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SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
LIBRARY

TEXTBOOK
COLLECTION

STANFORD N^^ UNiVERSiTY
LIBRARIES

I . \

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V x

TWO YEARS' COURSE IN

ENGLISH COMPOSITION

CHARLES LANE HANSON

AUTHOR OF " ENGLISH COMPOSITION," ETC.
EDITOR OF CARLYLE'S " BURNS," ETC.

GINN AND COMPANY

BOSTON . NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON

% "

9X4>S

648074
C

GINN AND COMPANY • PRO-
PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A.

PREFACE

This book provides an abundance of material for the first
and the second year of any high school. Part One gives a
good many subjects on which young pupils have successfully
talked and written, and presents the first essentials of compo-
sition work, with emphasis on unity and coherence, — whether
of theme, paragraph, or sentence, — spelling, word formation,
the use of the dictionary, and letter writing. Work on these
essentials may be supplemented by such selections from Part
Three as the teacher chooses to make, for example, from the
chapter on Narration. The long chapter on Grammar, at the
end of Part One, is so arranged and so placed that the more
difficult portions may readily be postponed till the second year.

Part Two offers more ambitious practice in the construc-
tion of the paragraph and the sentence, and requires the use
of precise and forcible words.

Part Three calls special attention to longer compositions
and the four forms of prose. In each chapter the treatment
is designed to meet the needs of the younger students.

From the outset the book undertakes to emphasize the value
of the study of composition by setting tasks that are obviously
worth doing and by making requirements in s)mipathetic recog-
nition of the pupil's immediate interests and the attitude of
the normal youth toward equipping himself for the future.

The large number of exercises allows the teacher unusual
opportunity to g've a class, a small group of pupils, or a
single pupil the precise training needed, whether it be in
choosing subjects, in constructing and correcting themes and

iii

iv PREFACE

paragraphs, in studying words, or in managing sentences.
It will be noticed that the sentence work offers as a part of
the thorough drill (i) correct sentences for examination or
dictation, or both ; and (2) correct and incorrect sentences on
which the pupil is to pronounce judgment.

The specific directions for training pupils to criticize the
work of others may, of course, be neglected if the teacher
prefers ; but the strong appeal they make to boys and girls,
and the satisfaction with which teachers have used them in the
author's " English Composition," encourage the hope that
they will be widely and successfully employed as a means of
showing the student how to correct his own work.

No small share of the pleasure of writing this book has
been due to the readiness with which efficient teachers have
offered helpful suggestions ; to the cordial and skillful coop-
eration of Mr. Roy Davis of the Mechanic Arts High School,
Boston, in preparing many of the exercises ; and to the
thoughtfulness and care with which the proof has been read
by Miss Elizabeth M. Richardson of the Girls' High School,
Boston, and Mr. Warren W. Read of the Flushing High
School, New York City.

The author acknowledges his indebtedness to the follow-
ing publishers for the use of copyrighted material : to the
Houghton Mifflin Company, publishers of Aldrich, Haw-
thorne, Thoreau, Warner, Mr. John Burroughs, Dr. George
Harris, and Professor Bliss Perry ; to The Century Company
for selections from Lincoln, Dr. Charles W. Eliot, Mr. Rud-
yard Kipling, and Mr. Jacob A. Riis ; to the Outlook ; to The
Macmillan Company for passages from F. Marion Crawford ;
and to Messrs. Charles Scribner's Sons for extracts from
Stevenson and Mr. Thomas Nelson Page. c L H

Mechanic Arts High School, Boston

CONTENTS

PART ONE

CHAPTER PAGE

I. The Value of Composition i

II. The Choice of a Subject 8

III. The Manuscript 20

IV. The Composition as a Whole 31

V. The Paragraph as a Unit 39

VI. The Sentence as a Unit. — Punctuation 50

VII. Spelling: Word Formation and Capitalization . . 72

VIII. Letter Writing 86

IX. The Correct Sentence: a Review of Grammar . . . 112

PART TWO

X. The Paragraph and its Development 185

XI. The Effective Sentence 202

XII. The Exact Word 224

XIII. The Forcible Word 242

PART THREE

XIV. Literature and the Longer Composition 257

XV. Narration 271

XVI. Description 288

XVII. Exposition . 305

XVIII. Argument 331

APPENDIX

The Musical Reading of Verse 355

Outline for Review 360

Common Errors , . 362

INDEX 367

TWO YEARS' COURSE IN
ENGLISH COMPOSITION

PART ONE

CHAJPTER I

THE VALUE OF COMPOSITION

1. Oral Composition. On the street, in our homes, in the
history recitation, from morning till night, we are compos-
ing sentences, whether in conversation or in more carefully
prepared talks, called oral compositions. We should be
constantly on the alert to improve our speech and to put
words together in such a way that our hearers shall get
the thought or the feeling we wish to give them.

2. Written Composition. At the same time we must be
able to compose in writing. As by talking a man learns to
talk readily, so by writing he learns to express himself with
accuracy. For all of us, some form of writing is a part of the
day's work, and it is for the sake of gaining the ability to
write well such notes, letters, reports, and other papers as
we shall be called on to prepare from time to time, that we
study written composition.

3. The Practical Value of Composition. Fortunately
most of us have to work for a living, and all those who may
some day be clerks in a department store, salesmen on
the road, physicians, lawyers, or toilers in any one of

2 THE VALUE OF COMPOSITION

hundreds of employments, should consider carefully the
practical value of being able to say just what one means, and
to say it in an agreeable way. Who will not need, on count-
less occasions, to write an orderly letter ? It often happens
that a pupil is compelled to withdraw from school before
the end of the course in order to go to work. In many
cases employment is obtained largely through one's ability
to write a letter. For example, a letter written by a first
year high-school boy, who was suddenly obliged to leave
school, secured him a position for which there were forty
competitors.

The study of composition should do much more, however,
than help us to earn our living. It should go far toward
making us interesting human beings. We all know persons
who have traveled but cannot tell acceptably what they have
seen. We all find it pleasant to hear a story told in an agree-
able way. To listen to a lively conversation between men
and women who know life and books is both entertaining
and instructive. And we should understand that the studies
in this book are to keep us from being like tongue-tied travel-
ers, — that they are to enable us to take our places among
those whose conversation is worth while.

4. Learning to talk and to write. Boys and girls some-
times hesitate to talk or to write because their experiences
do not seem to be worth sharing with others. They often
fail to understand that teachers and classmates will be inter-
ested in whatever interests them. This is an unfortunate
mistake. They should look forward eagerly to their turn to
talk or to write, knowing full well that the practice and the
training will mean a gain in power.

Whatever your subject, think, for yourself. Then, and

READING A HELP TO WRITERS 3

then only, will your writing be your own ; it will have indi-
viduality; it will be different from the work of anybody
else. Honest attempts to give the best expression to your
own thoughts will call out the most helpful criticisms from
your teacher. It is always a pleasure, and often an inspira-
tion, to work with a young writer who is eager to be himself
— not an echo of another person.

The composition entitled " In Franklin Park " (p. 186)
was a good exercise for the pupil who wrote it, because it
was a record of his own experience. Many pupils have
foimd it stimulating because they, too, have had similar
outings.

A friend of yours can tell stories by the hour, but it may
be that he cannot easily write them. You eagerly tell your
experiences to your brother, but you would be slow about
putting them on paper. Writing is largely a matter of
habit. Some of you who talk readily have not been accus-
tomed to writing. The words that come so eagerly when
you let the story tell itself halt on their way down the pen-
holder, lag behind, and fail to put in an appearance. This
you must not allow. Forget that you ever saw a grammar,
or any other book about English. Write. Write for the
sake of forming the habit of writing, and don't let your pencil
interfere with the torrent of words. Not until you have fin-
ished what you have to say, should you take time for re-
vising your work.

5. Reading a Help to Writers. Usually we read books
for the entertainment they give us, but as students of com-
position we turn to them for help. We still enjoy an exciting
story, but we begin to study the writer's way of putting
things. We begin to distinguish between poor books and

4 THE VALUE OF COMPOSITION

good books, and gradually come to appreciate little touches
that make the difference between the commonplace and the
beautiful. This development of taste means everything to
one who would speak and write well.

6. The Importance of reading aloud. A sure way of
developing a taste for good books is through reading aloud.
If you can have the pleasure of listening for half an hour a
day to some of the best sentences of good writers, you will
soon be able to criticize your own sentences as you hear
them read. Your ear will rapidly grow sensitive to tire-
some repetitions, to unnecessary words, and to awkward
constructions. But oral reading, to be effective, must be
well done. To accomplish its purpose your reading should
be smooth, sympathetic, and musical.

EXERCISES

1, Before coming to class, read aloud the following com-
position. Send the eye ahead of the voice. If you stumble
over a word, or pause in the wrong place, read the sentence
till you can give it smoothly.

My Father's Friend

While my father was an officer of the English army in South Africa,
we occupied a large cabin, which, unlike the other bungalows, had
two stories. One evening when my father and sister and I were
sitting together, I noticed that father, who was sitting facing the
window, turned very pale. Being a soldier's daughter and fearing
to alarm my invalid sister, I sat still, waiting for my father's orders.
Soon he said in a steady voice : "Edith and Florence, a friend of mine
is coming here to see me this evening, and I wish to be alone with him.
Therefore I wish you to go up to your own room." We obeyed im-
mediately; and going to our room, closed the door.

Soon I heard a soimd like that of a door bursting in, and then a

THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD RECITATION 5

scramble of feet. They were hurrying up the narrow stairs. Fearing
that there was some danger near, I seized the pistol which my father
always obliged me to keep loaded in my room. Then I heard my
father cry out, "For mercy^s sake, child, open the door." I did so;
and to my horror I saw, not a friend of his, but the worst enemy of
the soldier in Africa, the gorilla. He was overtaking my father ; and
recovering my senses just in time, I raised the pistol and fired. For
once I had aimed well, and the animal fell backward with an angry
scream. Father quickly took the still smoking pistol from my hand,
and fired another shot, which dispatched the brute.

Father then told us that when he saw the dreaded animal at the
window, he had sent us upstairs ; and he hoped to be able to shut and
bar the door — which always stood open — before the creature
noticed it. The gorilla had, however, been too quick for him ; and
this was the cause of the hurried flight up the stairs.

2. Read the selection entitled " Thackeray and the Oyster "
(P» 273) to some member of your family or to some friend, and
notice the effect of your reading on the listener. Give the class
an oral account of your experiment.

S. Be prepared to read to the class two of the following
selections:

1. "Baby's First Shoes," page 34.

2. Selection from "The Jungle Book," page 222.

3. "Nehushta," page 296.

4. "A Football Player," page 15.

5. Selection from "Enoch Arden," page 294.

6. "Incident of the French Camp," page 276.

7. The Importance of Good Recitation. To recite good
English is no less important than to read aloud. When
you commit passages to memory, learn only such selections
as you are willing to live with for weeks, to say over scores
of times, to make your own. In making a choice of selec-
tions to be memorized, you should always bear in mind that:

6 THE VALUE OF COMPOSITION

1. The selections should be valuable in themselves, since
they will become a part of you.

2. They should be illustrations of English that is clear,
direct, and simple, for they will help form your style of
speaking and writing.

3. They should represent your own sentiments, since
you must be able to make them interesting to others.

Having made such a choice, you will be almost sure to
make your delivery clear, interesting, and pleasing. First
of all you must have a thorough understanding of your
selection. Then you should read it aloud until you find
yourself entering heartily into the spirit of it. Finally
you should rehearse it to some critic till he is satisfied that
the delivery is reasonably smooth and finished.

EXERCISES

4- Give orally, in your own language, the substance of one of
the prose selections listed in Exercise 3.

5. Give in your own words any one of the poetic selections.

6. Commit to memory the selection which you consider best
worth remembering.!

7. Write the selection from memory. If it is poetry, see that
every line begins with a capital.

8. Recite your selection to the class as heartily as you would if
you had written it yourself.

9. With the following outline before you, give the substance
of what this chapter contains. Make careful preparation, so

^ A teacher may help pupils who find memorizing difficult in the following
ways : (i) see that the pupil understands thoroughly the passage to be mem-
orized ; (2) read it with the class once or twice ; (3) give every one an oppor-
tunity to ask questions ; (4) point out good instances of coherence, such as
logical thought, dear reference of pronouns, the use of connectives, etc.

IMPORTANCE OF READING ALOUD 7

that you can speak without hesitation. Feel free to express
yourself in your own way — do not think that you must repro-
duce the language of the book.

The Value of ComposUion

I. Oral composition.

II. Written composition.

III. The practical value of composition.

IV. Learning to talk and to write.
V. Reading a help to writing.

VI. The importance of reading aloud.
VII. The importance of good recitation.

10. Be prepared to talk on the following questions:

1. For what reasons should the study of both oral and written
composition be interesting as well as valuable ?

2. Which of these two kinds of composition offers the better
opportunities for your teacher to help you ?

3. Which offers the better opportimities for you* to help one
another ?

4. Which are you likely to remember better, criticisms of your
speech or criticisms of your writing ?

5. Do you know of any one whose use of English has a high com-
mercial value ?

6. In telling a story or an incident, have you ever failed to produce
the desired effect on your listeners ?

CHAPTER n
THE CHOICE OF A SUBJECT

8. Subjects based on Eiqperience. In our talking and
writing it will at first be best for ns to choose subjects
based on our own experience. And we should remember
that the books we read and the thoughts we have are as
much a part of our real living as the games we play and the
work we do. Later we shall have opportimities for investi-
gating unfamiliar subjects.

EXERCISE

11, Discuss the following subjects. Make a list of twenty-five
on which you have something to say, including any of these and
others suggested by them. Be prepared to talk on one of these
subjects.

1. A Street Incident.

2. Making Bread.

3. A Fallen Live Wire.

4. The Soldier in the Spanish War.

5. Last Summer's Circus Parade.

6. An Accident.

7. The Roentgen Ray.

8. Things seen from the Train.

9. The Home Chores.

10. Work in School.

11. My Favorite Game.

12. A Runaway Automobile.

13. My First Experience in Plowing.

14. Using a Typewriter.

BOOKS THAT SUGGEST SUBJECTS 9

15. The Harm in Eating too Fast.

16. A Cruise on a Sailboat.

17. Expressions of Different Faces.

18. Camp Life.

19. Dust.

20. Sleepiness ; how it makes its Appearance.

21. Games at the Gymnasium.

22. A Scene at the Seashore.

23. Manipulating a Twelve-inch Rifle.

24. The Working of a Vacuum Cleaner.

25. Something seen at a Football Game.

9. Books that stiggest Good Subjects. We are not
necessarily to read for the sake of finding subjects on which
to write. Sufficient motive comes from the companionship
of a good book. Yet it is interesting and profitable to write
out our impressions of what we read — not to reproduce
the story, but to tell how we like it and what something in
the book has set us to thinking about.

Sometimes we are hungry for a good book but cannot
think of one which seems likely to suit our mood. The
following list includes books which have appealed to the va-
rious tastes of pupils in many schopls.

Abbot, The Walter Scott

Adventures in the Wilderness W. H. H. Murray

Alexander the Great T. A. Dodge

Animal Intelligence G. J. Romanes

Ants, Bees, and Wasps John Lubbock

Arabian Nights

Audubon, John James Mrs. L. Audubon

Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin

Betty Alden Jane G. Austin

Bird Ways Olive Thorne Miller

Bits of Travel Helen Hunt Jackson

Bracebridge Hall Washington Irving

Christmas Carol Charles Dickens

lo THE CHOICE OF A SUBJECT

^. T't e [Anthony TroUope

Cicero, Life of tw. Forsyth

Columbus, Christopher Washington Irving

David Balfour Robert Louis Stevenson

Engineers.. Lives of the Samuel Smiles

Garfield, Life of Sarah K. Bolton

Gulliver's Travels (abridged) . . . Jonathan Swift

Gypsy Breynton Series Elizabeth Stuart Phelps War

Heroes and Kings . . , , . . . A. J. Church

Hoosier Schoolmaster, The . . . Edward Eggleston

IUad,The (Lang, Leaf, and Myera

' [ Bryant

Irving, Life of Charles Dudley Warner

Ivanhoe Walter Scott

Jungle Books, The Rudyard Kipling

Kidnapped Robert Louis Stevenson

Last Days of Pompeii, The . . . E. L. Bulwer Lytton

Last of the Mohicans, The . . . James Fenimore Cooper

Lay of the Last Minstrel, The . . Walter Scott

Lays of Ancient Rome Thomas B. Macaulay

Lincoln, Life of Ida M. Tarbell

Lionel Lincoln James Fenimore Cooper

Little Women Louisa M. Alcott

Longfellow, Life of Samuel Longfellow

Man without a Country, The . . Edward Everett Hale

Master of Ballantrae, The .... Robert Louis Stevenson
Memoirs of U. S. Grant

Monastery, The Walter Scott

My Winter on the Nile . . . . . Charles Dudley Warner

fvj rpt . G. H. Palmer

^ ^' I Butcher and Lang

Oliver Twist Charles Dickens

Outdoor Papers Thomas W. Higginson

Pathfinder, The James Fenimore Cooper

Pilgrim's Progress, The John Bunyan

Plutarch's Lives

Poor Richard's Almanac .... Benjamin Franklin

Prince and the Pauper, The . . . Mark Twain

Quentin Durward Walter Scott

^Ramona Helen Hunt Jackson

SUBJECTS BASED ON IMAGINATION n

Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm Kate Douglas Wiggin

Rob Roy Walter Scott

Scott, Life of John G. Lockhart

Scottish Chiefs Jane Porter

Sharp Eyes W. H. Gibson

Standish of Standish Jane G. Austin

Tales from Shakespeare . *. Charles Lamb

Tales of a Grandfather Walter Scott

Tales of a Traveler Washington Irving

Talisman, The Walter Scott

^^om Brown's School Days Thomas Hughes

Treasure Island Robert Louis Stevenson

Wake Robin John Burroughs

Wilderness Ways W. J. Long

Woodstock Walter Scott

EXERCISES

12. Write the titles of all the books in the above list that you
have read. Underscore once those which you disliked, twice
those which you liked fairly well, and three times those which
you particularly enjoyed.^

13. Bring to class a list of all the subjects for compositions
that are suggested by the foregoing titles.

For example, you may not have read " The Abbot," but the
sight of Scott's name reminds you that you have read " Quentin
Durward " or " Ivanhoe " or " Kenilworth," and you may have
some opinion not only of one of these books as a whole, but of
several incidents or characters in it.

10. Subjects based on Imagination. Now and then we
find our thoughts wandering from realities into the imagi-
native world, and it is sometimes worth while to tell of an
excursion of this sort.

^ It will be interesting and suggestive to have some of these lists read ta
the class.

12 THE CHOICE OF A SUBJECT

EXERCISE

^^ 14' Be prepared to tell the class what the following subjects
suggest to you :

1. A Fairy Tale.

2. A Modern Santa Claus. •

3. Lost in the Woods.

4. Pictures in the Fire.

5. A Peep into the Future.

6. Cast away on an Island.

7. What the Clock sees at Night.

8. What the Cat thinks of our Family.

9. Conversation between an Algebra and "Ivanhoe" on how their

Owner treats them.

11. Limited Subjects. After we have chosen a subject
which seems suitable, we may find that we lack both time and
space for a treatment of it which would be satisfactory either
to ourselves or to our readers. We should then consider
i?srhether we can make the whole subject as interesting as we
-can make a part of it. We may adopt either of two plans :
(i) we may discuss the whole subject briefly, or (2) we may
•discuss a small part of the subject fully. Let us examine
lK)th methods.

I. Disctissing the whole subjed briefly, A pupil who
read " The President's Message " gave in his notebook a
summary of the whole message.

The President's Message

The annual report of President McKinley was made public last
Monday. It is very long, and every point is enlarged upon too much
Still it is interesting reading.

He occupies half the report in telling about the Spanish War, fronr
the time of the Cuban insurrection in 1895 to the signing of the peaa
treaty in Paris.

LIMITED SUBJECTS 13

He writes about the blowing up of the Maine, Dewey's victory,
Hobson's bravery, and the Sampson-Schley affair.

He then considers other subjects, such as our relations with other
countries, especially the South American republics.

The annexation of Hawaii is a subject to which he devotes consid-
erable space. The seizing of the Samoan group of islands, on the death
of the Samoan king, by the U.S.S*. AdamSy — which was only a wooden
gunboat, — and the holding of it against a fleet of German armor-
clads, is a feat worthy of notice.

He writes about our trade with China and India, and the want of
a large squadron of powerful warships on the Paciflc.

< 2. Discussing a small part of the stdject fully. In the
same notebook the writer, instead of reporting a lecture on
Japan as a whole, limited himself to a small part of the
subject, as follows :

Last evening I attended a lecture on Japan given by Miss Mary
A. Robinson, a missionary. She told some very entertaining stories
about the Japanese and their customs. I was particularly interested
in her account of New Year's week. It is proper to go visiting and
to enjoy life at that time, but no work should be done. In entertain-
ing the visitors the host brings out ten trays, each divided into parti-
tions and each partition full of food. It is customary merely to taste
the food, but Miss Robinson, not knowing this, once ate until she could
eat no more. Still there were three full trays left. She thanked her
host and returned home, but judge of her astonishment on being told
that she had eaten the food which the servant had expected to last
for a whole week.

^The Time Limit, In choosing a small part of the subject
we can often write about something that happened in a brief
interval of time — perhaps in less time than it takes to tell
it. The following story was told to the girl who wrote it
by her father. At first she wrote a composition entitled

14 THE CHOICE OF A SUBJECT

" From Liverpool to New York," but the result was not
satisfactory, so she limited her subject as shown here.

An Exciting Moment

Just before the war of 1861 I came as cabin boy from Liverpoo]
to New York. One day as I stood bn deck, looking in the direction
of my far-off home, I saw a speck in the distance, right in our path
I watched it intently ; it grew larger and larger as we neared it, and I
soon saw that it was a man-of-war. At the same time my curiosit>
was aroused by the general confusion on our boat, so different from the
quiet of a moment before. When I asked my friend, the second mate
what it all meant, he said, "We are pursued by a hostile cruiser, anc
if you care for your life you had better go to the cabin." Severa
women on deck heard this remark, which was evidently meant foi
them as well as for me, and hastened downstairs. I followed them
If it was confusion on deck, it was panic in the cabin. Every face wa;
pale with fear; some talked, others wept.

Suddenly the cabin door opened, and the burly captain walkec
slowly in. He uttered the word "silence" so harshly that no on<
dared do otherwise than obey. Then he called the men and begai
to give orders. Every one was willing to do his part. Some covere(
the name of the ship at the stern with canvas ; others took the name
off the bow. Each man seized the first thing he saw which resemble<
a gun. Three men emptied a hogshead, pulled it on deck, and bea
it loudly. Across the water this sounded much like a drum. A]
was bustle and hurry ; every one was eagerly fulfilling the orders
the captain.

My curiosity got the better of my fear and I crept upon deck again
The vessel was very near now, and the soldiers, standing with gun
pointed at me, sent a shiver through my whole body.

The vessel passed us several times, but as we kept some distanc
from them they could find no clew to our identity, and finally, decid
ing that we were a man-of-war, left us unharmed.

In " An Exciting Moment " the title, as well as the subject
shows that the time is limited. In the following verses not*

LIMITED SUBJECTS 15^

how limited the subject is — not the title. The author
does not attempt to describe the game ; he singles out one
man and admires him as he stands ready for the opponent
and then rushes to the attack. If you are interested in
football, and will read the lines aloud with the vigor they
demand, you can hardly fail to enjoy them.

A Football Player

If I could paint you, friend, as you stand there,
Guard of the goal, defensive, open-eyed,
Watching the tortured bladder slide and glide
Under the twinkling feet ; arms bare, head bare,
The breeze a- tremble through crow-tufts of hair ;
Red-brown in face, and ruddier having spied
A wily foeman breaking from the side ;
Aware of him, — of aU else unaware :
If I could limn you, as you leap and fling
Your weight against his passage, like a wall ;
Clutch him, and collar him, and rudely cling
For one brief moment till he falls — you fall :
My sketch would have what Art can never give —
Sinew and breath and body ; it would live.

— E. C. Lefroy

If you were to make a piece of sculpture, how much of
this material could you use? How much, if you were to
paint the picture? Does the writer have any advantages
over the painter and the sculptor?

It is probably evident that, as a rule, a composition is
more likely to be interesting if the subject is so limited
that the treatment may be full. Now and then a brief
outline of a large subject may be valuable, but usually the
narrower the subject the more likely are we to make oiu:

THE CHOICE OF A SUBJECT

account of it readable. The following list, taken from a
pupil's notebook, shows how easy it is to find such subjects :

J. The Use of the T Square.
:2. On the Way to School.
^. Signing the Peace Treaty.
-4. The Six Days' Race.
:$. On the Way to the Fire.
16. The EcUpse of the Moon.

7. A Steam Shovel.

8. A Free Ride.

9. The Police Ambulance.

10. Senator Hoar's Speech.

11. Three Chapters of "Ivan-

hoe."

12. In a Grocery Store.

13. Down Broadway Hill.

14. In the Carpenter Shop.

15. A Newsboy.

16. A Horseless Carriage.

17. Absent from School.

18. ShoveUng Snow.

19. Delay on the Bridge.

20. A Glimpse of the President.

21. A Minstrel Show.

22. The Store in which I work oe

Saturda3rs.

23. Our Hut.

24. Chickens.

25. A Horse.

26. A Hard Task.

27. Two Happy Boys.

28. My Spending Money.

EXERCISES

15, Rewrite five of the titles in section 8, page 8, so that a smal
part of the subject may be discussed fully.

16, Rewrite five of the titles so that the treatment will covei
only a brief interval of time.

17, The following diagram indicates some of the steps by whicl
we may narrow, or limit, a large subject imtil it becomes suitable
for short compositions. By this means it is often possible tc
find a large amount and variety of material where we thought
there was none.

Develop further some of the topics in the diagram that mos1
interest you. Thus, make the topics under " walking in th<
country," or " walking in the city," fit your own locality o\
some place you have visited, or your favorite season.

18, Work out a complete diagram of your own on one of th<
following general subjects: games, books, magazines, dectricUy
cooking, travel, buildings, birds, flowers, occupations.

LIMITED SUBJECTS

Horseback

riding [ Walking in the
country

Walking

Outdoor
exercise

Spring
Summer
Fall
Winter

Walking in the
city

Exercise

I Tennis

National cham-
pionships at
Newport

The Longwood
tournaments

Sunrise on Mt.
Monadnock

Half an hour
on Lexing-
ton Com-
mon

In the berry-
pasture

Visit to the
song spar-
row*s nest.

Before break-
fast in the
city market

Congressional
Library

Chicago I The Lake front

Brooklyn
Bridge at 5

P.M.

T Wharf

Lamed w.Mc-
Loughlin

Washing-
ton

New York

Boston

Cham-
pionship
of 191 1

Indoor
exercise

At the gymna- ,
slum

On the apparatus

Wrestling
Calisthenics

The single bar
The parallel bar?
The rings

Baskelhall

At home

[ Miscellaneous

The equipment
The team
Scoring
A close game
How to shoot

fouls
The winning
basket
Carpentry in the cellar
An attic" gym '*
Sawing wood
Dancing

Skating at the Arena
Court tennis

l8 THE CHOICE OF A SUBJECT

19. Make a list of prominent buildings, and in discussing
them in class show how subjects for writing or talking multiply
if you take pains to make the most of your material.

If, for example, you consider the public library, you may de-
scribe the entrance, a room, a picture, a bookcase, or the hbrarian,

20. Make a list of all the indoor and outdoor games you
enjoy playing.^

21. Make a list of all the indoor and outdoor games you
enjoy watching.

22. Keeping in mind the suggestion about limited subjects,
make a list of topics, taken from those just prepared, on which
you have something to say.

Arrange them so that they will be convenient for reference.

23. Be prepared to write a secretary's report of the next recita-
tion in English.

It is the duty of such a reporter to pick out the important points
and to give information about them in a clear, concise way.
Some matters he may pass over, some he should merely mention,
and others he should treat fully. The following record, by the
class secretary for the day, explains itself.

Secretary's Report

October 20, 191 2

Division lA met in Room 5 at ten o'clock for the regular recitatior
in English. After the reading and criticism of the secretary's reporl
for October 18, the teacher distributed some themes that are to b(
corrected and returned next time. He called attention to the con
venience of the Key on page 2^, and went about the room to explaii
criticisms that were not clear. He had Master Fox read from page 2;

1 Most of the class will be able to add to their lists, if some of the longes
ones are written on the blackboard.

SECRETARY'S REPORT 19

the distinction between ** revising" and "rewriting," and urged the
class to remember these two points :

1. The pupil who pays no attention to directions for revision neg-
lects his opportunities and wastes his teacher's time.

2. The slipshod habit of attending to some suggestions, and dis-
regarding others because they are not understood or do not seem fea-
sible, will not be tolerated.

As soon as every one understood all the marks that had been made
on his manuscript, the pupils in the third and fourth rows read aloud
the theme for the day. Exercise 35, page 30. Each pupil stood well
and read clearly, although some read so indistinctly at first that they
had to try two or three times. The themes were then exchanged
and criticized in accordance with Exercise 36, page 30.

The next lesson is to write a secretary's report of to-day's recita-
tion.

Every one was present.

Respectfully submitted,

Arthur H. Brown.^

*Some teachers of English find it convenient to have such a report
written in connection with each recitation. An arrangement which has
proved very satisfactory is to set apart a notebook for such reports. In
this notebook A writes his report of to-day's recitation, reads it at the
next recitation, and passes the book to B, who in turn is secretary for the
day and hands the book to C. Not only is the exercise a good one, but
the secretary's book is convenient both for calh'ng attention to the busi-
ness of the day and for enabling a pupil who has been absent to find out
just what work he must make up.

CHAPTER m

THE MANUSCRIPT

"Manuscript, we believe, takes precedence of print. Most of us will
read a letter before we will read a book.'* — N. P. Willis.

12. Neatness. What cleanliness is to the man, neatness
is to the manuscript. Whether a paper has ten words or
a thousand, whether it is a note to a friend or a petition
to the President of the United States, it should be neat and
attractive.

A margin about three fourths of an inch wide on the
left-hand side of the page is convenient for criticisms. Mar-
gins as wide as the diameter of a lead pencil at the top,
at the bottom, and on the right-hand side, will add to the
attractiveness of the manuscript. Section 13 gives direc-
tions for setting off the title, and section 16 for indenting the
paragraph.

Sufficient space should be left between the lines to avoid
the crowded appearance caused by overlapping loops of
letters, and to allow room for corrections. An example of
theme correcting is given on page 25.

13. The Heading. Whatever the teacher wishes the
heading to include,— for example, the date, the pupil's
name and class, and the title, — should be separated from
what follows by a blank space. An important part of the
heading is the title. The HUe must not be confused with

THE HEADING 21

the subject. It is generally more specific ; if, for example,
each member of a class were to write a title for a theme
on the subject "Baseball," there might be as many titles
as students, but only one subject. Three suggestions
should be kept in mind in selecting a title :

1. It should be brief. As a substitute for the some-
what amabrous statement of the subject, " How we spent
a Pleasant Evening," one writer chose the brief title, " A
Pleasant Evening."

2. It should be to the point. Instead of using' such a
general title as " An Incident," it is always well to pick out
something that applies to the particular incident to be de-
scribed. You might label each one of a hundred papers
" An Incident," but you should try to find for each of them a
title so decidedly to the point that it would not fit any of the
others.

3. It should be an attractive announcement of the sub-
ject. " On the River " is neater and more attractive than
"A Three Hours' Afternoon Row on the River." The
subject treated in scores of books is " English Grammar " ;
the title of one such book is " The Mother Tongue." " Eng-
lish Granmiar " may suggest various difficulties and numerous
dry chapters. " The Mother Tongue " sounds as if the book
would appeal to all who speak the English language. Your
title, like a nutshell, should give a correct impression of the
kind of meat it offers.

Note. A composition should be complete without a title. If you
are writing about Fred Brown, do not try to avoid repetition by begin-
ning "He is a boy of my age," but use your title — or as much as you
need of it — in your opening sentence. You could, for example^ say,
** Fred Brown is a boy of my age."

22 THE MANUSCRIPT

EXERCISES

^4' The following incident appeared in a magazine under the
' title " What it was They Heard." Tell why or why not that is a
better title for it than " The Indian and the Phonograph." Can
you think of one that you like better than either?

On a recent visit to Baltimore, Bishop Rowe of Alaska told the
following good story: "I had recently to make a visit to a tribe of
Indians far from the places where the white men go. Only a very few
of the tribe had ever seen white men. One of the members of our party
had a phonograph. He thought it would amuse the Indians, and so
brought it out. They gathered round it in wonder, and spent some
time looking at it from every direction. At last the old chief got
down on his knees and peered into it. He raised himself, threw his
arm out with a sweeping gesture, and said, * Ugh ! canned white man.' "

25. Discuss in class the titles of six books, magazines, or news-
papers. Are they eflfective? misleading? attractive? easy to
remember ?

26. Rewrite the following titles of themes and improve them
in any way you can:

1. A Method of packing Packages of Sugar.

2. How Jewelry Boxes are made by the Demrim Company.

3. The Story of Miss Matty's Romance.

4. A Description of my own Town.

5. Why "Rip Van Winkle" is Popular.

6. The most Humorous Character in * * The Sketch-Book."

7. The Simplicity of the Plot of " Silas Marner."

8. How Heat makes Ice.

14. The Sentence and its Punctuation. Ancient manu-
scripts were written continuously, thus :

ONEWORDFOLLOWEDANOTHERCLOSELY

Later the words were separated by spaces, and some-
times by dots and other marks. The pxuictuation marks

SPELLING 23

now employed have come to be used with so much definite-
ness that they are a great help in enabling us to express our
meaning exactly. They not only assist us to present one
thought at a time, but they also help indicate the relation
between words expressing a thought. The marks most
often used in ordinary writing are: the period ( . ), the
comma (,), the colon (:), the semicolon (;), and the
dash ( — ). We should be careful to have a reason for
every mark that we use.

15. Spelling . Five hundred years ago readers and writ-
ers were not particular about spelling; the same word
was often spelled in several ways. In our time, however, it
is important to spell with accuracy. If you have any doubt
whatever about the spelling of a word, consult a dictionary.^

Syllabication. Never divide a word at the end of a line
imless you can divide it by syllables. (See page 75.)
Use a hyphen to mark the division, and put the hyphen
at the end of the line.

16. The Paragraph. We can help the reader grasp our
meaning quickly by arranging our sentences in groups. A
group of sentences which relate to a single division of the
subject is called a paragraph. Every paragraph should be
indented ; that is, the first word should be written about an
inch farther to the right than the first word of any other
Une in the paragraph.

When we come to the study of paragraphs and sentences,
we are no longer dealing with mere details of form affecting
the appearance of the manuscript, but with what is of much

^The teacher may do well to explain that dictionaries differ in unim-
p(Mtant particulars; for example, that one gives traveling and another
travelling^ etc.

24 THE MANUSCRIPT

greatar impcwtance — the substance and cDostractHm of the
compositkia. These are matters with whidi we shall soon
beomie familiar.

17. The Two Copies of the Mamiscnfpt Ahhoog^ it is
impoftant to acquire facility in writing good omqiositions ^
without o^ying them, for some time you will do weU to
make two copies of the papas you write outside the dass-
loom.

In pieparing the first copy thoe are two steps:

1. Write ra|»dly.

2. Re\ise slowlv.

<u See that e\^ery paragraph is indented.

b. See that e\xry sentoice has a subject and a predi-
cate.

c See that every sentaice is punctuated {i) at the
oid; i^:?^ throu^^uL

d. See that e\'«r>- word is correctly ^p^ed.

In making the second copy thi»re are three things to
remember: ^i)neatne^; ^^"^ margins; V3^ heading.

27. Study the modd on page 25, and be prepared to eiqfdain
to the dass how to piepaie manuscript.

;?;9. Read the corrected paragraphs in the modd on page 25
(i) as they stood originally, v-^ as they stand now. £x{Jain
every criticism and, if possible, give a reason for cv«ry correc-
tion. v5ee p. 2S.)

1 A vrittcn coGDDoduQQ is sometimes OLUed a tibnwv and both ttnns
wiQ be ised b this oook.

CORRECTING THE MANUSCRIPT 25

26 THE MANUSCRIPT

^9. Write a brief account of something you have seen happ>en.
Prepare two copies of the manuscript, as indicated above.

50, In class, exchange papers,^ the second copies prepared in
Exercise 29, and, as examiner of the paper of one of your class-
mates, criticize the work under the following heads: (i) neatness,
(2) margins, (3) heading (including wording of title), (4) inden-
tion of paragraphs, (5) sentence structure, (6) punctuation,
(7) spelling, (8) interest. Write your report and see that each
of your sentences has a subject and a predicate. The follow-
ing form will serve as a model in making your report, and may be
used in other exercises of this kind.

Criticism of "A Runaway," by A. F. Brown

1. The page is neat and attractive.

2. The margins are straight and of the right width.

3. The beading is complete and the title appropriate. No space
is left between the title and the opening sentence.

4. Three paragraphs have been made, but I see no reason why there
should be more than one paragraph.

5. The fourth sentence has no predicate.

6. There is no punctuation mark at the end of the first sentence.

7. The words "Tuesday" and "village" are misspelled.

8. The story is exciting.*

Mary A. Taft, Examiner.

51, Taking advantage of all the suggestions given by your
classmate, revise your paper. If you think best, rewrite it; that
is, if, in the judgment of your teacher, interlinear corrections of
the original paper are not sufficient.

52, Write about another incident which you have seen. Fol-
low the directions given for preparing the preceding paper.

^ By ejcamining one another's papers — one day passing them forward ^
another day p>assing them backward, then to the left, to the right, to the
second pupil in front, etc. — the members of the class can be of great service
in pointing out certain improvements to one another.

^ See p. 246 for helpful, specific words.

REVISING AND REWRITING 27

SS. In class, exchange papers and act as examiner as before.

84' Revise your paper, and if there is sufficient reason,
rewrite it.

18. Revising and Rewriting. Every composition is to
be revised carefully and returned to the teacher.^ In most
cases there should be no need of rewriting ; corrections made
on the original paper will show whether the criticisms have
been understood. But when a composition has to be re-
written, the original copy should be handed in with the
rewritten one.

Never erase any of the criticisms.

There may not be room to recast whole sentences on the
original copy, but it is important to make such corrections
there as space allows. In a matter like spelling, for example,
if the right form is written above the wrong form, the
teacher can see at a glance that the correction has been
made ; whereas it would take much longer to find the cor-
rected word in the rewritten copy.

By keeping much of the written work in a notebook, the
pupil can attend to certain matters at once and, as he con-
tinues his study of composition, can come back to his early
work again and again for the sake of making one improve-
ment after another. For instance, in connection with the
study of punctuation, different sentences may be tested by
the rules for the use of commas, semicolons, and so on. It
will be well always to bring the notebook to class.

19. Pupils' Criticisms. In recitation, sometimes a pupil
-will read his composition aloud, and teacher and class-
mates will make criticisms; sometimes papers will be ex-

^Long experience in composition-teaching has convinced the author
that it is important to see that every criticism or suggestion is imderstood.

28 THE MANUSCRIPT

changed and criticized by the pupils. On other occasions
themes will be handed to the teacher without reading or
discussion. The value of critidsm by the pupils of one
another's work depends upon the spirit of helpfulness in
which the suggestions are made and taken. The earnest
pupil will be careful not to antagonize his critic. He will
imderstand that he may disregard a poor suggestion, but
cannot afford to deprive himself of any real help that a critic
can give.

Most important of all, however, is a pupil's criticism of
his own work. Each pupil should endeavor to be as good
a critic of his own compositions as of another's. Every
reporter, short-story writer, and novelist has to criticize
his own work, and as a possible writer of the future, each one
should be eager to learn to correct thoroughly his own work.

The following Key may be used in correcting themes :

Key to Examiner's CRinasMS

A Ambiguous.

C Wants connection with subject or context (coherence).

Cap Use a capital.

I.e. Use a small letter (lower case).

S or O Omit.

E Emphasis.

F Force. Make the sentence more forcible.

G Grammar faulty.

K Awkward, cliunsy, stiff.

M Margin.

P Pimctuation.

>/ Use a comma. (Indicate other needed marks of pimctuation

in the same way.)
Pen Penmanship.
Poss Possessive case. (A check mark over the word is also suitable

indication; thus: girl>'s.
1[ Paragraph.

REVISING AND REWRITING 29

" " Quotation marks.
R Repetition of word or thought.
Sp Spelling.
S Sentence.
T Tense.
U Wants unity.
V Vague.

W Word poorly chosen.

X Fault obvious. (The word or words may be imderlined.)
? Error? Meaning?
A Something should be inserted.

I, 2, 3, etc. Rearrange words, clauses, or sentences in the order in-
dicated by the niunbers.
[ ] Omit the passage within brackets.

I The criticism refers to as many lines of the writing as this

mark stands against.
One of the foregoing signs placed at the beginning of a composition
indicates that the fault is a prevailing one.

Note. The heavy-faced section numbers in this book may be used to
call the pupiFs attention to the discussion of a particular fault. Thus, 18
would refer him to The Heading, page 20.

When you find a " ^ " in one of your margins, do not
pass it by until you understand why it is there ; if a " G "
confronts you, be sure that you see just what is wrong
before you try to right it ; and should a " K " appear, work
away until the phrase is natural and smooth.

It is most encouraging to know that great writers have had
to do their work over and over again before it was satisfac-
tory. We find Stevenson saying,

"Yesterday I was a living half hour upon a single clause and have
a gallery of variants that would surprise you."

And in March, 1891, he wrote :

''I had breakfasted and read (with indescribable sinkings) the
whole of yesterday's work before the sun had risen. Then I sat and
thought, and sat and better thought. It was not good enough, nor

30 THE MANUSCRIPT

good ; it was as slack as journalism, but not so inspired ; it was excel-
lent stuff misused, and the defects stood gross on it like humps upon
a camel."

Happy is he who can see his defects ; happier he who, with
stout heart and infinite patience, toils incessantly to over-
come them.

EXERCISES

36. Write a short theme on any subject based on experience.
Follow the directions already given, and in revising take special
pains to see that each sentence has a subject and a predicate.
Bring your theme to class and act as critic of your own work,
using the suggestions given in Exercise 30.^

36, Exchange themes and, as examiner of another's work,
write your criticisms in the margin of the paper.

For example, against poor penmanship write "Pen ";
against an incomplete sentence, " S " ; against a line containing a
misspelled word, " Sp." (See the suggestion about using section
numbers on p. 29.)

^ It is to be hoped that the teacher will take every opportunity to help
pupils criticize their own compositions. In connection with this first ex-
ercise it will aid the pupils to have some papers read aloud and discussed,
befoie they are asked to criticize their own work.

CHAPTER IV

THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE

I. The Composition as a Unit. By this time certain
matters concerning composition should be clear. In the
first place, our purpose as students of English composition
is to learn how to express our own thoughts. It follows,
therefore, that whether we talk or write, it is our task to put
our thoughts together in our own way, not in another's.
Hence, as a rule, we shall speak or write from experience.
Naturally, it is important for our hearers or readers that we
discuss but one subject, or part of a subject, at a time;
and in order that our composition, whether oral or written,
may be a imit, we shall do well — by way of preparation —
to talk over the subject with some one, and to make a careful
outline of what we have to say.

21. Making the Outline. To make a plan, or outline, of
what we are going to say or write is to express each thought
in tabular form as concisely and accurately as possible.
Plans of this kind are as valuable in the preparation of a
history recitation or of a three-minute talk in the English
class as they are in writing, and we should form the habit of
using them frequently.

In the first place, the plan should be clean-cut. The main
thoughts should be distinct from one another ; for example :

32 THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE

A Sunday in the City

I. The quiet of the morning.

11. The summons to church.
in. The morning service.
IV. The return home.

V. The afternoon outing.
VI. The strange ending of the day.

In the second place, the plan should be coherent ; that is,
the first topic should lead up to the second, the second to the
third, and so on. The outline given above is coherent ;
the following is incoherent :

I. The morning service.
II. The afternoon outing.
ni. The quiet of the morning.

In the third place, the plan should have climax; that is,
the successive thoughts should increase in interest and
strength. The foregoing six topics are arranged in the
time order, but if the composition based on these is properly
worked out, the efifect of climax will be obtained also.

Finally, the topics should be similar in construction, and
each subtopic should plainly be a part of the heading
imder which it is placed. See " II. The Fire " on page 33
and avoid anything like the following :

I. An accident.

1. The firemen are excited.

2. A fresh start.

EXERCISES

37. Compare the two following outlines. Which would be
the more helpful to you if you were to write on the same sub-
ject? Why? Has the second any advantage over the first?
Make an outline of a theme on a similar subject.

MAKING THE OUTLINE 33

I. The Fire

I. The wild rush of the small boys.
n. The arrival of the engines.

III. The crowd.

IV. The anxiety of the owners of the burning building.
V. The flames.

VI. The destruction of the building.

II. The Fire

I. The alarm.

1. General excitement.

2. An explosion.
II. An accident.

1. Excited firemen.

2. A fresh start.
III. A false alarm.

1. Angry firemen.

2. A disappointed crowd.

S8. Read carefully the following selection, and be prepared to
tell the incident in class. Make an outline that will help you in
your talk.

Franklin's Famous Toast

Franklin was dining with a small party of distinguished gentlemen,
when one of them said: "Here are three nationalities represented.
I am French, and my friend here is EngUsh, and Mr. Franklin is an
American. Let each one propose a toast."

It was agreed to, and the Englishman's turn came first. He arose,
and, in the tone of a Briton bold, said, "Here's to Great Britain, the
sun that gives light to all nations of the earth."

The Frenchman was rather taken aback at this ; but he proposed,
"Here's to France, the moon whose magic rays move the tides of the
world."

Franklin then arose with an air of quaint modesty, and said,
"Here's to our beloved George Washington, the Joshua of America,
who commanded the sim and moon to stand still — and they obeyed."

34 THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE

39. Which of the two following outlines is the more bu^ness
like? Which would be the better to talk from? Would £
talk based on the second necessarily lack unity?

Make an outline of a one-minute talk on a subject suggestec
by either of the following :

Making a Kite Making a Kite

I. Picking out the sticks. I. A rainy day.

II. Making the frame. II. Materials for the kite.

III. Pasting on the paper. III. Constructing the kite.

IV. Making the tail.
V. Putting on the tail.

22. Filling in the Outline. In your opening sentences
be plain and direct, but try to arouse an interest in what
is to come. As you continue, give most attention to those
parts of the subject which you consider most important.
If your outline is well made, it will aid you in holding the
interest to the end.

EXERCISES

40. Study the following composition, written by a pupil, and
write answers to these questions :

1. What is the writer's purpose ?

2. Do you see the value of arranging the sentences in three groups ?

3. Has a fair amount of space been given to each group of details ?

4. Does the themq^hold your interest to the end ?

Baby's First Shoes

They^ were lovely, bright red shoes, — just the kind to please
a baby. They stood there on the floor quietly waiting to be
claimed. Baby spied the two bits of red and at once decided to go
and feel. He edged quickly along the floor and fearlessly grasped
one bit of red. It didn't scratch like "Kitty." He pinched it;

^ Note that "they" does not refer to the title, although it may seem to.

FILLING IN THE OUTLINE 35

it didn't, squeal like his rubber doll. He shook it; it didn't jingle
like his bells. Evidently there must be some further mystery about
this last prize. He stuck one red tip intx) his mouth, but took it out
very quickly, making a wry face. He stuck in the other, too, but it
tasted just exactly as bad. He threw them down in disgust, and
babbled some earnest babyland prattle to them.

Then mamma came to the assistance of the tiny puzzler. She drew
baby*s two mysteries on over his ten little toes. Baby sat very quiet
and looked very thoughtfully at his newly shod feet. They had never
been housed before. Baby rather doubtfully wriggled his toes in their
pens. But, oh, how bewitching that red was ! He leaned over, caught
hold of one little foot with each Kttle hand, rolled over on his back,
and kicked those red shoes back and forth, up and down, "every-
which-way," watching the flashes of red come and go, and cooing in
a baby's own happy way.

When mamma came later to find him, baby was cuddled down in
a little heap fast asleep, with one little red shoe clasped tightly in each
chubby hand.

4L From the following ten titles make a list of those on which
you have something to say, and add to these other subjects
suggested by them on which you have more to say :

1. The Wrong Car.

2. Typewriting.

3. A Skating Party.

4. A Disappointing Telegram.

5. A Queer Playmate.

6. A Christmas Tree.

7. My Brother's First Letter.

8. My New Year's Resolution.

9. A Recent Discovery.
10. A Witch's Grave.

4^. Plan a one-niinute talk on some subject in your list. Be
prepared to give the talk to the class.^

1 It is recommended that in the first set of talks the pupils confine their
criticism of one another's work almost entirely to encouragement. Each
speaker should be made to feel that he is addressing a friendly audience.

36 THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE

43. Write out and bring to class the substance of your talk,
taking advantage of whatever criticisms you have received from
the teacher and the class.

44. Watch carefully for several minutes some familiar animal
or insect. Write in detail everything you have seen it do. Be
prepared to read your theme aloud, with the twofold purpose
of interesting your classmates and getting the benefit of their
suggestions.

45. Select from the following list of subjects those on which
you could write. Add to these other similar subjects on which
you would prefer to write.

1. A Robin singing at Sunrise.

2. A Knock at the Back Door.

3. A Pair of Squeaking Shoes.

4. My English Theme.

5. A Letter from a Friend.

6. A Pocket Knife.

7. Muzzling an Alarm Clock.

8. Finishing the Last Example in Algebra.

9. Washing Dishes.

10. An Easy History Lesson.

11. Finger Exercises on the Piano.

12. A Disagreeable Chore.

46. Write on a subject taken from the list just prepared, being
careful to make your composition a imit.

47. Consider the following subjects for compositions and men-
tion others that occur to you. Write on one of the subjects.

1. A Lively Horse. 8. Dredging the Harbor.

2. A Busy Afternoon. 9. A Visit to a State Quarry.

3. A Bad Spot. 10. A Landslide.

4. A Row on the River. 11. A Bad Boy.

5. An Old Pin Cushion. 12. Stranded.

6. A Beehive. 13. Our Club.

7. Views of California. 14. A Visit to the BeacL

FILLING IN THE OUTLINE 37

48. After writing a composition of considerable length (see
sect. 24) upon one of the following subjects, compare your work
with that of some great writer on the same subject. Write a
short criticism of your composition, based on the comparisons just
made.

1. The Town Pump. ("Twice Told Tales," by Hawthorne.)

2. Christmas. ("The Sketch-Book," by Irving.)

3. A Sunday in the Country. (The Spectator, by Addison.)

4. A Great Snow Fall. ("Loma Doone/' chaps, xli-xlii, by

Blackmore.)

5. A Great Storm. ("David Copperfield," chap. Iv, by Dickens.)

6. A Night in a Camp. ("Camping Out," by Charles Dudley

Wamer.)

7. Canoeing. ("An Inland Voyage," by Stevenson.)

8. A Winter Evening. ("The Task,"byCowper; "Snow Bound,"

by Whittier.)

9. A Pond. ("Walden," by Thoreau.)

49. Write on a subject taken from one of the foregoing lists.
Make an outline in order to secure imity, and read the composi-
tion aloud before coming to class to see whether it sounds well.

60. Write a composition based on imagination. See the list
on page 12.

61, Make an outline of a one-minute talk on what you look
for in your favorite newspaper. Get all the help you can from
the following outline, noting not only the choice of topics, but
the order in which they are arranged.

Reading a Newspaper

I. News section. HI. Amusement section.

1. General news. i. Daily story.

2. Political news. 2. Anecdotes.

3. Foreign news. 3. Jokes.

n. Sporting section. IV. Editorial section.

I. News. I. Choice of subjects.

3. Comments. 2. Treatment of subjects.

38 THE COMPOSITION AS A WHOLE

62. Be prepared to give your talk.

63. Write the substance of your talk. Bring to the classroom
the first copy of your work, even if it is full of revisions. After
you have given your talk, read from your notes the opening and
dosing sentences in order that the class may test the unity of your
composition.

Bring to class the rewritten copy of your theme.*

64. Write the story of your life. This will introduce you to
your English teacher, and is not to be read by your classmates.
It should open in an attractive way, and should give a straight-
forward accoimt of what you like to do both in school and out-
side.

65. Bring to class (i) a composition you have written in con-
nection with some study other than English; (2) a plan of the
composition; (3) a criticism of the composition imder the eight
headings given in Exercise 30, page 26.

66. Examine the following plan, which himdreds of pupils have
found helpful in writing reports of experiments in science. How
many paragraphs does it call for ?

An Experiment

I. The purpose of the experiment.

II. The equipment (apparatus and materials used) .

III. The method.

IV. The results.
V. The inference.

^ See footnote on page 24.

CHAPTER V
THE PARAGRAPH AS A UNIT

23. Independent Paragraphs. We have thought of the
paragraph as a group of sentences that refer to one topic,
or to one division of the subject. It often happens that a
short composition on a limited subject forms a single para-
graph. Practice with several independent paragraphs will
aid us in managing the paragraphs in longer themes, and it
should correct once for all the prevailing tendency among
young writers to indent every second or third sentence.

24. Length of the Paragraph. A paragraph of a hundred
words is short ; one of two hundred and fifty words is not
very long. If you discover more than two paragraphs on a
page of your manuscript, ask yourself whether you can give
a good reason for the division.

25. Unity. It is not enough that all the sentences in the
paragraph shall refer to a single topic ; they must also pre-
sent a central thought. For example, the topic of the
following paragraph is the voyage from America to Europe.
The sentences composing the paragraph might all have a
bearing on that topic, and yet the paragraph might by no
means be a imit. One sentence might speak of the storms,
another of the boat, another of the passengers, another of the
crew, etc., with a most confusing resvdt. But Irving's
paragraph presents one view of the subject. We are told
that the inactivity of the voyage is an excellent preparation for

40 THE PARAGRAPH AS A UNIT

the bustle of another world, and each sentence contributes
something toward this main thought.

To an American visiting Europe, the long voyage he has to make
is an excellent preparative. The temporary absence of worldly
scenes and employments produces a state of mind peculiarly fitted
to receive new and vivid impressions. The vast space of waters
that separates the hemispheres is like a blank page in existence. There
is no gradual transition, by which, as in Europe, the features and popu-
lation of one country blend almost imperceptibly with those of another.
From the moment you lose sight of the land you have left, all is vacancy
until you step on the opposite shore, and are laimched at once into
the bustle and novelties of another world.

— Irving, "The Voyage," in "The Sketch-Book.*'

26. The Plan of the Paragraph. In order that we may-
include everything that belongs in a paragraph — and noth-
ing else — it is wise to have in mind, if not on paper, an
outline of the details. In a straightforward accoxmt of a
single happening this is usually a simple matter. When,
however, we have a considerable choice of details, the making
of the outline needs more attention.

EXERCISES

57. Make an outline of the two following paragraphs, written
by pupils :

A Short Cut

One day while I was watching a fire from the top of a high bank,
a little fellow near me proposed to several of his companions that
they take a short cut to the fire by running down the bank. They all
seemed willing, and they started with a long jimip. The moment
the leader landed in the soft sand he tripped and fell headlong. The
others, who Tfrere close behind him, repeated the performance with the
same result. It was amusing to see them roll over one another in the
dirt and stones all the way down, but somehow they landed on their
feet and ran on to the fire.

THE PLAN OF THE PARAGRAPH 41

A Young Protector

One day while I was riding in an electric car, a man got in with a
little child. He placed him on the seat opposite me and went out on
the platform. The child sat there a few minutes with a troubled
look on his face, and then called out, "Papa !" Looking out of the
window, he noticed the father standing there and seemed satisfied
for a while. Soon, however, a new thought came into his mind, and,
looking anxiously toward his father, he said, "Papa, is 'ou falling?"
The father shook his head. But the little one was not quite contented
and called out again, "Ain't 'ou, ain't 'ou falling, papa?" Again the
father shook his head. By this time everybody in the car was inter-
ested. Soon reaching his destination, the father lifted the child out,
and the little fellow, happy now, trudged down the street grasping his
father's hand.

68. In studying the following paragraph, written by a pupil,
answer these questions :

1. What is the writer's one purpose ?

2. Does the choice of details serve his purpose ?

3. What is his plan ?

An Old Friend

I saw an old friend this morning — that is, if a locomotive may be
called an old friend. I first saw the locomotive last spring at the
Braintree freight yards. There were two of these engines, Nos. 431
and 432, belonging to a class called Moguls. They had just been
completed at Schenectady, New York, and at that time one of them
brought a long string of freight cars from Taunton to South Braintree
every day. As the largest engines on the division, they attracted
considerable attention. They were very high and had to have short
headlights and smokestacks, which gave them a squatty, unnatural
appearance. Each had six-foot driving wheels, three on a side.
These, together with their enormous boilers, enabled them to draw a
large number of cars. When necessary, they could go about sixty
miles an hour. I was much interested in them, but they were taken
ofE the division after a few weeks' service. To-day as I saw this large

42 THE PARAGRAPH AS A UNIT

engine approaching, I was quite sure I had seen it before, and as it
drew nearer my conviction proved correct, for I soon made out the
number 431 on the front of the boiler.

59, (i) Make a list of the reasons why you like your school life.
(2) Write a paragraph based on this list of reasons.

60, Exchange papers and, as examiner, answer these questions
in writing:

1. Is the form satisfactory ? (Consider neatness, margins, heading,
indentation.)

2. Is the composition interesting ?

3. Is it adequate ?

4. What is the plan of it ?

6L In a similar way write a paragraph on one of the subjects
chosen in Exercise 15, page 16.

62, As critic of your own paper, answer the questions in Exer-
cise 58.

63, Write a paragraph on one of the subjects chosen in Exer-
cise 16, page 16.

64, Write a paragraph on one of these subjects:

1. The reasons why I came to this school.

2. The reasons why some parents are particular to have their sons
and daughters keep early hours.

3. The reasons why I disUke my school life.

4. The reasons why a girl likes to cook.

65, (i) Name ten things that you have done within the last
twenty-four hours. (2) Write a paragraph telling how you did
one of these things.

27. Connected Paragraphs. We write many themes and
letters in which we must make several paragraphs. In the
first of the following selections the opening paragraph de-
scribes a forest, which was reached after an hour's climbing,
and the second a pond so far beyond that it was not dis-

CONNECTED PARAGRAPHS

covered till "about noon." These two topics are separated
both by space and by time. In the second selection, notice
how well connected the paragraphs are.

In the Mountains

Our journey commenced in a steep and rugged ascent, which
brought us, after an hour's heavy climbing, to an elevated region
of pine forest, years before ravished by lumbermen, and presenting
all manner of obstacles to our awkward and encumbered pedestrian-
ism. The woods were largely pine, though yellow birch, beech, and
maple were common. The satisfaction of having a gun, should any
game show itself, was the chief compensation to those of us who were
thus btirdened. A partridge would occasionally whir up before us, or
a red squirrel snicker and hasten to his den ; else, the woods appeared
quite tenantless. The most noted object was a mammoth pine, ap-
parently the last of a great race, which presided over a duster of yel-
low birches, on the side of the mountain.

About noon we came out upon a long, shallow sheet of water, which
the guide called Bloody-Moose Pond, from the tradition that a moose
had been slaughtered there many years before. Lookiiig out over the
silent and lonely scene, his eye was the first to detect an object ap-
parently feeding upon lily pads, which our willing fancies readily
shaped into a deer. As we were eagerly waiting some movement to
confirm this impression, it lifted up its head, and lo ! a great blue
heron. Seeing us approach, it spread its long wings and fiew solemnly
across to a dead tree on the other side of the lake, enhancing, rather
than relieving, the loneliness and desolation that brooded over the
scene. — John Busroughs, " Adirondac," in "Wake Robin."

A Dutch VnxAOE

Whoever has made a voyage up the Hudson must remember the
Elaatskill mountains. They are a dismembered branch of the great
Appalachian family, and are seen away to the west of the river,
swelling up to a noble height, and lording it over the surrounding
country. . . . When the weather is fair and settled, they are clothed
in blue and purple, and print their bold outlines on the clear evening

44 THE PARAGRAPH AS A UNIT

sky; but sometimes, when the rest of the landscape is cloudless,
they will gather a hood of gray vapors about their summits, which,
in the last rays of the setting sun, will glow and light up like a crown
of glory.

At the foot of these fairy moimtains, the voyager may have descried
the light smoke curling up from a village, whose shingle-roofs gleam
among the trees. ... It is a little village, of great antiquity, having
been founded by some of the Dutch colonists in the early times of the
province, . . . and there were some of the houses of the original set-
tlers standing within a few years, built of small yellow bricks brought
from Holland, having latticed windows and gable fronts, surmounted
by weathercocks.

In that same village, and in one of these very houses . . . there
lived, many years since, ... a simple, good-natured fellow, of the
name of Rip Van Winkle. — Irving, "The Sketch-Book."

EXERCISES

66. Examine the first five pages of this book, or of the book
you are reading in literature, to see whether you would combine
or divide some of the paragraphs.

67. From the book you are reading in literature, make a list of
five subjects suitable for independent paragraphs.

68. Make a list of three subjects suitable for themes of two
or three paragraphs.

69. Write a theme on one of the subjects chosen in Exercise 67.

70. Write a theme on one of the subjects chosen in Exercise 68.

71. (i) Write a series of paragraphs on The School Day, giv-
ing a paragraph to each period. (2) Then condense the com-
position into one paragraph. (3) Make a plan of the paragraph.
(See sect. 26, page 40.)

72. Condense into one short paragraph the selection on page
47. Make a brief plan of the original selection, and see if this
will suit your paragraph.

PARAGRAPH TOPICS 45

73. Explain in a paragraph the meaning oi x as used in alge-
bra. Criticize in class the unity of your paragraph. (See Ex.
58, page 41.)

28. Paragraph Topics. We have learned that in prepar-
ing a theme it is often helpfvd to make a list of topics. Some-
times it will be best to devote a paragraph to each topic.
If, for example, we are to give a brief account of the first
appearance of Gurth and Wamba in " Ivanhoe," we shall
not wish to crowd all we have to say into a single paragraph,
but shall prefer to give a separate paragraph to each of these

topics :

1. The setting.

2. The dress.

3. The conversation.

Each of the three groups of details will mark one stage of the
narrative. This is true of " In the Moimtains " ; and in
both these instances, as in "A Short Cut," "A Young
Protector," " An Old Friend," " Baby's First Shoes," each
paragraph contains the details which illustrate one point.

EXERCISES

74. Write paragraph topics for themes on any five of the
following subjects:

a. The Tournament, Locksley's Shooting before Prince John, The
Knight and the Friar, Cedric and Athelstane, At John's Banquet, The
Stomiing of the Castle, The Trial of Rebecca at Templestowe. [Scott's
"Ivanhoe."]

5. The Bohemians, A Medieval Castle, Louis the Eleventh and
Charles of Burgundy, Quentin Durward's Adventures in Liege.
[Scott's "Quentin Durward."]

c. Long John's Cleverness, The Luck of Jim Hawkins, the Black
Spot, The Death of Israel Hands, A Real Pirate, Jim's Capture of
the HispanicHa, [Stevenson's "Treasure Island."]

40 THE PARAGRAPH AS A UNIT

d. The Coming of a Great Snowstorm, A Winter Evening in a New
England Fannhouse. [Whittier's "Snow-Bound."]

t, A Colonial Soldier, A Council of War, Miles Standish and Wat-
tauamat. Miles Standish and John Alden. [Longfellow's '^ Court-
ship of Miles Standish/']

/. A Thunderstorm on the Prairie, A Buffalo Herd, A Frontier Trad-
ing Post. [Parkman's "Oregon Trail."]

75. In class, without reference to book or paper, write on one
of the preceding subjects.

76, Explain the construction of something you have made, —
of paper, cloth, pasteboard, wood, iron, or steel.

Before beginning to write, consider the steps involved in the
process, and in writing give each step the consideration it de-
serves.

17, Write a letter to a friend, giving a new receipt for making
candy or cake of some kind. (See suggestions as to the form of
your letter in Chap. VIII.)

29. The Topic Sentence. In section 25, the words in italics
practically give in a sentence the main thought of the par-
agraph from '^ The Sketch-Book." Such a sentence is ofter
called a topic sentence; it frequently appears in the para-
graph — sometimes at the beginning, sometimes near the
middle, sometimes at the end. It always helps a writer tc
secure imity if he has a topic sentence before him as h<
writes, and in many cases he will wish to make it the open
ing sentence of the paragraph.

EXERCISES

78, Can you find topic sentences in the following para
graphs? If not, make lists of the subjects discussed, and in ;
carefully worded sentence write the main thought of each para
graph.

THE TOPIC SENTENCE 47

You are, I think, too fond of reading as it is. As one means of
avoiding excess in this way, I would wish you to make it a rule never
to read at mealtimes, nor in company when there is any (even the
most trivial) conversation going on, nor even to let your eagerness to
learn encroach upon your play hours. Books are but one inlet of
knowledge ; and the pores of the mind, like those of the body, should
be left open to all impressions. I applied too close to my studies, soon
after I was of your age, and hurt myself irreparably by it. What-
ever may be the value of learning, health and good spirits are of more.

As to the books you will have to read by choice or for amusement,
the best are the commonest. The names of many of them are already
familiar to you. Read them as you grow up with all the sat^faction
in your power, and make much of them. It is perhaps the greatest
pleasure you will have in life, the one you will think of longest, and
repent of least. If my life had been more full of calamity than it has
been (much more than I hope yours will be), I would live it over again,
my popr little boy, to have read the books I did in my youth.

— Hazlitt, "On the Conduct of Life."

79. Prepare a one-minute talk on a subject suggested by one of
these topic sentences. Make use of a topical outline.

1. As a part of our last lesson in English we read the first chapter
of " Quentin Durward. "

2. In history we are studjnng about Hannibal.

3. On my way to school this morning, I saw a peculiar street-car
accident.

4. The elm in front of our house presents many interesting changes
according to the season of the year.

5. Good penmanship is a part of good manners.

6. Letter writing is a practical art which we should all master.

80. Write the substance of your talk, beginning each paragraph
with a topic sentence.

81. Exchange the themes just written and underscore the
topic sentences.

48 THE PARAGRAPH AS A UNIT

82, Make plans of two themes suggested by the following
topic sentences :

1. Once upon a time a wolf met a lamb.

2. ''Ivanhoe'' is much more interesting than "Silas Mamer"
because it contains more action.

3. "The Angelus" [or some other picture] is a picture that will
repay careful study.

