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An Ideal Feeder's Head

Hereford steer, Peerless Wilton 39th's Defender, grand champion at the

International Live Stock Show in 1906. Bred and fitted

by H. J. Fluck, Goodenow, 111. Sold to

Iowa State College.

Types and Market Classes

Live Stock

H:^W. VAUGHAN, M. Sc. in Agr.

PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA

Second Revision
Eleventh Edition

U. G. ADAMS & COMPANY

COLUMBUS OHIO

1927

fttOFERTY LIBRARY

N. C. State Celkge

First Edition July, 1915

Second Edition. June, 1916

'Ihird Edition. June. 1917

Fourth Edition July, 191«

Fifth Edition (Revised), July 191 1»

Sixth Edition, May. 1920

Seventh Edition, July, 1921

Eighth Edition October 192^

Ninth Edition (Revised), July, 192:i

Tenth Edition, August, 1925

Eleventh E lition, ^ug Jst, 1 »27

'. T. HEER PRINTING CO.
COLUMBUS, OHIO
1927

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION

During the past eight years there has been added to the curriculum
in most of our agricultural colleges a new course dealing with the tj^es
of farm animals, market demands, and market classes of live stock.
More properly speaking, it has been inserted at the very beginning of
the work in animal husbandry, forming, as it logically does, the founda-
tion course in the study of that important branch of agriculture. This
is a soundly practical study; the student is brought to a much clearer
conception of values and a much better appreciation of live stock than
was possible under the former system of teaching.

Recognizing the need of a text on this subject which could be placed
in the hands of students, the writer prepared and printed a loose-leaf
edition which has been used at Ohio State University during the past
three years. This met with favorable comment, and requests have
been made that the material be put into book form. After careful
revision and the addition of a number of illustrations, this is now
attempted in the hope that students and teachers and the general
reader as well may find such a book useful.

The arrangement of the subject-matter corresponds to the order
usually followed in teaching, but may be varied as desired, each sec-
tion of the book— Cattle, Sheep, Hogs, and Horses— being complete
in itself.

The writer desires to express his indebtedness to numerous com-
mission men, buyers for the packing houses, and others who have
kindly given their assistance during his quests for information, and to
numerous experiment station publications, particularly the series of
excellent bulletins issued by the Illinois Station setting forth the results
of their studies of the Chicago and St. Louis markets. Acknowledg-
ment of valued assistance is due my present co-workers, and also
Professors C. S. Plumb and F. R. Marshall at Ohio State University.

Iowa State College H. W. VAUGHAN

July, 1915

PREFACE TO NINTH EDITION

At most agricultural colleges, the study of beef cattle begins with
the fat steer at the market, both on foot and in the carcass, proceeds
from that to a study of cattle in the feed-lot, and then considers the
selection and operation of the breeding herd. Similar procedures are
followed in studying other kinds of live stock. If the student learns
his first lesson at the market, he comes to the feed-lot fortified with a
knowledge of what the market wants, and he then proceeds to a study
of the breeding herd knowing what both the market and the feed-lot
demand from the breeder.

This is the most practical method of teaching because the market
should serve as a guide to the breeder and feeder; and it is best from a
pedagogical standpoint because finished animals for the market are
easiest to judge, are judged on practical points, the student begins his
judging with the more elementary and proceeds to the more complex
types, and as he progresses to each new stage he brings with him a
soundly practical viewpoint gained from his previous experience.
Finally, in his study of the commercial breeding herd, the produce of
which goes direct to the feed-lot or market, he learns the necessity for
using good purebred sires, and this leads in logical order to the study
of the breeds of farm animals. He takes up the breed studies with a
clear understanding that it is the function of these breeds to supply
seed to improve all farm and range live stock, he has a firm belief in
their power to perform this function, and he is led to compare and value
the various breeds as they should be compared and valued, namely on
their ability to meet practical requirements. In short, the modern
plan of study, which proceeds from the market to the breeds, rather
than from the breeds to the market, gives the student the right
philosophy of the live-stock business, particularly the purebred live-
stock business.

In the first edition of this book, published in 1915, the undersigned
endeavored to present clearly and concisely the things a beginner in
the field of animal husbandry should know, leading up to, but not
including, the study of the breeds. In the revised edition published
in 1919, and in this, the second revised edition, the objective has been
the same as in 1915. A number of new illustrations have been added
and much of the text matter has been rewritten, but the original plan
has been retained without any radical changes.

The writer acknowledges his indebtedness to teachers in a number
of colleges who upon request suggested many of the changes and addi-

10 Preface to Ninth Edition

tions included in the present volume. He is especially indebted to
members of the animal husbandry and dairy husbandry divisions of
the University of Minnesota for advice and help, particularly to
Professor E. F. Ferrin for assistance in revising discussions of the types
of hogs. For special information and data which they have furnished
upon various subjects, the writer is indebted to E. W. Sheets, acting
chief of the animal husbandry division, U. S. Bureau of Animal Indus-
try; C. V. Whalin, in charge, marketing live stock, meats, and wool
division, U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics; J. S. Montgomery,
manager of the Central Cooperative Commission Association, St. Paul,
Minn.; R. A. Hammond, manager, Ohio Sheep and Wool Grow-
ers' Association, Columbus, Ohio; Edward N. Wentworth, director.
Armour's Livestock Bureau, Chicago, 111.; and L. D. H. Weld, manager.
Commercial Research Department, Swift and Company, Chicago, 111.
Many of the illustrations which appear in the following pages have
been kindly supplied by authors of experiment station and other pub-
lications, teachers, breeders, breed record associations, and others.
Individual mention of these is made in the list of illustrations, beginning
on page 13. In this list credit is also given for illustrations which
originally appeared in other publications and which are reproduced
herein with the permission of the authors or publishers.

St. Paul, Minnesota H. W. VAUGHAN

July, 1923

CONTENTS

Page

General Introduction 19

PART ONE— CATTLE
Chapter

Introduction 27

I Beef Type 33

II The Beef Carcass 47

III Packing House By-Products from Cattle 63

IV The Value of Type in Beef Making 70

V American Cattle Markets 78 '

VI Fashions in Market Cattle 96

VII Selection of Feeder Steers 106

VIII Market Classes and Grades of Cattle 119

IX Breeding for the Market 145

X Dairy Type 163

XI The Secretion of Milk 180

XII Variations in the Usefulness of Dairy Cows 188

XIII Breeding for Milk Production 195

XIV Dual-Purpose Cattle 206

PART TWO— SHEEP .

Introduction 213

XV Mutton Type 218

XVI The Mutton Carcass and the Pelt 228

XVII American Sheep Markets 239

XVIII Market Classes and Grades of Sheep 244

XIX Breeding for the Market 267

XX The Merino or Fine-Wool Type 279

XXI Wools and Wool Growing 288

PART THREE— SWINE

Introduction 311

XXII The American or Lard-Type Hog 317

XXIII The Bacon-Type Hog 327

XXIV The Hog Carcass 335

XXV Hog Markets and Pork Packing— Past and Present 352

XXVI Market Classification of Swine 365

XXVII Breeding for the Market 381

PART FOUR— HORSES

Introduction 399

XXVIII Brief Anatomical Study of the Horse 402

XXIX Some Important Facts Concerning the Horse 413

XXX Origin of the Types of Horses 424

12 Contents

Chapter Page

XXXI Draft Type 432

XXXII The Carriage or Heavy-Harness Horse 447

XXXIII The Roadster or Light-Harness Horse 453

XXXIV The Saddle Horse 460

XXXV The Hunter and Polo Pony 469

XXXVI Market Classes of Horses 477

XXX VII Horse Breeding 494

XXXVIIl The Mule 507

XXXIX Market Classes of Mules 516

XL Unsoundness in the Horse 523

Index 535

IIXUSTRATIONS

An Ideal Feeder's Head. (From Iowa State College.) — Frontispiece

Fig. Page

1. Rough, stony, or semi-arid land may be utilized as pasture. (U. S.

Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921.) 20

2. Points of the steer 34

3. Points of the steer 35

4. A model bullock. (From Prof. C. F. Gobble, Purdue University.) ... 37

5. The right pattern 39

6. Correct type in the fat steer. (From Iowa State College.) 40

7. A steer with excellent lines. (From Iowa State College.) 41

8. A "rare good one." (From Prof. Gordon H. True, University of

California.) 43

9. Proportions of lean and fat in beef cattle. (From Influence of Nutrition

Upon the Animal Form, Dean H. J. Waters, University of Missouri.) 44

10. Knocking cattle 47

11. Prime steer carcass 51

12. Beef ribs. (From Iowa State College.) 54

13. Well-marbled beef. (From Iowa State College.) 56

14. Cuts of beef indicated in the live animal. (From Iowa State College.) . 57

15. Wholesale cuts of beef 59

16. How by-products reduce dressed beef prices. (From Monthly Letter

to Animal Husbandmen, Aug. 1, 1920, Edward N. Wentworth,

Armour's Livestock Bureau, Chicago.) 63

17. Dairy-type steer. (From Iowa State College.) 71

18. Dairy-type steer. (From Iowa State College.) 73

19. Carcasses of beef and dairy calves. (From Iowa State College.) 75

20. Carcasses of beef and dairy calves. (From Iowa State College.) 76

21. Average monthly receipts and shipments of cattle at Chicago 81

22. Union Stock Yards, Chicago. (From A. G. Leonard, President, Union

Stock Yard and Transit Company.) 86

23. Ideal of early beef producers. (From Iowa State College.) 97

24. Prime baby beef. (From Iowa State College.) 99

25. Baby beeves on feed. (From Prof. A. B. Caine, Iowa State College.) . . 100

26. A g and champion fat heifer. (From Prof. Gordon H. True, Univer-

sity of California.) 102

27. Fancy selected feeders. (From 111. Bui. 78, Prof. H. W. Mumford.) ... 109

28. An average load of steers on feed. (From Iowa State College.) 113

29. Fancy feeder calves 117

30. Western range cattle 120

31. Prime beef steers 123

32. Choice beef steers 124

33. Good beef steers. (From 111. Bui. 78, Prof. H. W. Mumford.) 125

34. Common beef steers. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. 113.) 126

35. Prime butcher heifer. (From C. V. Whalin, U. S. Bureau of Agricul-

tural Economics.) 127

14 Illustrations

Fig. Page

36. Good to choice butcher heifer. (From 111. Bui. 78, Prof. H. W. Mum-

ford.) 128

37. Choice butcher cow. (From C. V. Whalin, U. S. Bureau of Agricul-

tural Economics.) 129

38. Good cutters. (From 111. Bui. 78, Prof. H. W. Mumford.) 130

39. Medium canner cow. (From C. V. Whalin, U. S. Bureau of Agricul-

tural Economics.) 131

40. Choice veal calf. (From 111. Bui. 78, Prof. H. W. Mumford.) 132

41. Choice feeder steer. (From 111. Bui. 78, Prof. H. W. Mumford.) 134

42. Good feeder steer. (From C. V. Whalin, U. S. Bureau of Agricultural

Economics.) 135

43. Medium feeder steer. (From C. V. Whalin, U. S. Bureau of Agricul-

tural Economics.) 136

44. Common feeder steer. (From C. V. Whalin, U. S. Bureau of Agricul-

tural Economics.) 137

45. Stockers. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. 1218.) 138

46. Effect of supply of cattle upon live and beef prices. (From Studies

in Live Stock Marketing, July, 1921, L. D. H. Weld, Swift and Com-
pany, Chicago.) 142

47. Spread in price of beef steers. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921.) 143

48. Distribution of beef cattle in the United States. (From U. S. Dept.

Agr. Yearbook, 1921.) 147

49. Old-time Texas long-horn. (From F. R. Marshall, Salt Lake City,

Utah.) 151

50. Crossbred beef cattle. (From Iowa State College.) 152

51. Selecting a future herd header. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui.

1135.) 155

52. Correct type in the beef bull 158

53. Correct type in the beef cow 160

54. An excellent breeding cow. (From Iowa State College.) 162

55. Points of the dairy cow 164

56. A dairy cow with utility points emphasized. (From Edw. G. Horst,

Extension Service, Holstein-Friesian Association of America.) 165

57. Excellent type in the dairy cow. (From Karl B. Musser, Associate

Secretary, American Guernsey Cattle Club.) 167

58. Type and production. (From R. M. Gow, Secretary, American Jersey

Cattle Club.) 169

59. Excellent type in the dairy cow 171

60. A combination of beauty and utility 172

61. An inferior dairy cow. (From Iowa State College.) 175

62. Excellent type in the dairy bull. (From lowana Farms, Davenport,

Iowa.) 177

63. Excellent type in the dairy bull. (From D. D. Tenney, Crystal Bay,

Minn.) 178

64. Cross-section of cow's udder. (From Sisson's Anatomy of the Domes-

tic Animals, Dr. Septimus Sisson, Ohio State University.) 181

65. Where milk is made. (After Hough and Sedgwick.) 183

66. Circulation to and from the udder. (After Bitting of the Indiana

Experiment Station.) 184

67. Distribution of dairy cattle in the United States. (From U. S. Dept.

Agr. Yearbook, 1921.) 196

Illustrations 15

Fig. Page

68. What good purebred sires can do. (From Iowa Bui. 188, Profs. H. H.

Kildee and A. C. McCandlish.) 200

69. The dual-purpose type. (From James J. Hill, St. Paul, Minn.) 207

70. The dual-purpose type. (From George P. Grout, Duluth, Minn.) .... 208

71. Points of the sheep 219

72. Correct type in the fat wether 220

73. Long-wool sheep. (From Iowa Department of Agriculture.) 222

74. An International grand champion. (From F, S. Springer, Secretary,

American Southdown Breeders' Association.) 224

75. The mutton type. (From W. O. Stride, Secretary, Southdown Sheep

Society of Great Britain.) 225

76. Determining age of sheep from the teeth. (From U. S. Dept. Agr.

Farmers' Bui. 1199.) 226

77. Killing sheep at Chicago 229

78. Lamb carcasses. (From 111. Bui. 147, A. C. Glover, Secretary of Ex-

periment Station.) 231

79. Break-joints and round-joint , 232

80. Wholesale cuts of mutton 234

81. Average monthly receipts and shipments of sheep and lambs at Chicago 242

82. Prime native lambs. (From Iowa State College.) 245

83. Prime western lambs. (From Armour and Company, Chicago.) 247

84. Choice western lambs. (From Iowa State College.) 249

85. Good lambs. (From Prof. W. C. Coffey, University of Illinois.) 250

86. Common lambs. (From 111. Bui. 129, Prof. W. C. Coffey.) 251

87. Prime western yearlings. (From 111. Bui. 129, Prof. W. C. Coffey.) ... . 252

88. Good yearlings. (From 111. Bui. 129, Prof. W. C. Coffey.) 253

89. Prime native wethers. (From Iowa State College.) 254

90. Common western wethers. (From 111. Bui. 129, Prof. W. C. Coffey.) 255

91. Fancy selected feeder lambs. (From 111. Bui. 129, Prof. W. C. Coffey.) 256

92. Good feeder lambs. (From 111. Bui. 129, Prof. W. C. Coffey.) 257

93. Common feeder lambs. (From 111. Bui. 129, Prof. W. C. Coffey.) .... 258

94. Canner ewe. (From C. V. Whalin, U. S. Bureau of Agricultural

Economics.) 262

95. Sheep and lamb receipts and fat lamb prices at Chicago 265

96. Distribution of sheep in the United States. (From U. S. Dept. Agr.

Yearbook, 1921.) 270

97. Correct type in the mutton breeding ram. (From Alan Eltringham,

Babraham, Cambridge, England.) 273

98. Correct type in the breeding ewe 274

99. A prize-winning flock 276

100. A flock of uniform type 277

101. Class A Merino ram. (From F. R. Marshall, U. S. Bureau of Animal

Industry.) 280

102. Class B Merino ram. (From F. R. Marshall, U. S. Bureau of Animal

Industry.) 281

103. Class C Merino ram. (From F. R. Marshall, U. S. Bureau of Animal

Industry.) 284

104. Class B Merino ewe. (From F. R. Marshall, U. S. Bureau of Animal

Industry.) 285

105. Rambouillet ewe. (From F. R. Marshall, U. S. Bureau of Animal

Industry.) 286

16 Illustrations

Fig. Page

106. Wool fiber highly magnified 288

107. Cross-section of a wool fiber. (After McMurtrie, U. S. Dept. Agr.

Rpt., Examination of Wools and Other Animal Fibers.) 289

108. Woolen and worsted yarns. (From U. S. House of Rep. Doc. 342,

Wool and Manufactures of Wool.) 291

109. Clothing and combing wools. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206, F. R.

Marshall.) 293

110. Grades of combing wool. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206, F. R.

Marshall.) 295

111. Grades of combing wool. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206, F. R.

Marshall.) 296

112. Grades of combing wool. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206, F. R.

Marshall.) 298

113. Tender wool showing break. (From U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206, F. R.

Marshall.) 306

114. Points of the hog 319

115. Excellent type in the fat barrow. (From Prof. Arthur L. Anderson,

Iowa State College.) 320

116. Berkshire barrow. (From F. S. Springer, Secretary, American Berk-

shire Association.) 322

117. Duroc-Jersey barrow. (From Joe Haaga, Assistant Secretary,

National Duroc-Jersey Record Association.) 323

118. Some essentials in type well illustrated. (From Prof. E. F. Ferrin,

University of Minnesota.) 325

119. Five Poland-China barrows. (From Prof. Arthur L. Anderson, Iowa

State College.) 326

120. Fancy market bacon pig. (From Iowa State College.) 328

121. Correct bacon type. (From Iowa State College.) 329

122. Bacon type as shown in the herd boar 330

123. Bacon type as shown in the brood sow. (From Prof. E. F. Ferrin,

University of Minnesota.) 333

124. The hog hoist 336

125. Dressing hogs 337

126. Shipper-dressed carcasses in the cooler 338

127. Effect of underline on trimming of side 339

128. Fat and bacon carcasses compared. (From Iowa State College.) .... 341

129. Wholesale cuts of pork. (After 111. Bui. 147.) 343

130. A side of pork. (From Wis. Circ. 139, Prof. A. W. Hopkins, Editor.) . . 344

131. Weights of the finished wholesale cuts from a 250-pound hog. (From

Swift and Company Year Book, 1922, L. D. H. Weld.) 346

132. Average monthly receipts and shipments of hogs at Chicago 354

133. Unloading hogs at Chicago 357

134. Prime heavy hogs. (From Iowa State College.) 366

135. Heavy butcher hogs. (From National Duroc-Jersey Record Associa-

tion.) _ 367

136. Medium butcher hogs 368

137. Light butcher hogs. (From Iowa State College.) 369

138. Packing sow 370

139. Classification of market hogs according to quality and weight 374

140. Hog receipts and prices at Chicago 380

Illustrations 17

Fig. Page

141. Distribution of hogs in the United States. (From U. S. Dept. Agr.

Yearbook, 1921.) 385

142. Pork production in the United States closely related to corn production 387

143. Excellent type in the herd boar. (From Prof. E. F. Ferrin, University

of Minnesota.) 391

144. Good type in the boar. (From Iowa Department of Agriculture.) .... 393

145. Good type in the brood sow. (From Iowa Department of Agriculture.) 396

146. Skeleton of the horse. (From Sisson's Anatomy of the Domestic

Animals, after Ellenberger and Baum, Dr. Septimus Sisson, Ohio

State University.) 4:^3

147. Bones of the fore leg 404

148. Fore leg from knee to ground 415

149. Bones, tendons, and ligaments of the fore leg. (After Haubner.) .... 405

150. Bones of the hock 406

151. Man and horse compared. (From Book of the Horse, by permission

of the Gresham Publishing Company, London.) 407

152. Exterior of the hoof 4^8

153. Diagram showing structure of the foot 419

154. The parts of the hoof 410

155. Attachment of fore leg to body. (From Book of the Horse, by per-

mission of the Gresham Publishing Company, London.) 413

156. The horse in motion 415

157. Front view of fore legs 418

158. Side view of fore legs 418

159. Side view of hind legs 419

160. Rear view of hind legs 419

161. Defects in fore legs and their effects on action 420

162. Sickle hock 421

163. Points of the horse 435

164. A grand champion draft gelding 436

165. The draft type 439

166. Six high-class well-matched draft geldings. (From Ellis McFarland,

Secretary, Percheron Society of America.) 441

167. Heavy drafters in harness 442

168. Before and after fattening. (From B. E. Carmichael, Ohio Experi-

ment Station.) 445

169. Carriage or heavy-harness type. (From Prof. C. N. Arnett, Montana

State College.) 447

170. The heavy-harness type in action. (From William Little, Manager,

Irvington Farm, Sewickley, Pa.) 448

171. The carriage horse in harness. (From The Spur, New York City.) .... 451

172. Sensational action. (From The Spur, New York City.) 452

173. Roadster or light-harness type. (From Hon. John R. Thompson,

Libertyville, 111.) 455

174. The light-harness horse in action 457

175. Five-gaited saddle horse. (From Mrs. R. Tasker Lowndes, Danville,

Ky.) 460

176. The saddle horse in action. (From Mrs. R. Tasker Lowndes, Dan-

ville, Ky.) 463

177. The three-gaited saddle type 464

1 S Illustrations

Fig. Page

178. A typical hunter. (From Nimrod's Condition of Hunters, by per-

mission of the John Lane Company, New York City.) 470

179. The hunter in action. (From The Field, New York City.) 471

189. A hunt team and pack of fox hounds. (From Nimrod's Condition of

Hunters, by permission of the John Lane Company, New York City.) 472

181. Polo pony of excellent type. (From The Spur, New York City.) ....". . 474

182. The polo pony in action. (From Harold A. Taylor, Coronado, Cal.) . . 475

183. Horse market at Union Stock Yards, Chicago 479

184. Eastern chunk. (From Prof. C. N. Arnett, Montana State College.) . . 482

185. Express horse. (From Wayne Dinsmore, Secretary, Horse Associa-

tion of America.) 484

186. Light artillery horse. (From Iowa State College.) 485

187. Heavy artillery horses. (From Capt. M. G. Thornburg, Command-

ing Officer, Remount Service Training Camp, Camp Johnston, Jack-
sonville, Fla.) 486

188. Fire horses 487

189. Runabout horse 489

190. Cavalry horse. (From Iowa State College.) 491

191. High-class pony. (From George A. Heyl, Washington, 111.) 492

192. Distribution of horses in the United States. (From U. S. Dept. Agr.

Yearbook, 1921.) 495

193. Excellent type in the draft stallion 497

194. The Percheron stallion Jalap. (From Iowa State College.) 498

195. A noted sire and his get. (From William Crownover, Hudson, Iowa.) 499

196. The Belgian stallion Farceur's King. (From Prof. W. H. Peters, Uni-

versity of Minnesota.) 500

197. Correct type in the draft mare. (From Iowa Department of Agricul-

ture.) 502

198. Percheron brood mares in harness. (From Prof. J. L. Edmonds,

University of Illinois.) 503

199. Two-year-old Percheron fillies. (From Prof. J. L. Edmonds, Univer-

sity of Illinois.) 505

200. Correct type in the jack. (From L. M. Monsees, Pettis County, Mo.) 598

231. Prize-winning mules 511

212. High-class draft mules 512

203. Distribution of mules in the United States. (From U. S. Dept. Agr.

Yearbook, 1921.) 514

204. Mining or pack mule. (From Iowa State College.) 517

205. Cotton or lead mule. (From Iowa State College.) 518

206. Sugar mule. (From Capt. M. G. Thornburg, Commanding Officer,

Remount Service Training Camp, Camp Johnston, Jacksonville,

Fla.) 519

207. Farm or wheel mule. (From Iowa State College.) 520

208. Small pair of wheel mules to army wagon. (From Capt. M. G. Thorn-

burg, Commanding Officer, Remount Service Training Camp, Camp

Johnston, Jacksonville, Fla 521

209. Bog spavin 524

210. Bone spavin 525

211. Curb 528

212. Ringbone and cocked ankle 531

TYPES AND MARKET CLASSES

LIVE STOCK

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

/ Two distinct systems of farming are practiced in the United States:
(1) grain farming and (2) live-stock farming. Grain farming is the
growing of crops useful for food or clothing, the income being derived
from the sale of these crops. Live-stock farming is that system in
which the crops are used chiefly or entirely as feed for the live stock
which is produced, the income being derived from the sale of animals,
milk, and wool.

Live stock farming requires greater skilL — Of the two systems,
live-stock farming affords much greater opportunity for the develop-
ment and application of knowledge and skill. The live-stock farmer
must be equally competent as a crop producer with the grain farmer,
and in addition must know how to handle and feed live stock econom-
ically. He must have a certain practical knowledge of animals and
their requirements which comes with experience and which can be
readily acquired by one who has a liking for farm animals.

Ample reward for greater skilL — Dr. C. E. Thome of the Ohio
Experiment Station has said, "While it is true that meat is an ex-
travagantly wasteful food, viewed solely from the economic standpoint,
yet it is also true that the ruling peoples of the earth are the meat
eaters, and the time is probably far in the future when in this country
meat v/ill be banished from the tables of any but the improvident,
even though further advance in its cost should take place. The out-
look, therefore, is that for a long time to come the farmer who possesses
the ability to handle live stock successfully will find ample opportunity
for the exercise of his talents and ample reward for the larger ability
which such exercise involves."

Live stock converts farm wastes into profits.4^The keeping of live
stock on the farm provides a means of utilizing as feed or bedding
much that would otherwise be wasted. This applies to large amounts
of roughage such as straw and com stalks. Meadow aftermath and

"• f- State 0>"p,

20 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

rough, stony, or semi-arid land unsuited for the plow may be grazed,
unmarketable soft corn may be fed, and other similar wastes may be
converted into profits where live stock is kept.

Live stock and soil fertility.-r^'The maintenance of soil fertility is
more difficult under the grain-farming system. Although it has been
experimentally demonstrated that fertility may be maintained and in-
creased by the use of commerical fertilizers and green manures with-
out the aid of live stock, nevertheless the keeping of live stock and the
utilization of farm manure afford the easiest method of maintaining
and increasing the fertility of the soil. Where farming has been prac-
ticed for a long period of time, the most fertile and prosperous com-
munities are those in which much live stock has been kept and the
manure properly handled and applied to the soil.

:ar

W^'

Fig. 1. — Rough, stony, or semi-arid land unsuited to the plow may be utilized
as pasture.

A comparison of crop yields during five years on ten beef cattle
farms in ten counties in Iowa, and on ten grain farms in the same
neighborhoods, showed that the cattle farms averaged 14 bushels
more corn per acre, 7 bushels more oats, and 1 ton more hay.

Value of farm manures. — Experiments indicate that if animals
were kept in stalls or pens throughout the year and the manure care-
fully saved, the approximate value of the manure produced by each
horse or mule would be $27, by each head of cattle $20, by each hog
$4, and by each sheep $2. The total fertilizing value of the manure
produced in the United States in one year would, therefore, be
$2,112,847,000. In this estimate, no account is taken of the value of
the manure for improving the mechanical condition and drainage of

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 21

soils, which is fully as great as the value of the phosphoric acid, potash,
and nitrogen contained in farm manure.

Saves four-fifths of fertilizing value of crops fed. — When fed to
animals, a large proportion (about 80 per cent) of the fertilizing
element of the feed is recovered in the excrement. For example, if a
ton of com is sold off the farm, it removes fertility to the value of
$6.56; while if fed to animals, this ton of corn results in manure worth,
while fresh, $5.24. If manure is properly handled and applied to the
soil, little of its fertilizing value will be lost. The corresponding
figures for one ton of oats are $7.43 and $5.94 respectively, for timothy
$5.21 and $4.16, red clover $8.79 and $7.03, alfalfa $8.76 and $7.00,
oat straw $3.30 and $2.64, corn silage $1.22 and $0.97, whole milk
$1.96 and $1.52.

Purchased feeds increase soil fertility. — In many instances the
best method of increasing the fertility of a farm is to buy feeds which
may be fed profitably to the live stock on hand, and then carefully
handle and apply the manure produced. For example, a ton of cotton-
seed meal or wheat bran used for feed gives manure worth, while
fresh, $19.20 and $10.19 respectively.

Farm animals convert crops into products of greater value.^^The
live-stock farmer who- fails to conserve and utilize farm manures is
surely overlooking a great source of profit. On the other hand, ani-
mals should not be regarded merely as fertilizer factories. The
manure produced by farm stock, while valuable, is secondary in im-
portance to the value of the anim.als themselves. Farm animals are
valued primarily for their meat, milk, wool, labor, fats, and hides.
The stockman converts his crops into animal products of higher value to
man, aiming thereby to reap a larger profit than is possible by the
grain-farming system, and at the same time he increases the fertility
of his land.

0. E. Baker of the U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics states ^
that fully 60 per cent of the crop acreage in the United States, exclu-
sive of pasture, is used to produce feed for farm animals, and that
fully 80 per cent of the total food and feed produced by all tame and
wild vegetation in the United States is consumed by live stock. The
latter statement includes cereal crops, improved and unimproved
pastures in farms, woodland pastures in farms and national forests,
and arid or semi-arid open range land in the West.

Advantages of live-stock farming summarized:

1. Live-stock production, properly conducted, is a profitable
business.

lA Graphic Summary of American Agriculture, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook,
1921, p. 409.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

2. It provides a home market and pays better than average
prices for farm crops.

3. Makes easily possible the maintenance and improvement of
soil fertility.

4. Gives steady employm.ent throughout the year to labor on
the farm and thereby helps to solve the farm labor problem.

5. Utilizes as pasture m.uch land unfit for the plow.

6. Utilizes miuch that would otherwise be waste on the farm,
such as straw, corn stalks, soft corn and other unsaleable grain, meadow
afterm^ath, many weeds, and garbage.

7. Affords the best m.eans of utilizing such by-products as tank-
age, cottonseed meal, linseed meal, gluten feed, and skim milk.

8. Affords opportunity for higher development and application
of skill in farming.

9. The care and handling of live stock is intensely interesting
work.

Numbers and values of our live stock. — The U. S. Department
of Agriculture reports the numbers and values of live stock on farms
in the United States on January 1, 1923, as follows:

Number

Horses 18,853,000

Mules 5,506,000

Milk cows 24,429,000

Other cattle 41,923,000

Sheep 37,209,000

Swine 63,424,000

Totals ,

191,344,000

Total value

$1,314,956,000

472,735,000

1,241,673,000

1,076,254,000

278,939,000

726,699,000

5,111,256,000

Value per head

$69.75
85.86
50.83
25.67
7.50
11.46

RaEk of (he stales in value of live stock. — Following are the
total values of horses, mules, cattle, hogs, and sheep on farms in each
of the 48 states on January 1, 1923, as estimated by the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture:

1. Iowa

2. Texas . . . .
Illinois. . .
Wisconsin.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

Millions
of dollars

..431
..288
..276
..237

3
4

5. Nebraska 235

6. Ohio 214

Missouri 212

Minnesota 210

Kansas 197

New York 189

Indiana 178

California 165

Pennsylvania 163

Michigan 147

15. South Dakota 144

16. Oklahoma 103

Kentucky 96

Millions
of dollars

18. Tennessee 95

19. Montana 95

20,
21.
22,
23,
24
25
26
27
28
29
30,

Colorado 94

North Dakota 93

Georgia 88

North Carolina 87

Virginia 77

Mississippi 74

Alabama 72

Oregon 69

Idaho 65

Arkansas 63

Wyoming 58

31. Louisiana 55

32. Arizona 54

33. South Carolina 53

34. Washington 52

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 23

Millions

of dollars

35.

Utah

42.

New Jersey

36.

West Virgin! 1

43.

Miiae

37.

New Mexico

44.

MiS3acius3tts

38.

Maryland

45.

Connecticut

39.

Florida

3 J

48.

New Hampshire. . . .

40.

Vermont

Nevada

47.

48.

Delaware

41.

Rhode Island

Total

.. ..5,111

Growth of American live-stock industry in 50 years. — The follow-
ing census returns show the growth in numbers of our live-stock
industry since 1870:

N'lmbsrs {millions) of animals on farms in the United States on census dates

Horses

Mules

Milk cows . .
Other cattle .

Sheep

Swine

1920

1910

1900

1890

1880

1870

(Jan. 1)

(Apr. 15)

(June 1)

The United States leads all other countries in the production of
live stock. Though excelled by India in total number of cattle, the
United States leads all countries in beef production. We also rank
first in the production of milk, butter, and cheese. We have more
hogs than any other five countries for which closely approximate
figures are available. ^ We rank fourth in number of sheep, being
surpassed by Australia, Russia, and Argentina in the order named.
We rank a close second to Russia in number of horses. We far surpass
any other country in number of mules, with more than four times as
many as Spain, our nearest competitor.

With about 6 per cent of the world's population and 5.7 per cent
of the total land area, we have 14 per cent of the world's cattle, 35
per cent of the swine, 8 per cent of the sheep, 21 per cent of the horses,
and 62 per cent of the mules. ^ We produce 70 per cent of the world's
corn, 25 per cent of the oats, and 13 per cent of the barley. ^ Most
of these cereals is fed to live stock. We lead all countries in the pro-
duction of com and oats. ^ Our tremendous advantage in corn pro-
duction explains our supremacy in pork production, and also largely
explains our high rank in beef production. Corn and grass are the
b^sic m.eat-producing materials in America. Corn is, in fact, the
principal grain feed in this country for all kinds of farm animals.

1 Swine are known to be numerous in China, but no livestock census has been
taken in that country.

■■^Computed from Table 290, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yeirbook, 1921, pp. 675-680.

^O. E. Baker: A Graphic Summary of American Agriculture, U. S. Dept. Agr.
Yearbook, 1921, p. 408.

*We also lead in wheat, cotton, and tobacco.

24 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

"Corn is the great energizing, heat-giving, fat-furnishing food for the
animals of the farm. No other cereal yields, on a given space and with
a given expenditure of labor, so much animal food in both grain and
forage. On millions of farms successful animal husbandry rests upon
this imperial grain and forage plant." ^

Meat export countries. — The export trade of the meat-surplus
countries amounts to less than 8 per cent of the entire production of
the world. - Over 92 per cent of the world's meat production is
consumed in the countries in which it is produced. The principal
meat export countries are the United States, Argentina, Australia,
New Zealand, Uruguay, Canada, Brazil, and Denmiark, especially the
first four. Argentina largely dominates the world's beef export trade.
The United States contributes the great bulk of export pork products.
Mutton exports originate almost entirely in New Zealand, Australia,
and Argentina. Denmark and Canada export considerable high-class
bacon, and Uruguay and Brazil make contributions to beef exports.

Meat import countries. — Great Britain is the leading meat-im-
porting country; Germany normally holds second place; and the
Netherlands rank third. Other meat-importing nations are Austria-
Hungary, Belgium, Cuba, Denmark, France, Italy, Norway, Russia,
Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland. Imports of live animals are rela-
tively small and consist largely of shipments across boundaries to
near-by markets.

The "meat eaters." — Half of the people of the world eat little
meat. Meat is consumed in greatest amounts per capita in the
countries named in the two preceding paragraphs, to which may be
added Greece and Portugal. The annual per capita consumption
ranges from over 200 pounds in Australia and New Zealand to about
40 pounds in Portugal. ^ The United States ranks third with about
164 pounds, of which 14 pounds is lard. ,

Brief survey of North American live-stock industry.-i/-The fore-
most live-stock producing region in the United States and in the world
is the corn-belt region of the Central West, including the seven states,
Iowa, Illinois, Nebraska, Missouri, Kansas, Indiana, and Ohio, and
parts of South Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Oklahoma,
Kentucky, and Tennessee. This region leads all others in beef produc-
tion and pork production, holds a prominent place in dairying, has
about half of the horses of the country, and produces over 70 per cent
of the mules. Many cattle and sheep are brought here for feeding.
The fattening of meat animals on grain rations is largely confined to

^Henry and Morrison: Feeds and Feeding, 1915, p. 149.

2 George K. Holmes: Meat Situation in the United States, U. S. Dept. Agr.
Rpt. 109, p. 97.

3U. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. 109, pp. 131-133.

HOnKTY LIBRARY

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 25

this area. Most of the large Hve-stock markets of the United States
are located within the corn belt.

The western range region, including all territory west of the Mis-
souri river, enjoys special advantages in extensive areas of cheap pas-
ture lands, leads in mutton and wool production, produces a large
quantity of beef, and supplies the corn belt with large numbers of
feeder steers and feeder lambs. With the exception of the Pacific coast
region, the western range states raise comparatively few dairy cattle
and hogs.

In the Great Lakes and Appalachian region, including New York,
Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and the New England
states, the breeding of dairy cattle and production of dairy products is
practiced on an extensive scale.

The cotton-belt region of the South, extending from central Texas
to the Atlantic coast and from the corn belt to the Gulf coast, has
given attention during recent years to improvement in live stock and
to increased production, particularly with cattle and hogs. Texas has
long been noted as the foremost beef cattle breeding ground, and ranks
first among all states in numbers of beef cattle and sheep. Georgia
has attained considerable prominence in the production of pork. In
the cotton belt the mule is the favorite work animal, though most of
the mules used in this region are produced in states north of the cotton
belt. Nine southern states have more mules than horses.

Canada, with about 0.5 percent of the world's population and 6.9
per cent of the land area, has 3.8 per cent of the world's horses, 2.3 per
cent of the hogs, 2.1 per cent of the cattle, and 0.8 per cent of the sheep. '
Among 80 countries for which statistics are available, Canada ranks
7th in horses, 10th in hogs, 14th in cattle, and 28th in sheep. Bacon-
type hogs are produced extensively. Ontario and Quebec far surpass
the other Canadian provinces in numbers of swine and are also out-
standing in numbers of dairy cows. Ontario is far in the lead in cattle
other than dairy cows, with Quebec and Alberta second and third.
Many communities in Canada, especially in Ontario, are noted for high
average excellence of all kinds of farm live stock.

Mexico is a country with great possibilities in live-stock produc-
tion which may be realized at some future time if long-continued war-
fare gives way to peace and industry. Much of the area of Mexico
is elevated above the tick line and formerly many millions of cattle
were produced, especially in the northern states. No recent official
live-stock statistics for Mexico have been published.

^x^he stockman's success depends very largely upon the degree to
which his animals meet with favor on the live-stock market. If he is

^Computed from Table 290, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 675-680.

26 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

to make a financial success of his business, he must produce what the
narket wants. Far too many feeders of hve stock lack acquaintance
with market demands. Far too many breeders devote themselves to
a breed simply because it satisfies a hobby and because the breed ap-
peals to their fancy, rather than because they see in their animals any
special utility. Unless a breed of beef cattle makes possible the pro-
duction of better beef fcr the market; unless a breed of swine is fostered
because in it is seen the possibility of improving the quality or cheapen-
ing the cost of pork; unless a breed of draft horses is really useful when
put to the test in the collar; then such breeds have little excuse for their
existence, and those who foster them must sooner or later suffer finan-
cially for their efforts. Both the breeder and the feeder must know the
demands of the open market and keep them always in mind.

The great live-stock breeders of the past were intensely practical;
they never overlooked the market requirements of the kind of animals
they bred. No animal m.et with favor in their eyes unless such favor
V as earned by meat upon the back, milk in the pail, weight and quality
cf wool, pounds gained for pounds of feed consum.ed, or som.e other per-
formance of practical value. With them it was a question of ultimately
furnishing better animals for the market or lowering the cost of produc-
tion. It must be just so with the master breeders of the present and
future.

These pages aim to familiarize the reader with the types of farm
animals, market demands, and market classes of live stock, such knowl-
edge being fundamiCntal in all live-stock work and study, and valuable
not only to breeders and feeders, but to all persons who buy and use
animals.

PART I-CATTLE

INTRODUCTION

"The cow is the most essential of all man's four-footed
friends. Strike beef and milk, cream and butter from the human
dietary, and you have dealt a blow at civilization itself. Banish
cattle from the grazing grounds of the temperate zones, and you
have obliterated one of the world's chief sources of wealth. Elim-
inate the herds from the pastures of both hemispheres, and you
are on the road to a paralyzing lost fertility. Drive cattle from
the ranges of North and South America, and you have turned
back millions of semi-arid acres into a wilderness more or less
abandoned of God and man." — Alvin H. Sanders in the Breed-
er s Gazette. '■

The United States leads all other countries in the production of
beef and dairy products. Formerly we produced a considerable sur-
plus of beef, butter, and cheese which we exported to the value of
many millions of dollars annually, but these exports have declined to a
marked degree, and though greatly revived during the World War,
they have again sharply declined. Imports of these products have in-
creased. Note the following table: *

Imports and exports of beef and dairy products

Imports Exports

Cattle — Number:

. 1900 181,006 397,286

1921 329,974 145,623

Beef — Pounds: >

1900 2,500,000 857,542,000

1921 51,666,000 228,969,000

Butter — Pounds:

1880 487,120 39,236,658

1921 18,558,388 8,014,737

Cheese^Pounds:

1880 2,737,186 127,553,907

1921 26,866,000 11,772,000

' Includes veal and edible ofTal.

The decline in our beef and dairy exports is chiefly due to a popula-
tion increasing at such a rapid rate that the increase in home produc-
tion of food does not keep parallel with it. The United States had 7
millions of people in 1810, 17 millions in 1840, 39 millions in 1870, 76
millions in 1900, 92 millions in 1910, and 106 millions in 1920. Further-
more, only 26.3 per cent of the population having census occupations

iNov. 30, 1922, p. 721.

^Compiled from U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbooks; Handbook of Dairy Statistics,
1922.

28 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

is agricultural, and the percentage declined from 83 per cent in 1820 to
77.5 per cent in 1840, 47 in 1870, 35 in 1900, and 33.1 in 1910. The
consumers of food-stuffs in America have increased at a much more
rapid rate than the producers. The producer of live stock in this coun-
try is assured of ready sale for all his products at remunerative prices.
lythe special advantages of cattle as compared to other kinds of
live stock on the farm may be noted as follows:

1. Cattle consume larger quantities and make more efficient use
of coarse and low-grade roughages produced on the farm, such as coarse
hay and com stalks and the coarser pastures of ranker growth. No
other farm animal will utilize so much of what otherwise would be waste
on the farm.

2. Cattle can use the total production of grains and roughages on
the average farm, with or without the purchase of other feeds, more
efficiently than any other kind of live stock.

3. Cattle can be used profitably on low, wet land unsuited for
crops or for other kinds of live stock. Cattle also approach sheep in
adaptability to arid or rough land not suited to crop production.

4. Cattle on the farm greatly help to equalize the distribution of
farm labor throughout the year. Excepting cows that are milked,
cattle require little attention during the summer and fall pasture season
when crops need attention. During winter and early spring, farmers
can employ their time to advantage in caring for the breeding herd,
wintering stockers, or fattening steers.

5. Cattle products are less subject to seasonal fluctuations in
supply and price than those of any other kind of live stock.

6. Beef cattle require less labor for their care than do other farm
animals.

7. Dairy products remove less fertility from the farm than do
other major farm products. /

The three types of cattle.y-Experience has shown that only a cer-
tain kind or type of cow can produce a large flow of milk, and that
quite a different kind or type is necessary for efficient beef production.
The high-class dairy cow possesses certain well-marked characters
which make her useful as a machine for producing milk, and we call
this combination of characters dainj type. Likewise, the high-class
beef animal has certain well-marked characters which indicate efficiency
in converting feed into flesh rather than into milk, and we call this
combination of characters heef type. Some breeders have endeavored
to establish what is called a dual-purpose type of cattle. They believe
there is need of a cow that can produce both beef and milk, and they
have, therefore, tried to combine dairy type and beef type as nearly as
possible. The dual-purpose cow does not give as much milk as the

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 29

dairy cow, nor does she make as much beef as the beef cow. At present
the demand for dual-purpose cattle is comparatively limited, but some
authorities have predicted that many farms will ultimately adopt the
dual-purpose type as the one most profitable.

Definition of type. — A type is an ideal or standard of perfection,
combining all the characters which contribute to the animal's value and
efficiency for the purpose specified. Tjrpe provides the animal with the
proper form and structure for the kind of work or production desired.
For example, if the specified purpose is beef production, then a rec-
tangular, broad-topped form and abundant muscling are among the
more important characters necessary to successful production. If the
specified purpose is milk production, then a wedge-shaped, angular
form and a large udder are among the important essentials. In both
the beef animal and the dairy animal, a straight, strong back contrib-
utes to the value of the animal, though it may or may not contribute
to the animal's efficiency in- production.

The breeds of cattle.J^ Various breeds of cattle have been evolved
to meet the demands for each of the three types of cattle. Each breed
has its distinctive and special features not found in individuals of other
breeds. These special characters constitute what is called the
breed type. For example, there are six breeds of beef cattle all of which
possess beef type, yet each breed is distinctive in certain points which
make up the breed type.

Years ago, various groups of men in different localities under
different conditions and with different sorts of unimproved cattle took
up beef production, or dairying, or a combination of the two. In this
way originated the various breeds of the three types of cattle as we
know them today. Competition does not narrow each type down to a
single best breed, because no one breed is best under all conditions of
soil, climate, and feed supply.

-f^he classification of the breeds according to type, and the number
of registered purebreds of each breed in the United States, as shown by
the 1920 census, are as follows:

30 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Type Breed Number

Shorthorn 416,995

Hereford 405,582

RppF Typp I Aberdeen-Angus 108,524

liEEF lYPE ^Polled Shorthorn 61,764

Polled Hereford {*)

Galloway 7,225

All other ' 63,409

Total 1,063,499

iHolstein-Friesian 528,621

Jersey 231,834

Guernsey 79,446

Ayrshire 30,509

[Brown Swiss 8,283

All other 2 37,909

Total 916,602

[Red Polled' {*)

DuAL-PuRPOSB Type ... -I Milking Shorthorn (*)

1 Devon 1,413

All breeds 1,981,514

' Probably includes Polled Hereforda and some Red Polled.

2 Includas Dutch Belted, French Canadian, and Kerry, and may include Milking Shorthorns, Polled
Jerseys, and some Red Polled.

' The 1920 census did not make a separate count of Red Polled cattle, but they are much more numer-
ous than Milking Shorthorns or Devons.

* Not separately reported.

Definitions of Cattle Terms i/

Bull. — Breeding male, any age.

Cow. — Mature ferrale.

Heifer.— A female urder three years old, and usually one that has
not produced offspring.

Calf, — Young animal, usually under one year old.

Steer. — Unsexed male, castrated when a calf. The best age to
castrate calves is six to eight weeks old, although they may be castrated
from a week to six months old. The longer castration is delayed the
greater is the risk of loss from the operation and the greater the liability
of coarseness developing in head, neck, and forequarters.

Stag. — Unsexed male, castrated when mature or so far advanced
toward maturity that masculinity is plainly evident in head, neck, and
forequarters. Well-developed masculine character constitutes coarse-
ness in a market animal.

Spayed heifer. — Unsexed heifer. Spaying is performed by making
an incision in front of the left hip and removing the ovaries. The scar
left after the operation is about the only sure method of identifying
such heifers.

Free-martin. — An imperfectly-sexed heifer born twin with a bull.
They are infertile. All heifers born twin with bulls are not free-
martins.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 31

Polled. — Naturally hornless. The Aberdeen- Angus, Galloway, and
Red Polled breeds are polled and produce polled offspring. The Polled
Shorthorn and Polled Hereford breeds are polled and usually produce
polled offspring. The term "mulley" is sometimes applied to polled
cattle, more especially to those not representative of any particular
breed.

Scurs. — Flat or rounded buttons of horn sometimes present on the
heads of polled animals and usually attached to the skin rather than to
the skull.

Dehorned. — ^Made hornless by the application of caustic potash
which destroys the horn-forming tissue of the young calf before the
horns have appeared, or by clipping or sawing off the horns of older
animals. The former method, properly practiced, is simpler, easier,
safer, and gives a neater appearance.

Show Yard Classification by Ages

Beef cattle. — The base dates for classifying beef cattle by ages are
January 1 and September 1, and the classes by ages are as follows:

Junior calf class. — The animals eligible to this class are those
calved on or after January 1 of the year shown.

Senior calf class. — Calved between (and including) September 1
and December 31 of the preceding year.

Junior yearling class. — Calved between January 1 and August 31
of the preceding year.

Senior yearling class. — Calved between September 1 and December
31 of the second preceding year.

Two-year-old class. — Calved between September '1 of the third
preceding year and August 31 of the second preceding year.

Three years old and over (aged) class. — Calved before September 1
of the third preceding year.

For example, during the summer, fall, and winter show season of
1923, junior calves are those calved on or after January 1, 1923; senior
calves, those calved between (and including) September 1 and Decem-
ber 31, 1922; junior yearlings, between January 1 and August 31, 1922;
senior yearlings, between September 1 and December 31, 1921; two-
year-olds, between September 1, 1920, and August 31, 1921; and aged
animals three years old and over are those calved before September 1,
1920.

Junior champion. — Best animal under two years.

Senior champion. — Best animal two years old or over.

Champion. — Best animal any age.

32 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Grand champion. — Best animal .any age or breed. The term
"grand champion" is also frequently applied to champions.

Dairy cattle.— The classes by ages for showing dairy cattle are the
same as for beef cattle, but the base dates are February 1 and August 1.
At many shows a class is provided for three-year-old cows, and where
this is done the aged cow class includes those four years old and over.
Some of the larger shows also provide a separate class for four-year-old
cows, and the aged cow class then includes those five years old and over.

Dual-purpose cattle. — Red Polled and Devon cattle are classified
by ages the same as beef cattle. Milking Shorthorns are usually classi-
fied by ages the same as dairy cattle.

CHAPTER I
BEEF TYPE

The following description applies particularly to the fattened steer.
Special or additional features of type which should characterize the
beef bull and the beef cow will receive attention in another chapter.
It should be understood, however, that all good beef animals — steers,
heifers, cows, and bulls — are similar in the essentials of beef type; there-
fore, the description given here applies in most respects to all classes of
beef animals.^, ^, .,.

General appearance.V^When correct in form and fatness, the beef
animal presents a massive, blocky appearance from every angle of view.
As viewed from the side, the body is rectangular, very deep, and short
from shoulder to hip. The body is very wide, and the legs are short
and placed squarely under the body. Two dimensions of the beef
animal should be great — width and depth; the third dimension, length,
should be relatively small. There should be great smoothness of out-
line everywhere, all the parts being uniformly developed and so blended
as to form a symmetrical and balanced animal. Along the top, the
ideal animal is uniformly broad, the more width the better. From a
side view, the top line and underline are straight and parallel. A full-
ness of outline is presented everywhere.

An animal showing too much length of middle is referred to as
"rangy," while animals standing high off the ground on long legs are
termed "leggy." The head should be short and broad, and the neck
short and thick. Such a head and neck are associated or correlated
with the desired type of body. Rangy, leggy animals usually have
long, narrow heads and long, thin necks. With only the heads and
necks of a number of beef animals in view, the best animals may be
picked out with reasonable certainty by the general proportions of the
heads and necks. A straight-edge laid against the side of a beef an-
imal should touch the shoulder and hindquarter and all points between
them.

The head should be of medium size, short, and broad, with a broad
muzzle, indicating capacity for grazing and feeding. The nostrils
should be large, indicating capacity for breathing and hence a good
constitution. The face should be short and from a side view the line
of the face should be straight or show a slight inward curve or dish
from eyes to muzzle. The eyes should be wide apart, large, prominent,
bright, clear, and indicative of a quiet disposition. A quiet expression

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

of the eyes means a quiet, contented feeder that will transform feed
into flesh ; a nervous, restless expression is evidence of an unsatisfactory-
feeder that will neither consume enough feed nor store up the energy
of the feed consumed, but waste it in nervousness and too much moving
about. The forehead should be very wide. The jaws should be broad
and well muscled. If horns are present they should not be heavy and
coarse, but of medium size and of good shape and proportions, tapering
evenly to their tips. The ears should be of medium size and fine tex-
ture. The entire head should be clean-cut, all lines being sharply
defined, giving a well-bred appearance, sometimes referred to as
"character."

36— |v

Muzzle

11.

Mouth

Nostril

Face

14.

Eye

Forehead

Ear

Poll

Tongue root

10.

Brisket

Fig. 2. — Points of the steer.

Dewlap 21. Knee

Neck 22. Shank

Crest 23. Foot

Shoulder vein 24. Fore flank

15. Point of shoulder 25. Crops

Top of shoulders 26. Back

Shoulder 27. Ribs

Fore-rib 28. Paunch or belly 39

Elbow 29. Loin

Arm 30. Hip or hook

31.

Rump

32.

Tail-head

33.

Thigh

34.

Hock

35.

Tail

36.

Switch

38.

Cod

39.

Hind flank

40.

Dew claw

The neck should be short, thick, and muscular. The throat should
be neat and trim, while at the shoulders the neck should show depth and
fullness. The line where the neck and shoulder join is called the
"shoulder vein," and we like this part to be filled out plump and full.
A long neck lacking in thickness is frequently found, and it is un-
desirable chiefly because it is associated with a rangy type of body.
When the animal is standing in natural position, with the head up, the

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

top line of the neck should be slightly arched and the poll of the head
should be slightly higher than the top of the shoulders.

The shoulders should be very smooth, blending perfectly with the
rest of the body. This conformation is secured when the shoulder blade
lies snugly against the ribs beneath, and is covered over with a uni-
formly thick layer of flesh. The top of the shoulders should not be
sharp and fine, nor yet so wide that the tops of the shoulder blades are
prominent and outstanding, but should be moderately wide and nicely
rounded over with flesh. Rough, angular shoulders, unevenly covered,
are among the most common defects of beef cattle. When the shoulders
are not properly laid in, but are wide and open, the appearance of the

32. Tail-head

33. Thighs

Fig. 3. — Points of the steer

34. Hocks 36. Switch

38. Cod

35. Tail

37. Twist

animal is injured, the fleshing over the shoulder is not taken on properly,
and, when slaughtered, the carcass lacks the smooth, tidy appearance
so much desired. A prominent shoulder also causes the development
behind it to appear insufficient.

The brisket and chest are highly important. The former should
carry forward prominent and wide, and be well fleshed, yet neat,
presenting a full, well-developed, and trim appearance. The chest,
which lies between the shoulders and immediately behind them, ought
to be very wide and deep. Too much width and depth are never found.
A full, deep chest with large heart-girth indicates a rugged sort of
animal possessed of much constitutional vigor. The floor of the chest
should be wide, as shown by the distance between the two fore legs,

36 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

provided width at this point is not due merely to prominent, open
shoulders which set the fore legs wide apart. The fore-rib, lying just
behind the shoulder, should not be flat, but should arch boldly so that
no flatness or depression exists immediately behind the shoulder.
Many beef animals present a hollowness or flatness of fore-rib which
detracts much from the desired smoothness and evenness of conforma-
tion, and reduces the chest capacity. Care should be taken to see
that the animal carries down deep and full at the front flanks just
behind the elbows. The butcher cares nothing for a beef animal's
constitution, but every intelligent feeder places great emphasis on the
depth and width of chest, which indicate to him that the steer will be
a good doer in the feed-lot. Briefly summing up these points, we may
say that the forequarters should be smoothly laid, smoothly and thick-
ly fleshed, and very wide and deep, showing no lack of constitution
anywhere.

The front legs should be short and placed squarely under the
animal. They should come straight down, and the toes should point
straight forward. For reasons already given, the fore legs should be
set well apart. The arm should be wide and muscular at its attach-
ment to the shoulder. Refinement of bone and cleanness of joints are
evidences of quality, whereas rough, coarse animals have heavy joints
and big shank bones.

The back carries great weight, and it is desirable that it be straight
and strong. When some people refer to the back they include the
entire top of the animal from shoulders to tail. Others mean the top
from shoulders to hips. The score card restricts the meaning of this
term to that portion of the top lying between the shoulders and the
last rib, which is some distance in front of the hip. In this description
we shall use the word in the score-card sense. The back furnishes one
of the high-priced cuts of beef and always receives critical attention in
judging. It is important, first of all, that the back be very wide in
order that it may carry the maximum amount of meat. Beef cattle
are never criticized for too much width in this part. Width is secured
when the ribs arch boldly from the spinal column; if the ribs are not
arched, the back must necessarily be narrow.

Fully as important as the width of back is the depth of flesh which
covers this part. When touched with the fingers, great depth and
mellowness should be found. No mere beauty of outline or stylishness
of appearance can ever make up for lack of fleshing in a beef animal.
The flesh must be there. Dimplesj or ties, ^ rough spots, or uneven
patches of fat detract from the value because the carcass of such an

'This refers to an adhesion of the hide to the backbone which prevents a cov-
ering of fat at that point, causing a depression or dimple known as a "tie."

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

animal will be rough in appearance and uneven in its covering of flesh.
If a wide back furnishes greater space for meat than does a narrow one,
then length of back might be advised for the same reason. But a long
back is not wanted because one of the outstanding features of correct
beef type is compactness, by which is meant shortness from head to
tail, and especially shortness from shoulders to hips. We naturally
expect the back to be short, because length there is associated with
the undesirable rangy type of animal too often found.

The ribs should not only be well sprung, but they should also
carry down with much depth to make a roomy or capacious body. A

Fig. 4. — A model bullock. Black Ruler, Aberdeen-Angus senior yearling steer,
grand champion at the 1920 International Live Stock Show. Bred, fed, and shown
by Purdue University. Weight 1,340 pounds. Sold for $1.75 per pound. Note
his rectangular and blocky form, short legs, and the wealth of flesh spread evenly
over all parts. Note the good head, short neck, neat brisket, full shoulder vein,
smooth shoulder, deep rib, excellent quality, and stylish appearance.

wide, deep middle is essential to digestive capacity. Cattle have
thirteen pairs of ribs. In beef cattle they should be placed close to-
gether along the sides, and the last pair should be as close to the hips
as possible. This provides a frame-work upon which the fleshing may
be smoothly laid. When there is much space between the ribs, a
smooth fleshing i§ not often found; the position of the ribs will be
marked by ridges and there will be hollows between them. When the

38 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

distance is great between the last rib and the hip, it is impossible to
get that part filled out smoothly; instead there will be a large "hunger
hollow" which detracts much from the appearance. Once more, there-
fore, the necessity for compactness (shortness) of middle is emphasized.

The side of the animal should be smooth and even, and the side
line should be straight from shoulder to hindquarter. The fleshing
over the ribs should be thick and smooth, and the hind flank should be
well filled with flesh so that when the hand is placed under it and lifted,
it is found to be thick, full, and heavy. If the front and hind flanks
carry down properly, the underline will be straight, as it ought to be.

At this point it is well to state that though the middle of a beef
animal should be wide and deep, a distended condition of the paunch
is not desirable. When this occurs, the animal is referred to as
"paunchy." The lines of the middle, both at the sides and along the
belly, should be straight and trim, giving a neat, tidy appearance.
Given good arch and depth of rib, a steer may be straight and trim in
his middle without sacrificing proper feeding capacity, and such ani-
mals suit the butcher much better than paunchy ones, because an
excessive paunch means much waste when the animal is slaughtered.

The loin is that portion of the top lying between the back and the
hips. It has no ribs below it, but consists of large muscles, affording
the very choicest cuts of the entire carcass — the porterhouse and
sirloin. The loin should be very wide and very thickly fleshed to afford
as high development of this part as possible. The covering of flesh
should also be smooth and firm. We like the loin to be thickly padded
and plumped up with muscle having the proper degree of fatness.
Such a loin may be described as a "live" loin — one that exhibits resil-
iency or springiness when handled. A loin that is flat and that handles
soft and "dead" is deficient in lean meat and has too much fat. The
loin-edge is sometimes rough and patchy, due to an uneven distribu-
tion^ of the fat, whereas it should be smooth and even.

The hips should be laid in snugly, and nicely covered over with
flesh. The eye should not be able to locate the hip of a well-fattened
animal; only when the hands are used should the point of the hip be
possible of location. This helps to give the smoothness desired in both
the living animal and the carcass which it ultimately yields. Wide
hips cannot be covered over with flesh, and the animal has a rough
and ragged appearance.

The rump is the top between hips and tail-head. It should be level
so as to carry out the top line straight and square to the end of the
body. Some animals droop in the rump, and some rise prominently;
in each case the conformation is faulty. The rump should be as long
as possible and as wide as the rest of the top. This permits a maxj-

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 39

mum fleshing and provides the most attractive form. The width
should be carried as uniformly as possible from hips to end of rump.
As the tail-head is approached, there is bound to be some rounding off,
yet this does not mean that the end of the rump need be narrow or
peaked. Rather it should be wide and plumped out with flesh. Beef
cattle very frequently exhibit roughness about the tail-head or at the
end of the rump on each side of the tail, due to the accumulation of
patches or gobs of fat. Smoothness here indicates better fleshing
qualities.

Fig. 5. — The right pattern. Chenoweth Jock, Shorthorn senior steer calf,
grand champion at the 1922 International Show. Bred, fed, and shown by W. J.
and B. A. Thomas, Shelbyville, Ky. Weight 1,010 pounds. Sold for $1.25 per
pound. This calf was exceptionally good in the development of the high-priced
cuts and in his form and quality. Note his blocky form, straight lines, trim middle,
long level rump, broad smooth tail-head, and heavy hindquarters.

The thigh begins at the border of the rump and extends down the
outside of the leg. It should be wide and full from every angle of view,
and come down with some bulge on the outside to where the thigh
naturally narrows. The fullness and thickness should carry down as
close to the hock as possible. Viewed from the side, the thigh
should be very wide, and when the animal is viewed from the rear
there ought to be much thickness from side to side.

40 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

The twist is the fleshing between the hind legs, just as the thigh
includes the fleshing on the outside. It should be very deep and full,
filling in the space between the legs, and carrying down as far as
possible toward the hocks. The thighs and twist furnish the third
most valuable cut of the carcass and are worthy of careful examination
in judging.

The hocks and hind legs, by their position, indicate the capacity
for fleshing in the twist and also on the thigh. If the hocks are straight
and properly placed, showing 'no special tendency to come together,

Fig. 6. — Correct type in the fat steer. Two-year-old Aberdeen-Angus steer,
Victor, grand champion at the International Show in 1911. Fed and exhibited by
Iowa State College. Weight 1,610 pounds. Sold for 90 cents per pound. Note
his blocky form, straight top, deep middle, and heavy hindquarters.

they will be associated usually with more heavily fleshed hindquarters
than otherwise. It is important, therefore, that the hocks stand
squarely under the animal. The shanks should carry straight down,
and, as in front, they should be short and show refinement in bone.
The joints of the leg should be clean-cut.

The quality of the beef animal is shown in bone, hide, hair, and
head. Quality, which is synonomous with refinement, is essential be-
cause it insures against coarseness of texture in all parts, especially the
texture of the muscles. The head should be of medium size and should

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 41

be clean-cut, presenting a chiseled appearance. The heads of many-
animals do not exhibit that "finishing touch" which characterizes the
head expressive of refinement. Heavy bone, large rough joints, and
heavy horns show lack of quality. One of the best indications of qual-
ity is the hide, which should be found pliable, easily stretched, and
only medium thick when rolled up in the hand. The hair should be
soft and fine.

Quality is again shown by the smoothness of the animal, both in
frame and in fleshing. Coarse shoulders, rough hips, and rough, un-
even flesh show lack of quality. Quality and good breeding are usually
found together, and certainly the animal with quality is the most de-
sirable type for the producer as well as for the consumer. Well-bred

Fig. 7. — A steer with excellent lines. Two-year-old Aberdeen-Angus steer,
Blackrock, grand champion at the International Show in 1905. Fed and exhibited
by Iowa State College. Weight 1,650 pounds. Sold for 25 cents per pound. This
steer has straight side lines and a trim middle. He is free from paunch iness.

animals respond best when fed out for the market. Coarse, rough
animals yield unattractive carcasses and inferior cuts of meat.

Animals are sometimes found which possess too much quality. In
such cases there is a delicacy of make-up; quality is purchased at the
expense of constitution. Extreme quality is also purchased at the
expense of size, for over-refined animals are usually undersized. The
proper degree of quality represents the middle ground between two
extremes, each of which is undesirable. This middle ground is difficult
to define; it may be said that all the quality is wanted which may be
had without sacrifice of constitution and proper size.

The fleshing of beef cattle is of the highest importance. The fact
that the butcher's block is the ultimate end, and beef the ultimate

42 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

product, must never be lost sight of by the breeder, feeder, or judge of
beef cattle. All over the body, and more especially in the back, loin,
and hindquarters, there should be found a uniformly deep covering of
flesh. The flat of the hand pressed along the shoulder, back, or side
should find a deep, mellow fleshing, without any patchiness or bare
spots.

When mature cattle are heavily fed they thicken in their flesh, and
this increase in thickness is due to a mixing of fat among the muscle
fibers, a storing of fat between the muscles, and a laying on of fat just
beneath the skin. (See Fig. 9.) When studying the fleshing of an
animal it is well to keep in mind that the fleshing is made up partly of
lean meat and partly of fat. The lean meat or muscle which an animal
carries is often called the "natural flesh." We want as much natural
flesh as it is possible to obtain. When a steer is fat it is rather difficult
to determine how much natural flesh he has. In order to estimate this
it is necessary to examine the development of flesh in those parts which
take on very little fat, as for example the thigh, arm, and neck. Width
in the crops is another good indication of heavy muscling.

The proportion of muscle in the make-up of an animal is evident
at birth (see Fig. 19), and feeding will not increase it beyond a very
narrow limit. Henry and Morrison of the Wisconsin Station ^ discuss
this point as follows: "Since the lean-meat tissues of the body are com-
posed mostly of muscular fibers, any gain in these tissues can be caused
solely by an increase in the number or by the thickening of these fibers.
The fibers increase in number by dividing lengthwise, which process
occurs with farm animals only while young and growing. Indeed,
recent investigations show that with some animals all increase in the
number of muscular fibers occurs before birth, the muscles of t-he new-
bom young containing as many as those of the mature animal. The
fibers of the muscles can thicken to only a limited extent, and hence
the muscular tissues, or lean meat, of the mature animal cannot be
increased beyond a relatively narrow limit, compared with the great
storage of fat which may occur."

A starving animal draws upon its muscular tissue to support life,
and will rapidly repair its tissues upon a return to favorable conditions,
but from the standpoint of farm and feed-lot conditions this fact does
not enter into consideration and therefore does not alter the statements
which are here made. The only factors which the feeder has under his
control are growth and fatness. If the animal is mature, feeding is
almost exclusively a fattening process; if the animal is not mature,
fattening is accompanied by growth in bone and muscle. Practically
speaking, we can no more increase the proportionate amount of muscle

^Feeds and Feeding, 1915, p. 75.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

by feeding than we can adcl quality, or a better head, or a straighter
top line. All these are breeding problems — not feeding problems.
Feeding will fatten a steer, increase his weight, and improve his form
and appearance, but it has little or no effect upon the proportion of
natural flesh in his make-up. The degree of fatness shown by a steer
is referred to as his "condition," and this feature will now be discussed.
Condition. — In comparison with dairy cattle, one of the most dis-
tinctive features of beef cattle is their ability to fatten easily and to
deposit the fat in and around the muscles, thereby making the meat
tender and juicy. As pointed out above, the feeding of beef cattle is

Fig. 8. — A "rare good one." California Favorite, a Hereford-Shorthorn
crossbred senior steer calf, grand champion at the 1916 International Show. Bred,
fed, and exhibited by the University of California. Weight 1,130 pounds. Sold for
$1.75 per pound. His form, quality, and covering of flesh were almost faultless.

largely a fattening process. The practical feeder knows, however, that
it is not profitable to feed an animal up to its limit of fatness, because
the last gains a steer makes are most costly, and such animals do not
suit the consumer of beef as well as a steer fattened in moderation.
Thin cattle are characterized by a very firm fleshing, so that when the
finger-tips are pressed on the back and ribs the flesh is found to be hard
and unyielding. When such cattle are properly fattened a decided
change takes place; the flesh now has a mellow, yet firm and springy

44 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

feel, and is no longer hard and unyielding. This firm, springy, and
mellow condition indicates that the steer is properly fattened from a
market standpoint. When feeding for show purposes, the fattening
proceeds further, and, if continued to excess, the fleshing becomes soft
and blubbery. To the fingers, such an animal seems incased in blubber,
and when the animal is slaughtered this is indeed found to be true.

The best way to determine the state of fatness of an animal is to
use the hands in the manner mentioned above. This can be done
rapidly, yet thoroughly, by a vigorous handling along the top and

Fig. 9. — Proportions of lean and fat in beef cattle. Half cross-sections of
body between sixth and seventh ribs, showing thickening of flesh due to deposition
of fat. A represents an animal in very thin condition. The white shown in A is
chiefly connective tissue. B represents an animal in all respects similar to A, except
that it was full fed for four months and was in moderately fattened condition. C
represents a similar animal full fed for twelve months and made excessively fat.
A was 3 years old when slaughtered; B, S14 years; C, 4 years. Deposition of fat
within the muscles, known as "marbling," is noticeable in B and C. Note that
increase in flesh in mature cattle due to feeding is almost entirely an increase in fat,
the quantity of muscle remaining nearly constant.

down over the ribs and shoulders. Other means of determining the
condition consist of examinations of the cod, hind flank, and tongue-
root. At these points the fat tends to accumulate extensively, and

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 45

they are, therefore, good indices of condition. After castration, the
scrotum with its content of fat is called the "cod." Thin steers show
very little fullness of cod, while fat ones have the cod completely filled
with fat. Thin animals also exhibit a very light hind flank. At the
beginning there may be little more than a fold of skin; when fat, this
part fills out remarkably full and heavy. By placing the flat of the
hand beneath it and lifting, the quantity of fat in the flank is easily
determined. When a fat steer walks, there is a characteristic roll or
swell to the flank as the hind leg swings forward. This is not notice-
able in a thin animal. The thickness of the tongue-root may be de-
termined by grasping the part with the thumb and fingers.

Some individuals fatten smoothly, with no special tendency to
bunch the fat in patches or rolls at certain points, while others become
"roily," or "patchy," in spite of all the feeder's skill. Patches and
rolls are most often found about the tail-head and end of the rump,
along the ribs, and at the edge of the loin. The occurrence of these
is highly undesirable; they indicate an improper distribution of fat,
give the animal a rough appearance, and, when the animal is slaughter-
ed, the carcass is discounted, for then the bunches of fat are very
evident and the appearance is spoiled. The fatter the steer becomes,
the greater is the tendency toward patchiness, yet many animals begin
to exhibit this defect before they are really ripe and ready for market.

Style has actual market value in a fat steer. A stylish steer is
one that stands squarely on his feet, with his back level, head well up,
and eyes and ears attentive to what is going on about him. This does
not mean a nervous animal, but a wide-awake one, full of life, and
seemingly interested in the things about him. When he walks, he does
it easily and without awkwardness. Other things being equal, such a
steer will attract buyers much more quickly than an animal that
slouches while standing, showing a pronounced dip in the back, and
having an awkward stride when in motion. These two animals may
dress out equally high, and yield equally valuable carcasses; the differ-
ence is that the first steer forces his good points to the attention of the
buyer and shows for all he is worth, while in the case of the second
steer, the buyer is left to discover the animal's good points without
any assistance from the animal. Cattle with style sell more readily
and at slightly higher prices than cattle without style.

Size and weight vary according to age, sex, breed, and fatness.
Disregarding breed differences, for this factor need not be considered
here, the following figures represent fair standards of weight at differ-
ent ages for well-fattened steers:

46 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Age Weight

At birth 70 pounds

6 months 450 pounds

12 months 850 pounds

18 months 1,100 pounds

24 months 1,300 pounds

30 months 1,475 pounds

36 months 1,600 pounds

Age from the teeth. — The ages of cattle may be determined with
a fair degree of accuracy by an examination of the teeth. There are
eight incisors in the lower jaw of mature cattle. There are no incisors
in the upper jaw, but a tough, fibrous pad instead, amply suited to the
grazing habits of cattle. The dentition at various ages is as follows:

Age Incisors

12 months. All calf teeth in place.

15 months. Center permanent incisors appear.

18 months. Center permanent incisors in wear.

24 months. First intermediates up.

30 months. Six broad incisors.

36 months. Six h id incisors in wear.

39 months. Cor up.

42 months. Eig -oad incisors in wear.

CHAPTER II
THE BEEF CARCASS

Buyers of fat cattle at the large market centers make their bids
largely according to their estimates of the kind of carcasses the animals
will yield. These estimates are made with considerable accuracy be-
cause the buyers have made a study of carcasses and of the cuts which
they yield. A similar knowledge of meats is essential to the beef pro-
ducer in order that he may learn to judge and value beef cattle correctly.

Slaughtering and dressing.44jpon reaching the packing house,
cattle rapidly pass through the following operations of killing and

iHtflB

■ ^ffii m n^H

ICSMM

Fig. 10. — Knocking cattle.

dressing: 1 1. Driven into knocking pens, two animals to each pen,
and stunned or killed by heavy blow of sledge hammer on forehead.
2. Hoisted by hind legs, bled, and head skinned and removed. 3.
Lowered to floor, shanks skinned and removed at knees and hocks,
and hide opened along middle of belly and removed from belly and
sides. 4. Partially raised by hocks, middles opened, viscera removed,
hide removed from rump and rounds, and tail skinned and removed.
5. Carcass raised from floor, hide removed entirely, and carcass split
through center of backbone from tail to neck. 6. Sides of beef sus-

iWentworth, Munnecke, and Brown: Progressive Beef Cattle Raising, Armour
and Company, Chicago, 1920, pp. 74, 75.

48 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

pended from overhead rail, washed with warm water, wiped dry, and
sent to coolers.

Briefly, the above operations consist of stunning, bleeding, re-
moval of hide, head, shanks, tail, and viscera, splitting, washing,
drying, cooling. All internal organs are removed except the kidneys.
The time required for slaughtering and dressing is about one hour.
The temperature of the coolers is kept at about 34 degrees Fahrenheit
and the sides of beef hang in the coolers for at least 48 hours before
being quartered or otherwise cut up. Prime beef requires three to
four weeks ageing in the cooler to arrive at its best condition.

The oflFal.— The blood, head, shanks, tail, hide, viscera, and loose
fat are collectively called the "offal" or "waste" of the steer, so called
because formerly, with the exception of the hide, tallow, and tongue,
the offal was thrown away. Today all of it is valuable for manufac-
turing into various by-products. (See Chapter III.)

The dressing percentage. -r-By comparing the weight of the chilled
carcass with the live weight of the animal, the percentage of yield, or
what is called the "dressing percentage," is determined. This is a
very important factor in determining the market price of cattle for
slaughter; the buyer always estimates the dressing percentage before
bidding on a load. For example, if steer No. 1 weighing 1,200 pounds
on foot yields a carcass weighing 720 pounds, the dressing percentage
is 60. If steer No. 2 of the same live weight yields a carcass weighing
690 pounds, the dressing percentage is 57.5. Steer No. 1 dresses 2.5
per cent higher and yields 30 pounds more carcass beef than No. 2.
If steer carcasses of this grade are selling at $20 per cwt., then 30 pounds
of carcass beef is worth $6. This means that steer No. 1 is worth $6
more on foot than No. 2, a difference equal to 50 cents per cwt. In
handling thousands of animals, as do the large packing firms, the dress-
ing percentage is a matter of great importance. The range in the
dressing percentages of cattle is from 35 to 70 per cent. Census re-
turns indicate that the average dressing percentage of cattle is about
54 per cent and of calves about 62 per cent. Calves dress a higher
percentage than cattle because the hide is left on the veal carcass to
preserve the color and moisture of the flesh, which dries out and turns
dark much more rapidly than beef when exposed to the air.

Dressing percentage as a factor in cattle prices. — If steer No. 2
described above sells on foot at $11,50 per cwt., steer No. 1 should
bring $12 per cwt. In this instance an increase in dressing percentage
of 2.5 per cent added 50 cents per cwt. to the live value. Note that
the difference between these steers in dressing percentage (2.5) multi-
plied by the price of one pound of carcass beef (20 cents) gives the
difference in live value per cwt. (50 cents). When, as in this instance.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 49

two animals yield carcasses of the same value per pound, then the
difference in live value per cwt. will be the difference in dressing percentage
multiplied by the price of one pound of carcass beef. From this we see
that the price the packer can pay for cattle is limited very largely by
two important factors — (1) the dressing percentage and (2) the price
he can obtain for carcass beef. A third important factor affecting the
market price of cattle, the value of the by-products, is discussed in the
next chapter. 1

Factors determining dressing percentage.^The chief factors de-
termining the dressing percentage of a steer are (1) quantity of flesh,
both lean and fat, (2) paunchiness, and (3) refinement of head, bone,
and hide. Well-bred steers, well fattened and with straight lines, that
is, free from paunchiness, dress out 62 to 65 per cent. The highest
record known to the writer, where the steer was dressed in the usual
manner, is 69.9 per cent. Aged dairy cows which have outlived their
usefulness as milk producers are sent to market; they are very paunchy
and very thin, and dress around 45 per cent. Here a fourth factor in
dressing percentage is introduced, namely weight of udder, which some-
times is considerable. The cow's udder is removed in slaughtering.
In determining the dressing percentage, the refinement of head, bone,
and hide is of less importance as a rule than quantity of flesh or
paunchiness, although in some animals the weight of hide is a con-
siderable item.

How the carcass is produced.-^Before discussing the qualifications
of a good carcass, it will be profitable to consider briefly how an animal
grows and builds up the parts of its body which eventually make up
the carcass. The carcass consists of bone, muscle, connective tissue,
and fat. At birth the calf weighs about 70 pounds. Its bones are
soft and elastic, and its muscles are tender. It carries a certain degree
of fatness, depending on how well it was nourished before it was born —
in other words, on how well its mother was fed. Up to weaning time
it subsists largely upon its mother's milk, which is primarily a bone
and muscle builder, producing growth.

When weaned, the future development of the calf depends upon
(1) ancestry, (2) feed, and (3) management. If its ancestors were
dairy animals, it will not produce a valuable carcass. However, we

1 Usually the returns from the sale of both carcasses and by-products enable
packers to pay more for live animals than they receive from the sale of the carcasses.
(See table, page 67.) If packers pay exactly as much for the live animal as they
receive from the sale of the carcass, then the live value of the animal per cwt. is the dress-
ing percentage multiplied by the price of one pound of carcass beef^ of the class and grade
yielded by the animal. For example, if the dressing percentage is 60 and the carcass
is of a class and grade selling at $20 per cwt. (20 cents per pound), the live value of
the animal is $12 per cwt. Thus we see that the packer buyer must use good judg-
ment not only in estimating dressing percentages, but also in estimating the grade
of carcasses the animals will yield.

50 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

are dealing with beef production and will assume the calf is from a
good line of beef cattle. If given plenty of feed and good care, in other
words every opportunity to develop quickly, the calf rapidly increases
in size and its flesh expands and thickens. It also lays on fat. It is
hard to fatten young animals because they tend to utilize their feed
for growth rather than fat. Growth is increase in bone and muscle.
However, with heavy feeding, beef cattle of the modern, blocky type,
become fat before reaching maturity, and may be sent to market under
20 months of age weighing 800 to 1,000 pounds. Such animals are
called "baby beeves."

Another way to handle the calf is to turn it out to pasture and
perhaps help it along with a little grain if the pasture is short. In
this case the object is to produce growth only, and the animal may
then be finished as a two-year-old. Under this plan the animal should
be roughed through the winter with care, otherwise it will receive a
setback. Once the baby fleshing is lost through setbacks received
during development, the steer does not make as desirable a carcass as
he would otherwise.

Changes in the hones. — As an animal increases in age, its bones be-
come hard and flinty. The bones which bear the most strain become
most flinty, these being the shank bones. In young cattle the tips of
the spinous processes of the vertebrae are soft and cartilaginous.
These "buttons," as they are called, are present up to the age of 18
months; thereafter they gradually ossify, and at about the fifth year
the spines are hard to the tips. Similar changes take place in the
cartilages on the breastbone before the third or fourth year. The
breastbone, backbone, ribs, and pelvis gradually harden and whiten,
especially after the age of 18 months. ^ When visiting a beef cooler,
the age of the animals from which the carcasses came may be told
approximately by the bones.

Changes in the muscles. — With increase in age the muscles become
tougher through use. The muscles which the animal uses most and
which do the most work become the toughest in their make-up; these
are the muscles of the neck and those used in locomotion, including the
muscles of the thigh, shoulder, and arm.

Storage of fat. — Wild animals store up fat in their bodies as a re-
serve upon which they rely in times when food is scanty. The bear,
for instance, stores much fat during summer and fall, which is resorbed
and used to support life during hibernation in winter, and he comes
out in the spring in very thin condition. The storing of fat is a provi-
sion of nature. In the domestic animals which produce meat, man has
encouraged this fat-storing tendency by methods of breeding and feed-

411. Bui. 147, p. 158.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

ing. That great success has been achieved along this line is shown by
the highly finished cattle, sheep, and hogs coming from the hands of
the best stockmen. Fat is stored over the back, loin, rump, ribs, and
shoulders, forming a layer of clear fat just beneath the skin. It is
also stored about the internal organs, between the muscles, and within

Fig. 11. — Prime steer carcass. Champion beef carcass at the 1917 Inter-
national Show, from Pandean Jr., an Aberdeen-Angus yearling steer, bred, fed, and
exhibited by Iowa State College. Live weight 1,185 pounds, dressed weight 789
pounds, dressing percentage 66.58, Carcass sold for 413^ cents per pound. This
carcass was practically ideal in every respect. Show carcasses of beef are dressed
with the tail on.

the muscles among the muscle fibers. This storing of fat among the
muscle fibers gives the cuts of beef a marbled appearance, termed

52 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

"marbling." Practically no fat is deposited in the muscles which do
much work, hence we find the round steak coming from the thigh to
be almost completely free from fat. The muscles of the loin and back,
having little work to do, take on the marbling feature quite easily if
the animal is well bred and properly handled. This largely explains
why the cuts from the loin and back are most tender, although in these
muscles there is not the stimulus to the growth of connective tissue
such as is the case in working muscles, and this is undoubtedly another
reason why the loin and back yield cuts of superior terderness.

As stated in the preceding chapter, the feeding of mature cattle
is essentially a fattening process. This is clearly shown by results at
the Missouri Station, ' where muscle fibers and fat cells extracted from
steers at different periods during the fattening process were examined
and measured under the microscope and it was found that while there
was very little or no increase in the diameter of the muscle fibers, the
fat cells increased enormously both in number and size.

Thus we understand why cattle diff"er widely in the kind of car-
casses they yield, depending upon their inherited tendencies and upon
their feed and care. The effects of inheritance are discussed in more
detail in Chapter IV.

Variations in carcasses. — A study of the carcasses in any cooler
brings out striking differences. Some are large, being from 1,500- to
1,600-pound animals; others are from younger beeves that weighed 800
to 1,100 pounds. Some are compact and wide, others are long and
narrow. Some are well developed in the regions of high-priced cuts,
while others are deficient in this respect. Some carry heavy fleshing,
others are very poorly covered indeed. The layer of outside fat is
very thick in some, these being highly finished cattle fed on grain.
Others show practically no covering of fat. These are from grass-fed
cattle — poor pasture too, for a steer puts on some fat on grass if the
pasture is good. Some show a nice intermixing of fat and lean, called
"marbling/' while others exhibit this feature very slightly, or none at
all. The lean meat of some carcasses has a pale red color; in others it
is very dark. Some carry snow-white fat, others carry fat of a yellow
color. Some beef is fine grained, and some is very coarse and fibrous.
Some carcasses have soft bones, somewhat cartilaginous in character;
others have hard flinty bones. Size of bones varies a great deal in
different carcasses.

Demands of the butcher and consumer. — The questions which
now come before us are: 1. What kinds of lean meat and fat does
the butcher want? 2. How much lean meat does he want, and how

^H. J. Waters: Influence of Nutrition Upon the Animal Form, paper presented
at Thirtieth Meeting of Society for Promotion of Agricultural Science.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 53

much fat? 3. How does he want these two substances arranged with
regard to each other?

These questions bring up the demands of consumers of meats, for
the butcher is guided by what the consumer of beef wants and will
pay for. You and I are consumers of meat, and what we Hke, or dis-
Hke, together with the size of our pocketbook, guides the butcher who
buys our cattle. Now what do we want? We want meat that is (1)
nutritious, (2) tender, (3) juicy, (4) of good flavor, (5) attractive in
appearance, and (6) moderate in amount of outside fat. Provided
beef is well ripened in the cooler and well cooked, there is not much
variation in its nutritive or food value. The tenderness depends upon
the work the muscle has done and upon the amount of marbling it
carries. Meat free from fat shrivels and drys up when roasted, be-
coming dry and tough. Ageing or ripening in the cooler helps to make
meat tender. Juiciness results from the presence of fat and manner of
cooking. The flavor depends mostly upon fatness and upon proper
ripening of the carcass. The cuts of beef which are most attractive in
appearance are those with bright, rich, red lean, snow-white fat, and a
high degree of marbling. The consumer desires a maximum of lean
meat well marbled, and a minimum of bone and outside fat in the cuts
of beef. FoUpwing is a discussion of the qualifications of a high-class
carcass: \/ l-^^-"] /^ ji- '-^"

1. Weight of carcass. — The heaviest carcasses seldom exceed
1,050 pounds, and the minimum is about 250 pounds. ^ No definite
line as to weight can be drawn between carcasses of beef and veal,
because many factors determine the character of the flesh. The
greatest demand is for carcasses from 1,100- to 1,300-pound steers, and
most of the cattle coming to market are of about these weights. Such
carcasses yield retail cuts of a size to suit the average family. There
is also a demand for heavy carcasses to supply hotels, restaurants, and
dining cars, which use large cuts.

2. Shape of carcass. — The ideal carcass of beef is compact, plump,
,and has good width in proportion to length, short shanks and neck,
and full rounds, loins, and ribs. Such a carcass is more thickly fleshed
and is usually better finished in all cuts than one that is long, narrow,
and loosely coupled.

3. Thickness of fleshing. — There is a clear distinction between
thickness due to fatness and thickness due to muscular flesh. Only
the knife can completely reveal the thickness of a side and the relative
thickness of fat and lean ; even expert dealers are often mistaken as to
the actual thickness of flesh in an uncut side.

iFor many of the specifications included in this chapter the writer is indebted
to Illinois Bulletin 147, Market Classes and Grades of Meat, by Louis D. Hall.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

4. Thickness of outside fat. — This is referred to as the "finish."
Perfect finish consists of a smooth covering of firm white fat over the
entire carcass, with the greatest depth along the back, a white brittle
"kidney" of medium size, and a lining of flaky fat on the inner surface
of the ribs. The rounds and shanks are covered last in the process of
fattening. Carcasses show variation in thickness of external fat, rang-
ing all the way from zero to four inches. Beef fat is not palatable to
most people. The average consumer does not want more than one-
half or three-fourths of an inch of outside fat, and if the carcass weighs
500 pounds or less, about one-fourth of an inch is sufficient. It is
impossible to secure proper marbling unless a certain amount of fat is
put on externally at the same time, but the necessary marbling is
usually secured when one-half or three-fourths of an inch of fat is laid
on externally; after this point is reached, the fat is largely stored ex-

FlG. 12. — Beef ribs. The rib cut on the left is too fat, the one on the right
is too lean, and the cut in the center is correctly fattened. Note that the amount
of lean meat is practically the same in all three.

ternally, between the muscles, and about the internal organs. A cer-
tain amount of outside fat is necessary in prime beef in order to insure
proper ripening in the cooler, and also for proper roasting. In the-
lowest grades, such as canners, outside fat is entirely lacking and such
carcasses will decompose before they ripen. A carcass carrying soft,
"gobby" fat sells at a discount. Grass-fed cattle often yield carcasses
that are watery and flabby, with a marked lack of finish. Heifers
carry a higher percentage of fat in all cuts than do steers. This is one
of the principal reasons why they often sell at a discount in this country
while in England they are not discriminated against because the
Englishman likes fatter beef.

Cattle fed to a complete finish, as are the beef cattle exhibited at
the larger live-stock shows, carry a great excess of outside fat — far too

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 55

much to suit the average consumer. This excess of tallow adds practi-
cally nothing to the value of the carcass as food. In a way, the fat-
stock shows set a wrong example for feeders to follow. Such a finish
results from a long feeding period of 8 to 10 months, and in some cases
even longer. A 3 to 6 months feeding period gives a carcass which
suits the consumer better, and such a plan is undoubtedly more profit-
able to the feeder, because the first gains a steer makes are acquired
much more cheaply than the last ones. This does not mean that the
farmer should send thin cattle to market; it means there is a place to
stop in the feeding of a bullock which results in greatest profit to the
producer and best satisfaction to the consumer. A smooth and firmly
finished steer is the sort this implies. As bearing on the matter of
cost of gains, the Kansas Station ^ found the grain required for 100
pounds of gain with fattening steers for different periods to be as
follows:

Grain for Increase of

100 lbs. gain feed required

Up to 56 days 730 pounds of grain

Up to 84 days 807 pounds of grain 10 per cent

Up to 112 days 840 pounds of grain 15 per cent

Up to 140 days 901 pounds of grain 23 per cent

Up to 168 days 927 pounds of grain 27 per cent

Up to 182 days 1,000 pounds of grain 37 per cent

These figures indicate the heavy cost of thoroughly fattening a
steer, and the importance of selling as early as it is possible to attain
the proper degree of finish.

5. Marbling. — The highest quality of beef is that which contains
the largest proportion of well-marbled lean.

6. Color of lean meat. — ^The meat from grass-finished cattle is
often dark in color. Grain feeding gives the best color— a bright, rich
red. Dark color is due to the presence of much blood in the tissues.
Exercise or excitement will bring about this condition, hence the dark-
colored flesh of western range cattle, and of grass-fed cattle in general,
is not due to the nature of the feed, but to the amount of exercise
made necessary in ranging about at pasture. Stags and bulls kill out
dark because of their restlessness, and of heifers in heat the same is
true. Dark carcasses break down (decompose) quicker than light-
colored ones, and consumers object to the appearance, hence butchers
have two good reasons for disliking a dark-colored carcass.

7. Color of fat. — A clear white color of fat is desired. An un-
attractive yellow color is rather frequently met with. Some packers
believe the yellow color is due to the kind of feed upon which the animal
was fattened. Cottonseed meal has been charged with this fault, but
experimental work has shown that cottonseed meal does not produce

iKan. Bui. 34.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

yellow fat. Cattle of Jersey and Guernsey breeding usually kill very
yellow.

8. Grain of meat. — When the fresh-cut surface is viewed, it
should show a smooth, fine-grained appearance, and should feel
"velvety" to the touch. Meat with fine grain comes from the animal
with quality, that is, one with fine hide, hair, and bone. Such an
animal is finely textured throughout, and if well fed, so that the baby
fleshing is preserved, a carcass with fine-grained flesh will result. Some
meats are very coarse indeed.

9. Size of bones. — The bones should be as small as the weight
of the carcass will allow. From the producer's standpoint, however,
such carcasses do not always represent greatest profits, because ex-

FlG. 13. — Well-marbled beef. Rib roast showing correct proportion of fat to
lean, and a high degree of marbling.

tremely fine-boned cattle do not usually make the greatest gains on
feed.

10. Flintiness of bones. — As already shown, flintiness of the
bones is an indication of age. The most desirable carcasses are those
of young animals approaching maturity, the meat from old ones being
tough, dark-colored, and lacking in marbling. The bones of cows and
heifers, and of dairy-bred animals, turn hard and white earlier than
those of steers, indicating quicker maturity.

Grading carcasses. — As to the relative importance of the above
factors in grading carcass beef, it may be said that finish (by which is
meant the thickness and smoothness of outside fat) is particularly

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 57

essential, with thickness of flesh, fineness of grain, color of lean and fat,
fineness of bone, and shape of carcass of about equal importance.

All carcasses not suitable for block beef. — Carcass beef which is
thick and fat enough so that the entire side can be sold over the
butcher's block in retail cuts is known as "block beef" or "side beef."
Carcasses that are not thick enough in flesh to be entirely utilized by
the retailer are called "cutters." The loins and ribs of cutters may be
sold over the block. "Canners" are the worst carcasses to be found,
from which none of the regular wholesale cuts may be sold over the
block, but which must be disposed of as boneless fresh meats and cured
beef products. ^ Fully 95 per cent of the beef produced in the United
States is sold in the fresh state.

Carcass classes and grades. — All carcasses of cattle are classified
and graded as follows:

Class Grades

Steers Prime, choice, good, medium, common, cutter, canner

Heifers Prime, choice, good, medium, common, cutter, canner

Cows Choice, good, medium, common, cutter, canner

Bulls and stags Choice, good, medium, common, bologna, canner

Veal calves Choice, good, medium, common, canner

The following wholesale prices ^ indicate the comparative values of
those grades of the above classes which are suitable for block beef:

Class J^' Weight Price

Steer carcasses 350 to 700 lbs 12 to 18 cents per lb.

Heifer carcasses ... .400 to 600 lbs 12 to 16 >^ cents per lb.

Cow carcasses 250 to 600 lbs 9 to 13 cents per lb.

Bull carcasses 400 to 600 lbs. and up 6 to 10 cents per lb.

Veal carcasses 50 to 275 lbs., hides on 12 to 18 cents per lb.

Sex differences. ^ — Steer carcasses are identified by the cod fat and
generally by their full, fleshy rounds and loins, heavier, coarser bones,
and short necks as compared with cows. They show more quality and
finish than any other class, and are sold as carcass beef more extensively
than any other class, except heifers. Heifer carcasses are distinguished
by the udder, and usually they have smaller bones, more prominent
hips, more angular rumps, less development of lean meat, and they
average lighter in weight. The tendency in heifer beef is to carry the
fat more extensively as kidney suet or gobby fat than do steers. They
have fiatter loins, flatter plates, and longer, thinner necks than steers.
Carcasses of cows have the bag trimmed off as closely as possible. The
form is angular, the neck long, the bones hard and white, and the
majority lack thickness of flesh. Fat cow carcasses often carry an
excess of kidney fat and bunches of fat on the back and rump. The
flesh is seldom as well marbled as that of heifers or steers. Cow car-

1111. Bui. 147, p. 156.

^Wholesale price list of a leading Chicago packer, March, 1923.

nil. Bui. 147.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

casses require more ageing or ripening to make the meat tender.
Dressed bulls are easily recognized by the heavy neck and heavy
shoulders, thick rounds, dark color, coarse-grained flesh, and absence
of cod fat. They have rough shape and the bones show maturity.
The coarse dark flesh has no marbling as a rule, and but few bulls are
suitable for dressed beef. They are used for sausage and the rounds
are made into smoked beef hams. Many stags approach steers in
form, quality, and finish; others resemble bulls.

The wholesale cuts. V^ When the carcass has been sufficiently ripened
in the cooler, it is ready for cutting up into the wholesale cuts. The
full side of beef, half the carcass, has the appearance shown in the
following diagram. The wholesale cuts are indicated by the dotted
lines.

^nM.^^^'y^-

■ .

\ "-^"^ L

T3fB5 criucK

A 1

G ^

1
i

--4

■

Fig. 14. — Cuts of beef indicated in the live animal.

The first step in cutting up a side of beef is to "quarter" or "rib"
it, which means to separate the side into forequarter and hindquarter.
Sides are usually quartered or ribbed between the 12th and 13th ribs,
leaving one rib on the hindquarter. Such a hindquarter is called a
"regular hindquarter," and it contains from 47 to 49 per cent of the
weight of the side, and the forequarter contains from 51 to 53 per cent,
the averages being about 48 per cent hinds and 52 per cent fores.
Hinds are quoted about 25 per cent higher than fores in cold months,
and up to 40 per cent higher in summer. This variation is due to the

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

large amount of boiling and stewing pieces in the fores, which meats
are in greater demand in winter. ^

The hindquarter is divided into four wholesale cuts, the loin,
round, flank, and kidney. The kidney is not shown in the accompany-
ing diagram; it Hes under the loin.

The forequarter yields five wholesale cuts, the rib, chuck, navel,
brisket, and shank. The navel and brisket are usually not divided,
but are sold as one cut called the "plate."

The loin is separated from the round at the hip joint, which is a
considerable distance back of the hip. Thus much of the rump is
converted into loin when the carcass comes under the knife of the

Fig. 15. — Wholesale cuts of beef. 1, Chuck; 2, shank; 3, brisket; 4, rib; 5,
navel; 6, loin; 7, flank; 8, round; 3 and 5, plate; 6, 7, and 8, hindquarter.

butcher. The shank is sawed off just below the shoulder joint. The
plate is taken off on a line extending from about the middle of the
twelfth rib through the point at which the shank is removed. The
rib and chuck are separated between the fifth and sixth ribs. This
gives five ribs to the chuck and seven to the rib.

A 720-pound carcass will yield a 360-pound side. When the side
is cut up, the weights of the various wholesale cuts, their wholesale
prices per pound, and their total values are as given in the following
table, the figures for weights representing averages for good steer car-
casses. Prices are given for No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 grades.

111. Bui. 147, pp. 155, 156.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Weights,

prices,

and values of wholesale cuts of beef

Wholesale

Wts.
in
lbs.

wts.

in
per
cent

Price per lb., cents

Total value of cut

cuts

No. 1

No. 2

No. 3

No. 1

No. 2

No. 3

Round

80
65
18
35
50
90
11
11

22
18

14
35

5
26

9
13

5
10

13
30

5
20

8
11

5
10

13
4

10
5
7
4

$11.20
22.75

.90

9.10

4.50

11.70

.55
1.10

$10,.40

19.50

.90

7.00

4.00

9.90

.55

1.10

$8.80

Loin

8.45

Flank

.72

Rib

3.50

Plate

2.50

Chuck

6.30

Shank

.44

Kidney

1.10

Total

360

100

17.2

14.8

8.8

$61.80

$53.35

$31.81

High-priced and low-priced cuts. — The average price for the entire
No. 1 carcass is, then, 17.2 cents per pound. From the foregoing table
it is seen that the loin and rib constitute 28 per cent of the carcass
weight, but bring 51 per cent of the total return from the sale of the
cuts from the No. 1 carcass; and that the loin, rib, and round constitute
half of the carcass weight, but bring 70 per cent of the return from the
sale of the wholesale cuts. The 180 pounds of loin, rib, and round
have an average price of 23.9 cents per pound, while the remainder of
the side, also weighing 180 pounds, brings an average of 10.4 cents.
Hence the packer wants cattle as highly developed in back, loin, rump,
and round as possible. Buyers of cattle for slaughter emphasize this
point. They want cattle smoothly and heavily fleshed in all parts,
and especially in the four parts mentioned. The selling price of a load
of cattle is greatly dependent on this feature.

Note that there is much less variation in price between No. 1 and
No. 3 rounds than between the corresponding grades of loins or ribs.
The No. 1 loin has a total value twice as great as the No. 1 round, but
the No. 3 round has a greater total value than the No. 3 loin. This
is due to the fact that all grades of rounds contain but little fat, whereas
loins and ribs of the various grades show a vast difference in finish.
In other words there is much less difference in the quality and finish of
the rounds yielded by fat and thin cattle than there is in the quality
and finish of the loins or ribs.

Why loin, rib, and round are in greater demand. — The loin and
rib bring high prices as compared to other parts of the carcass because
of their superior tenderness, marbling, and palatability, combined with
attractive appearance. The round brings a good price because it con-
tains so much lean and so little bone and outside fat. Other parts of
the carcass are as nutritious as the loin, rib, and round, but are diflicult
to cook in such a way that they appeal to us as do the porterhouse,
sirloin, and rib roast. But a carcass will yield only so much of these,
hence the great variation in the price of the various wholesale cuts.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 61

It is perhaps well that there are cheap cuts of meat and cheap carcasses,
for there is a great percentage of population not able to buy any other
kind. The packer does not want all beef to be of highest quality. He
must take care of the second- and third-class trade as well as the fancy
trade. But the producer of market cattle must aim to produce the
highest quality of product, for this work requires skill, and skill always
commands a higher reward than unskilled effort. Anybody can pro-
duce medium or inferior beef, and the price obtained is in proportion.

Grades of beef cuts. — As previously shown, carcasses vary in
respect to (1) size, (2) shape, (3) thickness of fleshing, (4) thickness
of external fat, (5) marbling, (6) color of lean meat, (7) color of fat,
(8) grain of meat, (9) flintiness of bones, and (10) size of bones. The
butcher or packer is interested in all these things, for each is of con-
siderable importance. The packer grades the wholesale cuts of beef,
as they vary in these points, into No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 grades. No. 1
cuts bring the highest price, and between No. I's and No. 3's there is
a marked difference. These three grades are all used on the butcher's
block. Cuts from inferior carcasses not suitable for block use, are
called "strippers;" these are manufactured into boneless cuts, barreled
beef, and sausage.

Conclusions. — The study of the beef carcass therefore teaches:

1. That well-bred cattle yield the best carcasses and bring the
highest price,

2. The market wants young, highly finished cattle.

3. Steers yield the most desirable carcasses.

4. The best results come from a method of management which
offers no chance for a setback during growth and fattening.

5. The breeder and feeder of beef cattle should secure as high
development of loin, back, and hindquarter as possible.

6. To bring a good price, cattle must dress high.

7. To dress high, cattle must be thickly fleshed, free from paunch-
iness, and good in quality.

8. Broadly speaking, heredity regulates the lean meat, and man
regulates the fat.

9. The feeding of mature cattle is almost entirely a fattening
process.

10. Fatness is desirable because it adds weight, makes perfect
ripening possible, gives tenderness and juiciness to the meat, and in-
creases the dressing percentage.

11. Cattle may be made too fat.

12. Carcasses vary widely in weight, shape, thickness of fleshing,
thickness of outside fat, marbling, color of lean, color of fat, grain of
meat, and size and hardness of bones.

62 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

13. Ancestry, age, sex, feed, and care determine what sort of a
carcass an animal will yield.

14. Half of the carcass meets with strong demand and sells high,
while the remainder sells low.

15. There is demand for carcasses of all weights, but the strongest
demand is for handy- weight carcasses from cattle weighing 1,100 to
1,300 pounds.

16. To secure the greatest returns, the feeder should send his
cattle to market well done after a short feeding period, but not in an
excessively fat condition resulting from long continued feeding.

CHAPTER III

PACKING HOUSE BY-PRODUCTS FROM CATTLE

When slaughtered, the average steer yields over 40 per cent of
offal. In the early days of the packing industry the only by-products
of a beef animal which received attention from packers were hide,
tallow, and tongue. The remainder of the offal was either thrown
away or sold for almost nothing. In some instances, packers even paid
for the carting away of offal. In a short time glue works, fertilizer
works, soap factories, oil and tallow factories sprang up in the vicinity
of the packing plants and grew to be large industries. Soon the

Fig. 16. — How by-products reduce dressed beef prices.

packing plants went into the soap business for themselves, then into
the glue business, the fertilizer business, and so on, until today packing
house by-products are numbered by the score from what was formerly
mere waste. The modern packing house is living and depending for
profits on what the packing industry of early times was throwing
away. The utilization of by-products is one of the chief reasons why
packers are able to compete so successfully with the local butchers of
the country. Were it not for this conversion of waste material into
saleable form, the wholesale price of beef would be considerably higher
than under existing conditions. This is clearly illustrated by the ac-
companying graph.

64 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Average yields from steers. — A Chicago packer has computed
from numerous tests, the following weights and percentages of yields
from a steer:

Pounds Per cent of

live weight

Live weight 1,200

Carcass 700 58.3

Hide 75 6.2

Head, feet, knees 45 3.7

Butter-fat 80 6.6

Liver 12 1.0

Heart 3 0.25

Lungs 20 1.6

Tongue 5 0.41

Cheek meat 5 0.41

Rough tallow and entrails 84 7.0

Liquid blood 46 3.8

Paunch and contents 106 8.8

Lips and weasand meat 4 0.3

Tail, bungs, and casings 15 1.2

Total offal 500 41.27

Totals 1,200 99.57

The foregoing weights and percentages are for "green" or "warm"
products at time of slaughter, no allowance being made for shrinkage
in weight of carcass in cooling, shrinkage of the hide in curing, and
evaporation of moisture and shrinkage in converting other parts into
finished by-products. The Commercial Research Department of Swift
and Company, Chicago, 111., reports^ that on the average about 55
per cent of a steer is beef, and that the average 1,000-pound steer
yields about 550 pounds of beef and about 150 pounds of finished by-
products. The remaining 300 pounds is accounted for in evaporation,
shrinkage, and waste in manufacturing the green by-products into
finished by-products.

Comparative value of carcass and by-products. — Edward N. Went-
worth of Armour's Livestock Bureau states ^ that for the quarter year
ending June 28, 1920, Armour and Company killed 201,213 cattle,
omitting calves, at its plants in Chicago, Kansas City, St. Louis,
Omaha, Fort Worth, Sioux City, St. Joseph, St. Paul, and Denver.
From these animals the average value of the carcass was $90.60 per
head, hide $14.23, and all other by-products $7.73. Expressed in per-
centages, the carcass represented 80.5 per cent of the total value, the
hide 12.6 per cent, and all other by-products 6.9 per cent. Nearly 43

1 Studies in Live Stock Marketing, The Effects of Beef and By-Product Values
Upon Cattle Prices, Swift and Company, Chicago, Sept., 1921.

2 Monthly Letter to Animal Husbandmen, The Source and Use of Packing
House By-Products, Armour and Company, Chicago, Aug. 1, 1920.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

per cent of the value of "all other by-products," or $3.32, was in the
oleo fats. ^

That these ratios are not constant is shown by figures published
by Swift and Company comparing values in May, 1921, with those of
May, 1920. The 1920 values substantiate those of Armour and Com-
pany given above. The 1921 values, however, show a decrease of 25
per cent in carcass value, and a decrease of 71 per cent in value of by-
products, so that the carcass then represented 91 per cent of the total
value, and the by-products, including the hide, only 9 per cent. The
table presented on page 67 shows that the percentage of total returns
derived from by-products by Swift and Company was 23 per cent in
1915, but only 10 per cent in 1921.

Values of cattle hides. j/As shown in the preceding discussion, the
most valuable of all the by-products of the beef animal is the hide.
Cattle hides increased in value enormously from 1913 to 1919 inclusive,
due in large part to the unprecedented demand for leather during the
World War. This is shown in the following table of prices from the
Chicago Daily Hide and Tallow Bulletin: ^

Average yearly prices of

steer and heavy cow hides

Packer hides

Country hides

Year

Heavy
native
steers

Heavy
native
cows

Heavy

steers

Heavy
cows

1905

$14.36
15.66
24.03
26.43
32.37
29.88
39.76
31.73
14.21

$13.18
13.78
23.54
24.97
31.69
27.41
37.72
31.51
12.64

$12.42
12.15
19.52
20.99
25.65
23.44
31.98
23.89
9.40

$11.90

1910.

11.20

1915

18.96

1916

20.22

1917

23.25

1918

21.12

1919

29.97

1920

21.11

1921

8.09

There are two great classes of cattle hides, packer hides and coun-
try hides. Packer hides are much more valuable and command higher
prices because they are uniform in shape, cure, and handling, much
freer from cuts and gashes, and are readily available in large numbers
of the various classes and grades.

The fats.-^Next in value to the hide stand the fats derived from
the abdominal region. Cattle fats bear the general name of "tallow."

^Wentworth reports that 701,983 veal calves slaughtered during 1919 returned
$23.01 per carcass and $1.31 for the by-products per calf. The carcass represented
94.6 per cent of the total value, and the by-products 5.4 per cent. The low per-
centage value of the by-products of veal calves is largely due to the fact that the
skin is sold on the carcass.

^As quoted by Wentworth, Munnecke, and Brown: Progressive Beef Cattle
Raising, Armour and Company, Chicago, 1922, p. 80.

66 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Out of the finer and better of these fats, called "butter fats," is made
oleomargarine or butterine. This food product appeared in 1866 and
has since come into extensive use. The butter fats average in weight
from 60 to 75 pounds to the animal, but a large percentage of this
weight is lost in processing. One Chicago plant has a capacity of 15
tons of oleomargarine in a day, and in a year has put out between 8
and 9 million pounds. Inedible tallow fat is manufactured into soaps,
glycerine, leather dressing, lubricants, illuminating oil, candles, and
other products.

Other by-products.-r-Lean meat trimmings are made into sausage.
Hair is used in plastering, manufacture of brushes and felt, and for
other purposes. The horns and hoofs, at one time considered a rubbish
nuisance, are now very valuable for the manufacture of combs, knife,
cane, and umbrella handles, and many other articles. Dried blood is
made into blood meal. Fibrous matter and scraps, after all the grease
has been extracted, are ground to meat meal tankage, widely used as
a hog feed. From all bone and cartilage the basic substance is ex-
tracted from which glue is made. Fully 18 per cent of dry bones is
glue, the rest is ground to fertilizer. One Chicago packing plant turns
out 8 million pounds of glue annually. From the intestines come
drum snares, sausage casings, brewer's hose, and snuff packages, while
the bladder yields packages for putty, snuff, and lard. From the
glands come various pharmaceutical preparations, such as extract of
thyroid, pituitary liquid, pineal substance, pancreatin, adrenahn,
pepsin, rennet, etc. The tail furnishes hair for mattresses and up-
holstering, and the bone and meat are used for making ox-tail soup.
Shank and thigh bones are cut into buttons, knife and tooth-brush
handles, and other articles. The tongue, head and cheek meat, tripe,
brains, heart, liver, and sweet-breads are sold for food. Tripe is
pickled stomachs. Sweet-breads are the thymus and pancreatic glands.
The contents of the stomach are burned under packing house boilers
and the ashes are used for fertilizer. Every part of the live animal is
utilized. Many of the finished by-products are manufactured by the
packers, and other by-products are sold partly processed to other firms
for final processing into finished products.

The price of live cattle depends upon the price the packer can get
for beef and by-products after taking into account his expenses of
operation. In the following table it will be noted that the packer paid
more for the live animal than he received from the sale of the beef
during the years 1915 to 1920 inclusive. But in 1921 and 1922 marked
decrease in value of by-products, accompanied by increase in freight
rates, made it impossible for the packer to pay as much for the live
animal as he received for the beef.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 67

Averages of Swift and Company's cattle, beef, and by-products operations, for fiscal
years 1915-1922, ending November 5^

Cost of Total

Fiscal live Beef By-product expenses Profit

years animal proceeds returns including and loss

freight

1915 $72.49 $63.28 $18.58 $ 7.73 $1.64

1916 73.68 63.98 19.08 7.73 1.65

1917 84.45 68.97 24.09 7.32 1.29

1918 92.70 81.45 22.06 9.79 1.02

1919 102.82 88.21 25.59 11.68 .70 loss

1920 93.85 86.31 21.17 13.69 .06 loss

1921 67.53 75.32 8.51 15.17 1.13

1922 64.72 67.25 13.45 13.46 2.52

Note that high freight rates affect the beef producer in two ways.
They not only increase the cost of marketing cattle, but they also
lessen the price the packer can pay for cattle after they reach the
market. The packer ships carlots of dressed beef and other products
from his plants to his branch houses located in all parts of the country.
High freight rates on dressed beef shipments operate to increase the
cost of beef to the consumer and to decrease the price paid the producer
for the live animals. Higher costs to the consumer tend to lessen beef
consumption. Thus, when freight rates are high, the producer is con-
fronted by higher marketing expenses, a lower price, and a lessened
demand. Freight rates are controlled by the Interstate Commerce
Commission. The packer is protected against high rates to a con-
siderable degree because his freight bill is passed along to producers
and consumers. The consumer has no recourse except to eat less beef,
and the producer has no recourse except to discontinue beef production
if it proves unprofitable.

Do packers control prices?— In the foregoing paragraph the writer
does not intend to intimate that the packer can at will mark down the
price of cattle and mark up the price of beef. There is competition
among packers and there is competition between packers and local
butchers who do their own slaughtering. Even assuming, as has been
charged, that some of the large packing companies are combined to
control prices, there is a narrow limit beyond which they cannot go
without injury to themselves. If they fix the price of dressed beef too
high they greatly lessen beef consumption. If they fix the price of
live cattle too low they greatly lessen production. In either case they
lessen the volume of their business, and volume of business is the most
important factor in the welfare of the large packing companies.
Packers are equipped with immense plants and employ large numbers
of people. In order to make a profit they must keep the wheels
turning; they must have a constant and adequate supply of live animals
and a constant outlet for beef. Fully 95 per cent of the beef produced

1 Swift and Company Year BcJbk, 1923, p. 16.

68 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

in the United States is sold in the fresh state. Fresh beef is a perish-
able product which must be kept moving out in a continuous stream
from the packing plant. If the packer paid the producer enough to
insure a supply of animals and then attempted to charge so high a
price for meats as to insure a huge profit despite restricted volume of
business, then many local butchers would stop buying packers' meats
and would do their own slaughtering, and farmers' cooperative packing
plants and other smaller packers would at once take advantage of the
opportunity to capture the trade by pricing their beef below the high
prices demanded by the large companies.

Suppose that packers should enter into a combination with pro-
ducers, agreeing to charge higher prices for beef and pay higher prices
for cattle. If this were attempted the market soon would be flooded
with cattle far beyond the capacity of the packing plants or the con-
suming public, and it would be impossible to maintain the higher price
for either beef or live cattle.

Through very high efficiency in packing methods and business
administration, and small profits on sales, certain packing companies
were enabled to underbid their competitors and build up large plants
and a large volume of business. Efficiency and narrow margins are
today just as essential in retaining this large volume of business as
they were in developing it.

By ingenuity and enterprise the huge packing business of this
country has been developed through continual improvement in methods
of slaughtering, handling, and distributing meats and in methods of
utilizing animal by-products, until the market for our surplus meat
production has been made world-wide and a constant, open, cash
market for live animals has been made possible.

From the live-stock producer's viewpoint it is best that we have
in this country a large, highly efficient, reasonably profitable, and stable
packing industry. If packing companies were continually going into
the hands of receivers because of bad management or for other reasons,
it would not be beneficial to either producers or consumers.

Large packers are continually in competition with small packers,
and all packers are continually in competition with retailers who do
their own slaughtering. If any combination of packing companies
fixes the prices of live animals, they have done a mighty poor job of it
in those years in which cattle producers have made large profits.

Summary. — It would seem that the packer is now doing his share
in supplying the people with good meat at a fair price. There can be
no further expansion in the line of getting more product out of the
animal, the limit in that direction having been reached. Further im-
provement in the quality and cheapening of the price of beef rests

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 69

largely with the grower or producer of live stock. Much may be done
on the production side of the business to bring about these results.
More feed must be grown per acre, feeding must be done more econom-
ically, and better animals must be bred and fed for the market in order
that greater returns may be secured for the feed consumed. The scrub
animal must be eliminated through increase in numbers and extension
of territory of the improved breeds of cattle. Thus more good pure-
bred sires will be made available for grading up the common cattle of
the country, and meats of better quality will be produced at lower cost.

CHAPTER IV

THE VALUE OF TYPE IN BEEF MAKING

In order to determine just what advantages are possessed by the
beef-type steer as compared with the dairy-tjrpe steer, some experi-
ments have been carried out which have resulted in interesting findings.
It has long been known that beef steers suit feeders and butchers better
than steers of dairy breeding. It has been claimed that beef steers
gain faster in proportion to feed consumed, that they fatten more
readily, dress out higher, yield a more valuable carcass, and hence
bring a higher price on the market. Experimental results have upheld
some of these views and disproved others.

\^ In 1903, the Iowa Experiment Station ^ conducted a series of ex-
periments dealing with the comparative merits of the two types for
beef production. The object was to provide answers to the following
questions: 1. Which type of steer makes the greater gains from
pounds of feed consumed? 2. In the gains made, what differences
exist between the two types as to distribution of such gains over the
body? 3. Which type of steer yields the greater profit to the feeder?
4, Which type shows the greater amount of offal? 5. Which type
carries the higher percentage of tallow? 6. Which tjT^e carries the
higher percentage of valuable cuts? 7. In considering the various
commercial cuts from the two types, what differences are to be found
as regards weight, thickness, covering of fat, marbling, color, and fine-
ness of grain? 8. Is the low price paid for dairy-type steers due to
prejudice, or to an actual inferiority in the value of the carcasses?

Four beef-type steers and four dairy-type steers were put on feed
January 1, 1903, and fed one year. The steers were on dry feed during
the entire time, so that the exact amount of feed consumed by each
lot might be known. Of the four beef steers, two were high-grade
Herefords, and two, purebred Angus. The four dairy steers consisted
of two Jerseys and two Holsteins. The ages at the beginning of the
test were approximately as follows: Average of Herefords, 16 months;
of Angus, 18 months; of Holsteins, 24 months; and of Jerseys, 18
months. The feeds given were mixed hay, sorghum (during July and
August), corn meal, bran, oil meal, and gluten feed. The conditions
were alike for all the animals, and the feed was the same, but each
animal was given all he would clean up regularly. At the end of the

ilowa Bui. 20.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 71

feeding test the cattle were bought in separate lots by the head buyer
of a packing company of Des Moines, Iowa. The prices given were
the market prices for such steers, December 28, 1903.

Following is a summary of the first part of the investigation:

Beef Dairy

steers steers

Average weight at beginning, lbs 685 574

Average gain per steer, lbs 606 598

Average value of feed consumed per steer $47.27 $45.18

Average cost of one pound of gain 7.81c 7.63c

Percentage of dressed weight in slaugter test 61.7 57.15

Selling value, average price per pound 4.888c 3.752c

The dairy-type steers made their gains at a trifle less cost per
pound than did the beef steers, indicating that their digestive and

Fig. 17. — Dairy-type steer. Jersey steer in the Iowa experiment at end of
feeding period. Note the slack crops and fore-rib, paunchiness, and lack of muscling
in this steer.

assimilative functions were slightly more vigorous in this instance.
The gains made by the dairy steers were not distributed on the body;
in such a way as to command the highest prices. The beef-type steers
made a large proportion of their gains on the back, loin, and hind-
quarters, while the dairy-type steers showed but little increase in thick-
ness on these parts.

The beef-type steers were far more profitable to the feeder, for
although both lots made approximately the same total gains, and al-
though the average of the four dairy-type steers compared with the
average of the four beef-type steers shows that the former made his

72 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

600 pounds of gain cheaper by $1.70 than did the latter, nevertheless
this 600 pounds gain of the beef steer brought $7.18 more on the
market. When $1.70 is deducted from $7.18 there is left $5.48 profit
in favor of the beef animals, or a total of nearly $22 for the four head.
Nor does this represent all the financial advantage of the beef-type
steer, for the value of the initial weight (685 lbs. ) of the beef steer was
increased to a greater degree by feeding than was the value of the
initial weight of the dairy-type steer. The report of the experiment
furnishes no initial valuations, hence a complete accounting in this
regard cannot be made.

Following are the weights of the cuts from the carcasses, expressed
in percentages of the total carcass weight ; also the wholesale and re-
tail prices of these cuts:

Weights in Wholesale price Retail price

percentages per pound per pound

Beef Dairy Beef Dairy Beef Dairy

Ribs 9.27 8.80 12.25 10.25 17.6 16.

Chuck 25.97 26.78 5.5 5.1 10. 10.

Brisket 5.92 5.72 4. 4. 6. 6.

Plate 3.85 3.48 4. 4. 6. 6.

Navel 3.00 2.72 4. 4.

Shank meat 53 .66 5. 5.

Shank beef 2.60 3.04 2.5 2.5

Loin 17.55 17.09 14.9 12.5

Round 17.74 18.88 7. 7.

Rump 5.19 4.78 7. 7.

Flank steak 66 .58 10. 10.

Flank beef 2.16 1.67 5. 5.

Cod fat 1.98 1.56 3.5 3.5

Suet 3.48 4.18 3.5 3.5

NOTE: S, sirloin; P, porterhouse.

It will be observed that the carcasses were cut up into a greater
number of parts than result from the regular method of cutting ex-
plained in the previous chapter, but the differences in the cuts are not
great enough to prevent a full understanding of the above table.

On the basis of the above figures we are able to determine the
relative profits of the beef- and dairy-type steers to the wholesaler or
packer. This is shown as follows:

Beef steers Dairy steers

Cost of 4 live steers $242.52 $170.64

Cost of killing at $1.50 per head 6.00 6.00

2.8

'S.17.6

16.

tP.23.1

21.

12.

10.

12.5

3.5

Cost of carcasses and offal $248.52 $176.64

Received from sale of hides, tallow, and tongue 36.13 30.27

Cost of dressed beef $212.39 $146.37

Cost of dressed beef per lb 0715 .0583

Actual wholesale returns when beef was sold 232.61 179.83

Margin between cost and selling price of dressed beef 20.22 33.46

The last item in the above table is interesting. It shows that
there was $20.22 margin for the beef- type steers and $33.46 for the

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 73

dairy-type steers, or a difference of $13.24 in favor of the dairy-type
cattle. If this difference in margins were appHed to the live-weight
price of the dairy-type steers, their price per cwt. would have been 28
cents higher; in other words the dairy-type steers would have brought
4 cents per pound, instead of 3>^ cents.

At a meat demonstration in January, 1904, conducted by Mr.
John Gosling, some further important differences were brought out
between the cuts from the dairy- and beef-type carcasses. Mr. Gosling
is recognized as one of the leading authorities on meats in this country.
In grading the carcasses, he placed three of the beef-tj^De carcasses as

Fig. 18. — Dairy-type steer. Holstein steer in the Iowa experiment. His flat
ribs, ridgy back, and angular appearance are characteristic of steers of dairy breeding.

No. 1, and the other as No. 2. Two of the dairy-type carcasses were
graded No. 2, and the other two as No. 3. The color of the flesh was
fairly good in all eight of the carcasses, although in the Jersey car-
casses it was somewhat dark. The external color (or color of the fat)
was good in all except one, a Jersey, which killed very yellow. The
other Jersey killed very white, although, as a rule, carcasses of Jerseys
or grade Jerseys are very yellow. The spines in the backbone of the
dairy-type carcasses were hard, indicating the early maturity of the
dairy type. They were much more cartilaginous in the beef-type car-
casses, although the ages were nearly the same. The fore-ribs from the
dairy-type steers were light and lacking in marbling. The Holstein
ribs lacked depth, and were very irregular and rough. The dairy-type
steers carried more kidney fat or suet; this is a cheap product which

74 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

increases the dressing percentage, but reduces the value of the carcass
when excessive.

The answers to the questions asked at the beginning of the experi-
ment are, therefore, as follows: 1. The gains from pounds of feed
consumed are practically the same for both the beef and dairy types.
2. The beef -type steer uses his gains to slight advantage as compared
with the dairy-type, placing a slightly greater percentage of his gains
in the valuable cuts. 3. The beef-tj^De steer yields the greater profit
to the feeder. 4. The dairy-type steer shows the greater amount of
offal. 5. The dairy-type steer carries the higher percentage of tallow.
6. As regards the percentage of valuable cuts, there is very little dif-
ference; if any, it is in favor of the beef-type steer. 7. The beef-type
steer yields cuts that are heavier, thicker, usually covered with whiter
fat, nicer in marbling, and a little better in color of muscle. There is
no apparent difference in fineness of grain. 8. The low price paid for
dairy steers may be due partially to prejudice, and to the greater ex-
pense of carrying and selling the low-grade carcasses, but it is chiefly
due to an actual inferiority in the carcasses. They are unsatisfactory
to the consumer, because they do not furnish thick and well-marbled
cuts; they are unsatisfactory to the butcher, because they furnish low-
grade carcasses which are difficult to dispose of; and they are decidedly
unsatisfactory to the feeder, because they yield him little or no profit,
and both breeder and feeder waste their time in producing such a type
of steer for beef purposes.

In an earlier experiment at the Iowa Station, James Wilson and
C. F. Curtiss found the quantity of fat about the internal organs of
fat steers of the various breeds to be as follows:

Breed Average dressed Loose Per cent of

weight tallow loose tallow

to beef

Shorthorn 1,092 145 13.3

Hereford 1,022 129 12.6

Red Polled 990 125 12.6

Galloway 1,088 147 13.5

Angus 1,137 157 13.8

Devon 815 123 15.0

Swiss 1,017 119 11.7

Holstein 862 155 17.9

Jersey 880 166 18.8

This table gives further evidence of the tendency of the dairy
breeds to deposit proportionately more fat about the intestines, paunch,
kidneys, and caul. Experiments at the Kansas Station substantiate
the results of the Iowa investigations.

