EXIIBKK UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
JOHN HENRY NASH LIBRARY
<8> SAN FRANCISCO <8>
PRESENTED TDTHE
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
ROBERT GORDON SPRQUL, PRESIDENT.
MR.ANDMRS.MILTON S.RAV
CECILY, VIRGINIA AND ROSALYN RAY
RAY OIL BURNER COMPANY
MODERN METHODS OF
BOOK COMPOSITION
THE PRACTICE OF TYPOGRAPHY
MODERN METHODS OF
BOOK COMPOSITION
A TREATISE ON
TYPE-SETTING BY HAND AND BY MACHINE
AND ON THE PROPER ARRANGEMENT
AND IMPOSITION OF PAGES
BY
THEODORE LOW DE VINNE, A.M.
n
NEW YORK
THE CENTURY CO.
1904
Copyright, 1904, by
THEODORE Low DEVINNE
Published October, 190U
THE DEVINNE PRESS
CONTENTS
Chapter
i EQUIPMENT.
Types . . . Stands . . . Cases . . . Case-racks.
ii EQUIPMENT 39
Galleys and galley-racks . . . Compositors' implements
Brass rules and cases for labor-saving rule and leads
Dashes and braces . . . Leads . . . Furniture of wood
and of metal . . . Furniture - racks . . . Quotations and
electrotype guards.
in COMPOSITION 75
Time-work and piece-work . . < Customary routine on
book-work . . . Justification . . . Spacing and leading
Distribution . . . Composition by hand and machine
Proper methods of hahd-work . . . Recent mannerisms.
iv COMPOSITION OF BOOKS Ill
Title-page . . . Preface matter . . . Chapter headings
and synopsis . . . Subheadings . . . Extracts . . . Notes
and illustrations . . . Running titles and paging at
head or at foot . . . Poetry . . . Appendix and index
Initials . . . Head-bands, etc.
v DIFFICULT COMPOSITION 171
Algebra . . . Tables and table-work . . . Music and
music cases . . . Genealogies.
vi Contents
Chapter Page
vi FOREIGN LANGUAGES ....... 231
Accents . . . Greek . . . Hebrew . . . German.
vii MAKING UP 255
The running title . . . Signatures . . . Notes, tables,
extracts, and illustrations.
vni STONE-WORK
Stones and chases . . . Exact adjustment of mar-
gins . . . Locking up ... Taking proofs . . . Correc-
tions . . . Clearing away.
ix IMPOSITION 331
Elementary principles . . . Schemes for various forms
'from two and four to one hundred and twenty-eight
pages . . . Inset forms . . . Oblong pages . . . The leaf-
let . . . Small pamphlets . . . New method of collating
Folding-machines . . . Concluding remarks.
x MACHINE- COMPOSITION 397
Review of early methods . . . General organization
Assembling and keyboard mechanisms . . . Learning
to operate . . . Management of the linotype machine
Temperature of metal . . . Treatment of matrices and
of space-bands . . . The melting-pot, mould, and disk
The assembling elevator . . . Correct keyboard fin-
gering.
PREFACE
IN A BOOK previously published the literary
side of type-setting was treated under the
title of Correct Composition. This book, its
intended supplement, will be confined to com-
ments upon the mechanical methods of Book
Composition.
In ordinary conversation this phrase is un-
discriminatingly applied to composed types
in small pages, whether plain or decorated, of
four leaves or of forty volumes. So consid-
ered, the subject seems almost limitless. It
must be evident that there are too many
kinds of books and too many fashions in
type-setting to be thoroughly described in an
ordinary duodecimo.
The book composition here to be treated is
that of the ordinary book of the established
publisher the plain book made to be used
and read more than to be decorated and ad-
mired as an exhibit of typographical skill.
As the plain book is always in most request,
its construction should be the earlier study
vii
viii Preface
of the young compositor, for whom this book
has been prepared. To the buyer of a book
who is also its reader, its value is in the im-
portance, real or fancied, of its information.
Next follows easily readable type, tastefully
arranged in orderly pages with proper mar-
gins, clearly printed in strong black ink on
appropriate but unpretentious paper. En-
graved illustrations to explain the text, head-
bands and tail-pieces of harmonious design
that close the staring gaps of chapter breaks
and vary the monotony of print, here and
there letters or lines in a bright red, are some
of a few permissible attractions ; but after all
has been done by the type-founder, paper-
maker, designer, and printer, the great value
of the book is not in type or decoration, but
in what the author has written.
Scant attention can be given to decoration.
To describe with proper detail usual methods
of workmanship in the decorated book or
pamphlet that is now in favor would be a
hopeless task. A thick volume of facsimiles
printed in colors would be required for an
instructive exhibit of medieval and modern
styles of printing, but the book so prepared
would be of small service to the young com-
positor. The decorated book is not a proper
model for every-day service. It might be
harmful, for it presents suggestions of styles
Preface ix
or methods that are impracticable in any
printing-house with a scant supply of types
or borders. Decoration is of doubtful value
when it diverts the eye from matter to man-
ner, from the thought of the writer to the
skill of the printer. The unavoidably dimin-
ished performance of every experimental dec-
orator with type, and the increased cost of
his work, are other unpleasing consequences.
No ornamental style now in vogue can be
offered as one of permanent favor, for fash-
ions in type-setting are as fickle as fashions
in dress. To examine and compare the dif-
ferent styles of decorative composition that
came in and went out of vogue during every
ten years of the last century is to be fore-
warned that eccentricities of present popu-
larity may be disliked in the near future.'
It may be that in my explanations I have
been more minute than is customary in man-
uals of printing. An expert compositor may
smile at the frequency of suggestions that
he does not need now, but there was a time
when he did need them. Every master printer
of experience will agree with me that the
apprentice needs minute instruction, perhaps
to reiteration, in the rudiments of printing.
To space words evenly, to put proper blanks
between lines of display, to make up matter
in symmetrical pages and to impose them
x Preface
for the convenience of pressmen and binders,
may seem trifles to those compositors who
rate speed higher than skill or good taste,
but the remark of a great artist may here
be repeated, Trifles make perfection, and per-
fection is not a trifle.
The equipment of a book-printing house
with the new styles of cases and stands that
are required in modern practice has received
as much attention as space allows, but the
list is incomplete, for new styles of merit are
increasing in number. There is a demand in
every printing-house for more compactness
in the stowage of materials, with a proper pro-
vision for greater facility in their handling.
As an aid to this object, suggestions have
been made about new arrangements for leads,
brass rules, furniture, and extra sorts of type.
There are chapters that claim the attention
of a mature compositor. Every book-print-
ing house is required at times to provide
lines or paragraphs in the proper characters
of foreign languages, or to set bars of music
or formulas in algebra. To those who have
little or no experience in the handling of the
strange types required, the information here
presented will be of service. In the compila-
tion of this matter I have had many helpers,
to whom I here renew acknowledgments and
thanks.
Preface xi
Algebra, based upon an article in Lefevre's
Guide Pratique du Compositeur, was revised
and made clearer by Henry Burchard Fine,
Ph.D., professor of mathematics at Princeton
University.
Music was specially written for this work
by Mr. James H. Martin of New York. His
treatise on this subject will prove a thorough
explanation of a much-neglected department
of composition.
Greek has been revised by Benjamin E.
Smith, L.H.D., editor of the Century Dic-
tionary.
Hebrew has been corrected by Mr. Frank
Horace Vizetelly, assistant editor of the Jew-
ish Encyclopedia.
These departments of book composition
are not common, but they are sure to appear
occasionally in ordinary copy, and every com-
positor should be qualified to put them in type
with a reasonable approach to correctness.
Machine-composition was written for this
work by Mr. Philip T. Dodge, president of
the Mergenthaler Linotype Company.
Correct Keyboard Fingering was contrib-
uted by Mr. John S. Thompson, instructor of
the machine -composition branch of the In-
land Printer Technical School, and author
of a treatise of great value on The Mechanism
of the Linotype.
MODERN METHODS OP
BOOK COMPOSITION
EQUIPMENT
Types . . . Stands . . . Cases . . . Case-racks
TYPES
PRINTING-HOUSE that is
fitted for the practice of one
branch only of printing, as for
law cases, weekly newspapers,
or plain reprints, does not need
a large variety of faces or sizes
of type, but when it is in-
tended that it shall be properly equipped for all
kinds of book composition, large fonts of text types
on the bodies of 12- 11- 10- 8- and 6-point are indis-
pensable. Types on 9- and 7-point bodies, not often
required, may be provided in smaller fonts. Types
on smaller bodies and of still smaller fonts will be
i i
2 A book-house needs many types
needed for foot- and side-notes. The larger bodies
of 14- 18- and 24-point will be useful for the texts
of quartos and larger sizes, or as letter of display.
To this assortment must be added small fonts of
two -line capital letters for title-pages and plain
initials varying in size from 8- to 72-point. There
must be also types of bold face of many sizes, plain
and condensed, for side- or subheadings ; galleys,
leads, brass rules, racks, stones, chases, wood and
metal furniture, and many labor-saving devices.
Nor is this all. To meet the notions of different
buyers, there should be at least one complete series
of old-style type or some other variation from the
standard of modern roman letter. The difficulty
of providing for unforeseen requirements presents
itself in another direction. It often happens that
the largest fonts have been insufficiently provided
with one or more characters. Books must be ex-
pected that will call for an increase in the supply
of capitals, italics, figures, points, quadrats, etc.
Foreign languages and scientific treatises will re-
quire accents and signs that are not supplied with
the regular font of type. There is no book-house,
however large or well equipped, that does not have
to send to the type-foundries frequent orders for
additions to large fonts, known as " sorts."
In every printing-house supposed to be amply
equipped for miscellaneous book and pamphlet
work, but a small portion of its types can be kept
in daily use. Buyers' tastes are very capricious.
Supply must exceed demand 3
During one week nearly all the compositors may
be setting 10-point old-style ; in another week they
will be setting 11 -point modern. Material must
be largely in excess of daily needs, and the master
printer must be accustomed to have nine tenths
or more of his type stand idle every day. It should
be assumed at the outset that in a fully equipped
book-house one thousand dollars' worth of printing-
material in types, presses, and their appliances will
be needed to keep each workman in reasonably
steady employment. In the house that does one
branch only of printing, the average will not be so
high, but in large book-houses it often exceeds one
thousand dollars. Yet the value of the types and
their appliances handled daily by each piece-com-
positor rarely exceeds one hundred dollars. This
is largely out of proportion to the sum invested,
but the large investment is not to be evaded.
Composition can be economically done only when
there are types enough to keep the compositors in
steady employment. 1 It is possible, and sometimes
it is unavoidable when a font too small has been
1 A printing-house always does be filled with additions and alter-
work to disadvantage when com- ations that keep compositors at
position has to be suspended for correction instead of composi-
want of type or sorts, but suspen- tion. The return of forms from
sions are frequent. There are the press-room or foundry may
many occasions for this suspen- be delayed by accident. When
sion. Copy may be sent in irregu- the font of type is small, any one
larly, and in too small quantity, of these hindrances will stop
Proofs may be withheld by the composition. Every contributor
author beyond the time agreed to the work should keep pace
on. When returned, they may with his mates.
4 Stands wasteful of floor -space
provided, to print a book from type not sufficient
for a form of four or eight pages ; but work so
hampered is always done expensively, and is li.-iMe
to peculiar faults. Every prosperous book -office
has large fonts of the regular text types, varying
in weight from two thousand to twenty thousand
pounds.
The type required for a specified number of pages
has been tabulated, 1 but the table makes no allow-
ance for type that has to be kept standing by delays
of author. To estimate the weight of the type re-
quired for a work, begin with a knowledge of the
weight of the type set up in one day by the com-
positors employed on that work. Next estimate
the time that may be taken between composition
and the return of the type for distribution. This
time will vary from two days to two months, for
proofs sent abroad may be kept out much longer.
The weight of the composed types that have to be
kept idle, and that are unavailable for any other
purpose, must be determined. Type enough must
be provided to keep compositors employed for a
specified number of days, but to make provision for
unexpected hindrances, the supply required may be
much greater than would seem necessary.
The most noticeable objects in a composing-room
are not the types but the type cases, exposed breast-
high. The stands that so uphold these cases are
bulky and wasteful of floor-space, for cases in use
l See Plain Printing Types, p. 176.
Description of the stand 5
should have abundant light, although the height
of an upper case near a window often obstructs the
lighting of other cases in the middle of the room.
It follows that some compositors may have to work
with insufficient light, too far apart, and without
needed supervision or help from fellow- workmen.
Italic, accents, or display letter that may be needed
frequently, as well as the galley that receives com-
posed type, are often at an inconvenient distance.
Greater compactness is needed in cities where room
rent and artificial lighting are serious expenses.
It is not a trivial task to keep materials accessi-
ble and in good order, but in no workshop does the
rule, "A place for everything, and everything in
its place," call for more rigorous enforcement than
in the composing-room. To meet the conflicting
requirements of closer compactness and of more
space, some of the old and new forms of printing-
house furniture call for more careful examination.
STANDS
The stand (or frame, as it is called in England) is
an open framework of pine wood made to support
the cases of type. The cross-pieces at the top that
connect the front with the back are at different
inclinations, so that the lower case may be at a low
and the upper case at a higher angle. So placed,
the compositor can see and reach all the characters
exposed in the two cases.
The common double stand
Stands are made of two sizes, and are known as
double and single. The dimensions of the double
stand, which exposes four cases, are : length, 4 feet
6 inches ; width, 1 foot 10 inches ; height at back,
4 feet 6 inches; height in front, 3 feet 6 inches.
The single stand that exposes two cases only, about
one half the length of the double, is not so common.
Double stand of usual form, containing rack for cases. 1
l To break the habit of resting
the feet on the lower cross-piece
of the stand, and to prevent the
accumulation of pi or dust on
the floor, some daily newspaper
houses have the cases rest on
strong iron bars that project
from the side-walls. Stands are
also made of iron pipe, but they
are most used in news-houses.
Unhandiness of the common stand 1
Double stands are oftenest arranged back to back
between windows, so that four compositors can
work in the alley so made. As the ordinary stand
has no provision for a galley, compositors have
to empty their sticks on galleys at an inconvenient
distance. It is often without a drawer for the safe-
keeping of copy and cuts. It accommodates in an
interior rack, but with some inconvenience to the
compositor, six or eight cases on one side of the
frame, but leaves unoccupied a large space on the
other side, and a broad vacancy under the project-
ing upper cases at the top. This upward projection
at the back seriously obstructs the light of those
who work at a distance. Stands have been made
low enough for the compositor to work seated, but
they are not liked : nearly all compositors prefer to
stand at work.
Double stands are also made with a support for a
galley that can be placed inclined upright between
the two exposed lower cases. This stand, more than
five feet wide, allows the space below to be utilized
for the stowage of two tiers of cases. A more use-
ful form provides for an inclined galley-ledge in a
sliding drawer (which also serves for copy out of
use), so that the galley can be drawn out and put
back without risk of piing the composition.
A much-approved departure from the old form
is known as the Polhemus double stand, 1 which
was constructed with an intent to have the back as
1 Designed by John Polhemus, New York, 1872.
8
The Polhemus double stand
accessible as the front. Two compositors only can
work in the alley so reduced. The exposed cases,
supported by iron brackets, are placed on the top of
a broad cabinet rack that contains thirty-six cases,
a broad standing galley, and a galley - closet for
Polhemus double stand, panelled.
Front view of a panelled stand with galley-support and cases
at the back. The lower cases rest on angled supports
that allow these cases to be inclined backward.
movable galleys, but the last-named cases and gal-
leys are at the back and not at the front of the
workmen. The two compositors who work side
by side can empty their composed type on the gal-
ley behind them, which is equally serviceable for
Cases upon cabinets are preferred 9
correction or storage of distributable type. Nor
will they be disturbed at work if a third compositor
should withdraw a case from the rack.
In printing-houses recently equipped, cabinets
with case-upholding brackets of an improved form
are preferred for their greater compactness and
Bear view of the Polhemus double stand.
cleanliness. In the old-fashioned double stand the
few cases in its rack below were widely separated
and unavoidably received daily deposits of dust
and paper rubbish. The old cases were held in their
racks by supports of wood that suffered wear from
continued rubbing. In all modern type cabinets of
10 Cabinet stands and cases
improved construction, steel runs fastened to the
side of the frame with countersunk screws are bet-
ter substitutes for runways of wood, for they en-
able the cases to slide with more ease and lessen
their wear. The steel runs have the greater advan-
tage of enabling the maker-up to put cases closer
together. Some forms of cabinets of double size
will hold forty cases in their type-racks.
Another form of case-rest is designed to enable
two compositors to work facing each other, over
a cabinet rack that holds eighteen air-tight cases.
It is planned to be placed in front of a window.
As with the Polhemus stand, a third compositor
can have unobstructed access to ten cases under-
neath while the two compositors are at work.
CASES
The cases on top of the cabinet that serves as a
stand are held in proper angle by iron brackets.
One kind of iron bracket is constructed to swing
on a proper rest, so that it can be tilted upward
and enable the compositor to empty his composed
type on the galley underneath his case, or to make
use of the top of the cabinet for the safe-keeping
of copy out of use.
The case provided for ordinary composition is a
shallow tray of wood 16j inches wide, 32 inches
long, and 1 inch deep, divided by thin wood par-
titions into separate compartments, or boxes, as
The ordinary upper case 11
called by compositors, so that there shall be a box
for every character of the font. For the composi-
tion of ordinary copy in roman type are needed two
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Upper case, usual arrangement.
cases, respectively known as the upper and the
lower case, so called from the positions they have on
the stand. The upper case has ninety-eight boxes,
which contain capitals, small capitals, and minor
sorts that are seldom used ; the lower case has fifty-
four boxes, which contain the lower-case charac-
ters, figures, points, spaces, and quadrats.
The arrangement of the characters in the upper
boxes of the upper case, as shown in this diagram,
is not uniform in every city, or even in every house.
Some houses adhere to an old fashion of putting
the large capitals on the left side, but the greatest
irregularity is in the freakish placing of fractions,
reference-marks, braces, and dashes, that are trans-
posed by the chance piece -compositor to suit his
12 The upper case has too many boxes
own notion of convenience. A strange compositor
who begins to work on a case that has been laid or
altered by a new scheme has to relearn the loca-
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Lower case, usual arrangement.
tioii of the minor sorts. As these sorts are rarely
used and are out of easy reach and inspection, he
learns the new locations imperfectly and distributes
incorrectly. In many offices the three upper rows
of the upper case are nests of dust and pi.
It would be of mutual advantage to compositor
and employer if these three upper rows were abol-
ished, and the sorts assigned to them were kept in
a separate case, as is done with accents and signs.
Book copy rarely calls for any of these sorts. The
reference-marks have been supplanted by superior
figures, and the sectional braces by solid braces.
Fractions are rarely needed, not often enough to
justify the space they take. If frequency of use
could determine the admission of extra sorts in the
Attachments to the case 13
capital case, italic should have preference, but no
compositor of experience would favor this arrange-
ment. The inconvenience suffered in seeking italic,
fractions, or signs from a distant case is not so great
as that endured in looking for misplaced sorts in
dusty and inconvenient boxes. If the lower case
were made longer, wider, and not so high, then the
capitals and small capitals could be put therein and
be brought within easier reach. Not the least of
the advantages to be gained by the use of one case
only would be the increased diffusion of light in the
darker parts of a composing-room.
The only practical case now made to remedy this
old mistake is the "patent hinged case" so called
because the upper case contains but five long tiers
of boxes, instead of seven as is customary. The
suppression of these two upper tiers shortens its
height, and favors the increased diffusion of light.
The two cases so connected by the hinge can slide
on the same cleat in the ordinary case-rack.
Any unusual sort needed in composition can be
put in a small annex box of tinned iron, which may
easily be attached to any large box, and as readily
be removed.
The boxes of an ordinary upper case and lower
case are supposed to be arranged so that the sorts
most used shall be nearest to, and those least used
farthest from, the reach of the compositor. It is also
supposed that the unequal sizes of the boxes are in
proportion to the unequal use of the characters
14 Irregularities in the lay of the case
they contain. These suppositions are not entirely
correct. The boxes have been made of whole, half-,
and quarter-size more to suit the convenience of a
case-maker than to provide
for the intelligent appor-
tionment devised by type-
founders. The most needed
sorts are fairly placed, but
the justifying spaces are
scattered in very inconve-
Annex box. nient positions. 1
The upper case and lower
case, when put upon the stand, expose a surface of
about seven square feet, which is too large a sur-
face to be covered by the travel of the compositor's
1 Illustrations of early com-
posing-rooms show that the first
printers tried to put all the types
needed for the text in one large
case. They laid the types in al-
phabetical order, beginning at
the upper left-hand corner, and
ever since we have adhered to
one feature of this early usage.
Our modern lower case has in
the first row of large boxes the
letters b, c, d, e, f, fi, ff , g. The
second row has 1, m, n, o, y, p ;
the third row has v, u, t, r. The
types of a, i, s, h, w, r, seem to
have been put out of the old
order to bring them in easier
reach. Printers of northern
Europe, who use text types with-
out small capitals, prefer a case
in one piece, but in England and
America the case in two parts
has always had most favor. The
" lay " of the upper case has re-
ceived many changes. In his
Mechanick Exercises of 1683,
Moxon presents an upper case
with the large capitals in the
upper left corner, and with fig-
ures in the lower left corner.
It has no small capitals. The
boxes that would otherwise be
vacant are filled with signs. In
his treatise of 1890 on Printing,
Jacobi gives a diagram in which
the capitals are put in the upper
left corner. In his Practical
Printing of 1892, Southward
shows a model case with capi-
tals at the right and small capi-
tals at the left of the lower part
of the upper case. In all the
English schemes, figures are
stowed in the upper case.
Space boxes inconveniently placed 15
hand, for he who sets five thousand ems of solid
type in one day has to make his hand travel about
six or seven miles. The hand -travel in distribu-
tion is about one third more.
The more distant boxes on the left side of the
ordinary upper case are nearly thirty inches from
the stick in the hand of the compositor, and in a
direction in which the right arm has not free play.
To reach too distant boxes, the compositor of low
stature has to move his feet, at some inconvenience
and loss in performance.
A case that will shorten the travel of the hand
should materially increase the performance of the
compositor. With this end in view, a smaller case,
known as the E/ooker. 1 was introduced, which is
about one fifth smaller than the ordinary case. It
is used to some extent in daily newspaper offices, but
is rarely found in book -houses. It holds letter
enough for brevier and all smaller sizes, but not
enough for a day's work with larger types.
The accepted form of lower case has many seri-
ous defects. Facilities for justification and even
spacing have not been considered. The boxes for
spaces are too far apart, when they should be clus-
tered. Nor are the space boxes of proper size. In
every font of letter the f our-to-em spaces furnished
are about the same weight as that of the letter i,
yet i has a full box in easier reach, while the four-
to-em space in a quarter-box is not so accessible.
1 Invented by Thomas N. Rooker, of New York, about 1858.
16 Analysis of a font of type
The most needed three-to-em space is about of the
same thickness as the lower-case t, but each sort
occupies a box of the same size, although the type-
founders furnish in weight one half more of the
three-to-em space than of t. Nor are the boxes
for other characters adapted to supply. Points
like ; : ! ? and types of j, X, and Z, averaging about
ten ounces each, have separate boxes as large as
that given to the four-to-em space that is provided
in a weight of nearly ten pounds. Some of the
small boxes could be contracted without inconve-
nience, and the space saved be given to boxes that
are now too small.
The difference between space required and space
allowed for each sort will be more plain after a study
of the scheme made by the Bruce Type Foundry 1
for a font of four hundred and twenty pounds :
Lower-case sorts. lb. oz. Italic. ib. oz.
Lower-case letters . . 209 7 Lower-case letters . . 28 12
Points 11 8 Capitals 8 2
Figures, etc 16
Spaces 2. 33 6 Roman accents ... 3
Quadrats 50 4 Italic accents. ... 1 7
Leaders 6 8
Upper-case sorts.
Reference-marks ..18 Total 420
Braces 1 6
Dagheg 3 2 rially disturb the percentages
Fractions 1 14 tbat have been s P ecifled in the
Capitals. .' .' .' .' .' 34 12 table Every new analysis will
Small capitals ... 7 10 show decided inequality.
2 The spaces and quadrats
1 The schemes of different constitute more than one fourth
type-founders are not exactly of the weight of the lower-case
alike, but their trivial differences sorts. The weight of the justi-
in apportionment will not mate- fying spaces is about one sixth.
Analysis of a font of type 17
The proportion that each class of sorts bears to the
entire weight of the font is shown in the follow-
ing percentages :
Lower-case . . .76 Italic 09
Upper-case . . .12 Accents, etc. . . .03
As the weight of the upper-case sorts is but twelve
per cent, of that of the complete font, and as its
minor sorts are in small request, no great advantage
could be had by altering the size of the boxes or by
changing the location of their sorts. A readjust-
ment of real value must be made in the lower case,
which takes in seventy-six per cent, of the font.
Large boxes.
c .
Wei
7
firfcfc
required.
2 20
. Quarter-boxes.
Weight.
Ib. oz.
9 4
Capacity
required.
2 91
U. . . .
7
H
2 36
4 10
1 46
d,i,r,m,each
10
3.15
m .
2
.63
s . .
1?
3 78
2
63
| space . . .
18
8
5.83
1
.33
t
12
8
3.95
12
.24
h . . . .
13
4
4.12
12
.24
n. .
15
H
4 90
1
4
06
o
15
8
4.90
J
4
06
a ...
15
H
' 4 90
o
9
63
quadrats \
37
11.64
2
2
1 12
.63
.55
e
?S
8
7.41
3 A c each
1 8
1 44
6, 7, 8, 9 each
1 4
1.60
Half-boxes.
q
1 8
.48
V . . . .
3
.95
H
1 8
.48
4
1.26
k . . . .
1 8
.48
h
/|
1 26
1
12
24
y, p, f , g, each
4
8
1.42
x
12
.24
I
5
1.57
m
12
.24
5
4
1.65
ff . . . .
1
.33
w . . . .
6
8
2.05
ffi . . . .
1
.33
8
2.52
fl
12
.24
2
18 The case has many neglected boxes
The lower case comprehends fourteen whole, eleven
half- and twenty-eight quarter-boxes, and to them
must be added the e box, which is always of largest
size. The stowage capacity of each box, as com-
pared with that of the entire lower case, is given
in these percentages : whole box, 3.57 + ; half -box,
1.78+ 5 quarter-box, 0.89 + .
The boxes for C, U, d, i, m, r are too large ; those
for h, t, n, O, and a are too small. The four-to-em
spaces should have a box three times as large ; the
five-to-em spaces, a box nearly twice as large.
For the half -boxes the want of proportion is not
so marked. The V could be put in a smaller box ; b
and , could have a box one fourth smaller ; the W
and the en quadrat are the only sorts that call for
a trifling enlargement of their boxes.
The preceding tables show that a simplification
of the lower case is needed, and that the upper case
is also in fault. Fractions, signs, and reference-
marks, that rarely appear in book- work, have posi-
tions too prominent at the top of a case. It is to
make room for these sorts that the case is made high
and the lighting of a room is obstructed. Small
capitals have been discarded in many books and
newspapers. The only series in steady request are
the capitals, but they could be attached to the lower
case, as will be shown upon another page. Small
capitals, signs, fractions, braces, and abbreviations
could be relaid in the ordinary capital case, with
other sorts in occasional request, and would be as
A lower case containing capitals 19
available in a rack under the compositor's stand.
If his copy called for these sorts in excess, they
would be as accessible there as they now are, out
of easy reach. The lower case should have more
room for spaces, and these spaces should be to-
gether. Points of punctuation and double letters
should also be in groups. To save useless travel
of the hand, and to make a more convenient lay of
the sorts, this plan of a new lower case is offered :
A
B
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Proposed arrangement of lower case with capitals.
The length of this proposed lower case is that of
the old form, 32J inches, so that it can be stowed in
the ordinary racks ; its width is one ninth greater,
or about 18| inches. The addition of a tier of quar-
ter-boxes at the side reduces the capacity of the full
boxes about a quarter of an inch ; but they will be
large enough for all bodies below 12-point.
20 Lightens work of even spacing
If this form of case were in general use, the stand
on which it rests would be narrower at least four
inches, and the highest point of the case upon that
stand would be about six inches lower than it is
now, to the saving of space and the improvement
of the lighting of the room.
This diagram is offered, not as a correctly appor-
tioned case, but as an approximation that may lead
to practical improvements hereafter. A case that
exactly apportions the space for type would be too
great and too expensive an innovation. The force
of habit that has kept unchanged for three cen-
turies the sizes and relative positions of the boxes
for the leading sorts has to be respected. Changes
have been proposed only where change seemed of
real importance. Some boxes have been enlarged
and others contracted, but there is no serious irreg-
ularity in the partitions that would increase the
labor of case-making, and no changes in boxes that
would make the case confusing to the compositor.
The greatest changes are where there is greatest
need in the sizes and positions of the space boxes.
The weight of the en quadrat and the justifying
spaces is more than one sixth the combined weight
of all the lower-case sorts, but the room that is
provided in the present form of case is only about
one half of what is needed. The en quadrat is
twelve inches distant in one direction and the four-
and five-to-em spaces ten inches distant in another
from the composing-stick in the compositor's hand.
Accessible spaces increase performance 21
As justifying and even spacing take up nearly as
much time as the picking up of type, it follows that
the labor of reaching for spaces should be lessened,
and that the spaces, which are repeatedly changed
in justification and are more handled than any other
sort, should be clustered near the compositor's stick.
As the spaces are laid in the new schemes, the com-
positor can select the en quadrat for wide-leaded
work, or the four-to-em space for solid work, with
as much facility as he now selects the three-to-em
space. Large boxes and a central position of the
spaces will be other aids to cleaner distribution.
The two- and three -em quadrats are put to the
left, but the new position will be found quite as
convenient as the old one. Few sorts are more ir-
regularly used than the large quadrats. They are
often needed in open composition, but on ordinary
plain descriptive matter they do not deserve the
accessible position they now have.
The quarter-boxes for the capitals are one eighth
smaller than those of the upper case, but they are
more accessible at the ends of the lower case. The
half -boxes and whole boxes are of the old capacity.
This form of case should enable the compositor to
increase his performance seven per cent.
To those who wish small capitals exposed, a new
arrangement is offered in the diagram on the next
page. This case is wider and longer (24J x 32 J
inches), but it will contain for each box as many
types as can be put in the regular cases.
22 A lower case with all the capitals
For ordinary composition the old-fashioned stands
and cases are sufficiently serviceable, but they are
not helpful enough when the compositor has copy
that calls for two or more sizes of roman and italic,
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An arrangement of case for capitals and small capitals.
This case has one hundred and twenty-one boxes. To make
these boxes of the usual size and in similar proportion the
case should be 20 X 42 inches, obviously too large for con-
venient handling. To keep it of the regulation length of
32^ inches, so that it could be put on the ordinary stand
and in ordinary case-racks, it must be about one half wider,
or 24^ x 32^ inches.
or for accents or display letter. For every change
of body or of face, for italic, display letter, or ac-
cents, the compositor has to leave his stand and set
the type from a case at a distance.
Compactness of the dictionary stand 23
To those who need many sorts in ready reach, an
illustration is shown on following pages of a form
of stand made for the composition of the Century
dictionary. For this work the compositor needed
twelve cases readily accessible :
Brevier, one upper case and one lower case.
Brevier italic, one capital case.
Accents for brevier, one capital case.
Brevier antique, for side-heads, one job case.
Nonpareil, one upper case and one lower case.
Nonpareil italic, one capital case.
Accents and signs for nonpareil, one capital case.
Nonpareil antique, for subheads, one job case.
Irregular sorts, two cases.
To save space and get the desired compactness, the
Rooker case, of 14 x 28 inches, was selected as large
enough for a day's work 011 the sizes of brevier and
nonpareil. Two more Rooker cases at right angles
were put on each side, tilted inward as shown in
the diagrams. The compositor, who stands before
these cases, can readily reach all the boxes of the
four cases, except those at the extreme outermost
corners. A long -armed compositor can reach all
without swaying his body. The illustrations show
the brevier upper and lower cases in the usual posi-
tion ( L and K in the diagram), with the accents to
the extreme left ( M ) and the italic to the extreme
right (I).
The framework of the stand below the extreme
right and left is utilized by adding thereto racks
26 Usefulness of the dictionary stand
with supports, so that cases least used can be put
in sidewise, and yet be kept within easy reach. A
swinging side-frame, firmJy hinged, is attached on
each side, and with supports parallel to those in the
stand. These side-frames are kept firmly in position
by the swinging iron bars T and U. When these
bars are locked, the cases on each side can be drawn
out at full length, exposing every box to view and
touch. The compositor is in the centre of three
sides of a small square, and can pick out any type
he wants from about eight hundred boxes without
leaving his frame, and for most of them without
change of position. He can select accents, or words
of italic or in display letter, without removing the
case from its rack. When the lower cases in the
side-racks are not needed, the swinging side-frame
can be put back as shown in diagram 1. To pre-
vent the cluttering up of other stands, and to save
needless travel, the galley is put on an inclined
plane in a drawer under the case in front of the
compositor. When he wishes to empty composed
matter on galley, he pulls out the drawer, unloads
his stick, and then shoves in the drawer, where the
galley interferes with no other composition, and is
not so liable to accident as in the old position on
an exposed stand.
Two of the job cases were made with capitals to
the left, and two with capitals to the right. This
keeps the most used division of the lower case
nearest to reach on right- and left-hand sides.
A new arrangement of spaces
27
The roman cases have the most needed spaces and
en quadrats directly under the compositor's hand.
This arrangement is made by putting the en-quad-
rat box next to the three-to-em-space box on the
other side of the broad bar, and by putting the f our-
and five-to-em-space and hair-space boxes next to
the three-to-em-space box. Not many other boxes
have to be disturbed for their readjustment. This
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Special lower case for dictionary.
clustering of the spaces saves time j it is an aid to
exact work and is much approved by all composi-
tors. These stands and cases cost but little more
than those of the old form. They are as econom-
ical of space as they are helpful to compositors.
Thirty compositors employed on one dictionary or
book of like nature can work in better light, more
pleasantly and efficiently, in a space of one thousand
square feet than they could do in a space twice as
large from many cases spread out after the old plan.
28
Two schemes of job case
Small fonts of italic, or of display tj^pe that has no
small capitals or minor sorts, are frequently placed
in one case of a form known as the job case.
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Job case of usual form.
To meet different needs, these job cases are made
to many plans. One form holds capitals, small cap-
itals, and lower-case; another has enlarged boxes
for capitals and contracted boxes for lower-case ;
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Job case with enlarged boxes for capitals.
The triple case 29
another has large square boxes for figures only, of
the two faces needed in some table-work.
Petty fonts of display types on small bodies are
seldom needed in the book-house, but they can be
$
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Triple case for capitals only.
compactly laid in the triple case, which will be of
service also for the proper placing of accents, reg-
ular or unusual, astronomical and other signs, and
minor sorts of all kinds. Every book-house needs
a few vacant boxes for irregular sorts.
In one division of the triple case can be put the
regular accents for roman capitals ; in another, the
accents for small capitals j and in the third division
accents for lower-case types. For italic capital and
lower-case accents another triple case should be
provided. In all the cases the accents should be
laid with system : the same vowel in boxes on a
horizontal line, the same accents in boxes on a
vertical line. A print of each accent pasted on its
30 Accent cases for roman and italic
proper box will be helpful to the new compositor,
and a safeguard against reckless distribution. In
a
a
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Accent case for roman.
the vacant boxes can be put peculiar accents not
often needed, like the longs and shorts of school-
books, and the marked vowels of Danish, Swedish,
and other languages. The tendency of modern au-
thorship is to insist on a nicer attention to accents.
A
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Accent case for italic.
Improved strength of modern cases 31
Tray cases are now made to be used as nests for
smaller cases of one-fourth size, which can be re-
moved from the tray and be placed temporarily on
the upper case or the imposing-stone. They are
used for brass rule, but will be equally serviceable,
when divided into proper compartments, for the
signs of algebra and scientific work. Sections still
smaller (5x8 and 7 X 7 inches, outside) are fur-
nished by founders for leaders, electrotype guards,
and the other characters
occasionally needed.
A great defect in cases
of old manufacture was
the splitting or warping
of wood that was not
seasoned. Some modern
cases have bottom pieces
of three thin layers of
glued wood that have
been made one solid piece
under strong pressure. The fibres of each layer
cross proximate layers at an angle, thereby making
an effective safeguard against warping or cracking.
Other makers attach to side-frames or to cases a
new form of runner that enables the case to slide
easily in its rack and prevents needless friction and
wear. The cases now made are as strong as they
are light: the corners of the boxes are strength-
ened by a long pin and clamps of thin brass that
securely bind the woodwork.
Box-fastener.
32 The tray case
Large types and borders that cannot be properly
stowed in the ordinary capital case are often needed
in a book-house for the proper composition of title-
pages and publishers' circulars. For this need a
Tray case with movable partitions.
tray case is provided with movable partitions fit-
ting into the slotted sides, that may be used with
advantage for all sizes greater than 24-point.
The tray case without compartments or slotted
sides is of service as a nest in holding the quarter
or smaller sections containing brass rules, figures,
leaders, quadrats, or any kind of sort used in ex-
cess that has to be carried to the compositor's case.
The sections are divided in compartments of differ-
ent sizes for the needs of special work.
Electrotyped illustrations that vary in size from
an inch square to fifty square inches, often furnished
in bewildering profusion, are difficult to keep in
order ; nor are half-tone cuts easily identified when
Cases for electrotyped illustrations 33
they have been made accessible. A cabinet case
for cuts, with index, is needed in all printing-houses.
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A combination of quarter cases.
These cabinets are of full, three-quarter, and two-
third sizes, and contain many air-tight tray cases.
Each case has adjustable partitions that keep to-
gether cuts of the same class. It is also labelled
with a number that refers to its written description
in the index book furnished with the cabinet. 1
i An equally useful safeguard
against confusion can be made
by numbering, in consecutive
order, each cut as soon as it is
received, by proving it, and by
pasting the proof with its num-
ber in regular order in a scrap-
book. Very small cuts, less than
one inch square, often made for
dictionaries and the catalogues
of manufacturers, can be stowed
with safety and compactness in
cardboard envelopes with box
sides and of uniform size. When
3
each envelope has been filled, a
proof of all the cuts therein
should be pasted on the inside of
its flap, and then the envelope
can be marked in ink on the ex-
posed side with the numbers of
the pages from which the cuts
have been taken as, Diction-
ary, 17-32. So treated, they can
be handled easily, piled one on
top of another, or be laid in order
in a tray case. They are protected
from dust, and can be found
without troublesome search.
34
An exposed case for quadrats and spaces
In all printing-houses it is
a rule that spaces and quad-
rats must not be distributed
in cabinet cases that hold
petty fonts. The scatter-
ing of -these sorts in many
boxes, where they are found
with difficulty, gives need-
less trouble. To prevent
this annoyance, a form of
quadrat case has been made
to rest upon the top of the
cabinet case or galley-rack.
It is intended to contain the
quadrats and spaces for all
ordinary lines of display ex-
posed in a position where
justification is facilitated.
Other ingenious designs
of cases are to be had. A
lead case for 1- 2- 3- and 6-
point bodies, for very short
leads that cannot be stowed
in the ordinary lead-rack,
is a valuable addition to a
printing-house that does al-
gebraic work or other nice
justification. The leads so
cut can be well placed in
a brass-rule case of four
Quadrat case. Other forms of case 35
sections. High and low leads and each thickness
of lead should be kept apart in a separate section.
1
|
|
48 pt.
36 pt.
24 pt.
18 pt.
12 pt.
9pt.
6pt.
The common form of quadrat case.
To save floor-space, cases of half-, two-third, and
three-quarter sizes are provided for job-printers,
who need, many small fonts of display type that are
infrequently used. Job cases are made from many
plans for capitals only, and for capital and lower-
case letters combined, as in the regular job case of
full size, and they are always fitted to accompany-
ing racks that are usually known as cabinets.
Petty cabinets are not desirable in a book-house.
Cases of usual form that can be transferred from
one rack to another, and that permit all similar
styles of type to be grouped together, will be found
of greater service.
The orderly arrangement of a composing-room
is largely prevented by irregularities in the shape
of its cases, stands, racks, stones, and closets that
36
Case-rack of wood
cannot be combined or neatly fitted to one another.
In the fitting up of a new office the stands, racks,
and closets provided should be of the full size, half-
size, or double size of the ordinary double frame, so
that each piece of furniture can be readily fitted to
another piece when any new arrangement is desired.
CASE-RACKS
Case -racks are required
for the stowage of cases
not in frequent use. In
all large printing-houses
that keep in stock one
thousand or more cases,
the case-racks occupy too
much room. Sometimes
they are placed against
a dead wall, and some-
times in the interior of
a dark room. To econo-
mize a needed space, they
are often made six, seven,
or eight feet high. At
these too high elevations
the case-rack obstructs light, and the cases are dif-
ficult to handle and are liable to be pied. It is better
practice to limit their height to five feet.
The case-racks of display type should have side-
frames, with supports that project about four or
Case-rack of wood.
Case-rack of pipe-iron 37
more inches from the frame. This extension will
enable the compositor to expose the case and set a
line therefrom without removing it from the rack.
Case-rack of pipe-iron.
Each case should be numbered with a large read-
able figure, and the duplicate of this figure should
be pasted on the side of the case-rack where the
case belongs. This method will be a safeguard
against misplacement, and of real service to the
38 Smaller sizes of case
compositor who begins to select type or distribute
in a strange printing-house.
Many of the cases here described are in com-
mon use, but other plans are required for peculiar
work. For the cases needed in the composition of
Greek, Hebrew, and music, see diagrams on later
pages under these headings. Labor-saving brass
rule, borders of brass rule for pages of different
size, space rule, braces, dashes, leaders, figures,
and short leads of different thicknesses need cases
with unequal compartments, that are often made
to order. The quarter case that nests in the tray
case is the most generally useful form of small case,
for it can be removed from its tray and placed
within easy reach of the compositor without dis-
turbing his work on the regular form of lower case.
Small cases are also made to the sizes of 7f X 15
and 7 X 7 inches, with compartments of unequal
space for the orderly keeping of short leads, leaders,
and irregular sorts in occasional request.
ISAIAH THOMAS
II
EQUIPMENT
Galleys and galley-racks . . . Compositors' tools . . . Brass
rules and cases for labor-saving rule . . . Dashes and braces
Leads . . . Furniture of wood and metal . . . Furniture-racks
Quotations . . . Electrotype guards
GALLEYS AND GALLEY-RACKS
HE galley is a tray of wood or
brass with a raised rim on two
or three sides, made to hold
composed type, for which ser-
vice it is kept in an inclined
position. The galley of wood,
which has its rim at the head
and on one side only, is frail and seldom used.
The galley of brass, with a rim at the head and on
each side, is stronger and much more durable ; it
holds the type securely, and allows it to be locked
up and proved on a press. Galleys are sometimes
40
Different kinds of galley
entirely of brass, but they oftener have wood rims
lined with brass. The length in common use is
Single galley of brass.
twenty-four inches. If less than five inches wide
it is known as a single galley ; if over six inches
wide, as a double galley; if short and wide it is
Galley of wood.
called a quarto galley. For making up and tying
up pages a short galley of brass with a low rim is
preferred. The slice galley, usually of quarto shape
and of wood, has no attached rim to the slice or tray
on which the type is placed. The rim is made by
Slice galley, partly opened.
the sides of the open box in which the slice is kept.
The slice has a handle at the narrow end, which en-
ables it to be easily removed, with its tied-up type,
from its box. The slice galley is preferred for the
Galley-racks of old form 41
making up of pages or jobs that are too large to be
seized by the hands, but that can be launched on
the stone after they have been tied up.
Galley-racks are temporary rests for the galleys
while the type on them waits for the action of the
Galley-rack with
swinging arms.
Galley-rack with
fixed arms.
reader or maker-up. The form 'frequently used in
a small office is a series of hanging arms attached
to a dead wall. Sometimes the arms are of wood,
sometimes of pipe-iron, or with joints, so that each
arm can be folded back ; but all galley-racks of this
42 New form of galley -rack
kind are wasteful of space, and invite the piing or
squabbling of the type on the galley.
In all houses that have many galleys in regular
use the form of galley-rack shown in the accom-
panying illustration is more satisfactory. It is a
series of inclined shelves, that permit the galleys
Shelf rack for galleys.
to be compactly stowed lengthwise, without risk
of damage. When each galley is numbered, and a
corresponding number is affixed to its shelf, and
this number is marked on the proof, there need be
no difficulty in finding any galley in a large rack.
The standing galley is an inclined tray, firmly
attached to the top of a cabinet case or low case-
rack, made with longitudinal divisions to the width
of the measures in greatest use. It holds standing
Standing galley with racks
43
matter that may be reimposed and used, or dead
matter intended for distribution, and should be
placed in a good light. The racks below this stand-
ing galley are often used for stowing letter-boards,
upon which tied-up pages or jobs of dead matter
can be placed. These letter-boards should have a
Standing galley with racks.
raised rim at the extreme end to protect the matter
from being jostled off when the board is suddenly
pulled out. In the small job-office a part of the
standing galley is often fitted up with separating
partitions for short leads and brass rules.
44 Composing-sticks of different designs
COMPOSITORS' TOOLS
The composing-stick is a small open tray of iron
with raised ledges on two sides, and an adjustable
knee-piece within that slides to and fro and can be
adapted to the width of any measure. 1 It is made
in many styles, differing chiefly in the mechanism
Composing-stick, common form.
by which the adjustable knee is made fast. The
common form has a screw-bolt that passes through
the back ledge and an opening in the movable knee.
The Grover stick, which tightens the knee with its
spring clamp and lever, is preferred by many job-
/r\
\\
Wooden job-stick.
compositors, for it enables them quickly to readjust
the stick to any width of measure.
The form of stick preferred in many newspaper
1 The sticks of the early print- although the material has been
ers were rude channels of wood, changed. Sticks of wood of large
made to hold but two or three size are now made only for the
lines. The name has survived, large type of posting-bills.
Tools for correcting 45
houses has the knee firmly fastened to the bottom
plate, so that the measure can never be unsettled.
Another form of stick has two adjustable knees,
one lapping over the other, and so arranged that
the matter of two measures can be set in the same
stick one for text and one for side-notes. 1
Newspaper stick of unalterable measure.
The stick needs care. If dropped upon the floor,
or allowed to rust, or if the knee is strained by over-
tight spacing, it is liable to give bad justification.
The bodkin is
a straight awl,
firmly fixed in
a handle, which
is used for withdrawing a faulty type from the
form. Bodkins are also made hooked or bent at
the point. The spring bodkin, that shuts up be-
tween tweezers, is a more useful tool.
Bodkin.
1 French composing-sticks are
shallow, holding about five lines
of pica. American and British
sticks hold ten or twelve lines
of pica. It is claimed that the
shallow stick does not fatigue
the compositor by its weight,
and enables the left hand to
follow the right in every move-
ment of picking up type.
46 Brass rules
The tweezers, that enable a compositor to pick up
and arrange types in the narrow columns of a table,
Tweezers.
is a serviceable tool for withdrawing type from a
galley or an unlocked form on the stone.
The composing-rule is a movable strip of smooth
metal, type-high, of the length of the measure re-
quired, against which the compositor places the
types that he puts in the stick. The smooth metal
allows an easy movement and adjustment of the
type when it is caught
by the thumb. The rule
is also used for empty-
ing the contents of the
stick on the galley, as a
Composing-rule. V ,,
support for type in the
act of distribution, and for dividing and moving
matter in the process of making up. The compos-
ing-rules of job- and book-printers, who have to set
type to many measures, are usually of brass ; those
of news-compositors are oftener of steel.
BRASS RULES
Brass rules, cut from hard-rolled sheet-brass and
planed to the standard height of type, are usually
furnished to the printer in strips two feet long.
Mules needed in book- work
They are rolled to conform
to the bodies of the point
system, and can be had of
all thicknesses from 1 to 12
points. Different kinds of
face are made, but each one
is designated by the arbi-
trary number of the type-
founder. Printers designate
them not so often by num-
ber as by the names of sin-
gle, parallel, double, triple,
dotted, hyphened, waved,
spurred, and fancy.
The faces most used in
book-work are commonly
known as single, parallel,
double, and dotted. The
waved, triple, and ornamen-
tal rules are never used in
plain composition.
These faces are enough for
all ordinary book- work. The
hair-line and the flat-faced
should be in abundant sup-
ply, for they will be most
needed, but the waved and
dotted rules may be of occa-
sional service. When a rule
border is planned to consist
Face
Foot
Single.
Parallel.
Double.
Dotted.
Waved.
Bevelled or Flat-faced.
48 Machines for cutting and mitring
of two parallel lines, it is better to have these lines
cut upon one thick body, for the value of the time
given to the mitring and proper joining of rules on
two thin bodies is usually greater than the price of
the thick rule.
Brass rules, neatly cut to graduated lengths and
arranged in convenient cases, are furnished by all
type-founders under the name of labor-saving rule,
but some printers find it expedient to buy rule in
strips and cut it, as occasion requires, to suitable
Mitr'ing-machine.
lengths. The tinman's shears and file, or the saw
and mitre-box, which were once the only tools in
use, are now supplanted by machines that cut the
rule without bending, and plane the cut edges with
smoothness and accuracy. There are also machines
Labor-saving rules 49
provided with fine saws for cutting thicker bodies,
and with mitring adjustments for any angle.
Rules of prescribed length should first be cut by
the gauge a trifle longer than seems needed, and
afterward trimmed down by the side-plane of the
ordinary machine. Mitred rules should be tested
in a true and square stick before they are used, for
it sometimes happens that a set of rules may be cut
of true length as to face, but over-long as to foot.
A slight deviation will prevent a true joint. Side-
planing must always be done quickly and with force.
If done feebly and timidly upon a weak machine,
the rule may spring or the plane may jump and
produce an uneven cnt. The face of the rule should
be first met by the plane ; if the foot first meets the
plane, a rough edge may be left on the face. Most
mitring-machines have dials accurately marked for
different angles. In cutting a set of mitred rules
for a border, the gauge must be set alternately at
equal distances from the right-angled line on the
dial. The machine is to be preferred that firmly
holds the rule, so that it will not spring.
A miscellaneous stock of brass rules is difficult
to keep in order. The labor-saving rules furnished
by the type-founder are usually cut to ens of pica
for all the smaller lengths ; but any house may need
rules of intermediate size, and the irregular lengths
should be kept apart in a separate case.
Labor-saving rule cases are made to many plans.
A diagram that follows shows a rule case made to
4
50 Cases for labor-saving rules
hold graduated lengths from one to fifty ems of
nonpareil. Some of the small pieces in the small
boxes are mitred for right and left joints, so that
Ti^Ki^^i^ra^i^
R nJim
2*| 2
1
li
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
2
2?
36
35
34
33
32
23
14
31
24
13
30
25
12
29
28
27
10
3
3i
4
4i
5
5i
I
21
19
18
20
17
21
16
22
15
26
11
6
6i
o 3 i
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
7
71
2
o 3 o
8
8*
2
L.O
2i
R
9
9z
A
?1
The ordinary rule case.
they can be attached to large pieces in the larger
boxes to form any length that may be desired.
With these graduated pieces the rule border can
be quickly formed without the delay of mitring.
A rule case in four sections.
Cases for labor-saving rules 51
The rules in the following case are arranged in
progressive order, so that any size can be found
readily. The strips that divide the compartments
are sunk in some places to allow the rule to be
seized by the fingers, and raised in others to pre-
vent its bruising from another overlying case. As
Improved case for brass rule.
brass rules of plain faces are needed now more
than flowers or borders of type-metal, they should
be kept in ample assortment and in liberal supply.
It is also better that each thickness and face of
rule should be kept apart in separate cases. Faces
that are easily distinguished may be kept together,
but single and parallel rule should never be mixed.
52 Rules to be selected with system
That rule case should be preferred in which cut
rules can be laid vertically, so that all rules rest on
the same base. When rules are so laid, the little
differences of length can be readily noted.
It is bad practice to expose rules upon a stand,
where they may be bruised by overlying galleys.
Brass is harder than type-metal, but the edges and
hair-lines are easily damaged, and this damage is
always noticeable in print. The counters or chan-
nels of parallel and double rule are usually cut at
a sharp angle that makes the lighter line weak and
easily bruised.
To insure uniform height and true joints, all ad-
ditions made to stock rules should be bought from
the same foundry. Rules from another foundry
may not be cut to the same height or set of face.
The faces selected should be few in number. The
bodies of 1, 2, 4, and 6 points are enough for ordi-
nary work. A large supply of a few faces is more
useful than a small supply of many faces.
As with leads, rules must be selected with sys-
tem, to prevent confusion and needless expenditure.
Rules often have to be pieced, joined, or mitred, and
it is important that the new pieces should be of the
same face and body. When purchases of many
faces of rule are made without system from differ-
ent makers, the rules so bought may differ in height
and face, and be combined with difficulty.
For ordinary letterpress work the 2-point rule of
hair-line face will be found of most usefulness for
Special rules needed for electrotyping 53
separate columns in tables. The rule borders for
these tables should be about 4 or 6 points thick,
with their thick lines flush to one side, in this way :
m
The thick line flush at one side permits neat joints
at the corners of a border without mitring, and also
allows an exact connection with the cross-rules of
tables. For the rules that divide the columns of a
page, or that follow a running title, or that precede
foot-notes, the thicker body of 6-point with blunt
bevel should be preferred.
Flat-faced rules, much used for table-work, should
be flush with the body on each side, but for special
conditions they may be made with a bevel on one
side only.
For electrotype work the thin bodies of hair-line
brass rule are objectionable in all places where they
are not protected by near-by lines of type. Their
sharp-sloped shoulders make a narrow impress in
the moulding wax, which impress is often bent or
thickened when the moulding plate is lifted from
the form of type. The impress may be too narrow
to get its needed share of blacklead, or even of
soldering tin. It often happens that the backing
metal of an electrotype plate does not entirely fill
54 Imperfections of some thin rules
the impress of a moulded rule. It follows that the
rule in this unprotected spot bends or gives way
under the pressure of the printing-press, making a
crooked or thickened line. This fault is common.
It is rare to see in a book printed from electrotype
plates all its hair-line rule borders of uniform
appearance, or exposed cross -rules that are of
uniform straightness and thickness. This fault, too
often laid to the pressman, is really caused by the
thinness and sharpness of the brass rules. Brass
rules with hair-line, intended for electrotype work,
should have blunt angles and high shoulders.
Labor-saving rule, accurately cut to graduated
lengths, is of advantage in the composition of ordi-
nary work that has to be done in haste, but it should
be generously provided and carefully handled. Un-
der the kindest usage the corners will soon round or
wear down, making a white line or a blemish where
it should show a perfect joint. For very exact work
it is safer to use rules of one piece only.
Borders of hair-line rule on 2-point body for in-
closing large pages of type should be avoided, for
they make needless delay and trouble in composi-
tion and presswork. Around small pages in small
forms it is possible to print thin rules f airly ; on
large pages and in large forms they are always un-
satisfactory. For a border line the face of 1-point
thickness is to be preferred to the hair-line rule.
The border on each side of a page should always
be single and perfect pieces of a thick body. When
Dashes, braces, metal rules 55
the rule is thin, it is rarely mitred for a border with
accuracy. Even if accurately mitred, the corners
may not join. A slight crook in the chase-bars, or
slight unevenness in justification or locking up, will
prevent the joint. This difficulty is so common that
few publishers order pages electrotyped with the
rule borders on the plates. They prefer to attach
the rules to the patent blocks, on which the rules
cannot be disconnected by any ordinary accident.
DASHES AND BRACES
Brass dashes are made to a variety of faces, but the
ones in most request are the single, parallel, and
double. The ornamental
faces, formerly known as _ = _^ ======
French dashes, are now ^=^^^=^^=
not allowed in book- work.
Brass braces are made and sold in sets, usually
on 8-point body, varying in length from four to
twenty ems, but they are sel-
dom used in book-work. A
lighter face, as used in alge-
bra, is now preferred.
Metal rules, made from
solid type-metal and cast in
moulds to the height of type,
are rarely used, for the metal
is unavoidably soft and may be porous, and the rule
made therefrom must be weak and liable to injury.
56 Space-rules and leads
Space-rules are short pieces of metal rule of hair-
line face, on 2-point body, cast to even ems and
ens of the regular bodies, but chiefly to
bodies of 6- 8- 10- 12- and 18-point. They
are made for narrow columns in which
short cross-rules are needed. Sometimes
^^^_ they are used, but unwisely, in place of
- vertical brass rules. Space-rules cast to
Space- the length of even ems of the irregular
rules> bodies of 7- 9- 11- and 14-point are made
to order only. Two or more bodies of the same
face in the same house should have a distinct nick
on each body and be kept apart in separate cases.
LEADS
Leads are thin blanks of soft type-metal cast or
rolled of many widths from 1 -point to 6-point thick,
in strips eighteen inches long. They are used to
widen lines of type, to extend composed matter, and
to make print more readable. They are made high
and low : the high leads that come up to the shoul-
der of type are used only for electrotype or ste-
reotype composition j the low leads, as high as low
spaces, are used for letterpress work. The thinner
leads, necessarily of high price, are rarely needed.
Leads of 2-point thickness are most used, but leads
of 3- and 4-point are common. Intermediate sizes
should be avoided, for they are not readily identi-
fied by the ordinary compositor. If mixed with
Illustrations of leads 57
approximate sizes, they are not easily separated and
may make great trouble. 1
For ordinary book-work the bodies of 1- 2- 3-
and 4-point will be found ample. The 1-point lead,
rarely used for a text, is always of service in justi-
fying proximate bodies. Leads of different thick-
nesses can be doubled to make blanks of an}^ other
Thickness of a three-to-pica lead.
Thickness of a four-to-pica lead.
Thickness of a six-to-pica lead.
Thickness of an eight-to-pica lead.
Thickness of a ten-to-pica lead.
Thickness of a twelve-to-pica lead.
width. One thousand pounds of leads so selected
will be of more general service than two thousand
pounds not selected with system. 2
In planning a composing-room, a proper system
should be devised for keeping leads in good order.
For the smaller measures leads have to be provided
in lengths graduated by quarter-picas, for middle
i Leads of irregular thickness, Under no circumstances should
as of five- seven- and nine-to- they be made a part of the corn-
pica, should have special nicks nion stock.
cut on their edges with a saw, 2 Very thick leads, commonly
so that they can be identified at called slugs, on 6- 8- 10- and 12-
a glance. When the work con- point bodies, are useful as white
taining these irregular leads has lines and foot-lines in making
been finished, the leads should up. They are readily made on
be papered up and put away, the linotype machine.
58 System in storage of leads
measures by half -picas, for broad measures by full
picas. In large printing-houses the lengths most
needed are furnished in weights of thousands of
pounds. To keep a large supply of leads on stand-
ing galleys is wasteful of useful room j to put them
pell-mell in boxes or bins invites damage and dis-
order. A common form is a stout upright closet,
divided in pigeonholes for many sizes, appropriately
marked with the length of each lead.
Another method is to provide a series of boxes
on the top of a low table or cabinet case. Small
Lead-cutter.
collections of leads may be put in partitions upon
a standing galley, making each partition exactly
the width of the lead for which it is adapted. They
can be kept there in good order with little trouble.
Separate galleys or racks should be used for differ-
ent thicknesses of leads. A very large quantity of
any measure in frequent use may be piled neatly in
a type-box or bin, but it is impracticable so to treat
all the leads for the numerous measures of a large
Lead-cutters 59
printing-house. They should be exposed together
and made accessible.
Lead-cutters are made of many patterns: some
are for cutting leads only, others for cutting leads
and brass rules. Cutters with knives that meet at
a wide angle bend the lead or rule. The best lead-
cutters have an upper knife that descends at a slight
inclination, cutting like a chisel. A lead-cutter in-
Eule- and lead-cutter.
tended to cut brass rule of even moderate thickness
should have a compound lever as well as a strong
knife. Slugs and rules of 6-point and larger bodies
are more neatly cut with a circular saw.
60 Suggested form of lead-rack
As leads have to be provided for all measures, of
many thicknesses, and of stereotype and letter-
press height, they should be ordered with system,
to prevent needless and wasteful expenditure.
A new form of lead-rack.
The weight of leads in all the widths required for a
book-house working in many measures should be
at least one half the weight of the text type. In
some houses the leads weigh more than the type.
Description of its divisions
61
IIS
2Z
tc
The figures in these dia-
grams define the length of
the leads in nonpareil ems.
Two tiers or channels are
provided for the leads that
are more frequently used.
As each tier is made exactly
of the length of the lead it
is to contain, the leads, when
stowed properly, will be
flush at their outward ex-
posure. This treatment pre-
vents misplacement in dis-
tribution : a lead too long
will project and be noticed ;
a lead too short will be
quickly perceived by its in-
dention.
Leads should never be
pieced. It is practicable to
make up many new mea-
sures by a combination of
p
.2
I
62 Furniture of wood and metal
two or more leads, but the work so done is usually
imperfect, and the value of the time lost in piecing
is more than that of the new leads. For all broad
measures it is better to have leads of proper width
in one piece of metal.
Full-length leads can be doubled with safety, but
treble -leading is never to be recommended, for it
makes composition spongy, and tends to the hang-
ing or bowing of the ends of lines on a wide page.
When new leads are bought to be added to a
previous supply of old leads, the new leads should
be used together on separate pages or columns. If
the new are mixed with the old, there will be irreg-
ularities in the make-up and register. Old leads
are always a trifle thicker from accretions of dust.
To prevent the sponginess of treble-leading, two-
to-pica leads, or nonpareil slugs as they are of tener
called, may be used. Slugs of still thicker bodies
are also useful for foot -lines and for the division-
line of double-columned octavos.
FURNITURE OF WOOD AND METAL
Furniture is the name given to all the low pieces
of wood or type-metal that have to be used for the
larger blanks in or about a page of type or within
the chase prepared for a form of type. Cherry
wood is most common ; pine is used only for post-
ers and coarse work. Metal is preferred for open
pages and work of exact register.
Eeglet and side-sticks 63
Wood furniture is usually furnished in lengths of
three feet, and of many widths from two to twelve
picas. For all work printed from type, furniture
is made to the height of the low quadrat, or about
five eighths of an inch. Electrotypers prefer the
height of seven eighths inch.
Reglet is the name given to thin wood furniture
less than two picas wide. The widths of pica, non-
A form of type in chase, fitted with furniture.
A, head-bolts; B, gutters; c, side-sticks; D, foot-sticks;
E, quoins; F, chase; G, short cross-bar; H, dovetails;
I, slots for cross-bar; K and L, chase furniture.
pareil, and great primer are in greatest request, but
other sizes can be had of the thickness of any body.
Side-sticks, or bevelled furniture, are the inclined
planes that secure forms of type after they have
64 Storage of furniture
been tightened by quoins. For large and heavy
forms of type, iron side-sticks are preferred. The
pieces between pages 1-8, 2-7, 3-6, 4-5, are often
called gutters ; 1 those between 1-4, 2-3, 6-7, 5-8,
are the head-bolts ; the inclined planes at the foot
and sides of pages are the bevels or foot- and side-
sticks; the blunt wedges between the chase and
the bevels are the quoins.
Furniture is more difficult than leads to keep in
order. The usual practice of the small office is to
buy furniture in yard lengths ; to allow compositors
to cut it up without system as new lengths may
be needed, and finally to throw it, when out of use,
pell-mell into an open drawer. This disregard of
system wastes time and material. Larger offices
usually provide a series of deep pigeonholes against
a dead wall, with a separate compartment for each
regular length of furniture or reglet. For irregular
lengths special compartments are seldom provided,
and these odd lengths are too often put in wrong
places and make confusion.
The storage of furniture flatwise in pigeonholes
or in exposed pockets of uniform depth invites dis-
order. Each pocket should be exactly the depth of
the furniture made for it, so that each piece will
reach the end of the pocket and yet be flush with
the face. When the pockets are of uniform depth
i Gutters are so called because ink from the inking roller that
they have a rounded channel passes over the form. In a few
planed in the middle of the wood, houses the thin strips near cross-
to prevent it from receiving bars are called gutters.
Plan of furniture-rack 65
the shorter pieces cannot be seen and the longer
pieces are annoying projections. The open pocket
has another disadvantage in making no separation
Furniture-rack.
for furniture and reglets of diif erent widths : to get
several pieces of one width the compositor has to
assort the contents of the pocket. Long pieces of
reglet should not be mixed with long furniture.
5
66 Plan of reglet-rack
The surface area of the blank space that is often
required inside the chase is usually as much as and
sometimes more than that required for type. For
this reason there should be provided at least as much
surface area of furniture as of type. It is equally
important that the furniture should be of gradu-
ated sizes, in proper places, and readily accessible.
A compositor should be able to select from office
stock any length or any width of regular furniture
as easily as he selects a needed size or sort of type.
It is as bad practice to require him to cut furniture
for ordinary needs as to have him cut leads.
For the more orderly stowage of graduated wood
furniture, the furniture-rack shown in the illustra-
tion on previous page is provided by printers' sup-
ply houses. It is made to hold five hundred pieces
of furniture. There are eight pieces of each length
of the widths two, three, four, five, six, eight, and
ten picas. There are eight lengths between twelve
and sixty picas, which are graduated six picas apart.
Another style of rack is made to hold lengths from
sixty to one hundred and twenty picas. It is an
improvement on the disorderly furniture-drawer,
yet it is imperfect, for every printing-house needs
furniture of lengths but one pica apart. Even if
the intermediate pieces are not supplied at once, a
place should be provided for the new sizes,
A labor-saving reglet-case is also kept on sale,
which holds from eighteen hundred to twenty-four
hundred pieces of pica and nonpareil. It contains
New form of cabinet for furniture 67
nine distinct sizes, graduated six picas apart, from
twelve to sixty picas. This is not enough, for there
should be forty lengths between these extremes.