4. The story of "The Lady of the Lake'' [or some other work] may
be briefly told as follows.

5. The other morning I saw two sparrows attack a small gray bird.

6. The most exciting event of my life was of very short duration.

83, Vjfntt the theme outlined in one of your two plans, and
give your topic sentence, or sentences.

84, Write a paragraph explaining why is yoiir favor-
ite outdoor game. First prepare a topic sentence and keep it
before you as you write.

85, With the aid of a topic sentence, write a paragraph on a
subject of your own choosing. If you wish, turn to the list
prepared in Exercise 19, page 18.

Exchange papers and write in a single sentence what you con-
sider the main thought of your classmate's paragraph.

86, Write a theme beginning with a sentence in which you
name several traits that you like in one of your friends. Use as
many paragraphs as the subject demands.

In class, write a criticism of your theme, using the sug-
gestions in Exercise 60, page 42.

87, Make a list of all the good subjects (i) for one-minute talks,
(2) for short themes, that are suggested by the following topic
sentences :

1. A gypsy camp is an interesting place to visit.

2. A printing office seems to have just one word for its motto,
"Hurry!"

3. A robin is a friendly bird.

TOPIC SENTENCE .49

4. A crow is a suspicious sort of fellow ; he seems to have a bad
conscience.

5. A house aquarium is an endless source of amusement and in-
struction.

6. Loma Doone is a heroine, even though she does not do many
heroic things.

7. A milkman sees the world from an imusual point of view.

88. Prepare a plan of a talk on a subject taken from your list ;
be ready to talk on the subject just chosen.

89. Prepare a plan of a theme on a subject taken from the list
called for in Exercise 13, page 11.

Write a theme based on this plan.

90. Find or write a topic sentence for each paragraph of an
editorial in your school paper or in a newspaper.

91. Define a paragraph (see sect. 23), and show that unless the
paragraph has unity (see sect. 25) there can be no real topic sen-
tence (see sect. 29).

92. Be ready to talk for two minutes on " The Paragraph,"
using some such plan as the following :

1. Definition. (See sects. 16, 23.)

2. Length. (See sect. 24.)

3. Unity. (See sect. 25.)

4. Topic sentence. (See sect. 29.)

CHAPTER VI

^ THE SENTENCE AS A UNIT. — PUNCTUATION

■ \

-^ 30. The Sentence. The first two facts to fix in mind
about the sentence are these :

1. A sentence is the expression in words of a complete
thought ^ivhdXhsx a statement, command, question, or
exclamation.

2. Every sentence should have a subject and a predicate.
This is another way of saying that (i) the sentence, like the
composition or the paragraph, should be a unit; (2) its
e3q)ression should be grammatically complete. A later
chapter contains a thorough review of grammar, but at this
point we shall recall enough to allow us to study sentences
and their pimctuation as an aid in the egression of written
thoughts.

31. Three Forms of Sentences. We should keep in
mind what we have learned from the granunars about the
three forms of sentences :

I. A simple sentence contains but one subject and one

predicate.

The boy caught the ball.

A distinguished visitor is in our coimtry.

Note i. The subject of a sentence may be compound.

John and Mary came early.
Note 2. The predicate may be compoimd.

The boy has caught the ball and is throwing it.
Note 3. Both subject and predicate may be compoimd.

Harvard and Yale are rivals, but have respect for each other.

FORMS OF SENTENCES 51

2. A compound sentence consists of two or more main
clauses. These clauses are said to be coordinate, that is,
of equal rank. (It will be remembered that a clause is a
group of words which contains a subject and a predicate.
A main, or independent, clause is defined on pp. 174-

I75-)

Mary came early, but she did not stay long.

A wise son maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is the heavi-
ness of his mother.

3. A complex sentence consists of a main clause and one
or more subordinate clauses.^

If you go, I shall go.

Since he is here, you may ask him.

He came because he thought he could see you.

Note i. Parts of a compound sentence may be complex.

He is here, but he is so busy that he cannot see you. (One part
simple.)

You cannot have what you like, but you can like what you have.
(Both parts complex.)
Note 2. The subordinate clause of a complex sentence may be com-
I)ound.

His employers recommend him because they knew his worth and
because they will be glad to see him promoted.

EXERCISES

93. Copy from other chapters of this book three complex
sentences; add to these three complex sentences which you have
thought out.

94, Write (i) a compoxmd sentence in which one part is
complex ; (2) a compound sentence in which two parts are
complex; (3) a complex sentence in which the subordinate
clause is compound.

^ For a more detailed study of the parts of sentences see Chapter IX.

THE SENTENCE AS A UNIT. — PUNCTUATION

95, Be ready to talk on " The Sentence," noting the general
definition (see sect. 30) and the particular definitions (see sect. 31)
of (i) simple, (2) compound, and (3) complex sentences. Illus-
trate your talk by the use of original examples.

32. Punctuation. Punctuation is a matter of courtesy;
if we are polite, we shall see to it that the reader has all the
aid that the most careful punctuation can give. It is also a
matter of great practical value ; failure to insert a comma or
a semicolon in a will may make a difference of thousands of
dollars to an heir. Defective pimctuation may make a law
of no effect.

33. The Period. As soon as we express a complete
thought, we are to let the reader know that he has reached
the end of the sentence. In talking we show by a pause
when we come to the end of a thought, but in writing we
often leave one thought unfinished in our haste to say
something else. We must therefore take pains to set off by
themselves the words which compose each thought. Every
sentence should begin with a capital, and should end with
some pimctuation mark. The period^ the interrogation
pointy and the exclamation point may stand at the end of
a sentence, but the period is the mark most often used.

I. A period should stand at the end of every declarative or
imperative sentence. If, however, a declarative or impera-
tive sentence is exclamatory, an exclamation point may be
used instead of a period.

II, A period should follow every abbreviation.

Cal., Me., Mr., Rev., Oct.

in. The period should separate a number or a heading
from the words which follow. See, for example, the section
headings and niunbers in this book. Both the colon and the

THE PERIOD 53

dash are sometimes used for this purpose, but the period is
preferable. Periods were formerly inserted after centered
headings of every kind, but good style now sanctions their
omission.

EXERCISES

96, Copy the following selections, inserting periods and capi-
tals wherever they belong:

1. To-day I went to the circus the tents were all up, and in one
of them I saw some elephants the cooks were getting supper
ready.

2. My cousin sent me a letter from the Philippines, where he is
with his company he told me that on his way to the islands they
encoimtered a heavy storm, which carried them nearly to Japan the
ship was wrecked, and they lost all their food, clothing, and personal
property.

3. Years afterwards, the knowledge gained stood me in good stead
in clearing up another mystery it was in a lumber camp — always a
superstitious place — in the heart of a Canada forest I had followed a
wandering herd of caribou too far one day, and late in the afternoon
found myself alone at a river, some twenty miles from my camp, on
the edge of the barren grounds somewhere above me I knew that a
crew of lumbermen were at work ; so I headed up river to find their
camp, if possible, and avoid sleeping out in the snow and bitter cold
it was long after dark, and the moon was flooding forest and river with
a wonderful light, when I at last caught sight of the camp the click of
my snowshoes brought a dozen big men to the door at that moment
I felt, rather than saw, that they seemed troubled and alarmed at
seeing me alone ; but I was too tired to notice, and no words save those
of welcome were spoken until I had eaten heartily then, as I started
out for another look at the wild beauty of the place under the moon-
light, a lumberman followed and touched me on the shoulder.

97. Write about something that you saw happen. Do your
writing as rapidly as you please. Before copying your work,
revise it to see that (a) every sentence has a subject and a predi-

54 THE SENTENCE AS A UNIT. — PUNCTUATION

cate, and that (b) every sentence begins with a capital, and if
declarative, ends with a period.

Note. Since some young writers run on breathlessly from one sen-
tence to another without thought of periods, every pupil should be
sure that he does not crowd too much into one sentence. It is well
at first to have one's sentences short rather than long.

34. The Interrogation Point. The interrogation point
needs careful consideration, for there is a general tendency
in certain kinds of questions to substitute the period. For
instance, a request is often put in the form of a question to
make it seem unlike a demand, but the sentence requires the
interrogation point, not the period. For example :

May I be excused during the second period to make up some
work in history with Mr. Eddy ?

Will you kindly notify the committee at once if you cannot
be present, since definite arrangements should be made with the
caterer ?

IV. An interrogation point should follow every direct
question, but is not required after an indirect question.

Did you recognize me ?

You could not see ?

"Did you see that robin ?" asked Mary.

He asked who was ready to go.

Will you please hand me that book ?

EXERCISES

98, Write a note to your teacher, asking a favor in a declara-
tive sentence. Write another note, asking the same favor in an
interrogative sentence; then rewrite your interrogative sentence,
turning it into an indirect question.

35. The Exclamation Point. Much of the value of the
exclamation point lies in its infrequent use, and young
writers shoidd be carefid not to overwork it.

THE COMMA 55

V. The eocclamaUon point stands at the end of a sentence,
or of a group of words within the sentence, to strengtlten thj
expression of strong feeling.

Let not a traitor live !

God pity her !

Begone I

What nonsense !

"The fool !" he muttered.

"That bullet was better aimed than common!" exclaimed
Duncan, involuntarily shrinking from a shot which- struck the
rock at his side with a smart rebound.

EXERCISES

99, Write a paragraph about some exciting experience of
yours.

Before copying your work, see that every sentence (a) has a
subject and a predicate, and (b) begins with a capital and ends
with the proper punctuation mark. (Remember the caution not
to crowd too much into one sentence.)

100. (i) Exchange papers and correct with the following
questions in mind:

1. Does every sentence end where it should? If not, put a neat
5 in the margin.

2. Is every declarative sentence followed by a period? If not,
put a P in the margin unless the sentence is exclamatory.

3. Are interrogative or exclamatory sentences followed by the
proper marks ?

(2) Revise your theme, and if there is sufficient reason, rewrite
it.

36. The Comma. We must not only separate our sen-
tences, but must also make use of whatever marks will
help us so to group the words within a sentence that they

56 THE SENTENCE AS A UNIT. — PUNCTUATION

will be most readily iinderstood.^ Of such marks the most
important are the comma, the colon, and the semicolon.

We shall consider first the conmia, which is the slightest
mark of separation that may be put between words.

VI. The comma sets of expressions obviously parenthetical,
including words, phrases,^ or clauses used in apposition.

You can see, I think, and we can hear perfectly.
I caught a £^impse of Edith, his sister.

Note. The appositive words, "his sister," have no close grammatical
connection with the rest of the sentence. If, however, we say, "His sister
Edith came yesterday," the connection between the noun and its apposi-
tive is too close for a comma to come between them.

VII. When a dependent clause precedes the main clause, a
comma should separate the two. When a dependent clause
follows the main clause, the comma is frequently unnecessary.
In either position the dependent clause is often too closely
connected with the rest of the sentence, or is too short, to
require the conmia.

If you knew him, you would like him.
I will come when you say.

Before the doctor had time to collect himself or to heed
the warning given him, his horse bolted.

Usually a comma is unnecessary between and and if,
but and when, and all similar combinations of coordinate and
subordinate conjunctions.

Mr. Bums, the detective, spoke for three hours, and when he
sat down, his audience gave him a tremendous ovation.

^ The plan of marking the end of the sentence first is only a temporary
device. As soon as we can trust ourselves to mark the end of {he sentence,
we should form the habit of inserting the other marks while wriUng tht
sentence.

* For a definition of a phrase ^ see section 102.

THE COMMA 57

John fell down the cellar stairs, but when the doctor ex-
amined him, he found no bones broken.

The pupil who studies faithfully, even if he is not briUiant, is
likely to succeed.

VIII. A relative clause which is explanatory, or gives an
additional thought, should be set of by commas. But a rela-
tive clause which is restrictive — which limits the meaning of
the antecedent — is too closely connected with it to be separated
by a comma.

The older brother, whom you have met, was here.
The brother whom you have met was here yesterday.

IX. The comma sets apart words used in direct address.

John, your mother is calling you.

Hearken, Phaeacian captains and councilors, and let me tell
you what die heart within me bids.

X. The comma ustuUly separates two coordinate clauses
which are connected by " and,^^ " 6w/,'' " or^

Mary ran up the road, but John reached the house first.

The tavern was much frequented by the gallants of the reign
of Elizabeth, and it was looked into now and then by the wits
of Charles the Second's reign.

XI. The comma sometimes sets apart introductory expres-
sions which are not closely related to the rest of the sentence.

Well, you may be right.

In the first place, a student is not necessarily a scholar.
By the way, I hear that William has been promoted.
On the one hand, . . . ; on the other, . . .

XII. The comma sets apart the case absolute.

The time having come, he called the meeting to order.

XIII. The comma sets apart words, phrases, or clauses
in the same construction in a series.

He sells dry goods, groceries, hardware, and drugs.
He is an honest, upright man.

58 THE SENTENCE AS A UNIT. — PUNCTUATION

Note. When "and'* could not be substituted for the comma in a
sentence like the last, the comma should be omitted. For example :

His horse was a big black thoroughbred.

XIV. In a series of words or phrases the comtna should be
inserted before the " and " which connects the last two members
of the series. Some writers omit it, but such an omission
might cause an awkward sentence if not a misunderstanding.
For instance, in the following sentence an omission of the
last comma would mean that the same dress was partly red
and partly blue.

Her dresses were black, white, red, and blue.

XV. The comma sets apart words or phrases in pairs.

Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand
and my heart to this vote.

XVI. The comma takes the pkLce of omitted words,

1. It frequently takes the place of an omitted verb.

^e first train was an hour late ; the second, thirty minutes ;
and the third, ten minutes.
John is the elder son ; Charles, the yoimger.

2. It takes the place of omitted words in the date and

the address of a letter.

Exeter, N.H.,

April 5, 1905.
Mr. J. A. Walker,

Melrose, Mass.

XVn. The comma is used to set apart a short qiwtation
or an expression similar to a qtwtation. Before a long quota-
tion the colon is used (see sect. 38).

I heard him say, "A soft answer tumeth away wrath.
"I hope you will come soon," was his reply.
What I wish to know is, When did you see him ?

THE COMMA 59

Note i. This rule does not mean that a comma must alwa3rs be used
before quotation marks,

I have enjoyed reading " The Man Without a Country."

Note 2. Of course the comma is not used with an exclamation point
or an interrogation point.

" Follow me ! " he shouted.

" Are you coming ? " was all he said.

XVni. Commds separate from the rest of the sentence words
that come between the parts of a quotation.

"Come early," he said, "or not at all."

XIX. The. saltUcUion in a familiar letter may be followed
by the comma.

Dear John,

Come to-night if you possibly can.

EXERCISES

101. Be ready to explain the following expressions in section
36, and any others that require explanation: (i) obviously paren-
thetical; (2) apposition (see sects. 71, 3 and 72, 4); (3) phrase (see
sect. 10 j); (4) clause (see sects. 31 and 103); (5) dependent
clause (see sect. 103); (6) relative clause (see example in sect.
7S); (7) direct address (see sect. 71, 4); (8) case absolute (see
sect. 71, 5); (9) the same construction.

102. Point out two rules in section 36 that contain in them-
selves illustrations of their own use.

lOS. Accoimt for every comma in the following passage:

A college stands for learning, for culture, and for power ; in par-
ticidarj it stands for the recognition of an aim higher than money get-
ting. It is a place where our young men shall see visions ; where even
the idlest and lowest man of all must catch glimpses of ideals which,
if he could see them steadily, would transfigure life. The Bachelor
of Arts is seldom, on his Commencement Day, a scholar either polished
or profound ; but he may be, in the full sense of the word, a man.

6o THE SENTENCE AS A UNIT. — PUNCTUATION

104' Be prepared to punctuate from dictation the following:

Why should the democracy give its higher education, even so far
as the high school, to those who are not eager to earn their special
advantage, as every prize of life ought to be earned, by hard work,
fideUty, and worthy character ?

105, In copying the following sentences, insert commas wher-
ever they are useful:

1. Wild sorrel has an agreeable sour shivery flavor.

2. Do you remember in "The Compleat Angler" a remark which
Izaak Walton quotes from a certain "Doctor Boteler" about straw-
berries? "Doubtless" said that wise old man "God could have made
c better berry but doubtless God never did,"

3. I made a little journey into the Doone Country once just to see
that brook and to fish in it. The stream looked smaller and the water-
slide less terrible than they seemed in the book.

4. "Our first essay" says he "was along a moimtain brook among
the highlands of the Hudson. . . . Sometimes it would brawl and
fret along a ravine in the matted shade of a forest filling it with
murmurs ; and after this termagant career would steal forth into open
•day with the most placid demiure face imaginable ; as I have seen some
pestilent shrew of a housewife after filling her home with uproar and
ill-humor."

106, Write a theme on any subject you please. If you like,
you may tell what happened while you were waiting for some-
thing to begin — a game, concert, or lecture. Pay special atten-
tion to the uses of the comma.

107, In class, act as examiner of your own theme, answering
the questions in Exercise 100, and consider in addition the use of
the comma.

37. The Semicolon. Although the semicolon is not
much used by young writers, it is sometimes indispensable,
and we must therefore become familiar with its different
fimctions.

THE SEMICOLON 6l

XX. The semicolon separates short clauses which, though
grammatically independent, are so closely connected in mean-
ing that they naturally form a single sentence.

The Scot was fair-haired and blue-eyed; the Saracen was dark
in coloring.

Those whose backs were turned wheeled round ; all the others
raised their heads ; three waiters whirled about on their heels
like tops ; the two women at the desk gave a jump, then turned
completely roimd, like automata obedient to the same crank.

XXI. The semicolon separates two or more phrases or clauses
which depend on words at the beginning or end of a sentence.

All that I wish is, that he may cease to distress his mind
about other people's affairs ; that he may give up the fruitless
attempt to promote the good of his neighbors ; that he may re-
main quietly at home ; that he may long enjoy on his paternal
lands a green, an honorable, and a merry old age.

XXn. The semicolon is frequ^ently used to separate the
clauses of a compound sentence, when such clauses contain'
commas.

At high tide, and at high tide only, the sailing is delightful,
as there are a great many square miles of sheltered water to
cruise upon; but at low tide, except in three small channels,
there is no sailing.

EXERCISES

108. Copy the following sentences; insert semicolons wherever
they are needed, and point out their value.

1. He was courteous, not cringing, to superiors affable, not familiar,
to equals and kind, but not condescending or supercilious, to inferiors.

2. In taking revenge, a man is but even with his enemy but in
passing it over, he is superior.

3. Some said that Dolph Heyliger watched in the haunted house
with pistols loaded with silver bullets others, that he had a long talk
with a specter without a head others, that Doctor Kipperhausen and

62 THE SENTENCE AS A UNIT. — PUNCTUATION

the sexton had been hunted down the Bowery lane, and quite into
town, by a legion of ghosts of their customers.

4. To be honest, to be kind to earn a little and to spend less to make
upon the whole a family happier by his presence to renounce where
that shall be necessary, and not to be embittered to keep a few friends,
but these without capitulation above all, on the same grim conditions,
to keep friends with himself — here is a task for all that a man has
of fortitude and delicacy.

38. The Colon. XXIII. A series of words which explain
a clause shoidd be preceded by the colon.

Four boys deserve particular attention : John, James, Charles,
and Henry.

XXIV. The colon introdtcces a second clause which ex-
plains the first clause.

One thing I know : she is a lady.

I have thought over every phase of the question and can reach
but one conclusion : this corporation must not be killed.

Frequently the second clause is a direct quotation, intro-
duced formally.

These were his words : "Say what you may, I care not for the
consequences."

Note. The colon is used before a long quotation, but frequently the
comma is used before a short one. See rule xvii.

XXV. The colon introduces a series of clauses to explain
the first clause.

The battle of Actium was one of the most important in ancient
history: it saved European civilization from undue Oriental
influence ; it ended the long anarchy which followed the murder
of Caesar ; and it placed the destiny of the empire in the hands of
an able statesman.

The lesson for to-day is as follows : (i) we are to know the
uses of the colon ; (2) we are to write an incident ; (3) we are to

THE COLON 65

pick out and copy in the notebooks twenty-four of the best lines-
from "The Vision of Sir Launfal."

XXVI. The colon sometimes separates clauses which are
subdivided by semicolons.

A clause is either independent or dependent: independent,
if it forms an assertion by itself ; dependent, if it enters into some
other clause with the value of a part of speech.

XXVII. The colon should be used with the formal salutation
of a letter. (See also rule xdc.)

Mr. J. W. Brown, Dear Mr. Brown :

Boston, Mass.
Dear Sir :

EXERCISES

109. Copy the following sentences, completing the punctuation:

1. The contrast between the Greeks and the Orientals was at
its height at Thermopylae on the one side the Persian officers scourged
their men to battle on the other the Spartans voluntarily faced certain
death in obedience to law.

2. On the base of his statue his coimtrymen placed this epitaph
"Had your strength equaled your will Demosthenes the Macedonian
War God would never have conquered Greece."

3. They had one virtue under the whip they could whirl a sledge
over the snow farther and faster than a horse could trot in a day.

4. There are fines imposed for tardiness at rehearsals five doUars
for a period not exceeding fifteen minutes ten dollars for a longer one
and ten dollars for absence imless there is sufficient excuse.

110. Write in a single sentence what subjects you are studying
in school this year. Use the colon in this exercise. (See rule
xxin.)

111. Write in a single sentence, using the colon, the reason or
reasons why you came to this school.

112. Write in a single sentence, making use of the colon, the
reasons why a boy or a girl should not chew gum.

i54 THE SENTENCE AS A UNIT. — PUNCTUATION

113. Using any one of the sentences written for the last three
'Exercises as the first sentence of a paragraph, write all you have
to say about the subject.

m. Write a paragraph of not more than a hundred words on
your interests outside of school. Use a colon in the opening
sentence. (See rule xxv.)

115, Exchange papers and criticize: (i) form, (2) sentence
structure, (3) punctuation at the end of the sentence, (4) the use
of the colon. Keep in mind this question: Has the colon been
used correctly, or might it be used to advantage?

39. The Dash. The dash as a mark of punctuation
should be little used by beginners in composition writing.

XXVIII. The dash shoidd be used to show an interruption —
sometimes sudden and abrupt. It suspends the construction
in order to change it, or to give an unexpected turn to the
end of the sentence.

But there was no unusual sound — nothing but the low wash
of the ripple and the croaking of the crows in the wood.

Here are these beautiful fields — I will show you the way
through them.

XXIX. A dashy usually following a comma, often intra-
duces an explanation.

Uncas enjoyed his victory, but was content with merely exhibit-
ing his triiunph by a quiet smile, — an emblem of scorn which be-
longs to all time and to every nation.

XXX. Dashes set of a parenthetical expression which is
too closely connected with the rest of the sentence to be inclosed
in marks of parenthesis, and yet needs to be distinctly sepa-
rated from the rest of the sentence. Commas should precede
the dashes, if commas would be necessary provided the words
between the dashes were omitted.

PARENTHESES 6$

Thomas Hughes, too, is gone, — Tom Hughes would still seem
the more accustomed name, — one of the many men who illus-
trate the somewhat painful truth that the heights of philanthropy
and self-devotion do not yield so sure a fame as a spark of genius.

40. Parentheses. XXXI. Marks of parenthesis are used
to inclose expressions that do not form an essential part of
the sentence.

Know then this truth (enough for man to know),
"Virtue alone is happiness below."
Study the gerund construction (see p. 15).

41. Brackets. XXXII. Brackets inclose insertions whose
connection with the text is slight. They are seldom required
except in quoted matter, where, to make the author's mean-
ing clear, it is sometimes necessary to insert explanatory
words in brackets.

It [a great imiversity] is resorted to in most countries, notably
in our own country, alike by rich and poor, by the children of
the educated and the uneducated — in short, by the children of
families of all sorts and conditions.

EXERCISES

116, Write a theme on any subject you please. See whether
the dash is of service to you in any of your sentences.

117, Exchange papers and consider whether the dash has
been used correctly, or might be used to advantage.

42. The Apostrophe. XXXIII. The apostrophe marks the
omission of a letter or letters: as, His^ Pm, donH, man's. (For
the possessive case see sect. 73, page 121.)

XXXIV. The apostrophe marks the omission of figures in

dales.

The boys of '61.
The class of '09.

66 THE SENTENCE AS A UNIT. — PUNCTUATION

XXXV. The apostrophe someHmes marks the plural of
figures and letters.

Cross your /'s and dot your *'s.
His 7's look like his q's.

43. Quotation Marks. Quotation marks are of two kinds
— double (" ") and single C 0-

XXXVI. Double quotation marks inclose the exact words of a
speaker or writer.

We heard him say, "All is well."

XXXVII. Single quotation marks inclose a quotation
within a quotation.

This was his answer: "I agree with Falstaff that 'the better
part of valor is discretion.'"

"Being asked by a young nobleman what was become of the
gallantry and military spirit of the old Engli^ nobility, he
[Samuel Johnson] replied, 'Why, my Lord, I'U tell you what has
become of it : it is gone into the city to look for a fortune.*"

"One of the first aims of college life is increase of power: be
he scholar or athlete, the sound undergraduate learns to meet
difficulties; 'stumbling blocks,' in the words of an admirable
preacher, 'become stepping stones.'"

When paragraphs are quoted, the quotation marks are
placed at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end
of the last paragraph.

XXXVIII. The title of a book or paper may be quoted or
italicized, as the writer prefers. Some prefer " The House of
the Seven Gables " ; others, The House of the Seven
Gables.

XXXIX. Quotation marks are sometimes used to call
attention to special words.

The word " ain't " is never heard in good conversation.

THE HYPHEN 67

EXERCISES

118. Copy from dictation the three sentences quoted above
under xxxvn. Explain the brackets in the second sentence.

119. Write (i) a portion of a real or an imagined conversa-
tion at breakfast or dinner, or (2) a short conversation between
two girls about a skating party, or (3) a short conversation be-
tween two boys about a game of football. Begin a new para-
graph whenever the speaker changes.

120. Write your opinion of some book or of a portion of it,
introducing an interesting quotation from it.

121. Exchange papers, examine as in Exercise 115, and con-
sider in addition the \ise of quotation marks.

44. The H]rphen. The hyphen ( - ) is used to divide a
word at the end of a line. It separates syllables. A word
of one syllable is never split. We may write com-mittee or
commiUteey but not comm-ittee or committ-ee. The hyphen
comes at the end of the line, never at the beginning of a line.

The hyphen separates those parts of compoimd words
(a) which have not yet become single words: as, great-
grandfather y twenty-five; (b) in which it is convenient to
keep the prefix distinct from the rest of the word; as,
re-creationy pre-Shakespearean.

45. Asterisks and Leaders. Asterisks {* * *) or leaders
(. . .) iiidicate omissions.

1. She. . .began a song. . . . The hand failed on the strings,
the tune halted, checked, and at a low note turned off to the poor
little nursery rhjone about the wicked crow —

"And the wild plums grow in the jungle, only a penny a pound,
Only a penny a pound, baba — only ..."

2. Then came the tears ... till she slept.

Note. Leaders are used for omissions in the middle or at the end of
a paragraph. Asterisks are convenient for separating complete para-
graphs. See page 47.

68 THE SENTENCE AS A UNIT. — PUNCTUATION

EXERCISES

1S2. Write sentences illustrating two uses of each of the
punctuation marks.

123. Bring to the classroom several of your old themes. Ex-
change papers, and examine to see if punctuation marks have
been inserted correctly.

124. Take from your own writing or from your reading as
many illustrations of the uses of the comma as you can find be-
fore the next recitation.

125. Tell briefly but clearly what you need to keep in mind
about each of the marks of punctuation. What are the faults to
which your examiner has called particular attention?

126. Copy and punctuate the following passages :

1. Cultivate decision of character in everything the ability to
say yes or to say no and to do it on the spot the man who takes too
much time in deciding things fearing that he may decide wrong will
get ahead slowly if at aU.

2. What you been shoo tin Corlick asked his wife as she placed the
roast pork and potatoes on the table

Oh nothin of any account he replied with affected indifference
only Laban Wing^s bull

Why Corlick Evans she cried

3. So if a man's wit be wandering let him study the mathematics
for in demonstrations if his wit be called away never so little he must
begin again.

4. I asked him what he thought would become of them there and
if they had formed no design of making any escape he said they had
many consultations about it but that having neither vessel nor tools
to build one nor provisions of any kind their councils always ended in
tears and despair I asked him how he thought they would receive a
proposal from me which might tend towards an escape and whether
if they were all here it might not be done.

5. [Six paragraphs.] In despair I went to a great merchant on the
island and asked him to» employ me my dear young friend said he I

ASTERISKS AND LEADERS 69

understand that you have some singular secret some charm or spell
or amulet or something I don't know what of which people are afraid
now you know my dear said the merchant swelling up and apparently
prouder of his great stomach than of his large fortune I am not of that
kind I ami not easily frightened you may spare yourself the pain of
trying to impose upon me people who propose to come to time before
I arrive are accustomed to arise very early in the morning said he
thrusting his thumbs in the armholes of his waistcoat and spreading the
£ngers like two fans upon his bosom I think I have heard something
of your secret you have a pair of spectacles I believe that you value very
much because your grandmother brought them as a marriage portion
to your grandfather now if you think fit to sell me those spectacles
I wiU pay you the largest market price for them what do you say I told
him I had not the sHghtest idea of selling my spectacles my young
friend means to eat them I suppose said he with a contemptuous smile
I made no reply but was turning to leave the office when the merchant
called after me my young friend poor people should never suffer them-
selves to get into pets anger is an expensive luxury in which only men
of a certain income can indulge a pair of spectacles and a hot temper
are not the most promising capital for success in life Master Tit-
bottom.

6. Two minutes had scarcely elapsed when the whole forest before
me was in fearful motion here and there where one tree pressed against
another a creaking noise was produced similar to that occasioned by
the violent gusts that sometimes sweep over the country turning in-
stinctively toward the direction from which the wind blew I saw to
my great astonishment that the noblest trees of the forest bent their
lofty heads for a while and unable to stand against the blast were fall-
ing to pieces first the branches were broken off with a crackling noise
then went the upper part of the massy trunks and in many places
whole trees of gigantic size were faUing entire to the ground so rapid
was the progress of the storm that before I could think of taking meas-
ures to insure my safety the hurricane was passing opposite the place
where I stood never can I forget the scene which at that moment pre-
sented itself the tops of the trees were seen moving in the strangest
manner in the central current of the tempest which carried along with

70 THE SENTENCE AS A UNIT. — PUNCTUATION

it a mingled mass of twigs and foliage that completely obscured the
view some of the largest trees were seen bending and writhing under the
gale others suddenly snapped across and many after a momentary re-
sistance fell uprooted to the earth the mass of branches twigs foliage
and dust that moved through the air was whirled onward like a cloud
of feathers and on passing disclosed a wide space filled with fallen trees
naked stumps and heaps of shapeless ruins which marked the path of
the tempest this space was about a fourth of a mile in breadth and to
my imagination resembled the dried-up bed of the Mississippi the
horrible noise resembled that of the great cataracts of Niagara and as
it howled along in the track of the desolating tempest produced a feel-
ing in my mind that it is impossible to describe

7. While the war continued without any decisive success on either
side a calamity happened in London which threw the people into great
consternation fire breaking out in a baker's house near the bridge
spread itself on all sides with such rapidity that no efforts could extin-
guish it till it laid in ashes a considerable part of the city the inhabit-
ants without being able to provide effectually for their relief were re-
duced to be spectators of their own ruin and were pursued from street
to street by the flames which unexpectedly gathered round them three
days and nights did the fire advance and it was only by blowing up
houses that it was at last extinguished the king and the duke used their
utmost endeavors to stop the progress of the flames but all their in-
dustry was unsuccessful about four hundred streets and thirteen thou-
sand houses were reduced to ashes the causes of the calamity were
evident the narrow streets of London the houses built entirely of wood
the dry season and a violent east wind which blew these were so many
concurring circimistances which rendered it easy to assign the reason
of the destruction that ensued but the people were not satisfied with
this obvious account.

127. Be prepared to write from dictation the following con-
versation, inserting the necessary quotation marks. Make a
new paragraph each time the speaker changes :

Tell me do you think there is such a thing as a horse's function I
do Would you then describe the function of a horse or of anything else

ASTERISKS AND LEADERS 71

whatever as that work for the accomplishment of which it is either the
sole or the best instrument I do not understand Look at it this way
Can you see with anything besides eyes Certainly not Can you hear
with anything besides ears No Then should we not justly say that see-
ing and hearing are the functions of these organs Yes certainly Again
you might cut off a vine shoot with a carving knife or chisel or many
other tools Undoubtedly But with no tool I imagine so well as with the
pruning knife made for the purpose True Then shall we not define
pruning to be the function of the pruning knife By all means Now then
I think you will better understand what I wished to learn from you
just now when I asked whether the function of a thing is not that
work for the accomplishment of which it is either the sole or the best
instrument I do understand and I believe that this is in every case the
function of a thing

128, Write a letter to your teacher, explaining why you stood
well in a certain study during the last term.

129. Write an entertaining letter of considerable length to a
real, or imaginary, sick friend, with the purpose of amusing
and cheering the invalid.

CHAPTER Vn

SPELLING : WORD FORMATION AND CAPITALIZATION

46. Ways of learning to spell. It is probably true that
many persons remember a word as they remember a face.
For them the ideal way to learn to spell is to look carefully
at the words as they read. But some of us do not master
spelling in that way. There are scores of words that we
see day after day and yet misspell. In many instances we
must make a special effort in order to spell accurately.

If one who has imusual difficulty with spelling will keep
a list of the words that puzzle him, and review this list
from day to day, he will find himself making steady improve-
ment. One who masters five words a day for a year will
be able to spell a snug little vocabulary at the end of that
time. Fifteen hundred everyday words make a tolerably
comfortable outfit for a poor speller.

Sometimes the mere writing of a word will determine the
spelling. The moment we write receive we know that it is
correct. But if we are likely to have further trouble with
that word, suppose we write it thus, to call special attention
to the letters that puzzle :

recEIve.

This method may help us remember such words as beliEve,
decEive, siEge, sEize, villAm, villAge, grammAr, superintend-
Ent, and many another. Or, if we prefer, we may under-

RULES FOR SPELLING 73

score such letters, thus: receive, believe, siege, grammar,
villain ; or recdve, beheve, siege, etc. With or without in-
creasing the size of the doubtful letters, it will be an aid in
mastering the spelling of any word to write it out plainly-
several times.

The spelling aloud of words which are troublesome will
often be helpfxil in fixing them in mind. One person can
remember best what he sees, another what he hears. If
the plan of writing repeatedly the words which we mis-
si>ell is not sufficient to correct our common faults, we
should practice spelling them aloud. Always welcome a
spelling match, even if you are not often at the head of the
line. The more difficulty you have in staying there, the
more eager you should be to take advantage of all kinds
of help.

EXERCISE

130. Explain, using illustrations, how you would teach your-
self permanently the correct spelling of some word that you have
habitually misspelled. The following may suggest ideas for
your talk:

1. Looking carefully at a word.

2. Writing a word several times.

3. Spelling certain words aloud.

4. Using a troublesome word frequently.

47. Rules for Spelling. Many persons find rules useful.
Por them the following are included :

I. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, which
end in a single consonant following a single vowel, double the final
consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel : as, begy beggar;
regret, regretted.

Note. In the derivative, if the accent falls on a different syllable, the
rule does not apply : as, refir, riference.

74 SPELLING : WORD FORMATION, CAPITALIZATION

2. Final y following a consonant changes tx> i before a snfi&x : as,
Jmsy^ business; library y libraries; spy, spies.

Exceptions: i. Before ing and ish the y is kept to avoid
doubUng the i : as, carry, carrying; baby, babyish,

2, yis not changed in derivatives of wry, sky, sky, sly, spry.

. Note. Words ending in y following a vowel are regular, except lay,
laid; pay, paid; say, said; stay, stayed or staid.

3. Words ending in an unaccented e drop the e before a suffix begin-
ning with a vowel : as, farce, forcible; invite, invited; desire, desirable.

Exceptions : i. Hoeing, mileage, shoeing, toeing.

2. Dyeing, singeing, and tingeing keep the e to distinguish
these words from dying, singing, and tinging.

3. Words ending in ce and ge keep the e before able and ous^
in order to retain the soft sound of c and g : as, courage, cour-
ageous; peace, peaceable.

4. Words ending in ie drop the e and change the ^ to ;y before
adding ing (to avoid doubling the i) : as, die, dying; lie, lying, '^
tie, tying.

4. In words in which the diphthongs ei and ie are pronounced e,,
as in Ae, c is followed by ei, all other letters hy ie: as, ceiling, receive,,
piece, siege, niece. Seize, leisure, and weird are exceptions.

EXERCISE

131. State the rule for spelling which, on the whole, you con-
sider best worth remembering, and illustrate its use by three
examples.

48. The Formation of Plurals. The plural of most nouns
is formed by adding s to the singular. When, however, the
soimd of 5 makes an extra syllable, es is added : as, lunch,,
lunches.

Exceptions: i. Nouns ending in y following a consonant
change y to i and add es : as, ally, allies; cry, cries.

2. Nouns ending in following a consonant generally add es :
as, potato, potatoes; but the ^ alone is added to piano, solo, halo,.
and some others.

SYLLABICATION 75

Note. These rules apply to the formation of the third person singu-
lar of the present indicative active of the verb : as, read, reads; husk, hushes;
carry, carries; veto, vetoes.

3. There is no rule for the formation of such irregular plurals
as teeth, mice, oxen, men, women, children, deer.

4. Certain nouns ending in f or fe — beef, calf, elf, half, knife,
leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, wife, wolf — form the plural by
changing/ or /e into ves : as, calves, knives, loaves, etc.

EXERCISE

13^. Make a list of the irregular plurals that you are likely to
use. (See also sect. 69, page 117.)

49. Syllabication. It is difficult to give definite rules
for syllabication, but it seems wise to offer certain sugges-
tions and to point out a few possible errors.

1. The division of a word into syllables may be determined to
some extent by its etjonology ; for example, prefixes and suffixes
form natural separate syllables : as, ex-tol, lov-ing. The root of the
word should be divided into such combinations of consonants and
vowels as are easily and naturally pronounced together : as, gon-
do'la, not go-ndol-a.

2. When there is a doubled consonant, the division usually comes
between the two letters : as, drop-ping, rub-bing.

3. A word of one syllable should never be divided.

4. A syllable of one letter should never be separated from the rest
of the word : as, a-way. If there is not room for the whole word at
tlie end of a line, the word should be written on the next line.

5. Final le in words like sample, little, and trifle should be joined
with the preceding consonant to form the last syllable : as, fid-die,
mid-die, etc.

EXERCISES

13S, Give the five suggestions for syllabication and be prepared
to illustrate their use at the board. Arrange what you say in
two parts: (i) how to divide words ; (2) how not to divide words.

76 SPELLING : WORD FORMATION, CAPITALIZATION

134' Write the following words, inserting hyphens between
syllables. Be prepared to explain your division into syllables.

running

joined

singer

alike

insight

feeling

around

written

stifle

study

kindly

flighty

135. Separate each of the following words into syllables. If
necessary, consult a dictionary.

infinite

ineffectual

to-morrow

secondary

postponement

gentleman

dancing

monstrosity

peculiar

daughter

trembling

precious

50. Prefixes and Sufllxes. At best the spelling of an
English vocabulary is a diflScult task. Many words we
must learn to spell by " main strength." So many of our
terms, however, are made up of simple parts that if we
know something about these parts, we shall spell more
accurately and misuse words less frequently. In studying
the make-up of words it will be helpful to remember that the
root of a word is its simplest form. To this simple form
a prefix (something placed before) or a sufl&x (something
placed after), or both, may be added. Thus rewritten is
made up of the three parts — root, prefix, sufl&x. Write is
the root; re, the prefix; and {t)en, the suflBx. It should
be noted that the prefix modifies the meaning, and the
suffix often determines the part of speech.

EXERCISES

136, The following words are divided to show prefixes and
suffixes. Explain the difference in meaning between the simple
forms and the lengthened ones.

PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES 77

Prefixes

un-just
un-do

mis-calculate
in-active

il-legal
im-patient
ir-regular
dis-satisfied

sub-marine
trans-Atlantic
re- turn
out-run

fore-tell
ante-room
pro-noun
ad-join

Suffixes

employ-er

need-ful

machin-ist

dvil-ize

employ-ee

employ-ment

circul-ar

need-y

need-less

like-ness

machin-ery
danger-ous
final-ly

dvil-ian
dvil-ity
pU-able

137. Make a list of other words having prefixes and suflSxes
like the above.

138. Copy the following words, and by using as many different
prefixes as possible with the same roots, add to the list. The
root is set off from the prefix by a hyphen.

at-tract re-flect bi-sect sus-tain pro-ceed

im-pel sup-press in-scribe im-port pro-claim

139. Copy the following words, and by using as many different
sufiixes as possible with the same roots, add to the list. The root
is separated from the sufi^ by a hyphen.

art-ist

coward

just-ify

toler-ate

reason

connect-ing

fool-ish

compar-ing

aud-ible

140. Make a list of words illustrating all suflSxes used in con-
jugating verbs and in declining noims and adjectives.

141. The following group of words shows how much can
sometimes be done with one root by the help of prefixes and
sufiixes:

active coimteract actively enact

inactivity reSnact activity enactment

78 SPELLING: WORD FORMATION, CAPITALIZATION

Similarly, see how many forms can be made from the roots
of credity operate^ right, equal, part, dentist. Use the dictionary.

14^, The following words suggest some of the contrasts in
meaning made by the use of prefixes: forenoon, afternoon;
export, import; inlet, outlet; except, accept. Mention others.

GENERAL EXERCISES

143. Make a list of all the words you have misspelled during
the last month.

In preparing the list, look up in the dictionary every word
about the spelling of which you have any doubt. Each pupil
should add to this list the correct form of every word he misspells
during the year.

144' Write out carefully ten times every one of the words
which you have misspelled ; write twenty times every word you
have misspelled more than once.

145. (i) Look over all the writing you do before the next
recitation, — whether it be a letter written at home or a school
exercise in history, — to see whether your work includes any words
which you do not know how to spell. Look up all such words
and bring a list of them to the English recitation.

(2) Make a list of several conmion words used in connection
with each of your studies.

146. Be prepared to spell, orally or in writing, any word in
the first chapter of this book.

147. Write sentences containing the following words.

If you wish to exercise your ingenuity, perhaps you can com-
bine the sentences of either I or II in a connected paragraph.

I II

jdeld

view

deceive

planning

siege

grieve

receive

descent

besiege

friend

perceive

referred

believe

fiend

respectively

occurred

PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES

relieve

precede

tiU

proceed

until

seize

I II

respectfully accelerate
describe accede

beginning exceed

148, Be sure that you can spell all the words in the following
lists, and use as many of them as you can conveniently in writing
a theme on a subject suggested by one or more of them.

TIT

benefit

judgment

prophecy

chief

knight

prophesy

custom

night

rhythm

decision

led

sentence *

diflferent

literary

separate

disappear

loose

shepherd

disappoint

lose

surprise

exaggerate

noticeable

their

finally

possess

there

forfeit

prejudice

goddess

principal

too

grammar

principle

village

independent

privilege

villain

infinite

profession

writer

intellectual

promise

writing

Holmes

Tennyson

Carlyle

Coleridge

Lowell

Wordsworth

George Eliot

Burke

De Quincey

Irving

Jane Austen

Cooper

Gk)ldsmith

Macaulay

Spenser

Shakespeare

Samuel Johnson

Chaucer

Addison

Hawthorne

Shelley

Steele

Burns

Thackeray

149. Write the names of all the characters

in the book you are

now reading in class.

150. Spelling Match

. Be prepared to spell any word in this

chapter up to this point. Include the list

prepared under the

preceding exercise.

8o SPELLING : WORD FORMATION, CAPITALIZATION

51. Spelling and the Use of the Dictionaiy. In fixing
the spelling of any word, one must be sure of the pronun-
ciation and the meaning. The list given below may be
used in a variety of ways (see, for ejcample, pp. 78, 79) ;
but it is suggested that it be studied in groups of ten words,
and that the pupil be required to look up in the dictionary
matters likely to prove of special service to him. A few
of these are indicated ; under the guidance of the teacher,
he may learn to note others for himself.

Before doing this work the pupil must be familiar with
the content of paragraph i on pages 239 and 240.

Group I. i. Accommodate (ad -}- cammodaref "to fit," "to

help ").

2. Accmnulate (ad + cutnulare, "to heap").

3. Achieve (a + chieve).

4. Acknowledgment (ac-knawl-edg-ment).

5. Advantageous (ad-van-ta-geous),

6. All right (contrast with almost and already).

7. Aggravate (ad + gravare, "to make heavy").

8. Arrange.

9. Among.

10. Athletics (aih4et'ics)^

Group n. Derivation and accentuation of 11, 14, 15.

Group m. Derivation of 21, 24, 28, 30; syllabication of 30.

Group IV. Derivation of 31-36; syllabication of 31, 37.

Group V. Derivation of 41, 43, 46-48 ; syllabication of 41, 46, 47,
49. (For 42 see sect 47, rule i.)

Group VI. Derivation of 56, 58 ; syllabication of 55 ; accentua-
tion of 59.

Group VII. Derivation of 65, 67-69 ; syllabication of 66 ; pre-
ferred spelling of 62, 63, 65. (For 61 see sect 75.)

Group VIII. Derivation of 71,72, 74-76 ; syllabication of 76,
77. (For 80 see 61.)

Group IX. Syllabication of 81, 85-89, 90 ; accentuation of 85,

THE USE OF THE DICTIONARY

Group X. Derivation of 92-94, 97-99. (For 100 see 61.)

Group XI. Derivation of loi ; syllabication of 104, 105. (For
108 see sect. 47, rule 3, exception 3.)

Group XII. Derivation of 117, 118; accentuation of 115, 116.
(For 116 see sect. 47, rule i.)

Group XIII. Derivation of 121, 122, 126, 130; another spelling
of 129.

Group XIV. Derivation and

syllabication of 135, 136. (Fori33

see sect. 47, rule 3, exception 3.)

Group XV. Derivation of 146; syllabication of 148. (For 143

see 61 and contrast 149 with

19.)

I. I. accommodate

29.

development

2. accumulate

30.

dilapidated

3. achieve

IV.

31.

dissatisfaction

4. acknowledgment

32.

divisible

5. advantageous

33-

dormitory

6. all right

34.

eccentric

7. aggravate

35.

eighth

8. arrange

36.

eligible

9. among

37.

embarra-ssment

10. athletics

38.

emigrate

TT. II. auxiliary

39.

enthusiasm

12. balance

40.

envelope

13. battalion

41.

equally

14. benefited

42.

equipped

15. business

43.

etc. (et cetera)

16. calendar

44-

exceed

•

17. ceiling

45.

excel

18. changeable

46.

excellence

19. column

47.

extraordinary

20. committee

48.

fascinate

m. 21. competitive

49.

February

22. conceit

50.

field

23. confectionery

VI.

51.

forcible

24. consistent

52.

foreign

25. council

53.

forty

26. counterfeit

54.

gayly

27. defendant

55.

grandeur

28. despair

56.

grievance

82 SPELLING : WORD FORMATION, CAPITALIZATION

57.

grievous

97. obliging

58.

handkerchief

98. occasion

59.

harass

99. o'clock

60.

height

100. one's

VU. 61.

hers XI. :

[oi. opportunity

62.

honorable

[02. original

63.

honorary

103. ours

64.

huge

104. parallel

65.

humorous

[05. parliament

66.

hygiene

[06. partner

67.

illegible

[07. passable

68.

imagine :

[08. peaceable

69.

immovable

[09. penitentiary

70.

improbable XII. :

no. persuade

VIIL 71.

indispensable

III. perseverance

72.

inseparable

[12. phenomenon

73.

insistence

113. piece

74.

intelligible :

[1 4. plaintiff

75.

interrogation ]

[1 5. preferable

76.

irrelevant ]

[16. preferred

77.

irresistible ]

[1 7. prejudice

78.

irrigate ]

[18. preparation

79.

isthmus ]

[1 9. professor

80.

its ]

[2o. proficient

IX. 81.

laboratory XIll. 1

21. promissory

82.

legible ]

[22. pronunciatioi

83.

leisure :

[23. pursue

84.

luscious ]

[24. really

85.

maintenance ]

[25. receipt

86.

manufacture i

[26. jecommend

87.

maritime ]

[27. relief

88.

mercenary ]

[28. reservoir

89.

miniature ]

[29. rhyme

90.

miscellaneous i

[30. salary

X. 91.

mischief XIV. ]

[31. scythe

92.

mountainous ]

[32. secede

93-

necessary i

[33. serviceable

94.

neither ]

[34. shield

95.

niece :

[35. similar

96.

ninetieth ]

[36. sophomore

CAPITALIZATION 83

137. souvenir 144. totally

138. sovereign 145. truly

139. stationary 146. twelfth

140. stationery 147. vengeance
XV. 141. succeed 148. vocabulary

142. thief 149. volume

143. theirs 150. whether

EXERCISE

151. Spelling Match, Be prepared to spell by syllables any
word in the foregoing list.

52. The Use of Capitals. In connection with spelling
we must pay careful attention to the use of capitals.
Capitalization is a great help to us in giving prominence to
words and in making our meaning clear. The following
rules are the most important:

I. Capitalize the pronoun I and the interjection 0.

n. Begin with a capital every independent sentence, eoery
line of poetry, and every direct quotation formally introduced.

III. Capitalize the names oj Deity, such as God, the Father,
the Almighty,

TV, Capitalize the names of the months, the days of the
week, and any word which is used to give special significance
to a particular thing,

Denver, the Missouri River, Mount Washington, the Melrose
High School, the National Biscuit Company, Patriot's Day, the
• Declaration of Independence, the Reformation, the Renaissance,
the American Revolution, the Ware Grammar School.

Note. We must include adjectives formed from proper names, such
as English and German^ unless the adjectives are used merely to express a
quality, as in the case of siokal and quixotic,

V. Capitalize nouns and adjectives in titles of newspapers,
essays, and books.

84 SPELUXG : WORD FORMATION, CAPITALIZATION
The Rime of the Andent Manner/' '^ Youog Ftople and Old

xuc

VI. Capitalize tUUs of honor or office^ when used with
the name of a particular person.

The Presklent of the United States, Governor Bradford,
Mayor Biown, Captain James.

Vn. Capitalize personified termSy if by so doing you will
make the meaning clearer.

Haste thee, N3anph, and bring with thee
Jest, and youthful Jollity,
Quips and Cranks and wanton WOes,
Nods and Becks and wreathed Smiles,
Such as hang on Hebe's cheek.
And love to live in dimple sleek ;
Sport that wrinkled Care derides,
And Laughter holding both his sides.

EXERCISES

152. Write a sentence in which you name every month in the
year, all the days of the week, and the seasons. (Remember
that the names of the seasons do not begin with capitals.)

15S, Write a sentence in which you mention all the schools
you have ever attended.

154. Give in class a complex sentence in which you mention
an advanced school that you think you may like to enter in the
future, and a firm for whom you may wish to work.

166, Explain the use of the capitals in these sentences:

The North and the South are trying to understand each other.
When I lived in the West, I had a study that faced the west.

166, Copy from some section of this book (i) four lines of
poetry, and (2) four direct quotations, at least two of which
are introduced formally.

CAPITALIZATION 85

157. Write a sentence in which you mention all your stud-
ies. (Why should algebra begin with a small letter and English
with a capital?)

158. Make a list of five proper adjectives.

159. Write the titles "mayor," "king," "president," and
"governor," in connection with names of persons.

160. Write a letter to a publishing house, asking to have sent
you the prices of four books, which you may wish to purchase.
(Consult Chap. VIII and follow the directions given there for
the arrangement and form of your letter.)

161. (i) In a paragraph give your opinion of a newspaper with
which you are familiar.

(2) In a short talk give your opinion of the magazine which you
know best.

162. Spelling Match. Be prepared to spell any word in this
chapter.

CHAPTER Vm
LETTER WRITING

We naturally wish to become skillful in the kind of
writing that has a practical value. A matter of such
general interest and great importance that every one
should be impatient to master it, is letter writing.

It is a form of recreation for some persons, after a hard
day's work, to write a letter to a friend. It appeals to
them as an investment, for it promises an entertaining reply.
Now this corresponding is a recreation in so far as we write
without restraint. If a friend is interested in whatever
interests us, we let our pen run freely ; we give expression
to what is uppermost in our minds. If some of the attempts
to make our meaning clear are bungling, we know he will
try to imderstand us. At the same time, the finer the friend-
ship the more it prizes courtesy, and we must not expect
any one to solve puzzles that are due to our indifference or
laziness. From our own point of view, too, we cannot
afford, even in the most familiar letters, to lapse into uncouth,
slovenly ways, any more than in conversation we can afford
to descend to vulgar expressions.

53. Letter Writing as a Form of Training. It is only
to the two or three friends with whom we " think aloud,"
that we write with perfect freedom. Most of our corre-
spondence must be limited ; and the limitations make it,
as a form of training, most valuable. We generally have a

TRAINING THROUGH LETTER WRITING 87

definite object in writing — a particular errand to put on
paper. There is one thing which a business man wishes
us to tell him ; he cannot stop to read anything else. Our
writing must have imity ai^d brevity. Our success, there-
fore, often depends largely on our ability to understand the
wishes of the person whom we are addressing.

At another time we have a favor to ask. Again we study
our man. He may be easy to antagonize. We must
at any rate expect him to be busy; we have no right to
waste his time. Hence the need of making him understand
us readily and fidly — of expressing ourselves so clearly
that he may not misunderstand us.

There is an advantage in having to interest only one man.
Our problem seems much more specific when we have a
definite explanation to make to a definite reader. We can
easily see, however, that when we have learned to satisfy one
man, we have learned to satisfy many others. Whereas a
talk to nobody in particular may interest nobody, a speaker
who talks to one man in his audience may give most of his
audience the impression that he is talking to each one of
them. It was said of the late Dr. Babcock, pastor of the
famous old Brick Church in New York, that " there is the
feeling during his preaching that Dr. Babcock has you
individually by the arm and is talking to you earnestly,
quietly, and impressively."

54. The Paper. With the munerous kinds and sizes of
paper at our disposal in these days, we have no excuse
for not choosing paper suited to our various needs. White
unruled paper is always in good taste for all forms of
correspondence. Four-page paper looks better for letters
of friendship than the two-page form used in business.

LETTER WRITING

Naturally we should try to adapt the size to the length of
communication, with a view to making the letter pleasing in
appearance and easy to read. Little thought is necessary
to decide whether to use ordinary business paper, some eight
inches by ten in size, or note paper, for inviting a friend to
lunch.

Business correspondence should be written on one side
of the paper only.

55. The Beginning of a Letter. In beginning a letter
we should consider (i) the heading, (2) the address, and
(3) the salutation. Study the following illustrations:

I. 36 Allen Street,

Cambridge, Mass.,

May I, 191 1.
Messrs. Horn & Company,

52 Bond Street, Portland, Me.
Dear Sirs :

II.

Miss Olivia E. Long,

Stratham, N.H.
Dear Madam :

10 Bond Street,

Nashua, N.H.,

February 5, 191 2.

III.

Mrs. James E. Williams,

Pinehurst, N.C.
Dear Madam :

Center Lovell,

Oxford Co., Me.,

March 6, 1910.

The Heading, As these illustrations show, the heading
includes the writer's address and the date. None of the
details given above should ever be omitted imless the

THE BEGINNING OF A LETTER 89

writer is sure they are so well known as to be unnecessary.
In illustration III, in the case of the village of Center
Lovell, the name of the county is useful.

The heading is usually placed an inch or more from the
top of the page and near the right-hand corner. The
first line should begin far enough to the left to allow each
succeeding line to be indented a little.

Such words as street and avenue and the names of the
months may be abbreviated, but the year should always be
written in full, as 1906, not '06.

The Address. In business letters the address of the per-
son to whom the correspondence is sent shoidd begin on
the line below the date, and near the left edge of the paper.
As in the heading, the second line should be indented a little
imder the first line. Sometimes the address is placed at the
dose of the letter, but it is more convenient to have it pre-
cede the letter. Naturally, many informal letters do not
require the address.

The Salutation. Just below the address, when there is
one, comes the salutation. If there is no address, the salu-
tation takes its place. A writer should choose a form of
salutation in harmony with the relations existing between
him and his correspondent. He should make his choice
with care. The following salutations are used in formal
business letters:

Dear Sir : or My dear Sir ;

Dear Madam : or My dear Madam (applies to a married or
to an immarried woman) :
Dear Sirs : or Gentlemen :

Note. Too formal for common use, but suitable for persons of note,
— for example, oflScials in high position, — are Sir: and Madam:

LETTER WRITING

In informal letters we write :

Dear Mr. Browne : or My dear Mr. Browne :
Dear Miss Davis : or My dear Miss Davis :

or, with more informality, we use the comma instead of the
colon :

Dear Mr. Browne, cf My dear Mr. Browne,
Dear Miss Davis, or My dear Miss Davis,

or, most informally.

Dear Father, My dear Cousin,

Dear Fred, My dear Brother,

Dear Alice, My dear Annie,

Although the pimctuation of the salutation varies a good
deal, it is a safe rule to use the comma as the informal, and
the colon as the formal, mark of punctuation.

56. The Body of the Letter. The main part of the letter,
or the body, should begin on the line below the salutation.
The following arrangement is a good one :

Bucksport, Maine,

July IS, 1904.
Messrs. Thomas Y. Crowell & Co.,
46 East 14th St.,

New York City.

Dear Sirs:

Kindly mail me a copy of "Self-Cultivation in English,"
by Professor George H. Palmer. I inclose thirty-five cents in stamps.

Very truly yours,

Wendell R. Barrow.

K it is true that " there is nothing in which the character
of the superior man or woman expresses itself more than in
letter writing," we should be at our best when we write
letters. We should remember that we can never tell who

THE BODY OF A LETTER 91

may read our letters, or how long they may be preserved.
Apologies in letters are tedious if not exasperating. These
we may avoid in two ways : by replying to letters promptly,
and by making our replies as good as we possibly can. A
business letter should be answered at once. If we feel hur-
ried, let us save time by using few words, not by writing
rapidly. A letter should be easily legible. An attractive
manuscript is a good beginning of the courtesy that is indis-
p)ensable in correspondence.

A letter, like a talk, may be one composition or it may
consist of several compositions. If it deals with one sub-
ject only, it should, like any other composition, have an
orderly arrangement of thought and grow in interest to the
end. If, like most conversations, it consists of several com-
positions, the writer should attend to each of them in turn ;
it is also desirable that such a letter should grow in interest.
In all letters there is need of careful paragraphing.

Every letter, too, should have an appropriate beginning
and an appropriate ending. The writer who thinks for him-
self does not need to begin a letter exactly as some one else
has begun one ; and the writer who wishes to do finished
work will not stop awkwardly or abruptly with the announce-
ment that "the dinner bell has rung.'' Such writers will
avoid these expressions :

I. I take my pen in hand to inform you. 2. I thought I
would drop you a line. 3. It is late, so I must close. 4. Yours
received and in reply will say.

57. The Conclusion of a Letter. In the conclusion of a
letter there are the complimentary dose and the signa-
ture.

The complimentary close, like the salutation, should be in

92 LETTER WRITING

harmony with the relations existing between the writer
and his correspondent.
The most common business forms are :

Yours truly, or Truly yours,

Yours very truly, or Very truly yours.

A form especially appropriate in addressing an honorable
body, or a person older than the writer, though used also
as a regular business form, is :

Yours respectfully, or Respectfully yours.

Specimens of forms which serve as appropriate endings
for letters of friendship, and sometimes for letters of busi-
ness, are :

Sincerely yours, Faithfully yours, Cordially yours. Fraternally
yours, or Yours sincerely. Yours faithfully, etc.

As the letter in section 56 shows, the place for the com-
plimentary close is on the line below the last words of the
body of the letter. It should be noted, too, that in the
forms given above, the first word only begins with a capital,
and the last word is followed by a comma.

The signature goes on the line below the complimentary
close, and a little to the right. It should give the reader aU
the information he needs for making a suitable reply. As a
rule it is well to write the first name in fxill. A stranger
may be puzzled to know whether /. D. Brown is a man or a
woman ; whereas he could tell at a glance if it were Jennie
D. Brown or John D, Brown. In writing to a stranger, a
woman should sign her name in one of the following ways :

THE FOLDING OF A LETTER

1. Emma L. Brown 3. S. E. Lathrop

(Mrs. James A. Brown) (Miss Sarah E. Lathrop,

2. (Miss) Sarah E. Lathrop Macon, Ga.)

4. (Mrs.) Mary W. Bliss

EXERCISES

16S. Write a subscription for The Youth's Companion.
Exchange papers and, as examiner, give especial attention to
the arrangement of the letter.

164» Give headings, salutations,and conclusions that you might
use in writing to (i) a teacher; (2) a physician; (3) an intimate
friend; (4) the city council; (5) the chairman of the board of
selectmen; (6) the mayor; (7) the superintendent of schools;
(8) a member of your family; (9) an unmarried woman whom
you have not met; (10) an unmarried woman whom you know
slightly; (n) a man much older than yourself; (12) the
secretary of the State Board of Education.

Note. In addressing important officials like the mayor or the gov-
ernor, there is no prescribed form of salutation. It is only necessary
to show due respect and formality. For example, one way of address-
ing a mayor is :

Honorable William A. Bent,

Mayor of San Francisco.
Sir:

58. The Folding of a Letter. A letter should be folded
with the first page inside.

If the paper is of the ordinary business-letter size, fold
it first from the bottom nearly to the top. Then make a
fold from right to left a little narrower than the width of the
envelope, and finally make a third fold from left to right.
The letter is now ready to go into the envelope.

LETTER WRITING

EXERCISES

165. Answer for Messrs. T. Y. Crowell & Co., the letter from
Mr. Barrow (p. 90). Fold your letter.

166. In class, criticize in writing the letter you have written,
using these headings: (i) the appearance of the letter, including
the kind of paper used and the size; (2) the beginning, including
the heading, the address, and the salutation; (3) the body —
whether it is a complete answer to the request; (4) the conclusion,
including the complimentary close and the signature; (5) the
folding.

59. The Direction of the Envelope. It is customary to
arrange the name and address of the person to whom the
letter is written in three or four lines. The name is written
across the middle of the envelope, and so placed as to leave
about the same amoimt of space on each side. If the en-
velope is long, there should be more space on the left of the
name than oh the right. As in the case of the heading, each
line begins a little to the right of the one above it.

Note carefully the content, the arrangement, and the
punctuation of the following envelope addresses :

I. Mr. WilHam H. Roberts

10 Perry Street

Toledo, Ohio
11. Dr. Samuel West

Farmville

North Carolina
Care of Mr. T. H. Taf t

III. Messrs. R. H. Brown & Co.

512 Bonding St.

New York City

The punctuation marks are of no value unless they mark
abbreviations or separate words. Does not their omission

THE DIRECTION OF THE ENVELOPE 95

add to the attractiveness of the envelope? The following
suggestions should be given careful consideration :

1. Either Mr,, which precedes the name, or Esq,, which
follows the name, is used in addressing men. These
abbreviations (from Mister and Esquire) are titles of respect
only. Some reserve Esq. for lawyers, for whom it is al-
ways appropriate; some, for men who have achieved dis-
tinction. Others use it freely instead of Mr. Both titles
should never be used with the same name.

2. It is not in good taste to use the husband's title in
addressing the wife, as Mrs. Dr. Davis.

3. Address the principal of a school as Walter A. Davis,
Esq., Principal of the Central High School. In addressing
a professor, write Professor William H. White. Prin. and
Prof, are imattractive abbreviations.

4. Instead of Reverend Dr. John B. Luce, write The
Reverend John B. Luce, D.D.

5. Honorable is a title given to persons " who hold or
have held any considerable office under the national or
State government, particularly to members and ex-members
of Congress and of State legislatures, to judges, justices,
and some other judicial officers, as well as to certain execu-
tive officers," ^ — as mayors.

EXERCISE

167. On slips of paper cut three and one half inches by six,
four by nine, or four by five, write suitable envelope addresses
to the following persons and firms. Choose in each instance the
size which you consider the most appropriate.

^ The Century Dictionary.

96 LETTER WRITING

1. One of your teachers. 2. A well-known business house in your
town. 3. The wife of a physician, whose box niunber is 1526. 4. A
doctor of divinity. 5. A lawyer (the inclosure to be a legal dociunent).
6. A member of Congress. 7. A prominent firm in a neighboring city.
8. A farmer who lives in a rural free-delivery district.

60. Suggestions, i. A good letter shows clearly where,
when, to whom, and by whom it was written.

2. A careful letter writer keeps in mind his relations
with the person to whom he writes.

3. Abbreviations are in general to be avoided. The men
who do the most business usually find time to spell the full
word. " Y'rs rec'd " and " Resp'y " are imnecessary.

4. .The order of the pages should be perfectly clear to
the reader.

5. When delivered by a friend, a note should not be
sealed imless the bearer chooses to seal it. On the en-
velope inclosing such a note we write :

Mr. James A. Wilbur
Elindness of Mr. Howard

6. It is a good rule to inclose a stamp whenever you ask
a favor which calls for the use of one.

7. It is wise to write your name and address in the upper
left-hand comer of an envelope which incloses a letter of
special importance.

8. Such a little thing as placing the stamp in the upper
right-hand comer, right side up, adds to the attractiveness
of the envelope.

61. Business Letters. Having mastered the forms, the
writer of a business letter should take pains to be (i) clear
and (2) concise. He should tell the busy man whom he is

BUSINESS LETTERS 97

addressing precisely what that man needs to know and noth-
ing more.

The reply to a business letter should be prompt and
definite.

Examine carefully the following business letters.

190 Bowdoin Street,

Worcester, Mass.,

August 16, 1905.
The Outlook Company,

287 Fourth Avenue,

New York City.
Gentlemen :

Inclosed you will find a money order for three dollars,
for which please send The OtUlook to my address during the coming
year.

Yours truly,

Walter H. Bigelow.

II Boylston Street,

Boston, Mass.,

May 19, 191 2.
Mr. Howard A. Edmands,

Pembroke, Mass.
Dear Sir :

I have seen your "Summer Camp for Boys" advertised in
the Atlantic, and shall be interested to know more about it. Kindly
send me any printed matter that you have, and give additional infor-
mation, if necessary, on the following points :

1. Is the number of boys Hmited ? If so, what is the limit ?

2. Is there a resident physician or nurse at the Camp ?

3. What is the character of the meals served ?

4. How much extra money should a boy have for spending pur-
poses?

I should like to have at least two references from business men in

this vicinity.

Yours very truly,

George H. Hilman.

