,
there be drawn perpendiculars Hy, Es, to the two lines found, and
if EA, EB, EC, ED, be joined,

AE«+4-BE^+-fCE^&c.= ^^*=^^

The inveftigation is perfedlly fimilar to the former ; only the
point D is not the centre of gravity of the points A, B, C, &c.
but, as in Theor. 7. the centre of gravity of weights, fuppofed
to be placed in thofe points, and proportional to the magnitudes
a, b, c, &c«

The univerfality of the preceding d^monftrations is no way
affefled by our having always fuppofed m equal to fome parti-
cular number, becaufo the reafoning is the iame^ whatever va-
lue be ailigned to it.

XIII.

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[Plate L To fold out, fycingpage 134. fhyf. CI

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[Plate II. To fold out, facing page i^. FJyf, C/.]

-i^fO. „.^^.

Jl^JO..yk^g.

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[PlAlE m, roJbUeia, faeii^pagt 134. Pfyf. C/,t

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XIIL Remarks on the Astvlohjomy of the Brahmins.
By John Pljtfair, A.M. F. R. S. Edin. and
Proftjfor of Mathematics in the Univerftty of Edinburgh^

{Read hy the Author^ March 2. 1789.1

I. OINCE the time when Aftronomy emerged from the
k3 obfcurity of ancient fable, nothing is better known
than its progrefs through the different nations of the earth.
With the era of Nabonassar, regular obfervations began
to be made in Chaldea ; the earlieft which have merited the
attention of fucceeding ages. The curiofity of the Greeks
was, fbon after, directed to the fame objedt ; and that ingeni-
0U8 people was the firil that endeavoured to explain, or connedt
by theory, the various phenomena of the heavens. This
work was fuppoied to be fo fully accomplifhed in the Syntaxis
of Ptolemy, that his fyftem, without oppofition or improve-
ment, continued, for more than five hundred years, to dire<^ the
Aftronomers of Egypt, Italy and Greece. After the fciences
were baniihed from Alexandria, his writings made their way
into the eafE, where, under the Caliphs of Bagdat, Aftrono-
my was cultivated with diligence and luccefs. The Perfian
Princes followed the example of thofe of Bagdat, borrowing
befides, from Trebi(bnd, whatever mathematical knowledge was
ftill preftrved among the ruins of the Grecian empire. The con-
quefts of Gengis, and afterwards of Timour, though they re-
tarded, did not ftop the progrefs of Aftronomy in the eaft. The
grandfons of thefe two conquerors were equally renowned for

their

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1^6 REMARKS on the

their love of fcience : Hulaou rcftored Aftronomy in Pcrfia,
and Ulugh-beigh, by an effort dill more Angular, eftablifhed
it in Tartary. In the mean time, having paffed with the Arabs
into Spain, it likewife found, in Alphonso of Caftile, both a
difciple and a patron. It was carried, foon after, into the north
of Europe, where, after exercifing the genius of CopERNicuSt
of Keplee, and of N£Wton, it has become the mod perfect
of all the fciences.

2. In the progrefs which Afbronomy has thus made, through
almoft all the nations, from the Indus to the Atlantic, there is
fcarce a ftep which cannot be accurately traced ; and it is never
difficult to determine what each age, or nation received from
another, or what it added to the general flock of aftronomicai
knowledge. The various fyftems, that have prevailed inr all
thefe countries, are vifibly conneded with one another ; they
are all derived from one original, and would incline us to be-
lieve, that the manner in which men begin to obferve the hea-
vens, and to reafon about them, is an experiment on the human
race, which has been made but once.

It is, therefore, matter of extreme curiofity to find, beyond
the Indus, a fyflem of aftronomicai knowledge that appears to
make no part of the great body of fcience, which hastraverfed,
and enlightened the other countries of the earth ; a fyftem that
is in the hands of men, who follow its rules without underftand-
ing its principles, and who can give no account of its origin,
except that it lays claim to an antiquity far beyond the period,
to which, with us, the hiftory of the heroic ages is fuppofed to

extend.

3. Wfi owe our firft knowledge of this agronomy to M. la

Lou BE RE, who, returning, in 1687, from an embaffy to Siam,
brought with him an extradt from a Siamefe manufcript, which
contained tables, and rules, for calculating the places of the ftm
and moon *• The manner in which thefe rules were laid

down

* Mtm. de I'Acad. des Sciences, torn. 8» p. 28 r. fcCf

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ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. 137

down, rendered the principles, on which they were founded, ex-
tremely pbfcure ; and it required a commentator, as conveifant
with altronomical calculation as the celebrated Cassini, to ex-
plain the meaning of this curious fragment. After that pe-
riod, two other fets of aftronomical tables were fent to Paris,
by the miffionaries in Hindostan ; but they remained un-
noticed, till the return of M. le Gentil from India, where he
had been to obferve the tranfit of Venus in 1 769. T his Aca-
demician employed himfelf, .during the long flay, which his
zeal for fcience induced him to make in that country, in ac-
quiring a knowledge of the Indian aftronomy. The Brahmins
thought they faw, in the bufinefs of an Altronomer, the marks
of a Cajl^ that had fome affinity to their own, and began to
converfe with M. le Gentil, more familiarly than with other
ftrangers. A learned Brahmin of Tirvalore, having made a
vifit to the French Aftronomer, inflrudled him in the methods,
which he ufed for cakrulating eclipfes of the fun and moon, and
communicated to him the tables and rules, that are publiihed
in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, for 1772. Since
that time, the ingenious and eloquent author of the Hiflory of
Aftronomy, has dedicated an entire volume to the explanation,
and comparifon of thefe different tables, where he has deduced,
from them^ many interefting conclufions *. The fubje<5l indeed
merited his attention ; for the Indian aftronomy has all the pre-
cifion necefTary for refolving the great queftions, with refpedl to
its own origin and antiquity, and is by no means among the
number of thofe imperfedl fragments of ancient knowledge,
which can lead no farther than conjedure, and which an Aftro-
nomer would gladly refign to the learned refearches of the An*
tiquary, or the Mythqlogift.

4. It is from thefe fources, and chiefly from the elaborate
invefligations of the 1^ mentioned work, that I have feledted

Vol.il / the

* Trait£ de I'AftroDomie Indieane et Orieatale, par M. Bailly. Fans, 1787.

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138 REMjfRKS on the

the materials of the paper, which I have now the honour to lay be-
fore this Society ; and it is perhaps neceflary that I (hould make
fome apology for prefenting here^ what can have fo little clafm
to originality. The fa<fl i», that notwithflianding the moft pro-^
found refpe^fl, for the learning and abilities of the author
of the AJironomie Indunne^ I entered on the ftudy of that work,
not without a portion of the fcepticifm, which whatever is new
and extraordinary in fcience ought always to excite, and fte
about verifying the calculations, and examining the reaibning^.
in it, with the moft fcrupulous attention. The refuh was, art
entire conviAion of the accuracy of the one, and of the folidtty
of the other ; and I then fancied, that, in an argument of
flich variety, I might perhaps do a fervice to others, by pre-
fenting to them, that particular view of it, which had ap-
peared to me the mod ilriking. Such, therefore, is the ob-
je<5l of thefe remarks j they are direfled co three different
points : The firft is to^ give a fliort account ef the Indian
aftronomy, ^o far as it is known to us, from the four ftts of
tables above mentioned ; the fccond, to ftate die principal
arguments, that can be deduced from theft tables, with rcfpeA
to their antiquity ; and the third, to form feme eftimate of the
geometrical (kiH, with which this aftronomica) fyftem is con-
ftru<5ted. In the &rft, I have ibliowed M. Bai&ly eloftty ; iiEt
the fecond, though I have ibmetimes taken a different road, I have
always com^ to the fame conclufion ; having aimed at nofhingf^
fb much, as to reduce the reaibning in<o a narrow compafs, and
to avoid every argument that is not purefy aftronomical", and
independent of all hypotheiU ; in the third, I have treated of a
queftion which diki not fall within the plaa ef M. Bailly'»
work, but have only entered on it at pre&nt, lieeving to iboie
future opportunity, the other difcuffions to which it leads.

5. Thb aftronomy of India, as you already perceive, 10 con-
fined to one branch of the fcience. It gives no theory, nor
even any defcrlptlon of the. celeftial phenomena, but fatisfies

itlclf

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jtSTRONOMT of the BRAHMINS. 139

itfelf 'with the calculation t>f certain changes in the heavens.,
]>arcicttlarly of the eclipfes of the fun and moon, and with the
rules and tables by which thefe calculations tnufl be performed.
The Brahmin, feating himielf on the ground, and arranging
his (hells before him, repeats the enigmatical verfes that are to
guide his calculation, and from his little tablets of palm leaves,
takes out the numbers that are to be employed in it. He ob-
tains his rcfult with wonderful certainty and expedition % but
having little knowledge of the principles on which his
rules are founded, and no anxiety to be better informed, he is-
perfe<5lly fatisfied, if^ as it ufually happens, the commencement
and duration of the eclipfe anfwer, within a few minutes, td
his |>redidlioik Beyond diis his aftronomical enquiries never
extend ; and his obfervations, when he makes any, go no far^
tber than to determine the meridian line, or the length of the
day, at the place where he obferves.

Tax obfedls, therefore^ which this aftronomy prefents to us^
U^ piincipally three, i. Tables and rules for calculating th«
places of the fun and moon : 2. Tables and rules for calcu^
lating the pdaces of the planets : 3. Rules by which the phafes
t^ edipfes are determined. Though it is chiefly to the firft of
dieie that our attention at preient is to be directed, the tvro laft
will alio fumifh us with fome ufeful obfervations.

6b The Brahmins, like all other Aftronomers, have diftin-
guilhed^ from the reft of the heavens, that portion of them,
through which the fun, moon and planets continually circulate.
They divide this fpace, which we call the zodiac, into twenty^
leven ^uat parts, each marked by a group of ftars^ or a con-
ftellation *. This divifion of the zodiac is extremely natural
in the infancy of aftronomical obfervation ; becaufe the moon
completes her circle aoMMg the fixed ftars, nearly in twenty*
fevm days, and fo makes an a^ual divifion of that circle

/ 2 into

^ Mem, fiir UAftronomie des Indieas, par M. lb GiVTiLy Hi&. <le i'Acad. des
Scien. 1772, IL P. 207. The phrafe which we here traaflate con/lcUatiws^ HgniHes
ihtfUcis of the moon in the iwcive Jigns.

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140 REMARKS on the

into twenty-fevcn equal parts. The moon too, it mtift be re-
membered, was, at that time, die only inftrument, if we may
fay fo, by which the pofitions of the liars on each fide of her
path could be afcertained ; and when her own irregularities
were unknown, fhe was, by the rapidity of her motion . eaft-
ward, well adapted for this purpofe. It is alfo to the phafes of
the moon, that we are to afcribe the. common divifion of time
into weeks, or portions of feven days, which feems to have
prevailed almod over the whole earth*. The days of the
week are dedicated by the Brahmins, as by us, to the feven
planets, and what is truly fingular, they are arranged precifely
in the fame order.

7. With the conflellations, that diftinguilh the twenty-fevcn
equal fpaces, into which their zodiac is divided, the Aftronomer&
of India have conneded none of thofe figures of animals^
which are among us, of fo ancient, and yet fo arbitrary an orir
ginat. M. le Gentjl has given ub their names^, and configu--
rations f. They are formed, for the moft part, of imall groups
of dsLTSi fuch as the Pleiades or the Hyades, thofe' belonging to
the fame condellation being all connedled by llraight lines.
The firft of them, or diat which is placed at the beginning of
their zodiac, confifts of fix ftars, extending from the head of
Aries to the foot of Andromeda, in our zodiac, and occupying
a fpaee of about ten degrees in longitude. Thefe conflellations
are far from including- all the liars in the zodiac. M. le
Gentil remarks, that thofe ftars feem to have been fele<5led,
which are beft adapted for marking out, by lines drawn be-
tween them, the places of the moon in her progrefs through
the heavens^.

At the fame time that the ftars in the zodiac are thus ar-
ranged into twenty-feven conftellations, the ecliptic is divided,
as with us, into twelve figns of thirty degrees each. . This di-

v^ifiont

• Mem. Acad, des Scieii. 1772. II. P. 185^.
f Ibid. 209.

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AStRONOMY of tbe BRAHMINS. 141

vifion is purely ideal* and is intended nierely for the purpofe
of calculation. The names and emblems by which thefe figns
are expteflld, are nearly the fame as with us * ; and as there is
nothing in the nature of things to have determined this coin-
cidence, it mufty like the arrangement of the days of the
week, be the refult of fome ancient and unknown communi-
cation.

8. That motion by which the fixed ftars all appear to move
eaftward, and continually to increafe their diilance from the
place, that the fun occupies at the vernal equinox, is known to
the Brahmins, and enters into the compofition of all their ta*
bles f. They compute this motion to be at the rate of 54'' a-
year ; fb that their annus magnus^ or the time in which the fixed
ftars complete an entire revolution, is 24,000 years. This mo-
tion is too quick by fbmewhat lefs than 4'' a-year ; an error
that' will not be thought great, when it is confidered, that
Ptolemy comxxxitted one of 14'', in determining the fame
quantity.

Another circumftance, which is common to all the tables,
and^ at the fame time, peculiar to the Indian aftronomy, is^
that they exprefs the longitude of the fun and moon, by their
diftance from tke beginning of the moveable zodiac, and not,
as is ufual with us, by their diftance from the point of
the vernal equinox. The longitude is reckoned in figns of
30"^, as already mentioned^ and each degree is Aibdivided into
60', ^c. In the divifion of time, their arithmetic is purely
fexagefimal : They divide the day inta 60 hours, the hour into
60 minutes, t^c. ; fo that their hour is 24 of our minutes,
their minute 24 of our ieconds, and £b on^

9. These:

* Mem. Acad dbs Scien. 1772. H. F. 200. Tbe aodiac the^call /odimanMam^ <»
Ibe circle of fian.

\ Ibid. 194^ Aft. Indicnne, p. 43, &c.

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142 REMARKS on the

9. These remarks refer equally to all the tables. We are
now to take notice of what as peculiar to each^ beginning widi
thofe of Siam.

In order to calculate for a given time, the place of any of
the celeftial bodies, three things are requiiitse. The firft ia^ the
portion of the body in fome paft inilant of time, aicertaiml
by obfervation ; and this inftant, from which every calculation
mud fet out, is ufually called the epoch of the tables. The fe*
cond req^ifite is, the mean race of the planet's motum, by
which is computed tl» arch in the heavens^ that ic otuft have
defcribed, in the interval between the epoch and the inlianit for
which the calculation is made» By die addition of this, to the
place ait the epochs we find the mean place of the planet, or
the point it would have occupied in the heavens^ had its mocioft
been fubjed to no irregularity. The third is, the cattcOaaa^
WL account of Aich irregularity, which muft be added to the
mean place, or fubtra<5led from it, as circumftances require, im
order to have the true place. The corredtion thus made is, in
ihe language of aftronomy, called an equaimxi ; and, when it
ariies from the eccentricity of a planet's orbit, it is calkd ^
equation of the centre.

10. Th£ epoch of the tables of Siam does iMt go back to any
Tery remote period. M. Cassini, by aa ingenious analytis of
their rules, finds that it correfponds to the 2 jftof March, in Ac
year 6 )8 of our era, at 3 in the mornings on the meridian of
Siam *. This was the inftant at which the aftronomical year be-
l^an, and at which both the fun and moon entered the moveable
zodiac. Indeed, it is to be obierved, that, in all the tables, the
aftronomical year begins when the fun enters the moveable 20-
diac, fo that the beginning of this year is continually ad-
vancing with refpedl to the feafons, and makes the complete
round of them in 24,000 years.

From

* Mem. Acad* Scien* torn. 8. p« 312* Aft. Indienne, p. ii« { 14*

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ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. 143

FkOM die epoch above mentioned, the mean place of the fun
for any other time ia deduced, on the fuppofition that in 800
years, there are contained 292,207 days *. This fuppofition in-
yolves iB it die length of the fydereal year, or the time that
the fun takea to return to the beginning of the moveable zo-
diac, and makea it confiil of 36$ d. 6 b. \z\ 36'' f* From
thi$« in order to find die tropical year, or that which regulates
die (eaions, we muft take away ai', 55'^ aa the time which the
iun takes to xviove over the $4\ ^^ the ilars are fuppofed to
have advanced in the year ; there will remain 365 d. 5. bs 50',
4i^\ which is the length of the tropical year that ia involved,
not only in the tables of Stam^ but likewife» v^ry nearly, in all
the reft %• This determination of d^e length of the year is but
1', 53", greater than that of De la Caille, which is a degree
ef accuracy beyond what is to be found, in the more ancient
tables ef our aftrosiom.y«

II. The next thing with which thefe tables prefent us, is a
eorre^ion of the fun's mean place, which correfponds to what
we caU the equation of his centre,, or the inequality arifing
from the eccentricity of hia orbit, in cpniequence of which, he
is alternate retarded and aecrieraced, his true place being, for
ene half of the year, left behind the meaai, and, for the other,
advanced before it. The point where the fim is placed, when
his motion is floweft, we call his apogee, becaufe his diftance
from the earth is then greateft } but the Indian aftronomy,
which is filent with refped to theory, treats this point as no-
thing more than what it appears to be, a point, viz. in die
heavens, where the fun*s motion is the flowed poil^Ie, and
about 90** diftant from that, where his greateft inequali-
ty takes place. This greateft inequality is here made to

• Aft* Ind. p. 7. f a.

f Mem. Acad* Scien. torn. 8. p. 3^8.

X Aft. Ind. p. 124. The tables o£ Tirvalore make the year 6' lefs^

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144 REMARKS on the

be 2^, 12'*, about 16' greater than it is determined, by the
modern aftronomy of Europe. This difference is very confi-
derable ; but we (hall find that it is not to be afcribed wholly
to error, and that there was a time when the inequality in que-
ftion was nearly of the magnitude here afligned to it. In the
other points of the fun's path, this inequality is diminiflied,
in proportion to the fine of the mean diftance from the apogee,
that is, nearly as in our own tables. The apogee is fuppofed
to be 80^ advanced beyond the beginning of the zodiac, and
to retain always the fame pofition among the fixed, ftars, or to
move forward at the fame rate with them f. Though this
fuppofition is not accurate, as the apogee gains upon the
ftars about 10" annually, it is much nearer die truth than the
fyftemof Ptolemy, where the fun's apogee is fuppofed abfo-
lutely s^t reft, fo as continually to fall back among the fixed
ftars, by the whole quantity of the precefidon of the equi-
noxes %.

12. In thefe tables, the motions of the moan are deduced,
by certain intercalations, from a period of nineteen years,
in which (he makes nearly 235 revolutions ; and it is curious
to find at Siam, the knowledge of that cycle,, of which the in-
vention was thought to do fb much honour to the Athenian
Aftronomer Meton, and which makes fb great a figure in our

modern

"^ Tai equation of the (an, or what thej call the ciaiaa^ is calculated in the Sia-
mefe ubles only for every 15* of the maudomme, or mean anomaly. Cassxmi, ubi
fufra, p. 299. ' .

f Aft. Ind. p. 9.

X Tai error, however, with re^d to the apogee, it lefi than it appears to be ;
for the motion of the Indian zodiac, being nearly 4' fwifter than the ftars, is but 6"
flower than the apogee* The velocity of the Indian zodiac is indeed neither the
fame with that of the ftars, oor of the fun's apogee, but nearly a mean betweea
thepfv

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ASTRONOMT of the BRAHMINS. 145

modern kalendars *. The moon's apogee is fuppofed to have
been in the beginning of the moveable zodiac, 621 days after
the epoch of the 21ft of March 638, and to make an entire re-
volution in the heavens in the fpace of 3232 days f . The fir ft
of thefe fuppofitions agrees with Mayer's tables to lefs than a
degree, and the fccond differs from them only by 11^, 14', 31'' ;
and if it be confidered that the apogee is an ideal point in the
heavens, which even the eyes of an aftronomcr cannot direftly
perceive, to have difcovered its true motion, fo nearly, argues
no fmall corredtnefs of obfervation.

. 13. From the place of the apogee, thus found, the inequali-
ties of the moon's motion, which are to reduce her mean to
her true place, are next to be determined. Now, -at the oppofi-
tions and conjundions, the two greateft of the moon's inequa-
lities, the equation of the centre and the evedlion, both depend
on the diftance from the apogee, and therefore appear but as
one inequality. They alfo, partly, deftroy one another ; fo
that the moon is retarded or accelerated, only by their differ-
ence, which, when greateft, is, according to Mayer's tables,
4®, 57', 42". The Siamefe rules, which calculate only for
oppofitions and conjundions, give, accordingly, but one ine-
quality to the moon, and make it, when greateft, 4**, 56', not
2' lefs than the preceding. This greateft equation is applied,
when the moon's mean diftance from the apogee is 90*^ ;
in other fituatiohs, the equation is lefs, in proportion as the
fine of that diftance diminiihes :|:.

14. The Siameie MS. breaks off here, and does not inform
us how the aftronomers of that country proceed, in the remain-
ing parts of their calculation, which they feem to have under-

VoL. II • / taken,

• The Indian period is more exaft than that of our golden number^ by 35'. Aft. Ind.
p. 5» The Indians regulate their feftivals by this period. Ibid. Diic. Prelim, p. viii.

f Aft. lad. p. II. & 20.

X Aft. Indiennci p. 13. Cassini Mem. Acad. torn. 8. p. 304.

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146 REMARKS on the

undertaken, merely for fome purpofe in aftrology. M. Cassini,
to whom we are indebted for the explanation of thefe tables,
obferves, that they are not originally conftrudled for the meri-
dian of Siam, becaufe the rules diredl to take away 3' for the
fun, and 40' for the moon, (being the motion of each for i*,
13'), from their longitudes calculated as above*. The meri-
dian of the tables is therefore i^, 13', or 18**, 15', weft of
Siam ; and it is remarkable, that this brings us very near to the
meridian of Benares, the ancient feat of Indian learning f*
The fame agrees nearly with what the Hindoos call their fir ft
meridian, which paffes through Ceylon and the Banks of Ra-
manancor. We arc, therefore, authorifed, or rather, we are
neceflarily determined to conclude, that the tables of Siam came
originally from Hindostan.

15. Another fet of aftronomical tables, now in the poffejC-
fion of the Academy of Sciences, was fent to the late M. db
l'Isle from Chrifnabouram, a town in the Carnatic, by Father
DU Champ, about the year 1750. Though thefe tables have an
obvious affinity to what have already been defcribcd, they
form a much more regular and extenfive fyftem of aftronomi-
cal knowledge. They are fifteen in number ; and include, be-
fide the mean motions of the fun, moon and planets, the equa-
tions to the centre of the fun and moon> and two corredUons
for each of the planets, the one of which correfponds to its ap-
parent, and the other to its real inequality. They are accompa-
nied alfo with precepts, and examples, which Father du Champ
received from the Brahmins of Chrifnabouram, and which he
has tranilated into French |.

The

* Mem. Acad. Scien. torn. 8. p. 302. & 309*

f Ad. Ind. p. 12. It brings us to a meridian 82^^ 34'^ eaU of GrecQwich. Benares
is 83^, II , eaft of the fame^ by Rennil's map.

X Thefe tables are publilhed by M. Baillt, Aft. iDd. p» ^^$1 &c. See alio p. 31^ &c»

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ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. 147

The epoch of thefe tables is lefs ancient than that of the for-
mer, and anfwers to the loth of March at funrife, in the year
149 1 of our era, when the fun was juft entering the moveable
zodiac, and was in conjunftion with the moon; two circum-
ftances, by which almoft all the Indian eras are diftinguifhed.
The places, which they aOlgn, at that time, to the fup and moon,
agree very well with the calcidations made from the tables of
Mayer, and D£ la Caille. In their mean motions, they in-
deed differ fomewhat from them ; but as they do fo equally
for the fun and moon, they produce no error, in determining
the relative pofition of thefe bodies, nor, of confequence, in
calculating the phen nciena of eclipfes. The fun's apogee is
here fuppofed to have a motion fwifter than that of the fixed
ftars, by about \" in nine years, which, though it falls greatly
fhort of the truth, does credit to this aftronomy, and is a ftrong
mark of originality. The equation of the fun's centre is fome-
what lefs here than in the tables of Siam ; it is 2"", io\ 30'' ;
the equation of the moon's centre is 5^, 2', 47"; her path,
where it interfedls that of the fun, is fuppofed to make an an-
gle with it of 4®, 30', and the motions, both of the apogee
and node, are determined very near to the truth.

16. Another fet of tables, fent from India by Father Patou-
ILLET, were received by M. de l'Isle^ about the fame time
with thofe of Chrifnabouram. They have not the name of any
particular place affixed to them ; but, as they contain a rule
for determining the length of the day, which anfwers to the
latitude of id"", 16', M. Bailly thinks it probable that they
come from Narfappur *•

The precepts and examples, which accompany thefe ta-
bles, though without any immediate reference to them, are
confined to the calculation of the eclipfes of the fun and
moon ; but the tables themfelves extend to the motion of the
planets, and very much refemble thofe of Chrifnabouram,
except that they are given with lefs detail, and m a form much

/ 2 more

* Aft. Ind* p. 49, &c.

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148 % REMARKS on tbe

more enigmatical *. The epoch of the precepts, which M- B A 1 ll y
has evolved with great ingenuity, goes back no farther than. the
year 1569, at midnight, between the 17th and i8th of March.
From this epoch, the places of the fun and moon are computed,
as in the tables of Siam, with the addition of an equation,
which is indeed extremely fingulan It refembles that correction
of the moon's motion, which was difcovered by Tycho, and
which is called the annual equation, becaufe its quantity de^
pe;ids, not on the place of the moon, but on the place of the
fun, in the ecliptic. It is every where proportional to the in-
equality of the fun's motion, and is nearly a tenth part of it.
The tables of Narfapour make their annual equation only
-jV of the fun*s : but this is not their only miftake ; for they
diredl the equation to be added to the moon's longitude, when
it ought to be fubtraded from it, and vice verfa. Now, it is
difficult to conceive from whence the laft mentioned error
has arifen ; for though it is not at all extraordinary, that the
aftronomers, who conftrudVed thefe tables, fhould miftake the
quantity of a fmall equation, yet it is impoffible, that the lame
obfervations, which informed them of its exiftence^ ihould
not have determined, whether it was to be added or fub-
traded. It would ftem, therefore, that fomethlnjg accidental
muft have occafioned this error ; but however that be, an
inequality in the lunar motions, that is found in no fyflem,
with which the aftronomers of India can have had any com-
munication, is at leaft a proof of the originality of their tables.

17. The tables, and methods, of the Brahmins of Tirvalore,
are, in many refpeds, more fingular than any that have yet

beea

* Thet were explained^ or rather decjphered by M. lb Gbntil In the Memoirs
of the Academy of Sciences for 1784, p. 482, &C. j for they were not under flood by the
miflionary who fent them to Europe, nor probably by the Brahmins who inftrufled him.
M. LE Gentil thinks that they have the appearance of being copied from infcriptioiw
on ftone. The minutes and feconds are ranged in rows under one another, not in vertical
columns, and without any title to point out their meaning, or their connexion. Thefe
tables are publi(hed^ Mem. Acad, ibid* p. 4921 and AH. Ind. p. 4 14.

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ASfRONOMr of the BFLAHMINS. 149

been defcribed *• The folar year is divided, according to them,
into twelve unequal months, each of which is the time that the
fun takes to move through one fign, or 30"*, of the ecliptic.
Thus, Any^ or June, when the fun is in the third fign, and
his motion flowed, conflfts of 31*^, ^6^^ 38', and Margagy^
or December, when he is in the ninth fign, and his mo-
tion quickeft, confiils only of 29^, 20^, 53' f. The
lengths of thefe months, exprefTed in natural days, are con-
tained in a table, which, therefore, involves in it the place of
the fun*s apogee, and the equation of his centre. The former
feems to be 77* from the beginning of the zodiac, and the lat-
ter about 2**, 10^, nearly as in the preceding tables. In their
calculations, they alfo employ an aftronomical day, which is
different from the natural, being the time that the fun takes to
move over one degree of the ecliptic j and of which days there
are juft 360 in a year \.

18. These tables go far back into antiquity. Their e-
poch coincides with the famous era of the Calyougham, that,
is, with the beginning of the year 3102 before Christ.
When the Brahmins of Tirvalore would calculate the place of
the (un for a given time, they begin by reducing into days the
interval between that time, and the commencement of the
Calyougham, multiplying the years by 365^, 6^, 1 2', 30" ;
and taking away 2^, 3^, 32', 30'', the aftronomical epoch
having begun that much later than the civil ||. They next
find, by means of certain divifionsi when the year current be-
gan,

* TinvALORB is ft ftnftll town on the Coromandel coaft, about 12 G. miles wefl of Ne-
gapatnain, in Lat. 10°, 44', and eaft Long, from Greenwich, 79°, 42', by Rennel's
map. From the obfervations of the Brahmins, M. lb Gbntil makes its Lat. to be
10°, 42', 13'. (Mem. Acad. Scien. II. P. 184.) The meridian of Tirvalore nearly
touches the weft fide of Ceylon, and therefore may be fuppofed to coincide with the firfl
meridian, as laid down by Father du Champ. There is no redudlion of Longitude em*>
ployed in the methods of Tirvalore.

f Thefe are Indian hours, &c.

X Mem. Acad, des Scien. IL F. 187. Aft. Indienne, p. 76, &c.

I The Indian hours are here reduced to European*

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150 REMARKS on the

gan, or how many days have elapfed fince the beginning of it,
and then, by the table of the duration of months, they re-
duce thefe days into aftronomical months, days, fsfc. which
is the fame with the (igns, degrees and minutes of the fun's
longitude from the beginning of the zodiac The fun's lon-
gitude, therefore, is found.

19. Somewhat in the fame manner, but by a rule dill more
artificial and ingenious, they deduce the place of the moon, at
any given time, from her plac^ at the beginning of the Cal-
yougham *. This rule is fb contrived, as to include at once the

, motions both of the moon and of her apogee, and depends on
this principle, according to the very fkilful interpretation of
M. Bailly, that, 1,600,894 days after the above mentioned
epoch, the moon was in her apogee, and 7% 2*, o', 7'', diftant
from the beginning of the zodiac ; that after 12,372 days, the
moon was again in her apogee, with her longitude increafed,
9\ ^y""* 48', 10"; that in 3031 days more, the moon is again
in her apogee, with 11% 7*, 3i\ i"» more of longitude; and,
laftly, that, after 246 days, flie is again in her apogee, with
27*, 44', 6", more of longitude. By means of the three
former numbers, they find, how far, at any given time, the
moon is advanced in this period of 248 days, and by a table,
expreffing how long the moon takes to pafs through each degree
of her orbit, during that period, they find how far flie is then
advanced in the zodiac f* This rule is ftrongly marked with
all the peculiar charad^ers of the Indian aftronomy : It is re-
markable for its accuracy, and ftill more for its ingenuity and
refinement ; but is not reduced withal, to its ultimate fim-
plicity.

20. The tables of Tirvalore, however, though they difier
in form very much from thoie formerly defcribed, agree with

them

* Mttn. Acad, des Scien. ibiJ. p. 229. Aft. Ind. p 84.

f M. LE Gentil has given this table, Mem. Acad, ibid, p. 36c.

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ASTRONOMT of the BRAHMINS. 151

them perfedlly in many of their elements. They fuppofe the
fame length of the year, the fame mean motions, and the fame
inequalities of the fun and moon, and they are adapted nearly
to the fame meridian*. But a circumftance in which they
feem to differ materially from the reft is, the antiquity of the
epoch from which they take their date, the year 3102 before the
Chriftian era. We muft, therefore, enquire, whether this epoch
is real or fictitious, that is, whether it has been determined by
adtual obfervation, or has been calculated from the modern
epochs of the other tables. For it may naturally be fuppofed,
that the Brahmins, having made obfervations in later times, or
having borrowed from the aftronomical knowledge of other
nations, have imagined to themfelves a fidlitious epoch, coinci-
ciding with the celebrated era of the Calyougham, to which^

through

• The accuracy of the geography of the Hindoos, is in no proportion to that of their
aftroDomyy and, therefore, it is impoffible that the identity of the meridians of
their tables can be fiilly eftablifbed. All that can be faid, with certainty, is, that the dif-
ference between the meridians of the tables of Tirvalore and Siam is, at mod, but in*
coniiderable, and may be only apparent, aridng from an error in computing the difference
of longitude between thefe places. The tables of Tirvalore are for Long. 79*^, 42*5 thofc
of Siam for 82^, 34' > the difference is 2^, 52', not more than may be afcribed to an error
purely geographical.

As to the tabTes of Chriihabouram, they contain a redudion, by which it appears,
that the place where they are now ufed is 45' of a degree eaft of the meridian for which
they were originally conilruded. This makes the latter meridian agree tolerably with that
of Cape Comorin, which is in Long. 77®, 32'^ 2P \ and about half a degree, weft of Chrifua-
bouram. But this concluCon is uncertain \ becaufe, as M. Bailly has remarked, the
tables fent from Chrifnabouram, and imderftood by Father du Champ to belong to that
place, are not adapted to the latitude of it, but to one confiderably greater, as appears
from their rule for afcertaining the length of the day. (Aft. Ind. p. 33.)

Thb charaders, too, by which the Brahmins diftinguifh their firft meridian, are not
perfedly confiftent with one another. Sometimes it is defcribed as bifecting Ceylon ^ and at
other times, as touching it on the weft fide, or even as being as far weft as Cape Comorin.
Lanka, which is faid to be a point in it, is underftood, by Fath. du Champ, to be Ceylon.
M. Baillt thinks that it is the lake Lanka, the fburce of the Gogra, placed by M. Rkn-
MBL, as well as the middle of Ceylon, in Long. 80% 42' ; but, from a Hindoo map, in
the Ayeen Akber]f, voLiii. p. 25. Lanka appears to be an ifland. which marks the
interfeftion of the firft meridian of the map, nearly that of Cape Comorin, with the equa-
tor ; and is probably one of the Maldivy iilands. See alfo a note in the Ayeen Akbery^
iUd* p* 36.

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152 REMARKS on the

through vanity or fuperftition, they have referred the places of
the heavenly bodies, and have only calculated what they pre-
tend that their anceftors obferved.

21. In doing this, however, the Brahmins muft have fur-
nifhed us with means, almoft infallible, of detedling their im-
pofture. It is only for aftronomy, in its moft perfed date, to
go back to the diftance of forty-fix centuries, and to afcertain
the fituation of the heavenly bodies at fo remote a period.
The modern aftronomy of Europe, with all the accuracy that it
derives from the telefcope and the pendulum, could not venture
on fo difficult a tafk, were it not aififted by the theory of gra-
vitation, and had not the integral calculus, after an hundred
years of almoft continual improvement, been able, at laft, to
determine the difturbances in our fyftem, which arife from the
adlion of the planets on one another.

Unjless the corre(5lions for thefe difturbances be taken into
account, any fyftem of aftronomical tables, however accurate
at the time of its formation, and however diligently copied
from the heavens, will be found lefs exadl for every inftant, ei-
ther before or after that time, and will continually diverge
more and more from the truth, both for future and paft ages.
Indeed, this will happen, not only from the negle<5l of thefe
corredlions, but alfo from the fmall errors unavoidably com-
mitted, in determining the mean motions, which muft ac-
cumulate with die time, and produce an effedl that be-
comes every day more fenfible, as we retire, on either fide,
from th^ inftant of obfervation. For both thefe reafons, it
may be eftabliftied as a maxim, that, if there be given a fyftem
of aftronomical tables, founded on obfervations of an unknown
4ate, that date may be found, by ts^ing the time whea the
tables reprefent the celeftial motions moft exadWy.

Here, therefore, we have a criterion, by which we are to
judge of the pretenfions of the Indian aftronomy to fo great an-
tiquity. It is true, that, in applying it, we muft fuppofe our

modern

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ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS, 153

modern aftronomy, if not perfe(5lly accurate, at lead fo exaiSt
as to reprefent the celeflial motions, without any fenfible error,
even for a period more remote than the Calyougham ; and this^
confidering the multitude of obfervations on which our aftro-
nomy is founded, the great antiquity of fome of thofe obfer-
vations, and the extreme accuracy of the reft, together with
the afliftance derived from the theory of phyfical caufes, may
furely be aflumed as a very reafonable poftulatum. We begin
with the examination of the mean motions.

22. The Brahmins place the beginning of their moveable
zodiac, at the time of their epoch, 54** before the vernal equi-
nox, or in the longitude of 10', 6®, according to our method
of reckoning. Now, M, le Gen til brought with him a deli-
neation of the Indian zodiac, from which the places of the
ftars in it may be afcertained with tolerable exaftnefs *. In
particular, it appears, that Aldebaran, or the firft ftar of Tau-
rus, is placed in the laft degree of the fourth conftellation, or
53®, 20', diftant from the beginning of the zodiac. Alde-
baran was therefore 40' before the point of the vernal equinox,
accordiog to the Indian aftronomy, in the year 3102 beforeCHRiST.
But the fame ftar, by die beft modern obfervations, was, in the year
1750, in longitude, 2', 6*^, 17', 47'' ; and had it gone forward,
according to the prefent rate of the precefTion of the equinoxes,
50'' V annually, it muft have been, at the era of the Calyougham,
I ®, 32', before the equinox. But this refult is to be correiSled,
in confequence of the inequality in the preceffion, difcovered
by M. DE LA Grange f, by the addition of i^, 45', 22", to
the longitude of Aldebaran, which gives the longitude of that
ftar 13' from the vernal equinox, at the time of the Calyoug-
ham, agreeing, within 53', with the determination of the In-
dian aftronomy |»

Vol. II. u This

* Mem. Acad. Scien. 1772, II. P. 214. Aft. Ind. p. 129.
t Mem. Acad, de Berlin, 178a, p. 287. Aft. Ind. p. 144*
t Aft* Ind. p. 130*

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154 REMARKS on the

This agreement is the more remarkable, that the Brahmins,
by their own rules for computing the motion of the fixed ftars^
could not have afligned this place to Aldebaran for the begin-
ning of the Calyougham, had they calculated it from a moderft
obfervation. For as they make the motion of the fixed ftars too
great by more than 3'" annually, if they had calculated backviard
from 1491^ they would have placed the fixed ftarft Icfc advanced
by 4"* or 5"*, at their ancient epoch, than they have adually
done. This argument carries with it a great deal of force ;
and even were it the only one we had to produce, it would
render it, in a high degree^ probable, that th^e Indian zodiac
was as old as the Calyougham.

23. Let us next compare the places of the fuii and moon^
for the beginning of the Calyougham, as- deduced from the In-
dian and the modern aftronomy. And, firft^ of the fua;
though, for a reafon that will immediately appear, it is t^t to
be confidered as leading to any thing conchifive. M; BAiLLr,
from a comparifon of the tables of Tirvalore with thofe of
ChrifnaboUfam, has determined the epoch of the former to an-
iWer to midnight, between the 17th and i8th* of February
of the year 3102 befort Christ, at which time the fun waB
juft entering the moveable zodiac^ and' was therefor* in longi^
tude To% 6^. M. Bailly alfo thinks it reafonable tofuppdSl^
that thiis was not the mean place of the fun, as the nattorb of
aftronomical tables require, btltthe tinie place, differing from the
mean, by the equation to the funV centre at that dmef. This*,
it muft be confeffed, is the matk of gite«efl uhlkitftilnefs; that
we meet with in the conllrudHovi of thcl^ tables. Stxppofing 1%
however,^ to bfe the ckfe, the mean pkce of the fon, at the time

* All. Ind. p. izo. The Bmhmkis, hcMrever, afhiallj fuppoie the epoch itb be 6 hcmrs
later, or at funrife, on the fame daj. Their miftake is difcovered, s has beeQ iaid^.
bj comparing the radical places in the dif&rent tabl€) with one another,.

\ AfL Ind. p. 83..

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ASTRONOMY of tbi BRAHMINS. 155

of the epoch, comes out lo^, 3'', 38', 13". Now, the mean longi-
tude of the fun, from De la Caille's tables, for the fame time,
is 10', I*, 5', si\ fuppofing the preceffion of the equinoxes
to have been uniformly at the rate it is now, that is, 5o"x an-
nually. But M. DE LA Grange has demonflrated, that the
preceifion was lefs in former ages than in the prefent \ and his
formula gives i®» 45', 22'', to be added, on that account, to
the fun's longitude already foujod, which makes it 10% 2**, 51',
19', not more than 4/ from the radical place in the tables of
Tirvalore. This agreement is near enough to afford a ftrong
proof of the reality of the ancient epoch, if it were not for the
difiBculty that remains about confidering the fun's place as the
true, rather than the mean ; and^ for that reafon, I am -unwil-
ling that any flrefs Ihould be laid upon this argument. The
place of the moon is not liable to idie fame obje<5iion.

a4. The moon's mean place, for the beginning of the Caly-
ougham, (that is, for midnight between the 17th a^d i8th of
February 31.02, A. C. at Benares); calculated from Mayer's
tables, on the fuppofition that her moticm has always been at
the fame rate as at the beginning of the prefent century, is
IQJ, o*^, 51', 16''*. But, according to the fame aftrono-
mer, the moon is fubjei^ to a fmall, but uniform accele*
ration, fuch, that her angular motion, in any one age, is
9" greater than in the preceding, which, in an interval of
4801 years, muft have amounted to 5*, 4j', 44". This muft
be added to the preceding, to give the real mean place of the
moon, at the aftronomical epoch of the Calyougham, which is
therefore lo', 6^, 3/. Now, the fame, by the tables of Tir-
valore, is ic, 6°, o'; the difference is lefs than two-thirds of
a degree, which, for fo remote a period, and ^onfidering the
acceleration of the moon's motion, for which no allowance

u 2 could

* Aft. lad. p. 142, &c. The firft meridian is fuppofed to pais through Benares ; but
even if it be fuppofed 3^ farther weft, the difference, which b here 37'; will be<onl7 in-
creaied to42'.

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156 REMARKS on the

could be made in an Indian calculation, is a degree of accuracy
that nothing but a(5lual obfervation could have produced.

25. To confirm this conclufion, M.Bailly computes the place
of the moon for the fame epoch, by all the tables to which the
Indian aftronomers can be fuppofed to have ever had accefs *.
He begins with the tables of Ptolemy j and if, by help
of them,- we go back from the era of Nabonassar, to the
epoch of the Calyougham, taking into account the compa-
rative length of the Egyptian and Indian years, together with
the difference of meridians between Alexandria and Tirvalore,
we Ihall find the longitude of the fun 10°, 2i\ 15'' greater,
and that of the moon 11**, 52', y" greater than has juft been
found from the Indian tables f. At the fame time that this
fhews, how difficult it is to go back, even for a lefs period than
that of 3000 years, in an aflronomical computation, it affords a
proof, altogether demonflrative, that the Indian aftronomy is
not derived from that of Ptolemy.

The tables of Ulugh Beig are more accurate than thofe
of the Egyptian aftronomer. They were conflrudled in a coun-
try not far from India, and but a few years earUer than 1491,
the epoch of the tables of Chrifnabouram. Their date is
July 4. at noon, 1437, at Samarcand j and yet they do not
agree with the Indian tables, even at the above mentioned epoch
of 1491 ij:. But, for the year 3102 before Christ, their dif-
ference from them, in the place of the fun, is i °, 30', and in
that of the moon 6° ; which, though much lefs than the for-
mer differences, are fufficient to fhow, that the tables of India
are not borrowed from thofe of Tartary.

The Arabians employed in their tables the mean motions of
Ptolemy ; the Perfians did the fame, both in the more ancient
tables of CHRYSOCoccA,and the later ones, of IJAssjR«DDi>r ||- It

* AH. Ind. p. IX4-
f Ibid, p. 115,
X Ibid* p. 117.
I Ibid. p. 118.

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ASTRONOMT of the BRAHMINS. 157

i$ therefore certain, that the aftronomy of the Brahmins is nei-
ther derived from that of the Greeks, the Arabians, the Per-
fians or the Tartars. This appeared fo clear to Cass in j,
though he had only examined the tables of Siam, and knew
nothing of many of the great points which diflinguiih the In-
dian aftronomy from that of all other nations, that he gives it
as his opinion, that thefe tables are neither derived from the
Perfian aftronomy of Chrysococca, nor from the Greek
aftronomy of Ptolemy j the places they give at their epoch to
the apogee of the lun, and of the moon, and their equation for
the fun*s centre, being very different from both *.

26. But, to return to what refpedls the moon's acceleration ;
it is plain, that tables, as ancient as thofe of Tirvalore pretend'
to be, ought to make the mean motion of that planet much
flower than it is at prefent. They do accordingly fuppofe, in
the rule for computing the place of the moon, already defcri-
bed, that her motion for 4383 years, 94 days, reckoned in the
moveable zodiac from the epoch of the Calyougham, is 7', 2 ®,
o', 7'', or 9% 7®, 45', 1", when referred to the fixed point of
the vernal equinox. Now, the mean motion for the fame in*-
tervaly taken from the tables of Mayer, is greater than this,
by 2% 42', 4" f , which, though conformable, in general, to
the notion of the moon's motion having been accelerated, falls,
it muft be confeffed, greatly fhort of the quantity which
Mayer has aillgned to that acceleration. This, however, is
not true of all the tables ; for the moon's motion in 4383 years,
94 days, taken from thofe of Chrifnabouram, is 3°, 2', 10"
lefs than in the tables of Tirvalore % ; from which it is reafon-
able to conclude, with M. Bailly, that the former are, in
reality, more ancient than the latter, though they do'not pror
fefs to be fo: ajid hence, alfo, the tables of Chrifnabouram

mak£L

* Mem. Acad. Scien. torn. 8. p. 286.
f Aft Ind. p. 145.
t. Ibid. p. 12$. .

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158 REMARKS an the

make the moon's motion lefs than Mayzr's, for die abort
mentioned interval, by 5®, 44', 14", which therefore is, ac-
cording to them, the quantity of the acceleration.

27. Now, it is worthy of remark, that if the fame be com-
puted on Mayer's principles, that is, if we calculate how
much the angular motion of the moon for 4383 years, 94 days,
dated from the beginning of the Calyougham, mud have been
lefs than if her velocity had been all that time uniform, and
the fame as in the prefent century, we fhall find it to be
5®, 43', 7", an arch which is only i\ f\ lefs than the former.
The tables of Chrifnabouram, therefore, agree with thofe of
Mayer, when corre<Eled by the acceleration within 1', 7'', and
that for a period of more than four thoufand years* From thb
remarkable coincidence, we may conclude, with the faighefl pro*
bability, that at lead one fet of the obfervations, on which
thofe tables are founded, is uQt lefs ancient than the Calyoug-
ham ; and though the poflibility of their being fome ages later
than that epoch, is not abfolutely excluded, yet it may, by
(lri<fl mathematical reafoning, be inferred, that they cannot
have been later than 2000 years before the Chriftian era ^.

28. This

^ Trb reafoning here referred to is die following : As the mean motiooSf in all
afironomical tables, are determined by the compariibn of obfervations made at a great
didance of time from one another; if » be the number of centuries between the begin-
stng of the prefent, and the date of the more ancient obiervationsy firom which the
moon's mean motion in the tables of Chrirnabouram is dedaoed \ and if y doiote the
(ame for the more modern obfervations : then the quantity by ^bich the moon's mo-
tion^ during the interval x — y, falls fhort of Matbr's, for the fame interval, is

IF| therefore, m be the motion of the moon for a centucy in die laft mentioned tables,
«(«— J') — 9'(**— J'*) will be the mean motion for the interval x—jii in the tables of
Chrifhabo\iram. If, then, a be any other interval, as that of 43*83 centuries, the mean
modon affigned to it, in thefe laft tables, by the rule of proportion, will be

fffiff if it) q"c(x^ - V* )

— "^ ■ -^ ^ =--^ =: ma-^ga^x+y). Let this modon, gftoally taken from the ta-

x^y

bka

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JSTRONOMT of the BRAHMINS. 159

2S. This laft is one of the few coincidences between the aftro-
nomy of India and of Europe, which their ingenious hiftorian
has left for others to obfcrve. Indeed, fince he wrote, every
argument, fbunded on the moon's acceleration, has become
more worthy of attention, and more conclufive. For that ac-
celeration is no longer a niere empyrical equation, introduced
to reconcile the ancient obfervations with the modern, nor a
fkfl that can only be accounted for by hypothetical cauies, fuch
as the refinance of the ether, or the time neceflary for the
tranimiffion of gravity ; it is a phenomenon, which M. be la
Place has**; with great ability, deduced from the principle o£
univerfal gravitation, ind fhewn to be neceffarily conneded
with the changes in the eccentricity of the earth's orbit, dif-
covered by M« de la Grange ; fo that the acceleration of the
moon is indiredtly produced by the adlion of the planets, which
alternately increafing- and diminifliing the fsud eccentricity, fub^
jedfe the moon to different degrees of diat force by which the.
Dm difturbs the time of her revolution round die earths It is>
Aercfore a periodical inequality, by which the moon's motion,,
in the courfe'of ages, will be as much retarded as accelerated;,
but its chat)ges are fo flow, that her motion has been conftano*
ly accelerated, even for a longer period than that to which the
obfervatioiis of India eaetend;

g
cafe. It is'certamy tUerdlbfei diftt< whatever fu|ii»#id6D be tnnde with refped to the inter-
val beCiBveeti x «Bdjr» tbetr fiim mttfixftlways ht the fflmye, and.muilaniQuxit to 5219 years.
But that, that interval^may be long enough to give the mean motions with exaj^nefs,
it can fcarcdy be Tuppoied lefs than 2000 jears \ and, in that, cafe, x ir 3609 jears^^ .
which tiftaigfofe is^ it9 leail valiie. Bbt if 3609 be reckoned' bick from i700f, it goet
up to 1909 7ean before CsattT, ae«r4x> ^ has bean faid.

It mufl be remembered, that what is here inveftigated.is the limit, or the moil mo-
dem date poflible to be affigned to the obfervations in queftion. I'he fuppofition that
x—y =^ tf, is the moil probable of all, and it gives x zz 480 1, which correippnds tOv^
the beginning of the Calyougharo.

^ Mem. Acad^ dcs Scien^ 1786, p. 235, €(c.

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i6d remarks on the

A FORMULA for computing the quantity of this inequality , has
been given by M.de la Place, which^ though only an approxima-
tion, being derived from theory, i^more accurate than that which
Mayer deduced entirely from obfervation * ; and if it be taken
inftead of Mayer's, which laft, on account of its fimplicity, I
Lave employed in the preceding calculations, it will give a
<]uantity fomewhat different, though not fuch as to aflefl the
general refult. It makes the acceleration for 4383 years, dated
from the beginning of the Calyougham, to be greater by 17', 39"^
than was found from Mayer's rule, and greater confequently by
16', 32'', than was deduced from the tables of Chrifnabouram.
It is plain, that this coincidence is (lill near enough to leave the
argument, that is founded on it,| in pofTefTion of all its force,
and to afford a flrong confirmation of the accuracy of the
theory, and the authenticity of the tables.

That obfervations made in India, when all Europe was
barbarous or uninhabited, and invedigations into the mod fub-
tie efFe(5ls of gravitation made in Europe, near five thoufand
years afterwards, ihould thus come in mutual fupport of
one another, is perhaps the moft (Iriking example of the pro-
grefs and viciflitude of fcience, which the hiftory of mankind
has yet exhibited.

29, This, however, is not the only inftance of the iamc
kind that will occur, if, from examining the radical places and
mean motions in the Indian aftronomy, we proceed to confider
fome other of its elements, fuch as, the length of the year, the
inequality of the fun's motion, and the obliquity of the eclip-
tic, and compare them with the concluiions deduced, from the
theory of gravity, by M. de la Grange. To that geometer,
phyfical aftronomy is indebted for one of the moft beautiful of
its difcoveries, viz. That all the variations in our fyftem are
periodical ; fo that though every thing, almoft without excep-
tion,

* Mem. Acad, des Scien. 1786, p. 260.

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ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. i6i

tion, be fabje<5l to change, it will, after a certain interval, re-
turn to the fame (late in which it is at prefent, and leave no
room for the introdudlion of diforder, or of any irregularity
that might conftantly increafe. Many of theie periods, how-
ever, are of vaft duration. A great number of ages, for in-
ftance, muft elapfe before the year be again exadlly of the
fame length, or the fun's equation of the fame magnitude as at
prefent *. An aftronomy, therefore, which profefles to be fo
ancient as the Indian, aught to differ coniiderably from ours in
many of its elements. If indeed thefe differences are irregular,
they are the effedls of chance, and muft be accounted errors ;
but if they obferve the laws, which theory informs us that the'
variations in our fyftem do adually obferve, they muft be held
as the moft undoubted marks of authenticity. We are to ex-
amine, as M. Bailly has done, which of thefe takes place in
the cafe before us f-

30.' Thb tables of Tiryalore, which, as we have feen, refer
their date to the beginning of the Calyougham, make the fy-
derial year to confift of 365^, 6^ 12', 30"; and therefore the
tropical of 365^, 5*, 50', 35", which is i', 46'', longer than
that of De la Caille %. Now, the tropical year was in rea-
lity longer at that time than it is at prefent ; for though the fi-
derial year, or the time which the earth takes to return from
one point of fpace to the fame point again, is always of the
fame magnitude, yet the tropicd year being afiedled by the
preceffion of the equinoxes, is variable by a fmall quantity,
which never can exceed 3', 40", and which is fubjed to flow,
and unequal alternations of diminution and increafe. A the-
orem, expreiling the law and the quantity of this variation, has
been inveftigated by M. D£ la Grange, in the excellent Me-

Vol. II. 9c moir

• Mem. de TAcad. de Berlin, 178a, p. 170, &c.
f Aft. Ind. p. 160, &c.
t Supra, $ x8. and 10.

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i6z REMARKS on the

nioir already mentioned * ; and it makes the year 3102 before
Christ, 4o"'4- longer than the year at the beginning of the
prefent century f • The year in the tables of Tinralore is there-
fore too great by i', f\.

31. But the determination of the year is always from a com-
parifon of obfervations made at a confiderable interval from
one another ; and, even to produce a degree of accuracy much
lefs than vi^hat we fee belongs to the tables of Tirvalore, that
interval muft have been of feveral ages. Now, fays M. Bailly^
if we fuppofe thefe obfervations to have been made in that pe*
riod of 2400 years, immediately preceding the Calyougham, to
which the Brahmins often refer ; and if wc alfo fuppofe the
inequaHty of the preceffion of the equinoxes, to increafe as we
go back, in proportion to the fquare of the. times, we (hall find,
that, at the middle of this period, or 1200 years before the be-
ginning of the Calyougham, the length of the year was 365',
5*> 5 Of 4^"> almoft precifely as in the tables of Tirvalore.
And hence it is natural to conclude, that this determination of
the folar year is as ancient as the year 1200 before the Cal*
yougham, or 4300 before the Chriftian era J.

32. In this reafoning, however, it feems impofEble caacqui-
efce ; and M. B a illy himfelf does not appear to have relied on
it with much confidence j|. We are not at liberty to fuppofe,
that the preceffion of the equinoxes increafes. in the ratio above
mentioned, or, which is tKe fame, that the equinodtial points
go back with' a motion equably retarded. If, by M. db
Grange's formula, we trace back, flep by flep, the variation
of the fokr year, wefhall find, that about the beginning of
the Calyougham^ ' it had lieatly attaiaied liie extreme point of

* Menu Acad. Berlin, i?82. p. aSjK

f Aft. Ind. p. i6o.

X Ibid, p, x6i.

H Hb fays, '' Sam donte il nc pent r^Tuker de ce calcul qa'an appersu.'*

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AStRONDMT of the BRAHMINS. 163

one of thofe vibrations, which many centuries are required to
complete ; and that the year was then longer. than it has ever
been (incei or than it had been for many ages before. It was
40"^ longer than it is at prefent ; but, at the year 5500 before
Christ, it was only 29'' longer than at prefent, inflead of 2',
50", which is the refult of M. Bailly's fuppofition. During
all the intervening period of 2400 years, the variation of the year
was between thefe two quantities ; and we cannot therefore, by
any admiflible fuppofition, reduce the error of the tables to lefs
than i', 5". The fmallneis of this error, though extremely fa-
vourable'to the antiquity, as well as the accuracy of the Indian
a(lronomy> is a circumftance from which a more precife con-
clufion can hardly be deduced.

^^. The equation of the fun's centre is an element in the
Indian aftronomy, which has a more unequivocal appearance
of belonging to an earlier period than the Calyougham. The
maximum of that equation is fixed, in thefe tables, at a^, 10',
33^'. It is at prefent, according to M. de la Caille, i®, 557,
that is, 15' lefs than with the Brahmins. Now, M. de la Gr a nge
has fhewn, that the fun's equation, together with the eccentri-
city of the earth's orbit, on which it depends, is fubjedl to al-
ternate diminution and increafe, and accordingly has been di-
minifhing for many ages. In the year 3102 before our era,
that equation was 2®, 6', 28''f ; lefs, only by 4', than in the
Cables of the Brahmins. But if we fuppofe the Indian aftro-
nomy to be founded on obfervations that preceded the Calyoug-
ham, the determination of this equation will be found to be
ftill more exad. Twelve hundred years before the commence--
ment of that period, or about 4300 years before our era, it ap-
pears, by computing from M. de lA; Grange's formula, that
the equation of the fun's centre vf^s adually 2^, 8', 16''; fb
that if the Indian aftronomy be as old as that period, its error
with refpedt to this equation is but of 2' *•

X 2 34* The

* Aft. lad. p. 163,

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i64 REMARKS on the

34- The obliquity of the ecliptic is another element in which
the Indian aftronomy and the European do not agree, but
where their difference is exadlly fuch a8 the high antiquity of
the former is found to require. The Brahmins make Oic obli-
quity of the ecliptic 24®. Now, M. de la Grange's formu-
la for the variation of the obliquity*, gives 22', 32'', to be
added to its obliquity in 1700, that is, to 23**, 28^, 41", in or-
der to have that which took place in the year 3102 before our
era. This gives us 23®, 51^ 13'', which is 8', 47'', (hort of
the determination of the Indian aftronomers. But if we fup-
pofe, as in the cafe of the fun's equation, that the obfervations
on which this determination is founded, were made 1200 years
before the Calyougham, we (hall find that the obliquity of the
ecliptic was 23®, 57', 45", and that the error of the ubles did
not much exceed 2' f •

35. Thus, do the meafures which the Brahmins affign ta
thefe three quantities, the lei^gth of the tropical year, the equa-
tion of the fun's centre, and the obliquity of the ecliptic, all
agree in referring the epoch of their determination to the year
3102 before our era, or to a period ftill more ancient. Thifr
coincidence in three elements, altogether independent of one
another, cannot be the effeft of chance. The difference, with
refped to each of them, between their- aftronomy and ours,.
might fingly perhaps be afcribed to inaccuracy ; but that three
errors, which chance had introduced, (hould be all of fuch
magnitudes, as to fuit exadly the fame hypothefis concerning
their origin, is hardly to be conceived. Yet there is no other
alternative, but to admit this very improbable fuppofition, or
to acknowledge that the Indian aftronomy is as ancient as one,
or other of the periods above mentioned.

36. This conclufion would receive great additional confirmar
tion, could we follow M. B a illy in his analyfis of the aftro*

noxny

♦ Mem. Acad. Berlin, 1782, p. iSp
f Afi. Ind. p. 165.

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JSTRONOMT of the BRAHMINS. x6s

nomy of the planets, contained in the tables of Chrifn^
bouram * ; but the length to which this paper is already ex-
tended, will allow only a few of the moft remarkable particu-
lars to be fele<5led.

In theie tables, which are for the epoch 1491 9 the mean mo-
tions are given with confiderable accuracy, but without an ap-
pearance of being taken from Ptolemy, or any of the aftro-
nomers already mentioned. Two inequalities, called the fcbi-
gram^nA the manda^ are alfo diftinguifhed in each of the pla-
nets, both fuperior and inferior f • The firft of thefe is the
fame with that which we call the parallax of the earth's orbit,
or the apparent inequality of a planet, which arifes not from
its own motion, but from that of the obferver ; but whether
it is afcribed, in the Indian aftronomy, to its true caufe, or to
the motion of the planet in an epicycle, is a queftion about
which the tables give no direfl information. The magnitude,
however, of this equation is afligned, for each of the planets,
with no fmall exadhiefs, and is varied, in the different points
of its orbit, by a law which approaches very near to the truth.

The other inequality coincides with that of the planet's cen-
tre, or that which arifes from the eccentricity of its orbit, and
it is given near the truth for all the planets, except Mercury, by
which, as is no wonder, the firft aftronomers were, every where,
greatly deceived. Of this inequality, it is fuppofed, juft as
in the cafes of the fun and moon, that it is always as the
fine of the planet's diftance from the point of its iloweft mo-
tion, or from what we call its aphelion, and is confequently
greateft at 90^ from that point*

It were to be wifhed that we knew the etymology of the
names which are given to thefe inequalities, as it might ex-
plain the theory which guided the authors of the tables. The
titles of our aftronomical tables, the terms aphelion^ heliocentric

©r

• Aft. Ind. p. 173, &e^
t Ibid, p^ 177.

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i66 REMARKS on the

or geocentric place, &c. would diicover the leading ideas of the
Copernican fyftem, were no other defcriptioh of it. preferred.

37. In the manner of applying thefe two inequalities, to cor-
redl the mean place of a planet, the rules of this aftronomy
are altogether lingular, in the cafe of a fuperior planet, they
do not make ufe of th^ mean atiomaly, as the argument for
finding out the equation manda^ but of that anomaly^ when
correded firft by half the equation fcbtgram^ and afterwards
by half the equation manda *• By the equation of the centre,
obtained with this argument^ the mean longitude of the planet
is corre<Sed, and its true heliocentric place confcquently found,
to which there is again applied the parallax of the annual orbit,
that the geocentric place may be obtained. The only difficulty
here, is in the ipethod of taking out from the tables the equa-
tion to the centre. It is evidently meant fot avoiding fome
inaccuracy, which was apprehended irom a more dire^ method
of calculation^ but of winch, even after the ingenious remarks
of M. B A ILLY, it feems impoffible to give any clear and fatis-
fadlory account.

38. The manner of calculating the places of die inferior
planets has a great refemblance to the former ; with this differ-
£nce, however, that the equation inandcy or of the centre, is
applied to corredt, not the mean place of the planet, but the
mean place of the fun ; and to this laft, when fo correded, is
applied the equationy2-i&(^r^7i9sr, which involves the planet^s elon-
gation from the fun, and gives its geocentric t>lacef. This
necefTarily implies, that the centre, about which the inferior
planets revolve, has the fame apparent mean motion with the
fun : but whether it be a point really different from the fun, or
the fame ; and, if the fame, whether it be in motion or at reft,
are left entirely undetermined, arid we know not, whether^
in the aftronomy of India, we have here difcovered a refem-
blance

* Aft* Ind. p. 194.
f Ibid. p. J 99, &c

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jtSTRONOMT of the BRJHMINS. 167

blance to the Ptolemaic, the Tychonic, or the Copcrnican fy-
ftem.

39. Th£8£ tables, though their radical places are for the year
149 1 of our era, have an obvious reference to the great epoch of the
Calyougham. For if we calculate the places of the planets from
them, for the beginning of the aftronomical year, at that epoch,
we find them all in conjundion with the fun in the beginning
of the moveable zodiac,their common longitude being io% 6® *.
According to our tables, there was, at that time, a conjundtion
of all the planets, except Venus, with the lun ; but they were,
by no means^ fo near to one another as the Indian aftronomy
reprefents* It is true, that the exa<5l time of a conjundlion
cannot be determined by diredt obfervation : but this does not
amount to an entire vindication of the tables ; ^nd there is rea-
ion to fufpedt, that fome fiiperflitious notions, concerning the
beginning of the Calyougham, and the figns by which nature
muft have diftinguifhed fb great an epoch, has, in this inilance
at leaft, perverted the aftronomy of the Brahmins. There are^
however, fome coincidences between this part of their aftro-
nomy, and the theory of gravity, which muft not be for-
gotten.

40. The firft of thefe refpedls the aphelion of Jupiter,
which, in the tables, is fuppofed to have a retrograde motion
of 15^ in 200,000 years f , aad to have been, at the epoch of
149 1, in longitude 5^ 21^, 40^ 30", from the beginning of
the zodiac. It follows, therefore, that in the year 3102 before
Christ, the longitude of Jupiter's aphelion was 3', 27®, o',
reckoned from the equinox. Now, the fame, computed from
M. DE LA Landb's tables, is only 3% 16®, 48', 58'; fo that
there would leem to be an error of .more thail lo'' in the tables
of the Brahmins. But, if it be confidered, that Jupiter's orbit

* Aft. Ind. p. iSff.
•| IbkL p. 184. \ 13.

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i68 REMARKS on the

IS fubje<£l to great difturbances, from the adlion of Saturn,
ivhich M. DE LA Lande does not profefs to have taken into
account, we will be inclined to appeal once more to M. de la
Grange's formulas, before we pafs fentence againft the Indian
aflronomy *.

From one of thefe formulas, we find, that the true place of the
aphelion of Jupiter, at the time above mentioned, was 3', 26'',
50', 40'', which is but 10', 40", different from the tables of
Ghrifhabouram. The French and Indian tables are therefore
both of them exadl, and only difier becaufe they are adapted
to ages near five thoufand years diftant from one another.

41. The equation of Saturn's centre is an inftance of the
fame kind. That equation, at prefent, is, according to M. de
LA Lande, 6®, 23', ig" ; and hence, by means of one of the
formulas above mentioned, M. Baillt calculates, that, 3102
years before Christ, it was 7"*, 41', 22'' f. The tables of the
Brahmins make it 7®, 39', 44", which is lefs only by i', 38",
than the preceding equation, though greater than that of the
prefent century by i®, 16', 25".

42. M. Bailly remarks^ that the equations for the other
planets are not given with equal accuracy, and afford no more
fuch inftances as the former. . But it is curious to obferve, that
new refearches into the effe<5l8 of gravitation, have difcovered
new coincidences of the fame kind ; and that the two great
geometers, who have fhared between them the glory of per-
fecting the theory ofdijiurbing forces^ have each contributed his
part to eftablifh the antiquity of the Indian aftronomy. Since
the publication of M. Bailly*s work, two other inftances of
an exadt agreement, between the elements of thefe tables, and
the conclufions deduced from the theory of gravity, have been
obferved, and communicated to himi by M. de la Place, in a
letter, inferted in the Journal des Savans.

* Mem. Acad. Berlin. 1782, p. 246. Aft. Ind. p. i86«
+ Aft. lad. p. 188.

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ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. 169

In feeking for the caufe of the fecular equations, which mo-
dem aftronomers have found it necelTary to apply to the mean
motion of Jupiter and Saturn, M. de la Place has difcovered,
that there are inequalities belonging to both thefe planets,
arifing from their mutual adlion on one another, which have
long periods, one of them no lefs than 877 years; fo that the
mean motion mufl: appear different, if it be determined from
obfervations made in different parts of thofe periods. " Now,
" I find," fays he, " by my theory, that at the Indian epoch
" of 3102 years before Christ, the apparent and annual
" mean motion of Saturn was 12^, 13', 14'', and the Indian
" tables make it 12®, 13', i^\

^* In like manner, I find, that the annual and apparent mean
" motion of Jupiter at that epoch was 30®, 20', 42'', precifely
" as in the Indian aftronomy */'

43* Thus have we enumerated no lefs than nine aftronomi-
cal elements f , to which the tables of India affign fuch values
as do, ^by no means, belong to them in thefe later ages, but
fuch as the theory of gravity i)roves to have belonged to them
three thoufand years before the Chriftian era. At that time,
therefore, or in the ages preceding it, the obfervations mufl
have been made from which thefe elements were deduced.
For it is abundantly evident, that the Brahmins of later times,
however willing they might be to adapt their tables to fo re-
markable an epoch as the Calyougham, could never think of
doing fo, by fubflituting, inflead of quantities which they had
obferved, others which they had no reafon to believe had ever
exifted. The elements in queflion are precifely what thefe

Vox. II. y aftr onomers

* Efprit det Journeauz, Nov. 1787. p« So.

t Tax inequality of the preceffion of the equinoxes, (§ 22.) j the acceleration of the
moon ; the length of the (blar year ; the equation of the fun's centre ; the obliquity of
die ecliptic y the place of Jupiter's aphelion ^ the equation of Saturn's centre ; and the
inequalities in the mean motion of both thefe planets*

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T70 REMARKS on the

aftronomcrs muft have fuppofed invariable, and of vrhich, had
they fuppofed them to change, they had no rules to go by for
afcertaining the variations ; fince^ to the difcovery of thefe
rules is required, not only all the perfection to which aftro-
nomy is, at this day, brought in Europe, but all that which
the fciences of motion and of extenfion have likewife attained*
It is no lefs clear, that thefe coincidences are not the work
of accident ; for it will fcarcely be fuppofed that chance has
adjufted the errors of the Indian aftronomy with fuch Angu-
lar felicity, that obfervers, who could not difcover th€ true
ftate of the heavens, at the age in which they lived, have fuc-
ceeded in defcribing one which took place feveral thoufand
years before they were bom.

44* The argument, however, which regards the originality
of thefe tables, is, in fome meafure, incomplete, till we have
considered the geometrical principles which have been employed
in their conftnidtion. For it ia not impofllble, that when feen
connedled by thofe principles^ and united into general theo-
rems, they may be found to have relations to the Greek aftro-
nomy, which did not appear, when the parts were examined
fingly. On this fubjeCl, therefore, I am now to ofier a few ob«
fervations.

45. The rules by which the phenomena of eclipfes are de-
duced from the places of the fun and moon, have the mod
immediate reference to geometry ; and of thefe rules, as found
among the Brahmins of Tirvalore, M. le Gentil has given
a full account, in the Memoir that has been fo often quoted.
We have alfo an account of the method of calculation ufed at
Chrifhabouram by Father DU Champ *.

It is a neceffary preparation, in both of thefe, to find the time
of the fun's continuance above the horizon, at the place and the
day for which the calculation of an eclipfe is made, and the rule by
which the Brahmins refolve this problem, is extremely fimple

and

• Aft. lad. p. 355, &c.

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ASTRONOMY of ib€ BRAHMINS. 171

and ingenious* At the place for which they calculate^ they
obferve the fhadow of a gnomon on the day of the equinox,
at noon, when the fun, as they exprefs it, is in the middle of
the world. The height of the gnomon is divided into 720
equal parts, in which parts the length of the (hadow is alfo
meafured. One third of this meafure is the number of mi-
nutes by which the day, at the end of the firft month after the
equinox, exceeds twelve hours ; four-fifths of this excefs is the
increafe of the day during the fecond month ; and one third
of it is the increafe of the day, during the third month *.

46. It is plain, that this rule involves the fuppoiition, that,
when the fiin's declination is given, the fame ratio every where
exifb between the arch which meafures the increafe of the day
at any place, and the tangent of the latitude ; for that tangent
is the quotient which arifes from dividing the length of the
fhadow by the height of the gnomon. Now, this is not ftridlly
true ; for fuch a ratio only fubfifls between the chord of the
arch, and the tangent above mentioned. The rule is, therefore,
but an approximation to the truth, as it necefTarily fuppofes
the arch in queftion to be fo finall as to coincide nearly with
its chord. This fuppofition hdlds only of places in low lati-
tudes ; and the rule which is founded on it, though it may
fafely be applied in countries between the tropics, in thofe that
are more remote from the equator, would lead into errors toa
confiderable to efcape obfervation f*

y 2 As

* Mem. Acad, des Scien. ILP. 175.

f To judge of the accuracy of this approximation, fuppole 0 to be the obliquity of
the ecliptic, and x the ezcefB of the femidiurnal arch, on the longed day, ab6ve an arch
of 90^, then ^n. x = tan. 0 x tan. lat. But if G be the height of a gnomon, and S

S S

the length of its (hadow on the equinodial day, -^ zz tan* lot. and^n. x = tan. 0 X -r^-.

^ r ^ S tan.0^xS^ tan.O'xS' ..

Therefore x = SathO X -57- + -— ttt;— — + ■ ^^ ■ ■ + fed or m mmntes of
G 6G» 24G'

time.

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172 REMARKS on the

As fome of the former rules, therefore, have ferved to fix
the time, fo does this, in fome meafure, to afcertain the place
of its invention. It is the fimplification of a general vv^
adapted to the circumftances of the torrid zone, and fuggefted
to the aftronomers of Hindoflan by their peculiar fituation. It
implies the knowledge of the circles of the fphere, and of fphe-
rical trigonometry, and perhaps argues a greater progrefs in
mathematical reafbning, than a theorem that was perfedlly ac-
curate would have done. The firft geometers muft naturally
have dreaded nothing fo much as any abatement in the rigour
of their demonftrations, becaufe they would fee no limits to the
error and uncertainty, in which they might, by that* means, be
involved. It was long before the mathematicians of Greece
underftood how to fet bounds to fuch errors, and to afcertain
their utmofl extent, whether on the fide of excefs or defeft ;
in this art, they appear to have received the firft leiTons fo late
as the age of Archimedes.

47. Thb

time, reckoned after the Indian manner, x = 572.957 (/tf«.0 x -tt + tan.O^ X

6G'
If 0 =: 24®, then tan. 0 zz .4452, and the £rft term of this formula gives x =:

572.957 X ^--^ — = — —-, which 19 the fame with the rule of the Brahmins*

For that rule, reduced into a formula, is 2» =: — ^r^(— + + ) ^

G \ 3 15 9 /

51 25 2s6S

— -, or * = — — .

TkEt have therefore computed the coefficient of -—• with fufficient accuracy ; the

error produced bj the omiffion of the reft of the terms of tHe feries will not exceed i',

even at the trqiics, but, beyond them,^ it increafes &ft, and, in the latitude of 45s

would amount to SV

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ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. 173

47* The Brahmins having thus obtained the variations of
the length of the day, at any place, or what we call the afcen-
fional differences, ^PP^y them likewife to another purpofe. As
they find it neceflary to know the point of the ecliptic, which
is on the horizon, at the time when an eclipfe happens, they
have calculated a table of the right afcenfions of the points of
the ecliptic in time, to which they apply the afcenfional dif-
ferences for the place in queftion, in order to have the time
which each of the figns takes to defcend below the horizon of
that place *. This is exa<5lly the method, as is well known,
which the moft fkilful aftronomer, in like circumftances, would
purine. Their table of the differences of right afcenfion is
but for a few points in the ecliptic, vi%. the beginning of each
fign, and is only carried to minutes of time, or tenths of a
degree. It is calculated, however, fo far as it goes, with per-
fedt accuracy, and it fiippofes the obliquity of the ecliptic, as
before, to be twenty-four degrees.

Such calculations could not be made without fpherical tri-
gonometry, or fome method equivalent to it. If, indeed, we
would allow the lead fkill pofhble to the authors of thefe tables,
we may fuppofe, that the arches were meafured on the circles
of a large globe, or armillary fphere, fuch as we know to have
been one of the firll inftruments of the Egyptian and Greek
aftronomers. But there are fome of the tables where the arches
are put down true to feconds, a degree of accuracy which a
mechanical method can fcarcely have afforded.

48. In another part of the calculation of eclipfes, a diredl
application is made of one of the moft remarkable propo-
fitions in geometry. In order to have the femiduration of
a folar ecHpfe, they fubtra<^ from the fquare of the fum of
the femidiameters of the fun and moon, the fquare of a certain
line, which is a perpendicular from the centre of the fun on
the path of the moon 5 and from the remainder, they extradl

the

^ Acad, dcs Scico. 1772^ IL P. 205.

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174 REMARKS OH the

the fquare root, which is the meafure of the fetoiduration *.
The fame thing is pradlifed in lunar eclipfes f . Thefe operar
tions are all founded on a very difUnift conception of what hap-
pens in the cafe of an eclipfe, and on the knowledge of this
theorem, that, in a right-angled trianglei the fquare on the
hypothenufe is equal to the fquares on the othtf two fides. It
is curious to find the theorem of Pythagoras in India, where,
for aught we know, it may have been difcovered, and from
whence that philofopher may have derived fome of the (blid^ as
well as the vifionary fpeculations, with which he delighted to
inflrudl or amufe his difciples.

49. We have mentioned the ufe that is made of the femi-
diameters of the fun and moon in thefe calculations, and the
method of afcertaining them, is deferving of attention. For
the iun*8 apparent diameter, they take four-ninths of his
diurnal motion, and for the inoon's diameter, one twenty-
fifth of her diurnal motion. In an eclipfe^ they fuppofe the
fedlion of the fliadow of the earth, at the diftance of the moon,
to have a diameter five times that of the moon ; and in all
this, there is confiderable accuracy, as well as great fimpli-
city. The apparent diameters of the fun and moon, increaie
and diminiih with their angular velocities ; and though there
be a miftsJce in fuppofing, that they do fo ezaAly in the fame
proportion, it is one which, without telefcopes and microme-
ters, cannot eafily be obferved. The fedtion of the earth's fha-
dow, likewife, if the fun's apparent diameter be given, in-
creafes as the moon's increafes, or as her diilance firom the
«arth diminiihes, and nearly enough in the fame ratio to juflify
the rule which is here laid down.

50. Thb hiftorian of the Academy of Sciences, in giving a&
account of M. le Gentil's Memoir, has julUy obferved, diat

the

• Mem. Acad, dcs Scicn. 1 772, II. P. 259.
^ Ibid. 241.

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ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. 175

the rule defcribed in it, for finding the difference between the
true and apparent conjundlion, at the time of a folar eclipfe,
contains the calculation of the moon's parallax, but fubftitutes
the parallax in right afcenfion for the parallax in longitude * ;
an error which the authors of this aflronomy would probably
have avoided, had they derived their knowledge from the
writings of Ptolemy. From this iuppofed parallax in longi-
tude, they next derive the parallax in latitude, where we may
obferve an application of the do6lrine of fimilar triangles ; for
they fuppofe the firft of thefe to be to the laft in the conftant
ratio of 35 to 2^ or nearly as the radius to the tangent of the
inclination of the moon's orbit to the plane of the ecliptic.
We have here, therefore, the application of another geometrical
dieorem, and that too proceeding on the iuppoiition, that a
finall portion of the fphere, on each fide of the point which the
fun occupies at the middle of the eclipfe, may be held to coia«
dde with a plane touching it in that point.

51. The refult which the Brahmins thus obtain will be al-
lowed to have great accuracy » if it be confidered how fimple
their rule» are, and how long it muft be fince their tables were
corre<fted by obfervations. In two ecHpfes of the moon,
calculated in India by their method, and likewife obferved
there by W. lb Gentil, the error, in neither cafe, exceeded
23' of time, (correfponding to one of 13' of a degree, in
the place of the moon) ; and in the duration and magni-
tisde of the eclipfe, their calculadon came ftill nearer to the
truth t*

52. Since

* Htft. Acad. ILP. 109. Ibid. Mem. 253,— -256.

f In the language, however, of their rules, we may trace fi>me marks of a fabulous
and Ignorant age, from which indeed even the aflronomy of Europe is not altogether
htt. The place of the moon's alceQding node, is with them the place of the Dragon or
tit Serpents the-moon'sdiftance from the node, is literally tranflated by M. lb Gkntxl,

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ij6 REMARKS on the

52. Since an inequality was firft obferved in the motions of
the fun or moon, the difcovery of the law which it follows,
and the method of determining the quantity of it, in the
different points of their orbits, has been a problem of the
greatefl importance ; and it is curious to inquire, in what man-
ner the aftronomers of India have proceeded to refolve it. For
this purpofe, we muft examine the tables of the cbaiaa^ or
equations of the centre for the fun and moon, and of the manda^
or equations of the centre for the planets. With refpedl to the
firft, as contained in the tables of Siam, M. Cassini obfenred,
that the equations followed the ratio of the fines of the mean
diftances from the apogee ; but as they were calculated only for
a few points of the orbit, it could not be known with what
degree of exadlnefs this law was obfenred. Here, however, the
tables of Chrifnabouram remove the uncertainty, as they give
the equation of the centre for every degree of the mean mo-
tion, and make it nearly as the fine of the diftance from the
apogee.

They do fo, however, only nearly ; and it will be found on
trial, that there is, in the nimxbers of the table, a finall, but re-
gular variation from this law, which is greateft when the ar-
gument is 30"*, though even there it does not amount to a mi-
nute. The fun*s equation, for inftance, which, when greateft,
or when the argument is 90®, is, by thefe tables, 2®, to', 32^,
ihould be, when the argument is 30®, juft the half of this, or
^""f 5\ ^^\ did the numbers in the table follow ezaflly the

ratio

la Ivne offenfef du dragon. Whether it be that we have borrowed thefe abfurdities from
India, along with aflrology, or if the popular theory of «clip(es has, at firft, been every
where the iame, the moon's node is alfo known with us by the name of the cauda dru-
corn's. In general, however, the (ignification of the terms in theic rules, fb fiir as we
Inow it, is more rational. In one of them we may remark confiderable refinement ^
ayanangfam, which is the name for the redudion made on the din's longitude, oti account
of the preceflion of the equinoxes, is compounded from ayanam, a courfe^ and angfam^
an atom. Mem. Acad. XL P. 251. The equinox is almoft the only point not difiin-
guiibed by a vifible objefl, of which the courjt or motion is computed in this aftronomy.

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ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. 177

fatio of the fines of the argument. It is, however, i *, 6\ 3" j
and this exceft of 4/' cannot have arifen from any miftake
about the ratio of the fine of 30® to that of 90°, which U
(hewn to be that of i to a, by a propofition in geometry *
much too fimple to have been unknown to the authors of thefe
tables. The rule^ therefore, of the equations, being; pvopor^
tional exadiy to die fines of the argument, is not what waa
followed, or intended to be followed, in the calculation of
them. The differences, alfo, between the numbers computed
by that rule, and thoie in the ts^lea, are perfedly regular, de-
creafing from the point of 30^, both ways toward the begin-^
ning and end oi the quadrant, whsre they vaniih altogether.

Thes^£ obfervations apply alio- to the tables of Narfapur f,
and to the moon's equations, as well as to the fun's, with a cir-
cumftance, however, which is^ not eafily accounted &r, viz%^
that the differences between the numbers calculated by M. Cas*.
siNi's rule,, and thofe in the tables, are not greater in tlie cafe
of the* mooot than of the fun, though (he equation ef the latter
be more than double that of the former. They apply alfo to
the tables manda of t^e planets, where the equations are greater
than the ratio of the fines of their arguments^ requires, the ex-
eefs being greateft at 30^, and amounting to fome minutes in
the equations of Saturn, Jupiter and Mars, in which lad it is:
greateft of all

5,5.. Though, fi>r thefe reaTpnSj it Is pliain, that the rule of
M. Gassini i& not the fame with that of the firahxnins, it cer-
tainly includes the greater part of it ; and if the latter, what^
ever it may have been, wer^ exprefiedin a,ieries> according to
the methods of the modem analyfis, the former would be the
firft term of that feries. We are not, however, much advanced
in our inquiry in confequence of this remark ; for the firft
terms of all the feries, which can, on any hypothefis, exprefs'

Vol. it. z the

• £uc. Lib. IV. Prop. 15.

f See thefe tables, Afi. Ind. p. 414^

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178 REMARKS m (be

the relation of the equation of the ccntrd to the anomaly of a
planet, are fo far the fame, that diey are proportional to the fine
of that anomaly ; and it becomes therefore neceflary to fearch
among thefe hypothefes, for that by which the; feries of
fmall xiifference8, described above, may be bed reprefented.
It is needlefi to enter here into any detail of the reafonin'g«
by -virhich this has been done, and by which I have found,
that the argument in the table bears very nearly the fame
relation to the correfponding numbers, that the anomaly
of the eccentric docs to the equation of the centre. By the
anomaly of the eceenirici however, I do not mean the angle
which is known by that namie in the folvttioia of Kepler's
problem, but that which ferves thq fame purpofe with it,
on the Tuppofition of '- a circular orbit, and an uniform an*
gular motion about d, point which is not the cehtre of diat
orbiti but which is as- diftant from it, on the 'one fide, as
the earth (or the place of the obferver) is on the other* It* is
the angle, which, in fuch an orbit, the line drawn from' the
planet to the centre, makes with the line drawn from thence to
the apogee ; and the argument in the Indian tables coincides
with this angle.

Th!^ hypothefis of a double eccentricity, is certainly hot the
fimpleft that may be formed with refpe^ft to the motion of the
heavenly bodies, and is not what one would exped^ to meet widbi
here ; but it agrees fo well with thd tables, and gives the equa-
dons from the argumfents fo nearly, efpccially for the moon and
Ithe plai^ets, that little doiibt remaiii^s of its being the real hy-
pothefis on which thefe tables were conftrudted ^.

54-0^

*'Tb« formuU dedaeed from this lupothefii, for calculating Uus oqustion of the cea»
tre froip the anomaly of the eccentric, is the foUowip^ : Let « be the equation of the
centre, ^ the anomal/ of the eccentric, e the eccentricity of the orbk, or the tangent of

half the greateft e^ aation 5 then 9$ = TjeJin.tfA =^ — ^^ + — =-—5 1. fee.

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jtSTRONOMT of the BRJHMINS. 179

54. Of this, the method ■ employ ed to calculate the place of
Miy of the five planets from thefe tables, affords a confirma-
tion. But, in reafoning about that method, it is neceflary to
put out of the queftion the ufe that is made of the paraHax of
the annual orbit, or of xhe/cbi^ram, in order to have the ar-
gument for finding the ecjilation of die centre, which is evi-
dently faulty, as it mates that equation to be afiedted by a
quantity, (the parallar of the annual orbit), on which it haa
in reality no dependence. To have the rule free from error, it
is to be taken, therefore, 'rii the c^ffe when there ii n6 parallax
of the annual orbit; th^r' is, 'when the planets are in oppofition
or conjundlion with the fun. In that cafe, the mean anomaly
is firft corre(5led by the fubtraAion or addition of half the
equation that belongs to it in the table. It then becomes the
true argument for finding, from that fame table, the equation
of the centre, which is^ next api^ied to the meati anomaly, to
have the true. Now, this agrees perfe(5lly with the conclufioa
above ; for the mean anomaly, by the fiabtradlion or addition
of half the equation belonging to it in the table, is c<Miverted,
almoft pretifely; into the anomaly' of the eccentric, and be-
comes therefore the proper argument for finding out the equa^
tion, which is to change the mean anomaly into the ^rue K
There can be no doubt, of cbnfequence, that the conclufion
we have come to is ftriAly applicable to the planets, and that
the orbit of each of them, in this' aftronbmy, is fuppofed ta
be a circle, the earth not being in its centre, but tlie angular

a 2 velocity

* Tiu method of ciilodattofi is fe nearly esuiA, that trwtm in' the oililt joF : Mars, the

equation calculated from the mean nnomaly, rigoroufly on the prtociple of his aog^ular
motion b^ing uniform, ajDput jbl point diflant from the centre, as defcribed above, will
iteely di^r a minute from that Trhich ^s taken out from the Indian tables by this rule.
it was remarked, (fs?.)" that it is not eafy ta explain the rules for fiading the argument
of the equation of the centre, fcr the planets. What is (aid here explains fully one pmrt
of that rule, vtm. the corredion made by half the equation manda j the principle on
^/AoAi the other part proceeds, vi%^ the corredion by half the equation Jcbi^ram^ is fiiU
wacertaiiu

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lio REMARKS on the

Telocity of the planet being uniform about a certain point, as
far from that centre on the one fide, as the earth is on the op-
j)o(ite.