As the reglet stored does not stand upright, resting
upon its cut edge, it is liable to disorder.
The furniture-cabinet shown on page 69 contains
enough of sizes for all the usual requirements of
a book-house. It is intended to be put under an
Reglet-rack.
imposing-stone of the dimensions 33 X 86 inches.
As making up in a book-house is rarely done on
the stone, the pulling out of a box does not hinder
or annoy the imposer of a form any more than the
pulling out of a chase from the chase-rack, which
is usually kept in the same place. 1
l When a dead - wall space is wall, but it should be where its
more available, the cabinet can contents can be easily examined,
be divided in two long sections, Furniture needs a fair light as
to be placed against this dead much as type or leads.
68 Plan of furniture-cabinet
It contains twenty-eight drawers twelve on one
side (not shown in the illustration) and sixteen on
the other. These drawers are of unequal height,
to suit the different lengths. Each piece of fur-
niture or reglet rests on its cut edge or narrow end.
If too long a piece is put in, the drawer cannot be
closed ; if too short a piece is put in, its shortness
is at once detected. The vertical rest of each piece
is a safeguard against the mixing of lengths.
Each drawer is divided into two compartments
that hold proximate sizes like twelve and thirteen
ems pica, so that the compositor can readily select
either. Each compartment contains six longitudi-
nal partitions for the six different widths of non-
pareil, pica, two-line, four-line, six-line, and ten-line.
To pull out or shove in the drawer does not throw
the standing pieces in confusion, even when each
partition may be but half full, for if they are jostled
to fall, they must fall sidewise. Each piece is neatly
planed and squared, and has its length in picas
stamped by a punch in figures on its end.
These drawers contain fifty-six lengths, begin-
ning with twelve picas and advancing by one pica
to sixty picas. Beyond that the progression is by
one and a half picas, or great primer a graduation
that is close enough for all ordinary work. For
lengths beyond seventy and a half picas, that are
rarely required in book- work, two or more pieces
can be combined. As each piece is properly num-
bered, the compositor who may pick it up when out
70 Storage of long furniture
of its place knows at once in what drawer of the
cabinet it should be placed. 1
For posters and large job-work another form of
furniture-rack must be devised. Drawers that hold
many pieces of long furniture are too weighty to
be moved in and out with ease. The open pigeon-
holes with pockets of unequal depth (after the sys-
tem of the lead-rack as shown on page 60) will be
found convenient, but these pigeonholes should be
properly subdivided with partitions for the separa-
tion of different widths. To be of general and last-
ing service these pigeonholes should be constructed
on a generous plan, to make special place for every
length that may be needed, in graduated lengths at
most two picas apart. It may not be expedient to
get all sizes at once, but places should be reserved
for new sizes when they are bought. Where space
is crowded it may be judicious to keep long furni-
ture under different stones or cases j but it is better
practice, when the space can be given, to construct
against a dead wall a large rack with a pigeonhole
for every size in use, with provision for intermedi-
ate sizes to be afterward furnished.
Wood furniture is cheap, light, and can be easily
handled, but it is liable to shrink, fray, or warp.
1 The cost of a fully equipped care, will be serviceable for more
cabinet of this pattern is not than a lifetime. It will not only
small, but it is much less than prevent waste of labor, but will
the sum usually paid every year help the compositor to produce
for wasted time, wasted mate- quicker as well as neater work,
rial, and unavoidable confusion. Neglect to provide cut furniture
A cabinet of this form, with fair is not wise economy.
Metal furniture needs care 71
For exact work, metal furniture is always preferred.
The illustration annexed represents a sectional
view of an old form of
metal furniture, which
is made in lengths of
twelve inches, of seven
widths from two- to ten-
line pica. This form has the merits of strength,
stiffness, and accuracy, but it is not adapted for
combinations of unlike pieces.
Combination metal furniture is made of many
widths from three- to ten-line pica, and from five-
to thirty-line pica long.
Its open centres make
it light, and its interior
bridges insure a reason-
able strength. There is
another form, rather stronger and heavier, with
hollow or oval centres, without connecting bridges.
FURNITURE-RACKS
Metal furniture that has been roughened by care-
less handling cannot be combined with precision.
Nor can combinations of small pieces be safely
used for the head-bolts or gutters of book-forms,
for they lack the stiffness that is required to keep
types squarely in line. For the head-bolts and gut-
ters of book-forms single pieces are better. The
roughening of improved metal furniture is largely
72
Rack for metal furniture
caused by bruising it with the shooting-stick, or
by throwing the pieces pell-mell in an open drawer.
To keep the edges free from bruising, it should be
handled with as great
care as types; it should
not be dropped upon the
stone ; it should be kept
in neatly piled columns
and in pigeonholes that
have a separate compart-
ment for every size.
Large pieces of com-
bination metal furniture
are of limited value ; the
larger they are, the less
they can be used. Many
Rack for metal furniture. - -i -, *-,
printing - houses discard
them, and make up blanks from a combination of
small pieces that can be used anywhere.
QUOTATIONS
The most serviceable forms of metal furniture for
inside composition are quotations cast on the body
of three by four picas, but they are
sometimes connected in one piece, in
lengths of eight, sixteen, and twenty
picas. As they combine the good
qualities of strength and light weight with adapta-
bility to all pages, they are used in some houses to
Quotations with bearers
73
the exclusion of other forms of metal furniture.
Justifying spaces of three-line and four-line body
should be a part of every supply of quotations. It
is not good workmanship to justify them with the
quadrats of smaller bodies, for they annoy the
electrotyper. Pages to be electrotyped need for
all their large blanks a special form of quotation,
of higher body, concave on two sides, but solid and
o
tight at top, with projecting disks or bearers that
equalize the pressure of the moulding press and
prevent the splurging of the moulding wax.
ELECTROTYPE GUARDS
Pamphlets and books of limited edition continue
to be printed direct from type, but all books that
are expected to have large sale from two or more
editions are invariably printed from electrotype
plates. The proper preparation of the pages for the
different processes of moulding and finishing in the
making of these plates calls for additional guards
within the pages, and especially in all chapter heads
and tails. The guards provided by type-founders
74 Quadrats needed in electrotyping
are quadrats cast with shoulders as high as those
of the types of the text. On the top of these quad-
rats are circular disks full type-high, that serve as
aids to even pressure from the moulding press, and
prevent the outspreading of the moulding wax.
These quadrats with guards serve another useful
purpose by protecting the letters on the plates from
bruises while they are in the hands of the finisher
Quadrats preferred for electrotyping.
and prover. Much to the bewilderment of an un-
practised proof-reader, these black disks often
appear on the author's proof, but they are routed
off when all corrections have been made and the
plates are pronounced ready for press.
MES HARPER
III
COMPOSITION
Time-work and piece-work . . . Customary routine on books
Justification . . . Spacing and leading . . . Distribution
Hand-work and machine-work . . . Proper methods of
hand-work . . Recent mannerisms
TIME-WORK AND PIECE-WORK
OMPOSITION in every book-
house is done by two sets of
workmen that are respectively
called time-hands and piece-
hands. It is oftenest a mat-
ter of contract. The publisher
requires an employing printer
to furnish perfected composition at a fixed price
per page or per thousand ems. In turn the master
printer agrees with his piece-compositors to have
them do the type-setting part of plain composition
at a fixed price per thousand ems. The price given
75
76 Routine of book composition
to the compositors includes the distribution of type
and the correction of the compositor's faulty work
as it maybe marked by the office proof-reader, but
it does not include other service that is needed to
perfect the contract with the publisher. Making
up and stone-work, proof-reading and superinten-
dence, all of equal importance, are not paid for by
the piece, for the work done in each one of these
departments is of too irregular a nature and is too
unequal in its requirements of time and dexterity
to be adjusted by fixed prices. They must be done
by day's work, or " on time," as printers phrase this
method. The cost of this supplementary work is
variable, seldom less and often more than one half
of the cost of the type-setting that has been done
by piece-hands. Although the composition of books
is usually rated as piece-work, it should be under-
stood that about one half of it in value is time-
work of uncertain cost. 1
CUSTOMARY ROUTINE ON BOOKS
When an agreement has been concluded with the
author about the style of an intended book, the
copy should be examined by an expert, who will
take note of the possible need of additional sorts
1 Spelling, abbreviation, punc- position. In this and following
tuation, and other matters that chapters, remarks and sugges-
belong to the literary side of tions have to be confined to the
type-setting have been noticed purely mechanical side of book
in the treatise on Correct Com- composition.
Minute instructions are needed 77
that may be required in excess. These sorts may be
accents, signs, small capitals, italic, figures, or new
characters, but they should be procured and put in
case before the copy is given to the compositor. 1
To begin composition without the needed materials,
and to " turn for sorts," is always wasteful of time
and productive of error. Obeying general direc-
tions, the expert may specify the types for chapter
headings, subheadings, tables, extracts, and notes,
and must try to give proper directions for uniform-
ity in the use of capitals, italic, quotation-marks,
etc. Here his duty ends. He must not edit.
Copy is invariably given out to piece-compositors
in portions known as " takes," which will vary in
quantity from ten to one hundred lines or more.
Short takes are given when work is in haste, and
the compositors are required to empty composed
matter on a galley in a prescribed order. By this
method the galley is quickly filled, and may be as
quickly read and corrected. Long takes are given
when work is not in haste and when the composi-
tors are of nearly equal ability.
The compositor should give close attention to
spoken and written instructions before he begins
to set type. If they are insufficient, he should ask
all the necessary questions. In no case should he
begin composition until he knows what he must do
with every uncertain feature of his copy.
1 It is not wise to order sorts in small quantities by a guess as to their
weight. Specify the number wanted of each character.
78 Equal division of all duties
Print is always more readable when each change
in its description or its argument is presented in a
fresh paragraph. Dialogue matter should have a
new paragraph for the words of every speaker, but
the paragraphing should have been settled by the
author in the copy. If the compositor thinks that
the matter is too solid, he may show it to the fore-
man and ask him or whoever is in authority to
decide the doubt, but the making of a new para-
graph is not in his province.
Three methods of performing routine work on
book composition have been practised. An old
method required the compositor who held the first
long take to make up in pages the matter he had
composed and to pass his incomplete page with
its copy to the holder of the second long take, who
pursued the same routine with the holder of the
third take. In like manner, make-up was passed
from hand to hand until pages enough had been
made up to fill the form. Every compositor laid
his made-up page upon the stone, and was held
responsible for the correctness of his making up
and for its proper placing. The fitting up of the
chase with furniture, the adjustment of margins,
and the locking up and proving of the form were
done in turn by each compositor. This method
equitably divided irksome duties among all the
compositors, but it had to be abandoned when an
expert workman mated with too many inexperts
had to do more than his fair share of the work.
Working in companionship 79
Another method was that of companionship. By
this method the compositors on the book elected
their own maker -up, who was thereby made an
assistant to the general foreman. He received the
copy entire and gave it out in takes to each com-
positor. When there were many compositors, he
attended chiefly to make-up and stone-work j when
there were few, he did composition when not other-
wise employed. He ascertained the daily special
needs of counting-room, press-room, and reading-
room, and arranged his work so that time would
not be needlessly lost in any department. He had
the right to order any compositor to do corrections
or other work of like nature at his pleasure. By
English usage, he could fine a compositor for bad
work or for shirking duty. . He kept a schedule in
which he recorded the lines set or the work done
each day by each workman. The value of the head-
and foot -lines and blank lines he had composed
was separately computed, and the pay therefor was
divided among the compositors in proportion to
the number of lines each compositor had set. The
maker-up received, as had been agreed on, a fixed
price per page or per thousand ems, or the same
amount as the compositor who had realized the
largest bill. The intent of the companionship was
to quicken performance, to make men help one
another, to prevent the shirking of duty, the hoard-
ing of sorts, and the taking of unfair advantages
of any kind.
80 Make-up now done on time
This method of working in companionship is no
longer practised in the United States. There are
few competent men who will make up for a com-
panionship, for the pay conceded is usually insuffi-
cient. There is a general undervaluation of this
labor, not only by compositors, but by publishers,
and even by some master printers.
Make-up and stone-work are now performed in
all American book-houses by men appointed by the
foreman. Their service is paid for " on time," for
make-up by the piece, which may seem the cheaper
and quicker method, is too often done wastefully,
apart from its imposing needless labor upon other
time-hands. It is seldom well done in all details
unless the time and methods of the maker-up are
entirely under the control of the foreman.
Compositors deliver their copy and the matter
as it is set to the maker-up, who has their galleys
proved, and then passes the copy and proof to the
proof-reader. Illustrations furnished with copy
that cannot be proved on the galley 1 are put by
him in the proper place as attachments to the proof,
and subsequently measured and allowed for at the
1 In some book-houses proofs correction of outs or doublets
are not taken upon the galley, will compel the overrunning of
Matter is made up in pages as many pages. When many proof s
fast as it is set, and the pages are required by the author, and
are proved in strings on a press paragraphs are cancelled or are
or with proof -planer on stone, added, all the pages of a chapter
This method saves the employer will have to be untied and retied,
the cost and care of many gal- with more delay and increasing
leys, but it does not quicken or liability to new errors in every
improve composition, for the alteration.
Duties of the maker-up 81
same rate as composed type ; but all the other fat
matter that has been composed and arranged by the
maker-up, as full -page cuts, head- and foot -lines,
chapter heads and tails, is not reckoned for the
benefit of the piece-compositor. The illustrations,
often delayed for many days, are seldom furnished
until type is ready for make-up.
Electrotyping has materially changed the old
routine and has put extra labor on the stoneman.
Instead of imposing sixteen pages of octavo in one
chase, the stoneman now has to put one large or
four small pages in the chase, and to give more
attention to many small chases than he formerly
gave to one chase. When great nicety of mould-
ing is desired, one page only is put in a chase, and
additional bearers have to be added in every ex-
posed blank. The time now allowed for the proper
preparation of the pages is much greater than that
heretofore given to the ordinary letterpress form.
The maker-up rearranges the copy in order, and
compares it with the composed type on galley to
make sure that there have been no omissions or
transpositions. A proof of the galley is then taken,
usually on a proof -press of the form shown in the
illustration on the next page.
Proof-paper should be thin, sized, smooth, and
but lightly dampened. Ink should be stiff and re-
peatedly rolled on the ink-table, so that it can be
thinly and evenly distributed upon the type, which
should be rolled slowly and carefully to produce
6
82 The cylinder press for proving
This is the press most used
for proving galleys, but it will
seriously damage type if the
galley has been underlaid with
cardboard, or if the cylinder has
been covered with an extra wrap
of paper or too thick a blanket.
These rude methods are often
practised when the proof-paper
is unsuitably dry or harsh and
does not give a readable proof
with moderate pressure. If the
galley is kinked, or uneven at
the bottom, or if the type has
not been truly planed down, this
iron cylinder will do more harm
to the type than is afterward
done by the printing-machine.
Another form of proof-press
has its proof -paper in an endless
roll, and an automatic inking-
roller that precedes the move-
ment of the cylinder. These de-
vices materially lessen the work
of taking proofs. In newspaper
houses, that prove many galleys
together, a new form of proof-
press is worked by steam-power.
Duties of the maker-up 83
a readable proof. An overinked proof prevents
the reader from detecting imperfect letters.
When the reader has marked all the errors noted
in the proof, has put down his queries, and has
checked in proper places the names of the com-
positors, the proof is returned to the compositors
for correction. Unless otherwise directed, correc-
tion takes precedence over all other work. Each
compositor corrects the errors of his own composi-
tion, and passes the galley to the compositor next
in order until correction is complete. A proof for
revise is then taken, and the reviser compares this
revise with the first proof. If any error marked
has been neglected or wrongly corrected, this error
is again marked on the revise, and is returned to
the neglectful compositor, who is required to cor-
rect it properly and to furnish a clean proof. The
galley so corrected is returned by the compositor
with the corrected proof to the maker-up.
When the matter is a strict reprint that will
not receive any change in text, the maker-up pro-
ceeds to put it in page form, and the pages so made
up are then imposed in a chase. If, however, a
chase is not to be had, the tied-up pages are laid
on the stone, and a pounded proof is taken with
the proof -planer from the pages still in the strings.
This is not a procedure to be recommended, for
proving in strings tends to displace thin letters at
the ends of lines and to work types off their feet,
but it is often an unavoidable practice. After ink
84 Duties of the proof-reader
on the proved type has been imperfectly removed
with a brush moistened with benzine, 1 the page is
inclosed in a wrapper of stout paper and is put
upon a letter-board or bank for future use.
For manuscript copy that may receive changes
in the text, another proof should be taken on the
galley, and this proof should be sent with the first
proof corrected to the proof-reader, who adds his
queries, stamps it with the proper date, and for-
wards it to the author with the copy. The author
returns it with his alterations, but he may require
another proof containing the correction of these
alterations. It is always a great risk to make up
before the author has finished corrections, or before
the cuts or diagrams are ready. Overrunning of
type in made-up pages is slow and expensive.
When the author has nothing more to add, and
all the illustrations are in their places, the matter
may be made up in pages. At this stage the rou-
tine differs. In a few houses the second reading
of the printing-house is done by the foundry-reader
upon the page proof sent to the author. This can
be done with safety when it is surely known that
i The cleaning of proved type daily deposits of fine dust, and
is usually the duty of the office- dries slowly, until it is so firmly
boy, who often does this work attached to the metal that it has
slightingly. His few passes of to be removed by steam or boil-
the brush over the type may ing lye. It is better to prevent
clean the face, but they push than to cure this fault. A moist
much undissolved ink over the sponge, following the application
face on the shoulders and in the of the brush, if properly used,
counters of the type. In these will sop out the gummy deposit
places the adhering ink receives left by benzine and foul ink.
Responsibility for alterations 85
nothing more will be added to the proof by the
author. A reading of the page proof by the office
reader before it will be seen by the author gives
the latter more time to consider queries and to
approve or disapprove proposed suggestions. In
other houses the final reading or the reading for
foundry is given only when the author returns
the proof as entirely corrected. This is a better
method, but it takes more time and may compel
the resubmission to the author of another proof.
All proofs sent to an author should be returned
to the printing-house, even those that have been
faithfully corrected and revised and are apparently
of no future value, for every proof contains some
memoranda of the readers on the margins that
are needed for the perfection of the work.
Book-work should receive two readings at the
expense of the office. The compositor is required
to make his work correct to copy and to maintain
uniformity in style, according to his instructions.
After composition has been made correct to copy
and is put into pages in a workmanlike shape,
the printing-house has completed the part of its
contract that concerns composition. All changes
subsequently made by author or publisher, whether
in the type or in the arrangement of paragraphs
or illustrations, including the time spent in the
re-reading by copy of subsequent proofs caused by
the overrunning of matter, are rated as author's
alterations and are at the publisher's expense.
86 Importance of exact justification
JUSTIFICATION
A common fault of the novice at composition is
that of justifying one line tight and leaving an-
other loose. It is a mistake to assume that a line
loosely justified can be made tight in the form by
vigorous locking up. It may be made apparently
tight by strong locking up from the foot, but when
the form is lifted up from the stone a type may
drop out unperceived, or it may be drawn out on
press by the suction of the rollers. This is a seri-
ous fault, for the absence of one character in the
print may necessitate the reprinting of the entire
sheet at a great loss. 1 In the book-printing house,
that compositor who does not justify lines firmly
is rated as a careless workman, whatever his age
or experience.
A line is not satisfactorily justified if it will not
stand in the stick unsupported by the composing-
rule. If the leads project beyond the type, or if
they are flush with the type, the lines so treated can-
not be tightened by side-pressure. They may be
feebly held by the pressure of the foot-stick, but
there is always a liability that a loosely justified
line will work off its feet side wise or produce an
1 Exact justification is needed boards," or dampened slips of
now more than it was in earlier spongy cardboard put between
days, when types were printed the line end and the side-stick,
on hand-presses in small forms. When presswork is done direct
Loose justification was then im- from large forms of type, exact
perfectly corrected by "scale- justification is obligatory.
Saves time on stone and press 87
imperfect impression. Over-tight justification is a
rare fault, but it is equally mischievous. Uneven
justification by two compositors on the same page
may prevent the joining of mitred brass rules.
Large type in a narrow measure can be justified
moderately tight ; small type in a narrow measure
must be made full tight. Practice with different
bodies of type is needed before the required degree
of tightness can be fairly understood.
To justify nicely, the compositor should have at
hand enough of thin spaces and hair-spaces, and
they should be kept separate in distribution. It
is not correct practice to put four-to-em and five-
to-em spaces in the same box. Their distant posi-
tion in the ordinary case is a serious hindrance,
for time is needlessly lost in reaching after them.
Justification would be improved if cases could be
made with boxes for all kinds of spaces clustered
under the compositor's hand. The so-called self-
spacing types and spaces on point-sets are other
aids to justification.
Job-printers have to make use of very thin spaces,
cut from ten-to-pica leads or thin brass or card-
board, for the justification of large types. When
proper spaces have been selected, a job in a large
form can be locked up securely with slight taps of
the shooting-stick. Forms that have been neatly
justified save great waste of time on the stone ;
they prevent the wear of type from violent planing
down, and aid the pressman in making ready.
88 Spaces to be used with discretion
SPACING AND LEADING
Uneven spacing between the words of a line is a
common fault. In book-work it is required that
the space between the words of a line shall seem
uniform in width, but to produce this appearance
of uniformity spaces of different thickness must be
selected for use between types of unlike form. The
tall d at the end of one word and the tall h at the
beginning of the next word call for a thicker space
than that selected for the meeting of two round
types like O and e in a similar position. The space
after a comma or an abbreviating period may be
thinner than that used after an unpointed word.
These may seem trifling niceties, but their neglect
damages the appearance of print.
The space most acceptable between entire words
in solid and thin -leaded composition is the three-
to-em space, and it should be used on all types
with round letters of ordinary height, in which the
height of the m is about one half that of the body.
If the round letters are higher, occupying a much
larger part of the body, spacing may be wider ; if
they are lower, as in the case of a brevier on bour-
geois body, spacing may be narrower. Wide-space
fat type; thin -space condensed type.
To lessen the unsightliness of too wide spacing
between separate words, put a thin space on each
side of the hyphen that connects compound words.
Wide and narrow spacing 89
When the em dash is used in the middle of a line,
put a thin space before and after the dash. This
thin space may be omitted when the dash is pre-
ceded by a period or comma, which is too often
needlessly ordered in this place.
When the words of a line have to be thin-spaced,
the em quadrat that divides sentences in that line
should be replaced with an en quadrat or a three-
to-em space.
The rules that require uniform spacing between
words come in conflict with other rules concerning
an arbitrary division of words. There are words,
like through and George, that are rated as in-
divisible. To get in words like these at the end of
a line compels thin spacing j to drive them over to
the next makes wide spacing. Either alternative
is objectionable. To prevent the fault, the para-
graph may be overrun, but this expedient is always
impracticable in a narrow measure. Even spacing
often has to be sacrificed for correct divisions.
In double-columned matter, solid and of narrow
measure, thin spacing is preferable. In the broad
measure, especially with double-leaded type, wide
spacing is better, but the en quadrat should be a
fair average for all open composition. Spacing too
wide produces "pigeonholes" between words, and
they are more unsightly than too thin spacing.
Even in leaded work it is better to thin -space
the last line of a paragraph than to make a new
line that has two or three characters only. Very
90 Unwise spacing of single letters
thin spacing is permitted in poetry when it pre-
vents the turn-over of a short syllable.
Lines of capital letters should always be leaded
and spaced wider than the letters of lower-case.
The en quadrat may be used when a few words of
capital letters are put in the text, but when a short
line of capitals appears in a chapter heading, its
words should be separated by two thick spaces.
In a short line of an open title-page, set in two-line
letters that nearly fill the body, the words may be
properly spaced with the em quadrat.
In electrotype composition a projecting f at the
end or a j at the beginning of a line should be
followed or preceded with a five -to -em space, to
prevent the breaking of its projecting kern.
Narrow measures make even spacing difficult,
especially so in the very short lines of text type
that are led down by the side of illustrations. The
spacing of single letters is a common practice, but
it often makes unsightly work. To space words
with the em or twb-ein quadrat is an unpleasant
alternative, but over-wide spacing between words
is not so disagreeable as spaced lower-case letters.
Side and cut-in notes are not improved by spacing
single types ; when the author cannot change their
wording, the types should pass unspaced.
The rule that prohibits the spacing of lower-case
letters should not be applied to capitals, for al-
though irregular in form, they are fairly uniform
in width. Thin spaces judiciously placed between
Leading out needs discretion 91
meeting letters, like I and H, that have upright
stems, and omitted between letters that have in-
clined stems or are of irregular form, as in A, Y,
and L, make the line more pleasing. In an un-
spaced line, all meeting types with vertical stems
seem huddled, while types of angular form seem
awkwardly separated. The fault is easily corrected
by thin-spacing the types with upright stems that
approach each other too closely. In all book titles
and running titles, an irregular spacing of lines of
capital letters will conceal the faults of inequality.
The author who may be displeased with the gen-
eral effect of a title-page, and who does not know
the cause of his dislike, may have his displeasure
removed by the irregular spacing of letters that
are too close.
The leading of lines calls for as much care as
the spacing of words. Leads or blanks improperly
selected will mar the fairness of any composition.
Ordinary descriptive matter calls for no caution
other than the repetition of the remark that all the
leads used on a book should come from one foun-
dry and be exact as to thickness, so that all pages
shall be of even length, and each line shall truly
register its mated line on the back of the page.
Composition that is broken in its text by lines
of poetry, extracts, or tables of figures, or that has
many short articles separated by dashes, will re-
quire the leads to be differently adjusted at each
break. In solid composition a white line or less of
92 Leads before and after dashes
the text is enough to mark the distinction, but
when the text is double-leaded and the margins are
wide, the blank may be wider. A page intended
to be open and readable is seriously disfigured by
the pinching of space at every break. Prodigality
of blanks in solid composition is equally offensive.
The rules laid down for even spacing should apply
to leading : for solid work, thin spaces and narrow
breaks ; for leaded work, wider spacing and blanks.
When the last line of a paragraph before a break
consists of one or two words only, leads may not
be needed before the break, for the white made by
the quadrats that fill this last line may be enough.
If leads are added there will be more blank at the
top than at the bottom of the break, which is not
pleasing, for the blanks above and below should
seem alike. When paragraphs are separated by
dashes, there should be, as a rule, about one lead
less before the dash. The shoulders of the letters
in the last line usually make a blank equivalent to
the width of one lead. When the same number of
leads are put on each side, the dash will seem out
of centre, with more space above than below.
Wide blanks should never be made with leads ;
a column or page so treated is spongy and is liable
to bow or hang in locking up. White lines of large
quadrats will make the work more solid.
The ordinary paragraph is usually indicated by
an em quadrat at the beginning of the first line, but
Indention and distribution 93
the first line of a chapter, or any line following a
short subheading or a running title, or with a full
white line over it, needs no indention not even
when it is without an initial or a two-line letter.
The white space above gives enough of relief to
arrest attention.
Indentions of two or three ems are occasionally
demanded for broad measures and double - leaded
matter, but these broad indentions make awkward
gaps when the last line of the preceding paragraph
ends with a short syllable of three characters only.
For remarks on different forms of indention, see
the chapter on Indention in Correct Composition.
DISTRIBUTION
Distribution, much more difficult to the novice than
composition, must be preceded by dampening the
types to keep them from falling apart. Not more
than three lines should be taken in the hand at the
first attempt, but this number can be increased as
expertness in handling is acquired. The novice
should not undertake distribution until he thor-
oughly knows the proper box for every character.
A printed diagram of the case should be before him
as a guide. Accuracy is of importance, for type
wrongly distributed is sure to be detected in proof.
Type for distribution should show whiteness of
face before it is placed upon the letter-board. If
it is foul, grimy, and sticky, the type should be
94 Proper methods of distribution
immersed in a solution of hot or even boiling lye.
Another solvent of dirt is live steam on the galley.
For slight foulness use benzine, but the after de-
posit left by benzine and undissolved ink will call
for the application of diluted ammonia or potash.
Proper position of the
hands in distributing.
The novice should distribute carefully and make
sure that every type is put in the right box. Speed
can be acquired by practice only. As every type
wrongly placed makes serious delay in its correc-
tion, it is of no advantage to hurry distribution.
It will take more time to change one wrong type
in the proof than it does to set a dozen letters in
the stick. If this wrong letter compels a respacing
of the line in the stick, the time so spent will be as
great as that taken in a setting of twenty letters.
When distributable type contains unusual words,
the spelling of these words should be understood
before their types are parted. It is better to read
the line, and to take up the full word when it can
Strange type labelled on boxes 95
be done. The eye should follow the type in hand
until it drops in the right box.
When distribution can be done before meals, the
composition of moist type may be avoided. The
boxes should not be filled so high that their types
can be jostled into near-by boxes. The case should
not be shaken to make it hold more letter. The
types can be more easily picked up if allowed to
remain as they fall from the distributer's hand.
A stick or a short galley should be kept on the
ledge of the upper case to receive words of italic or
characters that belong to another case, and they
should be put in the proper case at once.
In distributing words or lines that are unlike
those of the text type, carefully examine the nick
as well as the face of the distrusted letter. Do not
be deceived by a general appearance of similarity.
Do not mix old and worn with new letter, even if
nicks and faces are alike. Make sure that the type
is returned to the case it came from.
White lines, folio lines, and all matter that may
be used again should be put on the standing galley
as directed by the foreman.
The correct distribution of Greek, Hebrew, ac-
cents, signs, and unusual characters will be greatly
aided by printed diagrams of cases, which should
be kept exposed for the use of new compositors.
Each box of strange types should have a print
of its proper character pasted upon its inner side
where it can be easily seen.
96 Why hand-work is needed
HAND-WORK AND MACHINE-WORK
Machines for setting type are now common in many
printing-houses, but at this date (1903) they have
not seriously damaged the business of the expert
book-compositor. In a few houses they have de-
prived men of employment, but in others they have
increased the number of compositors by creating
work that did not previously exist. Yet their field
of service is relatively limited. At this stage of
their development, type-setting machines are not
serviceable for any body larger than 12- or smaller
than 5-point, and are most used for bodies between
5- and 8-point. They do no more than set type.
They cannot read proof, correct, make up, impose,
do stone-work, or even set up the more difficult
kinds of book composition, which are done now by
hand as they have been for more than four hundred
years. The need of workmen expert in hand-
composition is now as great as ever, and it will be
greater in the future. Preliminary practice at case
is needed by every operator on machine.
One reason for the continuance of hand- work in
type-setting is the capricious tastes of authors and
publishers. Every large printing-house has to pro-
vide many faces of roman type, yet few of the faces
so selected can be adapted with economy to ma-
chines. Types that are very large or very small
or of any peculiar face must be set by hand. The
Expertness in type-setting 97
composition of books of music or of algebra, or of
plain roman type that has to be interspersed with
more than one face of display letter, or with com-
plex tables of names or figures, with cut-in notes,
or with other odd arrangements, cannot be done
economically by an unintelligent mechanism, how-
ever skilfully it may be directed. All composition
that requires thought, care, and the watchful adap-
tation of means to ends in every line continues to
be done by hand.
PROPER METHODS OF HAND-WORK
Expertness in composition by hand is acquired by
preliminary practice at case by attention to the
trifles that conduce to excellence. Practice should
begin with correct methods, and the husbanding
of endurance is to be considered first. Type-set-
ting is not hard labor, but it is tiresome, and it
will be fatiguing if false positions are taken before
the case and needless motions are tolerated. The
height of the case, the position of the feet, the dis-
tance from the stand, and even the inclination of
the stick, affect performance. Some of the positions
required, like the twist of the wrist to a boy learn-
ing to write, seem irksome in the beginning, but
after practice these constrained positions are fol-
lowed by the least fatigue.
The case should allow a free play and reach of
the right arm, but not be placed so low as to cause
7
98 Expertness in type-setting
bending of the back. Properly adjusted, the case
may seem too high, but a high case keeps the body
erect, shortens the play of the arms, and prevents
the weariness that follows continued stooping.
The feet should be so placed that the body can
be kept erect and not be swayed too much from
side to side. The work of reaching for a distant
type should be done largely with the arms. The
crosspiece at the base of the stand should seldom
be used to rest a tired foot, for the temporary relief
it gives is deceptive. The sitting posture, that may
be used with propriety in distribution, is a real
hindrance to quick composition.
The stick in the left hand should be so inclined
that the type put therein will strike the composing-
rule at a correct
angle. When not
exactly inclined,
false and delay-
ing motions will
follow. The stick
should follow the
hand that picks up the type. It is hard to train
both arms to work in concert, but when they 'do
performance is always increased.
The eye should select the type before it is seized
by the fingers, and this type should be taken, nick
out, on the upper part of the body, -so that it will
not have to be turned in the fingers.
From a strict reprint copy, the spacing between
Expertness in type-setting 99
words should be copied as each word is set. In
manuscript the full sentence should be read and
thoroughly understood before the first type is seized.
Punctuation cannot be properly done when only
half or quarter of the sentence is understood. Neg-
lect to read the complete sentence will compel some
waste of time in a more frequent inspection of the
copy, and will increase the liability to make outs.
The typographic formulas of the house should
be understood before composition. Many printing-
houses have a printed code for the proper use of
capitals, italic, points, and abbreviations, that re-
quires close reading and memorizing.
When foot-notes appear in the copy, these notes,
set in small type from another case, should be put
next to the line that shows the mark of reference.
The inaker-up will arrange them in their places.
Justifying spaces in the last or quadrat line of a
paragraph should always be put before the quadrats.
Each type should be dropped in the stick quietly,
without the nervous haste that produces false mo-
tions. A quick compositor never seems in a hurry ;
he never allows his animation to reach a fidgetiness
that deprives him of the perfect control of his hand.
False motions come from excessive eagerness to be
fast before the hands have been taught to keep
their proper pace. The novice should make haste
slowly. He should set type quietly and steadily,
refrain from talking, and give entire attention to
composition. Nerves must be husbanded as well
100 Importance of good tools
as muscles. Any habit that dulls the sensibilities
or disturbs tranquillity is always followed by some
mental depression and feebleness in performance.
Quick motions can be acquired by working stead-
ily. To work actively for a few hours and but
languidly for the remainder of the day will not pro-
duce the desired speed. If a novice finds that he
cannot set more than five hundred ems in an hour
without undue exertion and a tendency to false
motions, he should not attempt more, but he should
not allow himself to do less than five hundred. If
he works day after day with reasonable earnest-
ness, he will gradually increase performance and
will do more work with less effort. The error of
many apprentices begins with the unreasonable
expectation that they can acquire speed quickly.
They try to push execution beyond ability, and in
so doing acquire the bad habit of false motions,
and become slow compositors for life.
When the compositor can control his time, he
should do routine work at set hours, distributing
and correcting at the end of the day.
A bright and neat-fitting steel composing-rule, a
polished stick, and a clean case free from dust are
great aids to composition. Good light is valuable.
Light is not always to be controlled, but the rule,
stick, and case may be. The workman is known
by his tools. A rusted stick or a short or crooked
rule will diminish the performance of any workman.
Expert compositors own their own sticks and rules,
Emptying type from stick 101
and will use no other. They get used to their size,
weight, and feeling, and say that they can do more
work with them than with other sticks and rules
apparently as good.
To seize a type readily, that type should be al-
lowed to rest exactly where it falls in the box during
the process of distribution. The case should not
be snaken up, nor should the little mounds formed
by distribution be smoothed down. When types
are shaken up or flattened down in parallel rows, it
is difficult to snap them up. The compositor has
to pry them up, and perhaps to turn them around
nick out or head up, before they can be laid in
the stick.
The fastest compositors, or those who can be
fast when they choose, do not usually set the largest
quantity of type in a week. In the long race, the
steadier men beat them in performance by their
superior persistence. The worst compositors and
all who make foul proofs may be so considered
are usually the greatest talkers at work.
All the material needed for the day should be in
or near the case before beginning work. To stop
composition to distribute, or to search for leads,
quads, and extra sorts, is always a hindrance.
The emptying of composed type in a stick calls
for some sleight of hand, at which the young com-
positor often fails. His fault comes from gripping
too tightly the lines between his thumbs and fore-
fingers, and neglecting the pressure of the middle
102 Method of making measures
fingers at the ends of the lines, where pressure is
more needed. He should begin by taking out one
line only. "When he takes up two or more lines,
he will soon learn where to apply the pressure and
how to balance the type. As soon as the type is
put upon the galley he should press it up with his
composing-rule, and leave it standing squarely on
its feet.
Making up the stick, or adjusting the stick by
its slide and screw to the proper width of a given
measure, is a work of exactness that cannot be
safely intrusted to a young compositor. When
two or more compositors are employed on the same
work, their sticks should be made up uniformly.
A very slight variation of width in the making up
of two or more sticks, followed by other slight
variations in justification, will give much trouble
when the matter is put on stone or on press. Ex-
actness of measure is best secured by the use of a
solid metal gauge, about four picas thick, against
which the slide is pushed until it is tight. When
a solid metal gauge is not to be had, the width of
the measure can be formed from a predetermined
Reading of type in the stick 103
number of large em quadrats, against which the
slide must be set tightly. A line of the letter m,
frequently used, may not be so accurate, for the
greater the number of pieces, the greater the lia-
bility to inaccuracy from unequal rubbing at the
foundry or from the possible bending or corner-
bruising of the types. To make up measure with
leads and a thin cardboard between the lead and
the slide is another unsafe method for any com-
position in which more than one stick will be used.
Making measure by the gauge of dead matter is
equally objectionable. A fixed gauge should be
used to test the stick as well as to form the measure.
If this gauge shows that the stick is tight at one
end of the slide and loose at the other, it is not
true and should be rejected. Spacing too tight,
dropping the stick on the floor, making use of the
plate of the stick as a turnkey, are some of the
careless practices that make sticks untrue.
^pe onf 86j: oj. pis bi^cqce TIJ
& GJGETIJ bLOOj. junsp tfcdniLe ^pi
nbgiqe go/Air J,JJG Goiuboajjm /qio
in fjiJ8 jyjrre^Lg^iojj' J8 sT'iGfrqiug oj.
IIJ f JJG SfJGJ^ ^8 f JJGX tfbbGtfL
The young compositor should read over every
line as soon as he sets it, and at once correct any
detected error. Before he empties the matter on
the galley he should read it again, looking for outs
104 Recent mannerisms
and doublets. The time given to correction in the
stick is not time lost. It is easier to correct there
than on the galley or the stone, and it is worth a
deal of trouble to acquire the reputation of a clean
compositor.
The making of pi is frequently unavoidable. A
standing rule in many printing-houses is that pi
must be distributed on the day it is made. When
the maker of this pi is unknown, it is customary to
divide it equally among all the compositors for
immediate distribution. The operation of this rule
seems harsh, but it is for the common advantage.
The small heap of pi that remains undistributed
overnight invites more carelessness ; it is probable
that it will be larger at the end of the next day.
RECENT MANNERISMS
A new fashion in typography directs that the first
line of every paragraph, whether at the beginning,
middle, or ending of a chapter, shall begin flush at
the left side of the measure. The only indication
that the line which is so treated begins a new para-
graph is to be found in the blank that may be
left in the last line of the preceding paragraph.
When that line is full, there is no indication, and
the two intended paragraphs are made one. For
this reason the suppression of the em quadrat as
the mark of paragraph indention is not a safe prac-
tice. It may be and often is proper enough when
Eagged endings to lines 105
there is a full white line over the first line of any
paragraph, but not otherwise. The em quadrat
has been for years the established mark of para-
graph indention, and it can be omitted with safety
only when it is so ordered.
Ragged endings at the right side of all the lines
of the text, as is unavoidable in type- writing, is
another novelty. This new mannerism lessens
the labor of spacing, but it makes an unsymmetri-
cal page that is unpleasing to the- reader. Print
is preferred to manuscript because it is symmetri-
cal and orderly as well as more readable. To
reproduce in print the irregularities of autographic
work is an unwise rejection of the uniformity
that is the great merit of letterpress printing.
Lines of ragged outline may attract attention to
an advertisement or an ephemeral pamphlet, but
to the reader this raggedness seems slovenly.
Unleaded and thin-spaced composition is preferred
by the disciples of William Morris, but it is not liked
by the average reader, who does need a perceptible
white blank between words or lines of print. During
the fifteenth century, when thin leads and graduated
spaces were almost unknown and but little used, the
reading world had its surfeit of close-spaced and solid
type-setting. " It is not probable that readers of this
century can be educated to relish a practice that then
had no excuse but that of unavoidability ." Words can
be spaced and lines can be leaded too widely, but a per-
ceptible break of white between words and lines at
least as great as the white between the body-marks or
106 Solid and thin-spaced composition
stems of single letters is needed for easy reading. A
solid and very thin-spaced composition may be quite
acceptable in the text of types on 14-point and larger
bodies, when these types have been properly printed
on damp paper, for under these conditions ordinary
eyesight can discern the shape of each character, but
it is not acceptable in any body of small type that has
been printed on dry and coated paper, where the eye
has to guess at the words and does not clearly discern
the forms of single types.
The dense huddling of lines of capital letters, nar-
rowly spaced and without any leads, and the jam-
ming of text types close against illustrations or up
CAPITAL LETTERS NEEDLESSLY
HUDDLED BY THIN SPACING AND
OMISSION OF SEPARATING LEADS
to large initial letters or surrounding borders, are
equally objectionable. The relation of letters to
one another should not purposely be made difficult
when they can be composed to be read at a glance.
Illustrations of all kinds, whether in the form of
diagrams, initial letters, head-bands, or borders,
need a decent relief of white to show their value.
Ruskiii wisely says that " the eye is not saddened
by quantity of white, but it is saddened and should
be offended by quantity of black.' 7 This remark
can be properly extended to the mutual interfer-
ence of bold-faced types, or to decorations of any
kind when they crowd too close against letters.
Capital letters unwisely spaced 107
Over-wide spacing of single types, of both capitals
and lower-case letters, for the purpose of making
the running title of a page or every line in a page
of display fill the measure, is another caprice. The
advantage to be gained by this explosive treatment
of types is not apparent. It is never done in the
THEOVER-WIDESPACING
OFSINGLETYPESTHAT
DISLOCATESTHEWORDS
ANDPRODUCESCONFUSION
text of a book in short lines of dialogue matter or
in poetry. It does not make clearer or more sym-
metrical the running title or any subheading. It
does not add to the comeliness of a modern book,
even if it was a style of the seventeenth century.
The uncouth letters now provided by type-found-
ers for display sometimes appear in the subhead-
ings of magazines, but the wise publisher forbids
their appearance in a library book. 1 The reader
and the student have small reason to complain of
any ineffectiveness in the modest types that have
been used for years with advantage to make clear
the difference between the headings and the sub-
ject-matter of a book, and they have good cause to
i Advertisers are largely re- attention. This new typographic
sponsible for these letters. They practice of "getting ahead "of
properly represent in type the all rivals is damaging to the seri-
screaming " barker " before a ous book, for it produces the
paltry show, or the " hustler " impression that there is proba-
who breaks up an interview and bly an inferiority in matter that
insists on first and immediate is heralded by needless display.
108
Injudicious use of borders
protest against rude types that deform printing.
The title-page and the subheadings of a book may
be judiciously decorated by inclosing their words
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ in a rule border or in
many panels of brass
rule formed of single
or parallel hair-lines,
but in some instances
the rule is of much
bolder face than the
type within, and more
Illustration of a bor-
der rule that makes un-
sightly types within.
The value of black lines
as a border for small
type, or under running
titles, or between para-
graphs, is not apparent
in the composition of
any book of worth or
of permanent value.
strikingly attracts the
notice of the reader.
It often requires ener-
getic protest from author and publisher, the real
sponsors of the book, to prevent a young composi-
tor from adorning its
subheadings with the
twisted and fantastic ^^^_
Example of th<
new way of mak-
ng up a measure
or the types in-
border so that
black borders that are
now in fashion in Ger-
many, or from over-
*the types will
lose to border.^?
loading the book with
hair-line rules that
often have attached
scraps of decoration.
This unwise fond-
ness for ornamentation often induces the amateur
to fill the blanks in the last lines of paragraphs
or on each side of the running title of a modern
Improper ornamentation 109
book with petty figments of bordering. There are
books on medieval subjects, and some on modern
subjects, in which decoration of this kind may be a
grace, but it should be selected with caution. In the
larger part of modern books so treated, this filling
up of all blanks with decoration is a positive fault.
Ornamented pages intended for printing in black
ink seldom need a border bolder than the types
within. It should not be necessary to repeat the
platitude that the book is bought to be read for
the thought of the author and not to see the fancies
REMAEKS
ON THE
ART OF MAKING DISPLAY EXTREMELY
-DIFFICULT AND EXPENSIVE-
- WITHOUT
IMPROVEMENT TO ITS CLEARNESS OR BEAUTY, -
- AND VERY MUCH TO THE DAMAGE -
OF ITS SALABILITY
of the printer or decorator, but it seems to be
needed. A young compositor should always ob-
serve this rule of all architects : "You may orna-
ment construction ; you must not construct orna-
ment." Types that represent words and thought
must have first place j ornamentation of any kind
should be subordinate.
110 Simple methods most approved
These mannerisms have been introduced during
the last twenty years. It is not unsafe to hazard
the assertion that before another twenty years has
passed they will be out of fashion, and the book
containing them will be in lasting discredit.
When a printer is plainly directed to make use
of one or more of these mannerisms, he should do
so without question or remark, for it is his plain
duty to do what he is told, and to do it intelli-
gently and helpfully, whether he does or does not
like the style ; but when he has a free hand and
is asked to do the composition of a new book in
workmanlike manner, he will make no mistake in
adhering to methods of simplicity that have pre-
vailed for centuries. It will be safer to accept the
leadership of Bodoni and Didot, of Pickering and
Whittingham, than that of many recent reformers
of typography.
HENRY O. HOUGHTC^
IV
COMPOSITION OF BOOKS
Title-page . . . Preface matter . . . Chapter headings and
synopsis . . . Subheadings . . . Extracts . . . Notes and
illustrations . . . Running titles and paging . . . Poetry
Appendix and index . . . Initials . . . Head-bands, etc.
TITLE-PAGE
OMAN capitals of regular form
in uneven lines of open dis-
play are preferred for the title-
page by the largest number of
publishers. The lower-case of
roman and italic and the capi-
tals of italic are other tolerated
styles, but title-pages exclusively in any one of these
series are not common, A title-page in roman capi-
tals displayed in a plain manner is most satisfactory
for the ordinary book, and it is for the plain title
111
112 Copy for a title-page needs study
only that these brief remarks are made. Properly
selected, their arrangement gives least trouble to
the compositor.
The type of the title should be of the same face
as that of the text. This is easier said than done,
for there are few text types provided with larger
sizes of precisely the same face and fitted for words
and lines of different length. The compositor must
do the best he can with the faces and styles that
are available, but he must avoid harsh contrasts.
He should understand at the outset that his com-
position will be most satisfactory when the types
selected show mutual relation. Even one line of
italic capitals in a composition otherwise of roman
capitals only will make discord. A title-page may
be entirely in capitals or entirely in lower-case
(initial letters excepted), either in roman or italic,
but two series can seldom be used together. 1
The copy for title-page matter should be studied
before the first line is put in type. The compositor
should predetermine how many lines and how much
1 Exception may be allowed the name of a book that treats
for a word that calls for pecu- of old English literature, but it
liar emphasis, for honorary titles is not pleasing in an imprint or
in separate lines, and for a line for any other short line. The
of display with arabic figures, uniformity of face that is the
Small capitals that are almost great merit of a page of text
unreadable may be supplanted should be maintained in a page
with small but more readable of title. To mix two faces de-
lower-case. Eeal old English stroys the bookish feature ; it de-
black-letter of large size may be grades the title to the level of
selected, in a title-page other- a newspaper advertisement or a
wise of roman capitals only, for handbill.
iiiminmiiiimmiii
Suggestions for sketches of titles.
114 An old method of setting title-pages
blank between lines are really needed. He should
begin by sketching on a bit of paper the relative
size and length of the proposed lines. The first
lesson to be learned by him is that the attractive-
ness of a title-page depends as much on the proper
distribution of blank space as on the proper display
of important words.
Blanks of different widths are needed between
distinct divisions of subject-matter a broad blank
between those that are not closely related, and a
narrower one between those that are. To display
the matter in the manner of a handbill by making
frequent catch-lines and putting blanks of the same
width between all the divisions will spoil any title.
The broadest blank in titles without device or illus-
tration should be above the publisher's imprint.
Catch-lines have to be selected for some title-pages,
but they should not be too frequent or in too small
type. When it is possible to do so, all the words
in a title-page should be in types that are as reada-
ble as those of the text. 1
An old method of constructing a title-page, not
yet out of fashion (usually done in obedience to or-
der of author), was to plan it with many distinct
lines, and to crowd the long name of the book in
1 Large type is not possible for play. The strong contrast pro-
prolix honorary titles, nor for duced by putting a catch-line of
some details added by the pub- small capitals of nonpareil above
lisher, but it is practicable to or below a large two-line letter,
make all important words no- once a grace, is now a real fault,
ticeable. Pettiness should be The reader values readability
avoided as much as overbold dis- more than he does ingenuity.
Type for main line of display 115
one bold line of condensed type. The short name
had its types spaced out to fill the line, for a full
line was rated of first importance. These meth-
ods did not always give to the title the desired
boldness and clearness ; in many books they made
it feeble and incoherent. A contrast of the old
with the new method of treating the title is pre-
sented on the following pages.
The name by which the book will be identified
should be the boldest line, and the words for this
line are usually prescribed by the author. As this
line determines the size of other lines, it should be
the one first set. Its length or shortness is not of
first importance, as is often supposed, but its bold-
ness is : it should be bold enough to arrest atten-
tion at the first glance. Condensed types have to
be selected for this line when the author insists on
putting many words in one line, but this shape of
type should be avoided when it is possible. Types
slightly compressed are tolerated by the critical,
but not when they are visibly pinched. At their
best when their letters are not spaced, they are
never entirely pleasing either for a scant or a
crowded title. A two-line type of the standard or
regular width is clearer than a condensed type of
greater height, and should be preferred.
When the letters for the main line of display are
few, they may be in one short line, but when there
are too many for one line, and condensed letter is
forbidden, they may be arranged in two lines. The
A HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL GREEK LITERATURE
BY THE
REV. J. P. MAHAFFY, MA
KNIGHT OF THE ORDER OF THE REDEEMER
FELLOW AND PROF. OF ANCIENT HISTORY. TRIN. COLL. DUBLIN
HON. FELLOW OF QUEEN'S COLL. OXFORD
AUTHOR OF 'SOCIAL LIFE IN GREECE* 'PROLEGOMENA TO ANCIENT HISTORV'
THE GREEK WORLD UNDER ROMAN SWAY' ETC
IN TWO VOLUMES
VOL. II. PART I.
THE PROSE WRITERS
FROM HERODOTUS TO PLATO
THIRD EDITION, REVISED THROUGHOUT
Conbon
MACMILLAN AND CO.
AND NEW YORK
1890
All rigfttt reserved
A HISTORY OF
CLASSICAL GREEK
LITERATURE
BY THE
REV. J. P. MAHAFFY, M. A.
Knight of the Order of the Redeemer; Fellow and Pro-
fessor of Ancient History, Trinity College. Dublin; Hon-
orary Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford ; Author of
" Social I-ife in Greece," " Prolegomena to Ancient His-
tory," "Greek Life and Thought," "Rambles and Studies
in Greece," " The Greek World under Roman Sway," etc.
IN TWO VOLUMES. VOLUME II. PART I.
THE PROSE WRITERS
FROM HERODOTUS TO PLATO
THIRD EDITION
REVISED THROUGHOUT
LONDON
MACMILLAN AND CO.
AND NEW YORK
1890
A II rights reserved
118 Long and short lines of display
two lines so picked out should be of the same face
and nearly, if not exactly, of the same size. They
should not be huddled: the blank between them
should be about as wide as the height of the type
selected. 1 If these meeting lines are of the same
length, the letters of one line may be thin-spaced
to make it a trifle longer, but the spacing should
be slight, so that its increased width will not be at
once apparent. 2 The main line is well placed when
it appears as the second or third line on the page.
A title with its largest and longest line at the top
of the page is always unbalanced and top-heavy.
When copy will allow, the introductory article THE
or A may be the first short line.
1 This suggestion opposes the
practice of some designers who
separate lines of large letters
with very thin lanes of white
space. This is often done even
when there is abundance of un-
filled space in other quarters of
the page. Letters so treated
would be more readable if they
were shortened in height and
more blank were put between
lines. The eye has been accus-
tomed to seeing in roman lower-
case type decidedly greater relief
of white space above and below
each line than there is within
the letter. This relief of white
space is equally needed for capi-
tal letters; they need as much
space without as within.
2 The first line may be long
and the second line short, or
vice versa, but it is desirable that
words closely related in sense
shall be kept in the same line.
It is not always necessary that
two meeting lines of display
shall be uneven as to length.
>Vhen the words in the lines are
of equal importance, they should
be treated in the same manner,
and be spaced or unspaced to
have equal distinction, even if
they are of the same length.
Two contiguous short display
lines of equal length are not a
fault, but the display will be
faulty if one line is purposely
made too large and the other too
small. The old rule that re-
quired a bold full line to be fol-
lowed by a short inconspicuous
line, even when it gave false
value to the words of the author,
is not observed now by the dis-
creet publisher.
THE
GRAMMAR
OF
ENGLISH GRAMMARS
THE
GRAMMAR OF
ENGLISH GRAMMARS
FIFTY YEARS
FIFTY YEARS AMONG AUTHORS, AMONG AUTHORS, BOOKS
BOOKS AND PUBLISHERS AND PUBLISHERS
THE ART OF ILLUSTRATION
grtt 0*
THE ART OF
ILLUSTRATION
SENTIMENTAL JOURNEY
THROUGH
FRANCE AND ITALY
SENTIMENTAL JOURNEY
THROUGH FRANCE
AND ITALY
CRITICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS
ESSAYS
CRITICAL
AND MISCELLANEOUS
ESSAYS
ONE HUNDRED BOOKS
FAMOUS IN
ENGLISH LITERATURE
WITH
ONE HUNDRED BOOKS
FAMOUS IN
ENGLISH LITERATURE
WITH FACSIMILES 'OF
THE TITLE-PAGES
Old method.
Modern method.
120 Expression of words of first importance
It is sometimes difficult to compose in an orderly
manner the words prescribed when the author re-
quires them in one full line. If the letters for this
line are too few, a type unduly large must be used.
If smaller type is selected, the line will be short
and feeble and the letters must be spaced, but spac-
ing to full width of measure will make the line still
feebler. Attaching a large capital of the same face
as an initial letter will make it practically a line of
capitals and small capitals (never pleasing in a title-
page), that does not materially increase its boldness.
Nor is a large engraved initial of square form help-
ful j most serviceable at the head of solid text type,
it always seems discordant and out of place in the
open title-page.
If the letters in the line are too many, condensed
type must be selected, but pinched letters make a
discord with those of standard width. When two
letters only of a type of proper size and shape will
not come in, the measure should be widened to take
them in. If this is not practicable, set the words in
two lines. When types have been chosen of a size
to give a proper showing to words, irrespective of
the length or shortness of lines, and other details of
composition are fairly adjusted, the result will sel-
dom be unsatisfactory. Old-fashioned rules about
display often have to be put aside. They should
not be maintained when they produce mean display.
It is of first importance that the words in a title be
properly presented, even if the old rules are violated.
Not the showing of arbitrary rules 121
The copy for a title-page may specify for its main
line not one, but four or more distinct words, all
of equal importance and all requiring equal promi-
nence. It may be impossible to give them proper
prominence in one line or even in two lines. By
old methods words of this description were set in
two lines the first line in a very large type, and
the second in a smaller type, after this fashion :
A CRITICAL REVIEW
OF
PAINTERS DESIGNERS
ETCHERS AND ENGRAVERS
The only excuse for making this needless distinc-
tion in the size of type is the unreasonable rule
that required two meeting lines to be unequal in
size and in length. The new method of treating
these words for display is simpler, much less trou-
blesome, and more satisfactory to the author.
A CRITICAL REVIEW OF
PAINTERS
DESIGNERS
ETCHERS AND
ENGRAVERS
122 Hair-spacing of capital letters
This treatment gives equality to all the words, and
the initial letters of each word line vertically, re-
gardless of their irregular endings.
All other short lines of a title-page can be cen-
tred by putting equal blanks on each side of every
line. The needed irregularity is produced by dif-
ferent sizes of type that make the lines of unequal
length, but there should be some symmetry in the
apparent irregularity ; a pencil line drawn diago-
nally from the end of a short to the end of the
longest line should touch or nearly touch the ends
of the intermediate lines. A hair-spacing of one or
more intermediate lines may be needed.
When the main line has to be widely spaced, as
in a title-page of the Puritan or seventeenth-cen-
tury style, other lines of display should be wide-
spaced, and broad blanks put between the lines
above and below the main line. The space between
single types in any line of display should be much
narrower than that of its proximate blanks. The
wide spacing of single types when there are narrow
blanks above and below is unpleasing, for it makes
the subject-matter incoherent.
Small capitals that have little interior white space
may need hair-spacing to make them more distinct.
An old rule required every line in the title to be
spaced when the main line had been spaced. This
treatment is not always practicable, but it could be
observed much oftener than has been done, and
with advantage to many title-pages.
Arabic figures improper with capitals 123
Lines of secondary display should not be frequent,
nor set in types so large as to reduce the'impor-
tance of the main line and to encroach on the wide
blanks that are needed between the regular divi-
sions. Grouping of details in a synopsis under
the name of the book in readable capitals, and in
short lines of a squared form or in a diamond or
half-diamond arrangement, is the more approved
practice. The attractiveness of a title-page is largely
in the visible coherence of its words. Wide blanks
that separate divisions not closely related, and nar-
row blanks that combine those that are related, are
greater aids to a comprehension of subject-matter
than many lines of bold type.
The names of author, editor or translator, and de-
signer may be in types of graduated size to indicate
the relative value of their contributions, but to pre-
serve irregularity of outline it may be necessary to
neglect the nice distinctions intended to be pro-
duced by different sizes of type. A general effect
of irregularity should be maintained even if those
distinctions are not at once noticeable and some
lines are made a trifle short or long.
Arabic figures must be avoided in all lines of
capitals. Figures of old-style face are always mean
mates in the same line with their broad and tall
capitals, nor is any figure of modern cut on the
en body pleasing in a line of capitals of regular
width. Roman numerals or spelled-out words are
imperative in lines of capitals for all amounts but
124 Obtrusiveness of the motto
those of dates, yet the date following a publisher's
imprinf, always in a separate line, may be in arabic
figures with propriety.
When the title-page is crowded with much matter,
the prefixed BY before the name of the author may
be set in the same line and in the same type. Abbre-
viations of short honorary titles following the name
may appear with that name in the same type and
same line, but when there are many honorary titles
this prefixed BY has to be in a separate line. Hon-
orary titles are not pleasing in small capitals by
the side of the name ; they may be spelled out, to
appear in a separate line below the name, in small
capitals or in two or more lines of small lower-case.
Spaces are not needed after the periods in abbrevia-
tions like A.B. and LL.D. Custom requires the
name of the author to be in larger type than that
given to his coadjutors, but there may be special
reasons for neglecting this practice. When supe-
rior distinction is required for an illustrator, edi-
tor, or translator, his name may be larger, or even
appear in small type as the first line of the page.
The motto of. a title-page always seems in the
wajr. It must be placed where the author directs,
but if put as is usual in the middle of the page, it
may need a hair-line dash above and below to sepa-
rate it from other parts of the title. When the
title is crowded, and the author permits, it may be
put at the head of the page or on the leaf that
precedes or follows the title-page. One or two
Faults of overcrowded titles 125
lines of a motto may be in small capitals ; three or
more lines are better in small lower-case letters.
It always appears to better advantage in a purposely
narrowed measure, but modern practice does not
inclose it in a border-line. 1
Curved lines, ornamental dashes, a sprinkling
of odd initials, or decoration of any description,
should never be added to a title without order.
The Morris title is made by crowding at the head
of the page all its words in a few lines of thin-
spaced and unleaded capital letters. It is not a
modern but an old method, apparently devised by
an illuminator who wanted nearly all the page for
his own handiwork. When the blank so made is
not filled with decoration, the page is unsightly.
Explanations concerning the publication of the
book and specifications about the edition, as of the
number of copies printed, are usually put on the
title-page, but these additions always prevent or-
derly arrangement. A displayed title-page over-
crowded with lines that must be read more slowly
and thoughtfully than lines of the text matter is a
l Two or more long quotations ning, but the ungainly appear-
selected to serve for the motto ance of indented and broken
should be put on a separate page, lines will be prevented. When
and roman lower-case of a small two or more distinct quotations
size is usually selected for this appear on the same page, they
purpose. It is not necessary that may be separated by a white line,
the lines of a motto should be the not by dashes. The reference
full width of the measure ; it is to the book from which the quo-
always more pleasing when its tations have been taken should
first and last lines are full. This be in a separate line, in smaller
may compel frequent overrun- type, and not preceded by a dash.
126 Border-lines for the title
mistake. It should be so composed that the hasty
reader can take in its full meaning at a glance. 1
The title-page of but few lines that presents a
ragged and meagre appearance may be improved
by inclosing it in a brass-rule border of parallel
hair-lines or of one firm line about one point thick.
The bold-faced rule with face much thicker than
the stem of the largest type in that title is not to
be commended, for it makes the words within seem
insignificant. The single hair-line border is equally
objectionable, for it is feeble and is electro typed
and printed with difficulty. Putting title matter
in two or more panels of brass rule may or may
not be an improvement j it is always a hazardous
experiment that may degrade the title instead of
improving it. The wishes of the publisher should
be consulted before this experiment is tried.
Some title-pages have their words and phrasing
so arranged that they are difficult to put in type in
1 No part of the book is sub- position so ordered the composi-
jected to more capricious treat- tor can do no more than follow
ment than the title. Although specific directions given by the
the largest number of publishers author. Even when it is re-
and readers prefer the plain title* quested that a new title-page
there are others who ask for shall be in imitation of a given
black-letter with medieval man- model, it is seldom that the
nerisms, or for eccentricities of words to be used (which maybe
arrangement with brass rules too few or too many) can be
and grotesque types. To give accommodated to the style of
directions or even suggestions that model. The fantastic com-
f or the composition of the fan- position that may be admired in
tastic title would be useless, for an old book or in the pamphlets
the lover of novelty too often of advertisers always seems out
wants his title-page in a style of place in any book of perma-
that is entirely new. For com- nent interest.
Types for the dedication 127
an orderly manner even when they receive the
benefit of suggestions from the author and the ad-
vice of experts. Every attempt at improvement
seems to make them more unpleasing. To prevent
this disappointment the abandonment of display is
advised. Set the matter in large type (all capitals,
all italic, or all lower-case, as may seem best), in
half -diamond indention, after the methods of the
early printers, or as a plain paragraph with hang-
ing indention. When this can be done without
gross faults of spacing or in the division of words,
the result will seldom be unsatisfactory. 1
DEDICATION
The dedication is not a necessary part, and is now
seldom required. When used, it is put on a sepa-
rate leaf with a blank verso, and is oftenest set in
small capitals with all its lines centred, as is done
in the displayed title-page, with large capitals only
for the name of the person to whom the book is
dedicated. It is never improved by types of eccen-
tricity. The matter is usually divided into lines of
unequal length, as may be directed by the author,
but it is most satisfactory when it does not show
a marked irregularity in the length of proximate
lines. The short line of one or two words only,
i For additional remarks on also contains many illustrations
the selection of types and the of titles set in different faces of
composition of title-pages, see type and in the fashions of dif-
A Treatise on Title-pages, which ferent periods.
128 When tables can be properly leaded
following or preceding a line the entire width of
the measure, destroys symmetry in composition.
A long dedication can be made more readable by
setting it as a letter in italic lower-case.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
The table of contents, usually on a separate leaf, is
often set in small capitals one or two sizes smaller
than the type of the text, with capitals for the first
letter of important words, but roman lower-case is
sometimes preferred. Small capitals of the large
type of a text are not a good choice, for they make
the page seem needlessly coarse. The number of
the chapter, the name of the chapter heading, and
the page figures referred to, appear at their best
when they can be put in one line. This line should
begin with the number of the chapter in roman
numerals of small capitals. The initial letters of
the chapter should be kept in a vertical line.
A table of contents needs wide leading to make
it readable. When the subjects provided fill the
page too compactly and leave insufficient blank
at its head, the matter should be double- or treble-
leaded to occupy two or more pages. This leading
should not be strictly uniform, for when the words
of a chapter name make two or more lines they
should be kept visibly together, separated by one
lead only, even if three leads or white lines are put
between the matter provided for different chapters.
Tables needing orderly arrangement 129
When other parts of the book are wide -leaded,
and it is desirable that the contents should occupy
two or more pages, the numerals that define chap-
ters may be put in a separate line in the centre of
the measure, and there should be still broader
blanks between the names or legends of the chap-
ters. This treatment should not be attempted in
any book with solid text, for some uniformity of
compactness or of openness should be maintained
throughout the fore part of the book. When the
words of a chapter heading are many and make a
second line, the two lines may be braced and the
page number put at the point of the brace, but the
brace selected for this purpose should not be blacker
than the type of the text. The leaders provided by
the type-founders to connect letters with figures
are not so pleasing as periods placed one em apart.
TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS
This table, more irregular in its matter than the
table of contents, usually contains in its first line
the legend of the illustration, and near its ending
the name of the designer, engraver, or photogra-
pher. Under the legend line are often put one or
more lines of added explanation, which may be in
small type. When space and matter will permit,
an attempt should be made to keep the names of
the artists in vertical line, so that the casual reader
will note the distinction. Not a little ingenuity
130 Half-title and bastard title
may be required to keep the matter straight. The
lines may have to be reset repeatedly before the
composition is presentable.