98 LETTER WRITING

Oakdale, Mass.,
Messrs. Mayfield, Jones and Co., May 19, 191 2.

Springfield, Mass.
Gentlemen :

I wish to purchase material for a graduation dress — some-
thing durable and inexpensive. I am not sure that you do a mail-
order business, but if you do, will you kindly send me samples of pure
white and cream white wash dress goods which would be suitable for
the purpose mentioned ? I do not care to pay more than seventy-five
cents a yard.

Very truly yours,

Mary J. Green.

Bates and Ellis, Attorneys-at-Law
14 Essex St., Wilkesbarre, Penn.

Mr. E. H. Stratton, September 9, 191 2.

Springville, Penn.
Dear Mr. Stratton : ^

This letter is to introduce to you an acquaint-
ance of mine, James Edgerton, who is about to enter the Springville
Academy. He finds it necessary to work his way, and is anxious to
secure a part-time office position. If you can put him in touch with
any such opportimity, you will be helping a most deserving boy.
Both Mr. Ellis and I shall appreciate anything you can do for him.

Very truly yours,

Elmer Bates.

3 Summer St.,

Springfield, Ohio,
Mr. Henry L. Avery, J^e i, 191 2.

Springfield, Ohio.
Dear Sir :

I have been told that you sometimes employ extra assis-
tants in your mailing department during the smnmer months. If you

^ This salutation is a little less formal than the others in this section.

BUSINESS LETTERS 99

expect to hire additional help the coming season, I should like to be
considered for such a position. School will close June 15, and I could
begin work June 18, if necessary.

I am sixteen years old, and a junior in the high school. I should
try hard to become an efficient worker, although I have had no experi-
ence in the kind of addressing that is required in yoiu: office.

I know that our principal, Mr. Charles Eldredge, would be pleased
to write you in my behalf, but on accoimt of his illness I should prefer
to have you consult my English teacher, Miss Margaret Willey, if
you wish a reference.

Respectfully yours,

Mary K. Bums.

3 Mary St.,

Lebanon, N.Y.,

August 19, 191 2.
Miss H. S. Moore,

14 Intervale St.,

Albany, N.Y.
Dear Madam :

Will you kindly send me by an early mail six yards of
cream-white chiffon, suitable for automobile veiling ? Charge to my
regular account.

Very truly yours,

(Mrs.) Helen A. Montgomery.

EXERCISES

168. Write one of your teachers a letter requesting him to
recommend you for a position you would like to fill. Tell
him as definitely as possible what your work will be, give him
the name and address of the firm or man to whom he is to write,
and show that you will appreciate any favor he can do for you.

As a way of closing such a letter, which of the two forms that
follow do you prefer? Which is the more modest and unassum-
ing?

lOO LETTER WRITING

X. Thanking you in advance for your favor, I am

Yours respectfully,

A. B. Brown.

2, Hoping that I am not asking too much of you, I am

Yours respectfully,

A. B. Brown.

169. (i) Apply for a situation. First get the correct name
and address of the person or petsons to whom you are to write.
Tell why you are applying, mention any experience or training
which would tend to make your services of value, and give the
name and address of some one who may be asked about your
character and ability. Read your letter aloud slowly and cut
out all imnecessary words.

(2) Answer your letter. You will now have a good oppor-
timity to test the clearness and completeness of the application.

170. Write an order for six kinds of groceries. Give a line

to each kind, thus:

I lb. Mocha Coffee
I gal. Molasses

171. Write a business letter from dictation.

Note. This letter is to be dictated by one of the pupils. The
teacher will furnish the subject at the time. The pupil is to have no
opportunity for preparation. For example, the teacher might say,
"You may order one himdred copies of the algebra you are studying,"
and the pupil would be expected to dictate to the class a letter with aU
the necessary information about title, edition, etc.

172. The following is what is called a promissory note. Write
a letter to a business man from whom you have borrowed a small
sum of money, inclosing a properly written promissory note.

Albany, N.Y., September 4, 191 2.
$125.00

Three months after date, I promise to pay Benjamin Parker one
himdred twenty-five dollars, with interest at six per cent. Value re-
ceived.

Mary Edwards.

BUSINESS LETTERS loi

17S. Write a letter acknowledging a check for twenty dollars

and inclose a receipt properly made out. See the following

forms:

Boston, Mass., June 4, 191 2.
$200.50

Received of Henry S. Willey one hundred dollars and fifty cents
on accoimt.

George A. Henley.

Portland, Maine, April 16, 191 2.
$7S-oo

Received of Herbert Rice seventy-five dollars in full of all demands
to date.

Helen C. Forbes.

174. Does the writer of the following letter give the real estate
firm enough information? If not, supply whatever is needed.
Then answer the letter for Messrs. Brown & Thompson. Thank
Mr. Rand for the favor and write briefly about two houses which
you think will suit him. Assure him that you will be glad to
show him these houses, and others that may interest him, at his
convenience. Call attention to the fact that there is consider-
able demand for such houses.

132 Ward St.,

Chicago, Illinois,

July 2, 191 2.
Messrs. Brown & Thompson,
9 Main St.,

Cambridge, Mass.
Dear Sirs:

During the next four years, while my daughter is to study
at Radcliffe, I shall wish to live in Cambridge. My family will need
a house with five chambers, — four of which must be roomy, — a
good bathroom, and convenient kitchen and pantry arrangements.
I prefer a location within half a mile of the college and shall insist on

I02 LETTER WRITING

settling in a quiet community. The house must be ready for us by
September i. If you know of any houses that would be likely to suit
us, please send roe word at your earliest convenience, giving the lowest
prices for which they may be rented by the year or leased for four
years.

Yours truly,

A. K. Rand.

176, Write a letter in answer to the following advertisement^
giving the necessary information about yourself and asking for
further particulars about the position:

Wanted. An enterprising 3roung person about sixteen years old,
as assistant in the office of a manufacturing house. Good salary
to right person. A. J. B.

176, Rewrite the following unsatisfactory letter, improving it

in every way possible. Notice, in particular, the italicized

words.

2 Berkeley Street,
Atlanta, Ga.,
Oct. 17, 1912.
Mr. Ashley W. Crowell, Architect^
212 Milk Street,

Boston, Mass.
Dear Sir :

We have noticed in the " Architects' Joiunal " for September
the description of the house recently built in Montrose. We shall
be very pleased if you will kindly give us some idea as to the cost of
the samey as we contemplate building several houses somewhat similar
in this district.

Thanking you in anticipalion, we remain

Yours very truly.

The J. G. Brown Co.

62. Letters of Friendship and Courtesy. We have ac-
cess to many friendly letters that are interesting and inspir-
ing. Some of the best have been written by Eugene Field,
Scott, Lowell, Cowper, Thackeray, Thomas Jefferson,

LETTERS OF FRIENDSHIP 103

Washington Irving, Longfellow, Thoreau, Cromwell, and
Gray. Let us study a few of them in order that we may, if
possible, discover in each case the writer's secret, — find
out how he succeeded in making his letter attractive.

The first letter that we shall examine was written by
Stevenson, in reply to a boy who had asked him for his auto-
graph. Point out whatever pleases you in the answer.^

Vailima, Upolu, Samoa,

November 28, 1891.

Dear Sir, — Your obliging communication is to hand. I am glad
to find that you have read some of my books, and to see that you
spell my name right. This Is a point (for some reason) of great
(Ufl&culty ; and I believe that a gentleman who can spell Stevenson
with a t; at sixteen should have a show for the Presidency before
fifty. By that time

" I, nearer to the wayside inn,"

predict that you will have outgrown your taste for autographs,
but perhaps your son may have inherited the collection, and on
the morning of the great day will recall my prophecy to your mind.
And in the papers of 192 1 (say) this letter may arouse a smile.

Whatever you do, read something else besides novels and news-
papers ; the first are good enough when they are good ; the second,
at their best, are worth nothing. Read great books of literature and
history ; try to understand the Roman Empire and the Middle Ages;
be sure you do not understand when you dislike them ; condemna-
tion is non-comprehension. And if you know something of these
two periods, you will know a little more about to-day, and may be a
good President.

I send you my best wishes, and am yours,

Robert Louis Stevenson.
Aidhor of a vast quantUy of little books.

* From "The Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson," Vol. II, by permission
of Charles Scribner's Sons.

I04 LETTER WRITING

Our friends prize highly the letters into which we put
much of ourselves. In each of the two following letters
what does the writer tell of his character ?

Phillips Brooks to his Niece ^

Munich, September 2, 1883.

Dear Gertie, — When I came away, the l&rst man that wrote me
a letter only two days after the Servia had steamed out of New
York bay was you. And now that I am coming home, the last
letter which I write from the Old World to any man in America shall
be to you. For I want to tell you myself that I shall see you on
September 22. I suppose you will not be quite able to run over to the
wharf at East Boston when the Cephalonia gets in, but I shall come
up to see you just as soon as the customhouse people let me out of
prison, after I have paid the duties upon all the heaps of presents I
have got for you !

Wasn't it good that the baths at Sharon helped you so much ?
I was at a place the other day where the people take baths for rheu-
matism. It is called Bad Gastein, but it isn't bad at all ; it is very
good. It is away back in the hills, and there is a tremendous waterfall,
which runs right through the house, and keeps up such a racket you
can't get any sleep. But that does no great harm, because you have
to take your bath so early that, if it were not for the waterfall in the
next room, you would sleep over and never get any bath at all, and so
some time you might have the rheumatism all your life. I didn't
have any rheumatism, so I went and took a bath for yours, and I
rather think that is what made you feel so much better. You thought
it was the baths you were taking at Sharon, but it was really the bath
I was taking at Bad Gastein !

I wonder how soon you will come and see me when I get back.
Everybody here eats his breakfast, and luncheon, and dinner out-
doors. I like it, and think I shall do so myself when I get home ;
so when you come to breakfast, we will have our table out on the grass
plot in Newbury Street, and Katie shall bring us our beefsteak there.

1 Phillips Brooks, "Letters of Travel."

LETTERS OF FRIENDSHIP

lOS

Will it not make the children stare as they go by to school ? We'D
toss the crumbs to them and the robins. But you must hurry and
get well, or we cannot do all this. My love to Agnes and Tood.

Your affectionate imcle, P.

FsoM Edward Fitzgerald

Geldestone Hall,
Dear Allen, September 9 [1834].

. . . [Your letter] has indeed been a long time coming,
but it is all the more delicious. Perhaps you can't imagine how
wistfully I have looked for it ; how, after a walk, my eyes have turned
to the table, on coming into the room, to see it. Sometimes I have
been tempted to be angry with you ; but then I have thought that I
was sure you would come a himdred miles to serve me, though you
were too lazy to sit down to a letter. I suppose that people who are
engaged in serious ways of life, and are of well-filled minds, don't
think much about the interchange of letters with any anxiety ; but
I am an idle fellow, of a very ladylike turn of sentiment, and my friend-
ships are more like loves, I think. . . .

Farewell, my dearest fellow ; you have made me very happy to
hear from you, and to know that all is so well with you. BeUeve

me to be your ever affectionate friend,

£. Fitzgerald.

There are times when a few words of S3mapathy are more
welcome than anything else we can send a friend. If we
are to help a friend bear grief, we miist first imderstand
his suffering partly, if not wholly. Then, in our expression
of sjonpathy, instead of making him feel worse, we should
try to call his attention to some one thing which will give
him real comfort.

What can we learn from the following letter of Abra-
ham Lincoln? To what extent did he seem to under-
stand the mother's grief ? To what extent did he probably

Io6 LETTER WRITING

comfort her? What words seem to you particularly well

chosen?

Executive Mansion,^

Washington, November 21, 1864.
Mrs. Bixby,

Boston, Massachusetts.

Dear Madam :

I have been shown in the files of the War Depart-
ment a statement of the Adjutant-General of Massachusetts that
you are the mother of five sons who have died gloriously on the
field of battle. I feel how weak and fruitless must be any words of
mine which should attempt to beguile you from the grief of a loss
so overwhelming. But I cannot refrain from tendering to you
the consolation that may be found in the thanks of the Republic
they died to save. I pray that our heavenly Father may assuage
the anguish of your bereavement, and leave you only the cherished
memory of the loved and lost, and the solemn pride that must be
yours to have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of freedom.

Yours very sincerely and respectfully,

Abraham Lincoln.

EXERCISES

m. Write a letter to a friend whom you are not likely to
see for a long time. Try to be as entertaining as " Gail Ham-
ilton " was in this portion of a letter of hers to Whittier :

You don't want me to write you a letter, I know, but I will, and
you cannot help yourself. . . .

Why don't you come and help me kill caterpillars? There are
eighty-five thousand millions on our trees. I bum them up first,
then I bathe them in kerosene oil, and then I wash it off in soap-
suds. I think they rather like it. How they cuddle up together,
don't they ? But they are nasty little beasts — that's all you can
say about it; and there's a man and a boy coming, who are going
to exterminate them, horse, foot, and dragoons. We have fourteen

* From "The Complete Works of Abraham Lincoln," Vol. n, by per-
mission of The Century Co.

LETTERS OF FRIENDSHIP 107

chickens that we have taken 'Ho halves/' I don't mean that we split
them open every morning, but we are going to nurse and nourish them
all summer ai^d own one half of the whole number in fee simple. Be-
hold, says the Shepherd of Salisbury Plain, the shifts which honest
poverty will make rather than beg or steal ! Besides, we have eight
little chickens of our own — all born, and ever so many more that
are going to be, if Fate and the other hens do not nip them in the
shell. Hitherto Destiny has set her face against them. Their mother
has been in a state of constant trepidation. I put fifteen eggs under
her, and the number has gradually risen to twenty-three ! I should
not care if they would all turn into chickens, but that nest has been
the scene of so many sharp conflicts that I fear the poor little yolks
have not had peace enough to enable them to shape themselves into
fuss and feathers. But I am going to keep Mother Hen on it until
all hope is abandoned, and we shall see what we shall see. . . .

I suspect by this time you are pretty tired, but I am not half
done yet. Anybody that is as wise as I am knows what a relief it
is to sit down sometimes and be silly.

178. Write a letter of congratulation.

179, (i) Write a friend about an interesting book you are
reading. Tell him enough to excite his interest without satisfy-
ing his curiosity. Or (2) in a letter to a friend write all you have
learned from this chapter about letters of friendship.

180, In a letter to the principal of the school, tell what you
have accomplished so far this year in each of your studies. Pay
attention to (a) paragraphing, {h) sentence structure, (c) punc-
tuation. Use correspondence paper and inclose your letter in a
properly directed envelope.

181. (i) Write for a letter of introduction to a man whom
you wish to meet on business ; answer your letter. Or (2) write

a letter of introduction. Your friend is to be in , a

distant dty, for a fortnight, and you wish her to meet a friend
of yours in that city. Answer your letter.

io8 LETTER WRITING

18S. (i) To a cousin whom you have never seen, write a faith-
ful account of the town or city in which you hve. Give a para-
graph to each of the following subjects: location, industries,
educational opportunities, character of the inhabitants. Or
(2) write a friend who runs a bookstore, telling him whether you
think there is a good opening for him in your town or dty, or
in some town near by. He will be interested in much of the
matter in the letter you have just written, and in addition will
wish to know about the he^lthfulness of the city, the value of
property, rents, taxes, the cost of living, railroad facilities, the
growth of the city, and the opportimity to build up the book trade.

63. Fonnal Notes. A note that is written in the third
person is called a formal note. An invitation sent out by a
school, a class in the school, a club, or any group of persons
is likely to be in the third person ; and we must remember
to answer it in the third person.

Consider every detail of the forms given below ; for ex-
ample, the writing of the full word instead of using a figure.

1. Mr. and Mrs. William Walker request the pleasure of Mr.
Henry Green's company at dinner on Thiursday evening, May the
third, at seven o'clock.

1017 Avon Street,

April twenty-seventh.

2 . Mr. Green accepts with pleasure Mr. and Mrs. William Walker's
kind invitation to dinner on Thursday evening. May the third, at
seven o'clock.

5 Williams Street,

April twenty-eighth.

3. Mr. Green regrets that he cannot accept Mr. and Mrs. William
Walker's kind invitation to dinner on Thursday evening, May the
third.

5 Williams Street,

April twenty-eighth.

FORMAL NOTES 109

4. The Class of Nineteen Hundred and Twelve

Bristol Conservatory of Music

requests the honor of your presence at the

Commencement Exercises

Wednesday, June the twentieth

• at two o'clock

Tremont Temple

Bristol

5. Mr. William H. Brown accepts with pleasure the kind invitation
of the Class of Nineteen Hundred and Twelve, Bristol Conservatory
of Music, to attend the Commencement Exercises, Wednesday, June
the twentieth, at two o'clock, in Tremont Temple.

You will find there is a reason for every bit of informa-
tion given in both invitations and replies. Why is it desir-
able in 3 to repeat the words dinner j Thursday evening, May
the third, and seven 0^ clock? In answering this question,
take the point of view of the hostess.

Do not say, " A previous engagement will prevent." One
accepts or sends regrets at the time of writing.

Your is used in 4 for the reason that it would cost too
much to engrave the name of each person on his invitation.

EXERCISES
18S, Write a formal invitation to an entertainment.
184> Accept the invitation orally.
185. Decline it in writing.

64. Informal Notes. Most of us seldom have occasion
to write a note in the third person. We prefer to write in-
formal notes — those in which we use the first person. Then
instead of sending the message in a ready-made form, each
one can e^q^ress himself in his own way; he can be him-
self. For example :

no LETTER WRITING

Dear Miss Hall,

Mother and I are hoping that you can spend Thursday
evening with us. Of course we shall expect you to dinner. You have
not forgotten that our dinner hour is half past six ?

Cordially yours,

EllaW. Parker.
2$ Gray Street, Dorchester,

Tuesday, November fifth.

EXERCISES

186. Accept the invitation in writing; decline it.

187. What characteristics of the writer come out in the
following invitation? How many indications are there that
she wished her guests to come and to come with tJie utmost
ease ? Consider the note addressed to you, and write a reply.

My dear Mr. Brown,

We should be happy to have you and your brother
come down next Wednesday and stay with us over Simday. A train
that leaves Boston at three o'clock in the afternoon reaches Provi-
dence about four and gives ample time to take the train for Woodville
in the same station at twenty minutes past four. Woodville is the
terminus of the road, and our cottage is close to the station.

The best way is to buy a five-trip ticket to Providence, — we
can easily take the extra ticket, — then a round* trip ticket from
Providence to Woodville. You will need your tennis racquets, and
the bicycles will not come amiss. We have at least one extra bathing
suit. . . . You may be sure of a hearty welcome.

Very sincerely yours,

Mary Davis Leighton.
Woodville, Rhode Island,

July fifteenth.

188. Invite your teacher to dine with you and spend the even-
ing at your home. Make it clear in your note that you have
consulted your mother in regard to the invitation.

INFORMAL NOTES III

189. Write a friend in order to show him that you appre-
ciate the good time he gave you during your visit at his home.

190. Write a note to accompany a Christmas gift which is to
be sent through the mail.

191. Write a letter of appreciation to a friend who has sent
you a birthday gift.

CHAPTER DC

THE CORRECT SENTENCE : A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

" It is not so mudi a merit to know Encjish as it is a shame not to
know it."

Why is it that a boy enjoys taking a bicyde apart?
Possibly one reason is that some day it may be convenient
to know how the parts go together. Now a boy's sen-
tences, like his bicycle, sometimes need repairs; and if he
is to do his own repairing, he must know how the i>arts
of the sentence go together. Should he have occasion to
make bicydes, he would need to study with the utmost
patience the construction of such machines. He is boimd
to make sentences, and the sensible way to learn how to
make them is to see how the best writers have made them.

The study of the forms and the constructions of words is
called Grammar.

Grammar deals with inflection and sjnitax. Inflection
is a change in the form of a word to show its construction.
Syntax treats of the constructions of words in the sentence.

65. The Parts of Speedi. Words are divided according
to their uses into dght dasses called parts of speech.

Noun. A noun is a word used as a name of a person, place,
or thing.

Pronoun. A pro-noun * is a word which stands for a noim.

^ Your teacher will explain how the etymology reveals the meaning of
these words.

IZ2

THE PARTS OF SPEECH 113

Adjective. An ad-jective is a word used to describe or
limit a noun or pronoun — a description added to a noun or
pronoun.

Verb. A verb is a word used to assert something of a
person, place, or thing.

Adverb. An ad-verb is a word used to modify the mean-
ing of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

Preposition. A pre-position is a word placed before a
noun or pronoun to show the relation between it and some
other word or words in the sentence.

Conjunction. A con-junction is a word used to join sen-
tences or parts of sentences.

Interjection. An inter-jection is a word used to express
surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other feeling or emotion.
It is thrown into the midst of other words, but has little con-
nection with them.

EXERCISES

192. Make separate lists of the following: the nouns and
adjectives in the first selection in Exercise 430; the verbs in the
selection on pages 291-292; the adverbs and conjunctions in
the selection on pages 243-244; the words on pages i, 2, and
3 that end in -ingy stating what part of speech each word is (see
sect. 87, page 141, and sect. 88, page 143).

193. Classify, by arranging in columns, the italicized words
in the following selection :

The Training of Firemen

Firemen are athletes as a matter of course. They have to be, or
they could not hold their places for a week, even if they could get
into them at all. The mere handling of the scab'ng ladders, which,
light though they seem, weigh from sixteen to forty pounds, requires
unusual strength. No particular skill is needed, A man need only

114 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

have steady nerve, and the strength to raise the long pole by its
narrow end, and jam the iron hook through a window which he can-
not see but knows is there. Once through, the teeth in the hook
and the man's weight upon the ladder hold it safe, and there is no
real danger unless he loses his head. Against that possibility the
severe drill in the school of instruction is the barrier. Any one to
whom climbing at dizzy heights, or doing the hundred and one
things of peril to ordinary men which firemen are constantly called
upon to do, causes the least discomfort, is rejected as imfit. About
five per cent of all appointees are eliminated by the ladder test, and
never get beyond their probation service. A certain smaller per-
centage takes itself out through loss of " nerve " generally. The first
experience of a room full of smothering smoke, with the fire roaring
overhead, is generally sufficient to convince the timid that the service
is not for him. No cowards are dismissed from the department, /or
the reason that none get into it.

—Jacob A. Rns, " Heroes Who Fight Fire."

194- In the paragraph in Exercise 6pi, page 316, arrange the
following words in columns, according to their use as parts of
speech :

Zealous, assistant, pertained, training, her (1. 2), all (1. 3), that
(1. 3), directly, having, indeed, administer, correction, two, through,
infancy, she (1. 7), affection (1. 8), between, her (1. 8), marked, that
(1. 9), own (1. 9), may, been, anything, tender, with (1. 11),
others, for (1. 12), unquestionable, their (1. 14), from (1. 14), again,
separation, same, as (1. 15), childhood, smiling, at, shielding, yet, up,
accountability, always, good, as (1. 20), but, honored, universally
(1. 22), cared, for (1. 22).

66. The Flexibility of Parts of Speech. In our study of
the relation between words we must not forget that a word
is sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another. For
example, in the sentences that follow notice the part of
speech of each word in italics:

FLEXIBILITY OF PARTS OF SPEECH 115

I . We heard the dinner bell.
3. It is almost time for dinner.

3. The race is not always to the smfL

4. He is a swift rumier.-

5. We have taken a long walk,

6. We usually wdk to school.

EXERCISES

195. Use the following words orally as (i) nouns and (2)
verbs: breakfast, work, hope, fear.

196. Use in written sentences the words run, pull, flock, in,
up, down, and any others you please, to show that we cannot
tell what part of speech a word is unless we know its relation
to other words in the sentence.

197. What part of speech is each italicized word in the foUow-
mg sentences?

1 . '* That " may be used as a pronoun, a conjunction, or an adjec-
tive.

2. TAa/ book is mine.

3. I told him that we would go.

4. That is not the question.

5. School books should be treated as friends rather than as
acquaintances.

6. He left his books at school.

7. School yourself to do unpleasant tasks.

8. He is going /rome.

9. His /r(7f»6 is in the city.

10. Reading is a profitable exercise that is too much neglected.

11. He is reading the book.

12. I do not like his reading. (See sect. 88.)

13. An old-fashioned reading book lay on the table.

14. I enjoy good oral reading.

1 5. We intend to paper the dining room.

16. Wall paper should be chosen by those who have artistic taste.

17. The books came in a paper box.

198. Use these words as (i) nouns and (2) verbs:

ii8

A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

Singular

Plural

nouns in um

datum

stratum

cumculum

•

bacterium

nouns in is

analysis

basis

crisis

oasLs

parenthesis

nouns in ex or M

appendix

index

data
strata
curricula
bacteria

analyses

bases

crises

oases

parentheses

appendices or appendixes
I indexes (in books)
{indices (in algebra)

EXERCISES

SOS. Write sentences in which these words are used as the
subjects of verbs in the singular number: athleiics, pdUics,
mathemaiicSy news.

SOS. Write sentences in which these words are used as the
subjects of verbs in the plural number: assets ^ bellows, dregs, eaves,
pincers, scissors, tidings.

70. Case. Case is the form of a noun (or pronoun)
which shows its relation toother words in the sentence, — its
construction. Nouns have the same form in both the nomi-
native and the objective case, but a different form in the pos-
sessive.

71. The Nominative Case. Nouns in the nominative
case have several constructions:

1. The subject of a verb. (The bocU moves.)

2. Subjective complement, or predicate nominative. (It
is a box.)

Note. Some verbs, like bCj becomey seenty or appear, need a comple-
ment to form the simple predicate. They are called copulative (" link ")

DECLENSION OF NOUNS

117

69. Number. Nouns change their form in order to show
whether they indicate one person or thing {singular num-
ber), or more than one {plural nimiber). To this rule a
few nouns are exceptions, and in deciding whether to use one
of these as singular or as plural, we must go by the meaning.

Note. The singular form of collective nouns is sometimes to be
regarded as singular and sometimes as plural. See page 154.

Athletics y used to include several sports or exercises, is frequently
plural. Politics, as the name of a profession, is singular. Mathe-
maiicSf as the name of a science, is singular. News is singular.

Some noims, however, are always plural ; for example, assets,
bellowSy dregs, eaves, pincers, scissors, tidings.

In forming the plurals of proper names, we say the Messrs, Johnson,
the Misses Walker.

The fundamental part of a compound word takes the plural ending ;
for example, mothers-in-law, men-of-war. Two spoons full calls atten-
tion to the spoons ; two spoonfuls, to the measure.

•

Plurals of Foreign Nouns, We have in our language
many Latin and Greek nouns, which we pronoimce like Eng-
lish words but spell like the originals. There is a tendency
to form the plurals of such foreign nouns as if they were Eng-
lish. The following, which are confusing to persons who
have not studied these languages, are worth remembering.
Some of them have two plurals.

I. nouns m a

2. Doims m us

SiNGULAS

alumna
nebula

alumnus
fimgus
focus
radius

genius

Plural

alumnae (feminine)
nebulae

alumni (masculine)

f tmgi or funguses

fod

radii

geniuses (talented persons)

genii (spirits)

I20 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

9. \Oiains hinisdf chose the captain of the team

10. John seems an attentive student.

11. They had been good friends for years.

12. They have many strong friends in the comity.

13. In a few years he became a wealthy man.

14. WilheJmina was crowned Queen of the Netherlands.

72. The Objectiye Case. Nouns in the objective case
may have several constructions :

1. The direct object of a verb. (He broke the chimney.)

2. The indirect object of a verb. (He gave the dog a
lesson.)

3. The objective complement. (They chose him presi-
dent,)

4. In apposition with another noun in the objective case.
(He saw Edward, the king of England.)

5. The object of a preposition. (We go to school,)

6. The adverbial noun. (He walked a long distance,)

7. The subject of an infinitive. (He thought the boy to
be honest.)

8. The complement of the infinitive " to be." (He be-
lieved the man to be a spy,)

Note. " Spy " is in the objective case, agreeing with man, the sub-
ject of the infinitive.

EXERCISES

206, In the following sentences, point out instances of (a) the
indirect object, (b) the objective complement, (c) the apposi-
tive, (d) the subject of an infinitive :

1. The teacher advised the student to study harder.

2. He paid me the money.

3. I signaled the engineer to stop.

4. We urged him to be captain.

5. The boys elected Henry cheer leader.

6. He told the child a story.

THE OBJECTIVE CASE 121

ifft. In rewriting these sentences, see that the indirect object
follows a preposition:

1. The boy sent his father a telegram.

2. James lent me his book.

3. He sold me the house.

73. The Possessive Case. The Anglo-Saxons had inflec-
tions which we lack. For example, the noun wan, which
they spelled mann^ had the following case forms in the sin-
gular number :

Nominative mann

Genitive . mannes

Dative m^nn

Instead of writing the genitive, or possessive, mannes^
we have long been in the habit of dropping the e and sub-
stituting an apostrophe. The point is that we are to think
of the '5 as a case ending that belongs to the noims in the
possessive case. Hence our best way is to write the entire
word and then add the ^s\ for example, John's^ Charles^ s^
Dickens^s, Bums^s.

If, however, it pleases the ear to drop the second s, we
may do so. Many, although perhaps not the most careful
writers, prefer Jaines\ Dickens\ Bums\ All would agree,
probably, in saymg for old acquaintance' sake, for conscience^
sake.

So much for the possessive singular. To form the pos-
sessive plural we add merely the apostrophe to the regular
plural in 5; for example, the boys' hats, the girls' drawings.
When, however, the plural does not end in 5, we add 's ; as,
sheep'Sy oxen's.

We form the possessive case of a compoimd noun by
adding the 's, or the apostrophe at the end ; for example,
tnother-in-law's.

122 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

The same principle applies to groups of nouns ; for ex-
ample, Lincoln and Davis^s goods, the New Hampshire Fire
Insurance Company's record. Weeks and Potter's store.
But it is often smoother to use of; for example, the statement
of the governor of Massachusetts, rather than the governor of
Massachusetts' statement.

This case denotes ownership, or possession, and is al-
most always used with reference to persons or animals.
We say the President's message, but the President of the
United States, not the United States' President. In connec-
tion with nouns that denote inanimate things, we use of.

Note. Anybody dse^s vote seems to have better authority than
anybody's else vote. We often think of the adjective else as a part of
the noun anybody. If, however, our ear prompts us to say anybody's
else at the end of a clause or sentence, we should fed free to do so.

EXERCISES

SOS. Write the possessive case, singular and plural, of : man,
sheep, deer, ox; the possessive case of: Holmes, Jones, man-of-
war, James the First.

209. In the following instances, tell whether you prefer the
possessive case or the possessive phrase, and why:

The ocean's roar, the whistle of the engine, the woman's shriek,
the bicycle's gear, Roosevelt's administration, the administration of
the war department.

210. Point out the difference in meaning between the follow-
ing. May any of them be interpreted in two ways ?

1. Taylor and Reed's goods. Taylor's and Reed's goods.

2. Washington's memory. The memory of Washington.

3. The governor's welcome. The welcome of the governor.

4. My friend's entertaining is The entertaining of my friend

always successful. is a pleasure to me.

THE POSSESSIVE CASE

123

211. Show that in each of the following sentences the use of the
apostrophe is correct :

1. Noel prized the society of the Paladin above everybody else's;
the Paladin preferred anybody's to NoePs.

2. Moses' sisters dressed him up very fine, and after breakfast he
set out.

3. The secretaries' reports are kept in this book.

4. The Young Men's Club held a meeting last night.

5. The Gibson Company's electric sign was torn down by the gale.

212. Copy the following sentences, inserting the apostrophe
where it is needed :

1. This is Johns copy of "Captains Courageous."

2. Bums poems are not published in this edition.

3. The Duke of Yorks castle is a mile beyond.

4. The ladies waiting-room is on the first floor.

5. Many attended the luncheon of the Womens Club.

6. This months Artisan gives full accounts of the games.

7. Gorham- Jones superintendent visited our miU yesterday.

8. They have demanded thirty days vacation.

213. Write sentences containing the possessive case of the
following: fox^ princess^ child, children, girls , son-in-law, Charles ^
Prince of Wales, The Oliver Ditson Company.

74. Gender. Gender is distinction of sex. The gender
of a noun or pronoun denoting a male being is masculine;
that of a noun or pronoun denoting a female being, feminine;
and that of a noim or pronoun denoting an inanimate ob-
ject, neuter ("neither").

Some nouns, as god, goddess, hero, heroine, host, hostess,
master, mistress, priest, priestess, prince, princess, have dif-
ferent forms to indicate gender ; but such nouns as author,
poet, doctor, editor, and instructor answer for women as well
as for men.

124

A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

PRONOUNS

75. Classification of Pronouns. According to their use,
pronouns belong to one of the following classes: (i) per-
sonal, (2) relative, (3) interrogative, (4) demonstrative,
(5) indefinite.

I. As the name implies, personal pronouns (for example,
/, his, her) relate to persons, and by their form dearly indi-
cate whether they refer to the person speaking, the p>erson
spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of.

FiitsT Pesson

Nominaiive

Possessive

Objective

Second Pehson

Nominative

Possessive

Objective

Singular

my or mine
me

SlNGULAS

you thou

your or yours thy or thine

you thee

TmsD Pesson

Nominative

Possessive

Objective

Masculine

his

him

Singular

Feminine

she

her or hers

her

Neuter

its

Plural

our 0f ours
us

Plural

you

your or yours

you

Plural

they

their or theirs

them

2. Relative pronouns (who, which, what, thai, whoever, etc.)
relate directly to a noun or pronoun in the preceding
dause, and always introduce a dependent clause.

Singular and Plural

Nominative who
Possessive whose
Objective whom

CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS 125

3. Interrogative pronouns (who, which, and what) are
used to ask questions.

4. Demonstrative pronouns {this, that, these, those) " point
out " clearly the person or thing referred to. (For demon-
strative adjectives see sect. 96, page 167.)

5. In contrast to the demonstrative pronoims are the
indefinite pronouns, which do not specify a particular thing
or person and are therefore called indefinite. For example,
all, any, many, several, each, neither.

76. Antecedent. A pronoun must agree with its ante-
cedent — the noim or pronoun that goes before it and for
which it stands — in person, nimiber, and gender. Its
case depends upon the clause in which it stands.

John, whom you know well, is coming to-day.
Mary, who has such a fine voice, is due to-morrow.
The girl who sat in the seat with you is my sister.

In order that a relative pronoun may point clearly to its
antecedent, it is best to place the pronoun just after the
antecedent if possible. For example, the sentence

A country maid was hurrying home with a can of milk upon her
head which she had just brought from the dairy.

is not good because which seems to refer to head. It should
read:

A country maid was hurrying home, carrying upon her head a
can of milk which she had just brought from the dairy.

We also need to consider carefully which word is ante-
cedent. For example, in the sentence.

This is one of the things that feed the night fears of the
natives,

126 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

there may be several things that feed the fears. Things is
the antecedent. From the group of things that feed we con-
sider one. Compare

He is one of the men who admire you.

Change the order, and you will see more clearly :

Of the men who admire you, he is one.

EXERCISES

214' Explain why in the following sentences the pronouns are
correctly used:

1. He is one of the boys who have received prizes.

2. He is the only one of the boys who has received honorable
mention.

3. Everybody must look out for himself.

4. Every one who went to the entertainment said he found it
thoroughly enjoyable.

5. He is one of those English tourists who consume a good for-
time in traveling.

6. Man after man said he wished to go.

7. Rip Van Winkle, however, was one of those happy mortals, of
foolish, well-oiled dispositions, who take the world easy.

8. We shall be pleased to see one of our graduates who has been
as successful as Mr. A.

215. Discuss the pronouns in the following sentences:

1. If one should make a col- If one should put in a book all
lection of all the stories that he the stories that they hear in the
hears in the cars, he would soon cars, they would soon have an en-
have an entertaining book when tertaining book when they have
he has the blues. the blues.

2. If any one wishes to go with me, let him [them] say so at once.

3. I wish everybody would attend to own affairs.

4. Neither of them knows [know] what he is talking about.

5. Every member of the class gives [give] his [their] opinion.

6. A plant stood on the table which looked as if it needed water.

7. A plant, which looked as if it needed water, stood on the table.

ANTECEDENT 127

8. A plant which stood on the table looked as if it needed water.

9. A tin can was tied to the dog's tail, which made a racket every
time it struck the ground.

10. It is one of those fanciful tales that hold piolds] the interest
to the end.

11. Jessica is one of the few characters in literature who forsake
their [forsakes her] Jewish faith.

12. He married one of those women who always say [always says]
the right thing at the right time.

216. Correct the following sentences in class:

1. We are using Gale's Algebra in our school, a few old copies
the pupils had borrowed from individuals, which are badly worn.

2. The game soon ended and was forfeited to the losers, which is
the usual custom of a referee.

3. He pointed out the boy whom he thought had touched him.

4. The boy who he pointed out asked him how far he should nm.

5. If you should have in mind any persons whom you think would
make good officers, I should be glad to have you send me their names.

217. Rewrite these incorrect sentences:

1. No one, it is believed, will have to leave the store without the
article they had expected to purchase.

2. This habit, kept up for a long period, fixes in anyone's mind a
vast fund of information that they could not acquire in any other way.

3. He asked everybody in the class how far they had read in
"The Last of the Mohicans" and what they thought of it.

4. If anybody should take a trip through Cape Cod, they would
see many cranberry bogs.

218. Find or write sentences in which every one, everybody,
and man after man (all singular, grammatically) are used as ante-
cedents.

219. Copy the following sentences and explain yoiu* choice
of the words in parenthesis:

1. One would almost think (he was, they were) there (himself,
themselves).

2. The meeting was called to order, and every man was asked
(their, his) opinion.

128 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

3. He was a pleasant-looking man, one of the sort who always
(appear, appears) to be on good terms with (themselves, himself) and
all the world.

4. Davidson is one of those men who (holds, hold) that a youth
possessed of health, strength, and good abilities should be able to
unravel almost anything and everything.

5. Has anyone a book that (they, he) would like to recommend ?

6. Let every one take care of (himself, themselves).

7. Man after man (was, were) called upon to testify and admitted
that (they, he) had seen the hre.

8. He was one of those men whose (mind is, minds are) small
enough to hold and nurse a grudge.

9. Gray's "Elegy" is one of the best poems that (were, was) ever
written.

10. Irving is one of those authors who (write, writes) with ease.

11. Every one of the pupils (were, was) hurt.

12. I wish everybody would take (their seats, his seat).

13. When anyone of his party got into serious difl&culty, Hawkeye
always found some way to get (them, him) out of it.

14. Grahame- White made one of those terrible dives which never
(fails, fail) to win great applause from the spectators.

220, In rewriting the following sentences, select the proper
case of the pronoun from the words in parenthesis, and justify
your choice :

1. You may speak to (who, whom) you wish.

2. There is little hope for (he, him) (who, whom) will not help
himself.

3. Mother told John and (she, her) to call on the way home.

4. (They, them) are the kind of men that we need.

5. We require more of (those, them, that) kind of cloth.

6. I know (he, him) to be the person (who, whom) you re-
ferred to.

7. He (who, whom) you seek is not here.

S. He gave John and (I, me) permission to go to the house.

•g. (We, us) boys are ready to play ball.
10. Tell me (who, whom) you consider the best student.
1 1* If you cannot come, (who, whom) shall I ask to take your place ?
12. Is not he the man (who, whom) we urged to go with us ?

AMBIGUITY 129

77. Ambiguity. Sometimes a careless use of pronouns
leads to ambiguity or absurdity. For example:

He told us he would see him in the afternoon if he thought best.

We must make it absolutely clear to whom the pronoun
refers.

78. The Case of a Pronoun. It is sometimes difficult to
determine the case of a pronoim, especially when a paren-
thetical expression follows a relative pronoun. A pupil
wrote,

We should vote for the person whom we think is best fitted
for the position,

but clearly he should have expressed himself in either of the
following ways :

1. We should vote for the person who we think is best fitted
for the position.

2. We should vote for the person whom we think best fitted
for the position.

In (i) who is the subject of is. In (2) the meaning is
" whom we think to be best fitted," therefore whom is in
the objective case, the subject of the infinitive to be.
The pupil would have avoided the error if he had put the
parenthetical expression elsewhere in the sentence.
These sentences are correct:

The man whom the committee named is our candidate.
We shall award the prize to the girl whom we consider the
most deserving.

EXERCISES
221. Discuss the pronouns in the following sentences:

1. Michael Banim survived his brother many years, but wrote
nothing of value after his death.

2. They murder Caesar, and the people remain on their side until
Antony wins them over by a wonderful speech at his fimeral.

I30 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

3. Brutiis kills himself, and Antony shows his generous nature by
bringing out his good qualities as he lies dead.

4. His brother asked him to bring him his racket.

22Z. As you rewrite the following sentences, remove any am-
biguity you detect in them:

1. I did not write my composition in my notebook because I left
it in my locker.

2. While coasting, a boy caught his foot in the railing of a bridge,
and it was torn ofiF.

3. Antonio persuaded Bassanio to give the judge his wife's ring, in
payment for getting him out of court.

4. The next winter he pulled a man out of the canal after he had
gone through the ice and been sucked under it by the current.

5. He answered that he would sell the horse, and the man looked
him over.

6. As Death and the Woman neared the sailors on the becalmed
ship, they saw them throwing dice.

7. The defendant claimed in court yesterday that his brother gave
him the deed to the property at a time when he was in sufficiently
good health to know what he was about.

2£S, Rewrite the following sentences, and be prepared to give
reasons for the changes you make:

1. The train, after being derailed, crashed into an iron bridge, and
it was completely smashed.

2. John Fox was run over and instantly killed by a runaway horse
on his way home from work.

3. Mr. Burton gathered his belongings, and after bidding his brother
good-by, he left his house.

4. Near a large hole in the woods, we found the wing and tail
feathers of a pheasant, which made us think that it belonged to a fox.

5. He (Gawain) told the king, but he said he was disobedient as he
didn't do what he told him to do.

79. Possessives. It is to be noted that the possessive
pronouns are complete without the apostrophe; for ex-
ample, wy, mine, our, ours, her, hers, Us, their, theirs, whose.
We must not confuse ifs (it is) with the pronoun its.

CASE OF A PRONOUN

EXERCISES

131

^S4' The correct use of the possessive pronouns is illustrated
in the following sentences. Be prepared to copy them from
dictation.

1. Whose do you prefer, his, mine, or yours?

2. We left ours and took theirs.

3. The chicken that flapped its wings is hers.

4. Hers is much better than theirs.

Z2S. In cop)dng the following sentences, supply the apos-
trophe where it is necessary:

1. Why is his list so much longer than yours ?

2. This mornings paper says its going to rain.

3. The clothing in the lockers is theirs.

4. My book has come out of its covers.

5. This school, with its excellent equipment, is ours.

6. The purse was not hers, as I afterward found out.

7. Theyre planning to take their rifles.

2Z6. Itt the last theme you have written, look for mistakes in
possessive pronouns.

Z27. Write a conversation (i) between two girls who are
making arrangements for a party, or (2) between two boys who
are planning to organize a baseball team. In revising, watch
the possessive pronoun.

80. Pronouns in self. Pronouns in -self are emphatic or
reflexive. We say,

I prefer to attend to that myself.
Let him fight it out for himself.
Know thyself.

But we ought not to say,

Another girl and myself took a walk this afternoon.
We never think of sa)dng,

Myself took a walk.

132 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

EXERCISE

228. In copying the following sentences, substitute other pro-
nouns for those in parenthesis whenever you think best.

1. John and (I) are the two eldest bo)rs in the family.

2. He will probably write you, as he has already written (myself),
that he needs us both.

3. The prize will come to either you or (myself), and neither of us
should allow (ourselves) to be disappointed over the result.

4. You have done better than (I).

5. Some credit should be given (myself) if I do say it (myself).

VERBS

No part of speech is more important than the verb. Like
nouns and pronouns, verbs change their form in order to
express different meanings, and in addition have the help
of such words as shall, may, can, etc., which are known as
" auxiliaries." This inflection of a verb is called its con-
jugation. The inflection of nouns includes changes in
number and case; the inflection, or conjugation, of verbs
includes changes in voice, mood, tense, person, and number.

81. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. According to
their use in a sentence, verbs are either transitive or intransi-
tive. Transitive means going over. If the verb is transitive,
the action goes over from the subject to a noun or pronoun
called the direct object; for example, in "John hit the ball,"
the action goes over to the ball. If the verb is intransitive,
there is nothing to go over; for example, "We started early,"
" Everybody laughed." Many verbs may be used both
transitively and intransitively.

Note these examples:

1. We began our journey early.

2. The day began pleasantly.

3. The car runs easily.

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 133

EXERCISES

Write sentences in which each of the following verbs
takes a direct object: wrUe, run, strike, sing, blow, ring, break.

230. Write sentences in which each of the verbs in Exer-
cise 229 is used without a direct object.

231. State whether the italicized verbs in the following sen-
tences are transitive or intransitive, and give your reasons.

1. The boy read the lesson.

2. The boy read from a well-known story.

3. The story was read to the child by his sister. (See sect. 84.)

4. John hastened home and told his father the news.

5. The guide hastened the departure of the party.

6. The possession of the Mississippi was an important factor in
the Civil War. (See sect. 71, 2.)

7. He wa^ there, and said that the boy rang the alarm.

8. The sentinel shotUed, "Stop ! or I will fire."

9. I waited one hour. (See sect. 72, 6.)

10. We saw that he was liable to fall.

11. They could scarcely believe what they saw.

82. Auxiliary Verbs. An auxiliary verb is one that
is used in a verb phrase merely to " help " another verb
express a certain meaning. The following may be so used :
be (am, is, are, was, were, etc.), have (has, had), do (does, did),
shall, will, may, can, miist, might, could, would, and should.
(See also sect. 90, page 148.)

EXERCISES

282. In the following sentences, point out the auxiliary verbs
and the main verbs:

1. He did his work well.

2. His work was well done.

3. He did not intend to come.

4. I have seldom seen a saner man.

134 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

£SS. Write sentences in which is, has, and does are used
(i) as auxiliaries, (2) as main verbs

83. Principal Parts. The principal parts of a verb are
the forms which determine its conjugation ; for example, gOy
went, gone, are the principal parts of the verb go. They are
the present tense, first person, ^singular ; the past tense,
first person, singular; and the past participle. When we
know these three forms of any verb, we shall usually be able
to conjugate the whole verb. These parts may be remem-
bered as the three which take the places of the blanks in the
following sentences :

Present Past Past Participle

I now I yesterday I have

I write now I wrote yesterday I have written

84. Voice. In the sentence,

James kicked the football,

the subject " James " is acting, and the verb " kicked " is

said to be in the active voice. James does the kicking. In

the sentence.

The football was kicked by James,

the subject " football '' is acted upon, and the verb " was
kicked '' is said to be in the passive voice. The football
receives the kicking.

If the subject of a transitive verb is acting, the verb is said
to be in the active voice ; if the subject is acted upon, the
verb is said to be in the passive voice. An intransitive
verb (for example, sit, lie), since its subject cannot be acted
upon, has no passive voice. The passive voice of a verb is
formed by adding the past participle to some form of the
verb be.

VOICE 135

A verb in the active voice often has both a direct and an
indirect object :

My teacher paid me a compliment.

If, in changing such a sentence to the passive voice, the
direct object becomes the subject, the indirect object is
retained :

A compliment was paid me by my teacher.

If, however, the indirect object becomes the subject, the

direct object is retained, and is sometimes called the retained

object.

I was paid a compliment by my teacher.

The retained object, unlike the subjective complement,
does not refer to the subject. See section 71, page 118.

EXERCISES

284. Explain why the verbs in the following sentences are
active or passive (see sect. 84) :

1. A passing wagon strtick the child. (Active.)

2. The child was strtick by a passing wagon. (Passive.)

3. He carved the box with a knife. (Active.)

4. This frame was carved by Edward. (Passive.)

2S5, In the following sentences (i) show whether the verbs
are active or passive, and (2) change the voice of each verb.
(Note that the object of the active verb usually becomes the
subject of the passive.)

1. He began this work two years ago.

2. The patient has borne his suffering nobly.

3. Only two dollars was offered me for the picture.

4. My pen was broken by my baby brother.

5. Luncheons are brou^t to school by nearly two thiids of the
boys.

6. The two burglars broke into many oflBices.

136 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

7. Of the two books I chose the " Idylls of the King."

8. He does his work well.

9. Patience works wonders.

10. My mother always gives me a good book on my birthday.

2S6. Use the following verbs in sentences of your own, writ-
ing one sentence to illustrate each voice:

write ride set tear

lay bear take run

break spring fly do

237. Use the sentences in Exercise 235 to show that the ob-
ject of the active verb may become the subject of the passive,
and that the subject of the passive verb may become the object
of the active.

238, In changing the verbs in the following sentences to the
passive voice, retain in each instance the indirect object:

1. James granted them many favors.

2. The teacher told them the story.

3. The guide showed us Longfellow's study.

4. The chairman handed him a report of the meeting.

£39. Point out the retained objects in the following sentences:

1. They were granted many favors by James.

2. The class was told the story by the teacher.

3. I was offered two dollars for my sled.

4. He has been lent a large sum of money by my father.

5. James was awarded the prize by the committee.

6. We were shown Longfellow's study by the guide.

7. He was handed a report of the meeting by the chairman.*

8. He was given an opportmiity to withdraw.

85. The Mood. The different manners (*' modes ") of ex-
pressing the thought of the verb are called moods.

1. John works. (A fact, — indicative mood.)

2. I wish John were working. (A wish, an imreality, not a
fact, — subjunctive mood.)

3. Work. (A command, — imperative mood.)

MOOD 137

The indicative mood asserts a fact, or something assumed
to be a fact, or asks questions of fact.

We saw him.
Doubtless he is here.
Does he study hard ?

The subjunctive mood presents doubtful or conditional
assertions, or unrealities.

If you were to ask him, he would grant the request.

If this charge be proved against him, he will suffer for it.

If he were here, we could see him. (Present condition contrary
to fact.)

If he had not been here, I should have telephoned for him.
(Past condition contrary to fact.)

The imperative mood expresses a command, an entreaty,

or a wish.

Go ! Let us try.

EXERCISES

Z40, Explain the value of the subjunctive mood in each of
these sentences:

1. If there be any difference, the former are rather the more sub-
stantial.

2. Were he still a writer, and as brilliant a one as ever, he could no
longer maintain anything like the same position in literature.

3. Were it only possible to find out who are alive and who dead, it
would contribute infinitely to my peace of mind.

4. If he have strength of arm, well and good; it is one species of
superiority.

241* In the following sentences, insert the correct form of
the verb, tell what mood is used, and justify your choice:

1. If I (be) rich, I should know what to do.

2. If he (look) with care, he will find his cap.

3. You may tell him to come if he (have) the time.

4. I am not certain that he (give, present perfect) the matter
much thought

(

138 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

5. If you actually (tell) him, why did he not send a reply ?

6. If the ball (give, passive) to the child, he will remain quiet.

7. I am sure that he (go) by the house a few moments ago.

8. Shut the door if you (feel) a draft.

9. You must remain quiet if you (wish) to hear the music.

10. Even (be) he to come now, he would be too late to catch the
train.

86. Infinitives. In addition to the moods there are
three special verb forms to consider : infinitives, participles^
and gerunds. A finite verb is " limited " ; an infinitive is
" unlimited." In John walks the action is limited to John,
and to the present time ; in To walk is easy the action is not
limited to any subject or to any time. From this example
it is dear that an infinitive is a form of a verb which is used
partly like a verb, partly like a noim. The to which usually
precedes it is not an essential part of it, but is its sign.

He wishes to go. (With sign.)
I saw him go. (Without sign.)

The infinitive has two tenses, the present and the present
perfect. The present tense .shows that the action is incom-
plete at the time of the principal verb : as, " He wishes to
eat " ; " He wished to eat." The present perfect tense
shows that the action was complete at the time of the prin-
cipal verb; as, " It is a pleasure to have finished it."
The infinitive may be used as several parts of speech:
1. As a noun. It may be used in either (a) the nomina-
tive or (b) the objective case.

To help a friend is a pleasure. (Subject.)

To help a friend is to give ourselves pleasure. (Subject and
subjective complement.)

The request to help a friend must not be lightly considered.
(In apposition with a noun.)

INFINITIVES 139

It is a pleasure to help. (Subject, U being an eiq>letive.)
She will do anything but wash dishes. (Object of the proposi-
tion.)

2. As a verb. It may be used in (a) either the active or
the passive voice, if the verb is transitive ; (6) either the
present or the present perfect tense (see sect. 89).

Active Passive

Present to give to be given

Perfect to have given to have been given

It may take a subject (see p. 120), and may be followed
by a noun or pronoim, or by an adjective.

We believed the winner to be him. (See sect. 72.)
Did you know it to he me?
The butter appears to be sweet.

Note. These infinitive clauses have the same meaning as noun clauses
introduced by that.

It may take an object, if the verb is transitive.

He was urged to give money.

3. As an adjective.

We have a boat to let. (Noun modifier.)

This old horse is to be shot. ( Subjective complement.)

4. As an adverb.

We shall play to win. (Infinitive of purpose.)

We are ready to play ball. (Modifier of the adjective.)

5. Without grammatical connection with the rest of the sen-
tence.

To tell the truth, he is no student.

I40 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

EXERCISES

£4£. Justify or correct the tenses of the following infinitives:

1. He was eager to have met Edith.

2. I am glad to have seen you.

3. He hoped to come early.

243. Why are the tenses of the infinitives in the following
sentences correct?

1. The money ought to have been sent before this.

2. The money ought to be sent before next week.

3. Boon Island Light was so far away that when I turned to
look at anything else, and then turned to find the light again, it seemed
to have sunk suddenly iato the water.

244' Why are the following infinitives incorrectly used?

1. I had intended to have written you last week.

2. I should have Hked very much to have gone with you.

1^4^' In each of the following sentences, state whether the
present or the present perfect infinitive of the verb in paren-
thesis would be correct, and give your reasons.

1. We ought (think) of the danger before going, but we. didn't.

2. I meant (write) you last month.

3. I had intended (send) the package sooner.

4. I ought (tell) you what (expect) ; then you would not have been
surprised.

5. You are fortunate (study) so long with so fine a music teacher ;
may you be lucky enough (find) another as good.

6. Center Pond is so large that I think its discoverers ought (call)
it a lake.

7. The pond is so large that I think the people living near it ought
(call) it a lake.

8. What is supposed (be) the arrangement of the solar system ?

9. How is the solar system supposed (form) ? (Use the passive
voice.)

10. Sebastian imagined his twin sister, Viola, (lose) at sea some
time before. (Use the passive voice.)

PARTICIPLES 141

II. As she could not find the boys, she believed them (be) out fish-
ing.

87. Participles. A partidple is a form of a verb
which is used partly like a verb, partly like an adjective, —
a verbal adjective. In the sentence " The boy standing
in the comer is Fred," standing is partly verb, partly adjec-
tive.

The present participle always ends in -ing; the past par-
ticiple is one of the principal parts of a verb (see sect. 83) ;
the perfect participle is having joined with a past participle ;
as, having sttidied, having eaten.

The skillful writer finds participles valuable in aiding him
to secure variety in his sentence structure. Yet he is ex-
ceedingly careful about them, for confusion, and sometimes
absurdity, results from failure to construct the sentence so
that it shows clearly just what word the participle modifies.

EXERCISES

246. Discuss the following sentences:

While I was coming to school While coming to school this
this morning, a woman entered morning, a woman entered the
the car at K Street. car at K Street.

247. Discuss the following sentences:

1. Last Sunday, while walking down Bates Street, a large crowd
had gathered on the bridge.

2. While crossing a street the other day, a car stopped in front of
me.

3. While standing in my yard, a strange dog strolled in.

4. After taking our seats, the secretary read the report.

S4S. See whether you can find in your themes any participles
which do not clearly modify some noun or pronoim. Read
to the class five of your sentences which contain participles,
and show what word each of the latter modifies.

142 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

S49. Show why, in these sentences, the use of the participles
is correct:

1. While walking along Huntington Avenue Wednesday, I saw a
group of men drilling.

2. Making her way round the foot of the rock, she suddenly found
herself dose to her husband.

3. Leaning upon the butt of his gun, the muzzle of which rested
upon the withered leaves, he was apparently absorbed in the contem-
plation of some object at his feet.

4. Having a taste for sights of this kind, and imagining, likewise,
that the illumination of the bonfire might reveal some profundity of
moral truth heretofore hidden in mist or darkness, I made it convenient
to journey thither.

250. Rewrite the following sentences in order to show un-
mistakably just what word each participle modifies:

1. The other morning, while walking to school with some other
bo3rs, a furniture wagon passed us.

2. While jiunping from place to place on the treacherous moving
ice, my knife was shaken from its sheath and disappeared down an air
hole.

3. In doing so, his foot missed the step and went under the wheel
of the wagon.

4. After hitching the horses to the cab again and clearing away the
d6bris, the car and the cab resiuned their journey.

5. Before using this machinery, shoes were made by hand.

6. Seizing my hat and sweater, accompanied by my two brothers,
we ran in the direction that the fire apparatus had taken.

7. Running from the house, the wind, which was blowing a gale,
helped to fan the fire, and in a very short time the woman was envel-
oped in flames.

8. Starting o& again, the top of the hill came into view, and soon
we were there.

9. On returning to the deck, the sea assumed a very diflFerent as-
pect.

10. Upon awakening next morning, the boat was far out to sea.

11. After marching over the plains, the army was reached.

12. One day while watching a football game on Curtis Field, a
quarterback made a run round the end.

GERUNDS 143

13. After being banished, his love for his master increases instead
of decreases, and he tries to aid the king by becoming his counselor.

14. While traveling at this rate through the air, the earth seems to
be one continuous strip.

88. Gerunds. Ending in -dng like the present parti-
ciple, — but not to be confused with it, — is . the gerund,
which is partly verb, partly noim. (It is sometimes called
the verbal noun in -wg.)

Seeing us, the dog ran away. (Participle.)
Seeing is believing. (Gerunds.)

1. The genmd may be used as a ttoun.

Writing is not playing. (Subject and subjective complement.)
I like fast driving now and then. (Direct Object.)
One becomes tired of writing if he has to do too much of it.
(After a preposition.)

2. The gerund may be used as a verb.

Lending him a book amounts to giving it to him. (Takes an
indirect object and a direct object.)
Driving fast is not always safe. (Takes an adverbial modifier.)

Note. In the second sentence under {i)yfast is an adjective, modify-
ing the noun driving.

The noim or pronoim which precedes the gerund should
be in the possessive case.

John's jimiping was heartily applauded.
Your plajdng is good.

EXERCISES

£51. Show that the infinitives in the following sentences
have the three noun constructions cited above under i :

1. To see is to believe.

2. Do you like to work?

3. I am about to begin a theme.

144 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

£52, Turn the following infinitives into verbal nouns, and in
each case show the construction:

1. To do one's duty is not always easy.

2. To drive is sometimes easier than to lead.

3. Which do you prefer, to ride or to walk ?

25S, Point out the construction of each of these italicized
words:

1. It may be hard to sU still without speaking, but it is some-
times harder to speak.

2. It will not be wise to take that medicine before shaking the
bottle.

3. Is it not well to read your themes before throwing them
away?

254. In each of the following sentences, what part of speech
is the word ending in -ing? What is the meaning of each
sentence?

1. I wish to see them painting.

2. I wish to see their painting.

3. I heard them singing.

4. I know about their singing.

5. The recitation opened by his reading from Webster.

255. Write five sentences containing verbal nouns.

256, Point out the verbal nouns and the verbal adjectives
in the following sentences:

1. The brook running through the meadow is clear.

2. Which do you prefer, running or plajdng tennis ?

3. He is a rolling stone.

257, Explain why the use of the italicized words in these
sentences is correct or incorrect:

1. We heard of your winning the tournament.

2. Who woujd have thought of John becoming a student ?

3. The recitation opened by Brown reading the report of the pre-
vious lesson.

TENSE 145

4. We have long looked forward to my cousin coming and have
just learned with much satisfaction of him leaving home.

5. It was sad to hear of them selling the farm.

6. His leaving the country at that time naturally excited suspi-
cion.

7. There is no need of your working so hard.

8. There is no use of our waiting imtil the train goes.

9. The family appreciate the chauffeur^ s waiting for them.

10. I do not care for the cat'^s playing on the piano.

11. John, continually forgetting his appointments, made the com-
mittee angry.

1 2. James mistaking the hour caused us much embarrassment.

13. The family appreciate the chauffeur waiting for them at the
station.

89. Tense. A verb has different forms by which it can
indicate the time of action. These forms are called tenses

("times").

I see you. (Present tense, marking present action.)

I saw you. (Past tense, or preterit, marking past action.)

I shall see you. (Future tense, marking future action.)

In order to show the completeness of an action at the time
of speaking, we use perfect tenses.

Now I have caught you. (Present perfect, or perfect, marking
action completed at the present time.)

We spoke to him after he had spoken to us. (Past perfect, or
pluperfect, marking action completed in past time.)

We shall have climbed the mountain before you reach the spring.
(Future perfect, marking action that will be completed in future
time.)

•

Of the six tense forms only two are simple, the present
and the past. The others are combinations of the auxiliary
verbs (willy shaUf have, be, or do) with infinitives and par-
ticiples.

146 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

EXERCISES

258. Point out the Hmey or tense, of each verb in the follow-
ing sentences. Explain the meaning of each term which you
use.

1. He did not consider that "he laughs best who laughs last."

2. He admits that he has often said he does not Uke the new way
of playing football. Now that the season is over, however, and he
has given a good deal of thought to the matter, he has decided that
most of the changes are for the best.

3. He admitted that he had often said he did not Uke the new way
of playing football. After the season was over, however, and he had
given^a good deal of thought to the matter, he decided that most of
the changes were for the better.

4. It is probable that the burglar entered at the front window, for
it was foimd open, and it has no lock.

259. In what tense should each verb in the following sentences
be? Why? Rewrite correctly.

1. First the tramp goes in search of food and knocks at the doors
of the different houses* At last Jie found a house where a lady gives
him some money and sends him off. After she shut the door, he took
a piece of chalk from his pocket and marked a letter K at the right of
the door.

2. In some places the railroad up Mt. Washington is so steep that
it looked more like a ladder than a railroad.

3. I do not know whether he came yesterday or whether he just
came this morning.

4. He had never known what serious illness was.

260. In cop5dng these sentences, insert the present, the past,
or the present perfect tense of the verbs within parentheses.

1. When December (come), we do not hear the singing of birds,
for they (fly) south.

2. I (lead) the horses to water, but they would not drink.

3. We (drive) thirty miles, and the horse was so tired that he (lie)
down.

4. The boy (lie) in bed so long that he will have to go to school
without his breakfast.

TENSE 147

5. When the sun (rise) that morning, I (see) the light strike the
hilltops.

6. When the boys (go) into the meadow, they (run) to see who
would reach the brook first.

7. He (go) to that camp every simuner for ten years, for he (choose)
to do so.

8. I know that I (lay) this hatchet here every time I have finished
using it.

9. He (write) four letters last night, and he (write) four more to-
night.

10. About an hour before the launching of a battleship men are
at work imder her, knocking out the spurs that (keep) the boat
upright while building.

11. Dick (speak) to me about the matter every day, but I (do)
nothing about it imtil now.

12. I had learned from my brother that a cygnet (be) a young
swan.

261, Rewrite the following sentences, changing such tenses
as need correction:

1. If we went the way we knew, we should have been able to take
the earlier train.

2. Although Sam had been brought up on a farm, he never had a
task like this before.

3. If , a generation ago, a girl tried to practice law, she would have
been laughed at.

4. Uncle told me this was not the first time he was caught in snow
drifts.

5. The captain praised his rescuers, who in the hour of danger
showed great presence of mind.

6. If the feat could have taken place in some stadium, and in the
presence of the thousands of telephone subscribers directly concerned,
it would meet with merited plaudits.

262. In the following sentences, insert either the past or the
past perfect tense of the verb within parentheses:

1. Phoebe (look) out of the window and (see) a rosebush in the
garden. Alice P)aicheon (plant) it nearly two hundred years before.

2. The room (be) in an old mansion, which at one time (be) occu-
pied by a member of George Washington's staff.

148 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

3. We (reach) home about half past eight, two hours later than we
(plan).

4. They (be) school boys together and, after many years of separa-
tion, (meet) again at a summer hotel.

5. I (find) some things in my box which I (forget) I ever owned.

6. After they (eat) something, they (spend) the evening playing
games.

7. In the middle of the night he (awake) and realized that he (have)
a very strange dream.

8. When we started, the sun (shine), but soon we (see) threatening
clouds.

90. The Future Tense — Shalt and Will The future
tense is a combination of the simple infinitive of a verb with
the auxiliary skcUl or will. It is worth while to note care-
fully the exact meanings of shall and will.

I. In Independent^ Statements. Shall ^ which comes from
the old infinitive scidan, meaning '* to owe," now denotes
"what is to happen." Hence the meaning of I shall is " I
am destined to," " I am going to."

If, without expressing his own determination, a person tells
what you are going to do, or what some one else is going to
do, he uses will. He does not profess to control any one's
future but his own.

These forms, then, express the simple future :

I shaU. We shaU.

You will. You will.

He will. They wiU.

Will has diflerent shades of meaning. / will means (i) " I
am'willing," (2) " I wish," (3) " I am determined," so strong
is my wish. Again, I may declare my will or determination
in a promise or a threat. If in a position to control your
will, to determine your conduct, I may say what you shall

^ An independent statement is one that is grammatically complete.

SHALL AND WILL 149

do, are destined to do. If I can control the will or conduct
of my neighbor, I may tell him what he shall do, is destined
^ do. A general term which includes all these shades of
meaning is volition.

These forms express voUtion :

I will. We wiU.

You shall. You shall.

He shall. They shall.

EXERCISE
^63. Be prepared to discuss the following examples:

1. I shall go to school to-morrow if I am able. (It is not a ques-
tion of will, but of what is to happen — of simple futurity.) So
"I shall study till nine o'clock."

2. You will doubtless meet my father.

3. He will return to-night.

4. We shall leave in the morning.

5. They will be at the station.

6. I will see him to-morrow if I can. ("It is my wish," or the
sentence may imply promise.)

7. I will second any motion you choose to make. (It may mean
merely "I am willing to," or it may imply promise.)

8. I will not stay another minute. (Determination.)

9. You shall start at once ; I am bound you shall. ("I have both
the determination and the authority necessary to start you," is the
implication.) Compare the meaning of "You will start at once."