$S* Bbtwbbn the (lru<flure of the tables of the equations
of the fun and moon, and the rules for uiing them, there is
not the fame coniiflency ; for in both of them, the argument»
which we have found to be the eccentric anomaly, is ne-
Terthelefs treated as the mean. So far as concerns the fun, this
leads to nothing irreconcilable with our fuppofition, becaufe the
fun*s equation being finall, the difference will be inconfiderable,
whether the argument of that equation be treated as the eccen-
tric or the mean anomaly.

Bar it is otherwife with refpeA to the moon, where the <Uf-
fereace between confidering the argument of die equation as
the mean, or as the eccentric anomaly, is not infenfible. The
authority of the precepts, and of the tables, are here oppofed
to one another } and we can decide in favour of the latter, only
becaufe it leads to a more accurate determination of the moon's
'place than the former. It would indeed be an improvement on
their method of calculation, which the Brahmins might n:iake
confiflently with the principles of their own aftronomy, to ex-
tend to the moon their rule for finding the equation of the
centre for the planets. .They would then avoid the palpable
£rror of making the maximum of the moon's equation at the
time when her mean anomaly is 90^, and would afcertain her
place every where with greater exa(flnefs^ It is probable that
this is the method which they were originally diredted to
follow.

56. From the hypothefis which is thus found to be the bafis
of the Indian afbonomy, one of the firft conclufions which pre*
fents itfelf, is the . exiflence of a remarkable affinity between
the fyilem of the Brahmins and that of Ptolemy. In
the latter, the fame thing was fuppoled for the five planets,

that

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ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. i8i

that aj^ars in the former to have been univerfally e(lablt{hed|
vi%. diat their orbits were circles, having the eardi within
them, but removed at a fmall diftance from the centre, and
that each planet defcribed the circumference of its orbit, Qot
with an uniform velocity, but with one that would appear uni*
form, if it were viewed from a point as far above the centre of
the orbit, as that centre is above the earth. This point was, in
the language of Ptolemy's aftronomy, the centre of the
Equant.

Now, concerning this coincidence, it is the more difficult to
judge, as, on the one hand, it cannot be afcribed to accident,
and, on the other, it may be doubted, whether it arifes necef*
farily out of the nature of the fubjeA, or is a confequence of
ibme unknown communication between the aftronomers of
India and of Greece.

The firft hypotheiis by which men endeavoured to explain
the phenomena of the celeftial motions, was that of a uniform
motion in a circle, which had the earth for its centre. This
hypothefis was, however, of no longer continuance than till
inftruments of tolerable exadlnefs were directed to the heavensi
It was then immediately difcovered, that the earth was not the
centre of this uniform motion ; and the earth was therefore
iiippofed to be placed at a certain diftance from the centre of
the orbit, while the planet revolved in die circumference of it
with the fame velocity as before. Both thefe fteps may be ac-
counted necefiary ; and in however many places of the earth,
and however cut off from mutual intercourie, aftronomy had
begun to be cultivated, I have no doubt that thefe two fuppo*
fitions would have fucceeded one another, juft as they did
among the Greek aftronomers.

But when more accurate obfervations had fliewn the infuffi^
ciency even of this fecond hypothefis, what ought naturally to
be the third, may be thought not quite fp obvious ; and if the
Greeks made choice of that which has beenj defcribed above, it

may

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i82 REMARKS on the

may (ecm to have been owing to certain metaphyfical notions*
concerning the fimpiicity and perfcdion of a circular and uni-
form motion, which inclined them to recede from that fuppo-
fition, no farther than appearances rendered abfohitcly neceC
fary. The fame coincidence between the ideas of metaphyfict
and aftronomy, cannot be fuppofed to have taken place in
other countries ; and therefore, where we find this third hypo^
thefis to have prevailed, we may conclude that it was borrowed
from the Greeks.

57. Though it cannot be denied, that, in this reafbning, there
is fome weight, yet it muft be obferved, that the introdudlioa
of the third hypothefis did not reft among the Greeks altoge-
ther on the coincidence above mentioned. It wa^ one fuited to
their progrcfs in mathematical knowledge, and offered almoft
the only fyftem, after the two former were exploded, which
rendered the planetary motions the fubjed of geometrical rea-
foning, to men little verfed in the methods of approximation.
This was the circumftance then, which, more than any other,
probably influenced them in the choice of this hypothefis^
though we are' not to look for it as an argument ftated in their
works, but may judge of the influence it had, from the fre-
quency with which, many ages afterwards, the ttytviLrr^m
of Kepler's fyftem was obje<Jled to him by his adverfaries ; aii
objeflion to which that great man (eemed to pay more attention
than it deferved.

There isreafon therefore to think, that in every country
where aftronomy and geometry had neither of them advanced
beyond a certain point, the hypothefis of the equant would fuc-
ceed to that of a fimpk eccentric orbit, and therefore cannot
be admitted as a proof, that the different i^'ftems in which it
makes a part, are neceflariJy derived frwn the fame fource.
Some other circumftances attending this hypothefis, as it ift
found in the Indian tables, go ftill farther, and feem quite in-
confiftent with the fil^ppofitioa that the authors of thefe tables

derived

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ASTRONOMT of the BRAHMINS. 183

derived it from the aftronomers of the weft. ISoVyfirfly It is ap-
plied by them to all the heavealy bodies^ that is, to the fun and
moon, as well as the planets. With Ptolemy, and with all
thofe who founded their iyftems on his, it extended only to the
latter, infomuch that KEPtEa's great reformation in aftro-
nomy» the difcovery of the elliptic, orbits, began from his
proving, that tht hypothefis of the equant was as nece0ary to
be introduced for the fake of the iiin's orbit, as for thofe of
the planets, and that the eccent^'icity in both cafes, muft be
bifedled. It is» therefore, on a principle no way different from
this of Kepj^er, that die tables of the fun's motion are com-
puted ia the Indian aftronomy, though it muft be allowed, that
the method of ufing them is not perfedlly confiftent with this
idea of their conftrudion.

2dly^ The ufe made of the anomaly of the eccentric in theie
tables, as the argument of the equation of the centre, is alto*
gether peculiar to the Indian aftronomy. Ptolemy's ta*
bles of that equation for the planets, though they proceed on
the fame hypothefis, are arranged in a manner entirely difie-
rent» and have for their argument the mean anomaly. The
angle which we call the anomaly of the eccentric, and which is
of fo much ufe in the Indian tables, is not employed at all in
the conftrudion of his ^, nor, I believe, in thofe of any other
aftronomer till the time of Kepler ; and even by Kepler it
was not made the argument of the equation to the centre. The
method, explained above, of converting the mean anomaly into
that of the eccentric, and confequently into the argument of
the equation, is another peculiarity, and though iimple and
ingenious, has not the accuracy fuited to the genius of the
Greek aftronomy, whichrnever admitted even of. the beft ap-
proximation, when a rigorous folution could be found; and,
on the whole, if the reiemblance of thefe two fyftems, even
with all the exceptions that have been ftated, muft ftill be afcribed

* Alinag;eft. lib. XL cap. 9. & lo.

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184 REMARKS OH the

to fome communication between the authors of them, that com^
munication is more likely to have gone fron^ Indk to Greece^,
than in the oppofite dire<^ion. It may perhaps be thought ta
favour this laft opinion, that Ftolemt has no where demon-
flrated the neceffity of afligning a double eccentrieicy ta the
orbits of the planets, and has left room to fufpedt, that aucho^
rity, more than arguinent, has influenced this, part of his.
fyftem.

58. In the tables of the planets, we remarked another equation^.
ifcbigram) anfwering to the parallax of the earth's orbit, or the
difference between the heliocentric and the geocentric place of
the planet. This parallax, if we conceive a triangle to be
formed by Unes drawn from the fun to the earth and to the
planet, and alfo from the planet to the earth, is the angle of
that triangle, fubtended by the Une drawn frova the fun to the
earth. And £>, accordingly, it is computed in thefe tables ; for
if we refblve: fuch & triangle as is here defcribed, we will find
the angle, fubtended by the earth's diflance from the fun^ coin--
cide very nearly with the fchigram.

The argument of this equation is the difference between the
mean longitude of the fun and of the planet. The orbits are
fiippofed circular ; but whether the inequality ia queftion. was
underftood to ariie from the motion of the earth, or from the
motion of the planet in. an. epicycle, tihe centre of which re*
volves in a circle, is left undetermined, as both, hypothefes. may
be fo adjufied as to give the fame refult witk refpedl to this in^
equality. The proportional, diftances of the planets from the
earth or the fun, may be deduced from the tables of thefe equai^
tions, and are not far from the truth*

59. Th£ preceding calculations mfuft have required die af-^^
fiilance of many fubfidiary tables, of which no trace has yet
been found in Indian Befides many bdier geometrical propofi-
tions, fi>me of them alfo involve the ratio, which the diameter
of a circle was fuppoied to bear to its circumference, but which

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jiSTRONOMY if tBc BRAHMINS. 185

we would find it impdSible to difcoTer from them exadlly, on
account of the (mail quantities that may haTe been negle^ed
in their calculations. Fortunately, we can arrive at this know-
ledge, which is very material when die progrcft of geo-
metry i$ to be eft'unated, from a paflage tn the Ayeen Ak--
bify^ Where we are told, that the Hindoos fuppofe the dia*
mei£r of a drek to be to its circumference as 1250 to 3927 *,
and where the author, who knew that this was more accurate
thaa the proportionof Archimbdis, (7 to 22), and believed it to
be perfe^y exad^ exprefTes his allonilhment, that among fo (im-
pk a people, there fliould be found a truth, which, among the
wiieft and mod learned nations, had been (ought for in vain.

Txt proportioiD of 1350 to 3927 is indeed a near ap*
proach to die quadrature of tbe circle ; it differs little fron^
that of MxTJUS, ti3 to 355, and is the fame with one
equally remarkable, that of i to 3* 141 6. When found ivk.
the fimpkfl: ai»l moft elementary way, it roquires a poly^
goa of 7^ fides to be infcribed in a circle ; an operation:
which cannot be ariiihroetically performed without the know-
ledge of <bme Tery curioai properties of that curve, and, ac
leaft, nine efetradaons of the fquare root, each as far as i?ea
places of decimals. All this muft have been accompUfhed in
Ladias for it is to be oh&rvcd, -tJtat ^e above mentioned:
proportion <a«mot have been reocived from the mathemati-*
dans of tbe weft^ The Greeks left nodilng on this fUbje^ more;*
accursAe than tibe tboorem of AacHiM£0£5; and the Ara-
bian mathemaiiciMM, ieem not to have attempted any nearer
approximation. The geometry of modem Europe can much
Ie& be regarded as the Irairce of ehis knowledge. Mxfios and
Vi£TA were the firft, who, in the cpiadranire of the circle^.
furpaOTed the accuracy of Archimedes ; and they Aouriflied
at ^e very tieae vrhren the Indiirotes of Akbah were coUe6led
iolodia.

VoLt II. . a a^ 60. On

* AyccuAkbcrj, Vol, III, £.30*

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i86 REMARKS on the

6o. On the grounds which have now been explained, the
following general conclufions appear to be eftablifhed.

I. The obfervations on which the aftronomy of India is found-
ed, were made more than three thoufand years before the Chri-
ftian era ; and, in particular, the places of the fun and moon, at the
beginning of the Calyougham, were determined by adtual ob-
fervation.

This follows from the exadt agreement of. the radical places
in the tables of Tirvalore, with thoie deduced for the fame
epoch from the tables of Db la Caille and Mater, and efpe-
cially in the cafe of the moon, when regard is had to her acce-
leration. It follows, too, from the pofition of the fixed ftars in
refpedt of the equinox, as reprefented in the Indian zodiac ;
from the length of the folar year ; and, laftly, from the pofi-
tion and form of the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn, as well as
their mean motions ; in all of which, the tables of the Brah-
mins, compared with ours, give the quantity of the change
that has taken place, juft equal to that which the aAion of the
planets on one another may be (hown to have produced, in the
{pace of forty-eight centuries, reckoned back from the beginning
of the prefent.

Two other of the elements of this aftronomy, the equation
of the fun*s centre, and the obliquity of the ecliptic, when
compared with thofe of the prefent time, feem to point to a
period ftill more remote, and to fix the origin of this aftronomy
looo or 1 200 years earlier, tha(^ is, 4300 years before the Chri-
ftianera; and the time neceflary to have brought the arts of
calculating and obferving to fuch perfedion as they muft have
attained at the beginning of the Calyougham, comes in fupport
of the fame conclufion.

Of fuch high antiquity, therefore, muft we fuppofe the ori*
gin of this aftronomy, unlefs we can believe, that all the coin-

xidences

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ASTRONOMY of the BRAHMINS. 187

cidences which have been enumerated, are but the efFedls of
chance j or, what indeed were ftill more wonderful, that, fome
ages ago, there ha'd arifen a Newton among the Brahmins, to
diicovcr that univerfal principle which connects, not only the
mod diftant regions of fpace, but the moft remote periods of
duration; and a De la Grange, to trace, through the im-
menfity of both, its moft iubtle and complicated operations.

II. Though, the aftronomy which is now in the hands of
the Brahmins, is fo ancient in its origin, yet it contains many
rules and tables that are of later conftrudlion.

The firft operation for computing the moon's place from the
tables of Tirvalore, requires that 1,600,984 days fhould be fub-
traded from the time that has elapfed fince the beginning of
the Calyougham, which brings down the date of the rule to
the year 1282 of our era. At this time, too, the place of the
moon, and of her apogee, are determined with fo much exadt-
nefs, that it muft have been done by obfervation, either at the
inftant referred to, or a few days before or after it. At this
time, therefore, it is certain, that aftronomical obfervations^
were made in India, and that the Brahmins were not, as they
are now, without any knowledge of the principles on which
their rules are founded. When that knowledge was loft, will
not perhaps be eafily afcertained ; but there are, I think, no
circumftances in the tables from which we can certainly infer
the eziftence of it at a later period than what has juft been
mentioned ; for though there are more modern epochs to be
found in them, they are fuch as may have been derived from;
the moft ancient of all, by help of the mean motions in the
tables of Cnrifnabouram *, without any other fkill than is re-
quired to an ordinary calculation. Of thefe epochs, befide what
have been occaiionally mentioned in the courfe of our remarks^
there is one (involved in the tables of Narfapur) as late as the
year 1656, and another as early as the year 78 of our era,

a a 2l which

• Aft. Ind. p* 307.

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i88 REMJRKS m tk

^hich marks the death of SALiyAOANAif,ane of their priaces,
in whofe reign a reform is faid to have taken place in the me-
thods of, their aftronomj. There is no reference to any inter-
mediate date, from that time to the beginning of the Caly*
ougham.

The parts of this adronomy, therefore, are not all of the
fame antiquity ; nor can we judgje, merely from the epoch to
which the tables refer, of the age, to which they were originally
adapted. We have feen, that the tables of Chrifiiabouram,
though they profefs to be no older than the year 1491 of our
era, are, in reality, more ancient than the tables of Tirvabre,
which are dated from the Calyoughamt or at lead hav« under-
gone fewer alterations. This we concluded from tKe flow mo-
tion given to the moon, in the former of theie cables, which
agreed, with fuch wonderful preciiion, with &e feculir equa-
tion applied to that planet by Mayer, and explained by hL
DB LA Place^

But it appears, that neither the tables of Hrvalore or Chiif-
nabouram, nor any with which we are yet acquaintod, are the
moft ancient to be found in India. The Brahmins cooAantly
refer to an aitronbmy at Benares, which they emphatically
ilyle ibe ancient ^, and which they iay is not mow underfiood
by them, though they believe it to be much more accurate than
that by which they calculate. That it ia mow accurate, is
improbable ; that it may be more ancient, no one who has dxily
attended to the foregoing fada and rea(bnings, will diiid: im-
poflible ; and every one, I believe, will acknowledge, that bo
greater fervice could be rendexied to the learned worid, than
to refcue this precious fragment from obfcmrily. l£ that is
ever to be expeifled, it is when the z^al for loio^Tidedge has
formed a literary fociety among our countrymen in Bengal,
and while that fociety is direded by the l^HM^^^g and abi*
lities of Sir William Jones. Indeed, the farther difcovc-

ries

• Aft* Ind. p. 309. M. LE GsNTXLy Mem. Acad. Scien. xyya. P. II- p.2Si.

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jtStROKOMT oftheBRAHMtUfS.

rics wluch naay b? made with refpet^ to this iciencc, do not in*
tereft m^r^ly the aftronomfr »nd tHe nwth^maticwni but every
one who delights, to mark the progrefs of mankind, or i% ^Driou9
to look back on the ancient inhabiunta of the globe. It is
through the medium of aflrooomy alone that a few rays from
tho£e diftant objefts can be conveyed in fafety to the eye of a
modem obierver, ib as to afibrd him a light, which, though it
be fcanty, is pure and unbr<^en> and free from the falfe co^
lourings of vanity and fuperilition.

III. The bails of the four fyilems of agronomical tables
which we have examined* is evidently the fame*

Though thefe tables are fcattered over an extenfive country,
they ieem to have been all originally adapted* either to the fame
mM-idiaa, or to meridians at no great dif^ance* which traver^
what we may call the claHIcal ground of India, marked by th^
ruins of Canoge, Palibothm and ^eoare^* "^ey pontaia roW
dtat have miginated between the tropins ) whfvtever be their
epoch, they are all, by their q^esn motions* copiMsited ^tth that
tk the Calyou|^>an» ; «nd they hvr<t foeiides om ^mform ^^
rader wluch it is perbape not eajlf co 4ercr9j^. Oreait 'm^i^mpf
has been everted to fimptify their rules ; yet« m no m^miSf^ al-
moft, are they reduced to ^ ntm(^ dmplicity > and when
it happens th«e the operatioitf to whi«h t^f le^d are ^treme^
ly obvious, theie are often involved in an >anifi<:ial ob^-
rity> A &-ahmin frequently multiplies by a greater nv^mber than
is neceilary, where he leems to gain nothing but the trouble of
dividing by one that is greater in the fame proportion ; and he
calculates the era of Salivacanam with the formality of as
many diftind operations as if he were .g(»9g to d^rmine the
moon'smotion fince the beginning of the Calyougham. The fame
i|umof excluiioBfthe iame fisar of coQManyqkatiQig hiskoowMget
fecnu to diredl the calcnlus which pervadds ithe religioo of the
Brahnun ; and, in neither o(f xkfxiK, is he wiiUi^ to n^ei^e pr
to itopart ioflnn^n. With aU thefe <:ir<unMlaj(ic/$s of resem-
blance,

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190 REMARKS on the

blance, the methods of this aftronomy are as much diveriified
as we can fuppofe the fame fyftcm to be, by pafling through the
hands of a fucceffion of ingenious men, fertile in refources, and
acquainted with the variety and extent of the (cience which they
cultivated. A fyftem of knowledge, which is thus aflimilated
to the genius of the people, that is diffufed fo widely among
them, and diverfified fo much, has a right to be regarded,
either as a native, or a very ancient inhabitant of the country
where it is found.

IV. The conftrudlion of thefe tables implies a great know-
ledge of geometry, arithmetic, and even of the theoretical part
of aftronomy.

In proof of this, it is unnecefTary to recapitulate the re-
marks that have been already made. It may be proper, how-
ever, to add, that the method of calculating eclipfes, to which
thefe tables are fubfervient, is, in no refpe<5t, an empirical one,
founded on the mere obfervation of the intervals at which
eclipfes return, one after another, in the fame order. It is
indeed remarkable, that we find no trace here of the pe-
riod of 6585 days and 8 hours, or 223 lunatiobs, the Saros of
the Chaldean aftronomers, which they employed for the pre*
didlion of eclipfes, and which (obferved with more or lefs ac-
curacy) the firft aftronomers every where muft have employed,
before they were able to analyfe eclipfes, and to find out the
laws of every caufe contributing to them. That empirical me-
thod, if it once exifted in India, is now forgotten, and has
long fince given place to the more fcientific and accurate one,
which offers a complete analyfis of the phenomena, and calcu-
lates, one by one, the motions of the fun, of the moon, and of
the node.

But what, without doubt, is to be accounted the greateft
refinement in this fyftem, is the hypothefis employed in calcu-
lating the equations of the centre for the fun, moon and pla-
nets, that; viz. of a circular orbit having a double eccentricity,

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AStRONOMT of the BRAHMINS. 191

or having its centre in the middle, between the earth and the
point about which the angular motion is uniform ^. If to this
we add the great extent of geometrical knowledge requifite to

combine

* It (hottld have been remarked before, that M. Baillt has taken notice of the ana-
logy between the Indian method of calculating the places of the planets, and Pto-
lbmt's hypothefis of the equant, though on different principles from thole that
have been followed here, and iuch as do not lead to the fame conclufion. In treating
of the quedion, whether the fun or earth has been fuppofed the centre of the planetary
motions by the authors of this aftronomy, he lays, ^' lis (emblent avoir reconnu que les
** deux injgalit^ (I'^quation du centre et la parallaxe de Torbe annuel) etoienc vues de
** deux centres diflferens j et dans I'impoflibilit^ ou ils etoient de determiner et le lieu et
** la diiiance des deux centres, ils ont imaging de rapporter les deux in^galites ft un point
" qui tint le milieu, c'eft-ft-dire, ^ un pomt ^galement 6loign{ du ibleil, et de la terre.
'' Ce nouveau centre reiemble aflez au centre de Piquant de Ptolsmbx. (Aft. Ind*
Difc. Prel. p. 69.) The fidltious centre, which M. Baillt compares with the equant
of Ptolkmt, is therefore a point which bifod^s the diftance between the fon and earth,
and which, in fome relpedls, is quite different from that equant $ the fiditious centre,
which, in the preceding remarks, is compared with the equant of Ptolxmt, is a
point of which the difiance from the earth is bifeded by the centre of the orbit,
preci(cly as in the cafe of that equant. M. Baillt draws his concluHon from the ufe
made of half the equation ^i&i^tfm, as well as half the equation matu/a^ ia order to find
the argument of this laft equation. The conclufion here is eftablifhed, by abfirafting
altogether from the former, and confidering the cafes of oppofitions and conjundions,
when the latter equation only takes place. If, however, the hypothefis of the equant
fliall be found of importance in the explanation of the Indian afironomy, it mufi be
allowed that it was firfi fuggefted by M. Baillt, though in a (enfe very different frt>m
iriiat it is underftood in here, and from what it was underfiood in by Ptolemy.

Foa what farther relates to the parts of the afironomy of Chaldea and of Greece,
which may be fiippofed borrowed from that of India, 1 mufi refer to the loth Chap,
of the AflrontmtU InJienne, where that fubjed is treated with great learning and
ingenuity. After aU, the filence of the ancients with refped to the Indian afiro-
nomy, is not eafily accounted for. The firft mention that is made of it, is by the
Arabian writers $ and M. Baillt quotes a very fingular pafTage, where Massoudi, an
author of the 12th century, fays, that Baama compofed a book, entitled, Sind-Hindy that
is, Oftbi Age of Agts^ from which was compofed the book Afid^i&^f , and from thence the
Almagefi of Ptolsmt. Afi. Ind. Difc. prel. p. 175.

The fabulous air of this paflage is, in fome meafiire, removed, by comparing it with
one frx>m Aboltaragius, who fays, that, under the celebrated Al Maim on, the 7th
Khalifof Babylon, (about the year 813 of our era) the afironomer Habash compofed
three fots of aftronomical tables, one of which was ad regulas Sind Hind j that is, as
Mr Costard explains it, according to the rules of fome Indian treatife of afironomy.
( Afiatic Mifcd. VoL I. p. 34.) The Sind-Hind is therefore the name of an afironomical
book that exifted in India in the time of Habash, and the fame, no doubt, which Mas-
9PVDX lays was afcribed to Bbama.

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192 HEM^kKS OH the, &c.

c^ibbifie thli^and (he othtr prineiplet of their aftrdAomytt^ether,
and to deduce from ihetn th« juft coftdufio&s } the pdfleffion cf
ft c^kulus equivaknt to trigdndmetry j nud^ kftly, their ap*
pf^Ximation to the quadrature of the circle, we (hall be ailo-
nifhed at the magnitude of that body of fcience, which mud
have enlightened the irthabitantft df India in fome remote age,
and which, whatever it may have commufticated to the weflern
nations, appears to have received nothing from them.

Suqff are the cokiclufions that ieem to me to follow, with
the higheft pK)bability, from the fa<!l4 which have been dated.
They are, without doubt, extraordinary i and have no other
claim td our belief^ except that) a« 1 think haa been fiUly
proved, their being falfe were much more wonderful than their
being true. There are but few things, however, of which the
contrary is impoffible/ It mud be remembered, that the
whole evidieilte oft this fubjeft Is not yet before the public, and
that the repofitaries of Benaree Aiay conuin what is to confirm
or to iftvalidjttc thcfe obfert«tion«.

XiV.

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XIV. On the Resolution of Indeterminate Pro-
blems. By John LesliEj A.M. ' .

{Read hy Mr PLj^TFJIr, Dec. i. 1788.]

IT is a fundamental principle in Algebra, that a problem ad-
mits of folution, when the number of independent equa-
tions is equal to that of the unknown quantities. If iimple ex-
pref&ons only occur, the anfwers will always be found in num-
bers, either whole or fradlional. But if the higher functions
be concerned, the values of the unknown quantities will com-
monly be involved in furds, which it is impoflible to exhibit on
any arithmetical fcale, and to which we can only make a re-
peated approximation. Hence the origin of that branch of o
analyiis which is employed in the inveftigation of thofe pro-
blems, where the number of unknown quantities exceeds that of
the propofed equations, but where the values are required in
whole or fradlional numbers. The fubjedl is not merely an ob-
jedl of curiofity >' it can be applied with advantage to the
higher calculus. Yet the dodlrine of indeterminate equations
has been feldom treated in a form equally fyftematic with the
other parts of algebra. The folutions commonly given are de-
void of uniformity, and often require a variety of aflumptions.
The objedl of this paper is to refolve the complicated expreffions
which we obtain in the folution of indeterminate problems, into ^
jiiaple equations, and to do fo, without framing a number of
aflfbmptions, by help of a fingle principle, which, though ex-
tremely iimple, admits of a very extenfive application. •

Vol. II. i b Let

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194 On the RESOLUTION of

Let AxB be any compound quantity equal to another,
CxD, and let m be any rational number afTumed at plea-
fure ; it is manifeft that, taking equimultiples, XxmB = CXmD.
If, therefore, we fuppofe, that A = wD, it muft follow, that

;wB = C, or B = — . Thus two equations of a lower dimen-

fion are obtained. If thefe be capable of farther decompoii-
tion, we may aflume the multiples n and /, and form four
equations ftill more fimple. By the repeated application of this
principle, an higher equation, if it admit of diviibrs, will be
refolved into thofe of the fi^ft order, the number of which
will be one greater than that of the multiples alTumed. Hence
the nxunber of fimple equations into which a compound ex-
predion can be refolved, is equal to the fum of the exponents
of the unknown quantities in the higheft term. Wherefore a
problem can be folved by the application of this principle, only
when the aggregate fum^ formed by the addition of the expo-
nents in the higheft terms of the feveral equations propofed, is
at leqfi equal to the number of the unknown quantities, toge-
® ther with that of the aflumed multiples.

We (hall illuftrate the mode of applying our principle, in
the foliition of fome of the more general and ufeful problems
€onne<51ed with this branch of analyfis.

PROBLEM I.

Let it be required to find two rational numbers^ the difference of
the fquares of which Jbdll be a given number.

Let the given number be the produdl of a and b ; then by
hypothefis, x'^—y'^ zz ab ; but thefe compound quantities admit
of an eafy refolution, for (j^+J') («— ly) = aXb. ff therefore we

fuppofe x+/ = ma, we ihall obtain x — y = — ; where m is ^ir-

bitrary.

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INDEtERMINAtE PROBLEMS. ig^

bitrary, and if rational, x andj/ muil alfb be rational. Tranf-
pofing the firft equationi x i= ma—y^ and reducing the fe-
cond, mx — my = h^ and tranfpofing mx = 3+;wy, and therefore,

X zz _±^ J whence by equality — i^ = ma—y, and reducing,

b^my = »!?*/i — ^wjf, and tranfpofing 2my zz m^a — 3, whence y =

-; but X zz^ ma—y^ confequently a: = ^_i?. li m zz i j

then X = , and J = — —•

Suppose it were required to find a number which, increaied
or diminifhed by lo, would produce fquares. It is obvious,
that the number may be denoted^ either by x^ — lo, or j'^+io ;
whence x^ — lo = j'^+io, and tranfpofing x'^—y'^ zz 5X4, and

applying the above formulas, x zz — — — ; if /» = 2, then x zz 6

and the required number 26.

•

P R O B L E M IL

7(9 ^nd two numbers, the /urn of the fquares of which fball hi
equal to tbefum of two given fquahs.

By hypothefis, ap*4ty* = ^+^% and tranfpofing x'^ — a^ zz
b^ — y^, and, by refblving into fadtors, (^+^) (a: — a) zz
{b+y) i^'^y) i whence, by fubftitution, x-^a zz mb — my, ' and

x — a = ^ > Tranfpofing the firft equation, x = mb — my — aj

reducing the fi^cond, mx — ma zz b+y, and tranfpofing, mx z=

ma+b-i-y, and' therefore *x = -^^ — -*, whence, — - — =

mb — my — a^ and ma+b+y = m^b — my — ma, and tranf-

b b 2 pofing

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196 On the RESOLUTION of

pofing m*y-\-y = m*b — amo— >3, that is, y =

— ^:j:^ — . But X = mb — my — a, and fubftitutingi x =

>^^ > Thus, i£ /? = 5, and i = 10, and w = 2 ; then

4.10— 4.5— 10 , 4.5+4.10— J - / \, I

y = -2 22 -. 2, and X = 2:^-=^ — - = 1 1 J but (i i)*+

(2)^ = 125 = (io)*+(5)\

Cor. If 3 = o, we fhall obtain two fquares, the fum of which

fhall be a given fquare. For y zz — "^1+71 ^^ + ^mT» *^^ * —

m*a — a _,- ,^ 4.10 ^ .

"t^j . Thus, itazi 10, and «7 = ^ then j' = — j — = 8, and

4.10— 10 ^ 1 ^ . ^

*T = — - — = 6> but 04+36 = 100.

P R O* B L E M III.

To find two rational numbers^ the /quarts ofwbicb^ togetber with
any given multiple oftbeirproduB^Jball he equal to a given fquare.

By hypothelis, ^*+>'*+^'^J' = ^*i and tranfpoiing x*+3xy =
if*—/*, and refolving into factors, x[x'\'hy) = (^4-J')(^— ^) }

whence, by afTumption, x^hy = ma — my^ and x zi ~~^

Tranfpofing the firft equation, x = ma — my — by j confequent-

ly, = ma — my — by^ or a'^-y = m^a — m^y — mby^ and again

by tranfpoiing, ««*/+«iJ^j'+j' = fn^a — ay whence y ==

Suppose

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INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS. 197

Suppose ^ = 22, ^ = 3, and /w = 2, then x — ^^^ X 22

= T4, and y = --~^X22 = 6. But 196+36+^5^ = 4^4

= (22)\

' Cor. If 3 = j, the hypothefis will be x'^-\-y^'\'Xy = a^ ; and
* = l^^^i+l^^^^f ^^^y = ;^4:^+7X''- Thus, if « = 13, and i»
= 3, then X = ^^^, X13 =7» andj>=: ^^^ X 13 = ».
But 49+^4+56 = 169 = (i3)*»

PROBLEM IV.

To find two numbers^ fuch^ that each^ mcreafed by unity fi^all be a
fquare^ and their fumy increafed by unit, a given fquare.

Let the numbers be denoted by x^ — i and y^ — i, and
the firfl condition will be obferved. The laft requires, that
X* — 1+>* — i+i» or jr^+J'* — I = ^** By tranfjpofition, x^ — i
= it—y^^ and by refolution, (jc+i)(^ — i) = (^+J')(^~'J') ;
whence x'+l = fna — my, and mx — m =r a-^y. Tranfjpofing the
firfl equation, x = ma — my — i j and tranfpofing the fecond, mx =

a+J^+fw, and dividing, x = — — — , whence -^ — =

ma — my — i, and reducing, ^^+J'+>w = m^a — my — m, or

a — 2in-

my'\'y — m'^a — 2m — a, and therefore y = rr • But

*= « » whence X = ^,+,

Suppose

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198 On tbe RESOLUTION of

Suppose ^ = 8, and « = 2, then x = f^ = 7,

y = ' ' = 4, and the numbers are 48 and 15 ;
48+15+1 = 64 = (8)\

PROBLEM V.

To find two f quarts which ^ dminijhed by unit, Jball he in a given
ratio.

By hypothefis, a:b::x^ — i:y* — ij irvhence the cquatwD,
ay"^ — a = bx^ — *, and by refolution, iay'{-a)(y — i) =
{hx-^h)(x — i) ; wherefore by afTumption, ^J'+^ = ^x — w, and
my — m zz hx-^-h. Tranfpofing the firft, ay ^^^x — m — tf , and

dividing y = . Tranfpofing the fecond, my =

fill J j» *j' ix-^-b^m - mx — m-s

bx+b+m, and dividing, y = — - — , vrherefore, — j — -

, and reducing «!•.»— i»*^--«w = abx-^-ab^ma^ that

is, m^x — abx = m^'^ab'{-2ma^ and therefore, x —
____-. biit>' = -—;;; , confequently y = ^.^^ .

Suppose ^ = 2, * = 3, and f« = 3 ; then x zz \^ ^ 9t

and y = ^^6~ = 1 1 5 but 2 : 3 : : 80 : 12a.

Cor. X. When the numbers x and j' are very grestt, it is ob-
vious that the ratio of x^ — i to>* — i, will be nearly equal to
that of x^ to J* } and confequently the ratio of ^a to %^b will
be dill more nearly equal to that of x to y. If a and b, befides,

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^ ^1 INDEtERMINArE PROBLEMS. 199

f^j3-r be nearly equal, the approximation will be more accurate.

4+' " Let fw =z ^ ; then the denominator m^ — ab will be fmall, and

therefore the fraiflions large j whence, by fubftitution,

3^?+A : ib'\'a^ nearly.

Thus ^49 : ^50 : : 197 : I99 • • 7 • 7+^» whence ^50 =
Mk 7>07i07» true to the laft place.

Cor. 2. Let m = -^-^ ; then m^ — ^ = (^ ) — ab = (^) ,
which, wJhen ,a and b are nearly equal, will be fmall, and by

fubftitution, ^a v* : : " ^^^.. ^ — : z^+^r * nearly 3

, hence, by proper reduflions, ^a : ^b : : 5a*+io«3-|-d* : 5^*+

«,-*, *o<734"^^. This formiftU is onore intricate thwx the former, !but

' ftill more accurate. Thus, y9 : y 10 : : 405+900+ loo : 500+

900+81 = 1405 : 148 1, and t/io = 3i 1:6209, true to the Uft

+^ place.

P R O B L E M VI.

Let it .be reguired to find a number^ fucb that^ if given muitiples
of it be increafed by given numbers^ the produS of the fiims fballbe
a fquare.

Let (^^+/') (^4:+A) = y^ ; by, aOfumptioa ex-^f = my, and

V -

gx-j-b = -^. Tranlpofing the firft equation^ and dividing,

X = — ^. deducing die fecond, tngx^mb zz y, and tranfpo-

fing

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200 - On the RESOLUTION of

fing and dividing, * = ^!^^^ j whence, -^^ = ^^^^^-, and re-

S A

ducing, m*^ — mfg = ry — mb, and tranfpofing, m*iy — ey =r
mfs^ — mfb, and confequendy, j' = "^~^ ; Alfo * = ■■ ==

Suppose (7*+6)(2*+i) =>^. If « = a,then* = -£~ = a,

and J' = ^7 = '° » ^^t 20X5 = 100 = (10)*.

Cor. Let ' = i, and ^ = i ; the hypothefis will become
(*"h/^)(*+'^) = >'•• In this cafe, we obtain * = ^i^H^* ^^^f —

;;rr7» Tbu8, if («+i2)(*+2), where / =: 12, and A = 2,

• 18 a

and w = J 5 then x = i. n 6, andj' =: -2 = 12 j but

i8X8 = 144 = (i2)S

-2.— I -2-^1

4 4

PROBLEM VII.

Iff/ it be required to find rational values ofx andy^ in the general
quadratic^ AAf*+Baf+C = y\

Case I. When the firjl term is a fquare.

Suppose A = ^, when the expreflion becomes a*x^-f ^x+^
= J'* 5 by tranfpofition, hx-^^c = f' — ^*;v% and refblving into

fiidlors,3(af+-^) = Cy+^Af)(/— iaw) J whence, by affumption.

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INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS. , 201
a: + -J- = my — max^ and b = ■■-— t Reducing the firft cqua-

tion, w+r = mby — mabx^ and j/ = —^ . Again, redu-
cing the fecond, mb = y+ax^ and y zz mb — axs confequently,
" -^^ = mb — ax^ or mabx-^-bx-^-c zz m^b^ — mabx^ and

therefore, a: = -^^^^^> But y = w3 — ^^^ j therefore, ;^ =

Zmab'^b

Suppose 9^*4-7^+14 = y^% and w = a j then a; =
:t^ = ,, «,d ^ = iJl^ftJi = 8 , but 9.4+7-»+'4
= 64 = (8)'.

Cor, I. Let azzi, the exprdfion becomes x^-^bx-^c = y* ;
«»<1 * = "^;;h7' »°<^^ = — 553+? • Thus, if Af+4af+4

= >^, andi« = a} theii*= 7^ = 3, andj/s^^^g—irrjj

but 9+4-3+4 = 25 = (5)'»

Cor* 2» Whbn the third term is wanting, the expreilion be-
comes <iV+6x = /* ) and in this cafe, the formulas will be-
come by redudUon, * = ~p,» and j' =^^g^. Thus, if

9«*+i3* =^» and f» =a j then Ar = 7|~ = 4,and^=:i:22±H2
=: 14; but9.i6+4.X3 = 196 = (14)*.

Vol. II. c e Casb

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aoa On the RESOLUTION of

Case II. JVben tie third term is afquare.

Suppose C = r*, arid the expreflion is /?:c*+3a:+^* = j'*. By
tranfpofirion, /«^*+^jr rz ^* — r*, and by refplution, {ax'\'h)x =

(j'+0(/ — ^) 5 whence by affumption,^ * = — , and ^Jt+^ =
f^^ — mc. But from the fecond equation, x = ^^^^^ — ^ confe-
quently, """^^"^ ='^ ^ whence j' = '^^''^T^' ^ and x =

V+r 2mc+b

> ■■ ^^j^ " >

iM iw* — 0

Suppose 3^*+5JJf+i6 = j'*, and w = 2 ; then x =
-^ = 21, and J' z= '^-^^^^^^ = 38. But 3.(2i)*+5-"+i6

= 1444 = (38)\
C(7r. I. Let 3 = o ; then the expreflion becomes ax^c*

= y\ and * = ;;rz;, andjr= ■^,_^ . Thus, 2»»+9 = >^;

if « = 2,*=-^=6, andj' = ^5^i^ = 9. But a.(6)M-9

= 81 = (9>.

Cor. 2. If b zz o, and r = i ; then ax^-^-i = j'*, and * =

-r— I and y = ^; — . Put a = ot* — //. and we ihall obtain x

= -J-, and J = — -J — . Hence it is evident, that x and f

will be exprefled in whole numbers, when 2m is divifible by d^
Call the quotient n j then x — n, and y = «w» — i ; whence

— = ^^~^zzm — — , or m — r—, which arc the two firft terms

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INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS. aoj

o£ ^t continued fraBion denoting i/(fw* — rf), or ^/^l. Thus, if

i2Jc*+i =z j^*; then/i2 =^"(16— 4) =4 — i^ and

2 — I

^ &c.

Jt = 2, and J' = 4,2 — 1 = 7J for i2,4+i = 49 = (7)*-

It is to be remarked, that, when rf = i, the values of x and

y may be difcovered from any given number of terms of the

continued fraction.

Thus, if 3x*+i r: j'^; then /$ = /(4 — i) = 2 — ^_i

4 — 1_

^4 &C. J

whence a; = 4, 15, s^f ^09 &C' and j' = 7, 26, 97, 362 &c.

If /« = fn^+dj then a: = — n^ and j' «z — mn — i j but the

expreflion ax^+i = j'*, will not be altered by changing the figns

of X and y ; whence ;c = n^ and y = »i«4-i j confequentlyi

X and ^ will be determined firom the continued fraction

w+J. denoting y/Cm^-i-d). Thus, 2oAf*+i =;/* 3

"7+ &c.
then -/ao = *^(i6+4) = 4+j. and « = 2, and j' =:

2 &C.

4.2+1 = 9; for 20.4+1 = 81 = (9)*.

We may obferve, that if ^ = i, the values of x and y, in
the cxpreflion (w*+i):«:* + 1 = j^*, may be found by taking
an even or odd number of terms, according as the fign + of
— is to be adopted^

Cor. 3. Let r = o, then ax^+6x = j'* ; and, in this cafe,
X = -^, and j^ = j^^. Thus, 7^*+4af = / ; if w = 3^

36 = {6y.

c c 2 Casb

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204 On the RESOLUTION of

Case III. When BB-r-4AC is a fquare,

b c

Let ,x*+ —X + -J- = DXE ; then the divifors of ax'^-\-hx^c

will be — XD, and fiXE. But it appears, from the doctrine
of equations, that the excefTes of x above the roots of the
quadratic, x*+— ;c + — = o, are the divifors of the expreflion

^^+-r* + T-- Wherefore, D = ^+ it^CgndfO ^ ^^^ ^ _

x+ \a "^^ ' Hence, when i/(** — i^^ is a whole or fraflional

number, the expreflion ax^-^bx-j-c admits of refolution, and

the divifors are— (*H J and «(x4- ^ j • And

when thefe are found, the folution will be obtained from
Prob. VI.

Suppose i4X*+i9x+6 = j^, then 6* — ^ac =«36i — 336 =

19+5

2j, and D = -^ (*+ ^), and E = «(^+^). If « = 2,

the divifors will be —(a:+"T") = 7^+6, and 2(x+— ) =

aJt+i 5 whence, from Pcob. VI. :c n 2, and j' = lo. For
14.4+19.2+6 = 100 = (100)*.

Case IV. When the general quadratic can be refolved into favors ^
if diminijhed by a given fquare.

Let {ex+f){gx+b) = y^'-d\ then {ex+f){gx+b) =

(>'+^)(j' — ^) J whence ex+f = my — md^ and ^x+A = -^^jp"-

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INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS. 20s
By reducing the firft equation, x = "^'^"^^ 5 ^^^ by reducing
the fecond, x = ; whence -^ — = -^^ , and con-

fcquently,j^ = -"V^-*-^/^+^^-"^^ , But x - "-^"^"^^ there-

fore alio x = r ^•

Suppose 14^^+3 ijc+24. = >'* ; then, taking 9 ;z J* from both
fides, I4jc*+3i^+i5 = j^* — ^»; but%/(3* — ^4/?^) zrv/(96i— ^840)
= I T 5 whence, if » = 2, the divifors, by Cafe III. will be
7^+5 and 2^1^+3; wherefore, making fw = 2, x =

'-^11^ = 5, and J. = ^i±2gpL.= ^3. For i4.«5+3i-5+H

= 529 = (23)\

PROBLEM VIII.

Let c and d be known values of x and y in the exprejjion^ ^;v*+^
zz j^% and from tbefe let it be required to difcover others.

Since ax^-{'b z=, j/*, ajid ac^'\-b = rf*, fubtradling thefe equa-
tions, we Ihall obtain ax"^ — ac^ = y — d*, and by refolution,
{ax — ac){x+c) = {y'hd){y — d)-, whence ax — ac = my—tndy

and x-^-c = ^ . From the firft of thefe equations, x =

my — md-^ae % ^ t n i y+d—mc . my — md-k-^tc

, and from the fecond, x = : whence — ;; —

__jHf-«^ andj^= "'^'^^f-^-^'"^, or J±t2)t±2^ . ■ But *

« ' ^ m* — a ' m* — a

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2o6 On the RESOLUTION of

-^-^ci tfiereforc x = ^[^±5)L. To fimplify thefc

formulae, put p = '^;j:z^j and q = ;^>_^ ; then will x = ^y — r/,

and y z= ^</ — qac. If r become negative, the conditions of the
problem will not be affedled. In this cafe, x = pc+qd^ and *
y = pd-\-aqc. The values of x and ^, obtained from either
of thefe formulae, may be repeatedly fubftituted for thofe of
c and d ; and thus a variety of numbers will be difcovercd.
Suppose 2jc*-}-7 — j^*, then ^ = i, and // = 3 j and if m

^ 2, p= -^ = 3, and q = -~7 = 2 ; whence x = '

3. 1+2,3 = 9 <"^ 3» and y = 3*3+4 = ^3 ^^ 5. Again, x =
3.9+2.13 = 53 or I, and y = 3-^3+4-9 = 75 ^^ 3- Or x
= 3-3+2-5 = 19 or I, and J' = 3-5+4-3 = 27 or 3; and fo
repeatedly.

We may obferve, that the value of p is the fame with that
of y in Prob. VI. Cor. II. and the value of q the ^fame with
that of X. Whence, if p zz d, and y = ^, we ftiall obudn for
the expreffion ax^^^i = ^*, x = 2cd, ^nd y r: V* + ac\
Thus, in the example, 2x* — i = J'*, where c = 2, and ^/ = 3,
X zz 2.%.% =12, and y = 3.3+2.2.2 = 17 ; and again, x rr
2.12.17 = 408, andj'zr I7.i7+2.i2.i2 i= 577.

PROBLEM IX.

7(? Jind't'wo rational numbers^ the fum of whieb Jhall be equal
to a given number^ and the fum of their fquares afquare.

By hypothefis, x^y = a^ and x»+j/* = z\ Tranfpofing the
fecond equation, x* = 2* — -jr*, and refolving into fadtors, xY^x

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INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS, 207
= \^-^y){^'—y) ; whence, x = mz — my^ and z+y = mx j where-
fore mz = my+x^ and « = ^^ ; alfo, z = mx—y ; confe-

quently, »iy+* = m^x — my^ and y = — ;;; — • But from the
•firft equation,^ = a — x\ wherefore a — x = — ~- , and x =
^.4.'^xX^> confequently, J' = JlZ\-. > ^^^^ '^ =

-X^.

IW*+2IW— X

Suppose a zz 23, and w = 4 ; then x = S, y = 15$ ^nd 2?
= 17. For 8+15 = 23, and 64+225 = 289 = (17)*.

PROBLEM X-

Tiofind two numbers^ wbofe fumjhall be a given number^ and tbe
produS of tbe fumsy formed by adding given numbers to tbem, a
fquare.

By hypothciig, ;r+y = a, and (*+3)(j/+r) zr a;\ From
the feo<md equation, we obtain by afrunf][>tion, x-^b rr

mZy and z = fwy+wc* ; therefore, % = — — = /wjf+«rr ; and
fo X = ^i^j'+otV — 3. But, from the firft equation, x = a—y ;
ccmfequently, wy+wV — b — a-^y^ and y r: "^ ^■^^'^ ; alio x

zza—y =2«1+^^ and 2J =: -^^ = ^22ls!i±L

Suppose

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io8 On the RESOLUTION of

Suppose a = 17, * = 6, r = 2, and let m = 2 j then y

t7+r,_8 68+S— 6 , 34+4+12-

= ■-^5:7- = 3, X = —:^ =i4,and2;=-^:;Y-= "•
But 14+3 z= 17, and'(i4+6)(3+2) = 100 = (10)*.

PROBLEM XL

Let it he required to find two numbers^ fuch thaty if to eacb^
their fum and difference^ unit be added, the numbers refultingjball be
fquares.

The firft condition will be obfcrved, if the numbers be de-
noted by x* — I and^* — I. The hypothecs will then require

TaANSPOsiNG the firft equation, x^ — i = 2*— ^y*, and rc-
folving into fadlors, {x'\-i){x — i) = [^^y){^ — y)9 whence,
5:+ 1 = mz—my^ and z+j' zr mx — m\ therefore, z = mx — w— ^

= —"*"'"*"' , from which .we have y = '2!*=f=2lzJ .

Again, tranfpofing the fecond equation, **— y* = v* — i,
and refolving, {x^y){x—y^ = (v+0(^ — ^)> *^^ ^7 siflumption,
x-^ry = p^ — p9 and x^+i = px — py^ and thereforcj,^ v =

py^py^^-J!±y±t^. Hence jr =z -^fr^.

But it was found, that y = ni^*—^—^*—}, . wherefore,
£^^-^f - ^^^-^-fn-^i ^^ ^ redudion, x

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INDETERMINATE PROBLEMS. 209

In the fame manner, by finding the values of x in terkns of
y, &c. we obtain y = fnY-2m-f^--m-^iip^i , or =

PROBLEM XII.

To find three numbers^ the produB of any two of which ^ increafed
by unit^Jhall he a fquare.

By hypothefis, ^J'+i = ^% xz^i = j% and j'Z+i =, w*.

1. Transposing the firft equation^ xy = i;* — i, and re-
folvingy xXy = (^+i)(^ — 1)> whence y = mv — m^ and i;+x

= OT:r J confequentlyi v zz -2i2L = mx — i, and x = ~^^.

2. Again, tranfjpoiing the fecond equation, xz- = J* — i,
and refolving, xX^ = {s+i){s — i); whence, z zz ps-^, and

j+i = /*; confequently, x =: -2±L = ^^ — i,and reducing^
X zz -^^. But X = — ^ ; wherefore «'2 + 2«*^ =

2fap'+py, and j^ = "''«+»*'^A-^' .

3. MoR£ov£R, by the third equation, yz = w* — i j
whence, jrXz = {w+i)(w — i), and y = qw — y, and w+i

= ^2 ; wherefore, w = -:ttL = y^ — i, and j' = j*z — ay.

Vol. IL d d ' But

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210 On tie RESOLUTION (^

But y = 2!f±f2>±2^; confcqncntly/ p-q^z-^ip-q =
w*2;+2wV>— 2^/% andsj z= ^P'^^^'P-^'^P* ^ Now, j/ =
y^a;— 2^; whence by fubftitution, y = ^Vy'TT^^!'^^^'^ •

And becaufe x = J^, we have alfo x = .^P<i\-^-^+^ .
Cfer. Let /» = i, then the formulae will be more iimple ;

There is a remarkable cafe in which the above formulae do
not diredlly apply, the numerators and denominators vanifhing
at the fame timer It is when »i = i,^ = a, and ? = i. For,

. by art. %. y = ^^Vy^^A^^-H^-f = JrJ±L = ^ ; where-
fore the value oi y may be expreffed by any affumed number, n.
But, by art. i. ;c = f^±L = j/+2 j whence x = «+2. Alfo,

by art. a. :v = i2l2L = .f±i. ; therefore z+4 =z 4»+8, and

P^ 4

2; = 4J?4"4* Thus, 2, 4, r2 J for 2X4+1 == 9, 2X12+J = 25^
and 4X12+1 = 49.

PROBLEM XIII.

^Bfind a eube wbiebJbaU be rqaal to tbe produB of a fquare by a
given number^

By hypotheik, x^ nn ay^^ and refolving, xXx* dz aXy^ ;
whence x = ma^ andj'* = ot**; but x'^ = (»^^)*i confequendy,

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I.NI>ETERMINj4TE problems. 211

/* = «i'tf*, and yXy = maXtn^a -, and by a fecond aflumption,
y = pma, and tWa = /y ; but x ::z ma ', whence y = ^«, and

fince y = .fl!f_, ♦ = .fl 5 wherefore f^ = /*, and x =

<i^»j btit/=:^r, whence j' :=: op*.

Suppose <» = 3, and ^ = 2, then * = 3X(a)* = 12, and
^ = 3.(2)* = 24. For (12)*= 1728 = 3-C24h

PROBLEM XIV.

to find two number Si the fum o/" which fiall be a given fqmre^
and the fum of their cubes afquare,

• By hypothefis, x-{-y = rt% and x*+J'' = 2*- Dividing the
fecond equation by the firft, we obtain ^ = x* — xy +>% or

^--y« = ««— Ary, and refolving into favors, (-+;') (7—^) =

*(je— J') > whence, x zz «»(j— J'), and -1+j' = m(x—y). By

reducing the firft of thefe expreflions, z = -^^—^ i and by

the fecond, z = inax — may-^ay ; whence '^'*""'^ =r

max^may—ay^ and;' = .^llfzf-. But from the firft equation^

V = <»»—* J wherefore, -i:^^ = «»— *, and therefore x =

^X J*+2t-i ' Butj'=/i'-*,confequently,;'=a«X.^j;g=i-;^.

J </ a Alfo„

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212 On the RESOLUTION, &c

Alfojbccaufez =:-f~fL, we have by fubftitution, z =

Cor. I. If a = 2/«*+2ftt — i, two whole numbers may be
always found, the fum of which, and that of their cubes, fhall
be fquares. For in this cafe, x — (2W*+2«r— i)(»i*-|-2w), y =
{2m^+2m—i){m* — i), and z = {im^-^im — i)*(»i*-f-ftt+i.)

.Thus, if /« = 2, we fhall find x zz SS^ y = 33, and z =
847- But 88+33 = 121 = (ii)% and (88) ^+(33)^ = 717409

= (847)^

Cor. 2. If y be negative, we Ihall obtain two numbers, the
diflFerence of which, and that of their cubes, fhall be fquares.

Put m = A, and fubftituting, a: = a*X — ;* — — ^ — , y zz

pt p^ p

-^*X2/>»''a/ , andz = ^»X^;', I , and by re-

duaion, X = a»X — £l±22i__, j^ = a«x„ .^~^' . , and 2f 2=

giX f*+f^+9' . If a = 26»+2/?— ?% we {hall obtain

-whole numbers j for * = {2p*+2pq — ^)(/*+2^y), j' =
(2/»+2/>y~j')(^»— />»), and z = (2/>»+2/>y— y«)»(/>H-/?+?*).

These examples will probably lYe thought fufficient to ex-
plain the application of this method to the folution of indeter-
minate problems in general, and to fhew that it is not lefs ex-
tenfive, and much more imiform, than thofe that are commonly
in ufe.

XV.

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XV. A Dissertation on the Climate of RUSSIA.
By Matthew Guthrie, M. D. Pbyjician to tbelmpe^
rial Corps of Noble Cadets at St Peterjburg, F. R. SS. Lond.
and EoiN. : Witb two Letters from bis Excellency
M. jEpINVS^ Counf. of State, Kn^- of tbe Order of
S^- Anne, ^c. i^c. ^c.

[Read by Mr ROBISOH, Nov. 2. 1789.]

IN a paper publifhed in the fecond vblxime of the fecond de-
cade of the Medical Commentaries of Edinburgh, I men-
tioned a defign of endeavouring to trace the influence of a cold
climate on the human body and its difeafes, which fhould form
a contraft with the many accounts publifhed of late years rela-
tive to the effedls of hot climates i and I likewife mentioned my
having given a detached piece *, fome years ago, as a com--
mencexfient of the fubjedt, in the fixty- eighth volume of the
Philofophical Tranfadlions of London, which contains matter
neceflary to illuftrate fome parts of the following Diflertation.

I WAS induced to this defign, by having met with nothing of
the kind in the courfe of my reading ; and by remarking that,
whilft warm countries feem to occupy the attention of many
of the Faculty, the more northern regions appear to intereft
but very few of our learned brethren, although it is but natu*
ral to conclude that if one extreme of temperature is found to
have much [influence, the other can fcarcely be entirely with-
out it.

* The tide of the Diilertation mentioned above^ is. The Antileptic Regimen of the
Natives of Ruflia.

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214 DISSER'TAl'ION on the

In this point of view, the fubjcdl feems to me to merit in-
veftigation, fince the difcuflion of it is an objecfl to fcience in
general, and to medicine in particular. The plan, then, that
I have chalked out to myfelf, as likely to throw light on the
fubjedt, is to give the Hiftory of the Northern Climate in one
paper, and that of its Phyfical InflueiKre in another, as it ap-
pears in the new capital of Ruffia, St Peterfburg, where I have
refided for many years. Thefe two Diflertations will contain a
number of fadls and ohfervations, from which Phyficians, in
the double fenfe of the word, may dcaw conclufions ; for I pre-
tend to nothing more than the honour of laying the foundation
of an important work to be profecuted by others, and which
will probably require many years to complete.

As to the execution of my plan : Firji^ I have made ufe of
the meteorological regifter, kept in the Imperial Academy of
Sciences, as fuch regifter muft be more clofely attended to than
that of any individual, whofe private bufinefs muft often call
him abroad at the proper hours of obfervation.

2dfyj I HAVE adopted the Academy's divifion of the year in-
to two feafons only, as in fa(5l we have but two, properly fpeak-
ing, viz. winter and fummer, the one feafon running into the
other, without leaving well defined intermediate periods, to an-
^et to what are caUed fpring and autumn in the temperate
climates. Nature appears to hurry in the north, by as quick a
tranfition as poffible, from the long fevere winter into its fhort
but ardent fummer ; fo that our thawing feafon occupies the
period of your fpring ; and the fame kind parent feems to pro-
long the feafon of vegetation, from a fimilar wife intention, a&
long as poffible, till furprifed in a manner at once by the re-
turn of winter, without much of what may be called autumn
weather.

^dfyj I HAVE followed the plan of the academic regifter, in
prefixing to each feafon an enumeration of the common pheno^
mena which take place in it^ fuch a& tjiie quantity and duration

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CLIMATE of RUSSIA. ai^

of froft, fnowy rtin, congelation, ^c. as will be feen in the pa*
per, adding to the fhort note of th^ Academy on each article^
a few remarks of my own, which I have coUefled during a long
refidence in the north.

i^bly^ My calculations are all taken from the mean of fifteen
years, as will be feen by the annexed regifter, an abridgment
of that kept by t^r&fefTor £uler, perpetual Sectetary to the Im-
perial Academy of Sciences, with which he obligingly fur*
nifhed me.

I AM happy to embrace this opportunity of acknowledging
a number of fimilar obligations for many years pad, from our
equally liberal and learned ProfefTors of the Imperial Academy
of Sciences.

Lajlly^ I HAVE added to the regifter 'the comparative degrees
of Fahrenheit and Reaumur's thermometers, that anfwer
to the given number of De Lille's fcale, becauie the firfl is iti
common ufe in G{-eat Britain, and the fecond in Ruflia, as it
ought to be (and I believe generally is) with the public every
where from its greater fimplicity,

r^ RUSSIAN WiNTERy
With the CBtnmon Phenomena attending it.

The Ruffian winter certainly muft take the lead, when treat-
ing of the feafons, both from its duration and confequences in
this northern fituation. The duration of winter is generally
from the end of September to the beginning of May, although
we certainly have occaiicmally very pleafant weather in April,
in fpite of morning and evening froft, which the fun, in his
nearer approach, diffipates inftantly on appearing above the
horizon ; nay, the agreeable effeft which a little of his ffenfible
influence has, when contrafled with his little more than lunar
action for ib long a period, leads us to give to April almoft the
rank of a fummer month, although I doubt if, in a more

fouthern

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2i6 DISSERrJTlON on tbe

fouthern country^ it would merit that appellation under the fame
^ circumftances.

Duration of Frojl and Snow.

The duration of winter, if it is to be defined by the mean
term of froft and fnow, according to theconunon method, muft
be dated from the gih of Odlober to the beginning of May,
when its force is fo far fpent as to be perceptible only by a
flight hoar-froft at an early morning hour ; and as the continu-
ance of fnow is generally much the fame as that of froft, we
may reckon the mean period of both at about 230 days in the
year.

«
Term of tbe Rivers remaining Frozen.

But the duration of what is called the real RufDan winter,
when our communication by water with the reft of the world
i% ihut up, and that element confounded in appearance, and
almoft in folidity, with the land, is confiderably ihorter, and
is to be reckoned from the 27th of November to the 19th of
April, (its mean term for fifteen years paft), that is to fay, it
comprehends about 160 days in the year^ for in the feafbn al-
lotted to winter by the ordinary definition^ as given above,
there are about 70 days, when our froft, although equal to the
congelation of water in its tranquil ftate, is incapable to arreft
the rapid current of rivers. Nay, I am yet to learn what de-
gree of it might be required for that purpofe ; for in this
country there are certain circumftances which ufually accelerate
the congelation of rapid rivers, fuch as, their furfaoe being
covered with floating ice, formed in the lakes ♦ above, which,

* As for example^ the floating ice which covers the Neva^ and (b much facilitates itr
congelation, is formed in the Ladoga lake, where an inferior degree of firoft can ad iipoa
the ftill water, to what is neceflary to congeal the rvrti, and on the firft wind it is broke
up and carried down by the current.

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CLIMATE of RUSSIA. 217

at the firft obftacte it meets with in its courfe down the river,
(as at the bar a little below the city of Peterfburg) accumulates
fo as to form one uniform fheet to appearance, for many miles
above the obftacle, compofed of a number of large thick flakes,
which the fevere frofl: that commonly prevails about that time,
almofl inftantly cements together, although the fame degree of
froft is much inadequate to the power of congealing the naked
fiirface of the running river. By this ceconomy of nature, al-
though the northern countries are much interfedled by large
and rapid rivers, which, from the floating ice, do not admit of
{landing bridges, ftill the communication is feldom interrupted
for twenty-four hours, as they flmt up with a degree of thick-
nefs fufficient to bear the weight of a man almofl immediately,
and heavy burdens ia a few days.

Tbickne/s and other Phenomena of the Ice.

By February, our ice has acquired the aftonifliing thicknefs
of about three quarters of an Englifh yard, and, what is equally
aftonifliing, it has loft not above a third of it, when become fo
weak, at the breaking up of the rivers, as not to fupport the
weight of a dog. At this period, I have paid^ particular atten-
tion to its appearances, and found the mafs compofed of a
number of long folid cryftals, refembling, in fome meafure,
the pipes of an organ, about half a yard long, but almoft
without adhefion, fo that the mafs feems to have loft little but
the cementing principle, (if I may be allowed the expreflion)
which bound thofe cryftals together j inftead of its being re-
duced, according to the common opinion, to a pellicle, by the
a<5lion of the fun and water on its upper and under furfaces,
which any one may convince himfelf is a vulgar prejudice, by
fimple infpedVion of a piece of the floating ice on the breaking
up of the Neva, which, although funk fo deep in the water as

Vol. II. e e to

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2i8 DISSERTATION on the

to appear only like a pellicle above the furfacei has the conlider*
able thicknefs that I have mentioned, concealed below the water.
I MAY here fubjoin fome observations on the conducing
power of ice with refpefl to found. This is affirmed to be very
great, by the* ingenious ProfefJbr of Natural Hiilofbphy in your
Univeriity ^. I am difpofed to accede to his opinion, from know-
ing, that even the unbroken and uncultivated ground of our
ftepps or defarts conduds found fo well, that the Coflacks hear
the tread of a horfe at a great dtdance, by laying their ear to
the ground. Experiments might be tried in this country on a
very great fcale. But as I have not had an opportunity of this
kind fince the thought llruck me, I (hall content myfelf with
giving the following extra^fl of a letter from a friend : " Ha-
" ving walked out on the ice to a great di (lance from our fort
" the other day, when its cannon were difcharged for the taking
" of Oxakow, the firft intimation I received of this event
was, by a difagreeable ringing found from the ice, and, after
fome feconds, the ufual report through the air, but not fo

a
a

" violent as the firfL"

Regijier of the Weather for the fix Winter Months.
THERMOMETER.

Our greatefl cold exceeds in general 196° of Db Lisl£%
equal to 24'' below o of Fahr. or 24^4 of Reaum* below o,
and commonly obtains in January.

Our mean cold for the fix winter months is, in the aA:en*
noon, 154'', equal to 27^ of Fahr. above o, or equal to 2^ of
Reaum. below o j Night, i1B2*, equal to 23® of Fahr. above a^
or to 7® of Reaum. below o.

It mud always.be remembered, that they are the mean de-
grees of cold and heat during a period of fifteen years, which

are

* John RoBiaoit, M. A. Profeflbr of Natural PhiloTophy in the Univer&y of Edinburgh*

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CLIMATE of RtJSSlJ. ^1$

are fet dotivtt iti this regifter ; for wc have often, for example, a
more confiderable degree of cold than what is indicated above>
as our greateft during the feafon ; 27^ of Rbaum. or 62° of
Fahr. below o, are often felt here, andfometimes as far as 30®;
nay, a oold of 32^ below the freezing point of Reaum. is upon
record, which is the freezing point of the pureft mercury, ac-
cording to my experiments, publifhed here in 1785.

It muft be alfo remarked, that the thermometer fometimes
has a furprifing range during winter, fo as to produce a change
of temperature from 10'' to 25® of Rea^. (or from 23^ to
57® of Fahr.) in 24 hours j a trying circumftance for delicate
conftitutions, and which the moft robuft feel after the prime of
life. The prefTure of the air on the body is alfo equally vari-
able in 24 hours, as indicated by the barometer on thefe occa«
fions.

BAROMETER.

Placed 20 feet above the mean level of the Neva, and at 6000
from its opening into the gulph of Finland.

Higheft, 28.87 * ofteneft in January.
Lowed, 26.99 ofteneft in November.

Difference, 1.88

Mean height, 28.04i Paris inches*

IVindu

Thb prevailing wind during winter is the weft, and its pro-
portion to the eaft is,

Weft, 1 13 days in the fix winter mdnths.
Eaft, 68 days in the fame period.
N. J3. The fouth wind, and all to the weft of the meridian,
is reckoned weft ; the north wind, and all to the eaft of the
meridian, is reckoned eaft.

e c 2 . This

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aao DISSERTATION on the

This circumftance of the weft and foutherly winds prevail-
ing during the fevere northern winter, muft appear rather fin-
gular to moft people, efpecially in Great Britain, where the very
name of N. and N. £. winds conveys the idea of cold. But
this phenomenon may eafily be explained on the principles ad-
^ vanced by Profeflbr Robison, in the Notes to Dr Robertson's
Hiftory of America, l^ide Note 4. B. IV.

Mean ^iantity of melted Snow and Rain.

These together do not amount, in the fix winter months, to
more than about five Paris inches, although the whole furface
of the northern countries is covered with fnow tp a confiderable
depth, over which we drive in fledges, without diftinguilhing
between .land and water ; whilft, during fummer, a pjeriod
apparently fair in comparifon, there falls more than double the
quantity of rain ; but indeed, as it pours in torrents, when it
does rain, like thunder-fhowers in hot feafons, there muft fall
more than the apparent drynefs of the feafon would lead one
to fuppofe at firft fight, efpecially when the large portion fur-
nifhed by the heavy night-dews, is added to the quantity.

I MUST here obferve, that water feems to acquire fome
new properties, from. being converted into fnow, froft, in-
cruftations, and even common river ice, if we are to judge
from the following fails : Firjl^ I have fliewn, in a paper pu-
bliftied in the Philofophical Tranfadlions of London, that the
frozen incruftation, which is formed on the infide of the win-
dows, in the habitations of the lower clafs of .people in this
country, during the fevere part of winter, (an inconvenience
avoided in the better fort of houfes by double windows), fets
loofe, on thawing, a fpecies of mephitic air, producing all jthe'
dangerous efFedts of the fumes of charcoal on people expofed ta
it,$ adlion.

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CLIM:3rE of RUSSIyi. mi

2dfy^ A Mr ScHHOBTBit of this city has found the water of
thefe incmftations to be of a very volatile nature ; and indeed
the fblutions of aU the frigorific produdions mentioned above,
poflefs a iuperior difpofition to evaporate to river water in its
natural date, as is ihown by the following experiment :

He poured into five tea-cups» ftanding in the window of his
room, a tea-fpoonful of each of the five different fluids men*
tioned below, when, at the expiration of 24 hours, their com-
parative degrees of evaporation were as follow :
No. I. A tea-ipoonful of window cruft water was almoft all

evaporated.

2. — hoar froftwaterhad loft about the half.

3. fnow water had loft about a third.

4. Neva ice water had loft rather lefs

than a third.

5. River Neva water had loft nothing

to appearance.

Hail.

' Its appearance is a rare phenomenon in this feafon : But I
fhall leave to the ingenious author of the Theory of Rain *, (in
the firft volume of the Tranfadlions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh) to give a reafon why water ihould conftantly ^ke
the form of fnow during the fevere weather of the north, and
fo feldom that of hail. Can it be that the fun has not fuflicient
influence, at this period of the year, to raife it to the higher
region^ where the form of hail is iuppofed to be given ?

^empejis

Are equally uncommon with hail in the feafon treated of.

Indeed nature feemi to have ftudied a perfedl equality in the

diftribution of her favours, as it is only the parts of the earth

which
* Dr James Hutton*

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222 DISSERrjriOtr on thi

which moft enjoy the kindly influence of the fun^ that fufier
by the efie^s of its fuperior htat $ fo diat if the atmo£jpfaere of
the north \% not fi> genial as that of the fouth, at leaft it re^
mains perfedly qniet and icrene, without threatening deftruc*
tion to man and the produd of hb induftry, as in what are
commonly called happier climates. • ^ ' ^

Aurora Borealis.

As to the Aurora Borealis, it often illuminates our hemi*
fphere, more particularly in winter, when it appears from fix-
teen, to feyenteen times in the fix months, although we, by no
means » enjoy fo much of its light as our more northern neigh-
bours, who have certainly a better title to its fervices, from the
beautiful plan of equality mentioned above. Some remarks
which I fhall make in the next article but one, may probably
ftrengthen the opinion of its being an eledric phenomenon,
that is to fay, if proving the atmofphere in general to be un-
commonly eledric, at the time of its greatefl prevalency, can
lead to a prefumption of its connexion with that fluid.

Parbeliums and Mock Moons

Are fecn pretty frequently in the north. Probably our
frozen mifts and vapours make thefe phenomena more frequent
here than in the temperate climates*

Gehcral Obfervations on the Winter Atmofphere.

The air, though cold, is remarkably pure and elaltic during
our fevere ftoft, fb as to give a moft furprifing degree of fpring
and tone to the human frame. At this tiny the atmofphere is
moft aftonifhingly eledrici even more fo than during our vio-
lent thunder-ftorms in ftimmer, if we are to judge from the

gieat

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CLIMATE of RUSSIA. 223

gteat power of our ele^rical machines, and from feveral other
phenomena too curious to be pafled over in filence.

The moft {hiking of tbefe is the appearance of a flame, on
drawing a flannel cover off a filk chair, or on rubbing with a
woolen cloth the filk hangings of an apartment. On this lafl;
operation, a flame was feen running along the gold-laced bor-
der, to the great amazement of the Imperial fervants, to whom
thefe alarming meteors appeared, on duiling the apartments of
the palace in a dark winter morning, as I remember to have
heard at the time, though many years ago. But the fadts of this
nature, which I got from our ingenious and learned eledrician
M. iEpiNus *, whilft: Preceptor to his Imperial Highnefs the
Great Duke, are much more circumftantial and interefting.
See his letter at the end.

HowEVEK, I do not mean to aflcrt, that the total of the eledric
fluid contained in the atmofphere is greater in winter than
fummer, during the violent commotions it occafions here,
which are fomctimcs of a very alarming and dangerous nature.
I only fay, that it appears to be more equally diffufed through
the whole volume of the atmofphere, from not being colledled
into clouds, as in fummer, and that the air is in a (late more
difpofed to.part with it. In faft, no clouds are to be leen du-
ring fevere froft, nor indeed can water exift in that form, but
is divided into infinitely fmall particles, frozen into fliining
fpicula, which play and fparkle in the beams of our bright
though feeble fun, in a v^ry beautiful manner. This appear-
ance of fbmething like brilliant points floating in our atmo-
fphere,

* As it may operate to the eocourajrement of Science, pennit roe to inform the So-
ciety, that when this refpe^lable Fhilofopher (Co well known in Europe by his profound
and ingenious writings on Eledricity and Magnetifm) had fini(hed the education of his
Imperial Highnefs the Grand Duke of Ruflia« he was advanced to the rank of adual
Counfellor of State, with a penfian to fupport his new dignity, and was decorated with
the red ribbon of St Anne, an order only bellowed on men of high military or civij
rank. This anecdote fhows how well the preient Sovereign under ftands rewarding me«
fit, whtn it £ilh under her immediate cognifance.

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224 DlSSERTAriON on the

fphere^ is not condant, but I think follows a fort of cloudinefki
which occafionally takes place on a change of temperature, as
if it was going to (how ; but on the cold increaiing a few <le-
grees, which it does often very fiiddenly, the Iky becomes in*
ftantly clear again, and feems to have acquired the* little parti*
cles in queftion, which I have often thought I felt a£ting againft
my face, while driving with great velocity in a fledge.

That I may feparate as much as poflible theory from fadls,
I referve to this place fome explanation of what I have faid
above, and beg leave to hazard a conjedlvre, in form of a
query, for thofe who have more leifure and genius than nxyfelf.
It would indeed be difficult to reconcile the idea of our atmo-
fphere pofleffing a greater quantity of eledric fluid in vnnter
than fummer, with the difcoveries of Meflrs de VbLTA and
SaussurEj who have found the eledlricity of the air in dry
weather to be conftantly pofitive. The laft mentioned gentle-
man fuppofes its pofltive flate to be maintained by a regular
fupply of vapours from the earth, (which are difcovered to
abound with that fluid) carrying up a portion of the ele^ricity
that belongs to the globe. Now, as in the north the earth is
hard frozen during winter, one (hould think the fupply by eva-
poration cannot be fo great in this feafon as in fummer, and
of courfe its pofitive ftate with difficulty kept up from this
fource, according to Dr Franklin's Theory of Plus and Mi-
nus. Will that of two diftindl fluids (to which MrSAUSSURB
feems to lean in fome part of his works) account for it better \
There is a theory very prevalent in Germany and Sweden ; nay,
we even find the refpedlable names of Bergman, Scheelb,
WiLKE, l^c, amongfl; its advocates. This is a fufficient reafon
for my giving it a place in this paper, left it fliould not be ge-
nerally known in Britain.

Positive elcdricity is fuppofed to be common air Saturated
with heat or fire, as they term it j negative eledlricity is'^ fup-
pofed to be phlogifton, combined with an acid. As to the

commotion.

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■CLIMATE of RUSSIA. 2*5

eommotion, thcfy account for it, by fuppofing that it is owing
to tjie air and phlogiflon rufhing iTfrith vicAence together, (from
great affinity) and fuddenly fettihg loofe the heat contained in
the air, according to Crawford's theory, which then becomes
fenfible, and in Tome cafes vifible. I mnft take the liberty of
fuggefting a doubt if this new theory will account for fo many
phenomena in eledlricity, as the beautiful and fimple one of
Franklin and ^Epinus, particuUrly for Earl Stanhope^s re-
turning (Iroke, which his Lordfhip proves to have been the
death of Mr Bryden's carter and horfes, in fo fatisfadlory a
manner, that no man in future will think himfelf fafe in a
thunder-dorm, however diftant from the exploiions.

It might be fuppofed, from the feverity of the froft men-
tioned above, that we fuffer much cold during this period j but ,
the fa<^ is jull the rcverfe : for people in eafy circumftances,
who are not obliged to remain much out of doors, but drive,
or even walk from one houfe to another, fuflfer lefs than in
mod countries, as there reigns conftantly a fummer heat from
14*^ to 16® of Reaumur in our apartments, where flowers
blow all the winter ; and when out of doors, the warm fur
drefs, with the fkin farniture of the fledges, (a coach requires
none) keep the body fo comfortable, that I am convinced lefs
cold is felt (diflference of drefs confidered) in driving through
the fbreets of Peterfburg in our cold dry air, than through thofe
of London or Edinburgh, during the cold moifl weather that
obtains there during a great part of the winter ; efpecially as
this ftate of the atmofphere in Britain is often accompanied by
bleak winds, whilft the air in Ruffia, during our greateft cold,
is generally ferene and calm. In fa6l, we have only the face to
guard againfl the froft when out of doors, by occafionally
raifing the cape of our* fur garb, as all the reft is fecured againft
its attack by the well contrived drefs of the north ; and at
home, if the door is only kept fhut, the cold can enter from
no other quarter, (the windows being double, well caulked and

Vol. II. // papered

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226 DISSERTATION on the

papered in the feams) to counteradt the equally diffuied heat
produced by well contrived ftoves, which are built generally of
white tiles, and admit of much latitude of elegant form*

The above defcription of our mode of living in winter, ac-
counts for a circumftance that has been regarded as afiedation,
both in the natives of RufBa, and in foreigners who have re*
fided long here, viz. their complaining of cold during winter
in the temperate climates; for, on taking into confideration
their mode of living at home, there is nothing more natural
than their fuffering cold in countries where neither the houfes
nor drefs are calculated to keep it from conftaAtly aifling on the
body, during a certain period of the year. This is a fituation
quite new to a Ruffian, and which produces fenfations more
difagreeable than can eafily be imagined, till cuftom makes it
familiar, and that they have learned to feek heat in exercife,
inftead of ovens and furs ; a leflbn by no means unprofitable
to people of faihion from the noithern countries of Europe^

SPRING.

As to fpring, I mufl agsdn repeat my remark in the intro*-
du(5lion, that we can hardly fay that it exifts here ; the feafon»
of winter and fummer running into one another, almofl without
any fenfible intermediate one : For by the time that the immenfe
mais of fnow and ice, which covered the face of land and
water, is melted, the fun has acquired fo much influence, as to
dart on us at once a fummer heat. It is probable that the
quantity of water produced by this operation, when joined to
the efFedl of our heavy night-dews in the hot weather, may
render a wet intermediate feafon unnecefTary, whilil the fhort
period allowed to hurry vegetation through all its ftages, will
fearcely admit of it. Is it not poffible, likewife, that the fud-
den commencement of fummer on the finifhing of the thawing
procefs, may be accounted for, in fome meafure, by Dr Black V

Theory

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CLIMATE of RUSSIA. 227

Theory of Latent Heat ? For as water requires a great portion
of fenfible heat to refume its fluid form, of courfe, a large
proportion of that furnifhed by the iiin will be abforbed, un«
til the whole is diflblved, when we at once receive all his influ-
ence, without any part of it being abforbed by our winter co-
vering. When this caufe is joined to the cold produced by the
evaporation going on during the thawing period, it is eafy to
conceive how difierent our feelings mud be at the time when
they are both removed, and the earth is beginning to ac-
quire and give out warmth ; which very quickly takes place in
this light fandy foil, that lets the water readily filter through it,
and almoft immediately begins to heat.

RUSSIAN SUMMER,
With the common Phenomena attending it.

Our Ruflian fummer, during a good feafon, prefents exadlly
the oppofite extreme to winter, the former being nearly as hot
as the latter is cold ; an admirable arrangement of nature, if
we coniider the tafk the fun has to perform, with regard to ve-
getation, during that fhort fpjure of time. The influence of
the fun during the period of a Ruflian fummer, is no doubt
aid^ by that equally wife oeconomy relative to the habits of
plants ; for whilft the northern ones run their courfe uniformly
in the fliort fpace of time allotted to them, (even in Iceland,
where, from its infular fituation, the heat cannot be fo confi-
derable as with us), thofe imported from the fouth can, . by no
means, effect all their ftages of vegetation, within the bounds
of a Ruflian fummer, until they have pafled a few feafons in
this climate, and thus acquired the habits of the indigenous
plants of the country.

It is remarkable, that the thermometer falls exacflly to 24^^
of Reaumur below the freezing *point, during our greatefl:

// 2 cold

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22B DISSERtATION on the

cold in winter, and rifes to- the fame number' of degrees above
it^ daring our greateft heat of fummer, taking the mean of
fifteen yeara. The fun's remaining fo many hours above the
horizon, or rath.er fcarcely leaving it at all during a certain pe-
riod of our fummer, affords one reafon for the violent heat
which a traveller meets with, to his na fmall aflonifhment, in
the latitude of 6o» - as the air and earth have not time to cool
in the fhort interval between his fetting and rifing again. Two
firitifh travellers from Bengal, (where they are certaittly ac-
cuflomed to great heat) complain much of that of the prefent
fummer in St Peterflburg.

I TAKE this opportunity of nientioning a curious faft con-
nedled with northern vegetation. There is a difti to be found
at the tables of Mofcow during winter, which will fcarcely be
credited by the reft of Europe, when it is remembered that the
climate is nearly as fevere as at Peterfburg, viz. afparagus,
reared in the open air, the produ<flion of a fpecies of RufCaa
gardening, which merits being known.

In autumn, the afparagus beds are covered with mats^ and
buried by the falling fnow, which is moft abundant in this,
climate^ fa as to preferve the plants from being frozen, •until
they are wanted. ^ When a bed af them is to be thrown into
vegetation during winter, it is done by cutting a deep and
broad trench all around it,, down to the unfrozen earth, which
is filled with fmoking dung, taken out of the middle of a
' large dunghill ; the old mata, covered with fnow, are then re-
moved, and dry ones put in thiir place, and upon them a thick
layer of warm dung, leaving only fmall apertures for the
plants to puih through.

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CLIMJTJSI of RXXS&T^. 22^

Rcgi^cf the Weather for tbt fix SwnmtrMmtbs.

THERMOMETER-

Greateft heat, 106^ commonly in July or Auguft, equal to

85® of Fahr. above o, or to 24®^ of
Reaitm, above o.

Lead heat, 144® in May or Odober, equal 13041 ^ of Fahr.

above o, or to 3 • of Rbaum. abdrve c.

Difference, 38** equal to 46**^ of Fahr. or equal to 20^!-

of Reaum*
Mean heat of the aftern. 127/^ equal to 59^ of Fahr« above o, or

equal 12^ of Reaum. above o«
Mean heat of the night, 136® equal to 49^ of Fahr. above o^

or to 2*^1 of Reaum. above o»
Mean heat of the climate at large^ 2''tV

BAROMETER.

At higheft, 28.42 . ofteneft in May.

At lo weft, ^7-50 ofteneft in September. .

.92 The middle between thefe extremes is 27.96* •
Mean height, 28^.04 Paris inches*

Windu '

The wind that predominates here in fummer, as in winter^.
18 die weft.

Weft wind, no days.
£aft wind, 84 days.

Raitu

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2^0 DrSSERTATlON on the

Rain.

The quantity of rain that falls in the fix months, is lOrV?*
or about 1 1 Paris inches.

Rainy days^ - - 80.

Temped during this feafon, from 11 to iz.

Showers of hail, from 2 to 3.

Aurora Borealis, from 8 to 9.

Fog, - - 17 days.

1 SHOULD be happy in being able to give the heat of detfp
wells and^fprings in this province, to compare with the mean
heat of our climate, which, according to %, curious modern
difcovery, ought to be pretty nearly the fame ; but as our wa-
ter lies within about four yards of the furface, at lead in the
diftritft I inhabit, it may be fuppofed to be afieded by the in«
fluence of the fun during fummer, and the fevere froft in
winter. To avoid, then, as much as poffible, both thefe caufes
of error, I have chofen for the time of my experiment, what,
in my opinion, is the moft favourable of the whole year, viz.
the ihort interval which takes place between the rigorous feafon
pf winter and the heat of fummer, when the water is moft ex-
empt from either influence. The epoch fixed upon then for
my experiment was the 9th of May, whilft we had ftill a little
floating ice in our river, the laft of that which comes down
from the lake Ladoga every fpring on its breaking up. At this
time, the trees were ftill without a leaf, except the birch, which
was juft budding; and Reaumur's thermometer ftood at lo'^i-
above the freezing point, fome degrees higher than it had yet done ;
ib that I think, from the fmall efFedl the fun had yet produced
on vegetation, i^c. we cannot well fuppofe, that the temperature
of a thick covered well in my garden, excluded as much as pofi
fible from communication with the open air, by every precau-
tion I could invent, could be fo much a&<fled by it> as to pro-
duce an error on the fide of heat.

May

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CLIMATE of RUSSIA. aji

May 9. Heat of the air, 10*4^ above o.

Heat of the well in my garden. Imp.
Cadet Corps, 2*| above o.

Now, ^ as the mean heat of our climate is i^rsf there is a very
remarkable coincidence between it and the heat of the water,
even taken under all the difadvantages mentioned above. How-
ever, I by no means offer this as the abfolute and exadl tempe-
rature of deep wells and fprings in this province, which may
certainly be confiderably different.

Thb mean heat of the only four countries determined in this
manner, that have fallen under my cognifance, make a fhort
but. curious fcale, as they are of temperate, torrid, and frigid
climates. As for example :

•

Mean heat of

Heatofwelk

the dimates.

and iprings.

St Pctcriburg, N.Lat 59*^ 26' 23"

Long. 30® %y E. from the 2**Vv

2-i

•

firft mcrid. of Greenw.

London, N.Lat. 51^31'

Long. 0 7*i

Paris, N. Lat. 48^ 50'

Long. 2« 2$' E. 10^

lo^i in the
cave under the
obfervatoiy.

Kingflon, Jam. N. Lat. iS*' 15'

Long. 76^ 38' W. 21%

ai»i

The difference of temperature between London and Paris
is more remarkable than their diftance will account for, and,
of courfe, is an illuftration of the effedl of infular fituation,
which was my reafon for fetting down two places fo near to
one another. Accident fometimes prefents us with one inter-
efting fadt when in fearch of another. This was my cafe, in
taking the heat of the earth in my garden, to contrail with that
of my well, for a particular purpofe. On April 19. 1789,
Reaumur's thermometer at 7® above o, I found the heat of
the earth, in a foft bed one foot from the furfaee, oi^ly half a
degree above the freezing pointy and on the next day was ado-

nifhed

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iS2 DISSERrjT/ON on the

nifhed to find it at 5® above it, although the thermometer in
air had not altered its pofition, but was (iill at 7^, nor had the
fun Ihone out in the interval, fo that this furprifing change of
heat in the. earth feems to have been effedled by a fhower of
rain that fell between the two obfervations ; a (\roag confirma-
tion of the hypothefis that rain water cootains a large portion
of latent heat, and probably of electric matter ; fi> that it is
not fiirprifing, if plants fhould, under certain circuniftances,
ftart, as it were, fuddenly out of the earth after a (bower of
rain, as they receive fo large a fupply, not only of moifture,
but likewile of heat, and po£Qbly a vivifying principle from
the ftimulus of the ele^ric fkmd. carried down by the rain.

General Obfervations on the Summer Atmofphere%

•

The (late of the atmofphere during the fummer, is in gene-
ral pretty fixed, and the jur very ferene and clear, both during
the day and night, in fpite of the heavy dew that falls from
the fetting to the rifing of the fun, which feems to ferve, as
before obferved, for watering the plants during this hot dry
feafon. I have been much (truck with obferving, that an ex-
cellent hygrometer, fent me by the learned ProfeflTor Pictet of
Geneva, (hung within doors with the windows open) indicated
a greater degree of humidity, on a fine fummer evening, than
• during the moft continued rainy weather ; fo much higher is
the faturation of the air with water, and (b much greater is its
diffufion through it, than when it falls in the form of rain.
This obfervation favours the modem hypothefis of the chemical
folution of water in air.

I THINK alfo worthy of remark, the much greater efiedl
this fultry debilitating period has upon foreigners, (from even
warm countries) than on the natives of the north, as one
fhould naturally think the former would fupport it better, than
a people unaccu(tomed| for fo long a period of the year, to ex--

cedivc

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• CLIMAtE of RUSSIA. 233

ceflive cold. This, however, is by no means the cafe; for
whilft foreigners can ftarcely take any exercife out of doors, with
the fun high abot«e the horizon, without feeling a fpecies of
faintifli debility, the natives even carry on the hardeft labour
without much 2(|)parent fatigue. This may probably be ac-
counted for by their conftant ufe of the vapour bath, heated to
a degree unfupportable for many minutes to a foreigner, whilft
they feel themfelves perfeAly at their eafe in it, from habit, and
are as fond of it As the Greeks and Romans were of the tepid

water bath.