PARTS AND HALF-TITLES
Each large subdivision of book or part or canto
takes a separate leaf in the sumptuous volume, and
its name or number is put in the centre or a little
above the centre of an otherwise blank page. The
back of this page is always blank. The type that
defines the part need not be large. Roman nume-
rals are used to specify its number, but to give it
a due prominence and equality with the wider and
bolder capitals in that line, the thin types for nume-
rals II and III will need a thin space between them.
For the cheap edition a separate leaf for each
part is not often allowed. The number and name of
the part may be ordered to be put at the head of
its following chapter page, and if that page has a
long synopsis, a hair-line dash may be needed under
the line that specifies the part, but the dash should
be suppressed when the relative importance of the
different headings can be made clear without it.
The half-title, which is a repetition of the name
of the book, was once put over the first chapter of
every book, but it is rarely used now. 1 When a
1 The half -title should not be text ; the bastard title, usually a
confounded with the bastard single line in capital letters, pre-
title. The half-title follows the cedes the full title, and takes a
title and begins the first page of separate leaf with blank verso.
Space needed for chapter headings 131
head-band, an engraved initial, and a long synopsis
have to be inserted, the half-title is impracticable.
CHAPTER HEADINGS
A crowded first page is as unsightly as a crowded
title. If it contains head-band, half-title, number
of chapter, chapter heading, synopsis, subheading,
and initial, the first page cannot be composed in
orderly manner, with proper subordination of types
to show their distinction.
The number of a chapter heading is usually set
in capitals of the text type, but the numbers only
may be larger. As the numerals I II III are thin
and relatively insignificant by the side of the letters
in the word CHAPTER, that word is often omitted,
and the chapter is defined by numerals only. The
head-band that surmounts a chapter heading may
be sunk two lines, so that its top will register with
the first line of text on the following page, and not
with the running title. If the text is wide-leaded,
about half a page of blank space may be given to
the chapter heading ; if thin-leaded, one third ; if
solid and without a head-band, one fourth or one
fifth of the page. 1 The space allowed for the first
i The amount of blank often two and preferably four lines or
has to be governed by the amount more of text below the large in-
of matter in the synopsis that itial. The synopsis is a disfig-
may follow, and by the size of urement when it overruns on the
the initial letter, if an initial is next page and prevents needed
used. There should be at least lines of text on the first page.
132 Types preferred for synopsis
chapter heading may be used for all the following
chapter headings, and should be distinctly marked
on the gauge of the maker-up.
The type for the words that give name to the
chapter (which should be the same in all the fol-
lowing chapter headings) may be in capitals of the
text type, or larger, if its letters will come in one or
two lines. If its words are too many for one line,
do not select black-letter or any form of condensed
type; make two lines of the matter, but shorten
the first line and place the overrun words in the
centre of the second line. The words in this first
line need not fill the measure. To make the first
line full, and to put in the second line one word or
syllable only, will be a great blemish. When there
is no synopsis, and the name of the chapter will
make more than two lines, do not use capitals:
small capitals or italic lower-case will be a better
choice, and the lines may be arranged in hanging
indention or in half-diamond shape.
SYNOPSIS
This abstract of the contents of the chapter is
often set in small capitals of the text type, but
in this position the small capitals of a large body
show too much space between lines and seem need-
lessly large and coarse. Small capitals on a body
two or three sizes smaller than that of the text are
a more approved selection, although they are dense
Types for preface and introduction 133
and too often indistinct. A small size of plain
roman lower-case is more acceptable. It must be
set in small type when it crowds the space needed
for the initial letter and the text type. Sentences
in a synopsis are often separated by an em dash,
but the period before the dash is not needed ; a thin
space before and after is better. Two or three peri-
ods a thick space apart and without any dash make
a more pleasing mark of separation. The synopsis
is usually set in hanging indention, which should
not be greater than that of the paragraphs of the
text. Indentions of three or more ems make the
matter lopsided.
The long synopsis, in lower-case italic, with its
clauses separated by semicolons, is sometimes put on
a separate leaf with blank verso before the chapter.
PREFACE AND INTRODUCTION
The size of type for preface and introduction is
frequently determined by the author. When the
printer has the right of choice, and space will
allow, the preface may be in large type, or in the
type of the text made distinctive by a change in
its leading. A book on a bibliographical subject
may have its preface in italic lower-case, as was
once customary. As the preface often contains
more or less of personal explanation, it needs some
distinction of type, which can be varied to suit the
occasion. When these personal explanations are
134 First part of look needs most care
of minor importance, and the matter for the text
has exceeded its intended limit, the preface may be
in small type. A book of many editions may have
as many distinct prefaces, and it is the general
practice to give to each one its beginning on an
odd page, even if this treatment makes many blank
pages. A short preface is pleasing when in large
type, but large type is seldom ordered when the
matter will make many pages.
The long introduction is often set in smaller type
and with thinner leads than those for the text, but
its type should be of the same face and have similar
treatment. A solid introduction before a leaded
text is unpleasing. When head -bands have been
selected for the regular chapters, a head-band may
be used for the first page of the preface or intro-
duction, but it may be narrower than the head-
bands of regular chapters.
As the preface and introduction are usually set
after the text has been printed, it is necessary to
give them separate paging with numerals of roman
lower-case. The roman numerals need not be
used for any reprint on which presswork begins
with the preface.
Careful composition is of importance in the first
part of the book, for a neglect in workmanship is
there most noticeable. The sumptuous book must
have its chapter headings begin on odd pages, but
in a book without pretence to superiority each new
chapter may begin on the verso, or left-hand page.
Treatment of subheadings 135
The publisher may not consent to what he calls a
needless waste of white paper. In some books the
chapters are as brief as they are in the Bible, under
which condition the new chapter must closely fol-
low the previous chapter. To prevent unsightly
gaps of white space, it is often necessary to overrun
many pages previously made up. Paragraphs must
be made longer or shorter by a wider or narrower
spacing of lines, and an unequal amount of blank
must be put between the chapters. Hymn-books
and collections of desultory poems in different
measures often require similar treatment. No fixed
rule can be laid down for the amount of blank be-
tween chapters, but it must be large in the sump-
tuous and small in the compact book. 1
SUBHEADINGS
Subheadings, of the same class, intended to relieve
the monotony of plain type, should be in the same
face and size of type throughout the book. For
a subheading of one or two lines only, the small
capitals of the text are commonly used. For sub-
headings of three lines or more, italic lower-case of
1 The rule that requires every tirely blank. The proper treat-
chapter heading to begin on the ment of this difficulty will be
odd page often meets with un- considered in a future chapter
expected difficulties. The end on making up. The intervention
of a previous chapter may over- of the author or publisher may
run three lines on an odd page, be needed to add or cancel mat-
leaving the lower part of that ter enough to make a sightly
page and the page following en- page.
136 Paragraphs numbered or lettered
the text in hanging indention of one em only will
be a better choice. The indistinctness of compact
small capitals can be made less offensive by hair-
spacing the letters, but this treatment is not recom-
mended for subheadings of more than one line. If
the italic of the text is not large enough, use the
next larger size. The subheading in italic is also
used in school-books or any didactic work contain-
ing rules or propositions that serve as texts for fol-
lowing remarks. In school-books these subhead-
ings often appear in light-faced antique or title
type, but this overbold display is not to be recom-
mended in the standard book. The distinction de-
sired for a subheading is secured more effectively by
putting about it a generous relief of white space.
In some books long subheadings are set in lower-
case type two or three sizes smaller than that of the
text. Small type and abundant white space about
the subheading are enough to arrest the attention
of the reader.
Paragraphs below the rule or proposition that
serves as a text are often numbered or lettered, but
the number or letter need not be inclosed in paren-
theses that lessen its prominence. Old-style figures
are objectionable, for they are weak and of irregu-
lar form. The number or letter need not be fol-
lowed by a period. The en quadrat is enough to
show separation, as in the versification of the Bible.
Side-headings may be set in small capitals or
italic, but they do not need an em dash to follow the
Extracts need variable treatment 137
closing period. For dictionaries, gazetteers, or
work of like character, that contains frequent para-
graphs, the side-heading of title or antique type is
preferred. It is not necessary that the type for
this purpose should be very bold, nor should it have
marked eccentricity of shape to annoy the critical
reader, but it will present a much neater appear-
ance when it is on line with the type of the text.
Copy is sometimes formally divided into para-
graphs and sections, and the signs for these divi-
sions may be ordered instead of spelled-out words.
The sign should be separated from its following
figure by a three-to-em space. The abbreviation of
SEC. for Section is not wise. If space has to be
saved, the sign is better.
EXTRACTS
Extracts and notes should be leaded when the text
is leaded, but always with a thinner lead for each
decreasing size. The text that has six-to-pica leads
should have its extracts in type one size smaller
with an eight-to-pica lead, and the notes at the
foot of the page should have a ten-to-pica lead.
Short extracts and quotations may be run in the
text and yet be kept distinct by using the ordinary
marks of quotation. When there are four or more
lines, the quoted matter can be more distinctly
defined by putting the reversed commas at the
beginning of each line, and apostrophes at the end
138 Quoting and indenting of extracts
of the last line, but this old fashion is used now
only when extreme precision is compulsory. The
approved practice is to set extracts of four or
more lines in type of the same face but one size
smaller than that of the text. Types two or three
sizes smaller are objectionably petty.
When the extract is set in a separate paragraph
and in smaller type, it does not need the marks of
quotation ; the change in size is a sufficient indica-
tion of a change in authorship. A new method of
indicating extracts indents them one em on each
side of every line. Long extracts that make two
or more pages are frequently an annoyance to the
reader. When it can be done, the verbose extract
should be remanded to the appendix.
Extracts in prose or long quotations of poetry in
smaller type are kept separate from the text by
leads placed above and below. If the text is solid,
two leads may be enough to mark this separation,
Italic is occasionally selected for poetry, but not to
advantage. To prevent the overrunning of very
long lines of poetry, always a blemish, a smaller size
of type may be selected.
If the extract has been ordered in peculiar type
or in the style of a document, it may be inclosed in
a rule of hair-line face, which will show that it is
an illustration as well as an extract. Another way,
more generally pleasing and not so troublesome, is
to begin the document with a plain two-line letter,
which clearly shows that it is not a part of the text.
Variable treatment of notes 139
NOTES
Foot-notes usually appear in a type two or three
sizes smaller than the type of the text. Four sizes
smaller, but not less than 6-point, may be a better
choice when notes are prolix as well as profuse.
When the note is merely the specification in abbre-
viated words of an authority, it may be set in broad
measure j when it is explanatory and makes many
lines, half -measure is better. The two columns of
this half -measure will be properly separated with
an em quadrat of the type of the note. A brass rule
to separate the two columns of a half -measure note,
or a broad -measure note from the text above, is
seldom used now.
Side-notes in type three sizes smaller than that
of the text are usually made up to a measure of
eight nonpareils, but they may be wider for notes
that have many words. Sometimes specifications
of authority are set in italic lower-case type, but
italic is not a wise choice, for its kerned letters are
easily damaged in this exposed position, and the
upright arabic figures too often used with it do not
accord with inclined letters.
Cut-in notes are in measures of variable widths,
and they usually appear in small sizes of plain
roman lower-case type. Light-faced antiques and
condensed letters are common in the texts of school-
books, but are not a betterment to a library book.
140 Photo-engraved plates need scrutiny
A modern fashion for cut-in notes is to begin them
on the first line of the paragraph, but this treat-
ment gives to that paragraph a ragged and un-
sightly outline. The page will be more comely if
the first line of the cut-in note is opposite the third
line of the paragraph.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Engravings on wood have practically disappeared.
Plates of zinc or copper etched by photo-engraving
process now contain the illustrations provided for
printing with type. With the providing of these
illustrations, mostly furnished by the publisher,
the printer has little to do, but to some extent he
is made responsible for their proper appearance in
print, and it becomes him to examine the plates
critically, for the photo-engraver's proof on coated
paper may be deceptive. 1 The plate to be examined
should be proved again on paper that must be used
in the proposed book, and this proof will show
whether the plate is or is riot proper for the paper.
Common faults in process plates are lines broken
or thickened at their extremities, shallow etching,
and imperfect blocking. These process plates are
l Photo-engravings by the so- presswork. Much as it may be
called half-tone process should disliked by the critical, a super-
never be selected for type-work calendered or a coated paper is
that must be printed on paper needed for the full development
with a dull or rough surface or of the delicate work of a half-
that has to be dampened before tone plate.
Placing of cuts by maker-up 141
often blocked on wood, but the wood may be soft,
warped, too high, too low, out of square, or an in-
secure support for its plate. These defects must
be amended before fair presswork can be done, and
the amendments should be made before the plates
are sent to the press or to the electrotype foundry.
Hard type-metal is better than wood for a base.
The cut of irregular shape should be nicked for the
admission of type before it is given to the maker-up.
Illustrations (or cuts, as they are oftener called
in the printing-house) that come within the measure
can be placed by the compositor in their proper
order on the galley that receives his composed type,
but this cannot be done when the cuts are small or
of irregular shape, and the types have to be rear-
ranged to conform to their irregularities and kept
within the limits of the page. No one can foresee
where the cuts will have to be placed. Lines of
type can be divided almost anywhere at the end
of the page, but the cut must be intact. It is cus-
tomary to set the type of every book to be illus-
trated to the full width of the regular measure,
and to have the maker-up put the cut in its proper
place after he has divided the type matter in pages.
To do this neatly, the type previously set by the
compositor must be overrun and led down in a nar-
row measure by the side of a small or diagonal cut,
and this overrunning may have to be done repeat-
edly before the type and cuts are fitted to each
other and to the page.
142 To prevent changes in running titles
RUNNING TITLES AND PAGING
Small capitals of the text type, often thin-spaced,
with arabic figures in the same line, have been for
many years an approved form for the running title,
but they are not in high favor now, largely on ac-
count of their pettiness. When the words for the
running title are few and repeat the name of the
book or the heading of the chapter, roman capitals
of full size on a body one or two sizes smaller than
that of the text are often selected. If it has many
words and defines the contents of its page, italic
lower-case is to be preferred. A line in italic capi-
tals only is not so well liked. Small capitals of the
text can be used when the type of that text is large,
but if the text is small and leaded, its small capitals
will need hair-spacing, and its paging figures will
be indistinct. Old English black-letter is some-
times used for the running title, but this style is at
its best in a medieval or bibliographical book. A
large size of roman lower-case letter is another ap-
proved style. The running title in mixed capitals
and small capitals is not a favorite.
To prevent capricious changes in the capitals of
a running title in lower-case, capitals should be
confined to the initial letter and to proper names. 1
iThe earliest printed books repeat the number of the proper
had no running title or paging chapter at the head of each page,
figures. The first attempt to sup- and this treatment was then sup-
ply this need of the reader was to posed to meet all requirements.
Indention of running titles 143
The running title is in an exposed position where
it first shows the wear of the press. To withstand
this wear, school-books, hymn-books, and all works
frequently reprinted from plates often have run-
ning titles in capitals of light-faced antique.
A new fashion in running titles is the very wide
spacing of their letters. This must be done when
it is so ordered, but a spacing of single types with
em or two-em quadrats is no grace to leaded and
a real blemish over a text of solid composition.
The running title is usually separated from the
text below by one line of the quadrats of the text
type, but if that text type is of 12-point the blank
so made will seem needlessly wide. A new fashion
separates the running title from its text with two
leads only, which may be satisfactory for solid, but
is not pleasing for leaded matter. 1
Lower-case type of small size has been used for
running titles, but the general preference is for a
type larger than that of the text.
Sometimes the running title is not centred, but
is set flush up to the inner margin of facing pages,
at the end of the left and at the beginning of the
l The blank space under the rule has been used. The value
running title seems to invite a of these additions to the page is
meddling treatment. The hair- not apparent, for a succession of
line cross-rule, sometimes of half unmeaning rules soon wearies
the width, but oftener of the full the reader. For this purpose
width of the measure, is the fa- the hair-lines, as usually made
vorite, but parallel rules of full upon single, parallel, and double
width are almost as common, rules, are annoyances to the elec-
For the page intended to be re- trotyper and pressman, and of
markably spruce, a thick double small benefit to the reader.
144 Page figures reckoned as of margin
right page. The chapter and the section of the book
may be specified in the running title, the chapter
name on the left and the section on the right page,
each fenced off from the words of the running
title with brackets. This revival of an old fashion
is now a common practice, but it cannot be con-
sidered as a grace to any modern page.
The running title that consists of the very long
name of the book is sometimes divided so that one
half only of this name will appear on one page and
the other half on the facing page. Nor is this a
commendable fashion, for a line of many words
can seldom be evenly divided ; if it is not so divided,
one heading will be longer than the other.
The continuous repetition of the name of the
book in its running title, when that name is well
known to the reader, is a wearisome and needless
formality. This title is most useful when it ex-
plains or to some extent defines the matter on the
page, and this explanation should refer not to the
first but to the last paragraph on that page.
In pamphlets or books that have no running
title, the paging figure is put in the centre of the
head-line, but it need not be inclosed in parenthe-
ses or brackets, nor have attached colons, dashes, or
any other attempt at finish. If the first line of type
contains nothing but the paging figure, this first
line and the blank below it must be reckoned in
the imposition of the form on the stone as a part
of the head margin of the page. If these practical
Page figures needed ~by the folder 145
blanks are reckoned as a part of the page of type,
the margin at the head will seem much too large in
print, and the page so treated will have an un-
workmanlike appearance.
Old-style figures are disliked for paging. The
irregularity of petty types like i o i on one page and
396 on another is offensive to every reader who
respects symmetry and uniformity. Some type-
founders have remodelled these figures and made
them uniform in height and line. 1 It is the rule
now that figures for paging should not be smaller
or less distinct than the figures used in the text.
They should be of readable size, even if it is neces-
sary to justify in the line figures of a larger body.
Paging figures at the head of a full-page cut are
forbidden by artists and editors as derogatory to
its intended effect. It is, however, necessary that
this page have its proper paging figure to prevent
i One of the novelties of re- tions to distinguish them from
formed typography is the omis- the figures of the regular signa-
sion of all paging figures, both ture. The proper page figures
at the head and at the foot of the should be put at the foot of every
page. This omission gives need- page that has a lowered chapter
less trouble to the folder as well heading or a cut at the head of the
as to the reader. Paging figures page. It is a mistake to assume
are guide-posts that prevent the that the early makers of books
folder and binder from making did not number or letter the
crooked folding and irregular leaves of their books to show
margins. Paging at the foot of their regular sequence. William
the page is a common, and in Blades, a most diligent searcher,
many instances an unavoidable, has shown that the leaves were
practice. In this position the numbered or lettered at the foot
figures may be of small size, but and that their marks were trim-
they should be of a face that will med off after all the leaves had
enable the gatherer of the sec- been gathered and sewed.
10
146 Paging of preface and advertisements
a possible mistake by stoneman, proof-reader, or
pressman. The maker-up puts it in the foot -line,
and there it remains until ready for press, when
it is withdrawn by the stoneman. If the page is
to be electrotyped, the paging figure remains, but
the proof-reader marks it to be cut off the plate by
the electrotype finisher. He scratches or engraves
the proper page figure on the plate so that it will
not appear in print, yet will serve as a guide to the
pressman. This precaution will prevent delay and
annoying blunders in laying plates.
As a rule, paging with arabic figures begins
with the text of the book. The matter before the
text (as the title, preface, introduction, etc., which
are printed last of all) is paged with roman lower-
case numerals. This paging is supposed to begin
with the bastard title or the first printed page of
the book ; but neither on that nor on any other very
open page are these roman numerals printed, yet
they are always reckoned in the table of contents
as if they had been paged.
Appendix, index, and all additions to the text
take arabic figures for paging, but publishers' ad-
vertisements at the end of the book should receive
their special paging in a figure of different face.
Maps, portraits, and illustrations made on separate
leaves by copperplate or lithographic process for
insertion in the book never receive printed paging,
although they may be reckoned as pages in the table
of contents or the index.
New methods for setting index 147
APPENDIX AND INDEX
The appendix of letters, extracts, documents, or
tables that are too long for the text is usually in
type one or two sizes smaller than that of the text.
It may be set close and solid when compactness is
desired, but its subheadings should not be too com-
pact. They should have around them enough of
white space to invite the reader's attention.
The index breaks the rule of strict uniformity of
treatment, for it is set solid in small type, even when
every other part is leaded. Two columns of 6-point
type are common for the duodecimo, and three or
more of 8-point for a large octavo or quarto. As
its merit is largely in compactness, some abbrevia-
tions that are improper in the text are permissible
in the index, but the full names of persons should
be spelled out, wherever it is possible, to prevent
a misleading direction.
The hanging indention of one en is enough for
an index in two or three columns. There need be
no rule between the columns. In the copious index,
the first word of every reference, or the two or three
words that follow, may be set in the slightly bolder
type of a light-faced antique, but the body of the
reference should be in plain roman lower-case. The
old method of making a separate line for each sub-
division of that reference, and of connecting it by
leaders to figures at the end of the line, is obsolete.
148 Turned-over words in poetry
References in an index to different volumes are
often put in roman numerals of capitals, but they
are large, wasteful of space, and not the clearest
guides to the searcher. For this purpose arabic
figures of title type or light-faced antique should be
preferred. The period at the end of each subdi-
vision of the general reference is not needed ; the
semicolon is a better mark of separation. Commas
before page figures should not be omitted. Cross-
references and note-references should be in italic.
POETRY
A three-to-em space is wide enough for the proper
separation of words of poetry in solid or single-
leaded composition. The en quadrat may be used
for double- or treble-leaded matter, but it is not an
improvement, and spaces of greater width are a
positive blemish. To avoid the turning over of a
long line, very thin spaces have to be used occa-
sionally, even when they mar the general uni-
formity of spacing in the page, for the turned-over
line of one syllable, often unavoidable, is a greater
misfortune than too thin spacing. When it is
practicable, the word or syllable turned over may
be put at the end of the preceding line or follow-
ing line after a bracket. This may be done when
the matter has to be kept on one page or in a speci-
fied number of pages, but it is not to be advised
for open composition in a generously planned book.
Page figures not to be indented 149
The word turned in a separate line should be so
deeply indented that it cannot be mistaken by the
negligent reader for a new line. A modern practice
permits this turned-over line to be set flush with
its preceding line, but it does not meet with general
approval. Lines from which words are turned over
should never be spaced out to full measure.
The variable indention of different lines is usually
determined by the author. When his intent is not
clearly expressed, give a similar indention to the
lines that rime. Sonnets are sometimes indented
artificially in the copy without regard to their rime.
Odes are another form of verse not to be controlled
by arbitrary rules, and they must be set with the
irregular indention directed by the author.
Indention should be so graduated that there will
seem to be an equal amount of blank on each side
of the page. In making up pages of short poems
in different metres, the indention may have to be
changed for each poem, so that the entire body of
verse on that page, and not one or two stanzas only,
shall be fairly centred. The different measures on
different pages of the same book of poems cannot
be indented by any inflexible rule.
The running title is the one line that can never
be changed with safety. Never move it or the
paging figure at the end of the line either to the
right or the left to make the body of an irregularly
indented mass of poetry seem in the centre of the
page. The paging figures are often the only safe
150 Capital letters to be kept in line
guide the pressman has in making register when
he prints the sheet on the reverse side. If paging
figures are put out of place it is probable that the
pages will be badly registered, and that the incau-
tious folder of the printed sheet will so fold it as
to make uneven margins.
Single quotations are a new fashion for poetry,
but they are feeble ; they make unsightly gaps of
white, and should be used only in strict reprints or
when especially ordered. It is the more acceptable
practice in poetry, as in prose, to make use of the
single quotation-mark for the quote within a quote.
" Curse on him ! " quoth false Sextus ;
" Will not the villain drown ?
But for this stay, ere close of day
We should have sacked the town."
" Heaven help him," quoth Lars Porsena,
" And bring him safe to shore ;
For such a gallant feat of arms
Was never seen before."
In all stanzas put the quotation-marks in the space
made by indention, so that the first letters of each
verse shall line vertically as they would line if the
quotes were not used. Do not allow the quotation-
marks to make irregular the vertical lining of capi-
tals. The quote -marks are not integral parts of
the sentence, and when they are treated as if they
were, the intent of riming indention is obscured.
The neat making up of pages of poetry is always
Initial letters should fit space 151
difficult when the stanzas are unequal. Division
of a stanza between its rimed lines, or after its
first line, or before the last line, are faults to be
avoided by overrunning and by increasing or de-
creasing the blanks in previous pages. These are
troublesome expedients, but they cannot be evaded.
Fixed rules for preventing these irregularities are
entirely impracticable. The compositor should
study the make-up of poems in good editions of
standard authors. An examination of the author-
ized edition of a hymn-book will give useful sug-
gestions.
INITIAL LETTERS
Large initial letters at the beginning of chapters
or important divisions of a book are old and useful
devices for adding to the attractiveness of print.
They should be used oftener. For the ordinary
book the plain two-line initial of standard width
is in most favor. Its form should be that of the
type of the text, but perfect harmony is not always
attainable, and the .compositor often has to be con-
tent with one that is not an exact mate. An initial
letter that spans two lines of solid composition is
to be had of type-founders, but it may be difficult
to find one that will close the greater vacancy made
by leaded lines. Yet it is important that it should
fairly fill this vacancy. To be a real improvement
to the page, the top of a two -line initial should line
with the top of the types in its following first line
152 Capital letters follow an initial
of text, and the foot of that initial should also
exactly line with the foot of the second line of
text. An initial that does not neatly fill the gap
made by lines of type is not a merit but a blemish.
T^HIS INITIAL is on T^HEN NOT ON LINE an
line at top and foot, unsightly gap is left
and fairly fills the vacant at the top and above the
space. third line.
This gap over the third line of text is often caused
by unwisely selecting the broad-shouldered capital
of a very large type. This fault can be prevented
by cutting off this shoulder when it has to be
used as a two-line initial.
When the text type is small, a plain initial that
spans three lines of text may be selected to advan-
tage, but this selection is made troublesome by the
steadily increasing width of large types, and espe-
cially of types like A, L, Y, etc., with strokes that do
not fill the body, and that do make ungainly patches
of white. To lessen this blemish in type a moder-
ately condensed letter may be selected, but an extra-
condensed initial is never a betterment.
The types that immediately follow a large initial
may be small capitals or full capitals. Small capi-
tals should be preferred when they make perfect
lining. Full capitals of a large text-type after a
large initial are not always pleasing, for they sug-
gest newspaper advertisement display, and in a
narrow measure may compel hair-spacing.
High initials Medieval initials 153
i
If the first word or first line following an initial
is ordered in italic, the rule of exact mating may
require the special engraving of an italic initial. A
roman initial before italic letters is not pleasing.
L HE high initial, that lines at the foot and pro-
jects upward as here represented, was frequently
used in poetry and open composition by printers
of the eighteenth century. It is not suitable for
compact composition, but it can be selected with
advantage for some forms of open catalogue matter,
or for paragraphs divided by lines of quadrats.
EDIEVAL initial letters of uncial
form, that have curved strokes and
claw-like terminations, were com-
mon in early books with texts in
roman character. Black-letter ini-
tials were not always used with black-letter texts,
for the curved lines of uncial capitals seemed better
adapted for the decorative work about the initial.
They are preferred now in the reprints of old books,
and are frequently used in England and Germany,
in their smaller sizes, as occasional capitals for the
text of devotional and ecclesiastical books.
For ordinary books the engraved initial should be
on a square or right-angled body. When it has
154 Eagged and pierced initials
straggling lines of decoration that project in the
margin or toward the chapter head, this irregu-
larity is never rated as a fault, but
it is distinctly unpleasing when
these lines project at
the right or at the foot,
and give ragged end-
ings to lines of type.
The beauty of the in-
itial is in its fittingness, but
it does not fit when it dis-
torts the lines out of their
proper places, as is shown
by the side of this initial E.
The last novelty in designed
initials is an upright parallelo-
gram, the upper part contain-
ing the letter, and the lower part the decoration.
When the initial is so drawn, the lines of the types
of the text can be kept trim and square, and the
initial will seem to be a proper mate for the type.
, HE pierced initial, with a hollow
centre in which any letter can
be placed, is a good substitute
for the plain two-line letter,
but at head and foot it should
have true alignment with its
corresponding lines of the text.
It is an acceptable form for general service, but
repetition makes it unpleasingly monotonous.
Fac initials Floreated initials 155
fac initial, the typographic sub-
stitute for the eighteenth - century
pierced initial, may be used now
with propriety in imitated reprints
of the books of that period, but it
is whimsically out of date in any modern book.
A pierced initial made up of small flowers of recent
design is no better than the old fac, for it always
has a mechanical appearance, even when it has been
most skilfully composed.
initial letter inserted in a hollow
square made from four corner flowers
that fill a full circle may be quite as
objectionable as the pierced initial.
The connected lines easily made by
the expert designer are rarely produced by the com-
bination of movable types.
! PROFUSELY ORNAMENTED INITIAL of
black-letter with interfacings of flowers
or vines, or with long, straggling stream-
ers of tracery, once in high favor, is now
deservedly neglected. It had, and may
have now, some fitness for the open com-
position of poetry or in a very open piece
of display where its streamers may stray
into a blank margin, but it is entirely
unfit for any kind of square-set compo-
sition. To the critical reader its riotous
decoration is a discord by the side of the trim
formality of symmetrical lines of
156 Initials often made too dense
YPE-FOUNDERS' specimen-books
have engraved initials of merit,
but in selecting a series for gen-
eral use the closeness or openness
of the engraving in that series
must be considered. The initial
should be adapted to the type with which it will be
printed. A text in 6- or 8-point type may be graced
by an initial of good design that shows fine and
close engraving, but it may be disappointing if the
letter has not been made to be printed in red ink.
TEXT in 12- 14- or 18-
point needs an initial
of bold and firm lines,
with broad spaces be-
tween the lines. The
engraving of the se-
lected initial should
mate with the type of
the text in its color and
general effect; it may
be dense and gray when
used with small type, but it should be black and
solid when it is an initial for large type.
OLD- FACED initials with a black back-
ground and white letter may be used
with advantage for small or large type,
but an initial surrounded with dense
and delicate lines that obscure the clearness of the
letter is not at all pleasing by the side of large type.
Initials within broad borders 157
iNE LARGE INITIAL with
open decoration can be se-
lected with good effect for a
text in 10-point or of larger
body, but it will be made
more effective if the white
within the letter is made red
by the use of a specially en-
graved O to cover the naked white. Some of its
merit will disappear if this decorative letter is much
reduced in size and used with large type.
;NE LARGE DECORATED INITIAL is enough
for the gracing of a page. Two or more
small initials may appear with propriety
on the same page (as must be done in
the Bible, hymn-books, and ecclesiastic manuals),
nor is there any valid objection to small initials in
a text under a large initial, but the selection of
two or more large decorated initials of the same
size and style for any open composition, as in a
title-page, is a mistake. They nullify one another.
LARGE ORNAMENTAL INITIAL Can Seldom
be used with good effect within a broad
floreated border. This method of treat-
ing a title-page that seems bleak may
present itself to the compositor as a good filler of
vacant space, but it will rarely prove satisfactory.
The designer may do so with propriety when he
connects it to the border or gives it a similar orna-
mentation, but the compositor who has to make
158 Plainness needed in the letter
selection from a type-founder's specimen-book will
seldom find an initial that suits the border. When
it does not suit, the initial should be omitted. Or-
nament is the wine and spice of typography, and
must be used with discretion. Good arrangements
of composition are often spoiled by the too lavish
sprinkling of initial letters and ornamentation of
like nature that make the text insignificant.
[E fault of many initials is in
what artists call their niggling, in
overworking them with too many
dense lines that put them in un-
pleasiug contrast to the clearness
and openness of text type. The
size of the initial should be selected with reference
to the size of the page : for 24mo and 18mo it may
be small ; for 8vo or 4to it must be large. Initials
that are petty always give a petty appearance to
the page. Plantin had for his books in folio some
that were nearly three inches square. A small in-
itial may be selected with pleasing effect for lines
under subheadings, but the initial for the opening
of a chapter or for any important division should
be large and rememberable. If the initial letter
has been cut to show white, the decorative lines
about it should give the color effect of pale gray or
of full black. If the gray so produced is too pale,
the white letter can be made red by special engrav-
ing. Distinctiveness of the letter always should
be considered when black ink onlv can be used.
Head-bands and tail-pieces
159
general adaptability the odd
initials designed by William
Morris for his Kelmscott books,
and reproduced by the American
type-founders, will be found sat-
isfactory, even if they do seem
coarse as well as quaint. They deserve study for
their intelligent contrasts of black, gray, and white
color. A black letter is usually ringed with a thin
band of white, and its rude lines of decoration are
made by white lines on black, that
produce the gray effect. The white
initial letter in outline only is sur-
rounded by decorative lines, that
give the effect of dark-gray color.
The letter always has proper prominence, and the
decoration is kept subservient.
In the specimen-books of type-founders are a
few forms of small ornamented capital letters that
may be used to advantage as small initials, but
those that are too profusely ornamented or gro-
tesquely obscure should be avoided.
HEAD-BANDS AND TAIL-PIECES
After useless attempts at the reproduction in two
or more colors of the elaborate decoration of the
fifteenth-century illuminators, the early printers
of books confined their attempts at decoration to
designs that could be printed in black only. The
160 Thin head-lands between chapters
broad border and a centre-band between columns
had to be abandoned, for they wasted paper and
helped to make the book of high price. Some new
form had to be devised, for the method of begin-
ning a chapter at the head of a fresh page was then
almost unknown and seldom practised. Obeying
the old practice, each printed chapter closely fol-
lowed its predecessor, and the two meeting chapters
were separated by a big initial or a line of large
type as the first line of the new chapter. This did
not seem to be enough. Then came a simpler fash-
ion of a plain or decorated band between the chap-
ters as the proper mark of separation.
BS3*3*3*)3*)^^
When pages were small and the chapters were not
too short, each chapter was placed at the head of
a new page under a broad blank. This treatment
left the head of the page disagreeably bleak. To
fill up the blank space, a head-band of brass rule
or of type border was inserted. Sometimes the
head-band was designed by an expert who mated
it in style with the following initial letter. It also
became necessary to fill the vacant space left at
Tail-pieces of triangular form 161
the end of the chapter, which might be one half or
two thirds blank. For this purpose the tail-piece
was devised. Conforming to the old fashion of
setting the last paragraph of a chapter in funnel
shape, the tail-piece was made in the form of a tri-
angle, with its broad side nearest the type-work.
This method of decorating the book, introduced in
the sixteenth century, has never gone out of fash-
ion, although it is seldom used now for books of
serious subject-matter. When properly selected,
the head-band and its mated initial letter and tail-
piece are welcomed reliefs to the dulness of text
type. They clearly mark important divisions and
fill space that might be unpleasingly vacant.
There is no rule that arbitrarily prescribes the
shapes, sizes, or styles of these decorations. The
head-band may be a pictorial illustration that fills
11
162 Head-bands should be full width
one third or sometimes one half of the page, but
when it is very large the type- work below must be
correspondingly reduced in size. The form now in
fashion is an oblong strip of decorative lines that
varies in height from a quarter of an inch to two
inches, but there is a general agreement among de-
signers that it must be the exact width of the page
of type. When narrower or broader, it does not
seem an integral part of the book ; it does seem a
bit of added and superfluous patchwork. It usually
has square endings, but the ends may be rounded
with propriety; or it may have a rounded pro-
jection at the top in the centre, for the presenta-
tion of a portrait, sketch, or medallion. It should
be flat or nearly so at the base, and should not be
connected with the initial letter, nor should it have
projecting lines that droop to interfere with the
type below and make insignificant the type-work
Density and openness to be considered 163
of the chapter heading. Straggling vines or lines
of tracery may project from an initial letter into
the margin, but not from the head-band.
The sumptuous book always has its head-bands,
initials, and tail-pieces designed by the same artist,
so that all shall show a general similarity of treat-
ment and be in agreement with the subject-matter.
Properly treated, they are a grace, but when head-
bands have been selected from those that have been
made at different times by designers of unequal
merit, of different sizes and in various styles of en-
graving, they are positive blemishes. The beauty
of the proposed book depends upon harmony in
decoration as much as on uniformity in type. 1
Grayness or blackness and density or openness
of decoration are features to be pondered. Head-
bands and initials to be used with the types of
12-point or larger bodies should show some corre-
spondence in color with the types, in the closeness
and fineness or in the openness and firmness of
their engraved lines. A text type in bold -face
l The printer who is asked to duced at small cost by the photo-
provide a series of decorations engraving process. If the printer
for a proposed book should have intends to make use of these de-
its designs made by an artist signs for that book only, he can
who is qualified as a decorator, have emblematic devices appro-
for decoration is an art by itself priate to the book incorporated
and cannot be done properly by in the decoration ; but if he pro-
any one, however high his merit poses to use them afterward for
as an artist, who has not studied other books, he must exclude all
decoration as an independent art. emblems of special significance
Decoration drawn with pen and and instruct the artist to make
black ink on paper can be repro- the designs generally applicable.
164 Head-bands should mate with types
may have decoration in nearly solid black, with
touches of white-line ornamentation only; but if
the text is to be in 6- or 8-point type of roman face,
a closer style of engraving that matches the general
effect of gray color in the type will be more pleasing.
Sharp or dense lines in a head-band over types that
are relatively coarse or open seem badly selected.
When lines too coarse are put by the side of deli-
cate types, the effect produced is also unpleasing. 1
For a book of many chapters the engraved head-
bands of type-founders are seldom suitable, for
they may be found too short or too long for the
intended measure, too dense or too coarse, or im-
proper mates for the initial letters that may have
been previously chosen. They are more serviceable
as marks of division in pamphlets that do not re-
quire a large number of similar size and design.
1 It is customary for artists to merit may be foreseen and pre-
make designs for decoration on vented by examining the design
a large scale, but their largeness under a reducing-glass. The
may be deceptive. What is clear sketch on a small scale may be
and entirely satisfactory in the enlarged with some loss of deli-
drawing may be petty, foggy, cacy, but with no loss of value,
and disappointing when it has but the sketch on a large scale
been reduced by the photo-en- with dense lines will be monot-
graver to the size that is needed onously gray when reduced, and
for printing. This disappoint- may make an unprintable plate.
Borders of old fashion to be avoided 165
Head-bands made from combinations of flowers
or small borders are vain substitutes for special
engraving. Their ineffectiveness as decoration is
apparent in the facs made by French and English
printers of the eighteenth century. Made-up head-
bands are rejected by all discreet publishers, but
there are compositors who still take delight in
making them from little bits of border. The time
spent in their composition is not justified by the
result, for the head-band so produced is always
labored, mechanical, and unsatisfactory. A clever
designer can produce in an hour a pen sketch of
more pleasing decoration than can be made up by
a compositor from bits of border in a day.
Parallel rules, or sometimes thick double rules,
have been selected as appropriate head-bands for
the chapter heading of a new page, but a feeble
rule is petty in that prominent position, nor is it
pleasing when it divides two short chapters on the
same page. The blank made by lines of quadrats is
more generally acceptable. Thin strips of border
on 6- to 18-point body can be used with better effect,
but the border selected should fill or nearly fill the
body, and should have no corner flower. For poetry
and very open composition a border of light and
open lines should be selected ; for solid or single-
leaded composition a border of strong contrasts of
black and white should be preferred. Carefully
avoid the selection of the overworked typographic
borders of the eighteenth century, for the reading
Head-bands of type borders.
Books not to be treated as jobs 167
world has had enough of the feeble gray effects
visible in these old-time typographic decorations.
The borders now provided by type-founders are
not yet hackneyed ; they have more grace, and show
a proper contrast of light and shade. Borders in
the so-called Elzevir style, or in the Byzantine or
Turkish style, of strong black and white, entirely
free from dense lines and overworked gray shad,
ing, will be found useful material for typographic
head-bands for books that do not warrant the ex-
pense of special engraving. The larger pieces are
most satisfactory. They are not improved, but are
really damaged, when surrounded on all sides, as is
often done, with a narrower and lace-like border.
The typography of a book should show a visible
agreement with its subject-matter. If addressed
to the thinking and reasoning faculties of a mature
reader, as is the case in treatises on law, theology,
or science, it needs no bold type and no decoration ;
but if it has been prepared for the study of young
students, the severity of a too plain style may be
modified. Its subheadings of prominence or its
rules or propositions may be set in a bolder type,
and two-line initials or other trivial changes that
will make the text more comprehensible may be
added. Yet it does not need decoration. Bold dis-
play, eccentric lettering, and fanciful arrangements
are attractive in certain kinds of job-work, but
they are out of order in any book intended for
168 Profuse decoration of great cost
a permanent place on the library shelf. It is the
thought of the author, and not any grace of the
decorator, that is most prized by the reader who is
also a student. It follows that the type-work of a
book should be kept in strict subordination to the
main intent of the author.
In the ordinary book, avoid decoration and odd
types that do not make the subject-matter clearer.
The great masterpieces of printing are the simplest.
Plain types correctly composed and neatly spaced,
with strict attention to petty details, clearly printed
in strong black ink on unobtrusive paper with ap-
propriate margins, have a charm that is recognized
by an inexpert. He may not know why they are
more restful and attractive than the profusely dec-
orated book, but he will see that the book so treated
does show marked superiority in its workmanship.
Yet books with decoration are needed. Those
that are classified under the name of light reading,
not intended for study, but for amusement or in-
formation, may receive ornament in many forms,
from occasional lines in red ink or border lines of
brass rule to elaborately engraved head- bands, ini-
tials, and tail-pieces, broad borderings of flowers or
rules, explanatory illustrations, inks of many colors,
or a text letter of some eccentric or peculiar de-
sign. These are some of many methods of making
a book attractive, but most of them call for an
amount of skill, patience, and expense that seems
out of proper proportion to the result attained.
Novelties in type a perilous experiment 169
An amateur soon finds that profuse ornamentation
which must be treated in painstaking manner by
every contributor from the designer to the book-
binder is too expensive, and quite prohibitory. It
often has to be abandoned. Yet he hopes to get
the desired result by the selection of eccentric type
for the text, which seems to be the cheapest of all
his attempts at improvement. On the contrary, it
may be the most hazardous. 1
In the narrow compass prescribed for this work
it is impossible to describe with clearness the typo-
graphic details that will be appropriate for every
variety of book. It should be enough to offer this
suggestion : before undertaking the composition of
i Ornamentation is not to be
undervalued, but he who under-
takes it should be sure that it is
ornament and not pure meddle-
someness. A page of print, like
an engraving or a picture, can
be spoiled by fussy additions
that divert the attention from
the main subject. The common
fault of the amateur is the filling
up of blank space with needless
decoration. The running title
of the book, when not spaced out
to the extreme width of the
measure, is filled with bits of
border that make it and its pag-
ing figure insignificant, or it is
fenced off from the text below
with rules that annoy and do
not help the reader, for the rule
is more prominent than the type
of the text. The last line in
every paragraph may be filled
with bits of incongruous borders.
Even the title-page of the book
may be filled with flourishes, or
divided into panels with borders
of brass rule. Ornament of this
description, of ten made still more
conspicuous with many colors,
is sometimes demanded by the
publishers of advertising pam-
phlets and ephemeral books, in
the belief that this treatment
will make the book attractive
and help speedy sale. When the
decorations of type- founders fail
to meet the need, recourse is
often had to the pen drawings
of amateur designers, and it is
largely from examples set by
men who do not see the full scope
of the work and do not appre-
ciate the need of general uni-
formity that the compositor re-
ceives bad lessons in decoration.
170 Over-decoration a common fault
any new book of merit, the typography of good
editions of similar nature should be studied, and
their good features should be imitated wherever
imitation promises to be of service. The design-
ing of entirely new styles should be discouraged.
It may be assumed by the novice that it will be
safer to copy the best features of books of high
merit than to attempt the invention of new forms.
Over-decoration is a common fault. In no case
should much ornament be added, unless especially
ordered and unless it is certain that the type, paper,
and presswork of the book to be made will be of
the best. Even when ornament is ordered, there
should be a leaning toward simplicity. Appropri-
ateness should be considered. Eccentricities that
are pleasing in one book may be positively tawdry
in another. The young compositor is especially
warned against the hackneyed decorations of the
printers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centu-
rieSo They may be used occasionally with advan-
tage when the old designs have been redrawn and
recut 5 they will seldom prove of real value if not
mated with text types of their own period.
GEORGE BRUCE
DIFFICULT COMPOSITION
Algebra . . Tables and table-work . . Music . . Genealogies
ALGEBRA
HEN composed from types cast
upon irregular and unmatable
bodies, algebra is emphatically
a difficult form of composition,
for it requires much time- wast-
ing justification with thin leads
or pieces of thick paper. It
can be composed with more facility if the needed
types and rules have been made on the point sys-
tem, but under the most favorable conditions al-
gebra will be troublesome. It has rules of its own
for spacing and division that must be observed,
and the compositor needs some skill in the art of
171
172 Signs used in algebra
combining in a workmanlike manner, yet by new
methods, the rules, fractions, and abbreviations of
different bodies. A text in 10-point may require
characters varying in height from 5- to 72-point.
The following table exhibits the algebraic signs
provided by type-founders as a full assortment for
ordinary work, but some of the characters are
needed only in books of higher mathematics :
+ plus
= nearly equal
A triangle
minus
to
| integration
X multiplied by
~ difference
j
-5- divided by
= difference be-
r integration
= equal to
tween
' of a quaternion
: ratio
a variation
=F minus or plus
:: proportion
V square root
.*. hence, there-
=*= plus or minus
-^ cube root
fore
< less than
degree
v because
> greater than
' minute
oo infinity
< not less than
" second
l_ right angle
> not greater
O circle
-L perpendicu-
than
D square
lar to
^ equivalent to
CZI rectangle
= identical with
^ not equal to
/ angle
= approaches
Before he begins composition, the novice should
learn the names and uses of the signs, and should
closely study their arrangement in some approved
treatise. Alphabetical letters and the figures that
usually accompany them need no explanation, for
Hoots, parentheses, and brackets 173
they are provided in every complete font of roman
and italic type. For use as exponents or indices,
thus x n , x (n \ x n , italic lower-case letters are pre-
ferred. 1
Characters on 5-point body.
The signs on the previous page are on 10-point
body, but signs are also made on 5- 6- 8- and 12-
point bodies. Two bodies are often used together.
The radical sign ^ is required on many bodies
from 5- to 72-point, and the figure that defines its
power should be nested in its angle.
Different sizes of parenthesis and bracket, varying
from 12- to 44-point, will be needed to inclose the
different divisions of a compounded formula.
BOOS n
1 In some formulas there may
be an occasional capital, or a let-
ter of the Greek alphabet, or in-
ferior letters in roman, but they
are rare. When roman letters
are used for superiors, the infe-
riors always appear in italic, or
vice versa. The tendency now
is to the selection of but few
alphabetical letters.
174 Braces, fractions, and rules
Braces of light but firm face, in sections as well as
in one piece, are made of different lengths from
10- to 72-point. Like the parenthesis and bracket,
they are of different lengths, but on 6-point body.
Piece-fractions are often required, and special care
should be taken to get those that are very distinct.
11312_L.3_5..7 JL13.i2.i5.5.I.
T^'43'38888 424338888
A much-used notation for the fraction nowadays
is the " solidus," as 2/3, where 2 and 3 are printed
in the same font as if integers.
Superior letters (usually in italic) and figures
must be provided for each one of the two bodies that
have been selected. Inferior letters and figures
are not so common, but the assortment is not com-
plete if they have not been provided.
a b c d e a b c d e 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Superior and inferior letters and figures on 10-point body.
The brass rule to be preferred for the dividing
line is on 2-point body, for it will give the least
trouble in justification. Labor-saving rule of this
Labor-saving rule of service 175
body cut to even ems and ens of the text type, and
in abundant supply, will be a valuable aid to neat
composition. 1
Algebraic expressions that show the two lines
of numerator and denominator, or of dividend and
divisor, separated by the usual dividing line, may
need root signs, braces, brackets, and parentheses
twice and sometimes thrice the height of the text
letter. If the text type is on 10-point c^
body, the radical sign will be of 20- \9o?76
point body when small figures are used
below the vinculum, as in the upper ex-
ample. If figures of a larger body are ^127-96
ordered under the vinculum, then a radical sign of
25-point is needed for neat presentation of figures.
The characters needed for a treatise on algebra
comprise sorts on many bodies that cannot wisely
be stowed in one case, for which reason the dia-
gram of an algebraic case is omitted. The laying
of sorts for the composition of algebra is governed
by personal choice. The quarter-section case that
can be placed by the side of the italic cases most
needed will be found of good service. The order of
laying should be exactly the same for every size,
l It is not good policy to allow justification, and give needless
the compositor to cut rules as he trouble to maker-up, stoneman,
needs them. Rules so treated and electrotyper. With proper
are liable to be irregular as to forethought, algebraic composi-
length, with burs on cut edges tion can be made as solid and
or slight bends in the body, and secure as that of ordinary roman
these defects tend to insecure type.
176 Methods of spacing and lining
and a clearly written label should be pasted on
each box to prevent wrong distribution.
The composition of algebra differs from that of
the ordinary text in its spacing, purposely made
uneven. The italic letters that serve as symbols
for quantities must always be set close together.
Superior or inferior letters, figures, and fractions
are controlled by the same rule. But the signs
+ x -T- = > < must be treated as distinct words,
and be separated from the context by spaces of
noticeable width :
2 abx - x 2 = 14 ab - 1 x
3ax = 2bx + ab
Superior figures are always set close up to their
proximate letters, but the larger figures of the text
type should be separated from following italic let-
ters by a four- or five-to-em space. The space may
be omitted only in a very crowded line :
In algebraic formulas that have mutual relation or
dependency, the figures of whole numbers must be
kept in strict vertical line according to the rules of
Sx + 9# + 8z - 2700
12 x + 12 y + Wz - 3600
ax + by + cz - d
a'x + b'y + c'z - d'
a"x + b"y + c"z - d"
Terms to be distinguished in text 177
arithmetical notation. In formulas that have many
consecutive lines with few or no figures, the signs
+ and , which separate distinct terms, must \)e
kept in vertical line. This rule for vertical lining
sometimes applies also to the sign x for multipli-
cation and to -f- for division.
It often happens that a long formula cannot be
put in one line of the type selected for other for-
mulas. When great compactness is desired, as is
important in some school-books, it is customary to
set this long line in types of a smaller body that
will take in one line all the characters. When it
can be done, it is better practice to put the matter
in two lines in large type, but the composition can-
not be divided arbitrarily. The place selected for
division should be at one of the signs +, , or =,
for they represent transition points at the end of
distinct terms. The part turned over in a second
line must be placed in the centre of the measure :
ax 2 - bx = ex - d
Expressions that would divide badly are frequently
put intact in the middle of a following line.
Connective words like as, in, again, that precede
the expression in that line, are placed at its begin-
or again y - x = 4
ning, and a broad white blank follows, to show that
the connective word is not a part of the formula.
12
178 Decimal fractions lined vertically
Figures inclosed in parentheses or brackets that
are inserted to refer to other formulas or terms in
the same book must also be separated from the
formula in that line by the same method. They
may be at the beginning or end of the line. If a
mark of punctuation is needed, it must be put after
the bracket or parenthesis :
or ax + by + cz = d [1J ;
Whole numbers expressed in many figures are not
separated by the comma in triplets, as is usual in
arithmetical notation, but in a decimal number the
integral part should be separated from the frac-
tional part by the decimal point. These fractions
and the decimal point that precedes them must be
kept in a vertical line in all the rows of figures,
without regard to the irregular lining at the be-
ginning or ending of the lines :
927.67892254
3643851.5468
22982.657462
When many characters must be put in one line,
the spaces between terms and signs may be rela-
tively thinner. The space before or after a sign
like + or may be omitted when this sign is next
to a superior or inferior character, but it is better
practice to use the space in all places where it
will add to the clearness of the expression.
When spaces are not used 179
A visibly wider space must be presented between
distinct expressions shown in the same line :
No space should be put between alphabetical letters
and superior figures that are grouped in one term
and inclosed in parentheses or brackets :
28 aNPcdW 6 ab(a + &) (6 a 2 &c% 5 ) 3 = 216 cPPW 8
When an author wishes that an expression in the
text should have noticeable distinction, he orders
or marks more space before and after that expres-
sion, as it here appears :
The quotient of 18 aW by 6a 2 bx is 3a?x .
As a term cannot be divided with part of its char-
acters at the end of one line and the other part at
the beginning of the next line, some irregularity of
spacing has to be tolerated.
Thus the quotient of 15 a?lfix by 3 a 2 5 is
written 5a6 ; but we have seen that the quo-
tient should be 56$ , as the factor a does
not alter the product, since a is equal to 1.
The points of punctuation that separate clauses in
the text have a broad space before them in any
clause that ends with an algebraic term.
180 Treatment of long formulas
When a long algebraic expression cannot be put
neatly in a single line, it may be divided, but the
characters in a term inclosed within brackets or
parentheses must not be divided at all. It may be
again repeated that the proper place for division is
at the signs of operation + or , occasionally x or -H :
(am + a'n - a")x + (bm + I'n - V)y +
(cm + c'n - c"}z = dm + d'n + d"
To prevent the improper division of characters in
the middle of a term, the first line may be made
shorter than the second :
1 7T"!
- , n^l-v'O + N" + n'(n'n" - N")
In the following example the entire expression
within the vertical braces is to be multiplied by the
fraction at its left. The arrangement of the terms
within the braces is suggested partly by the length
of one of these terms, the second, and partly by
considerations of symmetry. Observe that the
fraction at the left is so placed that its dividing
line meets the central point of the brace.
2 n'(p" + p'N")
gf
(n f - V)p'p"
+ ~\ n?(l - v") + N" + n'(n'n"- N")-
A/ 1 pll
1 _ v //) _ ( n ' _l)N // ] - (2n' - l)p
p'p"
Value of point system 181
The rule that separates the numerator from the
denominator, or a dividend from a divisor, must
be exactly of the length of the longer term, as is
customary in arithmetical notation, and the shorter
term must be placed over or under the longer term
exactly in the centre :
2 268 c-fa/ B
15 10000 a 0.00001
When one of two terms is simple and the other is
double, the point of punctuation, if one is ordered,
should be opposite the dividing rule of first term :
i z x * ' b ~*~
" * ? "V
V
2a
The preceding illustration shows the value of the
point system in algebraic composition. In the first
formula we have, in the middle of the term, two
lines of 10-point and one dividing rule of 2 -point,
that make its full height 22 points. The characters
x = before, and = 12 after (each on 10-point body),
are easily made to centre with the cross-rule. If this
formula were the only one in the mixed line, these
characters could be solidly justified in that posi-
tion with an upper and a lower line of 6-point quad-
rats, but the second formula in the line is of greater
height, for it has two lines of 10-point and three
rules of 2-point, and must be 26 points in height.
182 Point system makes solid work
To justify this second formula solidly with the first,
an upper and a lower lead of 2-point must be added
to the first formula. Point bodies simplify justi-
fication. If types and rules are not on the point
system, the exact justification of two formulas in
one measure will be much more troublesome.
The solid manner in which algebraic formulas
can be constructed is plainly represented in the
following diagram, copied with slight alteration
from the Katechismus der Buchdruckerhunst :
or
ft I 3 / . ,/3427'\ . 2 /340'3"\
tang - - j/sm> (- ) + cos* ( )
= |/te)dt + Const. - ^ f (z) etc.
S H as: asa s| a B) 23
When a short but complex formula is incorpo-
rated in the middle of a line of plain descriptive
matter, it is customary to begin the work by set-
ting up this formula first, which is then temporarily
put aside in another stick. 1 Then the descriptive
text that begins the line is set in the first stick. If
the text is of 10-point, and the formula is 22 points
high, this difference of 12 points must be made up
1 A second stick with knee adjustable by a clasp (Grover pattern)
will be helpful in the composition of complex formulas.
Formulas incorporated in the text 183
by setting a line of 6 -point quadrats tinder the text
matter, and adding over that matter another line
of 6-point, or two lines of 7-point can be used.
This treatment will bring the text matter on the
central line of the formula, where it should be.
Then the formula temporarily put aside in another
stick can be added, and the remainder of the text
for that line can be composed in like manner. To
produce solid justification, leads and cards must be
avoided wherever it can be done safely.
The incorporation of a short complex algebraic
expression within a line of descriptive text in plain
roman type unavoidably produces wide blanks be-
tween the lines of that text. Some authors prefer
to have short expressions in the centre of a separate
line, but this method cannot be resorted to when
they appear too frequently in the copy.
2 N
The two expressions =^ - and 2 are equal
when N is equal to n 2 ; and when N is nearly
2 N , N+n*
equal to n 2 , the expressions = - and 2
are nearly equal ; therefore their arithmetical
mean is nearly equal to their geometrical mean.
The vinculum that projects from the root sign
must be of the exact length of the expression it is
intended to cover :
\162
184 Exponents and inferior letters
In an expression which involves two radical or root
signs, where the vinculum of one root overlaps that
of the other root, as will be seen in the illustration
that follows, the superior vinculum must show a
visible separation from the lower one :
Index figures are often needed as exponents. When
the signs provided are solid and not slotted, the
compositor must have them properly nicked for the
insertion of the figure. This nicking can be done
with knife or chisel, if the compositor is handy with
tools, but it will be made in a more workmanlike
manner with proper tools by the electrotyper. In
either case the nicking causes annoying delay.
Exponents, whether integral or fractional, should
be in italic, and be placed as superiors on the upper
line of the symbols that they define.
mp
a mq a l a nq
Inferior letters, or subscripts as they are sometimes
called, are less frequently used, but they should be
in italic, and be placed below the line of the letters
to which they are attached.
Q ,7 p v "p A
*Jfn !* ^m.n * JT n *-im.n
Height of parentheses and brackets 185
Formulas may be written in which the same letter
will take an exponent and a subscript, as it does
in Xj W ~ = 0. There are a few that require two
subscripts, as in tang oX m = Psi.
Integral signs may take a letter at the foot and
at the top. Sometimes these letters have expo-
nents or subscripts arranged thus :
, t
I (T-R) /
J J
Vdx
The abbreviations sin, log, cos, tang (for sine,
logarithm, cosine, tangent) should be in roman
character in all formulas, and should not be fol-
lowed by an abbreviating period. The superior
figure that may follow the abbreviation of sin,
cos, etc., must not be separated by a space.
Parentheses, brackets, and integral signs that pre-
cede or inclose a fractional expression must be of
the exact height of the expression, including divid-
ing or vinculum rules.
This must be done if but one of the parentheses,
or but one of the brackets, comes immediately after
or before a fractional term. It must also be done
186 Marking of figures for logarithms
when one or more of the intermediate terms of the
expression are fractional, the first and last terms
being integral, as in
n'n" - N" ~ - y*
But if the brackets or parentheses inclose integral
terms only (as shown below), they should be on the
same body as that of the characters within them :
n'\n + (n'n" - N")p'p"\
When radical signs occur within parentheses, the
parentheses should be of the same height as the
radical sign :
<Va> a , / p p
~~ ~ + '
When many parentheses have to be employed, one
within another, they may be selected of different
heights according to relative importance, but they
make an awkward formula. It is better practice
to use a bracket for the exterior sign of inclosure,
and this bracket need be no higher than the in-
terior parentheses.
In a logarithm the short stroke that overlaps a
negative integral figure or "characteristic" must
not be wider than the figure. If the characteristic
have two figures, the stroke should overlap both.
2".3010300 15.1345769
Composition of complex expressions 187
In the expression of fractions continued in many
different lines, the figures selected for the divisors
should be placed ex-
actly under the figures = 1 H -
used as dividends, and 4+
the divisor rule should 9+ -
exactly overlap these 2+
figures, as is shown in 1+
the illustration. l_l_l
Manuscript copy of
algebra is usually prepared with care : the writer
makes clear the difference between the ordinary
and the superior characters, and tries to put no
more letters and figures in the manuscript line
than can be properly expressed in one line of type.
Yet it often happens that the compositor may be
perplexed by the inequality in the length of the
characters above and below the dividing rule in a
complex formula. Will it come or not come within
the measure without wrong spacing ? The old way
was to set all the characters (those above as well as
below the dividing rule) in one long line and put
them aside upon a short galley, where the spaces
could be rearranged.
It is a better way to begin and complete the com-
position of the fractional portion of the expression
in a Grover stick, which readily allows a readjust-
ment of the measure and of the spacing between
terms or factors. If this fractional expression con-
sists of two lines of 10-point and one 2-point rule,
188 Tables and table-ivork
the height of the formula will be 22 points, which
must also be the height of the larger brackets or
parentheses, if they are needed. When these signs
have been reckoned, the compositor can mentally
determine the spacing of the term that precedes or
follows the complex part. He puts in the stick of
full measure two blank lines of 6-point quadrats
(one above and one below the 10-point line), and
then adds to them the complex part already set in
the stick.
The building up of a formula of complex ex-
pressions would be easier if the italic lower-case
letters could be cast on adjusted sets with spaces
that exactly make up their deficiencies. Too many
letters, not fractional parts of the em, have to be
justified to make solid composition.
TABLES AND TABLE-WORK
When the compositor had to cut the brass rules
for a table with a tinman's shears and mitre them
with a file, he had good cause to dislike table-work.
These clumsy tools are seldom used now, for every
modern printing-house has small machines that cut
and mitre rules quickly and neatly. The machines
are not always needed, for labor-saving rule of
many lengths and with right and left mitres is in
common use. Nor is the mitring of corners always
obligatory on odd lengths, for neat angles can be
Illustrations of simple forms 189
made on flat-faced rule by a simpler process, as has
been shown on page 53. Thick borders are no
longer in favor ; shrewd critics say that the border
must not be blacker than the words and figures to
be inclosed. In many recent books of fair work-
manship, the tables are not inclosed in a border,
nor are brass rules put between the columns in any
place where they do not give a greater clearness to
the figures.
Improved tools and materials and the tendency
toward greater simplicity lighten the labor of table-
work, but they do not materially change its nature.
Tables require more skill than plain type-setting,
but this skill is not entirely that of hand- work. A
table in manuscript can be properly set only when
it has been wisely planned by previous head-work.
The method to be observed in setting up the dif-
ferent columns of a table of words and figures is
not unlike that practised in setting the columns of
a newspaper. One column must be made perfect
in length, headings, and blanking out before the
next can be put by its side. Each column that con-
tains words must be separately composed in its own
narrow measure. Work so done is often tedious,
but when the table has been properly planned, and
each column correctly justified, much of its diffi-
culty has been removed.
Explanations of the methods now in use may
begin with illustrations of the simplest forms of
table-work. Words, names, or figures of the same
190 Half measure for alphabetized names
class are usually set in columns, for the columns
classify them, and make reading easier and more
rememberable. To set one after another the names
of persons, or the specification of different amounts
in certain years, in ordinary paragraph style, is
confusing to the reader. It is a much commoner
practice to arrange them in columns, thus :
Edward A. Adams J. Pierpont Morgan
George F. Baker Levi P. Morton
John Claflin Alexander E. Orr
Elbert H. Gary William Rockefeller
Abram S. Hewitt James Stillman
Morris K. Jesup William K. Vanderbilt
To keep these names in vertical line and in alpha-
betical order, make up a stick to one half the width
of the broad measure, and set and justify each name
separately. Empty the lines so set in order on a
galley, and then make up to the broad measure.
Allowance for a vertical brass rule between the
columns is sometimes made, but the rule is not
needed, for the white space at the ends of lines in
the first column is a sufficient separation^
1 Yet a separating lead be- line in one stick and in the broad
tween the columns may be of measure by the aid of a remov-
service. If a name is added or able justifying gauge, as will be
cancelled in the proof, the lead hereafter explained; but if the
will lighten the labor of making list of names is long and must
the needed change. It is not appear on more than one page,
practicable to set the two col- the alphabetizing of the names
umns in broad measure, for the may be faulty, and the fault will
second column will be more or be hard to correct. The time
less out of vertical line. It is pos- saved by the justifying gauge
sible to set the two names of one will be lost in correction.
Broad measure for figures only 191
Columns of names were once set in full capitals
of the type of the text, but this treatment makes
them needlessly and offensively bold. Small capi-
tals' with capital initials are preferred by many for
a long list of signatures at the end of a document.
For a list of names inserted in the body of a text,
plain roman lower-case is now in more favor. Pe-
riods should be used after all abbreviated names,
but there is no need of comma or period at the end
of names arranged in columns.
Columns of figures only, on the en-quadrat body,
that do not call for justification in separate mea-
sures, may be safely set in broad measure.
Population of the United States
Year Total Males Females
1900 76,303,387 39,059,242 37,244,145
1890 63,069,796 32,315,063 30,754,693
1880 50,155,783 25,518,820 24,636,963
1870 38,558,371 19,493,565 19,064,806
1860 31,443,321 16,085,204 15,358,117
1850 23,191,876 11,837,660 11,354,216
For the ordinary pamphlet a table of this kind can
be set in broad measure without vertical rules. For
a work of great nicety it is customary to add the
rules, which may be of service in filling up the wide
gaps produced by a succession of leaders.
When figures are planned for many columns that
must be kept in timely or numerical order, each
192
Treatment of narrow tables
column should be separately composed, so that all
can be made up in order when the matter in the
table has to appear on more than one page.
Number of ems to the linear foot
American system
3-point...289.15
10-point.86.74
28-point. 30.98
3^ -point. 247. 84
11-point. 78.86
30-point. 28.91
4-point.. .216.86
12-point.72.28
32-point.27.10
4j -point. 192. 77
1 4-point. 61.96
3 6-point. 24. 09
5-point... 173.49
1 5-point. 57. 83
40-point. 21.68
5 i^-point. 157.72
1 6-point. 54. 21
42-point. 20.65
6-point... 144.57
18 -point. 48. 19
44-point . 19.71
7-point... 123.92
20-point. 43.37
48-point. 18.07
8-point... 108.43
22-point.39.43
60-point. 14.45
9-point... 96.38
24-point.36.14
72-point . 12.04
A table that specifies words, dates, and amounts
in columns can be set in a broad measure, but if
any column has words of irregular length, it is bet-
ter practice to set the
columns in at least two
distinct measures. 1
Tables that give a col-
umn arrangement to the
name, business, and resi-
dence of many persons are properly connected with
leaders, but the columns should not be separated
1 A table that has but two or and neater in a narrowed mea-
three narrow columns should not sure, with type set by its side,
be spread out to span the full as shown above in the table of
measure. It will be as readable half measure.