10. He shall go with you. Qust like "You shall start at once.")

11. We will join your party if you have room for us. ("We are
willing.")

12. We will go, room or no room. ("We are determined.")

13. We will meet you at one o'clock. (Promise.)

14. You shall all go. (Promise or determination or threat.)

15. You shall go this minute. (Determination or promise.)

16. My boys shaU be prompt. (Determination or promise.)

2. In Questions. In asking a question we should use the
same auxiliary that is expected in the answer. ShaU is

ISO A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

naturally the word in the first person. We should not or-
dinarily ask, " WiU I run ? " '' Will we go ? "

In the second person shall is the proper auxiliary to
express futurity; as, " Shall you vote for Henry? '' Will
denotes volition.

Examples for discussion :

1. Shall I speak ? I shall (not).

2. Shall you read? I shall (not). (Simple future.)

3. Shall he obey? He shall (not).

4. Will you listen ? I will (not).

5. Will he obey ? He will (not).

6. Shall I help you ?

7. Will he go to-day ?

8. Shall we read "The Merchant of Venice" aloud?

9. Will they care to listen ?

We must take pains not to use will for shall, as has been
done in the following sentences :

1. I will be drowned ; nobody shall help me.

2. I am obliged to stop plajdng baseball or I will ruin m3rself,
as I play so much.

3. In Indirect Discourse (see p. 176). In a dependent
clause of indirect discourse, when the subject is the same as
that of the principal clause, we use the auxiliary which we
should use in direct discourse.

Direct Indirect

1. I will read "Ivanhoe." (I am He says he will read
willing, or I promise.) "Ivanhoe."

2. I shall read ''Ivanhoe." (I am He says he shall read

going to.) "Ivanhoe."

3. I shall be seen. You fear that you shall

be seen.

In all other cases of indirect discourse we use the same
auxiliary in dependent clauses that we use in independent
sentences.

SHALL AND WILL

151

Direct Indirect

1. John will come. Henry sajrs that John will come.

2. We shall be happy. They say we shall be happy.

4. In Conditional Clauses. In conditional clauses shaU
expresses simple futurity; mil expresses volition. In the
conclusions to the conditions we use the same auxiliary
that we use in independent sentences.

1. If I do it, he will not thank me.

2. If you ask him, you will get his honest opinion.

3. If he will come, we shall be glad to see him.

4. If you will join us, we will give you a cordial welcome.

EXERCISES

£64' Point out the meaning of shall and wiU in the following
sentences:

1. Thou shalt not steaL

2. It shall rain.

3. He fears he shall not meet you in London.

4. They know they shall win the prize.

5. Will I eat my dinner ?

6. Into what room shall I go ?

7. There is a rumor that a strong force will come down from Crown
Point and we shall be attacked.

8. You shall hear from point to point how we are faring.

9. Rise and go forth, for the law of the Lord is upon thee, and no man
can hinder that thou doest. Thou shalt look upon the sim and shalt
deUght in him ; and again thou shalt look and the light of the air shall
be as darkness. Thou shalt boast in thy strength and in thine armor
that there is none like thee, and again thou shalt cast thy glory from
thee and say, "This also is vanity." The king delighteth in thee, and
thou shalt stand before the queen in armor of gold and in fine raiment ;
and the end is near, for the hand of the Lord is upon thee. If the Lord
will work great things by thee, what is that to me ? . . .

Go forth and do thy part, for thou art in the hand of the Lord, and
some things thou wilt do shall be good, and some things evil. . . .
But because there is some good in thee, it shall endure, and thy name

152 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

also, for generations; and though the evil that besetteth thee shall
undo thee, yet at last thy soul shall Uve. — F. Marion Crawford,
"Zoroaster," chap. iii.

266, Write a theme of considerable length on My Ambitions.

91. Should and Would. In general, we use should and
wotdd as we use their present tenses, shall and will. Tor
example, James says, ^* Will John come?" So we say,
'* James asked if John would come."

Study the following:

1. Will he care to see me if Do you think he would care to

he comes ? see me if he came ?

2. He knows that I shall go. He knew that I should go.

(I am going.)

3. He knows that I will go. He knew that I would go.

(I wish or am determined
to go.)

Note i. Should sometimes keeps its original meaning, "ought"; as.
We should do right."
Note 2. Would sometimes expresses habitual action; as, "We would
talk by the hour."

In conditional clauses we use should in all persons to ex-
press simple futurity; and would in all persons to express
volition. (See shall and will on p. 148.)

If you should go, you would enjoy the trip,

EXERCISES

266, Explain should or woidd in the following sentences:

1. Should you help him if you were in my place ?

2. Would you help him if you could ?

3. Should he be elected ?

4. Would John come if I should invite him ?

5. He said he should be here by noon.

6. He said he would be here.

PERSON AND NUMBER 153

7. He said his parents woiild be here by noon,

8. He said his parents should be here.

9. If I should do it,, he would not thank me.

10. If you should ask him, you would get his honest opinion.

11. If he should come, we should be glad to see him.

92. Person and Number. In languages like Latin and
Greek the verb changes its form to agree with its subject in
person and number, as the verb be does :

I am

1 was

You are (thou art)

You were

He is

He was

But in English, with two or three exceptions, the only
change in form for person and number in common use is the
addition of -s in the third person singular.

We should always be especially careful to have the verb
agree with the subject when other words come between
them ; for example,

Every one of us knows this to be true.

I. A subject that is singular in meaning usually takes a
verb in the singular number :

a. A compound subject with or or nor.

Neither Ella nor May is at home.

Either that boy or his brother is a genius.

b. Collective nouns. (See rules for plural number on
pp. 117 and 154.)

The committee is an excellent one.
Congress has adjourned.

c. Nouns that are plural in form.

Mathematics is easy.

Politics is meat and drink to him.

Athletics is given some attention in this school.

154

A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

d. Any expression that is singular in meaning.

Ten minutes is sl long time.

Time and the hour runs through the roughest day.

2. A subject that is plural in meaning takes a verb in the
plural number.

a. A compound subject with and,

John and William are here.

b. Collective noims. (See rules for singtdar number
on pp. 117 and 153.)

The committee are all working hard.

The class are trying to agree upon a president.

Note i. Sometimes the words with, together with, as well as, intro-
duce a parenthetical subject of the sentence without afifecting the
number of the verb. Thus :

Robert, as well as his father and mother, approves your plan.

Robert and his father and mother approve your plan.

Note 2. Some nouns are always to be treated as plural in number.
(See p. 117.)

Note 3. When a relative pronoun is the subject, the verb is in the
same person and number as the antecedent.

Have you seen any of the girls who were at the party ?
This is the only one of his poems that has been published.

EXERCISES

267, Explain why, in the following sentences, the person
and number of the verbs are correct:

1. It may be doubted whether any one man or group of men has
ever, through literature, exercised such a durable influence on life as
Addison and Steele have in the Spectator.

2. The "Idylls of the King" is the epic of chivalry.

3. TennjTson's choice of vigorous Saxon words is an element of
strength in his work.

268, In the following sentences, explain why you would
use the singtilar or the plural form of the verbs in parenthesis:

CONJUGATION 1 55

1. The number of immigrants to this land (have) greatly increased.

2. The beauty of these old paintings never (deteriorate).

3. The commission (have) never had half a chance.

4. Both brothers were in the accident, but only one of them (were)
hurt.

5. There (were) all kinds of gas stoves.

269, Point out the subject and the correct form of the predi-
cate in the following sentences:

1. Since his death the popularity of his books [have ? has ?] greatly
decreased.

2. The way of transgressors [is ? are ?] hard.

3. His collection of books [are ? is ?] very good.

4. Each of the boys [are ? is ?] ready.

5. A superior tone of education, manners, and habits [prevails?
prevail ?].

6. One of the most important of this sort of colonies [is? are?J
our own.

7. The principle of free governments [adheres? adhere?] to the
American soil.

8. The tempJorary absence of worldly scenes and emplo)rments
[produce? produces?] a state of mind peculiarly fitted to receive
new and vivid impressions.

93. Conjugation. The changes in voice, mood, tense^
person, and number which constitute the conjugation of
verbs we should remember from our previous study of
granmiar. To those who do not remember clearly the usual
arrangement of the forms, the following conjugations may
be useful :

THE VERB "BE"

Indicative Mood

Present Tense

I am.

We are.

You are.^

You are.

He is.

They are.

*The older forms "thou art," "thou wast," etc., have been omitted.

IS6 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

Past Tense

I was.
You were.
He was.

We were.
You were.
They were.

Futwe Tense

I shall be.
You will be.
He will be.

We shall be.
You will be.
They will be.

Present Perfect Tense

I have been:
You have been.
He has been.

We have been.
You have been.
I'hey have been.

Past Perfea Tense

I had been.
You had been.
He had been.

We had been.
You had been.
They had been.

Future Perfect Tense

I shall have been. We shall have been.
You will have been. You will have been.
He wiU have been. They will have been.

Subjunctive Mood

Present Tense

If I be.
If you be.
If he be.

If we be.
If you be.
If they be.

Past Tense

If I were.
If you were.
If he were.

If we were.
If you were.
If they were.

THE VERB "GIVE" 157

Present Perfect Tense

If I have been. If we have been.

If you have been.* If you have been.

If he have been. If they have been.

Past Perfect Tense

If I had been. If we had been.

If you had been. If you had been.

If he had been. If they had been.

THE VERB "GIVE"

Indicative Mood, Active Voice

Present Tense

1 give (do give, am giving). We give (do give, are giving).

You give (thou givest). You give.

He gives. They give.

Past Tense

1 gave (did give, was giving). We gave.

You gave (thou gavest) . You gave.

He gave. They gave.

FtUure Tense

I shall give (be giving). We shall give.

You will give (thou wilt give). You will give.
He will give. They will give.

Present Perfect Tense

I have given (been giving). We have given.

You have given (thou hast) . You have given.

He has given. They have given.

Past Perfect Tense

I had given (been giving). We had given.

You had given (thou hadst). You had given.

He had given. They had given.

158 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

Pidure Perfea Tense

I shall have given (been giving). We shall have given.

You will have given (thou wilt). You will have given.

He will have given. They will have given.

Indicative Mood, Passive Voice

Present Tense

I am given. We are given.

You are given (thou art). You are given.

He is given. They are given.

Past Tense

I was given. We were given.

You were given (thou wast or wert) . You were given.

He was given. They were given.

Future Tense

I shall be given. We shall be given.

You wiU be given (thou wilt). You wiU be given.

He will be given. They wiU be given.

Present Perfect Tense

I have been given. We have been given.

You have been given (thou hast). You have been given.

He has been given. They have been given.

Past Perfect Tense

I had been given. We had been given.

You had been given (thou hadst been). You had been given.
He had been given. They had been given.

Future Perfect Tense

I shall have been given. We shall have been given.

You will have been given (thou wilt). You will have been given.
He will have been given. They will have been given.

POTENTIAL PHRASES 159

Subjunctive Mood, Active Voice

Present Tense

If I give. If we give.

If you give. If you give.

If he give. If they give.

Fast Tense

If I gave. If we gave.

If you gave. If you gave.

If he gave. If they gave.

Present Perfect Tense

If I have given. If we have given.

If you have given. If you have given.

If he have given. If they have given.

The Past Perfect Tense is like the Indicative Mood.

Subjunctive Mood, Passive Voice

Present Tense

If I be given. If we be given.

If you be given. If you be given.

If he be given. If they be given.

Past Tense
If I were given, etc.

Present Perfect Tense
If I have given, etc.

The Past Perfect Tense is like the Indicative Mood.

94. Potential Phrases. The word potential suggests the
" possibilities " of verb phrases that have the help of certain
auxiliaries — may, can, must, might, could, would, and
should — in expressing possibility, permission, ability, obli-

i6d A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

gation, or necessity. These auxiliary verbs are often called
modal auxiliaries, and the collection of verb phrases the
potential mood.

May, can, woidd, and shoidd need to be used with care.
For the difference in meaning between may and can, see
Exercise 411, pages 228-229; ^^^ wotdd and should, see
page 152.

"MAY" AND "MIGHT"

Active Voice

Present Tense

1 may give. We may give.

You may give. You may give.

He may give. They may give.

Past Tense

I might give. We might give.

You might give. You might give.

He might give. They might give.

Present Perfect Tense

1 may have given. We may have given.

You may have given. You may have given.

He may have given. They may have given.

Past Perfect Tense

I might have given. We might have given.

You might have given. You might have given.

He might have given. They might have given.

Passive Voice

Present Tense
I may be given, etc. We may be given, etc.

"MAV AND "MIGHT i6i

Past Tense
I might be given, etc. We might be given, etc.

Present Perfect Tense
I may have been given, etc. We may have been given, etc.

Past Perfect Tense
I might have been given, etc. We might have been given, etc.

EXERCISES

270. Recite synopses of give in both the active and the
passive voice, singular and plural number, taking each person
in turn.

271. What two forms of the subjimctive of give, in the active
voice, are different from the corresponding forms of the indica-
tive? Point out the differences in the passive voice of the two
moods, using the same verb.

272. Recite synopses of be in the indicative mood, active
voice, singular and plural number, taking each person in
turn.

278. In a similar way, recite synopses of (i) be in the sub-
junctive mood, (2) see in the indicative and subjunctive
moods, in both voices.

274' In the following sentences, insert may, can, must, might,
could, should, or would. You can justify the choice of more
than one word in some instances. {Should is distinguished in
meaning from ought, the latter being the stronger word and
implying greater obligation.)

1. Two hours' extra study » be enough to complete the lesson.

2. It » all be done much better without their assistance.

3. He told them how he had thought friendship » grow up be-
tween the boys.

l62 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

4. "One » lead a horse to water,

Twenty » not make him drink."

5. I » like to receive your answer as soon as possible.

6. More did not expect, however, that Henry VTEI » follow all
his suggestions.

7. The slaying of the Minotaur » be taken to symbolize the free-
ing of the Athenians from a tribute paid to the king of Crete.

8. We » not understand the Greeks of historic times without some
knowledge of the myths in which they believed.

9. Such an event, it was believed, * foreshadow only the most dire-
ful calamities to the State.

10. I wish I » go.

11. It is evident that he * have been mistaken in what he said.

12. Conversational language * not be slangy or slipshod.

13. The steamer » reach port to-morrow at noon.

14. Every evening he » shut himself up in his Hbrary with his
books. Sometimes he » come out at ten for a few minutes, but usu-
ally he * remain at work until midnight.

15. You » not take his book, but you » have the loan of mine.

16. I » like to go if you » only go with me.

17. Napoleon » have beaten Wellington at Waterloo if the French
« have delayed the appearance of Bliicher.

18. You » be more careful in future if you expect to have your work
accepted.

19. Your reading » be smooth.

20. Look through each sentence so carefully that you » discriminate
in your reading between the main thought and the subordinate
thought.

276. Make a list of the verbs in section 95 that cannot be
used in the passive voice, and be prepared to give the reasons
for your selection.

276. Write out the third person singular, all tenses, active
and passive voice, of the verb bring.

277. Write out the perfect tenses (see pp. 157-158), active
voice, of the verb choose.

278. Select some verb from section 95 that may be used
in both the active and the passive voice, and conjugate it in

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS

163

full in tlie indicative mood (a) in the active voice, (b) in the
passive voice.

^79. Conjugate in full in the subjunctive mood, active voice,
the verb selected in the preceding exercise.

95, Regular and Irregular Verbs. Verbs which form the
past tense by adding ed, d, or /, to the present are called
regular; all others, irregular. The following list contains
the present and past tenses and the past participle of cer-
tain verbs in each class that are often illtreated.

Present

Past

Past Participle

awake

awoke, awaked

awaked

bear

bore

borne (carried)
bom (brought into the
world)

beat

beaten

begin

began

begim

beseech

besought

bid (command, or

bade (a as in a/)

bidden

" bid good-by,"

etc.)

bid (at auction)

bid

break

broke

broken

bring

brought

burst

choose

chose .

chosen

come

came

come

did

done

draw

drew

drawn

drink

drank

drunk

drive

drove

driven

eat

ate

eaten

fly

flew

flown

forbid

forbade

forbidden

forget

forgot

forgotten

freeze

froze

frozen

get

got

went

gone

164

A REVIEW OF GEAMMAR

Present

Past

Past Participle

lay

laid

lead

led

lie (to recline)

lay

lain

ride

rode

ridden

ring

rang

rung

rise

rose

risen

run

ran

run

see

saw

seen

set

shake

shook

shaken

shoe

shod

show

showed

shown

shrink

shrank

shrunk

sing

sang

sung

sit

sat

slay

slew

slain

speak

spoke

spoken

spring

sprang

sprung

steal

stole

stolen

strive

strove

striven

take

took

taken

tear

tore

tpm

throw

threw

thrown

write

wrote

written

EXERCISES

280. Study the principal parts of every one of these verbs
until you know them thoroughly and can use them mechani-
cally. Be prepared to write as well as to recite them.

281, In each of the following sentences, insert the required
form of the verb:

1. The child (awake j — present perfect, active).

2. The side of the vessel {beat^ — past, passive) in by the force
of the waves.

3. The bells (begin j — future, active) to ring at eleven o'clock.

4. The girl (break j — present perfect, active) the pitcher.

5. The messenger (bring, — past, active) good news.

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS 165

6. Many are called, but few (choose j — present, passive).

7. The horseman (bring, — past, active) good news from Ghent.

8. She (choose, — past, active) to stay at home.

9. He (do, — past perfect, active) his work well.

10. When the class (do, — present perfect, active) that exercise, I
will give out the next lesson.

11. Now that the work (do, — present, passive), it is easy to find
fault.

12. The traveler (drink, — past, active) the water eagerly.

13. Four generations (drink, — past perfect, active) from this well.

14. He (eat, — past, active) in haste.

15. The iron (ecU, — past perfect, passive) away by the acid.

16. Many of the fugitives (flee, — past, active) to the mountains.

17. Summer (go, — perfect, active) and the birds (fly, — present
perfect, active).

18. The sap (fl^nv, — future, active) freely if the weather continues
warm.

19. As the chicken (flee, -^ past, active) from the hawk, a king-
bird (fly, — past, active) in haste from his airy perch to attack the
pursuer.

20. The royal cook (forget, — past perfect, active) the cakes, and
they were burned.

21. His hands (freeze, — past, passive) with the cold.

22. Right on our flank the crimson sun (go, — past, active)
down.

23. He (go, — present perfect, active) home, but his brother (go, —
future, active) with you.

24. Never foot had firmer tread

On the field where Hope (lie, — past, active) dead.

25. This old tree (lie, — present perfect, active) here many years.

26. You (lay, — past, active) the book there yourself.

27. Wherever you (lead, — present, active) the party, we will
follow.

28. The path (lead, — past, active) to the meadows.

29. He thinks that he (lead, — future, active) the team to victory.

30. The knights (ride, — future, active) in all their pride

Along the streets to-day.

31. The horse (ride, — past, passive) by an Indian chief.

32. As the sexton (ring, — past, active) the beU, the straggling
congregation (begin, — past, active) to assemble.

1 66 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

S3. The teacher (ring, — past perfect, active) the bell.

34. In the Bay of Fundy the tide (me, — present, active) rapidly.

35. The sun (rise, — past perfect, active) before we left the camp.

36. The clock (run, — future perfect, active) down, before we
return from our vacation.

37. The traveler (see, — past perfect, active) many strange lands.

38. He (see, — past, active) the same old faces that he (see, —
past perfect, active) so often before.

39. The horse (shoe, — past perfect, passive) by an inexperienced
blacksmith, and limped badly as Carleton (ride, — past, active) him
to the hunt.

40. She (sing, — present perfect, active) in every great city in
Europe and America.

41. The birds (sing, — past, active) in merry tune.

42. I (set, — past, active) the lamp on the table and then (sU, —
past, active) down to write.

43. The house (sit, — present, active) back from the road among
a grove of trees.

44. Webster (speak, — past perfect, active) continuously for two
hours.

45. Suddenly the tiger (spring, — past, active) towards his keeper.

46. The trap (spring, — present perfect, passive) by the mouse.

47. The Oxford crew (strive, — past perfect, active) too hard at the
first of the race, and were now beginning to fall behind.

48. He (strive, — past, active) night and day to succeed.

49. The prisoners (take, — past, passive) to another stockade.

50. All the smnmer birds (take, — present perfect, active) flight.

51. The sails (tear, — past, passive) to tatters by the violence of
the wind.

52. When Gibbon (wrUe, — past perfect, active) the last words of
his great history, he felt like a prisoner who (burst, — present perfect,
active) his prison bars and is free.

^82. Write sentences containing the following forms of the
verbs on pages 163-164 : (i) awake to break (inclusive), past
participle : (2) bring to eat, present perfect indicative active ;
(?>)fiy to ride, present participle ; (4) ring to sit, past indica-
tive ; (5) slay to write^ past perfect active.

ARTICLES 167

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

96. TTtts and That The limiting adjectives this and
that, which are commonly called demonstrative, differ from
most adjectives in that they are inflected for number (the
plural forms are these and those). We must therefore take
pains to use the singular forms with the collective nouns
kindj class, and sort, which are grammatically singular.
For example,

1. Do you like this kind of apples ?

2. I prefer that kind of pens.

3. We all enjoy that sort of man.

97. Articles. Articles limit noims as really as do other
limiting adjectives, and it is important to remember that the
omission or addition of one of these h'ttle words will change
the meaning.

" I know a poet and novelist " means that the same man
is both poet and novelist. " I know a poet and a novelist "
means that I know two men, the one a poet and the other a
novelist.

EXERCISE

£83, Explain the following:

1. The red and white flag. 2. The red and white flags. 3. The
red and the white flags. 4. The red, white, and blue flags. 5. The
red, the white, and the blue flags. 6. The red and white, and the blue
flags. 7. The red, and the white and blue flags. 8. I saw a dark red
and a white cow. 9. I saw a black and white cow.

98. Adjective or Adverb. Sometimes you may be imcer-
tain whether you need an adjective or an adverb. If you are
describing the subject or the object, use an adjective ; if you
are modifying the verb, use an adverb. In " He looks happy

l68 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

and " He is happy " the adjective goes with the subject ;
in " He made us happy," with the object. In " He speaks
happily " we learn about his manner of speaking. In general,
use an adjective whenever you can substitute some form of
" be ^^ for the verb; in other cases use an adverb.

EXERCISE

28 i. In these sentences, tell what each adjective or adverb
modifies :

I. The sun shines hot. 2. She flushed hotly. 3. The moon
shines bright. 4. The flowers smell sweet. 5. She smiled so sweetly
that Mary soon forgave her. 6. We reached home safe (safely).
7. He fell unconscious (unconsciously). 8. I found my opponent quick
(quickly). 9. The father looked gravely at the son. 10. The boy
looked grave. 11. Our fathers came here to enjoy their religion free
and unmolested. 12. They made the roof tight.

PREPOSITIONS

99. The Proper Preposition. Although prepositions do
not change their form, it is important to choose the right
one in any given instance.

There are special prepositions that go with certain words.
Thus, we should say different from (not different than).

His hat is better than mine and different from yours.

When in doubt about what preposition to use in a case of
this kind, consult a good dictionary.

EXERCISES

S85, The following sentences illustrate the correct use of the
italicized prepositions. Employ the same prepositions in oral
sentences of your own.

1. You may sit beside me.

2. Besides these honors he received much money.

PREPOSITIONS 169

3. The words of the speaker were in perfect accord with his past
acts.

4. The prisoner was acquitted of the charge that had been brought
against him.

5. The man complied cheerfully with his employer's request.

6. The man on your right is entirely dependent upon his son.

7. He is walking in the room.

8. He is walking into the room.

286, In this group of sentences, prepositions are incorrectly
used. Rewrite the sentences correctly.

1. Three boys owned a launch between them.

2. The money was divided equally among each of the members.

3. In the orchard there was a distance of thirty feet between each
tree.

4. We soon found the berries we were in search /(W.

5. He said something to the fellow side of him.

287, In these sentences, supply the appropriate preposition:

1. I agree »you that it is not necessary for him to consent » your
proposal.

2. Mother confides » you so fully that she will intrust the secret »
you.

3. Boys who cannot cheerfully conform » the requirements of this
school had better go elsewhere.

4. His actions do not correspond » his words.

5. The brothers correspond » each other throughout the vacation.

6. Although he differs » his brother, both have a pleasant way of
agreeing to disagree.

7. One star differeth » another star in glory.

8. She parted » her brother with the feeling that there was no
need * his going.

9. The little fellow was not eager to part » his last apple, but he
was generous enough to offer me a taste » it.

10. Have you a taste » study ?

288, Write sentences for the sake of using correctly each of
the following expressions:

lyo

A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

agree with (a person)

agree to (a proposal)

beside (by the side of), besides (in
addition to)

between (when the reference is to
two objects), among (when the
reference is to more than two ob-
jects)

confide in ( = trust in)

confide to ( intrust to)

conform to

correspond to or with (a thing)
correspond with (a person)
differ from (a person or thing)
differ from or with (in opinion)
different from
in (with verbs of rest), into

(with verbs of motion)
need of

part from or with
taste of (food)
taste for (art)

CONJUNCTIONS

Like prepositions, conjunctions do not change their form,
but they are sometimes used incorrectly. They are either
coordinate or subordinate.

100. Coordinate Conjunctions. Coordinate conjunctions
connect parts of a sentence that have the same " order,"
or rank. They take the same construction after them as
before them. The simple coordinate conjimctions are and^
but, and or.

1. He is bright, and he knows it.

2. This is the man who came yesterday and who sa3rs he knows
you. (Here and connects dependent clauses.)

3. He read some rules concerning pronouns and which were to
be looked over carefully for the next lesson. (An incorrect sen-
tence ; an attempt to make and connect a phrase with a depend-
ent clause.)

Certain coordinate conjimctions, called correlatives, go in
pairs: not only — but also (but); not merely — but; both —
and; as well — as; either — or; neither — nor.

Their position should show at once what words they com-
pare or contrast.

CONJUNCTIONS 17 1

1. Not only is he trying, but he is succeeding.

2. I am eager to own not only " The Pathfinder " and " The
Spy " bta also " Rob Roy " and " Quentin Durward."

3. I am eager not only to own those books btU also to read
them.

4. They recognize neither the horse nor the carriage.

EXERCISES

^89. Write sentences in which you use these coordinate con-
junctions: and, hut, either, or, neither, nor, also, further, yet, how-
ever, moreover, still, therefore, nevertheless,

290. Find or write sentences in which four pairs of coordinate
conjunctions are used.

101. Subordinate Conjunctions. Subordinate conjiinc-
tions introduce subordinate clauses; as :

We knew that he was a sailor.
If you prefer, I will remain.

Like must not be used as an equivalent for the subor-
dinate conjunction as.

He walks as Fred does. (Correct.)
He walks like Fred does. (Incorrect.)

When the verb is not expressed, as in " He walks like
Fred," like is correct ; in this case it has the force of a prep-
osition.

Nor should like be used for asifm such a sentence as:

He looked as i/" he were angry.

Subordinate conjunctions may he correlative (see sect.
100) ; as, whether — or.

172 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

EXERCISE

891. Write sentences in which you use these subordinate con-
junctions : although, though, as, because, if, lest, since, that,
uitless, whether, while, for,

PHRASES AND CLAUSES

'102. Phrases. A group of words without a subject and
a predicate, used as a single part of speech, is called a phrase.
Phrases are used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs, and
according to their use are named noun phrases, adjective
phrases, or adverbial phrases.^ According to their compo-
sition phrases are prepositional, infinitive, or participial.

1. Noun phrases occur in these sentences:

The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a well-known institu-
tion. (Subject.)

Did you ever leam the Declaration of Independence ? (Direct Object.)
" Evangeline " is o well-known poem. (Subjective complement.)
The meeting was called to order by Mr, Murchie, the president of
the dub. (Apposition.)

Noim phrases are frequently infinitive phrases.

To err is human. (Subject.)

He likes to read Scott. (Direct Object.)

2. Adjective phrases occur in these sentences:

A basket of apples stood on the table.
The house on the corner is built of cement.
The boy in the first seat knows his lesson.
Youth is the time to learn.

Adjective phrases may be prepositional, participial, or
infinitive phrases.

^ For the term verb phrase see section 82.

PHRASES AND CLAUSES 173

I know the captain of the eleven, (Prepositional.)
We saw John resting on the hank, (Participial.)
Have you patience to wait? (Infinitive.)

3. Adverbial phrases occur in these sentences :

The boy came into the room. (Place.)

The teacher dismissed the class at noon. (Time.)

He left the room in haste. (Manner.)

Having finished his work, he felt contented. (Time or reason.)

Adverbial phrases are frequently prepositional, sometimes

infinitive. tt . . ^, ,

He IS tn the house.

They went at once.

He stopped to listen.

EXERCISES

Show whether the noun phrases in these sentences are
used as subject, direct object, or subjective complement :

1. To make a misstep would be sure death.

2. You need to spend at least an hour on this lesson.

3. The difficulty was, to get a practical solution of the problem.

293. Show whether the adjective phrases in these sentences
are prepositional, participial, or infinitive, and tell what words
they modify:

1. I saw your advertisement for an office boy in last night's paper.

2. He heard the bells ringing in the distant steeple.

3. No one had courage to enter.

294, Show whether the adverbial phrases in these sentences
indicate time, place, or manner, and state what words they
modify:

1. The squad left at ten o'clock.

2. The paper is in the second drawer.

3. They marched in good order.

296. Give the s)aitax of each of the following phrases:

174

A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

1. They planned to catch the train for New York.

2. We found the president sitting in his office.

3. The pupils were dismissed at noon on the day before Thanks-
giving.

4. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

5. I do not fear to face the consequences of my act.

6. About, about, in reel and rout
The death fires danced at night.

7. He had thin silver bracelets upon his arms, and on his neck a
collar of the same metal, bearing the inscription, "Wamba, the son of
Witless, is the thrall of Cedric of Rotherwood."

296» In the following paragraph tell whether the phrases
are noun, adjective, or adverbial phrases:

In Dickens's early life we see a stem but imrecognized preparation
for the work that he was to do. Never was there a better illustra-
tion of the fact that a boy's early hardship and suffering are sometimes
only divine messengers disguised, and that circumstances which seem
only evil are often the source of a man's strength and of the influence
which he is to wield in the world. He was the second of eight poor
children, and was bom at Landport in 181 2. His father, who is sup-
posed to be the original of Mr. Micawber, was a clerk in a navy office.
He could never make both ends meet, and after struggling with debts
in his native town for many years, moved to London when Dickens
was nine years old. — W. J. Long, " English Literature."

297. Give the syntax of the infinitive, prepositional, and
adverbial phrases in the following selection:

When I strolled around the pond in misty weather, I was sometimes
amused by the primitive mode which some ruder fisherman had
adopted. He would perhaps have placed alder branches over the narrow
holes in the ice, which were four or five rods apart and an equal dis-
tance from the shore, and having fastened the end of the line to a stick
to prevent its being pulled through, have passed the slack line over
a twig of the alder, a foot or more above tie ice, and tied a dry oak
leaf to it, which, being pulled down, would show when he had a bite.
These alders loomed through the mist at regular intervals as you
walked halfway lound the pond. — Thoreau, "Walden."

103. Clauses. A clause is a group of words which con-
tains a subject and a predicate. If a clause is used as a

CLAUSES

175

single part of speech, it is said to be dependent; other clauses
are independent.

I do not doubt

thai you are honest.

(Independent

(Dependent or subor-

or principal clause.)

dinate clause, used as

a noun; equivalent to

your honesty.)

We stood up a.nd

they took our seats.

(Independent clause.)

That he is able

is well known.

(Subject, equiva-

lent to his ability.)

Do you know

who he is?

(Direct object, equiva-
lent to him.)

Noun

This is

where I live.

clauses

(Subjective complement,
equivalent to my home.)

'I'he report that he is coming

surprises me.

(In apposition with the

subject.)

I do not believe the report

that he is coming.

(In apposition with the
object.)

Adjective
clauses

Adverbial
clauses

There is a horse that is kind. (Equivalent to kind.)
My hrotheT J who is older than I y knows him better. (Equiv-
alent to older.)

I shall study when you study. (Time.)

where you study. (Place.)

if you study. (Condition.)

because you study. (Cause.)

as you study. (Manner.)
I shall go in order that you may study. (Purpose.)
I shall study as hard as you do. (Degree.)
I shall study although you do not. (Concession.)
He has studied birds so much that he knows something
about them. (Result.)

176 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

104. Direct and Indirect Discourse. Statements which
give the thought of another in his own words are said to be
direct quokUians or direct discourse; for example:

1. John said, "I will come."

2. WiUiam writes, " The sleighing is excellent"

3. The order is, " Come at once."

4. The question is, Shall we go ?

Statements which give the substance of another's thought
in a somewhat different form are said to be indirect quotations
or indirect discourse; for example:

5. John said that he would come.

6. William wrote that the sleighing was excellent.

7. The order was to come at once.

8. The question was whether we should go.

The change from direct to indirect discourse involves a
change in person, usually in tense, and often in mood.
Compare sentences i and 5, 2 and 6 above.

Note. Indirect discourse clauses, generally introduced by "that," may
be used with verbs and other expressions of saying, telling^ thinking, know-
ing, and perceiving.

EXERCISES

298, In the following sentences, classify the clauses:

1. What reply I should give him, was more than I knew.

2. Please tell me where I can find Mr. Hayden.

3. That is what I want.

4. The fact that he is wealthy should not protect him from just
punishment.

5. He made the statement that he should not return to school.

6. Where is the man that was hurt ?

7. This is a picture of Eli Whitney, who invented the cotton gin.

8. I hdve brought the letters that we wrote last time.

9. I shall start as soon as the bell rings.

10. He was sure to be found where the danger was greatest.

11. If you will write me a letter of introduction, I shall be greatly
obliged.

12. We could not work because the smoke was so thick.

CLAUSES

177

299. Rewrite ten of the foregoing sentences, substituting
for the dependent clauses either (i) phrases or (2) words.

300. Write sentences containing clauses that express (i) time,
(2) place, (3) condition, (4) cause, (5) manner, (6) purpose,
(7) degree, (8) concession, and (9) result. (See p. 175.) Be
prepared to explain the syntax of each phrase and clause.

SOL Turn the following statements into indirect discourse.
Be careful of your tenses.

I. She is a lady. 2. You know my father. 3. You have known
my father a long time. 4. We must be honest and straightforward.
5. They are all prompt and eager to begin work. 6. One can tell that
those men are Americans. 7. Copy this work just as it stands on
the board.

S02. Turn the following statements into direct discourse.
Be careful of your tenses.

1. My cousin thinks that he is a good writer.

2. The teacher thought that we did not like to read aloud.

3. I knew that those girls were loyal to the school.

4. As they unfolded their napkins, Mailing asked whether John
had been in these rooms long.

5. After a pause, he said that few men know how terrible the face
of truth can be.

6. He remarked that cofiFee seemed to wake up his mind and he
would have another cup.

7. As she rose, Dorothea said that she had chatted a great deal
and it was now time for her to go.

8. Looking at her with a grave appeal in his eyes, he said he did
not believe that she would let any circmnstance of his birth create a
prejudice against him.

9. The child wondered why there were so many things his parents
did not seem to imderstand.

10. The committee of a graduating class at Yale once went to a
local jeweler with a commission for a class badge. They explained
that they had in view a design representing a youthful graduate
surve3dng the universe. The jeweler inquired about how large
they would like the figure. In reply, the spokesman said that they

178 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

thought the graduate ought to cover about three quarters of the badge
and the imiverse the rest.

303. In class, change the following direct questions to in-
direct questions. (It may be convenient to introduce some of
them by whether or if,)

I. Why should a girl go to college? 2. Should a girl's studies be
the same as a boy's ? 3. Are you eighteen years old ? 4. How much
snow fell yesterday ? 5. In what ways can pupils be taught to discover
errors in their compositions ? 6. Am I to revise the theme and then
rewrite it ?

304' Write the following direct commands as indirect com-
mands. Use, for example, such introductory expressions as
"We were ordered,'* " We were urged."

I. Stand erect. 2. Come before you are needed. 3. Work while
you work. 4. Make hay while the sim shines. 5. When in Rome,
do as Rome does.

305, In telling the incidents on pages 276-279, turn the
direct discourse into indirect, and point out the difference in
effect.

105. Relations between Clauses. Clauses of the same
rank are connected by coordinate conjunctions (see sect.
100). Subordinate clauses are introduced by (i) subordi-
nate conjunctions, (2) relative pronouns, (3) adverbs (also
called conjunctive adverbs).

EXERCISES

306, Point out, in the paragraph on pages 290-291, the sen-
tences containing coordinate conjunctions.

307, Point out, on page 127, the sentences containing (i) sub-
ordinate conjunctions, (2) relative pronouns, (3) conjunctive
adverbs, and note in each instance the kind of clause (whether
noun, adjective, or adverbial) introduced by the particular con-
nective.

ANALYSIS 179

308. Find or write sentences in which each of these expres-
sions is used correctly: and that, and who, and which. (See
sect. 100.)

106. Analysis. Ability to analyze sentences will help
us to understand passages that puzzle us in our reading and
to revise phrases that seem awkward in our writing. A
thorough knowledge of sentence structure will mean that, as
we talk and write, words will slip into their proper places.

In analyzing a simple sentence we point out the subject
and its modifiers, — adjectives, adjective phrases, or ad-
jective clauses ; the predicate and its modifiers, — adverbs,
adverb phrases, or adverb clauses ; the object and its modi-
fiers, — adjectives, adjective phrases, or adjective clauses.

The following sentences have been so arranged that the
eye can see instantly the relation of the parts:

Subject and Predicate and Object and Subjective

modifiers modifiers modifiers Complement

I made an excursion

on a soft summer morning
in the genial month of May
to Windsor Castle
It is a

place (subjective
complement) full
of storied asso-
ciations

If the sentence is complex, we separate the main from the
subordinate clause and analyze each in turn. We must be
prepared to explain the relation between the main and the
subordinate clause.

A compoimd sentence is separated into its clauses, and
each is analyzed as a simple sentence would be.

l8o A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

EXERCISES

309. The following sentences are intended to illustrate in
simple, progressive fashion the common grammatical construc-
tions that have proved troublesome. Analyze each of them,
and be prepared to explain the syntax of any word.

1. I followed them.

2. Every paragraph should be indented.

3. All was bustle and hurry,

4. The seizing of the fine group of islands is a feat wprthy of
notice.

5. Every face was pale.

6. The vessel was very near now.

7. Neatness should be conspicuous in all our work.

8. Several women on deck heard this remark.

9. The captain's daughter wrote the incident years afterward.

10. The sight of the soldiers, standing with guns pointed at me,
sent a shiver through my whole body.

11. Three men emptied a hogshead, pulled it on deck, and beat it
loudly.

12. Use a hyphen to mark the division and put it at the end of the
line.

13. Early English writers spelled some words in several ways, but
in our time it is important never to vary the spelling of a word.

14. Every face was pale with fear ; some talked, others wept.

15. If we like, we may try our hand at a little verse.

16. We must not divide a word at the end of a line unless we can
divide it by syllables.

17. Most of us will read a letter before we will read a book.

18. One day while I was riding in an electric car, a man got in with
a little child.

19. When paragraphs are quoted, the quotation marks are placed
at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the last one.

20. The woods were largely pine, though yellow birch, beech, and
maple were common.

21. He uttered the word "Silence !" so harshly that no one dared
do otherwise than obey.

22. Whether a paper be a note to a friend or a petition to the Presi-
dent of the United States, it should be neat and attractive.

ANALYSIS l8l

23. My cousin sent me a letter from the Philippines, where he is
with his company.

24. No words save those of welcome were spoken until I had eaten
heartily.

25. The stream in the Doone country looked smaller than it seemed
in the book.

26. The title of a book or paper may be quoted or italicized, as
the writer prefers.

27. The loud cries of a pair of blue ja3rs resoimded from a group of
cedar trees a few minutes after the sim rose.

28. Happy is he who can see his defects; happier he who, with
stout heart and infinite patience, toils incessantly to overcome them.

29. Our friends prize highly those letters into which we put much
of ourselves.

30. A group of sentences which relate to a single division of the
subject is called a paragraph.

31. There are scores of words that we see day after day and yet
misspell.

32. The criticisms you get from your classmates should be valuable.

33. By careful observation we leam in what way many things are
made.

34. Whatever the teacher wishes the heading to include should be
separated from what follows by a blank space.

35. What first strikes the eye of the reader will repel or attract.

36. We should remember that we can never tell who may read our
letters or how long they may be preserved.

37. They heard that the man who had killed that deer was fined.

38. "The Mother Tongue" suggests that the book would appeal
to all who speak the English language.

39. We are pursued by a hostUe cruiser, and if you care for your
life, you had better go to the cabin.

40. Three paragraphs are indicated, but I see no reason why there
should be more than one paragraph.

SIO. Analyze the following sentences:

1. The black cow is in the pasture near the road.

2. We will all go with you if you are willing.

3. We know whom you mean.

4. I said, "Dick, you are right."

5. When they learned that it was I, they were very happy.

l82 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

6. They were surprised when they found it was I.

7. Man can neither drink steam nor eat stone.

Sll. Analyze the following sentences:

Note. If the teacher thinks best, these sentences may be omitted until
the second year.

1. Our lesson in arithmetic to-day was a review of decimal frac-
tions.

2. In American history we are studying about the causes of the
Civil War.

3. The other day when on my way to school, I saw a peculiar
automobile accident.

4. Gk)od manners are a social and a business asset.

5. Once upon a time a wolf met Little Red Riding Hood.

6. Raphael's "Sistine Madonna" is a pictiure that will repay
careful study.

7. The other morning I saw two sparrows attack a small gray
bird that looked like a woodpecker.

8. He is one of the boys who have received prizes.

9. Boy after boy said he wished to go.

10. Rip Van Winkle, however, was one of those happy mortals, of
foolish, well-oiled dispositions, who take the world easy.

11. Fortunately for the English toiurists, the people of Switzerland
proved truly hospitable.

12. If there be any difference, the former are rather the more sub-
stantial.

13. Were he still a politician, and as brilliant a one as ever, he could
no longer maintain anything Hke the same position in the political
world.

14. If he have strength of arm, well and good ; it is one species of
superiority.

15. Making her way round the foot of the rock, she suddenly found
herself close to our tent.

16. Having a taste for sights of this kind, and imagining, likewise,
that the illmnination of the bonfire might reveal some profundity
of moral truth heretofore hidden in mist or darkness, I made it con-
venient to journey thither and be present.

17. He seems not to believe that "he laughs best who laughs last."

18. It is probable that the burglar entered at the front window, for
it was found open and it has no lock.

ANALYSIS 183

19. The man complied cheerfully with his employer's request.

20. To make a misstep would be certain death.

21. The diflSculty was to get a practical solution of the problem.

22. We heard the bells ringing in the distant steeple.

23. No one had courage to enter.

24. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

25. About, about, in reel and rout

The death fires danced at night.

26. What is an abundance to a frugal person will scarcely seem a
plenty to a spendthrift.

27. John Gilpin was a citizen

Of credit and renown.

28. Tell me not in mournful numbers

Life is but an empty dream.

29. The very external aspect of the proud old pile is enough to
inspire high thought.

30. It rears its irregular walls and massive towers, Hke a mural
crown, round the brow of a lofty ridge, waves its royal banner in
the clouds, and looks down, with a lordly air, upon the surrounding
world.

31. It was upon a delicious summer morning, before the sun
had asstuned its scorching power, and while the dews yet cooled and
perfumed the air, that a youth, coming from the northeastward,
approached the ford of a small river, or rather a large brook, tributary
to the Cher, near to the royal Castle of Plessis-les-Tours, whose dark
and multiplied battlements rose in the background over the extensive
forest with which they were surroimded.

32. On the bank of the above-mentioned brook, opposite to that
which the traveler was approaching, two men, who appeared in deep
conversation, seemed from time to time to watch his motions; for
as their station was much more elevated, they could remark him at
considerable distance.

Sl^, In class, write a simple sentence, consisting of (i) a
subject, (2) a predicate, (3) an object.

313, Add to the sentence you have just written, or to one
similar in form, (i) an adjective, (2) an adverb.

S14» In class, write sentences containing (i) a compound sub-
ject, (2) a compound predicate, (3) an adjective modified by an

l84 A REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

adverb, (4) a clause used as direct object, (5) a clause used as
subject, (6) an adjective clause.

^15. Write (i) a compound sentence containing an adjective
phrase; (2) one containing an adverbial phrase; (3) one con-
taining an infinitive phrase used as a noun.

316. If possible, make the three sentences you have just
written complex, and note the difference in effect. (See sect.
115, page 202.)

317. Write (i) a complex sentence containing an adverbial
clause denoting time; (2) one containing a clause of piu'pose;
(3) one containing a clause of degree; (4) one containing a clause
denoting condition; (5) one containing a clause of result.

318. If possible, make the five sentences you have just
written compound. In how many cases is the change desirable ?

319. Write complex sentences containing (i) a clause used
as subjective complement, (2) a clause of concession, (3) a clause
denoting manner, (4) a clause denoting place, (5) a clause
denoting cause.

320. If possible, make the five sentences you have just
written compound. In how many instances is the change an
improvement?

321. Write complex sentences containing (i) a phrase denot-
ing place; (2) a clause denoting place; (3) a phrase denoting
time; (4) a clause denoting time; (5) an adjective clause and
an adjective phrase; (6) a noun phrase and a noun clause.

322. If possible, make the six sentences you have just written
compound. Is there a gain in any instance?

PART TWO
CHAPTER X

THE PARAGRAPH AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

107. The Coherent Paragraph. In our study of Chap-
ters rV and V we have come to realize the value of applying
the test of unity to our written work. We have also learned
something of the meaning of coherence and emphasis, but
in this chapter we are to become more familiar with them.
When a paragraph has a single main thought, we say that it
has imity, or that it is a unit. When thoughts take their
places in a natural order, so that the sentences fit together
closely, we say that the paragraph has coherence. A step
toward unity is to exclude all details which do not have
a bearing on the paragraph topic. ( See sect. 2^ .) A step
toward coherence is to arrange the details in a natural or log-
ical order. Sometimes a carefully worded topic sentence is
the best guide through a paragraph. Sometimes connectives
help us show the relation of one sentence to another.

108. Connectives. Whether a writer uses topic sentences
or not, he will often need conjimctions and conjimctive
phrases, such as: however, yet, then, too, hence, moreover,
accordingly, in short, also, further, nor, but, and, on the con-
trary, while, on the other hand, still, indeed, therefore, first,
secondly, finally.

A connective liable to be overworked is and. It is often

185

l86 THE PARAGRAPH AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

used to fill gaps, as and-er is used by pupils in reciting. We
should hesitate to allow it to stand at the beginning of a
sentence or a paragraph, and in revising a manuscript we
should cut out every and we do not absolutely need.

A demonstrative adjective,^ used with a noim, frequently
makes a good connecting link. It enables the writer to re-

2 peat a word or an idea that he wishes to keep before the

^ reader.

EXERCISES

V 323. In the following selections, point out the value of the con-

'l nectives:

In Franklin Park

N I was in Fran klin Park this morni ng [February 25] about ten

^ minutes before sunrise. The "somewhat pale moon was still shin-

s ing in the west, while the eastern horizon and the clouds above it were

^ suffused with pink. This pink grew brighter and brighter imtil it

v^ became golden. Just then I heard a single half-suppressed caw, and

A "^ turning toward the west beheld a long, dark Une of crows, at least

fifty, pursuing a northerly course. The loud cries of a pair of blue

jays resoimded from a group of cedar trees a few minutes after the

sun rose. The chickadees, too, were early risers and three hairy

woodpeckers put in an appearance in good season. Squirrels, both red

and gray, were niunerous, and at one time I noticed five gray fellows

in a single pine tree. In passing a low hedge of evergreens, I heard a

chirp, and looking carefully, I saw a song sparrow perched in the hedge.

I tried by various whistles and bird notes to get him to sing his spring

song to me, but the only response he would give was a melancholy chirp,

which seemed to mean that spring had not yet come.

Rip Van Winkle

In that same village, and in one of these very houses (which, to tell
the precise truth, was sadly time-worn and weather-beaten), there
lived, many years since, while the country was yet a province of Great

^ See page 167.

CONNECTIVES 187

Britain, a simple, good-natured fellow, of the name of Rip Van Winkle.
He was a descendant of the Van Winkles who figured so gallantly in
the chivalrous days of Peter Stu)rvesant, and accompanied him to the
siege of Fort Christina. He inherited, however, but little of the
martial character of his ancestors. I have observed that he was a
simple, good-natured man; he was, moreover, a kind neighbor, and
an obedient, hen-pecked husband. Indeed, to that latter circmnstance
might be owing that meekness of spirit which gained him such uni-
versal popularity ; for those men are most apt to be obsequious and
conciliating abroad, who are under the discipline of shrews at home.
Their tempers, doubtless, are rendered pliant and malleable in the
fiery furnace of domestic tribulation. ... A termagant wife may,
therefore, in some respects, be considered a tolerable blessing; and
if so, Rip Van Winkle was thrice blest. — Irving, "The Sketch-Book."

The Lingering Daylight

By this time the sun had gone down, and was tinting the clouds
towards the zenith with those bright hues which are not seen there
until some time after sunset, and when the horizon has quite lost its
richer briUiancy. The moon, too, . . . These silvery beams . . ,
They softened . . . With the lapse of every moment, the garden
grew more picturesque . . . The commonplace characteristics . . .
were now transfigured by a charm of romance. A hundred mysterious
years were whispering among the leaves. . . . Through the foliage
that roofed the little simimer-house the moonlight flickered to and
fro, and fell silvery white on the dark floor, the table, and the cir-
cular bench, with a continual shift and play, according as the chinks
and wa)nvard crevices among the twigs admitted or shut out the glim-
mer. — Hawthorne, "The House of the Seven Gables."

S^4' Rewrite the following incoherent theme to make it one co-
herent paragraph. Begin with a better topic sentence. Before
class test your theme by the questions in Exercise 60.

It was a rather large farm of twenty acres.

There was a tall elm tree in one comer of the yard.

Underneath one of the large branches was a rabbit house where

l88 THE PARAGRAPH AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

four white angora rabbits were kept. The chickens were running
around on the grass.

About forty yards from the tree was a bam. The boys were
putting hay in the top of it for the winter's feed for the cows and
horses.

There were a blue truck wagon, a rake, and a cutting machine
near the bam.

In the distance were a nxmiber of cows feeding near a pond.

Milk pails were hanging upon the whitewashed fence near the tree.

825. Insert these connectives in their proper places in the
following paragraph: in short, and lastly, for one thing, for
another.

People had no fancy for amateur explosions . it did

not clearly appear that it was legal. it seemed a somewhat

advanced example of civilization to set before barbarians. The
matter, , became a storm.

326. Copy five of the topic sentences in Exercises 79 and 82,
and write one or more sentences that naturally follow each of
the five.

Note. If all members of the class should write from a topic sen-
tence placed on the blackboard, they would readily see possibilities
•of infinite variety in such an exercise as the foregoing.

327. Write five sentences of your own on as many different
-subjects and, as above, add to each at least one or more sentences
that are closely connected.

328. Write a paragraph in which you use one of the following
as an opening sentence:

I. He had plenty to do through the next hour. 2. I sauntered
to the window and stood gazing at the people picking their way to
-church. 3. All was now bustle and hubbub in the late quiet school-
room. 4. Dinner time came. 5. His heart opened wide to real dis-
tress.

329. Exchange themes and test their coherence. Mark O
opposite any sentence which should be omitted; and C against
any lack of connection.

EMPHASIS THROUGH POSITION i8g

SSO. Explain the working of some machine or instrument,
or the process of doing something. First prepare a list of
topics. As you revise, test the coherence of your paragraph,
or paragraphs.

SSL Write a letter to a friend, giving an account of some
recent experience. Write rapidly. Think of your subject, not
of how you are writing. Revise in order to secure coherence
and put in correct letter form (see Chap. VIII).

SS2. Either as critic of your own letter, or of a classmate's,
point out any lack of proper form or of unity and coherence.

109. The Emphatic Paragraph. Of the many ways of
securing emphasis in a paragraph we shall consider two:
(i) emphasis through position and (2) emphasis through
proportion.

110. Emphasis through Position. When a man makes a
speech, he naturally begins in a way that will attract and
hold the attention of his audience. If in the course of his
talk he at times grows less interesting, when he comes to
the conclusion he rouses himself to leave a lasting impres-
sion. As the closing words naturally linger longest in the
ears of the listeners, we may say that the most important
part of the speech is the end. The part of next importance
is the beginning. So it is with a book, a chapter, a para-
graph, and a sentence. What first strikes the eye of the
reader wiU repel or attract ; the image that is last to leave
his eye he will be most likely to remember. We may say,
therefore, that the last sentence in a paragraph is in the
most conspicuous position, and that the first sentence is in
the position of second importance ; that the last words in a
sentence are by position the most emphatic, and that the
opening words are only less emphatic.

I90 THE PARAGRAPH AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

Let us, then, look to the beginning and the ending of
our paragraphs. In self-defense we need to attend to this
matter of emphasis ; otherwise the reader may lay stress on
what we consider of slight importance.

EXERCISES

383. Point out the purpose of the opening and the closing
sentence of the following paragraph.

The Shell and the Book

A child and a man were one day walking on the seashore when
the child foimd a little shell and held it to his ear. Suddenly he
heard sounds, — strange, low, melodious sounds, as if the shell were
remembering and repeating to itself the murmurs of its ocean home.
The child's face filled with wonder as he listened. Here in the little
shell, apparently, was a voice from another world, and he listened
with delight to its mystery and music. Then came the man, ex-
plaining that the child heard nothing strange ; that the pearly
curves of the shell simply caught a multitude of soimds too faint for
human ears, and filled the glimmering hollows with the murmur of
innumerable echoes. It was not a new world, but only the im-
noticed harmony of the old that had aroused the child's wonder. —
W. J. Long, " English Literature."

334' Write a paragraph on the three most desirable traits
in a boy or a girl, on the three most attractive ways of spend-
ing leisure time, or on any other subject.

336, Arrange the following sentences so that they shall make
a paragraph which has imity, coherence, and emphasis.

But there was both luster and depth in her eyes.

Neither did her face — with the brown rin^ets on either side, and
the slighdy piquant nose, and the wholesome bloom, and the dear
shade of tan, and the half a dozen freckles, friendly remembrances
of the April sun and breeze — precisely give us a right to call her
beautiful.

EMPHASIS

igr

She shocked no canon of taste ; she was admirably in keeping with
herself, and never jarred against surrounding circumstances.

She was very pretty ; as graceful as a bird, and graceful much in
the same way ; as pleasant about the house as a gleam of simshine
falling on the floor through a shadow of twinkling leaves, or as a ray
of firelight that dances on the wall while evening is drawing nigh.

Her figure, to be sure, — so small as to be almost childlike, and so
elastic that motion seemed as easy or easier to it than rest, — would
hardly have suited one's idea of a countess.

336. Make a plan for either the second selection on page i86,
or the first on page 254. Can you rearrange the topics so as to
give the paragraph greater emphasis? Discuss the present
arrangement.

337. Rewrite the following paragraph. Omit useless words,
and secure paragraph emphasis.

The Morning Transcript is, in my opinion, one of the best papers
in the city. It gives the news from all parts of the world. I like
the paper for three reasons : first, it tells me all the news ; second,
it expresses the ideas plainly so that every one can understand the
meaning. This paper tells the exact truth, and most of the people
in the city buy it.

111. Emphasis through Proportion. If you were to talk
for ten minutes to thirty younger boys and girls, you would
probably spend most of your time on what you considered
the most important or most interesting topic. In the same
way, to give proper emphasis to the most important details
of a paragraph, you must give them sufficient space.

EXERCISES

338. In the following extract from a journal, what detail
did the pupil wish to emphasize most? Did he secure the
emphasis by giving this suggestion the most space, or the best
position, or both?

J92 THE PARAGRAPH AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

Timely SuxjGEsnoNS on Bird Study

If one is going to study birds this year, he should begin at once
"[February 23], so as to know all the species that are now here, for
within two weeks new birds will begin to arrive, and in six weeks we
shall have thirty more species. There are many important things
which are much easier to learn now than later in the season. Get
between the sun and your bird; otherwise you will not be able to
tell a scarlet tanager from a robin. Do not puzzle over shy, small,
sober-colored birds at first ; confine yourself to those having marked
characteristics. Learn the songs of as many birds as you can. Make
notes on everything you observe ; you cannot make too many, pro-
vided they are accurate. Above all things never hurry. Identify
your birds with caution ; be sure you are right. Never raise even your
glasses hurriedly, for many shy birds will be frightened away by the
flash of the sim upon the lens. When in search of birds, pause fre-
quently and you will see and hear much that would otherwise escape
you. Therefore the motto of the successful ornithologist should be,
"Slow and sure."

339. Write a paragraph in which you try to secure emphasis
both by proportion and by position. First make a list of topics.
You may give suggestions in regard to doing something which
you know well how to do.

340. Write a paragraph on a subject taken from a book which
you have read recently. First make a list of topics. These
subjects from " The Last of the Mohicans " may be suggestive:

I. The Night in the Cave. 2. A Character Sketch of Hawkeye.
3. The Basest Character. 4. The Weakest Character. (Compare
at least two characters.) 5. David Gamut's Good Qualities.

341- Exchange papers, and write in a single sentence the
thought which you consider the most important in each paragraph
you examine.

34^. Write a theme on one of the following subjects: Caring
for Plants; Setting the Table for Dinner; Managing a Canoe;
Enjoying a Boat; Learning to Swim.

EMPHASIS THROUGH PROPORTION 193

S4S. In class, write out and hand in with the theme just
written a statement of the following points:

1. What is the main thought of each paragraph and of the theme
as a whole ?

2. Point out any good connectives, and any lack of connection.

3. How, if at all, is emphasis secured?

344' Give an account of one of your recent experiences.
Write in a simple, straightforward way as rapidly as you can.
In revising, test the imity, coherence, and emphasis of the para-
graph or paragraphs.

34^- Exchange themes and criticize (i) form, (2) sentence
structure, (3) punctuation, (4) spelling, (5) emphasis (as in
Ex. 343), (6) interest,

346. .Write a theme on any subject you please.

347. Exchange papers and, as examiner, answer these ques-
tions:

1. Is it interesting? Point out what you like best in the work.

2. Is it adequate? Make a note of any topics which in your
opinion should be included.

3. Is it to the point? Make an in the margin against any-
sentence which had better be omitted.

4. Can you suggest any improvements in (i) form, (2) sentence-
structure, (3) punctuation, (4) spelling, (5) unity, (6) coherence^
(7) emphasis, or (8) interest?

348. Write an account of to-day's recitation in history. See
that your report is (i) adequate and (2) to the point. Make it a
valuable record to any pupil who is absent to-day, or to a pupil
who may enter the school after to-day.

349. Exchange papers and, as examiner, answer the questions
given in Exercise 347.

350. In class, give the substance of what you have learned
about writing themes.

194 THE PARAGRAPH AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

112. Development of fhe Paragraph. In writing inde-
pendent paragraphs, we have learned much about longer
themes. Still more may be learned by examining a few
common ways of developing paragraphs, and practice in
writing all these kinds will insure considerable variety in our
composition work. It must be imderstood that a paragraph,
or a longer theme, often combines two or more of these meth-
ods of development, but in the interest of simplicity we
shall give our attention chiefly to the illustration of single
methods. The different methods of development are the
following : (i) by details, (2) by examples, (3) by repetition,
(4) by comparison and contrast, (5) by cause and effect.

I. By details. It is often convenient to begin a compo-
sition and a paragraph with a general statement which serves *
the twofold purpose of introduction and topic sentence.
One natural development from such a beginning is by de-
tails. If we are to develop the subject " The Way of
Transgressors is Hard " by details, we may point out that
the wrongdoer is shunned by those who were his friends, that
he is constantly reminded of the sorrow which his deeds have
caused his family, that his own guilty conscience troubles
his sleep and makes life a burden instead of a joy, that his
health suffers from the constant worry of past misdeeds.
Read the following and see page 246, paragraph i ; " Sunset
Colors," page 225; and the paragraphs quoted on pages
289-293.

A single day in the life of a civilized man discloses the services
of a multitude of helpers. When he rises, a sponge is placed in his
hands by a Pacific Islander, a cake of soap by a Frenchman, a
rough towel by a Turk. His merino underwear he takes from the
hand of a Spaniard, his linen from a Belfast manufacturer, his outer

EXAMPLES 195

garments from a Birmingham weaver, his scarf from a French silk
grower, his shoes from a Brazilian glazier. At breakfast, his cup
of coffee is poured by natives of Java and Arabia ; his rolls are
passed by a Kansas farmer, his beefsteak by a Texas ranchman,
his orange by a Florida negro. He is taken to the city by the de-
scendants of James Watt; his messages are carried hither and
thither by Edison; his day's stint of work is done for him by a
thousand Irishmen in his factory; or he pleads in a court which
was founded by ancient Romans, and for the support of which all
citizens are taxed; or, in his study at home he reads books com-
posed by English historians and French scientists. In the evening
he is entertained by German singers, who repeat the myths of Norse-
men, or by a company of actors, who render the plays of Shake-
speare ; and finally he is put to bed by South Americans who bring
hair, by Pennsylvania miners and furnace workers who bring steel,
by Mississippi planters who bring cotton, or, if he prefers, by Rus-
sian peasants who bring flax, and by Labrador fowlers who smooth
his pillow. A million men, women, and children have been working
for him that he may have his day of comfort and pleasure. In re-
turn he has contributed his mite to add a unit to the conmion stock
of necessaries and luxuries from which the world draws. Each is
working for all; all are working for each.

— George Harris, " Moral Evolution."

2. By examples. If you were given the key sentence of
a paragraph " I do pity children in the city," would not the
most natural way of developing this be by illustration?
One or two good incidents, or examples, would be forceful
and interesting. The following is a paragraph of this
kind:

The true locomotive engineer is always a man of sense, of quick
thought and courage in an emergency, and in peril a hero. ... In
the riots of 1863, when the city was in possession of a mob, trains
of the Hudson River Road were stopped, and hundreds of women
were in the depot at Thirtieth Street unable to get to their homes.

196 THE PARAGRAPH AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

The rioters threatened to kill anyone who tried to move a wheel.
An engineer instantly volunteered and said, " I will take that train
up the river." On either side of the road were men frenzied with
rage and with drink, ready for murder or any desperate deed, but
they were so awed by the calm courage of this engineer that he was
permitted to proceed. After forty years of service on the Central
this engineer, Henry Milliken, joined the silent majority. His name
stands among the unheralded heroes who are the pride and glory of
our humanity.

3. By repetition. A writer frequently likes to repeat the
main thought of a paragraph, modif3dng it slightly or con-
sidering it from a somewhat different point of view. See
the selection from Franklin on page 344; the paragraph
in Webster's " Reply to Hayne," beginning " I have not
allowed myself, sir, to look beyond the Union " ; and the
following from Fox :

It must, indeed, create astonishment that . . . the character of
Washington should never once have been called in question — that
he should in no one instance have been accused either of improper
insolence, or of mean submission, in his transactions with foreign
nations. It has been reserved for him to run the race of glory
without experiencing the smallest interruption to the brilliancy of
his career. The breath of censure had not dared to impeach the
purity of his conduct, nor the eye of envy to raise its malignant
glance to the elevation of his virtues. Such has been the transcend-
ent merit and the unparalleled fate of this illustrious man !

4. By comparison and contrast. One of the simplest
ways to explain a thing is to begin by telling what it is not,
or to compare and contrast it with something else. The
following character sketch has been developed by means
of comparison :

Once in the span of a generation of men comes a chess geniuS;
who, submitting to be blindfolded, carries on successfully against

DEVELOPMENT BY CAUSE AND EFFECT 197

twenty antagonists twenty simultaneous games of chess ... he
works only at certain hours and under conditions of his own choos-
ing. . . . Yet the work of this marvel ... is only the work of
the train dispatcher, who, blindfolded by four white walls, his right
hand on the key and his eye fastened on the figure of a train sheet,
forces his mind, when other men are asleep, to visualize the long,
winding miles of his division — its trains, its passing tracks and
curves, its towers and stations, its semaphores and switches. At
twenty points in the darkness of his night . . . are swiftly moving
trains of Pullman cars. . . . This man is no genius; he is the
plain, everyday American ... he plays every day. ... He can-
•not play twenty games and rest ; he must for eight hours be ready
steadily for every game* that comes over the wires against him,
whether of storms, blockades, breakdowns, or wrecks.

— Frank Spearman, " The Nerves of the Road," The Outlook.

5. By cause and effect. A paragraph sometimes begins
by giving causes and ends with a statement of the effect.
If the effect comes first, it is often followed by a statement
of the causes that produce it.

These [Scotch] melodies were transmitted from place to place and
from generation to generation mainly by ear, and in this way they
grew. The plowman in the field or the maid among the cows will
whistle or sing a half-caught strain until the air completes itself.
But the air will be apt to take some little turn from the singer's
mood or temper, and then it is no longer the same ; it has assumed
a different color, sentiment, and individuaUty ; it has become a dif-
ferent song, demanding different words. Melodies, too, among a
musical people, are readily caught when words are lost, and the song,
carried away into another glen or haugh, hums itself in the popular
mind, until by-and-by it shapes itself into words that embody its
changed sentiment. . . . And no doubt the fact that they suffered
modification from the country people who sang them is partly the
reason why they are so rich in feeling. They have gathered to
themselves the unspoken hmnor and pathos of we know not how

198 THE PARAGRAPH AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

many lives, and as we listen to them we seem to hear the voices of
generations of dead singers come trembling to us across the centuries
with a laugh or a sob.

— J. G. Dow, " Selections from the Poems of Robert Bums.'*

EXERCISES

SSI. How many of the paragraphs of " An Exciting Moment '^
(see p. 14) follow time order ? How many of the paragraphs of
" Rikki-tikki " on page 222 ?

352. Be prepared to read to the dass (i) a simple narrative
of your own that calls for time order; (2) an explanatory narra-
tive — on making or doing something.

853. Show that quotations in Exercises 333, 407, and 601 are
developed by particulars, ue. details. Find the topic sentence
of each paragraph, or, if there seems to be none, write one.

354' Bring to class an original paragraph developed by particu-
lars. These subjects may be suggestive:

1. It was a beautiful spring morning.

2. He had chosen an ideal place for a summer vacation.

3. The Battle of Bunker Hill was a desperate fight.

4. Electrical engineering is an interesting occupation.

355. (i) Write a topic sentence for paragraph i on page 254
and point out the examples in the selection. (2) See whether
you can find in your own writing a paragraph developed by
examples.

356. Point out instances of repetition in the third part of the
long paragraph quoted on pages 309-310, and see whether you
can find in your own writing a paragraph developed by repetition.