• • • *

Another circumftance in the mode of life of this northern
people, which may alfo contribute greatly to their fupporting
fo well coAiiderable degrees of heat, is their living at home,
for eight months of the year, in a conftant heat of from
16*^ to 20** of Reaum. or from 68* to about 77° of Fahr. ;
nay, even during the fummer, the ovens of their cottages are
obliged to be pretty conftantly heated, each peafant baking his
bread at home, and dreiling his vidluals in them.

^ Au ru M N. ^

The remark I have already made on the feafons vnll account
for my leaving this period blank, and only mentioning it for
form's fake. I have annexed the abridged regifter of fifteen
years, made ufe of in this paper, as there may be fome who
would wifh to fee it.

Vol. II. /if * Two

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234 DISSERTATION on the

Two I/BTTERS e^;i Electrical and o^A^r Phenomena ;
addreffid to Jit MATTHEW GuTHRIE, Conf. Aul. F.R.SS.
LoND. and Edin. Pbyjician to the Imperial Corps of Noble
Cadet Sf and to that of the Artillery and Et^ineers in St Peterjburg^
hy his Excellency M. JEfinus^

[Tranjlation from the FrencbJ]

Dear Sir,

I ACKNOWLEDGE the pleafure I have received in peruiing
your paper on the Northern Climate j and certainly it would
be difficult to give, with more method and intelligence, a clear
and diftinfl idea of the^peculiarities of our climatey quod malus.
Jupiter urget^ and which diftinguifib it from the other countries
of Europe, placed under a more mild and temperate &y.

I SHAftL therefore comply with pleaRire, in giving' a circumr
ftantial account of the curious fadls mentioned in your Difler-
tation, as feen and authenticated by me \ and {hall, at the
fame time, avail myfelf of your permiflion to communicate
l^e remarks and reflections I have made on. reading your inter-
efting Diflertation *.

The uncommon phenomena alluded to in your paper, were
as follow: During the lad weeks of the year 1766 and the
firft of 1767, we had conftantly very ilrong froft, with the

calm,

• * Dr GvTHiiiB iblicited the learned ^ntleman's remarks and opinion on his paper.
M. ^Finus is the oldefl Frofeilbr of the Imperial Academy now alive, having Tpent
upvTards of thirty years in this country % and as Natural Philofophy was his prufeffionaL
line before called to Court, and his amufement fince, his Excellency is of all others moft
able to judge of the peculiarities of our climate, and the fitted to put the ftamp o£
veracity on this DliTertation, its principal merit* ^

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CLIMATE of RUSSIA. 235

calm, clear aqd ferene iky which generally accompanies it in
" this climate ; and during its prevalence, her Imperial Majefly
having fent for me one morning, ordered me to go to the
apartments of Prince Orloff, in another part of the palace,
who, ihe faid, had, for fome days paft, become uncommonly
eledric every time his hair was combed.

I FOUND the Prince at his toilet, and obferved, in fadt,
that, at every time his valet de chambre drew the comb
through his hair, a pretty ftrong crackling noife was heard ;
and on darkening the room, by drawing the curtains, xh€
fparks were feen following the dire<flion of the comb in great
abundance, whilft the Prince, by this operation, was become
fo completely eledlric, that ftrong fparks could •be drawn from
his hands and face ; nay, he was even eleflrifiled when ^he was
only powdered with a puff, the fridlion of the air againft his
hsur being able to produce a confiderable degree of eledlricity ;
a curious experiment, which however but feldom fucceeded af*
terwards, when I was defirous of repeating it.

A FEW days after this fcene with the Prince, I was wimefi
to a ftill more ftriking eStd of the eledtric ftate of our atmo-
fphere at this period. His Imperial Highnefs the Grand Duke
fent for me one evening in the twilight, and told me, that, having
bri(kly drawn a flannel cover off a green damafk chair in his
bed-chamber, which had been put on it by accident, he* was
afloniihed at the appearance of a ftrong bright flame that fol-
lowed it ; but having immediately comprehended that it muft
have been an eledric phenomenon, his ^Highnefs had 'been
trying to produce a fimilar illumination on different pieces of
furniture, and could now (how me a beautiful and furprifing
experiment, that he had juft difcovered. — ^His Highnefs then
threw himfelf on his bed, which was covered with a damaflc
quilt laced with gold, and rubliing it with his hands in all (fi«
reftions, the young Trince, who had then reached his twelfth
year, appeared to be fwimming in fire, as, at .every ftroke^

g S ^ £ames

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236 DISSERTATION on the

flames arofe all around him, which, darting to .the gold lace
border; run along it» and up that of the bed, to the very top.

Whilst his Highnefs was .ftiowing me his experiment,
Prince Orloff, who had been making many diflerent trials of
hfs perfbnal eleftricity, fince the day I faw him at his toilet,
came into the room with a fable muff* in his hand, and fliowed
us, that, by only whirling it five or fix times round lus head in
the air, he could eledrify himfelf <b ftrongly, as to fend out
fparks from all the uncovered parts of his body $ another proof
that the fimple fticfVion of air againft hair could produce elec^
tricity. Similar experiments were repeated in many houies of
the city, whilfl the ftrong froft prevailed y which (hows, that
the uncommon difpoiition of bodies to ele<firicity, during the
period treated of, was general.

These curious phenomena have appeared from time to time
fince that epoch, particularly during the ievere cold which has
prevailed for diefe four weeks paft. A few days ago, a lady of
my acquaintance informed me, that, on having her head
combed, not only ner hair fliowed the ordinary figns of elec*^
tricity, but that, after the comb had been drawn through, it
bufhed out in a moft furprifing manner, by die mutual repuU
fion of the hairs, and occafioned, on rtfing upon her head, a
moft fingular and difagreeable fenfation, which would cer-
tainly have frightened her 'terribly, if £he had not inftantly
guefled the caufe.

It mufl not, however, be taken for granted, that thefe ap- ^
pearances are quite •ommon here, or that they appear every
winter, although we never fail to have 24^ and upwards of
cold, by Reaumur's fcale. No; to render thefe effedb very
remarkable, a great cold mufl have continued feveral weeks
without abating, as I ihall explain in the fequeL

I SHALL here like wife accouat for a curious fa& mentioned
above, which muft have drawn the attention of the reader, viz^
that Prince Ohloff became eledhified whilfl fitting at his

toilet^

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CLJMArE of RUSSIA. lyj

toilet, on a chair placed on the bare floor, or on walking in th«
Great Duke*s apartment, without any fpecies of apparatus to
cut off his communication with the naked boards ; but he was
in fa^ infulated in both fituations, as the inlaid floors were
become as completely ideo-eiedric as glafc or roiin, from the
high dried (late to which they were reduced by an exficcating
quality of the atmofphere, (to be explained in the fequc?) and
conflant waxing. Now, as I obierre, Sir, that in your paper
on our climate, you enter into fbme reafbning on thefe pheno-
mrena, I prefume my opinion on them will not be difagreeable
to you. • •

The great difpofition, then, of air, and c^her bodies, to be-
come ele(flric, during great d^rees of cold continued for a cer-
tain time, always appeared to me to be fb eafily explained, that
I looked upon it as a fimple corollary of the bed known of the
laws of eledlric force, and as fuch, that it did not require
to be deduced from it in a formal manner. However, that
you may know on what I founded that fuppofltion, I fhall ob-
serve, That, firjl^ nothing indicates air, and other bodies, to
contain, during ievere froft, an atom of more eledric matter
than their natural quantity ; and they are certainly not in a '
ftate of fpontaneous ^eledricity, becaufe, to render them elec-
tric, fridion mud be employed, as at all other times ; fo that
all the uncommon appearances above mentioned are reduced ta
this. That, by* means of fri<5lion, bodies, in the above ftate of
the atmofphere, become more eafily, and more ftrongly, eledlric,
than at any other time, whidk does not indicate a larger
quantity of clcflric matter, but a greater difpofition to rc^
ceive k.

^dly^ Thbke is no neceflity, then, to enquire, why air, filk,,
wool, hair, wood, ^c. contain a greater quantity of eleflric
matter in dits than in another feafon, fince the fad does not
obtain ; fo that the queftion left for inveftigation is only. Why
they poflefs, during ievere cold, a greater aptitude or diipofitioa

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238 DISSERtATlON on the

to become eledlric, than in any other (late of the atmofphere ?
or, in other words, Why they become, in a more eminent de«
gree, ideo-eledtric ?

^dfyj Air poflefTes, like the other fluids wc call menjlrua^ the
power of difTolving different bodies, efpecially water, which
lad procefs we term evaporation; and, like .the other menftrua,
this pAwer is modified by the degree of heat it poffeffes, fo
that, c(£teris paribus^ warm air can diffolve, and hold in folu-
tion, a much greater quantity of water than cold air.

^hly^ Suppose that air, heated to a given degree, holds in
folution as much water as it is able to diffolve, that is to fay,
that it is faturated with it, and it then cools down fo conii-
derably, that it cannot hold in folution the fame quantity it
did at firft ; there ihould, in that cafe, take place a large pre-
cipitation, or a large portion of the diflblved water ihould fe-
^parate itfelf from the cooled air; fo that it mud remain
charged with a much fmaller quantity than before it; loft its
•heat.

Sthly^ It follows, then, that the atmofphere is never drier
than during great froft, and never more humid than during
great heat ; and this affertion will appear a pa^dox only to thofe
who confound a dry with a drying air, and a wet with a wet*
ting air ; or who do not reflect that a dry air may not be of a
drying nature, and that a humid atmofphere may not be of a
wetting quality. I hope, likewife, nobody will ftiaintain, that
the apparent purity, and perfect tranfparency of the air, in a
fine fummer day, is a proof o&its not being charged with he*
terogeneous matter, as that tranfparency is only the efieiSt of a
perfe^ folution of the water it contains. — ^It is evident, by the
common chemical operations, performed every day, jthat every
perfedl folution is clear and tranfparent, and that when it «be-
comes turbid, a precipitation is at hand. Let us confirm this *
facA, Sir, by a phenomenon we have an opportunity of feeing
very often in fummer, viz. that we ihall find the air full of

broken

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CLIMATE of RUSSIA. 239

broken clouds in the morning, which vanifli imder our eye
whilft looking at them, as the fun rifes higher above the hori-
zon, in the &me manner as chemical fblutions become turbid
on cooling, and clear again on heating.

6tbly^ This extraordinary dry air penetrates into our apart*
ments, either gently and infenfibly through chinks, or rapidly
and perceptibly when our ftoves are lighted each morning ; a
iure means of renewing the air of our apartments once in
twenty-four hours at lead. The external air thus introduced,
ibon acquires the temperature of the chamber, which is com-
monly from 12® to 15^ or more of Reaumur, (in the better
fort of houfes, for thofe of the common people arp * warmer)
and then recovers its diflblving power, which the feverity of
the cold had coniiderably diminifhed, nay almoft entirely over-
come ; but as it now contains little or no humidity, it muft,
like other menjlrua^ attack the humidity that it finds in the
chamber, with a much greater rapidity than it could have
done with the fame degree of heat, had it not been thus pud*
fied (or dephlegmated, in the language of chemiftry) by the
cold. All the bodies, then, which happen to be in the room,
muft lofe of their humidity, or be dried much quicker than in
any other feafon ; and, in fadl, there is no houfekeeper in Pe«
terfburg who does not perceive to his coft this extraordinary
drying procefs, as our furniture warps, cracks or fplits much'
more during the rigour of winter, than in the hotted period of
fummer, nay probably more than in any other country between
us and the equator.

Ithly^ A NAT ORAL refult of all this, is, that, after our great
cold has continued a certain time, the bodies mentioned above,^
viz. air, filk, wool, hair, wood, ^r. are in fa<5l, without affift*
ancc from us, drier than during the reft of the year, and pro-
bably more fb than in any other part of Europe, except they
are dried exprefsly by fome^artificial means»

%tblyL^

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240 DISSERTAT:I0N on the

Stbly^ Now, the bodies I have enumerated, are all in the
clafs of imperfed ideo-eledrics, and have Ukewife the common
property of attraAing moiftur^, fo that they can never be per-
fedlly dry; but water is, after the metal^^ the moft perfedfc
conduAor of the eledhic fluid, or the leaft of an ideo-ek^^ric,
I fay, after the metaU ; for I think I have obferved, and pro-
bably others have done the fame, that water does not condu6k
quite fo well as they do. But let that be as it may, thefe bo-
dies cannot certainly imbibe water without becoming Icfs of an
idco-ele<5lric, in proportion as they do fo, and, of courfc, the
more they dry again, the more they recover their natural quality.

The refult upon the whole then muft be. That during our ^
fevere cold, the bodies of which I fpeak become fpontaneoufly
much better ideo-ele<flric8 here, than they ever are in any other
feafon or climate ; thercfcw^ thefe bodies have an extraordinary
difpofition to become eafily and ftrongly eledlric.

It cannot have efcaped your penetration. Sir, that in all I
have faid, I have advanced only known and gaierally received
fa (5^8, without admixture of hypothefes or conjedlure of my own;
fo that the explanation I have given of the phenomena, (alluded
to in your paper, and which I* was called upon to illuftrate)
arifes naturally and neceffarily from thofe faifts, in fuch a man-
ner, that it may pafs, in my opinion, for a demonftradon,
fuch as is to be git'en in Natural Philofophy.

It appears to me then, Sir, that we are not obTiged to have
recourfe to the conjectures of Meflrs Saussure, Bergman,
WiLKE, &c. to explain the above phenomena, as you appear to
have been difpofed to do in the paiTage alluded to, with a mode-
ration that does honour to your mode of philofbphifing ; nay, if
we were even inclined to jemploy them, I do not fee how they
would anfwer our purpofe, being only hazarded opinions ; but
could they be verified, (which I doubt much) they would even
then be of very little ufe, as they dbuld contribute nothing to
the perfedion of the theory of ele<5lricity.

You

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CLIMJtE of RUSSIJ. 24t

You muft excufe me, Sir, if I enter into another difcuffion.
which the fame paflage of yours has likewife given rife to. I
mean, the opinions which feveral of the learned have thrown
out of- late years relative to two forts of eledlricity.

It was I, Sir, as you know, who fir ft gave rife to that idejl
many years ago. I had proved, in my tentanien Theor. Eletlric
et M^n: that the portions of matter belonging to 'every body
in ntture, repel one another. This propofition appeared bold to
fbme of the learned, as indeed it would have done ,to myfelf,
before I had well examined, digeft^d and com][)ared it with the
analogy of nature. . ^ *

The Philofoph^s you. cite imagine they could remove this
difficulty, by fupppfing the exiftence of two diftindl cledric
fluids, one of which is pofitive and the other negative. I fliall
confine myfelf at prefent to a. few remarks upon that fubjedl.

imo, Those who would pafs that idea for a new theory of
electricity different from mine, (and there are thofe who attempt
it) have not confidered matters ia their true point of view ; for
it is evident that a theory, founded on the fuppofition of two
fluids, will coincide perfectly and effentially with mine ; nay, the
explanation of the phenomena, the reafoning, and even the ana-
lytic formula which they draw from their pretended theory, is
exadtly the fame as mine. But fuppofing their hypothefes could
be proved, there would refult from it nothing new, except that
^•it might furnifti an explaination of one of the fundamental facfls
^ on whiqh I foundbd my theory, and which I did not follow, nor
think important enough to inveftigate the origin of; but was
contented to admit it as an eftablifhed fad.

2/fo, My theory, in confining itfelf to fimple well attefted fads,
neither afiifts nor denies the exiftence of two, or even feveral
fluids, which nature nright poflibly employ to effeft the funda-
mental laws on which I have eftablifhed my theory ; for when I
make ufe of the exprefiion matter proper to bodies^ it is evident,
that it means what remains in a body after we have drawi> off
the eledric fluid.

Vol. II. . b h r^tio,

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243 DISSERT jriON on the

^tio, In confulting the analogy of nature, one cannot fail to
recoiled, that all known bodies poflefs, befides the Newtonian
attradtion, which is common and general to them all, another
attractive force, or that which produces cohefion between two
pieces of polifhed marble, the afcent of fluids in capillary tubes,
and an infinite number of other phenomena. Now, this laft
attradlive Force is evidently and elTentially different from the
firft J for whilft the one follows the inverfe ratio of the l^uare
of the diljance, it is proved that the other is in proportion to a
power, into which enters tlve reverfe ratio of the cubes, and
probably of fome dill higher power of the diftance.

If then both experience and the analogy of nature, fhow the
poffibility of the co-exiftence of two attraiflive forces in the
fame body, governed by laws entirely different ; and as a repul-
five force is nothing elfe than a negative attracSlive one, my fup-
pofition of the repulfive force of bodies, contains nothing but
what is perfedlly conformable to the analogy of nature.

You alfo make mention. Sir, and with reafon, of the frequent
appearance of the beautiful ^ phenomena of parheliums and
mock moons in our climate, which enables us to be better ac-
quainted with all the circumftances attending them, than people
nearer the equator. I paid a particular attention to thcfe phe^
nomena for a part of the years 1758 and 1759, ^^^ ^ think I have
made fome important obfervations on that fubjedl ; but it is not
at prefent either the time or place to enter into them, efpecially*^
as I have already given the principal fads in i paper inferted in ^
the eighth volume of the Novi Comment. Academ. Scien. Petrop.
p. 392, by referring to which I (hall content myfelf at prefent.

It is now time, Sir, to fini(h this long letter, which has al-
moft fwelled to a diflertation ; and I fhall do fo, by afliiring
you, that I am, with much edeem,

Your obedient fervant,

j^an. 7—18. 1789

St Petersburg, 7

-^Pl NUS.

SIR,

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CLTMATE of RUSSIA. 243

SIR, January 23. 1789.

An idea has ftruck me fince I fent off my laft letter, which
may poflibly merit your attention, and therefore I fhall give it
yon.

Both of us know long ago, Sir, and w€ have probably felt
it lately, that when a fevcre froft has lafted for a certain time
without intermiffion, we may in vain drive to prevent feeling*
its effedls on our own bodies, as well as our furniture, although
we even remain within doors in a comfortable fpring heat, with-
out expofing ourfelves to the open air at all. It might be fup- *
pofed that thefe precautions would be fufficient ; but they are
in fafl far from being fo : for as foon as the fevere cold .has
lafted fome time, we find ourfelves attacked with a difagreeable
fenfation, which, like all the reft of our fenfations, there is no
defcribing exadlly. I fliall therefore only fay, that it confifts \n
a fort of laffitude and heavinefs or torpor, affe<Sling both the
body and mind, joined to a troublefome reftleffnefo. or inquie-
tude. Such arc our feelings during the continuance of the
above defcribed weather, and I fhall next give you. Sir, my
conjedlures on the caufe of this curious phenomenon.

In the letter 1 had the honour to write you fome weeks ago,.
I proved, that great cold renders the air dry and pure in a moft
aftonifliing degree, and that the heat which it afterwards re-
ceives in our apartments, renders it drying in a proportion
equally furprifing. Now, is it not poflible that it is this fame
drying quality of our chamber-atmofphere which produces the .
fenfations enumerated above ? For why Ihould it not attack, un-
der the fame circumftances, the human body, as well as our
Wooden furniture, and all other bodies which happen to be in.
the rooms ? Surely, what we call perfpiration muft be much
increafed by it ; and this confumption of our excreted fluids *
may poflibly be extended, I fliould think, to the nobler fluids,

neceffary

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244 DISSERTATION, &c.

neceflary to the fundlions of the animal oeconomy, fuch as what
are called vital fpirits, the exiftence of which is fuppofed, with
fome degree of probability, without our being able to fay what
they are. .This idea appears the more likely, as it is known that
the diflblving power of air is not confined to water alone, but
is extended to many other bodies. If then my conje(5\ure is
founded, there appears to me. Sir, a very eafy way to prevent
this fort of difeafe ; for in fadl it is one, although but flight
and of little confequence j we have only to give back to the
air the humility which the froft had robbed it of, which may
be done, either by promoting the evaporation of a certain quan-
" tity of water in the room, or, what will be a much more con-
venient and fhorter mode of doing it, to hang up a cloth of a
proper fize, dipped in water, and wetted from time to. time. ^ —
I fubmit. Sir, thefe conjedlures to your judgment ; as all that
regards the impreffion which, in length of time, may be made
on the human body, by a very dry and a very drying air, falls
more immediately into your line as a Phyfician, than into chat
of your moft obedient fervant,

JBpinus.

You may make what ufe you pleafe of this letter, and give
it the fame dcftination as the firft, if you think proper.

END OF PAPERS OF THE PHYSICAL CLASS.

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The MEAN STATE of thj
Weather, kept by Profeflbr Euli

For the fix Winter Months, November,
and April, which make i8i days of 1

At 20 feet above the mean level of tl
into the Guljdi of Finland.

At highefi, 28.87 cc

At loweft, 26.99 ^^

Difierence, 1.88 Tt

Mean height, 28.02 Paris h
It ftands 95 dajs above 28 incb

De l'Isle's Thermq

Greateft cold, 196° commonlj in Janua

HEiT, or 24*^^ o:

Leaft cold, 141** in November or Ai

5^1 of Reaum. I

Diflference, 55® eqnal to 64^ of Fa

Mean cold of the night, 162^ equal 23^ of Fi

below o. And of the afternoon, 154^ equal

of Reaum. below o.
The cold has been above 170^ for 47 nights, e^

to xo^f of Reaum. below o. And above i

nights.
The mean term of the firft froft, the 9th OAol
The mean term of the Neva freeung, the 27th

Perfeft calm,
Brifk gales,
N. 14 days.
N.E.I9

28 dajs.
50 days.

£• 23 days.

S.]^. 12

Sky dear,
Fog,
Rain,
Snow,

IV.

Cloudy, 58

39 days.

20 — — I

64 — — — Mean term of thj
Qiianti^ of rain and melted Ihow, 4t^,
Aurora Borcalis, z6 or 17 days,

Tempeft, feldom.

Hail, very feldom.

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PAPERS OF The literary class.

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rfiMMilirilfa

11.

PAPERS OF THE LITERARY CLASS.

L^fffAcCOUNlr ^yoWtf ExTRAORDiKARY StRUGTURBS

on the Tops of HiUs in the Highlands; with Remarks on
the Progrefs of the Arts among the ancient Inhabitants c/* Scot-
land. By Alexander Eraser trrttRy Efy; Advocate^,
F. R. S* Edin. and Pr^effhr of Civil Hiftory in the Univerpf
of Edinburgh *.

IN the yefer X777, an ftccount Was publifhed by Mt John:
Williams^ miaentl^eiigin^er^ of -certain remains of an-
dent buildingB on the fummits of fome of the hills in the*
Highlands of Scotland, which had hitherto efcaped obienratioDy.
and which to him afibrded grounds for a very extraordinary
iu^pofitidn^ That they had been cemented together by means of
Eirt. He mentioned Several of thofe hills exhibiting remains
0f buildings whitfa fae had vifited and examined } particulafly^
the hiU of Knockfirril in Rofs-fhire, Craig-Phadrick near In^
vernefs^ Dun-Evan and CaiUe^Finlay in the county of Nairn,
and die Caftle^hill of FiniiaTen in the cottoty of Angus. He
defcribed the Teftigefl of tegular fortifications on the fummits of

A a thdfe

* Part of this Pi^r was read in 1783^ before the Fhilofophical Society of Edinburgh..
It is now enlarged^ and printed by drder of the Committee for publication of the IxanC
H^w ef Ae. Re);al Sflcnet^f of Edkxburgh..

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4 JNCIENT FORTlFICAnONS in

thofe hills, of which the walls, remaining in fome places of fe-
veral feet in height, were evidently corapadled together by the
vitrification of the ftones of which they were built ; and he of-
fered fome ingenious conjedlures with regard to the means em-
ployed in forming fuch extraordinary ftrudlures, and the pur-
pofes for which they might have been reared.

This account, which Mr Williams himfelf candidly owned,
was by many people treated as a fi(flion, excited, however, the
curiofity of feveral travellers to vifit and examine fome of thofe
hills which he had mentioned. In the fame year, 1 777, Dr James
Anderson of Monkfliill, tranfmitted to the Society of Anti-
quaries of London, a very elaborate account of fome ancient
monuments and fortifications in the Highlands of Scotland,
contained in two letters, which are publifhed in the 5th and
6th volumes of the Arcbaologia. In thefe he treats, at confider-
able length, of the vitrified forts, and particularly of that upon
the hill of Knockfarril in Rofs-fhire ; and, agreeing with Mr
Williams in the general idea, that, in rearing thofe (Irudlures,
die builders had employed fire for the purpofe of cementing
the materials, he differs from him a little as to the manner in
which he fuppofes the fire to have been applied to the mound
or rampart.

It is curious to remark, how the fame appearances, to/dif-
ferent obfervers, lead to the mod oppofite opinions and conclu-
fions. The two gentlemen above mentioned feem not to have
entertained the fmalleft doubt, that the vitrified materials on the
tops of thofe hills, were the veftiges of works of art, and the
remains of (Irudures reared for the purpofes of fecurity and
defence. The Bifhop of Derry, when on a tour to the north
of Scotland, vifited the hill of Graig-Phadrick near Inverne&,
and exprefled his opinion, that the mounds of vitrified matter
were not the remains of any artificial work, but the traces of
an ancient volcano. In the . Philofophical Tranfadlions of the
Royal Society of London for 1777, Part II. No. 20. is an ac-
count

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ne HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 5

count of Creek Fateriek^ Acre termed a volcanic bill near Invernefsf
in a letter from Thomas West, Efq; to Mr Lane, F. R. S.
in which the writer does not hefitate to pronounce this hill an
extinguifhed volcano ; and having fent fpecimens of the burnt
matter for the infpe^on of the Royal Society, the Secretary
fubjoins a note to the paper,' intimating, that " thefe fpecimens
•• having been examined by fome of the Members well ac-
" quainted with volcanic produdlions, were by them judged to
" be real lava.*' Such was likewife the opinion of a very inge-
nious Member of this Society, the late Andrew Crosbie, Efq;
who, in an account which he gave to the Philofophical Society
of Edinburgh in 1780, offered fome curious conjedures with
regard to the procefs of nature, by which he fuppofed the whole
of this hill to have been thrown up from the bottom of the fea
by the operation of inteftine fire.

The perufal of Mr. Williams's pamphlet and of Dr Ander-
son's account, as well as thofe differing opinions I have men-
tioned, excited my curiofity, in a journey I made to Invernefs-
fliire in autumn 1782, to examine, with fome attention, fuch of
the hills mentioned by Mr Williams as lie in that country;
and I now propofe to lay before this Society the refult of that
examination, which, however, I confine chiefly to Craig-Phad-
rick^ as that which I have mod minutely furveyed.

Craig-Phadrick is a fmall conical hill, which forms the
eaftern extremity of that ridge of mountains which bounds
Loch-Nefs upon the north-weft fide. It is fituate about a mile
tb the north of Invernefs, and commands an extenfive profpedt
of both fides of the Murray frith, to the diftancc of above forty
miles. It is accefilble on two diflerent quarters ; on the weft
by a narrow but level ridge, which joins it to the chain of hills
upon Loch-Nefs ; and on the fouth-eaft, by an eafy afcent from
die high ground above the town of Invernefs. When feen
from the oppofite heights, it appears pretty much of a conical
figure > the top cut off, forming a level furface^ bounded at

each

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6 ANCIENT FORTlFICjriONS in

each end by a fmall rifing or fliouldcr. At the diflance of three
or f6ur miles, its artificial appearance is more perceptible than
upon a nearer approach, when the eye, feeing only a part, fails
to take in the great outlines, and to perceive their regularity and
fymmetry. A more diftinifl idea of the general form of this
hill than can be given by defcription, may be obtained from a
fketch taken from the oppofite high grounds, at a few miles di^
fiance. See Plate I. fig. i. In this fketch, Craig-^Phadrick is
marked by the letter C. B are thofe hills, a paft of the fame
ridge, which bound Loch-Nefs upon the north- wefl ; and D is
a conical hill oppofite to Craig-Phadrick, on the other fide of the
Murray frith.

On approaching Craig-Phadrick from the level ridge upon
the wcfl fide, what firft prefents itfelf to view is a road cut
through the rock, from the bottom to the fummit ; in mofl
places about ten feet in breadth, and nearly of the fame depth,
winding in an eafy ferpentine dire<Stion for about fcventy feet ;
by which means an afcent is gained over a very deep rock,
which is otherwife quite inacceffible from that quarter. See
Plate L fig. 2. The form alone of this road leaves little room
to doubt of its being an operation of art. I examined the fidea
of it, where it is cut into the rock, to fee If there were any
marks of a tool. A labourer, who attended me with a mattock,
or quarryman^s pick, declared his opinion^ diat, in many places^
there were marks of an inflrument fimilar to what he had in his
hand ; but the rock being compofed of many rounded pebbles,
and when broken prefenting a furface^ in which the beds of
thofe pebbles have often an appearance like what is made by the
flroke of a tool, I lay little weight upon diac circumflance. The
foTta alone of this road, as I have already fatd, wa^ fiifficiendy
convincing to me of its being an operation of art^

FnoM the nature of the flone itfelf, of which this hill i»
formed, and from that compound appearajice of water-worn
pebbles, flicking isx a cementing mafs, it hai been amjedturedt

that

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ru HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 7

that thefe pebblea, together with the bed in which they are
lodged^ had been forced up from the bottom of the fea, by ia-
temal fire ftruggling for a vent, which it afterwards obtained at
the fummit. With regard to the nature of the (lone of this
hill, I Ihall here obferve only, that this compound appearance
in the rock at Craig-Phadrick, affords no more prefumption of
this particular hill being forced up by fire from the bottom of
the fea, than it does of all the furrounding hills for many miles
having the fame origin. The greateft part of the hills which
bound Loch-Nefs, both on the north and fouth, are compofed
of the fame materials, or at lead contain large (Irata of the (lone
I have mentioned. Yet none of thofe hills that I have feen^ or
on enquiry have ever heard of, exhibit the fmallefi appearance
of the effects of fire ; though, being infinitely higher than
Craig-Pbadrick, and confequently depianding a much greater
force to raiie them up, had fire been the agent, its effedls on
them would probably have been much more confpicuous than
on a hill incomparably fmaller*

That the materials which compofe the hill of Craig-Phad-
rick, as well as all other hills, of which the (lone is of a fimi-
lar nature,^ have originally been under water, I have not the
fmalled doubt. The compound appearance of the rock, which
is evidently a mafs of water-worn pebbles, of various fize, na-
ture and colour, (licking in a bed of clay, leaves no room to
doubt of its origin. But whether thofe hills, which confift of
fuch compound materials, have been forcibly raifed up from
the bottom of the water, by fome convulfion of nature, or
formed by a gradual alluvio^ or depofition of materials under a
mafs qf water which has now deferted them, (as fand-banks
are formed in the fea) is what we have no grounds for deter-
mining with certainty, and few to found even a probable con-
jedure : Since, with regard tg this particular hill, there n«ver
has been a fedion made acro(s any part of it, from which the
component (Irata might be perceived, or the difpofition in

which

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8 ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS in

which they lie. All that I am at prefent concerned to (hew, is,
that, from the fuperficial or external appearance of this hill,
there is no reafon for fuppofing that it ever contained intefline
fire.

The (lone, of which the whole of this hill, and moft of the
neighbouring hills are compofed, is a mixed mafs of round
water-worn pieces of different coloured^ granite, greyifh or
fpeckled quartz, and the common white quartz. This compound
ftone, which is well known to miners, has, from its appear-
ance, been termed plum-pudding ftone. Thofc who have en-
tertained the notion of Craig-Phadrick's being an extinguiflied
volcano, have maintained, that this compound ftone is of the
nature of the volcanic tufas. This, however, will be acknow-
ledged to be a miftake, by all who have examined and compared
the two fubftances. The volcanic tufas are all compofed of
materials which have undergone a change by fire ; the plum-
pudding ftone has undergone no. fuch change^ Sir William
Hamilton defcribes tufa to be a foft ftone, compofed of pu^
mice, aflies and burnt matter^ its colour often tinged with grey,,
green and yellow. It is formed, fays he, by water making up
thefe materials into a fort of clay, which afterwards hardens*
The plum-pudding ftone, on the contrary, contains no burnt
materials. Its component parts, fo far from being already
burnt, when expofed to fire, undergo a total change, and the
whole ftone fufiers an imperfedl vitrification. Upon the whole
furface of this hill, and amidft all the detached fragments, both
of the natural ftone and of the viorified matter, there is not, fo
far as I could ob&rve, any thing that bears the appearance of a
pumice ftone. The burnt matter, indeed, is often full of fmall
holes or honey-combed ; but it ftill retains a glafly appearance
and a confiderable weight, both which circumftances fufficient-
ly diftinguifh it from pumice. Bafaltes are, I believe, coaftant-
ly found, in fome form or another, upon all volcanic .hills ; but
neither oix the rock of Craig-Phadrick^ nor on any of the neigh-
bouring

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The HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 9

bouring hills is there, fo far as I could obferve, the fmalleft ap-
pearance of that kind.

The vitrified matter on the fummit of this rock is, therefore,
the only circumftance which pofitively vindicates the effedl of
fire ; and this I fhall now proceed to examine.

The Society have already had before them fpecimens of this
burnt or vitrified matter. I (hall, therefore, fuppofe, that they
are fufficiently acquainted with its appearance. It will be re-
coUedled, that in none of the fpecimens which were produced,
was there any thing like a total fufion of the materials. Some
parts of the mafs feemed to be portions of argillaceous and un-
vitriable done j others of (tones of which a part had been in
fufion, while the reft remained in its natural ftate. Thefe cir-
cumftances, of themfelves, are fufiEicient to diftinguifh this fub*
ftance from volcanic lava, which ia an uniform homogeneous
mafs, of which every part has been in a ftate of fufion. Neif
ther has this vitrified fubftance the appearance of thofe fcoria
thrown up from volcanos, which are probably the fcum of the
lava, or fuch parts of the materials as either never were fufible,
or have loft their fufibility and principle of inflammability :
For the burnt fubftance on the top of Craig-Phadrick is rather
a mixture of fufible with unfufible fubftances ; many parts ap-
pearing to have been in the moft perfeA fufion, while others
have remained in their natural ftate.

But the circumftance which, in my apprchenfion, evinces,
in the moft fatisfadlory manner, that thofe appearances of the
efiedl of fire on the fummit of this hill, are not the operation of
nature, but of art, is the regular order and difpofition of thofe
materials, the form of the ground, and the various traces of
Ikill and contrivance which are yet plainly difcernible, though
confiderably defaced, either by external violence, or by the ob-
literating hand of time. To proceed regularly in examining
thofe appearances of artificial contrivance, I return to that
winding road. I before mentioned, which is evidently cut

yo^.,U» B. through.

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10 ANCIENT FORriFICJTlONS I

through the rock for the purpofe of gaining an eafy afcent from
the level ridge to the fummit, which would otherwife have been
impraiflicable.

In mounting up by this road, and towards the middle of
the afcent, there appears a fmall platform overhanging the road,
upon the right hand, and inclining, by a very gentle declivity,
to the edge of the rock. Upon this platform, and on the Tcry
edge and extremity of it, are placed four enormous (tones,
which have been evidently guided by art into that pofition ; as
it is impoffible, fuppofing them to have rolled down, that diey
ever could have retted in that iituation. The pofture of thefe
ftones leaves no doubt as to the purpofe they were intended to
ferve. Upon an alarm of danger, the ftrength of a very few
men was fufficient to raife thefe enormous (lones fo as to dc-
ftroy their balance, and prqje<Sl them into the hollow road,
which they would entirely block up, and thus either prevent aU
accefs, or render the pafs fo difficult, as to be with eafe defend-
ed by a few againft any number of aflailants. This winding
road, with the platform upon the right, may be feen in Plate I.
fig. 2. which is a fkctch of the top or cone of the hill, as it
rifes from the level of the ridge to the weft. Some odier
large ftones are likevnfe placed on an eminence .to the left of
the road, evidently to ferve a fimilar purpofe with thofc on the
right, and to block up or defend a hollow channel, by which
an afcent might have been attempted, by following the waving
diredlion of the natural furrows of the hill at B, C and D.

On arriving at the fummit of the hill by the winding road,
and a few feet below the rampart which qrowns the top of the
hill, there appears an outward wall furrounding the whole,
which approaches on the fides of the hill fb near to dbe upper
rampart, as to leave only a fofse or trench of ten or twelve feet
in width between them ; unlefs at the weft extremity, where
this outward wall extends itfelf to a greater diftance from the
inner rampart, and forms a level pla^fonn, of an oblong and

fbmewhat

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The HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. it

fomewhac femi^circular ihape, about forty yards in length, and
fifteen at its greateft breadth. In Plate II. fig. i. whidi is a
ground-plan of the whole works upon the fummit of this hill,
the outward wall is marked by the letters P, M, N, X, Q^; and
at P is the level platform above mentioned. This outward wall
is in naany places fo low, as to be almoA level with the rock,
though, in other places, it rifes to the height of two or three
feet ; but even where it is lowed, the marks of it may be
traced by a line of vitrified matter (licking fad to the rock, all
along nearly of the fame breadth, which, in mod places, is
about nine feet. The remains of this wall are drongly vitri-
fied, unlefs in one place upon the north fide, where, for about
feventy yards, the rampart is formed only of dry dones and
earth. The probable reafon of this 1 (hall afterwards mention*
It is fufficient jud now to obferve, that the drong natural de«
fence that was a£forded on this fide, by the extreme deepnefs of
the rock, which is here almod perpendicular, fuperfeded the
neceffity of much artificial operation, there being little hazard
that an afiault would ever be attempted on this quarter.

Every where elfe this outward wall appears completely vitri-
fied ; and at the ead fide, where the hill is more acceffible, and
the declivity more gradual, there is a prodigious mound of vi*
trified matter, extending itfelf to the thicknefs of above forty
feet. At the fouth-ead corner, and adjoining to this immenfe
mound, is an out-work, confiding of two femi-circular vitrified
walls, with a narrow pafs cut through them in the middle..
This appears to have been another, and perhaps the principal
entry to the fort. It was neceflary that there fliould be two
entries ; one from the level ridge which joins this hill on the
wed to that chain of which it forms the extremity, the other
from the low cotmtry to the ead. The entry to the wed was
defended in the manner already defcribed ; that towards the ead
did not admit of a defence of the fame kind, but was fecured
by three ranlparts j and the pafs through the femi-circu-

B 2u lar

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12 ANCIENf FORriF/CJriONS in

lar out-work was made fo narrow as to be eafily defended, or *"
even blocked up with (tones and earth, upon the ihorteft notice
of danger.

We come now to the inner wall furrounding the fummit of
this hill, and inclofing a level fpace, of the form of an oblong
fquare, about feventy-five yards in length and thirty in breadth,
rounded, like the outward wall, at each of the ends. This inner
wall is nearly of the fame thicknefs with the outward one, and
is of considerable height. There is fome appearance that it has
been armed with four baftions or turrets ; as, at regular di-
flances, at thofe places marked d, d, d, d, (Plate IL fig. i.)
the wall enlarges itfelf confiderably in thicknefs, in a circular
figure, like the foundation of a fmall tower. Of this, how-
ever, the traces are fo imperfedl, that I will not take upon me
to fay whether they may not be entirely an accidental irregula-
rity. In the fame light I was at firft difpofed to have confider-
ed the circle C, confiding of a number of fmall tumuli of earth,
with a ftone placed in the centre, which I fuppofed might have
been nothing more than an accidental appearance, till lately,
that, from the defcription of fome ancient fortifications of a
fimilar kind in Ireland, I find there are, in many of them, cir-
cles of fmall tumulif like what I have mentioned, which are
fuppofed to have marked the place fet apart for the chief, as the
pratoriufh in the camps of the Romans.

But within this inner fpace, there are other marks of artifi-
cial operation, which are lefs ambiguous. On looking at the
ground-plan, (Plate II. fig. i.) there appears, on the eaft fide,
a portion of the internal fpace, marked S, which is feparated
from the reft by two ranges of ftones ftrongly fixed in the
ground, in the form of a redangular parallelogram. This fe-
paration is immediately difcernible by the eye, from this cir-
cumftance, that the whole of the inclofed fummit has been
moft carefully cleared from ftones, of which there is not one
to be feen, unlefs thofe that form this divifion, and the fingle

ftone

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the HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 13

ilone in the middle of the circle of tumuli above mentioned.
What has been the defign of this feparated fpace, is difficult to
conjeiSlure. It might, perhaps, have marked the refidence of thofe
of a higher rank, or ferved as a temple for the purpofes of devotion.

Towards the eaft end of the large area on the fummit, and
at the place marked q in the plan, are the veftiges of a well,
about fix feet in diameter, which has probably been dug deep
into the rock, though it is now filled up with rubbifh to within
a yard of the furface.

Such are the appearances on the fummit of Craig-Phadrick,
which exhibit, in my opinion, fuch evident and unambiguous
traces of artificial operation, that I cannot conceive a difference
of opinion to have arifen concerning their origin, but from too
inattentive and hafty a furvey of them, joined to a partiality
for thofe hypothefes, extremely fafhionable at prefent, which
afcribe a vafl variety of natural appearances to the operation of
ancient volcanos.

Of thofe fortified hills mentioned by Mr Williams, I had
likewife an opportunity of examining two others, the hill of
Dun-Evan in the County of Nairn, and the Caftle-hill of Fin-
haven in the county of Angus.

On the fummit of the hill of D\m-Evan, (of which the
name implies that it had been originally a place of defence)
there have been two walls or ramparts furrounding a level fpace
of the fame oblong form with that upon Craig-Phadrick, though
not quite fo large. There are likewife the traces of a well with-
in the inclofed area ; and at the eaft end, as at Craig-Phadrick^
there are the remains of a prodigious mound or mafs of build-
ing, much more extenfive than that which we have remarked
upon the former hill. In all thefe operations, which, in their
form, are perfeAly fimilar to thofe on Craig-Phadrick, there
are not, however, fo far as I could perceive, any marks of vi-
trification or the effedls of fire. Mr Williams, in his de-
fcription of Dun-Evan, fays, that the vitrified ruin« are more

wafted

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14 ANCIENr FORriFJCATlONS in

wafted here than upon Knock-farril or Craig-Phadrick ; but as
neither I myfelf, nor two other gentlemen who examined this
hill along with me, could perceive the fmalleft appearance of
vitrification, I am inclined to believe, that, in this inilance,
Mr Williams's fondnefs for his new difcovery has a little
blinded him in his obfervations. Dun-Evan has, in my appre-
henfion, been fortified with walls of dry ftone and earth ; but
thefe of great thicknefs, and very compadlly built, as appears
by their remains at this day. The entry Mr Williams fup-
pofes to have been at the eaft end, where there has been, as al-
ready obferved, a prodigious rampart of ftones. But in this
particular he is evidently miftakeq. The entry has, without
doubt, been upon the weft fide, where there is a ferpentine
road from the. bottom to the fummit, extremely confpicuous,
which is vifibly continued for a confiderable diftance along the
low ground at the foot of the hill, and is regularly formed, by
filling up hollows and levelling rocky heights which lay in its
way.

'' The iuclofed fpace on the fummit of the Caftle-hill of Fin*
haven, is of much greater extent than that upon Craig-Phadrick
or Dun-Evan. The area is about 140 yards in length, and
above forty in breadth. The vitrified remains of a rampart
are extremely vifible all around the fummit, which is cleared of
ftones and levelled, unlefs at one end, where there is a great
hollow fpace feparated from the reft of the area, and probably de-
ftined exclufively for the keeping of cattle. The remains of
ftrudure upon this hill are, in other refpedls, nearly fimilar to
thofe on Craig-Phadrick and Dun-Evan.

Anqthbr fortified hill, which is not among thofe enume-
rated by Mr Williams, I have likewife vifited, and have exa-
mined with particular attention. This is Dun-Jardel, a very
high hill, which rifes in a beautiful, irregular, conic figure,
on the fouth fide of Loch-Nefs, about two miles to the eaftward
of the iall of Fyers« The fummit is acceffible only on the

fouth

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The HI6HLANDS of SCOTLAND. 15

fouth fide by a narrow ridge, communicating with the hills of
Stratherrick, of which it terminates a fmall collateral chain.
On every other quarter, the afcent is almoft perpendicular j
and the bafe of the hill is defended by a very rapid river,
which winds along two thirds of its circumference. The in-
clofed area on the top of Dun-Jardel is an oblong fquare of
twenty-five yards in length and fifteen in breadth. It is, there-
fore, confiderably fmaller than any of the three fortified hills
above mentioned ; but is, from its fituation and form, incom-
parably ftronger, and mud, in thofe periods when it was re-
forted to for defence, have been quite impregnable. The area
on die fummit is levelled, cleared of ftones, and has in it the
remains of a well. It is furrounded with a very flrong wall
of dry ftones, which has formerly been of great height and
thicknefs, as may be conjectured from the prodigious quantity
of ftones that has fallen only from one fide of the fortification*
and has refted upon the level ridge on the fouth fide. Thofe
parts of the building on the other fides which have gone to de*
cay, muft have rolled down the precipice into the river at; the
bottom. It is remarkable, that, on afcending the conical fum-
mit of Dun-Jardel, there is, upon a fmall fhoulder of the hill,
about fifty or fixty feet below the fortification on the top, a cir-
cle of large ftones, firmly fixed in the ground, with a tranfverfe
double range of ftones, extending from one fide, to ferve as an
avenue or entry to the circle. This is, without doubt, a monu-
ment of the fame nature with thofe which are termed Druidical
Temples, and muft have been appropriated to the fame purpofes ;
but whether it had any connexion with the fortification on the
fummit of the hill, I fliall not take upon me to determine. It
may, however, afibrd fome ground, as I (hall afterwards ftiew,
for a conjeiShire as to the period when thofe extraordinary for-
tifications were reared.

Immediately oppofite to Dun-Jardel, on the nortii fide of
Loch-Neis, is another conical hiU called Dun*Sgrebin, on the

fummit

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i6 ANCIENT FORTIFICAI'IONS in

fummit of which, as I was informed by a gentleman who re-
fides in that neighbourhood, there are fimilar remains of a for-
tification, compofed of dry (lone, like thofe on Dun-Evan and
Dun-JardeL Mr Williams mentions a fmall fortified hill near
Fort-Auguftus, called Tor-Dun, which is plainly difcemible
from Dun-JardeL Dun-Jardel is diftindlly feen from Dun-
Sgrebin ; and from the fituation of the country, this lad is, in
all probability, feen from Craig-Phadrick, Craig-Phadrick ii
plainly difcernible from Knockfarril, and Dun-Evan and Caftle*
Finlay (a fortified hill in the fame neighbourhood) from Craig-
Phadrick. Thus, there is a chain of feven fortified hills, com-
manding a very large tradl of country, over which an alann
could be communicated with the utmoft celerity ; and I think
it is not improbable, that, upon a minute lurvey of the moun*
tainous country, it would appear, that there have been, in fome
former period, chains of communication of this kind through
many of the regions in the northern parts of the ifland.

Nor were fortified places of this kind peculiar to the north-
ern parts of Britain. The Honourable Daines Barrington,
in a memoir printed in volume vi. of the Archaeologia,
affirms, that there are many fuch ftruftures of dry (lone upon
the tops of hills in Wales, and particularly in Merioneth-fhire.
In DrBoRLASE's Hiftory of Cornwall, we are informed, that
there are the remains of fimilar ftrudlures in that country.
Some of thefe the author has defcribed under the name of Hill-
caftles.

In Ireland, the remains of fuch fortifications on the tops of
hills, are yet much more frequent than in this country.

Harris, in his republication of Sir James Ware's Anti-
quities of Ireland, in treating of what are called Danes ratbs or
Danes forts y in that country, defcribes precifely fuch fortificar
tions or ftrudlures, as thofe on the fummits of the hills we have
mentioned, vi^i. conical mounts terminating in an oblong level
area, and furrounded with the remains of ftcoog ramparts*

The

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rbe HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 17

The very general tradition, of attributing thefe fortifications,
both in Ireland and in this country, to the Danes, I fhall af-
terwards fhew to be quite erroneous. In a colledtion of mifcel-
laneous eilays towards a natural hiftory of Ireland, publifhed
by Dr MoLYNBux, Dr Gerard Boate, and others, there is
an accurate defcripdon given of thofe ftrudlures. " Moft of
•* thofe in Ireland," fays Dr Molyneux, " are furrounded on-
^^ ly by earthen ramparts. Some, though but a few, are eii*
<< compafled round with walls of (lone caft up inftead of earth,
" yet without any mortar. Two of thefe may be feen at
•* Farmoyle in the county of Longford." The authors, of the
ancient and modern ftate of the county of Down, defcribe par*
ticularly five of thofe fortified mounts, which are but a few,
out of a vaft many in that fingle county. On the Ratb at
Crown-bridge near Newry, there is, at the weft end of the le-
vel area, and about fifty feet below it, a fquare platform, fuch
as we have defcribed at the weft end of the fortification on
Craig*Phadrick. The tradition is, that this platform at Crown-
bridge, was the arena where two competitors decided, in fingle
combat, the difputed right to the Crown of Ireland. Wright,
in his Lofvtbiana, or introdudtion to the antiquities of Ireland,
defcribes and gives plans of many fuch fortified mounts, all of
which are furrounded by ramparts ; and moft of them have at
the extremities ftrong outworks below the level of the fort it-
felf. One of thefe, which is called Green Mount, near Caftle-
Bellingham, appears from the engraving in Mr Wright's
book, to bear a near refemblance in its plan to Craig-Phadrick.

NoKS of thofe remains of building upon the hills in Ireland,
fb far as is taken notice of in the defcriptions of them I have
mentioned, exhibit any marks of vitrification. Three of the
fortifications I have enumerated in the neighbourhood of Inver-
nefs, are likewife crowned with dry ftone ftrudlures, without
any appearance of the efiedts of fire ; and I am inclined to be-
lieve, that, upon an accurate furvey of thofe extraordinary

Vol. IL * C works,

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i8 ANCIENr FORTlFICAriONS in

works, the number of thofe that fhow marks of vitrification
will be inconfiderable, when compared with thofe that have not
been at all affedled by fire. I am led, from this circumftance)
to form an opinion different from that of Mr Williams, and
of fuch as believe thofe ftrudlures to be the proofs of an an-
cient mode of building, in which fire was employed for the
purpofe of cementing, before our anceftors knew the ufc of
lime. I am difpofed to think, that the appearances of vitrifica-
tion on fome of thofe hills, are the accidental efieAs of fixe up-
on a ftrufture compofed of combuftible and fufible materials,
and by no means the confequence of an operation intended to
produce that effeifl.

The buildings reared by the ancient inhabitai^ of this
country, both for habitation and defence, would naturally be
compofed of fuch materials as the rude ftate of the country
prefented in abundance, and fuch as required little, either of
labour or of fkill, to bring into ufe* In thofe quarters wherie
(lone could be eafily quarried in fquare blocks, or where it iplit
into lamina^ no other material than the fimple (lone was Bece£-
fary, and very little labour was fufiicient to rear the ftrudurcu
Such has been the cafe at Dun-Jardel and Dun-Evan. But
where the flone is of that nature as not to be eafily fplit into
fquare blocks, or feparated into lamina^ but is apt to break into
irregular and generally fmaU fragments, as the rock of Craig^
Phadrick, and all others of the plum-pudding kind, it would be
extremely difiEicult to form a regular flrudture of fuch mater
rials alone, which fhould be endowed with fufficienjt flrength.
The mode in which I imagine building was pra<5lifed in fuch^
fituations, was by employing wood, as well as flone, in the fa-
bric. The building, I fuppofe, was begun by raifing a dou-
ble row of pallifkdes or flrong flakes, in the form of the in-
tended flrudure, in the fame way as in that ancient mode of
building, d^fcribed by Pai«ladio, un^^r the n^me of Ricn^iuta,

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ne HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 19

a cajfa^ or coffer-work *. Thefe (lakes were probably warped
acrofs by boughs of trees laid very clofely together, fo. as to
form two fences, running parallel to each other at the diftance
of fome feet, and fo clofe as to confine all the materials, of
whatever fize, that were thrown in between them. Into this
intermediate fpace, I fuppofe, were thrown boughs and trunks
of trees, earth and (lones of all fizes, large or fmall, as they
could quarry or coUedl them. Very little care would be necef-
fary in the difpofition of thefe materials, as the outward fence
would keep the mound in form. In this way, it is eafy to con*
ceive, that a very ftrong bulwark might be reared with great
difpatch, which, joined to the natural advantage of a very in-
acceffible iituation, and that improved by artful contiivances
for encreaiing the difficulty of accefs, would form a ftrudlure
capable of anfwering every purpofe of fecurity or defence.

The mod formidable engine of attack againft a ftrudure of
this kind, would be fire; and this, no doubt, would be al-
ways attempted, and often fuccefsfuUy employed by a be-
fieging enemy. The double ramparts, at a confiderable di-
ftance from each other, and the platform, at one end, were
certainly the bed poffible fecurity againft an attack of this
kind. But if the befiegers prevailed in gaining an approach to
the ramparts, and, furrounding the external wall, fet fire to
it in feveral places, the conflagration muft fpeedily have be-
come general, and the effedt is eafy to be conceived. If there
happened to be any wind at the time, to increafe the intenfity
of the heat, the ftony parts could not fail to come into fufion,

C 2 and

* Lfl maniera ritmpiuta che fi dice anco a cajfoy focevano gli antichi, con tavole
pofie in coltello tanto fpacio, quanto volevano che fofle groflb il muro, empiendolo di
malta, e di pietre di qualunque forte mefcolate infieme, e cofi andavano fincendo di corfb
in coHb. St veg^one muri d! quefta (bite a Sirmion fbpra il lago di Garda. Di quella
maniera ii poflbno anco dire le mura di Napoli, cioe 1e antiche, le quali hanno due muri
di faHb quadrato, grofli quattro piedi, e dillanti tra ie piedi fei -^ e ibno empiute di faf&
• di ternu Pai.la]>. ArcbittQ. lib. i. caf. 9.

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20 ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS in

ami (a8 the wood burnt away) finking by their own weight in-
to a folid mafs, there would remain a wreck of vitrified mat-
ter, tracking the fpot where the ancient rampart had ftood ; ir^
regular and of unequal height, from the fortuitous and unequal
didribution of the (lony materials of which it had been com-^
pofed. The appekrance at this day of thofe vitrified mounds
creates the ftrongeft probability of the truth of this conje<Slure.
They do not appear ever to have been much higher than they
are at prefent ; as the fragments that have fallen from thenH
even in thofe places where the wall is lowed, are very inconfi^
derable. From the durable nature of the fubftancc, they
muft have fuffered very little change from time, though^ from
the gradual growth of the foil, they mud, in fome places,
have lod, in appearance, a good deal of their height, and, in
others, have been quite obfcured. Mr Williams, in making
a cut through the ramparts at Knockfarril, found, in many
places, the vitrified matter entirely covered with peat-mofs of
half a foot in thicknefs.

I HAV£ obferved, that, in the fortification on Craig^Phad<*
rick, a large portion of the outward rampart upon the north
fide bears no marks of vitrification. The reafon of this it it
eafy to explain. In the drudlure of this part of the wall no
wood has been employed ; for the extreme deepnefs of the
rock on this quarter rendered any rampart for defence entirely
unneceffary. A low fence of ftones and turf was fufficient
here to prevent the cattle, which were probably lodged betweeii
the out^r and inner rampart, from falling over the precipice.
Such is that fence which at prefent remains on the north fide
of the rock of Craig-Phadrick.

It appears, therefore, highly probable, that the effedl of fire
upon thofe hill- fortifications, has been entirely accidental, or,
to fpeak more properly, that fire has been employed, not in the
condruiflion, but towards the demolition of fuch buildings ;
and for the latter purpofe it would certainly prove much more

efficacious^

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Tbt HIGHLANDS cf SCOTLAND. as

•

efficacious than for the former. It is much to be doubted,
whether it would be at all poflible, even in the prefent day, hj
the utmofl combination of labour and of flvill, to furround a
large fpace of ground with a double rampart of ftones, com-
padled by fire, of fuch height and folidity as to ferve any pur-
pofe of fecurity, or defence againft a befieging enemy. Any
ftrudure of this kind rauft have been irregular, low, fragile,
eafily fcaled and quite infecure ; a much weaker rampart, in
ihort, than a fimple wall of turf or wooden pallifade. The
veftiges yet remaining, as I have already obferved, give na
room to fuppofe, that the vitrified mound has ever been much
more entire than it is at; prefent. The eiFedl of fire upon ilrucr
tures reared in the manner I have fuppofed them to have been^
will account mod perfedly for their prefent appearance.

It was from neceifity that the builders of thofe fortifications
betook themfelves to a mode of ftni£lure fo liable to be de-
ftroyed by fire. In thofe parts where ftones could be eafily
quarried, of fuch fize and form as to rear a rampart by them-
ielves of fufficient ftrength and folidity, there was no occafion
to employ wood or turf in .its conftrudlon, and it was there-
fore proof againft all aflault by fire. Sxich are the ramparts
which appear on the hill of DUn-Jardel, Dun«£van, and many
others, on which there is not the fmalleft appearance of vitrifir
cation. But on Craig-Phadrick, and the other hills above de-
bribed, where, from the nature of the rock, the ftones could,
be procured^ only in irregular and generally fmall fragments^
it was neceflary to employ fome fuch mode of conftrudlion as
I have fuppofed j and thefe ramparts, though folid and well:
calculated for defence againft every attack by force or ftratagem,
were not proof againft the aifault by fire.

But thofe ancient fortifications prefent a much more curi-
ous and more interefting objedl of fpeculation, than thofe un-
certain and indeed fruidefs conjedlures as to the mode in which
they have been reared. It is evident, that, were it poflible to

afccrtain

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^2 ANCIENT FORtlFICAriONS^ in

afcertain the sera in which thofe fordfications were conftrudled,
fome ufeful light might be thrown upon the ancient hiftory of
this country, and the condition of fociety in thofe remote pe-
riods. This I (hall now attempt ; and, in the courfe of a fliort
difquifition upon that fubje(fl, Ihall have occafion to mark the
progrefs of architedlure in Britain, from its firft introdudlion
into the fouthern parts, till it had attained to confiderable per-
fection, and the knowledge of the art of building had extended
itlelf, in fome degree, to the remoteft quarters of the iiland.

At the time when thofe fortifications were reared, it is evi-
dent that the ufe of mortar was unknown. As it mud be fup-
pofed that the builders exerted the utmoft of their architectural
ikill (fo far as flrength was concerned) in fabricating thofe
ftrudtures, we cannot doubt, that, as the country abounded in
lime-done, had its ufe been known as a cement, it mud have
been employed in fuch works. This brings them at once up
to a period of time prior to the Roman edabliflmients in the
northern parts of Britain. The Romans employed mortar in
all their buildings, of which many remains are at prefent exid-
ing in thofe parts of the ifland where they are known to have
formed fettlements. They taught the Britons the ufe of that
cement, of which, till then, they were ignorant.

At the time of Cjesar's invafion of Britain, the inhabi-
tants of the fouthern, and probably the mod civilized part
of the ifland, lived in huts condruifted with turf, or with the
branches of trees. Their towns or villages were nothing
more than an inclofed part of a wood, furrounded by a ditch
and rampart, within the circle of which they reared their
huts. " Oppidum vocant Britanni cum fylvas impeditas val-
" lo atque folia munierunt," Cjes. dc Bell. Gal. lib. 5. cap. 21.
Thefe inclofures or towns were but a temporary refidencc, and
probably reforted to, only when it was neceflfary to defend

themfelves

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rbe. HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 23

themfelves againfl an enemy *. They were fo fpacious as to
afford fecurityi both to the inhabitants themfelves and to their
cattle. ** Urbium loco ipfis funt nemora. Arboribus enim
dejedlis ubi amplum circulum fepierunt, ibi cafas ibidem fibi
*' ponunt, et pecori (labula condunt, ad nfum quidem non
" longi temporis." Strabo Geogr. lib. 4* f • Of this nature
were all the Britilh towns in the fouthcrn pai^t of the ifland at
the time of CiESAH. Such was the town of Caflibelanus, pro*
bably a place of the greateft conQderation in the ifland, as be-
ing the refidence of that chief under whom the whole of the
fouthern Br4tons agreed to unite thek forces to oppofe the Rod-
mans at their fecond defcent upon the coafts. '* Ab his cog-
" nofclt non longe ex loco oppidum Ca{&belani abeffe, filvis pa-
*^ ludibufque munitum^ quo fatis magnus hominum pecorif-
^ que numerus convenerit." Cjes. de Bcllo Gal. lib. 5. cap. 21.
This oppidum Cai&belani was Verulamium, the prefent St AU
bans. (See Camden, and Horsley's Britannia Romana.) Lour
don, or the capital of the Trinobantes, was then a place of in-
ferior note to Verulam. The Romans dignified the latter with
the title of a municipiuniy while the former was fimply an oppi-
dum p and therefore ftriiStly correfpondent to CjesarV general
defcription ; a portion of a thick wood furrounded with a ditch
aad rampart*.

• Thi pifturc given by Tacitus of the manner of Itfc of the Germanic tribes, may
probably be applied, with very little difference, to all the contemporary barbarous na-
tioBi of Eurc^ : " Nttllas Germanonim popolis urbes habitari fatis notum eft, ne pati
" quidem inter fe juntas fedes. Colunt difcreti ac diver(i,.ut fons, ut campus, ut ne-»
** mus placuit. Vicos locant non in noftrum morem, connexis et cohaerentibus aedificiis :
V fuam quifque domum ipatio circumdat, five adverfus cafus ignis remedium, five in.
*' fcitia aedificandi. Nc csementorum quidem apud ittos, aut tegulonun ufias/' Tacit*
dt. Mer. Germ. cap. i6«

G^.1.4t

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34 ANCIENr FORTlFICJriONS in

If fuch was the appearance of London at the time of the fe*
cond invafion of the iiland by CiBSAR, which happened fifty-
five years before the Chriftian aera, we have certain evidence,
that the fouthern Britons had undergone a remarkable change
in their mode of life, and made a great progrefs in refinement
and civilization in the fpace of 107 years, which elapfed from
that time to the great victory gained over the Romans by their
Queen Boadicea. At this latter period, Tacitus mentions
London as a flouriihing town, which, though not dignified
with t^e title of a Roman colony, was a place of trade and
opulence, and a great refort for merchants. *' Londinum ^ui-
^ dem cognomento colonias non infigne, fed copia negotiatorum
^^ et commeatuum maxime celebre/* AnnaL lib. 14, cap. 33.
The Britons of the fouth had, therefore, profited very greatly
by a fhort intcrcourfe with the Romans j and this progrefs will
appear more remarkable when it is confidered, that, from the
time of Cjbsar's invafion to the reign of Claudius, daring
almoft a complete century, there was no Roman army in Bri-
tain, nor any ftation or fettlement of that people in the ifland*.
The Britons, therefore, had, as yet, enjoyed little more than
the fight of a poHfhed and improved people. Amidft the tmnuk
of hoftilitics, there was no opportunity to imitate the pradtices or
fludy^the accomplifhments of the people by whom they were
invaded ; but they faw enough to convince them of their own
fignal inferiority in all the arts of cxdtivated life, and to excite
a defire to imitate them in a fubfequent feafon of tranquility.
This they obtained by the retreat of the Romans ; ^pd prdSit*
ing to the ntmoft by thofe lights they had acquired, they made
a more rapid advancement to civilization, than perhaps in any
after period of their hiftory. Cities were built, harbours con-

fbuaed

* Horse let's Britannia Romana, p. 19, 20. \ and Tacitds mentions both the &A
mnd Its caafe. '' Mox bella civilia et in rempablicam veHa principum trma ac longa
** oblivio Britanaise etiam in pace.'' ViU Agric. cap, 13.

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^he HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 2$

(brawled for the accommodation of mercantile fleets ^, and mo*
ney coined for the medium of trade. The coinage of CuNO-
BBLiNXy the fucceflbr of Cassibelanus, and Sovereign of the
Caifii and Trinobantes, from the mints of Colchefter, Verulam
and London, is a proof, not only of an extenfive ^commerce,
but of very confiderable advancement in the arts f •

In this interval, therefore, between the invafion of Cjesab
and the reign of Claudius, this period of rapid improvement,
it is probable the Britons of the fouth firft learned the art of
cimllrudting durable buildings vrith mortar ; though we do not
find from any claflic author, that, before the reign of Nbro,
the Romans had erected any buildings in the ifland which
could ferve as a model of regular archite^re. In the fifth
year of the Emperor Nbro happened that fignal defeat of the
Romans by the Britifh Queen Boabicea, occafioned princi-
pally by the revolt, or, as Tacitus terms it, the rebellion of
the Trinobantes. One great caufe of this revolt had been the
erection of a magnificent Temple to the divine Claudius,
which the Britons regarded as an infuMng monument of the
Roman power and their own abje£t flavery. ^ Ad haec tern-
^ plum divo Claudio conftitutum, quafi arx aeternae domina*
^ tionis afpiciebatur ; deledtique facerdotes, fpecie religionis,
^ omnes fortunas effundebant.'' Tacit. Annal. lib. 14. cap. 31*
That this temple was a (Irudhire of great magnitude and foli-
dity, appears from this circumftance, that the Romans retreat-
ed to it as their laft flrong hold, and, for two days, defended
themfelves. in it againft the befieging Britons. ^' Caetera qui-
'' dem impetu direpta aut incenfa iunt : Templum in quo mi«

Vol- II. D 'Met

* Su an accurate account of the commencement of the commerce of Britain in
Wbitakxr's Hiftory of Manchefier, book L chap. ii.

f AaovT fifty coins of Cunobklinb have come down to the prelent times. They are
of gold^ of filver and of brafs > and ibme of them are elegant in their fiibric and de-
vice* •

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26 ANCIENT FORTIFICJTIONS in

^* les fe conglobaverat, biduo obfefTum expugnatumque." Itid.
cap. 32.

The Britons, profecuting their fuccefs, attacked, pillaged
and fet fire to feveral of the Roman forts and garrifons. Lon-
don and Verulam were deftroyed ; and, in thefe tw6 places,
(a convincing proof of their magnitude and population) the
Britons mafTacred about 70,000 Roman citizens and their al-
lies *. But thefe temporary fuccefTes were foon checked by a
dreadful defeat of the Britons by Suetonius Paulinus, in
which 80,000 were left dead upon the field of battle. From
that time, the Romans advanced into the internal parts of the
ifland ; and, finding themfelves more feebly refilled, as their
power became more known, began now to apply themfelves ta
the civilization of the rude people whom they had fubdued*
Julius Agricola, in the fecond year of his command, as
Propraetor of Britain, A. D. 79. reduced the inhabitants of
North Wales, of Chefhire and of Lancafhire, to abfolute fub-
jedlion, and conquered the ifle of Anglefey. Having fu£E-
ciently evinced his power, he tried the efie<fl of alluring the
natives to an eafy fubmiffion, by giving tfiem a tafte of the
enjoyments of a poliflied people f. Towards, thia purpofe, the
Romans encouraged the Britons ta build regular towns, affifted
them in conftruifling temples, market-places and commodious
dwellings, and taught them even the ufe of the baths and por-
ticos, and all the luxuries of the Roman banquets %. To this

precife

* Ad (eptuaginta milFia civrntn et (bcionim iis quae memoravi locb, cecidifle confti-
tit. Tacit. jinnaL lib. 14. cap. 35.

t Ubi fatis terruerat parcendo rurfus irritameDta pacis oflentare. Jul. Aot.ic. Vit^
cap. 20.

:|: Sequsns hiems faluberrimis confiKIs abfumpta. Namque tit Homines dilpcrfi ac
rudes, eoquc bello Caciles, quieti et otio per voluptates aflliefcereoty hortari privatim, ad-
juvare publice, ut templa, fbra, domos extruercnt, laudando promptos, aut caftigando
(egnes — pauUatimque difceflum ad dclinimenta vitiorum, pordcus et balnea et convivio*
rum elegantiam. Jul. Aoaic. Viu cap. 21.

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rhe HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 27

preciie period, we may refer the foundation of many of the
towns in the weft of England, which are known to have had a
Roman origin, as Lancafter, Manchefter, Warringtqn, Ribche-
fter, Overborough, Colne, ^c. *.

At this time, therefore, A. D. 79, the Britons of the north-
weftern parts, of England, had acquired a confiderable know-
ledge of regular ftrchite<5lure. But all to the north of the Ro-
man conquefts^ we muft prefume was in its original ftate of
barbarifm. Improvement, however, muft have kept pace with
the advances of the Romans into the country ; and it is there-
fore not difficult to mark its progrefs. In the year 80, we find
Agricola employed in eredling a chain of forts between the
friths of Clyde and Forth ; and in 83 f, the laft year of his
command, he had penetrated to the foot of the Grampian
mountains in the northern parts of Angus. From this time,
during the remainder of the reign of Domitian, and through
the whole of the reigns of Nerva and of Trajan, a period
of above thirty years, the Romans made no progrefs in the
ifland. The northern parts of the province were ill defended,
and the Caledonians, in that interval, recovered all that part of
Scotland which Agricola had gained i for, in the fecond year
of Hadrian, A. D. 120, when that Emperor built his vallum
acrofs the ifland, between Solway frith and the mouth of the
Tyne, he confidered the Roman Province as extending no fur-
ther to the north than that rampart. " Murum per odloginta
'^ millia pafluum primus duxit qui barbaros Romanofque divi-
" deret" Fit. Hadr. Hift. Aug. Script.

This interval, therefore, of more than thirty years, muft
have been a period of remarkable improvement to the favage
Caledomans. Maintaining a conftant intercourfe with the Ro-
mans, not diftinguifhed by extraordinary hoftilities, and gradu-

D 2 aUy

* Whitakxr'8 Manchefter, book L chap. 7.

f Or 84 ; for the year is not certain. See Ho&slit, p. 48.

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a8 ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS in

ally regaining a country in which they found the recent works
of a polilhed people, they could not fail to acquire much know-
ledgein the arts. At the time, therefore, when Adilian built
his rampart^ A. D. 120^ we know, almoft to a certainty, that
the inhabitants of Scotland, as far to the nordi as the Grampi-
an mountains, underflood and pra^ifed the art of conftruifting
durable buildings with mortar. Hie forts dt ca^eUa ere€ted
by Agricola, which Tacitus * fays were io ftrongly cwi-
ftrufted as to refift the utmoft efibrts of the enemy to take
them by dorm, were now in the polleflion of the Caledonians*
The Roman caftella were circular, and fbmetimes (quare, inclo*
fures, furroundcd with a ftrong wall of ftonei hewn into
fquare blocks, and cemented with mortar. The fpace inclofed
was fuflkient to contain various buildings likewife of (lone,
barracks for the winter habitation of the troops, granaries for
provifions, and Ibmetimes baths. The form of thefe caftella
may be feen in the (culptures upon ^ Trajan column, and
their conftruftion may be learnt from VsoBTtus^ The re-
mains of a bath belonging to one of theie caftella, probably
eredled by AoiticOLA, were difcovered, within thefe few years,
at the village of Dalnoter, between Glalgow and Dnmbartoa.
The Caledonians had wime(^ the building of thofe ftru^hires,
which were reared with the moft perfeft (kill in military archi*
tedhire, from materials which the country furaiibed m abttn-
daxice. They were now in pofleffion of the ftrui^xires them-
felves. It is reasonable, tlierefore, i» conclude, that they now
learnt the art of conftrufling regular buildings with ftooe and
mortsar, and pradifed it, both for the purpofes of defence and
habitation ; becaufe the contrary fuppofition would do violeiKe
to all probability.

The wall of Ad^van^ which w«s buik in 120, and chat of
Antoninus Pius, built, as Horslby thinks, in 140, were

both

* Vit. AttMC* cap. 22»

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The HIGHLANDS if SCOTLAND. 29

bpdi Goiiftrad«(i folcly of turf *. Bttt tbey were defended by
cafteUa, placed at intervals of various diftance, according to
the nat?are of the ground. The wall of Antoninus ran acrofs
from Dumbarton on Clyde to Cramond on the frith of Forth,
and vrae probably in the precipe line of the caftella built by
Agricola* It was at this period, and under the command
of LoLLius Urbicus, the lieutenant of Antoninus, that the
Romans made dbeir fartheft advances into the illand of Britain.
After the eredtion of this new vallum, which had probably
been reared in the idea, diat the country to the north of it was
hardly worth fecuring, Urbicus marched to the northward,
and finding, beyond his expe<5tation, that the country, efpect-
ally along the fea-coaft, was open and iertile, he appears to have
profecuted his conquefts as far north as Invemefs. For this
faft, we want indeed the authority of any Roman hiftorian ;
but die Geography of Ptolemy, and the late difcovered iti-
nerary '^of Richard of CSrenccftcr, prove, beyond all doubt,
that there were Roman ftations in the neighbourhood of Inver*
nefs ; and there is no other Roman general, but Urbicus, who,
tx) the days of Ptolemy, can be fuppofed to have pafled the
limits of At>RicoLA*s comquefts f . The moft northerly Roman
ftation, according to Ptolbmy, is the irrf(ii»ro» rf«roiri*o», or caftra
alata, which, in the itinerary of Richard, is termed Ptorotone.
This, I think, there is every reafon to believe to have been that
fordfied promontory, now called the Burgh of Moray %• At

any

* Jauus 'CAFiTOLSNas, IB Ilk life of Amihiniiivs Pivs, meatioos, that thh Emperor
excluded the barbarians from the Province, ** alto muro cefpitio/' which proves that the
former^ vfss. that of Adhiam, was of the fame materials.

f WfliTAKxa's Hiftory of Manchefter, book I. chap. 3. { i..

X Its (hape correfponds entirely to the name of aB-enc«npment with wings. Such n
the adual form of the promontory \ and although both Stukelbt and Horslxt place
the ftation of Ptorotone at Invernefs itfelf^it will be obferved, this is nothing more than
conjefture. The itinerary of Ricbaro gives no authority for that precife fitualion ;

for

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30 ANCIENT FO RTIFICJTIONS in

any rate, it is certain there were feveral Roman ftations in that
neighbourhood, as Tueflis, Varis and Ptorotone, which is fuffi-
cient for our purpofe. It is then evident, that, in the reign
of Antoninus Pius^ and within a few years of A. D. 140, the
date of hi« vallutHy the Romans had fixed praefidia and built
callella in the neighbourhood of Invernefs, from which part of
Scotland, there was an uninterrupted military road, as appears
by Richard's itinerary, to the Land's aid in CornwalL At this
period, therefore, the inhabitants of this region of Scotland
mud have been acquainted, from the pradlice of the Romans,
with the art of building with mortar. And, as the ftrudlnrc
of thofe hill-fortifications demonflrates the ignorance of the
builders of the ufe of that cement, the mod complete evidence
thence arifes, that they ;^ere reared prior to the time above
mentioned, that is, above fixteen centuries and a half ago.

But how far beyond that period we are to fearch for the
date of thofe fingular fi3rtifications, (UU remains in doubt.
All that we can, with certainty, conclude, is, that they belong
to a period of extreme barbarifm. They mull have been con-
ftruiSled by a people fcarcely removed from the ftate of favages,
who lived under no impreffion of fixed or regulated property
in land, whofe only appropriated goods were their cattle, and
whofe fole fecurity, in a lif^^f conftant depredation, was the
retreat to the fummits of thofe hills of difficult accefs, which
they had fortified in the bed manner they could. As the fpace
inclofed was incapable of containing a great number of men,
efpecially if occupied in part by cattle, it is prefumable, that
thefe retreats were formed chiefly for the fecurity of the wo-
men

for the diftancc in miles betweco Ptorotone, and the preceding flation Tueflis, is left
blank in the itinerary, and the ad^ual (Ituation of Tueflis is likewiie uncertain, HoasLiT
fixing it at Nairn^ and Stukblet at Ruthven on the Spey^ All that is certainly known
from Richard's itinerary, is, that Ptorotone was the third Roman ftation beyond the
Grampian mountains.— —Since writing the above, it was a (atisfadion to me to find^ that
General Roy, in hi^ elegant map of Roman North Britain, has adlually placed Ptoroton,
or Ptorotone, at the burgh-head of Moray-

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The HIGHLANDS of SCOTLAND. 31

men and children of the canton, and of their herds. They
could be defended by a few men, while the reft of the tribe
were engaged with their enemies in the field.

In the defcription I have given of the fortified hill of Dun-
Jardel upon Loch-Nefs, I mentioned a Druidical circle upon the
fhoulder of the hill about fifty or fixty feet below the fortification ;
and hinted, that this circumftance might poflibly aflbrd ground
for a conjedlure with regard to the date of thofe extraordinary
ftrudlures on the tops of hills.

The religion of the Druids obtained in Britain long before
the period of the Roman invafion ; and it was probably intro-
duced into the ifland by the firft colony of Celtae or Gauls who
landed from the continent *• If, as is generally fuppofed, this
ifland was adually peopled from Gaul, Druidifm muft have been
the religion of its firft inhabitants. I am difpofed, however,
to believe, that this ifland was inhabited of old by.araceof
men who knew nothing of the religion of the Druids, whofe
manners and mode of life were too barbarous to be compatible
with that fyftem, and who, in after times, adopted from thofe
Druids their firft ideas of civilization and improvement. The
Druids, it is well known, were a very enlightened order of men ;
and they had the addrefs to avail ^emfelves of that charader
of wifdom and learning, in obtaining an abfolute controul, not
only in matters of religion, but in the civil government of the
countries in which they were eftabliflied. They cultivated the
mechanic arts, and even the fciences of Medicine, Aftronomy
and Geometry, with confiderable fiiccefs. In fliort, no nation,^
among whom that fyftem had become prevalent, could long re-
main in a ftate of barbarifm. But, from all the ideHs we can

form.

• This idea i» BOt coBtrad'wftcd by the faft, of which we are aflfured by Caisar, viz.
That the Druids of Gaul were fent over for inftrud^ioo to Britain. This h& proves
only, that the Britifti Druids, in the folitude of the diftant ifland of Mona, had made,
farther advances in the fciences at that time, than their brethren on the continent. Ca-
SAH indeed thence conjeSures, that the Druidical fyftem had been invented in Britain j.
but this conjedbire has no other bafis than the fad above mentioned*

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32 ANCIENT FORTIFICATIONS, &c.

form of the (late of Caledonia, at the time when it was neceflair
ry to rear thofe hill-fortifications, there appears no probability
that the inhabitants either lived under fuch a government as
we know to have prevailed under the influence of tibe Druids,
or had any acquaintance with thofe arts which it is certain
they cultivated. Thofe buildings mud, therefore, have been
eredled previoufly to the introdut^on of the Druidical fyftem i
that is to fay, in a period of time antecedent to the firft viQta«
tion of this iiland by the Celtss of Gaul.

The Druidical circle upon Dun-Jardel lends its aid in fiip-
port of this conjecture. If the fortification on the fummit had
been eretfled after the abolition of Druidifm, it feems extremely
improbable, that the builders of it would have negledled to
employ the ftones of this circle in rearing their fortification,
(ftones extremely well fuited to the purpofe, and quite at hand)
when they have been at immenfe pains to carry up a prodigiouB
quantity of ftones from the very bottom of the hill for that
work. It is not probable that they would have been reftrained
by any fuperftitious idea of reverence for the monuments of an
extinguifhed religion. For Druidifm, foon after its abolition,
funk into utter contempt, and the introdu^ion of Chriftianity
rendered the ancient fuperftitious impious and deteftable. That
this hill-fortification was eredled in the times of the Druids, I
have already fliewn to be extremely improbable. We muft,.there-
fore, recur to the only remaining, and the moft natural fuppo-
fition, that it was reared in times antecedent to the introduc-
tion of that religion. And this fuppofition carries the date of
this ftrudure, and confequently of all the reft of the fiime na«
ture, up to a period of antiquity far beyond all hiftorical re-
cord, and connedls them with a ftate of fociety in which the
arts were as imperfect, the manners as barbarous, and the con-
dition of life as lawlefs, turbulent and precarious, as among
the- rudeft tribes of American favage3.

II.

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w-* v»-

Fio.l.

Plate I.

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Plate IT

T,^. 5?.

Q)M^rv^-^La/t€^

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IL Remarks on fome Pqffhges of the Jixtb Book of the Eneid.
By James Bejttie^ hL. D. F. R. S. Edin. and Pro-
feffor of Logic and Moral Pbilofopby in the Marifcbal College ^
Aberdeen.

[Read by Mr Dalzel^ Secretary^ Marcb 19. 1787.]

THE poetical beauties of Virgil's fixth book are great
and many ; and a moft agreeable tafk it would be %o
point them out : but that is not my prefent purpofe. Nor do I
intend to draw a comparifon of the fentiments of our poet
with thofe of Homer, concerning a future ftate. From Ho-
mer, no doubt, Virgil received the firft hint of this epifode ;
but the evocation of the ghofts, in the eleventh book of the
Odyfley, is not in any degree fo flriking, or fo poetical, as
Eneas's defcent into the world of fpirits. Nor does the for-
mer exhibit any diftindt idea of retribution. In it all is dark
and uncomfortable. *^ I would rather, fays the ghoft of
^' Achilles, be the flave of a poor peafant among the living,
'* than reign fole monarch of the dead :*' a paflage blamed,
not without reafon, by Plato, as unfriendly to virtue, and
tending to debafe the foul by an immanly fear of death.

My defign is, to give as plain an account as I can of the
tbeology (if I may be allowed to call it fo) of this part of Vir-
gil's poem. And I (hall make the poet his own interpreter,
without trufting to commentators, or feeking unneceiFary illu-
(Irations from Plato, to whom Virgil, though he differs
from him in many particulars^ was indebted for the outlines of

Vol. II. E the

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34 REMARKS on fomc Pafages of

the fyftem, and who probably owed them to philofophers of the
Pythagorean fchool.

The learned Bifhop Warburton has commented on thla
part of the Eneid. Many of his obfervations are pertinent,
but fbme are fanciful ; and in more places than one be feems to
have mifunderftood the author. His general pofition is, That
what the poet fays of Elyiium and the infernal regioiis, we are
to underftand as nothing more than a figurative account of the
myfteries exhibited in the temple of Ceres at Eleufis ; and that
the poet meant in this way to tell us, that Eneas had, like
fome other heroes and lawgivers of old, been initiated into
thofe myfteries. This theory he fupports very ingenioufly, but
not, I believe, to the {atisfa(£lion of many readers. I admit
there arc allegories in the book, as I fhall have occafion to (how }
but that the whole is an allegory, or rather an all^orical repre*
ientation of the Elenfinian allegories, I can no more fuppofe,.
than that the arrival at Carthage is an allegory, or the vifit to
EvANDER, or the combat with Tornus, or any other of our
hero's achievements. I confider this epifode as truly epic,
and as a part, tho\igh not a neceflary part, of the poet's fable >
and that he contrived it, firft, that he might embelliih his work
with a poetical account of a future ftate, and feccmdly, and
chiefly, that he might thence take an opportunity to introduce
a compliment to his country, by celebrating the virtues of fome
of the great men it had produced. As theie great men did not
flourifh till after the death of Eneas, there were but two ways
in which the poet could make him acquainted with them.
One was, by caufing fome prieit or ibothfayer to prophecy con-
cerning them y and die other, by jfe availing himfelf of the doc-
trines of pre-exiftence and tranfmigratioo, then taught in fome
of the fchobls;, as to exhibit ia their pre-exiftent ftate, fueh of the
hero's pofterity as there might be occafion for. He chofe the
fatter method ; and has fo managed it, that we muft acknow-
ledge the choice to have been judacioitt*.

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i:bc fintb Book of the ENEID. 35

As the cliief thing I have in vicfw is, to illuftrate the moral
and theological fentiments of my author, I need not take up
much time, either in yindicating, or in apologizing for, his ge^
neral fidion ; I mean, his laying the fcenery of a future ftate in
the fubterranean regions. That on the coaft of Italy, in the
neighbourhood of Cumas, there ihould be a paflage under
ground, leading to the rivers Acheron, Cocytus and Styx, and
thence to Tartarus on the left hand, and Elyfium on the right ;
that in this £lyiium, though thus fituated, there (hould be a
fun and ftars, and gralTy plains, and delightfal groves and ri-
vers, and two gates, the one of ivory, the other of horn, open-
ing into the upper v^orld, at no great diftance from the Cumse
above mentioned ; and that in the fubterranean fpaces thus
bounded, there fhoidd be different forts of accommodation for
all the fhades or fouls of the dead : — thefe, I £ay , are fables,
which, as they cannot, according to our way of judging, be
reconciled to probability, or even to poflibility, we mufl endea-
vour to acquiefce in the beft way we can. So, in reading Ovid's
ftory of Phaeton, if we would enter into the poet's views,
and be fuitably afieded with his narrative, we muft fuppofe,
what we know to be abfolutely impoflible, that the fun is
driven about the world in a chariot, which, though made of
gold and diver, and dragged by real horfes, and fupported by
nothing but air, yet pafles along in a beaten highway, where the
marks of the wheels are clearly difcernible. Faibles of this fort,
however inconiiftent with the laws of nature, when rendered by
the art of the poet confiftent with themfelves, it is not our in-
tereft to criticize too minutely ; efpecially if, like that now un-
der confideration, they abound in fublime defcription and in-
ftruAive lefFons of morality. The fable then let us acquiefce
in for a moment. Our dreams, while they laft, we believe
without inconvenience ; and the fcenery of this fable will not
be more lading than that of a dream*

£ 2 As

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36 REMARKS on fome Paffages of

As a fort of apology for the wildnefs of fomc parts of this
fable^ it may be remarked, that formerly at Cumas, near which
the Trojan fleet was now ftationed, there lived a prophetefs
called the Cumean Sybil ; that in her neighbourhood, encom-
paiTed with thick woods, there was a lake called Avemus,
which emitted peftilential fleams ; that in the fame parts of
Italy there are many dreadful caverns, one of which is to this-
day called the Sybil's Grotto ; and that for thofe who knew
nothing of the real fize of the earth, or the final deflination of
man, it was not altogether abfurd to imagine, as all dead bo^
dies return to the earth, that the fubterranean regions might
be the manfions of the ghofls or fhades of human beings de-
parted.

The neceflary facrifices being performed, and Eneas ha^
ving found in the woods that golden bough which, being in-
tended as a prefent to Proserpine, was to ferve him as a pafl^
port through her dominions ; the Sybil or prieflefs plunged into-
the cavern, calling to him to follow her, with his fword drawn
in his hand. They went a great way through a lonely region,
where there was no more light than one travelling in a wood
receives in a cloudy night from the moon. At length they ar-
rived at the entrance of the infernal world, where a number of
terrible beings redded; Difeafe, Old Age, Fear, Famine, Poverty,
and Death, and Labour, and War, and Difcord ; and fuch mon-
ftrous things as centaurs, gorgons, harpies and giants, one with
three heads, and another with a hundred hands, and the chi-
mera breathing fire, and the many-headed ferpent of Lema
roaring hideouHy. By placing thefe at the entrance, the poet
perhaps intended to fignify, in the way of allegory, the horrors
that accompany the near approach of death ; or perhaps thofe
many evils, real and imaginary, which we muft all pafs through
in our way to the other world.

From this place to the river Styx was a region, in which the
ghofls of thofe, whofe bodies had not been honoured with the

rites.