Why the dairy steer lacks thick flesh. — The experimental results
set forth above emphasize the lack of thickness in the cuts from the
dairy steer. In other words, the dairy steer is decidedly lacking in

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

muscular development. Mr. John Gosling has continually emphasized
this point in his annual meat demonstrations at the Iowa State College.
He has conclusively shown that there is a very marked difference in
the amount of muscle or lean meat present at birth in calves of dairy
ancestry as contrasted with those of good beef breeding, and he has
also shown that from a practical standpoint, at least, feeding does not
increase the relative proportion of muscle in the make-up of an animal.
His demonstration in January, 1918, included a beef calf and a dairy

Fig. 19. — Carcasses of beef and dairy calves. These calves were slaughtered
when less than a week old. Neither carcass showed any degree of fat. Note the
muscling in round, rump, loin, rib, shoulder, arm, and neck of the beef calf on the
left as compared to the dairy calf on the right.

calf, less than a week old, which were not selected for veals, but were
used to demonstrate the vast difference in the natural flesh or muscle
present at birth in these two types of cattle. The accompanying
illustrations show the difference. There was no visible fat on either
of them, but the beef calf was thick, plump, and rounding, with muscles
like the breast of a quail, while the dairy calf was flat and thin in all
parts. The beef calf was thick in neck and arm, broad of back and

76 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

loin, full in rump, bulging in thighs, and carried his beef to the hocks.
The dairy calf was scrawny in his neck, ridgy along the spine, narrow
and shabby over the rump, and light and tapering in his rounds. The
evidence is unquestionable. Fat can be put on by feeding, but the
muscle comes only by inheritance. The dairy calf is "born wrong"
from a beef standpoint, and no known method of feeding and manage-
ment can correct its deficiency.

Henry and Morrison of the Wisconsin Station discuss the com-
parative merits of beef- type and dairy-type steers as follows: ^

Fig. 20.— Carcasses of beef and dairy calves. Back view of carcasses shown
in Fig. 19. Beef calf on left, dairy calf on right. Note the rounds, rumps, loins,
backs, shoulders, and necks. The marked difference in muscling inherited by these
two calves is plainly evident.

"Beyond that which can be expressed in figures or stated percent-
agely lies that indefinable something described by the word 'quality'
which enters into all objects of barter. No one can compare a bunch
of well-fed beef-bred steers with one representing the dairy breeds with-
out being impressed by a difference not measured by the scales

The matter at issue may be illustrated by a condition in the fruit

iFeeds and Feeding, 1915, p. 443.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 77

world: No orchardist will hold that the Baldwin apple tree necessarily
grows faster than the seedling apple tree, or that it will make wood
and fruit on less material from soil and air. Neither will he hold that
Baldwin trees necessarily yield more barrels of fruit than seedlings,
nor that a given measure of Baldwin apples contains more juice or
human food than the same measure of common seedling apples. Fruit
growers do rightfully assert, however, that the market wants Baldwin
apples and will pay more for them than for common seedling fruit,
and that from this judgment of the market, be it reasonable or un-
reasonable, there is no appeal. Beef cattle have been bred for meat
production — it would be passing strange if they did not excel for that
purpose."

CHAPTER V

AMERICAN CATTLE MARKETS

Producers of beef cattle use various methods of marketing their
stock, depending largely on their location and the number of animals
to be sold. The principal methods are as follows: ^^X

1. Cattle may be sold to the local stock buyer or drover for ship-
ment to central markets.

2. They may be shipped to a central market through a coopera-
tive shipping association and sold at the market by a commission
firm which acts as the association's agent.

3. They may be shipped direct by the producer to the central
market and sold by a commission firm which acts as his agent.

4. They may be sold to local butchers or cattle feeders.

5. They may be sold to a packer buyer in the country or shipped
direct to the packing house.

6. They may be slaughtered on the farm and the meat consumed
on the farm or sold locally.

In addition to these there are special methods of marketing such
as (a) auction sales, (b) selling on the range direct to buyers from a
distance, and (c) selling on mail orders.

Over half of the cattle marketed in the United States pass through
the central markets. In 1917, 76 per cent were marketed in this
manner, following which there was a steady decline to 67 per cent in
1921. 1 /

The large cattle markets'/of the United States are located in the
central part of the country. With the West and Central West on the
one hand as the great breeding and feeding ground, and with the East
on the other as the chief region of consumption, it is logical that the
large markets have a central location. The estimated center of beef
production in the United States is in central Kansas, and the center of
beef consumption is in western Ohio, over 700 miles eastward. Be-
tween these two is the center of beef slaughter in western Illinois. ^
Following are the 15 largest cattle markets and their receipts of cattle,
including calves, for three years: ^

1 Sheets, Baker, Gibbons, Stine, and Wilcox: Our Beef Supply, U. S. Dept.
Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 278.
2Ibid, p. 315.
3 Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Book of Figures for 1922.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock , 79

Receipts of cattle, including calves, at large central markets, 1920-1922

Market 1922 1921 1920

1. Chicago 3,934,498 3,539,538 3,849,495

2. Kansas City 2,983,094 2,469,442 2,500,166

3. Omaha 1,744,251 1,434,576 1,602,799

4. St. Louis 1,400,333 1,077,260 1,253,550

5. St. Paul 1,386,932 984,826 1,373,114

6. Fort Worth 1,084,201 983,802 1,134,323

7. Pittsburgh 866,764 745,100 732,770

8. Sioux City 746,983 620,373 751,658

9. Buffalo 637,349 609,063 676,676

10. St. Joseph 654,552 558,040 642,899

11. Denver 656,245 481,502 616,565

12. Indianapolis 508,814 483,097 597,097

13. Milwaukee 504,324 438,720 443,947

14. Cincinnati 445,554 453,974 441,044

15. Oklahoma City 382,341 315,113 399,706

Totals 17,936,235 15,194,426 17,015,809

The U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics reports that
23,217,038 cattle and calves were received at 68 stock yards in 1922.
The 15 markets listed above received 77 per cent of this total.

There are no large cattle markets in other countries which compare
with the larger markets in the United States. South American markets
may in time approach our own in size. American packers are now
operating plants in Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, and Paraguay. Pack-
ing plants are one of the most essential factors in the creation of large
central markets.

The Chicago market, the largest cattle market in the world,
received 3,163,009 cattle and 771,489 calves in 1922. Cattle weighing
300 pounds or less are classed as calves. The total value of cattle
received at Chicago in 1922, excluding calves, was $248,595,111.
Their average value per head was $78.60. Their average weight was
996 pounds. Their average price per cwt. was $7.90. The number
of cattle received at Chicago direct from western ranges in 1922 was
265,700. Chicago does not receive as many of these as do some of
the markets located farther west. Western range cattle direct from
the West are marketed at Chicago from July to December inclusive,
and they usually constitute about 10 per cent of all cattle received
during the year. The total value of the calves received was $10,551,660;
their average value was $13.65; their average weight was 141 pounds;
and their average price per cwt. was $9.70.

Sources of receipts. — The corn-growing area of the Mississippi and
Missouri valleys affords the best facilities for the production of meat
animals, and this area is tapped at many points by lines of railway
centering in Chicago. The corn-fed cattle of Iowa, Nebraska, Mis-
souri, Kansas, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, and the grass-fed cattle of
Montana, Wyoming, the Dakotas, and Texas, have easy access to

80 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Chicago. Steers are sold in Chicago that were born in Texas, matured
in Montana, and finished in an Iowa feed-lot. Sheep often experience
similar wanderings before reaching market, but hogs usually come
direct from the farm on which they were farrowed.

Average carloads.-'-Reports of stock yards and railroads show that
the average number of meat animals to the carload is for cattle about
25, hogs in single-deck cars about 75, and sheep about 120 per deck.
These figures represent mere averages. The number of animals per
car varies greatly depending on the age and size of the animals. For
example, a stock car 36 feet long will hold 55 calves weighing 400
pounds each, 35 yearlings weighing 700 pounds, 25 cattle averaging
1,000 pounds, 21 cattle weighing 1,200 pounds, or 19 cattle weighing
1,400 pounds each.

Shrinkage of beef cattle in transit.-r-In an investigation made in
1913 by W. F. Ward of the U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry, ^ cattle
in transit less than 24 hours shrank from 2.05 to 3. 91 per cent. Those
in transit from 24 to 36 hours shrank from 3.46 to 6.37 per cent. Those
in transit from 36 to 72 hours shrank 3.88 to 5.40 per cent. Those in
transit over 72 hours shrank from 3.96 to 7.00 per cent. These figures
are based on weight at origin and "filled" weight at market.

The fill.^Commission men who sell live stock on the large markets
are always careful that the cattle consigned to them get plenty of hay
and water before they are offered for sale. This is called the "fill,"
and it is important because it has a quieting effect on the cattle, corrects
the gaunt appearance caused by shipping, and adds weight to the
animal. The buyer estimates the fill in various ways, particularly by
the degree of paunchiness. Hence the fill does not constitute a fourth
factor of the dressing percentage, but is included under paunchiness.
On hot days when cattle take a heavy fill of water, buyers stay off the
market as long as possible.

Monthly weights of Chicago cattle. — The writer tabulated the
average monthly weights of cattle at Chicago for ten years, 1913 to
1922 inclusive, and then determined the monthly averages for the entire
ten-year period. The average weight for April at 1,002 pounds was
highest, and the average October weight at 959 pounds was lowest.
The general average for the ten years was 981 pounds. Following are
the ten-year averages for all months: ^

^U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 25, pp. 73, 74.

^Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Average monthly

of cattle at Chicago for ten years

Weight
Month Pounds

January 977

February 986

March 979

April 1,002

May 994

June 1,000

»T .u Weight

Month Pounds

July 980

August 987

September 965

October (959)

November 968

December 971

Seasonal variations in receipts and sale of cattle at Chicago. —

Fig. 21 shows the average monthly receipts of cattle, excluding calves,
at Chicago for ten years. Largest receipts occur in September, October,
November, December, and January, especially in October and Novem-
ber. Large receipts at this season are due to the heavy run of grass-

IHI QicQQo 5lQU(]Wer m^ oKipped ^or 5lau(|hter ^^ Onipped jor reeaina

Fig. 21. — Average monthly receipts and shipments of cattle, excluding calves,
at Chicago in thousands for ten years, 1909-1913 and 1917-1921. The years 1914-
1916 were omitted because of embargoes on shipments during much of that period.
The total length of each bar represents average monthly receipts. The divisions of
the bar represent the average number of Chicago cattle sold monthly for local slaugh-
ter, shipment to other points for slaughter, and shipment to the country for feeding
(or breeding) purposes.

fed cattle in the fall. (During the ten years included in this study,
largest receipts occurred in October five times, in November twice, in
December once, and in January twice.) About 40 per cent of the
year's total receipts arrive during the last four months of the year, and
about 50 per cent in these months and January. ^ From February to

^The same is true of average monthly receipts at 67 stock yards in the United
States.— U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 286.

82 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

July inclusive, monthly receipts are smaller and quite uniform. (These
months included all of the low points during the ten years.) Over 50
per cent more cattle are received at Chicago in October than in April,
but monthly receipts of cattle are less variable than those of sheep or
hogs, as may be noted by comparing Fig. 21 with Fig. 81 and Fig.
132.

As shown in the chart, about 64 per cent of the cattle received at
Chicago are slaughtered there, 23.5 per cent are shipped to other points
for slaughter, and 12.5 per cent are returned to the country for feeding. ^
In September, October, November, and December, the movement of
feeders is at its height. During these four months 17 per cent of the
cattle received at Chicago are sold for feeding purposes, and these con-
stitute over 50 per cent of the total number of feeder cattle shipped
from Chicago during the year. The feeder outlet helps to maintain
prices for all cattle during the season of large receipts. Most feeders
are fattened and returned to market before June 1, thus helping to
maintain supplies during the season of light receipts.

Movements of live stock are largely controlled by such factors as
the limits of the grazing season, the maturity of crops for feeding,
distribution of labor, etc., and it is not advisable that monthly ship-
ments of cattle to market shall be equalized, yet it is at the same time
true that a more even distribution is, within limits, desirable to both
producer and consumer.

Early cattle markets.-^A century ago cattle markets were small
and largely local in character. The "West" at that time was com-
prised of Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiana. There were no railroads, no
live-stock cars, no refrigerator cars, no steamships, and no large live-
stock markets. Every large town had its own stock yards or cattle
market to which cattle were driven from the surrounding country and
sold to butchers. In time, New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and
Baltimore became rather large markets, and in some instances cattle
were driven long distances to supply them.

Early methods of transportation .r — This was before the days of
railroads, and even after the railroads came, very few live animals were
carried until about 1860. Prior to 1850, it was the general practice to
drive live stock to market on foot. At that time, in many parts of the
country, pasturage was free along the routes, and the animals were
driven by easy stages, reaching market without very much deprecia-
tion. George Renick, of Ohio, was perhaps the first man to find an
outlet for cattle fattened in what was then "The West." In 1805,
against the advice of his neighbors, he successfully drove 68 head of

lAt 67 markets about 20 per cent of all cattle and calves are sold for feeding.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 286.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 83

cattle to Baltimore and disposed of them at a profit. ^ This gave a
great impetus to the western cattle business of that time and afforded
a means of marketing corn. Droves of 150 to 500 cattle, mostly four-
or five-year-old steers, were fattened on corn and driven overland in
spring and summer. From 1840 to 1850 Ohio and Kentucky supplied
most of the corn-fed cattle on eastern markets. ^

One route from Kentucky to New York City covered about 800
miles and required over ten weeks to complete it. Drives to the eastern
seaboard were made from as far west as Iowa, and even Texas cattle
passed eastward in this manner. Sheep were driven across country
also, notably from Vermont to Virginia. Large numbers of hogs were
driven to market, but they were a more active type than the modern
fat hog. By 1860, few hogs were driven any considerable distance. '
Today we do not even drive hogs from the farm to the shipping point,
but haul them in wagons.

The advent of transportation by rail * marked a decided turning
point in the live-stock industry and the live-stock markets. Western
cattle were then sold on eastern markets throughout the year. Pro-
ducers of grass-fattened cattle in the East could not compete with them,
and Ohio feeding also declined in competition with the cheaper grass
cattle of Illinois. By 1860 the railroads extended west of the Mis-
sissippi, and central Illinois and eastern Iowa became a great cattle
feeding district. Then came the development of the range cattle
industry of the Great Plains from 1870 to 1885, reaching its maximum
development between 1890 and 1900.

Development of large markets. — As long as markets were simply
the scene of barter in live animals for local use, no large markets were
developed. About 1820 pork packing was begun, and this furnished
the first impetus to the creation of large markets of more than mere
local importance. Pork could be pickled, salted, and smoked, and the
fat rendered into lard, and the products thus produced could be shipped
to distant points. As these products met with good demand, pork
packing was the natural beginning of a vast meat-manufacturing busi-
ness, tending to centralize the hog markets, and much increase them in
size. So far as cattle were concerned, however, the development was
not parallel. Outside of an article known as "barreled beef," which
was put down in salt, packers had found no method of handling
beef as they did hogs. Not until the era of the refrigerator
car, beginning in 1875, were cattle of much interest to packers.

lAlvin H. Sanders: Shorthorn Cattle, 1900, p. 192.
2U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 233.

3 Frank Andrews: Cost and Methods of Transporting Meat Animals, U. S.
Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1908, p. 228.

*V. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 234-238.

84 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

and not until that time did the large cattle markets reach a
maximum development.

The cattle markets of the United States migrated from east to
west, following closely upon the development of the country. It was
at one time believed that Albany was to be the final gateway for western
cattle. Next Buffalo, Pittsburgh, and Cincinnati were in turn regarded
as the future great market of the country; but eventually it became
evident that Chicago, by virtue of location and railroad facilities, was
to become and remain the largest cattle market in America. This
fact was clearly established by 1870.

With the development of the corn belt and western range cattle
industry, markets established at various points on the Great Lakes
and along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers became the most im-
portant. This is a natural result of the fact that the states west of
the Mississippi produce about 80 per cent of our beef cattle, 50 per
cent of our hogs, and 75 per cent of our sheep, while the states east of
the Mississippi consume about 68 per cent of our total meat produc-
tion. Most of the principal slaughtering points and principal markets
are near the areas of large production because dressed meat may be
shipped more economically than live animals, due to lower freight costs
and elimination of deaths, injuries, bruises, and shrinkage in transit. ^

Chicago's early cattle trade. — The history of Chicago as a cattle
market extends back many years to the time when a few hundred
animals were driven in to supply the garrison at old Fort Dearborn.
It was not until the advent of railroads, however, that Chicago took
prominence as a live-stock center. When railroad communication with
the Atlantic seaboard was established and lines were built from Lake
Michigan toward the Mississippi, a revolution was brought about.
Half a dozen stock yards were located in various parts of the city, and
when these became glutted, the cattle were grazed on the surrounding
prairie until a price could be realized. Mess pork and barreled beef
were staple articles known to the trade under the appetizing names of
"sow belly" and "salt horse." Dressed beef was then unknown to
commerce, artificial refrigeration was not even speculated upon, the
refrigerator car existed merely as an idea, if at all, and the canning
of meats had not been attempted. Armour was not a prominent
name at that time. Swift had not yet discovered Chicago, and nearly
every concern then engaged in the manufacture of meats has since
gone out of business.

Founding of the Union Stock Yards.+^Prior to 1865, Chicago had
several stock yards of minor importance and located in different sec-

1 Studies in Live-Stock Marketing, The Geography of Meat Production and
Consumption, Commercial Research Dept., Swift and Conipany, Chicago, Jan., 1922.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 85

tions of the city. The first was the old Bull's Head Stock Yards,
opened in 1848. In 1865, John B. Sherman organized the Union Stock
Yard and Transit Company, which purchased 320 acres at 39th and
Halsted streets and opened the present Union Stock Yards, thus laying
the basis for a greater live-stock trade at Chicago. In 1876 the
market could accommodate at one time 20,000 cattle, 100,000 hogs,
15,000 sheep, and 1,000 horses— in all, 136,000 animals. The Kansas
City Stock Yards was opened in 1871, the National Stock Yards,
located in Illinois, but known as the St. Louis market, was opened in
1872, and the Omaha Stock Yards was established in 1884. ^

The Union Stock Yards today.— The Union Stock Yard and
Transit Company receives, unloads, counts, yards, feeds, waters,
weighs, and delivers or reships live stock, but neither buys, sells, nor
slaughters animals. It is a great transportation and marketing cor-
poration, which connects all of the 26 railway systems entering Chicago
with the Union Stock Yards, and provides unloading platforms, chutes,
pens, buildings, and all necessary facilities for doing an immense daily
business in handling live animals, but takes no part in the transaction
of the market. Stock yard companies derive their revenue from pen
rentals, charges for feed, and rental of office space.

The Chicago yards now occupy an area of 500 acres, 450 of which
are paved. Separate accommodations are provided for each kind of
stock; sheep and hogs are kept in sheds of two or more stories each,
and cattle occupy open pens holding from one to several carloads.
These yards would hold at one time 75,000 cattle, 125,000 sheep,
300,000 hogs, and 6,000 horses and mules. Since 1900, a yearly aver-
age of more than 15 million animals have found a cash market at
Chicago. Since 1865, over 128 million cattle, 12 million calves, 360
million hogs, 150 million sheep, and 3 million horses and mules have
been handled, making a grand total of over 656 million animals, the
value of which was nearly 15 billion dollars. The business sometimes
amounts to $5,000,000 in a day, and averages well over $1,500,000 for
every business day of the year. Not infrequently 2,000 carloads of
stock are received on Monday or Wednesday, the largest market days.
Prices established on this leading market form the basis of values for
live stock at other markets and throughout the country.

Essential factors in a large market.— Arthur C. Davenport,
manager of the Chicago Daily Drovers Journal, states ^ that the more
essential interests which promote and make possible the development
of large live-stock markets are transportation companies, stock yards

1 Arthur C. Davenport: The American Live Stock Market— How It Functions,
1922, p. 16.

«Ibid, p. 19.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 87

corporations, commission houses, packing companies, local butchers,
order buyers, export buyers, speculators or scalpers, traders or dealers
in feeders, banking houses and loan companies, and daily market news-
papers. Order buyers buy fat stock for packers and butchers located
at a distance from the market. Export buyers make purchases for
shipment to foreign countries. Speculators and traders buy all kinds
of stock that offers a chance for resale at a profit. They frequently
buy mixed loads, sort them, and resell to various classes of buyers.
Traders are speculators who deal largely in feeder cattle, sheep, and pigs.

Commission firms rent blocks of pens from the stock yards com-
pany and sell the live stock consigned to them. They also buy feeders
and fat stock on orders. The commission company remits to the con-
signor the amount received for animals sold, less charges for freight,
yardage, feed, commission, insurance, and any other marketing ex-
penses. As success in the commission business rests upon soundness of
judgment, honesty, and skill, very few consignors undertake to do
their own selling, but do it more profitably through the medium of the
commission man.

The live-stock exchange is the organization of the commission
firms operating on the market. It fixes commission charges, adjusts
disputes, enforces rules to prevent fraud, and handles claims for loss
and damage of live stock. The live-stock exchanges at various markets
are in turn members of the National Live-Stock Exchange. Specula-
tors and traders are not eligible to membership in the live-stock ex-
change. They have a similar organization of their own known as the
"traders' live-stock exchange," and there is also a National Traders'
Live-Stock Exchange.

How cattle are sold. — ^When cattle are yarded in the pens of the
commission company and have been fed and watered, they are offered
for sale by a representative of the commission company. Packer
buyers, order buyers, export buyers, local butchers, or speculators may
buy them. All sales of cattle, sheep, and hogs are made at private
treaty. The salesman names his price, the buyer offers his bid, and the
salesman accepts or rejects it. All live stock except milkers and
springers, horses, and mules are priced and sold by the hundredweight,
and the nickel is the smallest denomination in which prices are quoted.
As soon as a sale is made the cattle are driven to the scales and weighed
by the stock yards company. On the scales ticket are recorded the
weight, number of animals, and price per cwt., and the names of the
consignor, commission firm, and buyer. All sales are for spot cash,
and most of the live stock is sold on the day of arrival.

Charges for yardage, feed, and commission. — Yardage at Chicago
costs 30 cents per head for cattle and 20 cents for calves. Hay costs

88 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

$30 to $40 per ton. The commission charges for selling cattle at
Chicago are as follows: Cattle in car lots, 90 cents per head; mini-
mum per car $18, maximum $24. Calves in car lots 40 cents per head ;
single-deck cars, minimum $18, maximum $24; double-deck cars, mini-
mum $26, maximum $30. Less than 15 cattle in one car, $1.25 per
head. Less than 28 calves in one car, 60 cents per head.

Government supervision.— On August 15, 1921, Congress passed
the Packers and Stock Yards Act v^hich gives the Secretary of Agricul-
ture supervision of packers and all others engaged in business at public
stock yards. In his annual report for 1921 ^ Secretary Henry C.
Wallace states that by this act "the packers are prohibited from any
unfair, unjustly discriminatory, or deceptive practices or devices," and
"commission merchants, persons furnishing stock yards services, and
dealers at yards are required to establish, observe, and enforce just, rea-
sonable, and nondiscriminatory rates." Fines are provided as penal-
ties. Packers and others may appeal to the courts in case of dispute.
The rulings of the Secretary are not final unless upheld by the courts.

Cooperation in live-stock marketing. — During recent years the
cooperative movement in the production and marketing of agricultural
products has made great strides in the United States. In the live-
stock industry this movement has taken the form of cooperative
shipping associations, commission companies, v^^ool pools, bull associa-
tions, cow-testing associations, consignment sales of purebred live stock,
and breeders' associations for collective advertising, selling, etc. Pro-
ducers have also cooperated to establish and operate creameries, pack-
ing plants, and other manufactures of live-stock products.

The cooperative live-stock shipping association is an organization
of producers tributary to a local shipping point. The association ap-
points a manager who loads and ships carload lots of stock made up
by members, receives reports and proceeds of sales, and apportions the
proceeds to members. For his services the manager receives a com-
mission on each carload. Each member's animals are marked to dis-
tinguish them and when sold at the market they are weighed separately,
and, if necessary, are also sold separately. If the carload is uniform,
separate selling may not be required. This system gives the small
producer with a few animals the opportunity to sell his stock on the
central market. Without it the small producer must sell his stock
locally, either to the local stock buyer, local butcher, or near-by feeder.
Shipping associations often buy feed cooperatively, and sometimes buy
live stock cooperatively.

As early as 1908 a cooperative shipping association was organized
at Litchfield, Minn., and during the 14 years ending in 1921 this

^U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 33, 34.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 89

association shipped a total of 2,057 cars of stock to the St. Paul market.
The gross receipts were $3,702,266. Detailed figures for the last five
years of this period show that the members received 96.12 per cent of
the market price of their stock. However, Litchfield is only 80 miles
from the St. Paul stock yards, so that freight and switching charges
constitute less than 40 per cent of all marketing expenses. ^ Over 600
of these associations are now more or less active in Minnesota. It is
reported that approximately one-fourth of Iowa's shipments were
marketed cooperatively in 1920, and that during the same year Wis-
consin had about 500 cooperative shipping associations which handled
about 65 per cent of the live stock marketed by that state. ^ Johnson
County.. Mo., has nine live-stock shipping associations, eight of which
shipped a total of 501 cars of stock during 1922. The movement has
also spread to other states.

Cooperative live-stock commission companies are a more recent
development. The cooperative commission company is owned and
controlled by the cooperative shipping associations and individual pro-
ducers tributary to the market at which it is located. The company
has a salaried manager who employs assistants, salesmen, and clerks
and conducts the business along the same lines as the privately ovmed
commission company. Some cooperative companies charge the same
commission rates as the private companies, and some charge lower
rates. In either case the profits over and above dividends on capital
stock and requirements of the sinking fund are prorated to members
according to the number of cars consigned by each of them. This
saving in commission expenses is the principal purpose of the coopera-
tive commission company. Cooperative companies are now operat-
ing at ten of the largest markets, and others are in process of
organization. The first one was established at Omaha about five years
ago. The one at St, Joseph declared a patronage dividend or refund
of over $9 per car on 4,818 carloads handled in 1921. The one at St.
Louis declared a patronage dividend or refund of $6 per car on 6,650
carloads sold in 1922. The largest and perhaps the most successful is
the Central Cooperative Commission Association at the St. Paul
market which sold 15,570 cars of stock in 1922 (its second year) for a
total of $21,756,000. Its operating expenses amounted to $8.27 per
car. It charged $2 less commission per car than the private companies
at St. Paul and declared a patronage refund to its members of about
$6 per car of cattle and about $4 per single-deck car of hogs and sheep.
With efficient management the success of the cooperative live-stock
commission company seems assured.

HJ. S. Dept. Agr., Agricultural Cooperation, Jan. 29, 1923.
2U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 279.

90 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

From farm to market.^— Briefly, the steps by which cattle usually
pass from the farm and feedlot to the central market, and through the
market and to their final destination, are as follows:

1. Driven from farm to shipping point.

2. Loaded on car.

3. Station agent makes out way bill indicating to what market
shipped and to whom consigned.

4. Car delivered by railroad to terminal railroad at destination.

5. Terminal railroad spots car at market's unloading chutes.

6. Stock yards company immediately unloads, counts, records,
and delivers the cattle to commission company at its pens, and feeds
and waters the stock in accordance with instructions from commission
company.

7. Commission company sells to packer buyer, order buyer,
speculator, trader, export buyer, or local butcher.

8. Stock yards company then weighs, counts, records, and de-
livers or reships the animals to their final destination.

9. Commission company immediately remits proceeds of sale to
owner, less cost of freight, yardage, feed, commission, and other
charges.

10. Commission company pays for freight, yardage, feed, and
other marketing charges, having retained from proceeds of sale an
amount sufficient to cover these items and its commission.

Development of the packing industry. — The term "packer" origi-
nated in the early days of the meat business in this country, when the
packing or putting down of cured meats, especially pork products,
was the principal business of all large wholesale butchers. The first
regular packer in the West was Elisha Mills, an easterner who began
at Cincinnati in 1818.^

As previously mentioned, hogs benefitted from the packing opera-
tions of early days to a greater degree than cattle. Packers could not
handle beef on a large scale until the invention of artificial refrigeration
and the substitution of the tin can for the oak barrel. Arthur Libby
introduced canned corn beef in 1874, which was followed by many
other palatable canned preparations. James Macdonald, of Aberdeen,
Scotland, a noted agricultural writer who visited the Chicago stock
yards in 1877, states ^ that about 250,000 cattle were slaughtered at
Chicago in 1876, and that more than three-fourths of these were
handled by two firms, the Wilson Packing Company and Libby, Mc-
Neill and Libby. He further states that about half of the beef was

1 Rudolf A. Clemen, Economics Dept., Northwestern University: Development
of American Meat Packing, National Provisioner, Feb. 12, 1921, p. 18.
»Food From the Far West, Edinburgh, 1878, p. 187.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

canned and the remainder put down in barrels and tierces. "Large as
these beef-packing establishments are," writes Macdonald, "the pork
packeries throw them far into the shade." He reports ten times as
many hogs slaughtered at Chicago in 1876 as cattle.

The history of the meat business is closely interwoven with the
history of the live-stock markets, the two enterprises being mutually
dependent upon each other. The Chicago market benefitted not only
from its location and shipping facilities, but to a great extent also be-
cause of the large packing interests which centered there. That
part of the yards where the group of packing plants is located is
called "Packingtown." Some fifteen or more companies operate the
numerous plants in Packingtown and immediate vicinity.

The numbers of cattle and calves slaughtered by leading Chicago
packers in 1921 and 1922 were as follows: ^

Chicago slaughter of cattle and calves by leading packers

Company

r;,tiip

Calves

1922

1921

1922

1921

353,770
374,450
340,839
280,742
154,557
61,841
23,505

286,280
313,672
255,302
205,042
122,703
62,041
31,040

170,334

108,533

130,457

69,870

186,572

140,534

116,593

68,782

Hammond Company

Libby McNeill and Libby

Anglo-American Company

Totals

1,580,704

1,27f>,080

479,194

512,481

The refrigerator car. — There have been three eras in the evolution
of the American meat industry: (1) The era of pickled meats, such
as hams, pork products generally, and salted beef; (2) the era of artifi-
cial refrigeration and the refrigerator car; (3) the era of complete
utilization of by-products. The supremacy during the first era was
first at Cincinnati, but it shifted to Chicago in the early sixties. In
the early days, packing houses were operated only during the winter
months, and no meats were packed in summer until large chill rooms
were made possible through successful artificial refrigeration. In 1875,
Philip D. Armour erected in Chicago the first really large-scale chill room
in the world, although small ice boxes had previously been used by others.
As early as 1868 a refrigerator car had been invented, but it was not
until 1869 that the first through-line railroad was opened between
Chicago and New York so that cars of western meat could be shipped
through to eastern markets without unloading en route. In 1869 the
first consignment of dressed beef was shipped from Chicago to Boston,

1 Drovers Journal Year Book of Figures for 1922.

92 Types and Maricet Classes of Live Stock

but the attempt was not successful. In 1875, G. F. Swift, who had
come to Chicago that year, and who founded Swift and Company,
fitted up a car and shipped it east successfully. Thereupon, this
branch of the packing business was entered into rapidly, thus eliminat-
ing freight charges on the 40 to 44 per cent waste of the live animal,
the shrink on cattle during the long haul, the expense of feeding and
watering en route, and the loss of those which died in transit.

Pioneer exports of beef. — Still greater savings have been effected
by changes in the export trade. John J. Bate, of New York, was the
first to undertake shipments of dressed carcasses to Europe. On
February 11, 1875, he made a small shipment to Liverpool which
arrived in good condition. This was followed, on June 6, by a larger
shipment, and on August 10, a still larger consignment to Liverpool
was made, all arriving in good condition. In October, 1875, Timothy
C. Eastman began his first shipments of fresh beef from America to
England; Mr. Eastman is generally regarded as the pioneer in this
enterprise. He built up a very large business which continued many
years. Others entered into the industry, and shipments were made
from New York, Philadelphia, and Portland, Me. The business in-
creased rapidly, meats being successfully shipped from Chicago to
England. A saving of more than one-half in shipping expenses is
effected by exporting dressed beef rather than its equivalent in live
animals. From Argentina to England, over two-thirds of the live-
weight expenses are saved by sending dressed beef. ^

Branch houses and car routes. — Another important factor in the
growth of the American packing industry has been the establishment
of wholesale or branch houses with refrigerators in all leading centers
of meat consumption. Swift and Company has about 400 branch
houses, most of which are in eastern cities and towns. Through daily
reports from its branch houses the packing company gets its best
information concerning the consumer market, and from this informa-
tion the buying policy is determined.

Hundreds of smaller towns are supplied by special refrigerator
cars, known as "route cars," which make regular trips and deliver
meats ordered by local dealers. This method of distribution has been
used by Swift and Company since 1890. In 1921 Swift operated 500
car routes radiating from its 17 plants in the United States, and sup-
plying nearly 10,000 towns. ^

The modern packing company. — No better illustration of the
growth of the packing industry can be had than that afforded by the
rise and present proportions of one of the large packing companies at

lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1908, p. 244.
2Swift and Company Year Book, 1922, pp. 36-42.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 93

Chicago. In 1885, this concern was capitalized at $300,000, in 1886
at $3,000,000, in 1896 at $15,000,000, later at $35,000,000, in 1906 at
$50,000,000, and in 1922 it was $150,000,000. It has packing plants
in several American cities and also in South America and Australia,
but the figures here presented apply only to its business in the United
States. It has over 400 branch houses in the principal cities and towns
of the United States, and owns and operates 7,000 refrigerator cars.
Its output of meat of all kinds in one year was almost 3 billion pounds.
Its sales in 1922 totaled over $650,000,000. It paid $317,000,000 to
live-stock producers. Its profit on meat sales is only about 2 per cent,
but the capital is turned over several times during the year. It paid
its 45,000 stockholders a 6 per cent dividend amounting to $9,000,000.
In 1922 its Chicago plant converted into dressed meat 375,000 cattle,
109,000 calves, 868,000 sheep, and 733,000 hogs.

According to the 1920 census, 1,305 packing establishments in the
United States paid out in 1919 for raw materials, chiefly live stock,
$3,774,901,000, and their manufactured products had a total value of
$4,246,290,000.

Federal inspection of animals and meats is rigid and includes all
animals at central markets and all carcasses and packing-house prod-
ucts intended as food. This safeguards the public health and has
been an important factor in gaining admission for our meats into
foreign countries. Dr. George Ditewig of the Meat Inspection Divi-
sion, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry, describes the federal inspection
as follows:'

"Federal meat inspection is conducted under the provisions of the
act of Congress of June 30, 1906, commonly designated the Meat
Inspection Act, the purpose of which is to prevent the use, in interstate
or foreign commerce, of meat and meat food products which are unfit
for human food. In brief, this law authorizes the Secretary of Agricul-
ture, at his discretion, to make, through inspectors, an ante-mortem
examination and inspection of all cattle, sheep, swine, and goats to be
slaughtered and the meat and meat food products of which are to be
used in interstate or foreign commerce; it also directs the Secretary
to make, through inspectors, a post-mortem examination and inspection
of the carcasses and parts thereof, and an examination and inspection
of all meat food products, of all such animals prepared for human con-
sumption at any slaughtering, meat canning, salting, packing, render-
ing, or similar establishment for transportation as articles of interstate
or foreign commerce. If, on such post-mortem inspection, the articles
are found to be wholesome, within the meaning of the law, it is the
duty of department inspectors to mark them 'Inspected and passed,'

U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1915, p. 273.

94 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

and if not, to mark them 'Inspected and condemned.' Condemned
articles are required to be destroyed for food purposes in the presence
of an inspector."

In 1921, the federal inspection conducted at 892 packing plants
and other similar establishments throughout the country resulted in
the condemnation at slaughter of 2.73 per cent of cattle, .26 per cent
of calves, 1.63 per cent of hogs, .10 per cent of sheep, and .16 per cent
of goats. The average of all animals was 1.38 per cent. * Meat con-
demned after slaughter, including all meat and meat food products,
prepared and processed, amounted to .20 per cent. Nothing has done
more to instil confidence in packers' meats than has the rigid govern-
mental inspection. Packers' losses are frequently heavy on account of
this inspection, mainly owing to tuberculosis. Crippled animals may
go into the food supply. Diseased animals, diseased meats, and dead
animals are consigned to the rendering tank, the products of which
are grease, glue, and fertilizer.

Government inspection at the markets is also conducted along
other lines to prevent the spread of disease among animals. Arthur
C. Davenport states ^ that all animals shipped from public rrarkets,
unless for immediate slaughter or steers for feeding, are subject to
inspection and treatment. Cattle over six months old going to the
country for breeding purposes must be tuberculin tested. Indiana and
Wisconsin require that all feeding cattle except steers must be branded
with an "F" to insure that they will not be retained for breeding.
Cattle or sheep having scabies, or cattle infested with the fever tick,
are dipped before shipment. All hogs shipped out must be vaccinated
for cholera and dipped or sprayed in a standard disinfectant under
government supervision. Practically all public yards maintain quaran-
tine divisions for yarding diseased animals. Davenport states that
430,100 cattle from tick-infested territory in the southern states were
handled at Kansas City in 1909, but due to successful efforts to extermi-
nate this pest, which causes Texas fever in cattle, only 15,356 southern
quarantines were handled at Kansas City in 1921.

Brand inspection. — At markets where western cattle appear in
numbers, western cattle growers' associations and the state of Montana
maintain brand inspectors who examine all brands and cut out and
sell separately all cattle not the property of the shipper. The proceeds
of such sales are returned to the rightful owners. This prevents the
rustling of cattle on the range and their sale at large markets, and
recovers stray cattle overlooked by shippers. W. F. Wilcox, of Mont-

lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 735, 736.

2The American Live Stock Market— How It Functions, 1922, pp. 157-159.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 95

rose County, Colo., states ^ that over 85,000 brands are on record in
Montana alone, and that Colorado and New Mexico each have recorded
over 40,000, Wyoming over 21,000, Arizona 20,000, California 15,000,
North Dakota 10,000, South Dakota 12,000, and Oregon 8,500. In
Texas brands are recorded by the counties. Many of the recorded
brands are no longer in use, but the figures indicate that a brand
inspector must have a good memory, even though he examine the ship-
ments from only one state.

Brands and Branding in the West, Breeder's Gazette, Apr. 7, 1921, pp. 639-641.

-^ns'

^ CHAPTER VI

FASHIONS IN MARKET CATTLE

England and America, and other countries inhabited by Enghsh-
speaking people, lead in meat consumption, especially in beef consump-
tion. "The roast beef of old England" is well known as characteristic
of the Englishman's culinary tastes, but Youatt records that in the
time of Henry VIII the English people were "strangers to beef and
mutton." The consumption of beef was confined principally to the
summer months, and it sold at a very low price, so that there was no
encouragement toward the production of beef cattle or beef. Instead,
cattle were valued for milking purposes and most of all for field labor,
and not until they had served a number of years as draft animals were
they fattened for the butcher. Six-year-old oxen were sold from the
plow to be fattened and then brought $50 to $75. There is record of
an ox that was worked until fifteen years old and then fattened fairly
well. Those most certainly were not days when men talked of baby
beef. Size, usefulness for field labor, and for dairy purposes were the
qualities chiefly sought.

Prior to the close of the eighteenth century, there was little exer-
cise of care in the breeding of cattle, and feeding was an unknown art.
But conditions gradually became better; England became more pros-
perous and wealthy, and there arose a demand for more and better
beef, for which higher prices were paid. This impetus gave rise to the
formation of the breeds of beef cattle, all of which originated in England
and Scotland, unless we consider the Polled Shorthorn and Polled
Hereford real American breed creations, which, of course, they are not,
being the result of slight modifications of English breeds.

Size and type of early beef cattle. — When beef production was
begun in earnest, more attention was given to size and quantity than
to quality. Judging from the records of weights of early cattle, and
from drawings made at that time, cattle were ponderous, roup-l". slow-
maturing beasts, and very patchy with great lumps ' "'^^vvKi'f^. The
ideals of those days were exemplified by such fan* o animals as the
Durham Ox, weighing 3,024 pounds at five years of age, and The
White Heifer That Traveled, weighing 2,300 pounds.^ These were
early Shorthorns. Among early Hereford cattle, a bull. The General,
weighed 3,640 pounds at six years. Another bull, Wellington, weighed

lAlvin H. Sanders: Shorthorn Cattle, 1900, pp. 39, 42.

9fi

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 97

2,912 pounds, had a girth of 11 feet, 3 inches, and measured 11 feet,
4 inches, from muzzle to tail-head. Another Hereford bull, Hamlet,
weighed 2,800 pounds, and a steer reached 2,912 pounds. At the first
Smithfield Fat Stock Show held in London in 1799, a Hereford bullock
described as 8 feet, 11 inches, in length, 6 feet, 7 inches, in height, and
10 feet, 4 inches, in girth, won first prize and sold for $500. Another
ox at the same show measured 7 feet in height, and 12 feet, 4 inches,
in girth. ^

Continued demand for heavy weights. — In England and America
the attainment of large weights continued to be the aim of beef pro-
ducers until rather recent times. Early maturity was not given much

Fig. 23.— Ideal of early beef producers. The noted "White Heifer That
Travelled," a Shorthorn, calved about 1806, bred and fed by Robert Colling, of
Barmpton, near Darlington, in the county of Durham, England. A free-martin
heifer, a non-breeder, fed to a weight of 2,300 pounds, completely finished, and
publicly exhibited through the principal agricultural counties of England to advertise
the beef-making qualities of the Shorthorn breed, particularly the herds of Charles
and Robert Colling, first noted improvers of the breed. From an engraving made
when she w^o seven years old. The artist has undoubtedly refined the head, horns,
and bone to a considerable degree, yet the picture typifies in the size, massiveness,
extreme fatness, and small bone of this animal the ideal of early beef producers.

attention. It was simply a matter of making each animal as large as
possible before consigning it to the butcher. Cattle were grown and
fattened cheaply in those days, and the advantages of young, quick-
maturing, highly-finished cattle were not so marked, nor was a good
price offered for any except matured beeves. Stockmen at Albany,

Macdonald and Sinclair: History of Hereford Cattle, London, 1907.

98 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

N. Y., offered $1,000 to anyone who would deliver a bullock weighing
4,000 pounds. Prior to 1856, two Illinois cattlemen fed one hundred
head of high-grade Shorthorn steers and marketed them at an average
weight of 1,965 pounds. About the same time, another feeder collected
a lot of one hundred grade steers and fed them to the enormous average
of 2,377 pounds. ^ These feats are said to have widely advertised the
Shorthorn as a beef-making breed, the paramount consideration of
cattle feeders at that time being the attainment of great weight and
immense bulk.

The turn toward baby beef.^-Fat-stock shows are, in most respects,
criterions of market demands in cattle. The champions of early days
were big, matured steers. In 1891, the Chicago Fat Stock Show elimi-
nated classes for three-year-old steers; that date marked the turning
point toward what has since become known as "baby beef." In 1918
the International Live Stock Exposition at Chicago abolished the class
for two-year-old steers. The tendency is more and more toward the
finishing of younger, quicker-maturing animals. The changes that are
being wrought are not plainly evident unless comparisons are made
extending over a period of years, or unless the operations of some of
the more progressive beef producers have been followed during recent
times.

Present demand is for early maturity. — Breeders and feeders now
put much stress on quickness of maturity. This they have secured by
selecting short-legged, blocky, compact animals, which fatten and ma-
ture at a much younger age than the more rangy type popular in the
early days. Some sacrifice has been made of size and weight in order
to produce a type that will make beef quickly, yet the better breeders
are careful to maintain a proper degree of size along with the low-set,
blocky type of body. The change has been vastly beneficial to the
breeder, feeder, butcher, and consumer.

Consumers' demands have changed. — The steaks and roasts of a
half century ago were of large size and were frequently so fat as to be
wasteful. Very fat beef is rich and juicy and may be favored if the
price is not high. In early times beef was relatively cheaper than it is
today, families were larger, and the average citizen did more muscular
work and more outdoor work, so that large, highly finished cuts of beef
were popular. Today the price of beef is higher, families are smaller,
and more people are engaged in sedentary and indoor occupations, so
that cuts of beef of medium size and moderate finish best suit the needs
of the average consumer. Under present conditions most consumers
do not relish fat meat. Meat dealers designate very fat carcasses and
cuts of beef as "wasteful." Retail dealers will not buy them except at

1 Shorthorn Cattle, pp. 335, 336.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

a discount because of the heavy trimming necessary in selHng such
beef to the consumer trade. Changes in demands of consumers have
been a prominent factor in the swing away from old-fashioned heavy
bullocks to modern baby beeves.

/6aby beeves are choice and prime fat cattle, between 12 and 18
months of age, weighing 800 to 1,000 pounds. Yearlings make 25 to
50 per cent more meat for the grain consumed than the same animals
would make if kept until two or three years of age. The small, com-
pact carcasses cut up with less waste, and furnish thick, light steaks
such as are most in demand, because they are cheaper and of a size

Fig. 24. — Prime baby beef. Hereford steer, Peerless Wilton 39th's Defender,
grand champion at the International Live Stock Show in 1906. Bred and fed by
H. J. Fluck, Goodenow, 111. Shown by F. A. Nave, Attica, Ind.

adapted for domestic use. Such cattle will not dress out quite as high
as older cattle, but the difference in percentage yield of carcass is due
to a greater amount of tallow in the older animal, which materially
lessens the older animal's superiority in this regard. The production
of baby beef necessitates starting the fattening process at birth and
carrying it on simultaneously with growth; the animal receives full
feed from start to finish. As stated by the Breeder's Gazette: "The
making of baby beef is a continuous performance which shows 365
days in the ordinary year and 366 days in the leap year. It is readily

100

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

observable that there is no such thing as 'warming up' or 'short feeding'
calves intended for the buyers of prime baby beef. Cattle may be 16
to 18 months of age and afterward warmed up a bit, but they will not
class as baby beef and they will not bring the prices of that article."
Good breeding essential.^Baby beef can only be produced from
well-bred calves, as only well-bred ones mature early enough to meet
the market requirements for this kind of cattle. Such calves are hard
to buy and the producer of baby beef cannot feel assured of obtaining
them season after season by purchase, but is practically compelled to
breed them for his own use. As breeding and feeding are rather dis-
tinct lines of enterprise, and as few feeders care to maintain a breeding

Fig. 25. — Baby beeves on feed. Grade Hereford calves in the feed-lot of
E. M. Cassady and Sons, Whiting, Iowa.

herd, or have facilities for doing so, baby beef production is much less
followed than would be the case if good calves were readily available.
Furthermore, it has been shown that only those feeders skilled in the
art of finishing cattle, and fully equipped to give the animals every
chance, can successfully produce baby beef.

Increased production of baby beeves. — As long as thin two- and
three-year-old steers may be purchased for feeding, there will be no
marked increases in baby-beef production. The time is now at hand,
however, when a large percentage of beef cattle must not only be fed
on the farms of theMississippi and Missouri valleys, but bred there

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 101

also. As it is no longer profitable for the farmer to first grow a steer
and then fatten him, the growing and fattening processes must be com-
bined, and the cattle sent to market under 24 months of age; in other
words, beef production must be placed very largely on a baby-beef basis.

Clay, Robinson and Company, of Chicago, in a communication
to the writer, had the following to say concerning baby-beef produc-
tion: "There has been marked increase in the production of this class
of cattle for the reason that the public demands them. For years the
tendency has been toward the maturing of cattle at a younger and
younger age. It was not so many years ago when an animal was not
considered ready for the market under four years old, but evolution in
beef production started, and the most desirable beeves in the market
today are prime, fat yearlings."

Baby beeves make economical gains. — As showing the possibilities
for profit in the production of baby beeves, the Kansas Experiment
Station ^ fed 130 grade Shorthorn, Hereford, and Angus calves that had
just been weaned, and during seven months' feeding secured an average
monthly gain of 56 pounds per head. The average weight at the
beginning was 408 pounds; when sent to market seven months later,
the average weight was 800 pounds, and the age was a little over one
year. All except 32 head were heifers. The remarkable feature of
this demonstration was the small amount of feed consumed. It re-
quired only 503 pounds of grain and 509 pounds of hay to make 100
pounds gain in weight. The best record was made by 10 skim-milk
calves that were fed alfalfa hay and corn. They consumed only 439
pounds of grain and 436 pounds of hay for every 100 pounds of gain.
When older cattle are fed, it usually requires about twice these amounts
of grain and roughage to secure 100 pounds of gain.

E. M. Cassady and Sons, of Whiting, Iowa, made a test of the
cost and rate of gains made by Hereford steers started on feed as calves
and yearlings. These steers were of the same breeding, having been
bred on the Cassady farm from the same sire and dams. The calves
weighed 475 pounds when put on feed, and were charged at $6.00 per
cwt.; the yearlings weighed 775 pounds, and were charged at $5.70 per
cwt. Although the calves were fed for a longer period than the year-
lings, the average cost of 100 pounds of gain was $10.80 for the calves,
as compared with $15.65 for the yearlings. The calves made a profit
of $20 per head, and the yearlings made a profit of $14.

In three years work, including three trials, the Indiana Experi-
ment Station found that when feed prices were such that it cost $7.74
to produce 100 pounds of gain on baby beeves, it cost $9.09 to make
the same gain on yearlings, and $9.37 on two-year-olds.

Kan. Bui. 113.

102

Types and Maricet Classes of Live Stock

Steer and Heifer Beef

The heading of this chapter, "Fashions in Market Cattle," impHes
that the demands of the cattle market are subject to change. The
truth of this has been shown by the preceding discussion of the trend
away from the old-time, heavy, matured beeves, and toward the finish-
ing of younger cattle. The word, "fashions," also implies that the
market indulges in some practices that are not entirely utilitarian and
practical, but are more or less fanciful and whimsical. That this is
true will be shown by a consideration of the cattle market's discrimina-
tion against fat heifers as compared with fat steers. When the heifer

Fig. 26. — A grand champion fat heifer. Lula Mayflower, a Shorthorn-Angus
crossbred senior yearling heifer, grand champion over all fat steers and heifers at the
1921 International Show. Bred, fed, and exhibited by the University of California.
Weight 1,244 pounds. Sold for $1.10 per pound. This is the only heifer that has
won this honor at the 21 International Shows held to date.

is well fed, she is consigned to a lower class than a steer of the same
breeding, same fatness, same quality, same age and form. In some
countries, heifers outsell steers for beef purposes. In this country there
is discrimination in price against heifers on the market, and for that
reason heifers are rarely as well fed as steers.

Steers and heifers compared in tests. — In September, 1892,
Wilson and Curtiss of the Iowa Experiment Station ^ purchased five

ilowa Bui. 24.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

103

steers and ten heifers and began an experiment to determine whether
a discrimination against fat heifers is justifiable. All of these cattle
were yearling grade Shorthorns, all sired by the same bull. Five of
the heifers were spayed soon after purchase, and all fifteen head were
roughed until January 4, 1893, when they were grain-fed for eleven
months, and then shipped to Chicago. There they were sold on the
open market to Swift and Company, who made slaughter and block
tests of the animals. The results of the experiment are condensed into
the following table:

Steers and heifers compared in gains, yields, and profits

Weights, costs, gains, prices, yields, profits

Original weight, September 12, lbs

Cost, per lb., cents

Total cost

Cost of pasture and fodder prior to January 4 . . . .

Weight, January 4, lbs

Average gaift on feed per animal per day, lbs . . .

Total gain

Average cost feed per lb. gain, cents

Total cost feed

Shrink in shipping, lbs

Selling weight, lbs

Selling price per lb., cents

Selling price, total

Freight, yardage, and commission

Profit

Beef (warm weight), lbs

Dressing percentage

Total tallow, lbs

10 loins, per cent of carcass

10 loins, price per lb., cents

10 ribs, per cent of carcass

10 ribs, price per lb., cents

10 rounds, per cent of carcass

10 rounds, price per lb., cents

Margin between live cost and sales of meat and
by-products, not including expense of killing
and handling

Steers

4,005.

3.5
$140.18
20.00

4,093.

2.44
4,032.

5.02
$202.47
215.
7,910.

5.75

$454.82

24.71

67.46

5
Open
heifers

3,455.
2.
$69.10
20.00

3,592.
1.99

3,288.

6.04
$198.70
290.
6,590.

4.75

$313.02

24.71

.51

5
Spayed
heifers

3,998.
2.
$79.96
20.00

3,994.

2.07
3,416.

5.86
$200.32
280.
7,130.

4.75

$338.67

24.71

13.68

4,997.
63.2
969.5

4,110.
62.4
648.75

4,475.
62.8
701.5

16.7

15.

10.1

15.

24.1

17.6
13.5
10.8
13.5
21.5
5.75

17.7
13.5
10.9
13.5
21.7
5.65

$20.45

$58.12

$64.84

The returns made by the heifers to Swift and Company would have
justified a purchase price of $5.37 per cwt. for the spayed heifers and
$5.32 for the open heifers, instead of $4.75 for each, and still have
left the same margin of profit as in the steers. It is clear, then, that
the difference in the live-weight value of the steers and heifers was only
about 40 cents per cwt., instead of $1.00 a cwt. made by the buyers.
Expert opinions secured from Chicago packers as to why the heifer
carcasses sold at less price per pound than the steer carcasses were to

104 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

the effect that heifers make more fat where the steers make lean meat.
There is said to be more lean meat in a steer loin and a larger tender-
loin. Otherwise, the carcasses were said to be of equal value.

In 1894, the Iowa Station ' conducted a second experiment with
steers and spayed and open heifers. The same plan was followed as
in the first experiment and the results were practically the same, thus
verifying the results of the first test.

Why England prefers heifer beef.-i^It is a well-known fact that
Englishmen make no discriminations against heifer beef, indeed they
pay more for it than for steer beef. Wilson and Curtiss corresponded
with several Englishmen concerning this matter, and the substance of
the replies was that heifers yield meat of finer grain and better quality,
are as good cutters, and yield little rough meat. Rib and loin cuts
from spayed heifer carcasses were valued two cents per pound higher
than the same cuts from steer carcasses equally well fattened. Plate
cuts from heifers were valued one cent higher. Heifer beef was said
to be better marbled, more pleasing in appearance, more juicy, and
more palatable.

Evidently English and American standards for meats vary some-
what, and public preference has been cultivated along different lines
in the two countries. So far as our American markets are concerned,
it seems that the difference in prices paid for fat steers and heifers
may not be justified by any real difference in the cuts of meat, yet the
condition must be accepted nevertheless, and producers must shape
their operations accordingly. There is, however, one logical objection
to heifers; it is that they are frequently pregnant, which lowers the
dressing percentage and may affect the value of the carcass. At the
present time the discrimination against heifers amounts to 50 or 75
cents per cwt. for open heifers, and about 25 cents per cwt. in the case
of spayed heifers. There is not as much discrimination in price against
fat young heifers as against fat heifers of older age.

The question of spaying.-r-As the experiment discussed above dealt
with spayed and open heifers, a word may be said here about the com-
parative merits of the two from the standpoint of the feeder. As a
rule, open heifers make greater gains because of the setback caused by
the operation of spaying. Once recovered from the operation, the
spayed heifers gain faster, but do not reach as large weights as open
heifers. The recurrence of heat in open heifers and their restlessness
at that time retards the gains made, as compared with spayed heifers
recovered from the operation. Spayed heifers are said to yield beef
of slightly higher quality. Spaying entails a certain expense and there
is danger of mortality. The general practice is not to spay when it is

Iowa Bui. 33.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 105

possible to separate the heifers and feed them in a lot by themselves.
When it is desired to feed heifers along with steers, it is desirable that
they be spayed, otherwise the recurrence of heat causes considerable
commotion among the cattle, decreasing the gains made and increasing
the cost.

CHAPTER VII
SELECTION OF FEEDER STEERS

Beef producers may be divided into two groups — (1) men who
grow beef, and (2) cattle feeders. In the first group are those who
maintain breeding herds for the production of steers for the market.
This group includes the western cattle man on the range and also the
farmer who keeps a small herd of beef cows. The beef grower has a
year-round job. Furthermore, he usually follows the business steadily
for a period of years. The very nature of the business demands that
it be established on a permanent basis. It cannot be followed one
year, given up the next year, and begun again the next, with any fair
expectation of profits. The second group includes those who follow
the practice of buying thin cattle to be fattened. This is simply a
finishing process, and is more speculative in character than that of
growing beef. It may be followed intermittently, although most suc-
cessful feeders are in the business regularly each year. Furthermore,
in the corn-belt states, where grain feeding is practiced, it is usually
limited to a few months of the year and usually to those months when
other farm work is slack.

When and where feeders are bought.^^In an investigation of
methods of marketing live stock and meats, made by the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture ^ in 1915, reports were received from 2,072 special
live-stock and price reporters of the Bureau of Crop Estimates which
indicated that 74 per cent of stockers and feeders are bought in the
fall, 19 per cent in the spring, 3 per cent in the summer, and 4 per cent
in the winter. It was also indicated that 55 per cent of stocker and
feeder cattle purchased are bought in the district In which they are fed
or grazed, 27 per cent at the centralized markets, and 18 per cent in
the country, other than locally.

Western range chief source of supply.— As shown in the preceding
chapter, the corn-belt beef-grower finds baby-beef production profit-
able. On his high-priced land he cannot afford to raise steers to two
years old or older and then fatten them. The corn-belt cattle feeder,
however, is not bound by the same rules. He usually buys western
steers raised on cheaper lands, and as long as thin two- and three-year-
old steers may be bought at prices low enough to make them profitable,
the feeder will continue to make use of them as well as of calves and
yearlings.

lU. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. 113, p. 17.

106

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

107

Movement of stockers and feeders. — The U. S. Department of
Agriculture has reported the movement of stocker and feeder cattle
and calves for the five months, August 1 to December 31, from 43
markets into the corn-belt states, and from 67 markets into all states.
These were compiled from the records of the Bureau of Animal Industry-
shipping permits, and are as follows:

Movement of stockers and feeders from central markets

Into corn-belt states from 43 markets

Into all states from 67 markets

Year

Number

Year

Number

1919
1920

1921
1922

1,813,000

1,358,000
1,415,000
2,226,000

1919
1920
1921
1922

3,040,000
2,215,000
2,113,000
2,976,000

Principal feeder markets. — The following table compiled from re-
ports of the U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics gives the loca-
tion and rank of the principal stocker and feeder markets and the
numbers shipped during three years:

1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Shipments of stocker and feeder cattle and calves from leading inarkets

Markets 1922

Kansas City 1,151,256

Omaha 621,124

Chicago 408,868

Denver 413,138

St. Paul 438,933

Sioux City 334,719

St. Louis 274,710

Fort Worth 225,130

Wichita 202,447

St. Joseph 176,041

1921

1920

787,904

778,214

442,884

450,647

332,477

417,483

273,708

407,026

270,284

315,977

239,863

238,271

185,057

167,797

172,153

278,048

131,703

103,751

102,690

102.964

Totals 4,246,366

2,938,723

3,260,178

Most of these markets lie on the margin between the western range
and the corn belt. They handled 86 per cent of the total number of
stockers and feeders shipped from 68 markets in 1922. The four
Missouri river markets, Kansas City, St. Joseph, Omaha, and Sioux
City, handled over 45 per cent of the stock and feeding cattle shipped
from 68 markets in 1922. In 1921, 12 markets handled 84.6 per cent
of the total from 67 markets, and from these 12 markets over two-
thirds of the shipments went to 5 corn-belt states, Iowa, Nebraska,
Illinois, Kansas, and Missouri. ^ Lancaster, Pa., is the leading eastern
feeder cattle market.

Sorting feeder cattle. — Dealers or traders at large market centers
buy carloads of mixed cattle suitable for stockers and feeders and
drive them to their pens in the feeder division of the yards and sort

lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 284, 285, 287.

108 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

them according to breed, color, size, and type. They are then sold to
cattle feeders or to commission companies who are buying on orders.

Seasonal variations in demands and prices. — As shown in Fig. 21,
page 81, the feeder movement at Chicago is at its height from Sep-
tember 1 to December 31, when the heavy run of western cattle comes
to market. October is the month of largest feeder shipments. During
20 years at Chicago, October was the high month 15 times, September
3 times, and November 2 times. In April, May, June, and July the
feeder movement is relatively small.

Monthly and yearly average prices for stocker and feeder cattle
and calves at Chicago for ten years are given in the accompanying
table, 1 the highest monthly average of each year being given in bold-
face type and the lowest monthly average in parenthesis.

Monthly

and yearly average prices for stockers and feeders at Ch

icagof

or ten years

Ten-year

Month

1922

1921

1920

1919

1918

1917

11913

1912

1911

1910

average

($5.90)

$7.20

$9.95

$10.85

($8.80) ($7.50) ($6.15) ($4.90)

$5.15

$4.65

$7.10

6.65

6.80

9.20

11.50

9.00

7.75

7.10

5.20

5.10

4.85

7.30

March

6.85

8.10

10.00

12.00

10.25

8.60

7.45

5.60

5.25

5.50

7.95

April

May

7.35

7.40

(-)

12.65

10.50

8.75

7.50

6.15

5.10

5.60

8.10'

. 7.35

7.35

10.00

12.40

10.75

8.90

7.40

6.25

4.95

5.50

8.10

June

6.90

6.10

9.40

11.15

10.90

8.50

7.15

5.85

4.50

4.85

7.55

July

6.20

6.10

8.80

10.15

10.25

7.90

7.25

5.40

(4.35)

(4.45)

7.10

. 6.65

5.90

8.30

10.75

10.85

8.35

7.30

5.70

4.45

4.50

7.30

September. . .

. 6.75

5.50

8.85

9.90

10.90

8.50

7.35

5.65

4.55

4.50

7.25

October

6.70

5.65

8.85

10.15

10.25

8.40

6.95

5.60

4.40

4.70

7.15

6.30

(5.45)

8.10

9.75

10.00

8.75

6.75

5.85

4.50

4.60

7.00

December ....

6.30

5.75

(7.10)

(9.15)

10.25

8.50

6.65

5.50

4.60

4.70

(6.85)

Yearly average

. 6.65

6.45

8.95

10.85

10.25

8.40

7.05

5.70

4.75

4.85

7.40

'Records for 1914, 1915, and 1916 omitted because quarantine of yards prevented sale of feeder
cattle from November 1, 1914, to February 15, 1916.
2 Comparatively few sold, due to rail strike.
' In striking this average an estimated price of $10.00 was allowed for April, 1920.

It will be noted that the time of highest and lowest prices varies
greatly in different years, but that in all years, except one, highest
prices were paid in the spring months, March, April, and May. Lowest
prices were most often paid in January, but in every year the prices
in January were higher than in December of the preceding year. This
fact is reflected in the column of figures at the right, giving the ten-year
averages of monthly prices. This column shows that the prices of
feeder cattle are usually lowest in December and highest in April and
May. Following the December low spot there is a steady increase in
price until April. Following the high prices of the spring months
there is a fairly regular decline in price throughout the remainder of
the year. April and May prices averaged $1.25 higher than December
prices during the ten years.

These facts should be taken into consideration in determining a
general buying policy. It may be best to buy cattle for summer

^ Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

109

grazing in the fall, carrying them through the winter on cheap feeds.
Cattle feeders in Missouri who practice grain feeding on pasture usually
buy their cattle in the fall, and winter them preparatory to finishing
them during the following summer.

Sources of profit in cattle feeding.-^Profits in cattle feeding come
from skill in feeding and management, and also from intelligent buying
and selling. There is practiced what is known as "speculative cattle
feeding" in which feeders emphasize the buying and selling more than
they do the actual feeding of the animals, the object bein^g to buy on
a low market and sell when the market is high. Omitting this specula-
tive feature from consideration, it may be said that the sources of profit
in feeding a steer are (1) the increase in weight of the animal, and (2)

Fig. 27. — Fancy selected feeders. These are very good in form, quality,
breeding, uniformity, and other essential points, except that dehorning would have
made them more desirable for feeding.

the increase in the value of the animal's initial weight. ' For example,
if we buy a thin steer at 8 cents per pound, and fatten him during four
or six months feeding, we increase not only his weight, but also his
value per pound. If the initial weight was 1,000 pounds, and the final
weight was 1,325 pounds, he should sell at 10 cents per pound without
any rise of the cattle market during the feeding period. Then the net
income to the feeder would be as follows:

iFor the purposes of this discussion, the value of the pork produced by hogs
following cattle in the feed-lot and the value of the manure are omitted from con-
sideration.

110 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

325 pounds at 10c $32.50

1,000 pounds at 2c 20.00

Net income $52.50

The margin in cattle feeding. — The difference between the cost
price and selling price per pound is spoken of as the "margin." The
steer feeder counts on a margin of at least 2 cents per pound, and when
cattle and feed-stuffs are very high in price a greater margin is nec-
essary. As shown by the above calculation, heavy cattle may be
handled on narrower margins than light ones, for if the initial weight
of the steer had been 600 pounds instead of 1,000 pounds, other factors
remaining the same, then the net income would have been less by $8.
As a matter of fact, however, the younger steer would probably make
his 325 pounds of gain somewhat cheaper than the older steer, thus
compensating, in part at least, the advantage of the older animal.

Selection of Feeder Steers ^

Success in fattening cattle requires a thorough knowledge of two
classes of cattle — fat steers of the better grades, and stockers and
feeders, — the beginning and the end of the feeding process. The
cattle feeder must be an expert judge of a thin animal, as well as a
good judge of the finished product. "Well bought is half sold."
Failure to select the right kind of steers for feeding is alone sufficient
to cause failure in the business. The cattle feeder must have a good
knowledge of the values of the various grades of feeders, and must use
judgment as to whether or not to buy, and if he buys it is again a matter
of judgment as to which grade of feeders may be purchased, fed, and
sold with the greatest profit. The actual buying, however, is usually
put in the hands of a commission firm; such firms also freely and
intelligently advise the purchaser concerning the matters here dis-
cussed.

The points which determine the value of feeder steers are age and
weight, form, quality, constitution and thrift, natural fleshing, condi-
tion, breeding, disposition, style, and uniformity. Each of these is
briefly discussed.

1. Age and weight. — Calves and yearlings require a longer feeding
period, as a rule, than two- or three-year-old steers. This is due tc>
the fact that young animals grow while they fatten, and hence "utten
more slowly than older animals. Most cattle feeders prefer two- and
three-year-old steers for feeding purposes, and this is especially true
where a "short feed" of from 60 to 90 days is given. For the "long
feed" of 120 to 180 days or more, calves and yearlings may be satisfac-
tory if carefully selected and properly handled. Some feeders prefer
the older steers even for the longer feed. The common practice is to

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 111

buy feeders that weigh from 800 to 1,000 pounds, or even heavier.
Such steers are 18 months old, or over. A thrifty steer, well developed
for his age, is usually more profitable than a stunted animal.

A considerable amount of experimental work has been done to
determine the relative advantages in feeding calves, yearlings, and
two-year-olds at the Kansas, South Dakota, Missouri, Iowa, Illinois,
and Indiana experiment stations. These experiments have been based
entirely upon the finishing period or, in other words, have been planned
from the standpoint of the cattle feeder rather than the grower, and
the results indicate that under present conditions it is more profitable
to feed two-year-old cattle than calves. This conclusion is based upon
the difficulty of securing calves of the type, breeding, and quality
necessary for fattening at an early age, the greater margin between
buying and selling prices, the shorter feeding period, more rapid gains,
greater production of pork from hogs following the cattle, smaller pro-
portion of grain to roughage, and broader demand for finished heavy
steers.

In three different trials at the Indiana Experiment Station^ the
calves required 90 days and the yearlings 20 days longer feeding period
than the two-year-olds to make them prime. The average daily gain
of the calves was .61 pound per head less than that of the two-year-olds
and .34 pound less than that of the yearlings. The following conclu-
sions were drawn from the Indiana experiments:

1. The initial cost per cwt. of calves is greater than that of older
cattle.

2. The length of time necessary for finishing steers decreases
with increased age of the cattle.

3. The rate of gain and the cost of gain increases with the in-
creased age of the cattle.

4. The proportion of roughage to concentrates consumed in-
creases with the increased age of the cattle.

5. The amount of gain necessary in finishing cattle of equal condi-
tion decreases as their age increases.

6. The difference in total quantity of feed necessary for finishing
cattle of different ages and fed to the same marketable finish is negligi-
ble.

7. The calves made an average profit of $4.25 per head, the
yearlings $6.43, and the two-year-olds $7.95.

8. The increase in live weight necessary to make calves prime
was 103 per cent; yearlings, 54 per cent; and two-year-olds 43.6 per
cent of their initial weights at the beginning of the feeding period.

Ind. Bui. 146.

112 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

9. The difference in cost of one hundred pounds of gain between
calves and yearhngs was $1.35 in favor of the calves; between yearlings
and two-year-olds, 28 cents in favor of the yearlings.

10. The experienced farmer who feeds cattle should handle older
cattle in preference to calves, while the farmer who produces and
finishes his own cattle may find calves profitable.

The Missouri Experiment Station ^ drew the following conclusions
from feeding 300 cattle of various ages on heavy grain rations in con-
nection with bluegrass pasture:

1. Two-year-old cattle make larger average daily gains than year-
lings.

2. Two-year-old cattle consumed from 13 to 22 per cent more
grain per day per head than did yearlings.

3. Two-year-old cattle consumed more grain per day per thous-
and pounds live weight than yearlings.

4. Yearlings require less grain for each pound of gain than do
two- or three-year-old cattle. Other things being equal, the younger
the animal, the less grain is required to make a pound of gain. The
condition of the animal at the beginning of the feeding period is an
important factor, and may to a large extent counteract the influence
of age in determining cheaper gains.

5. In these investigations, the fattening of two- and three-year-
old cattle has been generally more profitable than fattening yearlings.
The chief reasons are:

(a) The margin between the buying and selling price is less in
the case of yearlings. The older cattle fatten in a shorter period.

(b ) It is not generally advisable to try to finish the cheaper grades
of yearlings. In our investigations, the quality of the yearlings has
generally been higher than that of the older cattle. In spite of this fact,
the financial results have seemed to favor the feeding of older cattle.

When all evidence as to the comparative merits of calves, year-
lings, and older cattle for feeding purposes is summed up, the out-
standing points are as follows:

1. Young animals, which are fattened as they grow, make cheaper
gains than older animals. This is the chief advantage of the young
animal.

2. The older animals enjoy a wider margin between cost price
and selling price per pound, they fatten in less time, and the cost of
feed per head is practically the same as for the younger animals.
These are the chief advantages of the older animal.

In the investigations which have been made by our state experi-
ment stations, the advantages of the older animal outweighed the ad-

iMo. Bui. 90.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 113

vantage of the younger animal, making the two-year-olds more profit-
able than the yearlings or calves. Furthermore, a table of costs and
prices does not fully emphasize the marked ability of the older animal
to consume roughage during the fattening period. Where considerable
quantities of silage, hay, or other roughage must be utilized, and this
is very frequently the case, older steers are desirable. Nevertheless,
in some instances and in certain years, the younger animals may be
preferable. For example, with higher cost of older steers, and lower
price of feeds, calves may be purchased and fed at a greater profit.
Another point which is frequently of practical importance is the fact
that the initial cost of calves per head is much less than that of older
cattle. Three or four calves may be bought for the price of one two-
year-old steer, and the feed-lot may be filled at a much smaller outlay

^'^^BlK^^^^K.-' -L -^^

Fig. 28. — An average load of steers on feed.

of capital. For this reason, some farmers must feed calves if they are
to feed at all.

2. The form should be as nearly identical as possible with the
description given for the fat steer. Allowances must, of course, be
made for the absence of fat in the thin animal, for we cannot expect
a thin steer to appear extremely blocky and low set. Yet even in thin
condition the steer should be low set, deep, broad, compact, and
balanced ; such conformation insures feeding capacity and early matur-
ity. Broad, level tops make possible a maximum development of high
priced cuts, and are indicative of superior form in the feeder. High-
grade feeders have a straight top line and straight underline, the two
being nearly parallel. For best results, a large feeding capacity is
of very great importance. The muzzle should be broad, the barrel
wide and deep, and the flanks well let down. An excessive paunch is

114 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

undesirable, as it rarely disappears during fattening and shipping and
will lessen the price paid for the finished steer on the market. Some
degree of paunchiness may be termed a good fault in a feeder, but the
best feeders have much depth and fullness of middle without being
objectionably paunchy. The feeder should have as much smoothness
as is consistent with thinness. Too great prominence of shoulders,
hips, and tail-head should be avoided. There should be nothing in
his form that will prevent a high degree of smoothness being secured
when he is fattened. It should be remembered that the proportions of
the head and neck correspond with the type of body, and in making
selections of young thin cattle these are dependable indicators of the
turn the form will take during development and finishing.

The head demands far more attention in the feeder than in the
finished steer. We look for what is termed the "feeder's head," that
is, a head of much width between the eyes, short and clean-cut from
eyes to muzzle, very broad at the muzzle, but not coarse, large of
nostril, and strongly muscled and well developed in cheeks and jaws.
The eye should be large, prominent, bright, clear, and placid. Polled
or dehorned cattle are preferred by feeders, although this feature does
not affect the grading of the animal on the market. More hornless
cattle can be put in the feed-lot or car, and they make more rapid
gains on feed because of less commotion and less difficulty in getting
up to the feed-racks. Timid animals are much more likely to get their
share of the feed if all the cattle are polled or dehorned. Hornless
cattle shrink less in shipment, the carcasses show fewer bruises, and
the hides are more valuable. Gashes and punctures in hides caused
by goring are not uncommon. Being in greater demand, hornless
cattle sell at slightly higher prices. Dehorning gives cattle a setback,
causes wildness for a time, and is not advisable if cattle are to be put
on feed immediately, except in the case of calves or yearlings that are
to be given a long feed. ^

1 Light and Rothwell of the Canadian Department of Agriculture reported in
1922 (Pamphlet 15, New Series, Dehorn Your Commercial Cattle) that 35 steers
dehorned after purchase made an average gain of 31 pounds per head during the first
month, while 17 steers hornless at time of purchase made an average gain of 51.9
pounds. For the entire feeding period the average gain was 231 pounds for the horn-
less steers and 186.3 pounds for those dehorned after purchase. The pamphlet
quotes one of the largest commission firms in the United States as follows: "The
absence of horns on a bunch of steers usually adds 15 to 25 cents per cwt. to their
value. All buyers prefer dehorned steers, even for local slaughter, as the carcasses
are likely to be free from bruises and injuries; but the most important fact is that
many eastern shippers refuse to bid on horned cattle on account of the practical
certainty that some of them will be injured in transit. In the case of a bunch of
steers that except for their horns would just suit the eastern shipper, the difference
may amount to as much as 25 to 50 cents per cwt." A commission firm in western
Canada is quoted as stating that they have handled carloads of steers and heifers
so badly hooked that they sold at a discount of from $1 to ^2 per cwt.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 115

3. Quality. — The indications of quality in beef cattle have been
discussed. Quality and good breeding are usually found in company,
and good breeding surely "tells" in the feed-lot. Quality also insures
smoothness and a higher dressing percentage, points of much impor-
tance in the eyes of the buyer of fat cattle. Coarse, staggy heads and
necks indicate late castration. Stags sell at a discount on the fat
steer market.

4. Constitution and thrift. — ^A wide, deep chest, full heart-girth,
and deep, broad body are evidences of a strong constitution. Avoid
that steer which has quality carried to the point of delicacy, as only
vigorous, rugged cattle make big gains on feed. When choosing be-
tween two steers, one of which is too refined in head, hide, and bone,
and the other a trifle too rugged, or what might be termed slightly
on the coarse order, it will usually be wisest to select the more rugged
steer; he will usually consume more feed, gain more consistently, and
make his gains at less cost than will the over-refined animal.

A thrifty, healthy steer makes known the fact in a bright, clear eye,
sleek coat of hair, and a loose, sappy hide. He is wide awake and
gives evidence that he "feels good." Avoid the steer with the small,
dull eye; tight hide; dry, staring coat; hanging head; and lifeless gait.
Red blood and good health indicate ability to assimilate feed and make
gains.

5. Natural fleshing. — This refers to lean meat or muscle. As
previously pointed out, feeding does not add muscle to an animal; the
muscle must be born on the steer. The cattle feeder's job is to fatten
beef, and he must buy the beef or muscle when he buys his steers.
Look for muscular necks, backs, loins, and rounds. Such steers bring
the best prices when properly fattened.

6. Condition counts in judging feeders. The more fat a feeder
steer carries, the quicker and cheaper he may be finished. Type and
price being equal, fleshy feeders are more desirable than thin ones.
Furthermore, if the steer is too thin he cannot class as a feeder, but
instead is classed as a stocker. Stockers are thin enough to make gains
in condition on grass or roughage. Feeders carry more flesh and are
ready for the feed-lot. Experienced cattle men buy as much condition
as possible when they buy their feeders.

7. Breeding. — Steers of good beef breeding are much preferred
over those which have more or less of a scrub or dairy ancestry. We
look for evidences of beef breeding in the form, quality, fleshing, and
color of the animals. The beef-bred animal is more rectangular in
build, more compact and blocky, and lower set than the dairy-bred
steer. The steer of beef breeding is plumper and thicker in his muscles
throughout. The dairy-bred steer stands high off the ground, has a

116 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

long, narrow head, cuts up in the flank, is spht up in the twist, "cat
hammed," and rough in conformation over the hips and rump. His
bone is usually too fine, and his hide too thin and "papery" in texture.
Coarse, rough steers, with coarse, plain heads, show lack of good
ancestry. The wide, short, clean-cut head, with broad muzzle, good
eye, and marked indications of what is often termed "character," may
be accepted as one of the very best evidences not only of beef breeding,
but of good beef breeding. The more one deals with feeder cattle the
more one learns to study heads and to place reliance on what the head
indicates as to form, quality, feeding capacity, constitution, thrift,
breeding, and disposition.

The colors of the beef breeds are certainly preferred in feeder steers,
but many scrub animals masquerade under these colors. Red, roan,
or black are frequently found in animals carrying a very small percent-
age of Shorthorn, Hereford, Aberdeen-Angus, or Galloway blood. The
same is true of the polled head of the Aberdeen-Angus, Galloway,
Polled Shorthorn, and Polled Hereford. Well-bred beef steers carry
the colors of the beef breeds, but these colors do not always cover well-
bred beef steers. Color alone is not a safe guide to good breeding.
Color gives unmistakable evidence, however, if it is the fawn or spotted
white and fawn of the Jersey and Guernsey, or the black and white
markings of the Holstein. In such cases, color furnishes all the evi-
dence we need as to the breeding of the animal. As to which of the
beef breeds should be given preference when selecting feeders, that is
almost entirely a matter of personal fancy. They are all good, and
there is no best. There are differences to be sure, but none great
enough to claim attention here.

8. Disposition. — >Nervous, restless cattle are profit-losers on feed.
In many instances, with proper handling, such steers quiet down a
great deal as the feeding period progresses, but in many other instances
this is not true. The eye and the carriage of the head, ears, and tail
are indications of the disposition. A high-headed, wild-eyed steer, with
ears in motion to catch the slightest sound, stampedes on the least
provocation. The poll of the head should be carried only slightly
higher than the line of the back, and the eyes should be placid in ex-
pression, indicating a quiet, contented feeder that will make gains in
proportion to the feed he consumes, instead of wasting his energy in
nervousness and frightened antics.

9. Style. — A low-backed, awkward, slouching kind of a steer may
feed as well and yield as good a carcass as a wide-awake, straight-
lined steer that stands squarely on his legs, but other things being
equal the latter steer looks much better and attracts more favorable
attention on the market than the former. A steer of good style shows

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

117

for all he is worth. The other kind fail to make a good impression at
first sight, and on a crowded market this may mean much.

10. Uniformity in size and color adds much to the attractiveness
of a load of cattle, and in buying feeders this point is worthy of atten-
tion. They look better in the feed-lot, and an even load of steers
attracts more attention on the market than does a mixture of all sizes,
colors, and sorts.

Other factors. — In addition to the foregoing, other points may well
be considered in selecting feeders. Avoid cattle that have cuts, sores,
or lumps on them anywhere, especially those showing lumpy jaw.
Avoid blind steers, lame ones, and those with crooked legs. Big,
sprawling brands affect the value of the hide. When determining upon
the price, remember to consider the amount of fill the cattle will carry

Fig. 29. — Fancy feeder calves.

to the scales. In buying at the large markets, avoid "stale" cattle,
which means those that have been on the market several days and are
too well filled. Watch the droppings for evidence of grain feeding, and
give preference to grass-fed cattle as they are usually more thrifty and
respond better to grain feeding. A steer that has had grain to put him
in feeder condition may be looked on with suspicion. He may be a
hard feeder and poor doer.

Go to the market and accompany the commission man when he
buys your feeders. You will learn much from your visit to the market
and the commission man will be aided by knowing exactly the kind of
cattle you want.

Advantages of cattle feeding.^— The reasons for fattening a steer
are many and important, even though feeding does not increase the
proportion of lean meat or muscle. They are as follows:

118 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

1. Feeding increases the value of the steer.

(a) Adds weight to the animal.

(b) Improves the form and appearance.

(d) Covers the carcass with fat so that it may be held in the
cooler long enough to ripen.

(e) The marbling expands the lean meat, making the steer
thicker in all his cuts.

(f) Makes the beef more tender and juicy.

(g) Fat beef cooks much better than lean beef.
(h) Fat meat is more nutritious than lean meat.

2. Utilizes as feed much that would otherwise be waste on the
farm.

3. Gives employment to labor when other farm work is slack.

4. Makes easily possible the maintenance and improvement of
soil fertility.

5. Cattle feeding, properly managed, is a profitable enterprise.

CHAPTER VIII

MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF CATTLE

[^ Six well-defined classes of cattle are recognized at the large live-
stock markets. Each class is divided into several grades. The six
general classes and their requirements are briefly as follows:

1. Beef steers— including all steers suitable for block beef.

2. Butcher stock — including all heifers, cows, bulls, and stags
suitable for block beef.

3. Cutters and canners — including mostly thin cows and bulls,
but also inferior steers, heifers, stags, and calves not suitable for feeding
and too inferior to yield a carcass suitable for block use.

4. Veal calves — including all grades of veal calves.

5. Stockers and feeders — including thin calves, yearlings, two-
year-olds, and older cattle. It includes steers,, heifers, cows, and bulls.

6. Milkers and springers. — These are cattle of dairy breeding
which are usually more valuable for milking purposes than for beef.
They are sorted out and sold for dairy purposes.

The grades. — The cattle in each class are graded according to
their relative value. The grades are (1) prime, or fancy selected, (2)
choice, (3) good, (4) medium, and (5) common. The term "fair"
means the same as "medium" and is frequently substituted for it.
"Inferior" or "poor" are sometimes substituted for "common." In
some classes there is no grade better than choice, and in other classes
there are no grades better than good. As the term "prime" indicates
a high degree of condition or finish, the best grade of feeder steers and
feeder calves is termed "fancy selected-"

Definitions of class and grade.-v-As shown above, cattle are classed
according to the use for which they are adapted and sold. The cattle
in each class are graded according to the degree with which they meet
the requirements of the class. Briefly, then, cattle are classed accord-
ing to use and graded according to value.

A market class may be defined as a group or division including all
animals on the market adapted and sold for a certain commercial use.

A grade may be defined as a division of a market class including all
animals of about the same value per cwt.

The principal factors determining the use and value of market
cattle are form, quality, condition, weight, age, and sex.

Distinction between type and market class.— A type represents an
ideal which the breeder or feeder is endeavoring to produce. Types

119

120

Types and Market. Classes of Live Stock

represent only the most highly desirable or profitable sorts of animals,
while there are market classes for all sorts of animals — profitable and
unprofitable from the producer's standpoint. The less profitable
market classes are filled incidentally, not through any design of the
breeder. Some market classes are composed of animals that have
already served one or more purposes; having outlived their usefulness
they are discarded and sent to market. The market is accommodating;
it provides a place for all sorts of odds and ends, and hunts up a use for
them. Thus some market classes persist which at first thought have
no excuse for being. Everything classifies somewhere.

at Ch

d on

grass. In the background appears a scales-house where cattle are weighed to the
buyer when sold.

General market terms.V— Before describing the market classes and
grades, some of the general descriptive terms used in the cattle market
need explanation. As applied to market cattle these general terms
have no direct bearing on the market classification, but they serve to
indicate, in a more or less general manner, where the cattle were raised
and how they were fed. Inasmuch as the cattle of many sections of
the country possess certain rather well-marked characteristics, these
general descriptive terms are significant and are useful in describing
the character of market off"erings.

Native and western cattle. — Native cattle are those originating on
the farms of the Central West, East, and South. Western cattle are

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 121

branded cattle from Texas and the West. Natives and westerns have
practically the same uses and both are found in all market classes,
except that western cattle supply no milkers and springers, and com-
paratively few veal calves.

Western cattle are much more uniform than natives, being largely
of beef breeding, mostly Hereford. An infusion of Shorthorn breeding
is noticeable in many of the cattle from the Dakotas, Wyoming, Color-
ado, and Utah. Western cattle are frequently distinguished by the
name of the state from which they come to market, as "Texans,"
"Montanas," "Wyomings," etc.

Natives include all types, breeds, and kinds of cattle, of beef,
dairy, and nondescript breeding. The term "southerns" is applied to
natives produced in the southern states, particularly to cattle from
sections in the Middle South where the breeding is inferior.

As a rule, branded cattle sell at a discount because of the damage
to the hide. In cases of brands on the body, the damage to the hide
is estimated anywhere from 5 to 15 cents per cwt., according to size and
location, and in extreme cases where there is a big, sprawling side brand,
covering a large part of the surface, the discount will be very much
higher, as it practically spoils half the hide.

Grassers and fed cattle. — "Grassers" are cattle direct from pas-
tures without grain feeding. "Corn feds" are cattle from corn-belt
feed-lots. "Fed westerns" are western cattle that have been finished
on a ration of corn or other concentrates, usually in the corn belt.
"Grass westerns" are cattle direct from western ranges. Many grass
cattle sell as stockers and feeders, and after being fattened in the feed-
lot they return to market as fed cattle. Grass cattle are subject to
greater shrinkage in shipping than are fed cattle. "Short feds" are
moderately fat cattle marketed after a 60- to 90-day feeding period.
Cattle coming from a very short feed are often described as "warmed
up;" they show some effects of grain feeding, but are considerably
lacking in finish.

Grass cattle, both westerns and natives, are most numerous on the
market during September, October, and November. The closing of
the pasture season and the approach of winter bring the heavy runs
which feature the fall months. The movement of cattle from Texas
and the Southwest usually begins in May and continues into October,
and other western cattle direct from range pastures make a heavy run
from August 1 to December 1.

Fed cattle are most numerous during the late winter and spring
months. Thin grass cattle are taken out for feeding in the fall and
early winter after the corn crop is harvested, and most of these are
finished and returned to market during the winter and spring before

122 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

crops need attention. From June 1 to December 1, fed cattle are less
numerous on the markets:

Market Classes and Grades of Cattle and Calves

Following is the complete outline of the market classes and grades
of cattle and calves.

Classes Grades

BEEF STEERS:

Heavy weight, 1,300 lbs. up 1

Medium weight, 1,100-1,300 lbs [Prime, choice, good, medium, common

Light weight, 1,100 lbs. down J

BUTCHER STOCK:

Heifers Prime, choice, good, medium, common

Cows Choice, good, medium, common

Bulls Choice, good, medium, common

Stags Choice, good, medium, common

CUTTERS AND CANNERS:

Bologna bulls Good, medium, common

Cutters Good, medium, common

Canners Good, medium, common

VEAL CALVES:

Light weight, 110 lbs. down 1

KuVSetht^&'-leiYbs; :.::;::: |c»oice, .ood. medium, common

Heavy weight, 260 lbs. up J

STOCKERS AND FEEDERS:
fl,000 lbs. up ]

Steers -1750-1,000 lbs. [ Fancy selected, choice, good, medium,

[750 lbs. down J common

Calves Fancy selected, choice, good, medium,

common

Heifers Choice, good, medium, common

Cows Choice, good, medium, common

Bulls Choice, good, medium, common

MILKERS AND SPRINGERS

Beef Steers

The beef steer class includes both fed steers and grass steers, but
the proportion of fed cattle is much higher than in any other class.
Most beef steers show the effects of good feeding, and all beef steers
are suitable for block-beef use.

Beef steers are the most important and highest priced class of
killing cattle on the market. They sell to local packers for immediate
slaughter, or to order buyers who ship them for slaughter to Boston,
New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cleveland, and many other cities.
They dress from 55 to 67 per cent and their carcasses supply the highest
class of trade, including hotels, restaurants, clubs, and the best retail
trade. The grades of beef steers are prime, choice, good, medium, and
common. Form, quality, and condition are the chief factors determin-
ing the grade and price.

Three divisions may be made in the beef steer class according to
weight — heavy, medium, and light. These are important because at

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 123

times higher prices are paid for one weight than another. At times
choice medium-weights sell higher than choice heavy-weights, and vice
versa. Light weights are frequently referred to as "yearlings." Baby
beeves are included here, together with all other steers weighing less
than 1,100 pounds and carrying sufficient finish for block-beef pur-
poses. At times choice and prime light-weight steers bring the highest
prices, the prices paid for the different weights varying in relation to
supply and demand.

Heavy steers, weighing 1,300 pounds and up, supply heavy car-
casses weighing about 750 pounds and up. These are used by hotels,
restaurants, and clubs in large cities. James Brown, in charge of
cattle buying for Armour and Company, states ^ that the demand for

Fig. 31. — Prime beef steers.

heavy finished cattle takes only about 15 per cent of the receipts. He
states that the demand for such cattle is steady and that the supply
is frequently limited from August 1 to February 1, excepting cattle
finished for fat-stock shows and for the Christmas trade. At such
times steers weighing 1,400 pounds or over often bring $1 to $2 more
than smaller steers of the same grade. Late March and April may
bring too many heavy steers, and a few too many can readily glut the
market, resulting in a lower price for heavy weights than for the
lighter beeves.

The divisions of the beef steer class according to weight (and
corresponding divisions in other classes) have been commonly referred

Progressive Beef Cattle Raising, Armour and Company, 1920, p.

124 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

to by writers as "sub-classes," and that term was used in the earlier
editions of this book. Arthur C. Davenport, manager of the Chicago
Daily Drovers Journal, in a recent book entitled "The American Live-
stock Market — How It Functions," makes the very good criticism
that "no buyer or seller on any of the markets ever uses the expression
'sub-classes' nor would he have the slightest idea what was meant,
nor is it ever used in market newspaper reports." The divisions of
the beef steer class according to weight are in reality sub-classes, but
there are good reasons why this term should not be used, and with the
exception of this paragraph and the accompanying foot-note, the term
has been omitted from the present edition of this book. ^

Fig. 32.— Choice beef steers.

Prime steers.-vThis is the most select grade of the beef steer class.
Buyers for eastern markets take most of this grade, and packers take
the rest. Prime steers arepractically above criticism in form, quality,

^In a communication to the writer, Mr. Davenport states that the divisions
of various market classes which are often termed "sub-classes" are in fact and in
reality just that, but he adds that if he were teaching a class of students he would
not attempt to give a name to the sub-classes, except to state that they are divisions
of a class. He further states: "There are many things in the system of classifying
and grading live stock that are not exactly logical and are quite different from what
any well-posted individual might outline if called upon to outline a system from
the foundation up. Of course this is due to the fact that the system in vogue has
grown up through long years of practice and for that very reason it is a most difficult
thing to effect any change in the system. I have watched with a great deal of
interest the efforts of the Bureau of Markets and have cooperated with them to
bring about some very much needed changes along the line of uniformity but, as

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

125

and fatness. They show a high development of flesh in loin, back,
thighs, twist, and rump, are very broad and deep, and are free from
paunchiness. The head is medium-sized and clean-cut. The bone is
clean and fine, the skin pliable and medium thick, and the outlines are
smooth and well rounded. The flesh is abundant in all parts, and is
firm, yet mellow and springy to the touch. There are no rolls or
patches of fat, but a smooth, even, deep, firm fleshing everywhere.
Very few steers come to market which grade as prime. On the Chicago
market at the conclusion of the International Live Stock Exposition,
which is held at the Union Stock Yards in December, most of the fat
steers are sold, and these are usually prime, but it requires much
searching to locate cattle of this grade at other periods of the year.

Fig. '.j'-j. -Good beef steers.

Choice steers.-^If a steer is not quite right in quality or condition,
but still possesses to a marked degree the characteristics most sought
by packers and shippers, he is called a choice steer.

someone remarked recently, 'It may take a generation or two before it can be put
over.' "

It may be argued that if "sub-class" is a term entirely correct so far as meaning
is concerned in its application to class divisions, then it may be best to promote rather
than to discourage its use, in the expectation that it may eventually come into use
on the markets. After consideration of this point, the writer decided that Daven-
port's viewpoint is the better one. He states that students who have studied market
classifications, coming to the yards, talk about sub-classes, and stock-yards men
immediately size them up as having theoretical knowledge only. If the term "sub-
class" can be omitted from outlines and descriptions of market classifications without
seriously affecting their clearness, it is best to do so. That idea has been followed
in the present edition of this book.

126

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Good steers. — Good beef steers may be of very good quality, but
noticeably lacking in condition or finish; they may be finished or in
prime condition, yet lacking in quality; or they may be noticeably
deficient in both quality and condition, but still good enough to be
above the average grade of beef steers received at the markets. By
far the largest number of steers belonging to the good grade may be
said to be a little on the coarse order; they are fat and of good weight,
but rather plain.

Medium steers. — These are of about average quality and condi-
tion, lacking to a marked degree the finish and quality demanded in a
prime steer. They are generally too paunchy and too lacking in condi-

FlG. 34. — Common beef steers.

tion and quality to dress a high percentage of beef or show a good
proportion of fat. Many grassers and warmed-up steers grade here,
and also dairy-type steers carrying a fair amount of finish. The beef
from such steers is not good enough to meet the demands of dealers
in beef of the best quality, nor is the proportion of the high-priced cuts
large. Steers of good form and quality but very deficient in condition
may grade as medium beef steers, or they may sell as feeders, depending
on the season and on the supply and demand.

Common steers. — This is the lowest grade of beef steers coming to
the market. They are very much lacking in form, quality, and condi-
tion. This grade includes those steers which are too thin to sell among
the higher grades of beef steers, and too coarse and rough to be sold

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 127

as stockers and feeders. The best that can be said of them is that
they carry enough condition to escape classing as cutters. Many are
of dairy type and breeding.

Heifers.^ — Two to four heifers mixed in with a load of beef steers
may be passed without any cut in price if they are similar to the steers
in all respects except sex. This is more often true of mixed loads of
light-weight steers and heifers than of heavy weights. With greater
weight and maturity, differences due to sex become more noticeable.

Butcher Stock

Butcher stock includes lieifers, cows, bulls, and stags sold for

i<i(;. i5. — Prime butcher heifer.

slaughter and suitable for block-beef purposes. They dress from 50
to 61 per cent. The carcasses are largely sold to city and country
retail dealers or butchers, hence the term "butcher stock" is applied
to this class of market cattle. Butcher stock includes some fed cattle,
but it contains a much larger proportion of grass cattle than does the
beef steer class.

Heifers. — The grades of butcher heifers are prime, choice, good,
medium, and common. The same conformation, quality, and condi-
tion are demanded in prime heifers that have already been noted as
characteristic of prime steers. The only noteworthy difference is that
of sex. (See Fig. 26.) Choice and good heifers are very similar to
steers of the same grades. The medium and common grades contain

128 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

many heavier, older, and plainer heifers that are nearly matured and
are very similar to cows. They show more prominence of hip, more
roughness, and more unevenness of covering than do younger heifers.
The number of heifers sold at the central markets annually is less
than one-third the number of steers. ^ This is because most heifers
are kept on farms and ranges for breeding and are marketed later as
cows. Inasmuch as heifers are not taken out for feeding to the same
extent as steers, a larger proportion of the heifers received at markets
are sold for slaughter. This explains why monthly receipts of butcher
heifers are less uniform than those of beef steers. Butcher heifers are
marketed in much larger numbers in the fall and early winter than at

■ rt^^Sft^^lfcl

liiBi

Fig. 36. — Good to choice butcher heifer.

other seasons. However, the marketing of heifers is more uniformly
distributed throughout the year than that of cows.

Cows. — Butcher cows are graded choice, good, medium, and
common. A very few individual fat cows received at markets might
be graded as prime. These are strictly fancy, well-bred cows in prime
condition. Some of them are purebred cows discarded and sent to
market because they are non-breeders. The supply is so limited as to
be practically unimportant. The highest grade of cows sold in carload
lots and regularly quoted, is choice, and there are not many of this
grade. Choice cows are prime in condition and good in form, but

lU. S. Dept. Agr, Yearbook, 1921, p. 289.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 129

somewhat deficient in quality. Good cows lack in both condition and
quality, but are fat enough to be reasonably good killers. Medium
cows are poor in form, low in condition, and deficient in quality.
Common cows are a still lower grade closely resembling cutters and at
times sold as cutters rather than as butchers.

Cows are marketed in large ©umbers in fall and early winter, and
at that time cow slaughter frequently exceeds steer slaughter. The
slaughter of cows is much less uniform in numbers than that of steers.
This is because most cows go to slaughter direct from grass in the fall,
while many grass steers are carried over for winter feeding. The
absence of a cow carry-over is felt in the spring and early summer
when receipts of cows are light and prices are the highest of the year.

Fig. 37. — Choice butcher cow.

Usually the number of cows slaughtered in May is about one-third the
number of steers slaughtered in that month.

Bulls. — The grades of butcher bulls are choice, good, medium, and
common. There are very few choice bulls; the supply of these consists
of good beef bulls which have become too aged for further use as
breeders. Bulls of the good grade lack in quality and condition.
Medium bulls are deficient in form, quality, and condition, being
decidedly on the plain order. Common bulls are thin, long legged,
and coarse. They are very similar to bologna bulls and at times are
used for the same purposes.

Stags.— Very few stags are received. They are graded the same
as bulls, but command a somewhat better price depending on how
closely they resemble steers in form and quality.

130

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Cutters and Canners

This class includes all cattle sold for slaughter which are so defi-
cient in condition that most of the carcass or all of the carcass will
not be suitable for block use. It includes cows, heifers, bulls, stags,
calves, and steers, but the most numerous are old cows, very paunchy
and very thin. Many of them are aged dairy cows which have out-
lived their usefulness as milk producers. Cutters and canners dress
from 35 to 55 per cent.

Bologna bulls. — These are bulls that are muscular but not fat
enough for block-beef purposes. They are especially suitable for the
manufacture of bologna sausage. Big, beefy Holstein bulls are said
to be best adapted to the bologna trade. The loins and ribs of many

■ ?■ 1

Fig. 38.— Good cutters.

bologna bulls are sold for block use and the remainder of the carcass
is used for bologna and dried beef. Dried beef is made almost entirely
from the rounds, which are cured in sweet pickle, dried, and smoked.
The grades of bologna bulls are good, medium, and common. The
good grade closely approaches the common grade of butcher bulls, and
the common grade merges with the best grade of canner bulls.

Cutters. — These are cattle inferior as killers, but which cannot be
used to better advantage in any other way. Most of them are old
cows, but some heifers and steers are included also. The loins and
ribs may be sold for block use, but all other parts of the carcass are
used for barrelled or corned beef, canned beef, and dried beef. Barrell-
ed or corned beef is cured and packed in brine. Canned beef is given

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 131

a mild cure, partially cooked, and sealed in tin or glass jars, i The
carcasses of cutters are often described as "shelly," meaning that they
are decidedly lacking in thickness. They are practically devoid of fat.
Bologna bulls are similar to cutters in condition and in their use, but
are more muscular, are classed separately, and sell at somewhat better
prices. The grades of cutters are good, medium, and common.

Canners. — This class includes cows, heifers, bulls, stags, steers,
and calves of a very low, inferior order, too lacking in flesh to permit
of even a part of the carcass being sold over the block. They are also
too old and unthrifty or of such inferior type and breeding as to render
them unfit for the stocker and feeder trade. They are the very lowest
grade of cattle coming to market. Old, thin dairy cows are most

Fig. 39. — Medium canner cow.

numerous in this class, and market men refer to them as "Dairy Maids,"
"Nellies," "Hat Racks," "Shells," "Skins," "Dogs," and "Sea Horses,"
thus indicating their lack of appreciation for such cattle. The grades
of canners are good, medium, and common. Louis D. Hall states -
that typical canner carcasses have no covering of fat, no kidney fat,
and in most cases only sufficient flesh to hold the bones together. The
flesh is generally very dark in color. About one-third of the carcass is
used for canning and sausage purposes and the remainder is "stripped"
and sold as boneless fresh beef cuts and barrelled beef, mostly the
latter.

n\\. Bui. 147, pp. 208-210.
2Ibid, pp. 178, 179.

132

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Veal Calves

Veal calves are largely a by-product of the dairy industry. Most
of them are of dairy type and breeding, and are not profitable to raise
for beef. The desired type is a blocky, smooth calf, with comparatively
small head and fine bone. The neck and brisket should be full, ribs
well covered, back and loin wide, flanks full, rump plump and meaty,
thighs plump, and scrctam or udder full. The skin should be mellow
and pliable, the coat of hair thick, long, and soft, and the tail bushy.
L. D. Hall states ^ that short, straight hair lying close to the skin and
a "whiplash" tail are usually characteristic of poorly finished calves,
and that properly finished native calves 4 to 6 weeks old produce the
best veal, though some choice calves are older. He also states that

i-^:4im^'^>--'->>~

Fig, 40.— Choice veal calf.

the dew claws harden at 2 or 3 weeks of age, that calves under 3 weeks
old are subject to condemnation, and that few carcasses weighing less
than 50 pounds are passed by government meat inspectors. Calves
under 3 weeks old are termed "deacons" or "bob veal." A strictly
fat calf of 150 pounds is the sort that tops the market. Calves are
dressed with the skin on, and a well-fattened calf dresses from 65 to
70 per cent. The best veal is produced by milk feeding and good
management. Calves which have had little milk, much exercise and
exposure, and a long shipment to market bring a low price.

Veal calves range in weight from 80 to 450 pounds and in age from
3 to 20 weeks or over. They are divided by weight into light weights.

111. Bui. 147, p. 212.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 133

handy weights, medium weights, and heavy weights. Light-weight
calves under 110 pounds are most numerous in April and May, and as
the season progresses the calves received at the markets gradually be-
come heavier. Handy weights, ranging from 110 to 190 pounds, are
preferred, the best carrying high finish and weighing from 140 to 160
pounds. Medium weights from 190 to 260 pounds are preferred to
light weights. Heavy weights over 260 pounds bring the lowest
prices.

The grades of veal calves are choice, good, medium, and common,
chiefly according to condition, weight, and age. Following are the
general requirements of the various grades:

Grade Condition Weight Age

Choice well fatted 120-160 lbs 4- 8 weeks

Good fat 110-200 lbs 4-10 weeks

Medium medium fat 100-240 lbs 3-12 weeks

Common thin 80-450 lbs wide range

As shown above, the choice grade includes only handy-weight
calves in high condition. The good grade includes handy weights and
the best and lightest medium weights. The medium grade includes
all except heavy weights. The common grade includes all weights.
Lack of either high condition or desired weight consigns the calf to
the lower grades.

The largest run of veal calves occurs in the late spring, reaching
its peak in May. The veal calves annually slaughtered in the United
States are about one-half as many as the cattle slaughtered for beef,
but their total dressed weight is only about one-tenth of the dressed
weight of the cattle. A much larger percentage of veal calves than of
cattle is slaughtered on farms and in small establishments not under
federal inspection.

Stockers and Feeders

Stockers and feeders include calves, yearlings, two-year-olds, and
older cattle. This class includes steers, heifers, cows, and bulls. There
is no sharp line of distinction between stockers and feeders; the same
kind of cattle may sell on the same day for both stock and feeding
purposes. In a general way, however, the difference between a stocker
and a feeder is that the stocker is usually a younger, lighter, thinner,
and lower priced animal, commonly used for wintering on corn stalks
and other roughage, or for spring, summer, and fall grazing, with little
or no grain. After stockers have acquired more condition and weight
in this manner, they may be returned to market as grass cattle or
they may be kept and fattened on a grain ration before returning them.
In the latter case they first become feeders and finally fat cattle before
they are again sold.

134 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

A feeder is usually a steer, older, heavier, and carrying more flesh
than the stocker, and is suitable for placing in the feed-lot immediately
for fattening on a grain ration. However, a large number of calves
sell as feeders, including mixed lots of steer and heifer calves. These
constitute the only important exception to the above general state-
ments. Stocker and feeder calves commonly weigh from 350 to 450
pounds. Popular weights for stocker cattle range from 450 to 700
pounds, and the most popular range in weight of feeder steers is 800
to 1,000 pounds. Feeders of these weights are usually long yearlings
or two-year-olds. At times fleshy feeders weighing 1,100 to 1,200
pounds are in strong demand for a short feed.

Fig. 41. — Choice feeder steer.

Feeder steers. — On the market the term "stocker" or "feeder"
used without a qualifying word is always understood to mean a steer.
The grades of feeder steers are fancy selected, choice, good, medium,
and common.

Fancy selected feeders. — Very few of the fancy grade reach the
market, as breeders fortunate enough to own thin steers of such quality
usually hold them until finished as prime steers, or sell them direct to
cattle feeders at good strong prices. Fancy selected feeders must be
uniform in size, type, and color, and show unmistakable signs of good
breeding. (See Fig, 27, page 109.) They are practically above criti-
cism, possessing in a high degree the form, quality, constitution, and
fleshing of an ideal feeder as described in Chapter VII.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 135

Choice feeders. — Steers of this grade will, under proper manage-
ment, develop into choice and prime beef steers. They possess the
ability to make economical gains in flesh. Choice feeders compared
to fancy selected feeders are somewhat deficient in some one point,
such as form, quality, or uniformity, or they are slightly deficient in
several points. They must show evidence of good breeding, and every-
thing considered they are excellent cattle for feeding purposes. Most
of the best feeder steers on the market grade as "choice" rather than
as "fancy selected."

Good feeders. — These possess in less degree the qualities which
characterize choice and fancy selected feeders. They are not so thrifty,
have not as good conformations, and carry a smaller percentage of

Fig. 42. — Good feeder steer.

good breeding. They are easily criticized, for they are too long of leg,
too narrow across the back, and either too fine or too heavy in bone.
Good feeders will finish into good beef steers, or perhaps may make the
choice grade.

Medium feeders. — These are very much lacking in form, quality,
and constitution, and very seldom grade higher than medium when
fattened. Many of them are off-colored and spotted, indicating dairy
or inferior breeding.

Common feeders. — These are common in quality, conformation,
and condition. Dairy-type steers classify here.

Yearling stockers. — Many thin, light-weight yearling steers are
available as stockers and are quoted in market reports as "yearling
stockers." They are such cattle as will, after a summer on grass, or

136 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

a good wintering, be suitable for grain feeding. The grades are fancy-
selected, choice, good, medium, and common. These grades are very-
similar to the grades of feeders which have been described.

Stocker and feeder calves. — During the fall months many western
calves, both steers and heifers, are sold at weaning time for stocking
and feeding purposes. With increased attention to baby beef produc-
tion, the well-bred feeder calf has become popular. Uniformity and
good breeding are especially important in calves intended for the feed-
lot. Lack of uniformity among young animals becomes magnified as
they develop, and baby beef production demands good breeding as a
guarantee of early maturity, or finish at a young age. Most calves
started on feed in the fall and early winter are finished for the June

Fig. 43. — Medium feeder steer.

market following the spring run of heavy beef steers. Some are con-
tinued on feed through the summer and marketed in September.

The grades of stocker and feeder calves are fancy selected, choice,
good, medium, and common. Only the better grades are commonly
sold as feeders, the lower grades being used as stockers. Steer calves
are preferred, especially for feeding. The grade depends on the form,
quality, constitution, breeding, and uniformity, corresponding to like
grades of feeder steers. Many choice and fancy western calves are
now sold direct from the range to corn-belt feeders. Auction sales at
western points and in the corn belt, and sales on mail order and at
private treaty on the range now take a large number of the best calves,
such as the S. M. S. brand and Highland Hereford Association, both
of Texas, and others of similar quality.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 137

Stock heifers. — Yearling and older heifers are taken out for
stocking and for breeding purposes. Those taken from the markets
for use in breeding herds must pass the tuberculin test. Some are sold
for grain feeding. The grades are choice, good, medium, and common.
These are similar to the corresponding grades of feeder steers.

Stock cows. — The foregoing remarks relative to stock heifers
apply also to stock cows, except that cows are seldom taken out for
grain feeding. The grades are choice, good, medium, and common.

Feeder bulls. — These are young bulls of beef type. They are
usually stagged (castrated) and are frequently mixed in with loads of
steers when fat. Many of them pass as steers when returned to market ;
others plainly show coarseness of head, neck, and forequarters due to

Fig, 44. — Common feeder steer.

late castration and are sold as stags. The supply and demand are
limited. The grades of feeder bulls are choice, good, medium, and
common.

Milkers and Springers \

These are cows and heifers of dairy type and breeding which are
sorted out of the run of cattle at the market and sold to dairymen.
They are sold by the head, whereas all other classes of cattle are sold
by the hundredweight. The only difference between a milker and a
springer is that the former is in milk while the latter is heavy in calf and
will freshen soon. The springer gives evidence in her type, color, and
mammary development that she will be a useful milk cow after calving.

138

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

The value of this class of cattle depends partly on their age, and this
is determined from the teeth.

How are cattle classed and graded? — Persons who are not familiar
with the large markets sometimes ask by what method the thousands
of cattle arriving daily at the yards are divided into the various classes
and grades. To reply that cattle are classified according to the use
made of them, while true, is not a satisfactory answer, for another
question then arises as to who or what decides how they shall be used.
It may be said that the class and grade of any particular animal or
carload of animals on the market will be finally determined by the
competition on that day's market and by the price paid; in other

5 "».-.- ^A

Fig. 45.— Stockers.

words, supply and demand largely determine the limits of each class.
For example, certain steers received at the market are of a type and
carry a degree of fleshing which place them at about the dividing line
between stockers and feeders on the one hand and beef steers on the
other. The class these steers will make will depend on who will bid
the highest for them. If there is a big run of feeders that day and not
many beef steers, the fat cattle buyers will probably bid higher for
them than anyone else, and so they go as beef steers. If the fat steer
market is dull and the feeder market active, they will in all probability
be sold as feeders.

There is the same indefinite line of division between the poorest
grade of butcher cows and the best grade of cutters. The former
shade off by degrees into the latter. Cows may sell one day as butcher

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 139

cows that would sell the next day as cutters, depending on the fluctua-
tions in supply and demand. It is again impossible to fix absolutely
the line of division between cutters and canners. One merges with
the other. Likewise stockers and feeders cannot be sharply separated.
Butcher bulls and bologna bulls furnish still another example. It is
possible than an animal might be almost equally eligible to three classes.
For instance, a heifer of a certain tj^e and degree of flesh might at
some seasons of the year, class among the poorest butcher heifers, the
best cutters, or as a stock heifer, with the chances of each about even
on an average market. Such a case is not decided until the animal is
sold. If a buyer of butcher stuff bids the most, she will be used that
way. If the cutter buyer for the packer gets her, she is a cutter. If
she is bought by a commission firm for a farmer, she is a stock heifer.
She will sell to the highest bidder on that day's market. Thus we see
that there is considerable overlapping of classes, and that some cattle
cannot be definitely classified until they enter into competition on the
market and are sold.

The market classes and grades of live stock are not official or
standardized as are the classes and grades of grain. Grain is commonly
bought on grade without inspection by the buyer, but the grading of
live stock has not been perfected to this extent. Live stock is bought
and sold at the markets in the presence of the buyer and seller, or
their agents. So many factors determine the value of an animal and
these factors vary so widely that an exact, standardized classing and
grading of live stock does not seem possible. Nevertheless, the classifi-
cations of live stock which have grown up with the markets serve a
useful purpose. They enable buyer, seller, and market reporter to
describe particular lots of animals in few words and with considerable
accuracy. They are valuable in quoting prices and in reporting the
market. Furthermore, a knowledge of the classes and grades enables
the live-stock producer to interpret market reports and to gain a fairly
accurate knowledge of market values and their fluctuations from day
to day.

Lack of uniformity in classing and grading. — The men engaged in
buying and selling on any market diff'er somewhat in their opinions as
to the exact requirements of the various classes, and they differ to a
considerable degree concerning the requirements of the various grades
in each class. They usually agree very closely on the price, yet one
prominent buyer may call a certain fat steer a typical "choice" steer,
and another equally well-qualified buyer may call him a typical "good"
steer. This difference of opinion is largely explained by the fact that
they are accustomed to express values in terms of dollars and cents
rather than in the grade names used in reporting the markets in the

140 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

newspapers. There is no close agreement on the exact application of
these terms. Even the reporters for the papers are not themselves
agreed on the application of many terms they use.

Between one market and another there are still other differences
in the application of terms. The best beef steers of a certain market
will be quoted as prime steers in the daily reports of that market as
given in the newspapers, yet these same steers on some other large
market where a better class of cattle is regularly received would never
be called better than choice steers. Admittedly there is opportunity
for, and need of, greater uniformity in the use and meaning of market
terms, yet the market classifications as they now exist at various
markets, with all their inaccuracies and lack of uniformity, serve a
valuable purpose. They furnish at least some sort of a "handle" to
the market. Without them it would be next to impossible to report
the markets to country stock buyers, stockmen, and farmers.

Cattle Prices at Chicago

Chicago prices during 1922. — As indicating the comparative
market values of the various market classes, the following prices from
the Chicago market covering the year 1922 may be noted i^

Class Range in price Average prict

Beef steers $5.00-14.00 $9.00

Butcher cows and heifers 3.00-12.00 5.70

Bulls, all classes 2.50- 8.50

Bologna bulls 3.25- 5.35 4.45

Cutter and canner cows 1.00- 4.50 3.15

Veal calves 2.50-14.00 9.70

Stockers and feeders 3.50- 8.50 6.65

Grass western steers, all classes 3.00-10.25 6.60

Grass western cows and heifers, all classes 2.00- 8.25 ....

Market values of the various classes. — In determining the com-
parative market values of the various market classes, averages for one
year are not sufficient as a basis for comparison. The following table ^
gives the yearly average prices at Chicago for the several market
classes from 1913 to 1922, and also the averages for the entire ten-year
period :

Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Book of Figures for 1922.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

141

Average

pricei

for cattle and calves at Chicago for ten

years

Beef Steers

West'n Range

S
>

•a

Year

•a
1^

1913
1914

1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921
1922

$8.00

8.10

7.70

8.45

10.50

13.25

13.40

11.55

7.20

8.00

$8.10

8.30

8.05

8.85

11.50

14.40

14.50

12.50

7.65

8.40

$8.30

8.70

8.55

9.40

12.30

15.00

15.80

13.85

8.20

9.00

$8.65

8.95

8.75

10.25

13.05

15.90

16.90

14.80

8.60

9.50

$8.85

9.75

9.25

10.75

13.75

16.50

17.60

15.80

8.90

10.00

$8.25

8.65

8.40

9.50

11.60

14.65

15.50

13.30

8.20

9.00

$7.40

7.65

7.75

8.40

10.60

14.40

11.25

8.80

6.15

6.60

$6.05
6.40
6.00
6.25
9.00

10.15

$6.10
6.55
6.10
6.75
8.25
9.50

10.00
8.55
5.40
5.70

$4.25
4.60
4.25
4.80
6.25
7.25
6.45
5.05
2.90
3.15

$10.10

9.90

10.15

10.85

13.75

15.75

17.05

14.90

9.80

9.70

$7.05
7.35
(M
7.20
8.40
10.25
10.85
8.95
6.45
6.65

lO-yr. ave.

9.60

10.25

10.90

11.55

12.10

10.70

8.90

7.30

4.90

12.20

8.05

• No outlet, due to outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease and quarantine of the yards.

From the standpoint of averages, it will be observed that the
price of a beef steer bears a constant relation to his weight, the heavier
the steer, the higher the price per cwt. This is due to the fact that
as a steer becomes older he fattens more easily; and in dealing with
groups of very large numbers of beef steers of different weights, all
factors determining value are equalized except the factor of fatness.
Between the average prices of 900-pound and 1,125-pound beef steers
there is a difference of 65 cents per cwt.; between 1,125-pound and
1,275-pound steers the difference is also 65 cents; between 1,275 and
1,425 pounds it is again 65 cents; and between 1,425 and 1,600 pounds
it is 55 cents. The sum of all these differences is $2.50, which is the
difference between the average prices of the lightest and heaviest
groups of beef steers. All beef steers together sell $3.40 higher than
butcher cows and heifers. Between stockers and feeders and beef
steers there exists a margin of $2.65 based on the Chicago figures.
Butcher stock sells $2.40 higher than cutters and canners. Veal calves
bring the highest price of any class, exceeding the price of beef steers
by $1.50.

Highest and lowest monthly prices. — It is true of Chicago and of
the other large markets that beef steers are usually highest in price
in late August or early September. They are usually lowest about
the last of January or first of February.

Highest prices for stockers and feeders are made in April and May,
which mark the opening of the pasture season. Lowest prices occur
in November and December, December being the lowest.

Butcher cows and heifers sell highest in May, and lowest in
November and December.

142

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Cutter and canner prices exhibit no marked high and low spots,
and the high points in prices are the most irregular in occurrence of
any class of cattle.

Largest receipts of veal calves arrive in April and May. Highest
prices are made in SeptemB^r and lowest prices in April. One reason
for the low price in April is that a large majority of spring calves are
too small to yield high-class veal. Fewest light-weight calves are
received in September and October.

Two kinds of fluctuations are evident in live-stock prices. One
may be termed the "general trend." This affects prices over a con-
siderable period of time and is usually associated with changes in prices

Seasonal Influence on Receipts and Prices of Cattle and Beef

Monthly 1917-1920 ^ 1

42 00
MOO
18 00
ItOO

10 00

e.oo

AGO
200

1800

laoo
eoo

*oo

aoo

- izoo
woo

leoo

IfcOO
12 00

1000

J BOO

boo

BEEr

/■

■^

-s

/■

•

•".

..L,

.•

CATTLE

...

^:i

PRICES

Swift * Com

f Aver«

go Priczs AM Ovar

200

IBOO

eo«

- zoo

1 1

1 ,

1 1

—

-./

RtCEIPTS AT SEVEN PRINCIPAL MABKETJ

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M M 1 1 1 1 1 III

M 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 M 1 II III

1 1

1917 1 I9I8 1 1919 1 --I920

Note

the
th8

To compnro Beef Prices. «» leariy <>s possible, wi^h the Prices o< Live Cflttle. from y.h.ch th« 6eef otme,
Prices of Dressed Beef ore given for first week of month »howr> the l.lv« Prices src g,ver^ for

Fig. 46. — Effect of the supply of cattle upon live prices and beef prices, as
shown by receipts at seven leading markets, prices paid for cattle by Swift and
Company on its entire cattle purchases in the United States, and prices received by
Swift and Company for dressed beef. Note that prices for both cattle and beef are
highest in seasons of lightest receipts, and lowest when there is the largest supply.

of other commodities. The other consists of daily, weekly, monthly,
and seasonal fluctuations, due largely to variations in supply and not
associated with changes in prices of other commodities. These two
classes of fluctuations are both well illustrated in the following table ^
giving the monthly and yearly average prices of beef steers at Chicago
for ten years. The general trend of prices is shown by the yearly
averages at the bottom of the table. The monthly or seasonal fluctua-
1 Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

143

tions are shown by the ten-year averages of monthly prices in the last
column at the right:

Monthly and yearly average prices for beef steers at Chicago for ten

years

Month

1922

1921

1920

1919

1918

1917

1916

1915

1914

1913

Ten-year
average

($7.05)

$8.70

$13.95

$15.80

$12.10

($10.15) ($8.35)

$8.05

$8.45

($7.80)

$10.05

7.45

8.20

13.05

15.95

(12.00)

10.50

(8.35)

(7.50)

(8.30)

8.25

(9.95)

March

8.00

9.05

13.10

16.05

12.60

11.25

8.75

7.65

8.35

8.30

10.30

^.v-:::::

7.95

8.15

12.30

15.85

14.70

11.75

9.10

7.70

8.50

8.15

10.40

. 8.30

8.25

12.25

15.00

15.40

11.90

9.50

8.35

8.40

8.00

10.55

8.95

8.00

14.95

(13.55)

15.85

12.15

9.85

8.80

8.60

8.15

10.90

July

9.50

8.10

15.00

15.60

16.05

12.35

9.25

9.20

8.80

8.25

11.20

August

9.65

8.50

14.85

16.45

15.75

12.70

9.45

9.05

9.10

8.30

11.40

10.20

8.00

15.05

15.50

16.00

13.10

9.40

8.95

9.35

8.50

11.40

October

10.65

8.10

14.20

16.15

14.80

11.70

9.75

8.80

9.05

8.40

11.15

November ....

9.85

7.40

12.00

15.10

15.05

11.10

10.15

8.70

8.60

8.25

10.60

December

9.20

(7.00)

(10.10)

14.35

14.90

11.40

10.00

8.35

8.20

10.20

Yearly averaEe

9.00

8.20

13.30

15.50

14.65

11.60

9.50

8.40

8.65

8.25

10.70

The table shows that yearly average prices for beef steers steadily
and rapidly increased from 1915 to 1919, and then declined to the
amount of $7.30 during 1920 and 1921. This was due to inflation of
prices during the World War and to severe depression or reaction
immediately following the war.

PRICE OF STEERS BY GRA

WEEKLY AVERAGE

DES AT CHICAGO

5. 1921

DOLLARS j^M pg-g ^AR APR MAY JUNE J
PER 100 LBS

JLY AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

IZ -<^

- --(- ,4~S - -

l\\ /&^

'°"\m/;j^>^ ^^

?^\ .f'^''^'-. r

,•^•^'^!4'^.."^fiJ^.^lH^

s>._ n ::

4'V-- '■■Mium

rr k ,■■■■■ -J-s^

e 1 J _1 IF::

.i. Hi

TY-.I--I.---' ■■•"

' i

± I

Fig. 47. — Spread in price of beef steers.

Highest monthly prices are printed in bold-face type. These are
scattered widely, though they occur most frequently in July, August,
and September. The last column at the right shows that these three
months average highest for the ten years, with August and September
highest of all.

144 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Lowest monthly prices are enclosed in parenthesis. In all but
one year these occurred in December, January, and February, and the
column at the right shows that these three months average lowest,
with February lowest of all. There is a steady rise in price from
February to August, followed by a rapid decline from September to
December. Between February and August the difference in price is
$L45.

The spread in price of beef steers. — As a general rule, the price
of any particular class or grade of cattle is highest when the supply is
lowest, and vice versa. In the spring a large number of good,
choice, and prime steers are received from corn-belt feed-lots, and the
movement of grass-fattened steers is at low ebb. This tends to lower
the price of the better grades of beef steers and to increase the price
of the medium and common grades, so that there is relatively little
spread (difference) in the price of all beef steers during spring months. ^
In the fall, conditions are reversed and the spread in price is very much
greater. In 1921 choice and prime steers sold higher in fall than in
spring, while medium and common steers sold considerably lower in
fall than in spring. The weekly price averages showed a spring spread
of a little less than $2, and a fall spread of about $6, or three times as
much. The general trend of the market during that year was down-
ward. These facts are illustrated in Fig. 47.

1 Sheets, Baker, Gibbons, Stine, and Wilcox: Our Beef Supply, U. S. Dept.
Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 305.