357. Write a paragraph in which you consider the use of
comparison or contrast helpful. See the selection from " The
Second Jungle Book " on page 300, the subjects on pages 317-
318, and the following:

CAUSE AND EFFECT 199

1. A Modern Way of doing Business.

2. The Typewriter.

3. The Stage Coach,

4. The Telephone. '

5. Harvesting in the West.

6. Vacation in Winter.

S58» In the paragraph from " The Voyage/^ on page 40, find
the causes that make the long voyage an excellent preparative.

369, Use one of the subjects on page 48 as a topic sentence,
and develop a paragraph by giving causes. Be prepared to
criticize your theme, answering the questions in Exercise 347.

860. Show that the paragraph under Exercise 519 is devel-
oped by details and contrast; the paragraph under Exercise
521, by particulars.

861. Show that the following topic sentences may be devel-
oped as indicated below. Write (i) a paragraph based on one
sentence in each group or (2) a theme of considerable length
based on any sentence.

1. Develop by means of incidents in time order:

a. This was what happened.

b. One day last week I went on an errand.

c. The most exciting event of the summer was the tennis

tournament.

2. Develop by means of particulars.

a. I like to watch my favorite bantam.

b. Our last lesson in history was very instructive.

c. A walk I took yesterday was wonderfully exhilarating.

d. It was a lonesome spot.

e. Clearly the house has not been occupied for a long time.
/. I feel well acquainted with one great author.

3. Develop by the use of examples.

a. A good phonograph may be an endless source of entertain-

ment and instruction.

b. Our dog is a good companion.

c. The " central " operator in the telephone ofl&ce sees the

world from an unusual point of view.

Ki^

^' CHAPTER XI

THE EFFECTIVE SENTENCE

^ 114. Unity in the Sentence. We have seen that the ideal
paragraph, like the ideal composition, is a unit, and the
definition of a sentence shows that the sentence, too, should
be a unit. One of the hardest things for many yoimg writers
to learn is to stop when they have finished a sentence.
Like fluent but careless letter writers, they ramble on from
one subject to another without a period. Sometimes
this dividing paragraphs into sentences is a very simple
matter ; at other times it is somewhat puzzling.

115. Simple and Complex Sentences as Units. Simple
and complex sentences offer the best means of securing
unity. You remember from your study of grammar that a.
simple sentence consists of a single statement, command^
question, or exclamation. Such a sentence seldom lacks
unity. Similarly, if your sentence is complex, — that is,,
if it consists of one main clause and one or more subordi-
nate clauses, — you have a good chance to put the important
statement in a prominent position. If, however, your sen-
tence is compound, — if it consists of two or more clauses
of equal rank, — you will need to give special attention ta
unity.

It is not sufficient for these main clauses to refer to the
same thing ; as separate thoughts they must be parts of 2l
greater thought. The following sentence is not unified^
although both main clauses refer to Shakespeare :

202

UNITY IN THE SENTENCE

203

Shakespeare was bom in Stratford-on-Avon, and he wrote
" Macbeth."

Notice that the statements may be put into a complex sen-
tence; as,

Shakespeare, who wrote " Macbeth," was bom at Stratford-
on-Avon.

But the following sentence, although similar in form to the
compound one given above, is allowable because its main
clauses merge in a greater thought :

Shakespeare was born at Stratford-on-Avon, and is supposed
to have written " Macbeth " in that town.

The first two sentences in section 1 14 may be studied as
illustrations of the differences between a compound and a
complex sentence. The first sentence is compound. Each
of the two main clauses discusses unity: the one, unity in
the paragraph ; the other, unity in the sentence. The
" greater thought," binding the whole sentence together,
is that unity is the fundamental basis of both the para-
graph and the sentence. The second sentence is complex.
The main clause states that it is hard for a yoimg writer to do
a certain thing ; the subordinate clause explains when this
is difficult.

Several separate thoughts may form a series or may con-
stitute a group of details in a single picture. For example:

1. The smith, w ith the horse's heel in his lag^ pauses as the vehicle
whirls by, the cyclops round the arivH suspend their ringing hammers,
and suffer the iron to grow cool ; and the sooty specter in brown paper
cap, laboring at the bellows, leans on the handle for a moment and
permits the asthmatic engine to heave a long-drawn sigh, while he
glares through the mirky smoke and sulphurous gleams of the smithy.

2. At this point I cannot keep out of mind the story of the preacher

204 THE EFFECTIVE SENTENCE

who divided his discourse into three heads. He declared it to be his
intention, under the first head, to speak of some things that he knew
all about, and of which his congregation knew nothing; under his
second head, he proposed to deal with matters that both he and his
hearers fully understood ; and under the third head, he promised to
discuss topics concerning which neither he nor they had any knowl-
edge.

It is a good habit in revising your work to see whether
you cannot improve sentences by making compoimd sen-
tences either simple or complex.

EXERCISES

362. Point out the greater thought (i) in the last sentence of
section 2, page i; (2) in the first sentence of section 3. Turn to
five other compound sentences in the book, and explain what
you understand to be the greater thought in each.

363. Be prepared to make each of the following sentences
complex. Emphasize the main thought. When it seems best,
substitute a phrase for a dause.

^ I. I called this morning before school, and he was still asleep.

2. He rounded the corner and recognized his old maste^.

3. The bell rang, and the room became quiet.

' 4. We went into the kitchen and found Fred putti ng up the
luncheon.

5. Night came on, and we hurried out of the wood.

6. We reached the mooring about five o'clock, and took the party
ashore in the tender.

, 7. We retiuTied to the boat and cleaned her deck and sides, and
then went ashore.

8. I was skating on Jamaica Pond a few nights ago and saw a
novel way of gliding over the ice.

364' Find in your writing five compoimd sentences. Turn
them into complex sentences by using subordinate clauses,
and point out any improvement or lack of improvement.

UNITY IN THE SENTENCE 205

366, Rewrite as many of the following sentences as you can
improve, even if some of them are good as they stand:

' I . I was alone at the time and was much frightened.

2. My father tried to take hold of the cat, and it jumped about
five feet up into the air.

3. He asked them what they wanted, and they laughed at him.

4. We reached home about five o'clock, and we were so tired when
we got off our bicycles that we could hardly walk.

5. Last sijpimer, while, spending a few weeks' vacation in Province_-
town, I built a raft_and went rowing with the boys of the community.

^Mjj^^^M- 1 had no cartridges, so I went over to my chum's house and bor-
' roWedafew.^ '" ' "^^ '" ' ^-' ' -^

7. Several of the bpys recited "Signior Antonio," and did so well
that the teacher was greatly pleased.

8. I have not yet put all tjie themes in my notebook, but I have
only two more to be put in. ' ^ ' • *

9. Asl entered the woods, I saw two high rocks.

10. The center 'i6f the island was high','knd there was a very tall
tree there.^J]

366. Consider the unity of the following sentences, and re-
write wherever it is desirable. If the sentence is compound and
does not seem to require rewriting, explain carefully the thought
that unifies it.

1. Our school building is the oldest in the city, and it stands on
Broadway.

2. 'Theodore Roosevelt has been twice President of the United
States, and has made a famous hunting trip to Africa.

3. I like the Boston Tribune because it costs only one cent, contains
reliable news, and has a good editorial page.

4. Burns wrote '^ Auld Lang Syne," and is a famous poet who was
a poor farmer in Scotland.

5. Front-de-Boeuf was very cruel, and was the largest of all the
knights at the tournament where Ivanhoe won the victory and made
Rowena the Queen of Love and Beauty.

6. London is the largest city in the world, and is situated on the
river Thames.

7. Monsieur Defarge was an able-bodied man of about thirty

years of age, and was rather good-natured. "^^ ^ ,

/ /

2o6 THE EFFECTIVE SENTENCE

8. Jerry Cruncher was the messenger at Tellson's Bank, and was
fond of fishing.

9. The Mississippi, which is the most important river in the
United States, flows into the Gulf of Mexico.

10. I like "Ivanhoe" as a story, but "A Tale of Two Cities"
is much harder to understand.

11. The Crusades were great military expeditions, and the
Christian people of Europe carried them on with the aim of res-
cuing the holy places of Palestine from the hordes of the Moham-
medans.

12. The courage of the common soldier is officially supposed to be
beyond question, and, as a rule, it is so.

13. Every timber in the vessel was of oak, and she had been built
in Maine,

14. The soldiers stepped from the trenches into the furrow, horses
that had charged federal guns marched before the plow, and fields that
ran red with blood in spring were green with harvest in June.

15. All this time it was snowing harder than it had ever snowed
before, so far as a man might guess at it ; and the leaden depth of the
sky came down like a mine turned upside down on us.

116. Uniform Construction. If possible, keep the con-
struction of a sentence uniform. One way to do this is to
keep the same subject and the same voice throughout the
sentence. For example :

Change of Construction Uniform Construction

I. I looked down on the river 2. I looked down on the river
and twenty small boys cotdd be and could see twenty small boys
seen swimming merrily about. swinmiing merrily about.

As we read i, we may natmrally inquire, " By whom could
the boys be seen? "

EXERCISES

S67. Be prepared to improve the following sentences, and
to explain the original faults of construction:

I. In order to save the vessel, she had to be lightened of her deck-
load and w^s run before the wind.

LONG OR SHORT SENTENCES 207

2. The wolves becoming more savage every moment, a council
was held, and having decided to camp for the night, a great fire was
built.

3. Van and I paddled down the river all that morning until one
o'clock, and then the canoe was pushed into the sand and lunch was
eaten.

4. I strung a rope between two trees, and then the tent covering
was drawn over it.

5. Their object is to blast away the whole ledge of rock so that a
cellar can be made, and at the same time they can utilize the stone for
building purposes.

6. As we looked eagerly toward the opening in the wood, the famil-
iar face of our favorite horse was seen.

7. Many people take great pleasure in photography and in taking
long drives, and even reading is often enjoyed by people.

8. She had a severe headache and the doctor cured it.

368. (i) Write what you consider the most important thing to
say about each of five of the following subjects:

1. "The Vision of Sir Launfal." 7. Napoleon.

2. "The Rime of the Ancient 8. England and America.

Mariner." 9. International Peace.

3. Rebecca (in "Ivanhoe"). 10. Our School Paper.

4. "Treasure Island." 11. The Good Effects of War.

5. "The Pilgrim's Progress." 12. Our Literary Society.

6. Abraham Lincoln's Boyhood. 13. Extempore Speaking.

(2) Examine each sentence carefully to see whether it is a unit.
If there is any doubt about the unity of a sentence, rewrite it.
See that the construction is uniform.

117. Long or Short Sentences. If you indulge in a long
sentence, be sure that you keep it well in hand. The longer
you allow a sentence to nm, the greater is the danger that it
will run away with you. A short sentence is easier to man-
age, and is more likely to be a unit.

Occasionally short sentences need to be combined. A

2o8 THE EFFECTIVE SENTENCE

glance shows that for the following material one sentence
is better than three :

On my way home I saw two On my way home I saw two

wagons broken down: one had wagons broken down. One had

the rear axle broken ; the other, the rear axle broken. The other

the shafts. had the shafts broken.

S69. (i) Copy from your writing five of the longest sentences
you can find, and rewrite any into which you have crowded ideas
which have no close connection.

(2) Turn this runaway compound sentence into two complex
sentences:

When school began we made new acquaintances, but "our friend
in need" became a chum to me, but he was rather old for my brother
who made friends for himself among the niembers of his class.

870. See whether, in the last piece of writing you have done,
there are any such scrappy sentences as these. What suggestions
might improve them ?

The lady Rowena was taU and had a fair complexion. Her eyes
were blue. She loved to wear rich clothes. She was well built and of
a noble family. She had a fine set of teeth. She had no parents and
was under the care of Cedric.

87 L Rewrite the paragraphs given below, combining them in
order to avoid the scrappy effect and omitting useless words
(see sect. 123, page 220).

1. Last summer I was invited to join a motor boat party. This
party consisted of seven boys and our motor chauflFeur.

2. The captain is quarterback. He is a strong, muscular fellow,
but not very tall. His name is Marsh.

3. One day I brought a steel rod to school with me, which was about
one quarter of an inch in diameter. I intended to make a chisel
gauge such as carpenters use out of it.

4. Some days I like to play marbles with the boys. We would
begin by "popping" a marble. Getting tired of that we would play

COHERENCE IN THE SENTENCE 209

"bunny." After a while we would play "blum," or "piggy," as
some call it. This is my favorite game with marbles.

5. Last summer a friend and I often went to the Franklin Park golf
links. We walked over the links with the players, having a great deal
of fun himting for golf balls. After going over the links several times
or more, we began to know or understand how to play the game.
One hot day we went over the links with an old man. He let the boy
who was with me try his luck at hitting the ball. He did pretty well
for the first time. Then he let me try it. I got everything ready,
took good aim and whacked at it, but I missed. I did this three or
four times. But every one was laughing at me, so I made up my mind
I would hit it and I did. But in taking good aim I did not put aU the
strength I could into it. The result was that the golf ball went only
a few yards. But the next time I did a little better, although it was
not much to talk about.

6. Uncas was the son of Chingachgook. He was the deadly enemy
of Magna and loved Cora. He was quick of foot and could see every-
thing. On his breast was tattooed the sign of a turtle. He and
Chingachgook were the Jast of the Mohicans. Magna killed him
after Cora had been slain.

118. TJays of Seci^mg Unity. It will be helpful to keep
in mind these ways of securing unity :

1. A sentence is likely to be a unit if it is simple or com-
plex rather than compound.

2. We need to give special attention to a compound sen-
tence in order to keep out ideas which are not closely-
connected.

3. We should keep the construction of the sentence uni-
form.

4. A short sentence is more likely to be a imit than a
long sentence.

119. Coherence in the Sentence. Clear thinking leads to
dear writing. If we think of one thing at a time, we shall
naturally write of one thing at a time ; but even then it is
not always easy to express the thought so that it plainly

2IO THE EFFECTIVE SENTENCE

forms a whole. This means that the exact relation which
any part of the sentence bears to any other part must be
evident. As all the sentences in a paragraph should cling
together, so should all the words in a sentence cling to-
gether; words closely connected in meaning should be
closely connected in position, and there should be no doubt
about the relation of the words to one another.

120. Wa^sj)f^ecuiingj Cohe We should keep in

mind these ways of securing coherence :

1. In general, put together words that belong together.
Try to place every word, phrase, or clause close to the word
or words it modifies.

1. I asked before breakfast where you were. {Before breakfast
modifies asked.)

2. I asked where you were before breakfast. {Before breakfast
modifies were.)

3. School began only yesterday. (Only modifies yesterday.)

4. Only one of us can go. {Only modifies one.)

Note. A good rule is to place only just before or just after the word
or words it limits. Words that need similar attention are also and even.

For the position of not only — but also and other pairs of
coordinate conjunctions, see section 100.

2. In particular, see that the relation of the participle to
the noun or pronoun it modifies is immistakable. See sec-
tion 87, and note the following examples :

1. While coming home from school the other day, the sidewalks
were very slippery. (The sidewalks, while coming ?)

2. Having told them that I was a high-school pupil, they asked
me to get a recommendation from one of my teachers. (They,
having told ?)

3. Be equally careful to see that the relation between a
pronoun and its antecedent is clear. See sections 76-78.

WAYS OF SECURING COHERENCE 211

4. Do not omit words necessary to the j:onstruction that
cannot be inferred from some other part of the sentence.

He never did and never will do what is right.
Not, He never did and never will what is right.

Brown is a diligent worker, and his two sons are just as indus-
trious.
Not J Brown is a diligent worker, and his two sons just as industrious.

I see that not only the chairman is here but also his two
daughters. (How would you correct this ?) y 7 o 0> f

EXERCISES ^U-^^ ^ '

S72. Explain the meaning of each of the following sentences ;

/^ I. He came only yesterday. 2. Only you need study to-day.
^ 3. You only need study to-day. 4. You need study only to-day.

5. You need study to-day only, 6. You need only study

now.

373, Be prepared to give four sentences to show the proper
use of only, also, and even,

374' Subject the following sentences to your keenest criti-
cism. Remembering that to criticize means " to judge," be
as eager to see the good as to find fault. Discuss thoroughly the
meaning of each sentence as it stands. Whenever you think the
meaning should be clearer, or the expression different, suggest
changes.

1. I am coming to consult you as to where I shall begin at the
dose of school.

2. Do you receive The Outlook I send you regularly?

3. So he had to leave the hills among which he grew up for a time.

4. I shall keep the last horse I bought for my own use.

5. He was elected by a majority of only one.

6. He does not live ; he only exists.

7. I shall speak only a few minutes.

8. There are prizes for the three first pupils in the class.

9. Others appreciate the book as well as the author.
10. Others, as well as the author, appreciate the book.

212 THE EFFECriVE SENTENCE

11. He not only saw you and me but all the others in the party.

12. I can only come during my vacation.

13. He not only brought bread but berries.

14. He not only read the book but learned much of it by heart.

15. Not to overrate him I only mentioned a few of his character-
istics.

16. His efforts at all events were praiseworthy.

17. If Eliot is not the best captain, he is the best pitchei;at least
that ever played x>n our campus.

18. The charge he brings against me I shall neither try to answer
nor deny.

19. Most of my friends like athletics like m>'self, and we spend
most of our time playing baseball, football, hockey, or other games.

20. Either you must work hard or fall behind.

21. Jim Hawkins, also a leading character in '* Treasure Island,''
was unlike the other person whom we have written of in many re-
spects.

22. We are to make a list of words from the rest of Act I of the
play which need explaining.

23. It not only educates the mind but the hand also.

24. I either go to see a professional game or play in a game myself
on the common.

25. A few boys and I, every Saturday, would go out early in the
morning and stay out all day.

375, Write a coherent sentence on five of the following sub-
jects, or other subjects suggested by them. In revising your
sentences, see that they conform to the first way of securing
coherence mentioned above.

1. A Spoiled Child. 6. A Good Story.

2. A Great Waterfall. 7. A Remarkable Politician.

3. A Triumph. 8. A Fine Woman.

4. A Famous French General. 9. A Cheerful Companion.

5. The Principal Business in 10. A Student.

my Town.

876, Write a complex sentence on each of five subjects chosen
from those in Chaptet II. Use participles to introduce the de-

EMPHASIS IN THE SENTENCE

213

pendent clauses, and see that your sentences conform to the
first two ways of securing coherence mentioned above.

S77. Write a complex sentence on ten of the subjects in Chap-
ter n. See that they conform to the three requirements of a
coherent sentence.

378, Rewrite ten of the topic sentences in Chapter V, being
careful in each instance to preserve the coherence of the sen-
tence.

Mr) 121. Emphasis in the S entence. Even if our sentences
nave unity and coherence, we may at times be able to call
more attention to the thought which we consider most im-
portant, if we are familiar with several ways of securing
emphasis.

122. Ways of securing Empha^. The following are the

ost important ways of securing emphasis :

I. Through the position of important words. When we
read om own writing, we know what words we wish to em-
phasize ; but when we read another's sentences, we rely
somewhat on the position of the words to show us what
thoughts he considered most important. Now every word
in the sentence has a way of falling into its natural position,
where it does its work without attracting special attention.
It is natxiral, for example, for the subject and its modifiers
to come before the verb and its modifiers. Consequently,
if we wish to give the subject prominence, we may take it
from its usual position and put it near the end. Similarly,
we may emphasize a word in the predicate by placing it
near the beginning. (See "In self-defense" in the last sen-
tence of sect, no, paragraph 2.) In short, we may call at-
tention to any word by putting it in an unusual position,

^A I'

214

THE EFFECTIVE SENTENCE

provided we do not seriously mar the naturalness and ease
of the sentence.
Note these illustrations :

1. The plowman plods his weary way homeward. (Natural
order.)

2. Weary, the plowman plods his way homeward. (Empha-
sizes "weary." Lacks ease?)

3. Homeward the plowman plods his weary way. (Emphasizes
"homeward.")

4. The plowman homeward plods his weary way. (Emphasizes
"homeward" and is more natural than 3.)

2. By the use of the active voice. The passive voice must
sometimes be used for the sake of introducing variety in
sentence structure and is of course often necessary for
accuracy, but we must be careful not to use it so frequently
that it takes away from the emphasis of our expression.
The active voice makes our sentences move easily and rap-
idly, while the passive voice is frequently climisy and slug-
gish. The two following sentences show the value of the
active voice from the point of view of both clearness and
emphasis :

( I. Engines were arriving ev-\ 2. Engines were arriving every
1 ery minute; firemen were laying^ minute, lines of hose were being
\ hose, putting up ladders, and> laid, ladders were being put up,
X pouring water into the fire. and water was being poured into

the fire. ^

In the following paragraph, notice the effect of using the /
active voice throughout :

The sun had risen higher while they talked, and his Tdcys were grow-
ing hot in the clear air. The mist had lifted from the city below,
and all the streets and open places were alive with noisy buyers and
sellers, whose loud talking and disputing came up in a continuous hum
to the palace on the hill, like the drone of a swarm of bees.

WAYS OF SECURING EMPHASIS 215

i. By the use of repetition. We naturally, and wisely,
avoid using the same word repeatedly, but there are occa-
sions when we can emphasize a point only by the repeated
use of a word or phrase. Note the repetition of " taxed "
in the paragraph on page 254, and point out another in-
stance of repetition in the second paragraph.

4. By the v^e of the periodic sentence, A periodic sen-
tence does not end grammatically until the thought is coi?i-
plete. For example : ^ ^uj-^-^^^aAj .2.Lv ^1>^ <^

At the Edinburgh High School, which Scott attended, he
showed himself to be a high-spirited boy.
. As my means do not warrant much expense, I make the most
of the material at hand.

All other sentences are, to some extent, loose. A loose C
sentence might come to a stop at one or more points before *
the end. For example: d' t /''-- .' ^ t ^ icv^ ^* "^^^

Scott attended the Edinburgh High School, where he showed
himself to be a high-spirited boy.

My means do not warrant much expense, so I make the most
of the material at hand.

Grammatically the first sentence may end with school,
and the second with expense, but the thought is not complete
in either case till the period is reached.

Although most of our sentences are loose, and may have
the charm of ease, we should remember that a loose sen-
tence has a tendency (i) to lack unity and (2) to allow the
reader's attention to wander. We should appreciate the
value of an occasional periodic sentence, because (i) it holds
the reader's attention to the end, and (2) it is likely to keep
to one point.

5. By the use of climax. It is often possible to strengthen

2i6 THE EFFECTIVE SENTENCE

a sentence by arranging a series of words, phrases, or clauses
in the climax order, beginning with the least important and
leading up to the most important. (See p. 189.) Thus :

There is no mistake; there has been no mistake; and there
shall be no mistake. (An illustration of both repetition and
climax.)

Let our object be our country, our whole country, and noth-
ing but our country.

6. By the use of the balanced sentence. The parts of a
balanced sentence are similar in construction and of about
the same length and importance. We study balanced sen-
tences, not so much because we are to write many of them,
as because we should learn to appreciate them in our read-
ing. Like periodic sentences, they owe much of their force
to their infrequent use.

God made the country, but man made the town.

I do not live that I may eat, but I eat that I may live.

T. By the use of interrogative or exclamatory sentences.
An interrogative sentence sometimes contains an implied
answer, and may then be called a rhetorical question. Thus:

Isn't that a powerful horse ?

What can you say ?

Who would not weep for Lycidas ?

Although the exclamatory sentence may be effective in
securing emphasis, it should be used sparingly. Its fre-
quent occurrence has weakened the themes of many a
young writer.

EXERCISES

S79, Study the following variations of the same thought. In
each case what is the effect of the order of words ?

1. We made a picture frame in the carpenter shop yesterday.

2. Yesterday we made a picture frame in the carpenter shop.

WAYS OF SECURING EMPHASIS 217

3. In the carpenter shop yesterday we made a picture frame.

4. Yesterday in the carpenter shop we made a picture frame.

880. Is the following sentence a climax? What reasons are
there for keeping this order? Will any other arrangement
answer as well ?

There are three reasons why I came to this school : first, I knew
many boys in the school ; second, I wish to prepare for the Institute
of Technology ; third, it is my intention to become a civil engineer.

SSL Be prepared to change the order of words in each of
the following sentences, and to discuss possible advantages or
disadvantages of the new order.

' I. Toil I do not spare ; but fortune refuses me success.

2. To-day I have had a queer experience.

3. Whatever he might have to say, this eminently effective con-
troversialist maintained a frozen demeanor and a jeering smile.

4. How this works and fits, time is to show.

5. Silver and gold have I none.

6. When pride cometh, then cometh shame: but with the lowly
is wisdom.

7. Usually we praise only to be praised.

8. In the night all cats are gray.

9. If any one attempts to haul down the American flag, shoot
him on the spot.

882, Rewrite the following sentence in as many ways as
possible. How many of them are entirely satisfactory?

In the morning, when thou art sluggish at rousing thee, let this
thought be present: "I am rising to a man's work."

888. Be prepared to change the order of words in the
following sentences whenever by so doing you can secure
additional emphasis without interfering seriously with natu-
ralness:

1. The rabbit made his escape in the meanwhile.

2. The wind that profits nobody, blows ill.

3. The way of transgressors is hard. (The most natural order ?)

2i8 THE EFFECTIVE SENTENCE

4. If we wish to catch the train, we must walk faster.

5. A little learning is a dangerous thing.

6. A little village lay in the fruitful valley.

7. The class will please rise at the sound of the bell.

8. An old man with snow-white hair and sunburnt face stands in
yonder wooden steeple, which crowns the summit of that red .brick
state house.

9. A flaxen-haired boy with laughing eyes of summer blue stands
by his side, gazing into his sunburnt face in wonder.

10. The progress was much slower in bad weather, when the pas-
sengers had to get down and lift the clumsy wheels out of deep ruts.

11. There is a perpetual nobleness in work.

12. The question on the eve of an engagement is not how you feel,
but what you intend to do.

13. I recognize more and more that we dwell in a world of shadows.

14. We must go to the verge of ridicule in this matter.

15. I must remind you, in the presence of the dangers that confront
you, of the difference which exists between war and all imitations of it.

884' Copy those topic sentences in section 29 in which em-
phasis is, or may be, secured by position.

385. Copy those proverbs quoted in Exercise 592 in which
emphasis is, or may be, secured by position.

386, (i) Write five sentences, telling in each of some recent
incident. (2) Rewrite these sentences in as many good ways as
you can, and point out changes of emphasis.

887. Show which of the sentences in Exercise 383 above are
loose and which are periodic.

388. Tell whether the topic sentences in section 29 are loose or
periodic.

389. Rewrite the sentences just named, and explain why the
new version is more, or less, emphatic than the old.

390. Find five sentences of your own that lack unity, and show
whether they are loose or periodic.

Point out the advantage in the combination of loose and
periodic sentences in the paragraphs in Exercise 78, page 47. ,

WAYS OF SECURING EMPHASIS 219

S91. Be prepared to strengthen the following sentences in
any way you can.

1. He has been condemned, tried, and executed as a spy. (Use
repetition.)

2. You know what were the consequences of the Crimean War:
an enormous addition to your taxation, a great addition to your debt,
a cost more precious than your treasure — the best blood of England.

3. The train dispatcher must be prepared for breakdowns, block-
ades, storms, and wrecks.

392. Write (i) three sentences in which you tell why you like
three friends; (2) six sentences in which you tell why you like six
characters in books.

898, Show that each of the following sentences is balanced:

1. He will not always chide ; neither will he keep his anger forever.

2. To err is human ; to forgive, divine.

3. Put not your trust in money, but put your money in trust.

394' The setting against each other of opposed ideas is called
antithesis. Note the following examples, and show that some of
the sentences cited above come under this head.

1. He's armed without that's innocent within.

2. Charm strikes the sight, but merit wins the soul.

3. Whoso loveth correction loveth knowledge, but he that hateth
reproof is brutish.

895. Write two sentences which you consider effective because
they are balanced. In one case, contrast opposed ideas.

896, Account for the use of each exclamation point on pages
276-279.

897, Write an emphatic sentence based on each of these out-
lines in Chapter IV.

1. The Fire. (A sentence on each outline.)

2. Making a Kite. (One sentence.)

3. Reading a Newspaper.

898. Write five emphatic sentences on subjects in Exercise 45.

(',

220 THE EFFECTIVE SENTENCE

I 399, Write ten emphatic sentences on subjects of your own
choosing. Be prepared to explain the s)mtax of every parti-
ciple and infinitive that you have used.

123. Superfluous ^Wofds. Words which add nothing
either to the meaning or to the color of a sentence should be
^ ruthlessly cut from our oral and written compositions. A
sentence cannot be effective if it is cumbered with words
which do not have a definite part to perform in the expres-
sion of the thought.

EXERCISE

400, Be prepared to improve the following sentences by
omitting useless words, and making other desirable changes:

1. Referring to your letter of March loth to Mr. Bates, I would
say that he has asked me to answer, it^forjiim.

2. You can never rely on what you read in their advertisements.

3. The shoi:t daily items by Dunbar that appear every morning
are always interesting.

4. With regard to the pages containing murders, robberies, etc.,
I do not pay much attention to them, but I have no doubt they
make interesting reading to many persons.

5. If a young man will attend to his studies while in school, he
will have a better chance later, after he graduates, to make a mark
for himself in the world.

6. I spent last summer on an island in Squam Lake, New Hamp-
shire. This island being completely surrounded by water, we had
to reach the mainland in a boat.

7. Each and every one of us worked with a will.

8. Most all of the rocks were so large that they could not be
rolled off the field.

9. Hawkeye was a man who was really white, but who prided him-
self on knowing more than most Indians.

10. A horse fell down into a drain which was being dug for a
water main. ^

11. When forced to open up a penny shop, Hepzibah fdt very
bad.

LIFE IN THE SENTENCE 231

12. It is a poem that I have known for a good many years, and I
never tire of it.

13. Two little twin brothers live in the house opposite to mine.

14. The government has established retreats for the homeless old
veterans of the Civil War.

15. My cousin lives in a picturesque little hamlet high up among
the New Hampshire hiUs.

16. It seems to me that I have seen you somewhere before.

17. The old widower was a man who had lived alone so long that
he hated company. '^^'~

18. Juvenile courts are as yet new experiments, but rapid progress
is being made in establishing them on a firm and solid foundation.

19. James never appreciated at its full value his opportunity on
the farm.

20. Will you be kind enough to repeat the lesson again ?

124. Life in^ Ae Sentence. One great lack in oral and
written compositions is life and interest, and in your study
of the mechanical features of sentence and paragraph mak-
iiigj you should never lose sight of the fact that the real
purpose of it all is to make you interesting talkers and writ-
ers. You ought by this time to be convinced of the neces-
sity of being able to speak with grammatical correctness,
so that your listeners will not be diverted from what you have
to say by the way you say it. You have also studied enough
about the unity, coherence, and emphasis of sentences and
paragraphs to understand that, without due attention to
each of these points, you cannot expect to write either cor-
rectly or interestingly. But while writing, you should put
aside all thought of grammar or emphasis, and try only to
say what you have in mind with simplicity and directness.

Just because you do not always know precisely how you
are to express what you wish to say, it is not wise to stop and
wonder whether you can express it at all. As soon as your
thought comes, begin to write. Begin as naturally as you

222 THE EFFECTIVE SENTENCE

can — with the subject of the sentence, with the expression
that will emphasize the main thought, or with whatever will
best connect the sentence with what may have been said
before. Do not worry about the middle or the end. With
your goal clearly in mind, press steadily toward it. A good
beginning and perseverance ought to bring a good ending.
Above all, think vigorously and write rapidly, so that your
sentences may have smoothness and life.

EXERCISES

40 L Make a careful study of the sentences in the following

paragraph. Read them aloud. Point out all expressions that

have life.

Rtkkt-tikki

Rikki-tikki was bounding all around Nagaina, keeping just out
of reach of her stroke, his little eyes like hot coals. Nagaina gathered
herself together, and flung out at him. Rikki-tikki jumped up and
backward. Again and again she struck, and each time her head came
with a whack on the matting of the veranda and she gathered herself
together like a watch-spring. Then Rikki-tikki danced in a circle to
get behind her, and Nagaina spun round to keep her head to his head,
so that the rustle of her tail on the matting sounded like dry leaves
blown along by the wind.

He had forgotten the egg. It still lay on the veranda, and Nagaina
came nearer and nearer to it, till at last, while Rikki-tikki was drawing
breath, she caught it in her mouth, turned to the veranda steps, and
flew like an arrow down the path, with Rikki-tikki behind her. When
the cobra runs for her life, she goes like a whiplash flicked across a
horse's neck.

— KiPUNG, "Rikki-Tikki-Tavi" in "The Jungle Book."

402, Does the construction of each of the following sentences
emphasize what is important? Can you improve either sen-
tence? Does the paragraph contain an example of climax?

\( UEJELJN: ^HE.JEia:g,NCK >? ^ 223

Nearer and nearer came the cloud ; and the red glow turned to pur-
ple and the sun went out of sight ; and still it came nearer, that whirl-
ing cloud-canopy of fine powdered dust, rising to right and left of
the road in vast round puffs, and hanging overhead like the smoke
from some great moving fire. Then, from beneath it, there seemed to
come a distant roar like thimder, rising and faUing on the silent air,
but rising ever louder'; and a dark gleam of polished bronze, with
something more purple than the purple sunset, took shape slowly;
then with the low roar of sound, came now and then, and then more
often, the clank of harness and arms ; till at last, the whole stamping,
rushing, clanging crowd of galloping horsemen seemed to emerge
suddenly from the dust in a thundering charge, the very earth shak-
ing beneath their weight, and the whole air vibrating to the tre-
mendous shock of poimding hoofs and the din of clashing brass.

— F. M. Crawford, "Zoroaster," chap. v.

403. Write a paragraph giving a picture of the grace and
agility of a squirrel, or of some other animal.

404' After reading carefully a fxill accoimt of the appear-
ance of some character in a story, describe this person in your own
way. You may use as much of the language of the book as
you remember, but you are not to refer to it while writing.

405. In a similar way, give an oral account of the appearance
of some person. Make your picture as lifelike as possible.

406, Write a letter to a real estate dealer, giving an accurate
description of the kind of furnished cottage you wish to hire for
the summer. (Consult Chap. VIII for help in making your
letter correct in form.) y^

CHAPTER Xn

THE EXACT WORD

"The learner does not want to be made a receptacle of other men's words
and thoughts, but to be made a thinker of thoughts and a wielder of words
himself."

y 125. A Ready Vocabulary. Some of us little realize how
rapidly we think. With the swiftness of lightning our
minds turn from man to man, from America to China,
from our own planet to the most distant star and the in-
finite space beyond. Thoughts we need not lack if we are
awake. The difficulty is to put the thoughts on paper
before they fly away from us. It takes time to do the
manual part of the work. Or, it may be that some of us,
even with good minds, do little thinking. We may not
have a large number of words at our disposal. If we have
an abundant vocabulary, let us draw from it freely and
continually. If we are without this means of expression,
let us make haste to acquire it.

To be sure, if life is merely eating and drinking and sleep-
ing, we need but few words, and no matter what our native
tongue, we can soon make our wants felt in any coimtry ;
but if we care to be mentally alive, — to take an intelligent
interest in this kaleidoscopic world of ours, — we must
have at our command a large vocabulary. Our reading will
introduce us to every form of life; our conversation will
bring us in touch with many types of men ; and when it

224

EXACT MEANINGS OF WORDS 225

comes to writing, we need words without stint, not only
that we may be able to express cleariy any experience
whatever, but also that we may write easily and rapidly.
When our thoughts begin to come, they come with a rush,
and then is the time for the words to fix them.

EXERCISE

Ifil, A careful examination of the following extract will show
the value of a copious and ready vocabulary. Make (i) a list
of the words which seem to you particularly appropriate; (2) a
list of the words for which it is difficult to find an equivalent.

Sunset Colors

Nature has a thousand ways and means of rising above herself,
but incomparably the noblest manifestations of her capability of
color are in the sunsets among the high clouds. I speak especially
of the moment before the sun sinks, when his light turns pure rose
color, and when this light falls upon a zenith covered with countless
cloud forms of inconceivable delicacy, threads and flakes of vapor,
which would in common daylight be pure snow-white, and which give,
therefore, fair field to the tone of light. There is then no limit to the
multitude, and no check to the intensity, of the hues assumed. The
whole sky, from the zenith to the horizon, becomes one molten,
mantling sea of color and fire ; every black bar turns into massy gold,
every ripple and wave into unsullied, shadowless crimson, and purple,
and scarlet, and colors for which there are no words in language and
no ideas in the mind, — things which can only be conceived while they
are visible, — the intense hollow blue of the upper sky melting through
it all, showing here deep and pure and lightless, there modulated by
the filmy, formless body of the transparent vapor, till it is lost imper-
ceptibly in its crimson and gold. — Ruskin.

126. Exact Meanings of Words. An exact vocabulary
is just as necessary as a large one. Dictionaries and other
books give lists of synonyms, not because one of these words

226 THE EXACT WORD

is as good as another, but because each, though somewhat
like the rest, is in some respect different ; and this very differ-
ence serves to point out a delicate distinction, which none
of the other words would suggest. Many of us use lie or
lay, teach or learn, may or can, bring or carry, without dis-
crimination. Sometimes we come near saying what we
mean ; at other times we entirely miss the mark. It should
be our habit, upon meeting a new word, to discover its
proper meaning and to limit ourselves to that meaning.

127. Words worth studying. In order to gain practice
in determining the precise meanings, let us study certain
words that are used carelessly, or with hesitation, and others
that offer opportimity for nice distinction.

I. Synonyms, Synonyms are words so similar in mean-
ing that they need to be carefully distinguished.

:/--^ ''^ *. c . EXERCISES

' ' 408, Study carefully the correct use of each noun in the follow-
ing list: ^

Character (" what a man is "), reputation (" what others think of

him").
Council (a family council, the common council), counsel (" It was ill

counsel that misled the girl ").
Custom, habit, ("Custom is a frequent repetition of the same act;

habit, the effect of such repetition." The custom of early rising

may become a good hahit. "A custom is followed; a habit is

acquired.")
Discovery (an "uncovering" of something already in existence, as a

star). Invention ("the contrivance and production of something

that did not before exist," as the telephone).

^For further information consult dictionaries and books of s3rnonyms.
In this list, and in others that follow, the object is to point out the funda-
mental meaning of a word.

WORDS WORTH STUDYING 227

Emigration (c, "out," + migrare, "to move"), immigration {in,
"in," + migrare).

Majority ("more than half the whole nimiber"), plurality, ("When
there are more than two candidates, the one who receives the
plurality of votes may have less than a majority J^) If A receives
50 votes, B 40, and C 30, A has a plurjdity of 10 over B. Does
A have a majority ?

Middle, center, {Center is often more precise than middle; com-
pare the center and the middle of a room.)

Person, party, (A party is a company of persons, imless a person be
a party to a contract.)

Plenty ("a full supply"), abundance ("a great plenty, as much as
can be wanted, or more").

Vocation, avocation, (Avocation is " that which calls one away from
one's proper business — from one's vocation.")

409, In the following sentences, show whether the use of the
nouns in italics is correct or incorrect, and substitute a better
word whenever you can:

1. One should be careful of his reputation, but more careful of
his character.

2. A man of good reputation may find it hard to live down a bad
character.

3. The dty council approved of the action of the school committee.

4. He gave his friends good council but seldom followed it himself.

5. A gentleman has the custom of removing his hat when entering
a room, because it is a common habit in our country.

6. It is his habit to give each of his friends a birthday gift.

7. The invention of the power of steam led to the discovery of the
steam engine.

8. Canada needs immigration; England, emigration: the former
has too few inhabitants ; the latter, too many.

9. In England an Englishman who comes to the United States is
looked upon as an emigrant, but in the United States he is considered
an immigrant.

10. A plurality may be more than half ; a majority is always more
than half.

11. The governor won a decisive victory over his opponents, for
he had not only a substantial majority but also an actual plurality,

12. The center of a circle is a point. K ^

228 THE EXACT WORD

13. This horse will not keep in the center of the road.

14. The fence runs across the middle of the field.

15. Five persons were in a small party that went to the theater
last night.

16. He is a party to the agreement.

17. I met a party at the station who asked me the way to the Cap-
itol.

18. A plenty is less than an abundance.

19. What is an abundance to a frugal person will scarcely seem a
plenty to a spendthrift.

20. There was such a plenty of fish in the rivers and lakes that the
early settlers thought there would always be an abundance,

21. Alpine tourists choose mountain climbing as an avocation, but
to the guides it is a precarious vocatiofi.

22. So many persons have made stamp collecting their vocation
that stamp selling has become a regular avocation.

410. Write sentences to illustrate the correct use of each of the
foregoing nouns.

411- After noting the meanings of the verbs in the following
list, study the sentences. Show whether the use of each verb
in italics is correct or incorrect, and substitute a better word
whenever you can.

Begin (enter upon something new), start (as an intransitive verb,
suggests motion). (As he began to write, the train started.)

Bring (take along in coming) , fetch (go and bring), carry (take along
with one).

Can (ability), may (liberty, probability).

Effect (accomplish), affect (act upon, or influence). (Some persons
are affected by the weather. He effected his purpose.)

Happen (come to pass), transpire (come to light).

Lay (transitive), lie (intransitive).

Learn (intransitive), teach (transitive).

Raise (transitive), rise (intransitive).

Set (transitive), sit (intransitive).

Stop (cease to move), stay (remain).

1. The band began to play as the President's train started.

2. He started to read the story, but laid it aside unfinished.

WORDS WORTH STUDYING

229

3. John, go into the house and fetch me my gloves.

4. Fetch a pail of water from the spring.

5. He walked to the station and brought the valise all the way.

6. I am certain that I may do the problem, if I can have more
time.

7. You may open the door if you can; I tried to open it but cotUd
not.

8. Can I borrow a pencil ?

9. A passenger can carry one hundred and fifty pounds of bag-
gage on a first-class ticket.

10. Dampness quickly affects salt.

11. The mild weather soon effected a change in the patient's
health.

12. The listeners were visibly effected by his sad story.

13. The story of the guilt of tie Camorra transpired as the trial
proceeded.

14. Events transpired quickly after the first shots were fired.

15. It transpired that he had been falsifying his accounts for many
years.

16. I wish that you would lay down and rest.

17. The stone lay beside the wall.

18. Talkative people lay themselves open to blame.

19. After studjdng for an hour, he laid the book on the table and
went into the next room to lie on the sofa, but found his brother al-
ready laying there. He then picked up a magazine that lay on the
desk, and with a paper knife that some one had lain on the window
sill began to cut the leaves.

20. A bright student with a good textbook can learn himself much.

21. He is going to teach a lesson.

22. He learned his friend how to skate.

23. They raised him from the ground.

24. The bird rose higher and higher in the air.

25. As they were sitting on the veranda, they saw the sun sef^
behind the forest.

26. The hen set upon thirteen eggs.

27. Please sit down, and I will set the table near you.

^ Set is both transitive and intransitive. As a transitive verb it means
to "place" or "put in position"; as an intransitive verb, it means to "sink
out of sight" or "come to an end."

23P

THE EXACT WORD

28. A good sign for a railroad crossing is "Stop! Look! and
Listen!''

29. I really ought not to skiyt but I will stop five minutes.
\ \ 30. My father is slopping in town over night.

412» In order to fix the meanings of the verbs in the foregoing
list, use each of them in a sentence of your own.

41s. After noting the meanings of this group of words, show
whether the use of each word in italics in sentences 1-37 is cor-
rect or incorrect, and substitute a better word whenever you can.

Apparently (seemingly), evidently (clearly), manifestly (in a manner
very distinctly evident).

Aptj likely J liable, {Apt indicates ph}r5ical or natural inclination:
as, apt to work faithfully ; apt to mold. " Likely may suggest the
same idea, or it may express mere external probability or chance :
as. He is likely to come at any moment. Liable in this connection
is properly used only of exposure to evil; as, liable to accident,
liable to be hurt, that is, exposed to the danger of being hurt.")

Awftd (awe-inspiring). Not synonymous with very.

Each ("all of any number, considered one by one"), every ("differs
from each in giving less prominence to the selection of the indi-
vidual"). "Father gave each of the children something" calls
attention to every child separately. "There was a gift for every
child" means that all the children were remembered with a
gift, — no child was forgotten.

Grand (used in connection with something which has real grandeur).

Splendid (used in connection with something which has splendor).

Healthy (in good health; as, a healthy child), healthful (health giving;
as, healthful exercise, healthful climate), wholesome (tending to
promote health of body or mind ; as, wholesome food, wholesome
truths).

Oral (spoken), verbal (in words, whether spoken or written).

New^ novel (novel means "strange" as well as "new").

Real (as adjective, "She is real"); really (as adverb, "It is really
good").

Quite (wholly). Not to be used in the sense of not quite.

Some (as an adjective), something (as a noim), Somewhat (as an
adverb). ^ v^

WORDS WORTH STUDYING

231

1. Man is eoidently going to master the air in time, a^ he has mas-
tered the sea.

2. He was manifestly discouraged by his three successive failures.

3. His recitation manifestly proves that he cannot learn anything
about geometry.

4. A careless reader is apt to mispronounce his words.

5. He is always apt in his quotations.

6. A busy man is liable to have more spare time than an idle one.

7. If he ventures too far out on that thin ice, he is likely to fall
into the water.

8. The eruption of Mount Pelee must have been an awful sight.

9. He has an awful poor voice.

10. Each one of the audience felt that he was being spoken to
personally.

11. Every farmer needs to study the weather.

12. He took care to speak to each one in private.

13. The word that best describes the Colorado canon is the adjec-
tive grand,

14. This ice is simply grand for skating.

15. The autumn foliage along the Hudson is a splendid sight.

16. I think it is just splendid that you can come boating with us.

17. A healthy diet must be plain.

18. All the family look healthy,

19. A person who wishes to remain healthy should eat wholesome
food and employ himself in healthful work.

20. Some parts of Africa are not healthy for Europeans.

21. The air of the Bermuda Islands is said to be very wholesome.

22. The class may prepare for an oral examination.

23. I told him to deliver a verbal answer, as I did not have time to
prepare a written one.

24. A verbal language is much superior to a language of signs.

25. The first imibrella was a novel sight, and its owner was pur-
sued by a jeering crowd.

26. It was real kind of her to call to see us.

27. He has just bought a novel tennis racket.

28. Is the report really true ? Is she real well ?

29. These artificial flowers look almost grand, and are certainly a
real good piece of work.

30. He gave us quite a long time for the examination.

31. He is quite well.

232 THE EXACT WORD

32. I have not quUe finished the book.

33. This picture cost some more than that one.

34. We caught some fish, but we are hoping for somewhat better
luck next time.

35. "Are you tired ?" "SomeJ'

36. Something evidently is needed to complete the picture-puzzle.

37. Give some of that paper to your sister, and something more to

me. (How many of the three words, "some," "something," and 4

"somewhat" may be used in this sentence?)

414* Illustrate in sentences of your own the meaning of each
word in the foregoing group.

415, Look up the meaning of the following words, imless you
understand them thoroughly, and be prepared to substitute for
each asterisk the best word for the place.

Abandon f forsake j desert,

1. The vessel was in such a dangerous condition that the captain
decided to * her.

2. The soldier * his post.

3. If he would only * his idle ways, he would succeed.

Accuratey correct.

4. The answer to the question in algebra is *.

5. You must learn to be more * in your work ; it is seldom *.

Couple, pair, two,

6. I will give you * dollars for the book.

7. The * celebrated their golden wedding.

8. The woman purchased a * of French gloves.

Except, unless,

9. He will not go to the meeting * you go.

10. No one spoke at the meeting * the chairman.

11. I am mistaken ; aU the answers * the first are wrong. •

Hanged, hung,

12. The pirate was * from his own yardarm.

13. The sails * from the yards in tatters. m

14. The clothes were * on the line. W

WORDS WORTH STUDYING

233

Business, profession,

15. The retired merchant had been employed in this * for twenty
years. , .^0

16. A doctor's * is one that requires great energy. - n,^ ^\ ^ •/- '

LesSy fewer, - ^^i

17. He has * studies now than he had last year.

18. He puts * time on his studies than he did formerly.

Congressman, representative.

19. A ^ isliot always ai*, but a * is always a *.

20. A senator is a 4 but he is not a 1^

Depot, station,

21. I will meet you at the * in time to take the train.

22. Please see that my trunk is sent to the *, as I want it sent as
freight.

23. The * is too small to accommodate the tourists that come here
in the summer.

Page, leaf,

24. Please turn to * twenty in the book.

25. A * has been torn from the dictionary.

26. Four * make eight *.

Theme, essay,

27. The class will write a daily *.

28. He has been working on (a, an) * for a month.

29. Lord Macaulay wrote (a, an) * on Lord Clive.

College, university,

30. Harvard * has many opportunities for the graduate student.

31. I am going to * when I graduate from the high school.

Enunciation, pronunciation,

32. Hi^^;Of address is correct.

SS, The speaker's * was so poor that few in the audience could
hear him.

Funny, odd, queer, strange.

34. It is (a, an) * looking house ; in fact, there are no others like
it in this part of the country.

35. He told a very * story, which set us all laughing.

234 THE EXACT WORD

36. He found that in a * city it is not easy to obtain emplo3rment.

37. His * appearance is due to his old-fashioned clothes.

38. Such (an, a) '*' looking house is seldom seen.

Guess, think. (To guess means to form an opinion on hidden or very
slight grounds. To think means to exercise the higher intel-
lectual faculties.)

39. Can you * what the answer will be ?

40. I * that I shall go home at four o'clock.

41. I * it is time to ring the bell.

42. Do not try to * the word that will fit this sentence, but try
to * the matter out.

Nice, good, fine, {Nice denotes a minute or delicate distinction, as
in the following sentence : He shows a nice knowledge of the
use of synonyms.)

43. It is a very * day.

44. A * name is rather to be chosen than great riches.

45. There is a * distinction between ability and capacity.

Almost, most,

46. Dinner is * ready to be served.

47. In this coimtry * of the houses are built of wood.

48. I had * finished my lessons when you called.

49. He had * decided to go.

50. He spends * of his time reading.

V 4^6. Write sentences in which you use the following synonyms
correctly:

(i) ask, beg ; (2) alternative, choice ; (3) angry, mad ; (4) amount,
number, quantity; (5) accept, except; (6) agitated, excited;
(7) broad, wide; (8) ceaseless, continuous; (9) comrade, friend,
acquaintance ; (10) calculate, intend.

417, Be prepared to explain the diflFerence in meaning between
the words in each of the following groups of synonyms, and to
use them in sentences :

1. bold, courageous, fearless. 4. desire, want, wish.

2. customary, prevailing, usual. 5. difficult, laborious.

3. dangerous, terrible. 6. drive, ride.

WORDS WORTH STUDYING

235

7. excuse, pardon.

8. expect, suppose.

9. fix, mend, repair.

10. flock, crowd, herd, drove, gang.

11. gift, present.

12. home, house, building, residence.

13. high, lofty, tall.

14. honest, sincere.

15. hiu-tful, mischievous, ruinous.

16. large, colossal, vast.

17. last, latest,' preceding.

18. nice, pleasant, attractive.

19. probably, presumably.

20. repay, satisfy.

21. reason, purpose, propose.

22. sewage, sewerage.

23. squander, waste, spend.

24. team, carriage.

2. Homonyms, Homonyms are words which are iden-
tical in soimd but different in meaning : as, he, bee; heaty

here; bltie, blew,

EXERCISES

4I8, Use the following homonyms orally in order to show that
you imderstand their meaning and that you can pronounce
them accurately. You may employ some of them in phrases and
some in sentences.

1. climb, clime.

2. coarse, course.

3. colonel, kernel.

4. crews, cruise.

5. dew, due.

6. die, dye.

7. fair, fare.

8. find, fined.

9. fir, fur.

10. fore, four.

11. gait, gate.

12. grate, great.

13. hail, hale.

14. hair, hare.

15. heal, heel.

16. hear, here.

17. heard, herd.

18. hole, whole.

19. idle, idol.

20. instance, instants.

21. knew, new.

22. knight, night.

23. lain, lane.

24. lead, led.

25. main, mane.

26. mean, mien.

27. meat, meet.

28. might, mite.

29. oar, ore.

30. one, won.

31. ought, aught.

32. pail, pale.

33. pain, pane.

34. pair, pare, pear.

35. pause, paws.

36. peace, piece.

37. plain, plane.

38. pore, pour.

39. pray, prey.

40. quarts, quartz.

41. rap, wrap.

42. read, reed.

43. right, rite, write.

44. road, rode, rowed.

45. sail, sale.

46. seam, seem.

47. serf, surf.

48. sew, so.

49. soar, sore.

50. shear, sheer.

51. stair, stare.

52. stake, steak.

53. steal, steel.

54. tale, tail.

55. tear, tier.

56. too, to, two.

57. vane, vein, vain.

58. wait, weight.

59. way, weigh.

60. weak, week.

236 IHE EXACT WORD

419. Be prepared (i) to spell orally from dictation any of the
foregoing words together with their homonyms; (2) to write
them.

4^0, Write sentences containing these groups of the foregoing
homonyms: 2, 7, 9, 16, 21, 22, 23, 24, 31, 37, 41, 43, 44, 56, 57.
Add to this list any other homonyms that you are liable to con-
fuse.

Note. Try to use sentences that will help you remember the pre-
cise meaning of each word. For example : "If you two are not likely
to go to town too soon, I will plan to go too,** (What part of speech
is each word in italics ?)

4^L Write the following words in columns, and opposite each
place an appropriate homonym:

aisle

base

bored

canvas

heir

aloud

bate

bow

cede

hymn

ate

bawl

brake

cell

awl

beach

bred

choir

inn

bale

beet

buoy

cite

ours

bald

belle

bury

dust

sea

bare

bight

butt

feat

thee

baron

blew

buy

flour

wrings

3. Antonyms, An antonjnn, in contrast to a synonym,
is a word of opposite meaning. The words " synonym " and
" antonjnn '' are themselves antonyms with reference to
each other. »

EXERCISES

jf£2. Use the following antonyms in sentences where the con-
trast will be evident, as in these examples : "A kind word may turn
an enemy into a friend " ; " Ring out the false, ring in the true."

Friend, enemy; false, true; fail, succeed; grieve, rejoice; gather,
scatter ; love, hate ; labor, rest ; lucky, unlucky ; most, least ; near,
far ; come, go ; pardon, condemn ; real, imaginary ; rich, poor ; strong,
weak ; quick, slow ; quiet, noisy ; up, down.

WORDS IN GOOD USE 237

42s. Find antonyms for the following words:

absent

assist

bless

citizen

hopeful

agreeable

attack

bright

courage

pleased

advance

bind

beautiful

disgusted

stingy

4^4' Make a list of the words in the selection under Exercise
493 for which you can find synonyms and antonyms.

128. Words in Good Use. If we wish to choose the most
effective words, we shall select those which are in good use.
We shall employ words (i) as they are understood through-
out the nation, (2) as they are understood at the present
time, (3) as they are imderstood by the best writers and
speakers.

1. Words as they are understood throughotU the nation.
We must use words which are imderstood in the same sense
in all sections of the country. In some parts of the coimtry
a man " reckons '' that his friend will have a " right " good
time, and the friend " allows " that he " reckons " so too.
But reckon in the sense of " think," right in the sense of
" very," and aUow in the sense of " admit," are not in
national use.

Ask persons who have come from a section of the coun-
try with which you are not familiar, if they recall words
whose local meaning is not national. Your father and
mother may think of some. Make a list of all such words
and any other " local " words of which you know.

2. Words as they are understood at the present time. In
North Carolina a yoimg man from a neighboring state
was enjoying the hospitality of three attractive young
women. Imagine the indignation with which they turned
from him as he innocently biurst out with the remark.

238 THE EXACT WORD

" You are the homeliest girls I ever met.'' The poor fel-
low meant well. To him the word still retained its original
meaning, " homelike." But he was behind the times.

If we call a pudding " nice," or speak of a " nice " day,
one can hardly call us nice about our English. We should
not use the word in the original sense of " foolish," although
five hundred years ago it repeatedly had that meaning;
but we are supposed to know that the later meaning, " dis-
criminating," or " particular," is the one current among the
best speakers and writers; and further, it is our business
to know that the loose meaning first referred to is not in
vogue among those who use the best EngUsh. Examples
of the proper use of this much-abused word are :

The lawyer made a nice point, — that is, he showed delicate
discrimination.

The carving on that chair is unusually nice, — in other words,
it is wrought with skill.

3. Words as they are understood by the best writers and
speakers. Sometimes I am tempted to tell a friend that
he is a " brick." Perhaps my meaning is that his friends
may always depend upon him to do his part. Many New
Englanders would understand the expression, even if they
frowned on it. But if I were to apply this word to an
Ohio acquaintance, he might be as much disturbed as the
" homely " young women ; he certainly would not feel com-
plimented. Rough and ready and expressive as it is, at
times, it has not yet gained the recognition of those who
use good English. It is slang.

There is the verb joUy^ an uncouth bit of slang. One
who is really fond of jollying others is tempted to think
he can find no English equivalent. The lazier he is, the

HELPS IN CHOOSING OUR WORDS 239

more indifferent he is about his reputation as a linguist, the
less he will try. If he is with careless speakers, he does
not mind ; but when the word slips out in the presence
of persons of culture, he takes himself to task for such
laziness.

No matter how eager we may be to increase our vocabu-
lary, we must always look well to the quality of our acqui-
sitions. Innmnerable words we may well crave for our own
variety of experience and thought, but we should choose
those that are current among persons who use words as
they are understood and approved by the body of repu-
table speakers and writers in our nation at the present
time. Briefly, we should choose words that are in reputable,
national, and present use.

129. Helps in choosing Our Words. Only constant at-
tention to our choice of words will make it possible for us
to acquire a good vocabulary. Here are several suggestions
which may be helpful.

I . Use tlie dictionaries. Dictionaries help us to determine
whether a word is in good use. They are misleading unless
we use them carefully; for if imabridged, they give the
various meanings of a word, some so old that they are no
longer in good use, some so new that they are not yet in
good use, and may never be. We must notice whether
the dictionary labels certain words as obsolete (" gone out of
use "), obsolescent (" going out of use ")> ^<^^^j local, provin-
cial, colloquial (" used in conversation ")j vulgar, or slang.
For example, a good dictionary gives the following meanings
of the verb chance. One of the meanings is called " rare "
and another " colloquial," and we should do well to avoid
using the word in either of these two senses.

240 THE EXACT WORD

Chance, v, I. intransitive. To happen; fall out; come or
arrive without design or expectation.

Our discourse chanced to be upon the subject of death. — Steele,
Toiler J No. 114.
[This verb is sometimes used impersonally.

How chances it they travel? — Shake., "Hamlet," ii. 2.]

II. transitive, i. To befall or happen to. [Rare.]

What would have chanced me all these years. — T. B. Aldrich, "At
Twoscore."

2. To risk ; hazard ; take the chances of. [Colloq.]

We go to a dictionary for definite information about words,
just as wie go to a directory to get definite informatioa about
people. We are no more justified in using a word because
it is in the dictionary than we should be in calling upon a
person because his name is in the directory.

One of the best habits yoimg writers can form is to use
the dictionary continually. An abridged dictionary, good
as far as it goes, is by no means suflScient for a pupil of
high school attainments and ambitions. In some way
secure Webster's New International Dictionary, or one
equally good, and keep it on your table or within arm's
reach.

2. Read reputable writers, A man is known by the com-
pany he keeps. Good communications inspire good man-
ners. Aside from the value of the thoughts of our best
writers, there is a charm due to their language. Through
the works that we read again and again, long after the
subject matter is familiar, we unconsciously come to appre-
ciate and to use choice English. These writers achieved
distinction. Let us try to do likewise ; happy at least in
this, that we may use their tools.

HELPS IN CHOOSING OUR WORDS 241

3. Hear reputable speakers. We may learn much from
men and women who use words that no educated person
need misimderstand or be ashamed of. Now and then we
hear some one whose very speech is charming, no matter
what he says, just as we occasionally meet a person whose
every movement is graceful, or another whose every act is
tactful. Whenever we meet such a speaker, we should
seize the opportunity to listen.

4. Be thoroughly alive. By this time it must be clear
that one who is to become a good writer must be thor-
oughly aUve. He must con his dictionary and absorb his
grammar, but he should also enter with his whole soul into
life. He should love life ; he should steadily enrich his life ;
and as he records his own experiences and thoughts, he will
always be eager to learn by eye and ear from others who
are giving expression to their best thought^.

We have considered the value of an unstinted supply of
words. We can see that it is of prime importance to have
such command of them that they will come to the front
spontaneously ; and we know it will encourage us if we can
see that we are adding to our vocabulary day by day. We
realize, however, the value of making these additions care-
fully, for the words that will prove helpful are those that
are in good use. It should be our habit, therefore, to find
out just what words mean to reputable speakers and writers
in our nation at the present time. While adding to our
store, we must remember that the way to make our new
possessions permanent is to use them. It goes without
sa3dng that we can use them best as we talk and write
about some subject that interests us; but use them we
must J and use them accurately. . \

CHAPTER XIII

THE FORCIBLE WORD

"Just the right way of saying the thing that is to be said is an art more
to be desired than much knowledge, and one that goes farther in making
life agreeable." ;— The Century Dictionary.

130. The Choice of Forcible Words. A correct speaker
makes himself understood. A forcible speaker not only
makes himself understood, but interests his hearers in such a
way that they are likely to remember what he says. A cor-
rect speaker may put his audience to sleep; a forcible
speaker keeps them wide-awake. It is worth our while,
then, to try to use language which is both clear and forcible.
Hence we should choose simple and specific words.

131. Simple Words. The Reverend Robert Collyer has
told us how he grew to like simple words. He says :

"Do you want to know how I manage to talk to you in this simple
Saxon? I will tell you. I read Bunyan, Crusoe, and Goldsmith
when I was a boy, morning, noon, and night. All the rest was task
work. These were my delight, with the stories in the Bible and in
Shakespeare, when at last the mighty master came within our doors.
... I took to these as I took to milk, and, without the least idea
what I was doing, got the taste for simple words into the very fiber of
my nature. ... I could not go home for Christmas, 1839, and was
feeling sad about it all, for I was only a boy ; . . .an old farmer came
in and said, *I notice thou'rt fond of reading, so I brought thee summat
to read.' It was Irving*s *Sketch-Book.' I had never heard of it.
I went at it and was as 'them that dream.' No such delight had
touched me since the old days of Crusoe. I saw the Hudson and the
Catskills, took poor Rip at once into my heart, as everybody does,

242

SIMPLE WORDS 243

pitied Ichabod while I laughed at him, thought the old Dutch feast
a most admirable thing, and long before I was through, all regret
at my lost Christmas had gone down the wind, and I had foimd out
there are books and books. That vast hunger never left me."

EXERCISES

4£5. Let us see what we can learn from Bunyan. As you
read aloud the following selection, dwell on those simple, telling
words and phrases which please you most.

From "The Pilgrim's Progress"

Neither could they, with all the skill they had, get again to the
stile that night. Wherefore, at last, lighting under a little shelter,
they sat down there imtil the day brake; but, being weary, they
fell asleep. Now there was not far from the place where they lay, a
castle called Doubting Castle, the owner whereof was Giant Despair ;
and it was in his grounds they now were sleeping. Wherefore he,
getting up in the morning early, and walking up and down in his
fields, caught Christian and Hopeful asleep in his groimds. Then,
with a grim and surly voice, he bid them awake; and asked them
whence they were, and what they did in his grounds. They told
him they were pilgrims, and that they had lost their way. Then said
the Giant, You have this night trespassed on me, by trampling in and
lying on my groimds, and therefore you must go along with me. So
they were forced to go, because he was stronger than they. They also
had but little to say, for they knew themselves in a fault. The Giant,
therefore, drove them before him, and put them into his castle, into a
very dark dungeon, nasty and stinking to the spirits of these two men.
Here, then, they lay from Wednesday morning till Satiu-day night,
without one bit of bread, or drop of drink, or light, or any to ask how
they did. They were, therefore, here in evil case, and were far from
friends and acquaintance. Now in this place Christian had double
sorrow, because it was through his unadvised counsel they were
brought into this distress.

Now Giant Despair had a wife, and her name was Diflidence. So
when he was gone to bed, he told his wife what he had done ; to wit,

244 THE FORCIBLE WORD

that he had taken a couple of prisoners and cast them into his dungeon,
for trespassing on his grounds. Then he asked her also what he had
best to do further to them. So she asked him what they were, whence
they came, and whither they were bound ; and he told her. Then she
counseled him that when he arose in the morning he should beat them
without any mercy. So, when he arose, he getteth him a grievous
crab-tree cudgel, and goes down into the dungeon to them, and there
first falls to rating of them as if they were dogs, although they never
gave him a word of distaste. Then he falls upon them, and beats
them fearfully, in such sort that they were not able to help themselves,
or to turn them upon the floor. This done, he withdraws and leaves
them there to condole their misery, and to mourn under their distress.
So all that day they spent the time in nothing but sighs and bitter
lamentations. The next night, she, talking with her husband about
them further, and understanding they were yet alive, did advise him
to counsel them to make away with themselves. So when morning
was come, he goes to them in a surly manner as before, and perceiving
them to be very sore with the stripes that he had given them the day
before, he told them that, since they were never like to come out of
that place, their only way would be forthwith to make an end of them-
selves, either with knife, halter, or poison ; for why, said he, should
you choose life, seeing it is attended with so much bitterness ? But
they desired him to let them go. With that he looked ugly upon
them, and, rushing to them, had doubtless made an end of them
himself, but that he fell into one of his fits (for he sometimes, in
sunshiny weather, fell into fits), and lost for a time the use of his
hand ; wherefore he withdrew, and left them as before, to consider
what to do. Then did the prisoners consult between themselves,
whether it was best to take his counsel or no ; and thus they began to
discourse.

4^6, Make a list of the words and expressions that seem to
you simple and forcible, and discuss them. Probably you
will include some of the following:

Grim, surly, whence they were, in evil case, what they were,
whither they were boimd, beat, grievous crab-tree cudgel, falls to
rating, a word of distaste, to turn them upon the floor, never like

SPECIFIC WORDS 245

to come out of that place, make an end of themselves, they desired
him to let them go.

Note. If you really like this simple Saxon, — whether you care for
the story is another matter, — you will find it worth while to read several
pages of "The Pilgrim's Progress" merely for the style.

4^7. Take from one of the six sources mentioned by Mr. CoU-
yer an interesting page, and study the choice of words. Give
an oral report.

4^8. Write a notice to be read to the pupils, urging them to
subscribe to the school paper.

429. Write a notice for the bulletin board, urging pupils to
try for positions on the school orchestra.

132. Specific Words. We have words that are general
and words that are specific. A general word names a class
of ideas or objects ; a specific word names one idea or ob-
ject. It is interesting, as far as it goes, to know that you
have heard a bird singing, but one who cares for birds would
know more definitely what you had in mind if you used the
word thriLshy — still more definitely if you spoke of the robin
or of the wood thrush.