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Tie ftxtb Book of the E NEID. 37

rites of fepulture, were obliged to wander in a melancholy con-
dition for the fpace of an hundred years, before they could be
permitted to pafs the river, or appear before any of the in-
fernal judges. Here Eneas met with his old pilot Palinurus,
who, in their laft voyage, having fallen overboard in the night,
and fwam to the main land of Italy, was there murdered by
the natives, who did not give themfelves the trouble to bury
him, but threw his body into the fea. He begged Eneas to
take him under his prote6lion, and procure him a parage over
the Styx. " It cannot be, faid the Sybil ; you muft have pa-
tience. In the place where you were murdered, there will
fbon be prodigies, which will induce the natives to perform*
^ your funeral rites, and call a promontory after your name ;
" and then you may pafs the river, but not before.'* Pali-
NURus acquiefced ; well pleafed to hear that liich honours*
awaited him»

To inculcate this dodlrine, that the foul wpuld* fuffer for
fbmc time in another world, if the body were not decently bu-
ried in this, and that the negledl of the funeral ceremonies is
ofienfive to fuperior beings, was a very warrantable fraud in the*
lawgivers of Greece and Egypt ; as it would no doubt make-
the people attentive to a duty, whereof we find that lavage na-
tions are too apt to be forgetful.

Our two adventurers were now approaching the river, when-
Charon the ferryman, alarmed at the fight of a living man in
complete armour, called to the Trojan to ftop, and give an-
account of himfelf. The Sybil pacified Charon, by declaring
the name and quality of her fellbw-traveller, and fhowing the
golden bough. They were then ferried over ; and the three-
keaded dog Cerberus, preparing to attack them, was quietedl
with a cake which the prieftefs had' got ready for him^ and which
he had no fooner fwallowed than he fell fall afleep;

What could have given rife to this fable of Charon and his-
boat^ it is not very material to enquire. Mythological writers^

have-

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38 REMARKS on feme Pa/ages of

have faid, That the Greeks learned it from the Egyptians, which
i^ indeed probable enough; that the Egyptians framed both
this, and fome other fables relating to the dead, from certain
cuftoms peculiar to their country ; that in particular there was,
not far from Memphis, a famous burying-place, to which the
dead bodies were conveyed in a boat acrofs the lake Acherufia j
and that Charon was a boatman who had long officiated in that
fervice. The learned Dr Blackwell fays, in his life of Ho-
mer, that, in the old Egyptian language^ Cbaroni fignified fer-
ryman.

The travellers had now before them a region which the poet
calls lugentes campt^ extending from the other fide of the Styx to
the road that leads to Elyfium on the right hand, and that
which terminates in Tartarus on the left. Thefe melancholy
plains mud not be confounded with Tartarus. The latter is a
place of eternal torment, prepared for thoie who, in this world,
had been guilty of great crimes j for there, fays the poet, " Se-
** det, aternumqxxc fedebit infelix Thefeus.*' The former,
though an uncomfortable region, is not a place of endlefs pu-
nifhment, but a fort of purgatory, in which all tho^ fouls
that are not configned to Tartarus, are doomed to undergo
certain purifying pains, to prepare them for Elyfium. Thefe
pains are more or lefs fevere, and of longer or fhorter duration,
according to the degree of guilt committed in the upper world.
The fouls, on paffing the Styx, appear before the judge Minos,
who fummons a council, either of ghofts or of infernal deities,
but whether as a jury, or as wimefifes, wc know not ; and ha-
ving informed himfelf of the lives and charaAers of thofe who
are brought before him, allots to each a fuitable manfion in this
purgatory.

The fouls thus difpofed of, are— Jirji, thofe of good men,
who, after undergoing the neceffary pains of purification, pafs
into Elyfium, where they remain in a flate of happinefs for
ever ; 2dly, of thofe who have been of little or no ufe to man-
kind ;

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7ir Jhab Book rf the ENEID. 39

Idnd'^ S^fyf of tbafe who have beca cut cfF by an uadmely
jdeaih, fo chat their real charade's could not be exadly afcer-
tained ; 4fbly^ of thoft who^ though guilty of crimes, bad not
committed any thing very atrocious ; and, ^hf of thofe whofe
crimes, though Atrocious, were conftdered at the efie^la, rather
of an xuDihappy dcftiny, than of wilful depravation*

That the ibuls of good men, who were to have an eternal
abode in Elyfium, were previoufly obliged to undergo purgation
by fuifering, is not exprefsly declared, but may be inferred
from what Anchises fays, '* Quifque fuos patimur manes :''
*' every one of us undergoes what is inf)i<5led on him by his
" manes i^* that is, by thofe deities of the nether world who
were the difpenfers of expiatory punifhment. This is the ori-
ginal, or at leaft the moft lifual ienfe of the word manes ^ which,
howevtfy ibmetimes denotes metonymically the infernal regions
in general, and fometimes, but more rarely, the fouls or fhades
who inhabited thofe regions.^ In Tartarus, it does not appear
that the Manes had any thing to do. The difpenfers of puni(h-
ment in that dreadful place wereTifiphone and her fi(ler-£iiries«
The Manes nnifl have been a gender fort of beings. Some derive
the word from manus or manisy which they fay (on what autho--
rity I know not) ia an old adje(5live fignifying good. Tlie invo*
cations of the Manes pradlifed at funerals, the altars that were
eredted to them, and thofe monumental infcriptions which be-
gan with the words DU Manibus^ were all, no doubt, intended
as adU oi worfhip, or as compliments, to thefe deities, and
fuppofed to incline them to mercy in their treatment of the per-
fbns deceafed, whofe fouls were now in their hands in purga*
tory. Horace tells us, that the Manes, as well as the gods
above, might be rendered placable by fong — '^ Carmine di fuperi
^ placantur, carmine manes/* But the furies were inexorable and
mercikis — ^** Nefciaque humanis precibus manfuefcere corda/'
And I do not find that worfhip, or any other honours, were, exr
cept by witches *, paid them, though to mother Midnight, whofe

daughters

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40 REMARKS an fim Pajfagei if

daughters they were, facrifice was occafionally performed.
Ovid fays indeed, that they relented on hearing the fong of
Orpheusj but aflures us it was for the firft time# Virgil, in
his account of that affair, fays only, that they wo^ aftoniihed.

Here I cannot but remark how abfurd it is for us to begin
an epitaph with the words Dis Manibus; or the letters i>« M.
which oftener than once I have feen on a modem tombftone.
Such an exordium may be claflical ; but, in a Chriftian church-
yard, an invocation to Proferpine would not be more incongru*-
ous. Addison did well, when he advifed the writers of his
time not to facrifice their catechifm to their poetry.

I SAID, that the Manes feem to have had nothing to do in
Tartarus. I am not ignorant, however, that Rueus and the
common Dictionaries affirm, that the word ibmetimiss denotes
the furies, and quote as an authority, ^' Ignofcenda quidem,
^ icirent fi ignofcere manes." But this is not fufficient autho-
rity. That verfe of Virgil relates to Orpheus looking behind
him, when condudling his wife to the upper world ; a fault, or
infatuation, which was to be punifhed, not by the fcourge of
the furies, but by calling back Eurydice to the (hades below ;
and which the Manes, however placable, could not pardon,
becaufe it was a direft violation of the treaty with Profer-
pine.

It is fomewhat difficult to underfiand diftindlly what the
ancients meant by the words anima^ umbra^ Jimulacra^ which,
in this difcourfe, I call gbofts^ jbades or fouls. We know, that
man confifts of a body and a foul^ a material and an incorpo*
real part ; the one, like all other bodies, inadive, the other the
fource of life, motion and intelligence. But, on comparing
the general dodlrine of this fixth book with a pafTage in the
fourth Georgic, and with the eleventh of the Odyffey, we find,
that our poet, following in part the opinions of Pythagoras
and Plato, and partly too the reprefentations of Homer^ fup*
pofed man to confift of three fubftances j firf^ a vital and ac-
tive

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The Jixtb Book of the ENEID. 41

dvc principle, derived either from the Deity himfelf, or from,
that univerfal fpirit whom he created in the beginning, who
animates all nature, and of whom the vitaV principle of brutes
is alfo, according to Virgil, an emanation; 2dlyy a (hade or
ghoft, umbra^ anitnay fimulacrumy or o^aiXok, as Homer calls it \
and 24h% ^ body. At death, the vital principle was re-united
to that univerfal fpirit whereof it was originally a part; the
body was burned or buried, and returned to the earth whence
it came ; and the (hade or ghoft went to the nether world, and
appeared before Minos or Rhadam^nthus, who affigned it fuch
a manfion of happinefs, of torment, or of expiatory fufFering, as
the perfon's behaviour on earth had merited, or his circumftances
with refpedl to pollution or purity required. Thefe (hades or
ghofts were fo far corporeal as to be vifible, but could not be
touched ; they retained the fame appearance their bodies had
before death ; they had reafon and fpeech and confcioufnefs,
and a remembrance of their paft lives ; they could be happy or
unhappy ; retained all the paflions and affeflions of humanity ;
and were capable (fuch of them at leaft as had not been atro-
cious criminals) of being purified from the pollutions of guilt
by the operation of air, fire and water.

That part of the lugentes campi which Eneas firft pa(red
through,, after cro(fing the Styx, was peopled by the (hades of
infants, of perfbns who had fufiered death by a falfe accufation,
and of thofe who had taken away their own Uves. The(e are
all placed in the fame neighbourhood, probably becaufe, ha-
ving been cut off, as we fay, before their tipie, they had not
had the means, while on earth, of difplaying their charafler in
its full extent. This, however, is but conjedlure ; for the poet
only mentions the circumftance, without affigning a reafon.
The felf-murderers, who occupy this difbridt, are termed infontes^
innocent or harmlefs ; an epithet which the commentators do
not underftand, or at leaft do not fee the propriety of in this
place. Virgil, we are fure, did not mean to infinuate, that

Vol. 11. F felf-

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42 REMARKS <m fame F^ffages of

ielf-deflroyers in general are guilty of no fault ; for he pbces
even thefe wfonies^ who in refpedt of others were comparatively
innocent, in an uncomfortable fitoation, and {ays, that they
would now return to the earth if they could, and willingly
fubmit to poverty, and thofe other evils, which when alive they
thought infupportable. By the word infantes^ therefore, as here
applied, I underlbind fuch unhappy peribns as had dellroyed
themfelves, without being chargeable with any other great
wickednefs. Had they been guilty of impiety, injuftice, want
of natural affecSdon, or any grofs immorality, they would, ac-
cording to our author's plan of retribution, have been confined
to everlafling punifliment in Tartarus. But as we find them ia
a ftate of expiatory fuffering, and charadlerifed by this epithet,
we mud, I think, fuppofe, that the poet here ipeaks of that
ielf-deilrudion, which, being partly the efie<5l of infirmity,
was, in his judgment, the objedt of pity as well as of dKap-
probation«

The Trojan and his guide were now arrived at that part of
the melancholy plains, where the country, if I may call it £q^
feemed to open into a wider extent. Here was a diftrid^
where, in a myrtle grove, were wandering the ihades of un-
happy lovers. Here £n£AS met with Dina, who had rejoined
her hufband Sicheos ; and here he iaw feveral others, fi>me of
whom, by the by, had led fuch lives on earth as would ieem
to deferve a feverer docHn than that of ViR6ii.*s purgatory.

Adjoining to the grove of lovers^ and at the furtheft ex-
tremity of thefe regions, was a province inhalnted by deceaied
warriors. Here he found ieveral of his old acquaintaiKe, who
were glad to &e him, and converie and walk with him, and
curious to know the occafion of his coming. Tke Gredan
ghofts knew him likewife, and fied from befiNre hija, as they
had been accudomed to do in the Trojan war. H^e he iaw
the (hade of his ln-other«in-Iaw Deiphobus, in the fame mangled
condition in which hia body had been left by the Greeks in thr

night

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The Jixtb Book of the E N E I D. 43

night of the burning of Troy. A long converfation enfued
between the two friends, which was at laft interrupted by the
prieftefs, who told Eneas that he had no further time to lofe.
Be not angry, faid Deiphobus ; I fhall go away, return to my
darknefs, and there complete my term of penance«

Difcedam, explebo numerum, reddarque tenebris.

The words explebo numerutn are varioufly interpreted ; but the
ienfe is probably what is here given. Rueus is inclined to ex-
plain it thus, " Be not angry, great prieftefs. I fliall juf! wind
•* up the laft period of my difcourfe, and then return to my
" darknefs ;*• as if the poor mangled ghoft of Deiphobus had
been ambitious to diflinguifh itfelf at this time as a rhetorician,
and well (killed in the art of rounding a period. Dryoen un-
derftands the paflage as I do. Servius hints at the fame in-
terpretation, but feems to prefer another.

The two travellers having pafled through the melancholy
plains, were now come to a place, where one road went off to
the left, and another to the right ; die former leading to Tar-
tarus, the latter to Elyfium. They were going to Elyfium on a
vifit to Anchises : but before they ftruck off to the right, the
prieftefs took this opportunity to defcribe Tartarus, the gates of
which were in view, but which Ekeas could not enter, as they
were never opened but for the reception of thofe wicked fouls,
whom the judge Rhadamanthus, after making them confefs the
crimes they had committed in die upper world, thought proper
to condemn to eternal punifliment. When this dreadful fen-
tence was paffed, they were feized on by Tifiphone and the other
furies, the adamantine gates opened with a tremendous found,
and the criminals were thrown into an immenfe dungeon,
ftretching downwards twice as far as from hell to heaven.

F 2 The

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44 REMARKS on fome Paffages of

The defcription of Tartarus is wrought up in a ftylc of ter-
rible fublimity, fuch as never was equalled by any other poet,
except by Milton, in the firft and fecond books of Paradifc
Lofl. In the intrinfic grandeur of his images, the Englifh poet
may be thought to have excelled the Roman ; but in one re-
fpe6t the Roman has the advantage. By means of a more mu-
fical language, he has been enabled to embellifh his narration
with a fonorous magnificence of harmony, whereof the Englifti
tongue, even when modulated by Milton, is not fufceptible«

The mouth of the Tartarean gulf was encircled with three
walls fo ftrong, as to be proof againft every aflault of men or
gods ; and thefe walls were furrounded by Phlegethon, a river
of tempeftuous flame. Sleeplefs, before the gate, day and
night, and full in Eneas's view, fat the fury Tifiphone in
bloody attire. From within iOTued fuch an uproar of terrifying
noifes^ that the hero, though at a diftance, heard it with hor-
ror ; the cries of the tormented, the found of the fcourge, the
crafh of iron- engines, and the clanking of chains dragged
along. Tell me, faid he, O virgin, what clamours, what pu*
niihments, are thofe ; and for what crimes they are inflidted.
This gives the prieftefs occafion to defcribe what was pafling in
the regions of torment j with which Hecate had made her ac-
quainted, when (he gave her the fuperintendence of the groves
of Avernus. The perfons there punifhed had all perpetrated
enormous crimes ; among which are reckoned, a6ts of impiety,
want of natural affedion, cruel treatment of parents, the de-
frauding of clients or dependants, and the hoarding up of
wealth to the injury of friends and relations. Here too adul-
tery is punifhed^ even though the criminal (hould have al; eady
fuflPered death for it in the upper world. Other crimes here pu-
niihed are, rebellion, inceft, the various forts of injuftice and
treachery, the venality of lawgivers, fubverlion of the liberties
of our country, facrificing the public good to private intereft,

and

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Tie fixth Book of the ENEID. 45

and many other forms of wickednefs, whereof the Sybil de-
clares it was impofTible for her to give a particular enumeration.

The punifhments are various. Of one enormous offender^
the entrails are continually devoured by a vulture, and conti-
nually growing to be again devoured ; an apt emblem to ex-
prefs the pangs of a guilty confcience, and which puts one in
mind of the never-dying worm mentioned in Scripture. Some
are in the eternal apprehenfion of being cruftied by a black
rock, which hangs over them, and feems to be every moment
beginning to fall. Some are perpetually employed in rolling a
huge mais of (lone; fome are ftretched out on a whirling
wheel ; and fome, agonifing with eternal hunger,, have a fump^-
tuous banquet fet before them, which they no fooner attempt
to touch, than a gigantic fur^ ftarts up, brandifhing a torch,,
and denouncing vengeance in a voice of thunder.

There is nothing in Virotl more explicit than the account,
of Tartarus ; and I know not why it has been fo generally miC^
underftood. Dr Warburton fays, in one place, that Eneas
faw the fights of Tartarus at a diflance, and, in another, that
Eneas pafTed through Tartarus. In fad, he did neither. He
could not pais through without entering ; and this, we are told,
was to him impoflible : ^^ Nulli fas cafto fceleratum infiflere
" limen." And though he had been permitted to enter, he
could not pafs through, without firfl eroding a river of fire,,
and then defcending into an immenfe gulph, twice as deep be-
neath the level of the other regions of darknefs, as thofe are
remote from heaven. It was equally impoflible for him to fee
from a diflance what was doing in fuch a gulph, even though
the gate that led to it had been open, which, however, at this
time, happened to be fhut. ^' You fee, faid the Sybil, what a
** centinel fits without in the porch, (meaning Tifiphone) ;.
'^ another, flill more dreadful, has her ftation within ;*' which^
as he could not fee it, (he informs him is a huge ferpent, or
hydra, with fifty heads. An opening of the gate is indeed

mentioned^

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46 REMARKS on fome Paffages of

mentioned, which RaEUS underilands tx> have taken place at
the very time when the Trojan and the Sybil were looking at
it. But that is a miftake. The Sybil only tells her compa-
nion, that, when Rhadamanthns has made the criminals con-
fefs their guilt, then at length [turn demum) the gate opens for
their reception into the place of torment. It is ftrangc that
RuEUS and Dr Warburton did not fee that this is the obvious
import of the words of Virgil ; and that, if we do not under-
fland them in this ftnfe, the paflage muft appear confufed, if
not ungrammatical. In a word ; of the infide of Tartarus the
Trojan hero faw nothing ; he law the outfide only, the walk,
the gates, the tower of iron, ^c. and thefe he faw at fbme di-
ftance. What was pafling within he learils fixmi the SybiFs
information.

** And now, fays Ihe, let us be going. Yonder, on the
** right hand, is the palace of Proferpine, where, in the vaulted
** porch that fronts us, we are commanded to depofit die golden
^* bough.*' This ceremony Eneas performs, after having
iprinkled himfelf with pure water ; which was cuftomary with
thofe who made offerings to the gods.

They then went onward to Elyfium, the gay fcencry of
which, immediately fucceeding the gloom of purgatory and the
horrors of Tartarus, is fo charming, that every reader feels
himfelf refrefhed by it. Here were groves, and plains, and
meadows, clothed with perpetual verdure, the abodes of tran-
quillity and joy, and illuminated by a fun and ftars of the
moft refulgent beauty. Here were feafling, and dancing, and
mufic, and poets accompanying their verfes with die harmony
of the lyre. Here thofe warlike cxercifes were renewed, in
which the heroes while on earth had fo much delighted ; and
here were horfcs, and chariots, and arms, and every thing that
could gratify an heroic mind. It muft be owned, that all this
is very inadequate to the defires and the capacity of an immortal

foul:

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Tbi Jhctb Book ^ tbi ENEID. 47

icml: bttt ViftoiL had heard ef lunhiag better; an4 it was

impofllble for him to defcribe what he could not conceive*

In this Elyfium, which, with all its imperfedion, is^ as well
a5. the infernal world, founded on the bed ideas of retributive
juftice that could be expeded from a pagan, the poet places, in
a (late of ^Mileis felicity, '' the (hades of the pure aad the
" pious ; of heroes who have died in defence of their country ;
" of ingenious men who have employed their talents in adom-
^ ing human life with elegant arts, or in recommending piety
** and virtue ; and of all who^ by a6ls of beneficence, have
*' merited the Jove and the gratitude of their fellow-creatures."

To a company of thefe happy beings, who had flocked round
the two ibrangers, and efpecially to the poet Muse us, whom
fhe knew, the Sybil addrefled herielf, defiring to be informed
where Anchises refided We have 00 certain habitations, re-
turned the poet; we wandtf about, and amu& ourfelves,
wherever we pleafe ; but follow me to yonder riiing ground,,
and I fhall put you in a path that will conduct you to him#

Some writers blame Vjbgil for not making Eneas find
Homer in this part of Elyfiimi ; and iniinuate, that the Romaa
poet muft have been both invidious and ungrateful, in ne^
gledUng fuch an opportunity of doing honour to his great ma*
fter, to whom he owed fb much. Thofe critics do not coniider
that Eneas was dead an hundred years before Homer was
bom. Oar poet has been cenfured for ^fuppofed anachroniiiUi
in making EnTas and Dioo codotemporary ; and here he ia
found fault with for having judicieuily avoided a rW anachro*-
niibou

It chanced that ANCHiSES was at this time in a remote val^
ley, reviewing, in their date ef pre*exiftence, ibave of his pofte*
rity, who were afterwards to diftinguifh themielves in the Ro<*
man republic. When he £iw his fbn advancing towards him)
he held forth both his hands, gave him an afifedlionate welcome,
and wept for joy. The hero would have embraced his fa«*

die^;.

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48 RE MA R KS on fame Paffages of

ther; but found that the (hade^ though vifible, eluded the
touch.

ApTsa a (hort conyerfation, Eneas happening to fee» in a
grove through which a river was flowing, an innumerable
multitude of human beings flying about, a(ked his father who
they were, and what river it was. The river, faid he, is Lethe,
of which thofe fouls are taking a draught, being about to re*
turn to the upper world, in order to animate new bodies. Is
it to be imagined, exclaims Eneas, that fouls fliould ever leave
this happy place, and go back to the imprifonment of the bo-
dy, and all the wretchednefs of mortality ? I will explain the
whole matter to you» replies Anchises.

Know, then, that all the parts of this vifible univerfe, the
heavens, and earth, and flcy, the fun, moon, and ftars, are, like
one vaft body, animated by an univerfal fpirit, whereof the
(buls, or vital principles, of all animals, of men and beads, of
fiflies and fowl, are emanations. This vital principle is, in eve*
ry animal, the fource of fenfation and motion ; but, from the
influence that the body has over it, becomes fubjedl to inordi-
nate paflions, and forgetful of its heavenly original The ibid
of man, in particular, (for nothing further is faid of the other
animals) contrails, while flmt up in the dark prifon of the bo-
dy, a degree of debafement which does not leave it at death,
and from which the fufferings of a fubfequent ftate of purga*
tion 'are neceflary to purify it. Thefe are of different kinds
and degrees, according to the different degrees and kinds of
guilt or impurity which the foul has contracted. Some ibuls
are expofed to the beating of winds, fome are waflied in water,
and fome purified by fire. Every one of m (fays Anchises,
including himfelf ) fuffers his own peculiar pains of purifica-
tion. Then we are fent into this vaft Elyfium, and a few of
us remain in die eternal pofleflion of it *. The reft continue

here,

* i (uppofe the words Et pauci UtU arva tenemusy to be a pareothefis \ which, id my
ppiDipny clears the text of alt ob(curity« By the change of the perfon, id the four laft

lines

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7'A^ Jintb Book of the E NEID. 49

here till, by the air and tranquillity of the place, they have
entirely got the better of the impurity contraded in the world,
have had every impreffion of the pains of purgatory worn out,
and are reftored to their original fimplicity of nature. Thus
refined, they are, at the end of a thoufand years f, fummoned
by a divine agent, or god, to meet in one great aflTembly, where
they drink of Lethe to wafh away remembrance, and then, in
compliance with their own inclination, are ient back to the
earth to animate new bodies.

Having ended this account, Anchises, with his fonand the
Sybil, pafles to a riling ground, and points out, in a (late of
pre-euflence, a proceflion of Roman heroes, whd were in due
time to defcend from him ; briefly defcribing their feveral cha-
raiflers, in a mod fublime ftrain of poetical prophecy.

I SHALL fubjoin a few remarks on the conclddiiig (ceile of
this noble epifode j— on the gates of horn and ivory. Thcfe gates
have given no little trouble to critics, both ancient and modem ;
who, after all, feem to have been not very fortunate in their

Vol. IL G conjedtures.

liMs of tKe {peBchi — Has omnis,»^^o/veri,^iu:^iantr'^^(fiinit it appeftft, ditt An«
OBiSBs does not include himfelf among thole i^ho were to retorn to the world i which
aicertains fulRciently the import of tenemus. The learned Rubus conflrues the pafTage
in a way (bmewhat different } but his general account of the poet's dodlrine differs not
efleDtiaUy from mine.

f MoRB Ifterally, " When they have rolled the wheel, or circle, for a thoufand
** years j** that is, when the revolution of a thoufand years is completed. For this
interpretiKfoo v»e are indebted to Saavius^ who tells us farther, that this lingular
phmTe was taken from Ennius. Anciently peiliaps rota might mean a c/Vy/t, (as well
as a wbeel,^ and poetically a y€ar\ fo that, in Ennivs's time, volvere rotam might be a
figurative phrafe of the fame import with annum peragere^ to p'afs a year. The original
meamng of annus is a circk^ whence the diminutive annulus^ a ring. The fame reference
to the circidar nature of the year, may be (een in the Greek Umw^^ which Virgil cer-
tainly had in his mind when he wrote, ** Atque in ft fua per veHigia voI?itur annus."
When this is attended to, our author's u(e of the phra(e in queftion will appear not (b
harih as it might otherwife be thought to be, and not at all too figurative in this very
(blemn part of the poem.

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so RE MA R KS an fame Pqffages of

coDJedlures. This is owing, not to obfcurity in the poet, but
to the refinement of thofe interpreters, who miftook a plain
pafTage for a profound allegory, and were determined to find a
fecret meaning in it. The gate of ivory, fay they, tranfmits
falfe dreams, and that of horn true ones ; and Eneas and his
companion are difmifled from Elyfium, and let into the upper
world, through the ivory gate. What can this imply, but that
the poet meant to infinuate, that every thing he had faid con-
cerning a flate of future retribution, was nothing more than a
fallacious dream ? And, in fupport of this conjedlure, they ge-
nerally quote from the Georgic three verfes to prove, that
Virgil was in his heart an Epicurean, and confequently difbe-
lieved both a future ftate and a providence. The verfes are —
•' Felix qui potuit rerum cognofcere caufas, Atque metus om-
" nes, et inexorabile fatum, Subjecit pedibus, ftrepitumque
" Acherontis avari."

Now, in the firft place, it docs not appear to me, that thefc
lines can prove their author ever to have been an Epicurean, or
that he meant to fay more than ^^ Happy is the man whofe
*' mind philofophy has raifed above the fear of death, as well
" as above all other fears." For, in the Georgic, he not only
recommends religion and prayer, which Epicureans could not
do confiflently with their principles, but again and again afferts
a providence ; and, in terms equally elegant and juft, vindi-
cates the Divine wifdom in eflablifhing phyfical evil as the
means of improving and elevating the mind of man. But does
he not, in his lixth eclogue, give an account of the formation
of the world according to the Epicurean theory ? He does ;
and he makes it part of the fong of a drunkard : no proof that
he held it in very high efteem.

But, 2^/f, Suppofing our poet^s admiration of Lucretius
might have made him formerly partial to (he tenets of Epicu-
rus, it does not follow that he continued fo to the end of his

life,

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Tb€ ftxtb Book of the ENEID. - 51

life, or that he was fo while employed upon the Eneid. The
duties of religion, and the fuperintending care of providence,
are by no other Pagan author fo warmly enforced as in this
poem J and the energy with which, in the fixth book, and in
0€kt paflage of the eighth, (v. 666.) he aflerts a future retribu-
tion, feems to prove, that he was fo far in earned with regard
to this matter, as to believe, that it was not, as the Epicureans
affirmed, either abfurd or improbable.

Let it be remarked, in the third place, that no poet ever
thought of to prepofterous a method of pleafing and inftrudling
his readers, as firft to employ all his (kill in adorning his fable,
and then tell them, that they ought not to believe a word of it.
The true poet's aim is very difierent. He adapts himfelf to the
opinions that prevail among the people for whom he writes,
that they may the more eafily acquiefce in his narrative ; or he
is careful, at leall, to make his fable confident with itfelf, in
order to give it as much as poffible the appearance of ferioufnefs
and truth. We know, that the fcenery of the fixth book is
wholly fidtitious ; but the Romans did not certainly know how
far it might be fo: founded as it was on ancient tradition,
which no hiftory they had could overturn ; and on philofbphi-
cal opinions, which they had never heard confuted, and which,
where Revelation was unknown, might feem refpedlable, on
account of the abilities of Pythagoras, Plato, and other
great men who had taught them.

To which I may add, J\tbly^ as an argument decifive of the
prefent quedion. That if Virgil wiflied his countrymen to be-
lieve him to have been not in earned in what he had told them of
a pre-exident and future date, he mud alfo have wiflied them to
imderfland, that the compliments he had been paying to the
mofl favourite chara(^ers among their ancedors were equally
infincere j and that what he had faid of the virtues of Camil-
Lus, Brutus, Cato, Scipio, and even Augustus himfelf,
was altogether vifionary, and had as good a right to a paflage

G 2 through

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53 REMARKS on Jom€ Paffagis of

through the ivory gate, as any other wifehood. Had Octavia
underftood this to be the poet's meaning, (he would not have
rewarded him fo liberally for his matchlefs encomium on the
younger Ma RCELLUs* Ha4 this indeed been his meaning, all
the latter part of the fixth book would have been a ftudied in-
fult on Augustus, and the other heroes there celebrated, as well
as on the whole Roman people. Strange, that the moft judi*
cious writer in the world ihould commit fuch a blunder in the
moft elaborate part of a poem which he had coniecrated to the
honour of his country, and particularly to that of his great
patron Augustus !

We mull therefore admit, either that Virgil had loft his
fenfes, or, which is more probable, that, in fending Ensas and
the Sybil through the ivory gate, he intended no farcaftic re*
fle<5iion either on his country or on his poetry. In a word, we
muft admit, that, in this part of lus fable, he was juft as much
in earneft as in any other ; and that there was no more joie in
Enbas's a/cent through the gate of ivory ^ than in his defcaU
through the cave of Avernus. How then are we to underftand
this adventure of the gate ? I anfwer, By makix^ the poet his
own interpreter^ and not feeking to find things in his book
which we have no good reafon to think were ever in his head^

In the nineteenth book of the Odyfley, Penelope, fpeaking
of dreams, fays to her nurfe, that there are two gates by
which they are tranfmitted to us j one made of horn, through
which the true dreams pais, and the other of ivory, which
emits falfe dreams. This thought Homer probably derived
from fome Egyptian cuftom or tradition^ which one might dif*
cufs with many quotations and much appeacance of learning >
and this, no doubt, gave Virqil the hint of the paflage now
before us. But Virgil's account differs from Homer's more
than the commentators feem to be aware of. Homer does not
fay in what part of the world his gates are ; Virgil's are in
Ilajy, not far from Cumas, and %vt faid to be the outlet from

Elyiium

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Tbe ^xtb Book of the ENEID. 53

^yfium into the upper world : a wild ficlion no doubt, but
not more wild than that of making the cave of Avemus the in-
let from the upper world into the nether- Homer's gates are
the gates of dreams j Virgjl calls his the gates of fleep. The
former are not faid to tranfroit any thing but dreams ; of the
latter, one tranfmits dreams, and the other real ghofts or' Jf Jades.
For thus, though all the commentators are againft me, I mull
underftand the words umbris veris; becaufe in Virgil uml^ra
often iigni£es a gb^^ but never in him, nor in any other good
writer, (fo far as I know) a dream* If it be afked, what ghofts
they were that ufed to pafs this way ; the anfwer is cafy : they
were thofe who, after having been a thoufand years in Elyfium,
and taken a draught of Lethe, were fent back to the upper
world to animate new bodies. If again it were afked, whether
fuch beings might not be of fo fubile a nature as to work their
way into the upper world without paiBng through a gate ; I
(hoidd anfwer, that vifible fubftances, which might be purified
by fire, or wafhed in water, and could not get over the river
Styx but in a boat, muft be fo far material at lead, as to be ca-
p^le of ccmfinement, and confequently of being fet at li*
bcrty*

The falfa infomnia that go out by the ivory gate may mean,
either deceitful dreams ^ or dreams in general^ that is, unfubftantial
things, as oppofed to realities ; which lall I take to be the pre-
ferable fignification. Be this, however, as it will, £n£AS and
the Sybil were neither ghofts nor dreams, but human flefti and
blood ; and could no more be fuppofed to partake of the quali-
ties alluded to in the name of the gate by which An crises dif-
miiTed them, than a naan is fuppofed to be lame for having
pafTed through Cripplegate, or than the Lord Mayor of Lon-
don, by entering in proceflion through l^emple-hzv^ is fuppofed
to have become a better churchman than before, or a better
lawyer. Through one or other of the gates of fleep the Trojan,
and his guide muft pafs, or they never could return to the upper

world.

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54 REMARKS on forne Paffages of the ENEID.

world at all : and that gate the poet probably made choice of,
which firft occurred to him ; and that probably would firft oc-
cur which founded bed in his verfe : or perhaps one might fay,
in the way of conjedlure, that he thought fit to open the ivory
gate, becaufe the other, being appropriated to the purified
ghofls, might not be fo well fuited to mere mortals. This is
certain, that, though the ablative eburna flands very gracefully
in the 898th line, the ablative cornea could not ; becaufe, being
the foot amphimacer, it can have no place in a regular hexa-
meter.

As to the analogy that fome critics have fancied between horn
and truth, and between falfehood and ivory, it is fo whimfical,
and fo abfurd, that I need not mention it.

And now, by removing the mift of allegory from Virgil's
gates, I flatter myfelf, that I have made thefe verfes fomewhat
more intelligible than they have been generally fuppofed to be ;
that I have proved the latter part of this epifode to be confident
with the reft of it; and that I have vindicated a favourite au-
thor from the heavy charges of impiety and ill-manners, where-
of, however repugnant to his general charadler, it would not be
eafy for thofe to clear him who follow the common, though lefs
obvious, interpretations.

III.

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IIL An Essay on Rythmical Measures. By Wal-
ter ToUNG, M. A. F. R. S. Edin. and Minjfter of the
Gojptl at Erjkine.

[Readby Mr JOHH ROBISON^ Dec. i8. 1786.]

MA N is formed to derive pleafure from a variety of dif-
ferent fources. Many of his pleafures are communis
cated by the channel of the external fenfes. Each of thefe has
particular clafles of objedls that are fuited to its gratification ;
and thefe, being diffufed in great abundance through the works
of nature, or framed by the art and ingenuity of men, become
to him a fource of frequent and diverfified enjoyment.

The pleafures which we receive through the fenfes of feeing
and of hearing have ever been accounted of a nobler and more
dignified nature than thofe which we receive by means of the
other fenfes. They are intimately conneded with, and feem,
in a great meafure, to depend upon, certain higher faculties of
human nature, which have fometimes been called internal
fenfes. A fenfibility to them is pofTefTed by different men in
very different degrees, and confers upon fome men a real fupe-
riority to others : The inferior animals do not appear to be, in
any degree, poffeffed of it. It is fufceptible of cultivation and
improvement. The man, therefore, who poffefles it in a high
degree, whilfl he has an exquifite enjoyment of all the pleafures
which are peculiar to thofe fenfes, derives, at the fame time, an
additional fatisfadtion from the flattering confcioufnefs, not oni-
ly that he is exalted above the inferior animals, but that he is

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56 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

more perfedl in his kind, and more highly improved, than ma-
ny who belong to his own fpecies. Accordingly, thefe plea-
fures have, in all ages, been fought after with eagernefs* Men
of the greateft abilities have employed themfelves in tracing out
their nature, inveftigating the different internal fenfes upon
which they depend, and difcovering the various objedts that
are fuited to communicate them. The greateft efforts of hu-
man ingenuity have been diredled to obtain thefe objedls, and
to prefent them in their moft perfedl ftate.

Among the internal fenfes upon which thefe pleaiures are
found greatly to depend, the perception of order and propor-
tion feems to have a principal place. Order and proportion are
generally difcovercd, in a certain degree, in every thing that
communicates immediate pkafure, either to our fight or hear-
ing. When, from any particular circumftahce, they happen
not to be perceived, the pkafure is always greatly abated ; in
fome cafes it is altogether deftroyed. That fome kind of ar-
rangement and proportion of parts is eilential to every thing
which is accounted beautiful, is generally acknowledged. Lefs
doubt can be entertained with regard to the ob^eAs of hearing.
It is an eftabliflied fa6l,^that no founds can give great pleafure
to the ear, unlefs they are related to one another according to
certain proportions, and are difpofed in a certain order. It is
equally eftablifhed, that when founds in fucceffion are fo re-
lated, the pleafure which they zKord is very imperfedl, unlcfi
their refpedlive durations are regulated according to certain
meafures. Mankind are greatly diverfified with regard to the
power which they poffefs of perceiving thefe relations. Some
men have that power in a much higher degree than others.
Some men have a very nice perception of thefe relations in one
clafs of objects, while they feem to be fcarccly fenfible of them
in other clalTes. Thefe differences amongft men are undoubt-
edly owing in a great meafure, to habit and cultivation. They

feem,

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feem, however^ to depend alfo, in a confiderable degree^ upon
natural conftitution.

I HAVE obferved, that, in an agreeable fucceffion of founds^
order and proportion take place in two different ways. Upon
the one depends what is called the tone of the feveral founds,
or the relation which they bear to one another with refpedl to
acuteneia and. gravity ; upon the other depends what is often
called their rythm, cadence or meafure. The latter of thefe is
probably the xnoft important. It feems to be indifpenfably re-
quired in every agreeable fucceifion of founds. A feries of
noces, proportioned in tone with the utmoil nicety, and ar-
ranged with the greateft art, if no meafure or proportional du-
ration is obferved in them, will communicate no pleafure, but,
on the contrary, will create difguft. On the other hand, a fe-
ries of founds juflly proportioned in duration, and artfully dif-
poied, will always give pleafure, although every one of them
fhould be eipreffed in the fame tone, and even although they
fhbuld be expreiled in different tones, the proportions of which
cannot be perceived by the ear. <The beating of a drum is
agreeable to the ear, and foihetimes has a condderable effedl
upon the mind. The fyllables which compofe words differ in
length according to- certain proportions, which may be felt by
the ear. Words,, therefore, may be arranged in rythm. When
this arrangement is mad6 with art, the rythm is agreeable, even
when it is expreffed in the tone9 of fpeech in which no mufical
proportion is perceived. Again,, though men poffefs, indiffe-
rent degreea, the power of feeling the proportional duration of
fucoeffive founds, and of reliihing an agreeable rythm, there
is perhaps no man altogether deftitute of it. On the other
hand, mens power of perceiving the mufical relations of founds,
.and 6f ridiibing.an artful combination of them, is much more
dive^l3fied•^:The difl&rencea among them in this refpe^t are
wider and more flriking. In fome men, that power is fcarcely
difcemible, who neverthelefs may be able to judge of rythm

Vol. II. H with

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58 On RrrHMICAL MEASURES.

with accuracy, and to enjoy it with feniibility. From this cir*
cumftance, too^ we are led to conclude, that of thefe two
powers, that by which we perceive and enjoy rythm is of
greateil importance to our gratification.

Tone is the province of the mufician alone. Rythm. is
eqirally the province of the mufician and the poet. It is alio,
in fome degree, an objed of attention to the orator and profe
writer. Although the general principles and foundations of
rythm, as it takes place in the works of thefe different artifb,
may be nearly the fame, the particular application of thefe, and
the extent to which it is carried by each of them, are diA-
rent. It may accordingly be difiinguilhed into three kinds, nn%.
mufical, poetical and profaic.

It is propofed, in the following £f&y, to endeavour to inve-
fligate Ibme of the leading principles of the two firfl kinds of
rythm, the mufical and the poetical, and afterwards to fiibjoia
ibme additional remarks and illuftrations upon each of them.

Amongst the ancients, mufic was feldom or nev^r u&d but
as an auxiliary to poetry. Its rythm, therefore, was regulated,
in a great meafure, by that of the poetry to which it was
adapted. Amongfl the moderns, too, mufic and poetry are
frequently united \ and by this union their greatefl effedls ase
produced. As, however, mufic has been greatly cultivated and
improved by the modems, it is enabled alfb to fubfift alone,
and in that fituation to produce very pleaiing eflfe£b. In this
feparate ftate it will be proper to confider it at prefent. And
here it will readily occur, that Variety, within certain limits, is
neceflary to mufical rythm. In poetry, the proportion in du-
ration of fingle contiguous founds &ldom exceeds diat of two
to one. This proportion does^ not adnut of great variety.
When a poem, however, is recited, the attention of the hearer
is chiefly engaged by the fentiments, the images and the didtioiL
The rythm is frequently confidered only as an accidental
grace, which we are led by habit to expe6t in every compofi-

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don tlutt bears the name of poetry. In m\ific, on the other
handy a principal part of the pleafiire to be communicated
muft depend upon the rythm ; and therefore in mufic other
proportions in duration^ befides that of two to one, muft be
admitted.

In order then that thefe proportions may be felt, and that
uniformity may be perceived amidft this variety, it is necelTary
diat the duration of the (ucceflive founds be regulated according
to fbme fixed ftaadard or meaiure, which may be obvious to
the hearer. This* ftandard muft be a determined portion of
time, of which every foimd muft be either an aliquot part or a
multiple.

TiM£ is a dieafurable quantity, or may be confidered under
the ideas of equals or of greater and lefs. Moft men are
capable of perceiving equal intervals of time, provided thofe
intervals do not esceed a certain magnitude. When we hear a
number of fuccefiive ftrokes, we can generally determine whe-
ther the intervals betwixt them are equal or unequal. We ac-
quire this idea of equal intervals of time, from the motion of
our own limbs, and of thofe of other animals, in walking or
flying, which nature, for the purpofes of eafe and grace, has
determined to be an uniform motion. We acquire the fame
idea from the movement of pendulums, and from the beating
of clocks and watches. By a habitual attention to thefe, men
come by degrees to have a very accurate perception of fmall
equal intervals of time.

Wh£N we have fixed our attention upon any fuch interval,
and confider it as an unit of time, we can fuppofe it divided into
a certain number of equal parts ; and by motion we a<5lually
can make fuch a divifion. When we fland befide a clock, we
can, with great eafe, '^make a certain nimiber of uniform or
equal rimed flrokes in the intervals betwixt the feveral beats.
This power of divifion, however, has its limits. Although we
may conceive an interval to be divided into any number 6f

H 2 equal

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equal parts, the number of parts into which 'we a^ually cao
divide it muft depend upon the powers which we have of per-
forming quick motions. Thefe powers are very limited. The
roll of a drum, the mod rapid movement of a mufician upon
an inflrument, does not divide a iecond of time into much more
than fixteen or eighteen equal parts, hardly ever into twenty-four.
Our power of dividing a fmall interval of time^ eqBally and
uniformly, and of perceiving iuch a divifion by the ear^ is alfa
confined to certain proportions. The fimpleft and the eafieft
divifion is into two, or any of its powers which are within the
limits of practicability. We can divide an interval into two or
into four equal parts with almoft the fame eaie. Having ob-
tained either of thefe divifions, we can alfo confider each of the
parts as an unit^ and fubdivide it into two or four, thus making
a divifion into eight, or^ if our powers of quick motion vriH
admit, into fixteen ♦. Beyond this we caniK>t carry the powers
of two in the divifion of fingle intervals. The divifion into
three equal parts is not fo fimple as that into two. By practice,
however, it comes to be equally eafy. Having eftabliihed this
divifion, we can, as iii the former cafe, fubdivide each- of them
into twos, into threes or into fours, thus obtaining a diviikm
into fix, nine and twelve. We alfo obtain the numbers fix and
twelve, by breaking down into threes each of the psurts of a
divifion by two- or four f . A divifion into five equal parts re-
quires a confiderable. effort of the attention. W^ fometimes
meet with a fucceflion of fuch divifions in the works of mufir
cians. In executing fuch paflages, the performer, fixing hi»
attention upon the unit, probably nms on to die end of the

iiicceffioa

* Eight is noft fafily coneeived m (wo foiin> flktcM ii alwap ecmoeived as^
four fours.

\ Six we can indiffierentijr conceive as three twos or as two threes j nine we xnuft con*
ecive as three threes $ twelve we can either conceive as three foucs or four threes; wa
cao aUb conceive it as two fijies, but with more difficulty as fix twos*

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fucceffion as uniformly as he can, without greatly regarding
the numbers. When we attempt the divifian into five, we are
often difpofed to break down the interval into two parts *, and
fubdivide the one part into three, and the other into two, ma-
king the two either equal to each other, or in the proportion of
one and two. In the fame manner, when we attempt the divi-
fion of an interval into feven, we are perhaps irrefiftibly led to^
halve it, giving three to the one half and four to the other. A
diviiion into any of the higher primes is impradlicabkr

We have not only the power of dividing and fubdividing
fmall intervals or units of time in the manner I have explained,
but we can alfa form aggregates of them, by telling off equal
parcels of them, when they are rendered fenfible to the ear by
repeated (trokes or founds. We do this, by. attending particu-
larly to the firft of each of the parcels. The confequence of
thiis is, that though the fucceffive ftrokes give out exadlly the
fame found, and are made with the fame degree of force, we
ihall infallibly imagine the firfl of each of our parcels to be*
fomewhat louder or more ftrongly expreffed than the others.
When we have counted off one parcel, the mind confiders the
whole as one 21& ; the parcel is as it were fet by, and a new
effort 1% made to count off the next parcel. Hence the firft of
this parcel, being marked by a particular effort of the mind,
and as it were reprefenting the whole parcel, flrikes it more
ftrongiy than the reft, and is therefore conceived as louder ; and
the laft of the parcel, being leaft attended to by the mind, is
conceived aa feeble, thus giving us the imprefEon of fomething
like a break or paufe betvrixt the parcels. Thus, when we liften
to the beats of a watch, we are at firft difpofed to reckon them
by pairs ; and we invariably find, that the firft of each pair is
coofidered by us as a fixong and the other as a feeble found.

* MoiuB dpecially if, in fonner parts of the fucc^ffion^ the fame interval has been
Sonndfrefsentlj divided into two.

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We may be ea(ily fatisfied, however, that this is not always
-owing to any real inequality in the force of ilie founds j be-
xaufe we can often reverfe this order, by fixing the attention
upon one of our feeble founds, and confidering it as the firft of
a parcel. After we have liilened for fome time to the beats,
according to this new arrai\gemei^ we flill find that the firft
of each pair is ftrong, and the other feeble. We can tell off
the beats, not only by pairs, but alfo by parcels of three, four
and other numbers ; and in every cafe we uniformly imagine
^e firil of esbch parcel 4:o ^be iBor« forcible than the others. We
.form thefe aggregates with greateft eafe, according to the fame
.proportions in which we make the divifions formerly defcribed.
We count off the fuccefffiv^ equal intervals, marked by repeated
founds, mod.eafily, by paicek of two and of four. When the
iingle intervals are not large, we can alfo make parcels of eight.
Thefe arrangements ^ive what the mufidans call conmion
'time. We can alfo, with fufficient eafe, reckon them by par*
eels of three and of fix, thus obtaining what is called triple
.time. We can do more : we can even form aggregates of five
«qual intervals. We feem ta do this by firft telling off two
pairs, then accounting the fifth a feeble found, fixing the at-
tention upon the fixth, and making that the firft of the next
two pairs, and fo proceeding. We might, in the fame manner,
form aggregates of feven. As, however, by counting off
three fuccefiive pairs, the mind has in a manner eftablifiied the
arrangement of flrong and feeble founds, it becomes gready
more difficult to confider the feventh as a feeble found, and to
fall into the new arrangement. Even when we reckon by par-
cels of five, we are defirous of having fome little time to efla-
blifli o\ir new arrangement ; and when the intervals marked by
the fuccefiive founds are perfedly equal, we always feel as if
ihe fixth came upon us too foon ; we wifli that it might be
fufpended till the time of the third pair is completed^ Aggre-
gates of five occur frequently in poetry. They have fome-

times,

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timefr, we are told, been attempted alfo in modern mufic, but
Be^er with fuccefs, and are now imiverfally laid afide *•<

Bbsides the powers which we have of dividing and fubdi^
viding fro all equal intervals or units of time, and of counting
them oflF by equal fucceflive parcels, we have ftill the farther
power of combining together certain numbers of thefe parcels,
or of feeling fuch combinations, and confidering them as
fomething feparate and diftind from what went before and
what is to come after. We make thefe combinations by twos,
by threes and by fours, rarely I believe by any other numr
bers. The parcels by which we firfl: count off the intervals,
are, . in modern mufic, called bars^ being marked in writing by
perpendicular lines drawn acrofs the (lave. Combinations of
two, three or four of thefe bars are called mufical phrafes or
drains. The firft note of every bar is accented f* In parcels
of four, the third, being the firft of a pair is alfo accented, but
not fo ftrongly as the firft..

This-

* The ancients defined certain meafures, which they confidered as aggregates of five
and of (even^ as meafures of which rythmical fucceffions nvight be formed; Tho^
diey fuppofed to be made up of leffermeafiiresy bearing to one another, in the one cafe,
the fefquialter proportion, or that of two to three, and in the other cafe the epitrite
proportion, or that of three to four* Whether they had, or could have, a diftind feeE'
ing of thefe numbers, upon hearing a fucceffion of fuch meafures exprefled in (yllables^.
or whether fnch a. fucceffion could be exprefled ib as to communicate- fuch a feeling, ^re
matters with regard to which. I am much inclined to doubt. We may indeed conceive
aggregates of five to be formed by counting oflF twos and threes, or threes and twos
alternately J and', in Kke manner, aggregates of ieven, by counting off threes and fourv,
or fours and threes. This, however, can hardly be done, unlefs the fingle times are of
fiich magnitude, as that they may be confidered as units of time, which is not the cafe
with the fliort iyllables of words« Even when the fingle times arc fiifficiently large, the
counting them oflF by alternate even and odd numbert> is a Aflicult, perhaps an unna-
tural operation. It requires fuch a oonftant and even painful effort of the attention, as
IS incdnfifient with that cafe and fimpUcsty of conception and operation, which is eflfen-
tial to every thing that is agreeable. If the attention is relaxed^ we muft either hold
entirely by one number, or ran into confnfion.

f I BavB here ufed the term ^icant in its mufical acceptation, to denote that imagi-
nary degree of force or emphafis which a found acquires from the circumflanoe ofita
being the firft of a par^l in a rythmical iucoeflioiu

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We may be eafilyfatbfied, however, that / xJmpounding
•owing to any real mequaUty in the forr' ^ . «r ^*L. „ \

.,,«.,r f i.». . /* JOt tune, as i

<aufe we can often reverfe this -order/ ,

upon one of our feeble founds, ani^ ;'>"' ''" *'^"°''^; "^"T
a parcel. After we have liftene^V ;. *^^^f ^ ^one through

-^^^1. ,. .'/ ^ * reeular mufic in luu

according to this new arraMe / ' • ^ r •.

^f each pair is ftrong, amV^ -' ?*"=" f '"y?"' "*^ P^^'

the beats, not only by k . ' ^VV^^^tlj wiAout any la-

and other numbers, . '' ''''^^' the procefs, by which

•the firft of h '^^^* which muucal lounds bear to

form thefe Ag^ implicated, and yet this goes on even

We couD' •* ^ piece of muuCi we nrft mark the ungle

found^ i/f ^^^^^ ^^ ^^™^ ^ afterwards, from the fuperior dc-
'£n'' ' ' / /^''^^ ^^^^ which the accented noted are exprefled, or
f- /^^/&flie circumftances in the found or the rythm which
^^ th€ attention to thefe notes^ we very quickly difcovcr, how
iiny intervals are contained in each of the equal parcels, ac-
ir^rding to which the meafure is conftruiled. Having efta-
bliflied this, we can with great eafe go along with the perform-
er, and feel the proportional duration of every note. We are
provided with a flandard or fcale, to which we can refeiv the
mod minute divifions that can be made, and by which we can
meafure the longed notes that may occur. If we are unac-
quainted with the piece, and do not at firft perceive the mea-
fure, we are kept, during all that time, in a difagreeable ftate
of fufpenfe, and are unable to liften with any degree of pleafure
or fatisfadlion.

The meafure is moft eafily perceived when the bars natu-
rally combine into twos or fours, and when of thefe combina-
tions the whole or each part of the piece contains a determinate
even number. In this manner, the fimple popular airs, fuch
as marches, gavots and minuets, are conftrudled. There are
very few who cannot eafily perceive and relifh the meafure in
fuch airs. This regular ftrudure, however, is not obferved

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in all mufic. In fome pieces, the bars do-not regularly com-
bine into phrafes, or, if they do, the phrafes do not ^always
contain the fame number of bars. The number of the bars,
too, is indeterminate, and fbmetimes very great. In fuch
pieces, then, the meafure muft in general be formed of (ingle
bars or parcels ; and if the rythm is variegated by a confidera-
ble range of long and fhort notes, and if the accented notes do
not forcibly engage the attention, an unpradlifed hearer will
fometimes hardly perceive the meafure at all. When this hap-
pens to be the cafe, k is impoilible that he can receive any
great pleafure from that muiic. According to the language ufed
upon fiich occafions, he does not underftand it. Such difficult
and perplexed meafures, however, occur more rarely in the
later compoiitions than in thofe of the lafl century.

In fuch meafures, beating of time is of great ufe both to
the performer and to the hearer. This feems to have been a
practice ever lince man had an idea of rythmical meafures.
We are naturally difpofed, upon hearing fuch meafures diftind-
ly ezpreiled, to accompany them with correfponding motions
of the body ; and hence probably the origin of dancing, to
which ezercife the term rythm has been frequently applied.
The beadng of time is performed by putting down the hand
or foot, and giving a flroke at the inflant in which the firfl
note of every bar begins to be founded, and railing them up
during the remaining time of the bar. This both dire(5ls the
performer to execute the piece in uniform time, and enables the
hearer readily to perceive the accented notes, and to afcertain
the meafure. The ancients, in the performance of their mu-
fic, aiKl efpecially of their dramatical mufic, where the band
was numerous, beat time with great force and noife. This
was perhaps neceifary, as their meafures were frequently un-
equal and irregular. The modems, who generally confbrud
their mufic by equal and regular meafures, have laid afide that
practice in every cafe where it is not indifpenfable. We un«

Vol. II. I doubtedly

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66 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

doubtedly liften with more fatisfadtion when we can perceive
the meafure from the real accent and expreffion of the notes,
than when we muft be affiled by the continual repetition of un-
mufical founds.

Such then feem to be the nature, the extent and the man-
ner of operation of what may be called our rythmical powers,
or thofe powers by which we afcertain and perceive the propor-
tional magnitudes of fmall intervals of time, when thefe are
marked out by motion, or by fucceffive founds. And from
what has been faid, we eafily fee what a prodigious variety may
be introduced into mufical rythm, from the great range of long
and fhort founds which may be occafionally employed, and
which may be difpofed and combined in a number of different
ways almoft infinite, without perplexing the hearer, or hinder-
ing him from readily and accurately feeling the proportional
duration of each.

In the foregoing account of thefe powers, I have frequently
fpoken of fingle intervals or units of time. It may be proper,
in thi^ place, to explain a little more fully what I underftood
by thefe terms. It wilt readily occur to every one, that I did
not mean to exprefs by them a certain invariable portion of ab*-
folute duration. Thefe units, like units in all other fubjeds,
are indeterminate and relative magnitudes. They mark fome-
times a greater, and at other times a lefs portion of abfolute
duration. The fame portion of abfolute time will, upon diffe-
rent occafions, be confidered as an unit, as a multiple and as a
part. Every one, however, who has been converfant in mufic,
experiences, that when he performs, or when he hears and goes
along with a piece of mufic, there are certain notes which he
uniformly confiders as fingle durations, of which all the longer
notes that occur are aggregates, and the fhorter notes are parts.
He may therefore be very properly faid to have all this while
the idea of an unity of time. Although thefe units of time
differ eoniiderably in their abfolute duration in diflferent move*

mentSy.

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mentSy this difference is undoubtedly confined within certain
limits. They can fcarcely be much greater nor much lefs than
the intervals marked by thofe natural uniform motions from
which our original impreflions of rythmical movement are de-
rived, and particularly the motion of our own limbs in walk-
ing or running. Perhaps the longed found which can be con-
fidered as a (ingle undivided duration, is hardly equal to the
time of two feconds j and the fhorteft which can be eafily
counted without parcelling, is not much lefs than half a fecond,
or than the time in which we can diftindlly pronounce the nu-
meral names in fucceflion. We can indeed attend to the fingle
beats of a watch, but not without a confiderable exertion of the
mind ; we reckon them much more eafily by pairs or by
fours.

It might here be afked, what occafion is there, in order to
explain our perception of rythmical proportion, for fuppofing
it neceffary that the two oppofite operations of divifion and
combination go on at the fame time ? Would it not be more
fimple and more natural to fuppofe, that the whole procefs is
carried on in the fame direction, and by the fame operation ;
and that either the longeft found Which occurs in the fuccefiion
is to be accounted the unit or ftandard, and all thefiiorter ones
formed and conceived as proportional divifions of it ; or elfe,
that the (horteft found is to be taken for the unit, and all the
longer founds conceived as formed by combination ? The an-
fwer is, that the procefs of dividing and combining appears to
be the procefs of nature; and, for proof of this,* appeal might
be made to experience. When a perfon is in{lru<5led in mufic,
he is taught to mark the time of a femibreve by four uniform
^ motions of the hand. He is thus accuftomed to confider it,
not as one time, but as four times, exprefled^ not feparately
and diftindtly, but in continuance; and I may venture to fay,
that the mod experienced mufician does not conceive fuch
lengthened founds in a different manner. By pradlice and dif-

I 2 cipUne,

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68 On RYtHMICJL MEASURES.

cipline, indeed, he is enabled to give them a fmooth and uni-
form intonation, without marking the fingle times as they
pafsi by a fwell or more forcible expreffioni y but ftill he is alt
the while reckoning thoie fingle times in his mind, or attending
to the accompaniment by which they are for the moft part di-
ftin<5tly articulated. Thefc lengthened founds, therefore, never
are conceived as units or fingle durations, but always as com-
pounds. On the other hand, many founds occur in mufic
which are too minute to be counted individually. Thefe,
therefore, can only be conceived in groups, by being referred'
to fome longer duration of which they are aliquot parts. This
may be farther proved from the following circumftance : In
mufical fucceffions, we often find a duration which may be*
confidered as an unit, divided at one time into fours, and at
another time into threes or triplets. Thcfe minute times,
therefore, will be to one another in the proportion of three ta
four. If, therefore, it is thought pra^licabfe to account fuch
fmall time the unit or (landard of a rythmical fiicceilion,. to
which all the other times are to be referred, and by which they
are to be eftimated, I would afk, which of the two minute
times is to be taken for the unit, in the cafe above defcribed ?.
If the fmallefl is pitched upon, I would farther afk, by what
means are we enabled to exprefs the other accurately, in pro^
portion to> it as four to three, or to feel this proportion as fub*
fifting betwixt them^, eipecially as both are fuppofed to be in^
capable of fujrther divifion. I The matter feems to be impoffible*
Such pafTages^ however, are, by no means, confidered as diffi*
cult or cmbarraffing, even: by young performers. Thcfe-
imalL times, therefore, are not conceived as units, but as divi^
fions, by die fimple numbers four and three, of fome longer
duration, which has. been often diftinAly marked in the
former parts of the ptece, and with which ^e mind is fa^

B^liar*.

Trisb

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On RYtHMICAL MEASURES. 69^

Thssi oppofite operations of divifion and combination faci-
litate and Amplify the proccfa of rythmical perception, and, at
the fame time, enable us to take in a mnch wider range of
proportion, dian could be done if we proceeded only in one di-
redtion. As the unit is commonly fome intermediate time be-
twixt the longeft and the ihorteft which occurs in the fucceffion^
it bears no very diflant proportion to either of them. We
frequently meet with femibreves and femiquavers in the fame
piece of mufic^; notes which are to one another In the proportion-
of one to fixteen« This proportion is too great ta be conceived
and felt by a fingle operation of the mind. When, however,
the crotchet is accounted the unit, we are enabled to eftimate,
and accurately to exprefs, thefe diflant times, without goings
beyond the fimple and familiar proportion of four to one, on
either hand.

Th£ ancients indeed accounted dieir fmalleft time as the
unit or (landard of rythmical movement. This fmallefl time,
however, was not lefs than that of a (hort fyllable in pronun-
ciation, and they had no founds in their fuccefCons, which
they confidered as bearing to this a greater proportion than that
of two to one. It may ^fo be of importance to remark, that
as their arithmetic was very imperfedl, compared with that of
the moderns, it is very probable that they had not the fame
iideas of fra^ional divifion, which we now have. In treating,
upon any fubjedl, therefore, in which number ia concerned,
they would naturally take for their unit the fmalleft of the kind
which they were examining, fomething that was either naturally
indivifible, or that they did not expedl to be under the neceflity
^ dividing. Thus Ar^stidbi? QurNTiLiANus calla the fingle
time of rythmical movement o^/taov ; a term by which, as he
tells us, geometricians exprefled that which has no parts. This
ome, he adds, being without parts, holds, in fome degree,
the place of unity *. The moderns, on the other hand, being

able

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70 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

able to conceive and exprefs proportional divifions of the unit,
with as much eafe and accuracy as they do aggregate numbers,
have it in their power to take their unit of fuch dimeniion as
beft fuits the nature of the (ubjetSl. TTiis circumftance may
perhaps enable us to account for fome of thofe difierences
which take place betwixt the opinions of the ancients and of the
moderns, upon the fubjedl of rythm.

There are a few remarks which it may be neceilary to make,
before I conclude this part of the fubjedt.

In mufic, we fometimes find the unit of time divided into
two unequal parts, in the proportion either of two to one, or of
three to one. In making or perceiving this divifion, we do
not firft break down the unit into three or four, and then allow
two or three of thefe to the firft note, and the remaining one to
the other. We have not leifure for this operation. We merely
conceive the one as prolonged and accented, and the other as
abrupt and feeble. Hence, when we hear fuch divifions, it is
very difficult, without the afliftance of the other parts of the
meafure, to determine whether they are made according to the
one proportion or the other. A pra<5lifed ear will frequendy
miflake, and in writing mufic the one is fometimes fubftituted
for the other.

After a diilindl impreflion has been obtained of the units
of which a rythmical fucceflion is compofed, and of the par-
cels according to which it is conftruded, we do not lofe that
imprefiion, although the fiiccefiion fhould flop, or no found be
heard, during the time of one or more of the units. Thefe
vacant or filent times, if they are not too long continued, we
reckon with nearly the fame eafe and certainty, as if they had
all been exprefled by founds ; and we clearly perceive the par-
ticular part of the meafure at which the fucceflion of founds
recommences. Thefe filent times are called refts in mufic, and
are always accounted as part of the meafure. But this is not
all. We can in a manner ftop the courfe of the rythmical

movement,

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On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 71

movement, or fufpend the flow of the units, during a time
which is either indeterminate, ♦or of which we take no exa£t
account, and proceed afterwards as if no fuch paufe had been
made. Thefe ad libitum paufes, as they are called in mufic,
are feldom taken into the meafure, or confidered as making any
part of it. The intention of them is to roufe and ftrike the
mind of the hearer ; and there are various occafions on which
they may be introduced with very happy cffedl. Modern mu-
ficians often ufe them as opportunities of difplaying the extent
of their invention and execution, when loling fight of the
compofer, giving the reins to their fancy, and little regarding
rule or meafure, they entertain their hearers with a feries of
rapid divifions through the whole compafs of their inftrument,
and of uncommon and irregular modulations. But farther^
we can not only fufpend for a time the courfe of the rythmical
movement in the manner above defcribed, we can alfo render
it occafionally flower or quicker, by increafing or leflening the
dimenfion of the unit, when we wifti to exprefs a heavy lan^
guid movement, or one that is light and animated ; and after
having executed a part of the fucceflion in that manner, we
can often, with great accuracy, refume our firft unit, or re-
turn to our original time* We probably do this with mofl: cer-
tainty, when this enlargement or diminution of the unit is
made in fome fenfible proportion, as that of twa to one. This
pradice, and the eflet^s of it, were well known to the an-
cients. They made it a branch of their rythmical inftitutioUi
under the title of Ayoiyn pvfffA^iKfiy or Duff us Rytbmicus.

^N mufic, the accented note, or beginning of the meafure^
is not always the firft note that is founded ; it is often preceded
by one or more feeble notes, which are placed before the bar
or perpendicular line which marks the commencement of the
firft meafure^ Thefe introductory notes are thought to give a
feftnefs and delicacy to the opening of the piece. In regular

muficy when the parts are repeated, the time of thefe notes

•

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72 Oft RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

is always compenfated at the conclufion of the ftrain. The
mod graceful clofe of a rythmical fucceifion is when the lad
found is long. We alfo reft upon this found with moft fatis-
fadlion when it begins upon an accented part of the meafure.
In this cafe, that meafure may be left incomplete^ by the exad
quantity of the introdudlory note ; fo that when the ftrain 19
repeated, this incomplete bar at the end, together with the in-
trodu(5lory note at the beginning, make up one entire mea-
fure.

I Kow come to make fome obfervations upon the rythm of
j>oetry.

It has already been remarked, that words being compofed
^f fyliables which differ in length according to certain propor-
tions, are fufceptible of rythm. In all compofitions, therefore,
the object of which is to pleafe and to affed, it has been the
general pradice to arrange the words in fome agreeable
rythm. One very common method for attaining this end has
been, to form the words into parcels, according to certain mea-
furfes and proportions ; and in order that thefe parcels may be
more readily perceived and attended to by the reader, to write
them out in feparate lines.

This poetical rythm cannot poilibly be fo various and com-
plicated as the muiical. The fame principles, however, to a
certain extent, take place in both. We find in poetry fmall
intervals or units of time regularly divided and combined..
The divifions, indeed^ cannot poflibly be fo minute as they
often are in mufic ; neither are the parcels fb equal and uni-
form. We have alfo in poetry accented and feeble founds }
and verfes, like mufical flrains, are often introduced by one or
more feeble founds, which fbmetimes are compenfated at the
end of the verfe, and at other times are not. In poetry, as in
mufic, we often make up a part of the meafure by refta or fileflt
times. In reciting verfes, too, we can make indefinite paufes ;

and

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On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 73

and we are often infenfibly led by the fentiments or by the
ftrudtmre of the words, to execute the duSius rytbmicusy or occa-
fionally to accelerate or retard the movement.

In the ancient Greek and Latin languages, the proportion
betwixt the longhand the fhort fyllables is better afcertained, more
diflin£lly marked, and more feniibly felt, than it is in the mo-
dem languages of Europe. Thofe languages >re, therefore,
fufceptible of a more perfedl and a more diverfified rythm.
The poets who have written in them have availed themfelves
of this advantage, and have left us in their works a variety of
very pleating rythmical meafures. Critics have difcovered the
rules by which thefe meafures were conftrudled ; and, in order
to explain them with greater eafe, have e(labli(hed and defined
different fmall fcales of long and fhort fyllables, which have
been called metrical feet, and by which the different meafures
have been parcelled out into their component parts. The
names and the nature of thefe feet are generally known, and
need not, in this place, be explained. I fhall only, at this
time, make two. obfervations upon them. The firfl is, that
they feem, in general, to mark what I have formerly called fin-
gle intervals or units of time, and thefe not very large. Any
one may find, when he recites a verfe, that he can eafily pro-
UQunce two feet in a fecond ; but that he can hardly draw
them out, fo as that each of them fhall occupy the time of a
fecond. The other obfervation is, that it does not appear to
have been the intention of the perfons who defined and applied
thefe feet, to divide verfes by them always into equal intervals
of time. The formation of them proceeds upon the fuppofi-
• tion, that when a perfbn recites a poem, he pronounces every
fhort fyllable in one determined fpace of time, and every long
fyllable in a fpace of time exadly double of that in which he
pronounces a fhort one. The real duration, therefore, of any
one foot will be to the real duration of any other foot exadlly
in proportion to the number of thefe fmalleft times contained

Vol. II. K in

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74 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES,

in tach ; and this can be accurately determined, by obCerving
the number of long and fhort fyllables in each of them, and
accounting every long fyllable equivalent to two fliort ones. In
this manner we find, that die duration of an iambus or tro-
chxus is to the duration df a fpondaeus or a da^ylus exactly in
the proportion of three to fbur. When thefe feet of unequal
time, therefore, occur in the fame verfe, which frequently
happens in (canning, it is evident, that, upon this fuppofition,
they do not divide that rerfe according to equal intervals of
time. Whether the fuppofition of this proportion, invariably
lubfifting betwixt long and fliort fyllables, upon which this
fyftem depends, be in every cafe well founded, may be the fub-
jeA of future enquiry.

The units of time, of which the duration of verfes is
fnade up, are fometimes divided into twos and fours, and fome-
times into direes. Of the firft we have an inftance in the com-
mon hexameter verfe of the ancients. This is a regular rythm,
the units being all equal, and formed into equal parcels. The
number, of whith the parcels confift, is fix. It may there*
fore be confidered as a triple meafnre. In verfes, as well as in
other rythmical fucccffions, Ae parcels of which confift of any
number 'gretater than three, we are always ^ifpofed to break
down thefe parcels into the finaller numbers' of which they are
eompofed, or to coHfider t!hc whole parcel as an aggregate of
thefe fmallcr parcels. This is the origin of what is called the
|)aufe or c^fural Aop in verfes. As, according to what was
formerly ftatcd, the clofe of a rythmical fucceffion, whether
filial or partial, is tnoft agreeable, when Ht^ laft found is long
and accented, and as we are often difpdfed to begin a f«icceflion
with one or vnore feeble founds ; fo, in making the divifions of
verfes, we refk with mcfft fati^fatftion upon a long fyllable
5nanacccntedp«rt of the meafure, and begin the fucceeding
member moft eafily with a fhort or feeble fyllable, which we,
in a manner, pafs o¥«r, and ccmfider as introdii<^ry to the

meafure.

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me^ure. The mod iimple divifion of fix is into two threes.
Hence we generally wifh to conclude the firft member of a
hexametet* verfe with the firft fyllable of the third foot j and
are pleafed, when we have an opportunity of doing fo, by that
fyllable being the termination of a word.

Tityre, tu patulae -^ recubans fub tegminc fagi.
No$ patriae fines — ^ nos dulcia linqnimus arva«

This divifion of the hexameter verfe, not only gratifies the na^^
tural propenfities above mentionedi but, as the concluding fyl«
lable of the verfe i$ i& the unaccented part of the meaf\u*e, it
gives a variety to the cadence of the two members^ and pre-*
vents them from being fimilar or convertible^, which is al*
ways confidered as a fault in the ftnifture of verfes, and un*
doubtedly gives them a difgufting uniformity. We can alio
make the break at the (W:ond fyllable of the third foot, when
it happens to be a da<5lyle ; a$, in this cafe, we have ftill a
feeble found with which to begin the iecond member, and the
time of the firft member is more nearly completed*

Formofam refonane — docet Amaryllida filvas.

This pentheoumer divifion of the hexameter verfe, (bough the
moft agreeable, does not always take place. To obtain variety,
k is neceflary that it (hould occafionally be4ivided otherwife.
The aumber fix may alfo be eafily conceived as made up of
three psdn. l^y making the break at the firft fyllable of the
fourth fpotj we have two paira, dcfident of their juft time by
Uie feeble fyUahk or fyllables, whioh are intnodudtory to the
meafure of the fucceeding member.

IHe mcM errare boves — ut cemis, et ipfiim.

K 2 The

* As, Conaua vdetarum—* vertimus antennaruxh.

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76 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

The grammarians, led by the fyftcm of half-feet, would not
probably confider the diyifion which I have made of the fifth
line of Virgil's fir ft Eclogue, quoted above, as the juft one»
They would rather fuppofe that the break took place at the end
of the word doces. They would alio fuppofe a fubordinate di-
vifion at the word formofam.

The divifion of the units into twos and fours, which takes
place in the hexameter verfe, feems beft fuited to the ftmdlure
of the Latin and Greek languages. Pure trochaic or iambic
verfes, where every alternate fyllable is proibdically long, and
the others are fhort, occur but rarely in their works. Our lan-
guage, again, feems fcarcely to admit of fuch divifions. In
our poetry, the fyllables are arranged lefs according to their
real quantity, than according to the accent * with which we arc
accuftomed to pronounce them. An accented fyllable has al-
ways the efiedl of a long one, and is qualified for being placed
in the leading or accented part of a poetical meafure. An un-
accented fyllable, on the other hand, gives us the imprefllon of
a fhort one, though by the common rules of profody it ought
to be long, and though it is, in reality, pronousnced long. It
is alfo difqualified for being placed in the accented part of a
meaiure. We have few inftances of a real dadtylus in fingle
words, though three fhort fyllables, from the accent with which
the firft is pronounced, often afiumes the appearance of one.
Englifti verfes are conftrudled for the moft part Ijy feet of two
fyllables. The proportion which thefe two fyllables bear to
one another i^ feldom perceived with accuracy ; neither is it of
great importance that it fhould be fb perceived, provided the
times of the entire feet, or of the two fyllables taken togetheri
be nearly equal. The imprefiion, however, which thefe feet,

for

* Whin I apply the term accent to fyllables, I ufc it in iu grammatical acceptatioo,
to denote that fuperior force of articulation, and that infledion of the voice, with which
we always mark in our pronunciation ibme particular fyllable or fyllables of eveiy
word.

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On RYTHMIC JL MEASURES. 77

for the moft part, communicate, is that of a trochaeus or
iambus. Our poets alfo conftrudt verfes fometimes by feet of
three fyllables* Thefe feet, although the fyllables of which they
arc compofed arc, for the mod part, nearly equal, give us the
impreflion of fbmething like a dadlylus or anapasftus, according
as the accented fyllable is the firft or the laft of the three. "In
regard to their (Irudlure, therefore, Englifh verfes have been
diftinguiihed into three kinds, trochaic, iambic and ana-
paeftic*.

Although all iambic verfes are to be confidered as trochaic^
having a feeble fyllable introdudlory to the meafure, and ought
always to be fb fcanned, yet the impreffion which thefe two
verfes make upon the ear, and the effeds which they have upon
the mind, are fomewhat different. When we begin with the
feeble found, we pafs eafily and gently from it to the flrong
found. We utter the flrong found without much exertion, and
Can dwell upon it for fome time. On the contrary, when the
flrong found comes firft, we expreft it with more difficulty and
force, and paft on to the fucceeding feeble found with more ra-
pidity. Hence trochaics have been generally reckoned fome-
what quicker in their movement than iambics, and more pro-
per for exprefling vehemence or gaiety. As iambic verfes
themfelves, however, have naturally a light and airy cafl, efpe-
cially when the combinations are made by even numbers, our
befl poets, to obviate this> have,' in their more ferions compo-
fitions, generally adopted a combination of five. This has ac-
cordingly been denominated the Englifh heroic meafure. The
regular model of this verfe is as follows. The firfl fyllable id
unaccented, or fhort and introdudlory to the meafure. This
is fucceeded by four feet of two fyllables, which, as the accent

takes

* Emolisb trochaic and iambic verfes may be fet to mufic in common or in triple
time indiflcrently. Anapsfiic yerfes require, for the moft part, to be-iet in triple time.
Sbxnstom's Faftoral Ballad (et in common time, would lofe much of its beauty and:

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78 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

takes place upon the firft fyllable^ may be conddered as tro*
chees. After thefe, there is a ftrong or accented fyllable, which
clofes the verfe, and, along with the introductory fyliable of
the next line, completes the number of five feet *.

To j wake the | foul — by j tender ) ftrokes of j art.

This model is not always obfervcd. Our beft poets make fre-
quent deviations from it, in order to give variety to the Cadence
of their verfes, or to render them more expreilive of the ienti-
ments or emotions which they wi(h to convey.

This verie, like the ancient hexameteti admits of a break
or divifion. As, according to what was formerly obferved, we
generally reckon combinations of five by two pairs and an odd
one, we make this break with moft fatisfa<^on upon the leading
found of the fecond foot, or the fourth fyliable of die verle.

To make mankind — in coaftious virme bold.

We can alio make a divifion at the fixth fyliable, as in this caft
we have dill one pair, with its introduAory founds remaining*

Of that forbidden tree — wKofe mortal tafte \.

Sometimes too the words are fo arranged, that the divifion muft
neceflarily take place ttt the fifth fyliable or feeble fomid of t^e
fecond foot. This divifion gives a paufe more real, and more
diftindly felt, dian thofe formerly mentioned. As we muft be-
gin

* This verfe is a combinatioD of five times, more in appearaDce than in reality; When
k is well conftrudled, it will (eldom fail to give the perfon who pronounces it the difpofi-
tion and opportunity, by means of refts, of completing fix, fi^metimes perhap eight
times.

\ WniH, by means of refts at the ctole, the time of fix feet is completed in pro-
nunciation, this break divides the whole time into two threes.

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6n RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 79

pA the fecond member with a ftrong found, and are partly de-
prived of the affiftance in forming it, which we would have
derived from the preceding feeble found, we require a little
more time to make the exertion which is neceflary for that pur-
pofe. This diviiioa alio changes, in fome degree, the character
of the verie, the laft member becoming proper trochaic. It
may Sometimes, however, be ufed with a very happy effedl.
There feems to be an inftance of this in the firfl line of PoF£*s
Eflay on Man.

A I wake, my | St John. | •--* Leave all [ meaner | things,

Here the grammatical paufe, coinciding with the rythmical dt-
vifion, gives fuf&cient time to form the accented foimd with
which the Second member begins; and that member being
trochaic, is very well fuited to exprefs the intention^of the poet,
which 18 to rouie. The fame divifion occurs in the iecond
line ; but the eflleft of it is fomewhat different.

To low ambition — and the pride of kings.

In reciting this line, we are unwilling to give an accent to the
conjundlive particle and. To avoid this, therefore, we are dif*
pofed to confider botfh that word, and the article which follows
it, as feeble founds, introdu<^<Mry to the next ftrong fomid, and
to fiH up the time of i^e accented pare of that third meafure
by a filence or reft.

To I low amfbition — | f and die i| pride of | kingSi

In diis way, the reciter, hurrying ovei? thefe two comparatively
unimportant words, almoft in the time of one feeble fyllable^
m naturally led to express the word pridt with confiderable force
or emphafis^ a circumftance which &em«, in this place, to fa-
vour

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fio On RTTHMICAL MEASURES.

vour the defign of the poet. Verfes of this form occur fre-
quently in the works of this author.

• The ftru6lure of the Englilh heroic verfe, and the uneven
number of feet of which it is compofed, effedlually fecures it
againfl the danger, or even the pof&bility of its being divided
into two parts which are equal, and at the fame time fimilar
and convertible. When the break takes place at an accented or
ilrong fyllable, the two members are neceiTarily unequal. When,
again, as in the two lines lafl quoted, the divifion happens at
the fifth fyllable, the two members, though they may be equal
in time, are neceiTarily different in cadence, as the firfl begins
and ends with a feeble found, and the fecond regularly begins
•and ends with a ftrong found. This feems to give to the Englifh
verfe of this form a confiderable advantage over the common
French verfe of fix feet, which uniformly divides into equal
and fimilar hemifticks.

These breaks or divifions in verfes have perhaps been im-
properly termed paufes. In many cafes, the paufe is more ima-
ginary than real. I have formerly obferved, that we have al-
ways, in a greater or lefs degree, the impreflion of a paufe be-
twixt every parcel of equal times which wc form. When we
hear a minuet, or any piece of mufic, which is conftrudled ac-
cording to regular rythm, we have the imprefiion of a paufe at
the end of every bar > we have the fame imprefilon more
flrongly at the end of every phrafe ; and yet we are certain, that,
at many of thofe pafTages, no real paufe is made. It frequently
happens, that the proper break or rythmical divifion of a verfe
takes place at one part of it, when the reft, the grammatical
ftop, or the paufe of fuipenfion, occurs at another part of it.

And I leaves the | world — to | darknefs | f and to | me.

In this line, the rythmical divifion takes place at the fourth
fyllable, where little or no real paufe is neceflTary. From what

was

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was ^il>ove obiervedy inwe^rer^ upon ^e ftru^uFeof the fecond
lili^iC^ Pope's '£0ay on :MAn,:t)Mcre*mu(t be a /enfible i^eft or
filence betwii^t the fevcBth and eighth fyllahks. Accordingly,
this has commonly been conlidered^ and perhaps withjpropfietiyy
as Uie place ^f the paufe iji this Une. It k probable, , however,
that ^e cadence of dieverfe would not have been -fo agreeable
and fatisfadlory, if the regular rythmical ^ivifion h^ ^not qc-
curred at the fourth fyllable.

.Soi^ additional obfervaticnas upon rythmical tmeafures,v9^d
upon. the ftrudture of ancient and modern ^eiffes, . fhall be -re-
lented &o the fecii^nd ^part of (his jEi&y.

PART IL

IN the former part of this EfTay, I <eQde&^Foured «o eftablHh
the general foundations of rythm,iand to explain the nature
and the extent of thofe powers, by which we perceive the pro-
portional magnitudes of fmall intervals of time, when thefe are
made obvious to the ienfes by motion or by fuccefTive founds^
The cafe of founds being that which is mod interefting, I di«-
red^ my attention chiefly to it. Rythm in ibund I <iiftin*
guiihed into three kinds, mufical, poetical and profaic; and
made fbme obiervations upon the two firft of thefe. I propofe,
in this part, to ofier a few obTervadons relative to the fame fub«
jedls, which may tend to throw £bme further light upon them.
In thefe obfervations, I fhall have the following objedts chiefly
in view: To explain that flrudure or arrangement <BfmeafuFed
fou&ds, whioh may be faid to give a regular and perfedl rythm ;
to mark the gradual deviations from that regular .ftnKShire,
which appear in thofe produdions of himian genius which are
Vol. IL L intended

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82 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

intended to pleafe, and of vrhich the agreeable efied depends,
in any degree, upon rythm j and, laftly, to apply the princi-
ples which may be delivered, to illuftrate^fome particulars in
the ftrudlure of verfes.

In entering upon the firft of thefe, it will be proper to reca-
pitulate fhortly the account which I formerly gave of what may
be called our rythmical powers.

From our conftitution, or from our habits, we have the
power of marking and perceiving equal intervals of dume, when
thofe intervals do not exceed a certain magnitude. When we
fix our attention upon one of thofe intervals, and coniider it as
an unit of time, we can fuppofe it to be divided into a certain
number of equal parts, and by motion we adually can make
fuch a diviiion. The number of parts into which we can thus
divide a given interval, mud neceffarily depend upon the powers
which we have of performing quick motions. It is, however,
regulated alfo by the preference which the mind naturally gives
to the (impler numbers. We divide with greateft eafe by two
and its powers. We can alfo, with fufficient eafe, divide by
three, nine, and the fmajler compounds of two and three. To
make an equable divifion into five is difficult, into feven is per-
haps impra<5licable, and into any of the higher primes is cer-
tainly fo. Again, when we hear *a number of equal intervals
of time diftin(5lly marked by fucceffive founds, we are always
difpofed to count them off by equal numbers, thus forming
them into fets or parcels. In doing this, as in making divifions,
we always prefer the fimpleft numbers. When, therefore,
there is nothing in the nature of the founds to determine our
choice, we ufually count off the intervals by p^rs, by fours
or by eights. We can alfo, with fufficient eafe, count them off
by threes and by fixes. As the firfl foimd of each parcel is
marked by a particular effort of the mind, and confidered by
it as reprefenting the whole parcel, it is conceived to be more
forcible than the other founds of that parcel, which, being lefs

attended

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On^RVrHMICAL MEASURES. 83

attended to by the mind, are conceived as feeble. As five is too
large a number to be comprehended by one individual adl of
the mind, we can only form parcels of that number, by count-
ing off two pairs, coniidering the fifth fingle found as feeble,
and fixing our attention upon the fixth, as the leading found of
the next pair j or by counting off twos and threes, or threes and
twos alternately. This infertion of the fingle time, at the end
of every two pairs, changes the order of the ftrong and feeble
founds, in every fucceeding parcel. Although this operation is
pradlicable, it is probably very feldom adually performed. The
frequent and fudden changes of the arrangement of ftrong and
feeble foimds, require an uneafy effort of attention in the per-
former, and give an unpleafing furprife and difappointment to
the hearer. Both, feel a ftrong defire to have the number of fix
times completed, either by a lengthened found, or by a filence.
Laftly, we have the farther power and difpofition to join toge-
ther two, three or four of our firft parcels, thus forming larger
combinations.

Bv means then of the powers now defcribed, we are enabled
to exprefs a fiiccefilion of founds whole durations may be very
different, but may, at the fame time, be moft accurately related
to one another, according to certain proportions. We are alfo
enabled, upon hearing fuch a fuccefiion of founds, with readi-
nefs and ea(e, to feel the proportional duration of each, provi-
ded the fimple proportions above mentioned be conftantly ob-
ferved. In order to this, we firft of all fix our attention upon
ibme determined duration, which may be fomething near to
the intervals obferved in walking, or in fome other of the uni«
form motions with which we are familiar. Thi^ duration we
confider as an unit of time. Having eftablifiied this, we can
exprefs any number of them with great uniformity ; we can
divide fome of them as we go along into parts, or combine two
or more of them into lengthened founds. By habit, we can
take our unit^ at dififerent times, greater or fmaller^ we can

L 2 make

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84 On RYTBMIGAL MEjfSURES.

make larger combinations, and more minute and divcrfified dJ^
viGons. We go throngh a- fimilar procefs, when we liften ta
fiich a fuccefCon of foundB, and' perceive their proportional du-
rations. As the exercife of every power, which we poflcfs,
conveys a certain degree of pleafure, we obtain a gratificationj.
when we hear a fucceflion of founds juftly proportioned' in du-
ration to one another, and are able, at the fame time, to go
along with, or to feel the fevefal proportion* which they bear.
This then is undoubtedly one foundation* df the fatisfaiftiort .
which we derive from every kind of rythm. Ft cscn Seiio juft
objedlion to thisr, that we frequently are not conlbiouff, upotl
hearing a fucceflion of rythmical fbuntik, of perceiving' the* va-
rious proportions which they bear to one another. Oiir being
pleafed with the proportions; our acquiefcibg in- them; is' tf (ure
indication that we feel diem. If the tlnlt were variocf, or if di-
vifions were attempted, to which we have-not beeit accuftomed^,
and with which we cannot go along, we^ fhould inftantly fed
the difference. Our pleafure would be fenfibly diminifhed' or
altogether deftroyed;

To fortnthen a-regul&r and agrcfcablir ry^tri, it i^ neeeflJiry
that all the units^ in fUcceflion* Be equal idterVal^ of tirtle, and
that their divifionsbe fiiicrple atid^ obvioute This; However, is
not all. r have altieady- obicrved, tHit wheti' we Hear iucti a
ilicceflion of ixltervals, iVe arc alWay^>difpoled' to form them in-
tb equal' parcels. A^; however, there frertis^ ttt boi nothing t&
lead us to count off tllefe parcels by any one number in pre-
ference to ailotHcr, and as^ we can: do* it by a few of the findlfer
andiimplet numbers with dmotfequ&reaft, We liaiturdiy wi(H
to have foniethittg that may determine our choice. If we are
ilot led' eafily *id readily to one particular number, or if, after
We have fisred^upon a liumber, We find' ourfelves^ obliged to give
it up, and' to adopt ariotlier number, we are uneafy aind dllTatis^
fled. For this reafon; a- rythm that may be perfeAly agreeable
and fadsfa^Vory; mull be conftrufted- according to fbme Aeir

fiirei

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On RYTHMICAL M HJ^S^XTRE S. Vs

fore ;! die whole fucceifion muft be made up of parcelrcff fbme
determined numbefF oP units, and muft be fo contrived' a^ that
Ae heaiter may be inftbntly led* to adopt thar number,, and re-
tain it to the etid of the fucceffion. This may be efiedled by
t^ous means. If, for inft!ance, we wilh that die hearer
fhould count off the equal- times^ by parcek of four, we may
firft' exprefs four diftindt and undivided unit^, ahd^ afterwards
et^r^four in fome way combined or divided*! By this
means^ the hearer will naturally be led; after having reckoned
ft>ur units^, to'ftop and- begin a new parcel. He will be ftill
more confirmed iri tfiis arrangement; if we make oup third par-
ed fimilar to the firft, and^ our fourth fimilar to the fecond f .
Wie may obtain the fame end, by exprefling three diftindl' un-
dUvided* units, and' refting^ cfuring the time of the fourth, and
flirll motte* cerminly by doing* the ikme^ thing over again. In
like manner parcels of other numbers may be fuggeftedi Va^
lAeub* other cbntrivanccs'for indicating the meafure, will readily
occur- tb evei^ one who acttendi to the works of muficiansk The
twuw^tf* fimiltfT founds, send' of fenilkr combinations and*di-
^fitms^ aftiw^ atty number of units has been exprefled', naturally
fti€«<tk« stttfentlon- of the hearer to that number, and determines
MttPtd' adt)ipe ie, for counting* off fiicceeding. parcels ; and* if
oaffe^bd^ tokens no!^ to confound him, by bringing in fuch returnsr
aediilMscit parts' of the parcel, by continuing founds from the
end 0^ daepAi^d^ CD' the beginning' of' the next, or by making
miiKitC and> perplexed^ dlvifionsv h^ will hold" by that number to
tfieeod o^ tbe^ piece;.