CHAPTER IX

BREEDING FOR THE MARKET

The following figures reported by the U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture show the rank of the leading cattle countries and the total number
of cattle (beef and dairy cattle) in each:

Number of cattle in leading countries

Country Year Total cattle

1. India 1920 132,537,000

2. United States. . . . 1923 66,352,000

3. Russia 1921 38,132,000

4. Brazil 1918 37,500,000 >

5. Argentina 1920 27,721,000

6. Germany 1921 16,840,000

7. Siberia 1915 14,772,000

8. Australia 1920 13,373,000

9. France 1920 12,782,000

10. Great Britain. . . .1921 11,893,000

11. Canada 1921 10,206,000

12. Poland 1921 7,861,000

13. Uruguay 1916 7,803,000

World total 492,072,000 =

» Unofficial.

«U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 680. Includes 435,000 designated as "cattle and buffaloes.'

The United States has about one-seventh of the world's cattle.
The 1920 census reported 35 million beef cattle and 32 million dairy
cattle in the United States. On January 1, 1923, the number of milk
cows on farms in the United States, as estimated by the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, was 24,429,000 and the remaining 41,923,000
were reported as "other cattle." The average value of milk cows was
estimated to be $50.83 and of "other cattle," $25.67. Cattle other
than milk cows are principally beef cattle.

Cattle and population. — The population of the United States has
shown a steady and regular increase since 1850, and the increase in
number of cattle kept pace with it until about 1895. Since that time
the number of both beef and dairy cattle has remained fairly constant,
while population has continued to increase steadily. Therefore the
number of cattle to each inhabitant has declined somewhat since 1895.
However, the use of better and better animals for breeding purposes
has improved the usefulness of all of our farm animals; hence decline
in number of cattle per capita has been partially met by improvement
in quality.

The accompanying table ^ shows the annual slaughter and con-

iJohn Roberts: Meat Production, Consumption, and Foreign Trade in United
States, 1907-1922, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Mimeographed Report.

145

146

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

sumption of beef and veal. The annual slaughter is representative of
annual production. Beef production shows a slight decrease and veal
production shows a considerable increase from 1907 to 1922 inclusive.
Failure of our beef production to keep pace with our growing popula-
tion is reflected in the annual per capita consumption of beef which
declined from 79.7 pounds in 1907 to 61.4 pounds in 1922. Veal con-
sumption per capita shows a slight increase. It will be noted that we
exported considerable beef during the World War.

Estimated annual production and consumption of dressed beef and veal in the United States

Total slaughter

Gain or loss

through exports

and imports

Consumption

Calendar
year

Total

Per capita

Beef

Veal

Beef

Veal

Beef

Veal

Beef

Veal

1907

1910

Million
pounds

7,319
6,733
5,913
5,639
5,816
6,118
6,686
7,320
6,283
6,463
6,194
6,747

Million
pounds

626

687
488
433
428
536
662
765
804
838
748
793

Million
pounds

-352
-110

- 11
+ 165
-257
-256
-334
-581
-229
-105
-^22

- 5

Million
pounds

+ 1
+ 1
+ 1
+ 1
+ 5
+8
+4
+ 5

Million
pounds

6,967

6,623

5,902

5,804

5,559

5,862

6,352

6,753 '

6,090'

6,514 >

6,230'

6,711'

Million
pounds

626
687
488
438
429
537
663
766
809
846
752
798

Pounds

79.7
71.8
60.8
59.3
56.0
58.2
62.2
65.2
58.0
61.2
57.8
61.4

Pounds

7.1
7.4

1913

5.0

1914

4.4

1915

4.3

1916

5.3

1917. .

6.5

1918

7.4

1919

7.7

1920

7.9

1921

7.0

1922

7.3

1 Includes differences between quantities in storage at beginning and end of year.

The distribution of beef cattle in the United States is shown by
the numbers of cattle other than milk cows in the leading states and
the numbers of such cattle in the various geographical divisions: ^

Leading states in numbers of "other cattle" on farms, January 1, 1923

state Number

1. Texas 5,041,000

2. Iowa 3,479,000

3. Nebraska 2,700,000

4. Kansas 2,487,000

5. Missouri 2,003,000

Average
value

State

Number

Average
value

$18.60
35.20
31.80
27.20
28.70

10.

Illinois

South Dakota
California. . . .
Oklahoma.. . .
Colorado

.1,561,000
1,521,000
.1,435,000
.1,364,000
.1,361,000

$34.00

29.40
34.70
16.80
25.40

Distribution of "other cattle" on farms by geographical divisions, January 1, 1923

Division Number

North Atlantic 1,222,000

South Atlantic 2,872,000

North Central, East of Mississippi River 4,699,000

North Central, West of Mississippi River 14,293,000

South Central 9,851,000

Far Western 8,986,000

Total United States

1 Estimates of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

.41,923,000

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

147

Beef cattle breeding in the United States centers largely in two
regions: (1) the western portion of the corn belt, and (2) the great
plains region of Texas, New Mexico, and Colorado. The last census
showed that in 1920 Texas had more than two and one-half times as
many beef cows and heifers of breeding age as her nearest competitor,
Iowa. Texas had over 17 per cent of all the beef cows and heifers of
breeding age in the United States. Texas and the Southwest annually
send large numbers of calves and young cattle to the corn belt and to
the northern range states for stocking and feeding purposes. The
movement of cattle from the Southwest is northerly and easterly.
Other western states contribute to the annual crop, and the central

Fig. 48.— Distribution of beef cattle in the United States.

states produce many of their own beef cattle, but the Southwest is the
great supply source of calves and young stock to be grown and finished
in other regions. As stated by James E. Poole, market editor of the
Breeder's Gazette, "Texas and other sections of the great southwestern
breeding ground have replenished northern pastures year after year
from a seemingly inexhaustible supply. Owing to its climatic and
physical character, it is probable that for all time to come this western
breeding ground will continue to replenish the feed-lots and pastures
of the Mississippi and Missouri basins." Texas and the southern
range are best adapted to economical calf production, the northern
range to maturing and grass fattening, and the corn belt to grain
finishing.

148 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

The accompanying table ^ presents some interesting figures based
on the last census covering the 14 states which had the most beef cows
and heifers of breeding age on January 1, 1920. Seven of these states
are western and seven are central. Note the right-hand column of
figures giving the ratio between beef calves and beef cows in these
states on January 1. Note especially the marked difference between
the ratios for Texas and Iowa, the two leading states in beef cattle
breeding.

Number of beef calves compared to number of beef cows and heifers, January 1, 1920
(Census figures)

Number of beef Number of Number cf

cows and heifers beef calves calves per hundred

State two years old January 1 cows and h< ifers

and over Janusry 1

1. Texas* 2,181,359 903,084 41

2. Iowa 848,914 844,656 100

3. Nebraska 828,853 682,265 82

4. Kansas 672,023 542,216 81

5. New Mexico* 664,329 249,545 38

6. South Dakota 573,589 467,986 82

7. Missouri 533,675 445,199 83

8. Colorado 529,186 325,033 61

9. Okl ihoma 490,689 309,025 63

10. California 441,059 242,315 55

11. Arizona* 429,480 153,137 36

12. Montana** 384,148 275,564 72

13. Illinois 361,909 340,425 94

14. Wyoming** 299,126 206,741 69

*T iree southern range 3,275,168 1,305,766 40

**Ta^o northern range 683,274 482,305 71

Seven western states 4,928,687 2,355,419 48

Seven centr il states 4,309,652 3,631,772 84

Total 9,238,339 5,987,191 65

Total United States 12,624,996 8,607,938 68

This table indicates that Texas sells a large number of calves
prior to January 1, and that Iowa buys a considerable number of calves.
However, due allowance should be made for the fact that under range
conditions fewer calves are dropped per 100 cows, and losses of calves
from disease, exposure, predatory animals, poison, and other causes are
greater than in the central states, but these factors cannot cover the
wide differences which occur in the ratios between calves and cows in
many of the 14 states. ^ At the bottom of the table appears a com-

1 Compiled from U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 248, 250.

2 Figures covering the average calf crops and average losses of calves up to 12
months of age in various states are given by B irnes and Jardine in U. S. Dept. Agr.
Rpt. 110, p. 27, and by Cotton and Ward in U. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. Ill, pp. 41, 51.
Applying these figures, and assuming that the number of breeding females was the
same in 1919 as in 1920, then the number of January calves produced per 100 breed-
ing females in Iowa was 86, Nebraska 78, Kansas 81, New Mexico 59, South Dakota
85, Missouri 89, Colorado 64, California 69, Arizona 52, Montana 71, Illinois 88, and
Wyoming 69. Similar figures are not available for Texas and Oklahoma. Assuming

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 149

parison of the northern range with the southern range, of the central
states with the western states, and of the 14 leading states with the
total for the United States. The latter indicates that the 14 states
supplied over 275,000 calves to other states in 1919. This assumes
that conditions are equally favorable to calf production in the 14 states
and in the country as a whole.

Conditions suitable to beef cattle breeding.^^"The importance of
beef cattle in the agriculture of this country rests chiefly upon their
ability to convert coarse forage, corn, grass, and other products of the
land, either unfit or not wanted for human consumption, into a valuable
and much desired food.''^ The raising of beef cattle is extensively
practiced on cheap, unimproved lands, especially on the cheap grazing
areas of the West. Improved, high-priced lands in the farming areas,
particularly in the corn belt, produce feed much more abundantly than
the cheap grazing areas, including large quantities of roughage such as
corn stalks, hay, and straw, and the larger part of this roughage must
be fed to cattle if it is to be used at all. A considerable number of
eastern, southern, and corn-belt farms include more or less rough land
which may be used to best advantage as pasture for a beef breeding
herd.

Thus breeding herds of beef cattle are maintained not only in the
Southwest and West, but also in the Central West, and in the East
and South. Steer calves produced in the West are frequently kept
there until they are three or four years old to mature them so that
they will fatten on grass, because young, growing animals do not
fatten on grass alone. On the other hand, steer calves produced in
the corn belt must be developed and finished quickly. On high-priced
land they cannot be developed profitably by the slower method of the
West. In other words, most corn-belt beef calves must be marketed
as baby beeves.

Selection of beef cattle for breeding purposes. — When breeding
for beef, the producer must use good cattle of the beef type. Attention

that conditions are as favorable for production of calves in Texas as in New Mexico
(they are probably more favorable), then Texas sold 18 calves per 100 cows, New
Mexico 21, South Dakota 3, Missouri 6, Colorado 3, California 14, and Arizona 16;
while Iowa purchased 14 calves per 100 cows, Nebraska 4, Montana 1, and Illinois 6.
This would mean the sale of about 400,000 calves by Texas, the purchase of about
120,000 calves by Iowa, and sales or purchases by the other states in proportion
to the figures given. The writer does not believe the above figures relative to corn-
belt calf crops to be accurate as applied to some of the corn-belt states, being too
high when applied to the state as a whole, but in a broad, general way they indicate
the allowances which should be made for differences in numbers of calves dropped
and for losses in western as compared to central states. If the corn-belt figures are
high, the movement of western calves into corn-belt states was larger than the above

1 Sheets, Baker, Gibbons, Stine, and Wilcox: Our Beef Supply, U. S. Dept.
Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 227.

150 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

must be given to the selection of both the cows and the bulls, and an
effort must be made to breed for market what the market wants and
will pay for in amount sufficient to return a profit. In some years,
feeders of cattle find it more profitable to buy a rather low grade of
cattle for feeding purposes, although as a general rule, it pays best to
feed high-class cattle that will sell at the top of the market, or near the
top, when finished. Breeders of cattle are confronted with no such
problem as to what to aim for in breeding; they should always try to
breed the best. Breeding herds are not so easily or quickly changed
to suit fluctuations in market demands as are cattle in the feeder's
hands; hence, breeders abide by the general rule that greatest returns
come from the production of the highest grade of cattle, and on high-
priced land especially, these are the only cattle which can be bred at
a profit.

When the object of the breeder is to produce calves to be fed for
the market, the cows in the herd are purebred only in rare instances.
The 1920 census reported that about 3 per cent of the beef cattle of
the United States are purebred and registered (recorded in the herd
books of the breed record associations). ^ Purebred cattle are not so
numerous as to permit their widespread use, and it is impracticable to
advise that purebred cows shall constitute the common herds of the
country, nor would it be possible to bring about that condition for many
years to come. By all means, however, the cows in such herds should
be high grades of some one of the beef breeds.

Ancestry and its importance.^-Cattle may be classified into the
following groups, according to their ancestry: (1) Purebreds, (2) cross-
breds, (3) high grades, (4) grades, and (5) scrubs.

A purebred animal is a member of a breed, and is registered or
eligible to registry in the herd book of that breed. Second, the pure-
bred animal usually possesses a distinctive and useful type. Third,
it is descended from a long line of ancestors specially selected by the
men who founded and developed that breed, these ancestors being of
the same type as itself, which fact explains why the animal may be
termed a "purebred." Fourth, being backed up by an ancestry of
useful animals like itself, it has the power to reproduce this useful type
in its offspring, this power or ability being called "prepotency." As it
is a rule of breeding that whatever characters an animal inherits from

1 The percentage of beef cattle which are purebred and registered varies widely
in different states. According to the 1920 census, the ten leading states in numbers
of registered purebred beef cattle, and the percentage of beef cattle registered in
each are: Iowa 5, Texas 1.9, Missouri 4.9, Kansas 3.9, Nebraska 3, Illinois 5.7, South
Dakota 3.2, Minnesota 6, Oklahoma 3.1, and Indiana 4.9. States having the highest
percentages are: Massachusetts 11.7, New Hampshire 10.4, Vermont 8.5, Wisconsin
7.9, and Maine 7.5. The lowest in percentages are: Florida 0.27, Louisiana 0.63,
Arizona 0.74, Delaware 0.9, and Georgia 0.9.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

151

its ancestors will be transmitted to its offspring, we at once realize the
purebred's power for good when used as a breeder. The terms "full
blood" and "thoroughbred" are often erroneously used in place of the
word "purebred."

A crossbred animal is one whose sire and dam were both purebred,
but belonged to different breeds. A cross between a Shorthorn bull
and a Hereford cow, for example, produces a crossbred calf.

A scrub animal is one that bears no evidence of good breeding —
one without any purebred ancestors, or, at most, very few and very
distant ones. Its ancestors were a miscellaneous lot, of all shapes.

Fig. 49. — Old-time Texas long-horn, formerljr a prominent feature on the
American cattle markets. Early range cattle were of this type. They had very
long horns, long legs, thin flesh, and narrow bodies. Through the continued use of
purebred bulls this early type has practically disappeared.

sizes, colors, and sorts, few if any of which were useful animals. Hence,
scrub animals are usually of indeterminate type and little value.
Calves sired by scrub bulls and out of scrub dams will be as worthless
as their ancestry.

A grade animal is one produced by mating a scrub female with a
purebred male. If this grade animal is a female and is in turn mated
with a purebred male of the same type (and preferably of the same
breed) as its own purebred parent, the result will still be a grade.
Grade animals possess from 50 to 75 per cent of pure breeding.

152

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

A high-grade animal is one produced from a scrub foundation by
three or more successive crosses of purebred sires of the same type and
preferably of the same breed. High grades possess 87.5 per cent or
more of pure breeding. High-grade beef cows and heifers approach
purebred beef cows and heifers in their ability to produce high-class
beef calves when mated to good purebred beef bulls. Such matings
insure not only high-class calves but calves of uniform tj^De and uni-
form ability which contrast sharply with the variegated assortment of
calves produced by scrub herds.

As stated by Wentworth, Munnecke, and Brown, ^ "The success
of growing cattle for the market depends in a large degree on the kind
of calves that are produced. Unless the right foundations in blood
and type are laid, no amount of feeding by the professional feeder or
skill in killing and cutting by the packer can make up for the original

Fig. 50. — Crossbred beef cattle. These are representatives of the noted "blue
grays" so popular in the British markets. They were sired by a Shorthorn bull and
their dams were Galloway cows.

deficiency. Unless proper mating is made at the start, choice to prime
steers are rarely, if ever, produced."

Utility value of purebred live stock. — The U. S. Department of
Agriculture tabulated reports received in 1921 from 525 farmers and
stockmen who had used purebred sires exclusively for a number of
years. These men owned about 25,000 head of breeding stock, exclu-
sive of poultry. All their sires had been purebred for an average of
nine years. About 30 per cent of the female stock was purebred, the re-
mainder being grade, crossbred, and nondescript. Thirty-six states were
represented. Averages of the replies indicate that purebred animals
are over one-third more efficient than common stock for utility purposes.
The averages for each kind of farm live stock were as follows: ^

1 Progressive Beef Cattle Raising, Armour and Company, Chicago, 1920, p. 22.
2D. S. Burch: Utility Value of Purebred Live Stock, U. S. Dept. Agr. Circ.
235, p. 5.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 153

Superiority, based on utility alone, of purebred over common live stock

Class Superior earning power

Per cent

Dairy cattle 47.8

Swine 38.3

Sheep 37.8

Horses 37.2

Beef cattle 36.8

Goats 36.8

All classes (weighted average) 40.4

When the reports were summarized the superiority of purebreds
was, in the opinion of their owners, based on the following points:

Points in which purebred animals surpass common stock

Per cent of
total comment

Better conformation and quality 14.6

Better selling price of animals 12.8

Increased production 12.1

Stock more saleable 11.9

More product for the feed 9.2

Owners' interest and pride (results in better care and

greater returns) 9.2

Uniformity (factor in making sales) 8.9

Early maturity 7.8

Ease of fattening and finishing 5.7

Better prices for products 3.0

Increased vigor 2.7

Docility and ease of handling 2.1

100.0

The grading process enables the producer of beef calves to develop
a breeding herd of high grades that closely approach or equal purebred
beef cattle in their utility value. Beginning with a herd of scrub cows,
successive crosses of purebred beef bulls will result in the following
percentages of pure and scrub breeding in each generation of descend-
ants:

Results obtained by continued grading

Percentage of

Percentage of Percentage of pure breeding

Crosses of purebred sires pure breeding scrub breeding added by each

cross

One cross 50 50 50

Two crosses 75 25 25

Three crosses 87.5 12.5 12.5

Four crosses 93.75 6.25 6.25

Five crosses 96.875 3.125 3.125

Six crosses 98.4375 1.5625 1.5625

It will be noted that the first cross gives the resulting calf crop
a 50 per cent infusion of pure breeding, whereas the sixth cross gives
the resulting calf crop less than 2 per cent more pure breeding than
their dams. The first cross usually brings much greater improvement
into the herd than any subsequent cross. It is much easier to improve
a scrub herd than a good herd. After a time the herd becomes so

154 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

nearly purebred that further improvement by grading is no longer
possible. When that stage is reached the breeder may secure further
improvement only as the breeder of purebred cattle secures it, namely,
by careful selection. This requires not only ability to judge beef cattle,
but it requires also careful study of the herd in order that the best
producers may be selected or retained, and the inferior and less useful
ones eliminated. It is more difficult to maintain a high average of
type and production in a herd than it is to develop a good herd from a
scrub herd by grading.

Community and cooperative breeding. — Organization of the stock-
men and farmers of a community to use the same breed and to exchange
sires makes possible to owners of small herds a succession of good sires
at moderate cost. Small breeders may cooperate in buying bulls, and
by exchange of bulls may retain the most successful sires in service
in the community. Ordinarily a bull cannot be kept in a small herd
more than two or three years because his daughters are used in the
herd. Communities which have a large number of good herds of the
same breed attract buyers who desire a few high-class purebreds or a
carload of high grades. In some instances sales are made over a wide
territory. Cooperation along these lines within a community is highly
desirable in many ways, but unfortunately it is the exception in this
country rather than the rule. ^-

The bull is at least half of the herd.V^Herd bulls should be selected
with great care. It is often said that "the bull is half the herd," and
someone has added the equally true statement that "an inferior bull
is all of the herd." The U. S. Department of Agriculture estimates
that there are nearly 250,000 farms producing beef cattle which use
grade and scrub bulls. ' In breeding all kinds of farm live stock we
expect the offspring to be better than the dam, and we rely upon the
sire to bring about this improvement. In breeding beef cattle for the
market, it is well to have good cows, but it is an absolute essential to
have a good bull. We pin our hopes on him. He must be a good
individual, he must be purebred, and he should come from a good line
of ancestry. These three points are guarantees as to his breeding
ability.

One of the most notable examples of the value of purebred bulls
as herd improvers is that afforded by the history of cattle breeding on
western ranges. Beginning with the old Texas long-horn stock which
formed the foundation of range herds, successive crosses of purebred
sires brought remarkable improvement in the beef-making qualities of
western cattle. (See Fig. 49 and compare with Fig. 30 in preceding
chapter.)

lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 240.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

155

The higher-priced bull is often the cheaper. — As to what price
the breeder is justified in paying for a bull, that will vary depending
upon the conditions. Some very satisfactory bulls have been bought
at very moderate prices. If a full quota of cows is at hand for breeding,
not less than $150 should be invested in a bull, and more often it will
be advisable to pay $200, $250, or more, rather than $150. A small
increase in the value per head of one season's crop of calves by the use
of the higher-priced bull, as compared with the cheap one, will return
the difference in the price of the two animals. Furthermore, when
the heifers by the higher-priced sire are used in the breeding herd,

Fig. 51. — Selecting a future herd header. Unly good purebred bulls should be
used in any herd. These buyers are indicating the calf that is superior in masculinity,
constitution, fleshing, head, bone, spring of rib, and strength of top.

improvement thereafter will be more marked and the desired standard
of excellence will be attained in shorter time.

The following table ^ gives the averages by states of answers made
by western stockmen in 1915 to the questions indicated by the headings
of the various columns in the table. This table furnishes ample proof
of the fact that the average value of the live stock of a community is

1 Barnes and Jardine: Live Stock Production in the Eleven Far Western Range
States, U. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. 110, p. 27.

156

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

in direct proportion to the value of the sires used,
no higher than its source."

"A stream can rise

Value of beef cattle as related to value of their sires

State

Average

number of

bulls per 100

cows

Average

value
of bulls

Average

number of

calves per 100

cows

Average weight of steers

sold from range or

pasture

Long 2-year-
old

Long 3-year-
old

Arizona

6.00
3.73
4.16
4.00
3.44
4.00
5.00
4.04
4.00
3.72
5.52

$82.00

94.75

131.90

100.00

138.00

93.00

83.00

113.35

93.00

124.15

160.50

57.00
73.55
69.30
75.00
75.80
70.00
66.00
75.74
69.00
79.48
73.20

774.0
968.2
883.0

1,000.0
991.0
940.0
725.0
975.7
900.0

1,032.0
937.0

935 0

California ....

1 141 6

Colorado . .

1 084 5

Idaho

1 200 0

Montana

1 211 0

Nevada

1,140.0
934.0

New Mexico

Oregon

1,186.0

Utah

1,085.0

Washington

1,225.0

Wyoming

1,155.0

Arizona and New Mexico use the most bulls and the cheapest
bulls. These states are credited with the fewest calves and the steers
produced are markedly inferior in weight at two and three years of
age. Such factors as climate, feed supply, and method of manage-
ment affect the character and value of cattle produced on the range,
yet the predominating factor, as shown by the above table, is that of
good breeding. The importance of good breeding is again shown by
the fact that in Arizona and New Mexico the more progressive stock-
men have spent large sums in purchasing good bulls and this has re-
sulted in a decided improvement in the grade of stock on the public
ranges in those states within the last few years. On the other hand,
many of the smaller men either turn out scrubs or have no bulls at
all, and this results in low avejT^ges.

Three prime essentials.w^In selecting beef animals for breeding
purposes, the breeder should emphasize those points which are im-
portant to the feeder and butcher, but must keep in mind his own
interests as well. The features which are of particular interest to the
breeder are: (1) the possession of a good constitution, (2) thick
natural flesh, and (3) early maturity. The first of these is also of
much importance to the feeder, the second interests all parties con-
cerned with beef cattle, and the third interests both the breeder and
feeder. Constitution is of the greatest importance, for it guarantees
thrift and vigorous reproduction. It is the cornerstone of the success-
ful herd. By thick natural flesh is meant a full muscular development
such as will expand into a maximum fleshing when the animal is
fattened. Quick maturity makes possible a finish at an early age, and

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 157

this prime essential in present-day beef production is characteristic of
cattle that have the blocky, compact, low-set type.

Weight requirements. — When cattle intended for breeders are in
high condition, the standards for weights at various ages are as follows:

Age Weight of bull Weight of cow

Pounds Pounds

6 months 600 500

12 months 1,075 750

18 months 1,275 975

24 months 1,500 1,150

30 months 1,800 1,350

36 months 1,975 1,475

42 months 2,100 1,550

Breeding cattle should not be kept in high condition, but that is
the only satisfactory basis for fixing weight standards. In applying
these standards due allowance should be made for lack of fat, depend-
ing upon the condition of the animal, 'the above figures are for pure-
bred bulls and high-grade cows such as should be used in market beef
breeding herds. The weights given for bulls thus represent higher
standards than those for the cows. The difference in the matured
weights of the two sexes as given above, while largely due to sex, is
due in part to higher average merit in the bulls than in the cows.

The beef bull. — In general appearance the beef bull is nearly
identical with the steer, being wide, deep, compact, straight lined, and
low set. When in use as breeders, bulls are seldom kept in high condi-
tion, hence in studying the form certain allowances should be made
for lack of fatness, as this has much to do with the appearance of
blockiness and massiveness presented by the animal. The bull should
have plenty of size and we should not demand the same degree of
refinement in bone that is desired in the steer, yet quality should be
easily apparent. ^ The hide should roll up mellow and loose in the
hand, showing medium thickness, and the hair should be soft and fine.
Even when in medium-fat condition, the fleshing should be abundant
and smooth. The head should be clean-cut, wide, and short, though
larger than the steer's, with heavier horns, and a more burly appear-
ance generally. The eye shows more animation or spirit, and a more
resolute expression. Such a head is indicative of masculinity which is
insisted upon by all breeders, it being an evidence of potency or breed-
ing capacity. The bull at maturity should show a powerfully muscled
neck with a pronounced arch or crest, this also indicating masculinity.
The crest should come forward close to the head, and the neck should
be short. Masculinity is again shown in the shoulders by a heavier,

iThe range cattle breeder places particular emphasis on heavy bone. The
conditions under which range cattle are produced make the maintenance of size and
vigor in range cattle a problem, and this the western breeder attempts to solve in
part by the constant use of heavy-boned bulls.

158

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

more massive development than is found in the steer, yet this does
not excuse a rough, prominent shoulder such as would be objectionable
in the offspring when they are fed for market.

The entire front of the bull is well developed and massive, a condi-
tion which is inherited by domesticated bulls from their wild ancestors.
In the wild state, a bull became the head of the herd only by right of
conquest, and his burly head, heavy horns, muscular neck, and massive
front were needed to defeat his male rivals, and to protect the herd
from its enemies after he had gained leadership. It was a survival of
the fittest, which is nature's method of improving the wild animals.

Fig. 52. — Correct type in the beef bull. Erwin C, champion Aberdeen-
Angus bull at the 1913 International. Owned by W. A. McHenry, Denison, Iowa.

Under domestication, the masculine characters have not the same
values as in the wild state, yet they are none the less valuable, because
they indicate a rugged, vigorous, and potent animal — qualities highly
prized by any breeder. A wide, deep chest and full middle insure a
good constitution. The middle is identical in form with the middle of
the steer, but more emphasis is placed upon straightness and strength
of back. The hips should be smooth, and the hindquarters should be
long, level, wide, and heavily fleshed.

Great variation will be found in the manner in which bulls walk,
some doing it awkwardly and clumsily, with the back humped to a

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 159

marked degree, and with the legs sprawhng; others are active in th'eir
movements, keeping their legs under them, and carrying themselves
with little apparent effort, the latter of course being much preferred.
Style has market value in a bull as in a steer, and between an animal
that stands and walks properly, and one that slouches, other things
being equal, the former will sell much more readily if they are priced
the same, and his calves will more quickly attract buyers when they
reach the market. Before purchasing a bull, the cows in the herd
should be carefully studied and their weaknesses noted, so that a bull
may be selected that is strong in the points where the cows show
weakness.

A beef bull, well developed at a year old, may serve a few cows,
but should as a rule be eighteen months old. An ordinarily vigorous
mature bull will get 100 calves a year if the cows come to him at proper
intervals, but when they are nearly all bred in the spring and in the
fall probably 60 is about the usual limit.

The beef breeding cow or heifer. — Cows reach maturity quicker
than bulls, but do not attain as much size or weight. They show
more refinement at all points than do males, but in form and fleshing
are nearly identical with all good beef animals regardless of sex. In
selecting cows, emphasis is placed upon constitution, thick natural
flesh, quick maturity, and feminine character. The head shows
marked refinement, and there is a calm expression of the eye, showing
a much milder disposition than the bull. As compared with steers,
the horns are less developed, and the neck is not so thick and perhaps
not quite so short. The shoulders are well laid in and smooth, and
throughout the forequarters there is an absence of the great strength
and massiveness found in the bull. The refinement of the cow's head,
neck, and shoulders is an evidence of femininity, which, like masculinity
in the male, is evidence of breeding capacity. "Motherly" looking
cows, not too compact in form, are wanted. A coarse, "steery" headed
female is seldom a successful breeder. Although she may produce a
calf each year, her stock is not likely to possess the high qualities that
one expects.

A straight, strong back and wide, deep middle are as desirable in
the cow as in the bull or steer, indeed even more so, as a capacious
middle provides ample room for carrying the calf. Cows should be a
Httle longer in the middle, a little less compact in other words, than
steers and bulls. The hips are notably different, showing more width
and prominence, and this feature is often so pronounced as to cause
criticism. While a wider hip is accepted in cows than in other beef
animals, nevertheless care should be taken to guard against undue
prominence. Cows are also usually shorter and rougher in the rump

160

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

than bulls, but the rump should be as long, level, wide, and smoothly
fleshed as possible.

So far as condition is concerned, it must be remembered that the
breeding cow is more valuable on account of the progeny she produces
than on account of her own excellence as an animal suitable for slaugh-
ter, hence we do not fault her if she lacks in fatness, provided her
constitution, form, and quality are good. However, the beef cow must
possess the ability to fatten readily, for "like produces like," and if
the cow will not take on flesh readily, then we cannot expect her calves
to be profitable in the feed-lot. It is on this account that beef breeding

Fig. 53. — Correct type in the beef cow. Fair Start 2d, a noted Shorthorn
show cow owned by George J. Sayer, McHenry, 111.

bulls and cows are shown in heavy flesh in the show ring, thus indicat-
ing their capacity as beef producers. Beef cows are sometimes made
so fat for showing that their usefulness as breeders is injured by a
heavy deposit of fat about the generative organs. The practice has,
therefore, been severely criticized, yet the danger is not great if the
feeding is carefully managed, and the advantages so far outweigh the
disadvantages that the showing of breeding animals in high condition
seems destined to continue.

In the show ring, little or no attention is paid to the udder of the
beef cow, but the man who breeds beef cattle cannot ignore the cow's

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 161

milk-producing qualities. The udder should be of good size and shape,
with well-placed teats, and the cow should be able to furnish ample
milk for her calf during at least the first six months of lactation. E. S.
Bayard, a breeder of beef cattle and editor of the National Stockman
and Farmer, has the following to say regarding the selection of beef
cows and the importance of good milking qualities:^ 'Good-sized,
roomy, robust cows; with breadth but not coarseness; big of barrel,
loose of hide, short of leg, neat of head, mild of manner, placid of
countenance, with a decidedly feminine expression, are the kind.
Cows that are good milkers, as a rule, are good and regular breeders —
they do not get too fat to breed. Their calves are started well, are
kept going, and develop rapidly, for there is no feed for a calf or any
other animal that will take the place of mother's milk. The cows
which milk most and lose flesh most rapidly when suckling calves are
the quickest-fleshing cows. They milk down rapidly and they recover
flesh quickly when relieved of the strain of milk production. This
characteristic of quick fleshing usually accompanies good milking, but
not persistent milking of course. Beef-bred cows are not, as a rule,
all-the-year milkers, nor is it desirable that they should be. Milk
enough is vital to success, and breeders of beef cattle cannot afford
to neglect it any more than they can afford to make it a leading object
of their breeding. So get lady cows, feminine type, with good udders,
and they can be found in all the beef breeds. Let the steery cow alone
as you would the bull that lacks masculinity.'

The cows which raise good calves should be retained in the herd as
long as they are useful, and those which fail to produce good offspring
should be sent to the butcher no matter how attractive they may be
individually. The attractive fat cow that gives no milk and raises a
small, scrawny calf is not worthy of a place in the herd, whereas some
of the good mothers may nurse down pretty thin and look rather
unattractive after they have suckled their calves for a time. When a
cattle breeder designates his plainest-looking cows as the best producers
in his herd he is often fully justified in doing so. Save those that are
best by test, and replace the unprofitable cows with the best of the
crop of heifers.

In many instances, heifers are bred at 15 to 18 months old, but
it is better practice to begin breeding them at about 21 months so that
they drop their first calves at about 30 months. The period of gesta-
tion often varies from 274 to 287 days, and the average is about 280
days.

Value of records. — The feeder ought to weigh his cattle regularly,
and keep careful and complete records of the weights and of all items

1 Beef Production, Penn. Dept. Agr. Bui. 235, pp. 35, 36.

162

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

of expense incurred in finishing and marketing, so that he may know
whether his cattle return him a profit or were fed at a loss. In either
case, the records are available for study, and when the next lot is fed,
comparisons may be made and benefits derived from past experiences.
This is all the more important in the case of feeders who breed their
own calves, for then such records are doubly valuable as they greatly
assist in determining the producing qualities of the animals in the
breeding herd. If the breeder has a chance to see the carcasses yielded
by cattle of his own breeding, he should avail himself of it and talk
with some well-qualified butcher regarding their merits and faults.
By such progressive methods will the breeder forge ahead and obtain
the maximum profit and satisfaction from his business.

Fig. 54. — An excellent breeding cow. Blackbird Perfection 2d, Aberdeen-
Angus cow owned by Iowa State College. Beefy throughout, yet not milkless.
She has good udder development and can raise her calf.

In conclusion, there is good opportunity for profit in beef produc-
tion, and the soil needs the fertility which comes from the keeping of
live stock. The factors necessary to insure success in beef production
are (1) good pastures, (2) better care of pastures, (3) utilization of
corn stalks through the use of a silo, (4) the growing and feeding of
alfalfa, (5) keeping the best heifer calves for breeding purposes, (6)
buying only good, purebred, beef bulls to mate with them, and (7)
staying by beef production year in and year out, making it a permanent
part of farming operations.

CHAPTER X

DAIRY TYPE

Dairy animals that are correct in type present a marked contrast
to beef animals. The body and back are longer and much narrower,
the thighs are thin, the neck longer and more slender, and in all parts
the animal is lean and angular, whereas the beef animal is thick-fleshed
and smooth. The lean, angular appearance is highly desirable, but
an emaciated condition is sharply discriminated against because it
indicates a lack of health and vigor. Both males and females are
rather sharp at the withers, deep ribbed, medium in length of leg, and
well divided between the hind legs. There should be no bulge to
the thigh, and no tendency toward the development of what is called
the "twist" in beef cattle. There is a limit to an animal's feeding and
digestive capacity, hence one animal cannot produce both beef and
milk in maximum quantities. Breeders of dairy cattle want the dairy
cow to do one thing only; they discriminate against beefiness just as
sharply as they favor evidences of large milking capacity.

The Dairy Cow

Dairy cows may be judged by two distinct methods. One method
consists of keeping records of the cow's production, including the dura-
tion of the lactation periods, the pounds of milk given at each milking,
and the results of the Babcock tests for butter-fat. Records may also
be kept of the quantities of feed consumed and the cost of the feed-
stuflfs used, so that at the end of each year an accounting may be made
with each cow, and her profitableness or unprofitableness accurately
determined. This method gets right at the cow's producing capacity
and removes all doubt concerning her right to a place in a producing
herd. It is also much used in estimating a cow's value for breeding
purposes. This method may be called judging by performance.

The other method of judging dairy cows consists of a detailed
study of the animal, and an examination for certain characteristics
which are evidences of milk-producing capacity. If the fifty highest-
producing dairy cows in the United States were assembled so that
comparisons might easily be made, considerable variation would be
found among them in form, quality, udder, and other points. Yet
through all these cows would run certain well-defined characteristics
which dairymen have come to know are associated with heavy produc-
tion. These characteristics may be causes of the heavy yield, or
merely incidental correlates, but in either case they are evidences of

164

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

productive capacity, and are valuable aids in judging dairy cows.
Many dairymen keep no records of the production in their herds, and
rely solely upon an examination of the individuality when additional
cows are purchased. There are other men who ridicule the idea of
judging a cow by any other means than records of her performance;
they will tell you of cows which score high but are poor yielders, and
of other cows which score low but are big producers. However, such
instances are exceptional and should not dislodge one's faith in the
value of studying the individuality of dairy cows. No doubt it is
wrong to rely solely upon either method of judging, for the two methods
may be combined to the advantage of each, and in this way the best
estimate of the value of a dairy cow is made.

Fig. 55. — Points of the dairy cow.

Muzzle

Neck

17.

Ribs

25.

Thigh

Face

10.

Throat

18.

Back

26.

Hind leg

Eye

11.

Dewlap

19.

Loin

27.

Udder

Forehead

12.

Brisket

20.

Barrel

28.

Teats

Ear

13.

Shoulder

21.

Hip or hook

29.

Milk-vein

Poll

14.

Withers

22.

Rump

30.

Milk-well

Cheek

15.

Fore leg

23.

Pin bones

31.

Navel

Jaw

16.

Fore-rib

24.

Tail

The form of the high-class dairy cow is that of a triple- wedge.
One wedge is apparent from a side view; the cow is much deeper behind
than in front, so that if the top line and underline were continued on
forward they would meet at a point not far in front of the animal.
The second wedge is formed by a widening from breast to hindquarters,
so that the side lines rapidly converge if they are carried out in front
of the cow. These two wedges are sometimes secured, in part at least,
by a lack of width and depth in the chest, whereas they should result

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 165

solely because of much width and depth of barrel, thus giving the
needed digestive capacity. Therefore the wedge form characteristic
of the dairy cow is not valuable in itself, and the mere fact that a cow
has it is not sufficient. The examination should go deeper; the wedges
should be analyzed and their causes determined. The third wedge is
formed by the shoulders and withers; the withers constitute the point
of the wedge, and the shoulders widen out below to provide the nec-
essary chest capacity. This wedge insures against coarseness at the
withers and heavy fleshing on the shoulders. The general form of the
cow is very angular throughout, due to a well-developed frame and
the presence of but little flesh to give smoothness to the parts. Some

Fig. 56. — A dairy cow with utility points, emphasized. Holstein-Friesian cow,
Minerva Beets, five times champion of her breed at the National Dairy Show. Owned
by R. E. Haeger, Algonquin, 111. Correct form, excellent quality, a high degree of
dairy temperament, and great femininity are all plainly evident in this picture. Note
especially the feminine head, faultless neck, straight strong top, deep barrel, well-
balanced udder, and good teats.

allowance, however, must be made for sex and age; we naturally expect
more fleshing in the bull than in the cow in milk, and the same is true
of young heifers before their first calving, and also of dry cows. Some
dairymen make an effort to fatten dry cows, for the added body-fat
is resorbed and converted into butter-fat when the cow again comes
in milk, thus temporarily raising the percentage of butter-fat above the
normal. These features, however, do not excuse any persistent beefy
tendency in dairy animals, it being distinctly objectionable.

166 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

The head of the dairy cow should be lean, and have a broad muzzle,
large nostrils, and a dished face. Compared with the head of the beef
animal, there is less width and more length, the proportions of the head
being medium long and medium broad. The eyes should be prominent,
bright, calm, and wide apart, and the forehead should be fairly wide.
The jaws should be strong, and the cheeks well muscled. The ears
should be fine in texture, and of medium size. The horns should be
fine and have a curve that adds to, rather than detracts from, the
appearance. In Guernsey cattle, a yellowish secretion of the skin
inside of the ear, and a waxy color of the horn are regarded as evidence
that the butter will have a rich, golden color. The head should have
a distinctly feminine expression, and in all its features should be clean-
cut and sharply defined. Such a head has a chiseled appearance
indicative of quality and good breeding.

The neck should be long and fine. The upper edge has a slight
concave curve, and the lower border has a thin fold or edge of skin,
called the "dewlap," extending upwards from the brisket. If the neck
is short and thick, or has much depth, so as to make it appear heavy,
there is a lack of true dairy type. The throat should be neat and trim,
rather than full. Naturally we do not want the neck and shoulders
to blend smoothly as in beef cattle, for this results from heavy fleshing.

The brisket of the dairy cow is much narrower and sharper than
in beef cattle, and does not carry forward so prominently, the difference
being mainly due to the heavy fleshing of the beef animal.

The shoulders should be light, that is, free from coarseness and
heavy fleshing, and the tops of the shoulder blades and the spines of
the vertebrae should form rather sharp and refined withers. The
shoulders will not appear smooth, but they should not be rough and
coarse. A rather open, loosely connected shoulder is associated with
the open-jointed conformation desired in the dairy animal, and is a
feature found in many of the record-holding cows.

The front legs should be of medium length, should come down
straight, and the toes should point straight ahead. The pasterns
should be strong. There should be no coarseness of shanks or joints.
Very often the knees come quite close together, the legs being crooked,
and the toes turning out, but this is a faulty conforniation and is often
associated with a narrow chest and lack of constitution.

The chest gets its capacity from depth more than from width.
However, the fore-rib should have at least a medium degree of arch;
breeders of Holstein-Friesian cattle place much emphasis upon a pro-
nounced arch of rib. The fore-rib should carry down deep to give
plenty of room for the heart and lungs. Beef cattle should fill up full
and smooth with flesh behind the shoulder, but dairy cattle typically

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

167

show some slight depression just behind the shoulder, although the
heart-girth must be very large to insure a strong constitution. The
distance between the front legs is a fairly accurate measure of the
width of the chest floor, which should not be cramped, but ample,
with the front flanks well filled out. In making a large flow of milk,
the heart has to pump great quantities of blood which the lungs must
purify, thus demanding that the dairy cow have a large chest capacity
and an excellent constitution.

The back should be straight and strong, and have moderate width,
and a fair degree of length. Dairy cattle seem put together somewhat

Fig. 57. — Excellent type in Iul uau ^ ^uw. Guernsey cow, Langwater Dairy-
maid, first prize winner as a four- year-old at the National Dairy Show. Owned by
C. L. A. Whitney, Albany, N. Y. Note the breedy head and neck, straight top line,
shapely udder, and the quality, femininity, and dairy temperament shown in this
cow. She has an official yearly record of 16,949.2 pounds of milk and 812.66 pounds
of butter-fat.

loosely; it is not desired that they should be closely coupled or short
in the back. A sway-back is sometimes said to indicate true dairy
type, but there is no good argument in support of this view; it is logical
that cows with big middles should have straight, strong tops. Some
dairymen also desire that the backbone shall stand up prominently
along the back, loin, and rump, and terminate in a long tail. The
argument is that a well-developed backbone encloses a large spinal

168 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

cord, and as a large nerve branches off at the last dorsal vertebrae and
goes to the udder to control operations there, a large spinal column is
accepted as evidence of proper development of the nervous system,
which, in turn, is supposed to signify increased efficiency on the part
of the cow as a milk machine. Whether the size of the brain, spinal
cord, and branching nerves, rather than their quality and texture,
determines the efficiency of the nervous system may be questioned,
and as for the course of reasoning showing the relation between length
of tail and quantity of milk yield, the reader may take it for what he
deems it worth and form his own conclusions. In any event, there
are many other ways of estimating a cow's value, the reliability of
which are better substantiated. However, a prominent backbone is
valuable as an evidence of true dairy temperament, or freedom from
beefiness.

The loin should be rather long, should carry up level and strong,
and show a fair degree of width.

The barrel ought to be very deep and wide, and this is secured
when the ribs are very long and reasonably well arched. There will
be no such degree of rotundity as is found in beef cattle; there should
be a well-developed paunch with capacity for a large amount of feed.
A flat-sided conformation means a restricted capacity. The ribs do
not lie close together along the side as in beef cattle, and there is more
space between the last rib and the hip.

Of all the points discussed thus far, two are of vast importance;
these are constitution and digestive capacity. The dairy cow is a
milk machine and should be studied and operated as such. It is thus
much easier, when judging, to put emphasis where it belongs and so
arrive more quickly at the true worth of the animal. Milk is manu-
factured in the udder from nutriment derived from the feed, and if
the cow has the true dairy temperament and does not tend to take
on flesh, the quantity of her milk yield will be in direct relation to the
quantity and quality of the feed consumed. A large milk flow there-
fore necessitates full development of the organs of digestion, respira-
tion, and circulation, the external evidences of which are a large heart-
girth, a large barrel-girth, and a rather lengthy middle.

The hips are very prominent, and should be as wide as possible.
Narrowness across the hips is often associated with a lack of width in
barrel, and when the hips and rump are narrow, the hind legs are usually
too close together, leaving little space for the udder.

The rump should be wide and level to insure against difficulty in
calving, and should not rise strongly at the tail-head, as that conforma-
tion usually goes with the sway-back. A level rump is usually asso-
ciated with a level udder. Length of rump is also very desirable; it

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 169

gives symmetry to the form, and provides room for a long udder-
attachment below. A narrow, peaked rump is liable to cause trouble
at calving time, and, as pointed out, it brings the hind legs too close
together. At the end of the rump on either side of the tail are the
pin-bones. They should be wide apart, for reasons similar to those just
mentioned. From the point of the hip to the end of the rump there
should be a well-marked hollow, insuring against beefiness of rump.
The tail performs a part in milk production by protecting from
the annoyance of flies. The fleshy part of the tail should extend to
the point of the hock and the brush should be heavy and long. The

Fig. 58. — Type and production. Jersey cow, Fauvic Star, owned by A. V.
Barnes, New Canaan, Conn. Note the beautiful head, excellent lines, capacious
middle, large udder, feminine character, and marked degree of quality. She holds
the highest Jersey record in milk production, with 20,616 pounds of milk and
1,005.90 pounds of butter-fat in an official yearly test.

root of the tail should be carried on a line with the rump, showing no
undue prominence or roughness.

The thighs should be muscular, but not fleshy. From a rear view
they should be fine and there should be no fleshing between the legs to
take up the space that should be filled by the udder. It is desirable
that the thighs be long, and that the conformation inside the thigh be
incurving. Much variation in rumps and thighs will be found in dairy
animals, ranging from decided beefiness to the trim, clean-cut conforma-
tion shown by the best dairy cows.

170 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

The hind legs should be placed well apart, and they should come
down straight. If the toes point outward and the hocks come close
together, the conformation is weak and there is not sufficient room for
the udder.

The udder of the dairy cow comes in for special attention, ranking
in importance with the chest and barrel, the three being fundamental
in the make-up of a successful dairy cow. The udder's size, texture,
shape, and teats should be carefully studied.

Size of udder. — The udder should be large, carrying well forward
along the belly, and extending far backward and high up between the
hind legs. When a side view of the cow is taken as she stands in
natural position, the udder should carry out far in front of the hind
legs, and the swell of the rear quarters of the udder should be plainly
evident back of the leg. The udder should also be wide in its attach-
ment to the body throughout, and there should be much fullness of
udder from side to side, with good width also across the floor (lower
surface) of the udder. A measurement of nearly six feet around the
udder has been reported, just two inches less than the cow's heart-
girth. The udders of heifers are often deceptive, having much greater
capacity than the exterior indicates. This is because the udder is
held snugly against the abdominal wall; but with increase in age and
yield of milk, the added weight produces some relaxation of the
supporting tissues, and the udder becomes more pendulous and
prominent.

Texture of udder. — Two sorts of tissue mainly compose the
udder — glandular tissue and connective tissue. The former is the seat
of secretory activity, and the latter serves the purpose of a framework
or support. More or less fatty tissue is also present. Naturally, it
is very important that there be a large proportion of glandular tissue
and a relatively small amount of connective tissue. This is determined
by examining the udder with the hands for mellowness, which indicates
that the udder is largely glandular; or still better by having the cow
milked, when the udder should show much decrease in size, and the
skin covering it should shrivel. When the udder is composed largely
of connective tissue, if feels firm and is referred to as "meaty," and
when it is milked out, the yield of milk is small and the udder shows
little or no decrease in size. Unfortunately, meaty udders usually
excel in shape and appearance, while the most glandular ones have not
suflScient connective tissue to properly support them, the heavy weight
causing them to hang down rather loosely to form what is called a
"pendant" udder. Many large producers have such udders, whereas
it is a fact that the type of udder that wins in the show ring is often
lacking in milk capacity. The skin and hair covering the udder should

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

171

be very soft and fine. Texture of udder is one of the most important
considerations in judging dairy cows.

Shape of udder. — All sorts of sizes, textures, and shapes are
presented. The most desirable shape is an evenly balanced udder,
with all four quarters fully developed, and having a flat floor, instead
of being cut up between the halves and quarters. There is a natural
tendency for the rear quarters to develop much more than the front
quarters, the latter often terminating abruptly, but the most desirable
shape is one extending well forward to make what is termed a balanced
udder. Udders which carry neither forward nor backward, but are
small and tapering from base to teats, without any fullness, are termed

Fig. 59. — Excellent type in the dairy cow. Ayrshire cow, Kilnford Bell 3d,
twice champion at the National Dairy Show. Owned by Adam Seitz, Waukesha,
Wis. Note the beautiful head of this cow, and her large, shapely udder. Her con-
formation indicates strength and vigor without coarseness.

"funnel-shaped" udders. Undoubtedly there is considerable correla-
tion between shape of rump and shape of udder. A long rump goes
with a long udder, a wide rump with a wide udder, and a level rump is
associated with a level udder in contrast to the tipped-up form of
udder so often associated with a drooping rump. Shape and balance
of udder are important, but subsidiary to size and texture.

The teats and their placement. — The teats should be cylindrical,
perpendicular, hang on the same level, and be placed at least six inches
apart each way, so as to be easily grasped in the hand. They should
be three or four inches long and of a size to make milking easy, but not

172

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

too large, for udders with very large teats are usually cut up between
the halves and quarters, and this occurs at the expense of glandular
tissue. When dairy cows are judged, a small amount of milk is drawn
from each teat to make certain that the teat is unobstructed and free
from defects not evident to the eye. Leaky teats are due to weakness
of the muscles of the teat, this being an undesirable trait rather com-
monly met with, especially in heavy milkers just before milking time.
Some udders have not only four large teats, but also one or more small
or rudimentary ones. A small amount of milk may sometimes be
drawn from them, as they usually spring from rudimentary glands.
It is preferred that the udder have four full-sized teats, and four only.

I'luiiimj

Fig. 60. — A combination of beauty and utility. Jersey cow, Bosnian's Anna,
champion at the National Dairy Show. Owned by C. I. Hudson, East Norwich,
L. I., N. Y. Her chiseled, feminine head, straight top line, deep rib, nicely balanced
udder, and large veins are all noteworthy. She is especially strong in temperament
and quality. Note also the correlation between levelness of rump and levelness of
udder.

In conclusion it may be said that the udder, first of all, should be
large; second, it should be mellow and glandular; third, it should be
well-balanced and of good shape; fourth, the teats should be of medium
size and placed well apart.

The milk-veins are large veins passing forward from the udder
along the belly just beneath the skin, and disappearing through open-
ings in the body-wall known as milk-wells. The position of the milk-
wells varies; some are near the fore flanks, and some midway between

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 173

the udder and the front legs. As will be explained more fully later,
nutriment derived from the feed is carried to the udder by the blood
and is there utilized in the manufacture of milk. After the udder has
absorbed those elements necessary in making milk, the blood returns
to the heart through the milk-veins. It is evident that the size and
development of these veins is a good index to the cow's milking capac-
ity, hence they are highly useful in judging dairy cows. The milk-
veins of young heifers are small in diameter and are straight. As the
heifer develops and her milk flow increases, the veins show increase in
diameter, sometimes to an inch or more, they often become crooked or
tortuous, and may extend forward toward the fore flanks. The degree
of tortuousness varies according to the vein's diameter, small veins
being nearly straight and large ones very crooked indeed. There will
be at least two milk-veins, one on each side of the belly, and some-
times there will be three, the third one having a position on the middle
of the abdomen between the two side veins. They sometimes show
more or less branching, each branch passing forward and disappearing
through its own milk-well. Although diameter of veins is probably
most important, length and extension of veins are also regarded as
important, indicating an increased venous development and capacity
for a larger flow of blood, due to the added number of milk-wells which
make easy the work of handling a large circulation. Nearly all phe-
nomenal producers have veins not only of large diameter and decided
tortuousness, but also of many branches and forward extensions.
Small veins, called udder veins, occur on some udders, their presence
being further evidence of a well-developed mammary circulation.

The milk -wells vary in size to correspond with the veins, and are
taken into account in judging. They should be large and easily
indented when the finger is applied to them.

The escutcheon or "milk mirror" is that portion of the udder and
thighs that is covered with hairs turning up and out, instead of down,
as on the rest of the body. A Frenchman, Francois Guenon, beginning
in 1814 as a boy of fourteen years, worked out in great detail what is
known as the Guenon or escutcheon theory. He classified cows and
bulls into ten orders and each of these again into four grades, depending
on the size and shape of the escutcheon. To each of these orders and
grades he ascribed certain values. He also attached certain values to
the location of the tufts, ovals, or swirls in the hair on the thighs,
making seven additional classes of these. Guenon claimed to be able
to tell accurately the producing ability of the cow, and it is said that
in tests before various agricultural societies in France he was very
successful in proving his theory. The escutcheon theory was formerly
highly credited by many dairymen, and in rather recent years at least

174 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

one agricultural college published a score card for dairy cows that gave
about 50 points out of 100 to the escutcheon.

Modern tests have found this theory to be altogether lacking in
accuracy. At the present time most score cards used by colleges allow
only one or two points to the escutcheon. Some have omitted it from
consideration altogether, and this seems entirely justifiable, as the
escutcheon theory may be rightly regarded as a quack theory.

The quality of dairy cows is shown in the hide, hair, ear, horn,
head, and bone, the same as in beef cattle. The dairy cow has a
thinner skin than the beef cow, and it should also possess a maximum
of mellowness and oiliness. An oily hide is something of an evidence
of milk rich in fat; and an abundant yellowish secretion about the
udder, inside the thighs, around the eyes, inside the ears, at the root
of the tail, and below any spots of light-colored hair indicates a rich
butter color. Opinions differ on the question of quality in dairy cattle.
Some breeders aim at a very rugged type having great constitution,
medium size of bone, and a medium thick hide. This type is exempli-
fied by many Holstein-Friesians and by the St. Lambert family of
Jerseys. Other breeders desire extreme quality, and this may result
in some delicacy of constitution. Perhaps this type is best illustrated
by what is known as the "island type" of Jersey, which is the type
developed in the native home of the breed on the island of Jersey, and
also fostered by many breeders of Jersey cattle in the United States.
The average dairyman will be wise to follow a course midway between
the two extremes, insisting upon constitution first and then upon as
much quality as may be had without delicacy.

The temperament is of much importance. Temperaments are of
two kinds — sanguine and lymphatic. The sanguine temperament is
characterized by a strong, frequent pulse, firm flesh, and active move-
ments. The lymphatic temperament is featured by a rather sluggish
circulation, fleshiness, thicker skin and coarser hair, slow movements,
and quietness. The sanguine temperament is possessed in marked
degree by the best dairy cattle, while beef cattle have the lymphatic
temperament. The best evidence of true dairy temperament is a lean,
angular appearance in all parts of the animal. A dairy bull, a young
heifer, or a dry cow may show some degree of fleshiness without being
seriously faulted for it, but a cow well advanced in a lactation period
should be free from beefiness, even when fed to the limit of her capacity.
This is a good indication that she is an economical milk producer.

The disposition varies greatly in different individuals. An irrita-
ble, kicking, fence-jumping cow is not expected to make much of a
record as a milk and butter-fat producer. She uses too much of her
energy in performance that has no market value; the making of milk

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

175

is a secondary matter with her. Such cows consume Httle feed and
exhibit a fastidious appetite; in short, they are not useful cattle, there
being too much waste of energy in nervousness and bad temper. In
contrast to such cows is the cow that never moves faster than a walk
and is gentle and easy to handle. She spends lots of time chewing her
cud and is always busy making milk. She is a useful, profitable cow,
provided she has the conformation which enables her to work success-
fully. The irritable cow has an uneasy and wild expression of the eye,
and carries her head high. She is usually switching her tail whether
it is fly-time or not. Proper disposition is indicated by a calm eye,
and by carriage of the poll of the head on about the same level as the

Fig. 61. — An inferior dairy cow. Note the staggy head, coarse neck, uneven
top line, small barrel, coarse sloping rump, beefy thighs, and small funnel-shaped
udder. Her wedge from the side view points the wrong way.

withers. If the head is carried high it indicates nervousness, while a
head carried low indicates quietness carried to the extreme of sluggish-
ness.

The size of dairy cows varies between wide limits. The holders
of the highest records in milk and butter-fat production are large cows,
which is a condition naturally to be expected, but does not signify
that small cows are necessarily less profitable. The dairyman cares
not so much that his cows are large and hence large yielders, as that
the yield be made economically; he studies the production in relation

176 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

to the feed consumed. Small cows not only yield less, but eat less,
and may be as profitable as large cows. The latter have an advantage
in that they can profitably consume proportionately more roughage,
and fewer of them need be kept to produce a given quantity of milk,
requiring fewer stalls and slightly less labor. On the other hand, if
the calves can be sold at a profit, the herd of smaller cows will realize
more income from this source.

The Dairy Bull

The features of dairy type as they apply to the dairy cow having
been fully discussed, and the fundamental points of dairy type having
been set forth in that connection, the requirements for the bull may be
presented more quickly. In form the bull should be rather long and
moderately wide, with a deep rib, moderate length of leg, and rather
angular body. His build should insure an excellent constitution,
barrel capacity, strength of back, style, and vigor, with no indications
of coarseness or beefiness. The head should be decidedly masculine
in its proportions and expression, and have a wide muzzle, large
nostrils, large, bright eyes with a courageous expression, and clean-
cut features. In all breeds except the Ayrshire, the masculine head
will have short, stubby horns. The neck should be strong and the
crest heavily developed.

The brisket shows more width, depth, and prominence than in
the cow, in keeping with a masculine development of the forequarters.
The shoulders are deeper and more heavily developed, but should not
be beefy. The withers show more width than in the cow, yet tend to
be fine and free from flesh. The front legs should be straight, of moder-
ate length, and have fair width between. The chest should be moder-
ately wide and very deep. The back should be moderately wide,
fairly long, and carried up straight and strong. The top line of the
dairy bull usually rises higher over the withers and neck than over the
back and loin, and the first impression may be that the animal is sway-
backed, but upon further study the observer often finds he has been
misled by the rise over the withers and crest. No marked covering
of flesh should be found on the back, and the backbone should be
plainly evident.

The loin should be long, level, and medium wide. The barrel
should be deep and well developed, but need not show as much capacity
as demanded in the cow. The hips are only moderately wide, the
points being much less prominent than in the cow. The rump should
be long, level, and medium wide. The thighs may be slightly heavier
than in the cow, but any considerable degree of thickness is sharply
criticized. Some dairy bulls almost rival beef bulls in the amount of

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

177

fleshing shown in the hindquarters, and such animals are distinctly
not of true dairy type in conformation and temperament. A dairy
bull should carry no more fleshing than is permissible in a dry cow or
in a heifer before her first calving. The bull should be well divided
between the hind legs, and should have rather flat, trim thighs. The
hind legs should be placed rather well apart, and should be straight
and of medium length.

In common with the males of nearly all species of animals classed
as mammals, the dairy bull has miniature teats called rudimentaries.
These are located in front and on each side of the scrotum, there being

Fig. 62. — Excellent type'in the dairy bull. Holstein-Friesian bull, Oak DeKol
Ollie Homestead, twice champion at the National Dairy Show. Owned by lowana
Farms, Davenport, Iowa. Note especially his strong conformation, good head, well
defined withers, level loin and rump, long quarters, great depth of rib, and strong
constitution. He is a very large, rugged bull with symmetry, quality, style, mas-
culinity, strength, and vigor.

two on a side. They vary in length from mere buttons to an inch or
more. Some persons attach much significance to the rudimentaries,
believing that their position and size indicate the shape and capacity
of udder which will be shown by the bull's daughters. It is not es-
tablished that the rudimentaries really have such a significance, and
many persons give them no attention in judging. Dairy bulls also
have small veins on the belly corresponding to the large milk-veins of
the dairy cow.

178

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

The quality of the bull is very important; it should be easily ap-
parent in a loose, mellow hide, and a reasonable degree of quality is
also wanted in head and bone. Coarseness is an evidence of lack of
good breeding. In disposition, dairy bulls are much less quiet and
trustworthy than beef bulls, often being ill-natured and sometimes
unruly. This does not subject them to criticism unless they become
dangerous and difficult to handle, but is accepted as an evidence of
masculinity.

The individuality of the dairy bull is certainly somewhat signifi-
cant of his value, but it reveals less of the animal's ability to perform
his function than does the cow's individuality when it is studied in

Fig. 63. — Excellent type in the dairy bull. Guernsey bull, Ladysmith's
Cherub, three times champion at the National Dairy Show. Owned by D. D.
Tenney, Crystal Bay, Minn. Note his masculine head and neck, great length,
good depth, strong top, and long level rump, and his style, quality, character, and
vigor.

relation to function. The bull is only valuable as a progenitor of heifer
calves that will develop into heavy milkers. What points, therefore,
in the individuality of the bull are evidence that he will sire high-
producing cows? It may as well be stated first as last that it is im-
possible to determine in any accurate manner from the bull's individ-
uality what his breeding qualities, as they relate to milk flow, will be.
There are far more reliable sources from which to form such an estimate
and these will be discussed later. Nevertheless, it is important that

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 179

the dairy bull show a rugged constitution, ample digestive capacity,
strength of conformation, and absence of beefiness, these being essen-
tial points desired in his female offspring. If he is faulty in any of
these respects, we may reasonably suppose that his daughters will be
similarly deficient. He should be masculine in order to insure potency.
Having all these points of individuality, it is still a question as to what
sort of performance may be expected from his daughters.

CHAPTER XI
THE SECRETION OF MILK

Milk is secreted by the mammary glands or udder of the female
after the birth of young, the secretion continuing until the young are
mature enough to live on ordinary food. All animals which have
mammary glands are classed as mammals, and this group of animals
presents wide variations in the number, position, capacity, shape, and
prominence of the glands. The mammary glands are present in the
male in rudimentary condition, although, in abnormal cases, milk is
secreted by males. Milk is easily digested and very nutritious, and
no food for the young animal is equal to its mother's milk. The highest
development of the udder is found in the dairy cow, the extreme
development having been largely secured by careful breeding; the lacta-
tion period has become prolonged, and the daily yield and quality of
milk have been much improved. Cows have been known to secrete
over 150 pounds of milk in a day, their own weight in less than two
weeks, and over 15 tons in a year.

Exterior of the cow's udder. — The cow's udder consists of four
mammary glands, usually referred to as the "quarters," and sometimes
there are one to four rudimentaries, all arranged in pairs on opposite
sides of the median line of the body. The udder begins a few inches
behind the umbilicus and continues backward and upward between the
legs. The right and left sides are divided on the exterior by a well-
defined line or groove, but the line of separation between the front and
rear quarters is not so pronounced. The appearance of size depends
partly upon the strength and shape of the abdominal wall ; if the wall
is weak, the udder is forced downward and backward and there is a
seeming increase in size. This sometimes accounts for the apparently
sudden development of a large udder after the second or third calving.
The skin covering the udder is very thin and elastic, and the hair is
finer, softer, and shorter than on other parts of the animal. The skin
covering the teats bears little or no hair, and is often of a darker color
than upon other parts.

Structure of the cow's udder. — When dissected, the right and left
halves of the udder are found to be enveloped in strong, fibrous capsules.
The fibers of the two capsules intermingle somewhat, and are prolonged
upward to the median line of the body to form a ligamentous support
and partition, the two halves thus being made distinct. The quarters
on each side are not so distinctly separated, there being no such well-

180

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

181

developed partition as between the halves, nor can the line of separation
be seen unless the tissues are stained. Dr. A. W. Bitting of the Indiana
Experiment Station injected different colored liquids through the teats
and found that the liquids did not leave the quarter, his investigation
showing that a rather distinct transverse partition exists. It follows
that milk drawn from any teat must be produced in its quarter, al-
though there is slight communication between the smaller ducts in the
upper parts of the two quarters on a side. Between the quarters of
the same half, the capsule sends off a rather incomplete transverse
partition common to both, and there are numerous other reflections

Fig. 64. — Cross-section of cow's udder, a, Body of gland; b, milk cistern;
c, cavity of teat; d, duct of teat; e, inter-mammary groove; f, septum between glands;
g, supramammary fat.

of the capsule inward from all sides to serve as a supporting framework
for the gland tissue and to form the milk cisterns and ducts.

Structure of the teat. — The tissues of the capsule are prolonged
downward, becoming greatly thickened, to form the walls of the teats.
The teat is cylindrical or conical in shape, variable in length and
diameter, and placed at the lowest portion of the gland. Its shape and
size are independent of the size of the gland. It is very elastic and is
covered with a tough, close-fitting, thin skin. Through its center runs

182 Types and Maricet Classes of Live Stock

a duct called the "teat-canal," having a capacity, when distended, of
from 1 to 11 2 ounces in moderate-sized teats. There are both circular
and longitudinal muscle fibers, and at the lower end the circular fibers
form an involuntary sphincter muscle, the function of which is to keep
the teat-canal closed under ordinary pressure. At the upper end of
the teat is another involuntary sphincter muscle, but it does not com-
pletely close the canal, and sometimes a third is found farther above.
The sphincters are sometimes so relaxed that very slight pressure is
sufficient to open them, and the cow leaks her milk; of other cows the
reverse is true, making them hard milkers.

The milk -cistern, ducts, and alveoli. — Above the teat is a reservoir,
called the "milk-cistern," seldom holding more than half a pint.
This cistern is divided into pockets of various sizes into which the large
milk-ducts empty. At the point of entrance of these ducts are sphincter
muscles, and while they cannot entirely close the openings, they may
very nearly do so, and in this way the cow is enabled to "hold up her
milk." These large ducts ramify to all parts of the gland and anasto-
mose (intercommunicate) freely; and at the intersections are still other
voluntary sphincter muscles. A strong effort on the part of the cow
is required to close the larger ducts in the lower part of the udder, but
a slight effort will close the smaller canals further up in the glands.
Cows differ greatly in their control over these muscles and in their
disposition to exert it. The most common causes of holding up milk
are fright, the presence of strangers in the stable, lack of familiarity
with surroundings, irregularity in the time or manner of feeding or
milking, and sexual heat. With some cows it becomes a habit, much
injuring the usefulness and milking capacity of the animal. The large
ducts subdivide into smaller ducts, and these again into smaller ones,
until they terminate in groups of small sac-like bodies known as the
"ultimate follicles," "acini," or "alveoli." The teat-canal, milk-cis-
tern, and ducts are lined with columnar epithelium.

The alveolus (plural, alveoli) is the sacculated distention found
in groups of three to five on the end of the minute milk-ducts. It is
the essential part of the gland. It is lined by a single layer of epithelial
cells which are especially concerned in milk production. The alveolus
is only 1-30 of an inch in diameter, and its cavity is from 1-250 to 1-100
of an inch in length and from 1-1,300 to 1-800 of an inch in diameter.
New ducts and alveoli may be formed up to about the fifth or sixth
year, thereby increasing the producing capacity of the cow.

The entire gland may be compared to a large bunch of grapes;
the main duct of the gland branches very much as the stem of the
bunch of grapes branches; and just as the branches and sub-branches
of the stem lead to the grapes, so the branches of the duct lead to the

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

183

alveoli of the gland. If we pack the bunch of grapes in a small basket
of sawdust, so that the sawdust fills up loosely the spaces between the
individual grapes and the branches of the stem, we may develop our
comparison further; the sawdust stands for the connective tissue in
which the ducts and alveoli are embedded, and the basket stands for
the capsule.

The arterial circulation. — The mammary glands are abundantly
supplied with blood. The blood leaves the heart through the posterior
aorta, common iliacs, and external iliac, which carry backward to the
region of the hips. The external iliac there divides into two arteries,
one of which, the prepubic, divides into the two pudic arteries, the
external one of which passes down the thigh and gives off a branch,
known as the mammary artery, which enters the top of the udder from

Fig. 65. — Where milk is made. Group of alveoli, a, Duct; b, capillary net-
work; c, alveoli; d, epithelial cells; e, fibrous tissue.

the rear. The mammary artery has four large branches, one for each
quarter of the udder, and there is also a small branch for each rudi-
mentary gland. The large branches subdivide within the gland tissue.
The venous circulation is more complex than the arterial. The
blood is collected from the capillaries by from 14 to 17 large veins
which empty into the mammary vein running parallel with the mam-
mary artery at the top of the udder. The mammary vein is divided
into two parts which encircle the top of the udder and connect in front
and behind like a rope tied around it. From this circuit of veins the
blood returns to the heart by two routes. One route leads out to the
rear of the udder, then up to the region of the hips, and thence to the
vena cava and the heart, the veins along the route being parallel to

184

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

the arteries through which the blood came, and being similarly named.
The other route is already familiar, leading out in front of the udder
through the large subcutaneous abdominal veins (milk- veins) which
pass through the chest wall and become a part of the internal thoracic
vein, reaching the heart by way of the anterior vena cava. The direc-
tion of the blood in the encircling veins at the top of the udder is de-
termined by the valves in the vessels. The larger volume of blood
passes through the milk-veins, thus bringing them into great promi-
nence. During pregnancy, the pressure of the uterus tends to interfere
with the circulation through the posterior vessels, and this tends to
further increase the size of the milk-veins. Inasmuch as the blood
may return to the heart posteriorly, it is possible that a high producer

Fig. 66. — Circulation to and from the udder. The broken lines represent the
arteries which carry blood containing the nutritive material to the udder where it
is manufactured into milk. The heavy black lines represent the veins which carry
the blood back to the heart. Note that there is but one route from the heart to the
udder, whereas there are two routes from the udder to the heart. M. V., milk-vein;
M. W., milk-well.

may have small milk-veins, but this is not likely to occur. Cows with
large milk-veins are large producers, and cows with small milk-veins
may be large producers.

Nature and composition of milk. — Cow's milk is an opaque, yellow-
ish-white fluid devoid of odor except for a short time after its extraction.
When fresh, it is slightly sweet and has a slightly alkaline reaction.
Under the microscope, milk is found to be a fine emulsion of fat, a
quart of milk being estimated to contain 2,000,000,000,000 fat globules,
and the cow that gives two gallons of milk per day must therefore
secrete at the rate of over 175,000,000 fat globules per second. The

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 185

composition of milk varies a great deal; there are differences between
breeds, differences between individuals, and differences in the milk
from the same cow at different times. As lactation advances, the
daily milk yield decreases, but the percentage of fat constantly increases
as does the percentage of all solids. The specific gravity of average
milk is 1.032 and its composition is as follows:

(Water 87 per cent

if Ash .7 per cent

[Solids not I Casein 2.7 per cent

fat 9.1 per cent 1 Albumin .7 per cent
Solids 13 per cent ] [Sugar 5.0 per cent

[Fat 3.9 per cent

The results of various American experiments indicate that the
average composition of the milk of the various breeds is as follows:

Breeds Solids Fat

Per cent Per cent

Jersey 14.70 5.35

Guernsey 14.71 5.16

Shorthorn 13.38 4.05

Ayrshire 12.61 3.66

Holstein-Friesian 11.85 3.42

The quantity of milk given by the different breeds is almost in-
versely proportional to the fat content, so that the total quantity of
solids and fat is nearly the same for all dairy breeds. The highest
average percentage of fat in a regular milking that has been reported
is 10.7, and the cow did not give milk of this richness regularly. In a
few cases, tests showing 9 per cent have been made and it is only rarely
that a cow averages 7 per cent.

Secretion of milk. — The udder is a true organ of secretion. Milk
is not merely strained from the blood, but contains substances not
found in the blood, these being formed in the gland itself. Surrounding
the alveoli are capillaries, and through the walls of the capillaries the
fluids of the blood pass freely into the cavity of the alveoli by osmosis.
At the same time, the epithelial cells lining the alveoli are the seat of
secretory activities which produce some of the most important con-
stituents of the milk. Thus milk is formed partly from the osmosis of
blood serum and white blood corpuscles directly into the cavity of the
alveolus, and partly by a chemical elaboration by the epithelial cells.
The water from the blood serum passes out of the alveolus, carrying
with it some of the mineral constituents of the blood in solution, and
a part of the albumin of the blood serum. During its passage from
the capillaries to the cavity of the alveolus, by far the larger part of
the albumin of the blood is changed by the epithelial cells to the casein
of milk. These cells also secrete globules of fat, having an average
diameter of about 0.0001 of an inch. Small amounts of fat may also

186 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

be carried over directly by the blood and appear in the milk without
change. Only minute quantities of sugar are found in the blood, hence
milk-sugar is no doubt also elaborated by the secretory cells of the
udder.

Milk secretion is not perfectly understood in all its details. In
some of its phases, milk secretion is undoubtedly a continuous process,
but the agitation of the udder at milking time seems to be very essential
in completing the process of milk manufacture. Between milkings,
the udder is engaged in certain important preliminary steps which
make possible the rapid culmination of the act of secretion when the
stimulus afforded by agitation is given. (The theory that milk secre-
tion is largely the result of cell growth, division, and degeneration, is
no longer held by leading physiologists.)

If an udder is cut open just before milking time, it is found that
the milk-cisterns and ducts are distended with milk containing a very
low per cent of butter-fat. The quantity of this milk is only a small
part of the total yield which the cow would give at a milking. Agita-
tion of the udder is necessary to complete the process of secretion.
Observation of a calf, lamb, or kitten when nursing shows that con-
siderable agitation is a prominent feature of nature's method of milking.
Under this stim.ulus the water of the blood rushes through the walls
of the alveoli and carries the butter-fat, which has been manufactured
by the epithelial cells, down into the milk-ducts and cisterns, and
finally through the teats. Other products of secretion, namely casein
and lactose (milk-sugar), are brought down also. The last milk drawn
from the udder is the richest in fat; in one experiment, four successive
samples taken during the course of milking tested 0.76, 2.60, 5.35, and
9.80 per cent of fat respectively. ^ A similar test conducted in 1921
by 15 members of the McGregor (Iowa) Cow Testing Association is
reported ^ to have given an average of 1.79 per cent of butter-fat in
the fore milk and 9.6 per cent in the strippings. These were averages
for the cows on the 15 farms. On one farm the strippings tested 14.5
per cent and on another farm 12.8 per cent.

Experiments made at the Wisconsin Experiment Station in
manipulating the udders of cows, after the regular milkings, resulted
in bringing down considerable milk very rich in butter-fat. It was
estimated that if the udders of the million cows in Wisconsin at that
time were manipulated after the customary operation of milking, and
if butter-fat is worth only 20 cents per pound, the value of the extra
product would amount to $6 per head annually, or $6,000,000 for all
the cows in the state.

iJohn W. Decker: Elements of Dairying, p. 38.
^Chicago Daily Drovers Journal, Aug. 1, 1921.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 187

Colostrum. — Because of more or less incompleteness of the various
processes of secretion at the start of the lactation period, the first milk
differs in composition from that afterwards secreted, and is called
colostrum. It is thick and viscous, contains less water than normal
milk, five times as much albumin, twice as much ash, slightly more fat,
and about one-half the usual percentage of sugar. It has a laxative
effect on the calf, useful in properly starting the work of digestion.
In about one week following birth, the yield of milk usually increases
and becomes normal in composition.

Stimuli to secretion. — The cow has no control over the secretion
of milk, it being involuntary. During the latter part of pregnancy,
the embryo calf makes very rapid growth, and the blood supply to the
placenta is much increased. At that time the cow does not ordinarily
secrete milk, her excess of energy being given to the growth of the
embryo. When the calf is born, the demand through the placenta
ceases, and the large volume of blood is turned toward the udder. A
short time previous to calving, the udder of the cow shows considerable
increase in size, and by the time the calf is born the mammary glands
are fulfilling their function nearly to the maximum capacity. In
young heifers that have never had a calf, the udder contains a watery,
saline fluid. Regular attempts at milking, or manipulation of the
udder with the hands, or allowing a calf to suck, may stimulate the
secretion of considerable normal milk in such young heifers. The
same methods have been known to cause the secretion of a milk-like
fluid by the rudimentary glands of males. Thorough milking furnishes
a stimulus that causes prolongation of the lactation period, while incom-
plete removal of milk tends to check the secretion and shorten the
milking period, and it may also cause serious inflammation. Frequent
milkings tend to increase the flow of milk, but there is no special ad-
vantage in milking more often than twice a day unless the cow is a
high producer and the udder becomes very much distended between
milkings, as such distention acts as a check to further secretion. Reg-
ularity in milking is essential to best results, both in the amount
secreted per day and in the length of the lactation period.

CHAPTER XII
VARIATIONS IN THE USEFULNESS OF DAIRY COWS

Census reports and government estimates indicate that the average
cow kept for milk production in the United States produces about
4,000 pounds of milk per year. If this milk tests 4 per cent fat, the
average dairy cow produces about 160 pounds of butter-fat annually.
Assuming that average butter contains 85 per cent of butter-fat, the
average American dairy cow may be credited with about 188 pounds
of butter per year.

The United States holds seventh place among 15 prominent coun-
tries in the average yield of milk per dairy cow, being excelled by the
Netherlands with 7,585 pounds yearly per cow, Switzerland 6,950
pounds, Great Britain 5,934 pounds, Denmark 5,666 pounds, Germany
4,350 pounds, and Canada 3,779 pounds. Our own average per cow
is reported at 3,716 pounds in 1917 and 3,627 pounds in 1920. ^

Extremely wide variations occur in the production and profit re-
turned by dairy cows.

Relation of production to net income. — J. C. McDowell of the
Dairy Division of the U. S. Department of Agriculture tabulated 5,587
yearly records of cows owned by members of cow-testing associations
in various parts of the country. These records covered a period of
four years. He states ^ that as the average butter-fat production per
cow increased from 150 to 200 pounds, the income per cow over cost
of feed advanced from $21 to $34. Thus a gain of 50 pounds, or SSVs
per cent, in production gave an increase of 62 per cent in income over
feed cost. He states that when the production of 150 pounds was
doubled, income over feed cost was tripled; and when production was
tripled, income over feed cost was multiplied five times. The following
table summarizes the results of his study:

Relation of butter-fat production to income over cost of feed. Average results, from 5,587
records of iO cow-testing associations

Average

Average annual

income

Average annual

income

production of

over cost

production of

over cost

butter-fat

of feed

butter-fat

of feed

100 pounds $ 5.00 350 pounds $74.00

150 pounds 21.00 400 pounds 87.00

200 pounds 34.00 450 pounds 100.00

250 pounds 50.00 500 pounds 118.00

300 pounds 63.00

^T. R. Pirtle: A Handbook of Dairy Statistics, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1922.
-Butterfat and Income, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1917, pp. 357, 358.

188

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

189

McDowell points out that if no expenses except cost of feed are
considered, 1 cow that produced 450 pounds of butter-fat a year would
have returned as much net income as 20 cows with an average produc-
tion of 100 pounds, and had all expenses been considered, the results
would have been even more striking. He found that the cost of
roughage was about the same for all groups, regardless of production.
The cost of grain was considerably higher for the more productive cows,
but it was much lower per pound of butter-fat produced. The in-
creased income from the higher producers should be credited in part to
better feeding, but it was evidently more largely due to better cows.

Mention is made of one herd of 91 cows that in one year produced
a total income of $58 over cost of feed, or 6U cents per cow. One reason-
ably good cow can easily surpass the record of this entire herd, and
how much easier it is to feed 1 cow than 91, and how much easier and
cheaper it is to handle and milk 1 cow than 91! And it so happened
that another member of the same testing association owned 16 cows
that averaged 306 pounds of butter-fat and $75 over cost of feed.

Tests of purebred dairy cows were conducted at the Pan-American
Exposition at Buffalo in 1901 and at the Louisiana-Purchase Exposition
at St. Louis in 1904. In a six-months test at Buffalo, the least profit-
able cow gave an average return over feed cost of 6.4 cents daily, and
the most profitable cow returned 33 cents over feed cost daily, or 5
times as much. At St. Louis in a 120-day test the least profitable cow
returned 1.6 cents over feed cost daily, and the most profitable cow
returned 42.1 cents, or 25 times as much.

High producers consume much more feed than low producers, but
they produce much more milk and butter-fat per pound of feed. This
is shown by the following table ^ which covers careful, complete yearly
records for five years on four farms located in Michigan, Wisconsin,
Pennsylvania, and North Carolina:

Relation of yield and feed cost, per cow, to feed cost per 1 00 pounds of milk produced

Number
of cows

Feed cost

Pounds of milk

annual

yield

Pounds

Per cow

yearly

Per 100

pounds

milk

3,000 and under

16
33

111

109

2,349

3,648
4,596
5,450
6,445
7,514
9,049

$43.93
49.47
55.00
59.91
62.85
70.38
80.45

$1.87

3,001 to 4,000

1.36

4,001 to 5,000

1.20

5,001 to 6,000

1.10

6,001 to 7,000

.98

7,001 to 8,000

.94

8,001 and over

.89

ij. S. Gates: Some Outstanding Factors in Profitable Farming, U. S. Dept.
Agr. Yearbook, 1915, p. 117.

190 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Note that the feed bill was about twice as high for the best cows
as for the poorest ones. But the best cows produced nearly four times
as much milk as the poorest cows, and their feed bill per 100 pounds of
milk was less than half that of the poorest group. High-producing
animals consume much more feed than low producers, hut it pays to feed
them with a liberal hand.

Records of the champions in production. — The highest records in
milk and butter-fat production are useful in showing the possibilities
in the breeding, feeding, and management of dairy cattle. Sometimes
these records are made regardless of economy in production, no expense
being spared to give the cow every opportunity to make a high record ;
sometimes they have been secured at the expense of the cow's future
usefulness, her constitution being undermined and her digestion per-
manently deranged by the forcing methods that are practiced. The
value of such records is sometimes over-estimated, but they clearly
indicate that the average dairy cow of the United States with her
annual production of about 4,000 pounds of milk and about 160 pounds
of butter-fat has plenty of room for improvement.

Following are the highest records made in official yearly tests of
the various dairy breeds in the United States:

Holstein-Friesians

Year

Cow

state

Production

1922
1920

May Walker OUie Homestead Minnesota
Segis Pietertje Prospect Washington

1,218.58 lbs. fat
37,381.4 lbs. milk

Jerseys

1923
1922

Darling's Jolly Lassie
Fauvic's Star

Oregon
Connecticut

Guernseys

1,141.28 lbs. fat
20,616.0 lbs. milk

1920
1915

Countess Prue
Murne Cowan

Massachusetts
Ohio

Ayrshires

1,103.28 lbs. fat
24,008.0 lbs. milk

1915
1915

Lily of Willowmoor
Garclaugh May Mischief

Washington
Pennsylvania

Brown Swiss

955.56 lbs. fat
25,329.0 lbs. milk

1922
1922

Hawthorn Dairy Maid
Hawthorn Dairy Maid

Illinois
Illinois

927.23 lbs. fat
22,622.6 lbs. milk

An Ayrshire cow, Crocus, is reported to have given over 45 tons
of milk during her 17 years of life. Another Ayrshire cow, Annie Bert,
is reported to have given over 45 tons of milk during twelve lactation
periods. She also had a record of nearly 2 tons of butter. The Uni-
versity of Missouri had a Jersey cow, Hope of Ramapo, that in 17 years
produced 78,585 pounds of milk, 4,147 pounds of butter, and 15 calves,
thus bringing $1,341.72 into the treasury. The noted Jersey cow,
Jacoba Irene, in 37 months produced 42,373 pounds of milk and 2,331
pounds of butter-fat. Another noted Jersey, Sophie 19th of Hood

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 191

Farm, in 6 years produced 75,920 pounds of milk and 4,353 pounds of
fat, and in 10 years her production of butter-fat totaled 6,958 pounds.
Lily of Willowmoor, an Ayrshire owned in the state of Washington,
produced 84,991 pounds of milk and 3,362 pounds of fat in 5 years.
The Holstein cow Tilly Alcartra, owned in California, produced in 6
years a total of 156,776 pounds of milk and 4,910 pounds of fat, and in
8 years her total butter-fat production amounted to 6,250 pounds.
Vive La France, a Jersey owned in Oregon, recently completed her
sixth official test with 14,441 pounds of milk and 917 pounds of fat.
Her six yearly records total 78,461 pounds of milk and 5,332 pounds
of fat, the highest record to date in butter-fat production during 6
consecutive lactation periods.

Cause of wide variation in production — C. H. Eckles, formerly of
the Missouri Station, ^ determined why dairy cows vary so widely in
production and profit. Two cows in the station herd showing striking
difference in ability were selected for the investigation. They were
registered Jerseys, sired by the same bull, from dams distantly related,
and they had been raised under practically the same conditions. The
following table gives the facts regarding these two cows during the
first two milking periods prior to the investigation:

Name Pedro's Ramaposa Pedro's Elf

Date of birth Sept. 4, 1902 May 11, 1903

Age at first calving 29 mo. 18 mo.

Pounds milk, first lactation period 4,552 878

Pounds fat, first lactation period 238.8 44.1

Number of days in milk 337 131

Pounds milk, second lactation period 7,174 3,189

Pounds fat, second lactation period 377 114.8

Number of days in milk 365 232

During these two lactation periods, Pedro's Ramaposa produced
2.8 pounds of milk and 3.9 pounds of fat for each pound produced by
Pedro's Elf. While the second milking period was in progress, an
investigation was planned to determine the cause of this difference in
efficiency as dairy cows. The cows were therefore bred so that the
calves might be born as near the same time as possible; Pedro's Elf
calved October 4, 1907, and Pedro's Ramaposa calved October 7.

Complete records were kept of the amount and composition of the
feeds consumed. Each cow was fed a ration of the same composition
at all times, but the amount was varied to suit the individual. As
there was a possibility of the inferior cow using part of her feed for
depositing fat on her body — a characteristic of inferior dairy cows-
each cow was fed such an amount as would keep her at a uniform body
weight. Thus the feed consumed could be studied in relation to dairy
qualities only. They were fed all they would consume, unless they be-

iMo. Res. Bui. 2.

192 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

gan to lay on flesh and gain in weight. The refused feed was collected,
analyzed, and deducted from the records. Complete records were kept
of the milk produced and of its composition. The same man always
milked both cows. In order to eliminate another disturbing factor
from such an experiment, the cows were kept farrow; had they carried
calves, it would have been impossible to have accurately measured the
feed requirements for milk production. A digestion trial was con-
ducted when the cows were at their maximum production to ascertain
whether any difference existed in the efficiency of digestion.

At the end of the milking period the cows were kept farrow and
the same ration was fed as during the milking period ; this was continued
for 90 days, the feeding being so regulated in quantity as to maintain
the cows at a uniform body weight. In this way the requirement for
maintenance was determined for each cow. A maintenance ration is
one that will maintain a resting animal at a uniform body weight;
such a ration keeps up the body heat, makes repairs in the tissues, and
furnishes energy for the working of the heart, lungs, digestive and
other organs, and for slight movements of the body. If the dairy cow
is pregnant, she requires enough feed above maintenance to furnish
nourishment for the foetus. Still more feed in excess of maintenance
is necessary if she is giving milk as well as carrying a calf. Cows vary
somewhat in their maintenance requirements, hence two cows con-
suming the same amounts of feed may have different proportions of
their feed available for milk production. For instance, a restless cow
has a greater maintenance requirement than a quiet one; when standing
up, more feed is required for maintenance than when lying down.
Many other factors affect the requirement for maintenance. It is
therefore apparent that an investigation into the cause of difference s
in the economy of production is not complete unless the requirement
for maintenance is determined. This the Missouri Station did by
finding how much feed was necessary to maintain each cow at a con-
stant body weight while dry and farrow. Other experiments have
shown that a well-fed dairy cow uses about 43 per cent of her feed for
maintenance, 30 per cent in the work of converting feed into milk, and
about 20 per cent finally appears as milk. These percentages vary,
depending on the nature of the feed and the individual, but a good dairy
cow is more efficient as a machine than either the horse or the steam
engine. In the Missouri experiment it was found that the higher-pro-
ducing cow required slightly more feed for maintenance; hence, the
wide variation in production could not be accounted for by a superiority
of the high-producing cow in regard to maintenance.

During the year of the investigation, Pedro's Ramaposa produced
8,522 pounds of milk and 469.9 pounds of fat. Pedro's Elf produced

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 193

3,188 pounds of milk and 169.3 pounds of fat. The former produced
2.67 pounds of milk and 2.77 pounds of fat for each pound produced
by the latter. The digestion trial showed practically identical results,
the co-efficient of digestion being 64.39 per cent for the best cow and
64.99 for the poorest cow. Pedro's Ramaposa consumed 1.75 pounds
of feed for each pound used by the other cow, and the real cause of
the difference in production was found to be the amount of feed con-
sumed above maintenance. The maintenance requirement being prac-
tically the same, Ramaposa had 65 per cent of the total feed consumed
available for milk production, and Elf had only 44.2 per cent thus
available.

It was observed that Ramaposa, when producing the maximum
milk yield, was practically to the limit of her capacity for handling
feed. Her maximum capacity for feed seemed to coincide closely with
the amount necessary to maintain her at uniform weight. Elf con-
sumed all her feed, and would have taken slightly more had it been
offered, although she never showed lack of feed. Ramaposa had much
the stronger appetite; she ate rapidly, swallowed the grain with much
less chewing, and always showed by her impatience to get her feed a
much keener appetite than did the latter. Both cows remained in
excellent physical condition throughout the investigation.

After deducting the maintenance requirement, one cow produced
milk as economically as the other. The ratio between the feed avail-
able for milk production and the milk produced was practically the
sam.e for each cow. The experiment showed that cows vary but little
in the maintenance requirement, or in their ability to digest feed. A
superior dairy cow is one with a large capacity for feed above mainte-
nance, and one that is not disposed to take on fat, but uses the feed above
maintenance for milk production. This once more emphasizes the im-
portance of a large, well-developed barrel and its significance in judging
dairy cows, provided the cow also has a high degree of dairy tempera-
ment as shown by her lean appearance when heavily fed while in milk.

EflFect of feed on quantity and composition of milk. — The general
statement may be made that the quantity of milk is dependent upon
the amount of feed and upon the inherent milk-giving qualities of the
cow. Feed has an effect on the quantity of the milk yield, in that an
underfed cow cannot produce to the limit of her ability. As shown in
the Missouri experiment, however, heavy feeding does not increase the
cow's ability, it merely makes possible a production that is up to the
limit of her natural, inherited ability. The composition of the milk
cannot be permanently changed by any known method of feeding; the
composition is regulated by the udder of the cow, each cow having her
own characteristic quality of milk. By fattening dry cows, the fat

194 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

content of the milk is temporarily raised when the cows freshen. It
is known that cows fed cottonseed meal yield butter that is hard and
tallowy, with a high melting point, while linseed meal produces a soft
butter with a low melting point. In spite of these and other minor
exceptions, it may be said that improvement in the composition of
milk is a breeding, rather than a feeding, problem. The feeder can
only supply feed in such amount as will permit the cow to give a maxi-
mum flow of milk. But as we have seen, two cows may produce far
different quantities of milk when given the best of care, so that increase
in the quantity of milk is also a problem for the breeder. Cows are
born with certain inherent abilities; feeding can assist these inherent
abilities to reveal themselves, but cannot permanently alter them.
Great cows are born great. Their greatness will not be realized, how-
ever, unless they are given good care and plenty of the right kind of
feed to use in manufacturing milk. No matter how large and efficient
a factory may be, it cannot turn out much product unless it has avail-
able an abundant supply of the raw material, but an abundant supply
of raw material will not raise the output of a poorly equipped or ineffi-
cient p'ant above a certain low maximum. It is far more correct to
say that a well-fed dairy cow eats because she gives milk, than it is to
say that she gives milk because she eats.

CHAPTER XIII
BREEDING FOR MILK PRODUCTION

There were 24,429,000 milk cows on farms in the United States
on January 1, 1923, according to the estimate of the U. S. Department
of Agriculture, and they were valued at $50.83 per head. If put in
single file, allowing ten feet of space for each animal, they would make
a line over 46,000 miles long, or would form a procession 18 abreast
from New York to San Francisco.

The distribution of dairy cattle in the United States is shown by
the numbers of milk cows in the leading states and in the various
geographical divisions:

Leading states in numbers of milk cows on farms, January 1 , 1 923

Average
State Number value

1. Wisconsin 2,195,000 $57.00

2. New York 1,678,000 63.00

3. Minnesota 1,641,000 47.00

4. Iowa 1,160,000 58.00

5. Illinois 1,148,000 56.00

State

Number

Average
value

10.

Pennsylvania .

Ohio

Texas

Michigan ....
Missouri

..1,071,000

..1,069,000
. .1,052,000
. . 977,000
. . 777,000

$60.00

56.00
36.00
70.00
45.00

Distribution of-^milk cows on farms by geographical divisions, January 1 , 1 923

Divi.'sion Number

North Atlantic 4,026,000

South Atlantic 2,045,000

North Central, East of Mississippi River 6,131,000

North Central, West of Mississippi River 5,817,000

South Central 4,432,000

Far Western 1,978,00«

Total, United States 24,429,000

Dairy cattle are densely distributed in the northern third of the
eastern half of the United States, forming a well-marked belt from the
eastern boundary of the Dakotas to the Atlantic, and including the
northern and eastern margins of the corn belt. The concentration of
dairy cattle in this region is due chiefly to the number of large cities
located within it and to the large percentage of total population which
it includes.

Production and consumption of dairy products. — The United
States is the largest producer of milk, butter, and cheese in the world,
but does not rank high in average per capita consumption. Sweden
consumes about 600 pounds of whole milk per capita, Denmark 590
pounds, Switzerland 580 pounds, United States 370 pounds. Great
Britain 190 pounds, and Italy 36 pounds. In butter consumption
Canada leads with 27.7 pounds per capita, and the United States with

195

196

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

15.5 pounds is fifth. The United States ranks only tenth in per capita
consumption of cheese with an annual consumption of 4.2 pounds,
while Switzerland leads with 26.4 pounds. ^

Conditions suitable to dairy farming. — Dairying is especially
adapted to regions where the land is improved and productive of good
crops of grain and roughage, and where the labor necessary for the
continuous care of dairy cows is available. Dairy cows require more
labor than any other class of farm animals. Feed and labor are both
large items of expense in dairying, and the demand for them is constant,
whereas in the production of meat animals the demands for feed and
labor are to a greater degree seasonal. Economy requires that as

Fig. 67. — Distribution of dairy cattle in the United States.

much of the feed as possible shall be produced on the farm. The dairy
cow is well adapted to high-priced lands and to diversified and inten-
sive farming in which the farmer strives to produce the largest possible
return from a limited or relatively small acreage. Dairy farming
rightly practiced under favorable conditions is very profitable.

Dairying for the production of butter and cheese is successfully
practiced in regions far remote from markets and consuming centers,
but the production of market milk necessitates ready access to markets.

Success in breeding dairy cattle. — No greater strides have been
made in animal breeding during recent years than have been made by
many breeders of purebred dairy cattle. These breeders keep accurate

IT. R. Pirtle: A Handbook of Dairy Statistics, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1922.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 197

records of the amount of milk and butter-fat produced by each cow.
Such records not only reveal the producing ability of each cow, but
they also enable the breeder to determine which bulls sire the best
daughters and which cows produce the best daughters. The calves
produced by the best sires and dams are retained for use in improving
the herd. The calves sold from the herd are priced largely according
to the records of their dams and grandams, and according to the known
or proven ability of their sires and grandsires. Marked improvement
in purebred dairy cattle has resulted from keeping accurate records of
production.

Many dairymen owning grade herds and engaged in the production
of market milk and butter-fat have observed the benefits derived from
keeping records and have adopted the methods of progressive breeders
of purebred dairy cattle as the means of improving their own herds.

Success in dairying requires (1) the use of good, purebred dairy
bulls and (2) the keeping of accurate records of the milk and butter-fat
produced and of the feed consumed by each cow in the herd. Dairymen
who are members of cow-testing associations have these records kept
for them at small expense, and the cooperative bull association enables
even the smallest dairyman to breed his cows to good, purebred sires.

A cow-testing association is a farmers' organization which employs
a tester who visits each farm once a month, weighs, samples, and tests
the milk of each cow, and weighs jier feed. He then computes the
monthly milk and butter-fat production and cost of feed for each cow
in the herd. Monthly records computed in this way have been found
to be very closely accurate. Such records are valuable not only for
weeding out unprofitable cows, but they establish beyond all doubt
the value of the herd sires by disclosing the ability of the daughters
in comparison to the ability of their dams. The first cow-testing
association in the United States was the Newaygo County (Michigan)
Association, organized in 1905. On July 1, 1922, there were 513 such
associations active in 38 states, and including a total of 12,508 herds
and 216,875 cows. Wisconsin was far in the lead with 127 associa-
tions, including 3,517 herds and 61,489 cows. ^

A cooperative bull association is an organization of farmers for
the joint ownership, use, and exchange of good purebred bulls. Such
organizations accomplish two important purposes: 1. Good pure-
bred bulls are made readily available to the small dairyman at small
cost. 2. The good purebred dairy sire is kept in service in the com-
munity and is used to his full capacity. Too frequently good bulls
are sent to the butcher because they cannot be used more than two

HI. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Dairy Div., Directory of Cow-Testing
Associations in the United States, Active July 1, 1922.

198 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

or three years in small herds without mating them with their daughters,
but a bull association puts a stop to this practice. The cooperative
bull association usually has its membership divided into three or more
blocks, each block being supplied with one bull which is kept two years
and then shifted to another block. The bulls are owned by the associa-
tion as a whole. The purchase price and cost of maintenance are
distributed according to the number of cows owned by each member.
By combining the cow-testing association and the bull association,
members of the latter may not only own good bulls, but they may de-
termine the actual ability of these bulls and may keep a high-class sire
in use to his full capacity as long as he is serviceable.

The first cooperative bull association was organized by the Michi-
gan Agricultural College in 1908. On July 1, 1922, there were 190
active associations in 36 states, with a total membership of 6,102,
owning 857 purebred bulls. The 6,102 members owned 40,669 cows,
7,123 of which were purebred. There was an average of 6.7 cows per
member, 7 members per bull, and 32 members per association. ^ These
averages show that it is the small dairyman who benefits most from
such an organization. As one writer states, ^ "Fifty dollars may buy
a scrub bull, but if five farmers will join an association and pay $50
each, they may own a $250 bull."

Pennsylvania with 27 associations and 527 members had the most
bull associations in 1922, and South Carolina with 23 associations and
930 members had the largest membership. When questioned regarding
the value of cooperative bull associations, 150 farmers in Maryland,
Michigan, and Minnesota estimated that the use of the association
bulls increased the value of the offspring from the first cross from 30
to 80 per cent, with an average of 65 per cent. ^

Results obtained in grading. — There is great need for the improve-
ment of the average dairy cow of the country. The small number of
purebred dairy cows makes it inadvisable to recommend that this im-
provement shall be accomplished by replacing the average cow with a
purebred cow, and that all milk and butter-fat shall be produced by
purebred cattle. ^ However, this ideal is easily possible of close ap-

lU. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Dairy Div., Directory of Cooperative
Bull Associations in the United States, Active July 1, 1922.

2J. C. McDowell: Butter-fat and Income, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1917,
p. 360.

3 J. G. Winkjer: Cooperative Bull Associations, U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui.
993, p. 6.

4 About 3 per cent of the dairy cattle of the United States are purebred and
registered. The ten leading states in numbers of registered dairy cattle as shown
by the 1920 census, in order of rank, were New York, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, Ohio,
Michigan, Illinois, Minnesota, Vermont, Texas, and Indiana. New York with over
150,000 head had one-sixth of the registered dairy cattle of the country, and Wis-
consin with 115,000 had one-eighth.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

199

proximation by using purebred dairy bulls to grade up the ordinary
dairy cows of the country. There is no good argument in behalf of
keeping any except a purebred dairy bull at the head of any dairy herd.
No progressive dairyman will take chances in raising a heifer calf for
milk purposes whose sire is either a beef bull or a mongrel. The
necessity for using purebred sires to breed to common cows and the
financial advantage of such a policy was pointed out in Chapter IX,
in which the breeding of beef cattle for the market was discussed.
The arguments there presented apply with equal force to the breeding
of dairy cattle.

Tests which strikingly illustrate the effect of a purebred sire in
improving a herd of scrub dairy cows have been conducted at the Iowa
Station^ by Kildee and McCandlish. The scrub cows were mated
with good purebred Holstein, Guernsey, and Jersey bulls, and the
daughters were in turn mated with similar bulls. The results presented
in the following table show the average yearly production of the
original scrub cows and the greatly increased ability of their daughters
and granddaughters. All were fed and cared for alike, and no animals
were weeded out during the experiment, so that the improvement
secured can be credited only to the use of good purebred sires:

Average production by scrub cows and by their daughters and granddaughters sired by
purebred dairy bulls

Scrub dams ....

Daughters

Granddaughters

Milk
Pounds

3,660
5,999
8,402

Fat
Pounds

172
261
358

Increase over original
scrub cows

Milk
Per cent

Fat
Per cent

64
130

52
109

The half-blood daughters, carrying 50 per cent of improved breed-
ing, showed an increase of 52 per cent in butter-fat production as com-
pared to their scrub dams. The granddaughters, carrying 75 per cent
of improved breeding, showed an increase of 109 per cent in butter-fat
production as compared to their scrub grandams. In other words, the
production of this herd was doubled in two generations through the
use of good dairy sires.

J. C. McDowell of the Dairy Division, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, states: ^ "A scrub cow is almost worthless because she
yields no profit. A scrub bull is worse than worthless because he
quickly drags the remainder of the herd down to his low level. In a
year a scrub cow produced 146.8 pounds of butter-fat. Her daughter,

iJowa Buls. 165, 188.

2U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1920, p. 410.

200

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Scrub cow No. 56. Av-
erage yearly production
3,874.6 pounds of milk and
192.62 pounds of fat.

Half-bloc d Holstein No.
77, cut of Scrub No. 56.
Average yearly production
6,955.5 pounds of milk and
266.25 pounds of fat.

0r^w^-^,

Three-quarter- blood
Holstein No. 233, out of
half-blood Hol.stein No. 77.
Average yearly production
12,804.2 pounds of milk and
482.54 pounds of fat.

Fig. 68. — What good purebred sires can do. Improved production in two
generations through the use of purebred Holstein sires. From the Iowa experiment.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 201

sired by a scrub bull, produced 126.3 pounds of butter-fat, and the
granddaughter, sired by the same scrub, produced 99.7 pounds of
butter-fat. California Gretel, a Toggenburg goat, produced almost as
much."

By going to the same breed each time a sire is selected, the dairy-
man soon acquires a herd of very high-grade cows, having only a very
small percentage of scrub ancestry. Good grade dairy cows often
rival their purebred cousins in production, and many have sold at
prices considerably above $200. By using purebred sires, and by
weeding out the poor producers and retaining the high-producing cows
and their heifer calves, an inferior herd may be revolutionized and made
to yield a profit. In this way the dairyman is enabled to raise his
standards higher and higher, each year eliminating from his herd those
cows which fail to reach the mark. Eventually a herd is built up in
which every cow returns a large profit on the feed and care invested
in her during the year.

Good breeding, feeding, and management. — The following records
made by the herd of Peder Pedersen and Son in the Benson Cow-
Testing Association, Cedar Falls, Iowa, in three consecutive years
show what may be accomplished by the use of good sires, the keeping
of records, weeding out the poor cows, and by proper feeding and
management:

Average Net income

Year Average milk per cow butter-fat per cow over

per cow, lbs. cost of feed

1911 5,665 pounds 207.7 $22.12

Largest net income cow in herd 54.22

1912 7,060 pounds 251.9 53.96

Largest net income cow in herd 106.30

1913 9,697.47 pounds 341.98 75.00

Two largest net income cows, each 144.00

This herd was made up of grades and a few purebred Holsteins,
and the number of cows remained about the same during the three
years reported. At the end of the first year it was found that 40 per
cent of the cows were unprofitable. They were sent to the butcher,
and their places in the herd were taken by two-year-old heifers sired
by a purebred sire out of common cows. At the end of the second
year, 30 per cent of the cows were "weeded out" and their places taken
by two-year-old grade heifers, one purebred cow, and one purebred
two-year-old heifer. The end of the third year's work showed that
the average milk production had been increased over 71 per cent, the
butter-fat 60 per cent, and the average net profit per cow increased
from $22.12 to $75.00, or 239 per cent.

Selection of the dairy bull. — If twenty dairy bulls are brought
before a judge recognized as competent, and he is asked to pick out the

202 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

bull that will sire the highest-producing cows, he will be unable to do
so with any degree of certainty by studying their individualities. He
may easily eliminate some of them because of lack of constitution,
weak masculinity, or because they show a decided tendency towards
fleshiness. Having such faults, he is reasonably certain that they will
not prove sure breeders, or that their heifer calves will not develop into
high producers. Having eliminated certain ones, there will probably
be several bulls remaining that have no serious faults in conformation,
and among these it is mere guesswork to attempt to select the most
successful sire. The beef bull carries his evidence of merit upon his
back, but the true value of the dairy bull can be judged only by the
kind of cows in his ancestry, the kind of cows he sires, or by both.
The judging of dairy bulls in the show ring is much less conducive to
good results in the improvement of cattle than is the judging of beef
bulls.

As a general rule, when valuing a purebred animal, more emphasis
should be placed upon individuality than upon pedigree; but the dairy
bull is an exception. On a basis of 100 points given to the bull's selec-
tion, it is conservative to state that 40 points should be allotted to his
individuality, and 60 points to the records of performance in his pedi-
gree. All purebred dairy bulls have pedigrees, but in many cases no
records were kept of the production of their female ancestors; in such
cases the pedigree has no special significance, and little importance can
be attached to it. When records of performance of the ancestors are
available, the bull is said to have a "pedigree with performance," and
to such a pedigree much attention should be given when selecting a
bull.

If the bull is matured and has been long enough in service so that
he has heifers in milk, they furnish the best evidence of the bull's value
as a breeder. In this connection, however, the dams of the heifers
must be studied, as the seeming success of the bull may be very largely
due to the excellence of the cows with which he is mated. If the dams
are inferior and the heifers are good, all the more credit is due the sire.

A Wisconsin farmer who was about to sell his purebred Guernsey
bull to the butcher discovered just in time that the bull was a superior
sire. When the records were completed, his daughters had produced
an average of 7,886 pounds of milk and 397 pounds of butter-fat, as
compared to 5,968 pounds of milk and 292 pounds of butter-fat for
their dams. Another Wisconsin farmer did sell his registered Holstein
bull to the butcher because he could not use him further without
inbreeding, only to discover his mistake later when 11 of the daughters
freshened at the ages of 2 and 3 years and made yearly records averag-
ing 15,047 pounds of milk and 571 pounds of butter-fat. Commenting

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 203

on this loss of a valuable sire, J. C. McDowell points out^ that a cow-
testing association tests the dams and daughters, and the cooperative
bull association makes it possible to keep a bull until his daughters
are tested. As he states, "These associations would have saved that
bull."

The pedigree with performance. — Most of the trade in purebred
dairy bulls is in bull calves, for only rarely will a successful bull, as
shown by actual trial, be offered for sale. The best indication of the
future breeding value of a dairy bull calf is furnished by the milk and
butter-fat records of his dam. If any of her female offspring have
records of production, these also furnish valuable evidence. Next, the
records of the cows sired by his sire should be studied, if such records
are available. After that, the performance of the paternal and ma-
ternal grandams should be noted, together with the performance of
their female offspring. The grandsires' lists of performers should be
studied also, and, if possible, similar studies should be made of the great-
grandams and great-grandsires. The fundamental principle under-
lying breeding is that "like begets hke," and if the bull has a high-
producing ancestry, high-producing sisters, and the other female mem-
bers of his family are high producers, we are reasonably certain that
he has inherited true dairy qualities of a high order which he will trans-
mit to his offspring.

As a fine example of a pedigree with performance, the pedigree of
the Guernsey bull, May King of Ingleside 12558, is herewith presented.
Such a bull commands too high a price to permit using him on grade
cows, and the average dairyman seeking a sire cannot expect to obtain
a bull with a pedigree equal to this one, although he may be able to
secure a son or grandson of such a bull at the price he can afford to
pay. This son or grandson preferably should be from a tested dam
with a butter-fat record of not less than 400 pounds, and she should be
descended from high-producing ancestors.

A New England dairyman writing to the U. S. Bureau of Animal
Industry ^ regarding his experience with a cheap, untried, purebred sire,
stated that he had purchased a bull of creditable breeding on the sire's
side, but out of a dam that was "just a purebred cow," with no produc-
tion records. He writes, "I had a herd of grades, 30 in number, that
milked from 5,000 to 8,000 pounds of milk a year and which had taken
a lot of time and money to get together. I raised 22 heifers from this
bull before the first one freshened. Not one of them gave 25 pounds
of milk a day with the first calf. I stopped using the bull and kept

lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1920, p. 410.

2D. S. Burch: Utility Value of Purebred Live Stock, U. S. Dept. Agr. Circ.
235, pp. 10, 11.

204

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

the best females to freshen a second time. There was not much im-
provement. The bull and every one of his heifers were sold for what
I could get, which was not much. By that time a number of my cows
were getting old. It was a case of buy more cows to keep my herd in
good numbers as well as milk. With four years lost, and I don't know
how much money, I learned not to buy an animal because it is regis-
tered, but to buy an individual whose ancestors have made good, with
no weak points in his breeding, and then pay the price. It's the
cheapest by far in the end."

Imp. King of the Ma;

Sire of:
Langwater Dorothy
Langwater Hope
Langwater Rosie.
Langwater Princess .
Lang. May Queen. .
Langwater Daisy .
Lang. May Rose . . . .
Langwater Felois
Langwater Milkmaid.
Sister Sue of Lang
Hayes Queen May

Also sire of seven A,

9001. A. B

.72.

M.Ik

Butter-
fat

16099.70

781,65

15078.80

773.59

15083.00

724.23

. 12280.50

651 19

11275.70

592.84

10710.30

B57.55

. 9212.50

530.06

. 9445.90

529.81

. 9550.20

510.05

.10290.70

469.60

7904.30

406.94

R sons.

Dolly Bloom of Langwater 15452, A. R.
674.

Record: 12024.50 lbs. milk; 632.34 lbs.

butter-fat.
Dam of:
Lang. Dolly Bloom. . 13250.80 714.60

Abo dam of one A. R. son

Imp. Ma; Rose King 8336. A. R. 41.

Sire of: Milk '^'J'^f"

Rosa Rubra 14329.15 788.89

Florham Daisy 14876.60 747.08

May Rose Queen 12548.30 667.19

Comefy Rose . 12861.15 641.79

Queen of the Roses 12223.25 604.94

Florham Pride 10860.60 591.85

Anton's May Rose... 10778.70 591.55

Southern Rose 12774.10 583.00

May Rose of Kent . . 10779.65 556.56

Rutila's Mav Rose 9701.10 556.40

Queen of May Rose. 11448.90 539.03

Pride of Place . 10035.50 531.26

And seven other A. R. daughters.

Also sire of nine A. R. sons.

Imp. Itcben Daisy 3d 15630, A. R. 100.

Record: 13636 80 lbs. milk; 714.10 lbs.

butter-fat. Sold for $4,000.

Dam of:
Florham Daisy.. 14876.60 748.08

Langwater Dairymaid 13747.50 670.12

Also dam of one A. R. son.

Dolly Bloom of Lang . . 12024.50 632.34

Nelly Jay 9576.10 477.27

Carrie Bell 7605.00 373.38

Also sire of three A. R. sons.

Dolly Bloom 12770, A. R. 40.

Record: 17297.51 lbs. milk; 836.21 lbs.

butter-fat.

Dam of:

Dolly Dimple 18808.50 876.34

Dolly Bloom of Lang 12024.50 632.34

Itchen Jewel 1112 E. G. H. B.

3d prize, Bath and West, England,

1899.
2d prize, Royal Counties, 1899.

Butter-

Milk

fat

Also dam of t

A. R.

Claremonl May Rose 8648 E. G. H. &

2d prize over Island, 1895.

1st prize over Island. 1896-7-8.

1st prize in England, 1897.

1st prize at nearly all^English shows of

1890-91-92.
1st and Championship, 1902.
1st at London Dairy Show, 1901.
Dam of Imp. May Rose 4th— 442 lbs.

butter-fat.

May Day 1132 E. G. H. B.

1st prize Royal Counties Show, 1898.

1st Bath and West, 1899.

Sire of Suzerain, 3d prize Bath and

West, 1900.
H. C. Royal Counties, 1900.
C. Royal, 1900; 2d East Kent, 1901.
Grandsire of Melanie of Goodnestone

3d-7415.60 lbs. milk; 387.76 lbs.

butter-fat.

Daisy Gem 3341 E. G. H. B.

John R. Gentry 4655.

Half brother to GlenVvood Boy of
Haddon, A. R. 8, sire of Jedetta of
Pinehurst— 15109.10 lbs. milk; 778.80
lbs. butter-fat. Also sire of 25 other
A. R. daughters, and 14 A. R. sons.

Dosia 2d 10072.

Divan 5846, A. R. 98.

Sire of:

Dolly Bloom 17297.51 836.21

Dolly Dillon 11867.30 532.21

Belle Wilson ! 8434.40 423.55

Also sire of two A. R. sons.

Questa 11385.

Dam of:

Dolly Bloom 17297.51 836.21

Dolly Bloom's sister

Ray 7887.20 390.96

Also dam of two A. R. sons.

Select individuals first, then examine pedigrees. — There is danger
of over-emphasizing the importance of pedigrees when breeding any
kind of live stock, and this is especially true if records of tests are
included in the pedigrees. Some breeders have selected and mated
their animals solely upon the basis of records, without any considera-
tion of individuality. Animal breeding is not successfully supervised
when the owner decides upon matings from pedigrees spread out be-
fore him in his office or by the parlor lamp. If this is done, and individ-
uality is neglected, defects of conformation may gain a foothold in his

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 205

herd and eventually defeat his plans. For instance, two animals may-
be selected for mating because of the excellence of their breeding; in
other words, the mating looks good on paper; but weakness of constitu-
tion may be common to both of them, and if so, it is probable that
their offspring will exhibit this defect in greater degree, so as to prevent
the fulfillment of the offspring's inherited tendency to high production.
Enough attempts at selecting and mating animals purely on the
basis of records have met with failure to show that such procedure is
very liable to wreck the herd. The breeder must refuse to be carried
away by performance to the extent of buying merely a pedigree.
Choose several good individuals, and then let the pedigrees be the
basis for the final choice. A meritorious individual should accompany
the meritorious pedigree.

Advantages of dairy farming:

1. The dairy cow is well adapted to diversified and intensive
farming where the farmer strives to produce the greatest possible in-
come from a small acreage. Striking examples of this fact are found
in Holland, Denmark, and the island of Jersey.

2. If the manure is properly conserved and used, dairy farming
increases soil fertility. A ton of butter removes only 64 cents' worth
of plant food from the farm, while a ton of corn removes $6.56 worth
of plant food. By feeding the crops and purchased supplementary
feeds to dairy cows, the land may be made more productive.

3. The dairy cow is a continuous source of revenue. The cream
or milk checks come in at frequent and regular intervals.

4. Skim milk is a most excellent feed for hogs and poultry.

5. Good grade and purebred dairy cows meet with ready sale.
It is also true that the dairy cow yields about six times as much

edible solids in her milk for every 100 pounds of digestible nutrients
consumed as the beef steer or mutton sheep in its carcass. On this
basis of comparison the dairy cow is shown to be a more economical
producer of human food than is the steer, sheep, or pig.

CHAPTER XIV
DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE

Dual-purpose cattle are all-purpose or general-purpose cattle.
They occupy a position midway between the beef and the dairy types,
the aim being to combine the good points of both beef and dairy cattle
as nearly as possible. The dual-purpose cow, however, does not give
as much milk as the dairy cow, nor does she make as much beef as the
beef cow. At present the demand for dual-purpose cattle is compara-
tively limited, although it has been predicted that many farms will
eventually adopt the dual-purpose type as the one most profitable.
It is also believed that those who maintain beef breeding herds will in
the future pay more attention to the milking qualities of their cows.

Perhaps no subject relating to cattle has aroused so much discus-
sion as has the type, economic importance, and probable future of the
dual-purpose cow. It has been argued that the day of general-purpose
animals is past. It is said that this is a day of specialization in all
things, and that better results and more profit are obtained from
animals which do one thing and do it well, than are obtained from
animals which do two or three things in a mediocre way. While it is
true that the tendency in the live-stock world is more and more toward
highly specialized types of animals, it is also true that there are good
arguments in favor of a dual-purpose type of cattle. Of these argu-
ments, the best one is that there is need of a farmer's cow; that is, a
cow for the farmer who is neither a beef producer nor a dairyman, but
who wants to produce enough meat and milk for his own use. Such
a man wants a cow that gives a good flow of milk, and yet one that
has a strong enough beef tendency to produce a calf that will feed out
well and make a good carcass; in other words, this man wants a dual-
purpose cow. There can be no doubting this argument and it was this
demand which made the old-time Shorthorn the popular cow with
farmers 50 or 60 years ago.

Another argument frequently advanced in behalf of dual-purpose
cattle is that beef production on high-priced land must, in the future,
come from a dual-purpose type of cattle. On western ranches where
land is cheap, a calf is all the return a cow need give in order to make
her profitable, but the corn-belt farmer on $100 and $200 land cannot
conduct a business on the same basis as the western ranchman. It is
argued that a farmer on high-priced land cannot afford to keep a cow
that produces calves suitable for feeding into beef unless she pays for

206

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 207

her board, in part at least, with a fair amount of butter-fat. It is
argued that he can no more afford this than he can afford to keep
mutton sheep which produce lambs, but no wool. The advocates of
the dual-purpose cow claim that she will be the salvation of future beef
production. However this may be, changes will come gradually and
it seems probable that the beef-type animal is destined to continue
popular for some years to come.

The methods of management where dual-purpose herds are kept
vary considerably. Sometimes the production of beef is given most
attention and the milking qualities of the cows are esteemed only as
a source of feed for the calves. At the other extreme are herds managed

Fig. 69. — The dual-purpose type. Milking Shorthorn cow, Pansy 2d, first
prize winner at Carlisle, England. Imported and owned by James J. Hill, St. Paul,
Minn.

as dairy herds, the beefiness of the cows making possible a good income
from choice veal calves reared on skim milk and supplemental feeds.
Neither of these plans represents true dual-purpose management.
The dual-purpose cow is at her best when the plan calls for the sale
of milk or butter-fat and the rearing of calves to be fed and marketed
as fat steers and heifers, or sold into other hands for feeding. All of
the cows may be milked, the butter-fat sold, and the skim milk fed to
the calves; or half of the cows may be milked and the rest allowed to
raise the calves.

208 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

It is considerable trouble to rear calves on skim milk, but it is
being done with good results on many farms. The skim milk should
be supplemented by oats, bran, corn meal, hay, and good pasture until
weaning time, and the calf should be wintered on grain, silage, and hay.
When weaned and placed on regular rations, skim-milk calves usually
advance rapidly and often overtake calves reared on whole milk to
such an extent that they cannot be distinguished from the latter.

Dual-purpose type. — Descriptions of the beef and dairy types
having been given in detail, dual-purpose type may be described in
few words by comparisons. The true dual-purpose type of animal is
distinguished from the beef animal by certain well-marked differences
in form and appearance. The dual-purpose animal is not so wide as
the beef animal, nor so smooth, and the fleshing is not so thick. The
neck is longer, the withers are not so wide and rounding, the middle is
less blocky and compact, and the legs are longer. The udder receives
considerable attention and should be large, of good texture, and of
good shape. The dual-purpose cow should bear indications of credit-
able performance at the pail.

Compared with the dairy type, the dual-purpose animal shows
more squareness and fullness of forequarters, more width and compact-
ness of body, more fleshing and smoothness. The spring of rib is more
pronounced, the back is wider, the withers are thicker, the shoulder is
heavier fleshed and smoother, and the thigh and twist are much more
heavily fleshed. Dual-purpose cows that give a generous milk flow
will carry less flesh during the milking period, but when dry they take
on flesh readily. Their calves have a reasonably good fleshing when
fed for market, especially if sired by a beef-type bull.

When dual-purpose cattle are brought into the ring at fairs and
expositions, it is readily observable that marked variations in type
exist, ranging from near the dairy type to the lower limits of beef type.
What is regarded as a typical dual-purpose animal by one man will
not always suit another, but will be criticised as leaning too much
toward the beef type or the dairy type. Some men accept a beef cow
with a larger udder than usual as a typical dual-purpose animal; others
have in mind a dairy cow showing more beefiness than common. In
the show rings of this country much dissatisfaction has arisen over the
judging of dual-purpose cattle; some judges have apparently awarded
the prizes upon the beef qualities of the animals shown, while other
judges have leaned almost as much the other way. A judge at one show
will select certain animals as prize winners, and at another show, with
the same cattle on exhibition, an almost complete reversal will be made
in the awards — hence the dissatisfaction. As time goes on, breeders
are getting closer together in their ideals of a dual-purpose animal,

Types and Maricet Classes of Live Stock 209

although there can never be the uniformity of ideals which prevails
among breeders of either beef or dairy cattle. This is true because
beef and dairy types represent extremes, while the dual-purpose type
is an avOrage of these two, or represents the middle ground.

Profits from dual-purpose cattle.^In an investigation into the
methods and cost of growing beef cattle in the corn-belt states in 1914
and 1915, the U. S. Department of Agriculture obtained 596 records
from farms in Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, South
Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas. ^ Farms where cows were kept for
distinctly dairy purposes or where the herds were maintained only for
the production and sale of purebred animals for breeding purposes
were omitted. Records were procured on 14,634 cows and 621 bulls,

Fig. 70.— The dual-purpose type. Red Polled bull, Teddy's Best, 32 times a
champion and a very noted sire. Owned by Jean Du Luth Farms, Duluth, Minn.

and on 12,591 calves produced from them, of which 2,023 were fattened
for baby beef. Six distinct practices in beef production were noted,
as follows:

Beef. — Farms where all the cows are kept strictly for beef (not
including farms producing baby beef).

Baby beef. — Farms maintaining breeding herds for the production
of high-grade calves which are fattened on the same farm and sold at
from 12 to 18 months of age as baby beef.

Dual-purpose. — Farms on which all of the cows are milked, and
either cream or butter-fat sold, the calves being weaned at birth and
raised on skim milk.

1 Cotton, Cooper, Ward, and Ray: Methods and Cost of Growing Beef Cattle
in the Corn Belt States, U. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. 111.

210

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Mixed. — Farms on which the best cows are milked, their calves
being weaned at birth and fed skim milk. Calves from the other cows
are allowed to run with their dams as in the beef group.

Partially milked.— Farms on which the calves are not wea^.ed, but
on which a part of the milk is drawn from the cow, the calf taking the
remainder.

Double nursing. — Farms where some of the cows are milked and
their calves given to other cows, the latter raising two calves each.

The cost of calves at weaning time, the cost of raising yearlings,
and the profit or loss on the yearlings was determined for each of the
six groups. The accompanying table, showing the various factors that
make up the cost of producing a yearling and summarizing the results
of the investigation, indicates the economy of dual-purpose herds as
beef producers. However, as this table is studied, it is well for the
reader to keep in mind the fact that no profits were allowed for the
dairying practiced by the owners of the dual-purpose, mixed, partially-

Calves from dual-purpose and beef herds compared in eosls and profits

Item

Beef

Dual-
purpose

Mixed

Partially
milked

Double
nursing

Number of farms

230
31.50
63.83

120.81

35.12
4.79
30.33

42.27

84.9
20.9

35.47
2.26
.01
.00

34.56
69.50
158.80

36.77

5.39

31.38

53.26

90.7
25.3

34.50
2.29
.00
.00

110
12.75
60.01
84.02

55.14
49.07
6.07
37.51

83.9
10.7

7.34
4.02
9.35
2.56

102
23.47
65.02

123.33

43.95
24.72
19.23
46.79

87.5
18.5

22.29
2.91
4.48
1.11

14.29
60.04
79.45

42.75
21.43
21.32
34.14

90.1
12.6

23.71
3.35
.02
.00

17.32

Average value of bulls. .