1890.
. . Jan. 12. . .J
^160.50
1891.
1892.
..May 1...
..Feb. 3...
150.50
125.00
1893.
. . Jan. 20 ...
175.00
1894.
..Feb. 3...
168.00
1895.
..May 16...
160.00
Justifying slugs in broad measure 193
by vertical column rules when the matter has been
prepared to be read across the columns.
When it is intended that the initial letters of each
column shall be in vertical line, three distinct mea-
sures can be made, each column being separately
justified and afterward re-made up to the full width
of the broad measure. A quicker method is often
adopted, as is here explained :
Begin by cutting a gauge from a type-metal slug
or a brass rule of proper thickness to the combined
width of the second and third columns, as is shown
in the strip A. Then cut the gauge B of the width
B
A - un , m,m, , ,
R. Hoe & Co Printing Presses . 504 Grand Street
Lovejoy Company . . Electrotypers . . . 446 Pearl Street
Harper & Brothers . Publishers 331 Pearl Street
of third column only. After setting in a stick of
full measure the names in the first column, put the
long slug A in the stick, and justify the name col-
umn up to slug A. Then remove that slug and set
the words for the second column, which should be
justified in like manner to meet the slug B. That
done, remove slug B and justify to the end of the
measure. This method saves time and makes un-
necessary the use of three distinct measures in as
many sticks and the combining afterward of the
three lines in one full line, but it calls for care in
justification.
13
194 To determine width of columns
Slugs as justifying gauges can be used for more
than three columns, but they are not recommended
when the words in any column have to be turned
over and fill two lines of the column. They can
be used with most advantage for undivided matter
that reads across the page. The turning over of
words in one column and the unavoidable insertion
of parallel quadrat lines in other columns is always
to be avoided, for the table so treated has a rag-
ged appearance. A name or a business with words
too long to come within the prescribed limit of a
column may project a little in the following column,
even if this projection does destroy the vertical
lining of its initials. An occasional projection
carries with it the apology for its unavoid ability. 1
The first difficulty met by the apprentice in try-
ing to compose a table from manuscript copy that
has many columns separated by brass rules and
with cross-headings in small type is his uncertainty
about the proper width of each column. Before he
begins work on any table, simple or complex, he
should know whether it is or is not to be set with
dividing column rules and inclosed in a border rule.
Next in order should come the inquiry as to the
space it may or must occupy : whether it is to be
in its height a part of a full page or a full page ;
1 When the words in any line type that will prevent abbrevia-
of a narrow column are too many tions is to be preferred. The
for the measure, they may be ab- turning over in a separate line
breviated or set in smaller type of the excess of words should
if the author permits. Small be the last resort.
To determine width of columns 195
whether it is to be a part of or the full width of the
regular measure ; whether it is to be set broad so
as to read the long way of the page, or whether
it can be set in two sections to extend over two fac-
ing pages. All these conditions must be known
before he can determine, even approximately, the
size of the type that must be used.
The first process is to count the number of col-
umns and to determine the width of each column.
When the columns are of figures only, width can
be quickly ascertained, for figures on en-quadrat
body favor precise reckoning ; but if two or more
columns show words, the calculation will be more
troublesome. Select the column that is apparently
of greatest width, and let the longer lines in that
column determine its width, for this width must
control that of other columns. It often happens
that the words in the different lines of this column
are of variable length some very short, some very
long and it may be necessary to narrow the mea-
sure by abbreviating words or by the use of smaller
type, as has been advised for tables of simpler form.
Yet there are long lines that cannot be so treated ;
they must be turned over to occupy two or more
separate lines. This will compel the lengthening
not only of that column but of the entire table, and
the insertion of lines of quadrats in the parallel
lines of its side columns.
Much discretion will be required in narrowing a
column. It should not be pinched to make obscure
196 Cross-headings of tables
the words put in that column or in other columns.
Legibility is the great merit of a table. It should
be as readily readable as the matter in the text j its
words or figures should not be huddled to indis-
tinctness, as they must be when column rules are
allowed to crowd too closely against the words or
figures a common practice, sure to produce con-
fusion. Allowance should be made wherever it is
possible for a space between rule and figure.
Before a column rule can be cut, the longest col-
umn of type should be set. If each column requires
a short cross-heading in small type, this cross-head-
ing should be set up, with a proper blank on each
side of the cross-rule, and a similar blank at the
head and foot of the full column where it will be
separated from the text by the broad cross-rule of
the full width of the measure. If this column is
one of a series of two or more columns in the same
table that is to be surmounted by a broader cross-
heading, a similar allowance must be made for the
space that will be occupied by the words of that
heading and its cross-rule.
Next, compute the width of the brass rules (in-
cluding the border rule, if one is required) that will
be needed to separate the columns. 1
When it is found after proper calculation that
the figures and words of a table cannot be got in
1 This can be done by mental 8 points, or 20 points in all, and
calculation: six 2 -point rules this will narrow the space for the
will make 12 points thick, two figures or words of the table by
border rules of 4-point will make 20 points, or two long-primers.
Column rules and borders 197
the prescribed space without the crowding of rules
close to words or figures, thereby making the table
hard to read, two alternatives are presented : a
smaller type must be used, or the table must be
enlarged, so that it can be read the long way of the
page or across two facing pages. Space should be
preserved on each side of the column rule wherever
it is possible. More than any other characters in
the font, figures need space for legibility, and this
space is also needed at the head and foot of every
distinct column. A table is unsightly when its cross-
rules crowd on letters ; it suggests neglected calcu-
lation.
Every column rule should extend from the broad-
measure cross-rule at the top of the table to the
broad cross-rule at its foot, if one is used. It should
go between column headings in small type. It is a
common practice but it is not good workmanship
to use a broad-measure cross-rule below the column
headings, for it divides the table in two sections.
The thick double-rule border around a table has
been supplanted in most printing-houses by a firm
border line of 1 -point face on a 4-point body. This
1-point face should be flush with one side of the
rule, so that a perfect joint can be made at the cor-
ners of a table without mitring. The upright col-
umn rules and the cross-rules of column headings
will fairly meet the border rule and prevent the
unpleasing gap of white that was unavoidable when
the face of the border rule was centred on its body.
198 Columns made up to even ems
Each column should be made up, when it can be
done, to even ems of the type that will be used in
the table, for it is often necessary to extend the
column by leading. To cut short leads for lead-
ing out figures in a measure of two, three, or four
ems is always a risk. The leads may not be abso-
lutely uniform in thickness ; they may be of uneven
thickness by more or less use, or they may be bent
in cutting, or be cut with rough edges. The en
quadrats or three-to-em spaces of the type selected
for figures will separate lines with more evenness
than cut leads, and will give less annoyance to the
maker-up and electrotyper.
Columns made up of irregular widths and not
to even ems of the type are leaded and justified with
needless trouble. In some instances thin leads or
strips of paper have to be added to make solid work. 1
In a table that has to be put within too small
space, as in time-tables, census reports, and work of
like nature, the crowding of column rules against
figures is unavoidable, but in the occasional tables
of good book- work pains should be taken to prevent
this crowding. The words and figures of a table
should have at least as much distinctness as the
roman type of the text.
1 In the table on the next page 8-point figures with fair amount
the columns of figures on 8-point of space between lines and rules
body are each of three ems width, are more readable than would
and the first column is of ten be 10-point figures that had to
ems width. They are more quick- be set solid and crowded close up
ly and securely justified with en to the column rules. It is the
quadrats than with leads. The white space that gives legibility.
***^
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rt d
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rH O CO Tt< O rH CO
rH O CO Tf< O CO t^
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rH rH rH "* rH rH
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200 Treatment of column headings
Complaint is often made that the time-tables of
railroads are hard to read even when their figures
are of good cut. They are made indistinct, in many
instances, by the selection of too large figures that
fill the body with a needlessly bold and black face,
and that crowd against each other and the side-
rules. Bold-faced figures need space for their dis-
tinctness. The selection of a smaller figure that
gives a sufficient relief of white between the lines
will make the table more readable.
The composition of column headings is always
troublesome. In some headings the words will be
short and in others very long. They are read with
most facility when set to parallel the lines of the
table. To do this, abbreviations have to be used
occasionally, but this treatment is always a mis-
fortune. Very small type is the preferred alterna-
tive, but long words in a column two or three ems
wide and parallel to lines of figures are sometimes
impossible. For headings of this nature the small
type must be set in a wider measure to greater
length, and be arranged at right angles with the
lines of figures. The length of the measure to be
used must be that of the heading that has most
words. In the ordinary table, the matter so set
should be placed over the column to read up, not
down. To insure exact justification, the width of
column headings of many words set sidewise should
be tested in a stick made up to the exact width of
the column.
.9
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i
II
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SSSS S3!
^ Oi i I iO 00 O^HCDOd CO 1
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^^*55 ^5 W |5 ^=4! JQ =
202 Tables on facing pages
A table in manuscript with columns too numerous
for its fair presentation in the type of the text and
in its regular measure may have to be set in a type
of smaller size. This is an unpleasant alternative,
but if the small type has to be used to get all the
columns in the measure, the lines of figures will be
made much clearer when they have been leaded with
three-to-em spaces or en quadrats. If figures of
A useful case for tables of figures.
the text type are insisted on, the table can be set to
a wider measure to read the broad way of the page,
or it can be made up in two sections to appear on
facing pages. It may be that the first column of
the table, which explains the figures in each column,
will have to be repeated on the second page. It is
better to do this than to bewilder the reader with
no visible connection between the figures and then-
explanatory column, or to give unsightly gaps of
space between columns.
Tables should be made readable 203
In extreme cases, each half of the table so divided
may be made wider than the regular measure, but
each page must be carefully made up so that the
two parts will be on exact line in the printed and
folded sheet. This method is often unavoidable,
but it makes extra trouble for every following work-
man, from the maker-up to the bookbinder.
Some tables are of great length and have to be
continued on many pages, but the general heading
and the special cross-headings of each column must
be repeated on every page.
Tables that have columns of unequal length, that
are sometimes crossed by a diagonal rule, and have
a smaller square table within the diagonal blank so
created, are always exceedingly difficult. To insure
proper solidity, great care must be given to justi-
fication.
Another troublesome variety of table is that in
which column rules have to be cut in two or more
sections to admit one or more long cross-lines of
explanatory words. By the old method the column
rules were not cut, and single types had to be filed
down or spaced out to make them fit in each col-
umn. The work could not be neatly done, and this
tedious and clumsy method is now out of use.
Needless compactness is a common fault in the
occasional tables of a book. Figures, rules, and
cross-headings are crowded in too small space, and
the table is made repelling to the reader. A table
of 6-point figures in a text of 10-point may not be
204 Column rules should meet border rule
avoidable when the table must be on the same page
as its descriptive text, but this glaring contrast of
sizes can be made less offensive by leading the lines
of figures and by giving a fair relief of white space
to cross-headings. When the text is leaded, the
lines of figures in its table should also be leaded
wherever it is possible. As the figures occupy in
their height about two thirds of the body, while
most lower-case letters occupy less than one half
of the body, there is more need of space between
lines of figures than lines of letters.
An occasional table of two or three narrow col-
umns does not need an inclosing brass-rule border,
when this border is made bolder than the figures
within. Books of tables that fill the page are now
set up by many careful printers without any border.
A firm-faced cross-rule under the general heading,
without rules on the side or at the foot, is a much
more common method.
The type used for column headings should be clear
enough in plain roman lower-case letter. To put
a heading of one or two words in capitals or title-
letter over the broader columns, because there is
plenty of space for the words, and to put other head-
ings in very small lower-case letters makes a dis-
tinction of display that is not needed by the reader,
nor does it improve the typography.
Column rules and cross-rules should be cut so
that they will connect with the inclosing border
rule. Wood reglet, always too easily compressed,
Parallel rules to differentiate classes 205
should not be preferred to fill blank columns. If
wood has to be used, the head and foot lines of the
column should be of quadrats, that provide a more
solid resistance to compression in locking up.
OBSERVATION DE L'INCLINAISON PAR LA METHODE INDIRECTE.
AY AM LE RENVERSEMENT DES POLKS.
APRES LE RENTER!
Face a I'Esl. 19 22'
EMENT DES POLES.
FacearOuesi,I9022 I
Pace a ITist, 10 20'
Faceal'Ouest,I9022'
Pointe
haute.
Pointe
basse.
Pointe
haute.
Pointe
basse.
Pointe
haute.
Pointe
baste.
Pointe
haute.
Point*
bassc.
18 23'
18 28
18 36
18 32
18 98
18 48
I8 22'
18 28
18 35
18 30
18 27
18 45
18" 55'
18 56
18 32
18 42
18 55
18 50
18 55'
18 54
18 36
18 40
18 52
18 50
19" 47'
18 54
19 40
19 30
19 II
19 8
19 36
19 38
19 48'
19 43
19 38
19 30
19 II
19 8
19 34
19 38
19 7'
19 13
19 15
18 54
19
19 16
19 19
19 24
19" 6'
19 12
19 14
IK 53
19
19 14
19 17
19 03
,.
18 32-
""-
I8 31'
!
I9 j
18 48'
^ ^^^^
l',0
18 46'
. "
19 31'
19 31'
B^^" ~-
18
19 IT
!!
J9,7
18 32'
. "
From Lefevre's Guide Pratique.
When the different columns of a table are arranged
in two or more classes, a thin parallel rule may be
used to show more clearly the distinction between
these classes. The object of the table is to show
figures or words, and not to show the rules. An
interior rule that has a line thicker than that of
the words or figures detracts from their legibility.
The French method of using long brass braces to
206 Decimal points needed in tables
connect the different columns of the subheadings
shows ingenious composition, but the braces are
not of benefit to the reader. The plain hair-line
serves a better purpose.
The error made by selecting figures too small and
rules and braces too large is evident in this table.
If the degree mark and minute mark had been put
over their respective columns, figures two sizes
larger could have been selected. If hair-lines had
been used instead of braces and double rule, the
table would have been much more readable.
When a column has figures that require a point
to separate dollars from cents or integers from their
decimals, the period on the en body, or the en leader,
should be preferred. If one on the en body is not
to be had, use the regular period of the font, if on
the four-to-em body. If the period is on the five-
to-em body, justification will be troublesome. The
practice of using a space instead of a period to sep-
arate dollars from cents is not to be commended.
Cents are decimal fractions of the dollar, and the
decimal point is needed in every statement that calls
for the expression of a decimal fraction. A decimal
expression of measurements or values without its
point is unmeaning.
It is a misfortune that the dollar mark, the pound
mark, and other signs occasionally used in narrow
columns are often cast on bodies not easily justi-
fied. The en quadrat or the three-to-em space is
too thick and the four-to-em space is too thin. All
Knowledge of music is valuable 207
the sorts needed for table-work should be on bodies
that favor perfect justification in the narrowest
column.
Table-work is one of the nicest of the composi-
tor's acquirements, and needs careful study and
training. Too much stress cannot be laid upon
the necessity of accurate casting off and justifica-
tion, for which exact knowledge of the proportions
of types will be of great help. An imposed table
should be lifted as securely as a page of text.
MUSIC
The composition of music types requires consid-
erable skill and practice. It cannot be compared
with other type composition. The nearest com-
parison is apparently genealogical work, in which
columns have to be made wider or narrower, or
table-work, because it has to be cast off; but an
expert pedigree-maker in type, or an expert table-
hand, would find himself puzzled were he to un-
dertake the composition of music without pre-
vious knowledge, to set it up "out of his own
head," as it were, as he would if he undertook
a difficult problem in the manipulation of letter-
press.
A music compositor should have a knowledge of
music, in order to give the proper space to each note
on account of its value in time, and also the proper
place to each music sign. A knowledge of music
208 Breaks in lines to be avoided
would seem to be an absolute necessity. Yet it is
a fact that some proficient music compositors have
no knowledge of music. Intuition governs them.
This is mentioned to show that, while knowledge
of music is a great help in the setting of music, it
is not absolutely necessary. It is no more aston-
ishing than the fact that there are a large number
of letterpress compositors who have not been prop-
erly taught grammar, and yet can set a clean proof
from manuscript improperly prepared.
Music type is cast on an em basis, the smallest
piece being an en. The lines of the staff are an
en, an em, one and a half, two, three, four, and five
ems, when cast in metal, but brass lines are now
supplied in any length required. The object of
having long lines is to have as few joinings as
possible, thereby reducing to a minimum unsightly
breaks, which appear when the edges of the lines
wear away. This used to be avoided when stereo-
typing by the plaster process was in vogue. A brass
rule the length of the line was deftly impressed in
each line of the staff in the plaster mould, which
gave the plate an unbroken line in each staff. The
music published by London (England) firms has
often been admired for its even joins. With the
advent of electrotyping the practice seems to have
fallen into disuse.
In music composition the lines should be crossed
whenever practicable, to avoid the appearance of
breaks as much as possible. If they are set like
Clef the key to the tones 209
this, = =i == they are more likely to show the
divi -~ zn = sion than this way : -- --
Set your lines crosswise.
fonts of music have two lines cast on one body
- . This facilitates the work, but has its draw-
back in showing open spaces when worn, besides
which, if one line is damaged, the other is of no use.
The lengths of the lines have their duplicates in
quadrats, which are cast on a single and a double
body. Slugs are generally used for over five ems.
The staff is composed with five lines and four
spaces, made by the shoulders of the lines ; and in
order to tell the names of the tones which the notes
represent a character called a clef is placed at the
beginning. The clef determines the names of the
tones on the staff to which it is affixed.
There are three clefs in music ; two are fixtures
and one is movable. The clefs that are fixtures are
called F and G, and the movable clef is called C.
Originally the staff was composed of eleven lines.
It is now in two divisions of five lines each, called
the bass and treble staffs, with a line between,
which makes up the complement of eleven lines,
and this line is called C :
DEFGAB CDEF
--*-
GAB CDEFGABC
The C clef represents either soprano, alto, or tenor.
210 Names of clefs on the staff
The top clef is called G, which gives that name to
the second line from the bottom, because the curl of
the character encircles it, and the rest of the tones
on that staff have their names fixed accordingly.
The bottom clef (bass) is called F, which gives
that name to the fourth line, because bounded by
the two dots, and which also determines the names
of the other tones upon that staff. These two clefs
always occupy the same position, but the position
of the C clef varies with voice or instrument tenor
or alto, for example. It is generally made of two
bars with two lines on each side. The space or
line between the bars is called C, which also deter-
mines the names of the other tones on that staff.
3.
4.
It will be noticed that 2, 3, and 4 differ in their
tones, while 1 and 3 appear to be the same. There
Signature and time of notes 211
is an octave difference, and when 1 is represented
by 3 clef it should be played or sung an octave
higher. The F and G clefs are cast in one piece,
but the C clef is of different pieces: _ I HI- I _ ,,,,
In some fonts the double bars on each I] ~\ \. ^L -j^j
side are cast in one piece on a two-line
body fl . This would require only half the num-
ber of pieces fl - tt .
The key to fl the music is called the signature,
which is composed of either sharps or flats, and is
placed next to the clef. The signature indicates
that notes upon the line or space of the sharp or
flat shall be performed sharp or flat accordingly,
unless the order is countermanded by a natural t3 :
Three sharps after the clef take up three ems space,
while three flats take up only two and a half ems,
an en only being required between B and A flat,
each two lines deep, but a line sharp is three lines
deep, sometimes on a two-em kerned body.
Next to the signature comes the time-mark. The
JQ is two ems long and three lines deep. The fig-
ures are two ems long on a single body, with a
line through them : _
The notes have -t -2- -3- 4- -6- -8- J two
functions sound and
time. The note occupying the longest time (used
212 Time values of notes
mostly in recitative) is called a breve :
This is made up of separate pieces. A ~
space note occupies two lines and takes eight pieces,
and a line note occupies three lines and takes thir-
teen pieces, except as shown in preceding page :
The note next in duration of time is called a semi-
breve : i I being half the value in time of the
breve, a as its name denotes. This note is the
foundation upon which time is based, and is called
a whole note. The note next in order is called a
minim, or half note, two of which are of the same
value in time as the semibreve. This note, like its
predecessor, is white, with the addition of a stem.
The notes following are black. Below are given
the time values of the notes, those of greatest value
being placed on the under or bass staff :
m
-V-
Each additional tail decreases the value of the note
one half. Allowance will have to be made when
casting off a brace. A brace is more than one line
played or sung in unison. A dot added to a note
Difference in B and D noteheads 213
increases its time value one half, and a second
dot is half the value in time of the preceding dot :
With the exception of the semibreve (or whole
note), the notes are composed of different pieces
heads, stems, tails (sometimes called hooks), and
ties. The noteheads occupy one line, the space
notehead being kerned and resting on the shoulder
of the line next to it, except a unison notehead in
the space, a connecting notehead in the space, and
a B and D notehead in the space, which are gener-
ally cast on a double body. The B notehead is the
note in the first space outside the staff, with the
stem outside the staff. Its name distinguishes it,
and its position gives the name to its tone. The
notes outside the staff are called leger notes, and are
distinguished by a thicker line in some fonts. An
en line extends beyond the note each way. Note-
heads in the space, on a two-em body without the top
line, are called D noteheads. Note the difference :
n I D note- r -0-
B note- kead .
Leger notes.
214 Tying and binding of notes
The stems of the notes are on single and double
bodies, sometimes three bodies deep. The single-
body stems are called angles or T pieces, and are
en, em, one and a half ems, two ems, and longer.
The double-body stems begin at an em and proceed
the same as the single body. They take different
forms for use inside and outside the staff, and are
manipulated in quite a number of different ways :
Full. Cut. Full. Cut.
Angle: H -. -* Double body: ij I] J
Full. Cut. Full. Cut. Full.
B steins: _| _j J Plain stems: | (
HOW A NOTE IS MADE
Space. Line. Together. Space. Line.
*' ;== -I
A line notehead stem is longer than a space note-
head stem. The space notehead has part of the
stem attached, and this equalizes the length.
When notes are grouped they are either tied or
bound by a curve. The ties are both straight and
slanting, and are joined to the stems of the notes.
The bind is to prevent accent, and this is accom-
plished by making a sustained passage begin with
an unaccented note and finish on an accented one,
Accent and syncopation 215
which prevents or destroys the accent. This is called
syncopation. Accent, if not the most important, is
one of the most important features in music. Good
rendition cannot take place without its being ob-
served. It is equally important with time. It is
as important as punctuation in reading-matter or
inflection in oratory. Take a passage in common
time, the accent being on the first and third beats :
No
Accent. Accent. accent. Accent. Accent. Accent.
Bind.
Ties range one em, one and a half, two, three ems,
are cast for line and space notes, the line notehead
ties being kerned or overhanging, and join each
other in diagonal line when up or down. They
are up, down, and straight, inside and outside the
staff, and combinations can be made in a number of
ways, depending upon the skill of the compositor :
Apart. Together. Apart. Together.
1 ; i 5EJ=iEE * *
When notes ascend or descend in thirds or more,
double slants are used, the slope being more acute.
When not provided, they can be made by using two
1 slants, if the space and note occupy three ems :
Apart. Together.
r? :
216 Casting off music composition
Together.
9
By the use of slurs, notes glide into each other.
They are cast in two, three, four, and six ems, and
can be made longer, when required, by using com-
bination pieces. When slurs longer than those
furnished are required, the end of a bind is used,
middle pieces being added to make it of the required
length, the last one being tapered for the purpose :
Up slur. Down slur.
Binds are sometimes called ties and straight slurs.
The word bind is used because they do not touch
the notes ; the ties touch the notes. They can be
made to extend any length and are in one piece
up to six ems two, three, four, and six ems. End
pieces are two and four ems long, the middle
pieces ranging en, one, two, three, four ems. Like
other sorts, they are cast with the line and without :
Music composition cannot be set at random, like
type composition. It has to be cast off before it
can be constructed, the work of which, in difficult
parts, gives the compositor an opportunity to dem-
onstrate his ability or show his lack of it.
Hoiv casting off can be done 217
The preceding illustration shows a line of music
copy that ends at the last bar but one. Music is
cast off by ems of its own body. The first thing
to ascertain, on taking copy, is the length of the
line in music ems. The foregoing line consists of
forty-five ems of music. In order to find how to
make it come out even, and at the same time to be
correctly spaced, find out how much space your
noteheads, signature, time-mark, and clef will take
up, and then properly distribute the rest of the space.
In casting off, give most space to the notes of long
duration and economize on the ones that are tied.
For example, more space should be placed after a
half note than a fourth, etc. In the preceding line
the clef is three ems, signature two ems, time-mark
two ems, and ten noteheads of one em each. Thus :
This accounts for thirty- Ems
five, leaving ten ems to be C) ef ?
distributed. One em put Signature,
beforethetime-mark,two Time-mark,
Ten noteheads, >
after it, an em extra in Qne em each
front of bars, and three
ems after the last note, -^
. , , . Nine spaces between )
including the end bar, ^ noteheads> 18
will make up the required two ems eacb> *)
number forty-five ems.
np-
When possible, have the
most space in front of the bar. Another way to
cast off is to set a guide-line of noteheads, making
the spaces between with lines or quads. This is
218 Eests and grace-notes
easier than mental calculation and is done as fol-
lows, the noteheads being at the top of the staff :
3 2 1 2 2 12111112111112111112111112121
Brass rule is sometimes used for bars, as seen in
five previous examples. Bars can be ordered from
the type-founder or made in the office. Equiv-
alent spaces have to be used to justify when the
bar is not length of line or brace. They are made
of various lengths, and should go the depth of the
line or brace.
The rests are in one piece and are cast without
and with the lines of the staff. The bar or whole-
note rest is a straight black line, and is used down-
ward on the top line but one. It is also used for
the half-note rest, and is then turned upward and
rests on the third line of the staff. The rests are :
Bar or Half Quarter 8th 16th 32d
Whole rest. rest. rest. rest. rest. rest.
I a I
^^ rfc
Grace-notes have a smaller face, are duplicates of
the other notes, and are manipulated in the same
way, many of the sorts, such as accidentals, etc.,
being on an en body.
Where terms are expressed in words they can be
set in any type and justified. When expressed by
characters they will be found cast with the font.
Cases for music composition 219
The following plans of cases provide for all the
sorts that are necessary for general use. A side
box for double quads will be necessary, and also a
rule case if brass lines longer than five ems are
used. Music fonts vary, and the lay of the case
has to vary with them, but the accompanying plans
will be found to meet all needs, so that the encum-
brance of a third or side case is obviated. The va-
cant boxes can be utilized as occasion requires. An
extra case can be used for the overflow or surplus
sorts. All the characters treated are in all fonts
cast by American type-founders. Different plans
of music cases can be had. The cases here shown
can be had through any type-foundry, but special
care should be taken to obtain the ones here illus-
trated. An ordinary lower case and a triple upper
case can be arranged for the purpose. Fonts vary
as regards number of characters. Cases also vary
in the way they are laid, each compositor having
his own method. The accompanying plans are
made to facilitate composition noteheads, stems,
ties, binds, slurs, lines, etc., being grouped. The
aim of the writer has been to simplify the instruc-
tions needed. If these instructions are studied and
thoroughly understood, the minor difficulties that
appear in practice can be readily overcome by a
compositor of ordinary ability.
Gregorian music, so named after its founder, St.
Gregory, and used for chanting, is composed of
one staff of four lines. It hardly comes within the
'ttr
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ll!ill iUlJi Si|
"I xill J sS S
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^ift'tot^cooio 'cqco-*t- OM^ot-^oo'
<*< ^'Hininmiftin tn <o <o <c <c o
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I
224 Gregorian music Tonic sol-fa music
category of music composition as generally under-
stood, having none of the difficulties of building or
ranging that are encountered in the old notation.
The compositor sets up the line of words first and
ranges the notes over them. No casting off is re-
quired. It is comparatively straight matter. Pre-
vious knowledge is not necessary, and any average
compositor can set it. The noteheads are diamond
and square shaped, and the ordinary music stems
are used.
In tonic sol-fa music no staff is used, letters
taking the place of notes. Each part occupies a
line, the pulses or beats being divided by colons,
and the subdivisions by periods and commas, except
where the accent occurs, when an inverted one em
dash is used. When more than one part is engaged,
the beats have to range. Brass rule the depth of
the vocal parts is used for bars. Thus, do, re, mi,
do, in common time, would be d | : r | m : d ' | .
The inferior stroke at the first d signifies an octave
lower, and the superior stroke at the last d an oc-
tave higher. Music character expressions are used.
It is intended only for the voice, the instrumental
accompaniment having to be set in the old nota-
tion. The characters are on en and em bodies.
Having no staff, the difficulties of building have
not to be contended with, making the casting off
comparatively easy, and the composition virtually
straight matter, like setting a line of figures across
a table, through which may be inserted the column
Genealogies and pedigrees 225
rules. It can be done by one who can set a table. The
following is an illustration and will speak for itself :
s : fe I 1 : s
ll.Gen - tly, gen - tly
|2. Mirth and mu - sic
n : re | f : n
d : d | d :d
s.d'rr'.d'ld' : t
morning light is break - ing,
like a fountain flow - ing,
m.n : f .m | m : r
d.d :d.d Is, : S|
Diamond and excelsior music type are best suited
for book- work. Excelsior occupies the least space.
Diamond has three sizes of noteheads, Nos. 1, 2,
and 3. Other fonts are also supplied with dif-
ferent sizes of noteheads.
GENEALOGIES AND PEDIGREES
The intent of the genealogical chart is a synopsis
of descent and of mutual relationship that will be
understandable at a glance. The lines that show
connection with near or remote ancestry should be
plain hair-line brass rules; if, now and then, a
brace may be needed, it should be of light face.
The words are of most importance, and should not
be made insignificant by blackness of braces. To
present each member of the family in column form,
and to preserve a proper parallelism of columns,
these columns must be of unequal width, some very
narrow and some very broad; one may have but
three or four words, and another may have fifteen
15
PEDIGREE OF THE
Jataka (lost).
Pali about 250 B.C.
-^- mf^rt
KARATA
Cingalese (lost).
|
Pehlevi, or Old Pers.
Pali, 550 A.D.
Jataka Atthavannana.
by Barzoye (lost), '
5/0 A. D. <
ed. Fausboll,
1
1877-79-
1 /'
4 Cingalese,
1320, 1415,
Eng. pt.
(Fausball. v.
^SyriacJ
^
570^ ^ARABIC I. c . 750,
1610, 1780.
Eng., verse
pt. Steele
1871;
Rhys-Davids,
1880;
R. Morris,
ed. Bicke
Germ
1, 1874- ' (ed Pt., Sc a hu a tensi 7 86!
NSldeke, 1 879, the whole
an byS.deSacy, i8i6,and
(1871).
1885-87).
ickell,
KaUla e hwa:Dm^ah 2)>
Heb. pt,
.
1878.
Fr. D
Pers. verse, 2 Arab, verse (lost)
by Rudegi, 9,4 (,) Jachja ibn laffar,
(lost). the Barmecide ;
(2 edns, i
(2)
Abd al-Mamun.
.
Pets. (MS.)
|
Hindustani,
1803.
Syriac II. (loth cent.) (Sreeft I.
(ed. Wright, 1884). by S. Seth, 1080
Ethiopic pets!
(lost). by Kai
an I. Malay t
rullah, (MS.) b
Eng. (Keith-Fal- fe^lSk* 3&3ft
>s ii2i (MS.)
coner, 1885). 1851, Proleg. ed. Aurivallius, Pers II i S oo-
1780, Puntoni, 1884). Anwari Subaili
(4 eds. i8oi-i8<;i).
Latin
(Possinus, 1666,
Stark, 1697).
Italian, Old S
Del governo (ed. Bi
de regni 18
avonic
Igaroff,
77)-
I
Croat
(ed. 1870).
French, i(
(Derenboui
1
(3eds., 1583-
Germ.
1872).
(Lehmus, 1778).
"O ~_~ T 1
T _ -O_ T-k-1 t- _ r,
1
- --- ---- -j w /> *^*.*n, i.u,q,, I- jcuuii. lugo. pi.
byAb-ulFadl, (M. Ibraheem). David Sahid,
^StSf 1 * Fables de Pil P*y-
( M . s -) (5 edns).
Wollaston, 1877'.
I
Gerr
Buchd
(21 edns
Dutch I.,
Dutch II.
1716.
Urdu, 1815
(ed. Roebuck).
Eng., 1861
( P. P. Manuel).
Turkish, c. 1500,
Humayun Namah
1836).
sA,
Wilde,
Eng., 1699
(J. Harris, 9 edns.),
2 Germ. ,
1802, 1803.
3zech, 1846
Trebowsky).
Fr., 1724, pt., by Galland and Cardonne
Contes de Bidpai (3 edns.)
Span.
, 1654-58, by V. Bratut
Espejo politico.
1
, 1
1
|
1
.783.
1762. Hungarian, 1783. Polish, 1819. Dutch.
BIDPAI LITERATURE.
BIT I., abt. 300 A.D.
and DAMANAKA (lost).
1 1
rab. II ? Tibetan, pt., Sanskt.
i Jew, 750. ed. Schiefner, 1875. Pancht
luidi, 1873. 1 (2 edns., i
II., pt., Chinese, pt ,
itantra, Avadanas.
848, 1868). |
French, 1859
(Julien).
pt'(Guidi). GeL
(Schiefner).
1
Latin
(Schiefner)
Eng. 1
(Ralsto
ston).
"elugu, Tamil,
1. 1848. by Somasamna
(2 edns. 1826-28).
I 1 Sansk. Hitopadesa Sansk. Katha-sarit-sagara,
Malay Eng. 1873 (n edns., 1804-68). by Somadeva (i2th cent.).
7) (Alkabir, (E. Winford).
2 Germ. Fr. Greek,
(Beufey, 1859, (Lancereau, t(Galanos,
Fritze, 1884). 1871)- 1851).
1871).
Germ., pt. Eng.
(Brockhaus, 1853). (Tawney, 1881).
alee Mahratta Brij Hindi.pt., 4 Germ
ns., (2 edns., Barha 1851. 1844-74
-24). 1805-15). (2 ed.,
1809-12).
2Fr.
5 Eng.-(Wilkins, 1797, 1885;
SirW. Jones, 1799 ; Johnson,
1848 ; M. Muller, 1864 ; Sir
E. Arnold, 1861).
Greek.
185..
XW I. Hebrew II. Span. I., 1252, Latin
Joel, by R. Eleasar Calyla i Dymna verse,
250. b. Jacob, 1283. (ed. Gayangos, Baldo,
1
Knatchbuli,
1818).
I |
Fr. pt., 2 Germ
(Pihan, (Holmboe, 1832,
1866). Wolff, 1837,
2 eds.)
Armenian,
pt.,
I3th cent.
Vartan.
Fr. 1676.
ed. Derenbourg, | alter
1881. Latin, c. 1300. (MS)
Raymond (MS.)
LATIN I., by John of * P'- E- du M6ril,
Capua, 1270. 1 854-
Directorium vite humane
ed. 1483; Puntoni, 1884;
Derenbourg, 1887).
483,
eyapiele
83-1860).
2 Danish
(1618.)
I 1
^ Spanish II., Czech, c 1450,
^- Exemplario by N. Conac,
(10 edns. fi. 1493). Prawidlo lidskoho ziwota
Ital. I., 1548, by Firenzuola, . Ital. II., 1552, by Doni,
Discoru (3 edns,) La Moral Fhilosophia (3 edns. )
French, 1556 Fr., 1577. English I., 1570, by T. NORTH,
(Cottier). (De la Rivey, The Morall Philosophic of Doni
2 edns.) (3 edns., 1570, 1601, 1888).
228 Illustrations of genealogies
or more. Unlike all other forms of type-setting, the
building of a long genealogical chart cannot begin
at the beginning of the manuscript. It must begin
with the columns that occupy greatest width, which
are usually at or near the foot of the chart. Each
column should be separately set, accurately justi-
fied, and kept dampened so that it can be easily
handled, for interlockings and rearrangements are
unavoidable. The process of building up separate
rows of matter for different generations has to be
done in reverse order, the matter first written
being the last set. For obvious reasons, the gene-
alogy of a family is not offered as an illustration,
but the Pedigree of the Bidpai Literature, 1 which is
a story of the origin and descent of a famous book,
fairly shows the method used in the composition
of the genealogies of families. It may be added
that no form of typographic composition is more
1 From Joseph Jacobs's Earliest fled within a border printed in
English Version of the Fables of blue ink, but the braces that
Bidpai, post 8vo, London, 1888. show connection are in red ink.
A more carefully elaborated The chart is inclosed in a border
genealogical chart is that of the of fifty-eight heraldic shields,
Estienne (Stephens) family of each one presenting the peculiar
Paris, as it is presented in the device of a different member of
Essai sur la Typographic, by M. the family.
Ambroise Firmin - Didot, 8vo, A simpler form of chart can
Paris, 1851, which begins with be seen in Les Elzevier, by Al-
Pierre Estienne (1270), and is phonse Willems. 8vo, Brussels,
continued through sixteen gen- 1880. It is for five generations
erations. Yet it is compacted only of that family, and is printed
upon a sheet 13 x l? 1 ^ inches, in red and black, on a long sheet
The composition is apparently 9Vfc x 20^j inches. All are admi-
in type on 4^-point body. Each rable as illustrations of difficult
member of the family is speci- composition.
Pedigrees of domestic animals 229
troublesome or more expensive than that of the
genealogical chart.
The genealogical chart in manuscript that has to
be kept within a prescribed limit cannot be properly
set if the copy has not been prepared in an orderly
manner. If a distinct column has not been made
for each member of the family, and the relation of
different members to their co-relatives and to the
common ancestor is not clearly denned, it will be a
waste of time to try to put in type copy so negli-
gently prepared. The matter should be rewritten,
and it may be prudent to rewrite it more than once
before the mutual relation of the different mem-
bers of that family can be fairly presented.
In genealogical charts the name of the ancestor
is at the head of the page, and the descendants are
set below in rows that are nearly parallel. In the
pedigrees of animals the name of the progenitor
Pedro of Terrace Hill 39514. (See Lot 15.)
Bellman 6968
\ Grinell Lass 11859
Bellman's Dolly - (16.10)
77601 f Duke of Onaquaga
2840
Dolly Crary 13117 ... 1
I Christine 3006
and the names of his descendants usually are com-
posed in separate columns with proper separating
blanks, after the fashion customary in some tables
of figures, detachable braces being substituted for
plain column rules. The column that contains the
last generation at the end of the measure is often
BELL
MADESSA
157294
Bellman's Boy 14003 .
230 The proper field of typography
very compact j the name of the progenitor at the
left in the first column is open, with a broad blank
above and below. This method of treating a pedi-
gree is sufficient for three or four generations, but
it is not so practicable on the ordinary page when
the columns are continued at great length.
Some text-books of chemistry make use of this
method of composition to illustrate the compounds
and subcompounds of elementary substances. It
is also used in botany to show the classification of
species derived from a common stock. The method
makes the subject-matter much more intelligible.
Some of the older forms of troublesome composi-
tion have been discarded : the chronogram, in which
dates were suggested by roman capital letters arbi-
trarily arranged as numerals ; acrostics with initial
letters turned sidewise; literal or verbal puzzles
produced by signs ; diagrams toilsomely constructed
from brass rules ingeniously curved and twisted ;
facs, head-bands, and initials of combination bor-
ders or capital letters; stigmatypes of portraits
made from periods of different size. Prints from
these compositions suggest skill and patience, but
the general effect is not pleasing. It is a mistake
to try to do by typography anything that can be
done more neatly and quickly by photo-engraving.
Composition should exemplify its etymology, not
by the construction but by the combining of its
materials.
SAMUEL NELSON
VI
FOREIGN LANGUAGES
Accents . . . Greek . . . Hebrew . . German
OREIGN languages will be set
with most correctness by the
compositor who clearly under-
stands the meaning of his copy,
but a knowledge of more than
one language is not to be ex-
pected of the ordinary type-
setter. Reprint or clear manuscript copy in Latin,
French, Spanish, Italian, or in any other language
that uses the roman character, can be decently ren-
dered in type by a careful compositor, but the diffi-
culty of preserving accuracy increases when the
copy is in Greek, Hebrew, or German, for each one
of these languages has its own peculiar alphabet.
231
232 Accented letters for roman types
Yet Greek, Hebrew, and German characters must be
provided for the proper rendering of quoted words
or lines in every printing-house that undertakes
to do miscellaneous book-work.
The characters required for the languages that
have distinct alphabets are seldom found in the
ordinary book-house. To employ them acceptably,
fonts of many faces and sizes must be provided,
and they should be handled by compositors and
supervised by readers who have at least some
superficial acquaintance with the languages. 1
ACCENTS
One peculiarity of printed English language is the
absence of accented letters in an ordinary descrip-
tive text. It is only in dictionaries or elocutionary
aaaaaaaaaaaaae'eeeeeeeeeiiiiii 166606
5ooooOiiiiTluuuuuuuyyyyyy9cdnnnstzT
Century Dictionary accents.
treatises that accents are freely used to guide pro-
nunciation. English-speaking compositors are apt
1 There are but few printing- many. In all large cities may
houses of polyglot capability, be found occasionally printing-
Those that have justly earned a houses that have one or more
world-wide reputation are the fonts of Arabic, Turkish, Syriac,
University Press of Oxford, Coptic, Russian, Sanskrit, and
England, the National Printing other Oriental languages, but
House of Paris, De Propaganda they are used infrequently, and
Fide of Rome, the Imperial the ordinary book-printer has to
Printing House of Vienna, and decline the purchase of types
W. Drugulin of Leipsic, Ger- that will be rarely used.
Accented letters for foreign languages 233
to underrate the importance of a proper placing of
accents in the composition of foreign languages,
where the same word with or without an accent
may convey a different meaning. American type-
founders provide and furnish, but only on special
request, these accents 1 for roman letter :
Bohemian : ACDEEINORSTUUYZ
acd'eeinofsfuuyz
Danish and Norwegian :
Flemish : E E E e e e 6
French: A AfiEEElOUUgaaeeeeiiduuuQ
German : A O U a o ii
Hungarian :AEl6o6uUUaei666uuu
Italian: AEIOUaeiou
Polish: 4CELOSZZ^ce<;16sz
Portuguese : AAEl6OUUNQaaei66uiin<?
Spanish :Afit6UUNaei6uuii
Swedish : A A O a a o
Welsh : W ^ and the ordinary accents
1 This list is incomplete. Some established English type-foun-
f orms of Italian poetry require dries. For the most part, accents
a special accent known as trema. and points are not sufficiently
Rumanian needs many accents distinct. The Masoretic points
peculiar to that language, but as of Hebrew and the breathings of
yet not made in this country. Greek are relatively feeble. This
The roman character predomi- feebleness seems unavoidable in
nates in Saxon and Irish, but accents that have to be attached
their alphabets have some letters to roman capital letters, where
that are intelligible to educated the character extends to the ex-
readers only. They are occasion- treme top of the body. In many
ally used in treatises on etymol- fonts accents for capitals have to
ogy, and are to be had of the old- kern or overhang the body.
234 The sigla and ligatures of Greek
GREEK
The Greek alphabet has twenty-four capital letters,
but the ordinary working font of Greek type has
one hundred and seventy-four distinct characters.
Some European type-founders provide a greater
number. Many of the Greek capitals are of the
same form as roman capitals, but the lower-case
letters differ seriously and are not easily understood
by the novice. All fonts of Greek made before the
eighteenth century contain many doubled letters,
then known as ligatures or tied letters. 1
A manuscript in Greek calls for careful penman-
ship. Each letter should be formed with distinct-
ness and the accents unmistakably placed over their
proper vowels. Extracts pencilled in Greek books
printed before the eighteenth century are bewilder-
ing to the modern compositor by reason of their
frequent use of the sigla and ligatures that are no
longer made in type.
lln his Manuel Typogra- plete lists. An explanation of
phique (tome 2, p. 248), Fournier many of these ligatures will be
shows seven hundred and sev- found in Dizionario di Abbre-
enty-six distinct characters in his viature Latine ed Italiane, by
provision for a perfect font of Adriano Capelli. Although this
Greek type, but he says that he dictionary professes to treat of
has not made as many as his pre- Latin abbreviations only, it is of
decessors. Savage's Dictionary some service for Greek. These
of the Art of Printing (pp. 300- ligatures are not made by mod-
302) gives a table of some of the ern type-founders, but the ac-
more common ligatures, but the cents and breathings are still re-
Greek grammars of the eigh- tained as indispensable parts of
teenth century have more com- the perfect font.
Names and values of Greek letters 235
The Greek alphabet
Capitals
Lower-
case
Name
Power
Value as
numerals
A
a
Alpha
a
1
B
(36
Beta
I
2
r
T
Gamma
9
3
A
Delta
d
4
E
Epsilon
e short
5
Z
C
Zeta
z
7
H
7]
Eta
e long
8
9
6 $
Theta
tli
9
I
t
Iota
i
10
K
%
Kappa
k or c
20
A
X
Lambda
I
30
M
|X
Mu
m
40
N
V
Nu
n
50
H
5
Xi
X
60
Omicron
o short
70
n
7T
Pi
p
80
p
P
Rho
r
100
2
Sigma
s
200
T
T
Tau
t
300
r
Upsilon
u
400
?
Phi
ph
500
X
X
Chi
ch
600
w
Psi
ps
700
Q
0)
Omega
o long
800
236 Accents and points of Greek
Accents and breathings are attached to the lower-
case letters where they are needed, but they are also
cast on separate bodies, so that they can be put
before a capital letter. The vowels a ^ GJ, with sub-
script iota indicating the suppression of a following
i, may be considered distinct characters, but they
are seldom used. There are also two forms of
lower-case letters (3 ft, 6 #, a c. 1
Greek accents
' lenis " asper grave
e asper ~ circumflex
' acute T circumflex lenis
grave T circumflex asper
lenis acute " dieresis
lenis grave * dieresis acute
asper acute ' v dieresis grave
The comma, period, and exclamation -point per-
form the same function in Greek as in English.
The Greek mark of interrogation is the English
semicolon, sometimes reversed. The Greek colon
is an inverted period.
A study of the Greek alphabet and of a few rules
that control the use of accents and breathings will
be of service to the compositor, even if he needs
this knowledge only for one paragraph.
1 The characters 6 and # are as an initial or medial letter it
not often required. The final s, should be a. An old form of
at the end of a word, should be $ ; p has been suppressed.
Cases for composition of Greek 237
The plan of the Greek case shown on this page is
the one most used in the United States, but a larger
case that contains boxes for more characters is the
favorite in England and on the Continent. In the
Katechismus der Buchdruckerkunst, page 55, will be
found diagrams of Greek and Hebrew cases on an
improved plan.
A
B
r
A
E
Z
H
e
I
K
A
M
N
S
E
s
e
-
I
i
I
I
i
1
e
1
n
P
2
T
r
$
*1
V
^
^
^
^
^
^3
^
^
1
H
^
*>
X
V
Q
Kerned
<*
Kerned
TJ
Kerned
<P
t
I
f
I
f
E
r
r
E
I
i
t
t
A
$
%
t
<P
6
b
8
6
i
6
5
6
5
5
6
5
A
cc
d
d
d
&
a
a
d
A
d
a
a
6
6
6
6
5
5
5
5
6
6
u
6
5
cb
cb
(b
0)
a>
0)
to
(0
w
do
CO
CO
CO
CO
._
Greek upper case.
8
sem Uem
<r
tf
e
o
C
J
P
P
P
6
Y
e
I
t
f)
d
e
V
X
K
X
V-
v
1C
p
en
Quads
em
Quads
$
C
j
T
3em space
a
(D
;
:
Quadrats
-
Greek lower case.
238 Rules for placing accents
Nearly every word in Greek has one accent, but
it has no more than one (except, under certain con-
ditions, before an enclitic). 1
Accents that cannot be put over a Greek capital
are on separate bodies and put before the capital.
The acute accent may appear only on one of
the last three syllables of a word, the circumflex
only on one of the last two syllables, and the grave
only on the final syllable. The last is seldom used,
except to replace the acute accent in a final syllable
before another word in the same sentence.
Every vowel or diphthong that begins a word has
either the rough or the smooth breathing over it.
The vowel upsilon admits of the rough breathing
only. A diphthong takes both the accent and the
breathing upon the second vowel. Initial p always
has the rough breathing ; double p occurring in a
word is written pp.
The hyphen is never employed in Greek for the
compounding of words.
The apostrophe is used to mark elision, as in
dvr' eKeivTjg for dvrl eKeivrjg. It is also (under the
name " coronis ") used to mark the consolidation of
words, with elision, as in rdvdpi for r& dvdpi, rdyaOd
for rd dyadd.
Sometimes the apostrophe marks the elision of
a vowel at the beginning of a word, as in w 'yaOe
for G) dyaOe, but this is most common in poetry.
1 Theoretically " every word," but it is lost by enclitics and pro-
clitics, and, in some cases, by elision.
Different faces of Greek 239
The dieresis accent separates two vowels, so that
they will not be pronounced as a diphthong : di>TTj
with a dieresis is a word that makes three syllables,
but without the dieresis av becomes a diphthong
and makes of avrr) two syllables.
The rules that regulate accents are complex and
not to be briefly explained. In different positions
the same word may take different accents.
Greek types are made of many faces and on many
bodies from diamond to canon. 1 The face most
approved in England is known as the Porson, so
called from its designer, who was not only great as
a scholar, but equally famous as a penman. Old-
style Greek has a relatively small face, with quaint
forms of lower-case characters that are now dis-
liked by the critical. The form of Greek character
preferred in many European countries is com-
pressed a little, and almost vertical in shape. The
Greek made by Baskerville is not at all approved
by Greek scholars. The fat-faced and bold-faced
Greek, or thickened Greek, finds its greatest use
for the index words of dictionaries.
Inscription Greek, or lapidary Greek, of rude form
and consisting of capital letters only, is used for
the proper rendering of old lettering cut on stone.
The facsimile, on the next page, of the Greek of Sel-
wyn Image was made for the Macmillan Company.
i Pickering's edition, in two of typography. It is probably
volumes, of the Iliad and the the smallest form of Greek type
Odyssey in diamond Greek is a ever printed, yet its presswork
remarkably beautiful specimen is wonderfully clear.
240 Different faces of Greek
Person Greek.
ABrAEZH0IKAMNHOnP2TT*XYQ
a/3^5s ( ?'y]$SixX|ULv|-o'7rp0'crTti(p}(4/cj
Old-style Greek.
Title or fat-faced Greek.
Continental Greek.
PPIHNEI ..... AMIAI
EY4>ANIIDI<AIA/ . .INOYKAGYO
IANAENII<AlAAMOYArHIANAPO .
.YAAMOYTIMArOPAn...AI<AEY
.nSITPATOCTEl^ ..... NAPO^P
.TANYMOYAIPE0EK ...... YAA
Inscription or lapidary Greek of capitals only.
ABrAEZHGIKAMNHOnPCTTOXYQ
'Opcb JULCN o> aNdpec 'AeHNaToi rd
nparuara no\\HN duacoXiaN
KOI rapayHN, ou JUONON TW noXXa
The Greek type of Mr. Selwyn Image.
Names and values of Hebrew letters 241
HEBREW
The Hebrew alphabet consists of consonants only,
but the addition of points gives to some of them
the power of vowels. It is in one series, without
difference in form for capitals or lower-case, and
has no need for small capitals or for italic. Some of
the letters are varied in shape when used as finals.
Its numerals, made by arbitrary powers given to let-
ters, are placed in the following table at the end of
the lines, opposite their proper letter.
The Hebrew alphabet
Letter
Name
Value
Letter
Name
Value
N
Aleph
1
D D
Mem
40
^
Beth
2
3 y
Nun
50
3
Gimel
3
D
Samek
60
n
Daleth
4
y
Ayin
70
n
He
5
D fi rj
Pe
80
i
Vav
6
final
Tsadhe
90
7
Zayin
1
P '
Q'oph
100
n
Cheth
8
-|
Eesh
200
B
Teth
9
t^
Sin i
final
Yodh
10
E^
Shin 5
300
1
Kaph
20
n
Tav
400
Lamedh
30
1G
242 Points as guides to pronunciation
characters of similar shape may be confounded, some features of
difference are explained in the following remarks.
nTAV has a rounded angle at the
upper right side, and a knob
at lower end of left line.
I
BETH, with a rounded stem at
the upper right angle, rests
on a long, flat base which pro-
jects on the right.
KAPH has a curved line at the
side that rests on a shorter
base-line that does not pro-
ject to the right.
1
ZAYIN has a short top line that
projects slightly over the long
stem.
VAV also has a short top line,
but it does not project at all
over the stem.
NUN FINAL is unlike Zayin in
having a very long and slight-
ly bent stem and no projec-
tion.
TETH has a flat base joined to
two lines, a curve at right,
a knob at left.
MEM has right stem curved ; the
left is disconnected at the
base, with a knob at the top.
MEM FINAL is nearly square at
the base-line at right hand.
SAMEK has a much shorter
base-line.
AYIN has two knobby stems
sloping to a base-line inclin-
ing to left.
TSADHE, with similar knobby
stems, meets a base-line that
is horizontal.
TSADHE FINAL has a long ver-
tical stroke at the junction of
two stems.
The point Daghesh * is cast within the body of
certain letters to modify their pronunciation. The
point Mappiq * (of same form) is put in the letter
JTJ (He final) to make it retain its harshness as a
consonant. Eaphe " is a small dash (rarely used),
but on a higher plane, that gives an aspirated
sound to the letter below. Maqqeph - (of same
form) is used as a hyphen to join words together.
These are all the characters absolutely needed for
J
line that projects by the side
of the base-line, which leaves
I
a small angle at the right.
)
to
NUN has an upright line that
J
does not project : it meets a
short base-line and does not
fa
make a sharp point at the
w
right.
n
DALETH is a right angle, flat at
the top, projecting over its
vertical stem to the right.
D
*^
RESH, of a similar form, is
D
i
rounded at the angle that ap-
pears at its right and does not
project over its stem.
D
KAPH FINAL, like Daleth, has
a projecting angle at top, but
has a longer descending stem.
y
n
HE has two stems, slightly
thickened; the one at the left
\j
is disconnected.
n
CHETH has two stems, each one
connected to the flat line at
V
the top.
1
Accents and Masoretic points 243
the proper rendering of an ordinary word or line
of Hebrew, but for grammatical and theological
works many accents must be provided. These
accents are cast on small bodies and are placed
above or below the type of the text.
ACCENTS PLACED UNDER CONSONANTS
I Silluq, only at the end of the verse, ) Merkha.
therefore always followed by : Soph- Double-Merkha.
pasuq, which stands between the J Munach.
single verses. < Mahpakh (to the left of
A Athnach, always in the midst of a the vowel).
verse. $ Darga.
< Yethibh (always to the right of the v Yarach.
vowel). ( Tiphcha final.
y Tebhir. I Metheg, sign of tone
f Tiphcha initial. (to the left of the vowel).
ACCENTS PLACED ABOVE CONSONANTS
.'. Segholta. > Qadma. 9 Great-Telisha.
: Zaqeph-qaton. > Pashta. 9 Little-Telisha.
i: Zaqeph-gadhol. | Shalsheleth. f Garesh.
* Rebhia. v Paser. Double-Garesh.
<\> Zarqa. 9P Qarne-phara.
ACCENTS OF TWO PARTS THAT BELONG TOGETHER:
ONE ABOVE AND THE OTHER BELOW CONSONANTS
Merkha mahpakhatum. ^ Merkha sarqatum.
< Mahpakh sarqatum.
MARKS OP PUNCTUATION
: Soph-pasuq, separating verses. - Maqqeph, hyphen, aloft,
I Pesiq, between the words. between the words.
MASORETIC POINTS OR VOWELS
The Masoretic points or vowels, ten in number,
five long, or perfect, and five short, or imperfect,
are represented by small strokes or points placed
above, below, or within the consonants. Examples
244 Vowel-points and consonants
of their uses in connection with the letter Beth
(33) are given below.
Long Vowels under the Consonants
Kamets = a as in bar l 3 or o as in bone 2
T
Tsaray a> = a as in bale 2 3 or e as in bed l
Chirek (long when followed by Yodh) m = i as
in bijou 3
Long Vowel above the Consonants
Cholem or ] = o as in bowl 1 ^3 or ow as m
bow 2 (curtsy)
Long Vowel within the Letter ">
Shurek !) = u as in Buddha } 2
Short Vowels under the Consonants
Pathach _ = a as in bar. When followed by
an unvocalized Yodh *> it forms with the latter the
diphthong ai, pronounced like i in bite 3
Pathach furtive is a Pathach occurring only
under the letters H, H, an d J?/ when the letters oc-
cur at the end of a word, and is pronounced before
the consonant under which it is placed.
Segol = e as in bet 3
Chirek (short) t = i as in bin 3
Kamets Chatuph T = o as in son or bone 3
Kibuts . = u as in bull 3
1 According to Spanish and Portuguese pronunciation.
2 According to German pronunciation.
The other vowels are pronounced alike.
The lay of cases for Hebrew 245
SHEVAS
The following Shevas, used here beneath a Cheth
(J"j), denote that a vowel is wanting.
Sheva (simple) _ as H
Chataph Pathach _ as H = a
Chataph Segol ... as H = e
Chataph Kamets . as H = o
The last three are short vowels to which the Sheva
(simple [*] ) is joined, and are known as compound
Shevas.
Hebrew is read from right to left. To give to the
characters this sequence in print, the types must
be reversed after they have been set. The com-
positor begins as he does with English, by setting
the characters at the left hand of his copy, turning
the nicks of the type inward to face the composing-
rule. When the line has been spaced and justified
(wide spacing is preferred), turn the line in the stick.
If accents are to be added, justify them in a sepa-
rate line in their proper places.
Hebrew is laid in the cases by many different
schemes, but the scheme here exhibited is the one
generally accepted by most of the compositors in
America. The characters without points, most
used, are in the lower case ; accents, finals, broad
letters, and letters with points are in the upper case.
246 Cases for composition of Hebrew
N
t
ri
^
-I
n
w
1
h
\
T
^
s\
1
n
i
-n
^
n
n
s
o
m
n
3
1
n
1
H
D
I
i
j
<
(\
Q
i
3
!t
P
i
D
a
u
o
j
J)
.J
ro
\
D
s
D
n
a
U)
w
V
tf
y
is/
]
1
\
IT
\:
\"
r
IV
r
Hebrew upper ease.
D
CO
P
n
T
'.
"
V
-
i
D
=
i
i
D
>
s&
p,
en
Quads
fci-pon*
em
OuU
|
D
3
n
D
D
D
J^
Y
i
;
n
D
- 1
1
:
C~3
T
-
Hebrew lower case.
The accents are useful as notes for chanting, or to
show nice distinctions in the meanings of words.
They have to be separately composed and justified
for attachment to the proper character. For the
most part, the accents are centred over or under
the characters, but when a character has a long leg
or stem the accent should be under the leg.
The letters of the German language 247
A word in Hebrew cannot be divided by a hyphen
so that one part shall be in one line and the other
part in the next line. To prevent this fault, and to
maintain more evenness in the spacing of words,
six Hebrew letters are made of greater width :
Aleph He Cheth Lamedh Mem Tav
>* n n San
The characters here shown are the ones used for
all ordinary printing in Hebrew. There are other
forms, known as Rabbinic and German-rabbinic.
Hebrew running-hand is of much simpler form, in
which letters with curved lines are substituted for
the angled letters, but it can be read and put in
type by those only who understand the language.
GERMAN
The German alphabet has nominally twenty-six
capital letters, but the same character serves for I
and J. The capitals $, Q f and U have the umlaut
attached to indicate the sounds of ftC, OC, and UC+
The lower-case series is increased by a distinct
character for \ f and by the addition of thirteen
double letters. A font of German has no small
capitals, and the use of italic is obviated by the
hair-spacing of emphasized words, or by selecting
for these words a type of a much bolder or an en-
tirely different face.
248 German upper- and lower-case letters
The German alphabet
Capitals
Lower-
case
Capitals
Lower-
case
Name
a
a
A
a
Ah
S3
f>
B
b
Bey
C
C
c
Tsey
3D
b
D
d
Dey
g
e
E
e
Ey
g
f
F
f
Ef
g
G
g
Gey
y
H
h
Hah
3
1
I
i
E
3
i
J
J
Yot
$
i
K
k
Kah
8
i
L
1
El
3R
m
M
m
Em
9?
n
N
n
En
D
$
p
P
P
Pey
Q
q
Q
q
Koo
81
r
R
r
Aii-
<S
f*
S
fs
Ess
2
t
T
t
Tey
U
u
U
u
Oo
SJ
D
V
v
Fow
2B
m
W
w
Vey
r
X
X
Iks
)
9
Y
y
Ypsilon
3
Z
Z
Tset
Distinctions of shape in German letters 249
To the hasty observer some German letters are
not sufficiently distinct. To prevent mistakes in
selection, the differences between similar characters
are here pointed out.
33
e
e
ft
9?
3R
SB
B has a central cross-stroke
that connects the two stems.
V has no connecting cross-
stroke, and shows an open
space between stems.
C has no projection, at the
right, from its shorter stem.
E has a short side-stroke pro-
jecting from the middle of
this short stem.
G has two rounded stems
connected at the base-line,
and a curved upright stroke
between them.
S is another rounded letter,
but the curved stroke within
has a horizontal extension
and does not connect.
K has a curved hair-line pro-
jection at its top, and its two
stems are connected in the
middle.
N has two stems connected at
the head, but not at the foot.
R has its two stems connected
in the middle.
M has stems that are con-
nected at the head and not
connected on the foot-line.
W has stems that are con-
nected on the foot-line as
well as on the head.
6
*
f
f
m
n>
r
r
b has its shorter stem united
to the longer stem at its
foot-line.
h is not so united, and has a
hair-line that projects be-
low the foot-line.
f has a short central stroke
that crosses the upright
thick stem,
s has a projecting spur on the
left side only of the thick
stroke.
m has three stems connected
at the top and disconnected
at the foot-line.
w has three stems also, but
the latter two are connected
at the foot-line.
r has no hair-stroke at the
left side of the stem at its
foot.
x has a long hair-line on the
left side of the stem at its
foot, which the r has not.
v has its two stems connected
at the top and at the foot.
y has stems connected at the
top only; its right stem
projects below the foot.
Although t and { are of the same form in capi-
tals, the lower-case j projects below the foot-line,
as it does in English. The lower-case f is used at
the beginning and in the middle of words, but the
final $ is always of short form.
250 Cases for composition of German
*
t
t
II
l
iy
m
6
u
-
_
1
a
23
D
e
g
*
3
ft
8
9H
gi
D
]
$
Q
SR
@
2;
25
2B
ft
ff
ft
ff
' ft
n
i
8)
3
U
?
i
'
German upper case as laid in the United States.
ti
6
u| i
ID
t
M 2
3
4
5
6
7
8
j
U
i
*
b
f
1
9
3
C
9
ft
&
}
1
m
n
^
f
V.
W
f
D
n
0'
r
\>
u
t
D
a
t
i
:
tm
q
*
German lower case as laid in the United States.
The thirteen double letters of German are :
CJ) ch
d ck
ff ff
ft ft
ffi ffi
fl fl
fl u
ft si
ff ss
(ft ssi
ft st
fl sz
Peculiarities of composition in German 251
In the United States the ordinary upper and lower
cases that are used for English are made to serve
for the casing of German type. The scheme pre-
sented on the preceding page is that of the arrange-
ment in many book-printing houses where German
is used only for occasional words or quoted lines.
In Germany the characters for a complete font are
laid in one broad case of peculiar construction. 1
The accent most used is the umlaut over vowels
Cl, 0, and IU German nouns, common as well as
proper, take capitals for initial letters, but adjec-
tives derived from proper nouns, as a rule, do not
take the capital. The words frankfurtisch, eng-
lisch, preussisch, for Frankfortish, English, and
Prussian, do not take capitals, but when such ad-
jectives form part of compound proper names, as in
Schwarze Meer (Black Sea), they do take a capital.
Frederick the Second takes capitals in Friedrich
der Zweite. The first personal pronoun, ich, begins
with a small i, but the person addressed, Sie, or you,
takes a capital.
Words are divided with the same irregularity
that now prevails in English. The scholarly writer
prefers to divide a word by its derivation ; the ordi-
nary writer, by its pronunciation. One practice is
fixed : some double letters cannot be divided ; the
doubled consonant at the end of a line, as in fyet*ffett
or 3Mf e f is always put over in the second line.
1 For the plan of this case, see Weber's Katechismus der
Buchdruckerkunst, p. 53, 16mo, Leipsic, 1901.
252 Faces of German type
Hyphens are employed in great profusion for the
compounding of words when these words are used
as a long phrase or a qualifier.
The apostrophe is frequently used, especially in
poetry, to indicate a suppressed vowel.
Quotation-marks in German are made at the
beginning of the quotation with two comma-like
marks that project below the line, and at its end
by the same marks inverted, which are then at the
top of the line. The apostrophe is never used for
a quote-mark.
Arabic figures are as common in German as in
English, but for emphasis the italic character is
studiously avoided, yet is sometimes used as a mark
of reference.
Fraktur.
abcbefcjfyijflmnopqrstuptt)
Schwabacher.
a6c&0fgljtjK mno
German text.
Use of r oman letter in Germany 253
These characters are strictly and almost exclusively
German, but German type-founders make many
other forms. The spurs and angles of black-letter
favor the invention of eccentric variations, which
have always been in favor with job-printers every-
where. 1 Flemish black-letter is occasionally used
for display lines in some kinds of book- work.
QK & (B* Qt <D
4f0tuf>tPt
Old Flemish black used by Caxton.
Modern Flemish black.