W* namvdlly wifh, when Rearing a fucceffion of meafured^
ibunds> not only to form themi into parcels, but alio toj'oin
tMKS^r three or four of thofe- parcels together, thus forming

larger

* Firft movement of the fixth periodic^l^ovtrturo^ p«blfiiedtb)r Rl B&tttfiMLk-
^ SjaBpfatmy to the firfirecitatWc in Handel's Mx8$i ah.

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86 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

larger combinations or drains. We may be aflifted in doing
this, and determined to a particular number, by the fame
means by which we are affifted and determined in forming the
fingle parcels, chiefly by paufe?, and by the return of iimilar
founds, or of flmilar combinations and diviflons. By being
led to form fuch aggregates, the pleafure we derive from liften-
ing to the fucceflion is greatly increafed. We are thxis provided
with certain (lages or refting-places, and are enabled to count
off the parcels with more fteadinefs, and with a fmaller effort of
the attention. Our fatisfadtion is ftill farther enhanced, when
the Entire piece confifts of fome Ample and agreeable number
of fuch aggregates. We have then the impreifion of a whole,
of fomething filniflied and complete ; and have a lively percep-
tion of that proportion and arrangement of parts^ which is
cffential to every thing that can be accounted beautiful or
pleaiing.

We may now be able to form fome precife idea of what may
be called a regular and perfedt rythm. It is a fucceflion of
meafured founds, all of which are either equal to, or are certain
multiples or certain parts of £bme determined portion of time,
which may be called an unit, and are fo arranged and difpofed
that the hearer is eaflly led to count off thofe units by equal
parcels of fome Ample number, and alfo to combine two, three
or four of thofe parcels together, the whole fucceflion contain-
ing a fmall determined number of thofe larger aggregates* It
is in this manner, that all thofe pieces of mufic, which are com-
monly called airs^ are conftrudled. The regular minuet confifls
of two parts or complete ftrains, the units are conftandy formed
into parcels of three, and each part contains eight of thofe par-
cels or bars, which the hearer is difpofed to combine into aggre-
gates of two or four. The regular march and gavot are qon-
flruded in the fame manner, only the bars or firft parcels con-
fift of four units in place of three.

Having

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On. RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 87

Having eftablifhed this ftrudure as the ftandard of regular
and perfe<a rythm, I proceed to mark the gradual deviations
from it that appear in thofe produdlions of human genius
which are intended to pleafe, and of which the agreeable effeft
depends in any degree upon rythm. The artifts who have
been employed in fuch productions, feem to have had two ob-
jeiSls chiefly in view in occafionally departing from this regular
ftrudlure, namely, to introduce variety into their works, and
to render them more expreflive of certain feelings and emotions
of the mind. I can only at this time conflder the filrft of
thefe.

In all thofe works which are addrefTed to the fancy, that
which is mod Ample and mod eafily conceived, is always that
which flrft of all engages the attention and communicates plea-
fure. While our powers of perception arc yet in their infancy,
it is impoflible that we can go along with what is various and
c&mplicated. Nothing but what is di{lin<£lly feh can commu-
nicate real pleafure. We may perhaps not always be able to
analyze our feeling, and may therefore fay that we are pleafe^
we know not why. When it is analyzed, however, it will be
generally found to have been a diftindl feeling, or ia other
words, the objeds which excited it will be found to have been
commeniurate to our powers of perception. As we feem to de-
rive our firft ideas of fmall equal intervals of time, from the
uniform motion of our own limbs, or of thofe of other animab
in walking, we probably from the fame fource acquire the ha-
bit of counting off fuch intervals by pairs. When, from any*
circumflance, the firft of each alternate pair is made particu-
larly to attract the attention, we are then difpofed to join two
pairs together, to form parcels of four, or to confider each four
as fomething feparate and diftindl from what went before and
what is to come after. We may, in the fame manner, be led
to join two or four of thefe parcels together, in order to obtain-
what we may account a whole. Gradually we are enabled to

conceive

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»8 On J^,rXMM^PC4l M^4SU'JtJZ&.

conccWeia l2neleuMe^vBlsto«be iM^lMfd, and'^Ch half to bcjagfiin
fubdivukd in the (afne- proportion. We thus obtain the fpsin*
dff»6, dadylns aflbd.doublie'p^FFridhius. It would ap|>ear, dieni
that fomeehingof the nature of the -march or :ga;vot rmcafiiee
above deicribed, .gives the/inoft fimpk and oafyTythmi enddb
that -which would probably .firfl of all ftrike rand ^^leaSfe die :hn*
man mind. Dr Burn&y, in his.acconnt of .CRo.Tx:ii., tfa^ mu-
iical child, publiihed in /the Philoibphical Tranfa^ions, venii^rb
of him, that, when he plays from .his ovv^n fancy, wihat ryHim
he dbferves is generally of the march kind, ^proceeding Qhie%
by the dadlylus and fpondaeus. The firft verfes of the ancisnts
were probably formed .of the fame meafures.

As •mens :powefs tii .perception impcove, .^y naturally wilh
for ob^iSl^ fuitcd to 'them. That which is .mofl: fimfde, /and
wa6:atitril>moft ^g^eabk, gradually. Iq^ its chiurm j they wtfh
for fomething that-may ^ive more employment to their :pew«r8.
They could not, 'therefore, be;akmys.con6ned'to the umfwm
vnoyement by pairs and doable rpairs, 'hut would endeavour in
fome way to idiwetfify.it. ^Their firft cnnerivance. for this 'pur-
pofe might poilibly be, to depart occafionally from the oriiginal
arrangement of two, four, eight, .byithrowiqg in an ladditiedoial
pair to their two, or two additional pairs to their four, thus
making combinations of three or of £x paics. The dadlylus
and fpondasus at the. end of the commmi hexameter verfe, may
thu«: poilibly have been on addition to the veries of four feeti
which had formerly been v^d, and might then have been con-
fidered as an improvement. Aft^r combinations of three :paic8
had become familiar, it was an eafy ftep from that to arrange
by parcels of three units ; -and thus the fimple triple time was
obtained. This, though dill farther removed from the omginal
meafure, became probably on that account the more ^leafing*
It gave more exercife to the rythmical powers ; at the (ame
time, it did net £fitigue them. It was free from the ielemnity
and uniforxxuty of regular pairs. The mi^nuetiaccordi^gly^ever

has

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On RTTHMICAL MEASURES. 89

has been, and is at this day accounted the moft elegant and
pleafing movement in mafic. This meafiire is almoft entirely
confined to mufic. There is fcarcely an indance of verfes,
which are conftrudled exadlly according to it, unlefs perhaps the-
Ionian verfe of the ancients, a verfe which does not often occur
in their works, and which, from the heavy uniformity of its
movement, is by no means pleafing*. From parcelling by
threes, it was an eafy tranfition to divide the unit by the fame
number. For this, nothing more was required, than gradually
to diminifh the unit, and to take the parcels of three by pairs :
each parcel would come at lad to b^ confidered as a (ingle unit
divided. They would thus form the tribrachys, trochaeus and
iambus, according as they exprefTed each of the three parts fe-
parately, or joined any two of them together. In this way
would be obtained the gig meafure in mufic, and the trochaic
and iambic verfes in poetry f . Such parcels and divifions by
three would probably at firfl be formed into drains or larger
combinations, by twos and fours ; and this is (lill the moft
ufual arrangement. In procefs of time, however, they would
alfo be formed by threes and fixes. Thus the trimeter or fe-
narian iambic verfe might be derived from the dimeter, or verfe
of four fingle feet.

So long as the bars or firft parcels, whether of pairs or
threes, are equal, the larger combinations uniformly contain the
fame number of bars, and thefe laft are reftridled to fbme fim-
pie and obvious number, the rythm may be confidered as re«
gular. The moft gentle deviation from this ftrudure, if in
truth it can be called fuch, is extending the entire piece beyond

Vol. II. M the

* Tnias is ocXj one ode of Ho&acb in diii meafiirey viz. Book III. Ode 12. The
f7thiii feems to go on to the end, without any (enfible break or doie.

f Tbi tribrachjSy or gig meafure^ maj poffiblj have been fuggefled immediatelj from
die found of a horie'i feet, when running at full ipeed.

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90 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

the limita above aiCgned. The modern: muficiaas frequentFjr
compofe pieces of confiderabk lengthy and confiftmg of a num-
ber of bars too great for the mind to keep an exa6l regi()»r or
account of them. This enables theih to take a wider range of
melody and modulation, than they could do if their pieces were
confined within the limits of ftiort regular air, and to prolong*
and diverlify the pleafure of due hearer. I£ in fuch extended
pieces, however, the bars uniformly af&mble into equal groups
or combinations, and if the whole piece, and each larger divi--
iion of it, contain an even number of fuch combinations, the-
hearer has flill the impreflion of a jufUy proportioned whole ;
and even within diis limitation a very copious variety may be^
obtained. Men, however, could not always beur this C(»fine-^
ment. In proportion as rythmical meafures* become more an
objedl of attention, and are more frequently preftnted^ to the
ear, the neceflSty of variety becomes the greater; The moft
agreeable meafures, when too often repeated, become difgufb-
ing. We are often pleafqd with a bold, deviation from what is*
flri<5Uy r^egular. The very furprife which it caiofes is agreeable^
k feems to have been ii> part from diis principle, that the com-
pofers of mufic have occafionally departed from die iregular
ftruiflure of rythm.

The lead offenfive- d«viati<9n, which can be made from that
flrudure, is the departing at times from the uniform equality of
the (Irains or larger combinations It i&efTendal to the minuet
that the bars cotiftantly proceed by pairs* In. the regular mi-
nuet, there, is always a more idlitini5l cadence at the end of every
fecohd pair. By this meansi, the hearer is Jed to join »twb paira
together, or to make combinations of four bars. . This arrange-
ment is neceflary to render the rythm of the mufic ftriftly con-
formable to the movement of the dance, which it is intended to
regulate; The whole piece commonly contains four of thofe
larger combinations, two of which go to the firft part or com-
plete drain, and two to the fecjond. la order, howev^ to give

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Oh rythmical MEASURES. 91

more variety and extent to the compofition, a part may be made
to confiit of three, four or fix of thofe combinations ; or, by
occafionally adding two bars, combinations of fix may be form-
ed. All this may be done, without loiing the diftinguifhing
chara<5leri(lic of the minuet. But if either the rythm is fo
contrived, or the mufical cadences are fo placed, as at any time
to form combinations of three (h* of five bars, the piece then
ceafes to be a minuet. It may, however^ notwithftanding this,
be a pleafing compofition. The modern muficians, efpecially
thofe of the German fchool, often fubjoin to the minuets d£
their inilrumental pieces, airs of the fame time and meafure,
which they fometimes call fecond minuets, but more frequently
trios. In compofing thefe trios, they fometimes take an oppor*
tunity of difplaying their learning and invention, and of fearch*
ing for novelty, without confidering themfi^lves as under obli*
gation to adhere to the elegant fimpUcity of ftyle, or the r^ular
rythmical ftrudture of the minuet. By this means, the hearer
is for a while very agreeably entertained, and the beauty and
peculiar qualities of the minuet, which is always repeated after
the trio, are rendered more ftriking. In thefe airs, combina-
liohs of three bars are frequently to be found *• As, however,
two of thefe combinations often occur in fucceffion, and the other
parts of the piece proceed commonly by pairs, the number of
bars in the complete flrain or air is in moft cafes even, or divifi-
ble by two.

In pieces of confiderable extent, fuch licences, when ufed
with moderation, frequently pafs without being greatly ob-
(erved. They may even at times produce a very happy efledt
They ferve .to roufe the attention of the hearer, which is apt to
flag in a long piece, when the rythm uniformly proceeds by
equal combinations ^ and they often give a more emphatic in«

M 2 trodu(5lion,

* Trio of firft minuet in third quaitetto of Hatdn, firft iet. Trio of fecond minuet
in (econd quartetta of the Ikmc author^ (econd let.

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92 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

trodu(5lion, or a more ftriking and diftindt clofe, to fome re-
tnarkable drain. In fuch pieces, the bars very frequently pro-
ceed by paira. It is no unufiial thing, however, for the com-
pofer, in the courfe of the piece, to invert the order of the
pairs, or to conftni<5l the mufic in fuch a manner, as to lead the
hearer occafionally to confider thofe bars as the firft or leading
bars of a pair, which, from the place in which they (land in
the piece, ought to be accounted the fecond or fqllowing. This
is done in various ways. When a drain, for inftance, happens
to clofe upon the beginning of an odd bar, in place of com*
pleting the time of the even bar which ihould follow it, by
found or filence, that drain is either immediately repeated, or a
new drain is introduced^. When, again, a drain concludes,
upon the fird of an even bar, the key-note, or one of its har-
monics, with which that bar begins, is fometimes made the
commencement of a new drain, and of courfe to dand as the
leading bar of the next pair f. This is very often pra£tifed by
the compofers of indrumental fymphonies, when it is intended
by them, that the padage thus brought in fhould be fenfibly
different in loudnefs or in dyle from what went before. A bold
and animated drain efpecially, in which alL the indruments join
and exert their whole power, is thought to produce a greater
effedt, when it is introduced in this fudden and abrupt maniier;
The arrangement of the pairs is alfo fometimes inverted, by
the repetition of a bar in the middle of a drain. Such repeti-
tions feem, upon fome occafions, to give the appearance of
greater budl« and confuiion to mufic that is impetuous and
rapid:):. Ladly, the fird bar of a movement, or of fome parti^-

cular

* Eleventh periodical overture, laft movement, at the thirtj-firff bar.

t Tbb feme movement at the forty-feventh bar, where the original arrangement of the-
pairs is reftored.

% Tbird quartetto by Hatdn, firft iet, laft movement, at the ijlh bar of the ficft
part, and the 29th bar of the (econd part»

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On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 95

cular drain io the progrefs of it, is fometimed occupied by the
key-note, (truck with* emphafis^ and followed by one or more
feeble notes , introductory to the next meafure. This fir ft bar
being as it were fet afide, or confidered as ftanding by itfelf,
the mufic afterwards proceeds by regular pairs^ commencing
at the fecond bar *. When inverfions occur at the end of three
or of . five bars, diftinft combinations of thefe numbers are
formed f . Such fmaller uneven combinations are very often
repeated, and thus the original arrangement is reftored. In
other cafes too, when by any means the firft arrangement of the
pairs or double bars has been inverted, it is frequently reftored
either by the fame or by fome other means. Sometimes, how-
ever, the altered arrangement continues to the end of the piece,
and the number of bars in it becomes thereby uneven. As
pleafure is often heightened by variety and contraft, fuch occa*
fional interruptions of uniform movement give an additional
relifh to the regularity that is ob&rved in other parts of the
compofition. Their effedl is fomewhat analogous to that of
difcords in the harmonical ftruAure of mufic«

The licences with refpe(5t to the combinations of the bar^^
which have been mentioned abov^, though they feldom fail-
to ftrike a perfon who has a good ear, do not prevent the rythnx
from being diflindt and pleafing. In fome mufical compofi*-
tions, however, fuch licences are carried to a greater extent.
The combinations are fometimes So various and obfcure, that
the hearer can fcarcely retain the imprefilon of them» This v^
often the cafe in the longer and more grave and folemn pieces
of what is now,, by way of diftindtion, called the ancient mu*

fie,.

*Ft&sT quartetto of the fame fet, \^ tAovemenl^ ^st the beginning, and firft movement,
at the 23d bar of the firft part, and correfponding paiTage of the iecond part.

f Tbc firft quartetto of Haydn's fecond fet begins with two combinations of three
bars, after which the mufic proceeds in general hj pairs.' The fecond part of the laft^
movement of the firft of fix overtures b^ th« Earl of Kkllt, begins with two fiicoeffivir
combmations of five bars.^

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^4 On RYTHMtCAL MZJSITRES.

fie, and particularly in that fpecies of it, which is known by
the name of the fugue. This had its rife at the time when the
<:hief profeflbrs Stnd improvers of the mu&cal art were church-
men, and when, of courfe, that Idnd of mufic was chiefly cul-
tivated, which was thought to be bell calculated to compoie
and elevate the mind, and to infpire devotion. A fimple, regu-
lar and diftindl rythm was probably thought by them to give
the mufic a light and airy call, inconfiftent with the efiedt
which they wilhed to produce. They either made the move-
ment flow and the notes equal, in which cafe the attention of
the hearer was almoft wholly direcfled to the tone and modula-
tion; or if, in their inflrumentai mufic, they introduced a
quicker and more varied movement, they fludioufly avoided
every thing, which might have the appearance of regular air.
The fugue feems to be well calculated to anfwer this intention.
It is executed by two, three or mote voices or infttumeAttf in
concert. All of them in fucceffion are made to found fome
ihort fimple melody, which is called the fubjed. This is fre-
quently repeated or imitated by them, in a variety of different
keys, the repetitions coming in at unequal intervals, and often
in the middle of a bar. As the compofition of the fugue was
thought to be a great difplay of art and (kill, it was afterwards
introduced into every kind of inftrumental mufic, and was
gradually rendered more complicated. As the rythmical com-
binations are often irregular and ihdiftin^Hy marked, and the
harmonical parts are frequently running (ioUnter to one another,
it requires great attention to perform it with ptecifion and ac-
curacy, and of all mufic it gives leafl pleafure to one who has
«ot been accuflomed to it. The tafte for this kind of mufic has
been for fome time declining, and it is now moflly confined to
the church.

Almost every degree of irregularity, then, in the combina-
tions of the bars may be occafionally tolerated. This, how-
ever, is by no means the cafe with the bars thcm&lvcs^ or the

Angle

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On RTtHMICJL MEASURES. 9f

£agle pareels. Any meqioality amoag tbAta ia more ftnGhlj
felt, and when improperly introduced, never fails to hurt and
difpleale. Such inequaJixaes may be made, either by increafing
or dtminiiiyAg th^ moitf thus making the xxu^vefOient quidcer oi*
ilower^ or by. varying the mi^atrure, or die number, according
to which, the bars abre lbrmed« In a long piece of muiic, a con-
fiderable variety, faioch of movement and of meafuce^ may be
kxtroduoed. Chax^geis, howetver, are feldom made, until the
movement has g^oae-bri. for fome time, in one imifor^m move^
meat and aneafiire, and; has f been brought to a clofe more, or
lefs complete^ Such changes^, when (kilfully managed,^ enliv^esn
the muHc, furprife the hearer, and excite his attention. When-,
however, they occur very often, and at fmall intervals, they
never fail to perplex and confoundw The hearer is kept in a
ftate of continual fufpen£e and uncertainty, and therefo]:e can^
not liften with fatisfa<5liQn«' The French muficians, rather per-
haps in confequence of fome fanciful theories, than from the
fiiggeftions of good tafte^ or the experience of agreeable efledV,
have fometimes introduced frequent and fudden changes of
movement and meafure into their pieces. Their example, hjow-
ever, has not been nxuch followed. How often, or at how
finall intervii^ls, changes of meafure may be introduced into a
mufical compdition, is a matter that is difficult to determine*
It mull depend a good deal upon the tafte of men, and upon:
the habits which they may have formed* There is certainly,
however, fome Umit, within which fuch changes cannot be
made, without giving more uneafinefs than fatisfadlion to the
hearer; We inay bear jto be« infooii^ degree, offended a certain
number of times^ whehifuch offence has die.effeA to fiimulate
and furprife^ and» when it is v quickly tjompenfated by fome
jftriking beauty ; but if the experiment is too often repeated^
the end propofed will be defeated. The piece will become
a motely. aflemblage o^ dif&milar and uncouiieiSled parts, and

wilf

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96 On RTTHMICAL MEASURES.

vriW communicate no fendment but that of ridicule or of
difguft.

To change the meafure or the number of equal times in a
bar, in the courfe of a ihort drain or rythmical claufe, has, fo
far as i know, never been attempted by a modem muiician,
and probably would not be tolerated* And yet, if we are to
believe the accounts, which have been tranimitted to us by an-
cient authors, this , practice was not unfirequent amongft the
muiicians of Greece. The veries, to which they adapted muiic,
were often compofed of unequal &et, fuch as trochees and
fpondees, which they refpedtively confidered as meafures of
three and of four equal times, and thefe occurring fometimes
alternately ; and we ar« told that the mufic rigidly obferved the
meafure of the verfes. If this was indeed the cafe, it is a fin-
gular fadl in the hiflory of mufic, to which perhaps no parallel
has been found. After the many clear and exprefs teflimonies
to the truth of that fadt, which have been given by enlighten-
ed authors, who were natives of the country, and who may
be fuppofed to have been well acquainted with, and to have had
frequent opportunities of hearing that mufic, it may appear
highly prefumptuous to exprefs the fmalkfl doubt with regard
to it. There are, however, fome confiderations which flrongly
incline me to indulge at leafl fome degree of fceptidfm, and to
fuppofe that nature, perhaps without their confcioufhefs, might
at times prevail over fyftrai.

I FORMERLY obfcrvcd, that to count off alternate parcels of
two and of three equal times, and thereby to form aggregates
of five, is by no means impraAicable ; but that it requires an
uneafy effort of the attention, and that both the performer and
the hearer feel a flrong defire to have the even number of fix
times completed, either by a lengthened foimd, or by a filence.
I may here add, that neither is it impracticable to form alter-
nate parcels of three and of four times, but that, as the num-
ber feven, the aggregate of thefe, is lefs agreeable and fatis-

fadory,

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On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 97

faftory, and lefs eafily comprehended than five, and as it is
nearer in proportion to eight than five is to fix ; the defire of
completing, by fome means or other, the number of eight
dmes will be dill ftronger, and will not be refitted without a
great and conftant efifort of the attention, and even fome degree
of force and conftraint. The difficulty will be much increafed,
if the unequal m^fures do not occur periodically in regular
fucceflion, but are varioufly introduced in the courfe of different
(trains, without any fixed or permanent rule. In order that
luch unequal meafures may be expreffed with accuracy, it feems
neceflary, that the equal times of which they are compofed,
fiiould be of filch dimenfion as that they may be counted fin-
gk« If they are too minute to be fb counted, it will probably
be impoflible for the performer to mark with certainty, or for
the hearer to perceive diftindlly, the proportion which fubfifts
betwixt the contiguous unequal bars ; as there is no common
meafure or ftandard to which they may be referred, or by which
they may be adjufted. It feems neceflary, moreover, not only
that the beginning of every meafure Ihould be diftindly mark-
ed, but alfo that every fingle interval of time fhould be render-
ed obvious, either to the eye or to the ear of the performer. Un-
lefs ibme fuch affiftance is given to him, there is reafon to ap*
prehend, that he will not always execute the different bars ac-
cording to their prefcribed meafures. We are told, that this
was done in the performance of the choral mufic of the ancient
Greeks. The coryphaeus, placed in a confpicuous ttation,
marked the arfis and thefis of the fucceflive feet, while others
(b*uck with their hands, or with the points of their fingers
armed with fome hard body, each fingle time of which they
were compofed. If thefe fingle intervals were ftruck with per-
fed uniformity^ and were regularly diftributed among the dif-
ferent feet, according to their refpedlive meafures, we cannot
avoid acknowledging, that, on many occafions, they did truly
and accurately exprefs contiguous unequal parcels of rythmical
Vol. !!• N times.

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98 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

times. We can only fay, that they were at much padnt to coux^
teradl a ftrong propeniity of nature, in order to attain an objedi
the agreeable or happy effect of which we cannot now fb much
as conceive. But it may be afked^ how are we certain that theftf
fingle times were always (Iruck in exa<5t uniformity, or that the
intervals marked by the ftrokes were in every cafe equal ? It
will pofHbly be anfwered, that there was fufficient iecurity for
this, in the ftrong natural propenfity which all men feel to ex^
prefs fuch fmall times equally and uniformly, when it is not
their profefied intention to do otherwife. But furely the natu«
ral propenfity to aflemble thefe times into equal parcels ia alfe
ftrong, perhaps, in fome cafes, ftronger than the other. When
thefe two propenfities, then^ are fet in oppofiition to one ano*
ther, it becomes a queftion which of them is moft likely to
prevail. We ate told, that, in the performance of the Greek
muiic, the propenfity to the equable expreffion of fingle times
prevailed, and that the parcels or aggregates of them were un^
equal. It is certainly, however, not unnatural to fuppoie, that
fometiiQes the other propenfity might preponderate, and that
fome inequality might be admitted amongft die ftnaller times^
which were marked by the crepitacuUy in order to bring the
feet or parcels more nearly to equality^ Theie times and mea*-
fures were not marked by machines, fb conftmdled that they
could never vary, nor by perfons who had no thought nor con-
cern, but to ftrike.with the hand or fingers at equal intervals of
time. The coryphseus, who regulated and conducted the per*
formance, muft be fuppofed to have been a mufician of diflin^
guifhed talents^ and the fmaller times were marked by per^
. formers, who were keenly engaged in the bu&iefs that wai
going forward, who probably founded every note of the mufic,
and articulated every fyllable of the verfe. It has always ap-
peared to me very wonderful and unaccountable, that the defiy
cate ears of the ingenious and enlightened Greeks fheuld not
only bear» but even be delighted, with what a modern cannot

hear

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Oh rythmical MEASURES. 99

hear without pain and difguft ; and I would very willingly fup-
pofe, that they made fome fuch accommodation as is hinted at
above in die performance of their mufic, and that their feet or
bars were fbmetimes unequal, more in theory than in pradlice.
When we confiider the rythmical conftitution of man, which,
being a part of his nature, muft be fundamentally the fame, in
all ages and amongft all nations ; when we confider that thefe
Greeks had a very lively feeling of the powers of rythm, and
that they were accuftomed to have equal meafures frequently
prefented to them in their moft popular compoiitions ; laftly,
when we confider, that they had no written charafters to repre-
(ent (bme of the proportions which may enter into the fimpleft
mufic, particularly that which is marked by the point in the
modern notation, and therefore could have no diflindl percep-
tion of thofe proportions, or rather might occafionally expreis
them, without being confcious of their doing fo ; it does not
feem impoffible, or even improbable, that their pradtice upon
many occafions was not conformable to their theory, and that
they might actually exprefs as equal thofe meafures, which, ac-
cording to rule and fyftem, were unequal. After all, it is im-
poffible to fay, how far the power of habit may operate upon
men in this as well as in every thing elfe. It muft be acknow-
ledged, that there are various circumflances in the mufical fyftem
of the ancients, befides the one that we have been now treating
of, which we muft be fatisfied with contemplating and admir-
ing at a diftance, without hoping fully to underftand them, or
daring to imitate them.

To conclude this part of the fubjedl, the laft deviation that
can be made from regular rythm, is varying the length of the
unit or fingle time in the fame bar. This has never been at-
tempted in written mufic, and can hardly be done without al-
moft entirely dellroying every impreflion of rythm or mea-
(ured founds.

N 2 The

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loo On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

The regular ftruAure of rythm, and the progreffivc devia-
tions from that ftrudlure, which I have above endeavoured t»
defcribe, have been chiefly confidered as taking place in mufic.
The fame things, however, to a certain extent, may be found
in poetry ; and many of the obiervations which have htta
made upon them may be exemplified from verfes, and may
ferve to illuftrate fome particulars in their ftruAure. A verfe
is an afTemblage of words, which are fb arranged, as that the
long and fhort, or the ilrong and feeble fyllables of which they
are compofed, may, by their fucceflion^ give a rythm, fuch as
I have defcribed, more or lefs regular. It mult, therefore, be
fo conftruded, as that the hearer may be led to form the equal
or nearly equal times, which are marked by the fyllables, into
certain parcels and combinations. The ancients feem in gene-
ral to have confidered the time of a (hort fyllable, as the unit
or firft element of the rythm of poetry. According to this fup-
pofition, the feet will become analogous to the bars or firft par-
cels in mufic, the verfe wiH be analogous to a combination or
llrain, and the (lanza, where it occurs, will reprefent the entire
piece, which being finilhed, the fame rythmical air, as it may
be called, is again repeated. The time in which a fhort fyllable
is expreUed in reciting veries, is often too finall to be regularly
counted and parcelled. If this is thought to be the ca£e, the
feet may be confidered as units, varioufly divided and articulated
by the different fyllables which enter into them^ ; the verfe will
then correfpond to a bar, and the ftanza to a combination^
Although, however, the time in which we utter a foot is fre-
quently not greater than what we are difpofed to confider as an
unit in mufic, yet, as it is always compofed of two or more
fxnaller intervals, and as we have frequent opportunities of
hearing it prolonged in finging, fo as to fill up the time of a bar
in mufic, we are hence rather more difpofed to confider the
foot as a fhort parcel or bar, than as a divided unit. The for-
mer

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On RrTHMICAL MEASURES. loi

mer analogy, therefore, will perhaps be the mod fimple and ob-
vious, and the mod eafily applied.

The meafure of a verfe, or the number, according to which
it is intended that the combinations (hould be formed, may be
eafily intimated to the reader, by writing them in feparate
lines. This contrivance, however, can be of no fervice to the
hearer. Some other means mud be nfed to dire<fl his attention
to the number propofed, or to make him (top and begin anew,
after that number of equal times has been exprefled. The very
name of verfe implies a return. I formerly mentioned three
different means by which this may be effected, namely, the re-
turn of fimilar combinations and diviiions of the times, or, in
other words, the return of iimilar arrangements of long and
ihort foiuds, the return of foimds fimilar in kind or in
quality, and paufes. All thefe means have been employed in
conftruAing verfes.

The return of fimilar iuccefCons of long and fhort fyllables
at equal intervals, naturally leads the hearer to account the times
which have been expreffed during one of thofe intervals, as one
parcel or combination. This fimilarity may either take place
through the whole line, or only in a particular part of it. In
the firft cafe, when each fingle cc»nbination is exadlly fimilar
throughout, or, in the language of the grammarians, when
every line contains .the fame number of feet difpofed in the
&me order, the return is abundantly clear aiud obvious, provided
the fucceffion of long and fhort, or of ftrong and feeble fylla-
bles in the meafure, be in any degree diverfified. We have an
example of this in the afclepiadasan verfes of the ancients.
Such meafures ieem to have been confidered by them as deficient
in variety, and proper only for fhort pieces. Horacb has
been very fparing of them. Of all his odes, there are only fix,
in which every line is fcanned by the fame feet taken in th^
fame order. When the cadence of the line, or the arrange-
ment of the fyllables, is fuch as to ftrike the hearer, or engage

hi^

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loa On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

his attention^ the frequent repetition of it, like the frequent re-
petition of a ihort mufical drain, can hardly fail to be in fome
degree irkfome and difgt^ing. The other caie, in which the
fimilaritj takes place only in a part of the line, is more con*
fiftent with variety. We have the moft diftindt impreflion of a
return, when the iimilarity occurs at the end of the line. Of
this we have a ftriking example in the common hexameter veHe
of the ancients. The dadylus and fpondaras, recurring regu-
larly at equal intervals, necelTarily leads the hearer to confider
thofe intervals as diftinA combinations of equal times, although
the fame feet be difpofed in the other parts of the meafure ia
every poflible way. The iambus recurring at the end of iam-
bic verfes, vdien diftindlly prc»ounced, will give fbme im-
preflion of a combination, when the rythm in the other parts
of the line is very irregular. Other inftances of the fame kind
will readily occur. Sometimes the moft ftriking (imilarity takes
place in the middle of the line. The datfiylus, in the middle
of the fapphic verfe, feems to have the chief effeft in forming
the return of that meafure.

When the return of the verfe, or the impreflion which Ac
hearer has of diftindt combinations, is to depend chiefly upon
fuch fimilarities, it is neceflary, that the cadence in that part (^
the line in which the fimilarity takes place, be marked, and eafily
diftinguifhable from that of the other parts, or that the verie
be made up of fome diverfity of feet. When lines run uni-
formly by the fame, or nearly the fame feet, as in trochaic and
iambic verfes, no fuch diftind recurrences can happen. In
this cafe, fome other means muft be uied to give the hearer the
impreflion of a ccmxbination. A very gentle hint will incline
a hearer to count off fuch feet by combinations of the fmaller
even numbers. For this, little more is neceffary than to write
them out in feparate lines. The tones of voice, with which a
perfon is difpofed to read lines of fuch even meafure, are often
fufficient to diredl the hearer to the number according to which

they

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tbef are formed^ Thia efie€l is m#Fe certainly obtsdned^ when
the verie is made to confift of an uneven number of fuch feet,
together with an additional fyllable o» caefura. As it is thus
deficiient of the even number by one fyllable, the reader is na-
turally difpofed Co fill up the time of that fyllable, either by
paufing at the end of the line, or by prolonging the lail or the
penult fyllable. In either way, he conveys to the hearer a very
diftin<£l imprei&on of the meafure. Such cataledic verfes, aa
they are called^ occur frequently in the works of the ancient
poets.

V£RS£s of the trochaic and iambic kind are often compofed
of fome uneven number of feeti without fuch additionalfylla*
ble. Our common Englifh verfe of ten fyllables is of this
form« In this cafe, there &ems to be no rythmical means of
giving the hearer an impreflion of the mcafure, but paufing a
little at the end of every line. Such uneven meafiires naturally
infer a paufc. If the reader, while reciting a line, catches the
idea of regular pairs, he will be difpofed, by refting at the end
of the line, to complete the lime of his laft pair. This, how-*
ever, is attended with inconveniencies. The hearer is made to
depend for his impreffion of the combination, chiefly upon the
accuracy of the reader. If the latter negledb to make the pro*
per paufes, the former may lofe this impreflion, and may be
equally difpofed to form combinations of any other number.
On the other hand, when there is no grammatical ' (lop .at the
end of the line, when a daufe of a fentence is continued from
one line to another, fbch pauies are ungraceful y the reader, if
lie is more attentive to the fentimem than to the rythm, always
makes diem with relui^ance. In fuch cafes too, to mark the
end of die line by a pardcular inflexion of the voice, is very
improper ; and it is difficult to obferve pauies without making
Ittch inflefdon.

These inconveniencies feem to fumiihobjei^ions to our Englifh
blank ver&, which is exa^y of the nature that 1 have been de-

feribing.

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I04 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

fcribing. This perhaps cannot with ftri<fl propriety be called
verfe ; it wants one of the efTential charadlers of verfe, a di-
(lincfl return. The feet indeed mark times, which may be cx-
prefTed as equal ; but there is no circumflance in the rythm to
lead the hearer to form thefe times into combinations of any
one number in preference to another, befides the mere artifice
of writing the intended combinations in feparate lines. It is
impoflible to read it, fb as to maintain in the hearer the impref-
fion of the combination, without often doing violence to the
fenfe, by feparating words which ought to be united. One
may be eafily fatis»fied of this^ by reciting the firft fentence of
Milton's Paradife Loft, in which almoft every line terminates
in the middle of a claufe. In reading fiich pafTages, the paufes
muft often be omitted, and the meafure facrificed to the fenfe.
This verfe, however, if it may be called fuch, has been thought
to be of all others the moft proper for poems of confiderable
extent, upon fubje(£ls that are great and dignified : The feeming
imperfedlions, which have been ftated above, are perhaps the
circumftances which contribute to render it fo. The alternate
fuccefCon of long and (hort, or of ftrong and feeble fyllables,
which generally takes place, gives a fmoothnefs and a regular
flow to the language, which fufficiently diftinguifhes it from
profe, while, at the fame time, it does not folicit the attention
fo ftrongly, as to render frequent repetition difguftful ; and the
deviations which are occafionally made from that arrangement,
give a variety to the cadence, and often a very happy expreffion
to particular pafTages. The proper meafure of the verfe, or
that which feems intended by the poet, is often obfcured, and
even changed, by the difierent breaks or divifions which occur
in the lines, and by the continuation of grammatical claufes
from one line to another. The unequal combinations of the
feet, however, which are thus formed, like the obfcurc and
unequal combinations of the bars in an extended piece of fe-
rious muiic, both give a variety, and add a dignity and iblem*

nity

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On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 105

nity to the movement, which it could not poflefs, if the combi-
nations were always diftindl and equal ; and the frequent oc-
currence of lines, in which the meafure of the verfe is clearly
marked, prevents the hearer from lofing fight of it, and alfo
communicates additional pleafure from the contraft. This
mode of compofition feems thus to unite the freedom, variety
and energy of profe, with the foftnefs and elegance of verfe.

In lines of fuch uniform cadence, there is no means more
fimple, or more effedlual for giving the impreilion of regular
combination, than the return of fimilar founds. When two
contiguous verfes, of equal times, are terminated by one or
more fyllables of the fame or nearly the fame found, the hearer
can find no difficulty in adopting and going along with fuch
combinations. This contrivance has been called rhyme. It is
faid to have had its rife from a corrupted tafte during the ages
of ignorance and barbarifm. It ftill continues, however;j to be
pradlifed by the belt poets, who write in the modern languages ;
and perhaps the conftitution of fuch languages does not afibrd
a better means of conftru6ling regular verfes^

In poetry, verfes may be formed according to the model of
what I called regular and perfeft rythm, fo as to give the im-
preffion, not only of equal parcels and combinations, but alfo
of diftin<fl aggregates of thofe .combinations. When fuch ag-
gregates confift of two fingle combinations, they are called
couplets, when of more than two, they get the name of ftanzas.
We are led to form fuch aggregates by the fame means, by
which we are led to form the fingle combinations, namely, by
the return of like cadences, by paufes and by rhyme. When
two contiguous lines rhyme together, we have the impreffion
of a couplet; when the alternate lines rhyme together, we
form a combination of four. The fame impreilions may alfo
be conveyed by other means more purely rythmical. When
the lines are all equal, and made up of the fame or equal
timed feet, and the ftanzas confift uniformly of four or eight

VoLtIL O lines.

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io6 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

lines, we have then a rythm perfedlly regular, correfponding
to the minuet or march time in mufic. Such regular ftmdture
is not always obferved. In the higher kinds of lyric poetry,
it is thought to be inconfiftent with that freedom and rariety,
and a check to that fire and enthufiafm, which ought to cha«
radlerife thofe compofitions. Accordingly, the writers of lyric
poetry have departed the fartheft of any from this regular
(Irudure, and have indulged themfelves in almoft every kind
of licence. The lines, of which ftanzas are compofed, may
often confifl of an unequal number of fyllables, whilft the
times employed in reciting them arc ftridlly equal, the defi-
ciency of the fhorter ones being compenfated by paufes, or by
lengthened founds. Sometimes, however, the inequality is fb
great, as to render fuch compenfation impradicable. Such un-
equal lines, like unequal combinations in a mufical air, when
properly introduced, may communicate a fpirit and variety to
the Hanza, and give it a more marked and ftriking conchiiion.
The adonian verfe, coming after three fapphic lines, gives an
agreeable variety and a graceful clofe to the ftanza. Amongft
the ancients, there are few or no inftances of ftanzas, confifting of
more than four lines. The modems, by the help of rhyme, are
enabled to form larger and more variegated ftanzas.

So long as all the lines of a ftanza are compofed of the fame
or of equal timed feet, the rythm may be coniidered as in fome
degree regular. Thus the hexameter and the falifcan verfe form
an agreeable couplet.

Laudabunt alii claram Rhodon, aut Mitylenen,
Aut Epheiiim, bimarifve Gorinthi.

The elegiac couplet is of the fame kind. The pentameter verfe
is indeed considered as an uneven combination* When, how-
ever, it regularly divides into hemiftics, the paufes, which we
are difpofed to make at the casfuras, fill up the whole time of

the

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On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 107

the hexameter. Trochaic and iambic veriea may be combined
into couplets in the fame manner. When the trochaic verfe is
cataleftic^ the deficient time at the end is made np by the firft
fyllable of the fncceeding iambic, and the whole combination
proceeds as if it were trochaic.

Non ^Ibnr, nelque aure{um
Me|^ relnidet | in dojmo lajcunar.

The latter of thefe two combinations being nneren^ the reader
will be difpofed to paufe at the end <^ it^ during the time of
an entire foot, and will be gratified, when the ftruAure of the
fentence permits him to do fo. The pailion for variety, how*
ever, could not always be confined within this limit. In the
'works of the ancients, we meet with couplets and ftanzas, of
which the different lines are compofed of different and unequal
timed feet. This is a further departure from regularity. It is
like varying the meafure of the. bars in a piece of mufic. One
of the moft flriking examples of this is, when couplets are
foraoied of hexameter and iambic verfes. Although fudi li*
cence may not have the fame difagreeable effe6l in poetry, that
It often has in mufic» it feems at leaft to give an impreflion of
incongruity, which is probably heightened by the conftant re-
currence of the different meafures at dated intervals. The fo*
lemn and majeftic movement of the hexameter does not feem
to aflbrt well with the airy flippant pace of the iambic. After
pronouncing the latter, a perfbn requires fome time to recover
that firmnefs of tone and manner, with which he is difpofed to
pronounce the former. The i6th epode of Horace is com-
pofed in couplets of hexameter and fenarian iambic verfes, and
is the only inftance of this meafure, which occurs in his works.
In this piece, the contrail is very (triking. The even lines
throughout the whole of it are pure iambics, which have a
more rapid movement than thofe which are mixed. The verfes

O 2 of

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io8 On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

of the Phaleucian form may be confidercd as fhort couplets of
the fame kind.

A FARTHER deviation from regularity is when fuch unequal
timed feet are admitted into the fame line. The mixed iambic
and trochaic verfes of the ancients furnifh us with the moft
remarkable inftance of this. - I formerly ventured to exprefs a
conjedlure, that in the performance of the mufic, which was
adapted to verfes of this kind, the ancients, by fome means of
acconunodation, of which they were not diftindtly confcious,
might occafionally exprefs as equal thofe contiguous feet, which,
according to rule and fyftem, were unequal ; in other words,
that they fometimes departed from the proportion of two to
one, whicKthey eftablifhed as fubfifting betwixt the long and
ihort fyllables of words. It feems ftill more probable, that
they did this when reciting fuch verfes. It is indeed difficult
for us to conceive how they could do otherwife. In finging,
they might be affided in expreffing thole unequal meafures with
accuracy, and even, in fome degree, conflrained to do fo^ by
feeing the arfis and thefis of each foot diitindlly marked, and
hearing the (ingle times uniformly ftruck ; but they could not
•always have the fame afliftance, when reciting. The time of a
fhort fyllable might be counted and parcelled, when exprefled
in the continuous and more extended tones of mufic ; but this
could fcarcely be done with eafe and certainty in common
fpeech ; and, without this, it is not eafy to difcover, how the
proportions of thofe unequal feet could be accurately exprefled
or perceived. I fhould, therefore, be apt to fuppofe, that the
propeniity to equal parcels or meafures of fyllables would pre-
vail, as it might be gratified almoft infenfibly, and as there ap-
pears to be nothing of fufficient force to counteract: it. It is
often difficult to determine exadlly the proportional quantity of
contiguous fyllables, or to lay down any particular proportion
as invariably fubfifting betwixt them. ^ We can fometimes arti-
{:uhte three, perhaps even four fyllables, in our own language,

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On RYTHMICAL MEASURES. 109

in no longer time than we employ in exprefling one fyllable in
the fame fentence. It would be rafh, however, upon perceiving
this, to affert, that the one fyllable was in quantity triple or
quadruple of the others, as in different occurrences, or in
different arrangements of the fame fyllables, the proportion
might be varied* We can, with great eafe, contract or extend
a fyllable, when we wiih to make it a certain component part,
OT the whole of a determined interval of time, upon which we
have fixed our attention. It is hard to fuppofe, that in the
Greek and Latin languages, which are compofed of the fame
fimple elements with ours, no proportion (hould fubfift betwixt
contiguous fyllables, but that of equality, or that of two to one,
or fome obfcure or ill defined proportion approaching to thefe ;
and it is ftill harder to fuppofe, that thefe proportions were
conftant and invariable, in every fituation and occurrence.

The trochaeus and fpondseus might be rendered equal in reel*
tation, either by contradling the latter to the time of the for-
mer, or by extending the former to that of the latter. The
one or the other of thefe practices might be adopted in different
cafes, according to the different ftrudure of the fyllables of
which the feet were compofed. That there was a tendency to
prolong the trochaeus, we are almoft inclined to believe, from
the firft fyllable of that foot being regularly placed in the
(trongeft and mod emphatic part of the meafure. It is well
known, that in conftrudting mixed trochaic verfes, the tro-
chaeus was made to occupy the firft, third and other uneven
places ; the even places were occafionally filled with fpondasus,
or other feet of four times» In iambic verfes, again, the even
places were kept facred to the iambus. If, however, we confi-
dcr the firft fyllable of thefe verfes as introdudlory, and fuppofe
the meafure to begin with the fecond fyllable, which we are
much inclined to do, we reduce them to trochaics, in which
alfo the trochaeus will be regularly found in the uneven places
of the meafure.

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no On RYTHMICAL MEASURES.

It is not always fafe indeed to reaicHi from general jH-incipks
and analogy upon matters of fafl, more efpecially when fuch
reafoning appears to be contradicted by pofitive teftimony. I
therefore o£fer thefe conjei^tures with diffidence. The accent
and manner of pronunciation of the ancients being now irre*
coverably loft, we have no m^ns of having the matter fu1>
jeded to fenfible demonftradon. All that we can fay is, that
if they did in fadl pronounce thefe unequal feet in their juft
proportions, and were conicious of doing ib» diey poflefled a
power of combining very fmatl intervals of time into unequal
parcels^ to which perhaps no parallel can be found in moderxk
days.

VSt.

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IV. On certain Analogies obferved by the Greeks in the
Ufe of their Letters; and particularly of the Letter
SIFMA. ByAiiDREwDALZEL^M.^.. F. R. S. Edin.
and Profejor of Greek in the Univerftty of Edikburgh.

\Kead by the Author^ Dec. 19. 1785, and Nov. 19. 1787.]

INTRODUCTION.

THE power of pronouncing articulate founds is one of
the moft obyious marks which diftinguifh man from the
other animals. No philofophical inveftigation is neceflary for
pointing it out, and therefore it has not efcaped the notice of
the poets, the mod ancient of all authors. In the works of
Homer and Hesiod^, we often meet with the expref&on
ftigoTt^ u96getTOif men having an articulate voice j the word /xs^o>f^
being evidently compounded of putig^f to divide, and o-^^ the
voice f .

But

• FiA I/iaJ. M, 250. y', 402, r , 288. 6t. Oper. & Dies, 109, 142, Anac&bon has
aUb made de of the fame epithet, but without the fubftantivej Od. III. 4.

f Am r^ iMfu^tTfAnf tx;uf rnf KvAy (ays Hxstcbius, voce fMfwtt* In which Suidas
agrees. Eustathius is more explicit. Mi^wn m afB^ttnt, wm^tk ri ^vn% ^ff*«^ir/*/»«» fp^tif
v^ %Tm %U rt X^cif »«} f{f rtrXA«|?«K **\ iXt rtx**^9 ^ ftniiftU th ixxn tx^ ^^^ ^*9^ '^* ^*^
Mfmwm mihu Men are catted ft/foxi;, from iieir naiuraify having tbeir voice divided into
Words and Syliables and Elemenis, a ^nah'ty vobicb no voice pojftffes^ except bnman
speech. Ad Iliad. «, 250. The Biihop adds. That ** thofe of his own lacred fbciety,
** the interpreters of holy Writ, derive the word from the diviiion of tongues which
'* took place at the building of the tower of Cbalana/* as he calls it \ vdiich etymology
Erasmus has alio taken notice of in his Dialogue dc reQa Latini Greecique Sermonis pro*

nuntiatione.

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iia ANALOGY of GREEK LEtrERSs

But although man is plainly poflefTed of this faculty of ar-
ticulation, or pronouncing diftindt fyllables ; yet the analyfis-
of thofe fyllables into their conftituent parts, or fimple ele-
mentdy or into what the Greek writers call ^oiyjktt^ muft origi-
nally have been a work of immenfe ingenuity. Perhaps it
would even have been impradlicable ever to have made a com-
plete analyfis of this kind, without the invention of vifible
figns for denoting each of thofe elements. Nor hath any fort
of figns, fymbols or chara<5ters been found io proper for that
purpofe, as thofe which we call Letters. Indeed, it feems im-
poflible to comprehend any other viAble mode of analyzing
words into fyllables, and fyllables into fimple elements, than
that which is fumilhed by letters. For though we can con-
ceive language to be, in fome degree, conveyed by marks of
imitation; as when, in exprefllng an elephant^ we fhould fet
down the figure of that animal : yet we could never analyze
fuch a reprefentation, fo as to convey any idea of the difiPerent
fyllables in the word elephant^ or of the elemental founds of
any of thofe fyllables *.

Indeed, the fignificant founds of a language, even confider-
ed each in the aggregate, and without any refblution into its

conftituent

nuntiatione. But of this denvatioD, Damn, in his Lexicon, jufllj (ays, '' Id pie magis
** qnam verc." Eustathius has fiarther obferved, " That certain birds arc called
'' /Af^AVK ;" thoie, no doubt, he means of the parrot kind* But the manner in which
thefe poflels the faculty of articulation, forms but a very flight exception to this cha-
raderifiic of human nature. Human articulation was defined by the Stoics as follows :
^ufn tra^^d« JUKI ««-« ^< «»«»«$ fxirf/Aird^ni, Sound ariiculaie, and fr^ceeJing Jram SemtinunU
See Harris's Hermes j p. 322.

* Even Dt WiLKivs^n Real CharaffeTf which he has, with fiich aftonifliing labour^
invented, is not calculated to give any idea of fyllables or elemental (bunds f and there-
fore, in order to complete his fcheme of an univerfal philoibphical language, he has
likewife invented two alphabets, one of which he calls a Natural CbaraBer ; this being
neceflary for the expref&ng of proper names, according to his projefL See jfn Effof
towards a real CbaraSIer and a pbilofopbical Language, by John Wilkins, D. D. DeOM
of Ripon, and F. R. S. {afterwards Bi/bof of Cbefier.) Lond. 1668. foL

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Particularly of the LETTER SITMA. 113

condiment elements, can be but very imperfedlly exprefled by
figures of imitation ; becaufe there is of thefe fotmds an im-
menfe variety, which cannot poflibly admit of any fuch vifiblc
exhibition *. Thofe conventional ligns, which we call letters,
are the only proper and complete mode of denoting fimple ele-
mental founds, and their infinite variety of combination in
fyllables and words. For although the alphabet of, no one lan-
guage contains a fuflicient number of letters to exprefs every pof-
fible modification of articulated found ; yet the letters compo-
fing the feveral alphabets of thofe written languages with which
we are acquainted, efpecially the ancient Greek and Latin, have
been found fufiicient for denoting all the requifite elementary
founds in thofe particular languages f •

Letters are called by the Greeks yg^fif/jara, a word whole
etymology is evident ; for if yguip^ fignify to write^ ygafi^fjuot
muft fignify a thing written^ that is, a letter, or written charac-
ter, denoting an element of articulate found %. The ori«

Vol. IL P ginal

* Sbx an exeellent account of the difierence betivizt imitative and fymbolic language,
bj the late Mr Hariris, Tui^ited by quotations £rom Greek authors.* Hermes, Book III,

f Dr W1LKIN8 has endeavoured to (hew the defeds in common alphabets, as to the
true order of the letters, their juil number, determinate powers, fitting names, proper
figures, 6^. Biffsy towarJs a real CbaraBer^ &c. ^art L Chap, v* And he has exhi>-
bited a t Ale of fuch fimple founds as he thinks can be framed by men, with a twofold in.
llance of a more regular charader for the letters, together with feveral other curious
particulars, tart III. Chap. z. xi. xii* xiii. xiv. After all, he concludes as foUows :
*' Thefe thirty-four letters, before enumerated, will fiiffice to exprefs all thofe articulate
'^ (bunds, which are commonly known and ufed in thefe parts of the world. I dare not
'' be over-peremptory in afferting, that thefe are all the articulate Sounds, which either
" are, or can be in nature \ it being as impoffiblejto reckon up all fuch, as to determine
'^ the juft number of Colours or laJesJ^

X Tbs etymology of the Liatin word Utera, is not fb well afcertained. See Scaligxe.
Je Caufis Ling. Lot* Lib. I. Cap. 4. AMMOiitui the Grammarian thus defines the dif-
ference betwixt y^tifa^ and toixfi^u T^mftfim Xrtx^ JUi^i^ff. £rdi;gM#p filf yB iffv i cuef tf-
F«ft< 9^ i ^6d)fyo$, « T^ y^dfifui iri m^MM n rvw^ i X*f^^ T^mfAfM differs from rM%M«r» Tor
CM^if 0' is the enunciation and the found, of which yfaftfia is a Jtgn or type or figure. De
affinium vocab. differentift, voce 7c«^<^> nU vide qute annotavit vir doQiffimus Lud.

CAjr.

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114 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERSj

ginal fignification, however, of ygu^of was not precifely what
we now mean by the expreffion to write. In the earlieft times
of the Greek language, it meant to carve ; and as the moft an-
cient method of writing was to carve fome fort of figures upon
tables of wood or brafs, which was exprefled by yga^iiy, (as
we learn from Homer *), that verb remained in ufe to exprefs

the

Casp. Valckenaer. Aristotle gives the following account of an element, rroixcrof
^ly Sf l^\ ^a/vh «^»a/piT0$* « 'xaa-oi J, aAA* •! n; fti'Pvui avarii yino!^ ^•^m', jc^ ^ rti* S«^/«f tiVii
«9«aS^fToi ^t»f»l £9 ihfA,U9 Xiytt ft)^eiou An EUmtnt is an indivifibU found i not every in^
divijtble found , but from the compofttion of which an intelligible found [or word] is natu-
rally produced. For the cries of wild animals are Indivifible founds, but f call none oftbefe
an Element, Dc Poetic, cap. xx. See alfo Dionts. Halicarn. dc Compof. Verb*
cap. XIV. et Plato in Cratylo. Vol. I. p. 426. Edit. Serrani. See the Stoic defini*
tion of an element, quoted by Mr Harris from Diogenes Lasrtius : Hermes, Book III.
chap. 2. But though y^xfxfia and <rlo»;^«o» are clearly different, the one (ignifying a let-
ter and the other an clement, they are frequently confounded by the Greek writers j the
fign being often taken for the thing fignified. Accordingly, Diontsius the Thracian, in
giving the etymology of the words, has confounded their meaning. TptttiftMra il xiyirm
iioi. TO 7^a/x/bt«K xal (vrfiaTf rvirio!^, 7pc/^«i ^ t0 {tV«i ita^a rtlq xaAaiA, it^, %at ^»^* 'O/x^f^.
[Iliad, a', 388.3 Ti }i MVTi^ x«i arotx^a fcahmrat htt t« ixi^' cn'orp^or Ti»« kJ rttftu They are
called y^dfjLtMtta, on account of their being formed by lines and incijions : for y^a^ai, among

jbe ancients, fignified to make an incifion, as we find from Hohbr, [Iliad, x', 388.] The fame
are called rr»^x,^ot, becaufe they are arranged according to a certain progreffion orferies, Ars

^ Gramm. apud Fabricium in Blblioth. Gr. Vol. VII. p. 27. Nor has Tbxodorx Gaza
attended to the diilindion in his deEnition, though it is, in other refpeds, extremely accu-
rate. ApxrUf V la-Mf mvo ri ?r^«rtf, thw t<iJ» croi^uttt, T«2r« ^ ij vr^wrn Kctl iifMpHf irr» t' «r-
B^u-^n ^titi, i yaf itf iTVj^if vvfivhixit^i «AAiiAoi( tU rvcrartf ffvXXaQ^;^ aAX' iff xal rStofA* h'
X«7, ffriiyjH Ti itj ivTa,r.Ttti xoi^ira «■!*« av>T«V<riT«i %»t§L xlyu Perhaps wefbould begin with
tbefrjl, vii. the Elements. For they are the frjl and indivtfible voice of man i not be^
ing conneBed together at random^ to produce the compofition of a fyllable ; hut, as the
name imports, arranged in a rational manner, advancing in a certain feries and regular
order, Grammat. Inil. Lib. IV. Priscjam has remarked this confounding of an ele-
ment and a letter : ^' Abufivi tamen et elementa pro Uteris et liter ae pro elementis vo-
'* cantur.'' Lib. L In moft cafes, however, no great inconvenience arifes from the
Degledl of this diftin£tion.

* nc/bivf iX /AI9 AiwU'^f^ ff**^' V ly% rifAmrm >^^i^,

T^ti^tti ir ff-iVficJU VTVXT^ dt;/A«^S«^« w?Jid» Uiad. ^, x68*

which, tranilated literally, runs thus : He feat him into Lycia, and he moreover gave him

deftruSiiveJigns, having carved, upon a folding tablet, a variety of them fatal to bis life.

. The poet is fpeaking of FroetuS; who fent BkLLE&o^uoN into Lycia with this fatal

tablets

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Particularly of the LE'ttER SIFMA- 115

the more commodious method of writing which was afterwards
invented.

In whatever part of the world, or at whatever time, the ufe
of letters took its origin, (for I do not mean at prefent to enter
upon that inquiry *), it cannot be denied that it is one of the
mod admirable of all human inventions. That we fhould be
able, by means of twenty-four vifible characters, to denote
the various thoughts of our minds, uttered by articulate founds,
fo as not only to convey them to perfons abfent and at a di-
ftance, but even to tranfmit them to pofterity, muft, if it did
not, as fome fuppofe, proceed immediately from the Deity, be
con£dered as the moft eminent of all the improvements which
human art has yet made of thofe powers which he has been
pleafed to beftow upon our fpecies f.

P 2 Indeed,

tablet. Wc have no authority to tranflate rnfixxte, Letters, or y^a<i^M(, having written,
as is generally done. Indeed, no where in the poems of Homer, do we find any part of
the fimple verb y(i/^«'» except here, and in the 599th line of the 17th book of the Iliad,
vhere y^«>)^i» occurs ^ and there it fignifies to wound, or to make an incifion, being applied
to what the (pear of Polydamas did to FsNELAus^e Boeotian. Its compound my^a^tt
indeed is found four or five times, and always fignifies to raw or gra$^ the (kin with the
point of a weapon. But neither y^iiftftm nor rMx««» are to be met with in Homer, nor
does he any where make mention of Letters or writing by any terms whatever. For
rifMBy which occurs (b often, can fcarcely ever be faid to fignify what we mean by a Letter:
And hence an argument has been adduced, though not by any means a declfive one, againfl
Homer's knowledge of the art of writing, or the ufe of letters. But this is an invefii-
gation which cannot properly be introduced in a note. See what the late Mr Robert
Wood has written upon this fubje£t in the laft fedion of his £jpiy on the original Genius
^HoMJiR. Lond. 1775. 4to.

* See a (hort but elegant Didertation, printed at the conclufion of the 2d Vol. of
•Havbrcamp's Sylloge Serif torum quide Ling. Grac. verd et reBd pronuntiatione commen*
tarios reliquerunt, entitled, De Fotnicum Literis^ &c. Guillislmo Postbllo Barentonio
auBore. See alfo Harris's Hermes, Book III. cb, 2,

-|- " La communication des pensees par I'Ecriture, n'eft guires moins admirable que
" ccUe qui fe fait par la Parole. Ce ne fut apparemment qu'apres bien des meditations
" et des eflais multiplies, que degoiite des difficult^s, des quivoques, des ob'curites, dts
•* bomes trop etroites de l*ccriturc hiferoglyphique, Pinventeur de I'ecriture littcrale re-

'* connut

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ii6 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERSj

Indeed^ the faculty of fpeech itfelf, not to mention the Ta-
rious arts and fciences, could not have been brought to any
confiderable degree of improvement, without the afliftance of
written language. Without this, the knowledge of one age of
the world could not have defcended diftindlly to another, and
confequently mankind mud, in a great meafure, have loft thofe
advantages which they derive from the accumulated experience
of former times.

The variety of languages, however, both written and
fpoken, which takes place in the world, has been matter of
regret to thofe who have confidered the fubjeft particularly ;
and it has been wifhed, that a method of fpeech, capable of
being conveyed by writing, had been invented, which man-
kind, at leaft in every polifhed nation, might have 'been able
univerfally to adopt and to underfland. But the diftribution
of the world into fo many different kingdoms and nations,
feems to render the introdudlion of an univerfal language
among mankind quite impracticable^. For although men

poilefs

^ connut k nombre afiez petit des (bns ^Umentaires, et comprit qu*en Ics ]?epr6ientant
*' par autant de carad^res diftindts, on pourroit combiner cei caraft^rcs comme les fims
^' qu'ils reprcientent ) ce qui conftitue en efFet

" r-— Cet art ingenieux

** Dt ptindre la parole^ tt dc parltr auxyeux s

^^ art merveilleuxy qui fixe 2k jamais la parole et la pens^e qu'elk exprimc> qui porte
** I'une et Tdutre aux abients^ qui les fait paflfer ^ la pofUrit6 la plus recul^e, et dont on
" pent dire avec v6rit6 et fans reftri^tbn, ce que dit M. DiDsaoT^'un idiome qui di-
*' viendroit commun h, tout le genre humgin : lEncyc/op, au moi Enciclopsdib.J que
" par (on moyen, la difiance det temps dtJ^aroU^ Us lituxft toucAent, il ft forme des liaifons
** entre tous les points babltes de Pefpace et de la durie^ et tous les etres vvoants et penfants
" ^entretknnent.^^ Grammaire Generate, &c. Far M. Bbauzbb* Tom* I. p. 2. Sefr*
alio CicBuoN. %^. 7ufc. Lib. I. and Wxl&ims's Effay^ &c. p. xo.

^ Thb ingenious^ laborious and truly admirable efibrt of Dr Wilkins, to invent and
eftablifii an univerfal charader and philofbpbical language, has only tended to. (how more
firikinglj the imprafticablenefs of fuch an attempt : At lead, however feafible hb projeA
xnay appear, his method ftill remains unemployed b; the learned; and as fiir the vulgai^
it is quite beyond their comprehenfion.

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Particularly of the LETTER SIFMA. 117

poCTefs Tiniverfally the fame organs of fpeech, and, by means
of thcfe, the fame faculty of uttering articulate founds ; yet
the manner of exerting thofe organs, fo as to produce a parti-
cular language, being quite arbitrary, is a work, at firft, of ac-
cident, and then of gradual improvement, and which cannot
be carried forward, even by the help of writing, without a fre-
quent intercourfe, and a fort of mutual convention among the
individuals of that fociety, who find it for their advantage to
adopt fuch a language *. But an intercourfe adequate to fuch
an end cannot take place beyond a particular nation j therefore
an univerfal living language cannot poffibly fubfift : For, ac-
cording to an obfervation of D'Alembert, " There is nothing,
^* either in nature or in reafon, which determines an objedl to
" be defigned by one found more than by another.'* To which
Beau ZEE adds, That ^^ there is nothing in nature or reafon
" which determines a found to be defigned by one letter more
" than by another f*^* Accordingly, a variety of different

tongue^:

* Tax inhabitants of ibme nattons, (ays M. du Ma&sai8> cmpfey certafo organs^ and^
even certain parts of organs, of which others make no u(e« There is likewiie a particu-
lar form or manner of exerting the organs^ &c. '* II j^a des peuples qui mettent en
*^ adion certains organes et mftme certaines parties des organes, dont les autres ne font
^' point d'uiage. II y'a auffi une forme on maniere particuliere de faire agir les organes.
" De plus ea chaque nation, en chaque province, et m6me en chaque ville, on s'enonce
** avec un forte de moduhtion particuliere \ c'eft qu'on appelle accent naisona/, on accent
" prmncia/eJ' Encyclop» au mot Consomns*

•f '^ Sly comme le ditj'tllufire Secretaire de PAcademie Fran^oHe, il n*y a rien
** Jans la naiure ni dans la raifon qui dhermine un ohjet k ttre dejigne par un
** fin plutot qui par un autre ; on pent dire avec autaiU ou plus de v6it^ qu'il n'y s
'^ riea dans la nature nidans la raiibn qui determine un ion ^ etre defign6 par une lettre
" I^t&t que par uneHmtxe.'' Gramm. Genarakf par M; Bsau&aa. Tom. L p. l^^,.
See alfo p. 233, 234.

Dr WiLftiHS indeed-has endeavoured to contrive a iet* of charaders, which> in their
Aape, have '' feme reiemUaace to ^t configuration which there, is in the organs of
^ ip0ech upon the framing of feveral letters.'^ Upon which account, he thinks, fuch an
alphabet ma}r> deierve the name of a natural cbaraBer of the letters. Effay^ &c. p. 375.
But here he has n0t been very faccefiful ; and indeed he feems himielf to prefer another
alphabet, which he has al(b (et down, although it has no fuch property^, and yet is, as he
Gonfelles, /' more fiicile and fimple*"

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ii8 ANALOGY of GREEK LE^tERSs

tongues has prevailed ever fince the early ages of the world;
and fuch of them as have ceafed to be fpoken would have foon
perifhed, had they not been committed to writing ; by which
means, fome of them have furvived the wreck of nations, and
the other viciflitudes of human affairs. Of thefe, though
their genuine pronunciation be now, in a great meafure, loft,
we are ftill able, after a confiderable degree of pains, not only
to underftand the meaning, but even to perceive the beauties;
and, among the various forts of inftrudlion which they convey,
we derive from them many effential advantages in improving
and polifhing our own language.

To none have we been more indebted in thefe refpedls, than
to the language of the ancient Greeks. As this is acknow-
ledged, by all who have ftudied it, to be the moft pcrfe6l * ;
fo the analogy perceived from an attentive obfervation of its
ftrudlure, even in the moft minute parts, is of all others the
moft complete and beautiful. Whence the Greeks borrowed
their alphabet, which they ufed with fuch fuccefs, I ana not
here to enquire. That it did not originate with themfelves, is
univerfally agreed among the learned f . But it is no left cer-
tain,

* Seb Mr Harris's elegant encomium of the Gfeeks and their language, of which hfi
was the great and rational admirer. Hermes, Book III. Chafi. 5. Alio, Dr Grsgort
Sharps, in the Preface to his Origin and SiruSurt ofibe Greek Tongue^

f It is the uniform opinion of ancient authors, that the Greek alphabet at firft con*
(ifled only of fixteen letters, which were imported out of Phoenicia into Greece bj the
celebrated Cadmcs. [See Herodot. Trr^ifror. cap. 58. Plutarch* ^jias^^ lib. 9.
Irxn. lib. I. cap. 12. Lucan. Pbarf. lib. HI. See alfb, Dr Wil&ins^s Efay, p. 11.]
Thefe (ixteen letters, called K«l^ii»W y^tifi^r», and fbmetimes vnfMrm kA^im^ were the
two (hort vowels with the three ancipites ; the three fmooth and the three intermediate
mute confbnants } and the four liquids, with the iblttar^ SiV^ui. Palamedbs is (aid to
have added the three afpirated mutes, and the double conionant 5i', at the time of the
Trojan war* And Simon ides is fuppoled afterwards to have invented the two other
double confbnants and the two long vowels. See Montpaocon. FaUeogr. Gr. p. 115,
XI 6, 117* And fee an enumeration of the authors who have written on this fiibjeA in
Thbophili Christoph. Harlbs Inirod. in Hifi. Ung^ Gr* Pro/eg* p. viii. feqq. Men*
burg. 1778* %V9.

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Particularly of the LETTER SITMA. 119

tain, that wherever they got the firft fketch of an alphabet^
they improved it very much, not indeed inflantly, but gradu-
ally, till they brought it to that ftate in which we now fee
it, in the twenty- four diflferent characters whereof it is com-
pofed*.

To point out completely the analogy which the Greek wri-
ters obferved in the ufe of each of thofe letters, would lead
into a very wide field. At prefent, I propofe only to enquire
particularly into the nature and principal ufes of one of them, *
I mean the 27y/^a. This, being the fign of a fingular fort of
found, has been ufed, in the ftrudlure of the Greek tongue, in
a. manner different from every other letter ; and therefore the
Grammarians have generally allotted to it a fingular place in
their arrangement of the different component members of the
Greek alphabet. It will be. impoflible, however, to treat of
the llyfjM, without making mention of certain circumftances
incident to the other confonants.

PART I.

THE letter 27yjcta was commonly fo called by the inhabi-
tants of Greece, its iflands and colonies, except the Do-
rians, who, as we learn from Herodotus, gave it the name
of X»¥ f. DiONYSius of Halictirnaffus alfo mentions this..

Doric

• Callistratus, the Grammarian of Samos, is faid to have arranged the Greek al-
phabet in the order in which we now find it, when Zuclidbs was Archon of Athens*.
See TosTEK^s E/piy on j^cceni an J ^antity, p. 41. 2d £dit«

-)f Ika^iUs fih rl Ttif iui^«^i,^I«fii$ }s vSy^m Lib. L.

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120 ANJLOGr of GREEK LETTERS;

Doric name * ; and AxHENiEus further obfenres, that Arij-
TOPHAN£S, in his comedy of The Clouds^ has called thofe
horfes who had this letter branded upon them, ^afupi^M f • It
has been by fome thought abfurd, that the letters, which are
the figns of elemental founds, (hould be called by any other
names than the mere founds which they denote, it may be
faid^ however, in favour of the Greek names, that they always
begin with the letter whofe power they denote ; and it is a
good practical rule in grammar* to fay, " That the power of
'^ each letter may be known by catching the initial (bund of the
" name J." In fpeaking particularly of the letters, it is ne-
ceflary to have a diftinf): articulate name to give to each of
them, becaufe the mere power, efpecially of the mute confo-
nants, can fcarcely be uttered without a vowel ; and if the af-
fillance of a vowel be employed in uttering them, then you
give them a name fomewhat different from their real poweri and
more likely to lead into error.

With refpedl to the elemental found of which ^yfjM is
the lign, there is no doubt that the Greeks ufed that letter to
cxprefs precifely what we denote in Englifh by the letter S in
fuch words as the following, famey defignationy diftrefs. This wc
learn from a diftinft defcription, which Dionysius of Hali-
carnaflus has given of the portion and effort of the Vocal
organs in the pronunciation of this letter. " The ST^/ei^, fays
** he, is pronounced by an appulfe of the tongue to the palate,

" while

* Hk mentions it as Uncalled by Pimdah. Dt a^m^tione Feriomm, StB. 14. of whU
more aftei if utb.

f Atbxnjeus, p. 467. EiHt. Comme/ifi. See alio Iiaaci Casaub. Anmadntrffi m
Atbbn* Lib. X. cap. 2U TMfipSfat is evidently compounded of Zat and ^(ftr 9 being
always ft before v» /d, ^, which will be remarked more pardcularly afterwards. See
Akxstophamxs Nuba, 122. 1298. EJit. Brunch. Jrgtutor. 1783.

X LiTxajB cujuiqac vis intelligitur ex initiali Ibno nominis. Mooa Ekmtmm, JL Gr.
p. a.

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Particularly of the LETT'ER SIFMA- lai

" while the breath ruflics through the middle part of it, and
" emits a gentle and conftridled fibilation about the teeth *."
The name itfelf is evidently derived from W^dw, to btfs ; and
from the hifling found of vvrhich it is the fign, it has been
called the ferpentine letter. Some have even fancied, that vari-
ous fliapes of the ferpent have been copied in the different forms
it has afFumed f. The forms mod commonly in ufe, are two
for the large or capital letter, thus 2, C, and three for the fmall
one, thus «-, ^, ^, of which the laft is always final, the other two
initial or intermediate :|:. In order to comprehend more diftindlly
the ufe of the ST^pt, it will here be proper to take a fhort view
of the other confonants.

Vol. IL Q^ The

* To r £i«^«»»MT«i] T9( /4ff y>JiTv^ ir^«r«rayo/Mnif wu ^^« roy 4^av«r, t« ^i Vfii/^arO*

CsnATiNus's definition is nearly the fame : ** Frofertur lingua fuHtim adduda ad pa-
** latumi cujus medio (patio fpiritus fertur et circa dentes ezilem et angufhim et quodam*
*' modo triftem iibilum expcllit.'^ De Sono Gr. Liit. LibtUuu It ought never to be
pronounced, as in fome Englifh and French words, as if it were the feme with Z, or a
double S. '^ Hie quidem certe graviter errant et labuntur pneter caeteros Galli, quotiet
*^ crlyfui intezjacet duabus vocallbus in una vel diverfis diAonibus. Turn enim Tonus qui
** eft in ^TiKy vel in Zain Hebraeorum ex eo percipitur : ac perinde pronuntiatur ac fi
** ItM^at (criberetur. Quod certe vitium dum nonnulli fubterfugere ac devitare volunt,
** utinam in alterum minime inciderent, nee quafi per geminum SS eflet fcriptum mussa
" proferrent.'' Hbn. Steps. Apologet. pro vet, L. Gr. Proa. In which opinion Lam-
csLOT agrees. ^' Sa prononciation doit eftre ferme et entiere, auflibien entre deux
** voTelles qu'en tout autre lieu. C'eft pourquoi it le faut prononcer dans X^vm de m^-
^' me que dans 9^^ tuab : quoiqu^en Francois nous prononcions autretnent Cbrtsbs que
*^ Sbs*'' NouveUe metbode pour apprendre facUemcnt ia Liangue Greque^ p. x6«

f '^ Sigma — merus eft fibilus : ideoque ab Hebracis ^cie quadam ferpentis caudam
ad caput retorquentis, et a Graecis, in gyrum ieie revolventis, hac videlicet figur& £*
** vel veluti caput vibrands, ut 0- : denique ut fefe finuantiSi pingitur, nempe Q* quam fi-
'' guram Latini imitati/' Bsza de pronunt* Gr,L. p. 2i» Edit. H* Stbpb. 1587.

X Father Montf aucon has given ten different figures of the I'^y^^ and mentioned
the difterent periods when each of them was ufed. Palaogr. Gr. p. 336, 337. " The
" difability of pronouncing this letter is caUed Blafitas^ ^f^tng^ whence it is comiptlj
** founded like (/i6.)" Wilums, p*369.

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122 ANALOGY of OREEK LETTERSi

Th£ general difference betwixt voWels and c6n{bnan(8 hits been
vety accurately ilated by Dr WilKins, in the following ^ords:
" Thofe letters are called Vbcalts^ Towels, iii pfodouncing of
" which by the inftriiments of fpeedhj the breath ift freely
" emitted ; and they are therefore ftyled Apcrt^ or opcri Ittters*
*' Thofe letters are ftyled Confonants^ in xht protioiincing of
" which the breath is intercepted by fome collifion or clofure
'* amongft the inftruments of fpeech j and for this reafon are
*• they ftyled Claufa Uiefa*:'

The feventeen Greek confonants vfrere divided by the elder
grammarians into eight femivowels dtid nine mutes* ^^ Of the
" confonants, fays Theodore Gaza, fome are femivowels^
" as ^, 5, 4^9 ^9 1^9 Vf gf fl-, of which ^, f, \//, are double, and
" X, /£., 9f f, are immutable and liquid f." According to
this arrangement, «• is a femivowel ; but in the fubdivi-
fion of the femivowels into double confonants and liquids,
it is tacitly omitted. For this Oa2a had the authority of
DionySius the Thracian |, and probably of Apollonius
Dyscolus, whom he very much followed* Constantine
Lascahis has expreifed himfelf very nearly in the fame
Words §. But Emanuel Chrysoloras is more explicit. His
Grammar is in the form of queftion and anfwer. " How arc
" the feventeen confonants divided ? Into two forts, femivowels
" and mutes. How many are femivowels ? Eight, ^, f , >|/, X, /t,
" V, f , tr. How are the femivowels divided ? Into three ibrtSi
^* double confonants, immutable confonants, and r. How ma-

" ny

* Ejffay towards a real Cbara&er, &c. p. 363. and 366.

•^ Ttif it av^^tttf^ ra ^w ifJ^tiHif cTo» ^. (• ^. ^• ft. v. (. r. £• }iir^ fait {• (. 4^ «|M]aCtX*
h t^ tfy^ti X. f«. «• f. Tbbod. Gaza IniroduSionis Grammatic€t liin'lV./oL 3. B^
apud Valent. CvKioNXM. 8vo.

t Vide DiONTSii Tbracis Art. Grammat. Eztat in Fab. BiblUtb. Or. VoL VII.
p. 26k

{ Vide CoMSTAMTtiii Lascailxs Grammatics Cmfendiam, p. 3. ^^tai Favlou Manu-
TiVMf Aldi F. Fenet. 1557. lamoi

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Parifcuhriy of the LETTER llVUAs 123

" ny are double ? Three, ^ {, 4^. How many are immutable ?
" Four, which are alfo called liquids, X, /x, y, g *.*' The re*
ms^iuing nine confonants are called mutes by all the gram-
marians : Of, which three, to wit, t, «, r, are termed r/z/Xa,
fmooth; three, to wit, ^, ;j^, S^, are Wsa, roughs or denfi; and
three, to wit, jS^ y, ^, are joi^ra, intermediate i in fuch a manner,
that each fmooth one has an intermediate and a denfe one to
correfpond to it, which three are faid to be of the fame rank,
becaufe they nearly referable each other in the manner in
which the vocal organs exert themfelves in pronouncing them \
the firft rank t, /S, ^, being labial^ the fecond », y, ;g, being pa--
latine^ and the third r, \ ^, being dental^ as is well known to
every one who has the fmalleft acquaintaace with die princi-
ples of the Greek tongue. Aristotle has defined, with his
ufual acutenefs and precifioo^ the dijiference betwixt a vowel, a
femivowel and a mute. ^^ A vowel (fays be) is that which,
*' without any allificm of th^ organs, hath an audible founds
^* as a ^d m. A femivowel is that which, with an alliiion,
'^ hath an audible found, as r and g. A mute is that which,
^^ with ^n aUifion, hath by itfelf indeed no audible found, but
'' is audible in conjuudlion with the vowels, as y and i f /*

I AM fenfible thajt the arrangement of the confonants by the
Greek grammarians, has not been approved of by fbme late
writers on the fubjedl of grammar ; and there is no doubt but
another might be (hewn which would Teem better adapted to

0^2 the

* 'Elf wicM itmfirrm rA hnmiwra n^uwm $ ttt 2£; t!( ifU^mm um &^mm. wUtt ii^lpSm |

X, f^, f, e* Emanoblis Cbhtjoloilajb Gr. Gr^m. Imfiiiutknes, Vtn. spud Io.'Fakx%^h
etFratres. i2ino. Faginii defunt mnntri.

fBn * ^mm^ fftw, Sm« v^^MrCaXvc r^cy ^^V9 ktMw\iu •Tor, t) • »«J «• *H^'f»rav M, r« /«fU

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12+ ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

the natural order of the elemental founds, and the affinity fub-
fifting among certain clafles of fuch founds. All fuch as are
labial, for inftance, might be clafFed together, whether mutea
or femivowels, as /3, fju, t, <pi >// i all fuch as are dental, to
wit, ^» f > tf* ; all fuch as are lingual, to wit, i, ^, X, y, r ; and all
fuch as are palatine, to wit, y, «, ;jj, |. And accordingly this
has been done by Hulewicz, one of the beft modern writera
on Greek grammar *. But this he has propofed, without re-
jeiSling the ufual arrangement, which he knew to be fo im-
portant in examining or explaining the ftru(£lure of the Greek
tongue. For though a divifion and arrangement of that fort
might anfwer the purpofe of a minute anatomical or phyfiolo*
gical inquiry concerning the organs of fpeech, yet as this was
not the circumftance chiefly attended to by the Greeks in the
progrefs of their language, though they did not by any means,
negledl it, we muft adhere to that other diftribution by the
grammarians, if we would wifh to comprehend clearly the real
ufe of the Greek letters. There is, for inflance, no dbubt
that fc is a labial confonant, as well as r^ /3, or ^* and m fadl
the Greek's in fome meafure attended to this, as will be after-
wards fhewn } but die ufe of^ /&& as a liquid, and its partaking
in this refpcdl of the fame analogy with X, i^, j , was a connedioa
nxuch more ftriking, and much more attended to in the prac-
tical application of the Greek alphabet f. In the cafe of the
nine mutes, it is of very great confequence to confider bow,

* See Alex. Gabr. Woiuttn HulbwicZi nobUis Poitmi^ Tnfitiutiones Ung* Gracte^
p, 14. Lugd.BaU 1 746* 4/0* M. Bsauzbb, an ingenious French Grammarian, has alfe
propofed a very minute arrangement of the letters, according to an idea of this kmd.
See Grammairt GenSrale^ on Exfofition raifonn$t ies Eiemens necefflaires iu Langage^
2 tomes, Piiris, 1767. Svo. See alfo Bt/hop Wilrins's E^y, &c. p. 357.

f '' Appellancur LiqpiotiE, quod poll mutam pofitse quafi liquefcentes ac evaneA

*' centes, vim conibnantes interdum amittant, neque vocalem praeoedentem longam eQ-
^' ciunt^ ut aliiB conibnantes/' Ahtxsxonamos afud ClbmaboubI; p. 5. Hsmavia,
z6i7. 4/0.

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Particularly of the LETTER JIFMA. 125

in the infledtions, and in certain other fyllabic combinations,
each of the letters which compofe the different ranks changes
its place occafionally with one of its own rank, and not with
that of another ; and in the cafe of the liquids, how, if any
one of them occur in the nominative of a noun, it muft re-
main unchanged in the oblique cafes ; and if it occur in the
prefent tcnfe of a verb, it muft remain unchanged in the fu-
tures ; from whence the liquids have alfo got the name of
ajcc6ra/3oXa, immutable j likewife, in the cafe of the double con-
fonants, how each of them is occafionally refolved into the
mute of which it is compofed, and jTy^a. All this might be
(hewn particularly, and at great length. But I return to the

In treating of the Greek charadlers, fbme diftinguifhed mo-
dern grammarians have not paid due attention to this letter.
Gretser, the Jefuit, in his arrangement of the confonants,,
has affigned no place to it at all *. He does not even mention
it aa one of the femivowels, although it be evidently entitled toi
that diftinflion. Lanx:elot, author of the Port-Royal Gram-
mar, at a lofs, ijt fliould feem, what to do with it, has claffed;
it, awkwardly enough, with the double confonants, " Although
" the 27y/ta, fays he, be the only one of its own fet, we may
** neverthelefs join it with the double confonants, not only be-
** caufe it forms one of their conftituent parts, but alfo becaufe-
" they all refemble it, by being fibilant in the pronuncia-
" tionf." Other grammarians, particularly Clenardus, An-
TEsiGNAijus and HuLEWicz, have judged much better
in taking the hint from the Greek writers already quoted,

especially

^ Ihfiilutionts Ling, Gr» IngoUJladii, 1605. I2m0i

•^ ** Quoique le 9 (bit (eul de fa bande, nous pouvons neanmoins le joindre avec les
** doubles, Doo feulemeot parce qu'il en fait partle^ mais audi parce que dans leur pro*
^* Donciatioa elles font toutes fifflantes comme lui/' Nouvelh Metbode four appcndre,
fyoil^ment.k Langue Grequ9* Paris , IT$^* 8w..

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126 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTER Ss

cfpecially Emanuel Chrysoloras, and allowing the lL7yfUL to
be a femivowel j but perceiving that it is neither a liquid, nor
a double confonant, nor a mute, they have called it Htera/olita-
ria, et fua potejiatisy vel fui juris ; the folitary^ and the abfoluU
or independent letter ; the letter v^hich pofleiles a fingular and
independent power, nowife fettered by that relative analogy to
which the other confonants are obliged to fubmit. That is to
fay, there has been a fingular found obferved to fubfift in the
Greek language, expreffive of a great many varieties in the
changes and infledlions of words independent of certain other
clafTes of changes and infle<5lions ; and that fingular found has
been denoted by the 27y/ta. For it is certain, that languages
were ufed previous to the invention of letters, though they
muft have been very rude in that early (late. But they would
afterwards be much refined by thofe veiy letters, tlie ufe of
which muft doubtlefs have (uggeftcd many efi^dal improve-
ments, which would not otherwife have been thought of.

Now, upon what grounds the STy/ta is entitled to an ex-
emption or diftinflion, fuch as I have mentioned, it may be
worth while to examine. The inquiry will tend to fhew the
great ufe, and indeed abfolute necefiity of fuch a character in
the alphabet of this moft exquifite of all languages.

Dr Samuel Clarkb, one of the moft acute and ingenious
of all the commentators, has, in a note upon the word Ttkyxurn^
at the beginning of the thirteenth book of the Iliad, men*
tioned a probable reafon, in his opinion, why the ancients
held the 27y/ta to be fua potejiatis. " H%>M(re%^ lays he, muft
" certainly be written widi a double ^, becaufe the fecond fyl-
" lable of Tf Xa^« is (hort. It may, however, (continues he), be
'* queftioned, whether the more ancient Greeks made ufe of
" that mode of writing. For when they called ^ an arbitrary
" letter, perhaps they meant, that whereas the letters ^, f, ^,
'* are necefTarily double, and all the reft of the confonants
** fimple, €r alone has this peculiarity, that, in a great many

" places,

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Particularly of the LETTER SIFMA. 127

" placesy efpecially the aorifts of verbs, it may be pronounced
" either as a fimple or a double letter *." This rcafon is inge-
nious ^ but, upon examining it narrowly, it does not appear to
be fatisfa(5lory. Indeed Dr Clarke himfelf does not feem
quite fatisfied with it, and offers it only as a conje<5ture. There
is no doubt, however, of what this accomplifhed fcholar has
elfe where t fliewn, that, the pcnuli of the fir ft aorift of fuch a
verb as »Xa^A^ is (hort, but that the poets, as Hombr has fre-
quently done, may make it long, by doubling the a-, or rather
by reftoring the ^, which had been thrown away in the forma-
tion of the firft future |. Nor is it improbable, that when the
poems of Homer were firft committed to writing, the ir was
fet down fingle, even when the verfe made it requifite to pro-
nounce it double. It happens, however, that this privilege of
being occafionally doubled, is not peculiar to the ir. We find,
among the poets, other confonants, mutes as well as liquids^,
frequently in the fame fituation. Thus,

And

Toy %ou vTiAAua^^ fd,»z»gtg ^toh Hi rlifi^'ap §•

Here

* viAotf'^f.] ** Ita jam (cribeDdum, nece{rari6 ^ quia irix«o iecundam corripit. Dubitari
" tamen potefl, utrumne Grseci antiquiores ifto modo icripferint. Nam quum t, fux po-
*^ tefiatis itteram dixerunt, haud fcio an hoc (ibi voluerint ; literas ^y (, ^, neceflari6 qui-
** dem Jttplicts die \ conibnantium reliquas omnes, JimpUces } unicam autem r, iftiufinodi
'' efle, ut permultis in locis, zcpracipue in verborum Aorifiis^ Jimpltx dupUxvt ex »quo
** pronuDciari poflit.'* M Iliad, /, i,

t Fuk ad Wad. i, 140. f , 432.