^6 03

Cost of maintaining the breeding herd:

Gross cost of maintaining a cow

Credits for milk and manure

46.50
33 26

13.24

40.53

Calf crop:

Percentage of cows raising calves to wean-

Number of calves per bull

15 0

Cost of raising a calf to weaning time:

Bull charce

3 02

Feed.... ^........ ...... :::::::;:::

Labor

.26

Total cost at weaning time (6 to 8

37.74

36.79

23.27

30.79

27.08

Cost of raising a yearling:

190
24.43
38.20
12.32
4.62
55.14
1.60
53.54
13
475-500

53.16
37.70

30.20
37.01
35.02

6.02
78.05

7.53
70.52
15
834

70.52
71.30

10.57

23.64
9.93
4.92

38.49
1.89

36.60

13
350-400

36.80
31.17

18.46
30.61
12.01

4.72
47.34

1.48
45.86
13

45.97
33.85

11.16
26.39
12.21

4.66
43.26

1.54
41.72
13

(')

41.06
35.51

Average number of calves per farm

14.23
17.82

10.24

' Other charges

3 86

31.92

Credits for manure and pork

1.67

Net cost

30 25

Average weight, pounds

(3)

Net cost, May 1, revised due to some calves

30.25

Inventorial or farm value. May 1

33.73

Loss . .

15.46

5.63

12.12

5.65

Gain

.78

3.48

» Includes labor, equipment, interest, risk, taxes, insurance, and veterinary expense.
" Not given, but intermediate between beef and dual-purpose groups.
» Not given, but nearly as much as in the beef group.

Figures in bold type call attention to the fact that the baby beeves were carried along to an age
sufficient to finish tbem for market; these figures cover a longer period than in the case of the other calves.

Types and Market Classes op Live Stock 211

milked, and double-nursing herds; instead, the returns, including
profits, from the sale of milk have been used to lower the cost of the
calf. Results based on such a method of cost accounting are some-
what misleading. Dairying was conducted at cost, the profits being
credited to beef production.

The greatest item of expense in raising a calf to weaning time,
except in the dual-purpose group, was the cow charge, or net cost of
keeping a cow a year. The net cost of maintaining a cow varied
greatly, depending largely upon the sale of milk products from cows
that were milked. It was therefore lowest in the dual-purpose group.

The cost of the calf at weaning time was lowest in the double-
nursing group. While the cow charge was lowest in the dual-purpose
group, the addition of the cost of feed and labor for the skim-milk
calves made the cost of the calf somewhat greater than in the double-
nursing group.

The cost of the calf at one year was lowest in the double-nursing
group.

The calves in the dual-purpose group, although poorest in merit
and value, ranked third in profit.

The calves in the double-nursing group were relatively of good
quality and showed the greatest profit.

The data obtained indicate that the keeping of cattle for beef
purposes alone is adapted to the more extensive types of farming,
while the keeping of cattle primarily for beef purposes, but where an
income is also obtained from milk products, is better adapted to the
more intensive types of farming.

The averages would seem to indicate that profits from raising
calves on corn-belt farms are very small. However, these facts must
be taken into consideration:

1. Good returns were obtained for a large quantity of roughage
which, had it not been utilized by live stock, would have been waste.

2. A home market was provided for saleable crops.

3. On many farms a large acreage suitable to pasture only was
utilized.

4. Profitable employment was provided for a season of the year
when labor otherwise might have been idle.

5. A return was obtained for capital invested in equipment which,
in many instances, had it not been utilized by live stock, would have
returned nothing.

6. When the farmer merely breaks even he has at least made 6
per cent on the money invested in the cattle business.

PART II-SHEEP

INTRODUCTION

The United States ranks as one of the principal mutton-producing
and wool-growing countries of the world. The sheep industry in
America dates back to early times. It has experienced more ups and
downs, due to changing conditions and varying prices than has the
cattle industry or the hog industry. At the present time the sheep
business is in a transitional stage. The number and size of flocks in
most of the western range states continue to decline. In the farming
states increased interest in sheep and increased production are now
noticeable. Lamb and wool production is a profitable business at the
present time and promises to continue so, not only under range condi-
tions but also in intensive farming.

Feed and labor requirements. — F. R. Marshall, formerly in charge
of sheep investigations, U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry, has pointed
out that sheep are markedly different from other farm animals in their
requirements for feed and labor: ^

Lamb and wool production require a smaller use of grain feeds
than is required with other kinds of live-stock farming. A majority
of lambs are marketed at weaning time and without having had any
feed other than the milk of their dams and a slight amount of grazing.
The lamb carcass requires less fat to render it suitable for the table
than is necessary in any other class of meat. This fact adapts sheep
raising to sections that are not adapted to the production of grains
but can furnish good pasturage and forage crops. Lambs born late
in the season, lambs raised by ewes which are not good milkers, and
lambs raised under conditions which do not produce a good milk flow
in the ewes go into the hands of feeders and consume considerable
grain, but their finish is largely produced from hay and other roughages
of comparatively lower value. Breeding ewes require little grain, and
good fleeces are produced without the use of concentrated feeds.

Sheep have been advocated on the ground that no labor or atten-
tion is needed. It has been said that they are farm scavengers, that
they will clear the farm of weeds. It is true that sheep will eat most
weeds, and that farms which have a flock of sheep usually give evidence
of that fact in cleaner fence rows and corners and a tidier appearance
generally. It is also true that sheep raising requires comparatively

1 Sheep and Intensive Farming, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1917, pp. 311-320.
213

214 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

little labor. The labor cost per dollar's worth of wool or lambs is
lower than in any other farm-animal product. It should be emphat-
ically stated, however, that sheep will not do well unless they are
given constant attention and the care necessary to maintain thrift, yet
the amount of work required is by no means heavy except at lambing
and shearing time. One competent man can care for from 300 to 500
ewes during winter.

Sheep raising, properly managed, is profitable on the corn-belt
farm, while the New England states, and large areas of cut-over timber
lands in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota are suitable for sheep as
soon as provision is made for the production of winter feed. Many
millions of acres in this country not now in farms and which are largely
unfit for the plow and not suitable for grazing by other animals, will
eventually return a revenue in lambs and wool. The sheep's ability to
prosper on grass and roughage, with little grain, gives it first call under
these conditions.

The advantages of sheep, as compared to other live stock on the
farm, have been most ably presented by the late John A. Craig. ^ He
calls attention to the following:

1. Compared with cattle, sheep produce more liberally in propor-
tion to what they consume. They consume more feed in proportion
to their weight, and a larger proportion of what is eaten goes into in-
crease. However, sheep are not so well fitted as cattle to utilize large
quantities of coarse roughage.

2. The form in which sheep manure is dropped and the way it
is tramped into the soil insure a smaller waste than is possible under
any other system of stock farming. The sheep's habit of lying upon
the highest spot of the field or pasture leaves the larger part of the
droppings at the place where they are most needed.

3. Sheep farming utilizes what would be otherwise waste4and.^

4. They convert into mutton and wool much material that can-
not be utilized by other animals. This is particularly true of grain lost
in stubble. Volunteer growth or aftermath too scanty for other stock
is just suited to the grazing habits of sheep.

5. Sheep are the best weed destroyers. Of the numerous plants
regarded as weeds, cattle and horses eat about 50 per cent, while sheep
eat over 90 per cent of them.

6. The income from wool and that from the lambs and mutton
come in different parts of the year, and it seldom happens that both
products sell at bottom prices the same year.

7. The wool clip is easily stored with practically no waste or
deterioration if it is desirable to hold for a higher price.

^ Sheep Farming in North America, pp. 3-8.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 215

8. The returns come quickly. Lambs may be marketed eight
months after the ewes are bred. 1 0-lf *

9. The ewe's fleece usually pays for her keep. This puts the fat
lamb on the market at low cost of production.

10. With good management, the increase in the flock may be
safely counted at one hundred per cent.

Fine, medium, and long-wool classes of sheep. — Sheep breeders
in the various countries have developed two distinct kinds of sheep —
mutton sheep and wool sheep, the latter being commonly called fine-
wool sheep. Mutton sheep naturally divide into two classes known
as (1) long- or coarse- wool sheep, and (2) medium- or middle- wool
sheep.

Fine- wool sheep bear wool that is IJ/^ to 4 inches long after twelve
months' growth, medium-wool fleeces vary in length of fiber from 2 to
5 inches, and the long-wool fiber measures 5 to 12 inches. The fiber
of the fine- wool fleece is very fine in diameter and has a large number
of waves or crimps to the inch, usually from 16 to 22. The long-wool
fiber is coarse and lashy, being rather straight and hairy in appearance.
The fiber of the medium-wool fleece occupies a position between the
fine- and long-wool fibers, but with fewer crimps per inch than the
fiber of fine- wool sheep.

The three classes are separated by other marked differences besides
length and fineness of wool. Fine- wool sheep are usually of small or
medium size, and have a rather narrow form, long neck, uneven top
line, white face, more or less wrinkled skin, a compact fleece often dark
on the exterior, poor mutton qualities, and active dispositions. Med-
ium-wool sheep are medium to large in size, have a wide, compact,
blocky, meat-producing form, straight top line, usually have brown
faces, a smooth skin, a compact fleece that is light colored on the
exterior, thick flesh, excellent mutton qualities, and active dispositions.
Long-wool sheep are large, with blocky bodies, straight lines, rather
upstanding, white face, smooth skin, shaggy light-colored fleeces hang-
ing in long locks or curls, thick but somewhat coarse flesh, lay on much
fat, and are more sluggish and indolent in their habits.

Types, classes, and breeds of sheep. — Although variations in
fleece, size, form, and other points permit the division of all sheep into
three groups, there are at basis only two types of sheep — mutton type,
and fine-wool type. The former includes both the long- and medium-
wool groups. Following is the classification of the breeds according
to type, together with the number of registered purebreds of each breed
in the United States on January 1, 1920, as reported by the 1920 census:

216

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Type

Class

fLong wool

UTTON Type

Medium wool

Fine-Wool Type . . \ Fine wool .

Breed Number

rCotswold 1 f 3 )

I Lincoln 13,903

I Leicester 767

[Romney Marsh ( ^ )

Shropshire 124,454

Hampshire Down 51 ,813

Oxford Down 16,601

Dorset Horn 8,458

Southdown. 8,451

Cheviot Wrlfk' 3,000

Suffolk 805

Tunis (3)

Corriedale ( » )

Rambouillet 106,849

Delaine Merino \ rg ^on

American Merino / oy,yju

All other = 68,483

Total 463,504

' Though not separately reported by the 1920 census, Cotswolds are the most numerous breed of
long-wool sheep in the United States.

2 Includes Cotswolds, Romney Marsh, Tunis, Corriedale, and other breeds.
' Not separately reported.

All of these breeds except the Merinos, the Corriedale, and the
Tunis, originated in Great Britain. The American Merino and Delaine
Merino were developed in the United States, the Rambouillet in France,
the Corriedale in New Zealand, and the Tunis in the province of Tunis
in northern Africa.

The mutton-type sheep is chiefly valued on account of its ability
to make good mutton economically, although the wool-producing
ability of the mutton-type sheep constitutes an important part of its
value to the farmer. Some of the best mutton-producing breeds have
failed to gain much popularity mainly because of their deficiency as
wool producers. It is not expected that one type of sheep will excel
in both mutton and wool production, any more than one type of cattle
is expected to excel in both beef and milk production, yet it is important
that the mutton-tj^De sheep grow a fleece of good density, length,
weight, and quality.

The fine-wool type is mainly a wool proposition. The American
Merino is of no more value for mutton than are dairy cattle for beef.
The Delaine Merino and Rambouillet have better mutton qualities,
though not equaling the mutton breeds in this respect, and this largely
explains their greater popularity as compared to the American Merino.

Combined wool-and-mutton type most popular. — The American
farmer, and likewise the rangeman, has declared that the most profit-
able sheep to grow in this country is, as a rule, a combined wool-and-
mutton type. Among the mutton breeds, and also among the fine-
wool breeds, those which yield the most and best of both mutton and

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 217

wool rank highest in popularity, while those breeds which are more
highly speciaHzed so as to be superior in one line of production and
very inferior in the other are not so popular. The popularity of a
breed depends also upon other factors such as constitutional vigor,
prolificacy, quietness of disposition, feeding qualities, grazing qualities,
ease of shearing, and early maturity, but first and fundamentally the
breed must produce both a good carcass and a good fleece if it is to be
popular with the farmer. Every breed has its place, however, and to
eliminate all except two or three breeds from American farms and
ranches would be poor policy. Some of the less popular breeds are
highly valued for producing rams to use in cross-breeding or grading-up
to produce the desired type. Other less popular breeds have special
features which give them the preference under certain special condi-
tions of climate, food supply, or method of management.

Definitions of Sheep Terms

Ram or buck. — Breeding male, any age.

Ewe. — The female, any age.

Lamb. — Any sheep under twelve months of age.

Wether. — Unsexed male, castrated when a young lamb. The best
age to castrate lambs is from 7 to 10 days old at the same time they are
docked.

Stag. — Unsexed male, castrated when mature or so far advanced
toward maturity that masculinity is plainly evident in head, neck, and
forequarters. This constitutes coarseness in a market animal.

Shearling. — A yearling. Two-tooth.~A yearling.

Two-shear. — A two-year-old. Four-tooth. — A two-year-old.

Show Yard Classification by Ages

The base date for classifying sheep by ages is September 1, and the
classes by ages are as follows:

Lamb class. — Animals are eligible to this class that were dropped
on or after September 1 of the preceding year.

Yearling class. — Dropped between (and including) September 1
of the second preceding year and August 31 of the preceding year.

Two years old and over (aged) class. — Dropped before September 1
of the second preceding year.

Champion. — Best animal any age.

Grand champion. — Best animal any age or breed.

For example, during the summer, fall, and winter show season of
1923, lambs are those animals dropped on or after September 1, 1922;
yearlings, between September 1, 1921, and August 31, 1922; and aged
animals two years old and over are those dropped prior to September
1, 1921.

CHAPTER XV
MUTTON TYPE

Although the breeds of sheep classed as mutton breeds may be
grouped into two distinct classes — long-wooled and middle-wooled —
and although the breeds within each class differ considerably in color
markings, fleece, and appearance, nevertheless all of them belong to
the mutton type. The following description applies particularly to
sheep or lambs fattened for the market.

The general appearance of the mutton-type sheep is almost
identical with the beef type of cattle. The mutton sheep should be
markedly short legged, broad, deep, and symmetrical. The top line
and underline should be straight and parallel, and the top should be
broad and level from end to end. The side lines should be straight,
and the middle wide and deep, yet neat and trim. Leggy and rangy
conformations are as objectionable in mutton sheep as in beef cattle.
There should be pronounced blockiness of conformation, combined with
neatness, fullness, and great smoothness of outline.

The head should be short and broad, the mouth of ample width,
the nostrils large, the face short, the eyes prominent and clear, the fore-
head broad, and the ears rather fine, short, neatly attached, and well
carried. The mutton type does not have horns as a rule, the Dorset
breed being the only exception. The head should have a clean-cut
appearance, indicative of quality and good breeding.

The neck should be short and plump, arched, trim at the throat,
and should join the shoulders full and smooth.

The shoulders should be compact, smooth, and nicely covered
over with flesh, making the forequarters very even and smooth. The
tops of the shoulders should come fairly well together and be rounded
over with flesh.

The breast ought to be prominent, broad, and filled out plump
with flesh. A wide breast is an evidence of strong constitution, and
plumpness of this part is one of the indications of proper finish and
fatness in the market sheep.

The chest should be very wide and deep, and have a full heart-
girth. There should be considerable distance between the front legs,
and also between the shoulders, and no depression of the side should
exist just back of the shoulder. The front flanks should carry down
deep and be well filled out.

218

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

219

The front legs should be short and straight, the shanks fine, and
the joints not too large. The knees show some tendency to come to-
gether, but this should not be marked. Attention should be given to
the pasterns which should carry up strong, and to the feet which should
be well developed, strong, and point directly forward.

The back furnishes one of the valuable cuts of the carcass. It
should be very wide, short, and straight, and should be thickly, firmly,
and evenly fleshed. When the hand is pressed down upon the back
it should exhibit no dip or weakness, but carry up level and strong.
In thin sheep the backbone is marked by a sharp ridge; in well-fattened
animals the back is smooth, the backbone being covered; while in very
fat animals the flesh may be thickened on either side of the middle line

2.4

Mouth

Nostril

Face

Eye

Forehead

Ear

Neck

Fig. 71.— Points of the sheep.

8. Shoulder

9. Breast

0. Fore leg

1. Fore flank

2. Top of shoulders

3. Back

Loin

Hip

Rump

Thigh

Hind leg

Pastern

14. Ribs

18 and 24. Leg of mutton

21. Dew claw

22. Foot

23. Dock

24. Twist

25. Hind flank
Belly

to such an extent that a groove is found down the middle of the back
instead of a ridge.

The ribs must have a strong arch to give width to the back, and
they should carry down deep to afford a large chest and good feeding
capacity. They should be placed close together along the side, the
last pair coming close to the hips. The covering of flesh on the ribs
should be thick, even, and firm. The side should be straight and even,
the belly should be straight and trim, and the hind flanks should be
well let down.

220 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

The loin yields the highest priced cut of the carcass. Like the
back, it should be very wide, straight, strong, and covered evenly with
thick, firm flesh. The backbone should be covered. Sheep may be
well covered over the back and poorly covered over the loin, therefore
careful handling all along the top is necessary in order to judge of the
fleshing.

The hips should not be prominent; they should be well laid in and
smoothly covered over with flesh.

The rump ought to be long, level, and wide, the top line carrying
out straight to the end of the body. One of the most common faults
of mutton sheep is a poorly shaped hindquarter, the rump frequently

Fig. 72.^Correct type in the fat wether. Grade Shropshire yearling wether,
grand champion at the 1913 International. Bred, fitted, and shown by J. and D. J.
Campbell, Woodville, Ont., Can. Neat in form, excellent in quality, and thickly
and firmly fleshed. His fatness, trim middle, and good quality insure a high dressing
percentage. This sheep belongs to the medium-wool class.

rounding off or drooping on top, and the sides cutting in to give a
peaked conformation. Squareness and fullness should characterize the
hindquarter. The covering of flesh should be abundant, yet smooth
and free from softness or bunches of gobby fat.

The thighs and twist, often called the "leg of mutton," should be
broad and plump as viewed from the rear, and the fleshing should carry
well down toward the hocks, as in beef cattle. The leg of mutton,
loin, and back constitute the valuable parts of the carcass, and they
must carry a high degree of fleshing. Wide variations in the develop-

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 221

ment of thigh and twist will be found, although a maximum develop-
ment is always demanded.

The hocks and hind legs should be strong and placed well apart.
When the hocks are close together, the thigh and twist usually lack a
full development. Crooked, weak hocks, either badly sickled or bowed,
are rather common and are very undesirable. The legs should be short
and straight, and show refinement of bone and joints. The hind
pasterns are also given attention in judging, for it is by no means un-
common to find them broken down and weak so as to impair the use-
fulness of the animal to a marked degree. They should carry up strong,
so as to bring the weight full on the toes.

The skin should be of a bright pink color and free from dark-
colored spots. The pink color is an indication of health and thrift,
while a white or bluish color shows an unthrifty condition. Some
breeds excel in this respect, and others characteristically show a rather
dark color due to the presence of pigment in the skin, in which case
the dark color is not necessarily an evidence of unthriftiness. The
dark-faced breeds often have a pigmented skin over the body, and with
this fault is often associated the fault of having black fibers in the fleece.

The quality of the mutton-type sheep is shown by the fineness of
the head and bone, fineness of the wool, and fineness and softness of
the hair on the face and legs. Quality is also shown by the smoothness
of the animal, both in frame and in fleshing. Coarse shoulders, an
angular build, and uneven flesh show lack of quality in a mutton sheep.
These are important features in either breeding or fat sheep. Quality
and good breeding are usually associated. Well-bred animals respond
best when fed and fattened for the market. The butcher likes quality
because it insures high quality of meat, and indicates little waste when
the sheep is killed and dressed. A sheep of good quality yields an
attractive carcass with smooth, even outlines.

The condition, or fatness, of a sheep may be determined by an
examination of six points, these being the spinal covering, the neck, the
breast, the fore flank, the dock, and the purse. ^ The first of these is
by far the most important, as it insures a good finish where it is most
valuable, namely in the high-priced cuts. The covering over the back
and loin should be such that the top is smooth and the backbone not
easily felt. The neck and breast of a well-finished sheep are plump,
the fore flank is well filled, the dock is found thick when grasped in
the fingers, and the purse is well filled with fat. Sheep that have been
over-fed often have bunches of soft fat at the end of the rump, and a
blubbery mass of fat at the fore flank. Sheep that have much loose

iThe purse is the scrotum of the wether and its content of fat, the same as the
cod of the steer.

222

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

fat at the fore flank are referred to as "slipped," it being commonly,
but erroneously, supposed that this condition is due to a very heavy
formation of fat along the back which becomes excessive and slips
down the ribs to the fore flank. The butcher sharply discriminates
against such an excessively fat condition, and the breeder has found
that slipped ewes are frequently barren. The market wants a thick,
firm covering. Softness indicates a "wasty" carcass. Lambs very
seldom become too fat, but yearlings and older sheep may be easily
fed until they become soft and overdone.

biu. 1 3. — Long-wool sheep. Lincoln ram, champion at the Iowa State Fair,
owned by A. W. Arnold, Galesville, Wis.

The style which some mutton sheep possess has an importance
similar to style in beef cattle. Furthermore, feeders testify that the
lamb or wether with stylish appearance and sprightly gait is usually
vigorous and a good feeder, style being to some extent an evidence of
constitutional vigor and thrift.

The fleece of the mutton-type sheep is of secondary importance,
yet constitutes an important item of value. The value of the fleece
depends upon its length, weight, quality, and uniformity. Weight of
fleece depends upon covering, density, length of staple, and the amount

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 223

of oil, or grease, called "yolk." The quality of fleece refers in a strict
sense only to fineness of fiber, but in a general way may also include
softness, soundness, luster, color, cleanness, purity, and freeness.

The covering of wool has reference to the completeness of covering
over all parts of the body. Some animals are very devoid of wool on
the belly and around the flanks. The breeds differ widely in the extent
to which the poll, ears, face, and legs are covered with wool, such
features forming a prominent part of some breed types. The tend-
ency in recent years, especially with some breeds, has been to secure
a more complete covering of wool, and thus produce a fleece of some-
what more weight. In all breeds, the under parts of the body, includ-
ing the scrotum of the ram, should be well wooled.

A dense fleece is one that is compact, or has a large number of
fibers growing on a square inch of skin. As much density is desired
as is possible to attain.

The length of fiber varies greatly among the mutton breeds, so
that it is diflficult to fix requirements for length of fleece for the mutton
type in general. However, a length of less than 3 inches for a year's
growth should subject a mutton-type animal to criticism, and if it is
less than ^Yi inches the wool sells at a lower price per pound on the
wool market, as it is then not adapted to the manufacture of worsted
cloth. As a rule, the longest fleeces are the coarsest and most lacking
in density; maximums of fineness, length, and density cannot be se-
cured in one fleece. The medium-wool breeds vary in length of staple
from 2 to 5 inches, while the long-wool breeds vary from 5 to 12
inches.

The yolk is a variable feature and a highly important one. It is
an oily substance secreted by glands in the skin, and passes out over
the fibers, giving them an oily coating that is valuable because it makes
the wool soft, protects and preserves the fibers, and, by causing the
fibers to lie even and regular, insures against matting, or "cotting," of
the fleece. A plentiful supply of yolk also tends to prevent the en-
trance of dust, chaff, and other foreign material into the fleece. Inci-
dentally, the yolk adds weight to the wool, although an excessive
amount of oil that merely adds weight to the fleece is not desirable.
The yolk should be in a fluid condition and should be uniformly dis-
tributed throughout the fleece from skin to tip of fiber. It should not
be so abundant as to collect in drops in the fieece, nor should any flakes
of dried yolk be in evidence. The yolk is frequently referred to as the
"grease" or "oil."

The fineness of fiber, from the earliest days of wool growing, has
been esteemed one of the most important requirements of wool. It
varies a great deal among the breeds of mutton sheep, and also among

224

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

the individuals within a breed. It is not expected that the mutton
tjrpe will produce a fiber with the high degree of fineness shown by the
Merinos, yet as much fineness is wanted as may be had without sacrifice
of weight or quantity of fleece. The crimp, or waved condition, of
wool furnishes an easy and accurate measure of fineness. All wool is
more or less crimped, and it is a fact that the finest wools are finely
crimped, that is, have a large number of crimps per inch, while the
coarsest wools are almost devoid of crimp, being lashy or broadly waved.
The crimp of the medium-wool fleece should be fine, pronounced, and
uniform from skin to tip of fiber. A single fleece yields several sorts

Fig. 74. — An International grand champion. Southdown wether bred, fed,
and exhibited by Robert McEwen, London, Ont., Can., grand champion at the 1922
International. This wether was remarkably good in firmness, evenness, and thick-
ness of flesh, being a great "handler." The photograph shows him to be very good
also in form and quality.

of wool, differing considerably in fineness. The finest wool grows on
the belly, shoulders, and back; that next in fineness, on the neck, breast,
and along the sides, while the coarsest wool is found on the thighs and
lower parts of the legs.

Wool that has softness, yet is firm and elastic, is far more valuable
than that which is dry, stiff, and harsh. On the other hand, mushy
wool having a soft, lifeless feel with no recoil when handled is very
often lacking in strength. Softness depends upon fineness of fiber and

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

225

amount of yolk. Ill health, exposure to rough weather, or lack of feed
results in loss of softness.

The soundness of wool refers to its freedom from weak spots.
Sickness, a sudden shock from a blizzard, lack of feed, a rapid change
from green to dry feed, or the reverse, and over-feeding often cause
the secretion of wool to be lessened for a time, thus producing tender
wool. Under the microscope the fibers are found to be narrow in those
parts produced under adverse conditions. Yarn made from such wool
will be lacking in strength. Sickness will often cause a distinct break
in the fiber throughout the fleece. (See Fig. 113.)

Wool is said to have luster when the fibers glisten as though thinly
varnished. This feature is especially prized in long-wooled sheep. A
luster wool takes a dye more readily than does a dull, or lusterless,

Fig. 75. — The mutton type. Note the wide breasts, short legs, short necks,
and nicely proportioned heads of these Southdown yearling ewes.

wool. Furthermore, the luster is plainly apparent in the finished cloth,
improving its appearance.

The color of the wool fiber should be a clear white. The occurrence
of brown or black fibers mixed in the fleece subjects the animal to
much criticism. Such wools cannot be used in the manufacture of
white goods or those of light shades. Unless the fiber has perfect
whiteness, a rich, brilliant dye cannot be secured by the manufacturer.

As regards cleanness, all sorts and conditions of fleeces are found,
ranging from those above criticism, to those that are a mass of burs,
sand, bits of straw, manure, and other rubbish — the whole fleece being
matted together and constituting a product of no commercial value.
Cleanness depends mostly upon the conditions under which the sheep

226

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

are kept, although some fleeces, on account of their oihness and density,
tend to keep free from foreign material, while others, on account of
their open, dry, fluffy character, offer no resistance to the entrance of
foreign matter.

By purity of fleece is meant its freedom from hair, called "kemp,"
and from dead fibers. With unfavorable conditions of keep and in-
ferior breeding there is often a reversion of the fleece to the covering
worn by early sheep; that is, hair begins to appear in place of wool.
Dead fibers and kemp do not absorb dyes, hence they injure the cloths
into which they find their way.

Fig. 76. — Determining the age of sheep from the teeth. Upper left, lamb; all
the teeth being temporary or milk teeth. Lower left, yearling; center pair of tem-
porary incisors replaced by larger permanent incisors. Upper right, two-year-old:
two pairs of permanent incisors. Lower right, four-year-old; four pairs of permanent
incisors. The lamb and yearling were photographed directly from in front. The
two-year-old and four-year-old were photographed to show the side of the mouth.
The photographs were not made to the same scale.

The fleece is said to have freeness when the locks and fibers are
not entangled, but part off readily from one another. When the fibers
are tangled, or matted together, the fleece is said to be "cotted."

A fleece with uniformity is one^ having sameness in character
throughout. Although there is a natural tendency for the wool on
different parts to vary in density, length, and fineness, the aim of the
breeder is to produce a fleece as nearly uniform throughout as possible.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 227

Age from the teeth. — The teeth are a fairly reliable indication of
the age of a sheep. The lamb has eight temporary incisors, or milk
teeth, in the lower jaw. There are no incisors in the upper jaw. At
14 months of age, the middle pair of milk teeth is supplanted by a pair
of larger, permanent incisors. At 2 years, the second pair of permanent
incisors appears; at 3 years, there are three pairs; and at 4 years, all
eight permanent incisors are in place. At five years, the teeth show
more width between, and at six, the corner teeth may be broken out
or the mouth may show signs of wear. Broken-mouthed sheep have
their usefulness much impaired, and should not be kept unless for
special reasons. (See Fig. 76.)

CHAPTER XVI
THE MUTTON CARCASS AND THE PELT

Mutton and lamb supply a wealthier class of consumers than beef,
pork, or veal. Lamb is ordinarily considered something of a delicacy,
while beef and pork are looked upon as staple articles of food. The
proper handling of mutton and lamb necessitates more careful and
quick slaughtering than is required in the case of beef or pork, and good
refrigeration facilities are also very essential. The public taste for
mutton and lamb was not created until the development of the re-
frigerator car nor until the erection of large-scale chill rooms was made
possible by artificial refrigeration. The year 1875 marked the advent
of these great aids to the packing business. Mutton differs from pork
and beef in that it is almost entirely a fresh meat product and does not
lend itself to salting, pickling, smoking, or drying as do pork and beef.
Hence mutton became a world commodity only after the development
of artificial refrigeration and refrigerated transportation. Still another
reason for the comparatively recent demand for mutton and lamb is
found in the fact that, up to 1870, the great majority of all sheep in
America were either purebred or grade Merinos. Good mutton be-
came plentiful only after the use of mutton rams became general on
farms and ranges. Lamb is usually superior to mature mutton in
flavor and general palatability, and the demand for lamb far exceeds
the demand for mutton; the wholesale trade consists of two or three
times as much lamb as mutton.

Slaughtering. — Sheep purchased by packers are driven to the
packing plant and allowed to rest a few hours, because animals killed
while in an excited condition or immediately after exercise do not bleed
out thoroughly. They are then driven into a small shackling pen, and
a shackle is placed around the hind leg. Two at a time, the sheep are
raised by a large revolving wheel to a point overhead where the shackle
automatically unhooks from the wheel and starts down a gently in-
clined rail. The animal moves to the "sticker,'" who quickly dispatches
the sheep by a single thrust of a double-edged knife. Briefly, the
operations consist of bleeding, and removal of pelt, feet, head, wind-
pipe, gullet, and all internal organs except the kidneys. After passing
through many hands, the carcass reaches the cooler, the dressing re-
quiring about half an hour.

Method of dressing. — Prior to the World War, a number of styles
of dressing sheep and lambs were used, but during the period of the

228

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

229

war, as a conservation measure, the U. S. Food Administration in-
structed all packers that sheep and lambs must be dressed by the plain
or round method, and without caul or pluck. This method of dressing,
which is the most economical, has been continued since the war to the
present time, and there is no indication that the other styles of dressing
will be practiced in the future. Plain or round-dressed sheep and
lambs have the pelt, head, and feet removed, and the fore legs are
folded at the knees. They are opened from the cod or bag to the
breast, and are split through the breastbone. A spread stick is placed
in the breast to hold it open and properly shape the carcass.

Formerly, in dressing the lowest grades of mutton and most lambs,
the caul (a fatty membrane investing the internal organs) was wrapped
about the legs and laid over the inside of the carcass, thus improving

Fig. 77. — Killing sheep at Chicago.

the appearance, preventing drying out, and, in some cases, furnishing
the fat necessary for proper cooking of the meat. The caul contains
considerable fat, and as it was usually discarded by the retailers of
mutton and lamb, the Food Administration rightly designated this
style of dressing as wasteful and caused it to be discontinued. Cauls
are now sent to the rendering tank for the extraction of fats and oils.
The pluck consists of the heart, lungs, liver, windpipe, a portion of the
diaphragm, or "skirt," and more or less adhering fat. Formerly, most
lambs were sold "pluck in," and sheep were usually sold "pluck out."
The pluck is now used principally in the manufacture of different kinds
of sausage.

The ofifal. — In the plain or round-dressed style of dressing, the
sheep loses the following parts in the order named: blood, pelt, feet,

230 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

head, and viscera. The pelt is the skin with the wool on, and it is a
valuable by-product.

The dressing percentage. — -From what has been said of slaughter-
ing and dressing, it is apparent that in order to dress a high percentage
of carcass, sheep must be (1) heavily fleshed, fatness being especially
important, though the amount of lean meat or muscle is also an im-
portant factor; (2) neat in form, or free from paunchiness; and (3)
light in pelt. The dressing percentage of sheep is not so important
as that of cattle, because the offal has a higher value than the offal
from cattle, on account of the high value of the pelt. If a sheep is
fat in condition, and neat and trim in form, it will tend to dress high,
but the fleece should be as heavy as is consistent with the production
of mutton of high quality. As a general rule, the choicest sheep and
lambs, from a carcass standpoint, do not wear heavy fleeces, although
a heavy fleece in itself is valuable, as will be shown later, and between
two sheep otherwise equal, the one with the heavier fleece will bring
the higher price on the market, even though its heavier pelt lessens its
dressing percentage to some extent. Sheep and lambs range in dressing
percentage from 40 to 65 per cent, but ordinarily dress from 45 to 55
per cent. Mutton carcasses usually weigh from 45 to 85 pounds, while
most lamb carcasses weigh from 35 to 50 pounds.

Qualifications of a good carcass. — The value of the carcass depends
chiefly upon (1) form, (2) covering, (3) quality, (4) weight, and (5)
maturity. Each of these factors is briefly discussed. '

1. .Form. — The essential points of desired shape are good width
in proportion to length, compactness, and smooth, even outlines.
This implies a thick loin; broad back; well-fleshed ribs; a full, thick
middle from shoulder to leg; plump, thick legs filled down well; and
smoothly covered shoulders. The most common faults of form are
long, slender legs, narrow backs, lack of development over ribs and
loin, and too much paunch, or belly. Long necks in ewes, and heavy
"bucky" necks, shoulders, and briskets in wethers are objectionable.

2. Covering.^ — It is essential that the carcass be smoothly and
evenly covered with fat, because of its influence on the appearance of
the dressed sheep, the quality of meat, and the shrinkage both in storage
and in cooking. Only in the most highly finished sheep are the legs
and shanks completely covered. The kidney fat should be well de-
veloped, but not excessive. A light kidney usually indicates lack of
finish, while a very heavy one is evidence of overdone condition or
uneven distribution of fat. The purse, udder, rump, flanks, and
brisket are other points at which the amount of fat is plainly apparent,

^For these discussions the writer is indebted to Illinois Bulletin 147, Market
Classes and Grades of Meat, by Louis D. Hall.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

231

but it should not be excessive on any of these parts. The lowest
grades have practically no outside fat, the amount of covering varying
more or less directly with the grades of mutton from common to choice.
The external and kidney fat should be firm, brittle, and white. As
with beef, the English consumer desires fatter mutton than would suit
the American trade.

3. Quality. — The term "quality" is here used somewhat broadly,
to include not only refinement of bone and fineness of texture of flesh,
but also color of lean and fat. The flesh should be firm and fine

Fig. 78. — Lamb carcasses. Beginning at the left, the grades represented are
choice, good, medium, and common.

grained, without the stringy, coarse texture of aged or inferior mutton.
The color of flesh varies from light pink in lambs to dull red in mature
mutton, and is less variable than in beef. The fat should be clear and
white. General quality is more important in mutton and lamb than
in other branches of the meat trade, on account of the custom of using
the carcasses for display purposes in retail markets.

4. Weight. — ^This is of more importance in grading mutton than
in grading beef, as it is often a strong indication as to whether a carcass
is a lamb, yearling, or mature sheep. The extreme ranges in weights

232 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

of carcasses are, lambs, 15 to 50 pounds; yearlings, 40 to 60 pounds;
wethers, 40 to 120 pounds; bucks, 45 to 200 pounds; ewes, 50 to 200
pounds. The most desired weights for a lamb carcass are 40 to 45
pounds; for mutton carcasses, 50 to 65-pound weights are most desired.
As with beef, heavy carcasses are demanded by hotels, restaurants, and
dining cars.

5. Maturity. — As has been mentioned, the demand for Iamb far
exceeds the demand for mutton, and the price of lamb is considerably
higher. The packers' interpretation of the word "lamb" is broader
than the ordinary understanding of the term, for both lambs and year-
lings yield a "lamb" carcass. Mutton carcasses are those of wethers
two years old or over, ewes, bucks, and stags. The maturity of the
carcass may be easily determined with a fair degree of accuracy from
the bones; in lambs the brisket is soft and red, and the ribs and shank

Fig. 79. — Break-joints and round-joint. In dressing mature sheep, the feet
are taken off at the ankle, leaving a round-joint on the end of the shank bone. Im-
mediately above the ankle in immature stock is a temporary joint, called the break-
joint, at which the feet are removed. Thus the head of the shank bone as well as
the foot is removed, leaving the saw-toothed break-joint on the end of the shank
bone. As the animal matures, the break-joint ossifies or knits. Pincers are some-
times used to crush off those which are partly ossified. This leaves an imperfect
break-joint. The shank bones of mature sheep will not break. At the left above
is a true break-joint, at the right a round-joint, and in the center a crushed break-
joint from a nearly mature sheep.

bones are colored by blood vessels; in mature sheep the bones are white
and hard. However, the hreak-joint furnishes the best means of dis-
tinguishing lambs and yearlings from mature sheep. The break-joint
or lamb-joint is a temporary cartilage which forms in the head of the
shank (shin bone) immediately above the ankle. In dressing lambs,
yearling wethers, and some yearling ewes, the foot can be broken off
at this cartilage, giving the end of the shank a saw-tooth shape. In
lambs the broken surface is smooth and moist, and in yearlings it is

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 233

more porous and dry. The shanks of mature sheep will not "break,"
because the cartilage is knit or ossified, and the foot is taken off at the
ankle instead, making a "round-joint." Shanks of female or ewe sheep
outside the lamb class are, as a rule, too mature to break. Conse-
quently, 80 to 90 per cent of "yearling lamb" carcasses are wethers,
the remainder being ewes and a small proportion of bucks and stags.
Yearlings substitute for genuine lamb, and we see that they may easily
do this because they possess the break-joint. (See Fig. 79.)

Goat carcasses. — Dressed goats are occasionally sold in connec-
tion with mutton and lambs, and are frequently substituted for them,
especially in the retail markets. They are similar to the lowest grades
of western sheep in form, quality, and finish. Long shanks, coarse,
dark flesh, long necks, and thin caul, however, render them quite easily
distinguished from sheep carcasses.

Carcass classes and grades. — Carcasses of sheep and lambs are
classified and graded as follows:

Class Grade

LAMB fLambs Prime, choice, good, medium, common

\Yearlings Prime, choice, good, medium, common

fWethers Prime, choice, good, medium, common

MUTTON -jEwes Choice, good, medium, common, canners

[Bucks Good, medium, common

The following wholesale prices ^ indicate the comparative values
of the above classes:

Class and grade Weight Price per pound

Special Selected Lambs 35 to 45 lbs .- 25 cents

Good Lambs 35 to 45 lbs 23 cents

Medium Lambs 35 to 45 lbs 22 cents

Common Lambs 25 lbs 18 centj

Yearling Lambs 40 to 45 lbs 16 cents

Wether Sheep 45 to 55 lbs 14 centj

Ewe Sheep 45 to 60 lbs 12 cents

Common Sheep 10 cents

Diflferences due to age and sex. — Carcasses of lambs and yearlings
differ from other carcasses in that they show the break-joint on th{
fore leg. Yearling carcasses differ from lamb carcasses in showing more
maturity and usually more weight. Lamb carcasses show lighter-
colored and finer-grained flesh, redder and softer bones, and a smoothei
and moister break-joint than yearlings. Carcasses of wethers, ewes
and bucks are similar in showing the round-joint on the fore leg, bul
wether carcasses may be distinguished by the cod fat, ewes by theii
udders, and bucks by their coarse, heavy necks and shoulders. Th(
wether carcass is more compact and thicker fleshed than the ewe car
cass. Ewes are more angular and have longer necks, smaller bone, and

^Wholesale price list of a leading Chicago packer, March, 1923.

234

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

less thickness of flesh. The buck carcass is coarse and dark colored in
its flesh, and has a thick, oily "fell" (the white membrane covering the
carcass) . Many stags and some bucks closely resemble wethers and are
commonly sold as such.

The wholesale cuts. — -The following diagram represents a side
view of a carcass of lamb or mutton, the dotted lines indicating the
division into wholesale cuts.

Fig. 80. — Wholesale cuts of mutton. 1, Chuck; 2, short rack; 3, breast; 4,
loin; 5, leg; 1 and 3, stew; 1, 2, and 3, rack; 4 and 5, saddle. The chuck may be divided
into neck, shoulder, and shanks.

The leg and loin together are called the saddle, and the combined
short rack, chuck, and breast are called the rack. The saddle and
rack are almost equal in weight. One rib is left on the loin. The
short rack includes from 9 to 11 pairs of ribs, depending on how the
carcass is divided between short rack and chuck. The chuck and
breast are usually sold together as one cut, called the "stew." In
average 45-pound carcasses of lamb and mutton, round dressed, and
pluck out, the weights of the various wholesale cuts, their wholesale
prices per pound, and total values are as given in the following table:

Weights, prices,

and values of wholesale cuts of mutton and lamb

Wholesale cuts

Weights

in
pounds

Weights

in
per cent

Price per pound

Total value of cut

Lamb

Mutton

Lamb

Mutton

Leg

13.7
9.6
6.4

15.3

30.5
21.3
14.2
34.0

$3.70
2.78
1.92
1.22

$2.33

1.82

Short rack (10 ribs)

Stew

1.38
.92

Saddle

23.3
21.7

51.8
48.2

27.6
14

17.8
10.6

6.48
3.14

4.15

Rack

2.30

Totals

45.0

100.0

21.4

14.3

9.62

6.45

High-priced and low-priced cuts. — The average price for the entire
lamb carcass is 21.4 cents per pound, while the mutton carcass averages
14.3 cents per pound. As in the beef carcass, the back, loin, and hind-
quarter yield high-priced cuts, while the forequarters and belly, con-

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 235

stituting the chuck and breast cuts are low in price because they lack
thickness, the quantity of flesh elements being relatively small. The
leg and loin of the lamb include 52 per cent of the carcass weight and
67 per cent of the total value; and the leg, loin, and short rack include
66 per cent of the weight and 87 per cent of the value.

Packing House By-Products from Sheep

A greater proportion of the sheep's value to the packer lies in its
by-products than is true of the steer or the hog. Edward N. Went-
worth of Armour's Livestock Bureau states^ that from November 1,
1918, to November 1, 1919, Armour and Company killed 2,326,277
sheep and lambs at its various plants in the United States, and that
the return from these averaged $12.02 per head. Of this amount, $8.34
was received for the carcass, and the remaining $3.68 represented the
value of the by-products. Of the latter amount, $2.95 was derived
from the pelt, and the remaining 73 cents was derived from all other
by-products. Expressed in percentages, the carcass represented 69.4
per cent of the total value, the pelt 24.5 per cent, and all other by-
products 6.1 per cent. It should be noted that nearly one-fourth of
the total value was represented by the pelt.

The value of the pelt. — Information has been given out from var-
ious sources that buyers of sheep for the packers prefer animals wearing
light pelts. It has been said that the slaughtering departments of
packing houses without exception dispose of sheep pelts at a fixed price
per pelt, consigning them to the wool-pullery department of their own
plant, or to some independent pullery. Buyers have been reported to
prefer light- wooled lots in order to obtain high dressing percentages;
it has been said that buyers have no particular interest in the welfare
of their own pulleries, or in other firms that buy the pelts for pulling.
Farmers have been advised that the highest market price is obtained
for sheep and lambs that are light in pelt and which consequently dress
high.

Can it be possible that the packer, with all his genius for the
utilization of by-products, is overlooking such an important item as
wool? If the shank bones of cattle may be profitably converted into
buttons and other articles, is it not inconsistent and unbusinesslike
to discount well-wooled lots of sheep? With wool worth 25 to 50 cents
per pound, is it not strange that the buyer should refuse to bid higher
on a well-wooled band of sheep than upon a lot with light fleeces, other
things being equal, especially as the fleece is obtained at the live-
weight price of the animal, namely 10 to 20 cents per pound? In hand-

1 Monthly Letter to Animal Husbandmen, The Source and Use of Packing
House By-Products, Armour and Company, Chicago, Aug. 1, 1920.

236 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

ling thousands of sheep, the wool reaches a considerable valuation. If
light pelts are wanted, why do shorn sheep sell at a discount?

Such questions as these led the writer to make an investigation
which included interviews with the principal buyers at Chicago, and
an inspection of a modern wool-pulling establishment owned by one
of the packing firms. It was found that a few buyers do give prefer-
ence to light-pelted lots, but that class of buyers is decidedly in the
minority. Swift, Armour, Wilson, and New York butchers have for
some time realized the added value of a heavy fleece, and this has
enabled them, in many instances, to outbid competing firms who con-
sider only the dressing percentage as an index of the value of sheep for
slaughter. The fact that New York butchers have been able to dispose
of pelts profitably very largely explains their survival in the face of
keen competition with packers.

The slaughtering departments of those packing houses equipped
with wool puUeries are credited each day with the value of the pelts
sent from the killing floor. The value per pelt varies, depending upon
(1) size of pelt, (2) weight of fleece, (3) quality of fleece, (4) cleanness
of fleece, (5) amount of grease, (6) color of wool, and (7) thickness of
skin. On this basis the value per pelt at the present time (March,
1923) ranges as low as 50 cents for lambs, and as high as $5 and over
for sheep pelts in full fleece, depending mostly upon age, breeding, and
season of the year. The average price of Chicago pelts is now about
$3.50 per pelt. The value of the pelt plays an important part in de-
termining the value of a sheep to the packer.

Packing houses and other wholesale butchers not equipped with
wool pulleries have two methods of disposing of the pelts; they may
either contract them in advance at a fixed price per pelt, or they may
allow them to accumulate and then solicit bids. In the latter case,
the bidders make an examination and the pelts sell on their merits.
In the former case, the packer or butcher has no incentive to pay a
premium for well-wooled sheep, but, on the contrary, it is to his advan-
tage to select those with light pelts. One prominent sheep buyer on
the Chicago market designated the contract plan as "slipshod," and
he stated that "eventually it must cease as competition becomes more
keen." He also said, "I instruct my men to consider wool as well as
meat, and when they make bids, you may be sure they have estimated
the value of the pelt as well as the carcass."

Pelts are most valuable in the spring just before shearing time.
Shorn sheep sell at a discount because the wool cannot be pulled at a
profit until it has a growth of three-quarters of an inch or more. When
the staple measures less than this, the pelts are tanned with the wool
on, and the price received is small compared with pelts which can be

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 237

pulled. The time of shearing marks the close of winter and the opening
of pasturage, hence shorn sheep are often gaunt, and this is another
reason for the lower price.

Pulled wool has the same uses as ordinary clipped wool. The
weight of wool from an average pelt is 4 to 5 pounds. This seems a
low figure, but the pelts are scrubbed before pulling, which takes out
nearly all the dirt and grease, and causes a decided loss in weight.

After the wool is pulled, the skins are prepared for the tannery.
Untanned sheep and lamb skins have a wide range of value, with an
average at the present time of $5.75 per dozen for lamb skins and $8.00
for sheep skins. The value depends upon the size, quality, and thick-
ness. The Merino yields a thin, porous skin which makes a leather
that scuffs easily and wears out very quickly. These bring the lowest
price. The best-wearing and highest-priced sheep leather is made from
skins of the long-wooled breeds. Sheep leather is used for making
cheap shoes, shoe linings, gloves, bags, book bindings, cheap saddles, suit
cases, sweat bands for hats, and many other articles. Chamois skins
are now made entirely of sheep skins. Goat skins are much in demand
for furniture leather and are more valuable than sheep skins. They
average a little larger in size than sheep skins and wear much better.

Other by-products of sheep. — The by-products from the slaughter
of sheep may be classed as edible and inedible. The edible by-products
include the tongue, which is used for cooking or sausage; the pluck,
which is usually ground up and used in different kinds of sausage; and
the paunch, about one-half of the paunches being used for tripe, made
by boiling and pickling the paunches. The bones, stomach, and any
trimmings are tanked, thus extracting fats and oils, and the residue is
treated to make glue. The final residue is made into tankage and
fertilizer. The blood, dried and ground, makes blood meal and
fertilizer. Hard bones yield bone charcoal for bleaching purposes,
black pigment for paint, shoeblacking, etc., bone dust for fertilizer,
vitrified bone for making glass, cement for billiard balls, and knife
handles, combs, buttons, and other articles. The intestines, windpipe,
and bladder are cleaned and made into sausage casings. Musical
strings, clock cord, and surgical ligature for sewing up wounds, as well
as casings for little sausages, are made exclusively from the intestines
of sheep. A class of oleo oil is made from the better grade of mutton
tallow, and enters into the composition of oleomargarine. Inedible
greases are used in soaps. Some valuable chemicals used in medicine
are obtained as by-products from sheep. Among these are thyroidin,
used as a cure for cretinism, and suprarenalin, a powerful astringent
used in cases of severe bleeding. More than 130,000 sheep are required
to make a pound of suprarenalin.

238 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Conclusions

The following conclusions may be drawn from a study of sheep
and lamb slaughter, carcasses, and by-products:

1. In order to dress a high percentage of carcass, sheep and
lambs must be heavily fleshed, free from paunchiness, and light in pelt.

2. The pelt, especially the wool, is a valuable by-product.

3. The total by-products of sheep are relatively more valuable
than those of cattle or hogs.

4. The dressing percentage of sheep, though an important factor
in determining the price of the live animal, is of less importance than
the dressing percentage of cattle.

5. The most profitable market lamb is fat, free from paunchiness,
and carries a fairly heavy fleece of good, clean wool.

6. The same blocky form desired in the live animal is also desired
in the carcass.

7. Mutton and lamb are sold as fresh meat products almost
exclusively.

8. Lamb is usually superior to mutton in color, grain, tenderness,
and flavor.

9. The most desired lamb carcasses fall within a narrow range of
weight, 40 to 45 pounds.

10. The packer classes all carcasses which show the break-joint
as "lamb" carcasses. Such carcasses are yielded by genuine lambs, by
most yearling wethers, and by some yearling ewes.

11. Genuine lamb carcasses bring a higher price than yearling
lamb carcasses, and the latter outsell mutton carcasses.

12. Wethers of all ages usually yield better carcasses than ewes
of the same age because of greater thickness of cuts and greater com-
pactness. Wethers are superior to bucks in quality, finish, and per-
centage of high-priced cuts. More of the buck's weight is in the neck,
shoulders, and brisket.

13. The back, loin, and hindquarter yield the high-priced cuts of
mutton and lamb — the short rack, loin, and leg.

CHAPTER XVII
AMERICAN SHEEP MARKETS

Sheep are marketed by the same methods and are shipped and
sold at the central markets in the same manner as cattle, as described
in Chapter V. A larger proportion of sheep pass through the central
markets and relatively smaller numbers are slaughtered at local points
and on farms and ranges than is true of cattle or hogs.

The 14 largest sheep markets and their receipts for three years
are as follows: ^

Markets 1922 1921 1920

1. Chicago 3,873,947 4,734,408 4,005,237

2. Omaha 2,532,787 2,752,962 2,890,748

3. Denver 1,866,784 1,467,911 2,078,688

4. Kansas City 1,574,217 1,780,298 1,687,017

5. Buffalo 1,190,564 1,380,052 1,051,869

6. Pittsburgh 1,204,217 1,196,975 922,157

7. St. Joseph 729,784 930,911 842,639

8. Ogden 704,419 575,462 602,718

9. St. Louis 627,880 635,827 604,769

10. St. Paul 498,891 632,865 728,957

11. Salt Lake City 459,453 368,261 481,300

12. Cleveland 360,432 369,755 419,744

13. Fort Worth 324,870 357,094 393,929

14. Baltimore 306,336 466,204 366,981

Totals 16,254,581 17,648,985 17,076,753

The U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics reports that
22,364,475 sheep and lambs were received in 1922 at 68 stock yards in
34 states. The 14 markets listed above received 73 per cent of this
total.

The Chicago sheep market is easily the largest in the world. The
total value of sheep and lambs received there during 1922 was
$37,346,422. Their average value per head was $9.65. Their average
live weight was 78 pounds. Their average price per cwt. was $12.35.

At Chicago during 1922, Swift and Company slaughtered 867,769
sheep. Armour and Company 714,152, Morris and Company 472,470,
and Wilson and Company 435,962. These four companies slaughtered
96 per cent of all sheep killed by Chicago packers in 1922.

The commission charge for selling straight carloads of sheep or
goats at Chicago is 20 cents per head, with a maximum of $14 on single-
deck cars and a maximum of $20 on double-deck cars. On less than
40 head of sheep or goats shipped in one car, the commission is 30

1 Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Book of Figures for 1922.
239

240 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

cents per head. The charge for yardage is 7 cents per head. Hay
costs from $1.50 to $2.00 per cwt., corn $1.25 per bushel, and oats
$1.00 per bushel.

Monthly weights of Chicago sheep. — The writer tabulated the
average monthly weights of sheep and lambs at Chicago for ten years,
1913 to 1922 inclusive, and then determined the monthly averages for
the entire ten-year period. The average weight for March at 84.1
pounds was highest, and the average for June at 73.3 pounds was
lowest. The October average at 73.6 pounds was nearly as low as
June. Spring lambs evidently account for the June low average, and
the fall run of western lambs accounts for the low average in October.
The between weights are higher. The general average for the ten
years was 77.9 pounds.

March weights were highest in 7 of the 10 years, April in 2, and
January in 1. Lowest monthly weights occured in October 4 times,
June 3 times, and in July, September, and November each 1 time.
Following are the ten-year averages i^

Monthly average weights of sheep and lambs at Chicago for ten years

Weight Weight

Month Pounds Month Pounds

January 81.5 July 73.6

February 83.0 August 76.9

March 84.1 September 74.1

Aoril 83.9 October 73.6

May 80.7 November 76.6

June (73.3) December 80.1

Shrinkage in shipping. — Henry and Morrison report the following
figures relative to shrinkage of sheep and lambs in transit: ^

Range lambs shipped 1,440 miles shrank from 4.6 to 8.7 per cent
and averaged 7.6 per cent. Native lambs shipped 135 to 149 miles
shrank 1.3 to 6.8 per cent. Lambs under 100 pounds in transit 4 days
shrink 7 to 8 pounds.

Yearling wethers weighing about 120 pounds and in transit 4 days
shrink about 10 pounds.

Aged wethers and ewes in transit 4 days shrink about 12 pounds.
Two-year-old wethers shipped 1,440 miles shrank 5.1 to 8.6 per cent
and averaged 6.8 per cent. These figures are based on "filled" weight
at the market.

The fill. — Upon their arrival in the pens at the market, sheep are
fed hay and grain and are watered. This constitutes the "fill," and
it is important because it has a quieting effect, improves the appear-
ance, and increases the weight of the animals.

1 Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures.
2Feeds and Feeding, 1915, p. 519.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 241

Sorting and selling. — Mixed loads of sheep and lambs containing
both killers and feeders may be sorted by the commission man prior
to selling them, or he may sell them to a packer buyer or order buyer
with the privilege of sorting or cutting out an agreed percentage or
number of them. The remaining animals may then be sold to a feeder
buyer. Mixed loads composed mostly of feeders may be sold to a
trader who buys them all. He then sorts them and sells the fat end
as killers and the thin end as feeders. Commission men also sell some
loads straight without sorting to packers, order buyers, and feeder
buyers, but a large proportion of receipts require preliminary sorting
or sale to traders in order to realize the best price for them.

Commission men and buyers must handle all sheep, except shorn
sheep, in order to determine their condition, smoothness, density of
wool, and market value. It is impossible to buy and sell sheep on the
basis of their general appearance as cattle and hogs are bought and
sold at the markets. Different market men use different methods of
handling. One man may feel of the loin, another the back and ribs,
and another the dock. Sometimes both back and dock are handled.
The most common practice is to grasp the back and ribs with thumb
and fingers spread out to full width. In sorting, the thin sheep or the
fat sheep are marked on the backs with chalk. Then the load is driven
in single file through a narrow chute at the end of which is a small
gate controlling the entrance to two pens. The sheep marked with
chalk are admitted to one pen and those unmarked pass into the other.

Seasonal variations in receipts and sale of sheep at Chicago. —
Fig. 81 shows the average monthly receipts of sheep and lambs at
Chicago for ten years. Largest receipts occur in the fall months,
September, October, and November, when heavy shipments arrive
from western ranges. The total number received during these three
months almost equals total receipts for the first half of the year. A
rapid rise begins in June and reaches a climax in October, followed by
a rapid decline until February, and a continued but slow decline from
February to May inclusive. In 9 of the 10 years, lowest monthly
receipts occurred from February to May inclusive. May is the month
of smallest average receipts. October brings the largest receipts.
This was true in 8 of the 10 years, with September highest in the other
two. October receipts average 2.4 times larger than May receipts.
Between May and October and October and May, monthly receipts
follow an even curve, upward in the first period and then downward.
Seasonal variations in receipts of sheep are much more marked than
those of cattle, and are somewhat greater than those of hogs.

As shown in the chart, 75 per cent of the sheep annually received
at Chicago are slaughtered there. The number shipped monthly to

242

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

other points for slaughter is quite variable, but for the year includes
only 6 per cent of total receipts. The number shipped for feeding
varies widely in different seasons and averages 18.6 per cent for the
year. ^ During the first six months of the year less than 7 per cent
of receipts are sold as feeders. During 8 of the 10 years included in
this study, smallest feeder shipments occurred in April and May. In
the other 2 years smallest shipments occurred in January and June
respectively. During 8 of the 10 years studied, largest feeder ship-
ments were made in October, and during the other 2 years largest ship-
ments were made in September. The ten-year averages show that
during the last six months of the year a little over 26 per cent of re-

IChica<jo 5lau()kter I l5liippeJ |or SUiKjLter ^^SkippeJlor feeJifi

Fig. 81. — Average monthly receipts and shipments of sheep and lambs at
Chicago in thousands for ten years, 1909-1913 and 1917-1921. The years 1914-1916
were omitted because of embargoes on shipments during much of that period. The
total length of each bar represents average monthly receipts. The divisions of the
bar represent the average number of Chicago sheep and lambs sold monthly for local
slaughter, shipment to other points for slaughter, and shipment to the country for
feeding (or breeding) purposes.

ceipts are sold for feeding purposes. In September about 34 per cent
and in October about 38 per cent of the month's receipts are sold for
feeding. Over 65 per cent of all the feeders sold during the year are
sold in September, October, and November, and over 75 per cent are
sold in these three months and August. It is fortunate that there is
a large demand for feeders during fall months when receipts are very

1 Shipments of sheep from the markets for breeding purposes are not counted
separately, but are included as feeders.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 243

large. This greatly aids in maintaining prices for killing sheep and
lambs at the time when prices are usually lowest. Without this large
feeder outlet, the price of sheep for slaughter would be much lower in
the fall.

The principal feeder sheep markets and the numbers of feeders
shipped during 1920, 1921, and 1922 are as follows: ^

Markets 1922 1921 1920

1. Denver 1,088,187 643,118 1,348,690

2. Omaha 757,254 669,585 1,123,637

3. Chicago 687,762 520,999 898,703

4. Kansas City 385,282 324,150 474,409

5. Ogden 280,476 196,438 132,829

6. Salt Lake City 276,048 142,348 210,743

7. St. Joseph 112,769 106,981 142,069

8. Fort Worth 136,142 79,556 71,339

9. St. Paul 66,419 78.423 113,258

10. Sioux City 44,546 63',654 89,881

11. St. Louis 50,427 32,569 59,664

Totals 3,885,312 2,857,821 4,665,222

It will be noted that the rank of these markets is not the same as
their rank in total receipts. Markets receiving the largest numbers
of western sheep rank highest as feeder sheep markets. These 11
markets handled 93 per cent of the total number of feeder sheep and
lambs handled by 68 markets in 1922.

* Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Book of Figures for 1922.

CHAPTER XVIII

Market Classes and Grades of Sheep

Three general classes of sheep are recognized at the large live-
stock markets. Each of these general classes is divided into two or
more classes, and most of the classes are in turn divided into grades.
The three general classes and their requirements are briefly as follows:

1. Mutton sheep — including all lambs, yearlings, wethers, ewes,
bucks, and stags sold for slaughter.

2. Feeder sheep — including all lambs, yearlings, wethers, and
ewes sold for feeding purposes.

3. Breeding sheep — including ewes and bucks sold for breeding
purposes.

The grades. ^ — The sheep within a class are graded according to
their relative value. The grades are (1) prime, or fancy selected, (2)
choice, (3) good, (4) medium, and (5) common. The term "fair"
means the same as "medium," and is frequently substituted for it.
"Inferior," "poor," and "culls" are terms sometimes substituted for
"common." In some classes there is no grade better than choice, and
in other classes there are no grades better than good. As the term
"prime" indicates a high degree of condition or finish, the best grade
of feeder lambs and breeding ewes is termed "fancy selected."

Native and western sheep. — Before describing the market classes
and grades, some of the general descriptive terms used in the sheep
market need explanation. As applied to market sheep, these general
terms have little direct bearing on the market classification, but they
serve to indicate, in a more or less general manner, where the sheep
were raised, the nature of their breeding, and how they were fed.

"Native sheep" are those produced in the small farm flocks of the
Central West, East, and South. "Western sheep" are those produced
in the large range flocks of the West. Western sheep are very largely
of Merino breeding, whereas natives have mostly a mutton ancestry.
Western sheep are usually white faced and more or less wrinkled,
particularly below the neck; native sheep are mostly brown faced and
are usually free from wrinkles. Range sheep are more uniform in
appearance than natives and are nearly always docked and castrated,
while many native sheep and lambs come to market undocked and
uncastrated. In the West, sheep are produced on pasture and hay

For definitions of market class and grade, see page 119.
244

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 245

almost exclusively. Many range-bred sheep are sold to the central
states for fattening on grain and roughage. At the markets and in
market reports, western sheep are frequently distinguished by the
name of the state in which they were produced, as "Colorados,"
"Montanas," "Mexicans," "Idahos," etc. The mutton and breeding
classes include both native and western sheep, but the feeder class,
as a rule, includes western sheep only. Many native lambs in feeder
condition are not desirable for feeding because they are undocked and
uncastrated. Furthermore, native sheep and lambs that reach the
market in low condition seldom sell as feeders because they are usually
infested with internal parasites, thus making it difficult or impossible
to fatten them.

The stomach worm of sheep, Haemonchus contortus, is one of the
most serious pests affecting live stock. Sheep of all ages are subject

Fig. 82. — Prime native lambs.

to it, but infested lambs show much more serious effects than do
mature animals. The lambs become infested from the older sheep
through the medium of the pasture. The symptoms are anemia, loss
of flesh, general weakness, dullness, thirst, loss of appetite, and diarrhea.
No treatment has been found that will rid a flock of this pest, although
dosing with a solution of copper sulphate, "Black Leaf 40," (a 40 per
cent solution of nicotine sulphate), or with gasoline is fairly satisfactory
and will hold stomach worms in check so that they will not seriously
injure the flock. The best means of combating the parasite is by
preventative measures. Rotation of pastures is imperative. Perma-
nent pastures for farm flocks are almost certain to cause trouble. Rape
should be sown as early in the season as possible. It is easily grown,
has a high value as feed for sheep and lambs, and helps prevent stomach
worms, especially when temporary fences are used and the flock is
changed to fresh ground frequently.

246

Types and Maricet Classes of Live Stock

The western sheep owner with great areas of pasturage is able to
keep his flocks on fresh ground, while on farms this is possible but,
unfortunately, is not often practiced. Hence western sheep have a
great advantage over native sheep for feeding purposes.

The term "fed" when prefixed to the name of a class indicates
that the sheep were fattened on grain rather than on grass alone.
Sheep that were sheared shortly before their arrival at market are
termed "shorn" as distinguished from "wooled" sheep.

Market Classes and Grades of Sheep

Following is the complete outline of the market classes and grades
of sheep and lambs:

Classes Grades

MUTTON SHEEP:

Light and handy 1

weight, 85 lbs. down
Medium weight, 85-95 lbs. [ Prime, choice, good, medium, common
Heavy weight, 95 lbs. up .

Spring lambs J

Light weight, 90 lbs. down ]

^^?bs'".''^'^.^.^.\.^.^.".^^^ k^^^^ ^^°^««' g°°d' "^^d^^"*' ^0"^"^°"

Heavy weight, 100 lbs. up J

Wethers Prime, choice, good, medium, common

Ewes Choice, good, medium, common

Bucks and stags Good, medium, common

Lambs

Yearlings.

FEEDER SHEEP:
Lambs

Yearlings .
Wethers.
Ewes. . . .

.Fancy selected, choice, good, medium,

common
.Choice, good, medium, common
. Choice, good, medium, common
. Choice, good, medium, common

BREEDING SHEEP:

T7i„,„„ /Yearlings and twos
£.wes ^Threes and over . .

Bucks

MISCELLANEOUS:
Hot-house lambs
Throw outs
Canners
Dead sheep
Goats

Fancy selected, choice, good, medium,
common

As shown above, each of the general classes includes two or more
classes or divisions according to age or sex, and some of these classes
are in turn divided according to weight or age. All of the more impor-
tant classes are divided into three or more grades according to the
comparative merits and faults (values) of the animals in the class.
The division into grades is more arbitrary than the division into classes.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

247

Mutton Sheep

Mutton sheep constitute a general class including all sheep and
lambs which are sold for immediate slaughter. Most of them are sold
to local packers, but some of the better grades are sold to order buyers
who ship them for slaughter to eastern cities. The classes of mutton
sheep are lambs, yearlings, wethers, ewes, and bucks and stags.

Lambs. — ^The lamb class, including wether, ewe, and buck lambs,
is the most numerous and most important class of mutton or killing
sheep. A recent survey of Chicago receipts by the U. S. Bureau of
Agricultural Economics ^ shows that 82 per cent of all receipts consist
of lambs, while 10 per cent are ewes, 2 per cent are yearlings, and 6

Fig. 83. — Prime western lambs.

per cent are wethers, bucks, and stags. Lambs are most profitable to
the producer because their cost of production is less and because their
market price is higher than that of any other class. Consumers prefer
lambs to older animals because of the better flavor and greater tender-
ness of the meat.

At 12 to 14 months of age, lambs become yearlings, ewes, or bucks.
Western lambs mature more slowly than natives because of their
Merino breeding and because they are not ordinarily as well fed.
The slower maturity of the western lamb is something of an advantage,
enabling it longer to enjoy the advantage in price which lambs have
over older animals. Western lambs may be purchased in the late fall

^As reported in the Breeder's Gazette, Nov. 9, 1922, p. 611.

248 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

for feeding during winter and spring, and upon their return to mar-
ket in May they will still class as lambs, while native lambs of the
same age and similarly managed would class as sheep.

In the late spring and early summer the market receives lambs
born the year previous, and also young lambs born within the year.
The latter are called "spring lambs" to distinguish them from the older
lambs. Therefore, at this season there are two classes of lambs, known
respectively as "lambs" and "spring lambs." The latter command
the higher prices. On the Chicago market this distinction is made
from about the first of April to the middle of June. After June 15,
the lambs of the previous year become yearlings, ewes, and bucks, and
the spring lambs are designated simply as "lambs."

Guy C. Smith of the Commercial Research Department of Swift
and Company states:^ "Lambs begin moving to market first from
California. This occurs in April and extends through June. Then
come Texas lambs running through May, June, and July. These are
followed by lambs from Kentucky and Tennessee which begin coming
in June and extend through August. These are followed by lambs
from Virginia and Maryland in July and August. Spring lambs from
the north central states are marketed chiefly from July to November
and from eastern Canada during September and October. The lambs
from the range states run from September to November while fed lambs
from the north central states are marketed from December through
to April."

To the foregoing it may be added that Colorado uses peas, corn,
and alfalfa extensively in lamb feeding, and that in Idaho, Montana,
and other western states, lambs are frequently kept over and finished
during fall and winter on hay, with or without the addition of barley.

The grades of killing lambs are prime, choice, good, medium, and
common. The grade of a lamb depends upon its form, quality, condi-
tion, and weight.

Prime lambs. — Only the best lambs, or those that are superior in
form, quality, condition, and weight, are graded as prime, and com-
paratively few lambs received at the markets can qualify as prime
lambs. They are used to supply the demands of the fancy city market,
hotel, club, and restaurant trade. (See Figs. 82 and 83.)

L Form. — The buyer demands the form that shows the most
development of loin, back, and leg of mutton, these being the regions
of high-priced cuts. The lamb should be broad, deep, short of leg,
and free from paunchiness. Fullness and smoothness of form are
important as indications of high condition, thickness and evenness in

1 Geographic Influences in Marketing Illustrated by the Meat Industry, Journal
of Geography, Oct., 1921, pp. 247, 248.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

249

fleshing, and a high dressing percentage. Undocked Iambs are dis-
criminated against because of greater waste in dressing and because a
long tail indicates that the producer was careless in his methods of
feeding and management.

2. Quality. — The indications of quality are a medium-sized,
clean-cut head, fine bone, and smooth form and fleshing. These insure
fineness in texture of flesh, increase the dressing percentage, and add
to the attractive appearance of the carcass; hence quality is an im-
portant factor in determining the grade and price of lambs.

3. Condition or finish. — Lambs fatten more slowly than mature
sheep and the lamb is seldom made too fat, while in the finishing of
older animals this is easily possible. A high degree of finish in the lamb
is desired because the fat lamb dresses a higher percentage of carcass
than the thin lamb; the carcass is more attractive in appearance; and

^?.sr

:• — f"""^^-""'"*

"^•^'^

/" ^^i75

Fig. 84. — Choice western lambs.

fat meat, especially meat interspersed with fat, called "marbling," is
more tender and juicy and of better flavor than lean meat. The
lamb's covering of flesh should be deep, even, smooth, and firm, yet
springy to the touch. High condition is indicated by a thick covering
over the loin, back, and ribs; by fullness of neck, breast, and flanks;
and by a thick dock and mellow purse.

4. Weight.— The most desirable lamb is the handy-weight lamb
weighing 80 pounds. Three divisions are made in the lamb class
according to weight— light and handy weight, medium weight, and
heavy weight. These are important because weight is a prominent
factor in determining the grade and price of lambs. W. C. Coffey,
formerly of the Illinois Experiment Station, states ^ that early spring

1111. Bui. 129, Market Classes and Grades of Sheep, p. 584. The writer is
indebted to this bulletin for many of the specifications included in this chapter rela-
tive to the market classes and grades.

250 Types and Marpcet Classes of Live Stock

lambs with quality and finish may easily command top prices when
they weigh little more than 60 pounds, and that during summer months
lambs weighing 65 to 70 pounds are in strong demand, but that there
never is a time when lambs weighing 80 pounds will not sell as prime
if they have fancy form and quality and prime condition. He also
states that the best native lambs weighing 100 pounds occasionally sell
as prime lambs, though such cases are exceptional, and he adds that
a slight departure from the most popular weight does not lessen the
price of the lamb as much as an equal departure from the most desirable
quality and condition.

Foreign material and moisture in the fleece add to the weight,
injure the appearance, and lessen the dressing percentage. Buyers
either refuse to bid on wet sheep or offer prices which make allowance
for the added weight. At most central markets the sheep and hog

Fig. 85.— Good lambs.

pens are under roof, but sheep may have wet fleeces upon their arrival
in the pens. Mud, sand, manure, and other foreign material in the
fleece also result in lower prices. It pays to market all sheep in clean
condition.

Choice lambs. — This grade includes most of the better lamb offer-
ings upon the Chicago market. Lambs cannot be very deficient in
form, quality, finish, or weight, and grade as choice. Deficiency in
quality or in weight frequently accounts for failure to grade as prime,
but lack of condition is the most common cause. (See Fig. 84.)

Good lambs. — Marked deficiency in form, quality, condition, or
weight, or a slight deficiency in each, puts the lamb into the good grade.
Lack of quality and lack of condition are the most frequent causes of
failure to grade higher than good. (See Fig. 85.)

Medium lambs. — Here the form is frequently faulty, and the con-
dition and quality fall far below the standard. Long, narrow, rough

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 251

Iambs much lacking in flesh grade here. They are often paunchy.
Western lambs which lack condition usually classify as feeders unless
they are very coarse, hence this grade is mostly filled by native lambs.

Common lambs. — Coarse, rough, thin lambs grade as common.
Many of them are of very light weights, ranging from 30 to 50 pounds.
However, coarse buck lambs and those which are staggy because of
late castration also grade as common, and these sometimes weigh up
to 100 pounds. Failure to castrate, failure to castrate at the right time,
and infestation by internal parasites frequently explain the common
lamb's coarseness and thin condition. Western shepherds do not
neglect to dock and castrate, and western lambs are free from internal
parasites. The majority of common lambs are natives.

Many uncastrated lambs still come to market and they are dis-
criminated against rather severely at times by buyers. Ram lambs

Fig. ^t).- Comiiiuii lambs.

are so restless that they do not acquire the finish of wether lambs.
This is especially true after they have reached the age of 3 or 4 months.
Tests have shown that wether lambs make 11 per cent more gains in
weight than do ram lambs under similar conditions, ' and the difference
in fatness is much more marked. Lambs should be docked and cas-
trated when from 7 to 10 days old.

Why some lambs sell at a loss. — An editorial in the National
Stockman and Farmer of August 5, 1922, entitled "A Lamb Market
Lesson," contained the following: "On an eastern market last week
a buyer had orders for three carloads of choice fat lambs and couldn't
find them. On the same day and market another buyer had orders for
feeder lambs and couldn't get them. Yet there was a big supply of

ij. B. Spencer: Sheep Husbandry in Canada, Dom. Can. Dept. Agr. Bui. 12,
p. 59.

252 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

lambs on the market that day, more than sellers could dispose of, and
prices broke badly. There is a reason for everything, and there are
reasons why a market may have too many lambs and too few at the
same time. The scarcity of good fat lambs this year is due in part to
the season. Most of the lambs from eastern territory come off grass,
and the grass has not made them so fat as usual this time. * * *
The scarcity of feeder lambs on that market was due entirely to fail-
ure to dock and castrate. Most of the lambs were in feeder flesh but
unfit to go back to the country because they had not been docked and
castrated. Hence they had to sell at meat prices, and a light, thin
Iamb is worth about as little for meat as anything that stands on four
legs. There is certainly one lesson for producers here, possibly two.
Will we learn either of them?"

Kk;. ^7. J'rimc western yearlings.

The market report in the Breeder's Gazette for September 28,
1922, contained the following: "The profitable native lamb is the
product of a well-nurtured ewe and a purebred sire. It should be
trimmed in western style, in order to command maximum results, which
are impossible with coarse ram lambs, which are plentiful at the
markets, and are severely penalized. A trimmed lamb that does not
fatten by weaning time may be held on feed, thus distributing the crop
over a longer period; otherwise it must go to the butcher in common
with a mass of mediocrity and trash that represents uneconomical if
not wasteful production. Even if it is necessary to market a thin
trimmed native lamb, it is eligible to the feeder outlet under new condi-
tions; whereas a buck lamb must be sold for what it will bring, which

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 253

is little, under normal supply conditions. There need be no discussion
of the advisability of trimming lambs; in fact, it would be as logical
to mature boar pigs as ram lambs."

Yearlings. — This class includes yearling wethers only. Yearling
ewes and bucks are excluded. As shown in the preceding chapter,
yearlings are used as a substitute for lambs in the meat trade. The
yearling's ability to substitute for lamb depends upon his weight, con-
dition, quality, and form, and the nearer he approaches the prime lamb
in these respects, the higher price he will bring. Most yearling wethers
will "break" at the break-joint (described in Chapter XVI) but
most yearling ewes will not. Because the yearling ewe cannot be

Fie.. 88. — Guud yearling:,.

relied upon to show the break-joint, the term "yearling" on the sheep
market means yearling wethers only. The supply is very limited.

Yearlings are designated according to weight as light weights,
medium weights, and heavy weights. Weight is important because the
yearling is valued in proportion to his resemblance to the prime lamb.
Light weights ranging from 80 to 90 pounds are preferred. Relatively
few yearlings weighing over 90 pounds grade higher than choice, and
few heavy-weight yearlings (100 pounds and up) grade higher than
good. However, high condition is of even greater importance than
weight. A thin yearling of the right weight is not a good lamb sub-
stitute. The higher grades of yearlings combine light weight and high
condition. The lower grades are deficient in both respects. The

254

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

grades of yearlings are prime, choice, good, medium, and common.
These closely resemble the similar grades of lambs which have been
described.

Wethers. — This class is composed of mature wethers. The supply
of these is very limited and is diminishing because their production is
not economical or profitable. Practically all of them are westerns.
Their carcasses supply hotel, club, restaurant, and other trade where
the heavier cuts may be used to advantage. Extremely fat, "gobby"
wethers and big, plain wethers are discriminated against. The grades
are prime, choice, good, medium, and common, chiefly according to
form, quality, and condition.

Ewes. — Old ewes discarded as breeders and surplus breeding ewes
chiefly compose this class and wide differences are noticeable in

Fig. 89. — Prime native wethers.

the age, condition, and weight of offerings. The supply of ewes for
killing purposes is much larger than that of wethers, and most mutton
carcasses are ewe carcasses. As a rule, ewes dress a lower percentage
and yield proportionately less lean meat than wethers, and hence bring
a lower price. The higher grades of ewes supply hotel and restaurant
trade, while the lower grades supply the demand for cheap mutton in
cities and elsewhere. The grades of ewes are choice, good, medium,
and common, according to form, quality, and condition. The higher
grades are relatively scarce. Advanced age and low condition feature
the common grade.

Bucks and stags. — The supply of these is limited and they are of
no special importance to the producer of mutton. The grades are
good, medium, and common.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

255

Feeder Sheep

The chief distinction between mutton sheep and feeder sheep is
the degree of condition. Other differences are noticeable, however,
for sheep and lambs are not in demand as feeders unless they are at
least reasonably good in form, quality, and constitution. After packers
have selected those animals which are in desirable condition for killing
purposes, there remains a large number which are more or less lacking
in finish. From among these, feeder buyers select those which are of
desirable form, quality, constitution, and weight for feeding purposes.
Frequently packer buyers compete with feeder buyers for such sheep,
and the high bidder gets them. If there are more of them than feeder

Fig. 90. -Common western wethers.

buyers can use, the packer must take a number of them, but if the
supply is rather limited the feeder buyer usually gets most of them.
In addition to the foregoing, the sheep market receives inferior animals
of all ages, sexes, and weights, which are too thin to be good killers and
which cannot be sold as feeders because they are coarse and rough, old,
unthrifty, lacking vitality, inferior in form, lame, uncastrated, un-
docked, burry, black, open fleeced, badly wrinkled or otherwise un-
desirable. These sell for slaughter and fill the lower grades in their
respective classes.

The supply of feeders and the demand for them is greatest during
September, October, and November, when large shipments are received
from the West. As previously explained, practically all sheep sold
from the markets as feeders are those grown on western ranges. During

256 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

the last few years, however, due to increased demand for feeders and
somewhat lessened receipts of westerns, some increase has been notice-
able in the number of native lambs accepted for feeding purposes.
The classes of feeder sheep are lambs, yearlings, wethers, and ewes.

Feeder Iambs. — This is the most important and by far the most
numerous class of feeder sheep. The grades are fancy selected, choice,
good, medium, and common.

Fancy selected feeder Iambs include a relatively small number of
high-class lambs that carry more condition and weight than the bulk
of feeder lambs and hence require only a short feeding period to finish
them into prime lambs. The range in weight is from 65 to 70 pounds.
They must show very good breeding, excellent form, high quality,
strong constitution, dense fleeces of clean wool, and marked uniformity
in type and size.

Fig. 91. — Fancy selected feeder lambs.

Choice feeder Iambs. — Most of the better lambs purchased for
feeding purposes are of the choice grade rather than fancy selected.
Under good management and with a longer feeding period they may be
finished into prime lambs. The points which determine the grade and
value of a feeder lamb are weight, breeding, form, quality, constitution,
condition, fleece, sex, and uniformity.

1. Weight is of great importance because of the packer's prefer-
ence for handy-weight lambs. In selecting feeder lambs it is essential
to select weights which will permit of taking on a finish without exceed-
ing an 80 to 85-pound limit when the animals are returned to the
market. Therefore the weight selected will depend somewhat on the
condition of the lambs. If they are lacking in flesh to a marked degree,
lighter weights must be selected than in the case of feeder lambs carry-

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

257

ing more flesh. A very popular weight for the bulk of feeder lambs
is around 55 pounds, though choice feeder lambs, which carry some-
what more flesh than the average, weigh from 55 to 65 pounds. As a
rule, the 55-pound lamb can be finished in the usual 90 to 120-day
feeding period at a weight of around 80 pounds. Western lambs
usually make average monthly gains on feed of from 7 to 10 pounds
per month, including considerable time required to get them safely on
full feed.

2. Breeding. — All western lambs carry considerable Merino
breeding, but the percentage varies greatly. Those strongest in
Merino breeding are very much wrinkled, narrow and leggy, very un-
even in their lines, and have white faces and legs. Lambs from western
flocks which have used mutton rams extensively are preferred. They
are free from wrinkles, more blocky and low-set in form, fairly straight

Fig. 92.— Good feeder lambs.

in their lines, and often show brown spots and more or less of a brown
coloring on the face and legs. Such lambs are usually thicker fleshed,
have greater capacity for feed, and finish more rapidly than those
which are especially strong in Merino breeding. Lambs of very in-
ferior type, coarse in head and bone, rough in form, or unthrifty and
weak in appearance are usually of inferior breeding from flocks where
grade or scrub sires are used, and are to be avoided for feeding purposes.
3. Form. — Making due allowance for lack of condition, the form
desired in the feeder lamb is similar to that desired in the prime lamb.
If the front legs "come out of the same hole," as the saying goes, and
the form is narrow and decidedly rangy and leggy, the lamb is a slow
finisher, though it may make good gains in growth. The wide, deep,
moderately compact, fairly low-set, straight-lined, full-middled lamb
not only makes the most satisfactory gains and finishes the quickest,
but it brings the highest market price when finished. Paunchy lambs

258

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

are discriminated against. Because of their Merino breeding, western
lambs are usually not as good in form as in quality, but the form here
described represents the desired standard.

4. Quality.— A high degree of quality is desired, as shown by
neatness of head, fineness of bone, and smoothness of form. These
features should not be so pronounced as to result in weakness of con-
stitution and lack of vigor, but they should be well marked. Coarse-
ness and roughness are decidedly objectionable.

5. Constitution and thrift.— Width and depth of middle, full
heart-girth, short neck and legs, and a fair degree of style and activity,
are indications of constitution, thrift, and vigor. Lame, inactive, and
weak lambs should be rejected.

6. Condition. — Lambs so thin as to be emaciated and weak are
discriminated against, as it is a question whether they will respond to

Fig. 93. — Common feeder lambs.

feeding, and there is danger of losing a considerable number of them
before they are finished. Feeder lambs should carry enough condition
to make them reasonably full in their outlines, thrifty, and healthy.

7. Fleece. — A fairly dense fleece of clean white wool affords pro-
tection during winter feeding and assists in selling at top prices to
packer buyers. It is true that the best carcass is seldom found under
the heaviest and densest fleece, but a good, clean fleece on the feeder
lamb is desirable for the reasons mentioned. Black lambs spoil the
appearance of the load, and burry fleeces and those in very dirty condi-
tion lessen the value of the finished lambs.

8. Sex. — Buck lambs are disqualified for feeding purposes for
reasons previously mentioned. Wether lambs are slightly preferred to
ewe lambs, but no sorting is done on this account, both wethers and
ewes being taken without making any distinction as to price.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 259

9. Uniformity is highly desirable because it gives a sameness in
size and type that is the best guarantee of uniformity in gains and finish,
and it adds greatly to the appearance of the load on the market.

Good feeder lambs are about average in their qualifications for
feeding purposes, yet capable of making satisfactory gains. Many of
them are deficient in form and quality. They average lighter in weight
and lower in condition than lambs of the choice grade, and require a
longer feeding period to finish them.

Medium feeder lambs are deficient in weight, breeding, form,
quality, constitution, and condition, and are less uniform than the
higher grades. Many of them are decidedly long, leggy, and angular
in form, and their wrinkled skins are evidence of much Merino breed-
ing.

Common feeder lambs are mostly very small, light-weight lambs
that are much lacking in thrift and vitality. They weigh from 25 to
45 pounds and require a long feeding period and careful management
to finish them. They have one advantage in that they may be re-
turned to market late in the season weighing 80 pounds or less, at which
time such weights enjoy a maximum premium in competition with the
heavy lambs which are then plentiful. Common feeder lambs also
include some lambs of heavier weights which are very coarse in quality
and rough in form. Uniformity is decidedly lacking.

Feeder yearlings. — This class is composed of yearling wethers, and,
as the mutton yearling should be able to substitute for lamb, quality
and weight are of great importance in grading feeder yearlings. They
are not a prominent feature in the feeder trade, as but few appear on
the market. The grades are choice, good, medium, and common.

Feeder wethers. — The supply is very small. The grades are
choice, good, medium, and common.

Feeder ewes. — Most ewes suitable for feeding bring a higher price
when sold for breeding purposes, hence the supply of feeder ewes is
small. They exhibit considerable variation in condition, quality, and
thrift. The grades are choice, good, medium, and common.

Breeding Sheep

This general class includes the breeding ewe and breeding buck
classes, the latter being of very minor importance. The ewes in
greatest demand and most commonly sold for breeding purposes are
two to four years old, though ewes of all ages sell for breeding, even
ewe lambs being taken out at times to be developed for use as breeders.
For convenience in quoting prices, two divisions may be made in breed-
ing ewes according to age, one including the yearlings and two-year-
olds, and the other the older ewes. The younger ewes sell at higher

2G0 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

prices. This is chiefly because packers, who bid on all ewes, bid
highest on young ewes. Young ewes, especially yearling ewes, are of
handier weights, are usually in higher condition, and some of them have
the break-joint and can be sold in the carcass as lambs. Heavy ewes
almost invariably sell on the market at a discount, and it logically
follows that a breeding ewe buyer can purchase these heavier ewes for
less money per cwt. than the lighter and younger stock. Furthermore,
two to four-year-old ewes produce a greater percentage of lambs and
thriftier lambs on the average than ewes of either greater or younger
age. Nevertheless, the breeder buyer can afford to pay a higher price
per cwt. for a yearling because she weighs less and because she can
be used in the flock for a longer period. For all these reasons young
breeding ewes command higher prices but are less sought after by
breeder buyers than are ewes two to four years old.

W. C. Coffey states^ that the most desirable breeding ewes are
dark-faced natives in ordinary field condition. He states: "Dark-
faced ewes sell better than those that are otherwise their equals, be-
cause their lambs, being dark faced, sell better than light-faced lambs
on the eastern markets. Western ewes are very popular for breeding
purposes in certain localities, as Ohio, Michigan, and western New
York, and many engaged in the trade think they should be preferred
over natives because they are more hardy and comparatively free from
internal parasites."

The grades of breeding ewes are fancy selected, choice, good,
medium, and common.

Fancy selected breeding ewes. — The supply of this grade at the
markets is very limited and at times entirely lacking. Fancy ewes are
medium-wooled, dark-faced natives which plainly show in their form,
fleece, and markings that they are well-bred, high-grade ewes of Shrop-
shire or other dark-faced breeding. They must be high-class in every
respect, stylish, and very uniform in appearance.

Choice breeding ewes. — Most of the better breeding ewes avail-
able at the market belong to the choice, rather than to the fancy grade.
Choice ewes must be in thrifty, vigorous condition. Since very fat
ewes are not usually satisfactory breeders or good mothers and since
packers pay a premium for finish, such ewes ordinarily sell to packer
buyers, while buyers of breeding ewes make their selections from those
carrying moderate flesh. Choice ewes must be superior in breeding,
form, quality, constitution, and fleece, and sound in mouth and udder.
They should be smooth, low-set, symmetrical, and moderately compact
in form, and in common with all breeding females they should have
wide, deep, roomy middles, providing ample feeding and breeding

Ull. Bui. 129, Market Classes and Grades of Sheep, p. 627.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 261

capacity, and full heart-girths, indicating strong constitutions. They
should have straight, strong tops. They should possess a high degree
of quality and femininity as shown by refinement of head and face,
trim necks, and bone of medium size. They should have dense, clean
fleeces of a good quality of wool.

Concerning the matter of soundness in breeding ewes, W. C.
Coffey states: ^ "A broken mouth, which means missing teeth or teeth
worn down short, indicates advanced age, and although ewes may other-
wise look desirable for breeding purposes, they cannot grade as choice
if the teeth are not intact. It is necessary that the choice breeding
ewe have a sound udder, and it is pronounced sound when it is soft
and pliable to the touch, without abnormal development on either side.
Any ewe not having a sound udder should be rejected as a breeder,
but in the good and common grades some carelessness is exhibited in
this respect."

Good breeding ewes approach choice ewes in many respects, but
are rather deficient in form, quality, condition, and other essential
points.

Medium breeding ewes include many ewes rather advanced in
age and only fair in form, quality, and other requirements. Buyers
of this grade are not particular as to markings and soundness. Medium
breeding ewes are decidedly plain and much lacking in uniformity.

Common breeding ewes show advanced age, mixed breeding, and
inferior type.

Breeding bucks. — Rams are taken out of the Chicago and other
markets for breeding purposes, but most of them are of poor form and
mixed breeding. Anyone who has visited the sheep pens at Chicago
or at any other large live-stock center will testify that the breeder who
goes to the open market to select sires will never succeed in raising the
merit of his flock above the level of mediocrity. The practice is un-
justifiable and unprofitable.

Miscellaneous

Hot-house Iambs. — These are lambs produced out of the usual
season and marketed during the winter at 8 to 10 weeks old. They
must be fat and weigh from 40 to 55 pounds. They are a fancy product
and go to a special class of trade. The central markets receive prac-
tically no hot-house lambs. The men who have made the most profit
from the production of hot-house lambs are those who cater directly
to the eastern hotel and restaurant trade. The practice is to slaughter
the lambs on the farm where they are produced, and pack the car-
casses in ice for shipment, small shipments being made regularly during

111. Bui. 129, p. 629.

262 Types and Makket Classes of Live Stock '

the winter and early spring. The best prices are paid for them from
Christmas to the middle of March.

Throw outs. — When bands of lambs reach the market they are at
once sorted into the mutton and feeder classes. The buyer of the
feeders usually has the privilege of rejecting those not suitable for feed-
ing purposes. The rejections, called "throw outs," are made up of
lambs that are lame, unthrifty, blind, uncastrated, undocked, over
weight, under weight, badly wrinkled, sore mouthed, burry, black, low
backed, or open fleeced. They are purchased by small city butchers
who have a cheap trade. They sell at common-lamb or medium-lamb
prices.

...Sfe^?-- , -

'"'"' -^ ' ^ra^H^iB^Kdi^^ri

mm^^

^^^^gMMUm^^^^j^

b^^J^

iW ^' *

Fig. 94. — Canner ewe.

Canners are mostly old thin ewes, but the canner class includes
all sheep and lambs sold for slaughter that are so entirely lacking in
fat and so deficient in flesh that they cannot be sold over the butcher's
block as chops or roasts. They are also too aged and too deficient in
condition and vitality to sell for feeding purposes. Some canner car-
casses are sold to meat dealers who have a trade demanding the cheap-
est mutton for stewing or boiling purposes. Some are packed as potted
meats, meat loaf, "roast mutton," and sausage. ^ Canners are most
numerous during the fall and early winter months.

Dead sheep. — Sheep which die in transit are valued chiefly for
their wool, and many of them arrive with the fleeces in such bad condi-
tion that the shipper gets no return.

UU. Bui. 147, p. 230.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 263

Goats are important farm animals in the rough, semi-arid Edwards
Plateau region of Texas, and in the valleys and plateaus of New
Mexico and Arizona. The Willamette valley of Oregon also has a
considerable number. Texas has over half of the SV2 million goats of
the country, nearly all of them on the Edwards Plateau which embraces
eight counties. In that region, in many sections of the South, and in
western Oregon, goats are used in large numbers in clearing up cut-
over land. In Texas and Oregon the goats are mostly Angoras; in
Arizona and New Mexico the Angoras predominate, though other
breeds are common; while in the South practically none of the goats
are raised for their fleece. ^

Arthur C. Davenport states ^ that not enough goats are received
at most markets to attract any attention or to cause any very widely
recognized grades to be established. He states that they are classified
as killers and as feeders or "brushers," and that young goats, or kids,
fat enough for meat sell quite readily but at lower prices than fat sheep
or lambs. Angoras in feeder condition are taken to the country to
graze down and destroy brush and weeds.

Only 20,027 goats were slaughtered under federal inspection at
892 establishments in the United States in 1921, as compared to
12,452,435 sheep. '

Sheep Prices at Chicago

Chicago prices during 1922. — The lowest and highest prices and
average prices paid on the Chicago market for the various classes of
sheep in 1922 were as follows: *

Average
Class Range in price price

Mutton lambs $6.00-16.65 $13.55

Native mutton lambs 6.00-15.75 13.25

Western mutton lambs 7.75-16.65 13.65

Spring lambs 6.00-26.00

Mutton yearlings 5.00-14.50 11.15

Mutton sheep 50-11.25 7.25

Native mutton sheep 50-11.00 6.55

Western mutton sheep 2.75-11.25 7.50

Feeder lambs 7.00-15.60

Feeder sheep and yearlings 1.75-12.00 ....

Breeding ewes 4.00-11.75

Market values of the various classes. — The comparative market
values of the classes of mutton sheep are shown by the following table, *
giving the yearly average prices at Chicago from 1913 to 1922, and
also the averages for the entire ten-year period :

lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 486.

'The American Live Stock Market — How It Functions, p. 142.

8U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 735.

< Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures.

264

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Average prices for mutton sheep at Chicago for ten years

Year

Lambs

Yearlings

Sheep

All
lambs

All

Natives

Westerns

Natives

Westerns

sheep

1913

$ 7.50

7.75
8.85
10.35
15.35
16.25
15.75
14.25
9.20
13.25

$ 7.85

8.15

9.15

10.90

15.80

16.85

16.25

14.75

9.95

13.65

$ 6.35

6.55

7.45

9.25

13.00

13.75

12.90

12.10

7.50

11.15

$ 5.00
5.35
6.10
7.70
10.90
11.75
9.90
8.90
4.50
6.55

$ 5.30

5.70

6.45

7.95

11.15

12.35

10.50

9.50

5.40

7.50

$ 7.70

8.00

9.00

10.75

15.60

16.60

16.00

14.60

9.85

13.55

$5.20

1914

5.55

1915

6.30

1916 . . . .

7.85

1917

1918

1919

11.00
12.15
10.20

1920

9.30

1921

5.10

1922

7.25

10-year average.

11.85

12.35

10.00

7.65

8.20

12.15

8.00

The above table shows that western lambs outsell native lambs
by 50 cents per cwt., and western sheep outsell native sheep by 55
cents per cwt. All lambs together have averaged $4.15 more per cwt.
than all sheep during the ten years from 1913 to 1922 inclusive. Lambs
sell $2.15 higher than yearlings, and yearlings outsell sheep by $2.00.
The inability of thin natives to sell for feeding purposes largely explains
the difference in prices between native sheep and western sheep in the
mutton class.

Fat lamb prices at Chicago. — The accompanying table ^ shows that
yearly average prices for mutton lambs (including all lambs sold for
slaughter except spring lambs) steadily and rapidly increased from
1914 to 1918, and then declined to the amount of $6.75 during 1919,
1920, and 1921. This was due to inflation of prices during the World
War and to severe depression or reaction following the war.

Monthly and yearly average prices for mutton lambs at Chicago for ten years

Ten-year

Month

1922

1921

1920

1919

1918

1917

1916

1915

1914

1913

average

January

$12.45

$10.90

$19.50

$16.25

$17.20

$13.85) $10.30 ($8.40)

$7.90

$8.55

$12.55

February

14.50

9.20

19.95

17.40

16.60

14.30

10.90

8.75

(7.60)

8.50

12.75

March

14.40

9.65

18.80

19.05

17.55

14.25

11.10

9.55

7.65

8.60

13.05

April
May

14.40

9.60

18.80

18.15

19.20

14.40

10.45

9.65

(7.60)

8.40

13.05

13.40

11.10

17.40

16.25

18.00

16.90

10.75

10.10

8.10

7.40

12.95

June

(12.15)

11.00

14.25

(14.05)

16.85

15.25

(9.55)

9.20

7.95

(6.85)

12.70

July

12.90

10.30

15.55

17.10

18.50

15.65

10.55

8.75

8.45

7.55

12.55

August

12.55

9.65

13.20

16.75

17.50

15.50

10.75

8.90

8.15

7.40

12.05

September

13.45

8.80

13.30

14.85

17.25

17.50

10.60

8.75

7.80

7.15

11.95

October

13.80

(8.55)

12.35

15.00

15.35

17.40

10.15

8.75

(7.60)

7.05

(11.60)

14.10

8.95

11.70

14.50

15.10

16.75

11.40

8.80

8.75

7.25

11.75

December

14.20

10.80

(11.20)

16.40

(14.60)

16.45

12.70

9.00

8.30

7.60

12.15

Yearly

average

13.55

9.85

14.60

16.00

16.60

15.60

10.75

9.00

8.00

7.70

12.45

Highest monthly prices are printed in bold-face type. These are
scattered widely, though they occur most frequently in the spring —
March, April, and May. The last column at the right shows that

^ Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

265

these three months average highest for the ten years. These are the
months of small receipts.

Lowest monthly prices are enclosed in parenthesis. These are
also scattered throughout the table, but the ten-year averages show
that October (the month of largest average receipts) is the month of
lowest average prices. The ten-year averages show a continued rise
from October to March, and a continued decline from April to October.
Between the April and October average prices for the ten years the
difference in price is $1.45.

Greater uniformity would occur in the highs and lows of the
various years had it not been for the fact that the very marked and
long continued rise in price from 1914 to 1918 largely superceded the

RECEIPTS

300 400 500

PRICES

■

■ JAN

^■rr p

^M ADD

"^^

^■MAVI

^™

^M Tl IMI

^^*

^^M

■ JULI

■ AUGI

■ 5EPI

1 1 1

■

■OCTI

i^H ^^^^1

■NOVI

■ DECI

30 1200 1250 13

^^*

■^

i^n

■

■■

■

Fig. 95. — Sheep and lamb receipts and fat lamb prices at Chicago. This
chart shows average monthly receipts of sheep and lambs in thousands, and monthly-
average prices of all lambs sold for slaughter, except spring lambs, for ten years,
1913 to 1922. Prices are represented by black bars. Receipts are represented by
white bars, but each white bar is prolonged in black to make all of equal length, the
longer the black coloring the smaller the average monthly receipts. This brings out
in striking manner the correlation between total receipts and mutton lamb prices.

seasonal variations in establishing monthly averages within these years.
The same statement applies to the drop in price from 1918 to 1921.
That there are nevertheless marked seasonal variations in prices is
shown by the monthly averages for the entire ten years. These
monthly averages are illustrated graphically in Fig. 95.

Fat Iamb prices as related to supply.— That the price of lambs
varies directly in relation to supply is shown in the accompanying chart
illustrating the comparison between average monthly prices of mutton
lambs (except spring lambs) and average receipts at Chicago for ten

266 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

years, 1913 to 1922 inclusive. Receipts include both sheep and lambs,
but fully 80 per cent of receipts are lambs and the bulk of receipts sell
for slaughter, hence total receipts and mutton lamb prices permit of
comparative study. ^ The chart strikingly illustrates the fact that
supply and demand rule prices. Demand in this instance is fairly
constant, hence supply very largely determines prices. The chart
makes clear why prices are lowest in October and highest during the
spring months.

1 Figures are not available giving the exact number of lambs received monthly
at Chicago or the number sold for slaughter. A similar study of beef steer prices
could not be made because beaf steers constitute less than half of the total receipts
of cattle.

CHAPTER XIX
BREEDING FOR THE MARKET

In Colonial times, sheep were all of the coarse-wool type, brought
with the settlers from England and Holland. They were the unim-
proved original stock from which the present English breeds have
sprung. Later, George Washington and other leading agriculturists
of the time introduced sheep representing the early breeding improve-
ment in Europe. After the organization of the national government
the Merinos made their appearance. In 1860 the Merino was the out-
standing feature among American sheep. In 1870 more than four-
fifths of American sheep were Merinos or their grades. There were a
few middle-wooled sheep and a very few flocks of the long-wooled
breeds in the middle states and in the Ohio valley. The old coarse
wools were scattered through the South. Kentucky had the largest
number of long wools. Importations were made from England and
Canada. In Texas and New Mexico were Mexican sheep of Spanish
origin that had degenerated and almost reverted to the wild type.
Their fleeces were coarse and hairy and weighed only one or two
pounds.

When the first exports of beef were made to England, about 1875,
the "Scotsman," a Scottish newspaper, sent James Macdonald to
America to investigate the American live-stock industry and render
a complete report. The results of this investigation were published by
Mr. Macdonald in 1878 in a book entitled, "Food From the Far West."
His remarks upon the state of the sheep industry in theUnited States
at that time were as follows:

"No one in political or agricultural circles, or elsewhere, seems so
confident of the export of mutton becoming or continuing so extensive
or so profitable as that of beef. Mutton is not considered an important
article of food in America, and the feeding of sheep has received but
very little attention from its farmers. Sheep farming is certainly
carried on very extensively all over America, especially in the western
states of the Union and on the Pacific slopes; but, with a few exceptions
in the older and eastern states, the sheep-farmer's whole harvest is his
"clip" of wool. There is no demand for mutton, and therefore he pre-
pares none. He keeps a class of sheep specially adapted for producing
wool, and allo>vs his old sheep to die away naturally, or go where they
may^hat is, if he cannot dispose of them, even for a mere trifle, before
they reach the ripe old age of eight or nine years."

267

268 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

The number of sheep on farms in the United States on census
dates grew from 19 million in 1840, to 23 in 1860, 35 in 1880, 36 in
1890, and 62 in 1900, and then declined to 52 in 1910, and to 35 in
1920. The census date was June 1 until 1910, when it was changed
to April 15. It was changed to January 1 in 1920.

The number of sheep on farms in the United States on January 1
of the various years, as estimated by the U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, was 41 milHon in 1880, 44 in 1890, 42 in 1900, 57 in 1910, and
39 in 1920.

There has been a steady increase since 1860 in the proportionate
number of mutton sheep. This has been mostly due to the increased
demand for meat, and partly to the demand for wools other than the
Merino, that is, the combing wools. The flocks of mutton sheep in-
creased in all parts of the country, though Merino improvement was
still the predominating feature in sheep husbandry in Vermont, New
York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, and elsewhere, and the great
flocks of the ranges became Merino grades of a high order of merit.
In recent years many Merino flocks in the eastern part of the country
have been made over into mutton flocks by several succeeding crosses
of mutton blood, while on the western ranges increasing numbers of
mutton rams have been used for crossing on range flocks to produce a
more practical wool-and-mutton type. East of the Missouri river the
majority of sheep are of the mutton type, while on western ranges
Merino blood predominates.

The following figures reported by the U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture show the leading sheep countries and the number of sheep in each :

Numbers of sheep in leading countries

Country Year Number of sheep

1. Australia 1920 77,900,000

2. Russia 1921 47,157,000 i

3. Argentina 1920 45,767,000

4. United States. . . .1923 37,209,000

5. Siberia 1915 34,468,000

6. India 1920 30,172,000

7. South Africa 1920 29,305,000

8. Great Britain. . . .1921 24,273,000

9. New Zealand. . . .1921 23,285,000

10. Spain 1921 20,522,000

11. Italy 1918 11,754,000

12. Uruguay 1916 11,473,000

World total 465,895,000 *

'Includes goats.

>U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 680. Includes 51 million designated as sheep and goats.

Mutton production and consumption in the United States is shown
in the following table > giving the slaughter, imports, exports, and con-
sumption of mutton (including lamb):

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

269

Estimated annual production and consumption of dressed mutton in the United States

Calendar year

Total
slaughter

Imports

Exports

Consumption

Total

Per capita

1907

Million
pounds

559
600
612
473
489
602
538
601
534

Million
pounds

7
3
2
4
5
8
2

Million
pounds

558

598

619

476

4831

607'

537 1

6731

5451

Pounds
6 4

1910

6 5

1916

1917

1918

1919

1920

1921

1922

6.2
4.7
4.7
5.8
5.0
6.2
5.0

'Includes differences between quantities in storage at beginning and end of year.

During 1920, New Zealand frozen lamb carcasses were imported
in large numbers amounting to over one-ninth of the total domestic
production of both mutton and lamb. British markets which normally
absorb the New Zealand product were overstocked following the World
War, and the meat found an outlet in this country.

Our production and consumption of mutton is markedly less than
that of pork or beef, and slightly less than that of veal.

The distribution of sheep in the United States is shown by the
numbers in the leading states and in the various geographical divisions:
Leading states in numbers of sheep on farm^, January 1 , 1923 -

State Number

1. Texas 2,862,000

2. Idaho 2,642,000

3. Colorado 2,444,000

4. California 2,402,000

5. Wyoming 2,396,000

value

$5.20

8.30

7.60

8.10

9.00

10.

state Number value

Utah 2,340,000 $8.90

Montana 2,315,000 8.70

Ohio 2,094,000 7.10

New Mexico . . .2,062,000 6.40

Oregon 1,953,000 6.40

The estimated average value of all sheep and lambs in the United
States on January 1, 1923, was $7.50.

Distribution of sheep on farms by geographical divisions on January 1, 1923 ^

Division Number

North Atlantic 1,200,000

South Atlantic 1,168,000

North Central, East of Mississippi River 4,770,000

North Central, West of Mississippi River 4,324,000

South Central 4,399,000

Far Western 21,348,000

Total United States 37,209,000

The foregoing figures show that the far western division, which
includes the range states, has more sheep than all other divisions com-

^John Roberts: Meat Production, Consumption, and Foreign Trade in United
States, 1907-1922, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Mimeographed Report.
2 Estimates of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

270

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

bined. In addition to the large numbers west of the Missouri river,
sheep are densely distributed in central and southeastern Ohio, south-
western Pennsylvania, and southern Michigan, and are rather densely
distributed also in northern Kentucky, southern Iowa, and northern
Missouri. Ohio and adjoining territory constitute the most important
sheep raising section east of the Missouri river.

Centers of production. — The fact that the larger proportion of our
sheep are in the West is reflected in the location of the center of sheep
production in the United States. According to the 1920 census, the
center of sheep production is in the southwest corner of Nebraska.
The beef cattle center is in central Kansas, the dairy cattle center is
in western Illinois, and the hog center is in northeastern Missouri.

Fig. 96. — Distribution of sheep in the United States. The dense spots shown
in the West are due in part to the date of enumeration, January 1, when many sheep
were being fed in the irrigated districts, and in part to the enumeration of sheep in
that county in which the owner resides, even though the sheep may be in a far distant
region.

These centers are determined by drawing a line east and west on the
map so as to equally divide the total number of sheep or other live
stock in the United States. Then a line is drawn north and south,
again equally dividing the total number of animals. The intersection
of the two lines is called the center of production. The center may
or may not fall in a region where a large number of such animals are
raised.

Conditions suitable to sheep breeding. — Sheep are rather similar
to cattle in their adaptability to range conditions and to improved and

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 271

cultivated farming sections where there is considerable pasture together
with grain and roughage for fattening purposes and for wintering
breeding flocks. Mutton and wool production necessitates less grain
feeding than beef production, though grain often may be used to ad-
vantage, and in some cases grain must be used in order to finish late
lambs and those not well nourished by their dams. Many such lambs
are brought from the West for fattening in the central states. Sheep
differ from cattle in that they are better suited to arid lands and are
less suited to wet lands than are cattle. Sheep are best adapted of all
domestic animals to very rough lands. Sheep are especially suited
with the shorter, sweeter grass of higher altitudes, whereas cattle can
best utilize lowland pastures of coarser and ranker growth. That sheep
have an important place on high-priced land and in intensive farming
is shown by numerous instances in this country, and also by the large
numbers of sheep profitably kept under such conditions in Great
Britain. Whether on western ranges or on higher-priced lands in the
Central West, East, and South, the combined wool-and-mutton type
of sheep, yielding annually a good crop of lambs and a good crop of
wool, is most profitable. The western sheep owner places more em-
phasis on the wool, and the sheep owner east of the Missouri river
favors the type in which meat production is more marked than wool
production, though in both East and West, neither wool nor mutton
may be ignored.

Only purebred sires should be used on any flock, and the same
breed should be patronized each time a ram is purchased; in other
words, breeding for the market should not result in a mixture of breeds,
but the owner should breed in line, grading up his flock by consecutive
crosses of the same breed. Thus will the good features of that breed
be so strongly stamped upon the flock as to give it a high average of
individual merit and great uniformity. ^

The number of registered purebred sheep in the United States on
January 1, 1920, as reported by the census, was 463,504, or 1.3 per cent
of all the sheep in the country. ^

Source of improvement. — A certain few men have collected the
very choicest purebred and registered sheep that may be had, almost
regardless of price, and have established purebred flocks of the highest
excellence. The owner of such a flock makes it his business to supply
breeding rams and some breeding ewes to breeders of purebred sheep

^For definitions of purebred and grade, and for discussions of the importance
of good ancestry, the utility value of purebred live stock, and the grading process,
see Chapter IX.

2The ten leading states in numbers of registered purebred sheep were Idaho
47,107, Ohio 39,444, Oregon 38,738, Utah 30,013, California 28,831, Montana 24,208,
Michigan 21,342, Iowa 19,522, New York 18,338, and Texas 17,119.

272 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

of less prominence than himself. Year after year he slowly improves
his flock by careful selection and mating, and he is thus enabled to send
out better rams each year to head the flocks of less prominent breeders.
In turn, these less prominent flocks supply better breeding animals to
more numerous and still less noted breeders, and so the scheme works
out, improvement slowly, but surely, flowing downward and outward
from a few flocks to the many. There is a third class of breeders who
are producing directly for the market. The produce of their flocks goes
to market as fat lambs or is sold into other hands for feeding prepara-
tory to slaughter. We may, therefore, classify all flocks of sheep as
follows:

1. A few purebred flocks solely for improvement.

2. Numerous purebred flocks primarily for propagation and sec-
ondarily for improvement.

3. Many grade flocks solely for mutton and wool production.
The breeders of the third class secure their rams from the second-
class flocks, and their ewes are generally grades.

The mutton breeding ram. — The selection of the breeding ram
should be most carefully made as he affords the chief opportunity for
improvement in the flock. For this reason it is wise to invest several
times the average value of the ewes in the purchase of a ram to mate
with them. However, it is not so much a matter of securing a ram at
a particular price as it is of selecting a sire of merit that is strong in
the points wherein the ewe flock is weak, and whose off spring will possess
a higher standard of merit than their dams. It is a breeding-up pro-
cess, and this fact justifies more careful selection and greater expendi-
ture of money in each succeeding purchase of a ram. It is always a
matter of locating the sort of ram desired, and the price demanded for
him should not stand in the way of a purchase unless it is really exorbi-
tant.

The breeding ram of mutton type must be, first of all, a good
mutton animal, including as high development of the form, quality,
and fleshing as may be secured. He must, in addition, have a strong,
robust constitution as evidenced by a wide, deep chest and middle and
good feeding qualities. The story is told of an English shepherd who
visited a certain flock to purchase a yearling ram. After much delibera-
tion, he found himself unable to decide among several of the offerings,
all of which suited him. Suddenly his serious expression changed to
one of renewed interest, and turning to the owner he said, "Feed 'em."
Grain was placed in a trough in full view of the rams, at sight of which
one pricked up his ears and marched quickly to the trough, the others
following more leisurely. "That's him," said the buyer, pointing to
the ram in front, for in common with all experienced feeders he recog-

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

273

nized the significance of good feeding qualities. A strong appetite is
evidence of constitution, thrift, lustiness, and health, and indicates a
disposition to develop quickly and make economical gains.

The ram should exhibit strong sexual characters, these being a
strong head with distinctly masculine features and expression, a well-
developed crest or scrag similar to the crest of the beef bull, a sufficiency
of bone, and general ruggedness of build throughout. Style in the
ram, including an active gait and bold presence, is an evidence of
masculinity and breeding usefulness. Particular attention should be
given to the shape, position, and strength of feet, pasterns, and legs.
These points should receive attention in any sheep, but in the breeding

^f^l.'^^.^

Fig. 97. — Correct type in the mutton breeding ram. Southdown ram, Babra-
ham Bumper, champion at the English Royal Show. Bred and owned by C. Adeane,
Babraham Hall, Cambridge, England. Note the masculine head and neck, blocky
body, heavy leg of mutton, and good bone of this ram.

ram their importance is magnified. The feet should be well formed,
the pasterns strong, the bone ample, and the legs straight. Weakness
in the hind legs is of more consequence than weakness in front, as it
is more likely to affect the usefulness of the ram as a breeder. The
hocks should not be bent so as to give the hind leg a sickled appearance
as viewed from the side; and when viewed from the rear, the hind legs
should not be bowed outward, but placed straight and square beneath
the quarters. Weak or broken-down hind pasterns are particularly
objectionable in a breeding ram.

274

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

The ram's fleece should be heavy and of good quahty according
to his breed, special attention being given to the wool in case the ewe
flock averages below desired standards for fleece.

So far as the fatness of the ram is concerned, greater satisfaction
will ordinarily result from the purchase of a ram in medium condition,
or what shepherds call a "field ram," than one that has been much
pampered in preparation for sale or show. The latter may present a
more attractive form and appearance at the time of purchase, but must
be let down in flesh before he can be used for breeding purposes, and
it is often true that with loss of fat there are revealed some rather dis-

FiG. 98. — Correct type in the breeding ewe. Champion Hampshire ewe at the
International Show, owned by A. W. Arnold, Galesville, Wis. This ewe has strength
and vigor, combined with femininity 'and quality, and her roomy middle and dense
fleece are valuable attributes in the breeding ewe.

appointing points in form. This more often happens when the buyer
is a novice and the ram has had the additional advantage of the correct-
ing power of shears in expert hands. In any case, the purchase price
of a fitted ram must include the cost of fitting, which may be a con-
siderable amount. It is, of course, a fact that the very choicest rams
are highly fitted before being offered for sale, as no flock owner expects
to realize full value for an exceptional ram unless he is presented in
finished and fitted form; however, this applies to the best offerings and
is somewhat outside of the matter under consideration. When rams

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 275

are purchased to head ordinary flocks the produce of which are sent to
market, it will usually be best to pay up to the limit of price for a field
ram that suits, rather than invest the same amount in a fitted sheep.

In farm flocks one ram may be used for every 35 to 50 ewes. On
the range it is customary to use one ram for every 35 to 40 ewes, A
ram lamb should not be used for heavy service. The period of gesta-
tion for ewes is somewhat variable but is usually 146 days. Although
ewe lambs are sometimes bred in the fall so that they will lamb the
next spring at a little over a year old, the usual plan is to allow the
ewe lambs to grow and develop into their yearling form, breeding them
in the fall to drop their first lambs the following spring at two years
old. The breeding of ewe lambs is not ordinarily considered good
practice.

The mutton breeding ewe. — Assuming that there is an established
ewe flock to which additions are made from the best ewe lambs of each
year, the problem of the breeder is to weed out the less desirable ewes
and send them to the butcher. Herein lies a second advantage from
the use of good males, for if the sire proves a successful breeder, the
owner is furnished with excellent material with which to replenish his
ewe flock, thus permitting closer culling of the aged ewes than would
be possible had an inferior ram been used. Hence the use of a good
ram not only results in direct improvement in the first crop of lambs,
but there is the added advantage of the improvement which is realized
when the best ewe lambs reach breeding age.

It is easiest to cull the flock a short time after shearing, allowing
a few days to elapse in order that the ewes may recover from the shabby
appearance and somewhat disorganized state common to many of them
immediately after being shorn. Aged ewes and broken-mouthed ewes
should have been weeded out the previous fall, the cost of wintering
them being a needless expense inasmuch as they are difficult to winter
without becoming very low in flesh. The wintered ewes may then be
sorted two or three weeks after shearing; faulty forms and lack of size
are easily detected at that time. It is an easy matter to part with
ewes that are aged, broken in mouth, ruptured, crippled, or defective
in udder, but it sometimes requires strong determination to give up
ewes that are sound, but nevertheless unworthy because of faults in
form, quality, size, or fleece. This is especially true when close culling
will not leave as large a flock as it is desired to carry, but in the long
run it will be best to err on the side of too close culling rather than to
carry certain individuals that do not measure up to desired standards.
Form, size, quality, constitution, muscling, and smoothness of outline
should receive much consideration, the requirements for which have
been set forth in preceding chapters. One word more, however, may

276

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

well be added on heads and necks. The following by John Wrightson
of the Royal College of Science, London, England, is much to the
point:'

"Nothing looks better than good heads, and, strange as it may
seem, a sheep's head, which is only worth 9d. (18 cents) at the butcher's
is worth a lot of money when carried on a good ram or ewe. A muscular
neck indicates strength of constitution and good muscular development,
and I have never known a sheep breeder who did not strongly object
to a shabby neck. Mr. Ellman, the father of the Southdown breed,
insisted on the importance of this point. Mr. James Rawlence, of
Bulbridge, one of the oldest of our noted breeders, would not keep a
weak-necked ewe, and no man who values his flock would buy a ram
with this fault. The neck ought to be muscular, arched, tapering, and
neat."

Fig. 99. — A prize-winning flock. First prize Shropshire flock at the Inter-
national, owned by A. Broughton and Sons, Albany, Wis.

Uniformity in shape, size, color markings, and general appearance
is a valuable attribute in any flock. When the produce is intended
for the open market, this insures a uniform lot of lambs for feeding, and
it adds much to the attractiveness of the finished lot when presented
to the buyer.

The breeder who aims to supply the open market must emphasize
the matter of wool when building up a breeding flock. Although meat
production is the principal object in view, the clip of wool from such a
flock ought to be an important source of revenue. Furthermore, the
ewe with the heavy fleece is better protected from the weather, remains
more healthy for that reason, and the density of her fleece keeps it
freer from dirt, manure, chaff, and other foreign matter. Moisture is

^Sheep, Breeds and Management, London, 1908, p. 126.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

277

better excluded and the yolk thus becomes abundant, protecting the
fibers and preventing a cotted fleece. Her offspring, being heavily
wooled, is less subject to chills and colds which hinder rapid growth and
development. And lastly, the heavy fleece finds an appreciation on
the live-stock market. All along the line, therefore, from breeding
flock to packing house, the fleece with density, length of staple, and
quality meets with approval and increases the value of the animal it
covers.

It is evident that it takes years to build up a flock of much uniform
merit and value. It is not a difficult matter to stock a farm with sheep,
but whether or not the undertaking will be successful depends very
largely upon the wisdom displayed in the culling of ewes, selection of

Fig. 100. — A flock of uniform type.

rams, and general management of the flock. In no other kind of live
stock does the individuality of the man in charge display itself so
strongly as with sheep. Sheep respond quickly to good care, and
deteriorate rapidly when neglected.

Although some essential points in flock management have neces-
sarily been touched upon in discussing the elements that constitute a
good breeding ram and breeding ewe, nevertheless a detailed discussion
of sheep management cannot be presented here, as it would require
much space and is outside the range of the general subject in hand.
However, such important subjects as winter management and feeding
of ewes, feeding as a factor in getting ewes in lamb, dipping, manage-

278 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

ment at lambing time, feeding and management of ewes and lambs,
docking and castrating, the feeding of lambs, shearing, control of
internal parasites, the sheep-killing dog, crops to grow for sheep —
these and many other subjects relating to sheep feeding and manage-
ment should be carefully studied by anyone who contemplates entering
the sheep business.

CHAPTER XX
THE MERINO OR FINE-WOOL TYPE

All sheep are wool bearing, but the Merino excels in weight and
fineness of fleece. The Merino is the foundation of American sheep
husbandry. It is the most important sheep in America today, though
less so than formerly. By far the greater number of grade flocks,
especially in one section centering in Ohio, and another comprising the
territory west of the Missouri river, are of fine- wool origin. Of the
B7,209,000 sheep in the United States, 21,348,000 are in the western
division, and these are largely of Merino breeding. Many western
sheep are brought into the corn belt for fattening.

The Merino is native to Spain, and from the Spanish Merino have
come all present breeds of Merino sheep. This stock existed in Spain
prior to the Christian era, but in all its history in Spain there is prac-
tically no record of attempts at improvement. In the eighteenth cen-
tury, Spanish Merinos were taken to Saxony, France, United States,
South Africa, Australia, and other countries in which distinct types
and breeds have been developed by selection from the old Spanish
stock. Over 20,000 Merino sheep were imported into the United
States prior to 1811, and these formed the foundation of the breed
known as the American Merino. Beginning in 1840, importations
of the French Merino or Rambouillet were made to America, and
this breed is now bred extensively to supply rams for western
flocks.

The American Merino is the outcome of efforts to develop a sheep
with a fleece of the greatest possible value. Some breeders carried
their eff'orts so far as to ignore the meat-producing qualities of the
animals they bred, centering practically all their attention on the fleece.
At best, the improvement of any kind of live stock is a difficult and slow
undertaking. When improvement is sought in one or a few respects,
the desired results are secured more readily and in greater perfection
than when an attempt is made to improve the animal in a rather large
number of ways. It is still more difficult to improve a breed of live
stock along two or more opposing or antagonistic lines, such as beef
and milk, mutton and wool, strength and speed, or size and quality.
It was for this reason that many breeders of Merino sheep in America
willingly sacrificed the meat-producing qualities of their flocks in order
that the production of wool might be made as large as possible. These
breeders developed what was formerly known as the Vermont Merino,

279

280

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

a type that contrasts with mutton type as strongly as dairy cattle
contrast with beef cattle.

Other breeders of fine-wool sheep did not entirely ignore the
mutton qualities of their animals, but placed some emphasis upon a
good conformation and a reasonable degree of fleshing; at the same
time they gave most attention to the weight and quality of fleece.
Eff"orts of this kind in America resulted in the creation of what is known
as the Delaine type of the American Merino; in France similar efforts
resulted in the breed known as the French Merino or Rambouillet.
Thus a type was established having better mutton qualities, a smoother

Fig. 101. — Class A Merino ram.

skin, a fleece of greater length and uniformity, and a type that is shorn
much more easily because of its freedom from wrinkles. Broadly
speaking, however, the differences mentioned in the ideals of breeders
of fine-wool sheep have not resulted in enough variation in type to
prevent a satisfactory study of fine-wool sheep as a single group or
type.