The roman character, known in Germany as the
Antiqua, is preferred for the printing of scientific
books. The regular German letter, used in news-
papers and for ordinary books, is known as Frak-
tur. The lower-case characters of the Fraktur are
much compressed : the ordinary lower-case alpha-
bet measures only about ten ems of its own body ;
roman lower-case of the same body by British and
American standards measures thirteen ems. A
broader and simpler form of German character is
known as Schwabacher. This tendency to simpli-
fication is increasing; many of the faces recently
produced by German founders for text types are
1 See Chapter X of Plain Printing Types.
254 German script
much more distinct than those in fashion during
the last century.
A careful compositor who does not understand
the German alphabet can fairly represent it in type
when he has printed copy, but it is not wise for him
to attempt to set type from German manuscript,
for its script is unusually bewildering.
GERMAN SCRIPT
?
A a BbCc DdEe Ff Gg
HhliJj Kk LI Mm Nn
^x
/
OoPp Qq Rr Ss Tt On
Vv Ww XxYy Zz
Diphthongs Joined letters
ch ss st sz
DAVID BRUCE, JR.
VII
MAKING UP
The running title . . . Signatures . . . Notes and illustrations
EFORE the making up of type
from galleys is attempted, the
maker-up should have for his
instruction a diagram of one
page, which should be pen-
drawn upon a regular section,
properly folded, of the paper
that will be used for printing the book. On the
first leaf of this section should be outlined in exact
position the length and width of the page to show
the margins required ; written directions should be
added concerning signatures, types for running
title, subheadings, the sinkage of chapter heads,
the blank space above and below extracts, and all
other details about which there may be uncertainty.
This diagram should be approved by the author.
255
256 Gauge for length of pages
The first duty of the maker-up is to cut and notch
a gauge of cherry reglet to the length of the page
ordered. The gauge should be a full page of the
regular text type only (without cuts, extracts, tables,
or blank lines), upon which should be written the
number of regular lines. The lines on every page
should be in exact register with corresponding lines
on the back of that page, but this nicety may not
be attained if the proper marking of important
divisions on the gauge has been neglected.
33 lines of type, including head- and foot- lines.
Gauge for making up pages.
In most printing-houses making up is done from
the type that has been read and corrected on the
galleys. 1 Before cutting the gauge for pages in-
tended to be printed direct from type, ascertain
the length of the furniture in stock that will be
needed for the gutters of the back margins. Each
page of type should be a little longer than the gut-
ters, but when the gutters in stock are only a trifle
longer, the foot-line should be set in a larger size
1 A book or pamphlet ordered chooses to add new or to cancel
in great haste may have to be old matter upon the proof of the
made up before its reading and made-up page, every page fol-
correction, but this method is lowing in that chapter will have
not to be recommended. If any to be re-made up. This means
compositor has made a very long an unnecessary waste of time
out or doublet, or if the author and serious expense.
Measurement of matter comes first 257
of quadrats that will make the page project a trifle
beyond the gutter. This forethought may prevent
the needless cutting of furniture. 1
The galleys of composed type that will be needed
for the making up of a full form of letterpress
should be assembled in front of or near to the
maker-up before he begins his work. These galleys
should be accompanied with the copy and proof, as
well as the cuts, tables, maps, or any other irregu-
larity that may be needed in the form. When there
are no such irregularities to an even make-up as
are produced by cuts and tables, the maker-up can
approximately measure and mark off on the proof
the proper length for each page before he begins to
separate the composed matter, but he must regulate
its division so that the last short line of a paragraph
in a descriptive text shall not appear as the first line
on a new page. In this position the short line is
a blemish to be prevented. Poetry and short dia-
logue matter are unavoidable exceptions.
When it is required that a pamphlet of one or
two sheets shall consist of or not exceed the pre-
scribed number of pages, it may be necessary to
shorten or lengthen the page. For this possible
departure from written instructions on the folded
pattern sheet, explanation must be made to and
permission for change be had from the foreman.
The space occupied by composition must be care-
fully computed, and the matter must be arranged
l See illustration on page 63.
17
258 Needed materials to be accessible
and divided so that it can be kept within the limit.
In matter on galley, leads or blanks can be added
when it is necessary to drive out, or they can be
withdrawn with facility when the matter has to be
taken in j but if pages are made up unthinkingly,
without some previous calculation of the space to
be occupied, they will have to be made up anew.
The maker-up is measurably responsible for the
justification of composition passed by him. If he
finds that it has been slackly justified, or if type
has been set up in an unworkmanlike manner, he
should return the galley to the compositor in fault,
and require him to amend it.
The maker-up should be in an alley where he has
ready access to leads of different thickness, quad-
rats of different bodies, brass rules of graduated
length, and to quotations, or electrotyping bearers,
and all needed kinds of blanking -out materials.
The running titles, foot-lines, and blanks that are
required for one full form should be set before
making up begins, and be placed on small galleys
within easy reach. It wastes time to set them sep-
arately during the process of making up.
A quarto galley of brass with a low rim should
be preferred for making up and tying up the ordi-
nary page. The page cord, which should be thin,
strong, and long enough to surround the page four
times, is first placed at the outer lower corner of
the page, and is there tightly held by a finger of
the left hand while it is successively stretched with
Composition to be on its feet 259
increasing tightness around the four corners. The
free end of the cord is made secure by thrusting it
between the tightened cord and the type with the
nib of the composing-rule, in a loop at the place of
its beginning, and drawing the loop tightly toward
the near corner. The free end of this cord must
be left exposed upon the face of the page, so that
it can be easily seized and unwound by the stoneman
when he has protected each page in the form with
surrounding furniture.
Quadrats with nicks at the ends of the foot-line
should have the nicks turned inward to allow a free
up-and-down movement of the page cord. The
nib of the composing-rule can be used to push the
cord up and down at diagonally opposed corners
to increase the tightness of the cord and give it a
broader bearing against the centre.
Each lift of type put upon the make-up galley
should be pressed upward and compacted sidewise
to make the composition square and solid. If this
is not done, the type may be tilted slightly or made
260 Odd and even pages
up " off its feet." This fault is hard to rectify on
stone or press. The page of type off its feet is sure
to make a faulty electrotype plate.
The copy and the proof should be continually
before the maker-up, who must see that the begin-
ning of each paragraph in type tallies with the same
paragraph in copy. To neglect this precaution is
to hazard the risk of an omitted or a transposed
paragraph.
Making up includes much more than the division
of matter in pages of uniform length. The maker-
up is required to set the running titles, with their
paging figures, blank lines, and foot-lines, to adjust
the variable width of the blanks, properly to place
notes, tables, extracts, illustrations, and finally to
put the made-up pages in proper order upon the
stone. In some printing-houses he is required also
to set chapter headings and subheadings.
THE EUNNING TITLE
The pages known to bibliographers as recto and
verso are respectively called by printers odd and
even. The figures for odd pages, as 1, 3, 5, 7, etc.,
are set at the end of the line ; the even pages, 2, 4,
6, 8, etc., are set at the beginning of the line. The
white line that separates the running title from the
text, as well as the foot-line at the end of the page,
is often composed with quadrats of the type of
the text, but when the running title has been
Paging figures 261
ordered in small capitals over a text of large type,
the white line so made will be found too wide, and
a narrower blank will be more approved. In some
recent books of good workmanship two leads only
are used in place of the white line.
The words and the type for the running title at
the head of every page are usually determined by
the author. When this running title is a summary
of the contents of the page, which cannot be written
before the page has been made up, it is customary
to set up a quadrat line with paging figures only
and to ask the author to write the running title on
the proof of the made-up page.
Some books are ordered without paging figures
in the running title. Paging is made with small
figures in the foot-line, where they may be an an-
noyance to the gatherers of the folded sections by
confusing the figures of the signature with those
of the page. The thin figures that are cast upon the
en body may not be sufficiently legible. When it
can be done, distinctive figures should be selected,
that cannot be confounded with the signatures.
16- (362) HI468*- [17]
When there is no running title, the paging fig-
ures may be put in the centre of the head -line in
the type of the text. It is not an improvement to
inclose them in brackets or parentheses, or to add
to the figures dashes or decoration of any kind.
262 Illustrations of running titles
Paging figures on a smaller or larger body than
that of the text type may be justified in and made
solid with the quadrat line below them by the use
of a properly selected thin space. The large figure
for paging is generally preferred. Quadrats are
better for the blank line below the running title ;
two leads may be allowed, but three or more tend
to make composition spongy.
Some pages need no running title. It is never
placed over a chapter heading or over a full- width
illustration that appears at the head of the page,
but the paging figure that is needed should be put
in the foot-line. In centring a running title, pag-
ing figures must be rated as blanks or quadrats.
In some books the selection of type for the run-
ning title is left to the maker-up, who should find
variety enough in the different sizes and faces of
roman and italic capitals or lower-case. Black-
letter may be occasionally selected to advantage.
Monotype and light-faced antiques are permitted
in running titles that may receive undue wear,
but ornamental types and pen-drawn lettering are
never acceptable to the discreet publisher.
or.
For dainty little books very small capitals were
once in high favor, but when the word was short
and over a page of type of a body three or four sizes
larger, the running title in this style was feeble.
Illustrations of running titles 263
Thin spaces make the running title of small capitals
a little clearer, but the figures for pages are usually
too small, and the cross-rule underneath does not
compensate for this feebleness. In the running
title of many words, thin spacing of small capitals
is impossible, and unspaced small capitals are not
easily read, nor is the effectiveness of a running
title in small capitals improved by selecting full
capitals as initials for important words. Small capi-
tals of pica are small enough for an octavo page.
The running title of one word only may be in
capitals of the text or of one or two sizes larger.
64 VOLTAIRE
The spacing out of the letters of a short word until
it fills the measure is one of the many freaks of
modern practice that have been found attractive in
advertising pamphlets, but it is not commendable
in the running title of any library book.
VOLTAIEE
Running titles that indicate the subject-matter of
each page are most acceptable in the lower-case
italic of the text. Capital letters may be used in
a running title of lower-case for its first letter and
for strictly proper names, but not as emphasis for
important words. Italic larger than the text may
be used with advantage on a large page, but an italic
of smaller body than the text type is never pleasing.
264 Illustrations of running titles
64 THE INVENTION OF WRITING
A running title with more words than can be crowded in
one line must be divided to appear on two facing pages.
When the chapter ends upon an even page, a condensation
of the title matter should be supplied by the author.
462 HISTORY OF ENGLAND CH. XV
Standard histories often have their running titles in full
capitals on a body two sizes smaller than that of the text.
Specifications of chapter or of date are sometimes added.
176 ZEAL AND IMPRUDENCE CH. XXIII
In other histories the mention of the chapter, book, or
canto is made a shoulder-note to line with the first line of
text, but this is done to best advantage on pages that
have side-notes.
66 A SENTIMENTAL JOURNEY
When the text type is leaded, the running title may be
thin-spaced with good effect, but avoid em quadrats.
78 BABYLONIAN LEGEND
Italic capitals are not a wise choice, for some of their
types are kerned and liable to break, and some letters do
not neatly mate with other letters. They often show gaps
and unequal inclinations that are unsightly.
MOLINOS THE QUIETIST
Another novelty in running titles is the placing of the
words close up to the back margin of each page.
Illustrations of running titles 265
EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS 65
The division of over-long matter for the running title
should.not mangle phrases. Closely related words should
be kept together, even if one word only appears on one page.
A long word should never be divided with a hyphen.
1689 WILLIAM AND MARY 463
Sometimes the specification of the number of the chapter,
book, or canto in the running title, at the end of the line,
is needlessly fenced off with brackets.
A.D. OF THE CHRISTIANS 177
362
If side-notes are used, the page figure should extend over
them. If it can be done, keep the specification of chapter
over the side-notes, but it is not an improvement to separate
it from notes with a three-em brace or dash.
THROUGH FRANCE AND ITALY 67
A wide-spaced running title over a compactly set page of
text makes an unpleasing contrast.
OF THE CREATION 79
In this illustration the unsightly gaps have been concealed
to some extent by judicious spacing. A wider spacing is not
recommended. It should never be forgotten that spaces
between letters should compel wider spaces between words.
MOLINOS THE QUIETIST 87
This method of treating the running title may be used
with black-letter.
266 Illustrations of running titles
833 The MEMOIRS of BooKVIll
This facsimile of the running title of a London book of
the early eighteenth century fairly exhibits the taste of
early printers in the selection of type and the use of rules.
1 8 MODERN PRINTING
Thick-faced rules, apparently first used by the Strawberry
Hill Press, and afterward more boldly by the Lee Priory
Press, have been recently revived. They seem an attempt
on the part of the printer to compel attention to subject-
matter that would otherwise pass unnoticed. It is the
imitation in print of an obsolete school of elocution, in
which the orator was taught to change his voice from
whispers to shrieks, and to give the greatest emphasis to
74
Whoever selects brass rules as cross-lines for the running
title must be prepared to meet unexpected difficulties in
the making of electrotype plates and largely increased
expense in the securing of uniform presswork.
242 $ ^uef to ffle Confe00ton0
Black-letter in the running title should be always a face
of true old style to make it acceptable to the bookish reader.
Illustrations of running titles 267
Chap. VI. PHILIP de Co MINES. 833
In the displayed circular or advertisement, dashes are com-
mendable, but they are of doubtful value in a serious book.
The eye is wearied with their continued monotony.
The Correct STYLE ig
trivial words. The speaker compelled attention, but he
soon tired his hearers. This attempt at display, entirely
proper in a handbill, advertisement, or tradesman's circu-
lar, is not really needed in any book. It may attract, but
it irritates. Black dashes ordered by the publisher must
be inserted as directed, but the compositor will make a
serious mistake if he inserts them without order. Italic,
lower-case, and small capitals are here needlessly combined.
>imon *9o0tre 75
The modern amateur who prefers straight lines and plain
types should not authorize in one line a mixing of capitals,
small capitals, italic, and lower-case types that would not
be tolerated in one line of descriptive matter in the text.
of an (gmgfiefl 4)ptutn; (Safer 243
Modern designs of black-letter, ornamented or with marked
eccentricities, are forbidden by publishers of library books.
268 Make-up of short chapters
The space to be allowed for the sinkage of a chapter
heading, as well as for the width of blanks above
and below a table or a quoted extract in the text,
is fairly indicated by the general direction to set
solid or leaded. Blanks may be wide in leaded
but should be narrow in solid matter.
162 Trimalchio's Dinner
Lower-case of roman has some favor as a proper selection
for running titles. The size selected is usually larger than
the type of the text. It is not improved by hair-spacing.
When great compactness is ordered, a new chap-
ter may closely follow the end of the preceding
chapter, as is practised in making up the Bible. If
a foregoing chapter ends a few lines above the foot
of the page, it will be necessary to make more lines
in previous pages by overrunning, wider spacing,
and driving over the last lines of paragraphs, or
by a new re-making up that slightly increases the
blanks between the chapters. These methods will
bring the end of the faulty chapter to the foot of
the page, yet they may make a new difficulty in the
compactly set book of short chapters. To begin a
new chapter flush with the first text line of the
page does not make that page pleasing, but there are
occasions when this treatment cannot be avoided.
When this happens, it is customary to emphasize
Usefulness of signatures 269
the irregularity by putting one more blank line
over the new chapter. 1
H5E5H5H5H5H5 ARCHIV FUR BUCHGEWERBE ffiffiffiffiffiffi
A running title with black decorations on either side and
with cross-rules above and below is thereby made insignifi-
cant. This treatment compels the paging figures to be put
in the foot-line, but consistency requires that they should
be obscured with side decoration of similar peculiarity.
Decoration pleases more when it is lighter than letters.
When a new maker-up has to continue the un-
finished work of a predecessor, he must carefully
examine the proof and copy of the type already
made up, and make -sure that the work he is about
to do is its proper continuation.
SIGNATURES
Bookbinders need signatures as guides to the or-
derly arrangement of the different sections of the
l To the inexperienced the the page did not seem to require
making up of composed type in the division of a cut or a table,
pages of uniform length seems These are a few of the many
simple work. It would be sim- annoyances that delay making
pie if the copy had words enough up. They require the continual
and no more, without head-band, exercise of forethought and the
synopsis, or initial, to fill neatly adaptation of means to ends in
the first page of the chapter ; if many ways that cannot be pro-
there were words enough to vided for by any arbitrary rule,
allow that chapter to end in the Some of these irregularities are
middle of an even page ; if the too difficult for the maker-up ;
last short line of a paragraph they have to be adjusted by the
did not occasionally appear at author, who often has to add
the head of a new page ; if the new lines or cancel lines already
gauge that defines the length of set to make a sightly page.
270 Signatures governed ty sections
book. Paging figures in the upper corner of the leaf
are unhandily placed for the convenience of the
gatherer, who needs the guide at the foot of the
leaf, where the section is first seized. The sequence
of guide-marks made by alphabetical letters, or by
figures following in numerical order, is more quickly
seen than the sequence of page figures that have to
be compared with the pages of a preceding section.
American printers prefer arabic figures for signa-
tures, for they can be protracted indefinitely for
the largest book, but British printers prefer alpha-
betical letters, and add to them a new specifying
figure when the letter has to be repeated. Follow-
ing the usage of earty printers, the letters J, V, and
W are never selected for signatures. 1
The number of pages allowed for a section and
its signature is governed largely by the thickness
of the paper to be printed: for very thick paper,
eight pages; for the ordinary thickness of book
paper, sixteen pages. The double twelves of twenty-
four pages can be used with safety only on very thin
paper, and their insettings of eight pages (usually
a cut-off, separately folded) take a star after each
repeated signature. Sheets of four pages folio and
of twelve pages are selected only when the form
1 In many old books the sig- seventh, with intent to show to
nature of a section of sixteen the folder the proper position of
pages was repeated on some of consecutive leaves. These ad-
the following leaves. B was the ditional signatures for the inner
proper signature for the first leaves of a section, inserted as
text page, B i for the third page, helps to unpractised folders, are
B ii for the fifth, B iii for the no longer used.
Unwise neglect of signatures 271
has to be printed upon a paper of peculiar quality,
size, or shape. Publishers and bookbinders prefer
sheets of eight or sixteen pages, for they permit
neater folding and sewing. Too many pages in a
section of very thick paper create wrinkles in the
central folds, and too few pages in a section of thin
paper make the back bunchy with thread.
Every book of more than one sheet has a signa-
ture-mark in the foot-line of each completed section.
If the section has an inset, cut off and separately
folded and inserted, this cut-off inset should take
the same figure as its outset, with the addition of
a star, thus: outset 2, inset 2*. When the book
makes two or more volumes, the number of the
volume must be specified in the signature-line, as
in Vol. II, 2. The numerals defining the volume
should be in capitals, 1 so that they may not be con-
founded with the arabic figures of the signature.
When page figures and signatures cannot be used,
and when the text lines are of uneven length, as in
poetry, and blanks are of uneven height, as in forms
of prefatory matter, all the customary guides for
exact folding have been removed.
i One of the new fashions in binder. It is admitted that the
book-making is the neglect of a appearance of the page is not
signature-mark in the foot-line, improved by the signature in the
Some authors order it in a sepa- foot-line, but its entire omission
rate line about an inch below the is dangerous, especially so when
regulation foot-line ; others omit paging figures also have been
it entirely, but this omission omitted. More than ordinary
makes added expense and gives care will have to be given to the
needless trouble to all the work- gathering of the signatures to
men ftom compositor to book- prevent disorderly arrangement.
272 Table of signatures and folios
Num-
bered
signa-
tures
Folio
of
4 pages
Quarto
of
8 pages
Twelves
of
12 pages
Octavo
of
16 pages
Double
twelves,
24 pages
Let-
tered
signa-
tures
1
1
1
1
1
1
A
2
5
8
13
17
25
B
3
9
17
25
33
49
C
4
13
25
37
49
73
D
5
17
. 33
49
65
97
E
6
21
41
61
81
121
F
7
25
49
73
97
145
G
8
29
57
85
113
169
H
9
33
65
97
129
193
I
10
37
73
109
145
217
K
11
41
81
121
161
241
L
12
45
89
133
177
265
M
13
49
97
145
193
289
N
14
53
105
157
209
313
O
15
57
113
169
225
337
P
16
61
121
181
241
361
Q
17
65
129
193
257
385
E
18
69
137
205
273
409
S
19
73
145
217
289
433
T
20
77
153
229
305
457
U
21
81
161
241
321
481
X
22
85
169
253
337
505
Y
23
89
177
265
353
529
Z
24
93
185
277
369
553
2 A
25
97
193
289
385
577
2B
26
101
201
301
401
601
2C
27
105
209
313
417
625
2D
28
109
217
325
433
649
2E
29
113
225
337
449
673
2F
30
117
233
349
465
697
2G
31
121
241
361
481
721
2H
32
125
249
373
497
745
2 I
Table of signatures and folios 273
Num-
bered
signa-
tures
Folio
of
4 pages
Quarto
of
8 pages
Twelves
of
12 pages
Octavo
of
16 pages
Double
twelves,
24 pages
Let-
tered
signa-
tures
33
129
257
385
513
769
2K
34
133
265
397
529
793
2L
35
137
273
409
545
817
2M
36
141
281
421
561
841
2N
37
145
289
433
577
865
20
38
149
297
445
593
889
2P
39
153
305
457
609
913
2Q.
40
157
313
469
625
937
2R
41
161
321
481
641
961
2S
42
165
329
493
657
985
2T
43
169
337
505
673
1009
2U
44
173
345
517
689
1033
2X
45
177
353
529
705
1057
2Y
46
181
361
541
721
1081
2Z
47
185
369
553
737
1105
3A
48
189
377
565
753
1129
3B
49
193
385
577
769
1153
3C
50
197
393
589
785
1177
3D
51
201
401
601
801
1201
3E
52
205
409
613
817
1225
3F
53
209
417
625
834
1249
3G
54
213
425
637
849
1273
3H
55
217
433
649
865
1297
31
56
221
441
661
881
1321
3K
57
225
449
673
897
1345
3L
58
229
457
685
913
1369
3M
59
233
465
697
929
1393
3N
60
237
473
709
945
1417
30
61
241
481
721
961
1441
3P
62
245
489
733
977
1465
3Q
63
249
497
745
993
1489
3R
64
253
505
757
1009
1513
3S
18
274 Pages should be symmetrical
New guides for exact folding can be produced by
inserting in the centre of the gutters (as between
pages 1-8 on the half-sheet of octavo, and in the
head-bolts between pages 1-4 on the same sheet)
a short bit of hair-line rule, which will definitely
mark the places where the sheet should be creased
for folding. The printed guides so made will be
hidden in the book by sewing, or will be cut off at
the head or front by trimming. 1
When the number of pages for a full form has
been made up, the maker-up should plainly mark
on the proof and on the copy before him the last
word in the form. This mark is needed by the
reader and by the maker-up who may follow him.
A table of signatures is of some service to the
maker-up, but it must not be trusted unthinkingly.
The book made up, for the greater part, in sections
of sixteen pages may have here and there sections
of more or less pages, so made by printing one sec-
tion out of order, or by the use of a different kind
of paper for maps or illustrations.
When the imposing-stone is free, the maker-up
puts his made-up pages thereon in proper position
for the stoneman. If the stone is not free, he puts
them in a wrapper of stout waste paper, and stows
them in piles as may be directed by the foreman.
A page of text is trim, square, and symmetrical
when its first and last lines are of full width. The
short line that ends a paragraph is tolerated at the
1 See Scheme 19 on page 353.
Treatment of hindrances 275
foot of a page, but it is a blemish when it appears
as the first text line of a new page. Even the be-
ginning of a new paragraph, with its slight inden-
tion of one em, at the foot or the head of a page is
rated as a fault by the critical. As the maker-up
cannot add or cancel words or transpose lines, it is
impossible to avoid these faults in some measures
of poetry, in short dialogue matter, or in any kind
of composition that has to be made up in haste.
Yet this fault can be amended in some kinds of
composition, when time is allowed, by the obser-
vance of the following methods.
To prevent a short line at the head of a page,
these expedients are often adopted: (1) Take out
a line from the space allowed for the chapter head,
and re-make up all the following pages until the
objectionable line falls at the foot of the page.
This is a tedious method, and it may cause a simi-
lar bad break upon another page. (2) Pick out a
paragraph in any preceding page that could be
spaced thinner, so as to make it one line less, and
thereby provide the room for a new line. (3) Re-
verse the process: overrun a previous paragraph
with wide spacing that will make a new line, and
so drive over the objectionable short line and make
it the second line on a new -page. (4) Make the
page a line short or long ; but the two pages that
face each other should be treated in the same man-
ner. (5) Ask the author to add or cancel a word
in any paragraph that will prevent the short line.
276 Management of irregularities
In the strict reprint the last expedient is impossible.
When it is clearly unavoidable, as it is in some
forms of composition, as in an ode or in short dia-
logue matter, no attempt should be made at change,
for the apparent fault carries with it its proper
apology.
Another alleged fault in make-up is a divided
word broken with a hyphen on the first or last line
of a page or a paragraph. To try to correct this
fault by thin or wide spacing will make a much
greater fault. In many lines it is impossible to do
so. It can be corrected wisely by the author only,
who can add, cancel, or substitute words that will
prevent the use of the hyphen, but there are few
authors who will take this trouble.
NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS
Pages that must contain illustrations, long notes,
or tables of irregular size present many difficulties.
Author and reader prefer that these additions shall
be on the same page as the explanatory text, or at
least on a page facing it. When the page is small
and the note is large, the note and the text inter-
fere, and the maker-up is often puzzled to decide
the problem of precedence. The last line of a
regularly made-up page may contain the reference-
mark for a long note, which cannot appear on that
page, and must overrun on two or more pages.
When obstacles like these are foreseen, it is the
Placing of foot-notes 277
custom to send to the author clean galley proofs,
marked to show the limits of each page and the
obstructiveness of the note or illustration. It is
to be expected that the author will add new matter
to close a gap, or cancel matter already set to pre-
vent an unsightly break. He is expected to cut up
the proofs and paste them in the order he prefers
on the prepared paper within the prescribed lines.
He may not be entirely successful, but he can give
a clue to orderly treatment that will be helpful.
When the irregularities in the text are tables or
notes of full width, the new arrangement desired
can be made by the author j but when these irregu-
larities are illustrations of small size and odd shape
that compel an overrunning of type that must be
led down the side, the author's calculations of the
space to be occupied by the type are seldom correct.
His order for a make-up of matter is unavoidably
tentative and experimental. The maker-up is often
obliged to make up the matter in a way differing
from that of the author before it is finally approved.
Foot-notes are often more annoying than cuts or
tables. They must begin at the foot of the page
that contains in its text the mark of reference, but
they may overrun two or three pages. They can
be separated from the text by a white line, or by
a short or long brass rule. The white line is to be
preferred, for a hair-line rule of any length is ob-
jectionable because it is seldom properly electro-
typed and printed with uniform thickness of face.
278 Foot-notes that overrun
When the width will permit it, the general appear-
ance of the page will be improved by setting the
notes in half -measure without the dividing brass
rule. Each note should begin with the repetition of
the reference-mark in the text. The marks fur-
nished with the font of type are ungainly, but the
superior figures frequently used in their stead may
be so small as to be objectionably indistinct.
Long notes that overrun one page and appear on
more than two pages can be avoided by giving up
the page that follows the reference entirely to the
note, but this treatment should not be attempted
without the permission of the author.
Foot-notes should follow one another in the order
indicated by the references in the text. A third or
fourth note following a very long first note, all re-
ferred to on one page, can seldom be inserted on that
page. The first line of the first note must be kept
on that page, but its overrun must be transferred
to the foot of the next page, and this transferred
matter should be placed over the regular notes for
the succeeding page, and be separated from them
by a thin white line. This unfortunate alternative
is a clumsy procedure, but it can be avoided when
the author rewrites or rearranges the text and notes
so that they can be kept near one another. 1
In a page of two or more columns the notes of
1 Prosper March and's History foot of the six following pages,
of the Origin of Printing (Paris, and that is further elucidated by
1740) has in its first chapter one thirty-four subnotes set in a dif-
overrun note that appears at the f erent measure.
Side-notes and abbreviations 279
a column may be kept at its foot, but when there
are many notes in the last column that interfere
with the placing of a cut or table on the page, the
notes may be put in the first column.
A side-note in the margin should begin opposite
the first line of the paragraph referred to. When
these notes are too many and too long, superior
figures or letters have to be used to indicate the
relation of text to note. When the margin will
allow, the side-note should be at a visible distance
from the text.
Side-notes are usually set in type three or four
sizes smaller than that of the text. Four picas is
a favorite width of measure for side-notes, but
when notes are frequent and margins are wide,
the measure may be five or more picas. A side-note
should not be indented, nor should its letters be hair-
spaced or its words wide-spaced to make full lines.
Composition should be even at the beginning of
every line, but may be irregular at its ending, both
on the odd and the even pages.
Abbreviations are tolerated in side-notes that
are not permissible in the text, but capitals should
not be used to give distinction to the initials of
important words that are not proper nouns.
The names of books, papers, and documents cited
in the text often appear in side-notes in italic.
This is not a wise selection, for italic letters have
many kerns, and the kerns may break off in this
exposed position.
280 Legend lines of illustrations
Cut-in notes are placed at the extreme end of the
first, second, or third line of the paragraph. When
they begin on the first line they give an unneces-
sary raggedness to the outline of the page. The
width and height of a cut-in note must vary with
the fulness of the note, but the white space about
each one should seem the same in all notes.
To arrest the eye, the cut-in notes of educational
works are sometimes set in small sizes of antique
or condensed title. The bolder face of these types
produces the desired distinction, but a critic may
say that the change spots the page unpleasantly.
For general use the ordinary cut of roman lower-
case of small body will prove most acceptable.
One of the features of a profusely annotated old
book was the inclosing of its text with notes on
the top and side as well as at the foot, but this can
be done with satisfaction only when the copy has
been very carefully prepared by the author.
The legend line or verbal description of a large
illustration, often set by the maker-up, can be in
many styles. An old method set the legend in
small capitals of the text type (often too large for
the words) in one or two lines. When small capi-
tals of a smaller body were selected, the legend so
treated became indistinct. When the legend line
is followed by a more particular description, as in
the numbers or letters that refer to anatomical
illustrations, this minuter description may be ar-
ranged in columns and in a very small size of roman
Legends for full-page illustrations 281
lower-case. A very long legend of two or three lines
of small capitals may be indented in half -diamond
fashion. When it exceeds three lines hanging in-
dention is a better choice.
A more approved style for the legend line is plain
roman lower-case of small size (about three sizes
smaller than that of the text type), with capitals
only for proper names and for the first letter of
the line. To capitalize its apparently important
words is to invite from author or publisher repeated
changes of these capitals. Roman lower-case should
be clear enough for the legend line without trying
to aid that clearness by means of petty display of
capital letters. It is largely to prevent capricious
alteration in capitals that the printer prefers small
capital letters for this descriptive line.
Italic lower-case, gothic, and thin-faced antique,
in capitals or lower-case, are occasionally selected
to give to the legend line increased distinction, but
all types of display are of doubtful propriety in a
library book. The significance of the illustration
cannot be improved, but it can be damaged, with
black or eccentric lettering. The reader who does
not fully comprehend it with an unobtrusive legend
line will not be aided by bold type.
Illustrations that fill an entire page seldom need
to be described in bold types. In sumptuous books
the legend of a full-page illustration is often printed
on a separate leaf of transparent paper, to be at-
tached facing the illustration, for there are many
282 Blank space about illustrations
engravers who protest against the insertion of any
type-work below the cut. 1
Legend lines are usually centred, but when the
illustration is of irregular shape, its legend may be
placed in a lower corner within any vacancy that
promises a proper relief of white space, and the
plate may be slotted or mortised for its insertion.
To prevent wear of type in this exposed position,
the legend line in very small type is sometimes put
over a cut that must appear at the end of a page.
Over a cut at the head of a page the customary
running title of that page should be suppressed.
The blank space to be allowed above, below, or by
the side of cuts or narrow tables must be governed
by the general openness or closeness of the compo-
sition. For double-leaded type the blank should be
not less than a great primer wide j for very open com-
position two or even three picas may be used ; for
solid composition about one pica. An illustration is
damaged in appearance when it crowds the type
of the text. 2
When the cut is very small and compactness is
1 Although illustrators protest to composition in black-letter,
against explanatory legends in ostensibly in the Morris style,
type at the foot or head of a full- which favors the jamming of
page cut as damaging to their type close to the initial and even
work, they see no impropriety in against a broad engraved bor-
affixing to the half -page illustra- der ; but this contraction of the
tions of articles in magazines de- relief of a needed white space
scriptive lines in letters of large should never be allowed in any
size and uncouth form that be- composition of roman type that
little the cut as well as the types, always needs much openness for
2 These remarks do not apply its fair presentation.
Treatment of projecting matter 283
desired, type may be overrun and arranged on one
or both sides, but the setting of type in measures
too narrow should be avoided, as in any blank less
than eight em quadrats of the text type, in which
uneven spacing cannot be prevented.
Illustrations of irregular shape should be blocked
on metal bodies and notched by the automatic ma-
chine recently invented for this purpose j if blocked
on wood and notched by the hand-saw and file, the
wood may warp, the notches will be out of square,
and the types inserted in them are liable to work
off their feet.
One of the modern methods of make-up is the
placing of very small cuts or illustrations entirely
in the outer margin, where they will not obstruct
the text.
When it is ordered that two or more illustrations
shall project beyond the regular measure of the
page in the margin of a letterpress form, all the
pages of that form should be made up to the full
width of the widest page. This can be done to best
advantage on the make-up galley. A centring in
exact position of pages of different width can never
be done quickly, and rarely ever accurately, upon
the stone.
If the pages are to be electrotyped, the blank
spaces above and below an illustration or a table
(and indeed all the blanks) should be filled with
bearers to insure the making of a good mould. 1
i See pages 73 and 74 of this book.
284 Treatment of irregular illustrations
Illustrations of irregular shape that require types
to be rearranged about them necessarily compel
the overrunning of the composition. This process
is always more tedious than the original composi-
tion, for the lines so treated must differ in length
and may have to be repeatedly changed to prevent
bad division or uneven spacing. Before overrun-
ning is attempted, all alterations desired in the
text should be made on the galley proof. To add
or cancel words after the type has been fitted to
the illustration and made up in pages-will cost more
than the original composition. To preserve decent
uniformity in spacing, it may be necessary, even
after overrunning, to ask the author to change one
word for another to make a line longer or shorter.
The position of illustrations on a page is a ques-
tion of taste usually determined by the author, but
there is a general agreement as to the propriety of
the following rules :
A very small and narrow cut may be put in the
centre of the measure, with the type rearranged
on each side, but the type so rearranged should be
treated as two distinct columns, to read down the
page and not across the cut.
If the cut is wider and will not permit decent
spacing on each side, put the cut at one end of the
measure, so that the type will be on one side only.
Two or more cuts, not dependent on one another,
appearing on the same page or on pages that face,
should be kept far apart.
Position of cuts on the page 285
When it can be avoided, an illustration should be
put 011 the page so that it will not back another illus-
tration on the following page, for this backing of
two cuts against each other increases the labor of
press work and may produce a "set-off" of black
ink where it is not needed, to the damage of each
illustration.
The cut that is not wide enough to fill the mea-
sure, but that is too wide to have type put on one
side, may have its appearance improved by sur-
rounding it with a rule border. A rule with face
about one point thick is better than the hair-line
rule, especially if it is intended for a red-ink line.
Parallel or concentric rules, one for black and one
for red ink, are finical niceties ; it is difficult to
print them on a large sheet in exact parallel.
Two illustrations of the same size that have
been prepared as mates to face one another on
opposing pages should be made up to face with
exactness. Cuts that are not mates can be placed
at the head or side or foot of the page, to avoid the
appearance of monotonous uniformity.
When a cut of full width is put at the head of
the page, the running title and the folio figures
should be suppressed, and the folio of the page
may be put in small figures in the foot-line.
When a table or cut of full broad measure must
appear in a page of two or more columns, each
column of type must be made up to read continu-
ously from the head to the foot of the page, and
286 Parallels in columns
without regard to the separation made by the cut
or table.
In poetry, lines that rime should not be put on
separate pages. Quoted lines of poetry should not
begin a page when it can be avoided.
When the gauge shows that the chapter will end
with two or three lines only on the last page, and
the maker-up has been ordered not to lengthen
previous pages, he must ask the author to add more
lines to give a decent fulness to that page ; or he
may ask him to cancel some lines on previous pages,
so that the chapter will have a neater ending. 1
A long quotation in a foreign language with its
translation in a parallel column should have the
number of words for each column carefully counted.
When the words are unequal in number, the col-
umns should be made of unequal width, so that the
two columns will end on or near the same parallel.
If this treatment is not possible, the column that
contains the excess matter may be put in broad
measure after it passes the parallel. This is trouble-
some, but it will prevent the unsightly appearance
of one column huddled by the side of its mate that
has a long gap of unbalanced white space.
l To an impatient author the he has done. Yet forethought
time taken for making up the will prevent some wasted labor,
illustrated pages of a chapter The type,cuts, and notes for each
often seems unreasonably long, page should be cut out of an
but it is unavoidable, for illus- extra proof and be arranged in
trated pages can be made up by page form on the pages of a
one person only, and he may dummy before the practical
have to undo repeatedly what work of making up is attempted.
Position of full-page illustrations 287
The full-page illustration that occupies the broad
way of the page often has its legend or descriptive
line near the gutter or back margin. It is expected
that the reader will turn the book half-way around,
from right to left for the odd page and vice versa for
the even page. This arrangement must be varied
when two facing cuts are intended to explain or sup-
plement each other. They should face one way, so
that they can be read from the same position.
The adjustment of blanks before and after ex-
tracts, cuts, and regular or irregular subdivisions
of the text is another duty that calls for nice dis-
cretion. These blanks may be of irregular width,
the more important divisions separated by wide,
and minor divisions by narrow blanks, but the
blanks assigned to each class should be of uniform
width as far as is possible. It is difficult to main-
tain this appearance of uniformity when blanks
have to be increased to drive out, or diminished
to take in, an extract, subheading, or quotation that
comes at the head of the page. In this as in other
cases, the best help is to be had from the author,
who should be asked to change words or lines that
interfere with orderly arrangement.
When a large piece of matter, as in a long motto
or quotation of importance, has to be set in a nar-
rowed measure, the appearance of the composition
will be improved if all the lines are made full, with-
out indention in first line and without break of
white in last line. It will be necessary to overrun
288 Management of dividing dashes
the matter repeatedly in different measures before
this can be done properly.
When a dash is used for a subdivision, to make
that dash seem in the centre, one or more added
leads must be put below the dash. The shoulder
of the last lower-case text line must be reckoned
in blanking-out as one lead or more.
Type for the pages of a book should not be
made up while it is wet or even damp. The wood-
blocking of electrotype illustrations, and even the
wood furniture that meets wet type, will be swelled
by contact with moisture.
The exact placing in an open page of one or more
lines of type selected for red ink upon a page in
two colors will be made easier by putting a clean
proof, on thin paper, of the entire page face down-
ward on the make-up galley. The maker -up can
then see the proper position of the red -ink lines.
If this color page is made up solid, and of the same
length as the page of black, avoiding a too free
use of leads that yield under pressure, the press-
man will be aided in making register.
It is not practicable to give suggestions for every
peculiarity that may present itself, for make-up is
a study without end. The workmanship of well-
printed books should be critically examined for a
study of the best methods.
IOMAS MACKELLAR
VIII
STONE-WORK
Stones and chases . . . Adjusting margins . . . Locking up
Taking proofs . . . Corrections . . . Clearing away
NE of the most conspicuous
pieces in the composing-room
is the imposing-stone, a thick,
smooth slab of hard marble,
bonded with an iron tire, or
bedded on plaster in a frame
of oak wood. It is used as a
table for making up newspaper forms that have to
be printed on flat-bed presses, for adjusting book
margins, and for locking up and correcting previ-
ously made-up pages of books or jobs. The space
unused below the stone is usually fitted up with
drawers for the stowage of furniture, or with racks
for chases. Stones can be had of supply houses in
many sizes, from 18 X 23 inches to 38 X 96 inches.
19
289
290 Imposing-stone and appurtenances
The larger sizes, which are weighty and liable to
be broken or gouged by shooting-sticks, have been
supplanted in many houses by tables of iron, that
are of truer surface and every way stronger. The
best iron tables have the edge rabbeted to the thick-
ness of the ordinary brass galley, so made to give
to the galley a needed rest when pages on the slice
galley are launched upon the surface of the iron.
Imposing-stone with drawers and chase-rack.
The chase is a square iron frame in which com-
posed type is locked up and kept secure, so that it
can be lifted from the stone and carried to the
press. It is made of cast- or wrought-iron, to suit
the construction of a printing-machine or the shape
of a form. The cast-iron chase is cheaper, but it is
Chases of different styles 291
relatively weak, and serviceable for small jobs only.
Its greatest defect is incomplete squareness. The
stereotype or electrotype chase, usually of cast-iron,
is planed and squared to a true right angle on one
of its inner corners. The cross X marked in one
corner indicates the corner against which the head
and one side of the page should be laid.
Wrought-iron chases are sometimes selected for
large and light forms. When the chase is a plain
iron frame without cross-bars or dovetailed slots
for the bars, it is known as a skeleton chase. This
serves fairly well for posters that have much wood
type, for patent blocks and open forms, but it is
not serviceable for any large form of great weight.
Forms of four hundred pounds are not uncommon
in newspaper work, but they have to be handled at
great risk. When tightly locked up, the heavy form
sags in the centre, 1 and the chase bends outward on
one side, putting the form more or less out of square.
When two very large pages have to be printed
together (as is customary in the ordinary weekly
newspaper), that are too heavy to be made properly
1 It is difficult and sometimes the chase. The space at each end
impossible to lift from the stone and between the board and the
large and heavy forms of type chase should be tightly filled up
that have not been strengthened before lifting the form. The
with cross-bars in the chase, [face of the] type should be pro-
In his Hints on Imposition (page tected with soft paper." I have
91), Williams recommends that never tried this expedient, which
" a smooth board which will ex- seems good, but I should recom-
tend fully across the form and mend screws instead of nails,
chase may be nailed securely to One hundred and forty pounds
the furniture near the centre of isenoughwithinaskeletonchase.
292
Chases with cross-bars
secure in one chase, twin chases are preferred. The
twin chases give additional safety in handling, but
the sides of these chases are often made thinner
on the meeting side. For large pages of quarto
form, twin chases are made with one cross-bar.
Twin chases.
Twin chases with one
cross-bar.
The cross-bar is sometimes welded in the frame,
but it is oftener a movable bar of iron, cut with
projecting dovetails on either end that accurately
fit in slots of similar form cut in the chase. It is
known as the short cross. So made, the tendency
to bow outward on the side is prevented.
To prevent the bowing outward on the narrower
ends, and to insure accurate register on book- work,
it is necessary to use another bridge or connecting-
rod, known as the long cross, which is firmly con-
nected to the outer frame by the same device of
slots and dovetails. As it has less resistance to
overcome, the long cross is a narrower bar of iron.
This variety of chase is known as the shifting-
bar chase, or the book-chase. The side-sticks and
Chase-bars need special care 293
quoins are placed nearest the chase-frame, and the
pressure on the pages of type, when properly locked
up, is evenly resisted by
the truly squared cross-
bars. This illustration
shows the position of the
bars as they are used for
ordinary forms of 8vo,
16mo, and 32mo. For
forms of 12mo, 18mo, and
24mo, that require a fold-
ing of the sheet in three
parts, the long cross (and
sometimes the short cross)
has to be put in another
position, as is indicated by
the places for slots in the
illustration. To prevent
the bars from twisting in the process of locking up,
the pressure should be made equal from each one
of the four sides toward the common centre. Once
twisted, the shifting bars are made entirely straight
or square with some difficulty.
The accuracy of a book-chase largely depends on
the care given to the shifting bars, which are made
to fit exactly, and should be removed and inserted
with caution. As they cannot be transposed end for
end alternately, nor be fairly fitted to other chases
apparently of the same size, each bar should have
an arbitrary number punched on one end with steel
Book-chase with two
shifting cross-bars.
294 Long and narrow chases
punches, and this number should be repeated on
the chase in the place where it meets the bar.
Under no circumstances should the bar be put in
any other place, for a chase is permanently injured
when the bar is forced into a slot for which it was
not originally fitted. Bars taken out of a chase
should be dried, cleaned, oiled, and put away in a
place where the edges of the dovetails will not be
hacked or bruised. Carefully treated, they will do
good service for more than a lifetime.
Screw-chases are sometimes provided for small
presses. Two sides are pierced for screws which
press against the stout iron bar that forces the type
tight. The object sought is the locking up of a
large form in a small chase, for which quoins and
side-sticks cannot be used. The small screw-chase
is not in favor ; uneven pressure of the screw will
twist the type off its feet, and the screws often
rust and become immovable. Another form of
screw-chase is made for locking up the forms of
daily newspapers.
Long and narrow chases are supplied for headings
and bill -heads. They
are sometimes used on
the beds of printing-ma-
chines as a better substi-
tute for man y P ieces of
wood furniture, which
always has a tendency to bow or spring upward on
the bed, often to the damage of the machinery.
Tools used about the stone
295
The shooting-stick is a short bar of wood, iron, or
brass that is used to wedge quoins in the process
of locking up. The
stick of hard wood ^ ^^ >> "' "^^^^^\
wears out quickly,
but it does not de-
Shooting-stick of iron.
face the stone, and for that reason it is preferred for
all light forms. Brass or iron shooting-sticks are
more efficient tools, and are really necessary for all
heavy forms, but they require careful handling.
The mallet provided to strike the shooting-stick,
usually of wood, is sometimes covered with sole-
leather and sometimes fer-
ruled with an iron band.
The planer is a stout
^^ cube of hard wood, which
can be used with propriety
for making level a form of
type only before the form
is locked up. When used to level type after locking
up, it may become a tool of damage.
The proof -planer is the ordinary planer covered
with thick elastic felt.
It is used for taking
pounded proofs.
Side-sticks, or bevels,
are inclined planes of
, . Planer.
wood, iron, or type-
metal, made to the height of low quadrats, to lock
up or secure forms of type in chases that have been
Mallet.
296 The Hempel quoin of iron
properly wedged with quoins. Wood is cheapest
and most used, but it necessarily receives hard
treatment and is soon worn out. Its liability to
warp is another objection. For newspaper forms
and book-work the metal side-stick is preferred.
Quoins are the blunt wedges of maple, hickory,
or boxwood that are forced against the side-stick
by means of shooting-stick and mallet. Quoins
and side-sticks of wood shrink after they have been
wet and dried, and gradually relax their pressure ;
this sometimes causes a piing of the form. To pre-
vent this accident, as well as to put a stronger
pressure on the type, iron quoins, commonly known
as patent quoins, have been invented. They are
made in many styles, and some are protected by
patents. The iron quoin most approved of is in
two pieces, each having two small inclined planes
of equal length, with cogs or teeth on the interior
sides. A key-wrench, that grips the interior cogs
or teeth, expands
the two pieces
to a wider par-
allel and gradu-
ally tightens the
The Hempel quoin. type in the form.
A tongue on one
half of the quoin, fitting in a corresponding groove
in the other half, prevents either half from being
twisted out of line. The power that can be exerted
by this wrench is greater than that usually obtained
Adjusting margins
297
with the mallet and shooting-stick. These patent
quoins are better than quoins of wood in prevent-
ing the slackening of
pressure after the form
has left the press, but they
are not so efficient while
the form is on press. The
jarring made on some
kinds of cylinder-presses
tends to their gradual
loosening.
A strip of thick blot-
ting-paper or of thin pine
reglet between a Hempel quoin and the chase may
prevent the loosening of pressure produced by the
continued vibration.
Another variety of iron quoin consists of two
stout cubes of iron that can be pushed apart by
working a ratchet against the nuts of a right and
left screw fixed between the cubes.
Hempel iron quoin with
its turnkey.
ADJUSTING MARGINS
One of the duties of the stoneman is the making
of margins. In some printing-houses it is the cus-
tom to have him determine all margins from scant
verbal instruction without a plan. This custom
is not to be commended, for it leaves too much
to his discretion. As the margins on three sides of
the proposed book may be unequally reduced by
298 Pattern sheet needed by stoneman
trimming, and on one side by some methods of
sewing or stitching, about which he is seldom fully
advised, it seems proper that the determination of
head and back margins for every page should be
made in the counting-room by the person who has
taken in the order for the book and has explicit
instructions from its publisher about the margins.
For this purpose a pattern sheet should be made
with carefully drawn pen lines that describe the
width of back and head margins upon the leaves of
any two mated pages of the paper that will be used
in printing the book. These mated pages will be
1 and 8 in the half -sheet of 8vo, or 1 and 16 in the
half-sheet of 16mo. The pen drawing should be
made upon the outer leaves of a full section of the
book, which consists of as many leaves as the binder
folds together at one operation. It is usually eight
leaves (sixteen pages) of ordinary paper, but it may
be only four leaves (eight pages) of thick paper. If
paper of the prescribed size is not in the house, a
larger size may be selected, and a piece of this
larger size must be cut down to the exact size of
the paper needed for one section. The paper for
this model should be folded with great accuracy to
make even folds without waste. So folded, it will
show the leaves as they will appear unsewed and
untrimmed.
Before any attempt is made to draw the lines
for the head and back margins, it should be known
whether the intended book is to be sewed, centre-
Paper wasted by trimming 299
stitched, or side-stitched, whether it is to be trimmed
much or little, at head and tail only, or all around,
or left with uncut edges. Fair allowance must be
made in the pattern sheet for the paper that will
be wasted in trimming, or taken up and concealed
in the back by different methods of sewing or side-
stitching, as may be more apparent in this diagram.
Outer dotted line indicates the full size of the untrimmed
leaf; the black connected line near it, the leaf as it will
appear after trimming ; the outlined square in the centre
of each leaf, the position of the page.
If the book is to be trimmed (or, even if untrimmed,
it may afterward be rebound), begin by marking
off at the head, front, and tail of the leaf the paper
that will be wasted in trimming. For the head
margin of an octavo allow for waste one eighth of
an inch, for the front margin one quarter of an
inch, and for the tail margin three eighths of an
300 Margins must be unequal
inch. These are approximations j a careful binder
takes less, a reckless binder more. Then consult
the binder as to the loss of paper taken up in the
back by wire-stitching or sewing, and mark off the
width of the paper so concealed. The paper taken
up in the back by binding will be variable : in some
kinds of sewed books it will be too small for allow-
ance ; in the side-stitched book it will vary from one
sixth to one quarter of an inch, or more if there
are many sections in the book.
Having determined the dimensions of the leaf as
it will appear after sewing and trimming, mark on
the leaf, with clear pen lines, the size and shape
of the page in exact position. Custom requires that
the margins of a page shall be uneven : least at the
back, but little more apparently at the head, much
more at the front, and most of all at the tail. A
page so placed on the leaf will be most acceptable to
publisher and book-buyer. The proportions may
be roughly expressed by these figures for the plain
octavo : for visible back margin (after sewing) 4
to 5 picas, for head margin 5 to 6 picas, for front
margin 7 to 8 picas, for tail margin 8 to 9 picas, it
being understood that these will be the measure-
ments of the leaf after sewing and trimming. The
width of the paper lost by trimming or concealed
by sewing must be estimated and allowed for in the
proposed margin on the pattern sheet. These ap-
portionments will be satisfactory for the ordinary
book, but a publisher, for peculiar reasons, may
How to adjust margins to paper 301
require margins to be wider or narrower. If so,
they must be changed to meet his wishes, but the
rule of a steadily increasing width of margin, be-
ginning at the back, increasing at the front, and
greatest at the tail, is seldom departed from in the
ordinary well-made book.
The head and back margins should be first deter-
mined. If they have been considered with relation
to their waste by trimming and sewing, they will
be seldom changed. If correct on the pattern sheet
for the two mated pages of a section, they will be
correct for all the pages in the form, whether that
form is an 8vo of one section or a 64mo of four
sections.
Front and tail margins can be most accurately
made by the stoneman, for they cannot be prede-
termined with precision by guesswork. The pages
in a form should be so disposed on the stone that
they will fairly fill the sheet, without any waste of
paper, and yet present the needed inequality of
margin about every page when the sheet has been
printed. In other words, the form must be made
up to fit the paper. It may have sixty-four pages,
to be divided by the binder in four sections for
separate folding. For the form of many pages
more blank must be put in the places where the
sections have to be cut, but under all conditions the
blanks must be so adjusted that the front and tail
margins in all sections will be exactly uniform.
So adjusted, every section can be folded evenly,
302 Margins determined by paper
without waste or protruding bolts or edges at the
fore edge and tail. 1
The diagram on page 299 is useful as a guide to
the maker-up, but it is not enough for the stoneman.
It does not sufficiently indicate the proper margins
between meeting fore edges or meeting tails in the
form of many pages. The form of 12, 16, 24, or 32
pages needs a surer guide.
The front margins for the form of eight pages can
be determined by taking two leaves of the pattern
sheet previously described on page 299, and lapping
them over any two mated pages so that the edges of
the paper shall accurately meet similar sides of pages
in different quarters of the chase, as is shown in the
opposite diagram between pages 1 and 7. Give to
the front margins all the blank not already covered
by type or by the furniture of back margin. The
tail margins will be regulated by the pressman.
For the half-sheet of 16mo use the same method
for determining the front margins, which, in this
instance, will be between pages 1 and 13. For the
i One method of ascertaining vals through the folded section,
proper front and tail margins That done, unfold the paper:
for the 16mo begins with accu- the distance between parallel
rately folding a sheet of its own stabs will show the width of the
paper to a section of eight leaves, blanks needed for proper mar-
leaving unopened all its folds or gins. This method, of some
bolts. Then place a page of its service to a novice in margin-
type upon the first leaf of that making, has its disadvantages,
folded section, and pencil a line The adjustment of margins by
all around the page on that leaf, measuring pages from extreme
With a sharp penknife stab each points with the paper to be used
line in two places at wide inter- is a more common method.
Adjusting margins for eight pages 303
tail margin take a quarter-sheet of the paper, which
must overlap from the tail of page 3 to the tail of
page 5, accurately meeting the extreme ends of full
Making front margins for a form of eight pages.
pages, and all the surplus of blank must be given
to tail margins on each side of the short cross-bar.
When the pages in other quarters of the chase
have been margined in a similar manner, all margins
will be correct. The sheet printed therefrom can
304 Adjustment for a form of sixteen
be folded correctly by print or by the edges of paper.
Forms of more than 16 pages must be treated in
the same way, for they are usually combinations on
Making tail margins for a form of sixteen pages.
one sheet of different sections of 8 or 16 pages.
Margins approved for one must be correct for all. 1
lit may happen that all the
sheets of the ream of paper to
be used are not of the same size.
The ream sold as of 20 x 30 inches
may have some sheets that are
one eighth or one sixth of an inch
longer. Short sheets are rare.
This slight excess in measure-
ment, disregarded in ordinary
newspaper or job work, may be
a real annoyance in bookbind-
ing. When an over-long sheet
has been properly folded, its ex-
cess on some leaves of one eighth
or one sixth of an inch will pro-
ject ragged leaves beyond the
folded bolts, much to the annoy-
ance of the reader.
To prevent protruding leaves 305
In the book intended to be trimmed upon two or
three sides, the leaves that are slightly over- wide or
over-long may not be rated as faults, for the cutting
machine that trims off the bolts also cuts off every
other chance excess of paper and makes all the
leaves of uniform size. But there are buyers who
insist on uncut leaves of full size, with bolts un-
marred by the knife. To them the protruding leaf
is a serious blemish that must be removed. How to
remove it neatly after printing is a puzzle. It can
be " rough-cut " by tearing each sheet down against
a sharp straight-edge, but never by the scissors or
knife ; by rasping off in the folded section the ex-
cess of paper with a rotary haggler ; by grinding
it off with a rotary circular knife. But all these
methods call for needless labor, and none of them
gives to the finished book the desired neatness. It
is better to prevent than to correct.
If the ream of paper sold as 30 inches long and
20 inches wide contains occasional sheets that are
20^ inches wide, take the largest sheet as the safer
guide for making margin. Make the distance be-
tween pages 3 and 15 in the half -sheet of 16mo
10-jV inches instead of 10 inches. This means put-
ting an added nonpareil reglet by the side of the
long cross-bar. So treated, the excess of one sixth
of an inch will be fairly divided in folding and ap-
portioned to each half of the sheet. The sheets
that are but 20 inches wide will have leaves that
are one twelfth of an inch shorter than sheets with
306 Locking up work of nicety
bolts of folded leaves which must come flush up to
the fore edge. In the form so made up there will
be no ragged or protruding leaves. The deficiency
in the short leaves will be almost imperceptible.
LOCKING UP
The locking up of pages in a form of type seems
as simple work to the unpractised as the driving of
wedges. This common belief is a serious error:
pages cannot be truly squared and properly pre-
pared for printing by brute force only. Locking
up calls for unusual discretion in the selection of
the quoins, chases, and side-sticks, as well as in the
graduation of pressure.
Before made-up pages are laid down, the impos-
ing-stone should be made perfectly clean. Particles
of dust adhering to the stone will prevent an even
planing down of the type, and the mould taken
from types of uneven height will produce uneven
electrotype plates.
Correct stone -work depends primarily on prop-
erly justified lines and exact make-up, but the stone
is not the place to remedy the grosser faults made
by the compositor. When faults have been dis-
covered, or belated corrections in justification are
required after imposition, the pages should be sent
back to the galley. The readjustment of make-up
on the stone is always difficult and is seldom done
in a satisfactory manner.
Steel square and straight-edge 307
The chase needs an examination. It may have on
the cross-bars blotches of rust, or adhering card-
board put there by the pressman as a makeshift aid
to exact register ; it may be warped or twisted, so
that it does not entirely rest flat upon the stone ; it
may be out of square, with bent or sprung cross-
bars or bruised dovetails thrust in badly fitting
slots. Chases with crooked or twisted bars often
cause types to get " off their feet " j they work up
spaces, and produce bad register.
The chase should be selected to fit the press upon
which it will be printed, large enough to give free
play to the quoins, but not so large as to compel
the use of an excess of interior wood furniture.
Its corners in the angles of the frame and in those
of the bars should be tested with a steel square
before it is accepted. If it is not truly square, exact
register is made difficult and is often impossible. 1
A steel square and a long straight-edge of steel
are needed for exact book- work by the stoneman
as much as they are by a carpenter or a machinist.
l A jobbing electrotyper of printed together upon one sheet
New York City, who received and the pages backed each other,
every day from different print- In some of these forms, out-of-
ers forms varying in dimensions squareness was produced by
from five to one hundred square locking up the form against the
inches, reports that many forms wrong corner, so that the pres-
delivered to him were not truly sure of the quoins had to be
squared and properly locked, resisted by the unsquared inner
The deviation from a true right angle of a cast-iron chase ; in
angle was usually slight, not to others, by too much pressure on
be noticed in a print on one side one side and too little on an-
only of the paper, but noticeable other, or by worn and warped
enough when many plates were furniture of wood.
308 To prevent chase bowing on press
The pressman who has to print a letterpress form
should not be required to correct the skewing of
pages by inserting bits of cardboard between the
chase and the furniture. A book form of many
pages can be and should be prepared on the im-
posing-stone to produce perfect register.
A form of four or eight small pages may be truly
locked up in an ordinary cast-iron chase, but the
form of twelve or more pages of 12mo or of larger
size needs a wrought-iron chase with true cross-bars.
The chase without cross-bars, whether of wrought-
or cast-iron, will bend outward in the centre, where
pressure is great and resistance is small. Cross-bars
are added to the chase as a means to maintain a
uniform resistance on each side of the bars against
the even, all-around pressure of locking up. If the
pressure is unequal, and is greater in one half or
one quarter of the chase, the cross-bars at the over-
tight part will bend. Slots are cut in the chase and
dovetails are put in the bars to prevent this outward
bending of type and to aid in giving squareness to
the form.
A large form of one page only that contains a
great mass of heavy type needs a chase with frame
of extra thickness. While a tight locking up is
needed to prevent the sagging of type in the centre
of the form and to provide for its security in transit
to the press, too strong pressure is sure to bend the
chase and to bow outward the type in the form.
To keep all lines of type square or in parallel, the
Furniture to be carefully selected 309
pressman may have to unlock the form after it has
been placed on the bed of the press, to put a thin
reglet between the chase and the centre clamp on
the bed of a cylinder-press, and then relock the type
in the form as well as relock the chase upon the bed.
The stiff resistance of the centre clamp on the bed
of the press is needed there to prevent the bowing
outward of the chase and to preserve the straight-
ness of the lines of type.
Furniture of wood that has been water -soaked
and warped, frayed at the edges or rounded at the
corners, should never be used. The outer furniture
between the side-stick and the chase should be of
one piece only, fully as long as the resisting side-
stick or foot -stick. The fudging of two or more
small pieces of wood as resists to the quoins, or the
selection of two small quoins, compels needless labor
and makes unsatisfactory work.
A side-stick properly cut.
Side-sticks of wood should be cut diagonally at the
ends, so that they will present the longer side to
the type, and not to the quoins. This will pre-
vent the use of the side provided for quoins against
the type, and will preserve the smooth side for the
type only. The side-stick or foot-stick at its nar-
rower end should be as long as but no longer than
310 Relative merits of wood and metal
the type it presses against : neither one should cross
the other, nor should the head-bolt, gutter, or any
other piece of furniture in the chase be so long
that it will bind against the side- or foot-stick.
The relative length and suitable position of each
bit of furniture in a form of 8vo may be seen in
the diagram on page 63. The accompanying dia-
gram shows an improper selection of the side-stick.
When one bevelled stick crosses another, the form
is locked and unlocked with difficulty, and always
at some risk of squabbling the type.
Metal furniture in one
piece only should be
preferred for the head-
bolts as well as for
backs or gutters. Side-
sticks of iron, or even
of type-metal, are bet-
ter than those of wood.
Guttered furniture for
/-
.. ---.--; .
--..- ----- '
>:;-5:^Ir;^
^OT^S
^^^
^
;
Improper side-sticks.
back margins should be a little short of the full
length of the page, and head-bolts a little narrower
than the width of the measure, but if the head-bolts
are cut too narrow the types near the corners of
head-lines may be insecurely held. For ordinary
work the furniture outside of the type and nearest
the chase may be of wood, but metal is safer for
interior work, for color-printing, for rule borders,
or for any work that will require accurate register.
When suitable garnishings have been selected and
Pages to be tightened gradually 311
adjusted, the quoins may be put in. They should
be selected with care, for much wrong locking up
is caused by the forcing of quoins into positions for
which they are not fitted. Any quoin selected that
does not rest flat on the stone and that will not
move snugly against the side-stick should be re-
jected at once. It is bad practice to allow quoins
to project at an angle so that they can be struck
direct with the mallet, and not by the shooting-stick.
The flat side of quoins should always rest upon the
stone. When the side-stick is thin and has a slight
bevel, it will be necessary, as increase of pressure
may require, to change the quoins first selected for
others of larger size. A thin side-stick will need
more quoins than a thicker one.
As the cord that ties the page is gradually un-
wound, the quoins should be gradually tightened,
by the pressure of the fingers, so that the side-stick
will be kept close to the type and prevent the thin
letters at the ends of the lines from hanging or drop-
ping. At this stage the mallet should not be used j
the pressure of the fingers is sufficient. The quoins
should be equidistant, and no more force should
be exerted than is needed for a gentle pressure.
When the page-cords have been removed, and the
pages have been cautiously and securely pressed by
side-sticks and quoins, the form may be planed
down. Before this -operation the face of the planer
should be examined and brushed off. Some printers
wrap its face with smooth clean paper. The planer
312 Violent planing a mistake
should be held firmly in the left hand, so that it
cannot be moved side wise by the blow of the mallet.
It should always have a full bearing on the type,
and never be allowed to hang over the side or over
an open page that offers no resistance. It should
be struck in the centre, not with the head but with
the end of the handle of the mallet. In composition
that has been fairly prepared, very little force is
needed to press down the few types that may be
too high, and taps with the end of the handle are
enough for the purpose. When the planer is struck
by the head of the mallet, it is usually struck at an
angle, so that the force applied is unequally dif-
fused ; most of that force is exerted on the side of
the planer nearest the striker, and the far-off side
gets but little. When the blow is struck vertically
by the handle, less force is needed, and that force
is more equally diffused.
A violent planing down of the form is always
damaging to the type, especially so when the striker
works rapidly and makes his blows fall upon a
planer which may be occasionally held at an angle
that does not give it a full flat bearing on every
part of the type. Violent planing down is wrongly
supposed to hide some of the mischiefs produced
by loose justification and over-tight locking up. In
all forms that have been locked up too tightly, the
type will bow or curve upward slightly about the
centre of the form, and will not rest fairly upon
the stone. The form that is so locked up may be
Faults produced by bottled type 313
repeatedly planed down until the types meet the
stone in the centre, but they will spring back again
in this or in another quarter, and will soon carry
upward with them the spaces that blacken the sheet.
The slightness of the pressure needed to secure a
properly justified form is fairly illustrated by patent
iron quoins. Slight twists of the wrench on the
quoins will tighten the type more securely than
many uneven blows with the mallet.
Bottled types are not so common now as they
were, but when they seem to be the cause of the
bowing upward of type in any part of the form, a
rough remedy may be devised by inserting a strip
about half an inch high of thin, bevelled cardboard
between the side-stick and the lower part of the
body of the type. The increasing thickness of the
cardboard near the lower part of the body of the
type, where the bottling is apparent, provides a
more even resistance to the pressure of the quoins.
It makes less the greater pressure at the base that
tends to thrust types upward. When the bottling
is conspicuous, the bevelled cardboard should be
used on the opposite end of the page.
Types are about eleven twelfths and side-sticks
about five eighths of an inch high. The pressure
of locking up is consequently greatest at the foot
of composed type, but if the type is in any way
bottled, the pressure there will be unduly increased.