X AccoaDiNO to the rule, which direAs^ that, in verbs not liquid, the firft future
(hould ariie from the pre{ent» bj inlerting a 9 before *r, viAm^a^, which is the fame with
w^M^aty would have in the firft future wi^^rm, or viAa^m. But a ipecial rule direAs,
that before m we muft, in the future, throw away r, ), S, v, which makes that tenfe of
snXtf^tf to be 3nA«Viv* hence the firft aorift linxAati, to which reftore the rejeded 9, and it
becomes mxJiava. Vide Moor EkmenU JL. Gr. p. 128.

I Iliad. «, 33.

\ Ibid. »,4o6. .

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128 jlNALOGT of GREEK LEtTERSj

Here the i is double in i^u<rt9 and wrihi<ra9f that ihi may be a
fpondee, which it could not otherwife have been. We find the
r alfo frequently doubled, as o, rit *, inftead of o, rt. In which
cafes, it is fully as probable, that in the early copies of the
poems of Homer, fuch words were always written with a
fimple J or r, as that mKatn, and others of the fame fort, were
always written with a fimple <r. Sometimes we find f , contrary
to the rule by which it is faid to be always doubled after the
fyllabic augment, (as pirroff ippirrov), written fingle by the
poets : thus, ippe^e, in the imperfe<5l from pi^Af, is written firft
fingle, and then double, in the following verfes :

"AKXog y aXXy €^«^g ^bHv (tUiysv$Taot9 f •

In the firft of thefe lines, ^ aXX« «— is a da6tyl, in which the
a;, one of the furd diphthongs, is fhort before the firft fyllable
of sf s^6, by a well known pra(5Uce of the poets. Nay, we find,
that even in the modern editions of Homer, the liquid X oc*
curs written fingle, when the verfe requires it to be pronounced
double, which Dr Clarke himfelf, with his ufual acutenefs,
has (hewn to be the cafe in the exordium of the Iliad.

where exJf /« muft be pronounced as if it were written XK'km^My

rig i\ being here a fpondee. After all, it muft be owned, diat

r is much oftener doubled by the poets than any other confo-

nant. Indeed, no confonant but itfelf admits of being doubled

in the penult of the firft aorifts ||.

There

• Iliad, m, 294.

t Ibid. ^',400.

X Uuu/. t, 53a. In fome editions^ i^'^fO is written ;^*^i in the firft aorifl, which ao>
fwers the prefent purpofe as well.

II In the middle voice it is the antepenult.

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Particularly of the LETTER 2irMA. 129

There are, however, feveral other grounds on which the
claim of this letter to the appellation oi folitary or independent^
may be (upported,

I. SIFMA alone of all the confonants employs its power in
ailifUng the mutes to make up the double , letters. Thus, any
one of the labial mutes t, or /3| or ^1 afUfted by tr^ makes ^|/'
any -one of the palatine mutes, », or y, or ;^, afCfted in the
fame manner, makes f ' and any one of the dental mutes, r, or
d, or S', with the fame help, makes ^. In the cafe of '\f and |,
this is evident from the mode of refolving thofe double letters
in the inflexions ^ efpecially in the oblique cafes of nouns of the
imparifyllabic declenfion. Thus, in the cafe of >//, we perceive
that XuiXa'^f procella^ is the fame with XaihoLrg, becaufe its gt-
nitive is XaiXo&TOf * that ''A^o^^^, ^r^^/, is the fame with "^A^a/S^,
becaufe its genitive is "Agafiog* that «0(rS9X/\|/, Jcala, is the fame
with xeer^Xiff, becaufe its genitive is xariXipcg* and in the cafe
of I, we perceive that m^ af, corvus^ is the fame with KogitK^^ be-
caufe its genitive is $6og»xoq* that fXo|, Jlamma^ is the fame with
^Xoy^, becaufe its genitive is ^Xoyo;* that oyt;|, ungula^ is the fame
with orv;^^, becaufe its genitive is oyt^;^^^? . But the fame analogy
in the cafe of ^ is not fo eafily traced \ and indeed the critics
and grammarians, who have written in Greek, do not even af-
fert that ^ is equivalent to J^, but to eih *. Their reafon feems
to have been, that they never obferved ^ refolved into two fim-
pie confonants, except in the Doric manner, as ^iX/V^<v, inflead
of /«r<X/^ar, modulor\ o<ricij inftead of o^iv, oleo. The learned
HuLSWicz even denies that ^ is a double letter ; ^^ becaufe,
'^ (fays he) it never is equivalent to two confonants, like | and
" ^* for if ^ were a double confonant, it would occur in the
'^ termination of Greek words, as well as | and ^, which it

Vol- IL R " never

* Vide DioMTs* Hal. vi^2 rv»$» J»«f«. »}'. Diomts. Thracem apud FABuxctuM in BiUiotbm
Gr. Vol. VIL p. aS. Tbiod. Gazai Grammau foL 24. Thcfe are followed bf
Clinaaous, iarc*

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I30 ANALOGY of GREEK LEr^ERS;

" nev^r does *.*' But, in anfwer to this, it may be faid, that
the argument againft ^ being a double confbnant, becaufe
it never terminates a word, cannot be admitted, as it is no where
afTerted, that to be a final letter is abfol\itely neceffary to the ex^
iftence of a double confonant. But, granting this to be the
cafe, ^ may in fadl be &id, as welt' as | and >^, to be a final let-
ter,* if the following circumftances be properly attended to. It
is obferved by Hulewicz himfelf, as well as other grammari^-
ans, that the dental mutes r, J, ^, are thrown away before r;
This happens evidently in the formation of the firft futures of
verbs : thus, tvrr<o^ verbero^ not rvrra-Af in the future, but tw^
which is written ru^^»' ai^, cano, not aicAfy or «^4>, but acm*
wKn^Uf impleo^ not tXi^^^a; nor ^X^^o^, but TX^r^^. One reafbn for
rfiis feems to be, that if re, or J;, or &Cf had been permitted to
remain in the firft futures of verbs, they muft have produced
^^ and this would have confounded the tennihation of dio(e
futures with that of the prefent tcnfes of a great many verbs in
^<v, and tiius have given rife to a great ambiguity in the cafe of
prefent and future tenfes ; an inconvenience which the Greeks
carefully avoided, and in the prefent inftance the more willingly
got rid of, becaufe thethrowing away- of r, >, &, before «*, grati-
fied an antipathy, which the Grecian ear, during the progrefa^
and refinement of their language, feems to have conceived againft*
the combination of thofe confonants f ; for it is evident^ from the
analogy of certain genitives which end- in roe, dor and &oc, that,
in the early times of the Greek language^ a great many nouns^
terminated in r^ ^e and ^, which is the fame with terminating
in I* thus, XejS^re, or XfjS^^, by rejeding the ^ before c^ be-
comes;

•- InflituU Gram, p* 134

f Anotbeh realbn is, that, in mftoy verbs, it would produoe too great a.OQiicoar{eQf
coofbuants. See this illuftrated above, {•.xa7* note f ..

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Particularly of the LETTER SITMA. 131

comes Xs/S^Cf /^^^/> but r remains before 0 in the genitive, xl/S^ro^*
^»fMr»i$f or X&fjura^^ by rejedling the J before ^, becomes XajX-
«t^, lampas^ in the genitive Xapi/ruiog* of yi&c, or of w^, by rejecting
^ before i^ becomes ogvi^f avis^ in the genitive o^vAoq *. Farther,
it may be inferred, that ^ is equivalent at leaft to ^c, from what
happens in the formation of the fecond future of fuch verbs as
o^A>. For as rwrr^ hath in the fecond future rt«w, by throwing
out the r, which is the latter of the two confonants, the former
being the chara^eriftic of the tenfe ; fo o^ar {oifr^) hath 0^, by
throwing out the ^, which is the latter of the two component
confonants in ^, the i being properly the charadleriftic of the
fenfe. In the fame manner, ^fa^Ai (jp^aitrm) hath ^M^ and
l^m (e}^A») hath Mi. But that ^ was confidered by the Greek
writers as a double confonant, maybe clearly evinced from this,
that, like the other two, I and ^^, it obliges a vowel immedi-
ately preceding it^ though naturally fhort, to be long by pofi'^
don, as is well known to all who have the fmalleft acquaintance
with Greek profody. It may be concluded then, that ^ is not
only a double confonant f, but is equivalent either to n, or h%
or &^, though the general pradice of the Greek writers was to
reject r, di S^ immediately before 0-, or to fet down 0- in mod
cafes where the general analogy requires ^, and this, it ihould
feemi in order to produce a found more pleafing to the

R 2 ear.

* SoMBTiMBt r is thrown out betwiict » and ^, after whidi the kc eoming together muft
make S* thus, a»«»r(, «»«««, «»«(, rex^ Gen. «vfl«r«f » where the { Is reiblved into «cy and
the T is reftored. See a mod ingenious Diflertaiion, afcribed to the late learned Mr
Jia* Mar&land, entitled, De Orwcorum f^^inti ^eclittatione Imparifyilabicd y et inde for*
mata Latinorum Tertia^ ^offtio Grammatical £itat cum Editione alte^ft Euripidxs Dra-
matis Suppticittm MuHimm, quam Londini excudebat dodus typographus Gul. Bowi sr,
nuper defunftus, ejufque difcipulus J. Nicboi.s. X775-

i* Trb other arguments adduced by Holxwicz, to prove that (is not a double ooolb*
iwnt, do not ieem to have any weight. ' Fin/. Imftitui* Gram* Gr. uUfufra.

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132 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS^

ear *. ^lyfi^^ therefore, not only lends its affiftance to the den-
tal mutes, in order to form ^, but even frequently occupies
the place of ^, the component mute being rejected.

II. SIFMA is the only coafonant whole power is employed
in the formation of the dative plural of the imparifyllabic
declenfion ; and this is done by interpofing k immediately be*
fore I of the dative lingular : asj pir<»g^ orator^ Dat. Sing, pnrogif
Dat. Plur. pnTogtrt. So Koga^ C^^^^f)* corvus, D. & i^geuu^
D« P. xogetKCif which is M^a^r ^Xo| {^xiyi), fiamma^ P. S. ^>iyi^
D. P. ^Xoyeri, which is (px^f r ^n\ (jS^^O* /#/, D. S. ^ny^f, D. P. ^nx^w,
which is jS^^i. So alfo ^\|/ (<v«^()» oculus^ D. S. akti, D. F. arro-i,.
which is 4l>//i- ^A^a-^/ (''Af a/B^, -^fr^*/, D. S. "'AjajSi, D. P. "Ago^i^
which is ''AgoL^^/r t^ariiXi'^ (xar^X^f;), fiala^ D« S« xotr^Xi^
D. P. i^aTfj\i<l>ciy vrhich is Jsar^Tuif/i* Alfb, ia)^ ii^^r^)^ tpahtm^
D. S. hourly X>. P. not dteirdri, nor ^<^i but ^tt«ri| becauie r, d> 9^^
are thrown away before c. T^a/Arag {Xo^/jLraif), lucerna, D. S. Xa/«r
TO^ij D. P. not X^/csra^ri, nor X^pr«(^i^ but X^/trop^i. o^ri^ C^f yi^f)^
P^ S. ii^id^^ D. P^ ^npt 6^w&r(j nor ^^^^^^^but o^yi^*/ f.

ffl. In

* It deierves to be remarked, tlmt one of the liquids, v/e. v, is alfo thrown away be-
lore ( of the QomiHative, and reilorcd again, in the genitive.. Thttt, fu^v > ^S^9 ^
l/,ihaLHf, has, in the gemtive> ^A4f«$« ' From (bme nopunatiyes^ both r and r ace thrown
away, andrefiored in the genitive :. thus^ yiy^ for yiyn^PTf, Gen. yi>«t>T«s* and they are again-
thrown' away before r in the dative plural, which is not yiyamt, but ytyctf*!. And when,,
in the prefents of verbs, 9 and. ^ occur together, they are both thrown away befo» ^«r o£
the future : thus, »vX»vl>r, vo/uto, xv^taif, evidendy for the (ake of a more pleafing (bund..
Vu^. Moor Elimenta L. Gr. p. 1 28.

With re(pe^ to what Hulbwicz aflerts about the final c, in nouns of the third deden--
fion being changed into ^, $, v, t, in the genitive, as 9^^$, /ti, Gen. ij^Ik* ^»k> atfif,.
Gen. S^»i5o$* fux«f, ff'^^, Gen. fuX«rof * x^f'^^ grotia^ Gen. x'^f'^'^'f* thitf arifes from hi»
not having obferved^ with Mr MAasLANO, that the full nominatives of thofe words are»
i^<tr, t^^Aif uii^afff x'^iTf* and that t is not changed into the above mentioned confbnants^
but that thefe having been thrown away in the nominative, eupbonia caufiy^x^ reftored.
tn the genitive, where that reafbn no longer takes place. See above, p«ii30..

t In the dative plural, v is alio, thrown o|it, ^w^^f^pafi^r, D. S. w^^n^ D.P. w^^cti^
Other changes are made in. thi» ^jfe in oart«^ nou^s n^pbanfef gratii^, but r is alwaxi-
iafertei

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Particutarfy of the LETTER XIFMA.. r Jj *

III. In the formation of the Greek verb, where a fyftem of
the mod beauttfai kind may be traced, the fingular or peculiar
power of ^'iyfML is very confpicuous.

1. It is always the charadteriftic of the firft future, in verbs that
are not liquid, a (lation which it maintains without a rival. Thus,
in pure verbs, rUi^bonoro^ ricatj Xvoj,/olvef Xvtrof^ rifMtaf, bonoro,rifjLf,&'^y
^^Xi«tf, amoy (pikntr^^ tXjj^oo), tmpieOy vkfigd^ur in mute verbs, tXex^v,
piicOf 9tyi%€rmj which is txI^a;, ^tvy^fugiOy piuy^r^j which is ^si^Iat,
fii^Z^^ ^^^^S^^ ^shc^f which is jS^ff^* alfo, /SxsTar^ video, (ixirtra^i
which is /3Xe\|/ar, rgifim, t<ro^ rgificv^ which is r^i\|/Ar, yga^cif, firlboy
y^it^u^ which is ygoL^pm* and to alfo in verbs ending in ta),
i^ and ^, in which the r,. K ^% are rejecfled before (rci of the fu-
ture, as has been already obferved and exemplified *.

2. It is- never the proper charadleriftic letter of the prefent
tenfe, and therefore in that refpedt alfo it is fingular. There
are indeed a great many verbs which end in ^at* and as it has
been faid that ^ is compofed of ig^ &c. it may be fuppofed that ^ is^
here the charaderiflic of the prefh&t. But as in fome verbs,
fiich as roffVAi and pl^n-^i, the former of the two confonants, to
wit Ty is reckoned the ch^Taderiitic ; fo in fuch verbs as (pga^^
and fofjui^o^ h perhaps is the dhara<5):enitic, as if they were
^ga^trm and ^o/t/^ifAi f. With, refpedi to thoie verbs which end

* P- 130. rt is to be remarked^ that in pore and mute verbs, the r, which is the cha-
radenftic of the firft future adive, is alfo that of the firfl aorifl adive, the firft future,
and BtA aorift middle y which, it is netdleft to eiempUfy,. as it it quite familiar^ even to
young (cbolars.

f In the Doric dialed, they are ^fiMW and ye^'o^. £, however, is certainly the cHa^
niAeriflicof their firft futm^s, ivhere V, ^,.S> are alwi^ thrown away. In this caie» the'
propriety of throwing out the ^ it apparent $ for, if it were retamed, ^^d^*f would have-
in the firfl future ^^i^tt, which is the fame with ^^ti^o'Tm* and f/i^^ would have fffu^av,,
. which is the lame with r»fAi^«r, where it is neceflary alio to' throw away the r which came-
fn^ai the prefeat tenfe, 00 account of the 9- wh^ch wa$ aflupned by the formation as the
eharaderiflic of the future, and therefore the futures adually are ^^int and tfAiru. See
Ais hinted at above^ p. 127. note |. See likewife,^ Mooa E/ementa- Ling* Gr.-

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•134 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTER Sj

in ctra in the prefent, in which a .0- mufl be fuppofed to be tlie
charaderiftic, this termination is plainly iiKident to a pardcu-
lar dialedt, and thofe futures in |a^, which are faid to ariie from
them, are aflually derived from obfolete prefents : thus» t^ «!«,
the future, which is faid to come from ^gac^&'tij is evidently
formed from the obfolete rgayti, which may be learned from the
fecond future, which is ^gayS. Indeed, ^gw^rm^ and other
verbs of that termination, cannot have a firft future regularly
formed, as r, which is improperly adopted as the charadleriftic
of the prefent, cannot alfo be the charadleriftic of the future
in the fame verbs. I may add, that the later Attics rejected
that termination in wa», and fubftituted rrm^ faying v^arrm^ inr
(lead of r^a0-ra *. I muft not omit obferving too, that a few
verbs occur which terminate in ^» and £•, in the pnefent, in
which ^ may be fuppofed thfi charaderiftic of that tenfe. But
thefe feem to be futures fubftituted in place of certain obfolete
prefents from which they are derived, and whole meaning they
have aflumed. I know not that there are any more of them
than the following, %^m^ coquoj o^a|#, mordcoj aXt^m^ opitulors
mii^i, aug^o. At any rate, ib few exceptions, and thoie too of
fuch a queftionable (hape, can have no eflfeA againft a general
rule. The confequence, however, is, that fuch verbs, by ha-
ving a 0* in their prefent, muft be defedlive i for there is no
proper way of diftinguifhing their firft future, the r already be-
ing employed as the charaderiftic of the prefent.

3* Sir MA never is the charaderiftic of liquid verbs,
the liquid of the prefent always remaining in the future,
and fome other change being employed to mark this laft
tenfe, fuch as the fliortening of the penult, if it be long,
and the circumfledion of the final £ f • The reafbn is, the
analogy of the Greek tongue does not permit a liquid to pre-
cede ^, except, fometimes in the Doric dialed, as, ig^, ex-

• Vide L^NNEP in Analogiam L. Gr. p. 55, jj^, Sec.
f See Moon EUmtnta LmGr, p. 128*

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Particularly of the LETTER 2irMA. 135

nVo, l^em* or for fome fpecial caufe, as in the cafe of the prepo*
fition u in compofition, for example ivn-uga, in/ero, as will be
fliewn more particularly afterwards *•

IV. The fingularity and independent nature of the ^ is atfo
very flriking, when we take a view of the (late in which the
liquid 9 is found, when it precedes the difi^rent letters of the
alphabet f. This may be fuccefsfuUy exemplified in the cafe
of words compounded with the prepofitions h and trhp- where
we may remark one fcheme of analogy for the voweb, one for
each rank of the mutes^ (which includes alfo the double confo-
nants, as thefe al^ begin with a mute,) and one for all of the li^
quids ; but die folitary and abfolute Si^/cta pofTefles a fort of
analogy peculiar to itfelf, difierent from all the reft, diough no
kfs regular and beautiful.

1. EN and trvv^ in compofition, remain before the vowels with<-
out any change ; as, ENxAXXo^irA^^ immutaj 2TN-0/«fA», una ba^
Uto^ £cc.

2. Bbforjb tht^firfi rank of the mutes, 9 is changed into jbcw
Thus,

Ilf/^, unaperfuadeo.
B»ivc9^ congredhr^

fn/rrar, incido.
BaXXA», injicioi 2TM-J:

4>o^fA^i importo. l4>^ovfA», confcntio.

The reafon is, that /x, being a labial liquid, coalefces better
than 9 with the labial mutes t, /3, ^, which may be obferved im
every fuch union in. the language X^.

3^ Before

» See below p^ rjji

f Thk liquids are called immutable for the rea(ba fbnnerly given ; but their immuta-
bilitj applies chiefly to their fituation in the infleftions of nouns and verbs ) for f is muta-^
ble in different parts of the analogy here remarked*

X PAaTxcuLAJLLT IB tfaofe ncw pidents in «»*»> which are formed from the (econd fli-
ture of other prefents by changing # into mm^ and inferting » imniediately after the^
^owel in the antepenult : thus, Xumm^ >uw»if AiraM^, XtfViiw^ which is Ai/aw^* A«j8W,.
X^f XmffmwUf A*»/9<(>tf» which is x«i^/?«>tf. The fame thing happens before ^, which is
compounded of any labial mute and r, tbuS| SM-t)/x^, refngiro* See p. iso* note f.

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136 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERSj

3* Before the fecond rank of the mutes, f is changed into
y. Thus,

fKXfiA», includo. {JLtiKtm, cMvoco*

Tgafti, in/cribo. T[TJiT%k&m^ Jitnul rideo.

Xgiof^ inungo. \1Lm, confundo.

The reafon is, there being no palatine liquid, 7, the interme-
diate palatine mute, coalefces better than v with the mutes of
its own order ; and this is a combination of very freqUent oc*
currence in the Greek language * ; the found of the r being at
the fame time retained and incorporated in the pronunciation
with that of 7, though the former is thrown out in writing, to
avoid the concourfe of three, and fometimes of four confonants.

4* Before the third rank of the mutes, 9 remains unchange-
able ; thus, £N-TioAi, intendo^ STN-To^artf'Ar, commoveo^ &c.
The reafon is, » being a dental liquid eafily coalefces with the
dental mutes, without any change.

5* Before a liquid, 9 paffes into a liquid of the fame kind
with that which it precedes ; thus,

EA-Aa/E/^A^, illucco. STA-As^at, colUgo.

EM-Miyw/DW, immifceo. 2TM-Ma^<ir, corripio.

EN-NftiAT, inbabito. 2TN-Nosa^, mecum rtputo.

£P-P/7o«tff inalgefco. 2TP*Psa^, con^uo.

All this evidently was done eupbonia caufL But it is to be obier ved,
that before verbs beginning wit^ ^ , the prepofidon b feldom
pafTes into e^ , becaufe, in that cafe, certain porfons of the prefent
tenfe of the compound verb would be confounded with certain
perfons of the imperfe<5l tenfe of the fimple verb ; for in verbs
beginning with f, the i is doubled after the fyllabic augment;
wherefore the euphony was generally here facrificed, in order

* Tausy from fatr^, 9ftenJot ^e have in the perfefi, not «i^«»»a, bat ^8^*yM. And
in the new preieAts in «»m, fohiied from a fecond future^ as already mentioned b the pre-
ceding note } ifiy^w, ip»y5, i<i/y»iw, l^tydtm^ which is f^vvowv** >ix^f ^xf^f ^X**^* ^''
X<if^, which it Jimyx^f^f- The fame thing happens before (, wUoh is coropouiMled of any
palatine mute and ^* thus, N*Sitt, in/ai//M*

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Particnlarfy of the LETTER SIFMA. 137

to obtain a greatisr advantage, hgaitr^*^ in/uo^ for inftance, being
preferred to ipp^rrm *.

6. In the cafe of the folitary llyfMt^ u before <r^ if a vowel
foUow$ the ^s becomes another c* thus, 2T2-2irf«, una ctbum
capio. If a mute follows the ^, then, in the cafe of ^vr, the i^ is
(truck out > but in the cafe of u^ it remains : thus,

rsr ilUkot^ contrabo. VXHu^^^ infcro.

rjS 2T- J [No example tO EN-j [No example f-]

r^ t2<I>«rr«^, ^muljugulo. l2<Pfay/^«, ftgnum imprimo^

e» r2KaffT«», Jimul fodto. ^YJrKrm^

try 2r-J [No example t] EN

r;^ [2Xi9/tari^4V, conformo.

[No example {•]

2XoXa^A^, immoror.

er r2Tfarey«, Jimul nulito. (TTfipoi^ intorqueo.

vi Tt-VLa»\, una vivo. EN-^ZiofMi ||, inftrveo.

rS" I £No example {.] I [NQexam^e$.l

Vol. n. S The

^ Tax iaeonvenience which was thus prevented by tf remaiaing undianged, may be
perceived by declining the prefeat tenle of the compound verb, and the imperfeft of
the fimple verb \ thus,

Compound Vxxb : Pxxsxmt Tsmsx.
S« mcUrT0, ^tiimitp If^mwru,

D. JPPAnTETON, BPPAnTETON,

P. EPPAnTOMSN, XPPAnTETE, tOmm^^

SfMPLS Vxxb : IiiPXXfxcT Txnsx.
•S. if jctfTTHy iiitlimff Vc^«v>»

D. KPPAnTETON, iJVVirmv,

P. EPPAOTOMEN, XPPAnTETI, i^fivrev.

f This cannot be exemplified* becaafe there is no Greek word which begins with wff,
C3Kept ^nvfM, extiuguo, with its verbals.

X Taxax is no Greek word which begins with ryw

I Fox i, which we ihewed above to be equivalent to ii^ is alio, at leaft in die Doric
dialefi> equivalent to ri.

f Tbbxx is no primitive Greek word which begins with ffd> except td^, fMiU§%

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138 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERSj

The reafon why ¥ remains in the cafe of o, is, that if f were
omitted, as in the cafe of ^vr, certain perfons of the prefent of
the compound verb would be confounded with certain perfons
of the imperfedl tenfe of the fimple verb, as in the cafe of if
becoming ig before ^ , which has been already mentioned *^

V. Laftly^ The peculiar nature of STyfta, and that which feem»
to have fuggefted its various fundlions in the ftrufture of the
Greek tongue, arifes from this, that it is the only letter which
is fibilant or hiOing in the whole Greek alphabet. For ^, which
by fome is confidered as a fibilant letter, is no farther fb than
the two other double confonants \ and \|/* and whatever fibila-
tion is obferved in their found, they plainly derive from a-, which
is half of their compofition.

In what manner then the improvers of the Greek language
availed themfelves of this fingular letter, I hav« now endea-
voured to ihow. From the various ufes to which it has been
applied, fbme have confidered it as a fervile letter ; and from
ks hifling, and, as they thought, difagreeable found, fome of
the ancient writersi notwithftanding its great ufe in their lan-
guage^ conceived a violent diflike at it. But this, with fcveral
other particulars relative to the fame letter, I propofe to confider
in a fecond part of this £0ay.

In the mean time, if the authority of names be deemed of

any ufe in juftifying inquiries of this nature, I may afk with

QuiNCTiHAN, •* An ideo minor eft M. Tdllius orator, quod

'' idem artis hujus diligenti^mus fuit, et in filio (ut in epiflo^*

" lis apparet) redle loquendi ufquequaque afper quoque &aAor^

'* Aut vim C. C^sAEis fregerunt editi de analogid libri? Aut

'' ideo minus Mess ala nitidus, quia quofdam totos libellos non

" de verbis modo fingulis, fed etiam Uteris deditf ?**

* This will appear evident^ b^ decliniDg the preient tenft of a compound verb, with
the f thrown out, as Innt^it,, Sic« and the imperfed tenfe of the fimple verb, as Irwt^^p, &c.

f InJIttut. Orat. Lib. I. Cap. 7. *' Vilcfcit tibi hie fermo. Itanc > Scilicet Moamra
*^ ct LiPSio mc&gnam decurcecc Gxaroroaticuin hoc Kquor, quod tot dim Senntores

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Particularly of the LETTER IITMA. 139

If a farther apology ftill be requifite for a long difcourfe upon
a fubjed feemingly fo frivolous as a fingle letter, I might deny
that the fubjeft is frivolous. Nothing, it might be faid, is fri-
volous, which has for its objedl an inveftigation into the moft
minute caufes of the cultivation of that faculty, which, next
to our intelledhial powers, is the moft important the human
fpecies enjoys ; without which indeed our intelledlual powers
themfelves would, in a great meafure, be deftitute of the means
of improvement, but with the elegant and correal ufe of which,
elegance and corredlnefs in fcience muft ever go hand in band.
I may add^ that it is an exercife furely of no illiberal fort, to
explore, and to produce to view, thofe marks of minute atten-
tion which the moft accompliihed people in the world beftowed
upon the conftituent elements of their language, and which
contributed to render that language of all others the nobleft in
every refped, and to all thofe who attain to a knowledge of it,
the obje<^ of enthufiaftic admiration.

PART 11.

ALTHOUGH the letter 5ry^ be of fuch effential ufe in
the inflections of the Greek language, as I have endea*
▼cured to explain, yet when it happens, either in profe or in
poetry, to be frequently introduced without neceflity, the re-

S 2 peated

" im6 addo, Imperatores. Messala orator, i dariffimft CoavoauM gente, non librum
** integrrum De unic& liter^ S compofuit ? et cum laude quidein nominis (m, zdeb fine
^^ fraude. Claudius Ixnperator, qttatit^ cura, et peen^ dicam ambitione, tres novas
** literas invexit, lifque Romanam Hnguaxn auxit ? non alift, quam fi totidem regnh im*
** peril fines. Jam Cmsak ille Julius De ^naiogta. id efl de infimis Grammaticonim
*' ineptiisy binos libros confcripfit : et triumphales illas epulas variare et interiUnguere
'' non erubuit fcholicft ift& dape." Lipsius de reQa fronunc* Ling. LaU

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140 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTS RSj

peated fibilation thereby occafioned is ttndoubtedly verj diiar
greeable to the ear. Of this, a noted paflagc in the Medea of
EuRiPiDBS, which has been feverely cenfured by ibme critici^
is a fufficient proof;

Tavrw ev¥$ieififl^u$ ^Agyfcp erxu^ ^.

The poet, howeveri had not attended to this circumftanee,,
otherwife he would have ar(Mded fuch an oflbifive tautology.
Cicero, from inadvertence of a fimikr fort, has begun his
Topka with the following fentence : *^ M^ret nos res fctibere
^' ingreiTos, C« Trebati, et iis libris, qnos brevi tempore fatis
^ multos edidimus, digniores, e curfn ipfo revocavit voluntas
** tua«*' Several fuch paflages might be produced fVotn the
beft authors, both Greek and Latin, if it were worth while to
colle(5t diem.

It is remarkable, that in the Englifh tongue, where aDmoft
no infledlion takes place, and confequently where the S has no
peculiar duty to difcharge, that letter is of more frequent oc-
currence than in any other language, and occafions, especially
in the ears of foreigners, a conftant and difagreeable hiiCng f ►
Such a language would have been confidered as har(h and bar-
barous in an extreme degree, by thofe ancient authors who were

• t)i&nded

f '' S (%s Jobnsom) has to Sbgfiili the fame hrffi'itg^iouDd'as in other Tangnag^, and
^ iiohappily prevaik in (b many of oar word^^ that it produces in the ear of a foreigner
** a continued (ibilation/' DiQi. Letter S. Addison too had obferved, " That a change
^ has happened in our language^ by the abbreviation of feveral words that are termir
*' nated in eti, by Aibftituting an & in the room of the lafi iyllable, as in drowns, waUs,
** arrives, and innumerable other words, which, in the pronunciation of our fbrefieithers,.
" were Jrowmti, wa/ietb, arrwetb^ This (adds he) hath wonderfully multiplied a le^
** ter which was before too frequent in the £ngli(h tongue, and added to that hifling in
*^ our language^ which is taken la much notice of by foreigners.'' SfeSiilor,.tio. ij5*

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Particularly of the LETTER SITMA* 141

offended even with a moderate nfe of Yiyf/^ok in the Greek.
DiONTSius of HalicatnafTus, in particular, has faid, that " the
*^ TiyfMt 18 harfh and unpleafant, and when unneceiOrarily re-
** peated^ exceedingly offeiifiTC ; for its hiffing feems to be con-
^^ nedled with what is wild and irrational, rather than with the
" voice of rational beings* Wherefore (continues he) fome
^' ancient authors ufed it but feldom, and with caution, and
" othefs compoied whole odes without this letter */'

To condemn, however, the ufe of this letter on all occafions,
either becaufe its foimd refembles the hif&ng of a ierpent, or
perhaps becaufe the found of hiding has been an ufual mode of
expreffing diilike in different Ages and nations of the world,
would be si faftidious and hypercritical method of judging.
Herodotus, the fweeteft ^f all profe writers, furnifhes a va-
riety of fuch periods as the following : . Kfwodc/x&c ^y l»m
mofMttra^t tlxa^ofTi^ avrm ra ui%a rdifn ra^a tr^ia'i yi90(JU%yoiin
zgcKoiiiXcio'i Tol^i $9 r^tri cufjuo^i^i f • From this we may infer,
that the Ionic Greeks were not very much difgufted even with
a frequent repetition of the Siy/o^. But fuch a paflage, not only
on account of the frequent octiufrence of YiyfMt^ but &Ifo of
litu^ woald have been ituolerable Cd ka Attic ear^ which feems^
to have had a particular averfion to the repeated ufe of the
letter in. queilion, and indticed that refined people to^ prefer the
double TT to the double 0-^ in a great many of tlieir words ; as^
when they faid 6aKarra inftead of diuKfttrtraj rgarr^ inftead of
itgi^trmy atid eveft evgitr^ inftead of (rvgiirtrdfi to hifs. The propri-
ety of fuch a change, however^ feems to have been the fubjedt
of difpute among fome of the ancient writei^s, and gave occa-
iaonxo t^ jeu d^jprit o£ Luclak, which haft de&ended to our

times>

^'^X'e* " ^ '^^ ^ <^> «^ ^ «-Xf«fi^iy. w^St^a Xvwa' Sn^wiHt yaf m) kxlyy /A«AXe» \\
%ayiwli l^i^m&^eu hmff fif*n( i tf*v(iyf«^<* r^lf ySt wmXtuSf axat/i^ Ix/S*"^ ^"<^ ^^? *'•
wt^vXmyiiiftH* ua} Jt •« J^fyfMf ifhi ixmi Mr«/tf»* ni^i ^y5v. '0y«furr, Edit* "Reiskx J,.
iTol. V. p. 8d.

\ Book IL chap. 69^.

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142 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERS;

times^ under the title of AUn ^wfiivr^v* The judgment of the
Vowels ; where that exquifite author, with his ufual talent for
ludicrous compofition» has introduced the letter ^yfia arraign-
ing the letter T«5 before the tribunal of the feven Vowels, and
calling out loudly for juflice againft the encroachments made
upon him by this atrocious delinquent. It is fcarcely poflible
to render the performance intelligible to a mere Englifh reader,
as the ridicule chiefly arifes from the folemnity with which an
unimportant fubftitution of certain Greek letters in the place of
others, is treated. But it may be tranflated in fuch a manner
as to amufe this learned audience^ and ferve perhaps as fome
fort of atonement for the trefpais committed againft their pa*
tience, in the former part of a dry grammatical difcuilion.
The humour of the piece is heightened, by its being a very
fuccefsful and well fupported imitation of an ancient pleading.

LuciAN*« Judgment of the Vowels.

IN the Archonfhip of Aristarchus of Phalerum ^, on the
•• 7th of November f, the letter ST^/cta commenced a profe-
^* cution againft the letter TaZ, at the bar of the (even
'* Vowels, for violent diftraining of goods, alleging that he
'^ was plundered of all thofe words ufually pronounced with
^' a double Tav.

" Ye

* Thb learned Co&siwi, merely upon the authorhy of thn paffiige of Lucian, hat
inierted in his Fqfti Attici^ the name of AaisTAacHus Pia/ereui, as Arcbou Efonymms at
Athens, in the 1 ft year of the CCXXII. Olympiad^ and of the Chrifttan aera, 109. It
may be fuppofed, however, that, in a ludicrous compofition of this fort, Lucian would
not mind an adherence to the truth of chronology, but might pitch upon an Arcbon on
this occafion called Aaistaachus, in allufion to the fiimous grammarian of that name
who was born in Samothracia, and flouriihed at Alexandria about the CLVL Olympiad j
and who was fo eminent in his art, that the name Aristakcbus became fynonymous with
the word Critic. See Coasini Fafti Attid, Tom. IL p, X04. and Tom. IV. p. 165.

f ScALiGBA and others fiippole Uvun^wt to correipond to the month of Oftober. I
have preferred the opinion of Patau and Coasini, who make it to agree with November.

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it

€t

t€

Particularly of tbi LETTER SIFMA. 143.

" Ye Vowbls, before whofe tribunal I (land, as long as
the injuries I received from this TaJJ here were but of a tri-
vial nature^ whilft he abufed my property, and encroached
upon me where he had no juft right or title, I bore the lofs
" without repining ; and out of the deference which you know
" I obferve both to you and the other fyllables, I lent a deaf
*^ ear to certain iniinuations which were circulated to his dif-
credit. But fince he proceeds to fuch a pitch of avarice and
folly, as to be conftantly adding more heinous adts of vio-
lence to thoie which, with a reludlant filence, lufed to fuffer,
I am forced to arraign him before you, who are well ac-
quainted with the difpoiition of us both. And I am under
no fmall apprehenfion, on account of this expulfion to which
I am expofed ^ for while he is continually adding fomediing
more violent to what he has already perpetrated, he will foon
" thruft me completely out of my own province, fo that by be-
^' having thus tamely, I fhall run the rifk of being no longer
'' accounted a letter^ and all of us fhall have fome reafon to be
*' alarmed^.

** It is therefore expedient, that not only you who at pre-
** fent fit in judgment, but likevidfe the other Letters, fhould
'^ be upon your guard againfl this daring attempt. For if any
*^ one who has amind fhall be permitted to quit the pofl af-

" figned

On the 7th of Uvuf^Mh^ were ceFebrated at Athens the feflivah called Uvan^ia and
*0«^«^4^««. Sec CoasiNi Fafti Attid^ Vol. I. p. 63. and VoL II. p. 383. Alfo, Fottbii*s
ArcbtsoL VoL I. p. 418. & 423.

* In the Greek,, the laft member of this (entence is^ if I^u li «M^d«« ti ^«jS»* to which
BouaoxLOTius propofes to add, t« Aoim y^tifAfdora!' which he found on the margin of one
MS. and the refi of tit letters be in the fame alarming JhuMtion. InHead of rv ^J^Sv, the
celebrated HsMtTBaHUSs feems difpofed to read ry [i. e. nn] '^o^^, and to render the
fentence asfbllowi : Itautparum ab/it, quin^Ji quietus injuriam ultra feram, e numero
Uterarum expungar^ neque aUo ^fim loco^ quamfonus aliquis^ vel^ Jibilus. I have no doubt
^at the phrafe, as it is in the printed books^ came from the pen of Lucian, If Xrm ^1 %H%av
TV ^«^«y u e. ^ Tt rS 0O0U uHffdeu ifttv if tV^ and all of us bavejbme reafon to be ularmei^^
This meaning is confinned by what immediately follows.

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144 ANALOGY t^ GREEK LETTERSj

^* figned to him, and violently to intrude himfelf into that of
" anotheri and this too by your connivance, without whofe wd
'^ nothing is written to any purpofe, I cannot fee how the fe-
^* veral ranks will maintain their juft rights, according to the
^' original arrangement* But I truft that neither you will ar-
^* rive at fuch a ptch of negligence and floth as to permit the
*' perpetration of injuftice, nor, though you fliould decline all
** participation in this ftruggle, muft I^ who am the iu&rer,
^^ abandon my plea.

" Would to heaven! the audacity of certain other letters had
^^ received a check the inftant they began to violate the law,
'^ and then Aafi^fiia would not at this day have been at daggers-
^' drawing with 'PaI, difputing whether a pumee^JlQne (hould be
written Kif<rii^iq or ^i^r^Xi^, or a beadacb fhould be Mspt^kukylck
or Ki^aXa^yla: nor would Tuf^iM have been perpetually
^^ wrangling, and even frequently upon the point of coming
^^ to blows, with K««vflfr, in the fuller's (bop, infilling that the
^' Jiocks of wool Porn ^ by the fuller y fhould be yt «^X« and not
^' K^k^cLkut: and the fame Tafjt^fut, would have no longer con-
'' tended with Auf/.^l^, by taking away from him, and indeed
^' totally robbing him of, the word hardly^ calling it fAoya in-
^* (lead of fMXig- and the reft of the letters would have aban^
^' doned every attempt to introduce an ilUcit confi^on. For it
is fair that each fhould abide by his appointed fladon ; as
every tranfgreflion of the bounds prefcribed marks the cha-
" radler of a fubverter of juflice.

" Whoever at firft eftablifhed thefe laws for us, whether it
" was Cadmus the iflander *, or Palamedes the fon of Nau-
** PLius, — (fome afcribe this important charge to Simonides)
'"' — not only determined who fhould be firft and who (econd

" ia

* See above^ p. ii8. note f. The famous Cadmdi, {on of AgbmoAi is here called
0 vD^if^Ti;;, from his connedlion with Tjre, according to ancient authors origi«
nally built in an Ifland, which Alexander is faid afterwards to have joined to the
Continent. See the notes of Du Soul and HEMSTERHtjiSy in the 4to Edit, of LuciAv'i
IVorku Tom* L p. 87. Atnfi. 1 743.

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PartiOi/arfy of the LE't'TER SIFMA. 145

^ in that order wherein the feats of precedence are fixed, but
" alfo fully underftood the qualities and powers which belong
" to each of us. And on you, ye Judges, he hath conferred
" the larger portion of honour, inafmuch as you are capable
" of exprcffing a found by yourfelves ; on the femi vowels, the
^* next (hare to yoursj becaufe they require a fmall degree of
*' your aflillance^ in order to be diftindly heard ; and he hath
*' allotted the leaft of all to fome who, by themfelves, poffefs
" no fi)rt of found cwhatfoever *. Wherefore, it is the province
^* of you Vowels to be the guardians of thefe laws.

But this Ttei;, (for I have not a more opprobrious appel-
lation for him thaik his own name f) who, unlefs, by Jupiter !
two of yourfelves, \ mean'^AXfAc and T, excellent both, and
'* ieemly to behold» had come propitious to his aid, would not
** even have been heard, — ^this very culprit dares to injure me
^^ in a more atrocious manner than ever any other of the letters,
*^ by .expelling me from my native nouns and verbs, at the
'' fame time chafing % me away from conjun(£lions and prepo-
^^ fitioas, infomuch that I am no longer able to endure his ex-
^* ceilive rapacity* But it is now itime to date whence, and
*^ from what circumftances, thefe outrages originated.

'* I ONCE was fojourning at Cybelum, an agreeable enough
^^ little tpwui a colony, as is reported, of Athenians, and took
*' along with me the beft of my neighbours, the robuft *PdJ.
^' I lodged at the houfe.of a certain comic poet, whofe name
'' was Lysimachus, by extradion evidently a Boeotian, but
^* who was sunbitidus of pafimg for a native of the very centre
^^ of Attica. While I remained in the houfe of this landlord,
*' I deteded the avarice of this fame TaS. As long as, by de-
** priving me of my congenial friends, he feized only on a few
Vol. II. T ** of

* See AmsTOTL^'s definitioa of a Vowel, a Semivowel and a Mute, p. 123.
• t See below, p. 149,
X I have adopted the reading propo(ed by HEMSTtaHuit, ot$8« d'h^J^^itv and vAi^u

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146 JNALOCr 0/ GREEK LE^TTEJBLSi

i€

of them^ fo as, for inftance^ to calL/Mtfjp rfrT«^ii#9rtt ihfteaiE
of nav'agaxonttt I imagined it to be a cobehhoki praftice among
the letters who were thne educated oogttJher^ And erven^
while he claimed a right to force ta day into .his traia by the
name of ripuBgcp inftead of cifMfcv^ and uied die (aaM freedom
with other words of that kind, as i£ they- had been hisowoi
property^ I toterated^ what I heard with fome degne of pa*
tience^ and was not very violently pnowJced upon- th^ occa**
fion. But when, after beginning in this manner, he had- the*
impudence to metamorph^e the word figmfying ;fi€ei from:
xdunrirtgcM into «arrirf^ and to call c$bler*f lidibcr mmrrvfuk
inftead of mk^^fuuj and pitch wirra in ^oe of wU^m; and^
in ihort, having divefted. himfelf of all fenfe of fbame^ to
infult the name of ^iicrir, by pronouncing that fiiuniurtm
which ought to. have. been. /Scurix^0i0^ I got into a moft fori-
ous paroxyfm of rage^ being appreh0n£i« that fome^ one, in.
procefa of time, might ▼enture to iky ritm isiftead of mjmi.
and. ib' not Uaye, me. fb.much as a. ftng^ib /g^^^l beftech.
you, in the name^ o£ Jovei to. bear with tfais^ jufti indigna*
tion« when you neflec^ that my fpirit is £6 vbm(^ dfcprefledi
and that I: ham none who. are ready to "hetj^^me; for when
the queftion ia about dopnyiogiiQe o£ wMds^ that have been:
-my wonted' and familiar^ companions) furely no trivial and
vulgar objeAa are at fbke* > Having>tom my prattling fti^'^n^
my ^vounte-magpUi as it were out of my boibm^- he calls it:
his fiirrc^i and^ ia defiance o£ the command^, of Aristar*-
CHuSi, he;hath.feizfid.Qn.my Wiij^v#^ whidif 1^ calls^ (p&rre^.
on my ^i/| (lyling thorn yjrmi^ and • my otg/els^ to^whieh he-
givea. the odioius name o£ mmrmpoL, He hath benie <^ whole
hivei% o£ my A^/^ calling' them /»i?Jrmi, inftead of fLOSeaw.
Nay, having made an. incurfion. into the Attic territory, he-
hatk even carried away, in the mod outragious manner, the
region of bees, mount Hymettus itfelf, and that too before*
your own eyes and thofe of thQ other fyllables. But why

" dos

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Particularly of the LETTER IITU A. H7

"•* do I mentfon fuch circumftances as thefe? He has baniftied
me emir cly otit df Tbeffalj, to^hich he infifts tipon giving
the name of Tbeitcdjy and he has claimed an e«lufivc right
to the very fea^ which he calls ^'Kourra iriftead of ^oCKtMrctor.
Nor does he even abftain from the beets itl my garden, info-
^ much that he ha* not, I may fay, left me a fingle •odvaXdc,
** or iittle pole, vAnth I can call my own. Bnt you yom^felves
** can bear me Witncfi what a patient ibara6kr I am; for I
never fb much as found fault with ^, when he ftole* my pre-
cious frfM^ayicg'*) or emerald ^ from me, and thruft meout of
the city of Smyrna \ nor with |, when he violated every fti-
•* pulation t, and even has Thuctdides die hiftorian as the
** abettor of his guilt. As to my next neighbour 'Pc5, it was
^* but ah zGt of hunlatiity in me to forgive bim^ when, in the
^* ddirmm of a difeafe, he planted tny myrtles in hb own garden,
^ as if they had been called ftvppspiu, and not pt^opripaif and,
^^ under the prefltire of a deep melancholy, ftrudc me a blow
'* on the cheek. Such is the patient natural teilnper with which
^' I am endowed.

** But t3be Violent difpofidon of this TaS will be ftiH more
"^ apparent, when we refled, that he has alfo injured, not only
*• Aixra; ©?ra and ZJra, but almoft every one of the other
^^ letters. Call in the plaintifis. Hear, O ye Judges, what
^* /^Tu has to fay. — A. He ha'th bereaved me of my faculty of
** per/everance, requiring, in the face of all law, that it (hall be
** called ipTiXij^tia inftead of MiXij^iia. — Ltften, 1 befeech you
^ to the wailing of Oijra, who is tearing his hair in anguilh for
^^ the lofs of his gourde which has been changed from xoKvwv^n
^ intOMXMui^; and to Z^rcft, complaining that he no longer
^ hears^the ^tific (fibepipe nor the found of tbe irumpet, trv^i^n^

T 2 •' and

• Which is ibmetimes written*^(«y>n, as Tfi.Cp* is written 2^^(Far, See the annou*-
tion of Hemstsrbusius.

t •viSwv,— which Thuctoidib writes ^Mw^vt^ and fo ifi many other words, iiiing |
for r. as is well known*

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148 JNJLOGY of GREEK LETTERSj

" and that he is not allowed even to grumble^ the proper word

I u

and caXri^itv being now fupplanted by trvgirtM and tf^aXrimw*

yf (;^f<y being now no more. Who could have patience to en- |

^' dure fuch indignities ? or what punifhment is adequate to '

the demerits of this mod execrable TtxZ ? !

But, in (hort, he is not only injurious to his Hndred tribe
of letters, but has already begun to encroach upon the hu-
man race, in fuch a manner that he permits them not to
make a proper ufe of dieir tongues. Apropos of tongues,
** which this mention of human afiEairs has introduced, it
" brings to mind how the mifcreant has ufurped my province
'* here too, by metamorphofing y>Jiffffaj a tongue^ into y>jSirT»^
" O thou villanous TaS ! thou very bane of all tongues ! —
*' But to return from this digreilion to the defence of men^
" whom he has fo grofsly injured. He attempts to torture dieir
voice, and bind it«with chains. W)ien one perfbn beholds
a beautiful object, and wifhes to ftyle it »aXoy, fatty up comes
this Toiu, and mod impudently obliges him to call it raXoy >
fuch is the violence of his claim to be at the head of every
thing ! When another is {peaking of a vine-branch by the
appellation of fcK^ftgLf he himfelf being rX^/Mf, a wretch^
makes the poor word wretched too, by calling it rX^^»
Nor are his injiu-iea confined to vulgar men ; he even forma
a plot againft that tremendous Monarch, ta wl^om the earth
and the fea, in a fupernatural manner, are reported to have
yielded * ; and iufkad of giving him his proper nanie Ku^of,
Cyrus, he {peaks of him by the, appellation of Tv^oc, as if
he were a cbee/i. ,

" Such then are the ways in. which he injures men in their
fpeech. But how does he ftUl more materi^y injure them t

'' They

* L9CIAN feems here to aQude to die magnificence of the orienul ffyk. XjiiioPBOif»
m the Anabafisy relates, that Ctros the younger, with his army, pafled the Eu^iratci^
en foot, which had never been forded in that manner l>eforc, and adds — \U%u Bhw «%«,
%»l ^m/pSf vvt^Mpimf T^ wtMffAf Kp^ m$ fimnXdntxH. Lib. L See the annotatioa. of

HcMST£aBUIS#

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Particularly of the LETTER ^IFMA. 149

•*. They lament and deplore their hard fate, and often execrate
" Cadmus for introducing this TaJJ among the number of the
" letters. For they fay that tyrants, taking the hint from the
" appearance, and imitating the form, of this letter, did fa-
*^ bricate gibbets to hang men upon i and hence this moft
** mifchievous contrivance obtained its odious name *. For all
*' thefe crimes, how many deaths do you fuppofe this Tav de-
" ferves? For my own part, I reckon the only punifhment
'' adequate to his guilt would be to hang him upon a machine
*• of his own (hape j for it was owing to him that there was ever
'* fuch a thing in the world as the figure or the name of a
" gallows/*

Thus far Lucian ; and it mud be owned that the ludicrous
manner was the moft proper that could be employed in treating
fuch a fubjedl. Lipsius, in his Dialogue de reSa pronunciatione
Latina lingua, has obferved, ^ That many attack the reputation
" of the letter S, and even form a defign againft its life.*' —
famam ejus multi petunt, imo viiam. — And he adds an enumera-
tion of thofe enemies. '' Pindar (fays he) reproaches it, and
^' calls it xifilfi>^099 Jpuriouif and, out of hatred to it, is faid to
^' have compofed verfes widiout its afliftance. Dionysius the
** rhetorician, in exalting the "PS, undervalues this letter, and
" brands it with the vile epithet of ^figKiifi, favage. All the
*' Attics deteft it, and generally have fubftituted TaD in its
^^ room. Latin, authors feem to join in the confpiracy \ and,
'^ among men of rank, Messala fays it is not even a letter,
^^ but only a bifs. Among teachers, Quinctilian pronouncea
^' it to be a rough letter, and harfh in the combination of
*^ words* Nay, even the ancient writers rejedled it, in imita-

" tiott

* '* Vx&iiissiMA vocis rtiwfl^ originatlo : raSf, rt^v^i, hoc eft in modum xmv eiFor-
'' matut : tt per contnAionem %m»^%* etpraepofito figms ut fieri folet,, c«v^.'' Me*-

MAQlUa.

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tjo A^^LOGY of GREEK LETrERSi

tion of the Attics ; and their method was, to ufe mtrtare and
•' pultare inftead of merfare and pulfare^ juft as Ennios ufcd
adgnUusfarl inftead of aggreffus fori. The poets alfo have
taken a fide \ and« in their verfe, this letter, when a confo*
nant follows, is commonly expunged. Thus, — v//i Uli dig-
nu^ locoque. And — omniht! princept : And in the Plays of
" PxA.UT;Us and Tehence, examples frequently occur/'

Against ail this hoftilky which has been declared againft
the S, Lrpsius undertakes its defence. The paflage is curious;
but being too long for a quotation, I refer to the work itfelf.
The elegant Muret^ts ts a Speaker in the Dialogue, and on
him LiTsius devolves the taik of vindicating his favourite
letter ; but, like other ftrenuous advocates, he appears to carry
liis zeal for his client too far *"•

There

^ T YirA^L tranflflte feme exeerpts' from it in this note, fa anfWer to PiwoAa't diarge,
MoRBTos infifts, *' That £f>^ lun a gcntiiiie <bond» and evesy odier BMrirk <tf a gettoioe
'' letter/' And with refpefi to the epithet of 8ie*^ P^*° ta it bj the Halicaraaffiaa,
if the meaning be, that £ denotes a (bund fimilar to the biffing of lerpents, this he thinks
« very ftrange objeftion. '' Why then (G17S he) don't you de(pi<c the letter R, becaufe
'' it is expreflive of the noi& of dogs I M, becaufe chat ef oaea \ B, becaoTe that of
" (beep ? For dogs fnarl^ oxen ibto, or utter a ooiie which ia'Grtek is pmAin^ and ia
'^ Latin nmgirt^ and flieep bUaU But (ince jou call this biffing of (erpents deteflable,
*' tell me, what fhall you think of winds, of trees, of men ? You srill not deny that they
**' wbi/ptr^ and that moft agreeably.— The aacseat inventors of names, as if nature had
'' been dieir guide, denoted the mofi delij^itfttl of all objefUby lihi»lttlcr. Leek up te
'* the heaven, there you behold the /Mr, ihtjfari. Look down to the earth, among the
** things that are /weei, you ^nd/^amr and^/nr ; among the charms of bve, wbifiers
** and ktfis ; and among the joys of life, JUt^ fif^^ fimMhtfu^ And a little after he
fidds, '' l*he Atticsi you fiiy, deipiTed it. Why ftiauki I be furpriM that the moft fafti-
** dious of mortals did (b ? But the Lacedssmonians and Thebans were of a different opi-
'' nion. At this very day, the robuft inhabitants of Germany delight in this ftroag (i-
*' bilating found, which (let not my Lmitslie e&ndbd) is Avoided by you, idae <ieRcate
'' inhabitants of the Netherlands. You are in the wrong. But I do not point «ut your
*^ error, becauie Lucian has already pleaded and difcufled the caufe before the tribunal
** of the Vowels.'' The Speaker next proceeds to anfwer the oljedions of BIsssAUk and
<^iiiCTiLiAN, and then (hews that the ancient writers made very frequent ufe of this
letter, infomuch that their infertion or (ubftitution of it ieemed, in his opinion, to favour
of affedation j and, after producing a great many inHances of this, and accufing thofe

poets

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PdrdcuHrfy 4>f tht LETTER S^IFM A. ist

There feems, however, to be no good rtaibn either for ap*
plauding or condemning the found of this letter in the extreme.
Paflages have been already quoted from EuRiPipss and Cicero^
which, if read with attention, muft convince every one, that
ks frequent recurrence is difagreeable to the ear, though that
eircumftance feema to have efc^ped the notice of the authors
themfelves in compofiog tho& fentences,. But Milton haa,
with manifeft defign^ availed htmfelf of. the .difcordant found
produced by fuch a repettiioni and that with poMrerful effedt, in>
the following verfes, where Satan, when deibribed as having*
arrived at Pandaemonium, and in a boafting^ manner related his
fuccefs againft Man, is received by his infernal aiidience with a>
general hift.

poets of Ignorance irfio (kfpi/e this letter, fae putt the queftton^ " Have not I now faid
** enodgh, Lipsivf, about the foodoefi a«d^cdp«6l whi^k tbi ancient* had fortfats let.
" tcr ?— Yea, qui^ lenowgh."' ^

Tms Dialogue betwixt liipsius and MuaaTVSy.isdedicated to the renowned Sir PiiaiF
ftiDNBT. The icene is laid on theQairina]j» iii a garden belonging to the fplendid Hfrro*
LtTvs of Sflb, the patron of MvMifT»t« ]&iitii^ repdreiitnt^ hiipfelf as A^young mab on •
his travels at Rome, pofleffing an ardent defire of knowledge* Having paid A vifit- at
the apartments occupied by Murbtvs In the houfe of his patron, he was fiiewed into the
garden, where he found that accomplilhed fcholar (o deeply, engaged in reading, as for
(ome time to pay no attention to the approach of the fhnnger. The book he had in his
hand happened to be a work of Lmtoa bimfi)lf^ entitled. V^riir, ^bWh had* been lately
puUiihed at Antwerp. A«plen(||ig^dfiicripii4NXof this interview is given by Lipsius in
the commencement of the Dialogue, '' Cubicukm ejus cum pulfajjtm^^^ &c. They af-
terwards enter upon the proper fubjeft of the piece, In which Murktus is reprefented as
the principal fpeaker. But the ftyle, in point of elegance, is far inferior to what
MvaaTDs wouM have really made ufe of. The w«rk indeed' is confeifedly the compofi-
tion ot JLiMAvs, whole Ladnity, though he was one of the ableft critic^ of the (izteenth
eentury, has with juiiice been cenfuredi His merit was fuch, however, that even his ftyle
p,rocnred a numerous tribe of imitators* But no modem writer of Latin has Airpafled
the elegance of MuaaTUs. ' His orations in particulary in point of eaie and fluency of
cxpreSoii, mvf* peihaps ,even vie with dio& of Cickeo. It mvft' giv^ every fchoUr
plenAire to hear> that the celebrate R^nMUEiiius of I]«yden, b at prefent engaged in .
fKeparing for the pre& a new and complete edition of the works of Muaaros. " U faut
*' (fays Batls) bien aimer les mauvus modeles quand on efl capable de pr6f(^rer le.
^ flyle de Lipsa ib celui de Paul MANuca, ou Ik celui de Muaar y un flyle qui va par
'^ lauts, et par bonds, herifle de pointes et d'ellipfes, \ un ftyle bien li6 et ^ut^ot^ et qm
** develope touu la senfife.'^ DiQ. jfrtic, Liwsm, Not. [L.1

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152 ANALOGY of GREEK LETTERSj

So haying &id, awhile he ftood expeding
Their univerfal fhout and high applaufe
To fill his ear : when contrary he hears
On all fides from innumerable tongues
A difmal univerfal hiis, the found
Of public fcorn. — — -

He would have fpoke.
But hils for hifs returned with forked tongue
To forked tongue : for now were all transformed
Alike, to ferpents all, as acceflbries
To his bold riot :. dreadful was the din
Of hiifing through the hall ; thick fwarming now
With complicated monfters, head and tail
Scorpion and afp, and amphifbocna dire,
Ceraftes hom*d, hydras and elops drear
And dipfas "*•

On the other hand, it is certain, that a judicious introdudion
of this letter produces, on many occaiions, a very pleafing ef-
fect ; fuch as maybe perceived from the two concluding words
of the following verfes of the fame poet. Our firft parents are
the fubjed.

-He (m his fide

Leaning half-raifed, with looks of cordial love
Hung over her enamoured ; and behdd
Beauty, which whether waking or afleep
Shot forth peculiar graces ; then with voice
Mild, as when Xephyras on Flora breathes,
Her hand, foft touching, whifper'd thus f •

Thiocritus^ in the very beginning of his firft Idyllium,
reprefents Thyrsis^ a fhepherd, addreifing a goatherd in the
following manner: '^ Goatherd^ this pine, which is befide

'' the

• Par. Loft, Book X.
t Ibid. Book V.

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Particularly of the LETTER SIFMA. I Si

^' the fountaini melodioufly utters its whifpering drains with
** inexprcffible fweetnefs : thou too played exquifitely on the

Sf^^iV^i^*

With refpedl to the whifpering or gentle rudling produced by the
pinesi the Greek Scholiad remarks, *^ That the pines whifper
^ when they are gently fanned, the breeze being broken by
" the clofenefs of the leaves *." He has likewife obferved,
" That the. word ^pt^v^i&'/i^ is contrived on purpofe, from the
^* peculiarity of its found, to imitate the (bund which it ex-
" prefles f." I may add, that the Doric words fLAitrhrm and
tf-uf iVJif , indead of iA0ii^$Tct$ and &v(i^Bigf by bringing ayfMt be-
fore iixr»^ confiderably augment, in this indance, the fweet^
nefs of the found.

f 'tlftfAmwtwMtTM it li Xf^K v«{« tip TV S;gat Oilnrra, c«ra iJfmnt rif f «rrqf$«
HoMEn abounds in infiances of ^OH^uvnw^fm, ts is well known.

Vol. 11. U V.

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V. Account of the Gshman Theatre. Bf Henri
Mackenzie^ Efqj F. R. S. Edin.

[Riad by the Autbw^ Afril ar. rySt;]

NO country perhaps affords a. more iaterefting literary fpe^
culadon at prefent than Germany. For refearches in £:i^
ence and philofbphy, for laborious iaveftigations into the prini»
ciples of public polity and law, (he had long been confpicuous y
but, till very lately, fhe maxle fcarce any preteniion to fame in
the other departments of literature, which ufually precede thofe
more abftradl and laborious purfuits I have juft mentioned;
Even in hiftopy, her writers were fewj but of poetry and
helks lettres^ fcarce a trace was to be found \ and of the very
little of either, which the authors of that country produced;,
the language in which they conveyed it,^ was a foreign one.
But of late, Germany begins to exert her£blf in the mcure ele*
gant walks o£ literature,, with an uncommon degree of ardor ;
and in her literary afpedl, fhe prefents herfelf to our obfervatioa
in a fingular point of view, that of a countiry arrived at mar
turity, along with the neighbouring nations, in the arts and
fciences, in thepleafures and re^nements of manners and fociety,.
and yet only in its infancy with regard to writings of talle and.
imagination. Thefe, however, from this very circumftance, flie
purfues with an enthufiafm, which no other fituation could:
perhaps have produced ; die enthufiafm which novelty infpires^
and which the feverity incident to a more cultivated and critical
(late of literature does not reflrain. Since the time of Haller
(who, by an extraordinary combination of talents, united the^

deepeft

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JCCOUNT of the GERMJN THEATRE, 155

fkepeft ubftra^on of icience with the cafe and pleafantry of
the lighted poetry.) and of Gbllert, the La Fontaine of
Germany, that coantry has throvm into the circle of literature
a greater variety of produdions in poetry and belles lettres than
any other nation of Europe. While other countries have been
applying themfelves chiefly to moral, phyfical and geographical
enquiries, Germany, remounting as it were to the fources of
ancient infpiration, has given to the world works of tiiat crea*
tive forty which are feldom produced in thofe later times, when
fancy and imagination give place to the fbber certainties of
fcience and phtlofbphy. Among thoie works of imagination!
if is ilifficient to mention feveral epic poems, one of which at
lead, the Meffiah of Klopftock^ is of the moft acknowledged and
univerfal reputation*

The language of Germany, however, has not yet attained,
as diofe who know it inform us, that perfection and regularity
neceffiiry to ftamp the higheft value on the produdlions com-
pofed in it. Its currency, for the fame reafon, is far from
eztenfive ; and therefore the original German works are fcarce
read at all beyond the circle of the empire. French and En*
glifli tranilators, particularly the former, have made up to
ftrangers the loft which this would otherwife have occafioned ;
and few books of any merit now appear in Germamy, that are
not republiihed in the Trench language by the bookfellers of
Paris.

Of tfaeie, one of the moft remarkable, and, from it/nature,
one of the moft interefting, is the theatre AUemande, or a Col-
legion of the moft approved theatrical performances of Ger-
many, tranflated into French by Meflrs Friedsl and de Bon-
neville, which is rivalled by another oolledtion of the fame
kind, though not hitherto fo eztenfive, by Meflrs Junker and*
LiEBAULT ; both tranflations, as far as one may judge from
intrinfic evidence, are executed with fidelity and ability.

U 2 A«

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iS6 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

As the drama of every country marks more ftrongly than
any other of its produiflions, the features, both of its genius
and of its manners, I thought I fiiould afford a not unaccepta-
ble piece of information to this Society, by giving an account
of thofe publications, accompanied, as it naturaHy muft be,
with fome remarks on dramatic compofition in general, arifing
from the particular obfervations excited by the works in que-
ftion. Neither that account, nor thofe remarks, will pretend to
completenefs or regularity. Written amidil a variety of other
occupations, with but Httle leifure either of time or of mind,
I only mean them as prefenting to the Members of this Society
a Iketch of fomething that merits the further enquiry of the
induftrious, and which, as an amufement, will well repay the
time which the unemployed may be induced to beftow on it.

It appears by a preliminary difcourfe, prefixed to Mr Frie-
DEl's tranflation, fbmewhat contradidled, but without much
efFe^, by the preface of Mr Junker, that it is only at a very
late period that the theatre of Germany has arrived at any de^
gree of perfedlion. In the year 1727, Gqttsched, profefTor
of Philofophy in the Univerfity of Leipfic, undertook a re-
formation of the German (lage, till that time funk in a ilate of
barbarifm. But he gave only tranflations of French plays,
with one or two miferable originals of his own, long fince for-
gotten. It was not till between the yea'r& 1740 and 1750, that
any performance of merit appeared, or that adlors of eminence
(with very few exceptions) feem to have exifted to perform them.
About that period, the celebrated Eckhgf, the Roscius o£
Germany, began his theatrical career, in which he continued
to delight his countrymen till his death, which happened in
1778, a year remarkable in the annals of the (lage, fince it de-*
prived the world of three of its greateft adtors, Lb Kain^
Garrick and Eckhgf.

Besides the low (late of polite literature in Germany before
that period, of which I have taken notice above, the fmall ex-
tent

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ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE. 157

tent of each individual ftate muft neceflarily have obftni<£led
the progrefs of theatrical exhibition. The eflabliihment of a
gpod theatre is too expenfive for the limited revenues of the
fmaller potentates, among whom great part of Germany is divi-
ded. At Vienna J Berlin and Drefden^ there were theatres fupported
at very confiderable expence ; but thefe, I believe, were deftined
for the opera. This would indeed naturally be the cafe, where
the entertainment was meant for the Court. Dramas that
roufe the paffions, that fhake the foul, afford pleafure only to
the body of the people ; the great and the falhionable relifh
much more thofe fpecies of entertainment which gratify the
finer fenfes, or amufe the lighter fancy of the indolent and the
voluptuous. Mufic and dancing, or muiical dramas which
include both, are always their favourite amufements.

The progrefs of the German ftage muft have alfo been con-
fiderably impeded by the circumftance of the language being
fo different in different parts of the empire ; and in fome of
them fo degraded in the patois of the country, as of courfe to
make French the common language of the better £brt o£
people.

In the* year 1747, Lessing, whom the Germans regard asi
the chief of their dramatic authors, produced his firft comedy
at Leipfic ; and from this time downwards, a variety of au-
thors of genius contributed to form and to eftablifh the thea-
trical tafte of Germany. Their attempts, however, feem ftilk
to have been obftru^ed by the particular fituation of the coun-
try. No capital, like Paris and London, united or rewarded^
dieir efforts. The King of Pruffia, from whom one would
have looked for literary patronage, had always a prepoffeflion.
for French, and a contempt for German literature. We find
him therefore beftowing high honours on Le Kain, who aded
occafionally on a French theatre eftablifhed at Berlin, but never
interefting himfelf about the eftablifhment of a German ftage;
It is pretty remarkable, that the mufes of the empire founc}.

prote^ioi^

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«5« ACCOUNT if the GERMAN THEATRE.

protedtiMX and fupport chiefly from peribna engaged in ccnn-
«nerce, the firft theatres of any eminence being btiilt by the
merchants of Leipfic and Hamburg* After the conclufion of
the lad war, however^ the theatre appears to have received
icoafiderable encouragement at Vienna, fierlin, Manheim and
Drefden.

AaouT this period, the tafte for fentimental and pathetic
writing began to be wonderfully prevalent in Germany. The
works of St£RNB, and ieverai other Engliih authors of the
fame clafsi were read with the greateft avidity. I remember to
have been told of a club or fbciety, inftituted at fome town in
Germany, whofe name was taken from the fnyff-bim^ which
forms a ftriking incident in the celebrated (lory of the monk
in the Sentimental Jwmey. The Poems of Wf eland, Gssner,
Wbisse, Cffr. are full of the mod refined fentiment and fenlibi*
lity ; and the <:elebrated Sorrows rf Wbktbr of Ooobc carries
thofe qualities to that enthufiafttc height, whidi has ib much
captivated the young and the romantic of every country it has
reached K This prevalence of highly refined fentiment feema
commonly the attendant of newly-introduced literature, when
letters are the property of a few fecluded men, and have not
jet aUied diemfelves to the employments or the feelings of io^
•eiety. The fame thing took place at the revival of letters in
Europe after the long night of the middle ages. The Platonic
love of the ancient romance, and of the poetical dialogue of
the Provencals^ was the produce of the fame hig^-wroug^t and
metaphyfical fentiment, which is the natural refult of fancy
and feeling, untutored by a knowledge of the world, or the
intercourfe of ordinary life.

We are not therefore, to wonder, if, amidil what we might
be apt to term refinement in point of fendment aad exprefiioa,

* Soon after the publicatioo of that little work, it became a badge of fafhion among
tke young men of Germany, to wear as a uniform the drefs which Wshtir is deicrtbed
as having on in one of his interviews with CBAaLOTTX*

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ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE. 159

we iho^ld find ta thofe German dramas, a difregard for the re*
psdaritks and the decorum of the ftage, which is coniidered as
marking a very mde flate of the dramatic art. Snch difregard,
kt effi^» fome of thofe dramas exhibit in a remarkable degree;
The fcene is fullied with murder, and disfigured with madnefs^i ^
as often as that o£ the ancient Englifh tragedf. And in one
ef the plays of this colledtion, in point of tendernefs and
pa£ion» a pecfbm^nce of Tery high merit, Agnes Bernau,
the heroine of the pieee^ is executed on the ftage in a manner
as repugasmt to the delicacy m dignity of theatrical fituation
aa can weU be imagined, to wit^ by being drowned ; and one
of the cxeeuctoners is exhibited puihing her down into the wa^
ta when flie attempts to iave berfet£

This difi'egard of rule, and this licence of the fcene, are attend^
ed with many unfavourable, and yet perhaps with fome fortunate
efiedts. The rules of found- and liberal criticifm certainly pro-
duce, in the hands of great abifity and genius, the moft exqui*
fite and delightful performances. Yet there is a certain^reach
ef genius, which, they may reftrain from exertions that might
fbmetimes accoroplifli very iraluablie produdlions^ There are
moments^ of peculiar warmth, of imagination and felicity of
knguage, which, in the courf^ of a work where fancy is in-
dulged beyond the bounds of rigid critical rule, a writer may
experience above die level of his ordinary powers. Without
an attention to the critical regulations of the drama, Voltairb.
would not have written fuch admirable tragedies ; but, fromi
the reftraintB which the neceflity of that attention impofes on
die theatre of France, that theatre is loaded with thofe thoufand^
infipid plays which every year at Paris are exhibited and for-
gotten* The monotony of the modem French drama may
feirly enough be imputed to that nicety and faftidioufnefs of a
French audience, which will not fuffer any in-egularity, though.
&n6tioned by nature, or dignified by genius. I mean not by
diis to plead fi>r any indulgence to a licence their (lage has

lately

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x6o ACCOUNT of tbt GERMAN tHEAtRE.

lately alTumed in point of moral bknfeance^ which is ' equally
unfavourable to es:cellence x)f compofition and to decency of
manners. The fame remark might be extended to our ftagCi
were it not now funk to inch a ftate of degradation as hardly
to be worthy of notice.

The coUe<5lion of the German theatre by Junkbr, contains,
befides Sara Samp/on^ which is common to both publications,
three tragedies, fix comedies, a drome and a paftoral. That of
Frieoel confifts of twelve volumes, containing twenty-feven
dramatic pieces, of which thirteen are tragedies, nine are called
comedies, and five drama ^ a fpecies of performance for which
we have not yet got in Engliib a very definite term. It holds
a fort of middle place between tragedy and comedy, borrowing
from the firft its paflions and ientiments, from tiie laft the rank
of its perfons, and the fortunate nature of its conclufion.

This fort of drama was for fome time extremely popular in
France, and was thence adopted into the theatres of England
and Germany, but particularly into the latter, where it feems
to have been peculiarly adapted to that turn for high*wrought
fenfibility, which I have before mentioned as having become a
fort of national taile in that country. Indeed, moft of the
comedies of thefe volumes might be clafled Under this denomi*
nation.

There are three hiftorical plays, one of which, of the
higheft popularity in Germany, is Goet% de Berlicbing^ founded
on the hiftory, or rather indeed detailing the hiftory, of a chief
of that name, in the war of the peafants in the time of the
emperor Maximilian. This play goes beyond the utmoft
licence of our Shakespeare, in its change of fcene and mul*
tiplicity of incident. Yet this was written as late as the year

1773-
The principal authors of thefe coUe^ons are Lessino,

Goethe and Brandes. The two firft are fufficiently known;
the laft, Br ANDES, is the director of a company of German co-
medians;

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ACCOUNr of the GERMAN rHEATRE. i6x

medians ; and if we may judge from his performances in this
coUecflion, one of the ableft of the German dramatifts, though
he feems not to have attained in his own country fo much con-
fideration as I fhould be difpofed to allow him.

In Junker's colledlion is a comedy of Gellert's, which
gives a very favourable idea of his talents for comic charadler
and dialogue, called The Lottery I'tcket.

Weisse, a name of high dramatic reputation in his own
country, is the author of two tragedies in thefe volumes, one
of which, Romeo and Juliet^ is an extremely popular per-
formance in Germany. It is an imitation of Shakespeare's
Romeo and Juliet^ with the plot much comprefled and connedled;
but, in the fwell of its language^ and the extravagance of its
allufions, it goes rather beyond the original. Juliet ^ however,
is a better and more intereiling female character than is gene«
rally found in this coUedlion.

There is one performance, which, as it is of a Angular kind,
I may diiinifs with a particular notice here, by a writer whom
Germany places by the fide of Homer and Milton, Klop-
STOCK, the author of the Mejffiab. This is the Death of Adam ^
written in a dramatic form, though, as the author himfelf
informs us, not meant for reprefentation. The fubjedt in*
deed feems to exclude it from the ftage ; but the fituations,
though not of a pleafing, are of a highly interefting kind, and
the conceptions and language are marked with that force and
fublimity which his countrymen fo enthufiaftically admire in
Klopstock. The angel of death is introduced as a perfon in
the drama, announcing to Adam his approaching fate. The
appearance of this majeftic and terrible being is prepared in a
manner uncommonly awful and fublime. Adam and his fon
Seth are on the fcene. " The terrors of the Almighty (fays
" the father of mankind) are upon me. My eyes lofe you,
" my fon. What darkly gleaming light rolls before me?
" Feerft thou the fhaking of this rock ? Doft thou hear the

Vol. II. X " trembling

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i62 jiCCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

^' trembling of that hill ? Upon that hill behold him \ Seeft
^* thou, my fon, the angel of terror ?*' " Tis night around
*' me, (replies Sbth) but I hear the noife of founding fteps !"
The (ublimity of this terror, which ia conveyed to the car
while invifible to fight, has been felt in the fame manner, and
is exprefled in nearly the fame words, by a poet of our own
country, who, in that paflTage at leaft, has touched the lyre
with the true energy of i, bard. '^ Hark, (exclaims the Druid
in Caradtacus)

" Hark ! heard you not yon footftep dread
^ That fhook the earth with thund^ing tread,
. " ^'Twas Death !"—

It will be no difparagement to eidier of the modern poets, if they
ihall be thought to have borrowed the idea from the Oedipus
Coloneus of SopnocLBS«

Ths angel is. vifibte to Adai«, and announces his approaching
dtfTolutioU with the fimplicity and fblemnity of his function.
The figns he gives are the fun defcen^ng behind the grove
of cedars, and the return of the angel, wbo£s fteps fhall again*
fhake die earth ; '' Thkie eye fliall be diw, and thou fhalt not
" &e me—but thou (halt hear the rock burft with the noife of
" thunder — thou Ihalt hear, and die !" The reader is thus prc^
pared for the awful event, and the imagination* watches, from
fcene to fcene, the finking of the fun and the ihaking of the
earth, with that anxious expeiftation, thofe imVir/^'^terror^ (if
tlie expreflion may be allowed me}, which, of all circumflanccs,
give the flrongeft emotion to the mind. I take this ffiort no-
tice of the detail of the particular dirama* in queftion, though
not quite in its proper place here, becaufe it (lands without the
pale of theatrical eriticifm, and becaufe it \% the produtftion of
a. writer who is but Uule known in this country/ though his ge-
nius is revered, even tx> idolatry, in his owa.

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JCCOUNf of the GERMAN rHEAtRE. 16 j

1 NOW return to give fomc general account of the dramatic
coUcdHons before us. Mod of the pieces of which they confifl
are plays of fituation rather than of character. In the come-
dies, it is not the m/er^ the mifantbrope^ the hypocrite^ that is re-
prefented, but a father offended by the mifaltiance of his child,
a hufband hurt by the ridiculous extravagance of his wife.
The tragedies, in like manner, do not exhibit a perfonification
of ambition, revenge or jealoufy, but a fon outraged by his
father, a baron oflended by his prince, a prince tyrannifed over
by his love. I am inclined to think the chara<5leriftic drama
the moll pleafing, and generally the moft excellent. The cha-
radler of the leading perfon introduced, marks the events and
the (ituations in which it is placed, in fuch a way as ftrongly
to imprefs the imagination and the memory of the reader, and
colours, as it were, that particular province of mind which the
author means to delineate, with a pre^cifion and a fc«x:e whicL
is not found in fcenes where the fituation only aAs on the ge-
neral feelings of our nature. This kind of drama, however,
is not fo commonly found in later periods of fociety; both be-
caufe thofe later periods do not fo frequently produce peculiar
and ftrongly diftinguifhed charaders, as becaufe fuch charaders
haTe been already feized by the earlieft dramatic writers, who
only leave to their fucceflbrs the power of tracing them through
their fubdivifions and modes, of painting the nicer ihades by
which the fame great features of the human mind are difcri-
minated in different perfons. I think it may be remarked as a
defeat in the colletftions before us, that the dramas do not al-
ways place thofe features in a ftrong and fteady light. The
charafters are not always perfeAly or uniformly fupported, and
the perfons are fometimes exhibited ading from motives not
quite confiftent with the general plan of their charafter, nor
appearing of fufficient force to produce their anions. TTiis
may perhaps be imputed to that extreme refinement of feeling,
which I have before remarked to be particularly predominant

X ^ • in

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i64 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN rHEATRE.

in thefe pieces. Objedls feen through the medium (a meditim
too rather fluctuating and uncertain) in which the perfons of
the drama are placed, (Irike them with a force which the reader
does not always readily allow, and become motives to a con-
dudl of which he does not always perceive the neceflSty or the
ufe. Characters fuch as thofe of Shakes? £ A re, which ad
from the original native feelings of the foul, are immediately
acknowledged by the correfponding feelings of the audience.
It is of no confequence in this particular, that they are fome-
times ideal beings, placed in a world of fancy, different from
the real. They have ftill a fet of feelings, confonant to that
fphere in which they are placed, and to thofe characters with
which the poet has invefted them. But in the metaphyseal
refinements of fentiment, the fame thing does not take place.
There the feelings are created, not the characters ; and we have
no leading radical idea to which we can refer them, to which
we can difcover that intimate relation, which it is the great ex-
cellence of the poet to preferve, and the great pleafui*e of the
reader or- the fpeCtator to trace.

Thb plots of thefe dramas are generally fimple, but rather
diffufe ; a fault to which the freedom from critical reftraints of
time and place, claimed by the authors of feveral of them, is
apt to lead. They are frequently too eafily anticipated in their
conclufion ; and, in the conduCt, they do not produce many of
thofe ftriking theatrical fituations, which, even to the moft
enlightened fpeCtators, are highly pleafing, but which feem
abfolutely eflential to the entertainment of an ordinary au-
dience. In perufing fome of thefe plays which have obtained
the moft univerfal reputation in Germany, one is led to give the
audiences of that country credit for a high degree of refine-
ment, when we are told of the unbounded applaufe they be-
ftow on thofe pieces, the merit of which does by no means lie
in ftriking incidents, or in what are called coups de theatre j but
confifts chiefly in a minute developement of feeling and fenfi-

bility.

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ACCOUNT ofibc GERMAN THEATRE. 165

bility ; a refinement and eloquence of fentiment which one
would imagine the .bulk of .the people could neither underftand
nor admire. Perhaps, however, an audience may admire what
it does not perfedly underftand, if a few fentimentalifts of high
name do but Ihew it what it ought to admire. In fentiment, as in
religion, there is a myftical fort of enthufiafm, which warms the
fancy without fubmitting itfelf to the underftanding ; in fen-
timent, as in religion, enthufiafm is eafily communicated.
High refinements, which go far beyond real life, catch with a
rapidity of infeAion. They are the creed of a fedt, which is
always propagated with more ardor and bigotry than the rational
belief of a community.

In the condudl of the fable, fome of their authors, as I
mentioned before, do not confine themfelves to any obfervance
of .the unities of time and place, but afiume a licence of trans-
porting their audience, even in the midft of what they call
(though by what rule I know not) an aSl^ into different pro^
vinces and diftant periods. In the reading, this offends but
little; and even in reprefentation, it ofiTends lefs than £bme o£
the difciples of Aristotle are apt to fuppofe.

It is difficult to affign the limits or the power of theatrical
deception. Perhaps Dr Johnson, in his excellent piece of cri-
ticifm on the Unities^ has allowed too little force to that to
which the fchools had before afcribed too much. A play re-
prefented is certainly fomething dififerent from a play read ; and
in that reprefentation, we are hurt with any circumftance which
lets down our feelings from their ideal place, as we are, on the
other hand,, pleafed with every circumftance which rivets and
confirms them there. The drefs, the decorations, the fcenery,
and all thofe little externals, which, in the cant language of the
theatre, are called property^ hurt us, if they do not correfpond
with the fituation and circumftances of the perfons whom we
fee before us on the fcene. And this cannot be from our fenfe
of the propriety of a theatrical exhibition, confidered as fuch,

according

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i66 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

according to the rules of art ; for the little circumftances I men-
tion are fooner perceived by an ignorant and untutored fpeda-
tor than by a critical and experienced one, A critical and ex-
perienced one is indeed a very challengeable judge of the effedts
of this deception. He has got too much behind the (bene tx>
allow it its due impreifion on his mind > and is exercifing other
faculties than that feeling and imagination, which the iefs in-
formed fpedlator allows to overpower him with all the ^ty, the
wonder and the terror, with which the poet has filled his piece.
In point of deception, however, (uppofing what I contend for
to be granted, the circumftance of time is, as Johnson very
well obferves, extremely pliant to the imagination. Nor is
place perhaps Iefs accommodating. Indeed I am inclined to
think it rather more fo, fbr this realbn, that time holds a rela-
tion to ourfelves ; but the mimic world of the ftage, from
which we draw our ideas of place, is fbmething quite diftinft
from the world of the pit or boxes in which we ourfi^lres are
placed. Still, however, a violent infringement of probability
in either of thofe particulars, offends diat belief which the cap-
tive fancy wifhed to pay to the dramatic creation before it.
The divifion of ads, which is very arbitrary on our ftage, and
not Iefs fo in fome of thefe German produdions, afibrds, in
my opinion, an opportunity favourable to this diftance of place
and lapfe of time, which, in both theatres, are fo often in-
dulged. When the curtain is down, and the mufic plays^
there Is a paufe in our attention, a calling off of our imagina-
tion frorn its immediate purfuit, which fufficiently prepares
both for a very confiderable change of place and of time, wiA-
out wounding the unity of our feeling by the difcordance of
the fcene. In the divifion of our plays, and in that of the
German ones I am now confidering, the author is not bold
enough to multiply the adls, in words, beyond the number five;
but, -in truth, if by an adl is underllood a fubdivifion of the
piece, confiding of a certain feparate complete part, both the

Engliih

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ACCOUNT of tb€ GERMAN rnEATRE. 167

£ngli{h and German plays are frequently fplit into a much
greater number. And I thought it a very ju ft, as well as na-
tural anfwer, which a countryman in the pit gave to a. friend
of mine, who entered in the middle of one of Shakespeare's
tragedies, and afked him to what adt they had got, *' I be-
" lieve, Sir, faid he^ they are juft going to begin the ninth.'*

The morals of thefe German plays are in general unex-
ceptionable. There is no approach towards indelicacy, except
in one or two inftances in the more ferious fcenes, to a kind of
indelicacy, arifing from a want of that nice fenfc of dignity
and decorum which the family of the mufc requires. There
is, however, a licence of thinking on fome fubjedls, that
cimEVures pretty ftrongly of feveral of the performances in que-
ftion ; and by a combination not unfrequent among fenti-
mentalifts, the language is highly virtuous, while the adion is
libertine and immoraL From the author of the Sorrows of
Werter, this docs not furprife ; but in a play, written by a?
perlbn of a grave chara^er, Profeflbr Vnzek of Altoruij one:
would hardly exped! to have found a prayer to the virgin con-
eluded by a folemn refblution of fuicide, and the ftrength of
mind with which the heroine looks on the poifoned beverage
before her, afcribed, in the very language of devotipn, to the:
power and efficacy of prayer.

Besides the deficacy of decorum, and propriety in the man-
ners and the language of a play, there is a fort of delicacy in its.
very pafEons and diftrefs, which highly polifhed theatres re-
quire, the negledl of which is difagreeable to the feelings and:
the tafte of a very refined people. The forrow that melts, not
the anguifh that rears ; the fear that agitates, not the terror
that overwhelms the foul, are the pafBons which fuch an a^i-
dience relilhes in a tragedy. The German theatre does not
allow for this deHcacy of feeling. Its horrors and its diftrefs
afikult the imagination and the heart of the reader with un-
fi)aring force ; it Ibves to trace thofe horrors and that diftrefs

through

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i68 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEAtRE.

through every fcene and every fituation in which they can be
found ; and in its difplay of human paffions and human for-
rows, is little folicitous to mitigate the atrocity of the one, or
the poignancy of the other. This ftrong painting will fome-
times difgufl the delicacy of hinx who has been ufed to the
finer tints of the modern fchool ; but it gives room for that
fublimity and boldnefs of pidure, which is often ill exchanged
for the flat infipid reprefentation of reftrained paffions and
chaftened manners.

- Baron Ri£SB£ck, himfelf a German, who is therefore no
bad authority on this fubje<5l, accounts for the prevalence of
high- wrought pafllon on the German (lage, from the particular
mode of living in Germany. " The different claOTes of people,
^^ fays, he, do not mingle fo much in the German towns as they
*' do in France. To every thing which belongs to nobility, or
'' which has the name of nobility, or is in any way attached to
'* the Court, the German in middle life can have no accefs.
" His knowledge of life, and tafte for focial pleafures, is much
^* more confined than that of our people, (the Baron writes in
^' the chara<5ler of a Frenchman), nor does he, like the inhabi-
"** tants of a moderately large French town, enter into the in-
" numerable incidents and accidents of common life. This
" want of interefl in tifual virtues and vices, this infenfibility
*' to the little events of ordinary life, oblige the German to
'' look for flrong emotions and caricatures to entertain him on
** the ftage ; whereas the Frenchman is contented with a piece
^* of much finer wrought plot, and willingly fees the people he
^* lives and is acquainted with reprefented on the flage."

To this account of the Baron's may, I think, be added
fomething peculiar in the national charadler, which, like that
of the Englifla, is of an ardent, thinking, ferious caft. To
men of this difpofition, the lighter and more ordinary views of
life and manners are not intereiling. They call for deeper and
more impreffive fcenes, fcones of high pafiion and ftrong emotion.