The general appearance of the fine-wool sheep is very distinctive.
In a general way, the conformation resembles that of the dairy cow.
There is the same narrowness of forequarters and moderate width of
back and body, the same muscular rather than fleshy covering, and the
same tendency to be somewhat rangy of body and long of leg. As

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 281

compared with the mutton type, there is proportionately more length
and narrowness of head, more length and thinness of neck, less arch
of rib, and less development of thigh and twist. These differences are
marked, so that shorn of their fleeces, the two types of sheep present
striking differences in form. When viewed in the wool, further varia-
tions are manifest. The fleece of the fine- wool sheep is more compact
and is often very dark in color, the latter being due to the very heavy
secretion of yolk which catches dust and dirt and produces a black gum
on the exterior of the fleece. The mutton-type sheep has a smooth
skin, but the fine-wool type has a loose skin lying more or less in folds
or wrinkles. Sometimes there are only a few folds about the breast
and lower border of the neck, while the middle and hindquarters are
smooth; but some fine- wool sheep present a very wrinkled appearance
over the entire body.

The head should be rather short, medium wide, and well defined
or clean-cut in its features. The muzzle should be broad and the
nostrils should be large. Rams should have a Roman nose with more
width than ewes. The eyes of both sexes should.be rather wide apart,
large, and clear, and have a quiet expression. The forehead should be
somewhat prominent and have a fair degree of width. The ears should
be fine, short, covered with silky hair, and actively carried. The horns
of the ram should be placed rather well apart so as to give width and
strength to the top of the head. At maturity the horns attain a strong
development. They have a corkscrew shape, turning backward from
the base, then downward, around forward, and up, making about one
and one-half turns. The ewes are hornless. Wool covers the poll,
forehead, upper part of the face, and cheeks, while the ears and lower
part of the face are covered with white hair, which should be very soft
and fine. The skin about the nose is often wrinkled. The head of
the ram should be very masculine as shown by heavy horns, wide poll,
Roman profile, and heavy nose, all parts being well developed or mas-
sive and the expression resolute. The ewe should have a refined head
and a feminine expression.

The neck should be moderately short and rather muscular. The
neck and shoulders do not blend smoothly as in the mutton type,
although extreme angularity or roughness is undesirable. Males should
show a heavily muscled neck; a pronounced crest or scrag just behind
the poll indicates a strongly sexed animal.

The shoulders should be well laid in, and should be muscular.
The depth of fleshing is not great enough to give that smoothness of
form which characterizes a good mutton-type animal. The tops of the
shoulders are often sharp and high, especially in those individuals
showing the more extreme development of the type; but a neat, rather

282 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

rounded conformation with a fair degree of smoothness is more to be
desired, especially in rams.

The breast should be deep and have moderate width. The absence
of heavy fleshing makes impossible the development of any marked
degree of plumpness or width, yet a very narrow or peaked breast
indicates a cramped chest cavity and lack of strong constitution.

The chest gets its capacity from depth more than from width.
Extreme narrowness is a serious fault; the fore-rib should arch suffi-
ciently and carry down far enough to provide a roomy chest. The
fore flank should be reasonably well filled out. Every type of animal

^^^■1

^p ^#\j[

BBB^^H

mktm

i^wBl' Mm^pHaiSS

^^^^WP'y\V'4'^jBl^^^^B

H^^v^''' Wm

'^^9H|

Fig. 102.— Class B Merino ram.

needs a robust constitution, one of the best evidences of which is a
large heart-girth, proper allowance being made, when judging, for the
thickness of fleshing which covers the forequarters.

The front legs are often very crooked at the knees, too close to-
gether, and too long. They should be reasonably straight, moderately
wide apart, and fairly short. The feet are often poorly formed and
rather weak, whereas they should be well developed and strong. The
shanks should be reasonably fine and rather short, and the pasterns
should be free from weakness.

The back and loin vary somewhat according to the ideals of
breeders. In the very wrinkly Merinos in which the mutton qualities

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 283

are ignored, the top is noticeably long and narrow, and this may be
carried to an undesirable extreme. In the Delaine Merino and Ram-
bouillet, the back is proportionately shorter and wider. In any case
the top should be straight from shoulders to hips, showing a fair degree
of width of back and a rather wide, strongly muscled loin.

The ribs should be fairly well arched and should show good length
in order to provide proper feeding, breeding, and chest capacity. The
middle is not very compact, but is moderately long.

The hips are somewhat prominent on account of their width and
the lack of deep fleshing throughout, but ragged hips are undesirable.
Much smoothness cannot be expected in a Merino, yet a rather neat,
tidy conformation is demanded.

The rump is often peaked and drooping, but the best form em-
bodies a rump that is long, level, and medium wide.

The thighs and twist vary with respect to the class of fine-wool
sheep under consideration. Generally speaking, the thigh should be
medium thick, and the muscling between the legs should be sufficient
to afford at least a moderate development of the twist.

The hind legs should be straight, medium long, reasonably fine,
strong in pastern, and placed somewhat apart. A large percentage of
Merino sheep have crooked hind legs, the hocks being close together
and the feet too wide apart, or the hocks much bent so as to place the
hind feet too far under the body, instead of carrying straight downward
from hock to ground. The feet should be well formed and strong.

The skin should have a bright pink color, indicating health. Fine-
wool sheep usually show an excellent color of skin superior to the
mutton type. As already mentioned, the skin is more or less folded
or wrinkled. The Merino has not only a thinner skin than the mutton
breeds, but is more richly furnished with oil glands and secretes a great
deal more yolk. Fineness of skin and fineness of wool are correlated
characters.

The quality of fine-wool sheep is evidenced by fineness of fleece,
fineness of bone, fineness of hair on face and ears, and by a medium-
sized, clean-cut head with fine ears.

The style of the fine- wool type is usually rather marked. Merinos
have good carriage of head and ear and are quick and active in their
movements, walking rapidly and covering ground with more ease and
speed than the mutton-type sheep. Their greater activity partly ex-
plains their popularity on western ranges where Merino blood forms
the basis of most flocks.

The fleece of the Merino has a very high degree of fineness, varjnng,
however, in different flocks and in different individuals. The skin has
many more fibers to the square inch than any of the mutton breeds;

284

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

in other words, the fleece is ordinarily very compact and dense. Den-
sity and fineness are outstanding features in a good fine-wool fleece,
the crimp being very fine and regular from skin to tip of fiber. The
very finest woolen fabrics are made from this wool. A third striking
feature of the Merino fleece as compared with mutton sheep is the
large amount of oil or yolk it contains. This gives a generous coating
to each fiber so as to preserve its soundness and pliancy. Merino wool
commonly undergoes a shrinkage of 65 per cent in scouring, and this
figure is not infrequently exceeded. When the secretion of yolk is
very excessive, the fleece is made subject to criticism and the wool
buyer makes allowance for the extra weight in the price he offers.

Fig.

103. — Class C Merino ram.

The wool should cover the head in the fashion already described,
only the nose and ears being bare. The fleece should cover all of the
body and extend down the legs to the feet. The belly and under parts
vary a great deal in the covering of wool. It is important that the
belly be well wooled, and that the natural bareness occurring at the
armpits be as limited in area as possible. The scrotum of the ram
should be covered with wool. The wool on the under parts of the
animal should be as nearly like the rest of the fleece in density and
length as possible. The length of fiber in a year's growth of fleece
should he 2)4 inches or over. A good Merino flock should average 11
to 15 pounds of wool.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

285

Classification of fine-wool sheep. — Breeders of fine-wool sheep and
the larger sheep shows group or classify American Merinos into three
classes or sub-types, known respectively as A, B, and C. As already
pointed out, breeders of Merinos have differed in their ideals for a
number of years, and this has resulted in three fairly well-defined
classes. The classification is based chiefly on the character of the fleece,
the number and position of the folds or wi'inkles, the size and weight
of the animal, and the development of mutton qualities.

Class A. — These are the smallest and most wrinkly of the three
classes, and have the finest, densest, and heaviest fleeces, the shortest

liiiiiH

Fig. 104. — Class B Merino ewe.

wool, the most yolk, the poorest mutton qualities, and the poorest
form. Rams weigh about 140 pounds, fleece off; and ewes about 100
pounds. There are heavy folds all over the sheep, except over the
back. A good ram should shear close to 30 pounds, and a ewe about
20 pounds. These weights for fleeces represent high standards. The
length of fiber is from 1}^ to 23/^ inches. The wool shrinks about 70
per cent on the average when scoured. The form of the A Merino is
most narrow, rangy, leggy, and irregular in lines of the three classes,
and mutton qualities are practically wanting. It is entirely a wool
proposition, with weight of fleece esteemed above everything else. The

286

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

wrinkly skin results in considerable variation between the wool on top
of the wrinkles and that between. The wool on the tops of the wrinkles,
being opened out and more exposed, is much less oily, considerably
coarser, and slightly shorter.

Class B. — This class is wrinkled on the neck, breast, flanks, and
about the dock. It has better mutton qualities and better form than
A. Rams weigh 150 to 175 pounds; ewes, 100 to 115 pounds, fleece
off. Strictly good rams of this class should shear 25 pounds, and ewes
15 pounds. The fiber measures from 23/2 to 3 inches, and the wool

Fig. 105. — Rambouillet ewe.

shrinks about 65 per cent. It sells at a somewhat higher price per
pound than the wool of A.

Class C. — This is also called the Delaine class. These sheep are
free from folds, unless to a slight extent on the neck and breast. The
head, legs, and body are not so well wooled as A and B. It is the
largest of the three classes, has the best form, being more blocky and
low set, and has the best mutton qualities. It is a creditable meat
producer, but not equal to the mutton breeds. The ram should weigh
about 175 pounds, and the ewe about 125 pounds, fleece off. Rams
should shear 18 pounds, ewes 11 pounds. The fleece has less crimp

Types and Maricet Classes of Live Stock 287

and fineness and less density than the fleece of A or B, but is longer,
measuring from 3 to 4 inches. The wool shrinks about 60 per cent,
and sells at a somewhat higher price per pound than B.

The Rambouillet breed, developed in France, excels all other
Merinos in size, constitution, and mutton qualities. The ram should
weigh 185 pounds or over, and the ewe 155 pounds or over. Some of
them are very large, rams weighing up to 300 pounds and over, and
ewes up to 250 pounds. They have strong frames, heavier bone than
the American Merinos, considerable length of leg, and the top line is
usually straighter than the American Merino. The head has a bold
appearance, is carried higher, and has a more complete covering of
wool. The Rambouillet has a smooth body with only a few large
folds over the breast, and possibly a few light folds at the flanks and
dock. Rams should shear from 15 to 20 pounds, and ewes 10 to 12
pounds. These figures are surpassed by the very best of the breed.
The weight of fleece averages less than that of the American Merino,
rrainly because of less oil or yolk. The length of fiber should be from
23/2 to 3 inches, although much of it falls short of this length. The
wool has great fineness, but not quite equal to that of the American
Merino.

CHAPTER XXI
WOOLS AND WOOL GROWING

No animal has a covering entirely of wool; even sheep have hair
upon the face and lower parts of the legs. Wool ranks next to cotton
as a source of textile fabrics, the temperate regions universally using
woolen products. The per capita consumption of wool has increased
very greatly. It was about 3 pounds in early times in the United
States when all spinning and weaving was done in the home; in 1850
it was 4 pounds; it is now about 63^ pounds. No other people use as
much wool as do Americans, nor as much cotton. The world's clip of
wool averages about 2 pounds for each person.

As a rule, sheep are shorn only once a year. The coming of mild
weather in the spring marks the time of shearing. Both hand and
machine shearing are practiced, preferably the latter. As the wool is
sheared off it is usually kept in one piece so far as possible, and as soon

Fig. 106. — Wool fiber highly magnified. This drawing shows the scaly surface
of the wool fiber; the tips of the overlapping scales project outward and point toward
the tip of the fiber.

as the fleece is removed it is spread out, with the flesh or cut side down,
any loose pieces are thrown into the center, and the fleece is then rolled
up with the flesh side out and is tied with twine. Prior to shipment
the fleeces are packed in large sacks, in which condition they arrive at
the various wool markets of the country.

Growth and structure. — Wool is modified hair. The term hair is
ordinarily used to designate a smooth, straight fiber or filament like
horse hair. Wool differs from hair in being more or less crimped and
in having a much more serrated or ridged surface. The surface of
the fiber is composed of a single layer of irregular, overlapping scales,
apparent only under the microscope, forming the wool cuticle, there
being from 1,200 to 3,000 exposed points of these scales to an inch.
The scales open or point toward the tip of the fiber, like shingles put
on the wrong way. Beneath the covering of scales is the cortex or
body of the fiber, made up of greatly elongated cells united into bundles,

288

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 28d

and in the center of the fiber there is sometimes a cavity or canal
which may contain granules of pigment.

Hair and wool are very similar in growth and structure, but wool
is crimped, has more scales, the points of the scales are more open or
projecting, and the entire fiber is more soft and flexible than hair.
These small differences give to wool its special commercial values.
Hair will not retain the twisted state given to it in spinning, but the
crimp of wool causes the fibers to become entangled, and the minute
scales hook together and hold the fibers in position when wool is spun
into yarn. Thus wool has a thread-forming quality which hair has
not, preventing slipping and separation of the fibers in the yarn. The

Fig. 107. — Cross-section of a wool fiber, a, Central canal, which is not present
in most wools; b, cortex or body of fiber, composed of long, spindle-shaped cells which
here appear oval because they are cut transversely; c, wool cuticle, composed of scales.

entanglement and locking of the fibers is referred to as the "felting
quality" of wool.

In Merino wool, the scales or projections are very distinct and
sharply pointed. In the medium- wool breeds, the scales are less dis-
tinct and sharp, and in the long-wool breeds, they are rounded off and
indistinct. In Merino wool, about 2,400 of these scale-ends are found
to the inch; in the Southdown there are 2,000 to 2,080; and in the
Leicester, 1,850 to 1,860. Merino wool is superior in felting quality,
the others standing in a relation proportional to the figures given.

Fineness of fiber. — Dr. William McMurtrie, who conducted exten-
sive investigations of wools for the U. S. Department of Agriculture, >

^U. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt., Examination of Wools and Other Animal Fibers.

290 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

found the average diameter of the Merino fiber to be 1 /1, 194 of an inch,
while the Southdown had an average diameter of 1 /865, the Hampshire
Down 1/769, the Lincoln 1/685, the Leicester 1/654, the Cotswold
1 /605, and the Oxford Down 1 /581. In 1860, American Merino fibers
with a diameter of 1 /1, 572, and American Saxon Merino fibers measur-
ing 1/1,875 of an inch in diameter were exhibited in London, showing
the extreme fineness which may be secured in wools.

Secretion and composition of yolk. — Opening into each wool
follicle are a couple of sebaceous or oil glands, furnishing a profuse
secretion of an oily or fatty material, called the yolk, which is thrown
out at the same time the fiber is formed. This secretion consists largely
of a soapy matter having a potassium base, together with an animal
oil which gives to the yolk its peculiar odor. Yolk, then, is not strictly
a grease or oil, but is a soap with an excess of oil. This explains why
it dissolves freely in warm water and may be washed almost entirely
out of the fleece, and why it cleanses and whitens the hands as soap
does. The quantity and fluidity of the yolk vary greatly, being greater
when the sheep are healthy and well fed, and varying also according
to the breed. The yolk maintains the softness and pliancy of the
fibers, and protects the scaly surface from injury such as might result
from friction of the fibers against one another during the movements
of the animal. It also helps to keep the fleece clean and free from a
cotted or matted condition. The wool manufacturer removes the
grease from wool by the scouring process. This is the first step in
wool manufacture.

Woolens and worsteds. — When scoured wool is combed, that is,
drawn through metal teeth, the fibers are made to lie parallel to each
other and foreign matter and short fibers are combed out. This waste
is called the "noils," and the remaining long fibers are called the "top."
Wool used for combing under the Bradford or English system of manu-
facture must be strong and at least 23/^ inches long in order to give the
yam sufficient strength. Such wool is called combing wool. The yam
made from combed wool (top) is called worsted, and the cloths made
of it are known as worsteds.

Wools which are short and much crimped and serratured are
called clothing or carding wools. They have a high felting quality. In
preparation for spinning they are put through carding machines which
jumble the fibers together in any and every direction, forming a mixed
mass from which the yarn is eventually drawn. The cloths made
from such yarn are known as woolens.

The difference between woolens and worsteds is largely due to the
way the yarn for each is spun. In worsted yarn the fibers are arranged
as parallel as possible by the combing process; in woolen yam they

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 291

are crossed in every direction so as to assist the felting or milling of
the cloth. Yarn for woolen cloth is very slightly twisted, so as to leave
the fibers as free as possible for the felting process; worsted yarn, on
the contrary, is hard spun and made into a much stronger thread.
By the process of manufacture, woolens are felted so as to leave little
or no appearance of the thread, while in worsteds the threads are plainly
evident. Woolens usually have a fuzzy, downy surface, while worsteds
have a smooth, hard finish. Worsteds hold their shape better than
woolens. Worsted cloths have a more clearly defined pattern and
more firmly woven appearance than woolens. Woolen cloths are softer
and the various colors are not so distinct in the cloth. ^ The principal
worsted cloth is Serge, while woolens include several leading varieties
such as Tweeds, Cheviots, and Broadcloths. The manufacture of
woolen underwear is also essentially a woolen process.

Shoddy, obtained by tearing up woolen rags by machinery, now
enters into the composition of all except the very finest woolen yarns.

Fig. 108. — Woolen and worsted yarns. In the woolen yarn (upper) the short
wool fibers are crossed in every direction, while in the worsted yarn (lower) the fibers
are longer and are laid parallel to each other.

but cannot be used in the manufacture of worsted yarn under the
Bradford or English system. However, a varying proportion of cotton
threads are often woven into worsted cloth.

Worsteds may be dyed in the top, the yarn, or the cloth. Woolens
may be dyed in the wool, the yam, or the cloth.

Pounds of wool per pound of cloth. — For woolen goods, from 3 to
4.64 pounds of grease wool, with an average of 3.73 pounds, are re-
quired to make 1 pound of cloth. The average amount of scoured
wool required is 1.37 pounds. For worsted cloths, from 2.56 pounds
to 4.55 pounds of grease wool are required, with an average of 3.66
pounds. The average amount of scoured wool for 1 pound of worsted
cloth is 1.55 pounds. ^

1 Men's suits are usually made from worsted cloth, except that the under part
of the collar is lined with woolen cloth. This is mentioned so that the reader, at
least the male reader, may readily find samples of the two classes of fabrics in order
to note the distinctions mentioned above.

2F. R. Marshall and L. L. Heller: The Woolgrower and the Wool Trade, U. S.
Dept. Agr. Bui. 206, p. 24.

292 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Classification of wools. — Wools may be classified according to
their origin and also according to their value and adaptability for differ-
ent uses. The classifications in common use in this country are as
follows:

Clipped wools and pulled wools. — The first distinction made in
wools is to divide them into fleece or clipped wools and pulled wools.
The former are the ordinary clipped wools coming to market in separate
fleeces. These are the more valuable and constitute by far the greater
portion of the wool of commerce. Pulled wools are those derived from
the pelts of slaughtered sheep in the manner described later on. They
are marketed in 500-pound bales. Pulled wools constitute about one-
seventh of all the wool produced in the United States.

Domestic, territory, and carpet wools. — Domestic wools are wools
coming from the small farm flocks east of the Missouri river. For the
most part, the sheep are of mutton type and breeding. As compared
to territory wools, these wools are usually clean and bright, due to the
better protection and care given the sheep. Territory wools are those
produced west of the Missouri river, and they derive their name from
the fact that this section was formerly made up of Territories in distinc-
tion to the States of the central and eastern sections. Territory wools
are produced by the large flocks of range sheep which contain much
fine-wool breeding, though the use of medium- and long-wool mutton
rams is increasing. They shrink from 63 to 70 per cent on the average
when scoured, and sometimes over 80 per cent, due to the presence in
fleeces of sand, dirt, and considerable yolk. Carpet wools are inferior
and low-priced wools containing much kemp or dead fibers, and are
used in the manufacture of carpets and coarse blankets. Very little
carpet wool is produced in this country.

Domestic wools may be subdivided into two groups or sub-classes,
known as "bright" and "semi-bright," depending on the whiteness and
luster of the fiber. Bright wool is produced by Ohio, Pennsylvania,
New York, West Virginia, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Michigan,
Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Semi-bright wool comes from the Dakotas,
western Kansas, and Nebraska. They are midway between the bright
and the territory in condition, having more sand and dirt than the
bright but not as much as the territory. The best bright wools are
those known as "Ohio" wools, produced not only in Ohio but also in
Pennsylvania and West Virginia. More than half of the flocks of this
region are of Merino breeding. Ohio wool is famous for strength,
cleanliness, and general quality, and commands a premium on the
market.

The states which produce territory wool are Montana, Wyoming,
Idaho, Utah, Nevada, Colorado, and Washington, These are mainly

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

293

range states. vSand storms deposit much sand and dirt in the fleeces.
When the range is bare of snow in winter the wool often shrinks 5 per
cent more than when the ground has been covered. Because of the
varying shrinkage of territory wools, they are sold on the market upon
a clean or scoured basis.

The clips of California, Oregon, Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico
are no longer classed as territory wools due to the fact that they have
rather distinct characteristics. In Texas, shearing is often practiced
twice a year, in which case the wool comes to market untied. In
California, the northern counties shear once a vear, but the middle

Fig. 109. — Clothing and combing wools.

and southern counties often shear twice a year, the wool shrinks more
than that of the northern counties, and it comes to market untied.
Oregon produces some excellent wool, though somewhat high in shrink-
age. This state also produces what are known as "valley wools," largely
from long-wool sheep. New Mexico and Arizona wools are very uneven
in character and often kempy, due to lack of care of the sheep and
inferior breeding. They come to market untied and are poorly put up.
Washed, unmerchantable, and unwashed. — Formerly the practice
of washing sheep just prior to shearing was extensively followed in the
eastern states. This gave rise to the terms of washed, unmerchantable,
and unwashed. Unmerchantable wool is not unsaleable wool, but that

294

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

which has been poorly washed. Fleeces may be unmerchantable for
other reasons. The practice of washing is almost a thing of the past,
and the use of these terms does not necessarily imply that the washing
operation has actually taken place, but sometimes refers solely to
shrinkage. Washed wools are lighter in color and condition, shrinking
3 or 4 per cent less than unmerchantable, and the latter shrinks about
3 or 4 per cent less than the unwashed.

Market classes and grades of wool. — Most American-grown wool
is sacked just as the fleeces come from the sheep and sold at home to
dealers. Before offering the wool to the manufacturer the dealer opens
the sacks and makes up from his various purchases a number of piles,
each containing only fleeces of similar character and value. This is
called grading, and it is performed without untying the fleeces.

The first division which the market makes in wools is to divide
them into the Domestic and Territory classes. The advantages of
domestic over territory wool have been mentioned. Each of these is
again divided into the Combing and Clothing classes. Combing wool
is usually worth about 10 per cent more than the short or clothing
wool, and the aim of the wool-grower is to produce combing wool.
Each class is divided into grades, and in grading fleeces the main factor
is fineness of fiber, although other factors such as length, shrinkage,
and general character are considered. The various grades are adapted
to the manufacture of different kinds of fabrics. Thus the wool dealer
is enabled to supply the manufacturer not merely a certain general
class such as combing wool or clothing wool, but a particular kind or
grade of fleeces within that class specially adapted to his mill. The
complete classification may be represented in outline as follows:

Delaine

Combing wools

Fine 1
Medium/

Half-blood

Three-eighths-blood

Quarter-blood

Low quarter-blood

Braid

Combing wools

Fine staple "I

Fine medium staple]

Half-blood staple
Three-eighths-blood staple
Quarter-blood staple
Low quarter-blood staple
Coarse, common, low, or
braid

DOMESTIC WOOLS

Clothing wools

often one grade XX and X, washed or fine unwashed

Half-blood clothing
Three-eighths-blood clothing
Quarter-blood clothing

TERRITORY WOOLS

Clothing wools

Fine clothing 1

Fine medium [-usually one grade

clothing j
Half-blood clothing
Three-eighths-blood clothing
Quarter-blood clothing, or short

quarter-blood
often one grade

usually one grade

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 295

long without stretching, while clothing wools are all under that length.
It will be noticed that much the same names are given to the grades
within each class. The term "staple" as applied to territory wools
means the same as the term "combing wool."

If a Merino sheep east of the Missouri river grows a fleece that
measures at least 2^/^ inches long without stretching, it grades as
Delaine on the wool market. The same sheep west of the river grows

Fig. 110. — Grades of combing wool. Fine combing at left and half-blood
combing at right.

a fleece that grades as Fine Staple or Fine Medium Staple. The Fine
Staple or Fine Medium Staple fleece has a greater shrinkage than the
Delaine fleece. This is the main distinction between the two. When
scoured, the wools have much the same value. The eastern wool may
be somewhat stronger, but in a general way the wool is the same in
both fleeces.

If a Merino sheep in the East grows a fleece less than 23^ inches
long, it grades as XX or X, or as Fine Unwashed. Market usage has

296

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

decreed that XX and X as grade names shall be used only in referring
to washed clothing wools. XX is a somewhat finer wool than X.
Fine Unwashed corresponds to XX and X, but shrinks more in scour-
ing. The same sheep in the West grows a fleece that grades as Fine
Clothing or Fine Medium Clothing. Fine Clothing corresponds to
XX, and Fine Medium Clothing corresponds to X, except that the
territory wool shrinks more than the domestic.

Fig. 111. — Grades of combing wool,
quarter-blood combing at right.

Three-eighths-blood combing at left and

^ ^ Similar comparisons might be made for the half-blood grade, the
three-eighths-blood grade, etc. If we substitute the general term
"Fine" for all the grades thus far discussed, we may say that each
class of wool has the following grades:

1. Fine

2. Half-blood

3. Three-eighths-blood

4. Quarter-blood

5. Low quarter-blood

6. Low, coarse, common, or braid.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 297

In the early days of the American wool trade, the half-blood,
three-eighths-blood, and quarter-blood grades referred supposedly to
wools from sheep of half, three-eighths, and quarter Merino blood, but
they have no such significance now. Wools grading as high as half-
blood can come from sheep having no trace of Merino blood. On the
other hand, quarter-blood would rarely come from a sheep containing
any Merino blood. Low quarter-blood is a grade lower than quarter-
blood, and braid is the lowest grade of all. It usually refers to luster
wool such as might come from a Lincoln or a Cotswold sheep. The
grading of wool in the wool houses is done by expert graders who know
wools so well that at a glance they can determine the grade to which
the wool belongs and the kind of material into which the wool will be
made. Many of these wool graders may never have seen a sheep in
fleece, neither do they know the breeds of sheep and the characteristic
fleeces. Hence, the wool grade does not depend upon the breed of
sheep, and the wool from different individuals of the same flock and
breed may be graded diff"erently. Wool, then, is graded on the market
according to its merit, regardless of the breeding of the sheep which
grew it, although some of the names of the various grades may seem
to indicate the breeding of the sheep.

Half-blood wool approaches fineness, but is not so finely crimped
as the fine grade. It is also somewhat longer in its class, and usually
shrinks less in its class. Three-eighths-blood has a tendency toward
the coarser wool. It is less crimped than half-blood and less elastic.
It also shrinks less when scoured because it is less oily as a rule.
Quarter-blood represents the next step down the scale in fineness and
crimp, with still less shrinkage. It is longer than three-eighths-blood.
Practically all three-eighths-blood and quarter-blood wools are of
combing length. Braid wool varies from 4}/^ inches up to 12 or 13
inches in length. Its name comes from the fact that it is particularly
suitable for the manufacture of braids. It is generally used, however,
in fabrics requiring long and coarse fibers. For bunting or flags there
is no other wool its equal. Because of its length and coarseness it
does not appear as one of the grades of clothing wool.

The foregoing statements regarding the comparative lengths and
shrinkages of the various grades of wool may be illustrated by the
following table ' giving the most acceptable length and the estimated
average shrinkage of each grade of Montana combing wools:

1 Compiled from National Wool Warehouse and Storage Company's Bulletin,
Dec, 1915.

Fig. 112. — Grades of combing wool. Low quarter-blood combing at right and
braid wool at left.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 299

Acceptable length
Grade for an average Shrinkage —

grade — inches per cent

Fine and Fine medium 2 H 64-65

Half-blood 23^ 61-62

Three-eighths-blood 3}4 55-57

Quarter-blood 4 51-53

Braid 4^-13 46-48

Classes and grades of wool from various breeds of sheep. — The

following list ^ shows in a general way how wool from the various
breeds would be likely to grade. This table is presented because it
will be of interest and because it will assist the reader who knows the
fleeces characteristic of some or all of the breeds of sheep, but does not
know the characteristics of the classes and grades of wool, to gain a
clearer understanding of the latter.

Breed Class and grade of wool produced

Merino (eastern states) Delaine, XX, X, or fine unwashed.

Merino (range states) Fine and fine medium staple or clothing.

Rambouillet Fine and fine medium staple or clothing and a

small amount of half-blood.

Southdown Half and three-eighths-blood (chiefly three-
eighths combing or clothing, chiefly clothing.)

Shropshire Mainly three-eighths-blood, combing or clothing.

Some quarter-blood.

Hampshire Three-eighths and quarter-blood combing or

clothing.

Dorset Three-eighths and quarter-blood combing or

clothing.

Suffolk Three-eighths-blood combing and clothing.

Cheviot Quarter-blood combing.

Oxford Quarter and low quarter-blood combing.

Corriedale Three-eighths-blood combing.

Cotswold ]

Lincoln [Low quarter-blood combing or braid.

Leicester J

Government standards. — In an attempt to secure greater uniform-
ity in the classing and grading of wools, and, if possible, standardize
them, the U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics in 1920 formulated
"Tentative Wool Grades." During the past two years these grades
have been tested in actual practice and the Bureau is now taking steps
to have them declared official. The classification tentatively adopted
is very similar to the commercial classification which has been described.
It includes the clothing and combing classes, and also an intermediate
class known as "French or baby combing." These are shorter wools
than strictly combing wools, but may be manufactured into a cheaper
class of worsted goods by means of the French combing process. The
respective lengths assigned to the three classes are as follows:

»U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206, p. 21.

300 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

French or Strictly

Grade Clothing baby combing combing

Fine Under 1 J^ inches 1^ to 2 inches Over 2 inches

1-2 Blood Under 1 j| inches 1 3^ to 2 J< inches Over 2^ inches

3-8 Blood Under 1 H inches 1 J^ to 2 J-^ inches Over 2H inches

1-4 Blood Under IM inches 13/2 to 2^ inches Over 23^ inches

Low 1-4 Blood Under 2 inches 2 to 3 inches Over 3 inches

The complete classification is as follows:

Grade and class Grade and class

Fine clothing 1-4 blood clothing

Fine French combing 1-4 blood baby combing

Fine strictly combing 1-4 blood strictly combing

1-2 blood clothing Low 1-4 blood clothing

1-2 blood French combing Low 1-4 blood baby combing

1-2 blood strictly combing Low 1-4 blood strictly combing

3-8 blood clothing Common

3-8 blood baby combing Braid

3-8 blood strictly combing

In addition to the foregoing, separate classes are provided for
fleeces which contain much foreign material, are off-colored, or other-
wise defective. These classes are as follows: Burry, seedy, chaffy,
cotted, dead, merrin, damaged, black or colored, pieces, tags, kempy,
tied with sisal. Burry, seedy, and chaffy contain foreign material;
cotted wools are matted ; dead and merrin are from dead sheep or wools
which lack spring and life. The other terms are self-explanatory.

Sorting wool. — The wool manufacturer buys from the wool dealer
the grade of wool which he desires and thus secures fleeces which have
a certain average degree of fineness. However, each fleece varies
more or less in fineness. Wool from the lower thighs, called the
"britch," is usually the coarsest part of the fleece. The shoulder wool
is best in strength, quality, and length; the sides are next best, and
quality decreases passing backward to the britch. Wool from the
back is likely to contain hayseed and chaff. The belly wool is finer
than any, but is short, frowzy, not so strong, and lacks character.
A "frowzy" wool is one that appears lifeless, and is badly mussed, the
fibers and locks lying topsy turvy. The wool from the head is short,
coarse, and in dark-faced breeds is likely to contain black fibers. A
fleece may be three-eighths-blood or half-blood on the shoulder, while
the britch would be quarter-blood. For these reasons, the wool
manufacturer usually sorts the wool which he buys. Sorting produces
"regular sorts" and "off sorts." The former include the regular classes
and grades of wool, and the latter include stained and gray, shorts,
fribs, clips, etc.

The stained and gray sort is not usually made unless white goods
are to be manufactured. Shorts consist of short wool such as grows
about the face, or it may be due to double cutting in shearing. Fribs
are short, sweaty, and dungy locks. Clips are locks so incrusted with

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 301

foreign material that they cannot be scoured clean, but must be clipped
off. Other off sorts are often made from wools of various sections.
Some of these are tags, paint locks, and seedy. Tags are large dung
locks which are badly stained and have a very high shrinkage. Paint
locks require clipping off the painted ends of the locks. Seedy wool
contains weed seeds, soft burs, etc. It must often be carbonized before
using, as explained in a later paragraph.

Wool pulling. — Wool pulleries may be divided into two groups —
those owned by packers and forming a part of the by-products division
of packing plants, and those owned and operated independent of pack-
ing establishments. The wool pullery of a packing plant receives pelts
daily, direct from the killing floor. They are at once placed in vats of
cold water, which takes out all of the animal heat and removes some
of the dirt and blood. The soaking continues from 12 to 24 hours.
Packing plants not equipped with pulleries salt their pelts, and when
a quantity has accumulated send them to a pullery. Salted pelts are
soaked 36 hours, as it requires considerable time to dissolve the salt
out of the hide. When removed from the vats, the pelts are given
mechanical treatment in a scrubbing machine which washes them in a
spray of water, completing the removal of dirt, and leaving the fleece
in an attractive, white condition. The wet pelts are then put in a
centrifugal wringer which throws out the water to such an extent that
the fleece is made very nearly dry. The pelts are next taken to a room
where they are spread, fleece downward, upon wire screens and painted
on the inner surface with a thick liquid bearing the trade name of
"Depilatory," consisting of a mixture of sodium sulphide and slaked
lime. Within 2 to 4 hours after this treatment the wool fibers become
loosened and easily part from the hide, coming out by the roots when
pulled.

Before pulling, however, the pelts are taken to large rooms where
they are spread out on the floor, fleece upwards, being grouped or
classified according to the nature of the fleece. The pelts are then
taken up and the wool pulled by hand. Coincident with the pulling
the operator sorts the wool. Furthermore, the pullery keeps each
month's product by itself, thus multiplying the assortments by twelve,
and resulting flnally in over two hundred kinds of pulled wool, each
having a distinct trade name.

Wool pulleries report a strong demand from wool manufacturers
for black wool which is used to produce various shades of natural gray
by mixing it with white wool. Black wool thus sells at a premium, for
the supply is small. Pelts that vary in color through various shades
of gray and brown are not in the class of black pelts because the varying
color makes them an unknown quantity in color mixing where definite

302 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

results are wanted. Very few black fleeces are uniformly black. They
often contain white, gray, and brown fibers mixed with the black.
This explains why the so-called black fleece sells at a discount, while
the locks of black wool collected by the wool pullery bring a premium.

The growth of wool must be at least three-fourths of an inch before
it may be profitably pulled. Some pelts are not pulled, no matter how
long the fleece may be, because the wool is not saleable, or not valuable
enough to pay for pulling.

Scouring. — Scouring is the first process in wool manufacturing.
The purpose of the scouring process is the removal of dirt and grease
from the wool. It does not remove paint, burs, seeds, chaff, nor twine.
Paint is clipped from the wool before scouring. If the grease wool
comes to the scouring plant in bales, it is first put through a shredding
machine which loosens it. This machine is equipped with a blower for
the removal of dust, and a screen for the removal of heavy dirt. Scour-
ing is accomplished by passing the wool through a series of four bowls
or vats, each containing a different liquor. These liquors are com-
posed as follows:

Bowl No. 1 — Mild alkaline solution, preferably potassium; temperature 130

degrees Fahrenheit.
Bowl No. 2 — Same alkaline solution as first bowl, plus soap: should be a potash

soap; temperature 120 degrees.
Bowl No. 3 — Soap solution only; temperature 110 degrees.
Bowl No. 4 — Luke warm water.

Nearly all the yolk or grease is removed from the wool in the first
bowl. This is done by the saponification of the oil, the soap readily
dissolving in the warm liquid. The action of the soap in the second
and third bowls is to whiten the wool and give it "life" which it loses
in bowl No. 1. After rinsing in the fourth bowl, the wool is passed
through a dryer.

During treatment in the bowls, automatic rakes keep the wool
moving slowly, for if it is moved rapidly through the liquids it forms a
ropy mass. The yolk forms an emulsion in the bowls and may be
recovered by chemical processes. It is known as "lanolin," and is
much used in salves and ointments. Clipped wools shrink as much as
65 per cent or more in scouring, while pulled wools shrink about 30
per cent on the average and often shrink only 10 per cent. The
difference is due to the very thorough washing given to pelts before
pulling.

Carbonization. — Burs and much other vegetable matter cannot be
taken from wool in scouring. In the combing process, by which
worsteds are made, this vegetable matter is combed out with the noils
(short fibers not suitable for worsted yarn). It can be eliminated
from the noils or from clothing wools intended for carding or woolen

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 303

purposes only by carbonization. This consists in immersing the wool
in a dilute sulphuric acid or aluminum chloride solution, and then dry-
ing it at about 200 degrees F. This chars the burs and vegetable matter
which are then removed by crushing and dusting with little or no
change in the wool fiber. The process costs from 13^2 to 3 cents a
pound and results in an average loss of about 10 per cent in weight.
Thus we see why the manufacturer and the wool dealer have a right
to object to burry wool, and why they offer a much lower price for it
than for clean wool.

Wool clip of world. ^ — Australia and New Zealand combined pro-
duce about 30 per cent of the world's wool clip, the United States 10
per cent, Argentina 9 per cent, Russian Empire 8 per cent, Spain 6 per
cent, the Union of South Africa 6 per cent, the United Kingdom 4 per
cent, Turkey in Asia 3 per cent, and all other countries 24 per cent.

American wools and wool growing. — American sheep are said to
have no superior in constitutional vigor and strength of wool fiber.
The average weight of fleece of American sheep has shown much im-
provement. In 1840 it was only 1.9 pounds; in 1850 it was 2.4 pounds;
in 1860 it was 2.7 pounds; in 1870 it was 3.5 pounds; in 1880 it was 4.4
pounds; in 1890 it was 4.8 pounds; in 1900 it was 6 pounds; in 1910 it
was 6.7 pounds; in 1920 it was 7.3 pounds. The annual wool clip
since 1840 is shown by the following figures:

Annual wool clip of the United States

Year Sheared wool

1840 35,802,114 pounds

1850 52,516,959 pounds

1860 60,264,913 pounds

1870 162,000,000 pounds

1880 232,500,000 pounds

1890 276,000,000 pounds

1900 288,636,621 pounds

1910 336,896,9( 3 pounds

1920 235,005,000 pounds

1922 219,095,000 pounds

According to the estimates of the U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, 2 the leading states in 1922 in the production of fleece wool, scoured
basis, were as follows:

1 National Association of Wool Manufacturers: Annual Wool Review for
1922, p. 255.

2As given in Annual Wool Review for 1922, p. 175.

304 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Production of fleece wool in leading states in 1922

Average Wool Per cent Scoured

Number of weight product, of wool

State fleeces per fleece raw shrinkage Pounds

^ Pounds Pounds

1. Wyoming 2,812,000 8.0 22,500,000 65 7,875,000

2. Texas 2,681,000 7.2 19,300,000 65 6,755,000

3. Ohio 1,837,000 7.4 13,596,000 53 6,390,000

4. Montana 1,927,000 8.0 15,416,000 61 6,012,000

5. Idaho 1,923,000 7.8 15,000,000 60 6,000,000

6. Utah 2,160,000 7.4 15,984,000 63 5,914,000

7. California 1,950,000 6.9 13,455,000 64 4,844,000

8. Oregon 1,732,000 7.5 12,992,000 65 4,547,000

9. Michigan 1,078,000 7.3 7,868,000 50 3,934,000

10. New Mexico 1,600,000 6.0 9,600,000 65 3,360,000

United States 30,947,000 7.1 219,095,000 59 89,829,000

Pulled wool 42,000,000 30 29,400,000

Total United States 261,095,000 119,229,000

Total World 2,704,047,7891

» Based on latest available figures compiled by National Association of Wool Manufacturers and
published in Annual Wool Review for 1922, p. 255.

This table brings out some important distinctions in wools. The
figures for shrink are interesting; the western states exceed the eastern
states by 7 to 15 per cent, due mostly to the greater percentage of
Merino blood in range flocks and hence a more greasy wool with a
greater shrink. Western wools also contain more sand and dirt. The
introduction of mutton sheep into the corn belt has decreased the
average weight of fleece, but has improved the shrinkage. The entire
clip of the United States in 1922 was estimated to shrink 59 per cent.
Wool buyers fix the price on a scoured basis, this being the fairest
method of dealing and also the fairest basis on which to compare pro-
duction by states. Wyoming produced the most fleeces in 1922, and
Delaware the fewest. Wyoming, Montana, and Nebraska had the
highest average weight of fleece, which was 8 pounds, and Georgia
was lowest with 2.9 pounds. Virginia, with 38 per cent, had the
lowest shrinkage, and Washington, with 67 per cent, had the highest
shrinkage.

Imports and exports of wool. — During the year 1920 the United
States imported 254,905,000 pounds of wool valued at $124,399,000.
The average value per pound was 48.8 cents. We export less than a
million pounds of our wool annually. American wool growers produce
slightly less than one-half of the wool used by American wool manufac-
turers. Australia is the largest exporter of wool, the flgure for the year
1919 being 680,769,000 pounds; Argentina ranked second with
339,208,000 pounds; New Zealand was third with 274,247,000 pounds;
South Africa was fourth with 202,039,000 pounds; and Uruguay was
fifth with 141,330,000 pounds. These five countries furnish over 85
per cent of the exports of the world. The principal importing and
wool-manufacturing countries are France, Great Britain, United States,

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

305

Belgium, and Germany. These five countries annually consume over
85 per cent of the total imports of the world.

Principal American wool markets. — The principal wool markets
in the United States are Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and
New York. During the past few years Boston has handled nearly 75
per cent of the total wool crop of this country, and nearly 60 per cent
of the foreign wool shipped into this country.

Factors that determine the value of wool. — The value of wool
depends upon certain well-established factors, many of which have
been indicated and discussed in the foregoing paragraphs on wools and
wool manufacture. Following is a list of these factors:^

1. Shrinkage. — American wools may shrink from 25 to 80 per
cent. The loss in scouring is a complete loss to the manufacturer.
Grease wools are valued on a scoured basis. Sand, dust, dirt, burs,
and seeds lower the yield and affect the value of the clean wool. The
following table shows the important part that shrinkage plays in fixing
prices. At the top are various prices per pound of clean or scoured
wool. In the column to the left are various percentages of shrinkage.
By the use of this table we find, for example, that if clean wool is worth
$1.00 per pound and the shrinkage is 65 per cent, the wool is worth 35
cents in the grease, whereas, if the shrinkage is 60 per cent, the grease
wool is worth 40 cents.

Relative prices of scoured and raw

wool at varying

percentages of s

hrink

age

Price of clean or scoured wool (cents)

Shrinkage

100

110

120

130

140

150

per cent

cts.

cte.

cts.

105

113

105

2. Class and grade of the wool. — Ordinarily combing wools are
worth about 10 per cent more than the short or clothing wools.

3. Character in wool. — ^This refers to the color or whiteness of
the fiber, the soundness, luster, evenness of distribution of yolk, and
the degree of crimp which gives elasticity to the fiber. A fine Merino

U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206.

306 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

fiber may be easily stretched by hand 30 per cent beyond its crimped
length, and by gradual pressure on a machine fully that much more.
A white fiber may be used in the manufacture of white cloth, or may
be dyed any desired color. Black, brown, or gray wool can be used
only in dark-colored fabrics, and furthermore it is difficult to stain
these wools exactly the same shade as white wool. Kemp, which are
hair-like fibers, found mostly on the thighs of coarse-wooled sheep, will
absorb little dye, if any at all, and fleeces containing kemp are dis-
criminated against as lacking in character. In kemp the outer scales
lie so closely against the body of the fiber that the dye cannot penetrate.
The body of the fiber alone absorbs the dye.

Fig. 113. — Tender wool showing break.

4. Strength of fiber. — Tender spots and breaks affect the value
of the wool, may change its class or grade, and lessen the strength of
the yarn.

5. Use of paint for branding sheep. — This lowers the value of
the fleece, necessitates an extra sort at the mill, and requires that the
painted ends be clipped off the fibers before scouring.

6. Tags. — These are worth about one-third as much as good wool.
At time of shearing they should be sacked separately. They are
objectionable in the fleece because they shrink much more in scouring
than the rest of the fleece, and are liable to stain the surrounding wool,
especially when wet.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 307

7. Wet wool. — In wet wool the fibers may be weakened, and
there is danger of spontaneous combustion. It may also cause staining,
especially when tags are present.

8. Burs. — As has been pointed out, burs cause much trouble and
extra expense in manufacture, and hence lower the value of the fleece
considerably.

9. Improper tying. — The fleece should be tied so that no locks
or pieces fall out. These are difficult to sort and buyers object to them
when present in large quantities. The use of sisal or binder twine is
seriously objected to by dealers and manufacturers because the fibers
of the twine shred off and become mixed with the wool and blemish
the fabrics made from it. A small, light twine of twisted paper, espec-
ially intended for the use of wool growers, is now on the market and
should be used exclusively.

10. Buck fleeces. — These contain more grease than other fleeces
and hence shrink more in scouring. They should be kept separate.

11. Black wool. — A black fleece packed with white ones is almost
certain to contaminate the latter due to some of the black fibers be-
coming mixed in the white. Black wool should be packed separately.
Black fieeces sell at a discount because they are usually not an even
black, but contain white, gray, and brown fibers, often more of these
than of black.

12. Cotted or matted fleeces. — It is necessary to run these
through an opener, which is not done with ordinary wool.

13. Hand and machine shearing. — Machine shearing results in a
heavier fleece, longer fibers, and freedom from second cuts. Machine
shearing may even result in changing the class from clothing to comb-
ing.

14. Packing wool. — Lamb, ewe, and wether fleeces should be
packed in separate bags if possible. Lamb's wool is usually more
valuable because of lighter shrinkage. Sewing bags with sisal or other
unsuitable twine creates a bad impression. The bag should be sewed
securely with a stout, hard-finished twine so as not to burst open.

Marketing wool properly. — Poor methods of sheep husbandry
annually result in the loss of many thousands of dollars to wool growers.
Neglect of flocks in winter, filthy conditions of keep, carelessness in
handling, weedy pastures, the use of oil paint or tar to mark sheep,
failure to separate the tags when the sheep are shorn, and improper
tying of fleeces are factors which greatly lessen the returns to wool
producers. The loss is large because of the presence in fleeces of seeds,
burs, dust, chaff, sand, manure, and other foreign material, and be-
cause unnecessary quantities of unreasonably large twine are used, or
because a kind of twine is used that injures the cloth made from the

308 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

wool. Sometimes there is enough twine around one fleece to tie a
half-dozen or more fleeces. Even baling wire has been used in some
instances.

The Animal Husbandry Division of the U. S. Bureau of Animal
Industry ^ suggests the following rules as of fundamental importance in
the improvement of American wools:

1. Adhere to a settled policy of breeding the type of sheep suit-
able to the locality.

2. Sack lambs', ewes', wethers', and all buck or very oily fleeces
separately.

3. Shear all black sheep at one time, preferably last, and put the
wool in separate sacks.

4. Remove and sack separately all tags, and then allow no tag
discount upon the clip as a whole.

5. Have slatted floors in the holding pens.

6. Use a smooth, light, and hard glazed (preferably paper) twine.

7. Securely knot the string on each fleece.

8. Turn sacks wrong side out and shake well before filling.

9. Keep wool dry at all times.

10. Make the brands on the sheep as small as possible and avoid
tar brands.

11. Know the grade and value of your wool and price it ac-
cordingly.

12. Do not sweat sheep excessively before shearing.

13. Keep the floor sweepings out of the wool.

14. Do not sell the wool before it is grown.

15. When all these rules are followed place your personal brand
or your name upon the bags or bales.

Wool is purchased from the producer by different methods depend-
ing upon the size of the clip. Domestic wools are often sold to local
wool buyers who take the whole clip of the neighborhood regardless of
quality or cleanliness. Sometimes the country storekeeper buys wool
and resells to the traveling buyer. Cooperative wool-selling agencies
have been formed in certain localities, and the advantages of these
organizations are discussed in the next paragraph. Territory wools
are sold mostly to buyers representing eastern wool dealers. In a few
cases they are sold to buyers representing manufacturers. The west-
ern wool grower may also consign his clip to a commission house to
be stored and sold for a certain commission charge.

Cooperative marketing and selling. — During the last few years the
cooperative marketing and selling of wools has been practiced on a

U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 206.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 309

very extensive scale in the United States, and with highly successful
results. Under this plan wool growers pool their wool, shipping it to
a central point where it is graded and then sold direct to wool manufac-
turers. Thus the grower receives a price in keeping with the actual
merit of his product. Not only that, but he receives the highest return
for his wool which it is possible to obtain. Cooperative selling is
especially advantageous to producers of small lots of wool. Formerly
the only method of disposing of such wool was to sell it to local buyers.
The local buyer usually offered about the same price for all fleeces,
good, bad, and indifferent, and there was little or no incentive to pro-
duce good, clean fleeces, in fact there was, under that plan, something
of an incentive to be careless in growing and preparing wool for market.
Many growers permitted fleeces to become burry and dirty, and fre-
quently an excessive amount of heavy twine was used in tying. Under
the cooperative plan there is every incentive to grow good fleeces and
to market them in clean condition. The producer of good wool is
gi'eatly benefitted by the new method of selling.

State wool pools or pools covering a wide territory are now made
regularly by wool growers in Maine, New Hampshire, Connecticut,
New York, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minne-
sota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Missouri, Kansas, Texas, Utah,
Oregon, and other states. The cooperative plan seems to have first
attracted wide attention in the East in 1915 when Otsego County, N. Y.,
pooled 20,000 pounds of wool and sold it at an advance of 4}^ cents
per pound over prices offered by local dealers. Later a number of larger
pools were organized in the farming states with very successful results.
The West also has found cooperative selling to be highly advantageous.
It is reported ^ that in Fremont County, Idaho, wool has been sold
cooperatively for over 15 years. The Jericho association at Fountain
Green, Utah, has handled from 800,000 to 900,000 pounds of wool
annually for five or six years. In 1921, its first season, the Pacific
Cooperative Wool Growers of western Oregon sold 1,500,000 pounds
of wool at a cost of 23^^ cents per pound for assembling, weighing,
classifying, grading, and operating. This association controls the wool
of about 250,000 sheep. The membership numbers 2,100 and is in-
creasing. The wool is shipped to the warehouse in Portland where it
is graded by United States licensed graders in accordance with the
federal tentative wool standards. It was found advantageous to scour
84,000 pounds of wool in 1921. The association is able to borrow
money on its warehouse receipts and to make advances to members
up to 60 or 70 per cent of the value of their wool in storage. Through
the sending of grade reports to members, the growers are learning

lU. S. Dept. Agr., Agricultural Cooperation, Jan. 15, 1923, p. 6.

310 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

about grades of wool, and the manager reports improvement in the
wool received and in the manner in which it is tied.

R. A. Hammond, manager, states' that the Ohio Sheep and Wool
Growers' Association handled a total of 15 million pounds of wool
during the four years from 1919 to 1922 inclusive. Practically all of
this was consigned by Ohio growers, though during 1921 and 1922
about 1,500,000 pounds were received from Indiana. In 1922 the
Association marketed a total of about 2,750,000 pounds, said to be
the largest proportion of the clip marketed cooperatively in any state.
In 1922 the consignors received an average of 5 cents per pound more
for their wool than prevailing local prices. Storage and grading facili-
ties are provided in a large warehouse at Columbus, Ohio, and sales
are made directly to manufacturing mills, each grower receiving the
actual price for his wools, minus a handling charge amounting to 2^
cents per pound. The wool marketed by the Association in 1922
graded higher than that marketed in 1921. This is the natural result
of a correct system of marketing whereby each grower is paid according
to the merit of his product. The old system penalized quality, put a
premium on mediocrity, and a bigger premium on inferiority, and under
that system no improvement in quality of product could be expected.
Cooperative wool pools ofier strong encouragement to improve the
quality and value of wool. In addition to this they secure for the
grower the best possible return for the grade of wool produced.

Mohair. — This is the product of the Angora goat. The fiber is
coarse, very long, exceedingly lustrous, and has very little crimp. It
is used in the manufacture of braids, felts, linings, and plushes. It is
also used extensively as a substitute for human hair in switches and
wigs. Texas, Oregon, New Mexico, California, and Arizona are the
principal producers of mohair grown in the United States. The
National Association of Wool Manufacturers estimates that the pro-
duction of mohair in the United States amounted to 7,750,000 pounds
in 1922, having doubled since 1910. We imported 4,246,484 pounds
of mohair in 1922, of which 1,636,145 pounds came from British South
Africa and 702,091 pounds from Turkey in Europe.

1 Information to the writer.

PART III-SWINE

INTRODUCTION

The hog is universally known as the "mortgage lifter." No other
animal has contributed more toward the success of farming in the
United States. This country leads the world in hog breeding and pork
production. The money-making ability of the hog is based on the
following advantages of the hog and of hog raising:

1. Hogs are the most efficient converters of grain and certain
other feeds into meat. They make larger gains in weight in proportion
to feed consumed than other farm animals.

2. They are most prolific, commonly farrowing from 6 to 10 pigs,
and will raise two litters per year.

3. Returns come quickly. The pigs may be marketed within ten
months after the sows are bred. The sow may be bred when eight
months old, farrowing her first litter at twelve months of age.

4. Of all meat-producing farm animals, the pig is best adapted
to diversified and intensified farming where a large income is desired
from a small acreage.

5. The hog has a higher dressing percentage than any other
animal, and a larger proportion of the live weight is edible than of any
other animal.

6. Pork is the most nutritious meat and has better curing and
keeping qualities than any other meat.

7. No other animal equals the hog in its fat-storing ability, and
hog fat is the most valuable fat produced by domestic animals.

8. Hogs are the most efficient farm animals in converting certain
wastes and by-products into profits. This statement applies to grain
wasted by fattening cattle, ^ utilization of garbage, and utilization of
dairy by-products such as skim milk. In some wooded sections of the
countrj% pigs convert acorns, other mast, and roots into saleable form.

9. Hog raising requires a smaller investment in animals and
equipment and yields quicker and relatively larger results than any
other branch of animal husbandry.

^W. W. Smith of Purdue University states that for every bushel of ear or shelled
corn fed to steers, the hogs following the cattle produce an average of from one to
two pounds of pork; and that when the grain is crushed or ground before feeding to
cattle, from a quarter to a half pound of pork is produced. With hogs selling at 10
cents per pound, a saving of 2}^ to 20 cents per bushel of corn fed to the cattle is
eflfected by the hogs. — Pork Production, p. 4.

311

312 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Economy of the pig as a meat producer. — W. W. Smith of Purdue
University states ^ that the cost of the pig at birth is much less than
that of the calf or lamb, and that the cost of subsequent gains is lower.
He states that to produce 100 pounds of gain during the market-finish-
ing period, 1,000-pound steers require an average of 800 pounds of
grain and 475 pounds of legume hay; 65-pound lambs require 400
pounds of grain and 500 pounds of legume hay; and 200-pound pigs
require 450 pounds of grain and no hay. He mentions also that the
brood sow brings a relatively better price when sent to market after
her days of usefulness in the herd are over than does the cow or the
ewe.

When to the above facts it is added that during ten years at the
Chicago market ^ all hogs marketed there brought an average price
of $9.65 per cwt., all beef steers $8.85, all butcher cows and heifers
$6.35, all fat lambs $9.60, all yearling wethers $7.90, and all older sheep
$6.70, it might be assumed that hogs are easily the most profitable of
all meat-producing animals. This may be true. But the above figures
do not include heavy losses of pigs which occur annually, especially
between farrowing time and weaning time. A much larger percentage
of the pigs born annually fail to reach the market than is true of calves
or lambs. The initial (birth) cost of every dead pig must be added to
the initial cost of his surviving litter mates, and the feed he consumed
and the labor he required must be added to the cost of feeding them
in order to determine the cost of producing pork. Furthermore, the
ability of steers and lambs to produce fairly good carcasses on grass
and roughage alone, and the absolute failure of the pig under the same
conditions should be kept in mind.

Economy of the pig as a producer of human food. — The pig ranks
very high among all farm animals in ability to manufacture a large
amount of human food from a given quantity of feed. Dr. W. H.
Jordan of the New York (Geneva) Experiment Station has compiled
the following table ^ showing how the farm animals compare in the
economy with which they convert their feed into edible solids. "Edible
solids" means marketable product minus all water, bone, and gristle.
Note the high rank of the pig:

I Pork Production, p. 7.

2 Compiled from the Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures covering the years
1909 to 1918 inclusive.

3 The Feeding of Animals, p. 423.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 313

Human food produced by farm animals from 100 pounds of digestible matter consumed

Marketable Edible

Animal product solids

Pounds Pounds

Cow (milk) 139.0 18.0

Pig (dressed) 25.0 15.6

Cow (cheese) 14.8 9.4

Calf (dressed) 36.5 8.1

Cow (butter) 6.4 5.4

Poultry (eggs) 19.6 5.1

Poultry (dressed) 15.6 4.2

Lamb (dressed) 9.6 3.2

Steer (dressed) 8.3 2.8

Sheep (dressed) 7.0 2.6

It should be noted, however, that the table does not take into
consideration the relative cost or value of the feedstuffs consumed by
the different animals. Failure to do so is especially detrimental to the
sheep, steer, and lamb. Nor does the table include the labor cost of
producing the various products. Neither does it include in the case
of the dairy cow the feed and labor required to grow the cow or heifer
to milking age. Nor does it consider the relative food values of the
edible solids produced by the various animals. If these factors were
included, the pig would certainly approach the milk cow even more
closely in economy of production, and might equal or surpass her. We
should remember that any fair comparison must include all costs and
all factors in any way concerned in economy of production. Unfor-
tunately for the pig this would include the losses caused by disease,
exposure, injuries, and other causes.

The writer desires to emphasize the fact that too much importance
should not be attached to comparisons similar to the one made in the
above table. Such comparisons are valuable only in that they make
us think and impress us with the special attributes of different animals.
Each kind of live stock has its proper place and each is most economical
and profitable under the right set of conditions. For most economical
utilization and conversion of pastures and farm crops, all kinds of farm
animals are essential. And as one man remarked, "We cannot live
by milk, or pork, or eggs, or beef alone; and the cow doesn't lay eggs,
and the steer doesn't give milk, and the lamb can't grow, pork, and the
chicken is no good for beef; so why argue about it? To which his
friend replied that he 'guessed that was so.' Writers on live-stock
subjects often make comparisons to emphasize particular points.
Readers sometimes make the mistake of attaching an importance to
such comparisons, or of drawing a conclusion from them, that is not
justified or was not intended by the writers.

Types of hogs.— Swine are useful as a source of meat and lard.
Some swine produce meat only, and some produce lard as well as meat.
Differences in the demands of consumers of pork, together with differ-

314 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

ences in the kinds of feed available for pork production, have resulted
in the establishment of two distinct types of swine, lard type and bacon
type.

The lard hog is an American production found chiefly in the corn-
belt states where corn is the principal feed for all farm animals. Corn
is a great fattening feed, and when fed to hogs it is converted into fat
from which lard is made. Breeders have therefore developed a type
of hog specially adapted to converting feed, principally corn, into fat,
and at the same time growing a carcass highly valued for the various
cuts of meat which it yields.

The bacon hog is also found in America, principally in Canada,
however, which is outside the corn belt. In Canada the feeds available
for pork production are peas, barley, wheat, oats, rye, skim milk, and
roots. As compared with corn, these feeds are not so fattening; they
are muscle builders, and hogs produced with such feeds take on rela-
tively little fat and are not useful as a source of lard. Canadians have
made no effort to compete with the hogs of the corn belt; instead they
produce a hog suitable for the English and Canadian trade — a hog
whose carcass yields the largest proportion of high-grade bacon.

From what has been said it may appear that there is no real
hereditary difference in the form, structure, and ability of the two types
of hogs, but that the differences between them are solely the result of
differences in the feeds upon which they are produced. This is largely
true, yet it is a fact that when pigs of the bacon type are brought into
the corn belt and fed on fat-producing feeds, they never entirely lose
the bacon type; and when the lard hog is taken into a bacon-producing
section and fed on muscle-building feeds, there is the same degree of
change, but the lard hog does not lose his identity under such a system
of feeding. Therefore we must conclude that there is something besides
the difference in the feeds which accounts for the two distinct types;
in other words, there is an hereditary difference between the two kinds
of swine.

Careful selection and breeding and the establishment of definite
types of animals suitable to special purposes cannot accomplish the
desired ends unaided. The feeding and care must receive as much
attention as the breeding. No matter how well bred an animal may
be, and no matter how great may be its tendency to conform to a
given type, it must enjoy a favorable environment before its inherited
good qualities can fully assert themselves and thereby enable the animal
to fulfill its mission.

The breeds of hogs, their classification according to type, and the
number of registered purebreds of each breed in the United States as
shown by the 1920 census, are as follows:

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 315

Type Breed Number

fDuroc-Jersey 819,117

I Poland-China 726 504

Lard Type <[ Chester White 191,207

J Hampshire 106',978

Berkshire 86,676

[Spotted Poland-China 47 J03

Bacon Type /Yorkshire 6,353

liAcON lYPE JTamworth 5!639

All other 59,723 »

Total 2,049,900

> Includes Mule-Foot, Cheshire, Essex, Victoria, Small Yorkshire, Large Black, Red Berkshire
and other minor breeds. '

The Berkshire and Hampshire do not possess true fat or lard type,
but have something of a bacon tendency. This is especially true of
the Berkshire as bred in Canada.

Definitions of Hog Terms

Boar. — Breeding male, any age.

Sow. — The female, any age.

Gilt. — A young sow, usually under twelve months and before she
has farrowed a litter.

Barrow. — Unsexed male, castrated when a young pig. The best
age to castrate pigs is from 6 to 8 weeks old, before weaning.

Stag. — Unsexed male, castrated when mature or so far advanced
toward maturity that masculinity is plainly evident in head, neck, and
forequarters. This constitutes coarseness in a market animal.

Shote. — A young hog weighing from 100 to 150 pounds.

Show Yard Classification by Ages

The base dates for classifying hogs by ages are March 1 and Sep-
tember 1, and the classes by ages are as follows:

Junior pig cZass.^Animals are eligible to this class that were far-
rowed on or after March 1 of the year shown.

Senior pig class. — Farrowed on or after September 1 of the preced-
ing year and before March 1 of the year shown.

Junior yearling class. —Farrowed on or after March 1 and before
September 1 of the preceding year.

Senior yearling class. —Farrowed on or after September 1 of the
second preceding year and before March 1 of the preceding year.

Two years old and over (aged) class. — Farrowed before September
1 of the second preceding year.

For example, during the summer, fall, and winter show season of
1923, junior pigs are those farrowed on or after March 1, 1923; senior
pigs, September 1, 1922-February 28, 1923; junior yearlings, March 1-

316 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

August 31, 1922; senior yearlings, September 1, 1921-February 28,
1922; aged animals, before September 1, 1921.

Junior champion. —Be^t animal under one year.

Senior champion. — Best animal one year old or over.

Champion.—Best animal any age.

Grand champion.— Best animal any age or breed. The term
"grand champion" is also frequently applied to champions.

CHAPTER XXII
THE AMERICAN OR LARD-TYPE HOG

The United States has created comparatively few of the breeds
now found within her borders. By the time this country reached that
stage in her live-stock development when improvement in domestic
animals became imperative, European nations had met and solved a
similar problem by the creation of numerous useful breeds. It was
but natural, therefore, that many of these foreign breeds were imported
to this country, and it was fortunate indeed that most of them proved
fully capable of fulfilling the requirements of our stock growers. We
were thus afforded an easy short cut across what would have been a
long, laborious period in the development of our live-stock industry.
We borrowed whenever such procedure was practicable, and the fact
that we have never found it really necessary to create a breed of draft
or carriage horses, beef, dairy, or dual-purpose cattle, mutton sheep,
or bacon hogs shows how great is our indebtedness to the breeders of
Europe.

Our needs were not entirely met, however, for we have created a
breed of trotting horses, a breed of saddle horses, a breed of jacks, a
breed of fine-wool sheep, and a number of breeds of lard-type swine.
We have also found it necessary to modify slightly some of the breeds
we have adopted, and to our credit it may be said that we have made
certain changes in some of these adopted breeds which, as viewed from
the standpoint of American conditions and requirements, represent
decided improvements. The Polled Shorthorn, the Polled Hereford,
the "American type" Hereford, and the "American type" Berkshire
are examples of such modifications.

The extended patronage which we have given to foreign stock and
the lack of necessity for developing breeds of our own, while highly
advantageous, has tended to dim our own glory as a live-stock breeding
nation. If, because of this fact, our live-stock industry needs a re-
deeming feature, it is furnished by the creation of a distinctly American
type of hog, which includes several breeds. European breeds of swine
proved so fully incompetent to make pork under American conditions
that our breeders found it necessary to create distinctly new breeds of
a new type, and this work has been so well done as to give us a clear
title to the distinction of leading the world in swine breeding and in
pork production.

317

318 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Our conditions demand a type of swine which can consume a
ration composed largely of com and utilize it to advantage in the pro-
duction of meat and lard. This type of hog is known as the American
or lard-type hog, and it has played no small part in the rapid develop-
ment of American agriculture and in the prosperity of our farmers.
"King Com and the American Hog" have constituted an invincible
combination, creating a channel of disposal or market for com, and
supplying the people of this and other countries with highly palatable
and nutritious meat at a moderate price.

Present-day swine breeders and pork producers are not unani-
mous in their opinions conceming what is the most profitable type of
lard hog to produce for the market. The writer has interviewed a
large number of pork producers, breeders of purebred hogs, and college
and experiment station workers relative to this matter, and the con-
census of opinion seems to be as follows:

1. A very compact, wide, low-set pig matures earliest and fattens
most easily, but does not make th6 most rapid or economical gains and
cannot be profitably carried beyond a certain rather low limit of weight.
Sows of this type are not prolific.

2. An extremely long, narrow, and leggy pig grows rapidly and
attains large size, but is likely to be lacking in capacity of middle and
feeding qualities and is often difficult to fatten at market weights (200
to 275 pounds). Sows of this type are prolific.

3. The most profitable market pig is intermediate in type be-
tween the two types mentioned above.

4. The most profitable market pig is the product of a large sire
and dam and has inherited the ability to grow rapidly and to make
large daily gains on feed.

5. He must have considerable length of body.

6. He must have at least medium length of leg.

7. He must have at least medium size of bone.

8. He must have a good constitution and good feeding qualities
as shown by depth and fullness of chest and middle.

9. He must be smooth, and free from coarseness in head and bone.

10. He must be active, and strong in feet, pasterns, and legs.

11. He must be strong in back and loin, showing a nicely arched
top line.

12. He must be neat in jowl, firm in fieshing, and free from
flabbiness along the belly and in the lower part of the ham.

13. When fattened for the market he should be fairly wide
throughout, indicating a good finish, but a very wide type is not desir-
able for two reasons: (a) Too frequently it is associated with a short,
low-set, chunky, slow-growing type, (b) It indicates an excessively

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

319

fat condition not favored by the packer, and final gains that are not
ordinarily economical or profitable to the producer.

The following description applies particularly to the fat barrow
raised and fattened for the market. The type desired in lard hogs for
breeding purposes is described in Chapter XXVII.

The general appearance of the lard-type hog fattened for the
market embodies a long, deep, and reasonably wide conformation, to-
gether with great smoothness. The legs should be of medium length,
so as to give a rather upstanding, but not leggy, appearance. He
should be tall as measured from his back to the ground, rather upstand-
ing as measured from his belly to the ground, yet deep from back to

Fig. 114.-

—Points of the hog.

3.
4.
5.
6.

Snout

Eye

Ear

Cheek

Jowl

Poll

9.
10.
11.
12.

Neck
Shoulder
Fore leg
Pastern
Toes
Dew claw

13. Back

14. Loin

15. Side

16. Belly

17. Fore flank

18.
19.
20.
21.
22.

Hind flank
Rump
Ham
Hind leg
Tail

underline. The top line should be arched, showing an even curvature,
from shoulders to tail, insuring against weakness of back and loin.
The highest point in the top line should be midway between shoulders
and hips, whereas frequently the highest point is over the hips. In
the latter case the rump is usually steep and drooping and the hind
legs do not come down straight but are placed too far under the body.
The hips should have about the same height as the tops of the shoulders,
and the rump should round off rather gradually. The underline should
be straight, trim, and level, insuring against paunchiness and against

320

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

flabbiness in fleshing along the belly. The flanks should be well let
down. The hog should be uniform in his width and uniform in his
depth, showing no tendency to taper in width and to be heavy in
shoulders and light in hams.

When a view is taken directly down upon the top of the hog he
should show good width and marked uniformity of width throughout.
His top from shoulders to tail should be nicely rounded over from side
to side without any tendency to be ridgy or peaked. His sides should
be well filled out so that they are even with the shoulders and hams,
indicating good condition and insuring smoothness and evenness in
form. He should be very smooth in both form and fleshing, and should

Fig. 115. — Excellent type in the fat barrow. Champion Poland-China barrow
and reserve grand champion at the 1922 International. Bred, fed, and exhibited
by Iowa State College. Lame at time photograph was taken, but he shows excellent
form, condition, and smoothness, good quality, and exceptionally good top line, side,
ham, and pasterns. He stands at the right end of the line in Fig. 119.

show refinement of head, ear, coat, and skin. He should have bone of
medium size, free from any roughness and coarseness and also free
from over-refinement and weakness. His legs should be straight and
he should be active and should show good style. The lard hog is
milder and more quiet in disposition than the bacon hog, but a sluggish,
inactive hog is objectionable. Lard hogs should be fairly active.
This makes them better grazers, insures exercise, and helps to develop
heart and lung capacity and strength of feet and legs. Too frequently

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 321

the fat, finished pig is short winded and is weak in underpinning, so
that it becomes a difficult matter and perhaps impossible to get him
safely to market.

The head is of medium size, medium length, broad between the
eyes, and short of snout. A narrow head and finely pointed snout are
indications of a poor feeder. The shape and length of head vary ac-
cording to the breed, but in none of the lard breeds is much length or
narrowness desirable. The eyes should be as large, prominent, and
clear as possible, a small, sunken eye obscured by rolls of fat around
the socket being objectionable. The carriage of the ear varies accord-
ing to the breed, being erect in some and drooping or broken in others.
In all the breeds, however, a fine and medium-sized ear, neatly attached
to the head, is desired. The jowl should be neat and trim. It should
not be loose and flabby, because this indicates an excessively fat condi-
tion, lack of firmness in covering, and lack of intermixture of fat and
lean in the carcass. Trim, firm jowls from light-weight hogs may be
made into bacon squares. The cheeks and jowls should be free from
wrinkles or seams. The poll of the head should be broad and carry
forward prominently.

The neck should be of medium length, slightly arched, and medium
broad on top. A neck that is narrow or peaked on top is not often
associated with a body of the desired conformation, and it also denotes
lack of condition.

The shoulders are very frequently too open and prominent, so
that as one looks down at the top of the hog the shoulders are found to
be much the widest part of the animal. They should be well laid in,
very smooth, and have no greater width than the rest of the body,
such a hog being much more desirable from a market and carcass point
of view. The tops of the shoulders should not stand open and apart,
but should be laid together and thickly fleshed so as to present a fairly
wide and very smooth surface in harmony with the rest of the top.

The front legs should be of medium length, this being a somewhat
variable feature depending on the breed, and they should also be
straight. It is especially important that the pasterns shall be short,
upright, and very strong, and that the feet shall be strong also. These
points should be particularly emphasized, for it is a fact that weak,
broken-down pasterns and weak, spreading toes are among the most
common and most serious faults to be found in swine of the lard type.
Weak legs may be due to a natural or inherited weakness, or to im-
proper feeding during the growing period. If growing pigs are fed on
com exclusively, they are liable to develop weakness of the legs, be-
cause corn does not carry sufficient bone- and muscle-building con-
stituents to satisfy the demands of the animal during the growing

322

Types and Market Classes of Ln^ Stock

period. The bone of the market hog should be medium in size, free
from coarseness, and amply sufficient to carry the weight of the hog
and to provide strength of feet, pasterns, and legs.

The chest is an evidence of the constitutional vigor possessed by
the animal. It should be deep and wide, and should be well filled out
behind the shoulders and elbows, affording a large heart-girth. The
underline should not cut up between the fore legs, but carry straight
forward so as to give as much depth through the chest as through the
middle of the body.

The back and loin of the lard hog are very important parts. They
should be rather long and of good but not excessive width, and, as the

Fig. 116. — Berkshire barrow, grand champion at the 1921 International.
Fitted and shown by the University of Minnesota. Especially good in depth of body,
finish, smoothness, and quality.

animal is viewed from the side, they should be arched. The top of
the hog should be thickly fleshed and smooth. There should be no
marked rounding off from the middle line, but instead a slight arch
over the top from side to side and good width of top due to well-sprung
ribs and thick but not excessive fleshing. A "ridgy" back is an evi-
dence of lack of fleshing, and a narrow, "sunfish" conformation is very
faulty for the same reason and also because such animals are often
deficient in constitution and feeding qualities. A dip in the back, or
sway-back conformation, greatly detracts from the appearance of the
animal and may indicate weakness of muscling; hence the cuts from
the back and loin may be lacking in lean meat.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

323

The sides of the hog should be long from shoulder to ham and
should carry down straight and deep from back and loin to belly and
flanks. Very short hogs raised and fed for market are open to objec-
tion because such a type does not grow rapidly. On the other hand,
extreme length is often secured at the expense of constitution and
feeding qualities. Extremes are to be avoided. When fattened for
the market, the sides should be thickly and smoothly fleshed so that
every point along the side fills out to meet the same straight line from
shoulder to ham. Wrinkles in the skin along the side are objectionable
because they injure the smoothness of appearance which is so desirable,
and if the wrinkles are very deep and are permanent, that is, do not

I mm

Bill,

r m

» i'l

I^^K^m ^^ -*M^^

^^M- ^^ „ . ^

Fig. 117. — Duroc-Jersey barrow, grand champion at the 1922 International.
Bred, fed, and shown by the Oklahoma Agricultural College. Note his good form,
excellent finish, smoothness, and quality.

disappear when the hog changes position, they are called "creases" or
"seams" and are highly undesirable. Creases most often occur just
behind the shoulder, but they may occur all along the side. They
involve not only the skin but also the flesh underlying the skin, so that
when the fingers are inserted into them they are found to be deep and
pronounced. They indicate lack of quality and lack of evenness in
fleshing, and are especially objectionable because they remain in
the side meat after it has been pressed and cured by the packer,
thereby injuring the appearance of such cuts and affecting their selling
price.

324 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

The belly should be straight, not paunchy, insuring a good dressing
percentage when the hog is killed. The belly should be trim, not
flabby, and should be wide rather than narrow or V-shaped.

The rump should be long and as wide as the rest of the top, and it
should carry out from hips to end of body with a slight curve down-
ward to coincide with the arch of the entire top from head to tail.
Very often the rump will be found very steep or drooping, the hips
being carried too high and the tail set very low. Accompanying this
kind of a rump, and to a certain extent causing it, is a faulty position
of the hind legs, the feet being set too far under the body. This con-
stitutes a weak conformation of the hindquarter, and gives the animal
an ungainly appearance. The rump should not taper in width from
hips to end of body, but be uniform in width throughout.

The hams really include the rump as well as the thighs and twist.
They should be large and well developed, being deep and of good width,
with the thickness and fullness carried well down toward the hocks.
They should be reasonably firm in flesh and should be neat in form.
Flabby and baggy hams are undesirable because they carry too much
outside fat and require too much trimming off before they can be sold.
Some hams lose 15 per cent in trimming at the packing house.

The hind legs should be of medium length and should carry down
straight and vertical from the hocks to the ground. The pasterns
should be short, upright, and very strong, the feet well formed, and the
toes strong. The bone of the market hog should be of medium size
and free from coarseness.

The hair should be straight rather than curly, and should be fine.
A harsh, bristly coat is an evidence of coarseness. A curly coat is
objectionable because curly hair is usually coarser than straight hair,
and curly-coated hogs do not shed their coats properly, which injures
the appearance. A swirl or rose in the hair on the back or rump
detracts from the appearance, and is objectionable for that reason.
The hair should be abundant, straight, and fine, and should lie close
to the skin. Such a coat affords the most protection and adds to the
attractiveness of appearance.

The quality of the lard-type hog is determined by the refinement
of the head, hair, and bone, smoothness of finish, and freedom from
wrinkles and creases. The hog with quality has a clean-cut, well-
bred appearance that pleases not only the producer and hog fancier,
but also the butcher, because such a hog yields a neat, tidy carcass
that attracts buyers, and the cuts of meat show a refined texture that
is not to be found in the cuts from a coarse, rough hog.

The proper finish of a lard-type hog is secured by a fairly high
degree of fattening. When handled along the top, below the shoulders,

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

325

and at the lower border of the hams, the fleshing should be firm instead
of soft as is often the case, especially in some breeds. Some hogs be-
come lumpy in their covering of fat, which is objectionable. When the
fattening has proceeded far enough to round out the lines of the animal
and give him a smooth, springy, mellow covering of flesh, he is in the
right condition to meet with most favor from the butcher, and, as a
rule, this degree of finish is most profitable to the producer.

The temperament of the lard-type hog is quite different from that
of the bacon hog, being less active and more inclined to quietness,
lying down, and the taking on of fat. Ideas as to what is most desirable

m^-

-'*J*"'P"WF-.

«"'

y^s.nf T^gjKlWlB^

f ■

r*C

'.I

'«!

Fig. 118. — Some essentials in type well illustrated. Duroc-Jersey barrow
shown by the University of Minnesota, second in class to the grand champion at the
1922 International. Remarkably good in top line, bone, pasterns, feet, head, neck,
shoulders, and smoothness. Lacking somewhat in depth of body and condition
because he could not be given a full feed without making him too heavy for showing
under the 1922 International classification.

in the temperament of this type of swine are tending somewhat away
from the one formerly in favor, namely, that a hog should eat and lie
down, and that a minimum of exercise is conducive to greatest economy
in pork production. Most producers believe that better results are
secured if the hog is disposed by temperament to take considerable
exercise, especially during the growing period ; they are selecting more
active hogs for breeding, and are managing their young stock in such
a way as to induce them to take a large amount of exercise. This

326

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

results in growthy pigs of robust constitution and lessens the danger
of disease. Exercise also develops the muscles and strengthens the
pasterns and legs. Notwithstanding this present-day tendency to
select a more active hog than in the past, there must always be con-
siderable difference between the lard type and bacon type in this
respect, the former being more quiet, slower in movements, and having
greater natural aptitude to fatten.

The weight for age is an important consideration because it is a
measure of the profit-making ability of the hog. Pigs weighing over
150 pounds, fattened for the market, should have at least one pound
of weight for every day of their age. On this basis, a pig six months
old should weigh not less than 180 pounds. It is not unreasonable to

Fig. 119. — Five Poland-China barrows, first in get-of-sire class and including
the grand champion pen of three barrows at the 1922 International. Bred, fed, and
exhibited by Iowa State College.

fix the standard of weight for lard hogs six months old at 200 pounds;
nine months, 300 pounds; twelve months, 400 pounds. Hogs are
matured at about thirty months of age. Mature boars in good condi-
tion should weigh 800 pounds or over; sows, 600 pounds or over. The
average weight of hogs received at the large markets at the present
time is about 225 pounds. Hog growers are agreed that weights from
200 to 275 pounds for market hogs are usually most profitable.

CHAPTER XXIII
THE BACON-TYPE HOG

The bacon hog presents some very marked differences when com-
pared with the lard hog in form, fleshing, and temperament. These
differences are very necessary because the bacon hog yields a product
that is quite different from that of the fat or lard hog. The foremost
countries in bacon production are England, Denmark, and Canada, the
first mentioned consuming the surplus production of the other two.
It is a superior product to that with which the American public is
supplied, being the finest that is produced. American bacon is the
belly meat of the lighter and thinner hogs of the lard type, but English
bacon is supplied by a hog the entire side of which is suitable for bacon.
Denmark and Canada ship bacon to England in the form of what is
called the "Wiltshire side." A Wiltshire side represents half the car-
cass of the hog, minus the head and legs. The neck, shoulder, back,
loin, side, belly, and ham are included, and all of these parts are retailed
as bacon except the ham and shoulder.

The best bacon contains a relatively large amount of lean meat
and small amount of fat. The price charged for bacon at wholesale or
retail is very largely regulated by these features, a cheap slab of bacon
always being characterized by greater thickness, little lean, and much
fat. The production of high-quality bacon therefore necessitates a
different kind of hog than the lard hog, a hog disposed to be muscular
and active, but not a hog that fattens readily. The production of the
best bacon also necessitates feeding this hog on such feeds as will furnish
nitrogenous or muscle-building materials in abundance, the carbona-
ceous or fat-forming elements of the ration being supplied in much
less amount than would be advisable if lard hogs were being fed. This
fact explains why but few bacon hogs are found in the corn belt, and
also why the United States is able to "produce the lard hog at lower cost
than he can be produced elsewhere. Whereas corn plays a large part
in the production of lard-type swine for the market, the bacon hog is
fed on such feeds as peas, barley, oats, and skim milk or buttermilk,
which are much better suited to bacon production than is com, be-
cause they contain a larger percentage of protein.

Weights desired in bacon hogs. — It is important that the producer
of bacon hogs turn them off to market at that period in their develop-
ment when the character of the flesh will be nearest the bacon ideal.
To be more explicit, if the hog is marketed too young its flesh will be

327

328

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

watery and flabby, whereas further feeding and more age result in a
more desirable carcass. Young pigs have a very strong tendency to
utilize their feed for growth, and as they become older and are more
matured they fatten much more readily. It is for this reason that the
best bacon comes from hogs within certain limits of weight. Bacon
pigs vary in the weight at which they acquire the proper degree of
finish depending upon how they are fed and also upon the breed and
the individual. When various breeds are fed alike, or individuals of
the same breed are fed alike, some reach the proper finish earlier than
others. George B. Roth well states^ that some strains of Berkshires
are finished at 170 pounds, others at 200; and that some Yorkshires

Fig. 120. — Fancy market bacon pig.

finish best at 210 to 220 pounds and over. Experience has shown that
a weight of 160 pounds is the minimum weight at which to market a
bacon hog and that the upper limit is 220 pounds. These figures
represent the extremes; the best bacon carcasses are from hogs that
weighed 185 to 200 pounds. This does not mean that the bacon hog
reaches maturity at a weight of 200 or 220 pounds, or that it is desirable
that he should do so. The matured weight for boars in good flesh
should be not less than 700 pounds, and for sows not less than 500
pounds.

When the carcass of a bacon hog is split down the back, the layer
of fat along the spine and back should be not less than 1 inch or more

^Dominion Experimental Farms, Seasonable Hints, No. 24, Nov., 1922, p. 34.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 329

than 13^ inches in thickness, and it should be as uniform in thickness
as possible from one end to the other. The production of the best
Wiltshire sides is possible only from hogs that are long from shoulder
to ham, light and smooth in the shoulder, neck, and jowl, and very-
straight and trim along the belly.

When thinking of a bacon hog we usually have in mind such a
hog as the market wants, in other words, a hog suitable for slaughtering
and cutting up into Wiltshire sides. Also, from what has been said of
the importance of certain weight requirements, it is at once apparent
that boars and breeding sows are not desired by the packer. If, how-
ever, their form, quality, and temperament are such as will cause them
to transmit to their pigs the characteristics which are necessary in

Fig. 121. — Correct bacon type.

order that these pigs may be fed out successfully for the bacon market,
then the boar and sow are said to possess bacon type. In judging
breeding stock, certain allowances must therefore be made and certain
points must be emphasized which do not concern us in judging bacon
hogs for slaughter. The same general principles and the same general
type apply in both cases, but the judge must emphasize certain points
that are peculiar and essential in each.

The form of the bacon hog is quite different from that of the lard
hog. There is much less thickness and depth of body, greater length
of leg, a lighter shoulder, neck, and jowl, and greater length from snout
to tail, especially from shoulder to ham. From the snout to the rear
border of the shoulder the hog should be comparatively short, this
being the low-priced end of the carcass. There is considerable differ-

330

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

ence between the retail prices received for the front and hind ends of
the Wiltshire side. Length of side from shoulder to ham and length
of ham from front to rear are of very great importance, but it is a
mistake to make everything else secondary in importance to length;
length should not be carried to the greatest possible extreme. The
hog should have enough depth and width of body to give him a strong
constitution in a well-developed chest and middle. This applies both
to the market hog and the breeding animal. There should be as
much depth of body in front as behind, and as much width at one point
as another — in other words, the hog should be symmetrical or balanced
in his conformation. Great smoothness from one end to the other is
a prim^e essential, and smoothness must be secured without the assist-

ii . ■.../.-.- -^ ...

Fig. 122. — Bacon type as shown in the herd boar. This Yorkshire boar shows
the desired form, smoothness, and quality. Note the clean-cut, trim appearance,
light jowl, long smooth side, deep flanks, tapering ham, and large smooth bone.

ance of much fat, such as greatly assists in giving smoothness to the
lard hog.

Proper quality in a market bacon hog is very important because
a rough or coarse appearance detracts much from the price, and be-
cause it is desired that the flesh be fine in texture. In both market
hogs and breeding stock, a fine, smooth coat of hair denotes quality.
Well-developed wrinkles or seams in the skin indicate coarse-grained
flesh, and injure the appearance of the finished product. The snout,
face, jowl, and ear should show refinement, yet not to an extreme that
indicates lack of vigor and feeding qualities. The bone should be
flinty and smooth, rather than coarse and rough. Coarse bone is verj'

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 331

objectionable because it indicates hard feeding qualities and slow
maturity. The butcher prefers a fine-boned hog, but the breeder
wants the boar to stand on heavy, clean bone covered with skin that
shows no coarseness. The brood sow should have finer bone than the
boar, but it should be in every way proportionate to her weight, plus
the added weight resulting from pregnancy.

Proper condition for a market bacon hog is a feature requiring
considerable practice in judging. There is danger of too high a degree
of fatness, even though the live weight be within the limits that have
been mentioned. People who live in the corn belt experience some
difficulty in accepting a properly finished market bacon hog as such
when first taking up a study of this type. To them the hog looks
considerably underdone. The indications of the proper degree of fat-
ness are difficult to describe. The hog has a well-fed, thrifty appear-
ance, but not a finished look comparable to that of the properly finished
lard hog. The flesh is firm and the hog is reasonably well filled out.
Soft flesh at the lower part of the hams, at the lower border of the
shoulder, or on the jowl, is undesirable because it indicates an over-fat
condition and an uneven distribution of the fat. Smoothness and firm-
ness of fleshing are decidedly essential.

As indicating the importance of proper feeding and the proper
finish, George B. Rothwell states ^ that the feeding of the market bacon
hog is almost, if not equally, as important as the breeding. He par-
ticularly cautions against overfeeding and recommends that young pigs
be kept hungry and that exercise, green feed, and feeds that produce
bone and muscle be provided up to four months of age. He states
that middlings, shorts, oats, barley, and skim or buttermilk make a
desirable ration at this stage, and that com and barley must be used
sparingly, though they may be used more heavily during the last 6 or
8 weeks. He concludes by saying, "Once more and lastly — avoid over-
feeding."

The style of the bacon hog should be marked. He should be very
active, thus indicating a full muscular development. He should walk
without apparent effort. A writhing movement when walking is taken
as an indication of weakness in muscling along the back and loin.

The head varies in shape a great deal, depending to a large extent
upon the breed, but there is also much variation between individuals
belonging to the same breed. Length of snout varies with the breed.
A long snout is very often associated with a narrow chest, and a very
short snout often goes with a heavy jowl and neck. The face should
be broad, and the poll should be broad also and come well forward,
these being indications of constitutional vigor and feeding qualities.

Dominion Experimental Farms, Seasonable Hints, No. 24, Nov., 1922, p. 34.

332 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Large, prominent, bright eyes indicate health and constitution. A
heavy, fat jowl denotes too strong a fattening tendency for a bacon
animal. Good width across the jowl is desirable, but it should be very
trim and neat. Size and carriage of the ear vary according to the
breed. A large ear does not indicate lack of quality provided it is
fine or thin. Thick, coarse ears denote a thick, coarse skin, which, in
turn, denotes coarse-grained flesh.

The neck, while not a valuable part of the carcass, is important
as indicating constitution and feeding qualities. A long, thin neck is
an indication of deficient constitution and low feeding qualities; while
a short, thick neck, with a crest of fat on top will result in a side of
bacon that is too heavy at the fore end, which is the cheap end of the
side. Moderate length and width of neck are wanted. It is to be
expected that mature boars will have heavier necks than sows or
barrows.

The shoulders should be light and set in the body smoothly. They
should be deep from top to bottom, but not wide from front to rear,
and as one looks down on the top of the hog, they should show no
greater fullness than the back and loin. Shoulders that have more
width from side to side than the rest of the hog are objectionable, but
nevertheless should be given preference over a narrow chest in a breed-
ing animal.

The chest should be deep, fairly wide, and free from any depression
immediately behind the shoulders, and the breast should carry well
down between the fore legs and have good width, thus insuring a large
chest capacity.

The front legs should be rather long, but not extremely so, straight,
strong, with upright pasterns, and carrying the weight full on the toes.

A back of moderate width, slightly arched from front to rear, and
rounded over the top from side to side, represents correct development
in this valuable part of the carcass. A sagging back or a decidedly
arched back is an evidence of weak muscling and consequently of a
lack of lean meat along the top where the highest-priced bacon is found.
The top of the hog should show a slight arch from head to tail, the
highest point being over the loin. A wide, flat back denotes a high
degree of fatness which is not wanted in the carcass of a bacon hog.
A very narrow back is an indication of a lack of lean meat.

The loin furnishes the most valuable part of the side of bacon and
therefore should be strongly developed. It should have the same width
and form as the back. From shoulder to hindquarter the top of the
hog should exhibit a uniform width, uniform arch, and uniform fleshing.

A side that is flat, straight, and deep, with a great deal of length,
and carrying a firm, smooth covering of flesh is demanded. The

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 333

packer likes as long a side as can be had, but the breeder must avoid
extreme length because such hogs incline to be narrow and shallow
bodied. They lack constitution and feeding qualities to such an extent
that they do not make economical gains on feed. The side of the
bacon hog constitutes the most important consideration in judging
either breeding or market animals. Score cards for bacon hogs allow
more points to the side than to any other part of the animal. When
the hog is standing, a straight-edge laid against his side, either vertically
or horizontally, should touch every point beneath it. There should be
no signs of seams or wrinkles, but a smooth development everywhere.
The side should also be firm in fleshing, without any softness just behind
the shoulder or elsewhere.

Fig. 123. — Bacon type us shown in tlie brood sow. The prize-winning York-
shire sow, Deer Creek Rena 6th, owned by B. F. Davidson, Menlo, Iowa. Note the
arch of top, length of side, smoothness of flesh, lightness of jowl, and good udder
development.

The flank is important because a high flank injures the appear-
ance of the carcass, necessitates more trimming in order to give even-
ness to the lower border of the side of bacon, and also is an indication
that the belly meat is too thin. When the flank is carried down well,
the flesh is usually carried well down on the ham, the belly is thick and
meaty, and the development of the side is made more uniform in depth
and thickness.

The belly should be straight, trim, firm, thick, and free from flabbi-
ness. This part yields good bacon, but it is not so high priced as that
from the loin and back.

The rump should not be broad and flat, which indicates too much
fat, but should have the same width as the back and loin, and should

334 Types and Market Glasses of Live Stock

be rounding from side to side across the top, the same as the back and
loin. It should be long also, and should round slightly toward the
tail, but should not be drooping with the tail set low.

A heavy, bulging ham is not an indication of correct bacon type.
Such hams must have a great deal of fat trimmed off them in preparing
the side of bacon for the market. The ham of the bacon hog should
taper toward the hock and should be smooth and firm, especially at
the lower part where flabbiness is likely to occur. The flesh should
carry well around the bone, inside as well as outside, and should not
taper off too suddenly below, but let down well toward the hocks.
The ham of the bacon hog is often called the "gammon."

The hind legs should be straight and strong, the pasterns upright,
and the weight carried full on the toes.

CHAPTER XXIV
THE HOG CARCASS

A comparative study of the importance of the various kinds of
meat in American, EngHsh, French, and German dietaries discloses the
fact that civiHzation is greatly dependent upon the hog and its products.
The following table gives the annual per capita consumption of the
various kinds of meat in the four countries mentioned, and shows the
large contribution of the hog to the meat supply:

Per capita consumption of meat in four countries

Kind of meat

United States
(1922)

United

Kingdom

(average

1906-1908)

Germany «
(1913)

France •
(1904)

Beef

Pounds

61.4
7.3
5.0

90.1

Pounds

56.00

4.00

26.00

33.00

Pounds
31.35

7.25

1.90

71.30

Pounds

37.00

Veal

8.00

Mutton and lamb

9.00

Pork, including lard

26.00

Total

163.8

119.no

111.80

80.00

' In addition to the above, the consumption of horse flesh amounted to about 1 pound per capita
in France, and in Germany 1.9 pounds of goat, horse, and dog meat was consumed per capita.

The British are well known to be partial to beef in their meat
dietary, and the Germans to pork, and this is amply substantiated by
the table; nevertheless it is seen that the people of the United States
consume more beef than the British and more pork than the Germans.
The British, however, consume more mutton per capita than any other
nationality, and the French come first with veal. The figures show
that the consumption of pork, as compared with the consumption of
beef, is greater than might be supposed. Americans and Germans con-
sume more pork than beef, but the table shows a different proportion
for the English and French. These variations may be due to differ-
ences in the way appetites have been cultivated in the various countries,
or to differences in the quantities of pork produced and the cost of it.

In the total slaughter (federally inspected and all other slaughter)
of beef, veal, mutton, lamb, and pork in the United States, excluding
lard, beef and veal constituted 43.7 per cent of the total weight in 1922,
mutton and lamb only 3.1 per cent, and pork 53.2 per cent. ^

^Computed from Meat Production, Consumption, and Foreign Trade in United
States, 1907-1922, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Mimeographed Report, by
John Roberts.

335

336 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

The type of hogs found in the several countries varies considerably.
In the United States the fat or lard type is produced almost exclusively,
this being particularly true of the corn belt. The stock yards of this
country receive practically no bacon hogs; the St. Paul market is some-
thing of an exception, although the number received there is compara-
tively small. For this reason we shall give more attention to the fat
carcass than to the bacon carcass.

Slaughtering and dressing. — When the hog enters the packing
house, and this applies to both the lard hog and the bacon hog, he is
driven into a small pen adjacent to a large, slowly revolving wheel,
called the "hog hoist," pictured in this chapter. A chain is fastened
about a hind leg and hooked into a link on the wheel. The hog is
raised as the wheel turns, until he reaches an overhead inclined rail

Fig. 124.— The hog hoist.

from which he is suspended and along which he passes to the "sticker."
After bleeding, the hog is dropped into a scalding vat in which the water
is kept at a temperature of 142 to 144 degrees F. This loosens the
hair and scurf. He is then hooked onto a chain which carries him
through a scraping machine, after which he is again suspended from an
overhead rail and any spots of hair missed by the machine are scraped
by hand and the hair inside the ears and about the face is singed off
with a gas torch. These operations and the subsequent ones necessary
to complete the dressing process are briefly as follows: (1) Hoisting,
(2) bleeding, (3) scalding, (4) scraping, (5) singeing, (6) removal of
head, (7) disemboweling, (8) splitting, (9) removal of leaf fat and
kidneys, (10) facing hams, ^ and (11) cooling. The carcass remains in

^This consists of smoothing and shaping the ham by trimming off excessive or
uneven fat surrounding the split surface or face of the ham.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 337

the cooler at a temperature of 34 degrees F. for 48 hours before it is
taken to the cutting room for division into the wholesale cuts. Nearly
all carcasses are cut, and most of the cuts are cured by pickling and
smoking before the meat is sold to the retailer.

The method outlined above is known as the "packer" style of
dressing. The legs, feet, and jowl are left as part of the carcass. An
exception is made in the case of pigs and some light hogs intended for
the fresh pork trade, these being "shipper" dressed, which means that
the head is left on, the leaf fat and kidneys in, the hams not faced, and
the backbone not split. Some variation also occurs in the manner of
splitting the carcass. All dressed hogs are cut open along the under-
line and through the aitch bone and brisket, but the best heavy car-
casses, called "loin carcasses," are split through the center of the back-

FlG. 125. — Dressing hogs.

bone, while the inferior heavy carcasses, called "packing carcasses,"
are sometimes split on one side of the backbone. Bacon carcasses are
usually cut with a knife on each side of the backbone and then split on
one side and the backbone taken out, making sides suitable for the
English bacon cuts.

The ofifal and the dressing percentage. — The parts which the hog
loses in dressing are the blood, hair, head, viscera, leaf fat, kidneys, and
ham facings. Hogs having a live weight above 150 pounds and dressed
packer style may range in dressing percentage from 65 to 80 per cent.
Pigs weighing 30 pounds may dress as low as 60 per cent. Hogs
dressed shipper style have a dressing percentage about 8 per cent higher
than those dressed packer style, the difference being due to the head,
leaf fat, kidneys, and ham facings, which are not removed in the shipper

338

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

style of dressing. Heavy hogs dressed shipper style easily dress 83 to
85 per cent. Some hogs in the carcass contests at the International
Live Stock Show have dressed as high as 89, 89.3, and 89.6, but these
were hogs of show-yard quality weighing 417, 429, and 520 pounds
respectively. They had been without feed or water for more than 24
hours prior to killing, and were dressed shipper style. The chief factors
determining the dressing percentage of a hog are fatness and paunchi-
ness, of which the former is by far the more important. Dressing per-
centage is an important factor determining the price of market hogs,
though less important than with cattle and sheep because market hogs
are more uniform in dressing percentage than market cattle or market
sheep. Market hogs of the same weight show much less variation in
dressing percentage than do cattle or sheep of a given weight.

Fig. 126. — Shipper-dressed carcasses in the cooler.

Qualifications of a good carcass. — The value of the lard-hog car-
cass depends upon shape, finish, quality, and weight. The require-
ments in these respects are as follows:

1. Shape. — The most desired carcass is straight and even in its
lines, wide in proportion to its length, well developed in the back, loin,
sides, and hams, well developed but free from heaviness or coarseness
in shoulders and neck, and smooth throughout. A neat, trim carcass
is wanted that is free from prominence on the underline. Hence,
barrows are always preferred to sows because sows carry more cheap
belly meat, this being especially true of sows that have had several
litters of pigs. Such sows are called "seedy," and they bring a lower

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

339

price than neat, trim animals that are smooth on the belly. The
accompanying drawings show the importance of the underline in de-
termining the value of the side cut from a hog. The trimming from a
seedy sow goes to the rendering tank and is made into a cheap grade of
lard.

Side from
low-flanked hog

Side from
high-flanked hog

Side from
seedy sow

Fig. 127. — Effect of underline on trimming of side. T, trimming.

2. Finish. — The degree of fatness or finish is shown by the depth
of fat along the back, by the quantity of leaf fat, by a plump, full
appearance throughout, and by good width of back and side in propor-
tion to length of body. The leaf is the internal fat, including the kidney
fat, lying under the ribs and extending to the "skirt" or diaphragm.
Packers like hogs well fattened because this means a higher yield of
lard and a higher dressing percentage. As a rule, the heavier the hog
the more fat he carries, because the nearer an animal approaches
maturity the more easily it takes on fat.

That the hog is by nature disposed to take on more fat than any
of the other domestic animals is shown by the following table of analyses
made at the Rothamsted (England) Experiment Station. ' After fast-
ing from 18 to 24 hours the animals were killed and the entire bodies
analysed.

Composition of the entire bodies of meat-producing animals

Animal

Age

Live
weight

Protein

Fat

Mineral
matter
(ash)

Total
dry
sub-
stance

Water

Contents
of stom-
ach and
intestines
—moist

Fat pig

Lbs.

185

127

1,416

258

Per

cent

10.9
12.2
14.5
12.3
15.2

Per
cent

42.2

35.6
30.1
28.5
14.8

Per
cent

1.65
2.81
3.92
2.94
3.80

Per
cent
54.7
50.6
48.5
43.7
33.8

Per
cent

41.3
43.4
45.5
47.8
63.0

Per
cent

3.97

Fat sheep

15 mo.

4 yrs.

6 mo.
8-9wks.

6.02

Fat ox

5.98

Fat lamb

8.54

Fat calf

3.17

These figures show why the corn crop has formed a closer alliance
with hogs than with any other of our domestic animals. The hog is
naturally disposed to take on a very high degree of fatness, and hog fat
is more valuable than the fat of cattle or sheep. Packers desire a
thick covering of outside fat on the carcass of a lard hog, the thickness
varying according to the weight of the carcass. Wentworth and

'Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc. Eng., 1898.

340 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Gentry of Armour and Company state ^ that butcher hogs, which are
"most sought by the packers at all seasons of the year," should not be
"overfinished and extremely lardy, neither should they be so unfinished
as to lack the substance, quality, and flavor of cuts the consumer re-
quires."

3. Quality. — The carcass is said to have quality when it is smooth
in shape, firm and smooth in flesh, fine and smooth in skin, fine in
head and shanks, fine in texture of flesh, bright in color of lean, and
white in color of fat. Creases in the skin, bruises, staggy necks and
shoulders, and seedy bellies all indicate coarseness. Barrows and
smooth, clear sows yield carcasses of the best quality.

Wentworth and Gentry indicate the importance of good finish and
quality in the hog carcass in the following comparison: ^ "The corn-
fed hog, hung in the cooler to chill and harden for 48 hours, will come
out firm, while the grass-fed hog may be as soft and flabby as when it
went in. The corn-fed hog cuts easily and there is a layer of pure
white fat on the back. The loin cuts out shapely, and the flesh is
pink and fine grained. The ham has the proper depth of fat and the
belly has the right thickness and is properly streaked with lean to
produce a high-grade bacon. On the other hand, the carcass of the
grass hog fails to harden, no matter how long it is chilled; there is a
tough rind over the loin and a sheet of gristly fat. The fat is yellowish
and the flesh is stringy. The belly makes a coarse, inferior bacon and
the cuts shrink away and present a dried -up appearance when smoked.
Furthermore, because of the softness of the carcass, it is difficult to
produce the standard cuts, and such cuts as are produced must be sold
at a low price or be used for sausage or rendering."

Soft pork. — Corn, barley, rye, and wheat produce firm pork be-
cause the fat has a high melting point. Peanuts, mast, and sometimes
soybeans are known to produce soft, oily fat having a low melting
point, and hogs fed on these feeds yield soft pork. For this reason
hogs from the southern states are often discriminated against in price,
sometimes to the extent of 2 to 4 cents per pound live weight. Soft
hogs yield inferior lard, usually have a lower dressing percentage, and
the percentage of condemned livers, kidneys, hearts, and casings is
reported to be greater. ^ Varying degrees of softness are found. The
U. S. Department of Agriculture conducted extensive tests involving
800 hogs and found that the loss in weight from the cooler to the end
of the curing and retaining period was over 2 per cent greater in soft
pork than in firm pork. Soft carcasses yield cuts of poor shape and

1 Progressive Hog Raising, Armour and Company, Chicago, 1922, p. 74.
2Ibid, p. 70.
'Ibid, p. 48.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

341

the skin shrivels and presents a poor appearance. Hogs that are un-
thrifty, unhealthy, aged, very immature, or kept under adverse condi-
tions also produce pork that is more or less lacking in firmness.

4. Weight. — Packers find uses for carcasses of all weights ranging
from 20 to 400 pounds and over, but Wentworth and Gentry state ^
that hogs with a live weight of 190 to 250 pounds yield cuts of the most
desired size and weight. All carcasses should be heavy in proportion
to their size to insure a high finish and cuts of the best shape.

Fig. 128. — Fat and Ij.-ion cin-ises compared. Note the difference in size,
and especially the difference in fatness, between the fat carcass on the left and the
bacon carcass on the right.

Classification of Carcasses

The classification and grading of hog carcasses is based on the
uses to which they are adapted, or in other words, it is based on the
products into which they can be converted. The generally recognized
classes and grades and their respective weights are as follows: ^

1 Progressive Hog Raising, p. 70.

*Louis D. Hall: Market Classes and Grades of Meat, 111. Bui. 147, pp. 252-288.

342 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Carcass weight

Smooth Heavy, or Heavj' Loin Carcasses 240 — 400 lb

Butcher, or Light Loin Carcasses 160 — 240 lb

fHeavy 240—400 lb

• Medium 200—240 lb

Light 100—200 lb

Choice 120—160 lb

•Good 110— 170 1b

Common 90—110 lb

Shippers 100—200 lb

Pigs , 20—100 lb

Packing Hog Carcasses.
Bacon Carcasses

Smooth heavy, or heavy loin carcasses constitute a very small
part of the general supply. They are from prime heavy hogs of good
quality, either barrows or good clear (not seedy) sows. They have
over 4 inches of fat on the back. They yield heavy loins, hams,
shoulders, fat backs, and dry-salt bellies, though at times they are cut
into the same products as heavy packing hogs.

Butcher or light loin carcasses yield the best loins. A large pro-
portion of the fresh pork sold in retail markets is pork loins, which are
cut into chops and roasts. Only the best carcasses weighing 160 to
240 pounds from barrows and smooth clear sows classify here. The
covering of fat on the back should be from 2 to 4 inches in thickness.
The carcass is cut into the regular American or lard-hog cuts. (See
Fig. 129.) The bellies are sweet pickled and the lighter and leaner
ones are smoked and sold as breakfast-bacon bellies.

Packing hog carcasses constitute about one-half of the hog car-
casses in Chicago packing houses. These are inferior carcasses of all
weights ranging from 100 pounds upwards. They are coarse, rough,
and unevenly finished. They are not well adapted for fresh pork
products or smoked meats, and the sides are therefore principally
packed as mess pork, barreled pork, and dry-salt meats. In times of
scarcity, however, the sides are cut into loins, fat backs, and bellies,
the same as butcher hogs. This is more often true of the light and
medium-weight packing carcasses than of the heavy ones. The hams
are sweet pickled and the shoulders made into picnics and Boston
butts.

Bacon carcasses are the lighter, thinner carcasses suitable for
sugar-cured breakfast-bacon bellies and English cuts, so called because
they are suitable for the English trade. The principal English cuts
are Wiltshire sides, Cumberland sides, and long-cut hams. The Wilt-
shire side comprises the entire side (half the hog), minus the head,
shanks, shoulder blade, and hip bone. The belly is trimmed smooth
and even. These sides average 40 to 70 pounds and are selected espec-
ially for thickness of lean meat and a light, even covering of fat from
1 to 2y2 inches thick, not exceeding 13/^ inches in the best grade.
They are made exclusively from choice, lean bacon hogs. Fig. 129

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

343

shows a bacon side and indicates its division into the long-cut ham
and the long-cut middle or Cumberland.

Shippers are similar to butcher hog carcasses in shape and quality,
but are lighter in weight and generally not so highly finished. They
are used for the fresh retail trade, and they must be fancy in quality.
They are extensively sold as whole carcasses and are shipped in carlots
to eastern points, the greatest demand being in the winter months.

Pigs are carcasses of light, young hogs that are comparatively lean
and weighing from 20 to 100 pounds. They are dressed and sold like

Fig. 129. — Wholesale cuts of pork.

English cuts.^A, Long-cut ham; B, long side or middle.

American cuts. — 1, Ham; 2, loin; 3, belly; 4, picnic butt; 5, Boston butt: 6,
jowl; 7, hock; 8, fat back; 9, clear plate; 2 and 8, back; 2, 3, and 8, side; 4 and 7, picnic
shoulder; 5 and 9, shoulder butt; 8 and 9, long fat back; 4, 5, 7, and 9, rough shoulder.

shippers. Roasting pigs are dressed suckling pigs which are fat and
smooth. They are sold like winter lambs direct to hotels and restau-
rants. The most desired weight is 15 to 20 pounds, but pigs weighing
30 pounds are used.

Wholesale cuts from the lard hog.— After the carcass has been
thoroughly chilled it is cut up into shoulders, hams, fat backs, loins.

344

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

spare ribs, and belly. These wholesale cuts are shown in the drawings
which accompany this chapter. (See Fig. 129.)

The part labeled "fat back" is a clear layer of outside fat contain-
ing no lean meat. Studies of the carcasses of cattle and sheep disclose
the fact that it is easily possible to feed a steer or a wether too long,
and thus make the animal too fat to suit the consumer. One-half to
three-fourths of an inch of outside fat is all that is wanted on the car-
casses of cattle, and for mutton and lamb the desired thickness is
proportionate to the requirements for cattle. With fat hogs we find
an entirely different state of affairs, for the packer wants a thick layer
of fat over the top of the hog. This heavy layer of fat constitutes a
separate cut known as the fat back, which may be rendered into lard,
or dry salted and sold as a dry-salt cut. When manufactured into lard

Fig. 133. — A side of pork. Sawing through ribs preliminary to cutting into
loin, fat back, spare ribs, and belly. The thick layer of clear fat covering the loin
is the fat back. The belly is streaked with lean. The spare ribs are trimmed from
the belly. The front or shoulder end of the side was toward the camera.

they render 85 to 88 per cent. About one-half of them are sold as a
dry-salt cut for which a demand exists in the South and in Europe.
Lard is more valuable than tallow, hence the difference in the packer's
attitude toward high finish in the lard hog as compared with a similar
degree of fatness in cattle or sheep.

The belly contains streaks of lean and is suitable for a "breakfast
bacon belly" if the cut is from a light-weight hog. If the hog is heavy,
the belly cut is dry salted or pickled and is known as a "dry-salt belly"
or as a "sweet-pickle belly," and these sell at lower prices.

Mr. L. D. H. Weld, of the Commercial Research Department of
Swift and Company, Chicago, has supplied the writer with the follow-

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 345

ing table showing the relative weights and values of the green (fresh
or uncured) cuts from a 250-pound hog. The prices are those pre-
vailing in March, 1923.

Green (fresh) cuts from a hog having a live weight of 250 pounds

Market price

Per cent of of green cuts Value per

Wholesale cuts live weight per pound cwt. of

Cents live hog

Regular hams 13.75 15 $2.06

Skinned shoulders 10.00 10 1.00

Jowl 3.00 8H .26

Bellies (square cut and seedless) 12.50 13 1.62

Fat backs 10.00 9 .90

Spare ribs 1.00 73^ .07

Loins 10.00 13 1.30

Miscellaneous i 3.00 5 .15

Leaf fat (unrendered) 3.00 lOM -32

Cutting fat (unrendered) » 6.00 7 .42

Heads 4.50 3?^ .16

Total 76.75 8.26

1 Includes feet, neck bones, tail, and a small amount of lean trimmings.

2 Includes small fat trimmings from hams, fat backs, bellies, and other cuts. It is rendered into lard.

High-priced and low-priced cuts. — There is less variation in the
prices of the wholesale cuts of pork than is true of beef, mutton, or
lamb. The loin, rib, and round of the beef carcass constitute 50 per
cent of the carcass weight and 70 per cent of the total value. The ham,
loin, and belly of the 250-pound lard hog constitute 47 per cent of the
carcass weight and 60 per cent of the total value. All of the larger
cuts — hams, shoulders, bellies, fat backs, and loins — sell readily at good
prices, whereas it is difficult to dispose of some of the cheaper cuts
from cattle and sheep. A study of the swine carcass emphasizes the
importance of good development in all parts of the hog, though more
especially in the back, loin, sides, and hams.

Weights of finished products. — The table and chart, shown on
next page, from Swift and Company's 1922 Year Book, shows the
weights of the finished products from a 250-pound hog.

Cured pork products. — Only about 1 or 2 per cent of the hogs
slaughtered by the large packing houses are sold as whole carcasses.
About three-fourths of the wholesale trade in pork consists of various
cured meats and fresh cuts, the remainder consisting principally of
lard and a small percentage of sausage and canned meats. Only about
20 per cent of the domestic trade and 5 per cent of the export trade in
pork products, other than lard, consists of fresh meat. ^ The various
curing processes perfected by American packers enable them to store
a large amount of pork during the winter season of heavy receipts for
disposal in seasons of light receipts. Some of the time in storage is
consumed in curing. Pickling requires from 30 to 100 days, and the

ilii. Bui. 147.

346

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

subsequent smoking requires from 2 to 8 days. ^ In this respect pork
has a decided advantage over beef and mutton which are sold almost
entirely in the fresh state, and the hog market is stabilized to some
extent as a result of it.

The only pork cuts sold extensively as fresh cuts are loins, tender-
loins, and spare ribs. Some hams and shoulders are also sold in the
fresh state. Following are brief discussions of the various curing pro-
cesses: 2

Mess pork, which is made from packing hog carcasses, is a simple
method of packing cheap pork and was much used in the early days of

Pork Products from a 250-PouniJ Hog— Finished Weights

Ceat

Pourul.

Hams, Smoked

1)00

)2S0

Bellies or Bacon

1175

29)7

Loins, Fresh

9 50

2)75

Fat Backs, Salted

9.50

2)75

Lard, Rendered

9.00

22 5IJ

Picnics, Smoked Shoulder

SOO

12.50

Boston Butts, Fresh

42S

10.6)

Clear Plates, Salted

2 75

687

Lean Trimmings, Sausage

225

5.6)

Jowl Butts, Salted

2. 25

S.(2

Spare Ribs, Fresh

1 25

313

(1) MiscM Edible Items

).00

7.50

(2^ Edible By-Products

225

5 62

(3) Xon-Edible By-Products

3 75

938

Shrinkage

20.50

51 2S

Total Live Weight

100%

250 lbs.

' 1 ) Includin?; feet, neck bones.

tails, brains, c

heek and he.id meat, ears, lips, and snouts.
2j Including: plucks, gullet meat, weasand meal, giblet meat, tongues, kidneys, and stomach
linings.
(3( Including; casings, blood, hair, grease, and tankage.
Note — .Although this method of cutting is typical, proportions vary with trade requirements.

Fig. 131. ^Weights of the finished wholesale cuts from a 250-pound hog.

the packing industry. It is prepared by cutting the side into strips
about six inches wide and packing in salt brine (to which is added 12
ounces of saltpetre per barrel) in tight barrels (18x29 inches) at 200
pounds net weight of cured pork per barrel or 355 pounds gross. It is
shipped principally to the southern states, northern lumber camps, and
South America.

Barreled or plain-pickled pork is similar to mess pork except that
more salt is used and no saltpetre is added. It consists of mess, fat
back, and belly pork.

Dry-salt meats, the other common product of packing carcasses,
are heavy sides, bellies, shoulders, fat backs, and jowls cured in dry

1 Progressive Hog Raising, p. 84.
2111. Bui. 147.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 347

salt, pumped (injected) with brine, and shipped in coarse salt. They
are usually shipped loose, but sometimes are put up in boxes containing
25 to 500 pounds.

Sweet-pickled meats are cured in sweet brine containing syrup and
saltpetre. The bulk of sweet pickled and other sugar-cured meats are
smoked after curing.

Smoked meats are cured in sweet pickle or in dry salt and sugar,
and are then smoked after curing. Hams and picnic shoulders from
all classes of hogs are generally sweet pickled and smoked. Bacon
meats and bacon bellies are either dry salted or sweet pickled prior to
smoking. The best of these are breakfast bacon bellies which are dry
cured and smoked lightly.

English meats are principally cuts from bacon hogs and are dry-
cured in English salt and saltpetre and then packed in borax or salt
for export, chiefly to Great Britain. The principal cuts handled in
this way are long bacon sides, long-cut hams, clear ^ backs and bellies,
and square shoulders. After shipment abroad they are generally dried
or smoked lightly before they are sold at retail.

Boiled meats are rolled boneless cuts, including hams, picnic
shoulders, and loins, cured in sweet pickle, cooked in water, and lightly
smoked. They are made principally from heavy hogs.

The United States Census of 1920 reported the total value of the
products of slaughtering and meat packing in the United States to be
$4,283,416,521. The following list of these products is of interest as
indicating the importance of pork and the relative value of cured pork
and cured beef:

Value of meats and meat products produced in United States in 1919

Per cent of
Product Value total value

Fresh meat:

Beef $846,794,386 19.8

Veal 83,912,942 2.0

Mutton and lamb 120,338.355 2.8

Pork 532,669,835 12.4

Cured meat:

Beef 28,359,892 .7

Pork 1,217,589,927 28.4

Canned goods 96,904,341 2.3

Sausage 173,587,401 4.0

Lard 415,817,212 9.7

Lard compounds and substitutes. 123,724,098 2.9

Oleooil 31,212,708 .7

Other oils 9,153,123 .2

Tallow and oleo stock 36,276,065 .8

Stearin 8,999,349 .2

Oleomargarine 36,777,815 .9

All other products 521 ,299,072 12.2

Total 4,283,416,521 100.0

I Backbone and ribs removed.

348 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

The Grades of Lard '

From one-tenth to one-third of the hog carcass is made into lard
in large packing houses, the proportion varying with the relative price
of lard and grade of hogs. Lard is sold under six different names
representing differences in whiteness, grain, flavor, and keeping quali-
ties. Lard is made from leaf fat, fat backs, and fat trimmings from
ham, shoulder, belly, jowl, and head. The highest grade of lard is
Kettle Rendered Leaf Lard, made from leaf fat. It is very white in
color and finest in grain and flavor of all grades of lard. Then there
is Kettle Rendered Lard made mostly from fat backs, with perhaps a
small addition of leaf fat. Fat trimmings are also used at times. It
ranks second only to the preceding grade. Neutral Lard is made from
leaf or back fat at a lower temperature than is required in the manufac-
ture of kettle rendered leaf lard. No. 1 Neutral Lard is made from
leaf fat only. It is tasteless, free of acids and impurities, smooth
grained, and remains unchanged in odor and color. No. 2 Neutral
Lard is made from back fat. It is not as white in color nor as fine in
grain as No. 1 and sells at a lower price. Ninety per cent or more of
the lard made at Chicago is known as Prime Steam Lard. It is made
from fat trimmings and internal fats. It is darker colored and coarser
grained than other grades and is the form in which hog fat can be most
economically stored and shipped. It is refined before using. Then
there is Refined Lard made from prime steam lard by a bleaching and
stirring process. Also there is Compound Lard or Lard Compound,
which is a mixture of lard, stearin or other animal fat, and vegetable
oil, usually cottonseed oil.

By-Products of the Hog

A larger percentage of the hog is edible than of any other meat
animal. This statement includes both the carcass and the edible by-
products. The hog also has a higher dressing percentage than any
other meat animal, and the percentage weight of the offal (edible and
inedible) is correspondingly less. The value of the offal from hog
slaughter, including lard, is much less in proportion to the live value
of the animal than it is with cattle or sheep.

Edward N. Wentworth, director of Armour's Livestock Bureau,
states 2 that the edible by-products of the hog, excluding lard, average
about 2.25 per cent of the live weight, that the inedible by-products
average about 3.75 per cent, and that shrinkage in slaughtering and

1111. Bui. 147.

2 Monthly Letter to Animal Husbandmen, The Source and Use of Packing
House By-Products, Armour and Company, Chicago, Aug. 1, 1920.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 349

processing averages about 20 per cent. ^ He states that heavy hogs
shrink about 19 per cent and Hght hogs about 22.5 per cent in slaughter-
ing and processing. The average value of inedible by-products derived
from 6,673,657 hogs slaughtered at Armour's plants from November 1,
1918, to November 1, 1919, was only 14 cents per head, whereas the
value of the carcass and edible by-products, including lard, amounted
to an average of $43.41 per head.

Mr. Wentworth has supplied the writer with the following list of
the by-products of hog slaughter and their values on April 9, 1923.
The values represent averages of all hogs killed that day by Armour
and Company. Their average live weight was about 240 to 245 pounds,
their average price was about $8 per cwt., and their average live value
per head was about $19.20:

Values of offal (by-products) from average of all hogs slaughtered by Armour and Com-
pany, Chicago, on April 9, 1923

Edible by-products Total Inedible by-products Total

value value

Leaf lard $.5569 Ear drumsi $.0053

Livers 0274 B. W. grease ' 0763

Hearts 0074 Nasal tips ' 0015

Kidneys 0095 Grindings 0022

Giblet meat • 0093 Viscera (condemned) 0115

Tongues 0834 Heads (condemned) 0006

Cheek meat 0291 Pressed tankage i No value

Jaw meat 0036 Dry blood i No value

Brains 0090 Hair and bristle 0225

Prime steam lard 4756

Casings 0300 Total inedible 1199

Total edible 1.2412 Total by-products 1.3611

' Giblet meat is lean trimmings from the skirtings (diaphragm), gullet, etc. "B. W." is the first
grade of brown grease. Ear drums are sent to the glue works. Nasal tips are rendered for "A White"
grease. Pressed tankage and dry blood had no value on this date because they cost as much to produce
as could be realized for them on the market.

As shown above, the total value of all by-products was $1.36.
This is only 7.09 per cent of the cost of the live hog. The value of the
lard amounted to $1.03, or over 75 per cent of the value of all by-prod-
ucts. All by-products other than lard had a value of only 33 cents.

Among the edible by-products of the hog are pepsin, derived from
hog stomachs; livers, used in the manufacture of liver sausage; and
neutral, a specially prepared lard, largely used as an ingredient of
oleomargarine. Lard proper is not commonly considered a by-product;
it is one of the primary products of hog slaughter. Nearly 15 per cent
of the live weight goes into lard. Part of this lard is further processed
into lard oil and lard stearin. Lard oil is used for illuminating pur-
poses and as a lubricant. Stearin enters into the manufacture of chew-
ing gum and soft candies.

^This includes contents of stomach and intestines, loss of weight by evapora-
tion of moisture, and waste in manufacturing.

350 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Brains are packed in cans, frozen, and offered for sale. Tongues
are canned or pickled. Hearts go into sausage. Tails, snouts, and
ears are rich in gelatin or glue. Kidneys are canned or frozen. Milts
or spleens are used as a feed for growing fishes at fish hatcheries. The
intestines are cleaned, processed, and made into chitterlings, a food
product to be fried like oysters. Stomachs are used as sausage con-
tainers. Something like 7 per cent of the weight of the hog is repre-
sented in inedible by-products in the raw state which are manufactured
into glue, soap, glycerin, blood meal, tankage, curled hair, and fertilizer
material. Even the rinds from skinned hams and bacons, as well as
the back skin of the hog, are utilized for leather. Nothing is wasted.

Conclusions

The following conclusions may be drawn from the study of the
hog carcass, its various products, and the by-products of the hog:

1. In order to bring the highest market price, lard hogs must be
fat, smooth, free from paunchiness, and straight and trim in the under-
line.

2. The lard hog should be well developed in all parts, though
more especially in the back, loin, sides, and hams.

3. Barrows and young, smooth sows yield the best carcasses.
Carcasses of boars and stags are coarse throughout and are especially
heavy and coarse in neck and shoulders. Sows with seedy bellies are
discriminated against.

4. Hogs with a live weight of 190 to 250 pounds yield cuts of the
most desired size and weight, but weights up to 300 pounds are in good
demand.

5. Any kind of a hog finds a buyer on the market, but the price
paid depends upon the kind of carcass the hog will yield. The by-
products of the hog are of little value and are a very minor factor in
live prices.

6. The curing and storing of large quantities of pork by packers
makes pork products readily available in seasons when the supply of
live hogs is limited, thus tending to increase the total yearly consump-
tion of pork and to widen the market for live hogs.

7. Curing and storing enable packers to more readily absorb
large runs of hogs and tend to sustain live prices in seasons of large
receipts.

8. The development of the packing industry has made an outlet
for the plainer sorts of hogs which otherwise would be a drug upon the
market.