On many occasions it serves our purpose to use the
words man, woman, child, book, paper, but we oftener wish
to know the particular name that distinguishes an individual
from the rest of his class. If I say, " I met an animal this
morning,'' the word animal names something, — although
with considerable vagueness. The substitution of dog
would give my hearers information more definite. If I say,
" I met a collie,'' I share with them much more of my experi-
ence. And if I say, " I met Jack," provided they know
Jack, they appreciate to some extent the feelings of delight
with which I saw my pet boimding toward me. Now dog

246 THE FORCIBLE WORD

names the idea I have to communicate ; but I have an an-
nouncement less tame and prosaic than the meeting of a
dog. I wish them to share with me the emotions that were
mine as I met my dog. Therefore I use a word that arouses
in them some such feelings. This word Jack not only points
out the idea, but in addition it gives the suggestions I
wish to put into the picture.

In calling a piece of writing good, we may cover a multi-
tude of excellent qualities. If we choose to be more definite,
we may use some such words as the following : clear , sug-
gestive, vigorous, careful, earnest, humorous, to the point,
specific, smooth, comprehensive, easy, compact, coherent,
straightforward, simple, dizect, timely. Instead of the gen-
eral terms bad or poor or uninteresting, we can use such words
as these: abrupt, dry, general, careless, confusing, vague,
incoherent, wordy, tame, weak, bookish,

EXERCISES

JiSO, Study the choice of words in the following extracts.
Are the most suggestive words general or specific? Comment
on the following: picturesque, morning, strolled, venders, trinkets,
tackeys (" bony nags ")> steeds.

I. The old city of St. Augustine had never been more picturesque
and full of color than it was that morning. Its narrow thoroughfares,
with the wide, overhanging upper balconies that shaded them, were
busy and gay. Strangers strolled along, stopping in groups before the
open fronts of the fruit shops, or were detained by eager venders of
flowers and orange-wood walking sticks. There were shining shop
windows full of photographs and trinkets of pink shell work and
palmetto. There were pink feather fans, and birds in cages, and
strange shapes and colors of flowers and fruits, and stuffed alligators.
The narrow street was full of laughter and the sound of voices.
Lumbering carriages clattered along the palmetto pavement, and boys
and men rode by on quick, wild little horses as if for dear life, and

FIGURATIVE WORDS 247

to the frequent peril of persons on foot. Sometimes these small dun
cream-colored marsh tackeys needed only a cropped mane to prove
their suspected descent from the little steeds of the Northmen, or their
cousinship to those of the Greek friezes ; they were, indeed, a part
of the picturesqueness of the city.

2. The ship was talking, as the sailors say, loudly, treading the
innumerable ripples with an incessant weltering splash.

3. Down I sat to wait for darkness, and made a hearty meal of
biscuit. It was a night out of ten thousand for my purpose. The
fog had now buried all heaven. As the last rays of daylight dwindled
and disappeared, absolute blackness settled down on Treasure Island.
And when, at last, I shouldered the coracle and groped my way
stumblingly out of the hollow where I had supped, there were but two
points visible on the whole anchorage.

431, Be prepared to substitute less specific words for these:
buried, dwindled, blackness, shotddered, coracle, groped, stum-
blingly, hollow, anchorage.

432, In the first extract, substitute general words for specific
and rewrite the paragraph.

Your study of these few passages leads you to conclude,
does it not, that the specific word has great power of sugges-
tion ? Since it is often your purpose to suggest more than
you say, you will frequently feel the need of specific words.
General words will come to you; for specific words you
should always be on the hunt.

133. Figurative Words. In talking to a companion, you
would be more likely to speak of " the red sim " and " the
hot sky," than to use such language as Coleridge's :

All in a hot and copper sky
The bloody sun at noon
Right up above the mast did stand
No bigger than the moon.

Again, we oftener say, " The sun was shining bright upon
the mountain tops," than " The early sunshine was already

248 THE FORCIBLE WORD

pouring its gold upon the mountain tops.'' Yet Haw-
thorne's expression is beautiful.

Now what have these words done ? Hot is literal ; we all
understand it. Copper tells us what the sky looked like.
Everybody has seen the sun look red, but it is striking to
call it as red as blood. Again, we generally think of the
sun as yellow, but to say it is so much gold is to remind
us sharply of the metal it resembles. These writers have
not used copper, blood, and gold to say precisely what they
meant, but to suggest resemblances. Words used for what
they suggest, in a sense not exactly literal, we call figurative.

134. Similes and Metaphors. We are continually mak-
ing comparisons between objects of the same kind; for
example:

The library is more beautiful than the church.

This stone is like granite.

Lincoln may have been as great a man as Washington.

But these are mere comparisons. Perhaps nearly as often
we allude to similarities between objects of diflEerent kinds.
We do this in two ways. Sometimes we say that one thing
is like another ; for example:

The army stood like a wall.

For he that wavereth is like a wave of the sea driven with the
wind and tossed.

Holmes has been Ukened to a fountain, constantly bubbling
over with sweet feeling and bright thought. Such figures
of speech are called similes.

Sometimes we do not express resemblance ; we imply it.
We call one thing by the name of another; for example:

Bread is the staff of life.

The general was a tower of strength.

SIMILES AND METAPHORS 249

He is a dynamo in breeches.
Adversity is the grindstone of life.

These figures are called metaphors, a Greek word which means
carrying over, A metaphor carries over the name of one
thing to another.

£X£RCIS£S

433. Study carefully the following examples of simile:

1. How far that little candle throws its beams !
So shines a good deed in a naughty world.

2. Good nature is the most precious gift of Heaven, spreading
itself like oil over the troubled sea of thought, and keeping the mind
smooth and equable in the roughest weather.

3. Men whose Hves glided on, like rivers that water the woodlands,
Darkened by shadows of earth, but reflecting an image of heaven.

434' Make a careful study of the following examples of
meiaphor:

1. Antony is but a limb of Caesar.

2. And the tongue is a fire.

3. Sometimes it was simply smooth and clear

For the gladness of heaven to shine through, and here
He had caught the nodding bulrush-tops
And hung them thickly with diamond-drops,
That crystaled the beams of moon and sun,
And made a star of every one.

4. Sir Launfal's raiment thin and spare
Was idle mail Against the barbed air.

5. Nor would I fight with iron laws, in the end
Found golden.

6. When clocks
Throbb'd thimder thro' the palace floors, or call'd
On flying Time from all their silver tongues.

7. Tubal. Your daughter spent in Genoa, as I heard, in one night

fourscore ducats.
Shylock. Thou stickest a dagger in me.

250 THE FORCIBLE WORD

The Point of Resemblance. When we say a man is a fox,
we have in mind the characteristic common to both, —
cunning. It is by fixing the attention on the point of resem-
blance that a figure makes an idea specific.

EXERCISE

435, In the following metaphors and similes, what is the point
of resemblance that suggests the comparison?

1. A fiery temper; a rippling laugh; glassy eyes; golden hair;
silvery waves; red-hot "liner"; iron muscle; catlike step; a ray
of hope ; growling thunder ; mackerel sky ; a sea of upturned faces ;
the snakelike caravan ; crawling centuries ; a striking thought ; life's
fitful fever ; Stonewall Jackson ; a hard heart ; the silver moon.

2. The tongue of the just is as choice silver.

3. Boston is sometimes called the hub of Massachusetts, and
Worcester the heart of the conunonwealth.

135. Mixed Metaphors. In using figurative language we
must not allow mixing of metaphors. Thus :

1. This world with all its trials is the furnace through which
the soul must pass and be developed before it is ripe for the
next world.

2. He was imable to steer his ship over the rough road of public
sentiment.

3. Every one thought the rebellion had been rooted out ; but
it was soon rekindled with renewed vigor.

4. The chariot of Revolution is rolling, and gnashing its teeth.

It is also quite as important not to use metaphorical and
literal language in the same sentence. For example:
Is it the voice of thimder or of my father ?

EXERCISES

436. Are the following figures of speech satisfactory ? If not,
improve them.

I. Boyle was the father of chemistry and brother to the Earl of
Cork.

MIXED METAPHORS 251

2. An orator at one of the university unions bore off the pahn of
merit when he declared that "the British lion, whether it is roaming
in the deserts of India or climbing the forests of Canada, will not draw
in its horns or retire into its shell."

3. "Brethren," said an earnest exhorter to a body of religious
workers, "brethren, remember that there is nothing which will kindle
the fires of religion in the human heart like water from the fountains
of life."

Jfil, Discuss these two versions:

1. The cares and responsibiHties of a sovereign often distiurb sleep.

2. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.

Jfi8. Be prepared to change the following figurative expres-
sions to literal and to discuss the difference in effect:

1. She speaks poniards, and every word stabs.

2. At one stride comes the dark.

3. He has spent all his life in letting down empty buckets into
empty weUs ; and he is frittering away his age in trying to draw them
up again.

Jfid. Figures that come to us without seeking are likely to
be the most simple and natural. Do any of these we have
been examining lack naturalness and spontaneity?

^Jfi, A figure often siuprises us. Sometimes its purpose is
not to add beauty, but merely to afford amusement. Are there
any examples of amusing figurative language in this chapter?

136. Metonymy. Metonymy is a figure of speech in
which one word is put for another that suggests it. For ex-
ample:

The ballot is more powerful than the bullet.
Who steals my purse steals trash.
We are reading Longfellow.

252 THE FORCIBLE WORD

EXERCISE

441, In dass, turn the following figurative language into
literal statements. State which version you prefer, and why.

1. Bring down my gray hairs with sorrow to the grave.

2. In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread.

3. They always set a good table.

4. Three cheers for the red, white, and blue I

5. The lamp is burning.

6. The chair called the house to order.

7. Is the kettle boiling ?

137. Personification. When metaphor and meton)miy
ascribe personality to things inanimate, they become per-
sonification. For example:

The storm rages.

The ship has found herself.

Must I thus leave thee, Paradise ?

138. Apostrophe. Furthermore, addressing inanimate
things, or persons not present, as if they could answer, is
sometimes called apostrophe. The word suggests the turn-
ing from the natural course of the thought in order to do
this. For example :

1. Ye principalities and powers,

That never tasted death !
Witness from oflF your heavenly towers
Our act of Christian faith.

•

2. Milton ! thou should'st be living at this hour :

England hath need of thee.

EXERCISE

44^' Are the following examples of personification or of
apostrophe?

I. Farewell, happy fields,

Where joy forever dwells ! Hail, horrors, hail !
And thou, profoundest hell !

THE TRANSFERRED EPITHET 253

2. Fair Science frowned not on his humble birth
And Melancholy marked him for her own.

3. Advance, then, ye future generations ! We would hail you,
as you rise in your long succession, to fill the places which we now
fill, and to taste the blessings of existence where we are passing, and
soon shall have passed, our own human duration. We bid you
welcome to this pleasant land of the fathers.

139. The Transferred Epithet. We have an effective
way of transferring epithets, of extending the attributes
of one subject to another with which it is connected.
" The expression of such a thought," says one writer,
" must be considered as a figure, because the attribute is
not applicable to the subject in any proper sense." He
gives as examples :

I. Casting a dim, religious light. 2. He drew his coward sword.
3. The high-climbing lull. 4. He steers the fearless ship. 5. And
the merry bells ring round. 6. And the jocund rebecks sound.

In all our study of figures we shall find that the most
simple and natural are the most telling. Unconsciously we
shall cull from common experiences figures that will illus-
trate and give point to our thoughts. A reasonable amount
of care should keep us from mixing metaphors and from
using figures as mere ornament. If it is not perfectly clear
to you that we use figures as naturally as we breathe, notice
the language of the people whom you hear talk from day to
day.

EXERCISES

443. In the two following extracts, how is force secured?
In the second, note the use of the following words: clumping,
twittering, commanding, casting, nick, bleak, closure, bum,
torn, tinged, swim, massacre.

254

THE FORCIBLE WORD

1. The schoolboy whips his taxed top; the beardless youth man-
ages his taxed horse with a taxed bridle on a taxed road ; and the
dying Englishman, pouring his medicine, which has paid seven per
cent, into a spoon that has paid fifteen per cent, flings himself back
upon his chintz bed which has paid twenty-two per cent, and expires
in the arms of an apothecary who has paid a license of a hundred
poimds for the privilege of putting him to death. — Sydney Smith.

2. Now I write you from my mosquito curtain, to the song of saws
and planes and hammers, and wood clxmiping on the floor above ; in a
day of heavenly brightness; a bird twittering near by; my eye,
through the open door, commanding green meads, two or three forest
trees casting their boughs against the sky, a forest-clad mountain-side
beyond, and close in by the door-jamb a nick of the blue Pacific. It is
March in England, bleak March, and I lie here with the great sliding
doors open, in an undershirt and p*jama trousers, and melt in the
closure of mosquito bars, and bum to be out in the breeze. A few
torn clouds — not white, the sim has tinged them a warm pink —
swim in heaven. In which blessed and fair day, I have to make faces
and speak bitter words to a man — who has deceived me, it is true —
but who is poor, and older than I, and a kind of a gentleman too.
On the whole, I prefer the massacre of weeds.

— Stevenson, " Vailima Letters," Vol. I.

444- Read the following passage carefully and make a list
of the words that seem particularly well chosen :

Theprospectusof the Dictionary he [Samuel Johnson] addressed to
the Earl of Chesterfield. Chesterfield had long been celebrated for the
politeness of his manners, the brilliancy of his wit, and the delicacy of
his taste. He was acknowledged to be the finest speaker in the House
of Lords. He had recently governed Ireland, at a momentous con-
juncture, with eminent firmness, wisdom, and hiunanity ; and he had
since become Secretary of State. He received Johnson's homage with
the most winning affability, and requited it with a few guineas, be-
stowed doubtless in a very graceful manner, but was by no means desir-
ous to see all his carpets blackened with the London mud, and his
soups and wines thrown to right and left over the gowns of fine ladies
and the waistcoats of fine gentlemen, by an absent, awkward scholar,

THE TRANSFERRED EPITHET 255

who gave strange starts and uttered strange growls, who dressed like
a scarecrow and ate like a cormorant. During some time Johnson
continued to call on his patron, but, after being repeatedly told
by the porter that his lordship was not at home, took the hint, and
ceased to present himself at the inhospitable door.

— Macaulay, "Life of Samuel Johnson."

44^. With this list before you, see how closely you can repro-
duce the paragraph orally.

446. In a similar way reproduce the passage from Bunyan
(pp. 243-244).

447' In a letter to a friend (see Chap. VIII for help in making
your letter correct in form), describe " forcibly " some street
scene that you have witnessed recently.

44s. Which of the three following selections do you like best ?
Which is your second choice ? Point out the excellences of each,
and make a list of subjects which call for the use of words as
specific and vivid as these. Use one of your subjects in writ-
ing a theme of considerable length.

I . I could see nothing but a cloud of dust before me, but I knew that

it concealed a band of many hundreds of buffalo. In a moment I was

in the midst of the cloud, half suffocated by the dust and stiumed by

the trampling of the flying herd ; but I was drunk with the chase and

cared for nothing but the buffalo. Very soon a long dark mass became

visible, looming through the dust; then I could distinguish each

bulky carcass, the hoofs flying out beneath, the short tails held rigidly

erect. In a moment I was so close that I could have touched them

with my gun. Suddenly, to my amazement, the hoofs were jerked

upwards, the tails flourished in the air, and amid a cloud of dust the

buffalo seemed to sink into the earth before me. . . . We had run

unawares upon a ravine.

— Parkman, "The Oregon Trail," chap. xxiv.

2. Sweet smiling village, loveliest of the lawn.

Thy sports are fled, and all thy charms withdrawn ;
Amidst thy bowers the tyrant's hand is seen,

Iw.^

2S6 THE FORCIBLE WORD

And desolation saddens all thy green:
One only master grasps the whole domain
And half a tillage stints thy smiling plain.
No more thy glassy brook reflects the day,
But, choked with sedges, works its weedy way ;
Among thy glades, a solitary guest,
The hollow-soimding bittern guards its nest ;
Amidst thy desert walks the lapwing flies.
And tires their echoes with unvaried cries ;
Sunk are thy bowers in shapeless ruin all,
And the long grass overtops the moldering wall;
And trembling, shrinking from the spoiler's hand,
Far, far away thy children leave the land.

— Goldsmith, "The Deserted Village.

3. Without warning or preparation I looked into a gulf seventeen
hundred feet deep, with eagles and fish-hawks circling far below. And
the sides of that gulf were one wild welter of color — crimson, emerald,
cobalt, ochre, amber, honey splashed with port wine, snow-white, ver-
milion, lemon, and silver gray, in wide washes. The sides did not fall
sheer, but were graven by time and water and air into monstrous
heads of kings, dead chiefs, men and women of the old time. So far
below that no soimd of its strife could reach us, the Yellowstone River
ran — a finger-wide strip of jade-green. The simUght took those
wondrous walls and gave fresh hues to those that nature had already
laid there. Once I saw the dawn break over a lake in Rajputana and
the sun set over the Oodey Sagar amid a circle of Holman Hunt hills.
This time I was watching both performances going on below me —
upside down you understand — and the colors were real ! The canon
was burning like Troy town ; but it would burn forever, and, thank
goodness, neither pen nor brush could ever portray its splendors ade-
quately. — Kipling, "American Notes."

PART THREE

CHAPTER XIV

LITERATURE AND THE LONGER COMPOSITION

"A skeleton is not a thing of beauty; but it is the thing which, more
than any other, makes the body erect and strong and swift."

— Austin Phelps.

140. Forms of Literature. Although we ourselves may
never write anything that will be worthy of the name
" literature," we shall wish to become familiar with many of
the best writings of men and women of genius. Now and
then we shall undertake work similar to theirs, not because
we expect to produce anything noteworthy, but in order
that we may by this means quicken our appreciation of
masterpieces. A good deal of the best literature may be
classed under the following divisions : epic, lyric, essay,
novel, and drama.

141. The Epic. An epic is a long poem narrating the
deeds of heroic persons. The story is largely one of action,
and the subject is of world-wide or racial or national im-
portance. Three famous epics are the Iliad, written many
hundreds of years ago in Greece ; '' Beowulf," the oldest epic
in the English language; and Milton's "Paradise Lost."

142. The Lyric. A lyric is the expression in poetical
language of the thoughts and feelings of one person or
of the thoughts and feelings that are the common property

257

2S8 LITERATURE AND LONGER COMPOSITIONS

of a generation or a people or a class. It is, perhaps, the
highest form of poetic expression. Most of us may never
attempt to express ourselves in lyrics, but we shall miss much
that is great and good in literature if we fail to study the
lyric poems of Tennyson, Wordsworth, Burns, Longfellow,
and many others. The following extract is an excellent
example of this form of literature :

Sweet and low, sweet and low,

Wind of the western sea,
Low, low, breathe and blow,

Wind of the western sea !
Over the rolling waters go,
Come from the dying moon, and blow.

Blow him again to me ;
While my little one, while my pretty one, sleeps.

Sleep and rest, sleep and rest,

Father will come to thee soon ;
Rest, rest, on mother's breast,

Father will come to thee soon ;
Father will come to his babe in the nest,
Silver sails all out of the west

Under the silver moon :
Sleep, my little one, sleep, my pretty one, sleep.

— Tennyson, "The Princess."

143. The Essay. The essay is a form of prose composition
which may discuss almost any subject. When a writer
wishes to explain to us his ideas on such subjects as Riches,
Self-Reliance, and Heroism, or to entertain us with an ac-
count of his Observations from College Windows, or his Re-
flections upon the Origin of Roast Pig, he uses the essay
form of literature more often than any other. The prime
purpose of the true essayist is to comment upon life. Emer-

THE ESSAY 259

son, Macaulay, and Addison are good writers for us to
study.

144. The Novel. A novel is a fictitious prose story of
considerable length, which aims to depict real life at some
particidar time, but whose interest lies chiefly in the por-
trayal of the working of strong passions, particularly love
and hate. The style of the novel is largely narrative, pro-
ceeding often by conversation alone, but description and
exposition are also freely employed. It is unsatisfactory
to attempt a classification of novels, but we may find it
convenient sometimes to speak of novels of incident, in which
the interest centers not in the characters but in the action ;
novels of character , in which the story depends for its inter-
est on the study of character ; and thus we might continue
our classification. *' A Tale of Two Cities " might be called
a romance, " Silas Mamer " a character study, " The
Abbot " a historical novel, " David Copperfield " an auto-
biographical novel.

145. The Drama. A drama may be written in either
prose or poetry, or it may be a combination of both. The
chief object of the drama is to present characters in ac-
tion — usually upon the stage.

There are many points of similarity between the novel
and the drama, and many of the best novels have been
rewritten in dramatic form. A strict classification of . the
drama seems impossible, but a rough division into tragedy,
comedy, history, and romance has often been made. " Mac-
beth " is a tragedy, " As You Like It " is a comedy, " King
John '' is a history, and " The Tempest " is a romance.

26o LITERATURE AND LONGER COMPOSITIONS

EXERCISES

J^. Write in full the titles and names of the authors of
several essays, lyrics, novels, epics, and dramas of which you
know something.

450, Make a list of the books required in preparation for the
entrance examination in English by some college, and classify
them as far as possible under the divisions given above.

45L Make a list of the books you have read during the last
two years and classify them under the divisions given above. If
the classification does not seem to include some of your books,
make suitable divisions yourself (for example, history, biog-
raphy, science, etc.).

^52. Make a list of at least twelve books in your own home
and classify them under appropriate headings.

146. Longer Compositions. In our short compositions
we have given considerable attention to unity — whether in
a sentence, a paragraph, or a group of paragraphs. Here-
after many of our themes will be longer, but whether para-
graph, chapter, or book, every composition should be a
unit.

Individuals constitute the family, families make the town,
towns the state, and states the nation ; and each — whether
family, town, state, or nation — is a whole, composed of
smaller parts. In a similar way sentences, in themselves
units, form a larger unit, the paragraph; paragraphs, the
chapter ; and chapters, the book.

147. Means of securing Unity. As you know, in order
to secure unity you should choose your subject carefully.
You must dedde upon your point of view, — the position
from which you consider your subject, — you must have

MEANS OF SECURING UNITY 261

in mind a definite goal, and you must advance with your
eyes on that goal. Suppose, for example, that you are in-
vited to speak ten minutes to a group of grammar-school
pupils on the merits of your high School. Their object in
giving you the invitation is to get information which shall
help them to decide whether to attend the high school.
That object gives you a limited subject. You will try to
interest them so much in the doings of yoiu- school that
they will be eager to enter it, and you will select from the
topics which occur to you only those that serve your pur-
pose. In brief, to secure unity you must (i) keep in mind
one main thought, and (2) present that thought from a care-
fully fixed point of view.

EXERCISES

4^3. State in a single sentence the main thought that you
would naturally bring out in writing on one of the subjects
mentioned in Exercise 368, page 207.

454.' State in another sentence the point of view you would
take in presenting that thought.

455. (i) Choose a subject on which you can write some six
or eight paragraphs. Word it so that you will be likely to keep
the same point of view throughout the paper. If, for example,
your subject is " Things seen from a Train,'' word it so that it
will be clear that a passenger is writing. (2) Change the wording
so as to accommodate as many different points of view as you
think are worth taking. In the case just given as an example, the
conductor, the brakeman, the engineer, the firemah, th^ news-
paper boy, the porter, and others would have something to say.

148. Means of securing Coherence. Every talk or
theme should be coherent. It may be easy to frame a
coherent sentence or a coherent paragraph, but to hold the

262 LITERATURE AND LONGER COMPOSITIONS

attention of an audience for ten minutes, or even for three
minutes, makes a more serious demand of a speaker. He
must arrange whole groups of thoughts so that the transition
from one group to another will be easy and natural.

Let us suppose that in the ten-minute talk on your high
school you wish to emphasize foiu: matters : (i) the caliber
of the pupils in the school ; (2) the good condition of ath-
letics ; (3) the large number of available studies ; and (4)
the unusually strong body of teachers. In whatever way
you arrange these divisions of your subject, you must make
it plain that one leads up to another^ and that each contributes
its part to the main thought. As you pass from topic to
topic, and from paragraph to paragraph, you should show
in some way that you are moving toward your destination.

To apply to connected paragraphs the methods of secur-
ing coherence in the sentence (see sects. 119, 120) and in the
paragraph (see sect. 107), we may summarize them thus :

1. The last sentence of a paragraph may introduce the
subject of the next paragraph. (For example, see the last
sentence in sect. 107.)

2. The first sentence of a paragraph may refer to the
preceding paragraph (a) through a conjimction or conjunc-
tive phrase or (6) through a demonstrative adjective. (See
sect. 108.)

3. A transitional sentence, and sometimes a paragraph,
may be used to connect two paragraphs. In one of the
Spectator papers appears a story of which the following is
an abstract :

Mahomet, "that famous imposter," was snatched one morning
from his bed and taken by an angel to paradise. As the prophet was
being carried off he upset a pitcher of water, but though he visited the

MEANS OF SECURING COHERENCE 263

whole of paradise and held ninety thousand conferences, so short a
time elapsed before Gabriel restored him to earth, that Mahomet was
able to stand upright the overturned pitcher before the water was all
spilt.

Immediately after this story Addison inserts the follow-
ing transitional paragraph :

There is a very pretty story in the Turkish Tales which relates to
this passage of that famous imposter, and bears some affinity to the
subject we are now upon.

After this transitional paragraph a story is told of a sul-
tan of Egypt who ridiculed the adventure of Mahomet.

To secure coherence, then, you must see that each division
of the subject leads up to the next, and that each contributes
its part to the main thdught,

EXERCISES

456. (i) Bring to class as many examples as you can find of the
foregoing methods of passing from one paragraph to another.
You may consult editorials, magazine articles, and whatever
books you happen to be reading.

(2) Outline the Ufe of an author whose work the class is now
reading. Get any help you can from the arrangement that
follows:

I. Parents. IV. College life.

1. Father. i. Faithful student.

2. Mother. a. Favorite studies.
II. Childhood. b. Debating dub.

1. Nurse. 2. Athlete.

a. Stories. a. Football.

b. Affection. b. Rowing.

2. Playmates. 3. Ambitions.
III. Boyhood. V. Career.

1. School. I. Industry.

2. Recreations. 2. Promotion.

a, Reading. 3. Independence.

b. Sailing. VI. Position in the community.

264 LITERATURE AND LONGER COMPOSITIONS

457. Make a detailed outline of one period of the life of the
author.

458. Make a detailed outline of one period of the life of a
favorite character.

459. Give the class a talk based on one of your outlines.

460. Write a letter to a friend explaining fully your school life.
Make the letter coherent and give special attention to the transi-
tion from one paragraph to another.

149. Means of securing Emphasis. Everything in your
composition may have a bearing on the subject, your para-
graphs may all fit together, but there is still an important
question to answer : Will your hearer sift from all the details
you give him the one or two points you wish him to note with
especial care? In other words, how can you secure em-
phasis? We shall proceed to examine two ways.

150. Emphasis through Position. We have already seen
in our study of paragraphs that what we put first attracts
attention, and that we may expect people to remember
longest what comes last. In other words, emphasis may
be secured by position.

EXERCISES

461. If you were to use the following topics in writing an

autobiography, in what order would you arrange them, and

why?

Birth. Plans for the future.

Early boyhood. Tastes.

462. If you were to write a paper on your interest in the

following games, in what order would you arrange them, and

why?

Football. Tennis.

Baseball. Golf.

MEANS OF SECURING EMPHASIS 265

151. Emphasis through Proportion. If in the talk on
your school you give half of your space to athletics, one
naturally infers that you consider athletics of most impor-
tance. If you dismiss studies with two or three sentences,
it is an equally natural inference that you consider that
part of the school life of little interest — at least to your
audience. In the long composition^ then, as well as in the
paragraph, emphasis is a waiter of proportion,

EXERCISES

4^S. Choose a limited subject with which you are familiar,
and which you consider suitable for a three-minute talk.
Make the following preparation in writing:

1. Fix the point of view.

2. Fix the order of the topics.

3. Allot to each topic the proportion of time it deserves.

4^4- After getting all the help you can at home or from your
friends, give the talk to the class.

465. Bring to class a plan and use it in writing the story of
some novel you have recently read.

J166, A pupil just back from a two weeks' vacation in Marble-
head wrote an account which was planned as follows*

I. My visit to Marblehead.

U. The historic Marblehead.

I. The War of 181 2.

a. Marblehead's defensive work,
ft. Marblehead^s offensive work.
III. The present Marblehead.
I. Population.

a. Size, compared with early times,
ft. Kind.

In this theme, 11 received emphasis by proportion and III em-
phasis by position. If the pupil were asked to write a letter about

266 LITERATURE AND LONGER COMPOSITIONS

Marblehead to a man who is thinking of making his home there,
how niuch of the above plan would he probably use? How
much of it would he find useful in talking to a historical society ?

Jfil, Point out the value of making a careful plan even if you
do not follow it closely. Explain Mr. J. M. Barrie's account of his
experience :

There are writers who can plan out their story beforehand as clearly
as though it were a railway journal^ and adhere throughout to their
original design — they draw up what playwrights call a scenario —
but I was never one of those. I spend a great deal of time, indeed,
in looking for the best road in the map, and mark it with red ink ; but
at the first by-path off my characters go. "Come back," I cry, "you
are off the road !" "We prefer this way," they reply. I try bully-
ing. "You are only people in a book," I shout, "and it is my book,
and I can do what I like with you, so come back ! " But they seldom
come, and it ends with my plodding after them.

IfiS. Keeping in mind the suggestions derived from this
study of the above plan, make a similar plan for a theme ad-
dressed to your class.

Jfi9. Revise your plan so that it will be adapted to an entirely
different audience.

J^IO, The following outline was written in preparing a theme
to show what a pupil had accomplished during his first year in
the high school. If possible, suggest improvements in it —
perhaps in the order of topics.

The First Year in the High School

I. English. III. History. IV. Drawing.

1. Reading. i. Roman. i. Free-hand.

2. Writing. 2. Greek. 2. Mechanical.
n. Shop work. 3. English. V. Algebra.

1. Carving. i. Factoring.

2. Carpentry. 2. Equations.

THE INTRODUCTION 267

%71. Make an outline of the school work you have done this
year. Arrange your work so as to end with what has interested
you most. Indicate carefully the main and the subordinate divi-
sions of the subject.

J^72> Make an outline of an account of your own life, testing it
thoroughly. Write the account.

475. Prepare an outline of a subject on which you would like
to write^ and for which you need several paragraphs. These
subjects may be suggestive:

1. Lincoln's Boyhood. 6. The Italians of To-day.

2. The Preservation of Forests. 7. The Autobiography of a Public

3. Ought Football to be played Carriage.

in High Schools ? 8. The Persecution of the Jews.

4. Rome at her Greatest. 9. A Letter to an Editor on a

5. Scott's Boyhood. Timely Subject.

474. After testing the outline as thoroughly as you know how,
write the composition. Then apply the same tests to the com-
position.

152. The Introduction. Just because a boy wishes to
tell us about a day's tramping, it does not follow that
he is compelled to mention the precise moment of his wak-
ing or the difficulties and the rapidity of his dressing. If
he is to interest us in his trip, the sooner he gets under
way the better. It is safe to make introductions brief
and informal.

Irving begins his " Oliver Goldsmith " in this way :

There are few writers for whom the reader feels such personal
kindness as for Oliver Goldsmith, for few have so eminently possessed
the magic gift of identifying themselves with their writings.

Hawthorne opens " The House of the Seven Gables '*
with these words :

268 LITERATURE AND LONGER COMPOSITIONS

Halfway down a by-street of one of our New England towns
stands a rusty wooden house, with seven acutely peaked gables,
facing towards various points of the compass, and a huge, clustered
chimney in the midst.

EXERCISES

475. Examine the introductory chapters of five stories. You
may include " Ivanhoe," " The Last of the Mohicans," " The
Vicar of Wakefield," " Silas Mamer," and " The Alhambra."
Take notes and give an oral report based on them. •

1^16. Write an introductory paragraph of an account of a visit
you once made.

1^77, Write introductory paragraphs for themes on two of the
following subjects:

1. A Long Day. 6. In the Train.

2. A Delightful Ride. 7. An Excursion.

3. A Morning's Drive. 8. A Short Evening.

4. An Old Friend (a person). 9. A Tedious Hour.

5. An Old Friend (an animal). 10. A Stimulating Lecture.

J^78, Exchange papers. Condense and simplify the intro-
ductions as much as possible.

153. The Conclusion. You should think twice about
your concluding paragraph. At times it should include a
careful summary of your whole composition. Now and then
you may think of an anecdote that will give point to all you
have said. If one topic has led up to another naturally,
you may need no other conclusion than a forcible ending of
your last topic. A good story-teller, with his fondness for
dwelling on the parts that please him most, is apt to be a
long time reaching the end of his journey, but once there
he knows enough to stop. As you hear lectures and ser-

THE CONCLUSION 269

mons, you will probably make up your mind that both
introductions and conclusions are better for being brief.

EXERCISES

47P. Examine several endings of chapters, magazine articles,
books, and stories. Take notes, and give an oral report based
on five of them.

480, Write the concluding paragraph of each of the themes for
which you wrote introductory paragraphs.

481 . In class, after a discussion of several themes, criticize your
own with a view to making the conclusions as brief and as com-
prehensive as possible.

4S2. Give the substance of Chapters IV, VIII, and IX. Pre-
pare as in Exercise 9, page 6.

483. Write in three connected paragraphs the substance of
what you can find in this book concerning unity, coherence,
and emphasis (i) in the long composition, (2) in the paragraph,
(3) in the sentence. (See the index.)

484' Tell the class briefly what you consider important to
remember about (i) words in good use, (2) forcible words.

•

154. The Value of a Plan. In short, then, the composi-
tion — whatever its length — should have unity, coherence,
and emphasis. If you would secure these characteristics,
form the habit of simple, straightforward, vigorous thinking.
You will find a plan helpful in determining the goal you are
to reach, in keeping your path, and in spending your time
along the way to best advantage. In making your plan,
consider carefully (i) your point of view, and (2) the choice
and order of the topics. Finally, remember that a careful
revision of the plan may save hours of rewriting.

270 LITERATURE AND LONGER COMPOSITIONS

EXERCISE

485. (i) Give the dass a three-minute talk. Whatever your
subject, show that you are prepared to speak on it. You may
choose some subject on which you have ahready written with
great care. At any rate you should know just what you wish
to say, so that you can speak fluently. Give your best atten-
tion to the preparation of your plan. Consider carefully the
introduction and the conclusion; and if you wish, write them.
Choose an appropriate title.

(2) Write out your talk, using the language of the oral com-
position as far as possible.

CHAPTER XV

NARRATION

Hear as many good stories as you can, and tell one whenever you find a
listener.

155. The Study of Common Forms of Prose. In study-
ing literature with a view to learning how to write, it has
proved convenient to examine each of the four common
forms of prose by itself. Now, as a matter of fact, we do
not find a great many pure narratives, or pure descriptions,
or pure expositions, or piure arguments ; almost every com-
position is a combination of two or more of these forms.
It is important, however, to acquire some skill in the use of
each kind, for all are practical ways of using our mother
tongue. If we tell a story, we wish to tell it so that it will
make a definite impression ; if we paint a word picture, we
wish the picture to affect the reader as it affects us ; if we
give an explanation, we wish it to be so clear and orderly
that every listener will follow step by step; if we cham-
pion one side of a question, we wish to present that *side
in such a straightforward, logical way that we shall be
convincing.

156. The Incident. First we shall study narration.
Whether we are trying to tell something that has hap-
pened to us, something we have heard, or something we
have read, we are continually thinking, " I wish I knew
how to tell a story." Probably the easiest way to become

271

272 NARRATION

a good story-teller is to begin with inddents. We all note
many occurrences which are worth recording, and in order
to write them in good form, we should study the way in
which others have done the same kind of writing. We
should remember, too, that practice in telling incidents
from the lives of others will help us in telling those that
come within our own experience.

EXERCISES

If86. In criticizing the following incidents, answer these
questions:

1. Is the introduction sufficiently brief?

2. Are the events told in a natural order ?

3. Does the narrative end in a way that brings out clearly the main
point?

Lamb's Salt Dn»s

Lamb had been medically advised to take a course of sea bathing ;
and accordingly, at the door of his bathing machine, whilst he stood
shivering with the cold, two stout fellows laid hold of him, one at each
shoulder, like heraldic supporters ; they waited for the word of com-
mand from their principal, who began the following oration to them :

"Hear me, men ! Take notice of this — I am to be dipped."
What more he would have said is unknown, for having reached the
word "dipped," he commenced such a rolling fire of di-di-di-di, that
when at length he descended iL plotnb upon the full word dipped^ the
two men, rather tired of the long suspense, became satisfied that they
had reached what lawyers call the "operative clause" of the sentence,
and both exclaiming, "Oh, yes, sir, we are quite aware of that," down
they plunged him into the sea.

On emerging. Lamb sobbed so much from the cold that he found no
voice suitable to his indignation ; from necessity he seemed tranquil ;
and again addressing the men, who stood respectfully listening, he
began thus:

" Men ! is it possible to obtain your attention ? "

"Oh, svurely, sir, by all means."

THE INCIDENT 273

"Then listen; once more I tell you I am to be di-di-di-di-," and
then, with a burst of indignation, "dipped, I tell you."

"Oh, decidedly, sir," rejoined the men, "decidedly," and down
the stammerer went for a second time.

Petrified with cold and wrath, once more Lamb made a feeble
attempt at explanation:

" Grant me pa-pa-patience ! Is it mum-imi-murder you me-
me-ean? Again, and again I tell you I'm to be di-di-di-dipped,"
now speaking furiously, with the tone of an injured man.

"Oh, yes, sir," the men replied, "we know that; we fully under-
stood it " ; and, for the third time, down went Lamb into the sea.
O limbs of Satan ! " he said, on coming up for the third time,
it's now too late ; I tell you that I am — no, that I was — by
medical direction to be di-di-di-dipped only once.^^

Thackeray and the Oyster^

Thackeray announced to me by letter . . . that he . . . would
sail for Boston by the Canada on the 30th of October. All the neces-
sary arrangements for his lecturing tour had been made without
troubling him with any of the details. He arrived on a frosty Novem-
ber evening, and went directly to the Tremont House, where rooms
had been engaged for him. I remember his delight in getting off thie
sea, and the enthusiasm with which he hailed the announcement that
dinner would be ready shortly. A few friends were ready to sit down
with him, and he seemed greatly to enjoy the novelty of an American
repast. In London he had been very curious in his inquiries about
American oysters, as marvelous stories, which he did not believe, had
been told him of their great size. We apologized — although we had
taken care that the largest specimens to be procured should startle his
imwonted vision when he came to the table — for what we called the
extreme smallness of the oysters, promising that we would do better
next time. Six bloated Falstaffian bivalves lay before him in their
shells. I noticed that he gazed at them anxiously with fork upraised ;
then he whispered to me, with a look of anguish, "How shall I do it ?"
I described to him the simple process by which the free-bom citizens

^ Reprinted by permission of Messrs. Houghton, MifHin & Company.

274 NARRATION

of America were accustomed to accomplish such a task. He seemed
satisfied that the thing was feasible, selected the smallest one in the
half-dozen (rejecting a large one, "because," he said, "it resembled
the High Priest's servant's ear that Peter cut off")> *^<i ^en bowed
his head as if he were saying grace. All eyes were upon him to watch
the effect of a new sensation in the person of a great British author.
Opening his mouth very wide, he struggled for a moment, and then all
was over. I shall never forget the comic look of despair he cast upon
the other five over-occupied shells. I broke the perfect stillness by
asking him how he felt. "Profoundly grateful," he gasped, "and as
if I had swallowed a Httle baby."

— J. T. Fields, "Yesterdays with Authors."

457. Tell the foregoing incident. Be sure to keep your audi-
ence in suspense as well as the writer does.

488, Tell the first anecdote without allowing any of the
men to speak for themselves, and state whether it seems wise
to allow the persons, or characters, to speak for themselves as
much as possible.

489. Write an incident that is suggested by one of the follow-
ing topics. See that you have a good beginning, an orderly se-
quence of events, and a dignified conclusion.

An Evening at Cedric's Home
The Persecution of Isaac
A Test of Skill in Archery

Death of De la Marck
The Boar Hunt

" Ivanhoe."

" Quentin Durward."

Chasing a Buffalo 1 « rrn. rk rj. n »

A Moiitain Hunt 1 The Oregon Trail."

490, Tell an incident based on your own experience.

491, Write an account of some interesting event about which
you are now studying in history.

492, Does the following narrative begin promptly? Is the
order of events a natural one ? Does the story end well ?

THE INCIDENT

A Sad Story

275

My next-door neighbor has a rooster which set up to be the rival
of mine. It is a strange thing that creatures living side by side, instead
of cultivating friendship and good feelings, should become envious,
jealous, and quarrelsome.

Well, at first the rival roosters were satisfied with trying to see
which could crow the louder, and it really seemed as if they would
split their throats in the contest. Then they began to try which
should wake up and crow first in the morning, and in this strife they
would often begin at two o'clock at night; and lest one should get
advantage over the other, they kept crowing away till sunrise.

So long as things were confined to crowing, no serious evil followed,
but from crows the rivals at last came to blows. One day, as they
chanced to be pretty near together, they began crowing at each other.
By and by my rooster got angry; so he mounted the fence which
divides my yard from my neighbor's, flapped his wings, and crowed a
most tremendous crow. Upon this the other gave him a regular chal-
lenge to fight. There was no police to stop them, and they went at
it. It was no boy's play; wings, spurs, and beaks, all were put in
action. They fought like tigers, and when neither could stand, they
held on to each other's combs and lay panting on the ground. At last
they got up. One marched one way and the other another.

My rooster was so nearly blind that he could not find the way to
the henhouse. The best he could do was to get under a small cedar
tree, and there he took lodgings for the night. But, alas ! the weather
was bitter cold, and the poor thing was found stiff as an icicle, his
feathers torn, his comb destroyed, and the air of pride and triumph
which once distinguished him, departed forever. My neighbor's
rooster saw the poor fellow lying in the snow, so over the fence he flew
and began a most furious assault upon the lifeless body. After beating
it soundly for about five minutes, the creature paused, looked con-
temptuously at the object of his wrath, drew himself up to his full
height, and crowed. Then, with proud strides, he marched off to his
flock of hens, who received him with three cheers, as the hero of all
outdoors.

276 NARRATION

49s. Read aloud the following bit of narrative until you can
read it well. Then tell just why you like or dislike it.

The bear was coming on; he had, in fact, come on. I judged
that he could see the whites of my eyes. All my subsequent reflec-
tions were confused. I raised the gun, covered the bear's breast with
the sight, and let drive. Then I turned, and ran like a deer. I did
not hear the bear pursuing. I looked back. The bear had stopped.
He was lying down. I then remembered that the best thing to
do after having fired your gun is to reload it. I slipped in a charge,
keeping my eyes on the bear. He never stirred. I walked back sus-
piciously. There was a quiver in the hind-legs, but no other motion-
Still he might be shamming: bears often sham. To make sure, I
approached, and put a ball into his head. He didn't mind it now:
he minded nothing. Death had come to him with a merciful sudden-
ness. He was calm in death. In order that he might remain so, I
blew his brains out, and then started for home. I had killed a bear!

— CD. Warner.

494' Read the following narratives aloud and criticize (i) the
introduction, (2) the order of events, (3) the ending.

Incident of the French Camp

You know, we French stormed Ratisbon:

A mile or so away.
On a little mound, Napoleon

Stood on our storming-day ;
With neck outthrust, you fancy how,

Legs wide, arms locked behind,
As if to balance the prone brow

Oppressive with its mind.

Just as perhaps he mused, "My plans

That soar, to earth may fall.
Let once my army-leader Lannes

Waver at yonder wall," —
Out 'twixt the battery-smokes there flew

THE INCIDENT 277

A rider, bound on bound
FuU-galloping ; nor bridle drew
Until he reached the mound.

Then off there flimg in smiling joy,

And held himself erect
By just his horse's mane, a boy:

You hardly could suspect —
(So tight he kept his Ups compressed,

Scarce any blood came through)
You looked twice ere you saw his breast

Was all but shot in two.

"Well," cried he, "Emperor, by God^s grace

WeVe got you Ratisbon !
The Marshal's in the market-place,

And you'll be there anon
To see your flag-bird flap his vans

Where I, to heart's desire,
Perched him ! " The chief's eye flashed ; his plans

Soared up again like fire.

The chief's eye flashed ; but presently

Softened itself, as sheathes
A film the mother-eagle's eye

When her bruised eaglet breathes ;
"You're wounded !" "Nay," the soldier's pride

Touched to the quick, he said:
"I'm killed. Sire !" And his chief beside.

Smiling the boy fell dead.

— Browning.

Quite So

"I say there, drop that!" cried Strong. "All right, sir, didn't
know it was you," he added hastily, seeing it was Lieutenant Haines
who had thrown back the flap of the tent, and let in a gust of wind and
rain that threatened the most serious bronchial consequences to our
discontented tallow dip.

278 NARRATION

"You're to bunk in here/' said the lieutenant, speaking to some
one outside. The some one stepped in, and Haines vanished in the
darkness.

When Strong had succeeded in restoring the candle to conscious-
ness, the light fell upon a tall, shy-looking man of about thirty-five,
with long, hay-colored beard and mustache, upon which the raindrops
stood in clusters, like the night dew on patches of cobweb in a meadow.
It was an honest face, with imworldly blue eyes, that looked out from
under the broad visor of the infantry cap. With a deferential glance
towards us, the newcomer unstrapped his knapsack, spread his blanket
over it, and sat down imobtrusively.

"Rather damp night out," remarked Blakely, whose strong hand
was supposed to be conversation.

"Quite so," replied the stranger, not curtly, but pleasantly, and
with an air as if he had said all there was to be said about it.

"Come from the North recently ?" inquired Blakely, after a pause.

"Yes."

" From any place in particular ? "

"Maine."

" People considerably stirred up down there ? " continued Blakely,
determined not to give up.

"Quite so."

Blakely threw a puzzled look over the tent, and seeing Ned Strong
on the broad grin; frowned severely. Strong instantly assumed an
abstracted air, and began humming softly,

"I wish I was in Dixie."

"The State of Maine," observed Blakely, with a certain defiance of
manner not at all necessary in discussing a geographical question, "is a
pleasant State."

"In summer," suggested the stranger.

"In summer, I mean," returned Blakely with animation, thinking
he had broken the ice. " Cold as blazes in winter, though — isn't it ? "

The new recruit merely nodded.

Blakely eyed the man homicidally for a moment, and then, smiling
one of those smiles of simulated gayety which the novelists inform us
are more tragic than tears, turned upon him with withering irony.

THE NEWS ITEM 279

"Trust you left the old folks pretty comfortable ?"

"Dead."

"The old folks dead I"

"Quite so."

— T. B. Aldrich, "QuiteSo,"m"MarjorieDaw."

Note. In this combination of narrative and description, notice what
an important part the conversation plays. Does the natural way in which
the writer approaches the climax remind you of the telling of one of the.
anecdotes in this chapter?

157. The News Item. A good newspaper is likely to use
almost all the important forms of prose. One of these forms
— the news item — merits spedal attention because of its
importance and the opportimity it gives for practice in
prose construction. The news item is an accoimt of some
current event. It may deal with practically any subject,
but it must be clear, terse, forcible, and lively. It may be
narrative, description, or exposition. Sometimes the writer
may wish to make a " story " from few facts, but usually
the " maximimi of thought in the minimum of words " is
the safest guide in composing a news item. This does not
mean that it is to be nothing but a bare statement of facts.
The circulation of a paper depends upon the interest its
readers have in everyday things, and the paper must tell
about these things in an interesting way. Practice in
writing news items, even when we expect never to write for a
newspaper, will be excellent training, especially in narrative
composition.

The following items clipped from a newspaper should be
examined carefully:

28o NARRATION

COLORADO COLDEST FOR YEARS

From 15 to 32 Degrees below Zero for more than

Two Weeks

Sugar City, Col., Jan. 2. — With the mercury ranging from 15
to 32 degrees below zero for more than two weeks, and with from twelve
to eighteen inches of snow covering the groimd, southern and eastern
Colorado are experiencing the most severe and prolonged period of
cold weather that has been reported for many years. Cattle, it is
said, are dying from himger by the hundreds, owing to the deep snow
covering the range grass.

YALE DEFEATS CORNELL

Hockey Team springs a Surprise upon the Ithaca

Aggregation

About the greatest surprise of the hockey season to date, was the
defeat of Cornell in Syracuse, N.Y., last evening, by the Yale seven.
The score was 5 to i, and it does not tell fully how marked was the
superiority of Yale. Dean, who played at goal for Cornell, was the
busiest man on the ice, trying to stop the many shots directed his way.
The fact that he succeeded so many times in intercepting the puck
was the only bright feature to Cornell's work.

FIRST TO HEAR MARK TWAIN'S HUMOR

James W. McDaniel, who was the first literary adviser of Samuel
L. Clemens (Mark Twain), died suddenly on Monday at his home in
Hannibal, Mo. In a magazine article published a short time before
Mark Twain's death, the author said when he first began to write hu-
morous stories, he always tried them on McDaniel before he had them
published. If the stories made McDaniel laugh, so the hiunorist wrote,
he always felt assured they would please the pubUc.

EXERCISES

495. (i) Criticize the first news item, showing whether it
is clear, terse, forcible, and lively. (2) Write a similar news
item.

LONGER NARRATIVES 281

JfOS, Select the item you consider the best from the point
of view of both expression and interest. Explain your choice.

4^7. Select from a newspaper six news items — three that you
consider good, three that you consider poor. Rewrite the last
three items, and be prepared to show how you have improved
them.

IfiS. Write brief news items suitable for the school paper on
any three of the following subjects : ^

1. A Prominent Graduate of the 4. Lincoln Day Exercises.

School. 5. A New Piano for the Hall.

2. A Baseball Game. 6. The Number of Pupils in the

3. The Mid-year Examination. Entering Class.

158. Longer Narratives. Whatever skill we acquire in
the telling of incidents we can turn to good account when we
compose stories which include several events. Of these
longer narratives there are two common forms, the short
story and the novel.

The short story, like the incident, is constructed to bring
out clearly a single point, or to produce a single effect.
The ploi^ or action of the story, should be original and
striking. Whereas in the incident the characters may be
mere names, in the good short story they not only talk
but they live.

Compared with the short story, — which generally deals
with one chief character, or one situation, — the novel is
intricate. Pupils who wish to examine a novel as a work of
art will find in Trent, Hanson, and Brewster's " Introduction
to the English Classics," ^ and in the introductions and notes
of editions prepared for schools, such aids as an analysis

^ Published by Ginn and Company.

282 NARRATION

of the author's plot and a study of his method and of his
characters.

Although the study of both forms of fiction is valuable,
in learning how to write such stories as most of us are-
likely to produce, we naturally turn to the short story.
The following volumes will be found to contain many in-
teresting short stories :

"Gallegher and Other Stories" Richard Harding Davis.

" Old Chester Tales " Margaret Deland.

"Tales of a Traveler" Washington Irving.

"The Other Fellow" F. Hopkinson Smith.

"The Jungle Books" 1 -n a a tt- v

"The Day's Work" | Rudyard- Kiphng.

"A Humble Romance" Mary Wilkins Freeman.

"In the Wilderness" Charles Dudley Warner.

"In Ole Virginia" Thomas Nelson Page.

"Majorie Daw" Thomas Bailey Aldrich.

"Wanted: A Match-Maker" Paul Leicester Ford.

Other good stories are mentioned in Exercise 501, below,
and others in the book review under Exercise 610, page 321.

EXERCISES

499. Make a list of your favorite novels under two heads:
(i) novels of incident; (2) novels of character.

500, Write a theme telling which of these two kinds you
prefer, and why. Give illustrations.

169. Directions for telling a Story. In reading, as well as
in writing, we may profitably keep in mind the following
directions for telling a story :

I . Secure unity of effect. Choose material that will bring
out the point you wish to emphasize. Reject whatever does
not make some contribution to the end in view.

DIRECTIONS FOR WRITING A STORY 283

2. Secure coherence. Be sure that one part leads up to
another ; that the various parts are as closely connected as
the links in a chain.

3. Secure emphasis and force, a. The beginning should
arouse an intelligent interest in what is to come. Such
interest may be gained in two ways : (i) by giving an ex-
planation that will prepare the reader for subsequent narra-
tion ; or (2) by fixing his attention on something decidedly
suggestive of what is in store.

b. See that your narrative has proportion. Condense the
unimportant details in order that you may have suflScient
space for whatever you wish to emphasize.

c. The good story-teller knows how to keep his listeners in
suspense, A study of " Ivanhoe '' and other novels of Scott,
and careful listening to men whose audiences seldom weary,
will help us to a wise use of this means of emphasis.

d. The skillful introduction of conversation often in-
creases the interest.

e. The ending must count. A story should not only
make continual progress ; it should grow in interest up to
the very end. We should tell it so that when we have
reached the " climax," — when the interest is at its height,
— there will be little or nothing more to say. Sometimes
the climax comes after a gradual preparation; sometimes
it is all the more effective because it comes unexpectedly.

EXERCISES

501, Tell the story of one of the following narratives: "The
Vision of Sir Launfal," a canto of " The Lady of the Lake,"
" The Man Without a Country," " The Fall of the House of
Usher," " The King of the Golden River," or one of these stories

284 NARRATION

in " The Sketch-Book ": (i) the Captain's story in " The Voy-
age "; (2) " Rip Van Winkle "; (3) the adventures of Ichabod
Crane in " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow." First write a brief
plan.

602. Write (i) the opening paragraph of the story as you have
told it; (2) the closing paragraph.

603. Write the story. Consider the value of conversation,
and if you use any, see that it is to the point and neatly intro-
duced. Be prepared to criticize your story, using the suggestions
in Exercise 486, page 272.

604' Be prepared to tell the class a story that you consider
joyful, pleasant, or gloomy.

605, Be prepared to tell the class in your own words a story
suggested by the following list:

1. A Classic Myth.

2. Dick Whittington and his Cat.

3. Jack the Giant Killer.

4. Puss in Boots.

5. An Original Fairy Tale.

6. A Wild Animal.

606, Reproduce in writing an interesting and lifelike con-
versation you have heard. Perhaps the following topics will
be suggestive:

1. Two Women on a Street Car.

2. Buying a Ticket.

3. Meeting an Old Acquaintance.

4. Ordering from the Grocer.

607, Be prepared to tell the class an improbable story from
Jules Verne, Poe, Kipling, or any other well-known author.

608, Bring to class a copy of an incident in which the move-
ment is rapid.

609, Make an outline of a short story (see subjects imder
Ex. 477, p. 268), being careful to have a definite conclxision. Tell

TELLING A STORY 285

the first half of your story to the class. They may then write
what they consider suitable endings, and these may be com-
pared with yours.

510. Write accounts of an incident from two points of view.
These suggestions may be helpful:

1. A man hit by an automobile. His version of the affair and tjie
chauffeur's.

2. A disputed touchdown. Opinions given by the captains, the
referee, a spectator, the boy who made the play.

3. The circus parade as it looked to a boy, a girl, an old man, a
down in the circus.

511. Give a brief oral account of the life of the most interest-
ing person you know.

512. Tell briefly the history of your school.

513. Make a plan of one of the four stories suggested by
these words:

1. One or two strokes of a spade upturned the blade of a large
Spanish knife, and as we dug farther, three or four loose pieces of gold
and silver coin came to light. . . .

We now worked in earnest, and never did I pass ten minutes of
more intense excitement.

2. It was done. Whether right or wrong, it was done.

3. "I want my happiness!" at last he murmured, hoarsely and
indistinctly, hardly shaping out the words. "Many, many years
have I waited for it I It is late ! It is late ! I want my happiness ! "

4. What was I to do to pass away the long-lived day ?

514. Write the story in full.

515. Write whatever any one of the following extracts
suggests:

1. "Do you," she said, "believe in dreams ? " "That is a question
I can't answer truthfully," I replied, laughing. "I don't really know
whether I believe in dreams or not."

2. The voice of Mrs. Peters, her next-door neighbor, came back
in response: "It's me. What's the matter, Marthy ?"

286 NARRATION

"I'm kinder used up; don't know how you'll git in; I can't git
to the door to unlock it to save my life."

3. On drawing it to the surface, we were much surprised to find
it a long pistol of very curious and outlandish fashion, which, from its
rusted condition, and its stock being worm-eaten and covered with
barnacles, appeared to have lain a long time under water.

4. "Nephew," said he, after several efforts, and in a low, gasping
voice, "I am glad you are come. I shall now die with satisfaction.
Look," said he, raising his withered hand and pointing — "look in
that box on the table : you will find that I have not forgotten you."

5. To make assurance surer, I got upon my hands and knees,
and crawled, without a soimd, towards the comer of the house. As
I drew nearer, my heart was suddenly and. greatly lightened.

6. He had plenty to do the next hourj [Rapid movement.]

7. "I love anything that's old : old friends, old times, old manners,
old books, old wine ; and, I believe, Dorothy (taking her hand), you'll
own I have been pretty fond of an old wife." [Slow movement.]

516, Get one of the best story-tellers you know to tell you
a story, or recall one that you have already heard. Write as
well as you can what you learned from the way in which it
was told.

Keep in mind such questions as these: Was the narrator
hurried? deliberate? Did he make the most of his material?
Did he omit unimportant details? Did he keep you guessing
about the outcome of the story? If so, how? Was the end-
ing one that is easy to remember ?

517. Write an original story (five hundred to one thousand
words). It may be based on fact, but you are to furnish the
plot and the details. See that it is true to life. The follow-
ing subjects may prove suggestive: •

1. My First Skate.

2. A Real Ghost.

3. My Last Bicycle Trip.

4. An Amusing Object.

5. A Day's Rest, or Amusements on an Idle Day.

6. A Lost Child.

TELLING A STORY 287

7. A Lazy Boy's Adventure.

8. With a Veteran of the Civil War.

9. The Greatest Event in American Naval Annals.

10. A Great Satisfaction.

11. A Curious Coincidence.

12. No Laughing Matter.

13. A Bird's Bravery.

14. The Interrupted Lecture.

15. The Coming of the Stagecoach.

16. A Spelling Match.

17. The Critical Inning.

18. A Hermit.

19. A Faithful Horse.

20. An Observant Dog.

618. Assume that you are to send the story just written to a
friend to criticize, and write a letter to accompany it, giving
your reasons for your choice of subject. (See that your letter
is correct in form.)

CHAPTER XVI
DESCRIPTION

160. Material for Pictures. The story-teller often pauses
in his narrative of events to give his hearers bits of descrip-
tion, and all of us have frequent occasion to describe as
accurately as possible something we wish to bring before a
listener. If we could only open our eyes and see the wealth
of material all about us, we should find ourselves continually
enriching our conversation through descriptions. This is
what Ruskin, in " Modem Painters," says :

The fact is, that there is hardly a roadside pond or pool which has
not as much landscape in it as above it. It is not the brown, muddy,
dull thing we suppose it to be ; it has a heart like ourselves, and in
the bottom of that there are the boughs of the tall trees, and the
blades of the shaking grass, and all manner of hues, of variable,
pleasant light out of the sky ; nay, the ugly gutter, that stagnates
over the drain bars, in the heart of the foul city, is not altogether
base ; down in that, if you will look deep enough, you may see the
dark, serious blue of far-off sky, and the passing of pure clouds. It
is at your own will that you see in that despised stream, either the
refuse of the street, or the image of the sky — so it is with almost all
other things that we imkindly despise.

It is not enough to tell what we have seen. Our object
should be to paint a picture that shall affect our listener as
the original observation affected us. To do this skillfully
requires study and practice.

Many of the pictures we shall wish to paint will be based
entirely on the imagination, as some of Jules Verne's are in

288

A LIMITED SUBJECT 289

Twenty Thousand Leagues imder the Sea/' and Cole-
ridge's in " The Ancient Mariner."

161. A Limited Subject. If we are wise, we shall choose
a subject so limited that our description will naturally have
imity. The following selection is an excellent illustration
of the treatment of a limited subject, and as a character
description is weU worth careful study.

Mahto-Tatonka

Though he found such favor in the eyes of the fair, he was no dandy.
He was indifferent to the gaudy trappings and ornaments of his com-
panions, and was content to rest his chances of success upon his own
warlike merits. He never arrayed himself in gaudy blanket and
glittering necklaces, but left his statuelike form, limbed like an
Apollo of bronze, to win its way to favor. His voice was singularly
deep and strong, and sounded from his chest like the deep notes of an
organ. Yet, after all, he was but an Indian. See him as he lies there
in the sun before our tent, kicking his heels in the air and cracking
jokes with his brother. Does he look like a hero ? See him now in the
hour of his glory, when at sunset the whole village empties itself to
behold him, for to-morrow their favorite young partisan goes out
against the enemy. His headdress is adorned with a crest of the
war-eagle's feathers, rising in a waving ridge above his brow, and
sweeping far behind him. His round white shield hangs at his breast,
with feathers radiating from the center like a star. His quiver is at
his back ; his tall lance in his hand, the iron point flashing against the
declining sun, while the long scalp locks of his enemies flutter from
the shaft. Thus, gorgeous as a champion in panoply, he rides round
and round within the great circle of lodges, balancing with a graceful
buoyancy to the free movements of his war horse, while with a sedate
brow he sings his song to the Great Spirit. Young rival warriors look
askance at him; vermilion-cheeked girls gaze in admiration; boys
whoop and scream in a thrill of delight; and old women yell forth his
name and proclaim his praises from lodge to lodge.

— Parkman, "The Oregon Trail.''

290 DESCRIPTION

EXERCISES

619. In studying Burroughs' description of the walk of a
crow, ask yourself these questions: Has eveiy thing a bearing
on the subject? Is the opening sentence a good introduction?
Is the closing sentence an emphatic ending? Read these two
sentences together, and then write what you consider the main
thought of the paragraph.

I have seen no bird walk the ground with just the same air the crow
does. It is not exactly pride ; there is no strut or swagger in it, though
perhaps just a little condescension ; it is the contented, complacent,
and self-possessed gait of a lord over his domains. All these acres are
mine, he says, and all these crops ; men plow and sow for me, and I
stay here or go there, and find life sweet and good wherever I am.
The hawk looks awkward and out of place on the ground ; the game
birds hurry and skulk, but the crow is at home and treads the earth as
if there were none to molest or make him afraid.

— "An Idyl of the Honey-Bee."

620, (i) Make a list of five subjects suitable for imaginative
description and so limited that it will be easy to secure unity.
(2) Write on one of the subjects that you like best.

521. As you read Hawthorne's description of a room, put
yourself in the writer's place. Think of the numerous details
he might have included in his picture. From them all he se-
lected a few. Presenting these in an order in which a visitor
would naturally see them, he took pains to point out a chair that
he wished us particularly to notice.

It was a low-studded room, with a beam across the ceiling, paneled
with dark wood, and having a large chimney piece, set round with
pictured tiles, but now closed by an iron fire board, through which
ran the funnel of a modern stove. There was a carpet on the floor,
originally of rich texture, but so worn and faded in these latter years
that its once brilliant figure had quite vanished into one indistin-
guishable hue. In the way of furniture, there were two tables: one,

A LIMITED SUBJECT 291

constructed with perplexing intricacy and exhibiting as many feet as a
centipede; the other, most delicately wrought, with four long and
slender legs, so apparently frail that it was almost incredible what a
length of time the ancient tea table had stood upon them. Half a
dozen chairs stood about the room, straight and stiff, and so ingeni-
ously contrived for the discomfort of the human person that they
were irksome even to sight, and conveyed the ugliest possible idea of
the state of society to which they could have been adapted. One
exception there was, however, in a very antique elbowchair, with a
high back, carved elaborately in oak, and a roomy depth within its
arms, that made up, by its spacious comprehensiveness, for the lack of
any of those artistic curves which abound in a modern chair.

— "The House of the Seven Gables," chap. ii.

522. With the above description in mind, describe in writing
the interior of a room which interests you.

523. Note the simplicity of Scott's plan in this description
from " Rob Roy," and with this example in mind describe orally
some bit of scenery that has pleased you.

The glorious beams of the rising sun, which poured from a taber-
nacle of purple and golden clouds, were darted full on such a scene of
natural romance and beauty as had never before greeted my eyes.
To the left lay the valley, down which the Forth wandered on its
easterly course, surrounding the beautiful detached hill, with all its
garland of woods. On the right, amid a profusion of thickets, knolls,
and crags, lay the head of a broad mountain lake, lightly curled into
tiny waves by the breath of the morning breeze, each glittering into
its course under the influence of the sunbeams. High hills, rocks, and
banks waving with natural forests of birch and oak, formed the borders
of this enchanting sheet of water ; and, as their leaves rustled to the
wind and twinkled in the sun, gave to the depth of solitude a sort of
life and vivacity.

524^ Suggest improvements in the following storm descrip-
tion:

I went to Nahant yesterday to see the storm. The sea off Nahant
point was magnificent. The waves were greater than the waves that

292 DESCRIPTION

run shoreward on the beaches, gathered masses, seas heaped on seas,
swinging in unhindered, mountainous, to crush upon the rough rocks
that rise seaward abruptly. Far out the sea foamed with whitecaps,
but, till they reached the foot of the cliffs themselves, the waves found
no shallow, no reef to break them. They did not bend and curl lightly
as siunmer waves ; their mass was too great, their march was too sol-
emn. Slowly each mounted shoreward, lifting its swaying crest;
halted a moment, gathered its whole strength in one heaped moun-
tainous impulse, and plunged shoreward, leaping — dashing through
caverns and crevices, rushing swiftly up the purple slopes of the
rocks, flashing up like white flame against the sky, shaking the firm
foundations of the land with hollow thunder.

It was a power beyond and above man, a thing irresistible
and untamable, to whose crests the heights of the land seemed
little. The sense of it was everywhere. The soxmd of it was
everywhere.

162. The Point of View. After choosing the subject, the
next step is to decide upon the point of view. Having once
fixed this, the writer should not change it without giving
the reader notice. If he moves forward or backward, to
the right or to the left, he must inform the reader. After
describing the view from an east window, he must not
call attention to something on the west side of the house
without showing how he is enabled to command a view in
that direction. Similarly, the writer should notify the
reader of a change of time. If he begins by describing the
morning sky, he must not refer to the heat of noon without
the proper transition.

In a single paragraph of " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow "
Irving describes the outside of a house, the piazza, the hall,
the parlor, and even gives us a peep into a china closet.
Yet he is so careful to inform us of every movement of the
wondering Ichabod that we follow with the utmost ease.