The

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ACCOUNr of the GERMAN, THEATRE. 169

The Germans have accordingly adopted, with the greateft ea-
gemefs, the Engliih tragedies moft calculated to pleafe this
turn of mind. Shakespeare is their favourite author, and
the model of fome of their moft popular tragedies. To this
idea, the love of fentiment I have before taken notice of, may
be eaiily reconciled. The fentiment thefe plays exhibit, is not
the fentiment one meets with in French authors ; it is not the
nice and delicate feeling of the petiUs morales^ or manners ; it
is that deep impaflioned fenfibility, which reiides in fef ious and
ardent minds, which can brood with melancholy, or kindle with
enthufiafm.

In the German comedy, fomewhat of the fame thought-
fulnefs, phlegm perhaps a Frenchman might call it, may be
traced. We find not the gay and fportive language with which
the comic mufe of France forms her lively and. elegant dia-
logue p not thofe nice and delicate tints .with which her light
and flying pencil marks the pidlures of her fcene ; but a (lyle
more ferious and refledive in the one, and colours more ftrong
and hard in the other.

A CIRCUMSTANCE very obfervable in the German theatre,
is the frequent minutenefs and prolixity of the fcene. This is
naturally the cafe in an early and unrefined period of the
drama. To feleft ftriking and luntiinous parts of a (lory, or
of a feries of adlions, to exhibit thofe in one ftrong point of
view, and to leave the fubordinate parts to be filled ujp by the
imagination of the reader or the fpedlator, is a fort of abftrac-
tion which belongs to a more advanced and cultivated period.
In the firft rude eflays of painting, one pidlure contains diffe-
rent adlions of the fame perfons ; and, in early narrative, every
circumftance that pafied, and every word that was uttered by
the perfons of whom the relation fpeaks, is introduced. In
dramatic poetry, in the fame way, the earlier and lefs culti-
vated poets are not contented with (hewing the perfons of the
drama only in the great and important fcenes to which the
Vol. II. Y courfe

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I70 ACCOUNt of the. GERMAN rHEATRE.

courfe of their flory leads ; they exhibit every concomitant
fcene in which thofe perfons may be fuppofed to have been
concerned. The more inventive imagination an author pof-
fefles, the more he is liable to this fault, if that imagination is
not chaftened by learning, and regulated by tafte, Richard-
son, who may perhaps be ranked next to Shakespeare among
our authors of tmtutored genius, is an inftance of this in later
times. His painting is always in nature;, but his canvas is
often filled with unneceffary figures, which add to the fixe,
while they diminish the effed of the pidure. Shakespeare
(as might more readily be expeded) is in this particular ex-
tremely faulty J and his German admirers have not corre<fled
this fault in their imitations of him. They are more defedlive
than he in what may be called the unity of dialogue, L e. in
making their perfonagea fpeak only what is natural and im-
portant to their fituations^ and to the condudl of the piece ; an
error to which feveral of their fcenes oT?fre a degree of languor,
as well as length, which is apt to fatigue the reader, and mud
have required very good fpeaking indeed, not ta have tired the
audience.

The ftyle of thefe volumes is in general bold, forcible and
rich ; in fome places perhaps rather too florid and ornamented.
This is apt to ftrike us more in profe, in which moft of the
pieces in thefe colledlions are written, and into which they are
all tranflated, than it does in verfe ; becaufe elevation of lan-
guage is more expedled in the latter than in the former. It has
been generally held as a maxim in dramatic dialogue, that the
pathetic (hould be exprcflcd in the fimplefl language ; that de-
fcription and moral fentiment may admit of the pomp of verfe
and the ornaments of eloquence, but that paffion and diftrefs
do not allow of fuch decorations, becaufe they bring the mind
into a fituation which fwelling or figurative language does not
fuit. This is evidently juft to a certain degree. The mind^
occupied with,, and full of its own feelings, has na leifure tOr

ftudy

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ACCOUNT of the GERMAN rhEATRE. I7!

ftudy the expreffions in which thofe feelings are vented ; yet I
think it will be found in nature, that a certain elevated didliori
will often be that in which the iftind will pour its moft genuine
and deepeft forrows. There is a pride and dignity in fbrrow
which renders it eloquent; which, rifing above the level of
ordinary things, fpeaks in a ftyle more lofty than that of com-
mon life« I believe it will al(b be found, that, in compofidon,
the aflumed loftinefs of language will have fome effe<5l in pro-
ducing a. loftinefs of idea j that " the words that glow'' will
fbmetimes, as it were, create " the thoughts that burn.*' I
think it is Plato who, fomewhere in his works, makes a re-
mark of this kind as to poetry, whofe meafure and majeftlc
march give an infpiration to the poet, which the train of
thought in common language would not have produced. And
I am perfuaded that tlie dramatic writer who, in the fervour
of compofition, gives to the diftreffes of his fancy a language
of that elevated kind, will ibmetimes, in the very flow and
current of his words, feel his heart fwell, and tears gufh from
his eyes, with an energy of paflion which a more ordinary
diflion would have failed to roufe. It mud, however, at the
fame time, be confefled, that the moft common fault lies on
the opppiite fide ; and that authors of but moderate genius
often inveft their characters, rather in the parade of words than
in the dignity of fentiment, rather in a coldly imitative phrafe
of feeling than in feeling itfelf. A fault of this kind is fome- ,
times difcernible in the dramas before us, where, in the deve-
lopement of fentimental diftrefs, the characters talk rather than
feel their fituation ; where the poet, refining on his art, rather
colours than draws the pidture of the fcene, or, to purfiie
the allufion, gives us ihades of language inftead of fhades of
thought

This laboured difplay of fentiment and fenfibility is liable
to the general objedtion which ftrikes one in every dramatic
performance, as lying againft the perfons of the drama in-

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172 JCCOUNT of tbt GERMAN THEATRE.

forming us of what pafles in their minds, not by what the
icene (hews in their aiSlions, or what the fituation naturally
leads them to fay, but, if we may be allowed to refort to the
plain honed confeflion of Mr Bayes, in order to give an op-
portunity of introducing good things. To this faulty the fimple
and the polifhed (late of the drama are equally liable ; the firft
from that chace of images and analogies which the luxuriance
of fancy didtates, and which tafte has not yet taught her to re-
ftrain j the other, from a rigid obferyance of order and unity,
which adds to the narrative in proportion as it limits the exhi-
bition of the fcene. We find accordingly this defe<ft in many
pafTages of the older poets ; and not lefs, and indeed in a much
morfe continuedftrain, in the modern dramatifls, particularly
the French, wnere the tirade, or firing of fine lines, is often
introduced, not to exprefs the feelings of the fpeakers, but
merely to fliew the eloquence of the poet^

In my enumeration of the pieces contained in thiff collec*
tion, I mentioned, that moil of thofe which are called come-
dies, rather come under the denomination of drames^ containing
a delineation of the affedions and paffions of ordinary life,
more allied to tragedy than to comedy, being only related to
comedy in its perfons, but to tragedy in its fentiments and its
i^fiTerings. Its fuflferings, however, are rather of feeling than
of fituation, which is one great reafbn of the intereft it excites
in that clafs of people, a very amiable one, whofe minds from
nature, reading, or habit, poflefs an exceffive and high ftrained
delicacy and fenfibility. The fituation and diflrefTes of the
perfons reprefented in it, are but little removed from the fitua-
don in which that clafs of readers are placed, or thofe diftrefles
which they c^en feel. Hence perhaps no fpecies of the drama
may be fuppofed to have a flronger effedt on adlual life and
condudl. This might lead to an interefting moral inquiry, for
which the prefent is not the proper place, and which indeed has
iK>t been imnoticed by feveral late moral writers. In general,

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ACCOUNT of the GER MAN THEATK E. 173

I tKiok we may venture to pronounce thefe dramas favourable
both to moral principle and to the pradlice of virtue. To the
former, they are allowed, even by their adverfaries, to be
friendly ; to the latter, it may perhaps be contended that they
do not always contribute, or at beft that they only produce
that momentary impreflion, which pafTeft over the mind like a
golden dream, amuiing to the fancy, but without any effe<fl on
our adtual conduct or difpofitions. The French dramas of this
fpecies, and fome of the German ones in this cblledtion,
which feem to have been formed on theie models, have a good
deal of that pompous wordy declamation of virtue and feniibL-
lity, which, like every fpecies of bombaftic writing, is extreme-
ly popular at its firft introdudlion, and generally maintains a
number of partizans, even when afTailed by the weapons of
criticifm or good &n&. Such a common-place fort of weakr
nefs hurts equally the good e£fe<fls of the drama, as a lefTon of
morals, dnd the entertainment to be derived from it as a work
of tafte. To the enemies of virtue, the ridicule is open > to
her friends, the exhibition is painful ; it is like the dotage of
a perfon we love, which, though we cannot laugh at, we are :
conftrained to bluih for. Befides, in moral effe£t, it lofes the^
advantage which, as I obferved above, this fpecies of drama^
poflefles, of approaching nearer than any other to ourfelves*
When we fee fo little truth or life in the picture, when the fen-
timents foar fo airy a height, we feel them as thofe of another
world, which, if we fhould even admire, we will never concern
ourfelves to imitate.

It mud, however^ be confefTed, that though fuch weak
paflages will naturally produce thofe effe^s among people of
htxtcr informed judgments and more ripened tafte; yet, by
the lefs refined part of an ordinary audience, they are often
received with that genuine feeling and applaufe, which, as
they are produced by virtue, arc friendly to her interefts. At
the reprefentation. of fome of thofe fcenes, where very lauda-
ble,

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174 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

"ble, but very common-place maxims, were pompoufly brought
forth, and received with loud plaudits, I confefs, though I
thought meanly enough of the genius of the poet, I have
thought, and been happy while I thought, highly of the peo*
pie. The people, whofe opinions may often be folly, whofe
conduA may fometimes be madhefs, but whofe fentiments are
almofl always honourable and juft ; the people, whom an au*
thor may delight with bombafl, may amufe with tinfel, may
divert with indecency, but whom he cannot miflead in princi-
ple, nor harden into inhumanity. It is only the mob in the
Ude-boxes, who, in the coldnefs of felf-intereft, or the languor
of out- worn diflipation, can hear unmoved the fentiments of
-compafllon, of generofity, or of virtue.

In examining thefe pieces in detail, and appropriating them
to their refpedive authors, one is immediately ftruck with the
name of Less i no, whom Germany fo much reveres as one of
the founders of her drama. He is the author of the firft piece
in 7ri£DBL*s coUedlion, Emilie de Gahtti^ another tragedy in
one a£l called Pbilotas^ a third called Sara Samfotiy and a drame
entitled Nathan le Sage. He is author alfo of feveral other plays
contained in the Theatre Allemand of Junker, one of which,
Minna de Barnbelm^ is reckoned the cbef d^smvre of German
comedy. I have perufed it with all the attention to which its
high character entitled it, and indeed with a great degree of
thepleafure, though not with all the admiration which that
liigh charader led me to expedl. It is of the graver or fenti-
mental kind of comedy, where the characters maintain a war of
generofity, from which the embarraflinents and implications
of the plot, not very intricate nor artificial ones, refult. The
principal perfon is a Major Telheim, a difbanded officer,
whofe merits his country had ill rewarded ; a man of the mofl
confummate bravery, generofity and virtue, for whom thofe
qualities have gained the love of every fbldier and domeilic
around him. They have procured him a flill more valuable

attachment,

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ACCOUNT (ftb€ GERMAN THEATRE. . 175

attachment, the love of the heroine of the piece, Minna of
Barnhelm, who, on hearing of the Major's regiment being dif-
banded,' comes to Berlin to feek him, and to make him happy.
The rivil noblenefs of mind of thefe two charaders producer
the principal incidents of the piece, which, however, are not
always natural, nor very happily imagined ; and befides, as
FfEtDiNro jocularly fays, when comparing a {hallow bopk to a
fhallow man, may be eafily feen through. But, with all thefe
defedts, and that want of comic force which the turn and fitu-
ation of the principal charadters naturally occafions, the play
mufl pleafe and intereft every reader. There is fomething in
the conftitution of the human mind fo congenial to difinterefl*
ednefs, generofity and magnanimity, that it never fails to be
pleafed with fuch charafters, after all the dedudlions which cri-
tical difcemment can make from them. Amidft the want of
comic humour which I have obferved; in this play, I mufl not
omit, however, doing juftice to a ferjeant-major of Telheim's
regiment, and to Justin his valet, vvho are drawn with a*
ftrong and natural pencil. The (lory of the fpaniel^ told by
the latter, when his mafter^s poverty makes him wifh to difmilB;
hitn from his fervice, is one of the beft imagined, and beft
told, I remember to have met with. There is a good deal of
comic chara<51er and lively dialogue in fome of Lessing*s lefs
celebrated pieces in the collection of Junker j but the plots are
in general extravagant and farcical.

In judging of Lessing as a tragic writer, one will do him
no injuftice by making the tragedy of Emilie de Galotti the
criterion of that judgment. The others in thefe volumes are
very inferior to this, which is certainly, in point of compofi-
tion, character and paffion, a performance of no ordinary kind.
Lessing was well acquainted with the. ancient drama, and
wi(hed to bring the theatre of his country to a point of regu-
larity nearer to that of the ancients. He publifhed, for fome
time, a periodical criticifin on theatrical compoiiaon^ called,

" Le

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176 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN TJIEATRE.

^^ Le Dramaturgie de Hambourg.*' His plays, accordinglyi
though not exactly conformable to the Ariftotelian ftandardi
approach pretty near to it in the obfervation of the unities,
fie is faid to have got into a difpute wi(h Gobthe on this fuS-
jedly in which, from a degree of timidity in his nature, he ra-
ther yielded to his antagonift; I am not fure if he has pro*
fited by confining himfelf more than fome other of his coun-
trymen within the bounds of the regular drama. The fable
of Emilie dt Galotti^ as well as of his other tragedies, is more
regular than happy, and the denouement neither natural nor
pleafing. It is founded on circunailaaces fomewhat fimilar to
thoie in the (lory of Virginia. A Prince of Guaftalla is defpe-
rately enamoured of Emilie de Galotti, who is juft about
to be married to a man of rank and fortune, the Count Appi-
ANi« On the day of his marriage, he is way-laid by order of
a wicked minifter of the prince, and murdered. His bride is
brought to the Prince's country^feat, where, to prevent any
chance of her diihonour, her father kills her.

After the firft reading of Emilie^ I was difpofed to wonder
at the reputation it had acquired ; but a fecond placed it higher
in my eftimation. This was naturally the cafe in a performance
where the whole was neither fo perfe<5l nor fo interefting as
fome of the fcenes in detail were forcible and ilriking. The
heroine Emilie de Galotti is but imperfedlly drawn, and
not very well fupported. Indeed, it may in general be obfervcd
in thefe pieces, that the characters of the female perfonages
are by much the mod defedtive, both in beauty and in force.
This may perhaps be afcribed to the ftate of fociety in Ger-
many, where the fex is lefs an objedt of confideration and re-
fpeifl than in France, and fome other parts of the Continent.
But there is another lady in this tragedy, the Countcfs d^Orfina^
the betrayed and abandoned miftrefs of the Prince, whofe cha-
racter the poet has delineated with great ability ; and one
icene, in which (he is introduced along with die father of

EmiliEi

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ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE. ijj

Emilie, in genuine expreffion of pafHon, and pointed force of
dialogue, may be compared to fome of the beft which the mo-
dern ftage can boaft.

In the developement of the fecret foldings of the heart,
Lessing feems deeply fkilled, and the opening fcenes of this
tragedy contain fome of thofe little incidents that mark an in-
timacy with human nature, which genius alone can claim. But
in its progrefs we find, in fome degree, a want of that (Irong
and juft delineation and fupport of charadler, but chiefly of
that probable condudl and interefting fituation, which are the
great and peculiar requifites of dramatic excellence. It feems
alfo defective in the pathetic, for which certainly the fubjedl
afforded very great room, and which, in a fimilar fituation,
our countryman Rows has contrived fo ftrongly to excite.

Of Lessing's performances in thefe volumes, the next in
merit, though, in my opinion, at a confiderable diftance, is
Sara Sam/bn^ an Englifh ftory, of which the idea feems chiefly
taken from Clariffa^ though one chara<fler in it, that of a vio-
lent and profligate woman, is evidently borrowed from Millwood
in George Barnwell. I muft venture to doubt, whether a cha-
ra<5ter of this fort be proper for filling a principal place in tra-
gedy. There is a degree of infamy in the vice of fuch a per-
fon that is fcarcely fuitable tp the dignity of the higher drama,
and which difgufls us with its appearance. The Marwood of
Lessing is introduced in fuch a manner as to heighten that
difguft. The amiable female of the piece, Sara Sam/on^ is no
exception from the general defedl of female chara<fler in this
coUeflion. And her father, who is placed in the tender fitua-
tion of which feveral authors have made fb affetfling a ufe, the
parent of a child feduced from honour, though (till alive to
virtue, is infipidly drawn, and awkwardly introduced. In this
tragedy, is an incident, of which Lessing feems to be fond,
as he has repeated it with very little variation in another tra-
gedy called VEJprit Fort, a dream, related by the heroine, pre-

VoL.- II. Z diaivc

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178 ACCQUNr of the GERMAN rHEATRE.

ditflive of the cataftrophe. . This, as it anticipates the conclcfc-
fion, is always faulty. No part of the condud of a play is
more nice and difficult than that degree of information which
the author is to give the audience in the courfe of it. In ge-
neral, he fhould certainly not foreftal their expedlations, by
opening his plot too foon. But there is an admirable theatrical
eflfedl which often refults from letting the audience know what
the perfons of the drama are ignorant of, which ftretches, if
I may ufe the expreffion, the cords of fear, anxiety and hope
in the fpedlators to the higheft pitch, through fcenes which
otherwife would produce thefe feelings in an inferior, as well
as in a momentary degree. This knowledge in the audience^ of
Meropes fon, while fhe, in ignorance of his perfon, is on the
point of putting him to death, is one of the mofl interefling
fituations which dramatic invention has ever produced ; and
there is nothing on the French ftage which equals the horror of
that fcene of Crebillon's Atree ct Thyejle^ where the devoted
brother attempts to difguife himfelf from Atrcus^ while the
terrified fpedlators know him all the while, and tremble at every
look and word which they think will difcover him.

Next to Lessing, in point of name, is Goethe, the au-
thor of two tragedies in this colledion, Gott% de Berlicbing and
Clavidgo^ and of a drame entitled Stella. The firft I have al-
ready mentioned as highly irregular in its plan, being a life
thrown into dialogue rather than a tragedy. The cojlume of the
age in which the events are fuppofed to have happened, is very
well preferved. The fimple manners, the fidelity, the valour
and the generofity of a German knight, are pourtrayed in a va-
riety of natural fcenes. This national quality, I prefume, has
been the caufe of its high fame in Germany, to which it feems
to me to have otherwife not a perfectly adequate claim. His
Clavidgo is founded on an incident which happened to the cele-
brated Caron DfL Beaumarchais in Spain, who is intro-
4nced as a perfon of the drama^ under the name of Ronac^

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ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE. 179

ah anagram of Caron^ with ^the letters a little tranfpofed. The
diftrefs of the play arifes from the falfehood of a lover, who
leaves his miflrefs after being engaged to marry her. Neither
the delineation of the charadlers, nor the management of the
plot in the firft two adls, is entitled to much applaufe j but the
laft ad, which paffcs in fight of the corpfe of Maria ^ is wrought
up with uncommon force, and mufl, on the ftage, be produc-
tive of high effedl. His third performance, Stella^ is ftrongly
marked with that eftthufiaftic fentiment and refined fenfibility,
which, in the Sorrows of WcrUr^ he has fb warmly indulged ;
and in point of imnraral effedl, the drama is equally reprehen-
fible with the novel. Its condufion is in the boldefl ftyle of
this fentimental refinement ; fince it gives to the hero two
wives, with whom he is to (hare that heart, to which the inci-
dents of the play have ihewn the claims of both.

.After Lessing and Goethe, Brandes feems to be the
author in thefe volumes next entitled to notice, and indeed, in
my opinion, the lead exceptionable of them all. His two come-
dies, Le Comte (TOlbacb^ ^xAV Hotel Garni^ are highly interefting
in their fabk, fpirited and natural in their dialogue, and con*
tain fituations and incidents truly theatrical, and extremely af-
feding.

Among the comedies of thefe volumes, is a very pleafant
one, entitled Le Creancier^ by Mr Richter. A paragraph in
his preface is worthy of notice, as it ftrongly marks the pre^
vailing tendency of the German tafte in theatrical perform-
ances. ** In thefe days, fays he, when all the world reads
'^ Shakespeare and Goethe, a drama like mine, which con-
*^ tains no outrageous pafiions, of which the ftyle is neither
'^ metaphorical nor bombaftic, which ventures to follow the
" good old Ariftotelian rules, fo long exploded among us,
" can hardly hope to pleale the Arifiarcbufa of our modern
'' fchool.

Z 2 "It

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i8o ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEArRE.

" It is true, 1 might obferve to thcfe gentlemen^ that an
'* hoxxeft banker, who has not loft his wits, will, in all probabi-
^' lity, neither fpeak nor ad like King Ltar^ nor his clerk like
" y^i^^ ^^^ ^^® daughter's maid like the confidante of Queen
'* Cleopatra. But thefe old falhioned obiervations would proba-
*' bljr not fave my poor comedy from condemnation.'*

There is one little piece in the collection of Fried el. which
every reader muft applaud, even if his applaufe had not been anti-
cipated by the judgment of the late King of Pruflia, who pro-
nounces it the only very good German comedy. This is the AUelagc
de Pofte^ by Colonel EMDORFF,an officer in the Imperial fervice.
The plot is founded on the violent love for horfes of a Ger-
man Count, who barters his miftrefs with his rival for a fet of
carriage-horfes. The charadlers are truly comic, the incidents
highly amufing, the dialogue infinitely eafy, lively and natural,
and fo perfectly appropriated to the fpeakers, that one might
afcertain the perfons, though their names were not affixed to the
fpeeches^

But the moft remarkable, and the moft ftrongly impreffive
of all the pieces contained in thefe volumes, is that by which
the coUeAion of Mr Friedel is clofed, Les Volcurs^ a tragedy
by Mr Schiller, a young man, who, at the time of writing
it, was only twenty-three. Bred in the Ecolt MUitaire of Wir-
iemherg^ he had little opportunity of informing his mind by
letters, or of knowing mankind by obfervation. But amidft
the cloiftered ignorance incident to his fituation, his genius, by
its own native warmth and vigour, produced this wonderful
drama, which (hews indeed, as might be expedled, a certain
want of acquaintance with the manners, as v^ell as a total dif-
regard of dramatic regularity, but in which the author, for-
tunate, if we dare fay fo, in thefe defedls, has drawn from the
fources of an ardent and creative imagination, charadlers and
fituations of the moft interefting and impreflive kind, and has
endowed thofe charadlers with a language in the higheft de-
gree

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ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE. i8i

gree eloquent, impaffioned and fublime* With a particular
detail of this tragedy, I (hall clofe the account (I am afraid a
very imperfedl, though without the apology of being a Ihort
one) which I have taken the liberty to lay before this Society,
of the Theatre Allemand.

A YOUNG man, of high birth and expecflations, Charles ^
eldeft fon of the Comte de Moor^ endowed by nature with a foul
of fire and a heart full of fenfibility, is led away, in the prime
of youth, by the love of pleafure and diffipation too common
at that age. After running a courfe of thoughtlefs and crimi-
nal extravagance, he liftens to the voice of virtue, which had
been ilifled, not loft, in his heart, and writes to his father,
whom amidft all his vice and folly he had never ceafed to love,
a letter full of penitence and contrition, defiring to return ta
his duty, and to be received again to pardon and to favour.
This is intercepted by the villany of a younger brother, who
manages ib as to perfuade his father that his fbn Charles (who
appears to have been his great favourite) is totally abandoned
to villany and vice ; in confequence of which, the old man
throws him utterly from his regard, and fends him a letter re*
nouncing him for ever, and containing that paternal maledic-
tion, fo dreadful to the fenfibility of a fon who loved his pa-
rent. On receipt of this, Charles becomes defperate; and,
amidft the ftorm of his feelings, outraged by what he thinks
the inhumanity of his father, readily accepts of a propofal
made by fome of his diflipated companions, to leave a world
in which they had nothing but contempt and poverty to expedt,
to fly to the forefts of Bohemia, and there to eftablilh them-
felves into a fociety of robbers and banditti, of which he was
to be the chief. In the horrid duties of this new employment,
he fhews all that wonderful magnanimity, that perfuafive elo-
quence, that undaunted valour, which would have graced a
better flation ; yet amidft the elevation and adivity of mind
with which the exercife and the fuccefs of thefe qualities

are

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iB2 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

arc accompanied, his heart is preflTed down by remorfc, and
melted by the tender recolledlion of that virtuous happinefs
which, in the days of youth and innocence, he had once en-
joyed. The curfe of a father whom he had revered and loved,
the defertion of a miftrefs, a coufin of his own, of whom he
was defperately enamoured, the fenfe of his outcaft and aban-
doned (ituation, and of thofe violations of virtue and morality
to which it necelTarily leads ; thofe rending feelings, thofe
melting remembrances, joined to that high fenfe of perverted
honour which links him to his band, and that ardent valour
which makes their enterprifes of glory ; thefe form a charader of
the moft energetic and interefting kind, and the author has
given to his hero a loftinefs and power of expreflion fully ade*
quate to the terrors and the pafTions which his fituation and his
feelings produce. The intrinfic force of this dramatic charac-
ter is heightened by the lingular circumftances in which it is
placed. Captain of a band of inexorable and fanguinary ban-
ditti, whofe furious valour he wields to the mod defperate pur-
pofes ; living with thofe afTociates, amidfl woods and defarts,
terrible and favage as the wolves they have difplaced ; this pre-
fents to the fancy a kind of preternatural perfonage, wrapped
in all the gloomy grandeur of vifionary beings.

But to return to the narrative of the tragedy.

His younger brother Francis having fucceeded in removing
this favourite of his father, now looks to the death of the old
man as the complete accomplifhment of his wiflies to attain the
fortune and honours of his family. To effedl this hellifh pur-
pofe, he makes ule of his father's ftill remaining tendernefs for
that very fon whom the traitor's arts had driven from his love.
He employs one Herman, a tool of his villany, to perfonate a
foldier, who had been the companion of Charles, and to relate a
fabricated dory of the fufFerings and death of that unfortunate
young man, who, according to him, had been reduced, by the
feverity of his father, to the moft extreme and pitiable indi-
gence,

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ACCOUNT of the GEttMAN THEATRE. i8j

gence, from which he had at laft been relieved by death, ha-
ving fallen fighting gallantly in an action with the infidels, and
in his laft words had breathed out the name of his father and
of his Amelia. The old Count feels this relation as his inhu-
man fon expedted ; he faints at its clofe, and is carried off life^
lefs from the ftage. The traitor Francis reaps the fruit of his
villany ; he reaps, but his confcience does not permit him to
enjoy it ; and he is ever after prefented as the martyr of re-
morfe, haunted by the terrors of inward guilt. His afTociate
Herman appears to yield to contrition ; he braves the anger of
his lord, and refolves to embrace the firft opportunity of coun-
teradling his villany.

Though the great and the terrible be the moft prominent
features of this drama, there are fcenes in which the pathetie
and the tender prevail in a very uncommon degree ; and the
impreffion they make on the reader is heightened by the con*
trail of that bold unbending fpirit which he fees melted by
their force. One of thefe, the fecond fcene of the third adl, is
fo ftrildng, that I cannot forbear laying it before the Society in
Englifh. They will make allowance for what it muft lofe in
this form, when they confider that it is the tranflation of a
tranflation.

The band are encamped on a height on the banks of the
Danube, after a hard-fought battle with a party of Bohemian
horfe, which had been fent to take them ; but which, by the
unparalleled valour and exertions of Moor and his friends, they
had defeated. He enters, overcome with fatigue and third.

" I MUST reft here, {throwing bimfelf on the ground) j my
" limbs are broken with fatigue^ and my parched tongue
" cleaves to my mouth. I would have afked fome of you to
" fetch mc a little water from that river, but you too are weary
" almoft to death. {One of the band goes out, unperceived by Moor^
^ to fetch bim fome water.)

'' Grim,

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1^4 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THE At RE.

Grm, {another of bis band) 'Tis a long time fincc our flaiks
" were empty of wine. How majeftically the fua fets there
" below !

" Moor^ {looking fledfaftly on the fctting fun) 'Tis thus that a
** hero dies, and the nations admire his fall !

" G. It feems to move you,

" M. I N my youth, it was my favourite idea to live like

him, {looking earnejily on the fun) to die like him ! 'Twas the
" fancy of a young man.

" G. 'TwAs even fo.

" M. There was a time — {drawing bis bat over bis eyes) —
" leave me alone, my friends.

*• G. Moor, Moor ! do you ail aught ? Your colour
^^ changes.

" M. There was a time when I could not deep if I had
^* forgot my prayers before I laid me down.

" G. 'Tis folly all — ^Would you, like a boy, be fchooled by
" the remembrance of your infant days ?

" M. My infant days ! Oh ! {leaning bis bead on the hofom of
" Grim.)

" C Think of thefe no more. Be not a child again, I pray
" you.

•^ M. A child again ! Would that I were!

•' G. Rouse yourfelf for fhame ! See how the landfcape
" fmiles — how beautiful the evening looks !

•* M. Aye, my friends, this earth is fo beautiful —

" G. WpY, that is well.

^* M. This fcene fo grand —

" C. You fpeak it truly. 1 love to hear you talk thus.

^' M. And what am I, in this world that is fb beautiful !
" A diing fo vile on this magnificent work of heaven I — ^The
*' prodigal fon !

*' G. Moor ! Moor !

'' M.

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ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATR E. 185

^ M. My ianocence— give me back my innocence. Look
" how every thing in namre is cheered by the fmile of fpring.
** Why in this air, €0 pure to them, fhould I breathe the
^* blading fmoke of hell ? When all around us are happy —
^^ when gentle peace has united them — the world one ble0ed
** family, and its Father there above — who is not my Father !
*^ I alone ftiut out— the prodigal fon — excluded from the por-
** tion of his children-^ fJhri/tAing back with horror) furrounded
",with crimes-^with murder — bound to them with chains of
" iron^

" G. {to the refi of the band) 1 never faw him thus before.

^ M. {with a voice of tendcrncfs) Ah \ if it were poflible for
^' me to be bom again-*-to be born a beggar, the meaneft
^' thing that were not a guilty one ! With the labour of thefe
^* hands I would purchafe the wearinefs of peace. Oh ! that
*^ with the fweat of my brow» though that fweat were bloody'
" I could buy one guiltlefs hour — the luxury of one tear I

^^ G. Patience, friends ; his fit is almofk over.

** M. Thbke was a time when my tears flowed freely. Ofi:
'* peaceful days t-niat faw me in my father's houie, in my
** native fields ! — ^Ye fmiling fields \ — ^ye valleys made for en-
^ thufiafia to wander in ! Scenes of my happy infaticy-^will
" ye never return I Will ye never breathe on this burning bo*-
" fom your gales of peace and joy ? — Nature, why art thou
** dark around me ?— They will never, never return ; never on
^ this boibm will they breathe *«^ they are gone^^geoe for
u ever!*'

Subdued by the tendernefs of the recolledion which this
Icene exprefles, Cbarlts vifits his native caftle in difguife ;
he finds hi^ father dead, hb brother Francis in pofTefliou of his
inheritance, and his miftrefs ready to take the veil. After
yielding for a while to thofe fofter feelings which the fcenes of
his infancy recal, he recolleds the outcaft abandonment of his

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i86 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEArRE.

own fituation^ makes himfelf known* at the inftant of partings
to his Amelia^ and flies to rejoin his defperate aflbciates.

In this fltuation of things, the fourth adl commences. The
fcene is of that favage kind^ which prepares the imagination
for the horrors to enfue. *Tis night ; and the remains of
the band are affembled on a defert heath, near to the ruins of
an ancient tower^ round which the winds whiftle, and the owl
fhrieks. They had watched three days and nights of danger
and alarm, and all, except their unhappy chief, whom remorfe
and anguifh keep awake, yield to their fatigue, and lay them-
felves on the ground to fleep. Moor remains alone, and walks
to and fro, like the fovereign fpirit of the night, revolving in
his troubled, but daring foul, this world and the next. In this
worlds he has now nothing left to hope, and he looks, with
deiperate calmnefs, on the dark and unknown gulph of that
to come. His foliloquy is of that fublime and broken fort
which expreffes the agiution of a great but erring mind, yield-
ing to remorfe for crimes which have ftained his life, but not
corrupted his foul, and left him, amidft the outrages of violence
and vice, the fentiments and the fuflerings of virtue and of
feeling. After a paufe of gloomy meditation, he breaks out in
the following ^words, (to my tranilation of which the Society
will afford the indulgence I formerly folicited.)

— " A LONG long night! — on which no morning will
^' ever dawn ! Think ye that Moor will tremble ? Shades of
^^ the victims of this ailaffinating fword! I fee your bleeding
*^ wounds, I look on your livid lips, and hear the laft agoni-
*' zing groans they breathe — but I tremble not.— Thefe are but
^* links of that eternal chain, which he who fits in yonder
^' heaven holds in his hand. He damped thefe horrors on my
" deftiny. Even amidft the innocent, the happy days of my
^' unfullied infancy, his eye faw them, and fealed them on my
** fate! {be draws a piftol) The barrier betwixt eternity and
^ time, this little inftrument can burft— and then — ^Thou

" dread

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ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE. 187

•* dread unknown ! whither wilt thou lead ? where wilt thou
" place me ? If thou leav'ft me this confcious felf, 'tis that
" muft create my heaven or my hell. Amid ft the wafte of a
*^ world which thine anger has deftroyed, I can people the fi-
" lent void with thought. Or wilt thou^ in new and untried
•• dates, lead me through various mifery to nothing ? Thou
*' mayeft annihilate my being \ but while this foul is left, will
** not its freedom and its force remain ? *Tis equal where—
•' (putting up bis plftolj I will not now (hrink from the fuffer-
•* ings or the prefent — the deftiny of Moor fhall be fulfilled."

He is filent — he hears the tread of approaching feet, and
prefently a figure glides before him, and knocks at the grated
wicket of the tower. The figure (peaks, " Rife, man of for-
** row, inhabitant of the tower, thy repaft is here.*' A feeble
voice anfwers from the dungeon within, ** Herman^ is it thou ?
'^ Bring^fl: thou, like the prophet's raven, his food to a linger-
'** ing wretch, that lives by the crumbs which thy pity affords
^* him ?'' Moor^ who had fhrunk back in amazement, now ad*
vances, and defires the man to flop. That man is Herman.
He draws his fword ; but is almoft inflantly difarmed. " What
" art thou, fays the aflonifhed Herman^ whofe touch withers
*• like that of death? Art thou the demon of this horrid
*' place ? the fjpirit of this murderous tower ?'* " I am, faya
*• Moor J the exterminating angel is my name j and yet I have
/^ flefh and bones like thee. But what wretch is in that
*' tower ? I will burfl his chains." He draws from his pocket
the pafs-keys which his profeflion employs ; he opens the tower >
the fkeleton figure of a famifhed wretch creeps from the dun^
geon — ^^ Horrible phantom !'* fays the aflonifhed Moor^ in a
low and flifled voice, ** my father !**

It is his father, whom the inhuman Francis (taking advan-
tage of the long faint into which the account of his fon's death
had thrown him) had buried alive in the dungeon of the
towen When Cbarks is infqrmed of this, and his other

A a 2 treacheries^

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i88 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

treacheries, by Herman^ the penitent aflfociate of his villany, he
wakes his band, and, in the rage of filial revenge, difpatches
one of the boldefl of the troop to force the cattle of hi* bro-
ther, and bring him alive before them. The old man is Hill
ignorant of his deliverer's being his fon, and waics, terrified
and weak, the difclofing of ^his myftery of juftice and of vcn*
geance.

Th£ lad a<5l opens with a fcene in the cattle of the guilty
Francis^ who is now in pofTeffion of the county of Moor. He
is exhibited in all the difmay and drttradion of awakened re-
morfe. After fome incoherent dialogue (wrought up with the
liveliett circumttances of guilty terror) with a fervaat^ who
had watched his ileep, and followed him, when he had ftarted
from his bed, into the ialoon of the cattle, they are told by a
frightened domettic, that a troop of horfemen are approaching
at a gallop, with terrifying fhouts. The Count is petrified by
his guilty fears, and cannot give orders for defence. His fol-
lowers, however, for a while difjpute the paiTage of the band,
till the cattle is fet on fire. Its matter is ttill more loft in the
horrors of his fituation ; and, after an tmavailing requeft to
his fervant, to fave him from the vengeance of his enemies, by
putting him to death, is left alone amidtt the approaching
flames, wifhing to die, yet dreading death, till he hears the
thunder of the band at the gate, which fliakes, burfts, and the
entering foe feizes him alive, and carries him off, according to
the command of his captain.

Thb fcene changes to the heath, where Mtn^ and his old £i«
iher are difcovered amidtt the war of contending feelings with
which the fon is torn. He often reiblves to difclofe himfelf to
his father ; but the confcioufnefs of his fallen and abandoned
ftate withholds him. The poet has contrived, by placing the
father and fon in this particular fituation, to infiife into this
fcene a degree of tendemefs which melts the heart, mixed vrith
A horror which chills the imagination. When the old man

complains

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ACCOUNT of the GEkMAN THEATRE. 189

eomplains that he has now no fon to clofe his eyes, his fon
throws himfelf on the neck of his father, yet is unable to dis-
cover that this wretch, this robber, this aflafTin, is las Charles.
At that moment, a diftant noife is heard, and prefently the dim
gleam of torches begins to illumine the fcene around them^
The glare of their light increafes ; the voices are heard more
tiear ; the accuftomed mufic of their favage triumph foimds ;
^nd the faithful band of Moor^ true to their commiflion of ven-
geance, bring the criminal Francis chained before his father
and his brother* It is impofllble to convey by narrative the
horrid fublimity of the fituation which this fcene prefents, or
of thofe expreflions to which the wounded fenfibility of Moor^
wrought up to the moft infatiable revenge againft the authot
of his father^s mifery and his own, gives birth. The readef
could hardly conceive any modem imagination^ how pregnant
ibever with tragic terrors, to produce a fcene that could vie
with the dread pidure of the fourth adt ; when he has read the
fifth, he will find the horror equalled, and the intereft fur-
pafTed.

Moor leads the wretched Erancis before his father. The old
man is willing to forgive him ; but his brother has devoted
him to vengeance. He defires the band to lead his fathet to a
remote part of the wood ; and thin, fettling the fury of his
revex^e into the terrible folemnity of diipaflionate juftice, he
places his brother in the midft of his fierce aflbciates, and de-
fires them to pronounce fentence on his crimes* They confult
fbme time together on an adequate punifhment} and then, fe-
licitating themfelves on the thought, they throw him into the
dungeon in which this barbarous parricide had buried his fa-
ther. The old man is brought in. He feels the yearnings of
paternal afiedion for his guilty fon, aAd exclaims againft the
cruelty of his avengers. Moor throws himfelf into his arms,
and difcoViers to him his favourite, his Charles. Jufl thexi|
Jmlks who had efcaped from the caftle of bis brother, toters,

and

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ipo ACCOUNT of the GERMAN THEATRE.

and runs to embrace her lover and his father. The father feels
all the pleafure of his fon and his niece reftored, and fondly
anticipates the felicity they arc to enjoy. But Moor bids them
check the expeflation of happinefs, and look only for defpera-
tion and horror. " Your paternal curfe, fays he, configned
^* me to perdition. Thefe men you fee are robbers — mur-
" derers — yt)ur fon is their chief.** The exhaufted ftrength of
the old man cannot fland the fhock ; he expires in the arms of
his fon. His miflrefs (lill furvives ; and though dumb with
terror and grief, folds him in her arms, and (hews the mod
ardent affedlion for her Charles. Warm in his love, as in every
other feeling, Moor had doated on her to diflradion ; he for-
gets himfelf in her embraces, and for a moment thinks he will
live and be happy with his Amelia. ^^ Come from her arms,
" cries one of the boldeft of his troop, or I will fpeak what
" ihall freeze your blood." " Think, exclaims another, (while
" they level their pieces at his head) of your vow to be our^
" for ever. Ours you are, and heaven nor hell can win you
" from us." Their voices roufe the remembrance of his fitu-
ation. But his foul is too proud to yield to threats. '^ You
" are murderers, fays he, and I am your chief. Down with
" thefe arms, and know your mafter.** Awed by the founds
they are accuftomed to obey, the banditti lower their arms. —
" To be great, Moor mull be free. I would not give this tri-
** umph for all the elyfium of love. {He draws bis Jks>ord.)
" Call not that madnefs of which your fouls want ftrength to
" fee the grandeur. The greatnefs of defpair is above the ken
'^ of wifdom. On adlions fuch as this, reflexion muft follow,
** not wiidom paufe.*'

He plunges his fword into the bofom of Amelia. Struck
with the barbarous heroifm of the deed, his aflbciates fall at
his feet, acknowledge his unparalleled fidelity, and vow to be
his flaves for ever. ^' No, fays he, with a determine and pe-
^* trifying calmnefs ; the deftiny of Moor is accompliihed.

'' Thuft

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jiCCOUNX of the GERMJN tHEAfRE. X91

^' Thus far it was in human power to go, and thus far he has
*^ gone ; but here his courfe is clofed, and his genius cries out,
" All is confummatedy He difmiiTes his band, except two fa-
vourite officers, with an exhortation to ufe their invincible cou-
rage in the fervice of their country. To thefe two favourites,
whofe fouls are not fo deeply tindlured in blood, he bequeaths
his paternal domain, and defires them to leave him, and to devote
their future lives to virtue and obedience to the laws. '' And
** I too, he concludes, will obey the laws ; I will bear the
" ftemeft punifhment of their decree.** And he goes to deliver
himfelf up to jufticc.

I HAVE ventured this long and particular account of the
tragedy in queftion, becaufe it appears to me one of the mod
uncommon produdions of untutored genius that modern times
can boall. Confeffedly irregular and faulty, both, in plan and
conduit, it were needlefs, and perhaps unfair, to oStv any re-
marks on its defedts. But its power over the heart and the ima-
gination mud be acknowledged. Every body has heard the
anecdote of its effects on the fcholars at the fchool of Fribourg^
where it. was reprefented foon after its firft appearance. They
were fb (truck and captivated with the grandeur of the cha-
radter of its hero Moor^ that they agreed to form a band like
his in the forefts of Bohemia, had eledled a young nobleman
for their chief, and had pitched on a beautiful young lady for
his Amelia^ whom they were to carry off from her parents
houfe, to accompany their flight. To the accomplifhment of
this defign, they had bound themielves by the mod folemn and
tremendous oaths ; but the confpiracy was difcovered by an
accident, and its execution prevented.

Thb energy of this tragedy*s effedl is not to be wondered at,
efpecially on young minds, whofe imaginations are readily in*
flamed by the enthufiafm of gigantic enterprife and defperate
valour^ whofe fenfibility is eaflly excited by the fufierings of a

great

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192 ACCOUNT of the GERMAN TltEATRE. *

great unhappy mind^ and who feel a Ibrt of dignity and pride
in leaving the beaten road of worldly prudence, though the
path by which they leave it may fbmetimes deviate from moral
reflitude. But hence, to fome part8 of an audience, the dan*
ger of a drama fuch as thie. It covers the natural deformity
of criminal anions with the veil of high fentiment and virtu-
ous feeling, and thus feparates (if I may be pardoned the ex-
prefljon) the moral fcnfe from that morality which it ought to
produce. This the author has, iince its firft publication, been
candid enough to acknowledge, and reprobates, in terms per-
haps more flrong than it deferves, his own production as of a
very pernicious tendency. He has left his native country, Wir-
tembergy from which I believe indeed fbme confequences of the
publication of this tragedy had driven him, and now lives at
Manheim, where he publifhes a periodical work, and has written
one or two other tragedies, which have a high reputation. If
his genius can accommodate itfelf to better iiibjeds, and to a
more regular eondud of the drama, no modern poet feems to
poITefs powers fo capable of bending the mind before him, of
roufing its feelings by the elevation of his fentiments, or of
thrilling them with the terrors of his imagination.

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VI. Theory of the Moods ^ Verbs. By Jaues^
Gregort, M. D. F. R.S. Edin. Fciiow of the Royal
College of Pbyficiaas, and Profejfor of the Theory of Phyfic
in the Univerjity of Edinburqh.

[Read by the Author^ Jnn^ i8. and July i6. 1787.]

IN the profecution of certain philological and philofbphical
fpeculajdons^ very ample fpecimens of which have already
been fubmitted to the coniideration of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, I had occafion to coniider more minutely than I
believe had ever been done before, many particidars relating to
the nature, the ftrudure, and the import of Verbs.

Those fpeculations related chiefly or folely to the general ra-
dical import of every verb and every clafs of verbs, without
any regard to the peculiar meaning or nature of the various
infleiElions or parts of a Verb ; fuch as, moods, tenfes, perfons
and numbers. It was impoffible, however, for me altogether
to avoid attending to thefe modifications of the general mean-
ing of every Verb ; efpecially to the nature and import of the
Moods of verbs, which appears to me a very curious and in-
terefting point in the theory of language.

As I had not the good fortune to meet with any account of
the Moods of verbs, which appeared to me complete or jufl, in
the writings of thofe grammarians and philologifls that I have
had an opportunity of confulting, I was tempted to undertake
the invefdgation of the nature of them myfelf. The refult of

Vol. IL B b . that

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194 THEORr of the

that undertaking I now have the honour to fubmit ta the confiv
deration of the Royal Society.

As there is ibmething peculiar in the plan and manner of it^
it is proper to mention the reafon of this peculiarity. In thofe
accounts of the moods of verbs which I have feen, there Teem-
ed to be a want of fufficiently numerous and eztenfive and
accurate obiervations of the particular fkSs that were to be ex-
plained or accounted £3r ; a want of fufficiently predfe and
diilindl notions of the general import of the moods ; a hafty
and carelefs admifTion of certain general principles not duly
afcertained, and a vague uie of certain general and compre-
hen(ive terms^ which were not iufficiendy explained or under-
ftood.

In order to avoid thefe errors, and to fupply thefe defedisi
«I have proceeded on a plan more newly aldn to that which has
long been fuccelsfuUy employed in phyfical inv«ftigations > be*
ginning with a colle£tion of obferrations relating to the moods
af verbs ; from the& deducing certain general principke, and
verifying thefe principles by further obiervation, and even, efc
periment. Such a plan ia undoubtedly laborious, and may ap^
pear tedious ; but I think it has advantages amply fufficient to*
compenfate thefe inconveniences.

I MUST mention Hkewife^, that this Effiiy bears a particular
and very intimate relation to the dodh*ine concerning the mooda
of verbs, laid down by the learned author of the treatife oa
the Oi^in ami, Frogrefs ^ Language^ (Vol. II.) with, which I may
prefume my hearers to be fufficiently acquainted.

Thi account which he. gives of the number, the nature,
and the import of the moods of verbs, though very acute, and
in many refpedts perfe<Sly juft, is certainly very incomplete,^
and in one important circumftance it is very obfburt ; which
makes me fufped):, that^ on this point, he had not carried hie
mvefiigation fb far as to obtain a^ complete and diftin^fc view o£
the lubjeA which he was treating.

B«JT

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MOODS <iff^ERBS. 195

But though I make many remiarJcs on his dcMflrine, and
t>fken refer to it, my.ESkj is by no means intended to cavil at
it, but| on the contrary, to make ufe of it, as being, on the
whole, the beft difquifitiott on the fubjeA that I have feen ; to
corredl what is erroneous, and to fupply what is wanting, in
his treatife, and to carry the inveftigation farther than he had
done.

I AGREE perfedly with this learned author in thinking diat
the infinitive is mod improperly called a mood : and I think the
Dbiefvfttion a very important one ; for, oh this accMiit, it is to
the inJinitivCf excluftvely^ that we fliould turn our thoughts, when
we endeavour to inveftigate the genial import of the Verb,
with a view to afcertain the actidtnt which it denotes^ and be
led, (iep by ilep, xa i<xm a diftind notion of what is commoii
in the MciJents of all verbs, and of what is peculiar in the ac^
tidents of the ieveral claflles of them, and thereby be enablai
to give good definitions^ fpecifying the eSence of a Verb, and
the charaderiftic import of the different clades of verbs, fuck
as fubftantive, neuter, adtive intranfitive^ aAive tranfidve, paf^
five, and refleded verbs. The infinitive, I own, does not esr
prefs the pure general meaning of the verb ; for it compre**
bends likewise the circumftances of time, and in fome lan^
guages thofe of perfon, and of courfe of number, and perhaps
of g^der. ScrHere. Scripjiji. Scripturufn ejft. Scripturas

B«T the infinitive {(6 far as I can perceive) denotes no
entrgy or modification of thought (fuch as, affirming, com-
manding, afking or wifhihg) that is peculiar to itfelf, as the
other moods do ; but only that kind of thought, or combi-
nation of thoughts, which is common to all the others. Now,
fome peculiarity of that kind I take to be the very eflence of
a mood.

B b 2 YfiT

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196 THEORr of the

Yet the thought exprelTed by the infinitive is clearly appre-
hended, and plainly Ihews that the word denoting it is a verb.

Non eji vivere Jed valsre vita.

Sape etiamjiertles incendere profuit agros^
jitque levem Jlipulam crepitantibus URERE fiammis.

Fudet bac opprobria nobis

Et Dici POTUissE, et non potuisse refbllk

Reading (fays Bacon) makes a full maLn,/peaimg a ready
man, and writing an exa£t man.

(These Englifli words in ing, will be called participles, or per-
haps verbal nouns ; they have the form of participles and verbal
nouns, but the meaning of infinitives ; and may be tranflated
into Greek and Latin by infinitives. But it is of no confer
quence whether they be called participles or infinitives j the
meaning of them is obvious^ and is the fame with that of the
Latin infinitives.)

The meaning or thoughts exprefled by thefe infinitives, are
as plainly charaiSterillic of verbs as thofe denoted, by Vivo Jed
non valeo. Incendite Jleriles agros — urite levem Jlipulam. Oppro*
bria dicuntur nobis. Yet in the latter there is mood^ while in the
former there is not. Whence it follows that mood, properly fo
called, is not elFential to a verb. It is only the capacity or
fufceptibility of mood^ that can with propriety be faid to be
effential to a verb. This diftindlipn, which I think of fome
importance, may be fufiSiciently explained and illullrated by the
following examples. It is not divifion, but divifibility, that
is effential to a geometrical line ; it is not fluidity, but fufibi-
lity, that is eifential to lead ; not motion, but mobility, nor
reft, jbut the capacity of being at reft, that is effential to body.
But rejl is effential to fpace, and, for aught I know, motion may
be fo to light.

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MOODS of VERBS. 197

I SUSPECT therefore fome inaccuracy in the learned author's
manner of expreifing himfelf, when he fays in one page, (161)
that moods are eifential to verbs, and in the next page remarks
that the infinitive is not a mood. This would imply, that a
verb, when put in the infinitive, ceafed to be a verb j which
he does not exprefsly fay, though he comes very near to it, in
the following words : " As to the infinitive, I hold it to' be no
•* mood, though it be commonly called fo ; becaufe it exprefles
" no energy of the mind of the fpeaker, but fimply the adlion '
(he fhould qertaialy have faid more generally the accident^ as in
effej valere^ or cadere) " of the verb, with the addition of time.
" It is therefore uied, either as a noun, 6r it ferves to conned
" the. verb with another verb, or a noun, and fo is ufeful in
" fyntax." But {BU I would alk. When it is ufed in thefe or
other ways, and is accordingly ufeful in fyntax, does it bona
fide ceafe to be a verb ? I own I do not think it does ; for this
reafon, that t;he thought exprefled by means of the infinitive^
may be exprefled in fynonymous and convertible phrafes, in
different languages, by means of other parts or moods of the
verb. " To be or not to be^ that, is the queftion,*' is equivalent
in meaning, though fuperior in fimplicity, beauty and force of
expreflion, to " The queftion is, whether we fhall be or ftiall
'" not be."

— Nee quicquam tibi prodejt
Aerias tentasse domos^ animoque rotundum :

PERcuRRissE polum, moritufo.

Nee quicquam tibi prodefi quod aerias domos tentaveris, et
animo percurreris polum.

Moreover, it muft be taken into confideration, that the
infinitive not only appears as the nomen verbis (which fome
have called it) but exprefles fully the accident of the verb, wher
ther this be mere exiftence, or ftate, or event, or intranfitive ac-
tion, or tranfitive adlion, that is, a(5tion with relation of vari*

ous

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f9B rHEORr d/ the

lOus kinds ; and of courie it lus die proper regimen of lAxt verb,
nyhen it exprefles aSum and rtlatian^ or, in grammaticai Ian-
^uagei is tranfitive ; as in percwrijft^ tentaffe^ uTire^ in^mden^
in the precedin|; examples*

Dico^ credo^ puto^ Titium exifitre^ vslere^ j^ere^ ceeidiffel pfB-
cubuiffe, projecijffe Mavium^ projeBum fuiffe d Altfvi^, hav« the >rerf
fame meaning with Dic9^ &c quod tkius exiJlM^ fiOd jtlOM^i^
<ecidcrit^ procuimerit^projtctfit Mtevrnm^proje^his finrrit a Meevh.

I CANNOT help thinking, thait, in theie cafes, the infinitives,
as well as the fubjundiresi are trtoly verbs, thongh tbipped of
that circumllance which is^ in drift propriety of language,
called 0ii§od. Nor do th£ Mfinitrves as thiH ufed acquire any
further meaning, in addition to die radical import of die irerb
with tenie, like the proper moods ; but the Jkijutt£Hw9 after
quod lofe their peculiar nuianiiig as moodiy and Signify no more
than bare infinitives.

i THiNx feme more illiiftratioii fnfty be given to this fub^
jedt, by confidering the import of participles, which partake
•of the nature both of verbs and of adjedives ; lUid that of
iverbal nouns, which partake of the nature and meaning of
^erbs and of fubftantivt nouns.

It is an acknowledged fad^ with refpeA to participles, and
it is equally true with refpeA to verbal nouns, that, by means
of them, various thoughts, commonly expreflfed by the moods
cif -verbs, or by the infinitives of them, may be exprefled with
great accuracy, and fometimes with advantage in compofition,
by enabling us to leiTen the number of verbs in a fentence, or
to vary occafionally the ftruiJture of it. Nee quicqwm tibi pro^
4ejl morituro tua tentatio domuum aerionm^ ^t co ASUS ti/us circa
pohm^ thouglK a very crabbed inelegant fentence, has the very
fame meaning with Horace's beautifiil lines, and with the
profe verfion immediately fubjoined to it.

Whv are not tentatio and curfus reckoned verbs, as well as
tentnffe and percutrijje ? They are furely very near iddtt.

The
V

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MOODS of VERBS. 199

Tbb ailfwer given to this queftion by the author of the Eflfay
on the Origin and Progrefs of Language^ and which he fays ii
plain, I muft 0wn appears to me very obicnre and unfatisfac-
tory. Nor can I think that the defeat is entirely in me, and
that I ought to underftand it ; for I can fpecify what is wanting
to the ansfwcr which he gives, in order to make it plain and fa-
tisfacflory. His anfwer is, r ,

" That it (to wit a verbal noun, like cutf»s or tentatio) ex-
•* prefles no energy of the mind of the fpeaker, who pronounces^
^^ the words ; nor does it affirm that the thing exifts or does not
^* exlA ; nor does it command that it (hould or (hould not exift ;
'* nor does it wifli that it may or may not exift } but fimply gives
^ us the conception of the mind of the fpeaker/' Page 167.

Before ^t can fully underftand this anfwer, (which feems
to apply to infinitives as well as to verbal nmns), or of courfe
judge whether it be juft and complete, or not, we muft know
what the author means by energy^ and what by conception, what
more or lefs he apprehends there is in the one than in the other,
•r how he diftinguifhes them* Nor can this be known but by
finding what. the|?e is in common among all the energies, (for
fixnething common among them, even as conceived by him,
it is demenftrable there mu/i he) and not belonging to any dm-
pie conceptions. We have energy exprefTed, and of courfe a verb
Qonftituted, even according to his definition of a verb, without
affirmation, when we wifh or command ; without command,
vidien vre affirm or wilh ; without wifh, when we command or
affirm : Yet in all thefe cafes we have equally and indifputably
a verb. How^ fhkll we know what is in common to them all ^
How much of the meaning of a verb is in a verbal noun ?
What is wanting, befides the fufceptibility of mood? Whence
does thb fufceptibility of mood arifcj or wherein dbes it con-
fifl ? Does it depend on the combination of the notion, of time
with that of the proper accident of a verb, which combination
takes place in the infinitive, and even remains in the partici-
plea of a verb^ but not in a verbal noim ?

Exijientia

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aoo THEORr of the

Exijientia (whether good Latin or not) is the predicament or
accident of being.

Vita is the (late or accident of living. Cafus^ obitus^ the
events or accidents q€ falling and of dying.

Cogitatio, ledio, fcriptio^ curfus^ adificatio^ trucidatio, are the
accidents or adlions of thinking, reading, writing, running,
building and murdering. «.

In Englifh, almoft any noun fubftanUTe may occafionally be
converted into a verb, by uiing it to denote thoie thoughts, or
combinations of thoughts, fuch as eziftence, date, event, adli-
vity, intranfitiv^, or tranfitive, or reflected, and pafiivenefs or
being the objedt or fubjedt of adlivity, which are conceived to
confiitute the efTence of a verb.

Water is plainly a noun.

Watered a participle.

To water a verb, without mood.

He wateretb^ water tbou, may it be watered^ it was watered^
a verb with mood.

A waterings a verbal noun, retaining the accident, but not
the import of mood; and nearly allied to the infinitive to water^
in every refpedl but that it does not involve the notion of time,
as the infinitives to water ^ to have watered^ i^c. plainly do.

These are but hints. Valeant quantum valere pojjint.

I «usP£CT that the author whofe doArine I am confidering,
has been rafh in limiting the number of moods to three ; the
indicative^ expreffing affirmation, (and of courfe negation) un«
der which he comprehends the fubjunBivCy as being nearly of
the fame importi and denoting affirmation, only qualified or
conditional ; the optative^ expreffing wiihing or praying ; and
the imperative^ expreffing eommand.

I SHOULD think the fame kind of reafons that he urges
againll admitting an interrogative mood, namely, that " it is
** not exprefled by any different form of the verb, but only
** by particles, or by a certain arrangement of the words,**

and

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MOO JDS' of VERBS. 201

and for rejeding the potential mood, and for making the fulh
junSlive only a branch of the indicative^ would apply with equal
force againft admitting an optative mood, at leail in fome lan-
guages, a$ for inftance in our own.
In the following lines,

Te SPBCTBM fuprema nabi cum venerit boraj
TV TBNBAM moriens deficiente manu.

The verbs /peBem and teneam exprefi very cleaiiy the energy of
wifhing« This modification of thought is denoted in Latin by
infie€lion, and would be £> in Greek, n hSfitif^ n Mwr$x^*P^% ^^d
will be allowed to conftitute a perfefl nuxxL But in Rnglifti it
muft be denoted by a certain arrangement of the words, and there-
fore ihould be no mood, any more than interrogation* ^^ Thee
'* may I look on when my laft hour ihall come ; thee may I
^^ grafp, when dying, in my failing hand/^ / may koh on tbee,
I may grafp tbee, hare meaninga as difierent from diofe de^
noted by die fame words cfifierendy arrai^^ed, as Cn^ar was
ailed y is from was Cafar killed f

If I am rightly informed, the Ghinefe language has no impe-^
rative moodj and thofe who ipeak it are obliged tQ employ a
very clumfy circumlocution, by means of a verb figmfying
command^ to expreis the familiar meaning of our imperative.

It does not appear clearly to me, that the fubjunBive mood
exprefles merely qualified or conditional aflirmation in every
cafe, though undoubtedly it does fo in many cafes. In the
following lines of Horacb,

Ull^ fi juris tibi pejeraii
Pcena^ Barinb, nocuisset unquamj
Dente fi nign^ fibrjbs, vet una
twrpior wigui,

CaBDEaEM.

Vot. n. C c The

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202 THEORr of the

The word crederem to be fure denotes merely a qualified or con-
ditional affirmation : I might, could, would, or fhould believe,
if a certain event took place. But the verbs expreifing this
condition and fuppofition, are alfo in the fubjun&ive^ nocuijfety
feres, after the particle ft. With this particle, they might have
been put in the indicative, and the fenfc would ftill have been
complete, nocuerat^ fiebas. The fame thought may be cxpreffed
accurately in Englifh, without the ufc of any particle corre-
fponding to f^ and merely by the peculiar arrangement of the
words, juft as was done with the wifli of Tibullus, " Had
" any punifhment ever overtaken you for your broken vows j
" were but one of your teeth growing black, or even were but
^' one of your nails becoming lefs beautiful, I {hould believe
" you/'

I CANNOT conceive that the three firft verbs in this fentence
denote any affirmation at all, conditional or unconditional, but
a very plain fuppoiition. And this thought feems ta me to be
as wnell entitled to be called an energy, as Tibullus's wifh ; and
when it is ezprefTed (no matter in what way, whether by in-
flexion, by augment, or by peculiar arrangement) by a verb,
it muft ' be either a perfect grammatical mood, or fomething
very near akin to one.

The very fame kind of thought, to virit fuppofition, is ex.-
preflTcd by circumlocution, and a kind of metaphor^ in the follow-
ing lines.

PoNK me^ pigris ubi nulla campiT'
Arbor afiva recreatur aura :
Pone fub curru nimium propinqui
Solis, in terra domibus negata.

In which pone, though in the imperatvoe mood, exprefl^s no
command, but only fuppoiition or condition. This Captain
Macbeatb and Polly Peacbum (or Mr Gay for them) underftood

perfeftly j

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MOODS of FERJBS. 203

pcrfeAly ; and accordingly tranflate the thought very well,
without either an imperative or a particle^ by arrangement.

Were I laid on Greenland's coajl^
Were I fold on India's foil.

It may be remarked too^ that Horace exprelles his quali-^
fied or conditional affirmation, which is fubjoined to the fup-
poiition by a verb in the indicative, not in the fubjundtive
mood.

Dulce ridentem Lalaobn amabo.
Macbeatb .takes the common fubjunBive :

7*00 foon tbe balf yearns nigbt would pafs;
And Polly ^ the potential^

I COULD moch tbe fultry toil.

— — Omnia novit
. Graculus efuriensj in ccekm^ jusseriSi ibit.

A little hungry Greek knows every thing ; he will go to hea-
ven, fbouldyou defire bim. This is conditional affirmation^ expref-
fed by the indicative ^ and fuppofition by the fubjunSlive mood.

Ilium et parentis credidbrim fui
Fregiffe cervicem.

I could believe that he had murdered his father. This I con-
ceive to be an inftance of the potential moods if not of the verb
credoy at leaft of human thought.

C c 2 Whatever

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204 tHEORr of the

WHATfiVBR may be thought of the preceding obfervationti
it mud at lead be admitted, that the moods of verbs may be
coniidered in two very different points of view ; either with re*
lotion to any particular language^ or with relation to buman thought^
which muft be fuppofed the fame in all ages and nations. For
the fake of diftinflnefs, I (hall call the exprefiions of them, by
infledlion or otherwife in language, grammatical moods; and the
thoughts, or combinations of thoughts, fo exprefled, as well as
fimilar combinations of thoughts, though not always, or per-
haps never exprefled in the fame way, I fhall call energies^ or
modifications^ or moods of thought.

With refpedl to the former of thefe things in any particular
language, there can be no difpute or difficulty. Any tolerably
good grammar of that language will (hew at once the number
and the forms of them in it ; and the exaA import of each of
them, and the proper application of them all, will fi>Qn be learned
by attending to the ufe of thofe who fpeak and write that lan-
guage well. But the latter (the moods of thought) muft be
inveftigated in a different and much more laborious way ; by
ftridl attention to our own thoughts, and with fueh aid as the
ftrudhire of language, and obfervation, and even experiment
afford.

All languages, I believe, are very defeAive in refpeft of that
variety and suxuracy of combination and of diftindion, which
we know with infallible certainty take place in thought. Nor
do I know of any particular In which language is more defr
cient, than in the expreffing of thofe energies or modifications
of thought, ibme of which alwavs sure, add all of which might
be expreffed by the grammatical moods of verbs. Of this^.
there cannot be a clearer proof, than the well known fadts,
that we ve obliged to expreA by the £ime mood very diflferent
modifications or energies of thought, and that the number of
moods, as marked by infleAioo or otherwife^ is diflerent in
difierent ligaguagesi which, of courfe, do not correQ^ond fo fsct

as.

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MOODS of VERBS. 203

as to admit of perfed and literal tranflation in all cafes from
one to another, or at leaft iiot without circumlocution.

Yet^ unfavourable as this circumdance mud^ at firft fight,
appear to the hopes of one who wifhes to inveftigate the nature
of the moods of verbs, and ultimately to afcertain the nature
of a verb itfelf, I think it is chiefly by attending to it, by con-
fidering what modifications of .thought are exprefled by gram-
matical moods in different languages, and by comparing them
with fuch modifications of thought as are never, or at lead not
ulually, exprefled in that way, and by examining how it comes
to paft that fome of them are, while others are not fo exprefled,
that we fliall be led to difcover wherein they agree or diflfer,
diat is, to learn the common nature of all, and the particular
nature of each of them^ which is the immediate object of
enquiry.

Th£ province of the ichoolmafter who undertakes to teach
any particular language, Englifli, French, Latin, or Greek, ex*
tends no farther than to explain the meaning and (hew the
vie of the grammatical moods which are found in that Ian*
guage which he teaches ; and his fcholars, at leaft *at an early-
period of life, can go no farther.

But the province of the philologift, who wiflies to examine
die ftrufhire of language, and of the philofbpher, who wifhes
to inveiitigate the laws of human diought, is much more ex-
tenfive. Every grammatical mood that is found in any one
language, is to him a proof of a correfponding diftindion, or
variety of energy^ or modification of thought ; for all men are
by nature capable of learning any language. Nor does he ftop
here« From coi^dcring how many energies are exprefled by
grammatiad moods ^ he is kd to form a more extenfive and joft
notion of thole energies^ and may naturally fufpefk, and with a
fitde attention wiB ibon difcover, that there are many other f>-
mihr energies ^ which are not exprefifed in any language ; and
K> dieie, at well as to tlioie that are exprefled, in fome or

all

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co6 rHEORr of (he

all languages^ by grammatical moods^ he ought tmquedionablf
to diredl his attention.

It is evident at firft fight, that a variety of thoughts, or
modifications of thought, may be combinedi or conceived and
^zprefied, along with the general meaning or accident denoted
by any verb.

It is equally evident, that oi}ly a few of theie modifications
of thought are exprelTed by grammatical moods in Greek, Latin
or in the modern European languages.

It is alfo evident, that in tliefe languages, one grammatical
mood is often employed to denote very difilerent modifications
of, or additions to, the thought, or combination of thoughts,
which is exprefled equally by every part of the verb, and
which may be found without mood, though not without ten/ef
in the infinitive.

And it is plain alfo, that both thofe additions and modifica-
tions of thought, which commonly are, and thofe which are
not expreffed by the grammatical moods of any verb, may be
exprelTed by the infinitive of that verb, with the addition and
regimen (that is, marked relation) of another verb. And this
additional or auxiliary verb muft be in the firft perfon, either
fingular or plural, of the prefent tenfe of the indicative mood.
In fome cafes, there may be more than one ftep in this proceis
of refolution, as in interrogation ; but it always terminates ul-
timately in a verb in the prefent of the indicative, and in the
Jirji perfony as the phrafe to be refolved is the exprefiion of the
thought of the perfon or perfons fpeaking.

Affirming, denying, teftifying, foretelling or prophecying^
afking, anfwering, wifliihg, hoping, expeding, believing, know*
ing, doubting, fuppofing, ftipulating, being able, commanding,
praying, requefting, fupplicating, loving, hadng, fearing, det
pairing, being accuftomed, wondering, admiring, warning,
fwearing, advifing, refufing, exhorting, difluading, encouraging,
promifing, threatening, and perhaps numberlefs other modifi-
cations

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-MOODS of TERBS. 207

cations of thought, for which I cannot eafily find names, all
admit very readily of being combined with the general import
of a verb, and form with it various more complicated mean-
ings, which are eafily diftinguilhable from one another, and
are not convertible, and therefore muft be <lifFerent. There
are various degrees and kinds of refeitiblance or affinity among
them, in confequence of Which mey admit of being arranged,
and of courfe of having different more general names given
with propriety to the feveral divifions or clafTes of them. And
there is ibmething common among them all, to which the name
of energy^ without any impropriety (that I can fee), may be ap-
plied. IF every one of them had been expreffed in all lan-
guages, by variations as ftriking as thoie of rtwrw, rvrroifjuh and
rvTTf , they mu^ have been acknowledged as diflinfl moods of the
verb. They are equally moods or diJiinSl energies of thought,
whether expreffed in language or not, if they be but unden-
ftood by thofe who ufe language ; as for inftance^ in the cafe
of the grammatical mood called the imperative j by which we
exprefs occafionally prayer to Goo, command to a flave, requelt
to a fuperior, advice to an equal or to any one, order as from
an officer to his fubaltern, fupplication to one whom we cannot
refift. Thefe/pecijic differences of thought were perhaps in fome
meafure expreffed in Greek by the ten/es of the imperative, the
exa6t ufes and import of which I muft own I underftand but
vefy imperfetSlly.

If they could all be arranged under three heads; as the au^^
thor of the Origin and Progr-ejs of Language conceives, affir^-
ming, wiihing and commanding ; or if they could all be referred:
to one head, affirmation-, as many philologifts- think they may,
this would be but a fmall addition to our knowledge con^
cerning them, compared: to what we might expe<£t to obtain
by a more accurate examination of them ; and it muft be ac-
knowledged to be fomewhat rafli to attempt to arrange them,
without fiirft examiniiigthem carefally. .

The

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2o8 THEORr of the -

The cafe of the moods of verbs is ezadly parallel to that of
their tenfes^ which is very accurately pointed out and happily
illudrated by the learned author of the treatife on die Origin
and Progrcfs of Language.

Almost every language has its own advantages and difad*
vantages in the exprei&ng of the various diviiions and relations
of time ; but the conception ot thefe divifions and relations of
time mu(t be the fame in all mankind. So it is with the conception
and the expreilion of moods or energies^ and indeed with the
conception of every thing elfe which can be expreiled by verbs^
or by any other words. As in one of his own inftances : ^ The
*^ Lord gavcj and the Lo&n hath taken aways bleiled be the
'^ name of the Lord." There is a precifion and a beauty in thia
ufe of the fimple contrafted with the compound paft tenfe, which
cannot be attained in Latin. Daminus dedit^ et Dominns
ABSTULIT ; benediSbim Jit nomen Domini. But it might be at*
tained in Greek, by ufing the aoriil for gave^ and the preter<^
perfedl for bath taken away. On looking into the Septuagint,
I do not» however, find that this delicacy of expreffion has been
attempted. But the genius of the Greek language has led the
tranflators to another nicety and propriety of expreffion, which
cannot be attained in any other language, nor indeed explained
without a circumlocution : *0 Kvgicg itmzuff i Kvgi^f o^iXora* itn
ro ovo/Mfi Kvficu ivXoTiy^f rov. In this paffage, ii$m%9 is the aorift of
the adtive voice of the verb fignifying to gives a^ihmto is At
aorift of the middle voice of the verb fignifying to take away.
The Greek fentence therefore exprefles, The Lord gave^ the
Lord took away to bimfelf took back to himfelf, or fimply took
back. Dominns dediTi Domnus recepit* If the Gredk verb
i^i^M had a preterperfedt middle, and if tMs tenfe of the
middle voice had, like rnofk other parts of die nuddle verb, a
kind of reciprocal or refieAed meaning, on which pomts I dare
not prefume to decide^ but mull leave dbem to the judgment
of grammarians, it would be poflible to esprefs in Gredk both

die

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- MOODS of VERBS. 209

the niceties in qneftion. Yet it cannot be doubted, that all
mankind are capable of underftanding them perfedlyi whether
they life a language in which they can be expreffed by mere
inflexions or not.

By means' of the fame tenfe and the fame mood^ to wit, the
future of the indicative, we are accuftomed to exprefs either
mere futurity, and of courfe a prophecy, or an intention or
purpofe, or a threat, or a promife.

■ Improvifa Letbi
Vis rapuit rapietqus gentcs. HoR.

^m nos cunque fbrbt nultor fortuna parente^
Ibimus 0 focii comitefque. HoR,

Gras ingens itbrabimus aquor. Hor.

Ille D€um vitatn accifiet, Divifque vidbbit
Permijlos Heroas^ et ipfi vidbbitur illis :
Pacatumque rboet patriis virtutibus orbem. Virg.

Verberibus cafum te inpiftrinumDave ded am ufque ad necem.

Ter.

^arumy qua forma pulcberrima, Deiopeiam

Connubio jungam Jlabili^ propriamque dicabo* Virg.

In the two firft of theie inftances from Horace, we have, I
think, the bare expreflion of what is to come to pais.

In the third and fourth, we have not only futurity, but in-
tention or purpofe, plainly exprefled.

The prophecies in the four inftances, from Virgil^s PoUio^
are, I apprehend^ fomething more than what is exprefled or un-
derftood in the two firft of the preceding examples, and dif-

Vol. II. D d ferent

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2IO THEORr of the

fcrent from what is expreflTed in the two laft of them. The
future events mentioned feem to be announced with authority,
of fomething like fupernatural knowledge or information,
which I take to be eiTential to the notion of prophecy.

But Jund*s promife of a handfome wife to Mdus^ and Sinus's
threatening of a fevere whipping atid perpetual imprifbnment and
hard labour to Davus^ are by no means toere predidlions of fuch
good or evil to them, nor yet bare enunciations of the intentions
of the fpeakers to them, but fomethiijg very different ; other
energies^ modifications of thought, or moods, in fo far at lead
as mood is predicable of thought, ^hich I think it is com-
pletely. For if there were two or ten different forms or in-
fle<5lions of a verb in any language, or in all languages, to ex-
prefs any one mood of thought, for inftance affirmation, wifh,
or command, they would not be different moods ^ but only dif-
ferent forms of the fame mood. This is not altogether an ima-
ginary cafe. In Englifh we have, at leaft in fome parts of our
verbs, two forms or grammatical moods for one mood of
thought ; one of them fimple, and only marked by inffedlion
of the primary verb ; the other compound, confiding of an
auxiliary in addition to the primary verb ; and in this cafe the
infie^lion is in the auxiliary verb alone. / write. I do write.
They "Wrote. They did write. (They did wrote or they do wrote y
would be fblecifms.) Write thou. Do thou write. Every per-
fon, I think, muft acknowledge, that thefe are not inftances of
two indicative and of two imperative moods in Engliffi, but
only two forms or expreflions of one indicative and of one im-
perative mood. If fo, then it follows that mo^ is generally
conceived to be properly an attribute or predicate of thoi2ght
alone, while only Ae expreffion of it, by in^6iioti or other-
wife, belongs -to grammatical verbs, juft as the firft and fecond
future, 6t the firft and fecond aorift, of the regular Greek
verbs, are not two futures and two paft tenfes, but only two
different forms or rxpreffions of one ftitufe and of one paft tenfe,

which

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MOODS of VERBS. Ui

which tcnfes are uniformly underftood by all mankind. While
the prefent, the imperfeil, the aorift, the perfeft, the plufquam-
perfedl, and the future, arc really different tenfes^ or expreflions
of different notions of the relation of the general import of the
Verb to time ; which expreflions and notions are by no means
convertible, and certainly mity be underftood by all mankind,
though they are not found diftinguifhed in all languages. In
fhort, we muft draw no inference with refpedl to the nature,
the number, the affinities, or the arrangements of the moods
of verbs, from the infledlions or other variations employed in
language, without taking into confideration alfo the relation
which thofe infledlions bear to human thought.

I HAVE further to add' to thefe remarks on the import of the
moods of verbs, that fuch is the affinity or mutual relation
among them, that they may often, by circumlocution, and the
introdudion of an additional verb, and fometimes without any
fuch addition to the principal verb, and merely by a kind of
metaphor, be interchanged, or fubftituted one for anotheri
without materially afie6ling the fenfe of the paffages wherein
they occur, and fometimes with the manifeft efiedt of giving a
more full and particular expoiition of the meaning of fuch paf-
fages. This I mention, not for the fake of any advantage that
can in general be obtained by fuch interchange, ot fubftitution,
but that I may point out that it is not properly a refolution or'
decompofition of the meaning of the feveral moods, as fome
philologifts have fuppoled, and have thought an important dif-
covery in grammar, but a mere circumlocution, and a kind of
paraphrafe of the fhorter and more c<Knmon expreffion, and
fometimes a mere metaphor, inftead of a literal expreffion of
thought. That it can be no refolution of a more complicated
into feveral iimpler meanings, appears plainly from this confi-
deration, that it is mutual among the moods ; the fuppofed
fimpler being as eafily relblvabk into the (uppoied complicated,
as thefe are into them. But of this afterwards. In general^

D d a the

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212 "THEORr of the

the expreflioii by the common, or what we may call the natural
moody is as clear and intelligible as the circumlocution, or fup-
pofed refolution of it, and much ihorter, and more animated
and forcible, and of courfe more agreeable and proper.

It mud be owned, however, that fometimes there is a great
and manifeft beauty and advantage, not only in point of vari-
ety, but in force and animation of expref&on, obtained by
ufing a mood of the verb, and a form of fpeech different from
what might be termed the natural one, and what would exprefs
the literal meaning of the fpeaker. Thus, in the ode of Ho*
RACE, already quoted, the u(e of the imperative mood indead
of the fubjunSlivej which would exprefs the literal meaning, ap-
pears to me advantageous, even putting all regard to verfe
out of the queftion. Pone me pigris^ &c. Pone fub curru^
&c. is furely more forcible and animated than Si ponerer^ or
Si ejfem pojitusy or limply pojitus^ though the general meaning
be the fame. And Qay^s lines, in imitation of thefe two
ftanzas of Horace,

Were I laid on Greenland's coajl^
Were I fold on Indians foil^

though highly beautiful, and in one refpedl, V mean the bold-
nefs of the imagery introduced, fuperior both to Horace's
own lines, and to thoie of his tratiflator, are lefs animated
than either the original or the tranflation,

Place me where never fummer breeze
Unbinds the earth or fans the trees ^
Place me beneath the burning ray^
Where rolls the rapid car of day.

All fuch applications of the imperative mood I coniider as
metaphorical ; underftanding by the term metaphor, the trans-

f erring

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MOODS of VERBS. 213

/erring of any word or phrafe, and employing it to exprefs a
thought different from what it denotes in its original, (Iridi and
literal fignification ; which I take to be the very eflence and pro-
per definition of this figure of fpeech.

In like manner, the interrogative mood, inflead of the condi-
tional ox fubjun£live^ which would fully and clearly have cx-
prefled the literal meaning of the poet, gives peculiar anima-
tion and fpirit to the following lines:

Fervet avaritia miferoque cupidine peSius ?
Laudis amore tumes ?

Are you a covetous wretch ? Are you a coxcomb ? — If you are a
mifer^ If you are a coxcomb^ would furely be flat.

And, on the fame principle, fuch expreffions as the follow-
ing, Shall we receive good at the hand of God, and pall we not
alfo receive evil? — Shall I do this great evil^ and fin againjl GoD ?
are more animated and forcible than the plain literal exprefiiona
of the fame thoughts would be.

It is more remarkable, that fometimes a kind of beauty and
force, not indeed from greater animation, for fimple command
and interrogation, as exprefled by the imperative and interroga-
tive moods, are, I believe, the moft animated enunciation^ of
thought, but from greater folemnity, may be given by employ-
ing the indicative moody where either the imperative or the inter^
rogative would fully have exprefTed the fpeaker^s meaning.

Lydia dig per omneis

I'e deos oro, Sybarin cur pro^eres amanda

Perdere : cur^ ISc.

Then follow all the articles of interrogation. The general
meaning would have been . completely expreiled without the
imperative dig, and the indicative ORO ; yet I prefume no perfbn

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2T4 rHEORr of the

of tafte and judgment will difpute, that, independently of the
verfification, there is a beauty and force in Horace's exprefHon
far beyond what there would be in the fimple interrogation,
Lydia cur Sybarin proper as amando perdere ?

The future of the indicative is employed in fomc cafes
wherein the imperative mood would exprefs the literal meaning
of the fpeaker ; as for inftance, in the Decalogue, the expref-
fions, Thou Jhalt not kill^ Thou jhalt not Jleal, l^hou Jhalt not com-
mit adultery^ have not the proper future meaning, but are the
moft abfolute commands, or rather prohibitions, much more
forcible, becaufe more folemn, than Kill not^ Steal not, &c.

The preceding obfervations on the nature and import of the
moods of verbs, are fo imperfe<5t and fo defultory, that it may
appear very rafh to draw any formal inferences from them. 1
hope, however, they are fo far at leaft intelligible and juft,
that the conclufions which I have in view, and which I think
might be fairly deduced from a more ample and more metho-
dical coUei^ion of fimilar obfervations, will neither appear ab-
furd nor paradoxical.

They are chiefly the following.

I. That the energies^ or modifications of thought, expreffed
by the moods of verbs, are fuch as may be exprefled feparately
by other verbs, and chiefly by aBive verbs ; or, in the phrafeo-
logy of the author of the eflay on the Origin and Progrefs of
Language , That the energies of the mind of the fpeaker, daiotcd
by the moods of verbs, are truly accidents^ and chiefly oBions.

This perhaps the learned author was not fully aware of, elfe
he would not have ufed, in his definition of a verb, a phraie
which may be fairly tranflated, " A verb is a word chiefly fig-
" nificant of being and of adlion, of the aflion of the niind
" of the fpeaker relative to that adion,*' l^c. Or, if he had
been aware of this, he mufl, I think, have been led to examine

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MOODS of VERBS. 215

more accurately the nature of the energies, adlions, or accidents
denoted by the moods of verbs.

Yet, from his uniformly employing the term energy to de-
note the general import of all moods, we may prefume, that
he had fome conception of that intimate relation between the
import of the accidents of fbme and that of the moods of all
verbs. For he muft have knowp, that energy ^ though a com-
pound Greek word, and aSIion^ though a fimple Latin word,
when applied to the operations of mind, are perfedlly fynony-
mous ; and he very properly mentions a&ion as one of the chief
accidents denoted by verbs.

His definition might even be fairly ftated thus. *' A verb
*• is a word chiefly fignificant of accident, of the accident of
*' the mind of the fpeaker relative to that accident,** l^c. For
this is only fubftituting the generic term accident for the Specific
term energy or action; fo that the propofition, though lefe parti-
cular and accurate, would ftill be true.

II. That the energies exprefled by the moods of verbs are
chiefly the focial operations of mind, as they have been very
properly termed by Dr Reid ; that is to fay, fuch as imply the
belief of fome other intelligent being to whom they relate, and
which cannot be fuppofed to take place in a folitary being.

III. That the grammatical moods of verbs are concife modes
of exprefling fome of thofe combinations of thoughts, which
occur moft frequently, and are mod important and ftriking.

IV. That the number of grammatical moods is limited by
the fame circumftances which fcem to limit the variety, preci-
fion, and perfection of language, in other refpedls ; and parti-
cularly by the convenience of thofe who ufe it, and who ia
general will have no more moods to their verbs, and no more
worda or iafleAions of any kind, than they have abfolute oc-

cafioa

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2i6 rHEORr of the

cafion for ; and, of courfe, muft often employ one mood as
they do one word, or one infledion^ in various fenfes, that is,
to exprefs occafionally different thoughts.

V. That grammatical moods contribute greatly to the
beauty and perfe<Sion of language, by the brevity, animation,
and force, which they give to the expreffion of our mod fami-
liar and interefling combinations of thoughts, which may in-
deed be exprefTed, in fbme meafure, by circumlocution^ and
the ufe of additional verbs, but not with the fame advantages.

VI. That grammatical moods of verbs, like other inflec-
tions of words, exprefs much better than any fucceflion of
words can do, the intimate connexion and relation of various
thoughts, which are not fucceflive, but fimultaneous or coex-
iftent, and which appear unnaturally disjointed, and in fome
meafure altered, when they are exprefled by a feries of words
denoting each of them feparately and in fucceflion.

Some of thefe concluflons, efpecially the third, the fifth and
the fixth, are fo intimately connedled, that it is diflicult to con-
fider them feparately > and as it is of no confequence to keep
them quite diflindl in the following illuflrations, I fhall confl-
der them pretty much together, as I conceive they tend to ex-
plain and illuftrate one another.

I. The firft of thofe concluflons can hardly be thought a no-
velty, if it be confidered that feveral philologifts have main-
tained, that fome of the moods are refolvable into fuch circui-
tous expreflions, by means of other additional verbs. In truth,
they are all, in fome meafure, convertible^ though, in flridl pro-
priety of language, not refolvable^ nor even perfeSly convertible,
in that way.

The indicative y which denotes aflGrmation, is nearly the fame
in meaning, and of courfe is nearly convertible, with a verb

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MOODS of VERBS. 217

of affirming in the firjl per/on (either fingular or plural) of the
prefent of the indicative^ and the general import of the primary
verb, without mood, that is, in the infinitive, Hitius fcribit^
dicoy dicimus^ Titium fcribere^ quod Titius Jcribat. I Jay^ we
Jay^ that he writes. This kind of exprefllon is a mere pleonafm.
But fomething very nearly approaching to it is often ufed in
very folemn langus%e, as in that of the Holy Scripture, and
with a good efie<5t. Verily I fay unto tbee, &c.

The imperative mood is in fome meafure convertible with a
, verb of commanding, ^uch as Jubeo^ in the firft perfon of the
preient of the indicative, and the primary verb without mood.

/ nunc^ et verfus tecum meditare canoros.
Jubeo te nunc ire et tecum meditari, &c.
fubeOf dico me jubere*

In like manner, the optative mood is, in fome meafbre, re*
folvable or convertible by means of the primary verb without
mood, and a verb of wifhing, fuch as opto or cupio^ in the firft
perfon of the prefent of the indicative. TCe teneam^ te fpeBem.
Opto J cupio te tenercy te fpedare. It has been found unneceflary,
but it would undoubtedly be pofilble, and on fome occafions
might be ufeful, to have grammatical moods, either by inflec-
tion or by arrangement, (like may I bold, may I fee) to denote
fpero te tenere^ defpero te tenere^ confido te tenere^ or te fpeBa^
turum.

The interrogative mood is not refolvable exactly in the fame
way, by the primary verb without mood, and the indicative of
anothdt verb : there is another ftep in it ; and, after all, the
refolution is ftill left perfect than in the other moods.

^id faciam ? Moriar ? et Amyntam perdet Amyntas f

The meaning here is more than merely, Cupio fcire quid faSlu-

rus finiy utrum moriar necne^ num Amyntas femet perditurus fit.

Even RogOy Jubeo^ aliquem^ mibi dicere quid faciam^ quid debuero

Vol. II. E c facere,

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2i8 THEORT of the

faccre, &c. does not fully exprefs it. The energy of interrog£t-
tion, in point of thought, admits of a more clofe and perfeA
combination with the conception denoted by a verb, than can
well be expreffed by any circumlocution * j but it is fally de-
noted by the interrogative mood, as appears by the perfon who
is addreiled in that mood returning a pertinent, anfwer. This,
which is fa manifeft with refpedl to the interrogative mood, is
equally true with refpedl to all the other moods.