9. No other kind of meat comes so nearly being manufactured
by packers as does pork.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 351

10. No other animal equals the lard hog in its fat-storing ability.

11. The production of lard hogs furnishes a logical channel of
disposal for corn, because corn is a fattening feed and lard brings a
higher price than tallow.

12. Indian corn and the American packing industry have com-
bined to develop the American hog industry into a business of mam-
moth proportions. Corn, properly supplemented, makes pork econom-
ically, and pork finds ready sale because packers have discovered many
ways of placing pork on the market in attractive and highly palatable
form combined with most excellent keeping qualities.

CHAPTER XXV
HOG MARKETS AND PORK PACKING— PAST AND PRESENT

Hogs are marketed by the same methods and are shipped to the
central markets and sold in the same manner as cattle, as described in
Chapter V. In addition it may be mentioned that local auction sales
in some of the western states serve as a means of marketing a consider-
able number of hogs. ^ Throughout the country there is more selling
of hogs at country points direct to packers than of cattle or sheep.
James E. Poole, market editor of the Breeder's Gazette, states ^ that
country buying by packers is increasing rapidly and that during 1922
one of the large packers was credited with having purchased about two
million hogs in Iowa alone. He states that practically every packer
of importance is now buying hogs at country points, and that the chief
reason advanced in support of the practice is that it is economical
because it eliminates market expense. He also quotes an official of a
large packing company as stating that competition compelled that
company to go to the country in order to get its share of the crop.
The proportion of hogs slaughtered on farms far exceeds that of cattle
or sheep.

The large markets. — Most of the large hog markets of the United
States are located in the corn belt. The 13 largest markets and their
receipts in three years, as reported by the U. S. Bureau of Agricultural
Economics, are as follows:

Receipts of hogs at leading markets in three years

Market 1922 1921 1920

1. Chicago 8,156,472 8,147,646 7,526,120

2. St. Louis 3,605,520 3,330,051 3,398,940

3. Indianapolis 2,266,551 2,694,705 2,896,894

4. Omaha 2,839,382 2,665,276 2,708,482

5. Pittsburgh 2,690,137 2,277,499 2,439,067

6. Kansas City 2,654,959 2,204,556 2,466,419

7. St. Paul 2,522,972 2,209,518 2,246,948

8. St. Joseph 2,060,680 1,785,239 1,913,755

9. Sioux City 1,855,829 1,738,584 2,172,637

10. Buffalo 1,474,520 1,602,875 1,493,981

11. Cincinnati 1,347,129 1,434,842 1,477,979

12. Baltimore 1,342,595 1,238,454 1,153,578

13. Cleveland 1,092,287 960,044 1,011,657

Totals 33,909,033 32,289,289 32,906,457

^The California Farm Bureau Marketing Association sold 2,175 carloads of
hogs at auction during the four years ending October 1, 1922. These were sold at
69 sales in 7 counties. — U. S. Dept. Agr., Agricultural Cooperation, Jan. 2, 1923.

2Breeder's Gazette, Jan. 25, 1923.

352

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

35S

Sixty-eight markets received 44,067,489 hogs in 1922. The 13
markets Hsted in the foregoing table received 77 per cent of this total.

The Chicago market. ^ — As shown by the above figures, Chicago
is in a class by itself as a hog market. It receives more than twice as
many hogs as St. Louis, its nearest rival. The total value of the hogs
received at Chicago in 1922 was $182,598,270. Their average value
per head was $22.40. Their average live weight was 239 pounds.
Their average price per cwt. was $9.20. Of the 8,156,472 hogs received
at the Chicago yards during 1922, 6,304,466 were slaughtered by
Chicago packers, 1,848,946 were shipped out alive to other points for
slaughter, and 3,060 were shipped out for feeding. In addition to the
hogs included in the above figures, small packing firms at Chicago,
located outside the yards, received direct and slaughtered 405,829 hogs
in 1922.

The growth of the Chicago market is shown by the following list
of receipts and shipments of hogs at that point during the years men-
tioned: 2

Movement of hogs at Chicago

Year

Receipts

Shipments

Year

Receipts

Shipments

1858

540,486

392,864

961,746

1,693,158

3,912,110

192,013
227,164
482,875
924,453
1,582,643

1880

1890

1900

1910

1920

7,059,555
7,663,829
8,109,064
5,586,858
7,526,120

1,394,990

1860

1,985,700
1,452,183
1,202.390
1,656,528

1866

1870

1875

It is interesting to note that the advent of the refrigerator car,
about 1875, had a marked effect on the proportionate number of hogs
shipped. The largest number of hogs received at Chicago in a year
was in 1916, when 9,188,224 head were received at the yards proper.
If receipts by outside packing firms are included, the figure is raised
to 9,528,267. The highest record for a month is credited to January,
1916, when 1,227,508 hogs were received at the yards and enough by
outside packers to make the total 1,286,616. The record week was
that ending January 8, 1916, when 334,279 were received at the yards,
and 356,362 in all. On November 29, 1918, the largest day's receipts
were recorded, the figures being 96,964 and 101,601 respectively.

The number of hogs marketed annually varies greatly. This
fluctuation is caused partly by losses from disease, and partly by the
fact that if an unexpected or temporary demand springs up, and higher
prices rule, great numbers of hogs of inferior size and weight are
rushed to market.

1 Drovers Journal Year Book of Figures for 1922.

^Compiled from U. S. Dept. Agr. An. Rpt., 1863, p. 208; Drovers Journal
Year Books of Figures.

354

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Charges for commission, yardage, and feed. — At Chicago the
charge for the yardage of hogs is 11 cents per head. Commission
charges for selHng hogs are as follows: Hogs in car lots, 30 cents per
head; single-deck cars, minimum $13, maximum $16; double-deck cars,
minimum $20, maximum $27; less than 25 hogs in one car, 50 cents
per head. Public inspection of hogs costs 25 cents per car, no fee
being charged on cars containing less than 25 head. Corn costs $1.25
per bushel.

Shrinkage of hogs in transit. — Hogs usually shrink from 2.5 to
4 per cent in shipment to market. ^ These percentages express the
difference between home weights and selling weights. The latter in-
clude the "fill." Hogs shrink less than cattle or sheep in shipment.

Olauqht

qhier

Johipped jor olQUtjkter

foOu 700 800 900

Fig. 132. — Average monthly receipts and shipments of hogs at Chicago in
thousands for ten years, 1909-1913 and 1917-1921. The years 1914-1916 were
omitted because of embargoes on shipments during much of that period. The total
length of each bar represents average monthly receipts. The divisions of the bar
represent the average number of Chicago hogs sold monthly for local slaughter and
for shipment to other points for slaughter. The average number shipped monthly
for feeding " " " "-' ' ' ■'- •"-'- -'---•^

too small to be shown in this chart.

The fill. — Upon arrival in the pens at the market, hogs are given
shelled corn and water. This constitutes the "fill." It has a quieting
effect, improves the appearance of the animals, and increases the
weight. A test at the Kansas City market is reported ^ in which 44

iWent.worth and Gentry: Progressive Hog Raising, 1922, p. 79.
^Arthur C. Davenport: The American Live Stock Market — How It Func-
tions, p. 47.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 355

cars of hogs made gains ranging from 290 to 1,380 pounds per car and
averaging 6.23 pounds per head on the usual fill of corn and water.
This was the increase in weight as shown by weighing the hogs on their
arrival at the yards and again after feeding and watering.

Seasonal variations in receipts and sale of hogs at Chicago. — Fig.
132 shows the average monthly receipts of hogs at Chicago for ten
years. Largest receipts occur in November, December, January, and
February, especially in December and January. Smallest receipts
occur in August and September. Over twice as many hogs are re-
ceived in January as in September. A marked rise in receipts begins
in October and continues into February, followed by a decline during
late February, March, and April. A smaller rise occurs in May and
June, followed by a progressive decline during July, August, and Sep-
tember. The number of hogs marketed monthly varies much more
widely than that of cattle, and almost as much as that of sheep.

The large winter receipts are due to the marketing of the pig crop
of the previous spring. The smaller bulge in May and June results
from the marketing of considerable numbers of hogs that were farrowed
in the previous fall, of which a much smaller number are raised than of
spring pigs.

The chart shows that most of the hogs received in each month at
Chicago are slaughtered there. A yearly average of 20 per cent are
shipped to other points for slaughter. Less than one-fourth of 1 per
cent are shipped for feeding, too few to represent graphically in the
chart. (Compare this chart with similar charts on pages 81 and 242.)

Weights of hogs at seven markets. — There is considerable differ-
ence in the yearly average weights of the hogs received at various
markets. Omaha and Sioux City receive heavier hogs than Chicago,
while those received at St. Louis, Kansas City, and St. Paul average
lighter: 1

Yearly average weights of hags at seven markets for eight years

1922 1921 1920 1919 1918 1917 1916 1915

Eight-year
average

Omaha 256 257 246 245 249 238 221 251

Sioux City 259 252 246 251 248 225 231 246

St. Joseph 235 235 235 227 230 228 219 228

Chicago 239 234 235 233 234 213 210 219

St. Paul 221 212 218 222 206 184 191 213

Kansas City 196 211 200 191 201 192 193 200

St. Louis 181 185 183 181 182 177 185 187

245
245
230
227
208
198
183

General average 227 227 223 221 221 208 207 221

219

The yearly average weight of market hogs varies in response to
the relative price of hogs and corn. When hogs are relatively scarce

1 Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures.

356 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

and high in price, and corn is plentiful and cheap, hog growers feed
more heavily during the fattening period, feed for a longer period, and
send their hogs to market at a greater age and weight and carrying a
higher finish than usual. As a rule, heavy yearly average weights
indicate the years in which pork production was most profitable, and
vice versa.

Chicago monthly average weights. — Following are the monthly
and yearly average weights of hogs received at Chicago for ten years.
The highest monthly average of each year is printed in bold type and
the lowest monthly average is enclosed in parenthesis. At the right
of the table are the monthly averages and the general average for the
entire ten-year period r^

Monthly and yearly average we

ights 0

/ hogs at Chicago for ten

years

Month

1922

1921

1920

1919

1918

1917

1916

1915

1914

1913

Ten-year
average

January

f229)

229

228

(216) (199)

195

223

(216)

226

219.0

February

232

230

231

232

231

204

224

230

224.2

March

240

238

237

230

238

209

214

231

233

240

231.0

April

242

237

243

230

242

213

219

233

242

233.4

May

241

238

239

232

238

217

220

233

236

242

233.6

June

241

238

236

233

235

225

226

231

237

244

234.6

July

246

240

242

243

232

231

238

244

243

240.1

August

255

251

250

251

243

233

232

246

248

233

244.2

September ....

250

248

254

247

231

223

235

242

222

240.2

October

241

235

236

237

233

212

210

204

229

209

224.6

November ....

232

(223) (224)

226

209

195

fl87)

218

(207)

(214.7)

December ....

233

225

228

(224)

223

211

(193)

190

226

213

216.6

Yearly average

239

234

235

233

234

213

210

219

231

228

227.6

In seven of the ten years and in the ten-year averages, August
weights are heaviest. November weights average lightest. In four
years the lightest averages occured in January, but in each instance
these were heavier than those of the preceding November. December
averages were lightest in two years. The light November average is
due to the fact that spring pigs then first appear in relatively large
numbers. Heavy weights in July, August, and September are due to
the holding back of young hogs in the country until the corn crop is
matured and used for fattening. Relatively few hogs are received
during August and September but the receipts include a larger propor-
tion of aged hogs than in other months, the result of marketing brood
sows that were culled and fed after spring litters were weaned. The
ten-year averages show that the average weight of market hogs rises
from November to April, but remains almost constant during April,
May, and June. Fall-farrowed pigs arrive during May and June in

^Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures,

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

357

sufficient numbers to prevent an appreciable rise in weight during
those months.

Docking or shrinking weights. — At central markets stags are
docked 70 pounds, and pregnant sows 40 pounds each. The excuse
for this practice is the greater amount of waste in killing and dressing
such hogs, but boars are not docked. Formerly stags were docked 80
pounds. On some markets small pregnant sows are docked less than
40 pounds. Small stags should be docked less than 70 pounds, but
are not. The decision as to what hogs are stags and what sows are
pregnant rests with inspectors employed jointly by commission men
and packers who inspect the hogs as they are driven from the scales.
All dockage is deducted from the gross weight of the drove, which is
the basis of payment for the hogs.

Fig. 133. — Unloading hogs at Chicago.

This system has been in use at Chicago since 1884, and is the result
of joint agreement between hog buyers and commission firms. * In
case either party is dissatisfied with the amount of dockage, he may
appeal to the chief inspector or shrinker whose decision is usually
accepted as final. If it is not accepted, a committee composed of one
buyer, one salesman, and a third party selected by them, renders a
decision that is final.

P. H. Hamilton, of Woodbury County, Iowa, states ^ that hog
dockage was probably the principal reason for the organization of live-
stock exchanges at the markets, and that there have possibly been
more wordy battles and more fistic encounters over the dockage of

iThe American Live Stock Market — How It Functions, p. 54.
2Breeder's Gazette, Jan. 27, 1921, p. 155.

358 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

hogs than over any other one thing in the hog trade. He states that
the amount of trimming necessary to remove the gristle (shields) on
the shoulders and belly (sides) of the stag explains the dockage of stags.
He mentions that alfalfa, grass, and soft corn will make even barrows
look like "pigg3^" sows. He also states, "There has been many an
instance recorded at the Sioux City market where the buyer has got
the committee on hog dockage together, and lo and behold, when he
returned he found that the sows in dispute had farrowed their pigs."

The Pork- Packing Industry

During the first half of the nineteenth century, Cincinnati was the
leading pork-packing center of this continent, and this position was
maintained until 1863, at which time Chicago took the lead. One by
one, other western cities have crowded ahead of Cincinnati until now
her rank is eleventh in the list of American hog-packing centers. That
Cincinnati's supremacy was not a permanent one was due to the fact
that until the West was settled, live-stock conditions were very un-
stable, and the logical packing center in 1850 was found to be too far
to the east of the center of hog production as it existed twenty years
later. With the settling of the corn belt and the rapid extension of
the hog's domain to the westward, Chicago was enabled, by virtue of
her location and direct railway connections with the heart of the corn
belt, to gain and hold supremacy as a pork-packing center. The evolu-
tion of the gigantic pork-packing business of the United States may be
told in brief by first reviewing the growth and development of the busi-
ness at Cincinnati, and then following it to Chicago at the close of the
Civil War.

Early packing at Cincinnati. ^ — In 1833 Cincinnati packed 85,000
hogs. Five years later the number packed in the year had risen to
182,000 head. In 1843 no less than 250,000 hogs were consumed by
the numerous packing establishments then doing a thriving business at
Cincinnati, and the town was dubbed "Porkopolis," which name was
formerly in general use, but is now nearly obsolete. Cincinnati
slaughtered 360,000 hogs for packing purposes in 1853, and in 1863 the
highest mark was reached, the number that year being 608,457. The
demands of the army were largely accountable for the large number
packed during the last mentioned year. The average price of hogs
at Cincinnati was $5.75 in 1855, $6.21 in 1860, and $3.28 in 1862, but
the Civil War caused a rise to $14.62 in 1865, followed by a decline to
$11.97 in 1866 and to $6.95 in 1867. Present-day pork producers who

iH. D. Emery: Hogs and Pork Packing in the West, U. S. Dept. Agr. An.
Rpt., 1863; Charles Cist: The Hog and Its Products, U. S. Dept. Agr. An. Rpt.,
1866.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 359

experienced a similar slump in prices during 1920 and 1921 following
the World War can testify that history repeats itself.

In early times Cincinnati was especially favored as a pork-packing
center because of its shipping facilities, large quantities of cured pork
being shipped to southern points in flat boats via the Ohio and Mis-
sissippi rivers. The South took most of the product, though New
England and eastern points took a considerable share. Lard was
exported to the West Indies, England, and France. Cincinnati was
also favored in that prior to the Civil War it was the center of the
finest hog-raising region in the world, including the states of Kentucky,
Ohio, and Indiana. It was in this favorable environment and under
the stimulus afforded by a large, near-by market that the Poland-
China breed originated during the period mentioned. Although
Chicago took the lead in the number of hogs packed following the war,
Cincinnati continued to hold first place for a considerable time so far
as the quality of hogs packed was concerned. In 1866 there were 15
slaughter houses at Cincinnati, some of which employed as many as
100 hands. One concern slaughtered 60,000 hogs during that year.
Measured by the standards of the time, these Cincinnati packing es-
tablishments were considered to be gigantic in proportions. In 1866
Cincinnati produced 180,000 barrels of pork, 25,000,000 pounds of
bacon, and 16,500,000 pounds of lard.

Development of packing at Chicago.^ — The earliest packing or
slaughtering done in Chicago was in 1827; in that year Archibald
Clyboum erected a slaughter house for the special purpose of supplying
the garrison at Fort Dearborn. The trade was mostly local until 1833,
when immigration set westward quite strongly, creating a larger de-
mand. During 1835, Mr. Clyboum packed about 3,000 hogs, besides
considerable beef, for which a ready market was at hand. This stock
had to be picked up at long distances from Chicago and driven on foot
to the city. Other men soon engaged in the business which took on
larger proportions, the surplus product finding a market in the East.
The slaughter houses were mostly located on the south branch of the
Chicago river, and into it the offal and filth were drained, which in
later years became a nuisance and was prohibited by the city. In 1863
there were 58 different establishments in Chicago doing a general pack-
ing business. During the winter of 1853-'54, Chicago packed 52,849
hogs, and in 1860-'61 the number packed was 231,335.

During the winter packing season of 1863-'64, the rank of the
largest packing centers and the number of hogs packed by each vvas as
follows: (1) Chicago, 904,159; (2) Cincinnati, 400,000; (3) St. Louis,
200,000; (4) Louisville, 103,996.

lU. S. Dept. Agr. An. Rpt., 1863, pp. 207-209.

360 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

By-products from early hog packing. — The Report of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture for 1866 contains an account of early hog-
packing operations which is of interest for comparison with modern
methods of utilizing all of the by-products of the hog. The following,
written by Charles Cist, of Cincinnati, appeared in the report for
that year:

"I have referred to the remarkable fact, that there was a period
in the West when corn would not, in some sections, command six cents
per bushel, and in others was of so little value as to be substituted for
wood as fuel. Not less extraordinary is the fact, within the knowledge
of hundreds now in Cincinnati, that in the early ages of pork packing,
say in 1828, there was so little demand for any portion of the hog, other
than hams, shoulders, sides, and lard, that the heads, spare ribs, neck
pieces, backbone, etc., were regularly thrown into the Ohio river to get
rid of them !" The same writer also says : "The slaughterers formerly
received the gut fat for the whole of the labor of dressing, wagoning the
hogs more than a mile to the pork houses free of expense to the owners.
Every year, however, adds to the value of fat, heart, liver, etc., for
food and the hoofs, hair, and other parts for manufacturing purposes.
Six years since, from 10 to 25 cents per hog was paid as a bonus for the
privilege of killing. This was later raised to 75 cents and even to
$1.00."

In 1863, hog-packing products consisted of bristles, lard, mess
pork, hams, shoulders, bacon, and lard oil used for making candles.
The beginning of the immense packing-house by-products industry of
modern times was described by an early writer as follows:^ "Since
the Chicago river has ceased to be the sewer for all the offal from the
slaughter and packing houses, the owners have been obliged to cart it
off to the commons and open fields beyond the city limits at a very-
heavy expense to them. An enterprising firm has, however, contracted
with all the principal firms the present season to carry it all away by
the owners paying half the expenses. Instead, however, of carrying
it off and throwing it away, they have commenced preparing it for
fertilizers. They have provided centrifugal machines, into which they
place the refuse from the lard and grease tanks, and throw out all the
water, leaving only the solid parts, and that in a pulpy or pulverized
condition. In this way they will prepare about 3,000 tons the present
season, all of which will be shipped east for the manufacture of com-
mercial manures. Another concern is gathering all the bones it can
pick up, from which are manufactured large quantities of animal char-
coal, and such as are not suitable for that purpose are ground up and

iH. D. Emery: Hogs and Pork Packing in the West, U. S. Dept. Agr. An.
Rpt.,1863,p. 215.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 361

sent east, they having shipped the past season over 300 tons of ground
bones alone."

Present leading hog-packing centers.— The rank of the leading
hog-packing centers is shown in the following table compiled from the
reports of the U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics:

Number of hogs packed at leading points for three years

Market 1922 1921 1920

1. Chicago 6,322,682 5,977,213 5,869,592

2. Omaha 2,226,391 1,970,545 1,998,376

3. Kansas City 2,052,229 1,712,843 1,838 080

4. St. Paul 2,038,522 1,667,763 1,904 869

5. St. Joseph 1,706,288 1,516,877 1,584 112

6. Indianapolis 1,527,566 1,376,543 1359 477

7. St. Louis 1,228,784 1,288,730 1,678,'226

8. Sioux City 1,193,624 1,047,431 1,295,790

9. Baltimore 1,019,499 1,013,051 873,663

10. New York 1,091,099 902,370 755 243

11. Cincinnati 669,283 897,763 788 696

12. Cleveland 749,648 688,246 609 602

13. Buffalo 662,822 669,760 630,864

14. Jersey City 458,430 509,185 629 382

15. Pittsburgh 506,866 504,792 412,911

Totals 23,458,733 21,743,112 22,228,883

A total of 28,736,660 hogs were slaughtered at 68 points in 1922.
The 15 points listed above slaughtered 82 per cent of this total,

Chicago packing at present time.— The number of hogs packed at
Chicago by the leading hog-packing firms in 1920, 1921, and 1922, and
the total number packed at Chicago in each of these years were as
follows:^

Hogs packed by Chicago companies for three years

Company 1922 1921 1920

Armour & Co 644,000 810,300 810,200

Swift & Co 732,800 736,100 811,300

Western Packing Co 684,300 697,400 520,500

Morris & Co 711,500 583,200 516,100

Wilson & Co 627,500 565,300 570,300

Hammond Co 365,800 392,500 409,500

Anglo-American Co 361,000 348,000 391,100

Boyd, Lunham & Co 326,800 353,300 362,400

Independent Packing Co 346,600 281,300 252,000

Roberts &Oake 302,900 267,200 241,400

Brennan Packing Co 306,000 194,700 201,500

Miller & Hart 249,800 233,100 173,300

Wm. Davies Co 158,000 143,200 223,100

'All others 903,295 710,096 695,058

Totals 6,710,295 6,316,296 6,177,758

> Includes hogs packed outside the Union Stock Yards.

Growth of American pork packing. — The pork-packing year ends
March 1, and is divided into two seasons — the summer season of eight
months, from March 1 to November 1, and the winter season of four
months, from November 1 to March 1. This system came into use

'Drovers Journal Year Book of Figures for 1922, p. 6.

362 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

before the days of artificial refrigeration, and although such a designa-
tion is no longer necessary it is still adhered to by statisticians. Before
1873 summer packing was not practiced, but it began in September of
that year when it is said to have reached the number of 505,500. ^

Edward N. Wentworth of Armour and Company has shown that
the ratio between winter and summer packing in the West was 194 to
100 in 1878-79 and 1879-'80; that about 1890 winter and summer
slaughter were equalized; and that since 1890 summer slaughter has
increased to a marked degree. In 1920-'21 and 1921-'22 the ratio
(winter to summer) was 66 to 100. ^

The growth of pork packing in the United States and Canada
since 1880 is shown by the following figures giving the total number of
hogs packed for the twelve months ending March 1 : '

Yearly hog packing in the United States and Canada

Number hogs Number hoga

Year packed in packed in

United States Canada

1879-'80 14,829,000 195,379

1884-'85 14,727,000 210,148

1889-'90 18,906,000 238,709

1894-'95 21,620,000 510,650

1899-'00 28,172,000 1,491,000

1904-'05 29,691,000 1,650,000

1909-'10 29,923,000 1,250,000

1914-'15. 34,245,000 2,598,000

1919-'20 33,172,438 2,180,400

1921-'22 30,076,901 1 ,549,674

Exports of pork products. — From 1907 to 1921 inclusive, we ex-
ported 9.8 per cent of our total pork production and 32 per cent of our
total lard production. * Pork and pork products comprised 85 per cent
of the total quantity of our exports of meat and meat products in 1920,
and 87 per cent in 1921. ^ The United States was the leading meat-
exporting country during the three pre-war years 1911 to 1913, and we
also held first rank, and by a large margin, in each of the years from
1915 to 1920 inclusive. ^ In 1920 we contributed over 46 per cent of
the meat and meat products exported by all countries. ^ Our natural
advantages for hog raising and our vast production of pork in excess
of our own needs give us our supremacy in the meat export trade.

The development of our export trade in pork since 1790 is shown
by the following figures: ^

• lU. S. Bur. Anim. Indus. Bui. 47, p. 256.

2 Monthly Letter to Animal Husbandmen, Armour's Livestock Bureau, Chicago,
Jan. 1, 1923.

3 Compiled from Price Current-Grain Reporter Year Books.

4 Wentworth and Gentry: Progressive Hog Raising, p. 56.

6U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 683.

«U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbooks— 1920, pp. 719, 720; 1921, p. 682.

7U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 682.

* George M. Rommel: The Hog Industry, U. S. Bur. Anim. Indus. Bui. 47,
pp. 263-265; figures since 1900 from U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbooks.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

363

Exports of hogs; bacon, hams, and shoulders; pork; and lard from the United States

Live hogs Bacon, hams, Pork Lard

Fiscal Thousand and shoulders Thousand Million

year head Million pounds barrels pounds

1790 5 ( M 24 ( 1 )

1800 14 1 55 2

1820 4 1 44 3

1840 5 2 66 7

1860 48 26 205 40

Million pounck

1880 83 760 96 375

1900 51 709 168 662

1910 4 299 45 363

1915 8 550 54 476

Calendar year

1919 25 1,787 67 761

1920 55 822 79 612

1 254,000 pounds bacon, hams, and shoulders; 356,000 pounds lard.

Following are the quantities and values of pork and pork products
exported from the United States during the calendar year 1922: ^

Pork exports of the United States for the calendar year 1922

Pork products Pounds Value

Bacon 341,838,745 $51,989,095

Hams and shoulders 289,613,175 57,070,244

Pork, canned 2,563,298 824,832

Pork, fresh 26,974,147 4,308,006

Pork, pickled 38,628,919 4,648,175

Lard 766,950,103 91,484,669

Lard compounds 16,286,169 1,952,187

9,704,432 2,806,048

casings 24,355,037 5,646,842

Totals 1,516,914,025 220,730,098

The destination of our principal pork exports and the total pur-
chases of these by the various countries are shown below: ^

Destination of principal pork products exported from the United States in 1920

Bacon
Million
pounds

Hams and
shoulders
Million
pounds

Pickled

MUUon
pounds

Lard
Million
pounds

Total

Country

MUlion
pounds

Per
cent

1. United Kingdom ....

2. Germany

345
76
62
21
25
35
12
19
17

' 25

116

■ Ve

26
7
6
3

' 11

"5'

■i5'
■i9'

129
128
91
66
49
55
13
23
5
17
36

590

204

153

108

100

40
14

3. Netherlands

4. Cuba

6. Belgium

7. Canada

8. Italy

9. Sweden

10. Mexico

Other countries

Totals

637

185

612

1,473

100

lU. S. Dept. Comm. Rpt., Dec, 1922, Pt. I, pp, 4-8.

* Compiled from U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 758, 759.

364 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

The United Kingdom purchased 54 per cent of our bacon exports
in 1920, 63 per cent of the hams and shoulders, and 21 per cent of the
lard. Germany bought 21 per cent of our lard exports and 12 per cent
of our bacon exports. Canada bought 40 per cent of our exports of
pickled pork.

Other countries which use considerable quantities of our pork prod-
ucts are British Guiana, Denmark, Ecuador, Haiti, Newfoundland
and Labrador, Norway, Peru, and Switzerland. A complete list in-
cludes others as well. Some countries buy only casings for sausage
making, but many countries pay tribute to the American hog in one
form or another.

CHAPTER XXVI

MARKET CLASSIFICATION OF HOGS

The hog markets and the newspapers reporting the markets
recognize certain rather well-defined market classes of hogs. The
classification of a hog or of a carload of hogs depends upon the use
to which it is best adapted; and the use to which it is best adapted is
determined by its weight, form, quality, condition, and sex. The
market classes of hogs and their respective weights are as follows:

Classes Weights

PRIME HEAVY HOGS 300-400 pounds and up

BUTCHER HOGS:

Heavy butchers 250-300 pounds

Medium butchers 220-250 pounds

Light butchers 190-220 pounds

PACKING HOGS:

Heavy packing 300-500 pounds and up

Medium packing 250-300 pounds

Light packing 190-250 pounds

Heavy mixed packing 300 pounds up

Light mixed packing 300 pounds down

LIGHT HOGS:

Bacon hogs 160-200 pounds

Yorkers 150-190 pounds

Light lights 130-150 pounds

Light mixed 200 pounds down

PIGS 50-130 pounds

FEEDER PIGS 50-150 pounds

ROUGHS

STAGS

BOARS

MISCELLANEOUS:

Roasting pigs 15-30 pounds

Governments

Cripples

Dead hogs

The weight limits of the various classes are flexible and are varied
somewhat at different markets depending upon the weights of the hogs
received. The weight limits are also varied to some degree on all
markets depending upon supply and demand and upon the weights of
the hogs marketed in different seasons and in different years. The
weights given above are fairly representative of average market condi-
tions.

The grades. — The hogs within a market class may be graded
according to their relative value per cwt. The grades are (1) prime,

366

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

(2) choice, (3) good, (4) medium, and (5) common. Not all of these
grades may be found in some of the classes. For example, light hogs
and pigs would not grade higher than choice, and packing hogs would
not grade higher than good. As will be shown later, there is very
little spread in price within each market class of hogs; in fact there is
so little spread in price that there is no necessity for grading market
hogs. For that reason no mention is made of the grades except in
this paragraph. Grades are of very little or no practical importance
in the hog market. ^

Prime Heavy Hogs

These are heavy, finished hogs of good quality, usually barrows,
which weigh over 300 pounds. In the early days of the packing

Fig. 134. -Trime heavy hogs.

industry a premium was paid for hogs of this class because they were
in special demand for the manufacture of clear ^ and mess pork. Later,
when the trade in fresh pork and bacon was developed and when smaller
hams and shoulders came into demand, prime heavy hogs no longer
commanded a premium. For a number of years past they have sold
at lower prices than butcher and light hogs. Very few are received at
the markets because they sell at lower prices than younger and lighter-
weight hogs, cost more to produce per cwt., and are consequently less
profitable to the producer. They yield a heavy loin carcass (described
in Chapter XXIV) and such carcasses are frequently made into the
same products as packing hog carcasses. Prime heavy hogs sell at
about the same price as the best packing hogs of the same weight.

iFor definitions of class and grade, see page 119.
2 Cured sides from which the ribs were removed.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

367

Their dressing percentage ^ averages 82 to 84 when dressed shipper
style, and 74 to 76 dressed packer style. ^

Butcher Hogs

This is one of the most numerous classes of hogs on the markets
of the United States and is the class which ordinarily returns the
greatest profit to the corn-belt pork producer. Butcher hogs are the
best lard-type hogs on the market weighing from 190 to 300 pounds.
They must be good in form, quality, and condition, as previously
described in Chapter XXII. It is especially important that they be
symmetrical and smooth in form, free from paunchiness, free from
coarseness, and thick, firm, and smooth in their covering of flesh.

Fig. 135. — Heavy butcher hogs.

They are principally barrows, though a number of good, young, clear
(not seedy) sows are included. Sows are less numerous than barrows
in this class because good young sows are usually kept on the farm for
breeding purposes, and old sows and inferior young sows cannot class
as butcher hogs. Butcher hogs yield light loin carcasses and shipper
carcasses. The loins of butcher hogs are of the best size and quality
for the fresh meat trade, the hams and shoulders are of the best size,
shape, and quality for the trade in smoked meats, the yield of lard is
high and of first-class quality, and the bellies of light butcher hogs are
usually suitable for bacon. Shipper-dressed butcher hogs usually yield

^The dressing percentages given in this chapter are those obtained by W. W.
Smith of Purdue University from Wilson and Company of Chicago and published in
Pork Production, pp. 371-374.

2 These two styles of dressing are described in Chapter XXIV.

368 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

77 to 82 per cent of carcass to live weight, and when packer dressed
69 to 74 per cent, varying according to form and finish.

Butcher hogs are divided into heavy weights, medium weights,
and Hght weights. These divisions include hogs that are essentially
alike except as to age and weight. The older and heavier butcher hogs
also average somewhat higher in condition and average about 2 per
cent higher in dressing yield than the medium weights, and the latter
average about 1 per cent higher than light butcher hogs.

Packing Hogs

Packing hogs are inferior hogs weighing from 190 pounds up.
Most of them are sows which have been used as breeders, but the class
also includes coarse, unfinished barrows and the best stags. Sows

Fig. 136. — Medium-weight butcher hogs.

which show indications of pregnancy sell with a dockage of 40 pounds.
Roughs, coarse stags, and boars are not included in the packing class,
but sell separately and at lower prices. The best packing hogs yield
loins which are used in the fresh meat trade, but the sides (including
the loins) of most packing hogs are used for mess pork, barreled pork,
and dry-salt meats, and the hams and shoulders are sweet pickled and
may be smoked, but are not of the best quality and are not sold under
the best packer brands. The best use of packing hogs requires the
manufacture of a larger proportion of salted and pickled products than
is true of any other class of hogs. This class is therefore of particular
interest to packers who supply the trade in the cheaper kinds of cured
meats, and the name "packing hogs" is therefore given to this class.
They dress from 77 to 83 per cent shipper style, and 69 to 75 per cent
packer style.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 369

Packing hogs are divided according to weight into heavy weights,
medium weights, and hght weights. In addition to these, many loads
of hogs are received at the markets which contain a mixture of various
classes of hogs, including a considerable percentage of packing hogs.
Such loads are called "mixed packers." These make up a large share
of total receipts of hogs at all of the large market centers. Such loads
are usually received from country hog buyers and local shipping as-
sociations, and their mixed character is due to the fact that the load is
composed of small lots of hogs from a number of farms. Mixed loads
may include nearly all classes. There may be some butcher hogs and
some good light hogs in the load, but the proportion of old sows, stags,
etc, is usually sufficient to give a rather high average weight and a
very uneven and mixed appearance. Mixed loads may sell to the
packer without sorting, in which case the sorting is done after slaughter-
ing and dressing, but it is principally mixed packirg hogs that furnish

a field for operation to the specfulator. He buys several carloads, sorts
them into the various classes, and resells them to various classes of
buyers. Loads of mixed hogs averaging above 300 pounds are classed
as heavy mixed packing, and those averaging below 300 pounds are
classed as light mixed packing. Mixed loads of about the same average
weights may differ considerably in price because of the difference in
the number of good hogs included in each load, and for this reason
some market reports do not quote prices on mixed loads.

Light Hogs

This class includes all hogs weighing from 130 to 190 pounds,
except roughs, stags, and boars, and in addition it includes hogs of
bacon type weighing up to 200 pounds. Light hogs constitute a general
class which embraces the bacon, yorker, light light, and light mixed
classes. Although very similar in weight, these classes differ consider-
ably in form, quality, and condition and the carcasses are adapted to
different uses.

370

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Bacon hogs. — The kind of a hog that is an ideal market bacon hog
was described in Chapter XXIII. Such a hog is usually of Yorkshire
or Tamworth breeding, and very few of these are produced in the
United States. With the exception of a few received at the St. Paul
market, the stock yards of this country receive practically no hogs of
true bacon type. Nevertheless many light hogs of lard-type breeding
are received which show a tendency toward the bacon type; they are
of stretchy form, fairly long, deep, and smooth in their sides, good in
quality, and, as compared to butcher hogs, they carry only moderate
finish. They are sorted out of the general run of light hogs, are sold
as bacon hogs, and are used for the production of breakfast-bacon
bellies and English meats. ^ Bacon hogs are sometimes referred to in

• j

. ■•'■ ' si

■1

J^^^HH

'"■:■■■ '^

^^^T- ■ ■ "^^<i^^P^^-

^B!m •:'^'^~ •■-■ \ ■" '•^^^^^^^"

._^J\'.

■L/ 'K-.. - .^^^^J^

'^^ ■

W^^^^ - ■ . ^ijJI^iv, . j^>5><;^..^ ..1^

^^^^m^^^^^k.

ij0^

Fig. 138.— Packing sow.

market reports as "singeing hogs," so called because in dressing the
hair is sometimes removed by singeing instead of scraping. Bacon
hogs dress from 76 to 77 per cent shipper style and 68 to 69 per cent
packer style.

Yorkers are the result of a sort of light hog receipts and include
all hogs weighing 150 to 190 pounds which are of good quality and
reasonably good finish, exclusive of bacon hogs. Yorkers receive their
name from the fact that they are commonly shipped to New York and
other eastern markets where they are in extensive demand for fresh
meat purposes and for the production of "home packed" meats. ^ If

1 English meats are described in Chapter XXIV,
2111. Bui. 147, p. 261.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 371

carried to greater weights and higher finish they would class as butcher
hogs. They are too fat, too short of body, or are otherwise not adapted
for bacon use, and do not have the size, weight, and finish required of
butcher hogs. They dress from 75 to 76 per cent shipper style, and 67
to 68 per cent packer style. In recent years the demand for yorkers
has increased to a marked degree and the class is now one of consider-
able importance.

Light lights are of lighter weights than any of the preceding classes,
ranging from 130 to 150 pounds. They are called "light lights" be-
cause they are the lightest class of light hogs. The St. Paul market
and some other markets call them "light yorkers," and do not include
light lights in their market classification. They are also sometimes
referred to as "heavy pigs." They are used principally for the fresh
meat trade. They dress 74 to 75 per cent shipper style, and 66 to 67
per cent packer style.

Light mixed are mixed loads of light hogs ranging from 200 pounds
downward. They often include a varying number of pigs. Many
such loads sell to packers without sorting, and other loads containing
a considerable number of bacon hogs, yorkers, and feeder pigs may be
sold to speculators who sort and resell. It should be understood that
there are hogs (other than roughs and boars) of yorker and bacon
weights which for one reason or another cannot be classed as yorkers
or bacon hogs. Such light hogs are coarse, poor in condition, and
decidedly on the plain and common order. No special class is provided
for them. They comprise a varying proportion of mixed loads of pack-
ing and light hogs sold to packer buyers, and their carcasses are classed
as packing carcasses, though hogs of these weights are not classed as
packing hogs on the live-stock markets. ^

Pigs

Pigs, as they are considered on the market, range in weight from
50 to 130 pounds. All pigs within these limits bought for slaughter
classify here. They are used principally to supply the demand from
the cheaper restaurants and lunch counters, and are in greatest demand
in winter, being hard to preserve fresh in summer and too young to
cure. They ordinarily dress 68 to 74 per cent shipper style.

Feeder Pigs

Prior to 1914 federal regulations prevented the shipment of hogs
from public stock yards for any purpose except immediate slaughter, ^

'As stated in Chapter XXIV, light packing carcasses range downward in weight
to 100 pounds.

^Arthur C. Davenport: The American Live Stock Market — How It Func-
tions, p. 81.

372 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

but the prevention of hog cholera by the use of the serum treatment
has made possible an extensive trade in feeder pigs during recent years.
At most market centers there are dealers or traders who buy, vaccinate,
and sell feeder pigs. Federal regulations require inspection, vaccina-
tion, and either spraying or dipping in disinfectant prior to shipment
from the yards.

The principal markets for feeder pigs are Kansas City, St. Paul,
St. Louis, and Fort Worth. The following table ^ gives the shipments
from the ten leading feeder pig markets and the total shipments from
68 markets during seven years:

Shipments of feeder pigs (in thousands) from leading markets in seven years

Market 1922 1921 1920 1919 1918 .1917 1916

1. Kansas City 162 94 200 244 175 18 22

2. St. Paul 109 104 161 103 173 232 23

3. St. Louis 63 44 47 98 77 12 13

4. Fort Worth 34 53 24 55

5. Denver 26 22 30 32 17 22 9

6. Wichita 20 13 23 20 87 44 6

7. Indianapolis 17 21 17 41 45 35 (None)

8. Sioux City 9 19 28 33 41 109 8

9. Oklahoma City 8 13 21 43 68 70 18

10. St. Joseph 11 9 23 27 34 33 11

Sixty-eight markets.. .. 593 499 728 902 989 788 194

Chicago, with 3,060 feeder pigs shipped, ranked 25th as a feeder
pig market in 1922. Omaha with 5,597 ranked 17th.

Feeder pigs weigh from 50 to 150 pounds, with weights from 90
to 120 pounds most desired, and must be in thrifty, growing condition,
but not fat. They should show quality and evidence of good breeding,
and should be as uniform as possible in size and appearance.

Roughs

In this class we find hogs of all sizes that are very coarse, rough,
and lacking in condition. They are sometimes called "throw outs."
The pork from these hogs is used for the cheaper class of trade for both
packing and fresh meat purposes. They are frequently quoted in
market reports as "rough packing hogs."

Stags

Stags are hogs that at one time were boars beyond the pig stage
and were castrated. They sell with a dockage of 70 pounds. If they
are of good quality and condition and do not show too much stagginess,
they are included in the various classes of packing hogs. When they
are too coarse and staggy in appearance they are sold separately and
at lower prices.

1 Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Book of Figures for 1922; U. S. Dept.
Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 715, 727.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 373

Boars

Boars are always sold in a class by themselves and bring a much
lower price than the best hogs on the market at the same time. They
sell without dockage but at a lower price than stags. The pork is
used to supply the cheaper class of trade and also for making sausage.
Boars are not usually marketed until their days of breeding service are
over and they are old and coarse. Many of them are condemned by
government inspectors because of sexual odor. They then bring only
fertilizer price. It is usually more profitable to castrate boars, feed
them for a time, and send them to m^arket as stags rather than as boars.

Miscellaneous

Roasting pigs are suckling pigs that weigh from 15 to 30 pounds.
They come to market in small numbers and only during holiday seasons.
They are taken direct from their dams, dressed with head and feet on,
and served like spring chickens or turkeys. The price varies greatly.

Governments. — Before hogs are allowed to pass over the scales to
be weighed out to the packer, speculator, shipper, or anyone else who
may choose to buy them, they must first pass the scrutiny of a govern-
ment inspector. All hogs not considered healthy in every respect are
tagged by this inspector and retained for further examination. Preg-
nant sows which appear to be within a few days of farrowing, hogs
with bunches, abscesses, etc., also hogs with cuts on the hams and
shoulders are retained. These are called "governments." They are
usually bought by a local dealer and taken to one of the smaller packing
houses where they are slaughtered under the supervision of an inspector.
If found to be affected so as to make the flesh unfit for human food,
they are condemned and tanked. The tank is a large steam-tight
receptacle, like a steam boiler, in which the carcass is converted into
grease and fertilizer.

Cripples are hogs that are not able to walk and must be hauled to
the packing plant in "cripple carts." ^ Weakness of pasterns, feet, and
legs is a common fault in lard hogs, especially in those heavily fattened
on corn not properly supplemented with feeds containing the proteins,
minerals, and vitamines needed to balance the ration. Lack of exercise
is another cause. Overcrowding of cars and loading and unloading
too hurriedly often cause crippling. On the market there are far
more cripples among hogs than among any other kind of stock.
Crippled hogs sell for fully a dollar less per cwt. than they would have
otherwise brought.

Dead hogs are hogs that died in transit due to overheat, rough
handling, over-feeding in hot weather before shipping, and other

1 These are two-wheeled, low-hung carts pulled by one horse.

374

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

causes. They are used in the manufacture of grease, soap, and fer-
tilizer. If they weigh 100 pounds or over, they bring the fertilizer
price. If they weigh less, they are held in payment of the cost of
handling and the shipper gets no return. Actual count of dead stock
removed from cars at Chicago, as made by the U. S. Bureau of Animal
Industry for a period of two years, showed the number to be 1 out of
2,500 cattle, 1 out of 164 calves, 1 out of 526 sheep, and 1 out of 244
hogs. ^

Summary. — The accompanying chart indicates the relationship of
the various market classes of hogs as based on the factors of weight
and quality. Beginning at 50 pounds, the minimum weight for pigs,

Weight!

Hogs of good quality

Hogs of inferior quality
or mixed

Prime heavy hogs

Heavy
packing

Heavy mixed
packing

§
pq

00
03

+-=

CO
CO

Heavy butchers

Medium
packing

Light mixed
packing

Medium butchers

Light
packing

Light butchers

Bacon
hogs

t mixed

Yorkers

Ligh

Feeder
pigs

Light light

Pigs

250

220
200
l^'O

160
150

50
Fig. 139. — Classification of market hogs according to quality and weight.

there is a continuous succession of classes to which good hogs are
eligible, ranging upward to the heaviest weights. Hogs of these classes
may be received and sold in straight carloads, they may be sorted out
of mixed loads purchased by traders, or they may be included in the
mixed loads sold to local packers. Straight or sorted loads of good
hogs are most frequently sold for shipment to other points for slaughter
or for feeding. Hogs sold to order buyers for shipment to other points
for slaughter are referred to in some market reports as "shippers," but
this is an indefinite term, as the hogs in demand for shipping may be
of several market classes.

lU. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. 113, p. 35.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 375

Inferior hogs include packing hogs, Hght hogs, roughs, stags, and
boars. There is little incentive to make sorts of inferior hogs. What
sorting of them is done is usually incidental to the sorting out of good
hogs (the inferior ones remaining), or results from throwing out a few
inferior hogs present in otherwise good loads. They are not so fre-
quently shipped as are good hogs; they sell largely to local packer
buyers.

Hog Prices at Chicago

Chicago prices during 1922. — The following prices are available
showing the range in price and average price of hogs of different weights
at Chicago in 1922:1

Average
Class Range in price [irice

Packing and butcher hogs, 255-400 lbs $5.25-11.20 $9.05

Mixed hogs, 195-255 lbs 5.90-11.45 9.30

Light mixed hogs, 135-195 lbs 6.75-11.50 9.60

All classes except pigs 9.20

Pigs 9.15

Chicago and Kansas City prices in 1921. — Following is a more
detailed list of prices at Chicago and Kansas City during 1921: ^

Chicago Kansas City

Class yearly yearly

average average

Heavy-weight hogs, 251 lbs. up $8.54 $8.08

Medium-weight hogs, 201-250 lbs 8.84 8.35

Light-weight hogs, 151-200 lbs 8.99 8.37

Light-light hogs, 130-150 lbs 8.92 8.31

Smooth packing sows, 250 lbs. up 7.74 7.09

Rough packing sows, 200 lbs. up 7.28 6.52

Pigs, 130 lbs. down 8.68

Feeder pigs, 130 lbs. down 8.26

Bulk of sales 8.54 8.35

Top price for the year 11.85 11.30

Market values of the various classes. — No detailed records are
kept of the average prices made by the various market classes of hogs
on the Chicago market. The following table gives the yearly average
weights and yearly average prices of hogs marketed at Chicago from
1913 to 1922, and also the averages for the entire ten-year period : ^

1 Drovers Journal Year Book of Figures for 1922.
2U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 724, 725.
3 Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures.

376

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Average weights and prices for hogs at Chicago for ten

years

Year

Averape
weight
Pounds

Packing and
butcher hogs
255-400 lbs.

Mixed hogs
195-255 lbs.

Light
mixed hogs
135-195 lbs.

All classes
except pigs

Pigs

1913

1914

1915

1916

228
231
219
210
213
234
233
235
234
239

$8.20
8.20

7.00

9.65

15.20

17.50

17.70

13.85

8.35

9.05

$8.50
8.30

7.20

9.60

15.10

17.40

17.80

14.20

8.70

9.30

$8.45

8.35

7.20

9.45

14.90

17.60

18.00

14.50

8.95

9.60

$8.35

8.30

7.10

9.60

15.10

17.45

17.85

14.15

8.65

9.20

$7.35
7.60
6.60
8.35

1917

14.40

1918

15.75

1919

16.00

1920

13.10

1921

8.70

1922

9.15

Ten-year average

228

11.45

11.60

11.70

11.60

10.70

The spread ^ in the price of hogs is usually narrowest in December,
January, and May. It is usually widest in August, September, and
October. The following figures are averages of ten years at the Chicago
market: ^

Average monthly spread in monthly extreme range of prices for mixed packing, medium,
and butcher hogs, 195-255 lbs., at Chicago for ten years

Monthly Monthly

Month Monthly receipts Month Monthly receipts

spread Thousands spread Thousands

957
779

January ($1.69) 957 July

February 1.85 779 August. . . .

March 2.16 665 September.

April 1.85 548 October . . .

May (1.68) 618 November.

June 1.83 627 December.

Monthly
spread

$2.57
3.88
3.35
3.58

2.18

(1.70)

551
479
429
577
736
919

These ten-year averages show twice as much spread in August,
September, and October as in December, January, and May. It may
be noted also that in a general way the spread narrows in months of
large receipts, and vice versa. Beginning in May, the spread in price
widens steadily to its greatest width in August, continues wide during
September and October, and then narrows from October to January.
It widens again, but to a lesser degree, from January to March, and
narrows from March to May.

These variations in spread are explained by the fact that good
hogs are most numerous on the market in the months when the spring
pig crop and fall pig crop are marketed in largest numbers. The
spring crop makes its heaviest run in December and January. The
fall crop makes its heaviest run in May and June. During these
months the price of good hogs is depressed by large supplies. In
August, September, and October, good young hogs are held in the

iThe spread is the difference in price. For example, if hog prices in a certain
day, week, or month range from $9 to $10, the spread is $1.

2 Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures covering the years
1912 to 1914, and 1916 to 1922, inclusive.

Types and Market Classes of Live vStock

377

country for fattening on the year's crop of corn. Good hogs are scarce
on the market at that time and the price of good hogs rises so as to
produce a wider spread. Furthermore, receipts in these months include
a great many inferior hogs, the result of marketing culled brood sows
and other inferior stock. Therefore in these months good hogs are
scarce and higher in price, and inferior hogs are relatively plentiful
and lower in price, and the spread in price of all hogs becomes the
widest of the year.

Spread in price of hogs and other live stock compared. — The spread
in price in the hog market is very much less than that in the cattle or
sheep market. The spread in price within each market class of hogs
is also relatively small. These facts are well illustrated in the follow-
ing Chicago prices reported in two issues of fhe Breeder's Gazette: ^

Top price and spread in price of live stock sold for slaughter at Chicago

Market class

Aug. 28, 29, 30,
1922

Dec. 18, 19.
1922

Top

Spread

Top

Spread

Hogs:
Bulk of sales

$9.65

9.65
9.00
9.75
8.50
7.40
7.25
8.50
6.00

$3.15
2.80

.75
.25

1.15
.65
.50

1.00
.75

$8.20
8.20
8.15
8.25
8.10
7.85
7.50
8.25
6.75

$.30

Light and medium butcher

.05

Heavy butcher

.05

Choice light bacon

.05

Good to choice mixed

.30

Heavy mixed packing

.25

Rough heavy packing

.20

Good to choice pigs

.25

Stags

.75

All of the above

9.75
9.75

4.65
3.40

8.25
8.25

2.25

.95

Cattle:

10.95
9.50
8.00
6.60
4.35
3.75

12.00

5.95
5.00
4.00
2.10
.60
1.00
7.75

13.00
9.50
7.75
6.35
4.40
4.00

10.00

7.25

Butcher heifers

Butcher cows

5.00
3.50

Butcher bulls

2.00

Bologna bulls

.90

Cutter and canner cows

1.50

Veal calves

5.00

All of the above . .

12.00
10.95

9.25
6.95

13.00
13.00

10.50

All except cutters, canners, bulls, and calves

8.75

Sheep:
Lambs

13.00

11.25

9.25

7.50

4.50
2.75
2.75
5.50

15.35

12.75

9.50

7.50

6,85

Yearlings

4.00

Wethers

3.00

Ewes

5.00

All of the above

13.00
13.00

11.00
6.50

15.35
15.35

1^85

All except ewes

8.85

1 Issues of Aug. 31 and Dec. 21, 1922.

378

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

The above prices for cattle and sheep show vastly more spread
than those for hogs. The value of market cattle and sheep is deter-
mined very largely by their condition and quality, together with their
weight, but the value of a market hog is determined very largely by
his weight alone. The condition and quality of hogs vary considerably
and affect the price, but do not affect the price to a great degree.

There are several reasons for the small spread in price of hogs.
1. Packers have discovered and developed methods of curing cuts
from the poorer hogs which enable them to put this meat on the market
in attractive and appetizing form. This has increased the price of the
plainer classes of hogs. 2. Hogs do not vary as much in dressing
percentage as cattle and sheep. 3. All hogs are strictly meat animals,
whereas the cattle market receives a considerable number of dairy
animals, and the sheep market receives a large number of Merinos.
4. Age does not make pork as tough as beef and mutton. Juiciness
and color are less variable in pork than in other meats.

The December prices given above indicate no necessity for grading
the various market classes of hogs. The August prices indicate that
some grading at that season may be advantageous. That there is at
most only a very brief period in the year when the grading of hogs may
be desirable is shown by the following figures showing the spread in
price of the bulk of hogs sold at Chicago, and in all butcher hogs, as com-
pared to the three top grades of beef steers: ^

Spread in price of live stock sold for slaughter at Chicago

First part of week of —

November 3, 1921 $0.50

December 1, 1921

January 12, 1922

February 16, 1922

March 2, 1922

April 20, 1922

May 25, 1922

June 22, 1922

July 20, 1922

August 3, 1922

August 17, 1922

August 31, 1922

September 14, 1922

September 28, 1922

October 12, 1922

November 9, 1922

December 7, 1922

January 4, 1923

March 1, 1923

» Heavy butchers, 75 cents; light and medium butchers, $1.05.
' Heavy butchers, 75 cents; light and medium butchers, 80 cents.
' Heavy butchers, 50 cents; light and medium butchers, 55 cents

1 Compiled from Breeder's Gazette's market reports.

All butcher

Bulk of

hogs — heavy

Good to

ho{rs sold

medium, and
light

prime steers

$0.50

$0.20

$4.90

.25

5.00

.60

.65

2.75

.35

.40

1.50

.35

1.75

.75

.65

1.65

.45

.30

1.00

1.05

.50

1.35

2.05

.85

1.55

2.60

.85

1.65

2.65

1.651

1.85

3.15

1.40 »

1.95

2.40

1.30 »

2.60

2.75

.80

2.25

1.50

.35

4.05

.50

.45

4.50

.25

.10

4.65

.15

.20

4.00

.55

.40

2.00

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

379

Monthly variations in hog prices. — The accompanying table'
shows that yearly average prices for hogs at Chicago steadily and
rapidly increased from 1915 to 1918 and 1919, and then declined to
the amount of $9.20 during 1920 and 1921. This was due to inflation
of prices during the World War and to severe depression or reaction
following the war.

Highest monthly prices are printed in bold-face type. These are
scattered widely, though most of them occur in the three months from
July to September inclusive. These are also months of low receipts.
The last column at the right shows that the prices during these three
months average highest for the ten years.

Monthly and yearly average prices for hogs at Chicago for ten years

Month

1922 1921

1920

1919

1918

1917

1916

1915

1914

1913

Ten-year
average

January

($7.90) $9.40

$15.00

$17.60

($16.30) ($10.90) ($7.20) $6.90

$8.30

($7.45)

$10.70

February

9.85 9.35

14.55

17.65

16.65

12.45

8.20

6.80

8.60

8.15

11.25

March

10.45 9.90

14.95

19.10

17.10

14.80

9.65

6.75

8.70

8.90

12.05

April
May

10.35 8.50

14.90

20.40

17.45

15.75

9.75

7.30

8.65

9.05

12.20

10.50 8.35

14.30

20.60

17.45

15.90

9.85

7.60

8.45

8.55

12.15

June

10.40 8.20

14.70

20.40

16.60

15.50

9.70

7.60

8.20

8.65

12.00

July

9.80 9.75

14.85

21.85

17.75

15.20

9.80

7.25

8.70

9.05

12.40

August

8-55_-a45

14.75

20.00

19.00

16.90

10.30
10.70

6.90
7.25

9.00

8.85

8.35-
8.30

12.30

September

8.70 'TTbu-

15.90"

" 17.45

19.65

18.20

October

8.85 7.70

14.05

14.35

17.70

17.15

9.80

7.90

7.65

8.20

11.35

8.10 7.05

12.20

14.20

17.70

17.40

9.60

6.65

7.50

7.75

10.80

December

8.20 (7.00)

(9.55)

(13.60)

17.55

16.85

9.95

(6.40)

(7.10)

7.70

(10.40)

Yearly

9.20 8.65

14.15

17.85

17.45

15.10

9.60

7.10

8.30

8.35

11.60

average

Lowest monthly prices are enclosed in parenthesis. Five of these
occur in December and five in January, the months of largest receipts.
The ten-year averages show a continued rise from December to April,
a very gradual decline during May and June, then a rise to the high
point in July, followed by a steady decline from July to December.
Between the July and December average prices for the ten years the
difference is $2.00.

Greater uniformity would occur in the highs of the various years
had it not been for the fact that the very marked rise in price from
1915 to 1919 largely superceded the seasonal variations in establishing
prices within these years. The same statement applies to the drop in
price during 1920 and 1921. ^ That there are nevertheless marked
seasonal variations in hog prices is shown by the monthly averages for
the entire ten years. These monthly averages are illustrated and ex-
plained in Fig. 140.

Hog prices as related to supply. — That the price of hogs varies
directly in relation to supply is shown in the accompanying chart

'Compiled from Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures.

*A steadily rising market would leave a trail of January lows and December
highs, and vice versa.

380

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

illustrating the comparison between monthly average prices and aver-
age receipts at Chicago for ten years, 1913 to 1922 inclusive. The
chart strikingly illustrates the fact that supply and demand rule prices.
Demand for hogs for slaughter is fairly constant, hence supply very
largely determines prices. The chart explains why prices are highest
in the period from July to September, and lowest in December and
January. Increased receipts in May and June when fall pigs arrive in
numbers also has its effect in lowered prices.

The chart does not take into account the monthly variations in
average weight of hogs. If this were done the correlation between
supply and price doubtless would be even more marked.

It should be noted that when the monthly receipts are decreased,
one-half the price is not doubled, hence the correlation is not perfect.

RECEIPTS

Fig. 140. — Hog receipts and prices at Chicago. This chart shows average
monthly receipts of hogs in thousands and monthly average prices of hogs for ten
years, 1913 to 1922. Prices are represented by black bars. Receipts are represented
by white bars, but each white bar is prolonged in black to make all of equal length,
the longer the black coloring the smaller the average monthly receipts. This brings
out in striking manner the correlation between hog receipts and hog prices.

This is partly explained by the fact that much pork is cured and is
stored in seasons of large receipts for consumption in seasons of small
receipts. But it is more largely due to the fact that pork is in competi-
tion with other meats and all meats are in competition with other kinds
of food. If the available supply of all human food were decreased one-
half, no doubt the price would more than double.

CHAPTER XXVII
BREEDING FOR THE MARKET

Hog raising has always been a profitable and favorite department
of farming in the United States, In Colonial times pork production
was a very simple matter. Hogs were allowed to run wild in the woods
where they fed upon roots and natural grasses and fattened upon
acorns and beech and hickory nuts, called "mast." The only expense
to the farmer was the winter feeding of those too young for market
and of those reserved for breeding purposes. Inasmuch as Indian corn
was the feed used and as this cereal would not repay the expense of
transportation to market until the introduction of railways, it cost
very little to produce pork. Even after the organization of the national
government and the settling of the Middle West it was the general
impression among farmers that it cost nothing for a man to make his
own pork, and for a long time large numbers of dressed hogs were sold
in that section of the country at prices ranging from 75 cents to $1 per
cwt. and were considered sufficiently remunerative at these figures. ^

As greater areas came under cultivation and the natural forests
became more restricted, it was found more profitable and convenient
to feed hogs on corn than to turn them out into the woods, as they
grew faster and took on more fat. It was at this stage in the develop-
ment of the American swine industry that pork packing was com-
menced, and this gave a pronounced impetus to hog production.
This was before the days of railroads, and hogs were taken overland in
droves to the nearest packing point. Later, when the railroads came,
a great saving was effected by eliminating losses due to the giving out
of hogs on the route, and pork packing and hog raising received an
impulse that has greatly helped to make pork one of the most impor-
tant staples of the country.

Development of lard-type hogs. — The early settlers of the United
States brought hogs with them from Europe, and importations of many
varieties and breeds of hogs occurred later. Various crosses of these
early stocks were made, and from various combinations of bloodlines
various American breeds of hogs originated and were later improved
by selection. Conditions in this country demand a type of swine that
fattens readily and can utilize a large share of the corn crop in the pro-
duction of pork and lard, and all of the breeds of hogs developed in the

1 Charles Cist: The Hog and Its Products, U. S. Dept. Agr. An. Rpt., 1866,
p. 382.

381

382 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

United States are of this type and some of the breeds which we have im-
ported have been remodeled so as to more closely conform to this type.

In early times in the United States there was a large demand for
cured meats. In mining camps, lumber camps, and frontier sections,
and on sea-going ships, mess pork was in great demand because it
could be easily kept in storage for long periods. It could be transported
long distances overland in wagons, or overseas in sailing vessels, or on
inland waterways in flat boats, without deterioration. In those days
only cured meats were in demand in commerce because there were no
refrigeration facilities and transportation was slow. Except in winter
there were no refrigeration facilities for slaughtering or for storage.

The best mess pork is the fattest pork, because it requires less
salt to cure it and it absorbs less salt and is more palatable than lean
salt pork. Furthermore, fat meat contains more energy than lean
meat and is therefore more economical and valuable, particularly for
laborers at hard work in cold weather.

The foreign demand for cheap meats also afforded a large outlet
for fat pork made from low-priced corn. This trade was a considerable
factor in the early development of our hog and corn industries, and
our export trade still affords a market for a considerable percentage of
our pork and lard and thereby for a considerable share of our corn crop.

Thus we see that there was need of a particular type of hog adapted
to our special requirements, and that there was a vast and increasing
field for this new type as the country was settled and as the corn belt
was developed. Since an early day there has been every incentive to
pay particular attention to pork production and to hog breeding in
this country. For many years past the improvement of our American
breeds and of our imported breeds, and the maintenance of purebred
herds for the purpose of supplying boars and sows for use in farm herds,
has commanded the best efforts of a large number of our stockmen.

The number of hogs on farms in the United States on census dates
grew from 26 million in 1840, to 34 million in 1860, 48 in 1880, 57 in
1890, and 63 in 1900, and then declined to 58 in 1910 and 59 in 1920.
The census date was June 1 until 1910, when it was changed to April
15. It was changed to January 1 in 1920.

The number of hogs on farms in the United States on January 1
of the various years, as estimated by the U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, was 34 million in 1880, 52 in 1890, 37 in 1900, 48 in 1910, and 72
in 1920. ^ These estimates recently have been revised, using census
data as a basis. The revised estimates are 51 million in 1880, 59 in
1890, 54 in 1900, 57 in 1910, and 59 in 1920. ^

lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1920, p. 753.
2U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1922, p. 192.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

383

The following figures reported by the U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture show the rank of the leading pork-producing countries and the
number of hogs in each:

Number of hogs in leading countries

Country Year Number of hogs

1. United States 1923 63,424,000

2. Brazil 1916 17,329,000

3. Germany 1921 15,876,000

4. Russia 1921 13,501,000

5. Spain 1921 5,152,000

6. Poland 1921 5,101,000

7. France 1920 4,584,000

8. Canada 1921 3,905,000

9. Great Britain 1921 3,639,000

10. Hungary 1920 3,320,000

11. Argentina 1920 3,199,000

12. Philippines 1919 3,130,000

13. Siberia 1915 2,962,000

14. Rumania 1920 2,514,000

15. Italy 1918 2,339,000

World total 169,167,000 '

lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 680.

The United States has over 3.5 times as many hogs as Brazil,
second in tlie above list. Three states, Iowa, Illinois, and Missouri,
have more hogs than Brazil. The United States has more than any
other five of the above countries combined, and the number of hogs in
Iowa is exceeded by only three of these countries other than the United
States. However, China is one of the leading pork-producing coun-
tries, but no live-stock census has been taken for that country. ^

Pork production and consumption in the United States is reported
in the following table ^ giving the annual slaughter, imports, exports,
and consumption of pork and lard :

Estimated annual production and consumption of dressed pork and lard ir
United States

the

Total slaughter

Exports less
imports

Consumption

Calendar
year

Total

Per capita

Pork

Lard

Pork

Lard

Pork

Lard

Pork

Lard

1907

Million
pounds

7,491
5,881
8,050
8,634
6,901
8,854
8,933
8,193
8,475
9,162

Million
pounds

1,683
1,344
1,840
1,973
1,577
2,015
2,089
2,022
2,095
2,330

Million
pounds

1,014
313

881

1,001

921

1,698

1,858

907

741

703

Million
pounds

589
379
489
457
384
555
785
636
893
789

Million
pounds

6,477

5,568

7,169

7,633

5,980

6,997'

7,200 1

7,3501

7,8571

8,306 1

Million
pounds

1,094
965
1,351
1,516
1,193
1,4101
1,3461
1,3901
1,2141
1,5411

Pounds

74.1
60.3
72.2
75.7
58.5
67.6
68.6
69.0
72.9
76.0

Pounds

12.5

1910

10.5

1915

13.6

1916

15.1

1917

11.7

1918

13.6

1919

12.8

1920

13 1

1921

11.3

1922

14.1

• Includes difference between quantities in storage at beginning and end of year.

lAn estimate of 76,819,000 hogs for China in 1914 is published in the U. S.
Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 676.

2John Roberts: Meat Production, Consumption, and Foreign Trade in United
States, 1907-1922, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Mimeographed Report.

384 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

From 1918 to 1921 inclusive we exported 16.5 per cent of our
total production of dressed pork, lard, and edible offal, and during
these years our total production of pork was 32 per cent greater than
that of beef, veal, mutton, and lamb combined, including edible offal. ^
Our per capita consumption of dressed pork, exclusive of lard, was
greater in 1921 and 1922 than that of all other meats combined. This
is shown by the following table: ^

Annual per capita consumption of dressed meat and lard in the United States

Product 1922 1921 1920

Beef, lbs

Veal, lbs

Mutton and Iamb, lbs

Pork (excl. lard) lbs

.... 61.4
.... 7.3
.... 5.0
.... 76.0

57.8
7.0
6.2

72.9

143.9
11.3

155.2

61.2
7.9
5.1

69.0

Total meat, lbs

Lard, lbs

Total meat and lard, lbs ... .

....149.7
.... 14.1

.. ..163.8

143.2
13.1

156.3

The distribution of hogs in the United States is shown by the
numbers in the leading states and in the various geographical divisions,
as estimated by the U. S. Department of Agriculture:

Leading states in numbers of hogs on farms, January 1, 1923

state

Number

Average
value

state

Number

Average
value

2.
3.
4.
5.

Iowa

Illinois

Missouri . . . .
Nebraska. . .
Indiana

. . . 9,615,000

. . . 4,693,000
. . . 4,306,000
. . . 4,232,000
. . . 4,102,000

$12.80
12.50

9.83
12.00
11.90

10.

Ohio

Kansas

Minnesota . . .

Texas

South Dakota

. 3,091,000
. 2,776,000
. 2,610,000
. 2,326,000
. 2,238,000

$12.10

11.00

13.20

8.80

13.50

The estimated average value of all hogs in the United States on
January 1, 1923, was $11.46.

Half of the hogs in the United States are produced in the seven
corn-belt states, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Indiana,
and Ohio.

Distribution of hogs on farms by geographical divisions on January 1, 1923

Division Number

North Atlantic Division 2,205,000

South Atlantic Division ' 6,480,000

North Central, East of Mississippi River 14,746,000

North Central, West of Mississippi River 26,300,000

South Central Division 11,050,000

Far Western Division 2,643,000

Total 63,424,000

As hogs are now distributed throughout the geographic divisions,
the North Central States, extending from Ohio to the western line of

lU. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 683.

2U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Anim. Indus., Mimeographed Report.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

385

Kansas, have 65 per cent of the national total; the Southern States,
from the Atlantic Ocean to the western line of Texas, have 28 per cent
of the total; and the remaining 7 per cent are in the East and in the
Far Western States.

Conditions suitable to pork production. — As stated by Henry and
Morrison ^ of the University of Wisconsin, "The horse, ox, and sheep
are normally herbivorous, living on the finer and more delicate portions
of plants and their seeds, while the omnivorous pig feeds not only on
the tender leaves, stems, roots, and seeds, but on animal matter as
well. Because of the limited capacity of the stomach and the nature
of its digestive apparatus the pig requires food that is more concen-
trated and digestible and less woody than that of the other farm
animals."

Fig. 141. — Distribution of hogs in the United States.

Economical pork production requires the use of a large proportion
of grain or other concentrated feeds. Beef and mutton can be pro-
duced successfully without grain feeding, but pork production requires
grain feeding to a very large degree. Beef cattle and sheep are well
adapted to range conditions in the semi-arid regions of the West, but
the hog has no place whatever under these conditions. Hogs can
profitably utilize very limited amounts of legume hay and they can
use certain pastures to advantage as supplements to their grain ration,
but weanling pigs kept on the best of pastures without any other feed
make very slight gains or do not gain at all. The hog is, then, adapted

1 Feeds and Feeding, 1915, p. 587.

386 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

to improved lands and to regions where a plentiful supply of grain for
feeding is produced.

Hogs are especially suited to the com belt because corn is the most
economical grain feed available for pork production. Gains produced
on corn are usually cheaper than those produced on other cereals, and
pork made from corn is firm and of good quality. Hogs are also well
adapted to other regions of the United States where barley, kafir, milo,
soybeans, cowpeas, field peas, peanuts, skim milk, and buttermilk are
available for feeding. Pork is profitably produced in the South from
corn, peanuts, grain sorghums, and pasture crops, and it is also pro-
duced very economically and profitably in dairy districts where dairy
by-products are available for feeding in combination with grain. The
farmer in the corn belt or elsewhere who combines dairying and hog
raising increases the income from his dairy cattle because dairy by-
products are most valuable when used as feed for hogs or poultry, and
he increases his profits in pork production because of a larger number
of pigs saved and raised per litter and because of rapidity and economy
of gains. Many farms in Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illinois, Iowa, and
other states have found the dairy cow and the pig to be a most desirable
combination for efficiency in the profitable conversion of field crops
into animal products. Hogs and beef cattle constitute another ex-
cellent combination for the utilization without waste of all grains,
roughages, and pastures produced in a general system of farming.

Corn and hogs. — The uses of corn harvested for grain in the
United States, based on estimates by the U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture, are as follows:^

Per cent

Fed to hogs on farms 40.0

Fed to horses and mules on farms 20.0

Fed to cattle 15.0

Used as human food 10.0

Fed to stock not on farms 5.5

Fed to poultry on farms 4.0

Fed to sheep on farms 1.0

Export and other uses 4.5

Total 100.0

Eighty-five per cent of corn is fed to live stock, and hogs consume
twice as much corn as any other class of farm animals. Hogs are more
closely allied with corn, and less allied with other crops used as feed
(including pastures), than is true of other farm live stock. Dairy
cattle approach hogs in this regard, followed by horses, beef cattle, and
sheep in the order named. The writer determined the average rank
of the various states in corn production for the nine-year period from

1 Leigh ty, Warburton, Stine, and Baker: The Corn Crop, U. S. Dept. Agr.
Yearbook, 1921, p. 165.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

387

1907 to 1915 inclusive. Similar average rankings in each kind of live
stock were determined for each state, based on the number of animals
in each state on January 1, from 1908 to 1916 inclusive. For example,
Kansas' average rank in com during this period was 8th; in hogs, 8th;
in dairy cattle, 11th; in horses, 4th; in beef cattle, 4th; and in sheep,
30th. Thus, Kansas' rank in hogs did not vary from her rank in corn;
in dairy cattle she varied 3 points from corn; in horses, 4 points; in beef
cattle, 4 points; and in sheep, 22 points. If the number of points be-
tween hogs and corn in each state are added together, we find that
hogs varied 196 points from com in the 48 states; dairy cattle varied

Fig. 142. — Pork production in the United States is closely related to corn pro-
duction. These graphs show the average rank of the various states in corn produc-
tion from 1907 to 1915, and in numbers of hogs and sheep on January 1, from 1908
to 1916 inclusive. Hogs are closely related to corn, followed by dairy cattle, horses,
beef cattle, and sheep in the order named. Sheep raising has practically no depend-
ence on corn production.

233 points from com; horses, 401 points; beef cattle, 489 points; and
sheep, 788 points.

The average rank of the states in com, hogs, and sheep for the
nine years is herewith presented graphically. It will be noticed that
in only four states do sheep rank closer to com than do hogs. These
are New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Wisconsin. In

388 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Rhode Island and North Dakota sheep and hogs vary an equal number
of points from the rank in corn. In each of the remaining 42 states,
hogs rank closer to corn than do sheep. Notice how closely corn and
hogs are associated in the first eight states. There seems to be no
correlation between sheep and corn.

Changes in size and weight of market hogs. — By 1850 American
swine growers had developed a very large, lengthy, broad backed, deep
middled, and rather coarse type of hog that grew to large size and was
marketed at very heavy weights. Early pork packers paid a premium
for very heavy weights. Weights in market hogs ranging from 350 to
500 pounds were fairly common, and some weighed over 700 pounds.

Writing in 1866, Charles Cist, of Cincinnati, stated : ' "The differ-
ent classes of cured pork, packed in barrels, are made of the different
sizes and conditions of hogs, the finest and fattest making clear and
mess pork, while the residue is put up into prime pork and bacon.
The inspection laws require that clear pork shall be put up of the
sides with the ribs out. It takes the largest class of hogs to receive
this brand."

In 1864 H. D. Emery, of Chicago, stated ^ that "the price for dressed
hogs divides at 200 pounds, the lowest price being for light ones." He
also states, "The earliest purchases made for packing in 1832 to 1834
varied from $2 to $3 per hundred net. To show the weight of hogs
in early days, contracts were sometimes made between packers and
drovers for a lot of hogs, for which a given price was to be paid, the
hogs to average 150 pounds; for all that they averaged over that
1 cent per pound was to be added, and all that they fell short 1 cent
per pound was to be deducted. This was an incentive to produce
heavy hogs, the contracts being made early in the season."

In 1842 a writer ^ described the hogs of the Miami valley near
Cincinnati (foundation stock of the Poland-China breed) as follows:
"But the stock to which the people here have paid the greatest atten-
tion, and which is their largest and most staple production, is swine.
The immense crops of corn enable them to keep vast herds of these
animals, and one will find from 50 to 300 head of the various sizes,
from pigs up to immense fatting porkers, on nearly every farm that
he may happen to pass." The same writer reports that he had re-
peatedly seen hogs in that region that would weigh from 800 to 1,000
pounds.

Clark Petit's History of Jersey Reds (ancestors of the modern
Duroc-Jersey) states that among New Jersey breeders there "had long

lU. S. Dept. Agr. An. Rpt., 1866, p. 386.

2U. S. Dept. Agr. An. Rpt., 1863, pp. 210, 211.

'American Agriculturist, Nov., 1842, p. 234.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 389

existed a great spirit of rivalry as to who should annually win the honor
of raising the best lot of hogs, making the greatest average weight at
different ages, for which Philadelphia butchers always paid an ad-
vanced price." Following are some of the dressed weights reported:

Average

dressed weight

Pounds

30 hogs, 22 months old 686

18 hogs, 22 months old 734

23 hogs, 20 months old 639.5

34 hogs, 17 months old 565

51 hogs, 17 months old 520

17 hogs 862

20 hogs 882

25 pigs, 8 months old 413

16 pigs, 7 months old 278

20 pigs, 6M months old 280

Other early writers reported equally heavy weights for Jersey
Red hogs and early Poland-Chinas. ^

The following weights of hogs packed in the West during the
winter packing season, and of hogs marketed annually at Chicago,
show the changes that have occurred during the last half century:

Average live weight of hogs and yield of lard in the West for the winter packing
ending March 1 ^

Weight Lard

Weight

Lard

Year

Pounds Per cent

Year

Pounds

Per cent

1873

290.53 13.80

1908

. . . . 221.04

14.44

1878

282.55 13.66

1913

. . . . 223.50

13.07

1883

267.02 13.27

1918

.... 220.60

9.41

1888

242.30 12.82

1919....

.. .. 214.08

13.87

1893

227.73 13.90

1920

. . . . 226.57

13.79

1898

235.35 14.76

1921

.... 229.02

13.65

1903

224.05 14.42

Average live weight

1922

of hogs at Chicago*

. . . . 228.47

15.75

January Yearly

January

Yearly

Year

average average

Year

average

1876

281 250

1905

.... 213

222

1880

265 246

1910

.... 210

235

1885

258 239

1915

.... 223

219

1890

241 234

1920

.... 229

235

1895

223 230

1922

. . . . 229

239

1900

229 233

Note that January weights exceeded yearly average weights at
Chicago until 1890, and that subsequently January averages were
lower than yearly averages.

Development of an unprofitable type. — During the late seventies
and early eighties fresh pork and bacon began rapidly to replace the

1 American Duroc-Jersey Record, Vol. 4, pp. 15, 16.

2U. S. Dept. Agr. An. Rpt., 1866, pp. 384, 385; Standard Poland-China Record,
Vol. 1, 1887, pp. 22, 23.

3 Compiled from Price Current — Grain Reporter Year Books.
* Drovers Journal Year Book of Figures for 1922.

390 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

heavy salt meats which had been in greater demand, and packers gave
preference to handy-weight hogs weighing from 225 to 275 pounds.
As a result of this, hog breeders turned their attention to the develop-
ment of quality and early maturity, sacrificing size to obtain them.
They developed a very wide, thick, compact, short legged, close- to-
the-ground type of hog, having great refinement of bone, head, ear,
hair, and fleshing, and great smoothness. An extreme type was
developed, in fact the swing from size and coarseness to high quality
and compactness was carried so far that during the nineties farmers
made strong objections to the small, chunky type developed by many
breeders of purebred hogs. The sows were not prolific and the pigs
lacked ability to grow rapidly, to make large daily gains, and to attain
market weights in quick time.

The modern type. — The reaction from the small type following
the year 1905 became so marked that very rough, coarse hogs, and
hogs of very inferior form, found favor with breeders and farmers
merely because they had large size. A little later, smoothness and
good form were added without loss of size. It was found that in order
to grow to large size a hog need not be rough and coarse in quality, nor
awkward and slouching in form. But there are three things which
are essential to the development of size in hogs and essential to the
most rapid growth. These are length of body, length of leg, and
large but not coarse bone. The long and rather narrow bodied,
leggy, weanling pig with ample bone is the one that grows rapidly,
keeps on growing for a long period, and makes a big hog. Such a pig
requires also a fourth essential to make him the most profitable sort
of a market pig— namely, depth and capacity of chest and middle
to insure constitutional vigor, good feeding qualities, and the desired
finish at market weights.

In earlier times when corn was cheap, hogs were given a complete
finish before they were marketed. When the change to the handy-
weight market hog occurred, corn was still relatively cheap and a high
finish was given, producing very broad-backed hogs. In some recent
years higher prices for com and lower prices for lard have operated to
lessen to some extent the amount of finish which is most desirable from
the producer's standpoint. The modem corn-belt hog, though still a
lard hog, is not quite so thick and broad as his predecessor. It seems
logical to suppose that the lard hog of the future will be required to
make his gains more largely in growth, on cheap forages, and less in
fat on heavy grain feeding than was true of the lard hog of the past.
But as long as the United States shall continue to grow a vast yield of
com far in excess of its requirement for human food, it is also reason-
able to suppose that corn will continue to be used very extensively in

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

391

hog feeding, and that our hogs will go to market carrying considerable
finish and that they will continue to be valued for the production of
both meat and lard, though varying in the percentage yield of lard
depending on the supply and price of com and the price of hogs.

Some questions and answers. — The question is very frequently
asked why very large breeding animals are demanded by breeders of
purebred hogs inasmuch as the annual crop of farm pigs is sent to
market weighing around 225 to 250 pounds. This question may be
answered by the following brief statements, many of which summarize
facts presented in preceding chapters:

1. In farm herds which produce market hogs there is a tendency
toward loss of size, due to feeding com too exclusively and also due in

Fig. 143. — Excellent type in the herd boar. Duroc-Jersey boar, Great Orion
Sensation, champion at the National Swine Show in 1919 and 1921. Owned by Ed.
M. Kern, Stanton, Neb. A very large, heavy-boned, masculine type of boar with
great length and smoothness.

some cases to lack of proper care and management. Corn is not a
good feed to produce bone, muscle, and growth, in fact it is a very poor
feed for these purposes. Pigs fed too exclusively on corn, without the
addition of feeds rich in protein and minerals, do not grow as large as
they would otherwise. They also lack in size and strength of bone.
The breeder of purebred hogs is therefore justified in selecting for very
large size, length of body, and heavy bone in order that he may supply
the farmer with boars and sows that will assist in maintaining good
(but not necessarily extreme) size, stretch, and bone in farm herds.

392 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

As shown in the following paragraphs, good size in farm herds is essen-
tial to the production of the most profitable market hogs.

2. The cheapest gains are made during the growing period. This
is shown by the following compilation presented by Henry and Morri-
son ^ which summarizes over 500 American feeding trials with more
than 2,200 hogs:

Pounds feed for
Weight of hogs 100 pounds gain

100-150 pounds 437 pounds

150-200 pounds 482 pounds

200-250 pounds 498 pounds

250-300 pounds 511 pounds

300-350 pounds 535 pounds

3. It is true of all kinds of farm animals that the larger the
breeding stock the longer the growing period of the offspring will be,
and the more rapid will be the rate of increase in size during a given
period. The pig from large parents makes more growth daily and
monthly and continues to grow for more months than does the pig
from smaller stock.

4. The growthy type of pig is therefore "younger" at six months
of age than the smaller-tjrpe pig. This is true because at six months
the former has more days of growth ahead of him. As a rule the
growthy pig is also younger than the smaller type at the same weight.

5. For these reasons the growthy pig makes his gains at some-
what lower cost because the cheapest gains are made when animals are
youngest.

6. If the breeding stock is of large size, the pigs will be growthy,
will gain rapidly, and will attain market weights in shortest time.

7. Pigs marketed somewhat in advance of other pigs of the same
age usually bring a better price than those marketed later at times of
largest receipts.

8. The shorter the feeding period the less the risk and the less
the labor cost of producing pork. The man who raises pigs of growthy
type has them off to market while his neighbor who raises smaller hogs
is still feeding them and still running the risk of loss from disease and
other causes.

9. If the market slumps when hogs of the larger type are ready
for market, they may be held on feed and will continue to make more
efficient use of feed and larger gains than hogs of smaller type. This
is sometimes a distinct advantage.

Another question is frequently raised, namely, why should a rather
upstanding, rangy type of barrow be preferred when the low-set, com-
pact type is demanded in the steer and wether? The answer is that

1 Feeds and Feeding, 1915, p. 569.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

393

hogs fatten more readily and to a greater degree than cattle or sheep .
It is necessary to foster a blocky type in the latter animals because^
as a rule, a good finish at the desired age cannot be attained without
it. This is especially true of market lambs and baby beeves. The
rather upstanding, rangy pig, of growthy type, if possessed of good
feeding qualities and if properly fed, can be given a good finish at any
weight above 150 pounds. It is acknowledged that an upstanding
form and ranginess in the pig do not alone insure efficiency as a pork
producer. He must have other essential points in type as well. Never-
theless, there is no inconsistency in demanding blockiness in beef cattle
and sheep, and ranginess and a rather upstanding form in hogs.

Fig. 1 14, G(Hi(l type ill tln' l.oar. Chester Wliito Lour <'liaiiipiMn at the
Iowa State Fair, owned by A. B. Somerville, Monroe, Iowa.

Now comes a third question. Is it not true that the packer pre-
fers a hog of great smoothness and great refinement of bone? Yes,
this is true, as shown by the study of the hog carcass. Packers do
prefer a high-quality hog. But they offer such a slight premium for
this kind of a hog as compared to a rangy pig with medium or large
bone that there is no incentive to produce the packer's type. The
advantage of large, stretchy breeding stock in prolificacy and of their
pigs in economy of gains more than counterbalances the very slight
premium paid for market-topping hogs.

The modem barrow of stretchy, growthy type has no difficulty in
gaining admission to the butcher hog class where he competes with the
packer-type hog, and we have seen in the preceding chapter that in

394 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

November, December, January, and February when the spring pig
crop is marketed, and again in May and June when most fall pigs are
marketed, there is very little spread in the price of butcher hogs of all
weights. Usually at these seasons the entire spread in price of all
butcher hogs of the same weight is only 10 to 25 cents per cwt. The •
market-topping load with its fancy quality often sells only 5 or 10 cents
higher than the bulk of hogs sold that day. The value of the market
hog is determined to a much greater degree by his weight alone, with
much less regard to both quality and finish than is true of cattle or
sheep, and that is why the most profitable type of lard hog is essentially
that type in which the sows are most prolific and in which the pigs make
their gains most economically. Type in hogs is almost entirely a matter
of meeting producers' requirements, whereas type in cattle and sheep
must give much more consideration to factors which the packer desires
and for which he pays a premium large enough to insure their incorpora-
tion in the type aimed at by cattle and sheep producers.

Lard-hog type does include, however, many points desired by the
packer which are incorporated without in any way lessening economy
of production. These are smoothness, freedom from coarseness, sym-
metry, and good condition. All these points desired by packers may
be included and are in fact demanded in the modem type of lard hog
without lessening his efficiency in economy of production.

As indicating that the importance of size in hogs is now generally
recognized, it may be stated that all of the breeds classed as lard hogs
in the United States have been modified in recent years so as to con-
form more closely to the so-called "big type."

Charles D. Kirkpatrick of Keokuk County, Iowa, states ^ that he
raises about 400 hogs for market annually, and he compares his results
with big-type hogs in recent years with his earlier experiences with the
smaller and finer type then in vogue. He concludes an excellent
article as follows:

"The big type has proved fully as important on the sow side of the
herd as in the feeding pen. The farrowing troubles of the old-fash-
ioned, thick-built sows caused a deal of disagreeable work, and fre-
quently were the cause of heavy losses. At present there is neither a
pair of forceps nor a snare in my hog-house equipment; I haven't
helped a sow deliver a pig this season, and I haven't had a veterinarian
on the place since a year ago last spring. So far this year the average
litter saved to weaning time is nearly seven.

"Length of legs and stretch of body, of course, can be perverted
into a gun barrel type of hog. A weasel is not my ideal of conforma-
tion for a herd boar. But for my part I have no quarrel with the

Breeder's Gazette, Dec. 14, 1922, p. 835.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 395

daylight under the show champions because they can get their poster-
ity over the scales to a speedy and profitable sale of pork."

Selection of breeding stock. — The points which should receive
particular attention in selecting hogs for breeding purposes are (1)
size, (2) feeding capacity, (3) constitution and vigor, (4) early matur-
ity, (5) strength of back, legs, pasterns, and feet, (6) quality, (7)
breeding qualities, (8) uniformity of type, and (9) ancestry.

1. The most profitable hog is one that inherits ability to grow to
large size, but which will fatten if desired long before the limit of growth
is reached. It is desirable, therefore, to set the standard for matured
weight as high as is consistent with proper form, early maturity, and
quality. For boars in high condition, the standard may be set at 800
pounds or over without necessarily sacrificing other desirable qualities.
Sows in high condition should weigh not less than 600 pounds. By
proper selection and by improved methods of feeding and management,
these weights may be equalled or surpassed. It is not desirable to
keep breeding stock in high condition, but the term "breeding condi-
tion" has such a variable meaning that it cannot be used satisfactorily
as a basis for weights. In breeding condition, boars and sows may
weigh considerably less than 800 pounds and 600 pounds respectively,
but they should have enough size of frame and capacity for taking on
flesh to enable them to reach these weights if they were fed to high
condition.

2. Feeding capacity is indicated by length, depth, width, and
fullness of middle. Some degree of paunchiness may be accepted as
evidence of feeding capacity. A wide head, prominent poll, well-
developed jaw, a mild eye, and a short neck are further indications of
a good feeder.

3. Constitution and vigor are indicated by width and depth of
chest, a large heart-girth, good spring of rib, large feeding capacity,
and a strong appetite. A general appearance of strength and rugged-
ness without coarseness, an active walk, a bright, open eye, a healthy
skin, and abundant, glossy hair are other evidences of constitution,
thrift, and vigor.

4. An early maturing hog is one that makes a fast growth, yet
can be fattened off at market weight. Such hogs are ready for market
in quickest time and at lowest cost. This quality is possessed in
greatest degree by hogs descended from breeding stock of large size
and ample bone that are long bodied, deep of middle, reasonably wide,
full made, and well developed in all parts, combining size, stretch,
vigor, and good feeding qualities, without coarseness.

5. A low back is a bad fault in a breeding animal. It is a weak-
ness which is as likely to be transmitted to offspring as any other

396

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

good or bad quality. The boar should stand on large, strong bone,
this being one evidence of masculinity, but extremely large, rough bone,
covered with a thick, puffy skin is undesirable, indicating coarseness.
The breeding sow should show greater refinement of bone than the
boar, yet it should be amply sufficient to sustain not only her weight
but also the added weight imposed by pregnancy and large litters.
Fine shank bones are not objectionable because they are liable to be
fractured by the weight of the sow, but because fine bone is associated
with small, weak tendons and ligaments which permit the pastern to
drop down and the toes to spread apart, thus making the legs weak
and greatly lessening the usefulness of the animal. Proper feed during
the growing period and sufficient exercise are other factors which have

Fig. 145. — Good type in the brood sow. Hampshire sow, Gloria 2d, champion
at the Iowa State Fair. Owned by Russell Yates, Palo, Iowa. Note her length,
depth of chest and middle, smoothness, quality, and feminine character.

much to do with the strength of feet and legs. Sickled hind legs,
bowed-out hocks, inbent knees, and other deformities should be avoid-
ed, particularly in selecting a boar.

6. A reasonable degree of quality, as indicated by smoothness of
form and flesh and by trimness of appearance, is something of an
evidence of good breeding and must be shown in breeding stock if it
is to be shown in their pigs on the market. The butcher desires a
very high degree of quality and refinement in head, ear, hide, hair, bone,
and fleshing, but does not pay enough premium for it to justify the
producer in emphasizing quality too strongly. The breeder should

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 397

select for as much quality in breeding stock as may be had without
sacrifice of proper size, constitution, and size of bone.

The skin over the shoulders of mature boars is thicker and heavier
than on sows or barrows. This character, called the "shields," was
a highly useful feature in the wild boar as a protection in fighting.
The wild boar has transmitted this character in greater or less degree
to his domesticated descendants. In some instances the thickening
and hardening of the skin is so great as to produce pronounced callouses,
and these are objectionable. A smooth shoulder is desired in the boar
as well as in the sow and barrow.

7. Great variation in prolificacy exists between individual sows
of the same breed. There are also some rather marked differences be-
tween breeds. The number of pigs per litter varies from 1 to 16 or
more, but with good management is usually from 6 to 10 and under
ordinary farm conditions averages about 7 or 8. It is well to remember,
however, that it is the number of pigs raised, rather than the number
farrowed, which is most important. Sows that are irregular breeders,
difficult to get in pig, not prolific, poor sucklers, or that lie on their
pigs should be sent to market. Short-middled sows of the chunky type
are usually lacking in prolificacy and milking qualities. Size, stretch,
roominess, and a mild disposition are essential to good brood sows.
Their udders should include 12 or more well-developed glands and teats.

Masculine, vigorous boars are quick and sure breeders. Mother-
ly or matronly-looking sows are the most satisfactory breeders and
best mothers.

8. The breeding herd should be kept as uniform in size, form,
color, and other points as possible in order that the pigs may acquire
a finish at about the same time and present a uniform and attractive
appearance in the feed-lot and on the market.

9. A good ancestry back of a young boar or sow is the best
possible guarantee that it will develop into a useful breeding animal.
Between two hogs equal in individuality, one the best pig from a poor
litter and a poor ancestry, and the other the worst pig from a good
litter and a good ancestry, there is almost certain to be a marked ad-
vantage in favor of the latter as a breeder. Particularly in selecting
boars is it important to buy from a good herd, and to select pigs from
a large litter, a good litter, a good sire, and a good dam. In other
words an effort should be made to obtain prolific stock of good type
and with an inheritance that insures ability to breed on. In breeding
for the market, the sows should be purebreds or high grades. ' None

iPor definitions of purebred and grade and for discussions of the importance
of good ancestry, the utility value of purebred live stock, and the grading process,
see Chapter IX.

398 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

other than a good purebred boar should be used on any herd. In hogs,
as in other stock, the sire is at least half of the herd.

The 1920 census reported that 3.4 per cent of the hogs in the
United States on January 1, 1920, Were registered purebreds. ^

The sow may be bred when 8 months old, farrowing her first litter
when 12 months old. If well fed and cared for, she will raise two litters
per year, though many breeders believe that better results are obtained
if the sow raises one litter per year, or at most three litters in two years.
The average duration of pregnancy in swine is 114 days. Boars 8 to
10 months old may be used on a few sows if they are well developed
for their age and well fed. A mature boar will breed one sow a day,
or from 30 to 40 sows during the breeding season.

With no other kind of live stock is there practiced so much mixing
of breeds and cross breeding as in the breeding of hogs for the market.
It is very commonly believed that by crossing a boar of one breed
upon sows of another breed, more vigorous and growthy offspring will
result. While there is no serious criticism to be made against such a
method so far as the first cross is concerned, it invariably happens that
if this policy is followed up and further crossing and mixing is resorted
to, a variety of shapes and colors is presented that is most unattrac-
tive as compared with a bunch of hogs possessing good uniformity.
In the majority of cases it will be most profitable to pick out one of
the standard breeds of hogs and stick to that breed year after year.
If this is done there need be no lack of vigor in the offspring if the
parent stock is selected with due care as to constitution and vigor.

1 Nearly 60 per cent of these were in the corn belt. The ten leading states in
numbers of registered purebred hogs, in order of rank, were Iowa, Illinois, Indiana,
Missouri, Nebraska, Minnesota, Ohio, South Dakota, Texas, and Kansas.

PART IV-HORSES

INTRODUCTION

"From remotest ages he has come with man, side by side, in
the glory and achievements of the white race. In all the dar-
ings and doings of the Saxon, wherever countries were to be
conquered, battles fought, and the banner of Britain carried
round the world, wherever has been a footprint, there also was
the hoof-beat." — John Trotwood Moore in The Gift of the
Grass.

For centuries the horse has been a faithful servant of man in the
capacity of a burden bearer. As compared with other domesticated
animals, the horse is peculiar in his relation to man, for he is valuable
on account of his ability to do work and not because he furnishes a
tangible product useful as food or otherwise. It is his athletic ability
which makes the horse useful.

None other of our domestic animals occupies as important a place
in the economy of things as does the horse; if all the horses were sudden-
ly taken from the nations of the world, agriculture, business, and com-
merce would be seriously impaired and we would soon be in a state of
famine. Consider the vast number of horses in use on farms, on city
streets, on country roads, in armies, and for numerous pleasure pur-
poses, such as riding, driving, racing in harness and under saddle,
hunting, and polo. We could give up any of the other domesticated
animals with much less serious results, and this in spite of the advent
and improvement of the automobile, motor truck, and tractor, and
their wide use at the present time.

The horse may be said to be a locomotive which consumes hay
and grain instead of coal. He is self-feeding, self-controlling, and self-
reproducing, and is at the same time a very efficient motor. Farmers
who use horses may be compared to the engineer who operates a motor.
Farmers who breed horses may be compared to the manufacturer of
motors. No man can manufacture or operate a motor with real
success unless he understands its construction, the importance of its
various parts, their strength or weakness, and their relation to one
another. No man can learn the construction of a motor by studying
its exterior only; he must take it apart and study the various parts,
and then put them together again. Then he must put it in motion
and study the action of the various levers, pulleys, and springs, in
order that he may know the location of weaknesses and at what points

399

400 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

the most wear comes. Knowing these things, he can manufacture a
motor of high efficiency, or, operating one, he can obtain from it the
greatest amount of work with least danger of injuring the machine.
Hence we see how important is a knowledge of the anatomy of the
horse as a basis for the study of types of horses and the requirements
and capabilities of each type.

It is not possible to develop a good judge of any kind of live stock
by teaching simply what to look for in an animal. A mere description
of parts or points is not sufficient. The student wants to know why
certain things are desirable in an animal, and why certain other things
are undesirable. He must know the "why" of each point if he is to
value each point properly and put emphasis where it belongs. This
is especially true in learning to judge horses. No matter how care-
fully the points to be looked for in feet and legs are described, the
student cannot recognize the importance of these parts and know what
constitutes a first-class foot and leg, unless he has a fairly good idea
of their anatomy and physiology. In the pages which follow, the
writer has, therefore, given considerable attention to some of the essen-
tial features of horse anatomy before entering upon a description of
the various types and market classes of horses.

Definitions of Horse Terms

Stallion. — Breeding male.

Mare. — The female.

Colt. — A young stallion.

Filly. — A young mare.

Foal. — Colt or filly under one year old.

Weanling. — A weaned foal.

Gelding. — Unsexed male, castrated under two years old. The best
age to castrate colts is at one year old after they have been on pasture
a few weeks but before fly-time. In the corn belt the best time to
castrate is the latter part of May.

Stag. — Unsexed male, castrated when mature or so far advanced
toward maturity that masculinity is plainly evident in head and neck.
This constitutes coarseness in a horse for harness or saddle use.

Yeld mare. — A mare that has not raised a foal during the season;
a dry mare.

Show Yard Classification by Ages

The base date for classifying horses by ages is January 1, and the
classes by ages are as follows: The foal class includes only those that
were foaled on or after January 1 of the year shown. All foals become
yearlings on January 1 of the year following the date foaled. One
year later they become two-year-olds, the next year three-year-olds, and

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 401

the next year they enter the four years old and over (aged) class. Some
of the larger shows provide separate classes for four-year-olds, and
when this is done the aged class is for animals five years old and over.

Junior champion. — Best animal under three years.

Senior champion. — Best animal three years old or over.

Champion. — Best animal any age.

Grand champion. — Best animal any age or breed. The term
"grand champion" is also frequently applied to champions.

CHAPTER XXVIII
BRIEF ANATOMICAL STUDY OF THE HORSE

In all animal life the cell is the structural and functional unit. A
tissue is a collection of similarly differentiated cells. A number of
tissues grouped together form an organ. The body is an aggregation
of organs. The systems of organs are seven in number. They are
(1) skeletal, (2) muscular, (3) digestive, (4) respiratory, (5) genito-
urinary, (6) nervous, and (7) integumentary.

Skeletal system. — The skeletal system is important as it largely
determines the conformation of the horse. The divisions of the
skeleton are (1) head, (2) neck, (3) trunk, and (4) legs. The head
consists of numerous bones, mostly fiat, united by sutures which gradu-
ally undergo obliteration with age. The lower jaws are strong and in
each jaw there are six molar teeth (24 in all). Twelve of these are
temporary — three in each jaw. There are also six incisors in the upper
and six in the lower jaws, all of which are temporary and are entirely
replaced by the time the animal is 43^ years old.

The vertebral column is a chain of 54 to 56 irregular bones (verte-
brae) extending from skull to end of tail. There are seven cervical
(neck) vertebrae, 18 dorsal (back), 6 lumbar (loin), 5 sacral (croup),
and 18 or 20 caudal (tail) vertebrae. The 3rd, 4th, and 5th dorsal
vertebrae have the highest spines which form the withers. (See Fig.
146.)

There are 18 pairs of ribs, 8 of which are true and 10 false. The
8 true pairs join the 8 segments of the sternum or breast bone. The
7th or 8th ribs are longest. There is no collar bone (clavicle) as in
man, and the fore legs are not attached to the trunk but are connected
by intervening muscles. The hind legs are united to the trunk by
the pelvic girdle which is composed of three segments on each side.

Muscular system. — The horse comprises a large number of sys-
tems of levers represented in the bones and joints, each supplied with
a system of muscles which furnish the power. Muscles exert a force
in only one way, and that by shortening, giving a pull. For this
reason muscles are arranged in pairs, as illustrated by the biceps and
triceps which move the forearm in man. The flexor muscles are al-
ways inside the joint and the extensors outside. The theory has been
advanced that the shortening of muscles is due to a change in the form
of the muscular cell from an elongated form to one nearly round when
stimulated by nerve action. Muscles act through very short distances

402

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

403

and upon the short end of levers composing the animal frame. Acting
in this way, speed and distance are gained with a corresponding reduc-
tion in the magnitude of the force. Because muscles are able to act
only through very short distances, it is necessary for them to act upon
the short end of the levers in order that sufficiently rapid movement
may be gained.

The muscular system obtains its maximum development in the
horse, and upon the excellence of this, beauty of conformation largely
depends. Especially is this latter true of the neck and hindquarters.
There are no muscles below the knees and hocks — only their tendinous
prolongations. The first muscle under the skin almost covers the

Fig. 146. — Skeleton of the horse. This illustration shows the location of the
bones and the degree to which the skeleton and the muscle influence the form.

entire body and is the one that enables the animal to shake flies or any
irritating foreign substance off its skin.

Digestive system.— The tongue is small as compared with that of
the ox. The capacity of the stomach is small, holding between 3 and
4 gallons, while the stomach of the ox holds 30 to 40 gallons. But
the small size of the organ is compensated for by the large size and
capacity of the intestines which hold twice that of the ox. The large
intestine has a capacity of about 20 gallons, and the small one 12
gallons. The liver is large, as are also the kidneys.

Respiratory system. — The respiratory organs are well developed,
and comprise the nasal cavities, the larynx, the trachea, the bronchial

404 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

tubes, and lungs. The heart is large and four chambered, and the
blood vessels are large and have strong, thick walls. Thus is the horse
well fitted for his athletic life.

Nervous system. — The nervous system of the horse is well develop-
ed and comprises the brain, spinal cord, and branching nerves. The
horse differs from a mere machine in that he is largely capable of guid-
ing his own movements without aid from his driver. Training ac-
complishes much in this regard, but the less a horse is possessed of
intelligence and nervous control, the less he is automatic as a motor,
and the more he becomes dependent upon his driver.

Integumentary system. — The hair or coat is shed in the spring
and autumn, except that of the mane and tail which is permanent.
There are both sweat glands and sebaceous glands in the skin, but the
former are practically absent from the limbs.

Fig. 147. — Bones of the fore leg. 1, Scapula; 2, humerus; 3, radius and ulna;
4, seven or eight carpal bones; 5, cannon bone and two splint bones; 6, two sesamoid
bones; 7, large pastern bone; 8, small pastern bone; 9, navicular bone; 10, coffin bone.

Anatomy of the Fore Leg

From the top downward, the bones of the fore leg are as indicated
in the accompanying diagram. The fore leg is composed of a scapula
(or shoulder blade) which is articulated to the humerus (or arm) by
a ball-and-socket joint, and the arm in turn articulates with the radius
by a hinge joint. The lower end of the radius rests upon the upper
row of the carpal bones of which there are 7 or 8 in the horse, corre-
sponding to the wrist in man. Below the carpus (knee) is the large
metacarpal (or cannon) bone, and articulated with the back of it are
two slender rods of bones — the small metacarpal (or splint) bones.
The lower end of the large cannon bone forms a hinge with the first

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

405

phalanx (or large pastern bone), which is followed by the second
phalanx (or small pastern bone), and then the third phalanx (or coffin
bone), the last named and half of the small pastern bone being enclosed
within the hoof. In addition to these, at the articulation between the
cannon and the large pastern bone are two small bones, known as the
"sesamoids," while at the back of the coffin joint there is a small bow-
shaped bone, known as the "navicular," which is frequently the seat
of disease.

The bones are held together by ligaments. Tendons are similar
in character to ligaments, but differ in that they join muscle to bone.

The scapula, humerus, and radius and ulna are enclosed in heavy
muscles which move them. There are no muscles about the knee and

ii / /■

■i /

1 — ~I-M

-B

nil

-/'A/

^^cc^

%v^^

SM\,

/^^.'^ \

Fig. 148. — ^Fore leg from knee to
ground, showing the bones, ligaments,
and tendons. 1, Suspensory ligament;
2, inferior sesamoid ligaments; 3, branch
of suspensory ligament; 4, flexor tendon
of foot; 5, flexor tendon of pastern;
6, extensor tendon; 7, splint bone; 8, can-
non bone; 9, sesamoid bones; 10, large
pastern bone; 11, small pastern bone;
12, coffin bone; 13, navicular bone.

Fig. 149. — Bones, tendons, and liga-
ments of the fore leg. 1, Splint bone;
2, cannon bone; 3, suspensory ligament;
4, flexor tendon of foot; 5, flexor tendon
of pastern.

the parts below. Instead, long tendons pass down from the muscles
above, thus connecting the power with the levers of the lower part of
the leg. Some very important ligaments hold the bones below the
knee in proper relation to one another. These ligaments are very
strong elastic cords. The lower leg moves when the muscles exert a
pull on their tendons, which are likewise strong and elastic. The
tendons and ligaments of the fore leg are shown in the accompanying
drawings. The long ligament from fetlock to knee is the suspensory
ligament. It supports the fetlock.

406

Types and Market Classes of Ln^E Stock

Anatomy of the Hind Leg

The hind leg consists of the femur (or thigh bone) which is the
largest in the body and articulates below with the tibia and also with
the patella (or knee cap). The hock is composed of six bones which
may be divided into two sets, each having a purpose of its own. One
group of four small bones (tarsals), arranged in two rows and resting
on the head of the cannon, are united together and to adjacent bones
by short, powerful ligaments, and so close is the union that the move-
ment of one bone upon another is reduced to a simple gliding action
of very limited degree. Though slight, this movement is of much im-
portance in breaking the jar communicated to this joint when the
horse is in action. Above the small tarsal bones are two larger bones,
the astragalus and calcaneus, as shown in Fig. 150.

Fig. 150. — Bones of the hock. A, Tibia; B, calcaneus; C, astragalus; D,
tarsals; E, cannon bone; F, splint bone.

To the calcaneus is attached the strong tendon known as the
"tendon of Achilles." By means of it the muscles above exert a power-
ful pull upon the hock joint, producing extension of the joint. This
is the principal means of the horse's propulsion. The knob-like end
of the calcaneus (to which the tendon attaches) forms the point of the
hock. In some instances the pull upon the hock has been great enough
to produce a fracture of this bone.

Sometimes a diseased condition is brought about by the ossifica-
tion into one mass of some or all of the bones of the hock. Thia is
called a "bone spavin" and is a serious unsoundness because it destroys
the important gliding action of the tarsals, stiffens the joint, and often
causes lameness.

The parts below the hock are similar in structure to those below
the knee.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

407

The skeletons of man and horse compared show striking similarity,
and at some points rather marked variation and difference in propor-
tionment of parts. The horse's knee corresponds to man's wrist. The
bones below the horse's knee correspond to those beyond man's wrist.
Following is a comparison of the bones and parts of the fore and hind
legs of the horse with the arm and leg of man:

Fore Leg of Horse

Arm of Man

Parts

Bones

Parts

Bones

Shoulder

Scapula

Shoulder

Scapula and clavicle

Arm

Humerus

Arm

Humerus

Forearm

Radius and ulna

Forearm

Radius and ulna

Knee

7 or 8 carpals

Wrist

7 carpals

Cannon

3 metacarpals

Palm

5 metacarpals
[Thumb— 2 bones

Pastern and foot

1st, 2nd, and 3rd
phalanges

Fingers

]Other fingers— 3
1, bones

Hoof

Finger nails

Hind Leg of Horse

Leg of Man

Parts

Bones

Parts

Bones

Croup

Ilium, ischium,
and pubis

Pelvis

Ilium, ischium,
and pubis

Thigh

Femur

Thigh

Femur

Stifle

Patella

Knee

Patella

Gaskin

Tibia and fibula

Calf

Tibia and fibula

Hock

6 tarsals

Ankle

8 tarsals

Cannon

3 metatarsals

Instep

5 metatarsals

Pastern and foot

1st, 2nd, and 3rd

Toes

/Great toe— 2 bones

phalanges

\Other toes— 3 bones

Hoof

Toe nails

The accompanjnng drawing makes clear the comparison between
the hind leg of the horse and the foot of man.

Fig. 151. — Bones of the human foot and hind leg of horse compared. A,
Tibia; B, astragalus; C, calcaneus; D and E, small tarsals; F and G, metatarsals;
1, 2, and 3, first, second, and third phalanges.

408 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Anatomy of the Foot^

The foot is not a mere block of horn, but is a composite structure
made up of particular parts, each with a certain work to perform.
There is an old saying, very full of truth, "No foot, no horse." A
knowledge of the structure of the foot is very essential in learning to
judge horses.

The exterior of the foot may be divided into five parts, each in-
cluding one-fifth of the circumference. These are the toe, laterals, and
quarters.

The bones of the foot and pastern are four in number, three of
which — the long pastern, short pastern, and coffin bone — placed end
to end form a continuous straight column passing downward and for-
ward from the fetlock joint to the ground. A small accessory bone,
the navicular bone, lies crosswise in the foot behind the cofRn joint,
enlarging the joint surface. (See Fig. 153.)

Tendons and ligaments. — The extensor tendon of the toe passes
down the front of the pastern and attaches to the top and front of the

Fig. 152.— Exterior of the hoof, showing division into toe, laterals, and quarters.

coffin bone. The outer "branch of the suspensory ligament attaches to
the tendon a short distance above this point. The flexor tendon of
the foot passes down between the heels, glides over the under surface
of the navicular bone, and attaches to the under surface of the coffin
bone. The bones of the foot are held together by powerful short
ligaments.

The elastic tissues of the foot include the lateral cartilages and
the plantar cushion. The lateral cartilages are two plates of gristle,
one on either side of the foot, extending from the wings of the coffin
bone backward to the heels and upward to a distance of an inch or
more above the edge of the hair, where they may be felt by the fingers.
When sound, these plates are elastic and yield readily to moderate
finger pressure, but from various causes they may undergo ossification,
in which condition they are hard and unyielding and are called side-
bones. The plantar cushion is a wedge-shaped mass of tough, elastic,

iThe writer is indebted to the revised edition of Diseases of the Horse, (U. S.
Dept. Agr.) for many of the statements included in the discussion of this subiect,
particularly to the chapter on Shoeing, by Dr. John W. Adams, University of Penn-
sylvania.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

409

fibro-fatty tissue filling all the space between the lateral cartilages,
forming the fleshy heels, and serving as a buffer to disperse shocks.
It extends forward underneath the navicular bone and flexor tendon,
and protects these structures from injurious pressure from below.

The pododerm or hoof-producing membrane is merely a continua-
tion of the derm, or true skin. It covers the foot inside the hoof, just
as a sock covers the human foot inside the shoe. It differs from the
ordinary external or "hair" skin in having no sweat or oil glands, but,
like it, is richly supplied with blood vessels and sensitive nerves. The
functions of the pododerm are to produce the hoof and unite it firmly
to the foot.

The hoof and how it grows. — The horny shell, called the hoof,
which covers and protects the foot, is made up of three parts, (1) the
wall and bars, (2) the sole, and (3) the frog. Each part of the hoof

Fig. 153. — Diagram showing structure of foot. 1, Coffin bone; 2, small pas-
tern bone; 3, large pastern bone; 4, navicular bone; 5, lateral cartilage; 6, extensor
tendon; 7, flexor tendon of foot; 8, flexor tendon of pastern; 9, branches of suspensory
ligament; 10, wall; 11, sole; 12, frog; 13, indicates location of plantar cushion between
the lateral cartilages; 14, perioplic ring; 15, coronary cushion.

is grown by some particular part or parts of the pododerm. In general
it may be said that the horn of the hoof is made up of tubules or shafts
of horn which grow from papillae the same as does hair. These
tubules are cemented together by non-tubular matter corresponding
to dandruff exfoliated by the skin. In fact, so pronounced is the
similarity in growth of horn and hair that coarse hair, especially on
the legs and coronet, is associated with horn of coarse texture. There-
fore the more coarse and brittle the hair about the coronet, the more
porous, brittle, and weak will be the formation of the horny hoof. ^

The wall horn consists of three layers known as (1) the outer or
perioplic layer, (2) the middle or coronary layer, and (3) the inner or

ij. H. S. Johnstone: The Horse Book, p. 24.

410 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

laminous layer. The perioplic layer is very thin. It is varnish-like
in appearance and forms the surface or crust of the wall. Its function
is to preserve the moisture of the foot and to absorb moisture. A
horse working in sand or dust usually has this outer layer worn away.
The coronary layer forms the real basis of the wall. At the heels it
is deflected forward to form the bars of the hoof. The angle between
the wall and bar is thickened and is called the buttress. The function
of the bars is to react against contraction of the heels. The inner or
laminous layer of the wall horn is not tubular. It is termed "laminous"
because it has the appearance of the leaves of a book. There are 500
to 600 of these laminae which extend from the top of the hoof to the
sole. It is less thick than the coronary layer, but, like it, is deflected
forward at the heels to help form the bars.

Fig. 154.— The parts of the hoof. 1, Wall; 2, sole; 3, branch of the sole; 4,
bar; 5, buttress; 6, frog; 7, cleft of the frog; 8, bulbs of the heels.

Growth of the wall. — At the lower end of the pastern, running
along the edge of the hair from one heel around the toe to the other
heel, is a narrow ridge of pododerm, i^ to >^ of an inch wide,
called the perioplic ring. (See Fig. 153.) It consists of papillae,
which are microscopic nobs or nodules, and from each papilla a shaft
of horn grows downward, forming the periople of the wall. Like the
periople, the coronary layer grows downward from a band of pododerm
at the top of the hoof. This band is called the coronary cushion, and
it lies just below and parallel to the perioplic ring. (See Fig. 153.)
At the heels it is deflected forward where it produces the horn of the
bars. The laminous horn is produced by that part of the pododerm
known as the fleshy laminae; these laminae extend up and down be-
tween the coronary cushion and the sole. The fleshy laminae of the
pododerm and the laminous layer of the wall horn dovetail together,
thus holding the hoof securely to the foot.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 411

The sole horn is circular in shape except that it is notched at the
rear where it receives the bars and horny frog. It is naturally concave
below and is bounded at its edge by the wall and bars. It is very
brittle, non-elastic, and easily penetrated. The sole horn is produced
by the fleshy sole, which is that portion of the pododerm covering the
entire under surface of the foot excepting the fleshy frog and bars.

The horny frog does not come in contact with the sole horn except
at its apex. It is tough, elastic, and rather soft horn. The upper
part of the horny frog has an elevation or ridge and on the bottom
there is a corresponding notch or groove. The horny frog grows from
the fleshy frog, which is that part of the pododerm just above the horny
frog.

The preceding discussion of the parts of the hoof and pododerm
may be summarized as follows:

IPerioplic layer, produced by perioplic ring.
Coronary layer, produced by coronary cushion.
Laminous layer, produced by fleshy laminae.

2. Sole, produced by fleshy sole.

3. Frog, produced by fleshy frog.

All parts of the hoof grow downward and forward with equal
rapidity, the rate of growth being largely dependent upon the amount
of blood supplied to the pododerm. Abundant and regular exercise,
good grooming, moistness and suppleness of the hoof, going barefoot,
plenty of good food, and at proper intervals removing the over-growth
of the hoof and regulating the bearing surface — all these, by increasing
the volume and improving the quality of blood flowing into the podo-
derm, favor the rapid growth of horn of good quality. Lack of exer-
cise, dryness of the horn, and excessive length of the hoof hinder growth.
The average rate of growth of the hoof is about one-third of an inch a
month. Irregular growth often occurs. This is almost always due to
an improper distribution of the body weight over the hoof, — that is,
an unbalanced foot. An authority on this subject says: ^ "If breeders
were more generally cognizant of the power of overgrown and unbal-
anced hoofs to divert the lower bones of young legs from their proper
direction, we might hope to see fewer knock-kneed, splay-footed,
pigeon-toed, cow-hocked, interfering, and paddling horses."

Characteristics of a healthy foot.— ^A healthy foot is equally warm
at all parts, and is not tender under pressure with the hands. The
coronet ^ is soft and elastic at all points and does not project beyond
the surface of the wall. The wall is straight from coronet to ground.

^Dr. John W. Adams, University of Pennsylvania: Shoeing, U. S. Dept.
Ag^r., Bur. Anim. Indus., Special Rpt., Diseases of the Horse, Revised, p. 558.

2 The coronet or "hoof head" is the lower end of the pastern immediately above
the hoof.

412 Types and Market Classes of Liv6 Stock

so that a straight-edge laid against the wall from coronet to ground
parallel to the direction of the horn tubules will touch at every point.
The wall should be covered with the outer varnish-like layer of horn
and should show no cracks or clefts. Every hoof shows "ring forma-
tion," but the rings should not be strongly marked and should always
run parallel to the coronet. Strongly marked rings are evidence of a
weak hoof, and when limited to a part of the wall are evidence of
previous local inflammation. The bulbs of the heels should be full,
rounded, and of equal height. The sole should be well hollowed out,
the frog well developed, the cleft of the frog broad and shallow, the
spaces between the bars and the frog wide and shallow, the bars straight
from buttress toward the point of the frog, and the buttresses them-
selves so far apart as not to press against the frog. The lateral -car-
tilages should yield readily to finger pressure. Some horsemen object
to a white hoof, believing it to be less durable, but a white hoof is as
good as a dark-colored one. Horn of good quality is fine grained and
tough, while poor horn is coarse grained and either too mellow and
friable or hard and brittle.

CHAPTER XXIX

SOME IMPORTANT FACTS CONCERNING THE HORSE

Base of support. — The horse's legs are his base of support, just as
the table legs support the table. The longer the legs, the less stable
the base of support. The smaller the base of support, the less stable
it will be. The less stable the base of support, the greater the speed
of the horse; while the greater the stability, the greater the power for
draft. Any object will be most stable when the center of its weight
is directly over the center of its base of support. In horses the center

i/ertebrdl sp'me

long postern
short poitern

Fig. 155. — Attachment of fore leg to body. Cross-section through chest show-
ing the bones of the fore leg and the muscular attachment of leg to body.

of weight is far forward, lying immediately behind the shoulders.
Thus the fore legs support much more of the weight of the horse than
do the hind legs, in fact it is the function of the forequarters to support,
and of the hindquarters to propel. This is the more clearly shown
when we examine the anatomy of the horse, for we find that the hind
legs are attached to the trunk by the strong ball-and-socket joint,
while the fore legs are not directly attached to the trunk but are con-
nected by intervening muscles which form a sort of sling which sus-
pends the body between the two fore legs. The muscle attaching the
fore limb to the trunk is the serratus magnus, an enormous triangular
muscle which originates on the upper part of the internal surface of

413

414 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

the shoulder blade, spreads out like a fan on the sides of the chest and
neck, and ends on the cervical vertebrae and first 8 or 9 ribs. Fig.
155 shows a front view of the muscular attachment of the scapula to
the neck and trunk.

When the horse is standing, the base of support is represented by a
rectangle the corners of which are the horse's feet. In the walk, the
base of support is triangular, for then only three feet touch the ground.
In the trot or pace, only two feet touch the ground, and the base of
support will be represented by a line. In the run or gallop, the base
of support is a point. Thus as speed increases there is a corresponding
decrease in stability.

The horse in motion. — We have seen that the horse is rather un-
stable because the center of weight lies almost over the fore legs.
Hence the fore legs answer the purpose simply of a support to the
horse's weight when he is in motion. If we could replace the fore legs
with a wheel, we would have an equally efl^cient motor.

When a man walks, he leans forward in order to throw the center
of his weight ahead of his base of support. This causes him to begin
to fall forward, and indeed he would fall if he did not advance his foot
and so bring his base of support once more under, or nearly under, the
center of weight. Walking is simply a succession of interrupted falls.
The same is true of the horse. In walking he pushes backward against
the ground with his hind feet and causes his center of weight to tip
forward. The result is that he begins to fall, and if he did not advance
a fore foot he would land on his head. By stepping forward he again
assumes his equilibrium and immediately tips his weight forward again
by propelling with his hind legs. Walking is simply the repetition of
this performance over and over again.

In the trot and the gallop or run, there is the same backward thrust
with the hind feet and the same recovery with the fore feet, but the
thrust is much greater, the stride is longer, and the shock and effort
in the recovery are increased in proportion.

In 1897, Tod Sloan, a famous American jockey, went to England
to ride. He practiced the same seat which all American jockeys use
and with which all Americans are familiar. Its peculiar feature is that
the jockey sits as far forward on the horse as possible. When Sloan
appeared on English race courses he was severely ridiculed, for at that
time English jockeys were not familiar with our methods and it was
thought Sloan was trying to attract attention to himself by adopting
a ridiculous position on his horse. Race-going people laughed at him
until it was noticed that he was enjoying unusual success at winning
races. Sloan rode 20 winners during his first season in England, 43
the next, and in 1899 he was first past the post with no fewer than 108

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 415

horses. In the same year, two other Americans, the brothers Lester
and Johnny Reiff, also had 82 victories to their credit. The methods
of these American jockeys were soon copied by most of the EngHsh
riders, but the Americans continued to pile up a remarkable record of
successes, culminating in three successive Derby triumphs — Lester
Reiff's in 1901, Martin's in 1902, and Maher's in 1903. During eight
years ending in 1905, the eight or nine American jockeys who appeared
in England for one or more seasons divided among them, in retainers,
winning fees, and etceteras, fully a million dollars. Their work made
a new chapter in English turf history.

No sooner had Sloan shown ability to win consistently than people
began trying to find out the secret of his success. They could see that
he carried himself as far forward on his horse as possible, and so these
questions arose: Does a man seated near the neck of a horse enable

Fig. 156. — The horse in motion. A, Center of weight; AB, line of thrust;
ABC, angle of thrust; Y, center of weight when rider is over neck of horse; X, center
of weight when rider sits near the tail.

the animal to travel faster than one seated near the tail? If so, why?
As for the first question, Sloan gave it a practical answer by his con-
sistent winnings. The second question was also finally answered.

A horse to move forward at all must thrust at the earth, and the
chief force of this thrust comes from his hind legs. If the center of
weight of horse and rider is just over, or close to, the thrusting power,
naturally it diminishes the efficiency for speed, for instead of thrusting
the horse forward, a large portion of the muscular energy is wasted in
lifting the weight of the jockey at every stride. The accompanjdng
drawing and the words which follow will make this clear.

The farther forward the center of weight is, the longer is the line
from hind foot to center of weight, called the line of thrust, and the

416 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

more nearly will this line approach the horizontal. As a horse has to
raise himself vertically with each bound, it is naturally a matter of
very great importance whether he has to lift a dead weight or a weight
which throws forward. A jockey on the horse's neck adds to the for-
ward weight, and this moves the center of weight still farther forward
and places still more weight on the fore legs and equally less on the hind
legs. The longer the angle of thrust, the easier and therefore the faster
the horse will go, for his power will then be utilized almost exclusively
in a horizontal thrust resulting in speed, and little of his energy will be
consumed in simply raising weight to let it fall again. It is the same
as a man pushing a wheelbarrow; if the load is near the handles it must
be raised at each step, while if the load is over or near the wheel the
man does not expend so much energy in a lift at each step, but can use
all his force at pushing straight ahead.

Where the wear comes. — From what has been said concerning
the function of the fore legs in supporting most of the horse's weight,
we can readily understand that the horse is more apt to tire, exhaust,
and ruin his fore legs than his hind ones. It is common to see men
driving their horses at speed when going down hill, thinking that the
horse is doing little or nothing because the vehicle follows without
having to be pulled. This is a decided error, for in going down hill
still more weight is thrown on the fore legs, and if the animal is made
to descend at speed he hammers his fore legs severely, and often
stumbles and falls. Because of the hammering to which the fore legs
and feet of the horse are subjected, and because of the great strain
coming upon the hock joint due to its prominent part in propulsion,
the feet and legs constitute a most vital part in every type of horse,
and special attention should be given to front feet, front pasterns, the
hocks, and the set or position of the hind legs when judging.