THE POINT OF VIEW 293

It is to be noted that Ichabod went no farther than the hall;
then he stood and looked around.

It was one of those spacious farmhouses, with high-ridged, but
lowly-sloping roofs, built in the style handed down from the first
Dutch settlers ; the low projecting eaves forming a piazza along the
front, capable of being closed up in bad weather. Under this were
hung flails, harness, various utensils of husbandry, and nets for fishing
in the neighboring river. Benches were built along the sides for
summer use ; and a great spinning wheel at one end, and a churn at
the other, showed the various uses to which this important porch might
be devoted. From this piazza the wondering Ichabod entered the
hall, which formed the center of the mansion and the place of usual
residence. Here, rows of resplendent pewter, ranged on a long
dresser, dazzled his eyes. In one comer stood a huge bag of wool
ready to be spim ; in another a quantity of linsey-woolsey just from
the loom ; ears of Indian com, and strings of dried apples and peaches,
himg in gay festoons along the walls, mingled with the gaud of red
peppers ; and a door left ajar gave him a peep into the best parlor,
where the claw-footed chairs, and dark mahogany tables, shone like
mirrors; and irons, with their accompanying shovel and tongs,
glistened from their covert of asparagus tops; mock-oranges and
conch shells decorated the mantelpiece ; strings of various colored
birds* eggs were suspended above it: a great ostrich egg was hung from
the center of the room, and a comer cupboard, knowingly left open,
displayed immense treasures of old silver and well-mended china.

-—Irving, "The Sketch-Book."

These words show how the point of view changes : From
this piazza Ichabod entered the hall ... a door left ajar gave
him a peep into the best parlor . . . a cupboard, left open,

EXERCISES

625, Criticize, with reference to the point of view, the selec-
tion from Parkman, on page 289. (i) Does the writer change
his point of view? (2) If so, does he inform the reader of
every such change?

294 DESCRIPTION

526, From what point of view does the reader see (i) the room
described by Hawthorne on page 290; (2) the description from
" Rob Roy " on page 291 ; (3) the Nahant Storm, pages 291-292 ;
(4) the passages from Parkman and Kipling, pages 255, 256?

527, Write a description of a living room (i) from a mother's
point of view ; (2) from a caller's point of view.

528, Show why it is necessary to have a point of view in de-
scription, and illustrate by giving an oral description of your
school building.

529, Write an imaginative description of a dwelling house
(i) from the inside or (2) from the outside.

530, Write a description of a landscape (i) on a bright morn-
ing or (2) on a moonlight evening.

163. Choice of Details and Plan. Nothing is of greater
importance than the choosing of significant details. That
choice made, your problem is one of arrangement.

In the following lines, note the choice of significant details
and the skillful management of them :

For cups and silver on the bumish'd board
Sparkled and shone ; so genial was the hearth:
And on the right hand of the hearth he saw
Philip, the slighted suitor of old times,
Stout, rosy, with his babe across his knees ;
And o'er her second father stoopt a girl,
A later but a loftier Annie Lee,
Fair-hair *d and tall, and from her lifted hand
Dangled a length of ribbon and a ring
To tempt the babe, who rear'd his creasy arms,
Caught at and ever miss'd it, and they laugh'd:
And on the left hand of the hearth he saw
The mother glancing often toward her babe,
But turning now and then to speak with him,

DESCRIPTION BY SUGGESTION 295

Her son, who stood beside her tall and strong,
And saying that which pleased him, for he smiled.

— Tennyson, "Enoch Arden."

Sometimes a writer makes clear at the start the mamier in
which he proposes to develop the description. Victor Hugo,
in describing the field of Waterloo, says :

Those who would get a clear idea of the battle of Waterloo have
only to lay down upon the ground in their mind a capital A. The
left stroke of the A is the road from Nivelles, the right stroke is the
road from Genappe, the cross of the A is the sunken road from Chain
to Braine FAlleud.

Newman's description of Attica begins :

A confined triangle, perhaps fifty miles its greatest length, and thirty
its greatest breadth.

It is a help to clearness to say that a church takes the
form of a cross or of an amphitheater. You may know of a
peninsula that might be likened to a finger, of a road that
resembles an S, of a river that may be compared to a horse-
shoe or an oxbow.

EXERCISE

581. With the foregoing illustrations in mind, write a de-
scription of some view that has made a deep impression on
you. Choose important details.

164. Description by Suggestion. We frequently try to
write so that another person shall see just what we see, but
in many instances the wiser course is to make the reader feel
as we feel. Thomas Bailey Aldrich says: " I like to have a
thing suggested rather than told in full. When every detail
is given, the mind rests satisfied, and the imaginaticm loses
all desire to use its own wings/' Sometimes a word or a

296 DESCRIPTION

phrase is more suggestive than a page of details. You will
find the following worth study :

1. The smiler, with the knife under the doak.*

2. Next stood Hypocrisy with holy leer,
Soft smiling and demurely looking down,
But hid the dagger underneath the gown.

3. Look like the innocent flower,
But be the serpent under' t.

165. Description by Effect. Sometimes the best way to
describe a thing is to suggest how it influences the spec-
tator or actor. This kind of suggestion is called description
by effect.

EXERCISES

532, See in how many eJ0Fective ways you can bring out the
thought of the following:

1. Mutiny, it was plain, hung over us like a thundercloud.

2. In came Mrs. Fezziwig, one vast substantial smile.

533. Describe by means of suggestion one of the following :
(i) an elm tree ; (2) a sweet child; (3) a fog; (4) a storm cloud.

534' Read the following paragraph aloud until you can
read it well. Is it an example of description by eJ0Fect ? How did
Nehushta feel in the atmosphere described ?

The peace of the evening descended upon her [Nehushta] ; the birds
of the day ceased singing with the growing darkness; and slowly,
out of the plain, the yellow moon soared up and touched the river
and the meadows with mystic light ; while far ofif, in the rose thickets
of the gardens, the first notes of a single nightingale floated upon the
scented breeze, swelling and trilling, quivering and falling again; in a
glory of angelic song. The faint air fanned her cheek, the odors

* ** This verse," says Lowell, " makes us glance over our shoulders, as if
we heard a stealthy tread behind us."

DESCRIPTION BY SUGGESTION 297

of the box and the myrtle and the roses intoxicated her senses, and as
the splendid shield of the rising moon cast its broad light into her
dreaming eyes, her heart overflowed, and Nehushta the princess lifted
up her voice and sang an ancient song of love, in the tongue of her
people, to a soft minor melody, that sounded like a sigh from the
southern desert. — F. M. Crawford, "Zoroaster," chap. ii.

635. Write a description of some peaceful scene in such a way
that the reader will feel calm.

636. Describe some exciting scene in such a way that you will
excite your listeners. Draw freely on your imagination.

637. Write a description of a happy scene in such a way that
the reader cannot help feeling pleased.

638. Write a letter to some one, giving a vivid account of some
fine bit of music that you have heard.

639. Select from an English classic some good description of
a place or scene. Read the passage to the class, calling atten-
tion to what you consider particularly good.

6^0. Without actually naming it, be prepared to describe
some simple object so that the class will xmderstand what you
have in mind. The following may suggest a subject: rtder,
armchair, ink bottle, fountain pen, pocketknife, carriage,

641 ' In a similar way be prepared to describe some familiar
building in your neighborhood, or some well-known public
character, or a famous painting.

642. Write a description of a tree that you know well.

643. (i) Describe a picture of a house and groxmds. (2) Add
details that in your judgment would improve it, and describe the
resulting picture. '

644' Similarly (i) describe a picture of a landscape, or a body
of water, and (2) add such details as you choose, and describe
the resulting picture.

298 DESCRIPTION

6Ji5. Describe an unattractive back yard (i) as it is, and (2)
as, at slight expense, it might be.

646. Is the following description of Caesar a vivid picture?
Make a plan of it, noting (i) the point of view and (2) the choice
of details.

In person Caesar was tall and slight. His features were more refined
than was usual in Roman faces ; the forehead was wide and high, the
nose large and thin, the Hps full, the eyes dark gray like an eagle's, the
neck extremely thick and sinewy. His complexion was pale. His
beard and mustache were kept carefully shaved. His hair was short
and naturally scanty, falling off towards the end of his Hfe and leaving
him partially bald. His voice, especially when he spoke in pubUc, was
high and shriU. ... He was an athlete in early Hfe, admirable in all
manly exercise, and especially in riding. — J. A. Froude, " Caesar."

547, Write a description of a young man, profiting by what you
can learn from the foregoing selection and from the paragraph
quoted on page 289.

6^8. Write a description of an elderly man, profiting by any
suggestions you may get from the following:

1. He must have been upwards of sixty, but he had a wiry, well-
trained, elastic figure, a stiff, military throw-back of his head, and a
springing step, which made him appear much younger than he was.

2. In a city in which people regarded the beautiful body as a sign
of the beautiful soul within, in which they looked upon an ugly man
much as they would upon an anarchist, Socrates was the "ugliest of
the sons of men." With his enormously large bald head, protruding
eyes, flat nose, and thick lips, he resembled the satyr masks displayed
in the shop windows at Athens; big-bodied and bandy-legged, he
stalked like a pelican through the streets.

— BoTSFORD, "History of Greece," p. 225.

5Ji9. Write a description of an imaginary young woman.
The following sketch of Joan of Arc may be helpful:

The girl was in her eighteenth year, tall, finely formed, with all the
vigor and activity of her peasant rearing, able to stay from dawn to

REPRODUCTION OF SENSATIONS

299

nightfall on horseback without meat or drink. As she mounted her
charger, clad in white armor from head to foot, with the great white
banner studded with fleur-de-lis over her head, she seemed "a thing
wholly divine, whether to see or hear."

— Green, "History of the English People."

650, Write a description of a mammy to correspond to the
character sketch (exposition) in Exercise 601, or a description of
an Indian suggested by that of Mahto-Tatonka on page 289.

166. Reproduction of Sensations. We are so dependent
on our eyesight that it is well to remind ourselves occasion-
ally that we have other senses. Obviously one will not
often sit down and say, " In writing to-day I will use words
that describe taste, touch, smell, and sound." We use the
words that the subject demands. On the other hand, if
we are well developed, if we are in the habit of using the five
senses, we are much more likely to recognize and respond
to the demands of the subject.

The man of rich and varied experience is the man whom
we expect to be most interesting as a talker or as a writer.
The man whose senses are constantly contributing to his
appreciation and enjoyment of life naturally speaks and
writes in a vigorous, hearty style. If we study men like
Stevenson and Kipling, we shall find that they make fre-
quent use of the five senses. They could not have written
with such accuracy, completeness, and point unless they
had acquired the habit of being alert. Like them we must
learn our trade. Not satisfied with hazy notions' about
things, we must take pains repeatedly to put into words
just what we see or hear or taste or smell or touch. By
using our senses in this way we shall gain real enjoyment,
and we shall become much more interesting to those with

300

DESCRIPTION

whom we associate ; for whether we write or talk, we shall
have an inexhaustible fund to draw from in making our
meaning clear both in statement and in illustrations. Rich
indeed is the writer who has at his command illustrative
material that he has gathered from a vigorous use of keen
senses, in doors and out.

EXERCISES

6B1. How many of the five senses did the writer use in con-
nection with the following paragraphs ? Note all indications of
activity. Read the selections aloud until you can enter into the
spirit of each of them.

It was one January morning, very early — a pinching, frosty
morning — the cove all gray with hoarfrost, the ripple lapping
softly on the stones, the sun still low and only touching the hilltops
and shining far to seaward. The captain had risen earlier than usual,
and set out down the beach, his cutlass swinging under the broad skirts
of the old blue coat, his brass telescope under his arm, his hat tilted back
upon his head. I remember his breath hanging like smoke in his wake
as he strode off, and the last sound I heard of him, as he turned the big
rock, was a loud snort of indignation, as though his mind was still
running upon Dr. Livesey.

— Stevenson, "Treasure Island," chap. ii.

There is one day when all things are tired, and the very smells, as
they drift on the heavy air, are old and used. One cannot explain this,
but it feels so. Then there is another day — to the eye nothing what-
ever has changed — when all the smells are new and delightful, and
the whiskers of the Jungle People quiver to their roots and the winter
hair comes away from their sides in long, draggled locks. Then, per-
haps, a little rain falls, and all the trees and the bushes and the bam-
boos and the mosses and the juicy-leaved plants wake with a noise of
growing that you can almost hear, and under this noise nms, day and
night, a deep hum. That is the noise of the spring — a vibrating boom
which is neither bees, nor falling water, nor the wind in the tree tops,

DIRECTIONS FOR WRITING DESCRIPTIONS

301

but the purring of the warm, happy world. — Kipung, "The Spring
Running," in "The Second Jungle Book."

662, Read to the class the last paragraph from Burroughs on
page 43, and describe the feeling it gives.

663, Write a description of one of the following: (i) the
silence of a heavy snowfall on a windless night; (2) the silence of
a hot summer night; (3) the loudness of the ticking of a clock at
midnight; (4) the drowsiness of a church on a hot forenoon;
(5) the restlessness of a windy March morning.

664, Make a list of a few instances in which an appeal to the
sense of smell might add to your description. Consider the
following expressions and put any of them on your list: fresh
lumber, fresh-cut hay, burning leaves, lilacs, mignonette, summer
dust in the country, the earth in spring, a rank low-tide odor, pine
trees, moist meadow, musty meadow, porgy factory, barn,

666, (i) Name ten sounds that you have heard within the last
twenty-four hours. (2) Write fully about one of these.

566, Describe in a single word the atmosphere of (i) a room,
(2) a home, (3) a school building, (4) a town or village, (5) a city.

167. Directions for writing Descriptions. We shall find
it helpful in writing descriptions to keep in mind the follow-
ing directions, based on what we have seen to be desirable
in a good description.

1. We must indicate clearly our point of view. If it
changes, we must notify the reader.

2. We should choose significant details and have a defi-
nite plan in presenting these details.

3. We should try to make the reader see what we see or
feel as we feel.

4. We should be fully alive as we write — ready to use
any of the senses, and even more alert to secure the closest
attention than we should be in telling a story.

302 DESCRIPTION

EXERCISES

557, Write on one of the following:

1. Indicate what a man who has no sense of smell cannot appre-
ciate as he walks through the woods in spring.

2. (a) Write out fuUy what a man with only one sense — hearing

— might easily get from a five minutes' walk in the woods. Choose
whichever season you prefer. (6) Point out what, in addition, a watch-
ful eye may discover imder these circumstances.

3. Imagining that you have only two senses, — hearing and touch,

— describe (o) a walk in the woods or in a village or dty, or (6) a
meeting with a pet animal, say a dog.

4. In writing a brief accoimt of the catching of a fish, take advan-
tage of all the opportimities you may have to make use of soimd, smell,
and touch. See that your description is Uvely.

5. In describing the broihng and serving of a fish, give especial
attention to smell and taste.

558, Write on a subject in connection with which you can
advantageously use the five senses. Consider from this point
of view the following:

My Pet Dog. Climbing Mount .

An Hour's Swimming. Coasting.

The Taste and Touch of A Clam Bake.

the Air. Playing the Piano.

In a Gymnasiimi. A Football Game.

A Rain Storm. A Fire in the Woods.

Making Candy. A Snowball Fight.

A Day's SaiHng. Skating in the Morning.

559, Give an oral description of the appearance of some
character in a story. Make your picture as lifelike as pos-
sible, and do not hesitate to reproduce the language of the
book.

560, Write a description of one of the following: (i) a
typical farmyard scene; (2) a rare coin; (3) an artistic post-
age stamp; (4) a typical evening in your home, or an ideal
evening; (5) an entertainment you have attended recently.

WRITING DESCRIPTIONS

303

561, (i) Describe some small boys at play. (2) Criticize in
writing imder the heads of (a) point of view, (b) life, the descrip-
tion written by one of your classmates.

562, Write the description suggested by any one of the follow-
ing:

1. He was a comely, handsome fellow, perfectly well made, with
straight strong limbs, not too large ; taU and well-shaped, and, as I
reckon, about twenty-six years of age . . . countenance . . . smile
. . . hair . . . forehead . . . eyes.

2. By this time the sun had gone down, and was tinting the clouds
towards the zenith with those bright hues which are not seen there
until some time after sunset, when the horizon has quite lost its
richer brilliancy. The moon . . . the old house . . . the garden. . . .

3. About a quarter of an hour before the second ringing of the bell,
members of the congregation begin to appear.

4. I built a cottage for Susan and myself, and made a gateway in
the form of a Gothic arch, by setting up a whale's jawbones . . .
heifer . . . garden . . . parlor.

5. The fog had now lifted, so that I could form a better idea of the
lay of the land.

6. After nightfall we went out and walked up and down the grass-
grown streets.

7. The Baltimore oriole loves to attach its nest to the swa)dng
branches of the tallest elms.

8. At length the shadows began to lengthen, the wind . . . calm
. . . the sun . . . Sabbath stillness . . . valley . . . the farmer . . .
the ox . . . the school urchin. . . .

9. He was meanly dressed.

10. The town appeared to be waking up. A baker's cart had
already rattled through the street, chasing away the latest vestige of
night's sanctity with the jingle-jangle of its dissonant bells. A milk-
man. ...

563, Choose one of the following for a short theme:

I. Describe the view from a window. If you like, you may read
Irving's account of a view from a window in "Christmas Day" (in
''The Sketch-Book"). See the third paragraph, beginning, "Every-
thing conspired," etc. Is the plan clear ? Note the force of the active
verbs.

304 DESCRIPTION

2. Describe the house in which you live so that a stranger will get
a dear picture. Be careful about your point of view.

3. Describe a cottage sheltered by a large elm.

664. In writing a criticism of a description written by one
of your classmates, answer these questions:

1. Does the writer indicate clearly his point of view ?

2. Has he chosen significant details ?

3. Has he a definite plan in presenting the details ?

4. What words are particularly well chosen ? Why ?

665. Make a list of twenty things that you have seen on your
way to school and be prepared to speak on one of them or on
something suggested by the following subjects:

1. Clouds on a Windy Day.

2. A Shop Window.

3. A Pretty Dress.

4. The First Snowfall.

5. Our Back Yard.

6. A Day in June.

7. Twenty Miles of View.

8. A Gentleman Tramp.

9. Our Garden in a January Thaw.

10. A Fog.

11. The Actual Appearance of a Hero.

12. A Typical Farmer.

13. An Artistic Wastebasket.

14. A Beautiful Chair.

15. A Brook.

16. An Attractive Factory.

17. A MiU.

18. A Mountain.

19. A Storm.

20. Early Morning.

CHAPTER XVII
EXPOSITION

"Leam to see and to hear. Seeing and hearing are more matters of the
brain than of eye and ear. . . . Exposition demands . . . the exercise of
reason as well as of observation, but the two are closely bound together;
and the mind which is trained to see is as sure to reason about what it sees
as the plant which thrusts its rootlets into the rich soil is to grow."

— Arlo Bates.

168. The Meaning of Exposition. Every person who
knows how to sail a boat enjoys telling how he does it. A
good swimmer likes to let a beginner into the secret of his
skill. The tennis player sometimes tries to give his friends

some notion of what he means by " thirty-love." In each of
these cases there is a demand for explanation, or, as we
sometimes call it, exposition.

You may know how the town in which you live came to
have a high-school building. If you were to give this his-
tory, you would call your work narration. Should you by
the use of words make a picture of the schoolhouse, you
would produce a description. But if you explain the uses
of the building, the result is an exposition.

In describing a thing we tell of its appearance ; in ex-
plaining it we expose, or " set forth," its meaning. One
who has attended a t3rpical " town meeting " can give an
entertaining account of what he saw there, but it is another
matter to make a foreigner comprehend what " town meet-
ing " really means. It is one thing to describe a friend so
that a stranger can pick him out in a crowd ; it is a very

30s

3o6 EXPOSITION

different undertaking to explain the secret of your friend's
cheerful countenance.

In reading a biography we are not satisfied with a descrip-
tion of a man's appearance ; we wish to know what sort of
man he was. We turn year after year to Lockhart's
" Life of Scott," Southey's " Life of Nelson," and Plutarch's
'* Lives," because these enable us to understand how cer-
tain great men accomplished their life work.

169. Definition. One of the commonest forms of exposi-
tion is definition. We are continually trying to explain the
meaning of a word, to " fix its limits," that is, to define it.
For this purpose a synonym is helpful, if it is better under-
stood than the word to be defined. Vocation, for example,
may not be so clear to some persons as business; to acquiesce,
so intelligible as to yield; hypochondria, so well known as md-
ancholy; or melancholy, in turn, so simple as the blues, A defi-
nition of this sort is sometimes called loose or synonymous
(see the synonyms, homonyms, and antonyms in sect. 127).

In defining a term, we should use as many sentences as
we need, and in addition, as many illustrations as will prove
helpful. For example, it is not enough to say that " com-
position is putting things together so as to make one thing
out of them, the nature and goodness of which they all
have a share in producing." Ruskin therefore adds, " Thus
a musician composes an air by putting notes together in
certain relations; a poet composes a poem by putting words
and thoughts in pleasant order; and a painter, a picture,
by putting thoughts, forms, and colors in pleasant order."

If, in defining a term, we use words that need further
explanation, we must be sure to supply it. For instance,
in " civics is the science of civil government" the italicized
words need further definition.

DEFINITION 307

170. Phrasing the Definition. Unless we take care to
give finish and exactness to the wording of our definitions,
we shall fall into bad habits. Many a boy and girl will say,
for example, " A tornado is when the wind blows suddenly
and fiercely and it rains in torrents," etc. This is of course
all wrong. A noun should be defined as a noun. Thus,
instead of " A tornado is when/^ we should say, " A tornado
is a tempest which springs up suddenly and is accompanied
by rain, wind," etc. Likewise, an adjective must be de-
fined as an adjective, a verb as a verb. Thus, " To trade
means to buy and to sell,^^ not " To trade is buying and
selling.'^

The repetition of a term should be avoided in a defini-
tion. Thus, the following is not a good definition :

A building is something that is buUt.

EXERCISES

666, Write directions for playing quoits, duck on a rock, or
hop-scotch. If your subject is quoits, you may use this plan:

I. The outfit.

1. Horseshoes.

2. The "hub" (stake).
II. Position of the players.

III. Object of the players.

IV. The keeping of the score.

567. Give directions for making soup, bread, or cake ; or
for freezing ice cream; or for building a coal fire, cleaning a
bicycle, or harnessing a horse.

668. Show to what extent an account of the battle of Ther-
mopylae might be an exposition.

669. Give a synonymous definition of each of these words:
surly, cudgel, wordy, timely, picturesque, renders, lackey.

3o8 EXPOSITION

670. Exj^in the difference between a magazine and a news-
paper.

571. Give a definition of one of these musical terms: vtola^
tuba, grand opera, symphony.

572. Explain each of these terms: algebra, geometry, history,
physics, drawing, English grammar, botany, lileralure.

171. Unity. Having chosen a limited subject, think it
over and write the substance of what you wish to say
in a single sentence. If you keep this sentence smnmary
constantly in mind, your work will probably be a unit. If,
for example, you are explaining baseball, your sentence
summary might be : " Baseball is a field game, played with
bat and ball, by eighteen men, nine on a side." In explain-
ing a steam engine, you might say that " a steam engine
may be defined as an apparatus for doing work by means
of heat applied to water." Does that seem to you a good
sentence summary ?

EXERCISES

573. Explain in a single sentence the main difference between
an adjective and an adverb, or between arithmetic and algebra.

574. Sum up in a written sentence the main features, as you
understand them, of one of the following games: football, tennis,
golf, cricket, checkers, chess.

575. Reword the following common sayings:

I. The smallest worm will turn, being trodden on. 2. Murder
will out. 3. A close mouth catches no flies. 4. Hitch your wagon
to a star. 5. Nothing succeeds like success. 6. Litde strokes fell
great oaks. 7. I am always in haste, but never in a hurry.

172. Arrangement of Material. In connection with unity
we must have coherence, — an orderly arrangement of our

ARRANGEMENT OF MATERIAL 309

material, — and in order to secure it we can well afford to
take great pains in making a definite plan.

Sometimes the subject determines the order of the main
divisions of an outline. One step leads inevitably to the
next ; you are not free, as you are in narration and descrip-
tion, to gain emphasis through position. You may, however,
give most space to matters which need most explanation,
and in this way secure emphasis through proportion. When
you are free to choose the order, do not try to give the most
difficult part of your explanation at once, but begin with
something which is comparatively easy, — if possible, with
something about which the reader is not entirely ignorant,
— and lead from that to the parts which are harder to imder-
stand. In other words, begin with the simple and work
toward the complex. If, for instance, you were to explain
the game of tennis, you surely would not call attention at
once to the meaning of deuce set.

If you can be dear and at the same time secure climax,
by all means do so ; but remember that no matter how in-
teresting you make your explanation, it is a failure if it is
not clear.

EXERCISES

676, Make a plan of a two-minute talk on Baseball. Let it
show that you are to discuss (i) the equipment, (2) the posi-
tions of the players, (3) the way in which the game is played.

677, Make a plan of the following paragraph:

When we ask for more time for schools, we are always met by
this objection: The children can hardly stand the stress to which
they are now subjected. Are we to overtax them still more? I
believe there are three good answers to this objection. The first is
ventilation. If you will take the excess of carbonic acid out of the
schoolroom, you can keep the children in it longer, without hurting

3IO EXPOSITION

them as much as you do now. The same may be said of the teachers.
The strain upon teachers is greatly increased by the badness of the
air in which they habitually work. Secondly, the stress upon the
children can be greatly diminished by the systematic use of gymnastic
movements during school hours and in the schoolrooms. I submit that
the American people ought to learn from the experience of European
nations in this respect. It has been conclusively demonstrated that
brief intervals for gymnastic exercises throughout the public schools of
Scandinavia and Germany do keep the children in good condition, and
do enable them to sustain without injury a greater amoimt of mental
work than I have just suggested for American children. Thirdly, the
stress or strain upon children can be much diminished by making the
work interesting to them, instead of dull, as much of it now is. It is
extraordinary how fatigue is prevented or diminished by mental in-
terest. As I have lately read the readers used in my sample grammar
school, worked its sums, and read its geography and its book on man-
ners, it has seemed to me that the main characteristic of the instruction,
as developed through those books, — imless lightened by the personal-
ity of the teacher, — is dullness, a complete lack of human interest,
and a consequent lack in the child of the sense of increasing power.
Nothing is so fatiguing as dull, hopeless effort, with the feeling that,
do one's best, one cannot succeed. That is the condition of too many
children in American schools — not the condition for half an hour,
but the chronic condition day after day and month after month.
Make the work interesting, and give the children the sense of success,
and the stress which is now felt by them will be greatly diminished.
— Charles William Eliot, "An Average Massachusetts Grammar
School," in " Educational Reform," pages 183-185.

678, (i) Profiting by whatever suggestions you can get
from the preceding paragraph and plan, write on a subject
of your own choosing. (2) After your writing is done, put at
the end of it what you consider the main thought.

679, Make an outline of the character of (i) a book hero of
yours; (2) an acquaintance.

680, Does the following plan seem clear, orderly, and likely
to serve its purpose?

METHODS OF EXPOSITION 311

Making a Fly Rod

I. Principal requirements.

1. Lightness.

2. Strength and pliability.
n. Main construction.

1. Kind of wood.

2. Number of pieces to a section.

3. Shape and method of fastening together.

III. Moimting.

IV. Winding.

1. Uses of winding.

a. Strength.

b. Ornamentation.

2. Method of fastening.
V. Finishing.

581, (i) Write out the main divisions of a plan of one of the
following subjects: croquet y diaboloy tennis y checkers, hockey,
haskethally chess, or some other game, (2) Insert subdivisions in
your plan. (3) Write the theme. (4) See that theme and plan
agree.

173. Methods of Exposition. In the chapter on the Para-
graph and its Development, we have found that the com-
mon methods of developing both the paragraph and the
longer theme are: (i) by details, or particulars; (2) by
examples ; (3) by repetition ; (4) by comparison and con-
trast ; (s) by cause and effect. In a single theme perhaps
all methods will be used to some extent, but at first we should
be careful to confine ourselves to one method in a single
paragraph. In exposition two particularly useful methods
are illustration by examples and illustration by comparison
and contrast. We crave the example just as we jump at
the specific word, and everybody naturally makes com-
parisons and contrasts. However, we shall need practice
in all the methods mentioned.

312 EXPOSITION

EXERCISES

Exposition by Details

682, The following paragraph has been developed by details.
Write a similar paragraph on some method of fishing or some
other out-of-door recreation.

One of the most picturesque methods of himting the poor deer is
called "floating." The person, with murder in his heart, chooses a
cloudy night, seats himself, rifle in hand, in a canoe, which is noise-
lessly paddled by the guide, and explores the shore of the lake or the
dark inlet. In the bow of the boat is a light in a "jack," the rajrs of
which are shielded from the boat and its occupants. A deer comes
down to feed upon the lily-pads. The boat approaches him. He
looks up, and stands a moment, terrified or fascinated by the bright
flames. In that moment the sportsman is supposed to shoot the
deer. As an historical fact, his hand usually shakes, so that he misses
the animal, or only wounds him ; and the stag limps away to die after
days of suffering. Usually, however, the hunters remain out all
night, get stiff from cold and the cramped position in the boat , and
when they return in the morning to camp, cloud their future existence
by the assertion that they "heard a big buck" moving along the shore,
but the people in camp made so much noise that he was frightened off.
— C. D. Warner, " A-Hunting of the Deer," in "In the WQderness."

683, Use any two of the following as topic sentences for para-
graphs, and develop them by means of details:

1. Our country house is one of the most restfid spots that I know.

2. Mr. Martin's new horse is a Kentucky thoroughbred.

3. Jones, Stratton, and Company have been remarkably successful
since they opened their new store,

4. Elihu Grant, the Democratic candidate for mayor, has the best
record of any candidate.

5. MayviUe is an uninteresting town.

684, Explain one of the following, developing the paragraph
by means of details : (i) how to broil steak ; (2) some system
of ventilation; (3) a good method of sharpening a lead pencil;

METHODS OF EXPOSITION

3^3

(4) some patent; (5) bread making; (6) how to make a Welsh
rabbit; (7) the block system (in connection with a railway);
(8) some system of heating.

585. Developing the paragraph chiefly by means of details,
explain some technical term taken from one of the following :
(i) music; (2) the carpenter shop; (3) mechanical drawing;
(4) freehand drawing ; (5) mathematics.

586. Explain orally to a stranger how to get a card, and how to
draw a book, from your public library.

587. A stranger has three days for sight-seeing in your
neighborhood. Write him a letter, telling him how he may spend
the time to advantage.

Exposition by Examples

588. Explain orally, with as many illustrations as you choose
to add, the correct use of the following words : awftdy funny,
cunning, lovely.

589. Add to your outlines of characters prepared in Exercise
579 illustrations by examples.

590. Develop one of the following by means of examples :

I. The way of transgressors is hard. 2. Forbearance ceases to be
a virtue. 3. Ill blows the wind that profit's nobody. 4. A little learn-
ing is a dangerous thing. 5. All that glisters is not gold. 6. 'Tis dis-
tance lends enchantment to the view.

591. Write a short theme on "My Method of memorizing
Prose [or. Poetry]." Develop it by a combination of details
and examples. Perhaps the following outline will be helpful:

1. Illustration.

2. Each paragraph.
a. Main thought.

h. Number of sentences.

c. Substance of each sentence.

d. First several words of each sentence.

3i6 EXPOSITION

are Kfy fining to show signs of depletion. Our soil, with impaired
fertility, now yields eighteen and twenty bushels in place of the forty
of the virgin prairies. At the end of it all we are beginning to see that
our national wealth is not all the product of wise and intelligent labor.
Largely, we have done no more than transmute, and often recklessly,
our natural resources into the uses, ornaments, extravagances of our
civilization: foodstuffs, houses, clothes, railroads, palaces, monu-
ments, elegances of living, lavish show of gold and silver. — Edwaso
A. RuMELY, ''Our Public Schools as Preparatory for Practical
life."

JP7. After studying the sketch of the train dispatcher on page
196, write a comparison of two persons whom you know well, or
of whom you have read widely.

698. Point out significant traits in two characters in literatiure
who are strikingly different from each other — for example,
Hepzibah and Phoebe in " The House of the Seven Gables."
Show that you know them as well as persons with whom you
^are well acquainted.

599. Be prepared to talk for one minute on one of these
-subjects : (i) A Home (compare a house) \ (2) A Village (com-
pare a city).

600. Write a long theme on one of the following subjects :
(i) The Schools of To-day (compared with those of a genera-
tion ago) ; (2) The " New " Football; (3) Dickens, the novelist
^(compared with Scott or some other writer).

Exposition by Cause and Effect

601. The following paragraph is an example of development
by cause and effect. Using the same material, rewrite the para-
graph to bring out more clearly the relation of cause to effect.

The manmiy was the zealous, faithful, and efficient assistant of the
mistress in all that pertained to the training of the children. Her
authority was recogdzed in all that related to them directly or indi-

DIRECTIONS FOR WRITING EXPOSITION 317

rectly, second only to that of the mistress and master. She regulated
them, disciplined them, having authority indeed in cases to administer
correction. Her rigime extended frequently through two generations,
occasionally through three. From their infancy she was the careful
and faithful nurse, the affection between her and the children she
nursed being often more marked than that between her and her owa
children. She may have been harsh to the latter ; she was never any-
thing but tender with the others. Her authority was, in a measure,
recognized through life, for her devotion was unquestionable. The
young masters and mistresses were her "children" long after they had
children of their own. They embraced her, when they parted from her
or met with her again after separation, with the same affection as.
when in childhood she "led them smiling into sleep." She was worthy-
of the affection. At all times she was their faithful ally, shielding
them, excusing them, petting them, aiding them, yet holding them up
to a certain high accountability. Her influence was always for good.
She received, as she gave, an unqualified affection ; if she was a slave,
she at least was not a servant, but was an honored member of the
family, imiversally beloved, universally cared for — "the Mammy.''

— Thomas Nelson Page, "The Old South.''

602, Tell in one minute (i) why you would like to go to a
higher institution of learning than the school you now attend;
(2) under what circumstances you would be satisfied with the
equivalent of a high-school education.

174. Directions for writing Exposition. In general, the
most important aids in securing clear and forcible exposi-
tion are:

1. Unity.

2. Coherence, or logical arrangement.

3. Emphasis through proportion.

4. Illustration by examples or by comparison.

603. Write on one of the following subjects:

I. A Ballad. 2. A Touchdown. 3. A Hazard (golf). 4. Uses ot
Public Libraries. 5. Reforoas suggested in "(Miver Twist." €. A

3i8 EXPOSITION

Summer Sport in the Country. 7. A Winter Amusement in Cities.
8. The Industry of Walter Scott. 9. The Humble Origm of Great
Men. 10. Nelson's Courage. 11. The Care of Potted Plants in
Winter. 12. How to raise Celery. 13. Setting the Table for
Dinner. 14. How to tell a Fir Tree from a Spruce. 15. How to
make a Kite. 16. The Making of Turpentine. 17. The Making of
Cider. 18. Handball. 19. A Sun Dial. 20. A Simple Steam En-
gine. 21. Ice Cutting. 22. The Force Pump. 23. How to row a
Boat. 24. How to keep a Lawn. 25. The Air Brake. 26. How
to make a Pair of Skees.

604- (i) Choose from the subjects just given that one which
appeals to you as the best for an essay of some six hundred words.
(2) In preparing a plan, consider (a) unity, (b) arrangement,
(c) emphasis through proportion, (d) the advantage of illustra-
tion by examples or by comparison. (3) Write the essay.

605. Explain orally your methods of writing. In doing so,
answer the following questions:

3. Do you write rapidly?

2. Do you alter the first draft much ?

3. Do you find composition hard? Under what conditions is it
tnost diflicult ? least difficult ?

4. To what extent have you found outlines, or plans, useful ?

5. Do you keep an audience or a reader in mind as you write?

6. Do you read your work aloud slowly, sentence by sentence?
If so, has this method helped you in revising the sentences, the spelling,
or the pimctuation ?

606. In a similar way, tell the class about your reading habits.
First prepare a plan. In addition to the topics that will be sug-
gested by the above questions, consider the use of the dictionary
and other helps.

607. Assuming that you must decide what occupation you will
enter when you leave school, investigate some one kind of work
and make it the subject of a theme. Show that you have the
necessary qualifications for this particular occupation.

SPECIAL FORMS OF EXPOSITION 3igt

175. Special Forms of Exposition. Among the many-
forms of exposition the following are of special interest:;
(i) abstracts — {a) book reviews, (6) notes; (2) newspaper.-
editorials; (3) character sketches; (4) letters. m

176. The Abstract. An abstract is somewhat more than
an outline, but less than a pure exposition. According to
its subject matter, it is variously called an epitome, a
resume, a summary, a review. It must contain in some form
what is vital in the original. The statements must be so
grouped that the finished product is not a series of sentences
merely, but a literary composition, however short, which
will stand all the tests for a good exposition.

EXERCISES

608, The following abstract of the drama from which Shake-
speare got much of his material for " The Merchant of Venice"
is given by Hudson. Study this ; then write an abstract of " The
Merchant of Venice." Compare your work with that of Hudson.

Giannetto, the adopted son of a Venetian merchant, Ansaldo, gets
permission to visit Alexandria. On his voyage he lands at Belmont,
where he finds a lady of great wealth and beauty, and falls deeply
in love with her. He returns to Venice, asks for a supply.of money
to enable him to prosecute his love suit, and Ansaldo borrows 10,000
ducats of a Jew on the condition that, if the money be not repaid by a
certain day, Ansaldo shall forfeit a pound of his flesh, to be cut off by
the Jew. Giannetto gains the lady in marriage ; but, forgetful of the
bond, prolongs his stay at Belmont till the day of payment is pa^^.
Hastening to Venice, he finds the Jew rigid in exacting the penalty, and
not to be turned from it even by ten times the amount of the loan.
The bride, knowing the merchant's position, disguises herself as a doc-
tor of law, repairs to Venice, and gets herself introduced as a judge inta
the court where the case is on trial ; for in Italy, at that time, nice and
difficult points of law were determined, not by the ordinary judges, but
by doctors of law from Paduaj Bologna, and other famous law schools^

320 EXPOSITION

The lady, unrecognized by her husband, learns the nature of the case,
and, after reading the bond, calls on the Jew to take the pound of
flesh, but tells him he must take neither more nor less than exactly a
pound, and that he must shed no blood. An executioner is at hand to
behead him in case any blood be drawn. The Jew then says he will
-accept the 10,000 ducats offered; but, as he has declared up and
•down repeatedly that he will have nothing but the pound of flesh, the
Judge refuses to allow any repayment of money whatever; and the
Jew in a rage tears up the bond and quits the court. Hereupon
vGiannetto, overjoyed at the happy issue, yields up to the judge, in
token of his gratitude, a ring which his wife had given him on their
marriage day ; and the judge, on returning home and putting off the
disguise, rails at her husband in flne terms about his parting with the
ring, which she says she is sure he must have given to some woman.

609, Write an abstract of some story that you have recently
read outside of school. Exchange papers and, as examiner,
compare the paper given you with the following :

In this story a young British lieutenant, in a moment of extreme irri-
tation, strikes a private soldier. The act is one that calls for dismissal
from the Queen's service. What is the officer to do? He cannot
send money to the soldier — who happens to be the redoubtable
Ortheris himself — nor can he apologize to him in private. Neither
can he let matters drift. Ortheris, too, has his own code of pride
and honoii; he too is "a servant of the Queen"; but how is the insult
to be atoned for ? The way out of this apparently hopeless muddle is a
"beautifully simple one, after all. The lieutenant invites Ortheris to
go shooting with him, and when they are alone, asks him to " take off
liis coat." "Thank you, sir!" says Ortheris. The two men fight
until Ortheris owns that he is beaten. Then the lieutenant apologizes
for the original blow, and officer and private walk back to camp de-
voted friends. That fight is the moral salvation of Lieutenant Ouless.

— Bliss Perry, "A Study of Prose Fiction."

177. Book Reviews. A book review should give a brief
accoimt of the subject matter and its treatment. It should
go far toward enabling the reader to decide whether the

BOOK REVIEWS

32r

book will be of value or interest to him, and it should give
the particulars necessary for the purchase of the book,
— the name of the publisher, the price, and so forth.

EXERCISES

610, Is the review given below satisfactory? Does the book
seem worth your reading?

Specimens of the Short Story, Selected and edited by George H.
Nettieton, Ph.D., Assistant Professor in Yale University. Henry
Holt and Company, vii + 229 pp. 16 mo. 50 cents.

Dr. Nettleton's selections are interesting. For what may be termed a
sketch — the study of narrative in its lowest terms — he chooses Lamb's
" Superannuated Man" ; for the tale, pure and simple, Irving's "Rip
Van Winkle," — that first great creation of American fiction ; for an
allegory, Hawthorne's " Great Stone Face" ; for a detective story, Poe's
"Purloined Letter"; for a burlesque, Thackeray's "Phil Fogarty";
for a story of incident, Dickens's "Doctor Manette's Manuscript";
for a psychological story, Stevenson's "Markheim" ; and for a local-
color story, Mr. Bret Harte's "Outcasts of Poker Flat." These are
not only good specimens of the best narration; they also present
peculiarly profitable material for the study of' the art of narrative,
composition. The introductions prefixed to the separate stories in-
clude a short biography of the particular story-teller, a bibliography
of his representative works, a review of his special literary qualities^
and a discussion of the circumstances attending the composition se-
lected, together with the points which aid in its interpretation. Sun-
dry notes at the end of the volume helpfully explain certain difficulties
of the text ; these notes would have been more directly helpful, how-
ever, had they been printed at the bottom of the pages. — The Outlook.

611, Find in some newspaper or magazine a brief review which
seems to give a reasonably correct impression of the contents of a
book. Compare this review with the one given above. Point
out resemblances and diflFerences.

612, Give directions for the preparation of a book review.
61S, Write a brief review of some book with which you are

familiar. If you choose a story, and expect to get other people

322

EXPOSITION

to read it, tell them just enough of the plot to arouse their in-
terest.

178. Note-taking. Note-taking is a practical kind of
exposition with which every high-school pupil must of ne-
cessity become somewhat familiar. No other form of writ-
ing requires so ready a pen and so clear a brain as does this.
In condensed form the notes on a lecture of any kind are an
abstract; when revised and amplified after the lecture is
over, they become an exposition pure and simple. In tak-
ing notes we should remember the following directions :

1. Try to discover the plan of the address in the opening remarks.

2. Indicate in some way transitions from one division of the sub-
ject to another.

3. Be on the watch for helpful summary sentences.

4. Get all the help you can from the closing remarks.

5. A few simple abbreviations are helpful; avoid an elaborate
scheme.

At first it is desirable to use headings and other sug-
gestive words as the basis of a fuller report to be written
out at leisure, but gradually the pupil should learn to take
his notes so well that he will not need to rewrite.

The following notes were based on a talk by Mr. Jacob
A. Riis, of New York, author of " How the Other Half
Lives.''

Every child has four rights.

1. The right to live.

Anecdote : child brought into court on a horse blanket under the
only law that would protect it — one against cruelty to
animals.

Conditions of tenements in New York City. There is to be
no killing with a house any more than with an ax.

2. The right to play.

The child should learn through play that he has rights and that
he is to respect the rights of others.

NOTE-TAKING

323

Upon it depend our liberties.
Whole child, whole man.

3. The right to be fed — aesthetically.

Statistics show that many of the children in one of our largest
cities never saw a robin or a dandelion.

4. The right to a home.

Every child is entitled to a pair of mother^s arms about its
neck.
Summary. These children of the slums are ours to care for. In al-
most every instance they are worthy. People who think their
own children are far superior to any of those who live in the slums
should have less pride and more common sense.

Anecdotes to show that real worth may be found where one
least expects it : (i) "Fighting Mary " ; (2) the cjiild who rushed
back into a burning tenement to save the deed of her dead mother's
grave.

EXERCISES

614' Using the preceding information and illustration, give
directions for taking notes.

615. Write a secretary's report (a) of the next recitation in
English, or (b) of the next recitation in history.

616. Take notes in class while the teacher or a classmate reads
some selection.

617. Write notes on a chapter in some history that you are
reading, and be prepared to read them to the class.

618. Bring to class notes on a talk given in some class.

179. Newspaper Editorials. It is the business of news-
paper reporters to present the news. The editor, on the
other hand, is expected to point out the significance of im-
portant items in the news columns. The reporter of base-
ball games gives a record of what happens. The editor
may disregard most of the games, reserving his conmients
until there is some special reason for bringing the subject
before his readers.

324 EXPOSITION

Practice in writing editorials, say for the school paper,
will help us appreciate the value of the editorial page of a
high-class daily or weekly paper.

EXERCISES

619. Read the following editorial to the class, and show whether
it is adapted to the purpose for which it was written. Is there
any indication that it is honest and fair?

The Causes of Fires

Some rather startling revelations are interesting the people of Port-
land, Me., just at this time with reference to the causes of fires. In
a recent instance the "asbestos" about the furnace pipes caught fire
and was the cause of a destructive blaze, when it should have been the
dependable preventive of such a misfortune. This leads an under-
writer to annoimce to the pubUc, through the columns of the press, that
the experience is no new one, that it has been going on for years, and
that the inspector of the underwriting board has proved that many
fires have been started by what is sold as asbestos and employed for
the purposes to which asbestos is adapted. Of course where that
happens, it is a spurious article, an imitation of the real thing that is
made use of. The recipe for the dangerous substitute is a Httle coarse
hair, held together with a dash of asbestos liquid to give it verisimili-
tude. This, covered with white paper and held together with metal
bands, has the appearance of the real fire resistant and is quite ex-
tensively used for the alleged protection of furnace pipes. Whether
there is a law that will reach those who make or sell this dangerous
stuff, with a penalty commensurate with the offense, we do not know.
If Portland suffers from its use, other cities can hardly be exempt,
and if underwriters or fire officials are cognizant of this fraud and do
not proclaim it from the housetops, they, too, are at fault. That is
even worse than the jerry-building that is being practiced in our own
city. Is it any wonder that we bum up a billion or more in this country
during a single presidential term ?

620, What do you think of the following statement of the
purpose of good editorial writing in a school paper ?

CHARACTER SKETCHES

3^5

The editorials of a school paper should be brief and to the point.
They should not try to compete with the editorials of the general press.
The subjects should, for the most part, be of local interest. They
should be intended to promote or to oppose some definite project or
tendency of school life.

621, Make a list of the subjects discussed in one day in the
editorial columns of a prominent newspaper.

622, From the newspaper files in the public library, or else-
where, make a list of twenty topics as subjects for editorials.

623, Make an original list of ten subjects that you consider
suitable for editorials at the present time.

624' Write an editorial of about two hundred words on a
subject chosen from your list in Exercise 623.

625, Make a list of six subjects suitable for editorials in your
school paper, and write a brief editorial on one of the subjects.

626, Be ready to indicate briefly how each of the news items
in section 157 might be made the subject of an editorial in a
school paper.

627, Write a brief editorial on one of the subjects upon which
you wrote a news item (see sect. 157, page 279).

180. Character Sketches. If you will examine many
character sketches, you will find that it is often impossible
to say that a certain one is a description or that it is an exposi-
tion. The two kinds of composition blend. In our study of
characters in literature, however, and of persons we know,
it is sometimes convenient to remember that we are influ-
enced by three considerations, the last two of which belong to
exposition.

I. Personal appearance.
n. Mental qualities.

We may ask, for example, whether the character is practical,

326 EXPOSITION

shrewd, humorous, sensible, philosophical; whether, on the

whole, intellect predominates.
m. Moral qualities.

Such questions as these might be pertinent: Is the person
good, generous, affectionate, sincere, frank^ unaffected, honest,
proud, energetic, demonstrative, vain, silly, truthful ?

EXERCISES

628. What does the following paragraph tell us about
(i) Portia's mental qualities? (2) her moral qualities?

In Portia, Shakespeare seems to have aimed at a perfect scheme of
an amiable, intelligent, and accomplished woman. The result is a fine
specimen of beautiful nature enhanced by beautiful art. Eminently-
practical in her tastes and turn of mind, full of native, home-
bred sense and virtue, Portia unites therewith something of the ripe-
ness and dignity of a sage, a mellow eloquence, and a large, noble dis-
course ; the whole being tempered with the best grace and sensibility
of womanhood. As intelligent as the strongest, she is at the same time
as feminine as the weakest of her sex : she talks Uke a poet and a phi-
losopher, and she talks, for all the world, just like a woman ! She is as
fuU of pleasantry, too, and as merry "within the limit of becoming
mirth," as she is womanly and wise ; and her arch sportiveness always
has a special flavor as the free outcome of perfect moral health. Noth-
ing indeed can be more fitting and well placed than her demeanor, now
bracing her speech with grave maxims of practical wisdom, now
unbending her mind in sallies of wit, or of innocent, roguish banter.
— The New Hudson Shakespeare, " The Merchant of Venice," p.

629. Write a theme " setting forth " the main characteristics
of the hero of a story, or of one of the principal persons in the
story.

630. Refer to the character sketch of an Indian on page 289,
and write a similar description of some pioneer, — not an Indian;
or, refer to the sketch of the mammy on pages 316-317 and
write a similar accoimt of some one you know; or describe some
one of Shakespeare's characters in whom you are much interested.

LETTERS

327

181. Letters. Both business letters and general corre-
spondence frequently take the expository form. Manu-
facturing concerns of every kind are sending from their
offices each month a stream of letters, some of which are
argiunentative and many of which are expository. The
man or woman in any business estabhshment who has charge
of answering letters of inquiry and complaint is a high-
salaried person, whose value lies in the ability to write clever
expositions. It is imdoubtedly the ambition of most young
persons who take up stenography as a means of earning a
livelihood to become a private secretary to some business or
professional man. To secure or to fill properly such a posi-
tion, one must excel in the art of letter writing — and this
means much more than being able to put material into cor-
rect form.

EXERCISES

681, After reading the following expository letter, write a simi-
lar letter to a semi-invalid, who has been inquiring about room
and board for the summer.

The Highlands, Vermont.
Mrs. E. L. Matthews, May i, 191 2.

16 Sacramento St.,

Cambridge, Mass.

My dear Mrs. Matthews :

I have just received your letter of inquiry
about room and board for the summer at our farm, and will try to
give you aU the information about ourselves and our place that you will
need in coming to a decision.

Our two-hundred-acre farm is five miles from the village. We
have rural free delivery (one delivery each day) and a telephone for
both local and long distance purposes. From the railroad to our house
is a continuous ascent, so that when you have reached your destina-
tion, you find yourself on the slope of a mountain overlooking a pic-
turesque valley. The view from the house extends in one direction

328 EXPOSITION

down the valley of our little river for more than twenty miles, and in
the other to the highest range of Green Mountains. Both the front
piazza and the sitting-room face the west, and the sunsets in this
section are wonderfully beautiful.

The house is an old rambling one, with low ceilings, old-fashioned
windows, and fireplaces. Two of the sleeping rooms have fireplaces,
and since we have our own wood lot, there is always wood at hand for
a cheerful blaze. The beds are modem, with good springs and mat-
tresses. We of course do not have running hot and cold water, but
expect twice each day to provide large pitchers of hot water. My son,
who is working his way through the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, shares with me the work and profit of our summer boarders,
and in a modest way is our "bell boy." He makes the fires, carries
the water, and attends to the general errands of our boarders.

We have wire screens for all the windows, — sleeping rooms, liv-
ing rooms, and kitchen, — and this means that the house is practically
free from flies. Mosquitoes never bother in the da3rtime, and at night
only out-of-doors.

We charge eight dollars a week for each person. This is more than
some similar places charge, I know, but I furnish only the best of
everything and must get what these things are worth. I use no
canned vegetables or preserves except what we have canned ourselves.
I serve chicken at least three times a week and always have good beef.
Cream, milk, and eggs are always to be had in abundance.

Of course our roosters crow early in the morning, and occasionally
a dog barks in the night. These things cannot be helped and must be •
expected.

I shall be glad to answer any definite questions which you may wish
to ask.

Very truly yours,

(Mrs.) Grace E. Simpson.

632. Write a letter to your father, explaining why you wish to
spend your summer vacation in a certain town.

633. Write a short business letter which shall be wholly ex-
pository in character. Follow closely the form of one of the
models in Chapter VHI.

LETTERS

329

GENERAL EXERCISE

634' At this point in the study and practice of English com-
position it will be stimulating if a backward glance is taken.
Write out therefore, with the utmost care, an exposition of the
year's work in English. Study carefully the following account
written by a pupil, and try to make yours as natural and as
interesting. Pay due attention to proportion.

A Journey in Literature

This year's study of English has been an interesting one to me.
Franklin, Irving, Holmes, Macaulay, Longfellow, Bryant, and many
others have all done their part in giving me a gUmpse of the great
world of literature. Never before have I appreciated the art of com-
position as I now do. Never before have I been able to distinguish
so clearly true poetry from that which is simply a collection of words
expressed in rhyme.

"The Sketch-Book," by Washington Irving, was our first glimpse
of literature and we found it highly satisfactory. Irving's manner of
writing is pleasing, for the words are well chosen and present no jarring
sound to the ear. The flow of language is unusual, and is well
adapted to the thought of the "father of American literature."

In the "Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin" we learned the suc-
cesses and failures of this great man, who, from a humble printing
office, rose to one of the most important positions in the government
of the colonies. The story is told in a simple, unaffected manner that
produces a much better effect than lofty phrases or high-sounding
words.

The witty Holmes next accompanied us on our journey, and al-
though he sometimes seems to reach the very height of the ridiculous,
many of his poems contain true pathos and meaning.

Leaving our merry friend by the wayside, we turned our thoughts
away from the busy strife of the present world, and wandered with
Macaulay in ancient Rome. We saw Virginia stabbed by her loving
father, and heard the waters splash as Horatius leaped into the Tiber's
boiling tide. We were present at the Battle of Lake Regillus, and
watched in breathless wonder the swift-footed horse, as he galloped
along the line, heeding neither friend nor foe. Macaulay's ballads

330

EXPOSITION

are inspiring, and strong in thought and expression. We were sorry
to leave him and turn to Longfellow.

This delightful poet, however, charmed us at once, and we soon
foimd him more satisfactory than Macaulay. The fine thoughts and
expressions, the musical and dainty rh3rthm, the simple style, all gave
us a new idea of poetry. Nature became more real to us as we read
in " Evangeline " beautiful descriptions of twilight or sky, where words
seemed to paint the colors of the rainbow, so nicely were they chosen.
We shall never forget Longfellow or cease to think of him as a '' true
poet."

Thus far in our httle journey we have studied both prose and poetry,
but never a selection in which the two were so closely united as in
Palmer's translation of the "Od)rssey." This famous poem was com-
posed centuries ago by wandering bards, or minstrels, called ''Homer-
idae." They traveled from land to land, singing in their quaint fash-
ion the stories which have been preserved to this day. Mr. Palmer
translated these from the original Greek, and in so doing, I think that
he gave the world a new treasure, a rare jewel in the shape of a book.
The simple and graceful manner in which the "Odyssey " is written,
the choice of words, and the beautiful descriptions are rarely found
in these days. The "wine-dark sea" is lost, and the "rosy-fingered
dawn" gone to return no more.

One more poet remains in our journey for this year, but he should
not be lightly passed over. William Cullen Bryant is, in my opinion,,
the grandest and most solemn poet we have thus far studied. His
style of writing is stately, slow, and majestic, and his thoughts sub-
lime. "Thanatopsis," which he wrote when only seventeen years of
age, is one of the finest poems in the English language.

With Bryant our Httle journey for this year is at an end. We have
advanced slowly but enjoyed each step of the way.

CHAPTER XVIII

ARGUMENT

'* Truth is worth more than victory."

182. Exposition and Argument. From morning till
night, at the breakfast table, on the way to school, in reci-
tations, at recess, on the athletic field, over our indoor work
and play, — on all occasions, we are trying to make somebody
else see as we see. In many cases argmnent is simple
exposition ; as soon as we can explain our meaning to a
friend, he agrees with us. Suppose you say, " A college
graduate is not an educated person." Your friend naturally
replies that boys and girls go to college to get an education.
But when you explain that it takes a lifetime to acquire an
education, — that a college course merely goes a step beyond
the grammar and high schools in showing one how to become
educated, how to grow, — your friend will probably agree
to your first statement. Clearly the first thing for you and
him to do is to agree upon a definition of the word in question.
To be sure, this agreement may leave nothing to argue, but
in the course of coming to the agreement you may find a
fair field for argument.

The following selections are illustrations of editorials
which are partly argimient and partly exposition:

I. Money thrown away

Professor James says that few college instructors can easily follow
a lecture given in French. The number of students who can do so is

331

332

ARGUMENT

smaller. The number of American college graduates who could order
a fiacre in Paris or inquire their way to the Hdtel des Invalides and
be understood by a Parisian is not large, despite all the money spent
on teaching them the language of La Belle France.

That is not a pleasing subject for reflection, and the New York
Evening Post, mindful of that fact, comes to the rescue of the foreign
language departments of our schools and colleges by saying that talk-
ing a foreign language is not of much account anyway — that to read
it is the thing.

Now it is an easy matter to learn to read French. One does not
need the aid of foreign or native professors to acquire that accomplish-
ment. If the best our schools and colleges can do, after all the money
they use up in teaching French, is to fit a pupil to read that language,
they have not much to boast of.

Wherefore, we are inclined to the opinion that much of the money
spent in public schools and in colleges in trying to teach French is
money thrown away. This ought not to be so. Some linguistic
expert should find a way out of the diflSculty. For, notwithstanding
the argument of the Evening Post, French is taught in German schools
in such a manner that students can read and write it, and speak it
also, as the French soldiers found to their grief in the Franco-Prussian
war.

What Germans can do Americans can do — if they want to.

2. Electrifying our Rai;lroads

It is announced that the friends of the plan to compel electrifica-
tion of railroad lines in the Boston metropolitan district are to attend
the hearing before the committee on metropolitan aflFairs this morning,
prepared to present facts and figures showing that positive legislation
on the subject is feasible at this session. Their contention is well
founded.

For legislation is entirely possible at once. It need not be drastic
nor command impossibilities. But it can and ought to be such as to
make a start in the matter and require a beginning of the much-needed
reform within a reasonable time.

If we await the action of the railroads themselves, contingent upon
all sorts of other schemes, financial and legislative, we shall get no-
where, and ten years away are likely to find us submerged in the old
familiar grime and smoke. The lesson of New York should be suffi-

DEVELOPING THE ARGUMENT

333

dent ; who believes that anything would ever have been done there
had not the roads been compelled to electrify all trains entering the
Grand Central station ?

"The way to resume is to resume." The way to electrify is to
enact some reasonable and conmion-sense law now and see that it is
enforced.

183. Developing the Argument. In argumentative writ-
ing, as in exposition, we shall find that : (i) the necessity of
stating just what we are to show will aid us in securing
unity ; (2) the logical arrangement is of great importance ;

(3) one way of gaining emphasis is through proportion ;

(4) the value of our work frequently depends on the skill
with which we use illustrations by example, but we must not
attach undue importance to a single illustration by example.

In exposition we set forth one view of a subject. In ar-
gument our purpose is to show that one view is better than
another. Hence, we need to be particularly careful about
the choice of evidence. In selecting evidence which is really
nothing but opinion we must remember, for example, that
one man's opinion is of no great value unless that man is an
expert ; and that the substantial agreement of several experts
is naturally considered to be more valuable than the opinion
of any one of them.

The methods employed in developing argiunent are like
those with which we have become familiar in exposition : by
details, by examples, by repetition, by comparison and con-
trast, by cause and effect. In many cases t\yo or more
methods will be required in an argumentative essay, and we
must be ready to use every means at hand to make our
points clear and forceful.

184. The Argumentative Letter. In business corre-
spondence, as well as in our friendly letters, we shall often

334 ARGUMENT

naturally adopt an argumentative or persuasive style of
expression. We are constantly meeting the necessity of
proving something on paper. The yoimg men and women
who will win success in the selling side of a business —
whether at the counter, on the road, or through letters —
must be expert in the use of oral or written argimient.

Examine the following letter, written by the private
secretary of the general manager of a large department
store, as an illustration of the practical adaptation of the
persuasive style of argument to business uses.

ELLIS, COOPER & CO*

NEW YORK CITY

May 15, 1913.

Mrs. Mary A. Emerson,

122 Somerset Ave.,

New York City.
Dear Madam :

We are in receipt of your communication of May 12
in which you say that you have been so greatly annoyed by inatten-
tions at our lace counter that you are going to take your patronage
elsewhere. We regret that anything should have occurred in any
department of our store to cause you either inconvenience or annoy-
ance. But we realize that because of changes in the personnel of
our clerks, which are inevitably of frequent occurrence in a store
of these dimensions, conditions may occasionally exist which are an-
noying not only to our customers but also to us. We have there-
fore given your complaint prompt and thorough attention, and find
that conditions apparently do not warrant the criticism of "incomi>e-
tent and rude, " which you have entered against our clerks in the de-
partment mentioned above.

Both the assistant buyer and the head clerk of our lace department
are among our most trusted and efficient employees, and they have
exercised more than ordinary care in selecting the clerks under them.
The only explanation which either of these persons could give for your

THE ARGUMENTATIVE LETTER 335

complaint was that because the prevailing early summer styles call for
elaborate lace effects in trimming, the demand for certain kinds of lace
has been almost unprecedented, with the result that the clerks have
been overcrowded with work, and "extras, " have had to be employed.
This would account for delays in serving our customers, but would not
of course explain or excuse incivilities of any kind. We feel that per-
haps you have somewhat overstated your grievance, so far as this de-
partment is concerned, but if you can make a specific complaint
against any one clerk, we shall investigate further.

We should regret losing your patronage and goodwill, and trust
that you will find our explanation satisfactory.

Very truly yours,

George M. Brown,

General superintendent.

G.H.T.

In this quotation from Patrick Henry we have an example
of persuasive composition which we shall do well to study:

We have, sir, an extensive country, without population. What
can be a more obvious policy than that this country ought to be
peopled ? People, sir, form the strength and constitute the wealth of
a nation. I want to see our vast forests filled up by some process a
little more speedy than the ordinary course of nature. I wish to see
these States rapidly ascending to that rank which their natural advan-
tages authorize them to hold among the nations of the earth. Cast
your eye, sir, over this extensive country — observe the salubrity of
your climate ; the variety and fertility of your soil — and see that soil
intersected in every quarter by bold, navigable streams, flowing to the
east and to the west, as if the finger of Heaven were marking out the
course of your settlements, inviting you to enterprise, and pointing
the way to wealth. Sir, you are destined, at some time or other, to
become a great agricultural and commercial people ; the only question
is, whether you choose to reach this point by slow gradations, and
at some distant period — lingering on through a long and sickly
minority — subjected meanwhile to the machinations, insults, and op-
pressions of enemies foreign and domestic, without sufficient strength
to resist and chastise them — or whether you choose rather to rush at

336 ARGUMENT

once, as it were, to the full enjo3nnent of those high destinies, and be
able to cope, single-handed, with the proudest oppressor of the old
world.

EXERCISES

635. Write a letter with the object of persuading a friend to
join you for two weeks in August at a camp in the mountains.

636. Write to your father or guardian a letter which shall vir-
tually be an argument for increasing your monthly allowance of
spending money.

637. Write a short argumentative theme on one of the two fol-
lowing questions : (i) Should every high-school girl study either
dressmaking or cooking? (2) Should every high-school boy
study manual training ?

638. Write a theme setting forth some of the reasons why
every pupil should attend the school contests in athletics, dec-
lamation, and debate.

639. Refer to the argumentative editorial on " Electrifying our
Railroads " on page 332, and write one on "A New Bridge," " A
New Street," or a similar subject.

185. Debates. The form of argumentation which is of
most practical value to yoimg persons is debating. As an
exercise in self-control it is as good as football. The neces-
sity of getting our opponent's point of view is the best
possible preparation for dealing with men and women ; and
if this last advantage were the only one to gain from debat-
ing, it alone would be worth all the cost. The acquirement
of this ability is itself an education.

186. Terms used in Debate. Certain terms are used in
connection with formal debating which may need brief
explanation.

DEBATES 337

1. The proposition is the statement of the subject of the debate.

2. The affirmative side is the one which attempts to prove that the
proposition is true.

3. The negative side attempts to show that the proposition is not
true.

4. Colleagues are debaters on the same side.

5. Opponents are debaters on opposite sides.

6. Evidence is the material used in the proof.

7. Burden of proof is the task of proving^ which rests on the aflSrma-
tive throughout, although the term is applied in a slightly modified
sense to the obligation of either side.

8. Refutation is the argument which aims directly to disprove the
opponents' statements.

9. Rebuttal has practically the same meaning as refutation, but is
often applied to the final summary of each side.

187. Framing the Proposition. In a debate much depends
on the wording of the question, or proposition. In every
case the statement should be perfectly clear, and so framed
that no advantage shall be given to either side. Suppose, for
example, we are to try to determine whether freshmen
should be excluded from high-school teams. We may state
the proposition formally in this way :

Resolved, That freshmen should not be excluded from all high-
school teams.

To prevent confusion, however, it will be better to avoid
the negative form, and say:

Resolved, That freshmen should be excluded from all high-school
teams.

Then the affirmative side will have something to build up,
and the work of the negative side will be to tear down this
structure, whatever it may be. The affirmative imdertakes
to prove something. The negative must not only prove its
side of the case, but must also show that the afl&rmative

338 ARGUMENT

has failed to prove what it has undertaken. If the affirma-
tive presents a chain of arguments, the negative has merely
to show that one link in the chain will not hold. The burden
of proof rests with the affirmative side.

In order that the time set for debating may not be spent
in deciding what the debate is to be about, any doubtful
term — that is, any ambiguous word or expression — should
be carefully defined. If possible, the speakers should meet
and agree on the meaning of terms beforehand ; but if that
is impossible, they must fight it out in the debate. When-
ever a speaker uses an ambiguous term, he should state
what he imderstands it to mean.

EXERCISE

6^0. State each of the following so that it may serve as the
proposition for a debate. Avoid all ambiguity of expression.