The bevelled cardboard at the side will be an aid
to more even pressure.
314 Equality of pressure of importance
In this diagram the outer black line represents the
outline of a page before locking ; the inner dotted
line, the same page after locking up. The distance
between these lines indi-
cates approximately the
" give " or compressibility
of the type, which, in a
long page of leaded type,
is usually greater from the
head to the foot than from
side to side. The single
types in the corner A are
but slightly moved by
locking up, but those in
the corner C will be moved much more, and in a
diagonal line toward that corner A. To lock up
properly, the pressure applied to the type must be
gradual and even on each side. When the pressure
is not even and gradual, one page or one quarter
will hang or crook. If the quoins at the foot of
the form are made full tight before any pressure is
put on the side, the types will give in that direction
only. If the types have been made needlessly
tight by too much pressure at the foot, twice as
much force must be exerted to move them in the
contrary direction. Under this unnecessary pres-
sure, the types will bow upward or hang in one
quarter, the cross-bars may be twisted, or the chase
may be strained or cracked. In every form too
tightly locked up the types are sure to bow upward j
Faults of over-tight locking up 315
then follows a violent and needless planing down
in a vain effort to keep them on their feet. 1
The tightening of quoins should begin at the tail
of pages by pushing up the quoins with the thumb.
The pages should be next tightened on the side in
the same manner. Each quarter should be sepa-
rately treated. When the quoins cannot be moved
by the fingers, the shooting-stick and the mallet
may be used for this purpose. The first strokes of
the mallet should be light, and should be given in
regular order to the quoins in each quarter of the
chase. For a large and heavy form of many pages
to be locked up against cross-bars, it may be neces-
sary to go around the form two or three times,
gradually increasing the pressure. The stoneman
should try to lock up type continuously and slowly ;
to do it hurriedly or recklessly is to do it badly.
When the form is supposed to be tight enough, it
should be tested by straight-edge and square, which
will show where there may be too much pressure.
In any form that has been truly justified and evenly
locked, the pressure required will not be great.
The difficulty of locking up is always greater in
forms that contain tables with brass rules crossing
at right angles or with brass borders. Forms full
i Careful pressmen often find this precaution is neglected, if
it of importance to slacken the the presswork begins before the
quoins of a too tightly locked types in the form rest on their
form as soon as it is laid on the feet, an even impression cannot
bed of the press, so as to allow be had. Types will receive in-
the types curved upward in the jury, spaces will work up, and the
centre to rest on their feet. If work will be delayed.
316 Faults produced ~by brass rules
of thin leads, or that have columns of types set to
different measures and at right angles, with cross-
justification, or that are comparatively solid and
incompressible on one side and open and spongy
on the other side, are always troublesome. In forms
like these the fault begins with careless justifica-
tion, but is sometimes increased by badly cut and
crooked brass rules that have not had the bur re-
moved from the cut edges. Bent leads and foul or
badly washed types are other hindrances.
If a form has one solid and one spongy side, as
may happen in the ordinary form of bank-checks,
a line of properly matched quadrats or quotations
should be put on each side of the form as a guard.
The side-sticks will then have an even and solid
bearing against the guards so provided, and will
not bend the types at one end or in the centre.
When mitred brass rules do not join, the accuracy
of the mitring should be tested. Even when the
mitring is exact, there will be difficulty if the rule
is too thin, or if the form is locked with wood
quoins and a thin wood side-stick. A large form
of pages with mitred brass-rule borders can be truly
locked up only by making use of an accurate chase,
metal furniture for all divisions inside of the type-
work, perfect justification, iron side-sticks, and
patent quoins. To these must be added extra care
on the part of the stoneman.
The art of locking up may be summarized in a
few words : Justify and make up accurately with
Locking up tested by the planer 317
types squarely on their feet. Use strong and true
chases. Prefer metal furniture for all interior work.
Make composition solid, and avoid a too free use of
leads. Use iron side-sticks and patent quoins. Lock
up slowly, gradually, and not too tightly.
Locking up is done for newspaper-printing ma-
chines by means of a wrench applied to screws in
the chase. The pressure so exerted is great, and
may make the types half a point higher. I have
seen types humped upon the back of each body in
places where this body opposed the nick of the types
in a preceding line that relieved this pressure.
When the form has been finally locked up, the
planer may be gently used, not to beat down a few
types that are supposed to be over-high, but to as-
certain whether the types rest truly on their feet
and do not bow or curve upward. A solid sound,
that will be readily recognized in the shock of a
firm resistance, is always produced when types are
on their feet, and the form that gives this sound
and touch seldom needs any more planing down.
The hollow sound produced by the planer over any
portion of the form is evidence that the type has
sprung upward from over-tight locking up. When
this hollow sound is heard, it will be useless to try
to put types on their feet by more planing down,
for the bowing upward will reappear in another
quarter. The only remedy is to slacken the quoins :
if this makes the form insecure, faults in justifica-
tion or make-up should be searched for.
318 Safeguards for electrotype forms
Forms of type surrounded by furniture of wood
that may be kept in the chase for many days will
require a frequent retightening of the quoins. If
this precaution is neglected, the gradual shrinking
of the wood may cause the form to fall in pi.
Patent quoins of iron, firm as they may seem in
their hold on type when the form is laid on the
press-bed, sometimes work slack or loose by the
constant jarring of the printing-machine. A care-
ful pressman tests their tightness repeatedly.
Pages intended to be electrotyped are usually
imposed in small chases of cast-iron, truly squared,
but large enough to hold four or more pages of
ordinary 12mo. Small types and half-tone photo-
engravings need more pressure than large types.
The large 4to or 8vo, or any page that contains a
large illustration, is most satisfactorily moulded in
the chase of one page only. A page of type and a
full-page illustration should not be moulded to-
gether when they can be moulded separately, for
each page requires different pressure.
To prevent the spreading of the wax over the sides
and ends of pages, guards are provided by electro-
typers. These guards are rudely cast slugs of
type-metal, type-high on one side and of variable
width and length, cut to suit the size of page re-
quired. When two pages are imposed in one
chase, the form of guard is changed so that the
plates made therefrom can be separated with ease.
It is possible to mould type without any bearer or
Guards used by electrotypers 319
guard, but the plate so made will be imperfect.
When proper guards have not been attached by the
stoneman, the electrotyper tries to lessen this de-
_.
Guards for electrotype work.
feet with hasty indentations in the wax, but they
never do the perfect work of guards or bearers.
The guards of metal furniture provided by the
electrotyper to surround every page are intended
to confine the moulding wax so that it will not
spread outward, and to assist in forming the
needed bevel that is afterward planed on the side
of the finished plate. The best electrotype plates
are made from types set up with high spaces and
quadrats that are of even height with the shoulders
of the types, and that prevent too much of a down-
ward escape of the moulding wax. A further safe-
guard is provided against imperfect moulding by
inserting in every open space on the page type-high
bearers or resists to pressure, as shown on pages 73
320 The taking of pounded proofs
and 74. These bearers are routed off the plate
when they have served this purpose. The page so
formed with bearers will lighten the work of the
electrotyper and materially aid him in producing a
printable plate.
TAKING PROOFS
Pages to be electrotyped should be proved on a
hand-press ; one with a bed-plate of 13 X 16 inches
will be strong enough for two pages of large 8vo.
Proofs on press, that do not damage the type, are
preferred by readers to those taken by the proof-
planer.
Letterpress forms, too large for the small proof-
press, have to be proved by beating with the proof-
planer after this manner : A sheet of sized paper,
dampened on a clean stone by sponging it evenly
on one side, is carefully laid upon the previously
inked form of type. Then the stoneman takes the
proof-planer in his left hand and lays it down
squarely but quickly upon the inked form. Be-
ginning at the nearest corner, with the end of the
handle (not with mallet head) he strikes a quick
blow usually in the centre of the planer. From
that page he moves the planer to other pages, re-
newing the striking until he sees the print of the
types faintly indenting the moist sheet. In like
manner he beats all the pages, taking care not to
slip the planer or to wrinkle the sheet, or to beat
Proper cleansing of types 321
too violently on blank pages or exposed lines to
their injury.
Proofs of large forms are sometimes taken by
beating the sheet with a stiff brush. Beaten proofs
are wearing to the type, but the brush wears more
and does not give so fair a print. The blanket on
a proof -planer needs frequent renewal, for it be-
comes hard and inelastic after continued usage.
The sheet so proved, when dry enough to handle,
should be carefully folded by the print, so as to
show uniform margins on each page. The surplus
of paper, if any, at the ends should be torn off with
a straight-edge, but the bolts that close the paper
at head and fore edge should not be opened.
The reader or foreman who first examines the
proof unfolds the sheet and tests it for correctness
of margins. This he cannot do if the bolts have
been opened. With the folded proof should also
go to the reader's desk all the copy for that sheet
laid in regular order. The stoneman, or the boy
that helps him, then cleans the type with a brush
moistened with benzine, and afterward sops out
with a wet sponge the undissolved residuum that
clings to the shoulders and counters of the type.
This duty of the stoneman is often half done. It
is a mistake to think that proved types have been
fairly cleansed when ink has been wiped off their
faces with benzine. The type is not clean even if
the face shows fairly white. The dirt of half -dis-
solved ink, and the gummy matter always left after
21
322 Types often need alkaline water
benzine has been swept from the face, gradually
fill up the counters of all the letters. Type that
has been treated so repeatedly will show raggedness
and dirtiness about all its lines, and the shallower
counters of letters like a, e, s will fill up. The elec-
trotyper will be censured for faulty plates, and the
pressman for his muddy and overinked presswork,
when the fault has been created by the stoneman's
neglect to keep the types perfectly clean. Type
often is condemned as worn out when it is only
filled up with accretions of hardened dirt.
Types so neglected that have received a bath of
boiling lye (which softens the dirt so that it can be
brushed out) and a thorough rinsing with water
will be restored to usefulness. Benzine is a useful
detergent, but it does not supplant lye. Caustic
potash, shaved or in powder, slowly dissolved in al-
cohol, is an excellent cleanser of choked-up photo-
engravings. 1
l Neglect to clean type and moistened with oil. His pur-
wash forms began with the more pose was served when the ink
extended use of engravings on was rubbed off the face, but not
wood. Engravers forbade the removed from the form. He
use of water that swelled and of could not foresee that the resid-
lye that softened the wood. Al- uum left would in time damage
cohol and a weak solution of type as well as cuts. Instruc-
ammonia were the only cleansers tions like these have indirectly
allowed. This treatment made taught compositors to sacrifice
difficult the proper cleaning of the durability of types for an
the type near the engravings, immediate benefit to the cuts.
The photo - engraver of half- No cleanser can be a perfect
tones, fearful of the fragility of substitute for alkaline water,
his lines, advised that the sur- The form of type intended for
plus ink left upon an illustration the foundry or for press should
be wiped off with soft flannel be drenched with water.
Correction on the stone 323
The paper selected for the proof should be thin,
smooth, well-sized, and evenly dampened. Proofs
taken on dry paper are not so satisfactory to the
proof-reader. The roller should be kept clean and
tacky, and evenly coated with a film of good ink
that has been protected from dust. Little ink, but
much rolling, is required; a proof that is a trifle
pale in color is always helpful to the reader in his
search for bruised type. An overinked or strongly
indented proof prevents the finding of bad letters.
Proof is returned, when read, to the compositor,
with his name marked in the margin at the begin-
ning of each take, and he is required to correct it
immediately, for it is a general rule that corrections
take precedence over all other work.
The tools preferred for correction are the bodkin
and the tweezers. 1 Some compositors use the point
of a penknife and the nib of a steel composing-rule,
but they are mean substitutes ; yet all correcting-
tools will be destructive unless they are carefully
handled.
The correction of turned letters or substitutes of
one letter for another of the same thickness can
easily be made, but when the marked letter is of a
1 The bodkin and the tweezers sharp, curved points, put at op-
most frequently used are too posite sides of the body, will ena-
f rail ; they often slip and bruise ble the corrector to lift one type
adjacent letters. When a letter or an entire word in a vertical
has to be withdrawn from the line. Types need not be seri-
form, the straight, thin -nosed ously damaged in correction
pliers preferred by jewellers are when they are pulled up squarely
better tools. Two bodkins with and are not pried out at an angle.
324 When a reader can be helpful
different thickness, or when one or more letters are
to be added or withdrawn, the line in which these
changes are needed should be taken out and put in
the stick for correction. Justifying on the galley
or on the stone should never be attempted.
Correction on the stone is always an unpleasant
duty, but the work may be lightened by carrying
corrections to the stone in a paper tray which con-
tains an assortment of justifying spaces.
The composing-stick, shooting-stick, and mallet
should never be laid upon the face of the form.
Each compositor should remove rejected type as
soon as he has finished correction, and should no-
tify the compositor whose work follows to go on
with his share of the work.
Outs and doublets are difficult of correction, for
they require the overrunning of the paragraph in
which they occur, and sometimes the re-making up
and always the re-reading of the form. These er-
rors are usually caused by the carelessness of the
compositor, who does not read the matter in his
stick before he puts it on the galley, but the penalty
he has to suffer is severe. In many offices it is a
rule that he must not only make his work cor-
rect, but he must pay for the added cost of the re-
make-up and re-reading. 1
When corrections have been made, a new proof
1 On hurried newspaper work to make the lines come out
the slow correction of an out or even, but this liberty can never
a doublet may be evaded, if the be taken in a faithful reprint or
reader can supply words enough in any text of importance.
Preparing forms for press 325
is taken, which is called the first revise. The reader
compares the first proof with its revise. If marked
errors have not been corrected, or if corrections
have been made in wrong places, or lines have been
transposed, or spacing has been made uneven, these
errors are marked on the revise and sent back to
the compositor in fault. After they have been cor-
rected a new proof is taken, which is intended to
be and should be literally correct to copy. This
proof, known as the first author's proof, is sent to
the author with the copy, after it has been anno-
tated with queries made by the proof-reader.
The author's proof often comes back marked with
alterations from copy. As these alterations are not
caused by the negligence of the compositor and
have not been provided for in the price agreed upon
for composition, the expense of making the changes
becomes an additional charge to the author. The
author's proof is corrected by a careful time-hand,
who marks on the proof the time it has taken and
the date, and signs it with his initials.
Preparatory work that can be done on the stone
should be done there before the form is ordered to
press. To allow the pressman, whose time is more
valuable than that of the stoneman, to correct gross
faults in margin, to alter the position of pages, or
to insert the points that may be needed for regis-
ter, is not far-seeing management.
Points for type forms should be inserted on the
stone. They are not needed for trimmed paper,
326 Points often needed for register
as an expert feeder can make register by carefully
laying the sheet up to the side-guides, but they are
needed for hand-made papers of rough edges and
of irregular size, and may be needed for machine-
made papers that have been unevenly trimmed. 1
The common form of point is a short, round
iron wire, pointed on one end and a little more
than type-high, which is usually inserted in holes
drilled in the centre of the cross-bar of the chase.
Another kind of point has a screw base that allows
it to be inserted anywhere in the wood furniture
of the form.
When the first side of the paper has been printed,
the points are withdrawn. The perforations made
by them serve as guides to the feeder for the plac-
ing of each sheet upon the spring points attached
to the feed-board. Properly used, the points insure
exact register. Points should be placed in the form
as may be directed by the pressman about fifteen
inches apart. For paper intended for a folding-
machine, exact position is of utmost importance,
and points must be made immovable by accidental
disturbance. Exact register may be impossible if
the marginal furniture is rearranged and the points
are moved while on the bed of the press.
Forms to be printed on a cylinder-press should
have the type at a fixed distance from the edge of
1 When crookedly cut paper guide, and on the second side to
cannot be retrimmed, fair regis- the right guide, so that the same
ter may be had if the paper can edge will always be presented to
be fed on its first side to the left the guide.
Breaking up dead matter 327
the chase-frame, on the gripper-edge of the chase.
The distance will vary from two to three inches,
according to the set of the cylinder. To allow the
type to come within this distance is to expose it to
the risk of being crushed by the iron grippers.
The stoneman should have a gauge made by the
pressman that accurately defines the distance.
The paper provided for a form should have at
least half an inch of margin on all sides of the
type. It is practicable to print type on the extreme
end of one side only of the sheet the side opposed
to the grippers. The half -inch allowance is needed
for the grippers that seize the sheet, as well as for
the bands that keep the paper close to the cylinder.
CLEARING AWAY
An important duty of the stoneman is the clearing
away of all dead matter. The form that has been
electrotyped or printed and is ordered for distribu-
tion comes back to the stoneman or his helper to be
broken up. The electrotyped form is unlocked on
the stone, but its furniture and quoins are carefully
removed and kept together in good order, so that
they can be used again for other forms of the same
size. Its type is put upon the standing galley re-
served for distribution after it has been relieved of
its head- and foot-lines and other blanks that may
be needed for future use on the same work. The
large form is usually laid upon the letter-board.
328 Papering of dead matter
The letter-board, which is a movable board of wood,
is intended to hold dead type after the chase has
been removed. It is made to slide upon cleats
under the frames of stones or stands. For posters
containing much wood type and forms of patent
blocks the letter-board is useful, but for forms of
small type it is a mischievous device, for it gives
no proper protection to composed type and invites
the making of pi. Forms of small pages not in-
tended for immediate distribution should be tied
up as soon as they are put upon the letter-board.
A better method would be to put all tied-up or
standing jobs on the top of the table of a low case-
rack, where they can be seen : the placing of dead
type in dark corners or on an obscured letter-board
delays new composition and promotes disorder.
>ead matter that will not be distributed soon
should be prepared at once for papering and stor-
age in the type-closet. This work begins by taking
out lines of quadrats and capitals, and everything
but the ordinary text type. Leads, lines of quad-
rats, capital letters, display letter, and unusual sorts
of every kind in masses should be laid aside for
immediate distribution by time-hands. After the
rejects have been culled, the matter saved should be
re-made up in paper packages, uniform as to either
length or width, so that they can be neatly piled
one over another in the type-closet, without danger
of breaking. The paper wrapper should be plainly
marked in ink with the proper name of the face
Useful sorts not to be papered 329
and the body of the type, not omitting the number
of nicks. A package so made up and labelled need
not be opened for a reexamination. Display let-
ter, quadrats, figures, and any sort in limited sup-
ply, should never be papered when there is room
for them in the open cases. Materials for regular
use should always be made accessible.
The old rule that required piece-compositors to
clear away all the matter in the dead form, and to
distribute large masses of strange types that were
not immediately needed, is no longer enforced. It
is now the custom to have dead matter that is over-
full of italic, accents, display letter, small caps, etc.,
distributed by the time-hands. It is expected, how-
ever, that the piece-compositor will distribute type
taken from the closet, and not be too punctilious
in refusing the distribution of a moderate amount
of unusual sorts. It is to the interest of all persons
that these sorts should be returned at once to case,
for it is but just that the compositor who has been
provided, as is usual, with special sorts from the
storage case should return them to that case.
The type -closet should have separate compart-
ments of stout wood for each face and body of type
that may be kept on storage or out of case, each
compartment firmly braced and fitted to sustain
heavy weight. A printed label should be affixed
in proper place, specifying on each compartment
with exactness the name, face, and body of the type,
and the number of nicks.
330 Places for chases and chase-racks
The chase-rack is reserved for forms of type that
await reading or distribution. It is often placed
under the imposing-stone, as may be seen in the
illustration on page 290. For electrotype chases of
the same size, a chase-rack can be made by screwing
to the floor and to the bottom of the imposing-table
parallel rows of stout oak cleats about two inches
broad. The chase nested to stand upright without
other support will slide and be secure in the grooves
made by the cleats. For all chases of irregular size
it is necessary to attach the upper cleat to a frame
that has diagonal divisions and inclined shelves or
supports. Small chases can be arranged in two
tiers. If space will allow, the chase-rack could be
advantageously placed against a dead wall, if that
dead wall receives a fair light. It is a mistake to
put it in any dark place, where the forms must be
examined with inconvenience and possible injury.
In some book -printing houses the different duties
of the maker-up and the stoneman are made inter-
changeable so that they may be done by one per-
son. In all houses the stoneman should be a com-
positor of experience and intelligence, who knows
how to adapt means to ends, and is not content to
work by rote and rule only. He should work in
concord with every contributor to the book, from
publisher to bookbinder, for he can help or hinder
them in many ways.
IX
IMPOSITION
Elementary principles . . . Schemes for various forms from
two to one hundred and twenty - eight pages . . . Inset
forms . . . Oblong pages . . . The leaflet . . . Small pam-
phlets . . . New method of collating . . . Folding-machines
Concluding remarks
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
IMPOSITION is a puzzle to the
novice. He does not see why
pages apparently laid out of
order on the stone fall in order
on the printed and folded sheet.
He may learn to impose by imi-
tating the practice of an expert
or by copying schemes from some printers' gram-
mar, but knowledge so acquired has limited appli-
cation. Large sizes and strange shapes of paper,
331
332 Number of leaves to the section
combinations of two or more sections for printing
on one sheet, rotary printing-machines, and new
forms of folding- machines compel the occasional
devising of new schemes. It is better to begin
with the study of customary methods of folding.
Begin with folding blank paper for three differ-
ent sections of 8, 16, and 32 pages (without cutting
open the folds or bolts), and by pencilling upon the
leaves so produced the numbers of pages in proper
order. The sheet so treated when unfolded will
show the relative position of mated pages, and this
will give insight into the rudiments of imposition.
The first lesson to be learned is that too many
pages cannot be properly folded together in one
section for correct book- work : 8 pages are enough
for thick paper, and 16 pages for paper of ordinary
thickness. Whoever tries to fold correctly by one
operation 32 pages of paper in one section will find
that the paper buckles at the head fold of inner
leaves, and that they are thrust outward at an
angle that makes the type- work seem crooked. 1
1 The central double leaf (pages rower than that of the outer leaf.
15-18) is unavoidably thrust out- On a large page this difference in
ward by the thickness of its pre- margin maybe unnoticeable, but
ceding seven leaves. This leaf when paper is thick and the page
is held tight at the head by un- is small it will be noticed. The
stretchable paper where it has inner leaves of the section must
been creased for the head fold, be crooked, narrower at the top
but it is thrust outward at tail than at the bottom. Making up
more than the thickness of the the form in two sections of 16
preceding leaves. When stitched pages will prevent the crooked-
and trimmed, the front margin ness, but the margins of the in-
on this inner leaf must be nar- terior 16 pages must be narrower.
Sections always of double leaves 333
Sheets of 24, 32, 48, 64, 96, and even of 128 pages
can be, and often are, printed in one form, but for
the sewed book they are never imposed to be con-
secutively folded together by one operation. The
printed sheet of many pages is subdivided, and each
section is separately folded. 1 The newer styles of
folding-machines made for pamphlet- work can fold
a form of two or more portions simultaneously and
inset one within another, but each portion receives
separate treatment. It should be understood at
the outset that in book-work an imposition of many
pages in one form is not for one consecutive fold-
ing ; it is a combination of two or more portions to
be separately folded and afterward united.
When the different sections of a book have been
gathered, folded, sewed, and trimmed, each section
is resolved into a combination of double leaves
nested one within another and held together and
to other sections by thread. The double leaf that
permits the binding-thread to pass through the fold
of each section in the creased centre of the back
i Sometimes, as in the 12mo, with thread, either by hand or by
the section consists of two un- machine, and sections must not
equal parts, one of 8 and one of be too thick in the back. Even
4 pages, and each part is sepa- in the ordinary sewed section of
rately folded, so that the smaller 16 pages, to stop buckling on the
can be inserted in the larger part, inner fold, it is often necessary
In cheap pamphlet- work a sec- to slit the paper on the cross-fold
tion of 32 pages may be made by at head before the last fold is
insetting one subsection of 16 made. This prevents wrinkling,
pages within another section of but it does not entirely prevent
16 pages, but these thick sections an appearance of slight crooked-
are not tolerated in book-work, ness in the margins of the inner
The library book must be sewed leaves.
334 Books are sewed, not side-stitched
margin is the most approved method of giving
proper security to the binding. It may be assumed
that in all schemes of book imposition (the half-
sheet of 18mo excepted) each section must contain
double leaves. The leaves are always in doubles,
and the number of pages in approved schemes of
imposition are always multiples of four. 1
The double leaves in each section show that they
bear relation one to another. In the ordinary 8vo,
pages 1-2 and pages 7-8 constitute the outer double
leaf j in the 16mo, pages 1-2 and pages 15-16 con-
stitute the outer double leaf. Schemes for laying
pages differ greatly, but the relative position of the
first two and the last two pages of a section is un-
alterable in any scheme. A closer study of the dif-
ferent schemes yet to be presented will show that
these pages and other pages have relations to one
another that cannot be disturbed by any variation
in the scheme of imposition.
i The single leaf of two pages neatly fastened by the sewing-
that may appear in the pamphlet thread through the centre of the
of a half -sheet 18mo is pasted lap. Single leaves of two pages
down on an adjacent leaf. This can be securely fastened to other
single leaf also has to be accepted sections by side - stitching with
for inserted maps or prints made wire or thread through the back
by different processes of print- margins of all the sections. Side-
ing, but pasting or tipping on is stitching is a method of binding
always regarded as a misfortune at present unavoidable in maga-
to be avoided. To prevent the zines of large edition or in pam-
bad workmanship produced by phlets that have to be made in
pasting down the single leaf of great haste, but it has serious
a map or print, it is often printed defects : it reduces the width of
separately on a wider paper, and the back margin, and prevents
a narrow lap is creased on its leaves from opening flat. It is
extra width, so that it can be never used for library books.
Folds of paper control imposition 335
All schemes may be grouped in these four classes :
1 Forms of 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 96, and 128 pages.
The sheet of 16 pages is usually imposed to be
folded together as one section, the sheet of 32 pages
is often cut to make two sections, and that of 64 for
four sections.
2 Forms of 12 or 24 pages, and their multiples.
In forms of this class one third of the paper is cut
off and folded separately as an inset to be nested
in the two-third portion. In the form of 12mo the
cut-off is on the narrow side j in the 24mo on the
wide side of the sheet; but forms of duplicate
twelves, as in 48 and 72, are seldom imposed for
offcuts and insets : it is customary to impose them
as sections of 16mo. Preference is always given
to the 16mo section wherever its use is practicable.
3 Forms of 18, 36, and 72 pages. Sheets printed
on forms of this class are usually cut in unequal
sections taken respectively from the broad and the
narrow end of the paper, and are separately folded
by hand. The 18mo of one signature, never used
in careful book- work, contains a single leaf that
must be tipped on the section.
4 Forms of 20 and 40 pages. Printed sheets of
these forms have one fifth of the paper cut off from
one end of the sheet, and this one-fifth subsection
of the sheet is separately folded for an inset.
The consecutive folding of a sheet, first through
its narrower diameter and next at right angles
with its previous fold, as is done in 8vo and 16mo
336 Sheet and half-sheet misleading words
forms, is the simplest method and produces the best
work. Forms of the second class are more trouble-
some, but they have to be used when paper permit-
ting the 16mo folds is not to be had, and when a
press to take on 16 pages is not available. Forms
of the third and fourth classes are rarely used, but
are needed for pages or paper of unusual shape.
Schemes of imposition are also known as sheets
or half -sheets. 1 The pages of the sheet are always
imposed as two forms in two chases, and each form
is separately printed. The side that contains the
first and last pages of the section is the outer form ;
the side partly concealed by the folding-bolts is the
inner form. The printed sheet made perfect by
two forms is known as a sheet, and this method of
doing presswork is known as sheetwise.
The pages of the half-sheet imposition are always
imposed in one chase. The paper selected for it is
consequently twice the bigness of the sheet printed
from two forms, and its printing on the two sides
of the paper from the same pages necessarily makes
two copies to the sheet. It is called half-sheet be-
cause this larger sheet must be cut in halves before
either half can be folded.
Sheetwise printing was unavoidable when sheets
were of small size and presswork was done on small
l Sheet and" half-sheet are mis- but I shall try to prevent any
leading words: they should be misunderstanding in description
sheet and double sheet. It is im- by specifying the number of
practicable to ignore them, for pages to the form and the num-
they have been used too long, ber of sections to the sheet.
Some rules controlling imposition 337
hand-presses, but the cylinder machine, that prints
16 and 32 large octavo pages at one impression,
has made the half -sheet method more common. 1
FORMS OF FOUR AND EIGHT PAGES
The four pages of the folio newspaper are usually
put in two chases and are laid down in this order :
1- 4 3 2
Outer form. Inner form.
1 Four pages in two forms and two chases.
This scheme exemplifies rules that control imposi-
tion in every form, however large that form may be.
The first page is usually laid down on the stone
at the left corner. As printing reverses position
in print, the left-hand page of type in the form
will be the right-hand page of print.
The last page of every section is always nearest
to and is the mate of its first page.
All odd pages are imposed to read from back
to front ; even pages from front to back.
1 Each method has advantages
and disadvantages. Sheetwise
presswork allows the printed ink
of the first form to dry before
the sheet is backed up on the
other form, but it also allows
wet paper to shrink, and gives
more trouble in making register.
22
Half -sheet presswork on short
editions may not allow ink to dry
thoroughly, but it gives to the
pressman at the outset more con-
trol of register ; it enables him to
maintain more even color, and
to make sure of full count before
he lifts the form from press.
338 Relations of pages one to another
When the page figures in every two mated pages
(those side by side and nearest to each other) are
added, the result of this addition is one more than
the total number * of the pages in that section.
To print four pages by one impression, the pages
must be put in one chase to be printed on paper of
double size. The sheet so imposed is
known as a half -sheet of 4to, because
it produces, when the sheet has been
printed on both sides, eight pages of
riri, 1 !! i:=r print, or duplicates of the four pages
in the shape of two half -sheets. After
,,,, ,,,^:,,,,m ^ e P a P er nas been printed on one
side, the pressman turns the sheet
upside down and " end for end,"
; '""" which operation puts the edge A in
the position before occupied by edge
2 in one chafe!* B, and vice versa. This makes him
print page 1 upon the back of page 2,
1 The operation of this rule The result of each addition will
may be seen more clearly in the be 25, one more than the total
separation of a section of several number of pages in the section,
pages : Take an ordinary quarter The relative position of the
quire of six double leaves and mated pages cannot be changed
page them consecutively as if in any scheme of imposition;
they were the cut leaves of a they are mates and always must
sheet of 24mo. Then separate be mates. An understanding of
the double leaves and add to- this rule will often prevent the
gether the paging figures of the novice from laying down a page
mated pages : in a wrong position. If in the
half-sheet of 24mo he has laid
10-15 down 15 or 17 by the side of 9, he
223 520 B 17 1114 wiU know by mental calculation
322 619 916 1213 that the page is wrongly placed.
Turning on the short cross 339
and page 4 upon the back of page 3. Paper so
treated is said to be "turned on the short cross/ 7
or the short cross-bar of the chase. When printed
on the second side, the sheet is cut in two, and each
half-sheet is the duplicate of the other half.
This half-sheet of quarto can also be printed in
one form from a long and narrow strip of paper
by imposing the pages in this manner :
1- _4;3- -2
3 Four pages in one chase, long way.
1
4 Four pages in one chase,
imposed from the centre. 1
To impose with propriety any form that has to
be made perfect upon pages in the same chase, it
should be known at the outset whether the sheet
will be perfected by turning it on the short cross
or the long cross. The turn on the short cross is
1 Scheme 4 is not so generally collect at the ends of the inking
acceptable as Scheme 3, but it rollers, and as excess of ink on
may be used with advantage open pages is a trouble to the
when the inner pages 1 and 2 pressman, it is sometimes of ad-
are open and the outer pages 3 vantage to put solid pages at the
and 4 are solid. As ink tends to ends of the form.
340 Thick sections a fault
always preferred, for it allows the pressman to
keep the same edge of the sheet to the feed-guides. 1
Before any scheme of imposition is determined
for a large form, the thickness of the paper should
be known. If there are too few pages to a section,
there will be too many sections in the bool?, the
cost of sewing will be largely increased, and the
book will be made bunchy at the back by excess
of thread. If too many pages are put in a sec-
tion, the sheet will buckle or wrinkle at the head
of the innermost fold ; all leaves will open stiffly,
showing the sewing-thread; and the inner leaves
will protrude unequally and have margins askew. 2
Scheme 5, on the next page, shows that this form
of 64 pages, when backed on itself, has to be cut in
eight sections to make four duplicates of 16 pages.
1 The turning of the sheet trimming are never so neat as
on the long cross, sometimes those of sections of 8 and 16.
unavoidable, is unwillingly ac- Thick sections are never to be
cepted by the pressman, for it seen in the books made for the
compels him to present another library by reputable publishers,
edge of the paper to the feed- Although sections of 16 pages
guides when he prints the sec- are more used than any other,
ond side. A new feeding-edge these sections are not always
may compel him to register by printed on separate sheets. A
points, a much slower process. section of 16 pages may be a part
2 Books or pamphlets to be dis- of a form of 48, 64, or 96 pages,
tributed gratuitously, and that Even in the thick pamphlets of
must be made at the smallest 48 pages intended to be centre-
cost, like almanacs, trade cata- stitched in one section, the pages
logues, and advertisements of are, as a rule, laid so that the
patent medicines, are often made sheet will be cut in thirds, mak-
up in thick sections to save ex- ing three sections of 16. Each
pense in sewing. Sections of 32 section is separately folded ; the
and 48 pages are not uncommon, second is nested in the first,
but their folding, sewing, and and the third in the second.
ei
10
tt
11
te
39
At
42
43
81
23
18
26
08
27
61
22
OS
55
89
58
59
j^
85
29
IS
20
9S
49
8 6
1 16
31
13
ot
33
LQ
64
61
8S
52
It
48
tt Z-8
45 36
1 3
5 Sixty-four pages in one chase : four sections of 16 pages.
341
342 Furniture for marginal space
In ordinary forms of half -sheet presswork, page 2
is put in an opposite corner or in a contrary direc-
tion from page 1, so that the backing of the sheet
will bring page 2 on the back of page 1 ; and the
first folding of the sheet at a right angle will bring
3 opposite 2 j and the last cross-fold will bring page
9 opposite 8. That done, all intermediate pages
are in order. The even page will back an odd page
when the sheet has been turned, and the following
odd page will face the even page when another
regular fold has been made. This repeated cross-
folding of the sheet brings the innermost pages
within the interior of the section, so that the last
four leaves will be mates of the first four leaves.
In every imposition, whether in the " usual way n or
" from the centre," long fold or cross fold, the
pages must occupy the same relative position one to
another, however peculiar the scheme or however
large the number of pages in the form. 1
1 It is to be supposed that a not be accurately measured or
diagram has been previously specified on the diagram are the
given to the maker-up to define thin pieces nearest to the cross-
the shape of the page and to bars, which will be of varying
specify the width of the mar- width to suit the variable thick
gins about the pages. This dia- ness of the cross-bars. The head-
gram sheet should be prepared bolts and thin cross-bar pieces
in the office or by the foreman can be put in their places af ter-
bef ore the pages are made up. ward. A sheet of the paper to be
To require the stoneman or the printed should also be furnished
maker-up to cut furniture and to the stoneman. The proper ad-
determine margins will be found justmentof margins by this sheet
wasteful of time and productive has been illustrated on pages 299,
of error. The furniture should 303, and 304 of this book. Ex-
be selected before the pages are actness in measurement by this
laid. The only pieces that can- sheet is of great importance.
Chases to be carefully selected 343
In the ordinary imposition of 16mo, page 1 appears
in print upon the first leaf of the first half of the
sheet that has opened leaves on the front, and
page 9 upon the first leaf of the other half of the
sheet that is closed by the bolts of folded leaves.
But the pages can be imposed to be folded in another
way : page 1 can be placed on the leaf taken by page
9 in the usual scheme of imposition. When pages
have been so placed and the sheet is folded in this
reversed way, the first leaf of the bolted half is
thereby made page 1. (See Scheme 18.) This method
of reversing is called imposing from the centre. 1
When the pages have been truly laid on the stone,
the furniture selected should be put next to the
pages. It is to be supposed that the length and
width of each piece have been previously determined,
so that no piece will interfere with another, and
that all will yield gently to the pressure of lock-
ing up.
The selection of the chase is next in order. Pages
to be electrotyped are usually imposed in chases of
cast-iron that hold two or four 8vo or three, six,
or eight 12mo pages. These chases should have
1 The odd page put down in machines have to put page 1 in
an ordinary scheme of imposi- some other position to enable
tion of 16mo as 3, 5, 7, or 9 can them to make use of proper me-
be used to place the first page, chanical motions in the machine,
if following pages are put in It should be clearly understood
correspondingly reversed posi- that a changing of the position of
tions. Page 1 in the outer corner page 1 to the place usually occu-
of the sheet is most acceptable pied by some other odd page will
to folders by hand, but the mak- compel corresponding changes
ers of a few of the newer folding- of position in every other page.
344 Cross-bars need testing iqith square
frames about one and a half inches wide and three
quarters of an inch high, to enable the iron fairly
to resist the great pressure put on the form by the
moulding-press. The old cast-iron chase for plaster
stereotype, with frame one inch wide and two thirds
of an inch high, that still survives in some houses,
is liable to crack under this pressure. If the chase
is not square, the plate will not be square. 1
The form of four or eight small pages, made up
for letterpress, may be imposed in a cast-iron chase,
but cast-iron is not to be trusted for any large book
form. When the form is locked up, the frame will
bend outward in the middle on each side, putting
pages out of line and making register difficult. For
all forms containing many pages, and even for
forms of few pages that call for exact register, the
wrought-iron chase, with slotted and dovetailed
cross-bars, should be selected to prevent the out-
ward bending of the chase frame and to provide
right-angled sides as resists to the pressure pro-
duced with side-sticks and quoins. The chase se-
lected should be tested by a square on the interior
angles made by cross-bars. If the dovetails do
not fit snugly, or if the slots at the intersection of
the bars are loose and wabbly, these faults should
l Trustworthy apparatus, the noticed. Authors and publishers
first condition of good printing, of to-day are much more critical,
is needed now more than ever. A slight deviation from square-
When presswork was done from ness repeated on the pages of a
small forms upon small hand- large form is not only offensive
presses, out-of-squareness in a to the reader, but is a hindrance
page or a form often passed un- to the pressman and binder.
Stamped numbers on cross-bars 345
be corrected at once. 1 They cannot be corrected
properly after the form has been locked up.
The methods that are customary in the imposi-
tion of large forms are sometimes unwisely neg-
lected in small forms. A circular of
two pages, to be printed on the first
and third pages of the sheet by one
impression, should be imposed in one
form as four pages of 4to. Two pages
of blanks should be made up to repre-
sent pages 2 and 4, and be imposed
as if they were pages of type. To
impose the third page by guessing 6 A circular of
at the blank required for head and p^nf onTrs^' and
back margins is never a safe process, third pages.
The blank pages are really needed as guides to
correct position.
i
l Chases with shifting cross-
bars seldom receive proper care.
The chases and their detached
bars are usually stood up against
a dead wall, where they are bent
by the superincumbent weight
of other chases and bars piled
against them. They are often
allowed to get bruised and rusty.
The bars are sometimes used as
pokers or levers. Bars made for
one chase are sometimes vio-
lently forced into another; slots
and dovetails may be reflled and
clumsily altered. Under this
rough treatment the chase may
be twisted and made more crook-
ed than the cast-iron chase.
Chases should be bought with
system ; there need not be many
sizes, but there should be many
of the same size. As cross-bars
are not made interchangeable,
each bar should have its own
number stamped on its dovetail,
and on the frame nearest to its
corresponding slot in the chase.
Under no circumstances should
the cross-bar made for one chase
be forced into another chase, for
this change damages two chases.
When many chases of one size
are provided, and each chase is
numbered, the time spent by the
stoneman in fitting new forms
with furniture and by the press-
man in adjusting margins will
be sensibly diminished.
346
Small sheets with insets
INSET FOLIOS OF USUAL FORM
Account-books and diaries are sometimes printed
on single sheets of flat cap (14 X 17 inches), with
dates and figures following one another in proper
order. The sheet of small size is selected because
editions are small, and larger paper may not be
had of proper size, weight, and quality. Sheets so
treated are usually made up in sections of fives,
and are sewed in the usual way through the longer
fold. The heads of pages must be kept in parallel
line, but the arrangement of pages in other features
does not differ from that laid down for the legal
folio. To prevent error, a dummy of each section
should be made on leaves of blank paper, properly
paged in writing, so that the dummy will serve as
a guide to stoneman, pressman, and proof-reader.
For the first section the order will be :
First sheet. Second sheet.
1 20 3 18
Third sheet.
5 16
Fourth sheet.
7 14
Fifth sheet.
9 12
L\
Outer forms.
9 QT
Inner forms.
01
7 An inset folio of 20 pages in ten forms.
Signatures at the tail of each sheet are seldom
made, but they may be helpful to an inexpert.
The legal folio 347
The legal folio is preferred by lawyers for docu-
ments, and is usually printed in four-page forms
imposed the long way on the size of paper known
as double legal-cap, 16 X 26 inches. It reverses
the usual methods of book-work. Its leaves are
fastened at the heads of odd pages ; the heads of
odd pages are backed upon the tails of even pages ;
its print is read by turning the leaves the long way
on the short fold ; it has a wider margin at the left
than at the right of the page. The number of
copies ordered is usually too small to warrant the
imposition of more than four pages to the form,
even when there may be six or more sheets for
the document. It is always imposed to be sewed,
stitched, or eyeleted together in one section only,
whether that section contains few or many pages.
To produce the wider margin required at the
left of each page, the furniture selected for the
gutters must be about twice as wide * ;
as that given to the ordinary side-
sewed book. The pressman can keep
equal outer margins. As the sheet g""
is creased or folded at the head, the 1 j ,
head-bolt should be much wider
than is customary in the ordinary
imposition. Each sheet turns on the '"'"^ ""'
long cross, the duplicates so made 8 Legal folio
being separated by cutting through of 4 P a g es -
the longer fold. This cut should be made with pre-
cision, for the margins will not permit retrimming.
348 Eight oblong pages
First sheet. Second sheet. Third sheet. Fourth sheet.
16 14 12 10
SI 81 tt
Z t 9
9 Legal folio of 16 pages, imposed for insets.
MUSIC OR OBLONG WAY
Some books of music and of maps or illustrations
are planned for a short and broad page that must
be sewed on the narrower side
of the leaf. The section so
treated, known as of oblong
shape, requires a different im-
position of the pages and ad-
justment of margins, but the
relative position of the pages
to their mates and to one an-
other must be the same as in
the ordinary method of impo-
L,,,,,,;,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,, ;; ,, ;:; ,,, ;; ,n, |; ,,J sition. This sheet has to be
Illllil iillllll! folded for its first fold the
10 Eight pages in one broad way of the print ; on its
form, oblong way. second, the narrow way.
1 _
- e
- 8
11
9 -
7
9 -
7 -
Eight pages in the
usual way.
Duplicates in the same form 349
Eight pages imposed
from the centre differ
from eight pages in the
usual way only in the
transposition of the two
halves of the form. The
pages in each quarter are
precisely the same.
In Scheme 12 the right
and left halves of Scheme
11 are transposed. When
Scheme 12 has been se-
lected, the white margin
of paper on the outside of
pages 8 and 7 must be,
for each side, one half (no
more, no less) of the blank
between pages 1 and 2.
" Two on" (Scheme 13) is a phrase often used to
describe the filling of a form with two (and some-
times more) duplicates of
the same type or plates.
It is frequently practised
to utilize a large machine,
to lessen the number of
impressions and to save
needless expense. The
first and last four pages
_ 2
i _
- G
8
12 Eight pages imposed
from the centre.
z -
- e
t -
- 1
1 _
,,
L,-
-2
13 Eight pages in two sec-
of but 4 pages only,
tions
often known as
two on.
of a book can be so im-
posed with advantage.
350
Three octavos in one section
- ~IZ \ ZZ~ 8
i _
24
23
2
Outset of section.
8 - LI
5 20
81-
19
L
6
The triple scheme 14 ex-
emplifies three half-sheets
of octavo, but they are
imposed in three forms,
to be inset so as to make
24 pages to one section.
Note (1) that the sum
total of every pair of
mated pages is always
25 ; (2) that the twelve
pages which constitute
the first half of the sec-
tion are at the ends of
each sheet and the other
half in the centre; (3)
that the last pages of
the outset occupy rela-
tively the same position
as pages 5, 6, 7, 8 in the
ordinary octavo ; (4) that
the first four pages of
the first inset occupy the
position of the first pages
in the ordinary octavo.
When this order is well
understood, imposing of
inset sections in many
forms may be done with-
14 Eight-page forms in three . . , . , , .
chases, to be inset to make Out the aid f a Diagram
one section of 24 pages. previously prepared.
First inset.
7,1 81
9
16
tl IT
15 10
Second inset.
Sixteen and thirty-two pages 351
Eight pages may also be imposed the long way of
the page after Scheme 15, which is sometimes used
IBB. Jill! I IlIIIllL Jill!
15 Eight pages, 2 wide, 4 high.
to utilize offcuts of paper. This scheme, although
not often used, may be needed for offcuts and long
pages on a sheet of odd shape.
1 _ _8 5- 4 3 6 7- -2
16 Eight pages for an offcut of paper.
This is another scheme for eight pages, which also
shows the unalterable position of mated pages.
SIXTEEN AND THIRTY-TWO PAGES
8~ 6 Z\ Q 9 IT 01 L
1 _ _ 16 13 4 3 14 15 -2
Outer form. Inner form.
17 Sixteen pages in two chases for one section.
352 Advantages of sheetwise presswork
In Scheme 17 the outer and inner forms are laid
down side by side ; but if the pages of the inner
form were placed at the top of the outer form
(page 2 in the upper left-hand corner), and all were
in one chase, the arrangement would be that of the
usual form of sixteens. (See Scheme 19.)
The outer and inner forms of the same sheet
should have the pages laid down in the two chases
at the same time and in consecutive order. Be-
ginning with page 1 of the outer form, pages 2 and
3 should next be put in the inner form. Pages 4
and 5 will next be put in the outer form, to be
followed by pages 6 and 7 in the inner form. This
successive alternation of two consecutive pages in
each chase will be continued until the last page is
mated with the first page of the outer form.
One of the difficulties of sheetwise imposition is
that of making register when there is a shrinkage
of furniture in either form. Another is its greater
liability to unevenness of color or of impression
when the two forms are done on different presses
and by different pressmen. But it has to be used on
rotary and perfecting presses that have been con-
structed to deliver the sheet perfect on both sides
at one operation. It is also used with advantage
for very large pages, and for illustrated work in
which the ink on the cuts printed on one side of
the paper should be entirely dry before the second
side goes to press. When an unusually large num-
ber of pages has to be put on a sheet (as in three
Sixteen pages ~by two methods 353
sixteens to a 48mo in
two chases) the sheetwise
method is of service, but,
as a rule, the form that
can be printed perfect on
itself as a half-sheet is
printed with more ease
than if the pages were
imposed in two forms.
Sixteen pages are also
imposed from the cen-
tre. When the sheet has
been perfected and cut in
z
8
7 _ _io ii-
- 6
51 - Q
13 -4
19 Sixteen pages as
usually laid.
23
51-
13
- 6
16
ti-
ll
z
SI
-10
18 Sixteen pages, imposed
from centre.
two, page 1 will be the
outQr page of the section,
but the pages from 2 to 8
will be closed by bolts at
head and side. Imposing
from the centre reverses
the position of the bolts.
Another method of im-
posing the 16mo from the
centre can be followed by
transposing in a body the
pages entire on each side
of the short cross-bar.
354 Sixteen pages with' an inset
z -
3
i
- L
6
8 -
5 -
- G
- 8
9 -
7 -
~ I
4
- 8
- 2
For a very long edition
the section of 8 pages
is often duplicated by
electrotyping, so that the
duplicates can be printed
together on a large press.
In this scheme the paper
can be turned on the long
cross or short cross. The
sheet when perfected will
make 32 pages, or four
duplicates, 8 pages each.
20 Sixteen pages, as two
sections of 8 pages.
In the usual way of im-
posing sixteens the long
bolts or closed leaves are
those that come between
pages 9 and 16. It should
be also noted that in the
two schemes 18 and 19
the mated pages of each
quarter are alike j their
position together upon
the sheet is different, but
their relative position to
each other is not changed.
z
3 -
si
9
7
-IT
-10
1
SI
-16
8 -
5 -
- 6
-12
21 Sixteen pages in two
portions of 8 pages for inset.
01
Sixteen pages for two sections 355
When the paper for a 16-page section is too thick
to be folded, but not too thick to be sewed as a
single section, it is cus- ,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
tomary to impose the full
sheet of 16 pages in two/ i
parts. Each part can be ""- - "i"i
separately folded, and ~ vi T 7 _
one part can be inset in
the other. This prevents
the buckling of the paper
between pages 8 and 9,
and it saves the cost of
extra sewing for another
section.
This is another scheme IA ^ | 8 -
(22) to save 'extra press- '"~ '"_
work and to utilize large
presses. It may happen
that a book of 16 -page
sections closes with 12 ^ Sixteen pages in two
pages only for the last portions, one of 12 and
sheet. To print a special one of 4 P a S es -
form of 12 pages is both inconvenient and waste-
ful. It is customary to impose the 12 pages for a
form of 16, and to treat the excess of 4 pages as a
part of the end papers in the book. Or these 4 pages
can be utilized to be added to the preface matter,
if a similar irregularity is there presented. Scheme
22 shows an imposition for one section of 12 pages
and one of 4 pages. The sheet of 16 pages can be
9
_ 4
L
3
33 36
356 Sixteen oblong pages, music way
folded at the same time,
and the binder can then
cut out the four pages
v-viii with the folder, and
afterward put them in
their proper places in the
front part of the book.
Scheme 23 when print-
ed on both sides will be
cut in six pieces, to make
three sets of duplicates.
For a form of 16 pages
in four sections of 4 pages
each, repeat on the left
side of the long cross the
arrangement of 4 pages
A " " i B" for the two sections here
23 Sixteen pages in three ghown on the right
sections : one 8, two 4.
g
?e ss
1
8
:,;i
:ii:;::iii:i::::i:i;;ii!::!::i
iiiiiiiii
r* -r "" IM
lllllll.llllilllll IMMIllII
1
]^
I!!!! !! <
;::!!:;!!!!!
IMIIIHIIIMIIIMIIIIMII-III
1 fi
01
1 **
L
Ij Ml Mlt'llli 1
UIIUIIM.
;; iii ":;:;;;:;;;;
EEiiii / ' |]
24 Sixteen oblong pages, music way, one section.
Thirty-two pages in one section 357
Scheme 24 provides for duplicates of 16 pages
each. The first and second folds of the section are
the narrow way of the cut sheet ; the last fold is at
a right angle. Buckling of paper may be lessened
by ripping the sheet half-way on the second fold
with the bone folder between pages 12 and 13.
f - 63
13 20
83-
21-
- e
12
LZ
22
os
19
91 LI
1 - 32
oi
7 -
S3
26
81
31-
SI
- 2
25
Outer form. Inner form.
Thirty-two pages in two chases, to fold as one section.
Scheme 25 is entirely impracticable for a library
book, and is of doubtful value for a cheap pamphlet
on very thin paper. With paper of ordinary thick-
ness it will cause wrinkling, and margins will be
askew. This arrangement of pages when put in one
chase is usually described as a half -sheet of 32 pages.
358
Thirty-two pages with inset
oi
15
18
zz
19
13 20
16
29
9 -
3 -
30
Outer form. Inner form.
26 Thirty-two pages in two forms: two signatures of 16
pages, to be separately folded and inset to make one section.
The sheet printed by Scheme 26 is cut in two
pieces, making two distinct portions of 16 pages.
The section containing pages 1-8 and 25-32 is folded
as the outset; the section containing pages 9-24
constitutes the inset. This arrangement should
not be selected for a library book, for the section
so treated will be too thick. The imposition of
the pages in one chase for paper of double size is
usually known as a half-sheet of 32 pages, imposed
for two separate foldings and one section.
For 32 pages in one form as two sections of 16
pages, rearrange the lay of pages so that the sheet
Thirty-two pages of four sections 359
can be turned on the short cross in backing up, keep-
ing each section distinct on its side of the long cross. 1
Sixty-four pages in four sections of 16 pages
each are shown in Scheme 5, on page 341. Sixty-
four pages in one section is another impracticable
imposition, 2 even if made with two or four insets.
05 IZ ! 8Z 63 : 08
17 24 ! 25 32 I 31
LZ \ ZZ 61
26 ! 23 18
? - - s
1 - -8
"4"
mi'!!!!!!!!!
ill 1
iiiil iii
_m | .
nm.mn
it
t
>" ' "":
- -16
L5
-10
"t
' 5
1 2
27 Thirty-two pages, as four sections of 8 pages each.
1 Imposing the pages for each
section on distinct sides of the
long cross keeps the same feed-
edge of paper in printing the
second side. Each section of 16
will be on half of the sheet cut
the long way. See Scheme 39.
2 An approach to this problem
is made by one style of machine
folder which, by outward and
inward folding, connects in one
long strip four sections of 16
pages, conjoined but prepared
for connective sewing.
360 Ninety-six pages in one chase
= to =
IT 71
||| = ||||||i o ^1 = 1" = == = = =
_
n
i
if fi
ii i
HIM! 01 Cq
iiiiiir
IIHII i i
fl
i
iiiiifiiliito 01
!i A!
liif ?: . : r r:;::
iw iiiii- 1 ini aiir I iHiii air
28 Ninety-six pages in one chase : six sections of 16s.
This form is more practicable with plates than with
type. Exact register will be facilitated if the four
mated pages are cast together on one plate.
One hundred and twenty -eight pages 361
OI 90t 801 TOl | OSI ISl Sl All
97 113 109 100 113 128 138 116
Si 8L 9A 69
6S 80 77 68
811 SSI
116 128
SSI 611
127 114
88 68 86 88 98 16 06 18
== =
64 61 62
61 62 63
6 SC 85 15
17 32 29 20
501 AOl 901 01
99 110 111 98
t 5* 66
46 47 34
II 01
14 15
29 One hundred and twenty-eight pages in one chase :
eight sections of 16 pages each.
The scheme of 128 pages in one chase is possible
for very small pages and thin sections only. In
two forms, outer and inner, of 64 pages each, the
128-page scheme is more manageable, and especially
so when the outer form contains the illustrations
and the inner form has plain type only. When
there are illustrations that may require special
treatment in making ready, the smaller form of 64
362 Advantages of thin sections
pages in sections of 16 pages only, as shown in
Scheme 5, will be more useful for small editions.
Separate sections of 16 pages, when paper is of
ordinary thickness, are preferred by all printers and
binders. The schemes of this book could be in-
creased by presenting others for sections of 24 or
32 pages, but they would prove of no service for a
neat book. The methods occasionally adopted by
the publisher of cheap advertising pamphlets, who
tries to reduce the cost of manufacture by printing
too many pages in one form on a large sheet, and
by folding the sheet so printed in sections of 32
or more pages, cannot be safely imitated in strict
book-work. Forms of many pages are not eco-
nomical for small editions. Even when the pages
in a form are not too numerous, the unskilled com-
positor is specially warned against making too thick
sections with intent to reduce the cost of folding
and sewing. Thick sections will not save time or ex-
pense. What may seem to be saved in one direction
will be more than lost in another, and the book of
thick sections will be condemned as unworkmanlike
and may be entirely unacceptable. The smaller the
leaf the more the need of thinner sections.
For the large sheets printed on rotary or flat-bed
perfecting presses, that will be folded by the newer
styles of folding-machines, these schemes will not
serve, for machines differ from one another in plan
and construction. Pages must be imposed by the
schemes of the manufacturer of the machine.
Twelve pages in one chase
363
TWELVE PAGES AND THEIR DUPLICATES
5
8
6
MIMMII
t 6 i 01
+
i 12 i ii
Scheme 30 is an 8vo
with an added 4-page
inset, within which oc-
tavo part this inset can
be folded by the same
mm,,,,,,, operation, or can be cut
jiiii D off for a separate fold-
ing and subsequent in-
- 8 sertion. The sheet is
_ 2 made perfect on the
second side by turning
it on the long cross-bar
""""J 1 " of the chase. 1
30 Twelve pages in one Pages 5, 8, 7, 6 are
chase. Turns on long cross. of ten called the off cut,
because in old methods of imposition they were cut
off and separately folded to be inserted as an inset
between pages 4 and 9. By this old method the
running title and its folio figure were always placed
at the tail of pages 4, 9, 10, 3. This treatment,
unavoidable on rough paper, often produced uneven
head margins and a crooked inset. This fault can
1 In presswork the first side of
the sheet is laid up to guides
against edges AB ; the second
side, against edges BD. To get
correct register by feeding, the
sheet should be trimmed accu-
rately square on all sides. If the
paper is crooked or if it is hand-
made with rough edges, points
should be inserted on the first
side, as marked in scheme, for
its repointing on second side.
The black dots in Scheme 30
mark the usual place of points
for hand-press ; the +, the place
of points for cylinder.
364 Insets and signatures of 12mo
be prevented by the use of truly squared paper,
by putting the heads of the so-called offcut pages
against the edge of the sheet, and by giving an
increased amount of blank where the tail of the
offcut part meets the tail of the octavo part of the
sheet. The pressman should feed paper to the off-
cut edge and give to its head margin one half of
the blank provided in the head-bolts of the octavo
part of the sheet. When these precautions have
been taken, the head margins of an inset offcut
can be made as true as those of a folded 16mo.
Pressmen dislike the 12mo because its turn on
the long cross causes delay and trouble ; publishers
dislike it because it is expensive in folding and
has greater liability to untidiness j yet it is a form
that must be used often. On hand-made papers
with rough edges, the heads of the offcut must be
placed after the old method at the tail of other
pages, but points must be used. On smooth-edged
paper the turning out of the heads for the offcut
is a better practice, and the points may be omitted.
Twelve pages can be imposed from the centre
by transposing in a body pages 4, 9, 1, 12 with
pages 10, 3, 11, 2. Offcut pages need no change.
At the tail of page 5 in Scheme 30 appears 1*.
The star indicates an inset : 1* for the first and
1** for the second inset of the complete section.
The purpose of the repeated signature figure with
star attached is to identify the offcut and to show
its connection to the outset. In a bindery where
Twenty-four pages in two chases 365
this inset will be cut off and may be misplaced,
this mark of identification is of service.
9 16 13 12 11 14 15 10
8~ LI OZ 9 61 81 L
1 24 21 4 3 22 23 2
Outer form. Inner form.
31 Twenty-four pages in two chases, as one section.
In Scheme 31 the 16-page portion of the form is
imposed 8 pages wide and 2 pages high, contrary
to the order of Scheme 19 (4 pages high, 4 pages
wide), but this part of the sheet can be folded in
the same way at successive right angles. The off-
cut, which should be folded separately, must have
two successive folds on same parallel.
The arrangement of the pages in Scheme 31
will serve quite as well for the imposition of 24
pages in one chase, but this is not recommended.
Thick sections produce outer margins of unequal
width when the book has been trimmed. Every
366 Narrowing of back margins
double leaf following the outer one is pushed out-
ward a little more than the thickness of its paper.
This outpush varies ; it is about a lead more on the
second leaf, and it increases uniformly with every
added leaf in the section. In the book planned for
wide front margin, a difference in width of two or
three leads is unnoticeable and may be disregarded ;
in the rule-bordered 32mo of small size, planned
for margins of one-third or one-quarter inch, vari-
ation becomes a serious fault which will require
much care for its prevention.
To prevent this fault, the back margins of inner
leaves must be narrowed with system. The back
margin of the outer double leaf needs no alteration,
but that of the second double leaf should have
about one lead less. The third double leaf, and
every added one, should have a narrowing in the
same proportion, in all cases depending on the
thickness of the paper. The blank taken out of
back margins must be restored in two equal parts
to the front margins of the leaves from which the
blank has been abstracted. This readjustment is
exceedingly troublesome.
It is better practice to have this readjustment
done on the stone in forms that are being prepared
for electrotyping, the stoneman being notified of
the paper that will be used and of the scheme of
imposition. In the ordinary scheme of 16 pages in
one section, the two pages 1-16 should be prepared
for electrotyping upon one plate with the regular
Adjusted margins for plates 367
back margin. Pages 2-15, that back 1-16, also in
one plate, should have the same back margin.
Pages 3-14 and 4-13 of the second leaf should
have one lead less in the back margin j pages
5-12 and 6-11 of the third leaf, two leads less;
and 7-10 and 8-9 of the fourth leaf, three leads
less. The electrotyper may need the caution to
bevel all these double-paged plates to uniform size,
not bevelling an outer margin too close to type-
work because the margins have been made inten-
tionally unequal. Plates so made will seem out of
line when adjusted upon blocks, but the pages will
be in line when the book has been properly printed,
folded, and trimmed. All the outer margins will
be of uniform width ; the abstracted blank in the
back margin will not be noticed. This method of
electrotyping two and sometimes four pages upon
one plate has this additional advantage : it saves
the time of the pressman and improves the register.
The appearance of the ordinary 24mo of one
section can be made more sightly by reducing the
width of back margins of the offcut by this sys-
tem, even when the margins of the 8vo part of
the sheet remain undisturbed. This change can be
made in the offcut with little trouble.
Twenty-four pages can be imposed to produce
two sections, one of 16 and one of 8 pages, by
putting pages 1-16 on the two-third part of the
sheet (making it an independent section), and by
putting pages 17-24 for the other section in the
368
Sections should be uniform
_4 i 3
i_
4
3 2
one-third or offcut part of the sheet. This also
must be folded the long way.
Twenty-four pages can also be imposed for three
sections of 8 pages by treating each row of pages as
an 8vo to be folded the long way. See Scheme 16.
Twelve pages, in a form
of similar triplicates of 4
pages each, are often used
for the printing of pam-
phlet covers. Care must be
taken to have truly squared
paper and exact cutting
and folding, for the paper
must be turned on the long
cross, and the sheet must
present different edges to
the feed-guides. The heads
of all sections can be laid
one way, as here shown.
Sections of the same
thickness favor neat bind-
ing. When a section of 16 pages is followed by
another of 8 or of 4 pages, the gatherer may over-
look the thin section. A book that has uneven sec-
tions is rarely ever neatly sewed ; its leaves open
stiffly and show unsightly gaps at its joints. Thin
sections are sometimes unavoidable, but they should
be prevented when prevention is possible. Schemes
for sections of unequal thickness in forms of many
pages are most useful when the additional small
i
4
2
32 Twelve pages in one
chase, similar triplicates
of 4 pages each.
Twelvemo of oblong leaves 369
sections save presswork or waste of paper. They
could be largely increased in this book, but to no
advantage. They are not helpful but confusing
to the young compositor, for they lead him to use
schemes that call for complicated folding.
.a,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,;,,,,,, i"," 1 ::!!;!"!;'"!;!::;: 1 ,!! The six outer pages that
Siiiiji come first and appear on the
9 ~ ^ left side of Scheme 33 are on
3 -10 one side of the long cross;
the six pages that come last
are on the other side ; but the
sheet is perfected by turning
it over the short cross in the
usual way. The sheet is cut
in halves : see rule between
pages 1-2 and 11-12, which
makes duplicates of them.
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, !:!!:!!:!',!!!:!!!!!! Pages 5, 6, 7, 8 turn in on
| the first fold. The second
*~~ ~ G fold is made on the same
,,,,,~, parallel between pages 3-2
i and 10-11. Last fold is on
33 Twelve pages of" ob- the narrow way of the paper.
long shape, no inset, In Scheme 34 that follows
central imposition. fa e s h eet turns on the long
cross, and two parallel folds have to be made. It
is intended to have the offcut (pages 9-16) sepa-
rately folded and inset. The folding in of the inset,
unavoidable in cheap and hurried binding, is too
often inaccurate as to margins.
24
IT
12
370 Names and proportions of leaves
01
11
91
13
1C
20
or,
19
LI
24
34 Twenty-four pages, oblong shape, 1 inset of 8 pages.
The pages could be laid for a folding in of the inset,
but its separate folding will make a neater section.
1 In advertised descriptions of
books, some publishers specify
the paper -trade name of the
paper used before they add the
name of the shape or the fold of
the leaf, but this practice is not
general. Sizes of paper differ
and the names of leaf -shapes
differ in different countries. It
follows that the descriptive
names of sizes and shapes are
often confusing and may be
misleading. The table annexed
gives names that are in frequent
use, but they are not so called
everywhere. The figures give
relative proportions in inches.
Name of leaf. Height. Width.
Regular or standard . 9 6
Broad or wide ... 9 6*&
Quarto shape ... 9 7
Long or deep ... 9 5
Extra long or narrow 9
Oblong or music way 9
Variations of a half -inch in the
height are seldom explained by
any change in name.
13
Twenty-four pages by two impositions 371
9 16 13 12 : 11 14 15 10
OS
21
9 ~
3
61
22
81 - L
23- 2
35 Twenty-four pages in one chase, with offcut of 8 pages
to be inset and make one section.
5 _ 8 ; 17 20 i 19 18 I 7
12
91 \Z
13 24
ZZ
23
si
14
01
11
- 8
- 2
36 Twenty-four pages in one chase, for two sections of
12 pages each, offcuts to be separately folded and inset.
372 Twenty -four pages, 16mo fold
z - 85
7 18
zz
19
- 8 j 01 fil
_ 6 ! 11 14
os
21
_ 4
SI 81
9 16
1 1*
37 Twenty-four pages on the square sheet, with offcut
of 8 pages, to be inset to make one section.
For the 24mo in one chase, two shapes of paper
are made : the square shape, .for which the pages
must be imposed 4 pages high and 6 pages wide ;
the long shape, 3 pages high and 8 pages wide.
For the ordinary 12mo leaf, 5 x 7| inches, the
square paper is 30 x 30 J inches, an awkward shape.
The long paper, 23 X 41 inches, is handier, and is
usually preferred. For long editions the 32-page
form on paper 30 x 40 or 31 x 41 inches is selected.
Sixteen-page impositions, for cross folds and
without insets, are best fitted for hand folding.