Phases of the stride. — Dr. Carl W. Gay, of Ohio State University,
describes five distinct phases of the horse's stride, as follows:^ 1. A
preliminary, during which the leg is undergoing flexion before the foot
has left the ground. 2. The breaking over, in which the foot is raised
heel first and is rocked up and over at the toe. 3. Flight, during
which the foot describes the more or less regular arc of a circle. 4.
Contact, as the foot again meets the ground. 5. Recovery, as the
weight falls on the foot preparatory to another stride.

Hoof mechanism. — When the foot makes contact with the ground,
expansion occurs, especially at the heels. When the foot is raised
there is contraction. The plantar cushion, being soft, transmits force
or motion in all directions more or less equally (as a liquid). It can-
not move downward to any great degree, hence it spreads or diffuses

•Productive Horse Husbandry, p. 5.

Types A^fD Market Classes of Li\'e Stock 417

laterally, and so the heels expand. When the horse places his foot on
the ground there occurs: (1) Contraction of the hoof at the toe- wall
coronet; (2) sinking of the sole, especially at its branches; (3) expan-
sion of the heels; (4) sinking of the bulbs of the heels. These four
movements constitute what is known as the "hoof mechanism." The
health of the foot is dependent on the normal and free hoof mechanism,
and it should not be hindered by improper shoeing or other causes.
Hoof mechanism breaks concussion and assists circulation. Concus-
sion is shock and counter-shock. These shocks must be diffused, and
this is cared for laterally in the foot by its changes in form.

Photographs of race horses in action show that at speed the horse
sets the heels to the ground before the other parts of the foot. This
utilizes the elastic structures of the heels to the utmost, produces a
maximum of hoof mechanism, and absorbs the violent shock to the
greatest degree possible.

Absorption of concussion. — Every step at the walk or trot results
in concussion between the ground and the front foot of the horse.
Were it not for certain arrangements for the absorption of this shock
or jar, the horse would soon be made worthless. Hoof mechanism is,
as we have seen, one of the means of scattering the shock, acting in
much the same way as a pneumatic tire on a vehicle. Another safe-
guard is found in a sloping pastern, which acts in much the same
manner as the spring under a carriage. Then there is the angle be-
tween humerus and forearm, and also between scapula and humerus,
which also act as springs. A sloping shoulder is useful in the same way.

If you have ever ridden in a farm wagon over a rough road, stand-
ing on your heels, you can appreciate the tremendous wear which comes
on the legs of a horse with poor feet, straight pasterns, and straight
shoulders. Then if you shifted your weight to your toes and bent
your knees slightly, you found that your teeth stopped chattering and
your hat remained on your head. In other words, your change in posi-
tion changed the column of bones supporting your weight from a
straight, vertical column to a broken one with angles which acted as
springs and absorbed the jar. It is just so with a horse having good
feet and nicely sloping shoulders and pasterns.

Defective conformations of the legs and efifects on action. — A line
around the hoof on the ground gives the area of the base of support
of that leg. If the center of the base of support of the leg is not directly
under the center of the weight falling on that leg, the side of the foot
nearest the point directly under the center of weight will be compelled
to do more than its share of the work. Therefore the leg of the horse
should be so set that the center of the base of support comes directly
under the center of the weight it bears. The fore legs should be so

418

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

placed under the body that, when viewed from in front, a perpendicular
line dropped from the point of the shoulder will divide the leg and foot
into lateral halves. When viewed from the side, a perpendicular line
dropped from the middle of the forearm where it joins the body should
divide the leg from body to fetlock into lateral halves and strike the
ground just back of the heel.

Fig. 157. — Front view of fore legs. A vertical line downward from the point
of the shoulder should fall upon the center of the knee, cannon, pastern, and foot.
A, Ideal position; B, toes out; C, bow legged; D, narrow chested and toes out; E,
stands close; F, knock kneed; G, pigeon toed.

When the horse assumes his natural position, the hind legs should
be so placed that, when viewed from the rear, a perpendicular line
dropped from the point of the buttock will divide the leg and foot into
lateral halves; and when viewed from the side, this line should touch
the rear edge of the cannon from hock point to fetlock and meet the
ground some little distance back of the heel.

Fig. 158.— Side view of fore legs. A vertical line downward from the center
of the elbow joint should fall upon the center of the knee and fetlock joints and meet
the ground back of the heel. A, Ideal position; B, camped under; C, camped out;
D, knee sprung; E, calf kneed.

The direction and slope of the axis of pastern and foot are very
important. When the leg is viewed from the front or side, the axis of
the pastern and the axis of the foot should be identical. As viewed
from the front, the toe should point directly forward. This insures an
even distribution of weight to both sides of the foot and also trueness

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

419

of action. As viewed from the side, the axis of the front pastern and
foot should meet the ground at an angle of about 45 degrees. This
angle affords the best combination of strength and springiness.

When moving toward or from you, the feet of the horse should
appear to have only one motion, which should be vertically up and
down. This is very essential in every type of horse. Height of action

Fig. 159. — Side view of hind legs. A vertical line downward from the point
of the buttock should touch the rear edge of the cannon from hock to fetlock and meet
the ground some little distance behind the heel. A, Ideal position; B, stands under;
C, camped out; D, hind leg too straight.

in any type should be great enough to clear the ground by a reasonable
distance, so as to prevent stumbling and insure length of stride. The
carriage horse is required to go higher than this for reasons which will
be explained in connection with the description of that type. The
essentials of good action are (1) straight-line action, (2) long stride,
and (3) foot should be picked up with snap. Defects in conformation

Fig. 160. — Rear view of hind legs. A vertical line downward from the point
of the buttock should fall upon the center of the hock, cannon, pastern, and foot.
A, Ideal position; B, stands wide; C, bow legged; D, stands close; E, cow hocked.

and placing of feet and legs result in defects in action. Only when the
legs are correctly proportioned and properly placed can good action
result. Correctness of action depends also upon temperament, strength
of muscling, height over withers as compared with height over hips,
and general symmetry and proportionment of parts. The most com-

420

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

mon defects in the shape and position of the legs are shown in the ac-
companying drawings.

A horse that is "base wide" or "toe wide" in front, swings the leg
inward when in action. A "base narrow" or "toe narrow" conforma-
tion results in the horse swinging his feet outward, or "paddling" as
it is called. (See accompanying drawings.) Horses that naturally
stand wide at the hocks will travel the same way (wide), which is very
undesirable. When the hind legs are bowed outward, the hocks spread
still farther outward when the stress comes upon them in action, and
usually the foot leaves the ground with a twisting motion which wears
out shoes and is otherwise undesirable. Any deviation from trueness
in the flight of the foot wastes energy, detracts from the appearance
of the horse in action, and the horse may strike himself, called inter-
fering, which often causes blemishes, lameness, and stumbling.

i-l

Fig. 161. — Defects in fore legs and their effects on action.

Viewed from the side, a nicely sloping foot and pastern leave the
ground easily and describe the arc of a circle at every step. Straight
or stubby pasterns and feet result in a short, stubby way of going that
is stilted and non-elastic. A too-sloping pastern and foot are not
nicely carried, but are brought out straight to a point in front and then
slapped upon the ground. (See accompanying drawings.) Other
defects of action will be discussed in connection with the various types
of horses.

Bent or sickle hocks. — This defect is often difficult for beginners
to detect. It is often possible to pose a horse so as to hide this fault
unless one knows exactly how to detect it under all conditions. When
a horse with a sickle hock stands in a natural position, the defect is
easily seen. A vertical line downward from the point of the buttock
may then touch the point of the hock, but below that point the cannon
slopes forward instead of following the vertical line, and the hind foot
is placed too far forward. (See B in Fig. 162, and note that this is

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

421

not the same defect as B in Fig. 159.) Some horses are very slightly
sickled and some are very crooked indeed. Such a conformation is
decidedly objectionable because bent hocks are not as stout as straight
hocks at a hard pull or at work of any kind, and furthermore the crooked
shape of the hock and leg brings an added strain on the hock joint.
The sickle hock often develops a curb, and is also subject to other
unsoundnesses.

In showing horses, it is common to stretch them out on their legs
to a slight extent, so as to raise the head and neck, level up the croup,
and increase the slope of the front pasterns. A horse in such a posi-
tion is more apt to hold it than a horse standing naturally, and for all
these reasons it is practiced by horsemen. It also has the advantage
of covering up defects in the set of the legs, particularly a sickle hock.
If a horse with sickle hocks is stretched or "camped out" a bit, his

Fig. 162. — Sickle hock. A, Hind leg of a horse of correct conformation; B and
C, two positions of the hind leg of a horse with a sickle hock; B, in a position easily
exposing the defect; C, in a position in which the defect is not so apparent.

hind cannons become vertical, and the novice is likely to overlook the
fact that the line of his cannons, even though it is vertical, points back
of his buttock, often to a considerable degree. (See C in accompany-
ing drawings, and note that this is not the same as C in Fig. 159.) It
is only by noting carefully the direction of the lines indicated in the
accompanying drawings that one can detect this fault.

Determination of age from the teeth. — The age of the horse is
easily determined up to and including the fifth year by an examination
of the incisor teeth, of which there are three pairs in the upper jaw
and three pairs in the lower. All of these incisors are temporary or
milk teeth up to two years of age. At birth none of the temporary
teeth have cut the gums, but at one year they have all appeared and
the middle and intermediate pairs are in wear, but the corner pairs

422 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

are not fully in wear. At two years, all of the temporary teeth are in
wear, kt 2}^ to 3 years, the middle pair above and below are shed,
and are replaced by permanent incisors. These are broader, heavier
teeth, and have a rather rough or corrugated surface, whereas the sur-
face of the milk teeth is smooth. At 53^ /o ^ years, the intermediate
pair of permanent incisors appears in each jaw. At -4H ^o 5 years, the
comer pair of milk teeth above and below are displaced by permanents,
and the horse may be said to have reached maturity.

After five years the age is not so easily determined, nor are the
indications so accurate. We rely mostly upon changes in appearance
shown by the wearing surfaces of the teeth to tell us the age beyond
five years. The wearing surface of new permanent teeth has a long,
narrow cup or depression running across it transversely. The rims
of these cups disappear through wear, leaving two distinct rings of
enamel, one around the margin of the tooth, and the other around the
cup. With wear, the cup becomes smaller, more oval or rounding in
shape, and more shallow, until it is finally worn almost completely
away. Continued wear exposes the tip of the pulp canal or cavity in
the center of the tooth, and the exposed tip of this canal appears be-
tween what is left of the cup and the front of the tooth. The exposed
pulp cavity is called the "dental star."

At six years, the middle pair in the lower jaw are usually worn
level and the wearing surface tends to become oval in form. The
central ring of enamel is plainly evident, but is smaller than at five
years, indicating considerable wear. The lower corner teeth, which
at five years showed little or no wear, now usually show wear, the edge
surrounding the cup being much less sharp and shell-like. The canine
teeth, which first appeared at four years are now completely out. At
seven years, the lower intermediates are also levelled on the wearing
surface and the ring of central enamel becomes wider from before back-
ward, and shorter from side to side. A hook or "swallow tail" is often
present on the upper corner teeth because they are broader than the
lower corners and do not wear down evenly. At eight years, all the
lower teeth are levelled and the dental star appears upon the center
and intermediate pairs, showing between the front border of the tooth
and the front border of the central enamel.

At nine years, the hook or swallow tail on the upper corners has
often disappeared. The lower centers are round; their central enamel
has a triangular form; and their dental star is narrower and more dis-
tinct. The center pair of the upper jaw are usually levelled. At ten
years, the changes previously mentioned become more marked, and
the upper intermediates are usually levelled. At eleven years, the
central enamel of the upper corner teeth becomes elliptical and tends

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 423

to disappear. The lower teeth now show much wear, the central
enamel forms a small ring only, very close to the back border of the
tooth, while the dental star becomes narrower and also approaches the
back border. At twelve years, all of the lower teeth are round, and
sometimes the central enamel has disappeared, in which case the wear-
ing surfaces show only a small yellowish spot which is the dental star.
At fifteen years, the swallow tail, which reappeared at ten years, is still
in evidence, the teeth tend strongly toward a triangular shape on the
wearing surface, and other indications of age become marked. At
twenty-one years, the swallow tail is gone again, and all indications of
wear are very marked. After ten or eleven years and on up to thirty
or more, only general indications serve as a guide to the age. The
horseman knows that the teeth change from oval to three-sided with
age, and that they project or slant forward more and more each year.
In very old horses these features are very marked.

In determining the age, a regular procedure should be followed.
First open the lips and determine whether the teeth are temporary or
permanent. Unless they are all permanent it is usually unnecessary
to open the mouth. If they are all permanent, the wearing surfaces
of the lower incisors should be carefully examined first, and then the
wearing surfaces of the upper incisors. Also note the profile or slant
of the teeth, and the presence or absence of the hook or swallow tail
on the upper comer teeth.

Mere description here will not enable the student to become adept
at determining age. Actual practice and the study of many mouths
are necessary in order to master this subject.

Determination of the height of horses. — The height of a horse is
determined by measuring the vertical distance from the highest part
of his withers to the ground. The unit in which the height of horses
is expressed is the hand. A hand is four inches. A horse measuring
60 inches high is thus said to be 15 hands high; a horse measuring 63
inches is said to be "fifteen, three," meaning 15 hands, 3 inches,
written 15-3; and one measuring 65 inches is 16-1 hands high. The
dividing line in height between horses and ponies cannot be definitely
fixed, but is about 14 hands. Ponies vary in height from 14 hands down
to 8 hands or even less, while horses vary from 14 hands up to 18 hands
and over. With practice the height of horses may be estimated very
closely without the aid of a measuring standard. A person who knows
the exact height from the ground to the level of his eyes, and also the
exact height from the ground to his chin, can step up to the shoulder
of a horse, locate the highest bony part of the withers, and estimate the
height very quickly and ,with a high degree of accuracy.

CHAPTER XXX
ORIGIN OF THE TYPES OF HORSES

Several wild species of horses existed in Europe and Asia from
very remote times, but it was in Asia Minor and Egypt that the horse
was first domesticated and made to serve man. He was taken thence
to Greece, Rome, and Arabia; thence to more remote parts of Europe
and Asia, particularly to Spain, France, and England; and thence to
America and Australia.

For a long time the horses used by the early European tribes and
nations were small, semi-wild animals, and no effort was made to im-
prove them by breeding. They were used principally in warfare,
harnessed to chariots. However, there were horses of black color and
much greater size and weight native to the t-egion in western Europe
now called Flanders, and these were taken south and east, just as the
horses of Asia Minor and Egypt were taken north and west. The
infusion of the blood of this large Flemish horse increased the size of
European horses and made them suitable for riding and other purposes.

The development and progress of the horse was parallel with the
development of civilization and a prominent factor in it. The horse
was first used for military purposes; next, in ceremonies, both religious
and civil; third, in the agricultural and commercial pursuits of nations;
fourth, in connection with the pastimes and sports of nations.

First saddle horse. — The Arabian horse was the first breed of live
stock developed by man. This horse is a saddle type and was de-
veloped for use in warfare. The exact origin is unknown, but it seems
to have descended directly from the wild Libyan horse native to north-
ern Africa — most excellent of all known wild varieties of the horse.
The Arabian has for centuries possessed such exquisite quality, refine-
ment, intelligence, spirit, docility, and beauty as to make him universal-
ly admired and famous. He was taken to England at the close of the
seventeenth century and was used in founding the English Thorough-
bred and also the Norfolk Trotter which later became the Hackney.
In Russia he helped produce the Orloff Trotter, and the Percheron
breed of France is also thought to owe some of its excellence to Arab
blood in its foundation. Inasmuch as the Yorkshire Coach Horse,
Cleveland Bay, American Trotting Horse, American Saddle Horse, and
the Morgan are all sprung largely from the Thoroughbred, every breed
of light horses carries the blood of the Arab in greater or less degree.

424

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 425

Turk, Barb, and Spanish horses.— The Turk, or Turkish horse,
found in portions of European Turkey, but principally in Asia Minor,
was of considerable importance in the seventeenth century, but it has
deteriorated very much since then. The Barb is a native of the
Barbary States, whence its name. It was found in its greatest perfec-
tion among the Moors, who introduced the Barb blood into Spain
during their rule in that country, and so improved the Spanish horse
that for several centuries it occupied the first place throughout Europe.
Spanish horses of this stock brought to America by the Spaniards were
progenitors of the wild horses once common to Mexico and California.

Origin of the running horse. — One of the first types of horses de-
veloped in England was the running horse, the sport of racing having
been fostered there from an early date. Long before an Arabian,
Barb, or Turk stallion set foot on English soil, a strain of running
horses of considerable excellence had been developed, hence the Oriental
stallions which were later imported cannot be given more than half
the credit for founding the running horse or Thoroughbred. The
Thoroughbred owes his origin jointly to the native running mares of
England and to the Arabian, Barb, and Turk stallions imported at the
close of the seventeenth century.

The Great Horse or War Horse. — The first tj^De of English horse
was the "Great Horse" or "War Horse" used during the Crusades and
up to about the year 1600 to carry the warriors clad in their suits of
heavy armor. A knight in heavy armor, together with the armor for
his horse, weighed about 400 pounds, hence the necessity for a big,
strong horse. The native English horse was small, and in order to
increase the size and strength, Flemish stallions were imported from
Normandy, and for nearly 500 years English breeders centered their
attention on the matter of size. With the appearance of gunpowder
and firearms in warfare, armor was made useless and the heavy war
horse gave way to much lighter animals with more speed.

Origin of draft type. — When displaced in warfare, the ponderous
war horse did not become extinct, but was put to work at tilling the
soil. Prior to this, field labor had been performed solely by oxen, and
the ox continued in use as a draft animal even after horses were in-
troduced for farm work. The war horse thus became an agricultural
horse and in time was utilized as the foundation of the British draft
breeds — the Shire and Clydesdale. The Percheron breed was built up
from the heavy diligence (stage-coach) horses used in France in the
early days when roads were deep in mud. The railroad later displaced
the diligence horse and he found a place on the farm. When a demand
arose from cities for a horse suited to moving heavy freight through
the streets, these agricultural horses in England, Scotland, France, and

426 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Belgium were bred larger, heavier, and better to meet the new demand,
and thus originated the draft breeds as we know them today — Shire,
Clydesdale, Percheron, and Belgian. This occurred in the first part
of the nineteenth century.

The hunter. — Fox hunting in England dates back to early times,
and there has long existed a demand for a type of horse specially
adapted to this sport. Strange to say, no breed of hunters has ever
been developed, the demand being supplied by Thoroughbreds and
grade Thoroughbreds of hunter type.

The carriage horse. — The modem type of carriage horse originated
less than 50 years ago. Prior to this, there was a succession of types
dating from the time the most primitive carriages came into use cen-
turies ago. The primitive carriage horse was a semi-wild pony, and
he was harnessed to a couple of long poles, fixed at one end to the
pony's neck, the other end dragging on the ground beneath the load.
Next in the evolution of the modem carriage came the sledge, and
later came a sledge mounted on rollers. In time the rollers were im-
proved to the present form of an axle and wheels. All this was before
the Christian era. Centuries more elapsed before anything deserving
the name of carriage was built.

Carriages were first used by the nobility of England about the
beginning of the thirteenth century, but the roads were so bad and the
vehicles so heavy that they were of little service until the end of the
sixteenth century. It was not until more recent times that driving
became a real pleasure, for carriage springs were not invented until
about 1665 and in their first form appear to have been cmde and ineffi-
cient. Toward the middle of the eighteenth century, great and rapid
improvement was begun in highways, vehicles, and horses, so that the
rate of travel was increased from 4 or 5 to 12 miles per hour. Then
came the railway, displacing the road coach and consigning the carriage
horse to the realm of pastime and pleasure exclusively.

The first English carriage horse was the old black cart horse, or
"shire horse" as he was called, heavy, ungainly, with a big head and
shaggy fetlocks. He was descended from the old-time war horse, and
hence was of Flemish blood. They were so slow that the footmen
could easily go ahead when necessary and engage lodging at the next
inn. As highways were improved and carriages made lighter, the cart
horse was crossed with the Thoroughbred in order to secure lighter
and faster animals for carriage use. Thus originated the Cleveland
Bay and Yorkshire Coach Horse, two breeds of heavy carriage horses.

The carriage horse as we know him today is comparatively a new
type in both Europe and America. He is a medium-sized animal with
outstanding beauty and attractiveness in both form and action. The

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 427

demand for such a horse did not arise until city streets were improved
and carriages made elegant and comfortable, so that driving became
a pleasure rather than a painful necessity. From what was called the
Norfolk Trotter, which was a fast-trotting, plain, serviceable, moder-
ate-sized horse formerly used by English farmers as a road horse (and
used by them under saddle), there was developed in England the
Hackney, which is today the foremost breed of carriage horses. The
Norfolk Trotter originated at about the same time as the Thorough-
bred, being the result of crossing Arabian and other Oriental sires on
mares showing aptitude for the trotting gait, just as the Thoroughbred
resulted from the crossing of these same sires on native running mares
of proven ability on the turf.

The polo pony. — The game of polo was introduced into England
in 1874, and to America two years later. This sport calls for an active,
rugged pony of about 14-2 hands, and those which best serve the pur-
pose are small-sized or dwarf Thoroughbred horses.

The horse in America. — From an equine standpoint, history re-
peats itself to a considerable degree in America and also records the
creation of at least two new and distinct types of horses. There were
no horses on this continent at the time of its discovery, hence American
horse history dates from 1492. The first horses were brought to this
continent by Cortes and Ferdinand De Soto. Cortes used but few
horses in his conquest of Mexico, some of which undoubtedly became
the progenitors of the wild horse of the western plains. Similarly,
horses abandoned by De Soto near the Texas border no doubt survived
and were the principal foundation of the American wild horse.

In colonial times, the most common type of horse was a small
saddle horse measuring not more than 14 hands. These were the
descendants of the small, unimproved European horses brought over
by the first settlers and were of no particular breed or breeding. This
little colonial saddle horse was indispensable as a utility animal, being
practically the sole means of transportation in those early times. He
was likewise a source of amusement and recreation, being used in
running matches of short distances. For this latter purpose, however,
the little saddler soon gave way to the English Thoroughbred imported
quite extensively by the early settlers of the Carolinas and Virginia.

Field labor was performed by oxen, except in Pennsylvania and
New York where Flemish horses had been introduced from Holland.
This Flemish horse was, as we have already seen, a large and rather
ungainly animal, and when the colonies expanded westward, this horse
was used to haul freight over the mountains from eastern ports to
Pittsburgh and Wheeling. It required 12,000 wagons annually, each
pulled by four or six horses, driven tandem, to carry on the vast freight-

428 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

ing business which developed, and the freight bill amounted to
$1,500,000 in a year. The wagons were called Conestoga wagons, and
the horses were given the same name. ^ With the coming of the rail-
road and the river boat, the Conestoga horses and wagons were quickly
displaced and no further efforts were made to breed heavy horses in
America until about 1870. The blood of the Conestoga was absorbed
into the common stock of the country and the type became extinct.
Thus we see that Colonial horse stocks were of three types only: (1)
the little saddle horse, (2) the Thoroughbred, and (3) the Conestoga.

Origin of the roadster type. — With the opening of roadways,
vehicles were quickly brought into use, so quickly indeed that the so-
called roads over which they were driven were little more than clear-
ings through the woods with here and there a "corduroy" of logs to
make passable som.e marshy spot. The roads were first improved in
the more thickly settled parts of the country, and it was thus about
Philadelphia that the roadster type of horse was originated at the
beginning of the nineteenth century in response to the demand for a
horse suitable for road driving and harness racing. The Am^erican
Standardbred or roadster was derived from four sources: (1) the
English Thoroughbred, (2) the Norfolk Trotter, (3) the Arab and
Barb, and (4) certain pacers of mixed breeding. By selecting and
breeding for speed at the trotting and pacing gaits, the Standardbred
breed has been developed and today may be called a true breed, al-
though the individuals composing it show considerable divergence in
type. In Vermont the Morgan horse was developed. The Morgans
descended from one horse, Justin Morgan, whose sire was a Thorough-
bred, but whose dam was of unknown breeding. While often regarded
as a breed, they really constitute a family of the Standardbred.

American Saddle Horse. — At the time roads were being improved
in the East, Kentucky and the West were still a country of bridle paths
only. The blue-grass region of Kentucky is splendidly adapted to the
production of light horses, and it was principally in that state and
Missouri that the American Saddle Horse breed originated and de-
veloped. Kentucky was settled in 1775, and as early as 1802 it was
said that "almost all of the inhabitants employ themselves in training
and ameliorating the breed of horses." The American Saddle Horse
originated from crosses of the Thoroughbred upon pacers of mixed
breeding which had been brought from Canada. Considerable Morgan
blood entered into the making of the breed also. Starting with these
materials, a type of saddle horse possessing great intelligence and

^The name "Conestoga" is said to be derived from a small river in Lancaster
County, Pa., to which the Indians had given that name. — John Strohm: The
Conestoga Horse, U. S. Dept. Agr. An. Rpt., 1863, p. 175.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 429

beauty was established. These horses are taught five or more distinct
gaits, and as a result of years of selection and breeding, there is today
a natural inclination on the part of the American Saddle Horse to show
these gaits, which include not only the walk, trot, and canter, but also
the rack, running walk, fox trot, and slow pace.

The general -purpose horse. — When the railway displaced the
Conestoga horse, many farmers attempted to produce what was styled
"the horse of all work." By this was meant a general-purpose horse
useful to wagon, plow, or under saddle. The early agricultural papers
were full of advice to farmers that such a type be bred, and fair associa-
tions encouraged the movement by offering prizes for this class of
horses. From 1840 to 1850 the "horse of all work" was the horse of
the day. About 1850, the first draft stallions were imported from
Europe, but they were not brought over with the idea of producing
draft horses in this country, but to breed to the small native mares,
with which this country was well supplied, in order to produce a general-
purpose horse. Prior to this there were some attempts to produce
such a horse by crossing the Thoroughbred and the Conestoga, but the
progeny possessed most of the defects of both parents and were utterly
unsuited for farm use or anything else. By 1870, breeders had come
to realize that there is more profit in producing specialized types of
horses useful for special purposes, rather than a single general-purpose
type not capable of doing anything well. Thus, although articles still
appear occasionally in farm papers advising the production of a general-
purpose horse, and although some county fair associations persist in
offering prizes for this ancient type, the general-purpose horse died a
natural death a half-century ago. Let him rest in peace.

The draft type in America.— About 1870, there arose a strong
demand from cities for a heavy horse, and since that date large numbers
of Percheron, Belgian, Shire, and Clydesdale stallions and mares have
been imported to America for the purpose of breeding heavy horses
fitted for the work of moving heavy loads over city streets — in other
words, draft horses. America developed no draft breed of her own.
After the Conestoga disappeared we had no heavy horses to use as a
foundation for such a breed, and when the demand arose in this country
several European countries had draft breeds ready formed which we
borrowed from them.

The carriage horse in America. — In America, as in England, the
modem carriage horse is a recent addition to our types of horses. The
more wealthy families among the early settlers of the Carolinas and
Virginia kept coaches for use on state and social occasions, but the so-
called roads were so miserable that driving was in no wise a pleasure.
Most of the carriages in use in the early days were stage coaches which

430 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

did the work now done by railways. In 1812, the fare from Philadel-
phia to Pittsburgh over the national turnpike, 297 miles, was $20 by
coach, and it required six days to cover the distance. Crosses of the
Flemish horse of New York and Pennsylvania with the little saddle
horse gave the well-knit, sizeable horses required on these early coaches.
With the growth of towns and cities, carriages became common, but
the horses used would not today be classed as carriage horses although
they were of a serviceable kind. Driving for pleasure and pastime,
which in later years became so popular with city people, did not begin
until after the Civil War, in fact it was not until 1880 that the modern
type of carriage horse came into use. From that date forward, there
was a large and increasing demand for smoothly-turned, high-stepping,
well-mannered horses, weighing from 1,000 to 1,200' pounds. The
animals which supplied this demand were for the most part recruited
from the ranks of the Standardbred and American Saddle Horse, al-
though our very choicest carriage animals have been English Hack-
neys. Since 1900 the automobile has displaced a great many carriage
horses, especially those of mediocre quality, but there still exists a
demand for animals of show-yard quality for which good prices are paid.

Efifects of mechanical inventions on horse types. — The invention
of firearms resulted in a change in the type of the cavalry horse from
the old-time heavy war horse to a lighter animal with more speed.
The displaced type did not become extinct, but was put to use in the
fields. The invention of the railway and steamboat and the building
of canals restricted the horse's field of usefulness by displacing the
stage coaches and the Conestoga horses and wagons. The Conestoga
type then became extinct, being mingled and absorbed into the common
stock of the country. In France the diligence horse was gradually
developed into the Percheron breed. The application of electric power
to street railways in 1888 closed a channel of disposal for thousands
of cheap horses such as were used on the old-time horse cars, and the
perfection of the bicycle and the fad for cycling which followed led
many to believe a horseless age was at hand. But the street-car horse
was not a profitable animal to produce, and many who took up the
bicycle never owned a horse anyway. Horses came into greater de-
mand and brought higher prices than ever before.

Next came the automobile, the motor truck, and the tractor and
again a horseless age was predicted. It is a fact that the motor is the
strongest mechanical competitor the horse has had to meet, and while
it is impossible at this time to say with exactness what the effects will
be on horse production, enough time has elapsed to show that the
horse yet has an important place on city streets and on roadways, as
well as on the farm. The automobile, motor truck, and tractor are

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 431

not only doing the work that is also done by horses, but they are doing
work which the horse cannot do. In other words, the motor has to a
large extent created its own necessity. There is, on the other hand,
a vast amount of horse work of various kinds which cannot be done
by motors. The horse and the motor each occupy fields of their own,
the margins of which overlap to some extent, and here competition be-
tween the horse and motor is keen. The carriage horse and roadster
have felt this competition most.

Many large business firms have sold their draft horses and installed
motor trucks, only to discover that the short haul may be made more
economically with horses, and they have therefore reinstated horse
equipment along with their motor trucks. Farmers have found that
tractor manufacturers are over-enthusiastic regarding the tractor's
ability to displace the horse upon the farm. The horse's place in the
realm of sport is undisturbed by the automobile. Saddle horses, in-
cluding the hunter and polo pony, are in good demand, and racing in
harness and under saddle continues to prosper throughout the countrj\

Classification of the breeds. — The breeds of horses may be classi-
fied according to type as follows, mention being made of the place of
origin and of the number of registered purebred animals of each breed
in the United States on January 1, 1920, as reported by the census:

Type Breed Place of origin Number

fPercheron France 70,613

JBelgian Belgium 10,838

J Shire England 5,617

• • • IClydesdale Scotland 4,248

Suffolk England (M

[French Draft ^ France 2,964

(Hackney England 564

Cleveland Bay England ( ' )

Yorkshire Coach England ( M

French Coach France ( M

German Coach Germany 697

fStandardbred United States 4,021

Roadster Type { Morgan United States ( « )

[Orloff Trotter Russia ( M

f American Saddle Horse United States 1,459

Saddle Type {Thoroughbred England 3,801

[Arabian Arabia ( * )

[Shetland Shetland Islands ( M

Ponies ]Welsh Wales (M

[Hackney England . (» )

All other 15,718

Draft Type.

Total 120,540

1 In the United SUtes the term "French Draft" includes all animals registered in the National
Register of French Draft Horses. All breeds of French draft horses are eligible to registry in this stud
book. These are the Percheron, Boulonnais, Nivernais, Ardennais, and Bretonnais. However, the Per-
cherons have their own stud book, the Percheron Stud Book of America, and nearly all registered pixre-
bred Percherons in this country are recorded in it. Horses registered in the Percheron book are Percherons;
those registered in the other stud book are French Draft.

' Not separately reported.

CHAPTER XXXI
DRAFT TYPE

The first question which presents itself is — What is a draft horse?
A draft horse is a horse adapted to the work of pulHng heavy loads at
a walk. The conditions of street traffic in large cities demand the
hauling of the largest possible loads. Distances are great and delays
waste much time. At street crossings, bridges, and at railway cross-
ings, minutes are lost that in a day count up to hours. At sidings and
warehouses, it is a lucky chance if a team can get up to its door or car
without waiting for one or more wagons to be loaded or unloaded
ahead of it. There is thus a natural tendency for teamsters to haul big
loads in order to move the freight, and this makes big horses necessary.
Furthermore, big wagons, big loads, and big horses enable merchants
to move the goods with less equipment and fewer drivers, and lessen
expenditures for shoeing, feed, stabling, harness, and repairs. There
is thus a tendency toward big horses and big loads in all cases where
quick delivery is not imperative, and where loading and unloading
are done at one or a few points. The heavy loading of wagons has
gone so far that many cities have placed restrictions upon the size of
loads, in order to protect draft animals from abuse. In Chicago, the
maximum load for a single horse or mule is 3,500 pounds, and when
two or more horses are hitched together, the maximum is 4,000 pounds
per animal.

We must bear in mind that the drafter is not only adapted to
pulling heavy loads at a slow gait, but that this work is done on hard
pavements in the city. The draft horse not only does the hardest kind
of work required of horses, but he works under conditions which put
his feet and legs to a severe test. The drafter may be said to be the
real business horse, whereas the carriage horse, roadster, and saddle
horse are largely used for pleasure purposes.

In order to do the work required of him, the draft horse must
possess the following qualifications: (1) Weight, (2) strength, (3)
true, snappy action, (4) endurance and durability, (5) feeding capacity,
and (6) good disposition.

1. Weight is decidedly essential. The heavier the horse, the
more adhesion he has to the ground. When a horse is working in har-
ness, the traces tend to lift the fore feet off the ground, and for this
reason a heavy horse is able to use his weight to good advantage. In
stage-coach days it was a common trick for the driver to throw a bag

432

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 433

of meal across a horse's back, or get upon a horse himself, in case the
coach got into a place where a hard pull was necessary. By so doing,
his team was often able to start the load without other assistance.
The added weight produced more adhesion between the feet and the
ground, thus enabling the animal to exert all his strength at a pull,
instead of uselessly "scratching gravel" when trying to start.

Standing on a hard surface, a man of 200 pounds weight can easily
outpull a man of 150 pounds in a tug-of-war. If the 150-pound man
take another man upon his shoulders and back, however, he can defeat
his opponent who outweighs him by 50 pounds. The man on the
shoulders of the 150-pound contestant adds nothing to the muscular
power at that end of the rope, but rather lessens it; but the added
weight and the increase in adhesion permit the full strength of muscles
to be more nearly exerted, and the 200-pound man is readily defeated.

The horse moves a load by (1) simply leaning against the collar,
and (2) by muscular strength. Thus weight has a second advantage
in that it takes the place of some of the muscular energy, for the
weight of a heavy horse more nearly offsets the weight of the load than
does the weight of a smaller horse, and every extra pound thrown
against the collar means a corresponding reduction in muscular force
required in moving the load. Then, too, as a rule, the larger the horse,
the stronger he will be.

To sum up, weight in the draft horse has three values: (1) It
gives the feet more adhesion with the pavement or ground, so that the
muscular power may be applied to the collar, (2) by offsetting some of
the weight of the load, it lessens the amount of muscular exertion re-
quired, and (8) as a rule, the heavier the horse, the stronger he will be.
Some horses make up for a lack of weight by their superior ambition
and courage.

2. Strength is a matter of muscling. Draft horses must be very
muscular throughout, especially in the hindquarters. When judging
drafters, fat should not be mistaken for muscle.

3. Action that is straight and true insures conservation of energy
and sure-footedness. The action should also be snappy; this enables
the animal to get over the ground rapidly, and shows a willing disposi-
tion. Action is also valuable as an index to the way the horse is put
together; true action can result only from proper placing of the feet
and legs, in fact, from a proper proportionment of all parts, and their
proper relation to one another. Correct action, showing trueness,
snap, and length of stride, results from a rather rare combination of
proper structure, muscling, and temperament. Therefore good action
is not only valuable in itself, but is good evidence of merit in the entire
make-up of the horse.

434 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

4. Endurance means the ability to do the day's work without
fagging. Durability means the ability to work day after day without
breaking down under the strain. Endurance is concerned mostly with
wind, muscling, and feeding capacity, while durability depends mostly
upon the feet and legs. Some first-hand horses last but six months,
or even less, on city streets. Others last as long as fifteen years, and,
in some cases, even longer. If a draft horse goes to pieces quickly
when put to work, he is a considerable loss to the owner. Feet and
legs are the parts most liable to prove defective. Lack of wind is a
common fault. The horse with a short rib seldom stands up to hard
labor very long. Buyers refuse to invest much money in horses that
are shallow bodied and cut up high in the flank, such animals being
poor feeders.

5. Feeding capacity. — The horse is comparable to a locomotive.
He consumes hay and grain for fuel. Other things being equal, the
greater the amount of fuel consumed, the greater the work that can
be done. The drafter should be a good feeder.

6. Disposition. — To be of greatest usefulness a draft horse must
be a prompt, willing worker that will be pleasant to handle, active,
and quick to respond to commands, yet quiet and docile.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TYPE

General appearance. — The form of the draft horse is broad, deep,
massive, compact, rather low set, symmetrical, and stylish. He should
have a short back and a long underline. He must weigh not less than
1,600 pounds, and ton horses are the sort to keep in mind as draft
horses. Weights over a ton are not uncommon. It has been esti-
mated, on the basis of weights and prices for horses at the large markets,
that every 100 pounds above 1,500 adds $25 to the horse's value. As
to height, drafters usually stand from 16 to 17 hands. The height over
the hips should be no greater than at the withers, as this detracts from
the symmetrical appearance, throws more weight upon the f orequarters,
and makes the action stilted and heavy. Although the short-legged
horse is more powerful, the horse with slightly more length of leg will
take a longer stride, and may therefore be more useful. Some buyers
also prefer a certain degree of height in the drafter because they use
wagons with a high top or cover, and a short-legged horse would not
be in harmony with such vehicles. At this point it may be mentioned
that a great many firms desire horses which are not only able to do
their work successfully, but which also have considerable style and
beauty that will attract attention on the streets and help to advertise
the firm and its business. To this end, a great deal of money is in-
vested in vehicles nicely designed and ornamented, which are horsed

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

435

with animals that add to, rather than detract from, the appearance of
the turnout. Buyers keep the vehicle in mind when buying horses.

Quality and substance, as shown in head, hair, hoofs, bone, and
joints, should be preeminent. Substance refers particularly to the size
of the bone as shown in cannons and joints, while quality refers to the
fineness of texture of all parts. Quality associated with substance
insures good wearing qualities. Quality is shown in bone that is hard
and smooth, joints that are well defined or clean, and cannons and
pasterns that are entirely free from meatiness. As previously ex-
plained, it is objectionable for a horse to be meaty in his knees or hocks
or in the parts below them. The term "clean," as applied to the

Fig. 163. — Points of the horse.

Muzzle

12.

Crest

22.

Fetlock joint

32.

Croup

Nostril

13.

Withers

23.

Pastern

33.

Tail

Face

14.

Shoulder

24.

Coronet

34.

Thigh

Eye

15.

Point of shoulder

25.

Foot

35.

Point of buttock

Forehead

16.

Breast

26.

Ribs

36.

Quarters

Ear

17.

Arm

27.

Belly

37.

Stifle

Poll

18.

Elbow

28.

Flank

38.

Gaskin

Cheek

19.

Forearm

29.

Back

39.

Hock

Jaw

20.

Knee

30.

Coupling

40.

Chestnut

10.

Throttle

21.

Cannon

31.

Hip

41.

Sheath

11.

Neck

hocks, knees, cannons, ankles, and pasterns, means that these parts
are entirely free from meatiness, swelling, or other unnatural develop-
ment, so that the natural structure is sharply and clearly defined.

436

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Clean legs are one of the best and most important evidences of good
quality. The cannons of some draft breeds have more or less long
hair, called "feather." If it is fine and "pily," rather than coarse
and curly, it indicates quality, for fine hair seldom covers rough, coarse
bone. The entire coat, including mane and tail, also indicates quality
if the hair is soft and fine. The horse with quality will have a head of
medium size, a neat ear, a trim muzzle, and a chiseled appearance
about the face and jaws. He also has hoofs of fine texture which will
wear well, and his joints are less subject to bony diseases.

Fig. 164. — A grand champion draft gelding. Master, an imported Clydesdale
gelding, grand champion at the 1922 International Show. Exhibited by the National
Biscuit Company of New York. Note the style and quality of this gelding, the
correctly placed clean legs, sloping pasterns, and well-balanced conformation.

The size of the head should be proportionate to the size of the
horse. A pony head is not the right sort for a draft horse, and a barrel
head indicates coarseness and lack of good breeding. Every line and
feature should be distinct; there should be a chiseled appearance that
indicates character, quality, and good breeding. Great width between
the eyes and a broad, full forehead show intelligence. The eyes should
be large, bright, clear, and very prominent, to insure good vision, for

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 437

the horse should be able to see where he is stepping. The nose and
muzzle should be broad, indicating a good feeder. The nostrils should
be large (but not permanently distended), to provide easy breathing.
Trim lips that are thin show quality and refinement. Strong cheeks,
and jaws that are wide across underneath, provide good grinding ability
for proper mastication of feed. The ears should be of fine texture and
medium size, and should be set well up toward the poll and carried
alert. Ears set down on the side of the head and carried in a lopping
fashion decidedly injure the appearance. The expression of the eye
and the carriage of the ear are good evidences of the temperament and
disposition.' The head should be of medium length, and, as viewed in
profile, the face line should be rather straight. A Roman face line
indicates a strong, determined will, and is not desirable.

The neck of the draft horse should be at least medium long, and
should be very muscular, with some degree of crest or arch to the top.
The crest should be pronounced in the stallion, but not so excessive as
to break over to one side. At the junction with the body, the neck
should be very deep, but at the throttle it should be very trim and
rather cut up underneath, with no fullness or thickness there to bring
pressure on the windpipe. The head and neck should be carried well up,
to insure good vision, lighten the forehand, and improve the appearance.

The shoulders should be very deep, muscular, and have much
slope. An upright shoulder results in transmission of shock, and also
in shortness of stride. A sloping, muscular shoulder that is laid in
snugly is conducive to good action. Frequently, the shoulders are
too open and prominent, so that the horse does not stand over his legs
as he should. Such horses do not take a straight stride, but swing
their legs outward when in action.

The tops of the shoulder blades should come well together so that
the withers may be well defined, though muscular and not as sharp as
in the lighter kinds of horses.

The breast ^should be wide and very muscular.

The chest should be full, wide, and deep, to provide room for heart
and lungs. The horse is an athlete, and large lungs and good heart
action are very essential. A contracted heart-girth shows lack of con-
stitution. There is no such thing as too much heart-girth or chest
capacity.

The arm should be very muscular, and should be thrown forward
to give slope to the shoulder.

The forearm should be powerfully muscled, so that as viewed
from the side it appears very broad next to the body, tapering to the
knee. No muscles are present below the knees and hocks, hence the
action is dependent upon the muscles above these joints.

438 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

The knee must be broad from every point of view, and must be
deep from top to bottom. This provides a large joint, indicating
strength. The knee must also be straight, so as to set the leg straight
below the body. There must be no meatiness about the knee or any
of the joints or parts below, for, as has been stated, all muscles end
above the knee and are attached to the parts below by tendons. Meati-
ness about the knee interferes with the working of the tendons, and
lessens the free and easy flexion of the joints. Hence the knee should
be clean, flat across the front, and well defined. This is essential.

The cannons should be short and clean, with the tendons large
and set well back from the bone. As viewed from the side, there
should be good width, and the cannon should be flat instead of round.
As one passes the hand along the cannon bone, it should feel smooth,
hard, and dense. The skin and hair covering it should be fine. Be-
tween the bone and the tendons there should be well-marked depres-
sions or grooves. Meatiness about the cannons is as objectionable as
it is about the joints, and for similar reasons. The cannons furnish
one of the best means of determining quality. Clean, flat, smooth
cannons have bone that is composed of fine cells, and that is flinty in
character. Coarse, rough bone is made up of large cells, and is porous
and spongy. Too much refinement of bone is often found in the draft
horse. On the other hand, large bone is frequently found which is
very lacking in quality. There should be a combination of substance
with quality. It is possible to make up in quality a certain lack of
substance, but not the contrary.

The fetlock joint should be wide from front to back, clean, and
well defined.

The pasterns should be oblique to relieve concussion, and should
show reasonable length. A slope of about 45 degrees is desired.
More slope than this tends toward weakness. The pasterns should
show plenty of substance, yet be clean, and should spread out or
expand at the lower end into wide, round, open hoof-heads or coronets.

Feet. — The old saying, "No foot, no horse," is full of truth. A
draft horse of excellence in all respects except feet is as worthless as a
fine building on a flimsy foundation. When it is considered to what
great stress the foot of the draft horse is subjected, the wonder is that
feet last as long as they do on hard pavements. Driven against cobble-
stones and brick by the great weight of the body above, the fore feet
undergo repeated shocks which soon batter to pieces feet that are defec-
tive. The foot should be large, to afford a large bearing surface.
When viewed from front or side, the axis of the foot should coincide
with the axis of the pastern. The hoof should appear dense, waxy,
and smooth, indicating toughness and durability. The form of the

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 439

hoof should be round. Inasmuch as the wall of the hoof grows out
from the coronet or hoof-head, the size and shape of the foot will depend
largely upon the size and shape of the hoof-head, which should there-
fore be large and round. A foot that is large on the ground and
cramped and small at the hoof-head has too much flare of the wall to
provide strength, and is not a good foot. The sole should be concave,
as this means strength. Flatness of sole is a common fault among
draft horses. The bars should be strong to insure agamst contraction
of the heels, and the frog should be large and elastic. The heels should

Fig. 165. — The draft type. Big Jim, four times grand champion draft gelding
at the International. J. H. S. Johnstone, of the Live Stock World, wrote the follow-
ing regarding Big Jim when announcing his death in 1910: "There never was a
prouder stepper in harness, and there never was a big one that held himself together
and went at his work in a more sprightly manner. His size was immense — 2,385
pounds — and not one of his competitors ever approached him in that regard. Per-
sonally I do not expect to see his like again."

be very wide and fairly high, and the fore feet should be symmetrically
made and uniform in size and shape. The position of the feet and legs
should be as described in Chapter XXIX.

The ribs should be well sprung and deep, giving a wide, deep body.
Such a conformation provides a strong middle-piece, gives the neces-
sary weight to the animal, and indicates good digestive capacity, as

440 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

well as ample room for heart and lungs. The distance from the last
rib to the hip should be short, and the flank should be deep. Horsemen
speak of a deep, full flank as a "good bread basket," and in certain
sections of the country where a business is made of feeding drafters
for market, care is taken to select animals for feeding that have deep,
full middles, for the other kind are poor feeders and cannot easily be
made fat. The horse that is cut up high in the flank is said to be
"wasp waisted," "tucked up," or "washy." When put to work, such
horses show lack of endurance or stamina, for they do not consume
enough feed to replace the energy expended in doing hard labor; hence
they become very thin in flesh, and are unable to do hard work for
many days in succession. The middle of the draft horse in good flesh
should be very large, and as round as a dollar.

The back forms the connection between the power, which is in the
hindquarters, and the point of application of this power, which is the
shoulder. A short, rather straight, broad back that is heavily muscled
affords the strongest conformation. A short, wide back is not only
more rigid than a long, narrow one, but also brings the power closer
to the collar; it is therefore much desired because of its mechanical
advantage over the long, rangy conformation.

The loin is usually called the "coupling." It lies just in front of
the hips, and includes those vertebrae which have no ribs below them.
The loin, lika the back, should be short, broad, and heavily muscled.

Beginning with the hips and continuing throughout the hind-
quarters, we are dealing with the location of those muscles which fur-
nish power for draft, hence we want an appearance of great massive-
ness everywhere. It used to be thought that the draft horse did his
work simply by falling against the collar, thus bringing his weight to
bear, and consequently that his forequarters ought to be as heavy as
possible; it was no harm if his shoulders were straight, and as for his
hindquarters, it did not matter much what they were. But this idea
has been exploded and it is now known that he pulls by muscle more
than by weight, and much more by the muscles of his hindquarters
than by those of his forequarters. So we want the hips of the drafter
to be wide and heavily muscled, yet smooth.

A very broad and long croup gives the greatest area for the laying
on of muscle. It should also be fairly level from hips to setting on of
tail. A steep croup not only detracts from the appearance, but is
also usually associated with shortness of croup, weakness of coupling,
and crooked hind legs. The croup should be covered with heavy,
massive muscles.

The tail should be attached high, and should be full haired and
well carried.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

441

The thighs should be very wide and should bulge with muscle, and
the quarters should be very deep and heavy. The stifle should like-
wise be heavily muscled, and there should be great width through the
hindquarters from stifle to stifle. Viewed from the side, the thigh
should be very wide from stifle to end of body.

The gaskins, like the forearms, should be very wide and bulging
with muscle.

Hocks. — Suppose we have a pair of ton horses hitched to a big
load. When the word is given to start, the horses extend and lower
their heads, lean against the collar, crouch down behind by bringing
their hind feet forward and flexing their hocks, and then the pull of

Fig. 166. — Six high-class well-matched dralt geldings owned by Chestnut
Farms, Walkersville, Md. ,

the powerful muscles of the hindquarters extends the hock joint and
straightens the hind leg, thus bringing great pressure against the collar,
and the load moves. The point to be remembered is that an enor-
mous strain comes upon the hock, and if there is any weakness in that
joint it is certain to cause trouble. The hock must be large, clean,
wide both ways, and deep, and the point of the hock should be promi-
nent. It should be straight from top to bottom. Hocks that are
badly sickled, bowed outward, or cow hocked are not stout enough to
match the strength of the muscles above. They thus limit the power
of the horse and are likely to become unsound. Fleshiness and puff's
are distinctly objectionable. Thick, meaty hocks are too common in

442

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

draft horses. A clean appearance, so that every angle and Hne of the
joint is apparent, is very much desired.

The requirements for hind cannons, pasterns, and feet are almost
identical with those in front. However, the hind cannons are always
longer and usually broader than the front ones. Also, the hind pas-
terns are seldom so sloping, and the hind feet are not quite so large or
round. There is less concussion behind than in front, but the stress
is much greater at the pull, hence it is proper that hind pasterns and
feet be a little more erect, in order to provide the necessary strength
of conformation.

From what has been said above, the value of a properly set hind
leg, as viewed from behind, is emphasized. If the horse is "bow
legged," his legs will prove weak when the strain is put upon them.

Fig. 167. — ^Heavy drafters in harness. This is the noted team of grays which
was invincible at the leading shows a few years ago. They were shown both in the
United States and Great Britain. Big Jim was the near wheeler in this team. Owned
by Armour and Company of Chicago.

Walking on a crooked hind leg is comparable to driving a bent nail.
The force of the hammer bends the nail instead of driving it into the
wood, and a crooked hind leg bows outward instead of remaining rigid
and transmitting full force against the collar.

Now that the details of the drafter's conformation have been de-
scribed, a word may be added regarding symmetry or proportionment
of parts. The fact is that some horses are good in their various parts,
yet fail to present a good appearance. What they lack is symmetry.
The head may be good, and the neck may be good also, but the two
may be joined at an angle which injures the appearance. The neck
may not rise from the shoulders as it should. The feet may be good,
but may be too small to be in proportion to the size and weight of the

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 443

animal. The top line from head to tail may be an irregular line full
of angles, whereas it should be gracefully curved. The hips may be
wide, which is desirable, yet they should not be wide out of all propor-
tion to the rest of the body, so as to be ragged and prominent. Seem-
ingly small factors such as these may or may not affect the horse's
usefulness for work, but frequently they constitute the difference be-
tween a plain animal and one of show-yard character, between which
there is a great difference in price. One horse looks as though he were
made up of a lot of different-sized parts which do not fit well together,
while the other seems cast from a carefully prepared mould. Standing
in natural position, the symmetrical horse carries his head and neck
well up, so that the face line, shoulder, and pastern all slope at nearly
the same angle; the croup is fairly level from hips to tail, the tail is
set high, and all parts of his conformation are so proportioned as to
give him a well-balanced appearance.

The action of the draft horse should be true, snappy, and bold.
As you see him going or coming, the movement of the legs should be
straight in the line of motion, the feet being carried true, with no
paddling or irregularity of gait. Walking away from you, he should
move with enough snap to give you the flash of his shoe at every step.
As you view him in action from the side, he should show length of
stride and enough height of action to clear the ground safely at each
step. High knee action is not essential; in fact, carriage horse action
in a draft horse means useless expenditure of energy. However, there
should be a strong, free movement of knees and hocks, without dragging
or stiffness. The walk is the real gait of the draft horse, and an active,
snappy, springy walk, with trueness and length of stride, is the prime
essential so far as action is concerned. However, the trot often magni-
fies defects in gait so that they are more easily seen, and in show and
sale rings drafters are shown at both gaits. The stride in the trot
should be long, true, springy, steady, businesslike, and moderately
high. Horsemen like a bold way of going that indicates willingness
and courage in the horse.

In action, the hocks should pass close together, so close in fact
that they nearly brush each other. Some horses go so wide behind
that a wheelbarrow could be put between the hind legs and scarcely
touch them. Any tendency to spraddle behind is one of the greatest,
if not the greatest, defect which the drafter can exhibit, so far as action
is concerned. ■

The study of action is one requiring close attention. The observer
must take into consideration every movement of the horse. Attention
must be given not only to the movement of the feet and legs, but also
to the carriage of the head and neck and the entire body. The head

444 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

should be carried well up, giving a stylish appearance and a good out-
look, and the top of the horse should be carried level and true, with-
out any rolling or wobbling motion from side to side, and without any
indication of lameness. The front and hindquarters should act in
unison, and the legs should be kept well under the body as the horse
travels, showing no tendency to drag the hind legs, and especially the
hocks, out behind the body. When kept up underneath as they should
be, and when all the motions of the horse are in unison, we say that he
moves in a collected manner. As before stated, perfection in action
can result only when there is a combination of proper conformation
and strength, and a willing disposition.

Common defects in the action of draft horses are: (1) going wide
at the hocks, (2) swinging the fore legs outward, called "paddling,"
(3) swinging in, (4) striking supporting leg with foot of striding leg,
called "interfering," (5) twisting striding leg around in front of support-
ing leg, called "winding," "plaiting," or "rope walking," (6) short,
stubby stride, (7) low, skimming action, called "daisy cutting," (8)
unsteadiness of gait, (9) striking sole or heels of fore foot with toe of
hind foot, called "forging," (10) excessive lateral shoulder motion,
called "rolling," (11) lack of energy or snap, and (12) lameness.

On the matter of type.— To present the best appearance, the
drafter should not be over-drafty in type; that is, shortness of leg and
compactness and width of body should not be carried to the extreme.
A certain degree of length of leg, length of neck, and length of under-
line is necessary, not only for the sake of looks, but also because it
actually makes the horse more useful. He takes a longer step, and
will do more work in a day than the extremely pudgy type of horse.
On the other hand, we certainly do not want a horse that is all length
and style. We must aim at the middle ground, selecting for as much
style as may be had without sacrifice of any of those qualities which
make the draft horse useful for his work.

Finish. — The term "finish" refers to fatness and to the condition
of the coat. The horse market discriminates in price to a considerable
degree between the fat drafter and the thin one, and it is surprising
what an improvement is made in some horses by the addition of fat.
Fatness adds to the weight, improves the form and spirit, and provides
the necessary reserve store of energy to carry the horse through the
first few weeks in the city during adjustment to city sights, sounds,
loads, pavements, stables, and other new conditions. Although fat
is important in the horse for sale or show, the judge must learn to
distinguish between fat and muscle, and must not be deceived as to
size of middle, spring or rib, or length of back and croup. The coat
should be well groomed, so as to give the animal a sleek appearance.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

445

Color. — It is commonly said that a good horse cannot have a bad
color. By this is meant that color is disregarded if the horse suits
otherwise. Some colors, however, are very generally disliked, and still
other colors are not liked by some persons. For instance, duns, flea-

>= '-:^

Fig. 168. — Before and after fattening. A gelding fattened by B. E. Car-
michael of the Ohio Experiment Station. Fattening shortened the hi ck. fil'ed out
the coupling, smoothed the hips, lengthened and levelled the croup, rounded out the
middle, gave crest to the neck, transformed his angular lines into pleasing curves,
and changed his worried expression of eye and ear to one of contentment, alertness,
and spirit. The feet and legs, however, are not improved during the fattening period.

It might be assumed from these pictures that fat will transform the head, neck,
and entire top of a horse from inferior to excellent. However, when fat this gelding
does not have the big middle which a fat horse should have, neither does he show
just the right lines and proportions. It is difficult to recognize the merits of a thin
animal, and it is almost as difficult to see the faults of a fat one. The above pictures
strikingly illustrate these facts.

446 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

bitten grays, white horses, very light grays, and spotted horses are
universally discounted, either because they are hard to groom, hard
to match, or because the color is unsightly. Dark colors, such as dark
or steel gray, dark dappled gray, dark bay, dark brown, dark chestnut,
dark roan, and black, are given preference. Dark dappled grays are
well liked by buyers, and some firms will accept no other color because
the flash gray color attracts attention to their turnouts. It is not
uncommon for business houses to adopt some color as a sort of trade-
mark, on account of the advertising value. However, color is of less
importance in draft horses than in any other type. This is true be-
cause the drafter is a business horse, whereas other types are valued
mostly for pleasure purposes.

Weight for age. — Draft horses that are properly fed and cared for
usually reach at least 50 per cent of their matured weight at 12 months
of age; 75 per cent at 24 months; 85 per cent at 36 months; 95 per cent
at 48 months; and 100 per cent at 60 months. On this basis the horse
that is to weigh a ton at maturity should weigh not less than 1,000
pounds at 12 months, 1,500 pounds at 24 months, 1,700 pounds at 36
months, 1,900 pounds at 48 months, and 2,000 pounds at 60 months.
These are general averages. Variations will occur depending on feed,
care, breed, sex, and individual. Belgians and Percherons mature
somewhat earlier than Shires and Clydesdales. Mares and geldings
mature quicker than stallions, but do not as a rule make as heavy
weights at maturity. Some highly-fed colts and fillies make the
weights mentioned at 12 and 24 months and then stop growing so soon
that they fall considerably below a ton at maturity. This is especially
true of yearlings and two-year-olds that have a compact, low-set form
and finished appearance like a mature horse, instead of the growthy,
rugged appearance characteristic of youngsters that ultimately reach
real draft horse size and weight.

CHAPTER XXXII

THE CARRIAGE OR HEAVY-HARNESS HORSE

The carriage horse is also called the "heavy-harness" horse be-
cause he wears heavy leather in contrast to the harness worn by the
roadster. The modern carriage horse is almost exclusively a pleasure
horse. He is put before various kinds of pleasure vehicles ranging
from the light runabout to the heavy coach, and it is therefore apparent
that there should be a wide range in the size and weight of carriage

7Mr^

Fig. ibJ. Cciir.agu ui iitci.j^-iiaii.to^ ^.» pt- liucvuty ii.a.r, i^Liccu ul' Dia-
monds, imported and owned by the Truman Pioneer Stud Farm, Bushnell, 111.

horses in order to meet the widely varying demands of the various
vehicles and uses to which this horse is put. In other respects, all
carriage horses are very nearly alike.

The value of the carriage horse is determined by (1) beauty of
conformation, (2) action, (3) manners, (4) temperament, (5) color,
and (6) endurance and durability.

1. Beauty of conformation. — The conformation of the carriage
horse must show beauty, style, symmetry, and finish. Being a pleas-

447

448

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

ure horse, it is the abihty not only to do certain work which determines
value, but to do this work gracefully, and to present, while standing
or in action, a picture of pleasing appearance.

2. Action. — Here again, beauty is the thing sought at the expense
of other qualities. The carriage horse must not only go level, true,
and collected, but he must go very high — the higher the better. With

Fig. 170. — The heavy-harness type in action. Hackney pony, Irvington
Model, bred and owned by W. D. Henry, Sewickley, Pa.

this end in view, he is bred, fed, shod, trained, bitted, and driven with
a view to securing as much height of action as possible — not because
it makes him more useful for his work, but because it makes him more
pleasing to look upon.

3. Manners. — If the horse fails to respond to commands, pos-
sesses a strong will that rebels at these commands, or fails to act
quickly, his lack of manners may result disastrously to the occupants

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 449

of the carriage. Bad behavior while standing or in action also lessens
the attractiveness of appearance. He must be so thoroughly trained
and familiar with the commands of his driver that the execution of
whatever is asked will be done involuntarily, unhesitatingly, and in-
stantly. Every command of word, whip, or rein must be received
intelligently, and intelligently acted upon by the horse.

4. Temperament. — The sanguine or nervous temperament is the
one desired in carriage horses, for without it we cannot expect that
degree of action which is required, nor that quickness of response to
commands which is essential.

5. Color. — The dark solid colors are preferred, as being in proper
accord with the elegant vehicles drawn by this horse. White ankles
are often favored, because a horse so marked has his action emphasized
and easily seen. Grays, roans, and light colors usually are heavily
discounted or even rejected, and in horses for ladies' use even the
white markings are discriminated against. True elegance and good
taste are wanted, and this excludes colors that are flashy and calculated
to attract undue attention.

6. Endurance and durability. — The carriage horse is required to
make only short trips at moderate speed. Endurance is not so essen-
tial, therefore, as in other tj^Des. However, durability, which means
wearing quality, is of great importance. Extrem.ely high action makes
necessary the best of feet and legs. Durability is almost entirely de-
pendent upon the amount and quality of bone, and the structure and
texture of feet.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TYPE

General appearance. — Compactness and fullness of form are re-
quired in order that the horse may fill his harness properly and be in
proper keeping with the vehicles before which he is put. He must
possess great smoothness of conformation, with all his lines curving
rather than angular. He must appear snugly put together. Medium
length of leg is required to give proper action and lend him style and
symmetry. The height ranges from 14 to 16-1 hands, and the weight
from 900 to 1,300 pounds. The greatest demand is for horses standing
from 15 to 16 hands. Quality is indicated in bone, joints, hoofs, hair,
head, and smoothness of form. As the subject of quality has been
fully discussed in connection with draft horse type, lengthy description
is unnecessary here. Quality is valuable in the carriage horse because
it assures durability, and because refinement and smoothness add
beauty to the horse.

The head should be refined and well proportioned with every fea-
ture sharply defined. The forehead should be broad, and the eyes

450 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

should be large and prominent. Strong jaws and a wide muzzle are
desired, yet the muzzle must be trim, the lips thin, and the entire head
free from any appearance of coarseness. The nostrils should be large.
The ears should be fine, placed close together near the poll, and carried
alert. The attachment with the neck must be clean and graceful.
The appearance of the head should indicate intelligence, alertness, and
quality.

Length of neck is very essential. It should be gracefully arched
and bear considerable muscle, — enough muscle to lend fullness and
strength, but not so much as to give an appearance of heaviness or
coarseness. The upper border of the neck should be fine along its
entire length. The neck should blend nicely with the shoulders.
Without a high-class front, the horse cannot qualify as a heavy-harness
horse of superior type.

Long, snugly laid shoulders that have a decided slope and are
well muscled are wanted. The withers should be well set up and
should show refinement. The chest should be moderately wide and
very deep. The breast should be carried out prominently and be
rather muscular.

The middle of the horse should be round, full made, short on top,
and long below. This calls for long, well-arched ribs and good depth
of flank. The back, and especially the loin, should be thickly muscled
and short, giving strength and a smooth, finished appearance. Depth
of flank is essential to a good appearance and good feeding qualities.

The hips should be smooth. Prominent hips detract from the
smoothness of form which is so much desired. A long, level, fairly
broad, well-muscled, and smoothly turned croup is the most attractive
and the best indication of strength. The tail should be attached high
and carried out from the quarters. Carriage horses usually have the
tail docked and set. Full, muscular development of thighs, quarters,
and gaskins gives the desired fullness of form and necessary strength.

Legs.— Superior quality of bone, associated with substance, should
be evident in the cannons. The arm should be very muscular. The
forearm should be muscular and long. The knee must be wide both
ways, deep, and clearly defined. The hocks should be wide, deep,
straight, and clean. The cannons, both front and rear, as viewed from
the side, should be broad and flat, with the grooves between the cannon
bone and tendons easily seen and felt. Straight, strong fetlock joints
are essential. The front pasterns should slope at an angle of about
45 degrees, and be long enough to give elasticity of stride, yet show
suflicient substance to insure strength. Proper position of the legs is
of greater importance in this type than in draft horses. So much of
the value of the horse depends upon action, and so much of action

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 451

depends upon proper position of the legs and feet, that great attention
should be given to this point. The legs must come straight down and
the toes point straight forward to insure true action.

Feet. — The size of the foot should be proportionate to the size of
the horse. Roundness and size of hoof-head, width at the heels, and
height at both heel and toe are important. The discussion regarding
the sole, bars, frog, denseness of horn, etc., as given in connection with
draft horse type, applies here with equal force.

Action. — The requirements of action in the carriage horse are:
(1) trueness, (2) height, (3) length of stride, (4) collection, (5) elastic-
ity, (6) boldness and power, (7) gracefulness of movement, and (8)
moderate speed. The walk must be snappy, quick, and businesslike

Fig. 171. — The carriage horse in harness. Compare this picture with Fig.
174 and note the difference in height of action, type of vehicle, and weight of harness.
This is the noted Hackney mare Bountiful, owned by Judge W. H. Moore of Chicago.

to a marked degree. But it is at the trot that action is wholly revealed.
The flight of each foot must be straight and true. The fore foot should
be carried forward and high up, as if following the rim of a rolling
wheel, and the stride should be long. The foot meets the ground
easily and without apparent jar, in fact the step appears elastic, and
the meeting with the ground seems to send the foot on again as though
it were made of rubber. Every movement must show grace and style,
and the whole attitude of the horse should be one of combined courage
and power.

452 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Proper folding of the knee meets only half of the requirement.
Associated with this, there should be a decided flexing of the hock.
The hind foot will leave the ground with snap and free movement of
pastern, and the hock will be carried, not backward, but upward to-
ward the dock, to accomplish which the hock must be flexed very
decidedly.

Action is so valuable in the heavy-harness horse that breeders and
dealers often resort to artificial means to secure it in horses which are
deficient in their movement. Heavy shoes produce height of action.
The toe is allowed to grow out long which also adds weight to the foot
and requires more effort on the part of the horse in breaking over as

^ >w

Fig. 172. — Sensational action. Little Ruby, a champion Hackney pony
stallion owned in England.

he takes a stride, so that when he does break over the extra force tends
to carry the foot higher and farther away. No matter how natural it
may be for a horse to go high, he still requires proper shoeing, bitting,
training, and driving, in order that his inherent ability may be de-
veloped. Even after the horse is "made," as the saying goes, if he is
placed in the hands of an inexperienced reinsman, unskilled in driving
heavy-harness horses, the result will be a failure. The trained
carriage horse responds superbly under the guidance of the master
reinsman. Given proper aids from word, whip, and rein, the horse in-
stinctively responds with the best performance of which he is capable.

CHAPTER XXXIII
THE ROADSTER OR LIGHT-HARNESS HORSE

The roadster or light-harness horse is distinctly an American type,
or strictly speaking, it is a breed — the American Trotter or Standard-
bred. The light-harness horse is a pleasure horse exclusively; his
domain includes the regular race tracks, where he is used for profes-
sional racing, and also the city speedways and snowpaths and country
roadways, where amateur racing and road driving are indulged in by
men who admire the trotting horse and seek recreation in the open air.
Roadsters or "gentlemen's drivers" also form classes at our horse
shows.

This type is styled "light-harness type" because, on both road and
track, the horse works in light-weight harness that is quite in contrast
to the heavy leather worn by the heavy-harness horse. The harness
is light because the vehicles to which this horse is put are very light in
weight. In professional racing the bike sulky is used, which weighs
from 27 to 35 pounds; in matinee racing the vehicle used is a light
speed wagon having four wheels but of the same general construction
as the sulky, and weighing only 65 to 68 pounds. On the road the
hitch is to a light wagon weighing about 175 pounds, which may have
a top much like the common piano-box buggy. For snow racing a
specially constructed speed sleigh is used, weighing a little less than
100 pounds.

The value of the light-harness horse is based upon (1) speed, (2)
stamina or endurance, (3) durability, (4) temperament, and (5) beauty
of conformation.

1. Speed. — Whether in use on or off the track, the light-harness
horse is prized very largely for his speed. For racing purposes he is
required to show 2 :30 speed at the trot, or 2 :25 at the pace, before he
is considered a light-harness horse in the true sense of the word, and
for road use he should be able to do at least ten miles within an hour.
The ability to "get there" is the thing for which this horse is bred and
trained. The world's trotting record is now 1:56^ (which means 1
minute and 56 ^^ seconds for the mile) and is held by Peter Manning,
a gelding. The world's pacing record is 1:553^, held by the stallion
Dan Patch. The fastest trotting and pacing records and the years
when they were established are as follows:^

iThe Horse Review, Dec. 13, 1922, p. 1214.
453

454 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Fastest trotting and pacing records

Trotting records Pacing records

1 mile Peter Manning (1922). .. 1:56 s^ Dan Patch (1905) 1:55^

2 miles The Harvester (1910) . . . 4:15^ Dan Patch (1903) 4:17

3 miles Nightingale (1893) 6:55M Elastic Pointer (1909) 7:31^

4 miles Senator L. (1894) 10:12 Joe Jefferson (1891) 10:10

Smiles Zambra (1902) 12:24 Lady St. Clair (1874) 12:54^

10 miles Pascal (1893) 26:15

Stallion Lee Axworthy (1916). . . . 1:58^ Dan Patch (1905) 1:55 Ji

„ XT jj /1Qoo^ 1.KC1/ /Miss Harris M. (1917) 1:58J4

Mare Nedda (1922) 1:58K (Margaret Dillon (1922). . . . 1:58^

Gelding Peter Manning (1922). . . 1:56% Frank Bogash Jr. (1914). . . 1:59 J^

Yearling Airdale (1912) 2:15% Frank Perry (1911) 2:15

2-year-old. . .The Real Lady (1916). . . 2:04% Direct the Work (1917). . . . 2:06H

3-year-old . . . Sister Bertha (1920) 2:02% Anna Bradford (1914) 2:00%

4-year-old. . . Arion Guy (1921) 1:59^ William (1914) 2:00

5-year-old. . .Peter Manning (1921). . . 1:57% William (1915) 1:58^

Under saddle.Country Jay (1909) 2:08% George Gano (1915) 2:10%

Team Uhlan and Lewis Forrest Minor Heir and George

(1912) 2:03% Gano (1912) 2:02

2. Stamina or endurance.— Most racing, both amateur and pro-
fessional, is at mile heats over half-mile or mile tracks. Some races
are two in three, and some three in five, heats. Not until some horse
has succeeded in winning the necessary two or three heats is the race
decided. For this reason, some races extend into very gruelling con-
tests. Some horses show a wonderful burst of speed for a quarter of
a mile or so, and then quit. These horses are said to "lack bottom,"
by which is meant a lack of stamina or endurance. Stamina means
ability to go a mile at speed, and to repeat the mile, two, three, or more
times, with intermissions of not less than 25 minutes. To accomplish
this requires heart and lungs of the first order, together with a well-
developed muscular system. On the speedway and snowpath there is
a great deal of brush racing, that is, racing over short distances of vary-
ing lengths, depending on the wishes of the drivers and the ease or
difficulty in passing opponents. This is usually not so severe as a
regular racing program, provided the horse has been properly condi-
tioned and trained.

3. Durability. — It is readily apparent that the work required of
the light-harness horse is of such a nature as demands the best of feet
and legs. This t3T)e of horse has a decided advantage over the carriage
horse and drafter, in that he works on a much more yielding footing,
yet the high rate of speed puts his feet and legs to a very severe test,
and many horses with speed and stamina have their usefulness and
value greatly lessened because of failure to keep sound when called
upon to go through a strenuous racing campaign or do a large amount
of work on the road.

4. The temperament must be decidedly sanguine, which gives
courage, willingness, and promptness, with no sluggishness.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

455

5. Beauty of conformation is a comparatively small factor in
determining the value of light-harness horses for racing purposes.
Some breeders have placed considerable emphasis on the matter of
looks and attractiveness, but in general it may be said that beauty in
the light-harness horse, while appreciated whenever it occurs, has not
been fully emphasized by breeders, because they have been catering to
the demand of the race track, and that demand is for speed above
everything else. In selecting roadsters strictly for road driving, how-
ever, speed is not so important as endurance and the ability to make a

Fig. 173.— Roadster or light-harness type. AzoflF, 2, 2:14^; son of Peter the
Great 2:07i^ and Dolly Worthy 2:27\i, by Axworthy 2:15^. Owned by John R.
Thompson, Libertyyille, 111. Azoflf is the sire of the present world's champion
trotter, Peter Manning 1:56 ?4.

long drive in creditable time, and for this work a horse of attractive,
finished appearance is highly desirable. A big, strong, well-made
horse, with quality, a well-carried head and tail, light mouth, good
manners, excellent feet and legs, and a long stride, is the sort best suited
for road driving. In order to win prizes in the larger horse shows,
attractive form and action, style, and beauty, combined with speed,
are highly essential, and a height above 15-2 is preferred. But for

456 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

racing purposes the almost exclusive requirements are speed, stamina,
and durability.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TYPE

General appearance. — There is considerable variation in the size
and general appearance of the light-harness horse. The demand for
speed has been so great that breeders have been obliged to center their
attention upon this one factor almost to the exclusion of other desirable
features, including uniformity of type. However, in breeding for speed
alone, certain other characters are bound to be impressed also. Speed
in the light-harness horse is associated or correlated with refinement,
endurance, and courage. Size, symmetry, and beauty are not corre-
lated with speed except in the most general way. The light-harness
horse varies in weight from 800 to 1,250 pounds, and in height from
14-2 to 16-1. Weights from 950 to 1,150 pounds and heights from 15
to 16 hands are most common. This type is rather upstanding, leggy,
long, deep, narrow, and angular. Quality is shown by clean, smooth,
dense bone; sharply defined tendons and joints; a chiseled, blooded-
looking head; fine skin and hair; fine-haired mane and tail; and hoofs
of smooth, dense horn.

The head should be refined and well proportioned, with a straight
face line, a fine muzzle, large nostrils, and thin, trim lips. The eyes
should be large, prominent, clear, and bright. The forehead should be
high, broad, and full. The ears should be fine, pointed, set close, and
carried alert.

A long, lean neck, with a fine throttle, is desired. Ewe necks are
common. A straight neck, or one with slight arch, is preferable.

Long, smooth, sloping shoulders, fitted close to the ribs, and high,
refined withers are essential.

The middle of the light-harness horse is characterized by a deep
rib without much arch. The chest gets its capacity from depth, rather
than from width. A straight, medium-short, well-muscled back and
loin are essential. The underline is long, and the flanks should be well
let down.

The hips should be of medium width. This type does not present
as smooth a hip as the carriage horse. A little prominence of hip is
not very objectionable, but if this is so pronounced as to give a rough
appearance it is undesirable.

A long, level, muscular croup of medium width is best suited to
this type. Defective croups are common. The tail should be attached
high and well carried.

Long, muscular thighs give speed. Well-muscled quarters are
necessary for strength.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 457

Legs. — Length of leg is necessary for speed, yet there should be
proper proportion between length of leg and size of horse. A shallow
body set up high on very long legs is not a good type. The arm should
be muscular, and carried well forward, while the forearm should be
long and muscular, with a nice tapering to the knee. This provides
room for the long muscles associated with speed. The knees must be
clean, bony, straight, broad, deep, and strongly supported. The
cannons should be broad, with large, clean tendons set well back from
the bone. Straight, wide fetlock joints and strong, sloping pasterns
of good length are very necessary. The fore leg must be straight, and
the toe should point directly forward, to insure trueness of action.
A long, muscular gaskin is an important requirement. This brings

Fig. 174. ^The light-harness horse in action. The Harvester 2:01, former
champion trotting stallion, driven by Ed Geers. Owned by C. K. G. Billings of New
York.

the hocks far below the point of the buttock, which is essential in
securing speed. Clean hocks that are wide, deep, straight, with promi-
nent point, and well supported below are very necessary. The hind
legs must be set straight, with the toes pointing straight ahead.
Sickle-shaped hind legs are rather too common.

Feet. — The best of feet are necessary. Although this type is
usually afforded an easy footing, nevertheless the tremendous concus-
sion puts the feet to severe strain when the horse travels at speed. At
high speed, a stride of 19 or 20 feet is attained. Imagine the force of
the concussion when a 1,000-pound horse strides 20 feet in less than
half a second, as is the case when the horse is trotting at a two-minute

458 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

gait. The feet should be well-developed, uniform in size, point straight
forward, and slope at the same angle as the pastern. The horn of the
hoof should be dense and smooth, the sole should be concave, the bars
strong, the frog large and elastic, and the heel wide and open.

Gait. — Both pacers and trotters are found among light-harness
horses. These gaits differ from each other in that the pace is a lateral
motion in which the fore and hind leg of the same side act together,
while the trotter moves diagonally. A change of a few ounces in the
weight of a shoe often transforms the gait. Many horses hold records
at both gaits. The pacing gait is about two seconds faster for the
mile than the trot, but it is not so popular with horsemen as the trotting
gait, especially for road driving. With the pace there is often asso-
ciated a decided rolling of the body, which is disliked, the pull on the
vehicle is jerky, and the pacer does not work well in the mud or
where the going is heavy. The natural pacer also frequently possesses
a steep croup, short underline, and sickle-shaped hind leg.

Action. — The walk should be true, quick, elastic, and regular. The
trot, in order to be fast without undue tiring of the horse, must be
straight and true, with regular, even, long stride. Height of action is
of little importance; in fact, the less knee and hock action the better.
It is only important that the foot clear the ground, accompanied by
enough action of knee and hock to secure length of stride. There
should be no hitching or unsteadiness of gait, and no great tendency
to break when going at speed. The action should be what is sometimes
termed "frictionless," giving one the impression of a perfect mechanism
that can travel at greatest speed with no waste of energy. It is appar-
ent that much of the success of the light-harness horse depends upon
good action, and good action, in turn, is dependent largely upon proper
position of the legs. Defects in conformation result in knee knocking,
speedy cutting, over-reaching, and other faults of action. ^

Common defects in the action of light-harness horses are (1)
swinging the fore feet inward, instead of carrying them straight away,

(2) a stride in which extension is more marked than flexion, and in
which the heel of the foot strikes the ground first, called "pointing,"

(3) pause in flight of foot before foot reaches ground, called "dwelling,"

(4) striking sole or heels of fore foot with toe of hind foot, called
"forging," (5) striking supporting leg with foot of striding leg, called
"interfering," (6) hitting front of hind foot, above or at line of hair,
against toe or fore foot as it breaks over, called "scalping," (7) the
trotter at speed often goes rather wide behind, and he sometimes
strikes his hind leg, above the scalping mark, against the outside of the

I Faulty shoeing also frequently causes faulty action. Correct shoeing fre-
quently overcomes or minimizes natural faults in action.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 459

breaking over fore foot, called "speedy cutting," and (8) "cross firing,"
a fault in pacers corresponding to forging in trotters.

The condition of the light-harness horse is in marked contrast to
the types previously described. When in desirable racing condition
there seems to be a total absence of fat from the muscles. A clean-cut,
sinewy appearance indicates proper racing trim. For hard use on the
road a fat horse is almost equally objectionable. The fat horse is soft,
sweats easily, and tires quickly. However, proper condition is not
secured by giving short rations. The roadster should be well fed, and
kept in proper condition by plenty of exercise.

Color. — A study of the American Trotting Register, which is the
stud book in which Standardbred horses are recorded, indicates that
the colors per thousand horses are as follows: 605 bays, 140 chestnuts,
130 browns, 85 blacks, 25 grays, 13 roans, and 2 duns. The first four
colors — bay, chestnut, brown, and black — are liked best. Grays, roans,
and duns are not so popular.

CHAPTER XXXIV

THE SADDLE HORSE

Any horse used for riding might be called a "saddle horse." But
there is a certain type of horse best suited to carrying a man in safety
and comfort, and this is the type to bear in mind when thinking of
saddle horses. The horse of all pioneer peoples is the saddler. In
new countries, before the opening of roads, the saddle horse is of greatest

Fk;. 17.1. J'UL-i^Miifd saddle horse. The noted prize-winning sUillion, Ken-
tucky's Choice, owned by Mrs. R. Tasker Lowndes, Danville, Ky.

usefulness. When the country becomes settled and roadways are
opened and improved, other types of horses quickly appear, and there
is less and less real necessity for the saddle horse; but the saddler never
disappears from any community because he is highly prized as a horse
for pleasure and recreation.

When roads were being opened in the states along the eastern
seaboard and the roadster began to gain popularity, Kentucky, Mis-
souri, and the West were yet a country of bridle paths, and there the
saddle horse was held in high esteem. In 1818 a traveller through the

460

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 461

Kentucky blue-grass region reported that "the horse, 'noble and gener-
ous' is the favorite animal of the Kentuckian, by whom he is pampered
with unceasing attention. Every person of wealth has from ten to
thirty, of good size and condition, upon which he lavishes his corn with
a wasteful profusion." Besides Kentucky and Missouri, the states of
Virginia and Tennessee have been intimately connected with saddle
horse development in America. These four states produce many
excellent saddle animals annually.

Today, saddle horses are used in a business way by the cavalry of
the United States Army and National Guard, by the mounted police
of the larger cities, by cattle drovers in rural districts, by cattle buyers
and salesmen at the large live-stock markets, by ranchers in the West,
and by overseers and managers of large plantations and farms in the
South, East, and Central West. However, the high prices for saddle
horses are paid by people to whom the saddler is a pleasure horse. In
city parks and on country roads are to be seen many excellent saddle
horses used strictly for pleasure and recreation.

All good saddle horses possess a general type which we may call
"saddle type," but the uses made of saddle horses are so varied that
several varieties or sub-types of the saddle horse exist, each possessing
a distinct type of its own. The most important of these sub-types are
(1) the five-gaited saddler, (2) the three-gaited horse, (3) the hunter,
and (4) the polo pony. All of these are pleasure horses. The running
horse or race horse, the cavalry horse, and the western cow pony are
other sub-types adapted to certain special uses, but the following dis-
cussion is confined to the four first mentioned. A brief description of
the cavalry horse will be found in the chapter dealing with market
classes of horses.

The Five-Gaited Saddle Horse

The five-gaited saddle horse is also known as the American Saddle
Horse, this being the name of the breed which supplies practically all
horses of the gaited class. To classify as a five-gaited horse, the
saddler must have at least five gaits, four of which must be the walk,
trot, canter, and rack. In addition to i'.iese four, the horse must have
one or more of three slow gaits — the running walk, fox trot, and slow
pace. The gaited saddler is the horse that has made Kentucky and
Missouri famous. There ho is looked upon with great admiration, and
bred and trained with great care.

General appearance. — The gaited horse wears a natural mane and
tail, in contrast to the other types of saddle horses. The breeders of
this type lay stress upon loftiness of carriage, airiness of movement,
refinement, intelligence, docility with high spirit and courage, — withal.

462 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

great beauty in every detail of conformation, without any sacrifice of
those qualities which insure durability and creditable performance of
the work demanded of a saddle horse. A leading Kentucky breeder
presents the points of the typical five-gaited saddle horse in the follow-
ing brief paragraph : ^

"The typical saddle horse does not differ materially from other
light horses in conformation. The characteristics peculiar to the type
are a long, clean neck, sloping pasterns and shoulders, withers moder-
ately high and narrow, a short and compactly coupled back, smoothly
turned quarters, and a well-set, high-carried tail. In action there
should be promptness, ease, and precision in going from gait to gait,
and abs6lute straightness and evenness in each. The rack should be
smooth, swift, and without side motion of the body or legs, the trot
should be fast and without offensive flashiness, the canter should be
slow with no increasing speed, the flat-footed walk should be springy
and reasonably fast, while the running walk, or fox trot, should be
easy and comfortable and equal to about five miles an hour."

Gaits. — In a wild state the natural gaits of the horse were four in
number — the walk, trot, pace, and gallop or run. Under domestica-
tion these gaits have been variously modified and additions made for
saddle purposes. These additions and modifications are largely the
result of the selection for breeding purposes of those animals most
readily acquiring the desired gaits when trained to them. The gaits
desired in the five-gaited type of saddle horse are as follows:

Walk. — The flat-footed walk should be springy, regular, and
reasonably fast.

Trot.— This is a diagonal gait, the off fore foot and near hind foot
striking the ground together, the body being then propelled forward
from this support and sustained by the near fore foot and off hind foot.
It is a "two-beat" gait. The trot should be fast, with only moderate
height of action, extreme knee action being undesirable. Many other-
wise excellent saddle horses cannot trot well, "pointing" and coming
down on their heels, instead of exhibiting a well-balanced trot.

The canter is a restrained gallop. It is slower than the gallop and
easier to ride. With proper training, the horse easily acquires this
gait. It should be slow, with no increasing speed. The canter is not
considered perfect until the horse can perform it at a rate no faster
than a fast walk. To "canter all day in the shade of an apple tree" is
a saying sometimes used to describe the canter of a highly trained
saddler that can canter very slowly and in a small circle. A well-
trained horse will change lead in the canter, and start with either foot
leading, at the will of the rider.

»Bit and Spur, Sept., 1912, p. 22.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

463

The rack is a four-beat gait, each foot meeting the ground singly,
all the intervals being equal. Hence it is sometimes called "single
foot." This gait may be distinguished by the ear alone, because the
foot-falls are rapid enough to produce a characteristic clatter. The
rack is taught by urging the horse with the whip or spurs and restrain-
ing by the curb. This breaks up the movement of a slow gait, and the
restraint is sufficient to prevent a free trot or canter, so that the horse
flies into a rapid four-beat gait. The rack is easy for the rider, hard
for the horse. It is showy, and some horses can perform it at great

Fig. 176. — The saddle horse in action. Edna May, undefeated five-gaited
mare, ridden by Mat S. Cohen, Lexington, Ky. Owned by Mrs. R. Tasker Lowndes,
Danville, Ky. This picture shows correct degree of knee and hock action and proper
carriage of head and tail.

speed. This gait has been officially named the "rack" by the American
Saddle Horse Breeders' Association, hence the name "single foot"
should not be used. It should be smooth, swift, and without side
motion of the body or legs.

The slow pace, sometimes called the "stepping pace," is the true
pace so modified that the impact on the ground of the two feet on a
side is broken, the hind foot touching first, thus avoiding the rolling
motion of the true pace. The slow pace is a comfortable and attrac-

464

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

tive gait. Many trainers do not favor it, for the liorse easily falls into
the habit of taking the true pace which is not a desirable saddle gait
because it is rough and uncomfortable. The true pace is the worst
gait a saddle horse can possess; the rider cannot rise to it and save
himself as in a trot.

The fox trot is a slow, short-striding trot. It is not so popular as
the running walk. It is a broken-time gait and difficult to describe.
Some riders, when asked to exhibit the fox trot, simply restrain their

h'lr, ]: . The three-gaited saddle type. Connoisseur, an excellent type of
walk, trot, canter horse, owned by William Ritter, Columbus, Ohio.

horses to as slow a trot as possible, seeking to pass that off as a fox
trot, but the true fox trot is not accompanied by restraint.

The running walk is a slow gait, as are also the slow pace and fox
trot. The running walk is faster than a flat-foot walk and is taught
by gently urging the horse out of the ordinary walk, but restraining
him from a trot or rack. It is intermediate between the walk and rack.
The movement of the legs is more rapid than in a walk, but in about
the same rhythm. The true running walk is usually characterized by
a bobbing or nodding of the head, and, in some instances, by a flopping

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 465

of the ears, in unison with the foot-falls. It is an all-day gait, easy
and comfortable to both horse and rider, and equal to six miles an hour
or more. It is, however, not as showy or attractive as the other gaits.

The Three-Gaited Saddle Horse

This type is also styled the "walk, trot, canter horse," and the
"park hack." This is the horse which conforms to English fashions,
whereas the five-gaited saddler is exclusively an American type.

General appearance.— The walk, trot, canter horse usually has his
mane pulled and his tail docked and set, in accordance with English
fashion, whereas the five-gaited horse wears a full mane and tail.
Otherwise the two types have much the same general appearance.
Most three-gaited saddlers are American Saddle Horses which, for one
reason or another, are marketed as three-gaited horses. There are
also quite a number of walk, trot horses which are of Thoroughbred
breeding, and some have a strong infusion of Standardbred breeding.
In such cases, the head and tail are not carried so high, and there is
not the evidence of style in form and action which characterizes the
horse that is of American Saddle Horse breeding.

Gaits. — This horse must show three gaits, and three only: the walk,
trot, and canter. It is as objectionable for a three-gaited horse to
show more than the gaits mentioned as for the five-gaited horse to
know less than five gaits.

While many people have adopted the walk, trot, canter horse in
preference to the five-gaited type because they accept English horse
fashions as law, there is still another reason why the American type
with its five or more gaits is not favored by all riders. The reason is
that there is no advantage in having a horse with all the gaits unless
the rider is skillful enough to keep them distinct. If the rider is less
instructed than the horse, a sad confusion of paces is apt to result.
A well-mouthed, well-suppled horse with a good trot and a good canter
is more useful to the ordinary rider than is one of the highly accom-
plished gaited saddlers; hence the popularity of the three-gaited horse,
especially in the larger cities. Saddle horse breeders recognize this
state of affairs and annually send to market a large number of three-
gaited animals, as well as large numbers of five-gaited horses.

Outside of the matter of gaits, the requirements for the five-gaited
and three-gaited types are so nearly identical that one discussion will
suffice for both.

REQUIREMENTS OF THE SADDLE HORSE

The essential points to be looked for in a saddle horse are (1)
beauty of conformation, (2) sure-footedness, (3) comfortable seat, (4)

466 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

best of manners, (5) knowledge of the gaits, (6) endurance and dura-
bility, and (7) dark solid color.

1. Beauty of conformation. — Attractiveness of form and action
is almost, if not quite, as valuable in the saddle horse as in the carriage
horse. People who ride for pleasure take as much pride in the owner-
ship of an attractive animal as do the owners of carriage horses.

2. Sure-footedness. — Saddle action must, first of all, be safe and
sure. A horse inclined to stumble is dangerous and cannot be highly-
valued for saddle purposes.

3. Comfortable seat. — Though a horse be sure-footed, he will not
be of much use or value for saddle work unless he gives his rider a
pleasant ride. Rough-gaited horses are not useful saddle horses.

4. Manners. — The intimate relation between horse and rider
calls for the very best of manners. Conduct that would be tolerated
from a horse in harness may be very disagreeable if the horse is under
saddle. The very nature of the use to which the saddler is put makes
manners one of the prime essentials.

5. Knowledge of gaits. — To a considerable extent the value of
the saddle animal is measured by his knowledge of the gaits. As this
is largely a matter of training, it is placed fifth in the list of require-
ments. There must be no mixing of gaits; each gait must be distinct,
and the horse should change gaits promptly and easily at the signal
from the rider.

6. Endurance and durability. — This implies a good middle and
enough substance combined with quality of bone and joints to insure
good wearing qualities.

7. Color. — Dark colors are much preferred, including bay, brown,
chestnut, and black. Flashy colors such as dapple gray, roan, dun,
cream, white, and parti-color are too conspicuous for ordinary saddle
use.

DESCRIPTION OF SADDLE TYPE

Size and weight. — These are quite variable depending on the
character of the work and the weight of the rider. The height is usually
from 15-1 to 15-3 hands, and the weight from 1,000 to 1,150 pounds.
For the purpose of comparison the heights and weights of the various
sub-types of saddle horses are here given:

Type Height Weight

Five gaited 15 —16 900—1,200

Three gaited 14-3—16 900—1,200

Hunter 15-2—16-1 1,000—1,250

Cavalry 15 —16 950—1,200

Polo pony 14 —14-2 850—1,000

Conformation. — The saddle horse is considered by many people
to be the most stylish, beautiful, and finished of all horses. The princi-

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 467

pal requirements in conformation are (1) a long, refined neck, (2)
nicely sloping pasterns and shoulders, and (3) moderately high and
refined withers. The lines of the head should be cameo-like in sharp-
ness and clean-cutness. An ideal saddler will naturally have a head
showing an unusually kind disposition and high intelligence, for the
intimate relation between horse and rider demands the best of manners
in the horse and thinking ability on both sides. The head should be
set at the right angle on a very long, refined, nicely arched neck. Un-
less there is lots of horse in front of the saddle, the appearance is
spoiled, and a horse with a short, straight, heavy neck is not easily
controlled. There should be easy flexion of jaw and neck, and this is
possible only with a long, refined neck, properly arched. However, a
"weedy" neck, that is, one lacking in muscular development, is not
wanted. Much attention must be given to the slope of pastern and
shoulder, for straight pasterns and shoulders are more objectionable in
the saddle horse than in any other type because they are almost certain
to make the horse a hard rider. Height and refinement of withers are
necessary for a similar reason. Horses that are low in the forehand
are not comfortable to ride. Furthermore, the saddle cannot be made
secure on round, flat withers, this being particularly true of the side
saddle. The extension of the shoulder into the back and shortness
and strength of coupling are very important. A straight or reached
back does not aff'ord an easy ride; there should be a certain degree of
springiness, without any weakness or sway-backed conformation.
The saddle horse is somewhat upstanding, and the head and tail should
be smartly carried.

Refinement and finish. — The saddle horse should possess a high
degree of quality, and lots of smoothness from end to end. There
should be greater refinement of head, ear, and bone than in the heavy-
harness type of horse. The shoulders should be well laid in, and the
hindquarters smoothly turned. The smoothness of the typical saddler
is in marked contrast to the angular appearance of the roadster.
Rotundity of body is a highly desirable feature. Levelness of croup is
more important in the saddle horse than in any other typ^', if a horse
has a steep croup, the defect is magnified a great deal when the saddle
is placed upon his back, and he presents a plain appearance.

Action. — The action should be energetic, elastic, of moderate
height, and especially there should be trueness of motion in all gaits.
Gracefulness and ease of action are very desirable. A springy step
resulting from sloping pasterns and shoulders is more essential in the
saddle horse than in any other type. A straight-shouldered and -pas-
terned horse gives one a ride like a carriage without springs. Collected
action, by which is meant harmony or unison of movement between

468 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

fore and hind legs, is necessary for gracefulness and comfort. It also
means that the legs will be kept at all times under the weight, thus
permitting of quick turns or any other evolutions desired. Collected
action is largely a result of properly training the horse, and skill on the
part of the rider. By pressure of the leg, or use of the whip or spur,
the horse is kept alert, with his hind legs well under him, while the
hands bring sufficient pressure on the mouth to restrain the movement
slightly, arch the neck, and secure a slight yielding of the jaw. If the
action is not collected, the horse moves awkwardly and executes sudden
commands in a clumsy fashion.

Temperament and disposition. — The temperament should be san-
guine, as in all other light horses. The disposition should be kind,
willing, honest, and courageous. There should be docility with high
spirit and animation.

CHAPTER XXXV

THE HUNTER AND POLO PONY

The hunter and polo pony differ rather markedly from the two
types of saddle horses described in the preceding chapter, largely be-
cause they are required to do work of a highly specialized nature in
which performance is of greater importance and beauty less valued
than with the gaited horse and park hack. Hence, the hunter and
polo pony are given separate consideration in order that their peculiari-
ties of type and requirements may be better emphasized.

The Hunter

The hunter is the type used in following the hounds in fox hunting.
He must be up to carrying his rider at good speed over long distances
across country, jumping fences and ditches when called upon to do so.
Like the park hack, this is an English type. The American demand
for this horse is limited, but the supply is more limited, and some high
prices have been paid for hunters in this country.

From the nature of the work, the hunter must be a horse of more
size, ruggedness, and constitution than the other types of saddle horses.
He must be a stayer at hard work, a jumper, and a horse of courage
and decent manners. His bone must be of good size and of the right
quality, and there must be an evidence of strength throughout his
conformation. Otherwise he cannot long withstand the hardships of
the hunting field.

Height and weight. — With reference to height, much will depend
upon circumstances. Weight-carrying hunters are always more diffi-
cult to procure, and command higher prices. Short, light-weight men
prefer 15-2 hands to 15-3, but where fences are high, tall horses are
necessary. Some hunters are nearly 17 hands. Hunters are classed
as light, middle, and heavy weight according to their size and weight.
Most of the hunting horses in use range in height from 15-2 to 16-1
hands, and in weight from 1,000 to 1,250 pounds.

The general appearance of the hunter should be that of a thin-
skinned, big-boned, small-headed, fine-shouldered, deep-chested, clean-
legged animal, with a neatly turned, compact body, and having a facial
expression of great keenness, docility, and quick perception.

The head should be refined; the forehead straight; the eyes large
and prominent; the ears erect and thin; and the skin covering the head

469

470

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

and face should also be thin, rendering the various prominences upon
the skull easily apparent. The high-class hunter should have a mild,
keen, and extremely intelligent expression.

The neck must be long, narrow towards the poll, and the head
should be carried obliquely, a lofty carriage being undesirable in the
hunter. As the shoulders are approached, the neck should increase in
width, be of moderate thickness, and clean along its upper border, with
a closely-cropped mane. Many hunters are very weedy in the neck,
and if this is the case, the horse is unable to recover himself in the

Fig. 178. — A typical hunter. Surprise, a winner at the Royal Hunter Show
and many other shows in England. Owned by Sir Merrick Burrells.

event of a fall, as the muscles of the neck materially assist in raising
the forepart of the body in its attempt to regain balance.

The upper border of the neck should pass into high withers, and
most of the best hunters are high in this region.

When judging hunters, attention must be fixed upon the shoulders,
not only while the horse is at rest, but also when jumping, as good
shoulder action is one of the most important points in a hunter. In
action it must be free and full, yet fine, because if the shoulders are
logged up with muscles (heavy shoulders), the free action is interfered
with when jumping.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

471

The chest must be deep; in fact, it is self evident that a hunter
should be "well-hearted" in order to provide plenty of space for the
free play of heart and lungs under extreme exertion. Width of chest
is not required and often means bulky shoulders.

A slightly flat side is desirable, though the ribs must not be short,
otherwise the horse becomes "tucked up" or "washy" in appearance.

The back and loin should be of medium length, and the latter
must be broad and clothed with powerful muscles, passing into neatly

Fig. 179. — The hunter in action. Edward B. McLean's Alarms jumping at
the National Capitol Horse Show, Washington, D. C, ridden by Louis Leith.

turned quarters — the so-called "goose rump" being of objectionable
conformation.

The arms should be strong and powerful; the forearms of good
breadth above and ending below in broad-jointed, clean knees. A
stiff knee is certainly detrimental, as is also low daisy-cutting action,
as such horses cannot freely flex and extend their joints during the
leap.

The thighs and gaskins must be neatly turned, and clothed with
powerful muscles. Particular attention must be paid to the hocks and

472

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

to hock action; the hock joints must be broad, deep from front to back,
clean in outhne, and covered with thin skin.

The cannons, fetlocks, pasterns, and feet demand special examina-
tion. The so-called "clean" legs are indispensable, and every horse-
man knows the meaning of this term. Associated with cleanness must
be considerable substance. The fetlocks must be capable of full flexion.
The ideal pastern is one with a moderate degree of slope, broad in
front, deep from front to back, and well rounded at the sides. It
should be covered with thin skin. Pasterns that are too long, too
oblique, or light in the bone, are of bad conformation; and short, up-
right pasterns are extremely objectionable for very evident reasons.

Fig. 180. — A hunt team and pack of fox hounds.

The feet must be concave on their lower surface, proportionate in size,
of good shape, well open at the heels, neither contracted nor cracked.

Color. — In selecting a hunter, color seldom plays any part, and
in the hunting field are horses of almost every color. Bay, brown,
light or dark chestnut, and gray are the principal colors, more especially
bay and brown, with either white or black points.

Disposition is of great importance in order to insure the safety of
other horses, the hounds, and the rider. Some hunters are tremendous
pullers, in fact, defy all attempts to hold them. There is great differ-
ence in temperament and disposition; one hunter will rush at his fences
in a reckless and headstrong way, and another will even walk to his

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 473

jump and clear it in a businesslike manner. It is because so many-
Thoroughbreds have bad dispositions, that horses having a small
amount of draft blood are often more desirable as hunters than are
those of straight Thoroughbred breeding.

Production of hunters. — There is no breed of hunters. They are
largely of Thoroughbred breeding, about seven parts Thoroughbred
and one part cold (draft) blood being a generally accepted formula
in breeding hunters. This proportion is secured by mating a three-
quarter-blood mare with a Thoroughbred stallion of correct type to
get hunters. The infusion of cold blood gives greater size and rugged-
ness and a better disposition, but is said to lessen to some extent the
staying qualities and gameness of the animal. Some most excellent
hunters have come of straight Thoroughbred breeding. Ireland has
long enjoyed a wide reputation for the rearing and sale of the best
hunting horses, the name "Irish hunter" carrying the idea of super-
excellence in this type of horse.

The Polo Pony

Modern polo is largely a rich man's game. It is played with four
mounted men on a side, the object being to drive a wooden ball be-
tween goal posts at the ends of a field 300 yards long and 120 to 150
yards wide. Each player carries a long-handled mallet of regulation
design. It is a very fast game for both ponies and men, requiring
quickness and precision.

History of polo. — Polo existed in Persia and Turkey before the
tenth century. Thence it spread to Central Asia, Thibet, and Central
India, being found at Calcutta in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.
It is said to have also existed in Japan a thousand years ago. English
officers returning from India in 1874 started polo at the Hurlingham
Club, Fulham, England. Hurlingham has since been recognized as
the great center of the sport, and the rules it has laid down have been
accepted as authority in every country except America, where a few
changes in these rules have been made.

The game was introduced into this country in 1876. When first
introduced, the ponies used were 13-2 hands high, but larger and faster
ponies were found more advantageous. The present rules limit the
height of ponies to 14-2 hands or under, but this rule is not strictly
enforced; the modern game is played at such high speed that only big
14-3 to 15-hand Thoroughbred or three-quarter-blood ponies are con-
sidered good enough for important matches. The range in weight is
from 850 to 1,000 pounds.

Demand for good ponies. — There was a time when western cow
ponies made acceptable mounts for the game, and a small percentage

474

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

of these developed into really good polo ponies. In almost every case,
however, the best modern ponies were sired by Thoroughbred stallions.
English ponies used for polo have always carried more or less Thor-
oughbred inheritance; they are bred in the purple, trained two years,
and carefully stabled and fed. In 1909 the American team which went
to Hurlingham to compete for the world's championship was enabled
to win largely because of the excellence of their ponies. These ponies
were English-bred, and were reported to have cost high prices ranging
up to J$5,000. In championship contests, four to six ponies are used
by each player and some players maintain a big string of ponies from
which to make selections for games.

'^*^.

Fig. 181. — Polo pony of excellent type. Owned by L. Waterbury and ridden
by him when a member of the American team which won the International Cup
from England.

What constitutes a good polo pony? — The polo pony must combine
speed with weight-carrying ability. He must be wiry, agile, and under
proper training must acquire ability to quickly start, stop, and wheel.
He must have a light mouth. He must be intelligent and learn to
like the game and follow the ball. The disposition must be such as
insures a level head, doggedness, docility, courage, and quickness. A
pony that pulls hard or becomes wild in a fast scrimmage, or swerves
off the ball, is useless in first-class polo.

The game calls for lots of endurance and wearing quality, hence
the conformation of middle, hindquarters, feet, and legs largely deter-

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

475

mines a pony's adaptability for the game. The object of breeders is
to produce a pony 14-2 hands high, able to carry from 168 to 200
pounds for ten minutes in a fast game.

The polo pony should be built like a weight-carrying hunter. His
head should be well set on, wide between the jaws, with plenty of room
at the throttle. He should have a big, clear, sound, prominent eye;
small, pricked ears, indicative of alertness; a well-formed, well-arched,
and muscular neck; a fine, sloping shoulder; not too fine at the withers,
and his breast should be ample and in proportion to the remainder of
the forequarters. His forearms should be big and powerful, the knees
wide, particularly good under the knee, with a short cannon. The
fetlocks should be large and clean, the pasterns well supplied with bone,

Fig. 182. — The polo pony in action.

and of proper slope and strength. The foot should be of good size,
smooth, nicely shaped, the heels open, and the frog well developed and
elastic.

He should be deep from withers to sternum, and fairly wide
through the chest; he should be short in the back, well coupled, ribbed
close up to the hip, with plenty of muscle behind the saddle. His
thighs and quarters should be big and powerful, and the gaskin should
bulge with muscle also. The hock should be broad and flat, with the
natural prominences clean-cut and well developed. The tendon of
Achilles should be well defined and powerful. There should be great
bone below the hock, and in other respects the hind leg should be
similar to the fore one.

476 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Production of polo ponies.— At present the only method of pro-
ducing ponies such as the modern game demands is the mating of polo
pony mares with a Thoroughbred stallion of approved type. How-
ever, a very large percentage of get is over height and only a small
percentage of foals that are of proper size have the conformation and
disposition to become polo ponies. The breeding of this pony is a
proposition only for the specialist who makes a special study of the
requirements of players and of methods of production.

CHAPTER XXXVI

MARKET CLASSES OF HORSES

The present rank and importance of the leading horse markets
is shown by the following figures giving the receipts of horses and
mules for three years, as reported by the U. S. Bureau of Agricultural
Economics:

Receipts of horses and mules at leading markets in three years

Market 1922 1921 1920 Total

1. St. Louis 95,048 67,756 143,425 306,229

2. Kansas City 38,310 30,453 71,797 140,560

3. Chicago 31,689 33,723 43,020 108,432

4. Fort Worth 28,610 13,086 45,362 87,058

5. Memphis 46,249 14,770 8,006 69,025

6. Buffalo 21,159 23,687 22,526 67,372

7. St. Joseph 15,961 11,580 29,768 57,309

8. Wichita 17,936 10,885 24,714 53,535

9. Pittsburgh 14,131 10,742 20,472 45,345

10. Denver 13,485 9,639 17,591 40,715

11. San Antonio 9,212 6,314 24,573 40,099

12. Richmond 13,161 10,266 16,167 39,594

13. Sioux City 7,954 7,262 23,238 38,454

14. Atlanta 7,955 3,119 25,931 37,005

15. Omaha 8,871 6,779 18,751 34,401

16. Montgomery 14,133 4,002 11,969 30,104

Totals 383,864 264,063 547,310 1,195,237

Methods and cost of marketing. — G. E. Wentworth, superintend-
ent of the horse market at the Union Stock Yards, Chicago, states: ^

"Carloads of horses for sale on the Chicago market receive the
best handling when consigned to reliable commission men. They can
be sold privately or at auction. The usual custom is for the shipper
to accompany his horses, arriving at the market on Friday or Saturday,
selling as many at retail as he can on Saturday and Sunday morning
up until 10 o'clock, which is when the Chicago market closes on Sunday,
putting the rest of his horses into the auction on Monday or Tuesday.
The shipper gets his position in the auction according to the order in
which the horses are removed from the cars.

"The feed rates on the Chicago market are at present $1.25 for
the first day and $1 for each succeeding day per horse. The commis-
sion for selling is $3 a horse. Nearly all the shippers find it advanta-
geous to employ a "swipe" to put their horses in condition. They all
braid and sack their horses' tails before going into the auction, as it
makes them look more attractive. Some horses are sold shod and some

1 Breeder's Gazette, Feb. 22, 1923, p. 258.
477

478 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

unshod. The shoeing rates in Chicago are $1 per shoe, at present.
Exclusive of the freight, shippers tell me that their expenses can be
figured to average at least $8 a horse in Chicago."

Auction rules. ' — At the large horse markets, horses are sold at
auction under certain rules which are well known and understood by
all horsemen who buy or sell at these markets. As the horse comes
into the auction ring, a clerk on the auctioneer's stand displays a pla-
card on which appears in large letters the rule under which the animal
will be sold, such as "Sound," "Serviceably sound," "At the halter,"
etc. The rule under which the horse is sold is a guarantee made by
the seller to the buyer. The buyer has until noon of the following day
to refuse the horse, if upon examination and trial he finds that the
animal is not as represented.

The definitions of the principal rules which govern the sale of
horses are given below. Exceptions to these rules may be announced
from the auction stand, pointing out the defects, in which case they
are recorded and go with the horse.

1. Sound. — Perfectly sound in every way.

2. Serviceably sound. — Virtually a sound animal, barring slight
blemishes which do not interfere with his usefulness in any way. His
wind and eyes must be good, but a spot or streak in the eye which does
not affect the sight will be considered serviceably sound as long as the
pupil of the eye is good. He must not be lame or sore in any way.

3. Wind and work. — The only guarantee this carries with it is
that the animal has good wind and is a good worker.

4. Work only. — He must be a good worker, but everything else
goes with him. No other guarantee than to work,

5. Legs go. — Everything that is on the animal's legs goes with
him; nothing is guaranteed except that he must not be lame or crampy.
He must, however, be serviceably sound in every other respect.

6. At the halter. — Sold just as he stands without any recommenda-
tions. He may be lame, vicious, balky, a kicker, or anything else.
The purchaser takes all the risk. The title only is guaranteed.

Market requirements. — The factors that determine how well
horses sell upon the market are soundness, conformation, quality, con-
dition, action, age, color, training, and style. These, together with
some minor considerations, are discussed below.

Soundness. — The market demands that a horse be serviceably
sound, by which is meant one that is as good as a sound horse so far
as service is concerned. He may have slight blemishes, but nothing

1 Illinois Bulletin 122, Market Classes and Grades of Horses and Mules, by R. C.
Obrecht, has been used as the basis for much of this chapter and Chapter XXXIX.
The student will find it well worth while to refer to this bulletin, especially for the
excellent illustrations which it contains.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

479

that is likely to cause lameness or soreness. He must be good in wind
and eyes, but may have small splints and puffs, and a little rounding
on the curb joint. Broken wind; thick wind ; sidebones; unsound hocks
such as curbs, spavins, and thoroughpins; large splints; and buck knees
are discriminated against.

Conformation. — If a horse is to do hard work, with a minimum of
wear, and give the longest possible period of service, he must possess
a conformation indicative of strength, endurance, and longevity, the
indications of which are good feet, a good constitution, good feeding
qualities, good bone, and symmetry of conformation. Conformation
has been discussed fully in connection with the various types described
in preceding chapters, and no further discussion is necessary here.

Fig. 183. — Horse market at the Union Stock Yards, Chicago. Uindmg and
trying-out horses immediately after purchase. If the horse is found to be not as
represented at time of sale, the buyer has the privilege of returning him to the seller.

Quality in a horse is of great importance, as has already been
emphasized. A horse lacking in quality is a comparatively cheap
animal.

Condition. — To be appreciated on the market, a horse must be fat
and possess a good coat of hair, which gives him a sleek appearance.
Condition is most important in draft, chunk, and wagon horses. When
a green horse goes to the city, he loses weight during the first few weeks
until he becomes used to the new conditions, and it is a decided advan-
tage if he enters city work carrying a high finish. When a horse is
fed to a high state of fatness it invariably improves his spirit and style,
as well as his form and weight. In some individuals, fat covers many
faults. The man who sends his horse to market in finished form is
offering the animal in most attractive condition. Condition is a very
important item of value on the horse market.

480 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Action has been fully discussed in preceding chapters. We have
seen that the requirements vary according to the type of horse, and that
action is always a very important item of value, in some instances being
as important a factor as any in determining the value of the horse.

Age. — Horses sell best from five to eight years old. Heavy horses,
such as drafters and chunks, sell best from five to seven years old, but
a well-matured four-year-old in good condition will find ready sale.
Carriage, saddle, and road horses sell better with a little more age,
because they do not mature so early and their education is not com-
pleted as soon as that of heavy horses. They are most desired from
five to eight years old.

Color. — As a rule, the color of horses is of secondary importance,
provided they possess individual excellence. Previous discussions of
the various types have shown that color is of more importance in
pleasure horses than in those used for business and utility purposes.

Training and disposition. — Every class calls for a horse of good
disposition and well educated for his work. Mere "greenness" in a
drafter, however, does not affect the price much if he is free from vice
and bad habits, but carriage and saddle horses must be thoroughly
schooled in order to realize good values.

Sex is not of great importance in the market. However, geldings
sell better than mares for city use, as there is some liability of mares
being in foal, and if not, the recurrence of heat is objectionable. For
farm use and southern trade, mares are preferred, because farmers buy
horses with the expectation of breeding them.

The breed to which a horse belongs has but little or no influence
upon his market value as long as he has individual excellence.

Style and freshness.— If able to shape themselves well in harness,
very plain horses often make a stylish showing, and this increases their
value materially. They should be spirited and energetic, which gener-
ally comes from being well fed. They should be well groomed, the
hair being short and sleek, lying close to the body, and possessing a
luster which indicates health. Clipping of the foretop and legs should
not be practiced in the case of heavy horses, as it is an indication of
staleness or second-hand horses. The presence of the foretop and
feather leaves no doubt as to freshness from the country. The feet
should be in good condition and of a good length hoof, which is neces-
sary to hold a shoe.

Breeders make no real effort to supply some of the market classes
of horses, either because the demand is very limited or the price too
small. Such classes are supplied by careless breeding, by the mixing
of types, and by the misfits which result even when the breeding of
horses is conducted as carefully as possible.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

48i

The classification outlined below includes not only those classes
of horses which are regular commodities on the large horse markets,
but also other classes which are only to be had from certain dealers
and breeders who cater to an exclusive trade not represented at the
large markets:

General class

DRAFT HORSES.

CHUNKS

Height
Hands

Weight
Pounds

Class

f Heavy Draft 16 to 17-2 1,750 to 2,200

JLight Draft 15-3 to 16-2 1,600 to 1,750

[Loggers 16-1 to 17-2 1,700 to 2,200

WAGON HORSES

carriage HORSES.

ROAD HORSES

SADDLE HORSES.

1,300 to 1,550

1,200 to 1,400

800 to 1,250

1,350 to 1,500
1,100 to 1,400
1,150 to 1,300
1,400 to 1,700
1,200 to 1,700

1,100 to 1,250

900 to 1,150

1,000 to 1,150

1,050 to 1,200

900 to 1,050
900 to 1,150

900 to 1,200
900 to 1,200
1,000 to 1,250
950 to 1,200
850 to 1,000

Eastern Chunks 15 to 16

Farm Chunks 15 to 15-3

Southern Chunks 15 to 15-3

Expressers 15-3 to 16-2

Delivery Wagon 15 to 16

Light Artillery 15-2 to 16

Heavv Artillery 16 to 17

Fire Horses 15 to 17-2

fCoach Horses 15-1 to 16-1

I Cobs. 14-1 to 15-1

I Park Horses 15 to 15-3

[Cab Horses 15-2 to 16-1

/Runabout 14-3 to 15-2

\Roadsters 15 to 16

f Five-Gaited Saddler. ... 15 to 16
iThree-Gaited Saddler. . .14-3 to 16

■j Hunters 15-2 to 16-1

Cavalry Horses 15 to 16

[Polo Ponies 14 to 14-2

f Feeders

1 Range Horses
Ponies
Plugs
Weeds

Draft Horses

A full description of draft type has already been presented, so
that it is only necessary to mention here the chief distinctions between
the three market classes. Heavy Draft, Light Draft, and Loggers.

Heavy drafters are the heavier weights of the draft class; they
stand from 16 to 17-2 hands high, and weigh from 1,750 to 2,200
pounds.

The light drafter is similar in type to the heavy drafter, but is
smaller; they stand from 15-3 to 16-2 hands, and weigh from 1,600 to
1,750 pounds. While 15-3 hands is accepted as the minimum height
for light drafters, it should be understood that a 15-3-hand horse is
less desirable than a taller horse, and he borders closely on the class
known as eastern chunks.

Loggers are horses of draft t3T)e that are bought for use in the
lumbering woods. This trade demands comparatively cheap horses,

MISCELLANEOUS.

482

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

yet wants them big and strong. Because of the prices paid, the trade
is usually compelled to take the plainer, rougher horses of the heavy
draft class, and some are slightly blemished or unsound, such as "off
in the wind," small sidebones, curbs, wire marks, etc. Loggers should
stand from 16-1 to 17-2 hands, and weigh from 1,700 to 2,200 pounds.

Chunks

The term "chunk" is significant of the conformation of most of
the horses in this group. Chunks are of three classes. Eastern, Farm,
and Southern.

Eastern chunks. — At one time this class was known as Boston
chunks, but as the trade has widened to other cities they are known

Fig. 184. — Eastern chunk.

by the general name of eastern chunks. They are most generally
used in pairs or three abreast to do the same work as draft horses; but
may be used in pairs, in a four-in-hand, or in a six-in-hand team. The
eastern chunk may be briefly and accurately described as a horse of
draft horse type in all respects except size and weight. He is, then, a
little drafter. He is usually a little more low set and compact than
the true drafter. He stands from 15 to 16 hands high, usually not
over 15-3, and weighs from 1,300 to 1,550 pounds, depending upon
size and condition. Being required to do his work mostly at the walk,
his action should be similar to that of the draft horse.

Farm chunks. — Horses of this class may be found on the market
at all seasons of the year, but during the spring months they form an

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 483

important feature of the trade. They are bought to be used on the
farm, and are in most urgent need during the season when crops are
being planted. They are usually of mixed breeding, draft blood pre-
dominating, and are commonly known among farmers as "general-pur-
pose" animals. Mares are more generally taken than geldings. For
this class, low-set, compact horses are wanted, not so heavy as the
eastern chunks. Farm chunks are usually lighter in bone, and often
slightly blemished or unsound. In general, the typical farm chunk
should be a moderate-sized, all-round good individual, standing from
15 to 15-3 hands high, and weighing from 1,200 to 1,400 pounds. Being
lighter horses than the eastern chunks, they should be a little quicker
and more active. The varied use to which horses are put on farms
requires ability to trot readily if necessary. However, since the walk
is their most important gait, they should be good walkers and do it
with ease and rapidity.

Southern chunks. — In some markets these are termed "southern
horses," or "southerns." They are small horses that are taken by
dealers to large southern cities and sold to southern planters for tilling
their lands and for driving and riding. The southern farmer does not
cultivate deeply, and the soils are light, consequently he does not re-
quire very large horses. However, each year the trend of the market
is for larger horses for this trade. Southern chunks are small horses
standing from 15 to 15-3 hands high, and weighing from 800 to 1,250
pounds. They are rather fine of bone, possessing an abundance of
quality, and are more rangy in conformation than any of the other
chunks, having more of the light horse blood. Many of them are
similar to the cheaper horses used on the light delivery wagons of cities.
They should have good action. The southern chunk is comparatively
a cheap horse.

Wagon Horses

These are horses useful for quick delivery. The demand is from
cities and towns. They must be closely coupled, compactly built,
with plenty of constitution and stamina. They must be good actors,
have a good, clean set of legs, with plenty of bone and quality, and a
good foot that will stand the wear of paved streets. The classes are
Express Horses, Delivery Wagon Horses, Light Artillery Horses,
Heavy Artillery Horses, and Fire Horses. Their breeding is a mixture
of draft and light bloods. They are neither light nor heavy horses,
but may be termed middle-weights.

Express horses are used by express companies to collect and
deliver goods to and from railroad stations. Different companies use
horses of slightly different size and weight. For instance, if the busi-

484 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

ness of a company is centrally located in a city, and depots are not far
apart, they use larger horses and load heavier; if the business is done
in the outlying parts of a city, and the depots are a considerable distance
apart, lighter horses with more action are wanted. They are used
singly or in pairs, and the size of the horse will depend on the weight
of the wagon. The lightest ones are called "money horses," as they
are hitched to the lightest wagons to deliver valuables, this kind of
work demanding quick service.

The typical expresser is rather upstanding, deep bodied, and
closely coupled, with good bone and an abundance of quality, energy,
and spirit. He should stand from 15-3 to 16-2 hands high, and weigh
from 1,350 to 1,500 pounds in good flesh; the average express horse is

Fig. 185. — Express horse. This horse was purchased by the American Rail-
way Express Company as a six-year-old in 1909. When photographed in March,
1922, he had been in steady service on city streets for 13 years, weighed 1,525 pounds,
and stood 16 hands high.

16 to 16-1 hands high, and weighs around 1,400 pounds in working
condition. His head should be neat, his neck of good length, and his
crest well developed. His shoulder should be obliquely set, coupled
with a short, well muscled back and a strong loin. His croup should
be broad, rounding, and well muscled, his quarters deep, and thighs
broad. He should not be goose rumped, nor cut up in the flank. His
underpinning should be of the very best, his cannons broad and clean,
and his hoofs of a dense, tough horn.

The express horse is required to do his work both at the walk and
trot, the latter being the principal gait. He should be quick and

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 485

active, and should keep his feet well under him and throw enough
weight into the collar to move a heavy load at the walk, or a lighter
load at the trot. As in the previous classes, he should be a straight-
line mover, with possibly a little more knee and hock action.

Delivery wagon horses are not as large as expressers, and not as
high-grade animals; most mercantile firms are not such liberal buyers
as the express companies, and consequently they get a cheaper grade
of horses. However, this is not always true, as some of the large
department stores, whose deliveries serve as an advertisement, will pay
more for the very best than express companies, thus getting very choice
animals. The conformation requirements are practically the same as
for express horses, except they are not quite so large, standing from 15

Fig. 186. — Light artillery horse.

to 16 hands, and weighing from 1,100 to 1,400 pounds. The action
requirements are the same as for express horses, though some are not
as good actors. The demand for delivery wagon horses comes from
all kinds of retail and wholesale mercantile houses, such as meat shops,
milk houses, grocery houses, dry goods firms, and hardware merchants,
for use on light wagons for parcel delivery. Some of the coarser,
rougher ones are used on the huckster wagons, junk wagons, sand
wagons, and by contractors for cellar excavating, street cleaning, rail-
road grading, or almost any kind of rough, heavy work.

Light artillery horses conform rather closely to the better grades
of delivery wagon horses of the same weight. The following specifica-
tions, prepared under the direction of the Quartermaster General of
the U. S, War Department, clearly set forth the requirements.

486

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

"The artillery horse for light and horse batteries must be sound,
well bred, of a superior class, and have quality; of a kind disposition,
well broken to harness, and gentle under the saddle, with easy mouth
and gaits, and free and prompt action at the walk, trot, and gallop;
free from vicious habits; and otherwise to conform to the following
description: A gelding of specified color (no white or gray horses will
be accepted), and in good condition, from 5 to 8 years old at time of
purchase; height from 15-2 to 16 hands; weight from 1,150 to 1,300
pounds, depending on height. Horses otherwise satisfactory which
fall short of, or exceed, these limits of weight by not more than 50
pounds, due to temporary conditions, may be accepted.

i^^?<*ii M^~

«^^^^

ijyEjj^K 1 f

Fig. 187. — Heavy artillery horses.

"The artillery horse for light and horse batteries is required for
quick draft purposes, and should be heavy enough to move the carriage
ordinarily by weight thrown into the collar rather than by muscular
exertion. Long-legged, loose-jointed, long-bodied, narrow-chested,
coarse, and cold-blooded horses, as well as those which are restive,
vicious, or too free in harness, will be rejected."

Heavy artillery horses.— The U. S. Army specifications for artillery
horses for siege batteries are as follows:

"A gelding conforming to the above specifications for horses for
light and horse batteries, except that the animal should be from 16 to
17 hands high, and weigh from 1,400 to 1,700 pounds, depending on

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

487

height. A smart, active, draft horse, with plenty of bone and sub-
stance, and enough quality to insure staying power in fairly fast work,
is required for this service."

The work of the heavy artillery horse is much heavier and slower
than that of the light artillery horse, and the type demanded in the
horse is quite different. Here it is a question of power rather than of
speed, and the heavy artillery horse is in fact a light draft horse, though
some fall somewhat short of the weight desired in light drafters. Heavy
artillery horses might properly be classed with draft or chunk horses,
but for convenience are included in the same general class as the light
artillery horses.

The demand for artillery horses is rather spasmodic, at some times
being much greater than at others. Contracts are given to the lowest
responsible bidder to supply them in large numbers at a specified time.