1. The power of the federal government over the state govern-
ments.

2. The annexation of Cuba by the United States.

3. Woman's suffrage.

4. Immigration to the United States.

5. Is Rowena or Rebecca the real heroii\e of "Ivanhoe" ?

6. How much pocket money should a high-school student have
each week ?

7. The works of Hawthorne and Scott compared for descriptions
of real life.

8. The character of Judge Pyncheon in "The House of the Seven
Gables" as a description of a possible person.

9. Cooper's knowledge of real Indian life, as shown in "The Last
of the Mohicans."

10. Which is worse, slang or bad manners ?

11. The "Ancient Mariner" compared in interest with the "Vision
of Sir Launfal."

12. Should a man always offer his seat in a street car to a woman ?

13. A boy's right to hunt and fish for sport.

THE BRIEF

339

14. The value of an athletic association for the girls of a high school.

15. Should high-school students work for spending money during
the school term ?

16. The relative value of a school paper and an athletic association.

17. The relative value of a good library and a good workshop.

18. Is it honest for a student to receive aid in school work from
fellow-students ?

19. The great value of oral compositions.

20. Shovdd a student spend as much time in athletic exercise as in
study ?

21. Music as a part of a high-school curriculmn.

188. The Finding of Material. Aside from the aid you
may be fortimate enough to get from friends, you will need
practice in handling library catalogues and tables of con-
tents. You should know where to find, and how to use,
records of public debates. You should have access to The
Congressional Record, standard histories, periodicals, and
some of the best daily papers. Poole's " Index to Periodical
Literature '' ^ is an invaluable aid in consulting magazines and
will be foimd in most libraries. If you are to have weight
as speakers, you must not only quote recognized authorities
but be careful to take references and quotations at first
hand, if possible, and to quote them accurately. Your
audience has a right to expect you to tell definitely the
source of your citation. It is not enough, for example, to
attribute something to Webster ; you should add the name
of the speech. In general, you are to give information
enough to enable anyone to verify your quotations with ease.
If, as you take notes, you jot down the references to your
sources, you will not be embarrassed afterward by wondering
who your authority was.

* This is now published under the title " Reader's Guide to Periodical
Literature."

340 ARGUMENT

189. The Brief. In preparing an argxunent, you need
something more than a plan, or topical outline; you need
complete statements of all the thoughts that are essential
to the argument. These statements compose the brief.
The brief has three important parts : (i) the introduction,
(2) the brief proper, and (3) the conclusion.

In the introducHon state cleariy:

1. How the question arose.

2. What facts both sides admit.

3. What is the exact point at issue.

Li the brief proper show the growth of the argument :

1. Separate the main arguments from the subordinate.

2. Arrange the main arguments in logical order.

3. Group under them the subordinate arguments, and see that each
subdivision is a reason for the truth of the division under which it
comes.

In the conclusion sum up the argmnent concisely.

Refutation. Under this heading we are to point out
just what arguments are to be answered. When to bring
in the refutation depends upon the question. On one occa-
sion it will seem best to make it very conspicuous —
perhaps to put it first, so as to remove opposition or preju-
dice. On another occasion it may be introduced inciden-
tally as a matter of little consequence. Another time we
may not dare mention it till we have advanced most of
our arguments ; then we shall seek with one strong sweep
to remove all obstacles.

Assertion and Proof. We must be particularly careful
to draw a sharp line between assertion and proof. If Syd-
ney Smith had said (see p. 254) that " everything an Eng-
lishman owns and does is taxed," he would have made an

THE BRIEF 341

assertion. Instead, however, he cites examples that tend
toward the proof of such an assertion. Assertion is an
expression of opinion ; proof must be supported by facts.
Assertions amount to nothing ; every bit of evidence, how-
ever, is a roimd in the ladder that leads to the conclusion.

Not only do we need a brief for each side of the debate,
but we should be as .familiar with the opponent's ground
as we are with our own territory, for we are to give and
take, to be answered and to answer ; and after the contest
begins, we have no time for hunting up information.

The following brief for the negative shows the proper
arrangement of material :

BRIEF

The Housing of the Poor

Question: Resolved ^ That the housing of the poor should be im-
proved by municipalities.

Introduction

I. In many of the larger cities the poorest inhabitants live in
such wretched quarters that public benefactors have raised
the question whether these conditions of life cannot be im-
proved by the cities.
II. Definitions.

A. The "housing" of the poor refers to tenements.

B. Improved "by municipalities" means at the expense of

the city.
ni. Both sides admit that

A. The present tenement-house system is disgraceful.

B. The necessity for improvement is urgent.

IV. The question, then, is whether improvements should be made
by municipalities. There are three issues.

A. Is the plan wise in theory ?

B. Does it work ?

C. Is there no better plan ?

342

ARGUMENT

Brief Proper

I. Municipal housing is not wise in theory.
i4. It is charity of a wrong kind.

I. It weakens self-dependence.
B. It is unjust to the taxpayer.

I. The thrifty furnish homes for the improvident.
n. Municipal housing does not work in practice.

A . The Glasgow experiments helped only a few families.

B. Experiments in Naples were unsatisfactory.'
C Experiments in London failed.*

m. There are better ways of solving the problem.

A. Private citizens are keeping old buildings in good repair.

1. In London.'

2. In Boston.

3. In New York.

B. Private citizens are building model tenements.

1. In London.

2. In Brookl)m.

C. Cooperative associations are building cottages in suburbs.
I. In Philadelphia.

Conclusion

Because mimicipal housing is not wise in theory, because it does not
work in practice, and because there are better YJ^.ys of solving the
problem, the housing of the poor should not be improved by munici-
palities.

190. The Speaking. After securing an orderly arrange-
ment of his material, the debater should talk over the whole
subject by himself or to a friend so many times that there
shall be no hesitation for words when he appears in public.
He is not to commit a speech to memory, but rather to
deliver so many speeches before the debate that he can

* Nation J LII, 134.

^FortnighUy Review, XXXVIII, 425 (October, 1882).

' Definite references should accompany each of these subdivisions.

THE SPEAKING 343

speak readily on any phase of the question. As soon as
his turn comes he will be eager to make the most of the
time allowed him, as his object is to speak so earnestly,
and in such a straightforward way, that he shall at once
win the attention of his hearers and hold it till he has
compelled them to agree with him.

If we woidd carry our point, it may be a good plan to
appear not to argue. As long as the listener takes our con-
versation to be merely explanation, he will follow. If we
can make the hearer think he is drawing his own conclusions,
we are much more likely to convince him than we shoidd
be by giving him the impression that we are doing all his
thinking for him.

In Webster's closing paragraph of his " Defense of the
Kennistons," he does not tell the jury what they ought to
do, what he expects them to do, or what all right-thinking
men woidd do ; he appeals to them as men who are to de-
cide for themselves :

If the jury are satisfied that there is the highest improbability
that these persons could have had any previous knowledge of Good-
ridge, or been concerned in any previous concert to rob him ; if their
conduct that evening and the next day was marked by no circum-
stances of suspicion ; if from that moment until their arrest nothing
appeared against them ; if they neither passed money, nor are found to
have had money ; if the manner of the search of their house, and the
circumstances attending it, excite strong suspicions of unfair and
fraudulent practices ; if, in the hour of their utmost peril, no promises
of safety could draw from the defendants any confession affecting
themselves or others, it will be for the jury to say whether they can
pronounce them guilty.

Probably the wisest of us can learn something from
Franklin's method of expressing himself :

344 ARGUMENT

I . . . [retained] the habit of expressing myself in terms of modest
diffidence ; never using, when I advanced anything that may possibly
be disputed, the words certainly, undoubtedly , or any others that give
the air of positiveness to an opinion ; but rather say, I conceive or
apprehend a thing to be so and so ; it appears to me, or / should think
it so and so, for such and such reasons; or / imagine it to be so; or
it is so, if I am not mistaken. This habit, I believe, has been of great
advantage to me when I have had occasion to inculcate my opinions,
and persuade men into measures that I have been from time to time
engaged in promoting ; and, as the chief ends of conversation are to
inform or to be informed, to please or to persuade, I wish well-meaning,
sensible men would not lessen their power of doing good by a positive,
assuming manner, that seldom fails to disgust, tends to create oppo-
sition, and to defeat every one of those purposes for which speech was
given us, to wit, giving or receiving information or pleasure. For,
if you would inform, a positive and dogmatical manner in advancing
your sentiments may provoke contradiction and prevent a candid
attention. If you wish information and improvement from the
knowledge of others, and yet at the same time express yourself as firmly
fixed in your present opinions, modest, sensible men, who do not love
disputation, will probably leave you undisturbed in the possession of
your error. And by such a manner, you can seldom hope to recom-
mend yourself in pleasing your hearers, or to persuade those whose
concurrence you desire. — "Autobiography."

191. Subjects for Debates. The following subjects may
suggest others that will prove more satisfactory:

1. A four years' high-school course is better than a three years'
course.

2. Canada should be annexed to the United States.

3 . The is a better bicycle than the .

4. Interscholastic football promotes the best interests of schools.

5. The United States should build a larger navy.

6. The standing army of the United States should be increased.

7. The coast defenses of the United States should be strengthened.

8. Private citizens should feed tramps.

9. Asphalt is the best kind of paving for Street.

SUBJECTS FOR DEBATE 345

10. Strikes help the cause of labor.

11. A trust is necessarily a benefit.

12. The treatment of Shylock was unjust.

13. High-school pupils should read the newspapers.

14. The is a better automobile than the .

15. Pupils of high-school age should receive training in debating.

16. The public library should be open on Sunday.

17. Manual training should be taught in all high schools.

18. Freshmen should be excluded from all high-school teams.

19. Every high school should give instruction in music.

20. Monday is a more suitable day than Saturday for the weekly
school holiday.

21. The execution of Major Andre was justifiable.

22. Napoleon was a greater military genius than Wellington.

23. Longfellow's poetry is more musical than Whittier's (Poe's,
Bums's).

24. Hawthorne is superior to Poe in descriptive powers.

25. President is worthy of reelection as chief executive of the

United States.

26. United States senators should be elected by popular vote.

27. A high tariff increases wages.

28. Labor-saving machines injure the laboring classes.

29. The truth should always be spoken.

30. Sometimes pupils should report wrongdoings of other pupils to
the teacher.

31. Military drill should be compulsory in public high schools.

32. A knowledge of French and German is preferable to a knowledge
of Greek and Latin.

33. Interclass athletics are of more benefit to a school than inter-
scholastic athletics.

34. Gymnasium work should be compulsory for boys and girls in
the high school.

35. All boys should learn to use ordinary carpenter tools.

36. All girls should learn to cook.

37. " " is a more interesting book than " " for a high-
school pupil to read.

38. There is more school spirit in private than in public schools.

39. Algebra is a more valuable high-school study than history.

40. It is easier to study two hours in school than it is to study two
hours at home.

346 ARGUMENT

EXERCISES

The Introduction

641 ' Write an introduction to a brief on one of the proposi-
tions in section 191.

64^. Be prepared to give a two-minute talk with the aid of
your outline.

64S^ Write your introduction in paragraph form, taking pains
to secure coherence.

The Arguments

644' Prepare a brief proper ^ on the proposition you have just
been discussing, or on another that seems preferable.

645. Prepare a brief proper on two of the following proposi-
tions. Consider the use of examples and of cause and effect.

1. Practical jokes should be avoided.

2. Smoking is injurious to boys.

3. Honesty is the best policy.

4. The United States is a friend of weaker nations.

5. Thrift is essential to success.

646, Write in paragraph form the arguments based on one of
your briefs. See that your composition is coherent.

647- Prepare a brief proper on two of the following proposi-
tions:

1. Children under fifteen years of age should be compelled to attend
school.

2. Interscholastic football is injurious to the players.

3. Giris should learn to speak in public.

4. Every boy and girl should learn how to earn a living.

648, By way of proving one of the foregoing propositions, write
a paragraph developed by cause and effect.

^If two or more briefs on the same subject are copied on the black-
board, the class should profit by a comparison of them.

SUBJECTS FOR DEBATE 347

Glfi, By way of proving another of the foregoing propositions,
write (i) a paragraph developed by cause and effect, (2) a para-
graph developed by examples.

650, As an argument in support of the" proposition " Fire-
arms are an Aid to Permanency of Civilization," does the fol-
lowing seem adequate? Make a brief, and to this add any criti-
cism, favorable or otherwise, about the argument.

The great change introduced into the art of war by the invention
of firearms has enhanced still further both the expense of exercising
and disciplining any particular number of soldiers in time of peace, and
that of employing them in time of war. Both their arms and their
ammunition are become more expensive. A musket is a more expen-
sive machine than a javelin or a bow and arrows ; a cannon or a mor-
tar, than a balista or a catapulta. The powder which is spent in a
modem review is lost irrecoverably, and occasions a very considerable
expense. The javelins and arrows which were thrown or shot in an
ancient army could easily be picked up again, and were besides of very
little value. The cannon and mortar are not only much dearer, but
much heavier machines than the balista or catapulta, and require a
greater expense, not only to prepare them for the field, but to carry
them to it. As the superiority of the modem artillery, too, over that
of the ancients is very great, it has become much more difficult, and
consequently much more expensive, to fortify a town so as to resist,
even for a few weeks, the attack of that superior artillery. In modem
times many different causes contribute to render the defense of society
more expensive. The unavoidable effects of the natural progress of
improvement have, in this respect, been a good deal enhanced by a great
revolution in the art of war, to which a mere accident, the invention of
gunpowder, seems to have given occasion.

In modem war the great expense of firearms gives an evident advan-
tage to the nation which can best afford that expense; and conse-
quently, to an opulent and civilized, over a poor and barbarous na-
tion. In ancient times, the opulent and civilized found it difficult to
defend themselves against the poor and barbarous nations. In mod-
em times the poor and barbarous find it difficult to defend themselves

348 ARGUMENT

against the opulent and civilized. The invention of fireanns, an in-
vention which at first sight appears to be so pemidous, is certainly
favorable both to the permanency and to the extension of dvilization.

— Adam Smith, "Wealth of Nations.'*

651, Summarize in a single paragraph the argument on
page 347.

652, Summarize one of the editorials on pages 331-332, in-
cluding all the salient points.

653, After preparing a suitable brief, be ready to argue for and
against the expediency of one of the following propositions:

1. Smith should be substituted for Brown at first base.

2. A student should study two hours outside of school every day.

3. School buildings should be used for mimidpal piuposes after
school hours.

4. The dty should fiunish free textbooks only to pupils who cannot
afford to buy them.

5. All pupils should own the copies of the English classics they read
in school.

654, After learning what you can from Webster and Franklin
in the selections on pages 343-344, as to methods of convincing
an audience, be prepared to talk two minutes on one of the fol-
lowing subjects. You may appeal to the school spirit of your
listeners, their self-respect, their pride, their sense of justice, etc.

1. The school paper (debating sodety, athletic assodation, musi-
cal dub) should be strongly supported.

2. Every boy who is physically fit should engage in football practice.

3. The common use of slang is objectionable.

4. Paper and other refuse should not be thrown on the dassroom
floor (on the dty streets).

5. A new street should not be cut through the middle of the com-
mon.

The Conclusion

655, The paragraph from Webster on page 343 is an ex-
cellent summary of his speech. The following is the paragraph

SUBJECTS FOR DEBATE 349

with which Professor Palmer closes his " Self-Cultivation in
English":

Such, then, are the excellencies of speech. If we would cultivate
ourselves in the use of English, we must make our daily talk accurate,
daring, and full. I have insisted on these points the more because in
my judgment all literary power, especially that of busy men, is rooted
in sound speech.

With these summaries in mind, write a conclusion to each
of the briefs you have prepared imder the foregoing exercises.

656. Write out in full the argument of one of the briefs.

Refutation

657. Either refute or show the expediency of each of the fol-
lowing statements:

1. Penmanship should be taught in high schools.

2. Novels picture life better than histories do.

3. All the present evils of mankind can be traced to intemperance.

4. Our school should have a library.

5. Every healthy boy and girl should learn to swim.

Assertion and Proof

658. How many of the following statements are you prepared
to accept without proof? How many must you reject? Give
your reasons briefly.

1. All men are created equal.

2. Leif Ericson landed on some part of the New England coast.

3. The high school at is the best in the (city, county, state).

4. Columbus discovered America in 1492.

5. The Indians had an undeniable right to American soil.

6. "Quentin Durward" is an interesting story.

7. "Treasure Island" is the best story of adventure ever written,

8. The earth is a spheroid.

9. The violet is the loveliest of flowers.

zo. Tennis is a more enjoyable game than basketball.

350 ARGUMENT

192. The Management of a Debate.^ In undertaking a
debate the members of the class should miderstand that
one of the first objects is to encourage a large number of
speakers to say something to the point. There is always
danger that three or f6ur/)f the best speakers will get the
lion's share of the advantages. To prevent this, every
encouragement should be given to the beginner who finds
it almost impossible to say anything. It must always
be borne in mind that one good argument, the result of an
honest piece of thinking, is worth dozens of other people's
thoughts.

An exercise of this sort should be democratic. If the
making of arrangements is left to a conm[iittee of three,
appointed by the teacher or chosen by the class, all should
recognize the importance of doing cheerfully whatever this
committee reconmiends. Even if one has to take the side
he dislikes, he must do his best with it in order to support
the committee in its attempt to have the machinery of the
debate nm smoothly.

The subject should be one of general interest. It is wise
at first to avoid questions that are too intricate for most of
our statesmen, and, if practicable, to choose one that gives
the pupil a chance to supplement his reading by drawing
from his own experience.

Preparation. Ample time must be given for preparation.
There should be at least two weeks' notice; and during
the fortnight every one should spend as much as possible
of his spare time in thinking and reading about the subject.
If one is to argue on the advisability of feeding tramps, in

^ See also "Rules of Proceeding and Debate in Deliberative Assemblies,"
by Luther S. Gushing. New edition. Philadelphia, Porter & Coates.

MANAGEMENT OF A DEBATE 351

addition to the indefinite amount of reading he will find
available, he may be able to give point and interest to his
speaking by telling of what he has seen in his father's door-
yard. He who would bring others to his way of thinking
must show them that he has been working out the subject
for himself and knows what he is talking about.

Principal Speakers and Substitutes, The committee of
arrangements will probably find that as a rule it is a good
plan to appoint two or three principal speakers on each side
of the question, and one substitute on each side. If the sub-
stitutes are not called upon, their carefid preparation will
qualify them to strengthen the debate from the floor.
The principal speakers must not be given too much time,
nor are they to be allowed any extension of the time allotted.
As soon as they have prepared the way for a general discus-
sion, the chairman shoidd throw the debate open to all.
Then the friends of the principal speakers may fill in the
outlines presented by their leaders.

Division of. Work among Speakers, K, as frequently hap-
pens, there are four leaders, the work may be divided in this
way:

1. The first speaker on the affirmative gives the outline of
the entire affirmative case, shows what he and his associates
are to prove, and presents his own arguments. Incidentally
he may do something to destroy the force of arguments which
may be brought forward by the other side.

2. The first speaker on the negative comes next. He
shows what he and his colleague are to prove, and presents
his part of the proof. He has the advantage of knowing
what has been said by the opening speaker, and does what he
can to weaken those arguments. He may, if he sees fit,

352 ARGUMENT

anticipate some of the points likely to be made by the second
speaker on the affirmative.

3. The second affirmative speaker does the work out-
lined by his colleague and answers the first negative speaker.
He then attacks arguments that may be made by the second
speaker on the negative and sums up the case for the affirma-
tive.

4. The second negative speaker finishes the defensive
work begun by his colleague and does his best to refute the
arguments of the affirmative. He then siuns up the case
for the negative.

Then comes the debating from the floor. In order to
give every one an opportimity to say something, these
speeches must be very brief. If the volunteers do not use
all the time set apart for them, the leaders may be allowed
to speak again.

The speakers on both sides should make skillful use of
repetition in presenting the main points. After the clos-
ing of the general debate, one representative from each side
is entitied to make a final rebuttal speech. In these re-
buttal speeches no new arguments or evidence can be intro-
duced, except for the purpose of answering an opponent, or of
making dearer or more emphatic some argument already ad-
vanced by the speaker's side. The representative of the
affirmative comes last. As the burden of proof rests upon
his side, he should have the last word. The closing speakers
need to be especially clever in singling out the main points
that have been proved, and in sending them home to the au-
dience in a clear, concise, emphatic smnmary.

Note. In many debating dubs the camp system works well. The
members elect by ballot from their number a president and two leaders.

MANAGEMENT OF A DEBATE 353

These leaders go ahead just as persons do who are selected to choose
sides for a spelling match. Having drawn lots for the first choice, they
pick out the debaters alternately till every member is in one camp or
the other. Then each leader does all he can to enable his camp to
vdn. He sees that the work is carefully planned, and frequently makes
the opening or the closing speech. One way of bringing good debaters
into a club is to allow each leader to place in his camp any new member
he can secure.

•

Judges, Three judges may be appointed to determine
which side has been the more successful in convincing im-
partial listeners. A teacher^ or some other competent per-
son whose suggestions will be carefully followed, should
serve as critic of the substance and the style of presentation,
including, of course, matters of grammar and pronuncia-
tion.

APPENDIX

THE MUSICAL READING OF VERSE

1. Common Feet. In the following stanza (" The Lady of the
Lake," I) the syllables that we naturally accent in reading have
been printed in italics:

The stag at eve had drunk his fill,
Where danced the moon on Af onan*s rUlf
And deep his midnight lair had made
In lone Glenar/ney's hazel shade.

Now a single attempt will show the absurdity of emphasizing the
unaccented syllables. That would give us

The stag at eve had drunk his fill,
Where danced the moon on Monan^s rill.

Nobody would read in this way. Why, then, should anybody
make a helter-skelter combination of the right and the wrong
way ? A good ear and a little common sense will prevent such a
blunder.

Letting w stand for an xmaccented syllable and — for an ac-
cented syllable, we may indicate the accent of these lines thus:

KJ.

In this stanza the poet accents every second syllable. We say
that such verse consists of four feet and that the regular foot is
composed of a short and a long syllable, w_.
In " Julius Caesar " we have

355

3S6

APPENDIX

Good gen

Let not

tlemen,
w

our looks
\j

look fresh

and mer
\j

rily.

put on
\^

our pur
w

But bear

it as

our Ro

man ac

poses;
tors do.

Each verse consists of five feet, and the regular foot has two syl-
lables, a short and a long.
In

numbers

THl me

not in

mournful

— vy

V^'

Life is

but an

empty

dre

— \y

the accented syllable comes before the unaccented syllable,
In

— vy.

From the spi
From the souls

KJ yy

rits on earth
\j yy —

that entreat

that adore,
and implore

In the fer

WW —

vor and pas

sion of prayer,

W \J

two unaccented syllables come before the syllable that takes the
accent ww — .
And in

This is the

WW w

forest pri

meval. The

— w

murmunng

— WW —

pines and the

hemlocks,

we recognize the ww_ inverted, — ww.

2. Names of Feet. The following names have been given
these feet: w —iambus; — w trochee; w w_ anapest; _ w w dactyl.
But for our purposes the names are of little importance. What
we need to do is to emphasize the accented syllables, and to
pass lightly over syllables that are unaccented. This will not be
difficult if we remember that the poet is expected to retain the

MUSICAL READING OF VERSE

357

accent that belongs to a word in prose. In the case of old writers,
such as Shakespeare and Milton, we sometimes find words with
an accent long since changed.

3. Variations. Although most poems have one prevailing
meter, the poet finds it desirable to change his meter from time
to time as the thought changes. This substitution of feet, made
of course in accordance with certain rules, frequently gives the
verse an added charm.

In " The Lady of the Lake," II, 41, we find, —\jioT\j^:

The antlered monarch of the waste
Sprung from the heathery couch in haste ;

in lines 55 and 73, for ^— :

Rock, glen, and cavern paid them back

On the lone wood and mighty hill.

We welcome an extra syllable at the end of a line, as in the
third line below:

This was

the no

1 blest Ro

man

them all.

\j _

\j —

KJ —

All the

conspir j

sitors,

save on

lyhe,

w .~

Did that

they did

in en

vy of

great Cae

sar;

\j —

. 1

^^M

.^^

w —

and the substitution of for w _ :

Blow, blow, thou win ter wind.

Thou art not so unkind
As man's ingratitude.

We frequently find a line like this:

Harp of I the North 1 1 that moul dering long I hast hung,

358 APPENDIX

in which the fourth foot has three syllables. The two very
short syllables have the time that would naturally be given to
one unaccented or short syllable: ^ ^ _ = w __.

As you read aloud, notice the effect of the different kinds of
meter, — one may be restful, another stirring, another stately,
— and the variations.

4. Rests. There are rests in verse just as there are in music
In the following line one must stop after '' primeval " :

This is the forest primeval. The munnuring [unes and
the hemlocks.

On to their mormng^s rural work they haste,
Among sweet dews and flowers, A where any row
Of fruit-trees, over-woody, reached too far,

the caret indicates the natiual place for pausing. If, as in
music, the rest takes the place of a syllable, it may be marked
thus:

A Break, A break, I A break,

On thy cold gray stones, I O sea !

And I would that my tongue could utter
The thoughts that arise in me.

5. E[inds of Verse. If a verse has two feet, it is called Jim^fer;
if three, trimeter; if four, tetrameter; if five, pentameter; if six,
heTcameter,

Shakespeare's line is iambic pentameter {iambic is the adjective
from iambus), and if you are interested, you will have no difficulty
in finding many other poems written in this meter. Nor will
you need look far for examples of trochaic tetrameter and dactylic
hexameter. But you must expect great variety, — even in a
single poem, — and you must learn to adapt yourself to the
changes.

MUSICAL READING OF VERSE 359

6. Scansion. Whether you do it orally or on paper, this meas-
uring of the lines is called scansion. You should do enough scan-
ning to become thoroughly familiar with the method.

BXBRCISBS

1. Read metrically all the poetry in this book.

2. Separate into feet two lines of every kind of meter you find.
J. Copy four verses of each of the following kinds: (i) iambic

pentameter; (2) trochaic tetrameter; (3) dactylic hexameter.

4. Write four verses of each of the kinds mentioned in Exer-
cise 3.

5. Write a few verses on some subject with which you are
thoroughly familiar (a school song would be acceptable). Before
choosing your subject, look over the table of contents of one of
your favorite volumes of poems.

7. Rhythm. In all your reading of poetry you should pay
attention to time, as you do in music and dancing. The voice
should show that your ear detects the regular recurrence of
accented syllables that gives the musical effect we call rhythm.
This measured motion of the verse is as natural as the ebb and
flow of the sea. One may go so {ar as to say that a poem is not
really a poem until it is completed by the sympathetic rendering
of the himian voice.

EXERCISE

6. Write out the difference between prose and poetry as
clearly as you can. Use as illustrations a few lines that are
really poetic.

360 APPENDIX

OUTLINE FOR REVIEW

I. A sentence is a group of words
n. A paragraph is a group of sentences
III. A longer composition is a group of
paragraphs

having

unity

coherence

emphasis.

I. The Sentence

A. Aids in securing unity.

1. Simple and complex sentences.

2. Uniform construction.

3. Short rather than long sentences.

B. Aids in securing coherence.

Putting together words that belong together, noting
especially the relation of (i) a participle to a noun
or pronoun, (2) a pronoim to its antecedent.

C. Aids in securing emphasis.

1. Important words in important positions.

2. Periodic, balanced, interrogative, or exclamatory

sentences.

3. Repetition or climax.

II. The Paragraph

A. Aids in securing unUy.

1. A topic sentence.

2. A definite plan.

3. A fixed point of view.

B. Aids in securing coherence.

1. Logical order of details.

2. Connectives.

C. Aids in securing emphasis.

1. Important words and sentences in conspicuous

positions.

2. Sufi&dent space for important details.

OUTLINE FOR REVIEW 361

III. The Longer Composition

A. Aids in securing unity.

1. A limited subject.

2. A fixed point of view.

B. Aids in securing coherence.

1. Logical order of significant details.

2. Good transitions.

C. Aids in securing emphasis.

1. Important words, sentences, and paragraphs in

conspicuous positions.

2. Sufficient space for important details.

362 APPENDIX

COMMON ERRORS

(See pp. 226-234 for words not given here.)

Accept and except are often confused, especially if mispronounced.
Accept means "to take, or to receive " ; except means " to omit, or leave
out."

Afect and effect are also often confused by being carelessly pro-
nounced. (See p. 228.)

AMt is not in good use as a contraction for am not, are not, or is
not. Proper contractions are: "I*m not," "He isn^t," "We^re not,"
"You're not," "Aren't you?"

Aggravate means "to make more grave, heavier, worse." Its use
in the sense of "provoke" or "exasperate" is colloquial.

And which (and htU which) should not be preceded by an independ-
ent clause, as in this sentence: "The first time I went to school, I found
a doUaf on the way, and which I used to start my first bank account."
Say rather, "The first time I went to school, I found on the way a
doUar which I used to start my first bank account." (See sect, icx).)

Awful, It is absurd to speak of an awful algebra lesson or an awful
recitation, (See p. 230.)

Bad means the opposite of good. One may read a bad or a good
book, but he cannot have a bad pain any more than he can have a
good pain. In "He feels 6aJ" and "He looks bad" bad is an adjec-
tive: in "He feels badly about it," badly is an adverb. Badly is not
a synonym for very, very much, or greatly. Say, "I wish to go very
much," but not, "I wish to go badly."

Beside means "by the side of" ; besides, "in addition to."

*^ Between you and me" is correct, not "Between you and I."

Calculate should not be used for intend, think, believe, or suppose.

Couple includes two of the same kind connected or considered
together.

Different from is correct, not different than or different to. Say,
"My work is different /r(7w yours." Do not say, "My work is differ-
ent than yours."

DonH is the abbreviation for do not, " I don't " and " We don't " are
correct, but not "He don't," "She don't," "It don't." We may say
"He doesn't," "She doesn't," "It doesn't."

COMMON ERRORS 363

Either and neither are singular grammatically; as, "Neither of us
i5 in a hurry."

Elegant should refer to something choice. We speak of "elegant
manners," "an elegant house," not "an elegant time."

Enthuse is a vulgarism to be avoided. Never say you enthuse
when you mean that you are enthusiastic.

Everybody and every one are singular grammatically ; as, " Everybody
should attend to his own affairs."

First is both adjective and adverb. kvoidifirsUy,

Fix means "to make secure, to fasten." It is best not to use the
word as those persons do who fix furniture when they repair it;
fix books when they arrange them ; fix a cut finger when they dress
it, diiidifix a person whom they bribe or quiet.

Funny does not mean odd or unusual.

Gent is not to be used for gentleman or man.

Got is not to be used with have in the sense of possession. Say,
"The table has five legs." It may be used in the sense of obtaining:
as, "I got what I wanted."

Home. Avoid " He is home " when you mean "He is at home."

How is not to be used for "What ? " or "What do you say ? "

// is not to be used for whether, in "I do not know whether he will

go."

Its, the possessive of the pronoun it, contains no apostrophe. (See
sect. 79.)

Kind of need not be followed by the article a. Say, "I like this
kind of hat," not " this kind of a hat."

Last and latest do not have the same meaning. The latest arrival
need not mean the last arrival.

Lot and lots, meaning number, as in "a lot of people," are used
colloquially.

Like should not be used for oj, in "Do a5 1 do."

Lovely is a much-abused word. It reaUy refers to what stirs
the affections. Not everything that is satisfactory is lovely.
It is absurd to say a hat is lovely because it is becoming or beau-
tiful.

Most, almost. Most should not be confused with almost, which

364 APPENDIX

means "nearly"; "He is almost ready," "Most children are happy,"
"Almost all children are happy."

Mighty, as an adverb meaning very, has never been in strictly good
form, and at best is only colloquial.

None, singular grammatically, is often used as plural.

No use. Say "of no use," as in " This thing is of no use."

Nor strengthens the second alternative. ''I am not going nor
planning to go" is more emphatic than, "I am not going or plan-
ning to go." '

Of. A preposition is not a substitute for the verb form have.
Say, "I should have gone, " not "I should of gone,"

Off of. The of is usually unnecessary. Say, "He feU off the roof,"
not, "off of the roof." Avoid such expressions as, "May I have some
paper off of you?" or, "May I have some paper off you?" Say
rather, " May I have some paper ? "

Onto should seldom be used for on or upon.

Pants is not to be used for trousers.

Per, A Latin preposition not to be used in English. Say, "The
cloth is fifty cents a yard," not "per yard."

Phone is not used by good writers.

Photo is to be avoided.

Posted is colloquial for well-informed.

Proven is not to be used for proved.

Raise, Chickens are raised, children are reared. Do not speak of
a raise in salary when you mean an ificrease or rise.

Receipt — recipe. We say a receipt for a pudding, usually reserving
recipe for medical prescriptions.

Respectfully must be distinguished from respectively.

Retire does not necessarily mean go to bed.

Smart, used provincially in the sense of able or capable, really means
keen, sharp.

So is to be used with caution, whether as a connective or
as an intensive word. "He is so enthusiastic," "Her gown is so
pretty."

Some is an adjective or a pronoun; it is not an adverb. Say>
"I am somewhat tired," not "I am some tired."

COMMON ERRORS 365

Than is a conjunction. Say, "He is older than /," not "older than
me" In " than whom " than is used like a preposition.

Through, Say, "J have finished eating," rather than "I am through
eating."

Very is not to be used unless it makes the meaning more emphatic.
It is a good word to strike out in revising manuscript. Say "very
much interested," not "very interested."

Ways is not to be used for way. Say, "It is a long way," not
"a long ways."

Without is not to be used as a conjunction, meaning unless. Say,
"I shall not try for the team unless you think best," not "without
you think best."

INDEX

(Exercises have seldom been included under regular topics but are listed

under Exercises)

"Abbot, The," Scott, 9, 259
Abbreviations, in letters, 96
Abstract nouns, 116
Abstract, the, a form of exposition,

319-323
Accent, in spelling, 73, 74 ; in verse,

355
Active voice, defined, 134 ; of givej

157, 159, 160 ; an aid to emphasis,
214
Addison, Joseph, 262, 263
Address, of the letter, 88, 89
Adjective phrases, 172-173
Adjectives, defined, 113 ; predicate,
119; infinitives as, 139; demon-
strative, 167; articles, 167; and
adverbs, 167
Adverbial clauses, 175
Adverbial phrases, 172-173
Adverbs, defined, 113; infinitives
as, 139; and adjectives, 167; as
conjunctions, 178
Affirmative side, in debate, 337, 351,

352
"A-Hunting of the Deer," C. D.

Warner, 312
AinUj 66, 362

Aldrich, T. B., 277-279, 295
" Alhambra, The," Irving, 268
Almost vs. mosty 234, 363
Alsoy 210, 211
Ambiguity, in use of pronouns, 1 29-

130; in position of phrases and

clauses, 210; in questions for de^

bate, 337, 338
" American Notes," Kipling, 256
Analysis, 179-184
Anapest, 356
Ancient Mariner, The," Coleridge,

247, 289

And, comma before, 58; as a con-
nective, 170, 171, 185

And which y 170, 362

Antecedent, 125, 210

Antithesis, 219

Antonyms, 236-237

Anybody else's, 122

Apostrophe, mark of punctuation,
65-66, 121, 123

Apostrophe, figure of speech, 252

Appositive, 119, 120, 138

Argument, 331-353 ; relation to ex-
position, 331 ; editorial, 331-332;
development of, 333 ; argumenta-
tive letter, 333-335; debates, 336-
353; terms of debate, 336; fram-
ing the proposition, 337 ; finding
debate material, 339; the brief,
340-342 ; the speaking, 342-344 ;
subjects for debate, 344 ; exercises
on debate, 346-349 ; management
of a debate, 350-353

Articles, 167

"As You Like It," Shakespeare,
259

Assertion, in debate, 340, 349

Asterisks, 67

Athletics^ 1 17

Authority, for facts in argument, 339

"Autobiography," Franklin, 344

Auxiliary verbs, 132, 133, 145, 159

Avenue y 89

"Average Massachusetts Grammar
School, An," C. W. Eliot, 309-310

Awful, 362

Babcock, Dr., 87

" Baby's First Shoes," pupil's theme,

5» 34. 45
Bad and badly, 362

367

368

INDEX

Balanced sentences, 216, 219

Barrie, J. M., 266

Bates, Arlo, 305

Be^ conjugation of, 155-157

♦♦ Beowulf," 257

Beside^ 362

Bible, the, 242

" Bird Study, Timely Suggestions
on," 192

Book reviews, 319, 320-322

Botsford, G. W. "History of
Greece," 298

Brackets, 65, 67

Brief, the, 340-342 ; refutation, 340 ;
assertion and proof, 341 ; speci-
men, 341-342

Brooks, Phillips, letter of, 104

Browning, Robert, 5, 276

BuNYAN, John, 242, 243, 245, 255

Burden of proof, in debate, 337, 338,

352
Burroughs, John, 43, 290, 301,

314-315
Business letter, salutation, 89, 90;

complimentary close, 92 ; require-
ments of, 96-102 ; specimens of,
97-99; of introduction, 98 ; of ap-
plication, 98, 100, 102 ; request for
information, 97, 10 1, 102; order-
ing goods, 98, 99; subscription,
97 ; exercises on, 99-102 ; with a
promissory note, 100; with a re-
ceipt, 1 01

Buty 170, 171

But also, 170

But which, ^fii

"Caesar," J. A. Froude, 298

Camp-system, in debate, 352

Capitals, 83-85

Case, defined, 11 8; nominative, 1 18-
120; objective, 1 20-1 21; posses-
sive, 1 21-123; of pronouns, 125,
129-130

Case absolute, 57, 119

Cause and effect, developing the
paragraph by, 197-198 ; develop-
ing exposition by, 311, 316; de-
veloping argument by, 333

" Causes of Fires, The," editorial, 32/j

Chance, defined, 240

Character sketches, 319, 325-326

Clauses, defined, 51, 174; depend-
ent, 51, 52, 175-178, 210; punc-
tuation of, 56, 57, 61, 62, 63 ;
conditional, 151, 152 ; relation be-
tween, 178; position of, 210

Clearness. See Coherence

Climax, in the outline, 32 ; in secur-
ing emphasis, 215-216, 283, 309

Coherence, in the outline, 32 ; in
the paragraph, 185, 186, 187, 188,
189, 190; in the sentence, 209-
210; in the longer composition,
261-263 ; in the short story, 283 ;
in exposition, 308, 317 ; in argu-
ment, 333

Coleridge, S. T., 247, 289

Colleagues, in debate, 337

Collective nouns, 116, 117, 153, 154

Colloquial English, 362-364

CoLLYER, Robert, 242

Colon, 58, 62-64, 90

Comedy, 259

Comma, 55-^» 64, 68, 90

Common errors, 226-234, 362-364

Comparison, a figure of speech, 248

Comparison and contrast, develop-
ing the paragraph by, 196; de-
veloping exposition by, 311, 315;
developing argument by, 333

Complement, subjective, 118, 119;
objective, 119, 120

Complex sentence, defined, 51,
202 ; analysis of, 179 ; as a means
of securing unity, 202-204, 209

Composition, value of, 1-7 ; oral,
defined, i ; written, defined, i,
306 ; individuality in, 2-3 ; choos-
ing subjects for, 8 ; based on im-
agination, 11-12 ; limited subjects
for, 12; time limit in, 13. See
Subjects for composition .

Compound nouns, plural of, 117;
possessive of, 121

Compound predicate, 50 (note)

Compound sentences, defined, 51,
202; analysis of, 179; lacking
unity, 202-203, 209

Compound subject, 50 (note), 1 53,1 54

INDEX

369

Conditional clauses, shall and will
in, 151 ; should and would in, 152
Congressional Record^ The^ 339
Conjugation, defined, 132 ; of be^

155-157; of ^'«'^» 157-161; of
may and mighty 160

Conjunctions, defined, 113; coor-
dinate, 170, 178, 210; correlative,
170, 171 ; subordinate, 171, 172,
178; in the paragraph, 185; in
the longer composition, 262

Connectives, in the paragraph, 185-
186; in longer compositions, 262

Contractions, 130, 362

Contrast. ^titComparison and contrast

Conversation, 279, 283

Coordinate clauses, defined, 51 ;
punctuation of, 57

Coordinate conjunctions, 170, 178,
210

Copulative verb, 1 18 (note)

Crawford, F. M., 152, 223, 296

Criticism, oral reading a help to, 4 ;
exercises in, 26, 27, 30, 42, 188,
189 ; pupils', 26, 27-28 ; key for,
28-29; suggestions for, 29-30.
See under Exercises

CusHiNG, L. S., " Rules of Proceed-
ing," etc., 350 ftn.

Dactyl, 356

Dash, the, 64

"David Copperfield," Dickens, 259

Debate, defined, 336; terms used
in, 336-337 ; framing the propo-
sition, 337-338 ; work of the affir-
mative, 337 ; work of the negative,
337 ; finding material, 339 ; the
brief, 340-342 ; refutation, 340 ;
assertion and proof, 340; speci-
men brief, 341-342 ; speaking,
342-344; subjects for, 344-345 »
exercises on, 346-349; manage-
ment of, 350-353

Declension, defined, 116; of nouns,
116; of pronouns, 124

" Defense of the Kennistons," Web-
ster, 343

Definition, a form of exposition,
306-307

Demonstrative adjectives, 167 ; as
connectives, 186, 262

Demonstrative pronouns, 125

Description, 288-304; material for
pictures, 288 ; a limited subject
in, 289 ; point of view in, 292 ;
choice of details and plan, 294;
by suggestion, 295 ; by effect,
296; reproduction of sensations
by, 299; directions for writing,
301 ; and exposition, 305, 325

"Deserted Village, The," Gold-
smith, 256

Details, developing the paragraph
by, 194; in description, 294; de-
veloping exposition by, 311, 312 ;
developing argument by, 333

Diagrams, 16, 17

Dickens, Charles, 9, 10, 259, 316

Dictionary, use of, 23, 80, 239

Different from ^ 168, 362

Dimeter, 358

Direct address, 57, 1 19

Direct object, 120, 132, 135, 175

Dow, J. G., 197-198

" Dutch Village, A," Irving, 43

Editorials, 319, 323-325, 331-332

Effect, description by, 296

Either, 153, 363

" Electrifying our Railroads," edi-
torial, 332

Eliot, Charles W., " An Average
Massachusetts Grammar School,"
309-310

Eliot, George, " Silas Marner,"
259,268

Emphasis, in the paragraph, 189-
193 ; secured through position,
189, 213-216; secured through
proportion, 191, 213-216, 309; in
the sentence, 213-216; in the
longer composition, 264-265; in
the short story, 283; in exposition,
309, 317 ; in argument, 333

" Enoch Arden," Tennyson, 5, 294

Envelope, the, 94

Epic, the, 257

Epitome. See Abstract

Bsq.y 95

370

INDEX

Essay, the, 258

*' Essay on Johnson," Macaulay,

Even^ 210, 211

Evidence, in argument, 333, 337,

352

Exact word, the, 224-241 ; a ready
vocabulary, 224 ; exact meanings,
225 ; words worth studying, 226 ;
synonyms, 226-235 ; homonyms,
235-237 ; antonyms, 236 ; words
in good use, 237-239 ; helps in
choosing, 239-241

Examples, developing the para-
graph by, 195 ; developing expo-
sition by, 311, 313; developing
the argument by, 333

" Exciting Moment, An " (pupil's
theme), 14, 198

Exclamation point, 54-55

Exclamatory sentence, in securing
emphasis, 216

Exercises: abstract, 319-320; ad-
jectives, 167, 168; adverbs, 168;
analysis, 180-182 ; argument, 336,
338, 346-349 ; book reviews, 321 ;
brackets, 67 ; capitalization, 53,
54, 84, 85; cause and effect, 316-
317 ; choosing subjects, 8, 11, 16,
18, 35, 36, 44, 48; clauses, 176-
178, 184; coherence, 186, 187,
192, 193, 211, 212, 213, 269;
colon, 63, 64; comma, 59, 60;
comparison and contrast, 198,
199,315-316; complex sentence,
51, 183, 184, 204, 208, 213; com-
pound sentence, 51, 183, 184, 204,
205, 208; conjunctions, 171, 172;
conversation, 67, 131; dash, 65;
debate, 338, 346-349 ; descrip-
tion, 290-304; editorials, 324, 325 ;
emphasis, 191, 192, 193, 216, 217,
218, 219, 220, 222, 269; examples,
development by, 198, 313-314;
exclamation point, 55, 219; ex-
position, 307, 308, 310, 311;
312-318, 319-326; figures of
speech, 249, 250, 251, 252; ger-
unds, 143-144; imagination, 12,
37» 67, 71, 294; infinitives, 140,

143, 144 ; interrogative sentence,
54; letter writing, 46, 71, 85, 93,
94,99, 100, loi, 102, 106, 107-111,
189, 223, 255, 264, 287, 297, 313,
327, 328, 336; manuscript, 24;
memorizing, 6; news items, 280.
281 ; notes, 323 ; novel, 282 ; oral
reading and composition, 4-^, 1 2,

22, 33-35» 37. 38, 49. 52, 85, 178,
193, 198, 223, 255, 264, 265, 268-
270, 274, 276, 283, 284, 285, 296,

297» 30^ 302, 313-317* 324. 346,
348, 359; outlines, 33-38, 40, 44,

47, 48, 49, 219, 263, 264, 265, 266,
267,298,309,311,313,318; para-
graph writing, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45,

48, 85, 188, 190-192, 198, 199, 208,
223, 268, 269; participles, 141,
142; particulars, development by,
198,199,312-313; parts of speech,
113-116, 118; period, 53, 54;
phrases, 173, 174, 177, 184; pre-
fixes and sufBxes, 76-78 ; preposi-
tion, 168, 169; pronouns, 126-
128, 129, 130, 131, 132 ; proverbs,
218, 308, 313, 314; punctuation,
68-71 ; pupil's criticism, 26, 27,
30» 37» 38» 42, 48, 55, 60, 64, 65,
67» 93' 94» 187-189, 192, 193, 269,
272, 276, 280, 293, 303, 304, 320;
quotation marks, 67, 70; repeti-
tion, development by, 198, 314-
315; secretary's report, 18, 323;
semicolon, 61 ; shall and will^ 149,
1 50, 151; should and would ^ 1 52 ;
spelling, 73-79. 83, 85; syllabica-
tion, 75, 76; synopses, 161, 162;
themes, writing of, 26, 30, 36, 37,
38, 44, 46, 48, 49. 53. 60, 65, 131,
189, 192, 193, 199, 223, 255, 261,
265, 267, 270, 274, 282-287, 290,
291, 294, 295, 297-299, 301-303,
310, 311, 313, 314, 315. 316, 318,
326, 329, 336; titles, 16, 22; topic
sentence, 46, 47, 48, 49, 187, 188,
198, 199, 213, 218, 312; unity, 45,
49, 188, 189, 190, 193, 205, 206, 207,
218, 261, 269, 290; verbs, 133,

134. 135. 136, 137. 154, 155. 161-
163, 164-166; verse, 359; words,

INDEX

371

220, 222, 225, 226-237, 243, 244,
245, 246, 247, 253, 254

Expletive, 139

Exposition, 305-330; meaning of,
305; definition, 306; unity in,
308; coherence in, 308-309;
methods of, 311 ; by details, 312 ;
by examples, 313; by repetition,
314 ; by comparison and contrast,
315; by cause and effect, 316;
directions for writing, 317 ; spe-
cial forms of, 319; abstract, 319;
book review, 320 ; notes, 322 ;
newspaper editorials, 323; char-
acter sketches, 325 ; letters, 327 ;
and argument, 331

"Father's Friend, My" (pupil's
theme), 4

Feet in verse, 356-358

Fields, J. T., "Thackeray and the
Oyster," 273

Figurative words, 247

Figures of speech, 247 ; similes and
metaphors, 248-250; mixed meta-
phors, 250-251 ; metonymy, 251 ;
personification, 252; apostrophe,
252 ; transferred epithet, 253

"Firearms are an Aid to Perma-
nency of Civilization," Adam
Smith, 347-348

Fitzgerald, Edward, letterby, 105

"Floating," C. D. Warner, 312

"Football Player, A," Lefroy, 15

Forcible words, choice of, 242 ;
simple words, 242-245 ; specific
words, 245-247 ; figurative words,
247-248; similes and metaphors,
248-250; mixed metaphors, 250;
metonymy, 251 ; personification,
252; apostrophe, 252; transferred
epithet, 253

Foreign nouns, plural of, 117-118

Formal notes, 108-109

Fox, 196

Franklin, Benjamin, 33, 196,

343-344
" Franklin Park, In " (pupil's theme),

3,186

" Franklin's Famous Toast," 33

Friendly letters, 102-108
Froude, J. A. " Caesar," 298
Future tense, 148-152

Gender, 123
Genitive case, 121
Gerund, 143

Givty conjugation of, 1 57-161
Goldsmith, Oliver, 256, [267, 268
Grammar, defined, 112; parts of
speech, 112; flexibility of parts of
speech, 114; nouns, 11 6-1 23; pro-
nouns, 124-132; verbs, 132-166;
adjectives, 167-168; adverbs,
167-168; prepositions, 168-170;
conjunctions, 170-172; phrases
and clauses, 172-178; analysis,
179-184
"Greater thought," the, 202, 203
Green, J. R., "History of the Eng-
lish People," 298-299

Hamilton, Gail, letter to Whittier,
106

Harris, George, "Moral Evolu-
tion," 194-195

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 187,
267, 290, 294

Hazlitt, William, "On the Con-
duct of Life," 47

Heading, to composition, 20; to
letter, 88

Henry, Patrick, 335

" Heroes who fight Fire," Riis, 1 13-
114

Hexameter, 358

Historical novel, 259

Homer's Iliad, 257

Homonyms, 235-236

Honorable, 95

" House of the Seven Gables, The,"
Hawthorne, 187, 267, 290, 316

" Housing of the Poor, The," brief,

341

" How I killed a Bear," C. D. War-
ner, 276

Hudson, H. N., 319, 326

Hugo, Victor, 295

Hyphen, 23, 67

372

INDEX

Iambus, 356
Idyl of the Honey-Bee, An," Bur-
roughs, 290
Iliad, 257
Illustration, by examples, 195, 311,

3i3» 333
Imagination, 11-12, 288. See under

Exercises
Imperative mood, 137

In Franklin Park'* (pupil's theme),

3, 186
"In the Mountains," Burroughs,

43
Incident, the, 271-279

"Incident of the French Camp,
An," Browning, 5, 276

Indefinite pronouns, 125

Indention, 20, 23

" Indian and the Phonograph, The,"
22

Indicative mood, 137

Indirect discourse, 150, 176

Indirect object, 120, 135

Indirect question, 54, 176

Individuality in writing, 2, 31

Infinitives, subject of, 120; comple-
ment of, 120; defined, 138; tenses
of, 1 38 ; used as a noun, 1 38 ; used
as a verb, 139 ; used as an adjec-
tive, 139 ; used as an adverb, 139 ;
used without grammatical connec-
tion with the rest of the sentence,
139; exercises on, 140, 143, 144

Inflection, defined, 112 ; noun, 116;
Anglo-Saxon, 121 ; verb, 132

Informal notes, 109-1 1 1

Interjection, 113

Interrogation point, 54

Interrogative pronoun, 125

Interrogative sentence, 216

Intransitive verb, 132, 134

Introduction, to the composition,
267 ; to the brief, 340, 341 ; to
the debate, 346

Irving, Washington, 9, 10, 40, 43-
44, 186, 199, 267, 284, 292-293

It, 139
//'j, 130

"Ivanhoe," Scott, 10, 45, 268, 274,
283

Joan of Arc, description of, 298
"Journey in Literature" (pupil's

theme), 329-330
Judges, in debate, 353
"Julius Caesar," Shakespeare, 356
"Jungle Book, The," Kipling, 5,

198, 222, 300

Key, critic's, 28-29
" King John," Shakespeare, 259
Kipling, Rudyard, 5, 10, 198, 222,
256, 294, 299, 300

"Lady of the Lake," Scott, 355,

357
Lamb's Salt Dips," 272

Last of the Mohicans," Cooper,

268

Leaders, 67

Lefroy, E. C, "A Football Player,"

15
Legend of Sleepy Hollow," Irving,

284, 293

Letter writing, practical value of, 2,
86 ; as a form of training, 86 ; the
paper, 87 ; the heading and ad-
dress, 88-89; ^^ salutation, 88,
89, 90 ; body of the letter, 90-91 ;
conclusion of the letter, 91-93;
complimentary close, 92 ; signa-
ture, 92-93 ; form of address for
mayor, 93 ; folding the letter, 93 ;
the envelope, 94-95 ; suggestions
for, 96; abbreviations in, 96;
business letters, 96-102 ; speci-
mens of letters, 97-102 ; letters
of friendship, 102-108; Steven-
son, 103 ; Phillips Brooks, 104 ;
Edward Fitzgerald, 105 ; of sym-
pathy, 105-106; Abraham Lin-
coln, 106; Gail Hamilton, 106-
107 ; of congratulation, 107 ; as a
form of exposition, 319, 327-328 ;
as a form of argument, 333-335

Life, in the sentence, 221-222; in
the composition, 241, 242; in de-
scription, 301

"Life of Samuel Johnson," Ma-
caulay, 254

Like^ 1711363

INDEX

373

Limited subjects, 12, 289
Lincoln, Abraham, letter by, 106
" Lingering Daylight," Hawthorne,

187
Literature, forms of, 257-259 ; epic,

257 ; the lyric, 257 ; the essay, 258 ;

the novel, 259 ; the drama, 259
LocKHART, " Life of Scott," 306
Long, William J., 174, 190
Longer compositions, 260-270
Longfellow, H. W., 46
Loose sentences, 215
Lowell, J. R., 296 ftn.
Lyric, the, 257

Mac AULA Y, T. B., 254, 315

" Mahto-Tatonka," Parkman, 289

Manny inflection of, 121

Manuscript, neatness of, 20; mar-
gins, 20; heading, 20; title, 20-
21 ; punctuation, 22-23 ; spelling,
23 ; paragraphing, 23 ; two copies
of, 24; model for, 25; revising
and rewriting, 27 ; criticism of,

27-30
Margins, 20

Mathematics y number of, 117

May J 160, 228

Memorizing, importance of, 5-6;
helps in, 6 ftn.

" Merchant of Venice, The," Shake-
speare, 319, 326

Messrs. y 117

Metaphor, 248, 250

Meter, 355-359

Metonymy, 251

Might J 160

Milton, John, 257, 357

Misses i 117

Mixed metaphor, 250

" Modern Painters," Ruskin, 288

** Money Thrown Away" (editorial),

331
Mood, defined, 136; indicative, 137;

subjunctive, 136, 137; imperative,

136, 137
" Moral Evolution," Harris, 194-195
Mr., 95
"My Father»s Friend" (pupil's

theme), 4

Narration, 27 1-287 ; the incident,
27 1 ; the news item, 279 ; the
short story, 281

Negative side, in debate, 337, 351,

352

" Nehushta," Crawford, 5, 296

Neither, 153, 363

"Nerves of the Road," Spearman,
196-197

Nettleton, G. H., " Specimens of
the Short Story," 321

Newman, John, 295

News item, 279

Nominative absolute, 119

Nominative case, 11 8-1 20

Not only, 171, 210

Note-taking, 322-323

Noun, defined, 112; proper, 116,
117; common, 116; collective,
116, 117, 153, 154; abstract, 116;
verbal, 116; declension, 116; num-
ber, 117, 153, 154; compound,
117; foreign, 11 7-1 18 ; case, 1 18-
1 23 ; subject of a verb, 118; pred-
icate nominative, 118; apposi-
tive, 119, 120; direct address, 119;
nominative absolute, 119; gender,
123; infinitive as, 138; gerund
as, 143

Novel, form of narrative, 259 ; com-
pared with short story, 281

Number, of nouns, 117 ; possessive
singular and plural, 121; of pro-
nouns, 124-125 ; of verbs, 153-154

Object. See Direct object and Indi-
rect object
Objective case, 120
Objective complement, 119, 120
"Old Friend, An" (pupil's theme),

4i»45
" On the Conduct of Life," Hazlitt,47

Only, 210, 211

Opponents, in debate, 337

Oral composition, value of, i, 2. See

also under Composition
Oral reading, importance of, 4. See

also under Exercises
"Oregon Trail, The," Parkman,

46, 255, 274, 289, 294

374

INDEX

Outline, examples of, 7, 32, 33, 34,
37, 38; definition of, 31; essen-
tials of, 31-32 ; filling in the, 34;
in the paragraph, 40 ; in the
longer composition, 269 ; in expo-
sition, 309 ; in argument, 341-342

Page, Thomas N., "The Old
South," 316-317

Palmer, G. H., " Self-cultivation in
English," 349

"Paradise Lost," Milton, 257

Paragraph, definition of, 23 ; inden-
tion of, 23 ; as a unit, 39 ; the
independent, 39; length of, 39;
unity in, 39, 185 ; topic of the, 39,
45-46, 185 ; plan of, 40 ; connect-
ing the, 42-44, 185-186; topic
sentence in, 46-49, 185; develop-
ment of the, 185-201 ; coherence
in, 185; emphasis in, 185, 189-
191 ; developing by details, 194 ;
developing by examples, 195;
developing by repetition, 196;
developing by comparison and
contrast, 196; developing by cause
and effect, 197 ; exercises in de-
veloping, 198-200; transitional,
263

Parentheses, 65

Parkman, Francis, "The Oregon
Trail," 46, 255, 274, 289, 294

Participle, defined, 141 ; tenses, 141 ;
exercises, 141, 142; in securing
coherence, 210

Parts of speech, 1 1 2-1 1 3 ; flexibility
of, 114; nouns, 1 16-123; pro-
nouns, 124-132; verbs, 132-166;
adjectives and adverbs, 167-168;
prepositions, 168-170; conjunc-
tions, 170-172

Passive voice, 134, 206

Pentameter, 358

Period, 52-54

Periodic sentence, 215, 218, 219

Perry, Bliss, "A Study of Prose
Fiction," 320

Person, of pronouns, 124; of verbs,

153
Personal pronouns, 124

Personification, capitals in, 84 ; de-
fined, 252

Persuasive composition, Patrick
Henry, 335. See Argument

Phrases, punctuation of, 57, 58, 61 ;
defined, 172 ; adjective, 172 ; ad-
verbial, 172, 173 ; noun, 172 ; in-
finitive, 172; position of, 210

"Pilgrim*s Progress," Bunyan, 243,

245
Plural, formation of, 74-75

Plutarch, " Lives," 306
Point of view, 260, 269, 292, 301
"Poole's Index," 339
Portia, description of, 326
Possessive case, of nouns, 1 2 i-i 23 ;
of pronouns, 1 30-1 31 ; with ger-
und, 143
Predicate, 50, 51
Predicate adjective, 119
Predicate nominative, 118, 119
Prefixes and suffixes, 76-78
Preposition, defined, 113; correct

use of, 168-170
"President's Message, The," 12-13
Principal parts of verb, 134, 163-164
Promissory note, 100
Pronouns, defined, 112; classifica-
tion of, 124-125; personal, 124;
relative, 124; interrogative, 125;
demonstrative, 125; indefinite,
125; antecedents, 125, 210; every
one^ 127; ambiguity in use of,
129; case of, 1 29-13 1 ; posses-
sive, 130; reflexive, 131
Proof, in debate, 340, 349
Proposition, in debate, 337
Punctuation, origin, 22-23 » value,
52 ; period, 52 ; interrogation
point, 54 ; exclamation point, 54 ;
comma, 55 ; in letters, 58, 59, 63,
94 ; semicolon, 60 ; colon, 62 ;
dash, 64 ; parentheses, 65 ; brack-
ets, 65 ; apostrophe, 65 ; quota-
tion marks, 66 ; hyphen, 67 ; as-
terisks and leaders, 67

Quantity, in verse, 355-356
"Quentin Durward," Scott, 45, 274
Question mark, 54

INDEX

375

"Quite So," Aldrich, 277
Quotation marks, 66
Quotations, punctuation of, 58, 59,
62 ; capitals in, 83 ; in debate,

339

" Reader's Guide to Periodical Lit-
erature," 339 ftn.
Reading, 3, 9, 240
Rebuttal, 337, 352
Receipt, loi
Reflexive pronouns, 131
Refutation, in debate, 337, 340,

349
Regular and irregular verbs, 163--

164
Relative clauses, 57, 124
Relative pronouns, 124, 129, 178
Repetition, developing the para-
graph by, 196 ; in exposition, 311,
314; in definition, 307; in argu-
ment, 333 ; in debate, 352
Restrictive clauses, punctuation of,

57
Rests, in verse, 358

Retained object, 135

Reverend y 95

Revision, 24, 27

Rhetorical question, 216

Rhythm, 359

Riis, J. A., 113-114, 322
Rikki-Tikki," Kipling, 198, 222
Rip Van Winkle," Irving, 186
Rob Roy," Scott, 291, 294

Romance, 259

Rum ELY, E. A., 315-316

RusKiN, John, 225, 288, 306

"Sad Story, A" (pupil's theme),

275
Salutation of the letter, 88, 89

Scansion, 359

Scott, Sir Walter, 9, 10, 11, 45,

259, 274, 283, 291, 294, 355, 357
Secretary's report, 18-19
&^ pronouns, 131
Semicolon, 60-62
Sentence, punctuation of, 22, 23, 52;

defined, 50 ; simple, 50, 202, 203 ;

complex, 51, 202, 209; compound,

((

50, 203, 209; unity in, 202-204,
209 ; uniform construction of,
206, 209 ; long or short, 207-209 ;
coherence in, 210; emphasis in,
213-216; periodic and loose, 215 ;
superfluous words in, 220 ; life in,
221
Shakespeare, William, 242, 259,

319* 326, 357

Shall and will^ 148-1 52 ; in independ-
ent statements, 148; in questions,
149; in indirect discourse, 150;
in conditional clauses, 151

" Shell and the Book, The," Long,
190

" Short Cut, A " (pupil's theme), 40,

45
Short story, the, 281 ; plot in, 281 ;

compared with novel, 281 ; books
containing examples of, 282 ; di-
rections for telling, 282-283

Should and would^ 152-153

Signature, in letters, 92

" Silas Mamer," George Eliot, 259,
268

Similes, 248

Simple sentences, as units, 202,
209

" Sketch-Book, The," Irving, 40, 43,
186, 284, 293 •

Smith, Adam, "Wealth of Nations,"

347-348
Smith, Sydney, 254
Socrates, description of, 298
Southey, " Life of Nelson," 306
Spearman, Frank, "The Nerves

of the Road," 196-197
Specific words, 245-247
"Specimens of the Short Story,"

Nettleton, 321
Spectator, the, 262
Spelling, an essential of a good MS., ,

23 ; ways of learning, 72-73 ; the

spelling match, 73, 79, 83, 85;

rules for, 73-75; syllabication,

75 ; prefixes and suffixes, 76-78 ;

lists for practice in, 77-83 ; use

of dictionary, 80
" Spring Running, The," Kipling,

301

376

INDEX

Stevenson, R. L,, io, 29, 45, 103,

254» 299» 300
Story. See Short story

Street^ in heading to letter, 89

" Study of Prose Fiction, A," Perry,
320

Subject, of a verb, 118; of an infini-
tive, 120

Subjective complement, 118, 119,

1381 I39» 175
Subjects, for composition (based on

experience, 8 ; books suggesting,
9-1 1 ', based on imagination, 1 1 ;
limiting, 12-16; vs. titles, 15; lists
of, 8, 9, 10, II, 12, 16, 22, 35, 36,
192, 199, 207, 212, 267, 268, 274,
281, 284, 286, 287, 302, 304, 317,
318, 338, 339, 344-345; sugges-
tions for finding, 16, 200; limited,
12, 289); for debates, 344-345

Subjunctive mood, 137

Subordinate conjunctions, 171, 172,

178

Suffixes, 76-78

Suggestion in description, 295

Summary, a form of exposition,

319
" Sunset Colors," Ruskin, 225

Superfluous words, 220-221

Syllabication, 23, 75

Synonyms, 226-235, 306

Syntax, defined, 112

" Tale of Two Cities, A," Dickens,

259
" Tempest, The," Shakespeare, 259
Tennyson, Alfred, 5, 258, 294
Tense, 145-153; j^a//and will^ 148-

152; toould dJid, should^ 153
Tetrameter, 358
" Thackeray and the Oyster," Fields,

5»273
Thoreau, "Walden," 174

Titles, vs. subjects, 14, 15; phras-
ing, 16, 21, 22; placing of, 20;
quotation marks for, 66; italics
for, 66 ; capitalization of, 83
Toy sign of the infinitive, 138
Topic sentence, 46-49, 185, 188,
213

Tragedy, 259

" Trainmg of a Fireman, The," Riis,
113-114

Transferred epithet, 253

Transition of paragraphs, 262

Transitive verb, 132, 134

"Treasure Island," Stevenson, 45,
300

Trent, Hanson, Brewster, "In-
troduction to the English Clas-
sics," 281

Trimeter, 358

Trochee, 356

" Twenty Thousand Leagues under
the Sea," Verne, 289

Unity, in the composition, 31 ; in
the paragraph^ 39, 185 ; and the
topic sentence, 46; in the sen-
tence, 50, 51, 202-209; in the
longer composition, 260 ; in story-
telling, 282 ; in exposition, 308,
317; in argument, 333

"Vailima Letters," Stevenson, 103,

254
Verb phrases, 133

Verbal nouns, 143

Verbs, defined, 113; transitive and
intransitive, 132 ; auxiliary, 132,
133 ; principal parts, 134 ; voice,
134-135 ; retained objects, 135,
136; mood, 136-138; indicative
mood, 137 ; subjunctive mood, 137 ;
imperative mood, 137; infinitives,
138-141 ; participles, 141-143 ;
gerunds, 143-M5; tense, i45-i53i
person and number, 153-155;
conjugation, 1 5 5-1 59 ; potential
phrases, 159-163; regular and
irregular, 163-164

Verne, Jules, 288

Verse, common feet, 355; names
of feet, 356; variations in, 357;
rests, 358; kinds of, 358; scan-
sion, 359 ; rhythm, 359

"Vicar of Wakefield," Goldsmith,
268

Vocabulary, a ready, 224 ; an exact,
225-237 ; choosing, 237-241

INDEX

377

Voice, 134-135

"Voyage, The," Irving, 40, 199

Warner, C. D., 276, 312
Webster, Daniel, 196, 343
Whittier, John G., "Snow-
bound," 46; letter to, 106
Will and shall, 148-152; in inde-
pendent statements, 148 ; in ques-
tions, 149; in indirect discourse,
150; in conditional clauses, 151
Willis, N. P., 20

Words, necessary to the construc-
tion, 211; superfluous, 220-221;
exact, 224-241 ; synonyms, 226-

235; homonyms, 235-236; anto-
nyms, 236 ; in good use, 237-238 ;
helps in choosing, 239-241 ; for-
cible, 242-256; simple, 242-245;
specific, 245-247 ; figurative, 247-
248
Would 2Jidi should, 152-153
Writing, how to learn, 2 ; a habit, 3 ;
reading a help to, 3

" Young Protector, A " (pupil's
theme), 4i» 45

"Zoroaster," Crawford, 152, 223,
296

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