Twenty -four pages on square sheet 373
_,, M | mmm
mn.m, ^ imnuum
"es
3 10 j 19-
-18 | 15 |
22
t"" ""e os"-
4
s I
unmn, j mmnnnn
mmmm
1 _ _12 | 5^-
-8 I 13
24
1 II* 12
38 Twenty-four pages on the square shape
of sheet, for two sections of 12 pages.
This sheet turns on the short cross. When per-
fected it is first cut in three long strips. The outer
strips (signatures 1 and 2) are folded separately as
8vos. The inner strip, that bears the signatures 1*
and 2*, is cut in four pieces, making duplicates of
each signature, which are separately folded and
inset in their proper order. The outer strips are
each subdivided in two equal parts for the insertion
of the insets. Scheme 38 makes troublesome fold-
ing. It should not be selected when paper of proper
size can be had that will permit the use of Scheme
35, which is more approved by publishers.
374 Forty-eight pages in three sections
For twenty-four pages in one chase, the long shape
of paper, usually 23 x 41, is to be preferred for
the ordinary duodecimo of 5 x 7f inches.
oT "it
33 48
55
45
is
z,e
36
88
35
"et
46
mmunmn
47
" "es
34
t3
17
QZ 83
32 29
20 ; 19
LZ 93 S3
30 31 18
8 - - 6 31 ~
1 16 13
-IT OT - L
14 15 - 2
39 Forty-eight pages in one chase, as three distinct sections
of 16 pages each, for the square shape of paper.
Other plans for forty-eight pages 375
Twenty-four pages in three separate sections of
8 pages each can be made by triplicating in one
chase Scheme 15 or 16 for 8 pages.
The sheet for Scheme 39 turns on the long cross.
When perfected it is cut in six pieces, as marked,
and each section is folded as a regular 16mo. Its
turn on the long cross, for printing on the second
side, compels a new feed-edge of paper to be pre-
sented to the grippers a treatment always objec-
tionable to the pressman. To impose the pages to
turn on the short cross gives extra trouble to the
binder, and risks imperfect workmanship: the
upper and lower tiers of 16 pages each must be
treated as widely separated but regular sixteens,
as in Scheme 19 ; the middle tier of 16 must be
cut at the head, to fold by consecutive parallels.
For 48 pages in two sections of 24 pages each,
but in one chase, repeat on each half of the short
cross the imposition of Scheme 37, or treat them as
the lower two thirds of Scheme 44. It is not an
imposition to be recommended.
A scheme for 48 pages in one chase, to be folded
together in one section, is quite impracticable even
for a common pamphlet on very thin paper. It is
never selected for a library book, for it cannot be
folded neatly or be trimmed with true margins.
A section of 32 with inset of 16 is clumsy. It is
little better to put the pages in two parts of 24
pages each, one to be inset. For all side-stitched
pamphlets prefer thin sections. The paper cover
376 Seventy -two pages in one chase
can be pasted on the back of sections more firmly,
and it will not sprawl outward at the fore edge.
63 68
0* Q*
37 48
go- ig
40 CO
T
17
= B
67 66 66 64 ; 43 -42
01 J ! 89- 19
fll_ _72 71 62 59 50 47 38
E= B
* -6 91 15 83 C8 *fi- IS S3 91 OT- S
1 12 | 13 24 I 25 36 I 35 26 ! 23 14 11 2
40 Seventy-two pages in one chase : six sections of 12 pages.
Scheme 40 is practicable for very small leaves only.
In adjusting margins and making register it will
be more manageable if divided in two chases as an
outer and an inner form of 36 pages each. It turns
on the short cross and is cut in twelve equal parts,
making duplicates of each section. The form could
be divided in three sections of 24 pages, but not to
advantage for a library book of neat binding.
Eighteen pages in one signature 377
EIGHTEEN PAGES AND THEIR DUPLICATES
The 18mo in one signature is an imposition to be
avoided, for it compels a transposition of pages on
press when the first side of the paper has been
printed, and it is troublesome to fold. It is occa-
sionally selected for single-sheet pamphlets, because
it makes a shapely leaf for the common sizes of
paper 19 X 24 and 22 x 28 inches. 1
The 36mo and 72mo do not require a transposi-
tion of pages, but they delay folding, and are se-
lected by publishers only when paper of suitable
size and quality cannot be had for sections of 16mo.
5 12
17ilS 11 6
1
81
16
15
- e
2
41 Eighteen pages in one chase, for one section. It
requires two insets, a tipped leaf, and transposed pages.
1 The 18mo of paper 19 x 24 is papers are wider and shorter,
4 x 6Mj inches, and that of paper and to many readers the square
22 x 28 is 4% x 7Mj inches. The 16mo of regular fold is a squatty
regular 16mo foldings of these and objectionable shape.
378 Transpositions needed for the 18mo
In Scheme 41 the paper turns on the short cross.
The two outer tiers of mated pages are at the
ends of the sheet, where they back one another
properly. So do pages 17 and 18 in the offcut;
but pages 7-10 and 8-9 would be wrongly backed
by this turn upon the short cross. When the sheet
has been printed on the first side, page 7 must be
transposed with page 9, and page 8 with page 10.
The transposition of pages in the form produces
the same result as the turn on the long cross.
In folding, the sheet is cut in three long strips,
as marked with dotted lines in the scheme. Pages
5-12 and 6-11 are in an offcut that is inset in the
larger folding. The centre tier is then cut in three
equal parts, and pages 7-10 and 8-9 make another
inset. This leaves one third of the centre strip with
pages 17-18. As they have no mated leaf, it is
necessary to cut them through the centre and paste
them down on page 16 at the end of the signature.
It is not an imposition to be recommended, for the
sheet has to be cut in eight pieces and requires
special care in folding. 1
i The 18mo without transposi- leaves and the insecurity of an
tion is laid down in some manu- unworkmanlike binding. It may
als : page 7 lines with 8 and page be tolerated in the side-stitched
9 with 10 ; the centre tier of pages pamphlet of one sheet only, but
is cut through the back margins, not as a section of a book for the
making three single leaves that library. Other schemes for the
must be pasted down in the cen- 18mo in one section are equally
tre of the complete section. The troublesome, and they should be
inconvenience of transposition accepted only as a last resort
is not so great as that produced when no other imposition can
by the handling of three single be used.
Eighteenmo folded as 16mo 379
In Scheme 42 the objectionable single leaf is cut
out. This permits a more shapely leaf than can be
had from the ordinary fold of 16mo on paper of
regulation size. The pages in the middle tier must
be transposed for the second side : pages 7-10 and
8-9 are changed in the same way as was directed
on page 378. The heads of the pages in the offcut
are reversed so that this part can be turned in and
folded up with the body of the sheet, but the work
will be neater if the offcut is separately folded.
5 - 12
11 (5
t 81 ! 8 - 6
1_ _16 ! 7 10 i 15 2
42 Eighteenmo fold of 16 pages only,
one leaf cancelled.
Scheme 43 is practically three series of 12 pages
imposed together to produce small sections of a
convenient thickness. The offcut will be most
satisfactorily treated if it is separately folded.
380 Thirty-six pages in two chases
5 8 17 20 29 32
-6 91 IS
12 I 13 24
85-
25
88
3(3
1
Outer form.
IT j tl 83 I 93 S8
10 ! 15- 22 j 27 34
9- -A I 81 61 j 08 18
Inner form.
43 Thirty-six pages in two chases : three
sections of 12 pages each.
Seventy -two pages in three sections 381
99
49
S9 89 Sfl
-72 69- 52
09 1 1 S9
57 64 63 58
SS
25
-It tt 6Z
45 28 j 33 40
88- -as
^ ,,_, ,,
51 L 70 71 50
os st zi is
27 46 47 26
::;::;; :=:=:::
8 LI Co 2 SI 81 tl IT
1 24 21 4 9 16 15 10
9 61 81 L
3_ _22 23 2
44 Seventy-two pages in one chase : three sections of 24
pages. Each section will be a 16-page with 8-page inset.
Thirty-six pages in two forms can be arranged to
fold up as one section, an outset of 24 pages and
an inset of 12 pages, but it is a scheme not to be
recommended : its folding will be unusually trou-
blesome, even if the 12-page inset has been sepa-
rately folded. It is here mentioned because it is
sometimes selected for a cheap pamphlet, but the
greater cost of folding by hand should be con-
sidered.
z ~
7
61
14
81
15
9
12
11 10
382 Twenty pages in one section
TWENTY, FORTY, AND EIGHTY PAGES
Twenty pages can be im-
posed as a 16mo, with an
added inset of 4 pages,
by putting the 4-page
inset in the centre tier
and making the two up-
per and the two lower tiers
the halves of a regular
16mo. The four pages of
this centre tier must be
transposed when the sheet
is ready fpr printing on
the second side, and the
sheet after printing must
be cut in six pieces, as
has been indicated in a
previous scheme. Trans-
posed pages 9, 12, 11, 10,
can then be inset in the
centre of the 16 -page
part, making the complete
section of 20 pages.
45 Twenty pages in one Twent y pages can be
chase, as one section, to . -, i
turn narrow way of paper, imposed Without a trans-
position by putting the
offcut of 4 pages at the extreme end of the form and
turning the sheet on the long cross, but this method
of turning the sheet may be as objectionable as the
8 ~
1 _
81
20
91
17
4
Twenty pages without transposition 383
9 12
11 _ _ 10
5 16
81
15
- 8
- 6
transposition of pages or
plates. (See Scheme 46.)
The pages of Scheme 45
can be rearranged to make
two sections: one of 16
and one of 4 pages, or one
of 12 and one of 8 pages.
In Scheme 46 a transpo-
sition of the pages of the
inset is avoided by turn-
ing the sheet on the long
cross. The sheet, first cut
the long way, has two par-
allel folds the narrow
way before the inset is
inserted.
When pages are in the
customary proportion of
width 1 to height 1, the
20-page form will be long
and narrow and not prop-
erly adapted to the shapes
of paper kept on sale. To
avoid waste, paper has to
be made to order of pre-
scribed size. Papers on
sale are adapted only for the small quarto shapes
of 20mo forms.
Scheme 47, practically a sheet of 32 pages with
an added inset of 8 pages, may serve for a cheap
8 81
L
1
20
19
2
1 I
46 Twenty pages in one
chase, as one section,
without a transposition.
Turns on the long cross.
384
Forty pages in one section
17 24 21 20 ! 19 22 23 18
13 28
98 S ! 9 fig 88 ~ 8
29 12 i 11 30 27 14
91 QZ
1 - 40
58 ~ 6
33 8
01 IS
7 - 34
9S SI
39 - 2
47 Forty pages in one chase : one section, inset of 8 pages.
pamphlet on thin paper, but not for a neat book.
The imposition could be varied by making up the
form in two sections of 20 pages. Either method
will make uneven and troublesome folding. For
pages of regular shape, this imposition, 5 pages
high, 8 pages wide, calls for paper that is nearly
square, and that may have to be made to order.
The leaflet
385
Eighty pages in one chase, in five sections of 16
pages each, can be imposed, 8 pages high and 10
pages wide, for a more shapely sheet of paper. The
insetting of many sections is to be avoided, for it
produces a bunchy back and uneven margins.
THE LEAFLET
Leaflet is the name given to folded but unsewed
leaves of 6, 8, or more pages. A rule border about
every page is common ; the space between pages is
narrow but uniform in width. There is no arbi-
trary rule about imposition : the first page may be
to the left, to the right, or in the centre, but the
pages following page 2 are laid down in any way
that establishes their relation one to another.
First page at right in print.
5 4-3 2
First page at left in print.
48 Six-page leaflets in strip 1 page high.
These pages are to be printed on a long slip of
paper, and to be turned on the short cross to make
duplicates. The leaflet of 10 or more pages is
25
386 Small pamphlets
generally imposed 2 pages high, to turn on the
long cross, so that the sheet can be cut through its
longer diameter. This treatment makes the press-
work of leaflets on small presses more manageable.
iiiiiiiii iiiiii jijiiii' Illlilii
m "z '""s" t" fi"
"""9"
1 10 9 8
7
49 Ten-page leaflet 2 pages high.
To make sure of exact register, the paper for leaf-
lets should be squared and accurately trimmed.
SMALL PAMPHLETS
Printed pages with narrow margins on leaves 1 x
1 inches, and sometimes still smaller, may be re-
quired of the printer. To make up a form of very
small pages after the methods of ordinary book-
work, to fold, sew or stitch, and trim each one
separately, calls for nice attention to detail. These
pages are usually printed in small forms on small
presses. When there are many pages to be folded
together, or even when the section has an inset, the
suggestions for the narrowing of margins made on
pages 366-7 of this work should be followed. Care
in folding, stitching, and trimming is needed.
Trimming of small pamphlets 387
Small pamphlets of 8 pages can be printed and
bound with neatness and economy by electrotyping
the pages to make four or more duplicates, which
may be imposed after this scheme with heads one
way, and without any allowance for the waste of
paper in trimming :
i _
8 5
4
3
6 7
2
1
5 4
3
6 7
2
1
_ 8 5 - 4
3
6
7'
2
1 ;
'IM1IIII
"I'l'l'm'im"!
1
_
- 8 5
- 4 | 3 -
' H,,T7,,,,M
m,, ( -
- 2
50 Eight pages in quadruplicate, or "four on." Sheet
turns on short cross. Produces eight copies.
For this purpose the paper must be neatly squared
before it is put to press. When perfected the sheet
should be accurately cut once through the centre,
so that each entire half of the paper can be folded
388 New method of collating
in one piece by edges of paper and not by print.
Each half of the sheet may then receive a separate
sewing or stitching for each single pamphlet. This
done, the folded work may be put under the smash-
ing-machine to reduce the paper to a manageable
flatness for the cutting-machine. If the head and
tail margins have been accurately adjusted, the knife
that cuts them apart will, by the same cut, effec-
tually trim heads and tails. This method saves time,
but it is not practicable for thick paper. Thin
pamphlets can be imposed " three or four on," so
that each half of the perfected sheet can be folded
together and stitched and cut apart, and this will
save the expense of a separate folding, stitching,
and trimming for each pamphlet.
A NEW METHOD OF COLLATING
A gathering of the different sections of a book that
has its signature-marks at the foot of the page un-
avoidably conceals all these marks but the one on
the first section. To make sure that the gatherer
has assembled the sections in consecutive order, the
collator must quickly but somewhat imperfectly
separate the sections and verify their order by
count. This separating and counting of the sec-
tions causes some delay, and may tend to mental
confusion from its monotony when the work is
done in haste. A gathering may be passed that has
a section doubled or transposed or omitted entirely.
Folding -machines 389
To prevent this fault a new system of collating-
marks has been devised that enables the collator to
check the sections rapidly without separating them.
The new marks are bits of flat-faced brass rule,
about one quarter of an inch long and three points
wide, that are printed exactly upon the central fold-
ing of the back margin of the outer leaf of each sec-
tion. Each bit of brass rule is placed in a different
position on its own section, so that the combined
rules shall present the appearance of a diagonal
black line with breaks at graduated distances. So
treated, the collator can see at first glance whether
all the sections are or are not in numerical order. A
section doubled will show a noticeably thicker black
line j a section omitted, a white gap ; a section mis-
placed will break the regularity .of the diagonal line.
As these narrow black lines are completely hidden
by sewing, gluing, and binding, they are no disfig-
urement to the bound book. For thick pamphlets
to be bound in haste this new method is of value.
FOLDING-MACHINES
Many of the schemes in this chapter are suitable
for the old forms of folding-machines that still keep
in favor. There are, however, machines for which
they are not fitted. To meet increasing demands
390 Folding -machines
for greater speed and reduced cost, printing- and
folding-machines have been introduced that take
on sheets of unusually large size, with new devices
for automatic feeding, pointing, and folding. They
are made by different manufacturers from different
plans, but they have little flexibility $ as a general
rule, they can fold sheets in one way and no other.
The scheme required for one is impracticable for
another. In one variety of machine, the bolts of
folded leaves are at the tails and not at the heads
of pages ; in another, 64 pages are first folded alter-
nately forward and then backward in four parallel
strips, and lastly cross-folded to produce four un-
separated sections of 16 pages each ; in another, the
sheet is first cut in parallel strips, and one strip is
overlapped by another and again cross-cut by the
last operation of the folding device. 1
These machines are most useful for magazines
and -work of like nature that must be done quickly
and at small cost. In the hands of careful opera-
tors they can do accurate folding, but for general
service on short editions bookbinders prefer hand-
work or the older and simpler forms of folders. For
i The schemes shown in the mated pages must be one more
guide-books of the manufactur- in number than the entire num-
ers appear strange to the inex- ber of pages in that section,
pert, but they all conform to When the imposer of pages or
the general rules that must gov- plates has studied the scheme,
ern all impositions: the first and knows how the sheet will be
and last pages of each section turned or how the pages will be
must be mates ; these mates are lapped, he will need the manu-
always one odd and one even facturer's guide-book for a first
page ; the sum total of any two imposition only.
Folding -machines 391
this reason it is not practicable to present a series
of schemes of imposition for machine-folding that
would prove generally useful.
The forms for some kinds of machine-folders
need points or slitters (and sometimes both) as
aids to accurate register. The proper position in
the form for these devices varies in different ma-
chines, and special direction for this purpose should
be had from the binder who will fold the sheets.
For a form of many pages on the double sheet, the
points are usually put fifteen inches apart, one tier
or row of pages distant from the centre of the full
sheet. When the sheets are printed on the reverse
side the points will appear in a similar position on
the other half of the sheet. It is to be supposed
that the sheet will be accurately cut in halves by
the circular knife attached to the printing-press.
The cut edge so produced will be the feed-edge of
the folding-machine.
The slitter is a bit of brass rule, five eighths of
an inch face (to be had of the manufacturer of the
folding-machine), which is screwed down immov-
ably on wood furniture in the form. The attach-
ment of the slitters is a work of nice discretion.
They must perceptibly stab through the paper in
the act of impression ; but if set too high they will
blacken the sheet, cut the tympan, and gash the
inking-rollers. It is customary to set them a trifle
lower than type-high, and to depend upon a pasted
overlay attached to the tympan for a perforation
392 Concluding remarks
of the paper to be printed. This treatment that
prevents one fault may make another. An overlay
too thick will cause the sheet to stand off too far
from the tympan and be the cause of bad register.
The cutting of the tympan must be avoided, but
exact register must be had. Experience is needed
for the proper adjustment of the slitters.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The schemes of this chapter are for books to be
sewed and not side-stitched. The widths of margins
(but imperfectly presented by reason of the small
size of the diagrams) are those of books planned
for cloth cases. For pamphlets or magazines to
be side-stitched with thread or wire, the back mar-
gins should be much wider and the front margins
narrower. Some printers make the front and back
margins of the side-stitched pamphlet nearly equal
in width, allowing but one pica or two picas more
for front margin. This is done in the belief that
the wire stitch will conceal as much paper in the
back as will be wasted in the front by the knife of
the bookbinder when he trims the fore edge. This
concealment and waste of paper is too variable to
be provided for by an arbitrary rule. The adjuster
of margins should consult the binder as to the
probable loss of paper, and regulate his margins
accordingly.
Concluding remarks 393
Offcuts should be inset in the central fold of the
larger part of the sheet from which they have been
separated. To plan a separate section of the off-
cut, to follow the larger part, will compel needless
sewing and make improper stiffness in opening
the leaves of the bound book. This suggestion
applies to thin paper only. Thick sections should
be avoided, especially when the leaves are small and
the paper is thick. In a form of 24 pages on thick
paper it will be better practice to impose for two
sections of 12 or three sections of 8 pages. This
treatment does not conduce to cheapness, but it
does produce better work even for the side-stitched
pamphlet. The paper cover is seldom neatly pasted
over thick sections ; cover and leaves will yawn.
In Hebrew and other Oriental languages, reading
proceeds from right to left in every line ; the first
page of the book is on the leaf that Western usage
gives to our last page. This reversal of our order
compels a similar change in the imposition of pages
of Hebrew, but the change is quickly understood,
and does not require special schemes. In the 16mo,
page 1 is put where page 16 is placed in the printed
scheme ; page 2 displaces 15, and every page fol-
lowing pursues the same order.
The increased width that should be given to the
back margin of a pamphlet with a paper cover
should never be determined by a guess as to the
probable thickness of the sections. A dummy of
all the sections properly sewed or stitched is the
394 Concluding remarks
only certain guide. The purposed irregularity of
margins in the pages of the text (least at back,
more at front, and most at tail) is usually pre-
served on the outer pages of the cover. When the
cover paper is intended to overlap all the edges in
" circuit style," this irregularity must be increased.
For pamphlets trimmed on three sides, the print of
cover may be ordered with even margins all around.
For a book of prescribed dimensions, paper of
too large size is sometimes furnished. If the excess
of paper is trivial, the adjuster of its margins may
add this excess to the width of the blanks pre-
viously provided for the front and tail margins, so
that it can be trimmed off by the binder in the
gathered sections, but in no case should the back or
head margin be enlarged. For much excess (and
even for small excess) it is better practice to have
the surplus cut off before the margins are adjusted.
A sheet with overplus of paper on one or both ends
is always inconvenient to feeder and folder. It
leads to the making of faulty margins, to improper
folding and reckless trimming.
The blanks about pages should be calculated with
exactness, so that the printed pages can be folded
with proper margins by the edges of the paper as
truly as by print. The more pages in the form,
the more the need of exactness. A true sheet of
its own paper is the best guide for determining the
proper distance between pages, which should be
used as is shown in illustrations on pages 303 and
Concluding remarks 395
304 of this book. When the paper has rough or
unevenly cut edges, or when a form has to be made
up before the paper is in the house, a measuring-
rule may be used, care being taken in all cases to
have the exact size of the average sheet.
In these schemes the representations of chases,
cross-bars, quoins, and furniture have been omitted
as not helpful to a clearer understanding of the or-
derly arrangement of pages. They divert the eye
from the order of pages, which is the chief purpose
of the schemes. Cross-bars, always useful, are not
always possible. In forms of plates laid on blocks,
and even in some forms of letterpress, they may
have to be rejected or be placed in different posi-
tions from those in the diagrams. As every print-
ing-house has chases of various sizes and shapes,
the furniture of each form must be accommodated
to the chase and its types. For the ordinary form
of type, the customary disposition of its furniture
is indicated in the illustrations on pages 63, 303,
304. To repeat these adjuncts in every scheme is
not of any advantage.
The lines of dotted rules in the schemes, that in-
dicate where the printed sheet must be cut by the
hand-folder, are attachments of importance. To the
novice in imposition they show the correlation of
pages that must be kept in distinct sections, when
these pages are laid down in different parts of
the sheet. This grouping together of the pages
of separate sections facilitates the study of their
396 Concluding remarks
arrangement. In Scheme 5 (page 341) the relation
of pages to one another in different parts of the
sheet is made plainer by color.
The purpose of this chapter is not to present
schemes that will be copied unthinkingly by a
young compositor ; it is to lead him to an under-
standing of elementary principles, so that he can
fprmulate new schemes for emergencies. Sugges-
tions and explanations that may be helpful accom-
pany many of the diagrams.
The study of imposition has been made need-
lessly repelling by the exhibition of too many
schemes. Some are obsolete and others impracti-
cable. It was the intent of the writer to present
only the schemes that are in regular use for the
ordinary sewed book of thin sections, but the
frequency of positive orders from some economical
publishers of pamphlets for one thick section has
led me to add a few schemes that are not recom-
mended. This is done reluctantly, for thick sec-
tions make mean bindings. It is believed, however,
that the increasing use of wire-stitching machines
will lead to a general preference for thin sections
and a more tidy binding of the cheap pamphlet.
ERGENTHALER
'MACHINE-COMPOSITION
A review of methods . . . General organization . . . The
assembling and keyboard mechanisms . . . Learning to
operate . . . Management of the machine . . . Tempera-
ture of metal . . . Treatment of matrices . . . Treatment
of spaces . . . The melting-pot . . . Mould and disk
The assembling elevator . . . Correct keyboard fingering
A REVIEW OF METHODS
OR many years it has been the
dream of inventors to provide
a mechanical substitute for
hand-composition, and many
hundred patents have been
granted in America and Europe
on machines for this purpose.
An early method proposed was to print the matter
by a machine similar to a type-writer, in transfer-
ink on paper, and to transfer the print so made to a
398 Experimental machines
lithographic stone, or a plate of zinc or other metal
from which printing could be done by lithographic
processes. In other cases the metal plates were
etched in order to leave the transferred characters
in relief.
Many experimental machines have been con-
structed for impressing type-characters in the re-
quired order in papier-mache, lead, or equivalent
material, thus forming matrices for lines or pages,
from which stereotype plates were cast.
Many machines have been proposed and con-
structed for setting ordinary founders' type. Cer-
tain of these machines, such as the Thorne and the
Burr, were adapted to set the type in continuous
lines, which were divided into shorter lengths by a
second operator and justified by hand.
Numerous patents have been issued for machines
adapted to compose ordinary founders' type and
automatically justify the lines by inserting found-
ers' spaces.
The celebrated Paige machine, originally con-
structed in Hartford, which was successfully oper-
ated for a time in the office of the Chicago Herald,
was of this character. It composed the type from
standing magazines, automatically inserted the
spaces necessary for justification, and delivered the
matter leaded or unleaded, as required, into the
galley. The same machine also received the dead
matter and distributed the type into the channels
on the machine. The machine failed of commercial
FIG. i.
400 Cox and Simplex machines
success because of its extreme complexity and con-
sequent high cost.
The Cox machine, exhibited about 1899, was
adapted to compose and justify the matter auto- >
matically. Corrugated spaces were inserted in the
line during composition ; the line was set to an ex-
cessive length, and justification was secured by com-
pressing it endwise, the effect being to flatten and
reduce the thickness of the spaces. The spaces were
removed from the dead matter by a special machine,
after which the matter was transferred to a third ma-
chine, by which the type was distributed into tubes
adapted for application to the composing-machine.
The Simplex machine, of which a considerable
number are used in the United States, consists of
an upright rotary barrel or magazine having ver-
tical grooves to carry the types, which are delivered
by means of keys from the lower ends of the grooves
to a revolving disk, by which they are assembled in
a continuous line. This line, advancing through a
suitable guide, is divided by hand into shorter lines,
which are justified by hand, as usual. The upper
portion of the grooved barrel revolves intermit-
tingly; the lines of the dead matter are inserted
into its grooves and are carried around step by step
over the upper ends of the grooves in the lower
part of the barrel. These lower grooves have at
the upper end small teeth arranged in various com-
binations corresponding to the nicks in the various
types, so that the types stowed above in the upper
Empire and McMillan machines 401
revolving cylinder are permitted to enter only those
grooves which have teeth corresponding to their
nicks. In this manner each letter is delivered to
its proper groove.
In the Empire and other machines the types, car-
ried in vertical magazines, are released at the lower
end by finger-keys. They slide down through con-
verging grooves to the assembling-point, where they
are assembled or composed in a continuous unjusti-
fied line. This line is divided into shorter lengths
by hand and justified as in hand-composition. The
distribution into the magazines to be used on the
composing mechanism is effected in a separate
machine in which the nicked types are carried suc-
cessively past a series of small slides, or feelers,
cooperating with the nicks to deliver the types to
their appropriate channels.
In the McMillan machine the types, carried in
separate tubes, were automatically composed with
tentative spaces into lines of approximately the re-
quired measure. The original spaces were auto-
matically rejected in succession and thicker spaces
inserted until the line was the required length.
Distribution was effected by an independent rotary
machine which delivered the type into single tubes,
one for each letter, these tubes being subsequently
transferred when full to the composing-machine.
Another class of machines was designed to cast
each character singly and assemble them in line,
in the order in which they were to appear in print.
26
402 The Lanston mechanism
A machine of this class, by C. S.Westcott, exhibited
at the Centennial Exposition of 1876, cast and de-
livered the type in unjustified lines, justification
being subsequently effected by hand. In this ma-
chine the finger-keys representing the letters caused
the corresponding matrices to be transferred to the
mould which was automatically adjusted to cooper-
ate with the matrix and produce each letter of the
required size.
The Lanston mechanism consists of two parts :
first, an independent keyboard by which a paper
ribbon is provided with perforations representing
the various characters and spaces; the justifying
perforations being made by touching the keys in-
dicated to the operator by a scale which auto-
matically calculates the size of spaces necessary
to justify the line : second, a casting mechanism,
controlled in its action by the perforated ribbon and
serving to cast and assemble individual letters in
the required order, and also to cast and insert in
each line the spaces to effect justification. The
casting operation is performed in the reverse order
from that in which the matter is to be read.
The Johnson Tachytype and the Goodson Grapho-
type are machines on the general plan of the Lan-
ston, being controlled by perforated paper ribbons
and acting to cast the spaces and the type in the
required order.
i The last three machines are based on the use of
the group of matrices representing the various
The Mergenthaler Linotype 403
characters in connection with an adjustable mould
similar to that of the type-founding machines. The
matrices are automatically moved, so that each
letter is presented to the mould, and the mould
adjusted for a body of corresponding size.
THE MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE
The Mergenthaler Linotype machine, a modern ex-
ample of which is shown in Figure 1, appeared in
crude form about 1886. This machine differs widely
FIG. 2.
from all others in that it is adapted to produce the
type-faces for each line properly justified on the edge
of a solid slug or linotype (shown in Figure 2).
These slugs, automatically produced and assem-
bled by the machine, are used in the same manner
as other type-forms, whether for direct printing or
for electrotyping, and are remelted after use.
GENERAL ORGANIZATION
The general organization of the machine will first
be described, after which the details will be more
404 The matrices
fully explained, and attention plainly directed to the
various parts and actions which require special
consideration.
FIG. 3.
The machine contains, as the vital element, about
sixteen hundred matrices, such as are shown in
Figure 3, each consisting of a small brass plate
having in one edge the female character or matrix
proper, and in the upper end a series of teeth, used
as hereinafter explained for distributing the mat-
rices after use to their proper places in the magazine
of the machine. There are in the machine a number
of matrices for each letter and also matrices repre-
senting special characters, and spaces or quadrats
of different thicknesses for use in table-work, etc.
There is a series of finger keys representing the
various characters and spaces, and the machine is
so organized that on manipulating the keys it se-*
lects the matrices in the order in which their char-
acters are to appear in print, and assembles them
The matrices assembled 405
in a line, as shown in Figure 4, with wedge-shaped
spaces or justifiers between the words. The series
of matrices thus assembled in line forms a line mat-
rix, or, in other words, a line of female dies adapted
FIG. 4.
to mould or form a line of raised type on a slug
cast against the matrices. After the matrix line
is composed it is automatically transferred to the
face of a slotted mould into which molten type-
metal is delivered to form a slug or linotype against
the matrices. This done, the matrices are returned
to the magazine and distributed, to be again com-
posed in new relations for succeeding lines.
Figure 5 illustrates the general organization of
the machine.
A represents an inclined channelled magazine in
which the matrices are stored. Each channel has
at the lower end an escapement B to release the mat-
rices one at a time. Each of these escapements is
406 General organization of machine
connected by a rod C and intermediate devices to
one of the finger-keys in the keyboard D. These
FIG. 5.
The spaces or justifiers 407
keys represent the various characters as in a type-
writer. The keys are depressed in the order in
which the characters and spaces are to appear,
and the matrices, released successively from the
lower end of the magazine, descend between the
guides E to the surface of an inclined travelling
belt F, by which they are carried downward and
delivered successively into a channel in the upper
part of the assembling elevator G, in which they
are advanced by a star-shaped wheel, seen at the
right.
The wedge-shaped spaces or justifiers I are held
in a magazine H, from which they are delivered at
proper intervals by finger-key J"in the keyboard, so>
that they may pass downward and assume their
proper positions in the line of matrices.
When the composition of the line is completed,
the assembling elevator G is raised and the line is
transferred, as indicated by dotted lines, first to the
left and then downward to the casting position in
front of the slotted mould seated in and extending
through the vertical wheel JT, as shown in Figures 5
and 6. The line of matrices is pressed against and
closes the front of the mould, the characters on the
matrices standing directly opposite the slot in the
mould, as shown. The back of the mould commu-
nicates with and is closed by the mouth of a melting-
pot M, containing a supply of molten metal and
heated by a Bun sen burner thereunder. Within the
pot is a vertical pump-plunger which acts at the
408 Formation of linotype slug
proper time to drive the molten metal through, the
perforated mouth of the pot into the mould and into
MOLD NO.l
COMPOSED
MATRICES
MOLD
WHEEL
10.2
FIG. 6.
all the characters in the matrices. The metal, solid-
ifying, forms a slug or linotype bearing on its edge,
in relief, type-characters produced from the matrices.
The matrices and the pot are immediately separated
from the mould, and the mould wheel rotates until
the slug contained in the mould is presented in front
of an ejector blade, where the slug is ejected from
the mould through a pair of knives, which trim the
sides to the required size, into the receiving galley,
as shown in Figure 7.
After the line of matrices and spaces has served
The distributing mechanism 409
its purpose, it is raised from the casting position
and moved to the right, as shown by the dotted
lines and arrows in Figure 5. The teeth in the
MOLD
EJECTOR PUSHING
LINOTYPE FROM
MOLD TO GALLEY
ARM TO CARRY
SLUGS OVER IN
GALLEY
RECEIVING
GALLEY
LINOTYPES
READY FOR USE
FIG. 7.
upper ends of the matrices are engaged with a
toothed bar R, known as the second elevator. This
elevator swings upward, as shown by dotted lines,
carrying the matrices to the level of the upper end
of the magazine, and leaving the spaces or justifiers
behind to be transferred to their magazine H.
The distributing mechanism consists essentially
of a fixed bar T, lying in a horizontal position above
the upper end of the magazine, and having along
its lower edge, as shown in Figures 5 and 8, hori-
zontal teeth to engage the teeth in the upper end
of the matrices and hold them in suspension. The
teeth of the matrix for each letter differ in number
410 Travel of the matrices
or arrangement, or both, from the teeth of matrices
bearing other letters, and the teeth on the lower
edge of the distributor bar are correspondingly
varied in arrangement at different points in the
length of the bar.
The matrices are moved forward into engage-
ment with the distributor bar and also into en-
gagement with the threads of horizontal screws
U, which are extended parallel with the distributor
bar and constantly rotated, so that they cause the
matrices to travel one after another along the dis-
FlG. 8.
tributor and over the mouths of the channels in the
magazines. Each matrix is held in suspension
until it arrives over its proper channel, where for
the first time its teeth bear such relation to those
Assembling and keyboard mechanisms 411
of the bar that it is released and permitted to fall
into the magazine, as shown in Figure 8.
The speed of the machine, which is commonly
from four to five thousand ems per hour, but which
has reached ten thousand and upward in competi-
tive trials, is due to the fact that the matrices pur-
sue a circulatory course, leaving the magazine at
the lower end, passing thence to the line and to the
casting mechanism, and finally returning to the top
of the magazine. This permits the composition of
one line, the casting of another, and the distribu-
tion of a third to proceed simultaneously.
ASSEMBLING AND KEYBOARD MECHANISMS
The matrices pass through the magazine by grav-
ity. Their release is effected by mechanisms shown
in Figures 9 and 10, which are vertical sections
through the magazine, the keyboard and interme-
diate connection s. Under each channel of the maga-
zine there is an escapement J5, consisting of a small
lever rocking at its centre on a horizontal pivot,
and carrying at its opposite ends two dogs or pawls
&, 6, which are projected up alternately into the
magazine by the motion of the lever. The key-rod
0, suspended from the rear end of the escapement
By tends to hold the lower pawl & in an elevated
position, as shown in Figure 9, so that it engages
under the upper ear of the foremost matrix to pre-
vent its escape.
412 Figure showing vertical section
When the escapement B is rocked it withdraws the
lower pawl b, as shown in Figure 10, at the same
Figure showing vertical section 413
time raising the upper pawl, so that it engages and
momentarily arrests the next matrix. As soon as
FIG. 10.
the first matrix has escaped, the escapement re-
sumes its original position, the upper pawl falling,
414 The escapements
while the lower one rises so as to hold the second
matrix, which assumes the position previously oc-
cupied by the one released.
Thus it is that the alternate rising and falling
of the two escapement pawls permits the matrices
to escape one at a time. It is evident that the
escapements could be operated directly by rods
connected with the finger-keys, but this direct con-
nection is objectionable because of the labor re-
quired on the part of the operator, and the danger
that the keys may not be fully depressed. Moreover,
it is essential that the escapements should act in-
dividually with moderate speed to the end that the
matrices may be properly engaged and disengaged
by the pawls. For these reasons, and to secure
easy and uniform action of the parts, the mechanism
shown in Figures 9 and 10 is introduced between
the finger-keys and escapements. The vertical rods
(7, which actuate the escapements, are guided in
the main frame and each urged downward by a
spring c. Each rod C terminates directly over one
end of a rising and falling yoke-bar c 2 , turning on
a pivot c 3 at the opposite end. Each of the yokes
c 2 is slotted vertically to admit an eccentric c 4 turn-
ing on a pivot therein. A constantly rotating rub-
ber-covered roll c 5 is extended across the entire key-
board beneath the cams, which stand normally as
shown in Figure 9, out of contact with the roll.
When the parts are in this position, the cam-yoke is
sustained at its free end by the yoke-trigger c 6 , and a
Depression of finger key
415
cross-bar in the cam engages a vertical pin c 1 on
the frame, whereby the cam is prevented from fall-
ing on to the roller, as it has a tendency to do.
Each of the yoke-triggers c 6 is connected with a ver-
tical bar c 8 , which is in turn connected to the rear
end of a finger-key lever D. The parts stand nor-
mally at rest in the position shown in Figure 9, the
roll c 5 turning freely under the cam without effect
thereon.
When the finger -key is depressed it raises the
bar c 8 , which in turn trips the yoke-trigger c 6 from
LINE ASSEMBLING
MECHANISM
FIG. 11.
under the cam-yoke c 2 , permitting the latter to fall,
thereby lowering the cam c 4 into peripheral engage-
ment with the rubber roll, at the same time disen-
gaging the cam from the stop-pin c 7 . The roll,
416
Action of the cam
engaging frictionally with the cam, causes the latter
to turn on its centre in the direction indicated by
the arrow in Figure 10.
FIG. 12.
Owing to the eccentric shape of the cam, its ro-
tation while resting on the roller causes it to lift
the yoke c 2 above its original position, so that it
acts upon the escapement rod (7, lifting the same
and causing it to reverse the position of the escape-
ment JB, to release the matrix, as plainly seen in
Figure 10.
FIG. 13.
While this is taking place the yoke-trigger c 6 re-
sumes its first position, as shown in dotted lines in
Figure 10, so that as the rotating cam lowers the
yoke, it is again supported in its first position, the
Descent of the matrices
417
cam at the same time turning forward by momentum
out of engagement with the roll and until arrested
in its original position by the pin c 1 .
It will be observed that the parts between each
key lever and escapement operate independently of
the others, so that a number of cams may be in
engagement with the rollers at one time, and a
1 2
FIG. 14.
number of escapements at different stages of their
action at one time.
The matrices falling from the magazine descend
through the front channels and are received on the
inclined belt F, on which they are carried over and
guided on the upper rounding surface of the as-
sembler entrance-block/ 1 , by which they are guided
downward in front of the star-wheel / 2 , which
pushes them forward one after another.
The spaces or justifiers J, released from their
magazine H, as heretofore described, descend into
the assembler G in front of the star- wheel in the
same manner as the matrices.
The line in course of composition is sustained at
its front end by a yielding finger or resistant g, se-
cured to a horizontal assembler slide g 2 , the purpose
27
418 The matrices held by spring
of these parts being to hold the line together in
compact form.
As the matrices approach the line, their upper
ends are carried over a spring </ 3 , projecting through
FIG. is.
the assembler face-plate from the rear, as shown in
Figure 11, its purpose being to hold the matrices
forward and prevent them from falling back in such
a manner that succeeding matrices and spaces or
justifiers will pass improperly ahead of them. The
descending matrices also pass beneath a long de-
Action of transfer-carriage 419
pending spring g 4 , which should be so adjusted as
barely to permit the passage of the thickest matrix.
After the composition of the line is completed in
the assembling elevator G, as shown in Figure 12,
FIG. 16.
the elevator is raised as shown in Figure 13, so as
to present the line between the depending fingers
of the transfer-carriage N, which then moves to the
left to the position shown by dotted lines in Figure
13, thereby bringing the line into the first elevator
0, which then descends, carrying the line of mat-
rices downward, as shown in Figure 14, to its
420 The mould in position
position in front of the mould and between the
confining jaws P, P, mounted in the main frame,
which determine the length of the line.
Figures 15 and 16 show the casting mechanism
in vertical section from front to rear. When the
first elevator lowers the line, as just described,
FIG. 17.
the mould and the pot M stand in their rearward
positions, as shown in Figure 15.
The mould -carrying wheel is sustained by a
horizontal slide, and as soon as the matrix line is
lowered to the casting position, a cam at the rear
pushes the slide and mould wheel forward until the
front face of the mould is closed tightly against the
rear face of the matrix line, as shown in Figure 16.
While this is taking place, the pot, having its
supporting legs mounted on a horizontal shaft,
swings forward until its mouth is closed tightly
against the back of the mould, as shown in Fig-
ure 16. While the parts are in this position, the
Alignment of the matrices 421
justifying bar Q is driven up and pushes the spaces
or justifiers upward through the line of matrices
until the line is expanded or elongated to fill com-
pletely the gap between jaws P, P.
In order to secure exact alignment of the mat-
rices vertically and horizontally, the bar Q acts
FIG. 18.
repeatedly on the spaces, and the line is slightly
unlocked endwise and relocked. This is done that
the matrices may be temporarily released to facili-
tate the accurate adjustment demanded. While
the justified line is locked fast between the jaws,
the elevator, and the mould, the plunger m 2 in the
pot descends and drives the molten metal before it
through the spout or mouth of the pot into the
mould, which is filled under pressure, so that a solid
slug is produced against the matrices. The pot
then retreats, and its mouth breaks away from the
422 Distribution
back of the slug in the mould, while, at the same
time, the mould retreats to draw the type-characters
on the contained slug out of the matrices. The
mould wheel now revolves, carrying the rear edge
of the slug past a stationary trimming-knife, not
shown, and around to the position in front of the
ejector, as previously described and shown in Figure
7, whereupon the ejector advances and drives the
slug between two side trimming-knives into the
galley at the front.
DISTRIBUTION
After the casting action the first elevator rises
and carries the matrix line above the original or
composing level, as shown in Figure 17. The line
is then drawn horizontally to the right until the
teeth of the matrices engage the toothed elevator
bar R, which swings upward with the matrices,
thus separating the matrices from the spaces or
justifiers J, which remain suspended in the frame,
so that they may be pushed to the right, as indi-
cated by the arrow, into their magazine.
When the line of matrices is raised to the dis-
tributor, it is necessary that the matrices shall be
separated and presented one at a time to the dis-
tributor bar, between the threads of the horizontal
carrier-screws. This is accomplished as shown in
Figures 18 and 19. A horizontal pusher or line-
shifter 8 carries the line of matrices forward from
Ascent of the matrices 423
the elevator bar R into the so-called distributor
box, containing at its opposite sides two rails u,
having near their forward ends shoulders u 2 , against
which the forward matrix abuts so as to prevent
further advance of the line, which is urged con-
stantly forward by the follower or line-shifter 8.
A vertically reciprocating lifting finger F has its
upper end shouldered to engage beneath the fore-
most matrix, so as to push the same upward until
its upper ears are lifted above the detaining shoul-
ders M 2 , so that they may ride forward on the up-
DISTRIBUTOR FROM BELOW.
FIG. 19.
wardly inclined inner ends of the rails, as shown in
Figure 18. The matrices thus lifted are engaged
by the screws and carried forward, and as they
move forward they are gradually raised by the rails
until the teeth finally engage themselves on the
distributor bar T, from which they are suspended
as they are carried forward over the mouth of the
424 Trimming -knives
magazine, until they fall into their respective chan-
nels, as shown in Figure 19.
The distributor box also contains on opposite
sides shorter rails, w 4 , adapted to engage the lower
ends of the matrices, to hold them in position as
they are lifted. The lifting finger V is mounted
on a horizontal pivot in one end of an elbow lever
mounted on pivot v* and actuated by a cam on
the end of one of the carrier-screws, as shown in
Figures 5, 8, and 19.
TRIMMING-KNIVES
In practice there is occasionally found a slight
irregularity in the thickness of slugs, and thin
fins are sometimes cast around the forward edges.
For the purpose of reducing them to a uniform
thickness, they are driven on their way to the galley
between two vertical knives, as shown in Figures
7 and 23. The inner knife is stationary, but the
outer knife is adjustable in order that it may ac-
commodate slugs of different thicknesses. This ad-
justment is made by the knife being seated at its
outer edge against a supporting bar or wedge, hav-
ing at opposite ends two inclined surfaces seated
against supporting screws in the knife-block. A
lever engages a pin on the wedge for the purpose of
moving it endwise ; when moving in one direction,
it forces the knife inward toward the stationary
knife, and when moved in the other direction it
Adjustment and treatment of knives 425
forces it to retreat under the influence of a spring
seated in the block. The wedge is provided with a
series of teeth engaged by a spring-actuated pin or
dog, whereby the wedge and the knife are stopped
in proper positions to insure the exact space re-
quired between the two knives.
The back knife, secured to the frame for trim-
ming the base of the slug as it is carried past by
the revolving wheel, should be kept moderately
sharp and adjusted so as to fit closely against the
back of the passing mould. Particular attention
should be paid to this feature. The edge of the
knife must bear uniformly across the face of the
mould.
The front knives, between which the slug is
ejected, should not be made too sharp. After being
sharpened, the thin edge can be advantageously re-
moved by the use of a thin oilstone appli ed against
the side face ; that is, against the face past which
the slug is carried.
The stationary or left-hand knife should be so
adjusted as to align exactly with the inner side of
the mould. Under proper conditions this knife does
not trim the side face of the slug, but acts only to re-
move any slight fins or projections at the front edge.
The right-hand knife, adjustable by means of a
wedge and lever, should stand exactly parallel with
the stationary knife. It trims the side of the slug
on which the ribs are formed, and it serves to bring
the slug to the exact thickness required.
426 Learning to operate
LEARNING TO OPERATE
It is of first importance that the operator should
learn to finger the keys with a soft and speedy
touch. The key should be instantly released and
the finger carried to the next with a gliding move-
ment. A violent or very forcible depression of the
key is objectionable j it prevents high speed and
impairs the action of the mechanism. As the keys
simply act to release the power-driven devices,
nothing is gained by a violent stroke. The very
speedy operators are, almost without exception,
those who finger the keys swiftly and at a uniform
rate of speed. Anything in the nature of a spas-
modic action, or of a rapid operation of several
keys followed by a pause and a repetition of the
first action, is to be avoided. High speed is not to
be expected in the first few weeks. The operator
is advised to study his board carefully and to select
and finger the keys slowly and deliberately, in order
that he may acquire the proper touch and the best
distribution of work between the two hands. The
best position at the machine is to have the centre
line of the body nearly opposite the lower-case m,
as most of the work is done at the left end of the
keyboard. The first and second fingers of both
hands are generally used, and the thumbs and
other fingers occasionally. The keys in the first
two rows should be lingered mainly by the left
Management of the machine 427
hand, which should leave them only when the right
hand is reaching for distant capital letters. The
space-bar can be advantageously operated by the
little finger. Where the same letter is to be used
twice in succession, a slight dwell on the key, read-
ily acquired, will secure the result. Wherever suc-
ceeding letters are represented on adjacent keys,
much time is saved by a gliding or wiping action
of the finger from one key to another. If the let-
ters of a word are far apart on the keyboard, they
are to be struck in quick succession, one with each
hand. The beginner should first learn the location
of the keys, then study the manner of reaching
them with the least movement of the hand, and
after this has been accomplished, and not before,
should he attempt to increase his speed. In a short
time he will unconsciously memorize the location
of all the keys, and the action of the hands will be
as automatic as in writing. 1
MANAGEMENT OF THE MACHINE
The first thing of importance in the use of the
machine is the employment of a good linotype
metal. Unless a proper metal is employed, and
unless, as in stereotyping, the metal is kept in
proper condition, it will be impossible to secure
good results. The metal is to be composed of pure
1 For additional remarks on this subject see Correct Keyboard
Fingering, on pages 447-459 of this chapter.
428 Temperature of metal
lead, tin, and antimony, in proportions known to
the experts. From repeated use the metal is slowly
oxidized and dross appears. This dross should be
skimmed off and removed at reasonable intervals,
and when the metal becomes hard or brittle a small
percentage of tin should be added to increase its
fluidity and the sharpness of the type-faces. Spe-
cially prepared alloys for doctoring or restoring
the metal may be obtained from nearly all dealers
in supplies. When the metal becomes exceedingly
foul or brittle, or is in such condition that it does
not melt and flow readily, it may be purified by
melting it in a suitable pot and immersing in the
molten metal a stick of green wood. This should
be submerged in the metal and permitted to remain
about twenty minutes, or until the boiling ceases.
The remains of the wood should be removed and
the metal thoroughly stirred and skimmed. The
addition of a few ounces of rosin to the molten
metal before the introduction of the wood is recom-
mended.
TEMPERATURE OF METAL
It is important that the temperature of the metal
in the melting-pot shall not materially exceed 550
Fahrenheit. The temperature can be readily tested
by one of the special iron-clad thermometers made
for the purpose, or by thrusting into the pot a sheet
of paper, which at the proper temperature should
slowly assume a brown color without burning
Controlling the temperature 429
or smoking. If the temperature is raised above
the proper point, the metal is speedily impaired,
the slugs are caused to adhere tightly in the mould,
so that ejection is difficult, the bodies of the slugs
are rendered porous, and the matrices are injured.
The temperature is controlled by regulating the
mercurial governor at the side of the pot. As the
column of mercury expands with the increasing
heat of the pot, it rises in the glass tube and checks
the flow of gas to the burner. The height of the
mercury is adjusted by means of a small stem or
spindle in the side of .the governor. When the
thermometer shows that the metal is at the proper
temperature, the mercury should be at the foot of
the small central gas-tube. If too high or too low,
adjust the spindle to bring it to the proper level.
The pressure of the gas received from city mains
varies widely at different hours of the day and
night. Each machine plant is therefore provided
with a pressure governor or regulator. These gov-
ernors, for use on the main supply-pipe, contain a
diaphragm or float, which may be loaded to a
greater or less extent. The load should be regu-
lated so that the governor will permit the flow of
gas at moderate pressure only.
TREATMENT OF MATRICES
The perfection of the type-characters produced
depends wholly on the condition of the matrices,
430 Treatment of matrices
which are made with great precision and require
to be intelligently and carefully treated.
It is of importance that the side faces of the
matrices shall be kept clean and free from foreign
matter, in order that they may be locked tightly
together in the line, and to prevent the molten
metal from flowing between them.
They should be removed from the machine when
necessary and carefully rubbed on their side faces
on a soft pine board, a sheet of canvas, or like ma-
terial, taking care not to rub them so hard as to
round the corners. They should never be washed
in benzine unless unusually foul. The use of a
very slight amount of finely pulverized graphite is
of advantage, but care should be taken to avoid
using it in excessive quantity. A minute amount
applied in the magazine or on the matrices will be
slowly distributed, and in the course of a few days
will give burnished surfaces. The continued use
of the matrices causes a fine film or oxide to be
formed in the characters, so that the metal may be
cast freely and sharply into them and the type-
characters easily withdrawn.
Under no circumstances should the matrices be
thrown loosely into boxes or tumbled together.
The result will be to crush or break in the very-
thin side walls of the characters, and it is this
breaking down of the walls, so that metal may flow
between the matrices, which causes fins or hair-lines
on the slugs.
The spaces orjustifiers
431
TREATMENT OF SPACES OR JUSTIFIERS
As previously mentioned, the spaces or justifiers
consist of a short wedge and a longer wedge having
a sliding connection therewith. The short wedges
are held fast in the line, so that they present always
the same point at the casting level. The molten
Showing how type-
metal on neglected
space destroys ad-
jacent matrix.
FIG. 20.
type-metal therefore tends to accumulate on the
side of the short wedges or sleeves and to build up
projections, as shown in Figure 20, so that when
432 Cleaning machines
a space is locked up in a line of matrices, the pro-
jection will crush in the side wall of the adjoin-
ing matrix. This metal should be removed daily.
It cannot be wiped off. It should be carefully
scaled or peeled off with the edge of a knife-blade
or similar instrument, taking care not to scratch
the wedge. After removing all the metal, the side
face of the wedge should be rubbed on the surface
of a board, or like material, coated with graphite
or hard soap. Graphite may be sprinkled on felt
firmly tacked to a board. The spaces or justi-
fiers must not under any circumstances be rubbed
on emery-cloth, filed, or treated in any other man-
ner which will remove the corners or round the faces.
They must be left flat and true, as originally made.
CLEANING MACHINES
Cleanliness is the one thing which, more than all
others, will contribute to the speed and endurance
of the machine and the excellence of its product.
Every running or wearing part of the machine
should have its surfaces carefully wiped clean at
short intervals, and all surfaces excepting those
with which matrices contact should be moderately
oiled. Under no circumstances should oil be ap-
plied within the magazine or to any of the surfaces
against which the matrices travel.
The attendant should go carefully over his ma-
chine at short intervals, see that all oil-holes are
Oiling the parts 433
clear, and supply them to a reasonable extent with
lubricating oil of good quality.
Special care should be taken to see that the pivots
of the rolls which travel on the large cams at the
rear of the machine are oiled, so that the rolls will
turn freely. Watch particularly the roll behind
the melting-pot, which, becoming heated, is more
liable than others to become fast on its pivot. The
small brass cams of the keyboard above the rubber
rolls should be watched . From time to tim e the dust
and dirt should be brushed out of the keyboard,
and a very small amount of watch-oil applied with
a broom straw, or like means, to the cam-pivots.
The journals of the distributor screws should also
be watched and lubricated from time to time, but
particular care must be observed at this point to
limit the amount of oil so that it will not flow out
on to the adjoining parts and reach the matrices
or get into the magazine.
THE MELTING-POT
The melting-pot of the machine should be kept
free from dross. A hard oxide of lead and anti-
mony will sometimes form in the throat of the pot
and obstruct the discharge of the metal. It is very
important that the operator should at reasonable
intervals remove the mouthpiece and see that the
throat is clear. The mouthpiece of the pot should
always close tightly against the back of the mould.
28
434 The melting-pot
The two surfaces should be watched carefully, and
any metal or other foreign matter removed, taking
care not to use emery-paper or any other material
or instrument which will scratch the surface of
the mould.
Occasionally the mouth of the pot will become
slightly warped, so that there will be leakage of
metal between the mould and the pot mouth. In
such case the back of the mould should be inked and
the mouthpiece closed against it. The ink will be
transferred to the high points on the mouthpiece,
which must be carefully dressed down with a fine
file until it is perfectly flat, so that there will be
contact over its whole surface with the mould. Take
off. but little at a time, and keep the face of the file
square with the mouthpiece.
The holes in the pot mouth should be exposed
fully to the mould cell and show full and round
on the bottom of the slug. The adjusting screws in
the lower ends of the pot legs are for the purpose
of raising, lowering, and tipping the pot, so that the
holes may be brought into proper relation with the
mould. Attention should be paid to the spring at
the back of the pot, through which it is pressed
forward against the mould. The spring should
have such tension as to carry the pot tightly against
the mould, but excessive pressure should be avoided
because of the needless wear on the parts and the
increased power that would be required to drive the
machine.
Treatment of the mould 435
THE MOULD
The mould should be kept scrupulously, clean on
both the front and rear faces and in the interior.
It should be secured tightly to the carrying disk or
wheel. If at any time it presents any roughness,
it should be very carefully and skilfully burnished.
Neither files nor emery-paper should be used. If
the corners or surfaces are rounded in the slightest,
there will be leakage of metal and imperfect slugs.
The mould should be taken apart occasionally,
and the mould cell cleaned and polished, and the
trimming-knives set properly. This will permit
the slugs to be ejected easily.
The ejector blade is guided on one side by the
slide which carries the mould wheel, and on the op-
posite side by a cushioned ejector support to guide
the blades of different thicknesses and keep them
straight and in line with the mould. Care should
be taken to see that the ejector is always accurately
and closely guided, so that it will be certain to
enter the mould without striking the corner of the
latter. Carelessness in this respect will lead to
fatal injury to the mould, the corners of which
must remain absolutely sharp and square.
THE MOULD DISK
The disk in which the mould is carried should be
carefully watched to see that it runs true, and the
436 Correct position of mould disk
slide in which it is carried should have its wearing
surfaces occasionally oiled. The guides in which the
slide moves should be watched. They will some-
times wear and allow the mould wheel and mould to
fall below the proper level. Adjustment screws are
provided for raising the guides when this occurs.
The mould disk turns intermittingly, and when in
the casting position and in the position for the ejec-
tion of the slug, it moves forward over stop-pins
or studs on the frame. These pins enter removable
bushings in the disk, and they should fit snugly
therein, so that there may be no rotary motion of
the disk in either direction. This is very important,
in order that the mould may align exactly with the
pot and with the trimming-knives, between which
the slug is driven. The holes in the bushings be-
come worn and elongated in time. The operator
should examine them from time to time, and when-
ever they are worn the bushings should be un-
screwed and new ones substituted.
Occasionally the mould disk will fail to stop in
the proper position. This is due to the wearing
away of the square hub on the rear end of the mould-
turning shaft. This square hub bears against the
side face of the adjoining cam. The cam contains,
at the point of bearing, a hardened steel plate,
which may be adjusted inward and outward, to
compensate for the wear of the hub. If the hub is
seriously worn it should be removed and replaced
by another.
The assembling elevator 437
THE ASSEMBLING ELEVATOR
The assembling elevator, in which the matrices
are composed, will sometimes wear at the point
where the matrices and spaces enter and strike. In
the modern machines there are removable plates at
this point. When worn, they should be replaced by
others. If the assembler is of the solid type, without
removable plates, a new elevator may be necessary.
The pawls or dogs at the entrance to the elevator
should be examined from time to time to see that
they engage the edges of the incoming matrices, so
as to prevent them from falling to the right.
Transposition of matrices in the line will some-
times occur. This is usually due to the failure of the
small spring g 3 (Figure 11) which projects through
the assembler throat from the back, immediately
above the star-wheel. This spring should project
forward sufficiently to catch each matrix as it passes
and hold it forward in position to enter the line.
Above the star-wheel, between the passage for the
spaces or justifiers and the path of the down-coming
matrices, there is a long pendent spring. The lower
end of this spring should be in such position that
there will be just sufficient room beneath it for the
passage of the thickest matrix in the font.
When the assembling elevator rises, its matrix-
supporting shoulders should align exactly with the
shoulders in the stationary line-delivery channel,
438 The first elevator
through which the matrix line is transferred to
the left, to the first elevator. If the parts do not
align, attention should be given to the adjusting
screws.
THE FIRST ELEVATOR
The first elevator, to which the composed line is
transferred, serves first to lower the line to the
mould or casting position, and thereafter to lift it
above the original level, so that the line may be
transferred to the right preparatory to the separa-
tion of the spaces or justifiers from matrices and the
further elevation of the latter to the distributor by
the second elevator. The jaws of the first elevator
should be carefully watched to see that they are
not mutilated and that they are parallel and at such
distance apart as to permit the free movement of
the matrices between them. The pawls at the open
end of these jaws should also be carefully noticed
to see that they are in operative position and that
they retain the incoming matrices with certainty.
It is of vital importance that the first elevator shall
carry the matrix line downward until the ears at
the lower ends of the matrices are in position to
permit the mould to slide forward freely over them.
The descent of the elevator is controlled by a
screw in its top which bears upon the top of the
vise frame. If the elevator is stopped at a high
level, and through any cause the vise automatic fails
to work, the sharp corner of the mould, advancing
The second elevator 439
over the ears, will shave away their upper edges,
with the result of destroying the matrices and the
alignment of the type-characters on the slugs.
When the assembling elevator rises to its upper
position, it is very important that it should align
horizontally with the channel into which the mat-
rices are transferred to engage the second elevator.
An adjusting screw at the lower end of the elevator
slide serves to give it the required position. This
elevator is raised and lowered by the large cam on
the outside of the frame, which acts on a roller on
the end of the lever. It will be observed there is
also an adjustment between the two parts of this
lever, outside of the frame and near the cam,, to
change the vertical movement of the elevator.
THE SECOND ELEVATOE
The second elevator, to which the line of matrices
is transferred from the first elevator, carries a
toothed or ribbed bar to engage and lift the mat-
rices. This bar should be watched to see that its
teeth are not rough or mutilated. Either of these
defects will cause the bar to wear or to cut away
the teeth of the matrices and cause bad distribution.
When the second elevator lifts the matrices to
the top of the machine, it comes to a rest against a
solid support or banking-piece. These parts should
be kept scrupulously clean and should be watched
to see that the toothed bar carrying the matrices
440 Replacing the worn rails
comes into exact alignment with the corresponding
bar in the lift-box of the distributor, so that the
matrices may be pushed forward smoothly from
one bar to the other and into the box.
The slide which pushes the matrix line forward
from the second elevator should move freely, and
its actuating spring should be adjusted so that it
will force the line horizontally with moderate pres-
sure. The forward matrix of the line will bear
against the vertical shoulders of the rails in the
box, as detailed on page 423, and the matrix will
be held in position directly over the upper end of
the vertical lifting finger. This finger will push
the matrix upward, clear of the shoulders and in
engagement with the feed-screws. The matrix will
thus be carried along with its shoulders riding on
the inclined ends of the rails, until it is lifted into
engagement with the teeth of the distributor bar,
along which it will be carried. The rising matrices
will gradually wear away the vertical shoulders of
the stop-rails in the box, so that the matrices will
be lifted to an improper position and against the
threads of the screws, by which they will be bent.
The rails should therefore be carefully watched,
and when appreciably worn they should be replaced
by new rails.
In the later machines the shoulders of the rails
are made in separate pieces, so that they may be
removed and replaced by others without renewing
the entire rails.
Adjustment of matrix-lifting finger 441
The distributor box may be removed by releasing
the one large screw. When the box is restored
to its position, care should be observed to force it
upward as far as it will go and until it is seated
firmly in place. Failure to do this will result in
damage to matrices.
The matrix-lifting finger also requires attention.
It should be so adjusted that it will in every case
lift the matrix clear of the shoulders on the side
WHEEL
>
RST ELEVATOR,
FIG. 21.
rails, but should not be permitted to lift a ma-
trix any farther than is necessary to secure its
release.
442 Care of magazine channels
The shoulder of the lifting finger on which the
matrix bears should be kept clean. If dirt is per-
mitted to accumulate in the angle, the finger will
slip off from the matrices and fail to lift them
properly.
In the distributor box the bar overlying the line
of matrices is provided at the inner or front end
with a thin vertical blade to enter the vertical slot in
the centre of the front matrix. The object of this
blade is to prevent the lifting of more than one ma-
trix at a time. It will sometimes wear away on the
end, or become shortened, so as to permit the lifting
of two thin matrices. If two matrices are lifted
at one time, it is due either to the wearing away
of this blade, or to the wearing away of the stop-
shoulders on the rails. They should be carefully
examined to see that the space between them is such
that only one matrix will pass upward. If the blade
is too short, a new one should be inserted or new
rails substituted.
The magazine channels should be brushed out
from time to time and kept scrupulously clean. On
this depends the free delivery that is needed for
securing speedy composition.
The escapements at the lower end of the maga-
zine should work freely at all times. Each pawl
should sink until its upper end is exactly flush with
the bottom of the groove or channel in which the
matrix ears slide. At reasonable intervals the
escapements should be thoroughly brushed out.
Cleaning channels of face-plate 443
An exceedingly slight amount of fine graphite may
be applied to the escapement levers to ease their
action. Great care must be exercised not to apply
an excessive amount. Time must be relied upon
to secure its proper distribution.
The channels of the face-plate in front of the
magazine should be kept clean, and great care
should be taken to see that the upper ends of the
OLD WHEEL
RRST ELEVATOR
FIG. 22.
partitions do not overlap the ends of the matrices
or the matrix channels, so as to obstruct the out-
coming matrices.
In the older machines the lower end of the maga-
zine is adjustable vertically and also laterally. If
there is any failure to deliver matrices, the escape-
ments should be carefully examined to see that the
pawls rise and fall to the proper extent. If not,
444 The distributor feed-screws
the action can sometimes be corrected by slightly
raising or lowering the end of the magazine.
The distributor bar should be kept very clean
and in a burnished or polished condition. A piece
of soft pine wood with a little black-lead is an ex-
cellent thing for this, as the soft wood cuts its way
down to the bottom of the teeth of the bar and
polishes it thoroughly. If from any cause the ends
of its teeth become rough, it will speedily destroy
the teeth of the matrices.
The channel entrance or magazine entrance below
the distributor bar contains a series of vertical
partitions, by which the matrices are guided down-
ward into the upper flaring ends of the grooves
or channels in the magazine. These partitions are
sometimes bent to the right or left, so that the fall-
ing matrices will strike upon them or be deflected
into the wrong channels. They should therefore
be carefully watched in connection with the falling
matrices to see that the latter enter freely between
the partitions.
The distributor feed-screws should occupy proper
relations to each other and to the bar. For this
purpose orie of the gear-wheels at the end has one
of its teeth partly cut away and the companion
gear is provided with a stud to enter the cavity.
The back feed-screw can be raised by releasing the
spring latch on right-hand end. When replacing,
after the screw has been raised, care should be ob-
served to reset the screws in the proper relation.
Cautionary remarks
445
CAUTION
There are a few important errors against which
operators are particularly cautioned.
Access is had to the casting mechanism by un-
locking the vise frame and swinging it forward
away from the mould. This should never be done
unless the mould wheel is first moved rearward
away from its stop-pins.
The machine should not be permitted to remain
at rest with the pot against the mould. The effect
will be to overheat the mould, soften it, and cause
it to warp out of shape.