Fig. 188.— Fire horses.

Because of the rigid examination and requirements of official inspectors,
some men have lost money in filling contracts. ^

The fire horse is more rangy in conformation than the expresser,
he being required to throw weight into the collar and often to take
long runs. The requirements are very rigid, as will be seen by the
specifications set forth by Peter F. Quinn, former superintendent of
horses of the Chicago Fire Department:

"The work required of a horse best suited to fire department
services necessitates almost human intelligence. Such a horse must
not only be well bred, sound in every particular, quick to observe,
prompt and willing to respond to every call, but as well, ambitious to

'During the World War, or from 1914 to 1918 inclusive, the United States
exported 1,054,000 horses, valued at $219,459,000, and 357,255 mules, valued at
$70,926,000.

488 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

discharge his numerous and unusual duties under constantly differing
surroundings. In selecting, the first requisites are tractability, good
feet and legs, with bone and hoof of the best texture, a short, strong
back, and well-proportioned fore and hindquarters, well covered with
firm, elastic muscles. For heavy engine companies and heavy hook-
and-ladder trucks, a gelding of uniform and hardy color, in good condi-
tion, from 5 to 7 years old, standing 16 to 17-2 hands, and weighing
from 1,500 to 1,700 pounds should be selected. Hose-carriage horses,
same age; weight from 1,200 to 1,400 pounds; height, 15 to 16-2 hands."
The demand for fire horses is very limited, coming from fire com-
panies of cities. There are usually enough horses in the general supply
to meet the demand.

Carriage Horses

The chapter dealing with carriage horse type presents a detailed
description of the general class known as carriage horses, and while
this general class is subdivided into four classes known as Coach, Cob,
Park, and Cab Horses, nevertheless the differences between them relate
mostly to size and weight, and much the same conformation, style,
and action is desired in each of them.

Coach horses may be described as carriage horses of large size.
They should stand from 15-1 to 16-1 hands high, and weigh from 1,100
to 1,250 pounds. The weight is not so important as the size. The
essential thing is to get a horse that looks right before the large, heavy
vehicle to which he is hitched, such as the park drag, body break,
road coach, and brougham. A hearse requires black horses from 15-3
to 16-1 hands high, weighing, 1,200 to 1,250, and without white mark-
ings. White horses are also used to some extent by undertakers.

Cobs differ from coach horses in size and in the use to which they
are put. They are driven singly, in pairs, or tandem. Cobs stand
from 14-1 to 15-1 hands high, and weigh from 900 to 1,150 pounds.
The strongest demand comes for horses 14-3 to 15 hands high, and
weighing from 1,000 to 1,100 pounds. Being essentially a lady's horse,
solid colors are wanted, without flash markings. They are usually
hitched to a light brougham or phaeton.

The park horse, sometimes called the gig horse, is a carriage horse
of medium size, and he is a higher-priced horse than either the coach
or cob horse. He has the same conformation and action as they, and
there may be no difference in size and weight, but his conformation is
more perfect, his action higher and more sensational, and his style and
elegance more outstanding. Park horses are hitched to a cart or gig,
or may be driven tandem to the latter vehicle. They are also driven
in pairs before mail phaetons and victorias. The limits for height and

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

489

weight are 15 to 15-3 hands and from 1,000 to 1,150 pounds, the most
desirable height being 15-1 to 15-2 hands, and the weight from 1,000
to 1,100 pounds.

The cab horse is a comparatively cheap horse, and the require-
ments are not so rigid as for coach, cob, or park horses. They are
used on cabs, coupes, hansoms, and other vehicles for public service
in cities. They are much the same type as the coach horse, in fact
many of them are the discarded and lower grades of the coach class.
Cab horses stand from 15-2 to 16-1 hands high, and weigh from 1,050
to 1,200 pounds. The demand comes from livery and transfer com-
panies.

Fig. 189.— Runabout horse.

Road Horses

This class includes Runabout Horses and Roadsters. Runabout
horses occupy an intermediate place between typical roadsters and
carriage horses, but on account of their action, conformation, and the
use to which they are put, they may be more properly classed as road
horses.

The runabout horse is a rather short-legged horse, standing from
14-3 to 15-2 hands high, and weighing from 900 to 1,050 pounds. His
head should be neat, ear fine, eye large and mild, neck of good length
and trim at the throttle. The neck should be of medium weight, not
quite so heavy as that of the coach horse, and not so light and thin
as that of the roadster. The shoulder should be obliquely set, the
withers high and thin, the back short, well muscled, and closely coupled

490 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

to the hips by a short, broad loin. The barrel should be deep and
round, the ribs well sprung, and the chest deep; the croup should be
long and the hips nicely rounded. The legs should be well placed and
heavily muscled, the bone broad and clean, and the pasterns of good
length and obliquely set, joined to well-shaped feet. The runabout
horse is not quite so stockily built as the cob, being not so heavy in
neck and crest, not so full made and rotund in body, and not so heavy
in quarters. The action is more moderate than that of a cob; he does
not need to be as high an actor, but should have more speed. The
action should be bold, frictionless, and straight, such as is conducive
to speed and beauty of form.

The demand for runabout horses is for single drivers. They are
used in cities and elsewhere on runabouts and driving wagons. They
are of more or less mixed breeding, Standardbred breeding predominat-
ing.

Roadsters. — The chapter dealing with light-harness or roadster
type sets forth the requirements for roadsters in form, action, and speed,
and discusses the uses to which they are put. No further discussion
is needed here.

Saddle Horses

The saddle horse group includes the five classes known as Five-
Gaited Saddlers, Three-Gaited Saddlers, Hunters, Cavalry Horses, and
Polo Ponies. All of these except the cavalry horse have received full
consideration under the subject of types of horses in preceding chapters.

Cavalry horses. — The Quartermaster General of the War Depart-
ment has sent out the following specifications as the requirements for
an American cavalry horse:

"Each horse will be subjected to a rigid inspection and any animal
that does not meet with the requirements should be rejected. No
white or gray horses will be accepted. The mature horse must be
sound, well bred, of a superior class, and have quality; gentle and of a
kind disposition; well broken to the saddle, with light and elastic mouth,
easy gaits, and free and prompt action at the walk, trot, and gallop;
free from vicious habits; and otherwise to conform to the following
description: A gelding of specified color, in good condition, from 5 to
8 years old at time of purchase; weighing from 950 to 1,200 pounds,
depending on height, which should be from 15 to 16 hands."

Cavalry remounts for the U. S. War Department are purchased as
needed through contract orders, the contract being let to the lowest
responsible bidder. In filling orders, dealers are often obliged to edu-
cate many of the recruits to the saddle, in order to meet the specific
requirements.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 491

Miscellaneous Horses

Feeders are horses thin in flesh which are purchased to be put in
condition and resold. They may belong to any of the above classes,
but the practice is more generally applied to draft horses, chunks, and
wagon horses. The old adage, "a little fat covers a multitude of
defects," is still true; the value of flesh when put on thin horses can
hardly be appreciated, unless one has seen them fleshed and placed
again on the market.

Range horses. — During certain seasons of the year, there may be
found on the mafket horses bred and reared on the range, commonly
known as "range horses." They are divided into two general classes,
light and heavy^ according to the predominance of light or draft horse

Fig. 190.— Cavalry horse.

blood. For the sale ring, each of these classes is divided into carlots
as follows: "colts," meaning weanlings; "ones," the yearlings; "twos,"
the two-year-olds; "dry stuff," the three-year-olds and over, those not
suckling foals; and "mares and colts," the brood mares with foals at
foot. In the auction ring, the price is stated per head and the buyer
takes the entire lot. Most of the range horses find their way to the
country, where they are usually broken; when educated, they may be
returned to the market and may fill the demand for some of the com-
mercial classes.

Ponies of various grades and breeding are frequently found on the
market, and are usually bought for the use of children and ladies. The
characteristics distinguishing ponies from horses are not easily de-
scribed. The principal distinguishing feature is that of height, a pony

492 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

being 14 hands or under. But there are dwarf horses that do not have
pony blood or characteristics that come within these limits. Other
pony characteristics are a deep body with rounding barrel, heavily
muscled thighs and quarters, croup not drooping, and width well
carried out, all of which the small horse does not usually possess. The
neck is often short and heavy, though this is not a desirable quality.
Ponies are essentially children's horses, and they must be kind and
gentle in disposition, with as much spirit as is compatible for their use.
There are no special requirements for weight, the limits being quite
wide. They should be straight-line movers, and the more knee and
hock action they possess, the higher prices they will bring, other things
being equal. The Indian pony, or "cayuse ' as he is sometimes called,

Fig. 191. — High-class pony. King Larigo, champion Shetland pony stallion at
a large number of the leading shows in recent years. Owned by George A. Heyl,
Washington, 111.

is larger; he is a descendant of the native range stock, and is classed
on the market as a range pony.

Plugs are worn-out, decrepit horses with but little value. This
class is too well known to need description.

Weeds are leggy and ill-proportioned horses lacking in the essen-
tial qualities, such as constitution and substance. They have little
value for service of any kind.

Prices for Horses at Chicago
Prices of the various classes compared. — Prices during 1922 aver-
aged as follows upon the Chicago market, figures for preceding years
being given for comparison : ^

'Drovers Journal Year Books of Figures.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 493

Class 1922 1921 1920 1915 1913

Draft horses $175 $185 $200 $203 $213

Farm chunks 90 90 100 88 98

Express horses 150 160 170 175 185

Delivery wagon horses 135 140 155 175 175

Carriage horses (pairs) ( M ( ' ) (' ) 473 493

Drivers (M 135 145 164 174

Saddle horses, medium quality 135 145 165 175 184

Saddle horses, good to choice 275 280 290 290 295

' No report.

The above is a rather incomplete report, but it is all that is avail-
able. The total value of all horses received at Chicago in 1922 was
$4,753,350, and their average value was $150. The average was $185
in 1917, $180 in 1916, $180 in 1915, $183 in 1914, $188 in 1913, and
$179 in 1912. In connection with these figures it should be remem-
bered that many of the best loads of horses from the corn belt are taken
directly to the eastern cities for sale, being gathered by country buyers
who consign them to eastern dealers.

CHAPTER XXXVII

HORSE BREEDING

The following figures reported by the U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture show the rank of the leading countries in numbers of horses:

Numbers of horses in leading countries

Country Year Total horses

1. Russia 1921 23,670,000

2. United States 1923 20,559,000 »

3. Siberia 1913 11,959,000

4. Argentina 1920 9,293,000

5. Brazil 1916 6,065,000

6. Canada 1921 3,814,000

7. Germany 1921 3,683,000

8. Poland 1921 3,187,000

9. France 1920 2,542,000

10. Australia 1920 2,414,000

11. India 1920 1,976,000

12. Great Britain 1921 1,903,000

World total 100,524,000 ^

1 Includes the estimated number on farms on January 1, 1923, and 1,706,000 not on farms as re-
ported by the 1920 census.

2U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, p. 680. Includes 3,825,000 designated as "horses, mules, and
asses," or "mules and asses," or "horses and mules."

The distribution of horses in the United States is shown by the
numbers in the leading states and in the various geographical divisions,
as estimated by the U. S. Department of Agriculture:

Leading states in numbers of horses on farms, January 1, 1923

Average Average

State Number value State Number value

1. Iowa 1,305,000 $79.00 6. Minnesota 887,000 $77.00

2. Illinois 1,183,000 70.00 7. Missouri 870,000 52.00

3. Kansas 1,019,000 45.00 8. North Dakota 797,000 56.00

4. Texas 971,000 53.00 9. Ohio 771,000 93.00

5. Nebraska 901,000 58.00 10. South Dakota 760,000 52.00

The estimated average value of all horses in the United States
on January 1, 1923, was $69.75.

Distribution of horses on farms by geographical divisions on January 1, 1923

Division Number

North Atlantic Division 1,389,000

South Atlantic Division 966,000

North Central, East of Mississippi River 3,887,000

North Central, West of Mississippi River 6,539,000

South Central Division 3,127,000

Far Western Division 2,945,000

Total 18,853,000

494

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

495

The number of horses "not on farms" in the United States declined
from 3,183,000 on April 15, 1910, to 1,706,000 on January 1, 1920, as
reported by the census.

Average life of work horse.— The Horse Association of America ^
estimates as a result of its investigations that horses and mules on
farms, going into service as three-year-olds, have an average period of
service of 12 years. Horses and mules not on farms (horses used in
cities and towns, and by lumber men, mine owners, contractors, etc.),
going into service as six-year-olds, are estimated to remain in service
for an average of 9 years. For all horses and mules that reach working
age, the average duration of life is therefore 15 years. The Association
also reports that the death rate in young stock "between the time they

HORSES

~»-_ NU

MBER JAN 1

1920

£»CM

DOT REPBFSENTS
iOOOMEAO

m N

Sr^^l

r^^

r--* j4

/ ••■^ i

ni" * "

^Xf^^'T^

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.^ f

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Fig. 192. — Distribution of horses two years old or over in the United States.

are 6 to 8 months old and the time they are 36 months old, is about
5 per cent per year, or a loss of one colt out of each twenty, in their
yearling and two-year-old seasons respectively."

According to these figures, one-twelfth of working animals on
farms and one-ninth of working animals not on farms must be replaced
annually in order to maintain the total number of work animals in
use. Replacement must come from the annual crop of foals. A num-
ber of foals are lost before 6 or 8 months of age, and 10 per cent of the
remainder die before reaching three years of age. The foal crop of a
given year less 10 per cent gives the probable number available at three
years of age to replace losses among work animals. Applying this

1 Leaflet 57, Horse Association of America, Union Stock Yards, Chicago, IH.

496 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

method to the 1920 census figures we find a probable loss of 1,911,727
work animals by death in that year, and a probable replacement from
the foals of 1919 of only 1,428,764 head, leaving a deficit of 482,963
head.

Horse production on the small farm. — The advantages of intensive
farming have been widely discussed for a number of years. Intensive
farming is farming on a small scale, but doing it perfectly, hence
realizing the largest possible return on a moderate investment. Horse
production on a small scale, as discussed here, is similar to intensive
farming. It means the ownership of one or two pairs of high-class
brood mares, preferably purebreds, which are used to do part or all of
the farm work, and which are given the very best care and attention.
They are bred only to high-class stallions of the same breed as them-
selves, and during pregnancy they are well cared for, well fed, and not
overworked. The foals are given the best of care and are carefully
trained, being halter broken as early as possible and made gentle by
proper handling. They are kept growing after they are weaned, and
in due time are carefully and thoroughly educated in harness or under
saddle, as the case may be. This is intensive horse production.

Intensive horse raising therefore means keeping a few extra-good
brood mares, and each year producing a few extra-good foals which
may be grown out by the breeder or sold as weanlings or yearlings to
be developed by someone else. The first costs under this plan are not
necessarily less than where a large number of the average kind of brood
mares are kept. Good brood mares cost considerable, but they are
the only kind on which large profits may be made. If this plan seems
impracticable because purebred mares are expensive, why not reach
the same end by buying a weanling or yearling filly of the desired breed,
growing out this filly to breeding age, and retaining her best filly fcals
for breeding purposes? In this way, given a few years' time, it is
easily possible to get on an intensive footing with as many mares as
are required.

We have had enough of the average kind of horse production in
this country; in fact, far too much of it. It has been demonstrated
beyond all doubt that it pays much better to keep a few extra-good
brood mares and raise carefully a few good foals, than it does to keep
a lot of cheap mares and produce a lot of cheap horses, without feed
enough to give any of them a fair chance.

The writer once visited a farm where he was shown a sixteen-year-
old grade draft mare of good type and individuality. On the same
farm were five good mares, all out of the aged mare mentioned. Other
of her numerous offspring had been sold at good prices. The mare had
made the farmer money and was still making it, for at the time of this

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

497

visit she had a fine filly foal by her side. But the owner was not
satisfied. "Think how much more money I would have made," said
he, "if I had begun with a registered purebred mare. If the old mare
had been purebred and registered, the value of every one of her foals
would have been easily doubled, and it wouldn't have cost a cent
more to raise them." The lesson to the young breeder is clear,^start
right, even if it means starting slowly by buying one young registered
filly, and from her building up a breeding stud of fine mares.

The farms of the Middle West and East are well adapted to the
intensive plan of horse production, because most of the farms are not

Fig. 193.— Excellent type in the draft stallion. Fyvie Baiui., ^i^unpion
Clydesdale stallion at the International, owned by Conyngham Brothers, Wilkes-
barre. Pa. Note his masculinity, quality, style, correct position of legs, nice pas-
terns, and good feet.

large, and usually the teaming is done by the owner himself, or by one
or two hands who are always under close observation. On big farms,
with incompetent and everchanging help, if valuable brood mares are
kept, they are liable to be injured if used to do the farm work. The
plan should call for working the brood mares, but not working them
as hard as geldings or mules. Let them earn their board, and board
them well. They may be worked well up to foaling time if care is
taken not to back them to a heavy load, or put them to a hard strain.

498 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Mares have been hurriedly unhitched and unharnessed while cultivat-
ing corn or doing some other moderate work, and have foaled thrifty,
well-developed foals, the equal of any. But such mares have been
well fed and cared for during pregnancy, and they should be given as
long a vacation on pasture after foaling as the farm work will permit.
The most profitable horse breeding in France, Belgium, England,
Scotland, and America is done on the intensive plan, on farms of moder-
ate or small size, by farmers who are good practical horsemen with a

Fig. 194. — The Percheron stallion Jalap, owned by Iowa State College. He
has a superb head, neck, and shoulder, an evenly moulded top, faultless coupling,
well-placed legs, and large clean bone and joints. A very masculine type with style
and quality; a highly successful sire.

taste for doing things well. There is ample room in the United States
for much more horse raising on this plan, and we have always had too
many inferior mares, too many cheap stallions, and too many cheap
horses hunting buyers.

Choosing a type to breed. — What type of horse shall the farmer
breed? The answer depends upon how much capital is available to

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 499

put into the business, upon the personal qualifications of the breeder,
and also upon his personal preference as to type. To some extent,
the choice will depend upon the location of the farm, and upon the
crops that can be grown. It will ordinarily require more capital to
engage in the breeding of light horses than in the breeding of draft
horses. Light horses especially require more expensive equipment to
accomplish the training and finishing without which they sell at com-
paratively moderate prices. Because of temperament and disposition,
some men are more successful with one type of horse than another.
The man who intends to engage in the breeding of horses should ask
himself the following questions regarding any or all types he may have
under consideration: 1. Am I familiar enough with the type and the
methods of its production to know what I am striving to produce and
how to produce it? 2. Provided I can produce the type successfully,

Fig. 195. — A noted sire and his get. Undefeated Belgian stallion, Farceur,
and eight of his get, all winners. This group includes a number of first prize winners
and champions at the Panama-Pacific Exposition, International, and Iowa State
Fair. All owned by William Crownover, Hudson, Iowa. Farceur was sold in 1917
to C. G. Good, Ogden, Iowa.

how can I dispose of my animals, and what are the chances of realizing
full value for my stock? 3. Are my buildings, fences, land, and crops
adapted to the production of horses, and if not, can I remedy the short-
comings?

Advantage of draft type. — In the majority of cases, the best type
for the farmer to produce is the draft horse. It has many advantages.
The brood mares are much better suited to do the work of the farm
than are any of the light horse types. Practically no special training
is needed to make the drafter ready for market, and he is marketable
at a younger age than is ordinarily true of the types of light horses.
If he is kept free from wire cuts and other blemishes, and is fat and

500 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

well groomed when offered for sale, he should realize full value. The
carriage horse or saddler, on the other hand, requires months of hand-
ling in order to give him a good mouth and develop his action or gaits,
as the case may be. Furthermore, a wire cut or other blemish is much
more serious with these types than with the drafter. They require
more care and attention from birth to selling time, and require a greater
age to finish them for market. It is also true that there are fewer
misfits in breeding draft horses than with any other type of horse, in
other words, results are more certain and sure. The production of
draft horses fits into general farminsr better than the production of

Fig. 196.— The Belgian stallion Farceur's King, a three-year-old son of Farceur
owned by the University of Minnesota. Junior and reserve champion at the Iowa
State Fair and International Belgian Show in 1922. Note the draftiness, quality,
and style of this colt, his good head and neck, round middle, well-set legs, large clean
bone and joints, and good feet.

any of the light horse types. For these various reasons, the draft
horse is of greatest interest to most farmers, and is most frequently
selected by farmers who take up horse breeding.

Light types require greater skill. — Let it be understood, however,
that the foregoing arguments are not intended to discourage the breed-
ing of types other than the drafter. The point is that carriage, saddle,
and roadster horses are more difficult to produce than drafters, and
but few persons, comparatively, are qualified to breed them success-

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 501

fully. The production of light horses requires a higher order of skill
both in breeding and salesmanship than does the production of the
draft horse, and when this is supplied, light horse breeding is a profit-
able enterprise. Hence the selection of the type to breed should be
governed largely by the ability of the man who is to supervise the breed-
ing, provided, of course, he is to work under conditions not unfavorable
to the type he is best qualified to produce.

Perhaps in no other field have so many breeders found themselves
mistaken regarding their abilities as in the breeding of the trotting
horse. This type appeals strongly to the majority of Americans, and
many farmers and others have believed that they knew a safe and sure
system of breeding for speed. Even in the best of hands, the breeding
of trotters is very doubtful as to results, and only a small percentage
of the foals ever attain anything noteworthy on the turf. Speed is an
elusive quality dependent on such a rare combination of good qualities
in the animal as to make results in breeding very uncertain, and it
should be understood that only a few men possess the special qualifica-
tions necessary to success in breeding this type of horse, and that only
the wealthy, who are willing to accept the pleasure and fascination of
the undertaking as partial remuneration for the capital invested, can
ordinarily afford to take up this difficult art. A few men of moderate
means have made a success with trotters by selling yearlmgs as "pros-
pects," to be developed in the hands of someone else, but even this
method is uncertain as to results financially.

Pony breeding offers a good field for profit to those who are in a
position to reach the trade for Shetland, Welsh, or Hackney ponies.
The breeding of polo ponies, however, is as yet a very uncertain under-
taking comparable to breeding trotters.

Selecting a breed. — After the type of horse has been chosen, it is
next in order to decide what breed of that type shall be selected. The
choice of a breed is not so serious or important a matter as the selec-
tion of a type or the selection of the individuals which are to compose
the stud. It will depend largely upon the personal fancy of the breeder,
although in some types of horses in certain localities, one breed may be
so much liked or another breed so much disliked as to make it advisable
for the new breeder to conform to the choice of the community, if it
is possible to do so. He can then profit from the experience and advice
of his neighbors, he will benefit from a greater number of local sales
of his stock, and there will be more stallions to select among when
mating his mares. Communities noted for the production of many
good horses of a certain type or breed attract buyers from a distance.

Selecting the individuals. — We now come to the matter of select-
ing the individuals which are to compose the stud. First of all, they

502

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

must be sound; and this is a matter to which many farmers pay too
Httle attention. Buyers offer the best prices for sound stock, and the
farmer has too frequently sold his young mares that were sound, and
has retained those with sidebones, ringbones, spavins, curbs, etc., for
breeding purposes. This is radically wrong and a very short-sighted
practice. Soundness is of very vital importance in every type of horse,
and especially in animals used for breeding purposes. The individuals
should also be true representatives of the tj^e to which they belong.
Whether or not the brood mares should be purebred depends on the

Fig. 197. — Correct type in the draft mare. Coldham Surprise, champion
Shire mare at the International, owned by George M. McCray, Fithian, 111. Note
her roomy middle, faultless top line, symmetrical form, abundant muscling, and large
bone. She has size, ruggedness, and strength combined with quality and feminine
character.

amount of capital available and on the type of horse selected. If
possible, it is preferable that they be purebred, registered mares. How-
ever, some very profitable work in producing drafters for the market
has been done with good grade draft mares. In such cases, these
mares have shown excellent draft type, even though they were not
eligible to registry. Registered purebred draft mares cost considerably
more to buy, but have the very great advantage of having their foals

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

503

eligible to registry, and hence of greater market value. In breeding
carriage, saddle, and roadster horses, it is essential in most cases that
purebred mares be used.

Well-developed feminine character and a good disposition are fun-
damental qualities in a brood mare, as such mares are usually more
regular breeders, better mothers, and more easily handled and worked
than are mares of masculine appearance or mean, vicious, or highly
nervous disposition. The brood mare should have a long underline,
and a deep, full-made, roomy middle.

Well-developed draft fillies may be bred when two years old;
others should not be bred until three years old. The duration of

Fig. 198.- rercheruM bruud la-.r^c .;. harness aL tiie Ur.ivLrsity uf Illinois.
Prof. J. L. Edmonds states that they are "good, medium-sized mares, 11 and 12 years
old, good workers, and good producers." Tractors cannot compete with these.

pregnancy in mares is quite variable, but averages about 340 days.
A two-year-old stallion may breed 8 or 10 mares in the season, a three-
year-old from 25 to 30, and a four-year-old from 40 to 50. The breed-
ing season lasts from 100 to 115 days, and it is important not to use
the stallion too heavily at any time. A two-year-old may safely be
allowed to cover one mare every five days; a three-year-old, three a
week; a four-year-old, three every two days; and a mature horse should
be limited usually to two covers daily, and perhaps occasionally he
may make three.

504 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

A sound, purebred stallion that is true to type and a good in-
dividual in every way is the only kind worthy of patronage. If there
is no such horse in the community, it will pay to ship the mares a long
distance to reach such a one. If possible, it is always best to patronize
a stallion that has proved himself a sure breeder and a getter of good
foals. There would not be the great number of unsound, mongrel, and
inferior stallions standing for public service if there did not exist a
demand for them on the part of mare owners. There can be only one
explanation so far as the owner of the mare is concerned, and that is
the saving in the amount of the service fee; but no more short-sighted
practice can be followed, it having been demonstrated in almost every
community that the added value of the foal from a high-class stallion,
as compared with the foal by a cheap horse, repays the extra service
fee many times over. It costs little more to raise a good foal than an
inferior one, and the foal by the cheap stallion is not ordinarily a profit-
maker. So many breeders have shown a lack of judgment in this
matter, and horse stocks have deteriorated to such an extent in some
states on account of the large number of mares bred to cheap horses,
that stallion laws have been enacted which debar unsound stallions
from public service, and require that placards be posted on the stable
door telling whether the stallion is a purebred, crossbred, grade, or
mongrel. Every state needs a law of this kind, modified to suit its
needs. ^

Results of careless breeding. — Another evil in need of remedy is
the too common practice of mixing the types of horses. Heavy mares
are mated with trotting stallions in order to produce an animal for
road use, or with no particular idea in the mind of the mare owner
except to "get a colt." Light-weight, light-boned mares, without any
semblance of draft qualities, are mated with draft stallions in the hope
of getting a draft foal, or again simply to "get a colt." The results of
such breeding are to be seen on every hand in the country, and a visit
to any large horse market reveals the fact that a large percentage of
the animals offered for sale are of no particular type or market class,
because they have a variegated ancestry, the result of indiscriminate
crossing of heavy and light horses. One is at a loss sometimes to
know by what method some market offerings were produced. The

iThe 1920 census reported that only 0.6 per cent of the total number of horses
on farms on January 1, 1920, were registered purebreds. This included 94,280
registered purebred draft horses, 10,542 registered purebred light horses, and 16,718
other registered purebred horses, including ponies.

The ten leading states in numbers of registered purebred draft horses were:
Iowa 13,676, Illinois 13,128, Kansas 7,391, Ohio 6,471, North Dakota 5,299, Nebraska
5,098, South Dakota 4,959, Indiana 4,491, Minnesota 4,093, and Montana 3,307.

The five leading states in numbers of registered purebred light horses were:
Kentucky 1,967, Illinois 990, Virginia 687, Missouri 532, and Kansas 477.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

505

result is a lot of cheap horses adapted to no particular work, which net
the producer a loss in most cases and seldom yield a profit. Breeders
must learn to stick to type. The experiences of all successful horse
breeders teach no other lesson more forcibly than this.

Pedigree not always an indication of merit. — In the minds of
many people, the words "purebred," "registered," and "imported"
have a charm much greater than they deserve. Far too often, glaring

Fig. 199. — ^Two-year-old Percheron fillies owned by the University of Illinois.

faults of individuality or even serious unsoundness are passed with
light criticism because the animal in question is eligible to one or more
of these fascinating names. After all, one must conclude that there
is something in a name. It is a fact that some purebred horses are
practically worthless for breeding purposes. If an animal is purebred
and registered, its value is very greatly increased, provided it is a good
individual of useful type; but if the animal is decidedly faulty in con-

506 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

formation, or has serious unsoundness, its pedigree and registration
number are of small account, and the animal is of little or no value for
breeding purposes.

Feed and care. — Every successful breeder is a good feeder and
caretaker, for no matter how excellent the ancestry of a foal may be,
its inherited good qualities cannot reveal themselves unless the foal is
provided with good quarters and plenty of the right feed with which
to build up and grow. Feed and care are fully as important as parent-
age in producing good horses.

Summary. — In conclusion, therefore, follow the intensive rather
than the extensive plan of horse production; select the type to breed
after careful study of the situation; select sound individuals possessing
a high degree of individual excellence; breed to a strictly high-class,
purebred stallion, regardless of the amount of his service fee; if there
is no such stallion in the immediate neighborhood, ship the mares
whatever distance is necessary to reach a high-class horse; patronize a
tried and proven sire if possible; stick to a definite line of breeding— do
not mix the types indiscriminately; raise a class of foals that merit
plenty of good feed and care, and supply the same; be conservative in
your judgment and appreciative of the fact that the breeding of horses
is an enterprise which repays careful study of all departments of the
business.

CHAPTER XXXVITI
THE MULE

The various breeds of the ass belong to one species known as
Equus asinus. The various breeds of the horse belong to a distinct
species known as Equus cahallus. The male ass is called a "jack,"
and the female a "jennet." The cross of a jack on a mare produces
a hybrid known as a "mule." The cross of a stallion on a jennet pro-
duces a hybrid known as a "hinny." Although it is often stated that
the hinny and mule differ in appearance, the hinny tending to be more
like a horse and the mule tending more toward the type of a jack,
there is no difference in type and appearance between them. Very
few hinnies are produced, as jennets are in such demand for producing
jacks that they are seldom bred to stallions. Mules and hinnies do
not breed, being infertile. As the saying goes, "the mule has no pride
of ancestry, and no hope of posterity."

The ass has no foretop and he has a rat-like tail, flat thighs, rather
flat sides, and a long middle. He lacks the full, rounding, short middle,
and full thighs of the horse. He has a longer back and loin and shorter
croup than the horse, and the croup is often drooping. Many are
sickled in hocks and cow hocked. Light quarters and gaskins and
rough hips are common. ^ The feet are smaller and narrower than
those of the horse.

Breeds of jacks. — A number of breeds have been imported to the
United States, including the Catalonian, Poitou, Maltese, Andalusian,
Majorcan, and Italian. American breeders have made various crosses
of these breeds and have developed by selection the so-called American
Jack, which may be considered a distinct breed. Importations of
foreign breeds are no longer made.

American breeders have selected for size, weight, bone, style, action,
constitution, and finish. The present standard calls for 15.2 hands or
over for jacks and 15 hands or over for jennets. Prices up to $5,000
have been paid by American breeders for American-bred jacks. There
is a strong demand for high-class jacks for both jack production and
mule production.

Best type of jack. — The best jack for mule breeding is one having
as much size, weight, and substance as possible, without coarseness.
He should stand 16 hands or over. Very few jacks exceed 16-1 hands

1 Anderson and Hooper: American Jack Stock and Mule Production, Ky. Bui.
212.

507

508 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

and 1,150 pounds. He should be lengthy and wide in form, with a
straight, strong top, deep flanks, a well-shaped head, large and well-
set ears, straight clean legs showing plenty of bone, large clean joints,
feet of good size, shape, and texture, and a rather fine, glossy coat of
hair. He should be active and show considerable style and spirit.
The best color is black with light nose and belly, as a jack of this color
will get the best-colored mules out of mares of all colors. Some jacks
are mouse colored, and some have a mixture of chestnut and white
hairs, producing a red-gray or red color. Gray is fairly common but
disliked because gray jacks sire many gray mules, and gray mules
become white with age and are then hard to sell.

Fig. 200. — Correct type in the jack. Limestone Monarch, a noted prize-
winning jack bred and owned by L. M. Monsees, Pettis County, Mo. Height 15-3
hands, weight 1,212 pounds.

Best mares for mule breeding. — Mares standing 15-3 to 16-1
hands, and showing some evidence of draft blood, yet having good
finish and quality, produce the best mules. These mares weigh from
1,350 to 1,500 pounds. The mare should have a roomy middle and
she should also have large, wide, and good feet.

Hooper and Anderson of the Kentucky Experiment Station ^
state: "It is generally recognized that in the cross of the ass and the

'Ky. Bui. 176, p. 394.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 509

mare the coarser qualities of the ass are dominant over the finer quali-
ties of the mare; that is, the distinctive features of the ass are to be
found in the mule. These appear in the head, ears, mane, legs, tail,
and feet. The mares in most cases are able to modify these distinctive
characteristics but not to suppress them. For example, the foot of
the ass is contracted, and needs to be widened in the mule. * * *
The body of the jack has a tendency to narrowness and angularity.
The big, round, smooth brood mares will add as their complement, size
and smoothness to the mule."

The mule. — Big, heavy mules bring the highest price if they show
smoothness and good quality. The very best stand 16-3 to 17-2 hands
and weigh 1,600 to 1,700 pounds. Few reach 1,800 pounds. Mules
do not weigh as heavy for their height as horses. Mules are judged
by practically the same standards as horses.

The mule and horse compared.^Mules are more sure-footed than
horses, pick their way more carefully, and look out for themselves
better than a horse. Mules are more intelligent than horses, and are
more apt to learn to refuse or avoid hard or unpleasant work. When
a mule gets tangled up in wire or into some other predicament, he
usually stands quietly until released, whereas a horse often becomes
excited and struggles even though he lacerates his legs and body and
punishes himself very severely. Working in shallow passageways in
mines, the small mules used in such work are said to lower their heads
when their ears touch the top of the tunnel, while ponies under similar
conditions throw their heads upward and may injure themselves.
Mules usually accept their lot and plod along at their work without
wasting energy in fretting or nervousness, while worry rather than work
often keeps a horse thin. Mules are less sensitive than horses; they
accept more abuse and rough handling, and get along better under an
incompetent driver. Mules stand hot weather better than horses.
Mules are less subject to digestive troubles and founder. A mule will
not gorge himself as a horse often does if he gets into the feed bin or
has access to too much feed. The mule's foot has a very thick, strong
wall and sole which enables the foot to endure the shock and concussion
on hard pavements particularly well. Mules are less subject to foot
troubles which cause lameness, and their feet are less affected by con-
tinuous shoeing. Mules are usually stabled more cheaply than horses.
They are often kept in sheds or pens in which a number are turned
loose together. Aged and second-hand mules sell better than aged
and second-hand horses. Mules require less veterinary attention and
are less often incapacitated for work than horses. Mules once worked
together as a team are harder to separate than horses. This may be
an advantage, or it may in some cases prove a detriment. Mules are

510 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

more uniform in form and color than horses, and are easier to match
into teams.

Anderson and Hooper state: ^ "The mule holds his place and is
gradually extending his influence as a work animal because he can do
more work, on less feed, and keep in better condition, with less care,
than any breed of horses. He stands the heat well in the South,
resists the flies as the horse cannot, and fits in with the farm labor of
that section much better than any horse."

Sir John Moore, Director of the British Army Veterinary Services
in France, states 2 that 80,524 mules were purchased by the British
government during the South African War, and he estimates that over
250,000 were purchased for the World War, including over 90,000 used
in France alone. He further states: "As a rider, a mule is of little
value; a supreme will and an iron mouth, as a rule, prove the drawback.
* * * Their endurance, their comparative freedom from sickness, their
pluck and stout-heartedness when properly treated, their ability to
perform work in adverse circumstances and when short commons are
necessitated, are their usual attributes; and their employment in war
is a great economic factor." He states that the well-fed mule thrives
on work and quickly gets fat when idle. He states also that in the
Somme operations in 1916, there were 16,074 debility (poor condition)
cases sent to the veterinary hospitals, of which only 404 were mules.
The percentage of inefficiency was 4.42 for horses and 0.61 for mules,
or seven times as many horses as mules in comparison to numbers in
service. In winter they gave far less trouble than horses from skin
disease, and there were practically no cases of respiratory disease
among the mules.

An editorial writer in the Chicago Evening Post ^ states that
though tanks, tractors, airplanes, etc., have displaced time-honored
material of warfare, "the army mule stands fast in his tracks." He
says, "The mule will go on serving until the end of time and will con-
tinue to do little more than to flick an ear when in its awful hollow
there sounds the equally awful language of teamster tradition. The
American army has sworn at the American mule for much more than
a century of time, but it swears by him as often as it swears at him."
Again he says, "The mule is the only muzzle-loader likely to survive
the mutations of time."

On the other hand, the mule has some shortcomings as compared
to the horse. He has not the weight for the heaviest draft work.
Because of the small size of his foot he is more apt to slip on pavements

iKy. Bui. 212, p. 287.

2N. S. Mayo, Cook Co., 111., in the Breeder's Gazette, Nov. 23, 1922.

3 Quoted in the Breeder's Gazette, Apr. 5, 1923, p. 472.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 511

at a hard pull. Furthermore, the mule's habit of pushing directly for-
ward against the collar, instead of crouching and lifting like a draft
horse at a hard pull, also results in slipping on pavements. Mules do
not work well in soft ground. The small foot of the mule does not
bear him up, and he is usually much more timid under these conditions
than is the horse. Mules will avoid a muddy spot or puddle of water
if they can. The wilfulness and trickiness of many mules and their
lack of spirit makes it less of a pleasure to drive the average mule than
the average horse. The mule has a harder mouth. Too often it takes
a gag bit to hold him and a black-snake whip to make him go. Mules

Fig. 2')1. — Prize-winning mules. Champion pair of mules at the Iowa State
Fair, owned by F. L. Hutson and Son, State Center, Iowa. These mules were six
years old and weighed 1,600 and 1,620 pounds. The off mule (on the left of the
picture) was the champion single mule of the show.

are not adapted to use in the artillery, as they are gun-shy, usually
lack speed, and do not respond to commands quick enough. They are
not so dependable as horses in an emergency.

George E. Wentworth, superintendent of the Chicago Union
Stock Yards Horse Market, in an interesting article ^ entitled "Why
Use Adulterated Horses?" discusses the place of the mule in warfare
as follows: "They say the mule can stand more heat, but cavalry

'The Horseman and Spirit of the Times, Aug. 4, 1914.

512

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

regiments in South America, South Africa, Arabia, India, China, or
Morocco are not mounted upon the sure-footed, swift, enduring, and
patient mule. The Cossacks did not pursue Napoleon from Moscow
on the backs of mules, nor did the men of Marion and Sumpter, Stuart
or Sheridan win their victories astride the progeny of a jack. The
Crusaders panoplied in full armor, fought Saladin and his Emirs over
the dry and arid dusty deserts of Palestine mounted upon Norman
and Arabian horses. Armies trust live weight to horses, dead weight
to mules."

Fig. 202. — High-class draft mules at the Uiiii)ii Stock Yards, Chicago.

As mules do not breed, there is no opportunity for profit to the
farmer from this source. The mule's inability to breed is something
of an advantage in the city and in the army, as there is always the
danger of a mare being in foal when she is purchased, and if she is it
causes trouble and annoyance in a city stable or in the army; she must
either be sold or kept idle for a time. From all standpoints, however,
the mule's failure to breed is a detriment as compared to the horse.

The distribution of mules in the United States is shown by the
numbers on farms in the ten leading states and in the different geo-

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 513

graphical divisions on January 1, 1923, as estimated by the U. S.
Department of Agriculture:

Leading states in numbers of mules on farms, January 1, 1923

Average Average

State Number value State Number value

1. Texas 863,000 $80 6. Arkansas 335,000 $73

2. Georgia 390,000 105 7. Alabama 311,000 99

3. Missouri 373,000 63 8. Kansas 307,000 58

4. Tennessee 343,000 84 9. Mississippi 302,000 93

5. Oklahoma 337,000 58 10. Kentucky 287,000 76

Distribution of mules on farms by geographical divisions, January 1, 1923

Division' Number

North Atlantic Division 77,000

South Atlantic Division 1,047,000

North Central, East of Mississippi River 313,000

North Central, West of Mississippi River 927,000

South Central Division 2,954,000

Far Western Division 188,000

Total, United States 5,506,000

The South Atlantic and South Central states, extending from the
western border of Texas to the Atlantic coast, have over 70 per cent
of all the mules in the United States.

No mules were reported on farms on January 1, 1923, in Maine.
New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Con-
necticut. The 1920 census found only 2,367 mules two years old or
over in these six states, including those in use on farms and in cities
and villages.

More mules than horses were reported in 1923 in North Carolina,
South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi,
Louisiana, and Arkansas. Georgia has four times as many mules as
horses.

The average value of mules on farms in the United States in 1923
is reported at $85.86, and the average valuation of horses on farms is
reported at $69.75. In only two states are horses reported at a higher
average value than mules. These are Utah and Wisconsin.

The average value of mules varies widely in different states, due
principally to differences in the average age of the animals. Low
average values are usually due to proportionately large numbers of
mule colts and yearlings.

Countries having the largest numbers of mules are United States
5,506,000, Spain 1,295,000, Argentina 611,000, Italy 497,000, Colombia
203,000, France 181,000, Mexico 133,000, and South Africa 95,000. >
Spain and Peru have more mules than horses.

Production of mules in the United States.— 0. E. Baker of the
U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics states that two-thirds of I lie

'U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1921, pp. 675-680.

514

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

mules produced in the United States are raised in the western and
southern sections of the corn belt, and that the center of mule produc-
tion is about 300 miles south of the center of horse production. He
also states that whereas the number of horses over one year of age on
farms in the United States increased only 6 per cent from 1910 to 1920,
the number of mules increased 33 per cent, and this rate of increase
was almost as great in the North as in the South. ^ It may be added
that while horses "not on farms" in the United States declined 46 per
cent from 1910 to 1920, mules "not on farms" increased 28 per cent.

Assuming that the average life of mules is about 15 years, there
will be a loss each year of 1 out of every 13 mules two years old or over.
Replacements are made from the mule foals raised each year. States

MULES

& cons ANO >t«RLlNCS INCLUDING MULES IN CITIES »ND

NUMBER JAN. t. 1920

VIILAGESI

EACH DOT REPRESENTS

~~y^

'^%^

\6S

^'A'"'' \

W^^

X^-^My-v,

M y^

Fig. 203.— Distribution of mules two years old or over in the United States.

which have 1 mule foal on January 1 to every 13 mules two years old
or over (a ratio of 1:13) probably produce sufficient foals to maintain
their present number of mules. ^ States which produce less than this
proportion of mule foals must buy from other states in order to replace
losses among working mules. States which produce more than this
proportion will have a surplus for sale. Note the ratios in the follow-
ing table of leading mule-using states, based on census returns:

lA Graphic Summary of American Agriculture, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook,
1921, pp. 471,473.

2Xhe census of 1920 reports a ratio of 1:12 for the country as a whole, and this
provides an increase in the number of mules in the United States.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 515

Mules two years old and over on farms in leading slates, January 1, 1920

Ratio
(Number of
State Twos and over Foals twos and over

to one foal)

1. Texas 774,517 35,299 22.1

2. Georgia 399,801 2,141 186.7

3. Arkansas 292,658 14,625 20.0

4. Mississippi 288,971 10,052 28.9

5. Tennessee 287,939 33,217 8.7'

6. Alabama 285,838 4,533 63.1

7. Oklahoma 265,133 35,299 7.6'

8. Missouri 255,455 68,457 3.7 '

9. North Carolina 246,212 3,435 71.7

10. Kentucky 245,717 23,450 10.7 »

11. South Carolina 215,712 1,040 207.4

12. Louisiana 172,347 3,272 52.7

> Mule-surplus states.

In comparison with the above, note the ratios in the leading mule-
producing states:

Mule foals on farms in leading slates, January 1, 1920

Ratio
(Number of
State Foals Twos and over twos and over

to one foal)

1. Missouri 68,457 255,455 3.7 '

2. Kansas 45,036 157,402 3.5'

3. Oklahoma 35,354 265,133 7.6'

4. Texas 35,299 774,517 22.1

5. Tennessee 33,217 287,939 8.7 '

6. Illinois 29,224 113,271 3.9'

7. Kentucky 23,450 245,717 10.7 '

8. Iowa 16,819 51,205 3.0'

9. Nebraska 15,782 69,643 4.4 '

10. Arkansas 14,625 292,658 20.0

11. Indiana 14,509 72,162 5.0'

United States 389,279 4,651,694 12.0

' Nfule-surplus states.

CHAPTER XXXIX
MARKET CLASSES OF MULES

The mule market is of more recent origin than the horse market,
but has developed into a large business. Whereas horses are usually
sold at auction, mules are usually sold at private sale, being sold singly,
in pairs, or in any number to suit the needs of the buyer. When large
numbers are wanted of a uniform height and weight, they are most
often sold at a fixed price per head and the salesman gives a guarantee
as to age, soundness, and other requirements. When an order is
placed for mules of different sizes or for different market classes, they
will ordinarily be figured individually, or in pairs.

Market requirements. — The market requirements for mules are
similar to those for horses. They should be sound, of a desirable age
and color, well fleshed, and sleek in coat; and should possess abundant
quality and a strong conformation. They should also have good action.
These requirements are discussed in detail below.

Soundness. — Mules should be serviceably sound. Blemishes are
objectionable, though not in the same degree as with horses. They
should be sound in eyes and wind, and should be good workers. The
most common and serious unsoundnesses are large spavins, puffs, side-
bones, defective eyes, and unsound wind.

Age. — The most desired age is from four to eight years; however,
there are exceptions in some classes, as noted below.

Condition. — The appearance is greatly improved if mules are
marketed carrying flesh enough to round out their middles. Sleek,
glossy coats of hair are often estimated to be worth ten dollars. The
flesh should be smooth, not lumpy or roily. The value of flesh on mules
is about equal to that on draft horses — which is twenty-five cents per
pound with a good grade of horses.

Quality. — Refinement of head, hair, bone, joints, and hoofs is an
evidence of good bone and wearing qualities.

Conformation. — All mules should have a large chest, long shoulder,
deep barrel, straight short back with as much spring of rib as possible,
a broad loin, and a long level croup. The underline should be com-
paratively straight, the rear flank well let down, and the thighs and
quarters heavily muscled. The legs should evidence both substance
and quality, the feet should be large, wide at the heel, and sound, and
the hoofs should be smooth. The form, muscling, and set of legs
should be approximately the same as in horses. The head of the mule

516

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

517

is a good index of his disposition and temperament; it should be of
good size, yet clean-cut as an evidence of quality. The forehead should
be broad and flat, and the nose slightly Roman, which indicates
stamina and strength. If the head is as described, the animal is usually
considered to be a more reliable and agreeable worker than one not
possessing these characteristics. The ears should be long, thin, taper-
ing, and carried erect; the neck should be long, with moderate crest,
and should join the shoulder smoothly. The mane should be roached,
and the tail clipped in the regular manner with not too short a bush.
Color. — All mules of solid color, except white and dun, are in good

Fig. 204.— Mining or pack mule.

demand, though color is not an important factor. Dapple grays are
popular in the draft class, but as a general rule, bays, browns, blacks,
and chestnuts are most desirable, while flea-bitten grays are discrimi-
nated against.

Action counts for very little in market mules. They should show-
vigor and energy in their movements and be straight-line movers.
They should not be lame or crampy, nor defective in action because
of badly set legs.

The market classification of mules is based on the uses to which
they are put, but in order for a class to exist there must be a demand

518

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

for considerable numbers of a definite type. In the St. Louis market,
which is the largest mule market in the world, there are six market
classes which are as follows:

Height
Class Hands

MINING MULES 12 to 16

COTTON MULES 13-2 to 15-2

SUGAR MULES 16 to 17

FARM MULES 15-2 to 16

DRAFT MULES 16 to 17-2

[Wheel mules 15-3 to 16-1

ARMY MULES j Lead mules 15 to 15-3

[Pack and riding mules. . . .14-2 to 15-2

Mining mules are purchased for use in mines, principally to haul
cars of ore or coal to the hoisting shafts. They are rugged, deep

Weight
Pounds

600 to 1,350

750 to 1,100
1,150 to 1,300

900 to 1,250
1,200 to 1,600
1,150 to 1,300
1,000 to 1,150

950 to 1.200

Fig. 205. — Cotton or lead mule.

bodied, short legged, compactly built, and have heavy bone and large
feet. They stand from 12 to 16 hands high, and weigh from 600 to
1,350 pounds. Those used down in mines are termed "pit mules,"
and the height of these is limited by the depth of the vein worked.
Small pit mules are produced from pony dams. Ages from 5 to 8
years are most preferred, but a well-developed four- year-old, or a well-
preserved ten-year-old, is often accepted. Geldings are much pre-
ferred to mare mules for this trade because they are usually more gentle
than mare mules. Mine mules must be gentle and not ticklish about
the ears and feet. Bad wire marks on the feet are severely discrimi-
nated against, as they are likely to become sore from contact with
sulphur and other chemicals in the mine. The demand for miners is

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 519

strong and constant throughout the year, and comes from all sections
where mines are operated.

Cotton mules are very similar to mining mules in size, but are
lighter boned and not so compactly built. They should have small,
neat heads, and possess much quality and finish. Their feet are smaller
and bodies proportionately lighter. Cotton mules stand from 13-2 to
15-2 hands high, and weigh from 750 to 1,100 pounds. They are most
desired from 3 to 7 years old, but may find ready sale up to 12 years
of age. Mare mules sell better than geldings in this class. The trade
begins about the first of September and continues good throughout
the fall and winter months, then gradually decreases until after the
cotton crop is planted, or about April. From this time until the follow-

b'u:. LMKi. — Sugar mule.

ing fall, the demand is light. Cotton mules are used by cotton growers
to plant, cultivate, and harvest the cotton crop, but a great many such
mules are also taken to cities for use on delivery wagons and for
other purposes.

Sugar mules are mules especially adapted for use on the sugar
farms of Georgia, Louisiana, and other southern states. Sugar mules
are taller, larger, more breedy looking, better finished, and have
heavier bone than cotton mules. The feet should be large in propor-
tion to the bone. They stand from 16 to 17 hands high, and weigh
from 1,150 to 1,300 pounds. Mare mules from 3 to 6 years old are
most desired for this trade. As sugar mules are larger and possess
more quality and finish than cotton mules, they sell for a little more

520 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

money. The trade begins in August, and usually ends in February.
They are in greatest demand in September, October, and November.
Farm mules are those purchased for use on farms in the central
states. They are less uniform in type than the other classes, as farmers
like to buy animals that show promise of further development. Farm
mules are usually from 15-2 to 16 hands high, and from 3 to 6 years
old, four-year-olds being preferred. They are often plain looking and
thin in flesh, though possessing good constitution, bone, and feet, and
showing indications of a good outcome when well fed and cared for.
Many of them are worked for a time, then fattened and returned to
the market. When resold they may be taken as miners, sugar mules,
or cotton mules. The strongest demand for farm mules occurs during
the late winter and spring months.

Fig. 207. — Farm or wheel mule.

Draft mules are large, heavy-boned, heavy-set mules, with plenty
of quality. They are purchased to do heavy teaming work. Many are
used by contractors doing railroad grading, and consequently they are
often spoken of as railroad mules. They are especially demanded for
heavy teaming work in cities in warm climates, where they are pre-
ferred to horses because they are said to be hardier, able to stand the
hot sun better, and not subject to as many ills. Draft mules stand
from 16 to 17-2 hands high, and weigh from 1,200 to 1,600 pounds and
upwards. They should combine weight and strength. They should
be large, rugged, heavily boned, and strongly muscled. The feet should
be large, the back short and strong, the middle deep and closely coupled,
the croup fairly level, and the thighs and quarters massive. They are

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

521

most desired from 5 to 8 years old, and little preference is shown
regarding sex. The demand is strong and quite constant the year
round. (See Fig. 202.)

Army mules. — The demand for mules in the army is very limited
and the class is not important except in time of war. In the recent
World War, the American mule played a very important part, and
large numbers were purchased at the various markets. Three classes
are required, these being wheel mules and lead mules used in four-in-
hand teams on army wagons for transport work, and pack and riding
mules.

Wheel mules. — Government specifications call for mules that are
"sound, well bred, and of a superior class; of a kind disposition, free
from vicious habits, gentle, and well broken to harness, with free and
springy action at the walk and trot; and otherwise to conform to the

Fig. 208. — Small pair of wheel mules to army wagon

following description: A mare or gelding of uniform and hardy color,
in good condition, from 3 to 8 years old. Three-year-old mules will be
purchased only when exceptionally fine individuals." Wheel mules
stand 15-3 to 16-1 hands high, and weigh from 1,150 to 1,300 pounds.

Lead mules are of the same general description as the wheelers,
but are smaller animals. They should stand 15 to 15-3 hands high,
and weigh from 1,000 to 1,150 pounds.

Pack and riding mules stand from 14-2 to 15-2 hands, and weigh
from 950 to 1,200 pounds. They must be of stocky build, with a stout
neck, short, strong back, good coupling, large deep barrel, and good
feet and legs, with ample bone. The pack mules must be particularly
deep in the middle and strong backed, as they carry a long pack saddle
which fits well down on the sides of the mule, and they carry from 300
to 350 pounds. Pack mules are used for transport work in very rough

522 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

or wooded country where wagons cannot be used. The demand for
these mules is limited.

Plugs are worn out, cheap mules that have but little value. They
are usually unsound in one or more respects, very plain and rough in
form, and many are of advanced age.

Export mules. — The export trade in mules has increased during
recent years. Large shipments have been made to South Africa,
Philippine Islands, and Cuba. The size and type of these mules varies,
depending on the use to which they are put and the country to which
they are sent. Some are used for army service, some for agricultural
purposes, some for heavy teaming, and some in mines. Hence the
term "export mule" is a trade name which is not restricted to any
particular kind of mules.

CHAPTER XL
UNSOUNDNESS IN THE HORSE

Soundness is a very vital factor in determining the value of a
horse, and a knowledge of unsoundness is very essential to success in
breeding. Brief description of the most common unsoundnesses has
been deferred until the close of the discussion of horses in order that
the student may learn to fix his attention, first of all, on type. The
matter of soundness, while important, is often overemphasized by
beginners. Presented here at the close, such information should serve
as an important supplement to preceding discussions of the types and
market classes of horses and mules.

If a horse is unsound, his unsoundness may be accounted for in
one or more ways: (1) he may have had a natural weakness in con-
formation or structure which predisposed him to the unsoundness; (2)
he may have been strong in conformation, but forced to do extreme
labor which was beyond the power of the animal machine to endure;
(3) the unsoundness may be the result of a bruise, blow, cut, or other
injury; (4) unsoundness may result following a diseased condition of
some part of the body and (5) lack of proper care, as, for example,
failure to keep the feet in proper balance so as to distribute the weight
and wear equally over the various parts of the foot and- leg, may bring
on unsoundness. In the horse for work, it matters little which of the
above explanations applies; he is unsound, and the horse market fixes
his value according to the nature of the unsoundness, without regard
to the reason why the horse has it. In the horse intended for breeding
purposes only, unsoundness should not be considered a serious detri-
ment unless it is explained by the first of the possibilities listed above,
For example, it is wiser to breed to a horse having a naturally strong
hock which, because of accident or extreme work, has developed a
bone spavin, than it is to breed to a sound horse having a weakly
formed hock which is free from bone spavin only because it has never
been put to the test of even moderate work. It is often difficult, how-
ever, to determine with accuracy the reason for an unsoundness, and
in all such doubtful cases the unsoundness should be looked upon with
suspicion and the horse rejected for breeding purposes.

Certain unsoundnesses are ordinarily referred to as "hereditary,"
on account of their marked tendency to reappear in succeeding genera-
tions. More correctly, however, it is some weakness of conformation
that is transmitted which predisposes the members of the family to

623

524

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

one or more unsoundnesses. Considerable difference of opinion exists
among well-informed persons as to the hereditary transmission of some
unsoundnesses.

A number of minor troubles which are not unsoundnesses are here
given brief mention, because of the frequency with which they are met
and to satisfy curiosity regarding them. Treatment is briefly men-
tioned in some cases for a similar reason. Many minor troubles are
important because they blemish a horse. A blemish merely detracts
from the appearance of an animal, whereas an unsoundness interferes
with his working capacity. Many unsoundnesses are blemishes as
well. A study of the ills to which the horse is heir shows that his eyes,
legs, and wind are the seats of unsoundness.

Blindness. — Any defect of sight is a serious defect in a horse, and
eye trouble always furnishes grounds for rejecting horses for unsound-
ness. Inspecting a horse for blindness requires expert knowledge of

Fig. 209. — Bog spavin. A, Bog spavin; B, sound hock.

the diseases of the eye, and, although the average horseman can in
many cases discover defective eyes, no horse is safely passed as sound
in eyes except by a well-qualified veterinarian. Severe weeping, par-
tially closed eyelids, sunken eyes, inability to bear strong light, a
cloudy appearance of the cornea, unnatural or dull color, failure of the
iris to contract to a considerable degree when brought from darkness
to light, too active play of the ears, failure to blink when an object is
passed close to the eye— these and many other conditions give evidence
of defective vision. (See also cataract and periodic ophthalmia.)

Blood spavin is situated in front and to the inside of the hock,
and is merely a varicose or dilated condition of the vein passing over
that region. It occurs directly over the point where the bog spavin
is found, and is sometimes confused with the latter. It constitutes a
blemish rather than an unsoundness.

Bog spavin is a round, smooth, well-defined swelling in front and a
little inward of the hock. On pressure it disappears to reappear on the

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

525

outside and just behind the hock. It is caused by a weakness in the
synovia] sacs of the joint, accompanied by a hyper-secretion of synovial
fluid or joint oil. Bog spavins are more often blemishes, rather than
unsoundnesses. They are classed as the latter only when they are
well developed or cause lameness. Slight cases are described as merely
"a little full in the hocks." Treatment consists of rest, blistering,
cauterization, and the use of pressure pads and peculiar bandages.

Bone spavin is a bony growth of variable size in the hock, which
may or may not make itself visible on the exterior. It most often
occurs at the inner and lower border of the hock, but may arise on the
upper part, or on the outside of the hock. In some cases, no outward
signs of spavin are perceptible; these are called "occult" spavins. Care
should be taken not to mistake a prominent development of the inner
and lower border of the hock, natural in some animals, for a spavin.
Hocks that are narrow or tied in below are subject to bone spavin, as
are also those of coarse structure.

Fig. 210. — Bone spavin. A, Bone spavin; B, sound hock.

Bone spavins affect one or more of the six bones of the hock.
The spavin usually represents an effort on the part of nature to repair
the joint. Spavins are caused by sprains, by violent efforts in jump-
ing, galloping, trotting, or pulling, by slipping or sliding, and other
similar causes. This is classed as an hereditary unsoundness. It is
one of the most serious unsoundnesses of horses; it causes lameness and
stiffens the joint. As with sidebones and ringbones, the size of the
spavin is not a safe index of its seriousness. An excellent test for
spavin lameness consists in lifting the affected leg off the ground for
one or two minutes, holding the foot high so as to flex all the joints.
Then start the animal off in a trot, when the lameness will be greatly
intensified if it is caused by spavin. Treatment consists of complete
rest for a month or more, blistering, the use of proper medicaments,
firing, and special operations on the joint. Firing produces a small
scar, and when this is present the spavin is called a "jack."

526 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

Broken wind or heaves is denoted by a characteristic hollow cough,
short, and something like a grunt, which once heard is easily recognized
a second time. Inspiration is performed normally, but expiration is
abnormal, being double, or what is commonly called the "double lift."
The first portion of the expiration expels the air as normally, and the
second apparently squeezes the remainder of the air from the lungs in
a gradual manner, seemingly with more or less voluntary exertion.
When such an animal is put to work, there is also a wheezing noise
with the breathing. From a commercial standpoint, a broken-winded
horse has practically no value, yet he may continue to work fairly well.
The cough is sometimes disguised by unprincipled persons through the
administration of such substances as shot and grease; but this is only
temporary. The abnormal breathing cannot be concealed. In some
cases of broken wind, the air vesicles of the lungs have been found,
after death, ruptured; the right side of the heart enlarged, and the walls
of the stomach dilated, though this is not always true. A predisposi-
tion to this disease may be inherited. In doubtful cases of broken
wind, give the animal all the water he will drink and then ride or drive
him uphill. This will bring out the symptoms if the disease is present.

There is great diversity of opinion as regards the exact cause of
heaves. It is usually associated with disorder of digestion, or to an
error in choice of feed. Feeding on clover hay or damaged hay or
straw, too bulky feed, and keeping the horse in a dusty atmosphere or
a badly ventilated stable produce or predispose to heaves. Horses
brought from a high to a low altitude are predisposed.

Capped elbow is commonly termed "shoe boil," and consists of a
bruise at the point of the elbow, generally caused by the heel of the
shoe when the horse is lying down, and sometimes from other causes.
The continued irritation leads to the production of a tumor at the
point of the elbow. The skin may be broken, and slight suppuration
very often occurs. The cause must be removed, and the animal pro-
vided with a leather or rubber ring around the fetlock while in the
stall. The remainder of the treatment is surgical. Capped elbow may
cause severe lameness, but it is usually a blemish only.

Capped hock is quite common and may or may not constitute un-
soundness. It is the result of a bruise, either continuous or inter-
mittent, and may appear suddenly or gradually. Such bruises may be
received in shipping by train or boat, or by the habit some animals
have of kicking against the sides of the stall, or at fences, or even in
harness. The skin, bursa, or the bone may be involved in capped
hock. Usually it is the skin, which becomes very much thickened over
the point of the hock. It is in every case a blemish. Treatment con-
sists of hot and cold applications and blistering.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 527

Cataract. — When the lens of the eye becomes so cloudy or opaque
as to present a white or grayish color, the eye is said to be affected with
cataract, which is a practically incurable form of blindness. A blow
over the eye and other causes bring it on. It is rather common, par-
ticularly in aged horses.

Chronic cough.— A permanent cough accompanying broken wind,
glanders, and other diseases constitutes an unsoundness.

Cocked ankles or knuckling is a partial dislocation of the fetlock
joint, in which the position of the bones is changed, the pastern becom-
ing more nearly perpendicular. While it is not always an unsoundness,
it nevertheless predisposes to stumbling and to fracture of the pastern.
Young foals are frequently subject to this condition, and in the great
majority of such cases the trouble disappears in a few weeks without
treatment. Horses with erect pasterns often knuckle as they grow old,
especially in the hind legs. All kinds of hard work, particularly in
hilly districts, are exciting causes of this trouble. It is also caused by
improper shoeing, in which the toe is made too long and the heel too
low, thus producing inflammation and retraction of the tendons.
Lastly, it is caused by disease of the suspensory ligament or of the
flexor tendons, whereby they are shortened, and by disease of the fet-
lock joint. It is one of the worst faults a horse can possess, and it
greatly affects the value and the price. Treatment varies depending
on the cause of the trouble. Relief may be secured by so shoeing as
to shorten the toe and elevate the heels, thus relieving the tendons.
In extreme cases, the tendons may be operated on to secure relief.
Firing and blistering effect a cure in some instances. (See Fig. 212.)

Contracted feet.— Contraction of the feet is not a diseased condi-
tion in itself, but is a symptom of such and leads to trouble. Contrac-
tion is due to a removal of the full functions of the foot, such as is the
case in lameness, removal of frog pressure, defective shoeing, etc.
Contraction occurs more especially at the heels, and more frequently
in the fore feet than in the hind ones. Veterinarians look upon this
condition as constituting unsoundness. Treatment is not of much
avail, but going barefoot or wearing a special shoe to spread the heels
will help to alleviate the condition.

Corns. — A corn is a bruise to the fleshy sole, and is manifested by
a reddish discoloration of the horny sole beneath the bruise. It usually
occurs upon the inner quarter of the fore foot. A corn very often
causes severe lameness, and is a cause of unsoundness. The treatment
consists in paring, special shoeing, poulticing, keeping the part thor-
oughly clean, and a few weeks' rest.

Cracked heels. — This condition is denoted by an inflamed state of
the skin, which becomes broken, and, if severe, may cause lameness.

528 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

They are frequent in the horse, especially following a frost, the mois-
ture from the thaw favoring this. It is similar to chapped hands, and
fissuring is favored by the movements in the hollow of the heels.
Treatment consists of the application of a soothing liniment applied
daily with tow and bandage.

Curb is an unnatural prominence of variable size, located on the
posterior border of the hock, four or five inches below the point of the
hock. It is easily detected by viewing the joint in profile. It is caused
by a sprain of the tendon which passes over that part, or of the strong
ligament located there. Hocks that are sickled, coarse, and thick in
appearance, or that are too narrow from front to back at their base,
most often develop curbs. Violent efforts in heavy pulling, high jump-
ing, or slipping are often the direct cause of curb. Curbs do not often
cause lameness, or, if they do, it is usually during the formative stage.
Legally it is an unsoundness, although it is not much of a detriment,
especially in horses for slow work. Curbs are much less serious than
bone spavins, ringbones, sidebones, cocked ankles, and stringhalt.

A I IB

Fig. 211.— Curb. A, Sound hock; B, curb.

Treatment in the early stages consists of cold applications to relieve
the acute inflammation. When the first stage has passed, blistering,
frictions with ointments, and firing are often used with good success.

Fistula is an ulcerous lesion found at the withers. Fistulas follow
as a result of abscesses, bruises, wounds, or long-continued irritation by
the harness or saddle. The pus burrows and finds lodgment deep
down between the muscles. The horse becomes incapacitated for
work for a considerable period. Most cases are curable. The treat-
ment is largely surgical; the animal should be placed in the care of a
competent veterinarian as soon as the condition is discovered. After
the fistula is healed, a scar usually remains in the region of the withers.
A horse that has had fistula is liable to subsequent attacks of the same
trouble.

Founder or laminitis is a simple inflammation of the fleshy laminae
within the hoof. Being exceedingly vascular, the laminae are subject
to congestion, and, being enclosed within the hoof, there is very little
room for the relief of the congestion. The animal suffers most agoniz-
ing pain. Concussion is one of the most common causes. Another is

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 529

over-feeding on grain, causing indigestion, irritation of the alimentary
tract, and inflammation of the fleshy laminae through sympathy.
Other causes are unusual excitement, bad shoeing, over-exertion, ex-
haustion, rapid changes of temperature, or any other agencies of an
over-supply of blood to the fleshy laminae, resulting in congestion and
inflammation. But it is the after-effects which are of most interest to
us here. The disease sometimes becomes chronic, and this seriously
affects the secretion of the horn. The toe of the hoof turns up, the
heels become longer than natural, while the hoof near the coronet is
circled with ridges like those of a ram's horn. These ridges are wide
apart at the heel, and close together in front, and are due to periods
of interference with the growth of horn simultaneous with the inflam-
mation of the fleshy laminae. Because of the high heel and turned-up
toe, the leg knuckles at the fetlock joint. Usually, accompanying
these defects, the sole is found to be thin, convex, and weak, and will
stand but little wear. Because of the convexity, the diseased tissues
bear unusual weight, and such animals are generally incurable cripples.

Grease is not an unsoundness, but is such a troublesome and
common complaint that brief mention is here given. It is a skin dis-
ease appearing nearly always in the hind cannons. Draft horses are
more subject to it than light horses. Some individuals are predisposed
to it — those with coarse skin and coarse feather. Other horses have
it as a form of parasitic mange, denoted by a greasy condition of the
skin, congestion of the skin, erect hair, and offensive odor due to dis-
charge from the sores. There is a constant itching and the horse rubs
the part, producing thickening and wrinkling of the skin. Treatment
varies. Half an ounce of Fowler's solution of arsenic night and morn-
ing in the feed, burning with hot iron, applying hot linseed poultices,
dressing with lead lotion, giving a mild physic, decreasing amount of
feed allowance — all these furnish good methods of treatment.

Hip down is a fracture of the point of the hip, often caused by the
animal striking the part against the door post of the stable. It causes
a flatness and sometimes the broken piece of bone may be felt. It is
best detected by standing squarely behind the animal and viewing
it across the hips. It constitutes a blemish.

Navicular disease is a chronic inflammation involving the navicular
bone, the navicular bursa, and the flexor tendon of the foot. It is
brought on by repeated bruising. Light horses are affected much
oftener than heavy horses. The hind feet are seldom affected. It is
practically never found in mules. One-third of the weight falling on
the leg is sustained by the little bow-shaped navicular bone, and the
bone in turn is supported by the flexor tendon of the foot, (See Fig,
153,) Such defects as an insufficient plantar cushion, a small frog, and

530 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

contracted feet predispose the horse to navicular disease. In this way
the disease may be hereditary, as these predisposing causes may be
transmitted to offspring. High knee action, fast work, and hard pave-
ments also endanger a horse from this disease. Dry stables, heavy
pulling, and bad shoeing also tend toward the development of this
trouble. In the early stages of navicular disease, the animal at rest
points the affected foot forward and rests it on the toe, with the fet-
lock and knee flexed. In the lameness which develops, the affected
leg takes a short stride, and the toe strikes the ground first. The
disease is progressive and incurable, rendering the animal practically
valueless, but not entirely useless on soft ground. To relieve the
pain, neurotomy may be performed, an operation in which the sense
of feeling is destroyed in the foot by cutting out pieces of the nerve
at the fetlock. Navicular disease is one of the most serious un-
soundnesses.

Periodic ophthalmia or moonblindness is a disease affecting the
eyes of horses, probably caused by a germ. It is quite commonly
called "moonblindness," because it was thought at one time that the
moon had some influence on the cause of the disease. There is un-
doubtedly an hereditary predisposition to the disease, but there are
few cases to indicate that the disease itself is transmitted from parent
to offspring, but rather the foal is born with a weakness of the eyes,
transmitted by the stallion or dam. Other predisposing factors are
low, swampy pastures, poorly ventilated or insufficiently lighted stables,
over-feeding, etc.

The disease comes on with an inflammation usually of one eye.
The transparent portion of the eyeball becomes bluish or white in color,
most noticeable in the lower part. The eye is kept half closed on
account of pain produced by light. Often this is associated by a swell-
ing of the eyelids and reddening of the membrane lining them, with a
discharge of tears over the face. There is no indication of an injury
or more severe inflammation at one point than at another. In one to
two weeks these symptoms disappear and the eye may be practically
normal to all general appearances for a period of usually one to three
months, when another attack occurs more severe than the first. After
a few attacks have come and gone, the eye has a bluish appearance,
looks cloudy instead of clear, the eyeball is shrunken, retracted in the
orbit, and the lens develops a cataract. After having destroyed one
eye, the disease frequently affects the other, and the history of the first
is repeated.

Poll evil is a fistula upon the poll of the head, and in no sense
differs from fistulous withers except in location. It is caused by blows,
bruises, and chafing by the halter or bridle.

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 53 1

Ringbone is a bony growth at the coronet or on the pastern, in
either the front or hind legs. It is called "ringbone" because it often
grows around the coronet so as to form a ring, although in a large
number of cases the growth takes the form of a lump on the pastern,
rather than that of a ring at the hoof-head. This disease may result
from severe work in early life, from bruises, blows, or sprains, or from
improper shoeing. Ringbone often follows an abscess of the coronet,
or a deep-punctured wound. It is also classed as an hereditary un-
soundness, horses with short, upright pasterns being predisposed.
Ringbones often cause lameness which may disappear with exercise,
returning again when the animal is cooled. They may or may not
stiffen the joint. The size of the ringbone is not so important as its
position. If it is located so as to interfere with the movement of the
tendons behind or in front of the foot, it is a very serious trouble.
Prevention of ringbones consists in keeping foals well nourished, and
keeping the hoofs in balance. Curative measures consist of so shoe-
ing as to straighten the axis of the foot and pastern as viewed from

A B C

Fig. 212. — Ringbone and cocked ankle. A, Sound; B, ringbone; C, cocked ankle.

the side; blistering, followed by a few weeks of rest; and point firing
in two or three lines over the ringbone. When these measures do not
relieve lameness, the only recourse is nerving.

Roaring or thick wind. — Horses that make a loud, unnatural noise
in breathing are said to have thick wind, or to be roarers, excepting
those which manifest this trouble because of a severe sore throat.
Any obstruction of the free passage of air in some part of the respira-
tory tract may cause roaring; occasional causes are nasal polypi, thick-
ening of the membrane, pharyngeal polypi, deformed bones, paralysis
of the wing of the nostril, etc. However, chronic roaring is caused by
paralysis of the muscles of the larynx, thus permitting the cartilage
and vocal cord to lean into the tube of the larynx. The noise is made
during inspiration, and in far-advanced cases may be produced also
during expiration. A horse is tested for roaring by putting him to
severe exertion, as the sound is usually made only when at work.
Roaring is a serious unsoundness because it incapacitates an animal
for severe work, and it is a serious blemish because the noise is un-

532 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

pleasant. It is classed as an hereditary disease. Treatment varies
depending on the exact cause, and includes a course of iodide of potas-
sium in the early stages of the disease, or, in advanced cases, operating
on the larynx.

Grunting. — When a pass is made at a horse with a stick, or he is
otherwise startled, and he grunts, he should be further tested for roar-
ing. It is a common thing for a roarer to grunt, although grunters are
not always roarers. Such animals should be given a severe test of
wind. Pleurisy and rheumatism will cause grunting, which ceases
when the animal recovers from the disease.

Whistling. — This is only a variation of the sound emitted by a
roarer. It may be temporary, due to a severe sore throat.

Sand crack is a splitting of the wall of the hoof, beginning at the
coronet, and commonly at the inner or outer quarter in the fore feet
or at the toe in hind ones. It is due to imperfection in the growth of
horn. It may cause lameness through sensitive parts being nipped by
the crack. It constitutes unsoundness. The treatment is rest and
cutting a notch transversely below the crack. If there is lameness
the crack may be clasped. The shoe may be seated out below the
crack, relieving pressure.

Sidebones are formed by the ossification of the lateral cartilages
of the foot, so that they become hard and unjnelding, instead of soft
and elastic. (See Fig. 153.) This disease is most common in heavy
horses. They are found more often in the front feet than in the hind
ones, and the outer cartilage is more often affected than the inner one.
In the hind feet they are of little importance, since they cause no lame-
ness. In the front feet they may or may not cause lameness, usually
the latter; however, they always lessen the natural expansion of the
heels and often result in shortening of the stride. When lameness is
present, the horse comes out of the stable stiff and sore, but with
exercise the gait shows improvement. Sidebones are caused by sprains,
bruises, blows, and other injuries; and by high-heeled shoes, high calks,
and short, upright pasterns. The size and prominence of a sidebone
is not an index to the damage it may produce. Treatment is not of
much account. It consists in using cold-water bandages, then blister-
ing or firing. Neurotomy (nerving) is often practiced to relieve lame-
ness. This is classed as an hereditary unsoundness. It is a serious
form of unsoundness, but is not so serious as bone spavin, ringbone,
roaring, or blindness.

Splints are variable-sized bony enlargements on the cannon bone,
usually on the inside of the upper two-thirds of the front cannons. The
button-like enlargements at the lower end of the splint bones should
not be mistaken for splints. Splints occasionally cause lameness; if so,

Types and Market Classes of Live Stock 533

they constitute an unsoundness. They are more detrimental in horses
used for fast work than in heavy horses used for slow work. In the
great majority of cases, splints are only minor blemishes. Many
horses have them. Splints often appear in young horses and may be
absorbed shortly afterwards without treatment. The chief cause of
splint is concussion. Other causes are sprains and injuries or blows
on the cannon bone. No treatment should be given, as they but
rarely cause trouble. Blistering and firing are sometimes practiced.

Sprung knees or buck knees. — This defective conformation may
be congenital or the result of heavy labor at too early an age, there
being retraction of the flexor tendons of the parts below the knee.
While not an unsoundness, it detracts from the usefulness and value,
especially in saddle horses. Horses with badly sprung knees may fall
even when standing at rest and unmolested. (See D in Fig. 158.)

Stringhalt. — This disease comes under the general heading, chorea,
or St. Vitus dance. It is manifested by a sudden, involuntary jerking
up of one or both hind legs when the animal is walking or trotting. It
may be very slight in some horses, but increases with age. In some
the affected leg is caught up very violently and high, and then lowered
equally sudden and forcible. It is more often associated with a nervous
disposition than with a sluggish one. It is an incurable disease and
very considerably lessens the price. It is best detected by causing
the animal to back, or turning him around in his tracks first one way
and then the other.

Swollen legs. — A swollen leg usually indicates disease, the causes
being many. It is also not uncommon in old horses, or those having
a sluggish circulation. It is not an unsoundness, but detracts from
the appearance and is highly undesirable. Treatment consists in
giving laxatives, saltpeter, and moderate exercise.

Thoroughpin is similar to bog spavin; it is a swelling occurring at
the back and on top of the hock in that part known as the "hollows."
It is due to weakness of the capsular ligament and to hyper-secretion
of synovial fluid. It is round and smooth, and most apparent when
viewed from behind. The swelling is usually on both sides and a
little in front of the hamstring. When pressed on one side, further
distention occurs on the opposite side. It seldom causes lameness.
Treatment is the same as for bog spavin. Thoroughpin is not a serious
ailment, being usually only an eyesore, although many horsemen con-
sider it an unsoundness.

Thrush is a disease of the cleft of the frog which may cause lame-
ness. It is usually the result of negligence, the result of uncleanliness.
The cleft of the frog becomes suppurating and moist, and there is a
very rank odor. Treatment consists in washing, disinfecting, drying,

534 Types and Market Classes of Live Stock

dusting with a little calomel, and packing. This must be repeated
daily until the part becomes normal.

Windgall or road pufif. — Joints and tendons are furnished with
sacs containing a lubricating fluid called synovia. When these sacs
at the fetlocks become distended by reason of an excessive secretion of
synovia, they are called windgalls. They form a soft, puffy tumor
about the size of a hickory nut or walnut. They are sometimes found
in young horses, but are most common in horses used for hard labor,
especially on pavements. They may be accompanied by lameness, but
if not, they are classed merely as blemishes. As a rule, no treatment
is necessary in young horses. Older animals may be treated by resting,
cold-water douches and bandages, and blistering.

Library
N. O, State College

INDEX

Action, effects of conformation on, 417-20
essentials of, 419

(For action of various types see chapters
on draft, carriage, road, and saddle horses.)
Age as factor in value of horse, 480

differences in carcasses of sheep, 233
in selecting feeder steers, 110-3
from teeth, cattle, 46

horses, 421-3
sheep, 227
of veal calves, 132-3
Ages, classification by, for showing cattle, 31-2
hogs, 315-6
horses, 400-1
sheep, 217

Alveoli of udder, 182-3
American horses, origin of, 427-31
Jack, 507
Merino, 279-87
Saddle Horse, origin of, 428-9

type of, 461-5
Standardbred, origin of, 428

type of, 453-9
-type hog, description of, 317-26
Anatomy of horse, 402-12
Arabian horse, origin of, 424

Armour, Philip D., erection of first chill room by, 91
Army mules, 521
Artillery horses, 485-7
Ass, 507

Auction rules for selling horses, 478
sales of feeder calves, 136
market hogs, 352
Automobile, effect on horse industry 430-1

Baby beef, 98-101

on the market, 123
production, 149
Bacon hog carcass, 342-3
hogs, 370

feeding, 331
-producing countries, 327
production, feeds used in, 327, 331
-type hog, description of, 327-34
Barb horse, origin of, 425
Barreled pork, 346
Barrow, definition of, 315

Barrows, why preferred to sows for slaughter, 338-9
Base of support of horse, 413-4
Bate, John J., early beef exports by, 92
Beef, ageing or ripening, 53
baby, see Baby beef,
block or side, 57
breeds, 30

interna] fat of, 74
bull, age to begin using, 159

importance of a good, 154-6
number of cows bred to a, 159
price to pay for, 1 55
type desired in, 154-9
carcass, 47-62

classes and grades of, 57-8

conclusions from study of, 61-2

cutters and canners, 57

differences due to sex, 58

for side or block use, 57

grading, 56-8

heifer vs. steer, 54, 58

shape of, 53

thickness of fat on, 54-5

flesh in, 53-5
variations in, 52-6
weights of, .53
cattle, average value in U. S., 145

breeding, conditions suitable to, 149

in U. S., 14V-9
center of production in U. S., 270
distribution in U. S., 146-9
in leading states, 146

Beef cattle, continutd

methods of marketing, 78

number in U. S., 145

percentage of purebred and registered

in U. S., 150
prices, high and low months, 143-4
see Cattle.

selection for breeding purposes, 149
shrinkage in transit, 80
consumers' demands have changed, 98-9
consumption, center of, in U. S., 78

in U. S., total and per capita, 146

various countries, 335
per capita in U. S. for three
years, 384
corned, introduction of, 90
cow, type desired in, 159-62
cured, value of, produced in U. S., 347
cuts, grades of, 61
prices of, 60
weights of, 60

why some are high priced, 60-1
cutting, 58-9
demands of butcher, 52-6

consumer, 52-3
dried, source of, 130
exports and imports, 146

pioneer, 92
fresh and cured, value of, in U. S., 347
grain of, 56
heifers, age to breed, 161

see Heifer,
how quality may be improved, 68-9
imports and exports, 27
-making, value of type in, 70-7
marbling, 51-2, 55
percentage sold fresh, 67-8
production, center, 78

factors for success in, 162
in corn belt, 149

U. S., as measured by annual

slaughter, 145-6
West, method of, 149
see Calves, Carcass, Cattle, and Feedpra.
sire, see Beef bull,
slaughter, center of, 78

percent of total, 335
see Slaughter,
steer, see Steer,
type, definition of, 28

description of, 33-46
value of, produced in U. S., 347
wholesale cuts of, 58-60
Blindness, 524
Block beef, 57
Blood meal, source of, 237
spavin, 524

supply to udder, 183-4
Boar, age to begin using, 398
definition of, 315
number of sows bred to a, 398
type desired in, 395-8
Boars and stags, why carcasses are inferior, 350

on the market, 373
Bob veal, 132
Bog spavin, 524-5
Bologna bulls, 130
Bone spavin, 525

Bones, flintiness of, in beef carcass, 56
of cattle, changes due to age, 50
size of, in beef carcass, 56
Branch houses of packing companies, 92
Brand inspection at markets, 94-5
Branding cattle at markets, 94-5
Brands lessen value of cattle hides, 121
Break-joint, 232-3

Breed a factor in selecting feeder steers, 116
of horses, selecting a, 501
type, definition of, 29

535

536

Index

Breeding beef cattle, conditions suitable to, 149
in U. S., 147-9
bucks, on market, 261
community, 154
cooperative, 154
ewes, on market, 259-61
for milk production, 195-205
the market, cattle, 145-62
hogs, 381-98
horses, 494-506
sheep, 267-78
good, essential in baby beef production,
100
importance of, 150-3
sheep class, 259-61

conditions suitable to, 270-1
Breeds of beef cattle, internal fat of, 74
cattle, 29-30

numbers in U. S., 30
dairy cows, differences in milk of, 185
hogs, 314-5

numbers in U. S., 314-5
horses, 431

numbers in U. S., 431
origin of, 424-31
jacks, 507
sheep, 215-6

classes and grades of wo'il of, 299
numbers in U. S., 216
Broken wind, 526
Brood mares, selection of, 503

working, 497-8
Buck, definition of, 217

knees, 533
Bucks and stags, 254

breeding, on the market, 261
Bull, age to begin using, 159
association, the, 197-8
definition of, 30
see Beef bull and Dairy bull.
Bulls and stags, on the market, 129
bologna, 130
butcher, 129
feeder, 137
Bull's Head Stock Yards, Chicago, 85
Butcher bulls, 129

cattle, 127-9
cows, 128-9
heifers, 127-8
hogs, 367-8

spread in price of, 377-8
Butter consumption in various countries, 195 6

imports and exports, 27
Buyers at live-stock markets, 87
By-products from slaughtering —
cattle, 63-9
hogs, 348-50

in early times, 360-1
sheep, 235-7

Cab horses, 489

Calf and cattle slaughter compared with other
slaughter, 335
crops of various states, 148-9
definition of, 30
Calves, charges for selling at Chicago, 88
losses of, 148-9
manner of dressing, 48
number, value, and weight at Chicago, 79
prices of, at Chicago, 140-1
see Cattle and Veal calves,
stocker and feeder, 136
yearlings, and older cattle, for feeding,
110-3
Canada, live-stock industry of, 25

number of hogs packed annually, 362
Canner carcasses, 57
cattle, 131
sheep, 262
Canter described, 462
Capped elbow, 526

hock, 526
Car routes of packing companies, 92
Carcass, bacon hog, 342-3
beef, 47-62

see Beef carcass.

Carcass, eonlinued

classes and grades, beef and veal, 57-8
hog, 341-3
sheep and lamb, 233
goat, 233
hag, 335-51

see Hog carcass,
sheep or lamb, 228-38
see Mutton carcass,
weights, beef, 53

hog, 341, 342
lamb, 230, 233
sheep, 230, 233
veal, 58
Carding wools, 290

Carloads, number of animals per car, 80
Carpet wool, 292
Carriage, evolution of, 426
horse class, 488-9

in America, 429-30
origin and development of, 426-7
type, description of, 447-52
Casings for sausage, 237
Castration, best age for calves, 30
colts, 400
lambs, 217
pigs, 315
of lambs, importance of, 251-3
Cataract, 527
Cattle, advantages of, on farm, 28

and calf slaughter compared with other

slaughter, 335
average value in U. S., 145
beef, see Beef cattle,
breeding in West, status in various states

155-6
by-products, 63-9

effect on live prices, 66-7
value of, 64-6
centers of production in U. S., 270
Chicago, percentage slaughtered, 81-2
commission charges for selling at Chicago,

88
dairy, see Dairy cattle,
dressing percentage of, 48-9
dual-purpose, see Dual-purpose,
early, 96-7
fashions in, 96-105

feeder, see Feeder cattle and Feeder steers,
feeding, advantages of, 117-8
margin in, 110
source of profit in, 109-10
fill at market, 80

general market terms applied to, 120-2
grassers and fed, 121-2
hides, prices, 65

value affected by branding, 121
value of, 64-5
imports and exports, 27
market classes of, 119-44

receipts, 79
marketing by seasons, 81-2
markets, American, 78-95

see Markets,
native and western, 120-1
number, value, and distribution in U. S.,
145-7
weight at Chicago, 79
numbers in leading countries, 145

U. S., 145-7
offal, 48

percentage passing through central mar-
kets, 78
prices, see Prices,
quarantine of, at markets, 94
seasonal variations in marketing, at Chi-
cago, 81-2
see Beef cattle. Bull, Calves, Cow, Dairy

cattle, and Steer,
shipments by rail, early, 83

early methods, 82-3
shrinkage in transit, 80
slaughter, see Slaughter and Slaughtering,
terms, definition of, 30-1
ticks and Texas fever, 94
types of, 28-9

Index

537

Cattle, continued

weights of, see Weight and Weights.
Caul of sheep, 229
Cavalry horses, 490
Center of beef consumption, 78

slaughter, 78
Centers of production of live stock in U. S., 270
Cheese consumption in various countries, 196

imports and exports, 27
Chicago, Bull's Head Stock Yards, 85
cattle market, 79-82

slaughter, 91
sources of receipts, 79-80
charges for corn, 240, 354
hay, 87-8, 240
oats, 240

public inspection of hogs, 354
selling cattle and calves, 87-8
hogs, 354
horses' 477-8
sheep and goats, 239-40
yardage, cattle, 87
hogs, 354

sheep and goats, 240
development of meat packing at, 359
early cattle trade, 84
hog market, 353-7

growth of, 353
-packing firms, 361
slaughter, 361

and shipments compared, 354-5
packing plants, owners of, 91
percentages of feeder cattle, 81-2
prices, see Prices.

receipts and sale by seasons, cattle, 81-2
hogs, 355
sheep, 241-3
effect on prices, hogs, 379-80
lambs, 265-6
of hogs monthly, 355
record receipts of hogs, 353
sale of feeder cattle by seasons, 106
sheep by seasons, 242
see Market, Markets, and Union Stock

Yards,
sheep market, 239-43

slaughter, 239, 241-2
weights, monthly averages, cattle, 80-1
hogs, 356-7
sheep, 240
Chitterlings, 350
Chunk horses, 482-3

Cincinnati, early hog packing at, 358-9, 360
prices for hogs in early times, 358
shipments of cured pork, 359
Class, market, definition of, 119
Classes and grades of carcasses, beef and veal, 57-8
hogs, 341-3
mutton and lamb,
233
see Market classes and grades,
of Merinos, 285-7
sheep, 215-6
Classification by ages for showing, cattle, 31-2
hogs, 315-6
horses, 400-1
sheep, 217
of fine-wool sheep, 285-7
see Market classes,
types and breeds, cattle, 30
hogs, 315
horses, 431
sheep, 216
wools, 292-300
Clothing and combing wools, 290, 294-5
Coach horses, 488
Cob horses, 488
Cocked ankles, 527
Colostrum, 187
Colt, definition of, 400
Combing and clothing wools, 290, 294-5
Commission charges, Chicago, for selling —
cattle and calves, 88
hogs, 354

sheep and goats, 239-40
Commission firms, 87, 89

Community and cooperative breeding, 154

Conestoga horses, 427-8

Contracted feet, 527

Cooperation in live-stock marketing, 88-9

Cooperative breeding, 154

bull associations, 197-8
commission companies, 89
marketing of wool, 308-10
shipping associations, 88-9

Corn and hogs, 351, 355-6, 381 2, 386-8, 390-1,

closely related, 386-8
as a feed for farm animals, 23-4
beef, 90

-belt live-stock industry, 24-5
charges for, at Chicago market, 354
uses of, 386-8
Corns, 527

Cotton-belt live-stock industry, 25
Cotton mules, 519
Cough, chronic, 527
Country hides, cattle, 65
Cow, definition of, 30

-testing associations, 197

study of records of, 188-90
Cows, fat, on the market, 128-9

seasons of heavy slaughter, 129
see Beef cows and Dairy cows,
stock, 137
Cracked heels, 527-8
Cripple carts, 373
Crippled hogs, 373

Crops, percentages fed to farm animals, 21
Crossbred, definition of, 151
Cumberland side, 342-3
Curb, 528

Cured pork, advantages to hog producer, 345, 350
demand for, in early times, 382
early shipments of, 359
products, 345-7

value of, produced in U. S. 347
Cuts of beef, 58-60

mutton and lamb, 234-5
pork, 343-5
Cutter carcasses, 57
Cutters, 130-1
Cutters and canners, 130-1
Dairy breeds, 30

differences in milk of, 185
bull, importance of a good, 201-4
selection of a, 201-5
should be a good individual, 204-5

from tested ancestry, 201-5
type desired in, 176-9
cattle breeding, 195-205

center of production in U. S., 270
cow, type desired in, 163-76
cows, average yield of milk in seven coun-
tries, 188
cost of feed as related to production

and income, 189-90
long-distance records made by, 190-1
methods of judging, 163-4
notable tests of, 189, 190-1
number, value, and distribution in

U. S., 195
records made by breed champions in

U. S., 190-1
relation of production to net income,

188-9
scrubs, records of production, 199-201
testing, value of, 196-7
value of records in breeding, 196-7
variations in usefulness of, 188-94
farming, advantages of, 205

conditions suitable to, 196
steers for beef, 70-7

why lacking thick flesh, 74-7
temperament, 174
type, definition of, 28

description of, 163-79
Deacons, 132

Dead animals, numbers removed from carsat
Chicago, 374
hogs, 373-4
sheep, 262

538

Index

Dehorned cattle, advantages for feeding, 114

definition of, 31
Delivery wagon horses, 485
Depilatory, 301

Dew claws of calves, age when hardened, 132
Dipping live stock at markets, 94
Docking lambs, best age for, 217

or shrinking weights of hogs at markets,
357-8
Draft horse in America, 429
mare, selection of, 503
mules, 520-1
stallion, selection of, 504
type, advantages of, to farmer, 499-500
description of, 432-46
origin of, 625-6
weight for age, 446
Dressing calves, 48

percentage, average of —
calves, 48
cattle. 48
hogs, 337-8
sheep and lambs. 230
of calves, 48, 132

cattle, 47-9, 122, 127, 130
hogs, 337-8
sheep, 230
see Slaughter and Slaughtering.
Dry-salt meats, 346-7
Dual-purpose breeds, 30

cattle, profits from, 209-11

utility of, 206-8
type, definition of, 28

description of, 208-9
Dyeing woolen goods, 291

Early maturity, demand for, in cattle, 98
Eastern chunks, 482

Eastman, Timothy C, early beef exports by, 92
Eckles, C. H., investigation of variation in milk

production, 191-3
English meats, 347
Escutcheon of dairy cattle, 173
Ewe, definition of, 217

mutton breeding, type desired in, 275-7
Ewes, age to breed, 275

ages most desired for breeding, 259-60
fat, 254
feeder, 259

number to breed to one ram, 275
Export buyers, 87
mules, 522
Exports and imports, beef and veal, 146
beef, 27, 92
cattle, 27
dairy products, 27
mutton, 269
pork and lard, 383-4
products, 362-4
principal meat-export countries, 24
wools, 304-5
Express horses, 483-5

Farm animals as producers of human food, 312-3
functions of, 21

numbers and values in U. S., 22-3
see Live stock.
Farm chunks, 482-3

crops, percentages fed to live stock, 21
mules, 520
Farming, live-stock, advantages of, 21-2

vs. grain, 19-20
Fashions in market cattle, 96-105
Fat, color of, in beef, 55-6

cows on the market, 128-9

effects of, in appearance of horse, 444

heifers on the market, 127-8

internal, in steers of different breeds, 74

steer class, 122-7

storage by hogs and other animals, 339

in bodies of cattle, 50-2
thickness of, in beef carcass, 54-5
Fatness, effect of feed on, in steers, 42-4
Fats of cattle, 65-6
Fed cattle, 121-2

when marketed in large numbers, 121-2
lambs, 247-8

Fed, eontinu*d

western cattle, 121
Federal inspection for disease, 93-4

regulations for shipping hogs from markets,
371-2
Feed, charges for, at Chicago, 87-8

costs for horses at Chicago, 477
effect on composition of milk, 193-4
required for gains in hogs, 392
steers, 55
Feeder, bulls, 137
calves, 136

cattle, age as a factor in selecting, 110-3
classes and grades of, 133-7
demands and prices by seasons, 108
how they differ from stockers, 133-4
markets, where located, 107
movement and prices, 106-8
numbers shipped from leading

markets, 107
percentages at Chicago, 81-2
sale of, by seasons, 106
sorting of, 107-8
where bought, 106-7
ewes, 259
horses, 491

lambs, weights of, 256-7
pig markets, 371-2
pigs, 371-2
sheep and lambs, 255-9

markets in U. S.. 243
percentage of total at

Chicago, 242
sale by seasons, 242, 255
steers, 134-5

selection of, 106-18
wethers, 259
Feeding cattle, see Cattle feeding.
Feeds, fertilizing value of, 21
Feet, contracted, 527
Fill at markets, cattle, 80

hogs, 354-5
sheep, 240
Filly, definition of, 400
Fine-wool sheep, breeds of, 216

type, description of, 279-87
Fire horses, 487-8
Fistula, 528

Five-gaited saddle horse, 461-5
Fleece of fine-wool sheep, 283-7
mutton sheep, 222-6
see Wool,
tying, 307
Fleeces, buck, 307

cotted or matted, 307
grading, 294-300
of breeding ewes, 261
feeder lambs, 258
Flesh, effect of feed on, in hogs, 327-8, 331
steers, 42-4
thickness of, in beef carcass, 53-5
why dairy steer lacks, 74-7
Fleshing, natural, in feeder steers, 115
Foal, definition of, 400
Foot of horse, anatomy of, 408-11

characteristics of a healthy, 411-2
Founder, 528-9
Fox trot described, 464
Free-martin, definition of, 702
Freight rates, effect on cattle and beef industry, 67

Gains by hogs of different weights, 392
steers for different periods, 55
Gaits of horse described, 458, 462-5
Gammon, 334
Gelding, definition of, 400
General-purpose horse, 429
Gestation period of cattle, 161

horses, 503

sheep, 275

swine, 398
Gilt, definition of, 315
Goat carcasses, 233

skins, value of, 237
Goats and kids —

charges for selling at Chicago, 239-40

Index

539

Goats, continued

market classes of, 263

number slaughtered under federal inspec-
tion, 263
on the market, 263
where raised in U. S., 263
Government supervision of packers and stock

yards, 88
Governments, 373
Grade animal, definition of, 151

dairy cows compared with scrub dams, 1 19
201
Grades of beef cuts, 61

see Market grades.
Grading carcasses, beef, 56-8
hop, 341-3

mutton and lamb, 233
dairy cattle, 198-201
process in breeding for market, 153-4
see Market classes.
Grass cattle, 121-2

when marketed in large numbers, 121
Grease, 529

Great Horse, origin of, 425
Guenon, Francois, escutcheon theory of, 173

Hackney, origin of, 427

Hams, long-cut, 342-3

Hand, definition of, 423

Hay, charges for, at Chicago market, 87-8

Heaves, 526

Heavy-harness type —

description of, 447-52
see Carriage horse.
Heifer beef compared with steer beef, 102-5
carcasses preferred in England, 54
definition of, 30
spayed, definition of, 30
spaying, reasons for, 104-5
Heifers, beef, age to breed, 161
butcher, 127-8
fat, on the market, 127-8
seasons of heavy slaughter, 128
stock, 137
Hides, cattle, prices of, 65

value affected by branding, 121
values of, 64-5
see Pelt and Skins.
High-grade animal, definition of, 152
Hinny, 507

Hock, anatomy of, 406
Hocks, bent or sickle, 420-1
Hog by-products, 348-50

in early times, 360-1
carcass and by-products, conclusions froni
study of, 350-1
classes and grades of, 341-3
discussion of, 335-51
proportion made into lard, 348
wholesale cuts of, 343-5
economy of, as meat producer, 312
fattening ability of, 339
markets, and pork packing, 352-64
-packing centers, leading, 361
firms at Chicago, 361
past and present, 352-64
prices as related to supply, 379-80
at Chicago, 375-80
monthly variations in, 379-80
-producing states, 384-5
product importing countries, 363-4
products, exports of, 362-4
raising combined with beef production, 'i <'
dairying, 386
conditions suitable for, 385-6
countries of world, leading, 383
see Hogs, Pigs, Pork, and Swine,
slaughter, annual in U. S., 383

compared with other slaughter, 335
on farms, 352
Hogs, an unprofitable type of, 389-90

and corn, 351, 355 6, 381-2, 386-8, 390 1,
391
closely related, 386-8
dairy cows compared, 312-3

Hogs, continutd

average live weights of those packed in West
in winter, 389
annually at Chicago, 389
bacon, see Bacon hog.
big type, advantages of, 394-5
boars, see Boars,
breeding for the market, 381-98
breeds of, 314-5

center of production in U. S., 270
changes in size for market, 388-9

type of, in U. S. 388-90
charges for selling at Chicago, 354

yardage at Chicago, 354
docking or shrinking weights at markets,

357-8
dressing percentage of, 337-8
fattening qualities compared to othf r anim .Is

392-3
feed for 100 lbs. gain, 392
fill at markets 354-5
grades of, 365-6

why unnecessary, 366, 378
increase in numbers in U. S., 382
lard-type, see Lard,
losses of, 312-3

market classes and grades of, 3f 5-75
modern type of, in U. S., 390-1
monthly marketing at Chicago, 355
number, value, and distribution in U. S.,

384-5
numbers packed at Chicago, 361

Cincinnati and Chicago in

early times, 359
yearly in U. S. and Canada.
362
offal of, 337

packer's typo of, 393-4
producer's type of, 390-8
public inspection of, at markets, charge for,

354
purebred and registered, numbers in U. S.,
314-5
percentage in U. S.,
398
see Boar, Hog, Pig, PorK, Sow, and Swine,
selection for breeding purposes, 391-8
sell largely by weight, 393-4
shrinkage in transit, 354
■size in. factors essential to, 390
slauKhtering and dressing, 336-7
sorting at markets, 374-5
spread in price of, 376-8
types of, 313-4
weights in early times, 388-9

January at Chicago, 389
monthly and yearly at Chicago,

356-7
most desired by packers, 341
yearly averages at seven markets,
355-6
Hoof, and how it grows, 409-11

mechanism, 416-7
Horse, age from teeth, 421-3
anatomy of, 402-12

importance of knowledge of,
399-400
and mule compared, 509-12
appearance changed by fattening, 444
base of support of, 413-4
breeding, 494-506
carriage, see Carriage horse,
conformation concerned in action, 417-20
digestive system of, 403
draft, see Draft horse,
effects of mechanical inventions on, 430 -1
foot of, anatomy of, 408-11
fore leg, anatomy of, 404-5

attachment of, 413-4
height of, determination of, 423
hind leg, anatomy of, 406

attachment of, 413-4
hock, anatomy of, 406
hunter, see Hunter horse,
important facts concerning the, 413-23
in America. 427-31

540

Index

Horse, coniinued

market auction rules, 478

requirements, 478-80
markets, receipts, 477
muscular system of, 402-3
nervous system of, 404
prices at Chicago, 492-3
respiratory system of, 403-4
roadster, see Road and Roadster,
saddle, see Saddle horse,
see Mare and Stallion,
skeleton of, 402

compared with man, 407
stride of, phases of, 416
terms, definitions of, 400
utility of, 399
where wear comes in, 416
work, average life of, 495-6
Horses, breeds of, 431
losses of, 495-6
market classes of, 477-93
methods and cost of marketing, 477-8
number, value, and distribution in U. S.,

494-5
numbers in leading countries, 494
purebred and registered, numbers in U. S.,
431

percentage in U.S., 504
types and breeds of, 431
Hot-house lambs, 261-2
Hunter horse, description of, 469-73
origin of, 426
production of, 473

Imports, beef, 27

cattle, 27

dairy products, 27

mutton, 268-9

New Zealand lamb carcasses, 269

of American pork products into leading
countries, 363-4

principal meat-import countries, 24

wools, 304-5
Inspection, federal, for disease, 93-4

of hogs at markets, charge for, 354
Interfering, 420

Jack, best type of, 507-8
Jacks, breeds of, 507

prices paid for, 507
Jennet, the, 507
Jersey Reds, weights of, 388-9

Kansas City Stock Yards, date opened, 85
Kemp, 226, 306
Knuckling, 527

Lamb, cuts of, 234-5
V definition of, 217

feeding in the West, 248

prices as related to supply, 265-6

highest and lowest months at Chi-
cago, 264-6
recent demand for, 228
see Mutton and Sheep.
Lambs, castration of, importance of, 251-3
fat, 247-51
feeder, 256-9

weights of, 256-7
hot-house, 261-2

market classes and grades of, 244-66
movement to market from different

regions, 248
spring, 248
throw-out, 262

weight desired at markets, 249-50
wethers and bucks compared in gains, 251
why some sell at a loss, 251-3
I aminitis, 528-9

I ard consumption in U. S., 383, 384
grades of, 348
hog carcass, 335-51
production annually in U. S., 383
-type hog, description of, 317-26

development of, in U. S., 381-2
most profitable described, 318-9

Lard, continued

value of, produced in U. S., 347

Lateral cartilages, 408

Lead mules, 521

Lean meat, color of, in beef, 55

Legs of horse, anatomy of, 404-5

attachment of, 413-4

defects in conformation, 417-21

swollen, 533

I-ibby, .\rthur, introduction of canned products

by, 90
Light-harness type, description of, 453-9
Light hog class, 369-71

light hogs, 371

mixed hogs, 371

Live stock as producers of human food, 312-3
centers of production in U. S., 270
exchange, 87

farming, advantages of, 21-2
industry, growth in U. S., 23

survey of, in North America
24-5
marketing, see Marketing,
markets, see Market and Markets,
numbers and values on farms in U. S.,

22-3
on farms, functions of, 21
percentages of world totals in U. S., 23
rank of states in value of, 22-3
shipping associations, 88-9
vs. grain farming, 19-20

comparison of crop yields, 20
Loggers, 481-2

Manure, value of, 20-1
Marbhng in beef, 51-2, 55
Mare, age to breed, 503

best type of, for horse breeding, 503

mule breeding, 508-9
definition of, 400
working the brood, 497-8
yeld, definition of, 400
Margin in cattle feeding, 110
Market cattle, how classed and graded, 138

class and type, distinctions between, 119-
20
definition of, 119
classes and grades of cattle, 119-44
hogs, 365-75
horses, 477-93
mules, 516-22
sheep, 244-66
wool, 294-300

government stand-
ards, 299-300
average prices of, cattle, 140-3
hogs, 375-6
horses, 492-3
sheep, 263-6
of goats, 263
live stock, not official or standard-
ized, 139
mules, 516-22
demands, importance of, to breeder and

feeder, 25-6
essential factors in a large, 85-7
grade, definition of, 119
grades of cattle, 119
hogs, 365-6

why unnecessary, 366, 378
sheep, 244
wool, 294-300
see Grades and Grading,
prices, see prices,
receipts, cattle, 79

effects on prices, hogs, 379-80
lambs, 265-6
hogs, 352-3
horses, 477
sheep, 239
requirements for horses, 478-80

mules, 516-7

terms applied to cattle, 120-2

sheep, 244-6

Index

541

Marketing, cooperation in, 88-9

lambs, seasons for different regions, 248
live stock, steps in, 90
methods of, beef cattle, 78
hogs, 352
horses, 477-8
sheep, 239
seasonal variations in, cattle, 81-2
hogs, 355
sheep, 241-3
wool cooperatively, 308-10
properly, 307-8
Markets, American cattle, 78-95
early, 82

hog, past and present, 352 -64
horse, 477
sheep, 239-43
buyers at, 87
cattle, location of, 78, 83-4

size of, in South America, 79
development of large, 83-4
feeder cattle, 107

where located, 107
pig. 371-2
sheep, 243
location of, 83-4
Mast, 381
Meat consumption in various countries, 24, 335

per capita in U. S. for three
years, 384
-export countries, 24
fat, contains more energy than lean, 382
-import countries, 24
industry, three eras in, 91-2
packing, development at Chicago, 359
production in U. S., total values, 347
Meats, boiled, 347

dry-salt, 346-7
English, 347
smoked, 347
sweet-pickled, 347
Merino type, description of, 279 -87
Merinos, classes of, 285-7

importance of, in U. S., 279
Mess pork, 346, 382
Mexico, live-stock industry of, 25
Milk cistern, 182

consumption in various countries, 195

cows, see Dairy cows.

ducts, 182-3

effect of feed on, 193-4

mirror, 173

nature and composition of, 184-5

production, breeding for, 195-205

cause of variation in, 191-3
of average dairy cow, 188
secretion, 180-7

stimuli to, 187
veins, 172-3
wells, 173
Milkers and springers, 137
Mills, Elisha, first packer in West, 90
Mining mules, 518-9
Mohair, 310
Moonblindness, 530
Morgan horse, origin of, 428
Mule, 507-15

and horse compared, 509-12
Mules, market classes of, 516-22

requirements for, 516-7
number, value, and distribution in U. S.,

512-5
numbers in leading countries, 513
production of, in U. S., 513-5
Muscle, effect of feed on, in steers, 42-3
Muscles, changes in cattle due to age, 50
Mutton and lamb carcass, 228-38

consumption in various coun-
tries, 335
per capita in U. S., 384
slaughter, per cent of total, 335
value of, produced in U. S., 347
wholesale cuts of, 234-5
breeding ewe, type desired in, 275-7
ram, type desired in, 272-5
carcass and pelt, 228-38

Mutton carcass, continued

classes and grades of, 233
conclusions from study of, 238
differences due to sex, 233-4
qualifications of a good, 230-3
weights of, 230, 233
wholesale prices of, 233
consumption in U. S., total and per capita,

268-9
cuts ot 234-5
exports, 268-9
imports, 268-9

production in U. S. as measured by slaugh-
ter, 268-9
sheep, breeds of, 216
class, 247-54

increase in numbers in U. S., 268
type, description of, 218-27

National Live-Stock Exchange, 87

Stock Yards, date opened, 85
Traders' Live-Stock Exchange, 87
Native cattle, 120-1

lambs, often undocked and uncastrated

244, 251-3
sheep, characteristics of, 244-6
Navicular disease, 529-30
New Zealand lamb carcasses in U. S., 269
Noils, 290
Norfolk trotter, origin of, 427

Offal of cattle, 48
hogs, 337
sheep, 229-30
Ohio Sheep and Wool Growers' Association, 310
Oleo fats, value of, 65-6
oil, source of, 237

value of, produced in U. S., 347
Oleomargarine, manufacture of, 65-6

value of, produced in U. S., 347
Omaha Stock Yards, date opened, 85
Order buyers, 87

Pace, slow, described, 463-4
Pacing gait described, 458

records, 454
Pack and riding mules, 521-2
Packer hides, cattle, 65

the first, in West, 90
Packers' branch houses, 92

car routes, 92
Packers, country hog buying by, 352
do they control prices, 67-8
early, demand for heavy hcgs, 388-9
government supervision of. 88
Packing, eariy, at Cincinnati, 358-9, 360
hogs, 368-9

-house by-products, see By-products,
industry, American, total value of prod-
ucts in one year, 93
an aid to cattle producer, 68
competition in, 67-8
development of, 90-2
narrow margins of profits, 68
three eras in evolution of, 91-2
plant, the modern, 92-3
plants, owners of, at Chicago, 91
pork, past and present, 352-64
Packingtown, 91
Paddling, 420
Park horses, 488-9

Pasterns, slope of, effect on action, 120
Pedigree, dangers of, 204-5

important in swine breeding, 397-8
value of, in selecting dairy bull, 203-5
with performance, 203-5
Pelt of sheep, value and use of, 235-7
Periodic ophthalmia, 530
Pickled pork, 346, 347
Pig and dairy cow compared, 312-3

economy of, as meat producer, 312
Pigs, fall-farrowed, when marketed, 356-7
feeding, 371-2
losses of, 312-3
on the market, 371
roasting, 373

542

Index

Pigs, continued

see Hogs, Pork, and Swine,
spring-farrowed, when marketed, 356
Pluck, 229, 237
Plug horses, 492
mules, 522
Pododerm, 409

Poland-Chinas, weights of early, 388-9
Poll evil, 530
Polled cattle, advantages for feeding, 114

definition of, 31
Polo, history of, 473

pony, description of, 473-6
origin of, 427
production of, 476
Ponies, 491-2
Pony breeding, 501
Population and cattle in U. S., 145
agricultural, 27-8
of U. S., 27-8
Pork, annual exports less imports, 383-4
barreled or pickled, 346
consumption in U. S., 383, 384

various countries, 335
cured, see Cured pork,
cuts of, 343-5
dry-salt, 346-7
English, 347
exports of, 362-4

factors in cost of production, 312-3
foreign demand for, 382
fresh and cured, value of, in U. S., 347
-importing countries, 363-4
mess, 346, 382
-packing centers, leading, 361

development at Chicago, 359
early, at Cincinnati, 358-9, 360
growth in U. S., 361-2
number of hogs yearly in U. S.

and Canada, 362
past and present, 352-64
seasons and year, 361-2
winter and summer seasons com-
pared, 361-2
production, conditions suitable for, 385-5

in U. S., annually, 383
products, cured, 345-7

exports of, 362-4
sold fresh, 345
value of, 347
slaughter in U. S. annually, 383
per cent of total, 335
smoked, 347
soft, 340-1
sweet-pickled, 347
value of, produced in U. S., 347
wholesale cuts of, 343-5
trade in, 345-6
Pregnancy, duration of, in cows, 161
ewes, 275
mares, 503
sows, 398
Prepotency, definition of, 150
Prices at Chicago —

as related to supply, hogs, 379-80
lambs, 265-6
market classes of cattle, 140-4
hogs, 375-80
horses, 492-3
sheep, 263-6
monthly and yearly averages —
beef steers, 142-4
hogs, 379-80
lambs, 263-6

stocker and feeder cattle, 1 0 < !)
spread in, cattle, 377-8
hogs, 376-8
sheep, 377-8
Prices at Cincinnati, hogs in early times, 358

for live stock, two kinds of fluctuations, 142
Prime heavy hogs, 366-7
Prolificacy in swine, 397
Purebred, definition of, 150-1

live stock, points of superiority, 153

utility value of, 152-3
see Registered purebred live stock.

Quarantine divisions at markets, 94

Rack described, 463

Railroads, early shipments of cattle by, 83
Ram, age to begin using, 275
definition of, 217

mutton breeding, type desired in, 272-5
number of ewes to breed to, 275
Rambouillet, 287
Range, see Western range.
Records, fastest trotting and pacing, 454

highest, by dairy cows in U. S., 190-1
value in breeding dairy cattle, 196-7
202-5
for beef, 162
Refrigeration, artificial, 91-2
Refrigerator car, 91-2

effect on number of live hcgs
shipped from Chicago, 353
Registered purebred live-stock —
number in U. S., cattle, 30

hogs, 314-5
horses, 431
sheep, 216
percentage in U. S., cattle, 150, 198
hogs, 398
horses, 504
sheep, 271
Renick, George, cattle feeding operations of, 82-3
Ringbone, 531
Road horse class, 489-90

puff, 534
Roadster type, description of, 453-9

origin of, 428
Roaring, 531-2
Roasting pigs, 373
Roughs, 372

Route cars of packing companies, 92
Rudimentaries of bull, 177
Runabout horses, 489-90
Running horse, origin of, 425

walk described, 464-5

Saddle Horse, American, origin of, 428-9
class, 490
first, origin of, 424
type, description of, 460-8
Sand crack, 532
Sausage casings, 237

value produced in U. S., 347
Scouring wool, 302
Scrub animal, definition of, 151

dairy cows, records of production, 199-201
Scurs, definition, 31
Secretion of milk, 180-7
Sex differences in beef carcasses, 58

hog carcasses, 338-9, 350, 358
sheep carcasses, 233-4
Shearing sheep, 288

hand vs. machine, 307
Shearling, definition of, 217
Sheep, adaptability of, 270-1

and lambs, marketing by seasons, 241-3

number slaughtered under fed-
eral inspection in U. S., 263
at Chicago, number, value, and weight,

239-40
branding with paint, 306
breeding, conditions suitable to, 270-1

for market, 267-78
breeds, 215-6

wool of, classified, 299
by-products from slaughtering, 235-7
carcass, 228-38

see Mutton carcass,
caul, 229

center of production in U. S., 270
classes of, 215

charges for selling at Chicago, 239-40
dressing, method of, 228-9
percentage of, 230
feed and labor requirements, 213-4
feeder markets, 243

sale by seasons at Chicago, 242
fill at markets, 240
industry in U. S. in early times. 267

Index

511}

Sheep, continued

market classes and grrades, 244-66

markets and their receipts, 239^3

most profitable kind to grow, 216-7

must be handled at markets, 241

native and western, 244-6

number, value, and distribution in U. S.,

269-70
numbers in leading countries, 268
oflfal, 229-30
pelt, value of, 235-7
prices at Chicago, 263-6
purebred and reg:istered, percentage in

U. S., 271
raising, advantages of, 214-5
present status of, 213
see Ewe, Lamb, Mutton, and Ram.
shearing, 288
shrinkage in shipping, 240
slaughter compared with other slaughter, 335

see Slaughter and Slaughtering,
sorting and selling at Markets, 241
source of improvement in, 271-2
spread in price of, 377-8
terms, definition of, 217
types of, 215-7

weights, monthly averages at Chicago, 240
Shoddy, 291

Shoeing, cost at Chicago, 478
Short-feds, 121
Shote, definition of, 315

Show-yard classification by ages, cattle, 31-2
hogs, 315-6
horses, 400-1
sheep, 217
Shrinkage in slaughtering and proces.sing, hogs,
348-9
transit, beef cattle, 80
hogs, 354
sheep, 240
of wools, 297-9
Sickle hocks, 420-1
Sidebone, 532
Skins of goats, value of, 237
sheep, value of, 237
Slaughter at Chicago, number of calves, 91
cattle, 91
hogs, 361
sheep, 239
in U. S. annually, beef, 145-6
hogs, 383
mutton, 268-9
pork compared with
other meats, 335
veal, 145-6
see Dressing.
Slaughtering and dressing cattle, 47-8
hogs, 336-7
sheep, 228-30
bofirs on farms, 352
see Dressing.
Sloan, Tod, his method of riding, 414-5
Smoked meats, 347
Soil fertility, maintenance of, 20
Sorting at markets, feeder cattle, 107-8
hogs, 374-5
sheep, 241
wool, 300-1
Soundness as a factor in value of horse, 478-9

in breeding ewes, 261
Southern chunks, 483
Southerns, 121
Sow, age to begin breeding, 398

type desired in, 395-8
Sows, big type, ease of farrowing, 394

pregnant, dockage at markets, 357-8
seedy, 338-9
Spanish horse, origin of, 425

Merino, 279
Spavins, 525

Spayed heifer, definition of, 30
Spaying heifers, reasons for, 104-5
Speculators, 87
Splint, 532-3

Spraying hogs at markets, 94
Spread in price of beef steers, 144

Spread in price of, continued

cattle, 377 8

hogs, 376-8

sheep, 377-8

Spring lambs, 248

Springer cows and heifers, 137

Sprung knees, 533

St. Louis Stock Yards, date opened, 85
Steg, definitions of, 30, 217, 315, 400
Stags, 129, 254, 372

dockage in weight on hog market, 357-8
Stallion, age to begin using, 503
definition of, 400
type desired in, 504
Standardbred horse, origin of, 428
type of, 453-9
Stearin, 349

value of, produced in U. S., 347
Steer and heifer beef compared, 102-5
beef type vs. dairy type, 70-7
class on market, 122-7
definition of, 30
Steers, beef, prices monthly and yearly at Chicago
142-4
spread in, 144
changes in, due to feeding, 42-4
good to prime, spread in prices, 378
see Cattle and Feeder,
weights at various ages, 45-6
Stepping pace described, 463-4
Stock cows, 137
heifers, 137

yard companies, revenue of, 85
company, functions of, 85
yards, government supervision of, 88
Stocker and feeder calves, 136

cattle, classes and grades, 133-7
sale by seasons, 106
where bought, 106-7
how differs from feeder, 133-4
see Feeder.
Stockers, yearling, 135-6
Stomach worm of sheep, 245-6
Stringhalt, 533
Sub-class, 123-4
Sugar mules, 519-20
Suprarenalin, 237
Sweet-pickled meats, 347
Sweetbreads, 66

Swift and Company, branch houses and car routes,
92
G. F., first refrigerator car shipment by, 92
Swine, advantages of raising, 311
breeds of, 314-5
see Hog, Pig, and Pork,
types of, 313-4
Swollen legs, 533

Tallow, 65-6

and oleo oil, value produced in U. S., 347
Tankage, meat meal, manufacture of, 66
Teats of dairy cow, 171-2

structure of, 181-2
Teeth as indication of age of cattle, 46

horses, 421-3
sheep, 227
Temperament, dairy, 174
Tests of dairy cows at expositions, 189
Texas and western range cattle, 120-1

cattle, movement into other states, 147-9
Thick wind, 531-2
Thoroughbred, origin of, 425
Thoroughpin, 533
Three-gaited saddle horse, 465
Throw-out lambs, 262
Thrush. 533-4
Thyroidin, 237

Tick-infested cattle at markets, 94
Top, 290

Tractor, effect on horse industry, 430-1
Traders, 87

Traders' Live-Stock Exchange, 87
Transportation, early methods of, 82-3
Tripe, 66, 237

Trotting gait described, 458
horse, origin of, 428

544

Index

Trotting, continued

records, 453-4
Tuberculin test of cattle at markets, 94
Turk horse, origin of, 425
Two-shear, definition of, 217
Two-tooth, definition of, 217

Type and market class, distinctions between, 119-20
definition of, 29
in hogs, changes in, 388-90
of horse to breed, choice of a, 498-9
value of, in beef making, 70-7
Types of cattle, 28-9
horses, 431

effects of mechanical inventions on,

430-1
origin of, 424-31
sheep, 215-7
swine, 313-4

Udder of cow, blood supply of, 183-4
structure of, 180-2
dairy cow, 170-2
Union Stock Yards, Chicago —

description of, 85
founding of, 84-5
methods and cost of market-
ing horses at, 477-8
see Chicago.

sources of receipts, 79-80
Unsoundness in the horse, 523-34

Vaccination of hogs at markets, 94
Variations in usefulness of dairy cows, 188-94
Veal calves, 132-3

when marketed in large numbers, 133

consumption in U. S., 146, 384

various countries, 335

exports and imports, 146

production, annual, in U. S., 145-6

see Calves.

value of, produced in U. S., 347

Wagon horses, 483-8

Walk, running, described, 464-5

trot, canter horse, 465
War horse, origin of, 425
Warmed-up cattle, 121
Weanling, definition of, 400
Weeds, 492

Weight desired in market bacon hogs, 327-8
dressed, average of lambs, 230
sheep, 230
for age, beef bulls and cows, 157
draft horses, 446
lard hogs, 326
steers, 45-6
hogs sell largely according to, 393-4
importance of, in draft horses, 432-3
of draft horses, 446

hogs, most profitable, 326
veal calves, 132-3
Weights of beef cattle in early times, 96-7
cattle monthly at Chicago, 80-1

stockers and feeders, 134
hog carcasses, 341
hogs in early times, 388-9

January at Chicago, 3S9
market classes, 365
mature bacon type, 328

lard type, 326
monthly and yearly averages at

Chicago, 356-7
packed in winter in West, 389
yearly at Chicago, 389

seven markets, 355-6
horses, 481
lambs, fat, 249-50

feeders, 256-7
pork products, 345, 346
sheep monthly at Chicago, 240
Western range cattle, 120-1

breeding in various states

155-6
movement into corn belt,
147-9

Western range, continued

receipts at Chicago, 79
live-stock industry, 25
horses, 491

sheep, characteristics of, 244-6
prices at Chicago, 263-4
Wether, definition of, 217
Wethers, fat, 254

feeders, 259
Wheel mules, 521
Whistling, 532
Wholesale cuts of beef, 58-60

mutton and lamb, 234-5
pork, 343-5
Wiltshire side, 342
Windgall, 534
Wool, black, 307
burs in, 307
carbonization of, 302-3
clip of world, 303
consumption per capita, 288
cooperative marketing of, 308-10
cotted or matted, 307
dyeing, 291

factors determining value of, 305-8
felting quality of, 289
fiber, strength of, 306

structure of, 288-9
fineness of, 289-90
frowzy, 300
grading, 294-300
imports and exports, 304-5
market classes and grades, 294-300
marketing properly, 307-8
markets in America, 305
Ohio Sheep and Wool Growers' Associa-
tion, 310
packing, 307
painted, 306

pooling by growers, 308-10
pounds per pound of cloth, 291
prices of scoured and raw, 305-6
-producing sta- e; 303-4
production in U. S., 303-4
pulling, 301-2
scouring, 302
see Fleece and ' /^ ols.
shearing, hand ^ - machine, 307
shrinkage, 304, ' .-6

of va .s grades, 297-9
sorting, 300-1
tags, 306
wet, 307
Woolens and worsteds, 290-1
Wools, American, how to improve, 307-8
and wool growing, 288-310
bright and semi-bright, 292
carding, 290
carpet, 292

classifications of, 292-300
clipped and pulled, 292
clothing, 290
combing, 290

and clothing, values of, 294
domestic and territory, 292-3
government standards, 299-300
Ohio, 292

see Fleece and Wool.

washed, unmerchantable, and unwashed,
293-4
Worms, stomach, of sheep, 245-6
Worsteds and woolens, 290-1

Yardage charges at Chicago —

cattle and calves, 87-8

hogs, 354

sheep and goats, 240
Yearling sheep, fat, 253-4
feeders, 259

stockers, 135
Yeld mare, definition of, 400
Yolk, 223

secretion and composition, 290
Yorkers, 370-1

nOfEKTY tmiART

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