Wonder has a kind of mood appropriated to the exprefling of
it, made out by the addition of a panicle, originally of inter-
rogative meaning, to the indicative mood; at Leaft, I think it
is fo in all the languages that I am. acquainted with.

^am timeo quorfum evadas. Teiu

^am pene furva regna Proferpina^

Et judicantem vidimus JEacuvu HoR»

Tela quam certo moderatur arcu. Sen.

^'// ejl cruel — quHl ejl doux d'etre Pere!

» Diderot Pere de Famille..

«
How fearful and dizzy 'tis to cajl one^s eyes fo low !

How many tboufands of my poor ejl fubjeBs are at this hour
ajleep! Shakes.

None of thefe fentences are interrogations, or can admit of
an anfwer. They all exprefs (ia addition to die general mean-
ing

* I BBLisvK the aearefi we can come to it is by the uieoF the imperative of a ved)-
of afiirmiDg with the infinitive of the primary verb.

hie mibi Damctta cujum pecusy an Melibai ?
Cujus eji pecus f Die cujus pecus ejl^
Jubio te mibiJicert cujut pecus ejl,.

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' MOODS of VERBS. 219

ing of the primary verbs) the emotion of wonder, or fome
mixed emotion, of which wonder forms a part. No perfon
can doubt that this energy might have been exprefled by in-
fledion of the verb 5 and that, if it had been ' fo, fuch inflec-
tion muji have been reckoned a perfedl grammatical mood, and ;
might have been refolved, though no doubt but imperfedlly^
into a fentence containing the primary ytxh^ (timeo^ video y &c.)
and fome verb, or phrafe containing a verb, expreflive of
wonder, or fome fimilar emotion. Miror me tarn pene vidiffe
regna Proferpince^ miror quantum timeOj mirus eft timor meus^
quorfum evadas. I wonder, tremble, fhudder, to caft my eyes
fo low. I. admire, it is admirable, that many of my fubjeds
are at this hour afleep.

With refpedl to the grammatical mood called the fubJunSiive^
it mud be obferved, that it (like many words in common lan-
guage) has different meanings, or expreffes different energies^
combined with the radical meaning of the verb, fuch as, wifh,
(already confidered) fuppofition, power, condition, l^c* It
muft be in vain, therefore, to look for any one verb, or any
one thought or energy, by means of which the fubjundtive
mood may uniformly be refolved, as the indicative may be by
dico^ the optative by opto^ the interrogative by rogo^ the impe-
rative by jubeo. It is to be refolved occafionally by means of
different verbs, according to the particular energy or mood of
thought cxpreffed in any inflance. Of this indeed there can
be no better proof than the number of different auxiliary words
which we employ irf Englifh to make out what we call the fub-
jundlive mood in all its tenfes, fuch as, may^ can, might, could,
would, Jljould, which are, by no means, fynonymous and con-
vertible terms, even in this application of them, and yet all
correfpond occafionally to the Latin fubjundlive mood, which
is (imple, and only marked by infle<5^ion.

Jprediderim, pojfum credere ^ I might believe; credidijjem, potui
credere, I might have believed. Condition, (tipulation, fuppo-

£ e 2 fition,

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220 rHEORr of the

fition, which, though fomewhat different, are very near akiir,.
are among the moft frequent meanings of the fubjunflive mood^
This meaning, or mood of thought, may be refolved, to a cer-
tain degree, into an imperative mood (the refolution of which
hath already been (hewn) and the primary verb. An ingeni-
ous etymologift * has (hewn, that the Greek particle i/, and
the kom.an Ji^ are but contractions of certain parts or in-
fiedlions of the fubftantive verbs, eip SLud/umj which parts
of thofe verbs have an imperative meaning, Be it fo. The
fame author (hows, that our EngHlh particle if is juft a con-
tradion of the imperative of the verb give^ anciently written
and pronounced gif Si vis me flere. Sit, ejk^ quod vis^ or
velis me flere. Fac^ pone^ te velle me flere. The imperative fac
was often ufed by the ancient writers of Latin in this fenfe ;
pone feldom by them, but often by modern writers ; ri6ii was
ufed in the fame fenfe by the Greeks. Indeed, different parts,
both of n^nff^i and of ponoy were ufed for this purpofe j. the
Romans, I prefume, imitating the Greeks. It is worthy^ of
obfervation, that in French, the uft of the conditional particle
fl ftiperfedes completely the ufe, either of the fubjundlive or of
the conditional mood. Si in French always governs the indica-
tive mood. Si je peuXy ft je pouvois, fi je pourrai; never Si je^
P^lff^^ fi j^ PnlT^y ^ ^^ JiibjunSlivey nor even fl je pourrois ia the
conditional mood.

As to the circumftance of being fubjoined to a precedihgr
member of a fentence, and commonly to a verb in the indica^-
tive mood^ from which the fubjundlive has got its name, the
difference of meaning between the fubjundive fo employed^
and that of the indicative in fome cafes, and between it and-
the bare infinitive in others, is fo minute, that it is difficult ta
afcertain it, and perhaps impoffible to ezprefs it in words. Ac"
cordingly, we often find, that in tranflating from one Ian*-
guage into another, thofe three grammatical moods may and

perhaps

* Mr HORNE TOOKX.

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MOODS of P-ERBS. act-

perhaps tnufi be interchanged, to preferve the original meaning,
without violating the idiom of the language into which the
traiiflation is made. But the ufe of a peculiar infleiflion or
mood to diftinguiih the fecondary or fabjoined verb from the
fundamental or primary verb in a fentence, often has its ufe ;
and I think, without much refinement, we mud perceive an
elegance, and perhaps too a greater degree of precifion, in thofe
languages in which this nicety is attended to, as in Latin and in
French J for in our own it is alihoft 16(1 fight of But it muft
be obfcrved, that it is not every verb &ibjoined to another by
the relative pronoun ysi, that is put m the fiibjundlive mood.
In many cafes, either the indicative or the fubjimdive may be
employed, almoft indifcririiinately, both in Latin and in French.
But fometimes the one, fometimes the other, ought to be ufed;
Where the affirmation is certain and pofitive, the indicative
fliould be fubjoined to the indicative*.

— — ~ Heu quoties fidem^^
Mutatofque deos flebit : et afperct
Nigris aquora ventis-

Emikabitv ^jn/olens^
Qv^i nunc te pruffdr credulus aurtar
Q^ifemper vacuum^ femper amabilenu
Sp£RAT, nefcius aura
Fallacis: mi/eri, quibus^
Intentata kites..

Gependant je rends grac£ au zele officieux^

Qui fur tous mes perils vous fait ouvrir les yeux^

Jeune et vailtant beros^ dont Id haute fageffe
N'est point te fruit tardif d^une lente vieilleffe.^

Though in thefe lines of Boileatj, there be no verb but efi\
vt is plainly fubjoined to the preceding member of the fen-
tence

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22t • THEORT of the

tence by means of the relative dont. Ne foit point le fruity
^vould, in the firft place, i>e bad French, and, in the next
place, would have been a very impertinent iniinuatlon* to
Louis XIV. as if his- high wifdom had been fomehow contin-
gent, or hypothetical. But Boileaxj was not a man likely to
fall into either of thefe errors..;

On the fame principle, I prefume, the Indicaliv^ mood is
fubjoined to the indicative, in the following paflage of the
Holy Scripture: Je JuisVl^cmel tm Dieu^ qui f ai fire du
pais d^EgyptCy de la^mai/on .^. fervitude. The fubjundive
mood, ^i V AYE pre^ , v^ould manifeiUy be inelegant and in-
accurate in this pla^e, where the .fubjoinpd ^rmation ia pod-
tive and certain. And for the fame reafon^ we fhould never
hefitate tp exprels the fame thought in Latin by the words,
Ego fum Dominus tuns Deus^ qt^i edu;s| te e terra Mgypti^ e dQtno
fervitutis; and fliould be fenfible of a grofs impropriety, if the
word eduxerim were fubftituted for eduxi.

But in innumerable inftances, wherein the fubjoined verb
exprelTes any thing uacertain, precarious, contingent, or de-
pendent on the will or power of another, it is put in the fub-
jundlive mood : hence this mood has, in all its tenfes^ a fort of
.affinity or relation to a futvre meaning. Still, hoWever, great
latitude is allowed to writers, bojch in profe and verfe, and is
adlually taken by the beft of them, in the ufe of the indicative
and of the fubjunftive moods ; as in the following inflances
from VjRGiL and Cicero.

Quid faciat latas fegetes^ quo stider-e terram
Vertere^ Macenas^ ulmi/que adjungere vites ' • '
Conveniat: quje cura Boumj <X9\ cultus babendo
Sit pecori^ apibus quanta experientia parcis^ • ^

fjitic canere incipiam*

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MOODS of VERBS. 223

— — VoSj 0 clarijftma mundi
Luminay labentem coelo QUiE ducitis annum y
Liber y et alma Ceres s vejlro ft munere Tellus
Cbaoniam pingui glandem mutavit arijiay
Poculaque inljenHs j4cbeioiaMiscmr uvis :
Munera wfira cam. T!uqm 0 cur prima frementem
FuDiT aptum magm tellus percujfa tridenti,
Neptune : eP cnltornemorum cui pinguia Ceee
Ter centum nivei tondbnt dumetd juvencu

Enumerare pqffum QjUiE sit in figuris animantium^ et quam Jo-
krs fubtilifque defcriptio partiumj quamque^ admirabilis fahrica
membrorum. Omnia enim qjJM quidem intus inclufa sunt it a natay
atque ita locata funty UT nihil eortm fupervacaneum sit, nihil ad
vitam retinendam non necejfarium.

Cujus quidem adminijlratio nihil hafet in fe quod reprehendi
potest; ex ii:s enim naturis qvm f^RANTy quod effici potuit
optimum effeBum ejl : doceat ergo aliquis potuijfe melius : fed nemo
unquam docebit : et si QV is cor rigere aliquid volet, aut deterius
f octet ^ aut'id^ quod fieri not potest, dejiderabit.

In thefe pallages, the iubjoined verbs are marked in capi-
tals. They are to the number of feventcen ; yet of them no
lefs than twelve are put in the indicative mood. And it may
be obferved, at lead with relpedl to the two palTages from Ci-
6SRO, that die meaning exprefled by the fubjoined indicative
is not diftinguifliable, in feveral cafes, from that which, in
ether cafes, is exprefled by the fubjundlive mood.

These more particular obfervations, and the well known
general fa£t, that, in our own language, we find means to
difpenfe with die ufe of a peculiar grammatical mood, to de-
note barely the circumflance of being fubjoined, I apprehend
coincide perfedly with the account given of the comprehenfivc
and various meanings of that grammatical mood which is

called

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224 "THEORr cf the

'tailed the fubjundllve^ and amouot to a full confirmation of
. that account*

11. The fecond of thofe conclufions fan fcarce require any
explanation or commentary. The modification or mood of
thought, which is mod commonly exprefled by^ a grammatical
mood of a verb, is unqueftionably that of affirmation, under
which we may comprehend negation, or clfe we muft ufe the
more general term propojition^ which comprehends them botL
This is exprefled by the indicative mood. Next to this, the
moods of thought, moft commonly exprefled by verbs, are
thofe of command and of interrogation ; the latter (at lead in all
the languages that I know any thing of ) being i^^/^ exprefled,
42ither by the addition of fbme particle to the common indica-
tive mood, or elfe by fome peculiar arrangement of the words
connedled with a verb in that mood, yidijii^ Tbou faweft or
ibou didji fee. Vidiftinef Sawefi thou^ or Didjl thou fee? Some-
times, however, it is not exprefled in either of thefe ways, nor in
any way but merely by the tone of voice of .the fpeaker ; and
confequently, when it is written, and read filently, it cannot he
diflinguiflied from a propofition. Fervet avaritia peStus. Lou-
dis amore tumes. Hence the ufe of points or marks of interro-
gation in writing. The former (command) is commonly ex-
prefled by ,a diflindl grammatical mood.

These three moods are all plainly (bcial modifications of
jthought. No man could be fuppofed even to form (not to fay
i//r^rj a propo{itio,n, a quqftion, c^ a command, who did not
believe that there were other intelligent Beings befides himfelf,
who might underlland him. In general too, (for I admit there
may be exceptions to this) the p^rfon who utters a propofition
wiflies to be believed, he who gives a command wiflies to be
obeyed, he who puts a queflion wiflies to be anfwered, and all
of them wiih to be underftood* Thefe are all ojperations of

thought,

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MOODS of VER ns. 2a f

thought, which cannot be fuppofcd to take place in a folitary
Being.

But there are fome moods of thought denoted hy the %\Am-
matical moods of verbs, (more or lefs pcrf(;flly) winch arc not^
ftridWy fpeaking, focial adls of the mind j for inftanrc, wifh
ing, fuppofin^, wondering* Thefe mzj all be Aippofcd t^) xaV^
'place in a foliury being, like Robinsok Crusoe in hi« iflami,
as well as in Cicero in the Forum of Rome.

The greateft part, even of common crmvcrfation, ronfift^
di propojitions; and whole volumes, both in hjfl-'rt'jr and in A;i'
ence, may be, and perhaps hare been written, confiiVtuz '^'^^
tiiely of propofitions, and of courfe requiring no r/thtr m^^A
but the indicative.

But in common conversation, and ftill mmt r^m'AT\c:$\Ay in
all boftlii^ and interefting femes, commandt ;»r/d q ;':0;//r/f
moil occw, and, of couHe, the interrfjir^^irt zuA irr.;yrra*'yf
moods, hawcrcr formed and marked, }jtc^/nu: tw/jtii^ty.

Next to thefe purely ibcial a^s of the uiUA^ </r yA$}Ay f,^/r
Ids frequent or important even than x\M:ti^ h ti^e Utf,\,.4f %iA
interefting emodon of wifliirg. And x\,\% ^.://\k. ^.t •^u^r/^y
of thought we often hive occafion to txyrt^x or ^/r.:.u. .i/.'/<yK
to thofe among whom we l;ve ar»^d w>h v} ^/rr* -^t v/f.^*-rf- ;
ib that ahLo-3gh it be n<X ^/f i"f!:*f, f*r;'>'7 fp^i: ^^, * Tv Ji'
ad of the miiyl, yet h if fliir.!/ rtry r^*ur '<c u Vy -'/f^, %:ji
may als:.cd le fald to btc'^rr.t cr^ w>..tr. -'y/r/ % '.• < -w - • * ^^^ ^/
affrmad-x^ as it is w;>m er;,rr:T*?^ ?>7 ^-^ ^^rr;*/ •, r/>v^. -

tLeiie are tr^ r>vf rx-jL^'^rji of v^vvj;*r -**'".,% - ,v' -**.
g-::a?^ tLit ir* t'/i^i^?7 -0^ Z:^.^ zzt KxyrK'lA v; ^'^.v. v^..--^.

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226 "THEORr of the

" terefting of them)*' is felf-evident, when wc compare them
with the circumlocutions into which it is thought they may be
refolved. But it will be illuftrated more fully than is neceflary
here, in confidering the two laft conclulions.

IV. As to the fourth conclufion, it muft be very plain to us
all, from the experience we have had of different languages, *
that none of them are in every refped, nay hardly in any re-
fpedl, abfolutely perfecSl ; and correfponding, either by the va-
riety of words which they afford, or by the modifications,
inflexions, and arrangements of thofe words, to all the varie-
ties and niceties of human thought. It is only the mod com-
mon and familiar thoughts or notions that have particular
words in all common languages to denote them^ and only the
familiar and frequent combinations of thoughts that have ap-
propriated phrafes to exprefs them. New notions require new
words to denote them, as new combinations of thoughts, of
which the variety is endlefs, require new phrafes and fentences.
In this way, languages gradually improve, at leaft in point of
richnefs, copioufnefs, and precifion.

But it is only the mod frequent of all combinations of
thought with that which is the general meaning of a verb, fuch
as affirmation, interrogation, command, wifti, l^c. that are
exprefled by fuch inflections or variations of the primary verb,
as may be called grammatical moods. Thefe ar.e the con^ina-
tions of thought, in the exprefling of which, circumlocution,^
or tedioufnefs of any kind, would be the moft difagreeable and
inconvenient; and for which, therefore, a quick and fimple
mode of communication is moft requiiite. Many other com-
binations of thoughts may be expreflfed by the combination of
different verbs with fufficient quicknefs, and without inconve-
nience or difagreeablenefs of any kind. The number of gram-
matical moods cannot be infinite. It is plainly limited, partly
by the difficulty of contriving a great number of diftindl in-

flieiftions^

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MOODS of VERBS. 227

fledlions, partly too from the obvious difficulty of remember-
ing and employing accurately even fuch a number as might
undoubtedly be contrived, but much more from there being
no urgent occafion for fuch a variety of them j many of the
combinations of thoughts to be exprefled by verbs being fo
near akin, that they would naturally be claiTed together, and
might be denoted by one grammatical mood, without danger of
any ambiguity or obfcurity ; as for inftance, the various moods
of thought which are occafionally exprelTed by the grammatical
imperative, or by the future tenfe of the indicative ; all the
diflindlions of which moods of thought, both in kind and in
degree, may be fully underftood by thofe to whom the dif-
courfe is addreffed, from a variety of well known or obvious
circumftances. Hence I think it appears very natural, that
though the poffible number of grammatical moods be very
great, (though by no means infinite) the number of actually
fubfifting moods in different languages fhould be very fmall ;
and that fome, even of thefe few, fhould occafionally be em-
ployed with little diftindtion ; the ingenuity and labour of man-
kind in contriving, and their precifion and fteadinefs in em-
ploying fuch moods, being chiefly regulated by the experience
of what they daily had occafion for,

V. The fifth of thofe conclufions refpedling the importance
of grammatical moods towards the perfedlion and beauty of
language, by the quicknefs, animation, and force, which they
give to the expreflion of our mod familiar and moft interefting
modifications of thought, can require no other proof but mere
illuftration by proper examples, any number of which may
eafily and readily be found. And from thefe it will jrfainly ap-
pear, that the moods of verbs are in a manner effential to elo-
quence of almoft every kind. " L'^loquence" (as M. d*Alem-
BERT very juftly obferves, and propofes to define it) " eft le
*' talent de faire paffer avec rapidit^, ct d'imprimer avec force,

F f 2 " dans

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228 "THEORr of the

" dans Tame dQ% autres, le fentiment profond dont on eft p€nc-
** tr^. Cette definition convient a IVloquence meme du filence^
'* langage energique et quelquefois fublime des grandes paf-
*' fions ; a Teloquence du gefte, qu'on pent appeller Tdloquence
'' du peupky par le pouvoir qu'elle a pour fubjuguer la muki-
" tude, toujours plus frapp^e de ce qu'elle volt que de ce qu'elle
** entend ; enfin a cette Eloquence adroite et tranquille^ qui (e
^ borne ^ convaincre fans emouvoir, et qui ne cherche point a
^* arracher le confentement, mais a Tobtenir. Cette demiere
*' ^fpece d'^loquence n'eft peutetre pas la moins puifTante ; on
" eft moins en garde contre Tinfinuation que contre la force."
D'Alemfert Z){/2:(?2/rj ^ VAcademie Fran(^oife^ et Reflexions Jur
VUoquence Qratoire. Melanges^ VoL 11. p. 304, 305* 319.

Of all the moods of thought which are commonly expreffed
by grammatical moods, the indicative (comprehending the
fimple fubjunBive) though one of the moft important, and
moft frequently employed, is plainly one of the leaft animated
or interefting, from the nature of the thought exprefled by it,
which is merely proportion, that is, a£Brmation and negation.
Though animation and force be little needed, yet brevity and"
quicknefs are of much confequence in the exprefling of this
combination of thoughts. Had we not an indicative mood tO'
exprefs it briefly, and in one word, our converfation and wri- "
ting would be intolerably (low and tedious, and confequendy
feeble and difagreeable. We fhould be obliged to employ at
leaft two verbs inftead of one, and after all fliould have but a
very inaccurate and clumfy expreflion of a thought, which we
ftiould wifti to communicate as precifely and diftindlly as poffi-
ble. Fuit Ilium could not be refolved into Dico Ilium fuiffe;
fox dico is it&lf an indicative, refolvable ia the fame way witb
fuits aioy inquam, ajferoy affevero^ i^c. me dicere. Without the ufe
of grammatical moods, we could get no nearer to a refoludon
of fuit Ilium than ego dicere fuiffe Ilium. Or dropping the in-
fle^ons which ierve to difiingui(h. the infinitives from the

moodS)

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MOODS of VERBS. «29

mcodsy properly fo called^ and taking only the roots or bafes
of the verbs refpedHvely, Ego die — fu — Ilium. Any perfon
naay eafily try the cffed of fuch a refolution of any plain ele-
gant compofition, either in profe or verfe, wherein the indica-
tive and limply fubjxin<Jlive moods are chiefly or folely em-
ployed ; as for inftance, the following beautiful lines of OviD>
containing an account of Pythagoras.

Vir FUiT bic ortu Samiur: fed fugerat una
Et Samon et dominos; odioque tyrnnnidis exul
Sponte ERAT : ifque licet coeli regione remotus
Mente deos adfit : et qua Natura negabat
Vijibus bumanis^ oculis ea peBoris hausit.
Cumque animo, et vigili perspexerat omnia cura^
In medium difcenda da bat : ceetumque fiUntum^
BiElaque mirantumy magni primordia mundi^
Et rerum caujfasy et quid Natura^ docebat :
^id Deusj unde nivesj quee fulminis ssset origo :
Juppitety an venti^ difcujfa hubc ton A re NT ;
^id oy ATERET terras J qua Jidera lege mearent ;
Et quodcunque latet. Primufque animalia menjis'
Arc u IT imponi: primus quoque talibus ora
DoSla quidem solvit, fed non et credita^ verbis.

In thefe fifteen lines, there are fixteen verbs, either in the
indicative or in the Amply fubjundive mood. Without the ufe
of fuch a mood, the thoughts exprefTed in the lines, Ample and
eaiy of apprehenfion as they may appear, could hardly have
been exprefled intelligibly ; or if this, with much labour and
ingenuity, could be accomplifhed, ftill the beauty, the charm,
of the compolition would be completely lo(L The poet, the
orator, the philofopher, the hiftorian, and indeed every perfon
who has the gift of fpeech, or who makes ufe of language in
aay way, has almoft conftant occafion to employ that mood,

and

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and mud feverely feel the want of it, whatever refolution or
circumlocution he might contrive inftead of it. It is evident,
that, in many cafes in real life, a flow and tedious expreffion
of the thought denoted by the indicative mood, fuppofing
that it could be made fufficiently intelligible, would not only
be difagreeable, but might fcarce fervc the purpofe required ;
it might come too late* In certain circumftanees, a perfon s
life and fortune may depend on his quicknefs in exprefling
what he means to communicate. Even where nothing of that
kind is at (lake, the difference between a quick and a flow te-
dious exprefllon of thought, is very ftriking and important.
Language is at bed, and after all its improvements, not only
lefs perfedl and accurate, but incomparably flower, than
thought ; the quicknefs of which is proverbial, and with
great reafon. I believe it is even in many cafes much quicker
than we are commonly aware of. We all know, that we can,
in a very few (econds, rccoUedl a vaft number of things in
fuccefllon ; fuch as the various circumftances of a (lory, in
which perhaps many different perfons were concerned, and
many different events occurred, or the various fcenes through
which we paffed in the courfe of a long journey. But to tell
fuch a (lory intelligibly, or to defcribc particularly fuch fcenes,
even with the help of the mod perfedl language, might be the
work of hours. In a certain ftate of imperfedl fleep, in which
dreams mod ccnnmonly occur, or at lead are mod didinifl and
bed remembered, the train of thought appears to be incompa-
rably quicker than we can ever make it, while awake, by any vo-
luntary exertion. There is reafon to think, that fometimes a
fudden noife, which, to a carelefs obferver, might feem to
waken a perfon indantaneoufly and perfeAly, may yet give
occafion to a long dream, in an almod imperceptible interval of
time. I call the dream longy though it may pafs in a fingle fe-
cond or lefs, when it confids of a great or numerous feries of
imaginary events, the narration of which would be long in

point

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MOODS of VERBS. 231

point of time j like the adventure of the Sultan in the Arabian
Nights Entertainments, who, on dipping his head into water,
had a long and vexatious feries of adventures, for feven years,
as he thought, in the fhort fpace of time in which his head
was in the water. Even when we are awake, a voluntary
train of thought, efpecially when much connedled with emo-
tion or- paflion, is fometimes fo quick that we are unable to ex-
prefs it in words, or at lead to do it any juftice in point of
quicknefs. Before we can exprefs even the hundredth part of
it, the reft of it is gone, and cannot be recalled but flowly,
and with much labour. We can often obferve, both in com-
mon converfation, and in public fpeaking, that a perfon hath
gone on muth farther in thought than he has exprefTed in
words. Many people cannot tell to any purpofe either a ludi-
crous or a pathetic ftory for laughing or weeping. The whole
train of thought rufhes on their minds fo quickly as to over-
power them with its full effeft, before they have exprefled
enough to let their hearers know any thing of it, nay fome^
times before they begin to fpeak*

Format emm natura prius nos intus ad omnem
Fortunarum babitum : juvat out impellit ad irairiy
Aut ad humum mcerore gravi deducit et angit :
Mox effert animi tnotus interprete lingua.

Some of the moft interefting modifications of thought, I
mean emotions and paffions, exprefs themfelves by natural
language, that is by the countenance, voice and gefture, al-
moft as quickly as they are conceived ; and when they are ex-
prefled in this way, they are not only well underftood by
others, but are often in fome meafure communicated to them*
For fuch is the nature of man, that, independently of all reli-
gious precepts, and of all moral confiderations, we are ftrongly,
and often irrefiftibly diipofed to rejoice with thofe that do re-
joice,

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232 THEORT of the

joice, and weep with thofe that weep. This we muft all have
feen, and to a certain degree felt, even in common converfa-
tion. We can often oWcrve, that one very cheerful, or one
very melancholy perfon quickly communicates his date of
mind to a whole company. We feel the fame Co a fliU greater
ilegree in fcenes of real diftrefs, or o€ violent emotions of any
kindi and often to a very high degree from exquifite theatrical
reprefentation. The fame principle extends to the fpreading of
the military ardour or of a pannic among foldiers, of civil
fury among a mob, and of religious fanatidfmr fometimes
even among people who did not apprehend any fuck danger to
themfelves.

Next to this inflantaneous and mod effedual expreflion and
communication of thought by natural language, is the quick
tranfmifTion of it by very brief expreflions in artificial lan«
guage. I^he beauty and force (that is, the quick, and power-
ful, and pleaiing, eflfedt) of fuch quick and brief expreifions
has been generally acknowledged, and felt, and admired. The
•chief, and fometimes perhaps the only merit of certain apoph-
thegms, or good fayings, confifts in the brevity, and confe-
quenrly force of the expreilion *. Among the Spartans, this
Ayle of fpeaking and writing was fo much admired aa to be-
come a matter of ftudy, and confequently fometimes of afiec-
tatlon. It is certain, that many thoughts, which appear (triking
and admirable, when exprefled in one or two words, are feeble
and frivolous, when exprefled at full length, efpecially when put
into pompous language. On the fame principle too, we may
underfland how it comes to pafs, that brevity, and the employ-
ment of few and fimple words, are eflential to the fublime in
literary compofition ; which is a well known and important
faa.

We are fo apt to be difgufted with a very full and precife
expreflion of thought, efpecially on fubjeAs which are familiar

* Videfis Plutarch's Apophthegms.

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MOODS of FERBS. 233

to us, or at lead are fuppofed to be fo, that many people who
are accudomed to the elegant, and often concife and animated,
compofitions of hiftorians, orators, and poets, cannot be recon-
ciled to that accurate enunciation of propofitions and of argu-
ments in proof of them, which is often indifpenfibly neceflary
for ftridl reafoning ; or if they can bring themfelves to liften
to the propofitions and demonftrations of geometry, when ex-
prefTed in this way, they will not fo readily admit that there is
the fame occafion for (uch fulnefs and accuracy of expreffion
on any other fubjed, not even in metaphyfics ; hence the
vague, inconclufive, and often abfurd reafonings, which have
produced both difguft and diftruft of fuch fpeculations.

Grammatical language, in general, and efpecially the
modern languages, afford fuch (low expreffions of thought, that
often before we have heard or read the half of a fentence, we
apprehend the meaning of the whole of it, and, of courfc, the
latter part of it is not merely fuperfluous and tedious, but in
many cafes quite difgufting.

If we could exprefs our thoughts by grammatical language
as quickly and concifely as we can by natural language, and
without lofing any thing of that di(lin<5lnefs and precifion
which artificial language gives to the expreffion of them, it
would unquefiionably be a great improvement in language, in
point of agreeablenefs, animation, and force. I doubt whe-
ther it would be equally favourable in fcience. I am difpofed
to think that the flownefs^ or even tedioufnefs, of the expref-
fion of our thoughts on certain fubjedls of profound reafoning,
has its ufe, by giving us time and opportunity, and almoft
forcing us, to attend to every particular thing, and its relations
to other things, about which we reafon. But even this has its
limits ; and mathematical demohftration itfelf, as we find it in
the writings 'of the ancient geometers, is but an abridged chain
of fyllogifms. And it is ftill further abridged in many cafes,
by thofe who are perfect matters of it, by omitting many of
Vol- II. G g the

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234 THEO-Rr 0f the

the more minute and eafy fteps which thofe who arc well ac-
cuftomed to fuch reafonings quickly and eafily fupply for them-
felves, and find pleafure in this quicknefa and brevity ; whife^
on the contrary, they are tired and di%u(lcd with that flow
and tedious expofition of every ftep in the reafoniag, which to
them is needlefs, but perhaps would be neceflary for the in-
ftrudlion of thofe of inferior talenta and knowledge.

A GRAMMATICAL language, as quick as diought, and a^
concife as natural language^ b manifcftly unattainable. But
every approximation to it is valuabk. All the moods of verba,
even the indicative and the fimple fubjundlive, are fuch ap-
proximations.

If thefe obfervations be true^ with refpedt to the indicative
and fimply fubjundlive mood, and the plain and tranquil ex-
preflion of mere propofition, how much more important and
firiking mud the correfponding differences be, between die
concife and quick expreflions of fuch interefting and animated
combinations of thoughts, as interrogation, comimand, wifh^
i^c. by the gracftmatical moods of verbs, and the flow, languid
enunciations of the fame or fimilar thoughts^ by circumlocur
tion and the ufe of additional verbs?

There is a juft and beautiful obfervation of Lokoinus,
relating to this fubjedl, which will fairly admit of much more
extenfive application than he ha» made of it, and is in truth
more important than he feems to have been aware o£ He
takes notice of interrogation as a figure of rhetoric, by which
an orator endeavours to render the exprefllkm of his thoughts
more animated and forcible* Ti V imafo, ^mftM rotg xiv^ug r$ zat.
C^4vr9^fj( ', ofa uk m^n-Mig reuc rdfv o^n/xarary $ii&TWieug rafomku
ifi^gawr^iga M€U ffofittgomga avmoMi ra XsyofAipai LoNGlNUS i£r
Sublim. Se<5t. xviiL Thi^ opinion he Qluflxates, in fome mear
fiire, by the manner in which he exprefies it, namely, by the
ufe of the very figure of interrogation of which he is treating ;
and ftill better by a very apt quotation from the firft Philippic

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MOODS of rERBS. 235

of DbmoSTHBNBS. H jSuXto^i, ii^t fjboh "rsgMvrs; ecXXfiXm ^vvfiantr^xi
Kxr» rtj¥ ayogttvt Xsyirai n xaifOfi yifoiro yag av ri Kai9orig6»f ft yiaittifiiP

^Of ; ou fut A/' e»XX' eurfitftr rt i* vfi^sv 9sa^tg$$ $ l^Cm

The juftnefs of Longinus's remark on this pafntge, and
indeed his general obfervation with refpedl to the animation and
force of interrogation, employed as a figure of rhetoric, can,
I think, admit of no difpute. Bnt even the truth of it, and
our ready acquiefcence in it, implies that he was, and that we
too are, fenfible of fbmething more animated and forcible tn
an interrogaticoi, even literally employed, as in common fife,
than in a circuitous expreiTion of the fame thought ; elfe it
never could have been employed, nor thought of, as an ani-
mated figure of fpeech.

Even the fimple interrogation, Who is that? is evidently
more animated and forcible, as well as more concife, than / de^
Jire you to tell me who that is^ or / dejire to he informed who that is.
The fame is equally obvious with rcfped to go^ come^ do this,
te fpedem, te teneam^ v^ fx,ip ^01 ioiin if we compare them with
I order you to go^ I command you to come, I defire you to do this,
cupio te JpeSare, opto te tenere, Xi^eofutt ru^ htg^ i/itv ^icvat^ or,
Xiy — X/^^ — fft^c vfi,i9 io — ; which is employing merely the
roots, without any inflexion whatever of the three verbs, the
meaning of all of which, to wit, affirmation, wilh, and giving,
is briefly, but fully and clearly, and confequently forcibly ex-
preiled by the Greek optative iostv.

The more urgent the occafion is, and the more interefted
the paflions become, the more important is the brevity and
force of thefe moods to the expreffion of our thoughts. This,
which is obvious even in common life, is ftill more ftriking in
thofe animated and interefting reprefentations of real life, which
we have in dramatic poetry ; to a great part of which it may
fairly be faid that thefe moods are efTential.

G g 2 In

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236 THEORr of the

In the great difcovery fcene in Oedipus HyrannuSy there are not
fewer than 150 interrogative and imperative fentences ; any one
of which would be murdered, and the effect of the fcene
ijpoiled, by ufing circumlocution by means of a verb of aiking
or of commanding.

In the paffionate fcenes of Lear and of Othello^ feveral hun-
dreds of iimilar inftances may eaiily be found.

In the difcovery fcene in Douglas^ fome of. the fined (Irokes
of paffion, of anxiety, of wonder, of horror, of eager curiofity^
are conveyed by means of the moods of verbs, and would be
loft in any circumlocution.

Was he alive f

Inhuman that thou art

How couldji thou kill what winds and tempejis /pared f

£v£N Row£, amidft all his golden verfe, was not unmind-
ful of the force and animation which the moods of verbs give
to the ezpreflion of thought

Does he ? Does Hayings ?

Reward him for the noble deed, juft Heaves.

For this one a(5lion, guard him, and dijlinguip hin^
With fignal mercies, and with great deliverance ;,
Save him from wrong, adverfity, and ihame ;
Let never fading honours fourijb round himj
And confecrate his name even to time's end j
Let him know nothing elfe but good on earthy
And everlafting blefTednefs hereafter.

The poor, forfaken, royal little ones !
Shall they he left a prey to favage power ?
Can they lift up their harmlefs hands in vain,
Or cry to Heaven for help, and not be heard ?.
Impoilible !

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MOODS of FERBS. 237

Go on, purjue^ ajfert the facred caufe, Jland forth and
fave^ ■ Jane Shore ^ ad, /^ fc !•.

Alas ! / never "wronged you —
Oh ! then he good to me, have pity on me ;
^hou never hnew^Ji the bitternefs of want,
And may^Jl thou never know it. Oh ! hejlom

Some poor remain

Allow me but
The fmalleft pittance. A9^ $.-

The genius of Sophocles and of Shakesi^eare, and the*
talents of Garrick and Siodoks united, could not make fuch
fentiments as thofe of Lear^ and Othello^ and Oedipus ^ and Lady
Randolph^ and Jane Shore^ interefting, or even tolerable, to any
reader or fpeftator of tafte and judgment, if they were ezprefTed
in minute detail, by fuch circumlocutions as the grammatical
moods of verbs may be refolved into.

The fined inftance that can be given, or indeed fiippofed, of
the truth of this principle, we have in Homer, in the admira-
ble fpeech of Priam to Achilles^ when he goes to beg the body
of his fon He6lor. This fpeech has been univerfally admired,,
as perhaps the mod eloquent that ever was compofed. Though
it be exquifite in every part, the exordium^ and indeed the very
.firft fentence of it, is by far the mod flriking and eloquent
part of it. This too Homer ieems to have felt and under flood
perfedUy ; for he makes Priam repeat the fame thought, and
almoit in the fame words, at the end of his fpeeeh, by way of
peroration, and with a very happy effedl. When Priam enters
the tent of Achilles y and throws himfelf at his feet, his addrc&*
to him is moft fingularly ftriking.

Ti^iZ9 iimg tywff oXm iti yngttoi ovif^

Think

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238 tHEORr of the

"Think of thy father^ 0 god-like Acbiths, old like me, and on the
brink of the grave. Poffibly there is a force and propriety in the
ufe of the aoriftic imperative /tt^tf-a/, inftead of the preient im-
perative, which would be more inteUigible to Romero's coun-
trymen than it can be to us. Perhaps to them the diflference
between thofe two forms of the imperative mood might be as
great as it is to us between think of and he thinking qf, the im-
perative of the aoriil being a more vehement, fudden and
urgent requeft or command than the imperative preleat /xvoov,
but yet not difrefpe^lful, like the imperative perfe<!^ ft$iL»n^o^
which, I believe^ might be addreOTed to a flave, but could not,
with pr<^riety, be employed by a fupplicant to an equal <Mr to
a fuperior.

SoM£ nicety and delicacy of this kind ieems to be expreiled
in the concIu(ion of Priam* s fpeech, by the ufe of the impe-
rative prefent of one vei1>, and the imperative of the aorift of
unother, in the fame line.

Aihi^^ €uiau, iuiiauf is the imperative prefent of m^$o[iai ; $Xu9ew
ia the imperative of the aorift of iTkw. The former ieema a
more tranquil and cool requdl, or rather advice or ftiggeftion,
and refers to a continued, or frequently repeated, a^on, flatc,
or habit, to wit reverence to the Gods. The latter is a more
urgent fupplication for immediate pity and favour ; as if he
had faid, Be ever mindful of joar duty to^ the Gods, and injkintly (or
at this time, moment, l^c.) have pity on me.

Whatever may be thought of thefe fpecvlationa and re-
finements, it can never be doubted, that if, inftead of the
imperative mood, we were to ufe a circumlocution, to exprefs
the warm and vehement fentiments of Priam, it would be in-
fupportable ; XifrtrofMtu e% /tpficrcurfai ry vmrgog — $Lshis4bu r9% Imc —
avroif %K%nffut. Such a flow and languid esLpreftoft would have

fuited

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MOODS of VERBS. ^39

luited ill with thofe fentiments and anions which Homeh attri**
butes to Priam. Indeed his adlions, without his fpeaking at all^
would have been more pathetic and perfuafive than they would
haye been with fuch knperfedl and improper expreflions of his
thoughts ; but bj means of the moods of yerbs^ it is poflible
to unite, to a certain degree, the advantages both of natural and
of artificial language*

Wb have many inftances in poetry, as well as in oratory, of
the figurative ufe of fuch moods as I have juft now been con-
fidering, and the effed of it, in enlivening and enforcing the
expre£Qon of the poet's itntimencs, ia^ very ftriking.

Canfioricdum^ or animated bu/l\
Back to its manfion call tbe fleeting breath ?
Can honour's voice provoke tbe fiknt dufi f
OrfiatVry footh tbe dull cold ear of death f

What female beaft cfm gold defpije f

What cat's averfe tofijh f Gray-

But while I thus point out how great a (hare the concifeneia
ef the expre£Ekm of many thoughts, by means of grammatical
moods, has in giving animation and force to language, I beg
it may not be thought that I impute the animation and force
of fuch expreffions entirely to that concifenefs. Many of the
tfaoughtfr CO be expreiled are in themfelves highly animated and
interefting ; and, on this very account, concifeneis in the expref-
fing of them is peculiarly agreeable, and even neceflary*

VI. Thh fixth and laff conclufion refpeding the import of
the moods of verbs, is very intimately conneded widi the pre-
ceding. It relates not merely to the brevity and quicknefs of
the expreflion of thought, but to die intimate combination,
and iimultaneous exhibition, of the figns of thoughts, which

thoughts.

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^jp THEORr of the

thoughts are themfelves co-exiftent, and moft intimately com*
bined. To this great property of thought, which has never
yet been confidered with that attention which it deferves, in-
fledlions of words, and efpecially the moods of verbs, do fome
kind of juftice ; while circumlocution of every fort, even though
it exprefs all the different thoughts, does manifeft violence.

To explain this fully, would require a much longer and
more elaborate difquifition concerning the nature of human
thought than would be proper here. It may, however, be, in
fome meafure, underftood, by obferving, that grammatical
language, though the nobleft of all human inventiona, or, as
fome conceive, an art beyond the reach of our unaflifled fa-
culties, and imparted to us by a kind of immediate infpiration
from Heaven, is, by no means, abfolutely perfedl, nor even
capable of ever becoming fo. It anfwers admirably well for
denoting many of our thoughts, either fingly, or in various
relations, particularly in fucceffion, and is even fubfervient to
the precifion and (leadineis of thought, by the fubdiviiion or
decompofition of the mafs of thought which it requires, and
obliges us to make, not merely for the inventing, but for the
learning, and the occafional uiing, of language. It is indeed
in many ways the chief inftrument in the improvement of hu-
man reafon. But in one very important refpe(5l, it is almoft in-
congruous with the nature of that thought which it is employ-
ed to reprefent.

The artificial iigns, whether audible or viiible, that we ufe
in grammatical language to denote our thoughts, are neceffarily
arranged, either in the order of time, or in that of place ; and
when we fee the vifible Iigns arranged in the order of place,
(as in reading) we attend to them, and occafionally give them
audible utterance in the order of time.

But our thoughts themfelves are not arranged in either of
jhofe ways. It is felf evident, that thoughts cannot be arranged
in the order of place, j at leaft this will be felf-evidelit to every

perfon

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MOODS of rERSS. 441

perfon who can (hake off the long eflabliihed philofophical hy-
pothefis of ideas, or images of things in the mind, as fnbfer^
vient to thought ; or even who will take the trouble to diftin-
guifh between fuch fuppofed images, which, like thofe of a
magic lanthorn, may be conceived to be arranged in place, and
the thoughts correfponding to them. And I believe it is equally
certain, though not equally evident, that many of our thoughts
are not even arranged in the order of time, but are related to
one another in a very different manner, which is well under-
flood, as being perfe<5lly familiar to us, but which cannot be
reprcfented merely by the arrangement of words.

That many of our thoughts are arranged in the* order of
time, or, in other words, that there is a train or fucceffion of
thought, is, I think, too evident and generally acknowledged to
require either proof or illuftration ; and this relation among our
thoughts may be fairly and completely reprefented by the fuc-
ceflion of audible words, and of courfe with fufficient pro-
priety by the arrangement of vifiblc words.

But this is perhaps the lead important of all the various re-
lations of thought. Befides the train or fucceffion of thoughts
in time, there is often at once a great combination or mafs of
thoughts varioufly related to one another. Such a mafs of
thought, we fometimes wi(h to impart entire and all at once j
fometimes we wifh to analyie it, to break it down, as it were,
and either to attend to it ourfelves, or to impart it to others,
that they may attend to it, piece-meal.

For the latter purpofc, the arrangement of words in gram«
matical language is admirably well adapted ; for the former,
it is in a great meafure unfuitable. It gives disjointed, and in
fucceffion, thofe thoughts which we have united and iimulta-
neous, and wifh to communicate in the fame way.

Hence the importance of the great principle of infledlion in
grammatical language, and its fuperiority to mere arrangement
of words : Hence too the fuperiority of thofe languages which,
having many and diftin^ inflexions, admit of great variety

Vol. II. H h of

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34^ THEORr of the

of arrangement. This is {carce required for mere reafomng,
but is of great value in poetry and eloquence^ not only in point
of found, but fenfe^ bodi with refpedl to the force of it, and
the juftnefs of the expreflion of the various complicated and fi-
^ multaneous relations of the things conceived.

Now, to infledlion the moods of verbs {dainly belcmg ; and
by them we ejcpreis the fimultaneous combinations of . the
thoughts or energies of affirmation, interrogation, wifh, com-
mandy and many others, with the thought ch* accident ezprefled
by any verb ; and when we expreft theie combinations by refi>-
lution or circumlocution, by means of two or more verbs, we,
in ibme meafure, feparate in words what was mod intimately
blended in thought, and reprefent as fucceffive what we con*
ceived, and wilhed to impart, as fimultaneous.

This do^rine will not be admitted by thofe i^ilofbphers
who have aflumed or admitted as a principle, that a perlbn can
have but one thought (or idea) at once. But this principle I
difregard, as I know of no proof of it, and z» it ieems to me
incooiiftent with many obvious phenomena, and even repug-
nant to dire(5l confcioufnefs. I fufpe^ that it has been adopted
in confequence of very carelefs obfervation, both of thought
and of language ; and I think it of fome confequence to be aware
of the error of fuch an opinion ; for though it may appear,
at firft view, of little importance, whether we admit the fimul-
taneous prefence, or only the immeafurably quick fuccefiion of
different thoughts, yet the difference of thefe two principles
may be found very great, on tracing their feveral confequences.
With refpeA to the moods and other infle<flions of verbs, I
cannot think it fiiould admit of doubt, that they are employed
and underftood to denote combinations of fimultaneous thoughts,
no one of which can reafonably be faid to occur to the peribn
i^eaking, or to be apprehended by the perfon hearing, before
the reft. SpeSo^ fpeSlemus^ fpeSla^ fpeBaverunt^ fpe&avitne ?
All nouns, even proper names, denote a congeries of circum*

fiances,

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MOODS of VERBS. 245

ftancesy or a mafs (not a train) of thoughts, which are conceived
at once, and cannot be feparated and confidered in fuccefIion>
but by a very laborious effort. Many fingle words, for exam-
ple prepofittons, and mod fentences, denote fome kind of rela-
tion; but we cannot, I think, conceive a relation, without
thinking at once of the things (iwo or more) that are related »
as well as of the relation (both in ita generic and in its fpecific
nature] that fubfifts between them.

Mathematical propofitions are expreflions of co^xiftent
thoughts) the obje£(s cf which (at lead in pure geometry) bear
no relation at all to time ; and thefe, to be conceived riglitly or
at all, muft be conceived ac oncd. Any ordinary perfon can do
this with refpeiS^ to an axionx^ or even a very fimple propor-
tion ; and good mathematicians can do it with refpe<5l to very
long and complex dieorems, fome of which ordinary people
find ahnoil infuperable difficulty in apprehending. Part of
this difficulty (as I fisel very plainly in myfelf ) arifes from the
number of diings and relations diat are to be thought of at
once, and accordingly is not immediately removed, nor is it
obviated, by even the moft diftinfl and juft conception of every
one of thofe things and relations taken fingly. Correfponding
to this difficulty in a learner, and juft the oppofite of it, is that
of a teacher of almoft any fcience, and c^en of a fpeaker, ei-
ther in a public aflembly or in common converfation, who may
have a clear and juft conception of a great mafs of thought^
which he wiflies to communicate to others, but can fcarce con-
trive to do fo, nor knowa he well where or how to begin ^ and
perhaps when he has begun right, or at lead diftindtly, foon
£Uls into fuch confiifion and perplexity, as makes him almoft
or quite unintelligible to his hearers, even when he under*
(lands himfelf perfedly, and may know that another, more
fortunate in the talent of communicating thought, has helped
bim out, or exprefled diftindUy add properly that very meaning
which he was endeavouring in vain td convey to his hearers,

H h 2 though

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244 THEORT of the

though as well acquainted as the other with the proper words to
denote every portion or fragment of the great congeries of thought.

There is reafon to think^ that there are much greater dif-
ferences among mankind, with refpedt to that capacity or com-
prehenfivenefs of mind, by which they take in, or attend to, at
once^ a variety of objects and relations, than there are with
refpedt to the conception or fimple apprehenfion of any one of
them by itfelf. And that compreheniivenefs of mind, which
is in truth a mod valuable talent, both with a view to fpecula-
tion and adion, may be improved by various means, efpecially
by frequent exercife, and may be aflifted by many expedients.

A PERSON who, when he firft begins the ftudy of mathe-
naatics, can apprehend only the axioms and the fimpleft propo-
fitions, after a few months or years employed in that ftudy^
will eafily apprehend, not only the proportion, but the demon-
ftration of complex theorems, which are maiTes of co-exiftent
thoughts, that could not be exprefled by the fucceffion of worda
in lefs than feveral minutes, nor by the arrangement of words
in lefs than feveral pages.

The fucceffion, and even the befl: arrangement of words are
found fb unfuitable for the expreffion of fuch combinations of
thoughts as occur in many mathematical proportions, that other
expedients are very generally and properly employed to aflift us in
making or in communicating thefe complex operations of thought.

Diagrams and algebraical formulae anfwer thefe purpofes ad-
mirably [well. Neither of them, ftridlly fpeaking, is eflential
to mathematical demonftration ; but both of them ,are highly
ufeful in it, and many good mathematicians would be at a
ftand if they were., deprived of them. A good conftruSion oi
diagram will fuggeil inflantaneoufly the whole congeries of
thought which conftitutes both the propofition and the demon-
ftration of a theorem. A good exprejfion in algebra anfwers
nearly the fame purpofe % and fuggefts, almoft inftantaneoufly,
fuch a mafs of thought, without confufion, as never could

have

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MOODS of VERBS. , 245

have been conveyed by common vrords in fucceflion and ar-
rangement, by reafon of the great length of time required to
utter or to read them ; in the courfe of vrhich time, many of
the particular thoughts compofing the mafs would be gone^ be-
fore others were fuggefted or produced, with which they ought
to be combined, to enable us to perceive their various re-
lations. '

The analogy between the diagrams and formula of mathe-
maticians, and the moods of verbs, and other infledlions of
words in common difcourfe, which I endeavour . here to point
out, is not ib diftant as may at firft fight appear* They agree
in this, that all of them exprefs, infinitely better than any fuc-
ceffion or arrangement of words can do, combinations of
thoughts, which are almoft or perfectly co-exiilent, and which,
by means of them, are apprehended more juftly, more quickly,
and more forcibly, than otherwife they CQ^ld Jb«»

And let it be remembered, that the objefts and relatione
which occupy the minds of geometers, though more abftrufe,
and requiring a greater voluntary effort of thought, than
thofe which engage the attention of ordinary men, are not
more numerous or complicated, but lb general much lefs fo ;
and that they admit more eaiily, and with lefs injury, of be-
ing broken down, and given fucceflively, at lead with a view
to demonftration, in which no great quicknefs is required!.
Hence, in. a great meafure, the clearnefs and force of mathe^
matical reafoning.

The mafles of co-exiftent thoughts which we often meet
within common difcourfe, or in elegant compofition mfull
periods^ are of incredible extent, as appears on our endeavour*
ing to analyfe them, and exprefs in detail the various parts of
the complicated meaning which we apprehend

The iirft feven lines of the Iliad, containing about forty
words, and the firft fixteen lines of Paradife Loft, containing
about one hundred and twenty words, denote refpedtively a

mafs

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84^ fHEORr of the

mafs of coexiftent thoughts^ not a traiu ef Aicceffive thoughts.
The thoughts expreffed in them are much more numerous than
the words, as plainly appears on endeavouring to explain or
define all the words, even in their moft general radicad^ mean^
lag, which is rendered dill more complica&ed, thiw i^, exppei^
iWe of more dioughts,^ by the infU&iom' o£ m«Ay of them,
efpecially in the Greek lines. We can attend to different parts
of that mafs of thought, at our pleafure, r«gairdle& of the reft,
or we may take in, more or lefs clearly, the whole at once, as
tiiis authors certainly did in compo&ig tbe Kne^; or we may
attend accuraCely to the mclaning of every word fingly. And
if this be done very ilowly, and with king intervals between
every word, the meaning of the whole lines,, as a fentence or
period, will be loft ; iior can we, in fucb af way of reading <ac
pronouncing Homeh^s or Milton'^s lines^ make fenfe of them,
but by a voluntary and painful eflR)rt of ntemory, to retain, or
recal, the former words and thoughts, till the latter are fug-
gefted and duly combined v^th them. The words of the fineft
period that ever was compofed, when read of uttered one by
one at the interval of a few minutes, or even feconds^ will no
more have the effe^ of the period properly read or uttered, in
point of thought, than an equally flow founding of the various
notes in a piece of mufic will have, in point of melody or
harmony, the effe&, of the mufic properly performed' ; or than
the fucceffive and flow infpedHon of the different rainbow cch
lours will have, in giving the perception of white, vrhich diey
would give, if contemplated at once properly blended, cnr even
if contemplated in very quick fucceilion.

Aftbr all, perhaps the beft illuftratioil of this important
principle is that of the Indian orator, mentioned in d^ Origin
and Progrefs of Language, VoL IV. p. 22. " I have heard a
" ftory** (lays the learned author of that work) " of an Indian
f orator, who, at a congrefs or talt^ as they call it, with the
^' then Britiih governor of Florida, Commodore Johnston,

" being

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€i

MOODS of rERBS. 147

" being frequently interrupted by the interpreter, who ftopped
^^ hitn^in order to explain to the governor what he faid, at laft
" loft patience ; and, fays he, / can hear this no longer. My
^' diJcQurjt^ cut thus into pieces^ can have no more ifeS than the
water could have on that great beajl of yours ^ {pointing to a
faw-mill at fome diftance) if it were to fall upon it drop by
drop* Now, this orator muft have had as perfed an idea
'* of the flumen orxUionis^ and the effects it produces, as a Ci-
^' CERO or Djbmgsthenes/' The fame author has many juft
and ftriking remarks on the force, the beauty, and the compre-
htnftvenefs of compofition in periods, (page 239, 240.) and of
inflexion of words, (page 14. et paj/im.) And all of thefe ob-
fervations may £urly be applied to the moods of verbs. What
proper periods are to very great and complicated malTes of
thought^ inflexions, including moods, are to the more familiar
and fmaUer combinations of thoughts, which we almoft every
moment experience, and wifh to exprefs united as we conceive

them.

% ^ % ^

As I think it of eflential importance, in all fcientific invefti*
gations, never to blend hypothefis^ or matters of ojnnion,.
with evident matters of fad, and flrid inferences by indudion
from them s it is proper to point out, that no hypothecs what-
ever^ with refped to the original ftate, or the formation, or
the improvement, of language, is aflumed in this EiTay.

It has generally been iuppofed, or taken for granted, in alf
reafonings about the theory of language, that, in a very early
period of its progrefs, perhaps from its very origin, it was rude
and iimple, almoft deftitute of infledions, (fuch as the moods
of verbs) and in a great meafure or wholly monofyllabtc ; and
that all manner of infledions and modifications, by compofi^
tion, by augment, or otherwife, were gradually given, in a flow^
progrefs, to thoie monofyllabic roots, by deliberate humaa
contrivance.

That

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HS rHEORr of the

That this has taken place^ to a certain degree, in many
languages, and to a very great degree in fome, cannot be dif-
puted. In Greek, for example, we can, with the greatefl eafe,
refer fome thoufands of words (counting every variation by
infledlion, by augment, or by compofition, as a different word)
to one fimple root, fuch as Xiy.

In fome languages, it feems probable that the ufual progrefs
and improvement has not taken place, they remaining very long
in a monofyllabic ftate. This has certainly been the cafe with
the Chinefe language, for fome thoufands of years } probably,
in part at lead, the confequence of that great, civilized and
ingenious people perfifting in the ufe of hieroglyphic characters,
immediately iignificant of thought, without any direA relation to
audible words, like the Indian figures that we ufe in common
arithmetic, and never adopting the noble invention of alpha-
betic characters, diredlly expreffive only of founds, the combi-
nations of which founds are immediately iignificant of thought.

But fome ingenious men have been of opinion, confirmed,
as it is faid, by adlual obfervations of the languages of fome
very rude nations, efpecially in America, that fome languages
at lead, perhaps all, were, in a very early period, polyfyllabic
to a moft inconvenient degree ; the words of them being very
long, and fignificant of very complicated meanings, like
phrafes or whole fentences of ours. It has been« thought, that
thefe unwieldy long words may have been gradually broken
down into fhorter, and even into monofyllables j which, in a
further progrefs, might be varied again by infledlion and other-
wife.

It is certainly conceivable, and not very improbable, that
mankind, in their firft rude attempts towards forming a lan-
guage, might not perceive th6 vaft advantage to be gained by
fubdividing, and breaking down as it were, the great mafs of
thought which they conceived, and wilhed to communicate.
They might attempt to give utterance by one word to all the

mafs

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MOODS of VERBS. 249

mafs of thought which they had to exprefi. Thus^ Give me a
how^ might be exprefled by one word 5 Give me food^ by aiao-
thcr J I faw a friend, an enemy , a beaji^ a man^ a woman^ by as
many different words ; no diflindlion being made between noun
and verb, agent or fubjiedl, mood or accident* But the incour
venience of fuch a language would foon be felt and gradually
remedied ; and the fiffl: and mofl: natural flep would be to em-
ploy the fame "vfoxd for ^iv^, whatever was to be given, one word
for fee J whatever was feen, and to employ different nouns to
denote the fubftances given or feen. But this implies the pre-,
vious exercife of a faculty of a higher order than that of di-
viding the voice, or forming articulate founds. The fame
power that has made us Me^orf^^ hath alfo taught ua to divide*
our thoughts. Indeed, without this nobler faculty, which
feems to be denied to all the inferior animals, - and is fcarce per-
ceptible in mail during the firft months of his life, the other
would be of little value. Several animals have learnt to divide
the voice, or to articulate, better thaa many unfortunate indi-
viduals of our own fpecies, who were, deficient in the proper
organs of voice and fpeech ; but none of them have ever learned
to make ufe of fpeech as we do. They probably alway?, and
children for fome time, make no attempt to feparate or analyfe
their thoughts. Till that be done^ which our fuperior faculties
foon enable us to do, the very fundamental notions of the parts
of fpeech cannot be conceived, grammatical language cannot
be contrived, nor even if it were prefented to us ready made,
in all the perfedlion of the Greek of D£mosth£N£S, could it be
either learned or employed.

On the former fuppofition, (page 247.) the moods of verbs
muft be conceived to be added to them in the courfe of the
formation or improvement of language.

On the latter fuppofition, they muft be conceived to be re^
tained in language, and to be a remnant of a very rude polyfyl-

VoL. IL I i labic

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250 THEORr of the MOODS, &c.

labic ftate of it, which^ though inconvenient on the whole,
had fotne advantages.

Some expreffions occafionally employed in this Diflertation,
may feem to favour or to imply the former fuppoiition. But
that is not meant. Neither hypothecs is aflumed in the reafon-
ing. Thofe exprefCons have always been employed with cau*
tion and diftruft^ and merely in compliance with cifftom, a
deviation from which might have ieemed to imply the oppofite
hypothefisi and would have required a new, and, in fome mea*
fure, an embarraifed and uncouth mode of expreffion.

Both hypothefes are equally indifferent to this Theory of the
Moods of Verbs, which is independent of all hypothefes, and
does not extend to the hiftory of the firft appearance of moods^
nor to the queftion, whether they be added to language in its
progrefs, or retained in it when perhaps many other inflexions
were laid afide. They may be partly both, or their hiftory may
be different in different languages. AU that is attempted in
this Theory of the Moods of Verbs, is only to inveftigate the
nature and import of them more accurately than had been
done before, and to ihew what valuable, and almoft indifpenfi-
ble purpofes they aiflually ferve in the communication of
diought.

VIL

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VII. Jn Essay on the Character of HAMLET^ in
Shakespeare's Tragedy of Hamlet. By tbe Re-^
verend Mr Thomas Robertson, F. R. S. Edin.
and Miniver of Dalmeny.

[Read by Mr Dalzel^ Secretary^ July 21. 1788.]

THE CbaroBer oi Hamlet, has been varioufly judged of
by critics^ and what might be expected, it has been ftill
more varioufly reprefented by performers upon th« ftage.
Shakespeare himfelf feems to have apprehended that thi^
would happen ; and that injuftice would be done to a hero, who
probably, in his eftimation, ranked higher than any other that
he has brought into the drama*

When Hamlet was dying, he api)ears, upon this account,
to have made him fpeak as follows to Horatio*

Horatio, I am dead ;

Thou liv'ft'; report me and my caufe aright '

To the unfatisfied.

Oh good Horatio, what a wounded name,

Things {landing thus unknown, fhall live behind me;

If thou didft ever hold me in thy heart,

Abfent thee from felicity a while,

To tell my tale^

Hamlet was here in a fituation in which men in general
fpeak truth; and he was belides fpeaking to a confidential

I i 2 frien^

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2S2 An ESSAr on the

friend, who could not be impofed upon ; a friend who, from
the (Irongelt poflible attachment to him, had been about to
put an end to his own life^ but was reftrained from his pur-
pofe, in order to explain to a " har{h world," the ftory. of
Hamlet, after he was no more.

And when Hamlet dies, Horatio pronounces this eu-
logium :

Now cracks a noble heart I good night, fweet princes
And flights of angels fing thee to thy reft.

Shakespeare, in thefe paflfages, not only refers to the par-
ticular part which Hamlet had aded, with refpe<£t to the
ufurper, (which he calls Hamlet's cauff) and which, upon
being explained, would yindicate what he had done. He
plainly intimates by the mouth of Horatio, his own idea of
Hamlet*s charafler, in all other refpedls; as not only he-
roic and fplendid, but perfectly confiftent, amiable and juft ;
and further, from the danger that Hamlet himfelf]^ as well as
his caufe, might be exp^fed to the cenfure of the unfatisfied, he
feems ftrongly to infinuate, that the charafler could not be com-
prehended, unlefs an enlarged Tiew were taken of it, and of
the different iltuations in which it had been placed.

Hamlet's condudt in having put the king to death, was, in
a great meafure, already juftified, in the very hearing of the
lords^and other attendants upon the court, who were witneffes
to it. The queen, who had juft expired in their fight, had
faid fhe was ** poifoned/* Hamlet had called out " villany !"
Even Laertes, the treacherous opponent of Hamlet, had
declared, " the king, the king^s to blame — It is a poifon tem-
" pered by himfelf/* And Hamlet, upon ftabbing the king,
had exprefsly charged him with " murder." All this pafled in
the prefencc of the court, who would hence be led to view the
king as guilty of having poifoned the queen, and therefore as

juftly

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CHARACTER of HAMLET. ' 253

juftly put to death by her ^on* It is true iudeed, the king had
intended to poifon, not the queen, but Hamlet ; but neither
the court, nor 'Hamlet himfelfi knew this ; none but Laer«
.T£3 was privy to it; and as he immediately expired without
faying more, the fecret was to laft for ever.

Hamlet, therefore, could have but little caufe to fear that
he (hould leave a wounded name behind him for thus revenging
his mother's death. What troubled him, was the thought that
pofterity would condemn him for not having, before that time,
revenged the murder of his father. This was the reproach
with which he had often charged himfelf ; for at the beginning
he had refotved to a<ft quite otherwife, and had exprefsly pro-
mifed to his father's ghoft, with the utmoft fpeed to avenge the
murder.

Hade me to know it (faid he in the ftrft adt) that I with

wings as fwift
As meditation or the thoughts of love,
May fweep to my revenge.

His fervent deiire now therefore, was, that Horatio, i?»ho
knew all, might furvive him, not merely to reveal the murder
of his father, but to make known to all men the infinite indig-
jMtion which this excited ia him, and the plan of vengeance
which he had laid. Horatio, for this purpofe, would de-
fcribe the two great and leading features in the charadler of
Hamlet, pointed out by the finger or Shakespeare himfelf^
that " noble heart," and that ** fweetnefi," with which at once
he was diilinguifhed. Upon the latter of thefe two, Horatio
would particularly explain the fcheme of counterfeiting^ mad-
nefs, which that fweemefs had fuggefled ; and which, at the
fame time, would fave Hamlet from paffing for a real mad-
man in the opinion of pofterity.

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254 ^^ ESSAr m tbe

As certain critics, however, have dioaght, fimie, that there is
an incongmity, others, that there is an immorality, in the cha-
rader of this perfonage, it becomes a duty in the charitabk to
jaftify the poet, and to revive the office of Hoeatio, in die

defence of his hero.

To underftand the charader of Hamlet, we had beft per-
haps take it at two different times, before die death of his fa-
ther, and after that period ; for while the fubftance is in btfth
the fame, the form \% exceedingly different.

The former of thefe, and which was his radical and general
character, was a compound of many pardcular qualities ; an
exceeding high elevadon of foul, an exquiffte feniibility to vir*
tue and vice, and an extreme gendenefs of fpirit and fweemefs
of difpofidon. With thefe were conjoined the moft brilliant
and cultivated talents, an imagination tranfcendendy vivid and
ftrong, together with what may be called, rather an intuition^
than an acquired knowledge of mankind. And there may be
added dill, a lingular gaiety of fpirits, which hardly at any af-
ter period, the very gloomieft only excepted^ feems to have
failed him.

^Thesb being the fundamental properdes of Hamlet, we
have only to fee what effefls would be produced upon fucb a
man, by the villany of his uncle, the murder of his father, the
incefl of his mother, and the ghoft of his father calling upon
him for revenge. Thefe were the dreadful fprings which ptrt
Hamlet into modon; and in which ftate,SHAiusPEARE brings
him upon the flage.

I SHOULD venture to imagine, (both from the nature of a
character fo extenfive, and from the various modves to a^ion)
that Shakespeaee had no particular plan laid out in his mind
for Hamlet to walk by, but rather meant to follow him ; and^
hke an hiftorian, with fidelity to record, how a perfon, fo An-
gularly and marvelloufly made up, fhould ad; or rathw, (to ufe

• die

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CHARACrER of HAMLET. 25s

the term employed by the king) to defcribe the " transformation'*
which he ihould undergo. For this purpofe, he kept an atten-
tive and an undeviating eye upon Haml£T*s previous and ge-
neral charader, (fuch as he had figured it to be) without any
intention to add a fingle new feature, but only to take in fuch
new afpedls of it, fuch new exertions of his powers, and fuch
new fchemes of condudl, as ihould naturally flow from his new
iicuations.

This being fuppofed, the new colours under which Hamlet
appears will be found entirely confident with the old, and
fpringing lineally from them ; an indignation and fenfibility
irritated to extreme ; the deeped anguifh ; at times a mortal
melancholy ; a counterfeited madnefs, in order to wait for op-'
portunities of revenge; and a degree of real phrenzy^ to
which he feems, more than once^ to have been adlually driven
by the ftrength of his feelings, through force of ig^hich be
was fometimes upon the point of betraying his own fecret.
Still, however, there was neither violence, nor forrow, nor me-
lancholy, nor madnefs, in the original and natural date of his
mind.

What feems to explain die whole of Hamlet's condudl is
the latitude of his charadler. He was at once a poliflied gen-
tleman, a foldier, a fcholar and a philofoph^r > a6 in the excla- '
mation of Ophelia :

O what a noble mind is here o^erthrovm !

The courtier's, foldier's, fcholar's, eye, tongue, fword.

At one time, mild, courteous and contemplative ; at another,
animated with the keened feelings ; upon occafions, all wrath
and fire ; looking down, at all times, as if from a iuperior orb,
upon whatever was little, infincere or bafe among men.

Now,

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256 An ESSAr m the

NoW) in fuch an aflemblage ot qualities, combining to form
the broad charafter of Hamlet, Shakespbarb appeasra to
have feen, that they were balanced in.fuch an oppofite manner,
that one clafs of them fhould counteradl, and render inefficient
the other. It is this that fuffered nothing to be done ; it is this
that conflantly impeded the aAion, and kept the cataftrophe
back. Refentment, revenge, eternal indignation, itimulated
Hamlet at one moment ; at the next, we have the mere un-
bending and recoil of thefe paflions ; and not only this, which
was tranfient, but there followed, almoft. at the fame in-*

- ilant, that gentlenefs which fo (eldom left him. From this,
he could not, at any time, a£l in cold blood j he could (Irike
only in the fiercefl moments of provocation ; then '*^ could he
'^ drink hot blood */* In the general tenor of his, mind he could
do nothing ; he was like Samson, whenhis (trength was gone
from him.

Meanwhile, he is almoft conftantly chiding himfelf for
dull mettle^ dull revenge^ want of gall s a felf-reproach which, in
fome fcenes, breaks vividly out ; as upon the oceafions where
he faw a mere player weeping over Hecuba, and when he was
told that the delicate prince Fortinbras was marching at the
head of his troops to riik his life for an '^ egg-ihell." Hamlet,

* in fhort, was not formed for adtion. Upon the fluduation of
his mind between contriving and executing, between elevation,
fenfibility and gentlenefs, hangs the whole biiiinefs of the
tragedy.'

In fuch a ftate of Hamlet's frame> the projedl of counter-
feiting madnefs occurred to him with great confiftency. It was
a device to which his nature led ;^ bent upon « vengeance ydcfti*
tute of refoltition diredlly to gratify it^ afiuming there£oRithe
cloak of infanity, in order to hill fufpicion^ and to watch at
leifure for thofe occurrences which time or chance might prp*
fent. To fecure, by this fiAion, his perfonal fafety was, in

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GHARJCTER of HAMLET. 257

no degree, his view ; for " he did not fet his life at a pin's fee;*'
but, by means of his life being preferved, to embrace the op-
portunities of revenge. It was from the fame foftnefs in his
nature, that he afterwards ftrove to make himfelf believe, that
his father's ghoft might be the devil trying to ** abufe him ;"
and which fuggefted to him the ftratagem of getting a play to
be performed before the king. • '

His anxious adherence to the proje<5l of counterfeiting mad-
nefs, to which he made every thing elfe give way, explains his
rudenefs^ as Dr Johnson calls it, to Ophelia ; for to deceive
the beloved Ophelia into a belief of his madnefs, and to in-
fult bcr^ was the fureft of all means to make it believed that he
was really mad. And this alfo accounts for his making her
brother Laertes believe, that^ the rough treatment he gave
him at his fitter's funeral, proceeded not from love to Ophelia,
its true caufe, but from diflraftion ; and y^hich is ridiculoufly
called by Dr Johnson, a ** falfehood unfuitable to the charac-
" ter of a good or a brave man.'* Hamlet was then in the
very prefence of the ufurper, and, on that account, induftrioufly
'' proclaimed," that what he had done, proceeded from madnefs.

Connected with this point, it has been thought vain by
fome critics ^, to juftify Shakespeare in his making Hamlet
forget (as they think) Ophelia fb foon after her death \ in^
ftead of which, he fhould have waited, they fay, for the eflFedt
which time has upon the change of feeling ; and Dr Johnson
has remarked that ^^ time toiled after him in vain." But I
fhould apprehend that this is entirely to miftake the charadler.
Time toils after every great man, as well as after Shakespeare.
The workings of an ordinary mind keep pace indeed with time ;
they move no fatter; they have their beginning, their middle, and
their end ; but fuperior natures can reduce thefe into a point.
They do not indeed fupprefs them ; but they fufpend, or they lock

Vol. II. K k them

• Mirror, &c.

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258 An LSSAr on the

them up in the breaft. It is the very mark and prerogaoTe of a
great foul, upon great occafions to outrun time, to ftart at once,
without leniible tranfition, into another periocL Even a commoa
foldier, in the heat of adlion, were his deareft companion to fall
by his fide, would not (although he could) drop his arms and
mourn over him. In a limilar (late, but infinitely more inter-
eding, was Hamlet at this time. And if doubts ihould ftill
be entertained about the exiftencc of Hamlet's love to Ophe-
lia after her death, the queflion can be brought to the ihorteft
iflfue. Hamlet himfelf will anfwer, That his love for Ophe-
lia was greater than ever. When Lae&tes, half-delirious
himfelf with grief for his filler's madneis and death, leaped
into her grave, and imprecated ^' ten times triple woe upon the
'' curfed head of him (Hamlet) who had deprived her of her
" mod ingenious fenfe ;*' Hamlet burfl upon him at once
iron his concealment, like thunder from a cloud ;

What is he whofe griefs

Bear fuch an emphafis ? whofe phrafe of ibrrow

Conjures the wandVing ftars, and makes them (land

Like wonder-wounded hearers ? This is I,

Hamlet the Dane — {leaps into the grave.

Why, I will fight with him upon this theme

Until my eye lids will no longer wag.

1 loved Ophelia ; forty thoufand brothers

Could not, with all their quantity of love.

Make up my fum. What wilt thou do for her ?

Come, fliew me what thou'lt do.

Wqo't weep ? woo*t fight ? woo't fall ? woo't tear thyfelf ?

Woo't drink up Eifel, eat a crocodile ?

rU do't — ^Doft thou come hither but to whine ?

To out-face me with leaping in her grave ?

Be buried quick with her, and fo will I.

ire.

His

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CHARACTER of HAMLET. 259

His love had been only the deeper embofomed ; it had becon\e
too facred to be feen ; and like fire, when pent up, it had ac-
quired greater force.

There feems alfo to be a miftake in the attempt which
fomc* have made, in juftification of Shakespeare, to re-
concile the melancholy to the jocularity of Hamlet. For his
jocularity, I fhould rather conceive, fprung more from the
elevated than from the melancholy parts of his nature. He was
not, (Iridly fpeaking, a melancholy man j although it be true
that, at . times, he was plunged into a ftate of genuine and
deep dejedion. In fuch a flate, and in certain kinds of it, we
have heard of the joy of grief and can underftand it — fome-
thing fweetly grave and penfive ; but the gaiety and pleafantry
of grief are things which probably never exifled. It is, on the
other hand, the exclufive adt of a great mind, to make truce
with forrow ; to difmifs the deepeft anguifh ; to put mirth in its
{lead y and Hamlet, in fuch fcenes, was only for a little re-
fuming his ftrength. Even the melancholy which is afcribed
to him, and which. indeed he afcribes to himfelf, was often not
melancholy, but wild contemplation and reverie.

There are many fimilar inftances of the connedlion between
elevation and pleafantry, both in the charader of nations and
of individuals. The Spaniards, for example, are defcribed to
be of a grave and lofty fpirit \ yet among no people is there
more humour. Individuals of this caft are not unfrequently
to be met with in every country. Moliere may be inftanced,
who was one of the moft ferious and refpedlable men that ever
Hved ; and yet no writer has had fuch a propenfity to farce and
buffoonery ; his plays being in general juft the counter-parts of
himfelf. It is upon fuch principles, I would venture to explain
the pleafantries of Hamlet ; in which he rofe up, at times,

K. k 2 from

♦ Mirror.

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26o An ESSAr on the

from an abyfs of anguifli, to make a mere.fport of human fuf-
ferings,

TkE caufes of Hamlet's dilatory progrefs have been already
pointed out in general ; and the more narrowly we take a view
of him, the more we fhall always find his fenfibility to be, in
the firft momients, fuch, as led to inftant and mortal aftion,
while his gentlenefs, like an equal weight on the other fide,
counterafted its whole force. Shakespeare has defcribcd
him, in the cool ftate of his mind, as averfe, and even fhocked,
at the thought of killing. His mother faid, that, in this ftate,
he was " as patient as the female dove/* If we take his own
account of himfelf, he was a coward :

— Now, whether it be
fieftial oblivion, or fome craven fcruple
Of thinking too precifely on the event —
A thought which, quartered, hath but one part wifdom,
And ever three parts, coward — ^I do not know,
Why yet I live to fay, This thing's to do.

There was a fuperftition alfo in Hamlet, which pre-
vented him from putting the ufurper to death, when in the adl
of prayer. For the reafon he himfelf gave for deferring this,
was, that if he killed the king in the midft of his devotions,
he would in fa6l be doing him a good fervicc, " fending a
" villain to heaven,"

Why, this is hire and falary, not revenge. ;'

He took my father grofsly, full of brea<j^,

With all his crimes broad blown, as fiufh as May ;

And how his audit ftands, who knows fave Heaven ?

He put up his fword, and waited till he fhoidd find him cn^

gaged

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CHARACrZR of HAMLET. 261

gaged in drink, rage, inceft, gaming, fwearing, or other aft
that had " no relilh of falvation in't j"

Then trip him, that his heels may kick at Heaven,
And that his foul may be as damn'd and black
As hell, whereto it goes.

The fentiments in this laft paflage have been confidered as
the mod difficult to be defended in the whole character of
Hamlet. Without having recourfe to a defence of them up-
on the principle of retaliation, and other pleas, there feems to
be ground for an explication of a very different nature, founded
upon what appears to be the real character of this perfonage,
and altogether exculpating him from the charge of thofe horrid
difpofitiona which he has been fuppofed here to pofTefs.

Hamlet, in thefe lines, (if it may be allowed to offer a
conjefture) was rt2\\yimpoJing upon himfelf * ; devifing an excufe
for his averfion at bloodflied, for his cowardice, his " craven
" fcruple." In the firft moments, he propofes inflantly to
ftrike — " now Fll do't." His ordinary foftnefs immediately
recurs ; and he endeavours to hide it from himfelf, by projedl-
ing a more awful death at a future period, but which he feems
never to have thought of afterwards, and which was not at all
confonant to his general charadler. Indeed, what the king him-
felf faid of him afterwards, upon bafely propofing to Laertes
to ufe " a fword unbated," is a fufEcient proof that there was
nothing dark or malignant in his nature.

— He being remifs,
Moft generous, and free from all contriving,
Will not peru& the foils.

The

*^ SiNCS writing this £(&y, I have the pieafure to find, that the fame idea has oc*
curred to Mr Profeffor Richardson, in his additional obfcn'ations on Hamlet j and
which be has faccefifully enlarged upon.

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262 An ESSAT on the

The execution of his two fchool-fellows, Rosencrantz and
GuiLDENSTERV, in confequence of an artifice which he con-
trived againft them, has alfo drawn the cenfure of critics. But
is there any evidence that Hamlet thought them unacquainted
with the mandate which they carried for ftriking off his head
in England ? Whether they were in fa<5l privy or not privy to
this, is not the queftion. Did not Hamlet believe they were
privy to it, and even were fond of it ? " Whom I will truft
" (faid he early) as I will adders fanged." And fpeaking af-
terwards to his confident Horatio, he added,

Why, man, they did make love to this employment i
They are not near my confcience.

That is, my confcience does not upbraid me ; the cruelty lies
not with me, but with them. And in this conduft of Hamlet,
to the companions of his early days, does Shakespeare prove
his fkill in human nature ; the ftrongeft hatred fucceeding, upon
fuch occafions, to the ftrongeft friendihip : For that they were
his fchool-fellows, he would confider^ and^with reafon^ as a great
aggravation of their guilt.

In all other refpedls^ the charadler of Hamlet flands con*
feflfedly fair and great. He moved in the higheft fphere of
men ; pofleffed an elevated and comprehenfive mind ; pene-
trated through every character ; Jcnew the whole of human life;
faw nothing noble but virtue, nothing mean and bafe but folly
and vice. Speaking to Horatio,

Since my dear foul (fays he) was miftrefs of her choice^
And could of men diftinguifh, her eledtion
Hath fealed thee for herfelf ; for thou haft been
As one in fuffering all, that fuffers nothing ;
A man that fortune's buffets and rewards

Haft

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CHARACTER of HAMLET. 263

Ilafl; ta'en with equal thanks : and bled are thofe
Whofe blood and judgment are fo well co-mingled
That they are not a pipe for fortune's finger,
To found what (lops ihe pleafe. Give me that man
That is not pafllon's flave, and I will wear him
In my heart's core.

Men praife in others what they love and pofTefs in themfelves j
and Hamlet was here drawing fome of the outlines of his own
charadler.

To the principles of morality and a confummate knowledge
of mankind, he joined the accomplifhments of learning and
the graces of life. His eloquence was fuch as great orators only
have pofTefled, rich, tropical, daring, ardent, vehement. The
directions he gives to the players, are models of tafte and laws
for the ftage. His wit and fancy feem to have belonged only
to himfelf. Even in his charadler of foldier and hero, and
which I all along confider as his weaker part, an intrepidity^
breaks forth at times beyond what is human ; as appears in the
ghoft-fcenes, where his courage grows with danger ; where he
is not only unterrified, but fports with what appals the reft of
mankind.

The Hamlet of Shakespeare, taken all in all, feems
thus to be the moft fplendid charader of dramatic poetry ;
pofteiTing, not one or two great qualities, the ordinary compafs of
the heroes in tragedy, of a Lear, an Othello, a Rodrigue,
an Horace, but comprehending almoft the whole of what is.
beautiful and grand.

The miftakes which critics feem to have fallen into, can be.
all traced perhaps to partial and fide-views which they have-
taken of Hamlet; but which can neither explain his whole
charadter, nor fufficiently account for the intereft which is ex-
cited.

Sensibility,

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264 An ESS Ar an the

Sensibility, for example, making a ftriking figure in this
charafler, has been thought to be the fble baiis of it, without
confidering that mere fenfibility cannot excite a tragic interefl; ;
cannot attach ; cannot overwhekn ; and indeed feems unable to
make any other impreflion but that of pain, when viewed apart
from the caufe in which it adls, and from the other qualities with
which it is conjoined. Neither can a sense of viktue be ad-
mitted as the only ruling principle ; for even this does not fuf**
ficiently account for the intereft ; and both fyftems fail in ex-
plaining the inefficiency of the charadler, which refults from the
foft and amiable, and hence, in a great degree, the interefting parts
of it. For in both, the gentlenefs of Hamlet, the great impedi*
ment to the action, has been overlooked ; although^ to fiipply its
place, a weaknefs and irrefolution, fbmetimes deduced from
exceilive fenlibility, fometimes from melancholy, are recurred
to in the former, but which are certainly of a traniient dura-
tion, while gentlenefs w;a8 a permanent quality ; and, in the lat-
ter, while the fame office is allotted to irrefolution, the irrefo-
lution itfelf is deduced from the moral faculty, fufpending and
abating refentment; but which furely wotdd iuppofe, what
cannot be admitted, that the pious and noble revenge of Ham«
LET had fomething morally blameable in its nature. Two elegant
and ingenious publications are here alluded to * ; but in both of
them, the ground taken is; I humbly think, too narrow ; and
this feems to have been the caufe, why recourfe has been had to
refinements, in order to ftretch it out. Fads certainly fupply
us here with two principles at leaft, fenfibility and gentlenefs ;
and there hence feems no neceffity for refolving the whole
conduifl of Hamlet into the former, as is done in one of
thefe publications* Neither are we to recur, fometimes to

the

♦ The one anonymous, in No. 99. and lOO, of the Mirror '^ the other, the Analyfis of
Hamlet, by Mr Ricba&dson.

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CHARACTER of HAMLET. 265

the one principle, fometimes to the other, taken feparately, in
order to explain Hamlet. It is the ftruggle between the two,
upon which his conduft hinges* This appears in the very open-
ing of the tragedy.

The time is out of joint ; Oh curfed fpight !
That ever / was born to fet it right.

Here, fenfibility and gentiene(s may be faid to fpeak in one and
the fame breath ; a jn-oof that their operations were not fucceC-
five, but co-exidem ; and reigned nearly equal in power in
Hamlet's bread.

Elevation feems to have been nearly as much overlooked
as gentlenefs. Yet between thefe two was Hamlet almoft always
moving. For his fublimity of foul feems to have been the very
fpring which prompted and whetced his fenfibility to the quick.
Shakespeare in one phrafe, '* a noUe heart," meant to ex-
prefs both ; as diey were in i^i^ intimately conjcnned, and aded
at once, together.

There is an impreflion which great accomplifhments and
fplendid talents, independent of every thing el&, efpecially in
a tragic caufe, never fails to make upon mankind. Thefe fhine
mod powerfully in the character before us ; and probably have
contributed much to the charm whick has made audiences hang
upon Hamlet. The world, for the firft time, faw a man of
genius upon the ftage; and the intereft which the fpeftators
have taken, and perhaps for ever will take, receiving an ad-
dition from this caufe, arifes thus upon the whole, from the
many different fources which the poet, by a fuperlative effort
of talents and of {kill, has combined together.

The fault (if any) of the play feems to lie in this, that
there is not the ufual intereft excited in it, for the final event.
What Shakespeare's purpofe in this refped originally was.

Vol. II. L 1 cannot

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266 An ESSAr on the

cannot be afBrmed. It is poflible, that, finding the charader
of Hamlet to grow upon him, he varied in the progrefs from
what he had intended in the outfetting of the play, and giving
to Hamlet, on this account, a fuller fcope, (but without de-
parting from the charadler) he eventually threw more intereft
into the perfon than into the plot. Whatever may have been
the caufe, we fee the effedl, — Hamlet, in his fole perfon,
predominating over, and almoft eclipfing the whole adlion
of the drama« It is he that draws the admiration ; it is he
that engroflfes the concern ; all eyes are turned more and more
to him ; Hamlet is wifhed for in every fcene ; king and queen,
inceft and murder, as objeifts of tragic attention, vanifh almoft
away ; the moment Hamlet's own fate arrives, the play is
ended. The intereft which the hearts of men take in the prin- .
cipal character of this tragedy, ftands thus in competition
with the laws of the drama ; and it becomes a problem, which
of the two, the means or the end, ihould preponderate.

On account of the intereft being transferred from the adlion
to the agent, the moral, taking the fame courfe, is to be drawn
rather from the particular condudl of Hamlet than from the
general bufinefs of the play. But what that particular moral
is, may be difficult to afcertain. We may fay, perhaps, that
from the conduA of Hamlet, it appears, how unfit for the
work of revenge are the qualities of a folditr and hero, when
conjoined with thqfe of a fcholar and philofopher ; yet we can-
not prefume to affirm, that it was Shakespeare's obje<5l merely
to exemplify this, or even to conceive, that he limited himfelf
to any fingle objedl or morah Thofe things which feem to have
been uppernioft in his mind, and which he has made to fhine
with moft light, are the charms in the perfonal charader of
Hamlet. Enamoured with thefe himfelf, it feems to have been
his chief purpofe to raife the fame paifion i^ his audiences.
That he has intimated this, by his interpreter Horatio, only

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CHARACTER of HAMLET. 267

in one or two lines at the clofe of the play, is to be afcribed to
his judgment. The purpofe which the dramatic poet has in
view, is to be found out by the bed of judges, the feelings of
the fpedlators. From a fuperior (kill upon this pointy Racine
has merited the praifes which have been given him, while,
from a failure in it, the great Corneille has been defervedly
blamed.

END OF TlHE second VOLUME.

PRINTED Sr NEILL i:? CO.

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ERRATA.

Tbjf. CI. pagt 10. Wu 14. /or properly rtad knproperlj.

————— 131. Imt 5. miJ^Jrom tit tctSom, midaffo in the Iqfi line^ fir £Y and

111 rend E^ tau
134. /mi s-fir 8(AD*4'BD>4C00 r«rf4(AD»+BD»+CD0-

I CO. M tbe noti, Hm ufir read -.— .. •

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- 204. Kn$ i* from tb$ hiiom, fir {iQoy read (10) \

U$. CL pag$ 9* Hm 4*^ vindicates rtnd indicHtcfc

{Omiited in tbt Ufi of Donations^ pagt 8o.]

B7 Mr Robert Kert, (iurgeoD, Edinbui^

£JemeDts of Ghemiftry, by M^ Lavai/kr, tranflated from the French. 8vo. 1790;

DIRECtlONS TOR THE BINliEIt op Vol. II.

The Binder is defired to obierve, that the Vol. confifls of Three Sets of Pages, to
be arranged in the following order, immediately after the Tails of Contents, viz.
Pakt I. containing the Histort of the Socibtt : Part II. containing, L Pa'pbrs of
the Physical Class ; II. Papers of the Litxrart Class : And that the Plates are to
be placed as follows, vie. the Plate entitled ^afia Simaruba Mai^ facing page 82.
Pbjif.C/. and ^itafia Simarmba Feminea, immrdiately after it; the Plate . entitled
Craig'Pbadrtck, facing page 32. Lit, CL and Dun-^jardel immediately following ; and
the other five according to the references marked on thenu

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