Spaces or justifiers should not be used at the
extreme ends of a matrix line, nor should two be
placed together in the line.
MOLD WHEEL
FIG. 23.
Under no circumstances should the magazine be
pounded or subjected to harsh or violent treatment.
446 Cautionary remarks
The matrix line should never be set to such
length that it will fail to descend between the vise
jaws easily. Under 110 circumstances should the
first elevator be forced downward to carry a matrix
line between the jaws. This action will cause dis-
placement of the matrices, the bending of the jaws,
and other serious evils which cannot be corrected
except by a skilled mechanic.
The metal-pot should not be filled higher than
half an inch from the top. The metal should never
be permitted to run to a low level in the pot. Good
results can be obtained only by filling the pot at
short intervals, so as to maintain a substantially
uniform level of the metal therein.
If the machine fails to run easily, it is because
the parts are not clean and because they need oiling.
The tightening up of the main clutch, so as to
drive the machine forcibly, is attended with many
dangers.
No part of the machine should be filed or other-
wise altered in shape.
If the parts fail to move easily, or fail to perform
their functions, it is either because they are not
clean, or because they are in need of adjustment.
Correct keyboard fingering 447
CORRECT KEYBOARD FINGERING
That the average speed of operators of the Lino-
type is steadily increasing is undeniable. There
are to-day divers ten-thousand-an-hour men. An
operator nowadays is not designated as "swift"
unless he can strike a seven- or eight-thousand-an-
hour gait. What is it that is responsible for this
noticeable increase in the operator's output in re-
cent years ? The machine itself has not undergone
any material change. Indeed, ten thousand ems an
hour has been averaged on the old-style square-
base machine. It is not accountable on the as-
sumption that the operators are becoming more
proficient with practice. Many of the oldest opera-
tors are setting no more than they did in the first
year or two on the machine. Some swift composi-
tors failed to become fast operators, while many
type-setters of mediocre ability at the case have
developed into swifts on the keyboard. It has been
witnessed time and again that a slow operator will
suddenly blossom into a full-fledged swift, and the
reason therefor is not apparent. What is the key
to this mystery ?
It is explainable only on the theory that these
swifts have discovered some truths about operating
the keyboard not universally known. They have
devoted themselves to a painstaking study of the
keyboard and its proper manipulation, and the
448 Correct keyboard fingering
results are apparent in the records being hung up.
What these few have done the many can do. It
lies with themselves to make the effort. It is pos-
sible to set fifteen thousand ems an hour on the
Linotype, and no operator should be content until
he reaches the limit of his machine's capacity.
The first thought to occur to a student of this
question is that to set type at such high rates of
speed requires incessant reading of the copy. The
keyboard must of necessity be operated without
looking at it. Certainly one cannot be shifting
the eyes to the keyboard and back to the copy with-
out danger of losing one's place. Therefore it is
apparent that, in order to avoid the necessity of
looking at the keyboard, the location of the keys
must be so fixed in the operator's mind that the
fingers seek them mechanically, and the eyes be
devoted to the continuous reading of the copy. If
this is so, it no longer is necessary to read ahead of
what one is setting, as was customary with the
hand-compositor. To stop operating while memo-
rizing a sentence is fatal to the acquirement of
speed, which demands that the fingers be kept
moving incessantly. The fingers travel over the
keys as the eyes travel over the lines of the copy,
the sense of what is being composed being kept by
glancing ahead while sending up the line of mat-
rices. Of course speed cannot be attained on
illegible manuscript or unprepared copy of any
description, but if no time is lost in fingering the
Correct keyboard fingering 449
keys when the sailing is fair, the operator has time
to decipher the cryptography of the scribbler while
the elevator is "hung up." This is an important
advantage fast operators have in keeping ahead of
the machine. They actually lose no time when it
is necessary to hand-space a line, make a correction,
or study their copy, and their proofs are therefore
cleaner by reason of their swiftness.
All good printers, perhaps, are not swifts, but
it is safe to say that all swifts are good printers.
It is only errorless type which is printable, and
as a single error in a line renders the whole line
worthless it is important that few errors be made.
Speed in operating may be acquired by any inde-
fatigable student. The proof-reader, however, must
"be reckoned with. Accuracy should be esteemed
above mere speed. Speed will come with practice ;
accuracy only with painstaking endeavor.
There are some general rules which may be laid
down as essential to the acquirement of speed in
operating the keyboard of the Linotype. If the
keys are to be operated without looking at the
board, the hands must assume some fixed relation
to the keys in order that the fingers may unhesitat-
ingly and unerringly reach for the letters without
the guidance of the eyes. Assuming that the loca-
tion of the keys has been so memorized that they
are indelibly impressed on the operator's mind, the
hands must be placed so as to economize to the
utmost the distance necessary to travel in order to
29
450 Correct keyboard fingering
reach any key. Seated at the keyboard so that the
lower-case side is directly before the operator,
spread out both hands so as to cover entirely the
lower-case keys. This should be the general position
of the hands. This position will place the thumbs
in control of the lower banks of keys, and they
perform no slight portion of the work of operating.
A system of fingering which will suit the long,
lithe-fingered chap will be impossible to the stubby-
fingered operator, so each must modify the general
rules to suit his individual case. The object of both
will be to avoid wide jumps of the hands in finger-
ing the keys. Move the hands as little as you may.
Stretch the hands out and spread the fingers over
the keyboard. Use every finger you can control-
all except the little finger, at any rate. A light,
quick, but firm touch is the most effective. Now as
to practice.
The best possible practice for the one ambitious
to be a swift operator is repetition of certain words
or phrases. By this method the entire attention
can be concentrated on the finger motion, and when
the proper combination has been determined, prac-
tise it over and over until it becomes mechanical.
Wherever such combinations as sh, ch, in, etc.,
occur, make them with a single stroke of thumb or
finger, sliding off one key on to the one below. In
this manner practise on all ordinary prefixes and
terminals and the common words. There should
be no set rule as to which finger should strike a
Correct keyboard fingering 451
certain key under all circumstances. The finger
nearest to any key should be the one to use, and
this will vary according to the needs of the follow-
ing or the preceding words. In order to establish
a system of fingering, however, and illustrate what
is meant by economy of movement, it may be well
to demonstrate the fingering of certain words. The
accompanying diagrams are therefore submitted.
In these diagrams the letters on the fingers show
the preferred method of fingering the word. Two
or more letters connected by a ligature indicate
that these should be struck with a wiping motion
with the one finger given. These combinations
should be practised over and over, and enlarged
upon as proficiency is gained. Where double let-
ters occur, the key is to be held down instead of
making two strokes. In doing this, keep the
rhythmic beat of the fingers without actually rais-
ing them from the key.
Bear in mind that repetition of words or sen-
tences is of the utmost importance. To practise
the word a half-dozen times is not sufficient. Prac-
tise it at first with the eyes on the keys, and as the
location of the letters forming the word becomes
fixed in the mind, look away and continue the
practice. Keep wrist and fingers flexible, and do
the moving with the fingers instead of the whole
hand. Do not withdraw the hand or fingers after
striking a key, and do not double up fingers not at
the moment in use.
452 Correct keyboard fingering
calling.
the them then.
Correct keyboard fingering 453
charming.
been.
454 Correct keyboard fingering
unless.
government.
Correct keyboard fingering 455
formation.
punishment.
456 Correct keyboard fingering
and man demand many.
which.
Correct keyboard fingering 457
great.
would could should.
458 Correct keyboard fingering
The following list of words may be practised on
with advantage :
making
taking
shaking
doing
striking
choking
hardly
truly
surely
kindly
friendly
much
such
rush
crush
must
strike
each
retain
toward
sustain
fresh
maintain
mind
relation
food
station
blind
rarity
made
purity
are
merrily
bill
cheerily
chill
merely
mail
purely
meek
probably
willing
thoroughly
week
usually
there
fully
thus
willing
always
number
A sentence which embraces every letter in the al-
phabet will afford good keyboard practice. Such
a sentence as the following may be used :
The sleek brown fox jumped quickly over the lazy dog.
Use the en quad and a space-band after the period
in sentences. The more space-bands in the line
the less liability of hand-spacing. Carefully avoid
oversetting the line ; it is better to send it in short
and reset, using thin spaces with the space-bands
Correct keyboard fingering 459
this time. The pump-stop will prevent short lines
casting.
In quadding out lines use the en quad, em quad,
and space-band alternately. The more space-bands
in any line the less full it need be set. Operate the
space-band with second or third finger of left hand.
Do not strike two or more keys simultaneously.
They almost certainly will clog or transpose before
reaching the assembler. Speed the keyboard rollers
to two hundred and seventy-five revolutions per
minute and the machine to any number of lines
per minute up to nine, provided you can " hang
her up " at the speed, follow the system of fingering
here expounded, and the proof-reader's pencil is the
only thing that can stand in the way of any opera-
tor becoming a swift.
INDEX
HORACE GREELEY
INDEX
Abbreviations, in algebra, combin-
ing of, 172 ; should be in roman
and have no period, 185
Accents, when required, often at
inconvenient distance, 5 ; weight
of, in font, 16 ; copy calling for,
22 ; proper placing of, 29 ; aid to
correct distribution of, 95; in
Century Dictionary, 232; in for-
eign languages, 233 (see also note) ;
Greek, 236
Advertisements, paging of, 146
Algebra, tray cases serviceable for
signs of, 31 ; braces used in, 55 ;
composition of books of, 97 ; a dif-
ficult form of composition, 171 ;
signs used in, 172 ; on the compo-
sition of, 172-188
America, case in two parts favored
in, 14 (note) ; machine patents
granted in, 397. See also United
States
Antique, for running titles, 262 ; for
cut-in notes, 280 ; for legend lines,
281
Appendix, verbose extracts in, 138 ;
paging of, 146 ; setting of, 147
Arabic, one or more fonts of, 232
(note)
Authors, proofs withheld by, 3
(note) ; type kept standing by de-
lays of, 4 ; nicer attention to ac-
cents insisted on by modern, 30;
agreements on style with, 76 ;
paragraphing of copy by, 78 ; al-
terations by, 84, 85, 325; capri-
cious taste of publishers and, 96 ;
real sponsors of books, 108 ; type-
work in subordination to intent
of, 168 ; running titles usually de-
termined by, 261; how make-up
may be helped by, 276, 277 ; posi-
tion of illustrations usually de-
cided by, 284
Baskerville, John, 239
Bastard title, definition of, as dis-
tinguished from half-title, 130
(note)
Bearers. See Guards
Benzine, 84 (see also note), 94, 321,
322
Bible, brief chapters of, 135 ; versi-
fication of, 136 ; close succession
of chapters in, 268
Bidpai Literature, Pedigree of, 226,
227, 228 (see also note)
Binding. See Book-binding
Blacklead, in electro typing, 53
Black-letter, use of, in title-pages,
112 (note), 126 (note); not suitable
for chapter headings, 132 ; run-
ning titles in, 142, 262 ; spurs and
angles of, 253 ; Flemish, 253 ; com-
position of, 282 (note 2)
Blades, William, a most diligent
searcher, 145 (note)
Blocks, patent, 55
Bodkins, description and use of, 45,
323 (see also note)
Bodoni, Giambattista, safe leader-
ship of, 110
Bohemian, accents used in, 233
Book-binding, adjustment of mar-
gins suitable for, 297-306, 332
(note) ; most approved method of
464
Index
sewing in, 333, 334; defects of
side-stitching in, 334 (note) ; neat,
376; unworkmanlike, 378 (note) ;
mean, 396
Book-chases. See Chases
Book-houses, sorts needed in, 2 ;
supply of printing-material need-
ed in fully equipped, 3, 4 ; petty
fonts of display types seldom
needed in, 29 ; large types and
borders often required in, 32 ;
petty cabinets not desirable for,
35; weight of leads required in,
60 ; making up in, 67 ; time-hands
and piece-hands in, 75 ; stone-
work in American, 80 ; characters
seldom found in ordinary, 232
Books, types needed for composi-
tion of, 1, 2 ; printed from type,
73 ; from electrotype plates, 73 ;
methods followed in production
of, 76 et seq.; title-pages of, 111 et
seq.; dedication, 127, 128 ; table of
contents, 128, 129; table of illus-
trations, 129, 130 ; parts and half-
titles, 130, 131 ; chapter headings,
131, 132; chapter synopsis, 132,
133; preface and introduction,
133, 134; without running title,
144, 145; Kelmscott, 159; one
method of decorating, 161; deco-
rations for, should be made by
qualified artist, 163 (note) ; typog-
raphy of, should agree with sub-
ject-matter, 167, 168; odd and
plain types in, 168 ; with decora-
tion, 168; ephemeral, 169 (note) ;
copying best features of, 170;
characters needed in mathemati-
cal, 172 ; recent, of good work-
manship, 261; types for running
titles of, 262 ; profusely annotated
old, 280; sumptuous, 281; work-
manship of well-printed, 288 ;
locking up and correcting made-
up pages of, 289 ; adjusting mar-
gins of, 297-306; gathering, fold-
ing, sewing, and trimming sections
of, 332-337, 340 (see also note 2),
342, 362, 365, 366, 368, 375, 376,
388, 389; side-stitching never
used for library, 334 (note) ; ad-
vertised descriptions of, 370
(note); schemes for sewed, 392,
396. See also Pamphlets
Book-work, fractions, signs, and
reference-marks in, 18 ; solid and
leaded, 21 ; faces of brass rule
most used in, 47 ; brass braces sel-
dom used in, 55; leads for ordi-
nary, 57; lengths of furniture
rarely required in, 68 ; should re-
ceive two readings, 85 ; spacing
and leading of, 88 et seq.; tables
in good, 198 ; miscellaneous, 232 ; v
Flemish black-letter occasionally
used for display lines in, 253 ; how
to insure accurate register on,
292; adjusting margins in, 297-
306 ; tools needed by stoneman
for exact, 307 ; folding of sections
in, 332-337. See also Composition
Borders, large, often needed in
book-houses, 32; brass rules of
plain face now more needed than,
51 ; hair-line rule, 52-55 ; twisted
and fantastic, 108; broad, 160;
of type, 160 ; thin strips of, 165 ;
overworked typographic, 165, 167 ;
now provided by type-founders,
167 ; in the so-called Elzevir and
in the Byzantine or Turkish style,
167 ; difficulty of locking up forms
containing brass-rule, 315, 316
Bottling, how to remedy, 313
Box-fasteners, 31
Braces, freakish placing of, in type
cases, 11 ; sectional supplanted
by solid, 12; weight of, in font,
16 ; cases with unequal compart-
ments needed for, 38 ; brass, 55 ;
used in algebra, 174, 180 ; French
method of using, 205, 206 ; in gene-
alogies and pedigrees, 225
Brackets, in algebra, 173, 178, 179,
180, 185, 186
Bruce, David, Jr., 255
Bruce, George, 171
Bruce Type Foundry, scheme formu-
lated by, 16
Bunsen burner, use of, 407
Burr machine, 398
Byzantine style, 167
Cabinets, improved form of, 9, 10;
for cuts, 33 ; for job cases, 35
Capelli, Adriano, 234 (note)
Capitals, increased supply of, some-
times needed, 2 ; arrangement of,
in type cases, 11 ; weight of, in
font, 16; in steady request, 18;
proposed arrangement of lower
case with, 19 ; case for lower-case,
small capitals, and, 22 ; job cases
for lower-case and, 28, 35 ; triple
case for, 29; uniformity in use of,
77 ; spacing of, 90, 91 ; roman, of
regular form, preferred for title-
pages, 111, 112 ; for chapter head-
ings, 131, 132 ; accented, 233 (see
Index
465
also note); roman or italic, for
running titles, 262. See also Let-
ters and Small capitals
Capitals, small. See Small capitals
Case-racks, too much room occupied
by, 36 ; for display type, 36, 37 ;
should be numbered, 37
Case-rests. See Cabinets and Stands
Cases, stands for supporting, 4 et
seq. ; for ordinary composition, 10
et seq.; in one piece, 14 (note);
surface of, 14; accepted form of
lower, 15 ; readjustment of boxes
of, 17, 18 ; old-fashioned, 22 ; for
lower-case, capital, and small-
capital letters, 22 ; made for com-
position of Century Dictionary,
23-27; job, 28, 35; triple, 29;
tray, 31, 32, 33, 38; great defect
in, of old manufacture, 31; now
made as strong as they are light,
31 ; combination of quarter, 33,
38 ; for quadrats and spaces, 34 ;
for leads, 34 ; common form of
quadrat, 35; for display type
should be numbered, 37 ; for com-
position of Greek, Hebrew, and
music, 38; for labor-saving rule,
49-52; disadvantage of shaking,
after distribution, 101; for com-
position of algebra, 175, 176 ; for
music composition, 219, 220-223 ;
for composition of Greek, 237 ; for
Hebrew, 245, 246; for German,
250, 251 (see also note)
Catch-lines, in title-pages, 114 (see
also note)
Caxton, William, old Flemish black
used by, 253
Centennial Exposition, 402
Century Dictionary, special stand
made for composition of, 23-27 ;
accents used in, 232
Chapter headings, setting of, 131
(see also note), 132 ; on odd pages,
134, 135 (see also note) ; sinkage
of, 255, 268
Characters, insufficient provision of,
2 ; arrangement of, in type cases,
11 et seq.; new, 77; unusual, 95;
algebraic, 175, 187; Greek, He-
brew, and German, 232. See also
Capitals, Letters, and Small cap-
itals
Charts, genealogical, 228, 229
Chase-bars, 55. See also Cross-bars
Chase-racks, 67, 290, 330
Chases, 2 ; forms of type in, 63 ; fit-
ting of, with furniture, 78, 310;
for electrotyping, 81, 318, 330, 343,
30
344 ; pages imposed in, 83 ; racks
for, 289, 330 ; cast-iron and
wrought-iron, 290, 291, 343, 344,
345 (note); twin, 292; shifting-
bar or book-, 292-294; screw,
294; long and narrow, or head-
ing-, 294; selection of, 306, 307,
316, 317, 343 ; exact register im-
possible with unsquared, 307 (see
also note) ; how to prevent bowing
of, 308, 309; how they may be
strained or cracked, 314 ; gripper-
edge of, 327 ; care of, 345 (note).
See also Cross-bars and Imposition
Circulars, publishers', 32
Citations. See Extracts and Quota-
tions
Code, on style, 99
Composing-machines. See the vari-
ous qualifying names
Composing-room, type cases most
noticeable objects in, 4; impor-
tance of keeping materials accessi-
ble and in good order in, 5 ; how
to secure orderly arrangement of,
35, 36 ; planning a, 57 ; use of im-
posing-stone in, 289
Composing-rule, description and
use of, 46, 100, 259, 323
Composing-stick, description of, 44
(see also note) ; different styles of,
44, 45 (see also note); correct
manner of holding, 98; proper
method of emptying, 101, 102;
adjustment of, to measure, 102,
103; for algebraic formulas, 182
(see also note), 187; should not
be laid on face of form, 324
Composition, types needed for dif-
ferent kinds of, 1, 2 ; when it can
be economically done, 3 (see also
note), 4; cases for ordinary, 10 et
seq.; open, 21 ; of Greek, Hebrew,
and musio, 38 ; waved, triple, and
ornamental rules not used in
plain, 47 ; needless delay and
trouble in, 54 ; made spongy by
treble-leading, 62, 92, 262; by
time-hands and piece-hands, 75;
routine of plain, 75 et seq.; com-
mon fault of novice at, 86 ; solid
and thin-leaded, 88 ; projecting
kerns in electrotype, 90 ; adjust-
ment of blanks or white lines in,
91, 92; influence of type-setting
machines on, 96, 97 ; aids to, 100;
of title-pages. 111 et seq.; dedica-
tion, 127, 128 ; table of contents,
128, 129; table of illustrations,
129, 130 ; parts and half-titles, 130,
466
Index
131 ; chapter headings, 131, 132 ;
chapter synopsis, 132, 133 ; preface
and introduction, 133, 134 ; ap-
pendix, 147; index, 147, 148; po-
etry, 148-151; algebra, 171-188;
tables and table-work, 188-207;
music, 207-225; genealogies and
pedigrees, 225-230 ; older forms of
troublesome, 230 ; Greek, 234-240 ;
Hebrew, 241-247; German, 247-
254 ; computation of space occu-
pied by, 257, 258 ; rnaker-up re-
sponsible for justification of, 258 ;
made square and solid in making
up, 259, 260 ; how to amend fault
in some kinds of, 275 ; cuts or nar-
row tables in, 282; locking up,
306-320; mechanical substitutes
for hand, 397 et seq. See also
Type-setting
Compositors, material must exceed
daily needs of, 3 (see also note), 4 ;
working with insufficient light, 5 ;
stands for supporting type ca
of, 5 et seq.; hand-travel of, 14,
15; grouping of space boxes ap-
proved by, 27 ; helps to new, 29,
30, 37, 38; type-setting on piece
by, 75 et seq.; effect of type-set-
ting machines on employment of,
96, 97 ; reading of sticks by, 103,
104, 324 ; on setting of title-pages
by, 112 et seq. ; skill required by,
for algebra, 171, 172 ; former diffi-
culties of, on table-work, 188;
music, 207, 208, 219, 224 ; casting
off of music by, 216-218 ; on for-
eign languages, 231, 232, 233 ; pen-
cilled Greek extracts bewildering
to modern, 234; study of Greek
alphabet of service to, 236; He-
brew cases used by American, 245,
246 ; on German, 254 ; correction
of proofs by, 323-325 ; distribution
of unusual sorts by, 329. See also
Job-printers and Printers
Contents, setting of table of, 128, 129
Contractions. See Abbreviations
Coptic,one ormore fonts of, 232 (note)
Copy, irregular or insufficient sup-
ply of, 3 (note) ; safe-keeping of,
when out of use, 10; minor or
extra sorts rarely called for by
ordinary, 12 ; requiring roman
and italic, accents and display let-
ter, 22 ; preliminary examination
of, 76, 77 ; short and long " takes "
of, 77 ; methods of handling, 77 et
seq.; for title-pages, 112, 118, 121 ;
paragraphs and sections in, 137 ;
for algebra, 187 ; rcomposing a ta-
ble from manuscipt, 194 et seq.;
music, 217 ; for genealogical
charts, 229 ; in foreign languages,
231; in German, 254. See also
Manuscript
Counting-room, needs of, 79
Cox machine, 400
Cross-bars, 63, 291-294, 303, 307, 308,
314, 315, 339, 340 (ncte I), 344, 345
(note), 347, 353, 363, 364, 369, 373,
375, 376, 378, 382, 385, 395. See
also Chase-bars and Chases
Cut-in notes. See Notes
Cuts, half-tone, 32, 33 ; cabinet case
for, 33 ; how to keep, in printing-
office, 33 (note). See also En-
gravings, Illustrations, and Pho-
to-engravings
Cutting-machine, use of, 388
Cylinder-presses, use of patent
quoins on, 297 ; how to place
forms on, 326, 327 ; place of points
for, 363 (note)
Danish, marked vowels of, 30, 233
Dashes, freakish placing of, in type
cases, 11 ; weight of, in font, 16 ;
cases with unequal compartments
needed for, 38; single, parallel,
and double, 55; ornamental, 55;
use of thin space on each side of,
89 ; spacing of, between short
articles or paragraphs, 91, 92, 288 ;
in title-pages, 125
Dates, in title-pages, 123, 124
Decoration, judicious and injudi-
cious, 108, 109, 125 ; attempts at,
by early printers, 159 ; should be
designed by qualified artist, 163
(note); on a large scale, 164 (note);
old-time typographic, 167 ; books
with, 168; bad lessons in, 169
(note); hackneyed, 170. See also
Ornamentation
Dedication, setting of, 127, 128
Designers, pen drawings of amateur,
169 (note)
Devices, labor-saving, 2
De Vinne, Theodore Low, dictionary
stand and cases designed by, 23-27
Diacritical marks. See Accents
Dickinson, Samuel Nelson, 231
Dictionaries, special stand and cases
designed for, 23-27 ; side-headings
of, 137 ; accents in, 232
Dictionary, Century. See Century
Dictionary
Dictionary of the Art of Printing,
234 (note)
Index
467
Didot, Ambroise Firmin-, safe
leadership of, 110; genealogical
chart in work by, 228 (note)
Display, sizes of type useful for, 2 ;
letters needed for, often at incon-
venient distance, 5 ; copy calling
for, 22; in title-pages, 115 et seq.;
bold, 167. See also Job-work
Distribution, hand-travel in, 15;
aids to cleaner, 21; safeguards
against reckless, 29, 30, 37, 38;
correct method of, 93-95; set
hours for, 100; disadvantage of
shaking cases after, 101 ; standing
galley reserved for, 327 ; of leads,
quadrats, and unusual sorts, 328,
329 ; process of, in Mergenthaler
machine, 422-424
Dovetails, 63
Drugulin, W., polyglot printing-
house of, 232 (note)
Dummies, use of, in printing, 346,
Electrotype guards. See Guards
Electrotypers, furniture preferred
by, 63, 73 ; hair-line rules objec-
tionable to, 143 (note); experi-
ences of, with forms, 307 (note);
guards provided by, 318-320. See
also Finishers
Electrotypes. See Plates
Electrotyping, rules unsuitable for,
53, 54 ; hair-line rules for, should
have blunt angles and high shoul-
ders, 53 ; chases for, 291, 343, 344 ;
use of guards in, 318-320 ; prepar-
ing forms for, 366, 367, 387
Elzevir style, so-called, 167
Empire machine, 401
England, case of two parts favored
in, 14 (note); use of medieval in-
itial letters in, 153; music pub-
lished in, 208
English, absence of accented letters
in ordinary, 232
Engravings, wood-, 140. See also
Cuts, Illustrations, and Photo-en-
gravings
Essai sur la Typographic, 228 (note)
Estienne, Pierre, 228 (note)
Estienne family, genealogical chart
of, 228 (note)
Europe, printers of northern, 14
(note); machine patents granted
in, 397
Extracts, types for, 77 ; spacing of,
in text, 91, 92, 255, 268, 287 ; lead-
ing of, 137 ; short, iu text, 137 ;
approved practice of setting, 138 ;
new method of indicating, 138;
verbose, in appendix, 138 ; within
rules of hair-line face, 138 ; begun
with plain two-line letter, 138;
driving out or getting in, when
making up, 287. See also Quota-
tions
Facs, French and English eigh-
teenth-century, 165
Figures, increased supply of, some-
times needed, 2 ; arrangement of,
in type cases, 11, 12; reference-
marks supplanted by superior,
12 ; weight of, in font, 16 ; tray
cases for, 32 ; cases with unequal
compartments needed for, 38 ;
spacing of tables of, in text, 91,
92 ; complex tables of, 97 ; in
display lines, 123, 124 ; old-style,
123, 136, 145 ; paging, 144-146, 149,
150, 261, 262 ; in algebra, 172, 173,
176, 177, 178; superior and infe-
rior, 174, 176, 179, 185 ; index, 184 ;
in tables, 191, 195 et seq.; use of
arabic, in German, 252. See also
Numerals
Fingering, correct keyboard, 447 et
seq.
Finishers, plates in hands of, 74.
See also Electrotypers
Firmin-Didot. See Didot
Flemish, accents used in, 233
Folding-machines, different forms
of, 332, 333, 343 (note), 359 (note 2),
362, 389-392
Fonts, large and small, 1, 2 ; com-
position not economically done
with small, 3 (see also note), 4;
scheme for, 16, 17; need of many
small, 35 ; music, 219 ; of many
faces and sizes, 232. See also
Letters and Types
Foot-notes, types needed for, 1, 2 ;
placing of, 99, 277, 278, 279 ; set-
ting of, 139. See also Notes
Foot-sticks. See Side-sticks
Forms, table of signatures and
folios for different, 272, 273 ; mak-
ing front margins for eight-page,
303 ; making tail margins for six-
teen-page, 304; locking up, 306-
320; taking proofs of, 320, 321;
cleaning, 321, 322 (see also note);
inserting points in, 325, 326 ; print-
ing of, on cylinder-presses, 326,
327; breaking up of, 327, 328;
schemes of imposition grouped in
four classes of, 335; rules con-
trolling imposition of, 337, 338
468
Index
(see also note); adjusting margins
of, for electrotyping, 366, 367.
See also Imposition
Formulas, algebraic, 176, 177, 178,
181-183, 185, 186, 187, 188
Fournier, Pierre-Simon, 234 (note)
Fractions, freakish placing of, in
type cases, 11 ; rarely needed, 12 ;
weight of, in font, 16; in book-
work, 18; combining of, in alge-
bra, 172, 176
Frames. See Stands
Franklin, Benjamin, 1
French, copy in, 231 ; accents used
in, 233
Furniture, wood and metal, 2, 62,
63 ; old and new forms of, 5 ; chase,
63 ; orderly storage of, 64 et seq. ,
289; metal preferable to wood,
70, 71, 316, 317; combination
metal, 71, 72 ; for gutters of back
margins, 256; how to prevent
needless cutting of, 257 ; pages
protected by stoneman with, 259 ;
effect of moisture upon wooden,
288; proper distinguished from
improper use of, 309, 310; re-
tightening of quoins in forms with
wooden, 318 ; guards of metal, 319 ;
removal of, from forms, 327 ; when
to select and put in place, 342
(note), 343; fitting new forms with,
345 (note), 395; shrinkage of, 352.
See also Side-sticks
Furniture-cabinet, 67 (see also
note)-10 (see also note)
Furniture-drawers, 64, 66, 68, 70,
289, 290
Furniture-racks, 65, 66, 70, 71, 72
Galley-racks, quadrat cases made to
rest upon, 34; purpose of, 41;
with swinging arms, 41 ; with
fixed arms, 41; with inclined
shelves, 42
Galleys, 2; stands made with sup-
ports for, 7 ; broad standing and
movable, 8; placed underneath
cases, 10, 26 ; description and use
of, 39 ; wood, brass, and slice, 39,
40, 290; description and purpose
of standing, 42, 43 ; proving of, 80
et seq.; type read and corrected
on, 256 ; of composed type, 257 ;
materials for making up should be
placed on small, 258 ; quarto, with
low rim, preferred for making up,
258 ; justifying on, 324 ; standing,
reserved for distribution, 327
Gazetteers, side-headings of, 137
Genealogies, composition of, 225-230
German, copy in, 231 ; accents used
in, 233; alphabet of, 247-249;
cases for composition of, 250, 251
(see also note); double letters in,
250 ; umlaut over vowels in, 251 ;
capitalization of, 251; division
and compounding of words in,
251, 252; quotation-marks and
arabic figures in, 252 ; characters
of, 252, 253
Germany, fantastic borders in fash-
ion in, 108; medieval initial let-
ters frequently used in, 153 ; use
of roman character in, 253
Goodson Graphotype, 402
Gothic, legend lines in, 281
Greek, cases for composition of, 38 ;
aid to correct distribution of, 95 ;
use of, in algebra, 173 (note); copy
in, 231; breathings of, 233 (note),
236; alphabet of, 234, 235; work-
ing font of, 234 (see also note); ac-
cents of, 236; cases for composi-
tion of, 237 ; rules for placing
accents in, 238 ; different faces
of, 239
Greeley, Horace, 463
Gregory, St., 219
Guards, electrotype, sectional cases
for, 31 ; description and use of,
73, 74, 316, 318-320
Gutters, 63, 64 (see also note), 71,
256, 257, 274, 310
Half-diamond indention. See In-
dention
Half-titles, setting of parts and, 130
(see also note), 131. See also
Titles and Title-pages
Hand-presses, taking proofs on,
320 ; presswork done on, 336, 337,
344 (note); usual place of points
for, 363 (note)
Hand-work, contrasted with ma-
chine-work, 96, 97 ; proper meth-
ods of, 97 et seq.
Hanging indention. See Indention
Harper, James, 75
Head-bands, on use of, 159-167, 168
Head-bolts, 63, 64, 71, 310, 347, 364
Heading-chases. See Chases
Headings. See Chapter headings,
Side-headings, and Subheadings
Hebrew, cases for composition of,
38; aid to correct distribution
of, 95 ; copy in, 231 ; alphabet of,
241, 242 ; points as guides to pro-
nunciation of, 242, 243; accents
and Masoretic points or vowels
Index
469
of, 243, 244; Shevas used in, 245;
read from right to left, 245, 393;
cases for composition of, 245, 246 ;
words in, cannot be divided, 247
Herapel quoin, 296, 297
Hints on Imposition (Williams's).
lifting device described in, 291
(note)
History of the Origin of Printing,
278 (note)
Holy Scriptures. See Bible
Honghton, Henry 0., Ill
Hungarian, accents used in, 233
Hyphens, use of thin space on each
side of, 88 ; in German, 252 ; faulty
use of, 276
Iliad, Pickering's edition of, 239
(note)
Illuminators, fifteenth-century, 159
Illustrations, electro typed, 32 ; fur-
nishing of, 80, 81 ; text led down
at side of, 90; relief of white
needed by, 106 ; setting of table
of, 129, 130 ; testing of, 140, 141 ;
placing of, 141, 284-286, 287; of
running titles, 264-267, 268, 269 ;
placing of, in pages, 276, 277 ; le-
gend lines of, 280-282 (see also note
1); of irregular shape, 283, 284;
wood-blocking of electrotype, 288;
moulding of, 318 ; scheme for
printing, 361, 362. See also Cuts,
Engravings, and Photo-engrav-
ings
Image, Selwyn, Greek type designed
by, 239, 240
Imperial Printing House, Vienna,
232 (note)
Imposing-stone, 2; dimensions of,
67; made-up pages on, 274; use
of, in composing-room, 289 ; many
sizes of, 289, 290; should be
cleaned before pages are laid
down, 306; flat side of quoins
should rest upon, 311; types too
tightly locked up spring from,
312, 313 ; correcting and justifying
on, 324 ; preparatory work on,
325; fitting of chase-rack under,
330
Imposing-table. See Imposing-stone
Imposition, adjusting margins in,
297-306; locking up, 306-320; ele-
mentary principles of, 331-337 ;
four pages in two forms and two
chases, 337; four pages in one
chase, 338; four pages in one
chase, long way, 339 ; four pages
in one chase, imposed from centre,
339 ; sixty-four pages in one chase,
four sections of sixteen, 341 ; cir-
cular of two pages only, the print
on first and third pages, 345 ; inset
folio of twenty pages in ten forms,
346 ; legal folio of four pages, 347 ;
legal folio of sixteen pages, im-
posed for insets, 348 ; eight pages
in one form, music or oblong way,
348; eight pages in usual way,
349; eight pages imposed from
centre, 349; eight pages in two
sections of four, known as " two
on," 349; eight-page forms in
three chases, inset to make one
section of twenty-four pages, 350 ;
eight pages, two wide, four high,
351 ; eight pages for offcut of
paper, 351 ; sixteen pages in two
chases for one section, 351 ; six-
teen pages, imposed from centre.
353 ; sixteen pages as usually laid,
353; sixteen pages as two sections
of eight, 354 ; sixteen pages in
two portions of eight for inset,
354 ; sixteen pages in two sections
of twelve and four, 355; sixteen
pages in three sections, one of
eight and two of four pages, 356 ;
sixteen oblong pages, music way,
one section, 356 ; thirty-two pages
in two chases, to fold as one sec-
tion, 357 ; thirty-two pages in two
forms, separately folded and inset
as one section, 358; thirty-two
pages as four sections of eight
pages each, 359 ; ninety-six pages
in one chase, six sections of six-
teen, 360 ; one hundred and twen-
ty-eight pages in one chase, eight
sections of sixteen, 361; twelve
pages in one chase, 363 ; twenty-
four pages in two chases, as one
section, 365 ; twelve pages in one
chase, triplicates of four pages,
368; twelve pages of oblong shape,
no inset, central imposition, 369;
twenty-four pages, oblong shape,
inset of eight, 370; twenty-four
pages in one chase, with offcut of
eight inset as one section, 371;
twenty-four pages in one chase,
two sections of twelve, offcuts
separately folded and inset, 371 ;
twenty-four pages on square sheet,
with offcut of eight inset as one
section, 372; twenty-four pages
on square shape of sheet, two sec-
tions of twelve, 373; forty-eight
pages in one chase, three sections
470
Index
of sixteen, square shape of paper,
374; seventy-two pages in one
chase, six sections of twelve, 376 ;
eighteen pages in one chase, for
one section, 377 ; eighteenmo fold
of sixteen pages only, one leaf
cancelled, 379; thirty -six pages
in two chases, three sections of
twelve, 380 ; seventy-two pages in
one chase, three sections of twen-
ty-four, 381 ; twenty pages in one
chase as one section, 382; twenty
pages in one chase as one section
without transposition, 383 ; forty
pages in one chase, one section,
inset of eight, 384; six-page leaf-
lets in strip one page high, 385 ;
ten-page leaflet, two pages high,
386 ; eight pages in quadruplicate,
or " four on," 387 ; study of, made
needlessly repelling, 396
Imprint, black-letter not suitable
for, 112 (note); broadest blank
above, in title-pages, 114
Indention, use and omission of, 92,
93, 104, 105; half-diamond and
hanging, in title-pages, 127; in
chapter headings, 132; of synop-
sis, 133 ; of index, 147 ; of poetry,
149, 150; half-diamond, for le-
gends, 281
Index, for cuts, 33 ; paging of, 146 ;
setting of, 147, 148
Initials, plain, 2; out of place in
title-pages, 120, 125; on use of,
151-159, 160, 161, 163, 167, 168
Ink, removal of, from face of type,
321, 322 (see also note); tends to
collect at ends of inking-rollers,
339 (note)
Ink-table, 81
Insets. See Imposition
Introduction, setting of, 133, 134
Irish, alphabet of, 233 (note)
Italian, copy in, 231 ; accents used
in, 233
Italic, increased supply of, some-
times needed, 2 ; often, when re-
quired, at inconvenient distance,
5; weight of, in font, 16; copy
requiring two or more sizes of,
22; accent case for, 30; unifor-
mity in use of, 77 ; lower-case of,
tolerated style for title-pages,
111 ; for long dedication, 128; for
long synopsis, 133; for preface,
133; for subheadings, 135, 136;
for side-headings, 136; occasion-
ally selected for poetry, 138 ; un-
suitable for side-notes, 139; run-
ning titles in lower-case and in
capitals of, 142; use of, in alge-
bra, 173 (see also note); for infe-
rior letters, or subscripts, 184;
avoided in German, 252; different
sizes and faces of, for running
titles, 262, 263; unsuitable for
side-notes, 279 ; legend lines in,
281
Jacobi, Charles T., treatise of, on
printing, 14 (note)
Jacobs, Joseph, 228 (note)
Job-printers, special cases provided
for, 35; composing-rules of, usu-
ally of brass, 46; very thin spaces
used by, 87. See also Compositors
and Printers
Job-stick. See Composing-stick
Job-work, furniture-rack devised
for, 70 ; certain kinds of, 167 ;
locking up and correcting made-
up pages of, 289. See also Dis-
play
Johnson Tachytype, 402
Justification, facilities for, 15;
spaces repeatedly changed in, 21 ;
of algebraic work, 34 ; slight un-
evenness in, 55; importance of
exact, 86 (see also note), 87, 306,
316, 317; time-wasting, 171; by
gauges, 193, 194; of genealogical
charts, 228; mischiefs produced
by loose or careless, 312, 316, 317.
See also Spacing
Kelmscott books, 159. See also
Morris, William
Keyboard, correct fingering of, 447
et seq.
Languages, accents and signs re-
quired in foreign, 2
Lanston machine, 402
Latin, copy in, 231
Law cases, 1
Lead-cutters, 58, 59
Leaders, weight of, in font, 16 ; tray
cases for, 31, 32; cases with un-
equal compartments needed for,
38
Leading, spacing and, 88 et seq.
Lead-rack, new form of, 60, 61
Leads, 2; case for, 34; high and
low, 35 ; cases with unequal com-
partments needed for, 38; de-
scription, use, and sizes of, 56, 57
(see also notes); different methods
of keeping, 57-59, 61; should be
ordered with system, 60, 91;
Index
471
weight of, required in book-house,
60 ; should never be pieced, 61, 62 ;
addition or withdrawal of, 258 ; of
different thicknesses, 258; diffi-
culty of locking up forms full of
thin, 315, 316
Leaflets, description and imposition
of, 385, 386
Letter-boards, racks for stowing, 43;
should have raised rim at extreme
end, 43; pages on, 84; type for
distribution on, 93, 327, 328
Letterpress, rules most useful for,
52, 53 ; low leads used for, 56 ; full
form of, 257
Letters, small fonts of two-line cap-
ital, 2; spaces furnished with
font of, 15, 16 ; weight of, in font,
16; double, 19; spacing of capi-
tal, 90 ; dense huddling of capital,
106 ; uncouth, 107 (see also note);
pinched, 120 ; condensed, for cut-
in notes, 139; initial, 151-159; in
algebra, 172, 173 ; superior and
inferior, 173 (note), 174, 176, 184.
See also Capitals, Characters,
Small capitals, and Types
Linotype, Mergenthaler, 403 et seq.
Linotype operator, how to become
an expert, 426, 427, 433, 445 et
seq.
Literature, Bidpai, Pedigree of, 226,
227, 228 (see also note)
Locking up, how to acquire skill in,
306-320
London, music published in, 208
Lower-case, weight and proportion
of, in font, 16, 17 ; proposed case
for capitals and, 19 ; arrangement
of case for capitals, small capitals,
and, 22; job cases for capitals
and, 28 ; spacing of capitals and,
90; table of contents in roman,
128; for chapter synopsis, 133;
cut-in notes in small sizes of, 139 ;
running titles in italic, 142, 262,
263 ; small-sized, for running
titles, 143; roman, for cut-in
notes, 280 ; legend lines in roman
and in italic, 281
Lye, boiling, 84 (note), 94, 322
Machines. See the various qualify-
ing names
Machine-work, contrasted with
hand-work, 96, 97
Mackellar, Thomas, 289
Macmillan Company, 239
McMillan machine, 401
Magazines, subheadings of, 107;
side-stitching of, 334 (note), 392;
folding-machines for, 390
Make-up. See Making up
Maker-up, compact arrangement of
cases an advantage to, 10 ; duties
of, 78 et seq., 99, 132, 141, 146, 260,
262, 269, 274, 277, 280, 286, 330;
should have a diagram, 255, 299,
302, 342 (note); gauge used by, 256 ;
measuring and marking off by,
257; responsible for justification
of composition, 258 ; should have
ready access to needed materials,
258; copy and proof should be
continually before, 260; amend-
ment of fault by, 275
Making up, not paid for by piece,
76 ; methods of, 78 et seq.; diagram
needed in, 255; gauge for, 256;
quarto galley with low rim pre-
ferred for, 258; tying up page in,
258, 259 ; duties included in, 260 ;
of chapters, 268, 269 (see also
note); one of the modern methods
of, 283; of pages in two colors,
288; a study without end, 288;
correct stone-work dependent on
exact, 306 ; search for faults in, 317
Mallet, description and use of, 295,
296, 297 ; improper use of, 311, 312,
313; first strokes of, should be
light, 315 ; should not be laid on
face of form, 324
Mannerisms, recent, in typography,
104 et seq.
Manuel Typographique, 234 (note)
Manuscript, tables in, 202; setting
genealogical charts from, 228, 229 ;
in Greek, 234; in German, 254.
See also Copy
Marchand, Prosper, 278 (note)
Marginal sheet. See Pattern sheet
Margins, adjustment of, 297-306, 332
(note), 342 (note), 345 (note), 347,
. 348, 364, 366, 367, 385, 386, 392, 394,
395
Matrices, linotype, 404 et seq.; treat-
ment of, 429, 430
Mechaniek Exercises, 14 (note)
Melting-pot, treatment of, 428, 429,
433, 434
Mergenthaler Linotype machine, 403
et seq.; learning to operate, 426,
427; management of, 4-27, 428;
temperature of metal, 428. 429;
treatment of matrices, 429, 430;
treatment of spaces or justiflers,
431, 432; cleaning, 432, 433; the
melting-pot, 433, 434; the mould,
435 ; the mould disk, 435, 436 ; cau-
472
Index
tionary remarks, 445, 446 ; correct
keyboard fingering, 447 et seq.
Mergenthaler, Ottmar, 397
Mitring, value of time given to, 48 ;
method of, 49, 50; thin rule not
suitable for, 54, 55; testing ac-
curacy of, 316
Mitring-machines, 48, 49, 188
Monotype, for running titles, 262
Monotype. See Lanston machine
Morris, William, disciples of, 105;
title-page of, 125 ; odd initials de-
signed by, 159; composition in
style of, 282 (note 2)
Motto, placing of, in title-pages, 124,
125 (see also note); improved
method of setting, 287
Mould, treatment of, 435, 436
Moulding, use of guards or bearers
in, 318-320
Moulding-press, pressure of, 344
Moxon, Joseph, upper case shown
by, 14 (note)
Munsell, Joel, 331
M usic, cases for, 38 ; setting of books
of, 97; on the composition of,
207-225; imposition of pages of,
348
National Printing House, Paris, 232
(note)
Newspapers, weekly, 1 ; form of
composing-stick preferred on, 44,
45; imposing-stone for making
up, 289 ; twin chases preferred for
ordinary weekly, 291, 292; locking
up, 317
Notes, types for, 77 ; side- and cut-
in, 90, 97, 139, 140, 279, 280; lead-
ing of, 137; setting of, 139, 140;
long, 276, 277, 278; placing of,
278, 279. See also Foot-notes and
Side-notes
Numerals, roman, in lines of capi-
tals, 123, 124; for parts and
half-titles, 130, 131 ; paging with,
134. See also Figures
Odyssey, Pickering's edition of, 239
(note)
Offcuts. See Imposition
Old English. See Black-letter
Old-style, complete series of, 2
Operator, how to become an expert,
96, 426, 427, 433, 445 et seq.
Oriental languages,fonts of,232(oe)
Ornamentation, unwise fondness
for, 108, 109 ; profuse, 169 (see also
note). See also Decoration
Outsets. See Imposition
Paige machine, 398
Pamphlets, printed from type, 73;
from electrotype plates, 73 ; with-
out running title, 144, 145 ; adver-
tising, 169 (note); of one or two
sheets, 257 ; new styles of folding-
machines for, 333; side-stitching
of, 334 (note), 375, 378 (note), 392 ;
centre-stitching of, 340 (note 2);
single-sheet, 377 ; cheap, 381, 383,
384, 396 ; small, 386-388. See also
Books
Panels, title-pages in, 108, 126
Paper, sizes of, used in book- work,
297-306, 370 (note), 372, 374, 377
(see also note), 383, 394; for
proofs, 323 ; large sizes and strange
shapes of, 331 ; how to utilize off-
cuts of, 351; how to prevent or
lessen buckling of, 355, 357 ; hand-
made, 364 ; smooth-edged, 364
Paragraphs, print made more read-
able by, 78 ; the spacing of dashes
between, 92 ; the indention of, 92,
93; numbered or lettered, 136;
the overrunning of, 324 (see also
note)
Parentheses, in algebra, 173, 178,
179, 180, 185, 186
Pattern sheet, for adjusting mar-
gins, 297-306, 342 (note)
Pedigree of Bidpai Literature, 226,
227, 228 (see also note)
Pedigrees, composition of, 225-230
Periodicals. See Magazines
Photo-engravings, paper for, 140
(note); typography and, 230; half-
tone, 318; cleaning of, 322 (see
also note). See also Cuts, En-
gravings, and Illustrations
Pi, making of, 104
Pickering, William, safe leadership
of, 110 ; edition of Iliad and Odys-
sey by, 239 (note)
Piece-fractions, in algebra, 174
Piece-hands, composition done by,
75, 76
Planer, description and use of, 295 ;
proper distinguished from im-
proper use of, 311-313, 315, 317
Plantin, Christopher, large initials
of, 158
Plates, electrotype, 53, 54, 55;
pamphlets and books printed
from, 73; etched by photo-en-
graving process, 140, 141 ; type off
its feet a cause of faulty, 260 ; un-
even electrotype, 306; use of
guards in moulding, 318-320; ad-
justing margins for, 366, 367
Index
473
Poetry, setting of, 148-151 ; making
up of, 286
Points, increased supply of, some-
times needed, 2 ; arrangement of,
in type cases, 11, 12; boxes for,
15 ; weight of, in font, 16 ; should
be in groups in lower case, 19
Points, in presswork, 325, 326, 340
(note 1), 363 (note), 390, 391
Point system, type bodies measured
by, 1, 2, 171 ; brass rules rolled to
conform to, 47, 171 ; value of, in
algebraic composition, 181
Polhemus, John, double stand de-
signed by, 7-9, 10
Polish, accents used in, 233
Person, Richard, Greek type de-
signed by, 239, 240
Portuguese, accents used in, 233
Preface, setting of, 133, 134
Press, moulding, 73, 74
Pressmen, not always responsible
for imperfect printing of brass
rules, 54 ; aid to, in making ready,
87 ; hair-line rules objectionable
to, 143 (note); how to aid, in
making register, 288 ; margins reg-
ulated by, 302, 345 (note); prepar-
ing forms for, 308, 309; treatment
of forms by careful, 315 (note),
318 ; advantages of half-sheet
work to, 337 (note); use of dummy
as guide by, 346
Press-room, needs of, 79
Presswork, needless delay and
trouble in, 54 ; preparing form for,
315 (note); use of points in, 325,
326, 340 (note 1), 363 (note), 390,
391 ; sheetwise, 336, 337 (see also
note); half-sheet, 337 (note), 342;
how to save extra, 355
Print, use of paragraphs in, 78
Printers, master, 3 ; of northern
Europe, 14 (note); names used by,
to designate brass rules, 47 ; their
contracts with publishers, 75, 76;
undervaluation by, 80; the meth-
ods of early, 127 ; some attempts
at decoration by early, 159; the
facs made by French and Eng-
lish, 165 ; the hackneyed decora-
tions of, 170; schemes of impo-
sition from the grammars of, 331.
See also Compositors and Job-
printers
Printing, proper equipment for, 1,
2; rude types that deform, 108;
masterpieces of, 168; adjustment
of mareins in, 297-306 ; locking up
forms for, 306-320 ; sheetwise, 336,
337 (see also note). See also Ty-
pography
Printing-houses, equipment of, 1 et
seq.; supply of type must largely
exceed demand in, 3 ; cabinet case
for cuts, with index, needed in, 33 ;
many faces of roman types pro-
vided by, 96; style code of, 99;
characters needed for miscellane-
ous book-work in, 232 ; making up
in, 256 (see also note); adjustment
of margins in, 297-306
Printing-machines. See Printiny-
presses
Printing-presses, pressure of, 54 ;
chases made to suit, 290; chases
used as substitute for furniture
on bed of, 294 ; quoins loosened
by jarring of, 318; rotary, 332,
352, 362
Prints, tipping on of, 334 (note)
Proof-paper, 81, 82
Proof-planer, 83, 295 ; taking proofs
with, 320, 321
Proof -press, 82
Proof-readers, corrections by, 76,
83 ; copy and proof passed to, 80,
321 ; proof returned to composi-
tors by, 83, 323 ; other duties of,
84 ; second reading by, 84, 85 ; re-
vising and querying by, 324, 325;
dummy of service to, 346 ; reckon-
ing with, on linotypes, 449, 459
Proof-reading, not paid by piece, 76
Proofs, taking and correction of,
3-20-327
Propaganda Fide, Rome, 232 (note)
Publishers, contracts of, with em-
ploying printers, 75, 76 ; under-
valuation by, 80 ; changes in proof
by, 85 ; capricious taste of authors
and, 96 ; real sponsors of books,
108 ; roman capitals preferred for
title-pages by, 111; ornamental
types in running titles not accept-
able to, 262; instructions from,
concerning margins, 298, 300, 301
Punctuation, in type-setting, 99
Quadrats, increased supply of, some-
times needed, 2 ; arrangement of,
in type cases, 11, 12 ; weight of,
in font, 16, 20; irregular use of
large, 21 ; tray cases for, 32 ; case
for spaces and, 34 ; common form
of case for, 35 ; preferred for elec-
trotypiug, 73, 74; preferable to
leads for blanks, 92, 262 ; of differ-
ent bodies, 258 ; with nicks, 259 ;
use of, to make form solid, 316;
474
Index
best electrotype plates made from
types set with high, 319. Abbre-
viated Quads
Quoins, 63, 64, 293 et seq.', patent,
296, 297, 313, 317, 318; selection
of, 306 ; proper distinguished from
improper use of, 309, 311 ; pro-
viding even resistance to pressure
of, 313, 344; tightening of, 314,
315; advantage of patent over
wood, 316; slackening of, 317;
retightening of, 318; removal of,
from forms, 327
Quotation-marks, uniformity in use
of, 77 ; for short extracts or quo-
tations in text, 137; old fashion
of using, 137, 138; single, 150;
placing of, 150 ; in German, 252
Quotations, forms of metal furni-
ture, 72, 73, 258, 316
Quotations, or extracts, short, in
text, 137 ; long, 286 ; driving out
or getting in, when making up,
287 ; improved method of setting,
287
Racks, 2, 6, 7, 10; availability of
sorts in, 18, 19 ; with supports, 23,
26; for galleys, 34; for leads, 34;
job cases fitted to, 35; under
standing galleys, 43; for chases,
289
Readers. See Proof-readers
Reading-room, needs of, 79. See also
Proof-readers and Proof-reading
Reference-marks, freakish placing
of, in type cases, 11 ; supplanted
by superior figures, 12 ; weight of,
in font, 16 ; in book-work, 18 ; for
long notes, 276 ; of notes should
correspond to those in text, 278
Register, how to insure accurate,
292, 325, 326, 344, 360, 367, 391, 392 ;
makeshift aid to exact, 307;
shrinkage of furniture an obstacle
to, 352
Reglet-case, labor-saving, 66, 67
Reglet-rack, 67
Reglets, 63, 65, 67, 68, 297
Reprints, plain, 1 ; strict, 83, 276
Revisers, method followed by, 83,
325
Rollers, how to keep, 323 ; tendency
of ink to collect at ends of, 339
(note)
Roman, variations from standard of
modern, 2 ; copy requiring two or
more sizes of, 22 ; accent case for,
30; many faces of, needed by
large printing-houses, 96; lower-
case of, tolerated style for title-
pages, 111 ; table of contents in
lower-case of, 128 ; capitals of, for
running titles, 142 ; use of, in al-
gebra, 173 (note); different sizes
and faces of, for running titles,
262 ; legend lines in, 281
Rooker, Thomas N., case invented
by, 15, 23
Rule. See Composing-rule
Rules, brass, 2 ; tray cases used for,
31, 32; case of four sections for,
34, 35; cases with unequal com-
partments needed for, 38 ; usually
furnished in strips two feet long,
46 ; rolled to conform to bodies of
point system, 47, 171 ; names used
by printers to designate, 47 ; faces
of, most used in book-work, 47 ;
bevelled or flat-faced, 47, 53; mi-
tring and proper joining of, 48;
labor-saving, 48, 49, 54, 188 ; cut-
ting and testing of, 49; cases for
labor-saving, 49-52; plain faces
of, now more needed than flowers
or borders of type-metal, 51;
should be bought from same foun-
dry, 52 ; for letterpress work, 52,
53; in electrotyping, 53, 54; in
composition and presswork, 54 ;
made of type-metal, 55; uneven
justification prevents joining of
mitred, 87; panels of, 108, 126,
169 (note); parallel or double, as
head-bands, 165 ; combining of, in
algebra, 172, 174, 175 (see also
note); use of, in tables, 190 et seq.;
sometimes used for bars in music
composition, 218; in genealogies
and pedigrees, 225 ; of graduated
length, 258 ; cuts surrounded by,
285 ; difficulty of locking up forms
containing, 315, 316 ; use of bits of
flat-faced, as collating-marks, 389
Rumanian, accents used in, 233
(note)
Ruskin, John, on use of black and
white, 106
Russian, one or more fonts of, 232
(note)
Sanskrit, one or more fonts of, 232
(note)
Savage, William, 234 (note)
Saxon, alphabet of, 233 (note)
Schemes. See Imposition
School-books, long and short accents
used in, 30
Scriptures, Holy. See Bible
Sections, cutting, folding, gather-
Index
475
ing, and sewing of, in book-work,
332-337, 340 (see also note 2), 342,
362, 365, 366, 368, 375, 376, 385, 386-
390, 393, 396. See also Imposition
Sheet. See Pattern sheet
Shooting-sticks, 87, 290, 295, 296, 297,
311, 315, 324
Side-headings, types for, 2, 136, 137 ;
setting of, 136, 137
Side-notes, types needed for, 1, 2,
139 ; setting of, 139 ; placing of,
279; type and measure of, 279;
abbreviations, etc., in, 279. See
also Notes
Side-sticks, 63, 64, 292, 295, 296, 306,
309, 310, 311, ,313, 316, 317, 344.
See also Furniture
Signatures, use of, as guides to book-
binders, 269-271; table of, 272,
273 ; at tail of sheet, 346. See aleo
Imposition
Signs, in book-work, 18; proper
placing of astronomical and other,
29 ; tray cases used for, 31 ; aid
to correct distribution of, 95 ; alge-
braic, 172, 173, 175, 176, 177, 178,
183, 184, 185, 186 ; music, 207
Simplex machine, 400, 401
Slitters, description and adjustment
of, 391, 392
Slugs, cutting of, 59; nonpareil and
thicker, 62 ; linotype, 403, 405, 408,
422, 424, 425
Small capitals, types without, 14
(note) ; weight of, in font, 16 ; dis-
carded in many books and news-
papers, 18; case for lower-case,
capitals, and, 22 ; line of capitals
and, not pleasing in title-page,
120 ; for dedication, 127 ; for table
of contents, 128; for chapter sy-
nopsis, 132 ; for subheadings, 135,
136; for side-headings, 136; for
running titles, 142, 262, 263; for
legend lines, 280, 281. See also
Capitals and Letters
Smashing-machine, use of, 388
Sorts, orders for, 2 ; minor, 12 ; ex-
tra, 12, 13 ; scheme of, in font, 16,
17 ; weight of lower-case, 20 ;
proper placing of minor, 29 ; small
cases for orderly keeping of irreg-
ular, 38; additional, 76, 77 (see
also note); distribution of unusual,
328; treatment of, when in lim-
ited supply, 329
Southward, John, treatise of, on
practical printing, 14 (note)
Space-rules, 56
Spaces, arrangement of, in type
cases, 11, 12 ; boxes for holding,
15 ; most needed, 16 ; weight of, in
font, 16, 20; grouping of boxes
for, 27, 87 ; case for quadrats and,
34 ; best electrotype plates made
from types set with high, 319;
justifying, 324; linotype, 404 et
seq.\ treatment of linotype, 431,
432
Spacing, facilities for even, 15 ; even,
21 ; and leading, 88 et seq.; of
poetry, 148 ; of algebra, 171, 176 ;
prevention of uneven, 284. See
also Justification
Spanish, copy in, 231 ; accents used
in, 233
Specimen-books, type-founders',
156, 159
Square, use of, in stone-work, 307,
315
Stands, for supporting type cases, 4
et seq.; availability of sorts in
racks under, 18, 19 ; old-fashioned,
22 ; made for composition of Cen- '
tury Dictionary, 23-27
Stephens. See Estienne
Stereotyping, chases for, 291
Sticks. See Composing-stick, Shoot-
ing-sticks, and Side-sticks
Stone. See Imposing-stone
Stoneman, adjustment of margins
by, 297-306, 342 (note), 345 (note);
square and straight-edge needed
by, 307 ; should lock up type con-
tinuously and slowly, 315 ; form
with mitred brass-rule borders
needs extra care by, 316 ; effect of
non-use of electrotype guards by,
319 ; cleaning of type by, 321, 322 ;
clearing away of dead matter by,
327-330; use of dummy as guide
for, 346
Stone-work, not paid for by piece,
76 ; in American book-houses, 80 ;
adjustment of margins, 297-306;
locking up, 306-320. See also Im-
position
Straight-edge, use of, in stone-work,
307, 315; trimming proofs with,
321
Subheadings, types for, 2, 77, 135,
136, 255; in panels, 108; setting
of, 135, 136 ; of prominence, 167 ;
driving out or getting in, when
making up, 287
Subscripts, in algebra, 184, 185
Swedish, marked vowels of, 30, 233
"Swift," how to become a, 447 et
seq.
Synopsis, should not run over on
476
Index
following page, 131 (note); setting
of, 132, 133
Syriac, one or more fonts of, 232
(note)
System. See Point system
Tables, rules most useful for, 52, 53 ;
types for, 77 ; spacing of, in text,
91, 92, 282 ; complex, 97 ; of con-
tents, 128, 129; of illustrations,
129, 130; on the composition of,
188-207 ; of irregular size, 276, 277 ;
of full, broad measure, 285, 286;
of signatures and folios for differ-
ent forms, 272, 273; locking up
forms containing, 315, 316
Tail-pieces, on the use of, 159 et seq.
Text, type bodies for larger sizes of,
2; led down at side of illustra-
tions, 90 ; spacing of extracts and
tables in, 91, 92 ; leading of, 137 ;
inclosed with notes at top, side,
and foot, 280
Thomas, Isaiah, 39
Thome machine, 398
Time-hands, composition done by,
75, 76 ; distribution by, 328, 329
Time-tables, crowded setting of,
198, 200
Title-pages, two-line capital letters
for, 2 ; borders needed for compo-
sition of, 32 ; general effect of,
91; judicious decoration of, 108;
roman capitals of regular form
preferred for, 111, 112 ; on the
setting of, 112 et seq.; filled with
flourishes or divided into panels,
169 (note). See also Half-titles
Titles. See Title-pages
Titles, running, 142-144, 149, 255,
258, 260-269
Treadle-presses, small forms on, 386
Treatises, accents and signs required
in scientific, 2 ; on law, theology,
or science, 167; on algebra, 172,
175 ; accents in elocutionary, 232
Turkish, borders in style known as,
167; one or more fonts of, 232
(note)
Tweezers, description and use of,
46, 323 (see also note)
Type-casting machines. SeeLanston
and Mergenthaler
Type-closet, proper method of stor-
ing type in, 328, 329
Type-founders, schemes of, not ex-
actly alike, 16 (note 1); sectional
cases furnished by, 31 ; brass rules
designated by arbitrary numbers
of, 47 ; labor-saving rule furnished
by, 48, 49 ; guards provided by, 73,
74; uncouth letters of, 107 (see
also note); old-style figures re-
modelled by, 145; Morris's odd
initials reproduced by American,
159; engraved head-bands of, 164;
borders now provided by, 167 ;
decorations of, 169 (note) ; alge-
braic signs furnished by, 172 ;
music fonts of American, 219; ac-
cents furnished by American, 233 ;
German, 253
Type-foundries, orders for " sorts "
from, 2; old-established English,
233 (note)
Type-metal, flower* and borders of,
51 ; rules made- of, 55 ; furniture
of, 62 ; electrotype guards made
from, 318
Type-racks. See Racks
Types, fonts of, for all kinds of book
composition, 1, 2 ; supply of, must
exceed daily needs of compositors,
3 (see also note), 4 ; stands for sup-
porting cases of, 4 et seq.; without
small capitals, 14 (note); analysis
of font of, 16, 17 ; petty fonts of
display, 29; for title-pages and
publishers' circulars, 32, 111 et
seq.; need of many small fonts of
display, 35; similar styles of, to
be grouped together, 35; case-
racks for display, 36, 37 ; large and
heavy forms of, 64; pamphlets
and books printed from, 73; self-
spacing, 87 ; justification of large,
87 ; spacing and leading of, 88 et
seq.; correct method of setting, 97
et seq.; over- wide spacing of
single, 107 ; condensed, in title-
pages, 115, 120; for dedication,
127, 128 ; for table of contents, 128,
129; for parts and half-titles, 130,
131; for chapter headings, 131,
132 ; for chapter synopsis, 132, 133 ;
for preface and introduction, 133,
134 ; for subheadings, 135, 136 ; for
side-headings, 136, 137 ; for notes,
139, 140 ; for appendix, 147 ; for
index, 147, 148; subheadings,
rules, or propositions in bold, 167 ;
odd, 168; plain, 168; eccentric,
169 ; cast upon irregular and un-
matable bodies, 171 ; made on
point system, 171; music, 207,
208 ; diamond and excelsior music,
225 ; Greek, 234-240 ; Hebrew, 241-
247; German, 247-253; for run-
ning titles and subheadings, 255 ;
galleys of composed, 257 ; made
Index
477
up off their feet, 259, 260; for
running titles, 262 ; should not be
made up while wet or even damp,
288 ; locking up composed, 290,
291 (see also note), 292, 306-320;
bottled, 313 ; cleaning of, 321, 322 ;
distribution and storage of dead,
327-330; furniture must be ac-
commodated to chase and, 395.
See also Antique, Capitals, Gothic,
Initials, Italic, Letters, Lower-
case, Roman, and Small capitals
Type-setters. See Compositors, Job-
printers, and Printers
Type-setting, regulating price of,
75, 76; literary side of, 76 (note);
punctuation in, 99; close-spaced
and solid, 105, 106; tables require
more skill than plain, 189; genea-
logical charts unlike all other
forms of, 228. See also Composi-
tion
Type-setting machines, develop-
ment of, 96, 397 et seq. See also
the various qualifying names
Typography, recent mannerisms in,
104 et seq.; reformers of, 110; a
novelty of reformed, 145 (note);
of books should agree with sub-
ject-matter, 167 ; of good editions
should be studied, 170; photo-en-
graving and, 230. See also Print-
ing
United States, working in compan-
ionship no. longer practised in,
80. See also America
University Press, Oxford, England,
232 (note)
Vinculum, in algebra, 183, 184
Wax, moulding, 53, 73, 74, 318, 319
Welsh, accents used in, 233
Westcott, C. S., machine invented
by, 402
Whittingham, Charles, safe leader-
ship of, 110
Willems, Alphonse, 228 (note)
Williams, T. B., device of, to aid
in lifting large forms of type, 291
(note)
Woodcuts. See Cuts, Engravings,
and Illustrations
Writers. See Authors
